BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY) Special Guide No. 5 GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION OF ANIMALS, PLANTS, AND MINERALS MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE SECOND EDITION/ LONDON PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM 191 1 [Price Sixpence] BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY) Special Guide No. 5 GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION OF ANIMALS, PLANTS, AND MINERALS MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE SECOND EDITION ^ LONDON PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM 191 1 [//// rights reserve^/] LONDON : riilXTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, DUSi; SCRSEr. STAMFOFD S-'REET, S.£., AJ'iJ GREi'T %.'lNLMti-L STREET, W. PREFACE. 35 It was thought by the Trustees of the British Museum that ari Exhibition of Animals, Plants, and Minerals mentioned in the Bible would form an interesting supplement to the literary and historical Biblical Exhibition which has been arranged at Bloomsbury for the Tercentenary of the Authorised Version, and instructions were given for its prepai-ation. The result is the collection now placed in one of the bays of the Central Hall of the Natural History Museum. The Animals and Minerals, respectively, have been selected, arranged, and labelled by Mr. Lydekker and Dr. Herbert Smith, under the general supervision of the Keepers of Zoology and Mineralogy ; the Plants have been selected, arranged, and labelled by Dr. Rendle, the Keeper of Botany. The zoological and botanical parts of the present guide-book are virtually reprints of the exhibited labels, and the information given on the latter has been to a considerable extent derived from the late Dr. H. B. Tristram's "Natural History of the Bible," the first edition of which was published in the year 1867. As regards the Biblical Minerals, scarcely any of them were found in Palestine itself or were brought from localities now known ; they are not considered in Dr. Tristram's work, and, notwithstanding all >j that has been written about them during many centuries, there is uj still great uncertainty as to the original signification of the Hebrew cc. and Greek names. As the subject presents much difficulty, I liave oci contributed to the guide-book a short essay showing how modern ^ interpretations of the ancient names of Biblical Minerals have been ^ deduced. ^ L. FLETCHER, Director. British Museum (Natural History), December 21s/, 1911. 365407 TABLE OF CONTENTS, page I. ANIMALS 1 Horse. Mule. Ass .. 2 Unicorn .. 3 Cattle 3 Sheep 5 Goat . . 5 Chamois .. 5 Roebuck. Hart. Hind. Fallow Deer. " Pygarg " .. 6 Camel. Dromedary 6 Swine 7 Behemoth 7 "Coney" .. 7 Lion 8 Leopard 8 Cat 8 Dog. Greyhound. Wolf. Fox 9 Bear 10 HYiENA 10 "Ferret" 11 "Mole" 11 Elephant. Ivory 11 Whale. Leviathan. Dragon 11 "Badger" 12 Bat 12 Eagle. Osprey .. 12 Vulture. Kite. Glede. Hawk 13 " Gier-Eagle " .. 13 " Night-Hawk." Owl .. 13 Pelican. Cormorant .. 14 Stork 14 Bittern. Heron 14 Peacock • • 14 "Swan" .. 15 Ostrich 15 VI Table of Co7itents Partridctf:. Quail Turtle. Turtle-Dove. Dovk Crane. Swallow "Lapwing" Sparrow .. Raven Chameleon. Lizard .. "Tortoise" Snail Serpent. Asp. Adder. Cockatrice Frog Bee. Honey. Hornet Locust. Grasshopper. Cankerworm. Caterpillar. Worm. Moth. Palmer-AVorm Scorpion. Spider. Ant Flies. Fleas. Lice Horse-Leech Purple Dye Pearls Coral. Sponge .. Manna PAGK .. 15 15 16 16 16 16 17 17 18 18 18 19 Beetle 19 20 20 21 21 21 22 22 22 II.— PLANTS Woods. Box-wood Olive-Wood, Gophcr-Wood, Almug, Ebonj- Cedar- Wood, Thyine-Wood, Shittim Wood Trees and Shrubs. Almond, Apple Bay, Chestnut-Tree, Box, Cedar .. Fig, Fir-Tree Heath, Juniper, Locust-Tree, Mulberry-Tree Myrtle, Oak Olive, Oil-Tree Palm, Pomegranate, Poplar Sycamine, Sycamore Shittah Tree (Shittim Wood), Terebmth or Teil Tree Nuts, Vine Wild Gourd Willow 23 23 24 25 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 HERBACEoas Plants. Corn . . Wheat, Barley, Millet 35 36 Table of Contents. Vll Herbaceous Plants — continued. Tares, Lentils, Eeed, Bulrush or Rush, Flax . . Hyssop, Rose, Lily Cucumber, Melon, Gourd, Mandrake Onion, Leek, Garlick ; Mint, Anise, Cummin, Rue ; ^ Manna, Mustard, Wormwood Perfumes. Spikenard, Aloes, Frankincense, Myrrh, Balm Cinnamon, Cassia, Saffron Prickly Plants. Bramble, Brier, Thistle, Thorns .. icclies PAGE 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 43 III.— MINERALS 45 1. The Foundations of the New Jerusalem 2. The Breastplate of the High Priest A. Authorised Version B. Septuagint Version C. Jewish Antiquities (Josephus) D. Vulgate Version Comparison of the above Four Descriptions E. Another Description of the Breastplate by Josephus 3. The Stones on the Shoulder-Pieces of the Ephod 4. The Ornaments of the King of Tyre .. Difficulties of Translation of Hebrew Technical Terms Translation of Hebrew into Greek and English Terms Another Table of Equivalence .. 5. Other Stones mentioned in the Bible 46 52 52 53 57 59 59 61 64 65 66 67 68 69 Index 73 GUIDE TO ANIMALS, PLANTS, AND MINEKALS MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE. I.— ANIMALS. Thk proper identification of the various animals mentioned in tlie Old Testament is in many cases a matter of extreme difficulty ; and this for several reasons. For in a number of instances we have even now no definite clue as to the real signification of the old Hebrew names of animals mentioned in the sacred text ; and when the authorised translation was made three centuries ago the difficulty was of course very much greater, owing to the imperfect knowledge of natural history at that time. Since that date important clues have been obtained by correlating the Hebrew words with current Arabic and Coptic names of ani]nals, and in this way many of the difficulties have been more or less satisfactorily solved, although in other cases little or no progress has been made ; and it seems probable that the signification of some of the Hebrew animal names will always remain an enigma. A further difficulty arises from the circumstance that some of the Hebrew names appear to refer to purely mythical creatures. In this country the pioneer in reseai'ch of this subject was the late Canon H. B. Tristram, whose work on "The Natural History of the Bible " was published by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in 1867. In the case of mammals it happened, however, that the author was under the impression that certain large species of North African antelopes, such as the bubal hartebeest, the addax, and the white, or sabre-horned, oryx, ranged into Syria, whereas they do not, as a matter of fact, occur anywhere east of the Nile. This B 2 Guide to Animals, Plants, and Minerals rendered some of the Canon's identifications of Hebrew Scriptural names incorrect. It may be added in this connection that it is still uncertain whether the Arabian Oryx {Oryx heatrix) of the Syrian and Arabian deserts may not be one of certain unidentified animals, such as the " Pygarg," mentioned in the Bible. Since many of the animals referred to in the Bible are of large bodily size, it has been found impracticable to show them in the present exhibition otherwise than by specimens of their heads and horns or by pictures. Before proceeding to notice the various species which can be more or less satisfactorily identified, a few words may be devoted to certain names which either cannot be identified or which are not worthy of special labels. Among those of the first type is " Satyr," which probably relates to a purely mythical animal, although it has been proposed to connect the name with the great dog-headed Baboons [Papio) of Egypt and Arabia. Again, the bird indicated by skahaj)]! — translated " Cuckoo " in the Authorised Version — cannot be identified. For " Weasel " the i-eader may refer to the heading Mole. The word rightly translated " Mouse " appears