1^.' CORRECT POSITIONS FOR READING The book should be below the level of the chin, so as not to hide the face and obstruct the voice. INCORRECT POSITIONS FOR READING Book too high and too near the eyes. Book too low and close to the body. Neck bent. ^o^ A HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN SPEECH BY CALVIN L. LEWIS, A.M. PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, HAMILTON COLLEGE, CLINTON, N. Y. SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COIVIPANY CHICAGO NEW YORK k 1 8 COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY C o-f:> . 1 PEEFACE The recent revival of interest in Oral English has met with one serious obstacle. It finds few teachers trained in Oral English and able to teach it. No one now questions the desirability of more attention to the oral side of the subject than has been given in the past, but many superintendents and principals hesitate to introduce oral work for lack of properly trained instructors. There is little doubt that before many years adequate oral endowment and training will come to be a necessary part of the English teacher's equipment. Meanwhile ways must be devised for instructing pupils in the elements of accurate and effective speech. The writer has frequently been asked to pre- pare a textbook to be used by teachers without special training. He does not believe that a book can be written which will wholly take the place of personal instruction. He does think, however, that it is not impossible for an untrained teacher to teach some of the fundamental facts of cor- rect speech from a simple text. The Handbook is such a text. It is for use in the English class room and out of it by the pupil. That the Handbook may the more readily be understood hy beginning students and untrained teachers, none but common and simple terms have 2 AMEBICAN SPEECH been used in it; technical terms have been avoided ; no terminology has been created. No diacritical marks have been used to puzzle and discourage the beginner and to detract from the vocal aspect of the subject. The Handbook is suitable for use in any begin- ning class, whether of college freshmen, high school students, or pupils of upper elementary grades. It is probably not wise to attempt to do much intensive work with children whose voices have not changed. Simple speech defects, how- ever, like those of pronunciation, enunciation, dialect, lisping, etc., should be corrected as early as the intelligence of the child permits — the earlier the better. None but a skillful and expe- rienced teacher should attempt to handle an unchanged or a changing voice. The exercises and illustrations provided should be put before the pupil when he is practicing, so that he can see as well as hear what he is doing. A Manual goes with the Handbook and explains its use. Teachers will find that the best and quick- est results will come from following the direc- tions given in the Manual. If anyone undertakes to use the Handbook without a teacher, he should procure a Manual and follow the directions it contains. The quotations used as Exercises in the Hand- book are taken almost without exception from the masterpieces of English and American literature set for reading and study in the upper grammar grades and the high school. The Selections for PEE FACE 3 Practice are the accumulations of years of teach- ing declamation. Many were written by college students; others were adaptations from — who knows where! — newspapers, magazines, etc. A few were lifted bodily from easily recognized sources. Because the copies of most of these selections exist only in manuscript form with nothing about the manuscript to indicate the name of the writer, the compiler of the Handbook finds himself unable to make proper acknowledginent of authorship. He apologizes for this inability and thanks the writers who have thus unwittingly contributed to his book. Calvin L. Lewis. Hamilton College, Clinton, New York 1916 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Preface 1 CHAPTER-S I. The Organs Used to Produce Speech 9 II. The Elements of Speech Vowel Sounds 19 Quality of Tone 26 Consonant Sounds 39 The Spelling of Consonant Sounds 52 III. Sounds Combined into Words 54 Difficult Consonant Endings 56 First Syllables 61 Middle Sounds 67 Final Syllables 68 IV. Words Combined Into Sentences 72 Variations of Speech 7o Eate 91 When to Change Eate 94 Quality 97 Change of Quality 98 Pitch 106 Inflections ll-'5 Emphasis 116 Placing Emphasis 119 End Words 125 Poetry 128 V. Dialect Speech 132 VI. Speaking in Public 136 The Subject 139 IIow to Prepare a Speech 141 VII. Oral Composition 147 5 6 AMERICAN SPEECH PAGE VIII. Argument 154 Debate 155 Material 157 Handling Material 160 Affirmative Proof 161 On the Floor 166 After the Debate 168 IX. Selections for Practice The Derelict 171 Houses of Moloch 172 A Galilean Vagabond 174 — The Burdens of War 175 Neill at Cawnpore 177 A Soldier of France 179 The Law of Life 181 Another Day 182 Two Pictures 183 Deathless Endeavor 185 An Accident 186 A Man's Heart 188 The Boston Massacre 189 John Brown 's Spirit 191 Grant and Lee 192 HE Spirit of the South 194 San Martin 195 The Oregon Trail 196 The Acquittal of Burr 198 Christopher Columbus 199 The Murder op Abraham Lincoln 201 Lincoln 202 Lincoln 's Faith 204 The Fame of Abraham Lincoln 206 People or Pigs 207 An Enemy of the People 208 The Predatory Eich 209 Aliens in America 211 The Common Man 212 Puritan Principles 214 War a Symbol of Duty 216 TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 PAGE The Spirit of the Past 217 Life Through Socialism 219 We Poor Dead 220 Government and Business 221 The Hills of Death 222 The Sculptured Figures