THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
 NATURE-STUDY SERIES 
 
 Editor 
 ELLIOT R. DOWNING 
 
A SOURCE BOOK OF 
 BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
THE UNIVERSITY OP CHICAGO PRESS 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 
 
 THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY 
 
 NEW TORE 
 
 THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 LONDON 
 
 THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA 
 
 TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO, PUKUOKA, 8ENDAI 
 
 THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY 
 
A SQimCE BOOK 
 OF BIOLOGICAL 
 NATURE-STUDY 
 
 By 
 ELLIOT ROWLAND DOWNING 
 
 The School of Education, University of Chicago 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 
 
COPYRIGHT 1919 BY 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 Published May 1919 
 Second Impression December 1919 
 Third Impression December 1921 
 Fourth Impression December 1922 
 
 Composed and Printed By 
 
 The University of Chicago Press 
 
 Chicago, Illinois. U.S.A. 
 
GENERAL PREFACE 
 
 Never before in this country has there been so insistent a 
 demand for a more thorough and more comprehensive system 
 of instruction in practical science. Forced by recent events 
 to compare our education with that of other nations, we have 
 suddenly become aware of our negligence in this matter. Now 
 industrial and educational experts and commissions are united 
 in demanding a change. 
 
 While on the whole there has been a steady increase in the 
 amount of time given to science work in the secondary and 
 elementary schools, the attention paid to it, especially in the 
 elementary schools, has been somewhat spasmodic, and its 
 administration has been more or less chaotic. This is not due 
 to lack of interest on the part of school officials but to their 
 dissatisfaction with the methods of instruction employed. There 
 is no doubt that superintendents would gladly introduce more 
 science if they felt sure that the educational results would be 
 commensurate with the time expended. This is indicated by a 
 recent survey of about one hundred and fifty cities in seven 
 states of the Central West. The survey shows that two-thirds 
 of them have nature-study in the elementary schools and that all 
 are requiring some science for graduation from the high school. 
 The average high school is offering three years of science. 
 Moreover, greater attention is now being paid to the training of 
 teachers in methods of presentation. 
 
 The chief need in science instruction today is a more efficient 
 organization of the course of study with a view to its socialization 
 and practical application, and it is to meet this need that this 
 series is being issued. The books attempt to present such gen- 
 eralizations of science as the average pupil should carry away 
 from his school experience and to organize them for the prepar- 
 ation of the teacher and for presentation to the class. The 
 
viii GENERAL PREFACE 
 
 volumes will therefore be of two kinds: (i) source books with 
 accompanying field and laboratory guides for the use of students 
 in normal schools and schools of education, and of teachers, and 
 (2) pupils' notebooks. In the former the material will be organ- 
 ized with special reference to the training of the teacher and the 
 most effective methods of presenting the subject to students. 
 In the latter the matter will be simplified, graded, and arranged 
 in such a way that the books will serve as guides in nature 
 work for the pupils themselves. Moreover, they will furnish 
 texts for the grades that will simplify the teacher's task of pre- 
 sentation and will assure well-tried and well-organized experi- 
 ences, on the part of the pupil, with natural objects. Such 
 experiences are the best foundation for the science instruction 
 of the high school. 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 The constantly changing point of view in education, the 
 ever-widening outlook of science and its new applications, make 
 it necessary that the teacher be provided, every few years, with 
 a restatement of the subject-matter of science available for 
 instruction. This Source Book of Biological Nature-Study under- 
 takes to make significant some of the commonplace environment 
 and to suggest ways in which living material may serve educa- 
 tional ends. 
 
 The great contributions of science to the life of mankind are: 
 its emphasis on the scientific mode of thinking or the problem- 
 seeing, problem-solving attitude of mind; a mass of scientific 
 knowledge that serves as the basis for desirable skills; and an 
 interpretation of nature productive of an inspiring appreciation, 
 both intellectual and aesthetic, of her phenomena. Science 
 instruction needs to assure these things to the individual pupil. 
 
 The material here presented is therefore thrown into problem 
 form, is selected for its social and practical values, and yet is 
 commonplace, so that the everyday things may stand revealed 
 as the wonders they really are. The book is to be read in con- 
 nection with the work outlined in the Field and Laboratory Guide 
 in Biological Nature-Study. It is hoped that through the 
 teachers the practical knowledge and inspiring spirit of science 
 may be passed on to the pupils. 
 
 ELLIOT R. DOWNING 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
 
 THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION 
 
 January 1919 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . xiii 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM i 
 
 II. INSECTS . . . V . < 57 
 
 III. INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 98 
 
 IV. BIRDS ..,.." 141 
 
 V. ANIMAL COMPANIONS . . . 192 
 
 VI. WAYSIDE FLOWERS 235 
 
 VII. COMMON TREES 309 
 
 VIII. SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 371 
 
 IX. THE GARDEN . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . 410 
 
 X. SPORE -BEARERS . 450 
 
 APPENDIX . . 494 
 
 INDEX 497 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 WATER NYMPHS Frontispiece 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FIG. i. MAKING THE NET 3 
 
 FIG. 2. THE AQUARIUM IN THE MAKING 4 
 
 FIG. 3. WATER PLANTS FOR THE AQUARIUM . . . . . . . 6 
 
 FIG. 4. A LAND SNAIL (Polygyra thyroides) CRAWLING ON THE 
 
 GROUND 8 
 
 FIG. 5. SNAIL, SHOWING PARTS 9 
 
 FIG. 6. VARIOUS SPECIES OF Polygyra 10 
 
 FIG. 7. WATER SNAILS, SHOWING GENERIC CHARACTERS ... n 
 
 FIG. 8. LAND SNAILS 12 
 
 FIG. 9. A CLAM SHELL AND CLAM 13 
 
 FIG. 10. THE SLUG (Philomicus caroliniensis) AND ITS EGGS . . 14 
 
 FIG. n. THE SLUG, Agriolimax 16 
 
 FIG. 12. A PUPIL'S BLACKBOARD DRAWING OF A CRAYFISH ... 17 
 FIG. 13. THE CLAY CHIMNEY OF A COMMON WELL-DIGGING CRAY- 
 PISH, Cambarus dio genes 19 
 
 FIG. 14. SOME FRESH-WATER CRUSTACEANS 23 
 
 FIG. 15. A DRAGON FLY, A PUPIL'S DRAWING . ...... 28 
 
 FIG. 1 6. THE MOLT SKIN OF A DRAGON-FLY NYMPH, SIDE AND BACK 
 
 VIEWS . . ...:.,. . ... . . .30 
 
 FIG. 17. SOME AQUATIC INSECTS AND NYMPHS 31 
 
 FIG. 18. LARVA AND ADULT OF CADDIS FLY . 32 
 
 FIG. 19. AQUATIC INSECTS AND NYMPHS . . 35 
 
 FIG. 20. THE DIVING SPIDER 41 
 
 FIG. 21. THE MENSBRUGGHE FLOAT 42 
 
 FIG. 22. DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG'S EGG 44 
 
 FIG. 23. THE BULLFROG 46 
 
 FIG. 24. THE PICKEREL FROG 47 
 
 FIG. 25. THE WOOD FROG . . . 48 
 
 FIG. 26. THE TREE FROG, Eyla versicolor 49 
 
 FIG. 27. THE WESTERN PAINTED TORTOISE, A STUDENT'S DRAWING 50 
 
 FIG. 28. THE SNAPPING TURTLE 51 
 
 FIG. 29. THE COMMON Box TURTLE 52 
 
 FIG. 30. THE COMMON SUNFISH 53 
 
 FIG. 31. THE STICKLEBACK 54 
 
 FIG. 32. INSECT CAGE 57 
 
 sii 
 
xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PACE 
 
 FIG. 33. THE LOCUST, SHOWING MOUTH PARTS 58 
 
 FIG. 34. THE CRICKET, A PUPIL'S DRAWING 59 
 
 FIG. 35. THE WING AND EAR OF THE CRICKET 60 
 
 FIG. 36. LOCUST LAYING EGGS, AND THE EGG MASSES .... 61 
 
 FIG. 37. LOCUST AND GRASSHOPPER '. ... 62 
 
 FIG. 38. A PLAGUE or LOCUSTS 63 
 
 FIG. 39. THE KATYDID . . . 64 
 
 FIG. 40. THE WALKING STICK 65 
 
 FIG. 41. THE COCKROACH AND HER EGG CASE 66 
 
 FIG. 42. DIFFERENT SPECIES OF GRASSHOPPERS 68 
 
 FIG. 43. THE TOMATO WORM 69 
 
 FIG. 44. THE TOMATO-WORM MOTH AND ITS CHRYSALIS .... 70 
 
 FIG. 45. HEAD OF A MOTH, SHOWING ANTENNAE AND SUCKING-TUBE 71 
 
 FIG. 46. A BUTTERFLY FEEDING 71 
 
 FIG. 47. THE LARVA OF Cecropia 72 
 
 FIG. 48. Cecropia COCOONS AND THE MOTH 73 
 
 FIG. 49. THE HICKORY-HORNED DEVIL 74 
 
 FIG. 50. Polyphemus STRETCHING ITS WINGS 75 
 
 FIG. 51. COCOONS OF PARASITE ON LARVA 76 
 
 FIG. 52. SILKWORMS SPINNING AND SOME OF THE FINISHED COCOONS 77 
 
 FIG. 53. FEMALE TUSSOCK MOTH AND HER COCOON 78 
 
 FIG. 54. MALE TUSSOCK MOTH 79 
 
 FIG. 55. BROWN-TAILED AND GYPSY MOTHS . 80 
 
 FIG. 56. INSECTS THAT PREY UPON THE BROWN-TAILED AND GYPSY 
 
 MOTHS . . . .. ....'".'- 82 
 
 FIG. 57. THE APPLE WORM 83 
 
 FIG. 58. SPRAYING APPLE TREES 84 
 
 FIG. 59. THE CLOTHES MOTH 85 
 
 FlG. 60. LlFE-HlSTORY OF THE MONARCH BUTTERFLY .... 88 
 
 FIG. 61. THE VICEROY BUTTERFLY 89 
 
 FIG. 62. THE FRITILLARY BUTTERFLY 91 
 
 FIG. 63. THE DOG'S HEAD BUTTERFLY 92 
 
 FIG. 64. THE PAINTED LADY 93 
 
 FIG. 65. A HATRSTREAK . 93 
 
 FIG. 66. THE CHRYSALIS OF THE BLACK SWALLOWTAIL .... 94 
 
 FIG. 67. THE GIANT SWALLOWTAIL 94 
 
 FIG. 68. A PUPIL'S COVER DESIGN 97 
 
 FIG. 69. QUEEN, WORKERS OF SEVERAL SORTS, AND MALES IN THE 
 
 ANT HOUSE 99 
 
 FIG. 70. CUTTING GLASS 100 
 
 FIG. 71. WORKER, QUEEN, DRONE 103 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FIG. 72. CHILDREN WATCHING THE REMOVAL OF HONEY FROM HIVE 107 
 
 FIG. 73. FRONT AND REAR VIEWS OF DEMONSTRATION BEEHIVE . 109 
 
 FIG. 74. THE PAPER WASP'S NEST 112 
 
 FIG. 75. MUD DAUBER'S NEST .' . . . . 113 
 
 FIG. 76. DIGGER WASPS AND HOLES 114 
 
 FIG. 77. THE CICADA KILLER 115 
 
 FIG. 78. THE SQUASH BUG 116 
 
 FIG. 79. PLANT LICE ;r 117 
 
 FIG. 80. THE COCKSCOMB GALL OF THE COTTONWOOD . . . . 118 
 
 FIG. 81. THE POTATO BEETLE 119 
 
 FIG. 82. THE POTATO BEETLE'S ROUTES OF MIGRATION . . . . 120 
 
 FIG. 83. MAP SHOWING INVASION OF THE COTTON-BOLL WEEVIL . 121 
 
 FIG. 84. THE FIERY HUNTER AND THE SEARCHER BEETLES . . . 122 
 
 FIG. 85. TIGER BEETLES ON SAND . . -, -u 123 
 
 FIG. 86. THE HORNED Passalus AND ITS LARVA, A WOOD BORER . 124 
 
 FIG. 87. THE EYED ELATER AND ITS LARVA 124 
 
 FIG. 88. A LONG-HORN BEETLE . ...'<.*': 125 
 
 FIG. 89. NINE-SPOTTED LADYBIRD BEETLE AND ITS LARVA . . . 125 
 
 FIG. 90. FLIES .;."'' 126 
 
 FIG. 91. BEETLE COLLECTION . ..>;,. . . . . . . 128 
 
 FIG. 92. THE SPREADING-BOARD AND CYANIDE BOTTLE . . . . 129 
 
 FIG. 93. Sporobolus, THE MILLIPEDE . :. . 131 
 
 FIG. 94. FRONT VIEW OF SPIDER (Lycosa), SHOWING MANDIBLES 
 
 AND PALPS 132 
 
 FIG. 95. A SPIDER'S SPINNERETS ;.:;.,;. ....... 132 
 
 FIG. 96. THE ORB BUILDER, A rgiope .- . } 135 
 
 FIG. 97. WOLF SPIDER WITH EGG COCOONS 136 
 
 FIG. 98. THE WOVEN NEST OF THE ORIOLE 144 
 
 FIG. 99. NEST OF WOODCOCK ON THE GROUND 145 
 
 FIG. 100. YOUNG TERN AND EGG ON ROCKY SHORE 145 
 
 FIG. 101. NEST OF HERRING GULL . .:,-,:: ^y*.- 146 
 
 FIG. 102. NEST OF BROWN THRASHER . < -..- 146 
 
 FIG. 103. NEST OF AIGRETTE HERON .,:>.:-..>*. 147 
 
 FIG. 104. NEST OF CLIFF SWALLOW . . ; .- * 147 
 
 FIG. 105. NEST OF MARSH WREN . k -r-.l 148 
 
 FIG. 106. ROBIN AT NEST, FEEDING YOUNG, AND YOUNG IN NEST . 150 
 
 FIG. 107. THE GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET 151 
 
 FIG. 1 08. THE CHICKADEE . . ^ ...:>,;. . . ,. . . . 15 J 
 
 FIG. 109. RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH ^..^.. *5 2 
 
 FIG. no. THE BROWN CREEPER i53 
 
 FIG. in. THE BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER 154 
 
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FIG. 112. THE BROWN THRASHER 154 
 
 FIG. iij. HEAD or BARN SWALLOW 155 
 
 FIG. 114. HEAD or TOWHEE 155 
 
 FIG. 115. HEAD OF PIGEON 156 
 
 FIG. 116. THE SPOTTED SANDPIPER 156 
 
 FIG. 117. THE AMERICAN BITTERN 157 
 
 FIG. 1 1 8. LEAST BITTERN WATCHING FOR FISH 158 
 
 FIG. 119. HEAD OF BLACK DUCK 159 
 
 FIG. 120. HEAD OF SPARROW HAWK 159 
 
 FIG. 121. HEAD AND TONGUE OF DOWNY WOODPECKER . . . . 160 
 
 FIG. 122. HEAD OF WOODCOCK 160 
 
 FIG. 123. FOOT OF FLORIDA GALLINULE 161 
 
 FIG. 124. PRIMARY FEATHER FROM WING OF HERRING GULL . . 161 
 FIG. 125. FOOD CHART SHOWING PROPORTIONS OF FOODS IN DIET OF 
 
 SOME COMMON BIRDS 163 
 
 FIG. 126. MIGRATION ROUTES OF GOLDEN PLOVER 171 
 
 FIG. 127. MIGRATION ROUTES OF MOURNING WARBLER . . . . 172 
 
 FIG. 128. MIGRATION ROUTES OF BOBOLINK 174 
 
 FIG. 129. NEST Box FOR WOODPECKER 178 
 
 FIG. 130. PURPLE MARTIN HOUSE 180 
 
 FIG. 131. THE BIRD BATH 181 
 
 FIG. 132. THE OUTDOOR FEEDING SHELF . . . . . . . . 182 
 
 FIG. 133. SPARROW ON FEEDING SHELF OUTSIDE A WINDOW . . 183 
 
 FIG. 134. WIRE TRAP TOR SPARROWS 184 
 
 FIG. 135. PATTERN FOR SPARROW TRAP 185 
 
 FIG. 136. PATTERNS OF FIRST AND SECOND FUNNELS 186 
 
 FIG. 137. CAT TRAP 187 
 
 FIG. 138. CHUMS . > . '* V . '. ' . 194 
 
 FIG. 139. THE INDOOR CAGE . . . '. 196 
 
 FIG. 140. ANIMAL HOUSES AT GARY, INDIANA . . . . . . . 197 
 
 FIG. 141. A WHITE SHORT-HAIRED CAVY OR GUINEA-PIG . . . 198 
 
 FIG. 142. THE FLYING PEN FOR PIGEONS 200 
 
 FIG. 143. PRAIRIE DOG IN SCHOOL ANIMAL CAGE 202 
 
 FIG. 144. A PET BLUE RACER 203 
 
 FIG. 145. THE CHIPMUNK EATING ......'.... 204 
 
 FIG. 146. A DOE IN THE FOREST HOME 205 
 
 FIG. 147. SKULL OF BEAVER AND TREE HE CUTS 206 
 
 FIG. 148. A TAME MUSKRAT 207 
 
 FIG. 149. MUSKRAT HOUSES ON A SNOW-COVERED SWAMP . . . 210 
 
 FIG. 150. THE SHEEP PEN 214 
 
 FIG. 151. SKETCHES OF CHICKEN 218 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FIG. 152. RHODE ISLAND RED ROOSTER AND BOY CARETAKERS . . 219 
 
 FIG. 153. THE CHICKEN COOP 221 
 
 FIG. 154. THE TRAP NEST . '. 222 
 
 FIG. 155. HYBRID CHICKENS AND MOTHER 224 
 
 FIG. 156. THE DAIRY TYPE OF Cow . 227 
 
 FIG. 157. COYOTE IN SCHOOL PEN . . 233 
 
 FIG. 158. A STUDENT'S COVER DESIGN . 234 
 
 FIG. 159. SOAPWORT . . , 236 
 
 FIG. 1 60. LEAF OF RIBWORT, SHOWING FIBROVASCULAR BUNDLES . 237 
 
 FIG. 161. WILD MUSTARD, SHOWING PARTS or THE FLOWER . . 238 
 
 FIG. 162. FORMING SEED PODS IN EVENING PRIMROSE .... 239 
 
 FIG. 163. MANDRAKE APPLES IN FORMATION 240 
 
 FIG. 164. DIAGRAM OF FERTILIZATION . '. 240 
 
 FIG. 165. THE CHICKEN'S EGG 241 
 
 FIG. 1 66. FIELD MILKWEED . . 242 
 
 FIG. 167. DOGBANE . . . . . . ' 243 
 
 FIG. 168. PRICKLY LETTUCE .;..,., 244 
 
 FIG. 169. Sow THISTLE . . 245 
 
 FIG. 170. SPURGE . . . .... . . . . 246 
 
 FIG. 171. SNOW-ON-THE-MOUNTAIN 247 
 
 FIG. 172. POISON IVY 247 
 
 FIG. 173. WHITE SWEET CLOVER, M elilotus 248 
 
 FIG. 174. Cow VETCH . . 249 
 
 FIG. 175. WOOD SORREL 250 
 
 FIG. 176. CINQUEFOIL 251 
 
 FIG. 177. WEEDS OF THE PARSNIP FAMILY 252 
 
 FIG. 178. LARGE MORNING-GLORY BINDWEED 254 
 
 FIG. 179. WILD BUCKWHEAT OR BLACK BINDWEED 254 
 
 FIG. 180. PASSION FLOWER 255 
 
 FIG. 181. DODDER ON HOLLYHOCK 255 
 
 FIG. 182. KNOTWEED 256 
 
 FIG. 183. CHICKWEED 257 
 
 FIG. 184. PURSLANE 258 
 
 FIG. 185. Low AMARANTH 258 
 
 FIG. 186. GROUND IVY 259 
 
 FIG. 187. CHEESE WEED 259 
 
 FIG. 188. BEDSTRAW 260 
 
 FIG. 189. MULLEIN 261 
 
 FIG. 190. COMMON PLANTAIN 262 
 
 FIG. 191. RIBWORT 263 
 
 FIG. 192. CURLY DOCK 264 
 
xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FIG. 193. FRUITS or VARIOUS DOCKS 265 
 
 FIG. 194. RUSSIAN THISTLE ..265 
 
 FIG. 195. BULL THISTLE 266 
 
 FIG. 196. CANADA THISTLE 266 
 
 FIG. 197. BUFFALO BUR 267 
 
 FIG. 198. HORSE NETTLE 268 
 
 FIG. 199. LEAF AND ONE FRUIT OF COCKLEBUR . . 269 
 
 FIG. 200. SAND BUR 270 
 
 FIG. 201. LARGE-LEAVED DOCK OR BURDOCK 270 
 
 FIG. 202. BEGGAR-TICK IN BLOSSOM 271 
 
 FIG. 203. BEGGAR TICK FRUIT 272 
 
 FIG. 204. HOUND 'S-TONGUE 272 
 
 FIG. 205. JIMSON WEED 273 
 
 FIG. 206. CORN COCKLE 273 
 
 FIG. 207. BLADDER CAMPION . 274 
 
 FIG. 208. MILKWEED BLOSSOM 274 
 
 FIG. 209. BLUE VERVAIN 275 
 
 FIG. 210. WILD HEMP 276 
 
 FIG. 211. GIANT RAGWEED 277 
 
 FIG. 212. WILD ONION IN BLOSSOM 278 
 
 FIG. 213. WESTERN YARROW 279 
 
 FIG. 214. DOG FENNEL 279 
 
 FIG. 215. PEPPERMINT 280 
 
 FIG. 216. SPEARMINT 280 
 
 FIG. 217. HOREHOUND 280 
 
 FIG. 218. PENNYROYAL 280 
 
 FIG. 219. CATNIP 281 
 
 FIG. 220. CRAB GRASS 281 
 
 FIG. 221. OLD WITCH GRASS, OR SPREADING PANICUM . . . . 282 
 
 FIG. 222. BARNYARD GRASS 283 
 
 FIG. 223. SQUIRRELTAIL GRASS 284 
 
 FIG. 224. QUACK GRASS 284 
 
 FIG. 225. BUTTER AND EGGS 284 
 
 FIG. 226. NEW ENGLAND ASTER .284 
 
 FIG. 227. OXEYE DAISY 285 
 
 FIG. 228. SMARTWEED 286 
 
 FIG. 229. SHEEP SORREL 287 
 
 FIG. 230. POKEWEED 288 
 
 FIG. 231. TALL AMARANTH OR PLNKROOT 289 
 
 FIG. 232. LAMB'S-QUARTERS 290 
 
 FIG. 233, BLACK NIGHTSHADE 291 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FIG. 234. PEPPERGRASS 292 
 
 FIG. 235. SHEPHERD 'S-PURSE 293 
 
 FIG. 236. DAISY FLEABANE , 294 
 
 FIG. 237. WORMWOOD 295 
 
 FIG. 238. COMMON WILD MUSTARDS, SHOWING STEM, LEAVES, AND 
 
 PODS 296 
 
 FIG. 239. THE STRAIGHT STEM OF A CONIFER . . . .' . . .310 
 FIG. 240. TWIGS OF THE EVERGREENS, A PUPIL'S DRAWINGS . . 312 
 FIG. 241. TWIGS OF HORSE CHESTNUT, CAROLINA POPLAR, AND 
 
 AILANTHUS 314 
 
 FIG. 242. THE UNFOLDING OF THE HORSE CHESTNUT BUD . . . .315 
 FIG. 243. PALMATELY AND PINNATELY COMPOUND LEAVES . . .316 
 
 FIG. 244. FRUITS OF ASH AND MAPLE . .317 
 
 FIG. 245. A SUGAR-MAPLE GROVE . . . .- 318 
 
 FIG. 246. BLOSSOM CLUSTERS OF FLOWERING DOGWOOD . . . .319 
 
 FIG. 247. LOMBARDY POPLARS 320 
 
 FIG. 248. WHITE POPLARS AS A WIND SHIELD 321 
 
 FIG. 249. A BLACK WILLOW -. 322 
 
 FIG. 250. TRUNK OF THE BLACK CHERRY 323 
 
 FIG. 251. TRUNKS OF THE HACKBERRY AND THE BEECH . . . .324 
 FIG. 252. A WALNUT TWIG TO SHOW CHAMBERED PITH .... 325 
 
 FIG. 253. TRUNK OF WATER BEECH . . .326 
 
 FIG. 254. AN AMERICAN ELM 327 
 
 FIG. 255. A WHITE OAK 328 
 
 FIG. 256. LEAVES AND ACORNS OF THE OAKS . . . . . . .329 
 
 FIG. 257. GINKGO LEAF 330 
 
 FIG. 258. LINDEN FRUIT 331 
 
 FIG. 259. A BLACK LOCUST . 332 
 
 FIG. 260. PERSISTENT PODS ON A HONEY LOCUST 333 
 
 FIG. 261. CATTLE-TRIMMED HAWTHORNS 334 
 
 FIG. 262. SWEET GUM, BRANCHES AND FRUIT 336 
 
 FIG. 263. WITCH-HAZEL FRUIT 337 
 
 FIG. 264. TWIG OF THE TAG ALDER 337 
 
 FIG. 265. MULBERRY LEAVES, SHOWING VARIATIONS IN FORM . . 338 
 
 FIG. 266. A HARD MAPLE, A PUPIL'S DRAWING 340 
 
 FIG. 267. A STUDENT'S TITLE-PAGE . 345 
 
 FIG. 268. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A STEM 348 
 
 FIG. 269. CROSS-SECTION OF ASH STEM 349 
 
 FIG. 270. DIAGRAMS OF WILLOW WHISTLE 350 
 
 FIG. 271. MAP SHOWING NATIONAL FOREST RESERVES . . . . 352 
 FIG. 272. REDWOOD TREES IN A NATIONAL FOREST 355 
 
XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FIG. 273. A BURNED-OVER REGION 356 
 
 FIG. 274. A CLOSER VIEW OF THE BURN 357 
 
 FIG. 275. PINE SEEDLINGS UNDER OLD TREES 358 
 
 FIG. 276. REPLANTING FOREST LAND 360 
 
 FIG. 277. THE FLOWER SHOW 372 
 
 FIG. 278. THE APPLE DISPLAY 377 
 
 FIG. 279. SPRAYED AND UNSPRAYED APPLES 378 
 
 FIG. 280. BEAN SEEDLINGS 380 
 
 FIG. 281. TUMBLER GERMINATOR . .381 
 
 FIG. 282. ROOT HAIRS OF THE RADISH 382 
 
 FIG. 283. GROWING PLANTS IN POTS TO SHOW EFFECTS OF SOIL 
 
 ELEMENTS 385 
 
 FIG. 284. COLORED GIRL CANNING TOMATOES 392 
 
 FIG. 285. HOME CANNING CLUB MEMBER USING WASH BOILER . . 393 
 
 FIG. 286. BREATHING PORES IN EPIDERMIS OF LEAF 396 
 
 FIG. 287. METHOD OF BREAKING GLASS TUBING 402 
 
 FIG. 288. METHOD OF BENDING GLASS TUBING 403 
 
 FIG. 289. THE SCHOOL GARDEN 411 
 
 FIG. 290. PLANTING THE GARDEN . . 412 
 
 FIG. 291. BULBS INDOORS 416 
 
 FIG. 292. TAKING PLANT OUT OF POT TO TRANSPLANT . . . . 421 
 
 FIG. 293. SETTING OUT PLANTS FROM POTS 422 
 
 FIG. 294. THE TOMATO PLOT, SHOWING PLANTS TIED UP TO STAKES . 423 
 
 FIG. 295. A BACK- YARD GARDEN 428 
 
 FIG. 296. A FARM BOY'S ACRE OF ONIONS 429 
 
 FIG. 297. THE METHOD OF GRAFTING 432 
 
 FIG. 298. A WELL-PRUNED YOUNG FRUIT TREE AND AN OLD ONE 
 
 THAT WAS NOT WELL TRIMMED WHEN YOUNG . . 433 
 
 FIG. 299. A WELL-KEPT LAWN 435 
 
 FIG. 300. A WELL-CULTIVATED CORN PATCH 442 
 
 FIG. 301. HOWARD COUNTY PIG-CLUB BOY AND His PIG . . . 444 
 
 FIG. 302. GEORGIA PIG-CLUB CHAMPION 445 
 
 FIG. 303. CLIFFORD DUNCAN AND His PRIZE CALF 446 
 
 FIG. 304. A PROTECTED PUFFBALL (Geaster) ON THE SAND . . .451 
 FIG. 305. A FERN FROND OF ROCK POLYPODY TO SHOW CLUSTERS OF 
 
 SPORE CASES . . . . ' 452 
 
 FIG. 306. A BLACK MOLD 453 
 
 FIG. 307. YEAST PLANT SEEN UNDER THE MICROSCOPE . . . .458 
 
 FIG. 308. BACTERIAL COLONIES ON GELATIN IN PETRI DISH . . 460 
 
 FIG. 309. EDIBLE MUSHROOMS 468 
 
 FIG. 310. THE LITTLE INKY-CAP FUNGUS 469 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FIG. 311. THE LARGE INKY- CAP FUNGUS (SKETCH) 470 
 
 FIG. 312. MUSHROOMS SPRINGING UP FROM THE ROOTS OF A COTTON- 
 WOOD THAT HAD BEEN CUT DOWN 471 
 
 FIG. 313. DEADLY AMANITA 471 
 
 FIG. 314. THE OYSTER-SHELL FUNGUS GROWING ON AN OAK STUMP. 472 
 
 FIG. 315. THE EDIBLE MOREL 473 
 
 FIG. 316. BRACKET FUNGI ON MAPLE LOG 474 
 
 FIG. 317. THE FAIRY RING FUNGUS . 474 
 
 FIG. 318. THE SHAGGY- CAP FUNGUS IN SECTION 475 
 
 FIG. 319. PART OF A FILAMENT OF A POND SCUM (Spirogyra), SHOW- 
 ING THE COILED GREEN CHLOROPLAST IN THE CELL . 476 
 FIG. 320. A FIBROUS LICHEN PENDENT FROM SPRUCE TWIG . . 478 
 
 FIG. 321. REINDEER Moss 478 
 
 FIG. 322. THE PYXIE LICHEN 479 
 
 FIG. 323. A LICHEN FOUND ON TREE TRUNKS, SHOWING THE SPORE- 
 BEARING CUPS 480 
 
 FIG. 324. THE HAIRY- CAP Moss 481 
 
 FIG. 325. THE URN Moss. 481 
 
 FIG. 326. THE CORD Moss 481 
 
 FIG. 327. THE BRACKEN FERN . 482 
 
 FIG. 328. THE ROCK POLYPODY FERN 483 
 
 FIG. 329. THE SENSITIVE FERN, UNDERGROUND STEM AND ALL . 484 
 
 FIG. 330. CINNAMON FERN 485 
 
 FIG. 331. A FROND OF CLAYTON'S FERN 486 
 
 FIG. 332. SPORE-BEARING AND STERILE FRONDS OF THE ROYAL FERN 486 
 
 FIG. 333. THE GRAPE FERN . . . . . 487 
 
 FIG. 334. THE EVERGREEN CHRISTMAS FERN WITH UNDERGROUND 
 
 STEM . . ...,.< . . . 488 
 
 FIG. 335. FROND OF THE OAK FERN 488 
 
 FIG. 336. Two SPECIES OF HORSETAIL 489 
 
 FIG. 337. STROBILUS AND A SINGLE SPORE OF THE HORSETAIL . . 490 
 
 FIG. 338. THE TRAILING CLUB Moss . 490 
 
'CHAPTER I 
 ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 
 
 Childhood's interests. Above all other professions teaching 
 demands constant rejuvenation, and the successful teacher must 
 find that fountain of perpetual youth in order to see the child's 
 point of view. Do you recall Aunt Jane's remark in Rebecca of 
 Sunnybrook Farm? " Yes; I was, thank the Lord! I only wish 
 I had known how to take a little of my foolishness of childhood 
 along with me to brighten my declining years." The teacher 
 needs to take much of the foolishness of childhood along with her 
 and needs also to be persuaded that it is not altogether foolish. 
 How we elders do assume superiority and try to stamp our ideas 
 of the true values of things upon the children! It was a very 
 great teacher, however, who set a child in their midst and com- 
 mended the child's judgment of relative values. Certainly it 
 behooves the nature-study teacher to hark back to childhood's 
 days and recall the centers of interest. 
 
 The pond. Do you remember the pond just over the hill? 
 Or perchance it was a brook that meandered through the meadow. 
 What a place of delight it was ! How pleasant the water seemed 
 as it rippled over bare feet! What imaginary animals lurked 
 along the sedgy margin! What mysteries were hidden in the 
 depths of the pond! How intimately you knew the big bullfrog 
 that croaked with a muffled roar, or the green frog whom your 
 splashing stone sent plunging from the floating log! Can you 
 recall the delight of knowing the tiny, wiggling denizens that 
 made the shallows a populous tenement? Do you remember 
 the time spent in dabbling along the muddy shore, prodding its 
 crannies with eager interest, and coming home with your nether 
 garments much bedraggled ? As surely as the frogs in ponols 
 and ditches begin their chorus in the spring, so surely does the 
 
;* ; ; ; s&$c% $OQk OF BIOLOGICAL NA TU RE-STUDY 
 
 small boy or girl also become amphibious. Let the teacher revert 
 to early days and join the group of interested waders. 
 
 The inhabitants. Sit down beside the margin of the pond and 
 watch the never-ceasing round of activity displayed by its in- 
 habitants. The soft mud along the shore is furrowed with con- 
 tinuous but erratic lines at the end of each of which a snail is 
 plowing its way slowly along as it feeds. A similar army of 
 slow-moving explorers crawls over rocks and water weeds. 
 There are long spirally twisted fellows, short globular ones, flat 
 coiled forms, and their sizes are as varied as their shapes. Out 
 in the deeper water is seen the projecting end of a clam, showing 
 his siphon the breathing-feeding tube fringed with sensitive 
 tentacles. On top of the water whirligig beetles are gyrating in 
 dizzy dances, and a group of water striders skate along on the 
 surface film, their shadows on the bottom showing almost more 
 distinctly than the skinny insects themselves. 
 
 The villains. Down in the water a diving beetle is swimming 
 and small folk scurry out of the way of his hungry jaws. Even 
 more dreaded than the beetle itself (Dityscus) is its larva, the 
 water tiger, prowling among the dead leaves and debris of the 
 bottom. Another larva, the Dobson, hangs with head down, its 
 hairy tail end acting as a float to keep it at the surface while 
 resting, but it can leave its pendent lookout and swim with 
 rapidity, to pounce on some luckless victim. The Dobson, 
 water tiger, nymph of the giant water bug, and the dragon-fly 
 larva are the villains in the nature-play. The latter is crawling 
 along on the bottom nearly buried in the black mud, looking 
 like an animated chunk of mud itself, so well does it match its 
 environment. Out of the green mantle of floating duckweed on 
 the other side a green frog sticks his head; his throat swells as he 
 pipes his love song to his mate. 
 
 But now we must have a nearer acquaintance with these 
 many inhabitants. The pond may be made the center of some 
 exceedingly attractive nature-study. We will take off shoes and 
 stockings, roll up trousers, and wade in, for we want to capture 
 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 
 
 some of these animals to take back to our aquaria. Many of 
 them will be easily secured from the bank with long-handled nets, 
 but the boy at least will enjoy hunting better if he can come to 
 close quarters. 
 
 The net. To make the net frame use an old broomstick or a 
 three-foot length of bamboo for a handle and a forty-inch length 
 of very stiff wire for the hoop. Bend the wire so that the ends 
 will cross six inches from their tips and twist these crossed wires 
 about each other a couple of times (Fig. i). Bend the ends so 
 
 a b c d 
 
 FIG. i. Making the net: a, the net complete; b, the wire frame; c, the frame 
 screwed into the handle; d, wired to handle. 
 
 that they will lie on opposite sides of one end of the handle, and 
 with fine wire or strong cord bind the net frame securely to the 
 handle. The wire frame may be soldered to a brass ferrule made 
 to fit a jointed handle. The net is best made of coarse bobinet, 
 although cheesecloth or fine-meshed mosquito netting will do. 
 It should be about eighteen inches deep and large enough around 
 to fit the hoop. Sew it onto the wire frame and then bind a 
 strip of cloth over the wire to prevent wear on the net. One or 
 two quart fruit jars make good receptacles for the catch. 
 
 The aquarium. An aquarium (Fig. 2) in which to keep the 
 water creatures may be cheaply made as follows: First, decide 
 
4 SOtiROE/BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 on the size of the glass to be used. Supposing the bottom glass 
 is to be 8 by 10 inches, the sides 6 by 10, and the ends 6 by 8, have 
 the tinner make a frame of one-inch angle tin loj by 8^ by 6j 
 inches, or you may solder together the frame of angle tin your- 
 self. In an old bowl or on an old piece of glass mix in dry form 
 eight ounces of whiting, one ounce of litharge, and one ounce of 
 red lead. Then with a putty knife or old kitchen knife stir raw 
 linseed oil into this until it becomes the consistency of stiff putty. 
 When you can no longer work it with the putty knife sprinkle 
 
 FIG. 2. The aquarium in the making: at left, method of applying cement to 
 edge of glass. 
 
 some of the dry cement powder on your hands and work it by 
 hand. As you knead it or squeeze it, the warmth of the hand 
 will soften it and more dry cement must be added to make it very 
 stiff. This makes a waterproof cement. With a putty knife or 
 old kitchen knife apply a ridge of this cement along each edge of 
 the bottom glass and press it, cement side down, into place in 
 the frame. Scrape off the excess of cement that squeezes out. 
 Similarly place sides and ends in position. Roll out short 
 " ropes" of the cement and press these into all the angles inside 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 5 
 
 the aquarium. Let it stand for a day to dry and it will be ready 
 for use, though the cement will not harden for several days. 
 
 Fishing instructions. A pond or stream that does not dry up 
 completely in the summer is best for our purposes and one with 
 weedy shores is most productive. Stand on shore or wade in 
 and poke the net down on the muddy or weedy bottom; then 
 move it along just over the bottom, with the opening of the net 
 in the direction of the motion. Give frequent jabs into the mud 
 or weeds to stir up the inhabitants. Move the net back over the 
 same territory once or twice so that the animals stirred up the 
 first time may be caught. After sweeping thus over the floor 
 of the pond for several yards, pull in the net and examine the 
 haul by dumping the material on a sandy spot on shore or on a 
 yard square of thick white cambric. The animals will wriggle 
 out as the debris dries. 
 
 The catch. Captured animals may be put into the quart jars 
 which have been half filled with pond water, and they will live 
 for many days if some of the green plants found growing under 
 water are rooted up and put into each jar. Be careful not to put 
 more than five or six of the larger insects into each jar, as they 
 soon exhaust the air supply. Many of the minute forms that 
 would easily escape detection may be secured by turning the net 
 inside out and then sousing it into a jar partly filled with water. 
 When this has stood quietly for some time, and the mud has 
 settled, the tiny animals will be readily seen. The jars of 
 material so collected may be taken home and the contents 
 emptied into the aquaria with an added supply of water. Take 
 along a jar of water plants from the pond, several of which are 
 illustrated here, as many animals cling to them and they are 
 needed in the balanced aquarium. 
 
 The balanced aquarium. In stocking the aquarium put in an 
 abundance of green water plants, which may be bought at the 
 fish store if not readily collected. Fig. 3 shows some of the 
 commoner kinds found in the ponds or streams. Have only a 
 few animals in one aquarium, among them two or three water 
 
6 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 e 
 
 Courtesy of "Guide to Nature" 
 
 FIG. 3. Water plants for the aquarium: a, Anacharis; b, Ceratophyllum os- 
 milfoil; c, caboma or water moss; d, Myriophyttum; e, Utricularia or bladderwort. 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 7 
 
 snails, as they help keep it clean. Success in maintaining an 
 aquarium depends on keeping in it enough plants to supply the 
 oxygen needed by the animals. Always remove any dead 
 animals or plants promptly. The water does not need changing 
 if plenty of plant life is present, and, in fact, it is best not to 
 change it as long as it is reasonably clear. Any wide-mouthed 
 jar, like a battery jar, candy jar, or low fruit jar, will serve in 
 place of the aquarium described. 
 
 Snails. Snails are found both on land and in the water; 
 different sorts of course live in different situations. The best 
 one to study first, because of its size, is the large edible snail, 
 which may be purchased of dealers or fishmongers, but any good- 
 sized snail will do. When received, this snail will have the 
 opening of its shell closed with a temporary diaphragm which 
 it can form as occasion demands. This it does when moisture 
 is not abundant. Some of the snails have a special horny plug 
 (operculum) attached to the foot which exactly fits the opening 
 of the shell. When they withdraw into the shell this closes the 
 opening tightly so as to prevent loss of moisture in order that 
 the animal may live until the conditions are again favorable for 
 it. Put the animals, when received, into a large jar or an old 
 aquarium with moist sand or earth on the bottom. Throw in 
 also some lettuce or cabbage leaves. Such a terrarium will 
 serve well for any of the land snails, while water snails will 
 simply be put into water in the aquarium. In a very few hours 
 the temporary seal on the shell has been broken and the snail is 
 out feeding, carrying his house on his back. 
 
 Crawling. Observe that the animal crawls on a muscular, 
 boat-shaped foot (Fig. 4). In the edible snail this is as large as 
 the hand and in some of the great sea snails it is a yard long. 
 Most of the internal organs, digestive, respiratory, etc., are up in 
 the shell, where they are protected. When the water snail is 
 crawling on the glass side of the aquarium, look at the side 
 against the glass to see the waves of contraction that drive it on. 
 On the underside of the foot the mouth may also be seen as the 
 
8 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 animal feeds upon the minute animals and plants that grow on 
 the surface of the glass. Sometimes the water snails in the 
 aquarium will glide down transparent streamers of mucus which 
 they secrete and spin through the water from plant to plant or 
 from top to bottom. 
 
 Breathing. Some of the snails breathe by means of gills; 
 others, even some of those that live in the water, by means of 
 lungs. In the latter, one can see the spiracle, or entrance to the 
 lung cavity, opening and closing (Fig. 5). This is situated on 
 the upper part of the foot near its juncture with the shell. 
 Water snails that have lungs must frequently come to the surface 
 
 FIG. 4. Polygyra Ihyroides crawling on the ground 
 
 to breathe, though they can take under with them enough fresh 
 air (in their lungs) to last much longer than a boy's supply would. 
 Snail's eggs. Many of the water snails will lay their eggs in 
 the aquarium. They are minute, as large around as the wire of 
 a fine pin, and are laid in masses. Each tiny egg is inclosed in a 
 capsule of jelly, so that the whole jelly mass is as large as a big 
 pea or a small bean. The mass is attached to the glass of the 
 aquarium, to the plants, or to the stones. The eggs are also 
 found in the ponds on plants and stones. Even under a low- 
 power lens, like a linen tester, the young snails are visible when 
 they are developing. The snails, when first they break out of the 
 jelly, are very small, not larger than pinheads, but they grow 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 
 
 with rapidity. Around the margin of the mouth of the shell is a 
 fold of the body known as the mantle, which secretes new shell 
 and adds it, layer after layer, to the margin. On an old shell, 
 from which the organic material has 
 partly dissolved, these lines of growth 
 may be readily seen. 
 
 Common kinds. It is interesting 
 to make a collection of the common 
 snails both of land and water of any 
 locality. Label each sort -with the 
 place where it is found and the date. 
 Collect several of each kind, and, if it 
 is impossible to name some, one or 
 two of each of these sorts may be sent 
 to someone in the state (possibly at 
 the state university) who can identify 
 them. The important thing, how- 
 ever, is to know the habits and habi- 
 tats, though it is a satisfaction to 
 know the names. There are given a 
 number of sketches to show the dis- 
 tinguishing characters of some of the 
 commoner kinds (Figs. 6, 7, and 8). 
 
 Clams. In nearly every stream 
 of any size, in ponds, and in lakes the 
 clams are found. One is likely to 
 become acquainted with the shells 
 first, for they are often cast up on the shore, and the shell is no 
 mean wonder. Some are very large and heavy, other sorts are 
 small, and many are thin and fragile. Within a generation a 
 great many of the streams that are tributary to the Mississippi 
 have yielded a supply of these shells to the button factories. 
 The clams have been sought also by the pearl hunters, for the 
 baroque pearl now so commonly seen comes from the clam, as 
 do some of the beautiful regular pearls. The shell has two 
 
 FIG. 5. Snail, showing parts 
 
10 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 6. Various species of Polygyra, common land snails, life size: a, Pulygyra 
 albolabris, the white-lipped snail (note covered umbilicus) ; b, Polygyra hirsuta, the 
 hairy snail (note notch in lip); c, Polygyra multilineata, the many-banded snail; 
 d, Polygyra palliata; e, Polygyra pennsyhanica; f, Polygyra profunda (note wide 
 open umbilicus); g, Polygyra thyr aides; h, Polygyra tridentata, the three-toothed 
 snail. 
 
FIG. 7. Water snails, snowing generic characters: a, Limnaea reflexa; b 
 Limnaea stagnates; c, Limnaea woodruffi; d, Physa gyrina; e, Physa heterostropha; 
 f, Ancylus fuscus , side view; g, Ancylusfuscus, from above; h, Amnicola Cincinnati, 
 ensis; i, Amnicola emarginata; j, Vahata tricarinata; k, Planorbis trivolvis, from 
 above; /, Planorbis trivolvis, side view; m, Planorbis campanulatiis , from below; 
 n, Planorbis campanulatus, side view; o, Planorbis bicarinatus, from below; p, 
 Planorbis bicarinatus, side view; q, Vivipera contectoides; r, operculum of Vivipera 
 contectoides; s, Vivipera subpurpurea; t, Campeloma ponderosum; u, Campeloma 
 integrum; v, Campeloma subsolidum; w, Pleurocera elevatum; x, Pleurocera subulare; 
 y, Goniobasis livescans; z, Sfrhaerium transfer sum (a clam). 
 
SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 b 
 
 
 FIG. 8. Land snails: a, Circinaria concava: b, Helicodiscus parallelus: c, 
 Omphalina fuliginosa; d, Polygyra tridentata; e, Zonitoides arboreus: /, Polygyra 
 monodon; g, Pyramidula alternata; h, Philomycus caroliniensis (a slug); i, 
 Pyramidula solitaria; j, Pyramidula perspectiva; k, Succinea avara; I, Succinea 
 ovalis; m, Succinea retusa; n, Cochlicopa lubrica; o, Bifidaria armifera; p, Vertigo 
 ovata; the last three much enlarged. 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 13 
 
 parts, or valves, held together by an elastic hinge, which is so 
 adjusted that the valves are ordinarily somewhat spread (Fig. 9). 
 They can be closed tightly by powerful muscles, the places for 
 the attachment of. which can plainly be seen on the inside of the 
 shell. The shell is lined by a mantle, the margins of which, lying 
 along the margins of the valves, secrete the material of which 
 the shell is formed. The lines of growth show plainly on the 
 
 FIG. 9. Clam in aquarium, foot protruding; clamshell above 
 
 outside of each valve as they encircle an elevated shoulder, the 
 umbone, which in- most clams is nearer the hind end of the shell. 
 The shell is lined by another secretion of the mantle, the pearl. 
 Not infrequently when an irritating particle accidentally gets 
 into the clam's shell between the mantle and the shell it is 
 covered over with pearl. Such secretions around some foreign 
 object form the pearl. 
 
 A clam's foot. Like the snail, the clam thrusts a fleshy foot 
 out of the shell (at the front end) by means of which it crawls 
 
14 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 along the sandy or muddy bottom. Usually, however, it 
 remains stationary for days at a time as long as the feeding is 
 good. The shell is then two-thirds or more buried in the mud or 
 sand, just the hind end sticking up, and between the partly 
 opened valves there project two tubes formed of the mantle and 
 fringed at the mouths with sensitive tentacles. Into one there 
 pours a constant stream of water bearing the small, floating 
 animals and plants on which the clam feeds, and out of the other 
 
 FIG. 10. The slug (Philomicus carolimensis} and its eggs (natural size) 
 
 comes the stream of water bearing refuse. When a clam is 
 quickly lifted out of the bottom of stream or pond his protruding 
 foot will be seen, but this is promptly withdrawn and the shell 
 closes; as this happens, the water is spouted out of the siphon, 
 sometimes quite vigorously. 
 
 Siphons. These can all be readily seen if a clam of moderate 
 size is placed in the aquarium. Put three or four inches of sand 
 from the bottom of the pond into the aquarium so that he can 
 partly bury himself. If some of the water plants, like elodea, 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 15 
 
 cabomba, etc., are planted in the mud the clam will be likely to 
 live longer. It is wise to place only one clam in an aquarium 
 and to have only three or four inches of water above the sand. 
 If the clam is simply laid on the bottom it will soon open its 
 shell, thrust out its foot, and proceed to bury its anterior end, 
 leaving the posterior end above the surface. Out of this the 
 siphons open and soon particles in the water will indicate the 
 direction of the flow of water currents bearing food and air. 
 
 Young clams. The eggs of the clam are retained within the 
 shell until they hatch into the young clams, when they are thrown 
 out of a siphon. They are at first tiny bivalve forms, each valve 
 being provided with a hook or tooth nearly opposite its fellow 
 on the other valve. They can swim by repeatedly clapping the 
 valves together and forcibly ejecting the water, each squirt of 
 water propelling the tiny fellow a short way. They attach 
 themselves by their hooks to the gills, fins, or tails of fish, where 
 they remain until they have grown much larger, when they drop 
 off and sink to the bottom to live the clam's usual life. 
 
 Miniatures. In the streams and ponds where the larger clams 
 are found will be found some small bivalves, living for the most 
 part in shallow water. These are usually not the young of the 
 larger clams, but adults of a family (Sphaeriidae) , individuals of 
 which never do grow large (Fig. 72). Sometimes the full-grown 
 forms are not longer than the diameter of a pencil. These 
 sphaeriidia will live in the aquaria very well, and even in relatively 
 cramped quarters will show all the typical behavior of the clams. 
 
 Land molluscs. Snails and clams both belong to the great 
 group of animals (subkingdom) known as the Mollusca. The 
 third major subdivision of the molluscs in addition to the snails 
 and the clams includes only salt-water forms the squids and 
 devil fishes or octopi. While the molluscs are primarily water 
 animals, many of them have taken to the land, where a number 
 (snails and slugs) may be found active in moist situations. The 
 damp ground stratum of forests is the place to look for these 
 turn over the logs, break apart decayed stumps, or, where the 
 
16 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 air is moisture-laden, expect them on the low shrubs and ferns. 
 There is figured here one of the commonest slugs and a number 
 of the land snails (Figs. 8 and 1 1) . The slugs are naked molluscs ; 
 that is, they have no external shell, and look almost wormlike as 
 they crawl along. The tentacles and stalked eyes, however, will 
 readily distinguish them. 
 
 Crayfish. One of the best-known inhabitants of the ponds 
 and streams the best known, at least, to the boys and girls is 
 the crayfish, or crab as he is wrongly called. (True crabs have 
 very short tails always turned under, out of sight; they are 
 marine.) He will repay careful observation, for he is an exceed- 
 ingly interesting animal. He will be found under the stones in the 
 
 streams or ponds, hiding 
 in old tin cans or other safe 
 retreats. When disturbed 
 he is likely to assume a de- 
 fensive attitude, standing 
 on all his walking legs and 
 raising the great pincers 
 that arm the first pair of 
 legs, ready to nip the in- 
 
 FIG. ii.-The slug, AgnoKmox tmdei \ Perha P S he deemS 
 
 discretion the better part 
 
 of valor and beats a hasty retreat how hasty is realized only 
 if one tries to pick him up. The direction of his locomotion is 
 also contrary to expectation. Study him in his native home or, 
 if time will not permit, gather several in the net and carry them 
 back to the aquarium. The animals are transported best in a 
 jar with some of the moist water weed, rather than in water. 
 They will thrive in an aquarium jar on the bottom of which is 
 a layer of wet earth with some wet water weeds in one corner. 
 The jar should be covered to prevent evaporation and water 
 should be added from time to time to insure abundant moisture. 
 His armor. The crayfish reminds one of a knight-errant, 
 going about in his coat of mail seeking adventures. Notice that 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 17 
 
 the animal is apparently made up of two main parts a forward 
 portion covered with a single piece of protective armor, the head- 
 thorax, and a posterior part, the abdomen, made up of successive 
 segments (Fig. 12). There are five pairs of legs, the front pair 
 being armed with powerful claws, used for offense and defense, 
 while the other four pairs are the walking legs. Not infrequently 
 you will find an animal with one great claw gone and a small one 
 
 FIG. 12. A pupil's blackboard drawing of a crayfish 
 
 in its place, for in their fights the animals are likely to lose a claw, 
 pinched off by the more powerful opponent. It is soon grown 
 again, for the lowly animals have wonderful powers of regenerat- 
 ing lost parts. There are two pairs of feelers, a long pair of 
 antennae, and the short antennules. The eyes are mounted on 
 movable stalks, a compensation for the immovable head. 
 
 The eggs. On most abdominal segments there is a pair of 
 swimmerets, really legs. The pair on the next to the last 
 
l8 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 segment is broadened out very much to help form the powerful 
 tail. In the spring females are often found carrying clusters of 
 eggs attached to the hairs that fringe the forward swimmerets. 
 Crayfish may readily be picked up and one can see these egg 
 masses by holding the animal with thumb and forefinger placed 
 on opposite sides of the head- thorax. When so held their pincers 
 cannot reach the fingers; the pincers are not formidable, how- 
 ever, as they cannot nip hard enough to hurt seriously. Capture 
 some crayfish with eggs and take them home to the aquarium, or 
 obtain some from fish dealers or supply houses. (See Appendix.) 
 
 Gills. The swimmerets are in constant motion, drawing a 
 current of water through the gill cavities, for the crayfish 
 breathes by means of gills. These are located on the sides of 
 the body and are covered up by the armor over the head- 
 thorax The edges of this carapace are free, however, so that a 
 stream of water constantly flows in and out. Look the animal 
 "square in the face" as he stands quietly in the aquarium. On 
 the underside, just in front of the opening to the gill chamber, 
 there may be seen on either side a rapidly moving organ that looks 
 like a whirling propeller wheel. This device helps to keep the 
 water running through the gill chamber. Finely powdered 
 chalk or other- light insoluble substance dusted into the water 
 near the crayfish will show by its movement the direction of flow 
 of this water current to the gills. 
 
 Walking. The animal walks quite as readily backward or 
 sideways as it does forward, reaching out its antennae and finding 
 its way as a blind man might with his cane. But this is a slow 
 method of locomotion. If poked the animal will suddenly dart 
 backward with surprising swiftness, using the tail fin as a paddle, 
 which he curves under the body in a succession of quick strokes 
 that draw him backward. It is such a peculiar and expressive 
 movement that the phrase "to crayfish" has crept into our 
 language to signify an undignified and hasty retreat from a 
 difficult situation. Certainly the crayfish does not wait on 
 ceremony when danger threatens. 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 19 
 
 Food. The crayfish feeds on dead animal material, acting 
 as a scavenger of streams and ponds. Just a few bits of meat 
 may be put into the aquarium for him to eat; he will also accept 
 small pieces of angleworm, egg, bread, potato, or aquatic plants. 
 These are seized by the claws on the second legs and held up to 
 the mouth. Several pairs of appendages manipulate the food 
 here and force it in between the powerful horny jaws, which work, 
 as do the other mouth parts, from side to side, not up and down. 
 
 FIG. 13. The clay chimney of a common well-digging crayfish, Cambarus 
 dio genes. 
 
 If the crayfish does not eat in the course of a few hours, the bits 
 of meat should be removed or they will decompose and thus foul 
 the water. 
 
 There is one group of crayfishes that live often at a considerable 
 distance from streams and ponds and dig wells for themselves 
 so as to reach the necessary water (Fig. 13). These usually 
 inhabit swampy ground or else live in situations where there is a 
 clay subsoil that holds the water well. The earth is dug out 
 with the claws, and as the hole deepens it is pushed to the surface 
 
20 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 and piled around the opening, forming a chimney rising above the 
 level of the earth. The animal is usually found near the top 
 of the hole but drops down if danger threatens. They leave 
 their burrows, especially at night, to seek food. 
 
 Breeding. Crayfishes mate in the spring, usually in March. 
 The males may be told by the peculiar modification of the first 
 and second pairs of swimmerets, which fit together to form a tube. 
 A male should be kept in a shallow dish for a couple of days until 
 he gets used to it, and then a female of the same size may be put 
 in with him. Leave them together for a few days and then put 
 the female in an aquarium with shallow water. Put some rocks 
 or bits of brick or tile in one corner so that she may crawl in out 
 of the bright light. The eggs are usually laid at night in a mass 
 of mucus which is held under the abdomen. The female goes 
 through strange antics, lying down and rolling over all a part 
 of instinctive behavior to accomplish the fertilization of the eggs 
 and their fixation to her swimmerets, each egg being attached by 
 its own strong stalk. This process requires a couple of days, then 
 the eggs remain so fastened until they hatch. 
 
 The young. The hatching requires from five to eight weeks, 
 according to temperature. In the first week various cleavage 
 stages may be seen under even a simple lens ; the egg divides and 
 subdivides until it is a mass of tiny cells. In the second week the 
 beginnings of the embryo may be made out. By the fourth week 
 the embryo extends over half the egg. When the larvae actually 
 hatch they are brilliantly colored little fellows with conspicuous 
 eyes, and are so transparent that the internal organs are readily 
 seen and the heart beat may be watched. After hatching, the 
 young reattach themselves to the parent. It is interesting to 
 watch the behavior of the young when the parent is fed. Later 
 they leave the mother to lead their own independent lives. All 
 of this may be watched in the home or school aquarium. After 
 the eggs are attached, the female may be picked up so that 
 the eggs may be examined. One or two of these may be de- 
 tached and put into a small dish like a watch crystal, so as to 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 21 
 
 examine them more readily under the lens and notice the succes- 
 sive stages. 
 
 Molting. Young crayfish are covered, like the adults, with 
 a hard external shell, as are the insects and other members of the 
 arthropods (see next paragraph). This external shell is really 
 the animal's skeleton, placed on the outside of his body instead 
 of inside, as is ours. It does double duty as a protection and for 
 the attachment of the muscles of locomotion. As it is evidently 
 impossible to grow when incased in armor, the young of such 
 animals feed until they literally burst their skins. The crayfish 
 skin, or exoskeleton, breaks down the back and the animal crawls 
 out of his old shell wearing a thin new covering that will stretch 
 for a short time. The youngster takes advantage of the opportu- 
 nity and grows with great rapidity while he hides in some cranny 
 among the rocks, for he is now a dainty morsel. It is at this 
 stage that men catch the soft-shell crabs of the seashore; the 
 crayfish in similar condition is a grateful addition to the bill of 
 fare of crow or turtle or other hungry beasts that feed upon him. 
 In a few days the lime salts have deposited in the new and tender 
 covering and have hardened it into an effective protection again. 
 But this process of change of clothes must be undergone fre- 
 quently as the young crayfish grows, and the discarded old 
 garments are found among the rocks of the pond or stream. 
 This is another interesting process to be watched in the aquarium 
 as the baby crayfishes grow larger. 
 
 Other crustaceans. The crayfish is by no means the most 
 abundant of our fresh-water crustaceans, although it is the best 
 known. There are hordes of smaller ones that inhabit the ponds 
 and streams, and of these the shrimp, Palaemoneles (Fig. 14^:), 
 is the most nearly related to and most like the crayfish. The 
 head and thorax are covered by the carapace, which is made of 
 chitin, the substance that forms the hard covering of insects like 
 the beetle. There is much chitin in the hard shell of the crayfish, 
 too, but this is, as noted above, strongly impregnated with lime. 
 The large pincers are absent in the shrimp. It is about one and 
 
22 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 a half inches long in our common sort. Instead of crawling on 
 the bottom it may be seen swimming gracefully among the sub- 
 merged vegetation. It prefers water four or five feet deep, 
 where there are abundant water plants growing pretty well up 
 to the surface. The shrimps are almost transparent and are 
 tinged with green, so that they are nearly invisible in their native 
 haunts. They are easily captured with an ordinary dip net, but 
 when brought up they spring, by suddenly extending the abdo- 
 men, and may even jump out of a shallow net. They are very 
 beautiful animals but are hard to keep in an ordinary aquarium, 
 unless it can be supplied with running water and a moderately 
 low temperature can be maintained. They are to be found in 
 late spring and early summer in spring-fed ponds and streams. 
 They feed on the "smaller forms to be described below. 
 
 The water sow bug. If with the net the fine debris of the pond 
 bottom or the decaying leaves lying in the shallow water of pond 
 or bayou of the river are swept up, two sorts of crustaceans will 
 quite certainly be found. The water sow bug, Asellus* (Fig. 140), 
 is a flattened animal looking as if a weight placed upon his back 
 had compressed him. He is about half an inch long and a fourth 
 as wide. His color is brown to gray. He is segmented; the 
 head and thorax are distinct, the latter composed of separate 
 rings. The abdomen seems all one piece when seen from above. 
 It bears two sensitive organs, like antennae, on the hind end. 
 
 1 It seems too bad that these animals and the ones that follow have not simpler 
 names. We must be content with such as they possess. It may be well to give 
 here a brief synopsis of some of the more important orders of the crustaceans, not 
 with a view to having the child learn such terms, but merely to give the teacher 
 some comprehension of the relations of the forms discussed. The class Crustacea 
 is divided into two subclasses, the Malacostraca and the Entomostraca. Each of 
 these divisions includes several orders, representatives of which are found in fresh 
 water as follows: 
 
 MALACOSTRACA : 
 
 Podophthalmata crayfish, Palaemonetes; Isopoda Asellus; Amphi- 
 
 poda Gammarus, Eucrangonyx. 
 ENTOMOSTRACA : 
 
 Branchiopoda Eubranchipus; Cladocera Daphnia; Ostracoda 
 Cypris; Copepoda Diaptomus, Cyclops, Canthocampus. 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 
 
 FIG. 14. Some fresh-water crustaceans: a, Asellus, the water sow bug; 
 b y Gammarus, the bender; c, Palaemomtes, the true shrimp; d, Eubranchipus, 
 the fairy shrimp; e, Canthocampus; f, Cyclops; g, Cypris, side and top views; 
 h t Daphnia, the water flea. 
 
24 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Several pairs of jointed legs, all alike (hence the name of isopod), 
 are attached to the thorax. On the underside of the abdomen 
 are the thin gills, like the leaves of a book, which in the water are 
 constantly moving so that the water with its contained air will 
 circulate freely between them. 
 
 Breeding time. The female carries her eggs, and later on the 
 young, on the underside of the thorax in a brood pouch which 
 scrapes the ground, so that she seems to be very fat. Popularly, 
 therefore, these animals are known as "sow bugs." The name 
 applies also to some close relatives of Asellus that live under old 
 logs, under stones, and in damp cellars. Often when disturbed 
 these land forms roll up, curling head and tail together and form- 
 ing a ball or pill, so that they have also the common name of 
 pill bug. Asellus breeds early, as soon as the ice is off the ponds, 
 and there are usually several broods each season; thirty to two 
 hundred young make up a single brood. If they are to be kept 
 in an aquarium, take in some of the dead leaves along with them 
 and keep only a shallow layer of water over these in the aquarium, 
 or else keep them in quart fruit jars with running water. 
 
 The bender. The amphipods are flattened from side to side, 
 as Fig. i4& shows. Several closely related genera are common, 
 of which Gammarus is usually found in the streams and Eucran- 
 gonyx in the lakes and ponds. The animals swim readily and 
 can easily be seen swimming among the dead leaves and growing 
 plants along the margins of the streams. They often bend the 
 body into a bow, and then straighten it again, especially when 
 taken out of the water, and the motion is so characteristic that 
 the animal is called the "bender." The creature is whitish, 
 changing to a dull brown as it grows older. These animals are 
 sensitive to light, being repelled by strong light but attracted 
 by dim light, so that they seek the deeper, shadowy portions of 
 the ponds and streams by day but swim near the surface at dusk 
 or on dull days. They manifest another interesting reaction, a 
 preference for situations in which most of the body can be in 
 contact with solid substances. They therefore seek cracks and 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 25 
 
 crevices when at rest and in the aquarium congregate in the 
 corners. 
 
 The fairy shrimp. By far the largest of the common Ento- 
 mostraca is Eubranchipus, the fairy shrimp (Fig. 14^). Although 
 commonly called a shrimp, it is not at all closely related to 
 Palaemonetes , already studied. It is an inhabitant of the 
 temporary ponds that result from melting snows and abundant 
 rains. It is a graceful creature, a half-inch long or so when full 
 grown, is pale greenish in color, but as its swimming organs are 
 fringed with reddish hair the general effect is of a reddish-brown 
 animal. These swimming appendages are the most conspicuous 
 features, as the animal swims on its back and waves eleven pairs 
 of these jointed organs like so many plumes. There are no other 
 legs or differentiated appendages except the antennae; the eyes 
 are conspicuous, but are not stalked as in the crayfish. The 
 entire organism is segmented. It is a relatively short-lived ani- 
 mal, lasting only four or five weeks. When it first appears in 
 the pools it is tiny, but it grows with rapidity, and as it matures 
 the eggs are readily seen in the translucent body. These are 
 deposited on the bottom of the pond among the debris, where 
 they must dry up and freeze during the winter before they will 
 hatch when the temporary ponds form again in the spring. 
 
 The head-legs. The other fresh- water Entomostraca are 
 hardly larger than pinheads, while some are merely living dots 
 that go swimming about in the water (Fig. 14). The Copepods 
 are all plainly segmented. Their antennae are well developed 
 and serve as the organs of locomotion, so that it appears as if 
 their legs were on their heads; hence the name. There is a 
 single eye in the middle of the forehead. In Diaptomus the 
 antennae are very long (twenty- three to twenty-five jointed), 
 reaching back to the end of the body. Cyclops has antennae 
 only about half as long as itself (eight to eighteen segments), 
 while Canthocampus has antennae that are only ten segments or 
 less long, scarcely longer than the head. Cyclops is perhaps 
 commonest. If water plants or the old leaves from the bottom 
 
26 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 of the pond are brought home in a pint fruit jar and put into the 
 aquarium or other vessel with some fresh water, in a short time 
 some of these forms are quite sure to appear. Cyclops swims 
 with a jerky motion and the females carry two big sacks of eggs, 
 one on either side of the abdomen. Diaptomus and Cantho- 
 campus females have a single egg sac carried below the abdomen. 
 
 Clamshell crustaceans. The Ostracods are interesting crus- 
 taceans whose bodies are inclosed in a double shell that looks 
 like a tiny translucent clamshell. When active the antennae 
 and swimming feet stick out of this shell, but when at rest even 
 these are drawn inside. They swim like little rolling dots of 
 animated material and must be put under a magnifying glass to 
 be seen at all satisfactorily. The sketch of Cypris (Fig. 14^), a 
 common sort, gives some idea of the animal's appearance. The 
 Cladocerans are very incompletely covered with a shell and the 
 body does not appear segmented, although plainly segmented 
 appendages appear. Daphnia is a common representative. It, 
 too, swims by the use of the antennae, and, like the Copepod, it 
 has a single median eye. 
 
 All of the Entomostraca are best caught by trailing a wide- 
 mouthed tapering net made of miller's bolting cloth along at 
 or near the surface of the water on dull days or near dusk. At 
 frequent intervals turn this inside out and wash off the tip in a 
 quart fruit jar half full of pond water. 
 
 Importance. While of minute size, these crustaceans are 
 exceedingly abundant and of large economic importance. Lake 
 Michigan water averages about five to the quart, and they may 
 be much more abundant during the spring maximum. It has 
 been estimated that then a million Cyclops are found in a square 
 yard of surface water in a pond. The rate of reproduction is so 
 very rapid that a single Cyclops might easily give rise to a billion 
 progeny in one year under favorable conditions. Other minute 
 animals and plants are equally numerous ; thus Thompson speaks 
 of finding five million rotifers to the square yard and seven 
 hundred million diatoms, minute plants, in a similar volume of 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 27 
 
 lake water, while Kofoid found in the water in the main channel 
 of the Illinois River at Urbana, in May, a million animals to the 
 quart and almost five million organisms of all kinds. It must be 
 remembered that while these animals and plants are very 
 numerous they are also very small, so that they make up, even 
 when most abundant, less than a millionth part by volume of the 
 water in which they live. Still the volume of water in lake or 
 river is so great that many tons of these minute organisms pass 
 downriver daily. This floating population in the water, known 
 as the plankton, is the ultimate source of fish food, and the 
 Entomostraca form an exceedingly important part of it. Young 
 fish feed quite largely on such forms as Cyclops, Daphnia, and 
 Cypris. These also are the food of the larger crustaceans, like 
 Gammarus and Asellus, which make up a large share of the 
 dietary of the larger fish of the small streams and ponds. 
 
 Movements offish. When you get a drop of water under the 
 microscope with more or less of the ooze from the bottom among 
 which these Entomostraca live much of the time, you realize how 
 prolific of life nature really is. Such a drop is a veritable ocean, 
 often with hundreds or even thousands of tiny organisms living 
 their lives in the confines diatoms, bacteria, protozoa of vari- 
 ous types. These are the food of the tiny crustaceans above 
 described. Like Eubranchipus , most of these crustaceans are 
 sensitive to light and their location is determined by its intensity. 
 The fish must follow them to feed, and so the migrations of the 
 fish in lake and river depend in no small degree on the where- 
 abouts of this active food supply. 
 
 Dragon flies. Spring is the best time of the year to study the 
 life-history of one of the most interesting of insects, the dragon 
 fly (Fig. 15). Surely every child knows these iridescent blue, 
 green, or bronzed insects, with rather slender bodies and gauzy 
 wings, that hover and dart over the ponds like flashes of jeweled 
 light. They are variously called devil's darning needle, sew flies, 
 snake doctors, and dragon flies. Children have a vague horror 
 that dragon flies can sew up their mouths and ears, yet they are 
 
28 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 not only harmless but very beneficial. They are most appro- 
 priately called mosquito hawks, for they feed upon mosquitoes 
 and small flies that they capture upon the wing and eat while 
 flying. Lying in the grass, above which a dragon fly was 
 hunting, the writer counted thirteen flies captured and eaten in 
 sixteen minutes. If such a rate is maintained through a working 
 day of even moderate duration, we must gratefully acknowledge 
 the dragon fly as an ally in our summer's comfort. 
 
 Life-history. The eggs of the dragon fly are laid in the water. 
 As the female flies slowly over the pond close to its surface, she 
 repeatedly dips the tip of her abdomen below the surface and sets 
 
 FIG. 15. A dragon fly, a pupil's drawing 
 
 the eggs free; or, in other species, she alights upon floating weeds 
 and fastens the eggs to an object just below the water level. 
 When these hatch they produce a band of masked marauders 
 that must be bugaboos to all the small pond creatures. By 
 dredging in the reeds and grasses or among the dead leaves at 
 the margin of the pond, these young of the dragon fly will likely 
 be captured. They will lie stiffly quiet at first, among the 
 debris in the net; but after a moment's hesitation they try to 
 crawl away with a gait that reminds one of a turtle. 
 
 The nymph. The nymph, as the young is termed, is mud- 
 colored in a common species. The head is broad and angular, 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 29 
 
 with prominent eyes and short feelers; the legs are strong and 
 stand out stiffly from the edge of the thorax, and the abdomen is 
 broad and flattened. Concealed by its color, the animal lies 
 upon the muddy bottom awaiting its prey until some unsuspect- 
 ing creature comes swimming by. The device with which the 
 victim is seized is very interesting. The mouth of the animal, in 
 fact most of the lower part of the head, is covered by a pair of 
 strong, light, auxiliary jaws, carried on a hinged arm that is 
 quickly extensible. It is this arm that shoots out suddenly so 
 that the jaws can grasp the prey and return it, as the arm folds 
 back in place, to the powerful crushing jaws of the mouth. 
 
 Molt skins. One can scarcely visit a pond in the latter days 
 of spring without finding, hung upon the grass and reeds along 
 its banks, the cast-off garments of these dragon-fly nymphs. 
 "For all the world's a stage" and men and women are not the 
 only players. This sedgy margin of the pond is the dressing- 
 room where our masked marauder of the oozy depths changes his 
 dull costume for the resplendent mail of that rover, the dragon 
 fly. When the nymph is ready for its final molt it climbs some 
 stem, crawls out above the water upon it, and there splits the 
 old suit down the back and creeps out of the rent (Fig. 16), a 
 limp dragon fly. Sunlight and air speedily harden its armor, its 
 gossamer wings expand and stiffen, and it flies away for food. 
 This whole process may readily be observed, for it takes but a 
 few hours. Put a few of the large nymphs into a two-quart jar 
 half filled with pond water; add some water plants, and then put 
 in a stick that will reach above the water. The nymphs will 
 mount this as they prepare to transform. The dragon-fly eggs 
 deposited one summer hatch to nymphs that grow during suc- 
 cessive molts and finally transform to the adult the following 
 spring or still later springs. 
 
 Other water larvae. The dragon-fly larva is a type of a 
 numerous group of insect larvae that are found leading an 
 aquatic life (Figs. 17 and 19). The damsel-fly larvae are also 
 abundant in the debris at the bottom of ponds. Damsel flies 
 
30 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 are also found about the ponds and streams and have much the 
 same habits as the dragon flies, but they are smaller and weaker 
 and prey upon the gnats or midges rather than upon the larger 
 flies. At rest, the dragon fly holds its wings out at right angles 
 to the body, while the damsel fly folds its wings together parallel 
 to the body. The nymphs are slender and have three leaflike 
 gills at the end of the abdomen. Their habits are much like 
 those of the dragon-fly nymphs. 
 
 FIG. 16. The molt skin of a dragon-fly nymph, side and back views 
 
 The May fly. In the same situations will also be found the 
 nymphs of the May flies (Fig. iy&). The thoracic segments are 
 fringed with gills and three long bristles radiate from the end of the 
 abdomen. They are easily reared in a quart jar that has some pond 
 mud and several sprigs of water plant at the bottom. Feed them 
 on Entomostraca or small water insects. In the jar place a stick 
 that projects out of the water and cover the jar with mosquito 
 net. When the nymphs are mature they crawl up the stick and 
 undergo the transformation to the adult fly, a familiar animal 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 
 
 FIG. 17. Some aquatic insects and nymphs (after Alice) : a, stone-fly nymph; 
 b, May-fly nymph; c, whirligig-beetle larva; d, black-fly larva; e, damsel-fly 
 nymph; /, water tiger; g, larva of water scavenger; h, the dobson; i, diving 
 beetle; /, giant water bug; k, smaller water bug; I, water-scavenger beetle. 
 
32 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 with gauzy wings, fragile body, and the three long bristles still 
 adorning the tail. They often swarm about lamps and electric 
 lights on warm spring evenings and may be so numerous as to 
 be a pest, occasionally coming in clouds. They are short-lived, 
 and the dead bodies accumulate so that the sidewalks and 
 porches are buried under drifts of them that must be swept off 
 like snow. 
 
 The stone fly. The stone fly (Fig. 170) also begins as a com- 
 mon nymph with bristles at the end of the abdomen. There are 
 only two bristles, however, and the gills are in tufts at the base of 
 the legs. They refuse stagnant water and seek the under surfaces 
 of the rocks that are found in the shallow rapids of the brooks. 
 
 As they are very active and 
 hide themselves quickly 
 when disturbed, the col- 
 lector must suddenly pick 
 up the stone from the 
 water, turn it over and 
 brush the nymphs off into 
 a pint jar containing some 
 water. Keep them in shal- 
 low water while watching 
 
 FIG. 18. Larva and larval case of caddis 
 fly; below, the adult caddis fly; both are a 
 pupil's drawings. 
 
 them. It is just as well 
 not to take them home, for 
 they will live only in running water. The adults will be found on 
 the rocks, the tree trunks, and the overhanging leaves. They 
 are grayish insects, one-half to two inches long, with large wings 
 conspicuously net- veined. The underwings are the larger and 
 are much folded when the insect is at rest. 
 
 The caddis fly. Of all aquatic larvae the most remarkable one 
 is that constructor of curious log cabins and stone houses, the 
 larva of the caddis fly (Fig. 18). Sweeping with the net in both 
 streams and ponds will bring to the surface numerous repre- 
 sentatives of this group. The house is an open tube, usually 
 straight, sometimes curved or even coiled. Some sorts adopt 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 33 
 
 a length of hollow reed for habitation ; others fasten bits of stick 
 and twig together by means of silk; while still others cement bits 
 of stone into very perfect mosaics, and so form a protective 
 covering. The larva carries his house about with him and when 
 disturbed safely withdraws into it. Hold one of these inhabited 
 tubes on your hand for a moment and soon the animal will poke 
 his head and legs out, cognizant that his customary watery 
 environment is changed. The larva feeds on aquatic plants, 
 and as it increases in size it enlarges its dwelling or adopts a new 
 one. When ready for its final transformation it retires into its 
 tube, builds a door to keep out intruders, and undergoes its last 
 molt. It then leaves its house, crawls out of the water on some 
 projecting stone or stick, and suddenly unfurling its wings flies 
 away. The adult is a mothlike fly; the hairy wings are veined 
 with many longitudinal but with few cross-veins, and are held 
 close to the body when at rest, making a covering like a high- 
 peaked roof. 
 
 The dobson. Among the rocks in the stream where stone-fly 
 and May-fly nymphs are found is another predatory larva that 
 feeds on them the dobson (Fig. 17 A). It is the larva of the 
 horned Corydalis and has the distinction of a name all its own, 
 largely because it is a fisherman's favorite for bass bait. It is 
 a large larva when full grown, about two inches long. The head 
 is provided with conspicuous, strong jaws. Each segment of 
 the abdomen bears a pair of long gill-like appendages and tufts 
 of smaller gills. The adult is a large insect, four or five inches 
 long, with long antennae, bulging eyes, and in the male long, 
 sickle-like jaws. The wings are gauzy, like those of a fly, but 
 proportionately larger. It is attracted to electric lights at night 
 and often captured. 
 
 The water tiger. Quite as formidable to water creatures as this 
 dobson is the larva of the diving beetle known as the water tiger 
 (Fig. iy/). It, too, has a big head armed with large jaws, but it 
 does not have the gills on the abdomen. It is often captured 
 among the dead leaves and aquatic vegetation near shore, for 
 
34 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 in such aquatic jungles it hunts its prey, and almost every small 
 living thing is food for this, the fiercest rover of the weedy shores. 
 The adult beetle (Fig. 190) is oval three-quarters of an inch long, 
 and is black with a yellow border. The hind legs are fringed so 
 as to make efficient paddles. He hangs head down from the 
 surface of the pool, the tip of the abdomen being out of water so 
 that he may get air. When he goes under the water, diving to 
 hide or to capture food, a silvery bubble of air is seen sticking out 
 from under his wing covers as he takes his temporary air supply 
 with him. He must frequently come to the surface to renew 
 this air supply, like a submarine. 
 
 The water scavenger. Along with the diving beetle and its 
 larva are to be found the water-scavenger beetle and its larva 
 (Fig. lyg). Their feeding habits are much the same. The adult 
 beetle is also a black beetle like the diving beetle, but has no 
 yellow border. It often comes to the surface, but comes head 
 up instead of backward. The diving beetle uses its swimming 
 legs like oars, striking out at the same time with both, while the 
 water scavenger uses its legs alternately. The larva of the water 
 scavenger is plumper than the water tiger, but its head is rela- 
 tively smaller and its legs are much weaker. 
 
 The money bug. Every frequenter of the ponds and brooks 
 comes to know, as one of his first acquaintances, a shining black 
 beetle that goes whirling in erratic curves upon the surface of the 
 water. He is called the whirligig beetle or money bug (Fig. ijc). 
 In New England the belief obtains that if you can catch one in 
 your hand you will soon have money in it. The larva of the 
 whirligig might be mistaken at first sight for a young dobson, for 
 he has quite similar fringed gill plates on the sides of each seg- 
 ment. These, however, are simple, while the dobson has both 
 the long and the short kinds. This larva is much more slender, 
 and the head is relatively small and weak. Both larva and adult 
 feed upon smaller animals. 
 
 The mosquito. One need not go to ponds to find the larvae 
 of the mosquito (Fig. 196), for the rain barrel or any pail of water 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 
 
 35 
 
 FIG. 19. Aquatic insects and nymphs (after Alice): a, adult mosquito; 
 ft, its larva; c, its pupa; d, water skater; e, mirsh strider; /, whirligig beetle; 
 g, water scorpion; h, water boatman; i t back swimmer. 
 
36 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 that has been standing some time may be swarming with them ; 
 indeed they may be found in almost any stagnant water. The 
 larvae are commonly known as wrigglers and well deserve the 
 name, for they swim by a series of contortions, first throwing the 
 body into an S-shaped form and then doubling back both ends 
 so as to reverse the figure. The larva, when resting, hangs head 
 down, suspended from the surface film, with only the tip of its 
 breathing tube above the water. After several molts the larva 
 changes into a pupa a comma- shaped form with large head and 
 big eyespots. It floats head up, and the respiratory tube now 
 projects from the top of the head. Finally the pupa skin splits 
 and the adult insect crawls out, often standing on its floating 
 pupal skin while its wings expand and harden. 
 
 Mosquito extermination. In the extermination of the mos- 
 quito advantage is taken of its need of water for a breeding place 
 and the necessity of coming to the surface to breathe both in the 
 larval and pupal stages. All receptacles in which standing water 
 might accumulate and afford breeding places are either emptied 
 or screened. Swamps and ditches are drained where possible, 
 and on such as cannot be drained ordinary coal oil or petroleum 
 is sprayed. This spreads promptly over the surface, forming a 
 thin film of such tenacity that the larvae cannot get the breathing 
 tube through it and so promptly smother. It makes an instruct- 
 ive schoolroom demonstration to put a number of the larvae 
 in each of two quart jars half full of water, to one of which is 
 added two drops of kerosene. In a very few minutes the larvae 
 in the one jar are dead; in the other they are still lively as ever. 
 Now if darters, young bass, or minnows are available, put one in 
 the jar with the living larvae and see how promptly the latter 
 disappear, for they are choice morsels for fish. 
 
 Applying oil. In applying the kerosene oil to small pools, 
 cisterns, or rain barrels, it may be thrown on with a dipper, but 
 it must be sprayed on larger ponds or streams. A pint of oil 
 will efficiently cover twenty-five square yards of pond surface, 
 but since the oil is washed away by waves and driven ashore by 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 37 
 
 the wind, it must often be renewed. The life-history of our 
 common mosquito, Culex, runs its course from egg to adult in 
 about two weeks, so that if one lot of larvae and pupae are killed 
 by the oiling, another may be ready to begin hatching two weeks 
 later. The spraying must continue, therefore, at intervals of 
 two to three weeks during spring and summer to insure against 
 the mosquitoes. A single spring application will, however, give 
 enormous relief. 
 
 Other fly larvae. The larvae of the harlequin fly, or Chirono- 
 mus, are also conspicuous in temporary as well as in permanent 
 ponds. They are blood-red wrigglers usually called bloodworms. 
 When full-grown they are perhaps three-quarters of an inch long 
 and about as large around as a coarse pin. They live in the 
 decomposing leaves and slime at the pond's bottom and may be 
 dredged up with the net. When placed in jars of water they will 
 make their crude tubes, if some dead leaves and debris are 
 provided, and will readily grow in confinement. They finally 
 transform into midges that look much like mosquitoes, and are 
 very common in the early spring. 
 
 The black fly. Any fisherman of the streams feels quite 
 certain that the black fly, more pestiferous than the mosquito, 
 breeds in countless hordes near the haunts of trout and bass, 
 and so he does. On the stones in the rapids where the stone 
 fly is found so commonly may often be found also clusters of 
 black, squirming, wormlike creatures, attached by one end and 
 reaching out into the surrounding water for food with the brushes 
 and bristles that are found on the free end. These are the larvae 
 (Fig. i yd) . They stick to the rock with much tenacity, but if one 
 should be washed off by a sudden rush of the water it spins, as it 
 goes, a tiny strand of silk, one end of which is still attached to 
 the rock. The larva can reel in this silken line and so bring itself 
 back to its original location. 
 
 Water bugs. The water strider (Fig. ipd), or water skater, 
 walks on water as if it were solid ground. It is an insect with a 
 long, oval body and long, spider-like legs. The second and third. 
 
38 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 pairs of legs are tipped with hairs that spread the weight of the 
 insect over quite an area of surface film, and the reflection of the 
 depression caused by the weight of these "feet" makes it appear 
 that the insect is carrying a boat on each foot. His first pair of 
 legs grasps his prey flies and other insects and holds the 
 captive while its body is pierced with a sharp sucking-tube and 
 the body juices drawn out. The young are like the adults, only 
 smaller. To capture these insects the net must be swept rapidly 
 along just skimming the surface, and probably several trials 
 must be made, for the animal moves with rapidity and dodges 
 well. If the net is shallow the skaters can easily jump out. 
 They may be kept in the aquarium, which must be covered unless 
 deep, and may be fed on flies or other small insects thrown on 
 the surface. 
 
 The water scorpion. The water scorpion (Fig. igg) is the 
 aquatic equivalent of the walking-stick. It is a long, slender 
 insect with long legs and long breathing-tubes at the end of 
 the abdomen. It is dirty brown in color, and when standing 
 on the stem of some aquatic plant or on the bottom among the 
 debris it harmonizes so well in shape and color with the objects 
 about it that it is well-nigh invisible. These insects live in the 
 quieter parts of streams and ponds and may sometimes be taken 
 in numbers. One sweep of the net into a cavity under an over- 
 hanging bank brought up several dozen of these curious animals. 
 Ordinarily they take up positions on stems or on the bottom such 
 that the breathing-tubes can reach up to the surface of the water. 
 While comfortably breathing they keep a sharp lookout for 
 passing small animals, which they seize with their front legs and 
 pierce with the sucking-tube that is so common in these predatory 
 pond bugs. 
 
 The water boatman. There are two strong swimmers to be 
 met with in almost every pond and stream, the water boatman 
 and the back swimmer (Figs, i gh, i) . As they swim their hind legs 
 are held out stiffly from the body like the oars of a boat, and beat 
 the water with rapid strokes as they propel the insects. Both 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 39 
 
 are brownish animals when seen swimming, but when taken from 
 the water the back swimmer turns right side up and shows a 
 creamy white back as he tries to jump. The adult of these 
 animals is about one-half inch long; the young are much like 
 adults in appearance, only smaller. They may be readily kept in 
 the aquarium, which must be covered, else they fly out; and they 
 may be fed with flies dropped on the surface. 
 
 The giant water bug. The giant water bug (Fig. 177) is more 
 likely to be met under some electric light on warm May nights 
 than he is to be found in the ponds where he lives most of the 
 time. Like many of the aquatic insects, the animal leaves its 
 pond home at the mating season and flies about to seek its mate. 
 These insects are attracted by bright lights and are sometimes 
 found near them in numbers. The animal is about two inches 
 long and is so large that the characteristics of the group of 
 Hemiptera to which it belongs are plainly seen. The hard part 
 of the outer wings is separated from the membranous part by a 
 zigzag line. The mouth parts are grouped so as to form a 
 sucking-tube, by means of which the animal feeds. 
 
 The nymph of the giant water bug is very like the adult but 
 smaller, and is found among water weeds and bottom debris 
 hunting its food. It attacks other water insects, tadpoles, small 
 fish, or almost any small animal. It holds the prey with the 
 forward legs, which are provided with hooked claws, and sucks 
 the body fluids. The nymph must not therefore be put into the 
 aquarium with other animals unless they are to be sacrificed to 
 its voracity. There is a smaller relative of this big bug, the 
 smaller water bug, which has very similar habits and may be 
 encountered in similar situations. 
 
 Breathing in water. When air-breathing animals like the 
 insects "take to the water " they meet quite unaccustomed 
 problems, and it is interesting to note in what varied ways they 
 have solved the problem of breathing. Insects breathe by means 
 of tracheal tubes that carry the air from the many pores or 
 spiracles on the surface to every part of the body. A grasshopper 
 
40 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 cannot be drowned by holding its head under water because he 
 breathes through pores all along his thorax and abdomen, and 
 not through mouth or nose. Water insects, however, go under 
 water and stay under for long periods without drowning because 
 they possess devices for carrying air with them. The water 
 scorpion has a long air tube at the tip of his abdomen which he 
 sticks up to the surface precisely as the deep-sea diver gets his 
 air by a tube opening above the surface. The diving beetle, 
 water scavenger, back swimmer, and others stick the tip of the 
 abdomen above the surface of the water and take in a supply of 
 air under the wing covers, or entangle it in the hair of body or 
 wings. When they go under the light is reflected from this air, 
 making them appear silver-coated. When the supply is 
 exhausted they must come to the surface again to renew it. 
 
 Insect gills. Nymphs and larvae as a rule have met the 
 situation by the development of tracheal gills, a kind found 
 nowhere else in the animal world. In a tadpole, for instance, the 
 gills are full of blood vessels and the supply of oxygen is taken 
 up by the blood to be carried to all parts of the body where 
 needed. In the tufts of gills on the sides of the abdomen on 
 stone-fly or water-scavenger larva the oxygen is taken out of the 
 water into tracheal or air tubes. In the damsel fly the gills are 
 not tufts or threads, but are plates carried at the end of the 
 abdomen. The dragon-fly larva draws the water into the hind 
 end of its digestive tract, the walls of which are so full of fine 
 tracheal tubes that it serves as a breathing chamber. This 
 chamber has muscular walls so that the water can be ejected 
 forcibly, driving the animal ahead with a jerk, so it may escape 
 its enemies. 
 
 The diving spider. But most wonderful of all these adapta- 
 tions of air-breathing animals to the conditions of life in the 
 water are those manifested in the diving spider (Fig. 20) . There 
 are several spiders that run on the surface quite as well as the 
 water strider, and so capture their food. This is a distinct 
 advantage, for most spiders cannot do this, and when a spider of 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 
 
 a certain sort can accomplish the feat it opens up to him and his 
 immediate kind an extensive territory for foraging in which there 
 is little or no competition. So, too, the insects that have taken 
 to the water have comparatively easy living. They have largely 
 escaped the enemies of their land-living relatives, and they have 
 come to live in a world exploited by relatively few of the insect 
 kind. 
 
 This diving spider carries down with it, entangled in the hairs 
 of its abdomen, a bountiful supply of air that silvers its surface 
 like a large drop of quicksilver. When 
 this air is used up, in its chase under 
 water for food, it comes to the surface 
 for a new supply. Its nest, too, is 
 built under water. A bell-shaped 
 silken tent is spun in the branches of 
 some aquatic plant and there the eggs 
 are laid. This bell is kept full of air 
 brought down in bubbles and released 
 under the bell, the mouth of which 
 is turned down. As the young hatch 
 out they thus have plenty of air to 
 breathe, for the supply is kept up by 
 frequent journeys to the surface on 
 the part of the parent spider until the 
 young are old enough to make the 
 journey for themselves. This whole 
 process may be watched in the aquarium if Dolomedes is kept in 
 one that is covered with mosquito net and supplied with plenty 
 of flies frequently dropped on the surface. 
 
 The surface film. We have referred above to the surface 
 film of water on which water skaters and water spiders run just 
 as an agile skater glides along on rubber ice. We do not ordi- 
 narily realize that there is any film on the top of a liquid 
 that has enough tenacity to act as a support even for these fairy- 
 footed insects, but it may be easily demonstrated, (i) Hold 
 
 FIG. 20. The diving spider, 
 Dolomedes sexpunctatus (after 
 Shelford). 
 
SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 a fine needle horizontally between thumb and finger as near 
 the surface as possible of a tumbler full of water, and then drop 
 it on the water. If it strikes full length on the film, it floats. 
 (2) Fill a glass with water and then with a medicine dropper add 
 more water. Can it be heaped up ? Notice the shape of the 
 surface of the water. (3) Make of fine wire, a cork, and a screw 
 a piece of apparatus like Fig. 21. It is called a Mensbriigghe 
 float. The circle of wire must be horizontal and must have no 
 free sharp ends of wire. The screw must be shoved in or drawn 
 out until the large end of the cork is flush with the surface of the 
 water when the apparatus floats. With a pencil placed on the 
 big end of the cork shove the whole float under water and 
 
 then release it. Why does it 
 take the new position ? 
 
 Frogs. Among the voices of 
 early spring none seems more 
 welcome than the peep of the 
 toad or the croak of the frog. 
 Later, when the birds have 
 arrived in force and the air is 
 a-tremble with their love songs, 
 these coarser notes that come 
 from the ponds are discordant, but when the snows are scarcely 
 melted and the crisp mornings show a rim of ice about the 
 roadside puddles, then the frogs' chorus is pleasing music to our 
 expectant ears. 
 
 Eggs. No more interesting objects can be added to the 
 aquarium than the eggs of some of the frogs or toads. With net 
 and collecting jar or bucket one may explore the shallow ponds 
 for the eggs. The frogs' eggs are little spheres, a sixteenth of an 
 inch or so in diameter, half black, half light, and each is inclosed 
 in a spherule of transparent jelly. The eggs are laid in clusters 
 so that the jelly forms a mass from about the size of a hen's egg 
 to that of a quart bowl, and the clusters are usually found in a 
 small area, where many frogs have congregated to deposit their 
 
 FIG. 21. The Mensbriigghe float 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 43 
 
 eggs, so that one may find a half-bushel of egg masses at a single 
 spot. The place chosen for depositing the eggs is one where 
 numerous grass stalks or small twigs are so abundant that when 
 the egg masses are attached to them they will hold the eggs near 
 the surface of the water. The egg masses may often be reached 
 with the net from the margin of the pond, though it will at times 
 be necessary to employ a raft or wading boots to reach the 
 desired spot. 
 