to be generally used in a wide sense, although in one instance it clearly refers to the Continental Short-tailed Field- Mouse (Microtits, or Arvieola, agrestis). " Hare " relates to the common Syrian species, Lepus syriacus. In connection with the words " Cock " and " Hen," which occur in the New Testament, it may be mentioned that there is no reference in the Old Testament to domesticated poultry, which were probably first introduced into Judjea after the Roman conquest. As regards Fishes, of which there is frequent mention in the Bible, there is, in most cases at any rate, no possibility of making any specific identification, although " Eel " doubtless refers to one or both of the two species found in Syrian waters. HORSE. MULE. ASS. Horses were used in Biblical times chiefly in war, and were then a comparatively recent introduction. No reference is made to Mules till the time of David ; but after that date Horses and Mules are often mentioned together. In some cases the word trans- lated " Dromedai-ies " really means Mules. The word " Ass " refers to the well-known domesticated animal, whose wild relative {Equus asinus africanus) inhabits Nubia ; but "Wild Ass" indicates a very difierent animal, the Syrian Onager (E. onager hemippns), which Mentioned in. the Bible. 3 still inhabits Palestine, and belongs to a group of species in some degi'ee connecting the Horse with the Ass. The Onager is repre- sented in the case on the left side of the Bay by pictures. The "pale Horse" of Rev. 6, the translation of the Greek cldoros hippos, probably indicates a dun Horse, a type regarded in some countries as very ancient, but of bad quality ; while the " red Horse " of the same chapter, the translation of purrhos liippos^ probably denotes a chestnut. UNICORN. The Hebrew word rem, translated "Unicorn" (Job 39, 9-12), indicates a two-horned animal ; the proper rendering of the sentence "the horns of unicorns" (Deut. 33, 17) being "the horns of a unicorn." It is probable that the animal referred to is the extinct Wild Ox or Aurochs {Bos taurus primigenius), which, as indicated by Assyrian sculptures, of one of which an illustration is shown in the case, was living in Asia Minor in Biblical times. By Dr. Duerst the Syrian Aurochs is considered a distinct species. If this be correct, the " wild bull in a net " (Isa. 51, 20) must refer to a different animal — the Hebrew to — although the species cannot be determined. It may be mentioned that at the present day the word rim, probably the equivalent of rem, is applied by the Arabs to a N. African species of Gazelle ; the name having perhaps been transferred to that animal after the extermination of the Aurochs. A cast of a skull of the latter animal is shown in the North Hall, and a photograph of another skull is exhibited in the left-hand wall-case. CATTLE. Cattle, which were used in Biblical times for ploughing, treading-out corn, and for draught, as well as for dairy purposes, food, sacrifice, etc., are referred to by several names, indicative of sex, age, etc. Like those of ancient Egypt (Fig. 1), the Cattle of Palestine were derived from the Humped Ox or Zebu of India, of which a stuffed specimen is exhibited in the North Hall ; l)ut while ill some instances the hump, as shown in two of the illustrations in the left-hand wall-case, was retained, in other instances, as in the group of Oxen treading-out corn, it had been eliminated by selec- tion. A skull, with the horns, of the ancient Egyptian Ox is shown in the upper part of the case ; and below this is an illustration of the Indian Zebu. B 2 4 Guide to /Lnimals, Plants^ and Minerals Fig. 1. Ancient Egyptian Ox. Fig. 2. Syrian Fat-tailed Sheep. From Murray's " Bible Dictionary.' • Mentioned m the ^zWes^ssivtHc-iTv 5 "v Of ■ SHEEP. ---i-L'-^/l --- The oi'dinary Sheep of Palestine belong to the white fat-tailed breed, in which the rams carry lai-ge horns (Fig. 2). From the men- tion of " the fat, and the rump " (Ex. 29, 22) it seems probable, how- ever, that the fat-rumped breed, commonly known as the "Hedjaz Sheep," of which a mounted specimen is shown in the North Hall, was also found in Syria in Biblical times. Sheep akin to European breeds are stated by Tristram to occur in Syria. The earliest breed in Egypt appears to have become extinct before the time of the Pharaohs, and was a long-legged Sheep, with spiral horns, lop ears, a fringe on the throat of the rams, and a long tail ; the colour being light, light with dark blotches, or wholly dark. It was related to the Maned Abyssinian and Hausa Sheep, of which specimens are shown in the North Hall. During the Pharaonic epoch this Sheep was replaced by a fat-tailed breed, in which the limbs were shorter, the tail was thickened, and flattened, and the horns generally of the so-called " Ammon " type, while the coat was probably woolly. A skull of this Sheep, from an Egyptian tomb, is exhibited in the upper part of the case. GOAT. Several Hebrew words are translated " Goat," " She-Goat," or " Wild Goat " in the Bible. Of the local domesticated breeds, the Syrian, or Mambar, Goat is tall and long-limbed, with very long ears, and .shaggy silky black hair. Skulls of this breed from an Egyptian tomb are exhibited in the upper part of the case. In the Egyptian, or Theban, Goat the limbs are long, the horns short or wanting, the head small, with a convex profile, and the beard generally absent ; the short hair is usually reddish brown, tending to yellow on the limbs, but may be slaty grey or spotted. Specimens may be seen in the North Hall. The word ydel., translated " Wild Goat " (Job 39, 1), probably indicates the Beden or Sinaitic Ibex {Capra nubiana sinaitica) ; but it is possible that this or another word may in some instances refer to the Wild Goat (Capra hirrus spgagrus) of Mount Ararat. A picture of the Sinaitic, or Nubian, Ibex is exhibited in the case. CHAMOIS. The Hebrew zemer, which appears akin to the Arabic zavmr, indicates a mountain animal, and is translated "Chamois" in 6 Guide to Animals, Plants, and Minerals Deut. 14, 5, But that species is unknown east or south of the Taurus range, and it has been suggested that the animal referred to is the African Wild Sheep, or Udad {Ovis lervla, or tragelapfnis), which inhabits the mountains of Upper Nubia, although not ranging east of the Nile. Possibly it may be Gmelin's Sheep {Ovis orientally), which occurs in South-eastern Asia Minor, unless indeed the original rendering is correct. ROEBUCK. HART. HIND. FALLOW DEER. " PYGARG." Much confusion exists in the translation of the Hebrew words thus rendered. For instance <;eht, equivalent to the Arabic zebi, is translated "Roebuck" in Deut. 12, 15, but really signifies the Dorcas Gazelle {Gazdla (h>rc(ii<), which abounds on the plains of Syria, and perhaps also tlie Palestine Gazelle ((?. merriUi). On the other hand, yahmur, translated " Fallow Deer " in Deut. 14, "), signifies the Roebuck (Capreolus caprca), which still inhabits the woods of Gilead. It has been identified with the Bubal Hartebeest (Buhnlis hosclnjjhiis), but that species is unknown in Asia or east of the Nile. Ayijdl, translated "Hart" in Deut. 12, 15, 22, indicates the male Fallow Deer (Cervus dama), which is still found on Mount Tabor ; " Hind "' being the female of the same .species. The animal indicated by " Pygarg," the translation in Deut. 14, 5, of the Hebrew dishoii, is uncertain. Pygarr/m^ was used by Herodotus for a North African Antelope with a white rump-patch ; and if the Hebrew " Pygarg" really indicates a white-rumped animal, a species allied to the Goitred Gazelle {Gazdla suhtjiitfitrosa) of Persia might be referred to. Heads, horns, and antlers of some of the species men- tioned above are exhibited in the upper part of wall-case on the left. CAMEL. DROMEDARY. Camels of the single-humped Arabian kind (Cnmelu.t drompdnrhis) were employed in ancient Palestine for draught, riding, and in war, and their hair was woven into garments. Dromedaries are swift riding Camels. In some instances "Dromedary" in the Bible in- dicates a superior breed of Horse. Camels do not appear on the Egjrptian monuments, whence it has been inferred that they were unknown in ancient Egypt ; but they are mentioned in the Anastasi Papyrus (No. 1), p. 23, written about 1300 B.C. Into the rest of North Africa they do not appear to have been introduced till the third century of our era. Mentioned in tJie Bible. 