LIBRARY I K..H -iollY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO J COUNTY BOROUGH OF SOUTHEND-ON-SEA MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS. PRIZE AWARDED TO FOR M 1926-27. ALD. R. TWEEDY-SMITH, Chairman. ALBERT J. CONNABEER, Principal. COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART EDITED BY JOHN C. VAN DYKE. L.H.D. HISTORY OF SCULPTURE ALLAN MARQUAND ' A. L. FROTHINGHAM, JR. COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART EDITED BY JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D. PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART IN RUTGERS COLLEGE HISTORY OF PAINTING By JOHN C. VAN DYKE, the Editor of the Series. With Frontispiece and 152 Illustrations, Bibliographies, and Index. Crown- 8vo, net, $2.00. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE By ALFRED D. F. HAMLIN, A.M., Professor of the His- tory of Architecture, Columbia University, New York. With Frontispiece and 235 Illustrations and Diagrams, Bibliographies, Glossary, Index of Architects, and a General Index. Crown 8vo, net, $2.25. HISTORY OF SCULPTURE By ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D., Professor of Art and Archaeology in Princeton University, and ARTHUR L. Frothingham, Jr., Ph.D. With Frontispiece and 113 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, net, $1.75. FABNESE HERA. NAPLES. A TEXT-BOOK OF THE HISTORY OF SCULPTURE BY ALLAN MARQUAND, PH.D., L.H.D. PROFESSOR OF ARCHEOLOGY AND THE HISTORY OF ART IN PRINCETON UNIVERSITY AND ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, JR., PH.D. NEW EDITION REVISED NEW IMPRESSION LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. FOURTH AVENUE, fcf JQTH STREET, NEW YORK 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MADRAS COPYRIGHT, 1896, BY LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. COPYRIGHT, IQII, BY LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED First Edition, September, 1896. Reprinted, December, 1898. (Revised.) Reprinted, August, igoi. (Revised.) February, 1904; September, 1905; August, 1907; December, 1909; October, 1910. New Edition, Revised, October, 1911; Reprinted, May, 1912; April, 1916; April, 1919; July, 1921 PREFACE. THE object of this volume is to provide students in schools and colleges with a concise survey of the history of sculpture, so that they may be able to comprehend intelligently the sculp- ture of the past and the present in the countries with which our own civilization has been and is most intimately connected. It has seemed unnecessary to treat of prehistoric sculpture in general ; its connection with the flow of civilization is at present too remote and ill defined. Nor have we entered upon the history of Saracenic, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese sculp- ture, although all of these have had some influence on Euro- pean art. The various phases of Oriental art are, from an historical standpoint, in great measure still a mystery to the Western world. This is equally true of the art of the semi- civilized nations whose influence once spread so widely upon our own hemisphere. That portion of the general history of sculpture which comes within our survey is itself imperfectly known. In some countries it has been easy to trace the general development of the art; in others, the lack of systematic scientific study still hides from us most important treasures. The history of sculpture can be studied best with the assistance of casts and photographs. In the absence of the originals, these are preeminently the source upon which we must rely. As these are now within the grasp of every school VI PREFACE. and college, we have published a brief list indicating where such casts and photographs may best be obtained. In almost every case the illustrations for this volume have been repro- duced from photographs taken directly from the original ob- jects. Special acknowledgment is due to the editor of the Series for many helpful suggestions. ALLAN MARQUAND. ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jx. PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, June 25, 1896. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PACK PREFACE v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY ........ xv SPECIAL BIOGRAPHIES xvi ADDRESSES FOR PHOTOGRAPHS OF SCULPTURE .... xviii ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS xx INDEX 287 CHAPTER I. EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE . . . I CHAPTER II. EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE Continued 13 CHAPTER III. BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE 21 CHAPTER IV. ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE . 36 CHAPTER V. PERSIAN SCULPTURE . 48 viii TABLK OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. PAGB HITTITE SCULPTURE ......... 53 CHAPTER VII PHOENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE ... .60 CHAPTER VIII. GREEK SCULPTURE 68 CHAPTER IX. GREEK SCULPTURE Continued 81 CHAPTER X. GREEK SCULPTURE Continued. Developed Ionic and Doric Sculp- ture 94 CHAPTER XI. GREEK SCULPTURE Continued. Fourth-Century and Hellenistic Sculpture 104 CHAPTER XII. ITALIC AND ETRUSCAN SCULPTURE . . . . . .113 CHAPTER XIII. ROMAN SCULPTURE . . . 122 CHAPTER XIV. EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE .... 130 TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX CHAPTER XV. PAGE MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY 143 CHAPTER XVI. MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE ...... 153 CHAPTER XVII. MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN GERMANY 164 CHAPTER XVIII. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. The Early Renaissance (1400-1500) 176 CHAPTER XIX. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY Continued. The Early Renaissance (1400-1500) 183 CHAPTER XX. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. The Early Renaissance Continued . . . . . . . . . .197 CHAPTER XXI. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. The Developed Renaissance (1500-1600) and the Decadence (1600-1800) .... 206 CHAPTER XXII. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE 219 X TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXIII. PAGE RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, SPAIN, AND ENGLAND 230 CHAPTER XXIV. MODERN SCULPTURE IN ITALY, DENMARK, SWEDEN, GERMANY, AND RUSSIA 240 CHAPTER XXV. MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE 256 CHAPTER XXVI. MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENGLAND 267 CHAPTER XXVII. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA 275 NOTE. Chapters i and 2, 8 to n, and 18 to 27 are by Professor Marquand : chapters 3 to 7 and 12 to 17 are by Professor Froth ingham. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Farnese Hera, Naples Frontispiece PAGE 1 The Sheik-el-Beled, or Mayor of the Village. Cairo Museum . 3 2 Royal Scribe in the Louvre. Ancient Empire 5 3 Hyksos Chief from the Fayoum. Cairo Museum ... 7 4 Ra-hotep and his Wife Nefert. Thirteenth Dynasty. Cairo Museum . 9 5 Seti I. Worshipping. Eighteenth Dynasty. Abydos . . n 6 Rameses II. Nineteenth Dynasty. Ipsamboul ... 15 7 Ptolemy crowned by Upper and Lower Egypt. Edfou . . 17 8 Sarcophagus of Peti-Har-si-ese as the Goddess Hathor. Ptole- maic period. Berlin Museum iq 9 Statue of Gudea from Tello. Louvre, Paris .... 23 10 Head with Turban from Tello. Louvre ..... 26 n Impression from a Babylonian Cylinder. Berlin Museum . 29 12 Two Divinities escorting a King. Berlin Museum ... 32 13 Assur-nazir-pal and Attendant. British Museum ... 37 14 Relief from Khorsabad. Louvre ...... 40 15 Capture of Lachish by Sennacherib. British Museum . . 43 16 Assur-bani-pal stabbing a Lion. British Museum ... 46 17 Lion attacking a Bull. Apadana of Xeces. Persepolis . . 49 18 Bull Head Capital. Palace of Artaxerxes at Susa. Louvre . 51 19 Hittite Relief at Carchemish-Jerablus 55 20 " " from Saktche-GOzii 57 21 " " at Boghaz-Keui 58 22 Phoenician Head from Athieno. Metropolitan Museum, New York 61 23 Cypriote Statue in the Assyrian style. Metropolitan Museum, New York 63 24 Cypriote Statue in the Egyptian style. Metropolitan Museum, New York 65 25 Lion Gate at Mykenai , . . 69 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. MM 26 Apollo of Tenea. Glyptothek, Munich ..... 71 27 Bronze Head of an Athlete. Naples Museum .... 73 28 Head of Dionysos. Naples Museum 75 29 Doriphoros after Polykleitos. Naples Museum ... 77 30 Metope of the Parthenon. British Museum .... 83 31 Theseus, or Olympos, from Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon. British Museum 85 32 Nike from Western Pediment of the Parthenon. British Museum. 86 33 Restoration of the Nike of Paionios 88 34 Poseidon, Apollo, and Demeter, from Eastern Frieze of the Par- thenon. Athens Museum . . , . . .90 35 Head of the Hermes by Praxiteles. Olympia .... 95 36 Faun after Praxiteles. Vatican, Rome ..... 97 37 Aphrodite of Melos. Louvre . . . . . . .99 38 Apoxyomenos after Lysippos. Vatican ..... 101 39 The Farnese Bull. Naples Museum 105 40 The Dying Gaul. Capitol, Rome 108 41 Athene Group from Altar at Pergamon. Berlin Museum . . in 42 Etruscan Sarcophagus. British Museum 114 43 Artemis from Lake Falterona. British Museum . . .117 44 Etruscan Cinerary Urn. Volterra 1 20 45 Statue of Augustus. Vatican . . . . . . .123 46 Statue of Juno. Baths of Diocletian, Rome .... 125 47 Marciana, Sister of Trajan . . - 127 48 Marcus Aurelius sacrificing before the Temple of Jupiter. Capi- tol, Rome . . . . . . . . . .128 49 The Good Shepherd. Lateran, Rome 131 50 Early Christian Sarcophagus. Lateran, Rome .... 133 51 Christian Sarcophagus in S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura. Rome . 135 52 Ivory Triptych of the Crucifixion . *!' . . . . 137 53 Bronze Statue of Heraclius. Barletta i-r^ -. . '> . 139 54 Episcopal Chair of Maximianus. Ravenna .... 141 55 The Nativity. Panel from Pulpit at Pisa. Niccola Pisano . 144 56 Charity and the Four Cardinal Virtues, by Giovanni Pisano. Camposanto, Pisa ........ 147 57 Portion of Baptistery Gate, by Andrea Pisano. Florence . . 149 58 The Betrothal of the Virgin, by Orcagna. Or San Michele, Florence 151 59 Sculptures of Portal. St. Trophime, Aries . . . .154 60 Roof Sculptures. Notre Dame, Paris 157 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii PAGE 61 Sculptured Figures, left portal of Cathedral at Rheims . . 160 62 Sculptures of South Door, Cathedral at Amiens . . . 162 63 Book Cover attributed to Tutilo. Monastery of St. Gall . . 165 64 Bronze Doors, Cathedral of Gnesen (Bode, Ges. d. D. Plastik, p. 31) 168 65 Statue of Sibyl, Cathedral of Bamberg (Bode, op. fit. p. 66) . 171 66 Figure from the left portal of the Cathedral of Strassburg . 174 67 Story of Abraham, by Ghiberti. Baptistery Gate, Florence . 177 68 Head of the St. George, by Donatello. Or San Michele, Florence 180 69 Equestrian Statue of Gattamelata, by Donatello. Padua . . i85 70 Lunette, by Luca della Robbia. Via dell' Agnolo, Florence , 188 71 Bust of Bishop Leonardo Salutati, by Mino da Fiesole. Fiesole Cathedral < ". . . .191 72 Pulpit by Benedetto da Majano. S. Croce, Florence . . 194 73 Bartolommeo Colleoni, by Verrocchio. Venice .... 195 74 Ilaria del Caretto, by Jacopo della Quercia, Lucca Cathedral . 198 75 Sculptures from the Certosa at Pavia ..... 200 76 Sculptured Base at S. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice . . . 202 77 Head of Statue of David, by Michelangelo. Museo Nazionale, Florence . . . . . . . . . .211 78 Tomb of Lorenzo de' Medici. Medici Chapel, S. Lorenzo, Florence .......... 213 79 Base of Statue of Perseus, by Benvenuto Cellini, Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence ......... 215 So The Prophet Daniel, by Bernini. S. Maria del Popolo, Rome . 217 81 St. George and the Dragon, by Michel Colombe. Louvre . 220 82 Water Nymphs, by Goujon. Louvre ..... 223 83 Mourning Figure from the Tomb of Cardinal Mazarin, by Coy- sevox. Louvre ......... 225 84 Horses of the Sun. Hotel de Rohan, Paris .... 226 85 The Marechal de Saxe, by Pigalle. Louvre .... 227 86 Head of Voltaire, by Houdon. Louvre ..... 228 87 King Arthur, by Peter Vischer. Innsbruck .... 232 88 Death of the Virgin, by Riemenschneider. Wllrzburg Cathedral 234 89 Mask of a Dying Warrior, by Schltlter. Arsenal, Berlin . . 236 90 Carved-wood Altar-piece at Lombeek Notre Dame . . . 238 91 Cybele. Late Spanish Renaissance . . . . . . 241 92 Perseus, by Canova. Vatican ....... 243 93 Giotto, by Dupre. Portico of the Uffizi, Florence . . . 245 94 Monument to Prof. Vacca Berlinghieri, by Thorwaldsen. Cam- posanto, Pisa ......... 247 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. i PACK 95 Ariadne, by Dannecker. Frankfort ..... 249 96 The Two Princesses, by Schadow. Castle, Berlin . . .251 97 Monument of Frederick the Great, by Rauch. Berlin . . 252 98 Russian Standard Bearer, by Lancere ..... 254 99 The Departure of the Volunteers of 1792, by Rude. Arc de Triomphe, Paris ........ 257 100 The Lion and the Snake, bronze by Barye. Tuileries, Paris . 259 101 The Florentine Singer, by Paul Dubois. Luxembourg, Paris 261 102 The Secret of {he Tomb, by Saint Marceaux. Luxembourg, Paris 263 103 Pan and the. Bears, by Fremiet. Luxembourg, Paris . . 264 104 John the Baptist, by Rodin. Luxembourg, Paris . . . 265 105 Pauline Bonaparte, by Thomas Campbell. Chatsworth, England 268 106 Lord Beaconsfield. Westminster Abbey, London . . . 270 107 Dancing, by Onslow Ford ....... 272 108 Washington as Olympian Zeus, by Greenough. Washington. 276 109 The Greek Slave, by Powers, owned by Duke of Cleveland, England. Replica in Boston Museum .... 278 no Bronze Relief of President McCosh, by Augustus St. Gaudens. Princeton University Chapel ...... 280 111 Death and the Sculptor, by D. C. French. From a cast in Chicago Art Institute 282 112 Nathan Hale, by MacMonnies. City Hall Park, New York . 284 113 Ideal Head, by Herbert Adams. Possession of the Artist . 285 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. D'Agincourt, Histoire de /'Art. American Journal of Archaeology. L'Arte. Burchardt, Der Cicerone. Clarac, Muse'e de Sculpture. Cicognara, Storia della Sculptura. Cavallucci, Manuale di Storia della Sculptura,. Gazette des Beaux Arts. Gazette Arche"ologique. Iconographic Encyclopedia. Vol. III. Kiigler, Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte. Kiihn, Allgemeine Kunstgeschichte. Liibke, History of Sculpture. Liibke u. Caspar, Denkmdler der Kunst. Monuments et Me'moires de /' Acade"mie des Inscriptions. Mitchell, A History of Ancient Sculpture. Nagler, Allgemeines Kunstlerlexicon. Paris, Manual of Ancient Sculpture. Radcliffe, Schools and Masters of Sculpture. Rayet, Monuments de I* Art Antique. Reber, History of Ancient Art ; History of Mediaeval Art. Schnaase, Geschichte der bildenden Kunste. Seemann, Kunsthistorische Bilderbogen. Springer, Kunstgeschichte. Von Sybel, Weltgeschichte der Kunst. VVinckelmann, History of Ancient Art. SPECIAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES. See BOOKS RECOMMENDED at heads of chapters, to which add as follows: CHAPTER I. For text, consult Maspero, The Dawn of Civilization; The Struggle of the Nations; The Passing of the Empire. von Bissing-Bruckmann, Denkmaler Aegyptischer Sculptur. VIII. Bernoulli, Griechische Ikonographie. Kekule, Die griechische Skulptur. P. Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of Hellas; von Mach, Greek Sculpture. IX. Joubin, La sculpture grecque entre les guerres mediques et I'epoque de Pericles. Lechat, La sculpture attique avant Phidias. Perrot and Chipiez, La Greet Archalque, La Sculpture. X. Mahler, Polyklet und seine Schule. Murray, Sculptures of the Parthenon. XI. Collignon, Scopas et Praxitele; Lysippe. Klein, Praxiteles; Praxitelische Studien. XIII. Cicorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssaule. Courbaud, Le bas-relief romain. Petersen und Domaszewski, Die Marcussaule zu Rom. Strong, Roman Sculpture from Augustus to Constantine. Wickhoff, Roman Art. XIV. Cattaneo, L 'architecture en Italic du VI e au XI e siecle. Graeven, Fruhchristliche und mittelalterliche Elfenbein- werke. Lowrie, Monuments of the Early Church. Michel, Histoire de Vart depuis les premiers temps Chretiens jusqu'd nos jours, Vol. I. Venturi, Storia dell' arte italiana, Vol. I. Wiegand, Das altchristliche Hauptportal an der Kirche der hi. Sabina zu Rom. SPECIAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES. xvii CHAPTER XV. Bertaux, L'art dans Vltalie meridionale. Frothingham, Monuments of Christian Rome. Reymond, La sculpture florentine. Sauerlandt, Ueber die Bildwerke des Giovanni Pisano. Supino, L'arte pisana. Zimmermann, Oberitalische Plastik im friihen und hohen Mittelalter. XVI. Kleinclausz, Claus Sluter. Male, L'Art religieux du XIII* siecle en France; L'art religieux de la fin du May en Age en France. Marcou, Album du Musee de sculpture comparee. Michel, Histoire de-l'art Vols. II-III. Vitry et Briere, Sculpture fran^aise du Moyen Age. XVII. Hasak, Geschichte der deutschen Bildhauerkunst im XIII te * Jahrhundert. Miinzerberger und Beissel, Zur Kenntniss und Wiir- digung der mittelalterlichen Altar e Deutschlands. XVIII. Bode, Florentine Sculptors of the Renaissance. Cruttwell, Luca and Andrea della Robbia; Antonio Pollaiuolo; Verrocchio. Makowsy, Verrocchio. XIX. Angeli, Mino da Fiesole. XX. Cornelius, Jacopo della Quercia. XXI. Reymond, Michelange; Le Bernin. Supino, L'arte di Benvenuto Cellini. XXII. Koechlin et Marquet de Vasselot, La Sculpture a Troyes et dans la Champagne meridionale au XVI* siecle. Vitry, Michel Colombe. XXIII. Haendcke, Studien zur Geschichte der spanischen Plastik. XXVII. Caffin, American Masters of Sculpture. Ta.lt, The History of American Sculpture. ADDRESSES FOR PHOTOGRAPHS OF SCULPTURE. EGYPT Administration of Gizeh Museum, Cairo. Sebah, Cairo. FRANCE Braun, Clement & C ie , n Boulevard des Italiens, Paris. Giraudon, 9 Rue des Beaux-Arts, Paris. J. Levy & C ie (lantern slides), Boulevard de Sevastopol, Paris. Neuerdein, 52 Avenue de Breteuil, Paris. Trocadero Museum, Paris. Vasse (monuments historiques) , igQuai Malaquais, Paris. GERMANY Amsler & Ruthardt, 29 Behrenstr., Berlin. Berlin Photographic Co., Schlossfreiheit, Berlin. Bruckmann, 21 Kaulbachstr., Munich. Franz Hanfstaengl, Maximilianstr , Munich. J. Lowy, i Weihburggasse, Vienna. Nohring, 67 Breitestr., Liibeck. Seemann, Leipzig. GREECE Central Direktion des Archaeologischen Instituts, Corneliusstr. II, Berlin. English Photograph Co., Athens. Rhomaides, Athens. Sebah, Constantinople. ADDRESSES FOR PHOTOGRAPHS OF SCULPTURE. XIX Scull (mythological sculpture), Porter & Coates, Philadelphia, Pa. C. A. Young, Columbia College, New York. GREAT BRITAIN.. . .Autotype Co., 74 New Oxford St., Lon- don. Bedford, Lemere & Co., 147, Strand, London. Berlin Photographic Co., New Bond St., London. Clark & Davies, Museum St., London. W. A. Mansell, 405, Oxford St., London. Photograph Department of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Spooner, 379, Strand, London. Stereoscopic and Photographic Co.,io6, Regent Street, London. G. W. Wilson & Co., Aberdeen, Scot- land. ITALY Alinari, 20 Via Tornabuoni, Florence Anderson, 85 Piazza, di Spagna, Rome- Brogi, i Via Tornabuoni, Florence. Ix>mbardi, Sie.ia. Montabone, 7 Piazza Durini, Milan. Moscioni, 10 Via Condotti, Rome. Naya, 75 Piazza S. Marco, Venice. Noack, i Vico del Filo, Genoa. Poppi, 19 Via d' Azeglio, Bologna, Rossi, Milan. Sommer, Naples. XX ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS. UNITED STATES Berlin Photographic Co.,i4East 23d St., New York. Braun, Clement & Co., 256 Fifth Ave., New York. C.H. Dunton, 136 Boylston St., Boston. Fr. Hanfstaengl, 28 West 38th St., New York. Hegger, 37 East 28th St., New York. T. H. McAllister (lantern slides), 49 Nassau St., New York. Soule Photo. Co., 338 Washington St., Boston. ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS. Plaster casts may be obtained at the following addresses : ATHENS, P. Kawadias, Central Museum. BERLIN Sekretar d. General Verwaltung, For- merei der Koniglichen Museen. (General.) G. Eichler, 17 Jagerstrasse. (Tanagra figurines and general.) GebrUder Micheli, 76* Unter den Lin- den. (Modern.) BOSTON Museum of Fine Arts. P. P. Caproni, 12 Province Court. (Ancient and modern.) CAIRO Atelier de Moulage. Musee du Caire. (Egyptian.) Jean Je"ladon. (Arabic.) ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS. XXI CHRISTIANIA Guidotti Brothers, O'Rugh Museum. COLOGNE August Gerber. COPENHAGEN V. Steffensen, Royal Museum. DRESDEN Formerei des Kgl. Albertinums. (An- cient and modern.) FLORENCE Oronzio Lelli, 95 Corso de' Tintori. (Renaissance.) LONDON D. Brucciani, 40 Russell St., Covent Garden. (British Museum sculpture and general.) Arundel Society, 19 St. James St., S. W. (Ivories.) Elkington & Co., 22 Regent St. (Ivories and metals.) Aug. Ready, Great Russell St. (Ivories and gems.) Victoria and Albert Museum. (Medi- aeval, Renaissance.) MILAN Fxkmardo Pierotti, 3 Via Filangieri. (Renaissance.) MUNICH Joseph Kreittmayer, 12 Hildegard- strasse. (German Mediaeval and Renaissance.) G. Geiler, Formator an der Kgl. Akad. der Ktlnste. (Ancient.) Conservator! urn der Antikensammlungen der Kgl. technischen Hochschule. (Ancient.) XXU ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS. NAPLES.... The Director of the Museo Nationale. (Ancient.) NEW YORK Metropolitan Museum, Central Park. NUREMBERG J. Rothermundt, Langegasse 30. (Ger- man Mediaeval and Renaissance.) PARIS Atelier de Moulage, Ecole des Beaux Arts, 14 Rue Bonaparte. (General sculpture.) Eug. Arrondelle, Chef du Moulage, Pavilion Daru, Musee du Louvre. (Sculptures of the Louvre and general .) J. Pouzadoux et Fils, 45 Rue Monsieur le Prince. (Sculptures at the Troca- de"ro.) ROME Michele Gherardi, 87 Via Sistina. Cesare Malpieri, 54 Via del Corso. (General.) VENICE Antonio di Paoli, S. Trovaso, Calle delle Cento Pietre 1202. VIENNA Formerei de& K. K. Oesterr. Museum fUr Kunst und Industrie. (General.) CHAPTER I. EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. For illustration, consult the plates in Prisse d'Avennes' Histoire de I' Art Egyptien. Lepsius, Denkmdler a us Aegypten und Nubia. Champollion, Monu- ments de rEgypte et de la Nubie. Mariette, Album photogra- phique du Muse"e de Boulaq. Rosellini, / Monumenti deW Egitto e della Nubia. For text, consult Budge, The Mummy. Edwards, Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers. Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt. Mariette, Monuments of Upper Egypt. Maspero, Egyptian Archeology ; Guide du Visiteur au Musfa de Boulaq ; The Dawn of Civilization. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Ancient Egypt. Soldi, La Sculpture Egyptienne. Wilkin- son, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS. Ancient Egypt con- sisted of two principalities: the land of the south, or Upper Egypt, extending from the city of Elephantine", near the first cataract, to Memphis, not far from the modern Cairo; and the land of the north, or Lower Egypt, which stretched from Memphis, widening with the mouths of the Nile, and form- ing a delta at the Mediterranean. These two principalities represented the consolidation of smaller prehistoric states or nomes, and were themselves united as one nation under the Pharaohs. This country extended along the fertile banks of the winding Nile a distance of seven hundred and thirty-one miles, and it to-day averages in width about nine miles. The prehistoric tribes probably became united at a remote date before Menes, after whose reign it is customary to treat 2 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. of Egyptian history as a series of successive dynasties. These dynasties are sometimes named from the city which served as the capital, and sQmetimes from the conquering nation which furnished the kings. Historians and Egyptologists differ widely in respect to the dates of 'the earlier dynasties, but the difference grows less with the later dynasties and disap- pears when the period of Greek rule is reached. The follow- ing table, based upon Manetho, is given by Mariette as an approximate guide : NUMBER OK DYNASTY. NAME OF DYNASTY. DURATION. DATE B.C. Per/od. *< Entire. Mi ^ e Em ~ Ancient Empire. ' I .. THINITE. MEMPHITE. ELEPHANTINE. MEMPHITE. HERACLEOPOLITE. THEBAN. ) XOITE. HYKSOS, OR SHEPHERDS. ) THEBAN. TANITE. BUBASTITE. TANITE. SAITE. ETHIOPIAN. SAITE. PERSIAN. SAITE. MENDESIAN. SEBENNYTE. PERSIAN. MACEDONIAN. GREEK. ROMAN. 253 years. 302 214 284 248 203 70 days. 142 years. 109 '85 213 453 184 5" 241 '74 178 170 89 6 5 138 121 7 21 1 27 275 411 5004 475i 4449 4235 39Si 373 35 3500 3358 3 2 49 3064 2851 2398 2214 '703 1462 1288 mo 980 810 721 7iS 665 527 406 399 378 34 332 35 3 II Ill IV V VI VII VIII IX . X 'XI XII XIII. .. XIV. .. XV XVI XVII. .. ' XVIII XIX. . XX XXI. . XXII XXIII. ., XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII XXVIII XXIX XXX XXXI ' XXXII XXXIII XXXIV At the head of the social organism stood the king, or Pha- raoh, an absolute monarch, worshipped as a divinity after he ascended the throne. He was supreme in ecclesiastical as well as civil matters. Below him were the several orders of EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. priests, the governors, scribes, and other civil functionaries, with the generals and officers of the army. These constituted a privileged, hereditary nobility, in whose hands was consid- erable power, and the ownership of the soil. Much that remains to us of the sculptures of the Ancient and Middle Empires is the result of the patronage of these classes. Architects and sculptors were highly esteemed, and the vari- ous artisans, musicians, and commercial traders had the same legal rights as the tillers of the soil. According to Herodotos, there were twenty thou- sand cities in Egypt, representing a total population of over five millions, and there was, therefore, a large mass of the population which could be turned to the construction of public works or to foreign con- quest. RELIGION. The relig- ion of the Egyptians was somewhat analogous to their political organization. Many traces of a prehistoric fetichism are found, in which different animals, such as the bull, the ibis, the crocodile, were the totems of different tribes. There was also a polytheism, in FIG. I. THE SHEIK-BL-BKI.EI), OR MAYOR OF Tilt! VILLAGE. CAIRO Ml'SRUM. 4 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. which divinities were grouped in triads or enneads, with one divinity as supreme and all powerful. Underlying this was a worship of the powers of nature, especially of the sun, moon, and stars, and a manifest tendency toward organization into a unified system of monotheism or pantheism. Intimately connected with their social and religious system was the idea of immortality. Each person in a measure reflected the constitution of the social fabric. His body was presided over by a ka, which, like a Pharaoh, ruled the body, and was in form its ethereal duplicate. The ka remained with the mummy in the tomb; it required nourishment, and it was provided with permanent bodily form in the shape of one or more statues of the deceased. The higher elements of per- sonality enjoyed greater freedom. The ba, or soul, wandered through the Valley of Shades; the khou, or intelligence, followed the gods, while the ab, or heart, the kha'ibit, or shadow, and the ren, or name, awaited the final reunion, when the individual secured his immortality and became a god. SUBJECTS. The sculpture of the Egyptians was largely con- nected with the temple and the tomb. The temple was con- structed as if it were the tomb or eternal dwelling-place of a divinity whose statue was concealed within a succession of closed halls, opened to view only for a brief interval, when the sun or moon or particular star reached a point on the horizon from which their rays could shine directly upon the innermost shrine. These temple statues were consulted as oracles, but were seldom of imposing size. The art of the sculptor was also employed for wall-reliefs, capitals of columns, colossal figures guarding the pylons, and for long avenues of sphinxes. The scenes upon the temple walls illustrate frequently the piety of kings as well as their foreign conquests. The tombs called for the most extensive use of the sculp- tor's art. Here were placed portrait statues of the deceased. Of this nature were many of the statues of Pharaohs, public EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 5 functionaries, and scribes, and the groups representing a man and his wife. The walls of the earlier tombs resemble an illustrated book of the manners and customs of the people. Here are represented hunting, fishing, and agricultural scenes ; artistic and mercantile pursuits, such as the making of statues, KIG. 2. ROYAL SCK1UE IN or glass, or metal-ware, or the building of pyramids; women at their domestic duties, or wailing for the dead ; boys engaged in athletic games. Such reliefs indicate a confident belief in the future as an untroubled extension of the present life. At a later period, beginning with the tombs of the New Empire, the gods appear more prominently in scenes of judgment; 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. revealing a less certain attitude of mind concerning the hap- piness of the future state. The sculptor's art also lent a charm to the minor objects of domestic and daily use ; to household furniture with its rich divans, to tables and chests, and to all forms of metal work and jewelry. Such objects as toilet boxes, mirrors, and spoons assumed forms derived from the floral, animal, or human world. Sacred plants, especially the lotus, were the naturalistic basis for a large and varied series of forms which influenced the decorative art of the entire ancient world. MATERIALS, METHODS, AND CONVENTIONS. In the Nile valley grew the sacred acacia and the sycamore, which furnished the sculptor material for statues and sarcophagi, for thrones and other objects of industrial art. The hillsides on both banks of the Nile, as far south as Edfou, furnished a coarse nummulitic limestone, and beyond Edfou were extensive quarries of sand- stone, both of which materials were employed for sculptural as well as for architectural purposes. Near the first cataract may be still seen the quarries of red granite utilized not only for obelisks, but also for colossal .statues, sphinxes, and sarcoph- agi. Alabaster was quarried at the ancient Alabastron, near the modern village of Assiout. From the mountains of the Arabian desert and the Sinaitic peninsula came the basalt and diorite used by the early sculptors, the red porphyry prized by the Greeks and Romans, and copper. The Nile mud was moulded and baked, and even covered with colored glazes, from the earliest dynasties of Egyptian history. At the same early period we find the Egyptian sculptor handling with skill various injported materials, such as ebony, ivory, gold, silver, and iron. When the Egyptians wished to give permanence to their sculptures, as, for example, to the statues and sarcophagi of their Pharaohs, they utilized the hardest material, such as basalt, diorite, granite. These materials they handled with no less skill than they did wood and ivory and softer stones. EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 7 The fine details were probably executed with instruments of flint. Other implements, made apparently of hardened bronze or iron, were the saw with jewelled teeth, tubular drills of vari- ous kinds, the pointer, and chisel. Statues of hard stone were carefully polished with crushed sandstone and emery ; those of the softer materials were generally covered with stucco and FIG. 3. HVk'P painted, the coloring being applied in an arbitrary or conven- tional manner. The wall -sculptures are executed in different modes of relief : (1) Bas-relief, in which the figures project slightly in front of the background. (2) Sunken-relief, in which the background projects slightly in front of the figures. 8 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. (3) Outline-relief, in which only the outline of figures is chiselled. (4) High-relief, in which the figures project strongly from the background. Almost all the wall -sculptures of the Ancient Empire are in the form of bas-relief; sunken and outline relief are the most common methods during the New Empire. High-relief is found occasionally in tombs of the Ancient Empire, other- wise it is almost exclusively confined to the New Empire and to such forms as Osiride and Hathoric piers and to wall stat- ues. In its treatment of figures in the round, Egyptian sculp- ture is limited to a few forms. There is the standing figure, with left foot slightly in advance of the right, the head erect, and the eyes looking straight forward. Variants are formed by changing the pose of the arms. In the seated figures there is the same fixity of the head, body, and lower limbs. Beside these, the kneeling and squatting attitudes frequently occur, with little variation. Statues in the round usually represented the gods, Pharaohs, or civic officials, and were composed with special reference to the preservation of straight lines. The more important monuments were thus limited in type and pose, but a whole series of statues illustrating domestic sub- jects show freer modes of composition. Little attention was given to grouping. It was usually a mere juxtaposition of two standing or two seated statues, or of one standing and one seated figure. A god and a man, or a husband and a wife, were placed side by side. In family groups the figure of a child' was sometimes added. Statues of Isis suckling Horus formed the only prominent exception. Symbolism usually governed the representations of the gods. When portrayed as human beings they were distinguished by emblems, but they were more frequently represented as com- posite creatures with animal heads on human bodies. Thus, Horus has the head of a hawk ; Anubis, that of a jackal ; Khnum, a ram; Thoth, an ibis; Sebek, a crocodile; Isis, a EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 9 cow; and Sekhet-Bast, a lion or cat. The same method of representation placed a human head upon an animal body and formed fantastic combinations of various creatures, birds, ani- mals, and men. As the statues represented the permanent body of the FIG. 4. RA-HOTEH AND HIS WIFE NEFEKT. THIRTEENTH DYNASTY. CAIBO MUSEUM. deceased, so the relief -sculptures reproduced the scenes in which his ethereal body might continue to move. They were not intended as mere architectural decorations, but had pri- marily a recording or immortalizing purpose. They covered the outer and inner walls of temples, the galleries and walls of tombs, without much regard to aesthetic considerations or IO HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.' decorative effect. On the exterior walls of temples they were often irregularly disposed over the surface, but in interiors they were arranged in superposed, horizontal rows. They were not pictures, but picture-writing in relief, and were little more than enlarged hieroglyphs. Such being their character, there was little stimulus to the production of artistic compositions. Relief-composition consisted merely in the arrangement of figures in horizontal lines so as to record an event or depict an action. The principal objects were distinguished from the rest by their size ; thus, gods were larger than men, kings than their followers, and the dead than the living. Subordinate actions were juxtaposed in horizontal bands. In other respects there was little regard for unity of effect; and spaces seem to have been filled with figures and hieroglyphs on the principle that decorators abhor a vacuum. In com- ; JF V^V ' '^ t ' positio^jif this kind, constructed like sentences, there was little or no need of perspective. Scenes were not represented as they appeared within the field of vision, but their individ- ual components were all brought to the plane of representa- tion, and spread out like writing. A man with head in pro- file, but eye en face, with shoulders in full front, but trunk turned three-quarters and legs in profile, is not the picture of a man as he appears to the eye ; but as a symbolic represen- tation of a man, it was perfectly clear and intelligible. In the same symbolic way a pond was indicated by a rectangle, the water in it by zigzag lines, while the trees around it pro- jected from the four sides of the rectangle. An army was portrayed with its remoter ranks brought into the plane of rep- resentation and superposed in horizontal lines one above the other. Frequently a row of individuals projecting from the spectator was represented along a horizontal line, the nearer figures partly covering the remoter. In a few instances the effects of perspective were suggested, but being foreign to the purposes of Egyptian art they bore no fruit. Egyptian reliefs were covered with stucco and. painted. The EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. H colors used were vivid in tone, few in number, and durable in quality. They were applied in uniform flat masses, juxta- HG. 5. SETI I. WORSHIPPING. EIGHTEKNTH DYNASTY. AHYDOS. posed in striking contrasts. Chiaroscuro and color-perspec- tive lay outside the Egyptian conception of painting. The painting of reliefs served to make the figures more distinct, 12 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.* not more natural. Color was rarely used to suggest rotundity of form, and was applied ordinarily in a purely conventional manner. The faces of men were 'usually reddish brown, and those of women yellow; but the gods might have faces of any color. Statues of wood or of soft stone were frequently in like manner covered with stucco and painted. NOTE. Since this volume was written, Egyptian chronology has been reconstructed, and Marriette's tables, published on p. 2, are no longer generally accepted. Although Egyptologists are far from having reached a general agreement, the dates assigned by Breasted may be assumed as a safer guide. These are as follows: DYNASTY DYNASTY I-II 3400-2980 B.C. XIX 1350-1205 B.C. Ill 2980-2900," XX 1200-1090 " IV 2900-2750 " XXI 1090-945 " V 2750-2625 " XXII 945-745 " VI 2625-2475 " XXIII 745-718 " VII-VIII 2475-2445 " XXIV 718-712 " IX-X 2445-2160 " XXV 712-663 " XI 2160-2000 " XXVI 663-525 " XII 2000-1788 " XXVII-XXXI. . . . 525-332 " xin-xvii 1788-1580 " xxxii-xxxm . . 332-30 " XVIII 1580-1350 " CHAPTER II. EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. CONTINUED. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. The books before mentioned ; also, see General and Special Bibliographies. HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. In spite of wealth of materials and quantity of production, Egyptian sculpture changed so slowly that it is difficult to trace its history. From the very earliest dynasties we find a fully developed art. Sculptors handled readily the hardest stones and cast with much skill in bronze. There is no archaic period to show the struggle by which this mastery was reached. Egypt has not yet enlightened us as to a prehistoric art of her own, nor is it proved that some foreign nation provided her with an art already in its prime. What- ever its origin, the continuity of Egyptian art during the his- toric period is more marked than its changes. Nevertheless, the modification of Egyptian sculpture at different periods may be roughly distinguished. ANCIENT EMPIRE. The art of the Ancient Empire centred about Memphis, although the Delta, Abydos, the neighbor- hood of Thebes, and Elephantine furnish illustrations of some of its later phases. There are no temples remaining from this period; the sculptures come exclusively from tombs. In character these Memphite sculptures weie strongly naturalistic when compared with the later products ot Egyptian art. The portrait statues are varied and often striking in character, and the wall-pictures depict many scenes from daily life. Gen- eralized or typical forms are not wanting in the very earliest times, as witness the colossal sphinx at Gizeh and the statues of Chephren, builder of the second pyramid. The natural- 14 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. istic tendency led to a peculiar treatment of the eye, found in statues of this period, but discontinued in later times. The pupil was represented by a glistening silver nail set in the midst of rock crystal or enamel, while the dark eyelashes were made of bronze. This treatment was followed in the case of statues in limestone, wood, and bronze, but not in the statues made of basaltic rocks. The heads of these early statues seem to indicate strongly marked Egyptian type, not unmixed in some cases with negroid and other foreign races. The wall- sculptures, and even the hieroglyphs executed in low-relief, were finely carved. The slender type of the human form was not wanting, but short, thickset, muscular bodies were more com- mon. From the fact that many middle-aged men and women were represented, it would seem as if childhood and old age were somehow looked upon as disappearing in the future life. The faces reflect the lives of a peaceful, happy people, to whom future life implied no great change in the mode of existence. MIDDLE EMPIRE. The period called the Middle Empire may be divided into the first Theban period, extending from the eleventh to the fifteenth dynasty, and the Hyksos period, from the fifteenth to the eighteenth dynasty. The centre of government had now shifted from Memphis to Thebes. The later period of Memphite rule and the first dynasty of the Middle Empire seem to have produced little sculpture of monumental value. But the strong reign of the Usertesens and the Amenemhats of the twelfth dynasty marks a revival of Egyptian art. The sculpture represented in general a contin- uance of the art of Memphis, but there were already some changes. A desire for colossal statues of Pharaohs began to be felt, and bodily forms were given with slenderer trunks and limbs. The wall -sculptures presented subjects similar to those of earlier days, but were less individual and natural ; and in many cases wall-paintings were substituted for reliefs. The temple statues from Karnak of the twelfth dynasty indicate that votive offerings of statuary were not uncommon, the fine statue EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 1 5 of Sebek-hotep III. of the thirteenth dynasty, in the Ixmvre. bearing witness to a new departure in the sculptor's art. FIG. 6. RAMESKS II. NINKTKKNTH DYNASTY. II'SAMBOUL. This revival of art, which began in the twelfth and continued through the thirteenth dynasty, was checked in the fourteenth 16 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. and fifteenth dynasties by the invasion of barbarous foreign rulers known as the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings. The ethno- logical affinities of these Shepherd Kings is an unsettled prob- lem, the Shemitic influences which they introduced being offset by their apparently Turanian facial type. The sculp- tured sphinxes and statues were still executed by Egyptian sculptors, but in the gray or black granite of Hammanat or of the Sinaitic peninsula, instead of the red granite of Assouan. The Hyksos centres of activity were Tanis and Bubastis, their influence being less strongly felt in Upper Egypt. The most striking characteristic of their sculpture was the non-Egyptian cast of countenance, showing small eyes, high cheek bones, heavy masses of hair, an aquiline nose, a strong mouth with shaven upper lip, and short whiskers and beard. NEW EMPIRE. The second Theban or early portion of the New Empire included the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twen- tieth dynasties. Egypt now freed herself from Hyksos rule and extended her empire to Assyria, Asia Minor, and Cyprus in the east and north, and to Nubia and Abyssinia in the south. Numerous large temples were erected, especially dur- ing the reign of Seti I. and Rameses II. These furnished a new stimulus to the sculptor's art. Colossal temples led nat- urally to colossal statuary. The seated statues of Amenophis III., at Thebes, are fifty-two feet high, those of Rameses II., at Ipsamboul, are seventy feet high, while the standing Ram- eses at Tanis, according to Mr. Petrie, stood ninety feet high without its pedestal. The slender proportions of the human form which prevailed in the twelfth and thirteenth dynasties were continued and even advanced, especially in the bas-reliefs of the" New Empire. The primitive simplicity of dress, char- acteristic of earlier days, was now replaced by greater rich- ness in personal adornment, and elaborate crowns and highly ornamented garments were not uncommon. Foreign fauna and flora, as well as foreign men and women, were represented more frequently and in far greater variety than in earlier days. EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. I/ Scenes of warfare and foreign conquest were portrayed, and images of the gods were now abundant. A single small tem- ple at Karnak contained five hundred and seventy-two statues of the goddess Sekhet-Bast, but at Tell-el-Amarna the heretic FIG. 7. PTOLEMY CROWNED BY UPPER AND LOWER EGYPT. EDFOU. king Khou-en-Aten stimulated his sculptors to break with tra- ditional themes and to portray military reviews, chariot driv- ing, festivals, palaces, villas, and gardens. The school of sculptors now established made itself felt 18 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. throughout the reign of Seti I. and Rameses II. The fine heads of Queen Taia and Horemheb and the remarkable limestone reliefs at Seti's temple in Abydos may be traced to its influ- ence ; so, also, the beautiful seated statue of Rameses II. in the Museum of Turin. Royal tombs of this period main- tained the traditional excellence of relief sculpture, but the demand for carved scenes upon the outer walls of temples was probably too great for the supply of sculptors. At all events, we find here poverty of invention in the subjects and haste in the execution. After the brilliant reign of Rameses II. Egypt lost much of her military spirit, the country was divided, and the decadence of art began. This was a gradual decline, with here and there an upward struggle, as shown, for instance, in the reliefs of the twentieth dynasty at Medinet-Abou. During the later portion of the New Empire, from the twenty-first to the thirty-second dynasty, the power of Egypt was broken. She yielded now to the Ethiopians, to the Assyri- ans, and once and again to the Persians. Her seat of empire shifted to Tanis, to Bubastis, to Mendes, to Sebennytos, and for a long time remained at Sais. This period is therefore characterized as the SAITE PERIOD. Under such shifting conditions it was hardly possible for art to flourish. Sometimes sculptors turned back to Ancient-Empire work for inspiration, and modelled forms which might readily be mistaken for the products of earlier days. Under Psammetichos I. of the twenty-sixth dynasty there was something of an artistic revival. He restored the temples and revived the demand for sculpture and painting. Sculptors again attacked the hardest stones, as though they would prove to the world that their knowledge of technique had not suffered; but the green-basalt statues of Osiris and Nephthys and the Hathor-cow supporting a statuette of the deceased, in the museum at Cairo, show that the sculptors of the reign of Psammetichos I. were possessed of an artistic sense which preferred effeminate and refined to sharp and vig- EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. orous forms. No change in the current of Egyptian sculp- ture was produced by the Persian conquest. GBJECO-BOMAN PEBIOD. When Egypt became subject to Macedonian rule, her art did not wholly submit to foreign taste. Ptolemaic temples, though characterized by cer- tain changes, especially in the capitals of columns, were not constructed in Hellenic style. Similarly, Ptolemaic statues are still Egyptian. The suc- cessors of Alexander became Pharaohs ; they did not convert the Egyptians into Greeks. But the presence of Greek cities in Egypt from the seventh cen- tury B.C. made it impossible that Greek and Egyptian types should remain for- ever separate. It was inevitable that in certain directions a Graeco-Egyptian style should arise ; and this was the case. In architecture even the Caesars con- tinued the restoration of temples in the Egyptian manner, but in sculpture they stimulated a mixed style in which the Egyptian is the retreating and the Greek and Roman the advancing ele- ment. Even Christian civilization, under Byzantine rule, failed to sub- ject Egyptian art. The final surrender was made in 638 A.U. to the Moham- . 8 .- SARCOPHAGUS OF WTI-HAK-SI-ESE AS THK ..ODUESSHATHOR. FTOLF.- MAIC PKKIOU. BEK1.IN. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Egyptian sculpture may be best studied in Egypt at the temples of Abydos, Thebes, Edfou, Esneh, Philce, and Ipsamboul ; at the tombs about Memphis, Heni-IIassan, and Thebes; and 20 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. especially at the Museum of Cairo. Important collections exist in the Vatican, Rome ; the Museo Archeologico, Florence ; the Museo Egizio, Turin ; the Royal Museum, Berlin ; the Louvre, Paris ; the British Mu- seum, London ; the Metropolitan Museum and the Historical Society, New York. Minor collections may be seen in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; the University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia; the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore ; and the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago. NOTE. Prehistoric sculpture in Egypt has received considerable atten- tion in recent years. The results, summarized by Capart, in his Primitive Art in Egypt, point to the occupancy of the Nile Valley by Libyan tribes. That the Pharaonk invaders came from Asia would appear to be indicated by the affinities in style between the carved slate palettes of the first dynasty and the monuments of Chaldaea. The general study of Egyptian sculpture has been greatly facilitated by the publication of von Bissing's Denkmaler Aegyptischer Sculptur, in which the principal monuments in the museums of Europe are finely illustrated and described. Very notable additions to the decorative arts of ancient Egypt have been made through the systematic excavations of Theodore M. Davis in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. These sculptures now enrich the Museum at Cairo. CHAPTER III. BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Babelon, Manual of Oriental Antiquities. De Sarzec and Heuzey, De'couvertes en Chalde'e. Heuzey, Un Palais Chalde'en. Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldcea and Susiana. Maspero, The Dawn of Civiliza- tion. Menant, Collection de Clercq, Catalogue des Cylindres Orientaux ; Recherches sur la Glyptique Orientale. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Chaldcea and Assyria. Rassam, Recent Discoveries of Ancient Babylonian Cities. Reber, Ueber altchaldaische Kunst (in Zeitschrift fur Assyrio- logie, 1886). Taylor, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XV. Ward, Seal Cylinders and Other Oriental Seals (Handbook 12, Metropolitan Museum, New York). PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS. The earliest centre of civilization in Western Asia was in the lower part of the valley through which the Tigris and Euphrates take their course before emptying into the Persian Gulf. This civiliza- tion was that of Babylonia. Its early history is not nearly as well known as that of Egypt ; we cannot yet say which was the more ancient, though the probabilities seem to be in favor of an antiquity for the culture of western Asia equal to that of Egypt. The situation of Babylonia favored the growth and spread of its influence. The empire of Elam developed by its side along parallel lines; Assyria was its heir as well as its rival. Their collective civilization, by conquest and influence, moulded the development of Persia, Syria, Phoenicia, Arme- nia, the Kingdoms of the Hittites, of Upper Mesopotamia, and southeastern Asia Minor. In Babylonia the population was of mixed race, partly 22 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Shemitic and partly non-Shemitic. The probability is that the Shemites acquired supremacy as early as about 4000 B.C., and maintained it with slight exceptions until the seventeenth century B.C., when the Kosseans, or Kassites, from the eastern mountains established a dynasty in Babylon. The earliest political condition shows us, not a united state, but a number of independent cities. These were divided into two groups, one at the south and one at the north. The principal southern cities were Eridu, the sacred city nearest to the sea; Ur, the largest in the group ; Larsa, Erech, Lagash, Mar, and Nisin. To the northern group. belong Nippur, Borsippa, Babel or Babylon, Kish, Kutha, Agadhe, and Sippara. Native traditions indicate the cities nearest to the Persian Gulf as the earliest to become civilized under the influence of Ea, the god of Eridu, the divinity of the sea and of wisdom, half-fish and half-man, who came up out of the waters of the gulf to teach mankind civilization. The two terms, Sumer and Akkad, served in Babylonian literature to designate the two main divisions of the race and land. Chaldaea was the most southern region, and its name came into prominence at about the time when the writers of the Old Testament came into contact with the civilization of Babylonia. The name is not applicable to the whole- country, though in some books it is so used. Under the heading " Babylonia" we include the entire country. The parallel lines of the two rivers made possible a great system of irrigation by means of canals that added to the natural fertility of the soil and gave it an almost fabulous pro- ductivity. The chief energies of the Babylonian rulers were directed toward maintaining and perfecting this system, by public works that had no equal until Roman times. But two great curses often sapped agricultural prosperity; the south and east winds that swept over, the country, overwhelming it with sands from the desert, and the swarms of locusts that left not a blade standing in their path. Many are the exorcisms BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. of Babylonian magic against these, and Babylonian imagination could conjure up nothing more fearful in the world of evil spirits. HISTOEY. We conjecture that before 4000 B.C. there was a period characterized by independent cities, which developed a more or less autonomous sys- tem of religious belief and social and political institutions. Apparently the first sovereign to found an empire was Sargon I., of Agadhe, who lived area 3800 B.C. He was of S h e m i t i c race, and his reign was one of great military achievement and cul- tured advance. His conquests brought the coasts of P h ce n i c i a , Syria, and Palestine, and even Cyprus, under Baby- lonian influence. Shortly afterward the regime of independent cities appears to have returned until about 2900, when Ur became, under King Ur-bau, the capital of a dynasty that held sway over the greater part of Babylo- nia, and established for that city a preeminence KIG. 9. STATUE OK (1UDEA FKOM TKLLO. LOUVRE. 24 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. which it retained until about seven hundred years later, when Babylon took its place. Then came a period when the Elamites under Kudur-mabug invaded and conquered the country, making the kinglets of the Babylonian cities their viceroys. The Elamite was driven from the land shortly after 2200 B.C. by Hammurabi, who founded a dynasty at Babylon, and that city became, for the first time, and thenceforth remained, the political and religious capital of the country. This dy- nasty was the last before the decay of the country set in. When, about four centuries later, the Kossean mountaineers came down from the east and overturned the national rulers, the harmonious development of the state was imperilled, and shortly afterward the Assyrians, emboldened by this evident weakness, commenced the long struggle, first for indepen- dence and then for supremacy, which, after lasting with vary- ing fortunes for some eight centuries, ended in the complete subjugation of the southern empire to her more vigorous and compact northern rival. As a people the Babylonians typify the most refined civiliza- tion of Asia. They were apparently without crudeness of any sort. At all times literature, art, and science were held by them in the highest esteem. They were by nature imagina- tive, fanciful, symbolic in their thought, creators and lovers of abstractions far more than the more matter-of-fact Egyp- tians. Their civilization was determined by their religion, which was theocratic. All victories and all successes were attributed to the gods. Hence the temple was the great cen- tre of each Babylonian city. The priests were the most im- portant class of citizens, and the king was the high-priest even more than the political ruler. This is what made sepa- ratism so difficult to eradicate, for the religion and the state centred around the special patron deity in each city. RELIGION. There was no unity in religious belief during the early period of Babylonian development. On the one BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 25 hand, there was a belief in a world of spirits, in which the hosts of good and evil were opposed, and none of these spirits seemed to stand out separately from the mass. On the other hand, there was a more systematic and simple belief in three great gods : Anu the heaven-god, Bel the demiurge, and Ea the god of the sea and the under- world. Connected with them were minor deities that stand in a relation of dependence. Each male deity had its female counterpart, usually a mere reflection. Midway between these two beliefs stood the ma- jority of early cults. The same gods were worshipped in different cities under different names and with varying attri- butes. With political centralization came also religious uni- fication. There were no longer as strict racial distinctions as at first ; a national pantheon was made necessary, and the principal deities, patrons of the various cities that formed the empire, were brought into a system with a planetary basis, made all the easier because the sun, the moon, and the stars had always been more or less the symbols of the principal deities. After the supreme trio of Anu, Bel, and Ea come Shamash the sun-god, Sin the moon-god, Ramman the god of the atmosphere, Marduk (Jupiter), Ishtar (Venus), Adar (Saturn), Nergal (Mars), Nabu (Mercury). This system passed over to the Assyrians, for whom these formed, with Asshur, the twelve great gods. The Babylonians lived in a constant superstitious terror. For them the air was peopled with innumerable armies of maleficent demons and beneficent spirits marshalled into many classes. Their art, literature, medical practice, astrology, magic, daily life, and thoughts were profoundly moulded by this belief and constant preoccupation. They recited incan- tations, offered sacrifices, hung up and buried statuettes and reliefs in order to conjure or combat the machinations of the evil spirits. The power of the Babylonian fancy was never exercised in a more original manner than in the creation of sculptural 26 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. types embodying their conceptions of these spirits of differ ent and opposite order. "On the one hand were the noble monsters that defended the people, the city, and the king from evil, placed at the gates of cities, temples, royal palaces, and private houses. These were the lion-headed men, fish-men, griffins, winged lions, and man-headed winged bulls, creatures of calm power or repressed impetuosity, strongly built and made to seem most real, however hybrid they might be in form. On the other hand, and opposed to these, were the more lithe evil demons, ghoul-like, snarling and vicious, ready to spring and swoop, full of cunning perversity and malice. SUBJECTS. The Baby- lonian did not aim at the preservation of the body of the deceased, but burned it. Hence he lacked all the incen- tives that stimulated the early Egyptian sculptor to reproduce realistically the external form of the deceased and to depict faithfully his different occupations and possessions. He turned therefore at cnce to religious, historic, and symbolic subjects. The monuments as yet discovered have been so few as to make any adequate classification or knowl- edge impossible. This is due, not to any lack of productivity for the excavations at Tello have shown that sculpture was popular from the earliest period but to the fact that no scien- tific excavations in Babylonia have been undertaken until the present decade. It was therefore not the tomb, but the temple and the pal- ace, that were the home of early sculpture. The form of the FIG. 10. HEAD WITH TURBAN FROM TELLI LOUVRE. BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE, 2/ Babylonian temple was peculiarly suited to the natural con- formation of the land. It arose from a wide platform in the form of a great stepped pyramidal mound. In the courts around its base were minor sanctuaries, while the great god dwelt in the higher structure. The pyramidal form seems to have been determined by their idea of the form of the uni- verse. The sky was a great metal dome, resting on a circulai base ; within it, at the bottom, rose the earth, washed by water that divided it from the base of the heavens, while at the east and west were the gates of the sun. The earth itself rose under this dome in the form of a stepped pyramid. In connection with the main temple and its satellites there usually arose a royal palace of considerable extent, with three divisions: (i) for the king and state ceremonies; (2) for the harem ; (3) for the dependencies. In them the mass of sculp- ture was placed. Under the thresholds were the " teraphim," or small images of metal or terracotta, to frighten away the evil spirits : at the gateways stood the protecting genii : in the courts were erected the triumphal and commemorative carved stelae and the royal statues: in the temple-cellas were the figures of the gods. Several classes of subjects can be distin- guished. First, the representations of the gods in relief and in the round, which were far more common in Babylonian than they were in the later Assyrian sculpture. There were many small figures of the gods in terracotta, buried in the ground, and others in bronze ending in spikes, stuck in the ground to ward off evil. The gods were also carved on reliefs used for wall decoration or cut on the faces of commemorative steles, and sometimes appeared in the form of statues which were placed in the inner sanctuaries. Miniature reproductions of the statues and reliefs of the gods can be studied in great numbers in the cut seals and cylinders. In a second series of subjects the gods were no longer alone, but were represented in relief, receiving the sacrifices, the 28 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. offerings, or merely the homage of their worshippers. Often each god was accompanied by his goddess, and the worship- pers were shown as being brought forward by the priest. Related to these scenes were a series of mythological or legendary subjects from the histories of gods and heroes. The greatest favorites among these last were the combat of Mero- dach with the powers of chaos, which ended in the creation of the world, the legends of Ishtar, the Babylonian Venus, and the adventures of Izdubar, or, as his name is now read, Gilgames, the prototype of Herakles and the beau-ideal of Babylonian heroism. At the very outset the Babylonian sculptor created also a purely historical class of compositions, in which the king was either represented at peace, surrounded by his court, or at war, fighting, overthrowing and executing his enemies, burying his dead, and offering thank-sacrifices to his gods. There are traces, also, of genre scenes showing the labors and amuse- ments of daily life, such as husbandry and music. And then came those fantastic creations of good and evil spirits which, in conception and technical conventions, stand quite apart. Of ail these works of sculpture the statues of the divinities placed in the tompleb were the most sacred possessions of the city. They were the palladium, to be carefully hidden or carried away from the enemy. When taken they were prized by the captors as the greatest trophy of the victory. There are many cuneiform texts attesting this. The memory of such sculptures was handed down for centuries. An instance is the statue carried back-from Susa to Nineveh by Asbur-bani-pal, who notes that thirteen hundred years before it had been carried away from Assyria by the Elamite conquerors (circa 2200 B.C.). TECHNICAL METHODS AND CONVENTIONS. Stone, terracotta, bronze, and rare stones were employed by the earliest Babylo- nian artists with whom we are acquainted. In the absence of home quarries, the stone was brought not from the mountains BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 2 9 which, at a later period, provided the Assyrians with the soft and fine limestone and alabaster slabs, but it came by sea, apparently, from quarries in the land of " Magan." The favorite quality of stone employed for large statuary was a variety of diorite, almost as hard as granite or porphyry, and similar to that used by the Egyptian sculptors of the Ancient Empire. The mechanical difficulties of so obdurate a mate- rial prevented any such lavish display as was made by the Assyr- ian artists in decorating with rows of reliefs all their principal halls. Softer stones were employed for delicate work in relief in smaller sculptures, and in the time of Naramsin (circa KIG. II. IMPRESSION FROM A BABYLONIAN CYLINDER. BERLIN. 3750 B.C.) the material was worked with matchless fineness. In bronze-work future discoveries will doubtless show that hammered work preceded casting. At present, however, fig- ures of cast bronze are found among the earliest works in the reign of Ur-Nina of Lagash, probably before 4000 B.C. Hith- erto, no reliefs in bronze have come to light. It is to be sup- posed that ivory, so great a favorite with the Assyrians, was not neglected by Babylonian artists, but no works in this mate- rial have yet been found. The long, flat plain of the Tigris- Euphrates was not diversified by any forests that could afford a convenient supply of timber for purposes of sculpture, and probably for this reason wooden statues appear hardly to have 30 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. existed. It was natural that terracotta should be a favorite material for the sculptor, but it appears to have been used only for small figures, and not for work entirely in the round. The figurines were cast in a mould, and not executed or even fin- ished by hand. No trace of polychromy has been found, though there is every reason to suppose the Babylonians em- ployed it in connection with their reliefs. In the earliest monuments, like those of Ur-Ninaof Lagash, the workmanship is extremely crude, the relief low, the out- lines poor. At this early date the names of the persons were written on or beside the reliefs. The features, such as nose, eyes, and ears, were of immense size. As early, however, as the time of Sargon (3800 B. c.) the sculptors were in possession of all their technical skill, and the art then developed its perma- nent characteristics. The conventional attitude of the figures in relief was to show the head in profile, the shoulders partly or entirely in front view, and the lower limbs again in profile. The shoul- ders were not always as absolutely equilateral as in Egypt, nor were they as frankly profilized as in Assyria. Quite often a front view of the face was given. It is worthy of note that the full face of the national hero, Gilgames, was quite gener- ally given, perhaps so as to show more clearly his lion-like lineaments and mane-like hair. While the Assyrians seldom allowed themselves to represent the nude body, the Babylo- nians had no such scruple : Ishtar and Belit, Gilgames, and Heabani, the various good and evil spirits, were some of the types usually undraped. The bodies of the slain in battle were also shown undraped. The wonderful skill shown in anatom- ical drawing in some of the earlier gems proves that the Baby- lonians excelled all artists in this respect until surpassed by the Greeks at the close of the sixth century B.C. In some of the Tello sculptures there is shown a talent for realistic por- traiture in face and body that was always foreign to Assyria. The drapery was given in a simple and interesting fashion. BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 31 The garment of the Babylonians was a woollen mantle with a shawl-like fringe called kaunakes, which was wound around the figure many times and draped over one shoulder, leaving the other shoulder and arm bare. It is this peculiarity which makes the robes of priests and divinities appear like pleated skirts. And this use of heavy woollen stuffs concealed the figure far more effectually than the gauze-like garments of the Egyptians, and probably accounts for a more rigid figure in Babylonian art than in Egyptian art. There is no attempt at perspective, or at representing figures on more than one plane. The reliefs are arranged in superposed bands, sometimes giving successive stages of one action. The Babylonians were decidedly more anthropomorphic than the Egyptians, both in their ideas and in their representations of the gods. One god was not distinguished from another by having the head of a hawk, a dog, a cat, or a jackal on a human body, but each god had his full complement of human form and was distinguished by some emblem carried in the hand (as was later the case in Greek art) or placed near the figure. The emblem of Shamash was the sun, of Sin the moon, of Ramman the thunderbolt, of Ishtarthe star Venus, of Ea the serpent, of Ninip the bull. Where animals were used as symbols they were commonly placed under the feet of their deity and were often astronomically related to them. Some- times, especially in later Babylonian sculpture, the symbols were employed alone, without the divine figures, and were set up for worship or carved on boundary stones to terrify the evil-doer. There are, however, some traces of the existence of representations of the gods with heads and other parts of animals, as in Egypt, though such forms were not artistically welcomed. HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. Five periods may be distin- guished : (i) The PRIMITIVE PERIOD, lasting until shortly after 4000 B.C. 32 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. (2) The ARCHAIC, extending from before the time of Sargon I. (3800 B.C.) to Ur-Gur of Ur (2900 B.C.). (3) The DEVELOPED, ending with the advent of the Kossean or Kassite dynasty in the seventeenth century. (4) The DECADENCE, ending with the completion of the Assyrian conquest in the ninth century. FIG. 12. TWO DIVINITIES ESCORTING A KING. BERLIN. (5) The ARCHAISTIC REVIVAL, during the century covered by the period of the Neo-Babylonian empire founded by Nabo- polassar and Nebuchadnezzar and ended by the conquest of Cyrus. PRIMITIVE PERIOD. The earliest works yet known are in low relief and belong to a period apparently earlier than 4000 BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 33 B.C., though how much earlier we cannot yet assert. The style is crude and heavy, with weak outlines and details marked always with scratched lines. Several works of this class have been found at Tello, the ancient Lagash. Of a style' somewhat less crude are three naive plaques of King Ur-Nina of Lagash in which the details are no longer scratched but carved. ARCHAIC PERIOD. Toward 4000 B.C. a great advance appears to have been made, for the monuments inscribed with the names of Sargon I. (3800) and his son Naramsin prove that the Babylonian sculptors had attained to a high degree of artistic perfection. We may place at the beginning of this period the monuments of King Eannadu of Lagash, whose " Stele of the Vultures" is so dramatic and forceful in con- ception. Toward the close of this, the epic period, should be placed the monuments of Sargon and Naramsin, for they show, together with strength and simplicity, that union of deli- cacy and refined treatment of detail which became the char- acteristic of the succeeding period. DEVELOPED PERIOD. In the few pieces of this period that have been found there is an exquisite refinement that antici- pates the style of the eighteenth dynasty in Egypt and makes it possible to gain a clear idea of the details of costume and decoration. This was also the period of monumental sculpture in connection with a great development of temple and palace architecture. The large statues of Gudea found at Lagash have the merits and the defects of an art whose greatest suc- cesses were attained in gem-cutting and minute stone and metal sculpture. This developed style was probably that of the schools of Ur, Erech, and other cities during the reigns of the kings of Ur, Ur-gur and his son Dunghi (circa 2850), and also under the Babylonian dynasty of Hammurabi. It is nat- ural to suppose that it ceased with the advent of the Kossean invaders in the seventeenth century. At all events, we find proof that shortly after their advent Babylonian sculpture 3 34 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. declined. It was during this developed period that we may place the bulk of Babylonian gem-cutting, though it did not surpass in perfection the developed gem-cutting of the Sargon period. DECADENCE. Sculpture between 1600 and 800 had lost in vitality and in strength. Apparently it was no longer much used in monumental works or works in the round, but mainly for miniature carvings in low relief. The sacred relief of the temple of the Sun-god at Sippara, the royal stele of King Marduk-iddin-akhi, and the numerous boundary stones and reliefs now in the British Museum, show great care in the workmanship, and an elaborate and faithful reproduction of detail. The difference between the Babylonian sculpture of the period of decadence and contemporary Assyrian sculpture can be appreciated by a comparison between any Assyrian relief of the time of Assur-nazir-pal and the interesting small slab from the temple of Shamash at Sippara. Both were executed in the first half of the ninth century. EEVIVAL. The last period of Babylonian art is still as obscure in history as the earliest. From the numerous inscrip- tions we judge that the dominant idea of Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar was a return to the traditions of early Baby- lonia, and this was broken, first by the Kosseans and then by the Assyrians. Everywhere their restoration of the temples erected by such early kings as Hammurabi (2200), Ur-gur (2900), and Naramsin (3750) is praised as being exactly in the style of the old work. The seals and cylinders show that the art was then, in a sense, archaistic, in the same way as the sculpture of Augustus was in one of its phases a revival of the archaic Greek style of the pre-Pheidian period. EXTANT MONUMENTS. The principal monuments thus far known are those unearthed at Tello, the ancient Lagash, by the French consul, M. de Sarzec. Almost all of these, including the statues of Gudea and the stele of the Vultures, were taken to the Museum of the Louvre (Paris) : some pieces recently found have gone to Constantinople. The Museum of BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 35 Constantinople has a number of other Babylonian sculptures. The British Museum has a fine collection of small works illustrating the later period, principally boundary stones and slabs, carved with symbols of the gods and astronomical symbols, scenes of adoration, etc. The two most inter- esting pieces are the small sacred relief of the temple of Shamash at Sip- para and the royal stele of King Marduk-iddin-akhi. Some idea of Babylonian sculpture may be gathered from the collections of Babylonian carved gems. The most important of these are in (i) the Metropolitan Museum, New York ; (2) the British Museum ; (3) the col- lection of M. de Clercq, in Paris ; (4) the Museum of the Louvre, Paris ; (5) the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. CHAPTER IV. ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. For illustrations, consult Botta et Flandin, Monuments de Ninive. Layard, Monuments of Nine- veh. Pinches, The Gates of Balawat. Place, Ninive et f As- sy rie. The British Museum series of photographs of sculpture. For text : Babelon, Manual of Oriental Antiquities. Layard, Nineveh and its Remains. Merrill, in Bibliotheca Sacra, April, 1875. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Chaldcea and Assyria. George Smith, Assyrian Discoveries. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS, HISTOEY, RELIGION. During the second millennium B.C., a country had been developing on the north- ern boundary of Babylonia which, after being the dependent and then the rival, finally became the conqueror of the older empire. This was Assyria. The country was a narrow, insig- nificant strip of land, hardly sixty miles in width, between the Tigris and the mountains. Its inhabitants were a hardy and vigorous race who made up in unity what they lacked in num- bers. They were not of mixed race, like the Babylonians, but were pure Shemites. Not until the very close of their history do they show signs of being contaminated by the luxurious life of the Babylonians. In religion they worshipped Asshur as supreme god, and Ishtar was their goddess ; but they followed the example of the Babylonians, and, besides their special patrons, adopted the official Babylonian mythology with its twelve great deities. In the seventeenth century B.C. the rulers of Assyria first took the title of kings ; and in the fifteenth and fourteenth centuries they were in frequent conflict with the Babylonian ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 37 kings. The period of conquest did not begin, however, until the time of Tiglath-pileser I. in the twelfth century, to be renewed on an even grander scale by Assur-nazir-pal in the ninth century, though between the times of these two great FIG. 13. ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL AND ATTENDANT. BRITISH MUSEUM. monarchs the Assyrian empire had relost nearly all its accre- tions. From Assur-nazir-pal 's reign until the fall of Assyria two and a half centuries later, there was an uninterrupted course of conquests. Armenia, the Hittites, Babylonia, Pal- 38 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. estine, Syria, Phoenicia, Egypt, and finally Elam became sub- jects of Nineveh. The Assyrian kings ruled from the Persian Gulf to Asia Minor. Nineveh became the commercial and artistic as well as the political capital of the entire East ; until the unity, so burde'nsome to the subject races, was finally burst asunder by the Babylonians shortly before 600 B.C. The strength of the Assyrians lay in their wonderful polit- ical and social organization, which enabled them to establish securely their hold upon new conquests. We know far more of the Assyrian organization than of the Babylonian. The per- sonality of the king, by a gradual growth, came to overshadow the whole land. He, and not the priests, was the direct intermediary between the gods and the country. He was the favorite, the " firstling," the beloved, of the gods. His per- sonality was blazoned forth in a palace that was his very own, built for him, and made to glorify his reign. Its inscriptions and its sculptures were the official records of his deeds. Imprecations were called down upon any of his successors who either failed to keep his palace in repair or diverted any of its decoration from its purpose. No city in the Oriental world could compare with the Nine- veh of the Sargonid kings as a world metropolis, as a centre of art, industry, and commerce, as a place where works of art were brought from all countries, where colonies of foreign artists settled and worked, and where Assyrian art, with its clearly defined and impressive individuality, could exercise an influence that would be spread over the entire East and be car- ried by the Phoenicians as far as the Greek islands. The Assyrians were not by nature a literary or artistic peo- ple. They appropriated much from the older civilization of Babylonia, upon which they were at first largely dependent. The Assyrian kings established libraries like those which had existed since 4000 B.C. in the Babylonian cities, and caused the contents of the Babylonian libraries to be copied for the use of the Assyrian people. Thus the northern race entered ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 40 into the inheritance of the southerners, and borrowed from their mythology, their literature, and their art. But, while this led at first to almost complete dependence, as soon as the latent qualities of the Assyrians were developed, toward the twelfth century, a civilization radically opposed in many ways to the Babylonian resulted. This is shown very clearly in the polit- ical organization of Assyria. For as strongly as Babylonia stands for local government, just so strongly does Assyria rep- resent centralization. The difference between the two peoples is shown even more clearly in sculpture. SUBJECTS. The Assyrian royal palace, more than the temple, was the shrine of art. Every king wished to build at least one palace that should be a memorial of his reign and perpetuate his name forever. Of the three sections into which the royal palace was always divided state apartments, harem, and ser- vants' quarters the first was more or less thoroughly deco- rated with sculptures in relief throughout the main halls and corridors, and Place calculates that the reliefs in the palace of Sargon at Khorsabad, if placed end to end, would cover a distance of about a mile and a half. In the temples were placed images of the gods. Judging from the bas-reliefs which represent soldiers carrying such images, they appear to have been less than life-size, usually from three to four feet high. Mythological subjects were but seldom represented, except in the seal cylinders. The scenes with which the discoveries of Layard and Place have made us familiar are almost entirely secular and genre subjects. They differ from the corresponding subjects in Egyptian art in not relating to the lives of private individuals, but to the life of the king. His horses are represented led by grooms to water. His private parks are shown stocked with lions and gazelles. He is portrayed as reclining at a banquet, his table being sup- plied by a procession of viand-bearing attendants. He starts out to hunt the lion, the wild ass, or the gazelle, in his char- iot or on his horse, accompanied by soldiers, courtiers, and 4O HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. huntsmen. Sometimes the hunt is open, and at other times great battues are organi?ed and the game surrounded by serried lines of warriors into which the king breaks to bring the hunt ,to a close. Then he returns, his attendants bearing the game. The bodies are laid on the ground and offered to Asshur by the pouring out of a libation. If there is war and conquest, the FIG. 14. RELIEF FROM KHORSABAD. LOUVRE. court sculptor, in true Oriental style, gives all the credit to the royal prowess. The king is the central figure in the march and in the stricken field. The camp is depicted, the groom- ing of horses, the cooking of rations, the establishment of ttes-de-pont, the propitiatory offerings on the march, the set- ting up of commemorative stelae as the army passes along after victory. We see all the details of the attack on a wal)ed city the archers firing from behind skin-covered shields, the sol- ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 4! diers pushing forward a battering-ram and pouring water upon :ts front to prevent it from being fired by the torches cast down oy the besieged, and, in front of the gates, prisoners being impaled to strike terror, while others are led away. In the representations of battle-scenes many successive stages of the conflict are given, even portraying (as in the siege of Susa) the late of the particular leaders. Then follow the submission of the vanquished, the presentation of tribute, the soldiers bring- ing in the heads of slain enemies to be counted. Thus the Assyrian sculptor excelled in telling a story, clearly and with no superfluous details. His work was naturalistic and somewhat narrow in its scope, but it was greatly varied in its detail. The power of observation was cultivated far more than with the Babylonians. And there was a sympathy with animal life that went far to redeem the hardness and rigidity of the style. The lions and lionesses, in repose and action, bounding to the attack or in their last agonies; the fleeing, prancing, kicking wild asses, the horses stretching themselves in fleet course, with quivering nostrils are given with wonder- ful naturalness and artistic sense : they are full of life and of irue plastic simplicity. The reality is so great that one can scientifically identify many breeds of birds and animals from tne sculptures. With plants, trees, and flowers the sculptor nad far less success, as his material was less suited to their representation in the low relief which was his only method of modelling. MATERIALS, METHODS, AND CONVENTIONS. The Assyrians did not employ to any extent diorite or other hard stone for sculp- ture, as did the Babylonians. Such stones were suited more particularly to work in the round, for which the Assyrians did not care. At most they used such material for an occasional commemorative stele or obelisk. Bas-relief was their specialty, and they found excellent material in the alabaster and soft lime- stone quarried from the mountains on their borders. This use of soft material, so easily handled by the sculptor, was not 42 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. without influence both on the quality and quantity of the monu- ments produced. The Assyrian sculptor seemed to revel in the facility with which he could fashion the stone, indulging in the minutest detail work and exaggerating lines, muscular development, and expression. This artistic plasticity and freedom of hand, with which the Assyrian artist appears to have been far more liberally endowed than his Babylonian predecessor, is nowhere more clearly shown than in the terracottas. These were not cast in moulds as with the Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Greeks but executed with free hand in the lump of clay. At other times, when the clay was covered with a glaze, a mould was employed, but the style remained free and bold. Bronze figures were not, apparently, so common as with the Babylonians, but, on the other hand, the working of bronze in relief was carried to a perfection unknown to Babylonia. The hammer, chisel, and burin were used with wonderful skill in the production of bronze doors, plaques, dishes, vases, etc. The delicacy of touch and beauty of detail that distinguished Assyrian artists were also shown in their ivory carvings. Amid Egyptian and Phoenician imported works, so numerous among the finds at Nineveh, the native Assyrian ivories stand out most markedly. They are in precisely the same style as the larger sculptures, but with freer modelling and greater refine- ment of type. The Babylonian custom of using seals and cylinders in all public documents was followed in Assyria, and the character- istics that we find in large sculpture are eoually evident in these small works of the engravers. It is as easy to distin- guish Assyrian from Babylonian work in cut seals as in the larger monuments. We find in them the same sharp outlines, the same precise rendering of details and muscular exaggera- tion, the same symmetry of composition as contrasted with the less artistic grouping of the Babylonian artists. Beside the mass of work in low relief, some few statues in ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 43 the round have been preserved, and a number of statuettes, but they are in themselves proof of the inaptitude of the Assyrian artists to work in the round. It is true that many statues of the gods are mentioned in the texts as existing in the temples, and in the bas-reliefs we see Assyrian soldiers transporting such FIO. 15. CAPTURE OP LACHISH BY SENNACHERIB. BRITISH MUSEUM. divine statues on their shoulders, but sculpture in the round was not the best or the most frequent expression of the Assyr- ian artist. The colossal figures of genii that guarded the city and palace gates were of a type midway between statuary and relief, and they were certainly the most original and impressive works of the school. 44 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. One must not overlook the fact that the Assyrians followed the common Asiatic custom of carving colossal reliefs on the surface of rocks along the course of their expeditions. These were monuments to commemorate treaties or victories, and representing the gods and the king. Such a monument is that at Bavian, of the time of Sennacherib, and another is at Mai- thai". Analogous works were executed by the Elamites and Hittites. As a rule, the sculptor showed remarkable ability in elimi- nating all superfluous elements from the compositions. The figures were always arranged on a single plane, except where two figures were shown standing side by side, one imme- diately behind the other. When an action was depicted which, like the drawing of a colossus on rollers, necessitated the deployment of several lines of men, the lines were placed one over the other in profile, their grouping being in plan. So, if it was desired to show soldiers mounting a hillside, they were carved in profile ascending along a section of the hill marked by a line drawn along its surface, upon which the soldiers stepped. The figure was represented quite perfectly in profile, and here we see marked superiority to the Babylonian school, but. on the other hand, we find no examples of the use of the full face, which was by no means unknown to the Babylonians. The sculptor employed but a single type of face that of the Shemitic Assyrians 'its only variant being a reproduction of the cognate Jewish type. The master sculptors appear to have executed models on a small scale both in terracotta and in stone, which were after- ward used by the workmen to whom the bulk of the execution was confided. The production of bas-reliefs was so immense, at the time of the construction of any royal palace, that some such method as this was required in order to insure uniformity of style and type in the different parts. Color was quite an important element in the effect. The hair, eyes, and drapery ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 45 were generally brightened with it, and it is probable that this peculiarity passed from the Assyrians to the Greeks, who suc- ceeded them in the perfect mastery of relief sculpture. The sculptors were, so to speak, a part of the organization of the state, and their work was an official act. They were not only employed in temples and palaces, but accompanied the army on its campaigns to carve memorials of its victories on the nearest cliff or to erect obelisk-like stelae carved with images of the king and the figures or symbols of the great gods, and sometimes, even, scenes from the campaign. HISTORY, There is less variety of style in Assyrian than in Babylonian sculpture. There seems to have been but one school, one technique, one style. And yet it is possible to distinguish at least two periods of production; one from the beginning up to the reign of Sargon, the other from Sennach- erib to the fall of Nineveh. One of the earliest pieces of Assyrian sculpture is a nude female figure of a goddess in the British Museum, with an inscription of King Assur-bel-Kala, which reproduces so perfectly a well-known type on the Baby- lonian seal cylinders that it would lead one to conjecture that in the twelfth century, when Assyria was in the course of establishing an autonomous civilization, she had not yet broken loose from an imitation of Babylonian work. At the same time, the few remains of the reign of Tiglath-pileser I. prove that at this date (circa 1120) the Assyrian artists had formed their style. We know nothing of the development of Assyrian sculpture during the following centuries. The next monuments in date are those of the reign of Assur-nazir-pal (885-860) which constitute one of the greatest series known, and are the most impressive and grand of all the Assyrian work. The artists had reached their apogee in the reliefs from the royal palace at Kalah. The figures are large, and the story is told simply and clearly. There are no backgrounds of scenery, no elaborate attempts at establishing different planes in the same relief. The carved marble dado along the palace halls has but 46 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. a single row of figures. The relief is exceedingly low, but the muscularity and the features are strongly accentuated. The desire to tell the story clearly is so predominant as often to lead the sculptor to carve the historic inscriptions straight across the reliefs which illustrate them, much to the detriment of artistic effect. It was at this period that the colossal genii that flanked the palace gates, the lions, and the man-headed bulls were executed with greatest power. The same style was followed under Assur-nazir-pal's successors. There remain two remarkable monuments of the reign of his son Shalmaneser II., a basalt obelisk found at Nimroud and the bronze gates to FIG. l6. ASSUR-BANI-PAL STABBING A LION. BRITISH MUSEUM. a palace which he built at Balawat. The few sculptures from that date to the reign of Tiglath-pileser II. (745-727) con- tinue the traditions of the previous century. With Sargon (722-705) comes the decadence of the grand, epic style. The figures are less lifelike, the relief is higher, but character and sharpness are lost instead of gained by a softer gradation of the surfaces. The inscriptions no longer cross the reliefs, and occasionally an attempt is made to intro- duce picturesque accessories into the background. Sennach- erib, his immediate successor (705-681), inaugurated a new artistic ideal ; and the art of his time aims at being pictu- resque, varied, lifelike, and dramatic. We find scenery and ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 47 accessories, a multitude of small figures, a detailed representa- tion of incident. The stone dado is carved in several super- posed lines of relief, so that the processions of impressive large figures are lost. But the change of style seems unfortu- nate, and the effect is confused. The artists of a later king, Assur-bani-pal (668), the last great patron of art, showed better insight. They returned in part to the old simple style, with greater delicacy of treatment and higher finish. In composi- tions, such as battle-pieces, they retained the style of Sennach- erib, but succeeded better in being dramatic, and in portray- ing scenes full of a multitude of small figures without lapsing into confusion. Such are some of the hunting and garden scenes. On the other hand, in the battle-pieces, like that of the defeat of the Elamites at Susa, the artist has not succeeded wholly in avoiding the confused compositions characteristic of the reliefs of Sennacherib. EXTANT REMAINS. Rock-cut sculptures of Tiglath-pileser I., at Korkhar (N. of Diarbekr) ; of Sennacherib at Bavlan (N.N.E. of Mosul); of Essarhaddon and other kings near the Nahr-el-kelb in Phoenicia (near Beyrouth) ; of a Sargonid king at Malthai (N. of Mosul). The British Museum contains the results of Layard's excavations, especially the numer- ous series of reliefs of Assur-nazir-pal and Assur-bani-pal, and less im- portant series of Tiglath-pileser III. and Sennacherib, the obelisks of Assur-nazir-pal and Shalmaneser II., and the latter's bronze gates. The Museum of the Louvre is especially rich in the- series of Sargon reliefs found in this king's palace by Place. There are small collections of reliefs at the Vatican Museum, at the Historical Society in New York, at Amherst College, etc. The British Museum is especially rich in remains of industrial art of all kinds, while Assyrian seals and cylinders are numer- ous, not only there and at the Louvre, but also in the collections men- tioned on p. 35 as being rich in Babylonian carved gems. CHAPTER V. ^ PERSIAN SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Coste et Flandin, Voyage in Perse. Dieulafoy, L'Art Antique de la Perse; L'Acropole de Suse. Lenormant, Histoire Ancienne de I'Orient. Noldeke, Per- sepolis, Die Achaemenischen und Sassanidischen Denkmaler, with photographs by F. Stolze. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Persia, Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World. Texier, Description de I'Arm^nie, de la Perse et de la Mesopotamie. THE ELAMITES. The Elamite kingdom, with its capital at Susa, rivalled in antiquity the civilization of Babylonia. In fact, for a certain period in the third millennium B.C., it held a large part of Babylonia under its dominion. We know from documentary evidence that the Elamites practised sculpture, but, as no excavations have been undertaken as yet that would disclose their monuments, we can judge of their style merely from a few rock-cut sculptures. The kingdom was destroyed, shortly before 650 R.C., by the Assyrian king Assur-bani-pal, and the country afterwards became a province of the Persian empire, distinguishing itself in art from Persia proper by a stricter adherence to Assyrian and Babylonian traditions, as has been shown by the interesting discoveries made by M. Dieulafoy at Susa, where the use of enamelled bricks for relief sculpture prevailed over stone. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE AND ART. The Persian civilization arose, at the close of the sixth century, upon the ruins of the Babylonian and Assyrian powers, and it inherited their artistic style, which was at first the predominant element in the devel- PERSIAN SCULPTURE. 49 opment of the different branches of art throughout the empire. This element was, however, speedily tempered by the introduc- tion of two strong influences; that of Egypt after its conquest by Cambyses, and that of Greece after the Persian contact with the Greek cities of Asia Minor. In sculpture, however, the Assyro-Babylonian style was at first preserved in almost its original purity. Some subjects, such as the human-headed bulls and the king fighting monsters, FIG. 17. LION ATTACKING A BULL. APADANA OF XERXES. PERSEI'OLIS. were treated so much in the same style that they appear to be almost copies. The main difference lay in the greater round- ness of Persian technique, in its loss of the force and directness of Assyrian art, in the lack of vitality and expression in the figures, and in the narrowness of the range of subjects all of which are qualities that might be expected in an art that was not original but derived. At the same time, there was often visible a trace of archaic Greek influence, especially in the treatment of drapery and in the decoration. As in Assyria, the relief was the favorite form of sculpture, and it was also 5O HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. in connection with the royal palaces that the great masses of sculpture were employed. The new form of the Persian pal- aces made the arrangement of the sculptures somewhat differ- ent from that in the Assyrian royal residences, and there was not the same opportunity for continuous friezes and for variety of subjects. Reliefs decorated both sides of the main stair- way ascending to the palace. The entrances were flanked, as in Assyria, by colossal winged bulls. The Apadana, or main hall, of the Persian palace, which, with its many rows of col- umns, was quite an innovation in the East, was decorated with the reliefs of the king and his attendants. The reliefs were not upon slabs used as a facing for brick walls, as in Assyria, or for detached decoration, as often in Babylon, but were carved in the stone used in the construction itself, in the limestone sub-structures of the palace platforms and the faces of the limestone portals. No full-sized statues in the round are known to have existed. HISTORY, SUBJECTS, METHODS. Persian sculpture flourished little over a century, consequently it has but little history and varies only slightly during the course of its development. We notice toward the close the increased influence of Greek ar- tists from Thessaly or from Asia Minor. The earliest sculpture known is that of the winged figure of King Cyrus, standing in an attitude of adoration, carved over a door jamb at Pasar- gadae, and dating probably from the first years of Darius. The largest series of sculptures thus far discovered is that of the palace of Darius at Persepolis. The subject of these sculp- tures is the glorification of the king. All the figures are rep- resented as directing their steps toward a central point. A double procession, on either side of the stairway, mounts the steps, and there is another procession higher up on the inner faces of the doorframes. These are the subject-peoples bring- ing to the king their gifts and tributes horses, wild asses, camels, rich stuffs, rare products, objects in precious metals; and these figures are passing through the long array of life- PERSIAN SCULPTURE. 51 guards, officers, and courtiers, the Medes in flowing garments and the Persians in tight-fitting dress. Further on we see the king, either enthroned on his high platform supported by caryatid-like figures of the conquered nations, or walking under a sunshade, or plunging a dagger into some wild beast who represents the foes of his majesty. The range of Persian sculpture was the glorification of the FIG. 18. BULL-HEAD CAPITAL. PALACE OF ARTAXERXES AT SUSA. LOUVRE. king in one great composition. In the rock-cut relief of the royal tombs the same subject was repeated in a simplified form. There was no variety, as in Assyrian art, either in subject or in treatment. As no distinct event, but only a symbolic rep- resentation, was given, the scene had an air of unreality. At the same time, it had distinct merits. For the first time Oriental sculpture attempted to give the soft texture of dra- 52 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. pery and imitated its natural folds, and here we trace dis- tinctly the influence of archaic Ionic Greek sculpture. There was also a distinct advance in the ability to bring sculpture into its proper relationship to architecture. Instead of scat- tering scenes broadcast over the surface, as in Egypt, in fine disregard of any distinctive grouping or subordination; instead of using sculpture as an art connected with architectural struct- ure, as in Assyria, the Persians showed some of the Greek con- ception of the harmonious relationship possible between the two arts. Thus, the processions carved on the sides of the staircases followed the natural architectural outlines, as was the case later with the stairway at Pergamon, and the faces of the limestone portals were used for reliefs, like the inner sides of the Roman triumphal arches. But this peculiar merit was shown especially in the use of sculpture for distinctly archi- tectural decoration. The colossal bull-capitals at Persepolis and Susa were masterpieces. The treatment of the bulls in these works was the greatest triumph of Persian sculpture, for naturalism, technique, and spirit. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Casts of a number of the sculptures of Per- sepolis have recently been made for the South Kensington (London) and Metropolitan (New York) Museums. Aside from the great capital from Susa, in the Louvre, there are no important pieces of Persian sculpture in vVestern museums. CHAPTER VI. HITTITE SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Earth, Reise von Trapezunt. De Cara, Gli Hethei-Pelasgi. Hirschfeld, Paphlagonische Felsen- grdber ; Die Felsenreliefs in Kleinasien und das Volk der Hittiter. Humann und Puchstein, Reisen in Kleinasien und Nordsyrien. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Sardinia, Jud&a, Syria, and Asia Minor. Perrot et Guillaume, Ex- ploration Arche"ologique de la Galatie et de la Bithynie. Puch- stein, Pseudohethitische Kunst. Ramsay, Articles in Journal of Hellenic Studies ; " Early Historical Relations of Phrygia and Cappadocia," in Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XV. Sayce, in publications of the Society of Biblical Archae- ology. Texier, Description de /' ' Asie Mineure. Ward and Frothingham, in American Journal of Archeology, 1888-89. Wright, The Empire of the Hittites. THE HITTITE KINGDOM. Under the general term of Hittite we group the sculptures produced in the north of Syria and in a large part of Asia Minor, especially in that part adjacent to the Assyrian frontier and in Cappadocia. The Hittites were for many centuries the dominant element in a group of tribes in this region, and formed a state that often withstood successfully such great powers as Egypt and Assyria. Their racial affinities and their language are still a mystery, and, until we can read their inscriptions, we can know but little of their history and culture. Carchemish on the Euphrates, Kadesh and Hamath on the Orontes, are the cities of which we read in Egyptian and Assyrian annals. Around them the wars were waged, and they are more familiar to us than the Hittite cities of Asia Minor. The centre from which the Hittites 54 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. started in their career of conquest was the northeast of Syria and Armenia, and they gradually subdued the populations of a large part of Asia Minor and the Rutennu tribes of central Syria, finally transmitting the culture of Babylonia to the ^Egean and standing by the side of the Phoenicians in acting as a link between the East and the West. HISTORY AND STYLES. As far as we can judge, the period during which Hittite civilization and art flourished covers some seven or eight centuries, from the time when the Hittites became formidable to Egypt under Seti I. (fifteenth century), until the year 717, when the last of the Hittite states, that of. Carchemish, was conquered by Sargon of Assyria. Perhaps the Hittite state of Pteria in Cappadocia was the last survivor of their power, not coming to an end until Croesus brought destruction upon their great fortified capital on the approach of Cyrus. The primitive source of much that was radical and important in early Hittite culture was Babylonia. When that great southern empire held sway as far as Syria and Armenia, it impregnated with its mythology, its legends, and its art the populations of the mountainous plateaux of Armenia ; and when the various tribes which we include under the name of Hittites started on their career of conquest they carried with them these ideas, profoundly modified by native traits, to the less civilized populations of Asia Minor and the Jigean. Perhaps there is some truth in the legends that Tiryns and Mykenai were founded by emigrant princes from Asia Minor. We may conjecture that the Hittites afterwards felt the influence of Egypt, and we know that the cuneiform system of writing, as well as their own hieroglyphics, were known to them. At the close of their civilization Assyrian art asserted its supremacy over the Hittites even before their cities were brought under the dominion of the Assyrian kings. This is proved by the late German excavations at Sendjirli. Contemporary records would seem to prove that the Hittites HITTITE SCULPTURE. 55 were very skilful in the use of metals for sculpture, and were renowned for the production of gold and silver vessels. But the only sculptures that have been preserved, beyond a certain number of carved gems, are the reliefs cut in the natural rock FIG. 19. HITTITE KELIEF AT CARCHEMISH-JERABLUS. or carved on slabs of stone and marble used for lining the walls of Hittite palaces. In style these sculptures form a class somewhat apart from the plastic development of Western Asia. While Babylonian, Asiatic, and Persian sculpture developed on the same general lines, each merely a different 56 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. phase of the same style, Hittite sculpture has very marked racial characteristics. This is especially the case with the monuments in Asia Minor, for those of Syria show strong traces of both Babylonian and Assyrian influence. As a class these sculptures certainly cannot be later than the close of the eighth century B.C. nor earlier than the thirteenth or fourteenth century B.C., and of these the Assyrian examples appear to be the latest in date. TYPES AND METHODS. There are certain characteristics that can be applied to the style as a whole. The figures are thick- set and usually with prominent noses and large eyes ; they wear shoes with turned-up points, and usually on their heads high conical caps or diadems, though in many cases the female fig- ures merely have their heads draped in a garment which descends over their shoulders. There is a lack of detail, of life, and of animation, and where, as in some cases, the artist has attempted to use detail he shows his lack of artistic abil- ity. In general the work is extremely mechanical, and quite lacking in any of the qualities of high art that characterize Assyrian work of the same period. Again, there are certain general follow) rigs of Assyria, such as in the arrangement of the palaces, in the use of colossal figures of genii at the entrances, in the lining of the lower part of the walls of the interiors with bas-reliefs. There was, however, a far more abundant use of sculpture carved in the natural rock in long processions of divinities, genii, priests, and male and female worshippers. Besides such processional series, we find two or three subjects in very frequent use, espe- cially in Hittite monuments of Syria. These are the hunting scenes copied from those of Assyria ; the scene with two female figures of religious import seated on either side of a sacri- ficial table ; and single figures of gods and goddesses and of priests and worshippers. AET HISTORY. Hittite art was never wholly original : at the same time it was far more so than the art of the Phoenicians, HITTITE SCULPTURE. 57 and showed an ability to assimilate foreign elements. It may even be possible that Assyria reversed matters by borrowing from it something in the arrangement of its palaces. The great similarity makes one original necessary, and this original in its general features was probably the Babylonian palace; though in the text of Sargon's inscription in which he describes the construction of his great palace, excavated by Place at Khorsabad, it is expressly stated that its entrance was con- structed on the plan of a Hittite palace. At Boghaz-Keui, evidently the capital of Pteria, there is a great sanctuary called lasili-Kaia, not far from the fortified FIG. 20. HITTITE RELIEF FROM SAKTCHE-GOZO'. city, in the form of an open-air temple among the rocks. There is a long corridor-like space for the gathering of the people, connected by a narrow passage with a smaller adyton, to which the priests alone must have had entrance. The faces of the rocks in both open halls are used for sculptures in low relief. In the main hall are two parallel processions occupying the right and left walls and meeting on the short cross-wall at the end. On the left are forty-five figures, all of them men, while the twenty-two figures on the right side, with one exception, are all women. They represent the male and female deities of the Pterians, with their priests and worship- pers. Single figures of deities and priests are in the inner HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. sanctuary. The figures are in many cases more slender and graceful than any other works of Hittite art, and in some cases show imaginative and symbolic power. The mound of Sendjirli, recently excavated by the Ger- mans, is but one of over a hundred artificial circular mounds in Northern Syria, in each of which lies buried a town or city, with its double or triple circuit of fortified walls studded with towers and monumental gates, and with its walled citadel within which are the royal palaces. Three periods of Syrian or Hittite art and history have been here brought to light : (i) The early period before the ninth or eighth century, a time of independence in politics and in art, though even then we trace a correspondence to Assyrian work; (2) the period of the eighth and part of the ninth century, one of vassal- age to Assyria and imi- tation of Assyrian art by native artists ; (3) the seventh century, when the local kinglets were replaced by Assyrian governors and artists either trained in the Assyrian school or themselves Assyrians working in the city. The city of Sendjirli seems to have been destroyed, never to be rebuilt, as early as the sixth century. The sculptures of the gates of both city and citadel belong to the first of these three periods. The citadel gate FIG. 21. HITTITE RELIEF AT BOGHAZ-KEUI. HITTITE SCULPTURE. 59 was decorated with a dado of sculptured slabs containing some forty figures, mostly belonging to one grand royal hunting scene, with lions, bulls, deer, hare, and other wild animals the continuity of the subject being broken merely by the figures of the protecting genii. The principal decoration of the city gates are pairs of colossal guardian lions, one of which was recarved in order to make it more Assyrian in style. There are many other examples of this style of sculpture in this region of Syria, especially at Carchemish, where the Assyrian influence exercised an especially refining influence upon the native style. More crude, and less dependent on Assyria, is a group of monuments from Marash and Rum Qalah. EXTANT REMAINS. Only a few Hittite sculptures have been removed to Western museums. A few pieces, especially from Carchemish and Biredjik, have gone to the British Museum. Others, beginning with the Marash lions, have gone to Constantinople. The most important ac- cession to the Berlin Museum has been that of the Sendjirli sculptures. The sites in Syria where the most interesting sculptures have been found are Marash, Hamath. Carchemish, Saktche-gozti, Rum Qalah, and, espe- cially, Sendjirli. In Cappadocia are the rock-cut sculptures of lasili-Kaia, the lions of Boghaz-Keui, and the reliefs and sphinxes of Euyuk. There are rock-sculptures with Hittite hieroglyphs, or in the Hittite style, scattered over a large part of Asia Minor, especially in the inland prov- inces : for example, in Phrygia at Giaour- Kalessi, in Lycaonia at Ibreez and Eflatoun-Bounar ; in Lydia at Nymphi, or Karabel, and Mt. Sipylos. CHAPTER VII. PHOENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. A. P. Di Cesnola, Cyprus Antiqui- ties ; Salaminia. L. P. Di Cesnola, A Descriptive Atlas of the Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities ; Cyprus, its Cities, Tombs, and Temples. Colonna Ceccaldi, Monuments Antiques de Chypre, fie Syrie et d' Agypte. Heuzey, Catalogue des Figu- rines Antiques de Terre Cuite du Muse'e du Loiivre. Holwerda, Die alien Kyprier in Kunst und Cultus. Metropolitan Museum Handbook No. 3, Sculptures of the Cesnola Collection. Ohne- falsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible and Homer. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Phoenicia and Cyprus. Reinacl-, Chronique d' Orient in Revue Arche'ologique. HISTORY. The principal intermediaries between the civili- sation of the East and that of the West were the Phoenicians. In its physical characteristics, the land that was once called Phoenicia is quite unique. Its narrow band of coast, that stretches between the Mediterranean and the slopes of the Lebanon, is so often interrupted by the extension of the mountains to the sea line that the ancient cities of Phoenicia had no communication by land, but were a series of detached ports, each one a centre of municipal life an aristocratic republic. The geographical form of their existence precluded any close union even in the stress of greatest danger. Conse- quently, a common style of art or of industry could hardly be expected. Again, the population of the Phoenician cities was so small and variable, so little given to home-staying, so taken up with life at sea, that no great monuments of art, such as were created by the great Eastern civilizations, were PHCENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE. 6l possible to them. It was entirely in the commercial spirit that works of art were produced by the Phoenicians. They were executed not for home use, but for sale and barter, and conse- quently there was every reason why the style of their execu- tion should have been, as it was, imitated from that of their more powerful neighbors who had developed a monumental art. We have no traces of monuments belonging to the early period of Phoenician his- tory. There are none of the second age that of the supremacy of Sidon. It is only after Tyre had wrested from her older friend and neighbor the supremacy of the sea (circa 1000-900 B.C.), that we begin to fi n d traces of Phoenician art monuments the dates of which are more or less certain. Before this period, Sidon had occu- pied the islands of Cyprus and Crete, had establish- ments in Rhodes, the Sporades, and the Cyc- lades, in Thera, Melos, Thasos, and Cythera, and had established relations with the mainland of Greece. In Africa it had built several cities, especially Utica, and had marts in Malta and Gozo. We may attribute to the Sidonian merchants the earliest traces of Oriental artistic influence in Greek lands during this FIG. 22. PHCENICIAN HEAD FROM ATHIENO. METROPOLITAN MUSRUM, NEW YORK. 62 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. period, the influence of Egypt being then supreme with the Phoenicians. Tyre was far more enterprising than Sidon; she carried her commerce very much further, occupied Sardinia and Spain, and established many important colonies in Africa, of which the greatest was Carthage. Until the middle of the eighth century the maritime supremacy of Tyre was not disputed. Then it began to be opposed, and in many cases superseded by the navies of the Greeks and the Etruscans. From that time, therefore, the influence of Tyre was on the wane. While this was going on, Carthage was building up an important empire. She alone of all Phoenician cities undertook a policy of set- tled conquest the ruling of a large territory, the permanent establishment of a trained army. When Tyre let fall the sceptre of the sea, the many Phoenician colonies scattered along both basins of the Mediterranean naturally turned to Carthage for help. Then began that memorable contest between Carthage on the one hand and the Greeks, and after them the Romans, on the other, which ended only in the third century B.C. with the downfall of Carthage. The three great names that are significant, therefore, in the development of Phoenician art and in the history of the Phoe- nicians as intermediaries between the East and the West are Sidon, Tyre, and Carthage. To these we may add a fourth, Cyprus. While in Cyprus the Phoenician and native art came in contact with the Greeks in a way elsewhere unknown, the importance of Carthage was especially great for the influence of Greece and the Orient upon Italy. Italian trade remained largely in the hands of the Carthaginians, and the contents of the Etruscan tombs of the sixth, fifth, and fourth centuries are ample proof of the fact that the Carthaginians did not dis- dain to convey to Italy not only Oriental wares, but also the products of their natural enemies the Greeks. After the sub- jection of Carthage the Phoenicians, not only of Africa but of Syria, came under Roman influence, and the great bulk of PHOENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE. their monuments that are now remaining such as the votive stelae belong to the centuries of Roman rule. In them we still see lingering something of the Oriental spirit, but the dominating style of art is as thoroughly Roman as in the old days it was Persian, Assyr- ian, Egyptian, or Babylonian. MATERIALS AND METHODS. The Phoenician coast did not afford any favorable stone or marble for the use of sculpture. The local stone was far inferior to the corresponding material used by the Egyptian and As- syrian artists, and when a very choice work was to be executed the material was imported from Egypt. In the sixth century importation of marble from Greece commenced, and after that period was quite frequently used. But the sculptures in stone, such as the anthropoid sarcophagi, statues of gods, the stelae, and architectural deco- rations, form a very incomplete series, and one that does not represent at all continuously the history Of Phoenician SCulp- FIG . 