 If the frogs have all ceased laying before the supply of eggs is 
 secured, the toad's eggs may be used equally well. The common 
 garden toad, though a landlubber most of the year, takes to the 
 water to lay its eggs. These are deposited in jelly ropes instead 
 of masses and are found, lodged by the current, upon the grass 
 or twigs along the margins of small streams. 
 
 Development. Whether observing frogs' eggs or toads' eggs, 
 the stages of development visible to the unaided eye will be 
 much the same (Fig. 22). When found in the pond or stream, 
 the eggs are floating in the jelly with the black half uppermost. 
 You will readily discover one use for this, gelatinous envelope 
 if you can think why a hotbed is covered with glass. Just as we 
 like chickens' eggs to eat, young fish and birds like frogs' eggs, 
 and the sticky, disagreeable jelly is a protection. The eggs float 
 dark side up so as to absorb the sun's heat, just as one wears a 
 black dress in winter because it is warmer than a light one. The 
 dark color matches the color of the bottom of the pond where the 
 eggs are found and thus keen-eyed birds do not readily see 
 them. The light underside renders them invisible to the fish 
 living in the pond and looking up through the water at the 
 floating eggs. 
 
 When the eggs are found, look over the clusters, taking them 
 up in your hand, and select for the aquarium those that show 
 equal parts of dark and light, with a single dark line crossing the 
 light half. As the eggs are laid early in the morning, it is best 
 to go to the pond as early as possible in order to get the eggs 
 before they have passed the first stages, A single cluster of the 
 
FIG. 22. Development of the frog's egg: a, the two-celled stage, left-hand 
 egg, side view; right, seen from animal pole; b, four-celled; c, eight-celled; d-g, 
 continued division; A, right-hand, view from lower pole; left-hand, side view of 
 same; i, later from same; j, k, I, three views of forming nervous system, side 
 back, and head end: m, embryo well developed. 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 45 
 
 frogs' eggs or a chain of .the toads' eggs may be carried back in 
 some water in the quart fruit jar and placed in the aquarium, so 
 that the development of the tadpoles may be watched. 
 
 The first stages. Each egg has a dark and light hemisphere, 
 and the boundary line between these may be considered the egg's 
 equator; then the centers of the dark and light hemispheres 
 would be the poles. The first division plane passes through the 
 poles. This line of division has already been noted as the dark 
 line crossing the light hemisphere (Fig. 22). The two parts 
 formed by this first division remain in intimate contact and 
 soon divide again in a plane passing through the poles at right 
 angles to the first plane. A third plane of division shortly 
 passes above the equator and parallel to it, thus dividing the 
 egg into eight parts or cells. Thus the division goes on, rapidly 
 if the eggs are where it is warm, slowly if they are cool. It will 
 be noted, however, that the cells form on the upper or black 
 pole much more rapidly than on the lower or light pole, so that 
 within a few hours the black part seems to be overgrowing the 
 white and almost covers it. 
 
 Long before this occurs the continually dividing cells have 
 come to be too small to be seen without a microscope, but we may 
 still observe the gross changes. Soon the mass of tiny cells elon- 
 gates and assumes much the shape of a common football. On 
 one side of this is a tiny groove, marked by a dark streak that 
 runs from end to end; this is the forming spinal cord. One end 
 of the football-shaped mass enlarges and the head roughly 
 assumes shape. The little tadpole now begins to wiggle within 
 its jelly covering, and before long it wiggles itself free and finds 
 that it can swim clumsily. It does not swim away at once, 
 however. The underside of the head, where the mouth will in 
 time appear, is provided with a sucking-disk by means of which 
 the tadpole attaches itself to some twig or stone or to the side of 
 the aquarium. Here it hangs for several hours while it grows, 
 but when the mouth has developed it swims away and begins to 
 feed. 
 
46 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Tadpole transformation. The tadpoles feed on plants found 
 growing in the water and on organic refuse. Bits of stick and 
 stones covered with green slime may be put into the aquarium as 
 food for the growing tadpoles. Place a brick or flat stone in the 
 aquarium so that one end of it will be above water and so there 
 will be a gentle slope into the water toward the other end. Such 
 a surface, on which the tadpoles may lie, seems essential to their 
 development in their later stages. Some of the species require 
 
 FJG. 23. The bullfrog 
 
 several years to grow into the adult condition ; others will begin 
 their transformations quite promptly. In these the gills soon 
 appear which are later resorbed, as is also the tail. Hind legs 
 and forelegs appear and the tadpole has changed into a frog. 
 When the tadpole changes to the adult frog it becomes insec- 
 tivorous. As it will be a difficult task to supply the frogs with 
 insects in quantity, it will be well to turn the partly grown frogs 
 loose to forage for themselves. 
 
 Rapid multiplication. How many eggs are there in a single 
 bunch or in a single string of toads' eggs ? Remember that these 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 47 
 
 are all the product of one female. If every egg reached the adult 
 stage and half the adults were females, how many eggs would be 
 laid the next breeding season ? If it took two years for the adult 
 frog to develop from the egg, how long would it be before there 
 would be a frog for every square inch of land surface on the 
 earth ? Here is an opportunity for upper-grade pupils to figure 
 out a surprising result. They will probably conclude that it is 
 fortunate that eggs and tadpoles are thought good eating by 
 many animals. 
 
 Kinds of frogs. There are a number of frogs found in the 
 United States, but the ones having the widest distribution and 
 
 FIG. 24. The pickerel frog 
 
 those most frequently met with are the bullfrog, the spring frog, 
 the green frog, the pickerel frog, the wood frog, and the little 
 cricket frog. The bullfrog is by all means the largest one of the 
 tribe and often measures a foot from the tip of his snout to the 
 end of the outstretched legs (Fig. 23). The large eardrums just 
 back of his eyes are also characteristic of this animal, for though 
 othor frogs have similar eardrums, none are as conspicuous or 
 large as those of the bullfrog. The animal gets its name from its 
 voice, which sounds like the roar of a maddened bull. 
 
 The spring frog is about three inches in length. The back 
 is green, marked with black spots, and the underside is white. 
 The green frog is also green, but his belly is yellow instead of 
 
48 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 white and he is marked with black blotches above. The pickerle 
 frog (Fig. 24) is light brown in color and is marked above with 
 two rows of dark brown, rather square, blotches, framed with 
 lighter brown. The wood frog is brown, but has a broad black 
 band running back from the snout along each side of the head 
 (Fig. 25). The cricket frog is a tiny frog and is one of the 
 conspicuous musicians of early spring, for his cricket-like trill is 
 one of the notes that make the pond vibrate with spring music. 
 The tree frogs are all small, and all of them have disklike pads 
 on the tips of the toes (Fig. 26). Like the wood frogs, they are 
 to be found in the water only in the spring, and later they live 
 
 on rushes and in trees, the trunks 
 and limbs of which they climb 
 readily by means of the adherent 
 disks. 
 
 Toads. The toad is a much 
 maligned animal, for he is en- 
 tirely harmless and does not 
 
 make warts if handled. While 
 FIG. 25. The wood frog 
 
 he is ugly in appearance he is a 
 
 very valuable animal, eating, as do the frogs, multitudes of 
 insects. It is well worth while to provide holes for the toads 
 in the garden. Scoop out a hollow and partly cover it with a 
 board, or provide several such retreats and they are likely to be 
 occupied by guardian toads whose nightly hunting expeditions 
 will help very much in keeping the garden free from cutworms, 
 slugs, and the various insect pests which are very troublesome. 
 Frogs and toads make interesting animals to keep for a while 
 in the schoolroom. An aquarium or battery jar in the bottom 
 of which wet sod or earth may be put is a good temporary 
 vivarium. Cover it with a plate of glass to keep in both the 
 congenial moisture and the frog. Under such conditions the 
 inmate may be watched as he feeds. Drop in some cutworms or 
 insects and watch with what celerity they are disposed of. The 
 very long tongue is fastened near the front of the mouth, not at 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 
 
 49 
 
 the back, as ours is. It is folded when stowed away, but can be 
 shot out with unerring aim, picking up the desired food merely 
 with its sticky end. 
 
 Turtles. While following the streams or dredging in the 
 ponds one will surely become acquainted with the turtles. The 
 one most commonly met is the painted pond turtle (Fig. 27) or 
 terrapin, the edge of whose shell has a margin of red. In the 
 eastern form the plastron, the underpart of the shell, is plain 
 yellow ; in the western form it has 
 a black center. The geographic 
 turtle is so named because each 
 plate of the shell is marked with 
 a network of fine yellow lines, 
 suggesting a map. There is also 
 a ridge running down the middle 
 of the back. It grows to be a 
 good-sized turtle, ten or twelve 
 inches in length, and feeds largely 
 on snails. The spotted pond turtle 
 has a black shell with numerous 
 round yellow spots upon it. The 
 adult is about four inches long. 
 The common pond turtle has a 
 shell that is plain brown; in the 
 young the shields of the shell are margined with black. The 
 front and rear lobes of the plastron are hinged so that the 
 animal can withdraw head and legs into the shell and shut 
 it up more or less completely. The head of this animal is 
 spotted with yellow on a brown background. The animal of 
 average size is about four inches long. The musk turtle is 
 about the same size; the shell is also lusterless brown and 
 the shields are margined with black. The shell is too small 
 for the animal, apparently, and will not cover its head and 
 legs completely. The head is marked with two yellow stripes, 
 one above and one below the eye on either side. The musk 
 
 FIG. 26. The tree frog, Hyla 
 versicolor. The figure is retouched, 
 otherwise the frog blends with bark 
 so as to be indistinct. 
 
50 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 turtle gets its name from the fact that when handled it emits 
 a musty odor. 
 
 The snapper. Like the musk turtle, the snapping turtle 
 (Fig. 28) has a shell too small for its body, so that its head sticks 
 out at all times and the tail is folded along the edge of the shell 
 
 FIG. 27. The western painted tortoise, a student's drawing 
 
 rather than withdrawn into it. There are prominent teeth along 
 the back of the shell, and the tail is marked by a number of 
 conspicuous projections like the teeth of a saw. The snapper is a 
 vicious beast; its jaws are horny and beaked and a good-sized 
 specimen can amputate a finger. The shell grows to be a foot 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 51 
 
 or so in length. Most turtles lay their eggs in the warm sand 
 near the margin of a stream or pond and leave them to be hatched 
 by the heat of the sun, but the snapper makes a considerable 
 journey back into the woods away from the water to deposit its 
 eggs and covers them with earth. It may therefore be commonly 
 found in the early summer wandering some distance from its 
 usual haunts. The snapper lies in the mud at the bottom of the 
 stream, its small eyes alert, and when an unwary animal comes 
 near, the head on the long neck stretches out so that the horny 
 jaws may capture it. Fish, crayfish, frogs, and even the water 
 
 FIG. 28. The snapping turtle 
 
 birds fall victim to its voracious appetite. The animal may be 
 safely picked up by the tail but should be held well away from 
 the body, for the long neck has a surprising reach. 
 
 Soft-shelled and box turtles. The soft-shelled turtle, as the 
 name indicates, may be easily known by its leathery shell. 
 When mature, it is a good-sized animal with a shell that is 
 fourteen inches long. The back is brown, marked in our common 
 species with black rings, and the underside is white. The box 
 turtle (Fig. 29), like the toads, lives usually on land, but is often 
 found in the ponds during the mating season. They are readily 
 known by the high shell. They feed largely on vegetable 
 material, especially berries, and toward fall become very plump. 
 
52 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The fore and hind margins of the plastron are hinged in these 
 forms, and after the head, legs, and tail are withdrawn into the 
 shell these hinged portions close very tightly so that ordinarily 
 there is no possible point of attack. Sometimes in the fall they 
 become so fat that they cannot shut up completely and they are 
 then relatively easy prey to flesh-loving animals with claws and 
 sharp teeth. 
 
 Fish. Occasionally, perhaps quite unintentionally, some of 
 the small fish may be swept into the net, and there are some of 
 these that live reasonably well in the home aquarium. The chub 
 
 FIG. 29. The common box turtle 
 
 is a representative of that group of fish commonly known as 
 minnows and is likely to be one of the first to be captured. The 
 term "minnow' 7 is ordinarily used to indicate any small fish, 
 but it should be used only for those fish that have certain definite 
 characteristics. All minnows are without spines in the fins, and 
 they have smooth scales, so that if the finger is drawn over the 
 body from tail to head the animal does not feel rough. This 
 chub, or horned dace as it is sometimes called, will grow to be a 
 foot long, but ordinarily it does not have a chance to reach such 
 goodly proportions because it is jerked out by an ambitious 
 fisherman or swallowed by a bass or pickerel. 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 
 
 53 
 
 The nesting habits of the chub are interesting and may be 
 readily watched. When in a stream whose gravel bottom is 
 covered with mud there is seen an elongated spot that is swept 
 free of mud, the clean gravel showing plainly, usually a busy chub 
 will be seen near at hand. The male sweeps the bottom with 
 vigorous brushes of its tail fin, thus preparing a place for the 
 female to lay her eggs, and then remains on guard for a little 
 while after this has occurred. Sometimes several females lay 
 their eggs in the same nest. After the mating ardor has cooled, 
 
 FIG. 30. The common sunfish 
 
 the male leaves the eggs to take care of themselves. The com- 
 mon sunfish (Fig. 30) has very similar spawning habits. If a net 
 made of fine bobinet or cheesecloth is held below this nest while 
 the gravel is stirred with a stick, the light eggs will drift down 
 with the current and lodge in the net. Turn the net inside out 
 and rinse it in a pint jar of water so that the eggs will be washed 
 off. They are small, scarcely as large as the diameter of a pin, and 
 are so transparent as to be almost invisible. Let them settle to 
 the bottom of the jar and then pour off most of the water, as 
 they need abundant oxygen and cannot get it in deep water. 
 
 Rearing fish. At home keep them in a small quantity of 
 water in a shallow tray like a 4 by 5 developing tray. Replenish 
 
54 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 the water as it evaporates. In a few days' time the little embryo 
 may be seen upon the surface of each egg, and shortly it will 
 become a little wriggling fish that carries around with it the bulk 
 of the egg in a yolk sac. It seems to be largely eyes at this stage ; 
 no fins are apparent except the tail fin that extends well up on 
 the body both above and below. As yet the little animal has no 
 mouth, as it does not need to eat, but lives on the yolk. When 
 most of the yolk has been absorbed the mouth and the side fins 
 appear, and it becomes an active fish ready to feed on tiny 
 animals. 
 
 Sticklebacks. Another exceedingly interesting fish found in 
 ponds and brooks and often even in roadside ditches is the 
 stickleback (Fig. 31), a pugnacious little mite about two inches 
 
 FIG. 31. The stickleback 
 
 long, whose back fin is armed with several spines. During the 
 breeding season the males are combative and try to thrust each 
 other with these sharp-pointed spines. Sticklebacks are devoted 
 to the care of their nests. With some species the nesting site is a 
 bare spot similar to that made by the dace in the bottom of the 
 pond or stream, while other species weave a nest somewhat like a 
 bird's nest in the water plants of the pond, which they guard until 
 the eggs are hatched and the young are out. It would be quite 
 beyond the limits of this chapter to undertake to describe the 
 common fish to be encountered in the ponds and streams, and 
 the student must be referred to the reprints put out by the 
 Biological Survey Department of his own state, or to the books 
 listed in the bibliography. 
 
ANIMALS OF POND AND STREAM 55 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 
 
 Amphibians of Pennsylvania, H. A. Surface, Economic Zoologist, Penn- 
 sylvania Department of Agriculture, Harrisburg. 
 Arnold, A. F. The Sea Beach at Ebb Tide. New York: Century Co. 
 
 $2 . 50. 
 
 Baker, F. C. The Mollusca of the Chicago Area, Bulletin of the Chicago 
 Academy of Science. Part I, Snails; Part II, Clams. $i .00 each. 
 
 Bamford, M. E. My Land and Water Friends. Lothrop. $i . 25. 
 
 BaskettJ.M. Story of the Fishes. New York: D. Appleton & Co. $0.80. 
 
 Dickinson, Mary G. The Frog Book. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 
 $4 . oo. 
 
 Ditmars, R. L. The Reptile Book. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 
 $4 . oo. 
 
 Eggeling and Ehrenberg. The Freshwater Aquarium and Its Inhabitants. 
 Henry Holt & Co. $2 . oo. 
 
 Embody, G. C. The Farm Fishpond. Cornell (Ithaca, N.Y.) Reading 
 Course. IV, 313-52. 
 
 Forbes, S. A. Fresh Water Fishes and Their Ecology. Illinois State 
 Laboratory of Natural History (Urbana) . 
 
 Forbes and Richardson. The Fishes of Illinois. Natural History Survey of 
 Illinois (Urbana), Vol. III. 
 
 Natural History of Useful Aquatic Animals. United States Super- 
 intendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. $2 . 10. 
 
 Bureau of Fisheries Economic Circulars: No. 2, Condition of Mussel 
 
 Fishery of Illinois River; and No. 15, Common and Scientific Names 
 
 of Fresh Water Mussels. 
 Furneaux, W. S. Life in Ponds and Streams. New York: Longmans, 
 
 Green & Co. $1.75. 
 Goode, G. B. American Fishes . Boston: Estes and Lauriat. $3.50. 
 
 1 The attention of purchasers of books announced in the following bibliog- 
 raphies is called to the fact that the prices given are subject to change. The 
 University Bookstore, 5758 Ellis Ave., Chicago, will be pleased to quote current 
 prices and furnish books upon request. 
 
 Many pamphlets and bulletins listed are published by departments of the 
 government and by the states. Some of these will be sent on application, some 
 must be purchased, but all are relatively inexpensive. A price list of those for 
 sale by the government may be had from the Superintendent of Documents, 
 Washington, D.C. Your local member of the House of Representatives at Wash- 
 ington has many of the government publications at his disposal and will send 
 them on request, and your local state representative can often send you desired 
 state bulletins. 
 
56 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Indiana Department of Geology and Natural Resources, Report of 1899, 
 
 The Mollusca of Indiana. 
 Jordan and Evermann. American Food and Game Fishes. New York: 
 
 Doubleday, Page & Co. $4 . oo. 
 
 Holder and Jordan. Fish Stories. New York: Henry Holt & Co. $i . 75. 
 Kellogg, James L. The Shellfish Industries. New York: Henry Holt & Co. 
 
 $i.75. 
 Lautz, David E. The Muskrat. Farmers' Bulletin No. 396. United 
 
 States Department of Agriculture. 
 Miall, L. C. The Natural History of Aquatic Insects. New York: The 
 
 Macmillan Co. $i . 75. 
 
 Miller, M. R. Outdoor Work. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. $i .00. 
 Needham and Lloyd. Life of Inland Waters. Ithaca, N.Y.: Comstock 
 
 Publishing Co. $3 . oo. 
 Overton, Frank. Frogs and Toads. Science Bulletin, Museum, Brooklyn 
 
 (New York) Institute of Arts and Sciences. 
 Unwin, E. E. Pond Problems. Boston: Cambridge University Press. 
 
 $0.50. 
 Ward and Whipple. Fresh Water Biology. New York: John Wiley & 
 
 Sons. $6 . oo. 
 
 Wolf, Hermann T. Goldfish Breeds and Other Aquarium Fish. Philadel- 
 phia: Innes and Sons. $3.00. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 INSECTS 
 
 Crickets. Fall is a very good time to begin the study of 
 insects as some of the easily obtainable and interesting forms are 
 then available. The cricket may be taken as a type. If possible 
 have the children go out on a brief field trip to almost any vacant 
 lot where this insect will usually be found hiding under the mat 
 of grass or weeds, or lurking in the 
 damp recesses beneath stones, 
 boards, and other debris that lit- 
 ters the ground. Learn all that is 
 possible of its habits and life-history 
 in the open and then secure some 
 specimens in boxes or loosely corked 
 bottles to take back to the school 
 for further study. 
 
 The insect cage. A very serv- 
 iceable cage (Fig. 32) is made as 
 follows: Fill a small box or low 
 flowerpot with earth; cut a piece 
 of sod to fit the top of it or plant 
 in it a few sprays of sweet clover 
 or other available weeds ; over the 
 sod or sprays put a lamp chimney; 
 cover the top of the chimney with 
 cloth, held with a rubber band or 
 piece of string. The cricket will be quite at home in this cage 
 and with appropriate care will live for many days. The earth 
 should of course be kept moist. 
 
 Feeding the cricket. Cut a thin wedge-shaped slice of apple 
 and put it, edge up, into the cage. The cricket or a locust will 
 
 FIG. 32. Insect cage 
 
 57 
 
58 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 probably mount this and proceed to eat. Notice that the 
 cricket has several pairs of jaws which move from side to side 
 instead of up and down, as ours do (Fig. 33). One pair is very 
 horny and serves to crush the food as it is eaten while the others 
 hold it. These jaws are provided with little finger-shaped pro- 
 cesses, jointed palps, that serve the animal as feelers. Crickets 
 about the house will sometimes gnaw holes in fabrics, especially 
 if they contain vegetable material. Starched curtains, linen, 
 carpets, and clothing have been ruined by them. What do you 
 find that the crickets are feeding on out of doors ? 
 
 FIG. 33. The locust, showing mouth parts 
 
 Parts of the cricket. On the head of the cricket notice the 
 pair of long feelers or antennae (Fig. 34). By touching them 
 one can demonstrate that they are sensitive. Notice, too, that 
 the animal, in walking along the ground, explores the area just 
 ahead of him with these antennae, much as a blind man might 
 feel his way with a cane. There are also some sensitive append- 
 ages at the hind end of the cricket's body. Touch one of these 
 and see if he is aware of it. Notice next the large eyes, each 
 occupying a good share of the side of the head. These eyes are 
 compound, that is, they are made up of a large number of tiny 
 simple eyes. There is also a little cluster of simple eyes right in 
 the middle of the forehead. Such eyes are more plainly seen on 
 a grasshopper. Thrust a ringer at the cricket without touching 
 
INSECTS 59 
 
 him. Does he seem to see well ? The vision of the cricket, like 
 that of insects in general, is very imperfect. He probably does 
 not see objects clearly, but is merely aware of differences in the 
 intensity of the light. If a cricket is standing on the ground and 
 you walk around so that the edge of your shadow passes upon 
 the cricket he will probably jump. 
 
 Movements. Watch the cricket as ne walks. How does he 
 move his legs ? Do the legs always move in the same order ? 
 Look carefully at the cricket's feet and notice that his foot is 
 made up of several joints and bears a pair of terminal claws. 
 The hind feet also have some spines. Does he stand on the hind 
 feet in the same way as on the others ? How do the hind legs 
 
 FIG. 34. The cricket, a pupil's drawing 
 
 differ from the other legs ? How does he hold these legs as he 
 stands ready to jump ? How many times its own length can a 
 grasshopper jump ? How far could a boy jump if he could leap 
 as far in proportion to his length ? 
 
 Cricket music. The cricket is better known by his music than 
 by his appearance. His cheerful chirp on the hearth has come 
 to be part of our mental imagery of the humble home. While 
 the crickets are confined in their cages they will undoubtedly 
 sing; and the pupils may observe how this is done. It will be 
 found that the wings are raised from the body and moved back 
 and forth in opposite directions. Really these things that look 
 like wings are wing covers; the crickets have no wings and do 
 not fly. On the upper surface of the lower cover in the male 
 
60 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 there is a prominent vein that bears numerous little lidges 
 somewhat like the ridges on a file (Fig. 35). On the underside 
 of the upper cover at the inner edge there projects a single 
 point, a scraper, which rubs across the ridges as the so-called 
 wings are moved, and this device produces the chirp. A sound 
 of somewhat similar character may be produced by drawing 
 a stick rapidly along a picket fence or by moving a bit of 
 cardboard, held between finger and thumb, up and down a 
 file. Only the male cricket possesses this musical instrument, 
 and his insistent chirping is, apparently, a serenade to his 
 ladylove. There is an ear, an oval disk, near the base of 
 
 FIG. 35. The wing and ear of the cricket 
 
 the second joint of the front leg of the cricket; in the grass- 
 hoppers, close allies, the ear is on the first segment of the 
 abdomen. 
 
 Egg-laying. The adult males and females are readily dis- 
 tinguished, as the female has a long tube at the end of the abdo- 
 men, which one might take for a sting if it were not well known 
 that the cricket is entirely harmless. This tube is the egg tube 
 or ovipositor. The eggs are laid in clusters in the soil, the female 
 thrusting this ovipositor down into the earth as far as she can 
 reach. The female grasshopper also has an egg-laying device 
 at the end of the abdomen (Fig. 36). There are four sharp 
 points, each hard and horny at the tip, which when brought close 
 together form a single sharp point that can be thrust down into 
 the loose earth. The points are then spread apart, enlarging the 
 
INSECTS 
 
 61 
 
 hole, and then again brought together and thrust deeper. When 
 a female is laying her eggs she looks as if her abdomen had been 
 cut off just behind her widespread hind legs, but if examined 
 closely it will be seen that the abdomen is inserted in the earth. 
 If the animal is lifted from the ground so that the abdomen is 
 pulled from the excavation the pupil will be surprised to find that 
 it is twice its normal length, for the abdomen is built accordion- 
 wise, and can, on occasion, be very much elongated. If the 
 earth is dug up at the point where the locust is found when 
 ovipositing, there will probably be discovered a mass of eggs, 
 
 FIG. 36. Locust laying eggs, and the egg masses (New Jersey Slate Board of 
 Agriculture Report, 1899). 
 
 like yellowish grains of rice, all glued together in a common 
 matrix. These bundles of eggs remain in the ground over 
 winter, and are hatched, by the warm sun of early summer, 
 into nymphs that look very much like the adult, except that 
 they have disproportionately large heads and are wingless. 
 
 Growth. These young locusts feed voraciously until each is 
 too large for its skin, which then bursts down the back and the 
 insect, with a new, thin skin, crawls out. Rapid growth follows 
 while the youngster is in this new, soft garment; but as the skin 
 promptly hardens with the deposit of chitin, growth stops until 
 the next rupture of the hard outer skeleton. This process of 
 
62 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 periodically shedding the old skin is known as molting and the 
 shed skin is called the molt skin. 
 
 Breathing. Observe a cricket or locust carefully and see how 
 the abdomen is made up of a number of rings, each telescoped 
 into the one ahead of it. These rings are held together by deli- 
 cate membranes, which cannot ordinarily be seen but are evident 
 when the abdomen is extended in the egg-laying process. Watch 
 the abdomen carefully and it will be observed that it is constantly 
 expanding and contracting, bellows-like. In fact, this is the way 
 air is drawn into the body. The insects do not breathe through 
 their mouths; they do not have any noses; but the air is taken in 
 through several little pores that can readily be seen on a locust's 
 
 FIG. 37. A short-horn and long-horn grasshopper: the differential at left, 
 the common meadow at right; distinguished also as locust and grasshopper (after 
 Riley and Lugger). 
 
 abdomen, one on each side of nearly every ring. The insects do 
 not have lungs into which the air is taken, but connected with 
 each of these breathing pores, or spiracles, is a system of branched 
 tubes. These run all through the body so that the air that 
 passes in through the spiracles is distributed to every part of 
 it. The air as well as the blood circulates in an insect. 
 
 Locusts. There are several interesting sorts of animals that 
 are closely related to the crickets (Fig. 37). The short-horned 
 grasshoppers are properly spoken of as locusts; they are usually 
 ground color and have antennae that are shorter than the body. 
 The real grasshoppers are commonly green in color and have 
 antennae that are longer than the body. Grasshoppers will be 
 found in moist situations, feeding on succulent plants, while 
 
INSECTS 63 
 
 locusts, with their harder jaws, can feed on ordinary vegetation. 
 The latter are notoriously voracious eaters. Plagues of locusts 
 are familiar to the peoples of all lands, especially to those living 
 in the moderately warm climates. Our own country has suffered 
 very severely from the depredations of the Rocky Mountain 
 locust. This insect originally lived in the highlands of Colorado 
 
 FIG. 38. A plague of locusts (house in Jerusalem, from National Geographic 
 Magazine, 1915). 
 
 and Montana, but in years when conditions were favorable for 
 its breeding it multiplied so rapidly that there was not enough 
 for it to eat in these regions and so it migrated in hordes over the 
 fertile plains, eating up everything that was edible. 
 
 Migration. When locusts migrate they move in swarms that 
 appear like thunderclouds on the horizon. As they approach, the 
 
64 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 air is full of the whir of their wings ; it is said that the sound is like 
 the hum of a threshing machine in action. They settle on the 
 ground in such numbers that railroad trains have been stopped 
 because the rails became so slippery that the wheels would not 
 grip them (Fig. 38). When the locusts alight on a field of grain 
 the grain is promptly obliterated by the brown cloud, and every 
 vestige of it has disappeared when, a little later, they crawl away 
 to adjacent fields. Many times our western states have been 
 invaded by these locusts, but the consequent losses have never 
 been so great as in the years of the great plagues, 1873 and 1876; 
 then the losses mounted into the hundreds of thousands of dollars. 
 Other Orthoptera. The katydid (Fig. 39) is another insect 
 whose strident notes are a pleasant part of the autumn chorus. 
 
 FIG. 39. The katydid, a male (after Riley, Report of the State Entomologist, 
 Missouri) . 
 
 Its green color and the long sword-shaped egg tube of the female 
 make it an insect to be remembered when once seen. Probably 
 every country lad knows that curious insect known as the walk- 
 ing stick (Fig. 40) . Often in the fall when the nuts are shaken 
 from the trees or bushes this insect falls to the ground. The 
 slender body and very slender legs look exactly like twigs; in 
 fact the thing seems just a little tangled mass of twigs until the 
 legs begin to move and the mass crawls off. Then, if exam- 
 ined with care, one sees the beady eyes and sensitive antennae. 
 The animal seems to prefer the beech and maple forests, al- 
 though it is not uncommon among hickories and oaks. 
 
 Cockroaches. In the cities one of the best-known insects 
 belonging to this group is the cockroach. A wild species is 
 commonly found under the bark of old stumps or fallen tree 
 
INSECTS 65 
 
 trunks. The studies suggested above for the cricket may be 
 made quite as well on the cockroach. The animals may be kept 
 in pint fruit jars, the mouths of which are covered with cloth, and 
 they may be fed readily on bread or any table scraps. They are 
 most comfortable if some bits of moist paper are put into the 
 jar so they can hide in the dark crevices. The cockroaches in 
 confinement in the jars are pretty certain to lay their eggs in 
 time and they are laid in a very interesting way (Fig. 41). The 
 female incloses the bunch of eggs in a capsule which is made 
 of the same chitinous material that composes her hard body 
 covering and that looks like a tiny, rectangular, rather thin 
 
 FIG. 40. The walking stick, a male (after Lugger, Report of the State Ento- 
 mologist of the Minnesota Experiment Station). 
 
 biscuit. Not infrequently the female may be seen with one of 
 these capsules protruding from the end of the abdomen as she 
 hunts for a good spot in which to lay it. One often finds these 
 egg cases abundant under the bark in the out-of-door haunts of 
 the animals. 
 
 The extermination of vermin. Feeding, as the cockroach 
 does, on all sorts of animal and vegetable food, even on filth, and 
 moving from one dwelling to another, as it so readily can in the 
 thickly populated tenements of the city, it may readily be the 
 means of transferring disease germs. We know positively that 
 other objectionable household insects, such as fleas, bedbugs, and 
 lice, do carry such germs and spread contagion. They should 
 therefore be exterminated in dwellings. This is not always easy 
 
66 
 
 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 to accomplish with the preparations that are usually found on 
 the market for such purposes, but there is one sure method of 
 ridding a house of all its vermin. They may be poisoned by the 
 fumes of hydrocyanic acid by a method outlined by government 
 experts, which method is described in detail in pamphlets given 
 in the list of books at the end of the next chapter. It should be 
 undertaken only, however, by a person who is very cautious, as 
 the fumes mean almost instant death if inhaled in any quantity. 
 
 FIG. 41. The cockroach and her egg case (after Herrick) 
 
 Classification. This entire group of insects, to which the 
 crickets, grasshoppers, walking sticks, and cockroaches belong, 
 is known as the Orthoptera. It may be well to stop and consider 
 the classification of plants and animals briefly, not with a view 
 of teaching it to children, but in order to understand enough of it 
 to enable the teacher to comprehend the scientific books she 
 must often use for reference. The great universe about us is 
 divided into the organic world, consisting of living things and 
 their products, and the inorganic world, consisting of things like 
 
INSECTS 67 
 
 rocks and minerals. In this book we are concerned only with 
 living things the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom. The 
 plant kingdom is divided into four great groups called sub- 
 kingdoms or phyla. There is the phylum of the seed-bearing 
 plants (Spermatophytes) ; that which includes the fernlike plants 
 (Pteridophytes) ; the phylum of the mosslike plants (Bryophytes) ; 
 and the still simpler plants like molds and pond scum (Thallo- 
 phytes). 
 
 The student of animal life divides the great animal kingdom 
 into a number of phyla. We ourselves belong to the Vertebrate 
 phylum, which includes all animals with backbones. All other 
 animals are known as Invertebrates. The insects belong to a 
 phylum known as the Arthropods, animals that possess jointed 
 bodies and jointed legs. All persons are likely acquainted with 
 examples of another phylum, the Molluscs, which includes the 
 snails, clams, etc. Some of the worms are likely familiar, too; 
 they belong to the Annelida. 
 
 The Arthropoda. The great phylum of the Arthropods is 
 subdivided into four groups known as classes. These are, first, 
 the Crustacea, a class including the crayfish and its allies; 
 second, the Myriopods or thousand legs; third, the Insecta, of 
 which there are more different kinds known than of all other 
 animals put together; fourth, the Arachnida or spiders. Now 
 we are interested in learning the characteristics of some of the 
 insect groups, representatives of one of which, the Orthoptera, 
 we have studied above. These groups of insects we call orders. 
 There are many other orders besides the Orthoptera; for 
 example, the butterflies and moths, with their scaly wings, belong 
 to the Lepidoptera; the beetles, including the well-known potato 
 beetle and the lady beetle, belong to the Coleoptera; the flies 
 that have only two wings constitute the Diptera. 
 
 Local distribution. Until one has paid considerable attention 
 to insects he is inclined to think all grasshoppers are pretty much 
 alike. But as they are studied marked differences appear and, 
 what is more remarkable, it is observed that the different sorts 
 
68 
 
 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 are found in different types of country. Thus some species 
 inhabit the reeds and sedges about the pond, others the low-lying, 
 damp meadows, others are in the dry pastures, and still different 
 kinds are along the margins of the woods; finally, distinct species 
 live in the forests (Fig. 42). What is true of the grasshoppers is 
 true of other kinds of insects. It makes an interesting study to 
 
 FIG. 42. Different species of grasshoppers: a, the two-striped grasshopper 
 (after Riley); b, the red-legged grasshopper (after Riley), both common on the 
 nearly bare ground; c, the short- winged meadow grasshopper (after Beutenmuller) , 
 occurring in the meadow; d, the common meadow grasshopper (after Lugger), on 
 the tall weeds near the shrubbery; e, the sprinkled grasshopper (after Lugger), in 
 shrubbery at edge of woods; /, the green-legged locust (after Walsh), in woods only. 
 
 collect the insects from such dissimilar locations and compare the 
 collections. Of course some species are found to be very wide- 
 ranging, but many are very particular as to the kind of environ- 
 ment in which they live. 
 
 The moths. One of the interesting objects available for 
 nature-study in the fall is the tomato worm (Fig. 43). This is 
 
INSECTS 
 
 69 
 
 the larva of one of the common moths and will be found about 
 full grown when school opens in September. Children will 
 willingly look over the tomato vines at home and bring specimens 
 of the larva. It is a large, green, naked larva, as long as one's 
 finger or longer. A spray of tomato may be planted in the 
 flowerpot of the insect cage and the tomato worm put upon it 
 in order that its further life-history may be seen. Several such 
 cages can be kept on the window sills or a table in the room. 
 Probably all larvae obtained at this time of the year will have 
 molted for the last time and they will simply increase in size, 
 becoming very fat. Then, some morning when you come to 
 school the larva will have disappeared from the insect cage as if 
 
 FIG. 43. The tomato worm (New Jersey Siate Board of Agriculture Report, 
 1899). 
 
 by magic. Since the covering on top of the chimney is still 
 intact, and as there are no indications of ways in which it could 
 have escaped, you dig down into the soil to see if it is burrowing 
 there, though it really is well to leave the soil undisturbed for a 
 few days after the larva has disappeared. 
 
 The chrysalis. The larva will be found in the earth where 
 it has formed an earthen cell, in which it has completely changed 
 its shape (Fig. 44). This cell may be as large as a hen's egg, but 
 as the wall is thick the cavity within is not larger than the last 
 joint of your thumb. In this cavity is to be found a brown 
 object with segments and a handle like that of a pitcher, which is 
 really the pupa or chrysalis. The handle of the pitcher is the 
 long sucking-tube of the future moth and is attached at the head 
 end; the forming feelers may also be seen at this end, feathery 
 
76 SOURCE BOOK Of BIOLOGICAL NATUR&STUD? 
 
 plumes laid back, one on either side; great compound eyes are 
 visible and the rudimentary wings, too, all showing that the 
 larva is undergoing a complete change within the brown skin, that 
 the body elements are reshaping themselves and are assuming 
 the contour of the moth. Keep the flowerpot with the larva 
 in the moist earth in the cellar or a cool closet during the 
 winter; the chrysalis will transform into the moth in the late 
 
 FIG. 44. The tomato- worm moth and its chrysalis: a, the chrysalis of the 
 tomato-worm moth, natural size; b, same in clay capsule, two-thirds natural size; 
 c, the moth, one-half natural size. 
 
 spring when out-of-door plants are available for food and as 
 depositories for the eggs. 
 
 The imago. The term "imago" is applied to the adult moth 
 or butterfly that comes from the chrysalis. In this particular 
 case it is one of the group known as hawk moths because of their 
 swift flight. They are also sometimes called the humming-bird 
 moths, since the animals feed on the nectar of the flowers that 
 have deep tubular corollas, like the evening primrose and the 
 Jimson weed. The moth hovers in the air over these flowers, 
 sticks its long feeding-tube down into the corolla, and pumps 
 up the sweet fluid as humming birds do with their long bills 
 
INSECTS 
 
 (Figs. 45 and 46) . They usually fly just about dusk or even later 
 
 in the evening. When the moths hatch, the males and females 
 
 are readily distinguished, for the antennae of 
 
 the males are much larger than those of the 
 
 females. These moths mate after dark and 
 
 the male finds the female largely by scent. 
 
 If a female is secured, put her into a box 
 
 covered with mosquito netting and place 
 
 this on the sill of an open window or out 
 
 of doors. The next morning several males 
 
 will probably be found clinging to the box, 
 
 attracted by the captive female. 
 
 The eggs. The female lays her eggs, deli- 
 cate green spheres, on the underside of the 
 
 tomato leaf or the leaf of some other food 
 
 plant, so when the eggs hatch the food is 
 right at hand. The little 
 larva at first is very tiny, 
 but it soon busies itself 
 eating and grows into 
 what children will call an ugly worm. That 
 it is not such is apparent, however, for it has 
 the three pairs of jointed legs near the head 
 end that are so characteristic of the insects. 
 Farther back the green wormlike larva has 
 five pairs of fleshy clasping organs and at the 
 tail end another pair, all temporary larval 
 organs. The larva is about the same shade 
 of green as the tomato plant, but bears several 
 pairs of light stripes on the sides which run 
 diagonally forward from the back. The nine 
 pairs of spiracles or breathing pores are very 
 
 conspicuous on the sides of the animal; at the hind end there 
 
 is a single horn. When disturbed, these larvae lift the anterior 
 
 end of the body and draw in the head; if further alarmed they 
 
 FIG. 45. Head of a 
 moth, showing anten- 
 nae and sucking-tube. 
 
 FIG. 46. A but- 
 terfly feeding on 
 toadflax blossoms. 
 
72 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 snap the hard jaws and spit at the intruder, ejecting from the 
 digestive tract some of the partially digested food. The moth 
 is a good-sized one, triangular in general outline, the length from 
 head to tip of wing being about two and one-half inches. The 
 wings are marked with grays and browns in wavy lines while the 
 underwings, which show only in flight, are rather more brilliant. 
 Cecropia. The tomato-worm moth is one of a number of 
 moths whose larvae may be found on various plants during the 
 summer and fall. On the willow one is very likely to find the 
 larva of the Cecropia moth (Fig. 47). The segments bear several 
 knobs each, which change color as the larva molts; the mature 
 larva bears blue, yellow, and orange ones. This big larva may 
 
 FIG. 47. The larva of Cectopia 
 
 be taken into the schoolroom and there allowed to feed on the 
 plant on which it was found until it begins to spin its cocoon. 
 It does not bury itself, but makes a silken shroud to protect it 
 from the inclement winter (Fig. 48) . The cocoon if found on the 
 upper branches of the tree or shrub is likely to be spindle-shaped, 
 measuring about thiee inches in length and one and a fourth in 
 diameter. If found on the lower branches near the ground it is 
 likely to be a much more baggy mass of silk. The moth is a 
 large one, often measuring six or eight inches across the wings. 
 Its general color is reddish brown; a crescent-shaped light spot 
 occurs on each of the fore and hind wings. There is a round dark 
 spot near the outer tip of the fore wings and a band of light color 
 parallel to the border of the hind wings. 
 
INSECTS % 
 
 Gathering cocoons. The fall is the best time to gather the 
 cocoons of the various moths. So far as is known none of these 
 moths is of any large value. The larvae may be found on various 
 food plants, may be kept and fed on these until the cocoons or 
 
 FIG. 48. Cecropia cocoons and the moth 
 
 underground chrysalids are formed, and then may be kept in 
 some cool place until toward spring, when they will hatch into 
 very beautiful moths. The hickory-horned devil (Fig. 49) , one of 
 the most appallingly ugly of these larvae, makes a very beautiful 
 moth. About the time that the cocoons should produce the 
 
74 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 imagoes dip them occasionally into water to help soften the silk. 
 In the spring the cocoons or chrysalids should be kept in a box, 
 covered with glass or mosquito net, so that one can see at a glance 
 what is happening inside. Several twigs should be put into the 
 box that are large enough for the moths to crawl up on, as they 
 spread the wings, for when moths or butterflies first emerge from 
 the chrysalis they are very soft and moist and the wings hang 
 as thick pads on the back; the animal must mount some 
 
 FIG. 49. The hickory-horned devil, larva of the royal walnut moth (Cither onia 
 regalis), two-thirds natural size (after Packard). 
 
 convenient object while air is pumped into the air tubes of the 
 wings until they reach the full size (Fig. 50). If the insect has 
 no chance to let the wings hang down during this process they 
 are badly deformed and shrunken. 
 
 Parasites. Anyone who undertakes to obtain the adult 
 moths by collecting the larvae or by gathering the cocoons will 
 meet with more or less discouragement from the fact that the 
 cocoons fail to hatch or the larvae refuse to pupate. Investiga- 
 tion of these unhatched cocoons shows that the internal organs 
 of the animal have been more or less completely eaten. Not 
 
INSECTS 75 
 
 infrequently the fat larva, apparently just ready to spin, gives 
 evidence, by its inactivity, that something is wrong. Shortly 
 after this a whole crop of tiny cocoons may be found attached to 
 its back and sides (Fig. 51). These juicy larvae are such 
 
 FIG. 50. Polyphemus stretching its wings; moth and cocoon on willow twigs 
 
 tempting food that certain parasitic insects deposit their eggs 
 just under the skin. These little eggs then hatch into tiny white 
 grubs that feed on the fat masses and internal organs of the larva 
 and then bore their way to its surface and spin their cocoons. 
 This is a sufficient cause for the evident illness of the larva. 
 Some of the parasites transform into adults without spinning 
 
76 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 cocoons. In such cases we find the pupa of the moth an empty 
 skin perforated with several holes out of which the parasites have 
 flown. Such parasitized cocoons can be told, when collecting 
 them, by their light weight and the way they rattle when shaken, 
 like a pea in a dry pod. These parasitic insects are to be con- 
 sidered as among our good friends, for if all the eggs laid by one 
 
 FIG. 51. Cocoons of parasite on larva 
 
 of these moths should hatch and each tiny larva should grow 
 into a full-fledged adult many of our crops and our shade trees 
 would undoubtedly suffer, since the larva eats many times its 
 weight of food in the course of a day. One tomato worm in its 
 development will strip a good-sized branch of the plant. It is an 
 interesting school exercise to weigh several larvae at the beginning 
 of the day, on a pair of letter scales, to weigh all the food given 
 
INSECTS 77 
 
 each during the day, and to weigh the larvae again at the close 
 of the day to see how much has been eaten and the gain in weight 
 of each larva, or if all have been weighed together, as is best 
 with the very little ones, the average gain in weight. Keep such 
 a record daily for a larva or for several from the time they hatch 
 from the egg until they are full-grown. 
 
 FIG. 52. Silkworms spinning and some of the finished cocoons 
 
 Silkworms. The silkworm moth is an excellent one for the 
 children to rear in the schoolroom because it has the added 
 interest of producing the material for some of our clothing. Eggs 
 may be obtained from silk factories, if such are located in the 
 neighborhood, or may be ordered from dealers like those listed 
 in the Appendix. They are simply kept in the box in which they 
 were shipped until they hatch into the tiny " worms," barely 
 
78 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 visible. Provide the larvae with mulberry leaves, fresh daily, 
 and they will grow with surprising speed. The several molts are 
 easily observed. The spinning of the cocoon is always a source 
 of wonder (Fig. 52). When males and females are left together 
 fertile eggs will be laid and the whole process can be started over 
 again. 
 
 Injurious moths. One of the commonest moths, practically 
 all stages in the life-history of which can be collected readily by 
 
 FIG. 53. Female tussock moth with her cocoon and the egg mass upon it; 
 about natural size. 
 
 the children, is the tussock moth, which is exceedingly injurious 
 to shade trees. In the fall the cocoons are found in the crevices 
 of the bark, on the underside of fence rails, and on the joists of 
 picket fences, as well as in other sheltered places near the trees. 
 The mating of this moth occurs in the fall, and the eggs are laid 
 then as well as in the summer. The female is a curiously degen- 
 erate animal that does not have any wings, and so looks like a fat 
 white bug (Fig. 53). When she hatches out of her cocoon she 
 simply stands upon its exterior and there deposits her eggs. 
 These are tiny white spheres, and several dozen of them are laid 
 
INSECTS 
 
 79 
 
 at once and then covered with a frothy white substance reminding 
 one somewhat of cake frosting. The life of this female is very 
 uneventful; she cannot fly to seek food, so when the eggs are laid 
 she soon dies if she is not gobbled up by some hungry bird. The 
 male (Fig. 54) is winged, triangular in outline as it rests upon the 
 tree bark, which it very much resembles in color. The front 
 legs are held out stiffly in front of the animal and are fuzzy with 
 tufts of hair. 
 
 The tussock larva. The fall eggs carry over the winter and 
 hatch the following spring. The larva is at first tiny and incon- 
 spicuous as it climbs the tree to feed on the leaves. It forces 
 itself upon our attention when it is fully 
 grown and comes crawling down the tree 
 to seek a sheltered spot in which to spin 
 the cocoon. It is now an inch or more in 
 length, covered with short hairs, with a 
 sprinkling of longer ones, and with some 
 conspicuous tufts of hair. There is a pair 
 of these long black tufts on the segment 
 just back of the head and one tuft at the 
 posterior end of the body. Four pairs of 
 brushes of yellowish-white hairs are found 
 on segments 4 to 7. The head of the 
 animal is sealing-wax red, and the body is yellow striped with 
 black. If these larvae are captured as they are crawling about, 
 seeking some place in which to spin, and are put into a box or 
 into the insect cage, they will demonstrate their method of 
 spinning the cocoon. The outside of the cocoon must be spun 
 first, of course, and as the process continues one can watch the 
 activities of the larva through the gauzy web of silk as it adds 
 strand after strand until finally the cocoon becomes thick enough 
 to hide it. 
 
 Killing tussocks. When once the children know the life- 
 history of this animal and something of its destruotiveness, they 
 will help very materially in collecting and destroying its cocoons 
 
 FIG. 54. Male tus- 
 sock moth (New Jersey 
 State Board of Agricul- 
 ture Report, 1899). 
 
8o 
 
 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 and egg masses. One school, located in a district of Chicago 
 where the shade trees were about the only available nature-study 
 material, collected and destroyed some thirteen thousand of the 
 cocoons and egg masses of this insect one fall. The cocoons and 
 egg masses are promptly killed if daubed with creosote. Often 
 they are high up in the tree where it is difficult to reach them. 
 Tie a sponge on the end of a bamboo pole. Wet the sponge with 
 creosote to which some turpentine and a little tar have been 
 added; with this dark liquid it is easy to see which of the egg 
 masses and cocoons have been treated. 
 
 Other shade-tree enemies. The tussock moth, while injurious 
 to the trees, has not been our worst shade-tree pest. The brown - 
 
 FIG. 55. Brown-tailed and gypsy moths (the former horn Maine Experiment 
 Station Bulletin No. 108; the latter from New Hampshire Experiment Station 
 Bulletin No. 128). 
 
 tailed and gypsy moths (Fig. 55) are the two that have given 
 most trouble in this country. Both of these were introduced into 
 Massachusetts on imported nursery stock, the former in 1890, 
 the latter in 1868, though it was not until about 1890 that the 
 latter came to be recognized as a serious pest. In the ten years 
 from 1890 to 1900, Massachusetts alone spent nearly one million 
 dollars in fighting the gypsy moth; and in the next decade the 
 United States government and the New England states spent 
 rather more than two million dollars in fighting these two moths 
 whose larvae work such injury. The gypsy moth is a dingy 
 white moth , streaked and blotched with black. The wing spread 
 
INSECTS 81 
 
 is two and one-half inches. The female does not fly but crawls. 
 The brown-tailed moth is snow white, with a thick tuft of golden 
 brown hair at the end of the abdomen. The wing spread is 
 one and one-half inches. The moth is a swift flier by night and 
 is attracted by lights. The gypsy-moth caterpillar is sooty in 
 general color, and has five pairs of blue spots followed by six 
 pairs of red spots along the back. The brown-tailed caterpillar 
 is tawny yello\^ or orange in color, with a row of conspicuous 
 white spots on each side of the body. The brown-tailed moth 
 lays its eggs in a silken web on the tips of the twigs. These 
 hatch in the fall and the web is found to contain young cater- 
 pillars at any time during the winter. The gypsy moth lays 
 its eggs on the outside of the cocoon, which seems made of yellow 
 or creamy silk, and is found on the bark of the trees. 
 
 The migration of gypsy moths. While the depredations of 
 these moths are still confined to the eastern states, yet the 
 migration is steadily progressing westward. When the larvae 
 are ready to spin the cocoons in the fall or to form the webs they 
 come down from the trees by means of a silken thread. They 
 are likely then to drop upon passing teams or automobiles and 
 may be carried in this way for some distance. If we can acquaint 
 the growing generation of children with the characteristics of the 
 animal and the need of prompt extermination, it is possible that 
 the early invaders of our western states will be recognized and 
 killed before they have a chance to start such large centers of 
 propagation as have been such an expense to the eastern states. 
 
 Fighting insects with insects. The United States Department 
 of Agriculture has imported from Europe, the native land of 
 both these troublesome immigrants, some of the insects that are 
 their enemies, bugs that feed upon the larvae as well as parasitic 
 insects that deposit their eggs on the pupae (Fig. 56). These 
 have been freed in the infested regions, and it is hoped that the 
 ravages of these predatory insects on the moths may check their 
 rapid propagation and reduce the danger to a minimum. The 
 usual method of fighting these moths has been to destroy the egg 
 
82 
 
 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 masses, to clean up the debris where the eggs and larvae are 
 likely to find shelter, and to spray the trees. Fighting insect 
 with insect has had some notable successes ; witness the control 
 of the Orange scale by the lady beetle imported from Asia for 
 the purpose. 
 
 The apple worm. A very widespread moth whose larvae 
 are known as apple worms is the codling moth (Fig. 57). An 
 examination of the apple trees in the orchard will likely disclose, 
 tucked away in the crevices of the bark, numerous silky cocoons 
 
 about as large as a finger 
 nail. In the shelter of these 
 the caterpillars pass the 
 winter, but fortunately 
 only a small percentage of 
 them survive; the great 
 majority, probably fully 60 
 per cent, are discovered 
 and eaten by such birds as 
 the woodpeckers and nut- 
 hatches. In May or early 
 June the larva transforms 
 to the pupa; and in the 
 latter part of June or early 
 July, earlier farther south, 
 the moths emerge, the exact date depending somewhat on 
 weather conditions. After mating the female deposits her eggs 
 on the leaves or sometimes on the bark of the apple trees. The 
 eggs hatch about four weeks after the apple blossoms fall, and 
 after feeding for a time on the leaf the larvae crawl into the calyx 
 end of the young apples. After lunching here they proceed to 
 bore into the core of the apples so as to get at the seeds, their 
 favorite food. When full-grown, each apple worm is about three- 
 fourths of an inch long. They bore their way out of the sides 
 of the apples, and, crawling into sheltered spots on the bark of 
 the tree or the sides of the apple barrel or bin, they form the 
 
 FIG. 56. Insects that prey upon the 
 brown-tailed and gypsy moths: a, a ground 
 beetle, Calosoma sycophanta, eating a gypsy 
 larva; b. a fly, Compsilora concinnata, whose 
 larvae feed on the caterpillar of the moth 
 (United States Department of Agriculture). 
 
INSECTS 
 
 FIG. 57. The apple worm: a, apple containing larva; b, larva, enlarged; 
 c, codling moth, enlarged; d, trees should be sprayed when fruit is in this condition; 
 e, young apple, showing wormy character. 
 
84 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 cocoons. If wormy apples are put into a box covered with 
 mosquito net and a bundle of twigs is laid in the box the larvae 
 will spin their cocoons among the twigs. 
 
 Spraying. As a result of the attacks of the apple worms 
 many of the wormy apples fall from the trees and litter the 
 ground. When the apple worms come out of these windfalls 
 they crawl to a nearby tree trunk and there spin the cocoons. 
 Frequently, therefore, especially in neglected orchards, the basal 
 part of the tree trunk will be found loaded with the cocoons. It 
 
 FIG. 58. Spraying apple trees 
 
 is worth while to go over the orchard in the fall and pick these 
 off, so as to destroy them. The most effective means of control 
 is the spraying of the trees (Fig. 58). A third of a pound of Paris 
 green to a barrel of water, put on at the same time that the 
 Bordeaux mixture is applied to control injurious fungi, makes a 
 spray of the proper strength. Arsenate of lead, in the proportion 
 of three pounds to the barrel, may also be used. The best time 
 to spray, if the trees are to be sprayed only once, is just after 
 the blossoms fall; the second spraying may be given about two 
 weeks later. With a single spraying about 80 per cent of the 
 
INSECTS 
 
 worminess is avoided, and where two sprays are used, about 
 90 per cent. 
 
 The spraying should be done on the few trees that are grown 
 in the back yard quite as carefully as on the orchard trees. 
 Since it is difficult to get at tall trees with a hand spray, it is well 
 to keep the back-yard trees trimmed so that the head is low. 
 Dwarf trees are valuable on this account. The spray can be 
 applied with an ordinary hand pump, an ounce of the arsenate 
 of lead to a gallon of water, or one-sixth as much Paris green 
 being used. The Bordeaux mixture may be bought ready-made 
 
 FIG. 59. The clothes moth (after Riley) 
 
 when it is to be used in small quantities and applied as directed. 
 The directions for making it is given in the chapter on the 
 " Spore-Bearers." 
 
 The clothes moth. Another very common moth whose life- 
 history may be studied by the children is the clothes moth 
 (Fig. 59), a little pest whose larvae riddle our woolens. This 
 moth is not as large as a finger nail, is brown in color, and has 
 long, narrow wings that are fringed with hair. There is a close 
 relative of the clothes moth with much the same characteristics, 
 but it is larger, measuring three-fourths of an inch across the 
 wings. This is the tapestry moth and is likely to damage 
 heavier fabrics, such as felt, furs, and the upholstering of 
 
86 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 carriages. The life-history of the clothes moth may readily be 
 watched if some of the larvae are kept in woolen goods in a bottle, 
 the mouth of which is covered with mosquito bar of wire. 
 Though the moth itself is not harmful it produces the larvae that 
 do the damage, so it is wise to kill the moth whenever it is seen 
 about the house. Capture several moths and put them in the 
 bottle with the wool; the eggs will soon be deposited and, in due 
 time, hatch into the larvae. The first thing that the tiny larva 
 does is to gather bits of wool thread and so form a protective tube, 
 in which it lives. The inside of this tube is lined with silk that 
 it spins, and having once lined its nest the larva never leaves 
 its snug home. As it grows the tube must be made larger, and 
 this is accomplished in an ingenious way. The larva cuts two 
 gashes in one end of the tube, making the cuts from the inside 
 so as not to expose itself, and sets a triangular piece of new 
 material into each cut. The larva then turns around inside of 
 the tube and in a similar way enlarges the opposite end. The 
 tube is lengthened by additions to the ends. If, while the larva 
 is growing, it is provided, in its bottle home, with wool fabrics 
 in different colors, first red, then white, then blue, and others in 
 succession, the tube that it builds will be a veritable crazy quilt 
 and will plainly show the method of building, as outlined above. 
 When the larva is full-grown it pupates within the tube and after 
 a few weeks the adult moth hatches. 
 
 Infested clothing should be hung out of doors and beaten so 
 as to get rid of the moths and their larvae. When freed from 
 these it may be rolled up in strong paper and put away. The 
 moth bags and mothproof chests do not kill the larvae, so that 
 if there are any eggs on the garments when they are put away the 
 clothing will be riddled by the growing larvae. It is well, there- 
 fore, to give the garments a second beating before they are 
 permanently put away. 
 
 Butterflies. Many of the butterflies are more easily obtained 
 than the moths and their life-histories are equally instructive. 
 Moths and butterflies are usually readily distinguished, for the 
 
INSECTS 87 
 
 former have feathery antennae, the latter antennae that are 
 knobbed or hooked at the end and are not feathery (Figs. 46 and 
 50). Presumably every child knows the monarch butterfly, 
 whose larvae, striped black and yellow, are so abundant upon 
 the milkweed in late spring and early summer. The larva 
 hatches from a dainty green jewel, an egg that is laid on the 
 underside of the milkweed leaf. The butterfly thus seems a good 
 botanist, recognizing the young milkweed among the numerous 
 plants of the field, but this apparent intelligence is simply 
 instinct; it is certain that the adult butterfly is not at all 
 conscious of having found the appropriate food for its larva, but 
 her keen senses are best satisfied with the milkweed plant, which 
 she seeks somewhat as an old hen hunts out a comfortable spot 
 in the haymow to lay her eggs. Even so, the instinct is not 
 unerringly accurate, for the monarch not infrequently deposits 
 her eggs on other plants, in which case the larvae may readily 
 starve to death before they reach an appropriate food supply. 
 
 The monarch larva. The newly hatched larva is a tiny worm- 
 like creature, but it grows rapidly to maturity, and is then about 
 two inches long. After having fed until it is ready to pupate it 
 seeks some sheltered spot, spins a small patch of silk, to which 
 the clasping organs at the abdominal end are attached, and then 
 hangs head down with its body bent into a hook. Gradually it 
 transforms into an ovoid green pupa, ornamented with gilt spots 
 (Fig. 60). In the fall these pupae are found on the underside 
 of fence rails, hanging under the eaves of buildings, and in other 
 sheltered spots, but never very far from the patches of milkweed 
 on which the larvae feed. If some of the larvae are placed in 
 the insect cage with a spray of milkweed they will readily pass 
 through their transformations under observation. In the cage 
 the larva almost always hangs itself up, for its change, from the 
 cloth that covers the top. In the summer time only a few weeks 
 elapse from the time of pupation to the emergence of the adult 
 insect. Some morning the pupal skin in the insect cage will be 
 found empty, while clinging to the cloth beside it is the perfect 
 
88 
 
 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 butterfly. The insect has a spread of wing of about three and a 
 half inches. The wings are reddish brown, with veins marked 
 with black, and around the margin is a series of whitish blotches. 
 The male is readily distinguished by its scent sac, seen as a black 
 spot near one of the veins of the hind wing. 
 
 Feeding the monarch. Like most moths, the butterflies feed 
 by means of a long tube, which is usually kept coiled like a watch- 
 spring between the palps on the underside of the head. With a 
 
 FIG. 60. Life-history of the monarch butterfly (L. W. Brownell in Guide to 
 Nature). 
 
 pin you can pick it out and uncoil it; and if this is done carefully 
 even the living butterfly will make no objections to the demon- 
 stration. Butterflies will readily feed out of the hand. Pour 
 a drop or two of honey or of a thick solution of sugar in water 
 into the palm and then take the butterfly gently between the 
 thumb and finger of the other hand and stick the head far enough 
 into the drop for the butterfly to get a taste. Ordinarily the 
 insect will then unroll his long proboscis, stick it into the drop, 
 and suck up the sweet liquid. It is unnecessary to hold him 
 
INSECTS 89 
 
 longer, for he will be sufficiently engrossed in his feeding to remain 
 on the hand for some time. 
 
 The viceroy mimic. Another butterfly that looks very much 
 like the monarch is the viceroy (Fig. 61). He is somewhat 
 smaller than the monarch, but has the same color and the same 
 dark lines along the veins; in addition there is a dark line running 
 diagonally across each hind wing. This is said to be a case 
 of mimicry. The milkweed butterfly is one that birds do not 
 ordinarily eat, as both it and its larvae are apparently distasteful. 
 Pupils might test this by throwing some of the larvae into the 
 
 FIG. 61. The viceroy butterfly 
 
 chicken coop to see if the chickens will eat them, or, better still, 
 by watching the wild birds to see if they ever feed upon them. 
 Some scientists have been so curious as to personally try the 
 taste of the monarch butterfly, and they say it is exceedingly 
 disagreeable. This fact is not adequate evidence, however, for 
 the tastes of the birds that feed on insects may not be the same 
 as our own. It is true that, in experiments made by naturalists, 
 some of these gaudily colored butterflies and larvae were refused 
 by the birds. I have never seen a bird eat a milkweed butterfly; 
 I have seen birds chase and capture for food the black and white 
 Liminetis, a very close relative of the viceroy butterfly. The 
 theory is that this viceroy and similar mimics have gained 
 
90 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 protection by closely copying the gorgeous monarch or other 
 conspicuous species that are disagreeable. By what process this 
 resemblance has developed we are none too sure. Undoubtedly 
 it was quite an unconscious process and the viceroy is unaware 
 of its similarity to the monarch. It is not true that all the 
 brilliantly colored butterflies are inedible, and it is probably not 
 true that all cases of mimicry are protective. Each case must 
 be established upon evidence. The children in any school can 
 help to obtain such evidence by keeping record of the instances 
 of birds eating the conspicuous butterflies and larvae; scientific 
 journals would willingly publish such data. 
 
 Mourning cloak and fritillary. The first butterfly to appear 
 in the spring is the mourning cloak, a chocolate-colored butterfly 
 of fair size, measuring two and one-half to three inches across the 
 wings. The wings are bordered with a band of yellow, close to 
 which there lies a series of blue dots. Its larva is common on the 
 willow. 
 
 There are several species of good-sized brown butterflies, the 
 undersides of whose wings are marked with silver spots; these 
 are the fritillaries (Fig. 62). As a rule the larvae of the.frit- 
 illaries feed on violets, and consequently they are likely to be 
 found along the margins of the woods and in the fields where the 
 violet plants abound. Rather the handsomest of these has hind 
 wings that are very dark, almost purple ; and he is known as the 
 royal fritillary. 
 
 The cabbage butterfly. The garden, where plants of the cab- 
 bage family are growing, is a good place to look for the larvae of 
 the common cabbage butterfly. The generic name of this 
 butterfly is Pieris and there are several species. All are small 
 butterflies with an expanse of wing of from one to two inches. 
 The wings are more or less spotted with black and lightly washed 
 with yellow in some forms. There is quite a difference in the 
 number and arrangement of the spots in the males and females. 
 One seldom goes through a cabbage patch without seeing some 
 of these insects hovering over the plants. Sometimes, in truck- 
 
INSECTS 91 
 
 garden communities, they are so abundant that the clouds of 
 fluttering forms over the fields look like a snowstorm. The eggs, 
 beautiful little green football-shaped objects, with delicate 
 lacelike tracery over the surface, are laid on the cabbage plant. 
 The larva is what the children will call a green worm. The term 
 "worm" is inappropriate, since worms do not have the jointed 
 legs as these creatures do. As a rule the entire life-history of the 
 butterfly may be observed here in the cabbage patch. The 
 pupae will be found hanging on the underside of the leaf or on 
 weed stalks, fence posts, or other convenient objects. The larvae 
 are difficult to see because they 
 are so nearly the color of the 
 cabbage plant. 
 
 Protective color. It is sup- 
 posed that this sort of general 
 harmony between the color of 
 the animal and its usual envi- 
 ronment protects it, and in all 
 
 probability this is true. The 
 
 ,.,, . , . FIG. 62. A fritillary butterfly, Argy- 
 
 children might try the experi- niscybele ^ 
 
 ment of putting some of these 
 
 cabbage-butterfly larvae on objects that are not green to see if 
 such will disappear more quickly than an equal number left on 
 the cabbage leaves. An Italian naturalist tied some green man- 
 tis, insects with twiglike legs and leaflike wings, to green plants 
 by means of tethers of fine silk, and an equal number on the bark 
 of trees where they were not in harmony with the color. Those 
 on the green herbage were all alive after seventeen days, while of 
 those tied to the brown background thirty-five out of forty-five 
 had disappeared. Such general agreement with the coloration of 
 the environment is known as protective coloration. 
 
 Warning color. The adult butterfly, like the monarch 
 described above, is often a very conspicuous object in the land- 
 scape. It has been suggested that when an animal, like a skunk 
 or hornet or distasteful butterfly, is well able to take care of itself 
 
92 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 it is to its advantage to have brilliant coloring, for birds and other 
 predatory animals associate the conspicuous markings with the 
 disagreeable consequences that follow the attack on such an 
 animal and promptly learn to leave it alone. The experiment 
 necessary to find out that they are disagreeable may cost the 
 lives of one or two of the warningly colored forms, but it is better 
 that a few should die than that the whole species should suffer 
 extermination. 
 
 The sulphurs. There are some bright yellow to orange but- 
 terflies that rear their young also in the cabbage patch. These 
 belong to the genus Colias and are commonly known as sulphurs. 
 
 There are several species of 
 this genus, but all have the 
 wings more or less marked 
 with black. There is one in 
 which the black is so arranged 
 that its outline traces a dog's 
 head fairly distinctly and a 
 black spot on the yellow 
 makes the eye. This species 
 
 FIG. 63. The dog's head butterfly, . _ 1,11 
 
 Meganostamo saeconia. 1S known as the dog S-head 
 
 butterfly (Fig. 63). 
 
 The painted lady. The jackass is proverbially the only 
 animal that feeds on thistles. This is by no means a correct 
 notion, however, for one of the butterflies is commonly known 
 as the thistle butterfly, as its larvae are found almost exclusively 
 on different species of thistles. This is a butterfly with mottled 
 wings, red, orange, and black predominating in the pattern, and 
 is called the painted lady (Fig. 64). The caterpillar, when well 
 grown, is one and one-fourth inches in length, has a velvety black 
 body with yellow marks on the sides, and appears warty with 
 little tubercles out of which grow tufts of hair. This caterpillar 
 pulls the leaves together and fastens them with silk of its own 
 weaving so as to form its protective nest, usually at the top of the 
 thistle stalk. The thistle spines help keep away the birds that 
 
INSECTS 
 
 93 
 
 FIG. 64. The painted lady 
 
 would like to feed upon it. The undersides of the wings of this 
 butterfly are marbled in gray and brown. It is distinguished 
 from a close relative, the painted beauty, by the fact that 
 the latter has some large eyespots on the underside of its wings. 
 The larva of the painted beauty 
 feeds on everlastings. 
 
 The anglewings. This is an- 
 other group of butterflies, with 
 brown wings that are mottled 
 with darker spots. The hind 
 wing bears a little projection at 
 its outer angle and, in general, 
 the wings are rather angular 
 along the outer border. On the 
 underside of each hind wing 
 there is a small silver mark; in one species it is a comma, in 
 another an interrogation point, etc. These butterflies, com- 
 monly known as anglewings, belong to the genus Grapta. The 
 hairstreaks (Fig. 65) have an even more conspicuous projection 
 
 at the outer angle of the hind 
 wing. 
 
 Bluets and coppers. One 
 may not travel the woodland 
 paths, especially in the moist 
 borders, without seeing a little 
 blue butterfly known as a bluet. 
 In company with these one 
 often finds little copper-colored 
 butterflies called the little cop- 
 pers. There are many species 
 
 FIG. 65 A hairstreak r . j ^ 
 
 of each of these sorts, and the 
 
 reader must be referred to some of the books listed in the bibli- 
 ography at the end of the next chapter for the specific names. 
 
 The swallowtails. The butterflies that, because of their large 
 size, brilliant color, and tantalizingly lazy flight, will probably 
 
94 
 
 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 most attract the amateur collector are the swallowtails, of the 
 genus Papilio. One of the commonest is the yellow swallowtail, 
 a good-sized butterfly, measuring five inches across the wings. 
 The wings are yellow, but are bordered with black, and across the 
 
 forewings run some black bands, 
 one of which extends to the hind 
 wing. There are some crescent- 
 shaped spots of yellow along the 
 border of the wing and two blue 
 spots near the inner angle of 
 the hind wing. Sometimes this 
 same butterfly appears in a 
 much more somber hue; the 
 
 FIG. 66. The chrysalis of the black 
 
 swallowtail. wings are then black, but even 
 
 so the markings described may 
 
 be indistinctly seen. The favorite food of the caterpillar is the 
 tulip tree. 
 
 The black papilio. This insect not infrequently invades our 
 gardens to lay its eggs on carrot or parsley. The larvae are 
 alternately banded with yellow 
 and black and are sometimes 
 known as rag-carpet worms. 
 They have a gland on the head, 
 which gland turns inside out, 
 appearing as a V-shaped tongue, 
 when the animal is disturbed, 
 emitting a villainously disagree- 
 able odor as a means of protec- 
 tion. The chrysalis of this 
 
 FIG. 67. The giant swallowtail 
 (reduced). 
 
 butterfly, as of all the papilios, 
 
 is not suspended, but is fastened 
 
 by the tail end to some support, and then held nearly upright by 
 
 a strand of silk that passes around the thorax and is fastened at 
 
 each end to the support (Fig. 66). It is often attached to the 
 
 stalk of the plant on which it feeds, or to some nearby object. 
 
INSECTS 
 
 Papilio creso phonies, the giant swallowtail (Fig. 67), is a large 
 black swallowtail, with a band of yellow spots running across 
 from the tip of one forewing to the tip of the other. Another 
 band of yellow spots runs parallel to the border of each wing. 
 This, the largest of our native papilios, is usually found in the 
 woods. The larva feeds on the hop tree and prickly ash and is 
 one long to be remembered when once seen; it is a great big 
 creature, as large as the middle finger on a man's hand, and has 
 an olive-green skin mottled with brown and heliotrope. 
 
 List of food plants. There follows immediately a list of some 
 of the more common butterflies and moths, together with the food 
 plants on which their larvae are most likely to be found. It is a 
 fascinating task to obtain these larvae, rear them to maturity, 
 watch them pupate, and then keep the pupae until spring, when 
 the perfect butterflies come out. Care must be taken to keep 
 the pupae in boxes in which the butterflies will have abundant 
 room to spread themselves. In each box must be kept several 
 twigs on which the butterflies may mount when spreading their 
 wings. 
 
 MOTHS 
 
 Scientific Name Common Name 
 
 Actias luna Luna moth 
 
 Alypia octomaculata 
 Automcris io 
 Basilona imperialis 
 
 Callosamia promethia 
 Catocala amatrix 
 Catocala neogama 
 Catocala relicta 
 Catocala retecta 
 Catocala vidua 
 Cither onia regalis 
 Cressonia juglandis 
 Darapse myron 
 
 Eight-spotted forester 
 Io moth 
 Imperial moth 
 
 Promethea moth 
 
 Sweetheart 
 
 Bride 
 
 Relict 
 
 Yellow-gray underwing 
 
 Widow 
 
 Royal moth 
 
 Walnut sphinx 
 
 Myron 
 
 Plant on Which Larvae Feed 
 
 Butternut, hickory, 
 walnut 
 
 Woodbine 
 
 Cherry 
 
 Butternut, cherry, elm, 
 hemlock, maple, oak, 
 pine, sassafras, syca- 
 more 
 
 Young cherry 
 
 Poplar, willow 
 
 Walnut 
 
 Poplar, willow 
 
 Hickory 
 
 Hickory 
 
 Walnut 
 
 Walnut 
 
 Grape, woodbine 
 
SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Scientific Name 
 
 Haemorrhagia diffinis 
 Hyloicus chersis 
 Hyloicus eremitus 
 Pachysphinx modesta 
 Philosamia cynthia 
 Pholos achemon 
 Pholos pandorus 
 Samia cecropia 
 
 Telea polyphemus 
 
 Scientific Name 
 
 Anosia plexippus 
 Argynnis aphrodite 
 Argynnis cybele 
 Argynnis idalia 
 Basilarchia astyanax 
 Basilarchia disippus 
 Grapta comma 
 Grapta interrogationis 
 
 Papilio ajax 
 Papilio asterias 
 Papilio cresophontes 
 Papilio philenor 
 
 Papilio troilus 
 
 Papilio turnus 
 Pyrameis cardui 
 Pyrameis huntera 
 Vanessa antiopa 
 
 MOTHS Continued 
 Common Name 
 
 Bumblebee moth 
 Pen-marked sphinx 
 Hermit 
 Poplar sphinx 
 Cynthia moth 
 One-eyed achemon 
 One-eyed pandorus 
 Cecropia moth 
 
 Polyphemus moth 
 
 BUTTERFLIES 
 
 Common Name 
 
 Milkweed butterfly 
 Spangle wing 
 Great fritillary 
 Royal fritillary 
 Red-spotted purple 
 Viceroy 
 Hop merchant 
 Question sign 
 
 Zebra swallowtail 
 Black swallowtail 
 Giant swallowtail 
 Blue swallowtail 
 
 Green-clouded swallow- 
 tail 
 
 Yellow swallowtail 
 Painted lady 
 Painted beauty 
 Mourning cloak 
 
 Plant on Which Larvae Feed 
 
 Snowberry 
 
 Ash, lilac 
 
 Bergamot, spearmint 
 
 Poplar 
 
 Acanthus 
 
 Grapevine 
 
 Grapevine 
 
 Apple, cherry, goose- 
 berry, grape, hickory, 
 maple, plum, willow 
 
 Basswood, birch, elm, 
 chestnut, oak 
 walnut, willow, etc. 
 
 Plant on Which Larvae Feed 
 
 Milkweed 
 
 Violet 
 
 Violet 
 
 Violet 
 
 Poplar, willow 
 
 Poplar, willow 
 
 Hop, nettle 
 
 Basswood, elm, hop, 
 nettle 
 
 Pawpaw 
 
 Carrot, parsley, parsnip 
 
 Hop tree, prickly ash 
 
 Dutchman's pipe, Vir- 
 ginia snakeroot 
 
 Sassafras, spicebush 
 
 Tulip, wild cherry 
 
 Thistle 
 
 Everlasting 
 
 Elm, poplar, willow 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The list of reference books to be used with chapter ii has been combined 
 with that for chapter iii and may be found on page 137. 
 
WtfCTC 
 
 FIG. 68. A pupil's cover design 
 97 
 
CHAPTER III 
 INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 
 
 Ants. No insects are more interesting than those belonging 
 to the Hymenoptera, which group includes the ants, bees, and 
 wasps, for these are the social insects^ whose community life 
 manifests examples of very complex instincts and possibly of 
 rudimentary intelligence. The ants are everywhere abundant 
 and are well worth careful study. Remembering Solomon's 
 advice, one may take the group of pupils out to some ants' nest 
 to observe their wise ways. If it is the middle of the day or a 
 little later, the ants, whose nests are in the ground, will probably 
 be found busily bringing little grains of sand up from the nest 
 to the surface and dropping them on the heap that surrounds the 
 entrance. Then each ant picks up another grain and carries it 
 back into the nest. Apparently no more stupid procedure could 
 occupy an animal than bringing sand grains out of its nest only 
 to carry them in again. Have the class discover the meaning of 
 this foolishness. It may be some time before they discover that 
 the ants are carrying into the nest only those grains of sand that 
 have lain in the sun some time and are, therefore, warm. They 
 are packed around the developing eggs so as to incubate them; 
 the procedure is seen to be by no means a foolish one. 
 
 The ant house. The life-history of the ant may quite readily 
 be studied if the ants are kept in a homemade nest (Fig. 69). 
 The Fielde nest is one of the best for this purpose, and making it 
 affords good drill in working from directions. Give each pupil 
 a copy of the following instructions and see how many of them 
 can make the nest without looking at a model or a picture of it. 
 
 Cut a piece of glass to measure 4 by 5 inches or use an old 
 photographic negative for the foundation of the nest; the size 
 need not be exactly that given. The gelatin film may be cleaned 
 
 98 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 
 
 99 
 
 off the negative by soaking it in water for a little while and then 
 scraping it off. Cut some glass strips one-half inch wide from 
 any old window glass. It is best to use glass that is " single 
 thick" and to use window glass rather than picture glass, for the 
 former is softer and less difficult to cut. To cut glass secure a 
 wheel glass-cutter from a hardware store for five or ten cents. 
 Lay a ruler on the glass a little to the left of the line along which 
 the cut is to be made and, holding the glass-cutter as you would 
 
 FIG. 69. Queen, workers of several sorts, and males (at left) in the ant house 
 (photographed from a Fielde House, taken from Nature Study Review, Vol. I, No. 6). 
 
 a pencil in writing, draw it along the glass beside the ruler, using 
 just enough pressure to make the wheel "bite" the glass (Fig. 
 70). You can best tell when this is happening by the noise. 
 Any school child can cut glass, for no great strength is needed. 
 When the scratch is made place the thumbs on opposite sides of 
 the scratch and press upward with the bent first fingers; the 
 glass will then break along the cut. 
 
 The walls. Fasten the half-inch strips to the foundation 
 with ordinary glue, laying them broadside down along its edges. 
 
loo SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Leave a half -inch gap at one comer for the door. Glue a second 
 strip of glass to those first put on so as to make the walls of the 
 house two thicknesses high, in order to allow enough space for 
 the ants to move around freely inside the nest. Divide the nest 
 into two rooms by a partition of glass strips, leaving a space 
 
 FIG. 70. Cutting glass: the upper figure, making the scratch with the whee 
 cutter; lower, position of hands in breaking. 
 
 between the end of the partition and a side wall to serve as a door. 
 Cut some black cambric or calico into strips an inch wide and 
 glue it to the edge of the nest all the way around, letting it lap 
 over on the top of the wall and on the underside of the foundation 
 glass. This makes an opaque covering for the wall of the nest 
 much like a passe-partout binding. 
 
 The roof. Cut some strips of Turkish toweling an inch wide. 
 Turn in the edges of the strips so that they meet, thus making 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 101 
 
 them a half-inch wide but double. Now cement the turned-in 
 edges to the top of the half -inch glass strips that form the walls 
 of the nest. Cut pieces of glass of proper size to cover each room 
 of the nest and lay them on the Turkish toweling for a roof; the 
 toweling admits enough air to ventilate the rooms well. Since 
 ants are accustomed to live in the dark, pieces of cardboard 
 should be cut the same size as the glass covers for each room and 
 laid over the nest. When the nest is in use, keep the parts in 
 place by putting a rubber band about them all. Cut a slice of 
 sponge and place in the inner room, which may be designated the 
 living-room, the outer being the dining-room. Before this is 
 done, however, the nest should dry out for a couple of days, as 
 the odor of glue is offensive even to ants. 
 
 Stocking the nest. Break open a stump that is the home of 
 ants, or dig up an ants' nest in the ground until the eggs, larvae, 
 or pupae are discovered. The eggs are tiny white granules, not 
 larger than the section of the wire of a pin ; the larvae look some- 
 thing like rice grains, but are segmented and are curved at the 
 smaller end, while the pupae appear like puffed rice grains. 
 Scoop up the eggs, larvae, or pupae, together with some of the 
 ants; it will do no harm if considerable dirt and debris are taken 
 up with the animals. Put the Fielde nest into a flat pan that 
 is at least twice the size of the nest. Make sure that the sponge 
 in the nest is moist. Then set this pan into one that is still larger 
 and pour some water into the outer pan. Dump the contents of 
 the fruit jar into the inner pan near the nest. As ants do not 
 take kindly to the water they are now confined to the inner pan 
 by the moat of water that surrounds it. Some few of the more 
 venturesome ones may jump off into the water and drown, but 
 most of them will remain in the inner pan. As the pile of debris 
 dries out the ants will hunt for a more congenial place, and some 
 one of them will discover the door to the nest. It will find there 
 a dark, moist chamber quite to its liking and will proceed to carry 
 some of the pupae and eggs into the nest. Other ants will soon 
 be engaged in the same occupation. The problem as to whether 
 the first ant communicated the discovery to the others is an 
 
102 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 interesting one for the children to solve. When most of the ants 
 and their belongings are transferred to the nest, plug the door 
 of the nest with a wad of absorbent cotton and remove the nest 
 from the pan. In this home the ants will live for an indefinite 
 time. There is no dirt in the nest and none is needed. 
 
 A fruit-jar nest. Theie is another convenient way to make a 
 nest, although it does not give as satisfactory results as the 
 foregoing method, for it does not show the activities of the ants 
 as well. Place as large a tumbler as possible, mouth down, in a 
 wide-mouthed fruit jar. Put the rotten wood or dirt, together 
 with the ants, eggs, and larvae that have been collected, into the 
 pint jar and shake the material down so it will lie between the 
 tumbler and the outer wall of the fruit jar. The ants will con- 
 struct the passages and the chambers of their nest in the narrow 
 space. Cover the outside of the jar with black paper or cloth, 
 which may be removed when the ants are under observation. 
 
 Feeding ants. In the Fielde nest the activities of the ants 
 may be seen by removing the cardboard covers for a little while 
 or by simply lifting the nest up from the table and looking at it 
 from below. Ants require very little feeding. A bit of peanut ' 
 as large as the head of a pin may be put into the dining-room 
 once a week and it will serve as food for a colony of twenty ants. 
 A bit of sponge cake dipped in honey is much appreciated and an 
 occasional shred of raw meat is a good change of diet. Food 
 should not be left in the nest more than a few hours, and whatever 
 then remains uneaten should be taken out of the nest. Otherwise 
 it is liable to mold, and mold is a great enemy of the ant, causing 
 death in the colony. 
 
 House cleaning. The air of the nest must be kept moist, 
 which is accomplished by keeping the slice of sponge moist. In 
 such an atmosphere mold spores will promptly grow, so that the 
 only way to keep the nest free from the dangerous mold is to keep 
 it thoroughly clean. It should be cleaned weekly, oftener if 
 mold starts to grow. Take off the cardboard cover from the 
 dining-room and the ants will retreat into the dark living-room, 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 
 
 103 
 
 carrying their belongings with them. Lift the glass cover off 
 the dining-room and plug the door between the rooms with 
 absorbent cotton. Moisten a bit of cloth with alcohol and wipe 
 floor, walls, and glass cover. The alcohol kills any mold spores 
 that may be present. The glass cover should be left off for a few 
 minutes until the fumes of alcohol have entirely disappeared, as 
 they are irritating to the ants. Remove the plug of cotton 
 between the rooms, replace the glass cover and the cardboard 
 one, and proceed in the same way to clean the other room. 
 
 a b c 
 
 Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture 
 
 FIG. 71. a, worker bee; b, queen; c, drone 
 
 Bees. The complicated social life of an insect colony may 
 well be studied with a hive of bees. The colony of bees consists 
 of the queen or mother bee, a great many workers that are really 
 immature females, and, at certain times, a number of males or 
 drones (Fig. 71). The sole business of the queen is to lay eggs. 
 These are laid in wax cells, which have been previously prepared 
 by the workers. It takes an egg three days to hatch into a larva. 
 The larva of a worker bee requires eleven days to reach maturity. 
 Then the cell in which the mature larva lies is covered over with 
 a cap of wax, and the larva, after spinning a silken lining to its 
 cell, goes into the pupal condition. It remains in the pupal 
 condition seven days, then gnaws through the cap and crawls out 
 
104 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL frATURE-STUDY 
 
 a worker. At first its body is soft and its wings are limp; but 
 gradually the parts harden. During the first few days of its life 
 it remains in the hive, feeding on the honey stored there and 
 helping to care for the growing larvae. When the young worker 
 is ready to leave the hive it flies outside and for some hours buzzes 
 up and down, back and forth, in front of the hive, apparently 
 registering in its nervous system the objects in the neighborhood 
 of the hive so that it may know its own home when it returns from 
 its first flight after honey and the other things the workers must 
 bring into the hive. 
 
 Brood and honey cells. The process of laying eggs and caring 
 for the young occurs in what are known as the brood cells, a 
 group of cells in the lower part of the hive. The upper part of 
 the hive is filled with the honey that the bees provide to rear their 
 young and to carry the colony over the winter. In the modern 
 hive the lower and upper portions are usually separated by a zinc 
 partition, perforated with holes large enough to let the workers 
 pass, but not large enough for the queens or drones to go through. 
 It would be an inconvenience to the bee culturist to have brood 
 comb and honeycomb mixed. The queen usually begins laying 
 her eggs near the center of the brood comb and keeps depositing 
 them in cells that are farther and farther out toward the 
 periphery. Meanwhile the workers are building new cells. 
 After gorging themselves with honey they cling to each other and 
 hang in masses, constantly moving their wings. The heat so 
 generated seems to help transform the honey into wax, which 
 exudes as little scales from the glands of the abdomen. These 
 flecks of wax are scraped off by the workers and carried to the 
 comb, where the wax is built into the walls of the new cells. It 
 is when honey is rapidly coming into the hive that the queen 
 lays her greatest number of eggs, as many as two or three thou- 
 sand per day. As the eggs hatch the larvae are fed on a mix- 
 ture of nectar, pollen, and partially digested food, regurgitated 
 from the alimentary tract of the workers; this latter food is 
 known as bee milk. 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 105 
 
 Hive population. In an ordinary hive there are from thirty 
 thousand to forty thousand bees, the great majority being 
 workers. It would seem as if the number of workers must 
 increase very rapidly, since the queen lays so many eggs; but, 
 as a matter of fact, the life of the average bee is short, perhaps 
 not more than six or eight weeks. This term of life may be 
 reduced under adverse conditions or may be increased, under 
 exceptionally favorable conditions, to perhaps as much as a year. 
 
 Drones. Annually, and more frequently under some condi- 
 tions, the queen deposits unfertilized eggs in cells that are a 
 half-inch in diameter and therefore much larger than the ordi- 
 nary worker cells. These unfertilized eggs develop into larvae 
 that require twelve days to mature and the pupae take nine days 
 to reach maturity. The bees that come from these large cells 
 are the drones or males and are much larger than the workers. 
 They have a rounded abdomen and their buzz is a louder and 
 deeper note than is emitted by the ordinary worker. They are 
 usually killed or driven from the hive after the period of their 
 usefulness is over. 
 
 New queens. At the same time that the drones are develop- 
 ing, certain eggs are growing into new queens. These eggs are 
 deposited in queen cells. The queen cell is larger than a worker 
 cell and is elongated at the upper end into a vase-shaped top, 
 which makes it easily recognized ; it is built by itself, not among 
 the cells of the ordinary comb. The larvae in these queen cells 
 are fed on pure bee milk. They develop rapidly, coming to 
 maturity in eight days and requiring only five days to pupate. 
 The queen bee is very much larger than the worker, the abdomen 
 is much distended, tapering at the end. The egg from which the 
 queen develops is a fertilized egg just like that from which the 
 workers come, but the difference in feeding results in the dif- 
 ference in the kind of bee. 
 
 Swarming. The bees in a hive will not ordinarily be content 
 when more than one queen is present; therefore when the new 
 queens develop swarming is likely to occur. The bees issue from 
 
io6 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 the hive, and a queen, followed by many drones, flies up into the 
 air where she mates with one of the drones, commonly the one 
 capable of longest flight in her pursuit. At this mating the sperm 
 sac of the female is filled with the fertilizing elements from the 
 male. This sac is under the control of the female, so that, as the 
 egg passes down the oviduct in laying, the opening of the sperm 
 receptacle may be kept closed, when the egg is unfertilized and 
 results in a drone, or it may open far enough to let some sperm 
 escape and fertilize the egg. In the latter case a queen or a 
 worker results, according to the feeding. This mating of the 
 male and female occurs but once in the life of the female. She 
 may live four or five years, but ordinarily does not have more 
 than two years of maximum productivity, which makes it cus- 
 tomary to re-queen the hive every two years. 
 
 Clipping the queen. Af ter the nuptial flight the queen comes 
 back to the nest and leads off a host of the workers to find new 
 and more commodious quarters. In bee culture it is evidently 
 unwise to allow this swarming to occur for fear the swarm may be 
 lost. At best it is a difficult task to hive the swarm successfully. 
 It is much better to transfer a queen and sufficient workers to a 
 new hive. The queens are therefore usually taken in hand and 
 the wings clipped with a pair of scissors or a sharp knife. Since 
 it is well to know the age of the queen it is wise to clip the wings 
 in a different way each year. It is customary to clip the right 
 wings on even years and the left wings on odd years. 
 
 The movable frame. The modern hive consists of a lower 
 portion, in which the brood comb is formed, and an upper part, 
 in which the honey is stored. This upper part is stocked with 
 movable frames. Before the frame is put into the hive it is 
 supplied with sheets of wax, known as the foundations and 
 stamped with the outlines of worker cells. The bees continue 
 to build on this foundation, making the cells that will be stocked 
 with honey. After the cell is formed and stocked with honey it 
 is capped with wax. The honey is ordinarily brought into the 
 hive in a relatively short time, a good hive of bees bringing in 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 
 
 107 
 
 from ten to fifteen pounds of honey a day while the clover, "bass- 
 wood, or other blossoms last, from which they can secure a large 
 supply. A single hive may yield fifty to seventy-five pounds of 
 honey a year or even more. Not all gathered can be taken from 
 the hive, as the bees must have some for their own use. Ordina- 
 rily the combs are removed from the hive as soon as they are filled 
 and capped. The caps are cut off with a warm sharp knife and 
 the honey is poured out. The empty comb can then be returned 
 
 FIG. 72. Children watching the removal of honey from hive 
 
 to the hive to be refilled. In this way the beekeeper secures from 
 the hive a larger amount of strained honey than he could possibly 
 get of comb honey, since it requires about fifteen pounds of 
 honey to make a pound of wax. 
 
 Good stock. In stocking the hive it is important to get a good 
 strain of bees. The bees known as Italians are generally con- 
 sidered the best, as they are docile, excellent workers, and hardy. 
 With the protection of gloves and veil, one may readily work 
 around the apiary without any danger from stings (Fig. 72), 
 and as soon as one can get used to having the bees crawling over 
 
io8 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 his person without making sudden, threatening movements he 
 may work about the hive quite unprotected. The worker bee 
 stings only in self-defense, the drone is a stingless creature, and 
 the female uses her sting only on rival females. 
 
 The United States Department of Agriculture issues several 
 pamphlets on beekeeping and most of the states issue, either from 
 the agriculture department or from the agricultural college, 
 detailed instructions applicable to local conditions (see bibli- 
 ography). 
 
 Demonstration hive. Many phases of the life of the bee can 
 be better seen in a hive devised for the purpose than in the 
 ordinary commercial hive. Such hives, built for school use, can 
 be obtained from many dealers in bee supplies. 1 There follows 
 directions for making such a hive that can easily be built by any 
 ingenious boy or girl for the schoolroom or home. Any local 
 beekeeper will willingly stock it for the school; directions for 
 stocking it are also appended. 
 
 In such a small hive, intended to show the life-history and 
 activities of the bees, there is need for brood comb only. Since 
 the bees cannot store much honey and so must be fed at times, 
 the hive stands on a box base arranged to hold a simple feeder. 
 The hive itself has double glass sides through which the bees may 
 be watched. The glass used in the hive, for which dimensions 
 are given below, is 12 by 16 inches, a stock size. The boards 
 are of half -inch stuff unless otherwise specified (Fig. 73). 
 
 Cut the boards to build a box 4 by 6| by 20 inches outside 
 measure with a top depressed one-half inch below the sides and 
 projecting one inch beyond them at one end. At the opposite 
 end the box is left open to receive the feeder. On the top will 
 stand two uprights, each 3! by 12^ inches, which are to be the 
 ends of the hive and so must be grooved to receive the glass sides. 
 Provide the grooves in this way : Out of quarter-inch stuff, such 
 as can be obtained in any small wooden box, cut two strips i^ by 
 
 1 A. I. Root & Co., Medina, Ohio, make a very good one that lists at from 
 $4.00 to $10.00, stocked. 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 109 
 
 12 inches and eight that are the same length but one-quarter inch 
 wide. Nail one of the wide strips lengthwise in the middle of each 
 upright, its end flush with the top of the upright. Parallel to it 
 and one-eighth inch from it, fasten on either side one of the 
 quarter-inch strips, and one-eighth inch farther out, another. 
 Thus on either side of the inch-and-a-half-wide strip there is, 
 first, a one-eighth-inch groove, then a one-quarter-inch strip, and 
 a second one-eighth-inch groove. Fasten a strip, J by i inch, 
 one-eighth inch below the ends of each pair of quarter-inch strips; 
 
 FIG. 7^5. Front and rear views of demonstration beehive 
 
 these will support some narrow strips of glass. Cut a door one 
 inch wide and a half -inch high in the middle of the basal end of 
 one of these uprights. 
 