7 SWINE. As indicated by the expression " Boar out of the wood " (Psalm 80, 13), the forest districts of Palestine sheltered droves of wild Swiue {Sus scrofa ferus) in Biblical times, as many of them do at the present day. In Gospel times domesticated Swine, although abhorrent to the Jews, were kept, and probably eaten, around, if nut in, Palestine. BEHEMOTH. Beheinoth (Job 40, 15), the Hebrew equivalent of the Coptic pehrmaut, meaning " Water-Ox," in many instances at any rate, undoubtedly denotes the Hippopotamus (Tlipijopotamus amphihius), Fig. 3. The Syrian Hyeax = The "Coney" of the Bible. which, although now banished to Upper Nubia, formerly inhabited the lower reaches of the Nile. There is, however, no record of the occurrence of the species in Syria or Palestine during the historical period. The term may also be applied to any large animal. « CONEY." Realising that the Hebrew word sMpJuin (the hider) indicated a small animal living in holes among rocks, the translators of the Bible rendered it " Coney " (Lev. 11, 5, and Psalm 104, 18), the word then in general use for the Rabbit (Lepm cimicalus). Since the word " Coney " has now dropped out of general use (surviving only in legal documents), it is frequently supposed to be the proper name of the animal referred to in the Bible. The shdjjhdn has been 8 Guide to Animals, Pla^its, and Minerals identified with the Syrian Hyrax {Procavia, or Hyrax, si/riaca), Fig. 3, an animal which has nothing to do with the Rabbit, or indeed Rodents generally. On the contrary, it is a distant relative of the Rhinoceros and Elephant, having somewhat Rhinoceros-like molar teeth, and the toes terminating in broad, hoof-like nails. In Lev. 11^ 5, the shdphau is stated to chew the cud, and since the Hyrax does not do so, the identification of the latter with the formei- has been questioned by Dr. H. C. Chapman {Proc. PliUa- delphia Academy of Sriencen, vol. Ivi., p. 479, 1904). The objection, however, is invalid, since there is no small animal with the habits of a Hyrax fir Rabbit which ruminates ; the idea that .such animals possess this function having probal)lv arisen from the rapid movements of their lips. A stuffed .specimen and a skull of the Syrian Hyrax are exhibited. LION. Although Lions (Fells leo), to which there are many allusicms in the Bible, have been long since exterminated in Palestine, they still abound on the banks of the Euphrates between Bussora and Bagdad — where they dwell in the oak-forests, and feed largely on Wild Swine — as well as in the marshes of Babylonia. In Biblical times Lions were probably numerous throughout Palestine and Syria generally. LEOPARD. The Hebrew word ndmer, the equivalent of the Arabic nini'r, which is translated " Leopard " in the Bible (Jer. 5, C), probably indicates two distinct kinds of animals, namely, the true Leopard {Felis pardits), in which the black markings on the body take the form of rosettes, and the Hunting-Leopard (Cynxhirus jnhatus), in which they are solid spots. Leopards are still found in the Lebanon ; and Hunting-Leopards are used at the present day for cour.sing Gazelles in Syria. Both species are known in India as chiid, a name which, like ?7?er, which occurs once only (Gen. 6, 14, "Make thee an ark of gopher-wood "), has been variously explained. Perhaps the most probable interpretation is that it is the same as cojjher, the Cypress {Cupressus sempervirens), a tree that grows in great abundance in Chaldea and Armenia, and from its toughness and close texture is well adapted for ship-building. ALMUG OR ALGUM TREE. Almug or Algum trees were imported from Ophir (probably India) by Hiram of Tyre for Solomon, who used the wood for pillars in the Temple and the king's house and for musical instruments (1 Kings 10, 12). It was evidently a very precious wood, and must have been hard and close-grained. It has been identified with the Red Sandal-wood, or Sanders-wood, of India, which is very heavy, fine-grained, and of a brilliant red colour, and is still used in the East for making musical instruments. The plant referred to has been identified also with the well- known Sandal-wood {Santaliim album) of India, a very hard, close- grained, fragrant wood, used for carving and cabinet work. Specimens of both of these woods are shown. EBONY. Ebony (Hebrew, hohnhn) is mentioned by Ezekiel (27, 15) as a precious article brought to Tyre by the merchants of Dedan — the inhabitants of the Persian Gulf. It is the heart-wood of a tree, Diospyros El>eninn, a native of Southern India and Ce}'l()ii ; the outer wood is white and valueless. Mentioned in the Bible. 25 CEDAR-WOOD. See Cedar. A small specimen of the wood and bark in cross-section is shown ; also a fragment of a Cedar beam brought from the palace at ancient Nineveh by Layard, the Assyrian explorer. THYINE WOOD. Thyine wood, mentioned in Rev. 18, 12, is the wood of a small tree (Callitris quadrivalvis), of very slow growth, allied to the Cypress, and a native of the Atlas Mountains in North Africa. The wood, which is dark brown in colour, very heavy, close-grained, and fragrant, was much prized in the days of the Roman Empire for inlaid work, and is still used for a similar purpose in Algeria at the present day. SHITTIM WOOD. See Shittah Tree. TREES AND SHRUBS. ALMOND. The Almond (AmygdahiH communis) is frequently mentioned in the Bible, and is one of the native fruits of Palestine^. Its flowers appear before the leaves, and it is the earliest of all the trees to put forth blossom, whence its Hebrew name shdqed, hasten. (Compare the play on the word in Jer. 1, 11, 12.) Aaron's rod that budded (Numb. 17, 8) yielded almonds, and almonds were among the presents taken down to Egypt by Jacob's sons. The fruit was the model for the ornaments of the candlesticks in the tabernacle. The word luz, translated " Hazel " in Gen. 30, 37, is supposed to refer to the Almond. APPLE. The Hebrew tai)})uah, translated "Apple," occurs in tlie Song of Solomon (2, 3 and 5 ; 7, 8 ; 8, 5), also in Prov. 25, 11—" A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver "— and elsewhere. This does not refer to our Apple, wliicli is not native, nor does it thrive under cultivation in Palestine. The Quince and Citron have been suggested among others as the fruit indicated, but from the passages in which the tree is mentioned it is evident that it must 26 Guide to Animals, Plants, and Minerals have supplied a grateful shade, and that the fruit must have been sweet to the taste and beautiful to see. Canon Tristram suggests the Apricot (Armeniacn vulga7-is:) as the only likely fruit that com- bines those characters. Though not a native of Palestine, the Apricot was early introduced from Armenia, and is now conimon everywhere. BAY. The Hebrew ezrdh is once translated " Bay-tree " (Ps. 37, 35), and the Psalmist may possibly have intended the Sweet Bay {Laurna nohilis), a native of Palestine and a plant w'ell known in our shrul> beries. As the word is elsewhere translated " native," as opposed to a stranger or foreigner, it has been suggested that the term applies merely to a tree grown in its native soil, ;ind not to any particular tree. CHESTNUT-TREE. The Hebrew 'arnion, which occurs twice in the Old Testament (Gen. 30, 37 ; Ezek. 31, 8), is translated " Chestnut-tree " in the Authorised Version, but the Chestnut is not a native of Palestine. The Revised Version, following the Septuagint, is probably correct in its rendering " Plane-tree " (Platanus orientalis), which is frequent by the sides of sti'eams. This tree is well known as planted in parks and open spaces in England. BOX. The Box-tree is mentioned by Isaiali (41, 19, and 60, 13) as associated with the Fir-tree and the Pine. The native Box-tree of Palestine is Bhxhh longlfolia, a small evergi'een tree about 20 feet high, slightly diffciing from the species commonly grown in England. A piece of the wood is shown in the front end of the case. CEDAR. The Hebrew ercz is applied in the Bible generally to trees of the Pine family, but more frecjuently to the Cedar of Lebanon {Cedruft libani), which forms extensive forests on the Mountains of Lebanon, and is also plentiful on the Taurus range. The tree is from .50 to 80 feet in height, with numerous large horizontal branches, and is quoted as a type of grandeur and lofty stature. The wood was largely used by Solomon in the erection of the Temple and of his Mentioned in the Bible. 