23 . CYPRIOTE STATUE IN THE AS- ture. The history is represented SVKIAN STVLE - METROPOLITAN MU- SEUM, NEW YORK. much better by small sculp- tures in bronze and in terracotta. Phoenician monuments in these two materials are found in almost every country where the Phoenicians had settlements or commercial relations. The 64 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. main centres, however, were Syria, Cyprus, and Sardinia. The bronzes were generally of a very crude type, poor in execu- tion, and were in the style which was imitated very largely throughout the mainland of western and northern Asia. The most common figure reproduced was that of a standing war- rior. If the Phoenicians were comparatively unsuccessful in the casting of metal, they excelled in the engraving and ham- mering in relief of various metals, a branch of industrial art in which they produced many exquisite works, especially the bowls and platters of silver and bronze in the manufacture of which they had a monopoly throughout the East. Analogous to this work was that of the great shields in bronze, whose design in circular bands was very similar to that of the bowls, and brings Phoenicia into closest relation with early Greek art, as, for example, the Corinthian school of vase painting. In the making of terracotta figures the Phoenicians bor- rowed both from Assyria and Egypt, taking from the former the idea of painting terracotta figurines, and from Egypt the idea of faience figures, showing a sandy frit covered with enamels of different colors. This glazed earthenware was used, however, more largely for decorations than for figures. At an early date, when Assyrian influence was predominant, the Phoenician artists used ivory with great skill as a material for reliefs in the decoration and manufacture of large and small objects, such as thrones, door-panels, caskets, perfume- boxes, and small statuettes. TYPES AND SUBJECTS. The types and subjects that were the peculiar creation of Phoenician art were very few. The Phoe- nician gods, the Baals, the Molochs, the Astartes, the type of the dwarf Herakles, were more or less purely native products, because they were connected with the original worship of the people. But in many cases, as the Phoenicians adopted the worship of the gods of different countries, they also adopted their artistic type. In the elaborate scenes that are often por- trayed upon such works as the silver bowls, we find jt often PHOENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE. difficult to ascertain the nature of the subject. The theme frequently seems to be used merely for a decorative purpose, without any regard to the significance ; and in some instances it is made up of elements borrowed from different sources. The Phoenicians appear to have been the first civilized na- tion to employ figured compositions, primarily not for the sake of their significance, but purely as decorative material pleas- ing to the eye and leading to a readier sale. CYPBIOTE SCULPTURE. It is usual to treat Cypriote sculpture as a branch of Phoenician art, and yet it forms a very distinct class, having but slight connec- tion with what we know of various branches of Phoe- nician art. Cypriote sculpture has far closer analogy than Phoenician with the development of the art in Kgypt and As- syria on the one hand and in Greece on the other. In contrast to the products of Phoenician industry, its works were executed for the island itself, and not for export and sale. It therefore developed the monumental side of sculpture instead of the industrial, and the greater part of its produc- FIG. 24. CYPRIOTE STATUE IN THK EGYPTIAN STYLE. METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, NEW YORK. 66 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. tions were executed in the round. The Cypriote artist used stone in preference to any other material, and in this also he varied from his Phoenician brother. The art showed great activity between the seventh and the third centuries B.C., and proofs of the immense production of its artists can be seen in many museums, especially at New York, in the British Museum, the Louvre, and at Berlin. The population of Cyprus was of a mixed character, in part Asiatic and in part Greek. Constant communication was maintained with both the East and the West by means of the Phoenicians, who had important stations on the island. The Cypriote civilization was therefore called upon to combine, in a way perhaps unique in history, the elements of Oriental and Greek culture. The earliest sculptures thus far discovered are influenced very strongly by Assyrian models, and yet it is evi- dent that this influence is not directly through the study of original Assyrian work, but indirectly through the medium of Phoenician copies. 'Ihe fundamental Oriental influence upon Cyprus was always that of Egypt. Assyria merely touched the surface. The analogies to Assyria in the early works lie mainly in the profile and form of the face, in the long beard and pointed cap. Even in these works we find no trace of the vigorous modelling of the Assyrians, their strong muscular development, their love of detail. At the close of the seventh century or the beginning of the sixth, the Egyptian influence superseded the Assyrian and lasted until it was replaced by the influence of the Greeks. This Egyptian influence showed itself in tfie attitude of the figure, in the clinging character of the drapery, in the head-dress, in the drapery about the waist, and the designs upon it borrowed from Egyptian monuments. There follows, in the fifth century, a Graeco-Cypriote style. For a long time it was thought that Cypriote sculpture served as a model and an example to archaic Greek sculpture ; but, now that the origin of archaic Greek art has been pushed back into the seventh century, before Cyprus had produced any PHOENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE. 6/ works that could have served as models for Greek sculpture as we know it, it is evident that the influence was of Greece upon Cyprus. The resemblance between Greek and Cypriote sculp- ture during the course of the fifth century was far closer than between the earlier Cypriote examples and the Oriental works that influenced them. Cypriote statues of this period had great analogy to works of the Ionic school, with greater soft- ness and heaviness of proportion. The figures often have the same archaic smile that we see in the figures on the Acropolis at Athens and the sculptures of ^Egina. The statues were usually of life size or slightly larger, and generally represented the divinities worshipped on the Island of Cyprus, such as Aphrodite, Herakles, etc. Relief sculp- ture was practised with considerable skill, both in high and low relief; but sculpture in the round was a more favorite branch of art. Some of the stone sarcophagi in the Metropoli- tan Museum are among the finest works of the school. One of these a sarcophagus from Amathous shows an interesting combination of Greek with Egyptian and Assyrian art, while a bas-relief representing Herakles and Eurytion, although it treats of a Greek subject, does so in a style almost purely Assyrian. EXTANT MONUMENTS. The largest collection of Cypriote sculpture the Cesnola collection is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. The Louvre possesses many works of the Carthaginian (African) and Tyrian (Asiatic) schools, as well as some Cypriote sculpture, of which there are also examples in Berlin. Works of Phoenician industrial art are frequent in the museums of Italy, the British Museum, etc. The collections estab- lished by the French in Algeria and Tunisia are rapidly assuming impor- tance. CHAPTER VIII. GREEK SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Consult the General Bibliography ; also, Bliimner, Technologic und Terminologie der Gewerbe und Kunste bei Griechen und Romern. Brunn, Geschichte der grie- chischen Kiinstier ; Denkmdler griechischer und romischer Sculp- tur. Collignon, Histoire de la Sculpture Grecque ; A Manual of Greek Archceology ; Manual of Mythology in Relation to Greek Art. Dumont et Chaplain, Les Ce'ramiques de la Grece propre. E. A. Gardner, A Handbook of Greek Sculpture. P. Gardner, Types of Greek Coins. Heuzey, Les Figurines antiques de Terre cuite du Louvre. Jones, Ancient Writers on Greek Sculpture. Kekule, Die antiken Terracotten. Loewy, Insch riften gnechischer Bildhauer. A. S. Murray, A History of Greek Sculpture ; Hand- book of Greek Archceologv. Overbeck, Geschichte der griechischen Plastik ; Die antiken Schriftquellen. Perry, Greek and Roman Sculpture. Reinach, Repertoire de la Statuaire Grecque et Romaine. CATALOGUES OF MUSEUMS. Athens (Kawadias). Boston (Robinson). Berlin Museum (Conze) ; cast catalogue (Fried- rich-Wolters). British Museum (Smith). Hermitage (Guede- now). Louvre (Froehner). Munich Glyptothek (Brunn). Roman Museums (Helbig). JOURNALS. Antike Denkmdler des k. d. arcJmologischen In- stituts. Bulletin de Correspondance Helle'nique. Jahrbuch des k. d. arch. Inst. Journal of Hellenic Studies. Mittheilungen des k. d. arch. Inst. Athenische Abtheilung. Mittheilungen des k. d. arch. Inst. Romische Abtheilung. Revue Arche"ologique. DICTIONARIES. Baumeister, Denkmdler des klassischen Alter- tums. Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire des Antiquite's Grecque s et Romaines. Iwan Mliller, Handbuch der klassischen Altertums- Wissenschaft. Roscher, Ausfiihrliches Lexikon der griechischen und romischen Mythologie. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities ; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. Ancient Hellas signified any country where the Greeks lived. It comprised not merely the country GREEK SCULPTURE. 69 now called Greece, but also an insular Greece, consisting of the islands of the ^gean and Ionian Seas; an eastern, or Asiatic Greece, with important cities on the coast of Asia Minor, and extending under Alexander as far east as modern India ; an African Greece, with cities in Egypt and on the north coast of Africa : gg- ~ - " ." - - Hj^^HMHBMU and an occidental Kh i a^^tm^Uf Greece, with col- onies in South- ern Italy, Sicily, France , and Spain. This dis- continuity of country tended to produce a diver- sity of interests and character, but the sea was to the Greeks a bond of union. It was their Nile, their Tigris and Eu- phrates. Greece proper is characterized by its diversity of landscape and cli- mate . It has many mountains, rivers, and plains. Its inhabitants . . . KK;. 25. LION GATE AT MVKENAI. lived, therefore, under changeable conditions, and had to adapt themselves to summer heat and winter cold. The clear atmosphere permitted the sharply cut features of the landscape to be seen from long 7O HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. distances. Thus the very configuration of the country was a constant object-lesson in clean-cut forms, and it would be strange indeed if, sooner or later, it had not influenced in part the sculptural sense and the plastic mind of its inhabitants. SOCIAL CONDITIONS. The history of the Greek world exhib- its a lack of continuity similar to that of the land itself. Though springing apparently from the same parent stock, tribal distinctions divided the race. This appears to have been the case in the prehistoric period as well as in later times. That this original stock was Aryan cannot be posi- tively determined by the monuments. A Shemitic and Egyp- tian impress is apparent upon the earliest Gr^ek art, but from what source springs its independent creative energy is still unrevealed by monumental evidence. Language, mythology, and comparative politics, however, assign to the Greeks an Aryan ancestry. Geographical conditions led naturally to decentralized forms of government. We find, accordingly, a number of small cities or commonwealths instead of a large, central capital ; local rulers instead of a universal monarch ; government by aristocratic councils and popular assemblies rather than by a king. The Greek idea fostered local independence and indi- vidual freedom. As a consequence of such a system of gov- ernment, the artistic energies of the people were stimulated by a healthy rivalry. The temples and other monuments were widely diffused, and local schools of art became established at an early period. Religion was a factor of prime importance in determining the character of Greek sculpture. Originally a. worship of the powers of nature, it became under Greek mytho- poetic fancy a complicated system of polytheism. It contained a supreme divinity, but his functions were limited by the existence of other aristocratic divinities and a larger assembly of inferior gods. Below these were the heroes, of semi-human and semi- divine origin. Greek poetry had long stimulated and fostered GREEK SCULPTURE. these supernatural beliefs. So the sculptor was provided with ideal themes and legends, the common possession and inspi- ration of his race. Though separated from each other in a measure by geographical barriers, the Greeks were united not merely by the hereditary bonds of a common ancestry, but by a common warfare against their enemies and by common interests in times of peace. The memorable victories over the Persians effectually preserved Greece from be- coming an Oriental province. In the wake of these wars followed a period of unparalleled artistic activity. The festivals and games, espe- cially the Olympic games, constituted another strong bond of union. Nor was Greek commerce the least im- portant factor in determining the di- rection of artistic forms. The early intercourse of the Greeks with Egypt brought them many impressions which became indelibly stamped upon their architecture, sculpture, and painting. Their long and often intimate association with the Phoe- nicians brought Babylon and Assyria to their doors, while their cities in Asia Minor received secondary in- fluences of a similar character. SUBJECTS. The themes of Greek sculpture were not limited to any one phase of local life. They were religious, civic, domestic, sepulchral, according to the demand. FIG. 26. APOLLO OK TENEA. MUNICH. 72 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. By far the largest and most important class of Greek sculp- ture was of a religious character, and more or less closely con- nected with the temple. Within the temple was the image of the divinity. In the earliest times these images were mere symbols, shapeless stones supposed to have fallen from heaven, or masses of wood or stone hewn in some geometric shape, such as a pillar, column, or pyramid. Even before they assumed hu- man form, these idols were robed, crowned with garlands, and treated as personal beings. Gradually the symbolic stage dis- appeared, and the gods were fashioned in the likeness of man. Sometimes they, were of colossal stature or constructed of costly materials. Other statues, also of a votive character, were placed within and without the temple. These were statues of priests and priestesses or unofficial individuals. Besides statues, there were offered to the gods tripods, vases, images of sacred ani- mals, armor, jewelry, and other objects of a sculptural character. The sculptor had also much to do with the external decora- tion of the temples. Into his hands fell not merely the deli- cate carving of the capitals of the columns, but the figures for the pediments, highly relieved metopes, and the continuous friezes in low-relief. The subjects of the pedimental sculp- tures were usually, but not always, associated with the divinity to whom the temple was dedicated. In the case of the Par- thenon the pedimental subjects were intimately connected with Athene, but in the Temple of Athene at ^Egina and of Zeus at Olympia the divinities stand unconcernedly, as if they were invisible spectators of the memorable contests of war and athletic prowess. In some cases the divinity of the temple was not even represented in the sculptures of the pediments. The subjects of the metopes and friezes were usually unrelated to the divinity of the temple. The discontinuous nature of the metopes made the labors of Herakles, contests of the gods and giants, or of Greeks and Amazons, favorite subjects, while processions, assemblies, or battle-scenes were better adapted for the continuous friezes. GREEK SCULPTURE. 73 In connection with the temples we find represented the whole range of Greek mythology. Here were the twelve Olympian divinities, Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaistos, Athene, Ares, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Hestia; and the minor divinities, Dionysos, and his cycle of satyrs, seilenoi, nymphs, maenads, and centaurs; Eros, Psyche, and Ariadne ; the Muses, Graces, Seasons, and Fates ; Pluto and Persephone and Thanatos ; Helios and Nyx ; the Winds, Tritons, Nereids, River-gods, personifications of mountains and cities; and the heroes, Her- akles, Theseus, Achil- leus, Perseus, and the Dioskouroi. Besides religious sculpture, there is a class of Greek monu- ments of purely civic character. These are usually stelae recording treaties of alliance, honorary degrees, finan- cial records, and the like. Upon these monuments the state, the senate, or the peo- ple are represented in mytho-poetic fashion ; thus Athens appears as Athene, the senate as a woman, the people as a man. Of civic character also are the official busts, placed on pillars or columns. Another group of subjects was furnished by the great national games. This class of sculpture consisted of athletes of various kinds, chariot-racers, discus-throwers, runners, -BKU.NZE HEAD OF AN ATHLETE. NAPLES. 74 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. wrestlers, athletes scraping themselves or binding the taenia around their brows, victors in musical contests, or in dramatic or comic poetry. Such occasions furnished one of, the early incentives to portraiture, a form of art practised occasionally in Greece from the archaic period onward, but more commonly after the time of Alexander. Historical sculpture as it had existed in Egypt and Assyria was almost unknown in Greece. Events of importance were commemorated by sculptural monuments, but in mytho- poetic, not prosaic fashion. The yEginetans commemorated the victory at Salamis by erecting a temple to Athene, and decorated its pediments by representations of the mythic com- bats of Greeks and Trojans. The Messenians recorded their victory over the Akarnanians by erecting a lofty pier on which stood a beautiful figure of Nike. Even in the declining years of Greek history, we find at Pergamon the chief memorial of the conquest over the Galatians to have been a huge altar with an enormous frieze representing the Gigantomachia. At the same town, however, a more realistic record was made of the same victories by statues of dying Galatians and fallen Per- sians. When we turn from the public- to the private life of the Greeks, we find the sculptor and his associates, the workers in bronze and precious metals, the wood-carvers, gem-cutters, and potters all contributing their share toward throwing into beautiful and permanent form the objects which adorned the home. Such were the tables, chairs, chests, vases, cups, lamps, mirrors, and mirror cases, which artistic workmen ornamented with mythological representations ; also the objects of personal adornment the coronals, necklaces, bracelets, and gems. A large class of objects of domestic character is to be found in the terracotta figurines. At an early date these may have been chiefly votive offerings, or, like the Egyptian oushabti, made expressly for the tomb ; but from the fourth century B.C. they seem certainly to have had a wider function, and to have GREEK SCULPTURE. 75 been made to give pleasure to the living. These figurines, whether in single figures or groups, are like character studies, furnishing valuable evidence of the life and costumes of the period. Subjects of mythological interest and figures of divinities are common, and occasionally copies or variants of famous statues are preserved in the terracottas. Grotesque subjects also occur; but a larger number are of figures of women, sometimes of extraordinary grace and beauty. The skill of the sculptor was employed also to beautify the memorials to the dead. In various quarters of the Greek world tombs in the form of temples or chapels, or rock-cut dwellings with sculptured facades, existed from the earliest times, but in Attica and in the Peloponnesos and in Northern ?6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Greece it was customary to mark the last resting-place of the departed with a stele or sculptured slab. These stelae were variously decorated ; some by an anthemion, others represented a doorway or sedicula, in which appears the figure of the departed. Sometimes the deceased was represented in his character as a warrior, a shepherd, a knight ; again, his rela- tives gather about him in a farewell scene or are gathered at a funeral banquet. The burial scene itself, or the funeral pro- cession, was less frequently represented. TECHNICAL METHODS. The Greeks derived from the older civilizations considerable knowledge of the technique of sculp- ture, but physical, intellectual, and spiritual conditions gave their art a new direction. For stone sculpture they were practically limited to the calcareous rock and to marble. The rougher material (poros or tufa), though frequently used, was not conducive to the development of a fine art ; but, fortu- nately for sculpture, Greece was well provided with marble. Athens had the quarries of Pentelikos and Hymettos at her very doors ; there were quarries also in Lakonia and Boiotia ; western Asia Minor was rich in various kinds of marble, and the Italo-Greeks could draw upon what are now the quarries of Carrara. But the most brilliant and uniformly grained marble came from the Greek islands. Of these the marble of Paros was most esteemed, while that of Naxos, Thasos, and Andros was not much inferior. All Greek sculpture until the time of Lysippos, or possibly a century later, was freehand carving. The instruments used were, a saw to prepare the rough block, sharp-pointed punches to give the first vague form, square and curved-edged and claw chisels to define the surfaces, and a drill for the deep cutting of the drapery. A rod was sometimes fastened upon the front, so that the sculptor might more easily preserve the balance of the two sides of his statue. The most famous sculptors did not hesitate to build up their statues from several pieces of marble or to leave portions of the original mass as supports. GREEK SCULPTURE. 77 The final surface was rendered more life-like by being rubbed down with oil and molten wax, but the statue was not complete until it was colored and gilded. The rough poros statues were first covered with a thin layer of stucco, with which the color was mixed, or on which it was laid. For marble statuary this stucco covering was unneces- sary. In crude examples bril- liant color was applied gener- ally and in broad masses, but in the finer works color was more specifically applied for the emphasis of details. Prax- iteles considered as his best works those for which he had the cooperation of the distin- guished painter Nikias. Gild- ing for marble statuary was ap- plied to details, as upon the wings of the Eros of Praxiteles or the hair of the Venus de' Medici. Other means were also employed to give color to sculpture, as, for example, the use of bronze for the weap- ons, etc. The freehand carv- ing of reliefs made that pro- cess the reverse of the modern method. The modern concep- tion of relief, based upon the building up of a clay model upon a flat surface, is that of projection from a background. The background is thought of as fixed, and the figured relief varies in projection. The ancient relief was, on the contrary, a carved drawing or Fill. 29. UORIPHOROS AFTER POLYKLEI- TOS. NAPLES. 78 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. picture, the external surface of which is the fixed plane, from which in varying degrees the background is cut away. Reliefs, as well as statues, were not finished until polished and colored. In metal sculpture the Greeks were well versed from early times. Gold and silver and bronze were used for many pur- poses, where cheaper materials are now employed. Iron and steel played a smaller part. The metals were given form by various processes. A common class of objects were the thin plates of gold, silver, or bronze applied as superficial decora- tion upon walls, furniture, robes, etc. These were pressed or hammered into ornamental shape either freehand by the repoussd method, or more mechanically by the aid of pre- pared blocks of wood or stone. In early times even metal statues were constructed of thin wrought plates. Again, form was given to metal in the hard state by chiselling and engrav- ing. To this class belonged small wrought objects, also engraved mirrors and cistae, seals, dies for coins, and inlaid metal-work. The implements used for such purposes were chisels, gouges, burins, files, drills, and polishers. The Greeks were acquainted with various methods of casting metals. They used stone and metal moulds for casting in solid form ; and lime, sand, wax, and clay for various meth- ods of hollow casting. As in marble sculpture, they built up bronze statues from a number of parts and welded them together. They understood the gilding of bronze, and the production of bronzes of various shades of color. Thus ath- letes were of a brownish bronze, and sea figures sometimes of a more silvery hue. Additional polychromatic effect was pro- duced by the inlaying of metals and the use of artificial eyes. But Plutarch's statement that Silanion's bronze statue of the dying lokaste had pale cheeks, produced by the admixture of silver, and Pliny's that the statue of the raging Athamas by Aristonidas had red cheeks, produced by the admixture of iron with the bronze, were probably not based upon personal obser- GREEK SCULPTURE. 79 vation. It is now definitely known that the Greeks sometimes coated their bronzes with an artificial patina. Wood-carving, an art which the Greeks attributed to their mythical Daidalos, was long held in high esteem. Even in the most flourishing period, the crude ancient wooden images of the gods were honored with special reverence. The methods of carving in wood were also, in a measure, transferred to the earliest attempts in stone. There were many woods in Greece which lent themselves to statuary, such as the cedar, cypress, beech, oak, laurel, myrtle, pear, and olive. These woods were carved in the green condition, were painted, and some- times covered with thin plates of metal. The latter practice probably led to the production of chryselephantine sculpture, of which the most famous examples were the Zeus Olympics and the Athene Parthenos of Pheidias, and the Hera of Poly- kleitos. These statues were hollow, with an inner framework of iron upon which was an outer shell of wood. On this shell were laid thin plates of ivory and of gold, to represent, respec- tively, the nude and draped portions of the statue. By some process, unknown to us, the ivory was probably softened and the separate sections juxtaposed with a skilful concealing of the joints. The ivory was then carefully polished and probably colored. As a material for sculpture, terracotta was used as early as wood. Images of the gods and architectural decoration in terracotta were in common use before stone and marble and metal were employed for these purposes. The larger images were sometimes built up in separate parts, but more commonly the clay was modelled around an inner core of wood which acted as a support. The smaller images, or figurines, were sometimes solid and modelled freehand, but usually were cast in moulds. They were, in the latter case, hollow, and ordinarily had a quadrangular opening in the back, which per- mitted a more uniform contraction when baking. The figu- rines of finer quality were carefully retouched before they were 80 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. baked. Special parts, such as the bases, hats, fans, were modelled separately and subsequently affixed. After the baking, color was applied. Sometimes only details were marked by color, but more frequently the original material was entirely concealed. A groundwork of white was first laid over the figure, and upon this the colors and gilding were applied. Thus, in all forms of sculpture stone, metal, wood, and terra- cotta the finished work was polychromatic. CHAPTER IX. GREEK SCULPTURE. CONTINUED. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. The works on Greek sculpture before mentioned; also, consult: Articles, Arbores Sacra, Bcetylia, and Argot Lithoi in Daremberg and Saglio's Diction- naire. Athenian female figures, Jahrbuch, II., p. 216; Musses d 1 Athtnes; Gazette Archeol., 1888, p. 84. Athenian poros sculp- tures, Mitth. Athen., XL, p. 61 ; XIV., p. 67; XV., p. 84. Beule", h 'is toire de la Sculpture avant Phidias. Brunn, Griechische Kunstgeschichte /., Die Anfdnge und die alteste decorative Kunst. Conze, Zur Geschichte der Anfdnge griechischen Kunst. Delos sculptures, Bull, de Corr. Hell., III., p. 393; IV., p. 29. Delphi sculptures, Gaz. des Beaux Arts, XII., p. 441 ; XIII., p. 207 and p. 321. Furtwangler, Die Bronzefunde aus Olympia and Die Bronzen, forming Vol. IV. of the official publication on Olympia. Helbig, Das homerische Epos aus den Denk- mdlern erldutert. Homolle, De Antiquissimis Diana Simula- cris Deliacis. Lange, Die Composition der Aegineten. Milch- hoefer, Die Anfdnge der Kunst in Griechenland. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Primitive Greece. Schliemann, Ilios, Troja, Mykenae, Orchomenos, Tiryns. Schuchhardt, Schlie- mann's Excavations. PBEHISTOBIC SCULPTURE IN OEEECE. The objects found in the earliest cities at Hissarlik, in the northern end of the acropolis at Tiryns, in the pre-Phcenician tombs of Cyprus, in several of the Greek islands, and in the twelfth-dynasty city of Kahun in Egypt point to a prehistoric civilization in Greek lands antedating in its origin that at Mykenai by perhaps a thousand years. The fact that five successive cities lie buried at Hissarlik below the level of the city of the Mykenaean type- is indicative of the probable long duration of this primitive 6 82 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. civilization. We find that stone implements then predomi- nated, though the use of all the metals, even iron, was not absolutely unknown. Pottery was usually handmade, unpainted, and adorned by scratched designs of the simplest character, such as points, zigzags, and straight lines. Even at this early period, however, there was produced occasionally the rosette and a rude scroll-work suggestive of an imperfect acquaintance with Egyptian art. Among the statuettes, crude as was the modelling, the most common form was that of a nude female, in type not unlike the Babylonian goddess. MYKENJEAN SCULPTURE. The crude prehistoric art was fol- lowed by an art represented in the rich finds made at Myke- nai. Mykenaean art extended over a period of several centu- ries (roughly, from 1500-1000 B.C.), and was widely distributed over the ancient world. Its centre was in Argolis, at Myke- nai and at Tiryns. But remains of a similar type have been found in Lakonia, at Amyklai and at Vapheio ; in Attika, at Athens, Spata, and Menidi ; in Boiotia, at Orchomenos ; in the Troad, at Hissarlik ; in Karia and Phrygia ; in Egypt ; in Crete and others of the Greek islands ; and in Italy, espe- cially in Sicily. It was a powerful type of art, which in- trenched itself behind strong walls, in well-built palaces and finely decorated tombs. Mykenaean sculpture was not wholly unrelated to that of the preceding type, but was much further developed, and entered into rivalry with the art of Egypt and Assyria. If the prehistoric period be broadly characterized as the stone age of Greek art, the Mykenaean may be called its age of bronze. Metals were now extensively used, and handled with great skill. Gold and silver were fashioned into diadems, necklaces, bracelets, earrings, ornamental plaques, and masks to cover the faces of the dead. Bronze was exten- sively used for architectural decoration, as well as for imple- ments of warfare or of peace. The high degree of advance- ment in metal-work of this period may be illustrated by the two gold cups from Vapheio, and by the inlaid bronze pon- GREEK SCULPTURE. 83 iards from Mykenai. On one of the Vapheio cups are repre- sented wild bulls 'untamed, in the other the same animals subjugated by man. Taken together, the subjects of these cups reveal a principle of contrast destined to play a long role in Fid. 30. MKTOPK OF THE PARTHENON. UKITISli MUSEUM. Greek art. The careful modelling of the forms of the bulls exhibits a naturalistic spirit and a power of observation supe- rior to that displayed by the Assyrian sculptors. The bronze poniards were evidently inspired by Egyptian example, with 84 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. figured designs beautifully inlaid but the forms and adapta- tion of the subjects to the space are Mykenaean and not Ori- ental. Decorative sculpture in stone, as it appeared on the col- umns of the tomb of Atreus or the alabaster frieze from Tiryns or the ceiling of the tomb at Orchomenos, was a trans- lation into stone of ornamental forms more commonly oeaten from metal ; but the lions in high-relief over the gates of Mykenai exhibit a remarkable freedom of treatment which presupposes some experience in sculpture in the round,. Mykenaean gems, to which class belong the so-called " island stones," reveal an attempt to adapt the composition to the space and a full possession of the technical ability of model- ling upon a minute scale. These gems betray the prevalence of an animal worship in which the worshippers are clad in artificial skins of animals, such as the lion, bull, horse, ass, stag, goat, or hog. Recently Mykenaean inscriptions have been discovered in Crete, showing the use of a pre-Phoenician hieroglyphic and syllabic type of written language. To whatever department of art we turn, we find that the Greeks of this period absorbed many of the ideas, forms, and methods of Egyptian and Babylonian art, not in servile imi- tation, but reconstructing and adapting them to new purposes. THE DARK AGES OF GREEK SCULPTURE. The disappearance of Mykenaean art appears to have been due to the inroads of Hel- lenic tribes from Thessaly, especially the Dorians and lonians. The process by which new forms were finally established was a' gradual one. In some quarters Mykenaean types continued to be reproduced as late as the sixth century B.C. : in other quar- ters there appear to have been transitional stages, more or less clearly marked, in which changes occurred and yet the conti- nuity of artistic forms was in large measure preserved. These stages are best followed in the pottery, which enables us to distinguish a geometric style, in which many Mykenaean motives were reproduced in rectilinear or more rigid form. Then fol- GREEK SCULPTURE. 85 lowed the so-called Oriental style. Mykensean motives were assigned an inferior position, and greater prominence was given to rows of animals disposed in parallel or concentric bands. Oriental motives, such as masanders, rosettes, lotus flowers, and various forms of volutes, filled the interspaces. The designs upon metal-work were of a similar character. It was, however, during this period that Greek mythology FIG. 31. THESEUS, OR OLYMPOS, FROM EASTERN PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON. BRITISH MUSEUM. was being formulated and Greek poetry was popularizing many legends suitable for representation in sculpture and the arts of design. If we compare the shield of Achilles, as described by Homer (ninth century), with the shield of Herakles, described by Hesiod (seventh century), we see that the former contained generic subjects the earth, the seasons, a city in time of peace in contrast with a city in lime of war, choral dances, and the ocean : whereas the design of the later shield was not 86 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. only more complex, having a large number of subjects, but more specifically Hellenic, being adorned with scenes taken trom the new mythology. The early bronze shields found in Crete, and the incised patera from Cyprus and Southern Italy, illustrate well the decorative sculpture of this period. Its cul- mination was exempl'- fied by the famous chest of Kypselos, seen by Pausanias in the Heraion at Olym- pia, and now assigned to the early year& of the sixth century. Mere space'-filling ornamen- tation haddisappeared, and figured design of a mythological character "was firmly established. The old scheme of parallel bands was pre- served, and the design appears to have been arranged partly upon J the Doric metopal and * E partly upon the Ionic frieze principles. Sculpture in the round made slower progress. This was due to various causes. An imageless worship at first prevailed, and it was by very slow stages that, from rude or geometrically shaped blocks of wood or stone, images of the gods in human shape at length arose. The wooden xoana, with bodies like tree-trunks or square piers, retarded rather than advanced the progress of sculpture. Nor did the Greeks entertain the FIG. 32. NIKE FROM PARTHENON. WESTERN PEDIMENT BRITISH MUSEUM. GREEK SCULPTURE. 8/ Egyptian conception of immortality which would lead them to make statues for the dead. Technical difficulties also stood in their way. The art of stone-carving came slowly, and only after considerable progress had been made in softer materials, such as wood and clay. The first stimulus to stone and marble sculpture would seem to have been given by the practice of making votive offerings. Thus, in the seventh century, Nicandra of Naxos dedicated an image, prob- ably of herself, to the goddess Artemis of Delos ; and, in the same century, Iphikartides, also a Naxian, made and dedi- cated an image of himself to Apollo. These two types the .draped female and the nude male constituted a generic form for statues of gods, heroes, and commonplace individ- uals. In these statues there was no apparent relationship to the sculpture of the Mykenaean period, but they none the less revealed similar influences from Oriental and especially from Egyptian sources. Both types show a rapid development in the following, or archaic stage of Greek sculpture. ABCHAIC IONIC AND DORIC SCULPTURE. By the sixth century the progress and individuality of Hellenism made themselves felt. Temples of stone or marble were erected on the coast lines of Asia Minor, in Greece proper, in Magna Graecia, and Sicily. Under Oriental, especially Egyptian, tutelage, types of architecture were formed, easily distinguished as Doric and Ionic. The yEolians seem to have been possessed of less artis- tic individuality, and produced no distinctive types either in architecture or sculpture. Sculpture in this century began to lose its Oriental cast and became a national art. Artists were now held in high esteem, and literary traditions concerning their works, as well as a considerable quantity of the monu- ments themselves, are preserved to us. The art of working in stone and marble was rapidly mastered, and bronze-casting reached a high stage of development. The migratory nature of the early Hellenic sculptors makes it difficult in all cases to distinguish Ionic from Doric work- 88 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. manship. Nevertheless, the two classes may be broadly char- acterized. The lonians were the earliest in the field. They learned from Egypt the lesson of bronze-casting, and carried it even to Dorian settlements. They also were the first to L FIG. 33. RESTORATION OF THE NIKE OF FAIONIOS. ascertain the value of marble and to practise the art of mar- ble sculpture. Their work shows a preference for round forms and slender proportions; for light draperies falling in deli- cate folds, so as to reveal the figure; for frieze-like composi- GREEK SCULPTURE. 