of Soci::tv 224 Chivalry 225 The Wandering Jew 226 The Children of the Poor 228 Poverty 229 The Fault-Finder 231 A Weakness of Our Government 232 The Dreamers 233 An Allegory of the Centuries 234 The Fooi 237 Ambition 238 A List of Eeference Books 241 u , 9^0^. "iV^i^n CHAPTER I THE ORGANS USED TO PRODUCE SPEECH 1. The Vocal Organs are: a. A bellows for collecting, compressing, and controlling air (chest, diaphragm, lungs). h. A pipe connected with this bellows which contains vibrating cords. (Windpipe, larynx, vocal cords.) Nasal cavity Tongue Larynx Windpipe Lungs Diaphragm Hard palate Soft palate I'liaryux Epiglottis Fig. I c. Resonators through which sound from the vocal cords passes. (Mouth, pharynx, nasal cav- ity, etc.) 9 10 AMEBICAN SPEECH Breath 2. How breath is produced. In the upper half of the body is an air-tight cavity known as the chest. The floor of this cavity is a partition which may be raised and lowered at will. In the chest cavity are suspended five lung-lobes, so made and adjusted that no air can pass through them or around them into the chest cavity. The lung lobes are attached at the top by the bronchial tubes to the windpipe. The lungs are composed of masses of minute, elastic cells, each of which connects with a hair-like tube. These tubes connect with other larger tubes, and these with still others until they terminate in bronchial tubes which connect with the windpipe. It should be noted that the lungs are not hollow bags, as many suppose them to be, but a mass of minute, somewhat elastic tubes and air-cells, encased in a flexible, elastic covering. The bottoms of the lung-lobes are concave and they rest on the convex diaphragm. When nor- mal, the air pressure within the lungs and with- out is the same. Now, if the diaphragm is flat- tened and the walls of the lower part of the chest widened, a partial vacuum will be produced within the chest. But ''nature abhors a vacuum," and to satisfy this one the air rushes into the lungs through the windpipe and expands the air-cells of the lungs until they become large enough to fill the vacuum. Then the diaphragm and the chest wall contract and press the lungs up against the firm, bony walls of the chest. This pressure, together TEE OEGANS USED TG PEODUCE SPEECH 11 with the natural elasticity of the air-cells, forces the air out through the '.vindpipe. 3. Inhalation and exhalation. These two movements, called inhalation and exhalation, are like the movements of the piston of an engine. ■i::'-y.-~>'— Diaphragm normal exhalaiton inhalation Fig. II Showing the process of breathing and its effect on the body, diaphragm, and lungs. and they are repeated continually as long as life lasts. There are two kinds of breathing: that which is done quietly and without conscious effort, and that which is done forcefully and sometimes vol- untarily, as in speaking and singing. The first is wholly involuntary and normal; the second is often partly voluntary. The first is regnilar and uniform ; the second varies in power and rapidity as the voice-demands vary. It is only with the latter so-called forced breathing that we are con- 12 AMERICAN SPEECH cerned, for it is the forced breath that causes the vocal cords to vibrate and produce sound. Hence it is quite evident that if we would learn to control the voice, we must learn to control that which produces the voice — namely, the breath. Just as the violinist learns to control the muscles of fingers, hand, and arm that carry the bow, so must the vocalist learn to control the muscles of the diaphragm and of the lower chest, for these make and manipulate the voice-producing column of air. 4. Breath control. It must be remembered that breathing, when properly done, is done very largely with the bottom of the chest, not with the top. Any system of breathing that causes the chest to heave and the shoulders to rise and fall much, is a faulty system. The movements of chest and shoulders, even in forced breathing, should be slight and hardly perceptible. To acquire the habit of deep, diaphragmatic breathing requires practice and thoughtful atten- tion. Think always that the breath begins at the waist line, and try to fill the lungs, as you do a bottle, from the bottom up. 5. Exercise. Stand with the body erect but not rigid, feet a little apart, weight equally divided between them and thrown slightly for- ward, shoulders back, neck straight, chin slightly raised, arms hanging naturally, or hands resting lightly on hips. Take this position when practicing breathing ex- ercises, and later when practicing vocal exercises. THE ORGANS USED TO PRODUCE SPEECH 13 6. Exercise. Inhale slowly and steadily until the lungs are filled. Try not to move the chest and shoulders. Note the tightening of the waist mus- cles and the pushing out and stiffening of the lower chest and the upper abdomen. Hold the breath during a slow count of five. (Gradually, in subsequent trials, increase to twelve or fifteen counts.) Exhale explosively and completely. Repeat this whole exercise five to ten times. 7. Exercise. Inhale quickly and deeply, as you would between the phrases of a song. Try not to move the chest and shoulders. Count as before. Exhale slowly and steadily through a small opening in the lips. A good way to control the exhalation is to whistle softly as long as the breath lasts, trying to make the sound even and steady. A constant effort should be made to restrain the outflow of breath and not to waste it. Repeat five to ten times. 8. Exercise. Inhale slowly as before. Count as before. Exhale slowly as before. Repeat five to ten times. 9. Exercise. Inhale quickly. Open the mouth and make the sound n-n softly. Hold the sound as long as the breath lasts, trying to keep the tone even and steady. Repeat five to ten times. 