s 39 V E9Z £ no. 3 J A Public-. t ion of The College of Ag U N I V E R S I l J "*-J& C A L I F O ■ ■■ lUHKIIY °MSE8 W. R. HINSHAW A. S. ROSENWALD EDITED BY MARY RUBO CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION and EXTENSION SERVICE MANUAL THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS COMPLIMENTARY COPY THE AUTHORS: Dr. Hinshaw was formerly Professor of Veterinary Science and Veteri- narian in the Experiment Station; he resigned September 16, 1949. Dr. Rosenwald is Extension Poultry Pathologist, stationed at Davis. TURKEY DISEASES W. R. HINSHAW A. S. ROSENWALD EDITED BY MARY RUBO UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service Berkeley ■ California LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS TABLE OF CONTENTS GENERAL: Preventing turkey diseases Section 1 How to handle an outbreak Section 2 PROTOZOAN DISEASES: Coccidiosis and hexamitiasis Section 3 Blackhead Section 4 Trichomoniasis of the upper digestive tract Section 5 Uncommon protozoan parasites Section 6 BACTERIAL DISEASES: Salmonella infections (pullorum disease, fowl typhoid, and paratyphoid) Section 7 Fowl cholera, erysipelas, and spirochaetosis Section 8 Staphylococcosis Section 9 Uncommon bacterial infections Section 10 VIRUS DISEASES: Infectious sinusitis Section 1 1 Newcastle disease (pneumoencephalitis) Section 12 Fowl pox Section 13 FUNGUS DISEASES: Fungus diseases Section 14 NONINFECTIOUS DISEASES: Dietary diseases Section 15 Noninfectious diseases Section 16 Poisoning and botulism Section 17 Injuries Section 18 PARASITES: Worms . Section 19 Lice, mites, and ticks Section 20 INDEX THIS MANUAL is one of a series published by the University of California College of Agriculture and sold for a charge which is based upon returning only a portion of the production cost. By this means it is possible to make available publications which due to relatively high cost of production or limited audience would other- wise be beyond the scope of the College publishing program. TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwaid UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA < Agricultural Experiment Sta MANUAL 3 Section 1 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE ion and Extension Service Preventing turkey diseases..* . . . will save you money and work. HOW YOU CAN PREVENT DISEASE There isn't any easy way. Pink pills won't help. Neither will doping the drink- ing water. But good care, reasonable sanitation, and watchfulness will. Guarding your turkeys against all the diseases they can get calls for a thorough program of prevention. But the program must be practical. Changing the litter every week is a good practice; but few growers feel they can afford it. HERE ARE THE MEASURES YOU NEED . . . . . . for a sound yet practical job. This is a long list. But there are few of these practices you can safely neglect; A single outbreak might cost you more in time and money than a sound prevention pro- gram. If you combine these practices into a program to fit your set-up, they should pay their way. How to carry them out and why you need them are taken up on the pages indicated in the check list. HOW MANY PREVENTIVE PRACTICES DO YOU FOLLOW? Start with a healthy flock: Buy ONLY Pullorum-Clean eggs or poults lllllllllif Choose poults from stock with high livability, free of inheritable defects Keep your flock vigorous: Start poults on feed and water at once Avoid crowding Give poults needed ventilation Provide shade in hot weather Handle turkeys gently Use clean, dry litter. Avoid moldy feeds Feed a BALANCED ration Guard against excess salt Avoid abrupt changes ifr-\ Check your range for poisonous plants ~} m \ Provide plenty of fresh water Don't "dope" the water unless you have to Don't use "cure-alls" — or any drugs unless you have to Q*rV*#Wpi PAGE PAGE * Keep carriers away from your turkeys: Buy ONLY day-old poults or eggs Keep your turkeys away from other fowl Avoid contaminated ranges Control rats and mice Control wild rodents and reptiles Keep turkeys out of barnyards and corrals Keep visitors out of yards Keep contaminated equipment out of yards Stop spread and build-up: Watch for the first signs of trouble Plan houses you can keep clean Plan yards you can keep dry Use feeders and waterers that prevent contamination Arrange equipment to reduce the need to enter yards . Have plenty of feeders and waterers Put feeders and waterers on a raised platform Sell all your adult stock before you start poults Or keep your adult and poult flocks entirely separate . Brood poults as one age group if you can Or at least segregate different age groups And plan your routine to care for youngest birds first. If you hatch eggs, fumigate your incubator Clean brooder houses between broods Disinfect contaminated tools and equipment Clean feeders and waterers often Clean feeding areas often Stir or change litter often Isolate any birds that are even slightly "off" Burn or bury all dead birds immediately Get a diagnosis early; and get it FROM YOUR DIAG- NOSTIC LABORATORY If these diseases are a special problem: FOWL POX: vaccinate PULLORUM DISEASE: if you hatch your own eggs or sell eggs, have your breeders blood-tested NEWCASTLE DISEASE: vaccinate??? BLACKHEAD: rotate ranges CANNIBALISM: debeak or use "bits" PAGE ; 7 PAGE 8 PAGE 9 PAGE 10 PAGE 11 PAGE 12 PAGE 13 PAGE 14 PAGE 15 / START WITH A HEALTHY FLOCK Buy ONLY Pullorum-Clean eggs or poults Pullorum-Clean eggs, hatched in a Pul- lorum-Clean hatchery, will insure your poults a start free of one danger. Pul- lorum disease is one of the few that is known to be transmitted through the egg (as well as in other ways) . If even a few of your poults are infected when they hatch, the disease can quickly spread in shipping boxes and brooders, and may cause from 10 to 100 per cent mortality. Nothing you do later will prevent pul- lorum disease if the poults are infected when they hatch. But a sound eradication program has almost eliminated it from California breeding flocks. Similar eradication programs for other egg-transmitted diseases may be de- veloped in time. In fact, a voluntary pro- gram is now under way to reduce one type of paratyphoid, that caused by Salmonella typhi-murium. Other diseases that may be egg- borne are fowl typhoid, infectious sinus- itis, and Newcastle disease — the first by either sick or recovered birds, the last two by sick birds. Choose poults from stock with high livability, free of inheritable defects Poults bred for vigor and a sound con- stitution will often throw off or survive an infection that would kill weaker ones. A tendency toward certain defects, such as pendulous crops, tumors, and crooked spines, is inherited. No amount of care will nurse an inherited defect out of a bird. If you buy eggs or poults, find a breeder who has high standards in the selection of his breeders, one whose stock has a good history for vigor and liva- bility. If you hatch your own eggs, it will pay you to select your breeding flock from your most vigorous birds, ones that are free of all defects. Mark prospective breeders early; and select enough to allow for culling later. When you finally pick your breeding flock, examine each indi- vidual for defects, and discard any that are abnormal in any way. Also discard sick birds, even though they are only slightly affected. Cull any carriers of egg- borne diseases. • Q5£o UNINFECTED EGGS INFECTED YOUNG STOCK MAY INFECT PENMATES INFECTED POULTS AAAY INFECT PENMATES IN BROODER INFECTED POULTS MAY INFECT OTHERS IN SHIPPING BOXES KEEP YOUR FLOCK VIGOROUS Build up your birds' natural defenses by providing a suitable environment and proper feed. Here are some of the prac- tices that will help to keep your turkeys vigorous and disease-resistant. You will find a more complete discussion in refer- ences 1 and 2. (Reference 2 is Extension Circular 110, which you can get from your farm advisor.) Start poults on feed and water at once Feed and water poults as soon as you get them. Avoid buying poults that cannot be delivered before 2 days of age. Watch to see that poults actually begin to eat and drink. If some don't, coax them by dip- ping their beaks in the feed or water or by using bright-colored marbles in the mash or in some other way. Poults that do not get feed and water for 2 or 3 days after hatching never seem to recover from this early setback. They may never learn to eat or drink. This is why some of the biggest poults in the brood die: they are big because they hatched earliest and hence are the ones that have gone longest without eating. Avoid crowding If poults are crowded, diseases spread among them rapidly. The more timid ones get shoved around and don't get a chance to eat or drink. Crowding also results in piling and injuries that allow infection to enter. Keep proper brooder and room temperatures Keep your poults comfortable. They won't come out from under the brooder to eat if the room is too cold. Any sudden chilling may make poults more suscep- tible to infection; and some cases of en- teritis (inflammation of the bowels) seem to be due to sudden temperature changes (see section 16 of this manual). Section 1— Page 4 Give poults needed ventilation Plan for good ventilation when you build brooder houses or any other turkey houses. If your present structures are poor in this respect, try to find cheap ways to improve them. Plenty of fresh air helps to prevent such air-borne diseases as infectious sinusitis and Newcastle dis- ease. Poor ventilation weakens poults and makes them more susceptible to disease. During hot weather, it may cause heat prostration. Provide shade in hot weather In yards or on range, trees give the best shade. If you don't have them, provide artificial shade. You can use aluminum or wood panels, straw, corn, or sunflow- ers. Often old fruit-drying trays are use- ful. Give enough shade to avoid crowd- ing; and place it near feed and water containers. Heat weakens or kills turkeys, especially poults (see section 16). Handle turkeys gently Don't toss birds around or handle them roughly. Sprains or injuries may weaken a bird in such a way that infections like staphylococcosis could set in. Use clean, dry litter Buy clean, dry litter and keep it dry if you store it. Don't let it mold while in use. Litter from sugar cane needs special watching. Turkeys may pick up the fungus that causes aspergillosis (brooder pneu- monia) from moldy litter. Avoid moldy feeds Select and store feed to avoid mold. And keep your feeders free of mold. Moniliasis (crop mycosis) and aspergillosis (see section 14) have been brought on by feed- ing moldy grain or moldy milk products. Feed a BALANCED ration Give your turkeys enough of all the needed nutrients, including minerals and vitamins. Keep the nutrients in balance with one another. A shortage of some needed nutrient will lower your birds' re- sistance and may cause dietary disease (see section 15). Reference 3 will help you figure out the nutrients your birds need and the cost of your mix. Reference 2 gives balanced rations for poults and turkeys. Guard against excess salt Be sure there are no lumps of salt in your mix. Do not add salt to mashes that con- tain salty protein concentrates. Some cases of ascites (water belly) in poults are due to too much salt. Avoid abrupt changes If you must make a change in rations, change gradually to another mix. This holds even if you feel your turkeys aren't doing well on their present feed. (Don't be too sure it's the feed — unless the lab says so.) Prepare your poults for a move to range by feeding some of the same feed they will get on the range; and continue to feed some of their growing mash for a while after you move them. Any abrupt change may upset your turkeys and lower their resistance or bring on enteritis (see section 16). If you have to change to a new type of feeder or waterer, put the new ones out for a few days before you take the old ones away, and coax your turkeys to use them. Turkeys have been known to starve or die of thirst rather than eat or drink from a new type of container. Check your range for poisonous plants If good feed is available, you don't have to worry that your turkeys may eat poi- sonous plants. But don't put turkeys out on a range where poisonous plants have started growth and others haven't. Provide plenty of fresh water Turkeys need lots of water. If you can pipe running water for them, that's the best system. If you can't, then give them fresh water often. Try to keep it cool dur- ing hot weather. Try to keep your turkeys out of areas where there are stagnant pools; fluke in- festations, botulism, and trichomoniasis have been traced to such pools. Good drainage helps. But if the range is muddy, fresh water in clean containers may keep your turkeys out of trouble. Don't "dope" the water unless you have to Turkeys dislike water containing disin- fectants and will not drink enough if you give them such water. They may not drink at all. Use copper sulfate only if you have a diagnosed outbreak of trichomoniasis (section 5), moniliasis (section 14), or aspergillosis (section 14). Then follow the directions given in the sections on those diseases. Don't use "cure-alls" — or any drugs unless you have to Give drugs only when the disease for which they are needed has been definitely diagnosed in your flock. Even then give them only in the doses and for the periods recommended by your diagnostic labora- tory, a veterinarian, or this manual. This applies to all drugs — sulfas, penicillin, copper sulfate, phenothiazine, worm rem- edies, Argyrol and other silver com- pounds, nicotine products, sodium fluor- ide. Epsom salts are not recommended, either for periodic use or even in most outbreaks of disease. There is no cure-all to prevent or treat turkey diseases. Most of the drugs used to control specific diseases can be somewhat toxic for turkeys. You may do more harm than good by giving drugs when they are not needed. Then, too, why waste money on something that won't do any good? Page 5— Section 1 KEEP CARRIERS AWAY FROM YOUR TURKEYS To prevent disease, you must keep infec- tion away from your flock. This means protecting your birds from natural and mechanical carriers. Natural carriers . . . ... of a disease are animals that actually become infected themselves; they carry the germ or parasite in their bodies and spread it to healthy turkeys through air, droppings, or in other ways. Many may seem healthy but continue to spread in- fection. Turkeys themselves are the most dangerous of the natural carriers. Sick turkeys can transmit any infec- tious disease to your healthy birds, by contact or in some other way. Turkeys with mild cases — those with no symptoms or ones you might not notice — are almost as likely to transmit disease as birds that are very sick. And they are more likely to get a chance to do so; it's hard to detect and isolate them. "Carrier turkeys" are birds — usu- ally adults — that continue to harbor a germ or parasite after they have recov- ered from a disease and seem to be healthy. Recovered birds do not remain carriers with some diseases. But they are one of the chief sources of infection for a large number of serious diseases. Many other animals, from flies to cattle, may also be natural carriers, either while they are sick; or, with some dis- eases, after they have recovered or when they do not show illness. Chickens are an especial danger : they get such mild cases of some serious turkey diseases that you might not notice and isolate infected birds. Natural carriers may transmit the disease directly, or only be reservoirs of infection. Many animals — particularly flies and ticks — that are natural carriers of some diseases are mechanical carriers of others. NATURAL CARRIERS AND THE DISEASES THEY CARRY SICK TURKEYS Any infectious turkey disease MILDLY SICK TURKEYS Any infectious disease, but especially Blackhead Infectious sinusitis Coccidiosis Hexamitiasis Salmonellosis CARRIER TURKEYS Blackhead Fowl cholera Fowl typhoid Hexamitiasis Leucocytozoon infection Paracolon infection Paratyphoid Pullorum Infectious sinusitis Spirochaetosis DUCKS AND QUAIL Fowl cholera Hexamitiasis PHEASANTS, PARTRIDGES, AND PEAFOWL Blackhead Paratyphoid Hexamitiasis Pullorum fPi SPARROWS, OTHER WILD BIRD! Blackhead Fowl cholera Paracolon infection Paratyphoid Pseudotuberculosis SNAKES AND LIZARDS Paratyphoid Paracolon infection CHICKENS Blackhead Fowl cholera Fowl pox Fowl typhoid Paratyphoid Pseudotuberculosis Pullorum Tuberculosis Paracolon infection PIGEONS Paratyphoid Trichomoniasis RATS, MICE, AND OTHER RODENTS Paratyphoid Pseudotuberculosis Mechanical carriers . . . . . . may be either animals or materials and equipment, or even water. Animals that are mechanical carriers do not be- come infected themselves ; but they carry germs or parasites on their feet or, with insects, their mouthparts. Man himself is a dangerous mechani- cal carrier : he brings germs or parasites from contaminated yards to healthy flocks on the soles of his shoes. There have even been a few cases where a man has been a natural carrier of such diseases as paratyphoid. House and stable flies carry coc- cidiosis, blackhead, fowl cholera. Mos- quitoes carry fowl pox, and possibly spirochaetosis, which is also carried by ticks. Borrowed equipment, truck tires, used crates and feed sacks often bring infection to healthy flocks. So does drainage water from contaminated yards. How can you keep these natural and mechanical carriers from bringing dis- ease to your flock? Gf SHEEP Pseudotuberculosis Swine erysipelas QHf HOGS Paratyphoid Tuberculosis Pseudotuberculosis Swine erysipelas FLIES AND GROUND BEETLES are intermediate hosts for Tapeworms. BIACKFLIES car- ry Leucocytozoon infection. MOSQUITOES Fowl pox Spirochaetosis nj EARTHWORMS CATTLE are intermediate hosts for Fowl cholera Tapeworms Paratyphoid Capillariaworms(one species) Buy ONLY day-old poults or eggs Bring no started or adult stock onto your ranch. You can never be sure that there are not some carriers or birds with mild cases in any stock over one day old. Even a few infected birds may start an out- break. This applies even to your own turkeys, if you take them off the premises, as for exhibit. They may pick up fowl pox, New- castle disease, infectious sinusitis, or some other infection while they are away. Quarantining is not a safe enough meas- ure. It's better to market them when the exhibit is over. Dont bring them home! Keep your turkeys away from other fowl The risks you run if you keep chickens and turkeys on the same ranch are widely recognized now; few large-scale growers take the chance. If you must keep chickens, isolate them completely from your turkeys. Use differ- ent equipment and attendants. Do not put turkeys in any yard previously used for chickens. And be sure that there is no drainage from chicken yards to turkey yards. Do not use the same incubator alter- nately, or especially at the same time, for turkey eggs and for chicken eggs. This is the way pullorum was originally intro- duced into California turkey flocks; and the control program with chickens has not yet achieved as thorough results as the eradication program has with turkeys. Paratyphoid may also be brought in on chicken eggs. Ducks, pigeons, geese, and game birds are also a danger to your turkeys. Avoid contaminated ranges Keep your turkeys off ranges where an outbreak of blackhead has occurred in recent years. Or an outbreak of coccidio- sis, erysipelas, paratyphoid, or other dis- ease. Don't let your turkeys run on any range where there have been sheep or Page 7— Section 1 hogs infected with erysipelas. Try to keep your turkeys out of areas that are fre- quented by pheasants, quail, or pigeons. Control rats and mice You need to control rats and mice to pro- tect feed, as well as to prevent disease. The best method of control is to make buildings and storage bins rodent-proof. (See references 1 and 4.) You can use metal garbage cans with covers for tem- porary storage of feed near brooder houses and yards; but put them outside the yards if you can. Keep excess feed from being scattered around the yards. Control wild rodents and reptiles Especially if paratyphoid infections are a threat in your area, control such rodents as gophers and ground squirrels (see ref- erence 5). Snakes and lizards also carry these infections; control them too! Keep turkeys out of barnyards and corrals Turkeys may pick up the diseases carried by sheep, hogs, or cattle if they are put on areas now or formerly used as barn- yards or corrals. Ground has been known to remain contaminated with tuberculosis for as long as ten years after infected ani- mals were removed from it. Keep visitors out of yards Other turkey growers, buyers, salesmen, and service men are particularly likely to bring infection in from other ranches. Keep visitors out of your turkey yards as much as you can; or at least have them change their shoes or put on overshoes. SHOES (AND TIRES AND EQUIPMENT) MAY CARRY DISEASES FROM SICK BIRDS TO HEALTHY ONES Be sociable in the parlor, not in the brooder room ! Visit your neighbor if you like — but not his flock, even if his birds seem perfectly healthy. Keep contaminated equipment out of yards Keep dealers' and poultry buyers' trucks as far away from your turkey yards as you can. Thoroughly disinfect any used shipping crates before you allow them near your turkey yards. Used feed sacks are another possible source of infection. It's dangerous to bring a spray rig that has been on other ranches onto your premises unless you clean it first. Other mechanical carriers, such as flies, may carry infection from one of your own brooder houses or yards to an- other as well as from some other ranch to yours. What to do about them is discussed under preventing spread and build-up. DISPOSAL PIT ) Clean brooder houses between broods. Disinfect contaminated equipment. Clean feeders and waterers often. Clean feeding areas often. Stir or change litter often. Isolate any birds that are "off." Burn or bury all dead birds immediately. Get a diagnosis early; and get it from your diagnostic laboratory. HOW TO CLEAN BROODER HOUSES The house itself: 1. Spray with oil or disinfectant to settle the dust. 2. Haul all litter and droppings to a place where turkeys cannot get at them. You can reduce infection and fly trouble by composting it or spreading it in the sun away from turkeys. 3. Remove all movable equipment to a cement run or a cleaning platform. 4. Scrub the walls, floors, and built-in equipment with lye solution (1 can, or 13 ounces, to 20 gallons). Apply with an old broom. Take care not to get so- lution on your hands, face, or clothes. 5. Allow time for thorough drying before you put poults in the house. 6. If there are mites or ticks, spray with insecticide (like 0.3 to 0.5 per cent lin- dane house spray). See section 20. Feeders and waterers, movable equipment: If no disease is present, put them on a cement floor or cleaning plat- form, wash with soapy water, rinse with hot water, and dry thoroughly in the sun. If some infection is present, wash in hot soapy water, rinse. Then rinse thoroughly in boiling water, spray with live steam, or dip in a 1 per cent solution of formalin. Or spray with or dip in sodium orthophenyl- phenate or a quaternary am- monium compound, diluted as di- rected on the package. WHAT TO USE FOR DISINFECTING Yards: Sunshine and drying Damp, shady yards: Quicklime Concrete yards: Lye solution, 1 can (13 oz.) to 20 gals. Brooder houses: Lye solution (don't spray with this) Feeders and waterers, movable equipment: Scrub with hot soapy water (or you can use detergents), rinse in hot water, dry in sun. Then, where there has been in- fection: Rinse in boiling water; or Spray with live steam; or Dip in 1 per cent formalin or in lye solution; or Spray with or dip in sodium ortho- phenylphenate or a quaternary ammonium disinfectant, diluted as directed on package. Drains: Chlorinated lime Incubators and incubator rooms: Formalin (see page 12) E 9£fS/ genera/ use around hatchery: Quaternary ammonium compounds Wounds: Tincture of iodine; or 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid Flies, mosquitoes: Spray with 0.3 to 0.5 per cent lindane house spray or 5 per cent DDT spray. (Use wettable powder form) Flies resistant to DDT: Prevent fly breeding; see your farm advisor for recommendations Genera/ disinfectants: Lye solution Sodium orthophenylphenate Compound solution of cresol Sheep dips (coal-tar disinfectants) TEAR THIS OUT AND HANG IT UP IN A HANDY PLACE TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 1 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service !:.^:5,;;,...::.:;.i,S. ... •-■ .-.,.,>:;■ : v :.v,.,. ■•.;.:„ -i: . - . TRACHEA ESOPHAGUS CROP THYROID GLAND BROKEN CORACOID BONE GALL BLADDER CECUM DUODENUM HEART LIVER (BOTTOM SURFACE) GIZZARD PANCREAS ude. INTERNAL ORGANS OF A TURKEY HEN (in place) TEAR THIS OUT AND HANG IT UP IN A HANDY PLACE TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw arid A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 1 UNIVERSITY Of CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service ESOPHAGUS /TRACHEA JHYROID GLAND CROP SYRINX SPLEEN SMALL INTESTINE cJu.Ma.rL ANUS BEGINNING OF LARGE INTESTINE INTERNAL ORGANS OF A TURKEY HEN < some removed to show parts below) TEAR THIS OUT AND HANG IT UP IN A HANDY PLACE GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN MANUAL 3 For the shape and location of many internal organs in the turkey, see the diagram on the back. Many terms, such as "build-up" and "peti- chiae," are explained in section 1, or in later sections where they are used. air sac. Tissue-like sacs that balloon out from the lungs into the body cavity or bones. There are nine. antibiotics. Soluble chemicals produced by microorganisms that tend to keep other microorganisms from developing. arthritis. Inflammation of a joint. autopsy. Examination of organs of dead animal to determine disease changes. bacterium. Single-cell plant organism. (Plural, bacteria.) bacterin. Killed bacteria in a fluid. blind pouches. Ceca (see diagram). caruncles. Two knobby, red, fleshy bulges, unfeathered, on turkey's neck. catarrhal. Excess production of mucus. chronic. Slow onset and long duration. degenerated. Normal structure lost by death of tissue. diarrhea. Abnormally frequent or loose droppings. enteritis. Inflammation of the intestines. exudate. Substance given off by inflamed tissue. heart sac. Thin sac that covers the heart; pericardium. hemorrhage. Discharge of blood. host. One animal that harbors another living organism. immunity. A state in which the body is re- sistant to disease; may be natural or may be acquired, as by vaccination. jejunum. Middle division of the small in- testine. lesion. Tissue change due to disease. life cycle. Changes occurring in any or- ganism from mature state through re- production to next generation. mesentery. Peritoneum attaching intes- tines to the abdominal cavity. metatarsus. Long bone below the hock. microorganism. Small living plant or ani- mal visible only through a microscope. mortality. Death rate. mucous membrane. Tissue-like sheet that produces mucus and lines organs or cavities that open to the outside, such as intestines, lungs, eyes, mouth. mucus. Clear, sticky, jelly-like substance produced by mucous membranes. nodule. A little knot or lump. normal temperature. 105°-106° F. pathogenic. Causing disease. peritoneum. Thin tissue lining the abdom- inal cavity and covering organs in the abdominal cavity. pleural membrane. Membrane lining chest and covering lungs ; pleura. pneumoencephalitis. Newcastle disease. protozoa. Single-cell animal microorgan- isms. pus. A fluid product of inflammation con- taining white blood cells, dead cells, and debris, as in an abscess. serum. Fluid, straw-colored portion of blood after clot congeals. snood. Fleshy "finger" that sticks out from below the eyes of turkeys, larger on toms ; tubular caruncle. symptoms. The way a sick bird looks or acts. tubercle. A definite, rounded, solid raised place on the skin, mucous membranes, or surface of an organ. ulcer. Open sore on skin or mucous mem- brane that discharges pus. urates. Whitish secretion in urine. vaccine. A preparation containing bac- teria or virus, to immunize turkeys against disease. Bacterial vaccines con- tain living, though sometimes weak- ened, bacteria. Virus vaccines contain either killed or living virus. virulence. The disease-producing power of an organism. virus. A living agent that can grow and reproduce only in living tissue and is too small to be seen even with an ordi- nary microscope. STOP SPREAD AND BUILD-UP No matter how careful you are, you can't hope to keep all infection away from your ranch. If even a few of your birds are in- fected, the disease may spread to your whole flock — unless you guard against it. The germs or parasites multiply inside a bird's body; and as they pass through one bird after another, the infective dose (the amount of infection) builds up. You need to plan how to stop spread and build-up on your ranch. Infectious diseases spread through: Direct contact with sick birds Contaminated droppings Natural carriers (see page 6) Mechanical carriers (page 7), especially attendants, equipment, and visitors Drinking water Eggs Air, especially in wind or dust storms No one disease spreads by all these routes. But to prevent all diseases you must block all routes as well as you can. Infection builds up . . . ... at very different rates in bacterial and in virus and protozoan diseases. With bacterial diseases, such as fowl typhoid and fowl cholera, even a low infective dose may cause a severe case, because most disease bacteria mul- tiply at a very rapid rate in the bird's body. With them you should aim at keep- ing your birds from being exposed to even a low dose of infection. The measures you take to protect poults in the incubator and brooder against such bacterial dis- eases as pullorum must be very thorough. With the protozoa that cause black- head, coccidiosis, and hexamitiasis, a low infective dose may do a turkey little harm ; in fact, the bird may develop some resistance. (But with blackhead and hexa- mitiasis, a turkey that has recovered may be a carrier.) These protozoan parasites do not increase as rapidly in the bird's body as most disease bacteria do; a bird that picks up a few protozoa may not even show symptoms. But the parasites pass out in increased numbers in its drop- pings. The numbers build up higher and higher as the disease passes through one bird after another, until severe cases and heavy mortality result. Hence with these diseases you should aim at keeping the infection from build- ing up; it is not so important to keep your poults from being exposed at all. With the viruses that cause fowl pox and Newcastle disease, a low infective dose may cause only a mild case; and it may give the bird at least some immunity to further attack. That is why you can protect your flock against these diseases by vaccinating with live-virus vaccines. Work out a program . . . . . . that takes these facts into account. By good planning you can save yourself work and at the same time do a better job. Ar- range and construct — or remodel — your yards and houses and choose your equip- ment to make cleaning easy. Plan your seasonal schedule and your daily route of work to avoid spread and build-up. Map out a workable routine for cleaning and then do it regularly. Some measures are suggested on the next few pages. Watch for the first signs of trouble Don't let disease get a head start. Learn to recognize the first signs of trouble. In- spect every pen every day. Be a good ob- server. If you can catch an outbreak in an early stage, you will have a chance to prevent spread to other birds or pens. Page 9— Section 1 Plan houses you can keep clean You will find disease prevention much easier if your houses are easy to clean. If you use the multiple-pen type, provide proper isolation and have separate en- trances for each unit. Plan yards you can keep dry If you do not have a soil and slope with good natural drainage, you may need to use cement or asphalt yards or wire sun porches and platforms. Most disease-pro- ducing organisms need some moisture to survive outside the bird's body. Wet, muddy, poorly drained yards favor black- head, coccidiosis, hexamitiasis, tricho- moniasis, favus, and foot abscesses. Concrete yards should be continuous with the concrete floors of the houses. Construct the sides of the yards at such a slope that you can clean one pen with- out washing water and refuse into the next one. You should have a gravel drain- age area or a concrete drain in front of the yards to carry off excess water. Wire sun porches and platforms are an aid in preventing disease if they are well constructed and used intelli- gently. They should be narrow enough so you do not have to walk on them to care for your birds. The wire should be of heavy gauge (no. 14 for growing poults) and fairly wide mesh (1x2 inches for growing poults, smaller for younger birds.) Or you can use narrow slats in place of wire. Build them so you can easily remove droppings. The sides as well as the top should be sparrow-proof. If you use platforms, keep them clean ; don't walk on them to feed, water, or catch birds; don't overcrowd them; don't THI "VAN ES" TYPE OF WATER FOUNTAIN PROVIDES A CONTINUOUS FLOW SOME GOOD TYPES OF FEEDERS THIS IS ONE YOU CAN MAKE. THE SWIVEL CROSSPIECE PREVENTS ROOSTING. CUP IS 8" ABOVE GROUND TILE DRAIN CATCHES OVERFLOW OQ YOU CAN RAISE OR LOWER THIS FEEDER TO FIT DIFFERENT SIZES OF BIRDS. put dirty utensils on them; use separate brushes for each pen ; and disinfect other cleaning utensils between pens. Rotation of runs is recommended if you keep your birds in confinement. Use feeders and waterers that prevent contamination Use containers designed to keep drop- pings out of the feed and water. This is an important way to cut down the spread of diseases through contaminated drop- pings. A number of good types are now on the market. Or you can build satisfac- tory ones (see references 1 and 2). Arrange equipment to reduce the need to enter yards If you can arrange your feeders and wa- terers so you can fill them from outside the fence, you can greatly reduce the chances of spreading infection. An auto- matic watering system helps here. Have plenty of feeders and waterers Provide plenty of containers. Day-old poults need 2 running inches of trough per bird (1 inch of trough if birds can feed from both sides) . Allow more as the birds grow. Disease spreads quickly if birds crowd around the containers. Section 1— Page 10 Put feeders and waterers on a raised platform Unless you keep your birds on wire sun porches or platforms, put feeders and waterers on a raised platform. Such a platform reduces the chances of disease spread through the droppings that ac- cumulate around feeders and waterers. The platform should be at least 6 inches off the ground. It should be large enough so that when the birds eat and drink, their droppings fall under the platform and not around it. The mesh should be large enough so that droppings passed when birds are on it go through and cannot be eaten by the turkeys. Brooder poults need at least %-inch mesh; use larger mesh for older birds — 1x2 inches for range poults. you begin brooding operations, then you need to take careful measures to isolate your adults from your poults. This means not only keeping them from direct con- tact with each other, but also using dif- ferent equipment and attendants for the two flocks. Brood poults as one age group if you can If your equipment and your general set- up permit, it is better to start all your poults for the season at one time. It is very hard to prevent spread of such dis- eases as pullorum and paratyphoid, or build-up of such diseases as blackhead, coccidiosis, and hexamitiasis when you raise one brood after another. HAVE WIRE PLATFORMS LARGE ENOUGH SO THAT DROPPINGS FROM BIRDS WILL FALL THROUGH THE WIRE— AND NOT OUTSIDE TH£ PLATFORM Sell all your adult stock before you start poults If you can, arrange your operations so that you can market all your adult birds before you begin to brood (unless you have separate ranches for poults and adults) . You cannot assume that because your adult flock looks or seems healthy it isn't a threat to poults. Some healthy- looking adults may have a mild infection or be carriers of such diseases as hexa- mitiasis, blackhead, fowl typhoid, pul- lorum, paratyphoid, and infectious sinus- itis (see the list on page 6) . Or keep your adult and poult flocks entirely separate You can of course keep poults and adults at the same time if you have separate ranches for them. If you do not, and if you cannot dispose of your adults before Or at least segregate different age groups It may not be practical for you to raise all your poults at one time. If not, raise them in as few broods as possible. And try to keep the younger poults from any contact, direct or indirect, with older ones. Isolate them as well as you can. And plan your routine to care for youngest birds first If you have poults of different ages, plan your daily routine so that you care for your youngest birds first. You can thus avoid bringing contamination to them, on your shoes and equipment, from the older poults. (Or from your adult turkeys or chickens if you have them too.) The younger birds are least apt to have picked up infection and also have the least re- sistance to it. Page 1 1— Section 1 If you hatch eggs, fumigate your incubator Fumigate your incubator between hatches with formalin (40 per cent solution of formaldehyde) . Thorough fumigation protects your poults against pullorum and other germs that may be present in the incubator. Neither this nor any other method of disinfecting will reach germs inside the egg or poult. And you may re- duce hatchability if you fumigate between 24 hours and 85 hours after you put eggs in the incubator. That is why fumigating is usually done between hatches. For successful fumigation: Make sure the incubator, or the room you are going to fumigate, is air-tight. First clean the hatchery itself and spray it with disinfectant (see page 13). Keep the room temperature and humidity high: 85° to 95° F. on the wet-bulb thermometer is best. Fumigation may fail if the temperature is below 65° or the humidity below 60 per cent. For cabinet-type incubators (forced- air or circulating-air types) , two methods are commonly used. The first is : FORMALIN AND POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE Clean the incubator thoroughly. Use an earthenware or enamelware ves- sel that holds four or five times as much as the amount of mixture you need. In routine fumigation, for each 100 cubic feet of incubator space, use: 1!4 fluid ounces of commercial for- malin 0.6 ounce of potassium permanganate Place the vessel about 3 feet above the floor in the middle compartment of the incubator. Put permanganate in the vessel and pour formalin over it. Keep doors and vents closed for at least 10 minutes to let the gas penetrate to all parts of the machine. The second method is less expensive than the first and just about as effective, but more trouble: FORMALIN-SOAKED CHEESECLOTH Clean the incubator thoroughly. .For each 100 cubic feet of incubator space, use 0.7 fluid ounce (20 cubic centimeters) of formalin. Saturate the cheesecloth with the forma- lin. Use enough cloth to soak up the formalin without dripping. Hang the saturated cheesecloth under or near the circulating fans, and let the formalin evaporate (about Vh hours). Most manufacturers furnish directions for their machines. Follow these closely. Equipment for generating and intro- ducing the gas through the intake parts of certain types of machines can be had from the manufacturer. If you have been having trouble with omphalitis, use double the usual dosage of formalin, or of formalin and potassium permanganate, between the hatches. Paratyphoid germs are sometimes present on the outside of the egg, and may penetrate the shell. For this reason some research workers have recently suggested fumigating with three times the usual amount of formalin or formalin and po- tassium permanganate and doing it 6 hours (or at least between 6 and 18 hours) after the eggs are put in the incu- bator. Another suggestion has been to fumigate the eggs before you incubate them. These methods have not been suffi- ciently tested for their effect on hatch- ability or their efficiency. If you have trouble with paratyphoid infection, or for any other reason are thinking of fumigat- ing during incubation, check with your diagnostic laboratory for the latest rec- ommendations. For further information, especially on disinfecting commercial hatcheries, see reference 6. Section 1— Page 12 Clean brooder houses between broods Clean and disinfect your brooders and brooder houses thoroughly before you put a new brood in them — even if the previous brood has seemed perfectly healthy. An infection that you may not be aware of at all in one brood may build up to a disastrous outbreak in the next. HOW TO CLEAN BROODER HOUSES The house itself: 1. Spray with oil or disinfectant to settle the dust. 2. Haul all litter and droppings to a place where turkeys cannot get at them. You can reduce infection and fly trouble by composting it or spreading it in the sun away from turkeys. 