 Fasten these grooved uprights, with screws, to the top of the 
 box base with the grooved faces toward each other, one at the 
 open end, the other, with the door in it, three and seven-eighths 
 inches from the other end, so that there is a space of one inch 
 between the sides of the box top and the edges of the uprights. 
 The uprights should now be at proper distance to receive the 
 i2-by-i6-inch panes of glass. Next put the box base together, 
 the uprights in place on its top. Fill the spaces between the 
 
no SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 uprights and the sides with four blocks, each J by i inch. Bore 
 three half -inch holes in the middle line of the top of the box base 
 and cover with strips of excluder metal. This permits workers 
 to pass out of the hive and into the box base but will not allow 
 queens or drones to pass; it may be purchased of any dealer in 
 bee supplies. Cut two strips of glass, each i by 16 inches, and 
 set them into the horizontal grooves prepared for them as di- 
 rected. Put in the four panes of glass. With screws fasten a 
 top piece, 4^ by i y| inches, on the uprights. Cut two strips of 
 galvanized or brass wire mosquito bar, if by 20 inches, and tack 
 one on each side of the hive so as to cover the space between 
 the glass and the sides of the box base. Cut a piece 2-| by 6| 
 inches to cover the space between the sides, in front of the 
 door to the hive. These spaces serve as ventilators. Cover the 
 one-half-inch space above the projecting top of the box base 
 with excluder metal in such a way that it can be raised to put 
 in the queen. 
 
 The feeder is made as a drawer 2 by 4! by 19 inches, outside 
 measure, to slip into the open end of the box base. Fasten into 
 it two partitions, 2 by 18 inches, with a notch, T by ij inches, cut 
 out of the center of each. These partitions run lengthwise of the 
 feeder and are an inch apart, and each is almost an inch from the 
 adjacent side wall. 
 
 In stocking the hive it is necessary to cover the glass sides of 
 the hive and the ventilators with shutters. Make two shutters, 
 each 12 by 1 6 inches, with a strip f by 16 inches tacked at right 
 angles along one edge. Cut a board 2| by 6 inches to cover the 
 front ventilator. These may all be fastened on with small screw 
 hooks and eyes. Put the shutters over the front ventilator and 
 over one side; unscrew the top of the hive and take out the two 
 panes of glass on the uncovered side ; then lay the hive down on 
 the covered side and support it so that it is level. Cut ten 
 vertical strips of about three-day-old brood comb from a frame 
 in an old hive, making them about twelve inches long and a shade 
 less than an inch and a half wide. Lay these in the new hive, a 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES III 
 
 freshly cut surface against the glass side, so as to leave about 
 three-quarter-inch spaces between them. If the brood comb 
 does not contain considerable honey, cut a couple of similar strips 
 from the honeycomb in another frame and set these in, in place 
 of two of the brood comb. Replace the glass sides, screw on the 
 top, and put on the side shutter. 
 
 Raise the excluder at the front of the hive and put in the 
 queen. Prop up a two-foot length of wide board so that it will 
 be about on a level with the hive door. In the late afternoon of a 
 day when the bees are gathering honey well, shake on this board 
 the bees from a couple of combs of an old hive; enough young 
 bees will go in to stock the new hive even if many old ones fly 
 back home. Leave the hive on its side for a couple of days, when 
 it may be stood upright and taken to its permanent stand. 
 Place it, door end out, under the raised sash of a window in the 
 schoolroom or at home, next the casement. Fill the remaining 
 space under the sash with a board so that the bees may not enter 
 the room. It will be necessary to feed the colony at first, using 
 a syrup made of one part, by volume, of water to two of sugar. 
 Bring the water to a boil and slowly stir in the sugar, stirring 
 until it dissolves so that it will not scorch, as burned syrup is 
 often fatal to bees. It will also be necessary to feed them when- 
 ever nectar is scarce. If the room temperature is kept between 
 40 and 70 the bees will winter in this hive kept in its place in 
 the window. 
 
 Wasps. Among the common wasps none are more interesting 
 than the paper wasp, the mud dauber, and the digger wasp. 
 The paper wasp is the one that builds its nest out of gray material 
 laid down in thin layers like paper (Fig. 74). This really is a 
 true paper, as it is made by the wasps from wood fiber that is 
 reduced to pulp by chewing and mixed with a secretion that 
 gives it firmness. There are two groups of these paper wasps 
 that are of almost universal distribution in the North. 
 
 Vespa. Vespa builds an egg-shaped nest, which is attached 
 to trees, buildings, or other sheltered spots. It is a covered nest, 
 
112 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 provided with an outer wall of paper. The opening for the 
 entrance and exit of the wasps is at the small and lower end of the 
 nest. When ripped open such a nest is seen to have a central 
 stalk, to which are attached a succession of flat paper combs, 
 quite similar to the bees' comb. In the cells of these combs are 
 the eggs, the larvae, the pupae, and the immature wasps. The 
 nest is therefore something like a dwelling of several stories. 
 These flat circular combs do not run out so as to come in contact 
 with the exterior wall, but a space left between this outer wall and 
 
 FIG. 74. The paper wasp's nest (Polishes) (after Herrick) 
 
 the combs is used by the wasps in getting from level to level. 
 The life-history of the young wasp is very similar to that of the 
 young bee, but the food with which it is supplied consists of 
 insects or spiders that are put into the cell when the egg is laid 
 or shortly after and sealed with it. 
 
 Polistes. Polistes builds an uncovered nest, usually a single 
 circular comb which is attached by means of a central stalk, to 
 the eaves of a barn, to the underside of a fence rail, or to 
 some such object. Polistes is commonly known as the white- 
 faced hornet because the males of the species have characteristic 
 white markings on the head. They are also stingless. William 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 
 
 Hamilton Gibson, in his delightful book Sharp Eyes, tells how he 
 demonstrated to a deluded friend the possibility of handling a 
 hornet with impunity. In a postscript to the article he warns 
 the novice in insect adventure to be careful to select the white- 
 faced hornet for the experiment. 
 
 Mud daubers and diggers. The common mud daubers are 
 metallic blue wasps with nar- 
 row waists that build, out of 
 mud, the cell in which the 
 egg is laid and the young is 
 reared. You will frequently 
 find these wasps working 
 along the margin of a pond 
 or stream, gathering in their 
 mandibles a pellet of clay, 
 which they bear in flight to 
 the nest site. The cell is usu- 
 ally plastered to the under- 
 side of the limb of a tree, to 
 the hollow of a fence post or 
 low stump, and, not infre- 
 quently, to the rafters of the 
 barn. It is a rather skilfully 
 made clay jug as large as a 
 thumb. In this the egg is 
 deposited, together with the 
 spiders, the larvae, or the in- 
 sects that have been more or 
 less completely killed by the sting of the wasp. Some species 
 build many clay cells together, forming a good-sized dry nest 
 (Fig. 75). 
 
 The digger wasp excavates a hole in the earth and in it the 
 larvae are reared to maturity (Fig. 76). All of these wasps 
 manifest complex instincts. Those of the digger wasp have been 
 studied with a great deal of care. After excavating the hole, or 
 
 FIG. 75. Mud dauber's nest; lower 
 figure removed from board to show in- 
 terior cells rilled with spiders. 
 
SOURCE BOOK Of BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 finding one to her liking already made, the wasp proceeds to stock 
 it with insects of various sorts and with spiders. As she flies 
 among the garden shrubbery she sees a spider, pounces upon it, 
 and stings it with two or three thrusts. Usually the animal is not 
 instantly killed, but is more or less completely paralyzed by the 
 poison. Seizing the animal with her feet and holding it close to 
 her body, the wasp flies to her hole and places the victim within 
 (Fig. 77). Usually several spiders or larvae are placed in the 
 same hole; on them the eggs are laid, sometimes only one, 
 sometimes several. The wasp plugs the opening of the hole and 
 
 FIG. 76. Holes of digger wasp (Microbembex monodonta) at left; wasp at 
 entrance to hole at right. 
 
 levels it off to conform to the surrounding ground. When the 
 eggs hatch the larvae are abundantly supplied with food until 
 they grow to full size and pupate. When the adult wasp comes 
 from the pupa it must break out of its underground cell to begin 
 its independent life. 
 
 Untaught instincts. If it chances to be a female, it goes 
 through the same procedure as did its mother. This is all done 
 without any teaching, without even the opportunity to learn by 
 imitation, and yet the complex actions are accomplished gener- 
 ation after generation. It has been said that the instinct is 
 unerring, that the wasp stings the insect or spider in its nervous 
 system, producing only paralysis and not death, so that the 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 
 
 young are supplied with fresh meat. This has been demon- 
 strated to be an inaccurate statement, however, for not infre- 
 quently the captive is killed and the food is in various stages of 
 decomposition before the young are ready to feed upon it. It 
 has been found, moreover, that if the objects immediately around 
 the opening of the nest be changed the wasp readily loses the nest, 
 has to hunt for it a long time, and not infrequently gives it up 
 and makes a new one in which to begin the process all over again. 
 
 FIG. 77. The cicada killer (New Jersey State Board of Agriculture Report, 
 1899)- 
 
 There is therefore no intelligent appreciation of a new situation 
 and the behavior is merely that of blind, inborn instinct, which is 
 very wonderful none the less. 
 
 Bugs. The squash bug (Fig. 78) is a good type of a large 
 group of insects that are properly called bugs. All bugs are 
 insects, but not all insects are bugs. Only those insects whose 
 mouth parts are arranged as a sharp sucking-tube and that 
 possess wings that are partly leathery and partly gauzy are to be 
 classed as Hemiptera or bugs. The squash bug fulfils these 
 requirements. It is the grayish, triangular bug so commonly 
 
Ii6 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 found on the squash or cucumber vines. The head is small, the 
 eyes are large, the thorax is broad, and the abdomen is largely 
 covered by two pairs of wings. The underwings are membranous 
 and the upper ones meet in a zigzag line down the back. (There 
 is one large section of the bugs, including the cicada or seventeen- 
 year locust, that has both pairs of wings membranous.) The 
 squash bug lays its eggs on the underside of the leaf. The young 
 that hatch are much like the adults, but are wingless. These 
 nymphs undergo a succession of molts as they grow and finally 
 reach the adult condition about three weeks after the eggs are 
 laid. When disturbed the squash bug gives off an offensive odor, 
 
 FIG. 78. Squash bug on leaf margin; note sucking-tube 
 
 a common trick among the bugs. This is presumably a pro- 
 tective proceeding, as a bird that would otherwise feed with 
 avidity on these soft-bodied insects would be repelled by the 
 disagreeable taste. Many of the Hemiptera are therefore com- 
 monly known as stink bugs. 
 
 Plant pests. In this group of bugs occur many of man's worst 
 insect enemies. Here belong the plant lice, those tiny soft- 
 bodied insects so common on house plants and on the garden 
 plants too (Fig. 79). Their sucking-tubes are used to penetrate 
 the tissue of the plant, from which sap is withdrawn as food. 
 While these insects are very tiny, their enormous rate of repro- 
 duction (p. 165) makes their ravages serious, as plants become so 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 117 
 
 thoroughly infested that they die from the loss of their juices. 
 Many persons have experienced the loss of sweet-pea vines from 
 the plant lice. In this group of bugs we also find the scale 
 insects, which secure their food in the same way from shade and 
 fruit trees. The cottony scale on our elms and maples ^and the 
 San Jose scale on the apple trees are samples of these pests. 
 Some of them cause characteristic swellings on the stems or 
 leaves of plants and the colony of plant lice or aphids live within 
 the enlargement. Such growths are designated galls ; the cocks- 
 comb gall (Fig. 80) on the elm leaf and a similar one on terminal 
 
 FIG. 79. Plant lice: the corn -root aphis whose eggs and young are cared for 
 and the colonies of aphids pastured on the roots of the corn by the brown ant 
 Lasius niger var. americanus (after Webster). 
 
 twigs of the cottonwood are well-known samples. Most of the 
 galls are caused by insects belonging to a group of the Hyme- 
 noptera known as gallflies. Several of the more common bugs 
 live in the water and are considered in the chapter on "Animals 
 of Pond and Stream." 
 
 Beetles. None of the insects are more in evidence to a careful 
 observer than are the beetles. These insects have very hard wing 
 covers, and this fact gives them their scientific name of Coleop- 
 tera, meaning stony-winged. The wing covers are protective 
 devices, smooth and slippery, covering the soft body as well as 
 the gauzy wings that are the real organs of flight. The potato 
 beetle is a familiar example (Fig. 81). The female lays her eggs 
 
u8 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 on the underside of the leaf or the stem. These hatch out into 
 soft-bodied larvae, which do not have a wormlike form. It will 
 be recalled that the term " larva" is applied to the young of an 
 insect when it does not look like the adult. It is so often used 
 for the familiar wormlike larvae of the moths and butterflies 
 that we at once think of such forms when the term is used. The 
 
 FIG. 80. The cockscomb gall of the cottonwood (after Cook, Report of the 
 Indiana Department of Geology and Natural Resources). 
 
 larva of the potato beetle grows rapidly, feeding on the foliage 
 of the plants. As it grows it molts and finally, at the last molt, 
 appears as the adult. The adult winters in the rubbish on the 
 surface of the ground or in shallow depressions. As a rule 
 neither the beetle nor its young are eaten by the birds. Appar- 
 ently the bright coloration, the alternate stripes of black and 
 orange red that mark the wing covers, serve as a warning to most 
 birds that the animal has a vile taste. There is at least one 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 
 
 119 
 
 conspicuous exception, however; both beetle and young are 
 eaten eagerly by the rose-breasted grosbeak. Evidently tastes 
 differ, even among birds. 
 
 The potato beetle originally belonged to the eastern slopes of 
 the Rocky Mountains in Colorado and Montana, where it feeds 
 upon the wild members of the potato family. When settlers, in 
 pushing westward, introduced the cultivated potato into its 
 neighborhood, it was prompt to take advantage of the new food 
 
 FIG. 81. The potato beetle: a, on the potato plant (after Herrick); b, the 
 larva (Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No 155); c, the adult (Iowa 
 Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 155). 
 
 plant, and began its eastward migration about 1859, arriving on 
 the Atlantic Coast of Massachusetts in 1874 (Figs. 82 and 83). 
 
 Ground beetles. Among the first beetles that will come to the 
 attention of the child who is collecting insects will be the large 
 ground beetles that are quite brightly colored. They are long- 
 legged, predatory beetles, coirfmonly found hiding under stones, 
 logs, and bits of bark, and capture other insects by running them 
 down. The largest of these common ground beetles, as large as 
 the last joint of the thumb, is iridescent purple, with reddish 
 
120 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 legs; this is the fiery hunter (Fig. 84). Another very common 
 member of this genus, known as the searcher, is about half as 
 large as the one just noted and has a greenish body with rows of 
 coppery spots on the wing covers. Another closely related 
 ground beetle that is a good hunter is the bombardier beetle. 
 He is a bluish-green beetle, about half an inch long, and has the 
 habit of discharging a very irritating fluid, in the form of a spray, 
 from the tip of the abdomen. When a bird or other enemy is 
 
 FIG. 82. The potato beetle's routes of migration, with dates of arrival at 
 some localities (after Tower). 
 
 about to pick up the insect this discharge is so surprising that it 
 gives the beetle a moment in which to scamper to shelter. One 
 was dropped into an ants' nest that was teeming with life. As 
 the ants seized it, it defended itself with its spray and got away 
 from one group of ants only to be caught by another. But by 
 successive discharges it managed to reach the edge of the large 
 nest and make good its escape. 
 
 Tiger beetles. A tiger hunt certainly sounds thrilling and 
 these insect tigers are quite as voracious, size considered, as the 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 
 
 121 
 
122 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 jungle beast. They are predatory beetles found in such open 
 places as the lake shores, margins of streams, sandy patches in 
 the woods and fields, and along woodland paths. The tiger 
 beetle is not very large, being about half an inch long, rather 
 slender, and having slender legs. It may be of almost any color 
 from black to white, though the commoner forms are brownish 
 and are marked with yellow spots and bars of intricate design; 
 the underside is iridescent green. The animal feeds on flies and 
 other small insects, on which it pounces with tiger-like ferocity. 
 As it alights, after flying on your approach, it almost always 
 
 FIG. 84. The fiery hunter and the searcher beetles 
 
 turns about so as to face you. When one is collecting beetles, 
 there is quite as much fascination in hunting these tigers as there 
 is in tracking the great cat from which they take their name, 
 though this sport lacks the spice of danger. 
 
 Regional distribution. It is worth while to keep track of the 
 region from which specimens of the tiger beetle are obtained, for 
 each species seems to have strong preferences for a particular 
 locality. In the Chicago region, for instance, one tiger commonly 
 hunts along the lake shore, close to the water; another is found 
 on the loose sand of the shore; still another is found back where 
 the cottonwoods are beginning to grow (Fig. 85). When the 
 oak forests, away from the lake, are reached, a fourth species is 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 123 
 
 common, while in the richer forest lands, where maple and beech 
 are growing, still another species is found hunting along the paths. 
 Along the shores of stagnant pools there is* a different species, 
 while on the moist clay hillsides another sort is common. Prob- 
 ably no other group of insects will give the young collector a 
 better idea of regional distribution than will this group of the 
 tiger beetles. 
 
 Wood borers. A great many beetles are wood borers, at least 
 in their larval condition. In seeking for them, therefore, it is a 
 
 FIG. Ss.^-Tiger beetles on sand (X2) 
 
 very good plan to strip off the bark from partly decayed logs 
 and stumps. One of the commonest of the wood-boring beetles, 
 the horned Passalus, is shown in Fig. 86. The larvae of such 
 animals are provided with horny jaws, to which powerful muscles 
 attach, so that often the mouth end of the larva is conspicuously 
 the larger end. It is worth while to follow the passages in a 
 rotten log, chipping away the wood with a hatchet or chisel, so 
 as to get at the adult beetles ; this is especially true in the spring 
 and early summer when the larvae are likely to be transforming 
 into the adults. There are many species of wood-boring beetles 
 and they do an immense amount of damage to timber, for not a 
 
124 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 86. The horned Passalus and its 
 larva, a wood borer. 
 
 few of them attack the living trees, especially when dead timber 
 
 is not abundant. It behooves the farmer, therefore, to keep his 
 
 wood lot cleaned up so that 
 the wood borers will have 
 little or no rotting material 
 in which to deposit the eggs 
 and rear their young. 
 
 None of the wood borers 
 are more interesting to the 
 novice than the click beetles. 
 The largest one of these that 
 is at all common is a rather 
 long, somewhat flattened, 
 grayish beetle, with two large 
 eyespots on the thorax (Fig. 
 87). These are not real eyes, 
 but simply spots that look 
 
 somewhat like eyes as we make them in a conventional drawing. 
 
 There are some other clicks of the 
 
 same general form that are nut 
 
 brown in color. When any of these 
 
 beetles are laid, back down, on the 
 
 palm of the hand they usually try 
 
 to right themselves by a sudden 
 
 backward jerk of the head and 
 
 thorax, and in so doing make a 
 
 distinct click. It is this peculiar 
 
 movement that has given the ani- 
 mals their name. 
 
 Certain of the boring beetles 
 
 have very long antennae and are 
 
 known as the longhorns. A typi- 
 cal one is shown in Fig. 88. These 
 
 beetles live chiefly in the wood of the conifers, and wherever these 
 
 trees are found the beetles are plentiful. 
 
 FIG. 87. The eyed elater (Al- 
 aus oculatus] and its larva. 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 
 
 125 
 
 Lady beetles. While many of the beetles are injurious to the 
 timber and to the farm crops, there are some that are exceedingly 
 beneficial. The first that should be mentioned in this connection 
 is the common lady beetle or ladybird (Fig. 89). Both the adult 
 and the larva of many species of this insect feed on plant lice 
 and on other soft-bodied bugs found on the foliage. Among the 
 worst enemies of our orange trees and grapefruit trees are some 
 species of scale insects. A few years ago it looked as if the orange 
 industry in California was doomed because of these little scales. 
 As the pest had made its way into this country on fruit imported 
 
 FIG. 88. A longhorn beetle whose larvae bore in pine logs 
 
 from Asia the Department of Agriculture sent its experts there 
 to find the natural enemies of this particular scale. These men 
 brought back with them some lady 
 beetles which they had found preyed 
 upon the scale and liberated them in 
 the California orange groves. The 
 beetles took kindly to their new en- 
 vironment and busily set to work 
 cleaning out the scale insects. As they 
 have multiplied with rapidity they and their progeny are keep- 
 ing the pest well under control. 
 
 Flies and disease. There is a whole legion of different sorts 
 of flies and they vary in size from the microscopic "nosee-um" 
 
 FIG. 89. Nine-spotted 
 ladybird beetle and its larva. 
 
126 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 of the north woods to some of the huge flies that attack cattle 
 (Fig. 90). All have only two wings, the second pair being 
 modified to form a pair of organs known as the balancers. 
 Scientifically the group is known as the Diptera. In it belong 
 many biting flies whose mouth parts are arranged in the form of a 
 tube, provided at its tip with lancelets that cut through the skin 
 to the deeper layers bearing blood. The common mosquito is an 
 example. In the chapter that follows on the "Spore-Bearers" 
 some experiments will be given to help demonstrate that the fly 
 is liable to carry disease germs. Its life-habits make it a dan- 
 gerous animal to have about the premises. In many cities the 
 house fly has been practically exterminated from the residence 
 
 a 
 
 FIG. 90. Flies: a, serphid; b, robber fly 
 
 sections, at least, by trapping and cleaning out the possible 
 breeding places. The eggs are always laid in decomposing 
 organic matter, stable manure being a favorite place, though any 
 moist refuse may answer. The hairy legs and feet and the sticky 
 mouth parts are admirably adapted to transfer germs from place 
 to place. It has been abundantly demonstrated that some of the 
 biting flies are the means of the transfer of specific micro- 
 organisms that cause disease; thus the sleeping sickness of 
 Africa is occasioned by the bite of the tsetse fly. Certain species 
 of mosquitoes carry germs of malaria and of yellow fever. 
 
 It has long been known that the inhabitants of marshy 
 grounds are prone to malaria, but it is only in relatively recent 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 127 
 
 times that we have learned that the real danger lies, not in any 
 poisonous exhalations from the marshes, but in the bite of the 
 mosquito infected with malaria germs because it had bitten some 
 one suffering from the disease. We know, too, that the ticks, 
 the bedbugs, the body lice, and the fleas, all of which are wingless 
 and more or less degenerate insects belonging to this group or to 
 the bugs, are also disease carriers. Not infrequently some other 
 animal serves as intermediate host. For instance., bubonic 
 plague, the old much-dreaded black death of the Middle Ages, is 
 carried by the rat. The flea, which may bite a rat and may leave 
 the rat later for a human host, transfers the germ from the rat 
 to the human host. These insect pests are therefore not only 
 disagreeable but are also a serious menace to health. 
 
 Collecting. At various points in this chapter suggestions 
 have been offered regarding the collection of insects. Of all the 
 common animals, none lends itself so readily to the purposes 
 of the amateur collector as this group. They multiply with such 
 amazing rapidity that one does not hesitate to obtain what 
 samples are needed for the collection unless it be in the case of 
 the rarer sorts of butterflies. The beetles are handled with the 
 least trouble, as they have such hard bodies that they need no 
 preparation to insure their preservation. After being killed in 
 the manner to be described, the beetle is pinned by thrusting an 
 insect pin through the right wing cover, well toward its front 
 (Fig. 91). To make the legs and feet show, put an oblong piece 
 of card on the pin below the beetle; with forceps pull out the feet 
 and make their claws lay hold of the edges of the card. Care 
 must be exercised when the card is removed, after three or four 
 days, that the feet do not break. Ordinarily let the legs assume 
 what position they will. The insect should be run up pretty 
 well toward the head of the pin, just leaving room to grasp the 
 head, so that there will be plenty of pin on which to impale the 
 labels and to stick firmly into the cork that lines the insect box. 
 The label is a small oblong card on which is the insect's name, the 
 locality where found, the date, and possibly a number reference 
 to the notes. 
 
128 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The net. An insect net is a desirable adjunct for the collector. 
 The frame can be made in the same way as that described for 
 the net to be used in collecting animals of pond and stream 
 (p. 30) , but it need not be made of as heavy wire. If the diameter 
 of the net frame is ten inches, the net should be at least twenty- 
 four inches deep; it is best made of bobinet as that will wear 
 longest. Even with a large net it will require some practice 
 
 FIG. 91. Beetle collection 
 
 before one can capture a butterfly on the wing. If the insect 
 is at rest a quick sweep will get it into the net, when the handle 
 should be so turned that the net hangs over the edge of the wire 
 frame, confining the insect in the net. It may be killed by 
 squirting on it, while in the net, a few drops of gasoline, which is 
 conveniently carried in a bicycle oil can while out collecting; or 
 the insect may be put into the killing bottle. 
 
 The killing bottle. Place three or four lumps of potassium 
 cyanide as large as the last joint of your finger in a wide-mouthed 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 
 
 129 
 
 bottle or small fruit jar. This must be handled with care, for, 
 although it is not poisonous to the touch unless there is a scratch 
 or other break in the skin, it is very poisonous if taken in the 
 mouth; all bits should therefore be picked up carefully and the 
 cyanide bottle should not be left where young children can reach 
 it. Keep it tightly corked and plainly labeled. Mix a teacupful 
 of plaster of Paris with water, stirring the water into the plaster 
 until it is the consistency of very thick cream. Pour this over 
 
 FIG. 92. The spreading-board and cyanide bottle 
 
 the cyanide in the bottle, covering it completely. In a very few 
 minutes it will set hard, when any water remaining on its surface 
 may be drained off. Potassium cyanide absorbs moisture from 
 the air and liquefies and keeps the plaster saturated with the 
 cyanide, fumes of which fill the bottle (Fig. 92). The fumes in 
 this bottle are dangerous even for a person to inhale, and an 
 insect dropped into the bottle is killed in a very few seconds. 
 After the insects are captured it is well to leave them in the killing 
 bottle so that their bodies will be saturated with the fumes; 
 they are not so likely then to be riddled by the tiny insects that 
 
130 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 so often do damage to collections. Insects like the bugs and the 
 bees and wasps may be pinned by running a pin of proper size 
 through the thorax. Dragon flies, moths, butterflies, and the 
 like must be spread so that the wings will remain expanded in the 
 collection. 
 
 The spreading-board. This is most readily accomplished on a 
 spreading-board (Fig. 92) made as follows: By means of two end 
 strips fasten together two soft-pine boards a foot or more long 
 and three or four inches wide so that they will incline toward each 
 other slightly, with a groove between them that is a little wider 
 than the insect's body. About a. half -inch below this groove 
 fasten another strip of pine or of sheet cork. Run the pin 
 through the thorax of the insect and then set it into this strip, the 
 body of the insect in the groove. Fasten the wings in position 
 on the boards by means of narrow strips of paper pinned across 
 them without running pins through the wings. The hind 
 margins of the forewings should make a straight line that is at 
 right angles to the longitudinal axis of the body. After the 
 insect has been on the spreading-board for several days it may be 
 removed and put in the insect box. While it is spreading it 
 should be kept in a drawer or box away from mice and insect pests. 
 
 The collection. The box in which the insects are kept should 
 have strips of cork or thin sections cut from an ordinary cork 
 glued to its bottom to take the pins. Cigar boxes that are deep 
 .answer very well for the amateur collector. Insect boxes may 
 be purchased from any dealer in entomological supplies. To 
 keep insect pests out of the collection place a moth ball in each 
 box. Such moth balls, in the form of cones attached to pins, 
 can be bought of the dealers. For butterflies or moths, dragon 
 flies, and any of the large and fragile insects individual mounting 
 boxes made of glass are worth while. Cut strips of pasteboard 
 a quarter-inch wide or wider for the thick-bodied moths. Using 
 passe-partout paper bind these strips along the edge of a piece of 
 glass like a cleaned-up, small negative; a second similar glass 
 will be used for the cover. Thrust a short pin through the 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 131 
 
 center of a slice of a small cork and glue this to the bottom of the 
 box, the pin point up. The insect that has been spread without 
 a pin through it is impaled on this pin. When the insect is 
 properly arranged in the box, put on the cover and finish binding 
 with the passe-partout paper. Boxes somewhat like this are to 
 be obtained ready-made from Denton Brothers, Wellesley, 
 Massachusetts. Wood strips, cut to various lengths, to use in 
 place of the pasteboard can be purchased cheaply of A. I. Root, 
 Medina, Ohio. 
 
 Insect relatives. In the haunts of the insects are to be found 
 some other animals, close relatives of theirs, that are among the 
 most wonderful in the world the thousand legs and the spiders. 
 When hunting insect larvae or beetles, under the bark of old logs> 
 
 FIG. 93. Sporobolus, the millipede 
 
 you are sure to find the thousand legs or myriapods. They 
 scurry off with such haste when #ght is let in on them that one 
 might suspect their deeds were evil, but, on the contrary, they 
 are scavengers, feeding largely on dead animals that would soon 
 make the woods and fields offensive were it not for them, a 
 sanitary force that is ever watchful to make way with defunct 
 organisms. There is one sort, Lithobius, that is flat and 
 does not have so very many legs; hildren usually call them 
 centipedes, though they are not truly such. Another kind is 
 round and of many sizes; even the small ones, like Julus, are 
 interesting, but the big round one (Sporobolus), that grows to be 
 three or four inches long and as big around as the little finger, 
 gives such a clever display of the use of its many legs that it is 
 fascinating (Fig. 93). Watch it walk or run and see if you can 
 
132 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 94. Front view of 
 spider (Lycosa), showing 
 mandibles and palps. 
 
 keep track of the way in which it moves its legs. What would 
 happen if the beast should have a spell of awkwardness! 
 
 Spiders. Like the myriapods, the spiders have more legs 
 than the insects; not so many more, however, as they only have 
 four pairs, while the insects have three. 
 In spiders the head and thorax are fused 
 together into one mass, while in insects 
 they are quite distinct. Spiders do not 
 possess the compound eyes so common 
 among the insects, but they do have 
 several pairs of simple eyes which enable 
 them to see only at close range. Prob- 
 ably the most interesting structures of 
 spiders, in the popular mind, are their 
 fangs, used for biting, and the spinnerets that produce the web 
 (Figs. 94 and 95). 
 
 Their poison. It is too bad that most adult humans are, like 
 Miss Muffit, ready to run from a spider; they are such interesting 
 animals and all that we have in the North are quite harmless. 
 Even the so-called tarantula, that comes to us occasionally in a 
 bunch of bananas, is not fero- 
 cious and may be handled 
 with impunity. True, all 
 spiders have a pair of heavy 
 mandibles or jaws, ending in 
 sharp claws that are used to 
 pierce the bodies of their vic- 
 tims; in these claws, too, are 
 the openings of the poison 
 ducts that discharge the par- 
 alyzing fluid into the prey. But the spider sees that man is no 
 proper victim; indeed, it is so afraid that it invariably tries to 
 run away. Even when handled the spiders will not bite, as a 
 rule; and even if they should, the bite is no more than a pin 
 prick and not as serious as that of a mosquito. Some of the 
 
 FIG. 95. A spider's spinnerets, jointed 
 organs, the ends of which are covered with 
 fine tubes from which the silk comes. 
 
INSECTS AND, INSECT ALLIES 133 
 
 Old World tarantulas have nasty reputations, but it is doubtful 
 if any of them ever inflict a really dangerous bite. A generation 
 ago, however, the peasants of some countries in Southern Europe 
 believed the bite was fatal unless the sufferer could be induced 
 to dance hilariously and persistently until the dance music 
 charmed away the evil. Such music that will make the victim 
 dance in spite of himself is a tarantella. 
 
 The spider's silk. The silk glands lie in the abdomen and 
 discharge their secretion through the spinnerets and in some 
 species through a perforated plate also. There are three pairs 
 of spinnerets, each with many openings through which a variety 
 of different kinds of silk may be emitted as the spider has need 
 (Fig. 95). The spider uses its hind legs to manipulate the silk 
 as it comes from the spinnerets. The thread that goes into the 
 web is made of many strands; in some species it is made of 
 thousands. It makes an interesting school exercise to have the 
 children report the different kinds of spiders' webs that they can 
 find. It sharpens their eyes and their wits, too, as they try to 
 describe what they have seen. They will probably report finding 
 many spiders that are not living in webs at all, the wandering 
 spiders that capture their prey without a trap. Then they will 
 find irregular nets, consisting of silken strands that run every 
 which way, and sheet webs, plain stretches of fine-spun gossamer, 
 that make themselves apparent largely by the dust they collect. 
 Both these sorts are common about the house and are known as 
 cobwebs. In the grass outstretched sheet webs will commonly 
 be found that lead at one side to a funnel in the throat of which 
 is the spider's lair. These funnel webs are especially conspicuous 
 in the morning after a dew. Likely the webs that will attract 
 most attention are those made of silken strands stretched out in 
 complicated patterns like delicate lacework; such are the orb 
 webs and the triangular webs. In addition there will be reported 
 webs that are admixtures of these several distinct sorts. 
 
 Building the web. No task will make the pupils more appre- 
 ciative of the spider's inherent skill than to watch and report on 
 
134 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 the method of construction of one of these orb builder's webs. 
 It is made of two, sometimes three, distinct kinds of threads: 
 the hard, inelastic kind that forms the foundation, on which the 
 spider walks; the viscid, elastic threads, laid on to entrap the 
 prey; and in some webs a ribbon of fine threads that the spider 
 builds as a broad highway for itself. Without describing the 
 method of building, attention may be called to the several parts 
 of such a web. There are (i) the bridges, the outermost threads 
 that the spider uses to get from point to point to lay (2) the 
 foundations; (3) the radii; (4) the spiral guy line, put in to keep 
 the radii taut and in place; (5) the hub, at the very center, sur- 
 rounded by (6) a notched zone, beyond which is (7) the free zone, 
 and finally there is (8) the viscid spiral. There may be also the 
 broad highway of fine-spun silk ribbon, laid zigzag from the 
 center, known as the stabilimentum. This is the signature of 
 Argiope to its handiwork, for no other genus of spiders adds it; 
 sometimes even Argiope fails to put on its trade-mark (Fig. 96). 
 
 The use of the web. Quite as fascinating as the building of the 
 web is its method of use. Watch as some blundering fly or 
 grasshopper strikes the outspread net. The spider, waiting at 
 the center or in its retreat off at one side, feels the shock of 
 contact, the victim's vicious pulls on the sticky threads as it tries 
 to escape. If it is a small animal the spider likely bites it at once 
 and so paralyzes it, then leisurely sucks its blood. But if the 
 insect is a large one, the spider must entangle its legs in silken 
 folds so that it may not rip the web to pieces and escape. 
 Darting up to the animal, spinning as it goes a sheet of silk, it 
 deftly thrusts the sticky silk on the insect, emits more and more 
 of it, and winds it up in the shroud so thoroughly that it soon 
 ceases to struggle. The spider then gives it its quietus with her 
 poison fangs and returns repeatedly to the feast until it is sucked 
 dry, when the remains are thrown out of the web. 
 
 Courtship. The male spiders customarily build a much less 
 complicated web than the females. As a rule, too, they are much 
 smaller animals with longer legs. Courtship is, for the male, a 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 135 
 
 hazardous undertaking, for if the lady spider is in no mood to 
 receive his advances she is very likely to seize him and make a 
 meal of her would-be suitor. If she is amiable he is permitted to 
 occupy her web with her. In many species of spiders the male 
 approaches the female with complicated dance steps that appear 
 
 FIG. 96. The orb builder Argiope; another specimen in an adjacent web is 
 seen indistinctly; in front of it is seen the silk shroud of a recently killed locust. 
 
 to help ingratiate him into her favor. His antics effectively rival 
 even the most assiduous efforts of the modern dancing master. 
 
 Ballooning spiders. In the late summer or early fall there 
 come days when all the spinning spiders seem possessed of a desire 
 to see the world and nothing will do but each must spin his silken 
 aeroplane and sail away in quest of no one knows what. Each 
 young spider, for it seems to be largely the youngsters that are 
 
136 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 so venturesome, mounts some pinnacle a tall grass stalk or 
 weed, a towering shrub or fence post and there lets out of his 
 spinnerets fluffy masses of silk that catch the breeze, lift him off 
 his feet, and carry him, sailing, through the air. Sometimes 
 the wind is too strong and it carries the silk off, as fast as it is 
 spun, in a long streamer, and then all over the fields and 
 shrubbery there lie these silken strands that gleam like silver in 
 the morning sun. 
 
 FIG. 97. Wolf spider with egg cocoons; at left, cocoons of several spiders; 
 at right, one of these enlarged. 
 
 The wanderers. Probably children will come to know the 
 wandering spiders sooner than the net builders, since they are so 
 common everywhere. Here belong the wolf spiders that live 
 for the most part on the ground and run down their insect prey. 
 The females carry their globular, silken egg sacs around with 
 them wherever they go (Fig. 97). The commoner jumping 
 spiders are black and gray, with very large heads. They leap 
 upon their victims and can make record-breaking jumps, con- 
 sidering their size. The most likely place to look for representa- 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 137 
 
 tives of the crab spider is in the flower cluster of some such plant 
 as the wild carrot, parsnip, or daisy. These are flattened animals 
 with crablike legs and gait. Not all the crab spiders have the 
 ambushing habit of these. They lie in wait for some insect that 
 is seeking nectar, in order that they may pounce upon it while 
 effectively hidden in the blossom cluster, their colors harmonizing 
 with those of the flowers. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 NOTE. Bulletins and circulars marked with an asterisk (*) in the list are to be 
 obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C., and the price 
 is five cents unless otherwise specified. Many other titles can be obtained from 
 the same source and a price list of all such will be sent on application. 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins are issued by the United States Department of Agricul- 
 ture, Washington, D.C. 
 
 American Boys' Book of Bugs, Butterflies, and Beetles. Dan Beard. Phila- 
 delphia: J. B. Lippincott Co. $2.00. 
 
 American Insects. V. L. Kellogg. New York: Henry Holt & Co. $4 . oo. 
 Ants. W. M. Wheeler. New York: Columbia University Press. $5.00. 
 Aquatic Insects of the Adirondacks. Needham and Betten. Bulletin No. 
 
 47, New York State Museum. $0.45. 
 *Army Worm, Fall, and Variegated Cut Worm. Bulletin No. 29, New Series, 
 
 Bureau of Entomology. $0.05. 
 
 * Bedbugs. Circular No. 47, Second Series, Bureau of Entomology. 
 Bee Culture, The A B C and X Y Z of. Medina, Ohio: The A. I. Root Co. 
 Bee, The Life of the. Maurice Maeterlinck. New York: Dodd, Mead 
 
 &Co. $1.50. 
 
 *Bee Keeping. Frank Berton. Farmers' Bulletin No. 59. 
 *Bees. E. F. Phillips. Farmers' Bulletin No. 447. 
 Bees, How to Keep. Anna Botsford Comstock. Ithaca, N.Y.: The 
 
 Comstock Publishing Co. $i . oo. 
 *Beetles, Value of Predaceous, in Destroying Insect Pests. Yearbook Separate 
 
 No. 583, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 *Brown-tail Moth and How to Control It. L. O. Howard. Farmers' 
 
 Bulletin No. 264. (See Gipsy Moth.) 
 
 Butterflies and Bees. M. W. Morley. Boston: Ginn & Co. $0.60. 
 Butterflies of Eastern North America. G. H. French. Philadelphia: 
 J. B. Lippincott Co. $2.00. 
 
138 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Butterfly and Moth Book. Ellen Robertson Miller. New York: Chas. 
 
 Scribner and Sons. $i . 50. 
 Butterfly Book. W. J. Holland. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 
 
 $4 . oo. 
 
 Butterfly Guide, A Pocket Manual. W. J. HoUand. New York: Double- 
 day, Page & Co. $i .00. 
 Butterfly, The Life of a. Samuel H. Scudder. New York: Henry Holt 
 
 & Co. $1.00. 
 
 Buzz. M.Noel. New York: Henry Holt & Co. $1.00. 
 *Cabbage Bug, The Harlequin. Circular No. 10, Second Series, Bureau of 
 
 Entomology. 
 *Carpet Beetle or "Buffalo Moth." Circular No. 5, Second Series, Bureau 
 
 of Entomology. 
 Caterpillars and Their Moths. Eliot and Soule. New York: The Century 
 
 Co. $2.00. 
 
 *Cicada, The Periodical. Bulletin No. 14, New Series, Bureau of Ento- 
 mology. $0.15. 
 
 * 'Cockroaches. Circular No. 51, Second Series, Bureau of Entomology. 
 *Codling Moth and Apple Scabs, The Control of. Farmers' Bulletin No. 247. 
 * Cornstalk-Borer, The Large. Circular No. 16, Second Series, Bureau of 
 
 Entomology. 
 *Cotton Boll Weevil, Mexican. Bulletin No. 51, New Series, Bureau of 
 
 Entomology. $0.15. 
 *Cotton Boll Weevil, Mexican. Annotated Bibliography of. Circular No. 
 
 140, Second Series, Bureau of Entomology. 
 Dragon Flies of Illinois. Bulletin No. in. State Laboratory of Natural 
 
 History, Vol. VI, September, 1901. 
 Dragon Flies of Indiana, in the twenty-fourth Annual Report, Indiana 
 
 Dept. of Geology and Natural History. 
 Entomology, Elementary. Sanderson and Jackson. Boston: Ginn & Co. 
 
 $2 . oo. 
 Fly, The Life of the. J. Henri Fabre. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 
 
 $i . 50. 
 
 *Gipsy M oth in America. Bulletin No. n, New Series, Bureau of Ento- 
 mology. 
 *Gipsy Moth and Brown-tail Moth, Report on. Circular No. 58, Second 
 
 Series, Bureau of Entomology. 
 *Gipsy Moth and Brown-tail Moth with Suggestions for Their Control. 
 
 Farmers' Bulletin No. 564. 
 *Gipsy Moth and How to Control It. L. O. Howard. Farmers' Bulletin 
 
 No. 275. 
 *Eessian Fly. Circular No. 70, Second Series, Bureau of Entomology. 
 
INSECTS AND INSECT ALLIES 139 
 
 *House Flies. L. O. Howard. Farmers' Bulletin No. 459. 
 House Fly, Disease Carrier. L. O. Howard. New York: Frederick A. 
 
 Stokes. $1.60. 
 ^Household Insects of the United States, Principal. Bulletin No. 4, Bureau 
 
 of Entomology. $o. 10. 
 ^Household Insects, Hydrocyanic Acid Gas against. Circular No. 163, 
 
 Bureau of Entomology. 
 *How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. L. O. Howard. Farmers' 
 
 Bulletin No. 155. 
 
 Insects. Hyatt and Arms. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co. $1.25. 
 Insects. David Sharp. Cambridge Natural History, Vols. V and VI. 
 
 New York: The Macmillan Co. $4.00. 
 ^Insects Affecting Domestic Animals. Bulletin No. 5, New Series, Bureau 
 
 of Entomology. $o . 20. * 
 
 * Insects as Carriers and Spreaders of Disease. Yearbook Separate No. 235, 
 
 U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 ^Insects Injurious to the Wood of Living Trees. Circular No. 126, Second 
 
 Series, Bureau of Entomology. 
 *Insects of Deciduous Fruits (Apple, Grape, Peach, Pear). Bulletin No. 68, 
 
 Bureau of Entomology. $0.25. 
 ^Insects Injurious to Forest Products. Circular No. 128, Second Series, 
 
 Bureau of Entomology. 
 Insects Injurious to the Household. Glenn W. Herrick. New York: The 
 
 Macmillan Co. $1.75. 
 ^Insects Injurious to the Wood of Dying Trees. Circular No. 127, Second 
 
 Series, Bureau of Entomology. 
 *Insects Injurious to the Wood of Living Trees. Circular No. 126, Second 
 
 Series, Bureau of Entomology. 
 Insects, Life Histories of American. Clarence M. Weed. New York: 
 
 The Macmillan Co. $i . 50. 
 
 *Insects, Some, Injurious to Forests. Bulletin No. 58, Bureau of Ento- 
 mology. $0.35. 
 ^Insects, Some, Injurious to Truck Crops. Bulletin No. 82, Bureau of 
 
 Entomology. $o . 30. 
 *Insects, Some, Injurious to Vegetable Crops. Bulletin No. 33, New Series, 
 
 Bureau of Entomology. $o . 10. 
 *Locusts, Destructive. Bulletin No. 25, Old Series, Bureau of Entomology. 
 
 $0.15. 
 
 *Malaria, Some Facts about. L. O. Howard. Farmers' Bulletin No. 450. 
 Manual for the Study of Insects. John H. Comstock. Ithaca, N.Y. : The 
 
 Comstock Publishing Co. $3.75. 
 
140 SOURCE BOOK OP BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 *Maple Scale, Cottony. Circular No. 64, Second Series, Bureau of Ento- 
 mology. 
 *Mites and Lice on Poultry. Circular No. 92, Second Series, Bureau of 
 
 Entomology. 
 
 Mosquitoes. L. O. Howard. New York: McClure, Phillips & Co. $1.50. 
 ^Mosquitoes, Remedies and Preventatives . Farmers' Bulletin No. 444. 
 Moth Book, The. W. J. Holland. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 
 
 $4.00. 
 Nature Sketches in Temperate America. Joseph L. Hitchcock. Chicago: 
 
 A. C. McClurg & Co. $3 .00. 
 ^Notable Depredations by Forest Insects. Yearbook Separate No. 442, U.S. 
 
 Dept. of Agriculture. 
 *San Jose or Chinese Scale. Bulletin No. 62, New Series, Bureau of 
 
 Entomology. $0.25. 
 *San Jose Scale and Its Control. Circular No. 124, Second Series, Bureau 
 
 of Entomology. 
 *Squash Bug, The Common. Circular No. 39, Second Series, Bureau of 
 
 Entomology. . 
 Spider Book, The. John H. Comstock. New York: Doubleday, Page & 
 
 Co. $4 . oo. 
 
 The Common Spiders. J. H. Emerton. Boston: Ginn & Co. $1.50. 
 The Spinner Family. Alice J. Patterson. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co. 
 
 $1.25. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 BIRDS 
 
 Interest in birds. Popular interest in the study of birds has 
 recently increased very rapidly. This is in part due to the 
 increasing realization of the economic importance of birds and in 
 part to the eminently successful work of the National Audubon 
 Association and of other similar societies. Effective new legis- 
 lation, both state and federal, looking toward the protection of 
 birds, especially the non-game sorts, reflects a public sentiment 
 that is coming to be more and more appreciative of both the 
 aesthetic and economic value of birds. In cities, at least, it is 
 very noticeable that the parks and other likely places are now 
 frequented by large numbers of amateur observers, whereas a 
 few years ago the individual with a bird glass was an object of 
 curiosity. In many localities it is so commonplace to find 
 children acquainted with the common birds that the boy or girl 
 who does not know them on sight is the exception. It has been 
 the experience of many teachers in normal schools and similar 
 institutions that the pupils now coming up from the grades have 
 a very respectable acquaintance with the commoner forms of 
 nature, including the ordinary birds. 
 
 Beginners in bird-study. It is very interesting to note what 
 different replies are given to the question, " How many different 
 kinds of birds do you think there are in this region ? " The usual 
 answer of the novice is, "About twenty, " while some student, who 
 has attempted to learn the birds and has been impressed with 
 their variety, is likely to go to the other extreme and reply, "Oh, 
 a thousand or more." 
 
 To one who is beginning the study of birds the task of learning 
 to recognize the birds of a region at sight seems almost hopeless. 
 The same bird may be encountered in many localities and from 
 
 141 
 
142 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 many points of view and each time may appear so different that 
 the student becomes discouraged. He is fortunate who has the 
 help of an instructor who is so familiar with the birds that he can 
 point out the distinguishing characters and so make this first 
 season less difficult. If the student, working alone, knows 
 surely five birds at the end of the first few weeks of bird-study 
 he has accomplished much, and he will learn the next twenty-five 
 with comparative ease. After that the student's progress is so 
 rapid that his enthusiasm will know no bounds. One must be 
 ready to devote some little time and attention to bird-study to 
 succeed. It is well to follow patiently, with the field glasses, 
 some one bird until its distinguishing features are quite surely 
 fixed in mind and its song and habits are moderately familiar, for 
 the bird student comes to know his birds quite as much by their 
 carriage, flight, idiosyncracies of behavior, and voice as by their 
 conspicuous markings and size. When one bird has been learned 
 well enough to make identification certain, another one can be 
 added to the list. 
 
 Helps. The Land Birds, by Chester A. Reed, and The Water 
 Birds, which together give reasonably accurate colored pictures 
 of all the birds of Eastern United States and Canada, and The 
 Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America, by Frank M. 
 Chapman, are among the best of the bird books; the former is 
 especially good for beginners in bird-study. A great many 
 pamphlets and reports can be obtained from the United States 
 Department of Agriculture and many of the states issue valuable 
 reports. A list of some of the more important of these is given 
 in the bibliography. Many of the publications can be obtained 
 gratuitously through your congressman, while others are for free 
 distribution by the Department of Agriculture. Some of them 
 must be purchased of the Superintendent of Documents, 
 Washington, D.C., from whom can be obtained, on request, a list 
 with the very low prices. 
 
 One of the most important agencies, if not the most important, 
 for spreading knowledge of our birds and interest in them, 
 
BIRDS 143 
 
 especially among school children, is the Audubon Association, 
 with headquarters at 1975 Broadway, New York City, and 
 branches in the various states. The Association publishes a very 
 superior bird magazine, Bird Lore, and many valuable pamphlets, 
 and issues a number of colored pictures of the birds, together 
 with descriptive leaflets and outline sketches of the commoner 
 birds, the latter to be colored by the pupils. The Association will 
 gladly send lists of these together with other information to any 
 teacher applying to its secretary. 
 
 Methods of bird-study. Bird-study must largely be an 
 individual matter; it is difficult to conduct class instruction, for 
 as a rule the birds are shy of the noise and appearance of many 
 people. If, however, a large group must make this study it is 
 advisable to divide it into smaller groups, and it is about as well 
 for the pupils to sit down in secluded spots and wait for the birds 
 to appear as it is to walk around and try to find the birds. The 
 teacher can move from group to group, helping to identify the 
 birds that are reported. As an aid to observation the children 
 may be provided with some sort of a blank to be filled in, such 
 as the one suggested in the Field and Laboratory Guide in Bio- 
 logical Nature Study or in the Comstock Bird Study Note Book. 
 
 A bird calendar. When the children are once started on their 
 observation and identification of the birds, an excellent device for 
 stimulating interest is a bird calendar. Decorate a large sheet of 
 paper or an area of the blackboard with an attractive heading and 
 below this enter the date of the first reported appearance of any 
 given species, the name of the species, and the name of the child 
 that first accurately reports it. The calendar may be kept running 
 during the spring months when the birds are arriving, modified to 
 take record of the nesting dates and appearance of the young birds, 
 and again used in the fall when the birds are moving southward. 
 
 Map of nest sites. Another excellent device is to map the 
 region in which the school is located, indicating the streets or 
 roads, the houses or farms, and then to designate by red dots or 
 numbers the location of the birds' nests in which young are being 
 
144 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 reared. It is surprising how many birds there are nesting even in 
 the residence portions of the large cities. In one block of Chicago, 
 with which the author is familiar, in the spring of 1915 there were 
 twenty-seven birds' nests, including those of the brown thrasher, 
 catbird, bluebird, robin, oriole, blue jay, song sparrow, red-headed 
 woodpecker, flicker, screech owl, chimney swift, and house wren. 
 Types of nests. In such work the pupils will be certain to 
 learn much about the varying types of construction used by the 
 
 FIG. 98. The woven nest of the oriole 
 
 birds in building their nests. The swaying woven nest of the 
 oriole (Fig. 98) represents nearly, if not quite, the climax of bird 
 skill in housebuilding, while the woodcock often dispenses with 
 any structure and lays its eggs on the bare ground (Fig. 99); 
 between these extremes are all sorts of intermediate types. 
 Some terns lay their eggs among the beach pebbles which they so 
 much resemble that one will often step on the eggs when doing his 
 best to avoid them (Fig. 100). The young terns are so nearly 
 like the sand and dry seaweed of the shore that they are almost 
 
BIRDS 
 
 145 
 
 invisible until they run. The herring gull lays its eggs (Fig. 101) 
 in the hollows of the bare rocks of desolate islands, gathering a 
 
 FIG. 99. Nest of woodcock on the ground 
 
 FIG. 100. Young tern and egg on rocky shore; note that mottling of young 
 harmonizes with seaweed of background. Egg is at tip of tern's bill; similar 
 objects farther to left are pebbles. 
 
 few sticks and bits of moss about itself as it sits on the eggs, 
 making thus a very primitive sort of nest. The nest of the brown 
 thrasher (Fig. 102) is a very loose collection of sticks laid in some 
 
146 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 convenient tree crotch, where it usually goes to pieces soon alter 
 the nesting season is over. Hawks, crows, herons (Fig. 103), and 
 
 FIG. aoi. Nest of herring gull, just a few sticks 
 
 FIG. 102. Nest of brown thrasher 
 
 many other birds make similar platform nests, shaping them 
 more or less like a bowl. Most of the common birds line the 
 nests with grass, bark fiber, thistledown, feathers pulled from 
 
BIRDS 
 
 147 
 
 FIG. 103. Nest of aigrette heron 
 
 \ 
 
 _J 
 
 FIG. 104. Nest of cliff swallow (from water-color sketch) 
 
148 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 their own breasts, or with similar soft material. The robin 
 plasters the outside of its nest with mud to make it more secure. 
 The cliff swallow makes a clay jug against some rocky wall and 
 within this rears its young (Fig. 104). The nest of the chimney 
 swift is glued together and fastened to the bricks of the chimney 
 by a secretion that the bird ejects from its mouth. The Chinese 
 
 FIG. 105. Nest of *marsh wren, woven of marsh grass 
 
 edible birds' nests are so completely formed of a similar secretion 
 that they may be eaten as a dainty luxury. 
 
 Concealed nests. The woodpecker's nest is made from chips 
 cut from the tree in excavating the hole. Kingfishers dig out a 
 long tunnel in some steep, sandy bank by the stream or lake and 
 the eggs are laid on the earth at the end of the tunnel with little 
 pretense of a nest. The blue-gray gnat catcher and the ruby- 
 
BIRDS 149 
 
 throated humming bird cover the outside of the nest with lichens 
 so that it will be inconspicuous. Some of the water birds build 
 on floating masses of plant debris, each pair inhabiting an 
 individual island only large enough for the isolated home. The 
 marsh wren weaves a globular nest of grass (Fig. 105) with a side 
 entrance and attaches it to the water weeds so that it seems just 
 a bunch left by the high water. There is a philosophy of birds' 
 eggs also, for the eggs that are laid in these various nests are 
 colored and spotted in a way that has significance in the survival 
 of the species. As a rule birds do not use the nest a second 
 season, so that nests may be gathered for the school museum 
 after the birds have left them. Each should be labeled with the 
 name of the bird that made it, its location, and if possible the 
 dates of its beginning and completion. 
 
 The perchers. No attempt can be made in the limited space 
 of a chapter to describe the common birds, for in most localities 
 there are probably one hundred and fifty to be found during the 
 year; and where the water birds are common there are even more 
 than this. The student must be referred for detailed descrip- 
 tions to some of the excellent bird books already mentioned. 
 The distinguishing conspicuous features of some typical orders 
 and families may be mentioned here. The best-known birds of 
 fields and woods are in large measure included in an order known 
 as the perchers (Passer es). Four unwebbed toes spring from a 
 common point, three turning forward and one backward to form 
 a foot that is well adapted for clasping twigs or other perches. 
 This order is broken up into a number of families, each of which 
 includes closely related birds. 
 
 The thrush family. This includes the robin, the bluebird, and 
 a number of other thrushes. Most people are not aware that the 
 robin is the red-breasted thrush (Fig. 106). The real robin 
 belongs to the Old World, is smaller than our American bird, and 
 has a more varied song. When our Pilgrim forefathers came to 
 America they dubbed this red-breasted thrush the robin, since 
 he did have the bright breast of their beloved English bird. 
 
150 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Most of the thrushes have mottled breasts, similar to that of the 
 young robin, but not all birds with spotted breasts belong in this 
 family : the brown thrasher, the ovenbird, and he fox sparrow, 
 
 FIG. 106. Robin at nest feeding young, and young in nest (after Finley) 
 
 each with this character, belong to three different families. The 
 bluebird is more properly known as the blue-backed thrush. 
 The other thrushes will be known as "wandering voices" far 
 away in the gloom of the woods long before they are recognized 
 by sight. This thrush family includes our finest bird songsters, 
 
BIRDS 
 
 FIG. 107. The golden- 
 crowned kinglet. 
 
 the hermit and the wood thrushes; their notes have the clear 
 tones of the flute with the softness 7 of distant bells ; their songs 
 are indescribable, quite long, wildly varied inspired rhapsodies 
 full of the inexpressible suggestions of 
 the wilderness. 
 
 Some tree protectors. The kinglet 
 family includes the golden -crowned 
 (Fig. 107) and ruby-crowned kinglets. 
 They are tiny birds, about four inches 
 long, olive green in color, with the under 
 parts lighter; the golden crown has a 
 streak of yellow bordered by black on 
 the top of the head, whereas the ruby- 
 crowned has a patch of ruby red, which, 
 however, is conspicuous only when the animal raises the feathers 
 of the crest. The songs are warbles, that of the ruby-crowned 
 
 being remarkably full and clear for so 
 small a bird. In early spring these 
 little birds will be found carefully going 
 over the twigs of the trees, hunting for 
 insect eggs and larvae. If the woods 
 are mixed conifers and deciduous trees, 
 they are more likely to be seen on the 
 conifers. 
 
 There are several other families that 
 include small birds of like habits. To 
 the titmouse family belongs the chicka- 
 dee (Fig. 1 08), that animated bunch of 
 black and gray that so accommodatingly 
 tells you his name. Another family is 
 represented by the red-breasted and 
 white-breasted nuthatches (Fig. 109), 
 
 whose acrobatic performances on twigs and tree trunks are very 
 entertaining. The brown creeper (creeper family) (Fig. no) 
 also searches the bark crannies for his food. His bill is curved, 
 
 FIG. 108. The chickadee 
 
152 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 the better to explore hidden crevices, while his sharp stiff tail 
 feathers serve as props against the bark. All these birds are 
 exceedingly valuable allies of man. 
 
 The wood warblers are a family peculiar to America (Fig. 1 1 1). 
 They are small birds with slender bills. Their ground color is 
 predominantly green, but this is ornamented with bright orange, 
 yellow, red, or blue. The average person is very much surprised 
 to find that here in the northern states we have such tropically 
 
 FIG. 109. Red-breasted nuthatch 
 
 colored birds. They live largely in the tree tops and are exceed- 
 ingly active, flitting from branch to branch or running over the 
 twigs and bark for the insects on which they feed; they are 
 undoubtedly among the most useful of our birds. Two of the 
 family, the ovenbird and the water thrush, have quite dissimilar 
 habits and feed largely on the ground or low shrubs. 
 
 The wren family includes the saucy, voluble house wren, the 
 marsh wren, the winter wren. All are small, brownish birds with 
 jauntily turned-up tails which give them an impertinent air. 
 
BIRDS 
 
 153 
 
 The mocking-bird family closely related to the wrens, is repre- 
 sented in the North by the catbird and the brown thrasher 
 (Fig. 112). Both of these birds are excellent mimics, with a reper- 
 toire of songs that includes the calls of many of. the common 
 birds, together with some notes 
 distinctively their own. 
 
 The shrikes or butcher birds 
 (shrike family) have hawklike 
 bills and somewhat hawklike 
 habits. They hang up surplus 
 provisions, insects, and small 
 rodents on thorns or even on 
 barbs of wire fences. The 
 birds of the swallow family 
 have short, flat bills, large 
 mouths (Fig. 113), and very 
 long wings, with correspond- 
 ingly small feet. They fly 
 incessantly, capturing insects 
 on the wing. Tree, bank, 
 barn, and cliff swallows, and 
 the purple martin all belong 
 to this group. 
 
 The sparrows. The finch 
 family is a large one, embra- 
 cing all those birds with heavy 
 bills fitted for crushing seeds 
 (Fig. 114); here belong the finches, grosbeaks, and sparrows. 
 The best-known sparrow is that street gamin and tyrant of the 
 back yard, the pesky English sparrow that drives away our 
 valuable native songsters with his pugnacious aggressiveness and 
 stays to clutter our porches and distract us with his incessant 
 cackle. Because he is so objectionable the whole sparrow tribe 
 has a bad reputation among those who do not know birds inti- 
 mately. This is quite unjust, for there are many charming birds 
 
 FIG. no. The brown creeper 
 
154 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 in the group. The tanager family is represented by that beauti- 
 ful flame of the forest, the scarlet tanager, a bird that is a close 
 relative of the sparrows and finches. 
 
 FIG. in. Black-throated green warbler 
 
 FIG. 112. The brown thrasher 
 
 The blackbird family is also a numerous one; meadow larks, 
 bobolinks, blackbirds, and grackles are all included in it. In all 
 these the base of the bill runs up to the forehead, parting the 
 
BIRDS 
 
 155 
 
 FIG. 113. Head of barn swallow; 
 note the tremendous gape of mouth. 
 
 feathers and so forming a characteristic feature. In early spring 
 they are all insectivorous; the blackbirds feed on the dragon-fly 
 larvae captured in the ponds, the cowbirds on the insects scared 
 up by the feeding cattle, the bobolinks gorge on caterpillars, and 
 the meadow larks and grackles on beetles. In the fall and winter 
 grain forms a conspicuous part of the diet, and if other food is 
 not abundant sprouting grain 
 may suffer in the spring. The 
 polygamous cowbird shirks the 
 responsibility of maternity and 
 lays her eggs in the nests of 
 smaller birds. Her rapidly 
 growing young soon crowd out 
 the smaller fledglings and keep 
 the little foster-parents busy gathering food for their ravenous 
 interlopers. However, in spring, one can hardly help welcom- 
 ing the gay roving bands of all these black rascals, when their 
 tinkling, gurgling notes, though harsh, are pleasant after the 
 hushed winter days. 
 
 The crow family is so named after its most conspicuous and 
 noisiest member, though the closely related blue jay is almost a 
 rival. The family has a bad reputation 
 for thievery, and the nests of other birds 
 do suffer seriously from their depreda- 
 tions: both eggs and young form a reg- 
 ular part of the dietary of these birds, 
 especially the crow. We humans have 
 very little right to criticize when 
 " broilers" form so constant a part of 
 our diet. 
 
 Birds of the flycatcher family have broad, slightly hooked 
 bills with bristles at the base. The feathers are gray tinged with 
 green. The feeding habits mark these birds most readily. From 
 a perch on some lookout a telephone pole, or the topmost branch 
 of a tree they dart or swoop upon their prey and then return to 
 watch for the next victim. 
 
 FIG. 114. Head of the 
 towhee. 
 
156 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 \ 
 
 FIG. ii 5. Head of 
 pigeon. 
 
 Other orders. In addition to the order that includes the 
 perching birds, there are several other orders of well-known birds. 
 One includes the chimney sweeps and hum- 
 ming birds. The woodpeckers, with their 
 sharp, chisel-like bills, stiff, pointed tail 
 feathers, stout feet, and tree-climbing 
 habits, constitute another. The familiar 
 hawks and the less well-known owls and 
 vultures belong to the order of robbers 
 (Raptor es). They all have hooked beaks, 
 strong talons, and are birds of prey, feeding largely on rats, 
 field mice, snakes, or on animal refuse. They are usually 
 
 seen in flight and must be 
 recognized on the wing. 
 The wing of both hawk and 
 vulture is long and presents 
 a large surface to the air 
 currents, so that they soar 
 with ease; it requires con- 
 siderable time for such 
 birds to get under way. 
 Birds like the quail or 
 grouse, with relatively 
 small but broad wings, be- 
 gin their flight with almost 
 as great speed as they can 
 later attain. 
 
 Domestic stock. The pigeons and doves are marked by a 
 peculiar soft membrane at the base of the bill, the cere (Fig. 115). 
 Finally, among the land birds, there is the order of scratchers, 
 represented by the quail, the grouse, and the turkey. Their bills 
 are stout, as are also their feet; the hind toe is elevated so that it 
 does not rest upon the ground. These two orders, the Columbae 
 and the Gallinae, include birds that have been domesticated by 
 man; they embrace, together with the Anseres (the ducks and 
 
 FIG. 1 1 6. The spotted sandpiper (after 
 Forbush). 
 
BIRDS 157 
 
 geese) , the birds that man has most depended on for food. The 
 domestic chicken belongs to the scratchers, although it is not a 
 native of America. 
 
 Water birds. The foregoing orders are all land birds; several 
 orders of birds are made up of those that live along the water- 
 ways or upon the water. The snipe order contains a lot of long- 
 legged wading birds, usually with slender bills, whose calls are 
 
 FIG. 117. The American bittern 
 
 piping whistles, uttered commonly during flight. The common 
 snipe and the sandpipers, as well as the plovers, with several 
 groups of seashore birds, belong in this order (Fig. 116). 
 
 The crane order is also made up of long-legged, long-necked 
 birds, embracing in the North, besides the cranes, the rails, the 
 gallinules, and the coots. In flight these all keep the neck 
 extended, a characteristic which distinguishes them from the 
 familiar representatives of the heron order, which fly with a fold 
 
158 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 in the neck. The heron order includes the common herons, 
 bitterns (Fig. 117), and the less well-known storks and ibises. 
 
 All these birds with stiltlike legs have long necks of necessity, 
 else they could not reach down to the ground for their food. 
 Many of them are waders (Fig. 118), feeding in the ponds or 
 streams, and some have long beaks for probing in the mud. The 
 rails, gallinules, and coots have very long toes; they feed in the 
 marshes and the wide-spreading toes gives them footing even 
 
 where the ground is very 
 soft. The coot's toes are 
 partly webbed so that it 
 swims with ease. 
 
 The geese and their allies. 
 The Anseres is the name of 
 the order that includes the 
 ducks, geese, and swans. 
 The trumpeter swan, with a 
 length of sixty-five inches, is 
 our largest migrant bird, rare 
 now, since it is such a tempt- 
 ing target for the gun. All 
 of these birds have webbed 
 feet and, with the exception 
 of the merganser ducks, 
 broad bills with ridges along the margins (Fig. 119); the mer- 
 gansers have round bills with toothed margins, the better to hold 
 the fish on which they feed. 
 
 Gulls and terns make up an order that is marked by the long, 
 pointed wing, adapted to soaring flight, and by the hooked bill 
 and strong talons. The toes are webbed. 
 
 The grebe order comprises the loons, grebes, and some related 
 sea birds. Their webbed feet are set back near the hind end of 
 the tailless or nearly tailless body. In this position they are of 
 maximum service in swimming, but the bird's movements on land 
 are very awkward. 
 
 FIG. 118. Least bittern watching for fish 
 
BIRDS 
 
 159 
 
 FIG. 119. Head of black duck 
 
 Structural adaptation. Perhaps nowhere else in the animal 
 world do we find a better illustration of the nice adjustment of 
 the parts of an animal to the requirements of its environment 
 than we do among the birds. Take, for instance, the form of 
 the bill. The duck's bill is broad 
 and shovel-like, except among the 
 fishing ducks, and the edges are 
 corrugated, serving to form a sieve 
 when upper and lower mandibles 
 are close together. The ducks feed 
 by taking up mouthfuls of mud, 
 which they eject together with the 
 water through this convenient sieve 
 and so strain out the small animals 
 and plants that serve as food. The 
 hawks have strong bills, the upper 
 mandible of which is curved like a hook and serves to capture 
 and tear up the prey (Fig. 120). The woodpecker has a narrow,, 
 chisel-like bill that is an effective tool in cutting out his nest hole 
 as well as in excavating the tree trunk for grubs. When the 
 bird has partly cut its way to some wood-boring larva, the 
 
 tongue is thrust down the bur- 
 row of the grub and the victim 
 pulled from the hole. For this 
 service the tongue of the wood- 
 pecker is long and slender and 
 barbed, much like a fishhook 
 (Fig. 1 2 1) . Grosbeaks and spar- 
 rows, which usually live on seeds, 
 have heavy beaks for crushing 
 the hard seed coats. The woodcock has a long, slender bill for 
 probing into the soft mud, where it finds its food (Fig. 122). 
 His eyes are located well back on the head, where they are out 
 of the way when the bill is thrust way down to the snout. The 
 tip of the bill is movable and sensitive so that it may circle 
 
 FIG. 1 20. Head of sparrow hawk 
 
160 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 121. Head and tongue 
 of downy woodpecker. 
 
 about like a finger, feeling for the imbedded animals. These 
 common types are but a few of those that will be found in any 
 extensive collection of birds. 
 
 Birds' feet. No less remarkable are the feet of birds. The 
 grebes have toes that are webbed individually. The duck's toes 
 
 have a common web that unites them 
 and makes the feet very effective 
 paddles. Most woodpeckers have two 
 toes pointing forward and two back- 
 ward, for the weight must be sustained 
 on the bark of the trees and such an 
 arrangement gives them a more pow- 
 erful grip. The hawks, eagles, and 
 owls have strong, clawed toes or talons 
 for firmly holding their prey. Such a 
 bird as the Florida gallinule has a 
 relatively large foot (Fig. 123), since it lives in the marshes 
 where it needs wide expanse of foot to keep it from sinking into 
 the soft mud just as a man wears snow shoes to keep from going 
 deep into the snow at every step. In the ostrich the foot 
 has become calloused, like the hoof of a horse, so that it may 
 run with ease over the hard 
 ground. 
 
 The wing of the bird. 
 Examine carefully a bird's 
 wing, like that of a duck or 
 chicken. Notice its several 
 joints and compare them 
 with your own arm. The wing is covered with several types 
 of feathers; the very long primaries, the shorter secondaries, and 
 still shorter feathers. Examine a primary feather (Fig. 124); 
 notice its central shaft ending in the quill. On either side of 
 the shaft there is a web of material made up of barbs fastened 
 together by interlocked hooks. Notice how light and yet how 
 strong this web is. Observe, too, that the shaft is not at the 
 
 FIG. 122. Head of woodcock 
 
BIRDS 
 
 161 
 
 very center of the vane, but is much nearer one margin than 
 the other. 
 
 As you watch the bird taking flight the process seems a very 
 simple one. The expanded wings beat down on the air, resume 
 their initial position, and again strike the air, and so the bird is 
 lifted off the ground. On 
 second thought one won- 
 ders why the upward move- 
 ment of the wing does not 
 counterbalance the down- 
 stroke. It is true the 
 downstroke is rapid and 
 forceful, but the upstroke is of longer duration if not quite so 
 vigorous. If the wing is examined carefully, the matter is ex- 
 plained by the difference in form of the upper and the under 
 sides of the wing, and also by the arrangement of the feathers, 
 which permits the air to go through the wing on the upstroke 
 but not on the downstroke. Find out from the wing itself how 
 this is accomplished, 
 
 The body feathers. The body of the bird is covered with soft 
 feathers quite unlike the stiff wing feathers used in flight. These 
 
 FIG. 123. Foot of Florida gallinule 
 
 FIG. 124. Primary feather from wing of herring gull 
 
 body feathers are not distributed evenly, but grow only on certain 
 parts, leaving large portions of the skin without feathers, as can 
 be easily seen when a chicken is plucked; nevertheless the 
 feathers overlap these bare areas so that the bird is kept warm 
 and dry. That the bird's coat of feathers is effective in keeping 
 it warm is evident when such tiny birds as the chickadee can 
 endure the rigors of a Canadian winter. Man has always been 
 
1 62 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 appreciative of the birds' soft coats, and many thousands of 
 swans' skins besides tons of down have gone into winter gar- 
 ments; indeed, such birds as the eider duck and the trumpeter 
 swan have largely disappeared because their feathers were so 
 highly prized. Unfortunately, too, many of the birds possess 
 feathers, such as the aigrettes, that are much desired as ornaments 
 for hats or gowns that it has led to the merciless slaughter of their 
 possessors. The trade in and use of such vestiges of savagery is 
 wisely restricted by law and will disappear entirely when the 
 public has fully learned how valuable the birds really are. 
 
 One wonders how a duck can sit for hours on the water and 
 not get wet. At the base of the tail is an oil gland, the opening 
 of which is on a projecting papilla readily seen on a plucked 
 chicken; the bird sticks its bill down to this opening and smears 
 it with oil which it then rubs on its feathers. The process is 
 called preening. After thus waterproofing their thick coats birds 
 may stay out in the rain to feed and still keep dry, or they may 
 swim in the water and not get wet. 
 
 Bird thieves. Certain birds have odious reputations; the 
 crows and blackbirds are accused of eating much corn, and even 
 bob white is suspected of taking large toll of the sprouting grain; 
 the redwing and bobolink are said to pilfer the southern rice fields; 
 the kingbird is thought to feed on honey bees ; and all hawks and 
 owls are held in enmity by the farmer as robbers of the chicken 
 yard. But government experts, examining the stomachs of birds 
 at all seasons, have found no sprouted grain in bob white's diet; 
 they do find grain which has been gleaned among the stubble. 
 The crow does pull and eat sprouting grain and does feed 
 regularly on birds' eggs and nestlings, but likely even he more 
 than compensates by the injurious insects he eats (Fig. 125). 
 The blue jay eats corn, too, but not from early May until after 
 harvest time; out of two hundred and ninety- two blue jays' 
 stomachs examined only five showed traces of young birds or 
 eggs. The blackbirds, as a rule, eat grain only in the late fall, 
 unless they multiply so greatly as to find their usual sources of 
 
BIRDS 
 
 Crow, one week old 
 
 Adult Crow 
 
 Song Sparrow 
 
 Chipping Sparrow 
 
 Red-tailed Hawk 
 
 Adult Bank Swallow 
 
 Food entirely insects, as is 
 also that of the nestling 
 
 FIG. 125. Food chart, showing proportions of foods in diet of some common, 
 birds. 
 
1 64 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 food inadequate. The kingbird, or bee martin, does eat bees, 
 but they are almost entirely the useless drones. The bobolink 
 is really a serious menace to the rice fields of the South, for," 
 together with the redwing, they cause an annual loss estimated 
 at about two million dollars. One grower reports using a 
 hundred kegs of powder and from thirty to fifty kegs of shot each 
 September in an attempt to protect his fields; even then, he 
 thinks, the birds destroy one-fourth to one-third of the crop in 
 his region (Beal, Food of Bobolinks, Blackbirds, and Crackles). 
 
 Cooper's hawk and the sharp-shinned hawk do eat chickens 
 and the great horned owl will occasionally steal poultry; the 
 pigeon hawk and sometimes the barred owl feed on small birds.' 
 But with these exceptions the hawks and owls are very beneficial; 
 from the twenty-seven hundred stomachs collected in all parts 
 of the country, the government experts found that four-fifths 
 of their food was made up of injurious mice and other rodents, 
 insects, and frogs. The chicken thief should be shot when 
 caught in the act, but to shoot all hawks and owls on sight is to 
 kill off some of the most valuable of the farmers' aids. 
 
 Ravages of insects. Professor D. B. Walsh, then editor of 
 the American Entomologist, estimated, in 1868, that the country 
 suffered a loss of three hundred million dollars each year from the 
 depredations of insects; this loss was considerably over 10 per 
 cent of the value of the agricultural products at that time. In 
 the report of the Department of Agriculture for 1884 the losses 
 are estimated at from three hundred to four hundred million 
 dollars annually. C. B. Riley, the expert entomologist of the 
 government, estimated the. loss at about one-tenth of the entire 
 agricultural crop, and Dr. Fletcher, president of the Society of 
 Economic Entomologists, confirmed this estimate a year later. 
 The United States Department of Agriculture in 1904 stated the 
 loss as $795,100,000. All these figures indicate that it is con- 
 servative to estimate the loss due to insects at one- tenth of our 
 agricultural production. Our farm crops last year ran something 
 over thirteen billion dollars, which would mean that over a 
 
BIRDS 165 
 
 billion dollars' worth of produce disappeared down the throats of 
 voracious insects a tidy sum that we might well afford to save 
 if possible. 
 
 Dr. C. R. Marlatt, of the Bureau of Entomology of the United 
 States Department of Agriculture, estimated that the loss on the 
 wheat crop of 1904, due to a single insect, the Hessian fly, was 
 about one hundred million dollars. Equally great losses are 
 suffered annually, according to Dr. Shymer and Dr. Riley, by 
 the ravages of the chinch bug, which largely injures wheat and 
 corn. It was estimated that the Rocky Mountain locust, in the 
 years of its greatest abundance (1874-77), took a toll of two 
 hundred million dollars from the great corn-raising states just 
 west of the Mississippi. 
 
 Rate of insect multiplication. The rate of insect propagation 
 is almost inconceivable. Townsend Glover, United States 
 entomologist, estimated that a pair of Colorado potato beetles, 
 if allowed to go on without molestation, would give rise in one 
 season to over sixty million progeny. C. F. Hodge estimates 
 that one female fly, starting to breed in May, will give rise to 
 143,875 bushels of flies by the first of August if uninterrupted. 
 Probably the insect with greatest reproductive capacity is the 
 little plant louse or aphid. United States Entomologist Riley, 
 in his study of the aphid that attacks the hop, finds that there 
 are thirteen generations in one season. Allowing a hundred 
 young to a female, and this is a very conservative allowance, the 
 twelfth generation from the first female would contain ten 
 sextillions of aphids, provided, of course, that none of the progeny 
 had died before reproducing. If these were placed ten to an 
 inch the line would reach out beyond the farthest star visible to a 
 powerful telescope, reaching a point from which it would take 
 light twenty-five hundred years to come back to the earth, 
 traveling at the rate of 186,000 miles per second. 
 
 Birds our defenders. From such almost limitless rates of 
 reproduction and the consequent plagues of insect pests the 
 birds are our chief deliverers. Mr. Mosher, a careful observer 
 
166 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 in the Middlesex Falls Reservation of Massachusetts, watched, 
 with a good field glass, a pair of northern yellowthroats, warblers, 
 eating plant lice on the birches. One of them swallowed 89 
 aphids in a minute and continued eating for forty minutes 
 without stopping, which would mean that something over 7,000 
 plant lice had disappeared in that time. A scarlet tanager made 
 away with 630 gypsy-moth caterpillars in eighteen minutes. A 
 nighthawk's stomach contained over 500 mosquitoes. Forbush 
 reports finding 1,028 eggs of the fall cankerworm in the crops of 
 four chickadees in Massachusetts and later found four of the same 
 kind of birds that had eaten an average of 21 female cankerworm 
 moths, each containing 185 eggs. Sanderson estimated that 
 chickadees alone annually eat 8,000,000,000 insects in Michigan. 
 Bruner (Special Bulletin No. 5, University of Nebraska) estimates 
 that it takes 15,625 bushels of insects, daily, to feed the birds of 
 that state. Reed estimates that the birds of Massachusetts 
 destroy 21,000 bushels, or 170 carloads, daily, from May to 
 September. 
 
 Young birds heavy feeders. Even those birds that feed 
 mostly on seeds feed their young largely on insects and other 
 animal food; and the young require enormous quantities, for 
 young birds grow very rapidly. Mr. Owen, watching a nest of 
 song sparrows, found that five young increased, on an average, 
 48 per cent in a single day. Weed and Dearborn found that 
 young robins eat daily about half of their own weight of food, and 
 one case is on record in which the young bird ate nearly twice its 
 weight of earthworms and cutworms. Crows have also been 
 found to eat about half their weight of food each day while 
 growing. 
 
 The adult birds are therefore kept busy all day long bringing 
 insect food to the fledglings. Dr. Judd, in Bulletin No. 17, 
 United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Biological 
 Survey, says that a nest of young wrens about three-fourths 
 grown was visited by the parents a hundred and ten times in 
 four hours and thirty-seven minutes and was fed during this time 
 
BIRDS 167 
 
 a hundred and eleven spiders and insects. A pair of rose- 
 breasted grosbeaks was watched by Mr. Mosher in June, 1899. 
 The young were visited four hundred and twenty-six times in 
 eleven hours, and on no trip did the parent bird bring less than 
 two insects or caterpillars. The feeding of a nest of grackles was 
 reported in the Nature Study Review for April, 1915. There were 
 four young birds in the nest to which the parents made sixty-one 
 trips during twelve hours and each time fed an insect of 
 good size, mostly June beetles and white grubs. In the same 
 journal (September, 1912) data are given regarding a nest of 
 fledgling song sparrows which were under observation for a day. 
 They were fed by the parents on noxious insects and their larvae 
 at intervals, on the average, of three minutes, from 4 : 05 A.M. to 
 7 : 23 P.M., during which time they gained 10 per cent in weight. 
 Mr. Charles reported, as the result of watching a robin's nest 
 for five days, that the parents fed the young a daily average of 
 three hundred and fifty-six pieces of food, mostly insects and 
 their larvae (Nature Study Review, May, 1910). 
 
 Birds eat weed seeds. The farmers' crops are endangered not 
 only by insects but also by the weeds that sap much of the 
 vitality that should go to the growing crops. A great deal of 
 the farmer's time is required to keep weeds in subjugation, and 
 the birds are his most important allies; for the seed-eating 
 birds, notably the sparrows and their kin, consume enormous 
 quantities of weed seed. 
 
 F. E. Beale made a careful survey of the weed-destroying 
 powers of the tree sparrow in the state of Iowa. He first walked 
 over sample areas in various parts of the state to determine the 
 number of birds per acre. He shot enough of the birds to 
 obtain a safe average of the weight of seed contained in a bird's 
 crop. Knowing the area of the state in acres, and having found 
 the average number of tree sparrows per acre, he estimated the 
 tree sparrow population of the state. He knew also the weight 
 of weed seed eaten daily by the sparrow. Knowing the time 
 when they usually arrive in the state in the fall and when they 
 
1 68 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 migrate north in the spring, Mr. Beale finally came to the con- 
 clusion that during their winter sojourn this single species of bird 
 ate about 875 tons of weed seed. 
 
 Judd tells us in his bulletin on Birds as Weed Destroyers that 
 he found 7,500 seeds of oxalis in the crop of one mourning dove. 
 He further tells of examining a patch of smartweed on a Maryland 
 farm where the sparrows had been feeding. On eighteen square 
 inches of ground he picked up 1,130 half -seeds from which the 
 birds had taken the meat, and only 2 entire seeds. More than 
 100 pigweed seeds were found in the stomach of a snow bunting. 
 A bob white was found to have eaten over 5,000 seeds of pigeon 
 grass ; another had eaten i ,000 fruits of ragweed ; yet another had 
 in his crop over 10,000 seeds of the pigweed, one of the worst 
 farm pests. It is estimated that bobwhite destroys annually 
 573 tons of weed seed in Virginia alone besides tons of noxious 
 insects. 
 
 Bird migration. One of the most interesting and instructive 
 phenomena of bird life is the annual migration. That the few 
 birds living about us in the winter time are largely replaced with 
 different sorts that come in from the south as spring approaches 
 is a fact with which everyone is more or less familiar. We all 
 watch with delightful anticipation for the appearance of the 
 first robin or the bubbling song of the bobolink. The migration 
 of the birds has long been noted. Jeremiah wrote : "The stork 
 in the heaven knoweth her appointed times : and the turtle and 
 the crane and the swallow observe the time of their coming." 
 The earliest naturalists knew that the birds fly away in the fall 
 and reappear in the spring, but they thought that they flew off 
 to the moon or buried themselves in the mud, as the frogs do, for 
 their winter hibernation. And with all the study that has been 
 put upon it recently we do not yet know where some of the birds, 
 such as the common chimney swift, the bank, and the cliff 
 swallow, spend the winter. 
 
 Four groups. We may group the birds into four classes on 
 the basis of migration characteristics: (i) Those species that 
 
BIRDS 169 
 
 stay with us the year around. Probably, however, the individ- 
 uals of the species that are with us during the winter are not 
 those that are present in the summer. For instance, in many 
 cases the blue jays that are feeding in our neighborhood during 
 the winter move north to nest while other blue jays from the 
 south come to our region to nest. (2) There are the winter 
 visitors, those that nest considerably farther north but come as 
 far south as our latitude to feed during the winter. (3) There 
 are the summer residents, the birds that nest here but go farther 
 south to spend the winter. (4) The migrants, birds that nest 
 to the north of us and merely pass by as they go south in the fall 
 and back north in the spring. 
 
 Number migrating. The recently completed survey of the 
 bird population made by the Department of Agriculture gives 
 the average -number of birds in the farming regions of the United 
 States as one pair per acre; a similar survey of Illinois makes the 
 average two per acre. While this does not seem at all a dense 
 population, yet it foots up a tremendously large number of birds 
 and is considerably more dense than the human population. 
 Langley estimates that if the bird army that goes north in the 
 spring were composed of individuals as large as a sparrow, and if 
 these should stand in single line, shoulder to shoulder, the line 
 would reach around the earth a hundred and sixty-five times. 
 Cook relates that the Lapland longspurs met, in their northern 
 migration, a very severe storm of soft snow which killed numbers 
 of them. He estimated that seven hundred and fifty thousand 
 of them were scattered, dead, over the surfaces of two small lakes, 
 neither more than a mile in area. In New Jersey, Chapman, 
 using a six-and-a-half -inch telescope, saw two hundred and sixty- 
 two birds cross the face of the moon one night in September. 
 Realizing how small a portion of the sky is occupied by the moon, 
 one gets some notion of the large number of birds that must have 
 been flying, if the rest of the heavens were as well occupied by 
 migrant birds as the region immediately in line with the moon. 
 Cook records an observation made on the shores of Lake Huron 
 
170 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 when migrant birds were caught by a severe storm on the night 
 of October 10, 1906; the next morning dead birds, averaging 
 five thousand to the mile, were strewn along the shore for many 
 miles. 
 
 Extent and rate of migration. The distance covered in migra- 
 tion varies greatly with different species. Some birds, such as 
 the pine warbler and the robin, simply move into the southern 
 part of their nesting areas, while, on the other hand, some of the 
 birds that nest well within the arctic circle fly down to the 
 southern portion of South America for the winter, approximately 
 a fourth of the way around the world (Fig. 126). The pintail 
 and the shoveler ducks, nesting in the islands of the Behring Sea, 
 spend the winter in the Hawaiian Islands, about twenty-two 
 hundred miles farther south. Our familiar bobolink winters in 
 the center of South America. The kingbird, that nests as far 
 north as British Columbia, goes as far south as Bolivia for the 
 winter. Even such tiny birds as the warblers make long flights; 
 the Canadian (Fig. 127) and yellow warblers, neither much over 
 five inches in length, nest well to the north, the latter even 
 reaching the shores of Hudson Bay, yet they winter in the tropics, 
 migrating from three to seven thousand miles each fall and 
 spring. The birds have rightly been called our greatest travelers, 
 for no other species of animal migrates as extensively or as 
 regularly. 
 
 The rate of migration is not very rapid. Care must be taken 
 to distinguish between the rate of migration and the rate of 
 flight: the passenger pigeon makes from thirty to fifty-five miles 
 an hour, but on long flights seventy-five miles a day is a good rate. 
 Some of the birds are said to produce bursts of speed up to two 
 hundred miles an hour, but the data collected by the Department 
 of Agriculture give the record of the migration of nearly sixty 
 species in the Mississippi Valley, and the average rate per day 
 is twenty- three miles: the robin and the cowbird made twelve 
 miles a day, the ruby-throated humming bird twenty-eight 
 miles. It is interesting to note that as the nesting grounds are 
 
BIRDS 
 
 171 
 
 approached the rate increases; thus the blackpoll warbler 
 averaged thirty miles per day from New Orleans to southern 
 Minnesota, then finished the flight to the nesting site at the rate 
 of two hundred miles a day, a sprint on the home stretch. 
 
 FIG. 126. Migration route of the golden plover: small circles show nesting 
 region, dotted area the winter home. The journey south and the, return are by 
 different routes. 
 
172 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Routes of migration. While the route of migration sometimes 
 follows conspicuous physiographic features, such as the coast 
 
 FIG. 127. Migration route of the mourning warbler: small circles show 
 nesting region, dotted area the winter home, connecting lines the migration route. 
 
 lines, river valleys, and mountain ranges, it often disregards them 
 entirely. As the birds are usually flying a mile or two above the 
 
BIRDS 173 
 
 earth they get a bird's-eye view of the country and can follow 
 conspicuous landmarks with ease. That they have, however, 
 besides sight some other means of guidance in their migration is 
 evident from the feat of the pintail and shoveler ducks already 
 mentioned. From the time these animals leave the Aleutian 
 Islands until they arrive in the Hawaiian Islands they have no 
 landmarks to guide them, but they fly straight over the two 
 thousand miles of open ocean without stop. 
 
 The golden plover accomplishes another long flight. It nests 
 north of the arctic circle during June and July. In August it 
 moves to Labrador, there feeding and fattening on what are 
 known as crowberries. By early September it has moved on to 
 southern Nova Scotia, and then without stop it wings its way 
 straight across the Atlantic to the coast of South America, 
 arriving in southern Brazil and the Za Plata plains by mid- 
 September. The return route is an inland one. Flying across 
 the forests of the Amazon Valley it appears in Central America 
 in March; thence by way of Texas and the Mississippi Valley 
 and across Canada it reaches the nesting grounds (Fig. 126). 
 
 Our common bobolink flocks in the fall, and then all these 
 flocks migrate to the coastal plains of the Carolinas, where they 
 feed on the rice (Fig. 128). Formerly they fed on the wild rice, 
 but now they seem to prefer the cultivated variety. Later they 
 move on to Florida, Cuba, Jamaica, and so to the valley of the 
 Amazon, where they spend the winter. A part of the horde, 
 however, take the more customary route of North American 
 birds, flying from the Gulf Coast near the mouth of the Mississippi 
 across to Yucatan and down through the Isthmus. In addition 
 to these routes taken by the bobolinks, two others at least are 
 followed by many birds: one, along the western coast of the Gulf 
 and so through Central America (Fig. 127); the other, by way 
 of Florida and the Greater and Lesser Antilles. 
 
 It is exceedingly difficult to explain these varied and indirect 
 routes. The European quails cross the Mediterranean at its 
 widest part and are so exhausted when they alight in Italy that 
 
174 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 the peasants pick them up with ease and then fatten them for 
 food. The route which they follow, while over the widest stretch 
 of sea, is also over the shallowest part of the Mediterranean, a 
 
 FIG. 128. Migration routes of the bobolink: smill circles show nesting region, 
 dotted area the winter home. The birds go south and return by the same general 
 routes. 
 
BIRDS 175 
 
 region that in all probability has been above the ocean in 
 relatively recent geological time. 
 
 Time of migration. The different species of birds migrate at 
 quite different times; some come early, and their young are 
 matured before others arrive and begin their nesting. Some of 
 the birds depart for the south in August, while others linger until 
 apparently driven out by the inclement winter weather. Ordi- 
 narily the arrival of the birds is delayed by bad weather and 
 hastened by especially warm weather, though on the whole they 
 strike an average date and often come even though the weather 
 at the time seems particularly unpropitious. Thus George M. 
 Neese, of Newmarket, Virginia, gives the dates for the arrival 
 of the chimney swifts from 1884 to 1906, and the extreme dates 
 during this time were April 7 and April 21, but during twelve of 
 these years the arrival was either on April 14, 15, or 16. 
 
 Night travel customary. The migration is by night except 
 with those birds that are perpetually on the wing and are there- 
 fore strong fliers, or else with birds that are so pugnacious as to 
 be abundantly able to take care of themselves even when exposed 
 to the dangers of daylight travel. Warm, clear nights are 
 selected for the flights. A season of cloudy weather with stiff 
 north winds will hold back the wave of migration so that the 
 woods and fields will be full of recent arrivals; then when there 
 comes a clear warm night the whole bird population will depart, 
 leaving the woods deserted. I have stood in the evergreen woods 
 of northern Michigan early on a Warm morning in May and have 
 seen wave after wave of migrants arrive. The woods would 
 be alive with half a dozen different kinds of warblers; then all 
 would fly on and quiet would reign supreme, until in the distance 
 the notes of another on-coming flock would be heard; soon the 
 woods would be swarming again with hosts of these little bril- 
 liantly colored feathered travelers. 
 
 Causes of migration. The causes of migration are by no 
 means clear. It is not caused by cold weather, for many of the 
 birds start south in August when we are having our hottest days. 
 
176 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 It is not caused by lack of food, for in the spring especially the 
 birds leave a land of plenty and move where insect life, at least, 
 is relatively scarce. Not infrequently the entire species gathers 
 in a single spot: the Ipswich sparrow nests, so far as is known, 
 only on one island at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River, and 
 the pelicans congregate along the Brown River in Florida. 
 
 The two chief theories concerning bird migration are: First, 
 that the birds lived originally in tropical regions and moved out 
 from this territory at nesting time, as they increased in numbers, 
 because food for the young and room were both at a premium. 
 The second theory supposes that the birds were at one time 
 widely distributed over nearly all the world. The on-coming of 
 the more rigorous winters as the glacial period approached may 
 have forced the birds south during the winter, while the warmer 
 springs permitted them to go back again to nest in the neigh- 
 borhood of their original homes. A third theory has recently 
 been suggested, that migration is a phenomenon accompanying 
 changing light conditions, the birds moving into the regions that 
 have the largest amount of daylight. 
 