14 AMEBICAN SPEECH 10. Exercise. Inhale quickly. Open the mouth and make the sound ha-ha-ha- a-a-a-ah. Be careful to bring out the h each time with a strong impulse and a clearly felt movement of the diaphragm. Prolong the third ha twice the time of the other two, and finish it with a distinct h. Do not inhale between repetitions. Repeat as long as the breath lasts, and try to make it last as long as possible. Repeat five to ten times. 11. Exercise. Inhale quickly. Read or repeat quietly, in a clear voice, and at an ordinary rate a passage with which you are familiar, trying to go as far in it as possible with one breath. All these exercises may be taken when standing, as prescribed ; or when lying flat on the back with- out a pillow; or when walking. If taken when walking allow the arms to swing freely. Breathing exercises should be practiced as fre- quently each day as circumstances permit until the habit of deep, diaphragmatic breathing be- comes fixed, and breath control is mastered. 12. Chest breathing. It is sometimes objected that the prescription not to move the chest and shoulders conflicts with the directions given by teachers of physical training. These urge their pupils to raise the chest and shoulders and to expand the chest to its utmost. This conflict is only apparent, for the two plans are in no way at THE ORGANS USED TO PRODUCE SPEECH 15 cross purposes. The physical training teacher en- deavors to enlarge the capacity of the lungs and chest. By straightening the back and stretching the intercostal muscles, the physical culture exer- cises increase the number of cubic inches within the chest. That means more breath, better blood, Fig. Ill Showing the soft palate hanging naturally so as to permit sound to pass into the upper resonators. improved digestion, and a dozen other things of inestimable value. The aim of the vocal teacher, however, is ditferent. While he may, and does, enlarge the chest, his primary purpose is to teach the pupil to use what chest space he has, and to use it in the way that will best produce the voice. High chest breathing is useful for expanding the 16 AMERICAN SPEECH chest, but it is incompatible with proper voice production, 13. The windpipe and the vocal cords. The windpipe is a tube of rigid cartilage connecting with the tubes leading from the lungs and extending upward in the throat to a point about Fig. IV Showing the soft palate acting as a damper to shut sound out of the upper resonators and cause it all to pass out of the mouth. half way between the body and the chin. It terminates in a triangular box, also of cartilage, called the larynx. One angle of the larynx is in front and forms a slight • protrusion, commonly called the ''Adam's apple." Within the larynx and stretched horizontally across it from front to rear are two tape-like strips of yellowish mem- THE ORGANS USED TO PRODUCE SPEECH 17 brane. They are connected with the walls of the larynx, so that the air passing from the lungs must go between them. The edges of these vocal cords come together in front and are attached at the back to two posts of cartilage. When no vocal sound is being produced these posts remain apart, and the vocal cords lie in the shape of the letter V. When a vocal sound is produced, the posts are drawn toward each other until the edges of the vocal cords touch. Then when a column of air is forced between them they vibrate and produce a vocal tone. 14. Sound and speech. It should be noted that the action of the breath on the vocal cords pro- duces nothing more than sound; not sound modi- fied into vowels and consonants, but merely noise such as might come from a clarionet or an organ pipe. All animals have the power to produce sound; some have abilitv to varv the sound slightly; but only man has the appliances and the intelligence necessaiy to transform this sound into the elements of speech. Sounds leaving the vocal cords vary only in volume and pitch. They are then modified by the organs of speech into the speech elements — voivels and consonants. 15. The organs of speech. The organs of speech are the lips, the cheeks, the teeth, the tongue, the hard palate, the soft palate, and the nasal cavity. Changing the shape of the mouth by changing the relative position of these organs modifies the sound which comes from the vocal 18 AMERICAN SPEECH cords into different open sounds called vowels. Re- stricting or checking vowel sounds produces conso- nant sounds. Thus are the speech elements formed. Fig. V . 1. Tlie vocal cords drawn back for quiet breathing. 2. The vocal cords in a whisper. .3. The vocal cords when vibrating their full leugtli. 4. The vocal cords when vibrating half their length. Note: 4 produces a sound an octave higher than 3. NoTK : For a fuller discussion of the organs used to produce speech and tlieir action tlio student may refer to The Xataral Method of Voice Production, by Dr. F. G. Muckey ( Scribner's). CHAPTER II THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH Vowel Sounds 16. A vowel sound is an open sound; that is, it is made with open throat, mouth, teeth, and lips. No part of the resonator may be closed w^hile a vowel is being sounded. Hence a vowel sound may be prolonged as long as forced breath is sup- plied. Tliere are twelve (some say thirteen) primary vowel sounds. They are: 1. 00 as in jool 5. a as in /ai 9. ay as in fate 2. 