3. Remove all movable equipment to a cement run or a cleaning platform. 4. Scrub the walls, floors, and built-in equipment with lye solution (1 can, or 13 ounces, to 20 gallons). Apply with an old broom. Take care not to get so- lution on your hands, face, or clothes. 5. Allow time for thorough drying before you put poults in the house. 6. If there are mites or ticks, spray with insecticide (like 0.3 to 0.5 per cent lin- dane house spray). See section 20. Feeders and waterers, movable equipment: If no disease is present, put them on a cement floor or cleaning plat- form, wash with soapy water, rinse with hot water, and dry thoroughly in the sun. It some infection is present, wash in hot soapy water, rinse. Then rinse thoroughly in boiling water, spray with live steam, or dip in a 1 per cent solution of formalin. Or spray with or dip in sodium orthophenyl- phenate or a quaternary am- monium compound, diluted as di- rected on the package. This does not mean that you need to use any expensive disinfectants. For your brooder house, lye solution is about as good as anything you can use, if the house is thoroughly cleaned first. Apply it with a broom. Don't use a sprayer — there's too much danger of getting lye in your eyes. A suggested routine is given in the box. To whitewash, add quicklime to the lye solution. For a hatchery, after lye-cleaning as for a brooder house, spray with a good disinfectant. Use one of the "general dis- infectants" (except lye) listed on page 14. Follow the manufacturer's directions for dilution and apply with a compressed-air sprayer. Cover every part of the building and built-in equipment. Allow time for drying. Disinfect contaminated tools and equipment Disinfect shoes, overshoes, and equip- ment that you have used in a contami- nated pen before you use them in a clean one; or after you have used them in a pen of older poults before you use them in a pen of younger ones. Use one of the "gen- eral disinfectants" listed on the next page. Do not use lye on metal or leather. Clean feeders and waterers often You can clean feed and water containers simply by washing them in hot soapy water, rinsing with hot water, and drying them thoroughly, if possible in the sun. But do this regularly, at least once a week. If some infection is present, extra disinfecting is advisable; see the direc- tions at the bottom of the box at the left. Clean feeding areas often Clean out the droppings below raised feeding platforms or sun porches as needed. Raised platforms will do no good if turkeys can reach the droppings below them. It is not necessary to move them to new ground; in fact, this just exposes contaminated ground. Page 13— Section 1 Stir or change litter often Always change the litter before you put a new brood in a house. Unless you have an outbreak, it may not be necessary to change the litter during a brood; but avoid packed litter and wet manure by stirring the litter often, so that the top of it is clean and dry. When you can't keep the top dry this way, change the litter. Built-up litter has been used success- fully. But in outbreaks it is better to change often. Use small amounts of litter but replace it two to four times a week. Isolate any birds that are even slightly "off" Sick birds should be culled promptly. It is better to put them in a small pen near their own yard, rather than to have a "hospital" pen for birds from all your yards. If birds are returned to their own yards from the hospital, they may carry back diseases from other pens. Burn or bury all dead birds immediately One way to keep flies from spreading dis- ease is to burn dead birds promptly in an incinerator or bury them in a fly-proof disposal pit (see the plan on page 8) . Get a diagnosis early; and get it FROM YOUR DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY In case of an outbreak, send specimens to your diagnostic laboratory at once! That's what the laboratory is for, and its services are free. Pick out the one nearest you from the list on page 16. Section 2 of this manual tells how to send specimens and what to do in an outbreak until you can get a diagnosis. The earlier you find out what is wrong, the better your chances to prevent spread and to bring the disease under control. Don't try to guess what is wrong, or de- pend on the guesses of friends or kibitz- ers. The symptoms, even the autopsy find- ings, of many diseases are similar. WHAT TO USE FOR DISINFECTING Yards: Sunshine and drying Damp, shady yards: Quicklime Concrete yards: Lye solution, 1 can (13 oz.) to 20 gals. Brooder houses; Lye solution (don't spray with this) Feeders and waterers, movable equipment: Scrub with hot soapy water (or you can use detergents), rinse in hot water, dry in sun. Then, where there has been in- fection: Rinse in boiling water; or Spray with live steam; or Dip in 1 per cent formalin or in lye solution; or Spray with or dip in sodium ortho- phenylphenate or a quaternary ammonium disinfectant, diluted as directed on package. Drains: Chlorinated lime incubators and incubator rooms: Formalin (see page 12) Eggs, general use around hatchery: Quaternary ammonium compounds Wounds: Tincture of iodine; or 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid Flies, mosquitoes: Spray with 0.3 to 0.5 per cent lindane house spray or 5 per cent DDT spray. (Use wettable powder form) Flies resistant to DDT: Prevent fly breeding; see your farm advisor for recommendations General disinfectants: Lye solution Sodium orthophenylphenate Compound solution of cresol Sheep dips (coal-tar disinfectants) See references 1 and 7 for more information about disinfectants Section 1— Page 14 THESE DISEASES ARE A SPECIAL PROBLEM FOWL POX: vaccinate Fowl pox is a threat in almost every tur- key-growing area in the state. Unless you are in an isolated area that is free of fowl pox, vaccinate before the mosquito sea- son begins. You will find directions on when and how to vaccinate in section 13. PULLORUM DISEASE: if you hatch your own eggs or sell eggs, have your birds blood-tested If you produce hatching eggs, either for your own use or to sell, you cannot afford to neglect blood-testing for pullorum dis- ease. Section 7 tells more about why it is needed and how to prepare for it. HOW TO HANDLE YOUR FLOCK FOR VACCINATING OR BLOOD-TESTING 1. Set up two corrals close together, with a small enclosed area between them. 2. Put a chute for handling the birds in the work area. 3. Make the fences of the corrals turkey- tight, to prevent unvaccinated or un- tested birds from escaping into the vaccinated or tested group. 4. Place a convenient work table next to the chute, to hold the apparatus and the bird to be treated or bled. 5. Have a crew of at least two helpers to catch and hold birds and assist the vaccinator or tester. The following practices are needed only if you have had trouble with one or more of these diseases, or know that they are a special threat in your area. NEWCASTLE DISEASE: vaccinate??? If Newcastle disease is a threat in your area, see section 12 for information on how to decide whether you need to vac- cinate and, if so, what vaccine to use for your own conditions. BLACKHEAD: rotate ranges Since cecum worms harbor the blackhead parasite, you may need to use special care in sanitation if your flock has many cecum worms. Section 4 shows two meth- ods of rotating runs and gives other de- tails on preventing blackhead. CANNIBALISM: debeak or use "bits" You can usually prevent cannibalism by avoiding overcrowding, separating toms and hens, and having plenty of feeders and waterers (to keep the poults busy). But if cannibalism gets started in your flock, you may find it necessary to debeak or use "bits." See section 18. If you are having trouble prevent- ing any other disease, send for the section that deals with that disease ; see the list on page 16. Emergency methods of handling an outbreak until you find out what is wrong are given in section 2. REFERENCES 1. PRINCIPLES OF DISEASE PREVENTION, by W. R. Hinshaw. p. 89-114. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. (A technical reference book.) 2. TURKEY PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA, by V. S. Asmundson and F. H. Kratzer. California Agricultural Extension Service Circular 110. 60 p. Revised 1951. 3. HOW TO CALCULATE THE NUTRIENT CONTENT AND COST OF POULTRY FEEDS, by C. R. Grau. 2 p. Cali- fornia Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal- ifornia. 1949. 4. CONTROL OF RATS AND MICE, by Tracy I. Storer. California Agricultural Extension Service Circular 142. 37 p. 1948. 5. CONTROL OF FIELD RODENTS IN CALIFORNIA, by Tracy I. Storer. California Agricultural Extension Service Circular 138. 50 p. Revised 1949. 6. DISEASES IN RELATION TO HATCHERY OPERA- TIONS, by W. R. Hinshaw. p. 338-79. In: FERTILITY AND HATCHABILITY OF CHICKEN AND TURKEY EGGS, edited by Lewis W. Taylor. 423 p. John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y. 1949. 7. THE USE OF DISINFECTANTS ON THE FARM, by Frank W. Tilley. U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 1991. 17 p. 1947. Page 15— Section 1 DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORIES You can get free diagnoses at any of these state or county laboratories: Davis: University of California, Division of Poultry Pathology, Veterinary Science Build- ing. Fresno: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Labo- ratory, Route 5, Box 210-X. Petaluma: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, 627 F Street. Sacramento: State of California Department of Agriculture, Animal Pathology Labora- tory, State Office Building No. 1. San Diego: San Diego County Livestock De- partment, 4005 Rosecrans Avenue. San Gabriel: Livestock and Poultry Pathology ^ Laboratory, 714 South Santa Anita Street. Turlock: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, Dis- trict Fair Grounds. OTHER SECTIONS OF THIS MANUAL Bacterial diseases, continued Sec. 9. Staphylococcosis You can get section 2 and any one of the others free from your farm advisor or diagnostic laboratory or by writing to Public Service, 121 Giannini Hall, Berke- ley 4, California. If you have an urgent need for more than one of the sections on specific diseases, explain your need. It is better to get a section only when the prob- lem with which it deals comes up in your flock : the sections are revised from time when there is new information. Complete sets are not given free, but you can buy a bound set with an index through your farm advisor or by sending one dollar (check or money order) to Agricultural Publications Office, 22 Gian- nini Hall, Berkeley 4, California. Ask for Manual 3. General: Sec. 2. How to handle an outbreak Protozoan diseases: Sec. 3. Coccidiosis and hexamitiasis Sec. 4. Blackhead Sec. 5. Trichomoniasis Sec. 6. Uncommon protozoan parasites Leucocytozoon, Cochlosoma, Haemopro- teus, and Plasmodium infections Bacterial diseases: Sec. 7. Salmonella infections Pullorum disease, fowl typhoid, and para- typhoid infections Sec. 8. Fowl cholera, erysipelas, and spirochaetosis Sec. 10. Uncommon bacterial infections Streptococcus, Pseudomonas, Paracolon, Proteus, colon-aerogenes, and Clostridium infections, tuberculosis, and pseudotuber- culosis Virus diseases: Sec. 1 1 . Infectious sinusitis Sec. 12. Newcastle disease (Pneumoencephalitis) Sec. 13. Fowl pox and moniliasis or crop ickets, dietary der- Fungus diseases: Sec. 14. Fungus diseases Aspergillosis, favus, mycosis Noninfectious diseases: Sec. 15. Dietary diseases Vitamin-A deficiency, matitis, and perosis Sec. 16. Noninfectious diseases Pendulous crop, heat prostration, non- specific enteritis, omphalitis, ascites, foot abscesses, and tumors Sec. 17. Poisoning and botulism Chemical poisoning, botulism, and poison- ous weeds Sec. 18. Injuries Blueback and cannibalism, mating injuries, and miscellaneous injuries Parasites: Sec. 19. Worms Capillaria, cecum, gape, round, and tape- worms, and flukes Sec. 20. Lice, mites, and ticks In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products or equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. In so doing it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned. 20m-12,'51(5950)MR Section 1— Page 16 TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosen w aid MANUAL 3 Section 2 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ♦ COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service How to handle an outbreak Prompt action may keep a disease from spreading to your whole flock, and save at least some of the infected birds. Don't be an alarmist Inspect your flock every day. If the birds are droopy, lose appetite, or look abnormal in any way, start looking for the cause. You must expect to lose a bird now and then from miscellaneous causes. If you find one sick bird in a pen, just isolate it and watch its penmates. Even if several birds in a pen show symptoms, this may not mean you are in for a severe outbreak. Still it's wise to take precautions. Prompt measures often nip trouble in the bud. Don't wait till all the birds are sick. Get an ACCURATE diagnosis Find out what is wrong: send specimens to your diagnostic laboratory. Or better yet, take typical sick birds there. Don't try to guess what is wrong. And don't place faith in diagnoses made on the ranch. Lab tests and know-how are needed. University, state, and county diagnostic laboratories are equipped to make the needed tests, and their services are free. Take advantage of them! Their addresses are given on the next page; pick the one nearest to you. To avoid needless delays, select and send your specimens as outlined on the next two pages. Take steps to prevent spread Diagnosis is only part of handling an outbreak. The rest is up to you. PLAY SAFE ! Consider every outbreak infectious until it is proved not to be. The steps to take until you can get a diagnosis are outlined on the inside pages. Once you find out what is wrong, you can add the measures recommended to control and treat that disease. Your farm advisor can help you plan the changes in management you need to make. Or call in a competent veterinarian who is interested in poultry diseases. Page 1— Section 2 in ui S o £ ii < J ° J UI o X £ J" +■ G -J X y *- z "S 8 I < - 5 * .E -* C T3 J 3 u c O « -° "2 o 15 c "o 2 „• -C o o o I o ^E Q- '5 " c 5 ° 5 u — E c U) CD CD r 8 O O (A o v 4- o " o CD .E O) D -D . E : I ■8 1 > _* « a (A (D s £ C 3 B ° £ g 8 o) j I *■ T3 C • o o T3 D CD Q. U .A .52 *~ Hf * O % w ^ B w ^ o ^ "o ■£ "S x 5 .2 2-3 Q) *- CD a g c O C -i= E E O CD o .E Sis O i* . O _Q 2 |p o 0) o uj fro ■Sz E< CD UJ ■£ ^ a .2 3 ^ • n V O o ^ ^ C >_ M- '" E iS o I 8 U» *- O 3 "O H. Q_ _C «A o z o a d. E CD E *- 0) c CD to > D> O O 6 S C .2 S » £ a> a " ST"8 *- "55 u O O o> C 3 ^ -o -u 10 2 c 3 Q. — O _* c = -« o o O tn « O z o < o o K- o X D O ^ ii a * : = 'S in <» •- * 5 u 0) j= £ « 45 o £ H. ° O '£ f> i. -~ c ° "5 0) c «= ^E s • 8 : s «n ! I O * ^ ? a = 5 J> °- B -a o 6 ° «/> — o .2 >- ■O .E k c O = *5 * ■fl .S II X Q- ii Q) CO o £ c a 01 ^ c 1? .fl > 1 § O -c * X 8- § O o °- £ •- d £ o O ^o 0) **- _c goo X .£ D w "O o (D £ i 1 * 5 * E c o o »- _c -o ' -s c 0> 1? O I ° 3 O goo c o 14 !| u c ,_ E o o •+- u * P >» 0) 1 1 i | c 3 0> ■B < c < a E ® E o g *■ C v> c 0) CO n a> ~ "O 2 o O g D ■£0-2 o. > o o S O) § H2 ^ 0) ° .S u 3 1 » a ° 11 > 5 h- o o o "O Jr D O 0) • _Q C ' D o * 5 to O O O S £ j : S O *7 ♦■ ■S & * I a a o o o >- CL O u < O > Q < How to give medicine to your turkeys Your diagnostic laboratory will tell you what drug and dose to use for the disease your birds have. (Sections 3 to 20 also give suggestions on treatments for spe- cific diseases.) The lab will tell you, in general, how to give it. A few drugs are injected with hypo- dermic syringes and needles. When you give drugs this way you can handle your flock as suggested in section 1 (page 15) for vaccinating and blood-testing. Most drugs are given in feed or water. Some you can give either way. Others do not dissolve in water, and these you must mix with the feed. Some of the sulfa drugs you can give in water only if you buy a special water-soluble form. Read and follow the directions on the package you buy. Be sure you are using the drug in the way recommended for the disease you want to treat. (Some drugs you should give one way for one disease, another way for another disease.) Don't give a higher dose or give a drug for a longer time than is recom- mended. Most drugs are somewhat toxic to turkeys. If a little is good, this doesn't mean more is better. Make sure your birds take the feed or water that contains the drug. They are apt to shy away from it. Sulfa- thiazole is very distasteful to turkeys; don't use it for them. Many growers buy ready-mixed mash that contains the drug their birds need. If you do this, be sure that the mash you buy contains the right dose for the age of your birds and for your method of feeding (all-mash, or mash and grain; see the next column) . If you wish to treat a bird individ- ually, use the proper amount of the drug as a pill or capsule: place in the bird's throat behind the base of the tongue. Hold the beak closed until the bird swallows. If you do the mixing yourself, mix the drugs thoroughly and evenly in the feed or water. The table below may help you figure out how much to add. It gives the amount of the active drug per 100 pounds of feed or per 100 gallons of water to get a given dose. You may have to use some arithmetic to find out how much you need of the product you buy. Some drugs are put up in forms that contain a relatively small amount of active drug and a lot of "car- rier." Read the label to find out how much of the drug there is in the product you are using. Suppose the product contains only 25 per cent of the active drug: then you should multiply by 4 the amounts of drug shown in the table. If you feed both mash and grain, you will have to allow for this also. If the amount needed is, say, 1 per cent of the drug in the feed, this usually means 1 per cent of all the feed a bird eats. Suppose you feed 50 per cent mash and 50 per cent grain: then to get 1 per cent in the total feed, you would have to add twice as much in the mash as is called for in the table. (And you have to be sure the bird eats the mash ! ) HOW MUCH DRUG TO ADD TO FEED OR WATER to get given doses IN WATER: add, per For a dose IN FEED: add, per 100 lbs. of feed: 100 gals, of water: of: Weight Volume 1: 1,000 1/10 lb. 8/10 lb. 1/10 gal. Va% Va lb. 2 lbs. lqt. y 2 % y 2 lb. 4 lbs. 2qts. i% 1 lb. 8 lbs. 1 gal. 2% 2 lbs 16 lbs. 2 gals. 5% 5 lbs. 40 lbs. 5 gals. 1 lb. of drug per gallon of water = about 12% solution. 1 tablespoon of this per gallon of water = 1:2,000 solution. Section 2— Page 4 20m-12,'51(5950)MR When you ship birds for diagnosis. • . Tear out and fill in the following questionnaire. Put it in an envelope with first-class postage, and glue or tape the en- velope firmly to the package. Your name Phone number Address How many turkeys have you? How old? How many pens or groups are affected? Number in each group Age of each group Mortality (this disease) When did you first notice symptoms? What symptoms have you noticed? How do the birds act? Is trouble confined to a single pen, house, or age group? Is it spreading? Discuss What management system do you use? What and how do you feed? What changes have you made in handling or feeding? When? Have you brought any birds other than day-old poults to your ranch? When? What treatment if any have you used? When and how given?. What were the results? (Include any treatments for other diseases or troubles) Diseases vaccinated against and the age of the birds at each vaccination: Pox Age Newcastle disease: Killed virus Age Intranasal. . Age Wing-web live virus Age For poults: What kind of brooder do you use? For birds in houses: What kind of floors do you have? For birds in yards: What type of yards? For poults: Name and address of hatchery What is your regular sanitation routine? Use other side for additional comments You can get more forms like this from your farm advisor Page 5— Section 2 i Give any additional facts you think might have some bearing on the outbreak: Here are the lab addresses: Davis: Poultry Pathology Division, Veterinary Science Building Fresno: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory, Route 5, Box 210-X Petaluma: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, 627 F Street Sacramento: Animal Pathology Laboratory, State Office Building No. 1 San Diego: San Diego County Livestock Department, 4005 Rosecrans Avenue San Gabriel: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory, 714 S. Santa Anita Street Turlock: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, District Fair Grounds Section 2— Page 6 TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • Agricultural Experiment Stat MANUAL 3 Section 3 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE ion and Extension Service Cocci di os is and hexamitiasis , . , . . . are much alike in: age of birds affected usually poults under 10 weeks old symptoms droopiness, diarrhea autopsy findings intestinal inflammation, mucus cause protozoan parasites transmission through droppings of infected birds prevention sanitation, keeping poults away from adults . . . differ greatly in: treatment what is good for one may be harmful for the other seriousness hexamitiasis is much the greater problem . . . can foe diagnosed only by careful laboratory examination. Coccidiosis and hexamitiasis are in- testinal infections caused by protozoan parasites. They attack mostly poults from 3 to 8 weeks old. Hexamitiasis is com- moner among turkeys in California, and more often results in heavy losses. Preventive measures for these dis- eases are aimed at keeping poults free of all contact with the droppings of infected birds (including, with hexamitiasis, car- riers and birds other than turkeys) . The number of parasites a poult picks up is important with both diseases. Hexa- mita build up in numbers more rapidly than coccidia, but do not survive so long outside the host's body. Hence it is both more important and more practical to keep Hexamita out of your flock entirely. With coccidia, you can keep numbers low enough to prevent a severe outbreak. Treatments have been worked out for each disease. These reduce mortality and speed recovery if given early in an out- break. But they are specific: what helps with one disease may hurt with the other. Prompt diagnosis of an outbreak is therefore vital. The two diseases cannot be told apart by symptoms or autopsy. Diagnosis depends on microscopic exam- ination by a technician thoroughly fa- miliar with protozoa. Don't guess: use your diagnostic laboratory! This section was written in cooperation with Ethel McNeil, formerly Junior Animal Pathologist in the Experiment Station. #uS> WHICH POULT HAS HEXAMITIASIS AND WHICH ONE COCCIDIOSIS? COCCIDIOSIS Coccidiosis is caused by microscopic pro- tozoan parasites called coccidia. The spe- cies that most commonly cause the disease in turkeys are Eimeria meleagridis and E. meleagrimitis ; two other species have been reported lately (see references 1, 2, 6) . None of these causes disease in other birds ; and none of the species that cause coccidiosis in other birds has been shown to cause disease in turkeys. How serious is it? Coccidiosis is less common and serious among turkeys than many growers sup- pose. Losses blamed on coccidiosis are often due to hexamitiasis or even to some other disease. Recently more coccidiosis outbreaks have occurred, however. Acute outbreaks usually occur only in poults, mostly in those 3 to 10 weeks old. Adult turkeys often become infected, but rarely have severe cases. Mortality from coccidiosis does not seem to be heavy under good manage- ment and sanitary conditions. Heavy losses from it have occurred, but in most such outbreaks there seem to be contrib- uting factors, such as other diseases, in- sanitary surroundings, or poor diet. On the University Farm at Davis, during a 3-year period when every poult that died was carefully examined for the disease, over-all mortality from coccidiosis aver- aged only about 2 per cent. How the sick poults look Symptoms are similar in coccidiosis and hexamitiasis. Poults are listless, sit about with drooping wings and ruffled feathers, and have a light brownish diarrhea with considerable mucus. Because "bloody diarrhea" (bloody cecal droppings) is a symptom of the dis- ease in chickens, growers often suspect coccidiosis if their poults show this symp- tom. But it is not ordinarily a symptom of turkey coccidiosis, or hexamitiasis either. What to look for on autopsy Usually the only change you will find in turkey coccidiosis is in the intestine. Other organs are seldom affected. There are no special changes in the cecal wall, such as occur in blackhead. The characteristic lesion is catarrhal enteritis: the mucous membrane of the intestine, especially the lower half, is swollen and congested, and there is ex- cess mucus, and sometimes cecal cores. In severe cases the intestine may be filled with a whitish-gray, somewhat gela- tinous pus. (The pus contains myriads of coccidia, but you cannot distinguish them without a microscope.) Similar autopsy findings (catarrhal enteritis) occur also in hexamitiasis, though more often in the upper intestine. Accurate diagnosis of coccidiosis thus demands careful microscopic ex- amination by someone thoroughly fa- miliar with protozoa. Even finding a few coccidia in a dead poult does not mean that the poult died of coccidiosis. A few coccidia do not harm the poults. In tur- keys many must be present to cause dis- ease. Microscopic examination should be followed by bacteriologic tests to make sure there are no other diseases present. History is important in diagnosis. How turkeys get it Coccidiosis is transmitted through con- taminated droppings. These come not only from birds that are visibly sick with the disease, but also from birds that have such a mild infection that they do not show symptoms. Adult turkeys that are infected seldom show symptoms and may be a source of infection for a short time until they develop resistance. Coccidiosis is self -limited (see "Life Cycle"), and birds usually recover from a single dose of parasites unless they pick up more soon after. Hence it takes a large number to cause trouble. Section 3— Page 2 The parasites may be carried to poults in the brooder by flies, tools, and feed sacks contaminated by droppings con- taining coccidia. Attendants and visitors may carry parasites on their shoes; coc- cidia remain infective when carried on the soles of shoes for at least a mile. Feed can be contaminated if walked on (for example, while being mixed) by some- one who has been in a contaminated yard. Life cycle Coccidia have an elaborate life cycle. You can plan prevention and control better if you know something about this cycle and how it can be broken. The parasite leaves the body of the turkey as an oocyst. When oocysts are first shed in the droppings, they will not produce the disease if eaten by turkeys. They must first change (sporulate) into the infective stage of the parasite. When they get enough air and moisture and fairly warm temperatures, they reach this stage in 24 to 48 hours. After they reach this stage, oocysts are very resistant to exposure; they live for months. If a turkey picks up the parasites in the infective stage, they go through further stages and multiply in the bird's body. It takes 5 or 6 days (depending on the species) for the parasites to develop into oocysts and thus complete the cycle. When the parasites reach the oocyst stage, they are all shed in the droppings. Hence a bird does not remain a carrier after it has recovered. The weak points in the life cycle — the points where you can break it — are: 1. After the oocysts have been shed in droppings, but before they develop into the infective stage. 2. While the parasites are in the bird's body, before oocysts are formed. Sanitary measures are directed at the first point, sulfa drugs at the second. How to prevent it Because the oocysts are so resistant and can be carried such long distances, you can hardly expect to keep them entirely out of your turkey yards. The infective dose — the number of parasites a bird picks up — is important. If poults are exposed to large numbers of parasites, you can expect a severe out- break. But a poult may pick up a few parasites without becoming sick or may have only a mild case and develop re- sistance. Try to keep the parasite popula- tion from building up to a point wherr poults will get severe cases. SULFA DRUGS WORK HERE LIFE CYCLE OF COCCIDIA •When Will Control Measures Work? 24 to 48 hours with moisture, warmth, and air- CLEAN-UP WORKS HERE NONINFECTIVE OOCYST Page 3— Section 3 To reduce the parasite population: Keep all areas to which poults have access thoroughly dry. Change or stir the litter often. Use wire-screen platforms for water and feed containers; the platforms should be large enough to screen off droppings. Use ample floor space. Use plenty of feeders. A few parasites won't hurt a bird. They will give it a mild case that will make it resistant to later exposure. How to control and treat it If you have an outbreak, dry-clean the brooders and brooder houses in which the outbreak is occurring every day for 7 to 10 days. This is to remove the droppings before the oocysts in them have time to develop into the infective stage. It means a lot of work. But if you are thorough, you can reduce mortality and bring an outbreak under control by such sanitary measures, without drugs. Milk by-products are often fed in coccidiosis outbreaks. Their chief value is probably as an appetizing, highly nu- tritious food for the poults. They do not seem to have any specific effect on the parasite. Their flushing effect is of doubt- ful value in turkey coccidiosis. Sulfamethazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfaquinoxaline have recently been suggested for treating coccidiosis (see reference 2). (Other sulfa drugs have not proved as effective or else are too toxic for poults.) While there has not been enough testing with turkeys to rec- ommend these drugs for general use, they may be worth a trial. The aim in such treatment is to attack the parasites in the bird's intestines before they form oocysts. All sulfa drugs are somewhat toxic for turkeys. Do not use this treat- ment unless coccidiosis has been defi- nitely diagnosed in your flock. If you do try it, follow closely the schedules given here or by the diagnostic laboratory; stronger doses or longer periods may be toxic, weaker doses not effective. You can give sulfamethazine or sulfa- quinoxaline in the mash, if you are using an all-mash ration. If you are feeding any considerable amount of grain, you may be able to regulate doses better by giving them in water. If you do, give no other water but be sure the birds drink; and buy a soluble form of the drug. Sulfamethazine dose: 0.4 per cent (3 pounds per ton) in mash; or 1 : 1,000 (1 pound per 125 gallons) in drinking water. Give the treatment for 2 or 3 days, skip 4 days, give 1 day only, skip 4 days again, then give 1 more day. Sulfamera- zine may be used in the same way. Sulfaquinoxaline dose: 0.05 per cent (1 pound per ton) in mash; or 1:4,000 (% pound per 125 gallons) in drinking water. Give the treatment 2 or 3 days, skip 3 days, give for 1 day only, skip 3 days again, then give 1 more day. HEXAMITIASIS Hexamitiasis is caused by a one-celled protozoan parasite, Hexamita melea- gridis (see references 1,3) . Losses from hexamitiasis The disease attacks poults from hatching up to 10 weeks or more of age, but losses are usually heaviest in those 3 to 8 weeks old. At such ages mortality may be as great as 75 to 90 per cent. Severe out- breaks are not so common in poults under 3 weeks old; but when they occur, mor- tality may be as high as 100 per cent. In poults older than 8 weeks, heavy losses seldom occur unless the resistance of the birds has been lowered by other infec- tions or by environmental factors, such as severe flushes, chilling, or exposure. Section 3— Page 4 Deaths may occur within a day after symptoms appear, and the peak of mor- tality is reached 7 to 10 days later. Strag- gling losses occur for as long as 3 weeks. In a few outbreaks there has been a second peak of mortality. If there are other infections, such as paratyphoid, or if management is faulty, the course of the disease may be different, and losses may be greater. Try to find out whether there are such compli- cations if you have heavy losses associ- ated with Hexamita in older turkeys. How the sick birds behave In early stages of acute outbreaks, poults are nervous and may chirp con- tinually. They huddle in the warm part of the brooder area. Their temperature is normal or below normal. They walk stiff- legged, and their feathers are ruffled and unkempt. There is a foamy, watery diar- rhea, but cecal droppings do not look ab- normal. The photograph on page 1 (left) shows the typical appearance of a poult with hexamitiasis. In most cases, poults continue to eat. Because they are nervous they may even seem to eat more than usual. But they lose weight because the disease interferes with digestion. Many of the survivors are underweight for weeks. In the late stages of severe cases, poults seem listless, sit under the hover, and finally go into a coma. Just before death they struggle and flap their wings. In mild outbreaks listlessness and loss of weight are the symptoms you are most apt to see. Large numbers of stunted birds result from this type of outbreak. What to watch for on autopsy Poults that die of hexamitiasis are in poor condition ; their feathers lack luster, their skin is dry; the flesh of the breast is dry and reddened. In young poults that die suddenly, the crops usually contain some food; in poults that linger before death, they are usually empty. The upper intestine (just behind the gizzard) is the organ that shows the greatest change. It lacks tone, is swollen and congested, and contains mucus (catarrhal enteritis). The mucus is usu- ally thin and watery, but sometimes thick. Often there are congested, ballooned areas filled with watery contents. The contents of the ceca may be more fluid than normal. Otherwise the ceca show no changes. Diagnosis must be based on finding Hexamita on microscopic examination. You cannot tell hexamitiasis from coc- cidiosis and other diseases by symptoms and autopsy findings. Hexamita are diffi- cult to identify. If your turkeys have a disease that you suspect might be hexa- mitiasis, take