'GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE j%><^^*'^'^ 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE/ 
 
 BY 
 
 C. G. ZUMPT, Ph.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY, AND MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADE5IY 
 
 OF BERLIN. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE IMIIMTH EDITION OF THE ORIGINAL, 
 AND ADAPTED TO THE USE OF ENGLISH STUDENTS, 
 
 BY 
 
 lEONHARD SCHMITZ, Ph.D. 
 
 LATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF BONN, 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS BY THE AUTHOR., 
 
 THE 
 
 ■ff 
 
 [UNITEESITT 
 
 PRINTED FOR 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, 
 
 PATERNOSTEB-ROW. 
 
 1845. 
 

 ^ 5/f/^ 
 
yF\w 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 
 TO THE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 U lTIVEE; 
 
 In the year 1843 I received a letter from two English scholars 
 suggesting to me the necessity of a new translation of my Latin 
 grammar, and requesting my assistance in the undertaking. 
 Until then I had not been aware of the fact that the existing 
 translation, which had been made from the third edition of my 
 work (of which however it was not an exact representation, as 
 some portions of the original were omitted), had remained in its 
 original condition, and although it had gone through several 
 editions, yet had not been adequately improved and corrected, 
 while the German original, by continued labour on my part, 
 had, in its details, become quite a different work. This in- 
 formation was of course a sufficient reason for me to promise 
 my best aid and co-operation in the new translation ; for what- 
 ever considerations may have induced my learned translator 
 to allow my work to be printed again and again in its first and 
 imperfect form, it was to me a matter of the highest importance 
 that a nation which so highly prizes the study of philology and 
 takes so deep an interest in its progress, should be presented 
 with my work in the best and most perfect form that I am able 
 to give to it. It is unnecessary here to enter into the question 
 why the plan of a new translation was not carried into effect by 
 those gentlemen who originally proposed it to me, but I was 
 happy to hear that ultimately the execution had been entrusted 
 
 A 3 
 
VI THE AUTHOR S PREFACE 
 
 to Dr. L. Schmitz, who, I feel convinced, has clone all that can 
 be desired, both in point of correctness and good taste. 
 
 The Latin language is so rich and happy in its organization, 
 and has been so consistently developed by the energetic spirit 
 of the Roman people as well as by the exquisite tact of the 
 Roman authors, that a continued study of it is amply re- 
 warded. It is now upwards of thirty years that I have been 
 before the public as a writer on Latin grammar * ; my varied 
 studies have always led me back to this subject, and I may 
 truly declare, that during each fresh revision of my grammar, 
 when I was engaged in incorporating with my system the 
 observations I had made in the meantime, and in considering 
 the doubts and objections which had been raised in my mind, I 
 have become more and more convinced of the inexhaustible 
 mine of human wisdom which presents itself in the language of 
 a happily organized nation like the Romans. I am not speaking 
 here of the accidental matter contained in a grammar, nor of 
 the accumulation of similar passages, — it will afford far greater 
 pleasure to the pupil to discover for himself in the authors whose 
 works he is reading passages which confirm or illustrate the 
 rules he has learned, — nor of niceties of expression, for these 
 are curiosities rather than any thing else, but I mean real 
 philological discoveries and peculiarities, which arise from the 
 organic structure of the language, derive their explanation from 
 it, and in return throw light upon the whole fabric of the lan- 
 guage itself; and the result of all this is, that the general 
 principles are better ascertained and established. It is owing 
 to these continued studies that even the present translation of 
 the ninth edition of my Latin grammar has been enriched by 
 some not unimportant improvements, which I have communi- 
 cated in MS. to Dr. Schmitz, and it will henceforth be our 
 united endeavour to remedy every deficiency that may yet be 
 found. 
 
 * The first foundation of the present work was laid in a book which I 
 wrote for the use of my pupils under the title " Regeln der Lateinischen 
 Syntax, mit zwei Anhangen Uber die Grundregeln und die nach einem neuen 
 System geordneten unregelmassigen Verba," Berlin, 1814, 8vo. 
 
TO THE ENGLISH TRANSI4ATION. VU 
 
 My Latin grammar has met with great favour, or, as the 
 phrase is, " has been a very successful book," as I must infer 
 from the number of editions and copies that have been sold ; 
 but this success has not weakened my exertions in labour- 
 ing without interruption for its improvement. An author is 
 himself rarely able to point out that which has gained for his 
 production the favour of the public ; he is satisfied with being 
 able to labour for the realisation of his own ideas ; a com- 
 parison with the works of others does not concern him, nor 
 would it be becoming to him. But he can state the principle 
 which has guided him throughout his work ; and in reference 
 to the present grammar, this principle is no other than the 
 desire to trace the facts and phenomena of the language to 
 a philosophical or rational source. The facts as such must first 
 be established, and in this respect it has been my endeavour 
 to examine the texts of the authors, and not to allow myself 
 to be misled, as has been so often the case, by erroneous 
 traditions ; further, to distinguish between the periods of the 
 language, the different species of literary productions, the an- 
 cient and genuine from later and affected authors, and by 
 this means to ascertain that which is essential and peculiar to 
 the purest Latin idiom ; but in so doing I have not left un- 
 noticed those points which must be regarded as frequent or 
 otherwise justifiable deviations from the ordinary rules. It 
 is only those things which do not grow forth from the living 
 body of the language that must be passed over in silence. 
 In order to separate that which is genuine and ancient from 
 what is arbitrary or recent, I have adopted the method of 
 distinguishing between text and notes, the one being printed 
 in large and the other in small type, — a distinction which 
 will, I think, be useful also to the teacher. Another great 
 point which I have always endeavoured to keep in view has 
 been a rational development of the rules from one another. 
 By this, however, I do not mean a demonstration of the 
 principles of universal grammar, that is, of those principles 
 which are common to all languages. I value this branch of 
 philology, as a sort of applied logic, indeed very highly, but my 
 
 •A 4 
 
viii th:e author's preface 
 
 opinion is that it can be studied with advantage only by those 
 who are acquainted with the languages of different nations, both 
 civilised and uncivilised, and I have confined myself to ex- 
 plaining the peculiarities of the I^atin language and its charac- 
 teristic differences from the modern European languages of 
 Roman and Germanic origin, referring only now and then to its 
 connection with the Greek. But it is my endeavour to reduce 
 these peculiarities of the Latin language to simple and precise 
 principles, to proceed from the simple to the complex, and to 
 distinguish that which is in accordance with the rules from that 
 which is of a mixed nature. What I here say refers more 
 particularly to the syntax ; for in regard to etymology, it ought 
 not to be forgotten that the Latin language is something which 
 has been handed down to us in a given form, and which is to be 
 learned in this given form. It would have been easy to go back 
 to certain primitive forms which constitute the first elements 
 in the formation of the language, and thereby to explain many 
 an irregularity in the mixture of forms ; but in teaching a 
 language which is learned not only for the purpose of training 
 the intellect, but of using it in speaking and writing, the eye 
 and memory of the pupil ought not to be troubled with hypo- 
 thetical or assumed forms, which he is expected to forget, but 
 frequently does not forget, and which he is rather apt to take 
 for real forms. In etymology, a complete analogy alone can be 
 of practical use ; hence I have endeavoured to make the list of 
 irregular verbs and the section on the formation of words — 
 important branches of grammar which had been much neglected 
 by my predecessors — as complete as possible. In the syntax, 
 on the other hand, it is right that there should be a philosophical 
 development of the complex from the simple, taking that which 
 is peculiarly Latin as the groundwork. This part of my gram- 
 mar has arisen from dictations, which I made the basis of a 
 course of lectures on Latin syntax ; and I still believe that this 
 method is best suited to teach pupils — not indeed the first be- 
 ginners, but those who have already made some progress in the 
 understanding of Latin sentences — the whole of the Latin 
 syntax in a manner which is at once a training of their intellect 
 
TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION. l.< 
 
 and their memory. Some example or other must be made the 
 basis ; it must be explained and impressed upon the memory as 
 a model for imitation. The examples given in the text of* the 
 present grammar may serve this purpose ; all have been selected 
 with special care, and each contains a complete thought ex- 
 pressed in a classical form. The teacher must cause his pupils 
 to form a number of other similar sentences, and make the 
 pupils translate them from the vernacular tongue into Latin. 
 It is desirable that such sentences should be chosen with taste 
 or be carefully prepared for this purpose beforehand ; but as 
 their object is only to impress the rule upon the mind of the 
 learner, it is advisable to pay attention to variety of expression 
 rather than to particular neatness or elegance. 
 
 My Grammar further contains a section on the signification 
 of the adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, which properly 
 speaking does not belong to grammar, but to a dictionary. But 
 it is nevertheless necessary, since the ordinary dictionaries are 
 partly incorrect and partly incomplete in their explanations of 
 these particles, which contain the life and soul of a language, 
 and since special books on the particles, such as were formerly 
 used in schools, are either no longer consulted or do not answer 
 the purposes for which they were written. The Syntax has 
 been enlarged by what is called Syntaxis ornata, and it is strange 
 that for this part of my work I have been censured by several 
 scholars, who thought it inconsistent with the strictly progressive 
 spirit of the Grammar, and the philosophical development of the 
 grammatical laws, because the observations which form the 
 substance of the Syntaxis ornata are not given as necessary 
 principles, but in the form of suggestions, which may be fol- 
 lowed or not, at discretion. But this is the very point which I 
 myself have expressly stated in the introduction to that part of 
 my work, where I direct attention to the difference between the 
 Syntaxis regularis and the Syntaxis ornata. But as those 
 observations on style point out so much that is correct, in- 
 genious, and peculiar to the Latin language, should they not 
 be made at all, because their application is left to choice? or 
 shall we allow them to stand in a somewhat looser connection. 
 
X THE author's PREFACE 
 
 and arrange the different observations under rational and in- 
 telligible heads ? Surely the latter course must be preferred ; 
 and I see that my critics have, in fact, adopted the very same 
 method, except that what I have discussed in separate chapters, 
 on " Peculiarities in the Use of the Parts of Speech," on 
 " Pleonasm," " Ellipsis," " Arrangement of Words, and Con- 
 struction of Periods," is treated of by them under the heads of first, 
 second, and third Appendices. The real appendices in the present 
 work, on metres, measures, and weights, calendar, &c., are of a 
 diflPerent nature ; they do not indeed belong to grammar, but as 
 they contain information on matters important and necessary for 
 the understanding of the authors read in schools, and as this in- 
 formation is either not to be found elsewhere, or is not suf- 
 ficiently correct, no one, I hope, will grudge it a place at the end 
 of this Grammar. 
 
 I cannot part from the English reader without expressing my 
 delight at the vigour and energy with which classical studies 
 are prosecuted in Germany and England. In the former 
 country a fresh impulse was given to these studies some thirty 
 years ago, just at the time when the nation was on the point of 
 losing its independence ; in England the revival of classical 
 studies must be dated, I believe, from the time that the contest 
 between idealism and realism became settled; and these two 
 branches of human knowledge have now arrived at a point 
 where they recognize each other in peaceful harmony, the one 
 exerting itself in exploring the treasures of nature, and the other 
 those of mind. Germany owes her safety to her free schools 
 and universities, and builds her hopes upon them; England, 
 to the energy of her people and to her public institutions ; and 
 the two countries might with advantage exchange some of their 
 excellencies. In England, the educational establishments and 
 teachers appear to be fettered by old traditional and conventional 
 forms ; while in Germany, the sublimest truths which are pro- 
 mulgated from the professorial chair, die within the lecture rooms 
 of the universities, and produce no fruit. But be the difference 
 between the two countries ever so great, the characteristics 
 of the educated men in both consist in their rising above the 
 
TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION. XI 
 
 immediate necessities of time, place, and occupation, and in their 
 recognition of the connection existing between the individual 
 and the spirit of all mankind. Hence a knowledge of antiquity, 
 and of what it has produced, is necessary to every educated 
 person, in proportion to the influence it has exercised upon sub- 
 sequent ages, and the study of antiquity will ever have the most 
 salutary effect upon man in elevating him above the trivial 
 wants of ordinary life, and affording him the means of mental 
 and intellectual culture. To those among my contemporaries, 
 who are anxious to obtain these advantages, I offer the present 
 work as a means of penetrating more deeply and more easily 
 into the spirit of the Koman classics and of Roman antiquity. 
 
 C. Gr. ZUMPT. 
 
 Berlin, Feb. 23. 1845. 
 
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE, 
 
 When the honourable task of preparing a translation of the 
 Ninth Edition of Professor Zumpt's Latin Grammar had been 
 entrusted to me by the publishers, the Author himself most 
 willingly consented to co-operate with me in endeavouring to 
 present his work to the English public in as perfect a form as 
 possible. His professional engagements in the University of 
 Berlin have enabled him continually to improve the successive 
 editions of his Grammar, which has thus become infinitely su- 
 perior to what it was when originally translated. Scarcely a 
 year has elapsed since the publication of the ninth edition of the 
 original, yet the Author's unceasing labours in this department 
 of philology have enabled him already to collect a large number 
 of corrections and additions for future use ; and all these im- 
 provements he has been kind enough to communicate to me in 
 manuscript for incorporation in the English translation, which 
 hence possesses considerable advantages over the German work. 
 In the etymological part of the present Grammar, some 
 additions might have been made here and there from English 
 sources, and some English scholars may perhaps be inclined to 
 censure me for having neglected to do so, since the etymology 
 of the Latin language has been studied by a few scholars in this 
 country more comprehensively than on the Continent. But 
 Professor Zumpt has abstained, on principle, from introducing 
 into his work etymological disquisitions which would have led 
 his readers beyond the immediate objects of his Grammar, and 
 it was impossible for me to set aside that principle, without 
 
xiv • translator's preface. 
 
 making material alterations in the first part of the present 
 work. I may also add that, on the whole, I coincide with 
 the Author's views on this point ; and even if I did not, I 
 should not think myself justified in introducing into his work 
 that which he himself has purposely excluded. The few points 
 on which I have added any explanatory remarks, are such as are 
 regarded by the Author, in common with all other grammarians, 
 as inexpHcable difficulties or anomalies, although it appears to 
 me that the language itself contains sufficient analogies for 
 their explanation. 
 
 When I undertook the present translation, I expected, as was 
 stated in the advertisement, that the Latin Grammar of Pro- 
 fessor Madvig of Copenhagen, which had appeared about the 
 same time as the last edition of Professor Zumpt's work, 
 would furnish some more or less important improvements which 
 might be advantageously embodied in the present translation ; 
 but a comparison of the two books soon showed me that all the 
 new and valuable points in Madvig's Grammar were known to 
 Professor Zumpt, and had received from him their due share 
 of attention; Madvig having published his views on several 
 grammatical questions in separate dissertations and elsewhere, 
 previously to the appearance of his Grammar. 
 
 In conclusion, I venture to express my hope that the present 
 translation of a work which enjoys the highest reputation in 
 Germany may contribute also in this country towards a more 
 accurate knowledge of the language of a nation which, above aU 
 others, deserves to engage the attention of every weU-educated 
 
 Englishman. 
 
 li. S. 
 
 London, April, 1845. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Latin language was once spoken by the Bomans, at first 
 only in a part of Middle Italy, but subsequently in all Italy and 
 in other countries subject to the Romans. At present it can be 
 learnt only from books and the monumental inscriptions of that 
 people. 
 
 The earliest Latin writings that we possess, were composed 
 about 200 years before the birth of Christ, and in the sixth 
 century after Christ Latin, as a spoken language, died entirely 
 away. It had then become quite corrupted through the influence 
 of the foreign nations which had settled in the Roman dominions, 
 and it became so mixed up with the languages of the invaders 
 that a number of new languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Por- 
 tuguese,) were gradually formed out of it. All persons who 
 wrote Latin in later times had learned it as a dead language. 
 
 During the long period in which the Latin language was 
 spoken, it underwent various changes, not only in' the number 
 of its words and their meanings, in their forms and combinations, 
 but, to some extent, in its pronunciation also. We shall in this 
 Grammar describe the language, though not exclusively, such 
 as it was spoken and written during the most important period 
 of Roman literature, that is, about the time of Julius Caesar 
 and Cicero, till shortly after the birth of Christ. That period 
 is commonly called the golden age, and the subsequent one, till 
 about A. D. 120, the silver age of the Latin language. 
 
 The Latin language in its origin is nearest akin to the Greek, 
 and at the time when the Romans became acquainted with the 
 literature, arts, and institutions of Greece, they adopted a great 
 many single words, as well as constructions, from the Greek. 
 Both languages, moreover, belong to the same family from 
 which the English, German, northern, and many other lan- 
 guages have sprung. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ELEJVIENTARY PAKT. 
 
 Chap. Page 
 
 I. Of the'^ Vowels and Consonants - - - 1 
 
 II. Of Syllables - - - - n 
 
 III. Of the Length and Shortness of Syllables - - 12 
 
 IV. Of the Accent of Words - - - 22 
 
 The Accidence. 
 
 V. Division of Words according to their Signification - 25 
 
 VI. Nouns Substantive. — General Rules of Gender - 26 
 
 VII. Number, Case, and Declension - - - 30 
 
 VIII. First Declension - - - - 32 
 
 IX. Greek Words in e, as, and es ' - - 33 
 
 X. Gender of the Nouns of the First Declension - 35 
 
 XI. Second Declension - - - - 35 
 
 XII. Greek Words of the Second Declension - - 38 
 
 XIII. Gender of the Nouns of the Second Declension - 40 
 
 XIV. Third Declension. — Genitive - - - 41 
 XV. The remaining Cases of the Third Declension - 49 
 
 XVI. Greek Forms in Words of the Third Declension - 58 
 XVn. Gender of AVords of the Third Declension. — 
 
 Masculines - - - - 61 
 
 XVIII. Feminines - - - - 62 
 
 XIX. Neuters - - - - 65 
 
 XX. Fourth Declension - - - - 67 
 
 XXI. Fifth Declension - - - - 69 
 
 XXII. Irregular Declension. — Indeclinables. — Defectives - 70 
 
 XXIII. Heteroclita. — Heterogenea - 77 
 
 XXIV. Nouns Adjective. — Terminations. — Declension - 80 
 XXV. Comparison of Adjectives - - - 84 
 
 XXVI. Comparison of Adverbs and increased Comparison - 86 
 
 XXVII. Irregular and defective Comparison - - 87 
 
 XXVni. Numerals. — I. Cardinal Numerals - - 91 
 
 XXIX. n. Ordinal Numerals - - - 95 
 
 XXX. III. Distributive Numerals - - - 96 
 
 XXXI. IV. Multiplicative Numerals - - - 99 
 
 XXXII. V. Proportional Numerals - - - 100 
 
 a 
 
XVlll CONTENTS. 
 