27 own palace. Specimens of the wood are shown in the front end of the case. The Cedar-wood mentioned in Lev. 14, 4, and Nuinl). 19, G, was probably derived from a fragrant species of Junipei'. FIG. The Fig {Flciis Caricn) is the first known tree mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 3, 7), and there are frequent references to the tree and its fruit both in the Old and New Testaments. It is a native of Palestine, and is also generally cultivated there ; the land was de- scribed as " a land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig trees, and pomegranates " (Deut. 8, S). It reaches a considerable size, the stem being often 3 feet thick ; the wide-spreading branches bear a dfuise foliage of large tough palmate leaves, aff'ording a grateful shade : " they shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree " (Micah 4, 4). The fruits, especially when dried, form an important article of everyday food ; when dried they were pressed into cakes (Hebrew, debelah) (see 1 Sam. 25, 18 ; 30, 12). The first ripe figs (Hebrew hiJcMrdh) appeared in spring before the leaves expanded ; the green or unripe figs were called in Aramaic pagyd, a word found in Bethphage, literally "the house of unripe figs." FIR-TREE. The Hebrew herosh and heroth, generally translated " Fir tree " in our version, refer probably to the Aleppo Pine (Pinus hahyenKis), a native of the mountainous parts of Palestine, and common on the Lebanon range. It is associated with cedars in respect of its noble growth (Ezek. 31, 8 ; Isa. 37, 24). The Fir-tree as well as the Cedar was supplied by Hiram from Lebanon for the building of Solomon's Temple. It was also used for rafters (Cant. 1, 17), for the decks of ships (Ezek. 27, 5), and for musical instruments (2 Sam. 6, 5). The tree has been very largely destroyed for fuel or timber. Some commentators believe that the tree alluded to is the Cypress (Capres.'^ns sempervirens), which is extensively planted in the neigh- l)Ourhood of towns, but apparently is not wild in Palestine. The Hebrew tirzdh, translated in our version "Cypress" (Isa. 44, 14), refers to some hard-grained wood, and may or may not be Cypress. In the Septuagint and Vulgate it is translated as equivalent to " Oak," and others render it " Holly." The Gopher-wood from which Noah built the ark (Gen. 6, 14) 28 Guide to Animals, Plants, and Minerals has been regarded as identical with copher, the Cypress, which, from its tough and close-grained wood, is well adapted for ship-building, and is abundant in Armenia [see Gopher-wood). HEATH. The Hebrew 'ar'dr, 'aro'er, the Heath of the desert or wilderness (Jer. 17, 6 ; 48, G), is a dwarf Juniper [Jimijjerus macrocarpa), closely allied to the Savin, which grows in the most barren and rocky parts of the desert. It bears dark pui-ple berries. A branch of the plant is shown. JUNIPER. The Hebrew roihem, translated "Juniper" in several passages, is the same as the Arabic ret em, and refers, not to a Juniper, but to a species of Broom {Ituetauia roetam). It is a desert shrub, very common in the ravines, growing to a height of 10 or 12 feet, and affording a grateful shade (1 Kings 19, 4, .5). It is described as the largest and most conspicuous of all the plants of the desert. The thick roots are converted into charcoal by the Arabs ; this explains the reference (Psalm 120, 4) to " coals of juniper." Job (30, i) speaks of outcasts from Edoni using Juniper roots as food in their extremity. Rithmah, one of the camps of the Israelites in the wilderness, implies " the place of rothem." Specimens of branches in Hower and fruit are shown. LOCUST-TREE. The " husks that the swine did eat," referred to in the parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15, 10), wei-e the bean-like fruits of the Locust or Carob tree {CeraUmia Siliqna). The tree is very common in Palestine, and forms with its dense deep green foliage a con- spicuous and attractive object. It blossoms at the end of February, and pods are produced in great qua!\tity in April and May ; the Greek name {hernt'm, little horns) refers to their honi-like shape. The pods are chiefly used for feeding cattle and horses. MULBERRY-TREE. The Hebrew heknim is thus translated in 2 Sam. 5, 23, 24. It probably refers to a species of Poplar [Populns euphratica) re- sembling the Aspen, and the characteristic trembling of the leaves is probably alluded to in the expressicm, "the sound of a going in Mentioned in the Bible. 29 the tops of the mulberry-trees." The true Mulberry {3Ioras nigra) is mentioned in the New Testament under the name of " Sycamine" (Luke 17, 6), which see (p. 32). MYRTLE. The Myrtle {Myrtns communis), several times mentioned in the Old Testament, is an abundant plant in the south of Europe, and common on hillsides in Palestine. It no longer grows on the Mount of Olives, where its occurrence is mentioned by Nehemiah (8, 15) after the return from Babylon. It is always referred to as a favourite tree, thus : "Instead of the brier shall come up the myrtle tree" (Isa. 55, 13); "I will plant in the wilderness the cedar . . . and the myrtle" (Isa. 41, 19). The Hebrew is hadas, from which is foi'racd the name Hadassah, the Hebrew form of Esther. OAK. Six Hebrew words from the same root are rendered " Oak " in the Authorised Version. One of these, elcih, is properly the Terebinth or Teil tree (which see). The other five names, el, elon, 'dan, alldh, allon, appear to be interchangeable ; Tristram suggests that allon stands for the evergreen Oak, and elon for the deciduous sorts. The most common Oak in Palestine is an evergreen species, Quercus jiseudocorrifera, resembling in general appearance tlie Holm Oak {Q. Ilex). To this species belongs the so-called Abraham's Oak near Hebron, which has for several centuries taken the place of the famous terebinth that marked the site of Mamre (Gen. 18, 1). It is described as the noblest tree in southern Palestine, with a trunk 23 feet in girth, and a spreading crown covering an area 93 feet in diameter. A picture of this oak is shown, also some acorns from it. The Valonian Oak (Q. ^gilops) is deciduous, and ^■ery like our common Oak in appearance. The large acorns, which are eaten by the Arabs, are borne in very large cups densely covered with long recurving teeth. The cups are rich in tannic acid, and extensively used l)y tanners. Q. JEyilops is common in Galilee, and is also abundant across the Jordan in IJashan, whei-e it grows to a magnificent size, and is no doubt the Oak of Bashan (Isa. 2, 13 ; Zech. 11, 2). A third species, the Gall Oak (Q. Insrrlifera), is a deciduous tree from 20 to 30 feet high, with leaves very white on the under face. 30 Guide io Animals, Plants, and Minerals It is less conimoii than the other two species, but is seen occasionally in Samaria, Galilee, and on the Lebanon range. OLIVE. The Olive (Olea europsea) is the characteristic tree of Palest ne. The Promised Land was a land of olive trees, oliveyards, md oil ohve (Deut. 6, 11; 8, 8; Joshua 24, 13). The ;ree figures prominently in the first recorded parable (Judges 9, 8), where it is invited to be king over the trees. It was used by the Prophets as a type of beauty and luxuriance (Jer. 11, 16 ; Hosea 14, 6). The Olives in the Garden of Gethsemane on the Mount of Olives are among the oldest in the country, and tradition takes them back to the time of Christ. The tree grows to a height of about 20 feet, and is evergreen, with narrow bluish-green leaves, and bears numerous clusters of small whitish fragrant flowers, a large number of which fall in the spring, frequently covering the ground with a white carpet {cf. Job 15, 33). The fruit, which is produced in great abundance, is like a small plum, violet in colour when ripe ; the fleshy layers contain the oil, to which reference is made as an article of food (2 Chron. 