00 as in joot 6. ah as in fatherlO. eh as in then 3. oh as in Mow 7. er as in her 11. i as in hit 4. aw as in saiv 8. nh as in vp 12. ee as in heet These twelve sounds may, for practical pur- poses at least, be regarded and used as the pri- mary sounds out of which all the other sounds in American speech are made. It nmst be quite evident that to learn to use the lang-uage accurately, one must first learn these primary sounds — how to recognize them and how to produce them. This may be done in two ways : by imitation, and by a study of the mechanical adjustment of the organs of speech for each sound. Neither method alone is adequate. Learn- ing by ear is an inaccurate method, for the ear. of 19 20 AMERICAN SPEECH the learner may be untrue, or the sounds imitated may not be good models. Learning by position may be difficult because of physical peculiarities The 00 Sound The go Sound— Side The 00 Sound — Front of the learner and resultant awkwardness in ad- justing the speech organs. The surest way is to use both methods. 17. Exercise. Pronounce first the vowel sound, then the word in the list given on the preceding TEE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 21 page, beginning with oo and ending witli ee. Note carefully the positions of the organs of The oh Sound The oh Sound — Side The oh Sound — Front speech as each is pronounced. If the sound oo is correctly made, the mouth will be elongated to its greatest extent from front to rear ; the cheeks will be flattened and drawn in against the teeth; 22 AMEBICAN SPEECH the lips will be pushed forward and puckered, and the soft palate and the tongue drawn backward, The ah Sound The ah Sound — Side The AH Sound — Front leaving the longest and narrowest possible open- ing from front to rear. The aperture between the lips is small and rounded. TEE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 23 As you go clown the ''scale" — oh, aiv, etc. — the jaws gradually separate, the cheeks relax, and The ay Sound The ay Sound — Side The ay Sound — Front the tongue flattens, until at ah the mouth is in its widest open position with the tongue lying flat and inert on the lower jaw and the soft palate hanging straight down. 24 AMERICAN SPEECH From this position the jaws approach each other as the sounds er, uJi, etc., are made, until The EE Sound The EE Sound— Side The EE Sound — Front at ee they are close together; the lips are drawn tight across the teeth, as in a smile; the cheeks pushed apart and the tongue pushed forward and THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 25 lip, making, in tlie resonance chamber, the flattest and broadest possible cavity through which a vowel can pass. One cannot make the sound ee w^ith the reso- nance chamber and the lips shaped for oo or for ah, or vice versa. Try it and see. Repeat this ''scale" of vocal sounds down and up until you are conscious of the changes in ad- justment of the speech organs that have been described. Try to associate each sound with its position, and to remember the position. Practice frequently until the correct habit of producing each sound is fixed. 18. Exercise. Repeat the sounds oo — oh — ah — ay — ee. Make these sounds slowly at first, then increase the speed. Keep each sound separate and dis- tinct. Work for flexibility in the speech organs, particularly in the jaws and lips. Practice this exercise daily, and frequently each day until each sound is correctly made and until the muscular action is rapid and accurate. 19. Exercise. Repeat in the same way the vowel sounds in pairs, in the order given in the columns below. 00 00 00 — iih 00 — oh 00 — ay 00 — aw 00 — eh 00 — a 00 — i 00 — ah 00 — ee 00 — er 26 AMEBICAN SPEECH 20. Exercise. Repeat in the same way the vowel sounds in pairs, in the order given in the columns below. ah — 00 ah — 7ih ah — oh ah — ay ah — aw ah — eh ah — a ah — i ah — er ah — ee 21. Exercise. Repeat in the same way the vowel sounds in pairs, in the order given in the columns below. ee — 00 ee — er ee — oh ee — uh ee — aw ee — ay ee — a ee^eh ee — ah ee — i Quality of Tone As yet no attention has been given to the qual- ity of tone produced in these exercises. Quality is of no less importance than accuracy, and an acceptable quality should be cultivated from the beginning. 22. What qualities should a voice have? To be of greatest use, a voice should be clear and agreeable. 23. A voice should be clear. No voice is use- ful or pleasant to listen to unless it is clear. A clear voice is free from obstruction of all sorts. A voice may be obstructed in various ways: by TEE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 27 throat contraction, by nasality, by a stiff tongue, by rigid jaws, by set li})s, and by breatliiness. 24. Throat contraction. When the mouth is open for speech or song, the jaw should drop largely of its own w^eight as it does in a yawn. No great muscular effort should be made to pull it down. Such effort is one of the most common forms of throat contraction. Speaking in a key above or below the normal pitch of the voice is another source of throat contraction. Do not strain the voice beyond its proper range. Speaking louder than is natural is a third source of throat strain, especially when the voice is pitched too high. EegTilate the volume of your voice to your vocal capacity. Faulty practice, tight collars, nervousness, embarrassment, and other minor matters may contribute to a tightened throat and the resultant throatiness of tone. Try to overcome throat contraction by the removal of its cause, whatever that may be. In practicing the exercises think to keep the throat free and open and relaxed. 