 Chap. Page 
 
 XXXIII. VI. Numeral Adverbs - - - 100 
 
 XXXIV. Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives - - 102 
 XXXV. Declension of Pronouns - - - 105 
 
 XXXVI. Declension of the Possessive Pronouns and of Pro- 
 
 nominals - - - - 111 
 
 XXXVn. The Verb - - - - 11» 
 
 XXXVIII. Moods.— Tenses - - - - H^ 
 
 XXXIX. Numbers. — Persons - - -117 
 
 XL. Formation of the Tenses - - - 119 
 
 XLI. The Verb esse - - - - 12a 
 
 XLII. The four Conjugations - - - 126 
 
 XLIII. Remarks on the Conjugations - ^ - 140 
 
 List or Verbs which are irbegular in the Formation of 
 THEIR Perfect and Supine. 
 
 XLIV. First Conjugation - - - - 149 
 
 XLV. Second Conjugation- _ - - 151 
 XL VI. Third Conjugation. — 1. Verbs which have a Vowel 
 
 before o including those in vo - - 158 
 
 XL VII. 2. Verbs in do and t& - - - 162 
 
 XLVIIL 3. VerbsinZ>oandj0O - - -166 
 
 XLIX. 4. Verbs with a Palatal Letter, g, c, ct, h, qu, and 
 
 gu (in which u is not considered as a vowel) 
 
 before o - - - - 167 
 
 L. 5. Verbs which have Z, m, w, r before o - 171 
 
 LI. 6. Verbs in so and xo - - - 174 
 
 LII. Inchoatives - - - - 176 
 
 LIII. Fourth Conjugation - - - 179 
 
 LIV. List of Deponent Verbs - - -181 
 
 LV. Deponents of the Second Conjugation - - 183 
 
 LVI. Deponents of the Third Conjugation - - 184 
 
 LVII. Deponents of the Fourth Conjugation - - 186 
 
 LVIII. Irregular Verbs - - - - 187 
 
 LIX. Defective Verbs - - - - 194 
 
 LX. Impersonal Verbs - - - - 198 
 
 LXI. Etymology of Nouns and Verbs - - 200 
 
 LXII. Etymology of Particles - - - 222 
 
 LXIII. Primitive Adverbs - - - - 230 
 
 LXIV. Comparison of Adverbs - - - 239 
 
 LXV. Prepositions - - - - 240 
 
 LXVI. Prepositions in Composition - - - 256 
 
 LXVII. Conjunctions ----- 261 
 
 • LXVIII. Interjections -" . - - 279 
 
CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 Chap. Page 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 I. Connection of Subject and Peedicate. 
 
 LXIX. Subject and Predicate - - - 280 
 
 n. On the Use or Cases. 
 
 LXX. ISTominative Case - - - - 290 
 
 LXXI. Accusative Case - - - - 291 
 
 LXXn. Dative Case - - - - 304 
 
 LXXIII. Genitive Case - - - - 316 
 
 LXXIV. Ablative Case - - - - 331 
 
 LXXV. Vocative Case - - - - 354 
 
 III. Use of the Tenses. 
 
 LXXVI. The Tenses - - - - 355 
 
 rV. Of the Moods. 
 
 LXXVn. Indicative Mood - - - - 372 
 
 LXXVIII. Subjunctive Mood - - - - 376 
 
 LXXIX. Imperative Mood - - - - 412 
 
 LXXX. Infinitive Mood - - - - 415 
 
 LXXXI. Use of the Participles - .- -448 
 
 LXXXIL Use of the Gerund - - - -453 
 
 LXXXin. Use of the Supine - - - -'459 
 
 SYJSTTAXIS ORNATA. 
 
 LXXXrV. Peculiarities in the Use of the Parts of Speech - 462 
 
 LXXXV. Pleonasm - - - - 502 
 
 LXXX VI. Ellipsis - - - - - 511 
 
 LXXXVII. Arrangement of Words, and Structure of Periods - 527 
 
 Appendix I. Of Metre, especially with regard to the Latin 
 
 Poets - - - - 551 
 Appendix II. The Roman Calendar - - _ 573 
 Appendix III. Roman Weights, Coins and Measures - 576 
 Appendix IV. Notae sive Compendia Scripturae ; or Abbrevia- 
 tions of Words - - - 580 
 
 Index ------ 533 
 
or TEE f 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ELEMENTARY PAET. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OF THE VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 
 
 [§ 1.] 1. The Vowels of the Latin language are. A, a; E, e; 
 
 I, i ; 0,0 ; U, u (^Y, y) : and the diphthongs, AE, ae ; OE, oe ; 
 
 AU, au, and EU, eu. Their ancient pronunciation did not 
 
 differ in any essential point from that of the modern Italian or 
 
 German ; but the modern pronunciation varies in the different 
 
 countries of Europe, though the length and shortness of the 
 
 vowels are and ought to be observed everywhere. The Latin 
 
 language has no signs to distinguish a long from a short vowel, 
 
 such as we find in the Greek language, at least in the case of 
 
 two vowels. The names of the vowels are mere imitations of 
 
 their sounds, and not specific words, like the Greek alpha, 
 
 iota, &c. 
 
 Note. The vowel y (called y psilon) occurs only in words which were 
 introduced into the Latin language from or through the Greek, at a time 
 when it was already developed, such as, syllaha, pyramis^ Pyrrhus, Cyrus ; 
 whereas other words, the Greek origin of which leads us back to more 
 ancient times, or has been obscured by changes of sound, have lost their 
 original y ; such as mus (from the Greek /iue), silva (from i-X?;), and lacrima 
 (from dciKpvov). The word stilus^ too, is better written with z, since practice 
 did not acknowledge its Identity with the Greek (ttvXoq. The diphthong ew, 
 if we except Greek words, occurs only in heusy heu, and eheu, in ceu, seu, and 
 neu, and in rieuter and neutiquam. The diphthongs containing an 2, viz. ez, 
 oe, and mz, have not been mentioned in our text as Latin diphthongs ; because 
 
2 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 they occur only in a few interjections, such as hei^ eia^ oiei, and hui, and in 
 .cf>SQs v^}^ei'(^ dfiini yroioi, huic, o'c cut, are contracted into one syllable, which is 
 comnioiii^ clone a1 poetry. 
 
 The ancients in pronouncing a diphthong uttered the two vowels of which 
 it consists more distinctly than we do. The word neuter^ in particular, 
 was -pronounced in such a manner that the two vowels in ew, though 
 united, were yet distinctly heard. In this manner we may reconcile the 
 assertion of the grammarian Consentius, that it is a barbarism to pronounce 
 tieutrum as a word of two syllables, with those passages in Latin poetry 
 which necessarily demand the diphthong. Neutiquam in the comic poets 
 has its first syllable always short, as if it were nutiquam, from which we may 
 infer that it was not so much the long diphthong as the two short vowels, 
 that were heard. In like manner the diphthongs ae and oe were pronounced, 
 and hence we find that in the early times ai and oi were pronounced and 
 written in their stead, and that the Latins expressed the Greek ai and ot by 
 ae and oe ; for, if these diphthongs are pronounced in the manner above 
 described, it will be perceived that the difference between the sounds of e 
 and i is but slight. The Greek ei must likewise have been pronounced in 
 such a manner that the two vowels were distinctly heard ; for the Latins, in 
 whose language this diphthong does not occur, use in its place sometimes e 
 and sometimes i, or either of them indiscriminately. Before consonants 
 we always find i, e. g., eclipsis, Nilus, Clitus, Heraclidae ; and in Latin we 
 must accordingly pronounce and write Polyclitus, and not Polycletus (see 
 my remark on Cic-. in Verr. iv. 3.) ; Hilotes or Hilotae {Hotae^ for the Greek 
 is E'/XwTfg or E'/Xwrat), and not Helotes. Before vowels, on the other hand, 
 the Greek ei is sometimes changed into e, and sometimes into i ; the e 
 appears, for example, in Aeneas and Medea, and the i in Iphigenia and 
 elegia, whereas Alexandrea and Alexandria, Thucydideus and Thucydidiiis 
 are used indiscriminately. In Cicero the forms Ariopagus and Ariopagitae, 
 are better established than Areopagus, Areopagitae, and the like, which we 
 commonly find in our editions, whereas the form Dareus is much more 
 authentic according to the MSS. of Latin authors, than Darius. This fact 
 is now generally acknowledged, and does not require here to be supported 
 by authorities. 
 
 [§ 2.] It was, however, only by degrees that the pronunciation and ortho- 
 graphy became fixed, and this was mainly the work of the grammarians 
 during the first centuries after Christ. Previously there existed many 
 peculiarities in the pronunciation, which were also adopted in the written 
 language, and some of these' are still retained in the texts of a few of the 
 early writers, such as Plautus, Terence, and Sallust, for historical reasons, 
 or, so to speak, from diplomatic fidelity. But such peculiarities should not be 
 imitated by us, for they were gradually given up by the ancients themselves. 
 With regard to pronunciation and orthography, we must necessarily adhere 
 to the rules which were laid down by the ancient grammarians, who cer- 
 tainly did not derive them from the vulgar idiom of the people, but from 
 the uncorrupt and pure language of the educated classes. In the earliest 
 times the broad pronunciation of the -long i was commonly indicated by ei, 
 but without its being pronounced as a diphthong ei, which is foreign to the 
 Latin language : for example, heic for hie, queis for quis (quibus), eidiis for 
 idus, and in the accusative plural of the third declension when it terminates 
 in is (see § 68.), such as omneis, arteis, for omnis and artis, which termina- 
 tion of the accusative was subsequently changed into es. A middle sound 
 
VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 3 
 
 between the two short vowels u and i was preserved, in some words, down to a 
 still later time : and many persons pronounced and wrote luhet^ existumo, clu- 
 peus, inclutus, satura, for lihet^ existimo, clipeus, &c. ; the adjective termination 
 umus for iynus, as Jinitumus for JiJiitwms, and the superlatives optumus, 
 maxumus, and pulcherrumus, for optimus, maximus^ &c. Julius Csesar declared 
 himself in favour of i, which was afterwards adopted generally, although- the 
 emperor Claudius wanted to introduce a new letter for the indefinite vowel 
 in those words. We must further observe that in early times o was used 
 instead of m, after the letter ??, e. g. volt^ volnus, avom, and even in the nomi- 
 native avus instead of avus: in some words o took the place of e; for example, 
 vorto and its derivatives for verto, voster for vester. U instead of e occurs 
 in the termination of the participle undus for endus, and was retained in 
 some cases in later times also. (See § 167.) Lastly, we have to mention 
 that the vulgar pronunciation of au was 6 ; e. g. Claudius was pronounced 
 as Clodius^ plaustrum as plostrum^ and plaudo as plodo ; but in some words 
 this pronunciation, which in general was considered faulty, became estab- 
 lished by custom, as in plostellum^ a little carriage, a diminutive form of 
 plaustrum. This was the case more especially when the common mode of 
 pronouncing served to indicate a difference in meaning, as in lotus^ washed, 
 and lautus, splendid or elegant; and codex, a tablet for writing (or a book), 
 and caudex, a block of wood. In the compounds of plaudo the form plodo 
 thus became prevalent. 
 
 [§ 3.] 2. The Consonants are, B, b; C, c; D, d; F,f; G, g; 
 
 H, h; {K, k;) L, I; M, m; N, n; P, p; Q, q; R, r; S, s; 
 
 T, t; X, x; (Z, 2"). With regard to their classification, it is 
 
 only necessary here to observe that I, m, n, r, are called liquids 
 
 (liquidae), and the rest mutes (mutae), with the exception of s, 
 
 which, being a sibilant {litter a sibilans), is of a peculiar nature. 
 
 The mutes may again be classified, with reference to the organ 
 
 by which they are pronounced, into labials (y, 5, p, /), palatals 
 
 {g, c, k, qu), and Unguals (d, t). X and z (called zeta) are 
 
 double consonants, x being a combination of c and s, and z of 
 
 d and s. , 
 
 Note. It will be observed that there are some letters in our own alphabet 
 which do not occur in this list : j and v were expressed by the Latins by 
 the same signs as the vowels % and m, viz. / and V; but in pronunciation 
 they were distinguished ; whence we hear of an i or v consonans ; and, like 
 ordinary consonants, they make position when preceded by another con- 
 sonant, and do not form an hiatus when preceded by a vowel. It is only in 
 consequence of poetical licences which are rendered necessary by the metre 
 (which however, at the same time, show the kindred nature existing between 
 the sounds of the vowel and consonant), that the v is at one time softened 
 down into u ; as, for example, when the words solvit and silva are made to 
 form three syllables (comp. § 184.) : and, at others, the vowels i and u are 
 hardened into the consonants j and v, which is very often the case with i; 
 by this means the preceding short syllable is lengthened, as in the words 
 abies, aries, consilium, fluvius, tenuis, and some others. Virgil, for example, 
 uses Jluvjorum rex Eridanus ; Ovid, at the close of an hexameter verse, 
 
 B 2 
 
4 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 custos erat arjetis aurei^ for arietis ; Lucretius, copia tenvis and neque ten- 
 vius extai, for tenuis, tenuius. In cases where the preceding syllable is 
 already long, the poet may at least get rid of a syllable which does not suit 
 the verse, as in Juvenal, comitata est Hippia ludjum and nuper consule 
 Junjo ; and (iv. 37.), Quum jam semjanimum laceraret Flavins orhem. We 
 may therefore, in writing Latin, make use of the signs j and y, which are 
 employed in modern languages, for the purpose of distinguishing the pro- 
 nunciation before a vowel at the beginning of a syllable, and we need 
 not retain the defective mode of writing of the Romans, since they viewed 
 these letters just as we do, and would willingly have adopted so convenient 
 a means of distinction if they had known it, or if their better knowledge 
 had not been obliged to give way to habit. But this rule cannot be 
 applied to Greek words, since i and v with the Greeks had only the na- 
 ture of vowels. We therefore read locaste, iambus, lones, Laius, Agaue, 
 euoe : and the i at the beginning of these words is treated as a vowel, 
 in their connexion with prepositions, as in ab Ionia, ex Ionia. Some Greek 
 proper names, however, are justly written and pronounced in Latin with 
 a J, as G?'ajus, Ajax, Maja, Troja, Achaja. 
 
 [§ 4.] H is only an aspiration ; it is not considered as a vowel, and there- 
 fore when joined with a consonant it does not lengthen the preceding 
 syllable. The ancients themselves (see Quintil. i. 5. § 21.) were in doubt 
 with regard to several words, as to which was the more correct, to pronounce 
 it or not ; for example, as to whether they should pronounce have or ave, 
 hedera or edera, harundo or arundo, halucinor or alucinor, Tierus or eru^, 
 veliemens or veemens (vemens), ahenum or aenum, mihi or mi, prehendo and 
 deprehendo, or prendo and deprendo, and several other words, in which, how- 
 ever, the orthography now adopted is the more correct of the two. 
 
 The letter G arose out of C, for in the early times the sounds of li (c) 
 and g were not distinguished in writing, on account of their similarity ; and 
 although the Romans wrote, for example, leciones, yet they pronounced 
 legiones. The fact of the prajnomina Oajus and Gnaeus, when indicated only 
 by the initials, being frequently written C. and Cn., is a remnant of the old 
 orthography ; and it is expressly attested by ancient grammarians (see, e. g., 
 Quintil. i. 7. § 28.) as well as by the Greek mode of writing those names 
 (Taioc, TvoXoq), that they were never pronounced otherwise than Gajus 
 and Gnaeus, which was at the same time the invariable mode of writing them 
 when they were given at full length. Even when the initials only are given, 
 we meet with G. and Gn., just as often as with C. and Cn. 
 
 [§ 5.J K became a superfluous letter in Latin, as its place was supplied by c. 
 In early times it was chiefly used in words beginning with ca, such as kaput, 
 Ttalumnia, Karthago ; but this is now done, according to the example of the 
 ancients, in abbreviations only, such as K. for Kaeso, K, or Kal. for Ka- 
 lendae. 
 
 Q is in reality likewise a superfluous letter, not differing in value from 
 c ; but it has been more fortunate than k in maintaining its place, at least 
 in those cases where the sound of c is followed by u, and the latter by 
 another vowel, as in quum, quern, qui, quo, antiquus. The first of these words 
 is to be pronounced cudm, as a monosyllable ; and it remains doubtful as to 
 whether the u is still a vowel, or assumes the nature of a consonant cvam. 
 There are some few words in which the pronunciation and orthography 
 hesitate between qu and c ; e. g., in coquus and equuleus : in some others c is 
 known to be the correct pronunciation, from the testimony of the ancients 
 
VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 5 
 
 themselves, although we still write qu^ partly for the sake of distinction, and 
 partly for etymological reasons. Thus we distinguish the conjunction quum 
 from the preposition cum ; and write quotidie and quotaiinis on account of 
 their formation from quct^ and sequutus and loquutus on account of their 
 derivation from sequor and loquor, although it is quite certain that all the 
 Romans pronounced, and most of them also wrote, cum, cotidie (cottidie only 
 to indicate the shortness of the vowel), secutus, locutus. The last two must 
 absolutely be spelled secutm and locutus (see Schneider, Elementarlehre^ 
 p. 332.) ; and with regard to the others, too, it is but just that we should 
 follow the instructions of the ancients. The reader will find in this work 
 the conjunction spelled quum; but he ought to remember, that it is done 
 only for the purpose of distinguishing it, to the eye, from the preposition, and 
 that it ought to be pronounced as cum* 
 
 Z occurs only in words borrowed from the Greek, e. g. gaza, trapeza ; 
 and w can be used only when modern words are introduced into the Latin 
 language without undergoing any change in their orthography. 
 