2, 10), as an unguent (Psalm 23, 5; Matt. 6, 17), and for burning (Exod. 27, 20; Matt. 25, 3). The wood is yellowish, hard, and fine-grained, and suitable for cabinet work. The fruits are gathered by beating and shaking the branches (Deut. 24, 20 ; Isa. 17, G). The Olive requires to be grafted, the fruit developed from seedlings or suckers being small and worthless ; hence the contrast between the wild and good Olive (Rom. 11, 17-24). OIL-TREE. The Hebrew 'ei; shemm, translated "Oil-tree" (Isa. 41, 19), is probaldy the Oleaster {Elea(jiti(.s aufjatififolia), a small tree resembling the Olive in general appearance, with narrow bluish leaves, silvery white beneath, small white fragrant fl(jwers, and a very bitter green berry which yields an inferior oil. It has a fine hard wood, from which the two cherubim in )Solomon's Temple were made (1 Kings 6, 23, where the rendering is erroneously "olive-tree"). In Neli. 8, 15, the same word is translated "pine-branches." The tree is abundant in every part of Palestine above the Jordan Valley. Mentioned in the Bible. PALM. The Palm of Scripture is the Date-Palm (PJuxnix dacfi/Iifera) ; Heb., tdmdr ; Gr., plio'mix. Its intimate association with Palestine is indicated in the name Phoenicia, by which the country was known to the Greeks and Romans. It was doubtless formerly more common than at the present time, and it is probable that in ancient times the whole valley of the Jordan was stocked with Palms. Jericho was the city of Palm-trees (Deut. 34, 3), and the Palm-Gardens of Jericho were famous in the time of the Herods ; but owing to neglect the trees have been completely replaced by thorn and other wild trees. The Palm was also plentiful on the Mount of Olives (Neh. 8, 15), but no longer exists there. The Palm "branches" referred to (John 12, 13) are the huge leaves that crown the tall pillar-like stem. Fi'om its grace and beauty the tree was often taken as a woman's name, Tamar (Gen. 38, 6 ; 2 Sam. 13, 1 ; 14, 27), and was a favourite ornament in archi- tecture, as, e.g., in Solomon's temple (2 Chron. 3, 5 ; 1 Kings 6, 29-35). The fruits are produced in huge clusters, and are an important food, but there is no undisputed reference to them in the Bible, though in Cant. 7, 7, " Thy stature is like to a palm-tree, and thy breasts to clusters of grapes," " dates " has been suggested as a preferable reading for " grapes." POMEGRANATE. The Pomegranate (^Panica Granatum) is a small evergreen tree or large shrub widely cultivated for its fruit in warm countries, especially in those bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. Reference to its cultivation in Egypt occurs in Numb. 20, 5, and the Promised Land was described as one of " vines, and fig trees, and pomegranates " (Deut. 8, 8 ; Numb. 13, 23). Its Hebrew name, rimmou, was given to several towns and villages in Palestine. The fruit and the flower supplied models f(jr ornan)erital carving, as on the capitals of the pillars in the Temjdc, and for emljroidery, as on the High Priest's robe. POPLAR. The Hebrew Ubnch (white) occurs twice in the Old Testament, and is translated "Poplar" (Uen. 30, 37; Hosea 4, 13). The reference may be to the White Poplar (Pojmlus alba), which is 32 Guide to Animals, Plants^ and Minerals common in damp places, the white down that covers the under face of the leaves justifying the application of the name. It has also been suggested that the reference is to the Storax- tree (Sfyrax officinalis), which grows abundantly on the lower hills of Palestine and in Armenia, and has white flowers resembling those of the Orange, and pale leaves with a white down on the under face. It yields a gum, which is probably the Stacie referred to in Exod. 30, 34, as one of the ingredients of the holy incense ; but the plants are shrubs or small trees, and hardly conform to the reference in Hosea as one of the trees under which idolatrous Israel sacrificed. The Mulberry (which see) referred to in 2 Sam. 5, 23, 24, was probably a species of Poplar, Popitlus ciqihrtiticd. SYCAMINE. The Greek suhaminus, translated " Sycamine tree " (Luke 17, 6), is the Black Mulberry (Morus nigra), which is still known in Greece as suhaminea. Both "White and Black Mulberry trees are common in Palestine, where they are cultivated for the leaves, which are used as food for silk-worms, and also for the fruit. The Mulberry -tree {q.v.) of Scripture was probably a Poplar. SYCAMORE. The Sycamore (Heb., shikmrm, shihiioth ; Gr., mlomorea) is a species of Fig {Ficiis Sijcomorus). The Greek name is derived from nukon, fig, and moron, mulberry, from the resemblance of the leaf to that of a Mulberry. It is a large evergreen tree with low, spreading branches, bearing the fruit on short leafless twigs on the trunk or older branches; the fruit is much smaller than that of the common Fig, and but poor eating ; to render it palatable it must be cut at the top before it is quite ripe to allow the acrid juice to escape. The prophet Amos (7, 14) refers to himself as a gatherer of (literally "one who scraped or cut") Sycomore fruit. It is a common wayside tree, and, with its short trunk, easy to climb (Luke 19, 4). It is very susceptible of cold, and occurs in Palestine in the mild climate of the maritime ])lains and in the hot Jordan Valley. The last- named locality is referred to (1 Kings 10, 27 ; 2 Chron. 1, 15 ; 9, 27) where it is stated that Solomon made cedars to be " as the sycomore trees that are in the low plains in abundance." Its wood is very light and porous, but of great durability, and was used by the Egyptians for making their mummy cases and for articles of furniture. Mentioned in the Bible. 33 SHITTAH TREE. SHITTIM WOOD. The tree itself is mentioned once only (Isa. 41, 19), but its wood is repeatedly referred to as the principal timber used in the con- struction of the Tabernacle in the wilderness (Exod. 25, 26, 27, 30). It is a species of Acacia, A. Seyal, a gnarled and thorny tree which flourishes in the driest situations in the Arabian desert. The timber is hard, close-grained, and of a fine orange-brown colour. It is of great commercial value as yielding gum arabic, which exudes from the bark. Several places were named from the Acacia, as "the Valley of Shittim " (Joel 3, 18), and the plains of Shittim — the last camping place of the children of Israel before crossing the Jordan (Numb. 25, 1). TEREBINTH or TEIL TREE. The Hebrew eldli, denoting a strong, hardy tree, occurs in several places in the Bible, and is variously rendered "Teil tree" (Isa. 6, 13), "Elm" (Hosea4, 13), "Oak"(Gen. 35,4; Judges6,ll; 2Sam.l8, 9, 10): in Gen. 18, 1, the plural eUn is translated "plains." The Septuagint rightly renders it " Terebinth tree " (Pistacia Tere- hinthus), known in the Greek islands as the " Turpentine tree," from the quantity of turpentine which exudes on tapping the trunk. In general ap2Jearance it resembles the Oak, especially when it sheds its leaves at the beginning of winter. It is very common in the southern and eastern parts of Palestine, occurring generally