25. Nasality. A second hindrance to clearness is nasality. Nasality is caused by an abnormal physical condition or by faulty handling of the palate. The palate is the damper (See Fig. TV.) which determines how much breath or tone shall go into the nose and how much into the mouth. If the muscles controlling the palate do not operate normally, as in the condition of partial paralysis frequently following diphtheria, the palate may be allowed to hang too far forward and thus direct 28 AMERICAN SPEECH too much tone into the nasal cavity. Any nasal obstruction may likewise produce a nasal tone, — adenoids, spurs, cold in the head. Such conditions reduce clearness and should be remedied. Absence of muscular dexterity in the tongue, jaws, and lips is a third source of hindrance to clearness. These organs should be so trained that they do not offer undue obstructions to vocal sounds. Learn to open the jaws and to speak with flexible tongue and lips. Exercises already given for the vowel sounds will aid in this. So will later exercises for con- sonantal sound. 26. Breathiness. A third cause of obscurity is breathiness. When a clear tone is produced the edges of the vocal cords are close together. If for any reason they become separated while a tone is being produced, too much breath is allowed to escape and the tone is breathy. If the cords are widely apart the result is a wiiisper. To correct such a tone the breath must be controlled so that only just enough air is forced between the vocal cords to produce the tone desired. Intelligent effort to regulate the supply of forced breath will remove the breathy quality from the voice. While the exercises prescribed in this book will help to produce clearness of tone, it may be neces- sary at the beginning to obtain the help of a com- petent teacher of the voice, for here imitation may most quickly and surely induce correct tone formation. 27. A voice should be agreeable. Sounds that are displeasing or offensive should be TBE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 29 carefully eliminated. Some of these are the nasal and throaty tones already mentioned ; others are shrill, whining, querulous, thick, muffled, gruff, grunting, etc. The voice is, and should be, an index of the personality of the speaker; it is al- ways so considered by those who hear it. One should, therefore, eliminate from the voice those qualities likely to impress a listener disagreeably. If one does not wish to be thought a fault-finder, a scold, a dolt, or a pig he should not talk like one. 28. Exercise for tone quality. a. Breathe deeply. b. Softly hum m-m-m with tlie lips closed. Try not to make the tone either hard or nasal, but let it vibrate all through the resonators. If prop- erly done this exercise will relax the muscles used in producing the voice and will reduce interfer- ence. The humming will be most effective if it is in short, quick sounds, rather than long, sustained ones. The more of such practice of humming the better. c. When a soft, clear, resonant hum (with the lips closed) is mastered, let the lips part slightly. This will produce the sound mee. Practice this sound softly at first, then w4th increasing volume. Gradually let the mouth open wider so that the tones i — ay — uh, and finally ah are added. d. With the ah once established, the work of developing the voice is well started. Any attempt to force a beginning from a contracted ah will only bring trouble and delay. The tone must be a free and relaxed one. 30 AMEBICAN SPEECH Note : Practically all voice culture begins with an open, relaxed ah sound, and this sound must be established correctly. The reasons are apparent; it is the widest, freest of all tones; it is the one first uttered ; it is common to all languages ; its position is between the elongated open oo and the flattened ee. It is not difficult to work from the ah position to any other. It is necessary, therefore, to know how to make the ah sound well. Practice the exercise for it frequently. Sound it at the most comfortable pitch, softly at first, and in the freest, easiest way possible. Keep it forward out of the throat and down out of the nose, and do not ob- struct it by teeth or lips. The help of an instructor may be necessary ; if so, get it. It will be hard to go forward in voice work until you can make a good ah. 29. Exercise. Having established an ah of satisfactory quality somewhere in the middle voice, say at a below middle c of the treble scale, try to make the note next above and the one next below in the same position and with the same quality, thus: ^^^ m^=^^^- AH AH AH Use plenty of breath. Make the tones slow, smooth, steady, and uniform. Let one note slur into the next with little change except in pitch. Repeat frequently. THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 31 30. Exercise. This exercise is to be done in the same way as the previous one. Repeat frequently. iA^aSj^ AH m * ^=i: AH ^y-s^-jj: 31. Exercise. Continue to extend the range of the ah up and down the scale until an octave of eight full notes is covered. Practice scales and *^' _, — AH • > — ^- AH M 1 ft" — 1 0— ~^ 1 » -J-;*- 4 AH ^=^'=^ ^^ *- -A 1 • AH • Twice with one breath Three times with one breath arpeggios, and octaves, using the ah sound, until it can be produced well on each tone. This should be a daily exercise. Eepeat frequently. The ah sound under control, the next step will be to extend the practice to the other primary sounds. 32 AMERICAN SPEECH 32. Exercise, a. Keeping in mind the clear, open, forward quality of the aJi, sound alternately the vowels ah — oh — ah, on the note a. Eepeat frequently. 