89 tions involving organic groups. The draped female type was rapidly developed by the lonians. Doric forms were sturdier, of less slender proportions, of more pronounced muscularity, and with heavy draperies fall- ing in massive folds. The Doric compositions were metopal in character, with figures juxtaposed rather than organically grouped. The nude male type was developed chiefly in the Doric schools. Athenian sculpture, the product of artists of all schools, represented a fusion of Ionic and Doric influences. ARCHAIC IONIC SCTJLPTUBE. Ionic sculpture of this period is well represented by the draped female figures from Delos and the similar series from the Acropolis at Athens. In these figures the arms were no longer drawn close to the body, but were extended, sometimes gently raising the drapery. Uni- formity of type was disregarded, and considerable variety prevailed in pose, in the arrangement of the drapery, the hair, and other details. The nude male type began also to show more freedom. The Egyptian pose of the figure, stand- ing with left foot slightly in advance of the right, remained the same ; but the proportions became more normal and the arms freer. The colossal statue of the Didymaian Apollo i the old temple of the Branchidai, near Miletos, was of this character. The type is well preserved in the bronze statue found at Piombino, Italy, and now in the Louvre Museum. The early method of forming statues from plates of bronze riveted together was now replaced by the art of moulding, which Theodoras is said to have introduced and with which he doubtless became acquainted during his visit to Egypt. Seated figures, such as the statues which lined the approach to the tem- ple of Apollo, near Miletos, were a common type in Ionian sculpture of the sixth century. A series of these, chronolog- ically arranged, would exhibit the rapid progress made in naturalistic treatment of drapery, and in the observation of the human form. Ionian sculptures in relief, as illustrated in the Harpy tomb from Xanthos, in sarcophagi from Cyprus, go HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. and funerary stelae from many quarters, show continuous com- positions with organic groups and rounded forms covered by transparent drapery. The principal Ionian sculptors of this period were Archermos of Chios, who is credited with having first given wings to marble statues (circa 580 B.C.) ; Boupalos and Athenis, who developed the draped female type (circa 540 B.C.); Rhoikos and Theodores, who introduced improved methods of metal casting (circa 575 B.C.). FIG. 34. POSEIDON, APOLLO, ANO DEMETER, FROM EASTERN FRIEZE OF THE PARTHE- NON. ATHENS. ARCHAIC DORIC SCULPTURE. The principal Doric centres of sculptural activity were Argos, Sikyon, /Egina, and the provin- cial schools of Boiotia, Lakonia, Magna Graecia, and Sicily. The great games, especially those held at Olympia, proved a powerful stimulus to the development of an athletic type of sculpture. The nude figure, in its anatomical structure and pro- portions, was carefully studied, and a greater variety of poses introduced. The principal centres gave thus a new direction GREEK SCULPTURE. 91 to sculpture, especially to workmanship in bronze. Sculpture in the round occupied the principal, and relief the inferior, share of Doric activity. Figures of the gods retained in many cases the old xoanon type at the same time that a revolution in sculptural form was in progress. But even the gods soon submitted to the general transformation, and became more and more like the figures of men. The school of Argos held the leading position in the archaic period, and may now be studied in the sculptures recently found at Delphi. The stat- ues of Kleobis and Biton are heavy in proportion, dating from the earliest years of the sixth century. The metopes of the Treasury of Sikyon, finished about 570 B.C., are more compli- cated than might have been anticipated, and are suggestive of Ionian influence. Ionian methods of composition are still more evident in the frieze of the Treasury of Siphnos (525-510 B.C.). Here the assembly of the gods may be regarded as a prototype of the eastern frieze of the Parthenon, while the Gigantomachia and the combat of Hektor and Menelaos present more than one motive, which yEginetan and Athenian sculp- tors carried to a higher stage of development. In Boiotia the series of statues found at tV shrine of the Apollo Ptoos, near Akraiphiai, exhibit a very gradual progress in the direction of more perfect form, but this development was arrested by the more rapid advance of other schools. A similar slow progress is observable in the funerary stehne of Lakonia ; so slow, that when the inhabitants of Amyklai wished for a throne for their colossal xoanon of Apollo, they sent for an Ionian sculptor from Magnesia. In like manner, Sicily and Magna Graecia could not wait for the growth of local talent. The metopal sculptures of the oldest temple at Selinous in Sicily exhibit provincial Doric execution of motives which may well have been drawn from an Ionian source. The acme of archaic Doric sculpture is best illustrated by the pedimental groups from the temple of Aphaia at /Kgina, which date irom tuc early years ot the fifth century. Here 92 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. we see in marble the results reached by a severe training in bronze. This is apparent from the freedom in the attitudes of the figures, which could hardly have been reached if the artists had been trained in so friable a material as marble. It is evident, also, from the general treatment of the surfaces. The composition as a whole is an application of sculpture in the round to architectural purposes. Each figure is a unit by itself, and these units are juxtaposed rather than organically con- nected. The Greeks upon one side of the pediment corre- spond, man for man and pose for pose, with the Trojans on the other side. These marble groups were harmonized with the poros stone of the temple by means of color. Some of the accessories were of bronze, others were enlivened by brilliant color, and the whole thrown in strong relief by a blue back- ground. Prominent among the Doric sculptors of this period were Glaukias and Onatas of yEgina (fl. 490-460 B.C.), Kanachos of Sikyon, Dontas of Sparta, Klearchos of Rhegion, and Ageladas of Argos (circa 520-465 B.C.). ARCHAIC ATTIC SCULPTURE. Athens drew to herself artists from Ionic and Doric schools, and thus secured both grace and strength. The series of poros stone pedimental sculptures recently found in the Acropolis are remarkable for being in low-relief and containing organic compositions. Relief sculp- ture became now the typical decoration for Attic pediments, and grouping rather than mere juxtaposition of figures the law of composition. Important also are the series from the Acropolis of draped female figures, developed from Delian prototypes. Ionic influence prevailed again in funerary stelae such as that of the Discus-thrower, and in reliefs like that of the Apobates mount- ing to his chariot. It is in the standing male figures that Doric influence is most evident. Antenor's (fl. 510-480 B.C.) famous group of the Tyrannicides seems to have combined Doric strength and proportions with the Ionic mode of com- GREEK SCULPTURE. 93 position. The stele of Aristion (circa 520 B.C.), by Aristokles, shows the same fusion of influences. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Archaic Greek sculpture may be best studied from the originals in the museums of Athens, Naples, Munich, Berlin, Paris, and London ; and from the collection of casts in Berlin, Dresden, Boston, and New York. NOTE. Prehistoric sculpture in Greek lands has been enriched in recent years chiefly through the excavations in Crete. The engraved gems and ivory carvings form an interesting series, but the most striking objects discovered have been the statuettes in glazed faience representing a Snake Goddess and her Votaries found at Knossos, and a steatite vase from Hagia Triada on which is represented a religious procession remarkable for its independence and freedom. The Snake Goddess is published in the Annual of the British School at Athens, No. IX; and the steatite vase in the Monumenti Anlichi, XIII, 77-132. Bronzes from the Dark Ages of Greek sculpture have been unearthed in considerable quantity by the French excavators at Delphi and the Americans at Argos. For the archaic period the most notable discovery has been that of the Bronze Charioteer from Delphi, published in the Monuments Piot, No. IV. The excavations of Furtwangler at . Lorenzo, he adopted from Desiderio the motive for the sar- cophagus, in which, however, he exhibited a preference for straight rather than curved lines. His bronze David (1476), in the National Museum, breathes the spirit of Donatello, but is somewhat more angular. More independent and original is his Christ and the Doubting Thomas (1483) in a niche on the exterior of Or San Michele, though here the drapery is some- what heavy and angular, as it is also in the marble monument to Cardinal Forteguerra in the cathedral at Pistoja. His supreme achievement was the statue of Bartolommeo Colleoni in Venice. Of this monument Dr. Bode well says : " The Colleoni stands to-day for the most magnificent equestrian statue of all times ; it fully deserves this reputation, since in no other monument are both horse and rider conceived and composed with such unity." Florence was the centre and inspiration of Renaissance sculpture during the fifteenth century, and her power was felt all over Italy. Nevertheless, there were other centres, such as Siena, Milan, and Pavia, Modena, Venice, Padua, and Palermo^ from which issued sculptors of independence and influence. CHAPTER XX. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE. Continued. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. See the list of books at the begin- ning of Chapter XVIII. THE SIENESE SCHOOL. Siena remained longer than Florence under the influence of Gothic art. Her most distinguished sculptor, Jacopo della Quercia (1371-1438), developed along the same path as Donatello. His earliest works, as illustrated by the Fonte Gaja (1409-1419) in Siena, were thoroughly Gothic in character. Then followed a period when graceful motives of classic origin controlled his style. To this time belongs the beautiful tomb of Ilaria del Caretto (1413) in the cathedral at Lucca. Later, a dramatic quality appeared in his work. This character is exhibited by the reliefs about the central portal of S. Petronio, Bologna (1425-1438). Though somewhat heavy, their dramatic force had a perceptible influ- ence upon the work of Michelangelo. Quercia's influence was not marked in Siena. Something of his Gothic manner was perpetuated in the hard, dry, but tech- nically excellent work of Lorenzo Vecchietta (1412-1480), and something of his classic manner may be seen in the harmoni- ous work of Antonio Federighi (circa 1420-1490). The reliefs and statuettes of Torino di Sano and Giovanni di Turino for Quercia's celebrated font in the baptistery are lacking in style, and Francesco di Giorgio's bronze angels (1439-1502) in the cathedral are exceedingly mannered. Giacomo Cozzarelli 198 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. (1453-1515) was an excel lent workman in bronze, and produced some interesting busts in terracotta. In Lorenzo di Mariano (d. 1534) we recognize a typical Sienese artist of higher quality. His high altar in the church of Fontegiusta exhib- ited, in its sculptured Pieta, Sienese tenderness of sentiment, and its elaborate architectural decoration was in the line of development of Sienese ornament. Quercia's remarkable work at Bologna did not secure for him FIG. 74. ILAKIA DEL CARETTO (BY JACOJ'O DELLA QUERCIA). LUCCA CATHEDRAL. a school of followers there. Niccolo da Bari, called Niccolo dell' Area (1414-1494), reflected something of his influence in a terracotta Madonna outside of the Palazzo Pubblico, but the work which gave Niccolb his title to fame, the completion of the Area di S. Domenico, was a thoroughly independent work. The varied character of Niccolo's style may be still further illustrated by a group of the Lamentation over the body of Christ, in the little church of S. Maria della Vita, Bologna. This realistic, emotional group seems to have given RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 199 an impulse to Guido Mazzoni (1450-1518), of Modena, whose works of a similar character in his native town, in Ferrara, and in Naples formed a distinct class of monuments, foreign to the refined spirit of the Florentines, but popular with the phil- istines in the provinces. Mazzoni made the Italian peasant participate as principal actor in representations of sacred story. His work may be regarded as one phase of Lombard naturalism. Elsewhere in Lombardy, and in parts of Germany, similar groups were popular. THE MILANESE SCHOOL. In Lombardy, at Bergamo, Parma, Cremona, and especially at Milan and Pavia, we find a school of sculptors who left their mark over a large portion of Italy, especially in the north. Gothic traditions, more firmly estab- lished than in Florence, checked but did not overcome the advance of the Renaissance. When Michelozzo came from Florence to Milan he bent his style to suit Milanese taste. Here there was a demand for luxuriant decoration, which was easily embodied in terracotta. In this decoration we find a multiplication of details rather than a massive treatment, a subordination of the larger arts, architecture and sculpture, to the minor arts of the joiner and the miniature painter. But if we view Lombard sculpture apart from its surroundings, it has a sharp, crisp, vigorous character which commands our attention and not infrequently our admiration. Especially noteworthy are the sculptures of the cathedral at Milan, of the Certosa at Pavia, and of the Colleoni Chapel at Bergamo. The Man- tegazza brothers, Cristoforo (d. 1482) and Antonio (d. 1495), chief sculptors at the Certosa, were among the first to represent drapery in what has been termed the cartaceous manner, from its resemblance to wet paper. This manner was hard, academic, conventional. Their successor Giovanni Antonio Omodeo (1447-1522), in his decorative sculptures for the Colleoni Chapel, and in the tombs of Medea and Bartolommeo Colleoni at Bergamo, in his work for the exterior and interior of the Certosa at Pavia, and in the Borrommeo monuments at Isola 2OO HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Bella in the Lago Maggiore, exhibited a marked advance in the direction of naturalism and classic beauty. Other Milanese sculptors, who lived on into the sixteenth century, were : Cristoforo Solari, whose Beatrice and Ludo- vico il Moro at the Certosa were conceived in the spirit of the Early Renaissance, but whose works produced subsequent to his visit to Rome showed the influence of Michelangelo; FIG. 75. SCULPTURES FROM THE CERTOSA AT PAVIA. Caradosso (1445 P-I527), who was considered by Benvenuto Cellini the most skilful goldsmith he ever met, and whose terracotta reliefs in the sacristy of S. Satire were almost equal to the works of Donatello ; and Agostino Busti, called Bambaja (1480-1548), whose unfinished monument to Gaston de Foix, though somewhat mannered in style, carried to its utmost limit the application of the miniature style to monumental RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 2OI sculpture. When we add to these the names of Andrea Bregno (1411-1506), of Andrea Fusina (fl. 1495), of Ambrogino da Milano (fl. 1475), a ^ f whom produced works of admirable quality, we find a strong and powerful school of sculptors, not the product of Florentine influence, but of local development. Milanese sculptors largely supplied the demand for sculp- ture in Genoa, Bergamo, Brescia, and other North Italian towns. As we turn toward the east, the influence of Venice is more apparent. Verona maintained her Gothic traditions strongly enough to subject a Florentine sculptor, Giovanni di Bartolo, to her methods. Her style was half-Lombard, half- Venetian, as may be seen in the terracotta decoration by the unknown " Master of the Pellegrini Chapel " in the church of S. Anastasia. THE VENETIAN SCHOOL. Venice produced an 'independent school of sculptors, whose influence radiated to Istria and Dalmatia on the one hand, and to Verona and Brescia on the other. This school represented a taste for rich decorative works, less prosaic than the productions of the Milanese, and of a tenderer sentiment than those of the Florentines. Both Milan and Florence appealed to the intellect, Venice to the pleasurable emotions excited by graceful, luxuriant forms. The Gothic style had assumed in Venice a too attractive char- acter to be easily cast aside. Accordingly, the transitional period, in which Gothic motives lived on by the side of those of the Renaissance, was a long one in Venice. Outsiders like Piero di Niccolo of Florence and Giovanni di Martino of Fiesole, as may be seen in their tomb for the Doge Tommaso Mocenigo (d. 1423), produced works in accord with Venetian traditions. Neither Donatello and his followers at Padua nor Antonio Rizo of Verona had any marked influence in changing the trend of Venetian sculpture. The continuity of its development is exhibited in the transitional work of Bar- tolommeo Buon in the decoration of the Porta della Carta of the Doge's palace, and reached the naturalistic, classic, and 2O2 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. humanistic stage in the work of Pietro Lombardo (d. 1515). Lombard modes of composition are evident in his tombs for the Doges Niccolb Marcello (d. 1474) and Pietro Mocenigo (d. 1476), but a thoroughly Venetian charm and exquisite FIG. 76. SCULPTURED BASE AT S. MAK1A DEI MIRACOLI, VENICE. fancy pervade his decorative sculptures at S. Maria dei Mira- coli. His son, Tullio Lombardo, who may have assisted him at S. Maria dei Miracoli, exhibited an artificial grace in his more independent work for the Chapel of S. Antonio at Padua. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 2O3 Tullio's younger brother, Antonio Lombardo, lacked even artificial gracefulness in his work. Alessandro Leopard! (d. 1522), however, showed himself a worthy successor of Pietro, in his charming base for the Colleoni statue, in his sculptured work for the tomb of the Doge A. Vendramin, and in the bronze flagstaffs in the Piazza S. Marco. The influence of the Venetian school of sculpture extended southward to Ravenna, Cesena, Faenza, and Ancona. THE PADUAN SCHOOL. Padua during the fifteenth century possessed a productive and influential, if not very distin- guished, school of sculptors. She had forced Donatello to change his style so as to accord with her inferior canons of taste. His pupils became most popular sculptors. One of the most skilful was Giovanni da Pisa, author of the terra- cotta figures in the chapel to the right of the high altar in the church of the Eremitani. More productive and more widely known was Bartolommeo Bellano (1430-1498), whose lifeless copies in Padua of the work of Donatello and Desiderio showed his lack of originality, while the reliefs which he exe- cuted for the pulpits in S. Lorenzo, in Florence, were full of mannerism and a straining for dramatic effect. His manner became somewhat softened after his residence in Venice, where, about 1460, he executed a relief for the faade of S. Zaccaria. His successor Andrea Briosco, called Riccio (1470- 1532), inherited something of his manner, but moderated by a wider acquaintance with classic art. In the minor arts the fancy of Riccio found constant stimulus. In the production of small bronze reliefs for the decoration of many household objects, in his candlesticks and jewel chests and figurines he showed himself a master, and stimulated a school of follow- ers known by such pseudonyms as Antico, Moclerno, Ulocrino, etc. When he attempted monumental works, he showed him- self still the miniature artist. The influence of the Paduan school, though widely extended, was chiefly felt in Mantua and Ferrara. 2O4 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. SCHOOLS OF CENTBAL AND SOUTHERN ITALY. Umbria, the Marches, and the Abruzzi were poor in native sculptors. Through many towns in the neighborhood of Arcevia, Fra Mattia della Robbia exerted a strong influence with terracotta sculpture, and at Aquila interesting monuments were executed by the pupils of Donatello, Andrea and Silvestro da Aquila ; but these works were essentially Florentine. Rome seemed to lose her independence in sculpture with the expiration of the Cosmati school. Her best monuments of the fifteenth century were by sculptors of other schools, Donatello and Antonio Pollajuolo, Mino da Fiesole and Giovanni of Dalmatia, Isaia of Pisa, Andrea Bregno, and Luigi Capponi of Milan. Eclecticism prevailed to such an extent that sculptors representing different styles each impressed his own methods upon the same monument. Native sculptors were few. One of these, Paolo Taccone, called Romano, exhibited a Roman preference for figures in the round, but his general style was dependent on that of Isaia of Pisa. Still less can Gian-Cristoforo Romano, the son of Isaia of Pisa, be reckoned as representing the Roman school. He drifted to Lombardy, and there worked in the Milanese style. Naples exhibited the same lack of independence. Tuscan and Lombard sculptors produced the finest sculptural monu- ments of which Naples could boast during this century. The only native artists of fame were Andrea Ciccione and Antonio di Domenico da Bamboccio (1351-1422). Their work, faulty in design and extravagant in color, was far behind that of the northern sculptors. In Southern Italy, Renaissance sculpture was conditioned by preexisting Byzantine influence, and thus approximated the Venetian type. In Sicily an influence of similar character was represented in the work of Francesco da Laurana, a Dal- matian, while the types and methods of Domenico Gagini and his son, Antonio Gagini (1478-1536), were predominantly Lombard. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 20$ EXTANT MONUMENTS. Early Renaissance sculpture in Italy may be best studied in the churches and public buildings, especially in Florence, Milan, Venice, Padua, Rome. The most important museums for this purpose are the Museo Nazionale, Florence ; the Royal Museum, Berlin ; the Louvre, Paris; and the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. A representative collection of Renaissance casts is to be found in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. NOTE. Since these chapters on Italian Renaissance Sculpture were published Bode's Denkmaler der Sculptur der Renaissance in Toskana has greatly facilitated study in this field; Marcel Reymond's La Sculpture florentine has infused into it a new interest, and Venturi's Storia dell'arte italiana, Vol. VI, has brought many obscure monuments into view. Indi- vidual sculptors have been made the subjects for special monographs, of which may be mentioned Schub ring's Donatella, Cruttwell's Luca and Andrea Delia Robbia, Antonio Pollaiuolo, Verrocchio; and Cornelius' Jacopo della Quercia. Bode's Die italienischen Bronze-statuetten der Renaissance and Supino's 77 Medalgiere Mediceo extend the field so as to include bronze statuettes and medals. The sources of Venetian sculpture have been placed at our disposal in the publication of Paoletti's L'architettura e la scultura del rinascimento in Venezia. CHAPTER XXI. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. THE DEVELOPED RENAISSANCE (1500-1600) AND THE DECADENCE (l6oO-l8oo). BOOKS RECOMMENDED. The books on Renaissance sculpture before mentioned; also: Cellini, Autobiography. Desjardins, La Vie et I 'CEuvre de Jean Bologne. Grimm, Life of Michel- angelo. Guizzardi e Tomba, Le Opere di Guido Mazzoni e di Antonio Begarelli. Plon, Benvenuto Cellini, set Vie et son CEuvre. Schonfeld, Sansovino und seine Schule. Springer, " Raffael und Michelangelo," in Dohme's Kunst und Kiinstler Italiens. Symonds, Life of Michelangelo. CHANGE IN STYLE AND MOTIVE. The sixteenth century in Italy witnessed the emancipation of sculpture from both architecture and painting. Architecture now became more sculpturesque. Columns were substituted for pilasters ; cor- nices and mouldings received greater projection, allowing, j. new play of light and shade. Painting also became more plastic, modelling and perspective replacing in a measure the interest in outline and composition. Sometimes sculpture went beyond her sphere and reduced her sister arts to subjec- tion. In the great wall tombs, sculptured figures became over- prominent, the architectural construction being treated as a mere accessory. Even buildings were sometimes mere back- grounds for sculptured figures. This plastic advance w?s accompanied by many changes. The beautiful decorative low- relief of the Early Renaissance disappeared, high-relief and sculpture in the round taking its place. Dignity of concep- RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 2O/ tion and design received less attention than modulations of modelling, posing of arms and legs, movement in drapery, the carving of colossal statues, and the determined effort to produce an effect. The influence of classic sculpture was sus- tained and in some directions increased, but only occasionally did it lead to the imitation and reproduction of ancient forms. THE FLOBENTINE SCULPTORS. Foremost among the Floren- tine sculptors of this period was Andrea (Contucci da Monte) Sansavino (1460-1529). His early terracotta altar-pieces in S. Chiara at Monte Sansavino followed in the line of Ver- rocchio and Antonio Rossellino, and exhibited a studied grace- fulness. His subsequent residence in Portugal added little to his power as a sculptor, if we may judge him by the life- less font at Volterra. His group representing the Baptism of Christ, over the door of the baptistery at Florence, was on a level with the work of Lorenzo di Credi in painting, and marked a similar decline from the more spirited concep- tions of Verrocchio. In Rome his tombs of the Cardinals Ascanio Sforza and Girolamo Basso della Rovere, though charming in decorative detail, illustrated a stage in which sculptural and architectural motives were in conflict, neither contributing to the effectiveness of the other. In his heads and draperies there is a recognition of Roman classic art, but the proportions of his figures were somewhat heavy. His later work at Loreto was restless and mannered, aiming at effect by artificial means. His pupil Francesco di San Gallo (1493-1570) exhibited something of his master's manner and added to it an exaggerated realism. His sculptural slab of Bishop Leonardo Bonafede, at the Certosa near Florence, was developed from the low-relief figured slabs of the late Gothic and Early Renaissance periods. Benedetto da Rovezzano (1476-1556) resembled Andrea Sansavino in technical quality, but surpassed him in origi- nality. His fancy flowed easily in delicate floral design, and revelled in weird combinations of skulls and cross-bones. 208 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. His tombs of Piero Soderini in the Carmine and of Oddo Altoviti in SS. Apostoli in Florence interest, if they do not charm us. His relief in the Museo Nazionale illustrating the Life of S. Giovanni Gualberto exhibited the independence of his fancy. His tomb for Louis XII., King of France, and the tomb which he began for Cardinal Wolsey in England were influential means of communicating to Northern Europe the traditions of the Italian Renaissance. Piero Torrigiano (1472-1522), an irascible man but a clever sculptor, also went to England, and there made the tomb of Henry VII. and Queen Elizabeth in Westminster Abbey, probably also the tomb of the Countess of Richmond in the adjoining chapel. Later he went to Spain, where he sculptured several monuments. THE NOKTH ITALIAN SCULPTOKS. In Milan and Pavia the line of distinguished sculptors appears to have ceased with Agostino Busti. His successors were inferior artists. Leo- nardo da Vinci (1452-1519) did little for the art of sculpture, and established no school in that art as he did in painting. The influence of Michelangelo and other extraneous influences prevailed. In Modena, however, a fonvard step was taken by Antonio Begarelli (1479-1565). He worked in terracotta, making not only groups for niched recesses, but also altar-pieces and statues. His earlier works, as, for example, the Bewailing of Christ in S. Maria Pomposa, strongly betrayed the influence of Mazzoni. But Begarelli, with less depth of sentiment, had more varied means of expression and exhibited more movement in his compositions and figures. His later work, as in the altar-piece at S. Pietro representing Four Saints with the Madonna surrounded by Angels in the Clouds, was imbued with the manner and spirit of Correggio. In fact, Bega- relli's sculpture became thoroughly picturesque in treatment. In Bologna a similar course of development may be seen in the work of Alfonso Lombardi, of Lucca (1497-1537). His early sculptures at Ferrara and in the crypt of S. Pietro, RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 209 Bologna, bore a close relationship to the works of Mazzoni. Later the influence of the school of Andrea Sansavino made itself felt, and his work for the left portal of S. Petronio assumed a more classic style. A Bolognese sculptress, Properzia de' Rossi (1490-1530), under the influence of Alfonso Lombardi and of Tribolo, produced at S. Petronio and elsewhere a number of works of merit. Niccolo Pericoli, known as II Tribolo (1485-1550), was a sculptor of high order, as shown by the thoroughly plastic and beautiful prophets, sibyls, angels, and other reliefs about the doorways of S. Petronio. His subse- quent work was of a temporary, decorative character, and a series of misfortunes prevented him reaching the position to which his genius entitled him. In Venice the most distinguished sculptor was the Florentine Jacopo Tatti, better know from his master as Jacopo Sansavino (1487-1570). In 15 10 he followed Andrea Sansavino to Rome, and there through copying and repairing ancient statues became infused with the classic spirit. His Bacchus holding above his head a Bowl of Wine, in the Museo Nazionale, Florence, is a fine example of his work at this period. After 1527 he went to Venice, and there undertook important works both in architecture and sculpture. He tried to secure the rich deco- rative effects demanded by the Venetians. In his treatment of ornamental detail, and in the statues of Apollo, Mercury, Minerva, and Peace for the Loggietta near the Campanile of S. Marco, he showed himself a worthy successor of Pietro Ix>mbardo and Leopardi. These works were like an echo of Praxiteles. Very different, however, were his reliefs. His celebrated bronze door in the choir of S. Marco and his marble relief for the Chapel of S. Antonio at Padua were forerunners of the period of the decline. Sansavino's pupils were many. Tommaso Lombardo, Girolamo Lombardo, Danese Cattaneo, and Alessandro Vittoria (1525-1608) assisted him in the plastic decorations of the Biblioteca. Girolamo Campagna, a pupil of Cattaneo, continued to work in good taste; but 14 2IO HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Alessandro Vittoria represented the exaggerated style of the coming Rococo period. THE ROMAN SCULPTORS. In the Early Renaissance, Florence supplied Rome with artists, and there was no distinctive Roman school. In the Developed Renaissance, Rome, chiefly through Michelangelo, influenced the development of sculpture throughout all Italy. Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), equally famous as architect, sculptor, and painter, was essen- tially a sculptor in all his work. Though a Tuscan by birth, and in his early work not uninfluenced by Donatello and Jacopo della Quercia, his spirit gave to sculpture a more inde- pendent position than it had enjoyed since the days of the Greeks and Romans. From Ghirlandaio, in whose studio he is said to have worked, he received no deep educational impress. From the very start, architectural and landscape backgrounds, perspective effects and elaborated compositions, did not enter into his conceptions. His interest centred in the human form. His first manner (1488-1496) may be compared to that of Donatello, but it was larger, freer, and more classic. He characterized to perfection the face of a Faun, and portrayed the Madonna and Child, with little boys at the head of some steps, with all the dignity and humanity that are found in Greek reliefs. He revelled in the study of the nude human form in his relief known as the Battle of the Centaurs. His admiration of Donatello may be seen in the S. Giovannino of the Berlin Museum, with its slender form, large hands, and expressive head. Even in these early works he appeared as a master rather than a pupil. As he himself remarked, he imbibed the use of the chisel with his mother's milk. His second manner (1496-1500) exhibited still further independence and study of the human form. In spite of the heavy treatment of the drapery, how pathetic and full of significance is the Madonna and how wonderful the modelling of the Christ in the Pieta at St. Peter's ! His Madonna and RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 211 Child in the church of Notre Dame at Bruges and his Medal- lions in the Museo Nazionale, Florence, and the Royal Acad r H(:. 77. HEAI> OF STATUE OK 1JAVIU (llV MICHRLANGKLO). MUSKO NAZIONAI.K, FLORENCE. emy, Ix>ndon., showed a. majestic treatment of a universal subject. His delight in arriving at new poses, as in his paint- ings in the Sistine Chapel, was exhibited in sculpture in the 212 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Cupid, now at the South Kensington Museum. His attention was not always occupied with the body only ; the impression produced by his David comes chiefly from the powerful head, which seems to say to us that intellect is superior to the force of giants. His final manner (1500-1564), as illustrated by the Moses and by the figures upon the Medici tombs, revealed greater harmony of treatment. Modelling, pose, drapery, expressiveness, are more equally balanced, and contribute to the effectiveness of the whole. The Moses is the chief surviving member of a magnificent tomb which was to have been placed in St. Peter's in honor of Pope Julius II. The original design was a free- standing structure embracing as many as forty statues. Below were to be figures of Victories and Slaves ; above them, four seated statues, one of which was to have been the Moses ; in the centre was the sarcophagus of the Pope, represented as kneeling between angels ; above all, a figure of the Madonna. Through forty years (1505-1545) this tomb occupied Michel- angelo's thoughts, but circumstances prevented its completion. The monument as it stands in S. Pietro in Vincoli is a mere fragment of the original design, only the Moses being attrib- utable to his hand. Two fine figures of Slaves in the Louvre were probably executed for the Julius monument ; possibly, also, a Victory in the Museum at Florence. The tombs for the Medici family in S. Lorenzo in Florence (1524-1534) are also only a partial realization of the original design. Those of Cosimo and Lorenzo il Magnifico were never executed; even those of Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, and Giuliano, Duke of Nemours, were not entirely finished. The Lorenzo, known as " II Penseroso," from his pensive attitude, is a majestic, superb figure, and the Giuliano hardly less expressive. Day and Night, Twilight and Dawn, reclining on the curved tops of the sarcophagi, magnificent figures, might appear out of place, were it not that they form a portion of the composition with the statues seated above. The walls RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 213 were provided with niches, as a framework for the statues. Among the latest works of Michelangelo were his Madonna and Child in this chapel, the unfinished Deposition in the FIG. 78. TOMB OF LORENZO DE* MEDICI. MEDICI CHAPEL, S. LORENZO, FLORENCE. Cathedral of Florence, and the bust of Brutus in the Museo Nazionale. Baccio Bandinelli (1487-1559) aimed to be more Michelan- gelesque than Michelangelo himself. His first statue, a St. 214 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Jerome, is said to have been commended by Leonardo da Vinci, and his second, a Mercury, sold to Francis I. How inferior he was to the great master may be seen by his Hercu- les and Cacus in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, statues much ridiculed by his contemporaries. Bartolommeo Ammanati (1511-1592) studied under Bandinelli and worked under Jacopo Sansavino. He was engaged upon important works at Urbino, Padua, Rome, and Florence. His best work, the Neptune of the fountain in the Piazza della Signoria, is a life- less production. Benvenuto Cellini called it " an example of the fate which attends him who, trying to escape from one evil, falls into another ten times worse, since in trying to escape from Bandinelli it fell into the hands of Ammanati." Raffaello da Montelupo (1505-1566) learned the art of sculp- ture in his father's studio, assisted Andrea Sansavino at Loreto, and Michelangelo in the Medici Chapel. His work is said to have disappointed Michelangelo ; but two altar-pieces at Orvieto designed by II Moscha and executed by Raffaello and II Moschino bear witness to his skill in handling the chisel. Fra Giovan' Angelo Montorsoli (1507-1563) was more thor- oughly a follower of Michelangelo, and carried his style to Genoa, Bologna, and to Sicily. Other sculptors of the same school, who by exaggerating the manner of Michelangelo contributed to the downfall of sculpture, were Guglielmo and Giacomo della Porta (d. 1577) and Prospero Clement! (d. 1584). THE SCULPTORS IN BRONZE. As Michelangelo developed freedom and modelling in marble, a similar advance was made in bronze and the art of the goldsmith by Benvenuto Cellini and Giovanni da Bologna. Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1572) infused into his sculpture something of his own emotional, irascible temper. In his minor works, such as cope buttons and bells and candelabra, pitchers and salvers, he pushed the decorative work of the goldsmith and miniature sculptor to its furthest 'limits. He was an important medium of transfer- RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 215 ring the influence of Italian sculpture to France, being one of the founders of the school at Fontainebleau, where he contin- ued the production of smaller objects, his chef-d'oeuvre being a salt-cellar, now in Vienna, made for Franois I. The only large work made by him in France, a re- clining nymph, placed over the principal door of the palace of Fon- tainebleau, had a marked influence upon the style of French sculptors, especially upon Jean Goujon. On his return to Florence in 1545 he made the Perseus for the Loggia dei Lanzi. Though a marvel of technical ex- cellence, it was con- ceived too much in the spirit of the miniatu- rist to be above criti- cism as monumental sculpture. In the bronze bust of Bindo Altoviti he was more successful, though even here he shows as much of the virtuoso as of the true artistic spirit. Cellini left valu- able records of his time in his treatise on the goldsmith art 7Q. BASE OF STATUE OF PP.KSBl'S (BY BEN- VENUTO CELLINI). LOGGIA UKI LANZI, FLOR- ENCE. 2l6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. and in his autobiography. Bronze-workers and medallists of inferior quality now appeared in every quarter of Italy, of whom the most noteworthy were the Paduans Leone Leoni (1509-1590) and his son Pompeo Leoni (d. 1610). Giovanni da Bologna (1524-1608), born at Douai in Flanders, studied in Rome, and became a sculptor of considerable influence. His works had usually a predominantly decorative aim, being designed for open piazzas, gardens, and palaces. Classic sub- jects, such as Neptune, The Flying Mercury, The Rape of the Sabines, Hercules and Nessus, were his themes. These he treated with considerable freedom and grace, and without exaggeration. His reliefs were inferior to his works in the round. The influence he exerted retarded the decline of sculpture in Italy. THE DECADENCE. After Michelangelo, sculpture as an art reigned supreme in Italy. Throughout the seventeenth and greater part of the eighteenth centuries architecture followed plastic rather than structural ideals. Spiral columns, broken cornices, curved walls, were some of the evidences that architecture gave of its submission. Painting also ceased to occupy its former position. Wall-painting was relegated to the decoration of apses and domes, and frequently furnished backgrounds for sculptured groups. Sculpture ran riot, exult- ing in its technical accomplishment and pushing plastic modes of representation to the furthest possible extreme. The churches were filled with restless baldachinos, violent altar- pieces, and emotional wall tombs. The open piazzas in the cities were provided with effective fountains, porticoes were lined with statues, even the rocks of the gardens were cut into living forms. The keynote of the sculpture of this period was its emotional, almost hysterical character. Naturalness and beauty were not its ideals. Movement, activity, and dramatic energy were emphasized at all hazards. This characterized the details as well as the general spirit. Drapery was no longer a help to RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. form; it was a field for the sculptor's display of skill in dis- tinguishing stuffs or in increasing dramatic effect. In the selection of materials, richly colored marbles were employed in preference to white marble or bronze, and different materials were often combined in the same work. The dramatic period of sculpture is always posterior to the classic. It is not necessarily unplastic, or antagonistic to the principles of monu- mental art. There are subjects in which passionate action is called for, and ma- terials and technical methods which can be appropriately utilized for such purposes. It was the radical application of the dramatic spirit to all themes and in all materials which brought this period of sculpture into contempt. Seldom has a sculp- tor enjoyed a more complete sway over his contemporaries than did Bernini in the seventeenth century. Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), the son of a Tuscan sculptor, was born in Na- ples, but came when a child to Rome. In his early works, the Apollo and Daphne, the David, and the Rape of Pros- FIG. 80. THE PROPHET DANIEL (BY BERNINl). S. MARIA DEL POPOLO, ROME. 2l8 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. erpine, he showed the influence of late Roman sculpture. Even in his S. Bibiana the classic spirit was still evident. " But," he remarked, as he looked back upon it in his old age, " had I always worked in this style, I should have been a beggar." By ministering to the depraved taste of his time, he received large sums of money for less worthy works. His baldachino with spiral columns in St. Peter's was the model for similar structures all over Europe. His sculptured angels upon marble clouds over the cathedral throne were repeated for more than a century, and his dramatic tombs of Urban VIII. and Alexander VII. set the fashion for many a monument of similar style and inferior quality. Bernini had many followers : in Naples, Sammartino, Cor- radini, and Queirolo ; in Rome, Alessandro Algardi and Stefano Maderna; in Florence, Giovanni Battista Foggini; and in Venice, Pietro Baratta. These men were extremely skilful technicians ; but they were inferior artists, since they had lost the capacity for great ideas and failed to recognize the natural limitations of their art. It is not strange that a classical reaction followed this period of mad extravagance. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Italian monuments of the Developed Renais- sance are to be sought for chiefly in the churches and museums of Italy. Not a few are in Spain, and some have found their way to the museums of Northern Europe. There is hardly a church in Italy that does not con- tain some monument of the Decadence. NOTE. Michelangelo studies have progressed in recent years. Marcel Reymond has shown (Gaz. B. A., 1908, 17-34) that the Medici Tombs are in their present state a mere torso of the original design, and Steinmann in his Geheimniss der Medicigraeber Michelangelos has given an entirely new interpretation of their significance. Bernini is the subject of an important volume by Fraschetti. CHAPTER XXII. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Baudot, La Sculpture Frangaise au Moyen-dge et a la Renaissance. Brownell, French Art. Clare- tie, Peintres et Sculpteurs Contemporains. Dierks, Houdon's Leben und Werke. Emeric-David, Histoire de la Sculpture Fran$aise. Gazette des Beaux-Arts. Gonse, La Sculpture Fran^aise depuis le XIV Siecle. Jouin, Antoine Coysevox. Le Monnier, L Art Fran$ais au Temps de Richelieu. Mon- taiglon, La Famille des Juste en France ; " Jean Goujon," in Gaz. d. Beaux-Arts, 1884-1885. Montaiglon et Duplessis, " Houdon," in Rev. Univ. des Arts, Vols. I. -II. Palustre, La Renaissance en France. Pattison, The Renaissance of Art in France. Thirion, Clodion. THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. Outside of Italy the Renais- sance has an external and a rather superficial significance. In no northern country was it so much a rebirth of the national spirit as a union of the Italian with the national style. The magnificent development of Romanesque and Gothic archi- tecture, the glory of mediaeval France, was attended by a sculptural development of hardly inferior quality. By the fifteenth century, however, the Gothic impulse had expended itself in over-elaboration, and a fallow period ensued, which could be quickened only by a return to simplicity or by the introduction of a new style. The latter was almost a neces- sary consequence of the growth of French power over Italy. The French feudal castle became now transformed into the chateau de plaisir, and Italian ideals in sculpture replaced the Gothic. This was accomplished by the actual importation of sculptors, chiefly from the north of Italy, who settled at 22O HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Tours, at Paris, and at Fontainebleau. It is hardly necessary to note the presence in France of Guido Mazzoni, Girolamo da Fiesole, the Juste family, Girolamo della Robbia, Bene- detto da Rovezzano, and of Benvenuto Cellini so many were the Italian artists settled in France and so thoroughly did the French cultivate Italian methods. THE SCHOOL OF TOURS. Though Italian monuments w-re made for France early in the fifteenth century, the first school of sculpture to exhibit the new influence strongly was that of FIG. 8l. ST. GEOKGK AND THE DRAGON (BY MICHEL COLOMBE). LOUVRE, PARIS. Tours. The chief representative of this school, Michel Co- lombe (1432-1515?), maybe compared with the best Italian sculptors of the Early Renaissance. His relief of St. George and the Dragon, made in 1508 for the high altar of the Chateau de Gaillon, does not suffer when brought into comparison with Donatello's treatment of the same subject at Or San Michele ; and his tomb statue of Roberte Legendre, wife of Louis Poncher, which has found a place in the Louvre, may be classed with the beautiful statue of Ilaria in the cathedral at Lucca. But we may observe that the decorative framework that sur- RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 221 rounds the St. George relief is Italian workmanship and that Italian artists were seldom absent when any monumental work in sculpture was in process of construction. Perr6al, who with Michel Colombe was a director of art under Charles VIII. and Louis XII., was also strongly influenced by Italian methods. The tomb of Francois II. of Brittany and Margaret de Foix, which he and Michel Colombe designed together, is a transitional monument, in which the principal figures are French, but the decorative base thoroughly Italian. Antoine Juste (1479-1519) and his brother Jean Juste (1485- 1534) were by birth Italians, sons of a Florentine sculptor. Antoine appears to have been the designer and Jean the prac- tical sculptor. The tomb of the Bishop of Dol, executed when Jean Juste was but twenty years of age, is altogether Italian. But the influence and traditions of Michel Colombe are visible in the tomb of Louis XII. and Anne of Brittany at St. Denis, and more strongly still in the tombs of Artus Gouffier and Philippe de Montmorency in the chapel at Oiron. The most elaborate monument in the style of this period is the tomb of the Cardinals of Amboise in the cathedral at Rouen. Though designed by Roland Leroux and executed with the assistance of French and Flemish sculptors, the Italian character of the work is so strong that we might naturally look tc Milan or Pavia for its inspiration. Only the kneeling statue ot George I. preserves the traditions of earlier French sculp- ture. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. During the first half of the sixteenth century the Franco- 1 tali an style spread rapidly under the vigorous patronage of Franfois I. The great chateaux, such as Blois, Chambord, Fontainebleau, St. Germain, Madrid, were transformed or erected in accordance with the new style. These buildings called for sculptural decoration after the Florentine manner of the Karly Renaissance. Public buildings and private houses followed at such centres as Tours, Angers, Orleans, Rouen, Rheims, and Toulouse ; then the churches, with 222 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. their sculptured doorways, altar-pieces, choir screens, and stalls. In the cloisters of St. Martin of Tours, Bastien Fran- ^ois continued the traditions of his uncle Michel Colombe; in the choir screen at Chartres, Jean Texier rivalled in delicacy of design and carving the most refined of Florentine decora- tion. Hardly inferior to this were the wooden doors, finely carved by Jean le Pot for Beauvais Cathedral, and the choir stalls of the same period at the Cathedral of Auch. South of Paris the Italian style prevailed over the French, as, for exam- ple, in the sculptures of La Dalbade at Toulouse ; in the north, Franco-Flemish influences remained stronger, as may be seen in the pictorial historic reliefs of the Field of the Cloth of Gold at the Hotel du Bourgtheroulde at Rouen. During the second half of the sixteenth century the influence of Catherine de' Medici over the last of the house of Valois signified a strengthening of Italian influence over French art. In architecture the Gothic style ceased to determine struc- tural forms, and sculpture assumed greater independence. The three great architects of this period, Bullant, Lescot, and Delorme, constantly applied for assistance to the three great sculptors, Bontemps, Jean Goujon, and Germain Pilon. Pierre Bontemps (fl. 1552) retained more than the others the Franco- Flemish spirit. Nothing could be more Italian in style than the triumphal arch designed by Delorme as the tomb of Francois I. at St. Denis. But Bontemps, the author of the sculptured reliefs at its base, represents, in accordance with French traditions, the conquest of the French in Italy. The funerary urn for the heart of Francois I. is also more Flemish than Italian in decorative detail. Jean Goujon (1520-1566?) maybe considered the typical sculptor of the developed Renaissance in France. His style represents the best of Flemish pictorial naturalism transformed by Italian grace and beauty. If he is somewhat severe and Flemish in. his early work for the two principal doors of St. Maclou at Rouen (1540-1541), he is already a great sculptor, RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 223 if we may attribute to him the sepulchral statue of Ixniis de Bre"ze. Already in 1541 his reliefs for Lescot's choir screen in St. Germain 1'Auxerrois show the prevailing Italian spirit. Harmony and elegance rapidly replaced his former austerity, as we may see in the grand chimney-piece, now at Chantilly, FIG. 82. WATER NYMPHS (BY GOUJON). LOUVRE, PARIS. which he made for the Chateau d'couen. In 1547 he deco- rated for Lescot the loggia which was ordered to grace the entiance of Henri II. into Paris. In the eighteenth century this was transformed into the Fountain of the Innocents. Goujon's reliefs representing fountain nymphs were treated with a grace peculiarly his own, and adapted most cleverly trraine special mention may be made of Ligier Richier (1500-1567), whose Holy Sepulchres at Hattonchatel and at Saint-Mihiel form an inter- esting parallel to the works of Mazzoni and Begarelli. As a sculptor of sorrow and of death, he represented the expiring spirit of the Middle Ages. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 225 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. This was for France a century of self-assertion and of superficial grandeur. It was epito- mized in the character of Louis XIV. In architecture the " ordre colossal " was introduced ; in painting, huge bombastic canvases, and in sculpture, pompous monuments were popular. The leading French sculptors were Girardon, Coysevox, and Puget. Their works showed an increasing tendency toward the display of emotion at the expense of classic form and repose. Francois Girardon (1628-1715) of the three was the most restful. His relief of the Nymphs at the Bath, at Versailles, exhibited an interest- ing combination of classic and French grace, but his Rape of Proserpine already followed in the line of Bernini, and his tomb of Cardinal Richelieu at the Sor- bonne inaugurated the series of pompous tombs of the age of Ix)uis XIV. and XV. He was the chief of a group of sculptors whose works may be best studied at Versailles. Among these was Robert le Lorrain (1666-1743), whose chef-d'oeuvre is the relief upon the Ancien Hotel de Rohan, representing the Horses of the Sun. Antoine Coysevox (1640-1720) was an original, varied, and productive sculptor, more thoroughly French than Girardon. FIG. 83. MOURNING FIGURE FROM THE TOMB OF CARDINAL MAZARIN (BY COYSEVOX). LOUVRE, PARIS. 226 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. His ornamental sculptures at Versailles showed the magnifi- cence of the decoration in demand at this period. As a por- trait sculptor his statues and busts, such as those of Louis XIV. and the Prince de Conde, of Bossuet, and Le Brun, were distinguished, life-like, and carefully executed. Toward the end of his career he made a dozen or more monumental tombs. Of his many pupils the best were Nicholas and Guillaume Coustou, whose graceful works mark the new spirit of the eighteenth century. MG. 84. HORSES OF'THB SUN. HOTEL DE ROHAN, PARIS. Pierre Puget (1622-1694), born at Marseilles, brought into French sculpture the heat of southern emotion. His Caryatids at the Hotel de Ville at Toulon were exaggerations of the spirit of Michelangelo. His inspiration was drawn more from Bernini and Algardi in his Milon of Croton and his relief of Alexander and Diogenes. His works were marvels of tech- nical ability, and full of fire, but not free from exaggeration. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY. The pompous and grand art of Louis XIV. was followed by an art of graceful form and deli- RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 227 cate sentiment. During the reigns of Louis XV. and XVI., sculpture of this character appealed strongly to a large class. The eighteenth century presents, therefore, a long list of skilful FIG. 85. THE MARKCIIM. 1)K SAXE (BY I'IGAI.I.B). LOUVRE. PARIS. sculptors in France. The line began with Jean Baptiste Lemoyne, who was a pupil of Robert le Lorrain, the pupil of Girardon. His principal works were destroyed during the Revolution, but his style may be measured by a number of 228 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. excellent busts which still survive. He counted among his pupils Pigalle, Caffieri, Pajou, Falconet, and others of less renown. Michel Slodtz (1705-1764), the author of the S. Bruno at St. 1'eter's, Rome, is linked with the preceding century through his father, Sebastian Slodtz, who was a pupil of Girar- don. Michel Slodtz was one of the masters of Houdon. Edme Bouchardon (1698- 1762) was called by Voltaire the .French Pheidias; but his graceful Cupid bend- ing the Bow, in the Louvre, and the charming reliefs of the fountain in the Rue de Grenelle- Saint-Germain show a spirit more closely re- lated to that of Prax- iteles. Jean Baptiste _J Pigalle (1714-1785), I.OUVKE, PARIS. (BY HOUDON). a more brilliant sculp- tor, infused a living quality into graceful forms. His Mercury attaching wings to .his feet is full of life as well as beauty. His monumental tombs were finer in detail than in general composition. Ga- briel Christophe Allegrain (1710-1795) was much admired by Diderot for his classic form, as was also Maurice Etienne Fal- RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 229 conet (1716-1781), who manifested a philosophic fondness for abstract subjects, such as Melancholy, Friendship, Music. Jean Jacques Caffi6ri, the best of a family of artists, whose ancestors came from Italy, was noted for his refined and graceful busts, seven of which are in the Museum of the Comedie Francaise. Augustin Pajou (1730-1809) was a sculptor of exquisite grace and delicate sentiment. His aristocratic bust of Madame Du Barry and his statue of Psyche remind one of his contemporary, the painter Boucher. Louis Michel Claude (1738-1814), called " Clodion," spread the taste for the lighter phases of sculpture by an extensive production, chiefly in terracotta, of minor works of household art. The sum of all that is best in French sculpture of the eighteenth century is to be found in the work of Houdon. Jean Antoine Houdon (1741-1828), the pupil of Lemoyne, Michel Slodtz, and Pigalle, applied his energy in the direction of naturalism. " It should be our aim," he declared, " to pre- serve and render imperishable the true form and image of the men who have brought honor and glory to their country." He urged his pupils: " Copiez, copiez toujours, et surtout copies juste." He was not lacking on the ideal side, as his light- stepping Diana of the Louvre testifies, but his strength as a sculptor lay in portraiture. His seated statues of Voltaire and of Rousseau, and his busts, such as those of Moliere and Diderot and Buffon, of Franklin and Washington, are the works by which his genius is to be measured. In these also he showed himself not only thoroughly French, but essentially modern. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Outside of t'nc museums of tiie Louvre, Trocu- dero, Cluny, Ecole des Beaux Arts, and the private collections of Paris, French Renaissance sculpture may be best studied in Tours, Rouen, Caen, Dijon, Toulouse, and in the more important of the French chateaux. NOTE. Individual French sculptors are beginning to receive special attention. Paul Vitry's Michel Colombe is the most important of such treatises. CHAPTER XXIII. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, SPAIN, AND ENGLAND. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Amil, Espafia Artistica y Monu- mental. Becker, Leben und Werke des Bildhauer T. Riemen- schneider. Bergau, Der Bildschnitzer V r eit Stoss und seine Werke. Bode, Geschichte der deutschen Plastik. Carderera y Solano, Iconografia Espanola. Forster, Geschichte der deutscher Kunst ; Die deutsche Kunst in Wort und Bild ; Denkmdler deutscher Kunst in Batikunst, Bildnerei und Malerei. Liibke, Geschichte der deutschen Kunst ; Peter Vischer* s Werke. Mid- dleton, article "Sculpture," in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Scott, British School of Sculpture. Waagen, Kunstwerke und Kiinstler in Deutschland. Ysendyck, Documents classes de I'Art dans les Pays Bas. GEBMANY: THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. The Renaissance, as a classic or Italian movement, made itself felt slowly in Germany. The Germans were sluggish in their appreciation of formal beauty. They emphasized inward significance, sen- timent, and reality, and at first regarded beauty of form as superficial. As a naturalistic movement, however, the fifteenth century signified for Germany, as it did for Italy, a return to nature and a revival of sculpture. The South Ger- man schools at Nuremberg, Wtirzburg, in Swabia, Bavaria, and the Tyrol, received something of an impulse from Italy, while the schools of the Middle and Lower Rhine, Saxony, Prussia, and the northern provinces were more closely connected with the art of the Netherlands. In South Germany the most influential school was that of Nuremberg, best represented by RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. 23! Michael Wohlgemuth, Veit Stoss, Adam Kraft, and Peter Vischer. Michael Wohlgemuth (1434-1519) was equally distin- guished as painter, engraver, and sculptor. Such men were as rare in Germany as they were common in Italy. His Depo- sition in the Kreuzkapelle at Nuremberg is simple in compo- sition and contains figures of marked individuality. Veit Stoss (1440-1533) was the most renowned of German wood- carvers. His early work at Krakau, though Gothic in treat- ment, was nevertheless characterized by formal symmetry. His later work at Nuremberg exhibited a more developed, though superficial beauty. The work By which he is best known is in the Ixjrenzkirche, and represents an Annunication set in a carved wreath of roses, with medallions of scenes from the life of the Virgin. Adam Kraft (1450 P-isoy) reached distinction as a stone- carver. His earliest dated works, the Seven Stages of the Journey to Calvary (1490), placed at intervals along the road to the Johannis cemetery, were pathetic and realistic, though crowded in composition and unequal in execution. His reliefs of Christ bearing the Cross, the Entombment, and the Resur- rection in the Schreyer sepulchral monument on the exterior of the Sebalduskirche were richer and more picturesque. Greater symmetry and beauty characterized his relief of the City Scales over the gateway of the Civic Weighing House. His most remarkable work is the magnificent free standing tabernacle which reaches to the ceiling of the Lorenzkirche, and is enriched with figured sculpture. Peter Vischer (1460-1529) was the foremost of the German bronze-casters. Early works of his are to be found in Mag- deburg and in Breslau. His most important monument is the shrine of St. Sebaldus at Nuremberg, begun in 1507 and fin- ished in 1519. In the sculptural portions of this shrine we see, for the first time, strong Italian influence in the pose and proportions of the figures, in the drapery, in the emphasis put 232 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. upon the human form, and in the use of nude figures. The relief sculptures upon the shrine also evinced Italian methods of composition. This may have been due to the visit of Albrecht Diirer to Venice, al- though of his own sons who became his assist- ants, it is certain that Hermann, and prob- ably Peter Vischer the Younger, visited Italy. In 1513 he made for the remarkable monu- ment of Kaiser Maxi- milian at Innsbruck the noteworthy statues of King Arthur and King Theodoric. THE WTJBZBURG SCHOOL held an inter- mediate position be- tween the Nuremberg and the S w a b i a n school. It produced two important sculp- tors, the anonymous Master of the Altar of the Herrgottskirche at Creglingen and Til- man Riemenschneider. The altar at Creglingen (1487) was thoroughly Gothic, not only in its architecture but in sentiment and in treatment ; but a head of Adam in the South Kensington ARTHUR (BY PETER VISCHER). INNSBRUCK. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. 233 Museum, attributed to the same master, shows a formal beauty suggestive of Italian influence. Tilman Riemenschneider (1460-1531) represented a somewhat more advanced style. His Adam and Eve in the portal of the Marienkirche remind us of Venetian and Lombard work, and his draped figures show a broader treatment than was customary in. purely German sculpture. His masterpiece, the tomb of Heinrich II. and his wife Kunigunde (1513) in the cathedral at Bamberg, shows, however, that Italian methods had by no means overcome his local style. THE SWABIAN SCHOOL represented . grace and charm rather than dramatic power. This is evident in the work of Friedrich Berlin for the high altar of the Jakobskirche at Rothenburg (1466), in the almost Italian crucifix in the Hauptkirche at Nordlingen, in the beautiful choir stalls by Jorg Syrlin in I Jim Cathedral, and in the famous high altar at Blaubeuren. BAVAKIA AND THE ATISTEIAN TYROL showed even more strongly the infusion of influences from Venice and the north of Italy. The richly decorative and charming altar in the church at St. Wolfgang by the most distinguished sculptor of this district, Michael Pacher of Bruneck, is like a carved picture by an early Venetian painter. The same is true, in lesser degree, of many other altars of the Tyrol. MIDDLE AND NORTH GERMANY. The art of the Netherlands was the determining influence here. In this may be detected a pictorial rather than a sculptural sense, greater attention to detail than to mass, and a fondness for many figures in com- position. In the Middle Rhine region, in the cathedrals of Speyer, Worms, and Mainz, stone was preferred to wooden sculpture. But there were here no sculptors of importance. In the Lower Rhine region, Prussia and North Germany, wood-carving was preferred to stone, and the influence of the Netherlands was still more apparent. In fact, Flemish and Dutch sculptors are known to have produced many important works in this part of Germany. The records show that the 234 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. high altar at the parish church at Calcar was the work of a sculptor from the Netherlands. If we turn from this to the magnificent altar in the cathedral at Schleswig (1515-1521), with its twenty panels of carved groups, we will recognize the source from which Hans Briiggeman drew his inspiration. FIG. 88. DEATH OF THE VIRGIN (BY RIEMENSCHNEIDER). WORZBURG CATHEDRAL. In Saxony, northern and southern influences were sometimes united in the production of works which are not without charm, such as the " beautiful portal " of the church at Anna- berg, and the pulpit in the form of a flower in the cathedral at Freiberg. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. 235 THE SIXTEENTH CENTTTBY. Toward the middle of the six- teenth century the development of German sculpture was arrested by the influence of foreign styles. In Southern Germany and Austria, Italian architecture brought with it Italian sculptural decoration. Renaissance pilasters decorated with floral or candelabra designs, cabinet columns, portrait medallions, dolphins, sirens, and other North Italian motives were freely employed. At the same time, the peculiar forms of Flemish Renaissance decoration, arabesques, curling band ornament, and grotesque figures, found their way into Southern as well as Northern Germany. I* was not a period for great monuments. The resultant style was a hybrid form of the Italian Renaissance. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. During the early seventeenth century the Thirty Years' War had absorbed the energies of Germany. This resulted in equal rights to Catholics and Protestants. Accordingly, in the second half of this century and throughout the eighteenth century we find alongside of each other the Rococo or Jesuit style of architecture, with its elaborate figured ornamentation, and the barren style of the Protestants. The Catholic affiliations were with Italy, those of the Protestants with the Netherlands. A new influence, that of France, now made itself felt, especially in aristocratic circles. The German sculptor who stands out prominently in the seventeenth century is Andreas Schiuter (1664-1714). That he was not altogether free from Berninesque methods is evi- dent from his marble pulpit in the Marienkirche in Berlin, the canopy of which, with its carved pediment, is covered with a mass of angels clambering upon marble clouds. The same in- fluence is perceptible in his harmonious equestrian statue of the Great Elector Friedrich III. and in the decorations of the Schloss at Berlin. His most vigorous original work, the tragic masks of Dying Warriors, is in the court of the Berlin Arsenal. Georg Raphael Dormer (1692-1741), in the succeed- 236 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. ing century, represented for South Germany and Austria a classic reaction against the Rococo methods, and thus prepared the way for the new era of modern sculpture. His chef-d' ceuvre is the Fountain in the New Market at Vienna. THE NETHEKLANDS. In the Netherlands, sculpture in the fifteenth century remained thoroughly Gothic. Though sub- sidiary to architecture, it was held in higher esteem than painting. High altars, for the most part, consisted of biblical scenes carved in wood in the most elabo- rate manner. The minor portions of these altars, such as the enclosing doors or wings, were frequently decorated by paintings. The destruction of many of these altars by the Protestants and the scattering of Nether- land sculptors into France, Germany, Spain, England, and Italy make it difficult to obtain a proper estimate of the sculpture of the Nether- lands. Still, its general course of development is clear. In the archives at Amsterdam there is preserved a series of statu- ettes of counts and countesses of Holland, which, in stiffness of attitude, in costume, and in quaintness of style, remind us of the figures in the pictures of Van Eyck. The rising im- portance of the school of Brussels may be illustrated by a FIG. 89. MASK OF A DYING WARRIOR (BY SCHLOTER). ARSENAL, BERLIN. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. 237 magnificent altar-piece with scenes from the type of the Vir- gin, belonging to the church at Lombeek Notre Dame. In freedom of composition and naturalism this altar-piece is not behind the contemporary works of Flemish painting. In the sixteenth century the style of the Renaissance was introduced. Much that was peculiarly Flemish still remained, but, at the same time, Italian influences were strongly felt. The stalls of the church at Dordrecht, by Jan Terwen (1538- 1542), might almost be taken as the prototype for Lescot and Goujon's jube at St. Germain PAuxerrois. More thoroughly under the influence of the developed Renaissance of Italy was the marble altar made by Jacques Dubroeucq in 1549 for a chapel in the cathedral at Mons. In the seventeenth century the school of Antwerp came to the front, and the Rubens of Flemish sculpture, Francois Duquesnoy (1594-1644), exerted a wide influence. In spite of the Italian character of his style, Duquesnoy preserved a dig- nity and distinction of manner which remind us of the great sculptors of France. He is best known by the monuments he left in Italy, but a fine example of his work may be seen in the carved panels and choir stalls of the church of Notre Dame at Dendermonde. His pupil, Artus Quellinus (1609-1668), was a highly gifted sculptor, whose influence extended from Am- sterdam into the north of Germany. Tne eighteenth century witnessed a decline in the sculptural art of the Netherlands, although now and then excellent wood- carving continued to be done, as in the vigorous statues over the stalls of the church at Wouw. SPAIN. In Spain, upon the basis laid in the Gothic period by architects and sculptors from France, there arose in the fifteenth century a transitional style, stimulated by Flemish influence, which was in turn succeeded in the sixteenth cen- tury by a more monumental sculpture under the guidance of Italian artists. Immense tombs by Florentine, and especially by Lombard 238 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. artists, were erected in many important churches, Italian artists took up their residence in Spain, and Italian methods of decoration were generally substituted for the Gothic. The tomb of Ferdinand and Isabella at Granada is a fine example of Italian work in Spain. In the seventeenth century, Mon- FIG. QO. CARVED-WOOD ALTAR-PIECE AT LOMBEEK NOTRE DAME. tafies (d. 1614) and Alonso Cano (1600-1667) represented the later phases of the Spanish Renaissance. ENGLAND. In England there were few native sculptors during the Renaissance period. The engraved sculptural slabs in bronze of the fifteenth century, and many decorative sculp- tures, were executed or inspired by sculptors from the Nether- lands. In the sixteenth century more monumental works, and Italian methods, were introduced by Pietro Torrigiano RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. 239 (1472-1522) and by Benedetto da Rovezzano. The former .designed the first tomb of Henry VII., also the bronze effigy of Margaret of Richmond in the chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey; the latter designed a tomb for Cardinal Wolsey, the sarcophagus of which now holds the body of Admiral Nelson in St. Paul's Cathedral. In the seventeenth century the leading native sculptor was Nicholas Stone (1586-1647), to whom the De Vere and Villiers monuments at Westminster are commonly attributed. He was associated in many works with the architect Inigo Jones. Grinling Gibbons (1648-1721), an extraordinarily skilful sculp- tor, who worked also for Sir Christopher Wren, seems to have been a native of Holland. During the eighteenth century, Flemish and French sculptors received all commissions of importance. Toward the end of the century the classical revival began in England under the inspiration of John Flax- man (1755-1826). His masterly outline illustrations of the poems of Homer, Hesiod, yEschylus, and Dante, and hi? classic designs and exquisitely delicate reliefs for Wedgwood pottery, did more than his attempts at monumental sculpture to start a new current in English sculpture. EXTANT MONUMENTS. German Renaissance sculpture may be studied in the museums of Berlin (Royal), Munich (Germanisches), Nuremberg (National), and in the churches and public squares of Nuremberg, Bam- berg, Wurzburg, Rothenburg, Creglingen, Ulm, Blaubeuren, Augsburg, Annaberg, Freiberg, Fulda, Main/, Calcar, Xanten, Schleswig, and Berlin. In the Netherlands, besides the museums of Brussels (Musee d'Art Monu- mental) and Amsterdam (Ryks Museum), of special interest are the churches at Bruges, Gheel, Mons, Ypres, Bois-le-l)uc, and Breda ; in Spain, the Escorial, and the cathedrals and churches of Burgos, Toledo, Seville, Valencia, Barcelona, and Madrid ; in England, Westminster Abbey, Windsor Castle, Chatsworth and Warwick Castles. CHAPTER XXIV. MODERN SCULPTURE' IN ITALY, DENMARK, SWEDEN, GERMANY, AND RUSSIA. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Besides the General Bibliography, consult : Cook, " Russian Bronzes " (Harper's Magazine, Jan., 1889). Description des CEuvres de Thorwaldsen an Muse'e Thor- waldsen. Dohme, Kunst und Kiinstler des XIX Jahrhunderts. Eggers, Christian Daniel Ranch. Gruneisen u. Wagner, Dannecker's Werke. Liibke, Geschichte der deutschen Knnst. Moses, The Works of Antonio Canova. Plon, Thorwaldseri 's Life and Works. Quatremere de Quincy, Canm>a et ses Ou- vrages. Reber, Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst. Scha- dow, Kunstiverke und Ktmstansichten. Schultz, Umrisse von Werken Canovas. Thiele, Thorwaldseri 1 s Leben. INTRODUCTION. The emotional phase of Renaissance sculp- ture having expended itself in extravagant productions, it was natural that the nineteenth century should begin by a return to classic simplicity and severity. This movement was felt throughout Europe. Sculptors from all nations emigrated to Rome. Antique subjects now prevailed, and were exe- cuted in a more thoroughly classical spirit than during the period of the Renaissance.. Religious themes were compara- tively neglected. Sculpture was devoted mainly to secular purposes, for the private enjoyment of wealthy patrons. But as the democratic character of modern institutions increased, a reaction against aristocratic and classic sculpture became prevalent. A desire was felt for subjects more national in character, and especially for the representation of men dis- tinguished in literature, science, art, and history. In this MODERN SCULPTURE. 241 stage sculpture assumed a post-classical, Christian, or roman- tic character. Much of the spirit of classicism was retained, though its form and substance had changed. FIG. qi. CVBELE. LATE SPANISH RENAISSANCE. Finally, during the latter half of this century, the objective spirit so manifest in science and literature had also per- 16 242 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. meated plastic art. Mythological and romantic subjects largely gave way to the myriad actualities of modern life. The centre of inspiration for sculptors was shifted from Rome to Paris. On the technical side, the old implements used in carving and modelling have remained the same as in earlier days, but mechanical devices have multiplied, by means of which the sculptor's model may be reproduced in any material and on any scale. Hence the modern sculptor is usually content with fashioning his images in clay, leaving much of the exe- cution of his work to mechanical reproduction by his work- men. He need not be a carver; he is often only a modeller. These mechanical methods have, on the one hand, brought the products of sculpture to the homes of the poor, but, on the other hand, they have frequently reacted disadvantageously upon the work of the artist himself. ITALY : CLASSIC SCHOOL. The modern revival of classical sculpture in Italy began with Antonio Canova (1757-1822). He received his first stimulus in sculpture from the patronage of Senator Giovanni Falieri in Venice. The success which followed his Orpheus and Eurydice, his yEsculapius, and his Daedalus and Icarus, secured for him a pension which enabled him, in 1779, to go to Rome. Here the influence of Raphael Mengs and of Winckelmann had already set the current in favor of classic simplicity and repose. His friendship for the English painter Gavin Hamilton and the French critic and art histo- rian Quatremere de Quincy were of value in securing him rec- ognition. His first important work in Rome, Theseus and the Minotaur, was hailed as the revival of the classic style. This brought him many commissions in Rome, among which were the tombs for the Popes Clement XIII. and XIV. In these monuments, and in his Amor embracing Psyche, now in the IxMivre, he was open to the charge of being a softened Ber- nini. To refute this charge, he aimed at stronger and more masculine effects in his Hercules and Lichas, and in the stat- MODERN SCULPTURE. 243 ties of the boxers Kreugas and Damoxenes. But these works only showed that the criticism was well founded. His best vein lay in the direction of grace and beauty rather than of strength. The Perseus which he made to replace the Apollo of the Belvidere, and the Venus made to replace the Venus de' Medici, which had been removed to Paris, are masterpieces of graceful beauty. We find something lack- ing in his busts and in the colossal statue of Napoleon, but are charmed by the statue of Napoleon's sister Pauline Borghese. In relief sculpture he was less successful. Following closely in his wake, although later a pupil of Thorwaldsen's, was Pietro Tenerani (1798-1869). He was a prolific workman, highly honored and prized alike for his classical and Chris- tian sculptures. Of the former class his Psyche with Pandora's box, in the Palazzo Lenzoni, in Florence, has been much admired ; of the latter, the most important are his large relief of the Deposition in the Capella Torlonia of the Lateran and the tomb of Duchess Lante in S. Maria sopra Minerva. ROMANTIC SCHOOL. The influence of Canova even in Italy was met by the counter-influences of the romantic and natu- KIG. Q2. PKKSF.IJS (l(V CANOVA). VATICAN, ROME. 244 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. rali stic school. Among the romanticists, who aimed at infus- ing the classic style with naturalism, may be counted Stefano Ricci, Bartolini, Pampaloni, and Pio Fedi. 9*"frn Bieei. praised by Canova, was the author of many monuments, espe- cially in Arezzo, and in S. Maria Novella and S. Croce in Florence. Somewhat further removed from Canova was Lorenzo Bartolini (1777-1850). His early studies in Paris gave him a bias toward naturalism. His principles were the imitation of nature and a return to simplicity ; but he could not free himself altogether from the classic style, as we may see from his group representing Charity, in the Pitti, or from his Pyrrhus throwing Astyanax from the Walls of Troy. Loigi PaBpaloni (1791-1847), best known from his statues of chil- dren, produced also many larger works, among which may be mentioned the tomb of Lazzaro Papi in S. Frediano at Lucca and the colossal statue of Pietro Leopoldo in the Piazza di S. Caterina at Pisa. Pio Fedi, bom in 1815, more characteris- tically Italian in his work, is known by his graceful but emo- tional group of the Rape of Polyxena in the Loggia dei Lanzi. REALISTIC SCHOOL The natmalistk tendency, : .7i>:r: in Italy than in the north of Europe, has been exemplified in the works of Dupre, Vela, and Monteverde. Giovanni Dnprt (1817-1882), a follower of Bartolini. emphasized the leaning toward naturalism found in the work of his master. He attracted attention first by his statues of Cain and Abel in the Pitti and later by a Mi chela ngelesque Pieta at Siena. In his Beatrice Portinari, in the statue of Giotto at the Uffizi. and in the Cavour monument at Turin his realism is still more em- phatic. Yincenzo Vel* (1822-1891), even more modern in sentiment and of great technical ability, shows himself to have been a dramatic sculptor in such works as his Spartacns and his Dying Napoleon, but be was equally successful in ideal works, as, for example, his Primavera. A rising sculptor of considerable ability and dramatic power at the present time MODERN SCULPTURE. 