 A schoolroom device. An interesting schoolroom device for 
 the study of migration, one that also brings into play the study 
 of geography and English, is as follows : Along in January ask the 
 children to write to friends or relatives throughout the Eastern 
 United States and Canada asking them to be on the watch 
 for some well-known bird like the robin and to report the date 
 of its arrival. The letter may state that the class is studying 
 the migration of the birds, and that these reports are all going to 
 be put on the blackboard in the schoolroom. On the board at 
 some place that is not much used, or else on a large sheet of 
 paper, say four feet square, have drawn a map of Eastern North 
 America. Reports from points in the South will come in saying 
 that the robin (if that is the bird selected) regularly stays all 
 winter. In this way pupils will be able to map that part of the 
 United States in which the robin is a winter resident. Mark all 
 such places with red dots. As the northward migration proceeds 
 
BIRDS 177 
 
 the reports will begin to arrive from the children's friends. Thus 
 Mary comes to school with a letter that she has received from 
 her cousin in Maryland reporting that the first robin was seen 
 there on February 26 ; John comes to school a few days later with 
 a letter from his brother in southern Wisconsin saying that the 
 robin was seen there March 9. Have the children locate on the 
 map the town from which each report is received and also register 
 the date of the arrival of the bird at that point. The continued 
 approach of the wave of migrating robins will heighten the 
 anticipation of the children as they await their appearance. 
 After the birds have been reported in the home town, reports 
 will still come in from the friends farther north and it may be 
 possible to determine the northern limit of the robin's migration. 
 
 Values of bird-study. It is evident that bird-study has large 
 educational value. It is excellent sensory drill; form, color, 
 and markings are all varied, and to distinguish them requires 
 nice discrimination. No other field of outdoor study offers such 
 good training of the ear as the study of bird music; to learn to 
 recognize the birds by their calls and songs makes the hearing 
 keen, and to learn to reproduce them requires much patience and 
 develops a memory for sounds. It is a source of much pleasure 
 to be able to call the birds ; many, like the cardinal and chickadee, 
 will come long distances in answer to their whistled notes, inquisi- 
 tive to see what the other bird is about. Bird-study leads to 
 many stimulating and worth-while problems. It develops an 
 appreciation for some of the most beautiful creatures and adds 
 not a little to one's aesthetic satisfaction. 
 
 And yet these values seem subordinate to the opportunity to 
 help children to be really useful in protecting and increasing the 
 number of so valuable an element in the life of any community. 
 Let sensory impressions and information result in action, as it 
 always should. Birds, like trees and flowers, are a part of the 
 gladsomeness of nature that should enter largely into the joy 
 of living. Moreover, they are not only beautiful but are com- 
 mercially so very valuable that every child should be led to add 
 
17$ SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 to the commercial assets of the world by protecting these allies 
 of man, thereby adding immensely also to his real wealth of 
 happiness and contentment. Children may build bird houses, 
 feeding shelves, baths, and drinking fountains; they may plant 
 shrubs and trees that afford natural food and nesting sites and 
 they may help destroy or control the birds' enemies. 
 
 Attracting wild birds. There are a number of devices for 
 attracting the birds to the home grounds, school yards, or public 
 
 parks, such as the planting of 
 tangles of trees and shrubs, 
 providing food, especially in 
 the winter, providing water 
 for drinking and for the bath, 
 and furnishing nest boxes in 
 which birds may rear their 
 young. On large estates, in 
 city parks, and especially on 
 the government bird reserva- 
 tions, stretches of varied 
 country give nesting sites 
 under the best of conditions 
 for all sorts of birds water 
 birds, shore birds, birds that 
 nest in the open prairies, birds 
 of the forest. This is not pos- 
 sible for the owner of a small 
 home place, yet some steps 
 may be taken on the farm or 
 city lot to induce birds to visit, feed, and nest upon the premises, 
 and such efforts are abundantly repaid. 
 
 Bird houses. The birds that most often patronize the nest 
 boxes are house wrens, bluebirds, purple martins, and wood- 
 peckers. Almost any container will do for wrens, a tin can, a 
 cigar box, or a diminutive cottage. Make the entrance hole no 
 larger than a quarter-dollar so that the English sparrow cannot 
 
 FIG. 129. Nest box of woodpecker 
 (from Siepert's Bird Homes Boys Can 
 Make). 
 
BIRDS 179 
 
 enter, and Jennie wren and her spouse will be quite at home. 
 Bluebirds take equally kindly to any box into which they can get. 
 Boys and girls will make very attractive houses with odd bits of 
 lumber, wooden paint pails, or pickle pails and old tin pail covers 
 that can be bent into shape for peaked roofs on cylindrical 
 houses. The woodpecker's box (Fig. 129) needs to be deep and 
 to have some cleats tacked on just below the hole so that the bird 
 can get a firm hold when it alights. Coarse sawdust or granu- 
 lated cork, like that used to pack white grapes, is to be placed 
 in the bottom of the box to make it seem like an excavated tree 
 trunk. The wren's house may be placed almost anywhere; 
 the bluebird's house should go on a tree or tall shrub or on a post 
 in the garden, but the woodpecker's box is most likely to be 
 inhabited if set up on the tree at a distance of twelve or fifteen 
 feet from the ground. In all cases it is wise to make the house 
 in the fall or winter and put it out so that it may weather for a 
 few weeks before the birds arrive so as to free it from the odor 
 of paint and the man smell. 
 
 Purple martins are pestered by English sparrows about the 
 city. The nest box must be built with considerable capacity 
 (Fig. 130), so that a whole colony can nest together for defensive 
 purposes, and it must have several doors so that the martins 
 can get in and out with ease. Then the martins hold their own 
 and drive off the sparrows, but if only one door gives access 
 to the interior of the house the sparrows take possession and 
 the martins cannot successfully besiege their stronghold. The 
 house should also be arranged so that each pair of martins has 
 a separate compartment not exposed to drafts, else the young 
 birds sicken and die. A good house plan is shown in Fig. 130; 
 the house may be built two or three stories high. Set the 
 house on a tall pole, if possible, over a clump of shrubs or a group 
 of trees, preferably near a pond. Instal some device so that the 
 doors may be kept closed until the martins arrive in the spring, 
 for they will not occupy a house that has been cluttered up by 
 sparrows. Shut the house up after the martins have left each fall. 
 
l8o SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Bath and fountain. The bird bath and drinking fountain may 
 be combined. A shallow, galvanized iron pan can be sunk level 
 with the ground under a garden-hose faucet that is allowed to 
 drip, or the water may be replenished in the pan twice daily 
 (Fig. 131). The water must be fresh and the pan kept clean in 
 order to be attractive. The birds enjoy cold water in the 
 summer, when the drip from the refrigerator may be advan- 
 tageously used. In the winter possibly the exhaust from the 
 steam heating plant can be utilized so as to keep the bath and 
 
 FIG. 130. The purple martin house 
 
 drinking fountain from freezing. The bath may be located near 
 a window, among shrubbery, and then the daily ablutions may 
 be watched readily, or it may be a part of the equipment of the 
 feeding shelf. More elaborate baths may be set up as ornaments 
 in the garden or may be made a detail of the fountain. 
 
 Feeding devices. The feeding shelf is simply a roofed platform 
 or open shelf, preferably located in the shrubbery near a window 
 so that its visitors may be seen from the living-room (Fig. 132). 
 A window box in which plants are grown in the summer may be 
 utilized for a feeding platform in the winter. Stick some 
 
BIRDS 181 
 
 branches of evergreen or some seed-bearing weed stalks around 
 the edges to give some privacy. There is little use of providing 
 food during the late spring or the summer, for then the birds 
 prefer what they glean for themselves, but in the autumn and 
 winter the birds will gladly patronize the feeding shelf (Fig. 133). 
 Chopped nuts, bread crumbs, young chick feed, chopped meat, 
 and meal worms that can be bought at the bird store or raised 
 
 FIG. 131. The bird bath: the cover of an old galvanized iron ash pail was 
 sunk upside down at the edge of the garden on the lawn. A flat rock afforded a 
 good bathing beach. The pan, kept full of water, was much appreciated by the 
 birds. 
 
 at home in corn meal are all excellent attractions. The pan of 
 water is a grateful addition. Pieces of suet, strings of unshelled 
 peanuts or of raisins tied up in the trees, and chick feed scattered 
 under the shrubbery will help bring birds to your place. It is 
 surprising how such feeding places, well stocked, will draw birds 
 even in the crowded tenement districts of the city and up at 
 third- and fourth-story windows. In such situations, while 
 English sparrows predominate, many other birds are also 
 frequent visitors. 
 
182 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Finally, one may keep the needs of the birds in mind when 
 planting trees and shrubs on the home grounds. Many native 
 trees and shrubs whose fruits the birds eat may be brought in 
 from the woods, and they are just as ornamental as imported 
 stock purchased of the nurseryman, though there are many 
 varieties of nursery stock which bear fruits that are also greedily 
 
 eaten by the birds. There follows a 
 list of some of the best trees, shrubs, 
 and vines for this purpose. 
 
 Trees: cherry, both wild and culti- 
 vated, flowering dogwood, hackberry, 
 hawthorns of all species, American holly 
 and winter holly, juniper, mulberry, 
 both red and white, pines, spruces, and 
 tupelo. Among the cherries, the black, 
 choke, pin, and sand cherries are usu- 
 ally available. The pines and spruces 
 are valuable largely as shelters and 
 nesting sites. 
 
 Shrubs: bayberry, blackberry, black 
 haw, blueberry, cornel or dogwood of 
 various species, elderberry, gooseberry, 
 huckleberry, raspberry, wild rose, snow- 
 berry, spicebush, sumacs of all species, 
 viburnums. 
 
 Vines : bittersweet, grapes of all wild species, Virginia creeper. 
 Birds' enemies. There is little use in attempting to attract 
 the birds to your neighborhood unless the cat and the English 
 sparrow, their worst enemies in civilization, are banished from 
 the place. Sparrows are so pugnacious that they drive away 
 other birds, especially at nesting time; for two successive years 
 they have thrown the eggs out of my bluebirds' nest box and 
 persecuted the house wrens until the pests were killed. They 
 have been justly called "the bird rats," and they need to be 
 exterminated in order that our native and valuable stock may be 
 
 FIG. 132. Outdoor feeding 
 shelf erected by Rockford 
 (Illinois) Nature -Study So- 
 ciety in City Park. 
 
BIRDS 
 
 183 
 
 protected. The sparrows, imported to eat up insect larvae that 
 were damaging shade trees, failed at that task and have come to 
 feed largely on refuse and are quite useless. They may be 
 poisoned, trapped, or shot, using .22 shells loaded with dust 
 shot. 
 
 Accustom the sparrows to feed from a certain pan or feeding 
 trough, using chick feed or wheat. Then every few days sub- 
 stitute poisoned feed for the regular diet. Leave the poisoned 
 grain out only a short time and pick up any that may have been 
 scattered, so that other birds will not eat it, though there is little 
 danger of this if the poisoning is done in the winter when few 
 
 FIG. 133. White-throated sparrow on feeding shelf outside a window 
 
 other birds are about. If the poisoned food is put out after a 
 snowstorm it will be most efficient, for the usual sources of food 
 are then covered up. Sparrows live in a very restricted area, and 
 if they are killed off in your block the native birds about your 
 home will not be bothered much, even though many sparrows 
 live in adjacent blocks. 
 
 The grain is best poisoned with strychnine. Dissolve one- 
 sixteenth of an ounce of strychnine sulphate in a half -pint of hot 
 water. Soak one pint of grain in this solution until the water is 
 all absorbed ; then spread the grain out on a paper to dry. Feed 
 the sparrows this dry grain. It is needless to say that this 
 material should only be in the hands of very responsible persons. 
 
184 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The sparrow trap may either be a food trap or a nest trap. 
 For the latter build a deep nest box on one side of which is a 
 sliding plate of glass so that the interior is plainly in view and 
 may be reached by lifting the glass. Just below the hole, which 
 is well up on the nest box, place a balanced board which will form 
 the floor for the nest box and an alighting shelf outside. When 
 the sparrow walks into the nest box the floor suddenly sinks with 
 his weight while the shelf raises to close the opening as the 
 sparrow slides down into the interior of the box, where he can be 
 seen and killed. If some other bird is trapped he is released by 
 simply raising the glass. The floor and the sides must be smooth 
 so that the sparrow can get no hold to keep from sliding down, 
 
 FIG. 134. Wire trap for sparrows, side raised 
 
 and the tilting board must be so weighted that it will drop back 
 into place when the sparrow is trapped. This trap is especially 
 valuable in spring, when young birds are seeking nesting sites. 
 
 For the trap that is to be baited make a boxlike frame, i by 
 ij by 3 feet, of heavy wire, such as telephone wire (Fig. 134). 
 Cover all but one side (which is to be the bottom of the trap) 
 and one end with inch-mesh chicken wire. Cut out two pieces 
 of the same wire according to the patterns (Fig. 136). The 
 figures are easily laid out on a large sheet of paper by the 
 measures indicated. For the first figure draw four concentric 
 circles with radii of 5, 9!, 1 6, and 20 inches. Line 2-3 is drawn 
 as an 1 8-inch chord in the outer circle. Lines 1-2 and 3-4 are 
 1 2 -inch lines that just touch the next smaller circle. To points 
 i and 4 draw radii. They cut the inner circle at 5 and 7. To 
 
BIRDS 185 
 
 lay out the second pattern draw three concentric circles of io|-, 
 15-, and i7-inch radii. Points 10, 9, 18, and 17 all lie in the outer 
 circle. Both point 13 and point 14 lie in the inner circle and n 
 and 1 2 in the middle one. Bend along the lines shown in Fig. 135. 
 Fasten the second funnel sixteen inches back of the first and 
 pointing in the same direction. Cut a hole at ground level in the 
 closed end of the trap and fasten in a box with a sliding door 
 through which the sparrows may be driven from the trap and 
 chloroformed after the door has been closed. Scatter a little 
 grain or some crumbs in the open end of the trap and make a 
 trail of the feed that leads through the small ends of the funnels 
 
 FIG. 135. Pattern of the sparrow trap shown in Fig. 134. The figures that 
 follow are patterns of the first and second funnels; the wavy line shows a half -inch 
 overlap of wire to fasten to the sides (from Farmers' Bulletin No. 493). 
 
 to the chamber near the box. Sparrows go in readily, but in 
 trying to get out the small ends of the funnels are hard to find. 
 The trap must be moved from one location to another, as the 
 birds become very shy of any locality in which disaster overtakes 
 their kin. A trap that is an improvement over this homemade 
 affair, but built on much the same line, is on the market (the 
 Dodson sparrow trap). 
 
 The cat. Few persons realize how many domestic cats there 
 are ranging the yards and fields at night, and fewer still know that 
 many of these are real wild cats, once domestic but now owner- 
 less and forced to hunt for a living. The Animal Rescue League 
 of Boston, operating in that city and its suburbs, mercifully put 
 
l86 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 out of the way more than 30,000 vagabond cats in 1914; and 
 the New York City Branch of the Society for the Prevention of 
 Cruelty to Animals performed a similar kindly office for over a 
 quarter of a million cats, dogs, and other small animals. It is 
 believed that homeless cats are equally numerous in the country, 
 where trappers report that they are caught in the traps set for 
 fur-bearing animals quite as frequently as all other kinds of 
 animals put together. These animals are not in evidence except 
 to keen eyes, for they are furtive and elusive and hunt largely 
 
 FIG. 136. Patterns of first and second funnels 
 
 at night; often the tracks on the snow and the remains of their 
 kills are the best evidence of their numbers. 
 
 A census of Massachusetts gave an average of three cats per 
 farm; Chapman estimates the cat population of the United 
 States at about 25,000,000. In Edward H. Forbush's Domestic 
 Cat, a bulletin of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, 
 from which much of this information is taken, he says that two 
 hundred and twenty-six competent observers, in all parts of the 
 state, report on an average three birds as the number they 
 have known a cat to kill in one day, with a maximum of four- 
 teen birds. He estimates that 700,000 birds are annually killed 
 in Massachusetts by cats. "Dr. A. K, Fisher, in charge of the 
 
BIRDS 
 
 187 
 
 Economic Investigations of the Biological Survey, estimates that 
 the cats of New York state destroy 3,500,000 birds annually. 
 Mr. Albert H. Pratt calculates that the farm cats of Illinois kill 
 2,508,530 birds yearly.'' In maintaining a game preserve it is 
 always necessary to exterminate the cats if game birds are being 
 reared. Herbert K. Job estimated that five cats cost the New 
 
 FIG. 137. Picture and plan of cat trap (Mellott's model) 
 
 York state game farm $1,000 before they were killed. It is not 
 alone the vagrant cat that kills the birds, for the domestic pussy 
 kills for sport at least; she must be tethered or caged by day and 
 night to prevent her, for she will kill birds even when she is well 
 fed and wears a bell. Moreover, she is a relatively useless pet; 
 rat traps properly set will catch many more rats and mice than 
 the best of mousers. A box trap with a door that falls when the 
 
i88 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 bait is pulled is the best device for catching stray cats (Fig. 137) ; 
 a bunch of catnip is the best bait, but a fish head is excellent. 
 Have a hole in the box large enough to see what animal has been 
 caught; vagrants are usually lean and mangy. To kill the cat 
 pour a couple of ounces of chloroform on the floor of the box 
 through the peephole and cover the trap with a blanket or shoot 
 the cat through the head. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Audubon Society. Bulletins and other publications. 1975 Broadway. 
 
 New York: National Society. States have branches; Illinois Society , 
 
 10 S. LaSalle St., Chicago. 
 Apgar, A. C. Birds of the United States East of the Rocky Mountains. New 
 
 York: American Book Co. $2.00. 
 Bailey, F. M. Handbook of the Birds of the Western United States. Boston : 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Co. $3 . 50. 
 . Birds through an Opera Glass. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 
 $0.75- 
 
 Birds of Village and Field. Boston : Houghton Mifflin Co. $2.25. 
 
 Barrows, Walter C. Michigan Bird Life. Bulletin of Department of 
 
 Zoology, Michigan Agricultural College. East Lansing. 
 Baynes, E. H. Wild Bird Guests. New York: E. P. Button & Co. $2.00. 
 Beebe, Charles W. The Bird, Its Form and Function. New York: Henry 
 
 Holt & Co. $3 . 50. 
 Beetham, Bentley. Photography j or Bird Lovers. Witherby & Co. (Scrib- 
 
 ners' Agents.) $1.75. 
 
 Bird Lore. A monthly magazine. New York: D. Appleton & Co. $3 .00. 
 Blanchan, Neltje. How to Attract the Birds. New York: Doubleday, Page 
 
 & Co. $i . 50. 
 
 . Bird Neighbors. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. $4.00. 
 Burroughs, John. Birds and Bees. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. $o . 16. 
 
 . Bird Stories from Burroughs. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 
 $0.60. 
 
 Wake Robin. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. $1.35. 
 
 Chapman, Frank M. Handbook of the Birds of Eastern North America. 
 New York: D. Appleton & Co. $3 . 50. 
 . Bird Studies with a Camera. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 .$i-75- 
 
BIRDS 189 
 
 Chapman, Frank M. The Warbler of North America. New York: D. 
 
 Appleton & Co. $3 . oo. 
 . Camps and Cruises of an Ornithologist. New York: D. Appleton 
 
 &Co. $3.00. 
 
 . The Travels of Birds. New York: D. Appleton & Co. $0.40. 
 
 Coues, Elliot. A Key to North American Birds. 2 vols. Boston: Dana 
 
 Estes & Co. $12.50. 
 
 Dugmore, A. R. Bird Homes. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. $2.00 
 Eckstrom, Fannie. The Bird Book. New York: D. C. Heath & Co. $0.60' 
 
 . The Woodpeckers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. $1.00. 
 
 Forbes, S. A. Midsummer Bird Life of Illinois. Bulletin of the Illinois 
 
 State Laboratory of Natural History. Vol. IX, art. vi. 
 Forbush, E. H. Our Useful Birds and Their Protection. Massachusetts 
 
 State Board of Agriculture (out of print). 
 
 . Game Birds, Wild Fowl, Shore Birds. Massachusetts State Board 
 
 of Agriculture, Boston. 
 . The Domestic Cat, Bird Killer. Economic Biological Bulletin 
 
 No. 2. Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, Boston. 
 Headley, F. W. The Flight of Birds. Witherby & Co. (Scribners' 
 
 Agents.) $i . 25. 
 Herrick, F. H. Home Life of Wild Birds. New York: G. P. Putnam's 
 
 Sons. $2.00. 
 Job, Herbert K. How to Study Birds. Outing Publishing Co. $i . 50. 
 
 . The Sport of Bird Study. Outing Publishing Co. $2 .00. 
 
 Johonnot, James. Neighbors with Wings and Fins. New York: The 
 
 American Book Co. $o . 40. 
 Mathews, F. S. Field Book of Wild Birds and Their Music. New York: 
 
 G. P. Putnam's Sons. $2.00. 
 McAtee, W. L. Plants Useful to Attract Birds and Protect Fruit. Separate, 
 
 Yearbook Department of Agriculture, No. 505. 
 Miller, Olive Thome. First and Second Book of Birds. Boston: Houghton 
 
 Mifflin Co. $o . 60 and $i . 10. 
 
 . Little Brothers of the Air. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. $1.35. 
 
 Reed, Charles K. North American Birds' Eggs. New York: Doubleday, 
 
 Page & Co. $2 . 50. 
 . Birds, Land and Water (or either separately). New York: 
 
 Doubleday, Page & Co. $i .00. 
 Sage, Bishop, Bliss. The Birds of Connecticut. State Geological and 
 
 Natural History Survey Bulletin No. 20. 
 Sanford, Bishop, Van Dyke. The Waterfowl. New York: The Macmillan 
 
 Co. $2 . oo. 
 
I go SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Sieper, Albert F. Bird Houses Boys Can Build. Peoria, 111.: Manual 
 
 Training ^ress. 
 
 Traf ton, Gilbert H. Bird Friends. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. $2.00. 
 . Methods of Attracting Birds. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 
 $1.35- 
 Walker, M. C. Our Birds and Their Nestlings. New York: American 
 
 Book Co. $0.60. 
 Whelock, I. G. Nestlings of Forest and Marsh. Chicago: A. C. McClurg 
 
 & Co. $1.00. 
 Weed and Dearborn. Birds in Relation to Man. Philadelphia: Lippincott 
 
 & Co. $2.00. 
 Williams, Sarah. Through the Year with Birds and Poets. Boston: Lothrop, 
 
 Lee & Shepherd Co. $i .00. 
 Wright, Mabel Osgood. Gray Lady and the Birds. New York: The 
 
 Macmillan Co. $1.00. 
 
 Wright and Coues. Citizen Bird. New York: The Macmillan Co. $1.50. 
 United States Department of Agriculture: 
 
 Erroneous Ideas Concerning Hawks and Owls. Yearbook, 1895. $0.55. 
 
 Birds That Injure Grain. Yearbook, 1897. $0.60. 
 
 Birds as Weed Destroyers. Yearbook, 1898. $0.60. 
 
 Food of Nesting Birds. Yearbook, 1900. $0.75. 
 
 Some New Facts about the Migration of Birds . Yearbook , 1 903 . $0.75. 
 
 Economic Value of Predaceous Birds and Mammals. Yearbook, 1908. 
 
 $0.60. 
 Separates : 
 
 No. 197, How Birds A feet the Orchard. 
 
 No. 443, Does It Pay the Farmer to Protect the Birds. 
 
 No. 504, Plants Useful to Attract Birds and Protect Fruits. 
 
 No. 590, Our Meadowlarks in Relation to Agriculture. 
 
 No. 601, Relation of Birds to Grain Aphids. 
 Bulletins: 
 
 No. 187, Preliminary Census of the Birds of the United States. 
 
 No. 619, Food Habits of the Swallows. 
 National Museum Reports: 
 
 Comparative Oology of North American Birds. 1892. $i .00. 
 Bulletins of the United States Bureau of Biological Survey: 
 
 No. 9, Cuckoos and Shrikes in Their Relation to Agriculture. 
 
 No. 15, Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture. 
 
 No. 17, Birds of a Maryland Farm. 
 
 No. 1 8, Distribution and Migration of North American Warblers. 
 
 No. 21, The Bobwhite and Other Quails of the United States in Their 
 Economic Relation. 
 
BIRDS igi 
 
 No. 22, Birds Known to Eat the Boll Worm. 
 
 No. 23, The Horned Larks and Their Relation to Agriculture. 
 
 No. 25, Birds that Eat the Cotton-Boll Weevil. 
 
 No. 26, Distribution and Migration of North American Ducks, Geese, 
 
 and Swans. 
 
 No. 27, The North American Eagles and Their Economic Relations. 
 No. 29, The Relation of Birds to the Cotton-Boll Weevil. 
 No. 30, The Birds of Colorado in Relation to the Fruit Industry. 
 No. 32, Food Habit of the Grosbeak. 
 No. 34, Birds of California. 
 
 No. 35, Distribution and Migration of North American Shore Birds. 
 No. 37, Food of the Woodpeckers of the United States. 
 No. 38, Birds of Arkansas. 
 
 No. 39, Woodpeckers in Relation to Tree and Wood Products. 
 No. 44, Food of Our More Important Fly Catchers. 
 No. 171, Food of the Robins and Bluebirds of the United States. 
 No. 280, Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States. 
 Circulars: 
 
 No. 17, Bird Day in the Schools. 
 No. 56, Value of Swallows as Insect Destroyers. 
 No. 61, Hawks and Owls from the Standpoint of the Farmer. 
 No. 64, Destruction of the Cotton-Boll Weevil by Birds in Winter. 
 No. 79, Our Vanishing Shore Birds. 
 Farmers' Bulletins: 
 
 No. 383, How to Destroy English Sparrows. 
 
 No. 456, Our Grosbeaks and Their Value in Agriculture. 
 
 No. 493, The English Sparrow as a Pest. 
 
 No. 497, Some Common Game, Aquatic, and Rapacious Birds in Relation 
 
 to Man. 
 
 No. 506, Food of Some Well-known Birds of Forest, Farm, and Garden. 
 No. 513, Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard. 
 No. 609, Birdhouses and How to Build Them. 
 No. 621, How to Attract Birds in Northeastern United States. 
 No. 630, Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 
 No. 755, Common Birds of Southeastern United States in Relation to 
 
 Agriculture. 
 
 No. 760, How to Attract Birds in Northwestern United States. 
 No. 844, How to Attract Birds in the Middle Atlantic States. 
 No. 912, How to Attract Birds in the East Central States. 
 
 Farmers' bulletins are issued by the United States Department of Agricul- 
 ture, Washington, B.C. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 ANIMAL COMPANIONS 
 
 The hunter. One group of animals is a source of perennial 
 interest to both child and man: it is the group of animals that 
 have been companions to him through the long ages of his rise 
 from savagery to civilization. Back in primitive times, almost 
 as early as man's remains are recognized as such, when his 
 implements were implements of flint and his home was still a 
 cave, the bones of his faithful dog are found along with those of 
 his master. Probably this same dog was no small element in the 
 successful survival of the human race, for his keen sense of smell, 
 his endurance in the chase, and his loyalty made him an inval- 
 uable ally in hunting; with his aid man could safely attack the 
 more ferocious animals of his environment. The dog comes down 
 to us from that early day when man was a nomadic hunter. 
 
 There are other animals, too, that have been trained by man 
 to share in his hunt; such for instance are the cheetah, or hunting 
 lion, of Mexico and Central America; the falcon, used so com- 
 monly in England in the capture of pheasants and other small 
 game; the ferret, that is no mean helper of the poultryman. 
 While the elephant can hardly be classed as a hunting anymal yet 
 it commonly takes part in the hunt, not as a dog in tracking the 
 prey, but simply as a means of making a way through the other- 
 wise impenetrable jungles into the lair of the tiger or lion. The 
 hunter finds its back a place of safety, and from this point of 
 vantage he shoots his arrows, throws his spear, or kills with the 
 more formidable modern rifle. 
 
 The herdsman. But the domestication of another group of 
 these animal companions facilitated man's advance from the 
 crude civilization of a nomadic hunter to that of the herdsman 
 with his flocks. When man succeeded in sufficiently taming such 
 
 IQ2 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 193 
 
 animals as the goat, sheep, cow, and hog so that they would 
 remain near his habitation and under his care he became more 
 or less independent of the uncertain supplies of wild game as a 
 source of food and clothing. The skins of such animals probably 
 made his tent a more convenient dwelling than the chance cave. 
 
 There is no sharp distinction between the animals that made 
 up the wealth of the primitive herdsman and those that may be 
 designated the beasts of burden. The nomadic herdsman, 
 changing his location as new grazing territory was needed, must 
 of necessity have carried his household effects with him, and not 
 infrequently he used the same cattle that supplied him with food, 
 clothing, and shelter as a means of transportation. The horse, 
 the ox, and the llama are still valuable chiefly as beasts of burden. 
 
 Pets. It is quite natural that as man associated so constantly 
 with these domesticated animals there should grow up between 
 him and them a degree of attachment. Not infrequently the colt 
 or the calf, kept for utility primarily, comes to be quite as much 
 of a pet as the cat that is kept largely for sentiment. But there 
 are animals that serve us simply as pets and that probably have 
 never had any other than an aesthetic value ; such are the canary 
 bird and the goldfish. Whether it is a recapitulation of racial 
 history that makes the boy and girl so fond of their pets or 
 whether the phenomenon is to have some other explanation, it is 
 certain that animal companions may be made to serve a very 
 useful purpose in education. It is an excellent thing for a 
 growing boy to have some animal dependent upon him for its 
 comfort. Its demands are insistent; it must have proper 
 shelter, must have food with regularity, and must be kept clean. 
 It goes without saying that a neglected animal is worse than none, 
 but that same remark would apply equally well to almost any 
 adult responsibility. It is a part of the educative process to see 
 that the child does meet the responsibilities that he assumes. 
 Then, too, many physiological facts are learned incidentally in 
 caring for the animal companions. It is true that there is some 
 danger that the child will get an improper perspective in viewing 
 
194 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 bodily functions from the standpoint of the animal; and yet that 
 is much more likely to be healthfully corrected than are the 
 erroneous notions with which he arrives at an age of social 
 responsibility if he has had- no experience with such vital matters. 
 
 FIG. 138. Chums 
 
 The fault is largely in his instruction and the neglect of opportu- 
 nities if his notions of sex relations, for instance, are allowed to 
 remain on a purely animal plane. 
 
 Animal educators. There is something fine in the compan- 
 ionship of an intelligent animal, especially that of a dog. To one 
 who looks back upon a boyhood in which a dog was companion 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 195 
 
 of many adventures, playmate, sympathetic confidant, a chum 
 always ready for a romp or a tussle, it seems almost a crime to 
 bring up a boy, at least, without the chance to repeat the 
 delectable racial comradeship. 
 
 So important are the educational advantages of association 
 with the animal companions, that it seems worth while to bring 
 them into the school curriculum; not only that, but it is quite 
 feasible to bring the animals themselves into the schoolroom and 
 to study at first hand many of their interesting characteristics. 
 Under city conditions, where it is difficult for children to get out 
 of doors for nature-study, these animals are one of the chief 
 resources of the nature teacher. And even in the town and 
 country the child's interest in such materials is so great that it 
 pays to study some of these animals in the school as well as to 
 encourage their maintenance in the home. 
 
 Animals at school. This is not as difficult a proposition as 
 it seems at first. The boy or girl will bring the pet dog to school, 
 day after day, to serve as a basis for several lessons. The cat 
 may be brought, too. Many of the animals may be kept in 
 appropriate pens or cages in the schoolroom rabbits, guinea- 
 pigs, white mice, chickens, ringdoves, pigeons, canaries, all adopt 
 the schoolroom as a home very willingly. Many of the wild 
 animals may be kept in the schoolroom. A number of common 
 fishes will live very comfortably in the schoolroom aquaria. 
 Squirrels, gophers, field mice, wild birds, such as a covey of 
 young quail, frogs, toads, lizards, and even snakes are a part of 
 the schoolroom equipment in many centers of enthusiastic 
 nature-study. Obviously it is of first importance to know how 
 to obtain and take care of such creatures. 
 
 Cages. In the author's experience it has been found advisable 
 to keep only one sort of animal in the schoolroom at a time, unless 
 the animals are those that live in the aquaria. But if the cages 
 are those that can be easily moved (Fig. 139), a small stock of 
 animals may give to each grade some experience with each in 
 turn. Probably in time an animal house will be built in the 
 
196 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 school yard and in it the animals may live under very natural 
 conditions; to it the children may go for their nature lessons, a 
 plan that avoids many difficulties for the teacher and discomforts 
 for the animals. Still, the small indoor cages are quite feasible. 
 Make a rectangular frame of one-and-one-half-inch lumber and 
 cover it except the bottom and one end with inch-mesh chicken 
 wire. Make the bottom of flooring with groove and tenon, so 
 
 FIG. 139. The indoor cage 
 
 that it will be tight. Set a door frame in the open end and cover 
 it with the wire; hinge it and provide it with hasp and staple. 
 Run a six-inch-wide strip of half -inch stuff all around the outside 
 of the cage at floor level so that the animals cannot so readily 
 scatter the sawdust or straw that covers the cage floor. Casters 
 will make it easy to move the cage from room to room. If 
 chickens or pigeons are to be kept in the cage provide it with a 
 couple of roosts. It is also well in all cases to provide the cage 
 with a small box, on one side of which a door may be cut, so that 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 
 
 197 
 
 the animals may go into a dark retreat to sleep and rest when 
 they so desire. 
 
 Such a cage, while a great convenience, is by no means a 
 necessity when a pair of animals are to be kept in the school only 
 for a short time. Any small box may have its open side covered 
 with chicken wire and serve as a temporary cage; if rodents, 
 such as rabbits or squirrels, are to be kept it is well to cover the 
 whole box with the wire, as they readily gnaw through thin 
 
 FIG. 140. View of animal houses and some of the pens, Gary, Indiana 
 
 boards. Do not use painted wire netting for the cages, for 
 animals will gnaw off the paint with which it is coated and 
 the results may be disastrous to them. Straw, sawdust, or dry 
 earth spread on the bottom of the cage will add to the animals' 
 comfort. A pan of drinking water should always be provided 
 and the cage must be kept clean. 
 
 Care of pets. The house the animal is to occupy permanently 
 should be built so that it is warm, dry, light, and easily cleaned 
 (Fig. 140). The dog kennel, for instance, must be built of 
 sufficient size so that the animal, when full-grown, can stretch 
 
198 SOURCE BOOK OP BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 out full length inside; it should have double walls with air space 
 between and should be made windproof , either by using matched 
 lumber or building paper; the floor must be raised off the ground 
 and a couple of windows or ventilators provided to give an 
 abundance of light and fresh air. One end of the kennel should 
 be made so that it can be removed entirely in order to make it 
 easy to clean the interior. If the dog must be kept chained, as 
 is often the case in the cities, give him a long, strong chain that 
 slips along an overhead wire so that he may run back and forth. 
 Rabbits and cavies (Fig. 141) may be kept in a similar house, 
 subdivided inside so that each female may have a separate pen. 
 
 FIG. 141. A white, short-haired cavy or guinea-pig 
 
 Only one male should be kept in the house, for the males fight 
 badly, and that one should be taken out if young are born, for 
 the males often eat their offspring. The young of these animals 
 should not be handled at all until they are well covered with hair; 
 the man smell upon them seems to incite the mother to kill them 
 and eat them. The house should connect with a generous yard 
 or runway, fenced with inch-mesh chicken wire that runs a foot 
 below the ground so that rabbits will not burrow out. The 
 pigeon cote or chicken coop needs to have a cement floor or else 
 to be set up on posts so that rats will not get in, for these animals 
 will steal eggs and destroy young as fast as they appear. The 
 yard or flying pen is best fenced and roofed with inch-mesh 
 chicken wire. 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 199 
 
 Wild animals. In keeping wild animals try to make their 
 back-yard pen as nearly like their native haunts as possible. 
 The pen in which turtles or frogs are confined must have a broad 
 shallow pan of water sunk flush with the ground; some blue 
 flags or cat-tails may be planted at its margin. An alligator 
 may be kept in such a pen, too, and transferred in the early fall 
 to a washtub or large aquarium indoors in which the water is 
 shallow and which is provided with a mud bank or a wood plat- 
 form at one side so that the animal may crawl out to bask in the 
 sun. Porcupines, woodchucks, racoons, opossums, crows, ducks, 
 snakes, all thrive in confinement if given good care. A washtub 
 or a half-barrel makes a pond that is roomy enough to be the 
 home of many of the smaller fish, and a lad might come to know 
 the habits of many of the common fish of ponds and streams by 
 stocking such a back-yard pool some summer. Wash some sand 
 and gravel and throw it in on the bottom. Plant some pond 
 weeds in this, such as are suggested in the chapter on animals of 
 pond and stream (p. 6). Minnows and other small fish may be 
 caught in a net that is made by fastening the ends of a piece of 
 mosquito net, three or four yards long, to two four-foot poles. 
 If one boy takes one pole and another boy the other and then 
 hold them vertically in the water so that one edge of the netting 
 reaches to the bottom and the other is at or above the surface, 
 and if the two walk along the opposite margins of a stream or 
 pond many fish may be captured for observation. They should 
 be transferred at once to a good-sized pail with three or four 
 inches of water in the bottom. In some states fishing with such 
 a net is illegal at some times of the year. The state fish 
 commission or the biological survey connected with the state 
 university can inform you in regard to such laws. The fish 
 commission, if such exists in the state, is usually very willing 
 to send fish and their eggs to any school that will make good 
 use of the material. 
 
 Sanitary care. It is imperative that every animal house f 
 whether dog kennel, rabbit hutch, chicken coop, canary cage, or 
 
200 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 pigsty, be kept scrupulously clean, not alone for the comfort of 
 the animal, but because these animal companions of ours are a 
 grave source of danger when diseased. They are the hosts of 
 parasites that may infect man. The cat, because she is a tropical 
 animal living in a trying northern climate, is peculiarly suscep- 
 tible to diphtheria and tuberculosis, which diseases, it has been 
 demonstrated, she readily transfers to children. Scrub out the 
 
 FIG. 142. The flying pen for pigeons 
 
 kennel, coop, or hutch with water to each gallon of which have 
 been added eight tablespoonfuls of creolin, or coat the inside with 
 whitewash to which creolin has been added in the same propor- 
 tion. Let the house dry well before the animals are replaced. 
 Use straw for the bedding or hay for rabbits and cavies, as the 
 hay serves them for food also. Renew the bedding every few 
 days and burn the old litter to get rid of fleas. The cat should 
 have her own box or bed, and the mat or litter on which she sleeps 
 should be kept clean. 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 2OI 
 
 Bathe dog or cat in a solution of creolin, using four teaspoon- 
 fuls to the quart for the dog and half as much for the cat, as her 
 skin is more tender; or the solution may be rubbed into the fur 
 with a cloth or brush. It does not need to be washed out as it 
 improves the fur and the odor keeps away vermin. Powdered 
 alum, sprinkled freely under rugs and in cracks and crevices, will 
 free the house of fleas if pets have brought them in. 
 
 Feeding. The pet dog is very likely to suffer from over- 
 feeding. He then becomes sluggish, loses his playfulness, and 
 often develops skin diseases. Feed a young dog twice a day on 
 dog biscuit or table scrap, including plenty of vegetables and 
 cereals; when the dog is full-grown feed him once a day. The 
 puppy needs more meat than the full-grown dog, but for either 
 it should be cooked and should not make up more than a fourth 
 of the diet. Rabbits and cavies, kept out of doors, may be fed 
 on grass, vegetables, and grains; cavies breed best when given 
 plenty of carrots; indoors they should be fed on dry foods, like 
 grains, bread crusts, and clover hay, so as to avoid unpleasant 
 odors. Always keep some sticks of wood in the rabbit cage for 
 them to gnaw so that the cutting teeth are worn down; otherwise 
 the mouth may be propped open by their growth so that the 
 animal cannot chew. Pigeons thrive on chick feed (Fig. 142), 
 and both pigeons and chickens need gravel or some sort of grits 
 and plenty of green stuff; lawn clippings may be used in summer, 
 sprouted oats in winter. Woodchucks and prairie dogs (Fig. 
 143) are fed similar to rabbits; opossum and porcupine take 
 table scrap. Most turtles and frogs are fed insects and scraps of 
 meat, like chopped liver and fish; the land turtles, such as the 
 box turtles, are vegetarians, feeding on berries and fruits. All 
 the cold-blooded creatures, especially the alligators and snakes, 
 go without feeding for long periods. At first the alligator may 
 be disinclined to eat in captivity, and the meat must be poked 
 down his throat with a stick far enough so that he will swallow it; 
 he soon becomes willing to take the meat without waiting to be 
 stuffed, and his capacity for live frogs is quite equal to that of 
 
202 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 snakes after the winter's fast (Fig. 144). Fish in captivity may 
 be fed on the prepared fish food and on chopped meat, but all 
 that is not eaten within an hour or two should be removed 
 from the aquarium so that it will not foul the water. Numer- 
 ous small larvae, crustaceans, and plants that can be dredged 
 up out of pond or stream, even in winter, are welcome food for 
 the fish. 
 
 Wild traits. The feeding habits of our common animals are 
 replete with interest, for so many traits are reminiscent of their 
 wild past; they offer, too, instructive illustrations of the intimate 
 
 
 FIG. 143. Prairie dog in school animal cage (Gary, Indiana) 
 
 relation of structure and function. Thus puss eats daintily, par- 
 taking of her food with apparent relish. She prefers to enjoy 
 her meal by herself and often runs off with the bone or other 
 appetizing morsel to hide under the stove or in the corner while 
 she leisurely devours it, sniffing it first to satisfy her nose as well 
 as her palate. The dog, on the contrary, bolts his food in great 
 gulps. He seldom minds onlookers, and other dogs only hasten 
 his ravenous efforts to get his full share of the available food. 
 The members of the great cat family are accustomed through 
 generations of usage to quietly partake of the prey which they 
 have hunted alone and killed in the solitude of the forest or 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 203 
 
 jungle. Not so the dog tribe; they have hunted in packs, and 
 when the kill was at last accomplished each animal seized his share, 
 eating amid a jostling crowd of hungry fellows; each secured the 
 choicest morsel possible and defended it against all comers; each 
 was anxious to stow as large a share as possible in the shortest 
 time in that one spot secure from the claims of disputants. 
 
 Both dog and cat use their sharp claws to hold the bone while 
 gnawing off the meat and both use their back teeth in the process. 
 The front teeth, the incisors, are small and weak, as may be 
 
 FIG. 144. A pet blue racer 
 
 readily seen; our own are well developed, and in biting corn off 
 the cob, for instance, we use them to advantage. The dog and 
 cat must get the bone around at the side of the mouth so as to 
 bring into play the sharp-edged, strong, back teeth. Our 
 corresponding teeth are flat-topped and are used for grinding the 
 food. Dogs and cats have no such grinders and their food is 
 eaten with little chewing. Such animals feed naturally on meat. 
 The cat's rough tongue serves to rasp off shreds of meat that stick 
 to the bone. The lion's tongue is so rough with its horny points 
 that a single lick draws blood. The dog usually crunches the 
 bone and swallows the bits instead of cleaning it. 
 
204 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The squirrels, rabbits, guinea-pigs, and white rats all belong 
 to a group of animals known as the rodents, or gnawers, because 
 their front teeth, the incisors or scissor teeth, are so strong and 
 sharp that they gnaw their way into the pantry, the granary, or 
 other storeroom of man's food and help themselves. The chisel- 
 like teeth quickly cut into the food, shaving it so that the flat- 
 topped back teeth can grind it readily. The squirrel (Fig. 145) 
 
 FIG. 145. The chipmunk eating 
 
 leaves his tooth marks on the nutshell, the rat's are visible on the 
 cheese or the woodwork about his hole, but the rodent that leaves 
 his trade-mark most plainly on his work is the beaver (Fig. 147). 
 I have watched him cut down an eight-inch poplar in twenty 
 minutes, biting into the wood so as to take out chips in a ring 
 around the tree and continuing the process until the tree toppled 
 over. Beavers fell birches a foot and a half in diameter, and 
 birch is by no means a soft wood ; poplars three feet in diameter 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 
 
 205 
 
 are none too large for them to cut. He is a close relative of our 
 common muskrat (Fig. 148), whose houses are so common on 
 the margins of reedy ponds and swales. 
 
 Certain of our foreign critics think it is not without reason 
 that we have put the bison, a cud-chewing animal, on our coins 
 as a national emblem. We thus recognize, in a measure at least, 
 man's great debt to this group of animals, including the cow, 
 
 FIG. 146. A doe in the forest home 
 
 sheep, goat, camel, llama, etc., that have been among the most 
 valuable of man's animal allies. These beasts feed largely on 
 grass and tender shoots, which they crop of! in leisurely fashion, 
 swallowing the food at once into a temporary stomach from 
 whence it is later brought back to the mouth to be thoroughly 
 chewed and swallowed a second time, going then to the digesting 
 stomach. The advantage of this type of feeding is apparent. 
 Deer, for instance (Fig. 146), may go out to feed in the early 
 
206 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 morning or in the evening twilight into the grassy glades of the 
 forest, where they quickly gather a stomach full and then go back 
 into the recesses of the forest to chew their provender in com- 
 parative security. Thus cattle feed in the open and then go 
 into the shadow or stand belly deep in the stream while chewing 
 their cud. 
 
 The cow has no incisors on the upper jaw. The grass is held 
 against the sharp edges of the lower teeth by the pressure of the 
 callous gums, and then as the head swings up it is torn off. 
 
 FIG. 147. Skull of a beaver and the tree he cuts 
 
 Sheep and goats have a similar arrangement of teeth and the 
 same upward swing of the head in feeding. The peculiar noise 
 made as the grass is torn off is quite characteristic of the browsing 
 herd. 
 
 The domestic birds, such as chickens, turkeys, peahens, and 
 others, like their wild relations, are largely grain or seed eaters. 
 The heavy bill for picking up food and the strong feet that enable 
 the animal to scratch in the soil to disclose the hidden kernels 
 are well adapted to the services they perform. Since these 
 animals do not chew their food they swallow pebbles and bits of 
 stone that help to grind up the food in the muscular gizzard. 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 207 
 
 The crop serves as a temporary stomach to hold the grain waiting 
 to go to mill in the gizzard. 
 
 Drinking. Almost every child has watched the cat or dog 
 drink and then has tried to curl his own tongue up into a ladle to 
 dip up the water only to find that in more ways than one the 
 tongue is an unruly member. At first it seems quite a marvelous 
 thing that a horse is able to put its mouth in the water and pump 
 up a satisfying drink through its long throat. Yet we often 
 kneel beside the spring and drink in a similar manner. When 
 once the water has passed from the mouth into the throat the 
 
 FIG. 148. A tame muskrat (photograph by E. A. Lewis) 
 
 ring muscles of the esophagus push it along, by their contractions, 
 to the stomach quite as well uphill as down. The trapeze trick 
 of the circus performer who while hanging head down drinks a 
 glass of water is difficult only in its initial stage; it requires 
 practice to pour water into your mouth under such conditions 
 without getting it into your nose, but when once it is swallowed 
 the rest of the process is automatic. 
 
 Cleanliness. There is a great contrast in the relative fondness 
 of the cat and dog for water. The dog loves his swim quite as 
 well as does the small boy, but puss has an instinctive aversion 
 to the bath. This is true of the whole family of cats. Even the 
 
208 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 fishing cat refuses to get more than her paws wet in her efforts to 
 secure her food. The cat's tongue is wash rag, brush, and comb 
 all in one. The recurved horny points upon it that make it feel 
 so rough when she licks your hand serve to get out the dirt from 
 the fur, and the cat's coat always looks sleek and clean. Indeed 
 all our domestic animals are instinctively clean. The horse and 
 cow submit gratefully to brush and comb and evidently enjoy 
 these appurtenances of civilization, as do also dog, cat, goat, and 
 rabbit. Chickens and pigeons go over their feathers with their 
 bills, removing dirt and oiling them thoroughly so that they are 
 waterproof. Even the pig, usually regarded as the dirtiest of all 
 our animal allies, is naturally cleanly. Poor piggy has little hair 
 on his skin to save him from the bites of annoying insects, so that 
 he delights to coat himself with a layer of protecting mud. But 
 in the wild his lair is always clean, he is choice of his food, and if 
 given a clean sty and clean water while in confinement he will 
 keep himself as clean as any of the more respected domestic 
 animals. 
 
 Protection. Animals in the wild, exposed to cold, to winds, 
 to rain, and to all the other inclemencies of the weather, subject to 
 shortage of food or continued drought, living in all sorts of danger 
 from their many enemies, must needs be protected, else they 
 would die off entirely and leave none of their kind upon the earth. 
 Indeed, that ruthless elimination of the unfit has happened over 
 and over again, and the old rocks contain the fossil records of 
 hundreds of species that have become extinct. Within the 
 memory of the present generation half a dozen animals have 
 disappeared from the face of the earth. Our domestic animals 
 have many structures and types of behavior that are reminiscent 
 of their wild ancestors and that once were essential to their 
 survival, although now man's care renders them more or less 
 unnecessary. The cat and dog are still quite able to protect 
 themselves with tooth and nail, the cow's horns are still to be 
 respected, the goat is notorious for his vigorous butt, the horse 
 sometimes bites and his kick is to be feared, and even the appa- 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 209 
 
 rently inoffensive bunny occasionally displays his ability to care 
 tor himself. One night a prowling cat forced his way into the 
 rabbit cage, and in the morning I found the poor cat dead, his hide 
 torn to shreds by the kicks of the buck's hind feet, that are armed 
 with claws that are terribly effective. 
 
 Horses and cattle, sheep and goats, run naturally in herds in 
 the pastures, just as their wild relations still do on the ranges. 
 One cow or horse or sheep is no match for a bunch of worrying 
 dogs and it usually takes refuge in flight, just as the wild 
 relation did when the pack of wolves attacked it. But when 
 the herd is together even the wolves respect the circle of lowered 
 horned heads or the hard hoofs. When a dog runs after a cow 
 down the village street his yelps stir up ancestral memories in all 
 the dogs within earshot and they join the chase, while the cow 
 with tail up, wild-eyed, runs for her life to shelter or makes her 
 way to the protecting herd. 
 
 Usually the males are best provided with weapons of offense 
 and means of defense. Thus the ram wears the horns, the stag 
 has the great antlers, the boar the tusks, and the rooster the spurs, 
 while the manes of the lion, the bison, and the stallion serve to 
 protect the most vulnerable parts in the fierce encounters. The 
 male uses his tremendous strength in protecting the females and 
 the young, often giving his life in defense of his herd. The 
 natural pugnacity of the boy is an instinct that is common to 
 males of his animal forbears, an instinct that needs not repression 
 but its proper expression; it may well be directed along the 
 channels indicated by the animal allies, the protection of the 
 weak of the species. The world is always in need of good 
 fighters. 
 
 These animal companions of ours have numerous structures 
 and habits that protect them from the fury of the elements. 
 Their fur (Fig. 1 50) and feather coats are impervious to cold and 
 rain. The thin summer pelage is exchanged for a thicker one in 
 the fall, and this in turn is shed and a new summer coat is grown. 
 So effective are these coats of fur and feathers that many of the 
 
210 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 wild animals have been well-nigh exterminated in furnishing them 
 to covetous man. The records of the Hudson Bay Company 
 are almost unbelievable. The annals of those bold fur traders 
 furnish also some of the most exciting tales of adventure found 
 in all our literature, stories that in their portrayal of truth 
 outrival the imaginative flights of the narrator of fiction. 
 
 Wintering. Many of the animals, particularly the birds and 
 some insects, like the monarch butterfly, escape the cold of winter 
 by their migration southward. Even more marvelous seems 
 the hibernating instinct whereby the animal, fed to repletion in 
 
 FIG. 149. Muskrat houses on a snow-covered swamp 
 
 the autumn, crawls into his den and passes the winter in a stupor. 
 Our squirrels hibernate by spells, coming out on the warm days 
 to bask in the sun and feed on the stores of nuts, returning again 
 to the nest hole to spend the very cold days. 
 
 The changes that go on in the warm-blooded animals at the 
 time of hibernation are very wonderful. The gopher has a 
 summer body temperature of 105 ; in winter it is 58 ; his summer 
 respiration is fifty per minute, his pulse two hundred, but in 
 winter his respiration is imperceptible and his pulse only four. 
 In winter his leg may be cut off with the loss of only a few drops 
 of blood, which is so altered that it scarcely flows at all. 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 211 
 
 Winter spreads far but goes not deep; down only about four feet; and 
 Woodchuck, if he can not escape overland, can, perhaps, underland. So 
 down he goes through the winter, down into a mild and even temperature, 
 five long feet away but as far away from the snow and cold as bobolink 
 among the reeds of the distant Orinoco. 
 
 Indeed, Woodchuck's is a farther journey and even more wonderful than 
 Bobolink's, for these five feet carry him beyond the bounds of time and space 
 into the mysterious realm of sleep, of suspended life, to the very gates of 
 death. That he will return with Bobolink, that he will come up alive with 
 the spring out of this dark way, is very strange, for he went in most meagerly 
 prepared. He took nothing with him apparently. The muskrat built him 
 a house and under the spreading ice turned all the meadow into a well- 
 stocked cellar. The beaver built a dam, cut and anchored under water a 
 plenty of green sticks near his lodge so that he, too, would be under water 
 when ice formed, and have an abundance of tender bark at hand. Chip- 
 munk spent half his summer laying up food near his underground nest. 
 But Woodchuck simply digged him a hole, a grave, then ate until no particle 
 more of fat could be got into his baggy hide, and then crawled into his tomb, 
 gave up the ghost and waited the resurrection of the spring [Dallas Lore 
 Sharp, Wild Life Near Home]. 
 
 Coat color that harmonizes with the environment is a very 
 common means of protection still seen in many of our familiar 
 animals, although in many cases the breeder has altered the 
 natural color of fur or feathers to suit man's fancy. The red 
 squirrel is found largely among the pines, whose reddish trunks 
 render him inconspicuous as he climbs to feed on the seeds of 
 the cones, while the gray squirrel inhabits the forests in which 
 the nut trees have grayish bark. It takes a sharp eye to see the 
 gopher as he stands on the lookout in the field, for his coat 
 closely matches the ground and dried grasses. The color of the 
 dog's fur is very variable through man's selection, but when the 
 dog reverts to his wild condition, as shipwrecked specimens have 
 on lonely islands, he resumes in a few generations the tawny coat 
 of his wild forebears. I have spent months in the forests where 
 wolf tracks were as common as dog tracks about a village and 
 have seen wolves only twice. The color of the dog's eye, un- 
 changed by man's selection, as it is a matter of no importance 
 in the various breeds, is still brown, as it is in practically all the 
 
212 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 wild mammals. The colt frequently displays the stripes so 
 characteristic of the zebra that harmonize so well with the 
 alternate bands of light and shade among the tall grasses and 
 reeds where it feeds. The wild rabbit, it is well known, changes 
 in the autumn from the brown coat color that matches the dead 
 leaves of the forest floor to white, so that he is inconspicuous in 
 the snow. The arctic foxes make a similar change, as do some 
 of the birds, like the ptarmigan. 
 
 Some animals, well able to care for themselves, match the 
 color of their environment not so much to gain protection as to 
 be able to creep up on their unsuspecting prey and capture it. 
 Thus the polar bear, large as he is, is relatively inconspicuous in 
 his white coat on the snow fields. The cat gliding stealthily 
 through the shrubbery is scarcely seen by the bird until she is 
 within pouncing distance. So the lion matches well the sandy, 
 rocky wilds he inhabits, and the tiger, living in the reeds and 
 rushes along the watercourses, is striped vertically in black and 
 yellow like alternate gleams of sunshine and shadow. The great 
 cats that live in the forests are mottled like the checkered pattern 
 of the sunlight filtering through the leafy screen on the forest 
 floor. 
 
 Keen senses play a very important part in the animal's 
 protection. That animal escapes destruction whose sharp eyes, 
 sensitive nose, or alert ears inform it of danger while it is yet a 
 long way off. Thus hunting comes to be a fine art; the novice 
 may go into the woods or out on the prairies where game is 
 abundant and yet see nothing but tracks and tantalizing traces 
 of the numerous wild things that are constantly eluding him. 
 Horses, cattle,, and rabbits have large, funnel-shaped ears that 
 can be moved like ear trumpets to pick up the sound from any 
 direction and so locate the source of danger. How promptly 
 the dog pricks up his ears at the least sound. Occasionally a 
 boy will be found who can move his ears a bit, and all of us have 
 the rudimentary muscles still attached to the ears that are the 
 counterparts of the ones the animals use to prick up their ears. 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 213 
 
 The cat's eyes are particularly efficient in the dim light; many 
 of the great cats hunt in the partial gloom of the forests and most 
 of them are night prowlers. The long whiskers of the cat, rat, 
 and rabbit are sensitive hairs that enable such animals to follow 
 the devious paths of the forest or to go along underground 
 passageways without bumping into things at every turn, for 
 they feel readily what they cannot see in the indistinct light. 
 
 The dog, rabbit, cow, and pig have a keen sense of smell. 
 Man takes advantage of this when he uses the dog as a hunter. 
 Pigs have been trained to serve the same purpose. Indeed, the 
 pig's nose is a wonderful combination, a keen organ of smell, 
 an extremely sensitive organ of touch, and yet so tough that it 
 roots in hard ground, even among stones, without wearing out. 
 Some dogs are famous trackers, particularly those with the long 
 snout that gives plenty of room for a large area of sensitive 
 olfactory membrane. It is said that the American Indian, in 
 the early days, tracked his foe or the animal he hunted quite as 
 much by his nose as by his eye and that this is still true of some 
 savages. Civilization seems to have deadened our sense of smell 
 so that we make very little use of it. 
 
 Smell is closely akin to taste. One can only taste substances 
 that are in solution. This can readily be noted by wiping the 
 surface of the tongue dry and then sprinkling on the tip a pinch 
 of either salt or sugar; it is only tasted when the saliva has had 
 time to run down and dissolve it. Thus things are smelled also 
 only when the gases given off by the odoriferous substance are 
 dissolved in the moisture of the nose membranes. Animals with 
 a keen sense of smell always have moist noses and also cold noses, 
 for the moist surface is constantly losing heat by evaporation 
 and is cooler than its surroundings. If a "drop of rapidly evap- 
 orating liquid, like ether or gasoline, is placed on the hand the 
 spot feels perceptibly cooler as the liquid disappears. 
 
 Structure. These animal companions of ours furnish many 
 examples of the nice adjustment of structure to function (Fig. 
 1 50) . In the first place they are all built on the same general 
 
214 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 plan all are vertebrates. The backbone may readily be felt on 
 horse or cow or dog, running from the base of the skull to the tip of 
 the tail and attaching solidly at shoulders and hips to the heavy 
 bones that connect with the legs. Bleached skeletons of mammals 
 that have lain out of doors for some time may often be found and 
 will show how well the skeleton provides the body with a strong 
 framework and at the same time allows ample freedom of motion. 
 
 FIG. 150. The sheep pen 
 
 Limbs are all built on the same plan, whether it be the arm 
 of a man, the foreleg of a dog, the wing of a chicken, or the fin of 
 a fish. It seems quite marvelous that there should be this 
 fundamental unity in organs that have such varied functions. 
 Yet the parts are in each case modified so as to be nicely adjusted 
 to the particular function to be accomplished. It is a simple 
 matter to compare the foreleg of the dog or horse with our own 
 forearm and note that there are the same long bones, similarly 
 placed and related to the joints in a similar way. In the wing 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 215 
 
 of the bird some of the parts are reduced, and yet it is evident on 
 inspection that the wing is simply the foreleg with the parts 
 altered to suit the new purpose that is to be served. The dog's 
 or the cat's paw is equivalent to our hand. The bones occur in 
 the same order, are in the same relation to the joints, and are in 
 fact identical in every way, except that the thumb is much 
 shortened and is withdrawn up the leg so as to be lifted from the 
 ground. Our fingers move much more freely and are much more 
 skilful, yet our toes have no corresponding cunning. Probably 
 no small part of man's advance in civilization is due to the 
 gradually changing structure of the forefoot that allows him to 
 move his fingers independently and to oppose the thumb to them 
 so that objects can be handled. 
 
 In the hog and cow not only the thumb or great toe has 
 disappeared, but the index and little fingers have become much 
 reduced and are visible only as rudiments. So the animal is 
 apparently two-toed and walks, not as we do or as bears do, on 
 the flat of the foot, but on the tips of the toes. The toe and finger 
 nails have developed into hoofs to bear this added burden. In 
 the horse all the toes have disappeared except the middle one 
 and two other rudimentary ones that we call the splints. The 
 horse walks on the nail of his middle toe. The fossils contained 
 in the ancient rocks indicate that the horse originated as a small 
 animal, about the size of an ordinary dog, and that it lived on 
 very soft and swampy land. The foot then had five spreading 
 toes that enabled it to travel over such miry ground successfully; 
 later on its habits changed and contemporaneously its structure. 
 Other species appeared in place of the original one, and these 
 were gradually larger, longer of limb, with a foot that through 
 long ages was reduced to a single toe, as we find it in the horse of 
 today. Now it is an animal that lives on the hard dry ground 
 of the steppes and pampas and depends on its speed of limb for 
 safety. 
 
 Comparing the leg of the horse with your own you will be 
 surprised to find that what you at first take for its knee joint is 
 
2i6 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 really the ankle and that the bones of the foot have greatly 
 elongated to help make the horse's leg a long one. Such elonga- 
 tion of bones to produce long legs is a distinct advantage in the 
 increased speed produced. A long, straight leg easily swings 
 forward, like a pendulum, for a long stride, while a doubled-up 
 leg, like the hind leg of cat or rabbit, makes leaping easy, but is 
 not efficient for prolonged and speedy running. 
 
 This admirable relation of structure to function is seen again 
 in the skulls of these various animals. Thus the squirrel and the 
 bulldog have spherical heads, while the hound and the pig have 
 elongate heads. The squirrel uses his front teeth to gnaw with, 
 while the hound crushes the bone with his back teeth, for he needs 
 the long snout for his keen nose that demands extensive smelling 
 area. In biting, the resistance of the nutshell is the weight, the 
 end of the jaw that hinges to the skull is the fulcrum of the lever, 
 and the power is applied where the great muscles, felt swelling 
 on the cheeks when you bite, attach to the jawbone. This 
 attachment is relatively close to the fulcrum so that the power 
 arm is short. The longer the jaw the longer the weight arm and 
 therefore the less the force of the bite. 
 
 Distribution. The wild relations of these animal compan- 
 ions may well be used to illustrate the laws of animal distribution. 
 If one looks up in encyclopedias or in natural histories the natural 
 habitats of such great cats as bay cat, fishing cat, cheetah, jaguar, 
 lynx, lion, manuel, ocelot, ounce, panther, puma, rusty cat, serval, 
 tiger, wildcat, and yaguarandi, and indicates the range of each on 
 a map of the world, it will be apparent that most of them are 
 confined to the tropics and that Southern Asia is the home of a 
 very large proportion. Apparently this is the original home of 
 the great cat family, and from this center they have spread 
 into other parts of the earth, except as they have been kept out 
 by impassible barriers. Such localities as Australia and New 
 Zealand, that have been separated from the mainland for a very 
 long time, have no cat inhabitants. Cats have been largely shut 
 out of Northern Eurasia by the great mountain chains to the 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 217 
 
 north of their original home and by the cold climate which acts 
 as a barrier in Northern, North America and Southern South 
 America. The cats are primarily tropical animals and, like our 
 domestic pussy, do not take kindly to the cold. Puss goes out 
 in the winter only with protest and then treads the snowy paths 
 gingerly. The lynx is the only one of the great cats that has 
 learned to live in the higher latitudes. Several of them are found 
 in Central America, whither they must have migrated over some 
 tropical continental area now obliterated, or else by way of the 
 Behring Strait country when it was enjoying a warmer climate 
 and Eurasia was continuous with North America. 
 
 Animal projects. The commonplace animals of the home are 
 not alone interesting in the problems that their curious habits 
 suggest or because of nice structural adjustment to their environ- 
 ment and to their methods of winning a livelihood, but they may 
 also afford an opportunity for worth-while projects. For the 
 seventh- or eighth-grade boy or girl to make money by raising 
 squabs; to maintain a commercially practicable chicken coop; 
 to raise hogs or beef for profit ; to successfully breed angora cats ; 
 to be a scientific butter producer, will in any case insure careful 
 observation, accurate reasoning on the basis of facts learned, and 
 research and good judgment under conditions that duplicate 
 those under which the problems of real life must be solved. 
 Moreover, such projects will insure reading to a purpose, drill in 
 letter-writing, composition, arithmetic, and bookkeeping, such 
 as cannot be achieved under the artificial stimulus usually applied 
 in the schoolroom. Directions cannot be given in limited space 
 for the conduct of many such projects, but instructions for many 
 such undertakings will be found in the books and pamphlets 
 listed at the end of the chapter. Two typical projects may be 
 discussed here, one for the school and one for the home the 
 chicken yard and the care of the dairy cow. 
 
 Chickens. There are four distinct types of chickens: (i) 
 fancy birds, kept for their elegant plumage, such as the Japanese 
 long-tailed fowls whose tail feathers are sometimes twenty feet 
 
218 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 long; (2) egg producers; (3) meat producers, and (4) general 
 utility fowls, those that lay well and still are heavy enough to 
 give a good weight of fine-flavored meat. 
 
 The Leghorns and the Minorcas are familiar types of the egg 
 producers. Such fowls are neat, trim, with spare though long 
 and deep bodies and rather long legs. They are active, rather 
 nervous and easily frightened, and sensitive to cold. They lay 
 well but set poorly. Brahmas, Cochins, and Langshans are good 
 types of meat-producing fowls. They are heavy and are 
 
 FIG. 151. Rapid sketches of parts and poses of chicken and one more complete 
 study. 
 
 compactly built, with short neck, full body, and short legs. 
 They are phlegmatic, relatively inactive, thickly feathered so 
 that they stand cold well, incessant setters but poor layers. The 
 Orpingtons, Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds (Fig. 152), and 
 Wyandottes are well-known breeds of the general utility type. 
 For the novice some of these fowls make the best stock. In 
 purchasing stock buy from a good utility strain rather than from 
 show stock. 
 
 The henhouse. There are two types of chicken house the 
 portable colony house and the stationary flock house. The 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 219 
 
 colony house is large enough to accommodate about twenty 
 chickens, while the stationary house (Fig. 153) may have room 
 for hundreds. The portable house is built on runners, so that it 
 can be moved from one location to another, into the orchard for 
 shade in summer or out to the grainfield after harvest so that the 
 chickens may feed on the gleanings. The small portable house 
 is advantageous in that chickens in small colonies lay better and 
 are freer from disease; the large house has the advantage that 
 the labor of caring for many chickens is reduced if they are all 
 together near supplies. 
 
 FIG. 152. Rhode Island Red rooster and boy caretakers 
 
 The house should be located on dry, well-drained land, pref- 
 erably with a southern slope. If the site is sheltered to the 
 north and west by a house, barn, or group of trees, egg production 
 may be maintained during the winter when prices are highest. 
 The house is built with three sides closed; the fourth has windows 
 facing south. 
 
 Poultrymen are agreed that the house should be large enough 
 to give each hen three to four feet of floor space. This is espe- 
 cially necessary in the North, where hens are kept indoors by the 
 inclement winter weather. The roof need only be high enough 
 to make it possible for the caretaker to enter and move around 
 
220 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 so as to keep the place clean. The house must have these 
 essentials: plenty of fresh air, sunlight, freedom from dampness 
 and drafts, and cleanliness. A cement floor is advisable for the 
 stationary coop, for it is cleanly and helps exclude rats. The 
 movable coop can be taken to new ground when the dirt floor of 
 the old location becomes foul. Mix crushed stone or gravel with 
 cement, six parts of the former to one of the latter, by repeatedly 
 shoveling the two, thrown together on some hard level spot of 
 earth or on a sheet of galvanized iron. Wet this and shovel it 
 over twice more. Fill the base of the coop with this and while 
 it is still wet cover it with a half-inch layer of sand and cement 
 mixed four to one and wet with water in the same way, to the 
 consistency of thick cream. Smooth this off with the flat of the 
 shovel or, better still, with the mason's tool made for the purpose. 
 
 The window, which may also serve as door, should run from 
 just below the roof to the floor so that the sunshine will strike 
 all parts of the coop during the day, as sunshine is a very efficient 
 germicide. On this same south side make a long narrow opening, 
 high up from j the floor, and fit it with a hinged frame covered with 
 heavy cheesecloth. This is kept raised by day but lowered by 
 night, so that while fresh air may be abundantly admitted all 
 drafts are excluded. The walls and roof should be built of 
 matched lumber or else should be covered with building paper, 
 and in cold climates should be covered also with shingles or 
 sheathing so as to make the coop windproof . 
 
 Inside, the coop must have movable perches, a droppings 
 shelf, nest boxes, and a dust bath. The best perch is a pole, one 
 and a quarter inches in diameter and octagonal in cross-section. 
 It should be supported on foot-high legs and be placed on the 
 droppings shelf opposite the window. The droppings shelf is 
 made wide enough to catch all manure and is built thirty inches 
 or so below the roof. Keep the shelf sprinkled with dry earth 
 and clean it off frequently. An earth bin may be built in one 
 corner of the coop and filled in the fall with earth for winter use. 
 The accumulated manure should be kept in covered ash cans or 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 
 
 221 
 
 barrels for use on the garden in the spring. The dust bath is 
 simply a box constantly supplied with fine coal ashes in which 
 the chickens may dust themselves as a preventative of lice. 
 
 Trap nests. In order to know what hens are laying enough 
 eggs to more than pay for their board trap nests are needed, and 
 they are very little more trouble to build than ordinary nests 
 (Fig. 154). Build a box 12 X 15 X30 inches, inside measure, and 
 open at one end, or use an empty shoe packing box, which is 
 about this size. Halfway between the ends put in a cross- 
 partition that stands five inches above the floor of the box and 
 
 FIG. 153. The chicken coop 
 
 another 5Xi5~inch strip in similar position at the open end; 
 the first serves to separate nest and trap and the latter to support 
 the trap board. This trap board is made of two pieces nine or 
 ten inches wide, one thirteen the other sixteen inches long, 
 hinged together at one end. Hinge the other end of the thirteen- 
 inch piece to the base of the five-inch partition that bounds the 
 nest so that when the hen steps on it in entering the trap it will 
 sink under her weight to the floor of the trap, forcing the sixteen- 
 inch length into a nearly vertical position (Fig. 154), so closing 
 the door of the trap. When the trap is set the sixteen-inch 
 board extends straight out of the doorway. The hen steps up on 
 
222 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 it, walks in toward the nest, and her weight shuts the door; she 
 must stay in the trap after laying until released. Each hen 
 should wear a leg band bearing a number; such bands are pur- 
 chased of dealers in sets numbered from i up. Record should 
 be kept of the laying of each hen. 
 
 FIG. 154. The trap nest (from Bulletin of the Maine Agricultural Experiment 
 Station). 
 
 Egg production. Egg production depends much on the 
 opportunity for activity provided the chickens. They lay best 
 when given the run of the fields, and under such conditions, too, 
 they forage for themselves and secure much of their food. The 
 egg-laying breeds are the best foragers, while the meat producers 
 cannot be depended on to secure much if any of their food. If 
 the chickens must be kept in a yard it must be large enough to 
 
' ANIMAL COMPANIONS 223 
 
 allow six or seven square yards to each hen. The ground should 
 be kept fresh by frequently spading it, which will also induce the 
 hens to scratch and thus get exercise. 
 
 Feeding. A laying hen is an egg-manufacturing machine and 
 must be fed well that is, provided with plenty of raw material, 
 in order to lay well. Moreover, her food must be of such kinds 
 as may be turned into the ingredients of the egg with the least 
 effort on her part. The simplest method of feeding is to provide 
 the chickens with a variety of wholesome foods and let them 
 select to suit their individual needs, for even if a balanced ration 
 is provided it is impossible to control what goes in to the chicken's 
 crop; one hen will eat only the corn, another 7 will select mostly 
 the oats out of the mixed grain provided. m 
 
 Five sorts of feed must be constantly used: (t) ground grain, 
 like corn meal, linseed meal, or bran; (2) whole or coarsely 
 broken grain; (3) animal food, like beef scrap.br blood meal; 
 (4) green stuff, like cabbage, beets, or clover clippings ; (5) lime, 
 for shell formation. In addition grit is needed to aid digestion. 
 A chicken's food goes first to the crop, an organ for temporary 
 storage. It is ground up later in the muscular, gizzard, where bits 
 of stone or gravel help do the work somewhat as the millstones 
 grind the grain. The ground grains are the staple articles of diet, 
 for they are most easily digested and most promptly usable in- 
 egg production; they are fed, together with meat scrap, in a self- 
 feeding, ratproof hopper that is kept where the hens can eat 
 at any time. A good combination for laying hens is twenty 
 pounds of wheat bran, ten each of corn meal, gluten feed, or a low 
 grade flour and of meat scrap, with an additional five pounds of 
 linseed meal every second month (Maine Experiment Station 
 Ration) . The whole grains used may be wheat, corn, and oats 
 in the proportion of two, two, one. Each morning throw a quart 
 of this mixture, for each twenty-five hens, into the straw litter 
 that is kept on the floor of the coop where the hens must scratch 
 to get it. Chopped cabbage, beets, or mangels together with 
 sprouted oats make good green food; a cupful a day for a pen 
 
224 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 of twenty-five is enough. Crushed oyster shells for the lime and 
 grits containing some charcoal should always be available in 
 hoppers and plenty of fresh water must be on hand in the 
 automatic fountains. 
 
 Cleanliness. All food, as well as the straw used for the litter, 
 must be clean and free from mold or mustiness. The coop itself 
 must be kept clean; wash it out with the same creolin solution 
 that was advised for the dog kennel, spraying the solution into 
 
 FIG. 155. This Rhode Island Red hen was mated to a White Leghorn rooster. 
 One of the offspring, a rooster, was mated to the hen and the chicks shown are 
 the result. 
 
 all cracks and crevices. The perch especially must be kept clean 
 in order to avoid sore feet. Do this cleaning only on a bright 
 day and then early enough so that the coop will be dry before 
 roosting time. Lice powder may also be used freely on the hens, 
 nests, and perches. Such painstaking care in housing and feeding 
 chickens may seem unnecessary to the average householder whose 
 back-yard chicken pen supplies the home with eggs part of the 
 time and with broilers often, yet it is worth while for the boy or 
 girl to learn how to do the thing properly, as the really expert 
 chicken fanciers are doing it; for the extra care does increase 
 
\ ANIMAL COMPANIONS 225 
 
 the profits enormously and makes all the difference between a 
 pen of chickens that really pays and one that is a constant 
 financial loss. 
 
 Accounting. In order to see if your project is a paying one, 
 keep account of all expenses cost of feed, labor, and supplies, 
 together with interest on the money invested in equipment and 
 stock. Credit the poultry account with all proceeds from sales 
 of eggs and chickens. Experiment with different sorts of feed, 
 a number of which you will find given in textbooks on animal 
 husbandry or in the pamphlets issued by state agricultural 
 colleges, and try to see what foods give the largest production of 
 eggs for the money invested. Figure the average cost of feeding 
 one hen for six months; having the egg-production record of each 
 hen it is a simple matter to see if every hen is making a profit. 
 The unprofitable ones should be marketed. Study the market 
 too; possibly some household, hospital, or store can be found 
 that will give exceptionally good prices for a dependable supply of 
 strictly fresh eggs, especially if they are of large size. 
 
 Breeding. It is a worth-while project for any boy or girl who 
 has a pen of chickens to try breeding for increased egg-laying 
 (Fig. 155.) Even if of the same strain, hens differ much in their 
 productivity. The hen that lays fifteen dozen eggs a year is not 
 uncommon now. Hens will lay quite as well when no rooster 
 is present, and such infertile eggs keep well. When eggs are 
 desired for hatching, a rooster is needed for each colony of twenty 
 to twenty-five hens. It is quite important that the rooster as 
 well as the hens be from good laying stock. Sometimes a hen 
 herself has an exceptionally good egg-laying record, but does not 
 transmit her ability to her offspring. Keep a record of the 
 matings and when you find a rooster and a hen whose offspring 
 lay early and freely use the same pair again for parents. Try 
 matings of their offspring, keeping egg-laying records of all the 
 pullets, and thus attempt to discover and establish a strain that 
 will give large returns. The hen that lays a hundred eggs and 
 can transmit her ability is better breeding-stock than the one 
 
226 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 with a record of two hundred eggs whose offspring are poor 
 layers. If two roosters are used in separate coops, the hens being 
 so far as is known alike, and the pullets from one coop turn out 
 excellent layers while those from the other lay poorly, likely the 
 rooster from the first coop is a superior bird, prepotent in his 
 power to transmit egg-laying ability, and it would be well to mate 
 him with the hen that transmits her heavy production to her 
 offspring. 
 
 Difficulties. Such a project cannot, of course, be carried to 
 successful completion in a single year; it is carried with the pupils 
 as they advance from grade to grade or else turned over, with a 
 stock of good advice, to the incoming pupils. Nor may it be 
 conducted without meeting many difficulties. One second- 
 grade teacher, bubbling with enthusiasm after a summer's course 
 in nature-study, asked her superintendent to finance the begin- 
 nings of such a chicken project, but was rebuffed with skeptical 
 coldness. The children, however, readily caught her infectious 
 spirit; one volunteered to bring an old hen in the spring, and a 
 dozen others each promised an egg for the setting. In due time 
 the hen and thirteen eggs arrived, but the only available coop 
 seemed the space under the teacher's desk; so there, in the 
 wastebasket which was turned into a nest, the hen was duly set. 
 The interest in the progress of events was boundless, and the hen 
 was hand fed during the process of incubation. Thirteen chicks 
 hatched, but bad luck was bound to follow since the thirteen 
 came on a Friday. Before school closed that day one little 
 fluffy nestling had already died. On Monday morning, however, 
 Biddy was presented with a tiny chick, captured from a neigh- 
 bor's flock by one enterprising boy who feared the school hen 
 would be lonely without her full number of chicks. Thus began 
 the series of problems, both spiritual and physical, that attended 
 the enterprise through several years. The janitor volunteered 
 to provide a box as a temporary coop, and later, when the chicks 
 grew larger and scattered much of their litter, his persuasion, 
 added to that of the pupils, obtained from the superintendent a 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 
 
 227 
 
 more commodious coop in the school yard, where the project 
 produced material for arithmetic lessons, compositions, and 
 drawing lessons as well as eggs and more chickens. 
 
 The dairy cow. Just as there are different breeds of chickens 
 for different purposes, so there are breeds of cattle that are 
 particularly good as milk producers, others that are raised largely 
 for the fine quality of their meat; the former are the dairy type, 
 the latter the beef type. The Aberdeen Angus, Galloway, 
 and Hereford are common breeds of the beef type. The 
 Guernsey, Holstein, Fresian, and Jersey (Fig. 156) are all of the 
 
 FIG. 156. The dairy type of cow. Mature Jersey: "Sunbeam of Edgeley," 
 629; 18,744 Ibs. milk, 926 Ibs. fat. Owned by James Bagg & Son, Edgeky, Ontario 
 (Agricultural Gazette, Department of Agriculture, Ontario). 
 
 dairy type. There are some cattle of the general-utility type 
 serving both purposes; such are the brown Swiss, the Devon, 
 the Shorthorn, and the Red Polled. In the neighborhood of 
 many schools there will be found cattle of several breeds. Inter- 
 esting field trips may be conducted to nearby barnyards or 
 pastures to see these cattle, after which the differences in the 
 types may be talked over. 
 
 The beef creature is very broad; the muzzle is wide and 
 strong, the eyes far apart, the short straight front legs have 
 ample room between them; the neck is short and thick, the level 
 back is broad, the hind quarters fat and smooth; the whole 
 
228 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 animal is built on the square to carry weight. The dairy type, 
 on the contrary, is long, deep, tapering toward the shoulders, 
 muscular but not fleshy; the shoulders and hips are more 
 prominent. The udder extends well up behind and carries well 
 forward along the belly. The milk veins are prominent in the 
 older cows. In both types soft, pliable skin, silky, glistening hair, 
 neatly pointed ears with long hairs along the margins and at the 
 tips, fine-grained, not shelly or coarse, horns, calm eyes, and full 
 forehead are signs of quality. 
 
 Milk analysis. The different breeds of dairy cows produce 
 milk with quite unlike qualities. Some breeds give milk that is 
 particularly rich in butter fat; others yield milk that contains a 
 large percentage of solid matter and so is especially valuable in 
 making cheese; and still others are heavy milkers without 
 producing milk particularly adapted to either butter or cheese 
 making. Such differences can be readily demonstrated in the 
 school without much apparatus, although of course it is more 
 satisfactorily shown with the usual appliances for milk analysis. 
 The more accurate methods may be reserved for the upper grades 
 and only the crude analysis indicated here may be carried on 
 with homely utensils. 
 
 Have the children bring milk from as many different sources 
 as possible, together with some tall pint bottles, jars, or glass 
 cylinders. Put a pint of each sort of milk into a bottle or 
 cylinder and let it stand so that the cream will rise. Cream is 
 really the massed butter droplets which are light and so float to 
 the top. The differences in the amount of cream can readily be 
 seen if the bottles or cylinders are all alike or may be measured 
 and calculated in percentages. It shows much more plainly in 
 tall, narrow bottles than it does in wide ones like pint fruit jars. 
 Skim off the cream and let the rest of the milk sour or else curdle 
 it with a junket tablet. Pour moderately not water into the sour 
 milk and stir it so as to coagulate the solid parts, so making 
 cottage cheese. Hang each sample up in a separate cheesecloth 
 bag and let it drain overnight. In the morning empty out the 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 229 
 
 cheese and weigh this coagulable part of the milk. Do the 
 samples that gave the largest amount of cream necessarily 
 contain the smallest amount of this solid part ? 
 
 Butter making. This process may be demonstrated even by 
 the little children. Have each child bring a clean pint fruit jar 
 with rubber and cap, a half-pint of cream, and a small strainer, 
 like a tea strainer. The teacher may provide some salt and 
 florist's pot markers to be used in place of the wooden spoons 
 with which the butter is usually worked. Let each child put the 
 half-pint of cream in the fruit jar and screw on the top tightly, 
 the rubber band being in place; shake the jar until lumps of 
 butter appear and continue as long as more butter forms. Pour 
 the liquid through the strainer to collect the butter and save the 
 buttermilk to taste. Wash the butter in cold water, then put 
 it in a cup of cold water and work it so that the separate lumps 
 are massed together and the buttermilk all squeezed out. Pour 
 off the water and work in a pinch of salt. Try the butter on a 
 cracker and note how it tastes. 
 
 Feeding the cow. The dairy cow is simply a machine for 
 turning feed into milk. Evidently it is important that only such 
 feed be given as will be most readily digested and will yield the 
 largest returns for the money spent on it. In spring and summer 
 no feed is required other than pasturage, if that is good; in fall 
 and winter the cow must be fed a proper ration. There is no 
 short rule for telling what that proper ration is, for it varies with 
 the season, breed, character, and condition of the cow. It will 
 be enough for the grade pupil at home to help weigh out and mix 
 the feed, help weigh the milk, and determine its butter fat, 
 all under the guidance of some older person on the farm. The 
 results as well as the methods in vogue may be reported at school. 
 If, however, feeding on the home farm is not done carefully with 
 weighed proportions in order to make a balanced ration, nor the 
 milk weighed or analyzed, the boy or girl of the upper grade may 
 get consent from parents to undertake it with one cow. He must 
 then provide himself with one of the many excellent bulletins 
 
230 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 issued by various agricultural colleges or state departments of 
 agriculture and follow the instructions given regarding feeding 
 and the care of the milk. Some titles of such bulletins are given 
 at the end of the chapter. 
 
 In any community in which the balanced ration is not fed to 
 cattle or the milk weighed or analyzed the school might well 
 undertake to start the practice. A pair of spring scales could 
 be bought and lent to first one pupil for a couple of weeks and 
 then to another, so that the food could be weighed out in accord- 
 ance with the instructions of the bulletin, and the milk produced 
 could also be weighed. One of the simple sets of milk-analysis 
 outfits could be lent about in the same way. Each pupil could 
 then report on feeding and milking one particular cow for a 
 definite period and all could note the effect in increased or better 
 milk production of the improved ration. If the community is 
 already feeding scientifically, weighing and analyzing the milk, 
 then the pupils will be interested in learning at home what 
 methods are in vogue, what results are achieved, and in reporting 
 such data at school. Let a tabulation be made of the breeds of 
 cattle that are kept on the several farms or at the homes, of the 
 various rations that are fed, of the milk yield each day, and of 
 the analyses of the milk. The school can be a clearing house of 
 much valuable information and at the same time pupils will be 
 having good drill in securing information, reporting on it in good 
 English, making accurate calculations, and in putting results 
 into tabulated form for comparisons that will give drill in the 
 scientific method of investigation and scientific thinking. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Burkett,C.W. (Ed.) Domesticated Animals. Boston: Ginn& Co. $3.50. 
 Burroughs, John. Squirrels and Other Fur-Bearers. Boston: Houghton 
 
 Mifflin Co. $0.60. 
 Comstock, Anna B. The Pet Book. Ithaca, N.Y.: The Comstock Co. 
 
 $3-00. 
 Cornish, C. J. Animals at Work and at Play. New York: The Macmillan 
 
 Co. $1.75. 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 231 
 
 Ewart, J. C. Principles of Breeding and the Origin of the Domesticated Breeds 
 
 of Animals. United States Department of Agriculture. Reprint. 
 Fabre, Jean-Henri. Our Humble Helpers. The Domesticated Animals. 
 
 New York: The Century Co. $2 .00. 
 Hornaday, W. T. The American Natural History. New York: Charles 
 
 Scribner and Sons. $3 . 50. 
 Howliston, M. H. Cat Tails and Other Tales. Chicago: A. Flanagan Co. 
 
 $0.25. 
 Hulbert, Wm. Davenport. Forest Neighbors. New York: Doubleday, 
 
 Page & Co. $i . 50. 
 Ingersoll, Ernest. The Life of Animals. New York: The Macmillan Co. 
 
 $2.00. 
 
 . Wild Life of Orchard and Field. New York: Harper. $i .40. 
 
 Lane, J. All About Dogs. New York: John Lane Co. $2.50. 
 
 Lewis, Harry R. Poultry Keeping. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co. 
 
 $1.00. 
 Mathews, F. S. Familiar Life in Field and Forest. New York: D. 
 
 Appleton & Co. $1.75. 
 Miller, Olive Thorne. Four-Handed Folk. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 
 $0.75- 
 . Little Folks in Feathers and Fur. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. 
 
 $2 . 50. 
 
 . Our Home Pets. New York: Harper. $1.25. 
 
 Monteith, John. Familiar Animals and Their Wild Kindred. New York: 
 
 American Book Co. $o . 50. 
 Richards, L. E. Four-feet, Two-feet, and No-feet. Boston: Dana, Estes & 
 
 Co. $2.00. 
 Roberts, Charles G. D. Children of the Wild. New York: The MacmiUan 
 
 Co. $i . 50. 
 . Kindred of the Wild. New York : Doubleday, Page & Co. $2 . oo 
 
 . Neighbors Unknown. New York: The Macmillan Co. $i . 50. 
 
 . Watchers of the Trails. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 
 
 $2.00. 
 Rogers, Julia E. Wild Animals Every Child Should Know. New York: 
 
 Grosset & Dunlap. $o . 75. 
 SI. Nicholas. Cat Stories, Lion and Tiger Stories, Bear Stories, Stories of 
 
 Brave Dogs. Reprinted. New York: The Century Co. $0.75 each. 
 Seton, Ernest Thompson. Animal Heroes. New York: Charles Scribner 
 
 and Sons. $2.00. 
 . Lives of the Hunted. New York: Charles Scribner and Sons. 
 
 $2.00. 
 
232 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Seton, Ernest Thompson. Wild Animals I Have Known. New York: 
 
 Charles Scribner and Sons. $2 .00. 
 Shaler, N. S. Domesticated Animals. New York: Charles Scribner and 
 
 Sons. $2 . 50. 
 Sharp, Dallas Lore. Wild Life Near Home. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 
 $1-25. 
 Stone and Cram. American Animals. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 
 
 $4 . oo. 
 
 Watson, James. The Dog Book. New York : Doubleday, Page & Co. $5 . oo. 
 Westell, W. P. The Boys' Book of Pets. New York: F. A. Stokes. $1.75. 
 Wright, Mabel Osgood. Four-Footed, Americans and Their Kin. New 
 
 York: The Macmillan Co. $i . 50. 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
 ington, D.C.: 
 
 No. 96, Raising Sheep for Mutton. 
 
 No. 100, Hog Raising in the South. 
 
 No. 106, Breeds of Dairy Cattle. 
 
 No. 137, Angora Goat. 
 
 No. 170, Principles of Horse Feeding. 
 
 No. 234, The Guinea Fowl and Its Use as Food. 
 
 No. 235, A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. 
 
 No. 287, Poultry Management. 
 
 No. 328, Silver Fox Farming. 
 
 No. 330, Deer Farming in the United States. 
 
 No. 369, How to Destroy Rats. 
 
 No. 442, The Treatment of Bee Diseases. 
 
 No. 447, Bees. 
 
 No. 496, Raising Belgian Hares and Other Rabbits. 
 
 No. 528, Hints to Poultry Raisers. 
 
 No. 530, Important Poultry Diseases. 
 
 No. 556, The Making and Feeding of Silage. 
 
 No. 562, Organization of Boys 1 and Girls' Poultry Club. 
 
 No. 574, Poultry House Construction. 
 
 No. 576, Breeds of Sheep for the Farm. 
 
 No. 612, Breeds of Beef Cattle. 
 
 No. 619, Breeds of Draft Horses. 
 
 No. 667, Breeding and Training Colts. 
 
 No. 682, A Simple Trap Nest for Poultry. 
 
 No. 684, Squab Raising. 
 
 No. 697, Duck Raising. 
 
 No. 743 , Feeding Dairy Cows. 
 
 No. 767, Goose Raising. 
 
 No. 777, Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves and Young Dairy 
 Stock. 
 
ANIMAL COMPANIONS 233 
 
 No. 779, How to Select a Sound Horse. 
 No. 791, Turkey Raising. 
 
 No. 803, Horse Breeding Suggestions for Farmers. 
 No. 806, Standard Varieties of Chickens: the American Class. 
 No. 811, Production of Baby Beef. 
 No. 840, Farm Sheep Raising for Beginners. 
 No. 858, The Guinea Fowl. 
 No. 874, Swine Management. 
 No. 889, Backyard Poultry Keeping. 
 
 No. 898, Standard Varieties of Chickens: the Mediterranean and Con- 
 tinental Classes. 
 
 No. 935, The Sheep Killing Dog. 
 
 United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey. 
 North American Fauna (largely technical) : 
 No. 13, The Bats. 
 No. 15, The Jumping Mice. 
 No. 1 8, The Pocket Mice. 
 No. 29, The Rabbits. 
 No. 31, The Wood Rats. 
 No. 32, The Musk Rats. 
 No. 36, Harvest Mice. 
 No. 38, The Moles. 
 No. 39, Pocket Gophers. 
 No. 40, Prairie Dogs. 
 No. 41, Grizzly and Brown Bears. 
 No. 44, The Flying Squirrels. 
 
 FIG. 157. Coyote in his pen a school pet 
 
fro 
 
 y 
 
 FIG. 158. A student's cover design flowers 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 Weeds. Every child, before he finishes his work in the grade 
 school, should know the common flowering plants of his region. 
 To walk afield and not be able to speak familiarly to the flowers 
 that nod to you is to miss one of the commonplace joys of life; 
 and one does not need to go out to the country to see these 
 ordinary flowers, for many of them bloom unnoticed along our 
 streets and roadways, on our lawns, and in the vacant lots of the 
 city. True, we ordinarily speak of these as weeds and ignore 
 them, or perhaps even curse them as pests. Yet here are some 
 very interesting plants, interesting because they have succeeded 
 so admirably under adverse conditions and severe competition 
 and because they illustrate many of the fundamental principles 
 of plant activity and plant evolution. It will evidently be 
 impossible, in the compass of a single chapter, to treat the 
 flowering plants of even a limited portion of the United States; 
 and so attention will be given only to those plants usually 
 considered as weeds. They are common everywhere. The 
 same species are of wide distribution, occurring all over the 
 country. 
 
 Parts of plant. At first it is well to study some single plant 
 that shows the parts well. We may take the common soapwort 
 or bouncing Betty (Fig. 159), the evening primrose, the fireweed, 
 or the mullein, also called the velvet plant. Do not select for 
 this initial study any plant like the dandelion or aster, in which 
 the so-called blossom is really a cluster of tiny flowers, each too 
 small to be examined without a microscope. 
 
 With the specimen of soapwort in hand, an entire plant, notice 
 the roots, stem, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit. Each pupil 
 should have his own specimen; while in the field getting it, have 
 
 235 
 
236 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 him notice the extent of the root system. Ordinary sweet clover 
 is another good plant to use for this study, as the fine roots will 
 be found growing to a great depth and spreading far from the 
 stalk. Commonly, also, on the roots of the sweet clover will be 
 found the tubercles containing the nitrifying bacteria that enable 
 the leguminous plants and some others to utilize the nitrogen of 
 
 FIG. 159. Soap wort 
 
 the air as a source of food material. This topic will be discussed 
 more fully in the chapter on " Seeds and Seedlings." 
 
 With a sharp knife cut a cross-section of the stem of the plant 
 and see the fibrovascular bundles imbedded in the softer tissue. 
 An excellent plant for demonstrating these bundles is another 
 common weed, the plantain or ribwort. Pick a leaf of this that 
 has a long stem and break the stem. The fibrovascular bundles 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 237 
 
 are very tough and will probably pull out of a part of the stem 
 as strings (Fig. 160). Take hold of one of these strings that is 
 still attached to the leaf and pull it out, noticing its course. Note 
 how it branches into smaller and smaller subdivisions, each 
 running into some vein of the leaf. These serve not only to 
 strengthen the stem but also to conduct the sap of the plant. 
 