5 AH OH AH OH AH b. Do the same with ah and ay. c. Do the same with ah and oo. d. Do the same with ah and ee. 33. Exercise, a. Sound the notes below, alter- nating ah — oh — ah, thus : ;i^ AH OH AH 1= AH OH AH i i AH OH AH OH AH h. Do the same with ah and ay. c. Do the same with ah and oo. d. Do the same with ah and ee. 34. Exercise, a. Sound the' notes below, alter- nating ah and oh, thus: /^ ■^ =1: AH OH AH OH AH m rf fcfr m^ AH OH AH OH AH * fe ^=^--= AH OH AH OH AH OH AH OH AH TRE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 33 h. Do the same with ah and ay. c. Do the same with ah and oo. d. Do tlie same with ah and ee. 35. Exercise, a. Somid the notes below, alter- nating ali and oh, thus : h. Do the same with ah and ay. c. Do the same with ah and oo, d. Do the same with ah and ee. :-'-"-| t^ =J= AH OH AH OH AH OH AH OH AH OH AH OH AH OH AH OH ^ l:^7 -tr*- AH OH AH OH AH OH AH AH OH AH Note : It will be helpful when practicing these exercises if the mental and emotional attitude of pupils is properly directed. If the pupil is alert, interested, quick to respond to suggestion ; and if he is happy and enjoys the exercise — as one has put it, "if there is a cheery smile" in the tones — the value of these exercises will be tripled. The teacher should use the utmost tact and patience and skill to make the practice a happy one. If the teacher or pupils rebel against the w^ork or are in- different to it, the greater part of its value is lost. 36. Mixed vowel sounds. Without giving fur^ ther attention for the present to tone quality, let us examine the other unobstructed elements of our speech, namely the Mixed Vowel Sounds. 34 AMERICAN SPEECH Recall first the Primary Vowel Sounds: 1. 00 as in fool 5. a as in fat 9. ay as in fate 2. 00 as in /ooi 6. ah as in fatherlO. eh as in ^/le?;, 3. o/i as in hlow 7. er as in her 11, i as in hit 4. aw as in saw 8. «/i as in up 12. ee as in heet If the exercises have been done carefully, it will have been noticed that when any one of these sounds is made the organs of speech take a definite position and maintain it without change until the next sound is made. Any change in the position of the organs of speech changes the vowel ; this is why these vowels are called primary or single. In the exercises described every effort should be made to avoid changing the vowel while it is being sounded. 37. How mixed vowel sounds are made. In some vowel sounds it is necessary to change the position of the organs of speech from the position of one primary sound to that of another. Vowels so produced are said to be mixed or secondary. Those made by one shifting are: 13. ew as in few = ee (feet) and oo (fool) blended 14. ai as in high = ah (father) and i (bit) blended 15. ow as in noiv = «/; (father) and oo (fool) blended 16. oy as in hoy = aw (saw) and i (bit) blended In each of these mixed vowel sounds one of its component sounds does and should predominate. Thus: in few the ee is very brief, and the oo prolonged. In high the ah is long and the i very short. In noiv and hoy, the first element is long and the second short. TRE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 35 38. ■ Errors in mixed vocal sounds. Because of ignorance or carelessness many errors creep into the American speech through improper handling of mixed vowels. These errors are of four kinds. (1) Omitting one of the vowel eleinents. For example, new is frequently pronounced }ioo, the position of ee being omitted. (2) Making a short vowel element long. For example, mine is sometimes pronounced mah-een as if it had two syllables. (3) TTsing a wrong sound for one element. For example, coiv, in some rural sections, is pronounced csL-oo, instead of cah-oo. (4) Separating vowel elements instead of blending them quickly. This is heard in certain drawling dialect like, Yoo-er ha-er is brah-oon. It is essential, therefore, that the pupil first learn how to make all the primary sounds cor- rectly, second wliat primary sounds are used in each mixed sound, and third which sound is short and which long. 39. Exercise. Pronounce. 13. eiv 14. ai 15. ow 16. oy few kind down toil cue guile shout boy duke sky howl loin fume quite mound soil tune lie cloud coin Care should be exercised not to separate the primary sounds in these words. They should be 36 AMERICAN SPEECH blended so as to produce, in effect, a single mixed sound, not separate sounds. In these sixteen sounds are all the necessary vowel elements for learning American speech. These should be practiced alone and in relation to each other until each can be uttered correctly. 40. How vowel sounds are spelled. The vowel sounds of American speech are spelled in a vast variety of ways, and these ways must be learned. It is not best to attempt to learn all the spellings of a sound when one is beginning to learn the language. Learn the sounds themselves first, then let the recognition of the various written forms grow gradually. 41. Here are some of the common forms that each sound takes. The list is not exhaustive. Pronounce : 1. 00 — fool, wound, tomb, fruit, rheumatism, through, shoe. 2. 00 — foot, put, could, woman. 3. oh — blow, bone, goat, soul, owe, foe, sew, though, oh, beau, yeoman. 4. aw — saw, sauce, fall, cloth, caught, cougli, broad, orb. 5. a — fat, plaid, guarantee, wear. 6. ah — father, hurrah, boa. 7. er — her, fur, sir, were, word, journey, earth, myrtle, colonel. 8. uh — up, son, touch, flood, does. 9. ay — fate, gain, pay, vein, they, great, gaol, gauge, aye, weigh, straight. 10. eh — them, head, any, bury, said, heifer, leopard, guess, says. THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 37 11. i — bit, hymn, pretty, England, busy, sieve, breeches, build. • 12. ee — beat, heat, scene, ceiling, niece, machine, peo- ple, key, mosquito, quay, vehicle. 13. ew — few, tune, due, suit, feud, yule, you, lieu, view, beauty, ewe. 14. ai — high, kind, try, tie, dye, sign, sigh, guide, buy, aisle, eye. 15. ow — now, doubt, bough. 