 [§ 6.] 3. Respecting the pronunciation of the consonants, it 
 must be observed, that the rule with the Latins was to pro- 
 nounce them just as they were written. Every modern nation 
 has its own peculiar way of pronouncing them ; and among the 
 many corruptions of the genuine pronunciation there are two 
 which have become firmly rooted in nearly all Europe, and 
 which it is, perhaps, impossible to banish from the language. 
 We pronounce c, when followed by e, i, y, ae, or oe, both in 
 Latin and Greek words, like our s, and when followed by other 
 vowels or by consonants like a k. The Romans on the other 
 hand, as far as we can ascertain, always pronounced c like k; 
 and the Greeks, in their intercourse with the Romans, did not 
 hear any other pronunciation. The earliest instance in which c 
 was pronounced in this or a similar manner seems to have been 
 when it was followed by i with another vowel after it, for the 
 terminations tius and tia are so frequently used for cius and cia, 
 that we must infer that they were similarly sounded. But even 
 this similarity seems to have been foreign to the old and correct 
 pronunciation. We pronounce ti before a vowel like slii, but 
 likewise without any reason. But it is easy to discover the 
 transition from the pure pronunciation to that which is now 
 customary, for the ti in all these cases is short, and in quick 
 
 * Lipslus, in his Dialogus de recta P?'onuntiatione Lingum LatincB, ex- 
 presses himself upon the pronunciation of c in this remarkable manner : 
 " Pudet non tam erroris quam pertinaclse, quia corripl patiuntur at non 
 corrigi, ct tenent omnes quod defendat nemo. Itall, Hispani, GermanI, GalU, 
 Britanni in hoc peccato : a qua gente initium emendandi ? Audeat enim 
 una aliqua et omnes audient." 
 
 B 3 
 
6 LATIN GKAMMAR. 
 
 speaking it easily changes into shi. For this reason it would 
 be quite wrong to pronounce the long ti in the genitive totius in 
 the same manner, since there can be no excuse for it. But 
 there are some cases in which even the short ti, according to the 
 common pronunciation, is not read like shi: 1) in Greek words, 
 such as Miltiades, Boeotia, Aegyptius; 2) when the t is pre- 
 ceded by another t, by s or x, e. g. Bruttii, ostium, mixtio; and 
 3) when it is followed by the termination of the infinitive 
 passive er, as in nitier, quatier. 
 
 Note. In many words it is difficult to determine whether they ought to 
 be spelled with ci or ti. The question must be decided partly by a correct 
 etymology, partly by the orthography adopted by the Greeks, and partly by an- 
 cient and authentic inscriptions ; for nearly all our MSS. were made at a time 
 when ci was pronounced in the wrong way, and was accordingly confounded 
 with ti. Thus, it appears that in the derivative adjectives formed from nouns 
 and participles we must write icius and not itius ; e. g. gentilicius, aedilicius, 
 novicius, commendat icius, as, indeed, we always write patricius and the proper 
 names Fahricius and Mawncius. We now commonly write conditio, though 
 it is better to write condicio and dicio. In nuntius, and all its derivatives, on 
 the other hand, the ti is correct ; and also in oiium, injitior (from fateoi-)., 
 and fetialis (Greek (pTjridXaig). In inscriptions and ancient MSS. we find 
 only contio, and not concio. 
 
 [§ 7.] ikf at the end of a word (where it is always preceded by 
 a vowel) was pronounced by the ancients more indistinctly than 
 at the beginning of a word ; perhaps in the same manner as in 
 the French le nom, where the m is heard much more indis- 
 tinctly than in le midi. When the word following began with 
 a vowel, the final m of the preceding word was not sounded at 
 all, according to the testimony of the ancient grammarians, or it 
 formed only a gentle transition from the one vowel to the other. 
 
 S, like the Greek <r, was pronounced more sharply than with 
 us ; a circumstance which accounts for some irregularities in the 
 early orthography, such as the doubling of the s in caussa, as 
 Cicero wrote according to an express testimony, though it was 
 disapproved of as useless by the ancient grammarians. 
 
 In the ancient pronunciation there must have been a peculiar 
 resemblance between the letters s and r ; since it is mentioned 
 by Varro (de Ling. Lot. vii. 6.) and others, that formerly, that 
 is, before the Latin language had assumed a fixed form through 
 its literature, s was pronounced in many words, for which af- 
 terwards r was substituted, as in Papisius, Valesius, lases, eso, 
 arbosem, melios. Some forms of this kind, such as honos, lepos. 
 
VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 7 
 
 and arbos, were used down to a very late time, and occur even 
 in the language of the classical writers. 
 
 N'ote. This affinity between the two sounds accounts for various phenomena 
 in the accidence of the Latin language (see Schneider, JSlementarlehre, 
 p. 342. foil.) : but we do not by any means believe that the r in the above- 
 mentioned words, and stiU less in all cases where it occurs between two 
 vowels, is of later origin, or that it arose out of the 5, and that the latter was 
 the original sound. The r after a vowel is just as ancient and original in 
 the Latin language as the r after a consonant ; and wherever the s is not a 
 mere dialectic peculiarity, as in arhosem, pignosa, robose, and majosihus^ it 
 has taken the place of r for definite reasons observed in the formation of 
 words. For example : we do not think that mosis, mosi, and mosem were 
 the earlier and more genuine forms for moris, mori, morem ; or that the 
 nominative mos contains the original form ; and that, in the other cases, the 
 s was afterwards supplanted by r (as has been most confidently stated by 
 Kriiger in his Grammatik der Lat. Sprache, p. 190. foil.); but we assert that 
 mor is the true root, and that mosis^ mosi, and mosem, if they were used at 
 all, arose merely from a difference in pronunciation. The nominative as- 
 sumed the form mos instead of mor, because s was a kindred sound to r, and 
 because in other cases, too, s is the sign of the nominative. 
 
 [§ 8.] 4. The meeting of two vowels, one of which forms the 
 ending and the other the beginning of a word, causes an hiatus 
 or yawning. It is impossible to avoid it in the various com- 
 binations of words, though it is never considered an elegance. In 
 verse it is removed by the former of the vowels, whether it be 
 short or long, being passed over in reading or speaking {elisioi). 
 When therefore we find, e. g., sapere aude, or moid anus urnd, 
 we pronouijce saper' aude and mof anus urna. (Comp. Heindorf 
 on Horace, Serm. i. 9. 30.) How far anything similar was 
 done in ordinary language (in prose), cannot be said with cer- 
 tainty, although it is not improbable that at least short vowels, 
 when followed by another vowel, were likewise passed over 
 in quick speaking, and that people pronounced, for instance, 
 namqu! erit tempus^ atqv! ego quum viderem. The aspirate h does 
 not remove the hiatus, nor does it therefore prevent the elision 
 of the first vowel in verse, so that we pronounce toller' humo, 
 when we find it written tollere humo. As the m at the end of 
 a word w^as not audibly uttered when the next word began 
 with a vowel, the vowel preceding the m is likewise passed over 
 in reading verse, although the word is written at full length. 
 The hexameter line multum ille et terris jactatus et alto, is there- 
 fore read muW ilV et terris, &c. In the compounds veneo for 
 venum eo, and animadverto for animum adverto, this elision is 
 
 B 4 
 
» LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 made also in writing. The earlier poets threw out the s in the 
 terminations us and is when they were followed by consonants. 
 Lucilius, e. g., says, Turn lateral^ dolor certissimv! nuntiu^ 
 mortis; and even Cicero, in his youthful attempts at poetry 
 sometimes did the same, as in de terra la-psv! repente, magniC 
 leo and torvu^ draco : but, in the refined poetical language of the 
 Augustan age, this elision was no longer customary. 
 
 [§ ^.] Note 1. When the vowel thrown out by the elision is preceded by 
 another one, the latter does not produce a disagreeable hiatus, as in Capitolia 
 ad alta^ which is read in verse CapitoU ad alta. Nor is there any hiatus, 
 and consequently no elision, when a long vowel at the end of a word is 
 shortened, viz. in the case of monosyllabic words in the middle of the thesis 
 of dactylic verses, and in the dissolved arsis of iambic and trochaic feet, and 
 in the case of polysyllabic words at the end of the thesis of dactylic verses. 
 See, for example, Horace, Serm. i. 9. 38. : Si me amas, inquit, paulum hie 
 ades. Ovid, Metam. iii. 501. : dictoque vale vale inquit e.t Echo. Virgil, Mn. 
 iii. 211. : insulae lonio in magna ; and many other passages. 
 
 [§ 10.] Note 2. It was remarked above that the hiatus is not removed in 
 writing ; and that, of the two vowels which produce it, the former is thrown 
 out in reciting a verse. But an exception to this rule occurs when a word 
 terminating in a vowel or an m is followed by the word est ; for in this case 
 we find, at least in the critical editions of Plautus and Terence, that the first 
 word is preserved entire, and that est loses its vowel. The texts therefore 
 are written and pronounced temulenta 'st mulier^ homo 'st, molestum 'st. The 
 same thing has been found here and there in very ancient MSS. containing 
 fragments of Cicero's works, e. g. una natio 'st, difficile 'st, and in the oration 
 for Milo : quae ilia barharia 'st. (See Niebuhr's note on the fragment pro 
 Fontejo, p. 60.) In like manner we find est joined with a preceding word 
 terminating in us., e. g. opust and dictust; but in this case it remains doubtful 
 as to whether the s of opus is thrown out, or whether est has lost its first two 
 letters. Something similar, though more rarely, occurs in the termination 
 w, e. g. quali 'st. Whether the second person es was likewise joined with a 
 preceding word terminating in us is uncertain. (See Schneider, Elemen- 
 tarlehre, p. 162. foil.) 
 
 [§ 11.] Note 3. The hiatus which occurs within a word is generally not 
 removed ; and for this reason we did not notice it above. It should, how- 
 ever, be observed, that two vowels of the same sound are frequently united 
 (contracted) into one long vowel, and the poets always make dei'o and desse 
 out of deero and deesse. This explains the forms nil for nihil., and deprendo 
 for deprehendo, which arise from the elision of the aspirate. The contraction 
 of two equal or unequal vowels in the perfect of verbs, after the elision of 
 the V, is still more frequent ; e. g. audisti for audivisti, audiisti ; deleram 
 for delcveram, norunt for noverunt, concerning which see § 160. It also 
 not unfrequently happens in verse, that two different vowels are united, 
 by a rapid pronunciation, into a diphthong; in which, however, both 
 vowels are audible. This is called by a grammatical term st/naeresis, 
 and occurs when the two vowels of the words dein., deinde, proin., proinde, 
 huic and cm?', are united into diphthongs which are otherwise foreign to 
 the Latin language. In this way alone it is possible to make use of the 
 word fortuxtus in the dactylic hexameter ; and it is for the same purpose 
 
VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 9 
 
 that in nouns terminating in eus, when this ending is preceded by a long 
 syllable, we must contract into a diphthong not only the el in the genitive 
 singular, and els in the ablative plural, but also ed and eo ; for example, 
 alvel, aurei, Nerei, aureis (also anteis^ from the verb anteeo), Euryst eb, 
 cerea, just as a synaeresis sometimes occurs in the Greek words S'soe, Nec- 
 TTToXtixog, and ta. Some harsher kinds of synaeresis, such as quia, vTd^ vietisy 
 and quoad, are found in the comic poets and in Lucretius. 
 
 [§ 12.] 5. There is no necessity for giving any special rules 
 about the ortlwgraphy in Latin, since there is absolutely nothing 
 arbitrary in the spelling of words that requires to be learned: 
 but there are a great many separate words, of which neither 
 the pronunciation nor the spelling is established, and with regard 
 to which the ancients themselves were uncertain even in the 
 best times of their literature, as we see from the monuments 
 still extant. We shall here notice a few things which have not 
 been mentioned in our previous observations. We spell and pro- 
 nounce anuluSf sucus, paulum, belua^ litus better with one con- 
 sonant than with two ; whereas immo, nummus, sollemnis, sollers, 
 solUcitus, Juppiter, and quattuor are more correctly spelled with 
 two consonants than one. It is not certain whether we ought to 
 write liter a or litter a, though in most MSS. the t is doubled. 
 The authority of the ancient grammarians and the best MSS. 
 teach us to spell the singular mille with a double, and the plural 
 milia with a single /. The forms narus and navus are not cus- 
 tomary now, though they appear to be better than gnarus and 
 gnavus. Artus (narrow) is certainly better established than 
 arctus ; auctor and aucturnnus, on the other hand, are justly 
 preferred to autor and autumnus. The insertion of a /? between 
 m and t, e. g. in emptus, sumpsi, rather facilitates the pronun- 
 ciation than otherwise ; and the verb temptare is decidedly pre- 
 ferable to the form tentare which is now commonly used, the 
 former being found in the best MSS. The forms conjunx, 
 quotiens, and totiens are demanded by most of the ancient gram- 
 marians, and are found in good MSS., instead of conjux, quo- 
 ties, and toties. The words caecus, maereo, are more correctly 
 spelled with the diphthong ae than oe, and saeculum, saepire, and 
 taeter are better with the diphthong than with the simple 
 vowel e ; whereas in heres, fetus, femina, and fecundus, and 
 therefore probably in fenus, fenoris also (which are of the same 
 root), the simple vowel is better than the diphthong. But 
 it is very doubtful whether we ought to write scena or 
 
10 „ LATIN GRAMMAII. 
 
 scaena, and obsceniis or obscaemts or obscoenus. We do not 
 notice any other points here, because the orthography now 
 commonly adopted is the correct one. Compare Cellarius, 
 Orthographia Latina, ed. Harles, Altenburg, 1768, 8vo ; and 
 Schneider, Elementarlehre, Berlin, 1819, 8vo. 
 
 [§ 13.] 6. The Romans had no other point than the full 
 stop, and our whole artificial system of punctuation was un- 
 known to them: but, to facilitate the understanding of their 
 works, we now use in Latin the same signs which have become 
 established in our own language. The peculiarities, however, 
 in the formation of Latin sentences, the many complications 
 of their parts, and the attraction of the relative pronouns, 
 demand great caution in applying the signs of punctuation 
 in order that we may not by the use of too many signs separate 
 those parts of a sentence which belong to one another. 
 
 7. With regard to the use of capital and small letters, it 
 must be observed, that the Eomans, generally speaking, wrote 
 only in capital letters {litterae unciales), until in the latest period 
 of antiquity the small letters came into use, which are now 
 always employed in writing Latin. Capital initials are at present 
 used : a) at the beginning of a verse or at leist of a strophe ; Z>) 
 at the beginning of a new sentence, both in prose and in verse, 
 after a full stop, and after a colon when a person's own words 
 are quoted ; c) in proper names, and in adjectives and adverbs 
 which are derived from them, e. g., Latium, sermo Latinus, La- 
 tins loqui ; d) in words which express a title or office, such as 
 Consul, Tribunus, and Senaius, but not 'in their derivatives. 
 
 8. The diaeresis (jpuncta diaereseos) is a sign to facilitate 
 reading ; it is put upon a vowel which is to be pronounced se- 
 parately, and which is not to be combined with the preceding one 
 into a diphthong, as in aer, aeris, aerius, poeta ; and also in aura'i, 
 vital, since ai is only an ancient form for ae. In cases where 
 the diphthong would be foreign to the Latin language, the diae^ 
 resis is unnecessary, as in diei, Persei, because there can be no 
 fear of any one pronouncing the ei as a diphthong ; ferreus too 
 does not require it, since in a Latin, word no one will regard eu 
 as a diphthong. But we must write Gains and siluce, when the 
 consonants j and v are to be pronounced as vowels. The signs 
 to indicate the length or shortness of a vowel or a syllable 
 (- and ^ ) were sometimes used by the ancients themselves. 
 
SYLLABLES. 11 
 
 CHAP. IL 
 
 OF SYLLABLES. 
 
 [§ 14.] 1. A VOWEL or a diphthong may by itself form a 
 syllable, as in u-va^ me-o ; all other syllables arise from a com- 
 bination of consonants and vowels. The Latin language allows 
 only two consonants to stand at the end of a syllable, and three 
 only in those cases where the last is s. At the beginning of a 
 syllable, also, there can be no more than two consonants, except 
 when the first is a c, p, or s, followed by muta cum liquida; 
 and at the beginning of a word there never are three con- 
 sonants, except in the case of sc, sp, and st being followed by an 
 r or /; for example, do-ctrina, Ba-ctra, corru-ptrix, sce-ptrum, 
 ca-stra, magi-stri, Isthmus; spretus, strenuus, scriba, splendor. 
 