live sick birds to your diag- nostic laboratory; hexamitiasis can be diagnosed accurately only on live birds or ones that have died recently. The labora- tory may need to make other tests also, for a complete diagnosis. How turkeys get hexamitiasis Hexamitiasis is transmitted through the droppings of infected birds. Turkeys that have recovered from the disease remain carriers: they continue to harbor and shed the parasites. Some species of Hexamita have been found in quail, partridges, pigeons, ducks, peafowl, pheasants, and (when artificially inoculated) chickens. All these birds must be considered possible carriers of Hexamita meleagridis. But the most important factor in perpetuating this disease on a ranch is adult turkeys or older poults that have recovered from an outbreak (reference 3). Unlike coccidia, Hexamita do not sur- vive long on exposure. They are not in- fective unless picked up by birds fairly soon after they are shed. Thus a vacant yard does not remain contaminated more than a few days. Also, these parasites are not so apt to be carried far on shoes or feed sacks, as coccidia are. Page 5— Section 3 •FIRST BROOD HOW HEXAMITA INFECTION BUILDS UP POULT MAY SHOW NO SYMPTOMS POULT DEFINITELY SICK •SECOND BROOD POULT MAY DIE a DROPPINGS WITH A FEW HEXAMITA DROPPINGS WITH MANY HEXAMITA DROPPINGS WITH LARGE NUMBERS OF HEXAMITA DROPPINGS WITH COUNTLESS HEXAMITA The infective dose (the number of parasites a poult picks up) determines (as in coccidiosis) how severe a case of hexamitiasis a poult will have. With only a few parasites, a poult may show no symptoms, or very mild ones that you might not notice. But the parasite multi- plies in such a bird, and builds up in numbers. The diagram shows how Hexa- mita build up as the parasites pass through one bird after another. This build-up is extremely important. It explains why severe outbreaks often occur in late hatches. An outbreak may occur so long after the breeders are mar- keted that it is hard to realize that the infection came from them, since the para- sites soon die in vacant yards. What hap- pens is that early hatches become infected from the adult birds, but may have only a few parasites and show no symptoms. Then this infection is passed along from hatch to hatch, and the parasite popula- tion builds up. The parasites may have to build up through three to five hatches be- fore they are numerous enough to cause an acute outbreak. Management and environment play important parts in the build-up. On most ranches, as the brooding season ad- vances the work piles up and the space available per bird is less ; thus the chances for spread of disease are greater. Hot weather or, in some areas, late spring fogs, seem to make the outbreaks more acute in late hatches. Section 3— Page 6 How to prevent hexamitiasis As with other turkey diseases, prevention is better than cure. You can eliminate this disease from your ranch by careful man- agement. (Section 1 of this manual dis- cusses preventive measures.) To prevent hexamitiasis, you must prevent contact between your poults and any droppings that might contain the parasite. Find some satisfactory method of keeping young birds away from the droppings of possible carriers. Just what is the best way for you to do this will depend on your own situation; every ranch is a separate problem. Some of the measures you can use are: Sell all adult breeding birds at least 2 weeks before poults are to be brooded. Or use separate units, equipment, and caretakers for the breeding flock and young poults. Use wire platforms for feed and water con- tainers (see section 1). Keep feed and water containers sanitary. Arrange equipment so that the attendant need not enter the pens to fill feed and water containers. Use cement yards or wire pens. Burn or bury all dead birds immediately. Thoroughly clean and disinfect brooding equipment between broods. Avoid multiple brooding. Brood all your poults at one time if you can. Avoid ranges where there are many pheas- ants, quail, and partridges. !f the poults have had an outbreak of pullorum disease or paratyphoid, do not move them to range until they are 10 to 16 weeks old. Keep all visitors away from the brooder houses, or have them wear clean, dis- infected shoes or overshoes. How to control hexamitiasis If you suspect an outbreak, the first thing you need is a laboratory diagnosis. If the diagnosis is hexamitiasis, try to keep the disease from spreading to new pens or hatches. Good control measures are: Completely isolate and quarantine in- fected pens. Use separate equipment and a separate caretaker for them. This is the most important factor in the con- trol program; the disease is spread through the droppings of sick birds. Remove dead poults several times a day and bury or burn them. Try to keep the birds from picking at drop- pings. (Sick birds seem to do this more than usual.) One way to reduce this is to move the birds to a clean pen every day; then dry-clean the empty pen. If you can't do this, at least dry-clean the houses and yards every day during the outbreak. Or if your poults are old enough and you think moving them will not upset them, range them on a field of grass or alfalfa, where the droppings will be hidden and the birds will pick at them less. Keep the poults warm by increasing the heat in the brooder. Every effort should be made to keep them comfortable. Do everything you can to keep the birds eating. Often you can coax them to eat if you sprinkle chopped green feed on the mash; moisten the mash slightly; sprinkle pellets on the mash; or stir the feed often. Do not flush the birds. General precautions for handling an outbreak are given in section 2 of this manual. How to treat sick birds A promising method for reducing mor- tality from hexamitiasis is giving the birds a mixture of 3 per cent by weight of dried whey in a 1:2,000 copper sulfate (bluestone) solution (reference 4). This is used in place of drinking water. Use only dried whey — no other milk products. When you buy the whey, check the feed tag to be sure it contains between 50 and 70 per cent lactose. The whey must not be caramelized. (Cara- melized whey has a light yellowish-brown color.) First make a stock solution of cop- per sulfate (bluestone) : Dissolve 1 pound of copper sulfate crystals in 1 gallon of water. If your water is hard, add 1 cup of vinegar. Make enough of the stock solution to last for several days. Make the mixture up fresh every day. For each 100 pounds of mixture, use: 1 21/2 gallons of water (water weighs 8 pounds per gallon) 121/2 tablespoons of copper sulfate stock solution. Add this to the water before mixing in the whey. 3 pounds of dried whey. The way you give the treatment determines how successful it is. Use your judgment in adapting the treatment to your situation and the way your birds behave. Here are some hints : Feed the mixture in nonmetal containers if possible. Copper sulfate is hard on metal, and reacts with it so that the copper is tied up. If you have to change containers, be sure your birds do not stop drinking. Take all water away from the birds. Put the mixture in its place. Stir the mixture at least every hour or two. Otherwise the whey will settle to the bottom of the container and the birds Page 7— Section 3 will drink only copper sulfate solution. They must get both whey and copper sulfate or the treatment won't work. When the mixture becomes old and dirty, replace it with fresh. Keep the birds on the mixture for 3 to 5 days if possible; but use your judgment. Watch the birds closely. Coax them to drink the mixture. If the birds stop drinking the mixture be- fore the treatment is finished, put them back on water for 1 or 2 days. (They must have water!) Then give them the mixture again for another day or two. Make the change back to plain water in the cooler parts of the day, so that birds will not crowd around the water con- tainers. If the birds do not seem to be better after one course of treatment, repeat the treatment after 3 to 5 days on plain water. The treatment is based on recent findings about the effect of Hexamita on normal digestion. It is thought that the treatment helps because the lactose (milk sugar) in the whey is absorbed in the lower intestine and thus restores the sugar level in the blood. This gives poults food energy and strength and raises their temperature to normal. The combination of whey and copper sulfate also encour- ages the growth of certain beneficial bac- teria in the upper intestine, which results in more normal digestion. Other treatments that have been tried and have proved of no value in- clude: mercuric chloride (1:4,000 and 1 :8,000 as a substitute for drinking wa- ter) (reference 5) ; baking soda (so- dium bicarbonate) ; nicotine sulfate; iodine; Epsom salts; and several sulfa drugs. A large number of patent medi- cines sold to turkey growers have also been tried, both under experimental con- ditions and in the field, and all have proved ineffective. Some of the drugs proved toxic for poults when given in the dosages recommended. (Section 17 dis- cusses poisoning from mercuric chloride and baking soda.) Do not feed large quantities of milk products. Excessive use of milk products — even whey — may do more harm than good. It tends to flush the birds; and flushing birds that have hexa- mitiasis with milk products, or anything else, increases death losses. Small amounts of milk used with good judg- ment do not seem to hurt the birds; but only whey, used as directed, seems to have a curative effect. DO YOU NEED FURTHER INFORMATION? The following sections of this manual may help you: Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. (Lists diagnostic laboratories.) You will find detailed technical infor- mation in the following references, men- tioned in the text by italic number : 1. PROTOZOA, by E. R. Becker, p. 863-946. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1 154 p. Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. 2. INTESTINAL PROTOZOA OF TURKEYS, by P. A. Hawkins. Proceedings of the U. S. Live- stock Sanitary Association for 1949. p. 114- 19. 1949. 3. DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hin- shaw. p. 1015-1121. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY (see reference 1). 4. HEXAMITIASIS OF TURKEY POULTS, by E. McNeil. California Agriculture, vol. 2, no. 11, p. 15. 1948. 5. EFFECT OF MERCURIC CHLORIDE ON TURKEYS AND ON HEXAMITA MELEA- GRIDIS, by E. McNeil and W. R. Hinshaw. Poultry Science, vol. 24, p. 516-21. 1945. 6. A NEW COCCIDIUM PATHOGENIC FOR TURKEYS, EIMERIA ADENOIDES N. SP., by Earl N. Moore and J. A. Brown. Cornell Veterinarian, vol. 41, p. 124-35. 1951. Section 3— Page 8 10m-12,'51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A, S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 4 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service Blackhead* • . ...is also called INFECTIOUS ENTEROHEPATITIS and HISTOMO- NIASIS. . . . causes mortality averaging 50 per cent if uncontrolled. Losses are heaviest among poults. . . . is transmitted through contaminated droppings of turkeys and other birds and in eggs of infected cecum worms. . . . can be kept down by management to avoid heavy doses of infection and — where cecum worms are prevalent — by controlling these worms. Liver (left) and ceca of turkey affected by blackhead. Note that one cecum is greatly swollen. Blackhead is caused by Histomonas meleagridis, a one-celled protozoan para- site too small to see with the naked eye. This disease has long been a serious turkey problem. Until methods of pre- vention were worked out, it forced many growers in parts of the East and Midwest to abandon turkey raising temporarily. In California — relatively free of the dis- ease so far — cases are increasing. This section was written in cooperation with Ethel McNeil, formerly Junior Animal Pathologist in the Experiment Station. The right-hand photograph on page 1 is by courtesy of Earl N. Moore. Page 1— Section 4 Losses it may cause Mortality in a flock can be high, often near 100 per cent; and may average about 50 per cent if you take no steps to control it. Turkeys of all ages may get it, but losses are heaviest among birds under 12 weeks old. A peak of mortality often oc- curs after the birds are put on the finish- ing ration to prepare them for market. Sometimes another peak of losses occurs during the breeding season. Once your flock is infected, birds are likely to die between periods of heavy losses, espe- cially if you do not move the flock to clean range or if you do not take steps to pre- vent build-up of infection. How the sick birds look The name "blackhead" is misleading. The head does sometimes become dark- ened, but this happens with other diseases too. Affected birds are drowsy, weak, and sit about with drooping wings and tail, lowered head, and ruffled feathers. They have a constant, sulfur-colored diarrhea. Adult birds are sick for several days be- fore they die, and become extremely thin. If young poults have a very acute attack, they may die soon after they show symp- toms, while they are in good flesh. Symptoms may appear in 15 to 21 days after infection. What to watch for on autopsy You will find the most marked changes in the ceca and liver (see illustration, page 1) . Young poults sometimes die be- fore any "typical" changes develop. The ceca, or blind pouches, become swollen. Inflamed ulcers may cover the walls of one or both of the ceca, or may even form openings through the wall. The mucous lining often becomes degener- ated, much thickened, and covered with a foul-smelling, yellowish-green, semi- cheesy exudate. The ceca may contain dry, hard, cheesy cores. Section 4— Page 2 The liver has more or less circular areas of degenerated tissue. These are yellowish or yellowish-green, with con- centric rings. Unlike the tubercles of tu- berculosis, they are somewhat depressed below the surface. They extend deep into the tissue and merge with the healthy tis- sue. In older birds the lesions often grow together. Sometimes in older birds you will find large amounts of scar tissue from healed lesions. The peritoneum lining the abdomen or covering other organs occasionally be- comes inflamed. Autopsy findings and symptoms may not be distinct enough from those of other diseases for positive diagnosis. Take specimens to a diagnostic labora- tory! How turkeys get it Turkeys become infected by eating black- head parasites. These parasites pass out in droppings of infected birds, either free or in cecum-worm eggs. Cecum worms do not cause black- head; but they may carry the parasite and enable it to survive for long periods. The blackhead parasite, if free, is soon killed by sun and air. But in the worm egg it is protected. It has been known to survive in cecum-worm eggs in yards which were left vacant from November to June. Even a few blackhead parasites surviving in worm eggs may start a new infection. Build-up of infection is important. The more parasites a turkey eats at one time, the sicker it gets. At the start, a turkey may pick up a few parasites in a worm egg or from another source. This turkey may not even appear sick. But the parasites multiply rapidly in its ceca and liver and pass out in its droppings in great numbers. If this turkey or a pen- mate picks at these droppings or eats feed contaminated by them, it gets many para- sites and a more severe case of blackhead. In acute outbreaks, the fresh droppings of infected birds are a more important source of additional infection than are cecum-worm eggs. Droppings of birds other than tur- keys are also dangerous sources of blackhead infection. Chickens may carry blackhead parasites without getting sick and shed them in their droppings, free or in cecum-worm eggs. Drainage from chicken yards with contaminated cecum- worm eggs is a common source of infec- tion for turkeys. Pheasants, grouse, quail, guinea fowl, and peafowl also carry the parasite. Flies hatching in contaminated drop- pings have been suspected of starting out- breaks. Still other sources of infection are feed sacks and grain that have touched contaminated droppings. How to prevent it You can prevent the blackhead parasite from causing serious loss in your flock by proper care and management. Need for prevention is greatest from hatching to 12 weeks, when turkeys are most susceptible. Rotating the runs for poults helps (see diagram below). *- -9 Jmovable I © J BROODER I l- 1 LOT No. 1 LOT No. Z 1 ROOSTING 1 LOT No. 4 ■"1 TT7rM ^ ] SHELTER LOT No. 3 Two systems of rotating runs to prevent black- head (suggested by Billings; see reference 1). Other precautions you can take are : Use wire runs instead of yards. Move the flock to new range often. Use containers that prevent contamination of feed and water by droppings. Move feed and water containers and roosts often. Clean up droppings often or screen off the areas under roosts, feeders, and wa- terers. (Section 1 discusses wire plat- forms as disease preventers.) Keep turkeys entirely separate from chickens and other fowl. Locate turkey yards where there will be no drainage from chicken yards. Do not rear turkeys on ground that has been fertilized with chicken or turkey manure. Do not introduce new adult or part-grown stock. Use only day-old poults. Provide an adequate ration and plenty of fresh, clean water. Discourage picking at droppings. If there are many cecum worms in your area or on your ranch, you can use drugs to reduce the number of worms. If you use worm remedies, do so as a pre- ventive measure, to reduce the chances of spreading blackhead parasites. Drugs that have been found fairly ef- fective against cecum worms, without harming turkeys if properly given, are tobacco dust and phenothiazine (see ref- erence 2 and further references listed therein). If you use tobacco dust, buy one containing at least 2 per cent nicotine. Add 4 pounds of dust to each 100 pounds of mash. If necessary you can feed this continuously to poults from 4 or 5 weeks of age until they are mature. If you use phenothiazine, the dose, given by mouth to each bird, is % gram per bird for poults. For adults, use 1 gram per bird. Or add 1 pound of phenothia- zine to 100 pounds of mash. You can give this for about 7 days without harming the birds. If needed, repeat it 15 to 30 days later. Page 3— Section 4 Worm remedies are not a treat- ment for blackhead; they will not help cure a sick turkey. In fact, since the black- head parasite can be transmitted from bird to bird through contaminated drop- pings, without the cecum worm (see page 3), worm remedies do not always even prevent spread or decrease losses from blackhead; they are not really necessary to prevent the disease. But you can use them to supplement prevention by sani- tary management. How to control and treat for it If you have an outbreak, try to manage your flock to prevent build-up of infec- tion. Use the methods given under "How to Prevent It." The fewer parasites the birds get, the better their chances to get well. Move the birds every day or so; or con- trol reinfection by using wire platforms until losses decrease. Tempt the birds to eat. Remove sick birds to salvage them. No known drug or combination of drugs can be definitely recommended for stopping losses in an infected flock. Mapharsen, a drug containing 29 per cent arsenic, has been reported (see ref- erence 2 and further references listed therein) as a promising remedy for treat- ing blackhead, in trials with small num- bers of birds. But more investigation is needed before the drug can be considered a specific remedy for the disease. Thus far, field trials in acute outbreaks of black- head in large flocks have not given en- couraging results. Other drugs of promise include chlorohydroxyquinoline, Vioform, Sto- varsol, tryparsamide, sulfaquinoxaline, and Enheptin-T (references 3, 4, 5, 6). All need careful administration and tim- ing for even fair results. None is a cure- all or a substitute for prevention through management. Vioform and more recently Enheptin-T (7,8) seem to show more promise than others, for prevention and control; but are not proved substitutes for good management to avoid infection. (Enheptin-T is a trade name for 2-amino- 5-nitrothiazole; this drug is also mar- keted under other trade names.) Drugs tried and found of no value are sulfaguanidine, sulfamethazine, so- dium fluoride, mercuric chloride, and mercuric bichloride. Further information The following sections of this manual may be helpful: Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. (Lists diagnostic laboratories.) The following references give detailed technical information : 1. TALKING TURKEY, by W. A. Billings. Minnesota Agr. Ext. Bui. 124, p. 1-28. Revised 1928. 2. DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hinshaw. p. 1015-1121. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte, 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. (Lists further references.) 3. HISTOMONIASIS (ENTEROHEPATITIS) IN TURKEYS: I. A PROCEDURE FOR THE SCREENING AND TEST- ING OF DRUGS; II. CHEMOTHERAPY OF EXPERI- MENTAL HISTOMONIASIS; by J. H. Sautter, B. S. Pomeroy, and M. H. Roepke. American Journal of Veterinary Research, vol. 11, p. 115-29. 1950. 4. CHEMOTHERAPY OF EXPERIMENTAL HISTOMONIA- SIS (ENTEROHEPATITIS) OF TURKEYS, by J. H. Saut- ter and B. S. Pomeroy. Journal of the American Vet- erinary Medical Association, vol. 116, p. 436-39. 1950. 5. PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE PREVENTIVE ACTION OF VIOFORM AGAINST INFECTIOUS ENTEROHEPA- TITIS (BLACKHEAD) OF TURKEYS, by H. M. DeVolt and A. P. Hoist. Poultry Science, vol. 27, p. 356-58. 1948. 6. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CHLOROHYDROXYQUIN- OLINE AND VIOFORM AS PREVENTIVES OF BLACK- HEAD (INFECTIOUS ENTEROHEPATITIS) OF TURKEYS, by H. M. DeVolt and A. P. Hoist. Poultry Science, vol. 28, p. 641-43. 1949. 7. FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH ENHEPTIN-T ON THE CONTROL OF HISTOMONIASIS (BLACKHEAD) IN TURKEYS, by E. L. Jungherr and J. D. Winn. Poultry Science, vol. 29, p. 462-65. 1950. 8. OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROPHYLACTIC VALUE OF CERTAIN DRUGS FOR ENTEROHEPATITIS INFECTION (BLACKHEAD) IN TURKEYS, by J. K. McGregor. Ca- nadian Journal of Comparative Medicine, vol. 13, p. 257-61. 1949. In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products or equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. In so doing it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned. Section 4— Page 4 10m-12,'51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Experiment Station Agricultur MANUAL 3 Section 5 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE and Extension Service Trichomoniasis of the upper digestive tract t • ♦ . . . affects mainly the esophagus, crop, and proventriculus in range tur- keys 16 to 20 weeks old. . . . can be prevented by sanitation and proper feeding. A protozoan parasite. Trichomonas gallinae, causes an infection of the upper digestive tract of turkeys, chickens, and pigeons. (See reference i.) Another species, Trichomonas gallinarum, is often found in the lower digestive tract, but does not cause disease. Most cases occur in range turkeys 16 to 20 weeks old. Often the turkeys have been drinking from stagnant pools. Pi- geons and quail are suspected of carrying the disease into range areas. How the sick birds look In a turkey with trichomoniasis, the chest always looks sunken; the crop is empty and is drawn in toward the body. Other- wise it looks like birds sick with many other diseases. It has a generally haggard look, lacks appetite, and drools. Its head is dark, sinuses are sunken, feathers are rough and unkempt. Its temperature is normal or low. There is always a foul odor from the crop. As a rule there is no diarrhea. Usually birds are sick for a long time and get very thin before death. What to watch for on autopsy The lesions you will find most often are ulcers in the crop (see picture, page 2). Often there are ulcers in the lower esopha- gus, less often in the upper esophagus and the proventriculus. Usually you will not find other changes. The ulcers are % to % inch in diam- eter at the base, may be as much as % inch high, and extend about % inch into the tissue. They have a rough, irregular surface, and there is a ring of hemor- rhagic tissue around them. Ulcers in the esophagus are like those in the crop but are usually much smaller. In the proventriculus the ulcers often run together until they form an almost solid ring of thickened, degenerated tis- sue (see the picture below). They are usually at the end nearest the esophagus. Either here or in the esophagus, ulcers may block or partly block the passage. Diagnosis depends on microscopic ex- amination and finding the parasites. Ring of ulcers in the proventriculus, or stomach. This section was written in cooperation with Ethel McNeil, formerly Junior Animal Pathologist in the Experiment Station. Page 1— Section 5 How to prevent it This disease is directly associated with insanitary surroundings. Hence sanita- tion is important in prevention. Give your turkeys plenty of water. Do not let them drink water from stagnant pools when on range. Feed adequate ra- tions to turkeys ranged on cut-over grain fields, to supply plenty of the vitamins they need. Try to avoid ranges where pi- geons are common, and keep turkeys from other contacts with them. How to control it If your flock becomes infected, move them to a dry, clean area and give them plenty of pure, fresh water. Separate any sick birds, and if possible have them cared for by a different attendant. Good care is more important than drugs. The only drug thus far tried that has helped is a 1:2,000 solution of copper sulfate (bluestone) (see box) in place of drinking water. If you use this solution, keep the birds on it for 2 or 3 days, with no other water. Repeat the treatment after a few days on plain water if the birds are not better. Other information The following sections of this manual may be helpful: Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. You will find some further technical details and lists of other scientific refer- ences in the following book : 1. DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hin- shaw. p. 1015-1121. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State Col- lege Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. Section 5— Page 2 Above, left: A, Ulcers in the crop and esopha- gus; B, a close-up of the ulcers. Above, right: A turkey with trichomoniasis; note the haggard look and sunken chest. HOW TO MIX 1:2,000 COPPER SULFATE SOLUTION First make up a stock solution: Dissolve 1 pound copper sulfate in 1 gallon of soft water (rain or dis- tilled). If you do not have soft water, add 1 teaspoon of concentrated hydro- chloric acid or 1 cup of vinegar to your water before adding copper sulfate. You may have to heat the mixture to dissolve the copper sulfate. Store in a glass bottle. Then make a 1:2,000 dilution: Add 1 tablespoon of the stock solution to each gallon of water. If your water is hard, add just enough vinegar or hydrochloric acid to pre- vent the copper sulfate from pre- cipitating out of solution. The amount you need depends on how hard your water is,- but don't add more than 1 teaspoon of hydro- chloric acid per gallon. 10m-12,*51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Agricultural Experiment Station MANUAL 3 Section 6 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE and Extension Service Uncommon protozoan parasites. • • that occur in turkeys include LEUCOCYTOZOON, COCHLOSOMA, HAEMOPROTEUS, and PLASMODIUM. A species of Leucocytozoon has caused outbreaks of disease in California tur- keys. The other protozoa named above have rarely or never been found in this state. They are briefly noted because they may sometime prove to be serious. LEUCOCYTOZOON INFECTION Leucocytozoon infection is caused by Leucocytozoon smithi, a microscopic parasite that attacks red blood cells (see reference 1, which lists further reports on this disease). Outbreaks have mostly oc- curred in poults under 12 weeks old. How it affects turkeys This disease is usually acute: most birds either die or recover within 2 or 3 days after symptoms appear. Symptoms are like those in many other acute dis- eases. Birds lose appetite, are droopy, and tend to sit. They move with difficulty if you disturb them. In later stages they may fall over, go into a coma, and die. A few birds develop a chronic form of the disease. They keep trying to clear their throats when excited, and may die if very excited or when they are handled. Males rarely strut or pay any attention to the females. Birds that recover may suffer no seri- ous aftereffects, but they may carry the parasite in their blood for months. What to look for on autopsy In young birds the only definite change you will find regularly is a slight inflam- mation of the duodenum (small intes- tine) . Often the organs or membranes are pale. The birds may look starved, their flesh may be flabby, and their muscles may look brownish. In adult carriers there are no definite changes as a rule; but occasionally you may find the liver enlarged, yellowish, dense, and tough. The spleen may be much enlarged; in one case an adult male died of internal hemorrhage when a greatly enlarged spleen ruptured. The res- piratory symptoms may be due to ob- struction of circulation by masses of parasites, so that some vital organs be- come anemic (reference 2) . Diagnosis cannot be made from symp- toms and autopsy findings; it depends on microscopic examination of tissues and blood smears from affected birds. How it is transmitted The disease is transmitted from one tur- key to another by black flies — species of Simulium (references 1,2, 3) . These are very small, stout-bodied, black flies that live along streams. Adult turkeys that have recovered from the disease may still carry the parasite in their blood and may be sources of infection. How to prevent it Keeping breeding and brooding opera- tions entirely separate will help prevent transmission from adult carriers to poults. The surest way is to sell your breeders 1 to 2 weeks before your poults hatch. (This also guards against hexa- mitiasis.) This section was written in cooperation with Ethel McNeil, formerly Junior Animal Pathologist in the Experiment Station. Page 1— Section 6 Another method, considered practi- cal by one investigator, is to confine poults to houses screened against black flies. Since the flies will go through 16- mesh screen, cheesecloth must be used in fly-proofing. Sulfaquinoxaline may be useful in treatment and prevention, according to preliminary trials (reference 4) . Further tests of this and other treatments are needed before definite recommendations can be made. PROTOZOA REPORTED FROM TURKEYS The three protozoa briefly discussed be- low have been reported one or more times from turkeys, either here or in other states or countries. The scientific papers which these reports were made in are listed in reference 1. Cochlosoma A species of Cochlosoma found in turkeys in California and Scotland seems to be the same (Cochlosoma anatis) as one that occurs in ducks. We do not yet know what sort of infection, if any, this para- site causes. Some investigators have sug- gested that it may cause intestinal inflam- mation in both ducks and turkeys. Haemoproteus A species of Haemoproteus has been found in turkeys in Texas. The agent that transmitted the disease was not reported. Haemoproteus is usually carried by flies belonging to the genus Pseudolynchia: one species is also carried by the cone- nosed bug, Triatoma. It has not been re- ported in California turkeys to date. Plasmodium Plasmodium durae has been reported as the cause of bird malaria in Kenya Col- ony, British East Africa. There seem to be no other reports of its occurrence in turkeys. General information on preventing and controlling diseases is given in the follow- ing sections of this manual : Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. Readers who are interested in more de- tailed technical information about these parasites may consult the following ref- erences : 1. DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hin- shaw. p. 1015-1121. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State Col- lege Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. REFERENCES 2 A BLOOD PROTOZOON OF TURKEYS TRANSMITTED BY SIMULIUM NIGRO- PARVUM (TWINN), by E. P. Johnson, G. W. Underbill, J. A. Cox, and W. L. Threlkeld. American Journal of Hygiene, vol. 27, p. 649-65. 1938. 3. LEUCOCYTOZOON SMITHI INFECTION IN TURKEYS AND ITS TRANSMISSION BY SIMULIUM OCCIDENTALE TOWNSEND, by L. V. Skidmore. Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, und Infektionskrankheiten, Abteile I, Originale, vol. 125, p. 329. 1932. 4. LEUCOCYTOZOON INFECTION IN TUR- KEYS, by B. W. Bierer. Veterinary Medicine, vol. 45, p. 87-88. 1950. Section 6— Page 2 7|m-12,'51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 7 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service Salmonella infections* • • ...include PULLORUM DISEASE, PARATYPHOID INFECTIONS, and FOWL TYPHOID. The first two cause heavy losses in young poults, the third affects mostly adult turkeys. . . . can be diagnosed only by bacteriologic examination. . . . are easier to prevent or eradicate than to treat. Pullorum disease, fowl typhoid, and paratyphoid infections are all caused by species of Salmonella. They resemble each other in symptoms, transmission, prevention, and control. Pullorum dis- ease has in the past been the most impor- tant of these, and methods for handling it have been the most fully worked out. PULLORUM DISEASE Pullorum disease, caused by Salmonella pullorum, is mainly a disease of young poults. But relapses or new infections may occur in older turkeys. This disease became established in many turkey flocks as commercial hatch- ing increased. But in California a sound eradication program has shown that it can be eliminated from breeding flocks. Losses it may cause Most of the losses occur in the first 3 weeks after hatching. Deaths may begin on the second day. Mortality in poults less than 1 month old varies from 10 per cent to as high as 100 per cent; it aver- aged 35 per cent in one survey. Often there is a second outbreak when survivors, 9 or 10 weeks old, are changed to a growing ration or moved to new quarters. Mortality then may be 5 to 15 per cent. Outbreaks sometimes occur in turkeys 3 to 6 months old and in breeding flocks. Mortality is low in older turkeys. How pullorum affects poults In young poults the disease is so acute that many die without showing symp- toms. Poults that do show symptoms seem cold and sit around the hot part of the brooder. Their wings sag, their heads hang, and their feathers are ruffled. The skin on their feet and legs usually looks dry and somewhat wrinkled. Most poults that live for 2 or 3 days have diarrhea; you can note it by the pasting of the down around their vents. Often poults have la- bored breathing, due to pneumonia. Similar symptoms are seen in "brooder pneumonia" (aspergillosis) (section 14) and — when they affect poults — in fowl typhoid (page 5), fowl cholera (section 8), and paratyphoid (page 7) and strep- tococcic (section 10) infections. You can tell whether your poults have pullorum disease only by getting a laboratory diag- nosis with bacteriological examination. What to look for on autopsy In young poults that have died from pullorum disease, the characteristic changes you will find are as follows : Tiny, cheesy abscesses or nodules in the lung, heart, and gizzard muscles. Liver congested and swollen, or dark yel- low to bronze with areas of congestion. Pinpoint areas of degenerated tissue are common. Page 1— Section 7 UNINFECTED ADULT UNINFECTED EGGS INFECTED EGGS INFECTED YOUNG STOCK MAY INFECT PENMATES INFECTED POULTS MAY INFECT PENMATES IN BROODER INFECTED POULTS MAY SPREAD INFECTION IN INCUBATOR INFECTED POULTS MAY INFECT OTHERS IN SHIPPING BOXES The intestines may lack tone and con- tain mucus, the ceca may have cheesy cores; but these occur in other diseases also. They are not peculiar to pullorum disease. In partially grown poults, autopsy findings are like those in younger ones but less marked. The changes most often found are nodules in the gizzard, pin- point lesions in the liver, and mucus in the intestines. In adult turkeys killed in subacute attacks of pullorum disease, ascites (wa- ter belly) is often marked. The abdomen may contain a quart of liquid with yel- lowish, cheesy, flaky masses in it. In adult carriers the intestines and ovaries are most often affected. Ova are often greenish, shrunken, and triangular as in fowl typhoid (see illustration, page 6) ; and egg material may occur in the abdomen. How turkeys become infected Pullorum disease is transmitted mainly through infected eggs. It is also trans- mitted through the droppings of turkeys or chickens that have the disease or that have once had it. Turkeys that have recovered from the disease continue to harbor the bacteria in their bodies. If such carriers are used in the breeding flock, they may lay some infected eggs. Poults from such eggs are infected even before they hatch, and may spread the disease to other poults in the incubator during hatching and also in the brooder. The chart above shows how the disease may spread. Outbreaks of pullorum disease in breeding flocks have been caused by tur- keys eating infected eggs and then spread- ing the disease through their droppings. How to prevent pullorum There is little danger that pullorum dis- ease will become established in your flock if you do these four things: 1. Find a source of pullorum-disease-free eggs — eggs from a blood-tested breed- ing flock having no reactors. 2. Hatch the eggs in a Pullorum-Clean hatchery — one that accepts eggs only from pullorum-disease-free flocks (tur- keys, chickens, or other fowl). 