16. oy — boy. coin, quoit, buoy. 42. Mixed vowels with r. a. In addition to the vowel sounds described, there are several which are found in com])ination with the consonant r. They are : Diphthongs — ear (fear)='i (bit) -\- cr (her) air (hair)==fl (fat) + rr (her) oor (poor) ^00 (foot) -f f /• (her) oar (boar)=o/i (blow) -\- er (her) Tripthongs lire (cure) =i (bit) -\- oo (foot) -}- cr (her) our (hour)=«/( (father) + oo (foot) -f cr (her) ire (fire) =a/? (father) -\- i (bit) +er(her) b. It will be seen that the effect of the terminal r sound is to add another vowel (er) to the one preceding it. Thus the word ear is made up of the sound i (bit) and er blended; hair is a and er; and so on. c. In the tripthongs tw^o vo^vels are blended 4- 2-.0^S 38 AMERICAN SPEECH and followed by the same er sound. Thus cure is i (bit) and oo blended aftd er added to that J our is ah and oo blended and er added; fire is ah and i blended and er added. d. Just how much value shall be given to the terminal r is a matter of endless dispute. Opin- ions differ vastly. One extreme opinion holds that the terminal r should disappear altogether, and that fear should be pronounced fee-ah; hair, ha-ah; etc. Those on the other extreme hold that the final r should be clearly rolled or trilled, as the case may be ; and that fear should be pronounced fear-r-r; hair, hair-r-r. e. It is the belief of the writer that the truth lies between these two extremes. While it is true that most English people neglect or altogether omit the final /,, and many Americans, particu- larly those of the upper classes in our large cities, contrive to forget it, it is nevertheless true that the vast majority of the educated men and women in America who are simple and unaffected do re- tain a distinct trace of the terminal r. The writer is reluctant to believe that we are ready to dis- pense with this useful sound. The same can be said of the r which occurs in the middle of a word. Take, for example, the word ''farmer." It is pronounced fah.meh by some, fahmer by some, and farmer by some, and occasionally one goes so far as to say farrmerr. It seems that the best practice is to retain both sounds, but to soften them so that they are not harsh and offensive. THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 39 /. The retention of the r within a word or at its end is sometimes the only way of differentiat- ing it from another similar word. The lack of an r is felt by many to be nothing- more than affecta- tion. For these and other reasons it seems unwise to discard the r. The time may come when this most difficult sound will disappear from the American speech. For the present, however, let us be satisfied to modify it — not eliminate it. /7. This discussion has nothing to do with the initial r. That will be considered with other consonants. Consonant Sounds 43. Definition. As the etymology of the word indicates, a consonant sound is a sound made with and by the help of another sound. The other sound is, of course, a vowel. Consonants are formed by obstructing or stopping vowels with some of the speech organs. If instead of let- ting a vowel out naturally through the mouth, the lips are closed and the sound is turned up through the nose, the nasal consonant m is formed. If the tongue and palate are used to turn the sound into the nose, the sound 7i or nrj is formed. If the palate slightly back of the teeth and the base of the tongue impede the vowel, a guttural consonant is formed — //, k, y, q, etc. If the tongiie is used against the hard palate to modify the vowel a lingual consonant is formed — /, r. If the vowel is restricted or stopped by pressing the tongue 40 AMERICAN SPEECH against the teeth, a dental consonant is formed — t, d, s, etc. If the lips check or stop a vowel a labial consonant is formed — p, h, f, v, wh, w, m. 44. Classification. Thus it will be seen that not all consonant sounds in words can properly be prolonged, as vowel sounds are. Hence the following classifications of consonants : a. Stops — I), h, t, d, k, g, c (hard), ch (hard), q and x. h. Continuants — wh, w, f, v, tli {aoit), th (hard), s, z, sh, zli, y, m, n, ng, I, and r, ch (soft), and j. 45. Pairs of Consonants. Several consonants arrange themselves naturally in pairs — p b f V wh w t d fh (hard) th (soft) s z sh zh ch (soft) j k g (hard) In making the two sounds in any pair the same organs of speech are used, and these organs are used in the same way, except that the first named of each pair is merely a blowing sound, whereas the second is a murmur. The first are called surds, the second sonants. 46. Exercise. Pronounce the following, first surd, then sonant; give each consonant sound an exaggerated distinctness. TRE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 41 Surds Sonants pop bob fear — veer tight — died wheel — weal thin — this sis — ziz ashen — ^ azure church judge kick — gig The sharp, explosive, forward sound of the surds is distinctly different from the dull, rum- bling, throaty sounds of the sonants. 47. Table. The following table (Bell's) shows at a glance the character of each consonant sound and the organs used in making it: Lips Lips and Teeth Tongue and Teeth Tongue and Hard Palate forward Tongue and Hard Palate back Tongue, Hard Palate, and Soft Palate Tongue and Soft Palate. Aspirate STOPS A. Surds P T CH K Sonants B D J G CONTINUANTS Surds WH F TH S SH H Sonants W V DH Z, E, L ZH, R Y NASALS (Con.) Sonants M N NG 48. Labials. L. wli is made by pushing the lips forward and rounding them into a small opening through which the aspirant h and the vowel are blown. Pronounce where, when, why. 42 2. AMERICAN SPEECH w is made in the same way as ivJi except that the aspirant h is lacking and the throat murmur is added. Pronounce ive, want, will. The W Sound The W Sound— Side The W Sound — Front TEE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 43 / is a soft hissing sound between the lower lip and the npper teeth. Pronounce fit, fifty, fife. The F Sound The F Sound— Side The F Solxd— Front V is a hard murmiired hissing between the lower lip and the teeth. It is the same as / with a throat murmur added. Pronounce vim, vivid, verve. 