 2. It often appears doubtful as to how a word is to be di- 
 vided into syllables, and where the division is to be made at the 
 end of a line, when the space does not suffice. The following rules, 
 however, which are founded on the structure of the language, 
 should be observed : — 1) A consonant which stands between two 
 vowels belongs to the latter, as in ma-ter, 2) Those consonants 
 which, in Latin or Greek, may together begin a word, go 
 together in the division of syllables ; e. g., pa-tris, and not 
 pat-ris, as tr occur at the beginning of tres. In like manner, 
 li'bri (brevis), i-gnis {gnomon), o-mnis, da-mnum. {fivdofiaC), 
 a-ctus, pun-ctum {/crfj/uba), ra-ptus, scri-ptus, pro-pter {Ptole- 
 m.acus)y Ca-dmus (8/j,(bs9)f re-gnum {^vovs), va-fre {fretus), a-thleta 
 (^AtySo)), i-pse, scri-psi (yjravQ)), Le-shos {<r/3svwfjLi), e-sca, po-sco 
 {scando)f a-sper, ho-spes {spes), pastor, faustus, iste (stare). 
 The cases in which three consonants begin a syllable have been 
 mentioned above. TVTienever there occurs any combination of 
 consonants which cannot stand at the beginning of words, they 
 are treated according to the analogy of the rest. All combi- 
 nations of muta cum liquida, for instance, go together, as most 
 of them may commence a word ; and we must therefore divide 
 ara-chne, a-gmen, fra-gmentum, Da-phne, Pha-tnae, rhy-thmus, 
 smara-gdus, and Lu^gdunum, since gd is to be treated like ct. 
 3) In compound words, the division must be made so as to 
 keep the parts distinct, as inter-eram (not inte-reram\ because 
 
12 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 the word is compounded of inter and eram. So also ab-utor, 
 ah-rado, abs-condo, ahs-temius (from temetum), sus-cipio (from 
 the form subs), dis-quiro, et-iam, ob-latum; and red-eo, red-undo^ 
 prod-eo, and sed-itio, for the d, here inserted to prevent hiatus, 
 must go with the preceding vowel, because, if added to the 
 second, it would obscure the elements of the compound word. 
 But when the component parts of a word are doubtful, or 
 when the first word has dropped its termination to prevent 
 hiatus, the syllables are divided as if the word were not a com- 
 pound ; e. g., po-tes (from pote or potis es), ani-madverto and not 
 anim-adverto, ve-neo (from venum eo), ma-gnanimus, am-hages, 
 and lon-gaevus. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 OF THE LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. 
 
 [§ 15.] Syllables are long or short, either by the nature of 
 the vowel they contain, or they become long by their short vowel 
 being followed by two or more consonants, that is, by their 
 position. We shall first speak of the natural length and short- 
 ness of vowels. 
 
 1. All Diphthongs are long, and also all those single vowels 
 which have arisen from the contraction of two into one, such 
 as CO go (from coago\ mdlo (from mdvolo), tibicen (from tibiicen 
 and tibia, but tubicen from tuba), bigae (from bijugae), bubus and 
 bobus (from bovibus), and so also dis for diis, gratis for gratiis, 
 and ml for nihiL 
 
 Note. The preposition prae is commonly made short when compounded 
 with a word which begins with a vowel, e. g. Ovid, Metam. vii. 13L : Quos 
 uU viderunt praeacutae cuspidis hastas. The reason for this peculiarity is 
 explained in the rule following ; but there is no other instance in the Latin 
 language of a diphthong standing before a vowel. It occurs o_nly in Greek 
 proper names, in which however the diphthong remains long, as Aeolides Sisy- 
 phus^ and Aeeta relictus, for the examples which are adduced as proofs of the 
 diphthong being shortened (Ovid, Heroid. vi. 103., and Trist iii. 12. 2.) are 
 not decisive. 
 
 2. A Vowel is short, when it is followed by another vowel 
 ( Vocalis ante vocalem brevis est), as in deus, Jilius, plus, riio, 
 corrito ; and, as h is not considered as a consonant, also in such 
 words as trdho, contrdho, veho, and adveho. 
 
LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. 13 
 
 [§ 16.] Note. Exceptions. — 1) The vowel e in eheu is always long, the 
 o in ohe is frequently long, and the i in Diana sometimes. 2) The e in the 
 termination of the genitive and dative of the fifth declension is long when it 
 is preceded by a vowel, as in diei^ speciei. 3) a is long in the obsolete ending 
 of the genitive in the first declension, as in aurai and pictdi, for aurae and 
 pictae, in Virg. 4) a and e are long in the vocative terminations di and ei of 
 the words ending in ajvs and ejus ; e. g., Gai, Vultei. (See Chap. XI. note 3.) 
 5) All the genitives in ius^ except altcrius, have the i commonly long; the 
 poets however use the i in illiusj istius, ipsius, unius^ totius^ uUius, and utrius^ 
 sometimes as a long and sometimes as a short vowel. The instances of the i 
 in solius being shortened cannot be relied upon ; but allus^ being a contrac- 
 tion for aliius^ can never be made short. Alierius, on the other hand, is 
 sometimes made long (see § 49.). 6) The verb jfto has the i long, except 
 when an r occurs in it. Ovid, Trist. i. 8. 7.: Omnia jam f lent, fieri quae posse 
 negdbam. 7) Greek words retain their own original quantity, and we there- 
 fore say der^ eos (^wg), Amphlon, Agesildus^ and Meneldus. The e and i in the 
 terminations ea and eM5, or ia and iu^, therefore, are long when they represent 
 the Greek na and uoq (the Komans, not having the diphthong ei in their 
 language, represent the Greek ei sometimes by e and sometimes by i, but 
 these vowels, of course, are always long) ; e. g., Galatea^ Medea^ JEneas, 
 Dareus or Darius, Iphigenia, Alexandria, Antiochia, Nicomedla, Samaria^ 
 Seleucia, Thalia, Arms, Basilius, nosocomium, and the adjectives JBpicureus, 
 Pythagoreus, spondeus, and the like : but when the Greek is ta or la, the e 
 and i are short, as in idea, philosophia, theologia. The same is the case with 
 the patronymic words in ides, since the Greek may be icrjg, as in Priamides 
 and jEacides; or eicng, as in Atrides, Pelides, which are derived from Atreus 
 and Peleus. The only exceptions to this rule are, \k12Xplatea (a street) has 
 the e short, though according to the Greek TtXaTua it ought to be loVig, and 
 that chorea is sometimes used instead of chorea (xoptia). Some of the late 
 Roman poets use academia instead of academia, although in Greek writers it 
 is always long, whether spelled with n or with /. 
 
 Note 2. It is a part of the above rule, that a long vowel or diphthong 
 at the end of a word, when the word following begins with a vowel, is usually 
 made short in the thesis of a verse. (See above, Chap. I. 4. note 1.) 
 
 [§ 17.] 3. Usage {auctoritas) alone makes the vowel in the 
 first syllable of mater, f rater, pravus, mano (I flow), dico, duco, 
 miror, nitor, scribo, dono, pono, utor, muto, sumo, cura, &c. long ; 
 and short in pater, avus, cado, maneo, gravis, rego, tego, hibo, 
 minor, colo, moror, probo, domus, sono, soror, and others. It 
 must be presumed that the student makes himself acquainted 
 with the quantity of such words as these by practice, for rules can 
 be given only with regard to derivatives. It must further be 
 observed, that the i in the following words is long : formica, 
 lectlca, lorica, vesica, urtica, hemina, resina, sagina, saliva, castigo, 
 2kT\Aformido. 
 
 a) Derivative words retain the quantity of their root, as in 
 declension and conjugation : thus the a in amor and amo is 
 short, and therefore also in dmoris, amat, dmabam, dmavi, &c. ; 
 
14 . LATIN GRAMMAll. 
 
 except when the consonants after the vowel of the root produce 
 a difference. New words formed from roots likewise retain the 
 quantity; as ivovaamo — amor, amicus^ amabilis; from lux, lucis 
 — luceo, lucidus ; from mater — mdternus, mdtertera ; and from 
 finis — finio, f initio, finitimus, 8zc, 
 
 [§18.] Witli regard to Conjugation, however, the following rules also 
 must be observed. 
 
 1. The perfect and supine, when they consist of two syllables, and the 
 tenses formed from them, have the first syllable long, even when in the present 
 tense it is short, e. g., video, vldi ; fUgio, fugi ; lego, legi, legisse, legeram, &c. 
 (except, however, when one vowel stands before another, in which case the 
 general rule remains in force, as in ruo, rui^ dirUi); video, visum; moveo, 
 motum, motus, moturus. Seven dissyllable perfects, however, and nine dis- 
 syllable supines, together with their compounds, make their penultima short ; 
 viz. bibi, dedi\fidi (Jvom Jindo), steti, stiti, tUli, and scidi (from scindo), and 
 datum, rdtum., sdtum, itum, litum, citum, quitum, situm, and i^iitum. Sisto makes 
 its supine stdtum, whence status, a, um, and the compounds adstitum, destitum, 
 restitum. 
 
 2. Perfects which are formed by reduplication, as tundo, tutudi; cano, cecini; 
 pello, pepuli, have the first two syllables short: but the second sometimes 
 becomes long by position, as in mordeo, momordi; tendo, tetendi. Pedo and 
 caedo are the only two words which retain the long vowel in the syllable 
 which forms the root, pepedi, cecidi; whereas ccido, in accordance with the 
 rule, has cecidi. 
 
 3. The perfect posui and the supine positum have the o short, although in 
 pono it is long. 
 
 With regard to Declension, we must notice the exception that the words 
 Zar, par, sal, and pes, shorten their vowel throughout their declension : sdlis, 
 pedis, &c. 
 
 [§ 19.] In the formation of new words by Derivation, there are several 
 exceptions to the above rule. The following words make the short vowel 
 long: mdcer, mdcero; legere, lex, legis, legare; rego, rex, regis, regula; tego, 
 tegula; secus, secius ; sedeo, sedes; se?^o, semen, sementis ; lino, litera (if we 
 do not prefer littera); stips, stipis, stlpendium; suspicor, suspicio ; persdno, 
 persona ; vdco, vox, vocis ; and homo, Immanus. The following words have a 
 short vowel, although it is long in the root: Idhare from Idhi; ndtare from 
 ndre ; pdciscor from pax, pads ; ambitus and ambitio from amhlre, ambltum ; 
 dicax from dicere; fides and perfidus £romfido and fidus (and we regu- 
 larly find infidus) ; mdlestus from moles; ndta and ndtare from notus; odium 
 from odi; sdpor I'rom sopire; dux, ducis, and i^edux, reducis, from dUco ; lucerna 
 from luceo ; stdtus, stdtio, stdbilis, stabulum, must be derived from sisto, unless 
 we suppose that they are likewise shortened from stdtum (from stare). 
 
 [§ 20.] The Terminations, or final syllables, by means of which an adjective 
 is formed from a verb or a substantive, are of a different kind. Among these 
 alis, aris, arius, aceus, anus, ivus, and osus, have a long vowel ; but idus, icus, 
 and icius, a short one; e.g., letdlis, vulgdris, montdnus, aestlvus, vindsus, 
 avidus, bellicus, pat7'icius. A long i, however, occurs in amicus, apricus, pu- 
 dicus, anticus, and posticus, and in the substantives mendicus and umbilicus. 
 The terminations ilis and bilis have the i short when they make derivatives 
 from verbs, but long when from substantives ; e. g., facilis, docilis, and amabilis, 
 but civilis, hostilis, puerilis, senilis, &c. The i in the termination inus may be 
 
LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. 15 
 
 long or short : it is long in adjectives derived from names of animals and 
 places, as ansei^lnus^ asininus^ equlnus, hiplnus, Caudinus, Latlnus^ and a few 
 others, such as divlnus, genuiniis, cknidestlnus^ ijitestinus, martnus, pereginnus^ 
 and viclnus; it is short in most adjectives which express time, as crastmus, 
 diutinns^ pristinus^ serotinus, honwtinus^ perendinus^ and in those which indicate 
 a material or substance, as adamantmus^ bomhycinus^ crystallXnus, elephanttnus^ 
 cedrinus, fagmus, oleaginus. Some adjectives expressive of time, however, 
 have the i long, viz. matutinus, vespertlnus, and repentmus. 
 
 [§ 2l] b) Compounded words retain the quantity of the 
 vowels of their elements : thus from avus and nepos we make 
 abcivus and abnepos, from prdvus deprdvo, from probus improbus, 
 from jus (juris) perjurus, from le^o (I read) perlego, and from 
 lego (I despatch) ablego, delego, collega. Even when the vowel is 
 changed, its quantity remains the same: e. g., laedo, illido; caedo, 
 inc'ido; aequus^ imquus; fauces, suffoco; claudo, recludo; fdcio, 
 efflcio; cddo, incido; rdtus, irritus; rego, erigo; lego, eUgo, We 
 may therefore infer from compounded words the quantity of 
 those of which they consist; e. g., from adoro, admiror, and abutor 
 we conclude that oro, miror, and utor have the first syllable long ; 
 and from commoror and desuper, that the first syllable in moror 
 and super is short, which is not always accurately distinguished 
 in pronunciation, because these syllables have the accent. (See 
 Chap. lY.) 
 
 "We shall mention here, by way of example, a few more compounds from 
 which the quantity of the vowels in their elements may be inferred. We 
 shall choose such as cannot be mentioned in any of the subsequent lists, and 
 present them in the tliird person singular of the present tense. We have a 
 long vowel in exhdlat, concldmat, alldtrat, delibat, constlpat, evitat, h^ritaty 
 deplorat, enodat, compotat^ refutat^ obdurat, and communit ; and a short one in 
 exdrat, comparat, endtat^ irrigate alltgat^ perfricat^ erudit, expolit, devorat, 
 comprdbat^ computat, recubat, and suppiidet. 
 
 But there are some exceptions, and the following compounded words 
 change the long vowel into a short one : dejero and pejero from juro ; cau- 
 sidiciis, fatidicus^ maledicus, veridicus, from dicere ; agnitus and cogmtus from 
 votiLS ; mnub(us), -a, and pronub(us), -a, from nubo. The case is reversed 
 in imbecillus from bdculus. 
 
 [§ 22.] In respect to Composition with Prepositions, it is to be remarked, 
 that prepositions of one syllable which end in a vowel are long, and those 
 which end in a consonant are short : deduco^ dboleo, perimo. Tra (formed 
 from trans)^ as in trddo, trdduco, is long ; but the o (for ob) in omitto and 
 dperior is short. Pro, in Greek words, is short, as in prdpheta, but prologus; 
 prdpola, and propino form exceptions. In Latin words pro is long, e. g. 
 prOdo, promitto : but in many it is short ; prdfugio, profugus, pronepos, prd- 
 jiteor, prof art, prof amis, profestus, profecto, profciscor, profundus, prdiervus, 
 procella, and a few others, the derivation of which is doubtful, as prdceres, 
 propitius, prdperare ; in some the quantity is undecided. Se and di (for dis) 
 
16 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 are long ; the only exceptions are dirimo and disei^tus. Re is short ; it is long 
 only in the impersonal verb refert * ; in all other cases where it appears 
 long, the consonant which follows it must be doubled (in verse), as in rep- 
 puli, repperi, rettuU, rettudi, reccido, redduco, relligio^ relliquiae; the four 
 perfects reppuli^ repperi^ rettuli and rettudi appear to have been pronounced 
 and spelled in this way, even in prose. In the same manner reddo^ reddere^ 
 arose from do. The termination a in prepositions of two syllables is long, 
 as in contradico ; all the others are short, as aniefero^ praetereo. 
 
 [§ 23.] When the first word of a composition is not a preposition, it is 
 necessary to determine the quantity of the final vowel (a, e, z, o, 7i, y) of the 
 first word. 1) a is long, as in qudre and qudpropter^ except in quasi. 2) e 
 is mostly short, as in calefacio (notice especially neque, nequeo, nefas, nefastuSy 
 nefariuSy nefandus)^ but long in nequam^ nequidquam, nequaquam and nemo 
 (which is contracted from ne and hemo, the ancient form for homo} ; also in se- 
 decim and the pronouns memet, mecum, tecum, and secum ; in veneficu^, videlicet^ 
 vecors, and vesanus. 3) i is short, e. g. significo, sacrilegus, cornicen, tuhicen, 
 omnipotens, undique ; but long in compounded pronouns, as quiUbet, utrlque^ 
 in ibidem, ublque, utroblque, llicet and scilicet; also in the compounds of 
 dies, as biduum, triduum, merldies ; and lastly, in all those compounds of 
 which the parts may be separated, such as lucrifacio, agrlcultura, siquis^ 
 because the i at the end of the first word is naturally long, and remains so. 
 4) o is short, hodie, duodecim, sacrosanctus, but long in compounds with 
 contro, intro, retro, and qvxmdo {quxxndoquidem alone forms an exception) ; it 
 is long in alioqui, ceteroqui, utroque, and in those Greek words in which 
 the o represents the Greek w, as in geometria. 5) u and y are short, as in 
 quadrupes, Polyphemus. 
 
 4. In regard to the quantity of Final Syllables, the following 
 special rules must be observed : — 
 
 A. Monosyllabic Words. 
 
 [§ 24.] 1) All monosyllables ending in a vowel are long ; 
 except the particles which are attached to other words : que, ve, 
 ce, ne, te (tute), pse (reapse), and pte (suopte). 
 
 Note. Ne, the interrogative particle, is always short, and is attached to 
 other words as an enclitic, as in videsne, dost thou see ? or dost thou not 
 see ? In the ordinary pronunciation it was still more shortened by throwing 
 off the vowel, as in credon' tibi hoc nunc ? and, in case of an s preceding, this 
 letter was likewise dropped, as airC tu ? for aisne tu f satin' recte ? satin' 
 salvae ? for satisne recte ? satisne salvae ? The conjunction ne (lest, or that 
 not) is long. Respecting ne, as an inseparable negative particle in compo- 
 sitions, see above, § 23. 
 
 2) Among the monosyllables ending in a consonant, the sub- 
 stantives are long, as sol, vir,fur, jus; and all those are short 
 
 * The re in this word is probably not a particle as in relego, but the 
 accusative of the word res, so that refert is equal to rem fert. This 
 would account for the length of the e. (See Key, J'he Alphabet, p. 78.) 
 
LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. 17 
 
 which are not substantives, as ict, et, nee, in, an, ad, quid, sed, quis, 
 quot. The following substantives however are short : cor, fel, 
 mel, vir and os (gen. ossis), and probably also mas, a male being, 
 and vas, a surety, since they have the a short in the genitive : 
 mdrii, vddis. Some words, on the other hand, are long, although 
 they are not substantives ; as en, non, quin, sin, eras, plus, eur, 
 and par with its compounds, and also the adverbs in ie or ue, as 
 sic, hie, hue. The monosyllabic forms of declension and conju- 
 gation follow the general rules about the quantity of final syl- 
 lables, and das, fies, and seis accordingly are long, while ddt, flet, 
 and scit are short ; his, quos, quas are long, like the terminations 
 OS and as in declension. So also the ablative singular hoe and 
 hde. The nominative hie and the neuter hoc, on the other hand, 
 although the vowel is naturally short, are commonly used as 
 long, because the pronunciation was hice and hocc (as a compen- 
 sation for the ancient form hice, hoee). The abridged impera- 
 tives retain the quantity of the root, so that die and due are 
 long, while /«c smdfer are short. 
 