in places too warm or dry for the Oak. WILLOW. The two Hebrew words 'ardbim and <;aphqdphdh are rendered "Willow," indicating trees that flourished by water-courses. Several species of Willow (Salix) occur in Palestine, including the Weeping Willow (Salix hahylonica), which has been associated with the tree of the Captivity (Psalm 137, 2). The Araljic safmf, one of the vernacular names for Willow, is no doubt identical with the second Hebrew name mentioned. Canon Tristram suggests that the Willow by the water-courses, of Scripture, is applicable rather to the Oleander (Nerium Oleander), a yverj characteristic plant of Palestine, forming a fringe along the whole Upper Jordan, and marking the course of streams by a line of deep gi-een, or in the flowering season, burning red. It is a shrub with long, narrow, willow-like leaves, but sometimes attains tree-like proportions. D 34 Guide to Animals, Plants, and Minerals NUTS. The Hebrew egoz, rendered " nuts " in Cant. 6, 11, "I went down into the garden of nuts to see the fruits of the valley," refers to the Walnut-tree (Arabic, ghaus). The Walnut (Juglans regia), a native of Persia, was early spread through Western Asia and Europe. It is cultivated everywhere in Palestine, and its grateful shade, noble spreading growth, and the fragrance of the leaves must have rendered it a favourite tree in the gardens of Solomon. The Hebrew hotntm, also translated " nuts " (Gen. 43, 11), refers, doubtless, to the Pistachio nut (Ai'abic, hatum), the product of Pistacia vera, a ti'ee allied to the Terebinth, which at a distance it closely resembles. It bears a large crop of nuts shaped like an almond, but rounder and glossy ; the edible kernel is bright green, with the flavour of a walnut. It is widely cultivated in Palestine for the sake of its fruits, and as it was not found in Egypt the fruit was an appropriate present, together with the balm, honey, etc., sent by Jacob to his son Joseph. VINE. Frequent reference is made in the Bible to the Vine, its fruit, and the wine made from it. The plant, which is probably a native of some part of Western Asia, has been cultivated from the earliest times. Noah is recorded as planting a vineyard after the Deluge, and as making wine from the grapes (Gen. 9, 20, 21). Reference to its cultivation in Egypt occurs in Gen. 40, 9-11, and there are many representations of the plant on the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments (a photograph of one of the latter is shown). The Land of Promise was pre-eminent for its vines and the quality of the wine ; and vineyards were abundant before the Israelites came into possession. The spies sent by Moses brought back a huge bunch of grapes from the vale of Eschol {i.e., " cluster of grapes "); and this valley, a little to the south of Hebron, still produces the finest grapes in Palestine. The climate of Palestine is admirably suited to the Vine, and the land was once clad on every hill with terraced vineyards, traces of which are left in the wine presses and vats hewn in the rocks ; but the cultivation has diminished, partly from the desolation of the land and partly from wine being prohibited to the Moslems. The latter, however, still plant the Vine for the sake of its fruit, and for raisins. References to raisins, or grapes dried in the sun, as articles of food, occur in the Old Testament (1 Sam. 25, 18; 30, 12; Mentioned in the Bible. 35 1 Chron. 12, 40). Various qualities both of vines and wine are referred to in Scripture. The thin sour wine used by the poorer classes is often translated " vinegar " (Ruth 2, 14), and such was probably the vinegar offered to Christ on the Cross. " Wine on the lees" (Isa. 25, 6) was wine kept on the lees or dregs without straining, for the purpose of increasing its body. The juice was expressed by treading ; it was hard work, and the men encouraged one another by shouting (Jer. 25, 30) ; their feet and legs were bare, but as they leaped upon the grapes their clothes became dyed with the juice (see Gen. 49, 11 ; Isa. 63, 2, 3). The "Wild "Vine bears a small black grape which is very acid and astringent, and used only for verjuice or vinegar (Isa. 5, 2). WILD GOURD. The Wild Gourds (Heb., jKiqqiVdth) that were shred into the pot of pottage (2 Kings 4, 38-40) ar« described as the fruit of a wild vine, and were probably the fruit of the Colocynth {Citrullus ColocyntMs), a member of the Cucumber family with vine-shaped leaves and tendrils. The fruit is tempting in appearance, but has an extremely nauseous bitter pulp, which dries rapidly when ripe, and is used medicinally as an active purgative. It grows abundantly on the barren sands near Gilgal, and all round the Dead Sea, An alternative suggestion is the Squirting Cucumber (Echallium Elaterium), the fruit of which bursts when ripe, expelling the seeds, and also affords a drastic purgative. Canon Tristram suggests that the Vine of Sodom (Deut. 32, 32) also refers to the Colocynth. HERBACEOUS PLANTS. CORN. There are many distinct words in Hebrew relating to corn • generally, such as ddgdn, in such expressions as " corn and wine " qdmdh, standing corn (as in Judges 15, 5) ; bar, clean Avinnowed corn (Gen. 41, 49) ; shibboleth, an ear of corn (Gen. 41, 5 ; Ruth 2, 2). The cereals referred to in the Bible are Wheat, Spelt (translated '• Rie " and " Fitches "), Barley, and Millet. D 2 36 Guide to Animals, Plants, and Minei'als WHEAT. Wheat has been cultivated from prehistoric times, and is not known in the wild state. It was one of the blessings of the Promised Land (Deut. 8, 8), and the time of wheat harvest is named repeatedly (Gen. 30, 14 ; 1 Sam. 12, 17) as one of the epochs of the year ; it was usually in May, about a month after barley harvest. There are numerous varieties of wheat ; the reference in Pharaoh's dream (Gen. 41, 5) to the seven ears on one stalk appears to be to the form which is still commonly cultivated in Egypt, and known as " Mummy Wheat" (Triticum compos it urn). The form now most generally grown in Palestine is Spelt (Triticum Sjjelta), mention of which occurs in the Old Testament as the Hebrew Jcussemeth, trans- lated " rie " (Exod. 9, 32 ; Isa. 28, 25) and " fitches" (Ezek. 4, 9). The wheat is sown in November or December, immediately after the barley. When reaped it is threshed, either by oxen treading out the corn on the hard threshing-floor (cf. Deut. 25, 4), or by a heavy wooden wheel or roller, or by a flail ((/. Isa. 28, 27). From the time of Solomon, Palestine was a corn-exporting country (1 Kings 5, 11; 2 Chron. 2, 10, 15). Parched corn, which is repeatedly mentioned in Scripture, was wheat scorched, generally while fresh, and was eaten without further preparation. BARLEY. Barley is genei-ally grown in Palestine. It will thrive in a much lighter soil than wheat, and arrives earlier at maturity. It is usually sown about the same time as wheat, but the barley harvest is over three weeks or a month before wheat harvest begins ; the barley was generally got in at the time of the Passover. The barley being in the ear was destroyed in Egypt by the plague of hail, while the wheat escaped, for it was not gi-own up (Exod. 9, 31, 32). Barley is the universal food in Palestine of horses and asses, and sometimes also of draught oxen ; it is also largely used as food for man, but is held in much less esteem than wheat. MILLET. Millet (Heb., dohan) is one of the ingredients from which Ezekiel was ordered to make bread : " Take thou also unto thee wheat, and barley, and beans, and lentiles, and millet, and fitches [margin, spelt], and . . . mak(^ thee bread thereof " (Ezek. 4, 9). Mentioned in the Bible. 