245 is Ettore Ximenes, from whom we may expect works of monumental importance. But the average Italian sculpture of to-day is devoted to domestic subjects of trivial though grace- ful character. It evinces the spirit of a Canova no longer occupied with gods and heroes, but roam- ing about in search of grace and charm in modern life. DENMARK AND SWEDEN. Among the earliest of the nations of Northern Europe to participate in the modern classic revival were Denmark and Sweden. Danish sculp- ture received an im- pulse in this direction from a Frenchman, T. F. J. Saly, who be- came director of the Academy at C o p e n - hagen. H i s succes- sors, Johannes Wiede- welt and Weidenhaupt, drew their inspiration from Paris and from Rome ; but a stronger representation of the classic spirit was found in Bertel Tkorwaldsen (1770-1844). He was a more thorough classicist than Canova, for in Canova there still sur- FIG. 93. GIOTTO (BY DUI'Kfe). PORTICO OK THE UFFIZI, FLORENCE. 246 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. vived something of the spirit of Bernini, whereas Thorwaldsen was not embarrassed by such traditions. His arrival in Rome was to him the opening of a new life. " I was born on the 8th of March, 1797," he used to say; " before then I did not exist." In Rome he copied ancient statues and absorbed the spirit of classic sculpture. His first statue of importance, the Jason, received ready recognition from the neo-classicists. Canova said of it: " This work of the Danish youth exhibits a new and grand style." An English banker, Sir Thomas Hope, ordered it executed in marble. German artists, like Carstens, and scholars, like Zoe'ga, were helpful friends ; and pupils from all nations flocked to his studio. In the work of these early years he treated by preference graceful Praxitelean subjects, such as Adonis, Psyche, Venus, Hebe. In 1812 Napoleon was expected in Rome, and Thorwaldsen was employed to make the frieze for one of the most spacious halls of the Quirinal Palace. Taking the work of Pheidias as his model, he produced a magnificent frieze representing the entrance of Alexander into Babylon. His eminent success in this made him known among the Romans as the " patriarca del basso-rilievo." During the decade which followed, Thorwald- sen was at the height of his powers. To this period belong his Achilles and Priam, Night and Morning (1815), The Shepherd Boy (1817), and the Mercury (1818). He now restored for Prince Louis of Bavaria the archaic sculptures from ^Egina, and occasionally, as in his statue of Hope, adopted the conventions of archaic sculpture. His success in Rome led the King of Denmark to urge his return to Copenhagen. Here he went several times, and here he died in 1844. The demand made upon him in Copenhagen was chiefly for religious sculptures. In the Frue Kirche is his Christ and the Twelve Apostles, the Angel of Baptism, and several reliefs, while in the pediment over the entrance is his terracotta group of the Preaching of John the Baptist. MODERN SCULPTURE. 247 The influence of Thorwaldsen was perpetuated in his own country by H. W. Bissen (1798-1868), who early manifested the romantic tendency for subjects from Norse instead of Greek mythology. In his later years he caught the naturalistic spirit of modern days, and was strong in portraiture. Of the living sculptors of Norway, J. A. Jerichau is a close follower of Thorwaldsen. SWEDEN. In Sweden, also, classic influences were introduced FIG. 94. MONUMENT TO PROF. VACCA BKRLINGHIERI (BY THORWALDSEN). CAMPOSANTO, PISA. by French sculptors. Here the younger Bouchardon (d. 1762) and Larcheveque (d. 1778) gave the direction to Swedish sculp- ture in the last century. The most distinguished Swedish classicist was J. T. Sergell (1736-1813). He spent twelve years in Rome, and then returned to Stockholm. The German sculptor Schadow says of him : " He is less widely known than Thorwaldsen, but stands equally high in the estimation of con- 248 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. noisseurs." His successor Fogelberg was a romanticist, and made famous statues of Odin, Thor, and Balder. GERMANY. In Germany the Rococo style had become so thoroughly established that pictorial methods prevailed over the sculptural, and the eighteenth century left German sculp- ture at a low ebb. In the revival of the early nineteenth cen- tury, Germany looked to Italy for instruction, and her most distinguished sculptors went to Rome. But the Protestant German nature was too independent to submit to Catholic Italy. As the centre of power shifted to Berlin, the patriotic soon replaced the classic style. At the end of the last century a school of sculptors at Stuttgart, headed by Dannecker and Scheffauer, manifested a strong classic spirit. Johann Hein- rich Dannecker (1758-1841) studied first in Paris under Pajou, then went to Rome, and came under the influence of Canova. His works are characterized by grace and a certain measure of refinement. He is best known by his Ariadne and the Panther, at Frankfort. As a sculptor of Christian subjects he was less successful. His associate P. J. Scheffauer (1756-1808) helped him to establish the classic style in Stuttgart. Stronger and more representative were the schools at Berlin under the leadership of Schadow and Rauch, at Dresden under Hahnel and Schilling, and at Munich under Schwanthaler. The school of Berlin has been chiefly historical and realistic in tendency, while Munich has stood for romanticism. BEELIN SCHOOL. Johann Gottfried Schadow (1764-1850) received his first artistic impulses from Tassaert, a Flemish sculptor established in Berlin. In 1785 he went to Rome, where he was especially attracted by ancient historical sculp- ture. On the death of Frederick the Great he proposed making of him an equestrian statue in Roman costume, having in mind doubtless the figure of Marcus Aurelius of the Capitol ; but when he made the statue later, for Stettin, it was in the costume of the period. His statue of Leopold of Dessau marks the transition from the classic to the patriotic MODERN SCULPTURE. 249 style. The figure of Leopold is clad in the regimentals of the period, but the reliefs on the pedestal are costumed in classic style. When asked by Queen Louise why he had done this, he replied : " The poets and artists would all make an outcry against the Prussian costume." But she voiced a deeper Ger- FIG. 95. ARIADNE (l!Y UANNECKER). FRANKFORT. man feeling when she answered : " I do not understand why any- one should object. If my husband wanted Greek and Roman generals, well and good; but he wants Prussians. How, then, are they to be distinguished ? " Although the sculptor of many portraits, Schadow was at his best when an ideal element was 250 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. involved, as in his Quadriga of Victory over the Brandenburger Thor at Berlin, and in his Nymph awaking out of Sleep. Of the pupils of Schadow, Christian Friedrich Tieck (1776-1851) spent fourteen years in Rome, and on his return adorned the Royal Theatre of Berlin with dramatic sculptures of mytho- logical character. Rudolph Schadow (1786-1822), the eldest son of Johann Gottfried Schadow, turned his attention to the ideal genre and produced works of lyric character. The realistic tendency which seemed forced in the works of Schadow became strong and natural in the works of Christian Daniel Ranch (1777-1857). He holds the highest rank among the historical sculptors of Germany. The inspiration he received from the ancient sculptures of Rome corrected and improved his sense of form, without subjecting his spirit. Even German romanticism did not divert him from strictly his- torical treatment. His monumental works were thoroughly national, but conceived with an attentive regard for plastic beauty. His monument of Queen Louise at the Mausoleum at Charlottenburg is a living portrait, and at the same time an ideal of womanhood. Rauch's ideals of manhood were expressed in his statues of Generals Scharnhorst and Biilow near the guard-house in Berlin, and in the heroic Albrecht Dtirer at Nuremberg. His monumental works were restful and dignified, with the exception of the Bliicher monument at Breslau, which was made after a design by Schadow. His seated statue of Maximilian I. at Munich is a fine example of his power. More important still is the statue of Frederick the Great at Berlin, which occupied his attention during the years from 1839 to 1851. In dignity, harmony, and beauty of composition this monument marks the highest point reached by German sculpture. Of his pupils and followers in Berlin may be mentioned Drake, Blaser, Schievelbein, and Kiss. Friedrich Drake (b. 1805) has been a close follower of the spirit of Rauch, as, for example, in his equestrian statue of Kaiser Wilhelm I. MODERN SCULPTURE. 251 at Cologne, and in his statues of Rauch and Schinkel at Berlin. Gustav Blaser (1813-1874) of Cologne represented the same tendency. His Francke monument at Magdeburg is to be classed with the best of modern Ger- man portrait statues. Friedrich Hermann Schievelbein. (1817- 1867) sculptured the group on the palace bridge at Berlin rep- resenting Pallas in- structing a youth in the use of the spear. His frieze of the De- struction of Pompeii in the Greek court of the New Museum is dramatic in character and seems to have been inspired by the frieze of the Apollo Temple at Phigaleia. August Kiss (1804- 1865), especially cel- ebrated for his ani- mals in bronze, rep- resented the active FIG. 96. THE TWO PRINCESSES (l)Y SCHADOW). CASTLE, UEKI.IN. and emotional side of the school. His best work is the Mounted Amazon fighting a Tiger, on the steps of the Old Museum at Berlin. DKESDEN SCHOOL. The Dresden school, intermediate between that of Berlin and of Munich, represents a tendency partially historic and partially romantic. Ernst Friedrich August 252 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Rietschel (1804-1861) was a pupil of Rauch, then a student at Rome. His monument of King Friedrich August in the Zwinger FIG. 97. MONUMENT OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (BY RAUCH). BERLIN. at Dresden is based upon Rauch's statue of Maximilian I. ; and his statue of Lessing at Brunswick is an excellent example MODERN SCULPTURE. 253 of the refined portraiture of the same school. The spirit of romanticism appears in his Luther monument at Worms. He excelled in works where religious feeling was involved, as in the Pieta in the Friedenskirche at Potsdam. Ernst Hahnel (b. 1811) studied in Italy, then at Munich. His works represent the transition from the classical to the romantic style. To the former class belongs his Bacchus frieze on the upper portion of the Dresden Theatre ; to the latter his monument to Beethoven at Bonn, with its reliefs in the style of Cornelius and Overbeck. Johannes Schilling (b. 1828) followed in the line of Hahnel. His group of the Night, on the Briihl Terrace at Dresden, shows the influence of his Roman training, but his colossal figure of Germania at Niederwald is a thoroughly national, " pracht- volles " monument, not altogether free from the Rococo spirit of the earlier Dresden school. THE MUNICH SCHOOL of the early nineteenth century repre- sented romanticism tempered by the classic style. Konrad Eberhard (1768-1859) studied in Rome, and on his return gave up the production of Muses, Fauns, and Dianas for the decoration of portals and making of statues in the mediaeval style. He became a religious fanatic. Ludwig Schwanthaler (1802-1848), in spite of repeated visits to Rome and the responses he frequently made to the demand for classic themes, was at his best in the treatment of national subjects, such as the twelve gilded bronze figures of Bavarian kings for the throne-room of the Konigsbau, the colossal figure of Bavaria in front of the Ruhmeshalle, and the Hermann Battle in one of the pediments of the Walhalla near Regensburg. In this last half of the nineteenth century German sculpture has vibrated between the romantic and the naturalistic schools. Adolph Hildebrand, of Jena, in his Shepherd Boy aimed at more naturalistic effect than did Thorwaldsen in his Shepherd and the Dog. Naturalism is flourishing in the Berlin school, and is best exemplified in the works of Reinhold Begas, whose genre studies are full of life and whose portraits are 254 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. excellent. In Munich, Caspar Zumbusch (b. 1830), the sculp- tor of the Maximilian II. monument and the statue of Count FIG. 98. RUSSIAN STANDARD-BEARER (BY LANCERE). Rumford, represents the realistic tendency, while Conrad Knoll, Anton Hess, and others continue to work in the romantic field. EUSSIA. In Russia the absence of marble, the severity of MODERN SCULPTURE. . 255 the climate, the interdict of the church against sculpture in the round, and of the state against the use of bronze except for images of the sovereign and high officials, retarded the progress of sculpture. Russian sculpture is, therefore, of very recent growth, and almost exclusively confined to small bronzes. These, however, furnish characteristic and interest- ing pictures of contemporary life. The best known sculptors of Russia are Lancere and Lie- berich, though excellent work has been done by Samonoff, Posene, Naps, Gratchoff, Kamensky, and Genzburg. Lancere's bronzes are full of spirited action and modelled with extreme attention to details. His subjects, whether for- eign studies, such as An Arab Fantasia, An Arab with the Lion's Cub, A Donkey Driver, An Arab Horseman, or more thoroughly Russian, as Cossack Soldiers watering their Horses, The Standard Bearer, and The Opritchnike (Freebooter), are sympathetic pictures of modem Oriental and Russian life with which the horse is almost invariably associated. Lieberich. (b. 1828) is a skilful and varied sculptor of ani- mals. His Wolf Chase, Hare Hunt, Falconer, Fight with a Bear, Samoyed and Reindeer Team, are full of action and life, and evince minute study of details. Samonoff, Posene, and Naps have devoted themselves to genre views of peasant life, such as a Cossack lighting his Pipe, Emigrants to the Amoor, etc. Gratchoff is extremely clever in portraying types of Russian character; Feodor Kamensky has introduced into* his works a touch of Italian grace ; and Genzburg, in his original and expressive Boy Bathing, has proved himself a sculptor of considerable merit. EXTANT MONUMENTS. The products of modern sculpture are dis- tributed in the churches, cemeteries, public squares and parks, civic build- ings, museums, libraries, historical societies, and private collections. Oc- casionally specific collections are made, as in the Thorwaldsen Museum at Copenhagen ; the Rauch Museum, Merlin ; the Kietschel and the Schil- ling Museums, Dresden ; and the Schwanthaler Museum, Munich. CHAPTER XXV. MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Alexandra. A. L. Barye. Benedite, Le Muste du Luxembourg. Bertrand, Francois Rude. Brown- ell, French Art. Chesneau, Le Statuaire Carpeaux. Claretie, Peintres et Sculpteurs Contetnporains. Dohme. KunstundKiinst- kr d?s XIX Jahrhunderts. Fourcaud, Francois Rude. Gonse, La Sculpture Fran$aise ; Chefs d' (Euvres de P Art au XIX e Siecle. Jouin, David d' Angers. Charles de Kay, Life and Works of Antoine Louis Barye. REVOLUTIONARY CHANGES. In France the Revolution at the close of the eighteenth century signified the substitution of democratic for aristocratic ideas and methods. This resulted in the destruction of many fine statues, but not of the sculp- tor's- art. At first classical methods, especially those of repub- lican Rome, prevailed. But already in the first half of the nineteenth century a romantic and naturalistic reaction made itself felt. The classical movement expressed itself in the works of Chaudet, Bosio, and Pradier; the romantic, in those of Preault and others of lesser note; the naturalistic, in the monuments of David d'Angers, Rude, and Barye. THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL. Antoine Denis Chaudet (1763-1810) studied in Rome and was a classicist of the severe type. He made the colossal statue of Napoleon which occupied the summit of the Colonne Vendome until 1814. His best works were, however, of an ideal character, such as his Paul and Virginia, his CEdipus called to Life by Phorbas, and his Amor in the Museum in the Louvre. Francois Joseph Bosio (1769- MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 257 FIG. 99. THE DEPARTURE OF THE VOLUNTEERS OF 1792 (l(V KUDK). AKC UK TKIOMI'HK, I'AKIS. 1845), a pupil of Pajou, was eminently a sculptor of grace- ful subjects, such as the Reclining Hyacinth and the Nymph Salmacis in the Ixmvre. As sculptor to the court of Napo- 17 258 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Icon, he was highly esteemed for his portraits. In the works of James Pradier (1792-1862) we find, with the classic spirit and great technical perfection, a grace of manner leaning toward sensuous treatment. His Victories on the tomb of Napoleon and on the Arc de Triomphe were graceful exam- ples of monumental decoration, but his semi-sensuous Atalanta in the Louvre, the Odalisque Accroupie at Lyons, and the Three Graces at Versailles give some weight to the remark of Preault, that Pradier departed every morning for Athens and returned every evening to the Rue Breda. Of the many pupils of Pradier the most distinguished were Antoine Etex, who was successful as a rival of Rude in the decoration of the Arc de Triomphe, and Jean Baptiste Eugene Guillaume, author of the Tomb of the Gracchi at the Luxem- bourg, and of many pleasing busts. This French classic school sometimes manifested a realistic sense and an emo- tionalism which promised soon to burst the bonds of classical convention. Of such a character was Cartellier (1757-1833), the master of Rude, and Lemot (1781-1827) of Lyons, the sculptor of the life.-like equestrian statue of Louis XIV. at Lyons, and Francois Gre'goire Giraud (1783-1836), an indepen- dent and original sculptor, and Francois Joseph Duret (1805- 1865), whose Neapolitan Dancer and Improvisatore are inspired as much by the model as by the classic sense of form. THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL. As the century advanced, classic restraint gave way to the growth of national pride, which expressed itself in romanticism on the one hand and natural- ism on the other. The latter school was by far the stronger. The romanticists reverted to mediaeval France for their inspi- ration. To this class belonged Pr6ault, the sculptor of the statue of Jacques Cceur at Bourges, of Marceau at Chartres, and of the Gothic Knight on the Pont d'Ie"na in Paris. Of a similar character was the Francesca da Rimini by Mile. F6licie de Fauveau, the Jeanne d'Arc of Princess Marie d'0rl6ans, the works of Baron Triqueti, Du Seigneur, and MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 259 Antonin Moine. The statues of saints around the Madeleine, by Desbceufe, Chalouette, Fouchere, and Danton, are not so far removed from the style of the classicists. THE EAKLY NATURALISTS. The appeal to nature struck a deeper chord in the heart of modern France. David d' Angers (1789-1856) was the pupil of the painter David and "of the sculptor Rolland. He also frequented the ateliers of Canova and Thorwaldsen. His works were not always free from the classic style, as, for example, in his General Foy, clad in FIG. 100. THE LION AND THE SNAKE (BRONZE BY BARYfi). TUII.ERIES, PARIS. Roman costume, and in his Philopcemen. Even in his gable sculptures for the Pantheon, classic conventions struggled with more modern modes of expression. But his General Gobert was represented as a man of his time, and his many busts and medallions were characteristic portraits. Francois Rude (1784-1855) was a native of Dijon, where he imbibed the Flemish realism which characterized the Burgun- dian school. But in Paris his early prizes (1809 and 1812) were won by treating classic themes such as Marius on the 260 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Ruins of Carthage and Aristaeus deploring the Loss of his Bees. The relief which he made for the Chateau de Ter- vueren at Brussels treated of the Hunt of Meleager and the History of Achilles. As late as 1827 his Mercury was still conventional sculpture. It was not until 1831 that in his Young Fisher Boy playing with a Turtle he made what Charles Lenormant called a " protest against the icy dreams of the ideal." By 1836 he completed his masterpiece, the Depart- ure of the Volunteers of 1792, which decorates one of the piers of the Arc de Triomphe. This was still classic, in the sense that the Giant Frieze of Pergamon was classic, but, at the same time, national enough to be called the Marseillaise. It was the extreme expression of patriotic enthusiasm. From this time forward the naturalistic and historic spirit became evident in Rude's works. In his statue of the Marechal de Saxe he reverts to the eighteenth-century conventions; in that of Louis XIII. to those of the seventeenth century. His Jeanne d'Arc listening to the Voices (1845) was mediaeval French. Thoroughly modern was his Gaspard Monge at Beaune, his Mare'chal Ney in Paris, and his Napoleon waking to Immortality at Fixin. In his Hebe and his Love domi- nating the World, works of his old age, he went back to the classic spirit of his youth. Antoine Louis Barye (1795-1875) widened the range of French sculpture by his devotion to the representation of ani- mals, by his varied and skilful manipulation of bronze, and by the emphasis he laid upon massive modelling as opposed to precise outlines and delicately curved surfaces. These were unexpected results from a pupil of Bosio and Gros, and of the Ecole des Beaux Arts. His real inspiration came from the writings of Buffon, Lamarck, Cuvier, and from the fine col- lection of animals in the Jardin des Plantes. His subjects were frequently contests; e.g., a Tiger devouring a Gavial, a Lion crushing a Serpent or a Tiger, a Lapith fighting a Cen- taur, a Jaguar devouring a Hare contests illustrative of the MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 261 force and strength of the nobler animals. His works as a whole were a protest against the classic restriction to the nude human form. As an historical series, they illustrated the develop- ment from a minute and detailed to a broad and massive style. CONTEMPORARY SCULPTURE. During the second half of the pres- ent century the classical school has been largely replaced by a half- classic, half-naturalistic school, in which the naturalists have been gaining ground. Classic influences were still strong in the works of Henri Chapu (1833- 1891), the pupil of Pradier and Duret, as maybe seen in his Mer- cury inventing the Caduceus, and in his graceful figure of Youth placing an Olive Branch on the Tomb of Henri Regnault, but they were somewhat less strong in his kneeling figure of Jeanne d'Arc in the Louvre. Severely classic also are Augustin Alexandre Dumont in his Genius of Liberty on the Colonne de la Bastille, and in his portrait statues; Francois Jouffroy FIG. 101. THE FLORENTINE SINGF.K (liV PAUL DUBOIS). LUXEMBOURG, PARIS. 262 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. (1806-1882) in his Young Girl telling her Secret to Venus; Perraud in his Les Adieux, which is inspired by Athenian sepulchral reliefs. THE ACADEMIC SCHOOL. The organized teaching of France, as represented by the Institute and the Ecole des Beaux Arts, no longer upholds the severely classic style. The romantic and naturalistic reaction has gained ground so far that even in conservative quarters the French Renaissance, or, if you please, the Italian Renaissance, is now of more immediate influence than Greece and Rome. The work of this school is emi- nently characterized by elegance, technical perfection, and the absence of inharmonious detail. The school contains a long list of able sculptors. Paul Dubois (1829-1905) is a leader, as well as one of the most inspired representatives of the school. In his youthful St. John, his Florentine Singer, and his Narcissus he may be compared to Donatello ; and in his figures of Faith, Charity, Military Courage, and Meditation, on the tomb oi General Lamoriciere at Nantes, he has all the style, and more than the charm, of Civitali. Jean Alexandre Falguiere (b. 1831), a pupil of Jouffroy, broke away from his master's severe style, and infused life and motion into sculpture in his Running Victor in the Cock Fight. Original and charming is his conception in the Young Martyr Tarcisius, in the Luxembourg. More monumental are his Saint Vincent de Paul and his Progress overcoming Error, at the Pantheon. Puech, another pupil of Jouffroy, has also surpassed his master in his charming Muse of Andre Chenier and his Siren, at the Luxembourg. P'alguiere's pupil, Antonin Merci6 (b. 1845), is an artist of great grace and refinement. His David loses nothing when compared with Verrocchio's, and his Gloria Victis is one of the masterpieces of modern sculpture. Justly popular, too, is his Quand Meme, in the garden of the Tuileries, and full of delicate sentiment his Souvenir for the Tomb of M me Charles Ferry. For rhythm, MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 263 movement, and delicacy of sentiment, Mercie enjoys well- earned distinction. Less elevated in his conceptions, but FIG. 102. THE SECKKT oh I UK TO. Mil (liV SAINT MAKCKAUX). 1.UXKMI1UUKU, PAKIS. equally perfect in style, is Ren6 de Saint Marceaux. He is somewhat fantastic and Michelangelesque in his Genius 264 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Guarding the Secret of the Tomb, in the Luxembourg; but more subtile and French in his Harlequin, in the museum at Rheims. Nearly the equal of Paul Dubois is Louis Ernest Barrias (b. 1841), best known by his statue of the Youthful Mozart with the Violin, and his First Funeral, in which Aclarn and Eve are grieving over the dead Abel. Moreau Vauthier (d. 1893) was almost a Florentine, if we may judge by the exquisitely modelled bust of Mr. Lucas in the Metro- politan Museum, New York. Chaplain and Roty have brought the production of medals and plaques to a higher degree of FIG. 103. PAN AND THE BEARS (BY FREMIET). LUXEMBOURG, PARIS. technical perfection than was reached by the great medallists of the Italian and French Renaissance or by David d'Angers. THE LATER NATURALISTS. As followers in the line of Rude and Barye we may mention, first, Jean Baptiste Carpeaux (1827-1875), a pupil of Rude, and a sculptor of considerable emotional and dramatic power. His portrait busts, such as those of Gerome (1872) and Alexandre Dumas (1875), are full of life. His relationship to Rude is more evident in the stirring relief of the Dance, in the facade of the New Opera House. Somewhat in the spirit of Clodion, but more sensu- ous and Rubens-like, is his Triumph of Flora; and full of MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 265 abandon, his Four Quarters of the Earth supporting the World in the Luxembourg Gardens. Emmanuel Fr6miet (b. 1824), like his uncle, Rude, in his- torical bent, and like Barye in his devotion to animals, excels in monumental works such as Louis d'Orleans and Jeanne d'Arc, and also in such genre subjects as a Wounded Dog, and a Gorilla carrying off a Woman. Auguste Cain, more exclusively a fol- lower of Barye, has de- voted himself to animal sculpture. His Rhi- noceros attacked by Lions and Tigers is in the Garden of the Tui- leries, and his Tigress with her Cubs, in the Central Park, New York. Jules Dalou (b. 1838), in his reliefs of Silenus and the Nymphs, in the South Kensington Museum, and in his Sevres Vase, in the Luxembourg, shows himself a more refined Carpeaux. His masterpiece is in the Chamber of Depu- ties, and represents the L'tats Generauxof 1789, with Mirabeau delivering his famous address before the Marquis de Dreux Bre"ze. It is a dramatic composition full of historic realism. FIG. 104. JOHN THE BAPTIST (BV RODIN). LUXEMBOURG, PARIS. 266 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Auguste Rodin (b. 1840) is still further removed from the academic school. He draws his inspiration from nature, aim- ing at true expression without regard to elegance of form. His John the Baptist, in the Luxembourg a replica of the head is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York is a natu- ralistic presentation of an ill-fed prophet. But Rodin's nat- uralism does not yet observe historic conditions. His John the Baptist is a Frenchman. This limitation of range makes his Bourgeois de Calais, and his busts of Victor Hugo and of Dalou, more satisfactory works of art. In his modelling, Rodin continues the broad style of Barye. Of the younger sculptors, great talent has been shown by Bartholom6, especially in funerary sculpture. His project for the entrance of a tomb, exhibited in 1892, and again in greater completeness in 1895, is remarkable not only for its original- ity, but also for its significance and naturalistic character. The democratic spirit of modetn times has so widened the area of sculpture that much that is frivolous and insignificant and meretricious is produced in the name of art ; but signifi- cant, beautiful, and truthful expression is to-day in France carried further than in the sculpture of any country of the world. In fact, the sculpture of France surpasses both her architecture and her painting. . EXTANT MONUMENTS. The museums of the Luxembourg and of the Louvre, in Paris, contain collections of modern French sculpture. A special collection for David d'Angers is in the museum at Angers, and of Barye bronzes in the Corcoran Art Gallery at Washington. The most important sculptures are usually first exhibited in model, or finished, at the annual Salons, at special exhibitions, or at World's Fairs. CHAPTER XXVI. MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENGLAND. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Dafforne, Gallery of Modern Sculp- ture. Holland, Memorials of Sir Francis Chantrey. Lady East lake, Life of John Gibson. Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists of the English School. Stephen, Dictionary of National Biog- raphy. The Art Journal. The Magazine of Art. THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL. In England the churches, public squares, and private houses have continued a demand for monumental and portrait sculpture. The classic revival has made itself felt in English sculpture as well as in literature ; and to offset this, the scientific reaction has produced a strong school of naturalistic sculptors. The classical movement of the nineteenth century was almost the beginning of sculpture in England. Never before had she produced a succession of able sculptors like Westmacott and Chantrey, Bailey and Gib- son, and the minor lights who surrounded them. Sir Richard Westmacott (1775-1856) showed himself the artistic successor of Flaxman in a relief entitled the Blue Bell, and in his statues of Psyche, Cupid, and Euphrosyne. He is to be remembered, too, for the pedimental sculptures of the British Museum and the monuments of Pitt and Fox in West- minster Abbey. He also represented the Duke of Wellington as Achilles. Sir Francis Legatt Chantrey (1781-1842), although the friend of Canova, and influenced by Thorwaldsen, rarely attempted ideal themes. His works have the charm of tender sentiment, as in the Sleeping Children, at Lichfield Cathe- 268 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. dral, or the Resignation, at Worcester Cathedral. His busts and statues were simple, refined, and technically excellent. Of his monumental works may be mentioned the statue of Canning in Liverpool, the equestrian George IV. in Trafalgar FIG. JOS. PAULINE BONAPARTE (BY THOMAS CAMPBELL). CHATSWOKTH, ENGLAND. Square, and the Duke of Wellington in front of the Royal Exchange, London. Edward Hodges Bailey (1788-1867), a pupil of Flaxman, combined religious with classic sentiment in his statues of Eve at the Fountain, and Eve listening to the Voice. He designed the statue of Nelson for the Nelson monument in Trafalgar Square. MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENGLAND. 269 John Gibson (1790-1866) was the most thorough classicist of the English school. He worked under Canova and Thor- waldsen, and resided for a long time in Rome. His first original work, The Sleeping Shepherd, was followed by Mars and Cupid, Psyche borne by Zephyrs, Meeting of Hero and Leander, Hylas surprised by Nymphs, Cupid tormenting the Soul, and Narcissus. His Queen Victoria was robed in classic drapery. During the forties he startled the English public with his Tinted Venus, and justified the coloring of his statue by the remark that " what the Greeks did was right." He gave many years to the perfection of this statue, and said of it : " This is the most carefully executed work I ever executed, for I wrought the forms up to the highest elevation of char- acter, which results from purity and sweetness combined with an air of unaffected dignity and grace. I took the liberty to decorate it in a fashion unprecedented in modern times. I tinted the flesh warm ivory, scarcely red, the eyes blue, the hair blond, and the net which contains the hair, golden." Other classicists worthy of mention were William Theed (1764-1817), William Pitts (1790-1840), Thomas Campbell (1790-1858), Richard John Wyatt (1795-1858), Patrick McDowell (1799-1870), and Joseph Durham (1814-1877). More strictly portrait sculptors were their contemporaries. William Behnes (1790-1864), Thomas Kirk (1784-1845), and John E. Jones (1806-1862). THE REACTION AGAINST THE CLASSIC STYLE. The reaction against the classic style had attained considerable strength by the middle of this century. Sculptors like Stevens, Foley, Boehm, Woolner, and Armstead looked to the past for inspira- tion, but to the Italian Renaissance rather than to Greece and Rome. Alfred George Stevens (1817-1875) was a pupil of Thor- waldsen, but received a greater bias from the works of Michel- angelo than from his master. The freedom and breadth of his decorative work exerted a considerable influence upon 2/0 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. English industrial art, and his Duke of Wellington monument in St. Paul's Cathedral, though still unfinished, brought new life into English sculpture. England may well point with pride to the powerful groups of Valor triumphing over Cow- ardice and of Truth pulling out the Tongue of Falsehood which decorate the canopy under which re- poses the effigy of the Duke. John Henry Foley ( 1818-1874 ) in his earlier works, such as Juno and the Infant Bacchus, and Venus re- ceiving ^E n e a s from Diomedes, showed his indebtedness to the older school of sculptors, but his busts and portrait statues of Goldsmith, Burke, Selden, Hamp- den, and others brought out more strongly his naturalistic bent. He was the author of the group of Asia, and of the Prince Consort, on the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park, London, but his chef-d'oeuvre was the vigorous equestrian statue of General Sir James Outram, in Calcutta. One of his latest works was the statue of General " Stonewall " Jackson, in Richmond, Va. Sir Joseph. Edgar Boehm (1834-1891), though born in Vienna and trained in Paris, became a representative English sculptor, especially in FIG. 106. LORD BEACONSFIELD. ABBEY, LONDON. WESTMINSTER MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENGLAND. 2/1 portrait statues. Among the best of these are his Thomas Carlyle, at Chelsea, his John Bunyan, at Bedford, his busts of Lord Wolseley and Herbert Spencer, and the tomb statues of Dean Stanley and the Earl of Shaftesbury in Westminster. Thomas Woollier (1825-1893) exhibited the spirit of romanticism in his early works, such as Eleanora sucking Poison from the Wound of Prince Edward, the Death of Boa- dicea, and Puck. After the foundation of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in 1848, of which he was an original member, he exhibited in some of his works, as in the Achilles shouting from the Trenches, the early Italian Renaissance tendency of that school. A refined sentiment characterized his busts, por- trait statues, and medallions, such as those of Tennyson, Car- lyle, Wordsworth, Macaulay, Dickens, and Darwin. His last important work, The Housemaid, was a romantic treatment of a theme more likely to have been chosen by a more natural- istic sculptor. Other sculptors representing tendencies similar to Wool- ner's were James F. Redfern (1838-1876), whose work was in demand for Gothic churches and for the restoration of ancient Gothic sculptures; Lord Ronald Gower, who was influ- enced by French sculpture of the thirteenth century; and Henry Hugh Armstead (b. 1828), who exhibits a wide range of subjects, styles, and methods. Matthew Noble (1818-1876) and Charles B. Birch were inclined to romantic methods even in portraiture, and George Tinworth in his terracotta reliefs strove to be naturalistic in following the style of Giotto. Thomas Brock (b. 1847), the pupil of Foley, in all his early works followed in the line of his master. T. Nelson Maclean, notwithstanding his training in Paris, and George A. Lawson may be classed with this transitional school. LATEST PHASE OF ENGLISH SCTJLPTTTBE. The latest school of English sculpture exhibits greater originality and technical ability than were attained by its predecessors. This school is poetic in temperament, but selects frequently naturalistic 2/2 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. and democratic themes. Its technical ideal is no longer the beauty of linear form, but of expressive modelling. Its teacher is neither Rome nor Florence, but Paris. The sculptural proto- types of this school are the Clytie produced in 1868 by George Fred- erick Watts (b. 1818), and the Athlete stran- gling a Python exhibited in 1877 by Sir Frederick Leighton (1830-1896). It is noteworthy that these works came from the hands of painters, and were characterized not merely by novelty of conception but by the expressive manner in which the surfaces w^re modelled. Sir Fred- erick's subsequent statue of the Sluggard, and his statuette entitled Need- less Alarms, won for him a relatively more ad- vanced position than that which he enjoyed as a painter. Three sculptors stand at the head of their pro- fession in England at the present day : Thornycroft, Onslow Ford, and Gilbert. Hamo Thornycroft (1850-) in his earliest work, the Warrior carrying a Wounded Youth from Battle, re- FIG. 107. DANCING (BY ONSLOW FORD). MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENGLAND. 