 Note, We formerly thought with other grammarians, that fdc was long, 
 and that we ought to read /ace in those passages in which it is found short. 
 (See Heinsius and Burmann on Ovid, Heroid. ii. 98.) But there is no 
 satisfactory evidence for fac being long, and the instances quoted by Vos- 
 sius (Aristarch. ii. 29.) have now been altered for other reasons. 
 
 B. Final Syllables in Wobds op two or more Syllables. 
 
 [§ 25.] 1) Such as terminate in a Vowel. 
 
 A is short in nouns, except in the ablative singular of the first 
 declension and in the vocative of Greek proper names in as 
 which belong to the first or third declension, e. g. j^fied, Palld. 
 A is long in verbs and indeclinable words, such as amd, frustrd, 
 ergd, anted, and posted (except when separated into post ea\ 
 except itd, quid, ejd, and the imperative putd in the sense of 
 "for example." In the indeclinable numerals, as triginta and 
 quadraginta, the a is sometimes long and sometimes short. 
 
 E is short, as in patre, curre, nempe; but long in the ablative 
 of the fifth declension and in the imperative of the second con- 
 jugation; the poets however, and especially the comic ones, 
 sometimes shorten the imperative of the words cave, habe, juhe, 
 mane, tace, vale, and vide. Adverbs in e formed from adjec- 
 tives of the second declension are likewise long, as docte, recte; 
 
 c 
 
18 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 nho fere, fer me, and ohe (but bene and male are always short, and 
 inferne and superne sometimes), and Greek words of the first 
 declension terminating in e, as crambe, Circe, and Greek plurals, 
 as Tempe and cete. 
 
 [§ 26.] / is long. It is short only in the vocative of Greek 
 words in is, e. g. Alexi, in the Greek dative in i, which however 
 occurs seldom, as in Palladia Tethyi, and in nisi, quasi, and cm, 
 when it is used as a dissyllable. The i is common or doubtful 
 in mihi, sibi, ibl and ubi; in compounds we commonly find ibi- 
 dem and always ubique, whereas in ubivis and ubinam the i is 
 always short. . In uti for 7it the i is long, but in the compounds 
 utinam and utique short. 
 
 O is common in the present tense of all the conjugations, and 
 in the nominative of the third declension, as in sermo, virgo; 
 the Greek words in o (&>, Gen. ovs) however remain long in 
 Latin, as Id, Dido. But o is long in the second declension, 
 as in lecto, and in adverbs formed from nouns and pronouns 
 by means of this termination (see §264.); e. g. vulgo, falso, 
 paulo, eo, quo, and also ergo, iccirco, quando, and retro. In the 
 poets however gerunds and the following adverbs are some- 
 times short : ergo in the sense of " therefore," porro, postremo, 
 sero, quando (the compound quandoquidem occurs only with a 
 short o). The adverbs modo (with all its compounds, and also 
 quomodo), cito, illico, and immo, and also cedo (for die or da), ego, 
 duo, and octo are always short, whereas ambo is generally long. 
 
 Note. 6> as a termination of verbs has been here described as common ; 
 it must however be observed, that it is naturally long, and is used so by 
 most poets of the best age, such as Virgil, Horace (in his Odes)^ and Ovid 
 (in his Metamorphoses)^ in their serious productions. In their lighter poems 
 however, and in the works of later poets, it is also used short, according to 
 the example of the comic poets, though this was done at first less frequently, 
 until at last it became the prevalent custom to make the o short. (See 
 Lennep's elaborate note on Ovid, Heroid. xv. 32., reprinted in the edition of 
 Loers.) The same is the case with o in substantives of the third declension, 
 for the earlier poets always prefer using it as a long syllable. 
 
 Uis> always long, as in diu, vultu, cornu. 
 Y\Vi Greek words is always short. 
 
 2) Such as terminate in a Consonant. 
 
 [§ 27.] All final syllables ending in a consonant are short, and 
 special rules arc required only for those ending in the sibilant s. 
 
LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. 19 
 
 Note. The dissyllabic compounds of par retain the quantity of the 
 single word, and the cases of istic and illic follow those of hie. (See § 131.) 
 Greek words retain their original quantity in their final syllables, except 
 those in or, as Hector, Nestor, which are short in Latin, although in Greek 
 they end in utp. The only exceptions in genuine Latin words are lien 
 (formed from lienis which is still used) and alec. 
 
 [§ 28.] As is lon^ in Latin words, with the exception of anas, 
 anatis ; but the Greek nominatives in as, which make their 
 genitives in ahos and in Latin in adis, such as, Ilias, Pallas, and 
 the Greek accusatives plural of the third declension, are always 
 short, as in herods. 
 
 Es is long, e. g. ames, leges, audies, pati'es. But Latin no- 
 minatives in es, which increase in the genitive, and have their 
 penultima short, are themselves short ; e. g. miUs, militis ; seges, 
 segetis (except ahies, aries, paries, Ceres, and the compounds of 
 pes') ; also the nominatives plural of Greek words, which increase 
 in the genitive singular, as Amazones, Troades ; the preposition 
 penes and the second person of the compounds of sum, h, 
 e. g. abes, potes ; but the es (for edis) from edo is long, (See 
 §212.) 
 
 [§ 29.] Is is generally short, but long in all the cases of the 
 plural, as armis, vohis, omnis (accus. for omnes) ; in the second 
 person singular of verbs whose second plural is itis, that is, 
 in the fourth conjugation, and in possis, veils, noils, malls, and 
 vis (thou wilt), with its compounds, such as mavis, quivls, 
 quamvls. Respecting the quantity of is in the perfect sub- 
 junctive and in the second future see § 165. Is, lastly, is long 
 in proper names of the third declension, which, increasing in 
 the genitive, have their penultima long ; e. g. Quirls, Ids ; Sam- 
 nis, Itis ; Salamls, Inis ; Simols, entis. 
 
 Os is long, as in nepos, honos, viros ; it is short only in 
 compos and impos, and in Greek words and cases in 09, e. g. 
 Delos, Erinnyos. 
 
 Us is short in verbs and nouns except monosyllables, but 
 long in the genitive singular, in the nominative and accusative 
 plural of the fourth declension, and in the nominatives of the 
 third, which have u in the genitive, as virtus, utis ; palus, udis. 
 It is also long when it represents the Greek ovs, as in Panthus, 
 Melampus, Sapphus, (Comp. § 59.) 
 
 Ys in Greek words is short, as Halys, Tethys, chlamys, and 
 
 c 2 
 
20 . LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 long only in the few instances in which the yis of the genitive is 
 contracted into ys, 
 
 [§ 30.] 5. Syllables (as was remarked in the beginning of this 
 chapter) may become long by their vowel being followed by 
 two or more consonants, that is, by their position : x and z are 
 accounted as two consonants. (See above, § 3.) A position 
 may be formed in three ways: — 1. When a syllable ends in 
 two or three consonants, as in ex, est, mens, stirps. — 2. When 
 the first syllable ends in a consonant and the second begins with 
 one, as in ille, arma, mentis, in nova. — 3. When the first syllable 
 ends in a vowel, and the one following begins with two con- 
 sonants. By the first and second kinds of position, a syllable 
 which is naturally short becomes long. Exceptions to this rule 
 occur only in the comic poets who frequently neglect position, 
 especially that of the second kind. 
 
 Note. In syllables long by position we usually pronounce the vowel 
 itself short ; but the ancients in their pronunciation even here distin- 
 guished the long vowel from, the short one, just as in Greek we must pro- 
 nounce Trpaxraix) with a long a, because it is naturally long, as we see from 
 irpa^iQ and Trpayfxa. With regard to other vowels, we are assisted by the 
 Greek signs tj, w, and f, o ; but in Latin words, unless we can be guided'by 
 verse, we can derive information only from etymology and from the state- 
 ments of the ancient grammarians. Thus they distinguished est (he is) from 
 est (for edit), and they pronounced the vowel in con and in when followed 
 in compounds by f or s, long, as in Infelix, Insanus, consul, confecit. (See 
 Cicero, Orat. 48.) Dens, gens, mens, fons, frons, and mons, were uttered 
 with a long vowel, and in like manner pax, lex, lux, rex, and vox, because 
 they have their vowel long in the genitive also (plebs, plebis, belongs to the 
 same class) ; whereas fax, nex, nix, nux, were pronounced with their vowel 
 short, because they form the genitive facts, necis, &c. (Comp. Schneider, 
 Elementarl. p. 108. foil) 
 
 [§ 31.] In the third kind of position (made by two consonants 
 beginning the syllable after a vowel), we must distinguish as to 
 whether it occurs within a word or between two words, and 
 whether the consonants are muta cum liquida, or not. Within 
 a word a syllable ending in a short vowel is regularly made 
 long, when it is followed by two consonants or x and z, as in 
 a-ptus, fa-ctus, a-xis ; but when the first consonant is a mute 
 and the second a liquid (which is called positio dehilis), they 
 make the vowel only common, according to the pronunciation in 
 prose. Thus, we may pronounce either cerebrum, luguhris, me- 
 diocris, integri, or cerebrum, lugubris, mediocris, integri. Ovid, 
 for example, says : — Et primo similis volUcri, mox vera volUcris. 
 
LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. 21 
 
 {Metam, xiil. 607.) Between two words the vowel is rarely- 
 lengthened, except in the arsis of a verse. The last syllable of a 
 word thus remains short, e. g. in Horace at the beginning 
 of an hexameter: — quern mala stuliitia aut; or at the end: 
 praemia scribae. An instance in which the vowel is lengthened 
 by the accession of the arsis occurs in Virgil, Bucol. iv. 51. : — 
 Terrasque tractusque maris coelumque profundum. 
 
 Qu is not accounted as two consonants, for ?/ is not a true 
 consonant, though we usually pronounce it as such. But j 
 alone is sufficient to make position, because this consonant was 
 pronounced double (in early times it was also written double) ; 
 e. g. major like maijor, and in like manner in ejus and Troja, 
 In the compounds oiju^um alone it does not lengthen the pre- 
 ceding vowel, as Mjugus, quadrijugus, nor does it, according to 
 the rule mentioned above, lengthen the vowel when it begins 
 a new word, and the preceding word ends in a short vowel, as in 
 the hexameter of Virgil (^Georg. i. 125.): — Ante Jovem nulli 
 subigebant arva coloni. 
 
 Note. The determination of the quantity of a vowel before muta cum 
 liquida within a word has great difficulties, and we must add the following 
 observations. The practice of the different poets varies greatlj. Virgil, e.g., 
 is particularly fond of lengthening a vowel by its position before muta cum 
 liquida; and he and the poets in general usually contrive to make the vowel 
 thus lengthened coincide with the arsis in the verse ; by the same con- 
 trivance he also lengthens the short final syllable of a word, especially the 
 enclitic que^ in the second foot of an hexameter, by the muta cum liquida 
 which follow it. We have further to observe particular words which have 
 their vowel short, viz. liber^ niger^ joiner, and ruber ; but in their inflections, 
 where the muta cum liquida occurs, the vowel almost always becomes long; 
 coluber^ e. g., is short ; but colUbrae, colUhris^ are long, and migro is made 
 long by the best poets in the hexameter. Other words however are either 
 never lengthened, as arhitror^ or very seldom, as locHples. There are, on the 
 other hand, some cases of muia cum liquida^ which form a strong position 
 both in Latin and Greek, viz. where the liquid is either Z, m., or w, and the 
 mute either &, g, or d. (See Buttmann's Greek Grammar, § 7. 10.) Thus 
 the Latin words publicum, agmen, regnum and ignarus, always have their 
 first syllable long. 
 
 It is almost superfluous to repeat here, that we are speaking only of such 
 vowels as are naturally short ; for, when the vowel is naturally long, a 
 lengthening by positio dehilis is out of the question, and we therefore always 
 say ambulacrum, lavdcrum, delubrum, involucrum and salubris. When the 
 consonants muta cum liquida belong to different syllables, as in ab-luo, ob-ruo. 
 quam-ob-rem, they make real position. 
 
 c 3 
 
22 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 OF THE ACCENT OF WORDS. 
 
 [§ 32.] 1. It is a general rule that every word has an accent on 
 one particular syllable. This accent is twofold, either the cir- 
 curnflex {^), or the acute ('), for what is called the grave in Greek 
 means only the absence of either accent. Some words have no 
 accent, viz. the enclitics ne, que, ve, ce, which never appear by 
 themselves, but are attached to other words. Prepositions lose 
 their accent when they precede the cases which they govern. 
 
 Note. The addition of these enclitics produces a change in the accent of 
 the words to which they are attached, and which thus become compounds. 
 The ancient grammarians have established the rule, that whenever an 
 enclitic has a meaning of its own, the accent is thrown back upon the 
 syllable immediately before the enclitic, and either as the acute (if the vowel 
 of that syllable is short), or as the circumflex (if the vowel is long), as in 
 Musdque (nominat.) homineque^ and Musaque (ablat.) armisque. When, on 
 the other hand, the enclitic, has no meaning by itself, and forms only one 
 word with that to which it is attached, the accent varies, as will be shown 
 hereafter. This is the case with que ; for in some compounds it either does 
 not possess the meaning of " and " at all, or only very indistinctly. Hence 
 in itdque (and so) the accent belongs to the short penultima, and in itaque 
 (therefore), in which the meaning of "and" is quite obscured, the pronun- 
 ciation .places the accent upon the antepenultima. In the same manner we 
 have to distinguish between utique (and that) and utique (certainly). By 
 way of exception the same grammarians place the accent on the penultima 
 in utrdque and plerdque^ on account of the accent of the masculine forms 
 uterque and plerique^ although according to the general rule, que not meaning 
 " and," we ought to pronounce utraque and pleraque. They further inform 
 us that we should pronounce nequando and siquando^ in order that quando 
 may not be taken for a separate word, and aliquando in order to distinguish 
 it from aliqudnto. 
 
 [§ 33.] 2. Monosyllables are pronounced with the circum- 
 flex, when their vowel is long by nature and not merely by 
 position, as in dvs, mos, Jlos, jus, lux, spes, fans and mans ; but 
 ^vhen the vowel is naturally short, they are pronounced with the 
 acute, although the syllable may be long by position ; e. g. drs, 
 pars, fax, dux. 
 
 Note. Sic (so) the adverb should be pronounced with the circumflex, 
 and sic^ which indicates a wish, with the acute ; e. g. Sic te, diva potens 
 Cypri, &c. in Horace Comp. Priscian, De XII. Vers. jEn. 
 
ACCENT OF WOKDS. ^ 23 
 
 3. Words of two syllables have the accent on the first, either 
 as circumflex, when the vowel of that syllable is naturally long, 
 and that of the second one short ; or as acute, when the vowel of 
 the first syllable is short and that of the second long ; or when 
 the vowel of the first as well as that of the second is long ; e. g. 
 Roma, musd, luce, juris ; but homo because both syllables are 
 short ; deas, because the first is short and the second long ; arte, 
 because the first is long only by position ; and doti, for although 
 the vowel of the first is naturally long, yet that of the second is 
 likewise long. The ancient grammarians do not notice those 
 cases where a syllable long by position is at the same time long 
 by the nature of its vowel (see above, § 30.); but it is pro- 
 bable that consul, monte, dente, esse (for edere), asthma and 
 sceptrum, were pronounced in the same manner as luce. 
 
 4. Words of three syllables may have the accent on the ante- 
 
 penultima and penultima ; the acute on the antepenultima, 
 
 when the penultima is short, as in caedere, pergere, homines ; the 
 
 accented syllable itself may be long or short. The circumflex 
 
 is placed on the penultima on the conditions before-mentioned, 
 
 as in amdsse, Romdnus ; and the acute, when those conditions do 
 
 not exist, and yet the penultima is long, as in Romdnis, Me- 
 
 tellus. No word can have the accent further back than the 
 
 antepenultima, so that we must pronounce Constantinopolis, sol- 
 
 licitudinibus. 
 
 Note. Priscian (p. 803. ed. Putsch.) remarks as an exception, that the 
 compounds oi facer e., which are not formed by means of a preposition, such 
 as calefdcit^ tepefacit.^ and (p. 739.) the contracted genitives in i instead 
 of ii (see § 49.), have the accent on the penultima, even when it is short, as 
 in ingeni, Valeri, so that we must pronounce calefdcit, ingeni. He asserts 
 the same with regard to the vocative of proper names in ius, e. g. VirgUij 
 Valeri; while other grammarians (A. Gellius, xiii. 25.) leave to this case its 
 regular accentuation, Virgili and not Virgili. 
 
 [§ 34.] 5. Words of two or more syllables never have the ac- 
 cent on the last, and it appears that it was only the grammarians 
 who invented a different mode of accentuation for the purpose 
 of distinguishing words which would otherwise sound alike. 
 They tell us that the words pone (behind) and ergo (on account 
 of) should have the accent on the last syllable, to distinguish 
 them from pone (put) and ergo (therefore). They further accen- 
 tuate the last syllables of the adverbs circum, docte, raro, primo, 
 solum, and modo, to distinguish them from the cases which have 
 
 c 4 
 
24 . LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 the same terminations. The interrogatives quando, qualis, 
 quantus, uhi, and others, are said to have the accent on the first 
 syllable, according to the rule ; but when used in the sense of 
 relatives, to have the accent on the last syllable, unless the acute 
 be changed into the grave by reason of their connection with 
 other words which follow. The words ending in as which ori- 
 ginally ended in atis, such as optimaSf nostras, Arpinas, are said 
 to have the accent on the syllable on which they had it in their 
 complete form, and which is now the last. The same is asserted 
 with regard to the contracted perfects, such as audit for audivit. 
 It is impossible to determine how much of all this was really 
 observed by the ancients, since it is expressly attested by earlier 
 writers, such as Quintilian, that in Latin the accent was never 
 put on the last syllable. But it is certainly wrong to put the 
 grave on the last syllable of all adverbs, as some persons still do, 
 or to use accents for the purpose of indicating the natural length 
 of a vowel, which is better expressed by a horizontal line ("). 
 