37 The two specimens shown, Panlcum miliaceum and Sorghum vulrjare (the North Africa Dourrha), may both be included here, as both are cultivated in the Holy Land, and the meal that they yield is used for food. TARES. The Tares ((xr., zizania) of the Pai-able of the Wheat and the Tares (Matt. 13, 24-30) are the Darnel (LoUum fcmiihntnm), a grass that is abundant in the countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and is peculiar in that its seeds are poisonous. It is a common weed in the cornfields, and in early stages would be indistinguish- able from the wheat. LENTILS. Lentils (Hel)., 'adashnn) are the seeds of a vetch-like plant that is much cultivated on the poorer soils in Palestine. The red pottage for which Esau sold his birthright was of lentils (Gen. 25, 29-34). Lentils, beans, and parched pulse were among the supplies brought to David in Gilead when he fled from Absalom (2 Sam. 17, 28). It is generally used as a pottage, but is also mixed with wheat, barley, beans, etc., for bread (cf. Ezek. 4, 9). REED. The Reed of Egypt and Palestine is Ariindo Donax, the slender yielding stem of which reaches 12 feet in height, and bears at the top a magnificent cluster of blossom. It is doubtless the "reed shaken with the wind " of the wilderness (Matt. 11, 7). BULRUSH. RUSH. The Hebrew gome, translated " bulrush " (as in Exod. 2, 3) and "rush" (as in Isa. 35, 7), is without doubt the Papyrus (Cyperus Papyrus), which formerly abounded on the Nile, flourishing in the mire, as described in Job (8, 11), but is now wholly extinct in Egypt. The stem is 10 or more feet high, and ends in a many- rayed broom-like head of minute flowers. From the white pith, cut lengthwise into thin slices, was made the earliest known paper. FLAX {Linum sativum). The use of linen was univei-sal in Egypt, as it was the exclusive textile fabric. The importance of the crop is indicated by its mention in the plague of hail (Exod. 9, 31), which occurred at the 3G5407 38 Guide io Animals, Plants, and Minerals time when " tlie flax was boiled " — i.e., forming the seed-pod. Flax was iu cultivation in Canaan before the entrance of the Israelites : Joshua's spies were hidden on the roof of the house at Jericho with the stalks of flax which were spread to dry in the sun (Joshua 2, 6), as is the custom at the present day. Its use for lamp- wicks is referred to in the quotation, " The smoking flax shall he not quench " (Tsa. 42, 3 ; Matt. 12, -20). HYSSOP. There has been jnuch discussion as to the identity of the plant that was used for sprinkling the door-posts with the blood of the paschal lamb (Exod. 12, 22), and also as a sprinkler in the purification of lepers and leprous houses (Lev. 14, 4, 6, 51), and in the sin-offering (Numlx 19, 6, IS). The Caper (Capjjarin ftj^iinosa) is perhaps the most likely suggestion ; it is a bright green creeper, the long stems of which hang from the fissures of the rocks in the desert, and is plentiful in Egypt and the desert of Sinai. Another suggestion is Satiircia Thi/mhrn, a plant something like the mint ; and still another, the marjoram, Origanum vnhjarc : bunches of either of these would form an efficient sprinkler. Few references to Flowers occur in the Bible. The Rose and Lily are both mentioned in the English version, but it is very doubt- ful what specific flowers are referred to. ROSE. Two references to the Rose occur in Scripture : " I am the Rose of Sharon" (Cant. 2, 1), and " The desert shaU rejoice and blossom as the rose " (Lsa. 35, 1). The Hebrew word h/iha^eleth, which has been translated " rose," indicates a bulbous plant, and may refer to the sweet-scented Narcissus {Nnrrinniis Tazctta), a native of Palestine, and at the present day a great favourite with the in- haljitants. The plant known to us as the rose is not a native of Palestine, except in the mountainous country in the north. LILY. The Hebrew .s7;rulHon, onnchion. DiFFicuLTiKS op Translation of Hebrew Technical Terms. Not only did the Hebrew manuscripts used by the Septuagint and English translators differ from each other, but the Septuagint translators met with difficulty in translating the Hebrew technical terms, as will be clear from a particular instance. Mentioned in tJie Bible. 67 In the Hebrew text corresponding to the Authorised Version, the word sholiam, designating one of the stones of the Breastplate, occurs in several places where there is no reference to other stones, and where accidental interchange of technical terms by the copyist could not occur ; in the Authorised Version, as already stated, the word is always translated onyx. On the other hand, in the Septuagint Version of 1 Cliron. 29, 2, the word is translated as iioam stones, indicating that the Greek technical term for a shoham stone was unknown to the translator, and that he merely trans- literated the name: in Exod. 28, 9; 35, 27; 39, 6 (or S.V. 36, 13), the word is translated smaragdos stones ; in Gen. 2, 12, as ijradnos {i.e. leek-green) stone ; (the jjrasites of Theophrastus was a precious stone of a verdigris-green colour, and the name prasinus was used in still later times to signify a particular variety of smaragdos, namely, the true emerald) : in Exod. 25, 7, and 35, 9 (or S.V. 35, 8), it is translated as sardion stones : in Job 28, 16, as onux. Assuming that the word in all these places is likely to have been sMliam in the Hebrew original of the Septuagint Version, as in the Hebrew original of the Authorised Version, these differences suggest that there were different translators even for different parts of the Book of Exodus, and that little care was taken to arrive at consistency in the translation of the technical terms. Translation of Hebrew into Greek and English Terms. In the preparation of their text, the translators of the Authorised Version have regarded the Hebrew, Greek, and English technical terms in the first three columns below as equivalent ; the fourth column contains the English names that, according to the above, would now indicate stones to Avhich the corresponding Greek names in the second column would probably have been given when the Septuagint translation was being made, or, still later, when the Book of Revelation was being written ; the Hebrew names may have had other significations in pre-Septuagint times. English Hebrew. Ahldmdh Bareqeth Greek. Amcthustos Anthrax (A.V. IGll). Amethyst Carbuncle English (I'Jll). Amethyst Oriental ruby Balas ruby I Almandine I Pyrope F 2 68 Guide to Animals, Plants, and Minerals English English Hebrew. Greek. (A.V. 1611). (1911). Jargoon (yellow) Leshem Liijurion Ligure Jacinth Quartz or Agate (yellow) Nophel- Smaragdos Emerald f Emerald (Amazon stone Odem Sard ion Sardius (Sard ^Carnelian Pitddh Topazion Topaz Peridot Sappir Sappheiros Sapphire Lapis lazuli Shamir Adamas f Adamant ( Diamond ( Diamond (^Corundum Shebo Achates Agate Agate Shoham Onuchion Onyx Onyx Tarshish Bcrull'iGn Beryl (Beryl (Amazon stone Yahaloia Adamas Diamond 1 Ydsheplieh laspis Jasper Plasma In the Authorised Version both yahdlom (Ex. 28, 18 ; Ezek. 28, 13) and shdmir (Jer. 17, 1) have been translated diamond, and shdmfr also twice as adamant (Ezek. 3, 9: Zech. 7, 12); as already stated, yahaJom cannot hQ rightly translated diamond ; shdmir may have been either diamond or corundum* in the times of Jeremiali, Ezekiel, and Zechariah (about B.C. 628-510). Possibly some of the differences between the Septuagint Version and the Authorised Version are due, not to the differences of the Hebrew texts, but to the different meanings assigned by the different translators to the same Hebrew words : it has been suggested, for instance, that bdreqeih and nophek ought to interchange meanings, and again that nophek may be the equivalent, neither of smaragdos nor of anthrax, but of chritsnJithos ; ijahl'ddm the equivalent, not of adamas, but of onuchion ; tarshish the equivalent, not of bcriillion, but of anthrax. Anothkk Table of Equivalenck. Having regard to the improbal>ility that the Breastplate con- tinued in existence, and was unaltered, from the time of Moses to that of Josephus, notwithstanding the many disasters that befel the Jewish nation during so long an interval, and tf) the certainty Mentioned in the Bible. 