 The blossom. It will be observed that the blossom of the 
 soap wort is composed of two conspicuous parts, the green 
 cuplike portion or the calyx and the pink part of the blossom, 
 the corolla, the base of which is 
 held by the calyx. Both calyx 
 and corolla are made up of sepa- 
 rate parts that are more or less 
 fused in some other flowers. 
 These parts are the sepals that 
 make up the calyx, and the pet- 
 als, which, though unfused in 
 this flower, are collectively spo- 
 ken of as the corolla. Pull off 
 the corolla from the blossom 
 and there will be left, besides 
 the calyx, the stamens and the 
 pistil. There are ten of the for- 
 mer, each having a hairlike stalk 
 
 or filament that bears the yellowish enlargement at its tip that is 
 known as the anther. Probably every child knows from observa- 
 tion that the anther discharges a yellow dust, the pollen, for his 
 nose has been yellowed by it when he has smelled the flower. At 
 the center of the group of stamens is the pistil, an Indian-club- 
 shaped structure with a divided top. The swollen basal portion 
 of this is the ovary, which bears the two threadlike styles, on 
 the tip of each of which is a sticky knob that is termed the 
 stigma (Fig. 161). 
 
 Scientific terms. It may seem to the uninitiated that a great 
 many scientific terms have been used, and the teacher may 
 
 FIG. 1 60. Leaf of ribwort, showing 
 fibrovascular bundles. 
 
238 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 hesitate to use these with pupils. Such hesitation is quite 
 groundless, for even young children learn these terms with ease. 
 There need be no fear of loading the child's mind with too many 
 technical terms, provided only those terms are used which are 
 really needed in talking about the things of interest to the child. 
 If a flower is to be examined and its activities discussed there 
 must be names for the parts, and it is just as easy for the child 
 to use the term "calyx" as it is for him to use the descriptive 
 phrase, a set of little green leaves that is found at the base of the 
 flower. Certainly much time is saved. 
 
 FIG. 161. Wild mustard, showing parts of the flower: a, seen from side, sepals 
 on outside, then the four petals; b, a single petal; c, sepals and petals removed, six 
 stamens and pistil left; d, the fruit, the ripened ovary. 
 
 Seed pods. Take a whole flower stalk of soapwort or of 
 evening primrose (Fig. 162) in your hand and note that the basal 
 part of the stalk is occupied by the seed pods in an old plant. 
 Open one of these seed pods and notice the seeds and their 
 arrangement in the pod. It will be seen that while there are 
 mature pods on the lower part of the stalk there are newly 
 formed pods farther up the stalk, and still farther up the pods 
 bear the more or less faded corollas, each of which is partly 
 inclosed by the calyx. Children will readily discover that the 
 pod has developed from an ovary, in fact that it is nothing more 
 than the matured ovary. If an ovary is cut open it will be found 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 239 
 
 to contain a number of tiny ovules, much smaller than seeds, 
 but arranged just as the seeds are arranged in the pod. This 
 may be seen to hold true for other fruits; compare the cross- 
 section of an apple with a cross-section of the ovary of the apple 
 blossom. A very excellent plant to show this relationship is 
 the May apple, or mandrake (Fig. 163). The pistil is very large 
 and shows the ovules well, and all stages may be traced from the 
 pistils of the flowers to the matured May apples. Pupils may 
 thus be led to realize that the fruit is, in all plants, just the 
 
 FIG. 162. Forming seed pods in evening primrose 
 
 ripened ovary, sometimes with the addition of adjacent parts 
 that adhere to it. This is an exact use of the term " fruit," 
 making it include many things that are not ordinarily spoken 
 of as fruits. Thus a pumpkin is quite as much a fruit as is an 
 orange. 
 
 Fertilization. In many of the flowers that have conspicuous 
 parts, the pupils can find the pollen, discharged from the anthers, 
 on the hairy or sticky stigma. The successive events that 
 complete the story of the pollen and its relation to the transfor- 
 mation of the ovary into the fruit will have to be told to the 
 
240 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 pupils, since the parts concerned are too small to be seen without 
 the microscope. Shortly after alighting on the stigma, each 
 
 pollen grain thrusts out a tiny 
 tube, finer than a hair, which 
 grows down through the style 
 into the ovary and penetrates 
 an ovule. Meanwhile an egg 
 has been forming in each 
 ovule, as it is the function of 
 the ovary to produce eggs 
 from which little plants (or 
 animals) grow. The living 
 
 FIG. 163. Mandrake apples in forma- Content of the pollen grain 
 tion from the pistil: upper left figure, the now flows down through its 
 flower; the others, the enlarging pistil. 
 
 tube and part of it unites with 
 
 the living substance of the egg (Fig. 164) . This process is termed 
 " fertilization," and as a result of it the egg proceeds to grow into 
 the diminutive plant which we find 
 within a seed. The rest of the 
 ovule forms the protective cover- 
 ings known as the seed coats to- 
 gether with the food material stored 
 up within them for the nutrition of 
 the plantlet. We shall learn more 
 about these when the chapter on 
 "Seeds and Seedlings" is reached. 
 Pollen and fruit. It is easy to 
 demonstrate that this process of 
 pollenization with the subsequent 
 fertilization is necessary for the 
 development of the fruit. Forcibly 
 
 open the bud of any conspicuous flower, like the bouncing Betty, 
 mandrake, or garden pea, pick out the anthers, and then inclose 
 the bud, still attached to the plant, in a little paper bag or 
 envelope. This will guarantee that no pollen from some other 
 
 FIG. 164. Diagram of fertilisa- 
 tion. 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 241 
 
 blossom will be carried to the pistil. Such blossoms will not pro- 
 duce fruit. It would be well to try the experiment on several 
 buds; in fact, each child in a grade might try the experiment, 
 and then report on the results of his test. It would enhance the 
 interest if several different sorts of plants were used. If several 
 pods of garden peas are opened, there will be found, almost cer- 
 tainly, one or more in which there are, in addition to the full- 
 grown peas, some very diminutive objects which the children 
 will promptly recognize as ovules that failed to develop. This, 
 in all probability, is due to lack of proper fertilization. 
 
 The egg. The term "egg" will usually bring to the mind of 
 the child the egg that is most familiar, the chick's egg. This is 
 rather unfortunate, for the egg 
 of most animals and plants is 
 a very small structure. In 
 fact the real egg of the chick 
 is small, since most of the 
 material within the shell is 
 only food for the developing 
 embryo. If a hen's egg is 
 laid on the table for a few 
 
 minutes, and the shell is then 
 
 FIG. 165. The chicken s egg 
 cut away from the upper part, 
 
 the yolk will have floated up in such a position as to show, on 
 its upper surface, a little circular speck of translucent jelly-like 
 substance (Fig. 165). This is really the fleck of living matter, 
 the germinal spot, from which, if fertilized, the young chick will 
 grow. Yolk and white will be absorbed as food for the enlarging 
 chick. This little germinal spot is quite comparable to the egg* 
 that we are talking about in the ovule of the plant. 
 
 Weed identification. For convenience in identification the 
 weeds may be divided into several wholly artificial groups on 
 the basis of readily observed characteristics. This necessarily 
 throws together wholly unrelated plants at times, but it will be 
 convenient for the beginner. 
 
242 SOURCE BOOK OP BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 I. The Weeds with Milky Juice 
 
 The common milkweed and the swamp milkweed as well as other 
 less common species have, as the name implies, a milky juice. 
 The common milkweed (Fig. 166) has stout stems two to five 
 feet tall. The opposite leaves are thick, glossy, elliptic in shape, 
 and have entire edges. The dull purplish-pink blossoms are in 
 
 FIG. 166. Field milkweed 
 
 clusters, like balls, both terminally and laterally. The pods are 
 somewhat spindle-shaped in outline, three or four inches long, 
 and are full of brown seeds tufted with silk. The swamp milk- 
 weed has the same general habit, but the leaves are lance-shaped 
 and the pods are slender and tapering. It usually grows in wet 
 ground. There is another milkweed, the butterfly weed, with 
 blossoms the most showy of all, but it does not have the milky 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 243 
 
 juice, so will be noted below. Though only a weed, it frequently 
 keeps company, in the window of the florist's shop, with prouder 
 pedigreed stock. 
 
 Any one of these milkweed blossoms is no mean wonder. All 
 are dependent on insects for pollination; bag the blossoms, even 
 in coarse net, and they produce no seed. When the petals turn 
 back in the opening flower there are disclosed, as the most 
 conspicuous parts, five colored cornucopias that are veritable 
 horns of plenty for the visiting bees, for they contain the nectar. 
 Between each two nectar horns is 
 a slit-shaped opening bordered with 
 white and with a black dot at one 
 end. Since the flower hangs down, 
 the bee must cling to the cornucopia 
 end, and as it turns around to thrust 
 its sucking-tube first into one nectary, 
 then into another, it is very liable to 
 put a foot into one of these slits. The 
 sticky pollen masses then adhere to it 
 and so are carried to the next blos- 
 som to be wiped off on the stigma. 
 If you thrust a pin down into one of 
 these slits on a mature flower so as to 
 touch the black disk, it will stick to 
 the pin as it is withdrawn, bringing with it the pair of club- 
 shaped pollen masses. Sometimes the slit closes on the bee's 
 foot so tightly that it holds it fast in a deadly grip and the insect 
 that came to sip nectar stays to die a lingering death. Flower 
 clusters not infrequently give mute testimony of the imperfect 
 operation of a usually effective device (Fig. 208) . 
 
 The dogbane (Fig. 167), a close relative of the milkweed, is 
 also an insect hangman, though it does not look the part. The 
 slender stem grows from one to three feet tall and the branches 
 are reddish on their upper sides. The oval leaves are an inch 
 or so in length and are borne in pairs. The flowers, in terminal 
 
 FIG. 167. Dogbane 
 
244 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 or axillary clusters, are pretty pink bells with five points turned 
 back from the margin. The anthers are shaped like arrowheads, 
 and not uncommonly small insects get a leg or proboscis caught 
 
 \ FIG. 168. Prickly lettuce 
 
 between the barb and the filament and, unable to release them- 
 selves, die hung upon the flower. All parts of the dogbane plant 
 are poisonous to the taste. Apparently it is the dog that has 
 suffered most from the baneful effects of the plant. 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 245 
 
 The Indian hemp is closely related to the dogbane. It is a 
 sturdy, upright, branching plant, one to two feet tall. The 
 leaves are opposite, twice the size of those of the dogbane. It 
 yields a strong fiber that the aborigines used to make string. 
 
 The dandelion, so common and so well known, is also a plant 
 with milky juice. In spite of its abundance, over a hundred 
 thousand pounds of the dried roots are imported annually into 
 this country to be used in 
 medicinal preparations. 
 
 In this group are to be 
 classed several plants with 
 prickly leaves as well as 
 milky juice. The prickles 
 are confined to the midrib in 
 the prickly lettuce (Fig. 168), 
 a weed which, though only 
 introduced into Massachu- 
 setts in 1868, has already 
 spread over much of the 
 country. In the sow thistle 
 the margins of the leaves 
 bear weak prickles (Fig. 169). 
 
 There are several species 
 of lettuce with leaves cut like 
 a dandelion leaf that do not bear prickles. These, as well as the 
 prickly lettuce, are tall, slender plants four or five feet tall and 
 usually grow in clumps. The upper ends of the leafy stems bear 
 the sprays of flower heads that appear like diminutive dandelions. 
 
 The spurges or euphorbias are graceful plants with rather 
 small leaves and small white or pink stellate blossoms in clusters; 
 separate flower stalks emanate from a common point or else fork 
 freely to produce a much-branched candelabra (Fig. 170). The 
 milky juice of all these spurges, of which there are several species, 
 is irritating and very bitter; it blisters the skin and acts as an 
 emetic when the plant is eaten by an animal. The spurges also 
 
 FIG. 169. Sow thistle (from Farm 
 Weeds, American Steel and Iron Company). 
 
246 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 go under the name of wartworts, because the juice squeezed on a 
 wart is supposed to be curative. "Lettuce is thought Poysonous, 
 when it is so old as to have Milk, Spurge a kind of Poyson in 
 itself; and as for Sow-Thistles, though Coneys eat them, yet 
 sheep and Cattle will not touch them; and besides; the milk 
 of them, rubbed upon Warts, in a short time weareth them away" 
 (Bacon's Natural History [1625]). The most poisonous of all 
 
 the spurges, as also the most showy, is 
 known as snow-on-the-mountain (Fig. 
 171). It is naturally a western plant, 
 growing from Minnesota to Texas, but 
 has been introduced to eastern gardens. 
 It has stout stems, two feet tall, that 
 are usually grooved and hairy. The 
 leaves are oblong. The flower clusters 
 have below them whorls of green bracts, 
 edged with white. Other parts about 
 the flower clusters are white too, giving 
 the plant a glistening appearance dur- 
 ing the blossoming period. Even honey 
 gathered from this plant is irritating, 
 acting as an emetic and strong purge. 
 
 FIG. 170. Spurge 
 
 II. The Weeds with Compound Leaves 
 
 Poison ivy is one of the weeds that 
 it is well to know early merely as a 
 matter of self-protection (Fig. 172). Though, as the name 
 implies, this is a climbing plant, it frequently appears merely 
 as a low shrubby growth on the ground, 'sometimes forming 
 immense beds. The leaf has three leaflets, ovate in outline, 
 and in fruiting time the plant bears a cluster of white berries. 
 The only plant that one is likely to confuse with it is the wood- 
 bine, which also has a compound leaf with leaflets all spread- 
 ing from a common point. But the woodbine has five leaflets 
 instead of three and does not have the white berries. The white 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 247 
 
 berries of the poison ivy or climbing sumac are very character- 
 istic of another member of the sumac genus, the poison sumac, a 
 shrub which grows in swampy places. Perhaps the very poison- 
 ous character of these plants is sufficient excuse for carrying in 
 mind the following bit of doggerel : 
 
 Leaflets three, quickly flee! 
 Berries white, dread the sight. 
 
 FIG. 171 . Snow-on- the-moun- 
 tain (Euphorbia marginata): a, 
 whole plant, one-third natural size; 
 b, seed capsule, natural size (Farm- 
 ers' Bulletin No. 86}. 
 
 FIG. 172. Pioson ivy (Rhus 
 radicans): a, spray, showing aerial 
 rootlets and leaves; b, fruit both 
 one-fourth natural size (Farmers 1 
 Bulletin No. 86). 
 
 When the white berries are not on the poison sumac, it may be 
 known from the other sumacs by its location and by the fact that 
 it has terminal buds, which the others lack, and the leaf scars 
 do not encircle the buds. 
 
 Clover is a good illustration of a plant with compound leaves. 
 There are usually three leaflets to each leaf, though the number 
 
248 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 is somewhat variable. The red clover is known to everyone, as 
 are also several species of the white. The red and white are 
 said to cross, the pollen of one fertilizing the other, and there 
 
 FlG. 173. Melilotus, white sweet clover 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 249 
 
 is thus produced a clover with a pink bloom, the alsike clover, 
 Trifolium hybridum. There is a closely related plant, the black 
 medic, sometimes called hop clover, that forms dense mats on 
 the ground and is therefore especially objectionable in lawns, 
 where it crowds out the more valuable grasses. 
 
 The sweet clover, or melilotus (Fig. 173), is a very widespread 
 plant, formerly regarded as only a weed, now often planted for a 
 
 FIG. 174. Cow vetch 
 
 crop. The plant has a typical clover leaf with three leaflets, but 
 grows tall and is much branched. The white fragrant flowers 
 grow in long slender clusters from the axils of the leaves. As they 
 contain abundant nectar they are much visited by the honey 
 bees. The yellow sweet clover is a smaller, more slender plant 
 and the flowers are bright yellow. 
 
 The vetch (Fig. 174) is another plant of this same family, the 
 pulse family, that is occasionally a troublesome weed. The 
 
250 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 leaves are pinnately compound and end in tendrils. The stem is 
 one to three feet long and tends to lie upon the ground. The 
 flowers are purple-pink and grow in fairly good-sized clusters. 
 The loco weed 9 a western member of this family, is much dreaded 
 
 FIG. 175. Wood sorrel 
 
 by the ranchmen because it is poisonous and is responsible for 
 the death of many thousands of cattle each year. 
 
 Wood sorrel (Fig. 175) is a low-growing plant found commonly 
 in woods and fields. It has a leaf something like ordinary clover, 
 though the leaflets are heart-shaped because of a notch at the 
 tip. The leaflets fold together down the middle also, especially 
 at night, when they droop, cuddling together for sleep. The 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 251 
 
 plant bears at almost all seasons of the year rather pretty yellow 
 blossoms with five petals. It is known more commonly by 
 the children as sour grass because the leaves have a pleasant acid 
 flavor, though they act as a poison if eaten in quantity. 
 
 Cinquefoil (Fig. 176) is a very common weed with blossoms 
 much like a buttercup. As the name indicates there are ordi- 
 narily five leaflets on the compound leaf. The plant is low, 
 
 FIG. 176. Cinquefoil 
 
 usually prostrate; the flowers are solitary in the axils of the 
 leaves. The rough cinquefoil has coarse and rough leaves with 
 only three leaflets on each leaf and it grows more nearly upright. 
 Still another has the undersides of the leaves covered with fine 
 silky hairs which give a silvery appearance, so that the plant is 
 known as silver cinquefoil. 
 
 Queen Anne's lace (Fig. lyy/) is a very common tall weed 
 with leaves that are two or three times compounded; that is, 
 the leaflets are compound and frequently the secondary leaflets 
 
252 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 are compound too. The leaves are large, mostly basal, and from 
 the cluster there stands up a somewhat leafy flower stalk, bearing 
 
 d 
 
 FIG. 177. Weeds of the parsnip family: a, water hemlock; b, water parsnip; 
 c, poison hemlock; d, cow parsnip; e, wild parsnip; /, wild carrot. 
 
 a large cluster of white flowers. Before the flower cluster is 
 completely open the marginal flowers are in-rolled, giving the 
 whole the appearance of a bird's nest, so that the plant is some- 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 253 
 
 times known by this name. It is called Queen Anne's lace 
 because ol the lacy character of the leaves. It is known, too, as 
 wild carrot, since it belongs to the same family as the cultivated 
 carrot, the parsley family. 
 
 The wild parsnip (Fig. 17 ye) also belongs to this same family. 
 Its cluster of bloom on the end of the leafy stalk is yellow; 
 the basal leaves are heart-shaped, those on the stem three- 
 lobed. 
 
 The poison hemlock (Fig. 177^) is another weed of the parsley 
 family. The plant is from two to five feet high and has a stem 
 that is smooth, upright, branched, and is yellow, spotted with 
 purple. The compound leaves are found well up on the stem 
 as well as at the base and are triply compound, making a lacy- 
 leafed plant. The white flowers are in large terminal clusters. 
 The plant has a disagreeable mousy odor that is distinctive. It 
 was the juice of this plant that Socrates was forced to drink as 
 a death potion in old Athens. 
 
 The water hemlock (Fig. 1770) has a much more open cluster 
 of blossoms and the compound leaves are not finely divided, 
 while the leaflets are lance-shaped. Both these hemlocks are 
 exceedingly poisonous, all parts of the plant being dangerous, 
 especially the young foliage and the roots. 
 
 III. Twining and Climbing Weeds 
 
 The wild morning-glory (Fig. 178) is the name given indis- 
 criminately to two vines, one with large blossoms, the other with 
 smaller ones; both are pernicious weeds in grainfields, where they 
 grow upon the grain stalks, bind them together, and smother 
 them in abundant foliage. The plants are also known as the 
 morning-glory bindweeds. 
 
 The wild potato vine appears like a morning glory but some 
 of the leaves are fiddle-shaped and there is a huge root, often 
 weighing seven or eight pounds. 
 
 The black bindweed (Fig. 179) has the appearance of a morning- 
 glory vine, but the basal lobes of the leaves are not as flaring and 
 
254 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 178. Large morning-glory bindweed 
 
 FIG. 170. Wild buckwheat or black bindweed 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 255 
 
 FIG. 1 80. Passion flower 
 
 the blossoms are inconspicuous, borne in clusters that come from 
 
 the axils of the leaves. It is also known as wild buckwheat, as 
 
 its seeds resemble this grain. 
 
 The passion flower (Fig. 180) is a 
 
 common trailing vine in the South. 
 
 The leaves are palmately triply cleft 
 
 and have tendrils coming out of their 
 
 axils. The handsome blossoms, one 
 
 on a stalk, also come from the same 
 
 points. The egg-shaped fruit is about 
 
 two inches long, and when dead ripe 
 
 pops on slight pressure; hence the other 
 
 common name of the plant, Maypop. 
 
 Dodder (Fig. 181) is a curious weed bearing no leaves. As it 
 
 climbs up other plants it ap- 
 pears like masses of orange- 
 yellow or reddish-yellow 
 strings. It is a parasite and 
 thrusts blunt rootlike pro- 
 cesses into the tissue of the 
 host from which it gets its 
 food. The plant bears clus- 
 ters of small yellow bloom 
 and fruits abundantly. One 
 species of dodder is parasitic 
 on clover and is spread en- 
 tirely by impure seed, the 
 seed of the dodder being 
 mixed with the clover seed, 
 which it much resembles. 
 When the plant appears in 
 any crop, the latter should 
 
 FIG. 181. -Dodder 0.1 hollyhock be pulled up and 1^^ 
 
 together with the attached dodder, for it is a scourge to be 
 dreaded. 
 
256 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 IV. Weeds That Lie Low, Forming Mats on the Ground 
 
 Knotweed (Fig. 182), which grows about the door and in 
 pathways, is a thick, matted plant, often known as doormat. 
 The stems are prostrate, growing from four to twenty-four 
 inches long. The smaller branches arise from the nodes or 
 joints, which are swollen and look like knots tied in a string. 
 The leaves are bluish green; the flowers are small and very 
 
 FIG. 182. Knotweed 
 
 inconspicuous. As it seems to thrive best where it is frequently 
 tramped on, it presumably can stand treatment which would 
 kill an ordinary plant. This is a good illustration of adaptation 
 to a particular environment, the plant occupying what would 
 otherwise be unoccupied territory. 
 
 The common chickweed (Fig. 183) is easily recognized by the 
 numerous small, white, star-shaped flowers. The leaves are 
 opposite, a half-inch in length and ovate in shape. The Indian 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 257 
 
 chickweed, or whorled chickweed, has whorls of five or six 
 stemless leaves at each node. From the nodes there also spring 
 the small flowers, without petals, but whose sepals are white 
 inside and green outside. 
 
 Purslane (Fig. 184), or wild portulaca, has succulent, stemless 
 leaves, wedge-shaped, with rounded tips. The plant's stems 
 
 FIG. 183. Chickweed 
 
 and leaves often have a reddish tinge. Even when pulled and 
 thrown aside the plant continues to blossom and bear seed, as 
 the thick leaves furnish enough moisture and nutrition to mature 
 the seed even under such disadvantageous conditions. 
 
 Low amaranth (Fig. 185) lies prostrate on the ground. Its 
 stems are slightly ridged and spread out from the root of the 
 plant in all directions from six to twenty-four inches. The root 
 is pink, so that the plant is sometimes known as the lowpinkroot. 
 There are spiny bracts at the bases of the leaves where the 
 inconspicuous flowers are nestled. 
 
2 58 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The ground ivy (Fig. 186) or gill-over- the-ground is a plant 
 with round or kidney-shaped, scalloped leaves. The flowers 
 grow in small clusters in the axils of the leaves and are two-lipped, 
 
 FIG. 184. Purslane 
 
 FIG. 185. Low amaranth 
 
 as are so many flowers of plants in the mint family, to which this 
 belongs. 
 
 The creeping mallow (Fig. 187) is another low-growing plant 
 bearing rounded leaves with wavy margins. The flowers are pink 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 FIG. 1 86. Ground ivy 
 
 FIG. 187. Cheese weed 
 
260 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 and the fruit is button-shaped. There are usually many of these 
 fruits on each plant. They are sweet and are often called 
 " cheeses" by the children. The plant is sometimes known as 
 the cheese weed or the shirt-button plant. 
 
 Bedstraw (Fig. 188) is a creeping plant with harsh yet slender 
 stems and leaves that grow in whorls of six or eight at each node. 
 
 The leaves are often bristly and the 
 stems are roughened with tiny prick- 
 ers which are felt more readily than 
 seen. The fruits are tiny globular 
 burs that are troublesome to wool- 
 growers. The dry plants make good 
 bedding. 
 
 Mullein (Fig. 189) is one of many 
 weeds that lie close to the ground 
 and that have the leaves arranged 
 in rosette form; its leaves are also 
 thickly covered with hair. From 
 the center of its rosette there arises, 
 in the second year of growth, a tall 
 flower stalk, leafy at its base and 
 bearing hundreds of close-set yellow 
 flowers at its top. Both the hair 
 and the rosette habit of the leaves are 
 excellent devices to protect against 
 the cold of the early spring nights; 
 and this is one of the first plants to 
 appear in the pastures in the spring. 
 
 Common plantain (Fig. 190) is another plant with rosette-leaf 
 arrangement. The leaves are ovate in outline with entire 
 edges. Running through the leaf stalk are several fibrous 
 bundles which are very tough, so that if the 'stalk is broken these 
 usually remain intact and pull out like strong twine. The 
 inconspicuous flowers are borne upon a tall spike, a foot or so high 
 in good soil. The seed stalks are often given to canaries, so that 
 
 FIG. 188. Bedstraw 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 261 
 
 the plant is also commonly known as birdseed. This weed 
 followed so closely on the footsteps of the white man in this 
 country that the Indians called it " white man's foot." 
 Wheresoe'er they tread, beneath them 
 Springs a flower unknown among us, 
 Springs the white man's foot in blossom. Hiawatha. 
 
 FIG. 189. Mullein 
 
 Its crushed leaf is also good for healing wounds, a natural shin- 
 plaster. Thus Romeo recommends it in Shakespeare's Romeo 
 and Juliet (Act I, scene 2) : 
 
 Romeo: Your plantain-leaf is excellent for that. 
 
 Benwlio: For what, I pray thee ? 
 
 Romeo: For your broken shin. 
 
262 SOURCE BOOK OP BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The ribwort (Fig. 191) is a close relative of the plantain, but 
 its leaves are matted rather than arranged in rosettes, while the 
 flower stalk bears a cone-shaped mass of bloom at its upper end. 
 The leaves too are narrow, veined with cross-veins. It is also 
 called English plantain or buckhorn. 
 
 FIG. 190. Common plantain 
 
 Several of the docks and the dandelion have the rosette habit. 
 The latter has been spoken of under the weeds with milky juice. 
 The former have long, narrow leaves, often a foot long and two 
 inches wide. In the commonest species the edges of the leaves 
 are crinkly; hence the name of curly dock (Fig. 192). The 
 blossom stalk, leafy-branched, rises from the rosette to a height 
 of from two to five or six feet. The blossoms are inconspicu- 
 ous, but the fruits are very striking if seen in mass, especially 
 as they change from green to brown. Each fruit is a seed sur- 
 rounded by a corky rim that enables it to float on the spring rain 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 263 
 
 runnels to some new location for germination. Each species of 
 dock has a characteristic fruit, sketches of several of which are 
 shown in Fig. 193. 
 
 FIG. 191. Ribwort, or narrow-leaved plantain (Kentucky Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station, Bulletin No. 183). 
 
 V. Weeds with Prickles or Thorns on the Stems, Leaves, 
 
 or Fruits 
 
 The Russian thistle (fig. 194) is one of the most troublesome 
 of weeds, that was unintentionally introduced into this country 
 by Russian immigrants in the great Northwest in 1873. When 
 young there is no indication of its spiny character and the leaves 
 
264 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 are long and slender; but as the plant matures the stem grows 
 woody, red-streaked, and becomes much branched, so that the 
 plant spreads out. The first leaves fall off and the later ones are 
 short, are broad at the base, more or less spiny, and have a sharp- 
 pointed bract on each side. The flowers are inconspicuous and 
 the seeds are very small. The plant breaks loose from the root 
 in the autumn and as the round top is driven, tumbling over the 
 ground, by the wind it shakes out its seeds. The succulent parts 
 
 of the plant afford nutriment for 
 the continued ripening of the seeds, 
 so that for some time after the plant 
 is apparently dry and barren it forms 
 and scatters seed. It is best to get 
 acquainted with this plant in the 
 fall, when it is easily recognized 
 from the characters given, and then 
 to observe, the following summer, 
 the transition from the soft-leaved 
 stage to the spiny plant. The Rus- 
 jsian thistle is not a thistle at all, 
 but is more nearly related to our 
 amaranth and lamb's-quarters. 
 
 The true thistles belong to the 
 composite family, and their best- 
 known representative is the spear 
 or bull thistle. It is a widespread 
 biennial, producing, the first year, a 
 rosette of deeply cut leaves, the pinnately arranged lobes armed 
 with strong spines. The upper surfaces of the leaves are deep 
 green while the undersides are covered with a brown wool 
 which disappears as the plant grows older. The second year 
 there appears a branching stem, three or four feet high, on 
 which are borne several urn-shaped heads of purplish flowers, 
 the bases of the urns being covered with spiny bracts. This 
 bull thistle (Fig. 195) is the national flower of Scotland. More 
 
 FIG. 192. Curly dock 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 265 
 
 FIG. 193. Fruits of various docks enlarged: a, fruit of the great dock, Rumex 
 Britannica-, b, fruit of the yellow dock, Rumex crispus', c, fruit of the pale dock, 
 Rumex altissimus; d, fruit of the swamp dock, Rumex verticittatus\ e, fruit of 
 the bitter dock, Rumex oUusifolius. 
 
 FIG. 194. Russian thistle 
 
266 SOURCE BOOK OF B10LOGACIL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 than a thousand years ago, so the story has it, when the Danes 
 were attempting to capture a Scotch coast town one night, a 
 Danish soldier stepped on a thistle and his cry of pain gave 
 warning of the attempted surprise, so that the Scots were ready 
 to repulse the attack. 
 
 The Canada thistle (Fig. 196) is somewhat similar in general 
 appearance, but it is by no means so sturdy a plant. Its stems 
 
 FIG. 195. The bull thistle 
 
 FIG. 196. Canada thistle 
 
 are weaker, the leaves are not so coarse, and the heads of bloom 
 are smaller and grow in clusters. Each flower cluster is only 
 half an inch across, while those of the bull thistle are two inches 
 broad. 
 
 The buffalo bur (Fig. 197) is a plant belonging to the potato 
 family. The stem, which is one to two feet high, is branched and 
 hairy and is covered, as is also the fruit, with long yellow spines. 
 The leaves are pinnately segmented, suggesting somewhat the 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 267 
 
 bur-oak leaf. The yellow flowers are wheekshaped and nearly 
 an inch broad. 
 
 Horse nettle (Fig. 198), or apple of Sodom, is a close relative of 
 the buffalo bur and also has a hairy branched stem with numerous 
 yellow spines upon it; but its leaves are ovate in outline, toothed, 
 or sometimes deeply cut, its flowers are pale violet and star- 
 shaped, and its fruit is an orange-colored berry. 
 
 The spiny amaranth is a weed one to four feet tall, branching 
 and bushy, with a stout, grooved, 
 green or purplish stem. The 
 leaves are lance-shaped, pointed 
 at both ends. At the base of 
 each leaf is a pair of spines, very 
 stiff and very sharp. The small 
 greenish flowers are in terminal 
 and axillary spikes. The tiny 
 seeds are shining brown and 
 lens-shaped. 
 
 Cocklebur, or clotbur (Fig. 
 199), has no prickles except on 
 the fruit, which, however, is usu- 
 ally abundant and is as large as 
 the last joint of the finger, ellip- 
 tical in outline, and covered with 
 strong, hooked spines. The 
 coarse plant is branched and the 
 three-lob ed oval leaves become 
 rough and thick as they grow older, 
 or five feet tall. 
 
 The spiny clotbur is a much-branched plant covered with 
 whitish hairs. The upper leaves are lance-shaped, entire, and 
 have the under surface covered with whitish wool; the lower 
 leaves are lobed and all have yellow spines at the base. 
 
 There are several plants besides the cockleburs that are 
 spineless except for the fruit. The sand bur (Fig. 200) is a grass 
 
 FIG. 197. Buffalo bur (Farmers' 
 Bulletin No. 28). 
 
 The plant often grows four 
 
268 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 whose fruits are armed with half a dozen sharp spines. This 
 grows in sandy places and is an exceedingly uncomfortable 
 roadside weed in midsummer and autumn. 
 
 Burdock (Fig. 201) is a coarse weed with immense heart- 
 shaped basal leaves, often a foot or more in length. The stem, 
 which is much branched, grows to a height of eight or nine feet 
 
 FIG. 198. Horse nettle 
 
 in good soil. The old flower clusters occurring at the upper ends 
 of the stalks change into round burs protected by spiny bracts. 
 Children use these to make baskets and various articles of doll 
 furniture. 
 
 In the Spanish needles and beggar-ticks (Fig. 202) the fruits 
 only are armed with spines. The stem of the latter is from one 
 to five feet high, smooth and branching. The leaves are opposite, 
 the lower ones five-lobed. so that they look like compound leaves. 
 The yellowish flowers are in daisy-like heads. The fruits are 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 269 
 
 wedge-shaped, flat, and black, and the broad outer end bears 
 the two spreading barbed spines. The Spanish needle is a very 
 close relative of the beggar- tick; it grows in drier soil and the 
 leaves are pinnately two or three times divided. The fruits are 
 brown and are about three-fourths of an inch long (Fig. 203). 
 The four angles each bear a short, barbed spine. 
 
 Hound' 's-tongue (Fig. 204) has fruits that are oval in outline, 
 flattened, and covered with 
 short, heavy spines, the only 
 part of the plant that is spiny. 
 The fruit is somewhat the shape 
 of a dog's tongue, which ac- 
 counts for the name. The four 
 fruits stand on a disk, the sharp 
 ends together, the broad ends 
 turned down and out. The 
 leaves are lance -shaped with 
 heart-shaped bases and are stem- 
 less or nearly so. The blossoms 
 are clustered and are reddish 
 purple, with an odor like that of 
 decomposing meat; both color 
 and odor are attractive to flies 
 that help pollinate the plant. 
 
 In Jimson weed (Fig. 205) the 
 seed pod is the only part that 
 bears prickers. It is another 
 very strong plant, often growing 
 to be three or four feet high and so branching as to cover con- 
 siderable ground. The leaves are alternate, from three to eight 
 inches long, oval in outline, but irregularly cut and toothed. 
 The white trumpet-shaped flowers, three or four inches long, are 
 solitary and grow on short stems. The mouth of the trumpet 
 is flaring and five-lobed. The purple thorn apple is a very close 
 relative and quite similar, but the stems are deep purple and the 
 
 FIG. 199. Leaf and one fruit of 
 cocklebur. 
 
270 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 200. Sand bur 
 
 FIG. 20 1. Large-leaved dock or burdock 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 271 
 
 lips of the trumpet-shaped flowers are violet or lavender. The 
 prickly capsule is also purple. This plant has a disagreeable 
 odor, as does the Jimson weed, and both of them are poisonous, 
 especially the flowers and the seeds, if taken into the mouth. 
 They are not poisonous to the 
 touch. 
 
 VI. Weeds with Simple 
 
 Leaves That Are 
 
 Opposite 
 
 For convenience of identi- 
 fication this group may be 
 subdivided into (a) weeds 
 with simple opposite leaves 
 with entire (i.e., not toothed 
 or lobed) margins; (b) weeds 
 with simple opposite leaves 
 that are toothed or lobed on 
 the margins. 
 
 A. LEAF MARGINS ENTIRE 
 
 Umbrella-wort is a plant 
 that is especially common 
 along railroads. It grows 
 from one to three feet high 
 and has angled, forking stems 
 and heart-shaped leaves with 
 tapering tips. The red bell- 
 shaped flowers occur in both 
 lateral and terminal clusters 
 
 FIG. 202. Beggar- tick in blossom 
 
 and there is a five-lobed involucre like a collar growing below 
 each two or three flowers. Several closely allied species have 
 narrower leaves. 
 
 Soapwort or bouncing Betty (Fig. 159) is an escaped garden 
 plant known also as wild sweet William. It is a perennial with 
 
272 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 203. 
 Beggar- 
 tick fruit. 
 
 stout stems a foot or two high. The ovate leaves are an inch 
 wide and two or three times as long and have three to five strong 
 
 ribs. The flowers 
 are in large terminal 
 clusters, pink to 
 white. The corolla 
 consists of five pet- 
 als, the conspicuous 
 part of each is 
 heart-shaped and 
 bears a long narrow 
 claw. The juice of 
 the plant makes 
 lather with water 
 and was used for cleaning pur- 
 poses before soap was so uni- 
 versally available. 
 
 Corn cockle (Fig. 206) is a 
 hairy plant one to three feet 
 high with linear or narrow 
 lance-shaped leaves' The 
 showy flowers, looking like wild 
 pinks, are one to three inches 
 broad and are bright red. The 
 narrow lobes of the calyx extend 
 out beyond the corolla. The 
 weed is particularly obnoxious 
 in grainfields. 
 
 The bladder catchfly (Fig. 
 207), or campion, is another 
 plant that bears blossoms look- 
 
 FIG. 2 o 4 .-Hound's-tongue in S like a P ink ' Jt S rows to be 
 
 about a foot high, branches, 
 
 and bears lance-shaped leaves, sometimes reverse-lance-shaped, 
 and white flowers. As the plant matures the inflated calyx 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 273 
 
 which surrounds the fruit dries and incloses the pod that 
 rattles against it in the wind. The plant is known therefore as 
 the devil's rattlebox. 
 
 The white campion, red campion, and ragged robin all have 
 similar inflated calyxes. They look quite like the catchflies, 
 
 FIG. 205. Jimson weed (Farm- 
 ers' Bulletin No. 86). 
 
 FIG. 206. Corn cockle 
 
 but have five styles, while the latter has but three. In the 
 ragged robin, the pink or blue petals are cleft into four linear 
 lobes, giving the flower a ragged appearance. Many species of 
 the catchflies, too, have sticky exudations on the stems at the 
 joints which prevent crawling insects from reaching the flowers 
 and robbing them of the nectar secreted to attract the flying 
 
274 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 insects which alone carry the pollen successfully to other plants 
 
 of the same species. 
 
 The butterfly weed is a milkweed without the milky juice. 
 
 The great clusters of brilliant orange flowers, each with the 
 
 typical shape of a milkweed blossom (Fig. 208), make the plant 
 
 conspicuous when in bloom; at 
 other times it is not likely to at- 
 tract attention. 
 
 B. 
 
 LEAF MARGINS TOOTHED OR LOBED 
 
 The stinging nettle is a weed two 
 to four feet tall, densely covered 
 
 FIG. 207. Bladder campion 
 
 FIG. 208. Milkweed blossom 
 
 with stinging hairs. The thin leaves are ovate and have a heart- 
 shaped base, while the margins are coarsely saw-toothed. The 
 small flowers are in axillary, feathery clusters. Several other 
 species are smaller and more slender and are not as well pro- 
 vided with the stinging hairs. Still, as one old English author 
 naively remarks, the nettles are plants that one of sensitive skin 
 can find even in the dark. 
 
 Vervain (Fig. 209), a moderately tall plant growing from one 
 to several feet high, has a four-sided branched stem that is 
 usually hairy. The leaves are ovate, coarsely serrate, or, in some 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 275 
 
 species, cut more or less deeply into lobes, and are also hairy. 
 The flowers grow in terminal spikes and are purple or blue, or 
 paler, even white. The vervains are plants with mystic prop- 
 erties, supposed to act as charms in cases of love; the plants were 
 always ingredients of the 
 witches' caldron and are still 
 used to make the bride's 
 wreath in Germany. " Ver- 
 vain is used in casting lots, 
 telling fortunes, and fore- 
 shadowing future events by 
 way of prophesie. Of all 
 Hearbes there is none more 
 honored among the Romans 
 than the sacred plant Ver- 
 vaine" (from an old English 
 translation of Pliny). 
 
 Wild hemp (Fig. 210), 
 quite different from the In- 
 dian hemp previously de- 
 scribed, is a rough, branching 
 plant, three to ten feet tall, 
 with both opposite and alter- 
 nate leaves, which appear 
 palmately compound, the cut- 
 ting is so deep. There are five 
 to eleven lobes springing from 
 a common point and each lobe is narrow and coarsely toothed. 
 The flowers are in elongate axillary clusters and the fruits look 
 like spikes of grain or grass seed. 
 
 The giant ragweed (Fig. 211) is so familiar that it needs no 
 description, its picture serving quite well for identification. 
 
 VII. Weeds with Strong Odor 
 
 Wild onion (Fig. 212), leek, and garlic are a trio not easily 
 mistaken, for the odor of each is characteristic. The wild leek 
 
 FIG. 209. Blue vervain 
 
276 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 has leaves that are relatively wide, an inch or more, while both 
 the others have linear leaves. The leaves of the onion are 
 sharply keeled. The flower cluster of the garlic bears few 
 blossoms but is crowded with tiny bulbs. 
 
 Western yarrow (Fig. 213) is a plant with a rosette of narrow, 
 lanceolate leaves that are much dissected so as to be feathery. 
 The flower stalk, which is leafy, rises from the basal rosette to 
 a height of a foot or two and bears a flat-topped cluster of 
 
 white composite bloom. The 
 odor is distinctly like that 
 of tansy, which it much re- 
 sembles; but in tansy the 
 blossoms are yellow. In 
 England country maidens 
 sleep with a spray of tansy 
 under the pillow believing it 
 will bring them dreams of 
 their true lovers. 
 
 Dog fennel (Fig. 214) is 
 also a composite. The yel- 
 low flower clusters are daisy- 
 like; the leaves are much 
 dissected and the odor is 
 rank and disagreeable. 
 The juice is very acrid and 
 may produce sores on the 
 skin. 
 
 The Jimson weed and hound' s-tongue, both of which have 
 disagreeable odors, have been noted above under the weeds that 
 have prickles. Stinking Willie, as the name indicates, has a 
 disagreeable odor. It is not a very widely distributed plant 
 in this country as yet. The stem is two or three feet tall, 
 grooved and leafy; the leaves are lance-shaped and much 
 dissected; the flowers are golden yellow and grow in terminal 
 clusters that are about an inch broad. The plant is distinguished 
 
 FIG. 210. Wild hemp 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 277 
 
 from the dog fennel, which it resembles, as the flower head of 
 the latter is not more than half an inch across. 
 
 Peppermint (Fig. 215) has opposite leaves and a square stem 
 and the familiar odor of peppermint. The leaves are stalked, 
 lance-shaped, with toothed edges; the flowers are in fluffy 
 terminal spikes, purple and rather showy. 
 
 FIG. 211. Giant ragweed (from Farm Weeds, American Steel and Iron 
 Company). 
 
 Spearmint (Fig. 216) also has opposite leaves and a square 
 stem, but the leaves are without stalks or nearly so, are more 
 tapering at the base and more coarsely toothed; the flowers are 
 more densely crowded in the spikes. 
 
 Horehound (Fig. 217) has stout square stems that are woolly 
 with white hairs. The leaves are opposite and oval and have 
 rather coarsely scalloped edges. The flowers, which are nearly 
 
278 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 white, grow in dense clusters in the axils of the leaves. The 
 points of the calyx lobes become hooked spines as the ovaries 
 ripen into the fruits, which are little nutlets. 
 
 American pennyroyal (Fig. 218) has clusters of blue blossoms 
 in the axils of the small, obovate, coarsely toothed leaves. The 
 weak stems are square and covered with soft hairs. 
 
 FIG. 212. Wild onion in blossom 
 
 In catnip (Fig. 219), or catmint, the stem is stout and square; 
 the leaves are opposite and heart-shaped, edged with rounded 
 teeth. The flowers are in terminal spikes, pale lilac or white in 
 color and dotted with pale purple. Cats eat it with relish and 
 roll in it with evident satisfaction. 
 
 There are many more mints than are given here, but these 
 are the ones that are most commonly encountered as weeds. No 
 plants are possessed of more distinctive odors than these, and 
 they may well be used as a means of training the sense of smell. 
 Try distinguishing the plants merely by their odors j even the 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 279 
 
 dry specimens will give off their characteristic perfumes if 
 slightly moistened by breathing on them. 
 
 VIII. The Grasses 
 
 Crab grass (Fig. 220), in good soil, has stems that are one or 
 more feet in length that take root wherever the joints touch 
 the ground. The leaf blade is three to 
 six inches long and is hairy at the base. 
 The flowers and fruits are in spikes that 
 are clustered in a whorl at the end of the 
 
 FIG. 213. Western yarrow 
 
 FIG. 214. Dog fennel 
 
 stalk, somewhat like the ribs of an umbrella on the handle. 
 The grass is sometimes called umbrella grass. 
 
 Old witch grass (Fig. 221) is one or two feet high. The 
 sheathing base of the leaf is very hairy, the blade itself is less so 
 and is about six to twelve inches long. The tuft of bloom when 
 young comes out in a broomlike mass half the length of the plant, 
 the witch's broom. Later the flower cluster spreads and the 
 stems become very stiff and brittle. This whole much-branched 
 stalk, with the seeds on the terminal branchlets, breaks loose in 
 the fall and goes tumbling before the wind, dropping seeds 
 frequently. 
 
280 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Spreading panicum is a coarse grass with stout, flattened stems 
 that at first are erect and one or two feet tall, but later they 
 
 FIG. 215. Peppermint 
 
 FIG. 216. Spearmint 
 
 FIG. 217. Horehound 
 
 FIG. 218. Pennyroyal 
 
 grow to a length of four to six feet and lie down on the ground 
 more or less with their tips turned up. The leaf blades are six 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 281 
 
 to eighteen inches long and about a quarter-inch wide; the edges 
 are rough, as is also the central vein. The flowers are in wide- 
 spreading, much-branched, pyramidal terminal clusters. 
 
 Barnyard grass, or cockspur grass (Fig. 222), has stems 
 from two to five feet tall. The blades are smooth, often as 
 much as two feet long and a half to one inch wide. The seeds 
 
 FIG. 219. Catnip 
 
 FIG. 220. Crab grass 
 
 are borne in green or purple spikelets that are densely crowded 
 in two to four rows near the end of the main stalk. 
 
 The foxtail grasses are readily recognized for the flowers, and 
 later the seeds are borne in terminal spikes much like those of 
 the familiar timothy, but they are very bristly with hairs that 
 extend out beyond the points of the seeds. i\-' t 
 
 Squirreltail grass (Fig. 223) has very much longer hairs or 
 bristles that stick out many times the length of the fruits. 
 
282 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 These bristles in hay are a source of trouble, making ulcerating 
 sores in the mouths of cattle. 
 
 Vanilla grass, or holy grass, has a distinct odor like vanilla in 
 all parts of the plant, which it retains even when dried; it was 
 
 FIG. 221. Old witch grass, or spreading panicum 
 
 much used therefore by the Indians in their basketry. The grass 
 was also used to scatter in front of the churches on special 
 festivals, so that it might give off its pleasant odor as the 
 worshipers walked over it. 
 
 Chess, or cheat, is one of the most troublesome of the grasses 
 that infest the grainfields. The seed of the grass is commonly 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 283 
 
 sown along with the grain, which it much resembles. The stems 
 are two or three feet tall; the flat leaves are hairy above but 
 smooth below. The flower cluster is an open one, and when later 
 it fruits the branches droop and end in little spikelets containing 
 from five to fifteen seeds that look something like oats. 
 
 Quack grass (Fig. 224), or couch grass, is perhaps the worst 
 weed of the entire grass tribe. The rootstocks are found near 
 the surface of the ground and interlace, forming a dense mat. 
 
 FIG. 222. Barnyard grass 
 
 Tney are jointed, yellow between joints, and branch freely. If 
 they are cut up by hoeing or cultivation each segment is ca- 
 pable of producing a new plant. The stems are two or three 
 feet tall, yellow at the base, and bear pale-green leaves that are 
 smooth below and rough above. The sheaths are smooth and 
 shorter than the internodes. The spike of fruit is erect, three 
 to eight inches long, and is made up of numerous unstalked 
 spikelets, alternately arranged in the notches of the zigzag 
 main stalk. 
 
284 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 223. Squirreltail grass 
 
 FIG. 224. Quack grass, or 
 couch grass (Farmers' Bulletin 
 No. 
 
 FIG. 225. Butter and eggs 
 
 FIG. 226. New England aster 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 285 
 
 IX. Weeds with Simple Leaves, and These Alternate 
 
 The weeds of this description, for convenience in identifica- 
 tion, may be subdivided into three groups : (a) those with leaves 
 having entire or smooth edges; (b) those with toothed edges; 
 (c) those with deeply cut edges. 
 
 A. LEAVES WITH ENTIRE 6R SMOOTH EDGES 
 
 Butter and eggs (Fig. 225), or toadflax, has pale green leaves 
 that are linear or at least very 
 narrow and are crowded on the 
 upright stems; the latter are 
 usually a foot or so high, but 
 may grow to two or three times 
 this height. The flowers, which 
 grow in terminal racemes, have 
 a corolla in two shades of yel- 
 low, that of butter and of egg 
 yolk. It is irregular, two- 
 lipped, and the throat is closed. 
 This is one of the flowers re- 
 served for the bumblebees and 
 such heavy insects. When the 
 animal alights on the lower lip 
 it pulls it down and so gains 
 access to the nectary. Can you 
 see how the arrangement of 
 stamens and pistil insures the 
 transfer of the pollen from 
 blossom to blossom ? 
 
 The goldenrods are most readily recognized by their clumps 
 of bright golden-yellow flower heads that make such brilliant 
 roadsides in late summer or early fall. With these are associated 
 many species of asters (Fig. 226), plants with numerous heads 
 of bluish to white marginal flowers and yellow central ones 
 which make them daisy-like in general appearance, but the 
 heads, instead of growing singly as in the daisy (Fig. 227), grow 
 
 FIG. 227. Oxeye daisy 
 
286 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 in clusters on the upright leafy stalks. There are so many 
 different species of these plants that the student must consult 
 some of the books listed at the end of the chapter to make exact 
 determinations. These are so numerous and so attractive in the 
 fall at the time school opens that some may be noted without 
 
 taking pains to find out the 
 name of the particular one 
 that is studied. 
 
 Composites. Such plants 
 have been spoken of as mem- 
 bers of the family Compos- 
 itae. The individual flowers 
 are so tiny that they would 
 be invisible if they bloomed 
 alone, so they unite in com- 
 panies or societies and stand 
 together to make a brave ap- 
 pearance. Some weeds, like 
 the grasses, have flowers that 
 few people notice and that 
 probably the insects seldom 
 see; but such plants produce 
 so much pollen in their flowers 
 that they can rely on the 
 wind to carry some of it to a 
 neighboring blossom to ferti- 
 lize, so that each flower may get its share. Other weeds, like 
 the corn cockle or bouncing Betty, have large enough blossoms 
 to make a showing and to attract the insects to them, both 
 because of their bright colors and their sweet nectar. It is 
 always interesting to study a flower to see if one can find out how 
 it is fitted to profit by the visit of the particular insect that 
 visits it most regularly. Such plants as goldenrods and asters 
 rely on the joint efforts of the many associated flowers to attract 
 the necessary insects, and one need only sit down beside a plant 
 
 FIG. 228. Smartweed 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 287 
 
 and watch to see how many insect visitors it has in a few minutes 
 
 to realize that these plants have successfully met the situation. 
 
 In the goldenrods just a few flowers have joined together in a 
 
 single household and are inclosed together in a little green 
 
 thatched home. Dozens and hundreds of these stand in rows 
 
 on the streets of the goldenrod city that 
 
 makes so conspicuous a showing on the 
 
 top of the leafy stem. In each household 
 
 there is also a division of labor, a division 
 
 that is even more apparent in such a 
 
 flower head as that of the aster or the 
 
 sunflower. The flowers along the margin 
 
 of the group are mostly for show and 
 
 each bears a strap-shaped banner of 
 
 brilliant color, really the corolla split 
 
 open and spread out. The flowers at 
 
 the center of the group, less showy but 
 
 more essential, bear the stamens and 
 
 pistil which the ray flowers frequently 
 
 lack. 
 
 Smartweed (Fig. 228) has narrow lance- 
 shaped leaves with entire margins. The 
 leaves are sessile or nearly so, and stipules 
 on the base of each leaf sheathe the stem. 
 The stems are weak. The flowers are 
 borne in terminal spikes and are greenish 
 white to pink or even deep red, especially 
 in the bud. The common smartweed, 
 which has greenish flowers, ^rows in moist ground. One other 
 species, with bright pink flowers, often has its leaves marked 
 with crescentic reddish to purplish spots which look like bruises 
 made by the pinch of a thumb. It is commonly known as 
 lady's- thumb. 
 
 Sheep sorrel (Fig. 229), or sour grass, sometimes known also 
 as sour dock, is a low plant with many halberd-shaped leaves 
 
 FIG. 229. Sheep sorrel 
 
288 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 coming out near the ground and lance-shaped ones farther up the 
 weak, reddish stem. The flower cluster is branching, reddish, 
 and relatively inconspicuous, except when the plant grows in 
 masses, when the red glows on the ground. The plant indicates 
 a sour soil and often grows on "worn-out" fields, fields that 
 need liming and cultivation to make them productive. 
 
 Pokeweed (Fig. 230) is a good-sized smooth plant with an 
 unpleasant odor. The stalks are five or six feet high usually 
 but may be double this in good soil. The leaves are lance- 
 shaped; the flowers are white, five- or six-lobed, and borne in 
 
 FIG. 230. Pokeweed (Farmers' Bulletin No. i 
 
 terminal racemes. As the plant grows these become lateral 
 opposite the leaves. The drooping fruit consists of clusters of 
 dark-purple berries with ten seeds. Their juice is red and is the 
 source of the red ink that is a resource in the plays of children. 
 The root is very poisonous to taste and the berries are sickening. 
 The rough pigweed (Fig. 231), or amaranth, also known as 
 pinkroot, is one of the most common of weeds. The .stem is 
 stout, tough, and upright, and is one to six feet high and some- 
 times more. The plant is much branched and is hairy; the 
 ovate leaves are three to six inches long and have conspicuous 
 ribs and veins and are stalked. In the axils of these leaves 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 289 
 
 occur dense clusters of flowers, each cluster having at its base 
 three prickly bracts. The flowers are small and greenish and 
 each produces a single jet-black, shiny seed, which is a flattened 
 oval. The root is large and pink on the exterior, which gives the 
 plant one of its names. 
 
 B. LEAVES WITH TOOTHED EDGES 
 
 Lamb' 's-quarters (Fig. 232) is perhaps the commonest of 
 several weeds belonging to the genus Chenopodium. It is also 
 known as pigweed, for both 
 pigs and sheep will eat it 
 when it is young. The stem 
 is usually from two to four 
 feet high, is branched and 
 grooved, and is often striped 
 with pink or purple. The 
 upper leaves are narrow and 
 lance-shaped, with margins 
 that are somewhat irregu- 
 larly cut and toothed, while 
 the lower leaves are broadly 
 ovate, often three-lobed and 
 somewhat in the shape of a 
 goose's foot, whence the plant 
 gets another of its common names, goosefoot. The flowers are 
 small and green, crowded in clusters that terminate the branches; 
 the seed is lens-shaped, small, and black. Two other weeds, not 
 as sturdy as lamb 's-quarters, belong to this same genus. They 
 are the spreading and halberd-leaved or ache. They are half-erect 
 or prostrate plants, the former with lance-shaped leaves that are 
 sparingly wavy-toothed, the latter with halberd-shaped leaves, 
 at least at the base of the plant. All these plants are subject 
 to blights, which may readily be transferred to such cultivated 
 plants as spinach and beets. 
 
 Nightshade (Fig. 233) is a plant one to two feet high with a 
 rather slender branching stem. The leaves are ovate and have 
 
 FIG. 231. Tall amaranth or pinkroot 
 
2QO SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 slim, grooved stalks. Sometimes their margins are entire, but 
 usually they are wavy-toothed. The flowers are white, in small 
 axillary clusters, and look like potato blossoms, for the plant 
 belongs to the potato family. The fruit is a purple berry that is 
 likely to cause severe nausea if eaten. 
 
 The evening primrose (Fig. 162) is a tall, rather slender, plant, 
 sometimes, however, branched so as to be wide-spreading. The 
 
 FIG. 232. Looking down on a bed of lamb's-quarters 
 
 root leaves are lance-shaped, long, hairy, and only slightly 
 toothed. The upper leaves are much smaller and have no stems. 
 The root leaves appear as a rosette one year and the rest of the 
 plant does not grow until the second year ordinarily. The 
 showy flowers are axillary and have sepals that turn back and a 
 corolla that is borne on the ovary. The seed pods are an inch 
 or so long, four-angled, and begin to open by splitting at the top. 
 It is interesting to estimate the number of seeds on a single olant 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 291 
 
 by counting the number in several pods to get an average 
 and then counting the number of pods on a good-sized plant in 
 the fall. 
 
 Only insects with very long sucking-tubes can get the nectar 
 from a blossom with such a long slender tube as has this evening 
 primrose. You may catch the one that is served by this flower 
 and that in turn serves the flower by carrying the pollen; it is a 
 yellow moth with pink markings on 
 the wings, and like most of the moths 
 it flies only at dusk or by night. The 
 evening primrose therefore opens late 
 in the afternoon, or on cloudy days it 
 may open early. After the flower is 
 pollinated by the moth it closes and 
 begins to wither. If you will tear 
 open the withered blossoms that were 
 open the previous evening the moth 
 may be found a prisoner, for it stays 
 drinking like a toper until after clos- 
 ing hours, and thus remains a prisoner 
 until it forces its way out for the next 
 evening's revels. It may occasionally 
 be found in the unclosed blossoms 
 also, and its larva is to be seen on 
 the buds and young blossoms which it 
 riddles with the holes it eats in them. 
 
 The giant willow herb, or fireweed, is another tall plant, two 
 to six feet in height; it is somewhat woody and the stem is 
 reddish at the base. The leaves are narrow and lance-shaped, 
 sometimes entire, though usually minutely toothed. The 
 flower cluster is a showy raceme with the blossoms varying in 
 color from purple to white. There are four petals, twice as many 
 stamens, and a four-parted stigma. The change in the relative 
 position of the parts of the flower during fertilization makes an 
 interesting study. Until the stamens have discharged their 
 
 FIG. 233. Black nightshade 
 (Farmers' Bulletin No. 86). 
 
292 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 pollen the sticky stigma is not exposed. When the stamens no 
 longer bear pollen they turn back out of the way and the pistil 
 brings the now open stigma into such position that a visiting 
 insect must rub off on it the pollen he has acquired in some other 
 blossom. The plant is one of the first to appear in burned forest 
 land and often covers hundreds of acres with its brilliant bloom. 
 
 Gaura is a closely related plant that 
 looks much like the fireweed but is of 
 wider distribution, though it does not 
 occur in such masses. The hairy flower 
 stalk, two to four feet tall and woody 
 when mature, rises from a rosette of 
 lance-shaped leaves that are pointed at 
 both ends and slightly toothed; the 
 leaves on the flower stalk are sessile. 
 There are four petals, eight stamens, 
 and a long four-parted stigma. The 
 solitary flowers grow at the ends of 
 the numerous branches near the top of 
 the plant. 
 
 Peppergrass (Fig. 234) is well known 
 to country children who eat the fruit for 
 its spicy taste. The stem of the plant is 
 usually only a foot or so high, though 
 it may be five or six feet high. The 
 lower leaves are narrow, are broader at 
 the outer end than at the base, and are 
 very much dissected; the stem leaves are smaller and are 
 simply toothed. The small white flowers grow in both terminal 
 and axillary clusters. The seed pod is rather small, round, and 
 flattened, and a conspicuous partition is apparent on the flat face. 
 Shepherd' s-purse (Fig. 235) is the commonest weed on earth. 
 There is usually a basal rosette of rather slender leaves that are 
 deeply cut, but the stem leaves are only toothed. The flower 
 stalk rises from six inches to two feet and bears the small white 
 
 FIG. 234. Peppergrass 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 293 
 
 flowers in a long raceme. The flat seed pods are heart-shaped 
 with a partition showing on the flattened faces; they somewhat 
 suggest the old-fashioned shepherd's bag; hence the name. 
 
 Fleabane (Fig. 236) is a weed with numerous small, white or 
 purplish, daisy-like blossoms. It usually grows only a foot or 
 two tall; the stem is upright, grooved, hairy, and branched; the 
 leaves are slender, lance-shaped or linear, closely but sparingly 
 toothed. The heads of bloom 
 are about a fifth of an inch 
 across. The plant gives off 
 an irritating oil when handled ; 
 it is said to be a preventive 
 of fleas if kept under carpets 
 or between bed sheets. The 
 Philadelphia fleabane is simi- 
 lar, but the ray flowers are 
 rose-tinted. Horseweed is a 
 close relative with very short 
 ray flowers and very many 
 cylindrical heads of bloom, all 
 smaller than those of fleabane. 
 
 c. 
 
 LEAVES WITH DEEPLY CUT 
 EDGES 
 
 FIG. 235. Shepherd's-purse 
 
 See peppergrass and shep- 
 herd's-purse, above. 
 
 Tansy belongs in this 
 group, but it has already been noted under the weeds with 
 strong odors. Cocklebur, if not fruiting, might be referred here, 
 but it has been described among plants that bear prickles or 
 spines. 
 
 Ragweed, the lesser, not the giant, is a very common, vigorous 
 weed, with large leaves that are broadly lance-shaped to ovate. 
 The leaves are dissected and the leaflets also, so that they have a 
 somewhat fernlike aspect. The flowers grow in what appear 
 to be drooping spikes (really racemes) at the ends of the branches 
 
294 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 and discharge clouds of pollen when mature. The hard egg- 
 shaped fruits are an eighth of an inch long, and bear, at the larger 
 end, several spiny points. The giant ragweed has been noted 
 among the plants with opposite leaves. 
 
 FIG. 236. Daisy fleabane 
 
 Wormwood (Fig. 237) grows quite as rapidly as ragweed. The 
 stem is also tall and much branched; the leaves are much dis- 
 sected and are rather sweet-scented. The plant is a composite, 
 the flowers being borne in very small heads that are found in 
 open clusters at the end of the branches. The leaves and the 
 stems have an exceedingly bitter taste. 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 
 
 295 
 
 The oxeye daisy is so well known by its flower clusters that it 
 hardly needs description. The white ray flowers and the yellow 
 disk flowers make a head of bloom that is conspicuous. The 
 simple grooved stems, one to three feet high, usually grow in 
 clumps. The root leaves are wider at the outer end than at the 
 base and are irregularly cut and toothed. The plant is also 
 known as poverty weed, be- 
 cause it seems to grow rankly 
 on poor soil. 
 
 The mustards (Fig. 238) 
 are very common' weeds. All 
 have yellow flowers with the 
 four petals spreading like the 
 arms of a Greek cross, four 
 sepals, and six stamens, of 
 which two are long. This 
 number and arrangement of 
 parts are distinctive of the 
 family Cruciferae. The 
 leaves are of varied shapes 
 and the seed pods help in 
 determining the species. 
 The white mustard has a re- 
 verse-lance-shaped leaf that 
 is deeply lobed, the margins 
 
 of the lobes being toothed. This description fits the basal leaves 
 only, however, for the leaves on the stem are mostly narrow and 
 merely toothed. The flower cluster in all the mustards is a termi- 
 nal raceme. In the white mustard the flowers are a half-inch 
 across. Its seed pod is round and beaked, the beak often being 
 longer than the rest of the pod. The black mustard is a larger, 
 coarser plant, growing from two to six or seven feet in height 
 and branching freely. The basal leaves are broad at the outer 
 end, are narrower at the base, and are deeply lobed. The flowers 
 are about a quarter of an inch broad; the pods are four-angled 
 
 FIG. 237. Wormwood 
 
296 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 with short and slim beaks. Charlock, or field mustard, has lance- 
 shaped leaves; the lower ones are lobed; those on the stem are 
 coarsely toothed. The flowers are about a half-inch broad 
 
 b i 
 
 f 
 
 FIG. 238. The common wild mustards, showing stem, leaves, and pods: a, 
 white mustard; b, charlock; c, Indian mustard; d, black mustard; e, hedge 
 mustard; /, tumble mustard; g, wormseed mustard. 
 
 and the round, knotty seed pods, which are about two inches 
 long, are tipped with a long, two-edged beak. Hedge mustard, 
 one of the commonest, has leaves that are wide at the outer end, 
 tapering toward the base, and are deeply cut. The flowers, 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 297 
 
 which are about an eighth-inch broad, are found in flat-topped 
 clusters at the ends of the stems, which are branched and 
 constantly elongate. The pods are round, hairy, and pointed, 
 about a half -inch long, and are held close against the stem of the 
 plant. Tumble mustard has leaves that are very much dissected 
 so that the segments are almost linear. The stem is slender 
 and much branched; the seed pods are needle-like, two to four 
 inches long, and contain many seeds. 
 
 While this mustard family is prolific of weeds it has also given 
 us some of our most valuable vegetables; radishes, turnips, 
 rutabagas, cabbage, kale, Brussels sprouts, and others all belong 
 to the same genus as the black and white mustard. 
 
 Weeds are foreigners. There is given below a table of the 
 commoner weeds already briefly described in the text. It is 
 such a table as any child in the upper grades might make from 
 any good botanical key, such as Gray's Botany. It shows that 
 a few families furnish the great bulk of the weeds ; for example, 
 about 20 per cent of the given list are composites. It shows 
 also how few of our weeds are really American and that nearly 
 all are immigrants from Europe, while a few come from Asia, 
 Central America, and South America. This is probably due, in 
 large measure, to the fact that when an imported plant gets a 
 foothold in a new country it is growing where its natural enemies 
 do not live and so can make ' tremendous headway. A very 
 similar thing has occurred in other lands besides America. The 
 water cress, the Englishman's favorite salad plant, was trans- 
 planted to Australia when the English settled there. It took 
 so kindly to the new quarters that it soon filled up the rivers and 
 blocked navigation, so that the government was obliged to spend 
 large sums of money to keep the " salad plant" dredged out of 
 the ship channels. Some of our native American plants are 
 proving quite as troublesome to European farmers as their plants 
 are to American agriculturalists. Unless otherwise indicated 
 the plants are native of North America. 
 
298 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
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302 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Weed seeds. In connection with the study of weeds, pupils 
 might estimate the number of seeds produced by a single 
 average-sized plant of each of the common weeds. If different 
 children work on different plants they will be interested in 
 comparing results. Only a few different kinds of weeds may be 
 studied thus each season, but if the records are kept the school 
 will have a list of the seeding powers of the common weeds of the 
 locality. Below is given a tabulation of the number of seeds 
 borne by average-sized plants of the common weeds made up 
 largely from estimates of the Kansas Agricultural College and 
 the University of Wisconsin College of Agriculture. 
 
 Beggar-tick 10,500 Prickly lettuce 10,000 
 
 Burdock 24,520 Purslane 69,000 
 
 Cocklebur 9,700 Queen Anne's lace 50,000 
 
 Crab grass 89,600 Ragweed 23,100 
 
 Dandelion. 1,729 Russian thistle 25,000 
 
 Mullein 31,900 Shepherd's-purse 17,600 
 
 Mustard, tumble 1,500,000 Sow thistle 11,000 
 
 Oxeye daisy 6,750 Tumbleweed 14,000 
 
 Pinkroot. 85,000 Yellow foxtail 113,600 
 
 Seeds are hardy. Such a tabulation demonstrates one of the 
 reasons why weeds are so common they have an inordinate 
 capacity for reproduction. The seeds, moreover, are very hardy. 
 Beal found from actual experiment that seeds of chickweed, 
 evening primrose, mustard, narrow-leaf dock, peppergrass, 
 pigeonweed, pigweed, purslane, and shepherd's-purse live after 
 being buried in the ground for thirty years. This is nearly the 
 maximum of seed vitality, stories of the germination of the grains 
 recovered from the pyramids of Egypt to the contrary notwith- 
 standing. Many weed seeds, such as those of pokeberry, pass 
 uninjured through the intestines of the birds that eat them 
 they are so resistant. 
 
 Methods of dispersal. It would be a worth-while project to 
 collect fruits of weeds, and of other plants as well, to demonstrate 
 the various methods of seed dispersal. Weeds are eminently 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 303 
 
 successful, not only in protecting their seeds, but also in scattering 
 them. Many of them are provided with appliances that fit them 
 for easy carriage on the fur or feathers of animals or on man's 
 clothing. Others are made so as to fly readily in the air and a 
 number of devices are used to insure this, such as the pappus of 
 the dandelion seed, the wings on the fruits of the maple tree or 
 the ash tree, the parachutes that bear the linden nutlets. Pull 
 a dandelion fruit through the ringers as it is gently held between 
 their tips and feel the hooks upon its surface. It is quite as 
 important that the seed should finally anchor in some crevice 
 of the soil as it is that it should go ballooning. Some seeds have 
 corky wings that enable them to float on the rivulets that follow 
 a rain, while some fall out as the weed, broken from its moorings, 
 rolls along before the wind, bumping over the uneven ground. 
 Then there are some plants, like the pigweed, that hold their 
 seeds until snow comes, when the tiny seeds are driven over the 
 crusted surface. Some weeds hurl their seeds to considerable 
 distances, and there are many different devices for accomplishing 
 this. -Touch-me-not uses a coiled spring, larkspur a catapult, 
 and wild cucumber a squirt gun. 
 
 Stem propagation. Ability to grow quantities of seed and to 
 scatter them effectually constitutes only two out of the many 
 reasons why a weed is able successfully to hold its own. Many 
 of them propagate by underground stems or rootstalks, which 
 live and throw up new sprouts when the parts above ground 
 have been cut off; often when cut into bits this underground 
 stem lives and each bit sends up its new stalk. Many, like the 
 dandelion, have very large roots that are stored full of food 
 materials, so that, in the spring, they can grow very rapidly and 
 get ahead of surrounding competitors. Some spread out so 
 dense a mat of foliage that they smother other plants about them. 
 There are weeds, like the mullein, that wear fur coats to protect 
 them from the inclement weather, weeds whose leaves snuggle 
 together to keep warm in the cold spring nights, and others that 
 turn their leaves on edge to avoid the too intense heat of the 
 
304 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 midday sun. In fact there is scarcely a weed that is not worthy 
 of careful study to discover the secret of its success. 
 
 Weed projects. It makes an interesting exercise to have 
 the pupils list as many of the characteristics as they can discover 
 in the life-histories of the weeds that enable the plants to win 
 out in the struggle for existence. Where does the weed come 
 from? How do its seeds travel? Does the plant have other 
 means of propagation ? Has it devices for protecting itself from 
 cold, rain, insect enemies, intense heat ? How does it pass the 
 winter? How long does it live; for one year only, two, or 
 several ? How does it injure the crop ? Is it poisonous ? How 
 can it be destroyed ? 
 
 It is a very practical project to undertake the elimination of 
 weeds from a field or lawn. Paths may be freed from weeds by 
 salting heavily, which, however, kills all living things; a little 
 pile of salt on the center of a dock plant, a dandelion, or a thistle 
 kills it, but evidently the process cannot be applied to large 
 areas that are weed-infested. Some weeds are particularly 
 susceptible to the influence of poisons. A field of oats may be 
 freed of mustard by spraying with a solution of iron or copper 
 sulphate (two pounds of the former to the gallon, one-eighth as 
 much of the latter), since the poison runs off the upright leaves 
 of the grain but sticks to the horizontal leaves of the weeds. On 
 the same principle, a lawn may be freed of dandelions by treating 
 it with one pound of finely powdered ammonium sulphate to the 
 square rod. Dandelions may also be killed by stabbing each 
 plant with a sharp stick wet in carbolic acid, a strong poison. 
 These are but samples of the modern methods of weed elimina- 
 tion. School children might do much to aid in the beautification 
 of any residence section by cutting and, when dry, burning the 
 weeds along roadways and in vacant lots, for the prevention of 
 weeds is easier than their eradication. The weeds that are 
 permitted to go to seed in .fence corners, on waste lands, and other 
 out-of-the-way places are a constant source of trouble, as their 
 seeds are carried to the cultivated land near by. Weeds occupy 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 305 
 
 valuable space, rob crops of food, air, light, heat, and moisture, 
 serve as hosts for many fungi and noxious insects, and hinder 
 cultivation. The United States Department of Agriculture has 
 estimated that weeds cause an average loss of one dollar per 
 acre in the cultivated fields of the United States. As there were 
 somewhat more than 478,000,000 acres under cultivation accord- 
 ing to the census of 1910, it is evident that weeds need control. 
 
 A weed notebook is another project that has educational 
 values other than acquainting the pupils with the pernicious 
 weeds of the neighborhood. Specimens of the weeds are pre- 
 pared and mounted. Spread the weed, when in blossom, 
 between large sheets of blotting paper (sold under the name of 
 botany or plant driers), being careful to arrange it in as natural 
 a position as possible. Put the sheets of paper with the con- 
 tained weeds under a board on which is a weight of twenty or 
 twenty-five pounds. Change the driers within twelve hours, 
 and again at the end of twenty-four hours, so that the plants will 
 dry rapidly, for then they retain their natural colors. The 
 plants should remain in press for a week or ten days. Mount 
 the specimens on unruled paper in the notebook or on large 
 sheets of regular botany mounting paper by touching a drop of 
 glue to several points on the back of the specimen and then 
 laying it on the paper. Label the sheet with the name of the 
 plant, the date of collection, and the locality from which it was 
 obtained. 
 
 Seed collection. A collection of weed seeds is a valuable 
 addition to the school outfit. Collect at least a spoonful of the 
 seed, well cleaned, and put it in a small bottle which is labeled 
 with the name of the weed. These bottles may be kept in a 
 shallow box or wooden tray or may be fastened to a large card by 
 means of string. It is well to have a collection of the seeds of 
 the common crop plants also, such as clover, alfalfa, turnips, etc., 
 for comparison. It is surprising how distinctive even a tiny 
 seed is; one becomes sufficiently expert even in a short time to 
 tell, with the aid of a simple lens, most of the common weed seeds 
 
306 SOURCE BOOK Of BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 on sight. Beal's Seeds of Michigan Weeds or similar pamphlets 
 help greatly. Such knowledge is quite important for the farmer 
 or gardener, for he uses it to determine the purity of the seed he 
 sows. Obtain packages of seed or bulk seed from several of the 
 seed houses and examine them, with the collection for reference, 
 to see what percentage of weed seed they contain and what weeds 
 are most commonly represented. 
 
 A weed garden. Sow weed seeds in pots or window boxes, 
 and when they grow press and mount seedlings of several ages 
 on the sheets with the adult weeds so that these seedlings will 
 be surely recognized in the garden. A neighbor of mine carefully 
 transplanted and carefully tended a whole row of ragweed 
 seedlings thinking they were cosmos plants. A crop may easily 
 be pulled up when weeding in the garden unless one knows the 
 seedlings well. 
 
 The teacher who is at a loss to find some plants to grow in the 
 schoolroom that will stand cold, neglect, and poor light will find 
 that weeds have value after all. Transplant some half-mature 
 dandelion plants to the school window box in the fall; the 
 dandelion blossom is doubly cheery indoors when the snow is on 
 the fields. Corn cockle, bouncing Betty, hound's- tongue, 
 butter and eggs, shepherd's-purse, and many others are worth the 
 trial. Such processes as planting in flats, picking out and 
 transplanting to pots, repotting and trimming, may be carried 
 out with the weeds at no cost for material and no loss if materials 
 die in the attempts. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 
 
 Beal, W. J. Michigan Weeds. Michigan Agricultural College Experiment 
 Station (East Lansing), Bulletin No. 267. 
 
 . Seeds of Michigan Weeds. Michigan Agricultural College Experi- 
 ment Station (East Lansing), Bulletin No. 260. 
 
 Blatchley, W. S. The Indiana Weed Book. Indianapolis: Nature Pub- 
 lishing Co. 
 
 1 Farmers' bulletins are issued by the United States Department of Agricul- 
 ture, Washington, D.C. 
 
WAYSIDE FLOWERS 307 
 
 Bliss, R. C. Unlawful and Other Weeds of Iowa. Agricultural Experiment 
 Station (Ames), Bulletin No. 31. 
 
 Gates, J. S. The Eradication of Quack-Grass. Farmers' Bulletin No. 464. 
 
 Chestnut, V. K. Thirty Poisonous Plants of the United States. Farmers' 
 Bulletin No. 86. 
 
 Coe, H. S. Weeds. South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station 
 (Brookings), Bulletin No. 150. 
 
 Cox, H. R. Weeds: How to Control Them. Farmers' Bulletin No. 660. 
 
 Dewey, I. H. Migration of Weeds. United States Department of Agri- 
 culture Yearbook, 1896. 
 
 . Table of 200 Weeds. United States Department of Agriculture 
 
 Yearbook, 1895. 
 
 . Twenty-five Most Harmful Weeds. United States Department of 
 
 Agriculture Yearbook, 1897. 
 
 Tumbling Mustard. United States Department of Agriculture, 
 
 Division of Botany, Circular No. 6. 
 . Weeds and How to Kill Them. United States Department of 
 
 Agriculture, Bulletin 28. 
 Carman, H. Some Kentucky Weeds and Poisonous Plants. Kentucky 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station (Lexington), Bulletin No. 183. 
 Georgia, Ada M. Manual of the Weeds. New York: The Macmillan Co. 
 
 $2 . 00. 
 
 Henkel, Alice. Weeds Used in Medicine. United States Department of 
 
 Agriculture Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 188. 
 Hillman, F. H. Dodder in Relation to Farm Seeds. Farmers' Bulletin No. 
 
 306. 
 . Testing Farm Seeds in the Home and in the Rural School. Farmers' 
 
 Bulletin No. 428. 
 Jenkins, E. H. Feeds, Seeds, and Weeds. Connecticut Agricultural Station 
 
 (New Haven), Bulletin No. 161. 
 Johnson, A. G. Canada Thistle and Its Eradication. Indiana Agricultural 
 
 Experiment Station, Purdue University (LaFayette), Circular No. 32. 
 Kalter, Grace M. The Weeds of the Miami Valley. Miami University 
 
 (Oxford), Ohio, Bulletin No. 2, Series No. 9. 
 Kansas State Agricultural College Experiment Station (Manhattan). 
 
 Kansas Weeds, Preliminary, Bulletin No. 52; Kansas Weeds, Seedlings, 
 
 Bulletin No. 50; Kansas Weeds, Fruits, Seeds, Bulletin No. 66. 
 Marsh, Clawson, and Marsh. Larkspur or Poison Weed. Farmers' 
 
 Bulletin No. 531. 
 Morley, Margaret W. Flowers and Their Friends. Boston: Ginn & Co. 
 
 $0.60. 
 . Seed Babies. Boston: Ginn & Co. $0.30. 
 
308 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Needham, James G. Natural History of the Farm. Ithaca, N.Y.: The 
 
 Comstock Publishing Co. $i . 50. 
 Pammel, I. H. Weeds of Farm and Garden. New York: Orange Judd & 
 
 Co. $1.50. 
 . Some Weeds of Iowa. Iowa State College Experiment Station 
 
 (Ames), Bulletin No. 70. 
 Pipal, J. F. Red Sorrel and Its Control. Purdue University Agricultural 
 
 Experiment Station (LaFayette), Bulletin No. 197. 
 Selby, A. D. Noxious Weeds and Their Destruction. Ohio Agricultural 
 
 Experiment Station (Wooster), Bulletin No. 59. 
 . Spraying to Kill Weeds. Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station 
 
 (Wooster), Circular No. 102. 
 Shaw, Thomas. Weeds and How to Eradicate Them. St. Paul: Webb 
 
 Publishing Co. 
 . Weeds and Weed Seeds. Canada Department of Agriculture 
 
 (Ottawa), Bulletin Nos. 3-8. 
 Stone, A. L. How to Rid Our Farms of Weeds. University of .Wisconsin 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station (Madison), Circular No. 48. 
 TenEyck. American Grasses. Kansas State Agricultural College Experi- 
 ment Station, Bulletin No. 175. 
 Van Es and Waldron. Some Stock Poisoning Plants of North Dakota. 
 
 North Dakota Agricultural College Experiment Station (Fargo), 
 
 Bulletin No. 58. 
 Waldron, J. R. Weed Studies. North Dakota Agricultural College 
 
 Experiment Station (Fargo), Bulletin No. 62. 
 
 Weed, Clarence M. Seed Travellers. Boston: Ginn & Co. $0.50. 
 . Ten New England Blossoms. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 
 $1.25. 
 Weed Seeds in Manure and Weed Seeds in Feeding. Farmers' Bulletin 
 
 No. 334. 
 Westgate and Vinal. Sweet Clover. Farmers' Bulletin No. 485. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 COMMON TREES 
 
 Tree characters. While there are a great many different kinds 
 of trees in the United States, the number of species in any given 
 locality is not very large. Even in localities that are especially 
 favored probably not more than fifty or sixty species are to be 
 counted, so that it is really not a very great task to learn to 
 recognize the common trees of one's environment; and it adds 
 no small pleasure to one's daily life if he is on terms of speaking 
 familiarity with these usual features of the yards and streets. 
 When you are introduced to a stranger you look for some peculiar 
 feature to associate with the name; later, when you come to 
 know the person well, you no longer need the recognition mark, 
 for you know him by the whole assemblage of characteristics 
 that mark his personality; you recognize him at a distance, even 
 in a crowd. So the woodsman comes to know his trees, even at 
 long range. He cannot tell you how he knows them; he just 
 knows them. This intimate familiarity is a desirable goal to 
 reach, but at first the new student must have some definite 
 earmarks for each tree so that he can be sure that he recognizes a 
 tree because it possesses these known characters. In the pages 
 that immediately follow, such peculiarities of tree form, leaf, 
 bark, and twig characters are given as will best serve in the 
 identification of the particular tree. 1 
 
 Evergreens. These trees in the United States are divisible 
 into a few readily recognized genera. All have some characters 
 in common. They have a habit of growth that is peculiar the 
 trunk of the tree runs straight from base to tip (Fig. 239), a 
 tapering, unbranched bole, and frequently the tree is spirelike, 
 
 1 These characters are given in key form in the Field and Laboratory Guide in 
 Biological Nature-Study. 
 
 309 
 
310 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 239. The straight stem of a conifer 
 
COMMON TREES 311 
 
 the whole mass of it, from base to apex, diminishing ii> diameter. 
 The branches spring from the trunk in whorls or, expressing it in 
 another way, circle around the trunk at a given level. 
 
 The differences between the several sorts are easily expressed 
 (Fig. 240). The needles on the twigs are single, not in clusters, 
 except on the pines and larches. The larch has many needles 
 in the cluster so that the branches seem furnished with many 
 little paint brushes, especially in the spring when the buds are 
 bursting. The larch and the cypress are the only evergreens 
 that are not always green; they shed their leaves in the fall 
 and do not renew them until spring. The term "conifers" is 
 therefore a better name to use for these trees, though in some of 
 the conifers, like the yew and the juniper, the cone is imbedded 
 in a berry-like envelope so that this character is obscured. 
 
 The white pine. Even in regions where the conifers are 
 abundant they are often spoken of as "pines," an improper use 
 of the term, since the pines include only those evergreens in which 
 the needles are found in clusters of from two to five and are two 
 or more inches long, longer than those of any other conifers. The 
 pine which has been most productive in the northern states, 
 yielding millions of feet of lumber, is the white pine, Pinus 
 strobus. This is a beautiful tree, easily recognized even by the 
 novice on close inspection, for it has five needles in each cluster. 
 Solitary specimens are still common, but "stands" large enough 
 to pay for cutting are now very rare, though at one time white- 
 pine forests covered areas as large as entire states. 
 
 Other pines. The pitch pine, Pinus rigida, common in the 
 East and South, has three needles in each cluster and has much 
 resin in its wood. In northern New England and in Michigan, 
 Wisconsin, and adjacent states the red or Norway pine, Pinus 
 resinosa, is a characteristic feature of the landscape. It is a 
 towering tree with shapely head and reddish trunk. Two 
 needles, more than two inches long, are bound together in its 
 clusters. The scrub pines, both the northern, Pinus banksiana, 
 and the eastern, Pinus mrginiana, are smaller trees with scrawny 
 
312 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Juniper 
 
 Hemlock 
 
 FIG. 240. Twigs of the evergreens, a pupil's drawings 
 
COMMON TREES 313 
 
 and irregular branches. They also have two needles in each 
 cluster, but these are short, less than two inches. The northern 
 scrub pine is found in the Great Lakes region; the southern, in 
 New Jersey, southern Indiana, and south of the Ohio River. 
 
 The spruces have the single needles coming out all around 
 the twigs, so that the latter appear cylindrical. The white 
 spruce, the common species, is a tree of large size, conical in 
 shape when standing in the open. 
 
 The junipers have somewhat the same sort of twigs, but the 
 needles are less regular in their arrangement, are very sharp- 
 pointed, and are white beneath. Many of the needles are turned 
 underside up and so give the tree a gray-green color. The 
 junipers are all low and shrubby except the so-called red cedar. 
 
 The balsam, hemlock, and yew all have the needles arranged 
 on the opposite sides of the twig, giving it a feather-like appear- 
 ance. The two former are trees, the latter a scraggy shrub 
 growing as underbrush, usually in the hemlock forest; it produces 
 red slimy " berries." The needles of the balsam are three- 
 fourths of an inch in length, those of the hemlock about half 
 an inch. The trunk of the balsam is blistered with swellings 
 that pour out a sticky gum when punctured. 
 
 The white cedar, or arbor vitae, has leaves that are in the form 
 of overlapping scales rather than like needles. 
 
 The deciduous trees. Most trees are not evergreen, but 
 drop their leaves each autumn. Such are known as deciduous 
 trees. There are certain features of the deciduous trees that 
 must be known before we can proceed with a discussion of their 
 characteristics. Secure twigs from such trees as the horse 
 chestnut, the Carolina poplar, and the ailanthus in the winter 
 condition (Fig. 241). In the first-mentioned notice that the 
 twigs are opposite, in the others alternate; and what is true 
 of the twigs is also true of the leaf scars and the leaves. The 
 leaf scars, which mark the places where the last year's leaves 
 were borne, are very plain in any of these trees, notably so in the 
 horse chestnut and the ailanthus. In each leaf scar may be seen 
 
314 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 several dots, the ends of the fibrovascular bundles that carry sap 
 up to the leaf. These bundle scars are characteristic features 
 of many trees. 
 
 Buds. The buds usually appear just above the old leaf scars 
 or, as the botanist says, in the axils of the leaves. The bud at 
 the end of the twig is called the terminal bud, while those along 
 the sides are the lateral buds. Customarily only one bud appears 
 at each axil, but some trees, like the maples, have extra ones, and 
 
 these are called supernumer- 
 ary buds. Sometimes buds 
 appear at irregular places, 
 other than those noted, and 
 such are designated adventi- 
 tious buds. These buds are 
 likely to lie dormant under 
 ordinary conditions but de- 
 velop when the tree is cut 
 back or sometimes near 
 points of injury. It would 
 be well for pupils to see these 
 features, to make sketches of 
 twigs, and to fix such points 
 in mind. 
 
 It is worth while having 
 pupils study individual buds 
 and watch their unfolding in the spring (Fig. 242). Select large 
 buds for such study, like those of lilac, horse chestnut, or hickory. 
 Note that the bud is covered with overlapping scales that are 
 laid on with a definite arrangement. Is there any relation 
 between the arrangement of these bud scales and that of the 
 leaf scars and twigs ? What is to be found within the scales ? 
 As they are picked off lay them in a row on a sheet of paper. 
 What do you conclude that the bud scales really are ? Do you 
 find the same things inside of all buds? Do you see what 
 advantage these bud scales can be to the plant ? Feel the buds 
 
 FIG. 241. Twigs of horse chestnut, 
 Carolina poplar, and ailanthus. 
 
COMMON TREES 315 
 
 of the horse chestnut, the pine, and the sumac. How can the 
 things you discover serve the buds ? Watch a bud unfold and 
 make sketches of it at several stages. Into what does the bud 
 grow ? Cut down through a bud and look at the cut surface. 
 Cut down through an onion or a crocus bulb and compare it with 
 the cut-open bud. 
 
 Deciduous Trees with Opposite Branches 
 
 The deciduous trees are divisible into two groups: those 
 having opposite leaves and twigs and those having alternate 
 
 FIG. 242. The unfolding of the horse chestnut bud 
 
 leaves and twigs, and the latter group will be still further sub- 
 divided to facilitate identification of those trees encountered 
 whose identity is not known by the pupil. It must not be 
 expected that all twigs and leaves will be opposite, even on the 
 trees supposed to have this characteristic, for not infrequently a 
 bud dies or a leaf is killed; many twigs, however, will be seen 
 to be opposite, enough to indicate that the opposite method of 
 branching is normal for the particular tree. The ashes, maples, 
 the horse chestnut, and the flowering dogwood have such oppo- 
 site twigs. All other common deciduous trees have alternate 
 twig and leaf arrangement except the catalpa. 
 
 The catalpa also often appears to have an opposite arrange- 
 ment, but its leaf scars usually occur three at a node or joint. 
 
316 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The bundle scars in the leaf scar are arranged in an ellipse. 
 The leaf is large, heart-shaped, and taper-pointed, and the long 
 seed pods hang on the tree much of the year. 
 
 The horse chestnut is readily told by its prominent leaf scars 
 (Fig. 241), its glistening buds sticky with protecting gum (Fig. 
 242), and by its palmately compound leaf. Since the term 
 compound leaf must be used constantly it will be well to stop to 
 explain it. The usual leaf consists of the blade or the thin 
 expanded portion and the petiole or stalk; and sometimes there 
 
 FIG. 243. Palmately compound leaf of horse chestnut at left; pinnately 
 compound leaf of ash at right. 
 
 are present a pair of leaflike expansions at the base of the stalk, 
 the stipules. The blade of the leaf may have an entire edge or 
 it may be cut more or less deeply into numerous lobes or divisions; 
 these divisions may run nearly to the midrib and the leaf still 
 be a simple leaf. If, however, the leaf consists of several or 
 many small leaflets attached to the petiole or to the midrib, the 
 leaf is compound. These leaflets may spread out from the 
 central petiole as the fingers do from the palm of the hand, when 
 the leaf is said to be palmately compound; or the leaflets may be 
 arranged on either side of the midrib, when it is pinnately 
 compound (Fig. 243). 
 
COMMON TREES 317 
 
 The common horse chestnut usually has seven leaflets in its 
 compound leaf while the buckeye has fewer, though some of the 
 leaves of the latter may have seven. 
 
 The maples all have simple leaves except the ash-leaved maple 
 or box elder. The ash trees all have pinnately compound leaves 
 (Fig. 243). There are three distinct bundle scars in the leaf scar 
 of a maple; many bundle scars arranged in a U in the leaf scar 
 of the ash. The maple buds are smooth, the ash buds are hairy. 
 The maple fruit consists of two winged seeds or keys that are 
 attached together, the ash fruit is a single key (Fig. 244). 
 
 The Norway maple and the box elder are readily distinguished 
 from the other maples because their opposite leaf scars meet, 
 encircling the twig, and there is a tooth at the points of juncture. 
 The Norway maple has a simple 
 leaf and reddish bark on the 
 twigs; the box elder has a pin- 
 nately compound leaf and green 
 bark on the twigs. 
 
 The hard or sugar maple (Fig. 
 245) has few teeth on the leaf and 
 the notch between the principal ^ G . 244 ._ Fruits of ash and maple 
 lobes is U-shaped. Its terminal 
 
 buds are brown. The soft maple and the red maple have V-shaped 
 notches between the lobes of the leaf and the teeth along the mar- 
 gin are numerous. The terminal twigs of the red maple are red ; 
 young leaves and the old leaves in autumn color are red. The 
 buds of the sycamore-leaved maple are green and the leaves are so 
 like those of the sycamore that they are very characteristic. 
 
 The striped and mountain maples are usually encountered as 
 shrubs rather than as trees. The conspicuous, longitudinal, pale- 
 green stripes on the bark of young stems and twigs easily dis- 
 tinguish the former, while the white down on the terminal twigs 
 and the buds of the latter distinguish it. 
 
 The ash trees seem partial to color terminology. The white 
 ash has leaf scars that have a concave upper border. The black 
 
318 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 ash is the only one that has sessile leaflets; that is, its leaflets have 
 no stems but cling closely to the midrib of the leaf. Its bark is 
 not deeply furrowed but scaly and has the feel of talcum powder. 
 Its buds are black. The blue ash has four-sided twigs. The red 
 ash has branchlets and petioles that are velvety with fine hairs. 
 In the flowering dogwood the upper buds are covered with the 
 persistent bases of the leaf stalks even in winter. In spring the 
 tree is a mass of white. The clusters of inconspicuous flowers are 
 
 FIG. 245. A sugar maple grove 
 
 surrounded by four white bracts which give the tree the appear- 
 ance of being covered with great white blossoms (Fig. 246). The 
 leaf is a characteristic dogwood leaf, ovate, with entire margin 
 and conspicuous veins that parallel each other as they run out 
 from the midrib. The bark on older trunks is so checked off into 
 blocks by cracks that it has the appearance of alligator skin. 
 
 Deciduous Trees with Alternate Branches 
 
 I. THOSE KNOWN BY BARK CHARACTERS 
 
 The poplars. The trees with alternate branches are a 
 numerous tribe. However, in all there is some peculiarity that 
 enables one to easily distinguish them on brief examination. 
 