3. Brood and rear the poults in brooders and with equipment that has had no contact with infected birds. 4. Keep the poults from any contact with turkeys or other fowl that have the dis- ease or have ever had it. Section 7— Page 2 How to control and treat for it There is no practical method of control or treatment once the disease has become established in your brood. But you can reduce the spread of the disease and de- crease your losses by these steps: Keep the brood that is suffering from the disease in isolated quarters. Increase the brooder heat. Give plenty of plain fresh water. Clean the brooder every day Remove all sick and dead poults several times a day. Burn or bury them. Clean and disinfect water and feed con- tainers several times a day. Thoroughly clean and disinfect all equip- ment used for infected broods before using it for later hatches. Sulfa drugs may reduce losses, if you give them at the very first signs of the disease — or before any trouble starts, if you have reason to think the disease might develop (see reference 1 ) . They do little good unless given early, and at best will not prevent losses entirely. Sulfa drugs are toxic. Use them only if recom- mended by a diagnostic laboratory. Use these schedules for day-old poults: Sulfamethazine or sulfamerazine: 0.5 per cent in the mash for 4 days; then 0.25 per cent in the mash for 3 days. Sulfaquinoxaline: 0.03 per cent in the mash for 1 week — not longer. To calculate the amounts per ton or gallon, see section 2. Sulfa drugs will not eliminate carriers. Do not keep for breeding purposes in- fected birds saved by treatment. How to eradicate it The best method to eradicate the dis- ease from an infected ranch is to sell the entire flock and replace it with stock from sources known to be free of disease, after thorough clean-up and disinfection. But if this is not practical you will have a fair chance of success if you : Toe-mark the survivors of an outbreak; rear them separately from uninfected birds; and market them before they start to lay. Never keep them for breeders. Segregate breeders into small flocks. Blood-test all birds in breeding flocks and any other fowl you keep (reference 2). Sell for market all birds in flocks that have any reactors and all untested turkeys and other fowl. Clean and disinfect all yards, houses, and equipment used by reactors (see section 1 of this manual). For replacement breeders, keep only non- reactors from nonreacting flocks. For an emergency program to pro- duce market birds, see the chart below. • RECOMMENDED PROGRAM FOR YOUR REPLACEMENT BREEDERS » BLOODTEST ALL BREEDING STOCK SELECT YOUR BREEDERS AND SEPARATE INTO SMALL FtOCKS MARKET ALL UNTESTED FLOCKS • EMERGENCY PROGRAM FOR MARKET BIRDS KEEP NON-REACTORS PULLORUM-CLEAN EGGS PULLORUM-CLEAN POULTS Hatch in Pullorum-Clean Rear Separate Hatchery (Separate) From Other Poults DISEASE-FREE REPLACEMENT BREEDERS MARKET ALL BIRDS MARKET ALL REACTORS ERADICATION PROGRAM FOR PULLORUM DISEASE SOME MAY BE INFECTED . dSb-. Hatch Separate From Pot for um- Clean Eggs Preparing for testing The syringe method of bleeding tur- keys is recommended. If the syringes are well rinsed, it gives cleaner and more uni- form samples than the nick method. The breeding flock can usually be selected early in the fall and separated from the birds to be marketed. You should do this before blood-testing the birds. Separate at least 25 per cent more turkeys than are needed for the breeding flock, to allow for removing reactors and culling for variety improvement. Test males as well as females. Test also any chickens or other fowls you keep. Consult the laboratory that is to do the testing to find out what type of vial to use, how much blood to take, what type of shipping container to use, and how to ship samples to the laboratory. It is always a good idea to apply sev- eral weeks ahead of time for a definite testing date. Apply to the California State Department of Agriculture, Sacramento, California. Or, for tests by the official state agency for the pullorum-disease phase of the National Turkey Improve- ment Plan, apply to the California Poul- try Improvement Advisory Board, Room 1030 Forum Building, 1107 Ninth Street, Withdrawing a blood sample from the center vein of the wing for a pullorum test. Sacramento 14, California. Address in- quiries about official testing to this agency. Crew and supplies An efficient crew consists of the operator and at least two assistants — one to band and handle the birds and another to empty and clean the syringes. You will need a convenient method for handling the turkeys (see section 1, page 15) . You will need record sheets or some other method of identifying birds and samples. You will also need: Several sets of syringes and needles. Luer- lok type, 2-cc syringes and 18-gauge needles are recommended. Vials (one for each bird to be tested). Shipping containers. Leg or wing bands. 3 pans for rinse waters. Freshly boiled tap water, about 1 quart per 100 birds tested. Freshly boiled salt solution, about 2 quarts per 100 birds tested. Use 1 teaspoon of common salt per quart of water. Taking blood samples One assistant bands the birds and hands them to the operator. After the sample is drawn, he puts the birds in a special yard for the sampled flock. The operator inserts the needle into the center vein of the largest joint of the wing and draws about 1 cc of blood. A second assistant records the number of the bird; empties the blood into the vial; rinses the syringe first in tap water and then in two changes of salt solution; and lays it down in a convenient place for the operator to use again. The rinse wa- ters should be changed often. Follow the directions of your labora- tory for shipping the samples. Cooperative Eradication Program The hatchery is the key to any pro- gram to eradicate pullorum disease from an area. A single noncooperating hatch- Section 7— Page 4 ery can destroy the results of an entire program by accepting eggs that are not equal in status to those from ranches co- operating in the program. Likewise, a noncooperating grower can be responsible for spread of infection, by failing to observe the recommendations under "How to Eradicate It." This is especially true in cooperative groups where eggs pooled from several ranches are often used for replacements to a single grower. In such organizations, the quality of the group's eggs is the quality of those of its poorest cooperator. Under no conditions is any percentage of infection above zero (U. S. Pullorum- Clean Class) to be tolerated if pullorum disease is to be successfully eradicated from turkey flocks; and eradication is possible and practical. FOWL TYPHOID Fowl typhoid, caused by Salmonella gal- linarum, usually affects mature or nearly mature turkeys; but it has been reported in young poults (reference 3). Scattered outbreaks have occurred from time to time; but fowl typhoid is not a widespread problem in California turkeys. symptoms ; but most of them live a day or two after symptoms appear. Losses typhoid may cause There may be just one severe outbreak in a flock, or there may be a series a few weeks or months apart. Mortality is usually heaviest in the first outbreak, with low mortality at later flare-ups. The average mortality in four outbreaks studied was about 27 per cent, but losses are often higher. One flock owner lost 169 out of 175 turkeys during fall and winter. In young poults mortality is about the same as in pullorum disease (i). How fowl typhoid affects turkeys Turkeys with fowl typhoid are very thirsty, lose appetite, and are listless. They sit around by themselves, with drooping tails and sagging wings. Their heads hang low or are carried back over the body to rest on or under the wing. They usually have a green or greenish- yellow diarrhea. Their temperature rises several degrees, to as high as 112° F; but just before death it usually drops to as low as 103°. The disease may be acute: birds often die of fowl typhoid without showing What to look for on autopsy In adult birds that have died of fowl ty- phoid, you will see some or all of the fol- lowing lesions. The birds are usually in good flesh. Breast muscles congested with blood. They often look partially cooked. Heart usually swollen, with small grayish areas or pinpoint hemorrhages or both. Liver crumbly, bronze or greenish, often two to three times its normal size. Some- times it has pinpoint degenerated areas. Spleen enlarged to two or three times its normal size, crumbly, and appears mot- tled (but without hemorrhages). Lungs usually look parboiled and are often firmer than usual because of tiny, cheesy abscesses. Kidneys enlarged; they may show some crimson or purple pinpoint hemorrhages (petechiae). Crop usually contains some food. Gizzard contains food. Intestines usually look anemic from the out- side. You can see ulcers of the mucous membrane through the thin outer mem- brane. The portion just behind the giz- zard is often bloody and inflamed. In young poults you will usually find large unabsorbed yolks more often than in healthy poults. The liver is somewhat crumbly and is creamy white with mot- tling due to slightly hemorrhagic areas. Page 5— Section 7 Ovary from a turkey hen, showing misshapen ova caused by fowl typhoid. Ovaries from turkey hens that are carriers for pullorum disease look like this also. Crop, gizzard, and intestines are always empty — -a condition indicating lack of appetite for hours before death. In adult carriers the reproductive or- gans are usually affected. Ova are often misshapen (see illustration above). Diagnosis depends on bacteriologic examination. Take or send specimens to a diagnostic laboratory. How turkeys get fowl typhoid Fowl typhoid is transmitted mainly through the droppings of chickens or tur- keys that have or once had the disease. Chickens are the most frequent source of infection. The disease is often transmit- ted through contaminated foodand water containers. It can also be transmitted to poults through the eggs of adult car- riers — turkeys that have survived an out- break and remained infective. How to prevent typhoid To guard against this disease: Keep turkeys away from chickens, and from yards or ranges recently used by chickens. Do not use survivors of an outbreak for breeders — they may transmit the dis- ease through their eggs. Section 7— Page 6 How to control and treat for it If the disease breaks out in your adult flock, get rid of the infection : Remove all sick birds as soon as you see them. In an acute outbreak it will pay to take the temperatures of all birds and remove those that show temperatures above 108° F. Transfer well birds to a new range that has not been used for turkeys or chickens. Screen the roosts to keep birds from con- tact with droppings. Change watering and feeding areas often. Move the flock whenever new cases ap- pear. Clean and disinfect food and water con- tainers at least daily (see section 1). Give fresh clean water daily. Use sulfas to permit "salvage operations/' Recent studies (7) indicate that sulfa drugs help to reduce losses from fowl ty- phoid in chickens. No reports are avail- able for turkeys; but these drugs may be worth trying. For young poults the same drugs, dosages, and precautions could be used as in pullorum disease. The blood test used for pullorum dis- ease catches many infected adult typhoid carriers. PARATYPHOID INFECTIONS (SALMONELLOSES) About 50 species of Salmonella have been found in turkeys (see reference 1). All the diseases caused by them except pul- lorum disease and fowl typhoid are grouped together as paratyphoid infec- tions, or salmonelloses. But some 60 per cent of the paratyphoid outbreaks in Cali- fornia have been due to Salmonella ty- phimurium. Although these infections are a major problem, the many species of Salmonella involved make it hard to identify the causal organism, or to eradicate the dis- eases by blood testing. There is, however, a typhimurium program now. How paratyphoid affects turkeys Turkeys may be affected at any age, but most commonly 3 or 4 days to 1 month after hatching. As in pullorum disease, a poult that appears normal in the evening may be dead by morning. In young poults, when symptoms do develop, they are much like those in pul- lorum disease. However, poults seldom show labored breathing and more fre- quently lose appetite and flesh. Older birds with paratyphoid infec- tions have the same symptoms as in fowl typhoid (page 5) except that they may not show a rise in temperature or develop diarrhea; and they more often lose flesh. What to look for on autopsy In young birds, common findings are: Duodenum inflamed. Liver, kidneys, .gall bladder, and heart muscle congested with blood. Cheesy cecal core or plug. Heart sac filled with a straw-colored fluid. Airsacs with tiny cheesy abscesses (these are rare on heart and lungs). In adult turkeys the intestines are often inflamed and sometimes have ul- cers. The liver and spleen are usually con- gested with blood. How turkeys get paratyphoid Paratyphoid infections are transmitted through the egg (reference 1) and by droppings of infected turkeys. Eggs may become infected in the ovary before they are laid. But probably they more often become infected while being laid or in the nest, from droppings containing Sal- monella; for these organisms can pass through unbroken eggshells. Chickens, wild birds, snakes, lizards, rats, mice, cats, cattle, hogs, and even men may be carriers. One outbreak re- sulted from feeding meat from a calf that had paratyphoid to turkeys. How to prevent paratyphoid Because so many animals are susceptible to these organisms and may be carriers, the prevention program must extend to all animals on the ranch. This means: Obtain stock that is free of the disease. Keep turkeys from being exposed to any other animals or insects that might be infected. Eradicate rats, mice, flies, and reptiles. How to control and treat it Often only one brood is affected. Then it is good insurance to destroy all sur- vivors. If you do not destroy them, rear them sepa- rately from other groups and sell them for market. Do not keep any birds from an infected group for breeding pur- poses. Follow the directions for reducing spread given under "Pullorum Disease" (page 3). See also section 1, page 12. Sulfa drugs have value in reducing mortality {1 ) . But they will not eliminate carriers from an infected breeding flock or eradicate infections in poults. Use the same schedule as was recommended for pullorum disease (page 3). Page 7— Section 7 Can you eradicate it? You may be able to eradicate paratyphoid by selecting breeders with a blood test as in pullorum disease provided: 1. Paratyphoid infection has been di- agnosed and the species of Salmonella determined by a reliable laboratory. 2. The laboratory that makes the test is thoroughly familiar with the problems of paratyphoid agglutination tests. A spe- cial test has to be made for each type isolated. 3. Only nonreactors from uninfected pens or flocks are used to supply poults for replacement breeders. 4. A special program for your ranch is drawn up by a veterinarian who knows fully the disease history of your flock. The eradication program should not overlook other animal carriers. A general testing program for the para- typhoids will probably never be possible because so many species of Salmonella affect turkeys. Because eradication is so difficult, you should make every effort to prevent any of the paratyphoids from getting into your breeding flock. Hatcheries and egg-selling groups can help prevent spread of these diseases. They can urge flock owners to use the di- agnostic laboratories often so that para- typhoid outbreaks can be identified. They can explain to the owner his responsibil- ity in preventing spread. And they can discourage the use of survivors of an out- break for breeders. DO YOU NEED FURTHER INFORMATION? You can get free diagnoses and advice from these state and county diagnostic laboratories in California: Davis: University of California, Division of Poul- try Pathology, Veterinary Science Building. Fresno: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Labo- ratory, Route 5, Box 210-X. Petaluma: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, 627 F Street. Sacramento: Animal Pathology Laboratory, State Office Building No. 1. San Diego: San Diego County Livestock De- partment, 4005 Rosecrans Avenue. San Gabriel: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory, 714 South Santa Anita Street. Turlock: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, Dis- trict Fair Grounds. The sections of this manual listed below may help you. Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. You can get detailed technical informa- tion on certain phases of Salmonella in- fections from these references, mentioned in the text by number: 1. DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hin- shaw. p. 1015-1121. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State Col- lege Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. (This book lists a number of further references on which some of the information in this manual is based.) 2. ERADICATION OF PULLORUM DISEASE FROM TURKEY FLOCKS, by W. R. Hinshaw and E. McNeil. Proceedings of the 44th An- nual Meeting of the U. S. Livestock Sanitary Association, p. 178-94. Chicago, Illinois. 1940. 3. FOWL TYPHOID IN TURKEY POULTS, by E. P. Johnson and M. Pollard. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, vol. 96, p. 243-44. 1940. Section 7— Page 8 10m-12,'51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 8 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service Fowl cholera, erysipelas, and spirochetosis... . . . affect older turkeys as well as young poults, and are acute: most birds either die or recover a week or two after infection. Other bacterial diseases that are sometimes acute are fowl typhoid, pullo- rum disease, and paratyphoid infections, discussed in section 7 of this manual; and pseudotuberculosis (not yet reported from California) , discussed in section 10. FOWL CHOLERA Fowl cholera is caused by Pasteurella multocida. Outbreaks in California have mostly been in turkeys nearing market age — 6 to 8 months; but also occur in younger poults. Mortality varies from a few birds to over 50 per cent. Heavy losses occur within a few days and are followed by occasional losses. The main source of infection in California seems to be adult carrier tur- keys. In many outbreaks, chickens have been shown to be the source of the dis- ease. The disease may also be carried by quail, and perhaps by cattle (reference 1 ) . The common housefly may be a me- chanical carrier of the germ. How it affects turkeys The disease is acute: many birds die so suddenly that symptoms are not seen ; but some may linger several days. Very few sick turkeys recover unless treated. How- ever, some affected birds do not show symptoms. Symptoms resemble those of fowl ty- phoid and erysipelas. Birds are listless, thirsty, lose appetite, and have a yellow, watery diarrhea. Their heads are pur- plish, and they look haggard and drawn. Sometimes there is a gelatinous exudate in their mouths and nostrils. The skin over the breast looks pink. In males the snood may swell. In birds that develop the chronic type of the disease, the legs may become paralyzed and the joints swell. In occasional outbreaks the only symp- toms are incoordination, twisted necks, and nervous symptoms. In some birds the germ is found only in the brain. Such cases resemble Newcastle disease (see sec- tion 12 of this manual). What to look for on autopsy On autopsy, you may find some or all of the following changes. (Sometimes no changes can be seen.) Muscles and other tissues congested. Crop contains sour food. Heart often enlarged. The heart sac may be thickened and covered with a whit- ish-yellow exudate. There are often pin- point hemorrhages (petechiae) on the heart sac, heart muscles, and near-by tissues. Liver only slightly enlarged; crumbly; may contain many tiny white abscesses. Spleen slightly enlarged or normal-sized. Abdominal and intestinal blood vessels en- gorged with blood. Intestines flabby and may have hemor- rhages or mucus-like contents. Lungs often congested or liver-like. Semisolid, yellow, cheesy deposits in the abdominal cavity and air sacs. Body cavities and the contents of the diges- tive tract have a peculiar fetid odor. Page 1— Section 8 Bacteriologic examination is need- ed for definite diagnosis. How to prevent cholera Sanitation and hygiene are important in prevention (see section 1 ) . Adult carriers are responsible for yearly recurrence of the disease on some ranches. To avoid trouble, keep brooding units and growing poults separate from adult flocks or sell the entire adult flock before poults arrive; in some cases you may even have to dispose of all fowls for a season. Avoid buying adult stock: some of these birds may be carriers. Keep turkeys isolated from chickens and other fowls that might have cholera. Since flies may carry the germ, promptly burn all birds that die or put them in a well-covered disposal pit. How to control and treat it If you have an outbreak, practice good sanitation (see section 2) and cull sick birds. Sulfa drugs will help reduce losses if you give them soon enough. You can use sulfamerazine or sulfamethazine at 0.5 per cent in the mash or 0.2 per cent in drinking water; continue for 5 to 7 days. Or you can use sulfaquinoxaline at 0.05 per cent in the mash or (if you buy the soluble form) at 0.025 per cent in the drinking water ; continue for 3 days, then omit for 4 days; and repeat. Or you can give it continuously for 7 days at 0.033 per cent of the mash. To calculate the amounts per ton or gallon see section 2. Check these doses with your diagnostic laboratory; they may suggest other schedules based on later data. Sulfa drugs are toxic. Do not give them longer or in larger doses than rec- ommended. Do not give them unless the disease has been diagnosed. Use them for salvage only (treated birds that recover may still be carriers and should not be kept for breeding stock). Streptomycin is effective but no more so than sulfa drugs (2). Penicillin and "vaccines" (bacterins) have not proved of value for prevention or treatment. SWINE ERYSIPELAS Erysipelas is caused by Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, the swine-erysipelas germ. Sheep and human beings are also suscep- tible to it. In the United States, sheep, hogs, and fish meal are suspected of being sources of infection of the disease in turkeys. The first report of the disease in Cali- fornia was in 1938 (i). Since then nu- merous cases have occurred yearly. Outbreaks have been reported in poults from 1 week of age to maturity; but usually occur in turkeys near market age. Though we don't know why, losses are heaviest among males. In breeders, fertility suffers. Mortality may be as high as 40 per cent within 9 days, but it is usually much less. Often only a few toms die. How erysipelas affects turkeys Affected birds are listless and tend to crouch by themselves with drooping tails and wings. But they can easily be aroused. Their snoods (tubular caruncles) swell (see illustration, page 3) and have a pe- culiar bruised reddish or bluish color, and their heads often turn dark. (Swollen snoods — but usually without the peculiar discoloration — and dark heads may occur in fowl cholera also.) Lesions may occur on the face (see illustration, page 3). Mucous discharge from nostrils (nasal catarrh) is a common symptom. Usually the birds show some loss of appetite. Their temperature may rise to as high as 110° F; but some birds with marked symptoms show very little fever (7). Section 8— Page 2 Photographs by courtesy of the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station and the American Journal of Veterinary Research. Left, erysipeloid lesion on the head of a turkey; right, swollen snood. What to look for on autopsy Common findings in erysipelas are: Scattered bloody blotches on the breast muscles, on the undersurface of the skin, or on the surface of the heart sac or bones. The skin of the breast may look pink. Nasal passages filled with thick mucus. Liver enlarged, congested, and crumbly. Thick mucus in the intestines, with some reddening of the intestinal lining. Spleen enlarged, mottled, and crumbly; sometimes hemorrhages occur. Birds are in good flesh. Swollen snood. Other lesions you may see are conges- tion of the kidneys and lungs, and, rarely, "browning" of the lung tissue. Some birds die so quickly that no changes occur. Diagnosis must be confirmed by bac- teriologic examination, because the dis- ease is similar, in symptoms and course, to fowl cholera. How to prevent erysipelas To help prevent this disease, keep turkeys away from swine and sheep and off con- taminated ranges, especially if you live in an- area where erysipelas is known to exist. The germ may be in the soil. The erysipelas organism has also been found in fish meal. Vaccines and antiserum have not been worth while. How to control and treat for it If you have an outbreak, move the flock to new range and segregate the sick birds. Taking the temperatures of the birds may help you to determine sick ones, but will not pick all of them in early stages. You may find it worth while to debeak the males in a flock to prevent spread by fighting. (See section 18.) You can use household lye, 1 can in 10 gallons of water, or phenol disinfectants to clean up equipment and crates. Formalin fumiga- tion is not effective. If erysipelas is diagnosed in your flock, treat early, and treat all birds that seem even slightly "off." Penicillin is a promising treatment. Sick birds are reported to have recovered completely after two intramuscular injec- tions 8 hours apart; the dose was 25,000 units in 2 cc of saline solution. Good re- sults were also obtained by injecting 20,000 units of penicillin (in oil) into the wattles each day for 4 days (i). Streptomycin gave good results ex- perimentally. A single 1-cc injection of 140,000 micrograms was 100 per cent effective in experimental cases (7) ; but it costs more than penicillin. Sulfa drugs have no value. Specific antiserum is expensive and ineffective. CAUTION! To avoid painful infec- tions, handle infected birds or tissues with rubber gloves. Consult your physi- cian if trouble develops. Page 3— Section 8 SPIROCHETOSIS Spirochaetosis is an acute disease caused by a germ named Borrelia anserina. It is a blood parasite belonging to a group of organisms called spirochaetes. Infected flocks have usually been 3 to 6 months old, but some have been older. Although it is widely distributed over the world (reference 7), a California outbreak in 1946 was the first reported in North America. A few others have since been diagnosed. The disease is usually transmitted by fowl ticks; but ticks could not always be found on the California ranches where outbreaks occurred. Possibly it is trans- mitted directly from one turkey to another, or by the Culex mosquito (refer- ence 1 ) . How it affects turkeys Symptoms are like those of erysipelas and fowl cholera: birds are listless, thirsty, and sit with their eyes closed unless dis- turbed. Their heads turn blue. They have yellowish-green diarrhea and increased urates. Their temperature rises to 109° to 1 1 1 ° F on the third or fourth day after infection; it goes down to normal on the seventh or eighth day if the bird lives. The disease is chronic in some birds. Such birds have weak legs. They sit on their hocks and hop about or walk with a stilted gait. Their legs are sometimes paralyzed. What to look for on autopsy The most characteristic change is mark- edly enlarged and mottled spleens (see picture). Mottled spleens caused by spirochaetosis. Diagnosis depends on laboratory ex- amination and on finding spirochaetes in stained blood smears or tissues from sick turkeys. What you can do about it You can help to prevent spread of this disease by eradicating fowl ticks (see sec- tion 20) , and mosquitoes. Penicillin is an effective treatment if given early. Use a single dose of 10,000 to 15,000 units, injected intramuscularly, for mature turkeys (reference 3) . Sulfa drugs have not proved effective. DO YOU NEED FURTHER INFORMATION? The following sections of this manual may be helpful : Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. (Dis- cusses disinfectants.) Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. (Lists diagnostic laboratories.) You can find detailed technical infor- mation in the following references, men- tioned in the text by number. 1. DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hin- shaw. p. 1015-1121. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State Col- lege Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. (This book lists further references on which some of the in- formation in this manual is based.) THE EFFECT OF STREPTOMYCIN ON PAS- TEURELLA MULTOCIDA IN VITRO AND ON FOWL CHOLERA IN TURKEYS, by E. McNeil and W. R. Hinshaw. Cornell Veterinarian, vol. 38, p. 239-46. 1948. A STUDY OF BORRELIA ANSERINA INFEC- TION (SPIROCHAETOSIS) IN TURKEYS, by E. McNeil, W. R. Hinshaw, and R. E. Kissling. Journal of Bacteriology, vol. 57, p. 191-206. 1949. Section 8— Page 4 10m-12,'51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hirishaw and A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 9 UNIVERSITY Or CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service STAPHYLOCOCCOSIS... . . . also called STAPHYLOCOCCAL ARTHRITIS and SYNOVITIS . . . . . . causes lameness and swollen joints — and sometimes death — in both poults and adult turkeys. Staphylococcosis is an inflammation of the joints (arthritis) or of the membrane enclosing the joints (synovitis). It is caused by Staphylococcus aureus and S. citreus (see references i, 2, 3). It may affect 2 to 10 per cent of the flock. Symptoms vary In acute cases, birds are depressed, have a fever, lose appetite, and have a sulfur-like diarrhea like that in black- head. Death may occur within 48 hours. In less acute cases, birds rest on their hocks and have swollen leg or wing joints that feel hot. The feet may be swollen and gouty. When you press the swelling, it shifts, indicating that it is filled with fluid. The appearance of the legs and feet in such cases is shown below. In chronic cases, lameness is the chief symptom. Birds get very thin. What to look for on autopsy In acute cases the liver is enlarged and congested. The intestinal contents are watery and yellowish. The membranes around the hock joints are inflamed and contain excess fluid. Chronic cases show mainly diseased (abnormal) joints and muscles, espe- cially in the legs, feet, and wings. There is an exudate in or around the joints, Swollen hocks and feet caused by staphylococcal arthritis. I Page 1— Section 9 Staphylococcal arthritis in a young poult. which may be semigelatinous to cheesy and flaky. Sometimes there are abscesses on the keel (breast blisters). Handle birds gently Since sprains or injuries may weaken a bird and provide a favorable place for infection, handle turkeys carefully. Some outbreaks have occurred a few weeks after birds have been tossed around or handled roughly. Control measures are limited No remedy is known. Several of the sulfa drugs and penicillin have been tried without success at this station and (refer- ence 3 ) elsewhere. Handle the outbreak like other in- fectious diseases (see section 2) . Culling affected birds is useful to pre- vent feed waste, since few recover. Further information You may find the following sections of this manual helpful : Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. (Lists diagnostic laboratories.) Reports of research studies on this dis- ease are given in the following references, mentioned in the text by number : 1 . STAPHYLOCOCCAL ARTHRITIS IN TURKEYS, by E. Jungherr. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, vol. 82, p. 243-49. 1933. 2. AVIAN STAPHYLOCOCCOSIS, by E. Jung- herr and W. N. Plastridge. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, vol. 98, p. 27-32. 1941. 3. SYNOVITIS OF TURKEYS, by D. E. Madsen. Turkey World, vol. 17, no. 2, p. 24, 82-86. 1942. Section 9— Page 2 10m-12,'51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEG Agricultural Experiment Station and MAN UAL 3 Section 10 OF AGRICULTURE Extension Service Uncommon bacterid infections. • . discussed here are STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTIONS, TUBERCULOSIS, and PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS. briefly noted are PSEUDOMONAS, PARACOLON, PROTEUS, COLON-AEROGENES, and CLOSTRIDIUM infections. STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTIONS Reports of streptococcus infections in turkeys are increasing (see reference i). Outbreaks in adult turkeys Several outbreaks of a disease resembling fowl cholera have been caused by a Strep- tococcus (see reference 1 ) . The disease is very acute; you will seldom see symptoms before the birds die. Only a few birds in a flock are affected. Autopsy findings resemble those in fowl cholera. The skin and breast muscles and most of the internal organs are con- gested. The intestines are inflamed and hemorrhagic, and there is peritonitis. The heart sac may be filled with a blood- tinged fluid. The disease can be diagnosed only by bacteriologic examination. Outbreaks in poults Acute outbreaks resembling pullorum dis- ease have occurred in young poults in California. Mortality has been 25 to 40 per cent. Losses started the first week after hatching and continued for 2 weeks. Symptoms were like those of pullorum disease (see section 7). On autopsy, lungs and liver were found to be congested or degenerated and the intestines inflamed. Pinpoint areas of degenerated tissue in the liver were com- mon. A bacterium resembling Streptococ- cus zymogenes was found. No detailed studies have yet been made of this disease. It can be told from pullorum disease only by bacteriologic examination. Take suspected cases to your diagnostic laboratory. TUBERCULOSIS Tuberculosis is a chronic disease of fowls caused by Mycobacterium avium. It is rare in commercial turkey flocks and usually occurs only when turkeys have contact with tuberculous chickens or swine. How the sick birds look There are no typical symptoms. Turkeys are sometimes lame and lose weight; but many that show tuberculous lesions on autopsy have not lost weight, and some have gained (reference 1). For 2 or 3 weeks before death, birds may be alter- nately normal and depressed. When de- pressed, they lose appetite and develop diarrhea, and their feathers become ruf- fled. This lasts 2 or 3 days; then for a few days they will have normal appetites and look healthier. Tuberculosis is more often detected ac- cidentally than by observing symptoms. You may discover lesions when you make an autopsy or draw a bird for roasting. What you see on autopsy Tubercles like those shown in the photo- graphs on page 2 are found in many Page 1— Section 10 Tubercles in intestines (A), heart (B), liver (C),and abdominal and leg muscles (D). organs, but especially in the liver, bone marrow, spleen, intestines, ovaries, mes- entery, skin, thymus glands, and lungs. These are raised above the surface. Though the ovaries are often infected, no evidence of transmission through the egg has been found. Lesions due to other diseases are sometimes mistaken for tubercles. Black- head lesions are not much like tubercles; and tuberculosis does not cause lesions in the ceca like those of blackhead (see sec- tion 4 of this manual) . Lesions in fungus diseases (section 14) are not so distinct and are not so well defined as tubercles. Pseudotuberculosis lesions (see page 3) and tumors of the liver and ovary (sec- tion 16) can be distinguished from tuber- cles by bacteriologic examination. How to prevent and control it You can do much to prevent tuberculosis by keeping your turkeys completely iso- lated from chickens and swine, and from ground used by these animals. The ground may remain contaminated for ten years after infected animals are removed. Once the disease is found in your flock, you will do well to dispose of the entire flock, as well as all chickens on the premises. Buy day-old poults, rather than adult stock, for replacements. Brood them away from the contaminated area, and do not allow them to range on it. Section 10— Page 2 PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS Pseudotuberculosis is a generalized infec- tion of turkeys, other birds (reference 2) , rodents, other mammals, and man (3). It is caused by Pasteurella pseudotuber- culosis. Ten outbreaks have been reported among Oregon turkey flocks (4). None have as yet been reported in California. How the sick birds behave Affected birds do not eat, are droopy, and have diarrhea. Some few birds die without showing symptoms. Although death losses have not been high, this dis- ease may cause some of the unexplained cases of loss of appetite in range turkeys. In chronic cases the loss of appetite and weight are the chief symptoms. What you find on autopsy The liver is the organ most generally affected in birds dead of this disease. It is enlarged, with white or light-colored areas varying from pinhead to marble size. There is excessive mucus in the in- testines, with some inflammation. The spleen and kidneys are also inflamed in some cases. Diagnosis depends on isolating the or- ganism. Both symptoms and autopsy findings may easily be confused with such diseases as tuberculosis, blackhead, and paratyphoid infections. Measures you might try Since the source of the infection has not been determined, and since no specific drug treatments have been tried, recom- mendations for prevention and control are not very definite. As most outbreaks have occurred in rainy weather, they might be associated with the drinking of contaminated muddy water. This suggests that you could help to prevent the disease by maintaining good sanitation and a clean water supply. Moving the birds to well-drained yards might be helpful. In case of an outbreak try to tempt your turkeys to eat by using a moist mash, pellets, or fresh greens. PSEUDOMONAS INFECTIONS In one outbreak caused by a Pseudo- monas, 50 per cent of the turkeys were affected, but mortality was low (see refer- ences 1 and 5). The outstanding autopsy findings were: very dark blood, often not coagu- lated; pinpoint areas of degenerated tissue or yellowish-gray streaks on the bloody m- liver; mottled spleen; and flammation of the intestines. Sulfamerazine (0.75 per cent) in the mash helped to reduce losses from the disease when given early in the outbreak (5). It should not be given for longer than 3 or 4 days. Sanitation is important in preventing losses. PARACOLON Paracolon types of bacteria have been re- ported in outbreaks of septicemic disease in poults. Outbreaks are increasing. The symptoms and mortality are similar to those seen in paratyphoid infections (sec- tion 7) . Two types of paracolon found in these infections can be hatchery-trans- mitted and carried by snakes (1 ) , as well as by turkeys. INFECTIONS Handle such outbreaks like those due to other infections (see section 2) . Sanita- tion and management play large parts in their prevention and control. Control de- pends on getting rid of sources of infec- tion, just as with paratyphoid infections. Sulfa drugs used as in paratyphoid infec- tions (see section 7) have shown promise for reducing losses. Page 3—Section 10 PROTEUS INFECTIONS Outbreaks in young poults due to Proteus some setback from environmental causes, infections occasionally cause severe Give the poults the best possible care and losses. Such infections usually follow get them on feed early. COLON-AEROGENES INFECTIONS Diagnostic laboratories often report iso- lating bacteria of the colon-aerogenes group in outbreaks of diseases in young poults, with symptoms resembling those of paratyphoid (section 7). It has not yet been definitely established, however, whether these bacteria cause the disease or are merely secondary infections. CLOSTRIDIUM INFECTIONS One outbreak in a flock of 1,000 breeding turkey hens was associated with several species of Clostridium (reference 1) . Mortality was low, and occurred in the early part of the breeding season. Infec- tion probably began in wounds inflicted during mating. The principal symptoms were watery swelling under the skin and a gaseous swelling around the head and thigh. Injuries due to mating can be pre- vented by proper management. (See sec- tion 18 of this manual.) DO YOU NEED FURTHER INFORMATION? The following sections of this manual give general information on preventing or controlling diseases: Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. (Tells what disinfectants to use.) Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. (Lists diagnostic laboratories.) You can get detailed technical informa- tion from the following references, men- tioned in the text by number: 1. DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hin- shaw. p. 1015-1121. (See especially p. 1075-78.) In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. (This book lists a number of further references on which some of the information in this manual was based.) 2. A CASE OF PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS IN A BLACKBIRD, by F. R. Beaudette. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Associa- tion, vol. 97, p. 151-57. 1940. 3. HUMAN INFECTION WITH PASTEURELLA PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS RODENTIUM OF PFEIFFER, by E. S. Moss and J. D. Battle, Jr. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, vol. 11, p. 677-99. 1941. 4. A REPORT ON PASTEURELLA PSEUDOTUBER- CULOSIS INFECTION IN TURKEYS, by A. S. Rosenwald and E. M. Dickinson. American Journal of Veterinary Research, vol. 5, p. 246-49. 1944. 5. SULFAMERAZINE IN THE TREATMENT OF A PSEUDOMONAS INFECTION OF TURKEY POULTS, by J. C. Jones and G. W. Anderson. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, vol. 1 13, p. 458-59. 1948. Section 10— Page 4 7|m-12,'51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 1 1 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service infectious sinusitis . • • . . . is also called SWELLHEAD and AIR-SAC INFECTION. . . . causes heavy losses because affected turkeys fail to gain weight. Mortality is usually low. . . . is characterized by swollen sinuses or coughing or both. Symptoms of infectious sinusitis. Infectious sinusitis has become one of the major problems of turkey growing in California. The number of deaths is usu- ally less than in more acute diseases, but the financial loss may be greater. The dis- ease often lasts for weeks, and the failure of birds to gain weight is usually more costly than mortality. The disease described here is char- acterized by swollen sinuses (sinusitis form) or by coughing (air-sac form) or by both types of symptoms. There are no nervous symptoms. It seems to affect only turkeys. The two forms of this disease are due to the same cause (see reference 1 ) . This cause seems to be a virus or virus-like organism (1,2,3,4, 5, 6, 7; and unpub- lished work done at this experiment sta- tion). In some other states this name is applied to diseases that are similar but appear to be distinct. These other diseases differ from the one described here in that there are nervous symptoms or in that chickens are susceptible to them (4,5,6) . How it affects turkeys Warning of the sinusitis form is given when birds shake their heads, and when you find discharges on the wing feathers, where birds have attempted to clean their nostrils. Next you may note foaming of the eye secretions and a clear discharge from the nose. The chief symptom after these early signs is swollen sinuses (see illustration above). The sinuses are filled with a watery exudate, which later may become Page 1— Section 1 1 cheesy. In advanced cases the swellings may partly or completely close the eyes, and may cause mouth breathing. Symp- toms in this form of the disease are similar to those in sinusitis due to vita- min- A deficiency (see section 15 of this manual). Mechanical injury due to a piece of grain or some other foreign body lodged in the sinus may also result in swelling ; but this will usually be on only one side. The appetite remains good as long as the bird can see to eat. Nevertheless af- fected birds finally get thin. In the air-sac form, the air sacs be- come infected or a bronchial pneumonia occurs, or both. The birds cough and their breathing may be labored. These symptoms resemble those of Salmonella infections (see section 7), Newcastle dis- ease (section 12), and aspergillosis (sec- tion 14). Poults and growing turkeys usually show the sinusitis form, or this form com- plicated with respiratory symptoms. Adult turkeys more often show air- sac infection (reference 1) . What to look for on autopsy Swollen sinuses are filled with exudate. This exudate is watery or semigelatinous in early stages of the disease, occasionally whitish-yellow and cheesy in later stages. In air-sac infection the sinuses may not be affected. If your turkeys have shown re- spiratory symptoms, you will find bronchial pneumonia: large areas in the lungs and sometimes the sac in which the lungs are enclosed (pleural membrane) are inflamed. The air sacs are often cloudy or filled with jelly-like or cheesy exudate. In infectious sinusitis you will not find the swollen, cheesy glands in the esophagus or the cheesy plug in the bursa of Fabricius that you find in vitamin-A deficiency. Definite diagnosis can only be made by laboratory examination. Use your diagnostic laboratory! Section 11— Page X How turkeys get it This disease, particularly the respiratory form, can be transmitted by contact or in the drinking water (reference 7) . It seems to be air-borne: turkeys in one pen have become infected from those in a near-by pen when there was no other means of infection. There is evidence that the dis- ease may be carried over considerable distances by wind or sandstorms. It seems also to be occasionally transmitted through the egg from hens sick with the air-sac form (7). Birds usually do not show symptoms until 4 to 8 weeks after they have been exposed to infection. This period seems to be longer for poults than for older birds (7). Some measures that may help to prevent or control it No definite recommendations on preven- tion can be given, except to keep adult turkeys, which might be carriers, away from your poults. Use separate caretakers and equipment. Since the disease may be air-borne, protect your flock from unnec- essary exposure, especially to wind and sandstorms. If you have an outbreak, send spec- imens to a diagnostic laboratory to check for other diseases. Isolate and treat af- fected birds. Keep clean water and feed where the birds will use them. Do not use actively infected birds for breeders. While egg transmission seems to be rare, a few infected poults may spread the disease throughout a hatch or brood. If you must use a re- covered flock for breeders, cull the flock carefully to select healthy breeders, hatch the eggs separately and brood them sepa- rately. As soon as you get enough eggs for the number of poults you want, sell the breeding flock for meat. Since re- covered birds probably remain carriers, it is best to prevent contact between them and growing poults. Mixed bacterins (page 4) have no value. Insert the needle into the sinus and pull the plunger back to withdraw the exu- date. Leave the needle in the sinus so you can attach to it a second syringe con- taining the remedy. How to treat for it For the sinusitis form, you can treat birds with a 4 per cent solution of silver nitrate or a 15 per cent solution of Argyrol (reference 5). If you use silver nitrate, wear leather or rubber gloves to prevent stains on your hands. Treat birds early, before the exudate be- comes cheesy. Treat both sinuses, even if only one is swollen. Prepare the solutions just before use. Two 5- or 10-cc hypodermic syringes fitted with 16-gauge needles Vh inches long are needed — one to draw exudate from the sinus and the other to inject the drug. Insert the needle of one syringe through the skin and sinus membrane into the swollen sinus (see picture above). Withdraw the plunger to remove the exu- date from the sinus. Leave the needle Page 3— Section 1 1 inserted in the sinus but detach the syr- inge. Then attach the second syringe to the needle and inject 1 cc of silver nitrate or Argyrol solution. (A larger dose may damage the tissues.) Work the remedy into the tissues by gentle massage. The treatment causes swelling at first. This will go down in 2 or 3 days, and complete recovery usually takes place within 10 days. Silver nitrate is about 85 per cent effective: freshly prepared Argyrol slightly less so. Examine birds 2 weeks later and give a second treatment to those not cured. If the exudate becomes cheesy, you will have to remove it surgically : Remove a circular piece of skin at least Va inch in diameter over the swollen area. Force the exudate out by pressing with your thumb and forefinger. Insert a piece of cotton saturated with 4 per cent silver nitrate solution or 15 per cent Argyrol. The cotton permits drain- age and prevents dust from getting into the sinus. Be careful not to injure the lin- ing of the sinus. Replace the cotton every few days until you note improvement. Of her drugs have also been tested for use in this treatment. Ephedrine nose drops containing sulfa drugs were not effective. Colloidal silver preparations were somewhat less effective than silver nitrate. Streptomycin has recently been re- ported to give promising results in curing both the sinusitis and the air-sac forms of this disease (reference 8). Results vary somewhat, and more trials are needed. For treating swollen sinuses, inject into each sinus from 20 to 150 milligrams of streptomycin dissolved in % to 1 cc of water (or saline solution). The swelling should go down in 7 to 10 days. Give a second treatment to any birds that still show swollen sinuses after this time. In work at this station, 20 milligrams gave as good results as 100. Exudate need not be removed. Treat both sinuses! * To treat the air-sac form, inject 150 to 250 milligrams of streptomycin into the dewlap. In trials, the treated birds re- covered in 8 to 15 days. Mixed bacterins do not contain the germ that causes the disease. Under care- fully controlled experimental conditions, they have shown no value in preventing either form of this disease or in treating infected birds. Other information The following sections of this manual may help you : Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. (Lists diag- nostic laboratories.) You will find more detailed technical information in the following references, mentioned in the text by number: 1. THE ETIOLOGY OF INFECTIOUS SINUSITIS OF TUR- KEYS, by A. C. Jerstad and C. M. Hamilton. Poultry Science, vol. 27, p. 802-12. 1948. 2. ISOLATION OF AN AGENT IN CHICKEN EMBRYO CAUSING INFECTIOUS SINUSITIS IN TURKEYS, by V. Group!, J. D. Winn, and E. Jungherr. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medi- cine, vol. 67, p. 397-98. 1948. 3. THE PATHOLOGY OF INFECTIOUS SINUSITIS OF TURKEYS, by S. B. Hitchner. Poultry Science, vol. 28, p. 106-18. 1949. 4. PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON A RESPIRATORY DISEASE OF TURKEYS, by J. E. Prier, A. K. Sutherland, and P. D. Beamer. Cornell Veterinarian, vol. 38, p. 208- 13. 1948. 5. DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hinshaw. p. 1015-1121. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Biester and H. L. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. (This book lists further references, on which some of the information in this manual was based.) 6. CULTIVATION OF THE CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DIS- EASE VIRUS IN CHICK EMBRYOS, by J. P. Delaplane. Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the U. S. Livestock Sanitary Association, Columbus, Ohio, p. 193-201. 1949. 7. EXPERIMENTAL TRANSMISSION OF INFECTIOUS SINUSITIS OF TURKEYS, by A. C. Jerstad, C. M. Hamilton, and E. H. Peterson. American Journal of Veterinary Research, vol. 11, p. 260-64. 1950. (This article lists further references not given here.) 8. STREPTOMYCIN AS A TREATMENT FOR INFECTIOUS SINUSITIS OF TURKEYS, by S. B. Hitchner. Poultry Science, vol. 28, p. 627-29. 1949. In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products or equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identificaTions. In so doing it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned. Section 1 1— Page 4 10m-12,'51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 12 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Stat i'o n and Extension Service Newcastle disease. • • . . . is also called AVIAN PNEUMOENCEPHALITIS, PE, NERVOUS RES- PIRATORY DISEASE, and 9-DAY FLU. . . . decreases egg production and quality and may cause snuffling or sneezing or — especially in young poults — nervous symptoms. Mor- tality has usually been low. Newcastle disease is caused by a virus that may affect the respiratory tract or the central nervous system, or both. It occurs in many of the commercial turkey- growing areas of the state. Outbreaks have been getting more frequent lately. Turkeys of all ages are susceptible. So are chickens, quail, pheasants, and partridges. These might infect turkeys. In California the effects of this disease have not been as severe in commercial turkey flocks as in chicken flocks. Out- breaks that have occurred after poults were 6 or 8 weeks old and before hens started to lay have not usually done great economic damage. Mortality in poults under 8 weeks old probably averages 5 or 10 per cent. Mortalities as high as 25 to 35 per cent have been reported, but these are rare. In one brood of poults that were about 11 days old when the owner first noted symptoms, mortality ranged from 5 to 20 per cent in different pens and averaged about 10 per cent. These poults were ex- posed to heavy virus dosage from infected breeder hens about 400 yards away. In older poults and adults there may be no deaths and sometimes no noticeable effect on the birds themselves. Your turkeys might have the disease and recover from it without your even realiz- ing that an outbreak had occurred. But in laying hens it causes a drop in egg production and poor egg quality. These usually mean heavier financial losses than mortality causes. Symptoms you may notice The symptoms of Newcastle disease differ in turkeys of different ages. Brooder poults may be unable to walk or stand properly and may have twisted necks and other similar nervous symptoms. Sometimes you will notice only a sort of snuffling or sneezing, which indicates a slight but deep-seated respira- tory trouble. Some poults die without showing many symptoms. A few have droopy wings or paralyzed legs, or have a tendency to back up rapidly, throw the head backwards, or twist it backwards or under the body (torticollis). Some of these birds with nervous symptoms seem to recover, provided they can eat and drink. In older poults and adult birds, the symptoms are mostly snuffling and sneez- ing. They may have a little less appetite. Or their symptoms may be so mild that you will not notice there is anything wrong with them. Adults do not have nervous symptoms as often as young birds do. Laying hens often show a big drop in egg production. The record of the flock shown in the chart on page 2 is typical. In this flock the drop came at the peak of production. The flock did not come back to normal production for about 3 weeks and never did return to the full flush of early production. Otherwise the birds seemed in good health, though a little off feed. There were more broody hens in the flock than usual, and egg quality was Page 1— Section 12 1200 1000 200 DAYS 10 20 30 40 50 /--*. / \ IN NUMBER OF EGGS / ^\_ \ / 1 \ \ ./ What happens during an outbreak of Newcastle disease. not up to par for about 8 weeks. Only 19 of the 1,500 birds died. Higher mortali- ties have been recorded in some flocks. Toms affected with Newcastle disease are inactive in mating, so that fertility of eggs may be decreased. Autopsy findings You will not find any marked changes if you examine birds that have died from Newcastle disease. They are usually in good flesh. There may be an unusual amount of mucus in the windpipe. The air sacs may be discolored or cloudy. Diagnosis is important Correct diagnosis of respiratory diseases is needed to enable you to select the vaccination program that will prevent trouble on your ranch; and correct diag- nosis means laboratory tests. Take any birds that show any respiratory or ner- vous disease to your diagnostic labora- tory (see list, page 4) . The laboratory will also need a good history of the symptoms and a record of flock exposure. The HI (hemag- glutination inhibition) test does not seem quite so accurate in turkeys as in chick- ens; but when used with serum neutrali- zation tests and careful laboratory exam- ination, it is the surest means of diagnosis we have. During an acute outbreak, the virus of the disease can sometimes be iso- lated from affected birds; this is clinch- ing evidence of Newcastle disease. Section 12— Page 2 How turkeys get it The commonest source of infection is be- lieved to be actively infected turkeys or chickens on the same or a near-by ranch. The disease is transmitted in all of the following ways: 1. By contact between infected and healthy birds. Thus you might bring the disease into your flock by buying started poults or adult turkeys. (Some of these birds may have very mild symptoms.) 2. By wind or dust (this happens with chickens at least, and probably also with turkeys) . Thus the disease might be air-borne to your healthy birds from an infected pen some distance away on your own place. Or it might be carried to your flock from an infected flock in the neigh- borhood. 3. On shoes, material, or equip- ment that has had contact with a pen of infected birds. It could be carried on feed sacks or implements. You may bring the disease into your flock by using crates that had been used by another grower, unless you first disinfect them thoroughly. 4. Through eggs laid by infected hens. But all infections that have come through the egg have been due to the chance hatching of a few eggs laid during the peak of the outbreak. In the flock shown in the chart above, the virus could not be isolated from fertile, infertile, or dead-germ eggs laid just before or after the drop in production. Are recovered birds dangerous? Birds that have recovered from an infec- tion do not seem to carry the virus longer than 7 or 8 weeks. In fact, hens that have recovered from a natural outbreak or that have been vaccinated with live-virus vac- cine develop immunity, some of which they transmit to their poults. This helps prevent the poults from getting the dis- ease until they are 2 to 4 weeks old, unless they are exposed to a heavy dose of in- fection. Birds that have had an attack of New- castle disease are immune, so far as we know, against future attacks. There is no evidence to support the reports of some turkeymen that more than one attack has occurred in the same pen of birds; pos- sibly in such cases more than one disease is present. Birds that have recovered show an increase in the HI titer of their blood serum; but this does not mean that they are currently infected — just that they have once had an attack. Sanitary measures you can use Since Newcastle disease may be air-borne, normal sanitary measures (see section 1 of this manual) are not completely effec- tive in preventing or controlling it. Thorough cleaning with lye helps. Some broods of young, susceptible poults have not become infected when put in a house that had been occupied by infected birds less than 30 days before but that had been thoroughly cleaned with lye so- lution. Other broods have become in- fected under similar circumstances; but it is not clear whether the infection was wind-borne from a distance or came from virus in dust, perhaps on rafters. Some other measures that are help- ful in control or prevention are : Keep birds of different ages segregated, at least in the brooder. Avoid buying growing or adult stock and introducing it into an uninfected, sus- ceptible flock. Keep visitors away from turkey yards. If a flock of your breeder hens has the disease during their laying sea- son, do not use their eggs for hatching until the birds return to the correct rate of lay for the season and produce eggs that are normal in both exterior and in- terior quality. By that time we believe there will be little chance that the virus will be transmitted through the eggs. Should you vaccinate? Two general types of vaccine are avail- able for the prevention of this disease : Killed-virus vaccines are completely safe — they cannot cause the disease. They stimulate some degree of immunity in both growing poults and turkey hens — that is, they decrease mortality. But they do not protect hens against a drop in egg production. Two doses at a 1- to 12-week interval are better than one. The first dose can be given at any age from 1 day up. Live-virus vaccines all contain active Newcastle-disease virus and can cause the disease. They are usually given when the disease is least harmful to the birds and least expensive to the owner. The general type known as web-stick vaccine, prop- erly used, gives good immunity to chick- ens against both high mortality and a drop in egg production due to a natural outbreak of the disease. We assume that it will do the same for turkeys, but less is known about how effective it is with them. Whether or not you should vacci- nate, and if you do, what type of vaccine you should use, depends on your own cir- cumstances. Each ranch is different. Dis- cuss your problem with the veterinarian or your diagnostic laboratory and with your farm advisor before you decide. Your need for a vaccination pro- gram depends not only upon the amount of infection known to exist among tur- keys and chickens in your area, but also upon how much live-virus vaccine is be- ing used there. The live-virus vaccines now available do cause a spreading in- fection that may result in an actual out- break in near-by unvaccinated flocks. Page 3-Section 12 For your breeders — if you decide to vaccinate — you should probably use live- virus web-stick vaccine. The killed-virus vaccines now available do not seem to offer enough protection against a drop in egg production — which, in turkeys, is the most expensive effect of the disease. If you use a live-virus web-stick vaccine: Vaccinate at least 6 weeks before egg lay- ing begins, to avoid any chance of trans- mitting the virus to poults through the egg. You can do this at any time after the poults are 3 weeks old, when they are in good general health. Administer the vaccine in the web of the wing. Follow the manufacturer's printed direc- tions carefully. Take the usual precautions for vaccina- tion — the ones you use when you vacci- nate for fowl pox (see section 13). For methods of handling the flock, see sec- tion 1. As insurance against high mortal- ity, the killed-virus vaccines probably have a place. If you have had losses from this disease in poults less than 3 weeks old, you may find it useful to vaccinate any later broods of poults before they are 10 days old. When you select your breed- ers, you will need to revaccinate those birds with live-virus web-stick vaccine. The live-virus intranasal vaccine recently introduced does not seem to cause mortality in turkeys. But just how stable or solid an immunity it produces has not been determined. We feel that it is still too early to recommend this par- ticular product for immunizing turkeys that are to be kept as breeders, particu- larly if you are in an area where there is much Newcastle infection. If you use it for poults, revaccinate your breeders with web-stick live virus before lay starts. What you can do for sick birds There is little you can do for birds af- fected with this disease except to try to keep them on feed and eating well. If you separate birds that show nervous symptoms and give them special nursing care, you may help them to survive. But it is questionable whether many of them ever make profitable gains. Do NOT use any of the sulfa drugs, or any other chemical as a treatment for this disease. Some of these drugs may cause the turkeys to refuse food ; and that is not good. Palatable mash, good brooding condi- tions, and particular care in sanitation are the only measures that can be recom- mended. Section 2 of this manual gives hints on how to handle an outbreak. Free diagnoses You can get free diagnoses and advice from these state and county diagnostic laboratories in California: Davis: University of California, Division of Poul- try Pathology, Veterinary Science Building. Fresno: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Labo- ratory, Route 5, Box 210-X. Petaluma: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, 627 F Street. Sacramento: Animal Pathology Laboratory, State Office Building No. 1. San Diego: San Diego County Livestock De- partment, 4005 Rosecrans Avenue. San Gabriel: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory, 714 South Santa Anita Street. Turlock: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, Dis- trict Fair Grounds. Further information You may find the following sections of this circular useful : Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. Section 12— Page 4 10m-12,'51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 1 3 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA . COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension. Service fowl pax... . . . causes heavy losses by setbacks in development, loss of weight, low- ered egg production, and poor fertility. . . . can be prevented by vaccination. Fowl-pox lesions in a turkey. Earliest symptoms at upper left (A); B, 1 week later; C, 2 weeks later; D, 4 weeks later. The lesions disappeared 10 days after D was taken, but the bird was blind in one eye. Page 1— Section 13 Fowl-pox lesions on the skin of the breast of a turkey hen. Her head was also badly af- fected. Fowl pox is a virus disease that results in blister-like areas and scabs on the un- feathered parts of the body. Outbreaks vary greatly in severity. Mild ones may clear up in 2 or 3 weeks; severe ones often last for 6, 7, or even 8 weeks. Mortality is usually low, most deaths being caused by blindness or suffocation. In the growing flock, setback in develop- ment causes greater loss than deaths. Out- breaks often occur shortly before mar- keting time; if you have an outbreak then, you may have to postpone marketing for several weeks. In your breeding flock, lowered egg production and poor fertility may cause you heavy financial loss. Chickens and pigeons are affected by strains of the pox virus which differ from that in some turkey outbreaks (see ref- erences 1, 2, 3) . All, however, may cause the disease in turkeys. Mosquitoes can spread the disease and may account for outbreaks, especially in young, partially feathered poults. HOW SYMPTOMS DEVELOP The first symptom is tiny yellow erup- tions on the dewlap, caruncles, snood, eyelids, and mouth corners (see picture, page 1 ) . These eruptions are soft at first : you can easily break them by rubbing. There will be inflamed, sticky areas under them. As the disease progresses, the le- sions enlarge and become covered with a dry scab or yellowish-red or brown wart- like mass. The disease may even spread to the feathered parts of the body. The num- ber of lesions depends on how severe the disease is. It is more often severe in males because of skin wounds from fighting. If your young poults are infected, their heads, legs, and feet may be completely covered with pox. In severe cases, the mucous mem- branes of the mouth, larynx, pharynx, tongue, esophagus, and sometimes the Section 13— Page 2 crop are covered with masses of soft, yel- low cankers or ulcers (see picture, page 3). Birds with such cankers may starve. Cankers may cover the opening into the windpipe or even occur inside it, and suf- focate the birds. These cankers are larger and more prominent than the small, deep- seated ones often seen in the mouths of vaccinated turkeys or those that have re- covered from an outbreak. Breeding turkeys may get a light case several months after vaccination. Usually only a small percentage of the birds are affected. They may have cankers in the eyes and mouth, with no blisters on the outside head parts. The eyes are watery and inflamed and there are soft yellow cankers on the inside of the lids. There are no typical autopsy find- ings except the cankers that have already been described. Fowl-pox lesions in the mouth and esophagus. VACCINATION You can guard against the disease by vac- cinating with live-virus fowl-pox vaccine. Most growers do this themselves. Need for vaccination Fowl pox is so widespread that yearly vaccination is good insurance. The only exception is a flock well isolated from all poultry in a community where the disease does not exist. The vac- cine contains live virus, capable of caus- ing the disease; it cannot safely be intro- duced into a community where fowl pox is unknown. The disease may be carried to new areas or flocks by mosquitoes, birds, visi- tors, animals, secondhand feed sacks, new adult or started stock, and misuse of vac- cine. If you do not vaccinate, inspect often for the first appearance of blisters. When to vaccinate The correct age to vaccinate depends upon your locality. If you live where mos- quitoes are a problem, you may need to vaccinate before the mosquito season, re- gardless of the age of your turkeys. In some areas you may postpone vaccina- tion until late fall; then you may not need to revaccinate breeders. This can be risky! Healthy turkeys can be vacci- nated at any age. Day-old poults have been successfully vaccinated (4). (But note the caution about vaccinating just before shipping, in the next column.) Many growers vaccinate 6- or 8-week-old poults; but most vaccinate at 10 or 12 weeks. It requires 4 to 8 weeks for the vacci- nation lesion ("take") to disappear; hence you will want to vaccinate at least 8 weeks before market time. ( But if you can't, see the suggestion on page 5.) If you vaccinate very young poults, use extreme care to prevent vac- cine from getting on other parts of the birds' bodies. If you take hold of a poult's head with hands contaminated with vac- cine, you may give it a severe case of fowl pox. The young, tender skin is very sus- ceptible. Dont vaccinate day-old poults if they are to be boxed and shipped! The disease would spread in the box. Revaccinating breeders Revaccinate turkeys kept for breeders within 6 or 7 months after the first vac- cination. The immunity wears off in about that time. Just why this happens we do not know. No vaccine yet known gives any better or longer immunity against pox in turkeys than FOWL-POX vaccine PROPERLY applied. But you do not get the solid immunity in turkeys that you get in chickens. To find out when to do the job, re- vaccinate a sample of about 100 birds. If after a week or 10 days most birds in the sample show "takes," revaccinate the rest of the flock. If only a few show takes, postpone the revaccination of the rest; but do it before egg production begins. Page 3— Section 13 How to buy vaccine Use fowl-pox vaccine: it produces im- munity for several months and causes little disturbance in turkeys. Pigeon-pox vaccine is not effective. Attempts to ob- tain better immunity with numerous strains and techniques have not been suc- cessful. Buy vaccine from reliable sources. If you cannot get it from your veterinar- ian, ask your farm advisor for a list of sources. How to handle vaccine Vaccine is not stable. To be sure your vac- cine is fresh and potent: Use it before the expiration date. Store it in a refrigerator when not in use. Dilute only a half day's supply at a time. In hot weather, dilute only an hour's supply at a time unless you keep it packed in ice. Dilute, mix, and use according to the man- ufacturer's printed directions (too much dilution may cause failure). Protect what you are using against heat and sunlight. Disinfectants destroy vaccine. Never add disinfectants to vaccine. For this reason it is better to sterilize the vaccine container and tools or brushes by boiling in water rather than by putting them in a disinfectant. Choosing your method The two general methods of applying the vaccine are: the feather follicle, and the stick, or puncture. Scarification is a mod- ification of the latter. In the follicle method, a few feath- ers are pulled and the vaccine is brushed into the follicle. In the stick method, a sharp instru- ment is dipped in vaccine; then the skin is pricked with it. In scarification, a small piece of metal with a rough surface is dipped in vaccine; then the skin is scratched with it. Types of tools used in vaccinating. All of these methods are equally ef- ficient when properly used. The stick method in some form is commonest today. It has many advantages over the feather- follicle method : it uses vaccine more eco- nomically; it is faster; it gives better con- trol of the amount of vaccine inserted; and under field conditions it usually gives better results. Tools Three of the tools used in vaccinating are shown above: instruments for the stick method and a good type of brush for the follicle method. You can make the former by grinding off the eye ends of 2 darning needles, leaving 2 sharp prongs on each needle. Then insert the 2 needles close together in a suitable handle so that there is an opening between the 4 prongs for a small drop of vaccine. No. 21 sewing ma- chine needles with eyes near the point make good "vaccinators." Manufacturers often furnish some such instrument with their vaccine. Section 13— Page 4 You can make a convenient holder for the vaccine bottle by boring a hole the right size in a wooden block. If you bore it close to the edge so that it makes a slit in the block, you can see how much vac- cine is left in the bottle. A holder like this is shown at the left. Where to vaccinate For routine vaccination, use the skin of the upper thigh. It is easy to get at, has no feathers, and is protected from both the vaccinated bird and its penmates. The last point is important in preventing spread of the disease by fighting before the birds become immune. If you have been forced to delay vaccination until 3 or 4 weeks before mar- ket time, use the small web of skin be- tween the first "finger" of the wing and the metacarpus. (See A in the illustration on page 7.) A small unhealed vaccina- tion scar on this spot will not lower the value of the bird when it is graded for market. But this site is less convenient than the leg. Do not use the wing web. Turkeys have a habit of picking at the vaccinated area, and this may cause spread of the virus to the head and over the entire wing- web area, especially with very young poults. (See illustration at the left, be- low.) Some vaccination of breeder birds is done on the waffle or fhe caruncfe. Do not use this place for young turkeys. Organizing the job The way you handle the turkeys will de- termine how many you can vaccinate in a day. There are many ways of organiz- ing the work; but for large flocks you should have two corrals with a chute be- tween them for confining a few birds in close quarters. The fences must be turkey- tight to prevent unvaccinated birds from escaping into the vaccinated group. Meth- ods of handling your flock for such an operation are given in section 1 of this manual. A table near the catching chute gives you a convenient work surface. Spread a newspaper over the table to put the tools and vaccine container on. Then you can roll it up and burn it when you finish, or if any vaccine gets spilled. (But take every precaution to avoid spilling the vac- cine. Remember that the vaccine is a live virus and can give your turkeys fowl pox.) At least two workers are needed for the operation — the vaccinator and a helper to catch and hold the turkeys and put them in the vaccination corral. General infection after wing-web vaccination. This bird died a few days after the upper pic- ture was taken. Lower photo shows an earlier stage. Page 5— Section 13 The stick technique To vaccinate on the upper thigh, proceed as follows: Have your helper catch the turkey and hold its feet as shown below. Pull back the feathers lying along the thigh to expose the skin. Or your helper can do this, so you need not touch the bird. He must be careful not to touch the vaccine as the feathers fall back. Insert the instrument (which you have dipped in the vaccine) into the skin. Make a very slight prick or puncture but be sure the skin is broken. One incision is enough. Be sure there is vaccine on your instrument and that it gets into the break in the skin. After each inoculation, mix the vaccine thoroughly with your vaccinating instru- ment. You pick up vaccine for the next "stick" in the process. Be sure to vaccinate each bird. Follicle technique This technique is little used: it is messy and gives no better results than the stick. The upper thigh is again the best place. Pull not more than 4 or 5 feathers. Be sure that vaccine is brushed into the fol- licle. This method and the scarification method are little used because the results are not so uniform as with the stick tech- nique, and they take longer. Clean-up To prevent spread of the virus, burn all unused vaccine, papers, and any cotton, tape, or thread wraps used on the instru- ments. Boil vaccine containers and in- struments in water for 10 minutes. Vaccinating on the upper thigh. With one hand, the vaccinator holds back the feathers that cover this naked area, then pricks the skin with the needle. Note the wooden block to hold vaccine, and the papers spread over the table. Vaccination "takes" 1 week after inoculation: on the "first finger" of the wing with stick method (A) (note slight swelling); on the upper thigh with follicle method (B); on the caruncle with stick method (C); and on the upper thigh with stick method (D). How to take care of your flock after vaccination If your flock is in good condition, it needs no special care after vaccination. Giving specially palatable feed and plenty of water and avoiding undue disturbance for 10 days or 2 weeks are good manage- ment practices. A few vaccinated birds may develop pox on the head, but these pox usually clear up in a short time without becoming severe. Isolate such birds from the rest of the flock to prevent spread by fighting before immunity is established. Remember that unvaccinated birds can get the disease by coming into contact with vaccinated ones. If you can't vacci- nate all your birds at one time, keep vac- cinated and unvaccinated groups apart. You will have to guard against spread of infection to market turkeys when you vaccinate or revaccinate your breeding stock. Vaccinate your breeders when or after you separate them. Checking "takes" Examine between 10 and 25 per cent of the flock 7 to 10 days after inoculation to see whether vaccination has been success- ful. If all birds in such a sample have one or more takes (see illustration above) , you can consider the flock prop- erly immunized. If not all have reacted, examine the entire flock and revaccinate any that do not show takes. Use a fresh lot of vac- cine. Vaccination failure Birds that have not previously been vac- cinated and have had no outbreak of fowl pox should show at least 95 per cent takes. If your flock shows a lower per- centage than this, check your methods of caring for the vaccine (page 4) and your vaccination technique (page 6). If you can find no fault in your methods, check your source of vaccine. Page 7— Section 13 CONTROLLING AN OUTBREAK In a flock of meat birds, the following procedure is recommended to control an outbreak : Isolate all birds showing lesions. Vaccinate as soon as possible all birds not showing lesions if it is not too near mar- ket time. But if you plan to market birds soon, do not vaccinate. Place infected birds in warm, dry quarters. Separate the males or keep careful watch over them to prevent fighting. Treat infected birds individually by remov- ing the scabs or cankers and applying tincture of iodine. For washing the eyes, use saturated boric acid or Lugol y s solu- tion of iodine. Feed valuable birds individually, in severe cases, with a funnel and rubber tubing inserted through the mouth into the crop. Keep culling closely! Treat often. In breeding flocks, vaccination dur- ing laying presents an economic problem, since it may "knock" production or fer- tility. If an outbreak occurs in your breeding flock after egg production has started, your best course is probably just to isolate the affected birds promptly and hope that part of your flock will not get the disease. Individual birds can be treated as described for the meat flock. Keep enough extra immune toms so that you will have replacements to maintain fertility. Drugs for internal treatment are not recommended. Special care in feeding and man- aging will get the birds back to normal faster and reduce losses in weight and setbacks in development. You can shorten the course of the disease by providing shelter for roosting and general protec- tion from damp weather. DO YOU NEED FURTHER INFORMATION? The following sections of this manual may be helpful: Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. (Gives disinfectants, describes how to handle the flock.) Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. (Lists diagnostic laboratories.) Technical details on certain phases of fowl pox are given in the following ref- erences, mentioned in the text by num- bers in italics: 1. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON POX VIRUS OB- TAINED FROM A TURKEY, by E. L. Brunett. New York State Veterinary College, Annual Report 1932-33, p. 69-70. 1933. 2. EGG PROPAGATION OF TURKEY POX VIRUS, by F. R. Beaudette and C. B. Hudson. Poultry Science, vol. 20, p. 79-82. 1941. 3. DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hin- shaw. p. 1015-1121. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Blester and L. H. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State Col- lege Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. 4. IMMUNIZATION OF DAY-OLD CHICKS AND POULTS AGAINST FOWL POX, by R. C. Dunn and R. M. Sherwood. Poultry Science, vol. 12, p. 323-24. 1933. Section 13— Page 8 10m-12,51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 14 UNIVERSITY Agriculture! OF CALIFORNIA • . COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Experiment Station and Extension Service Fungus diseases • t « . . . include ASPERGILLOSIS, FAVUS, and MONILIASIS. Any one of these may be called a MYCOSIS. . . . seldom occur in a well-cared-for flock. Fungus diseases, caused by molds and yeasts, result in some mortality in turkeys in this state. Aspergillosis affects the mouth, trachea, lungs, and air sacs; favus affects the skin, and moniliasis the crop. Fungus diseases of the stomach and intes- tines, if they occur at all, are not impor- tant economically. ASPERGILLOSIS (BROODER PNEUMONIA, MYCOTIC PNEUMONIA, PNEUMO-MYCOSIS) Birds sometimes die without showing any symptoms. Aspergillosis is caused mainly by Asper- gillus fumigatus. This mold is widely dis- tributed in nature. Many animals, includ- ing man, are susceptible to it. In young poults, aspergilli molds pro- duce a pneumonia with heavy mortality. Infected older birds may suffer from either pneumonia or infection of the air sacs. Other molds may cause brooder pneu- monia at times. How the sick birds behave When turkeys have infections in the mouth, trachea, or lungs, they are hoarse, breathe heavily, and sometimes have rattling in the throat. In poults the symptoms may be confused with those of pullorum disease (see section 7 of this manual). If only the air sac is infected, the birds may not show any symptoms. But as the birds get sicker, you will usu- ally note that they are dull, have labored breathing, and become very thin. What about mortality? The mortality varies, but is usually greater in poults than in older birds. What to look for on autopsy Common lesions are: Yellow, semiliquid or cheesy masses in the air sacs and lungs (see photograph, page 2); sometimes also in the abdomi- nal cavity or the air passages of the bones. Round, buttonlike, yellowish-white ulcers on mucous membranes of the air sacs. In advanced cases, a greenish mold "turf" over the surface of infected areas and depressions of ulcers. Final diagnosis depends on identifying the mold by microscopic examination. What you can do about it To prevent this disease, select your grain and litter carefully. Keep litter dry, both while stored and in use. Birds may be- come infected from moldy grain or litter, or from musty, moldy strawstacks; avoid them! Molds grow rapidly on the sugar in dried beet pulp and sugar-cane ba- gasse; be sure such litter is kept dry and does not become moldy. Don't wet down feed in feed hoppers. Page 1— Section 14 If you feed semisolid milk, you need to use special care. Cover the top of stored semisolid milk with water to pre- vent mold growth over the surface. Mold infection often comes from storage bar- rels or other containers that have not been properly cared for. In one outbreak the source of infection was the lids of milk cans : the owner had washed and scalded the milk cans every day, but not the lids. Feed and watering places are fer- tile fields for molds. Place feed troughs and fountains on screened, raised plat- forms to keep birds from picking up molds that grow in such places. Unless you use a permanent yard system, move feed and watering containers often. If your turkeys become infected, cull sick birds immediately, move the rest of the flock to clean quarters, and give good, tempting feed. The best control is Lungs of turkey with cheesy masses typical of aspergillosis. The dark threads of "turf" of the mold can be seen in the large mass at the bottom, marked by the arrow. to remove the cause. Search for mold in the litter, the feed, and the feed and water containers. Clean the containers every day, and disinfect them with 0.5 per cent copper sulfate solution. If you cannot change feeding areas often, clean the ground around the containers. In outbreaks, you may use a 1 :2,000 solution of copper sulfate (bluestone) in place of the drinking water. (But do not rely on it as a preventive to be used continuously.) If you feed liquid or semi- solid milk, you may add copper sulfate to it in the same proportion. Treatment of badly infected birds is almost useless. Caution! Handle and dispose of sick birds with ex- treme care to avoid becoming infected yourself. HOW TO MIX 1:2,000 COPPER SULFATE SOLUTION First make up a stock solution: Dissolve 1 pound of copper sulfate in 1 gallon of soft water (rain or distilled water). (If you do not have soft water, add 1 teaspoon of concentrated hydro- chloric acid or 1 cup of vinegar to your water before adding copper sulfate.) You may have to heat the mixture to dis- solve the copper sulfate. Store in a glass bottle. Then make a 1:2,000 dilution: Add 1 tablespoon of the stock solution to each gallon of water. If your water is hard, add just enough vinegar or hydrochloric acid to pre- vent the copper sulfate from going out of solution. The amount you need de- pends on how hard your water is; but don't add more than 1 teaspoon of hydrochloric acid per gallon. Section 14— Page 2 FAVUS Favus is a chronic skin disease caused by a mold, Achorion gallinae. It is not common in California, is generally mild, and usually affects only a few birds in the few affected flocks. It may last several months in a flock, but few losses are directly traceable to it. Man is susceptible to this fungus; take care to avoid getting infected yourself if an outbreak occurs ! How favus shows up Favus causes white powdery spots on the unfeathered parts of the body. You can usually see these first around the beak. Then they spread to the wattles, dewlap, and caruncles, and in bad cases, to the feathered portions. The fine white spots finally grow together and may cover a considerable area. As the fungus spreads and grows, the fungus threads pile up and may form a thick, crusty area like those shown in the photograph at the right. A generalized case of favus. How to control and treat it Remove and dispose of all infected birds. Then clean and disinfect the premises thoroughly. If you can, move the flock to new quarters. Treatment will pay only on very valu- able birds. You can use a mixture of 6 parts of glycerine and 1 part of iodine; or else a formalin Vaseline ointment. (Prepare this by shaking melted Vase- line — or petroleum jelly — in a closed jar with 5 per cent by weight of formalin.) Rub either mixture thoroughly on moldy parts. Wear rubber gloves to avoid be- coming infected yourself. MONILIASIS (MYCOSIS OF THE Moniliasis is a disease of the crop in both chickens and turkeys. It is caused by yeast-like organisms that belong to the genus Monilia. In chickens it is also caused by Oidium pullorum. The disease occurs in flocks under in- sanitary conditions and with improper feeders or water supply and in flocks run down by poor management. It is trans- mitted in the droppings of infected birds. Moniliasis is sometimes confused with trichomoniasis of the upper digestive tract (see section 5 of this manual). These diseases can be told apart only by a laboratory examination, which includes finding and identifying the organism that is causing the trouble. CROP, THRUSH) Symptoms of moniliasis Since other diseases almost always occur along with moniliasis, specific symptoms have been difficult to determine. More or less constant symptoms, however, are listlessness, loss of appetite, and a sunken chest. Birds usually stand around with their heads drawn back. What you see on autopsy The crops of infected birds are usually empty or contain a small amount of thick, slimy liquid. This tends to form a false membrane on the lining of the crop. In early or mild cases the mucous membrane may look cooked. Page 3— Section 14 On the left, the inside of the crop of a turkey with moniliasis. Right, an enlarged section, showing masses of rose-shaped ulcers. In chronic cases, soft, raised, rose- shaped, whitish-yellow ulcers are scat- tered over the lining of the crop and give it a "turkish-towel-like" or "curdy" look. The ulcers may grow together and pile up into a mass. They are easily scraped from the surface, leaving the raw mucous membrane. How to control it You can reduce losses by moving birds to clean quarters and by cleaning and disinfecting feed and water containers every day. You can use copper sulfate solution (see the box on page 2) in place of drinking water. Keep the birds eating and be sure they drink the solution. DO YOU NEED FURTHER INFORMATION? You may find the following sections of this manual helpful: Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. (Dis- cusses disinfectants and cleaning methods.) Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. (Lists diagnostic laboratories, tells how to se- lect specimens for diagnosis.) The following reference gives some technical details and lists further refer- ences : DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hinshaw, p. 1015-1121. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products or equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. In so doing it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned. Section 14— Page 4 7im-12,'51(5950)MP TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 15 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service Dietary diseases 1 1 1 . . . discussed here are VITAMIN-A DEFICIENCY, RICKETS, DIETARY DERMATITIS, and PEROSIS. . . . usually result from lack of vitamins or minerals, or from lack of bal- ance between minerals. . . . can be prevented by feeding a well-balanced diet. Turkeys have rather high vitamin re- quirements and show marked symptoms if they do not get enough. Vitamins are especially important in the starting mash; poults need larger amounts of some vita- mins than chickens do. But the vitamins turkeys need are present in the common feedstuffs and sup- plements. You do not have to buy mys- terious, high-priced patent mixtures to supply their needs. Turkey rations are most likely to be low in vitamins A, D, and riboflavin. Sometimes they are low in pantothenic acid, choline, and niacin. Turkeys need vitamin B x (thiamin) , folic acid, pyridox- ine, and biotin; but ordinary turkey rations are almost sure to contain plenty. The minerals concerned in dietary dis- eases are calcium, phosphorus, and man- ganese. You may cause trouble by feeding either too little or too much of them. You must be sure that turkeys have enough to eat and a chance to eat it. Poults may become unhealthy if they do not have enough water or enough hopper space or if they are crowded. But we will discuss nutrition here only as it is related to definite dietary diseases. You will find more information on feeding turkeys in California Agricultural Extension Circu- lar 110, Turkey Production in.California. The rations for poults, growing turkeys, and breeders given in that circular con- tain all the nutrients needed to prevent dietary diseases. A young turkey with typical symptoms of vi- tamin-A deficiency. Page 1— Section 15 VITAMIN-A DEFICIENCY (AVITAMINOSIS-A) Turkeys need two to four times as much vitamin A as chickens do (see references 1,2,3) and are more apt to show vitamin- A deficiency. Vitamin A exists in both plant and ani- mal forms. The plant form — known as carotene — is orange red. It is found in all green leaves, yellow corn, yellow carrots, and similar yellow and red root crops. The animal form is nearly colorless; it is present in certain fish oils. Birds have the power of converting the plant form of vitamin A to the animal form. It does not matter which form you feed, because turkeys can make good use of either. How the sick birds look Poults fed a vitamin-A-free diet from the time of hatching begin to show symptoms within 3 to 4 weeks, according to the amount of vitamin stored in their bodies at the start. If vitamin A is not supplied, there is 100 per cent mortality within 2 weeks after symptoms appear. Poults with vitamin-A deficiency walk unsteadily and sit with sagging wings, drooping heads, and closed eyes. Later symptoms are watery eyes, swelling of the third eyelid (nictitating membrane), and nasal discharge. If a poult lives for some time after showing the first symptoms, the eyes have first a milky discharge, and then a white cheesy exudate. The nictitating membrane looks dry and rough ; it may be covered with a fine white powder. Early in the morning the eyes of many poults will be closed by a sticky substance on the lids. In older birds that do not get enough vitamin A, symptoms are similar but more pronounced, probably because the disease becomes chronic. (See Extension Circular 110.) White cheesy exudate in the eye of a turkey with vitamin-A deficiency. Section 15— Page 2 Portion of head and gullet of a turkey hen laid open to show the pustules. Colds and infectious sinusitis have similar symptoms. This makes it neces- sary for you to get an accurate laboratory diagnosis, to eliminate the chance of wrong treatment or needless expense. What to watch for on autopsy Changes are mainly in the head and the upper digestive tract. You will see : Swollen, cheesy pustules in the back of the mouth, the upper esophagus, and the crop. Sinuses swollen. Bursa of Fabricius filled with a cheesy plug. (This bursa is a pouch-like organ present only in young birds. It is above the rec- tum and opens into the cloaca.) How to control and prevent it You can prevent this disease, or control it after it has started, by feeding enough vitamin A. For older birds fresh greens are the most practical and the cheapest source of both vitamin A and the vitamin-B com- plex (riboflavin, pantothenic acid, and others). Give your turkeys all they will eat. You can use alfalfa, clover, kale, let- tuce, or any other leafy green vegetable. Yellow carrots are excellent, and turkeys like them if they are finely chopped. Breeders, however, need so much vita- min A — 4,000 international units per pound of feed {4) — that they cannot get enough from greens alone. The best way to supplement greens is to add 10 to 15 per cent alfalfa meal in their mash. If they do not get fresh greens, they need 15 to 20 per cent alfalfa meal in their mash. The alfalfa meal should be fresh: it loses vitamin A when stored, especially in warm weather. Very young poults cannot digest fresh greens ; hence you must supply vita- man A in other ways. They need about 4,000 international units of vitamin A per pound of feed. Five per cent of alfalfa meal in the starting mash will nearly meet their requirement for vitamin A. If you use some vitamin A and D feeding oil to supply the vitamin D for ricket preven- tion, this will add enough A to make the ration adequate in this vitamin. In growing rations larger amounts of alfalfa meal may be fed ; and you can depend on this to supply the vitamin A completely. Page 3— Section 15 RICKETS (AVITAMINOSIS-D) Rickets is a bone disease affecting all animals and birds. It is caused either by lack of vitamin D or by lack of balance between calcium and phosphorus. Poults need a lot of vitamin D. Vitamin D is present in certain fish oils and "activated sterols." It is also sup- plied by direct sunlight, which changes certain substances in the turkey's skin to vitamin D. How rickets affects turkeys Affected poults have weak legs, awkward gait, soft beaks and leg bones, and ruffled, unkempt feathers. They fail to gain weight and finally die if their diet is not corrected. Poults that get no vitamin D will show symptoms in 18 to 20 days; 100 per cent mortality will occur within 30 days after hatching (reference 5) . What to look for on autopsy The changes you will most often find on autopsy are soft bones and beading on the ribs. A definite diagnosis depends on a chemical analysis of the bones or blood, or upon the "line" test for rickets. Send specimens to your diagnostic laboratory. How to prevent and control it To prevent rickets, you must be sure that your poults get both vitamin D and a proper balance between calcium and phosphorus in their rations. There are several forms of vitamin D. Some of these are not effective in preventing rickets in chicks and poults. Hence fish oils biologically tested with chicks and of guaranteed vitamin-D potency (in A.O.A.C. units) are the only ones you should use for turkeys. Fish oils without guarantee of potency may or may not contain vitamin D. The activated sterols have vitamin D in a form turkeys can use. They are usually sold with a guarantee of potency. Poults need several times as much vita- min D as chicks; and you cannot depend upon sunlight to supply it during the brooding season. Hence you should add chick-tested fish oil or activated sterol to the starting mash. If you use fish oil with a guaranteed potency of 400-D, then % of 1 per cent, or 10 pounds per ton of mash, is enough. You will need more of less potent oils. When poults are out on the range, continue feeding fish oil (or sterol) un- less there is plenty of sunshine. The breeding flock needs extra vita- min D so that enough will be stored in the egg to develop the embryo and give the poult a good start. Add at least 10 pounds of a chick-tested fish oil (400-D) per ton of breeding mash. Calcium and phosphorus are pres- ent in many feedstuffs. But to be sure of getting enough, and the proper balance between the two, you need to add minerals to the mash. Both calcium and phos- phorus are supplied by steamed bone meal, sterilized raw bone meal, spent bone black, dicalcium phosphate, or defluori- nated rock phosphate. Calcium alone is supplied by ground limestone, oyster- shell, clamshell, and calcite. The amounts you need to add depend not only on the age of the birds but also on the other ingredients in the mash. Extension Cir- cular 110 gives a number of mashes with proper mineral balance. Section 15— Page 4 Poults may develop dermatitis if they are fed a ration low in riboflavin (6, 7), biotin (8), or pantothenic acid. Other forms of dermatitis must be considered in making a diagnosis. Even if rations are balanced, poults may get dermatitis if they do not get enough total feed. DIETARY DERMATITIS How the sick birds look Poults affected by dietary dermatitis have sore mouths and crusts at the corners of the mouth; diarrhea, resulting in an in- flamed, encrusted vent ; thickened eyelids that stick together ; ragged feathers ; and Upper photo, a 29-day-old poult on a diet lacking riboflavin. Note the en- crusted eyelids, mouth, and nostrils. Lower photo, left, legs and feet of a poult fed a riboflavin-deficient diet from hatching time; right, of a poult fed the same basal ration plus riboflavin. Page 5— Section 15 a listless, unthrifty appearance. In ad- vanced cases the feet may also look dry and there may be ulcers on the foot pads. The skin of the legs and feet peels at your slightest touch. Growth is very slow, and mortality is high. How to prevent and control it If your turkeys have dietary dermatitis, there is no easy way to tell whether it is due to lack of riboflavin, of biotin, or of pantothenic acid. The one most likely to be low is riboflavin; so you might try in- creasing the supply of this first, unless you are sure you are supplying enough of it. Riboflavin can be supplied most cheaply in fresh greens and alfalfa meal. It is also present in milk and whey. Older turkeys will eat enough greens and alfalfa meal to get their riboflavin from these sources. Their mash should contain at least 10 per cent of alfalfa meal — more if they do not also get fresh greens or alfalfa hay. Poults eat relatively less bulky feed than older turkeys. Hence they cannot get all the riboflavin they need from greens and alfalfa meal. Starting mashes should contain 5 per cent of alfalfa meal ; and in addition, 4 to 5 per cent of dried milk or dried whey or some other riboflavin- containing supplement. Even after poults begin to eat some fresh greens, they should have 2 or 3 per cent dried milk or whey in their growing mash. Biotin is supplied by fresh greens, dehydrated alfalfa meal, soybean oil meal, cane molasses, and grain by- products. It is not likely to be low if you are feeding your turkeys the amounts of these recommended to supply other nutrients. Pantothenic acid sources are mo- lasses, liver meal, milk products, dehy- drated alfalfa, and wheat bran. You should consider it; but ordinarily it is well supplied in a ration containing some of the above feedstuffs. Section 15— Page 6 PEROSIS (SUPPED TENDON, HOCK DISEASE, SPRADDLE LEGS) Perosis may cause considerable loss to turkey growers if they do not use a prop- erly balanced ration. The condition is due to improper balance of calcium and phos- phorus, or to lack of manganese, choline, biotin, or niacin in the ration (references 7,9). Do not confuse this disease with a similar condition of newly hatched poults which is also called "spraddle legs." The latter condition is caused by any one of a number of factors: faulty incubation, im- proper diet in the breeding flock, or faulty structure of hatching trays. How perosis affects turkeys The symptoms of perosis are bowed or badly twisted legs. The tibia and meta- tarsus are improperly calcified, especially at the hock joint. This deformity allows the tendon of Achilles to slip from its groove. In turkeys the metatarsus often turns at a right angle, giving the name "spraddle legs" to the condition. The hock joint is usually enlarged and flat- tened. Sometimes the entire shank is affected this way. Occasionally, the joint between the femur (thigh bone) and tibia is affected. A turkey poult with slipped tendon, caused by too much bone meal in the ration. The hock joint was dislocated, but the poult was other- wise healthy. V ' An advanced case of slipped tendon in a ma- ture turkey. The right leg is rotated at the hock joint. How to prevent perosis There is no cure for the disease after it reaches the deformity stage. But you can prevent it. A poult ration properly bal- anced to prevent perosis should contain all of the following: Calcium, 1.8 to 2.0 per cent Phosphorus, 0.8 to 1 .0 per cent Choline, 900 milligrams per pound (ref- erence 9) Manganese, 25 milligrams per pound (ref- erence 9) Biotin Niacin The exact amounts of biotin and niacin needed are not known ; but turkey rations that supply enough of all the other vita- mins and nutrients will contain enough for this purpose. Page 7— Section 15 The calcium and phosphorus you supply to prevent rickets (page 4) will not be enough to cause perosis. It is just as important not to give too much calcium or phosphorus as it is to give enough; see, for example, the poult in the illustra- tion on page 7. Hopper feeding of lime- stone grit to growing turkeys is an unnecessary and a dangerous practice, since it throws the minerals out of bal- ance. If you supply grit, use an insoluble type, such as granite. Manganese needs to be added to the ration in small amounts to prevent perosis: % pound of manganese sulfate or manganese carbonate per ton of mash is enough. You will more easily get it evenly distributed through the mash if you first mix it thoroughly with the ground limestone (or oystershell or other source of calcium) . , Choline sources are synthetic choline, yeast, fish meal, oil-cake meals, and liver meal. You can furnish the amount of choline needed by including various amounts of these feedstuffs in the mash. You can furnish part but not all of the needed amount if you use 17 per cent sardine meal, or 5 per cent pork liver, or 65 per cent barley. DO YOU NEED FURTHER INFORMATION? You can get more information about feed- ing turkeys, including suggested rations balanced to prevent dietary diseases, from: TURKEY PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA, by V. S. Asmundson and F. H. Kratzer. California Agr. Ext. Ser. Or. 110. 60 p. 1951. You can get detailed information about certain phases of dietary diseases from the following references, mentioned in the text by number : l.VITAMIN-A DEFICIENCY IN TURKEYS, by W. R. Hinshaw and W. E. Lloyd. Hilgardia, vol. 8, no. 9, p. 281-304. 1934. 2. TURKEY PRODUCTION IN KANSAS, by H. M. Scott. Kansas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 276, p. 1-95. 1937. 3. EXPERIMENTS SHOW TURKEY POULTS NEED 4 TIMES AS MUCH VITAMIN A AS DO CHICKS, by H. S. Wilgus, Jr. Colorado Agr. Exp. Sta. Farmers' Bul., vol. 2, no. 1, p. 3-4. 1940. 4. VITAMIN REQUIREMENTS OF TURKEYS, by F. H. Kratzer. Turkey World, vol. 25, no. 1, p. 48. 1950. 5. RICKETS IN YOUNG TURKEYS, by H. M. Scott, J. S. Hughes, and H. W. Loy. Poultry Science, vol. 11, p. 177-80. 1932. 6. THE VITAMIN G REQUIREMENTS OF YOUNG POULTS, by T. H. Jukes. Poultry Science, vol. 17, p. 227-34. 1938. 7. DEFICIENCIES OF CERTAIN VITAMINS AS STUDIED WITH TURKEY POULTS ON A PURIFIED DIET. I. PTEROYLGLUTAMIC ACID, RIBOFLAVIN, NIACIN, AND INOSITOL; by T. H. Jukes, E. L. R. Stokstad, and M. Belt. Journal of Nutrition, vol. 33, p. 1. 1947. 8. BIOTIN AND PREVENTION OF DERMATITIS IN TURKEY POULTS, by H. Patrick, R. V. Boucher, R. A. Dutcher, and H. C. Knadel. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, vol. 48, p. 456. 1941. 9. EFFECT OF CHOLINE AND OTHER SUP- PLEMENTS ON PEROSIS, by T. H. Jukes. Journal of Nutrition, vol. 20, p. 445-58. 1940. You can get free diagnosis and advice from the following state and county laboratories in California: Davis: University of California, Division of Poul- try Pathology, Veterinary Science Building. Fresno: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Labo- ratory, Route 5, Box 210-X. (Orange Avenue and Highway 99.) Petaluma: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, 627 F Street. Sacramento: Animal Pathology Laboratory, State Office Building No. 1. San Diego: San Diego County Livestock Depart- ment, 4005 Rosecrans Avenue. San Gabriel: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory, 714 South Santa Anita Street. Turlock: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, Dis- trict Fair Grounds. Section 15— Page 8 10m-12,51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 16 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service Noninfectious diseases. . • discussed here are PENDULOUS CROP, HEAT PROSTRATION, EN- TERITIS, OMPHALITIS, ASCITES, FOOT ABSCESSES, and TUMORS. These noninfectious diseases are pri- marily due to hereditary, developmental, or environmental factors rather than to microorganisms. In some there is infec- tion, but this follows an injury; it does not start the trouble. Certain noninfectious diseases in ad- dition to the ones discussed here are covered in special sections of this manual : dietary diseases in section 15; poisoning and botulism in section 17; injuries and cannibalism in section 18. :> % Turkey with a pendulous crop of about 5 months' duration (A); and B, the thickened and ulcerated lining of such a crop. PENDULOUS CROP (DROP CROP, WATER CROP, BAGGY CROP) Pendulous crop causes serious losses in some flocks. This condition is due to a combination of two things: a hereditary fault (see references 1, 2, 3) and hot climate. Possibly birds with the heredi- tary weakness may develop a drop crop even in cooler weather if fed too much coarse fiber or too much liquid milk. The disease is chronic; very few birds recover, even with treatment. Some live as long as two years. But the mortality of the affected birds may be over 50 per cent. Hot weather brings it on While pendulous crop seems to run in families, turkeys that have this hereditary weakness usually do not develop it until after the first very hot weather, when they drink a lot more water than usual. Once the crop enlarges, it seldom goes back to normal size, especially if hot, dry weather continues. It may seem to clear up for a time, but then enlarges again in hot spells. An advanced case is shown above. Page 1— Section 16 What happens to affected birds The principal symptom, of course, is an enlarged, baggy crop. Birds do not lose appetite, but do not use their food well. Pendulous crops do not drain normally; stagnant, sour-smelling liquid contents re- main in them. The feed and water that stay in the crop may increase until the crop and its contents are one fourth of the bird's live weight. The bird may continue to grow but will be unthrifty and may become very thin. A bird may die if it ruptures its crop with its toes when it tries to walk or run. It may die from mechanical pneumonia caused by seepage of the crop contents into the lungs when the bird lowers its head or when you try to drain the crop mechanically. Or the bird may starve to death because it cannot use its food properly. What to look for on autopsy You will find few changes except in the crop and perhaps the lower esophagus be- tween the crop and the proventriculus. The crop contents vary from a watery, sour-smelling mass to a solid ball of mud, droppings, and grain. Semiliquid contents are most common. The lining of the pendulous part of the crop is thickened and folded. It may become ulcerated (see picture, page 1). If you scrape this membrane off, it leaves a bare, bleeding area. Such ulcers vary with the crop con- tents and the severity of the case; but they tend to spread over a wide area in contrast to the cone-shaped ulcers in trichomoniasis (see section 5). In a few cases they may look like moniliasis (sec- tion 14) . To be sure what is wrong with your birds, send specimens to your diag- nostic laboratory. If a bird dies from mechanical pneumonia, you will see various-sized areas of diseased lung tissue. If you dis- sect carefully, you will find food particles in the bronchi. The air sacs may be in- Section 16— Page 2 volved ; if so, foreign matter can be seen when scrapings from them are examined under a microscope. How to prevent it The best way to prevent it is to avoid mating any birds or buying poults that have a family history of pendulous crops. If you hatch eggs and do not trapnest, this procedure may be diffi- cult; but you can reduce the percentage of birds with this tendency. Catch and toe- mark or band any poults that have baggy crops. Then cull them — even though the condition has cleared up — when you select turkeys for breeding. Don't use any such birds for breeders. What you can do for it If birds in your flock have a tendency toward pendulous crops, you can reduce the percentage that develop the trouble if you provide plenty of shade and keep the drinking water cool in hot months. But you will probably still have a few cases if you are in a hot climate. Cull flocks often and sell birds that are developing drop crops before they get thin. Growers have tried using cloth vests or supporters; limiting the water supply to affected birds; and various operations. Removing part of the crop surgically re- sults in a high percentage of recoveries but takes too much time. Most methods produce few or no actual recoveries. Tying off part of the skin over the enlarged crop gives temporary relief in a fair percentage of cases. If you try this, do it before the crop becomes much en- larged. First wash excess feed out of the crop with warm water containing baking soda. Be sure to tie off only the skin. For this purpose some growers use the "elas- trators" and elastrator bands used for bloodless castration of sheep. If you have only a few cases, you will probably find it cheaper to kill the affected birds than to treat them. HEAT PROSTRATION (HEAT STROKE) Heat prostration usually occurs when hu- midity is high on hot days, or when humidity is very low on extremely hot days. Losses occur most often in