69 that the Septuagint translators found great difficulty in the assigna- tion of Greek names to the stones mentioned in the Hebrew text accessible to them, the late Professor N. S. Maskelyne, F.R.8., formerly (1857-80) Keeper of Minerals in the British Museum, held that no weight at all should be attached to the Septuagint names or to those given by Josephus, and sought to disco\er the old meanings of the Hebrew words in another way — namely, by comparison of the names that have been given to stones in various Oriental languages and by determination of the species of the minerals found among Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities. After much study, Mr. Maskelyne suggested (1888), though only tentatively and with much hesitation, the following as a list of pro- bable equivalents of the Hebrew names of the Breastplate stones : — Hebhew, English. Ahldmdh Onyx (?) or Amethyst. Bdreqcth Almandine ; Amethyst (?) or Emerald. LesJiem Yellow Jasper (?) or Amazon stone. Noplieh Blue Turquoise. Ode}n lied Carnelian or Red Jasper. Pltddh Garnet or Peridot. Sapjjir Lapis lazuli. Shebo Black-and-White Agate (?). Shoham Amazon stone or Green Tur(iuoise. TarshUli Green Jasper or Citrine. Yahnlom Glass or Blue Chalcedony or Beryl (?). Ydshepheh Plasma. 5. OTHER ST0NE8 MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE. («) Other stones m(;ntioned by name in the Bible are Alabaster and Crystal, and three which have had an organic origin, Amber, Coral, and Pearl. Alabaster. — The alctbaHtriten of Theophrastus was an onyx-marble (calcium carbonate) obtained in large masses from the neigh- bourhood of Thebes in Egypt. In Pliny's tmw the most esteemed was of a honey-yellow colour " covered Avith spots curling in whirls and not trans- parent " : it was considered defective when of a white or horn colour, or approaching glass in appearance. It was much 70 Guide to Animals, Plants, and Minerals used for the preservation of precious ointments (Matt. 26, 7). The name alabaster is now generally given to a different compound of calcium, a sulphate (g^-psura), a softer material. Crystal. — The word occurs in the Authorised Version in Job 28, 17, and Ezek. 1, 22, and also three times in Revelation (4, 6; 21, 11; 22, 1). The Hebrew words in Job and Ezekiel are different, and are rendered in the Septuagint by the Greek words hnalos and hn(stallo.<>, respectively ; krustalJo-^ is the Greek word used in Revelation. The Jcriistallos of Theophrastus was one of the hard, pellucid stones used by the seal engravers, and doubtless, like the crystaUum of Pliny, was identical with the "rock-crystal"' of the present time. Among the localities cited for crystaUvm by Pliny are " the crags of the Alps, so difficult of access that it is usually found necessar}' to be suspended by ropes in order to extract it." The word " glass " occurs several times in the New Testament as a translation of the Greek word Jiualos : the name hualos was at first given to an)?^ clear, transparent stone, but in later times was restricted to glass. In the Authorised Version of the Old Testament, "looking glasses" are mentioned in Exod. 38, 8, Job 37, 18, and Ecclesiasticus 12, 11. Amber.— The Greek name elehtron occurs in the Septuagint (Ezek. 1, 4 ; 1, 27 ; 8, 2) as a translation of the Hebrew word hashmal ; the elektron of the time of Theophrastus and the Septuagint translators is the amber of the Authorised Version and of the present day. In Pliny's time amber was an object of luxur}-, and ranked next to crystal. Coral*. — The name occurs twice in the Authorised Version, both times in the Old Testament (Job 28, 18, and Ezek. 27, 16), and as a translation of the Hebrew word ramoth, but the correctness of the translation is doubtful. Red coral has been highly esteemed since very ancient times. Korallion is described by Theophrastus as being red, cylindrical, resembling a root, and growing in the sea. In Pliny's time it was especially prized by the people of India, the reddest and most branched being most valued. * See also p. 22. Mentioned in the Bible. 71 Pearl.* — The name " pearl " occurs in the Authorised Version in Job 28, 18, and also seven times in the New Testament. In the Revised Yei'sion the Hebrew word (gdhish) in Job 28, 18, is translated "crystal," not "pearl." The margarites (New Testament) is mentioned by Theophrastus as being one of the precious stones, but not pellucid, as produced both in a kind of oyster and in the pinna, and as brought from the Indies and the shores of certain islands in the Red Sea, (h) The meanings of the four Hebrew terms heclolah, eqdah, JcadJcod, and pemnha have not been determined with certainty. .J The first, hedSIah, occurs twice (Gen. 2, 12; Numb. 11, 7), and is translated " bdellium " in the Authorised Version. Some com- mentators think that the name is that of the gum of an Arabian tree ; others interpret it to be an " excellent, selected pearl." The second, eqddh, occurs once (Isa. 54, 12) ; in the Authorised Version it is translated as " carbuncle," and in the Septuagint as Jcnistallofi. The third, kadkod, occurs twice (Isa. 54, 12 ; Ezek. 27, 16), and in the Authorised Version is translated, like the Hebrew word sJieho, as " agate." The true interpretation is very doubtful ; ruby, zircon, garnet, and tourmaline have all been suggested. The fourth, penmha, occux's in Job 28, 18 ; Pi'ov. 3, 15 ; 8, 11 ; 20, 15; 31, 10; Lam. 4, 7. In the Authorised Version it is translated " rubies " ; but in the Septuagint it is translated as being equivalent to " precious stones." It has also been sug- gested that the word may mean " red coral," as it has some likeness to an Arabic word meaning " branch '' ; it has also been thought that the word means " pearls." {(•) Of the remaining materials mentioned in the text or marginal references of the Bible, the following are so well known that descrip- tion is unnecessary : — - 1. The Metals:— Gold. Silver. Brass : really the material signified was generally bronze, i.e., copper alloyed with tin ; but sometimes, possibly, it may have been true brass, i.e., copper alloyed with zinc. Tin. Lead. Iron. * Sec also p. 22. 72 Guide to Anwials, &c.. Mentioned in the Bible. The word translated " steel " in the Authorised Version is translated clialhos {i.e., bronze) in the Septuagint. 2. The Inflammables : — Coal. Bitumen, Pitch (Slime). Naptha (Naphtha). Brimstone. 3. The Salts : — Common salt and nitre ; the latter being the nitron of former times, which was a carbonate of sodium, not the nitre of the present day. The others are very indefinite in charactei", or of common occurrence, namely — Clay, Mire, Ashes, Dust, Earth ; and Rock, Stone (with Chalkstone, Gravelstone, Headstone, Millstone), Sand, Flint, Porphyry (Porphyre), Marbh^ and Lime. INDEX. Abraham's oak, 29 Acacia, 33 Acacia Seyal, 33 Acanthus, 44 Acanthus syriacus, 44 Achates, agate, 45, 51, 52, 53, 55, 63, 66, 68, 69, 71 Acridium peregrinum, 19 Adamant, adamas, 51, 53, ^66, 68 'Addshim, 37 Adder, 18 Agate V. Achates. 'Agilr, 16 Ahldmdh, 52, 67, 69 •Akhshilbh, 18 'Akkdbish, 20 Alabaster, 69 •Alaq, 21 Aleppo pine, 27 Algum tree, 24 Alldh, 29 Allium Cepa, 40 A. Pmrum, 40 A. sativum, 40 AllCn, 29 Almandine, 46, 55, 67, 69 Almond, 25 Almug, 24 Aloes, 42 'Alilqdh, 21 Amazon stone, 56, 68, 69 Amber, 12, 51, 70 Ambergris, 12 Amcthuson, amethustos, amethyst, amethystus, 46, 48, 49, 52, 53, 55, 63, 67, 69 Ammon, 5 Ammoperdix heyi, 15 .yAmygdahts communis, 25 AndpJulh, 14 Andquh, 11 Anbnr, 12 Anemone, 39 Anemone coronaria, 39 Ancthum graveolens, 40 Anise, 40 Ant, 20 Anthrax, 53, 55, 58, 63, 66,67 Ape, 11 Apis fasciata, 19 Apple, 25 Apricot, 26 'Aqrdb, 20 Aquilaria AgallocJium, 42 Arabian camel, 6 'Ardbim, 33 'Ar'dr, 28 Arbeh, 19 Armeniaca vulgaris, 26 'Arm&n, 26 'Arub, 21 'Aruer, 28 Artemisia, 41 Arundo Donax, 37 'Ash, 20 Ashes, 72 Asp, 18 Ass, 2 Atdd, 43 'ItaW'ph, 12 Athebab, 21 Athene glaux, 13 Aurochs, 3 Ayydh, 13 ^i/?/