COMMON TREES 319 
 
 Some are most readily known by the character of the bark. The 
 poplars all have smooth, yell6wish-green bark; although the 
 bark of the trunk may alter with age, that of the branches will 
 still show the distinguishing character. There are several 
 poplars. That one most universally known, about the cities at 
 least, is the imported Lombardy poplar, recognized readily by 
 its slender shape (Fig. 247). The Carolina poplar, or cotton- 
 
 FIG. 246. Blossom clusters of flowering dogwood 
 
 wood, is one of the hardiest, growing under conditions that 
 would effectually discourage any other tree. It is a large tree 
 with broadly triangular leaves whose stems are laterally flattened. 
 On young twigs ridges run down the bark from the leaf scars; 
 these are particularly plain on the new shoots or suckers arising 
 at the base of the tree. The buds are long and generous in size. 
 Three other poplars also have such very flat petioles or leaf 
 stems that the leaves tremble in the least wind. One has leaves 
 whose undersides are covered with white hairs, as are also the 
 
320 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 young branches, so that the tree has a glistening appearance, 
 especially when breezes stir and turn the leaves. This is the 
 white or silver-leaved poplar. Its trunk is usually roughened by 
 scars on the bark, like brownish mouths with swollen lips. The 
 small-toothed aspen is also one of these tremulous poplars. Its 
 leaves are heart-shaped and are edged with fine sharp teeth; its 
 
 FIG. 247. Lombardy poplars 
 
 bud scales are smooth. The large-toothed aspen has larger 
 leaves with teeth that are coarse and rounded; its bud scales 
 are hairy. 
 
 The other poplars (Fig. 248) have petioles that are squarish 
 in section, or channeled, but flattened little if at all. In the 
 downy poplar the young leaves and petioles are covered with 
 white hair. The balsam poplar has large buds covered with 
 copious fragrant gum. The balm of Gilead is similar except that 
 the petiole and the lower surface of the leaf are hairy. Some 
 
COMMON TREES 
 
 321 
 
 authorities make no distinction between these two, calling both 
 the balsam poplar or the balm of Gilead. It is said that during 
 the Crusades the wounded knights used the gum from the buds 
 of such trees growing near Gilead in the Holy Land to anoint 
 their wounds and found it a very healing remedy; hence the tree 
 acquired its name. 
 
 The willows (Fig. 249) have yellowish-green bark also, but 
 their leaves are narrow and their twigs are slender and sleek, 
 which gives the tree a graceful carriage, while poplars stand 
 
 FIG. 248. White poplars as a wind shield 
 
 stiffly erect. Willows are difficult to distinguish unless leaf, blos- 
 som, and fruit can be had, and since the differences can scarcely 
 be briefly described the interested student is referred to the key 
 in the Field and Laboratory Guide in Biological Nature-Study. 
 
 The birches are readily known by their bark, which peels off 
 in layers. As the fibers of the bark run, for the most part, 
 around the tree, the bark layers peel off circularly and not in 
 longitudinal strips. The outer layers of the bark tend to loosen 
 in the fall so that the tree is usually shaggy through the early 
 winter. The Indians used these shaggy trees as signal trees 
 
322 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 because, when lighted, the fire runs rapidly up the trunk, making 
 a brief but brilliant torch, and usually leaves the tree none the 
 worse for its singeing. 
 
 The white or gray birch has a chalky white bark with tri- 
 angular black patches under the branches. The paper or canoe 
 birch is similar but is free from these black marks. The leaves 
 
 FIG. 249. A black willow 
 
 of the former are square across the base as if cut off with shears, 
 while those of the latter are rounded and tapering at the base. 
 The canoe birch does not branch near the ground when growing 
 in the forest; it therefore affords a long clean trunk which, when 
 stripped, yields a large strong sheet of bark free from holes. The 
 yellow or gray birch has a yellow or silvery gray bark that peels 
 in thin filmy layers, while the bark on the two preceding birches 
 comes off in fairly thick sheets. The sweet, black, or cherry birch 
 
COMMON TREES 
 
 323 
 
 has twigs and bark that are very fragrant and are aromatic to the 
 taste. The bark looks more like that of a black cherry than it 
 does like the other birches. 
 
 Cherry trees. The young birches appear very like the cherry 
 trees, since the reddish outer bark of the birch does not begin to 
 peel off and show the characteristic lighter bark until the tree 
 is two or three inches in diameter. The cherry trees also have 
 bark that peels off in layers around the trunk, except in the case 
 of the black cherry (Fig. 250), 
 and the bark is also reddish 
 brown. The lenticels or 
 breathing pores of the cherry 
 are more conspicuous than 
 those of the birch; the edges 
 are rough and turn back, while 
 those of the birch look more 
 like light-brown lines in the 
 reddish-brown bark of the 
 young trees or in the whitish 
 bark of the old trees. The 
 cherries may also be known 
 by the bitter taste of the 
 bark and the buds. The wild 
 black cherry is exceptional in 
 bark character, for its bark is rough, broken up into irregular 
 polygonal blocks on the older trees. The cherries are readily 
 distinguished from the wild plum, with which they have many 
 characters in common, by the absence of the terminal buds 
 on the twigs of the plum. In the wild red cherry the buds 
 are clustered at the tips of all shoots; its flowers are also 
 clustered, the stems of the separate blossoms springing from a 
 common point. The choke cherry lacks the clustered buds and 
 the blossoms are found in long racemes, clusters in which the 
 individual blossoms spring from a central elongated stem. The 
 fruit is, of course, borne in similar clusters. 
 
 FIG. 250. Trunk of the black cherry 
 
324 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The sycamore is another tree easily distinguished by its 
 peculiar bark. The trunk has a mottled appearance, especially 
 in the older trees, the dark-brown bark flaking off and exposing 
 patches of the white or yellowish-green inner bark. The round 
 fruits, which look like balls an inch in diameter, often hang from 
 the tree through the winter. They give the tree its name of 
 button tree. It is also known as the plane tree, because the bark 
 
 FIG. 251. Trunks of the hackberry and the beech (at right) 
 
 peels off in such large flat plates. The sycamore is notable for 
 its great size and is the largest deciduous tree that we have. A 
 specimen standing near Richmond, Indiana, in the White River 
 Valley, has a circumference at five feet from the ground of forty- 
 two feet three inches. 
 
 The hackberry is readily known by its bark (Fig. 251), which 
 is roughened by longitudinal corky ridges that stand out very 
 conspicuously and are made up of numerous superimposed layers 
 that show clearly when the bark is cut. In general shape it is 
 
COMMON TREES 325 
 
 much like the elm; its leaves are somewhat like those of the elm, 
 too, but are lopsided at the base. The tree grows with fair 
 rapidity, more rapidly than the elm, is free from parasites and 
 insect pests, and is very attractive to the birds. These are 
 characters that make it eminently desirable as a shade tree. 
 
 The walnuts are stamped by trunk peculiarities; the bark is 
 conspicuously ridged, but the ridges subdivide and run into each 
 other, like a series of interlacing switch tracks, inclosing many 
 diamond-shaped areas that are so numerous and regular as to 
 attract attention. The twigs of the walnuts are coarse and the 
 pith is chambered (Fig. 252) or 
 divided into numerous compart- 
 ments by thin cross-partitions. 
 _. ,. , , , , FIG. 252. A walnut twig to show 
 
 The black walnut has a much the chambered pith . 
 darker bark than the white wal- 
 nut or butternut, and the former has gray buds while the latter 
 has brown. The nut of the former is round; of the latter, 
 elliptical. 
 
 The hickories also have coarse twigs and the pith is chambered, 
 but only at the nodes or joints, while the pith of the walnuts 
 is chambered throughout their length. The shagbark hickory is 
 usually conspicuous because of the exceedingly shaggy character 
 of the bark, which tends to scale off in curly plates. The other 
 hickories have bark that is gray and more or less ridged, but not 
 deeply like the walnuts. Shagbark buds have two conspicuous 
 outstanding brown scales. The bitternut hickory has bright 
 yellow buds that are glandular. The buds of the pignut are 
 small; its twigs are slender and smooth. The mockernut 
 hickory is somewhat like the last, but it has larger buds, the 
 terminal buds a half -inch long or nearly so ; they are oval, covered 
 with close, yellowish-brown, downy scales. The twigs are stout. 
 
 The water beech, or hornbeam, has a trunk that is irregularly 
 fluted (Fig. 253) and is seldom circular in outline. The bark is 
 smooth and gray. The leaves are ovate to oblong, pointed and 
 sharply toothed, looking considerably like those of the beech. 
 
326 SOURCE BOOK OP BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The tree seldom grows large and is often only a shrub in 
 proportion. The true beech has a smooth, light-gray, unfluted 
 trunk and bears small triangular nuts (Fig. 251). 
 
 The ironwood, or hop hornbeam, is a small tree with brownish 
 furrowed bark, much like that of a white cedar, which breaks 
 into numerous narrow longitudinal strips that are free at the 
 ends and peel off in long narrow strips. The wood of the tree 
 
 is exceedingly hard. The 
 leaves resemble those of the 
 birch. 
 
 2. TREES WITH ALTERNATE TWIGS, 
 KNOWN BY THEIR FORM 
 
 Certain trees are of such 
 characteristic shape that they 
 are known largely by their 
 form. The elm is one of the 
 best examples of these its 
 vase or umbrella shape is 
 familiar to every observant 
 person (Fig. 254). The Amer- 
 ican or white elm is the best 
 known of all the elms. Mag- 
 nificent specimens of it afe 
 to be found in many com- 
 munities. So far as is known the largest specimen of the species is 
 growing at Wethersfield, Connecticut, and has a circumference of 
 twenty-seven feet one inch. Some of these trees stand as monu- 
 ments of historic events, like the Washington elm at Cambridge, 
 Massachusetts, under which General Washington took command 
 of the American army in Revolutionary days. The red elm or 
 slippery elm is not likely to be so graceful a tree and its top does 
 not have so perfect a shape. It blossoms much earlier in the 
 spring and its buds are hairy, while those of the white elm are 
 smooth. W T hen the twigs or inner bark of the red elm are chewed 
 they make a slippery mass in the mouth, a delight to the small 
 
 FIG. 253. Trunk of water beech 
 
COMMON TREES 
 
 327 
 
 boy. The leaves of the two are somewhat unlike in form, and 
 those of the red elm are coarser and harsher in texture. 
 
 The oaks are usually recognized by their shape quite as well 
 as by the form of the leaf or their well-known fruit, for the lower 
 branches are given off from the trunk at so nearly a right angle 
 that the tree has a particularly sturdy appearance (Fig. 255). 
 Because it is difficult to make an accurate determination of the 
 
 FIG. 254. An American elm 
 
 various kinds of oaks without having leaves and acorns at hand 
 there is given herewith a series of sketches of the leaves and acorns 
 of the commoner kinds that will help in their identification (Fig. 
 256). Usually the acorns are to be found on the ground under 
 the trees even if there are none on them at the time of examina- 
 tion, so that they are easy to secure. 
 
 The pepperidge, sour gum, or tupelo, is another tree that is 
 known by its general habit. The trunk usually runs straight to 
 
328 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 the top, as it does in the pines, and does not break up into many 
 smaller branches, as in the elm. (The tree is excurrent, not 
 deliquescent.) The branches are horizontal or the lower ones 
 even drooped, and the slender twigs are so numerous that they 
 appear crowded. There are woody partitions in the pith, best 
 seen with the hand lens, that confirm the determination. The 
 
 FIG. 255. A white oak 
 
 thick, firm, glossy green leaves are obovate or oblong in shape, 
 are usually acute at both ends, and have entire margins. 
 
 The ginkgo, or maidenhair, tree also has a trunk that runs 
 straight to the top. Its lower branches may be horizontal or 
 even declined, but the upper ones rise at an angle of about forty- 
 five degrees. The leaf is very peculiar (Fig. 257), unlike that of 
 any other tree. The raised leaf scars are semioval and the upper 
 margin is usually fringed ; there are only two bundle scars. These 
 are sufficiently clear characters to make determination possible 
 even when the tree is not in leaf. 
 
FIG. 256. Leaves and acorns of the oaks: a, red oak (Quercus rubra)', b, pin 
 or swamp oak (Q. palustris}\ c, northern pin oak (Q. elipsoides); d, scarlet oak 
 (Q. coccinea); e, black oak (Q. velutina); f, white oak (Q. alba); g, bur oak (O. 
 macrocarpa)] h, blackjack (Q. marylandica); i, swamp white oak (Q. bicolor); 
 7, chinquapin oak (Q. Muhlenbergii); k, shingle oak (Q. imbricaria) ; /, basket oak 
 (Q. Michauxi}. 
 
330 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 3. TREES WITH ALTERNATE BRANCHES, TOLD BY TWIG CHARACTERS 
 
 Trees that are to be told by their twig characters as well as 
 by their leaf peculiarities form a large part of those usually 
 encountered. 
 
 The tulip tree is most easily known when it is in foliage, since 
 the tip of the leaf is truncate or square-cut. When not in leaf 
 the oblong, flattened terminal buds and the circular, elevated 
 leaf scars, flanked with stipule scars that encircle the stem, are 
 distinguishing characters. 
 
 The sassafras leaf is a peculiar one, mitten-like in outline. 
 The leaf scar has only one bundle scar, quite a unique character. 
 
 The twigs of the tree are green- 
 ish or reddish green, and so 
 certainly flavored with the sas- 
 safras taste that one need only 
 chew them to be sure of the 
 tree. Usually the growth is of 
 shrublike proportions, or if the 
 tree is of good size there are 
 many young shoots starting up 
 under the old tree. 
 
 The linden is one of a number 
 of trees that do not have termi- 
 nal buds on the twigs, which, 
 therefore, cannot grow straight 
 out, but develop in a zigzag course. One may easily be deceived 
 in this; for the last lateral bud may have almost a terminal 
 position, though it does not stand on the very apex of the twig. 
 The buds are two-ranked on the linden, that is, they occur on 
 opposite sides of the twig, not opposite to each other but alter- 
 nate. They are distinctly mucilaginous when chewed. If the 
 tree is in foliage the large thin leaf with serrate edge and lopsided 
 base is a feature that allows no doubt as to the identity of the 
 tree. Often the peculiar woody fruits, about the size of peas, 
 cling to the tree even into the winter. Usually several of these 
 
 FIG. 257. Ginkgo leaf 
 
COMMON TREES 331 
 
 fruits, each with its own stalk, are borne on one end of a stem 
 the other end of which is fastened to a lance-shaped bract (Fig. 
 258), as the handle is inserted into an umbrella. It is aptly 
 designated a parachute fruit, for when the cluster loosens its 
 hold upon the tree it sails away on air currents for some distance 
 before it strikes the ground. 
 
 The other trees in which the absence of the terminal bud is a 
 helpful distinguishing feature, but which, unlike the linden, have 
 pinnately compound leaves, are the ailanthus, the Kentucky 
 coffee tree, both the black and honey locusts, the redbud, and 
 the sumacs. The locusts and 
 the redbud have slender twigs, 
 but the others of the group have 
 coarse stubby twigs. 
 
 The locusts are usually suffi- 
 ciently marked by the presence 
 of thorns together with the 
 characters mentioned above. 
 In the black locust (Fig. 259) the 
 thorns are found in pairs at the 
 nodes; in the honey locust they F io. 2 5 8.-Linden fruit 
 
 are branched and are found not 
 
 only singly at the nodes but also in clusters on the trunks. If the 
 thorns are absent, as is sometimes the case, the bud characters 
 serve to identify, as there are several buds, in a longitudinal row, 
 at each node. The buds on the black locust are minute, rusty, 
 and downy and are inclosed in a cavity of like character; those 
 on the honey locust are usually under the bark, except the top 
 one of the row, and can be seen only by cutting the twig longi- 
 tudinally through the one or two visible buds. The fruit on 
 both locusts is a pod; that on the black is two to four inches long, 
 flat, dark brown, and persists through the winter; the ones on 
 the honey locust are ten to eighteen inches long (Fig. 260), flat, 
 brown, and more or less twisted. In the spring both locusts 
 have clusters of fragrant blossoms shaped like those of a pea. 
 
33* 
 
 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The redbud is covered with red blossoms, also pealike or 
 papilionaceous, before the .leaves appear in the spring. These 
 flower buds are present as characteristic features in the winter; 
 a cluster of them grows at the base of each little branchlet and 
 
 FIG. 259. A black locust 
 
 there are often scattered clusters even on the trunk. The pith 
 of the redbud is streaked with red, a feature that identifies it. 
 
 The Kentucky coffee tree has salmon-colored pith. The buds 
 are silky, bronze in color, and are partially sunken in downy 
 dimples in the bark. The trunk of the tree is marked by thin 
 corky ridges, like flat strips of thin brown paper, that inclose 
 
COMMON TREES 
 
 333 
 
 polygonal depressions. The pods are large, four to ten inches 
 long by one-and-a-half to two inches wide, and contain good-sized 
 beans that are very hard. 
 
 The ailanthus has large heart-shaped leaf scars with several 
 conspicuous bundle scars in a curved line; together with the 
 stubby twigs and grayish bark they make it impossible to confuse 
 the tree with any other. 
 
 * FIG. 260. Persistent pods on a honey locust 
 
 The staghorn sumac has leaf scars that almost encircle the 
 long buds. The terminal twigs are hairy like a stag's horns "in 
 the velvet." Some of the reddish-brown fruits, in conelike, 
 erect clusters, usually stay on some of the trees in a clump during 
 part of the winter. The smooth sumac is similar except that the 
 twigs are covered with bloom rather than with hairs, like the 
 surface of a purple plum. The poison sumac has the terminal 
 bud. Its leaf scars are large, conspicuous, and triangular, with 
 the base of the triangle up. It is a shrub rather than a tree, 
 
334 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 seldom reaching twenty feet in height; but it needs to be known 
 that it may be avoided when in the woods, for it is more poisonous 
 than its near relative, the poison ivy. It is a tree of the swamps. 
 The best treatment as also for poison ivy is prompt washing 
 with thick soap lather. 
 
 FIG. 261. Cattle-trimmed hawthorns 
 
 4. TREES WITH ALTERNATE BRANCHES, KNOWN BY THEIR 
 CONSPICUOUS THORNS 
 
 The prickly ash, osage orange, and hawthorn, in addition to the 
 locusts, have thorns that are very conspicuous features. The 
 prickly ash, usually encountered as a shrub rather than a tree, 
 is likely to be confused with the young black locust. The 
 pungent flavor of its twigs and the absence of the row of buds at 
 the node distinguish it. Like the black locust, it has a pair 
 of *short thorns or prickers at each node. The Osage orange has 
 a pair of thorns at each node also, but they decrease in size toward 
 
COMMON TREES 335 
 
 the ends of the branches while those on the locust and prickly 
 ash are uniform. The pistillate trees bear the large rounded 
 masses of seeds that give the name of orange to the tree; these 
 hang on for much of the winter. 
 
 Like the locusts, the hawthorns are sometimes found without 
 thorns upon them, but usually sharp thorns are upon the trunk 
 of the tree as well as on the twigs in the leaf axils. The tree is 
 usually small, the buds are spherical and reddish, and the bark 
 is gray or reddish and somewhat shredded. The leaves are 
 simple, of varied shapes, but mostly ovoid. The white blossoms 
 are borne in umbels and when in full bloom the trees are beautiful. 
 The fruits are tiny apples, red or brown, yellow or green, differing 
 in color in different species. They are found under the trees for 
 some time after they fall and are an easy means of, identification. 
 The hawthorns stand trimming well and are therefore .valuable 
 as hedge plants; even in nature they frequently afe Jtrimmed into 
 fantastic shapes in the pastures when the tender tips of the 
 twigs are eaten off by cattle (Fig. 261). 
 
 5. TREES WITH ALTERNATE LEAVES BEST RECOGNIZED BY THEIR FRUITS 
 
 The sweet gum bears, most of the winter, some of its peculiar 
 fruits rough, stalked bells, an inch or two in diameter. The 
 tree also has strikingly peculiar twigs. After the first year's 
 growth corky ridges develop on them similar to those on the cork 
 elm or the bur oak (Fig. 262). If in foliage, the tree may be 
 easily recognized by the leaf, with its five spreading points. 
 
 The witch-hazel is another tree, more often found as a shrub, 
 that bears distinguishing fruits. The seed pods, which persist 
 on the tree long after the seeds are discharged, are two-chambered 
 capsules with bases surrounded by the persistent dry calyx and 
 mouths that are wide-spreading when the capsules are empty 
 (Fig. 263). These seed cases fly open with a sudden snap when 
 they are ripe, hurling the seeds to a considerable distance; it 
 is an interesting experience to be bombarded by the witch-hazel. 
 If the unopened seed pods are taken home in the early fall and 
 
336 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 left on the table or mantle the chances are that one will see or at 
 least hear some of them as they open and discharge the seeds. 
 The leaf scars on the witch-hazel are inverted brown triangles 
 with whitish bundle scars. The buds are borne on stalks. 
 
 The tag alder, or black alder, also has the stalked buds and 
 it too is distinguished by its persistent fruits. The old seed cases 
 look like brownish cones, a half-inch long, and they remain on 
 the tree until after the new green fruits are formed (Fig. 264). 
 
 FIG. 262. Sweet gum, branches and fruit 
 
 The bark is like that of a cherry or young birch and the leaves are 
 quite like birch leaves. It is a very common tree along stream 
 and swamp margins. 
 
 The shad bush, or Juneberry, is usually a shrub from ten to 
 twenty feet high, but at times it grows to tree proportions. The 
 older stems are grayish brown and seamed with shallow longi- 
 tudinal cracks, while the slender young stems are grayish green 
 or brown. The buds are very slender. The leaves are elliptical 
 to oval, with saw-toothed edges and acute tips. The berry-like 
 
COMMON TREES 
 
 337 
 
 FIG. 263. Witch-hazel fruit 
 
 fruit is red, but later turns dark as it becomes very ripe, and it is 
 then quite delicious. The tree is also known as the service berry 
 or sugarplum. 
 
 The mountain ash is a tree commonly known by its fruit. 
 The great clusters of berries are green at first, later yellow, and 
 finally bright red, lasting for 
 the winter or until they are 
 eaten by the birds. The leaf 
 is pinna tely compound; the 
 bark is yellow brown with con- 
 spicuous horizontal breathing 
 pores. The dark purplish-red 
 terminal buds are large, over 
 half an inch long, and the 
 point is curved, making them 
 sufficiently distinctive to serve alone as a means of identification 
 
 of the tree. While not ordinarily 
 large it is ornamental throughout 
 the year. 
 
 The wild crab is a low tree, ten 
 to thirty feet high, that grows in 
 impenetrable thickets ; it is covered 
 in the spring, as the leaves are 
 appearing, with its wonderful pink 
 blossoms. The branches are very 
 irregular and are almost thorny 
 with the numerous fruit spurs. 
 By the end of May the young 
 apples are formed, and from then until late fall they mark the 
 tree with an easily recognized character. They are green, an 
 inch or more in diameter when full-grown. After they have 
 fallen they lie all winter in profusion on the ground under the 
 trees; not until they have frozen and thawed repeatedly are 
 they soft enough for food, nor are they palatable. In the spring, 
 when softened, blue jays and squirrels feast upon them. 
 
 FIG. 264. Twig of the tag alder 
 
338 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The mulberry is a small tree, fifteen to forty feet high, with a 
 spreading crown. The trunk breaks low into several very 
 crooked branches so that the general effect is that of an apple 
 tree. If the leaves are on the tree their very varied shapes 
 distinguish it at once; no better illustration is to be had of the 
 variability in the parts of an organism (Fig. 265). The bark is 
 dark reddish brown. The twigs show a milky juice when cut. 
 The leaf scars are two-ranked, circular or nearly so, and the 
 
 FIG. 265. Mulberry leaves, all from one tree, showing the great variation 
 in leaf form. 
 
 bundle scars are raised. The terminal bud is absent. The red 
 mulberry has dark-margined bud scales on its shiny green to 
 brown buds, which measure one-fourth inch long. The buds of 
 the white mulberry are not shiny and are smaller, only one- 
 eighth inch long. The fruit is somewhat like a raspberry, red 
 in the one and white in the other species, and is a favorite food 
 of the birds. 
 
 Methods of tree-study. It is suggested that pupils be 
 required to make drawings of the trees, their leaves, fruits, twigs, 
 and trunks. It is surprising how much even the younger pupils 
 
COMMON TREES 339 
 
 will get out of this sort of work. Take the class out to some 
 selected tree that stands in the open and therefore shows its shape 
 and characters well. Let each pupil be provided with a block 
 of drawing paper and a soft pencil. Seat the class around the 
 tree, a hundred feet or more away from it, as the pupils become 
 confused with details when too near. Then just ask them to 
 make a drawing of the tree. Probably many of them will object, 
 saying they cannot draw; this is particularly true of the older 
 pupils, who feel that unless they have had drawing lessons it is a 
 hopeless task. But all you are asking them to do is to make some 
 marks on paper, and surely any pupil can do that. The difficulty 
 is that they do not know where to make the marks, but that is 
 overcome by studying the object. At the outset they need 
 simply to draw an outline showing the shape and proportions of 
 the tree. For the purposes of tree-study it is just as well to let 
 the pupils blunder ahead, insisting that they make some attempt 
 to do what you are asking them. Then go around from pupil 
 to pupil asking them suggestive questions such as these: How 
 wide is the tree as compared with its height ? How far up the 
 tree are the first branches as compared with its height ? If the 
 pupils will hold themselves to seeing such features before they 
 express on paper what they see you will find that they will make 
 fairly accurate studies of the general outline of the tree without 
 much difficulty. A drawing is an expression of facts or of ideas, 
 and the pupil must have the fact in mind before he attempts to 
 express it (Fig. 266). 
 
 Suggestions on drawing trees. After the trees have been 
 drawn in outline ask the pupils to stand up in a circle facing in 
 and to hold the drawings in front of them so that each member 
 of the class may see all the drawings. The moderately suc- 
 cessful sketches will then help all pupils to see how it can be done. 
 Keep these drawings and the next day make the exercise include 
 not simply the general shape of the tree but also filling in the 
 trunk and branches and the general mass of the foliage. The 
 latter of course is not to be done in detail but merely shaded in. 
 
340 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 You will find the pupils filling in the trunk from top to bottom 
 and adding branches in their entirety, although the foliage really 
 hides the greater part of them. Again insist that they draw 
 
 FIG. 266. A hard maple (a pupil's drawing) 
 
 only what they see, and when you have pointed out to one or two 
 pupils that they cannot see the trunk which they have drawn 
 they will all realize their mistake and proceed to look more 
 closely. Perhaps some one pupil in the class will see that the 
 tree is not equally shaded, but is dark on one side and light on 
 
COMMON TREES 341 
 
 the other, that the sky is visible through the mass of the tree in 
 spots, and that there are areas of light and shade in the mass of 
 the foliage. Commend such keen-eyed pupils and show the 
 drawings to all members of the class. If the drawing teacher 
 can be induced to help in this work it will be an advantage, 
 provided she does not embarrass the pupils by too great insistence 
 on technique. 
 
 Drawing a means of expression. The little child uses pencil 
 and paper as a means of expression and does not hesitate to draw 
 anything that comes to mind. Old Mother Hubbard is shown 
 going to the cupboard, and the child shows the bare shelves inside 
 of the closed cupboard and feels no guilt at faulty technique. 
 It is to be feared that in our attempt to create the technique we 
 have made the pupil so conscious of his inability that we have 
 checked his natural tendency to use drawing as a means of 
 expression. The teacher must try to develop accuracy and skill, 
 but by expression, not repression. The nature-study teacher 
 will do well to try her own hand at the drawing task which she 
 sets her pupils, and if her drawing turns out the worst of the 
 lot it will not be surprising but will be an encouragement to 
 the pupils. It may be that she needs to learn to see accurately 
 quite as much as any of the class. Leaf, fruit, twig, and bark 
 characters that are distinctive may be sketched by the pupils to 
 fix in mind characteristic features. 
 
 Name the trees. The suggestions given in the preceding 
 pages will help both student and teacher to name the common 
 trees of the neighborhood, and that is the first step in an intimate 
 acquaintance with the trees. There is given at the end of the 
 chapter also a key to the common trees which will help determine 
 the genus by easily observed characters. Then the more detailed 
 descriptions of the text will enable the pupil to identify the 
 common species. The key is used through the courtesy of the 
 Government Forestry Department, in one of whose bulletins, 
 Jackson's Forestry in Nature Study, it appeared. When one has 
 learned to recognize individual trees with certainty because of 
 
342 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 some specific character, he will soon come to know the trees in a 
 way that will not depend on any single characteristic. Form 
 and habit of growth, color and peculiarities of foliage, bark 
 characters and location, all will appeal in definite ways and 
 identify what one names with certainty without perhaps knowing 
 just how. 
 
 A tree map. It is a very excellent scheme in starting tree- 
 study to begin with the trees in a definitely circumscribed area. 
 It may seem quite a task to learn the trees of the neighborhood, 
 but if some single portion be taken the school grounds, the 
 courthouse yard, or a block bounded by definite streets the 
 pupils will attack such a small problem with a great deal of zest. 
 It is always well to try to present the nature-work in the form of 
 such small problems. Let the pupils draw a map of the area, 
 showing streets, sidewalks, and lots, and then locate the trees by 
 dots. All of the trees of the same sort may be numbered alike, 
 the names of the trees being given in an alphabetical list at one 
 corner of the sheet. It may be that there are to be found only 
 four or five different kinds of trees in the given area, but after 
 the pupils have determined them with some degree of certainty 
 a second area with more unknowns upon it may be attacked, and 
 soon the pupils will come to have confidence in their ability to 
 hunt down an unknown tree for themselves, as well as an intimate 
 knowledge of the commoner trees. 
 
 Collections. Another excellent aid to tree-study is the 
 preparation of collections of leaves, fruits, and sections of tree 
 trunks. Leaves or sprays of leaves are best obtained in the 
 spring, before they have been whipped to pieces by winds or 
 disfigured by the depredations of insects. They may be pressed 
 between sheets of blotting paper, or in lieu of these an old maga- 
 zine may be taken out on the collecting trips and the leaves 
 inserted between its pages. It is well to label the specimen at 
 once by inserting with the specimen a slip of paper bearing its 
 name if that is known or the location of the tree if it must be 
 identified later. The sheets of blotting paper or the magazine 
 
COMMON TREES 343 
 
 should be put under a heavy weight to press the specimens out 
 smoothly. The specimens should be carefully spread before 
 putting them into press and at the end of twelve hours or so they 
 should be transferred to dry papers, for if this is not done the 
 specimens will blacken instead of drying in their natural colors. 
 It may be well to change them a second time in the course of 
 twenty-four hours, especially if the leaves are at all thick. 
 
 Mounting specimens. Such leaf specimens may be mounted 
 on the unruled pages of an ordinary notebook or, better still, in 
 a loose-leaf notebook. A still better way, however, is to mount 
 the specimens on a large sheet of gray cardboard and later collect 
 the blossoms, bark, and fruit and mount them on the same card. 
 The blossoms should be pressed in the same way as the leaves. 
 It may be a revelation to many pupils to find that trees have 
 blossoms; we are familiar with the conspicuous tree blossoms, 
 such as the pussies of the willow, the handsome blossoms of the 
 catalpa or the magnolia, but many trees have inconspicuous 
 blossoms and their discovery will repay patient observation. 
 
 The fruits of many of the trees are dry and may be pressed 
 in much the same way as the leaves and blossoms. Some fruits, 
 like the acorns, will need to be only collected in the fall and 
 fastened to the card. In some cases, where the fruits are soft 
 and berry-like, they will need to be preserved in a small bottle 
 in some preserving fluid. Five or 6 per cent formaldehyde is 
 good, since it will preserve the color of the fruit. Alcohol is very 
 likely to extract the color. The formalin obtained at the drug 
 store is a 40 per cent solution ordinarily and will need to be 
 diluted with five or six times its bulk of water. The small vials 
 of fruit or the large dry fruits may be attached to the card by 
 means of fine wire or thread; the pressed leaves and flowers may 
 be attached by touching their back surfaces with glue at a 
 number of points and then placing the sheets under light pressure 
 until the glue has hardened. Enough of the bark can be stripped 
 off of some dead trunk or limb to afford a good specimen. If this 
 is moistened it can be pressed out flat without breaking, and the 
 
344 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 specimen may be attached to the card with fine wire. The cards 
 for mounting should be of uniform size and fairly large, say 
 fifteen by twenty-two inches. Such displays of the trees of 
 the neighborhood may be hung up on occasions about the 
 schoolroom and make effective decorations. Ordinarily they 
 should be kept in a cupboard or cabinet, where they can be 
 readily referred to and still not be exposed to dust and too great 
 wear and tear. 
 
 The tree notebook. Pupils may collect smaller samples of 
 leaves, blossoms, and bark to press and mount in their notebooks, 
 and the bulky fruits may be sketched rather than mounted. It 
 is well worth while for the'pupils to prepare books which may be 
 made of loose leaves, both ruled and unruled, and fitted with a 
 cover of brown paper (Fig. 267). Tree sketches and leaf and 
 fruit mounts are made on the unruled paper; notes on the trees, 
 brief descriptions, distinguishing characters, locations, abstracts 
 of readings, are written upon the ruled paper; the cover may be 
 decorated with an appropriate design. Such a tree book may be 
 carried from grade to grade and become a very interesting and 
 instructive student product or the tree booklet may be considered 
 as one chapter of the general nature-study notebook. 
 
 Collections of woods. It will be found valuable to make a 
 collection of woods of the neighborhood to show their characters. 
 Cut a two-foot length from the tree trunk where the diameter is 
 great enough to show the character of the mature bark; saw 
 this in half lengthwise, then plane off and sandpaper a half of this 
 surface and oil and varnish a portion of the smoothed surface so 
 as to show the wood in the rough, smoothed, and finished states. 
 A half of the end of the specimen may be smoothed and finished 
 in the same way, and if the other end be cut diagonally at an 
 angle of forty-five degrees this surface, when smoothed and 
 finished, will show the grain of the wood more effectively than 
 any other portion. Such specimens may easily be prepared by 
 the boys in the manual-training shops or by pupils at home, 
 and if each boy prepares only one such specimen it will bring 
 
COMMON TREES 345 
 
 together a valuable addition to the school collection, especially 
 if the work be continued year after year. 
 
 Uses of common woods. Such preparation of specimens will 
 lead the pupils to an appreciation of the properties of the various 
 
 FIG. 267. A student's title-page 
 
 woods and to a discussion of their uses. It is a matter of 
 common knowledge that oak lumber is used for furniture, maple 
 for flooring, and hemlock for rough lumber, but the average 
 individual knows little more about the uses of woods; and yet 
 hardly any one of the trees growing in the locality has not some 
 
346 SOURCE BOOK. OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 use in the arts. If the pupils will inquire of their parents they 
 can find out many of the uses of the common woods, and the 
 encyclopedias or the books given in the bibliography of this 
 chapter will help them to look up the uses that the neighborhood 
 may not know. Our grandparents knew more of these things 
 when they were forced to manufacture many articles that we buy 
 at the nearby store. 
 
 Woods in furniture. It makes an interesting exercise to have 
 the pupils try to name the woods to be found in the various 
 articles of furniture about the schoolroom and homes. It is a 
 matter of practical concern that we should know something of 
 the woods that are used in furniture and be able to recognize 
 them; otherwise we may readily be inveigled into buying cheap 
 woods that are finished to imitate the real thing and pay ridicu- 
 lous prices for cheap articles. The beauty of furniture is due 
 quite as much to the way in which wood is cut as it is to the 
 character of the wood used. Thus " quarter-sawed " oak is much 
 more beautiful than is the ordinary straight-sawed oak because 
 of the display of the grain. Let some pupil find out what is 
 meant by "quarter-sawed." Many of our finer woods are too 
 valuable to be made into solid furniture. The furniture of our 
 grandparents' time was often solid black walnut or mahogany, 
 but nowadays we achieve quite as beautiful results by the 
 use of veneer. Let some of the older pupils find out how veneer 
 is cut and how it is applied. What are the cheaper woods 
 that are used as the backing for veneer ? The manner of cut- 
 ting makes veneer more beautifully grained than even the solid 
 wood, so that furniture of today is probably more attractive 
 than it ever has been, as far at least as the beauty of the 
 wood is concerned. 
 
 Lumbering. In connection with this work in nature-study 
 the teacher may take up with the pupils the history of the log 
 from its cutting in the forest to its use in the manufactured 
 article. Such articles on lumbering as those suggested in the list 
 of books in this chapter will give the pupils a clear notion of the 
 
COMMON TREES 347 
 
 lumbering processes and of the romantic life of the men who start 
 the forest products on the way to our doors. 
 
 How the tree grows. One of the questions that is sure to 
 come up in connection with the graining of woods is the problem of 
 the growth of the tree and how it comes about that the wood is 
 arranged in concentric layers. When the shoot of the germinat- 
 ing seed first appears above the ground it is made up of soft tissue 
 which easily breaks. We are familiar witfy the shoots of aspara- 
 gus, which are so tender and crisp that they break if bent. The 
 tree shoot does not grow as tall as marketable asparagus before 
 it begins to be strengthened by the development of fibrous 
 elements which are necessary to any plant that is going to stand 
 up successfully against the storms and the strains of its ordinary 
 environment. Even the asparagus shoot is strengthened in this 
 way before it is very old, and ordinarily the basal part of the shoot, 
 as we buy the asparagus in the market, is quite tough and fibrous. 
 
 Plant cells. This tissue that is constantly being formed 
 during the growth of the plant, as in fact any growing portion 
 of a living thing, is made up of tiny bits of living material, each 
 inclosed more or less perfectly in a wall. These building units 
 are called cells, a term that is rather unfortunate, for it suggests 
 a walled-in space, while as a matter of fact the animal or plant 
 cell is never such unless it is dead. It is a viscid mass of living 
 material called protoplasm, the outer part of which is differen- 
 tiated into the wall. These cells are ordinarily crowded close 
 together so that the spherical form is readily changed to that of 
 a solid bounded by flat faces. Plant cells are very small, usually 
 not over a five-hundredth of an inch in diameter, and the animal 
 cells are still smaller. They may be seen under an ordinary 
 linen-tester in some tissues in which they are very large, as the 
 basal part of the hair on the stamens of spiderwort flowers or in 
 the rapidly growing shoots of elderberry. But it takes a power- 
 ful microscope to give a very good view of them. 
 
 How fibers form. In the rapidly growing shoots some of these 
 cells adhere in strings and their adjacent walls give way, so that 
 
348 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 the chain of cells comes to be a long fiber. The walls of this 
 fiber thicken and grow tough and thus the strengthening elements 
 are formed. Bundles of such fibers are laid down in the soft 
 tissues, and in all our trees of the temperate zone these fiber 
 bundles are laid down in a circle with the center of the stem as its 
 center. The fiber bundles run chiefly up and down the stem 
 (Fig. 268). 
 
 Fibrovascular bundles. In any rapidly growing shoot the 
 upper end is necessarily somewhat far removed from the roots, 
 
 which are busy absorbing water 
 and raw food stuff from the 
 ground. The roots, in turn, are 
 far away from the leaves, which 
 are also absorbing crude plant 
 from the air. There must 
 
 \ \ ' L [ T v/ y i 1 - i ' ' 
 
 ..." ,-, ' -cp. - T -^v-^ needs be some means of trans- 
 
 FIG. 268. Longitudinal section f erring these substances from 
 
 of a stem (partial), showing bundle Qne t of ^ Jant to another 
 of developing fibers and vessels in . . . 
 
 embryonic tissue. and so > m connection with the 
 
 fibers, there develop conductive 
 
 vessels, formed in a very similar way, and these bundles of fibers 
 and vessels are known as the fibrovascular bundles. 
 
 Rings of growth. The cross-section of a young growing stem 
 shows the soft tissue of the stem, with a ring of these fibro- 
 vascular bundles, also seen in cross-section, imbedded in it. 
 The fibers of the bundle are chiefly on the side of the bundle 
 toward the bark, while the vessels are more numerous on the 
 inner side, and the two portions are separated by a layer of 
 the softer tissue. The bundles grow larger until they squeeze 
 the soft tissue between them into strands and flakes. There is 
 thus formed an outer ring of material that is largely fibrous and 
 an inner ring largely vascular or woody and between the two a 
 soft layer known as the cambium layer; these three rings of 
 tissue surround a cylinder of soft tissue at the center of the stem. 
 Such is the condition at the end of the first year of growth. The 
 
COMMON TREES 
 
 349 
 
 following spring the cambium layer increases very greatly in 
 thickness and in it new fibrovascular bundles appear which 
 run through the same course as those of the first year, so that 
 there is added to the outside of the forming wood cylinder a new 
 wood layer and to the inside of the bark a new bark layer (Fig. 
 269). As this occurs year after year the wood of the trunk in- 
 creases in thickness; the bark would do so too, but the bark 
 layers are added to the inside of the old bark, which must crack 
 
 FIG. 269. Left-hand figure, cross-section of ash stem (Bulletin No. 299, 
 Department of Agriculture) ; right-hand figure, part of the cross-section of a larch 
 stem (United States Forest Service, Bulletin No. 122). 
 
 in order to make room for the new; its outer layers become so 
 broken that they easily weather off. 
 
 The whistle layer. The spring increase in the thickness of 
 this cambium layer makes possible the whistle, made from the 
 willow or poplar. Making such a whistle is an experience every 
 child should have. In early spring cut from a twig a piece three 
 inches long and as big around as the middle finger; select a piece 
 that is free from buds or branches. Cut one end off diagonally, 
 as shown in the sketch, and also cut a notch near this end through 
 the bark and well into the wood. With a sharp knife cut through 
 the bark with a circular cut near the other end and then lay the 
 
350 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 twig down on something firm and, holding the knife by the blade, 
 pound the bark of the twig all over. This breaks up the cambium 
 layer, and when the bark is so loosened it may be twisted X)ff as a 
 cylinder. Cut the inner wood cylinder as shown in the sketch 
 (Fig. 270), moisten it, and slip the bark back on. The whistle 
 should be ready for use. 
 
 Age of a tree. Under ordinary conditions a layer of wood is 
 formed each year. The wood laid down in the spring is relatively 
 coarse, since growth is very rapid and the vessels are large. 
 Toward fall, however, growth is slow and the vessels formed are 
 much smaller. Thus the annual layers are differentiated from 
 
 each other, being porous on one side 
 and much denser on the other. Thus 
 the cut end of a tree trunk shows 
 distinct rings. If a cold spell comes 
 in the middle of the summer, or if 
 other adverse conditions prevent 
 . the customary rate of growth, two 
 layers may be differentiated in a 
 single season. It follows, therefore, 
 that the number of rings on a tree 
 stump do not indicate the absolute 
 age of the tree, but in temperate 
 America the age estimated in this 
 
 way probably does not differ from the correct age by more than 
 5 per cent. 
 
 Local forests. In the upper grades it would seem advisable 
 that the study of the local trees should be followed by a study of 
 local forestry conditions. Such a local study will demonstrate 
 what part of the particular region is woodland and, in most parts 
 of the Middle West at least, it will demonstrate how little wood- 
 land there really is. Let a map be drawn of the township in 
 which the school is located and on the map show the wooded 
 areas. It may take considerable inquiry to find out just where 
 the forests are located and how extensive they are, but usually 
 
 FIG. 270. Diagrams of wil- 
 low twig showing the way it is 
 cut to make a whistle. 
 
COMMON TREES 351 
 
 owners will furnish the information on request and the county 
 tax assessor or register of deeds will willingly help to locate 
 doubtful areas. 
 
 Our forest wealth. It would be well if this local study could 
 be extended to embrace the whole country so as to give the 
 pupils an appreciation of the problem of forest conservation 
 which confronts us. Originally we had, in round numbers, 
 nearly a billion acres of forest-covered land in the United 
 States; now approximately one-half of it is gone. The largest 
 portion of what is left, some two hundred million acres, is in the 
 farmers' wood lots; about one hundred and fifty million acres 
 is in large private estates; the national forests contain about a 
 hundred and sixty- three million acres ; and the state forest reserves 
 another nine million acres. Michigan, once provided with as 
 magnificent forests as grow, disposed of its holdings to private 
 individuals or corporations at prices that now seem ridiculous, 
 and the state now owns only four thousand acres of forest land. 
 Much of its original holdings were sold with little thought of the 
 future, apparently almost squandered with lavish hand. It is 
 useless to discuss the wisdom of such a policy now, but we must 
 be awake to the fact that a large part of our national forest 
 inheritance is gone, to be recovered, if ever, only by intelligent 
 policies of repurchase and conservative care. We cannot depend 
 on the ordinary avaricious individual to subordinate his imme- 
 diate interests to the future welfare of the country. 
 
 Our timber cut. We are using our lumber much more rapidly 
 than any other civilized country. It is estimated that we use 
 two hundred and sixty cubic feet per year for every person in the 
 United States; Germany uses thirty-seven cubic feet, France 
 twenty-six, and Italy eighteen, under normal conditions. As 
 on every acre of forest that we own we grow on an average twelve 
 cubic feet of wood a year and we cut off forty cubic feet, it is 
 evident that we are drawing heavily on our capital stock. More 
 than that, we are careless in, the cutting and milling of our 
 lumber; five-eighths of the lumber cut in the forest is destroyed 
 
352 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 271. Map show 
 
COMMON TREES 
 
 353 
 
 ; 
 
 
 L_ l. 7/ L---;;777, g*j& : ; .- 
 
 l*'^( * / s^^rai^ : " x 77N 
 
 ! A R K A N S A Sj_ ; \ ccc^-**^^ S O O " ^ 
 
 < f^-\% v- 1 " 
 
 \ o \ 
 
 ' NATIONAL FORESTS 
 
 AND RELATED DATA 
 
 <.-, $- 
 
 
 C7"5 PURCHASE ARCAS (APPALACHIAN) 
 
 ? DISTRICT MEAOQUARTCRS 
 SUPERVISORS' MEOQOARTtR$ 
 A PERMANENT EXPERIMENT STATION* 
 * LABORATORY (MADISON, WI3J 
 
 anal forest reserves 
 
354 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 in lumbering and milling, so that only three-eighths of the 
 cut is really used; the wood in a chair represents only three- 
 eighths of what was cut to make the chair. The loss in cut- 
 ting the trees in the forest is estimated at about 20 per cent, 
 in milling into lumber at 1 7 per cent, and in manufacturing into 
 the finished product at 30 per cent. Such are some of the 
 striking facts in the whole problem of the conservation of our 
 timber supply. The appreciation of such facts must lead to the 
 continuance of our national policy of forest conservation and to 
 the extension of this policy both in the nation and in the states. 
 
 National reserves. There is given herewith a map showing 
 the forest reserves of the United States (Fig. 271). It will be 
 noted that these are largely in the western states, for the forests 
 of the eastern states had practically all been cut off or had 
 passed into the hands of private individuals before the govern- 
 ment realized the necessity of careful conservation of our forest 
 resources. Now the government is buying back, in some of the 
 eastern and southern states, generous areas of forest lands, 
 especially those about the headwaters of important streams, so 
 as to make forest reservations. 
 
 Care of forests. The methods employed in handling the 
 government forests are instructive and are worthy of imitation 
 on both large and small estates (Fig. 272). Forest rangers are 
 employed to keep a lookout through the forests and to see that 
 no fires gain a start. During the time of the year when the 
 forests are very dry they spend much of their time on vantage- 
 points from which they can see the country. If a wisp of smoke 
 arises somewhere within the forest they hasten to the spot to 
 learn the cause; not infrequently campers have unwisely left a 
 smoldering fire or a blaze has been started in some other way 
 which the ranger extinguishes. If he finds this task beyond his 
 individual power he has the right to demand help from settlers, 
 campers, or any other persons within his domain, and so he 
 can usually keep the fire within narrow bounds until it burns 
 itself out. 
 
COMMON TREES 
 
 355 
 
 FIG. 272. Redwood trees in a national forest 
 
356 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Losses from fires. These forest fires have been the sources 
 of tremendous losses (Fig. 273). It is roughly estimated that 
 in the history of this country we have had destroyed by fire quite 
 as much timber as we have used. Probably, on an average, 
 fifty million dollars' worth of standing timber is destroyed 
 annually by fires. Such fires are a source of grave danger to the 
 settlers who are living in the forest areas and thousands of lives 
 have been lost in this way. The fury and rate of progress of a 
 
 FIG. 273. A burned-over region 
 
 forest fire are almost inconceivable; a wall of flame advances 
 that withers everything before it; tongues of flame leap up and 
 run to the tops of the standing trees, leaving them charred stubs. 
 The scene after the fire passes is one of unspeakable devastation 
 (Fig. 274); the ground is blackened, and often the fire smolders 
 in it for weeks, unless a drenching rain follows. The ground is 
 littered with charred logs and every living thing has disappeared; 
 most of the trees have fallen and been burned; only a few of the 
 sturdier ones are left as ruined remnants. Frequently the sur- 
 face layers of the vegetable mold are so completely burned out 
 
COMMON TREES 
 
 357 
 
 that there are no tree seeds left; no new trees are therefore 
 started the following year, but the area is planted with the wind- 
 blown seeds of annual and other weeds. The government has 
 had to replant thousands of acres of such burned-over lands in 
 the national reservations. 
 
 Soil erosion. In time trees may begin to get a hold on the 
 soil, but frequently, especially in hilly country, the more or less 
 burned-out humus is washed away when the protection of the 
 
 FIG. 274. A closer view of the burn 
 
 forest is gone and the hillsides become bare masses of rock, so 
 that reforesting is practically impossible. A forest fire is there- 
 fore not simply a means of temporary destruction of the forest, 
 but it removes the possibility of any forest cover for many 
 centuries. The government wisely tries to prevent the fires in 
 the national forests and money spent in prevention is evidently 
 wisely spent. 
 
 Unwise methods of cutting. A second source of tremendous 
 loss in the forests has been unwise methods of cutting. The 
 
SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 axman goes through the forest cutting down everything, both 
 mature and young trees. He leaves the trimmings, branches and 
 tops, to litter the ground after the logs have been hauled off, 
 so that much lumber that could be manufactured into small 
 articles, like clothespins and spools, is left to decay. Often this 
 waste material dries as it lies and comes to be a source of fires 
 which gather headway in the debris and invade adjacent stand- 
 
 FIG. 275. Pine seedlings under old trees 
 
 ing timber. In the government reserves these trimmings are 
 burned while the snow is on the ground or after heavy rains, 
 and then only after such small timber has been cut out as is 
 serviceable for cordwood or for the manufacture of small wooden 
 utensils. 
 
 Replanting. Often the land is cleared completely by the 
 lumberman and then it needs replanting. A certain small iron 
 furnace at Marquette, Michigan, which smelts its ore with 
 charcoal, cleans off fifteen acres of the finest hardwood forest 
 
COMMON TREES 359 
 
 daily in order to furnish the wood for making the charcoal. 
 Some of this land is sold for farming purposes, but much of it is 
 valuable only as forest land; it is such land that needs replanting. 
 The government in its forestry operations permits only the 
 mature trees to be cut, and if a stand of timber consists only of 
 mature trees, enough of them are left to seed the ground beneath 
 (Fig. 275). 
 
 Seedlings. In many species of forest trees the seedlings grow 
 only under the shade of other trees. On the eastern shore of 
 Lake Michigan there is a barren sandy region which was formerly 
 covered with a forest of white pine. The owner of a large area 
 of this territory decided, on expert advice, to replant with white 
 pine, since it seemed reasonable to suppose that inasmuch as 
 white pine had once grown there to splendid size it would grow 
 again. But when practically all of the fifty thousand young pine 
 trees set out in the initial experiment died it was realized that 
 white-pine seedlings demand shelter in their early years of growth. 
 It is necessary to begin such a forest with trees like the cotton- 
 wood, which will stand the untoward conditions of an exposed 
 area. The pines may be planted when the cottonwoods afford 
 adequate shelter. 
 
 Reforestation. The government is planting the seeds of 
 forest trees in those parts of the forest reservations that are not 
 needed for agricultural purposes (Fig. 276). Already many 
 thousands of acres have been planted and on much of this land 
 a healthy stand of timber is already under way. Nearly six 
 thousand acres were planted with seed in 1915 and almost 
 thirty-five million trees were set out on nine thousand seven 
 hundred and thirty-one acres. 
 
 The farmer's wood lot. It will be recalled that quite as much 
 of the standing timber in this country is owned by the farmers 
 in their small wood lots as is owned by the government in its 
 forest reservations, and almost as much is in the large private 
 estates. On the estates careful methods of cutting and pre- 
 caution against fire are already quite common. The small 
 
360 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 forest holder, the farmer with his wood lot, is usually the last 
 individual to appreciate the need of careful management. As a 
 rule the wood lot is cluttered with fallen trees that are in all 
 stages of decay and that are infected with fungi whose spores are 
 blown about by every wind. These spores frequently find lodg- 
 ment in wounds on growing trees and are thus a constant source of 
 
 FIG. 276. Replanting forest land (United States Forest Service, Bulletin 
 No. 98}. 
 
 timber diseases, depreciating the value of the timber that is grown. 
 The fallen timber is also the breeding place of many wood-boring 
 insect larvae and these are a constant menace to the standing tim- 
 ber, for as the insects become more numerous the larvae attack 
 not only the timber that is down but also that standing. 
 
 In cutting the timber little or no attention is paid to the need 
 of taking out only the mature trees. If posts are wanted, for 
 
COMMON TREES 36* 
 
 instance, the small trees are cut rather than take down the big 
 ones and split the logs. Little or no attention is paid to replant- 
 ing. In many sections of the country the average farmer pos- 
 sesses ten or twenty acres of land that is too rough for agricultural 
 purposes and often is too poor to even afford good pasturage. 
 Such land might frequently be made to bear a valuable crop of 
 timber. The author recalls a forty-acre piece of black walnut 
 that was planted on river bottom land, usually flooded by the 
 spring freshets and very rough with glacial bowlders. A wise 
 settler, three generations back, had used some of his spare time 
 to gather the walnuts from a nearby tree and with a hoe had 
 planted them on this worthless land. While it had not given a 
 valuable return to that man, it had increased very materially the 
 value of his estate in the course of time, for the black-walnut 
 timber on it some sixty years after planting was purchased for 
 more than all the rest of the farm was worth, and it was a farm 
 of more than two hundred acres in the best agricultural district 
 of southern Wisconsin. 
 
 KEY TO COMMON KINDS OF TREES 1 
 
 The following key is intended only as a guide in the identification of 
 the more common kinds of trees. It is based on prominent, 'distinctive 
 characters which can readily be observed by those who have no special 
 training in botany. Most of the terms used require no explanation. 
 
 To use the key, decide first, by an examination of the leaf, in which of 
 the following seven sections your tree belongs; then turn to that section 
 and from the descriptions there given determine what kind of tree it is. 
 
 SECTION 
 
 Trees with needles, or scalelike leaves, mostly evergreens, bearing 
 
 cones I 
 
 Trees with broad leaves 
 Leaves simple 
 
 Alternately attached to twigs 
 
 With toothed edges II 
 
 Edges neither toothed nor notched Ill 
 
 1 By William H. Lamb, Scientific Assistant in Dendrology. 
 
362 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Opposite On twigs SECTION 
 
 With toothed edges IV 
 
 Edges neither toothed nor notched V 
 
 Leaves compound 
 
 Alternately attached to twigs VI 
 
 Opposite on twigs VII 
 
 THE CONIFEROUS 1 TREES 
 I. Trees with needles, or scalelike leaves, mostly evergreen, bearing cones 
 
 A. Leaves needle-shaped 
 
 1. Leaves clustered 
 
 a) Leaves long, from i to 18 inches, 2 to 5 in a cluster. 
 
 Cones large, with many thick, woody scales (Pinus) Pine 
 
 b) Leaves short (less than 2 inches long) in brushlike clusters 
 of 1 2 to 40; falling off in winter. Cones very small, with 
 thin scales; remaining on tree for one or more seasons 
 
 (Larix) Larch 2 
 
 2. Leaves single 
 
 a) Leaves scattered around twigs; falling off when dry or 
 dead. Cones elongated, with thin scales. Twigs rough- 
 ened by leaf scars 
 
 x Leaves stiff, often sharp-pointed, and more or less four- 
 sided (Picea) Spruce 
 
 y Leaves soft, flat, rounded, or notched at ends, the bases 
 
 abruptly contracted into threadlike stems (Tsuga) Hemlock 
 
 b) Leaves in two distinct rows, one on each side of the twig; 
 falling off in late autumn or winter. Cones small, ball- 
 like (Taxodium) Bald Cypress 
 
 c) Leaves often in two rows on the tops and sides of the 
 twigs; leaves on lower branches mostly flat, those on 
 upper branches stouter. Cones long, erect, forming only 
 on upper side of topmost branches; the scales falling off 
 in autumn, leaving spikelike central axes of the cones 
 attached- (Abies) Fir 
 
 B. Leaves scalelike, pointed, overlapping closely on flat or four- 
 sided twigs 
 
 i. Twigs four-sided. Cones round or ball-like, with small, 
 thick scales; seed with very narrow, hard wings 
 
 (Cupressus) Cypress 
 
 1 Cone-bearing. 
 
 a The larches are peculiar in having single, scattered leaves on the new or 
 terminal twigs produced each season. These should not be mistaken for the 
 "single" leaves borne throughout by other kinds of evergreens. 
 
COMMON TREES 363 
 
 2. Twigs flattened 
 
 a) Cones elongated, with only a few thin scales; bent back 
 
 on branches (Thuja) Arbor Vitae 
 
 b) Cones round, very small, berry-like with thin scales; 
 
 seeds with a broad, thin wing on two sides (Chamcecyparis) Cedar 
 
 c) Cones berry-like (showing no separation into scale parts) . 
 Leaves either short, scalelike, and sharp-pointed or much 
 longer, needle-like, standing out loosely, and attached in 
 
 pairs or in threes on the twigs (Juniperus) Juniper 
 
 THE BROADLEAF TREES 
 
 II. Leaves simple, alternate, with toothed edges 
 
 A. Leaves deeply lobed, or with large notches 
 
 1. Leaves as wide as they are long. Fruit a swinging ball, i to 
 1 1 inches in diameter 
 
 a) Leaves with finely toothed margins; star-shaped, the 
 divisions pointed. Fruit, burlike balls, from which, when 
 ripe, small, winged seeds may be shaken. Bark rough 
 
 (Liquidambar) Sweet Gum 
 
 V) Leaves with smooth margins, 3 to 5 inches long, pointed 
 lobes, the space between the lobes rounded. Fruit, a 
 rough ball, easily broken when ripe; composed of closely 
 packed, long, narrow seeds which have hairlike bristles 
 at their lower ends and are attached to a bullet-like central 
 part. Old bark of trunks and large limbs peeling off in 
 thin, curled pieces, leaving pale inner bark showing in 
 irregular patches (Platanus) Sycamore 
 
 2. Leaves longer than wide 
 
 a) Leaves large with deep, round-topped, or pointed lobes. 
 
 Fruit, an acorn, resting in a separable cup (Quercus) Oak 
 
 &) Leaves small, with little, sharp teeth on margin. Twigs 
 bearing sharp thorns. Fruit small (like a little apple), 
 round, with bony seeds (hard core) (Crat&gus) Hawthorn 
 
 B. Leaves one-sided (one side of leaf shorter at base than the other 
 side) 
 
 1. Leaves large, oval, 5 to 10 inches long, heart-shaped. Fruit, 
 a cluster of small, woody balls i to ^ inch in diameter, hang- 
 ing from a narrow, leaf like blade (Tilia) Bass wood 
 
 2. Leaves 3-veined at base, with long, tapering points, which 
 generally turn to one side; edges smooth, or with small teeth 
 of uniform size. Fruit, a small berry about inch in diameter 
 
 (Cdtis) Hackberry 
 
,364 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 3. Leaves with straight veins, oval; edges double- toothed (little 
 teeth on the larger ones). Fruit in clusters, dry, flat, with 
 papery wings all around the seeds (Ulmus) Elm 
 
 C. Leaves even-sided (both sides of leaf the same length) 
 
 1. Leaves oval, evergreen, thick, with short needle-like teeth. 
 
 Fruit, a bright-red berry (Ilex) Holly 
 
 2. Leaves more or less elongated, with one tooth at the end of 
 each side vein 
 
 a) Trees with smooth, bluish-gray bark, and long, pointed, 
 chestnut-brown buds. Fruit, a small, three-cornered 
 nut, in a spiny husk which splits open at the top into 
 three parts (Fagus) Beech 
 
 5) Trees with ridged, grayish-brown bark. Fruit, a large, 
 round nut in a thick husk covered with dense, needle-like 
 spines; the husk splits open from the top into 3 or 4 
 divisions (Castanea) Chestnut 
 
 3 . Leaves very narrow, finely toothed. Small branches slender, 
 usually tough. Fruit, a long cluster of little pods filled with 
 "cotton" (Salix) Willow 
 
 4. Leaves somewhat triangular in outline, broad at base, large- 
 toothed. Buds of some species coated with aromatic gum. 
 Branches coarse. Fruit, a long cluster of little pods filled 
 
 with "cotton" (Populus) Poplar 
 
 5. Leaves oval, pointed, with sawlike teeth 
 a) Fruit like a tiny pine cone 
 
 x Bark of trunk and branches peeling off in thin sheets. 
 Leaves double-toothed (little teeth on the larger ones) . 
 Fruit ("cones") scaly, falling apart when ripe; seeds 
 with gauzelike wings on two sides (Betula) Birch 
 
 y Bark smooth or broken, but not peeling. Leaves with 
 small teeth. " Cones " hard, woody, not falling apart ; 
 seed with narrow wings on two sides (Alnus) Alder 
 
 ft) Fruit, a berry; fleshy, edible 
 
 x Leaves large, 3-veined at base, often irregularly, deeply 
 lobed; containing milky juice. Fruit similar in 
 appearance to a blackberry (Morus) Mulberry 
 
 y Leaves small or medium-sized, feather- veined; con- 
 taining green juice; fruit (cherry or plum) with one 
 seed 
 
 i. Seed ("stone") flattened. Fruit large and short- 
 stemmed (Prunus} Plum 
 ii. Seed round. Fruit small and long-stemmed 
 
 (Prunus) Cherry 
 
COMMON TREES 365 
 
 III. Leaves simple, alternate, edge neither toothed nor notched 
 
 A. Leaves with deep lobes 
 
 1. Leaves with blunt ends (appearing as if cut off), and with 
 two pointed side lobes. Flowers tulip-like. Fruit conelike, 
 pointed, upright, composed of long, thin, overlapping, winged 
 seeds. Bruised twigs have a peppery odor 
 
 (Liriodendron) Tulip Poplar 
 
 2. Leaves with rounded ends; oval, often with a lobe on one 
 side, making the leaf mitten-shaped. Bruised twigs and 
 
 inner bark of trunk sweet-smelling (Sassafras) Sassafras 
 
 B. Leaves without lobes 
 
 1. Bruised twigs with peppery odor 
 
 a) Leaves oval (evergreen in one species) or elongated, 
 pointed, large. Flowers large, at ends of branches. 
 Fruit conelike, with a bright-red seed in each division 
 
 (Magnolia) Magnolia 
 
 2. Bruised twigs without peppery odor 
 
 a) Leaves broader at top than at the base, 8 to 12 inches 
 long, with very short leafstalk. Fruit fleshy, elongated, 
 3 to 4 inches long, with thick, brown skin when ripe, and 
 
 large, bony, flat seeds. Buds brown and hairy (A simina) Pawpaw 
 
 b) Leaves oval, elongated, 3 to 7 inches long. Fruit, plum- 
 like, round, i to i^ inches in diameter; When ripe, pale- 
 orange color; on a very short stalk, surrounded at base 
 with old, hard flower-cup. Fruit very bitter, but edible 
 
 after frost (Diospyros) Persimmon 
 
 c) Leaves rounded or heart-shaped, 3 to 5 inches across. 
 Flowers pealike, pink, appearing before the leaves. Fruit 
 a dry, flat pod, 2\ to 3^ inches long; in dense clusters on 
 sides of branches; seeds, hard, small, oblong, \ inch long 
 
 (Cercis) Redbud 
 
 3. Bruised or cut twigs and leaves with milky juice 
 
 a) Leaves with narrow points. Twigs bearing thorns. 
 Fruit, a large, orange-like, rough ball 4 to 6 inches in 
 diameter (Toxylon) Osage Orange 
 
 IV. Leaves simple, opposite, with toothed edges 
 
 Leaves with large (often lobelike) teeth. Fruit in pairs, each 
 part with a conspicuous, flat, very thin wing. Fruit matures in 
 spring or in autumn, when it becomes dry and yellowish brown 
 
 (Acer) Maple 
 
366 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 V. Leaves simple, opposite, edges neither toothed nor notched 
 
 A. Leaves very large, heart-shaped. Flowers showy, trumpet- 
 like, in large clusters. Fruit, a long, cylindrical pod, 6 to 14 
 inches long, containing closely packed, flat, dry seeds, with 
 fringed wings at each end (Calalpa) Catalpa 
 
 B. Leaves rather small, oval, tapering at base and point. Flowers 
 conspicuous, white (occasionally rosy), appearing with the 
 expanding leaves. Fruit, a small cluster of two-seeded berries, 
 turning red in autumn (Cornus) Dogwood 
 
 VI. Leaves compound, alternately attached to twigs 
 
 A. Leaflets small, many, attached along two sides of a main stem. 
 Fruit, a flat, beanlike, dry or fleshy pod 
 
 1. Leaflets with small, wavy teeth. Pods flat, broad, long, 
 
 often twisted, thin-skinned, with thick, cheesy, sweetish 
 pulp about seeds. Trees with long, keen, branched thorns 
 
 (Gleditsia) Honey Locust 
 
 2. Leaflets not toothed 
 
 a) Twigs with pairs of short, keen thorns. Leaflets rounded 
 at ends. Flowers showy white, in large clusters. Pods 
 
 small, flat, thin, dry, with small seeds (Robinia) Black Locust 
 
 b) Twigs thornless. Leaflets oval, pointed. Flowers green- 
 ish, with violet odor. Pods large, flat, thick, with jelly- 
 like pulp (poisonous) around the large, black-brown 
 
 seeds (Gymnocladus) Coffee Tree 
 
 B. Leaflets large. Fruit, a hard-shelled nut, with a separable 
 husk 
 
 1. Leaflets narrow at base, becoming larger at outer end. Nut 
 light-colored, in a husk which separates more or less com- 
 pletely into four parts when ripe (Hicoria) Hickory 
 
 2. Leaflets broad at base, becoming narrower at outer end. 
 Nut dark, rough, in a fleshy husk which is inseparable by 
 any natural divisions and turns black when old. Pith of 
 
 twigs forms numerous cross-partitions (Juglans) Walnut 
 
 VII. Leaves compound, opposite on twigs 
 
 A. Leaflets arranged along two sides of a main leafstalk, with a 
 leaflet at the end 
 
 i. Leaflets generally 3 (sometimes 5), toothed only near the 
 ends. Fruit, a cluster of dry, winged seeds, arranged in 
 pairs like those of maple (Acer) Box Elder 1 
 
 1 Box elder, a true maple, differs from the others in having compound leaves. 
 
COMMON TREES 367 
 
 2. Leaflets generally more than 3 (3 to n), and either not 
 toothed or with small teeth. Fruit, a cluster of single- 
 winged, dry, oar-shaped "seeds" (Fraxinus) Ash 
 Leaflets (5 to 9) clustered at end of a main leaf stem. Fruit, a 
 shiny, brown nut in a thick, warty or prickly husk, which 
 'separates into several parts (JEsculus) Buckeye 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 
 
 Apgar, A. C. Trees of Northern United States and Canada. New York: 
 American Book Co. $i . oo. 
 
 . Ornamental Shrubs of the United States. New York: American 
 
 Book Co. $i . 50. 
 
 Beard, Dan. Field and Forest Handy Book. New York: Charles Scribner 
 and Sons. $i . 50. 
 
 Blakeslee and Jarvis. Trees in Their Winter Condition. New York: 
 The Macmillan Co. $2 . oo. 
 
 Boerker, H. D. Our National Forests. New York: The Macmillan Co. 
 $2 . oo. 
 
 Bruncker, E. North American Forests and Forestry. New York: G. P. 
 Putnam's Sons. $2.00. 
 
 Clements, Rosendall, and Butters. Minnesota Trees and Shrubs. Univer- 
 sity of Minnesota (Minneapolis). 
 
 Flagg, Wilson. A Year among the Trees. Chicago: Educational Pub- 
 lishing Co. $i . oo. 
 
 Gifford, John. Practical Forestry for Beginners. New York: D. Appleton 
 & Co. $1.30. 
 
 Hough, Romeyn B. Handbook of the Trees of the Northern United States 
 and Canada. Lowville, N.Y.: Published by the author. $6.00. 
 
 Keeler, H. L. Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them. New York: 
 Charles Scribner and Sons. $2 . oo. 
 
 . Our Native Shrubs and How to Identify Them. New York: 
 
 Charles Scribner and Sons. $2 . oo. 
 
 Levison, J. J. Studies of Trees. New York: John Wiley & Sons. $1.60. 
 
 Lounsberry, Alice. Guide to the Trees. New York: F. A. Stokes Co. 
 
 $2 . 50. 
 
 McFarland, J. H. Getting Acquainted with the Trees. New York: The 
 Macmillan Co. $i . 50. 
 
 1 Farmers' bulletins are issued by the United States Department of Agriculture 
 Washington, D.C. 
 
368 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Mathews, F. S. Familiar Trees and Their Leaves. New York: Appleton 
 
 &Co. $2.00. 
 Moon and Brown. Elements of Forestry. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 
 
 $2.00. 
 Mosher, Edith R. Forest Study in the Primary Grades. Michigan Public 
 
 Domain Commission (Lansing). 
 
 Muir, John. Our National Parks. Boston: Hough ton Mifflin Co. $3.00. 
 Parkhurst, H. E. Trees, Shrubs, and Vines of the Northeastern United 
 
 States. New York: Charles Scribner and Sons. $i . 50. 
 Pinchot, Gifford. Primer of Forestry. United States Department of 
 
 Agriculture. 
 Pythian, J. E. Trees in Nature, Myth, and Art. Philadelphia: G. W. 
 
 Jacobs. $1.50. 
 Rankin,W.H. Manual of Tree Diseases. New York: The Macmillan Co. 
 
 $1-75. 
 Rogers, J. E. Trees Every Child Should Know. New York: Grosset & 
 
 Dunlap. $0.75. 
 
 . The Tree Book. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. $4.00. 
 
 Roth, Filbert. First Book of Forestry. Boston: Ginn & Co. $0.75. 
 Sargent, Charles S. Manual of the Trees of North America. Boston: 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Co. $6 . oo. 
 
 Seton, Ernest Thomson. The Forester's Hand Book. New York: Double- 
 day, Page & Co. $i .00. 
 Stone and Fickett. Trees in Prose and Poetry. Boston: Ginn & Co. 
 
 $0.45. 
 Thoreau, Henry D. Succession of Forest Trees. Boston: Houghton 
 
 Mifflin Co. $0.15. 
 
 . The Maine Woods. Houghton Mifflin Co. $i . 50. 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins. United States Department of Agriculture, Washing- 
 ton, D.C.: 
 
 No. 99, Three Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. 
 
 No. 134, Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. 
 
 Nos. 173 and 358, Primer of Forestry. Parts I and II. 
 
 No. 423, Forest Nurseries for Schools. 
 
 No. 468, Forestry in Nature Study. 
 
 No. 711, The Care and Improvement of the Woodlot. 
 Bureau of Forestry Circulars: 
 
 No. 25, Forestry and the Lumber Supply. 
 
 No. 26, Forest Fires in the Adirondack* in 1903. 
 
 No. 55, How to Pack and Ship Young Forest Trees. 
 
 No. 56, Bur Oak, Quercus macrocarpa. 
 
COMMON TREES 369 
 
 No. 57, Jack Pine, Pinus divaricata. 
 
 No. 59, Eucalyptus. Revised. 
 
 No. 60, Red Pine, Pinus resinosa. 
 
 No. 61, How to Transplant Forest Trees. 
 
 No. 62, Shagbark Hickory, Hicoria ovata. 
 
 No. 63, Basswood, Tilia americana. 
 
 No. 64, .Z?/ac& Locust, Robinia pseudacacia. 
 
 No. 65, Norway Spruce, Picea excelsa. 
 
 No. 66, T'Wte E/w, Ulmus americana. 
 
 No. 67, TF^/e P;we, Pinus strobus. 
 
 No. 68, Scotch Pine, Pinus sylvestris. 
 
 No. 70, European Larch, Larix europae. 
 
 No. 71, Chestnut, Castanea dentata. 
 
 No. 72, Western Yellow Pine, Pinus ponder osa. 
 
 No. 74, Honey Locust, Gleditsia triacanthos. 
 
 No. 75, Hackberry, Celtis occidentalis. 
 
 No. 81, Forest Planting in Illinois. 
 
 No. 82, Fard>> Catalpa. 
 
 No. 86, Boxelder, Acer negundo. Revised. 
 
 No. 87, White Willow, Salix alba. 
 
 No. 88, Black Walnut, Juglans nigra. 
 
 No. 89, Tamarack, Larix laricina. 
 
 No. 90, Osage Orange, Toxylon pomiferum. 
 
 No. 91, Coffee Tree, Gymnocladus dioicus. Revised. 
 
 No. 92, Green Ash, Fraxinus lanceolata. 
 
 No. 93, Yellow Poplar, Liriodendron lulipifera. 
 
 No. 94, Black Cherry, Prunus serotina. 
 
 No. 95, Sugar Maple, Acer saccharum. 
 
 No. 97, The Timber Supply of the United Slates. 
 
 No. 99, Suggestions for Forest Planting on the Semi-arid Plains. 
 
 No. 100, Suggestions for Forest Planting in the Northwestern and Lake 
 
 States. 
 
 No. 1 1 6, The Waning Hardwood Supply and the Appalachian Forests. 
 No. 129, The Drain upon the Forests. 
 No. 130, Forestry in the Public Schools. 
 No. 133, Production of Veneer in 1906. 
 
 No. 138, Suggestions to Woodlot Owners in the Ohio Valley Region. 
 No. 139, A Primer of Wood Preservation. 
 No. 140, What Forestry Has Done. 
 No. 145, Forest Planting on the Northern Prairies. 
 No. 164, Properties and Uses of Southern Pines. 
 
370 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 No. 165, Practical Assistance to Owners of Forest Land and to Tree 
 
 Planters. 
 
 No. 1 66, The Timber Supply of the United States. 
 No. 167, The Status of Forestry in the United States. 
 No. 1 68, Commercial Importance of the White Mountain Forests. 
 No. 171, The Forests of the United States: Their Use. 
 No. 207, Profession of Forestry. 
 Bureau of Forestry Bulletins: 
 
 No. 10, Timber: An Elementary Discussion of the Characteristics and 
 
 Properties of Wood. 
 
 No. 28, A Short Account of the Big Trees of California. 
 No. 42, The Woodlot. 
 No. 44, The Diminished Flow of the Rock River in Wisconsin and Illinois, 
 
 and Its Relation to the Surrounding Forests. 
 No. 59, The Maple Sugar Industry. 
 
 No. 76, How to Grow and Plant Conifers in the Northeastern States. 
 No. 153, Forest Planting in Eastern United Slates. 
 No. 285, The Northern Hardwood Forest: Its Composition, Growth, and 
 
 Management. 
 
 Bureau of Entomology. The following are sample citations. Many others 
 are issued: 
 
 Circular No. 125, Insects Which Kill Forest Trees. 
 Circular No. 129, Insects in Relation to Their Reduction of Future 
 
 Supplies of Timber. 
 Reprints Yearbook, Department of Agriculture: 
 
 1902. Some of the Principal Insect Enemies of Coniferous Forests in 
 the United States. 
 
 1903. Insect Injuries to Hardwood Forest Trees. 
 1917. Notable Depredations by Forest Insects. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 
 
 The seed. To watch the germination of an inert seed, the 
 development therefrom of the tiny plant, the growth of bursting 
 bud and flower, is to cross the threshold of nature's impenetrable 
 mysteries. 
 
 Of all the wonderful things in the wonderful universe of God, nothing 
 seems to me more surprising than the planting of a seed in the black earth 
 and the result thereof. Take a poppy seed, for instance; it lies in your 
 palm, the merest atom of matter, hardly visible, a speck, a pin's point in 
 bulk, but within it is imprisoned a spirit of beauty ineffable, which will 
 break its bonds and emerge from the dark ground and blossom in splendor 
 so dazzling as to baffle all powers of description. The Genie in the Arabian 
 tale is not half so astonishing. Thaxter. 
 
 Tennyson was under the spell of these mysteries that throng 
 upon the heart and brain when he wrote: 
 
 Flower in the crannied wall, 
 
 I pluck you out of the crannies, 
 
 I hold you here, root and all, in my hand, 
 
 Little flower but if I could understand 
 
 What you are, root and all, and all in all, 
 
 I should know what God and man is. 
 
 An attempt to " understand what you are, root and all, and 
 all in all, little flower," will at least awaken interest in some very 
 commonplace things and perhaps add to our reverence and love 
 for them. 
 
 The flower show. "The love of a flower in the heart of a 
 child is the highest thing that nature-study can hope to develop." 
 That love can best be stimulated by giving the child the little 
 plant to rear and care for. The flower show has been found an 
 excellent device for arousing interest (Fig. 277). 
 
 371 
 
372 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Each pupil should be provided with two or three seeds of a 
 plant that is a rapid grower and that will, with proper care, 
 blossom before the end of the term; provide him also with the 
 planting directions given herewith. Follow the directions care- 
 fully, and try to raise a fine plant. These plants should be 
 brought to school at the close of the term, carefully wrapped 
 up so that they will not freeze. A prize will be given to the 
 pupil rearing the finest plant. 
 
 FIG. 277. The flower show (New York City public school) 
 
 Directions for planting. Procure a four- or five-inch flower- 
 pot or a tin can or box. If you use a can, punch a few nail holes 
 in the bottom. Place at the bottom a small handful of bits of 
 stone, coal, or coke as large as beans, and fill to within an inch 
 or two of the top with good fine earth. Water it well and let 
 it stand for a day. Soak the seed overnight, then make little 
 holes in the earth twice as deep as the seed is thick and put one 
 seed in each. Cover the seeds loosely with earth. Cover the pot 
 or box with a piece of board or glass until the first leaves are up. 
 
 Keep the pot where it is comfortably warm, not hot. At 
 night move it to a warm spot. Give it just enough water to 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 373 
 
 keep the earth moist, not wet. While the pot is covered it will 
 not need much water. If you give it too much the seed will rot. 
 When the plants are up water -every second day. 
 
 When the leaves appear remove the cover and give the little 
 plants all the sunlight you can. When the plants are an inch 
 or so high pull up all but the largest and strongest one. Push 
 a piece of old plaster as big as a bean down into the earth at one 
 side of the pot. Take care of your own plant. Do not ask some 
 one else to do it for you. r 
 
 For all places, then, and in all seasons, 
 
 Flowers expand their light and soul-like wings, 
 
 Teaching us, by most persuasive reasons, 
 
 How akin they are to human things. 
 
 Longfellow. 
 
 Reports. After the seeds have been taken home and planted 
 and are being cared for by the children, frequent oral reports 
 should be called for in school on the progress the seedlings are 
 making. This serves to maintain interest and affords excellent 
 subject-matter for language-work. If the seeds are distributed 
 and planted at the opening of the winter term the plants will 
 likely be in bloom by the middle of March or early in April. 
 The flower show may be held when the plants are at their best. 
 The prizes may be very inexpensive and still add zest to the 
 project. 
 
 It is surprising what excellent results the children achieve 
 with their plants. Usually, quite contrary to expectations, the 
 lower grades do better than the upper ones. Dwarf alyssum, 
 candytuft, cornflower, pot marigolds, and phlox are all good 
 growers, but no plant is so good for a first attempt as the dwarf 
 nasturtium. It persists in growing and blooming in spite of 
 accidents and neglect. 
 
 Awakening interest. In starting this work use ten or fifteen 
 minutes each day for the first week of the winter term. Ask the 
 children what flowers they like best and why; in the upper 
 grades this might form the subject for a written exercise. The 
 first period might well be taken in learning the children's 
 
374 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 preferences and pondering them; then ask what flowers or plants 
 they have grown and let them talk freely about their experiences. 
 You will likely have some enthusiastic little gardener in your 
 room who has successfully reared flowers, these "thoughts of 
 the spirit of God." His enthusiasm will be contagious, and when 
 interest is well developed you can suggest the plan of planting 
 and the flower show. Perhaps two periods more will be used in 
 talking over experiences in raising flowers and in outlining the plan 
 of work. Then let the teacher use the fourth period for the first 
 week in showing the children just how to carry out the instruc- 
 tions for fixing the earth in the pot and for planting the seeds. 
 The results. The outcome of this flower show should be 
 more than the production of a pretty plant; it should teach the 
 child to assume responsibility. It should be understood from 
 the first that no plant will be entered in the final competition 
 that the child himself has not raised. Parents are not to water 
 or tend it ; that must devolve upon the child. The work should 
 give the pupil a realization of the life-process of the plant and of 
 the fact that the ultimate product of growth is the fruit. Here 
 are two stories written by grade pupils telling of their plants. 
 
 When you plant a nasturtium seed you got to water it. Then in a few 
 days you will see a little thing like a steme. The steme will keep getting 
 bigger and bigger, then come the leaves. Then the buds come out and they 
 get bigger and bigger, and then they come to flowers, and the flowers were 
 all colors. When the flowers went away then what do you think came, a 
 hole lot of little seeds came. 
 
 JESSIE WARD 
 THIRD GRADE 
 February 16, 1906 
 
 THE NASTURTIUM SEED 
 
 If you should plant a nasturtium seed the first thing you would see 
 would be a little stem and the next day the leaves sprout. When this 
 grows to be a big plant with leaves about as big as a dollar the buds break 
 out and forms flowers. Then the flower withers and more seeds come so 
 you have seeds to plant for the next year. 
 
 NAOMI OLSON 
 FOURTH GRADE 
 February 16, 1906 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 375 
 
 Fruit display. About the time of the autumn harvest home 
 festivities or in the days preceding Thanksgiving is a good time 
 to introduce the study of the fruits. In the studies of the 
 preceding chapter the children have traced the connection 
 between the seed pod and the pistil so that in many cases they 
 know that the fruit is the ripened ovary. Probably in growing 
 their plants for the flower show they have watched the seed pods 
 form on the nasturtium or the touch-me-not as the flowers 
 disappear. The garden in the fall will furnish many sorts of 
 fruits, some of which they know have developed from the flower. 
 
 It is worth while having a fruit display in the schoolroom. 
 The nucleus of the display may be gathered in the school garden, 
 where many dry fruits are to be had and some succulent ones, 
 and may be supplemented with those gathered in the home 
 gardens, orchards, and fields. Many are to be found in the 
 autumn woods. Even the weeds may be brought into requisi- 
 tion. Such fruits as those of the mallow, milkweed, ground 
 cherry, and purple stramonium are excellent additions. 
 
 The seed container. The pupils are to be led to realize that 
 we are using the term " fruit " in its botanical rather than its 
 ordinary sense; that which contains the ripened seeds is the 
 fruit. That this is the ripened ovary they know; but what they 
 do not know yet is that often the parts of the flowers adhere to 
 the ovary and help to form the fruit, especially in the succulent 
 fruits. This will be clearer after a typical fruit is studied, but 
 for the present we may include in our fruit collection pumpkins, 
 squash, tomatoes, and other things that contain seeds, in spite 
 of the fact that the pupils have been accustomed to look on 
 these as vegetables rather than fruits. In the city, where 
 vegetable gardens, orchards, and grainfields are not available 
 for field trips on which to gather fruits, the grocery stores serve 
 as a source of many interesting and often more strange kinds of 
 fruits than the country affords. 
 
 Dry and succulent fruits. Pupils, in looking over such a 
 display, are pretty sure to be struck with certain facts. They 
 
376 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 will learn that fruits are readily divisible into two great groups : 
 (i) those that are dry, like walnuts in their husks, acorns, corn, 
 pea and bean pods; (2) those that are juicy or succulent, like 
 apples, pears, peaches, grapes. Another striking fact is that 
 most of the latter fruits are brightly colored; most of the former, 
 dull colored. A page of water-color sketches of some of these 
 fruits will help pupils to recall this fact and will add an attractive 
 sheet to the notebook. The results may be impressionistic 
 rather than artistic, but they will serve to emphasize the brilliant 
 colors of these succulent fruits, especially if contrasted with 
 sketches of the dull browns and greens of the dry fruits whose 
 capsules are still attached to many of the weeds and shrubs. 
 It may be worth while to have pupils list the fruits under their 
 respective colors somewhat as follows : 
 
 Red fruits: Many apples, cherries, some grapes, mulberries, 
 peaches, plums, strawberries, raspberries, tomatoes. 
 
 Yellow and orange fruits: Some apples, apricots, bananas, 
 some cherries, grape fruit, lemons, oranges, pears, persimmons, 
 prickly pears, pumpkins, squash. 
 
 Blue and pur pie fruits: Blueberry, huckleberry, grapes, plums. 
 
 Black and white fruits: Blackberry, grapes, scallop squash. 
 
 Green fruits: Some apples, grapes, and all of the foregoing 
 before they are ripe. 
 
 Significance of color. The last statement is one that focalizes 
 the attention of the pupils. That all succulent fruits are green 
 when unripe and become brightly colored in ripening is a suffi- 
 ciently striking fact to demand explanation. The customary 
 explanation is that when the fruit is ripe the fact is advertised 
 by the brilliant color. The attention of birds or other animals 
 is thus attracted and the fruit is eaten, but since in most cases 
 the seeds are inedible they are thrown away, as we throw away 
 the core of an apple; or they are so well protected by hard covers 
 that if eaten they pass through the intestinal canal of birds or 
 animals unharmed and are thus scattered broadcast, as is the 
 case with strawberries, raspberries, and grapes. Until the s^eds 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 
 
 377 
 
 are mature enough to grow if planted it would simply waste the 
 effort of the plant to have the fruit taken; it therefore remains 
 green until mature and is inconspicuous among green foliage. 
 It is, moreover, often protected by a disagreeable taste, as, for 
 instance, sour grapes and puckery persimmons. 
 
 The apple. Undertake now the study of a single fruit. Ask 
 each child to bring an apple to school. This will insure quite a 
 varied collection of apples, and if each child should know or could 
 find out what sort he brings the display may help acquaint the 
 children with the different kinds grown in the neighborhood. 
 Probably the children of the upper grades will know more of the 
 
 FIG. 278. The apple display 
 
 different sorts than the teacher, and there will be a good opportu- 
 nity to learn something of apple varieties from the pupils. Here 
 is a list brought together in one city, the apples being raised in 
 the immediate vicinity: Babit, Baldwin, Bellflower, Ben Davis, 
 Delicious, Gano, Greening, Jonathan, King, Northern Spy, Pough- 
 keepsie, Rambo, Russet, Snow, Spitzenburg, Tolman Sweet, Willow 
 Twig, Winesap, Wolf River, York Imperial. If neither children 
 nor teacher can name all varieties with certainty, likely some 
 farmer or grocer will be found who will come to school and name 
 them. He will be willing to tell some of the good points of each 
 apple, how it cooks and keeps, and he may tell something of the 
 tree's resistance to disease and insect pests, hardihood, and 
 bearing qualities (Fig. 278). 
 
378 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The protective skin. If some of the apples brought in begin 
 to spoil it will be noted that the decay begins at points where the 
 skin is slightly broken. This naturally leads to the question as 
 to why decay does not start on the skin itself. Bring out, by 
 appropriate questions that stimulate observation, the fact that 
 the apple skin is tough, close-grained, and full of wax. When 
 rubbed an apple takes a high polish, as does a waxed floor or 
 piece of furniture. Peel the skin from a spot on the apple and 
 notice that in a very few minutes the exposed pulp begins to 
 change color. A piece of apple without skin soon dries, so that 
 the waxy apple skin is seen to prevent evaporation and protect 
 
 FIG. 279. Sprayed and unsprayed apples 
 
 the pulp from the weather and from the inroads of the germs 
 that cause decay (Fig. 279). 
 
 Form and color. Note the shape and color of the apple. 
 Have colored sketches made of some of the commoner varieties 
 and let these be properly named. Make sure that the shapes 
 of the apples are correct, for any variety is known by its shape 
 as well as its color, markings, and flavor. In studying the apples 
 preparatory to drawing them some child will discover that they 
 are not uniformly colored, being often dark about the stem end 
 and light at the opposite end and the children will readily see 
 that this difference is due to the fact that the sunlight strikes 
 one end more than the other. They will recall that the human 
 skin has its color intensified by exposure to the sunlight. The 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 379 
 
 blueprints of flowers which can be made in connection with the 
 work on weeds will give them another instance in which light 
 affects color changes. Certain spots on apples which are very 
 much lighter than the general color are usually due to the fact 
 that the apples have grown in clusters and have been protected 
 where they were in contact. This character is often a means of 
 telling varieties that do cluster in growth from others much like 
 them that hang singly on the tree. 
 
 Flower to fruit. Examine both the stem end and the opposite 
 end closely. Probably the child will not know what the five 
 pointed scales at one end of the apple are, and unless the children 
 have already observed the growth of the apple on the tree it will 
 be wise to let this point go until spring. Then watch the apples 
 form, noting that the parts of the apple flower are in fives, that 
 there are five petals, five sepals, ten stamens, and the ovary with 
 five cells in which the ovules lie. The parts of the flower fall or 
 wither, except the pistil and the calyx, and the former is inclosed 
 by the latter. The calyx adheres to the surface of the ovary, 
 swells up, and becomes the succulent part of the apple, while 
 the pistil makes up the core. If cultivated apples are not 
 available for observation, wild crab apples, thorn apples, or the 
 fruit of the mountain ash may be watched as it forms. Some of 
 these latter trees are usually available in city parks. 
 
 The pulp. Have the pupils cut their apples open. Let one 
 of each two pupils cut his apple lengthwise from stem to tip 
 and the other cut his open by slicing through the equator of the 
 apple. Then let them exchange halves so that each pupil will 
 have a half from an apple cut in each way. Let the pupils 
 sketch these. Note that at the center there are five cavities 
 containing seeds. These are walled with thin but tenacious 
 plates that are the disagreeable elements of the core. Some 
 pupil will be sure to see the ten dots in the pulp in the cross- 
 section, and may be told to look on the longitudinal section for 
 an explanation of these. There will be seen fibrous strands 
 running from the stem through the pulp to the scales at tV 
 
380 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 apple's tip. These scales we know, from watching the fruit form, 
 are the tips of the sepals, and the fibrous strands are the fibro- 
 vascular bundles of the sepals, through which much of the 
 material for growth was brought to the forming fruit. 
 
 FIG. 280. Bean seedlings: a, soaked seed, one cotyledon removed; b, young 
 seedling, one cotyledon removed; c, older seedling. 
 
 A simple germinator. As the child himself is a bundle of 
 activities he is interested in seedlings largely because they are 
 active, growing things. At the beginning of our study of seeds 
 and seedlings, therefore, it will be wise to devote considerable 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 381 
 
 time to just watching them grow (Fig. 280). Cut two or three 
 strips of blotting paper and one of black calico nearly as wide as 
 a tumbler is deep and long enough to go round the tumbler. 
 Moisten them and put them in the tumbler, the cloth strip next 
 to the glass and the two or three thicknesses of blotting paper 
 all around inside of the cloth. Insert two of each of the following 
 seeds between the glass and the cloth two inches below the top 
 of the tumbler: pea, bean, sunflower, nasturtium, castor bean, 
 morning-glory, pumpkin, oat, corn. Let each pupil prepare such 
 
 FIG. 281. Tumbler germinator: just planted at left, well started at right 
 
 a growing device. Keep some water in the bottom of the 
 tumbler. Cover the tumbler with a piece of cardboard or tin 
 while the seeds are germinating (Fig. 281). The children of the 
 lower grades need try only a few seeds. As the seeds germinate 
 all steps in the process are readily seen, even the delicate roots 
 showing well against the black background. In the upper 
 grades let the pupils keep written records of all that they observe. 
 Let each child be supplied with a small oox or pan, filled 
 two-thirds full of fine sawdust or sand. In some schools granite- 
 ware pans are supplied to pupils for this work. They are sani- 
 tary and do not stain desk tops. In this pan let the children 
 
382 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 plant beans, peas, corn, oats, pumpkin, and pine seeds. Put one 
 or two of each kind of seed below the surface and leave as many 
 of each lying on the top of the sawdust or sand. Dampen the 
 sawdust with water and keep it moist but not wet. Cover the 
 box or pan with glass or tin and watch, very closely, all that 
 happens. Let the upper-grade pupils keep careful record of all 
 that is observed, with sketches to illustrate the various stages. 
 How the seedling gets into the ground. It is quite a problem 
 that confronts the little plant to get out of its seed coat, send 
 
 FIG. 282. Root hairs of the radish 
 
 roots into the soil, expand leaves in the air above, and become so 
 established that it may live and prosper. Try this experiment : 
 Fill a pot or pint jar half full of moist sand and sprinkle some 
 radish seed on this sand. Cover the pot or jar and watch the 
 seeds as they grow. Their roots will show the delicate root hairs 
 (Fig. 282) that help hold the plant in the soil and that absorb 
 the moisture with its contained nutrition. Lift one of the radish 
 seedlings that is growing on the sand. See how the soil particles 
 are held by the plant. When you pull up a plant by the roots, 
 you do not see these delicate root hairs because they pull off so 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 383 
 
 easily. All plants depend on these minute hairs on their roots 
 for their water supply; for this reason a transplanted plant is 
 likely to wilt, since these essential root hairs are destroyed unless 
 great care is taken. Like the leaves they are shed each fall and 
 renewed each spring in annuals or in deciduous plants. The best 
 time to transplant trees is therefore late fall or very early spring 
 though the evergreens transplant best in midsummer, when 
 their leaves and root hairs are renewed. 
 
 A seed race. Let us get ready for a pea and bean race. 
 Oh, no ! It is not like a potato race. The children are not to do 
 the running, but are the passive participants in the fun, 
 for the seeds will do the running this time. No, I do not 
 think betting on the race will be in order, but I would like 
 to have you guess which will win and then be able to tell 
 me why you think so. First, we shall prepare the contestants. 
 Soak a few perfect peas and beans overnight. Stretch a piece 
 of thin cheesecloth or bobbinet tightly over the mouth of a small 
 tumbler and tie it in place with string. Lay the peas and beans 
 on this and then fill the glass with water so that the water just 
 touches the seeds. Then cover the glass with a larger tumbler or 
 a glass fruit jar. This is another simple yet impressive way of 
 germinating seeds. If preferred the racers may be started in 
 the sawdust pans. 
 