273 minds us somewhat of David d' Angers and of Rude. His skill in surface-modelling was shown in his Artemis and in his remark- able statue called Putting the Stone. His Teucer, admirable for the same quality, has a style abput it which makes us think of Paul Dubois, while his subsequent statues of the Mower and the Sower are suggestive of the peasant painters of the Barbizon school. But the spirit which animates these works is not French, but English. E. Onslow Ford (1852-1901), though trained as a painter at Antwerp and Munich, has worked as a sculptor since the exhi- bition in 1883 of his statue of Henry Irving as Hamlet. This was followed by poetical productions such as Linos, Folly, Peace, the Singer, Music, and Dancing. These statues, as well as his most important production, the Shelley Memo- rial at Oxford, are characterized by beauty of form and senti- ment even more strongly than by their expressive modelling. Alfred Gilbert (1854-) in his Kiss of Victory, exhibited in 1882, seems to have been inspired by the Gloria Victis of Mercie". The influence of Mercie 1 is perceptible also in his Perseus applying his Winglets. His Icarus, made in 1884, is said to have been the first bronze of importance cast by the cire perdue process in England. His most elaborate work is the memorial to Henry Fawcett in Westminster Abbey, in which a frieze of variously colored bronze figures flanks the bust of the statesman. Refined in its details, but not altogether successful in its general mass, is the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain in Piccadilly Circus. Outside of this distinguished trio may be mentioned Harry Bates, who has produced several excellent reliefs; Roscoe Mullins, who is perhaps too much inclined to story-telling in statuary ; George J. Frampton, a versatile and especially clever sculptor in the use of delicate relief; Henry A. Pegram, who has applied a pictorial method to high-reliefs; W. Goscombe John and T. Stirling Lee, realistic representatives of the new school ; Robert Stark and John M. Swan, sculptors of animals j 18 2/4 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. and Frederick Pomeroy, an excellent sculptor of statuettes. Some talent is also shown in the works of Alfred Drury, F. E. E. Schenck, Adrien Jones, Allen Hutchinson, A. Toft, and H. C. Fehr. EXTANT MONUMENTS. The exhibitions of the Royal Academy, and of the Grosvenor and the New Gallery, afford annually an opportunity of studying the most recent productions before they are scattered in the churches, civic buildings, public squares, and private collections. CHAPTER XXVII. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Benjamin, Contemporary Art in America. Century Magazine. Clark, Great American Sculp- tors. Clement and Hutton, Artists of the Nineteenth Century. Dunlap, The Arts of Design in the United States. Lee, Familiar Sketches of Sculpture and Sculptors. Tuckerman, Book of the Artists. EARLY ATTEMPTS. Sculpture in America, if we except the works of native Indians and of the Aztecs, Mayas and Incas, as not properly within the scope of this volume, is the pro- duct of the present century. During the eighteenth century we know only of a Mrs. Patience Wright (1725-1785), of Borden- town, N. J., who was skilful enough in the execution of wax figures to have her wax statue of Lord Chatham admitted to Westminster Abbey, and John Dixey, an Irishman who came to America from Italy in 1789, and made the figures of Justice for the City Hall, New York, and the State House, Albany. An ardent Italian Republican, Giuseppe Cerrachi, came to this country in 1791 with the design for an elaborate monument to Liberty. It is thus described : " The Goddess of Liberty is represented descending in a car drawn by four horses, darting through a volume of clouds which conceals the summit of a rainbow. Her form is at once expressive of dignity and peace. In her right hand she brandishes a flaming dart, which, by dis- pelling the mists of error, illuminates the universe; her left is extended in the attitude of calling upon the people of America to listen to her voice." Although Washington headed the 2/6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. subscription for the monument, the money was not raised, and thus we escaped a Berninesque foundation in the history of American sculpture. Cerrachi left behind him excellent busts of Washington, Hamilton, Clinton, Paul Jones, and John Jay. The distinguished French sculptor, Houdon, visited the United States in 1785, but remained too short a time to leave a perma- nent impress. William Rush (1757-1833), of Philadelphia, carved hi wood and modelled in clay, self-taught. His bust of Washington is in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and his wooden Water Nymph, now transferred to bronze, decorates Fairmount Park i n Philadelphia. Another pioneer, John Frazee (1790-1 85 2), of Rah way, N. J., who had never seen a marble statue until 1820, made a bust of John Wells for Grace Church, New York. This is recorded by Dun- lap as the first marble portrait made by a native American sculptor. He also made busts of Daniel Webster, John Jay, Judge Prescott, Hon. John Lowell, Chief Justice Marshall, and others. THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL. The foundations of American sculp- ture are to be found in the classical school of Canova and FIG. 108. WASHINGTON AS OLYMPIAN ZEUS (BY GREENOUGH). WASHINGTON. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 2.77 Thorwaldsen. This was the school that shaped the energies of Greenough, Powers, Crawford, Browne, Story, Ball, Ran- dolph Rogers, Rinehart, and Harriet Hosmer. Horatio Greenough (1805-1852), an accomplished and scholarly Bostonian, led American sculptors to Rome. In the spirit of Thorwaldsen he remarked : " I began to study art in Rome ; until then I had rather amused myself with clay and marble." His Chanting Cherubs, the first marble group by an American sculptor, was also a challenge to the American pre- judice against the nude, and paved the way for his statues of Venus Victrix and of Abel. His dignified statue of Washing- ton, conceived as an Olympian Zeus, was greeted with some intolerance by his countrymen. More thoroughly national in spirit was his group The Rescue, representing a settler rescu- ing a woman and child from a savage Indian. Refined and excellent were his busts of Washington, Lafayette, John Quincy Adams, and Fenimore Cooper. Hiram Powers (1805-1873), of Vermont, after having made realistic wax figures in Cincin- nati, took up his residence in Italy. He was ingenious and independent rather than original, and won recognition by faithfu), honest work. There was a touch of tender melan- choly in his Eve Disconsolate, the Last of the Tribe, and in his Greek Slave. When the last-named statue was first exhibited in Cincinnati, a delegation of clergymen was sent to judge whether it were fit to be seen by Christian people. Its purity of sentiment and harmonious form established its right to exist, and he made six replicas of it. His bust of Edward Everett, at Chatsworth, was admirable. Hardly inferior to this were his busts and statues of Franklin, Adams, Jefferson, Van Buren, Webster, and Calhoun. Thomas Crawford (1813-1857), more gifted and original than Powers, studied in Italy under Thorwaldsen. His earliest work, the Orpheus in Search of Eurydice, seems to have been inspired by his study of the Niobe group in Florence ; and his latest, the bronze door of the Capitol at Washington, by Ghi- 278 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. berti's baptistery gates. His colossal Liberty for the dome of the Capitol was conceived in the classical spirit, but the romanticism peculiar to America shows itself in the pedi- mental group at Washington of the Indian mourning over the Decay of his Race, and in the Indian Chief, in the New York Historical Society Collection. His Beethoven in the Music Hall, Boston, and his equestrian statue of Washington, at Richmond, both in bronze, were cast in Munich. Ball Hughes is credited with having made the first statue cast in bronze in this country. This is the monument of Dr. Bowditch, in Mount Auburn Cemetery. His marble statue of Alex- ander Hamilton, destroyed by fire in 1835, is similarly credited as one of the first marble statues carved by an American sculptor. Henry Kirke Brown (1814-1886), though he went early to Italy, was not a classicist in spirit. He felt strongly that American art should treat of American subjects. His best energies were devoted to the equestrian statue of Washington, in Union Square, New York, which was cast at Chicopee, Massachusetts, and set up in 1856. Even more FIG. 109. THE GREEK SLAVE (BY POWERS). OWNED BY DUKE OF CLEVELAND, ENG- LAND. REPLICA IN BOSTON MUSEUM. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 279 successful is his equestrian statue of General Scott, in Wash- ington. Erastus Dow Palmer (1817-) evinced the spirit of lyric poetry in his idealistic sculpture. He treated such subjects as the Infant Ceres, the Sleeping Peri, the Spirit's Flight, Resignation, Spring, the Angel of the Sepulchre. His Indian Girl, representative of the dawn of civilization, and his White Captive, suggestive of the dangers encountered by pioneer life, were universally popular. William Wetmore Story (1819- 1896), an accomplished writer as well as sculptor, has produced a series of cold, correct, pedantic statues, such as the Cleo- patra, Semiramis, Medea, and Polyxena of the Metropolitan Museum, New York. In these works the classical spirit is already waning, and the American not at all apparent. Thomas Ball (b. 1819), less accomplished than Story, has long lived in Florence, without losing his Americanism. He pro- duced a few ideal works, such as a statue of Pandora and a bust of Truth, but was more successful in historic and portrait sculpture, as in his faithful equestrian statue of Washington, in the Boston Public Garden, and in his Daniel Webster, in Cen- tral Park, New York. Randolph. Rogers (1825-1892), of Vir- ginia, learned his art in Rome. His Nydia, the Blind Girl of Pompeii, a figure of somewhat labored gracefulness, enjoyed a wide popularity. His bronze doors for the Capitol at Wash- ington illustrated the Life of Columbus. He made a colossal America for Providence, R. I., and a figure representing the State of Michigan for Detroit. Two of the most thorough classicists among American sculp- tors have been Rinehart and Harriet Hosmer. William Henry Rinehart (1825-1874) may be best studied in the Rinehart Museum of the Peabody Institute, Baltimore, though the Metro- politan Museum, New York, and the Corcoran Gallery, Wash- ington, contain a number of his works. His Clytie, in Balti- more, may well be classed with Power's Greek Slave, and his seated statue of Chief Justice Taney, at Annapolis (and its 280 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. replica in Mount Vernon Square, Baltimore), is one of the most successful public monuments in the country. He left a fund which has recently become available and is to be devoted to the education of sculptors in Rome. Miss Harriet Hosmer (b. 1831) became the favorite pupil of the English sculptor Gib- son in Rome. With masculine vigor, she produced a series of statues such as Hesper, CE n o n e , Puck, the Sleeping Faun, Ze- nobia, and Beatrice Cenci, and busts of Daphne and Medusa. She was the last repre- sentative of the classic school. Other American sculptors, who flour- ished before the Cen- tennial Exhibition in 1876, were Henry Dexter (b. 1806), Joel T. Hart (1810-1877), Shobal Vail Clevinger ( 1812-1843 ), Joseph Mozier (1812-1870), Edward Sheffield Bar- tholomew (1822 1858), Benjamin Paul Akers (1825-1861), J. A. Jackson (1825-1879), Thomas R. Gould (1825-1881), John Rogers, C. B. Ives, Henry J. Haseltine, Edward Augustus Brackett, Lauut Thompson, Mrs. Dubois, Margaret Foley, FIG. IIO. BRONZE RELIEF OF PRESIDENT MoCOSH (BY AUGUSTUS ST. GAUDENS). PRINCETON UNI- VERSITY CHAPEL. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 28 1 Emma Stebbins, Edmonia Lewis, Vinnie Reams, and Blanche Nevin. These sculptors by no means confined themselves to classical themes. Biblical subjects frequently occupied their attention, and also contemporary portraiture. John Rogers devoted himself to genre subjects, and produced an immense number of statuettes, many of which, inspired by the late Civil War, enjoyed a wide but short-lived popularity. CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN SCULPTORS. During the last quarter of a century the influence of Italy has been slight upon American sculpture, and the classic tradition of Rome has been declining. Preston and Longworth Powers, sons of Hiram Powers, and Waldo Story, son of W. W. Story, carry on the conceptions of their fathers. William Couper, of Florence, has done some charming work, especially in relief, but has not yet attained the position of his father-in-law, Thomas Ball. Louis T. Rebisso (1837-), of Genoa, though a professor of sculpture for more than thirty years, has not been influential in directing American art. Nor has Germany, in spite of the number of her colonists in this country and the fame of her schools of art, made any lasting impress upon American sculpture. Moses Jacob Ezekiel (1844-), of Richmond, Va., received his early training in Berlin, and his marble group of Religious Liberty, in Fair- mount Park, Philadelphia, is thoroughly German in character. But since 1874 he has resided in Rome, and his Eve, Pan and Amor, Mercury, and other statues are more Italian than either American or German. Ephraim Keyser (1850-), of Baltimore, was educated in Munich and Berlin. His statu- ette, the Toying Page, shows his German training, as does also his statue of Psyche. But full of character and refinement are his portrait busts made since his return to America. An American of the sturdy type, little moved by foreign influence, is the President of the National Sculpture Society, John Quincy Adams Ward (1830-). Trained by H. K. Brown, Ward treated with success such subjects as the Indian 282 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Hunter, The Freedman, The Pilgrim, The Private of the Seventh Regiment. His masterpiece is the noble statue of Henry Ward Beecher, in Brooklyn. It is to Paris that the younger contemporary sculptors have looked for technical training and for inspiration. Paris has vitalized and transformed American sculpture as thoroughly as did Italy in the first half of the century. Like a fresh breeze FIG. III. DEATH AND THE SCULPTOR (BY D. C. FRENCH). FROM A CAST IN CHICAGO ART INSTITUTE. upon calm waters was the statue called La Premiere Pose, exhibited by Howard Roberts (1845-), i n tne Centennial Exhibition of 1876. Sentiment and expressive modelling here replaced the beauty of mere external form. But, unfortunately, the sentiment of Roberts was not strong enough to carry him beyond the romantic stage in which he produced statues and statuettes of Lucille, Hypatia, Hester Prynne, and Lot's Wife. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 283 Olin Levi Warner (1844-1896), an American refined by Pari- sian training, has shown himself capable of producing strong, characteristic busts, as those, for example, of Daniel Cottier and of J. Alden Weir, and significant portrait statues, such as those of Governor Buckingham of Connecticut, and of William Lloyd Garrison, in Commonwealth Avenue, Boston. He has also made charming female heads, like that of Miss Maud Morgan, and graceful figures, such as his statue of Twilight. His fountain at Portland, Oregon, should be reckoned as a classic production of modern American sculpture. Excellent, also, is his work in high-relief, such as the head of Arnold Guyot in the chapel of Princeton University, and the medal- lions of Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian, Velasquez, and Rem- brandt on the entablature of the Columbian Museum, Chicago. Augustus St. Gaudens (1848-1907), of New York, trained like Warner in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, has been a powerful factor in bringing American sculpture to its present state of excellence. In both of these sculptors there is something of the Greek, as distinguished from the Graeco-Roman spirit, Warner possessing the more Doric and St. Gaudens the more Ionic temperament. The low-reliefs of the sons of Prescott Hall Butler, by St. Gaudens, are especially charming. The caryatids for the mantelpiece in the house of Cornelius Van- derbilt in New York, and the angels for the tomb of Governor E. D. Morgan, the models of which were unfortunately de- stroyed by fire, partake also of Ionic grace. The same charm penetrates the wall-relief of Dr. Bellows in All Souls' Church, New York, and the more vigorous relief of President McCosh in the Princeton University Chapel. But the power of St. Gaudens is not the capacity of throwing an external charm about his productions, he is strong also in the expression of indi- vidual character, as we may see in his excellent statue of Admiral Farragut in Madison Square, New York; in the Lin- coln statue in Lincoln Park, Chicago; in the statue of Deacon Chapin, called the Puritan, in Springfield, Mass. ; and in the 284 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. high-relief of Colonel Shaw which has just been completed for Boston. Since its erection in 1897 the Shaw Memorial has steadily gained in popular estimation. Two works, however, show St. Gaudens at his best. The majestic figure of Grief, a memorial to a Mrs. Adams in the Rock Creek Cemetery at Wash- ington, ranks with the greatest of sym- bolic statues. His maturest work, the Sherman statue at the entrance to Central Park, New York, will stand comparison with the finest eques- trian statues in the whole history of sculpture. Daniel Chester French (1850 ), of New Hampshire , early attracted at- tention by his bronze statue of The Minute Man at Concord, Mass., unveiled in 1875. After having passed through a period of bread-winning production, French has risen to a high rank among American sculptors in his colossal statue of The FIG. 112. NATHAN HALE (BY MACMONNIES). CITY HALL PARK, NEW YORK. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 285 Republic for the Columbian Exhibition, in his remarkable relief of Death and the Sculptor, and his group of Gallaudet teaching a Deaf Mute. His statue of General Cass, his reliefs of angels for the Clark Memorial, and his John Boyle O'Reilley Memorial group are works of decided merit. In recent years, besides many portrait statues, French has erected several allegorical works, such as the groups in front of the Custom House and the Alma Mater at Colum- bia University, New York, and the Com- merce and Jurispru- dence on the Federal Building at Cleveland, Ohio. These works are architectural and mon- umental and exhibit the refined grace which characterizes all of French's work, but they lack the vitality and human charm which make the O'Reilley Memorial his master- FIG. 113. IDEAL HEAD (BY HERBERT ADAMS). POSSESSION OF THE ARTIST. piece. More thoroughly Parisian in sentiment is Frederick MacMonnies (1863 ). Although the pupil of St. Gaudens, his manner is nervous and at times strained, as, for example, in his statuette of 286 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Diana. His statuettes of the Boy and Heron, Pan of Rohaillon, and the Bacchante and Child are fascinating examples of expressive, living sculpture. His statue of Nathan Hale, in the City Hall Park, New York, is one of the best of our civic statues; and his great fountain in the Court of Honor at the Chicago Exhibition, though somewhat lacking in simplicity, was nevertheless a splendid product of the Franco-American imagination. French inspiration may also be felt in the fine groups of The Army and The Navy which adorn the Brooklyn Memorial Arch, as in the very energetic Horse Tamers above another entrance to Prospect Park. After a brief period devoted to painting MacMonnies has again become a sculptor, having modelled a group for the Peace Building at The Hague, an elaborate fountain for Denver, and is now designing a Battle Monument for Princeton. Herbert Adams (1858 ), of Brooklyn, shows his indebted- ness to St. Gaudens in his bronze Angel for Emanuel Baptist Church, Brooklyn, and in his marble bas-relief for the Judson Memorial Church, New York. But almost alone among our sculptors, Adams has turned to Florence of the fifteenth cen- tury for his inspiration. His delicately colored female busts, and his relief entitled An Orchid, have an exquisitely refined Florentine charm. In the lunette above the entrance of St. Bartholomew's Church, New York, representing a framed Madonna between two angels, Adams has drawn his inspira- tion from Luca della Robbia. His work lacks the vigor of the Florentine master, but is full of modern grace and charm. The list of contemporary American sculptors is by no means exhausted with the names we have mentioned. Frank Duveneck (1848 ), although a painter by profession, has produced in the sepulchral monument to Mrs. Duveneck one of the most notable works in American sculpture. In its quiet, refined dignity it perpetuates the spirit of the best Florentine work of the Renaissance. Edward Kemys (1843-1907), on MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 287 the other hand, in his portrayal of North American Indians and wild animals broke away from European influences and created a new field for American sculpture. His works, though crude, are full of spirit and expressive truth. Of the sculptors born in the fifties may be mentioned Boyle, Ruckstuhl, Niehaus, Bringhurst, Rhind and Martiny. John J. Boyle (1851 ) exhibits a rugged and sincere appre- ciation of primitive conditions of life in his groups, The Alarm, in Lincoln Park, Chicago, and The Stone Age, in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. Frederick Wellington Ruckstuhl (1853 )> though born in Alsace, was the organizing spirit of our National Sculpture Society and has erected many monu- ments of a national character, such as the bronze Victory at Jamaica, the Gloria Victis at Baltimore and the spirited eques- trian statue of General Hartranft at Harrisburg. Charles Henry Niehaus (1855 ) received his artistic training in Cin- cinnati and in Munich and by faithful effort has won his way to the front rank. His Garfield statue in Cincinnati, a dignified and expressive portrait, his Hahnemann statue in Washington and his McKinley monument at Canton, Ohio, are the most important of a long series of works. Robert P. Bringhurst (1855 ), trained in St. Louis and in Paris, is the author of many clever fancies and attractive compositions, of which The Kiss of Eternity may be cited as a typical example. J. Massey Rhind (1858 ), a Scotchman with Parisian training, has lived in this country since 1889. He has been most successful in architectural decoration. Learning enthroned amid the Arts and Sciences, which decorates the fagade of Alexander Hall at Princeton, is his masterpiece. Philip Martiny (1858 ), trained in France and an assistant to St. Gaudens, has intro- duced into American sculpture a light, cheerful, decorative quality. He has been successful not merely in designing foun- tains, but in the sculptural adornment of public buildings. The sculptors born in the sixties, though trained in great 288 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. measure in Paris, show a marked tendency to emphasize American subjects and to work out for themselves new fields for sculpture. We select for brief notice Clarke and Taft, Dallin and Partridge, Proctor, Barnard, Bartlett, MacNeil, Pratt and Bitter. Thomas Shields Clarke (1860), in his Caryatids for the Appellate Court building in New York and in the Alma Mater designed for the Princeton campus, shows the classic influences which he may have derived from his Parisian master Chapu, but in his Cider Press he betrays a desire for a subject distinctively American. Lorado Taft (1860 ), a teacher of modelling at the Art Institute in Chicago and author of a valuable book on The History of American Sculpture, did some strikingly original and beautifully deco- rative work on the Horticultural Building at the Columbian Exposition. Although the author of several portrait statues and military monuments, he will be remembered chiefly for his ideal and decorative compositions, as The Solitude of the Soul. Charles E. Dallin (1861 ), instructor in sculpture in the Massachusetts State Normal Art School, Boston, shows in some of his sculptures a reflection of his training in the French schools, but his most notable works, The Signal of Peace, in Lincoln Park, Chicago, and The Medicine Man, in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, are works based on careful obser- vation of the American Indian. William Ordway Partridge (1861 ), writer and lecturer, has boldly applied impression- istic methods to sculpture, as in his bust of Tennyson. Alexander Phimister Proctor (1862 ) received his technical training in Paris, his inspiration from the mountains and forests of the West. He furnished a striking group of The Goddess of Liberty on the Chariot of Progress for the Paris Exposition of 1900, and his vigorous panthers and lions deco- rate the public parks of various cities. George Grey Barnard (1863 ) is one of the most original and vigorous of American sculptors. The Two Natures, in the Metropolitan Museum, is MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 289 a subtle psychological subject expressed without regard to conventional standards. His Great God Pan and his statue of The Hewer are independent productions, which, however, re- flect his sympathetic admiration for the works of Michelangelo. His Two Friends betrays the influence of Rodin. In 1902 he received an important commission to decorate with sculpture the new Capitol at Harrisburg a commission which unhappily, through no fault on his part, has not yet been carried into effect. Paul Wayland Bartlett (1865 ) has exhibited great versatility, having shown equal skill in character studies like the Michel- angelo and the Columbus in the Congressional Library at Washington, and in portrait statues and equestrian monuments like the General McClellan in Philadelphia, General Warren in Boston and General Lafayette in Paris. He has made inter- esting experiments in bronze casting and produced various colored patinas which suggest the skill of the Japanese. Hermon A. MacNeil (1866 ) is known chiefly as an inspired sculptor of Indian life. His foreign training has enabled him to treat with skill and distinction such themes as The Moqui Runner, A Primitive Chant and The Sun Vow. He also did important decorative work at the Chicago, Paris and Buffalo Expositions. Bela L. Pratt (1867 ) is a sculptor whose broad training and refinement of feeling are manifest in all his works. Subtle and delicate in treatment is the relief group of Peace and War for the Butler Memorial at Lowell, Mass., sympathetic and refined the recumbent figure of Dr. Coit in the Chapel of St. Paul's School, Concord, N. H., and impressive in its simplicity The Prisoner Boy at Andersonville, Georgia. Karl Theodore Francis Bitter (1867), though born and educated in Vienna, in 1889 came to the United States and rapidly identified himself with the life of the country. He decorated the Administration and the Liberal Arts buildings at the Chicago Exposition and was the official Director of Sculpture at the Buffalo and St. Louis Expositions. At Buffalo 290 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. his Standard Bearers with their prancing steeds were vigorous and spirited and at St. Louis his relief representing the Signing of the Louisiana Purchase was treated with full appreciation of its historic import. On the other hand, his Villard and his Hubbard Memorials are lacking in poetic sentiment. Thus it will be seen that our contemporary American sculp- tors have received their technical training in foreign schools, but have developed not a colonial but an independent art, honest, healthy, cosmopolitan, progressive and refined. EXTANT MONUMENTS. The sculptural monuments of America adorn our parks, public squares, churches, civic buildings, private collections, cemeteries, and battlefields. Some are found also in the Museum of Fine Arts and the Athenaeum, Boston; the Metropolitan Museum, Lenox Library, and Historical Society, New York; the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia; the Peabody Museum, Baltimore; the Na- tional Capitol and the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington; and the Art Museums of Chicago, Cincinnati, Detroit, and St. Louis. INDEX. ADAMS, Herbert, 286. Ageladas, 92. Agesandros, in. Agnolo di Ventura, 149. Agorakritos, 102. Agostino di Duccio, 188. Agostino Busti, 200. Agostino di Giovanni, 149. Akers, Benjamin Paul, 280. Algardi, Alessandro, 218. Alkamenes, 102. Alessandro Leopardi, 203. Alessandro Vittoria, 209. Allegrain, Gabriel Christophe, 228. Alonzo Cano, 238. Ambrogio della Robbia, Fra, 190. Ambrogino da Milano, 201. Ammanati, Bartolommeo, 214. Andrea Bregno, 201. Andrea Briosco, 203. Andrea Ciccione, 204. Andrea da Aquila, 204. Andrea del Verrocchio, 106. Andrea della Robbia, 190. Andrea Fusina, 201. Andrea Orcagna, 149. Andrea (Contucci da Monte) Sansa- vino, 207. Andrea Pisano, 148, 151. Angers, David d', 259. Anguier, 224. Antelami, 145. Antenor, 92. Antico, 203. Antiochos, in. Antonio Begarelli, 208. Antonio di Domenico da Bamboc- cio, 204. Antonio Gagini, 204. Antonio Omodeo, 199. Antonio Pollajuolo, 193. Antonio Rossellino, 192. Apollonios, 112. Aquila, Silvestro da, 204. Area, Niccolo dell', 198. Archermos, 90. Arezzo, Niccolo d', 186. Aristokles, 93. Arkesilaos, 127. Armstead, Henry Hugh, 271. Athenaios, in. Athenis, 90. Athenodoros, in. BACHELIER, Nicholas, 224. Bailey, Edward Hodges, 268. Balduccio, Giovanni di, 149. Ball, Thomas, 279. Bamboccio, Antonio di Domenico da, 204. Banco, Nanni di, 186. Bandinelli, Baccio, 213. Baratta, Pietro, 218, Bari, Niccold da, 198. Barisanus, 145. Barnard, George Grey, 288. Barrias, Louis Ernest, 264. Bartholom6, 266. 2Q2 INDEX. Bartholomew, Edward Sheffield, 280. Bartlett, Paul W., 289. Bartolini, Lorenzo, 244. Bartolo, Nanni di, 188. Bartolommeo Ammanati, 214. Barye, Antoine Louis, 260. Bates, Harry, 273. Beauvais, Vincent de, 161. Begarelli, Antonio, 208. Begas, Reinhold, 253. Behnes, William, 269. Bellano, Bartolommeo, 203. Benedetto Antelami, 145. Benedetto da Majano, 193. Benedetto da Rovezzano, 207. Benvenuto Cellini, 214. Bernardo Cuiffagni, 188. Bernardo Rossellino, 192. Bernini, Lorenzo, 217. Bernward, Bishop, 167. Berthelot, 224. Bertoldo di Giovanni, 188. Biduinus, 145. Birch, Charles B., 271. Bissen, H. W., 247. Bitter, Karl T. F., 289. Blaser, Gustav, 251. Boehm, Sir Joseph Edgar, 270. Bologna, Giovanni da, 216. Bonannus, 145, 151. Bontemps, Pierre, 222. Bonusamicus, 145. Bosio, Francois Joseph, 256. Bouchardon, Edme, 228. Boupalos, 90. Boyle, John J., 287. Brackett, Edward Augustus, 280. Bregno, Andrea, 201. Bringhurst, Robert P., 287. Briosco, Andrea, 203. Brock, Thomas, 271. Brown, Henry Kirke, 278. Briiggeman, 234. Brunelleschi, Filippo, 186. Bryaxis, 106. Buon, Bartolommeo, 201. Buonaccorso, 186. Buonarroti, Michelangelo, 210. Busti, Agostino, 200. CAFFI^RI, Jean Jacques, 229. Cain, Auguste, 265. Camaino, Tino di, 149. Campagna, Girolamo, 209. Campbell, Thomas, 269. Campioni, 150. Cano, Alonso, 238. Canova, Antonio, 242. Caradosso, 200. Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste, 264. Cartellier, 258. Cattaneo, Danese, 209. Cellini, Benvenuto, 214. Cerracchi, Giuseppe, 275. Chalouette, 259. Chaudet, Antoine Denis, 256. Chantrey, Sir Francis Legatt, 267. Chapu, Henri, 261. Chaplain, 264. Ciccione, Andrea, 204. Civitali, Matteo, 193. Clarke, Thomas Shields, 288. Claude, Louis Michel, 229. Clementi, Prospero, 214. Clevinger, Shobal Vail, 280. Colombe, Michel, 220. Como, Guido da, 147. Coustou, Nicholas, 226. Coustou, Guillaume, 226. Contucci da Monte Sansavino, An- drea, 207. Corradini, 218. INDEX. 293 Cosmati, Giovanni, 150. Couper, William, 281. Coysevox, Antoine, 225. Cozzarelli, Giacomo, 197. Crawford, Thomas, 277. Cristoforo Solari, 200. Cuiffagni, Bernardo, 188. DALOU, Jules, 265. Dallin, Charles E., 288. Danese, Cattaneo, 209. Dannecker, Johann Heinrich, 248. Danton, 259. Desboeufs, 259. Desiderio da Settignano, 192. Dexter, Henry, 280. Dixey, John, 275. Donatello, 186. Donner, Georg Raphael, 235. Dontas, 92. Drake, Friedrich, 250. Drury, Alfred, 274. Dubois, Mrs., 280. Dubois, Paul, 262. Dubroeucq, Jacques, 237. Duccio, Agostino di, 188. Dumont, Augustin Alexandra, 261. Dupre, Giovanni, 244. Duquesnoy, Francois, 237. Duret, Francois Joseph, 258. Durham, Joseph, 269. Du Seigneur, 258. Duveneck, Frank, 286. EBERHARD, Konrad, 253. Enrichus, 145. Epigonos, in. Etex, Antoine, 258. Euphranor, 108. Ezekiel, Moses Jacob, 281. FALCONET, Maurice fitienne, 228. Falguiere, Jean Alexandra, 262. Fauveau, Felicie de, 258. Federighi, Antonio, 197. Fedi, Pio, 244. Fehr, H. C., 274. Fiesole, Mino da, 192. Filippo Brunelleschi, 186. Flaxman, John, 239. Fogelberg, 248. Foggini, Giovanni Battista, 218. Foley, John Henry, 270. Foley, Margaret, 280. Ford, E. Onslow, 273. Fouchere, 259. Fra Giovan' Angelo Montorsoli, 214. Fra Mattia della Robbia, 190, 204. Francesco da Laurana, 204. Francesco di Giorgio, 197. Francesco di San Gallo, 207. Francois, Bastien, 222. Frampton, George J., 273. Frazee, John, 276. Fr6miet, Emmanuel, 265. French, Daniel Chester, 284 Fusina, Andrea, 201. GAGINI, Antonio, 204. Gagini, Domenico, 204. Gaudens, Augustus St., 283. Gentil, Francois, 224. Genzburg, 255. Ghiberti, Lorenzo di Cione, 183. Ghiberti, Vittorio, 186. Giacomo Cozzarelli, 197. Giacomo della Porta, 214. Gibbons, Grinling, 239. Gibson, John, 269. Gilbert, Alfred, 273. Giorgio, Francesco di, 197. 294 INDEX. Giovanni, Agostino di, 149. Giovanni Antonio Omodeo, 199. Giovanni, Bertoldo di, 188. Giovanni da Bologna, 216. Giovanni da Pisa, 203. Giovanni della Robbia, 190. Giovanni di Balduccio, 149. Giovanni di Martino, 201 . Giovanni di Turino, 197. Giovanni Pisano, 148. Girardon, Francois, 225. Giraud, Francois Gregoire, 258. Girolamo Campagna, 209. Girolamo della Robbia, 190. Glaukias, 92. Goujon, Jean, 222. Gould, Thomas R., 280. Gower, Lord Ronald, 271. Gratchoff, 255. Greenough, Horatio, 277. Gruamons, 145. Guglielmo della Porta, 214. Guido da Como, 147. Guido Mazzoni, 199. Guillain, 224. Guillaume, Jean Baptiste Eugene, 258. HAHNEL, Ernst, 253. Hart, Joel T., 280. Haseltine, Henry F., 280. Herlin, Friedrich, 233. Hess, Anton, 254. Hildebrand, Adolph, 253. Hosmer, Miss Harriet, 280. Houdon, Jean Antoine, 229. Hughes, Ball, 278. Hutchinson, Allen, 274. IL TRIBOLO, 209. Isigonos, in. Ives, C. B., 280. JACKSON, J. A., 280. Jacopo della Quercia, 197, Jacopo Sansavino, 209. Jerichau, J. A., 247. John, W. Goscombe, 273. Jones, Adrien, 274. Jones, John E., 269. Jouffroy, Francois, 261. Juste, Antoine, 221. Juste, Jean, 221. KALAMIS, 94. Kamensky, 255. Kanachos, 92. Kemys, Edward, 286. Kephisodotos, 107. Keyser, Ephraim, 281. Kirk, Thomas, 269. Kiss, August, 251. Klearchos, 92. Knoll, Conrad, 254. Kolotes, 102. Kraft, Adam, 231. Kresilas, 95. LANCERE, 255. Laurana, Francesco da, 204. Lawson, George A., 271. Lee, T. Stirling, 273. Leighton, Sir Frederick, 272. Lemot, 258. Lemoyne, Jean Baptiste, 227 Leochares, 106. Leonardo da Vinci, 208. Leoni, Leone, 216. Leoni, Pompeo, 216. Leopardi, Alessandro,' 203. Lewis, Edmonia, 281. Lieberich, 255. INDEX. 295 Lombard!, Alfonso, 208. Lombardo, Antonio, 203. Lombardo, Girolamo, 209. Lombardo, Pietro, 202. Lombardo, Tommaso, 209. Lombardo, Tullio, 202. Lorenzo di Cione Ghiberti, 183. Lorenzo di Mariano, 108. Lorrain, Robert le, 225. Luca della Robbia, 189. Luca di Andrea della Robbia, 190. Luigi Pampaloni, 244. Lysippos, 107. MACLEAN, T. Nelson, 271. MacMonnies, Frederick W., 285. MacNeil, Hermon A., 289. Maderna, Stefano, 218. Majano, Benedetto da, 193. Mantegazza, Antonio, 199. Mantegazza, Cristoforo, 199. Mariano, Lorenzo di, 198. Martino, Giovanni di, 201. Martiny, Philip, 287. Massegne, Jacobello, 150. Massegne, Pietro Polo, 150. Matteo Civitali, 193. Mattia, Fra, della Robbia, 190. Mazzoni, Guido, 199. McDowell, Patrick, 269. Mi !! an, 224. Merci, Antonin, 262. Michelangelo, Buonarroti, 210. Michelozzi, Michelozzo, 188. Milano, Ambrogino da, 201. Mino da Fiesole, 192. Modemo, 203. Moine, Antonin, 259. Montanes, 238. Montelupo, Raffaello da, 214. Montorsoli, Fra Giovan' Angelo, 214. Mozier, Joseph, 280. Mullins, Roscoe, 273. Myron, 08. NANNI DI BANCO, 186. Nanni di Bartolo, 188. Naps, 255. Nevin, Blanche, 281. Niccola Pisano, 146. Niccolo da Bari, 198. Niccolo d' Arezzo, 186. Niccolo delP Area, 198. Niccolo Pericoli, 209. Niccolo, Piero di, 201. Niehaus, Charles H., 287. Noble, Matthew, 271. OMODEO, Giovanni Antonio, 199. Onatas, 92. Orcagna, Andrea, 149. Orleans, Marie d', 258. PACKER, Michael, 233. Paionios, 102. Pajou, Augustin, 229. Palmer, Erastus Dow, 279. Pampaloni, Luigi, 244. Partridge, William Ordway, 288. Pasiteles, 127. Patras, Lambert, 170. Pegram, Henry A., 273. Pericoli, Niccolo, 209. Perraud, 262. Perreal, 221. Pheidias, 99. Piero di Giovanni Tedesco, 183. Piero di Niccolo, 201 . Pietro Baratta, 218. Pietro Polo Massegne, 150. Pigalle, Jean Baptiste, 228. Pilon, Germain, 224. 2g6 INDEX. Pio Fedi, 244. Pisa, Giovanni da, 203. Pisano, Andrea, 148, 151. Pisano, Giovanni, 148. Pisano, Niccola, 146. Pitts, William, 269. Pollajuolo, Antonio, 193. Polydoros, in. Polykleitos, 95. Pomeroy, Frederick, 274. Pompeo Leoni, 216. Porta, Giacomo della, 214. Porta, Guglielmo della, 214. Pot, Jean le, 222. Powers, Hiram, 277. Powers, Longworth, 281. Powers, Preston, 281. Pradier, James, 258. Pratt, Bela L., 289. Praxiteles, 106, in. Preault, 258. Prieur, Barthelemy, 224. Proctor, A. P., 288. Properzia de' Rossi, 209. Prospero Clementi, 214. Puech, 262. Puget, Pierre, 226. Pyromachos, in. Pythagoras, 95. QUELLDSTUS, Artus, 237. Queirolo, 218. Quercia, Jacopo della, 197 RAFFAELLO DA MONTELUPO, 214. Rauch, Christian Daniel, 250. Reams, Vinnie, 281. Rebisso, Louis, 281. Redfem, James F., 271. Rhind, J. Massey, 287. Rhoikos, 90. Ricci, Stefano, 244. Riccio, 203. Richier, Ligier, 224. Ridolphinus, 145. Riemenschneider, Tilman, 233. Rietschel, Ernst Friedrich August, 251- Rinehart, William Henry, 279 Robbia, Fra Ambrogio della, 190. Robbia, Andrea della, 190. Robbia, Fra Mattia della, 190, 204. Robbia, Giovanni della, 190. Robbia, Girolamo della, 190. Robbia, Luca della, 189. Robbia, Luca di Andrea della, 190. Robertus, 145. Rodin, Auguste, 266. Rogers, John, 280. Rogers, Randolph, 279. Romano, 204. Romano, Gian Cristoforo, 204. Roscoe Mullins, 273. Rossellino, Antonio, 192. Rossellino, Bernardo, 192. Rossi, Properzia de', 209. Roty, 264. Rovezzano, Benedetto da, 207. Ruckstuhl, F. Wellington, 287. Rude, Francois, 259. Rush, William, 276. SAINT MARCEAUX, Ren6 de, 263. Sammartino, 218. Samonoff, 255. San Gallo, Francesco di, 207. Sano, Turino di, 197. Sansavino, Andrea (Contucci da Monte), 207. Sansavino, Jacopo, 209 Sarrazin, 224. Schadow, Johann Gottfried, 248. INDEX. 297 Schadow, Rudolph, 250. Scheffauer, P. J., 248. Schenck, F. E. E., 274. Schievelbein, Friedrich Hermann, 251. Schilling, Johannes, 253. Schliiter, Andreas, 235. Schwanthaler, Ludwig, 253. Sergell, J. T., 247. Settignano, Desiderio da, 192. Silanion, 107. Silvestro da Aquila, 204. Skopas, 104. Slodtz, Michel, 228. Solari, Cristoforo, 200. Stark, Robert, 273. Stebbins, Emma, 281. Stevens, Alfred George, 269. Stone, Nicholas, 239. Story, Waldo, 281. Story, William Wetmore, 279. Stoss, Veil, 231. Stratonikos, in. Swan, John M., 273. Syrlin, Jorg, 233. TACCONE, Paolo, 204. Taft, Lorado, 288. Tatti, Jacopo, 209. Tauriskos, 112. Tedesco, Piero di Giovanni, 183. Tenerani, Pietro, 243. Tenven, Jan, 237. Texier, Jean, 222. Theed, William, 269. Theodores, 90. Thompson, Launt, 280. Thornycroft, Hamo, 272. Thorwaldsen, Bertel, 245. Tieck, Christian Friedrich, 250. Timotheos, 106. Tino di Camaino, 149. Tinworth, George, 271. Toft, A., 274. Torrigiano, Piero, 208. Tribolo, U, 209. Triqueti, 258. Turino di Sano, 197. Turino, Giovanni di, 197. Tutilo, 164. ULOCRINO, 203. VASSALLETTO I., 150. Vassalletto II., 150. Vauthier, Moreau, 264. Vecchietta, Lorenzo, 197. Vela, Vincenzo, 244. Ventura, Agnolo di, 149. Verrocchio, Andrea del, 196. Vincent de Beauvais, 161. Vinci, Leonardo da, 208. Vischer, Peter, 231. Vittoria, Alessandro, 209. Vittorio Ghiberti, 186. Vouet, 224. WARD, John Quincy Adams, 28. Warner, Olin Levi, 283. Watts, George Frederick, 272. Wcidenhaupt, 245. Wcstmacott, Sir Richard, 267. Wiedewelt, Johannes, 245. Wohlgemuth, Michael, 231. Woolner, Thomas, 271. Wright, Mrs. Patience, 275. Wyatt, Richard John, 269. XENOKRATES, in. Ximencs, Ettore, 245. ZUMBUSCH, Caspar, 254. A History of Sculpture. BY ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D. Professor of Art and Archaeology in Princeton University, AND ARTHUR L. 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LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO., Publishers, Fourth Avenue & 30th Street, New York. UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY I I il ll mi || | | || | |||[ | A 001 441 627 5