 [§ 35.] 6. These rules concerning accentuation ought to lead 
 us to accustom ourselves to distinguish accent from quantity ; 
 to read, for example, homines and not homines, and to distinguish 
 in our pronunciation edo (I eat) from edo (I edit), lego (I read) 
 from lego (I despatch), and in like manner jfz^m (thou rarest), 
 legis (thou readest) and regis (thou rulest) from the genitives 
 furis, regis and legis; further, levis (light) from levis (smooth), 
 mdlus (bad) from mdlus (an apple-tree), pdlus, udis (a marsh), 
 from pdluSf i (a post), dnus (an old woman) from anus {irpwKTos), 
 lutum (mud) from lutum (a dyer's weed), and also lu'teus (dirty 
 or muddy) from lu'teus (yellow), and po'pulus (the people) from 
 po'puhis (a poplar). In our own language accent and quantity 
 coincide, but it is very wrong to apply this peculiarity to a lan- 
 guage to which it is foreign. 
 
25 
 
 THE ACCIDENCE. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 DIVISION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR SIGNIFICATION. 
 
 [§ 36.] The words of every language are either nouns, verbs, 
 or particles. 
 
 A noun serves to denote an object or a quality of an object, 
 and may accordingly be either a substantive, as domus (a house), 
 a pronoun, as ego (I), or an adjective, as parvus (small). Nouns 
 are declined to indicate their different relations. 
 
 A verb expresses an action or condition which is ascribed to a 
 person or a thing, as scribo, ire, dormire, amari. A verb is con- 
 jugated in order to indicate the different modes in which an 
 action or condition is ascribed to a person or a thing. 
 
 Particles are those parts of speech, which are neither declined 
 nor conjugated, and which are neither nouns nor verbs. They 
 are divided into the following classes. 1) Adverbs express the 
 circumstances of an action or condition, as ^ribit bene, he writes 
 well; diu dormit, he sleeps long. 2) Prepositions express, either 
 directly or indirectly (§ 295.), the relations of persons or things 
 to one another or to actions and conditions ; as, amor meus erga 
 te, my love towards thee; eo ad te, I go to thee. 3) Conjunctions 
 express the connexion between things, actions, or propositions; 
 as, ego et tu; clamavit, sed pater non audivit. 4) Interjections 
 are the expressions of emotion by a single word; as ah, ohe, 
 vae. 
 
 These are the eight parts of speech in Latin; all of them 
 occur in the following hexameter : — 
 
 Vae tibi ridenti, quia mox post gaudia Jlebis. 
 
26 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 • CHAP. VI. 
 
 NOUXS SUBSTANTIVE. — GENERAL RULES OF GENDER. 
 
 [§ 37.] Nouns substantive are either proper {iiomina propria)^ 
 i. e. the names of one particular man or thing, or common {no- 
 mina appellativa), i. e. such as denote persons or things in so far 
 as they belong to a class. 
 
 All nouns have one of three genders ; masculine, feminine, 
 or neuter. 
 
 The manner in which the gender of a noun can be ascertained 
 from its termination will be explained under each declension. 
 Our object here is to show the gender of nouns, both proper 
 and common, in so far as it depends upon their meaning. 
 
 ]. The following are masculine: the names of men and of 
 male beings; as homo,vir, scriba, Jlamen, consul, rex, deus, daemon, 
 Cupido (the God of Love), manes (the spirits of the departed), 
 lemur es (spectres) ; and the names of rivers, winds, and months, 
 the words j^mu/m5, ventus, and mensis being themselves masculine. 
 
 [§ 38.] Exceptions. There are some substantives which do not originally 
 denote men,but have come to be applied to them by custom ; as operae, labour- 
 ers ; vigiliae and excubiae, sentinels ; copiae, troops ; auxilia, auxiliary troops ; 
 mancipium, a slave ; scortum and prostihulum^ a prostitute. All such words 
 have the gender which belongs to them according to their termination. 
 
 The names of rivers in a, belonging to the first declension, vary in 
 their gender. (See Schneider, Formenlehre^ p. 14.) Modern writers com- 
 monly make them feminine ; but the ancients, in most cases, make them 
 masculines, which is the gender belonging to them. (See § 47.) The 
 mythological rivers Styx and Lethe are feminine, as in Greek. The names 
 of winds and months are, without exception, masculine ; hence Id Etesia, 
 hie Libs, hie Aprilis. With regard to the names of the months it must be 
 observed that all of them are adjectives, and that the best writers use them 
 only as such, the substantive mensis being understood. Hence also Ca- 
 lendae Januariae, Nonae Sextiles, Idus Martiae, Majae, ante Calendas Au- 
 gustas, Idibus Decembribus. See Drakenborch, on Livy (iv. 37.), who, with 
 most other commentators, is so strongly convinced of this, that he does not 
 hesitate to correct passages in which this rule is not observed. 
 
 The names of mountains are generally said to be masculine ; but when 
 the word mons is not joined with them, the gender depends upon their 
 termination, as in alia Aetna. 
 
 [§ 39.] 2. The following are feminine: the names of women 
 and female beings ; e. g. uxor, wife ; soror, sister ; anus, an old 
 woman ; socrus, mother-in-law ; Juno, Venus; and even when 
 they end in um, as Phanium, Glycerium, Leontium. Most of the 
 
GENDEK OF SUBSTANTIVES. 27 
 
 names of trees, towns, countries, and islands, just as the words 
 arhos, urbs, terra (regio), and insula, themselves are feminine ; 
 e. g. alta cedrus, pinus, ahies, the high cedar, pine, fir ; umbrosa 
 fagus, the shady beech ; Jicus Indica, opulenta Corinthus, antiqua 
 Tyrus, dura Lacedaemon, Aeggptus superstitiosa, clara Salamis, 
 
 Exceptions. The names of trees and shrubs ending in er, and following 
 the third declension, are neuter ; as acer, cicer^ papaver, to which we must 
 add robur, the oak. Masculine are oleaster and pinaster, which belong to the 
 second, and styrax which belongs to the third declension : also many shirubs 
 and smaller plants in m, i ; e. g. amarantus, asparagus, calamus, dumus, helle- 
 horus, iTitubus, rhamnus, and spinus. The following vary, and may be used as 
 masculine or feminine : cytisus, raphanus, rubus, and grossus, an unripe fig. 
 
 Among the names of towns the following are masculine : 1) All plurals in 
 i, as Argi, Delphi, Puteoli, Veji ; 2) Four names in o : Hippo (with the 
 surname regius), Narbo Marcius, Frusino, and Sulmo ; the unalogy of which 
 is followed also by Croto, although the regular form in Greek is rj Kpdrwv ; 
 3) Tunes, etis, andCanopus, as in Greek 6 Kdvwtog. Some names in Us, untis, 
 such as Pesslnus, Sellnus, and in us, i, such as Pharsalus, Abydus, and also 
 Marathon, are masculine, according to the Greek custom, though they are 
 sometimes also used as feminines. The following are neuter : 1) Those ending 
 in urn, and the Greek names in on, as Tusculum, Ilion ; 2) The plurals in a, 
 oriim, e. g. Susa, Arbela, Ecbatana, Leuctra ; 3) Those ending in e and Mr, 
 which follow the third declension, as Caere, Redte, Praeneste, Tergeste, Nepete 
 or Nepet, Anxur, and Tibur ; Tuder is likewise neuter ; 4) The indeclinable 
 names in i and y, as Illiturgi, Asty, and some others, particularly barbarous 
 names, the declension of which is defective, as Suihul, Hispal, Gadir, whereas 
 their Latin forms, Hispalis and Gades, ium, are feminine. Argos, as a neuter, 
 occurs only in the nominative, otherwise Argi, orum, is used. The many 
 exceptions we have here enumerated might render us inclined altogether 
 to drop the rule respecting the feminine gender of names of towns ; but we 
 must adhere to it on account of the numerous Greek names in us, i, and 
 of the Greek or non-Italian names in on (o), onis ; and there appears 
 moreover to have been a tendency to make feminine even those wliich are of 
 a different gender, provided they are in the singular. This is the case, 
 besides those we have already mentioned, with Croton, and may also be 
 observed in the case of Praeneste ; for Virgil says, Praeneste sub ipsa, and 
 Juvenal gelidd Praeneste, but otherwise the neuter gender is well estab- 
 lished. (Liv.vi.29. ; Sil.Ital. Lx. 404.) The poets change the names of some 
 places ending in um into ils, e. g. Saguntus, and use them as feminines. (See 
 Schneider, Formenl. p. 479.) 
 
 Among the names of countries those in um and plurals in a are neuter, 
 as Latium, Bactra ; the names Bosporus, Pontus, and Hellespontus, which 
 properly denote the seas adjacent to these countries, are masculine; the 
 same is the case with Isthmus when used as the name of a country, for ori- 
 ginally it is a common noun signifying " a neck of land." Of the names of 
 islands, some ending in um are neuter ; as is also the Egyptian Delta. 
 
 It must further be observed that most names oi precious stones are feminine 
 as in Greek ; but beryllus, carbunculus, opdlus, and smaragdu^ are masculine. 
 The names of dramatic compositions are used in the early and good language 
 as feminine, the wordfabula being understood ; e. g. hcec Truculentus (Plauti^, 
 Eunuchtts (Terentii) acta est, Sf-c. (See Quintil. i. 5. 52. with Spalding's 
 note.) Juvenal (i. 6,), however, says, Orestes nondum Jinitu^. 
 
28 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 40.] 3. There are many names of persons, which are 
 common to both sexes, as they denote an occupation or quality 
 which may belong either to a man or a woman, although the one 
 is more frequently the case than the other. Such words are 
 called common {communia). Those found in Latin with two 
 genders are contained in the following hexameter lines : — 
 Antistes, vates, adolescens, auctor et augur, 
 Dux, judex, index, testis, cum cive sacerdos, 
 Municipi adde parens, patrueli ajffinis et heres, 
 Artijici conjux atque incola, miles et hostis, 
 Par, juvenis, martyr, comes, infans, obses et hospes, 
 Interpres, praesul, custos, vindexque, satelles. 
 
 Some other words are not noticed here, because they are used only in appo- 
 sition to feminines ; those mentioned above, however, may be accompanied 
 by adjectives in either gender ; e. g. Cic. Cat. 2. ; In hoc sumus sapientes^ 
 quod naturam optimam ducem, tamquam deum^ sequimur. Pro Balb. 24. : Sacer- 
 dos ilia Cereris civis Romana facta est. Virg. JEn. x. 252.: Alma parens Idaea 
 deum. Liv. i. 7. : Mater mea^ veridica interpres deum. To these we may add 
 contubernalis, properly an adjective, which cannot be accommodated to verse, 
 and perhaps also exul and princeps^ with regard to which the passages of the 
 ancients are not decisive, since the non alia exul in Tacit. Ann. xiv. 63. may 
 be explained as apposition, and Romana princeps in the JEleg. ad Liviam^ 356. 
 may be taken as an adjective, as in other cases. Obses is well attested as a 
 nomen commune by Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 13. : Obsidibus, quae Porsenae mit- 
 tebantur. Auspex yet awaits a better authority than praeclaram auspicem in 
 the Declam. {Porcii Latronis) in Catil. c. 16. 
 
 It is further to be observed, that antistes and hospes, in the sense of priestess 
 and hostess, are not attested as well as the feminine forms antistita, ae, and 
 hospita, ae. 
 
 [§ 41.] 4. Suhstantiva mohilia are those substantives in which 
 the root receives different terminations for the masculine and 
 feminine genders. The termination for the feminine is always a 
 or trix, and the latter occurs in those cases in which the masculine 
 ending in tor is derived from transitive verbs, as in victor, vie- 
 trix; ultor, ultrix; praeceptor, praeceptrix ; inventor, inventrix. 
 The feminine is indicated by a when the masculine ends in us or 
 er, or some other termination, e. g. coquus, coqua ; puer, puera; 
 or more frequently the diminutive form puella ; magister, ma- 
 gistra; leno, lena ; caupo, copa ; tibicen, tibicina ; avus, avia ; 
 rex, regina; antistes, antistita. The feminine termination ti'ia 
 is Greek, and is formed from masculines in tes or ta, as psaltes, 
 psaltria ; poeta, poetria. 
 
 [§ 42.] 5. Some names of animals have special forms to dis- 
 tinguish the two sexes : agnus, agna ; cervus, cerva ; columbus. 
 
GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 29 
 
 columha ; equus, eqiia ; gallus, gallina ; juvencus, juvenca ; lupus, 
 lupa ; leo, lea and leaena ; porcus, porca ; vitulus, vitula ; ursus, 
 ursa. In some cases the words are altogether different, as in 
 taurus, vacca, a bull and cow; ariesy ovis, ram and sheep; 
 hoedus, capella; catus, felis. 
 
 Most other names of animals are common (epicoena) ; that is, 
 they have only one grammatical gender which comprises both 
 sexes, e. g. passer, anser, corvus, canis, cancer are masculine ; 
 aquila, felis, anas, vulpes are feminine, though they may denote 
 animals of either sex. With regard to those names which may 
 distinguish the genders by terminations, it should be observed 
 that one form (generally the masculine) predominates, such as 
 equus, leo, lupus as masculine, and/eZw, ovis as feminine. If the 
 sex of the particular animal is to be stated, the word mas or 
 femina are added to the name; as, anas mas, anas femina, femina 
 anguis, musca femina, femina piscis, and lupus ov porcus femina, 
 although we have the forms lupa and porca. Instead of mas 
 we may also use masculus or ma^cula, e. g. vulpes mascula, a 
 male fox ; pavo masculus, a male peacock. 
 
 Some of these nouns epicene however, in which the difference 
 of sex is more frequently noticed, are used as real common 
 nouns, so that they are masculine when the male animal, and 
 feminine when the female animal, is particularly specified. Of 
 this kind are hos, canis, elephantus, lepus, vespertilio, mus, which 
 are masculine when the difference of sex is not noticed ; but fe- 
 minine when the female is designatecj. Thus we generally find, 
 e. g., elephanti prudentissimi hahentur, lepores timidi sunt ; but at 
 the same ihmQ can£S rabidae, elephantus gravida, lepus fecunda : 
 and Horace abandoning the usual gender, takes the liberty of 
 saying (^Serm. ii. 8. 87.) : membra gruis spar si, and jecur anseris 
 albae. (See Bentley's note.) 
 
 The following nouns are sometimes masculine and some- 
 times feminine, without regard to difference of sex : an- 
 guis and serpens, a serpent ; dama, fallow-deer ; talpa, a 
 mole ; also sus, a pig ; and tigris, tiger ; but sus is commonly 
 feminine, while tigris is commonly masculine. Others are of 
 uncertain gender, in as far as they have both a masculine and a 
 feminine form, which, however, are used indiscriminately and 
 without regard to sex. Thus we have the feminine forms 
 colubra, lacerta, luscinia, and simia along with the masculines 
 
30 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 coluber, lacertus, luscinius, and simius, without simia, for in- 
 stance, having any reference whatever to a female monkey. In 
 like manner, palumhus and palumha (the same as palumhes) are 
 used indiscriminately. 
 
 [§ 43.] 6. The following are neuter. All indeclinable sub- 
 stantives, as gummi, pascha, sindpi, and pondo which is used as 
 an indeclinable noun in the sense of "pound;" the names of the 
 letters of the alphabet, as c triste, o longum, Graecum digamma, 
 &c., and all words and expressions which, without-, being sub- 
 stantives, are conceived and used as such, or quoted merely as 
 words ; e. g. ultimum vale, scire tuum nihil est, vivere ipsum turpe 
 est nobis, tergeminum ao^cas, hoc ipsum din mihi molestum est 
 (Cicero), lacrimas hoc mihi paene movet (Ovid), where the words 
 diu and paene are quoted from the sayings of another person, 
 and it is said that the very word diu or paene is painful. 
 
 Note. The names of the letters of the alphabet, however, are sometimes 
 used as feminines, the word littera being understood ; e. g. Quintil. i. 4. 11. : 
 Sciat etiam Ciceroni placuisse aiio Maiiamque geminata i scrihere. The names 
 of the Greek letters in a, as beta, gamma^ delta., are used as feminines only by 
 Ausonius, Technop. de Litt. 
 
 CHAP. YIL 
 
 NUMBER, CASE, AND DECLENSION. 
 
 [§ 44.] The Latin language distinguishes, in nouns and verbs, 
 the singular and plural (numerus singularis and pluralis) by 
 particular forms ; it has also different forms to distinguish six 
 different cases (^casus) in the relations and connections of nouns. 
 The ordinary names of these cases are nominative, genitive, 
 dative, accusative, vocative, and ablative. The different forms 
 of these cases are seen in the terminations which are annexed to 
 the crude form of a word. Declension is the deriving of these 
 different forms, both in the singular and plural, from one an- 
 other, the nominative forming the starting point. The nominative 
 and vocative are called casus recti, and the others casus obliqui. 
 
 There are five declensions distinguished by the termination 
 of the genitive singular, which ends : — 
 
 1 2 3 4 5 
 
 ae i is us ei 
 
NUMBEK, CASE, AND DECLENSION. 
 
 31 
 
 All declensions have the following points in common : — 
 
 1. In the second, third, and fourth declensions there are 
 neuters which have three cases alike, viz. nominative, accu- 
 sative, and vocative. 
 
 2. The vocative is like the nominative, except in the second 
 declension and some Greek words in the first and third. 
 
 3. Where no exception arises from neuters, the accusative 
 singular ends in m. 
 
 1 2 3 4 5 
 
 am um em um em 
 
 4. The genitive jflural ends in um, 
 
 12 3 4 5 
 
 arum, drum, um Hum erum 
 
 5. The dative plural is in all declensions like the ablative 
 plural. 
 
 1 2 3 4 5 
 
 IS IS ibus thus (ubus) ebus 
 
 The following table contains the terminations of all the five 
 
 declensions : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SlNGUiAE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 neut. 
 