 Fix three tumblers like the small one on page 381 with a cloth 
 over the mouth of each. Fill one nearly full of water in which has 
 been dissolved half as much potassium sulphate as you can pile 
 on a dime. Fill another with water in which has been dissolved 
 a like amount of sodium nitrate. In the third tumbler put half 
 as much of each of the above and a bit of iron sulphate as big as 
 the head of a pin. These chemicals may be had of the druggist. 
 Fill a fourth tumbler with good rich soil. When the beans and 
 peas are well sprouted so that the root is an inch or two long make 
 two little holes in the cheesecloth near the edge, on opposite 
 sides of each tumbler. Put the root of a pea through one hole 
 and the root of a bean through the other so that they will dip 
 
384 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 into the solutions. Plant a co^fple of the seedlings on opposite 
 sides of the tumbler containing the earth and keep this moistened 
 with water. Set them all together where they will have the 
 same light and heat. Beside each little plant tie a small upright 
 stick a foot long to the tumbler. Let the children mark off 
 six-inch scales, divided into eighths of an inch, on some strips of 
 stiff paper and fasten one of these to each stick so that the begin- 
 ning of the scale will be just back of the tip of the plant. We are 
 then ready to watch the race. Slow ? Oh, yes, but so was that 
 race in which the tortoise took part. There may be surprises in 
 this race, too. 
 
 What the race means. This race will be meaningless to the 
 lower grades, but the grades above the fourth will profit by it, 
 the older pupils seeing more significance in it than the younger 
 ones. Thus fifth-grade pupils will probably realize only that you 
 can put things into water that will make plants grow rapidly. 
 But eighth-grade pupils should readily infer that the essential 
 things in a fertilizer are compounds of a few elements, some of 
 which we have introduced into the tumblers. These are potassium 
 calcium, magnesium, iron, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur. 
 These they should know. They should be able from the experi- 
 ment to decide which are the more important (Fig. 283). 
 
 Seed growth. Review the records the pupils have been 
 making of the growth of seeds in tumblers and in pans of sand 
 or sawdust. Which of these seeds first showed any sign of 
 growing ? What first showed in the beans that were laid on the 
 top of the soil? What part of the bean seed does this little, 
 sharp, growing point come from ? What became of it ? After 
 it had succeeded in getting down into the soil what became of the 
 rest of the seed ? 
 
 Parts of a baby bean. Have the large bean plants lost the 
 coverings of the seeds entirely? Point out the cotyledons. 
 Watch to see what becomes of them. If some of the bean seed- 
 lings in your growing-pan are just splitting open, yqu can peek 
 in between the cotyledons and see that there is a little bud from 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 385 
 
 which the leaves grow. This bud is the plumule. In the course 
 of two weeks let drawings be made of (i) the bean seed just 
 starting, (2) the seedling before the plumule appears, (3) an old 
 seedling showing cotyledons and the early foliage leaves. Make 
 similar drawings of several stages of the growing pea, castor-oil 
 bean, corn, and oat (see Fig. 280). 
 
 How much seeds swell. You will realize, by this time, that 
 a seed is a little plant imprisoned within hard walls. Sometimes 
 seeds are very hard and strong. Take a dry lima bean and lay 
 it on a piece of paper; trace its exact outline with a pencil, then 
 
 123 45 
 
 FIG. 283. Growing plants in pots to show effects of soil elements: 5 contains 
 sand and iron sulphate; 4, calcium sulphate; 3, potassium sulphate; 2, sodium 
 nitrate; i, all combined. 
 
 put it into water and let it soak overnight. Take it out, dry 
 it off, and place it on the paper again, beside the first drawing, 
 and trace its outline. How much larger has it become ? Is its 
 seed coat torn? You can find the little hole in the seed coat 
 through which water gets in if you wipe dry the surface of the 
 soaked seed and then squeeze it a little to see at what point 
 water is oozing out. 
 
 Select twenty good-sized lima beans and measure their 
 volume in the same way that Archimedes found out the volume 
 of the king's crown. Soak the seeds in a measured volume of 
 water for twenty-four hours ; then pour off the water and measure 
 
386 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 it. How much water have they absorbed? Again measure 
 the volume of the swollen seeds. How much have they increased 
 in volume? If seeds were planted in the ground, would this 
 swelling be of any advantage to the plant in its effort to get out 
 of the ground? 
 
 The expansive force of swelling seeds. To show that the 
 swelling seed exerts strong pressure, fill a narrow-mouthed bottle 
 with dry peas. Then put it under water in a pan and let it 
 remain for several hours. What happens ? Of what use is this 
 expansive power to the germinating seed ? Let the upper-grade 
 pupils try to devise an experiment that will measure this force 
 more exactly. 
 
 The tiny root At what point does the growing root break 
 out of the seed coat ? To determine this, watch beans that are 
 germinating on the surface, like those we planted on the soil in 
 the covered pot. Probably most pupils will have a record of 
 this for many of the seeds that are studied. How is the tip of 
 the growing root related to the little hole, the micropyle, through 
 which the water is absorbed ? What is the shape of this growing 
 tip ? Is this a good shape for forcing the way through the tough 
 seed coat ? 
 
 How the pumpin gets into the ground. You have been 
 watching a number of seeds that were simply laid on the moist 
 soil. Many seeds, out of doors, find themselves thus scattered 
 upon the surface and the little seedlings must get into the earth. 
 How do the pumpkin seeds force their sharp radicles into the 
 sand ? It takes an appreciable pressure to force a pencil point 
 into soft soil. How does the seed exert this pressure on the 
 growing root tip. The pumpkin seeds will answer this question 
 in part and the radish seeds will show you how light seeds 
 accomplish the task. In the former one end of the seed is raised 
 off the surface of the soil by the growing root until the weight 
 of the seed suffices to push the root tip into the soil. In light 
 seeds the root must lay hold of many soil particles by means of 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 387 
 
 the root hairs until it has a firm enough grip to hold while the 
 tip grows down into the soil. 
 
 How sprouts break through the soil. Many seeds are buried 
 by the shifting dirt which is blown about by the winds or by the 
 mud washed over them in spring storms. Then the problem 
 before the seed is not alone how to force its root into the hard soil, 
 but also how to get its leaves up into the air and light. Look at 
 your sketches of the corn plant just sprouting and of the castor- 
 oil bean in its early stages. How is the corn sprout adapted to 
 get up through the soil ? Does a castor-oil or a lima-bean stem 
 shove its cotyledons up or pull them up out of the ground ? Can 
 you devise a means of measuring the upthrust of a corn plant 
 just breaking through the soil ? 
 
 Can a seedling take its coat of? We have seen how the 
 little root breaks through the seed coats and penetrates the soil, 
 how the stem pushes its way out of the earth in seeds that are 
 buried. Let us observe some devices that the seedlings have for 
 getting rid of the adhering seed coats. In some cases the seed 
 coats are left below ground and the cotyledons are dragged out 
 of them while they are held by the surrounding soil. What 
 seedlings that we have watched remove the seed coats in this 
 way ? Other seeds have to adopt special devices for forcing off 
 the persistent seed coats. Plant sunflower and squash seeds on 
 the surface of the soil in your box after they have been soaked 
 overnight. Keep the box covered with glass or a board. Watch 
 them as they germinate and see if you can detect their devices 
 for ridding themselves of their seed coats. Put your hands 
 together, palm to palm. Have someone slip a rubber band 
 about both hands. Now try to get it off without taking hold of 
 it. Perhaps this will help you to appreciate the sunflower's 
 method. The peg that the squash develops needs only be seen 
 to be understood. 
 
 In the heart of a seed 
 
 Buried deep, so deep, 
 A dear little plant 
 
 Lay fast asleep. 
 
388 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 "Wake," said the sunshine, 
 "And creep to the light." 
 "Wake," said the voice 
 Of the raindrops bright. 
 
 The little plant heard, 
 
 And it rose to see 
 What the wonderful 
 
 Outside world might be. 1 
 
 Now that we have grown familiar with the plants' 
 appearances as they rise "to see what the wonderful outside 
 world might be," let us also peep at them before they wake up, 
 while they are still fast asleep in their cradles. 
 
 Seed structure. Put some lima beans, or any large beans, to 
 soak overnight. Let each pupil have several at the nature- 
 study period. On the concave side of the seed notice the scar 
 left by detaching the bean from its stalk in the pod; this scar is 
 named the hilum. What is the relation of the micropyle to the 
 hilum ? With a knife or pin point cut the seed coat along the 
 convex edge and remove it, noting, as this is done, where the seed 
 coat adheres to the inner portions. Is this point marked on the 
 outside in any way ? Cut off one cotyledon close to its attach- 
 ment to the rudimentary stem. Examine the plumule closely. 
 Of what does it consist? Let the pupils draw this embryo, 
 cotyledon, plumule, and hypocotyl. 
 
 Food for growth. Obtain a little tincture of iodine or a 
 solution of chloriodide of zinc. Put a pinch of starch in a cup; 
 add a tablespoonful of water and stir it, then drop in a drop or 
 two of the iodine solution. Iodine always stains starch blue, and 
 this is quite a sure test for starch. If a drop of the iodine is 
 put on the freshly broken surface of a bean cotyledon the blue 
 color indicates the presence of starch. If the iodine is too strong 
 the color is black instead of blue, and the solution should be 
 diluted. Perhaps you have been surprised in watching you? 
 
 1 From the Plant Baby and Its Friends, by Kate L. Brown. 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 389 
 
 seedlings grow to note how rapidly they shoot up. They could 
 not do this if it were not for the food materials stored within the 
 seed by the parent plant for its baby. In the bean this food is 
 stored in the cotyledons. 
 
 An experiment with the cotyledons. Plant several beans 
 in a pot; then when the young plants have appeared and the 
 cotyledons are expanding cut one cotyledon off of each of two 
 plants, cut both off of two plants, and leave both on two plants. 
 Which plants grow fastest ? 
 
 We eat beans and peas because the foods the plants stored up 
 for their babes in the seeds serve us quite as well. What other 
 seeds do we eat, either whole or ground? Can you think of 
 some animals that live largely on seeds ? Starch is not the only 
 food material furnished to the little plant. Break in half the 
 kernel of a Brazil nut, then fasten it on a sharp stick, broken end 
 up, and light the broken end with a match. It burns readily, 
 for the seed contains much oil. Crush the other half on a piece 
 of white paper and note if it makes a grease spot. Crush a 
 castor-oil bean in the same manner and note what squeezes out 
 of it. What other oils are obtained from seeds ? If you burn 
 peas or beans you note the same odor that is characteristic of 
 burning meat, for both contain protein, the nutritive substance 
 that makes up so large a part of meat. 
 
 Structure of other seeds. Examine the pea, after soaking, 
 and compare with the bean. Which has the heavier cotyledons 
 in proportion to the size of the whole seed ? Which seed leaves 
 its cotyledons below ground when it germinates ? Do the bean 
 cotyledons turn green when the seedling is growing ? Are the 
 sunflower cotyledons thickened ? Do they appear like leaves ? 
 Do the castor-oil cotyledons on germinated seeds look like 
 leaves? Remove the tough outer coat of a castor-oil bean or 
 morning-glory seed and cut across the kernel, thus disclosing 
 a flattened cavity bounded on each side by a thin white line. 
 Cut about the edge of a kernel so as to split it in the plane of 
 this cavity. At one end will be seen the rudimentary stem 
 
3QO SOURCE BOOK OP BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 (hypocotyl) and the plumule. The veins on the thin structures 
 that line the cavity will show them to be leaves and a com- 
 parison with the germinating seeds will prove them the coty- 
 ledons. You will see that in the castor-oil bean the nutritive 
 material is stored around the embryo instead of in its cotyledons. 
 
 Corn. Study corn that has been put to soak in warm water 
 overnight. The embryo is found on one flat face. Pare away 
 this face with a sharp knife, removing the seed coats. The 
 embryo is surrounded here by food material (endosperm). 
 Test it for starch. Compare your drawings of the germinating 
 corn with the seed and you will determine readily which is the 
 plumule and which the radicle. In the growth of the corn did 
 the leaves appear singly or in pairs, like the bean ? The corn is 
 a type of the monocotyledonous seeds. The cotyledon is the 
 organ with the oval outline seen in the kernel that we have 
 prepared.' It remains in the seed in this case to absorb the food 
 material for the growing plant. 
 
 Pine seed. Remove the seed coats from a sugar-pine seed. 
 Carefully split the kernel longitudinally. Does the embryo 
 contain the food material or is it surrounded by the endosperm ? 
 The seedlings of pine have several cotyledons, as you may see in 
 those planted several weeks ago that are now probably germi- 
 nating. These several cotyledons are readily seen in the embryo. 
 
 In this study of the seeds let constant reference be made to 
 the seedlings already studied, sc that the structures seen in the 
 seeds may be interpreted in terms of the larger and plainer 
 structure of the seedlings. Let teachers select from the outline 
 above what is best suited to their grades. The lower grades 
 would best emphasize the protection and food furnished for the 
 baby plants. Intermediate grades will add the careful study 
 of two or three seeds: bean, castor-oil seed, corn. The higher 
 grades may well make a comparative study in detail with draw- 
 ings to show the parts and their arrangement. 
 
 Plant activity. We spend much time while studying human 
 physiology in observing the normal behavior of a typical animal 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 391 
 
 but ignore almost totally in school the normal activity of the 
 plant. Yet the majority of pupils, in the rural school districts 
 at least, are very dependent for their happiness and livelihood 
 upon a knowledge of the fundamental life-processes in the plant. 
 The plant lends itself so easily to experimentation, even in 
 unskilled hands, that a child may readily be led to comprehend a 
 few basal laws of plant growth that will make clear the purpose 
 of a multitude of agricultural processes. 
 
 Boys and girls as producers. We have long realized that 
 "experience is the best teacher." There is no reason why the 
 experiences that confront the boy or girl just out of school may 
 not become familiar while the pupil is in school. The problem 
 of production is the first one to be settled by every individual 
 as he takes his place in the community. Until he can produce 
 enough to be self-supporting he is a hindrance and not a help. 
 To increase production is one of the great tasks of the race. 
 Increased production, other things being equal, means lessened 
 prices on commodities and more of the comforts of life for all. 
 That the boy and girl of school age can attack these problems 
 successfully is evident from the recent success of the corn-club 
 movement, the tomato clubs, and the pig clubs. 
 
 Pig clubs. It was a ten-year-old schoolboy, Corson Sullivan, 
 of Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana, who won the state sweep- 
 stakes and four other prizes with his pig. Alice McCoy, thirteen 
 years old, of Blanchard, Caddo Parish, in the same state, took 
 the grand championship prize with an eleven-months-old Berk- 
 shire weighing 500 pounds. Orange McGee, of Goldonna, 
 Louisiana, was the pioneer in boys' pig-club work. He showed a 
 pig at the state fair in 1910 that weighed 485 pounds, reared at a 
 cost of 3 . 2 cents per pound. Evans Jackson, the boy champion 
 of Georgia for 1917, raised his at a cost of 3 .4 cents per pound. 
 The winner of the Texas baby beef championship was Howard 
 Hale, of Midland, who was nine years old. There were 744 boys 
 and girls in these baby-beef clubs who averaged $63.74 per 
 creature at marketing. The aim of the pig boys is to banish the 
 
392 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 scrub razorback by substituting the thoroughbred and to 
 " market the corn on four legs instead of on four wheels. " The 
 baby-beef clubs aim to sell grown cattle instead of calves. 
 
 Canning clubs. The girls have taken the lead in the work 
 of the tomato clubs or canning clubs (Figs. 284 and 285), 
 although there are many boy members of these too. Massachu- 
 setts alone has over 50,000 boys and girls in these clubs who are 
 
 FIG. 284. Colored girl canning tomatoes (photograph from Department of 
 iculture, Washington, D.C.). 
 
 Agricult 
 
 utilizing back yards, vacant lots, and spare patches of farm lands 
 for raising their vegetables and fruits to can. In 1914, 102 girls 
 in Hamilton County, Tennessee, raised 121,822 pounds of 
 tomatoes, each cultivating one-tenth acre; 33 girls in Bennett 
 County, South Carolina, earned a profit of $3,327.68. This 
 takes into account rent of land, cost of fertilizer, cultivation, 
 cans, labels, and cost of preserving. Helen Durham, ten years 
 old, still holds the title for variety of canned goods, having put 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 
 
 393 
 
 up 99 different sorts of fruits, vegetables, and meats in a single 
 season. 
 
 Corn clubs. All of this movement to interest and instruct 
 the boys and girls in really important economic, educative 
 projects had its inception in the starting of corn clubs. The 
 pioneer champion is Jerry Moore, who in 1910 made a record of 
 
 FIG. 285. Home canning club member showing how she uses a common wash 
 boiler for a canning outfit by simply providing a false bottom or blanching crate 
 and using a cover cloth to make the cover tight so as to conserve heat (photograph 
 from Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.). 
 
 two hundred twenty-eight and a fraction bushels of corn on an 
 acre of ground in South Carolina, when the average corn crop 
 of his state was only thirteen bushels to the acre. Since then 
 thousands of boys and girls have joined the clubs. Over a 
 hundred boys in Georgia in 1914 did better than a hundred 
 bushels of corn to the acre. The boy champion for the year 
 1913, Walter Lee Dunson, was of the same state; he beat Jerry 
 
394 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Moore's record with a production of 232 .7 bushels on his acre, 
 raised at a cost of 20 cents per bushel. This record remains un- 
 beaten by any boy. The average yield in the state that year 
 was 15.5 bushels. The average yield per acre in the United 
 States for the year 1918 was only 20.4 bushels per acre. What 
 possibilities the work of these boys reveals ! 
 
 Rule o* thumb against science. These achievements have 
 been possible because state and county supervisors working 
 in conjunction with the Department of Agriculture experts have 
 taught these boys and girls how to go about the work scien- 
 tifically, applying to their problems a knowledge of the simple 
 principles that underlie animal and plant activity and growth, 
 instead of going about the work by the old rule-o'-thumb 
 methods so long in vogue and so relatively unsuccessful. The 
 successful farmer today must be scientific, meeting new situa- 
 tions with intelligence. The average farmer still does as did his 
 father and grandfather before him, planting, cultivating, harvest- 
 ing in a particular manner and at stated times, not because he 
 understands why but because it is customary. Let an unusual 
 situation arise, a year of sustained drought or of unusual rains, 
 and he stands by helplessly and watches his crop go to ruin, 
 unless some expert is sent out to tell him what to do. Even 
 the back-yard gardener can make his little kitchen garden pay 
 many fold better if he knows how. This knowing how is largely 
 a matter of understanding the simple life-activities of the plant 
 and certain very essential yet wholly elementary principles of 
 soil structure and reaction. It seems eminently desirable that 
 every child in the upper grades should understand these things 
 reasonably well. The experiments already outlined and those 
 still to be presented have been tried repeatedly with grade pupils 
 and are within their comprehension. Some may be presented 
 in the lower grades; many only in the upper. 
 
 Water rises in plant stem. To show that water passes up 
 the stem of a plant and out of its leaves, cut from a maple, oak, 
 or poplar tree a spray of leaves with a stem several inches long, 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 395 
 
 or use a growing bean plant with several leaves, or a corn plant. 
 Stick it immediately into a long-necked bottle or flask that is 
 nearly full of water. Cut the cork of the bottle in half and cut 
 out a groove in each half so that when the halves are put together 
 a hole will be formed in the cork through which the stem may be 
 passed. This should reach well down in the bottle. If the stem 
 does not fit closely into the hole in the cork fill up the chinks 
 with gum so that no air will be admitted. Mark the height of 
 the water in the neck of the bottle by a strip of paper pasted on 
 the outside and put the date on the strip. Set up a similar 
 experiment with a second plant of the same sort, only pick off 
 most of the leaves. Let the two bottles stand side by side for 
 several days. The water disappears from both bottles but most 
 rapidly from the one with the plant having most leaf surface. 
 
 Water passes from leaves. Cover the bottle and twig 
 bearing many leaves with a clean two-quart fruit jar. The 
 water escaping from the plant will form a mist on the glass, 
 showing that the water is not only passing into the plant but 
 that it is also coming out of it into the surrounding air. Measure 
 the amount of water that evaporated from the bottle in the 
 several days that the experiment stood. Let us suppose it is 
 a fluid ounce. Pick the leaves from the plant and spread them 
 on the table fitting them together so as to cover an area that can 
 be measured. Suppose the leaves cover a space 4 by 10 inches. 
 Then forty inches of leaf area has given off one ounce of water in, 
 we will say, five days. 
 
 Transpiration of a tree. Count the number of leaves on a 
 small twig of some good-sized tree; then count the number of 
 such twigs on an average small branch, the number of such 
 branches on a big branch, and finally note the number of big 
 branches on the entire tree. By multiplying these several 
 numbers a rough estimate can be made of the number of leaves 
 on the tree. A large white oak was estimated to bear 750,000 
 leaves. Supposing that the whole tree gives off water at the rate 
 we have obtained for the one spray, how much will a good-sized 
 
396 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 tree give off in a day's time ? There are sixteen fluid ounces to 
 the pint and a pint of water weighs about a pound. 
 
 The breathing pores of a leaf. When the skin of the leaf is 
 examined under a microscope, the cells of the epidermis will be 
 seen, containing little or no green coloring matter. At frequent 
 intervals among these are the stomata, which are openings 
 through the epidermis leading into the interior of the leaf. 
 Each opening is guarded by two cells, well supplied with chloro- 
 phyll. If a microscope is not available Fig. 286 will serve to 
 show what the underside of the leaf looks like. In leaves that 
 
 stand upright like grass leaves these 
 breathing pores are about equally 
 distributed on the under and upper 
 surfaces. On leaves like water-lily 
 pads that have the under surface 
 submerged in water they are on the 
 upper side. 
 
 Water escapes by stomata. To 
 show that the water passing out 
 of the leaves goes through the 
 stomata, smear the underside of a 
 leaf of a geranium, nasturtium, or 
 other convenient plant with vase- 
 line. Cover the upper surface of 
 another leaf of the same plant with vaseline. The former leaf 
 will die quite promptly, its mouths being all covered up. This 
 is due in part to checking the passage of the moisture, but due 
 more to the cessation of respiration, which will be clearer when 
 we have studied the experiments on breathing given below. 
 
 Plants take up solids dissolved in the water. Cut off one 
 of the bean plants close to the ground and put it quickly into a 
 bottle of water to which has been added a tablespoonful of red 
 ink. If after a few hours you look at the leaves and stem you 
 will see that they are tinged with red. The stem is evidently 
 carrying up to the leaves water and the solids dissolved in it. 
 
 FIG. 286. Breathing pores 
 (stomata) in epidermis of leaf. 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 397 
 
 If you now cut across the stem of the plant that was in the ink 
 and look at the cut end it will be evident that the material is 
 being carried largely by the fibrovascular bundles. 
 
 Conditions of growth. To show that plants must have 
 certain favorable conditions of moisture and temperature if they 
 are to grow well, try the following experiments: 
 
 Put a layer of sand or sawdust, about an inch deep, in the 
 bottom of each of three pint fruit jars. Wet the sand in one jar 
 sopping wet, in another dampen it moderately, and in the third 
 leave it nearly dry. Press into the sand in each jar two or three 
 seeds of beans, of oats, and of corn that have been soaked 
 overnight. Put the covers on the jars and let them stand in a 
 warm place to germinate. It will be quite evident that seeds 
 can have too much water and that some seeds require more 
 moisture to germinate than do others. Can growth occur when 
 little or no moisture is present? Do some seeds grow better 
 than others when there is an excess of moisture ? What harm 
 does a spell of wet weather do just after planting ? Why does 
 the farmer have to drain swamp land before he plants it ? 
 
 Again, prepare three jars with sand in the bottom of each. 
 Moisten the sand sufficiently to make the seeds grow well. 
 Plant soaked seeds of oats and squash in each. Cover the jars 
 and place one where it is very warm, as over a furnace or near 
 a steam radiator, another where it will have ordinary room 
 temperature, about 65, and the third where it will be quite cold, 
 as in a refrigerator. At the end of several days compare the 
 growth in the several jars. What do the results prove ? Why 
 can oats be planted earlier than squash ? 
 
 The plant breathes. To show that a growing plant breathes, 
 take two clean pint fruit jars and put in each a layer of crumpled 
 moist filter paper or blotting paper. Sprinkle on this a level 
 teaspoonful of small seeds, like those of phlox, radish, or clover. 
 Add more paper and more seed, layer by layer, until several 
 spoonfuls of the seed have been used. Screw on the covers and 
 set aside until the seeds have germinated well. 
 
398 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Put a lump of unslaked lime into a tumbler of water and 
 let it stand several hours, stirring occasionally. Finally let all 
 the sediment settle and pour off the clear fluid. This is lime- 
 water, which may be bought of the druggist ready-made if you 
 prefer. Pour a little of this limewater into a clear tumbler and 
 blow into it with a piece of tubing, letting the tube dip below the 
 surface of the limewater. A serviceable tube can be made by 
 wrapping a sheet of paper about a long pencil and then slipping 
 out the pencil. The lime water becomes milky because of the 
 carbon-dioxide gas given off from the lungs, and this is a test for 
 the gas. Remove the cover from one of the pint jars just 
 enough to pour in a half-cup of clear limewater. Shake it up 
 quickly and pour it off into a glass. Much will be absorbed by 
 the blotting paper, but what does come out is very milky. This 
 shows readily that a growing plant gives off carbon dioxide in 
 breathing, as we do. 
 
 Oxygen of air. Help the child to realize from his experience 
 that there is a substance in the air (we call it oxygen) with- 
 out which things ordinarily do not burn. When we want more 
 heat in the stove or furnace we open the draft so that the air can 
 have more ready access to the wood or coal, and then it burns 
 faster. 
 
 Carbon dioxide formed as candle burns. Float a small candle 
 or piece of crumpled paper on a cork in a basin of water. 
 Light it and when it is burning well turn a tumbler or pint fruit 
 jar upside down over it, holding the mouth of the jar under 
 water. The candle or paper burns a while and then goes out 
 because it has used up all the oxygen. You will see, too, that 
 the water has risen in the tumbler to occupy the space taken up 
 previously by the oxygen. This is about one-fifth of the volume 
 of the tumbler, which makes clear that about one-fifth of the air 
 is oxygen. 
 
 Pull the cork and candle out from under the tumbler without 
 taking the latter out of the water. Put a square of stiff paper 
 over the mouth of the tumbler and lift it out of the water. Let 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 399 
 
 what water is inside run out quickly. Pour in some clear lime- 
 water and shake it up while the paper cover is still on. The lime- 
 water is cloudy, showing the presence of carbon dioxide. 
 
 There is carbon in the candle and the paper. If paper was 
 used, some of it is left as partly burned or charred paper (char- 
 coal) . When the carbon and oxygen come together and are hot 
 enough they combine to form the new substance, carbon dioxide, 
 and they produce more heat as they unite. Thus heat is 
 produced in our locomotives by burning coal or oil or wood, and 
 this heat is changed to other sorts of energy, like steam pressure, 
 and finally to mechanical motion, so that the wheels go round 
 and the engine does work, such as pulling our cars. 
 
 Oxidation for energy. A growing plant does work. The little 
 leaves and the root confined in the seed burst the seed coats, 
 grow up into the light, or force a way down into the soil. As 
 work power must be developed in order to do this some of the 
 substances in the seed are burned up to furnish this energy, just 
 as we take oxygen into our lungs and blood and burn up inside 
 in order to develop work power. The burned-up tissue has to 
 be replaced by the food that we eat, digest, and assimilate into 
 living substances. 
 
 Plants need oxygen. That growing plants cannot thrive with- 
 out oxygen is readily shown as follows: 
 
 Soak a pint of oats for twenty-four hours. In the bottom of 
 each of three pint fruit jars place an inch-deep layer of moist sand. 
 Sprinkle a dozen or so of the oats on the sand in one jar, put a 
 handful of them into the second jar, and fill the third jar two- 
 thirds full of them. Screw on the covers tightly and place all 
 three jars where the temperature will be about 60 F. Watch 
 the seeds daily to see which grow best. The conditions in the 
 jars are alike except that the amount of air present for each seed 
 to use is variable. State your conclusion after watching the 
 results of the experiment. Plant a dozen soaked oats in a pot 
 of clay soil and pack the clay down well over them. In the 
 same way plant a dozen more oats in a pot of loose leaf mold. 
 
400 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Keep both at the same temperature and keep the soils moist. 
 In which kind of soil do the seeds germinate best and why ? 
 
 Photosynthesis. To show that a plant in sunlight manu- 
 factures food substances, cut two thin slices from a cork or cut 
 two half -inch squares of black cardboard. With fine wire or 
 pins fasten these, opposite each other, on the upper and under 
 sides of a vigorous leaf on a nasturtium plant or other convenient 
 plant. Then put the plant in the bright sunlight for a day or two. 
 The pieces of cork or cardboard will exclude the light from the 
 part of the leaf between them. Pick off the leaf, remove the 
 cork or cardboard, and put the leaf into a cup or tumbler. 
 Cover the leaf with alcohol and cover the cup with something 
 so that the alcohol will not evaporate. The alcohol will remove 
 the green color of the leaf in a few hours or in a shorter time if the 
 alcohol is warm. When the leaf is white or nearly so wash it in 
 water ; then cover it with water in the cup and add thirty drops 
 of iodine. This is the starch test already used to show starch in 
 seeds. If the leaf does not color rapidly add more iodine. At 
 the end of an hour the leaf should be stained blue or blue black, 
 except the area covered by the cardboard. This will be 
 imcolored or slightly colored. The experiment may be done on 
 the leaf of some plant that has been growing out of doors under 
 a board or stone. Use two leaves of the same plant, one that 
 has been covered and one that has been in the light. Thus we 
 see that the green leaf of a plant makes starch, and moreover that 
 this can only be done in the sunlight. 
 
 That plants manufacture foods is commonplace knowledge. 
 We get starch, sugar, chocolate, and other foods from plants; 
 we use the stored-up foods in our grains, fruits, and vegetables. 
 The plant can make its food substance out of simple things that 
 it gets from the air and soil. These substances are chiefly 
 carbon dioxide absorbed from the air, water, and substances in 
 solution taken from the soil. 
 
 Plant uses carbon dioxide. That the plant uses carbon 
 dioxide is readily shown. The pupil must remember that there 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 401 
 
 are two processes going on in the leaf: (i) respiration, when 
 oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is given off, and (2) food 
 manufacture. The two must not be confused. 
 
 Fill a deep jar or basin full of water. Take a large, flat cork 
 that will slip into the mouth of the two-quart jar and fasten a 
 string to one flat side. Float the cork with this side down in 
 the water. Set a short piece of candle on the cork and light it. 
 Place the jar, mouth down, over the candle and cork and lower 
 it until its mouth is under water. Let the candle burn as long 
 as it will. What gas has disappeared from the jar and what has 
 taken its place ? Support the two-quart jar on tumblers or 
 pieces of brick. Pull out the cork and candle. Cut a hole in 
 the center of the cork, slip in a sprig of a plant like geranium or 
 nasturtium, with a fairly long stem, and replace the cork. It 
 will now hold the leafy shoot up in the carbon-dioxide gas, while 
 the stem will be under water. Set the basin jar, plant, and all 
 where it will be in strong sunlight for a couple of days. Then 
 remove the plant. Slip a piece of glass under the mouth of the 
 jar and lift it out of the water. Turn it right side up. Pour in 
 some limewater, uncovering the jar as little as possible, and 
 shake it up. The limewater does not turn milky, or if at all, 
 only slightly so. The growing plant then has used up the carbon 
 dioxide. Light a splinter of wood and shove it down into the 
 jar ; it burns, showing not only that the carbon dioxide has gone 
 but that oxygen has reappeared. The growing plant in making 
 food gives off oxygen too. 
 
 Oxygen eliminated. Carbon dioxide, water, and the nitroge- 
 nous substances which are absorbed by the roots are united in 
 the leaf. Through the activity of the living parts of the leaf, 
 which are energized by the sunlight, they are combined into the 
 substances which the plant needs for growth and work. We 
 have seen that such things as sugar and starch are formed, but 
 even more complex substances are also produced, namely, those 
 nitrogenous compounds in which the life-processes go on. Not 
 all the elements in the simple substances named above are 
 needed by the plant. There is an excess of oxygen which is 
 
402 
 
 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 given off from the leaves growing in sunlight. That this occurs 
 rapidly when the plant is well supplied with carbon dioxide and 
 water is easily shown. 
 
 Fill two wide-mouthed jars two-thirds full of water. In each 
 put a spray of water plant, like Cabomba, Myriophyllum, or 
 Elodea (p. 6). One may even use a clover plant, which ordi- 
 narily does not grow under water. Cover the plant spray in 
 
 each jar with a glass funnel 
 that has a short stem. The 
 stem may be cut off by 
 making a deep scratch with 
 a three-cornered file on the 
 glass where one desires to 
 break it. Grasp the funnel 
 stem in the hands, put the 
 thumb nails back to back, 
 with the nails opposite the 
 file mark, and try to bend 
 the glass, when it will readily 
 snap off at the desired point 
 (Fig. 287). 
 
 Take a test tube and after 
 filling it with water hold the 
 thumb over the mouth of it 
 and invert it in the water. 
 Take the thumb away and, 
 with its mouth still under 
 water, place the tube over the end of the funnel stem, which 
 must also be under water. Let it stand full of water. Do the 
 same with another test tube in the other jar. Set both jars in 
 the window where they will get good light. 
 
 Carbon dioxide a plant food. So far both jars are alike. 
 Make a carbon-dioxide generator according to the following 
 directions: Fit a cork in the mouth of a test tube. With a 
 rat-tail file punch and file out of the center of the cork a hole big 
 
 FIG. 287. Method of breaking glass 
 tubing: upper, making the scratch; lower, 
 pressure opposite the scratch. 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 403 
 
 enough to receive tightly a small glass tube. Cut off a foot of 
 the glass tubing in the same way as the stem of the funnel was 
 cut. Hold this in the flame of an alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner 
 (gas) so that a spot about four inches from one end will be heated. 
 Just above the tip of the blue central part of the flame is the 
 
 FIG. 288. Method of bending glass tubing. Turn the tubing in the flame 
 until it is red-hot, then (lower figure) bend it slowly. 
 
 hottest place, and as glass does not carry heat easily this may be 
 done while the tube is held in the bare fingers. As the glass heats 
 it softens. When soft enough bend it slowly, so as to make a 
 delivery tube like that shown in Fig. 288. Take the tubing out 
 of the flame gradually so that it will cool slowly. Put the shorter 
 end of this tube through the cork. In the test tube place three 
 
404 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 or four bits of marble (calcium carbonate) as big as peas. Fill 
 the tube one-fourth full of water. Add a little (fifteen or twenty 
 drops) of chlorhydric acid. Handle the acid -carefully. It 
 bums clothing or the fingers. If you get it on the fingers wash 
 it off at once. The acid causes the marble to break up and give 
 off carbon dioxide. Insert the cork with delivery tube into the 
 mouth of the test tube and hang the delivery tube over the side 
 of one wide-mouthed jar so that its end will be under water. 
 The carbon dioxide will run into the water, where it is absorbed. 
 This should be repeated daily. 
 
 The green plants in the sunlight will give off bubbles of gas 
 (oxygen) as growth occurs. This gas is caught by the funnels 
 and carried to the test tubes, where it accumulates, displacing the 
 water. It will collect much more rapidly in the jar supplied 
 with carbon dioxide. (Soda water and pop are charged with 
 carbon dioxide. You may pour a glass of white pop into one 
 jar every day, dipping out some of the water in the jar to make 
 room for it, if that is an easier task than generating carbon 
 dioxide.) When a half test tube full of the oxygen has accumu- 
 lated, test it by removing the test tube and thrusting into the 
 gas a glowing splinter of wood. It will burst into flame. 
 
 Plant wastes. Certain waste substances are excreted by 
 plants during growth, as we have already seen. Oxygen is a 
 waste product in the production of plant food. Carbon dioxide 
 is a waste product in respiration in plants as in animals. Since 
 plants never move very rapidly and are sluggish even in their 
 internal activities they do not have to breathe very hard. All 
 the plants one can grow in a bow window do not give off as much 
 carbon dioxide at night, when respiration is going on and food 
 manufacture is not, as a single burning candle would give off. 
 It is the active animal, especially the warm-blooded one, that 
 breathes fast; but the plant does manufacture food rapidly in 
 the sunlight. Plants therefore ordinarily give off much oxygen 
 which animals breathe, and use as food material much carbon 
 dioxide which animals in breathing give off as waste. 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 405 
 
 Roots give off acid. Acid is also excreted from the roots of 
 plants. This may be shown as follows: Put the roots of a 
 growing plant, like a seedling pea or sunflower, into water colored 
 with blue litmus. Litmus is a substance which changes color 
 on contact with acid, the blue color becoming red. Any alkaline 
 substance, like ammonia or limewater, will change it back to 
 blue. Take a little of the blue-litmus solution or a piece of blue- 
 litmus paper and add a drop of acid to it ; it turns red. Add lime- 
 water to the red solution until it turns blue again. Let the plant 
 grow in the blue-litmus solution or in water containing a strip 
 of blue-litmus paper obtained from a druggist. The color will 
 shortly change, showing that the roots are giving off acid. 
 
 Plants growing continuously in one location tend to poison 
 the soil as well as to exhaust from it the particular mineral sub- 
 stances they need as foods. So crops must be rotated to avoid 
 growing the same crop year after year on the same land, or else 
 special pains must be taken to eliminate poisonous matter and 
 to supply the exhausted food materials. 
 
 Acid soils. Sometimes a soil becomes so acid that it will 
 grow only certain weeds that can thrive under such adverse 
 conditions. Sheep sorrel is one of these. Many mosses, like 
 the hairy caps, can endure an acid soil. You may test a soil 
 for its acidity in this way : mix water with a half -tumbler of soil 
 and stir it to the consistency of thick cake batter; then put a 
 strip of blue-litmus paper in this and let it stand an hour. Take 
 the litmus out and rinse it, and if it is pink or red the soil is 
 acid. Such acid soils are treated with lime ; with water this lime 
 makes limewater, which, we have seen, is alkaline and counter- 
 acts the acid. On heavy clays two or three tons per acre may 
 be needed; sandy soils require much less, usually not over five 
 hundred pounds, which is at the rate of about three pounds to 
 the square rod. 
 
 The SoiL Soils differ from each other in the nature of 
 the ingredients they contain and in their texture. Thus sand 
 and gravel are pretty much alike except that the particles of 
 
406 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 the latter are much coarser than those of the former. But 
 sand, clay, and humus differ from each other in that the first 
 consists of particles of quartz, the second of disintegrated feldspar 
 (and some other substances), and the third of more or less pure 
 plant debris, like decaying leaves. Rub a bit of moist soil 
 between the fingers. If it contains much clay it feels greasy 
 and, like putty, can be molded into various shapes. 
 
 Weigh out a sample of garden soil. Put it in an iron pan 
 whose weight you have also determined. Bake it gently in an 
 oven until it is dry and weigh it again when cool. The loss of 
 weight represents the moisture it contained. Bake it hard or 
 heat it while covered with an iron cover over a hot flame or on 
 a hot stove until the organic matter (humus) is burned out. 
 Weigh again when cool to find out how much humus it contained. 
 Mix what is left with water and stir it well. (There should 
 be several times the volume of water that there is of soil.) After 
 stirring let it settle a moment and then pour off the water. The 
 fine clay and silt will pour off, the coarser sand will be left. Dry 
 the sand and weigh it. Thus a soil may be analyzed roughly to 
 find out what it contains. 
 
 Water in soil. Secure a generous sample of coarse sand, of 
 fine sand, of clay, and of humus. The latter may be scraped up 
 in the woods, where it is the very dark surface soil. The clay 
 may need pounding to pulverize it. Tie a cloth over one end of 
 each of four student-lamp chimneys or wide glass tubes two feet 
 long, and fill one such with clay, another with coarse sand, a 
 third with fine sand, and a fourth with humus. Stand all, 
 cloth ends down, in a shallow pan and tie them up to some 
 support so that they will not fall over. Pour water into the 
 pan. Watch to see in which soil the water rises fastest. After 
 the tubes or chimneys have stood for twenty-four hours note 
 in which soil the water has risen highest. 
 
 Water rises in the soil by a force called capillary attraction. 
 Take a bit of glass tubing six inches long. Heat the middle of it 
 in the gas flame or in the flame of the alcohol lamp just as if you 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 407 
 
 were going to bend it. Turn it slowly so that it will heat on all 
 sides. When quite soft remove it from the flame and instantly 
 pull on opposite ends. It will be drawn out into a fine tube. 
 The tube of a broken thermometer will do instead of this. Dip 
 the end of this fine tube in red ink. The ink rises to a consider- 
 able height. Dip the end of a coarse tube in the ink and the 
 ink rises only a little way. Such fine passageways occur between 
 the soil particles and through them the water rises. The soil 
 brings the water up to the plant from the deep water supplies 
 much as a wick brings the oil up to the flame in a lamp. 
 
 Retention of water in soil. Fill a medicine dropper with 
 water. Hold a clean dry pebble between the thumb and ringer 
 of your left hand and let a drop of water fall on it. Watch the 
 water spread a little way over the surface. Drop another drop 
 on the same place and watch it spread a little farther over the 
 surface. Continue this until the whole surface of the pebble is 
 moist. Thus we have formed a film of moisture on the surface 
 of the pebble. Keep adding more water and soon the pebble 
 has all it can hold and drops of water begin to fall off its lower 
 side. Examine some coarse soil and see that it is made up, in 
 large part, of bits of stone. Fine soil can be examined under a 
 lens and it will be seen to be composed largely of bits of stone 
 that are very small. When the raindrops fall on these tiny 
 pebbles each small stone is covered with a film of moisture. 
 When it- has as much as it can hold the water drops from it to a 
 lower bit of stone and thus the rain penetrates the soil, passing 
 from one tiny particle to another below it, but leaving on each a 
 film of moisture. The rain sinks deeper and deeper into the 
 soil until it comes to a layer of rock or of hard soil that it cannot 
 penetrate. Here it accumulates and remains. Our wells tap 
 these water reservoirs and from them we draw our constant 
 supply. 
 
 Secure three tin cans of equal size and of about a quart 
 capacity. Punch several holes in the bottom of each, or use the 
 lamp chimneys of the previous experiment. Fill one can full 
 
408 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 with sandy soil, another with clay, and a third with leaf mold, all 
 well pulverized. Let all the cans stand several days in a warm 
 place until the soil is dry. Fill a pint measuring cup with water 
 and slowly pour water on the surface of the sandy soil in the first 
 can. Catch what runs through in a dish and measure it to see 
 how much of the pint of water the sandy soil retained. Do the 
 same with each of the other cans. What sort of soil holds 
 most moisture ? 
 
 Firming. Plant oats in each can, pressing the oats into the 
 soil without packing the earth about them at all, except on one 
 side of the can filled with fine leaf mold. Press the earth firmly 
 about the seed on one side of this can and leave it light and open 
 on the other side. Let all the cans stand uncovered where they 
 will be warm. Do not water them at all. In which can do the 
 oats grow best ? Why ? What is the effect of firming the soil 
 about seeds when they are planted ? 
 
 Cultivation. Aside from pulling the weeds out of the soil so 
 that they will not take up the plant food which we want the crop 
 to have, cultivation breaks up the surface soil, pulverizes it, and 
 so destroys the continuity of capillary tubes between soil particles 
 that evaporation is checked. This is very essential in times of 
 drought and is the secret of dry farming. To illustrate the point 
 take three flowerpots of good size (five or six inches). Fill all 
 three with the same sort of soil, well firmed, to within an inch 
 of the top. Moisten the soil in each with a measured quantity 
 of water, say a half -pint. Sprinkle a half -inch of dry sand on 
 top of one, a half-inch of soil like that in the pots on the second, 
 and add nothing to the third. Weigh each pot and its contained 
 soil. Let all three stand side by side and weigh each again after 
 a day, after two days. Which loses the most moisture and why ? 
 Why is the garden raked after spading it ? 
 
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS 409 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 
 
 Atkinson, George F. First Studies of Plant Life. Boston: Ginn & Co. 
 
 $0.72. 
 Bergen and Caldwell. Introduction to Botany. Boston: Ginn & Co. 
 
 $1.36. 
 Coulter John M. Elementary Studies in Botany. New York: D.Appleton 
 
 & Co. $1.40. 
 
 Dana W. S. Plants and Their Children. New York: American Book Co- 
 Farmers' Bulletins: 
 
 No. in, The Farmer's Interest in Good Seed. 
 
 No. 428, Testing Farm Seed in the Home. In the Rurual School. 
 Warren, G. F. Elements of Agriculture. The Macmillan Co. $1.20. 
 
 1 Farmers' bulletins are issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, 
 Washington, D.C. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 THE GARDEN 
 
 Garden values. The garden is an excellent place for the 
 growing child to acquire a number of very valuable experiences; 
 he may dig in the dirt, plant his seeds, watch that mysterious 
 unfolding of the new plant, nurture it, tend it, supply its wants, 
 protect it. He may become skilful in the very useful art of 
 gardening and thereby increase both his creature comforts and 
 his heart's delight. In his garden he must cultivate some homely 
 virtues: patience, persistence, prudence. He must match his 
 wits against the idiosyncrasies of the weather and against the 
 ravages of hordes of voracious insects and blighting fungi. He 
 must learn to respect laws that are more immutable than those 
 of the Medes and Persians. 
 
 Phases of garden experiences. For the little child the 
 garden is a means of contact with a new world. He will be 
 content to learn to recognize the new plants, both flowers and 
 vegetables, and to acquire a measure of control over them. 
 Usually he may not be given the responsibility of a plot of his 
 own, for the task soon palls upon him, but he will work willingly 
 under direction at the varied tasks that may be assigned in the 
 common garden of kindergarten or first and second grades. 
 Soon, however, he wants his very own garden, either at home or 
 at school, where he may do as he pleases. And he usually 
 pleases to plant a dozen or more vegetables and flowers in a 
 plot three by six that is speedily overrun with weeds, unless 
 the teacher has good tact and can maintain interest against 
 strenuous odds. Next he wants a sizable patch in which to 
 raise things he can sell; this is primarily the opportunity 
 of the home garden. Finally his garden must assume the role 
 of a demonstration plot, a specialist's garden, or an adjunct to a 
 
 410 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 411 
 
 chicken project, in order to keep him at it year after year with 
 unabated interest. 
 
 Types of gardens. The school garden may be: (i) a source 
 of supply for nature-study material; (2) a project, or series of 
 projects, useful primarily for educating the pupil, incidentally 
 for growing vegetables or flowers; (3) a commercial venture as a 
 means of the personal development of the child (Fig. 289); 
 (4) an agency in beautifying the home and the school grounds; 
 
 FIG. 289. The school garden 
 
 and any or all of these purposes may be embodied in the one 
 garden. The school garden is any garden used for educative 
 purposes by the teacher. It may be on the school grounds, in 
 the back yard of the pupil, or on a vacant lot. It is not its 
 location but its aim that makes it a school garden. 
 
 Laying out and planting plots. The plots of ground for 
 kindergartners and for pupils of the lower grades, perhaps Grades 
 I and II, may be laid out as class exercises, and the soil prepara- 
 tion (after the spading and rough raking, which must be done by 
 hired help) and the seeding will be done under direction of the 
 
412 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 teacher (Fig. 290). The instruction should be confined to the 
 essentials and should be imparted by example rather than by 
 precept. Show the children how to rake so as to break up the 
 coarse chunks and how to pulverize the soil to a considerable 
 depth. The rake is moved back and forth with teeth down over 
 a limited area until that is finely pulverized, and then an adjacent 
 small area is similarly raked. Insist that this be done very 
 
 FIG. 290. Planting the garden 
 
 effectually all over the plot. See to it that the drills shallow 
 grooves made in the soil for the reception of the seed are made 
 straight. Stretch a string between stakes set at the ends of the 
 prospective row and see that this string parallels the nearby path 
 or else is at right angles to it, so that the garden will have the 
 appearance of being well laid out. The necessary measurements 
 with yardstick or tape will afford good practice in practical 
 mensuration. The drill may be made with a strip of inch board 
 with beveled edge, or with the back of the rake, and should be 
 
THE GARDEN 413 
 
 varied in depth according to the size of the seeds to be planted. 
 The general rule in planting is that a seed goes below the surface 
 a distance equal to its greatest diameter. The space between 
 rows should be ample. For such vegetables as the radish this 
 space need not be over a foot; for others, like carrots, eighteen 
 inches to two feet; for some, like corn, it must be four or five 
 feet (see planting table in such books as Barnes's Suburban 
 Garden Guide). It must be generous enough to make the weed- 
 ing easy, as crowded rows always make hoeing difficult or almost 
 impossible and result in an unsightly and unproductive garden. 
 
 Paths. The paths between rows or between beds should be 
 made on the same level as the beds themselves, and should not 
 be sunk below that level unless it is desirable that they act as 
 drains to carry off excessive moisture. If the beds are raised 
 above the level of the paths, they tend to dry out, as the water 
 drains into the paths, and that is usually not favorable, for 
 growing crops need abundant moisture. 
 
 Position of seed. The seeds should be placed in the drills 
 at definite distances from each other. This is easily possible 
 with large seeds like peas and beans, which should be spaced 
 four to six inches apart, but it is evidently impossible without 
 unnecessary care if the seeds are small like those of lettuce; such 
 seed is sprinkled thinly in the drill, and later the plants are 
 thinned out. Soaking the larger seeds in water for twenty-four 
 hours facilitates germination. Seeds like nuts with hard outer 
 coats germinate more promptly if they are carefully cracked (not 
 smashed) before planting. Even the position of the seed in the 
 soil makes a difference in the speed with which the little plant 
 appears above the ground. Thus if the "eye" of a bean is 
 turned down, it will usually come up more quickly than when set 
 in any other position. This might be demonstrated by experi- 
 ment, planting beans in several different positions and then 
 watching the row to see which will appear first. In a similar way 
 try corn kernels planted in several positions. It is best to put 
 in several kernels or beans in each of the several positions, else 
 
414 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 the results may be due to inherent differences in the seeds rather 
 than to difference of position in planting. 
 
 Firm the earth. After the seeds are scattered in the drills 
 cover them and make the soil firm over them by pressing it down 
 over the seeds with a narrow board or with the fingers. This is 
 another trick that facilitates growth, as it enables the seed to 
 draw necessary moisture readily from the soil closely pressed 
 against it, and the growing roots become more securely estab- 
 lished in firm soil. It is not, however, a commendable practice 
 in clay soils that tend to bake under a hot sun. 
 
 Lower-grade work. Have each grade plant a different set of 
 flowers and vegetables, so that each child will have opportunity 
 to become familiar with a number of different varieties. The 
 average flower garden or vegetable garden, in most communities, 
 has too few things in it. There are very many easily grown 
 flowers and vegetables that make possible a succession of bloom 
 and a variety of diet that will add to the attractiveness and 
 health of the community. The intelligent teacher, through the 
 work of the school garden, may help to introduce desirable plants 
 into the community and may teach the proper succession of 
 vegetables and the artistic grouping of flowers. The following 
 plants may be commended for the different grades : 
 
 KlNDERGARTNERS 
 Flowers Vegetables 
 
 Calendula Radishes 
 
 Candytuft Lettuce 
 
 Castor bean Wax beans 
 
 Gourds 
 
 Nasturtium 
 
 Sweet alyssum 
 
 GRADE I 
 
 Flowers Vegetables 
 
 Centaurea Chard 
 
 Hop Beets 
 
 Mignonette Pumpkins 
 Stocks 
 
THE GARDEN 415 
 
 GRADE II 
 
 Flowers Vegetables 
 
 Ageratum Carrots 
 
 Balsam Dwarf peas 
 
 Cosmos Potatoes 
 
 Morning-glory Pop corn 
 Petunia 
 Verbena 
 
 Bulb planting. In addition to handling seeds, children even 
 of these lower grades may well learn to plant bulbs and to grow 
 plants from cuttings. Kindergartners may help to plant some 
 of the bulbs on the school grounds in the fall, an effort that will 
 yield beds of attractive bloom in the spring. The bed is best 
 located in a spot that is protected from north and west winds 
 by walls of the building or by screens of shrubbery. The soil 
 should be well worked, spaded, and raked fine. When the bulbs 
 are set out, the large ones should be planted fairly deep, the 
 smaller ones nearer the surface, the top about an inch below 
 the surface. The hole for the bulb is made with a trowel or 
 with the fingers, and the earth should be pressed firmly around it. 
 The best bulbs for kindergartners to try are paper-white and 
 poet's narcissus, Von Sion yellow daffodils, and mixed crocuses. 
 First and second grades may try tulips and hyacinths. Of the 
 former, the scarlet Due Van Thol and the red and yellow Keizer- 
 kroon are good varieties. The white and pink hyacinths are 
 surer of blooming freely than the others. 
 
 Bulbs in water. Some of the bulbs may be planted in pots 
 for indoor blooming. The paper-white narcissus and the 
 daffodils may also easily be grown in water (Fig. 291). An 
 ordinary bowl may be used for the latter purpose, but one may 
 also obtain glass bulb dishes from any florist. Fill the bowl or 
 dish two-thirds full of gravel or crushed stone. Pea coal answers 
 the purpose very well and does not look unsightly if some sand 
 is sprinkled over the surface. Set the bulb, or even two or three 
 bulbs, in one dish, placing the broad end down on top of the 
 
416 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 gravel, and then keep the dish filled with water up to the level 
 of the bottom of the bulb. The narcissus may be left in the room 
 from the start, but daffodils should be put away in a closet, or 
 preferably in the dark cellar, until the roots have well developed. 
 The roots anchor the bulb by growing among the gravel or bits 
 of stone, and by the time the leaves and blossom stalks have 
 developed they hold the plant securely in an upright position. 
 
 FIG. 291. Bulbs indoors 
 
 Tulips and hyacinths are best put into earth, although both of 
 them will grow in water if treated like the daffodils. 
 
 Bulbs in earth. Fill a three-inch paper pot half full of ordi- 
 nary garden earth, press it down, and place the bulb in the pot, 
 broad end down. Fill in enough more earth to cover the bulb 
 so that nothing but its very tip protrudes. With lead pencil 
 plainly mark each pot to indicate what it contains. Put the 
 pots in the dark cellar or in a closet and keep them quite cool 
 while the root system is growing. Water them regularly twice 
 a week, so as to keep the earth moist but not wet. The bulbs 
 will develop leaves, and in the midst of the leaves the flower 
 
THE GARDEN 417 
 
 stalk. This growth should be allowed to continue while the 
 plants are in the dark until the leaves are three or four inches 
 high. They may then be brought out into a light place, but not 
 into a very warm one. 
 
 Premature blossoming. If the blossom buds begin to swell 
 rapidly and look as if they were going to open before the cluster 
 of buds is out of the leaves, roll some dark paper into narrow 
 cylinders six inches long and cover each plant with one. The 
 light, coming down to the plant through the open cylinder, will 
 make both leaves and blossom stalk grow tall rapidly. If bulbs 
 are potted in September they may be allowed to develop in the 
 cool cellar until early in December, and then the blossoms will 
 open in a week or two after bringing them upstairs into the 
 warmth of the rooms. If Easter blooms are wanted plant 
 correspondingly later. 
 
 Trenching. While this procedure is best for schoolroom or 
 home culture when carried on by little children, the process may 
 profitably be varied with older pupils. Plant, as described above, 
 in four-inch earthen pots. Stop the hole in the pot with a bit 
 of stone before the earth is put into it. Water the pots thor- 
 oughly and then bury them in the garden in a trench that has 
 been dug a foot deep and as long as is necessary for all of the pots 
 containing bulbs. Set the pots on the bottom of the trench and 
 fill the trench full of earth. Set stakes at the corners of the 
 trench so that it can readily be located. The bulbs in the pots 
 are to be left here for six or eight weeks, or longer, while the roots 
 develop sufficiently to support the leaves and blossoms, when 
 the pots are dug up. If the bulbs are put in trenches in Sep- 
 tember they may be dug out by late November for Christmas 
 bloom or may be left until later for Easter. Set them in the 
 cellar or some other dark, cool place for a few days, then bring 
 them out into the light. Leaves should grow very rapidly and 
 blossoms should also come out promptly. 
 
 Cuttings. Potatoes were suggested as one of the vegetables 
 to be planted by the second grade. Let the children cut the 
 
418 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 potatoes so as to make their own "seed." The potato can be 
 cut into as many pieces as it has eyes, or into larger pieces with 
 two eyes for each piece. If the potatoes of your region are at all 
 likely to be infested with scab, or if the seed potatoes have any 
 indication of scab upon them, it is well to sterilize them before 
 cutting. To do this, wash the potato clean and then immerse it 
 for a few minutes in 5 per cent formaldehyde, which is made by 
 diluting commercial formalin with six or seven times its own 
 volume of water. The solution will make any cuts or scratches 
 on the hands sting, but will do no harm. Holes to receive the 
 seed are made in the well spaded and raked ground and should 
 be six inches deep, two feet apart in the rows, and the rows 
 should be three feet apart. Put a piece of the "seed" in each 
 hole and cover it with earth. Do not hill potatoes. You 
 might hill one row and when the crop is dug compare the yield 
 from this row with that from the others. You will know then 
 that it is not wise to hill them (see potato beetle, p. 119). 
 
 Children in the grades may well learn to make cuttings of 
 the plants growing in the school garden in order to carry them 
 through the winter indoors. Fill some good-sized earthenware 
 pans, or some ordinary wooden boxes that are six or seven 
 inches deep, with sand up to within an inch of the top. From 
 geranium plants break off stems that are four or five inches long, 
 or break the main stalk of a geranium plant into bits that are 
 three or four inches long. Break off all the leaves except one 
 large one or two smaller ones at the upper end of such a piece. 
 Stick such pieces down into the ground, leaving just the upper 
 part of the stem, with its leaf or leaves, out of the ground. Keep 
 them in a moderately cool place and water them sparingly. If 
 the ground is kept too wet or if the plants are kept too warm the 
 stem is likely to rot before the roots start. Such slips or cuttings 
 may be put into a tumbler of water and the roots will start in it. 
 
 Potting the rooted slips. Many other plants, such as bego- 
 nias, varieties of cactus, fuchsias, and others, may be started 
 in the same way. It usually takes from four to six weeks for 
 
THE GARDEN 419 
 
 the roots to develop, and then the plants may be transferred 
 from the sand pan or box to small pots of good garden soil. 
 After two or three leaves have developed they may be repotted 
 in larger pots. In this way two or three geraniums, brought from 
 the pupils 7 homes or purchased in the greenhouse, may, during 
 the winter, be multiplied enough to make it possible to set out 
 a generous number of blossoming plants which will be an orna- 
 ment to the school grounds. 
 
 Individual plots. Pupils of the third and fourth grades will 
 probably want to have plots of their own with which they can do 
 pretty much as they please. They have worked in the common 
 plots in kindergarten and lower grades and have acquired some 
 skill in handling garden tools and in rearing both vegetables and 
 flowers. It is a fairly good experiment to throw them on their 
 own responsibility and to let them plant their individual plots 
 somewhat as they please. This will probably not produce an 
 attractive school garden, for they will frequently want to plant 
 a dozen different things in their small areas; but inasmuch as 
 we are endeavoring primarily to develop children and not to 
 grow garden stuff it is wise to let the garden suffer if it is of any 
 advantage to the children. The originality and self-expression 
 th? t the child achieves, together, often, with an acknowledgment 
 at the end of the season that he needs the teacher's guidance and 
 instruction, are worth-while ends. 
 
 Plants for individual plots. The pupil will probably want to 
 plant in his own garden some of the things that he tried in the 
 common plots of the lower grades. Here are some additional 
 plants that may be suggested to him. Flowers: asters, car- 
 nation, chrysanthemum, four-o'clock, foxglove, hollyhock, lark- 
 spur, lobelia, phlox, poppy, sal via. Vegetables: lima beans, 
 cabbage, eggplant, onion, parsnip, squash, sweet corn, tomatoes, 
 turnips. This list includes some plants, such as asters, chrys- 
 anthemums, and salvias, that need to be planted early in trays 
 and then set out. It includes also some perennials, such as 
 hollyhock, perennial phlox, and larkspur, that can be planted 
 
420 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 in early September and that will then develop into little plants 
 which will bloom the next summer. They may also be planted 
 early in the spring in the pans, and there is some likelihood that 
 they will then blossom the same season. 
 
 Planting in trays. The seeds of most of these perennials are 
 small. They are planted as follows : A flat earthenware pan or 
 wooden tray three or four inches deep is filled with earth to 
 within an inch of the top. This earth should be sifted, and it is 
 well to bake it thoroughly in order to destroy weed seeds, after 
 which it must be well moistened. After making the surface of 
 the earth firm and sprinkling the seeds upon it, cover them with 
 a thin layer of earth and gently make it firm. Cut half a dozen 
 thicknesses of newspaper of the proper size to fit the top of the 
 pan or tray. Lay these on the earth and moisten them. The 
 water poured on the paper will not wash out the seeds below. 
 The moistened paper may be left on until the little plants begin 
 to break through the earth. 
 
 Setting out. As soon as the young plantlets have developed 
 their second leaves transplant them in rows in other trays, and 
 after they have grown to a height of two or three inches plant 
 them out in the garden. Seeds of aster, chrysanthemum, salvias, 
 and other plants may be planted in early March, in the latitude 
 of Chicago, and will be ready to set out by the last of April. 
 These seedling plants should be grown where it is moderately 
 cool and in a window where they can have light. If they are kept 
 too warm or if they are back in the room away from the light 
 they become spindling. It is difficult to produce hardy plants 
 for transplanting under such conditions. 
 
 Competitive planting. It may be well to make this task of 
 growing little plants in the trays and transplanting them to 
 the garden the chief garden work of these grades. In the list 
 of vegetables given above there are several that need to be 
 started indoors cabbage, eggplant, and tomato, for example. 
 It might be interesting in these grades, after the method of 
 growing the little plants indoors has been learned in the third 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 421 
 
 grade, to have a race in the fourth grade to see what child can 
 produce the earliest bloom or have the earliest vegetable from 
 these plants that must be started indoors. This early growing 
 is one of the arts of the successful truck gardener. Quite com- 
 monly, in the early spring, prices are very much higher for the 
 first vegetables that come in than they are for the later ones, and 
 consequently it is very much worth while for the truck gardener 
 to beat his competitors to mar- 
 ket, even by a few days. And 
 it is always a matter of pride 
 to have lettuce and cauliflower 
 and tomatoes in the home gar- 
 den ahead of one's neighbors. 
 
 Cabbage and lettuce. 
 Cabbage and cauliflower 
 should be set out in the garden 
 when the young plants have 
 three or four leaves. It is well 
 to shade the young plants dur- 
 ing the heat of the day, and, 
 if they are set out very early, 
 to cover them at night. In 
 the small garden old tin cans 
 serve this purpose very well. 
 Lettuce may be set out when the plants have two or three leaves 
 on them, as they will stand light frosts when so young as this. 
 
 Tomatoes. Tomatoes, cabbage, and cauliflower will not 
 stand frosts and may not be set out until all danger from them is 
 past, unless one is willing to take chances. Tomato plants may 
 be six or seven inches high when transplanted. All four of the 
 vegetables mentioned may be set out when larger than stated 
 above, if they have been transplanted from trays to small pots, 
 in which they have been grown as individual plants. 
 
 Plants grown in pots. It is much easier to transplant fairly 
 large plants from pots than from trays, since in the former case 
 
 FIG. 292. Taking plant out of pot 
 to transplant. 
 
422 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUD? . 
 
 the root system needs to be disturbed very little. To remove the 
 plant from the pot, take hold of the plant stem close to the 
 ground and spread the rest of the hand out over the mouth of 
 the pot. Turn the pot upside down and strike the rim of the pot 
 lightly on the edge of the table or tap it with the handle of the 
 trowel (Fig. 292). Two or three light jars will loosen the earth 
 from the sides of the pot, and together with the roots it will drop 
 upon the outspread hand. The pot can then be lifted off and 
 
 FIG. 293. Setting out plants from pots 
 
 the plant set into the hole in the earth previously dug for it. 
 Press the earth firmly about it (Fig. 293). 
 
 Staking and trimming. Tomatoes are to be staked, even 
 from the time when they are set out in the home garden. It is 
 well to let only a single stalk grow up from the roots, and this 
 stalk should be tied to a stick with raffia or strips of cloth, but 
 not so tightly as to retard growth. As the plant grows taller 
 substitute a taller trellis for the stake used at first. In addition 
 to the main stem let two or three branches grow out from the 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 stalk about a foot above ground. With good soil such varieties 
 as Earlianna and Matchless will grow to a height of three or four 
 feet. When these plants are well loaded with tomatoes it is 
 advisable to trim off the tips of the branches so that they will 
 mature the crop that they have rather than form new tomatoes. 
 Such varieties as Ponderosa and Grand Pacific will grow to a 
 height of five to eight feet. The tomatoes will weigh a pound or, 
 
 FIG. 294. The tomato plot, showing plants tied up to stakes (photograph 
 from Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.). 
 
 in the case of Grand Pacific, even two pounds apiece if the tips 
 of the branches are kept trimmed back and not too many 
 tomatoes are allowed to form on a single plant (Fig. 294). 
 
 It is well to plant at least three varieties of tomatoes, one a 
 very early variety like Earlianna, one a midseason tomato like 
 Matchless and Ponderosa, and one for late fall use like Grand 
 Pacific. Other equally good varieties may be found mentioned 
 in any of the seed catalogues. 
 
424 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The demonstration plot. Beyond the early grades, if not 
 sooner, under most conditions the teacher should endeavor to 
 stimulate interest in the home garden, reserving the schooj 
 garden for a demonstration plot. This plot may be parceled 
 out to individual pupils, each of whom has his own problem to 
 work out, or it may be worked as a grade plot, all pupils helping 
 to care for the particular project under way. The tasks assigned 
 in the fifth and sixth grades may be the culture of some of the 
 less common vegetables and flowers or the care of smaller fruits, 
 such as currants, strawberries, and grapes. Competitive tests 
 to see which pupils can grow the largest pumpkins, the largest 
 sugar beet, or the maximum weight of tomatoes from a single 
 plant may be inaugurated. Pupils may select some three or four 
 vegetables and flowers that they wish to learn how to grow, and 
 a row of each may be started in the plot for that grade ; or each 
 pupil may take some one variety for his or her own share of 
 the school plot. 
 
 The cabbage family. A grade garden devoted to the various 
 varieties of the cabbage family makes a good demonstration plot. 
 Cabbage, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, broccoli, kale, and 
 kohl-rabi can all be grown, and one or more of these plants are 
 almost certain to be a novelty in any locality. Early Wakefield 
 is a good early cabbage; late flat Dutch is a late sort that is 
 valuable. In cauliflowers early dwarf Erfurt and snowball are 
 excellent. Early white and mammoth white are good varieties 
 of broccoli. Brussels sprouts are well grown from seed of Long 
 Island and Dalkeith. Early white Vienna kohl-rabi is about as 
 good a variety as any and the Scotch kales are among the best. 
 These plants can all be started as has already been described 
 for cabbage and can be set out when danger from frost is over. 
 Pupils may read up on the care of these vegetables in such 
 garden books as are available (see bibliography). The Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture issues free bulletins on many of them, as do 
 several states. When a cabbage plot is undertaken, pupils are 
 very sure to learn much from the school plot concerning the 
 
THE GARDEN 425 
 
 life-history of the cabbage worm. It is an interesting life- 
 history (see chapter on " Insects"). It is essential to know how 
 to apply the remedy for this pest. Spray the plants when worms 
 appear, and as often as they appear, until they begin to head, 
 with one-fifth ounce of Paris green dissolved in two gallons of 
 hot water (or one gram per liter). 
 
 To test varieties. It would be worth while to grow a number 
 of different kinds of cabbages or of other vegetables in the grade 
 garden to see what kind is best adapted to the particular soil and 
 climatic conditions of the locality. One school child of eight 
 tested out twenty or more varieties of radish seed and found that 
 one sort produced in her yard five or six times as large a crop as 
 any other. Thus, after trying many varieties for several seasons, 
 she settled on this one variety as her main reliance, and every 
 spring for several years sold several dollars' worth of radishes. 
 The demonstration school plot might do good service in any 
 community by testing out a number of varieties of all the com- 
 moner vegetables. The following vegetables are good ones to 
 try: celery, cress, cucumbers, eggplant, endive, lettuce, musk- 
 melon, crook-neck squash, summer squash, and spinach. A 
 similar list of flowers is as follows: asters, Canterbury bells, 
 columbine, carnations, cosmos, foxglove, hollyhocks, larkspur, 
 petunia. The teacher should keep notes on the successes and 
 failures, the methods of culture, etc., so that her experience will 
 at least be cumulative. 
 
 Asparagus. In addition the children of these grades may 
 have the care of the asparagus bed, the rhubarb, and the small 
 fruits. In light soil asparagus roots (it does not grow true from 
 seed) are to be set in fairly deep trenches. Dig the trench two 
 feet deep and a foot wide. Put eight inches of manure in the 
 trench, and after stamping it down cover it with a layer of 
 mellow soil six inches deep. Make it firm. Put in the roots 
 three feet apart and cover them with soil made firm. In heavy 
 soil, such as rich clay, the roots may be set ten inches deep in 
 deeply spaded soil, well fertilized. Rows should be three or four 
 
426 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 feet apart. In the early spring, when weed seeds are just ger- 
 minating, and before the asparagus stalks appear, salt the surface 
 of the ground heavily with rock salt, five pounds to a square rod. 
 This kills the weeds. Keep the later weeds pulled and the bed 
 well tilled between rows. If three-year-old roots are planted one 
 spring the asparagus may be cut sparingly the next ; but if two- 
 year-old roots are set let the bed stand two years, or even three 
 years, before cutting. Ordinarily not more than five or six 
 stalks should be cut from each root in a year. Let the rest grow. 
 Roots below ground are formed in proportion to the growth of 
 tops above. Let the tops stand until killed by frost, or even 
 until early spring, but clear them off before salting. When the 
 tops grow thickly five or six feet high, the stalks appearing early 
 in the spring will be nearly an inch in diameter and very tender. 
 Such stalks will grow only from roots that are not exhausted 
 from too much cutting during the preceding season. 
 
 Currant cuttings. In the early spring, before the buds on 
 the currant bushes show signs of bursting, cut off some of the 
 twigs. Place these in a box of sand six inches deep for propaga- 
 tion. Each twig, which is about six inches long, is to be stripped 
 of all but its uppermost pair of buds and is then to be stuck deeply 
 into the sand, so that the buds are just above ground. Keep 
 the sand moist, not wet, and set the box in a cool place, like the 
 cellar, but not in a place where the temperature will ever fall 
 near the freezing-point. Roots will form on many of these twigs, 
 leaves will develop, and when the warm spring days come the 
 plants may be set out in the ground. Anyone in the community 
 who raises currants will give some cuttings for the school garden. 
 You may also buy one or two plants, and when they have a good 
 start take cuttings from them. Plants should be set at least 
 five feet apart each way. Red Dutch is the best variety, as it 
 is hardy and is free from the borers that attack currants. Other 
 varieties are larger (cherry, Fay, etc.) and they may be tried. 
 Currants need pruning yearly, the old canes being cut out, since 
 only the young ones bear the fruit. The currant worms are 
 
THE GARDEN 427 
 
 eliminated by dusting the leaves freely with white hellebore. 
 Leaf blight, or leaf spot, is prevented by spraying the unfolding 
 leaves with Bordeaux mixture. Pupils should read cultural 
 directions for currants so as to make the currant patch a neigh- 
 borhood model. 
 
 Grape culture. In a similar way cuttings of grapes may be 
 propagated. In ordering the plants select them so as to have 
 several varieties, such as Catawba, Niagara, Diamond, Moore's 
 early, and Worden, which mature at different times. The usual 
 country grape arbor bears worthless grapes because the vines are 
 not properly pruned. Prune back heavily, leaving only one 
 main stalk five or six feet high to grow. Let it bear only two or 
 three horizontal branches, and cut these back every fall (late) to 
 within four or five feet of the main stem. Support the vine on 
 a trellis. 
 
 The home garden. This garden may serve a variety of pur- 
 poses. By it the child may contribute in no small measure to 
 the support of the home; and the flower garden will surely add to 
 the pleasure of the home. While vegetables are usually cheap, 
 a fresh supply from the back yard at all seasons conduces to a 
 healthful diet and to economic self-support (Fig. 295). An 
 ordinary back-yard garden fifty by seventy-five feet may grow, 
 under the care of a boy or girl, from twenty-five to seventy-five 
 dollars' worth of garden stuff. This is no mean contribution to 
 the income of the ordinary family. Much of this will be for 
 home consumption, but not a little may be sold in the neighbor- 
 hood if the plants are chosen wisely. One boy of the author's 
 acquaintance sold $2.85 worth of head lettuce from his patch. 
 Another disposed of $4.25 worth of golden bantam sweet corn. 
 One girl sold $7 . 50 worth of tomato plants out of her cold frame 
 and then had plenty left to plant her patch. One strawberry 
 patch of a hundred hills produced ninety-eight quarts in one 
 season for home consumption, canning, and sale. These choice 
 early berries sold at fifteen cents a quart. This was only one 
 bed in the home garden. 
 
428 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Family interest. Not infrequently the father and mother 
 become interested in the boy's or the girl's garden, and as a 
 result the whole family works to keep things shipshape. If there 
 is an extensive home garden the child should have his own plot 
 to plan, plant, and care for. Parents may help him and he may 
 help in their garden plot, but the responsibility of an area all his 
 
 FIG. 295. A back-yard garden 
 
 own is one feature that tends to develop the desirable qualities 
 in the growing child. 
 
 The farm acre. The child's home plot may be primarily a 
 commercial venture. This is most likely to be true on the farm, 
 where the boy may be given an acre to cultivate and to devote 
 to a single crop. And it is surprising what returns have come in 
 from these one-acre plots. One boy I know grew $300 worth of 
 onions on his acre; another produced over $50 worth of garlic on 
 a tenth of an acre (Fig. 296). One incorrigible boy a perpetual 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 429 
 
 source of annoyance to the teacher until the garden project was 
 started grew cabbage on his little garden plot 4 by 10 feet. The 
 next year he begged for a larger space. He had no back yard, 
 as he was a lad of the city tenements; On the larger plot he 
 again grew cabbage and made enough money to hire a vacant 
 lot the next year. On this he grew cabbage and cleared enough 
 to hire a horse and to purchase three acres at the end of the car 
 line. That three-acre garden was maintained for three years, 
 
 FIG. 296. A farm boy's acre of onions 
 
 and then the boy, only in his teens, became a capable truck 
 gardener. 
 
 The teacher's task. The teacher's task is to stimulate inter- 
 est in the home gardens, to supervise them in an informal 
 way, to advise, and to be counselor in emergencies. He must 
 put the boy or girl in touch with sources of information books, 
 pamphlets, the state agricultural college, the national Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture so that the chosen crop may be raised in 
 the most approved way. He must be able to arouse enthusiasm, 
 so that when the youngster grows weary with the endless task of 
 weeding, hoeing, and cultivating he may be able to keep him at 
 
430 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 it in spite of the difficulties. A garden task dropped when 
 difficulties thicken might better never have been begun. Do not, 
 therefore, encourage large projects until you have led the child 
 successfully through (not into) small ones. All of this requires 
 no small degree of skill, tact, and trouble. Let the teacher 
 count the cost of such garden work before it is undertaken and 
 not go into it simply because school gardens are in vogue. The 
 superintendent should see to it that adequate time and facilities 
 are given to the teacher who undertakes garden work. Since 
 garden work must be well done to be at all worth while, the 
 teacher who undertakes it should be largely relieved of other 
 work if it is to be given a fair trial. 
 
 The project plan. With the two highest grades of the ele- 
 mentary school the project plan is best pursued, both in the 
 school garden and at home. The project undertaken may be of 
 a somewhat more difficult nature than those already suggested. 
 The beautification of the home grounds and the school grounds 
 is a worth-while undertaking. Flower beds and an attractive 
 lawn add to the appearance of the humblest home. Many a 
 schoolhouse is gaunt and repulsive because no green thing grows 
 in its grounds. Shrubs and trees wonderfully relieve the barren- 
 ness of the school yard or the home grounds. 
 
 Propagation of shrubs and trees. The propagation of many 
 of the ordinary lawn shrubs is easy. It is done as has already 
 been described for the currants. In the early spring, when the 
 pruning of such shrubs is going on, a supply of cuttings may 
 usually be had for the asking. When rooted, these may be set 
 out in rows in the school garden and may then be hoed, cul- 
 tivated, and cared for like any other crop. In a year or two 
 they will be ready to transplant to their permanent places on the 
 school or home grounds. This is the way nursery stock is handled 
 in propagation. A miniature nursery may thus be kept going in 
 order to plant the school grounds', and stock may also be taken 
 from it to the home grounds. A school might thus quite transform 
 a community where shrubs were not freely used about the homes. 
 
THE GARDEN 43* 
 
 In a similar way a tree nursery may be started. In the fall 
 have a nutting party to gather acorns from the white oak, scar- 
 let oak, or other desired species of oak, as well as hickory 
 nuts, walnuts, hazel nuts, and the seeds of ash, maple, syca- 
 more, or other desired trees. Plant such nuts or seeds in the 
 spring and rear the seedlings. It is well to crack (not crush) the 
 shells of acorns, walnuts, hickory nuts, etc., before planting, as 
 they will germinate more readily. It may be quite possible to 
 obtain saplings of trees from neighboring woods for planting on 
 the school and the home grounds. All that is necessary, then, 
 is to stimulate interest in the project. 
 
 Transplanting trees. Transplant deciduous saplings in the 
 late fall or early spring; transplant evergreens in September or 
 October. Remember that the root system below ground is 
 about as large as the branches and twigs the head of the 
 tree above ground. Move as many as possible of the roots, 
 taking up a great ball of earth with them. Have the hole 
 already dug to receive the tree; set the sapling in position 
 and stamp the earth as it is shoveled in about the roots. 
 If the transplanting is done in the spring the earth may be 
 washed in around the roots, bucketfuls of water being thrown 
 into the hole as the dirt is put in. In spite of care many 
 roots are broken in transplanting, and it is well to cut off the 
 twigs and branches, not only to make the tree more shapely, 
 but to reduce the number of buds the roots must support the 
 first year. The size of the head left should not exceed the mass 
 of roots transplanted. 
 
 Fruit trees. The tree nursery may well contain seedlings of 
 orchard trees. Cultivated stock seldom grows true from seed, 
 so that when you plant a cherry pit or pliim stone you will 
 not get the same desirable variety of fruit that the seed came 
 from. Seedlings of hardy sorts are reared to make a vigorous 
 root system and then the desired fruit is grafted on to the 
 stock. As a rule the stock tends to revert to hardy ancestral 
 types when grown from seed. 
 
432 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Grafting. Plant seeds of apples, cherries, peaches, plums, 
 pears, and quinces and rear the seedlings. When the seedlings 
 are two or three years old graft on the desired fruit as follows: 
 In early spring, before the buds start, cut from a tree that bears 
 the desired fruit two twigs about four inches long, each bearing 
 a few buds. With a sharp knife trim the butt of each twig into 
 
 FIG. 297. The method of grafting: a, the stub ready to graft; b, splitting the 
 stub (a jackknife may as well be used) ; c, the scion. It should be from a bearing 
 branch on a fruitful tree and should have well-developed buds (like d); never cut 
 it from a sucker; taper it as shown in c; e, opening the cut to receive scions; /, 
 scions in place; g, wax applied to juncture of stub of scions and tips of scions. If 
 both scions grow break off one (Country Life in America, April, 1905). 
 
 a thin wedge an inch and a half long. These are now the. grafts. 
 Keep these freshly cut surfaces moist while you prepare the scion. 
 Cut one of your saplings square off six inches above ground. 
 Split the stump for a couple of inches, leaving the knife in the 
 bottom of the cut to hold the halves apart. Set in the two twigs 
 vertically, one on each side, so that the cambium layer on one 
 side of each wedge is in contact with the cambium layer of the 
 scion. Withdraw the knife so that the split closes and holds 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 433 
 
 the grafts firmly. Immediately smear the area of operation 
 with grafting wax or bind with bicycle tire tape so as to cover 
 all cut surfaces and close all cracks (Fig. 297). 
 
 Grafting wax. It is made thus: Melt together in a kettle 
 one part, by weight, of tallow, two of beeswax, and four of resin. 
 
 FIG. 298. A well-pruned young fruit tree and an old one that was not well 
 trimmed when young. 
 
 Pour the mixture into a bucket of cold water and work it with 
 the hands (which have been greased), as you would knead bread 
 dough, until it becomes the color of molasses candy. It will 
 keep for years if made into a ball and put away in a cool cellar. 
 Care after grafting. Use two grafts to double the chances 
 of success. After one is evidently well established cut off the 
 
434 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 other, even if it, too, is growing. Apples and pears grafted upon 
 quinces will give dwarf trees; wild crab apples may be used as 
 scion stock for apples, wild cherry for cultivated cherry as an 
 experiment, and cultivated plums do well grafted upon wild ones. 
 After the graft is growing well it must be pruned, at first to make 
 it grow tall and later to make the head low and open. Every 
 year any dead branches must be cut out, and all branches should 
 be cut back (Fig. 298). 
 
 Distances for planting. Fruit trees frequently bear poorly 
 because they are set too close together. The following list 
 indicates, for the more common fruits, the distance in any 
 direction from one tree to the next: apples 30 ft.; cherries 20 
 ft.; peaches 20 ft.; pears 20 ft.; plums 16 ft.; quinces 10 ft. 
 Distances for dwarf apples and pears are half that given above. 
 
 The planting plan. In planting both home grounds and 
 school grounds it is well to work to a planting plan. Draw to 
 scale a map or plan of the yard, locating buildings, walks, and 
 any trees or shrubbery already in place. The area to be used 
 for the school garden may be indicated on this. The working 
 plan of this garden will best be drawn on a separate sheet to a 
 large scale. 
 
 The lawn. The fundamental part of any scheme of beauti- 
 fication is the lawn (Fig. 299). Cover the yard with well-rotted 
 manure and have it plowed deeply. It should then be har- 
 rowed and should later be hand-raked to make it fine. Lawn 
 grass is usually a mixture of several varieties, for if a single sort 
 be planted it is likely to mature and die down before the season 
 is over. It is economy, in the long run, to buy the best of seed 
 from a reliable dealer and to trust to his experience to provide a 
 seed suited to a particular climate and type of soil. The seed 
 is to be mixed with its own volume of dry sand and is to be sown 
 broadcast on a windless day. A pound of seed sows about three 
 square rods of ground. Surely the school board should provide 
 the lawn. However, I have known pupils to spade the school 
 yard and sod it piecemeal for three years when an indifferent 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 435 
 
 board would do nothing, turning a barren yard into a very re- 
 spectable lawn. 
 
 Placing trees and shrubs. In placing trees and shrubbery 
 the aim should be: (i) to hide the basement walls, not so much 
 because they are ugly as to make the home or school look more 
 cozy, snuggled down in a nest of green; (2) to border lawns with 
 clumps of shrubbery. Nothing is more effectually decorative 
 
 FIG. 299. A well-kept lawn (from The Illinois Way of Beautifying the Farm) 
 
 than a wide stretch of fine lawn. Do not break it up with flower 
 beds, shrubs, or trees set out in the middle of it. Keep them 
 back along the edges. They will appear to better advantage, as 
 will also the lawn. Clumps of shrubs at the turns of roads and 
 paths afford an apparent reason for the turn. Study the effects 
 from the inside of the house. The views from the windows 
 should be enhanced, not hindered, by trees and shrubs. Long 
 vistas are desirable, and if these can be framed in drooping 
 tree branches, so much the better. Consider the room and its 
 
436 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 furnishings a part of the picture. The flowers that nod on the 
 shrubs outside the window should not shout at the window hang- 
 ings or the wall paper. Colors should at least harmonize. The 
 house color must also be considered. A crimson rambler grow- 
 ing against a red brick house may lose its beauty, while a white 
 Dorothy climbing rose will be set off exquisitely by its back- 
 ground. 
 
 Succession of bloom. In planting both flower beds and beds 
 of shrubbery one must consider time of bloom, so as to be sure of 
 a succession of color. It is possible for one to plant together 
 such shrubs as will all bloom simultaneously and produce a 
 confusion of inharmonious blossoms. A little planning will 
 suggest a group of shrubs that will come into bloom in succession, 
 and so keep in the mass some points of color from early spring 
 until late fall. 
 
 Relative heights important. Then, too, the varying heights 
 of the mature shrubs must be considered, so that the tall ones 
 may be planted in the center of the clump, the shorter ones put 
 next, and the very low ones used as the border. Variations in 
 shade of foliage should be kept in mind. By combining dark 
 greens, light greens, variegated foliage, and autumnal tints one 
 can have a shrub border that will be pleasing all the year round 
 merely because of its shades of green. There is no reason why 
 fruit trees, especially the dwarf sorts, should not be used on the 
 lawn, both for ornamental effect and for fruit. Quince, cherry, 
 and apple trees are all beautiful in blossom as well as when full 
 of fruit. 
 
 Attracting the birds. It is worth while, in planting, to put 
 in such shrubs as will bear fruit that the birds appreciate. A 
 list of such shrubs is given in the chapter on " Birds." The 
 presence of the birds about the lawn or garden is worth cultivat- 
 ing, just for the protection they give the garden from the 
 depredations of insect pests. 
 
 Hybridization projects. One project that should certainly be 
 undertaken in the upper grades is the hybridization of some of 
 
THE GARDEN 437 
 
 the common garden plants in order to make clear the principle 
 involved. In modern agriculture much has been accomplished 
 by the application of what little is known regarding the laws of 
 inheritance. Our modern comprehension of these laws dates 
 back only a generation, to the work of an Austrian monk, 
 Johann Mendel. His work was done on garden peas ; and these 
 plants would make good material with which to repeat his 
 experiments. Corn is also a good plant with which to experi- 
 ment. 
 
 MendeV s work. Mendel was impressed with the need of a 
 better understanding of this very fundamental matter of inherit- 
 ance. After years of experimental study he published, in 1868, 
 his conclusions in a rather obscure journal, the Proceedings of 
 the Briinn Natural History Society. It was not until 1900 that 
 the importance of these studies was recognized, since which time 
 his results have been known as "Mendel's Laws of Inheritance." 
 He crossed two pea vines, one bearing peas which were green, the 
 other a vine bearing yellow peas when mature. The method of 
 procedure is as follows: 
 
 The way to hybridize. Just before the flower buds are about 
 to open naturally, forcibly open several of them on both sorts of 
 vines and remove the anthers. Inclose each blossom thus 
 treated in a small paper bag to prevent pollen from reaching the 
 stigma. When the blossoms open naturally, thereby showing 
 that the stigmas are ready to receive the pollen, dust off with a 
 small camel's-hair brush some of the pollen from the anthers of a 
 blossom on the vines grown from green peas, and transfer some 
 of the pollen to the stigma of a blossom on the yellow-pea vine 
 which lias been previously relieved of its anthers, as directed 
 above. Treat all the bagged yellow-pea blossoms in this manner. 
 Fertilize the bagged blossoms on the vines bearing green peas 
 with the pollen from the yellow sort. 
 
 The hybrid peas. After thus pollinating the peas keep the 
 blossoms tied up in the bags. Let the pods form, and when they 
 are mature pick them and keep the peas. All are found to be 
 
438 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 yellow, as yellow color in peas is dominant over green. These 
 peas belong to the first hybrid generation, designated the Fj 
 generation. Plant these peas and let them self-pollinate. The 
 plants grown from these are the second hybrid generation, or 
 the F 2 generation. The peas they bear will be found to be 
 approximately one-fourth green and three-fourths yellow. 
 
 Dominant features. Since the green character recedes tem- 
 porarily from view, but reappears, it is known as the recessive 
 character. Which of a pair of opposed characters will be 
 dominant and which will be recessive can be told only by trial. 
 When these green peas are planted and allowed to self -fertilize, 
 the offspring are green, generation after generation. Of the 
 yellow peas in the F 2 generation one-third produce only yel- 
 low peas in successive generations, but "two-thirds (i.e., one- 
 half the F 2 generation) produce offspring one-fourth of which 
 are pure green, one-fourth pure yellow, and one-half apparent 
 yellow, but with the recessive character present though not 
 showing. 
 
 Law holds only for large numbers. These results obtain only 
 when large numbers of peas are grown. If one pea of the F x 
 generation were planted and twenty peas of the F 2 generation 
 were reared the proportion given above might not exactly hold. 
 But if one thousand peas of the F z generation are sown and 
 twenty thousand peas of the F 2 generation are harvested the law 
 will be found to hold true with considerable exactness. Here are 
 given the results Mendel obtained in the second generation in 
 several pairs of opposed characters, in each of which the pro- 
 portion of dominant to recessive is about three to one. 
 
 NUMBER PRODUCED F 2 
 
 
 Dominant 
 
 Recessive 
 
 
 Length of vine 
 
 787 tall 
 
 277 dwarf 
 
 2 84.11 
 
 Color of seed 
 
 6 02 2 yellow 
 
 2 ooi green 
 
 3 01 : i 
 
 Form of seed 
 
 5,474 smooth 
 
 i 850 wrinkled 
 
 2 .06: i 
 
 Color of flower 
 
 705 colored 
 
 244 white 
 
 31 C ' I 
 
 
 
 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 439 
 
 Results in schematic form. Such results are shown schemati- 
 cally as follows: Since peas are considered fundamentally green, 
 and it requires the presence of some determining factor to change 
 them to yellow, it is customary to designate the yellow factor 
 therefore by Y, the absence of the yellow factor by y. A pure 
 yellow-pea plant is written YY, a pure green by yy, the hybrid 
 stock by Y(y) ; the latter will be yellow in appearance for the 
 yellow factor (Y) is present. The results of the cross may be 
 represented by the following diagram: 
 
 
 YY-yy 
 Y(y) 
 
 
 
 Parents 
 First generation 
 
 Second gen. F 2 
 Third gen. F 3 
 
 1 
 
 | YY 
 
 1 - 
 All YY 1 
 
 |Y(y) 
 
 
 1 y f 
 
 All yy 
 
 YY \ Y(y) 
 
 1 
 
 i yy 
 
 I | 
 
 1 
 
 All YY All YY i YY | Y(y) i yy All yy All yy Fourth gen. F 4 
 
 The foundation of the law. The law follows necessarily from 
 the fact that the germ cells of an F z generation pea may be of two 
 sorts, those with and those without the factor that gives the 
 yellow. There may be eggs with this factor and eggs without it. 
 These two kinds of eggs may be , fertilized by two classes of 
 sperm. Recall the paragraphs on fertilization (p. 239). The 
 results are indicated herewith: 
 
 Sperm Y or y 
 
 Eggs 
 or 
 
 y 
 
 YY 
 
 Yy 
 
 Yy 
 
 yy 
 
 This gives the proportion i YY: 2 Yy: i yy. 
 
 Experience needed. This would be quite meaningless to 
 upper-grade pupils if learned from books, but if, in these grades, 
 pupils grow peas in the school for the purpose of conducting the 
 hybridizing experiments, under the direction of the teacher, they 
 
440 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 will work out much of it easily with concrete material. In two 
 successive summers four generations of peas could be grown, and 
 some of the more fundamental facts would be learned at first 
 hand. 
 
 As scientists have continued to work on this matter of 
 heredity, they have found that it is not as simple as the foregoing 
 statement of Mendel's laws make it appear; in fact in many 
 instances Mendel's laws apparently fail to hold good. Still the 
 experience in hybridizing the garden peas will impress pupils 
 with the fact that heredity is no haphazard thing, but is an 
 orderly phenomenon, and that the hereditary characters which 
 any plant or animal manifests may be expected to reappear in 
 successive generations even if they temporarily disappear. 
 
 Basis of stock improvement. It is the knowledge of the laws 
 of heredity, imperfect as this knowledge is, that is at the basis 
 of all of our intelligent attempts at stock improvement in both 
 animal and plant breeding. Thus Burbank saw one very 
 desirable quality in our native field daisy, namely, its great 
 hardihood. It is a rank weed that in many places holds its own 
 against severe competition, but it is of relatively small size 
 and is a rather dirty white. The Japanese daisy is still smaller ; 
 but Burbank noted that it had a wonderful pearly luster. In 
 England he learned of a species that was of large size, but tender. 
 By hybridization, he succeeded in combining these three desirable 
 characters in the new Shasta daisy, which has the size of its 
 English ancestor, the luster of the Japanese daisy, and the 
 hardihood of the American progenitor. It has been difficult to 
 produce pure dominant stock, for if dominant is present in a 
 single dose the daisy appears to possess the desired characters, 
 but some of its offspring show recessive characters, the undesir- 
 able traits. Not all Shasta daisy seed, therefore, is absolutely 
 pure as yet. 
 
 Hybrid grains wheat. By a similar process hybrid grains 
 are being produced to meet new requirements. Thus a few years 
 ago, when the great prairie regions of Western Canada (Manitoba 
 
THE GARDEN 441 
 
 and Alberta) were made accessible to settlers, it was found that 
 the soil was eminently adapted to growing wheat. Some 
 phenomenal crops were raised and farmers flocked to the new 
 country to stake out claims; many thousands went from the 
 Western United States, from Minnesota, and the Dakotas. It 
 was soon discovered, however, that the heavy winds of the fall 
 and the early frosts beat down or nipped the grain so that only 
 in exceptional years could good crops be harvested. While 
 many of the disappointed early settlers returned to the States, 
 those remaining appealed to the scientific breeders of England 
 for a winter wheat with very strong stem that would withstand 
 the prevailing fall winds, and with the habit of maturing early. 
 Some Siberian wheats were known that matured early; other 
 late-maturing sorts were known that had exceptionally strong 
 stalks. With such stock the scientific breeders went to work, 
 and in two years' time seed with the desired combination of 
 characters was on its way to the farmers of the Canadian North- 
 west. This region is now one of the great wheat countries of the 
 world, and the crop is reasonably secure. 
 