poults recently moved from the brooder house to a range that does not have enough shade. However, in one case 3-week-old poults had heat prostration when they were moved from cool battery brooders to ex- tremely hot buildings and sun porches. How heat affects birds Turkeys with heat prostration pant and have high temperatures. They are weak and extremely thirsty. Finally they col- lapse. How to prevent losses You can prevent losses by giving plenty of shade, especially when you move poults from the brooder house to an open yard or range. If you have a house on the range, shelter your poults in it during the hot- test part of the day, but open all the win- dows for good air circulation. Poults will soon learn to stay inside when it is ex- tremely hot. Leave feed and water both inside and outside the house for the first few weeks. Outdoors, trees make the best shade. But you can make artificial shade cheaply with old lumber, sacks, aluminum, or straw. If you can get the material, alu- minum or thatched roofs are good. Fruit- drying trays or palm-tree branches (see the illustration below) are also good when available. Give plenty of pure, fresh, cool water. Put water and feed in a shady place. Use enough containers so that birds can get at them easily. On hot days check often to detect trouble early. How to treat for it If your birds are overcome with heat, put them in a shady, well-protected place and spray them lightly with water. If you do this in time, you can save a large number. Another good practice is to fill the crop with cold water, using rubber tubing and a funnel. Dipping the birds in cold water may be effective; but be careful that they do not drown. They may be weak for several days. Keep them in the shade where they can get to food and water easily. Palm-tree branches used for shade on one California ranch. Page 3— Section 16 NONSPECIFIC ENTERITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES) Poults and growing turkeys often die from enteritis — inflammation of the in- testines. This may be due to any of several infectious diseases, such as pullorum, coccidiosis, or hexamitiasis. If your birds are droopy, do not eat, and have diarrhea, and if on autopsy you find the intestines inflamed or filled with mucus, take or send specimens to your diagnostic labora- tory immediately. But sometimes a careful laboratory ex- amination fails to show any known dis- ease-producing organism. Further re- search may reveal that some of these out- breaks are infectious after all — that the cause is some organism not discovered by present techniques. Another possible cause is some sort of poisoning. (Section 17 discusses poisoning.) But many out- breaks of enteritis where no specific cause can be found are due to environmental factors. Or such factors may weaken the turkeys and pave the way for invasion of organisms that would not cause much trouble in vigorous birds. Symptoms and losses The symptoms are like those in some types of poisoning and in several in- fectious diseases: turkeys lose appetite, look haggard and unkempt, sit around by themselves with their heads hanging or turned up over their backs. Temperatures are usually normal or subnormal. The dis- ease lasts several weeks as a rule, and birds get thin. On open ranges, if most of the flock is affected, you may have trouble keeping the birds under control. They seem nerv- ous and may wander for hours, straying y% mn " e or more from the flock. Usually mortality is not high in a single day but may amount to 25 per cent over 3 or 4 weeks. The birds that live may fail to gain properly; and this may cost you more money than the deaths do. Very dark or bloody diarrhea sometimes occurs in outbreaks of enteri- tis, particularly when poults are first moved to the range. What to watch for on autopsy The autopsy findings are in many ways like those in acute poisoning. Enteritis is the main change you will find : the lining of the intestines is swollen and inflamed. There may be excess mucus in the intestines (catarrhal enteritis). In some outbreaks the intestinal lining will show hemorrhages (hemorrhagic enteri- tis). The birds are usually in very poor flesh, and the head has a drawn look, with the eyes and sinuses sunken. The heart is usually flabby. Occasionally, how- ever, the birds die in good condition. The blood is usually very dark, and often fails to clot for several hours after death. The liver often looks congested; and if you cut it, dark bluish blood oozes out. Possible causes There are many possible causes. Any- thing that causes the birds to lose appetite or refuse to drink may bring on an out- break. Any sudden change may upset them. Young poults in brooders may de- velop enteritis as a result of stampeding, failure of brooder heaters, sudden changes in the weather, piling up, heat prostration (see page 3) , sudden changes of feeding methods, or faulty feeding methods. When poults are changed from starting brooders to "cooling" brooders, they may fail to eat or to drink if you use a different type of feed or water container in the new quarters. New-type feeders or waterers or those smelling of disinfectants may cause trouble because the poults Section 16— Page 4 won't use them, even if there is no change of quarters. When poults are moved to range, trouble may result if you immediately stop feeding mash or if the range feed is a grain (or other feed) that the poults are not used to. Outbreaks of hemorrhagic enteritis have occurred when poults were put on young succulent alfalfa. One such outbreak occurred when poults were put in a yard that was overgrown with weeds and grasses, including some sweet clover. There are any number of other pos- sible causes. Any failure to follow the principles of good feeding and care may lead to such trouble. Any sudden change or great disturbance may upset the birds. Unbalanced feeds may contribute to the problem. So may undue exposure. What you can do about it Because there are so many possible causes, no definite recommendations on prevention and control can be made. The best advice is to follow sound feeding and management practices. We cannot go fully into these here; they are discussed in Agricultural Extension Circular 110, Turkey Production in California. Check your methods of feeding and handling if you have or have had out- breaks of this disease. Some ways of avoiding common causes of this trouble are: Do not make abrupt changes in feed. With brooder poults, try to keep the tem- perature constant. Use plenty of fresh, pure water. If you change the type of feed or water containers, make sure that your birds accept the new ones and do not stop eating or drinking. Watch your birds to detect the first symp- toms of failure to make proper gains. Then try to find the cause. If the feed is responsible, make gradual changes to a new method. And if you go back to the old method after the birds recover, again make the change gradually. Do not supplement an adequate commer- cial growing mash with milk, fish meal, or meat scraps,- you may upset the ra- tion balance. If you have cheaper sources of high-protein feeds than a commercial mix, consult your farm advi- sor and work out a properly balanced ration with the available feedstuffs. Before you move poults to a grain range, feed some of the same type of grain for a week or two beforehand. After you move poults to range, give them (for a few days) some of the same mash you have been feeding. Feed some supplement to turkeys on bar- ley, wheat, or rice range. A cutover grainfield usually does not contain enough of all the feedstuffs for proper growth. Those it is most likely to lack are protein concentrates and greens for vitamins. Work out a satisfactory sup- plement for your own range. If you have an outbreak of enteri- tis, keep in mind the possibility that it may be infectious, even though no or- ganism has been found. Handle the out- break as suggested in section 2 of this manual. Keep coaxing the birds to eat. Or force-feed until they start to eat again : mix a gruel of milk, mash, mineral oil, bran, and molasses; and use a bulb syr- inge or a pump and rubber tube to force it into the crop. If enteritis occurs when poults are moved to the range, return them to the brooder and put them back on a dry- mash ration until they recover; then try the range again. When birds are on range, have plenty of feeders so they will not eat dirt. This is especially important if muddy yards are used. Page 5— Section 16 OMPHALITIS (NAVEL INFECTION) In omphalitis, the navel opening fails to close properly. The result is infection of the internal organs. The disease can usually be traced to faulty incubation or to insanitary hatch- eries. In most instances the poults are weak when they are removed from the incubator, and losses may start before they are shipped from the hatchery. How it affects poults Poults with omphalitis are weak, lack body tone, and tend to huddle. When you handle them, they feel flabby — not firm like a normal poult — and their abdomens are enlarged. The navel opening, which usually should heal in 72 hours, is in- flamed and moist, and fails to close for several days. Often a definite scab forms over the opening. Death often occurs within a day after symptoms show. Mortality is high, often 50 per cent. What to watch for on autopsy The most important changes you will note on autopsy are a watery swelling of the muscles of the abdomen and breast, an unabsorbed yolk, and inflammation of the lining of the abdominal cavity (peritonitis) . Laboratory diagnosis to de- tect specific infection is imperative. How to prevent omphalitis The disease may be the result of mixed infection of hatchery origin. If so it can be eliminated from the hatchery by formaldehyde fumigation as outlined in section 1 of this manual. For incubators known to be spreading omphalitis, use double strength of formalin and potassium per- manganate (see section 1 and reference 4). This strength should be used only when no eggs are in the machine (5). Incubator rooms and all hatchery equipment, as well as the incubators, should be fumigated or disinfected. No remedy or adequate method of controlling the disease in the brooder has been found. You can reduce mortality by keeping the poults comfortable and apply- ing hygienic measures. ASCITES (DROPSY, WATER BELLY) Ascites is a swelling of the abdomen often confused with omphalitis. It occurs in poults from 2 or 3 days to 3 weeks old. It is not of hatchery origin. Affected poults feel very firm and heavy. There is a great deal of fluid in the abdomen and often the intestines are inflamed. Losses may run from 10 to 30 per cent. Similar symptoms may occur in other diseases (specific infections) ; get a laboratory diagnosis. It is often caused by too much so- dium, in common salt or other sodium compounds (6, 7). Too much salt may Section 16— Page 6 come from improper mixes or poor screening, which allows lumps to get into the mix. A few outbreaks have been due to adding salt to mashes that already con- tain it because of salty protein concen- trates. Some starter mashes may need lowered salt content. It may be caused by placing poults in a brooder too soon after spraying the floor with coal tar or certain other disinfectants (8). After disinfecting, let brooders air until the fumes disappear. Often the cause isn't known. To prevent ascites, practice good management. ABSCESSES OF THE FOOTPADS (BUMBLEFOOT) Turkeys sometimes have abscesses of the footpads. These are like corns, or like a condition called "bumblefoot" in chick- ens. Severe cases look like foot rot in other animals. The cause is not known, but probably starts with an injury, which then becomes infected. Severe cases usually occur when turkeys are kept in constantly used yards, where droppings have not been cleaned up for a long time; the cases appear after the fall rains, when the yards get muddy. Bumblefoot may be confused with staphylococcosis, a bacterial infection that sometimes causes swollen feet. This disease is discussed in section 9. What you can do about it You can prevent this trouble by rotating runs and by removing the birds to a clean, well-drained yard just before the breeding season. This disease is one that may be brought about or made worse by letting droppings accumulate or having muddy yards. Rough stubble may also cause the original injury. If your birds get abscesses, put them in clean, dry quarters and treat the pad. Remove any pus that is present. Abscesses of the footpads (bumblefoot). Clean the area and treat it with tincture of iodine or an antiseptic healing oint- ment, such as ammoniated mercury or sulfa ointment. TUMORS Tumors of the ovary — and less often of other organs — are a common cause of mortality in breeding turkeys on a few ranches. They have been more numerous among 2- or 3-year-old turkey hens than among those kept for only one year. The cause is unknown. The problem is not serious as yet; but turkey growers are cautioned against using breeding stock in which a high percentage have tumors. No cure is known. Lymphomatosis is a tumor of a special type in which lymph cells invade normal tissue. It is being diagnosed more often in the state. Only visceral types seem to occur. The liver is the organ most often affected. There is no cure. Do not confuse these diseases with blackhead (see section 4), tuberculosis, or pseudotuberculosis (both discussed in section 10). Page 7— Section 16 DO YOU NEED FURTHER INFORMATION? You may find the following sections of this manual helpful : Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. Sec. 2. HOW TO HANDLE AN OUTBREAK. You can get general information about feeding and managing a turkey flock from the following circular, available free from your farm advisor or from Agricultural Publications, 22 Giannini Hall, Berkeley 4, California. TURKEY PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA, by V. S. Asmundson and F. H. Kratzer. California Agr. Ext. Cir. 110. 60 p. 1951. You can get detailed technical infor- mation on some of these troubles from the following references, mentioned in the text by number : 1. DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hin- shaw. p. 1015-1121. (See especially pages 1 100-06, 1 110-14.) In: DISEASES OF POUL- TRY, edited by H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State Col- lege Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. (This book contains further references on which some of the information in this manual was based.) 2. OBSERVATIONS ON PENDULOUS CROPS IN TURKEYS, by W. R. Hinshaw and V. S. Asmundson. Journal of the American Veter- inary Medical Association, vol. 88, p. 1 54-65. 1936. 3. ON THE INHERITANCE OF PENDULOUS CROP IN TURKEYS (MELEAGRIS GALLO- PAVO), by V. S. Asmundson and W. R. Hin- shaw. Poultry Science, vol. 17, p. 276-85. 1938. 4. INCUBATOR FUMIGATION, by H. A. Bitten- bender. New England Poultryman and North- eastern Breeder, vol. 31, p. 8-9. 1940. 5. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS IN INCUBATION, by W. M. Insko, Jr. p. 209-43. In: FERTILITY AND HATCHABILITY OF CHICKEN AND . TURKEY EGGS, edited by Lewis W. Taylor. 423 pages. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. 1949. 6. EXPERIMENTAL EDEMA AND ASCITES IN POULTS, by L. H. Scrivener. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical' Association, vol. 108, p. 27-32. 1946. 7. TOXICITY OF SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLU- TION FOR BABY CHICKS, by E. R. Doll, F. E. Hull, and W. M. Insko, Jr. Veterinary Medi- cine, vol. 41, p. 361-63. 1946. 8. UNCOMMON PATHOLOGICAL CONDI- TIONS IN CHICKENS AND TURKEYS, by K. L. Bullis and H. Van Roekel. Cornell Veter- inarian, vol. 34, p. 312-19. 1944. You can get diagnoses free from the following laboratories: Davis: University of California, Division of Poul- try Pathology, Veterinary Science Building. Fresno: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Labo- ratory, Route 5, Box 210-X. Petaluma: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, 627 F Street. Sacramento: Animal Pathology Laboratory, State Office Building No. 1. San Diego: San Diego County Livestock De- partment, 4005 Rosecrans Avenue. San Gabriel: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory, 714 South Santa Anita Street. Turlock: Poultry Pathological Laboratory, Dis- trict Fair Grounds. Section 16— Page 8 10n?-12,'51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 17 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service Poisoning and botulism,* . . . cause occasional losses in turkey flocks. . . may be due to CHEMICALS, SPOILED CANNED FOOD (BOTULISM), or POISONOUS WEEDS. Losses from poisoning in turkey flocks are not frequent, but you need to be on guard against them. In most cases of poisoning with chemi- cals or poisonous weeds, the symptoms and autopsy findings are much like those in nonspecific enteritis (see section 16 of this manual). In botulism, the principal symptom is paralysis. Diagnosis depends on finding poison or toxic material, either by chemical analysis of the crop or giz- zard contents or by feeding suspected material to test animals or by finding fragments of poisonous weeds in the crop or gizzard. You might suspect poisoning if your flock has a history of death or sickness in which no specific disease is found by a laboratory. If poisonous plants occur on range, they, too, point a finger. CHEMICAL POISONING The chemicals most often responsible for poisoning in turkeys are discussed here. Many others could be mentioned, but little is known about the amount turkeys can tolerate. Circumstantial evidence may point to poisoning when it is hard to prove that a given poison is to blame. To avoid losses from poisoning: Store chemicals, such as mercuric chloride, lead arsenate, and thallium, out of the reach of turkeys. Remove turkeys while poisonous sprays or dusts are being applied in orchards or fields. If you can, keep the birds away for several days or until after a rain. De- stroy old sacks and other containers that may still have some poisonous spray or dust in them. Use disinfectants and drugs cautiously. Even salt, soda, or cresol disinfectants may poison turkeys. Arsenic Grasshopper bait, made of sodium ar- senite and bran moistened with water, caused loss in one flock of 8- and 10- week-old poults (see reference 1) . The bait was spread unevenly, so that the poults could get clumps of the bait as well as the poisoned grasshoppers. Mor- tality was about 5 per cent. Dosages of 0.25 gram of arsenic trioxide caused death. Autopsy findings were grasshoppers in the crop, hemorrhagic inflammation of the duodenum and jejunum, with a sweet- ish odor of the gizzard and intestinal con- tents. When the intestinal contents were analyzed chemically, arsenic was found. There is not enough arsenic in grasshopper bait to kill turkeys if it is spread evenly and thinly (2) . Still it is better to take turkeys off baited range: eating poisoned grasshoppers might cause trouble. Copper sulfate Turkeys may be poisoned by adding cop- per sulfate to drinking water in concen- trations greater than 1:500 (see refer- ence 3) . Poisoning is not likely unless no Page 1— Section 17 other source of drinking water is avail- able. Turkeys do not like copper sulfate solution in any dilution and will avoid it if they can get untreated water. In cool weather, they may go without drinking for several days rather than drink water containing even nontoxic doses of this chemical. For these reasons, copper sul- fate is not recommended except for spe- cific diseases; and then in concentrations not over 1 :2,000. The poisoning is usually shown by a greenish-blue stain on the crop. Strong doses may make the mucous membranes in the digestive tract slough off. Drugs Overdoses of certain drugs or normal doses given for too long a period may be poisonous. Sulfathiazole has caused de- pressed lay and poor egg quality in breeder turkeys. Overdoses of sulfaquin- oxaline (double the recommended treat- ment) have caused enteritis and even death in 3- to 10-week-old poults. Soluble sulfa drugs given in water during hot spells may cause sickness, loss of appe- tite, or death, because the heat causes the turkeys to drink more water and they get an overdose of the drugs. Mercuric chloride Mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate) is well known to be poisonous; but still is often used carelessly as a disinfectant and remedy. It is sometimes even recom- mended for treating drinking water by persons not aware of its dangers. Given as drinking water, a dilution of 1:2,000 has been found to kill 8-week-old poults (reference 4). A 1:4,000 dilution killed 10 per cent of a group of 2-week-old poults. A dilution of 1 :8,000 (the dosage most often used by turkey growers) did not kill poults but damaged tissues in their digestive tracts. The chief autopsy findings in mer- curic chloride poisoning are thickening and degeneration of the gizzard lining, and sometimes also the lining of the crop. The mucous membrane of the proven- triculus often sloughed off. Salt Either enteritis or ascites may result if turkeys get too much common salt (so- dium chloride). One outbreak of enteritis in 4-month- old poults was found to be due to well water containing a high percentage of salt. The poults did not like the water and drank very little; so that losses were partly due to heat prostration as well as salt dehydration. Losses were stopped by giving a supply of fresh water. In another outbreak, losses from en- teritis were traced to boxes of salt placed on the range for sheep that were pastured with the turkeys. Ascites (water belly) is sometimes caused by rations containing too much salt, or salt not thoroughly screened or mixed with the mash. Soda Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) is not a safe drug to use for turkeys. A dose of 0.6 per cent in drinking water resulted in some deaths among 4- to 6-week-old poults. Poults 8 weeks old were not killed by doses up to 1.2 per cent. But when doses over 0.6 per cent were given, poults that did not die developed uremia and arthritis. Even doses below 0.6 per cent caused increased water consumption and diarrhea in turkey poults. Strychnine Growers sometimes ask whether there is danger that turkeys may be poisoned by strychnine-coated grain used for rodent control on cutover grainfields. Experi- ments conducted here indicate that there is little danger if other grain is available. Turkeys dislike grain coated with even very small amounts of strycjinine, and after the first taste will usually avoid the poison bait and hunt for more palatable food. Section 17— Page 2 BOTULISM (LIMBERNECK) Botulism is not an infection, but poison- ing caused by a toxin. The toxin is pro- duced by a bacterium, Clostridium botu- linum, as it grows in decomposing food, dead carcasses, wet grain, and canned vegetables that have not been sterilized properly. Turkeys pick up the toxin when they eat the contaminated products. The toxin is also poisonous to other animals, including man. The bacteria exist in many soils, and turkeys may get the toxin by drinking water from a stagnant pool. How affected birds behave The most common symptom is a paraly- sis, which gives the disease the name "lim- berneck." The birds sit around with their heads and necks on the ground or ex- tended over the back. Often they are in a stupor. Their heads may turn blue, their legs may be paralyzed, and their breath- ing may be difficult. In a few birds the third eyelid (nictitat- ing membrane) is drawn over the eye — usually considered a specific symptom of botulism. What to look for on autopsy Look for spoiled food or fly maggots in the crop; these would suggest that the turkey has been eating spoiled food. The lesions you find in botulism (ref- erence 6) may resemble those of fowl cholera: Pinpoint hemorrhages on the upper por- tion of the heart. Swelling of the mucous membrane in the duodenum, with injection (blood vessels abnormally full of blood and promi- nent). Cloaca distended with urates. Often no post-mortem changes can be noted. Definite diagnosis depends on demonstrating the toxin; but if you find spoiled feed, this may be significant. What you can do about it You should make every effort to prevent turkeys from getting foods that might contain the toxin. Never give turkeys spoiled canned vegetables. Keep your birds aways from stagnant water. It the disease appears, move all the birds to a new feeding ground. If neces- sary, fence them in to prevent them from getting to the source of trouble. Then trace the source of the toxin and remove it to prevent further trouble. Give the sick birds shade. You can drain the crop and flush it out with warm water; use either a rubber tube and fun- nel or a veterinary stomach pump. Give birds that have not gone into a stupor large doses of mineral oil or castor oil to help get rid of the toxin that has passed beyond the crop. Valuable birds may be saved by poly- valent (mixed) botulinum antitoxin. See your veterinarian or diagnostic labora- tory about it and ask their help. When handling turkeys suffering from botulism, remember that botulinum toxin also affects man. Wash your hands carefully after attending the birds. Typical posture in botulism. Page 3— Section 17 POISONOUS WEEDS Turkeys are often ranged among poison- ous weeds. This suggests the reason for some losses turkey growers experience on pasture lands. If heavy losses occur in your young turkeys on pasture, look for poisonous weeds as a possible cause. Send suspected plants, as well as sick turkeys, to your diagnostic laboratory. As a rule, animals and birds will not eat poisonous plants if other feed is avail- able. Most cases of poisoning result from turkeys' eating shoots that come up be- fore nonpoisonous plants appear. Under certain conditions the seeds of poisonous plants may cause losses if ac- cidentally mixed with grains. Losses in turkeys have been caused by seeds of certain lupines, the second suc- culent growth of Sudan grass, oleander, and milkweed. To control such poisoning, remove the cause. If the birds are ranging in sus- pected areas, keep them off the areas for a few days and give them freshly cut greens. When they are turned out on the range again, supply fresh greens until nonpoisonous plants are abundant. Oleander Oleander leaves are poisonous, but under normal feeding conditions turkeys will not even eat the young shoots. At this Ex- periment Station, they refused oleander shoots when cut up and mixed with grain as the only source of greens. However, forced feeding of leaves to 4-week-old poults killed 5 out of 6. Finding oleander leaves in crop and gizzard is evidence of poisoning. Milkweed Milkweed, both whorled and the common species found in California, has caused poisoning in young turkeys; but the plants are not readily eaten if other feed is available. An amount of milkweed tis- sue equal to 1 per cent of the turkey's weight is enough to cause death. (See •reference 7.) Symptoms are unsteady gait and mus- cular spasms. Turkeys cannot coordinate their muscles and are nervous. Finding fragments of the plants in the crop and gizzard is evidence of poisoning. FURTHER INFORMATION You can obtain detailed technical infor- mation on certain types of poisoning from the following references, mentioned in the text by number : 1. GRASSHOPPER-POISON BAIT AND TURKEY- POULT MORTALITY, by P. D. De Lay. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Associa- tion, vol. 97, p. 149-50. 1940. 2. THE EFFECT OF ARSENIC, AS USED IN POISONING GRASSHOPPERS, UPON BIRDS, by F. E. Whitehead. Oklahoma Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 218, p. 1-54. 1934. 3. STUDIES ON THE USE OF COPPER SULPHATE FOR TURKEYS, by W. R. Hinshaw and W. E. Lloyd. Poultry Science, vol. 10, p. 392-93. 1931. 4. EFFECT OF MERCURIC CHLORIDE ON TUR- KEYS AND ON HEXAMITA MELEAGRIDIS, by E. McNeil and W. R. Hinshaw. Poultry Science, vol. 24, p. 516-21. 1945. 5. A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE IN- JURIOUS EFFECT OF SODIUM BICAR- BONATE IN CHICKS, by J. F. Witter. Poultry Science, vol. 15, p. 256-59. 1936. 6. ATYPICAL BOTULISM IN TURKEYS, by D. R. Coburn and E. R. Quortrup. Journal of the Americun Veterinary Medical Association, vol. 93, p. 385-97. 1938. 7. POISONING OF TURKEY POULTS FROM WHORLED MILKWEED (ASCLEPIAS GALI- OIDES), by G. W. Stiles. Poultry Science, vol. 21, p. 263-70. 1942. 8. DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hin- shaw. p. 1015-1121. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State Col- lege Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. Section 17— Page 4 7£m-12,'51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshctw and A. S. Rosenwaid MANUAL 3 Section 18 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service injuries*,. . . . come largely from feather picking and vent picking by poults, fight- ing among toms, and injuries to hens during mating. . . . can largely be prevented by an alert and careful grower. BLUEBACK AND CANNIBALISM Turkeys' backs are sometimes discolored blue or black by an injury to the quills where these leave the skin. This allows the pigment to escape and tattoo the skin around the quills (see the illustration at the right below). Such injuries come from feather pick- ing. Poults start to pick feathers if they are overcrowded in the brooder, are kept too long on the sun porch, or do not get enough fiber in the ration. After picking becomes a habit, the vice is hard to con- trol, and you may have a heavy loss from lowering of the market grade of the car- casses. "Pickout" is another form of canni- balism, which may also be started by feather-picking. How to treat injured birds Several ointments are on the market for use on injured birds, principally to pre- vent further picking. These usually con- sist of a Vaseline base, some bitter drug like aloes, and a red coloring like car- mine. How to prevent cannibalism To prevent such vices from getting started, avoid overcrowding. Move poults to the range as soon as they begin to pick. Feeding whole oats, coarse mash, greens, or baled alfalfa hay is also recommended. Mechanical devices are often used to prevent picking. Two types are used. The first type is inserted in the beak, and is patterned after the ring used by hog raisers to prevent rooting. One such device, called a "bit," is inserted in one side of the lower beak. Another style is pinned in the upper beak. Manufacturers of these devices claim that turkeys so fit- ted cannot pick feathers. The second type consists of a metal or rubber guard pinned to the oil-gland area so that the guard falls down over the vent and thereby protects the bird against can- nibalism. Trimming the tip of the upper beak will prevent cannibalism. Electri- cally heated cauterizing instruments have Blueback carcass. Page 1— Section 18 *F: Right, an electric debeaker; left, a debeaked turkey. been developed for removing a portion of the upper beak. Properly used, these instruments can be recommended for preventing cannibalism. The illustration above shows one type of electrically heated debeaking knife and a turkey that has been debeaked. Feeding must be done in troughs. MATING In many breeding flocks, severe losses are caused by touts' tearing the hens during mating. Badly torn hens seldom recover enough to produce fertile eggs the rest of the season. If the wound does heal, the area is tender and easily torn when the hen is trodden again. INJURIES How to prevent such injuries A canvas "saddle" fitted over the back is the best way to prevent breeding hens from being torn. The cost is reasonable. Buy saddles that fit correctly, in order to prevent strangulation or injury to the Turkey hen injured during mating. Section 18— Page 2 body or wings. A saddle is shown at right and below. Some toms are much rougher in mat- ing than others. Many of the losses can be traced to one or two toms in a flock. Replace such toms by reserves as soon as you discover them. How to treat the wound If you discover a recently injured hen, sew the torn edges of skin with a heavy thread dipped in iodine. Then put her in a pen where there are no males and leave her for about 2 weeks. Sprinkle the wound with an antiseptic dusting powder such as boric acid, sodium per- borate, or a dusting powder containing a sulfa drug and a fly repellent to induce healing and reduce attacks by flies. As soon as the wound begins to heal nor- mally, fit the hen with a canvas saddle and send her back to the breeding pen. Watch her carefully, however. If she is again injured by the toms, return her to the isolation pen. Saddle used to prevent injuries to hens during mating. Wounds that are not discovered for several days respond poorly to treat- ment. Clean them carefully, wash them with a mild antiseptic solution, and dust them with an antiseptic dusting powder. You may have to make an incision in the skin below the wound for drainage, and trim necrotic edges of the skin around the wound. Keep the hen out of the breeding pen for 2 or 3 weeks and treat her daily. Saddle her before you return her to the breeding pen. If you keep extra toms, it may be better to transfer a torn to a pen of in- jured hens. Or you can resort to artificial insemi- nation. Special toms need not be used. Care and practice are needed to "milk" toms and inseminate hens successfully. But it is practical. Your farm advisor may be able to demonstrate the technique. The time needed for complete recov- ery depends on how badly a hen is in- jured and how efficient your treatment is. Whether or not treatment is worth while depends on how valuable the hen is and on how much time you have. Turkey hen with saddle in place. Page 3— Section 18 MISCELLANEOUS INJURIES Injuries from fighting are more apt to occur among toms than hens. Separate a valuable bird from its penmates if it is getting the worst of the bargain. Protect a torn you have just bought or one that has been away from the flock for any length of time when you put him in a pen with other toms; the other toms always fight him. Minor injuries seldom need treatment; they will heal readily if the bird is not picked by its penmates. Severe injuries about the head usually heal if serious infection does not set in. Antiseptic dusting powder is an aid in preventing infection. If flies are trouble- some, cover the wounded areas with car- bolized Vaseline, or any carbolized pe- troleum jelly. If turkeys are injured by being caught in fences, by flying into objects during stampedes, by rough handling, or in other ways, you can treat the wounds in much the same way as mating wounds (page 3). Grasshoppers mechanically injure the wall of the crop and intestines and may even cause death of the turkey (see reference 1 ) . In some cases the grass- hopper's legs puncture the walls of these organs. You can prevent losses by feeding plenty of mash to turkeys on ranges where grasshoppers are abundant. Poults brooded under stoves heated with oil briquets or kerosene some- times get burns on their heads from resi- due or oil (2, 3). Such injuries range from mild burns to dry gangrene. You can prevent briquet-residue burns by making sure that the stovepipe joints are tight. If you use kerosene or similar fuel, make sure there is no leakage. Dislocation of a vertebra or fracture of a vertebral process may result if a bird gets entangled in a wire fence, as when it tries to reach feed. You will find the bird with its head hanging downward and forward and unable to change this position. Its neck mucles are much swol- len and are hot. You will often find a tuft of feathers pulled from the side of the neck and evi- dence of a bruise. If you find such an injury, it should be corrected. A valuable bird should be taken to a veterinarian. Massage and ten- sion relieve a dislocation and the bird usually recovers completely in about 2 weeks. In some cases recovery may take 3 to 6 weeks; but there are no bad after effects. Until the bird has recovered, iso- late it and put it near water and feed con- tainers. Try to find the cause and prevent other turkeys from being injured. Broken bones may be treated similarly if the value of the bird warrants. REFERENCES 1. GRASSHOPPERS, A POTENTIAL DANGER TO TURKEYS, by A. B. Wickware. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine, vol. 9, p. 80-81. 1945. 2. BROODER-STOVE RESIDUE BURNS ON TURKEY POULTS, by E. M. Dickinson and W. G. Clark. Cornell Veterinarian, vol. 36, p. 314-17. 1946. 3. UNCOMMON PATHOLOGICAL CONDI- TIONS IN CHICKENS AND TURKEYS, by K. L. Bullis and H. Van Roekel. Cornell Veter- inarian, vol. 34, p. 312-19. 1944. For a list of disinfectants and antisep- tics, see section 1 of this manual. In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products or equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. In so doing it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned. Section 18— Page 4 10m-12,'51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwald MANUAL 3 Section 19 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service Worms... . . . discussed here are TAPEWORMS, ROUNDWORM, CECUM WORM, CAPILLARIA WORMS, GAPEWORM, and FLUKES. . . . can usually be kept down by sanitary measures. With turkeys, worm remedies often do more harm than good. Worms are not likely to cause you much loss if you use the sanitary measures needed to prevent turkey diseases. Most worm remedies are at least some- what toxic for turkeys. Do not use them as a routine treatment. TAPEWORMS Tapeworms are flattened and ribbonlike. They range in size, when full grown, from ones you can hardly see with the naked eye to 10 inches long. Ordinarily you will not see the fully developed worm outside of the intestine. Most tapeworms that infect chickens also infect turkeys. The species most often found in California turkeys is the com- mon poultry tapeworm, Choanotaenia in- fundibulum, about 10 inches long. Tapeworms may cause you consider- able financial loss without your being aware that your flock is infected. There are often no special symptoms with tur- keys, and the infected birds may not be- come very sick. But if your birds are unthrifty and fail to make good gains, you may well check for tapeworms. How turkeys become infected Tapeworm eggs will not develop into worms if eaten by a turkey. The first stages in their development must take place in another host — the intermediate host. This host may be the housefly, stablefly, beetles, ants, earthworms, slugs, or land snails, according to the tapeworm species. These hosts eat the tapeworm eggs along with their food. Then the eggs hatch and in about 3 weeks develop into small cysts (cysticercoids) . This is the stage of the parasite that is infective to turkeys. The cysts may remain infective for weeks or months in the body of the intermediate host; but they do not develop further there. A turkey becomes infected when it eats the intermediate host or takes it in with food or water. When the turkey's diges- tive juices consume the other host, the cyst is freed. Soon the head of the worm pushes out of the cyst, attaches itself to the wall of the turkey's intestine, and begins to grow and form segments. When the worm is mature, segments — pearly white bits of worm fragments that contain the worm eggs — break off and are passed out in the bird's droppings. • TO CONTROL TAPEWORMS GET RID OF . . . 