 
 
 neut. 
 
 
 Nom. a (e, as, es) 
 
 us, er, um 
 
 a, e, c, I, 
 
 us, 
 
 It 
 
 es. 
 
 
 
 
 n, r, s, t, X 
 
 
 
 
 Gen. ae (^es) 
 
 i 
 
 
 is 
 
 us 
 
 
 ei. 
 
 Dat. ae 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ui 
 
 
 ei. 
 
 Ace. am (en) 
 
 um 
 
 
 em (im) 
 
 um. 
 
 u 
 
 em. 
 
 Yoc. a (e) 
 
 e, er, 
 
 um 
 
 like nom. 
 
 us. 
 
 u 
 
 es. 
 
 Abl. a{e) 
 
 
 
 
 e(i) 
 
 u 
 
 
 e. 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 
 
 
 neut. 
 
 neut. 
 
 
 neut. 
 
 
 Kom. ae 
 
 2V 
 
 a 
 
 es, a (ia) 
 
 us. 
 
 ua 
 
 es. 
 
 Gen. arum 
 
 orum 
 
 
 um (ium) 
 
 uum 
 
 
 erum 
 
 Dat. is 
 
 is 
 
 
 ibus 
 
 ibus 
 
 (ubus) 
 
 ebus. 
 
 Ace. as 
 
 OS, 
 
 a 
 
 es, a (ia) 
 
 us. 
 
 ua 
 
 es. 
 
 Yoc. ae 
 
 h 
 
 a 
 
 es, a (ia) 
 
 us. 
 
 ua 
 
 es. 
 
 Abl. is 
 
 is 
 
 
 ibus 
 
 ibus 
 
 (ubus) 
 
 ebus. 
 
32' LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAP. YIII. 
 
 FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 [§ 45.] The first declension comprises all nouns which form the 
 genitive singular in ae. The nominative of genuine Latin words 
 of this kind ends in a. Greek words in «, as musa, historia, 
 stoa, follow the example of the Latin ones, and shorten the final 
 vowel when it is long in Greek. Some Greek words in e, as, 
 and es have peculiar terminations in some of their cases. (See 
 Chap. IX.) 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. vi'Cb, the way. Nom. vi-ae, the ways. 
 
 Gen. vi-ae, of the way. Gen. vi-arum, of the ways. 
 
 Dat. vi-ae, to the way. Dat. vi-is, to the ways. 
 
 Ace. vi-am, the way. Ace. vi-ds, the ways. 
 
 Yoc. vi-a, O way ! Voc. vi-ae, O ways ! 
 
 Abl. vi-d, from the way. Abl. vi-is, from the ways. 
 
 In like manner are declined, for example, the substantives 
 harba, causa, cura, epistola, fossa, hora, mensa, noverca, penna, 
 porta, poena, sagitta, silva, stella, uva, victoria, and the ad- 
 jectives and participles with the feminine termination a; as, 
 Tonga, libera, pulchra, lata, rotunda, lecta, scripta. 
 
 Note 1. An old form of the genitive singular in as has been retained 
 even in the common language, in the word familia when compounded with 
 pater, mater, filius, and Jilia ; so that we say paterfamilias, patresfamilias, 
 Jiliosfamilias. But the regular form familiae is not uncommon ; sometimes, 
 though not often, we find familiarum in composition with the plural of those 
 words. 
 
 Note 2. An obsolete poetical form of the genit. sing, is ai for the 
 diphthong ae or ai, as in aulai, aurdi, picta'i, which three forms occur even 
 in Virgil. 
 
 Note 3. Poets form the genitive plural of patronymics in es and «, of 
 several compounds in cola and gena, and of some few names of nations, by 
 the termination urn instead of arum, as Aeneadum, JDardanidum, coelicohim, 
 terrigenum, Lapithum. Of a similar kind are the genitives amphorum, 
 drachmum, which are used even in prose, instead of amphoranim, drachma- 
 rum. (Comp. § 51.) 
 
 Note 4. Some words form the dative and ablative plural in alus in- 
 stead of is, such as anima, dea, Jilia, liberta, riata, mula, equa, asiiia ; for 
 the purpose of distinguishing them from the dative and ablative plural of the 
 masculine forms, which would otherwise be the same. The regular termina- 
 tion is, however, is generally preferred, notwithstanding the possibility of 
 ambiguity ; and it is only deahus and filiahus that can be recommended, for 
 
GREEK WORDS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 33 
 
 the former is used in a solemn invocation by Cicero : dis deahusque omnibus; 
 and the latter by Livy (xxiv. 26.), cum duahus Jiliabus virginihus. Liher- 
 tdbu^ frequently occurs in inscriptions. The termination ahus has remained 
 in common use for the feminine of duo and ambo : duahus^ ambahus. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 GREEK WORDS IN e, ds, AND e^. 
 
 "^^ of THE 
 
 [§ 46.] 1. In the dative singular and throughout the plural, 
 Greek words in e, as, and es, do not differ from the regular 
 declension. In the other cases of the singular they are declined 
 in the following manner : — 
 
 JNom. 
 
 e 
 
 as es. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 es 
 
 ae ae. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 en 
 
 am (sometimes an) en. 
 
 Yoc. 
 
 e 
 
 a e and d. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 e 
 
 a a and e. 
 
 Words of this kind in e are: aloe, crambe, epitome, Circe, 
 Danae, Phoemce ; in as: Aeneas, Boreas, Gorgias, Midas, 
 Messias, Satanas ; in es : anagnostes, cometes, dynastes, geo- 
 metres, pyrites, satrapes, sophistes, Anchises, Thersites, and 
 patronymics (i. e. names of persons derived from their parents 
 or ancestors, see § 245.) ; e. g. Aeneades, Alcides, Pelides, Pria- 
 mides, Tydldes. 
 
 Note. Common nouns, such as epistola and poeta, which, on their adoption 
 into the Latin language, exchanged their Greek termination t] or r]Q for the 
 Latin a, are treated as genuine Latin words, and no longer follow the Greek 
 declension. But a great many other common, as well as proper, iiouns like- 
 wise follow the Latin declension ; and it must be especially remarked, that 
 the early Latin writers, including Cicero, show a tendency to Latinize the 
 declension of those words which they have frequent occasion to use. Thus 
 we prefer with Cicero grammatical rhetorica^ dialectica, musica^ to grammatice^ 
 rhetorice, dialectice, mu^ice, and we may say Creta and Penelopa just as well 
 as Hecuba and Helena^ although some writers, especially the later poets, 
 with an affectation of erudition, preferred Crete and Penelope. But there 
 is no fixed law in this respect. In the words in es^ Cicero prefers this Greek 
 termination to the Latin a, e. g. Philoctetes, Scythes, Perses, sophistes, to 
 Persa, sophista, &c. In the accusative he sometimes uses e7i, as Arsinoen, 
 Circen, Sinopen. (See my note on Cic. in Verr. iv. 18.) But although he 
 
 D 
 
34 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 would use the nominative Sinope for Sinopa, yet he makes the genitive 
 Sinopae in the adverbial sense of " at Sinope," e. g. in Hull. ii. 20. As to 
 the practice of Horace, see Bentley on Epod. xvii. 17. 
 
 2. Greek words in as commonly take .the accusative an 
 in poetry, and Virgil uniformly uses Aenean. In prose 
 the Latin am is much more frequent, although Livy too has 
 Aenean, and in Quintus Curtius we not unfrequently find the 
 forms Amyntan, Philotan, Perdiccan, and others, along with 
 Amyntam, Philotam, Perdiccam. 
 
 The vocative of words in es is usually e, as in Virgil : — 
 Conjugio, AncMse, Veneris dignate superbo ; but the Latin vo- 
 cative in a also occurs frequently, e. g. at the end of an hex- 
 ameter in Horace, Serm. ii. 3. 187.: — Atridd, vetas cur 9 and 
 in Cicero : Aeeta, Thyesta ! The vocative in a seldom occurs, 
 as in the oracle mentioned by Cicero, De Divin. ii. 5Q. : Ajo 
 te, Aeacidd, Romanos vincere posse. Words in es form their 
 ablative regularly in a, e. g. in Cicero : de Philocteta, de Pro- 
 tagora Ahderita. The poets, however, sometimes use the termi- 
 nation e, as in Virgil : Uno graditur comitatus Achate, 
 
 3. Generally speaking, however, the patronymics in rjs, genit. 
 Of, are the only Greek words that follow the second declension ; 
 and the majority of proper names ending in es follow the third 
 declension, as Alcihiades, Miltiades, Xerxes. But many of them 
 form the accusative singular in en (as Euphraten, Mithridaten, 
 Phraaten), and the vocative in e, together with the forms of 
 the third declension in em and es. (See Chap. XVI.) 
 
 Note. The word satrapes (^(rarpairrjc, ov) is best declined after the first 
 declension ; but no example of the genit. sing, being satrapae is known ; 
 Nepos {Lysand. 4.) uses satrapis. This does not necessarily presuppose 
 the existence of a nominative satraps^ which occurs only in later times, 
 but may be the same as Miltiades, genitive Miltiadis. Instances of the 
 dative satrapae^ accus. satrapen, and ablat. satrape, occur in other writers, as 
 well as in the correct texts of Q. Curtius. The form satrapem must be re- 
 jected ; but the Latin form satrapam may be used. The plural is throughout 
 after the first declension, satrapae^ satrapanim, &c. . 
 
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 35 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 GENDER OF THE NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 [§ 47.] Nouns in a and e are feminine, and those in as and es 
 (being chiefly names of men) are masculine. 
 
 Note. Nouns denoting male beings are of course masculine, though they 
 end in a, as auriga^ collega^ nauta, parricida^ poeta, scriba. Names of rivers 
 in a, such as Garumna^ Trehia, Sequana, Himera (to be distinguished from 
 the town of the same name), and Hadria (the Adriatic) are masculine, ac- 
 cording to the general rule. (See Chap. VI.) The three rivers Allia^ Albula, 
 and Matrona^ however, are feminine. Cometa and planeta, which are usually 
 mentioned as masculines, do not occur in ancient writers, who always use 
 the Greek forms cometes^ planetes ; but cometa and planeta would, according 
 to analogy, be masculine. 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 [§ 48.] All nouns which form the genitive singular in i, belong 
 to the second declension. The greater part of them endr in the 
 nominative in us, the neuters in um ; some in er, and only one in 
 ir, viz. vir with its compounds, to which we must add the 
 proper name, Trevir. There is only one word ending in ur, 
 viz. the adjective satur, satura, saturum. 
 
 The genitive of those in us and um is formed by changing 
 these terminations into i. The vocative of words in us ends in 
 e: as, O felix anne, O happy year ! In all other cases the 
 vocative is like the nominative. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. gladi-usy the sword. Nom. gladi-l, the swords. 
 
 Gen. gladi'i, of the sword. Gen. gladi-orum, of the swords. 
 
 Dat. gladi-o, to the sword. Dat. gladi-is, to the swords. 
 Ace. gladi-um, the sword. Ace. gladi-ds, the swords. 
 
 Voc. gladi-e, O sword ! Voc. gladi-i, O swords ! 
 
 Abl. ^Z«c?/-o, from the sword. Abl. ^Z«^2-25, from the swords. 
 
 » 2 
 
36 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 The neuters in um are declined in the same way ; but in the 
 plural they have the termination a, and the nominative, accu- 
 sative, and vocative are alike in the singular as well as in the 
 plural. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. scamn-um, the bench. Nom. scamn-a, the benches, 
 
 G en. scamn~i, of the bench. Gen. scamn-orum, of the benches 
 Dat. scamn-o, to the bench. Dat. scamn-is, to the benches. 
 Ace. scamn-um, the bench. Ace. scamn-a, the benches. 
 
 Voc. scamn-um, O bench ! Yoc. scamn-a, O benches ! ' 
 
 Abl. scamn-o, from the bench. Abl. scamn-ls, from the benches. 
 
 Vir and its compounds, as well as satur, simply add the ter- 
 minations of the different cases to the nominative. 
 
 Some of the words in er are likewise declined by merely 
 adding the terminations to the nominative, as -puer, puer-i, 
 puer-o, puer-um, puer-orum, puer-is, puer-os ; others reject the 
 short e in the oblique cases, as liber (a book), lihr-i, libr-o, 
 libr-um, &c. Those which retain the e are not very nume- 
 rous, viz. adulter, gener, puer, socer, vesper, Liber (the god 
 Bacchus), and liberi (the children, only in the plural); the 
 adjectives asper, lacer, liber (free), miser, prosper, and tener. 
 To these we must add the compounds of ferre and gerere, as 
 Lucifer, armiger, and the words presbyter, Iber, and Celtiber 
 (plural Celtiber i). The adjeGtiYe- dexter has both forms, dexter a 
 and dextra, dexterum and dextrum, although the elision of the e 
 is more frequent. 
 
 [§ 49.] Note 1. The genitive of nouns, both proper and common, in ius 
 and ium^ in the best age of the Latin language, was not m, but f, as Jili for 
 Jilii^ and in like manner Appi, iiigeni, imperi, consili, negoti. So at least it 
 was pronounced in the poets before and during the Augustan age, as in 
 Virgil, Horace, and Tibullus. Propertius is the first who, in a few instances, 
 has iV, which occurs frequently in Ovid ; and in the later poets, who preferred 
 regularity of formation to euphony, it is quite common. (See Bentley on 
 Terence, Andr. ii. 1. 20.) With regard to poets, the metre must determine 
 this point ; and it was in consequence of the metre that Lucretius (v. 1004.), 
 though one of the early poets, wrote ndvigii, because otherwise the word 
 would not have suited the hexameter. But the orthography of prose writers 
 who lived before the Augustan age is doubtful, on account of the great 
 discrepancy which, on this point as on everything connected with ortho- 
 graphy, prevails in the MSS., even in the most ancient ones of Cicero, 
 which have recently been discovered. It is, however, probable that, although 
 ii may have been written, only one i was pronounced, as was always 
 done in the words dii and diis. The genitive mancipi for mancipii, which 
 occurs in many legal expressions, is a remnant of the ancient practice, and 
 
THE SECOND DECLENSION. 37 
 
 remained in use in later times. Concerning the accent of these contracted 
 genitives, and of the vocatives of proper names in ius, of which we shall 
 speak hereafter, see above, § 33., and Bentley, I. c. 
 
 Note 2. The following nine adjectives or adjective pronouns, umis, solus^ 
 totus, uUus, uter, neuter, alter, nulliis, and alius, together with their compounds 
 uterque, utervis, uterlibet, utercunque, and alteruter, form the genitive in all 
 their three genders in ius, and the dative in i; in addition to which uter and 
 neuter eject the e preceding the r. The i of this genitive is long in prose, 
 but in verse it is sometimes made short. (See § 16.) Alterius alone 
 has the i short both in prose and in verse (with a few exceptions, as in 
 Terence, Andr. iv. 1. 4.; see § 850.), according to the statement of Priscian, 
 pp. 694. 958. It is true that alterius cannot be used in the dactylic hexameter 
 without the i being short, but it is used in the same manner in a trochee by 
 Plautus {Capt. ii. 2. 56.). There are only a few instances in which these 
 words follow the regular declension. (See below, § 140.) 
 
 [§ 50,] Note 3. The vocative of proper names in im ends In i instead of 
 ie, e.g. AntOni, Mercuri, Terenti, Tulli, Virgili. In like manner the proper 
 names in jus, being sometimes softened down into uis, make the vocative in a 
 simple i, as Gai, Pompei. But this rule cannot be applied to proper names 
 in Ius from the Greek ewq, as in Arms, Heracllus; nor to those names which 
 are in reality adjectives, and are used as proper names only yf\xQnJilius, deus, 
 or heros are understood, such as Laertius, the son of Laertes, i. e. Ulysses ; 
 CyntJiius, Delius, the Cynthian or Delian god, i. e. Apollo; Tirynthius, the 
 Tirynthian hero, i. e. Hercules. All such words retain ie in the vocative, 
 and in like manner Pius, when used as a proper name, probably formed the 
 vocative Pie. For all common nouns and adjectives, according to the testi- 
 mony of the ancient grammarians, regularly formed their vocative in ie, as 
 nuntie, adversarie, impie, although there are no passages in ancient writers to 
 prove it. But Jiliu^ and genius make their vocative Jili, geni, and mens 
 (though not mea or meum) makes mi. Deus in the vocative is like the 
 nominative, as O deus! mi deus! 
 
 What has here been said of deus alone is applied by poets to other words 
 also : they not unfrequently Imitate the Greeks by making the vocative like the 
 nominative, e.g. Terent. Phorm.'ii. 2. 10.: O vir fortis atque amicus! Horat. 
 de Art. Poet. 292.: vos, O Pompilius sanguis! Carm. i. 2. 43.: almae jilius 
 Majae. Ovid, Fast. iv. 731. : populus. In Livy too it occurs In some ancient 
 formulas, as viii. 9. : agedum pontifex publicus populi Rom.; and I. 24. : tu popu- 
 lus Alhanus ; but there is no reason for doubting the form popule, which 
 occurs in other passages. 
 
 [§ 51.] Note 4. The genitive plural of some words, especially those which 
 denote money, measure, and weight, is commonly urn* Instead of orum, par- 
 ticularly nummum, sestertium, denarium, cadum, medimnum, modium, jugerum, 
 talentum. Nummum is commonly used in this way in connection with nume- 
 rals ,• whereas otherwise, when it merely denotes money in general, nummorum 
 
 * We do not write um, as is done in most editions, for several reasons : 1) 
 because it is doubtful whether this form aros^ from contraction ; 2) because, 
 according to the testimony of the ancient grammarians, no final syllable in m 
 with a vowel before it is long (which would be implied in the circumflex), 
 whence no one would be able to distinguish by his ear such a genitive as 
 nummum from the accus. sing., as Quintilian, i. 6. 17. attests; and 3) because 
 no accents are used in Latin. 
 