 Corn hybrids. Different types of corn are needed for different 
 purposes: if cornstarch is wanted the kernel must have a large 
 content of starch; if the corn is to be used to feed cattle for 
 market it must have a high protein content; if it is to be 'used to 
 fatten pigs it needs more oil; if it is to be served as a vegetable 
 on our dinner tables it must contain much sugar. In the arid 
 regions of the West a drought-resisting type must be used; in 
 the North it must be a kind that will mature early. 
 
 The desirable corn plant. A corn plant is desirable that has 
 a strong stalk, sturdy enough to hold up and mature two big ears. 
 The ear should have a cob that is not too thick and kernels that 
 are long and of such a shape that they will fit together without 
 much space between them, so that there will be a maximum 
 weight of corn on an ear. If the kernels are short and the cob 
 is thick, while the ear may be large, only a small proportion of it 
 will be salable corn. Then, too, the kernels must grow all over 
 
442 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 the tip and well down on the butt of the ear. All the desired 
 characters are hard to find in any one variety of corn, so that the 
 breeder has been busy hybridizing and selecting in order to 
 combine the best features in one breed. This is a slow process 
 at best, for only pure dominants or pure recessives can be used 
 as seed with any certainty of a crop of the same sort. The 
 desired qualities are usually dominants, so that it takes several 
 generations of trial and selection to get a pure dominant strain, 
 as is evident from the discussion of Mendel's law. By planting 
 
 FIG. 300. A well-cultivated corn patch 
 
 alternate rows of two types of corn, each of which possesses some 
 of the valuable characters, many intelligent farmers are securing 
 improved crops even before seed that will breed true is available. 
 This method insures likelihood of cross-pollination and a hybrid 
 crop, with the production in the corn crop of most all of the 
 desired' characters. 
 
 The seed plot. Most alert farmers now maintain a small plot 
 for growing seed. Whether it is corn, wheat, oats, or some other 
 crop that is grown, the quality may be improved by hybridization 
 and selection. Moreover, the problem is always a local one 
 
THE GARDEN 443 
 
 the production of a type of plant that will be most productive 
 on the soil of particular farms and under certain local conditions. 
 This fact has been best realized and most successfully put into 
 practice in Norway, where Nielson and his staff of able assistants 
 at the Government Experiment Station have produced varied 
 types of grain, notably oats and barley, each adapted to a dif- 
 ferent valley with its peculiar soil and climate. Thus the grain 
 production of the country has been very greatly increased. 
 
 It is very interesting to know that boys and girls in our own 
 country have been no mean factor in demonstrating what can be 
 done to increase the production per acre by careful seed selection 
 and intensive cultivation (Fig. 300). Jerry Moore's record has 
 already been noted (p. 393). That same year Hannah Plowden, 
 seventeen years old, also of South Carolina, raised 120 bushels 
 from her acre. These are but single instances of the hundreds 
 of boys and girls, the country over, who have produced more 
 than a hundred bushels per acre. In 1914, 334 boys, in fifteen 
 southern states, achieved this record. Carl Graves, of Loso, 
 Mississippi, raised 202 bushels in 1914. Delphine Moore, an 
 Arkansas girl, raised 101 bushels to the acre at a cost of 12 cents 
 per bushel. Earl Zeller, of Greene County, Iowa, in three 
 successive years raised 403 bushels of corn on an acre at a cost 
 of 9 cents per bushel, netting $440.80. John E. Devine, of 
 South Hadley, Massachusetts, raised 117 bushels per acre; Hoyt 
 Quimby, of Harlakender, Vermont, obtained 124 bushels; 
 Robert Mack, of New Jersey, 103 bushels. R. Ethan Allen, of 
 Morgantown, West Virginia, raised 680 bushels of corn on five 
 acres, selling 245 bushels of it as seed for over $700.00. All 
 these are the achievements of boys and girls in corn raising. 
 
 There have been similar accomplishments by other boys and 
 girls with other crops. Ralph and Merle Hyer, in Utah, raised 
 840 and 797 bushels of potatoes to the acre. Howard Dalton 
 in the same state raised 720 bushels. The average for the 
 country in the best potato year that has occurred was 113.4 
 bushels. Katie Gunter, of Samaria, South Carolina, in 1911 
 
444 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 301. A Howard County (Maryland) pig-club boy and his pig (photo- 
 graph from Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.). 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 445 
 
 grew and put up 512 cans of tomatoes at a cost of 4 cents per 
 can, and was champion for that year. Her net profit was 
 
 FIG. 302. The 1916 Georgia pig^club champion and his pig raised on garbage 
 and setting the pace for economy of production (photograph from the Department 
 of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.). 
 
446 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 $78 .37. Then in successive years came Fay Parker, of Arkansas, 
 Clyde Sullivan, of Ousley, Georgia, who raised and canned 5,354 
 pounds of tomatoes from a tenth of an acre, and Hester Sartain, 
 of Walker County, Alabama, with 7,037 pounds of tomatoes 
 as her crop and a profit of $146.20. The same year Winifred 
 Goff, of Ritchie County, West Virginia, produced 7,462 pounds 
 on her tenth of an acre, though her net profit was not so great 
 as Miss Sar tain's. Miss Lottie Luckett, of Kentucky, holds the 
 
 FIG. 303. Clifford Duncan and his prize calf, calf-club contest, Oklahoma 
 City (Oklahoma) Fat Stock Show, March, 1917 (photograph from Department 
 of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.). 
 
 record for profit from a tenth of an acre of tomatoes, her profit 
 being $204.77. Helen Durham, of Bountiful, Utah, holds the 
 record for variety in canning, having put up in one season 95 
 sorts of fruits, vegetables, and meats. All of this work is under 
 the guidance of the Departments of Education and of Agriculture 
 of the United States. It is not the aim of the work merely to 
 teach boys and girls how to produce more corn and more 
 tomatoes. It is the belief of those who are guiding it all that 
 there is large educative value in such a project in growing a 
 bumper crop or fattening a lot of pigs. To comprehend the 
 
THE GARDEN 447 
 
 instructions Uncle Sam sends out, to fit them to local conditions, 
 to meet successfully the many difficulties that are bound to arise, 
 to profit by mistakes, and to carry a project through to the end 
 to do this is to gain much of an education. It is an educative 
 scheme, and over a quarter of a million boys and girls are enrolled 
 in 'the various clubs now, the work of which is being rapidly 
 graded and thoroughly systematized. Such projects under the 
 guidance of the government experts may be made a part of the 
 school garden work in any community, and will surely prove 
 stimulating. These projects in the garden have led to others in 
 raising pigs and beef animals, for the boys and girls have found 
 that it is often more profitable to feed corn to hogs and sell them 
 than to sell the corn itself. Thus have come into existence the 
 boys' and girls' prize pig and beef clubs (Figs. 301, 302, 303). 
 
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448 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
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 No. 196, Usefulness of the American Toad. 
 
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 Bulletin No. i, 1905. School Gardens for California Schools. State 
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THE GARDEN 449 
 
 Circular No. 1 70, Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana, Illinois. 
 
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 (Trenton). Vegetable Gardening. 
 College Bulletin No. 176. Oregon Agricultural College (Corvallis). 
 
 School and Home Gardening for Elementary Schools in Oregon. 
 Hampton Leaflets, Vol. VIII, No. i. Hampton Normal and Agri- 
 cultural Institute, Hampton, Virginia. Home Decoration. 
 Alger, Edith Goodyear. Vermont Department of Education (Mont- 
 
 pelier), Circular No. XIII, 1902. School Gardens. 
 Writ to 
 
 Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Canada, for instruction sheets. 
 Schoo Garden Association of America, 4852 Broadway, New York, 
 
 for publications. 
 
 Children's Flower Mission, Cleveland, Ohio, for penny packets of seeds. 
 Home Gardening Association, Cleveland, Ohio, for report. 
 The National Cash Register Company, Dayton, Ohio, for The Boy 
 
 Gardeners 
 The International Harvester Company, Chicago, Illinois, for Grow a 
 
 Garden and other circulars. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 SPORE-BEARERS 
 
 A typical spore-bearer the puffball. There is a group of 
 plants that does not reproduce by seeds. While the seed-bearing 
 plants are the ones that are most familiar to us, the spore- 
 bearing plants are quite as important in our lives and they make 
 a far more numerous group. Probably the most familiar spore- 
 bearer with which the average child is acquainted is the common 
 puffball, that brownish sphere found growing in the meadows, or 
 perhaps on an old stump, from which the child squeezes succes- 
 sive puffs of "smoke." Many children regard these as rotten 
 potatoes, and have, moreover, the frightsome delusion that if 
 the " smoke " gets into their eyes it will make them blind. Many 
 a small boy has run in terror from a larger companion who 
 possessed one of these terrifying objects and made threats to use 
 it on the youngster. As a matter of fact the "smoke" is quite 
 harmless, consisting merely of countless little particles, really 
 hard-walled cells, each of which is a spore. These spores, 
 alighting on moist ground where conditions are favorable, will 
 proceed to grow and form new plants (Fig. 304). 
 
 Spore cases of fern. Many children, too, are familiar with 
 the spore cases that are to be found on the backs of fern leaves 
 (Fig. 305). They frequently grow in clusters, which form 
 brownish dots on the back of the leaf. The spores discharged 
 from these are about as tiny as those from the puffball, and 
 usually escape detection unless the fern leaves are laid, spore- 
 bearing surface down, on a sheet of white paper. Then when 
 the spores fall they may be seen as fine dust on the paper. 
 
 The entire fungus. The puffball, as we collect it, is not all 
 of the plant; in fact it is only a small portion of it, somewhat as 
 a seed pod is only a small portion of a seed-bearing plant. The 
 
 45 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 
 
 451 
 
 bulk of the plant is growing somewhere in the ground and the 
 puffball is only that part of the plant which comes to the surface 
 to bear the spores. 
 
 The pujfball is one of a great group of plants known as fungi. 
 They often grow in decomposing material, like a rotting log, a 
 manure heap, dead leaves, etc. Probably every child, in his 
 experience, has encountered the body of the fungus. If you rip 
 the bark off a decomposing log you will often see white, cottony 
 
 FIG. 304. A protected puffball Geaster on the sand 
 
 masses of interlaced delicate threads, which frequently can be 
 traced into the tissue of the rotting log. Sometimes similar 
 cobwebby material is found in the rotting leaves in the spring, 
 or is observed in the manure heap as it is forked over. This is 
 the true mass of the fungus plant, the mycelium, as it is called. 
 Each of the delicate threads that together make up the mycelium 
 is known as a hypha. 
 
 The germinating spore. When the spores of the puffball, for 
 instance, drifting on the air currents, alight on some spot of 
 ground beneath the surface of which there is some decaying 
 
452 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 material upon which the fungus can feed, the spores germinate 
 and each grows into one of these hyphal threads. The mycelium 
 is probably the result of the germination of many spores. In 
 due course of time this colorless mycelium, feeding on the decay- 
 ing material, sends up some of these hyphae toward the surface 
 
 of the ground. Joining together, they 
 grow into a tiny puffball, which at first 
 appears as only a little white button, 
 but grows larger as the hyphae become 
 more numerous and more extended. 
 Finally the inside of the puffball pro- 
 duces the multitudinous spores, and 
 when the outer rind of the puffball 
 breaks, these spores are gradually dis- 
 charged. The mycelium found growing 
 in the manure heap may be that of an- 
 other common fungus, called the inkpot. 
 That found in the old log is perhaps the 
 mycelium of the bracket fungus. The 
 spores of all these forms, of course, must 
 find situations similar to the habitat of 
 the original plant in order that they 
 may grow. 
 
 Molds. Perhaps the most familiar 
 of the fungi about the house are the 
 molds and mildews that persist in grow- 
 ing in our preserves, that form mildewy 
 masses on the decaying apples, or in 
 moist climates even invade our clothes 
 
 closets and grow on our boots and shoes. Some interesting ex- 
 periments may be made with these molds that will teach us much 
 about the nature of the fungi. Put a spoonful of some trans- 
 parent jelly, like crab apple, on a little plate and let this stand 
 uncovered for a day on the table at home or on your desk in the 
 schoolroom. Then cover it with a tumbler. Pretty soon on the 
 
 FIG. 305. A fern frond of 
 rock polypody to show clus- 
 ters of spore cases. 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 453 
 
 surface of the jelly a growth of cottony mold will begin to show. 
 The advantage of using the transparent jelly is that you can see 
 that not only is the mold growing on the surface, but very fine 
 hyphae are growing down into the jelly. This mold is a colorless 
 plant. It does not possess the chlorophyll which we know is so 
 essential in the manufacture of plant foods for the ordinary green 
 plant. It must therefore obtain its food ready-made, and these 
 
 FIG. 306. A black mold 
 
 hyphal threads are penetrating the jelly for the purpose of 
 absorbing nutrition They are the feeding hyphae. 
 
 Spore-bearing hyphae. Before very long some of the hyphae 
 that are growing into the air will develop little spore cases at 
 their ends (Fig 306). One of the commonest molds about the 
 house, the Mucor, grows little black spore cases on the ends of 
 the spore-bearing hyphae so that the white mold comes to be 
 covered with tiny black dots, as if it had been dusted with pepper. 
 It is always difficult to see the spores unless a microscope is 
 
454 SOURCE BOOK OP BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 available. Then if some of the hyphae bearing the spore cases 
 are put into a drop of water on a piece of glass and the drop is 
 examined under the low power of the microscope, the spores will 
 be seen as tiny rounded cells. We may examine the plant dry, 
 but in that case the majority of the spores will blow off before 
 we can get them under the microscope. 
 
 Molds in light. Instead of the jelly use pieces of bread. 
 Moisten the bread do not saturate it and then put it into pint 
 fruit jars. Screw the covers on the jars and place some of the 
 jars on the window sill in the sunlight, others on the table where 
 they are in ordinary light, and place still ethers in the r'ark corner 
 or even in a drawer or cupboard. In due course of time molds 
 will develop on the bread. It is interesting to note*whether the 
 exposure to the light makes any difference in the time of appear- 
 ance of the mold or in its rate of growth. In all probability 
 several different kinds of mold will develop, for the bread in the 
 several jars has come from different localities, and very likely the 
 spores which it contains will not all be the same. A very common 
 mold is the green mold (Pencillium), the spores of which occur in 
 clusters on the ends of the branches rather than in spore cases and 
 are green. 
 
 Bacteria. In addition to the cottony masses of mold, slimy 
 masses of varying color will probably be found, some light and 
 transparent like jelly, others red and yellow. These are probably 
 colonies of bacteria. The bacteria also are fungi and will be 
 considered later. 
 
 Making the soil for growing molds. We may readily make 
 our own garden or culture media for growing these samples of 
 mold and of bacteria. This is very simply done by melting 
 up, according to directions, some of the gelatin prepared for 
 puddings. Orange or grape gelatins are very satisfactory. If 
 these are not available we may make up a prune gelatin as 
 follows: Take two ounces of the gelatin that you buy at any 
 grocery store and add to it about half its own volume of water. 
 Let it soak for an hour or more. In another dish put to soak a 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 455 
 
 dozen prunes, just covering them with water. After they have 
 soaked for a few hours, gently boil them. Pour off the clear 
 liquid, or if it is not clear pass it through a piece of cloth and add 
 the gelatin The gelatin and the liquid from the prunes should 
 make nearly a pint. If it does not, add hot water to make about 
 four-fifths of a pint. Now heat the gelatin and prune juice 
 in a double boiler until the gelatin has all dissolved. If a 
 double boiler fe not at hand, set a pan that will hold a pint or 
 more in another larger pan that contains hot water and place on 
 the stove. The small pan should be kept off the bottom of the 
 large pan by setting it on any convenient object, such as a piece 
 of wire or the handles of two or three spoons. After the gelatin 
 has dissolved, the water in the large pan must be kept boiling 
 for about half an hour and the small pan must be kept covered. 
 The results are sure to be satisfactory if, instead of using the 
 small pan, one can use a thin- walled flask, such as can readily be 
 obtained from the high-school chemical laboratory. The mouth 
 of the flask should be kept loosely plugged with absorbent cotton 
 while the boiling is going on. When once the gelatin has been 
 sterilized by boiling it must be kept covered from the air or 
 again sterilized before it is used. 
 
 Preparing the spore beds. This makes up a stock solution 
 of gelatin. The most convenient culture tubes are ordinary test 
 tubes. The little homeopathic bottles that can be purchased at 
 a drug-store may also be used. Wash these clean in hot water, 
 then pour the gelatin preparation in, filling each bottle or test 
 tube one-fourth full. Plug the mouth of the bottle or test tube 
 with a wad of absorbent cotton and lay it down with the mouth 
 end raised half an inch or an inch from the table, so that as the 
 gelatin cools it will form a solid mass with large slanting surface. 
 When the gelatin has set, these may be used in place of the 
 transparent jelly or the bread in the experiment suggested above. 
 
 Sterilization by dry heat. We may readily perform an 
 experiment that will demonstrate what is meant by sterilization. 
 We have found that an abundance of mold grows on the bread in 
 
456 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 our pint fruit jars. Cut some slices of bread that are a half-inch 
 thick into little strips and fit them into the test tubes or small 
 bottles. Plug the mouth of the test tubes or bottles with 
 absorbent cotton and put these into an oven. Keep the oven at 
 a temperature that will make an ordinary sheet of white paper 
 yellow in half a minute. Leave the bottles containing the bread 
 in this temperature for a half -hour; then let them cool off gradu- 
 ally in the oven, or, if you are using test tubes, they may be 
 taken from the oven immediately at the end of the half-hour. 
 Next moisten the bread with boiled water, putting the water 
 on with a medicine dropper that has also been boiled for ten 
 minutes. Expose the bread to the air just as little as possible 
 when putting on the water. Let this bread in the test tubes or 
 bottles stand in the room for several days. Probably molds will 
 not appear in most of the bottles. 
 
 Steam sterilization. Molds should not appear in the tubes 
 of jelly which we have prepared above, but sometimes it is 
 necessary to sterilize the jelly in the tubes a second time before 
 we kill all of the spores that are present. We may do this in 
 another way which will illustrate a second method, sterilization 
 by the use of steam. Take two pails, like lard pails, one of which 
 will slip only two-thirds of the way into the other. Punch 
 several holes in the bottom of the upper pail and two or three in 
 its cover. Put two inches of water in the lower pail and set the 
 upper pail in it. Stand the vials or low jelly tumblers containing 
 the gelatin in this upper pail and cover it. Put the apparatus 
 on the stove and bring the water to a boil. Steam will pass 
 through the upper pail, and after the gelatin has melted, twenty 
 minutes of such steaming will serve to sterilize it. 
 
 Spores survive heat. That more than one such exposure is 
 necessary for complete sterilization is well known to the house- 
 keeper who preserves her fruit by the process of sterilization. 
 Fruit cans are thoroughly cleansed and rinsed out with boiling 
 water. The fruit in its syrup is thoroughly heated for a con- 
 siderable time, and then it is put with the syrup into the can and 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 457 
 
 sealed. The housewife does not put this away at once, however, 
 but stands it on a table in her fruit cellar and after a few days 
 inspects it. If any of the cans show signs of fermentation by 
 leaking somewhat, the cans are put into a double boiler and 
 steamed for an hour or so to again raise their content to the 
 temperature of boiling water. While the molds or living bacteria 
 are killed at the temperature of boiling water, their spores are 
 frequently much more resistant. These, however, promptly 
 germinate in warm solutions, and the second boiling will kill 
 such germinated spores. We may be practically certain that 
 three heatings to the boiling-point on successive days will com- 
 plete sterilization in all substances. 
 
 The yeast. One of the tiny fungi that is of large commercial 
 importance is the yeast plant. Like many tiny organisms, it 
 may retain its vitality after fairly complete drying, and all that 
 is necessary to start up its usual activities is to give it sufficient 
 water, when the cells absorb the moisture and resume their 
 growth and multiplication. Often the yeast is bought as com- 
 pressed yeast, in which the plants are massed together with more 
 or less of the starch in which they were grown and with the water 
 partly removed by pressure. 
 
 Growing yeast. Dissolve a tablespoonful of ordinary sugar 
 in a half-tumbler of water. Rub up in a little water a piece of 
 yeast as big as a pea and add it to the solution. Let this stand, 
 covered, at room temperature. The sugar is absorbed by the 
 yeast plants and is partially used in their growth. Alcohol is 
 formed in this process, and after the yeast has worked for some 
 time the odor of alcohol is quite apparent. The sugar solution 
 will be frothy with bubbles of carbon dioxide. Put some of such 
 sugar solution and yeast into a wide-mouthed bottle. Pass a 
 delivery tube of bent glass tubing through the cork and stick 
 the other end into a test tube half full of limewater. As the 
 yeast plants grow, the gas formed will be passed into the lime- 
 water. What is the reaction that demonstrates that this gas 
 is carbon dioxide? When the yeast "works" for several days, 
 
458 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 alcohol changes to acid and the solution sours. You can tell 
 this also by the odor. 
 
 Yeast for bread making. When yeast is used to make bread 
 rise it uses as food the starch which the flour contains. The 
 mixture of flour and water is sticky, so that the carbon-dioxide 
 gas cannot readily escape. In its effort to do so the bubbles 
 of gas permeate the dough and make it rise. When the bread is 
 kneaded the bubbles of gas are subdivided and resubdivided and 
 so distributed throughout the mass as to make the bread uni- 
 formly light. If the bread is not well kneaded 
 it is likely to be soggy in spots and unduly 
 porous elsewhere. 
 
 Appearance of yeast plant. If a micro- 
 scope is available, a drop of the sugar solution 
 taken from time to time out of the tumbler in 
 which the yeast is working may be examined. 
 The yeast plants are seen as tiny egg-shaped 
 objects, or as chains of such (see Fig. 307). 
 Each plant is a cell, a tiny mass of living 
 FIG. 307. Yeast protoplasm surrounded, in this plant, by a 
 
 plant seen under the n n mi i i ' , 
 
 microscope. ceii wa ^- rne denser nucleus may be seen if 
 
 a little stain, such as neutral red, is added 
 to the drop. If a single good-sized plant is kept under the 
 microscope for some time it will be seen to produce a small 
 projecting knob or bud which grows and becomes like the parent. 
 This may in turn bud, and thus the chains of plants arise. 
 
 Beer yeast. The yeasts used in the production of beer and 
 other fermented liquors are different ones from that used to raise 
 bread. There are several wild species of yeasts that are found 
 in various fermenting substances out of doors. Chopped 
 carrots left standing in water usually ferment sufficiently inside 
 of forty-eight hours to give a distinct odor of alcohol. 
 
 Bacteria. There follows, however, the growth of another 
 sort of tiny plants in the carrots a sort which work so rapidly 
 and multiply so fast that before long the yeast fermentation is 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 459 
 
 obscured by the decomposition due to the action of these other 
 plants. These are bacteria. They are much smaller than 
 yeast plants. Indeed, ten thousand of the bacteria that cause 
 pneumonia might be spread in a layer one bacterium thick on the 
 cross-section of a hair. Individually they are too small to be 
 seen, but the colonies that appear in a culture can be seen, a 
 has been noted above on the bread used for growing the mold. 
 It does not take very long for a colony to form from a single 
 bacterium. These tiny fungi reproduce usually by division; 
 that is, one simply separates into two parts, each of which 
 speedily becomes an adult bacterium like the parent form. So, 
 in culture media, spots appear that are masses of bacteria which 
 are all alike. It has been estimated that a single bacterium 
 growing under favorable conditions would, if none of its offspring 
 died, produce a mass of bacteria as large as the earth in the course 
 of a single week. Fortunately many die because conditions do 
 not remain favorable, or they are used as food by some of the 
 larger organisms. 
 
 Cultures of bacteria. The . same gelatin preparation sug- 
 gested above for the growth of molds may be used for bacterial 
 cultures. This may be put into sterile test tubes or wide- 
 mouthed bottles, low jelly dishes with covers (Fig. 308), or any 
 convenient sterile receptacles that can be covered, or plugged 
 with absorbent cotton. Lay the test tubes or vials on a table 
 with the mouth raised a little when the gelatin is cooling, so that 
 it will harden with a slanting surface. For very careful work the 
 gelatin should be sterilized by two or three heatings for twenty 
 minutes in the steam sterilizer and then cooled. But for our 
 purposes, if all dishes used in the preparation and if the recep- 
 tacles also have been sterilized, the gelatin as prepared will be 
 sufficiently free from living bacteria. 
 
 The house fly carries bacteria. Catch a house fly, put him 
 in one of the dishes or test tubes (slant tubes), let him crawl over 
 the gelatin, and then let him out. Keep the dish or tube at 
 room temperature. In two days his footsteps will be indicated 
 
460 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 by patches of bacteria growing wherever he stepped. The fly's 
 foot is admirably adapted, as are other parts of his body, for 
 carrying bacteria. These parts are hairy, and the bacteria 
 readily stick to these hairs. Moreover, the fly often feeds and 
 always breeds in decomposing organic material, such as manure 
 heaps, where bacteria are abundant. When they come to our 
 kitchens or dining-rooms, where food is being prepared or served, 
 
 FIG. 308. Bacterial colonies on gelatin in petri dish 
 
 they not infrequently wipe their filthy feet on the articles of 
 food we are about to eat. 
 
 Bacteria in air. Open one of the jelly glasses in the school- 
 room near the close of the session and set it where the dust may 
 settle into it. Cover it again and examine a few days later. At 
 the same time that this dish (or tube) is exposed, expose one for 
 the same length of time out of doors. Compare the two at the 
 end of two or three days. Which has the larger number of 
 bacterial colonies growing on it? Each colony represents a 
 bacterium that settled on the gelatin and began multiplying. 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 461 
 
 Other sources of bacteria. Let a child whose hands are dirty 
 touch the gelatin in one of the glasses with his fingers. Then 
 have him wash his hands and after they are dry let him touch the 
 gelatin in another jelly tumbler. Let the two tumblers stand 
 side by side for a few days and compare results. Let some child 
 with a cold breathe on the gelatin in one of the dishes. Have 
 some child free from cold breathe on the gelatin of another dish. 
 Let these glasses stand side by side for comparison. You may 
 swab the teeth of a child with a wad of absorbent cotton on the 
 end of a stick and wipe this on the gelatin. If you compare in 
 this way a child who habitually cleans his teeth with one who 
 " forgot " it, the results in the two dishes or tubes will likely prove 
 interesting. 
 
 Bacteria in dust. Scrape some of the dust from window 
 sills, unused desks, tops of doors, or other undisturbed places 
 about the room into a sterilized test tube and shake it up witn 
 water. Pour half of it into another sterilized test tube. With 
 a sterilized pipette put three or four drops of water from the first 
 test tube on some gelatin and cover the gelatin dish or tube at 
 once. Put a drop of glycothymoline, euthymol, creolin, or other 
 good disinfectant into the second sterilized test tube. Shake it 
 well and let it stand three minutes. Then put three or four drops 
 from this tube upon the gelatin in another tube, using a second 
 sterilized pipette for the purpose. This should demonstrate 
 not only that there are numerous bacteria in the dust of the 
 schoolroom but that these are killed readily by simple disin- 
 fectants. The schoolroom should be swept up daily, after some 
 disinfectant has been sprinkled on the floor. Many schools 
 supply the janitor with a sweeping powder to be scattered before 
 sweeping. This powder is itself a disinfectant. Sawdust soaked 
 in water, to each gallon of which four tablespoonfuls of creolin 
 have been added, may be used. 
 
 Sanitary school furniture. It would be very much worth 
 while to keep some cloths in a five-gallon crock of the same 
 solution, and to have all desks, window sills, blackboard ledges, 
 
462 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 globes, in fact all furniture, wiped off daily with this sterilizing 
 substance. If janitor service cannot be obtained for this 
 purpose, the children themselves will gladly do the work in the 
 interest of their own health. Two pupils could be assigned the 
 task for one week who would come each morning ten or fifteen 
 minutes before school to act as sanitary officers. In schools 
 where such service has been instituted the number of cases of 
 contagious disease has been greatly reduced, and the average 
 attendance has been raised nearly to the 100 per cent mark. 
 Moreover, the custom has spread from the school to the home, 
 where dusting is displaced by wiping furniture and floors with a 
 cloth moistened in some disinfectant. 
 
 Man's conquest of disease. In connection with this work 
 on the bacteria pupils of the upper grades should come to know 
 something of the history of man's conquest of those terrible germ 
 diseases that have always been the world's scourges. No better 
 opportunity than this will come for bringing them in contact 
 with high courage and inspiring devotion. It is a fine chance to 
 inculcate some moral ideals by learning of the noble men who 
 have given themselves to the task of conquering disease. The 
 enthusiasm of these men is contagious, even at long range ; and 
 it is a splendid thing to know of them. The best method of 
 procedure is to ask some of the older children to look up the data 
 in the bibliography suggested and to report to the school. 
 
 Koch and Pasteur. The discovery that many diseases are 
 caused by bacteria is well within the memory of men now living. 
 The credit for the early demonstrations belongs to Robert Koch 
 and Louis Pasteur. Not only did they show that certain diseases 
 of animals and man are to be traced to the activity of these tiny 
 organisms working in our bodies, but they showed, after long and 
 arduous labor, how the effects of the disease-producing bacteria 
 might be counteracted. Since their time many more diseases 
 have been traced to specific bacteria. Bacteria are divided, 
 according to their form, into the round, or coccus, forms, like 
 the coccus that causes pneumonia (pneumococcus) ; the rod- 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 463 
 
 shaped ones, or bacilli, like the bacillus of tuberculosis; and the 
 corkscrew-shaped ones, or the spirillum forms, like the spirillum 
 of Asiatic cholera. There are other shapes, too, but these are 
 some of the most distinctive sorts. 
 
 Pasteur's work. Pasteur was the first to demonstrate that 
 fermentation, such as we have seen occurring when yeast works, 
 is due to living things. He had to make his experimental proof 
 very convincing, for some of the greatest scientists of his day 
 the older men like Helmholtz and Liebig did not believe in 
 Pasteur's notion of the cause of fermentation. Then he under- 
 took to find out why wines sometimes spoil in aging. He found 
 that there were tiny organisms (really bacteria) that worked in 
 the wine and produced disagreeable-tasting products. He 
 discovered that this could be prevented if the wine were heated 
 and kept hot for a long enough time to kill these organisms. 
 This did not take so very long some twenty minutes. The 
 temperature did not have to be as high as the boiling-point, but 
 only i7oF. This treatment has since been found to kill many 
 dangerous bacteria. Thus if milk be so heated all tubercle 
 bacilli, typhoid germs, and the germs that cause dysentery are 
 killed. The process is known as pasteurization. 
 
 Silkworm disease. Next, Pasteur solved the mystery of the 
 silkworm diseases that were annually causing immense losses to 
 France. This was a very difficult task and required more than 
 three years of constant observation and experiment, with the 
 assistance of able men. When finally he announced his discovery 
 of the cause and the methods of prevention, his claims met with 
 severe criticism. Pasteur worked hard to maintain his ground. 
 He had always been a hard worker. First of all the staff to 
 arrive at the laboratory in the morning which, by the way, was 
 only a few steps from his home, so that he might not lose valuable 
 time in coming and going he worked steadily all day, making 
 observations, taking notes, performing experiments. He allowed 
 meager time for meals. At night he usually worked until late, 
 writing many letters and preparing his scientific papers. It was 
 
464 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 in the midst of his efforts to prove conclusively to the world the 
 accuracy of his discovery that he was stricken with paralysis, 
 and friends despaired of his life. He finally partially recovered, 
 but he never walked without discomfort afterward, and his hands 
 were so crippled that he had to give over to his assistants the 
 execution of the experiments that he planned. Yet even after 
 this he made his most wonderful discoveries and continued to 
 work with unabated enthusiasm for twenty-five years. 
 
 Anthrax. Another source of loss to France was anthrax, a 
 disease so deadly to sheep and cattle that it killed off about 
 10 per cent of all the sheep and 5 per cent of all the cattle each 
 year. Davaine had discovered the threadlike bacilli in the blood 
 of animals dying from the disease. Robert Koch, the famous 
 German bacteriologist, then a rising tutor, had made cultures 
 of them. Klebs had shown that when a well-fed animal was 
 inoculated with the culture, it came down with the disease. 
 Pasteur reared generation after generation of the organisms and 
 showed that the disease was produced in an animal quite as 
 readily by the bacilli reared outside of the body in artificial 
 culture media as by those from the blood of an animal suffering 
 from the disease. 
 
 Pasteur discovered vaccines. Then came an epoch-making 
 discovery, the discovery of vaccines. Pasteur found that cul- 
 tures of anthrax kept growing at relatively high temperatures 
 produced less and less virulent bacteria, and that if an animal 
 were injected with these less virulent forms and then were 
 gradually accustomed to more virulent ones, it would suffer no 
 evil effects when exposed to the most virulent ones. Thus 
 healthy animals could be rendered immune to the dread disease. 
 
 Rabies. Finally to omit many important discoveries 
 came the application of all his accumulated wisdom to the cure 
 of some human disease. As a promising one to work at he 
 chose hydrophobia, or rabies. This task he began in 1880, being 
 then a man of fifty-eight. It was not until 1885 that he con- 
 sidered his experiments sufficiently successful and the results so 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 465 
 
 certain that he was ready to undertake his first human patient, 
 Joseph Meister, an Alsatian lad. Imagine with what intense 
 interest Pasteur watched the successive inoculations of the 
 cultures of stronger and stronger germs. His assistant tells us 
 that as the limit of time approached when the patient, some 
 thirty days after being bitten, usually manifested symptoms of 
 madness, Pasteur could hardly sleep for anxiety. But this boy 
 remained healthy and was the first of thousands of patients who 
 have escaped the awful consequences of the mad dog's bite 
 through Pasteur's discovery. 
 
 Fighting disease germs in America. Americans have aided 
 greatly in this fight of mankind against disease, and we may well 
 be proud of the record. For years the South, particularly, has 
 been subject to periodic attacks of yellow fever. In 1853, f r 
 instance, New Orleans was invaded by the fever, and eight 
 thousand people died. Sixty years earlier the disease reached 
 as far north as Philadelphia and Boston. The former city lost 
 10 per cent of its entire population. Havana, Cuba, has always 
 been a stronghold of the disease, and has been the center from 
 which it spread to our own coasts through Spanish and negro 
 immigrants and refugees. So, when the Spanish War brought 
 us the responsibility of Cuba, one of our first tasks was to make 
 it a safe country in which to live by routing this dread disease, as 
 well as the malaria, a disease which, while not so fatal, produces 
 more illness that detracts from irian's efficiency and pleasure. 
 Laveran, one of Pasteur's pupils, had discovered the microbe 
 that causes malaria; an Englishman, Sir Ronald Ross, then 
 Major Ross, had proved that certain mosquitoes carry the germ 
 and act as an intermediate host to it. 
 
 Yellow fever. Dr. Carlos Finlay, a Spanish physician, had 
 suggested that, similarly, a mosquito was responsible for the 
 spread of yellow fever, but it remained for Americans to prove it. 
 Dr. Walter Reed, of the United States Army, was assigned to 
 the presidency of a board for studying preventive sanitary 
 measures in Cuba. Drs. James Carroll, Jesse W. Lazear, and 
 
466 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 A. Agramonte were associated with him. This board began its 
 work in 1900. At that time it was thought that the fever was 
 spread through contact with the discharges from the sufferer's 
 body. Volunteers from the army lived in rooms and slept on 
 the filthy beds where yellow-fever victims had died after the 
 precaution had been taken to kill all the mosquitoes and to put 
 in screen doors and windows so that no more of the insects could 
 get in. But these men did not take the fever. They took 
 great risks, however, for none knew positively that the mosquito 
 was the cause. Volunteers were then called for who would let 
 themselves be bitten by mosquitoes that had already bitten 
 patients in the yellow-fever wards of the hospital. The doctors 
 themselves insisted on taking part in this test, and both Drs. 
 Carroll and Lazear came down with the disease, as did nearly 
 every soldier. These men lived in houses screened from mos- 
 quitoes, and so only those mosquitoes caught in the fever wards 
 bit them. Other men living in similar screened houses, but not 
 bitten by mosquitoes from the fever wards, did not get the 
 disease. Dr. Lazear died of the fever, the only one to die of all 
 those brave men who proffered their lives to save their fellows 
 from this dreaded scourge. 
 
 Plant diseases. Not only do the spore-bearers cause many 
 animal as well as human diseases, but they also cause many 
 plant diseases, producing untold losses in our crops. The smuts 
 and rusts attack grain, fungi of various sorts invade fruits and 
 vegetables, producing rot, others blight leaves, and still others 
 attack timber and make it decay. Fortunately men are also 
 learning how to prevent the invasion of plants by these disease- 
 producing organisms. While disease germs gain access to 
 animals and man largely by means of food or the air and so make 
 the" attack from the inside, they must as a rule alight on the 
 outside of the plant and break down its protective covering or 
 find it destroyed by a wound in order to get a foothold. They 
 are therefore more easily accessible in the early stages of their 
 growth and may be killed by spraying the plant surfaces with 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 467 
 
 some germicidal wash. Bordeaux mixture is the solution most 
 commonly employed for this purpose. To make it, put one ounce 
 of coarsely ground unslaked lime in a gallon of water and add 
 an ounce of powdered copper sulphate; stir it thoroughly until 
 the latter is all dissolved, when it is strained into the sprayer. 
 
 The larger fungi. There are many interesting larger fungi 
 to be found growing out of doors. The puffball, which we 
 studied at the beginning of the chapter, is a type of these. The 
 one most familiar to adults, if not to children, is probably the 
 edible mushroom, seen commonly in the stores. It is usually 
 grown in cellar hotbeds. It is found in meadows, and is known 
 as the meadow mushroom (Agaricus campestris) . Many people 
 call this the mushroom, and call all the rest of the tribe toadstools. 
 Some call all the edible species mushrooms and the poisonous 
 ones toadstools. It is better, however, to use these terms inter- 
 changeably, calling any of these forms either mushrooms or 
 toadstools, and designating the inedible ones as poisonous 
 mushrooms or poisonous toadstools. The reason for this is that, 
 in some cases, one species may be poisonous and a very closely 
 related one edible. It is as if you should call an American a man, 
 but refuse to call a Chinaman a man. However, the matter is 
 not one of any great importance, and local custom may well 
 decide our usage of the terms. 
 
 The common edible mushrooms. We may study the com- 
 mon edible mushroom as a type (Fig. 309). There are three 
 distinct parts: (i) the foot, (2) the stem, (3) the cap, or umbrella- 
 like portion, on the underside of which are the thin gills. As we 
 have already understood, the entire structure that we call the 
 mushroom is really the spore-bearing part of the fungus, the body 
 of the fungus, the mycelium, being in the decomposing material 
 that is underground (Fig. 312). The spores are, in this species, 
 borne on the gills. When this mushroom first appears above the 
 ground the gills are bright ribbon-pink, but later they become 
 brown ; there is a noticeable collar surrounding the upper part of 
 the stem. In a clump of these mushrooms you will nearly always 
 
468 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 find some that are just coming out of the ground that have the 
 pink gills and others in which the gills are changing to brown. 
 
 The spores are brown, and it is 
 the maturing of these spores 
 that produces the change in the 
 color. None of the other pink- 
 gilled meadow fungi have brown 
 spores, and this feature is, there- 
 fore, quite distinctive. 
 
 Spore prints. Cut off the 
 stem of the fungus close below 
 the cap. Lay the cap, gill side 
 down, on a sheet of white paper 
 and cover it with a tumbler. In 
 the course of a few hours the 
 spores will have discharged from 
 the gills upon the paper and will 
 lie in delicate radiating lines just 
 under the gills. If in place of 
 plain paper gummed paper is 
 used, the spores will stick to its 
 surface, as they are slightly moist 
 when first discharged. By the 
 use of such gummed paper one 
 may obtain a very beautiful 
 series of spore prints of the vari- 
 ous fungi. The spores of unlike 
 species are of different colors, 
 so that one may have prints 
 ranging from pinks and reds and 
 yellows to blues and browns and 
 black. 
 
 The inky caps. One of the common mushrooms with black 
 spores is the inky cap. There are three kinds of these inky caps 
 which we may eat, and there are several other kinds that are 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 
 
 469 
 
 common in manure piles which we ordinarily do not eat. The 
 little inky caps come up in large clusters (Fig. 310). The top 
 of the cap is shaded with reddish brown, and looks as if it had 
 been sprinkled with snow crystals, for there are so many little 
 glistening particles upon it. There are tiny grooves running up 
 and down the cap, and the umbrella is seldom wide open. These 
 inky caps are short-lived. After the spores mature the whole 
 cap collapses and comes to be merely a gelatinous mass, contain- 
 ing the numerous black spores; and so the group of fungi when 
 
 FIG. 310. The little inky-cap fungus (Kaufman) 
 
 mature looks like a sticky mass of ink. This glutinous mass is 
 so much liked by the flies that they come to feed upon it, and 
 carry away to other localities any spores that stick to their feet. 
 The large inky cap is four to six inches tall, and as it breaks 
 through the ground looks like an elongated egg, except that its 
 shell is not smooth but shaggy (Fig. 311). The fungus is, there- 
 fore, often called the shaggy-mane mushroom. In the early stages 
 the gills are exquisite shades of pink and purple. One must cut 
 the egg open to see this, however, for by the time the fungus is 
 sufficiently expanded to show the gills they are turning black. 
 
470 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The plowed- ground mushroom. There is a mushroom that 
 looks very much like the meadow mushroom but grows ordi- 
 narily in the plowed fields. The gills of this, mushroom are 
 not as bright a pink, and if you pinch them or the stem or the 
 edge of the cap the spot turns yellow. This is also one of the 
 excellent edible mushrooms. 
 
 Poisonous sorts. In fact we are not likely to collect any 
 of the poisonous sorts in the fields and meadows. They grow 
 chiefly in the woods. Nearly all of the species that grow on 
 
 decaying woods, old rotting logs, 
 and tree stumps are also edible. 
 But there is no general rule by 
 means of which one can tell 
 whether a mushroom is edible 
 or poisonous, though there are 
 some tests that are sometimes 
 used. It is said that if a silver 
 coin is put into the water in 
 which the mushroom is cooked 
 the poisonous sorts will always 
 turn it dark. This is, however, 
 not infallible, and to most such 
 rules there are so many excep- 
 tions that they are unreliable. 
 The only safe way is to know 
 the individual mushrooms and to use only those that have been 
 repeatedly tried and found safe. 
 
 The deadly Amanita. The most poisonous of all the mush- 
 rooms is the deadly Amanita, or death's angel (Fig. 313). This is 
 a beautiful white mushroom with white gills. There is a ring or 
 collar around the upper part of the stem; and by digging down 
 to the base of the stem one finds that it seems to grow out of a 
 thimble-shaped cup. ' There is no difficulty in telling the mature 
 edible sorts from this poisonous species. The mistake is likely 
 to be made in taking the young mushrooms just as they are 
 
 FIG. 311. The large inky -cap 
 fungus (Coprinus). 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 
 
 471 
 
 FIG. 312. Mushrooms springing up from the roots of a cotton wood that had 
 been cut down. 
 
 FIG. 313. Deadly Amanita. 
 on the upper part of the stem. 
 
 Note the swollen base of the stem and the ring 
 
472 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 breaking through the soil, for when they are in this button stage 
 it is more difficult to identify them. 
 
 Puf balls are edible; also oyster shells. The puffballs, which 
 we have already noted, are all edible when they are in the 
 button stage in fact, until the inside begins to turn black. In 
 the woods one may find the giant puffball growing as large as 
 one's head, or even larger; one specimen of this is enough for a 
 meal for a good-sized family. Here in the woods, too, one will 
 
 FIG. 314. The oyster-shell fungus growing on an oak stump 
 
 likely find the oyster-shell fungus which grows out from an old 
 tree trunk, like a soft and fleecy shelf (Fig. 314). There is 
 practically no stem a very short one, simply to attach the cap 
 to the trunk and this joins the cap, not on the underside, but 
 at one edge. 
 
 The morel. In the early spring one is very likely to find in 
 the meadows a fungus with a peculiar cap (Fig. 315). It is 
 straw-colored, or even darker, and is conical in form, with its 
 surface honeycombed. This is the edible morel. The spores 
 are discharged from the entire surface instead of being borne on 
 gills. 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 
 
 473 
 
 The bracket fungus. In one group of the fungi the spores are 
 to be found lining numerous tiny tubes that open on the under- 
 surface through tiny pores. Such fungi are known as polypores. 
 One of the commonest is the bracket fungus which grows on old 
 tree stumps (Fig. 316). One species is not uncommonly used 
 by artists, for on the creamy undersurface of the immature 
 plants sketches may be made with an ordinary pen. This fungus 
 is gray or grayish brown above. If you break open a specimen 
 of the Polyporus the numer- 
 ous tiny tubes that contain 
 the spores can readily be seen. 
 The spores carried by the wind 
 or by insects alight on some 
 exposed wood undergoing de- 
 cay, as in a wound of a tree or 
 an old log, and start the new 
 plant, the mycelium, that 
 grows all through the wood 
 tissue. Not infrequently 
 great crops of mushrooms 
 (not polypores, however) 
 come upon the lawn where a 
 tree has been cut down, the 
 roots being left below ground 
 to decay (see Fig. 312, p. 471). 
 The " fairy rings'' are such 
 groups of fungi that spread into wider circles as the food 
 material at the center is exhausted (Fig. 317). 
 
 The shaggy and cup fungi. In some fungi the spores, instead 
 of being contained in tubes, are borne on numerous prolonga- 
 tions of the undersurface, which give it a shaggy appearance 
 (Fig. 318). These are known as the hydnum forms. In 
 hunting fungi in the woods one's attention will surely be 
 called to some cup-shaped fungi that have a brilliant lining 
 of red or yellow. These are known as the fairy cups, and were 
 
 FIG. 315. The edible morel 
 
474 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 316. Bracket fungi on maple log 
 
 FIG. 317. The fairy ring fungus. As the organic material is exhausted by 
 their growth the ring widens. 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 
 
 475 
 
 supposed to be the drinking utensils of those nymphs that inhabit 
 the woods. 
 
 You will find, in hunting fungi, that man is not the only 
 animal that has learned their edible qualities. Many of them 
 are the homes of beetles that feed upon them. Flies infest other 
 species. Slugs and snails eat many other kinds. 
 
 Collecting fungi. We have suggested the recognition marks 
 of only a few of the very common sorts. Consult some such 
 book as Mcllvaine's One Thousand American Fungi if you wish 
 to become acquainted with the numerous sorts that may be found 
 in your own locality. The writer has collected over a hundred 
 species in a single day. When 
 collecting them, one should 
 carry a basket or botanical 
 collecting can and should also 
 have a number of sheets of 
 tissue paper, so that as the 
 specimens are found they 
 may be wrapped carefully, la- 
 beled, and packed in the bas- 
 ket or collecting can, where 
 they will not get bruised. 
 Fungi may be studied in the 
 schoolroom; and the record of the different species found may 
 be kept by making descriptive notes about them and by water- 
 color sketches. They are often such beautifully colored objects 
 that they make good material for art work. 
 
 The herbarium. Since fungi are soft-bodied things it is 
 difficult in many cases to preserve them. Many of the tougher 
 kinds, however, lend themselves to preservation in the herbarium. 
 If the specimens are laid in an oven and kept at moderate tem- 
 perature (the door being left open) , they will dry out, and when 
 partly dried may be put between the sheets of the plant press and 
 flattened down into such shape that they can be mounted on 
 cards or on the ordinary herbarium paper. The press paper will 
 
 FIG. 318. The shaggy-cap fungus in 
 sections. 
 
476 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 need to be changed frequently and dried often. In the field, 
 specimens may be dried in front of the camp fire. If sheets of 
 corrugated paper are used in the plant press, together with the 
 thin blotting paper, the press may be hung up over the fire so 
 that the hot air will pass through the openings in the corrugated 
 paper and hasten the drying. 
 
 Pond scum. There are two groups of spore-bearers quite as 
 simple as are the fungi that do not usually force themselves upon 
 our acquaintance, and yet they are met with often enough to 
 make it worth while for the child to know them. These are the 
 algae, often commonly known as pond scums, and the lichens 
 those grayish, brittle plants so frequently found on stones and 
 tree trunks. One of the simplest algae is also found on tree 
 
 FIG. 319. Part of a filament of a pond scum (Spirogyra), showing the coiled 
 green chloroplast in the cell. 
 
 trunks. The tree, especially on its north side, or near the ground, 
 looks as if it had been given a coat of green paint. In reality 
 this is a layer of tiny plants no larger than yeast plants, growing 
 all over the bark. The ponds and streams, however, are more 
 likely places to find the algae. Here they grow in masses at the 
 surface, or in green streamers waving in the current. The 
 fibrous sorts are known as vegetable silk and do not appear very 
 attractive, since they look like frothy beds of slimy stuff with 
 water wrigglers squirming in them and an occasional green 
 frog blinking from the midst. But the plants are really very 
 beautiful under the microscope, with their lustrous threads 
 marked with bands or stars of green (Fig. 319). In the ocean 
 the algae are very abundant and are commonly known as sea- 
 weeds. These plants have holdfasts, like roots, simple stems 
 and expanded parts that look much like leaves. They are 
 often so tough as to withstand the wash of the waves,and some 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 477 
 
 grow to be very large: the giant kelp has at times a length of 
 several hundred feet. 
 
 The lichens. Many of the lichens are very beautiful. They 
 are really partnership plants : moldlike fungi and tiny algae live 
 together and help each other. In the northernmost states and 
 in Canada numerous lichens cover rocks and old logs (Fig. 320). 
 In the Niddle States they must be hunted, and a gray-green 
 Parmelia that is found on tree trunks, old fence boards, and 
 stones is likely to be the one most commonly seen. Farther 
 north reindeer moss (which is not a moss at all) covers rods, even 
 acres, of soil (Fig. 321). It is a much-branched lichen, with 
 brown tips on its branches. The pyxie lichen (Fig. 322) bears 
 spreading cornucopias or trumpets of gray green as large around 
 as a pencil and half an inch or so high; these are the umbrellas 
 of fairy lore. The Cladonias, of which group the last two are 
 samples, all have hollow stems, and many of the stems are 
 branching. The branches of several species are tipped with 
 brilliantly colored spore cases which look like bright red or brown 
 drops of sealing wax (Fig. 323). 
 
 The rocks are often brilliant with incrusting lichens great 
 patches of yellow, brown, or black, looking like paint, so closely 
 do they cling. On the rocks, too, will be found rock tripe. 
 This is one of the edible lichens and was an important article of 
 food for the survivors of the Franklin Arctic Expedition. It 
 grows like very thin circular crackers and is attached to the rock 
 by a central stem. Above, it is gray to brown- below, black. 
 
 Mosses. How much the mosses add to the beauty of the 
 out of doors, carpeting the waste places with their soft green, 
 mollifying the harshness of jagged cliff, and covering the decay 
 of fallen trees with a mantle of plush! And not only are they 
 objects of beauty but they are very useful, for lichens and mosses 
 are among the first plants to attack the rocks and cause them to 
 disintegrate into soil. The former do not even need a crack to 
 gain a foothold. Without the aid of these lowly spore-bearers 
 our earth would be a dreary waste. 
 
478 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 320. A fibrous lichen (Usnea barbata), pendent from spruce twig 
 
 FIG. 321. Reindeer moss 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 479 
 
 The hairy-cap moss. The moss plant consists of two parts. 
 In such a common moss as the hairy cap (Poly trie hium) (Fig. 
 324) these are plainly seen. The lower part of the plant is a 
 leafy stem with holdfasts like tiny roots. The leaves are needle- 
 like. Arising from the tip of this leafy part is a naked stalk, 
 imbedded below in the stem, and above bearing a spore case. 
 This spore case is covered with a hairy cap like a candle snuffer, 
 
 FIG. 322. The pyxie lichen 
 
 which pulls way down over the spore case, and is frayed about 
 its lower edge. When the spores are ready to discharge, this 
 cap falls off, but it is a go )d protection while the spores are 
 growing. In many moss capsules the top of the spore case is 
 perforated with tiny holes in regular and beautiful pattern. Out 
 of these the spores shake, like salt out of a salt shaker. Again, 
 the edge of the capsule may bear many teeth, which when 
 inturned retain the spores but which let them out when the teeth 
 stand straight up. When the spores alight on moist earth, each 
 
480 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 one that is successful in establishing itself starts the growth of a 
 new leafy moss plant. 
 
 The urn moss. The urn moss (Phystomitrium) (Fig. 325) 
 is one that bears its capsules early. By the time the blue violets 
 are in blossom in the spring this will be found fruiting in woodland 
 borders and moist meadows. The patch of moss at this season 
 bears thousands of the egg-shaped capsules on long stalks or 
 setae. Each capsule wears a jaunty cap tipped with a long spike, 
 like that on a soldier's helmet. The lid comes off this capsule, 
 
 FIG. 323. A lichen found on tree trunks (Thelochlistes parietimts), showing 
 the spore-bearing cups. 
 
 as a cover lifts from a teakettle, and lets out the spores. The 
 empty capsule looks then like a tiny urn. 
 
 The cord moss. About a month later ripe capsules will be 
 found on the cord moss (Funaria hygrometrica) (Fig. 326). This 
 moss^-by preference, apparently inhabits such places as ash 
 heaps, rubbish heaps, and bits of ground that have been recently 
 burned over. The stalk that bears the capsules, when dry, is 
 twisted like a string and seldom stands erect, but bends over as 
 if with the weight of the spore case. A long point that sticks out 
 nearly at right angles to the capsule makes the cap look like the 
 head of a bird, the projecting point being its beak. When the 
 capsules of this moss are dry, they are often fluted and bent into 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 
 
 481 
 
 fantastic shapes. Since the stalks absorb moisture, merely 
 breathing on this dry moss will make the stalks untwist. They 
 twist again, revolving the capsules, as they once more dry out. 
 
 FIG. 324. The hairy- FIG. 325. The urn 
 
 cap moss (cap removed moss 
 from spore capsule) 
 
 FIG. 326. The cord 
 moss 
 
482 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 The knight's plume moss. Another very beautiful moss that 
 is commonly found on old logs belongs to the genus Hypnum. 
 It is known as the pinnate moss, or as the knight's plume moss, 
 because the leaves look somewhat like feathers or plumes. It 
 forms bright green mats. There are several species of this genus, 
 but the more common one is Hypnum imponens. The reddish 
 stems of this moss branch regularly. The leaves curve to one 
 side and usually bend down, while their tips are frequently turned 
 
 FIG. 327. The bracken fern 
 
 under so as to form a hook. The spore capsules in this moss do 
 not come from the ends of the stems #s in those previously 
 studied, but from the sides. They stand on nearly erect stems, 
 are cylindrical in shape, and mature in the autumn or early 
 winter. 
 
 Ferns. Of all the spore-bearers the ferns are most widely 
 known and admired. Their graceful fronds are an ornament to 
 any garden, and if one is possessed of a yard which he may 
 decorate, one bed, preferably on the north side of the house, 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 483 
 
 should be provided with rich loam and planted to ferns. It 
 is a pleasure to stock it with specimens transplanted from the 
 woods, and to study the habits of these dainty plants so as to 
 know how to care for them. There is much variety in them, 
 from the great fronds of the royal to the delicate tracery of the 
 maidenhairs. It will well repay the trouble to attempt a bed 
 in the school garden. Observe carefully the conditions of soil, 
 
 FIG. 328. The rock polypody fern 
 
 shade, and moisture under which the ferns grow in their native 
 haunts, and then try to duplicate them in the fern bed. 
 
 The brake. The tramp among ferns is the bracken, or brake 
 (Fig. 327). It is a tough plant, needing no pampering in order 
 to succeed. The leaf is divided into three leaflets, which arise 
 from a common point on the stem; each leaflet is in general 
 triangular and is compound. These ferns prefer rather dry, sandy 
 soil and a cool climate. They grow rankly in the north woods, 
 especially in burned-over lands. The spore cases are found in a 
 continuous row all around the edge of the leaf, where they are 
 
484 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 protected by its inrolled margin. In many other ferns the 
 spore cases are marginal, or nearly so, but not in continuous line. 
 The tender young brake shoots, picked before the leaves un- 
 roll, make a delicious vegetable when cooked and served like 
 asparagus. 
 
 The rock polypody. The rock polypody (Poly podium vulgar e) 
 (Fig. 328) is a common type of the ferns in which the clusters of 
 
 FIG. 329. The sensitive fern, underground stem and all 
 
 spore cases occur along the veins on the underside of the leaves. 
 This fern is found growing among rocks or in the crevices of 
 rocky cliffs. The leaves are relatively small, being only a foot 
 or less in length. They are simple leaves, long and narrow, with 
 deeply lobed margins. The color is deep green. 
 
 The sensitive fern. The sensitive fern (Fig. 329) is one that 
 prefers the borders of cool swamps. The spores are not borne 
 upon the backs of the fronds, but upon a separate stalk, which is 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 
 
 485 
 
 really a leaf modified just for this purpose. The spore cases are 
 held in berry-like bodies on either side of the opposite branches 
 that are carried on this spore-bearing stalk. The vegetative leaf 
 (the ordinary leaf) is one to four feet long, broadly triangular, 
 and cut almost to the midrib into numerous narrow lobes with 
 wavy or toothed edges. The fern is very sensitive to the early 
 frosts, and in the fall is one of the first plants to wilt. 
 
 FIG. 330. Cinnamon fern 
 
 The ostrich fern and its relatives. The ostrich fern (Onoclea 
 struthiopteris) likes the margins of streams. Its spores are borne, 
 as in the sensitive fern, on a fertile stalk a foot or two high, 
 which looks like a withered fern leaf with its edges inrolled. 
 The vegetative leaves are two to seven feet long and a foot or less 
 broad. There are three other common ferns, all growing in 
 swampy places or low woods, which belong to the genus Osmunda. 
 These are the cinnamon fern (Fig. 330), Clayton's fern, and the 
 
486 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 royal fern. None of them have the spore cases on the backs of 
 the ordinary leaves. The cinnamon fern has a circular cluster of 
 large fronds one to five feet tall, with one or several fertile leaves 
 within the cluster. These fertile leaves die down after maturity, 
 and so may not be in evidence. The leaves are long, lance- 
 shaped, and are made up of numerous leaflets that are themselves 
 deeply divided. Spore cases are cinnamon brown, and the young 
 
 
 FIG. 331. A frond of Clayton's fern FIG. 33 2. Spore-bearing and sterile 
 
 fronds of the royal fern. 
 
 haves are covered with reddish hairs. Clayton's fern (Fig. 331) 
 is very similar, except that its fronds are larger, and the fertile 
 ones bear the spore cases only in their midregion; the rest of the 
 frond is like an ordinary vegetative leaf. The royal fern (Os- 
 munda regalis) (Fig. 332) has leaves that are twice compound. 
 The leaflets vary from oblong to narrowly egg-shaped forms. 
 The spores are borne, not on the back of these, but at the ends 
 of the leaves, in clusters of modified leaflets. 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 487 
 
 The grape ferns and walking ferns. In the grape ferns 
 (Botrychium) (Fig. 333), of which several species grow in the 
 meadows while others grow in the woods, there is a single two 
 or three times compound triangular leaf. From the base of this 
 arises the spore-bearing portion a stalk that has at its tip an 
 erect cluster of spore-bearing leaflets, which look like a loose 
 cluster of small grapes, except that they are brown. There is a 
 curious fern known as the walking fern, which grows ordinarily 
 in rocky places. The leaves are lance-shaped and simple, with 
 
 FIG. 333. The grape fern: at right a frond with the spore-bearing tip 
 
 a very much elongated tip. When the end of this leaf touches 
 the ground a new plant starts from it. Thus the plant advances 
 by steps and is therefore named the walking fern. 
 
 Some wood ferns. The evergreen Christmas fern (Fig. 334) 
 is a woods fern which also prefers the rocky places. The leaves 
 are from six inches to two feet long, rather wide. The leaflets 
 are narrowly lance-shaped, almost arrow-shaped at the base. 
 The clusters of spore cases are round and each is covered with a 
 nearly transparent membrane that has a stalk at its center. 
 The oak fern (Fig. 335) is another fern of the woods. There is a 
 large group of wood ferns known as the shield ferns. In this 
 
488 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 fern, also, the groups of spore cases are round, but the little mem- 
 brane that covers them, known as the indusium, is heart-shaped 
 or kidney-shaped, and is attached by the cleft of the heart. The 
 leaves are compound, sometimes twice compound. In the wood- 
 sias, which are also rock-loving ferns, the indusium spreads out 
 in star-shaped form from underneath the clusters of spore cases. 
 
 FIG. 334. The evergreen Christmas 
 fern with underground stem. 
 
 F IG - 335- Frond of the oak fern 
 
 Underground stem. If one of these ferns (or any other 
 common one) is rooted up, it will be found that the stem from 
 which the leaves spring is all underground. (This is not true of 
 tropical ferns, in which the stem is often a trunk of treelike 
 proportions.) This underground stem, or root stalk, branches 
 freely and grows continuously at its apex and also at the tips of 
 its branches. It dies as continuously at the other end and there- 
 fore separates into many independent root stalks. The root 
 stalks all bear many roots. 
 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 489 
 
 Life-history of fern. The spore of the fern, discharged from 
 the leaf, falls directly to the ground or is carried some distance 
 by the wind or possibly on the feathers or feet of a bird. It is 
 so small that it may ride unnoticed for a long way before it drops 
 in some moist spot of ground where it germinates. The outer 
 coat breaks and liberates the living content as a single cell. 
 This multiplies, and the mass of cells so formed assumes the 
 shape of a tiny heart, a thin green prothallium. This bears both 
 
 FIG. 336. Two species of horsetail 
 
 eggs and sperm; and after the egg is fertilized it grows into the 
 fern plant that we know. If you examine carefully a bed of ferns 
 in the fall you will likely find these heart-shaped prothallia on the 
 ground in any moist bare spot, and from some of them the little 
 fern plant may be growing. Another good place to find them 
 is at a florist's, in pots of ferns, on the pots, in the soil of the 
 benches, or often under the bench where the ferns are kept. If 
 the life-history of any of the spore-bearers is to be traced at all 
 completely, that of the fern is the easiest one for the children to 
 
490 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 FIG. 337. Strobilus and a single spore of the horsetail, latter enlarged 
 
 FIG. 338. The trailing club moss 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 491 
 
 follow. Spores sprinkled on the surface of moist sand in a 
 covered plant pot will grow and show these prothallia. 
 
 The horsetails and the club mosses are close relatives of the 
 ferns. The horsetails (Fig. 336) are easily known by the fact 
 that their stems are jointed and pull apart without difficulty. 
 The leaves, too, if present are needle-like and jointed. They 
 are commonly found along the sandy fillings of railroad tracks, 
 and also in the swamp margins, though it is a different species 
 that is found in such locations. At the top of the stem, in some 
 species on the leafy stalk, in others on a separate stalk, there 
 grows a conelike cluster of spore cases (Fig. 337). Each little 
 scaly leaf of the cone is umbrella-shaped, and underneath the 
 umbrella are the spore cases. When the spores are ripe, you can 
 dust them out into the palm of your hand; and if you breathe 
 gently on them they appear to wriggle. Each spore is provided 
 with four coiled hairs, which straighten out as they absorb 
 moisture. Under a simple tripod lens, or a cheap linen tester, 
 the spores form a writhing mass when they are slightly moistened 
 by the breath. 
 
 The stems of these horsetails or Equisetae are harsh with 
 much silica deposited in them, the same substance that gives 
 sapolio its scouring properties. Puritan housewives used a 
 bunch of the stems for cleaning pans and the plant thus acquired 
 another common name, the scouring rush. 
 
 The club mosses (Fig. 338) are also called the ground pines, 
 both of which names are unfortunate, because they are not mosses 
 and they are not pines, though they are the next thing to the 
 pines. These grow upon the ground, many of them in trailing 
 fashion, and one, the Lycopodium clavatum, is very familiar as a 
 Christmas green. The spores in most cases are borne in cone- 
 shaped clubs that arise on slender, naked stalks at or near the tips 
 of the branches. 
 
492 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 
 
 Atkinson, George F. Mushrooms. New York: Henry Holt & Co. $3.00 
 Brown and Britain. Flora of Northern United States and Canada. Three 
 
 vols. New York: Charles Scribner and Sons. $11.00. 
 Bulletin of Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, Urbana. Vol. XI, 
 
 art. vii. November, 1917. 
 Clute, Willard N. The Fern Allies of North America. New York: F. A. 
 
 Stokes Co. $2 . 50. 
 
 . Our Ferns in Their Haunts. New York : F. A. Stokes Co. $2 . 50. 
 Cole, Emma L. T. Guide to the Mushrooms. Worcester, Mass.: C. K. 
 
 Reed. $0.75. 
 Farmers' Bulletins: 
 
 No. 146, Insecticides and Fungicides. 
 
 No. 204, Cultivation of Mushrooms. 
 
 No. 412, Typhoid or House Fly. 
 
 No. 450, Some Facts about Malaria. 
 
 No. 473, Tuberculosis; Plain Statement of Facts Regarding Disease for 
 Farmers and Others Interested in Live Slock. 
 
 No. 492, More Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of Fruit and 
 Foliage of Apples. 
 
 No. 507, Smuts of Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Corn. 
 
 No. 530, Important Poultry Diseases. 
 
 No. 544, Potato Tuber Diseases. 
 
 No. 547, Yellow Fever Mosquito. 
 
 No. 555, Cotton Anlhracnose and How to Control It. 
 
 No. 625, Cotton Wilt and Root-Knot. 
 
 No. 787, Mushroom Pests and How to Control Them. 
 
 No. 856, Control of Diseases and Insect Enemies of the Home Vegetable 
 
 Garden. 
 Franklin and Franklin. Life of Pasteur. New York: Macmillan & Co. 
 
 $1.25. 
 Grout, A. J. Mosses with a Hand-Lens. Published by the author, 360 
 
 Lenox Road, Brooklyn, N.Y. $1.75. 
 Hopkins, Lewis S. The Ferns of Allegheny County. Botanical Society 
 
 of Pennsylvania, Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh. $1.25. 
 Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station (La Fayette). Apple Diseases in 
 
 Indiana. Circular No. 70. 
 Keim and Lumet. Life of Pasteur. New York: F. A. Stokes & Co. $0.75. 
 
 1 Farmers' bulletins are issued by the United States Department of Agri- 
 culture, Washington, D.C. 
 
SPORE-BEARERS 493 
 
 Kellerman, W. A. Mycological Bulletin, giving descriptions of mushrooms. 
 
 Many numbers published. Ohio State University, Columbus. 
 Kelly, H. A. Walter Reed and Yellow Fever. Baltimore: Medical Standard 
 
 Book Co. $1.50. 
 Mcllvaine. One Thousand American Fungi. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill 
 
 Co. $5.00. 
 Marshall, Nina L. The Mushroom Book. New York: Doubleday, Page 
 
 &Co. $4-00. 
 . Mosses and Lichens. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 
 
 $4 . oo. 
 Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station (Wooster). Mushrooms, Edible and 
 
 Poisonous. Circular No. 153. 
 Parsons, F. T. How to Know the Ferns. New York: Charles Scribner and 
 
 Sons. $i . 50. 
 Plant Industry Bulletins, Washington, B.C.: 
 
 No. 51, Wilt Diseases of Tobacco and Its Control. 
 
 No. 85, Principles of Mushroom Growing and Mushroom Spawn Making. 
 
 No. 152, Loose Smuts of Barley and Wheat. 
 
 No. 174, Control of Peach Brown Rot and Scab. 
 
 No. 216, Rusts of Grains in the United States. 
 Public Health Bulletins, Washington, B.C.: 
 
 No. 30, The Rat in Relation to Public Health. 
 
 No. 36, Tuberculosis, Its Nature and Prevention. 
 
 No. 42, Disinfectants. 
 Underwood, L. M. Our Native Ferns. New York: Henry Holt & Co. 
 
 $1.00. 
 
 Waters, Campbell E. Ferns. New York: Henry Holt & Co. $3 .00. 
 Winslow, Anne Rogers. Microbes Good and Bad. Boston: Health Educa- 
 tional League, 8 Beacon Street. $0.04. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 There is given a list of a few firms from which apparatus and 
 supplies may be obtained. There are many others equally good, 
 but these the author has found reliable and accommodating. A 
 complete list would be confusing and occupy space unnecessarily. 
 
 Bausch and Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N.Y. Lanterns, magnifiers. 
 
 Cambridge Botanical Supply Co., Waverley, Mass. 
 
 Central Scientific Co., 345 W. Michigan St., Chicago, 111. Lantern 
 slides, apparatus, biological preparations. 
 
 Chicago Biological Supply House, 5505 Kimbark Ave., Chicago, 111. 
 Animal material, plants, lantern slides, etc. 
 
 Conrad Slide and Projection Co., 4028 Jackson Blvd., Chicago, 111. 
 Lantern slides of common flowers, etc. 
 
 Denton Brothers, Wellesley, Mass. Butterflies and insect mounts. 
 
 Hough, R. B., Lowville, N.Y. Tree sections. 
 
 Kaemfer, Fred, 88 State St., Chicago, 111. Living animals. 
 
 The Kny-Scherer Co., 410 W. 27th St., New York City. Insects, 
 mounts, life-histories, and general biological materials. 
 
 Mclntosh Stereopticon Co., Chicago, 111. Lanterns and slides. 
 
 Mumford, A. W., 536 S. Clark St., Chicago, 111. Bird pictures. 
 
 National Audubon Society, New York City. Bird pictures. 
 
 Perry Picture Co., Maiden, Mass. Bird and other nature pictures. 
 
 Root, A. I., Co., Medina, Ohio. Bee supplies. 
 
 Spencer Lens Company, Buffalo, N.Y. Lanterns, magnifiers, etc. 
 
 Underwood and Underwood, New York City. Lantern slides , including 
 a nature-study series. 
 
 Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, N.Y. Mounted 
 birds and animals and other natural-history material. 
 
 W. M. Welch Manufacturing Company, 1516 Orleans St., Chicago, 111. 
 Weed seeds, plant mounts, charts, etc. 
 
 494 
 
INDEX 
 
INDEX 
 
 Adaptation, 159 
 
 Adjustment, 213 
 
 Alder, tag, 336, 337 
 
 Algae, 476 
 
 Ailanthus, 333 
 
 Amaranth: low, 257; spiny, 267; tall, 
 
 288, 289 
 
 Animal : color, 211, 212; weapons, 209 
 Annelida, 67 
 Anseres, 156, 158 
 Antennae, 17, 58, 71 
 Anthrax, 464 
 Ants, 98; house, 98 
 Aphids, 117 
 Appendix, 494 
 
 Apple, 377; varieties, 377; worm, 82 
 Aquarium, 3; plants for, 6 
 Arbor vitae, 313 
 Argiope, 134 
 Arthropods, 67 
 Asellus, 22 
 
 Ash, 317; mountain, 337; prickly, 334 
 Asparagus, 425 
 Asters, 285 
 
 Bacteria, 455, 458, 460, 461 
 
 Ballooning spiders, 135 
 
 Balsam, 313 
 
 Basswood, 330 
 
 Bath, bird, 180 
 
 Bean, 384, 388, 413 
 
 Beasts of burden, 193 
 
 Beaver, 304, 306 
 
 Bedstraw, 260 
 
 Bee bird, 162 
 
 Beech, 326; water, 325, 326 
 
 Beef clubs, 446 
 
 Beehive, 106, 108 
 
 Bees, 103 
 
 Beetles, 117; click, 124; eyedelater, 124; 
 
 diving, 2, 31; fiery hunter, 122; 
 
 ground, 117, 122; horned Passalus, 
 
 124; ladybird, 125; long-horn, 125; 
 
 potato, 117; searcher, 122; tiger, 
 
 120, 123; water scavenger, 31, 34; 
 
 whirligig, 31, 34, 35; woodborers, 
 
 123 
 
 Beggar- ticks, 268, 271, 272 
 Bibliographies, 55, 137, 188, 231, 308, 
 
 367, 409, 447, 492 
 Bindweed, 253, 265 
 Birch, 321 
 Bird: bath, 1 80; enemies, 182; feeding, 
 
 181; feet of, 1 60; food of, 162; head 
 
 of, 159; houses, 178; wing of, 160 
 Birds, 141; and insects, 165; as weed 
 
 destroyers, 167 
 Blackbird family, 154, 162 
 Blossom parts, 237 
 Bluejay, 155, 162 
 Bobolink, 162, 173, 174 
 Bordeaux mixture, 84, 467 
 Bouncing Betty. See Soapwort 
 Box elder, 317 
 Bread making, 458 
 Breathing of insect, 62; of plant, 397; 
 
 pores, 396 
 
 Breeding, chickens, 225 
 Brown thrasher, 153, 154 
 Bryophytes, 67 
 Buckeye, 317 
 Buckhorn, 262 
 Buckwheat, wild, 254 
 Buds, 314 
 Buffalo bur, 266 
 Bugs, 31, 39, 115 
 Bulbs, 415 
 Bullfrog, 47 
 Burdock, 268, 270 
 Butcher bird, 153 
 Butter and eggs, 284, 285 
 Butter making, 229 
 
 497 
 
498 N SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Butterflies, 86; anglewing, 93; cab- 
 bage, 90; fritillary, 90; hairstreak, 
 93; monarch, 87; mourning cloak, 
 90; painted lady, 92; papilio, 94; 
 sulphur, 92; swallowtail, 93 ; viceroy, 
 89; food plants of, 96 
 
 Butterfly weed, 274 
 
 Cabbage, 421, 424; butterfly, 90 
 
 Caddis fly, 32 
 
 Cages for pets, 195 
 
 Campion, 272, 273 
 
 Canning clubs, 392, 445 
 
 Canthocampus, 23, 25 
 
 Carbon dioxide, 398, 400, 402 
 
 Carrot, wild, 253 . 
 
 Castor bean, 389 
 
 Cat, 203, 207, 208, 213, 217; bird des- 
 troyer, 185; trap, 187 
 
 Catalpa, 315 
 
 Catbird, 153 
 
 Catchfly, 272 
 
 Catnip, 277, 281 
 
 Cauliflower, 421 
 
 Cecropia, 72 
 
 Cedar: red, 313; white, 313 
 
 Cheese weed, 258, 259 
 
 Cheetah, 192 
 
 Cherry, 323 
 
 Chess, 282 
 
 Chickadee, 151 
 
 Chicken, 206, 208, 217; breeding, 225; 
 breeds of, 218; feeding, 223; house, 
 218; trap nest, 221 
 
 Chick weed, 256, 257 
 
 Chironomus, 37 
 
 Chrysalis, 70 
 
 Chub, 53 
 
 Cicada killer, 115 
 
 Cladocerans, 26 
 
 Clam, 2, 9, 14; foot, 13; mantle, 14; 
 shell, 13; siphon, 2 
 
 Classification, 66, 67 
 
 Cleavage of egg, 45 
 
 Clotbur, 267 
 
 Clothes moth, 85 
 
 Clover, 247; alsike, 249; red, 248; 
 sweet, 248; white, 248 
 
 Club moss, 490, 491 
 
 Cocklebur, 267, 269 
 
 Cockroaches, 64 
 
 Cocoons, 73, 75 
 
 Coffee tree, 332 
 
 Coleoptera, 67 
 
 Collecting: fungi, 475; insects, 127; 
 
 net, 3 
 Corn, 389, 390, 441, 443; clubs, 393, 
 
 443 
 
 Corn cockle, 272, 273 
 Corydalis, 33 
 Cotyledons, 389 
 Courtship, spider, 134 
 Cover design, 97, 234, 345 
 Cow, 205, 269, 211, 215, 227; breeds, 
 
 227; feed, 229 
 Cowbird, 155 
 Crab, wild, 337 
 Crane order, 157 
 Crayfish, 16; chimney, 19; eggs of, 20; 
 
 mating of, 20; molting of, 21 
 Creeper: brown, 151; family, 151 
 Cricket: ear, 60; music, 59; wing, 60 
 Cricketfrog, 48 
 Crow, 162; family, 155 
 Crustacea, 67; classification of, 22 
 Crustaceans, 21, 23 
 Cultivation, 408 
 Currants, 426 
 Cuttings, 417, 426; setting out, 420, 
 
 422 
 
 Cyanide bottle, 129 
 Cyclops, 23, 25, 26, 27 
 Cypress, 311 
 Cypris, 23, 26, 27 
 
 Daisy, oxeye, 285, 295 
 Damsel fly, 27, 31 
 Dandelion, 245, 262 
 Daphnia, 23, 26, 27 
 Deciduous trees, 313 
 Deer, 205 
 
 Development of eggs, 43 
 Devil's darning needle, 27 
 Diaptomus, 25 
 Diptera, 67 
 
INDEX 
 
 499 
 
 Disease and flies, 125 
 
 Diseases, 462, 466 
 
 Dispersal of seed, 302 
 
 Distribution, 216; local, 67, 122 
 
 Dityscus, 2 
 
 Dobson, 2, 31, 33 
 
 Dock, 262, 264, 265; bur, 268 
 
 Dodder, 255 
 
 Dog, 192, 203, 207, 209, 211, 215 
 
 Dogbane, 243 
 
 Dog fennel, 276, 279 
 
 Dogwood, flowering, 318. 
 
 Dolomedes, 41 
 
 Doormat. See Knotweed 
 
 Dragon fly, 27; life-history, 28; molt, 
 
 29; nymph, 2, 28 
 Drinking, methods, 207 
 Drone, 105 
 Dust, 461 
 
 Egg, 240, 241 
 
 Eggs: of frog, 42; of moth, 71 
 
 Elephant, 193 
 
 Elm, 326, 327 
 
 Embryo, 44 
 
 Equisetum, 490, 491 
 
 Eubranchipus, 23, 25 
 
 Evergreens, 309 
 
 Extermination, insects, 65 
 
 Eyes: compound, 58; simple, 58 
 
 Falcon, 192 
 
 Feed for chickens, 223 
 
 Feeding pets, 201 
 
 Feeding-shelf, bird, 183 
 
 Fern frond, 452 
 
 Ferns, 482; bracken, 483; cinnamon, 
 485; Clayton's, 485, 486; evergreen 
 Christmas, 487,488; grape, 487; oak, 
 489; ostrich, 485; rock polypody, 
 452, 484; royal, 486; sensitive, 484; 
 walking, 487 
 
 Fertilization, 239, 240 
 
 Fibrovascular bundles, 237, 348 
 
 Finch family, 153 
 
 Fires in forests, 356 
 
 Firming, 408 
 
 Fish, 52; movements of, 27; rearing, 
 
 53 
 
 Fleabane, 293, 294 
 Flies, 125 
 
 Flower: seed, 414, 419, 425; show, 371 
 Fly: black, 31, 37; harlequin, 37; 
 
 stone, 31, 32 
 Flycatcher family, 155 
 Food: of birds, 162; plants of moths 
 
 and butterflies, 95 
 Foods in seed, 388 
 Forests, 350, 351 
 Frog: bull, 47; cricket, 48; green, 47; 
 
 pickerel, 48; spring, 47; tree, 48; 
 
 wood, 48; eggs of, 42 
 Fruit, 239; display, 375; trees, 431 
 Fungi, 450, 467 
 Fungus: Amanita, 471; bracket, 473, 
 
 474; cup, 473; inky cap, 468, 469, 
 
 470; fairy ring, 474; meadow, 468; 
 
 shaggy, 473, 475 
 Fur, 209 
 Furniture, 346 
 
 Gallinae, 156 
 
 Gallinule, 158 
 
 Gammarus, 23, 24 
 
 Garden, 410; home, 427; laying out, 
 
 410; on farm, 428; paths, 413; 
 
 school, 410; types, 411 
 Garlic, 275 
 Gaura, 292 
 Germinator, 380 
 Gills: insect, 40; of crayfish, 18 
 Ginkgo, 328, 330 
 Glass, cutting, 100 
 Glass tubing: bending, 403; breaking, 
 
 402 
 
 Goldenrod, 285, 287 
 Grafting, 432; wax, 433 
 Grapes, 427 
 Grass: barnyard, 281, 283; cheat, 282; 
 
 crab, 279, 281; foxtail, 281; old 
 
 witch, 280, 282; quack, 283, 284; 
 
 sandbur, 267, 270; spreading pani- 
 
 cum, 280, 282; squirreltail, 281, 284; 
 
 vanilla, 282 
 Grebe order, 158 
 Grosbeaks, 153 
 Ground pine, 490, 491 
 Growth, conditions of, 399 
 
500 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Gulls, 158 
 
 Gum: sour, 327; sweet, 334 
 
 Hackberry, 324 
 
 Hawks, 164 
 
 Hawthorn, 334 
 
 Hazel, witch, 335, 337 
 
 Hemlock, 313; poison, 253; water, 253 
 
 Hemp: Indian, 245; wild, 275, 276 
 
 Henhouse, 218 
 
 Herbarium, 475 
 
 Heron order, 158 
 
 Hibernation, 211 
 
 Hickory, 324 
 
 Hickory-horned devil, 73, 74 
 
 Horehound, 277, 280 
 
 Hornbeam, 325 
 
 Horse, 209, 211, 215 
 
 Horse chestnut, 316 
 
 Horse nettle, 267 
 
 Horsetail, 490, 491 
 
 Horseweed, 293 
 
 Hound's-tongue, 269, 272, 276 
 
 House fly, disease carrier, 459 
 
 Hunter, animals that aid, 192 
 
 Hybrid: corn, 441; grains, 440; peas, 
 
 437; wheat, 440 
 Hybridization, 436 
 
 Imago, 70 
 
 Insect: breathing, 39; cage, 57; rate 
 of multiplication, 165 
 
 Insects: ravages of, 164; and pollina- 
 tion. See Pollination 
 
 Instinct, 114 
 
 Iron wood, 326 
 
 Ivy: ground, 258, 259; poison, 246 
 
 Jimson weed, 269, 270, 273, 276 
 Juneberry. See Shadbush 
 Juniper, 313 
 
 Katydid, 64 
 Killing insects, 128 
 Kingbird, 162 
 
 Kinglet, golden-crowned, 151; ruby- 
 crowned, 151 
 Knotweed, 256 
 Koch, Robert, 462 
 
 Lamb's-quarters, 289, 290 
 
 Larch, 311 
 
 Larva: Cecropia moth, 72; tomato- 
 worm moth, 71; walnut moth, 74 
 
 Lawn, 435 
 
 Leaf, 395 
 
 Leek, 275 
 
 Lettuce, prickly, 245 
 
 Lichens, 476, 478, 479 
 
 Light, determines migration, 27 
 
 Limbs of animals, 214 
 
 Linden, 330, 331 
 
 Lithobius, 131 
 
 Loco weed, 250 
 
 Locust, 58, 62; 331, 333; egg-laying, 
 61; plague, 63 
 
 Lumbering, 346 
 
 Males, 209 
 
 Mallow, creeping, 258, 259 
 
 Mandrake, 239, 240 
 
 Mantis, 91 
 
 Maples, 317 
 
 May apple. See Mandrake 
 
 May-fly nymph, 30, 31 
 
 Melilotus, 249 
 
 Mendel's laws, 437 
 
 Mensbriigghe float, 42 
 
 Migration, 27, 63; bird, 168; rate of 
 bird, 170; time of bird, 175; cotton- 
 boll weevil, 121; gypsy moth, 81; 
 potato beetle, 120; weed, 297 
 
 Milk analysis, 228 
 
 Milkweed, 242, 274 
 
 Milliped, 131 
 
 Minnows, 53 
 
 Mocking-bird family, 153 
 
 Molds, 452 
 
 Mollusca, 15, 67 
 
 Molting, 20, 29, 6 1 
 
 Money bugs, 31, 34 
 
 Morel, edible, 472 
 
 Morning-glory, 253, 254; bindweed, 254 
 
 Mosquito: and malaria, 465; and 
 yellow fever, 465; larva, 34, 35, 36 
 
 Mosses, 477; cord, 480, 481; hairy 
 cap, 479, 481; knight's plume, 482; 
 urn, 480, 481 
 
INDEX 
 
 Moths: apple, 82; browntail, 80; 
 Cecropia, 72; clothes, 85; gypsy, 80; 
 Polyphemus, 75; royal walnut, 74; 
 tomato, 71; tussock, 78, 79; food- 
 plants of, 95 
 
 Mountain ash, 337 
 
 Mucor, 453 
 
 Mulberry, 338 
 
 Mullein, 260, 261 
 
 Mushrooms, 467; aminita, 470; 
 bracket, 472, 473; cup, 4735 inky 
 cap, 468, 469, 470; meadow, 467, 
 468; morel, 472; puff ball, 450, 457, 
 470; shaggy, 473> 475 
 
 Music, cricket, 59 
 
 Muskrat, 205, 210 
 
 Mustard, 295, 296 
 
 Myriopoda, 67 
 
 Nests: birds', 144; cliff swallow, 147; 
 
 heron, 147; herring gull, 146; marsh 
 
 wren, 148; oriole, 144; swallow, 147; 
 
 tern, 145; thrasher, 146; woodcock, 
 
 145 
 
 Net for collecting, 3 
 Nightshajde, 289, 291 
 Notebook, 344, 345 
 Nuthatch, red-breasted, 152 
 Nymph, 28 
 
 Oaks, 327, 329 
 Onion, wild, 275, 278 
 Opposite branches, 315 
 Orange, Osage, 334 
 Orthoptera, 64, 67 
 Owls, 162 
 Oxidation, 399 
 
 Oxygen: plant needs, 399; plant gives 
 off, 401 
 
 Palaemonetes, 21, 23, 25 
 Palpi, 58, 132 
 Parasites, 74, 76 
 Parsley family, 252, 253 
 Parsnip, 252, 253 
 Passer es, 149 
 Passion flower, 255 
 Pasteur, Louis, 462 
 Pea, 389, 439J hybrids, 437 
 
 Pendllium, 454 
 
 Pennyroyal, 278, 280 
 
 Peppergrass, 292 
 
 Pepperidge, 327 
 
 Peppermint, 277, 280 
 
 Pets, 193; care of, 197 
 
 Photosynthesis, 400 
 
 Pig, 215, 217; clubs, 391, 444 
 
 Pigeons, 156, 208 
 
 Pigweed. See Amaranth 
 
 Pine: pitch, 311; red, 311; scrub, 311; 
 
 seeds, 390 
 
 Pink root. See Amaranth 
 Plankton, 27 
 
 Plant: diseases, 466; parts of, 235 
 Plantain, 237, 260, 263; English, 262 
 Planting plan, 434 
 Plover, golden, 171, 173 
 Poison: for insects, 65; ivy, 246, 247 
 Poisonous plants, 245, 246, 250, 251, 
 
 253, 269, 288, 290 
 Pokeweed, 288 
 Pollination, 240; insects and, 243, 244, 
 
 291 
 
 Polygyra, 10 
 Polyphemus moth, 75 
 Polypody, rock, 452, 484 
 Polypores, 473 
 Pond scum, 476 
 Poplars, 319 
 
 Potato: growing, 443; wild, 253 
 Primrose, evening, 239, 290 
 Projects, 430, 436 
 Propagation, 303 
 Protection, animal, 208 
 Pteridophytes, 67 
 Puff ball, 450, 451, 470 
 Purple martin, 153 
 Purslane, 257, 258 
 
 Queen Anne's lace. See Wild parsnip 
 Queen bee, 105, 106 
 
 Rabbits, 204, 211 
 
 Rabies, 465 
 
 Ragged robin, 273 
 
 Ragweed: giant, 275, 277; lesser, 293 
 
502 SOURCE BOOK OF BIOLOGICAL NATURE-STUDY 
 
 Rats, 204 
 
 Redbud, 332 
 
 Respiration in plants, 397 
 
 Ribwort. See Plantain 
 
 Rings of growth, 348 
 
 Robin, 149 
 
 Rodents, 204 
 
 Root, getting into ground, 386 
 
 Root hairs, 382 
 
 Sandbur, 267, 270 
 
 Sandpipers, 157 
 
 Sassafras, 330 
 
 Scale: cottony, 117; San Jose, 117 
 
 School furniture, 461 
 
 Seed, 371; coats, 387; growth of, 384; 
 parts of, 384, 388; plot, 442; pods, 
 238; position in soil, 453; race, 382; 
 swelling of, 385 
 
 Senses of animals, 212 
 
 Sew fly, 27 
 
 Shadbush, 336 
 
 Sheep, 205, 214 
 
 Sheep sorrel, 287 
 
 Shepherd's-purse, 292, 293 
 
 Shrike family, 153 
 
 Shrimp, fairy, 23, 25 
 
 Shrimps, 21, 23 
 
 Silkworm, 77; disease, 463 
 
 Slips, 418 
 
 Slugs, 14, 1 6 
 
 Smartweed, 286, 287 
 
 Smell, 213 
 
 Snail: breathing, 8; eggs, 8; foot, 7; 
 land, 10, 12, 15; mantle, 9; mouth, 7; 
 water, u 
 
 Snake doctor, 27 
 
 Snipe order, 157 
 
 Snow-on-the-mountain, 246, 247 
 
 Soap wort, 236, 271 
 
 Soil: acid, 405; structure, 405; water 
 content, 406 
 
 Spanish needles, 268, 272 
 
 Sparrows, 153; English, 182; poison- 
 ing, 183; trap, 184 
 
 Spearmint, 277, 280 
 
 Spermatophytes, 67 
 
 Sphaeridae, 15 
 
 Spider: courtship of, 134; diving, 40; 
 
 spinnerets of, 132 
 Spiders, 132 
 Spore: germination, 451, 455, 459; of 
 
 equisetum, 490, 491; of fern, 489 
 Spore-bearers, 450 
 Sporobolus, 131 
 Spraying, 84 
 Spreading-board, 129 
 Spruce, 313 
 Spurge, 245 
 Squash bug, 115 
 Squirrel, 204, 211 
 Sterilization, 455, 456 
 Stickleback, 54 
 Stinking Willie, 276 
 Stomata, 396 
 
 Strobilus of equisetum, 490 
 Sumac, 333 
 Sunfish, 53 
 Surface film, 41 
 Swallow family, 153 
 Swallowtail butterflies, 94 
 Swarming, 105 
 Swiimmerets, 17 
 Sycamore, 324 
 
 Tadpole, 46 
 
 Tansy, 276, 293 
 
 Tern, 158 
 
 T hallo phytes, 67 
 
 Thistle: bull, 266; Canada, 266; 
 
 Russian, 263, 265; sow, 245 
 Thorn apple, 269 
 Thrush: blueback, 150; family, 149; 
 
 hermit, 151; red-breasted, 149; wood, 
 
 Titmouse family, 151 
 
 Toad, 48 
 
 Toadflax, 284, 285 
 
 Tomato worm, 69 
 
 Tomatoes, 421, 423; varieties, 423 
 
 Tracheal tubes, 39 
 
 Transpiration, 395 
 
 Trap nest for hen, 221 
 
INDEX 
 
 503 
 
 Trays for planting, 420 
 
 Tree: collections, 342; fruit, 431; 
 
 growth, 347; key, 361; map, 342; 
 
 planting, 431; propagation, 430; 
 
 study methods, 338 
 Tree frog, 48 
 Tulip tree, 330 
 Turkey, 206 
 Turtles, 49; box, 51, 52; geographic, 
 
 49; musk, 49; painted pond, 49; 
 
 snapping, 50, 51; soft shell, 51; 
 
 spotted, 49 
 Tussock moth, 78 
 
 Umbrella wort, 271 
 
 Vaccines, 464 
 
 Vegetable seed, 414, 419, 425 
 
 Vermin, extermination, 65 
 
 Vertebrates, 67 
 
 Vervain, 274, 275 
 
 Vetch, 249 
 
 Walnut, 324 
 
 Warbler, mourning, 172 
 
 Warblers, 151, 154 
 
 Wasps, in; digger, 113; mud dauber, 
 113; Polistes, 112; Vespa, in 
 
 Wastes, plant, 404 
 
 Water: boatman, 38; breathing, 39; 
 bug, giant, 2, 31, 39; in plant, 394, 
 395; plants, 6; scorpion, 35, 37; 
 
 skater, 35, 37; sowbug, 22; strider, 
 
 2, 35, 37; tiger, 2, 31, 33 
 Weapons of animals, 209 
 Webs of spiders, 133 
 Weeds, 235; ^ collection, 305; garden, 
 
 306; identification, 241; table of, 
 
 298 
 
 Wheat, 441 
 
 Whiskers of animals, 213 
 Whistle, 350 
 Whorls, 311 
 
 Wild traits of tame animals, 202 
 Willow, 321, 322 
 Willow herb, 291 
 Witch-hazel, 335, 337 
 Wolf spiders, 136 
 Wolves, 209, 2ii 
 Wood frog, 48 
 Wood sorrel, 259 
 Woodbine, 246 
 Woodlot, farmer's, 359 
 Woodpeckers, 156 
 Woods, uses of, 345 
 Wormwood, 294, 295 
 
 Yard, planting, 435 
 Yarrow, 276, 279 
 Yeast, 457, 458 
 Yellow fever, 465 
 Yew, 313 
 
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 Getting Acquainted with Nature 
 
 (A Nature-Study text for the upper grades) 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
 
 CHICAGO ILLINOIS 
 
FOURTEEN DAY USE 
 
 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 
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 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 on the date to which renewed. 
 Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 
 
 MAR 6-1973 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LD 21-100m-2,'55 
 (B139s22)476 
 
 General Library 
 
 University of California 
 
 Berkeley 
 
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