1 ) ^M FLIES GRASSHOPPERS O^P) A j] BEETLES /?»>%} ^fcffP 1 EARTHWORMS JJ \ ANTS ^r-f-T^iXT^TXiw^ THfY EAT "TAPES" IN DROPPINGS AND THEN INFECT TURKEYS Page 1— Section 19 Prevention and control Build your whole prevention program around a scheme for getting rid of the tapeworm's intermediate hosts. (Turkeys can get tapeworms only by eating these hosts.) Here are some things you can do : Remove manure and litter from brooder houses often. Store it in fly-proof bins or scatter it where flies will not breed. Keep turkeys out of barnyards and corrals, which are common feeding grounds for flies and certain beetles., Keep down fly populations in turkey feed- ing areas. Do not use liquid milk or other liquid or semiliquid milk products if you are in an area heavily contaminated with tape- worms. If your flock is infected, use these same measures. If you are now feeding liquid or semisolid feeds, shift gradually to dry mashes, and at the same time, change the feeding area. No very effective treatment has been developed for removing tapeworms from turkeys. Do not use kamala. It is often recommended for this purpose but is toxic to turkeys and is not so effective as was once thought. ROUNDWORM The only large roundworm that has been found in domestic turkeys is the common poultry roundworm, Ascaridia galli. It is yellowish white, 2 to 4% inches long and Y ?> 2 inch in diameter. It attacks the small intestine. This roundworm is not of economic im- portance for the turkey industry in Cali- fornia. We have found only a few cases ; and even in these, roundworms have usu- ally not been the primary cause of any diseased condition of the flock: only a few were noted at autopsy. But sometimes severe infestations cause losses. The guineafowl roundworm, As- caridia dissimilis, has been found in the wild turkey and hence is a possible cause of disease in domestic ones. It is much smaller than the common one. The measures you use to prevent blackhead and other diseases will auto- matically ward off roundworms (see sec- tion 1). Avoid for at least a year after an out- break any ranges known to be contami- nated with roundworm eggs. Treatment is seldom necessary. Find- ing a few worms in a few birds does not mean that you need to treat the flock. Adult turkeys in good flesh can tolerate a number of roundworms without visible harm. Routine treatment of your flock is a waste of money. If roundworms are diagnosed as the cause of losses in your young turkeys, use 2 to 4 per cent of a good grade of tobacco dust (1.5 to 2.0 per cent nicotine) in the mash for 3 or 4 weeks. CECUM WORM The cecum worm that occurs in turkeys is Heterakis gallinae. This is a slender white parasite, about % inch long, found in the ceca of turkeys, chickens, and other fowl. It is widely distributed in chicken- growing areas. Cecum worms do not cause noticeable symptoms but are important because they carry the parasites of blackhead. Prevention and control are de- scribed under "Blackhead" (section 4 of this manual) . Because of the sheltered position of these worms within the ceca, treatment with remedies is not very help- ful. If you rear your turkeys by the meth- ods recommended to prevent blackhead, you should have little trouble with cecum worms. Section 19— Page 2 CAPILLARIA WORMS (HAIR WORMS) Capillaria worms are hairlike parasites, % to 2 inches long when mature. Two species — Capillaria annulata and C. con- torta — attack the crop and esophagus. Two others — C. columbae and C. longi- collis — attack the intestines. All four in- fect other poultry and wild birds. Heavy infections of crop hair worms have occasionally been reported, and some mortality has resulted from them. No heavy infections of the intestinal spe- cies have been reported in turkeys. Capillaria annulata and C. longicollis, like poultry tapeworms (see page 1), need an intermediate host: turkeys be- come infected by eating infected earth- worms. The other two species do not need another host: turkeys can become in- fected by picking up worm eggs from the droppings of infected turkeys or other fowl. Turkeys with crop hair worms are droopy, weak, and very thin. They often stand with a penguin-like posture and do not move unless disturbed. On autopsy you will find the crop walls thickened. Often the walls of the crop and gullet are more or less inflamed, and glands in this area are enlarged. Birds are often anemic. Turkeys with intestinal hair worms huddle by themselves, have diar- rhea, and are thin. The feathers around the vent often look ruffled and soiled, and the skin and mucous membranes look pale. On autopsy you may find the intes- tinal wall somewhat thickened. What you can do about hair worms The measures you use for tapeworms (page 2) will also work for capillaria worms. You can use carbon tetrachloride as a treatment for turkeys infected with intestinal hair worms. Give 1 cubic centi- meter per bird by mouth and repeat in about a week. Use gelatin capsules. GAPEWORM The gapeworm, Syngamus trachea, is sel- dom found in domestic birds. It is a red worm that infects the windpipe of tur- keys, chickens, pheasants, and other poul- try. The female may be an inch long, the male seldom more than % inch. You will usually find the female clinging to the lining of the windpipe with the male at- tached to her in the form of the letter Y. This worm does little damage to older turkeys but occasionally causes the birds to gasp for breath. Heavy infections may kill young turkeys. Few cases are seen in commercial turkey flocks. How turkeys get gapeworm The gapeworm eggs pass up the windpipe with the mucus, are swallowed, and pass from the turkey's body with the drop- pings. After a week to a month (depend- ing on the temperature), an embryo de- velops; and a little later the eggs hatch into larvae that live free in the soil. A healthy turkey may become infected by picking up either the egg (after the em- bryo has formed) or the larvae from the soil. Or the eggs or larvae may be eaten by earthworms, snails, slugs, or flies and other insects. The larvae form cysts in these hosts. The cysts remain infective to poultry for months or years. A turkey may become infected by eating an earth- worm or other host that contains either the cysts or the gapeworm larvae. When picked up by a turkey, the young gapeworm goes through the walls of the digestive tract, then to the lungs, and works its way up to the windpipe, where it attaches itself and sucks blood. Page 3— Section 19 Preventing and treating gapeworm To prevent gapeworm infection, rear your turkeys on sandy, well-drained soil, where there are not many earthworms and there is a good chance that the gape- worm larvae will dry out and die. For treatment, dust barium anti- monyl tartrate into a tight room, using 1 ounce per 8 cubic feet. Put infected birds in this room for 15 or 20 minutes. Keep out of the room or wear a mask. Do not try to remove gapeworms mechanically; you may injure the birds. FLUKES Several species of flukes infect turkeys; but infections rarely occur in California, and only when the birds have access to marshes or other moist places. Colly riclum faba encysts in the skin, usually around the vent or on the abdo- men. This fluke infects many other birds and is often spread by English sparrows. Snails probably act as the first interme- diate host; then part of the life cycle must be spent in a second intermediate host, probably nymphs of dragonflies. Echinoparyphium recurvatum has been reported to cause an outbreak of cecal inflammation in poults. On autopsy, cecal changes were like those in black- head, but there were no changes in the liver. These poults were being ranged along a creek where there were two kinds of snails and many tadpoles. Fluke species that have been reported on turkeys in other states or countries are Plagiorchis lariocola, Brachylaemus com- mutation, and Dithyridium variabile. Prosthogoniumus machrorchis is the commonest fluke for poultry in general, and experiments have shown that turkeys can be infected; but no natural Outbreaks in turkeys have been found. Flukes on the abdomen of a turkey. How to prevent fluke infection You can prevent fluke infections by keep- ing turkeys away from marshy pastures, marshes, lake shores, or contaminated streams. No satisfactory treatment for flukes in turkeys has been reported. You will find further preventive measures in the following sections of this manual: Sec. 1. PREVENTING TURKEY DISEASES. Sec. 4. BLACKHEAD. Technical information about worms can be found in the following references: 1. NEMATODES AND ACANTHOCEPHALIDS FURTHER INFORMATION OF POULTRY, by Everett E. Wehr. p. 759- 807. In: DISEASES OF POULTRY, edited by H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte. 2nd ed. 1154 p. Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa. 1948. 2. DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, by W. R. Hin- shaw. p. 1015-1121. (See especially p. 1117-20.) In: DISEASES OF POULTRY (see reference 1). (Lists further references.) Section 19— Page 4 7|m-12,51(5950)MR TURKEY DISEASES W. R. Hinshaw and A. S. Rosenwctid MANUAL 3 Section 20 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service lice, mites, nut ticks* . . . . . may weaken turkeys that are badly infested with them; and ticks may carry spirochaetosis. . . . can be prevented by some of the measures that are important in pre- venting infectious diseases. Lice, mites, and ticks are seldom seri- reared in close confinement or insanitary ous problems in turkeys reared on range. quarters, allowed to run with chickens, or But breeding flocks may be badly in- kept in chicken houses that have not been fested. So may other turkeys if they are thoroughly cleaned and sprayed. HOW TO KEEP YOUR FLOCK FREE OF THESE PESTS Turkeys most often get lice, mites, and ticks through contact with chickens, with infested turkeys brought onto the ranch, or with old poultry houses. Used ship- ping crates or equipment that has been on other ranches may bring in mites or ticks. The measures you can use to keep your flock free of all these pests are ones that are even more important in prevent- ing infectious diseases. They are: Buy only eggs or day-old poults. Bring no adult or part-grown stock onto the ranch. Do not even bring your own birds home after an exhibit; market them when the show is over. Do not let your turkeys run with chickens. Clean and disinfect used shipping crates and any used pieces of equipment you bring onto the ranch before you let them get near your turkey yards. See section 1 for disinfectants to use. Thoroughly clean and spray any houses used for chickens before you put turkeys in them. Follow the directions for clean- ing brooder houses given in section 1. Then spray with Diesel or anthracene oil or a lindane or BHC (benzene hexa- chloride) house spray. (See page 4 for dilutions.) Use a high-pressure sprayer and spray cracks thoroughly. CAUTION: Oil is a fire hazard. Protect feed from lindane or BHC spray, and do not put poults under 21 days old on litter sprayed with lindane or BHC. BHC spray used in a building where tur- keys are housed may affect the flavor of the meat for weeks afterward. You can easily tell lice from other body parasites : they are the only ones that have three pairs of legs and bodies divided into three parts. They are flattened from top to bottom, % 6 inch long or less, and yel- low or grayish. They sometimes have dark stripes but are never dark all over. At least four species of lice have been reported on turkeys in the United States. These are listed at the right. LICE The common body louse of chickens, Eo- menacanthus stramineus; usually found on turkeys that are run with chickens. The shaft louse of chickens, Menopon gal- linae, found only rarely on turkeys. The large turkey louse, Goniodes melea- gridis; probably native to the turkey. The slender turkey louse, Lipeurus galli- pavonis; also probably native to the turkey. Page 1— Section 20 With all species, the life cycle takes about 3 weeks — a week for the egg to hatch, 2 weeks for the newly hatched louse to mature. The entire life of the louse, from the egg stage on, is spent on the bird. Lice do not leave their host except by accident or to migrate to another bird. Hence you need to use control measures that reach the lice on the turkey. How to control lice Dusting turkeys individually is still the best way to control lice, though it takes a lot of time. Put 5 or 6 pinches of dust on each bird. You can do the job in one treatment if you use lindane dust (% per cent) or BHC dust (containing % per cent of the gamma isomer). These dusts kill all stages of lice (including the egg) and kill mites and ticks as well. Other dusts are cheaper but do not kill lice eggs. If you use them, repeat the treatment 8 to 14 days later. For lice alone, sodium fluoride (95 to 98 per cent) is the cheapest but may be too irritating to your nose. DDT dust (5 per cent) or chlordane dust (5 per cent) is less irri- tating and will also kill mites. Protect feed from all these dusts. Do not use them on poults less than 21 days old or put young poults on litter that con- tains them. Or you can try roost paints if the birds are roosting and the weather is warm. Use either Black Leaf 40 roost paint (if ventilation is good; see page 4) or lindane roost paint containing 1.2 per cent of the gamma isomer. (Lindane is purified gamma isomer of benzene hexa- chloride.) This method works well with chickens: while the birds roost, fumes from the paint spread through their feath- ers and kill the lice. With turkeys roosting outdoors, the fumes may be blown away or at least spread too much to do a good job. But since this method takes much less time than dusting, it may be worth a trial, especially if your turkeys roost in a sheltered place. Litter may be treated with sulfur if the birds are housed (see table, page 4). MITES Because turkeys are reared differently from chickens, mites usually are not much of a problem in California turkey flocks. But infestations sometimes occur in tur- keys that are run with chickens or are put in houses previously used for chickens. Heavy infestations can cause consider- able unthriftiness in a flock. Mites are so small that it is easy to over- look them, especially species that hide in the building during most of the day or ones that are concealed under the bird's leg scales. Four species found on domes- tic turkeys are: The common red mite, or poultry mite, Der- manyssus gallinae. This species is a little Section 20— Page 2 less than 1 /32 inch long. It is red if it has recently been feeding; otherwise it is gray. It breeds in the nests and houses and returns to the turkeys to feed. The tropical fowl mite, Bdellonyssus bursa. This species resembles the common red mite but may breed on the host as well as in nests and buildings. The northern feather mite, Liponyssus syl- viarum. This species is closely related to the tropical fowl mite and has similar habits. The scaly-leg mite, Cnemidocoptes mutans. This species is almost spherical, about 1 /50 inch in diameter. It burrows be- neath the scales and raises the outer edges. The shank becomes swollen and irritated, sometimes so badly that the bird cannot walk. This mite spends its entire life cycle on the bird. It is seldom seen on turkeys other than old birds. How to control mites For most mites — all except the scaly- leg mite — dust individual birds with lin- dane dust (% per cent) or BHC dust (containing % per cent of the gamma iso- mer) or methoxychlor (10 per cent) or DDT dust (5 per cent). Also spray the house, yard, and structures used by the birds with Diesel or anthracene oil or lindane or BHC house spray. (See the table on page 4 for dilutions.) Note the caution on page 1. House sprays are most effective for the common red mite, dusts for the tropical fowl mite and the feather mite. For the scaly-leg mite, dip the legs in a mixture of equal parts of crude oil and raw linseed oil. Be careful to keep the oil from getting on the feathered parts. Or you can try dipping the bird's legs in a lindane emulsion (0.03 per cent lin- dane) or in a suspension of 12 per cent lindane powder, using 3 ounces to 10 gal- lons of water. These new treatments are safe, provided no part of the bird's body is dipped except the unfeathered portion of the leg; and they seem promising. TICKS The fowl tick, or blue bug, Argas persi- cus, is the only tick of any importance found on turkeys. It is a blood-sucking parasite. In very heavy infestations it may attack turkeys in sufficient numbers to cause weakness from loss of blood. But it is dangerous even in light infestations because it may transmit spirochaetosis. The blue bug is flat, egg-shaped, brown- ish or grayish black, and % to % inch long. It breeds in the house walls or under the loose bark of trees and attacks the tur- keys to feed. It can live for long periods without food; hence you need to control it in its breeding places. How to control ticks If your turkeys have ticks, spray the buildings, fence posts, and if possible the bark of near-by trees with Diesel oil or anthracene oil. Or you can use lindane or BHC house spray. (See the table on page 4 for dilutions.) Whichever spray you choose, use a high-pressure sprayer and spray cracks and crevices thoroughly. See the caution on page 1. You could use BHC spray safely outdoors at any time; The fowl tick, enlarged. but if you use it in a building in which turkeys are housed, it may affect the flavor of the meat. It you find large numbers of ticks on some turkeys, segregate these birds in a wire-bottomed coop placed over a con- tainer of oil, so that when the ticks have fed and drop off, they will be killed. When the ticks have all dropped off, return the birds to the flock. (This will not take the place of spraying the house.) In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products or equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. In so doing it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned. 7im-12,51(5950)MR Page 3— Section 20 T5 O TJ TS TS "a -O O 0) .- TJ u O . O O O . C c O o 1 O O O 1 1 O O D O O O O CO O O O LU Z LU Z O , c 0) 3 5 1 C o 1 .9? O O T5 O O T5 O O 1 '5 1c TJ O O O) o o CO Z LU CO O O O LL. c75 O CO c CQ co 3 c Q. X LU o >. > '5> P o - U3 .2? CD c o a; c O '5 '5 TJ O O O) O '5 "5 1 1 £ 1 £ CO Z Z lu u_ CO t u_ Ll_ co '5 LU 4_ o a iz a UL o U> -E c Q. „, >- « O 0) TJ O Ul Q) #5 ° u 3 £ C — TJ O O o o c o c c ■1- '5 a O O 1 C O 1 o X i. o .- o | "" «/) ■«» * i- < Ul c CL o 3 - ^* o -* 3: 1 CD c O TJ O O CD C O 1 TJ O O 1 1 1 S 1 *~ lo Z O Z O c75 175 '5 LU z ~ '5 LSJ O ^^ ,-~. X o C a 1- 1— a 111 1_ TJ o c a LO U. 1= ^ 42 w o -J £ o 1 « i z < tz •^9 0^ to CN o 00 i_ jjjj c a) > i- "5 D to a O c "o to Q. U o -x. O E u U> _Q ,2 Ul O 3 -a CD CL 4= Q. a TJ Q Q CT 5 -° ui in CX 00 u c 'a 1 •o 15 a to -C u CO to o.l < - Q. _0> a> c u X o CD JZ (J c 'a -o 1 O O O 1. Q. c .2 c to IZ fc CN ;_; TJ a to O TJ O L. a to -Q CO a • i/> c p Id S5 -Q b D 'o > to 3 00 00 3 O -C .a CM _c c 'a ■0 E 'a 1 a to CN E o CJ TJ o CO 0) CN Jo 00 D 1 CO to 5 to u 'to to 3 =9 E ° 5 O "D O "5 CD c C O LO CD E c '0 Q. O O O CN a CO ._ £ s- 1 CO 0" iO d to 3 E E D a> CO 6 3 TJ O _o to D O -C 1- _o C 'a. 1 CO 0" CO ^f >5 **- to ° v c >. O "to a "» a to c O -•- 10 3 T5 CO a? D 0) ^: u E _3 -5 CD U D CN CO 3 C D T5 "> 1 ° TJ TS C D TJ TJ U X X to T5 1— 3 00 fc c D -D _o a CQ D CO CO c < "5 CO C Lj c i—l X CD Q U 2 E 5 P c <" ^ •- D)3 P O O Q iz *" D fc c P > Z ° 5 o >-° ^ D J) ~ D o <^- > c D cJ3 C _0 _Q D 15 -a o c *" D - a o D ,_ ^: D. %U why Q i Q. co C U D .2 3 1 E -52 O - *- 3 >• E - 1 ■£ © ,!2 ffl D ; _0 (_ -J ;^ . a O TJ Q- : ^^ i c Q- c 1 .— w O 1 c "t: ■^ P o to to O C O O cm -^z ^ _D T5 T5 8^ P. o> £ _Q 3 C £ b r C D U O 3 O Q. Z > (1) E Q 00 D n 4— 3 _c 3 O Q. c oo c 3 O n ^-^ >» D) O > O 3 CO *z j_ +- M_ a O . Q- 42 If) CN X co t: O — 11 •"" O 3 TJ > 5 CO CO O > 2 -t CO D) D a D) c 3 O CN O 0" CO O Q. CO 1- 00 _C C D ^ ^ ^ CO CO "- TJ CJ n 3 U 3 E CO 3 CO 3 O O p-5 n> f 1 . _0 > C O U O a> r E O 00 ^■'co ^ a c O q= r- c U 0) i_ CN u c > 3 O L. u_ - J u - .•t: 3 ■X tfc INDEX [Italic figures refer to section numbers] abscesses of the footpads, 16, p. 7 Achorion gallinae, 14, p. 3 activated sterols, to prevent rickets, 15, p. 4 adult stock, danger to poults, 1, p. 7, 11 air-borne diseases, 1, p. 4, 9; 11, p. 2; 12, p. 2, 3 air-sac infection, 11 amino-nitrothiazole, for blackhead, 4, p. 4 ammonium compound, quaternary, for disin- fecting, 1, p. 13 (box) , p. 14 (box) anatomy diagrams, 1 (tear-out cards) Animal Pathology Laboratory, 1, p. 16 animals as carriers of turkey diseases, 1, p. 6 anthracene oil house spray, 20, p. 1, 3, 4 antibiotics, see penicillin; streptomycin antiseptic dusting powder, 18, p. 3 Argas persicus, 20, p. 3 arsenic poisoning, 17, p. 1 arthritis, staphylococcal, 9 Ascaridia dissimilis, A. galli, 19, p. 2 ascites, 1, p. 5; 7, p. 2; 76, p. 6; 17, p. 2 aspergillosis, 24, p. 1-3 Aspergillus fumigatus, 14, p. 1 autopsy diagrams, 1 (tear-out cards) avitaminosis: A, 15, p. 2-3; D, 15, p. 4 bacterial diseases, 7; 8; 9; 10; infective dose and build-up in, 1, p. 9 bacterins, 8, p. 2; ii, p. 4 baggy crop, 16, p. 1-2 baking soda poisoning, 17, p. 2 barium antimonyl tartrate, i9, p. 4 Bdellonyssus bursa, 20, p. 2 bedbugs, control, 20, p. 4 BHC (benzene hexachloride) , 20, p. 1, 2, 3, 4 biotin, deficiency and sources, 15, p. 6, 7, 8 birds, as disease carriers, 1, p. 6; 3, p. 5 "bit" to prevent cannibalism, 78, p. 1 black flies, and Leucocytozoon infection, 1, p. 7; 6, p. 1 Black Leaf 40, for lice, 20, p. 2, 4 blackhead, 4 blood samples, 7, p. 4, 6, 8 blood-testing, 7, p. 4, 6, 8; how to handle a flock for, 1, p. 15 blue bug (fowl tick) , 20, p. 1, 3, 4 blueback, 18, p. 1-2 bluestone, see copper sulfate solution boric acid, 18, p. 3 Borrelia anserina, 8, p. 4 botulism, 17, p. 3 Brachylaemus commutatum, 19, p. 4 brooder houses: cleaning and disinfecting, 1, p. 13, 14; construction and remodeling, 1, p. 9; spraying for pest control, 20, p. 1, 4; ventila- tion, 1, p. 4 brooder pneumonia, 14, p. 1-2 brooder temperatures, 1, p. 4 brooding poults as one age group, 2, p. 11 build-up of disease, 1, p. 9-14; 3, p. 3, 6; 4, p. 2-3 bumblefoot, 16, p. 7 burns from oil or stove residue, 18, p. 4 calcium and phosphorus balance, 15, p. 4, 7, 8 California State Department of Agriculture, 1, p. 16; 7, p. 4 California Poultry Improvement Advisory Board, 7, p. 4 canned food, spoiled, 17, p. 3 cannibalism, 7, p. 15; 18, p. 1-2 Capillaria, 19, p. 3 capillaria worms, 19, p. 3 carbon tetrachloride, for hair worms, 19, p. 3 carcasses, disposal of, 1, p. 8 (illus.) ,13; 2, p. 2 carotene, sources, 15, p. 2, 3 carrier turkeys, 1, p. 6 carriers of turkey diseases, natural and mechani- cal, 1, p. 6; see a/so specific diseases catarrhal enteritis, nonspecific, 16, p. 4-5 cattle, as disease carriers, 1, p. 7, 8 cauterizer, electric, for beaks, 18, p. 1 cecum worms, 4, p. 2; 79, p. 2 check list of preventive practices, 1, p. 1-2 chemical poisoning, 17, p. 1-2 chickens, as disease carriers, 1, p. 6-7 ; 12, p. 1, 2 chilling, dangers of, 7, p. 4 chlordane, for lice control, 20, p. 4 chlorohydroxyquinoline, for blackhead, 4, p. 4 Choantaenia infundibulum, 19, p. 1 cholera, fowl, 8, p. 1-2 choline needs of turkeys, 15, p. 7, 8 cleaning brooder houses and equipment, 1, p. 13-14; 2, p. 2 Clostridium infections, 10, p. 2; 77, p. 3 Cnemidocoptes mutans, 20, p. 2 coal-tar disinfectants, 16, p. 6 coccidiosis, 3, p. 1-4 Cochlosoma, 6, p. 2 Collyriclum faba, 79, p. 4 colon-aerogenes infections, 70, p. 4 containers, see feeders; waterers control measures, 2 ; see also specific diseases Cooperative Eradication Program, 7, p. 4-5 copper sulfate solution: how to mix, 5, p. 2; 14, p. 2; nonmetal containers for, 3, p. 7; poison- ing from, 77, p. 1; use, 5, p. 2; 14, p. 2, 4; use only when prescribed, 1, p. 5; with whey for hexamitiasis, 3, p. 7 corrosive sublimate poisoning, 77, p. 2 county diagnostic laboratory, 1, p. 16 cresol solution, as disinfectant, 7, p. 14 (box) crop, pendulous, 16, p. 1-2 crowding, effects of, 2, p. 4; 78, p. 1 crude oil and linseed oil, 20, p. 3 "cure-alls," dangers of using, 7, p. 5 cycle of infection in pullorum, diagram, 7, p. 2 DDT, for lice and mites, 20, p. 2, 3, 4 debeaking knife, 18, p. 2 Dermawyssus gallinae, 20, p. 2 dermatitis, dietary, 15, p. 5-6 diagnosis, how to get, 2, p. 2-3 diagnostic laboratories, list, 1, p. 16 Diesel oil spray, for pests, 20, p. 1, 3 dietary dermatitis, 15, p. 5-6 dietary diseases, 15 dip, for scaly-leg mite, 20, p. 3 diseases: bacterial, 7, 8, 9, 10; carriers of, 1, p. 6-7; control of, general, 2; noninfectious, 15, 16, 17, 18; outbreak, 2; prevention, 1; proto- zoan, 3, 4, 5, 6; spread and build-up of, 1, p. 9-14; virus, 11, 12, 13; for list of diseases cov- ered, see 7, p. 16 disinfectants, 1, p. 14 (box) ; in drinking water, harmful, 1, p. 5 disinfecting brooder houses and equipment, 1, p. 13, 14 (box) dislocations, 18, p. 4 disposal pit, plans for, 1, p. 8 Dithyridium variabile, 19, p. 4 dose: of drugs, how to calculate and give, 2, p. 4; of sulfa drugs, see sulfa drugs drainage: dangers from poor, 1, p. 7; impor- tance of good, 1, p. 10; on range, 1, p. 5 drains: disinfecting, 1, p. 14 (box) ; for yards, 7, p. 10 drinking water, see water; waterers drop crop, 16, p. 1-2 dropsy (ascites), 7, p. 5; 16, p. 6-7; 17, p. 2 drugs: give only when prescribed, 7, p. 5; how to give, 2, p. 4; poisonous, 17, p. 2; see also specific drugs dust-borne diseases, 7, p. 9; 72, p. 2, 3 eating, how to increase, 2, p. 3; 3, p. 7; 10, p. 3 Echinoparyphium recurvation, 19, p. 4 egg-borne diseases, 7, p. 3; 7, p. 2, 6, 7; 77, p. 2; 72, p. 2, 3 eggs: disinfecting, 7, p. 14 (box) ; fumigating for paratyphoid, 7, p. 12 emergency measures for an outbreak, 2, p. 2-3 enteritis, nonspecific, 16, p. 4-5; from excess salt, 77, p. 2 enterohepatitis, infectious, 4 Eomenacanthus stramineus, 20, p. 1 Epsom salts, not recommended, 7, p. 5; 3, p. 8 equipment: choosing and arranging, 7, p. 10; cleaning and disinfecting, 7, p. 13, 14 (box) ; contaminated, as disease carrier, 7, p. 7 eradication program: for paratyphoid, 7, p. 3; 7, p. 8; for pullorum disease, 7, p. 3; 7, p. 3 erysipelas, swine, in turkeys, 8, p. 2-3 Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, 8, p. 2 favus, 14, p. 3 feather mite, northern, 20, p. 2 feather picking, 78, p. 1-2 feed: changing, 7, p. 5; 16, p. 5; sources of vitamins, 15 feeders: changing, 7, p. 5; 16, p. 4; cleaning, 7, p. 13; disinfecting, 1, p. 13, 14 (box) ; good types, 7, p. 10; how much per poult, 7, p. 10 feeding, 7, p. 5; 15; early, 7, p. 4 feet, abscesses of, 16, p. 7 fish oils, for vitamins, 75, p. 2, 3, 4 flies: as carriers of disease, 7, p. 7; as hosts for tapeworms, 79, p. 1; control, 7, p. 14 (box) flukes, 79, p. 4 fly repellent, for wounds, 78, p. 3, 4 food, spoiled, botulism from, 77, p. 3 formalin: for disinfecting equipment, 7, p. 13 (box) ; for fumigating incubator, 7, p. 12; ointment, 14, p. 3 fowl cholera, 8, p. 1-2 fowl mite, tropical, 20, p. 2 fowl pox, 73; how to handle flock for vaccinat- ing, 7, p. 15 fowl tick, 20, p. 1, 2 (illus.),3,4 fowl typhoid, 7, p. 5-6 fumigating eggs, 7, p. 12 fumigating incubators, 7, p. 12 fungus diseases, 14 gapeworm, 79, p. 3 glossary, 7 (tear-out card) glycerin and iodine for favus, 14, p. 3 Goniodes meleagridis, 20, p. 1 grasshopper bait, poisoning from, 77, p. 1 grasshoppers, injuries from eating, 78, p. 4 guineafowl roundworm, 79, p. 2 Haemoproteus, 6, p. 2 hair worms, 79, p. 3 handling an outbreak, 2 handling flock for vaccinating, etc., 7, p. 15 handling turkeys gently, 7, p. 4; 9, p. 2 hatcheries, disinfecting in, 7, p. 12, 13 hemorrhagic enteritis, nonspecific, 16, p. 4-5 hens, injured during mating, 78, p. 2-3 Hexamita meleagridis, 3, p. 4-8 heat prostration (heat stroke) , 76, p. 3 Heterakis gallinae, 19, p. 2 hexamitiasis, 3, p. 1, 4-8 Histomonas meleagridis, 4, p. 1 histomoniasis, 4 hock disease, 15, p. 7 hosts: intermediate, for worms, 79, p. 2, 3, 4; of turkey diseases, 7, p. 6-8 houses, see brooder houses how to handle an outbreak, 2 incubator: fumigating, 7, p. 12; separate, for turkey and chicken eggs, 7, p. 7 infectious enterohepatitis, 4 infectious sinusitis, 77 infective dose in disease, 7, p. 9; 3, p. 3, 6 inflammation of the intestines, 76, p. 4-5 inheritable defects, 7, p. 3 injuries, 78 intermediate hosts of worms, 79, p. 2, 3, 4 [Italic figures refer to section numbers] iodine and glycerin for favus, 14, p. 3 isolating adult and poult flocks, 7, p. 11 kamala, toxic for turkeys, 19, p. 2 laboratories, diagnostic, 1, p. 16 Leucocytozoon infection, 6, p. 1-2 lice, 20, p. 1-2, 4 life cycle of coccidia, 3, p. 3 limberneck, 17, p. 3 lime, chlorinated, for disinfecting drains, 1, p. 14 (box) lindane, 20, p. 1, 2, 3, 4 linseed oil and crude oil, for scaly-leg mite, 20, p. 3 Lipeurus gallipavonis, 20, p. 1 Liponyssus sylviarum, 20, p. 2 litter: built-up, 1, p. 14; changing or stirring, 1, p. 14; dry, importance of, 1, p. 4; 74, p. 1 livability in turkey stock, 2, p. 3 louse, 20, p. 1-2, 4 lye solution, for disinfecting and cleaning, 1, p. 13, 14 (box) ; 72, p. 3 lymphomatosis, 16, p. 7 man: as carrier of turkey disease, 1, p. 7, 8; 7, p. 7; 8, p. 2; susceptible to some turkey dis- eases, 8, p. 3; 70, p. 3; 14, p. 2, 3; i7, p. 3 manganese needs of turkeys, 15, p. 7, 8 mating injuries, 18, p. 2 mechanical carriers, 1, p. 7, 8; 12, p. 2 medicines: give only when prescribed, 1, p. 5; how to give, 2, p. 4; see a/50 specific diseases Menopon gallinae, 20, p. 1 mercuric chloride poisoning, 17, p. 2 methoxychlor, for pest control, 20, p. 4 mice: control of, 1, p. 8 milk by-products: avoid in tapeworm area, 19, p. 2; for coccidiosis, 3, p. 4; moldy, as cause of fungus diseases, 1, p. 4; 74, p. 2; see a/so whey milkweed poisoning, 27, p. 4 mineral deficiencies causing disease, 15, p. 1 mites, 20, p. 1, 2-3 mixing drugs with mash or water, 2, p. 4 molds, causing turkey diseases, 14 moldy feeds and litter, effects, 1, p. 4; 14, p. 1 moniliasis, 14, p. 3-4; from moldy feeds, 1, p. 4 mosquitoes: as disease carriers, 1, p. 7; as fowl pox carriers, 73, p. 3; spraying for, 7, p. 14 Mycobacterium avium, 10, p. 1 mycosis, 14; of the crop, 14, p. 3-4 mycotic pneumonia, 14, p. 1-2 National Turkey Improvement Plan, 7, p. 4 natural carriers, 7, p. 6 navel infection, 16, p. 6 nervous respiratory disease, 72 Newcastle disease, 72 niacin deficiency, 15, p. 7, 8 nine-day flu, 72 noninfectious diseases, 75, 16, 17, 18 nonspecific enteritis, 16, p. 4-5 nutritional diseases, 15 Oidium pullorum, 14, p. 3 oil spray, to control pests, 20, p. 1, 4; to settle dust, 7, p. 13 (box) ointments, 14, p. 3; 78, p. 1 oleander poisoning, 77, p. 4 omphalitis, 16, p. 6; fumigating for, 7, p. 12 organs of turkey hen, 7 (tear-out cards) outbreak, how to handle, 2 ovary, tumors of, 16, p. 7 pantothenic acid, deficiency and sources, 15, p. 6 Paracolon infections, 10, p. 3 parasites: lice, mites, and ticks, 20; protozoan, 3,4,5,6; worm, 79 paratyphoid, 7, p. 7-8; fumigating for, 7, p. 12 Pasteurella multocida, 8, p. 1 ; P. pseudotuber- culosis, 10, p. 2 pathology laboratories, 7, p. 16 PE (Newcastle disease) 72 pendulous crop, 16, p. 1-2 penicillin, use, 8, p. 2, 3, 4 perosis, 75, p. 7 pests, external, 20; see also flies; mosquitoes phenothiazine, to reduce cecum worms, 4, p. 3 phosphorus and calcium balance, 75, p. 4, 7, 8 picking at droppings, how to discourage, 3, p. 7 "pickouts," 78, p. 1-2 Plagiorchis lariocola, 79, p. 4 Plasmodium, 6, p. 2 platforms, wire, 7, p. 10, 11; cleaning under, 7, p. 13 pneumoencephalitis, 12 pneumomycosis, 14, p. 1-2 pneumonia, brooder (mycotic) , 14, p. 1-2 poisoning, 77 poisonous plants, 7, p. 5; 77, p. 4 potassium permanganate and formalin, for fumi- gating incubators, 7, p. 12 (box) poultry mite, 20, p. 2 poults: brooding as one age group, 7, p. 11; moving to range, 1, p. 5; 16, p. 5; separating from adults, 7, p. 11; segregating age groups, 1, p. 11 pox, 73 preventive practices, 7 ; see also specific diseases Prosthogoniumus machrorchis, 19, p. 4 Proteus infections, 10, p. 4 protozoan diseases, 3, 4, 5, 6; infective dose and build-up in, 7, p. 9 Pseudomonas infections, 10, p. 3 pseudotuberculosis, 10, p. 3 Pullorum-Clean eggs and poults, 7, p. 3; 7, p. 2,5 pullorum disease, 7, p. 1-4 quaternary ammonium compound, for disin- fecting, 7, p. 13, 14 (box) questionnaire, to fill out for diagnosis, 2, p. 2 [Italic figures refer to section numbers] range: checkir,. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE ern \ TVTPTJT* BELOW lci) rugs contaminated, avoiding, 1, p. 7; moving poults to, 7, p. 5; 16, p. 5; muddy, dangers of, 7, p. 5 ration: balanced, importance, 7, p. 5; changing gradually, i, p. 5; minerals needed in, 15, p. 1 ; vitamins needed in, 15, p. 2, 4, 5, 7-8 rats: as disease carriers, 1, p. 6; control of, i, p. 8 references, 1, p. 15; and the last page of each section from 3 to 11 and 13 to 79 riboflavin, deficiency and sources, 15, p. 6 rickets, 15, p. 4 rodents: as disease carriers, 1, p. 6; control of, i,P-8 roost paints, for lice, 20, p. 2, 4 rotation of runs, 1, p. 10; 4, p. 3 (illus.) roundworms, 19, p. 2 routine, daily, how to plan, 1, p. 11 runs, rotating, 1, p. 10; 4, p. 3 (illus.) "saddle," to prevent mating injuries, 18, p. 3 Salmonella gallinarum, 7, p. 5; S. pullorum, 7, p. 1 ; S. typhimurium, 7, p. 7 Salmonella infections, 7 salmonelloses, 7, p. 7-8 salt, excess, 1, p. 5; 76, p. 6; 17, p. 2 sandstorms, diseases carried by, 11, p. 2 scaly-leg mite, 20, p. 2, 3 selecting breeding stock, 1, p. 3 separating adult and poult flocks, 1, p. 11 shade, ways of providing, 1, p. 4 sheep dips, for disinfecting, 1, p. 14 (box) shipping specimens for diagnosis, 2, p. 2-3 shoes, diseases carried on, 1, p. 7, 8; 12, p. 2 silver nitrate, 11, p. 3 Simulium (black fly) , 1, p. 7; 5, p. 1 sinusitis, infectious, 77 slipped tendon, 15, p. 7 soda, baking, poisoning from, 17, p. 2 sodium, excess, 76, p. 6 sodium arsenite, poisoning, 17, p. 1 sodium fluoride, use, 20, p. 2, 4 sodium orthophenylphenate, 1, p. 13, 14 sodium perborate, 78, p. 3 specimens, sending for diagnosis, 2, p. 2 spirochaetosis, 8, p. 4 spraddle legs, 75, p. 7 spray, house, for pest control, 20, p. 1, 3, 4 spread of disease, 7, p. 9-14 staphylococcal arthritis, 9 staphylococcosis, 9 Staphylococcus aureus, S. citreus, 9, p. 1 starting poults on feed and water, 7, p. 4 state diagnostic laboratories, 7, p. 16 sterols, activated, to prevent rickets, 75, p. 4 streptococcus infections, 10, p. 1 streptomycin, use, 8, p. 2, 3; 77, p. 4 strychnine-coated grain, 77, p. 2 sulfa drugs: poisoning from, 8, p. 3; 77, p. 2; use of, 3, p. 4; 4, p. 4; 6, p. 2; 7, p. 3, 6, 7; 8, p. 2; 70, p. 3; 78, p. 3 sulfa metha^ e sulfa drugs sulfaquinoxaline, see sulfa drugs sulfathiazole, distasteful, 2, p. 4; 77, p. 2 sulfur, for lice, 20, p. 2, 4 sunlight, to prevent rickets, 75, p. 4 sun porches, wire, 1, p. 10 swellhead, 77 swine erysipelas, in turkeys, 8, p. 2 swollen joints (hocks) , 9 'Syngamus trachea, 19, p. 3 synovitis, 9 tapeworms, 79, p. 1-2 temperatures of brooder and room, 1, p. 4 thrush, 14, p. 3-4 ticks, 20, p. 1, 3, 4 tobacco dust, to reduce cecum worms, 4, p. 3 tools, for vaccination, 13, p. 4 transmission, see build-up; carriers; hosts; spread ; see also specific diseases treatment: general, 2; see also specific diseases Trichomonas gallinae, 5, p. 1 trichomoniasis, 5; from stagnant pools, 7, p. 5 tryparsamide, for blackhead, 4, p. 4 tuberculosis, 10, p. 1-2 tumors, 76, p. 7 typhoid, fowl, 7, p. 5-6 vaccinating: for fowl pox, 13, p. 3-7; for New- castle disease, 72, p. 3; how to handle flock for, 7, p. 15; tools for, 13, p. 4 vaccines: for fowl pox, 13, p. 4; for Newcastle disease, 72, p. 3 ventilation, importance, 7, p. 4 vices (cannibalism) , 78, p. 1-2 virus diseases, 77, 72, 13; infective dose and build-up in, 7, p. 9 vitamins needed by turkeys, 75, p. 1, 2, 4, 5, 8 water: "doping," 7, p. 5; providing, 7, p. 5; see also waterers water belly (ascites) , 7, p. 5; 76, p. 6-7; 77, p. 2 water-borne diseases, 7, p. 7, 9; 77, p. 2 water crop, 76, p. 1-2 waterers: changing, 7, p. 5; 76, p. 4-5; clean- ing, 1, p. 13; disinfecting, 7, p. 13, 14 (box) ; good types, 7, p. 10, 11 (illus.) weeds, poisonous, 7, p. 5; 77, p. 4 whey, dried, for hexamitiasis, 3, p. 7 wind-borne diseases 7, p. 9, 11 ; 77, p. 2; 72, p. 2 wire platforms and sun porches, 7, p. 10; clean- ing under, 7, p. 13 worm remedies, in blackhead prevention, 4, p. 4 worms, 79 wounds: disinfectants for, 7, p. 14 (box) ; treat- ing, 78, p. 3 yards: concrete, 7, p. 10; dry, 7, p. 10; muddy, 76, p. 7 yeast-like organisms, causing diseases, 14, p. 3 [Italic figures refer to section numbers]