44 5. AMEBICAIi SPEECH p is a soft puffing sound through the lips. Pronounce pup, papa, peep. The P Sound — Side The P Sound — Front 6. h is a hard murmured puffing sound through the lips. It is the same as p with a throat murmur added. Pronounce hob, bobbin, bib. 7. m is both a labial and a nasal. It is made by closing the lips and turning tlie sound into the nasal cavity. Like b it also has the throat murmur. Pronounce my, mamma, mum. 49. Dentals. 1. t is a soft explosive sound produced by thrusting the tip of the tongue lightly against the hard palate just above the front teeth, and then suddenly blowing TEE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 45 it away, letting the sound rush out under the upper teeth. Pronounce tot, tatter, taut. The T Sound d is the same as t with a lliroat murmur added. Pronounce dad, added, did. s is a soft hissing sound made by holding the tip of the tongue close to the hard The S Sound palate above the front teeth, and blow- ing out softly between them. Pronounce sit, sister, sis. 46 AMERICAN SPEECH 4. z is tlie same as s with a throat murmur added. Pronounce zest, huzza, buzz. 5. th (soft) is a soft blowing sound made by hold- ing the tip of the tongue close to the lower edge of the upper teeth, and f orc- The th Sound The th Sound— Side The th Sound — Front TEE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 47 ing the air out between the tongue and the teeth. Pronounce tJiin, smithy, death. 6. th (hard) is the same as th (soft) with a throat murmur added. Pronounce this, father, smooth. 7. sh ( soft) is a soft blowing sound made by draw- ing back the tongue, raising the center of it until it is close to the back of the hard palate, and blowing the sound out over the tongue. Pronounce sheet, passion, push. The sh Sound 8. eh is the same as sli (soft) with a throat murmur added. Pronounce pleasure, treasure, azure. 9. ch (soft) is a soft explosive sound made by flat- tening the tongue against the hard palate, and suddenly blowing the air out between them. Pronounce chin, teacher, church. 48 AMERICAN SPEECH The CH (soft) Sound 10, j is the same as cli with a throat mumnir added. Pronounce joy, injure, judge. 50. Linguals. 1. Z is a soft liquid murmur made by press- ing the tip of the tongue against the The L Sound hard palate and letting the sound escape at the two sides of the tongue. Pronounce life, lily, lull. THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 49 The L Sound — Side The L Sound — Front 2. r is made by pressing tlie edges of the tongue against the upper double teeth on either side and holding the tip of the tongue close to the hard palate, let- ting the sound out over it. Pronounce rend, terror', rear. The R Sound 50 AMERICAN SPEECH 51. Palatals. 1. A; is a soft explosive sound made by press- ing the back of the tongue against the soft palate and suddenly blowing them apart. Pronounce key, flicker, kick. The K Sound 2. g (hard) is the same as k with a throat murmur added. Pronounce gun, ragged, gag. The Y Sound TEE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 51 3. y is made by curving the center of the tongue up against the hard palate and letting the sound out over the tongue. Pro- nounce you, young, beyond. 4. q is a combination of A- and w. It is made by sounding a k, with the lips in the position for a w. Pronounce quick, queer, bequeath. 5. ic is a combination of k and 5. It is made by sounding a k and shifting quickly to the 5 position, so that the two sounds almost blend. Pronounce extra, inexact, convex. 52. Nasals. 1. m see )h under Labials. 2. n is a soft singing sound made by closing the mouth cavity with tliQ sides and tip of the tongue, and turning the sound into the nasal cavity. Pronounce near, unknoivn, noon. The N Sound 52 AMEBICAN SPEECH 3. ng is made by closing the mouth cavity with the back of the tongue and tlie soft palate, and turning the sound into the nasal cavity. This is really a second sound of n and not a g sound. Pronounce flung, singing, rang. The Spelling of Consonant Sounds 53. Here are some of the common forms which the consonant sounds take. Pronounce: wh whistle. w we, sgware, okoir, one. f fix, sti#, physics, tough, calf, soften, sapphire, dipMheria. V vast, helve, halve, of, nephew. p pet, steppe, happy, hiccoufir/i. h bet, ple&e, ehh, cup&oard. m met, summer, phlegrm, psa^m, jamb, hymn, programme, drachm. t tip, bi^^er, Y>ressed, thyme, two, debt, indict, receipt, yacht, waste. d deal, add, love^, horde, shonld. s see, hless, puke, waits:, dance, cea^e, scene, coalesce, schism, sword, listen, is^/imus, psalm, distress. z zeal, di^sy, frieze, his, scissors, cleanse, discern, csar, business, venison, beaux. th (soft) thin, eighth, hreath. th (hard) this, hreathe, soothe. sh sheet, sugar, c/iaise, assure, official, vitiate, fasMon, Asia, social, ocean, conscience, mo- tion, fuchsia, pshaw. THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 53 zh azure, measure, glazier, diversion, rougre. ch (soft) church, ditch, niche, luncAeon, righteous, cello. j just, ^ist, hinge, adjure, jud^e. I little, flannel, musicaZ, victuals, iuliill, thist/e. r roar, rhetoric, wrong, merry, corps. k kick, cow, havoc, scone, shacfc, ache, account, ligt