 D 3 
 
38 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 is the usual form, e. g.' tantum nummorum, acervi nummorum. There are 
 some other words in which this is the usual form in certain combinations, 
 such as praefectus fahrum^ or socium, from, faber and socius; so also duum~ 
 7nrum, triumvirum, decemvirum. Libert and deus have both forms, Uberorum, 
 deorum, and liberum, deum. Poets indulge in still greater licences, especially 
 with names of nations ; they say, e. g., Argivum, Danaum, Poenum, &c., instead 
 of Argivorum^ Danaorum^ Poenorum, and in Livy we find Celtiberum as well 
 as Celtiberorum. We might point out several more isolated peculiarities of 
 this kind, as ephorum in Corn. Nepos, Agesil. 4. Respecting the genitive 
 of numerals (cardinal, and especially distributive numerals), see below, 
 Chap. XXIX. and XXX. 
 
 Note 5. Deus has three forms in the nom. and ablat. plur., viz. dei, dii, and 
 di, and deis, diis^ and dis. The forms in i are the most usual, and in reality 
 only one of them, since dii and diis were pronounced as monosyllables 
 (Priscian, p. 737.), and are most frequently found thus spelled in the ancient 
 MSS. 
 
 The following words may serve as exercises of declension : — 
 Annus, year ; corvus, raven ; hortus, garden ; lectus, bed ; me- 
 dicus, physician ; morbus, illness ; nuntius, messenger ; populus, 
 people ; rivus, brook ; taurus, bull ; ventus, wind. Neuters in 
 um: — Astrum, Bt^v \ beUum,wsLv; collum, nech ; c?oZmm, cask ; 
 donum, present ; memhrum, limb ; negotium, business ; ovum, 
 Ggg ; poculum, cup ; proelium, battle ; sepulcrum, sepulchre ; 
 signum, sign ; tergum, back ; vinculum, fetter. Those in er, 
 genit. eri, have been mentioned above. The following are the 
 most common among those which reject the e before the r: — 
 Ager, field ; aper, boar ; arbiter, arbitrator ; auster, south wind ; 
 cancer, cancer, or crab ; coluber, snake ; culter, knife ; faber, 
 workman ; liber, book ; magister, teacher ; minister, servant. 
 To these must be added the proper names in er, e. g. Alexander, 
 gen. Alexandri. The adjectives which reject the e are aeger, 
 ater, creber, glaber, macer, niger, piger, impiger, pulcher, ruber, 
 sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, vafer. 
 
 CHAP. XIL 
 
 GREEK WORDS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 [§ 52.] 1. Greek words in os and neuters in ov, which 
 make ov in the genitive, are commonly Latinized in the nomi- 
 native by the terminations us and um, such as the common 
 
GREEK WORDS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 39 
 
 nouns taurus, antrum, theatrum, and the proper names Homerus, 
 Pyrrhus, Corinthus. Other common nouns which are more 
 rarely used, admit of both terminations in the nominative, as 
 arctos and arctus, barbitos and barbitus, scorpios and scorpius; 
 and this is still more frequently the case in proper names, so 
 that, e. g., Paros, Delos, Isthmos, and Ilion are used along with 
 Par us, Delus, Isthmus and Ilium. Generally speaking, how- 
 ever, the Greek forms belong more particularly to poets and the 
 later prose writers. Greek names in pos with a consonant before 
 it sometimes become Latinized by the termination er, and some- 
 times they change pos into rus, and make their vocative in 
 e. The former takes place in by far the greater number of 
 cases, e. g. Alexander, Maeander, Teucer; the only instances 
 in which the termination rus is found are Codrus, Hebrus, 
 Locrus, Petrus, In the compounds of fxsrpov and a few others, 
 both forms are used, as hexameter and hexametrus, though the 
 latter occurs more frequently. Words ending in os in the 
 nominative may make the accusative in on instead of um, as 
 Delon, Bosporon, Tarson. The nominative plural sometimes 
 ends in oe (the Greek diphthong oi), as in canephoroe, Cicero, in 
 Verr. iv. 3. 8. ; Locroe, Quintil. x. 1. 70. The genitive plural 
 in on instead of orum occurs in the titles of books, such as 
 Bucolicon, Georgicon. 
 
 2. Greek proper names in ovs, contracted from 009, are in 
 Latin either resolved into ous or end in us, as Alcinous, Ari- 
 stonus, Panthus. The vocative of the latter form is u, as 
 Panthu, 
 
 3. Some Greek proper names in ois, which in Greek follow 
 the second Attic declension (as Athos, Ceos, Cos, Teos), in Latin 
 either follow the Greek declension, e. g. Athos, gen. and dat. 
 Atho, accus. Atho or Athon; or they take the Latin form, as 
 Tyndareus for Tyndareos, and Cous (for Cos, Kw^), Coo, Coum^ 
 ablat. Co, e. g. in Co insula. Athos, however, is also declined 
 as a noun of the third declension with the nominative Athon or 
 Atho — Athonem, Athone. 
 
 4. Greek words in svs of the third Greek declension, such as 
 Orpheus, Idomeneus, Phalereus, Prometheus, were pronounced in 
 Latin sometimes eus as one syllable, and sometimes eus. The 
 best way is to make them follow entirely the second Latin 
 declension, as Orphet, Orpheo, Orpheum, with the exception of 
 
 D 4 
 
40 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 the vocative, which (according to the Greek third declension) 
 ends in eu. The Greek terminations, gen. eos, dat. ei (con- 
 tracted ei), accus. m*, are chiefly found in poetry; but the 
 accusative is frequent also with prose writers, though Cicero 
 {ad Att, vii. 3.) does not approve of it, as Phalerea, Pro- 
 methea, Tydea. The terminations ei, eo, ea are sometimes con- 
 tracted by poets into a diphthong, because the metre requires it. 
 (See above § 11.) Horace makes the genitive of Achilles and 
 Ulixes — Achille'i, Ulixe'i, or contracted Achillei, Ulixel, as though 
 the nominative still ended in svs. The name Perseus is usually 
 formed by Cicero after the first declension : nom. Perses, gen. 
 and dat. Persae, ace. Per sen, abl. Perse and Persa. Livy pre- 
 ferred the second declension : Perseus, Perse'i, Perseo (rarely 
 Persi, according to the third, like the Greek Hepasl), but in the 
 accusative he has more frequently Persea than Perseum, 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 GENDER OF THE NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 [§ 53.] 1. Nouns in us, er, and ir are masculine ; those in um 
 and the Greek nouns in on are neuter. 
 
 2. Of those in us however the following are feminine : 
 the names of plants and precious stones, as well as those of 
 towns and islands, with a few exceptions. (See above, § 39.) 
 It must be observed, that in many cases where the name of 
 a tree ends in us fem., there is a form in um denoting the fruit 
 of the tree, e. g. cerasus, cerasum; malus, malum; morus, mo- 
 rum; pirus, pirum; prunus, prunum; pomus, pomum; \mijicus 
 signifies both the tree and the fruit. There are only four other 
 genuine Latin words in us which are feminine, viz. alvus, 
 humus, vannus, and colus, which however is sometimes de- 
 clined after the fourth declension, gen. us. Pampinus, a 
 branch of a vine, is rarely feminine, but commonly mas- 
 culine. Virus (juice or poison) and pelagus {to TriXar^os, the 
 
 * In some words also e«, if the verse requires it, as Idomenea^ Uionea : rja 
 and la are Ionic forms, and the Attic ed is not customary in Latin. 
 
 I 
 
THIRD DECLENSION. — GENITIVE. 41 
 
 sea) are neuter. Vulgus (the people) is sometimes masculine, 
 but more frequently neuter. 
 
 [§ 54.] Note. With regard to the numerous Greek feminines in us (or os), 
 which have been adopted into the Latin language, such as the compounds 
 of r) o^oQ : exodus^ methodusy periodus, and synodus^ the student must be 
 referred to his Greek grammar, for the Latin differs in this respect from the 
 Greek. The words biblus, and papyrus (the Egyptian papyrus), hyssus^ 
 and carhasus (a fine flax and the linen made out of it), are feminine, being 
 names of plants ; but they retain this gender also when they denote things 
 manufactured from them. Pharus, being the name of an island, is femi- 
 nine ; but it is also feminine in the sense of a light-house, which meaning it 
 obtained from the fact of the first light-house being built in that island near 
 Alexandria ; it is however now and then used as a masculine (Sueton. 
 Claud. 20.). Arctus (ps), denoting a bear, is properly both masc. and fem. ; 
 but as the name of a constellation, it is in Latin always feminine. JBarbitus 
 (a lyre) or barbitos, is sometimes used as fem. and sometimes as masc, but 
 we also find hoc barbiton. 
 
 We must notice here especially a number of words which in Greek are 
 properly adjectives, and are used as 'feminine substantives, because a sub- 
 stantive of this gender is understood. Such words are : abyssus, atomus, dia- 
 lectus, diphthongus, eremus, paragraphus, diametrv^ and perimetrus, the two 
 last of which however are used by Latin writers also with the Greek termi- 
 nation OS. For the substantives understood in these cases, see the Greek 
 grammar. As different substantives may be understood, we have both 
 antidotus and antidotum. The word epodu^ also belongs to this class, but its 
 gender varies according to its different meanings : when it denotes a lyric 
 epilogue, it is feminine ; when it denotes a shorter iambic verse after a longer 
 one, or when it is the name of the peculiar species of Horatian poetry, it is 
 masculine. 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. — GENITIVE. 
 
 [§ 55.] Nouns of the third declension form their genitive 
 in is. The nominative has a great variety of terminations, for 
 sometimes there is no particular ending, and the nominative 
 itself is the crude form, such as it usually appears after the sepa- 
 ration of the termination of the genitive ; frequently however the 
 nominative has a special ending (s). The former is, generally 
 speaking, the case with those words the crude form of which ends 
 in I or r, so that the nominative ends in the same consonants, and 
 the genitive is formed by simply adding is; e. g. sol, consul, cal- 
 car, agger, auctor, dolor, murmur. Words like pater and imber, the 
 crude form of which appears in the genitive and ends in r with a 
 
42 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 consonant before it, as patr-is, imhr-is, admit of a double expla- 
 nation : either the nominative was increased for the purpose of 
 facilitating the pronunciation, or the genitive rejected the short 
 e; the former however is the more probable supposition. 
 In some words the nominative has s instead of r, as Jlos, 
 gen. Jior-is; tellus, tellur-is; in addition to which the vowel 
 sometimes undergoes a change, as in corpus, corpor-is; onus, 
 oner-is. When the crude form ends in n with a vowel before 
 it, the formation of the nominative is likewise accompanied by- 
 changes : on throws off the n, and in becomes en or is changed 
 into 0, Thus leo is made from leon (Jeon-is), carmen from carmin 
 {carmin-is\ and virgo from virgin (virgin-is). Only when the 
 genitive ends in enis, the nominative retains en, as in lien-is, lien. 
 2) The particular termination which the nominative receives in 
 other cases is e for neuters, as mar-is, mar-e, and s oyi x which 
 arises out of s, for masculines and feminines. This s is some- 
 times added to the final consonant of the crude form without, 
 any change, as in urh-is, urh-s; due-is, dux (dues)', leg-is, lex 
 {legs) ; when the crude form ends in d or t, these consonants 
 are dropped before the s; e. g. frond-is, frons ; mont-is, mons; 
 aetdt-is, aetds; seget-is^ seges; in addition to this the vowel i also 
 is sometimes changed into e, as in milit-is, miles; judic-is, judex. 
 In all these cases where the nominative is formed by the addition 
 of an s to the final consonant of the crude form, the nominative 
 has one syllable less than the genitive, or in other words, the s 
 assumes an e or z before it, and then the nominative has the 
 same number of syllables as the genitive, or in case the nomi- 
 native assumes ^, both cases are quite the same ; e. g. nub-es, 
 civ-is, pan-is. 
 
 These are the most essential points in the formation of the 
 nominative in the third declension. We shall now proceed to 
 the particulars, taking the nominative, as is the usual practice, 
 as the case given, and we shall point out in what way the geni- 
 tive is formed from it. 
 
 [§ 56.] 1. The nouns in a, which are neuters of Greek origin, 
 make their genitive in atis, as poema, poematis. 
 
 2. Those in e change e into is, as mare, maris; Praeneste, 
 Praenestis, and probably also caepe, caepis, for which however 
 there is also the form cepa, ae. 
 
 3. The nouns in i and y are Greek neuters. Some of them 
 
THIKD DECLENSION. — GENITIVE. 43 
 
 the genlt. ApolUnis. Those in cov, odvtos vary, and we find 
 are indeclinable, as gummi, and others have the regular genitive 
 in is, as sindpi, sinapis (there is however a second nominative in 
 is, as in several other words ending in i, as haec sinapis) ; misy, 
 misyis and misys or misyos. The compounds of ineli (honey) 
 alone make their genitive according to the Greek in Uis, as 
 melomeli, melomelitis. 
 
 4. Those in o (common) add nis to form the genitive, some- 
 times only lengthening the o, and sometimes changing it into i. 
 Of the former kind are carbo, latro, leo, ligo, pavo, praedo, sermo ; 
 and all those ending in io, as actio, dictio, pugio. Of the latter 
 kind (genit. mis) are all abstract nouns in do, as consuetudoy mis ; 
 most nouns in go, as imago, virgo, origo ; and a few others, as 
 cardo, hirundo, turbo, homo, nemo. Caro has carnis. The names 
 of nations in o have this vowel mostly short, as Macedones, 
 Senones, Saxones; it is long only in lones, Lacones, Nasamones, 
 Suessones, and Vettdnes» 
 
 5. The only nouns ending in c are alec or allec, allex, gen. 
 allecis; and lac, gen. lactis. 
 
 6. Nouns ending in I form the genitive by merely adding is, 
 such as sol, sal, consul, pugil, animal, Mel has mellis, and in 
 plur. mella ; fel has fellis, but is without a plural. 
 
 7. Those in en (which are all neuters, with the exception of 
 pecten) make mis, as carmen, fiumen, lumen, nomen. Those in 
 en retain the long e and have enis ; but there are only two 
 genuine Latin words of this kind, ren and lien; for lichen, 
 splen, and attagen are of Greek origin. 
 
 Greek words in an, en, in, yn, and on follow the Greek 
 rules in regard to the length or shortness of the vowel and also 
 in regard to the insertion of a t: Paean, Paednis ; Siren and 
 Troezen, enis ; Philopoemen, Philopoemenis ; Eleusin, Eleusinis ; 
 Phorcyn, Phorcynis ; agon, agonis ; canon, canonis ; Cimon, 
 Cimonis; Marathon, onis ; Xenophon, Xenophontis. It is, 
 however, to be observed that very few Greek words in mv, covos 
 (except names of towns), have in Latin the nominative on, but 
 generally o. Thus we always read Hiero, Laco, Plato, Zeno, 
 and in Cicero, also Dio and Solo ; in the poets, on the other 
 hand, and in Nepos and Curtius among the prose writers, we 
 find several nominatives in on, as Conon, Dion, Phocion, He- 
 phaestion. The name Apollo is completely Latinized, and makes 
 
44 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Antipho without the w, though most end in on^ as Xenophon, 
 Those in (ov, ovos and wv, ovros, usually retain in Latin the 
 same nominative in on, but we always find Macedo and never 
 Macedon. 
 
 [§ 57.] 8. Those ending in r must be distinguished according 
 to the vowel which precedes it : they may end in ar, er, yr, or, 
 Or ur. 
 
 a) Those in ar have sometimes dris, as in calcar, lucar, pul- 
 vmar, torcular, and Nar ; and sometimes ciris, as baccar, juhar, 
 nectar, Idr (plur. lares), par and its compounds (e. g. impar, 
 imparls), and the proper names Caesar, Hamilcar, and Arar. 
 But Lar or Lars, the Etruscan title, has Lartis, Far makes 
 its genitive /arr/^, and hepar, hepatis. 
 
 b) Many of the Latin words in er make eris, as a,gger, aggeris; 
 mulier, mulieris, he, and the adjectives pauper and uber. Others 
 drop the short e, as, for instance, all those ending in ter (e. g. 
 venter, uter, pater), with the exception of later, and the words 
 imber, September, October, November, December. Iter makes 
 its genit. (from a different nominat.) itineris. Juppiter {Jovi^ 
 pater) makes the genitive Jovis without the addition of patris, 
 Greek woi'ds in er follow the rules of the Greek language, 
 whence we say crater, eris ; aer, aeris. Ver (the spring), gen. 
 veris, originally belonged to the same class. 
 
 c) Nouns ending in yr are Greek, and follow the rules of the 
 Greek grammar : martyr, martyris. 
 
 d) Those in or have oris, as amor, error, soror ; but arbor, 
 the three neuters ador, aequor, marmor, and the adjective memor, 
 have oris. Cor has cordis, and so also in the compounded 
 adjectives concors^ discors, misericors. Greek proper names, 
 such as Hector, Nestor, and others, have dris, as in Greek. 
 
 e) Those in ur have iiris, e. g. fulgur, vultur, and the adject. 
 cicur. Fur (a thief) alone hasywrw; and the four neuters ebur, 
 
 femur, jecur, and robur have oris, as eboris, roboris. Jecur has, 
 besides Jecom, also the ioYva^ jecinoris, jocinoris, and jocineris. 
 
 [§ 58.] 9. Those ending in s are very numerous ; they may 
 terminate in as, es, is, os, us, aus, or in s with a consonant pre- 
 ceding it. 
 
 a) Those in as form their genitive in dtis, as aetas, aetdtis. 
 Anas alone has andtis : mas has maris ; vas (a surety), vadis . 
 vds (a vessel), vdsis, and as, assis. The Greek words vary g,c- 
 
THIRD DECLENSION. — GENITIVE. 45 
 
 cording to their gender ; the masculines make antis, the feminines 
 adis, and the neuters dtis. (See the Greek grammar.) Conse- 
 quently Pallas, the name of a male being, has the genit. Pal- 
 lantis, like gigas, gigantis ; as the name of the goddess Minerva, 
 Pallddis ; and artocreas neut. has artocredtis. 
 
 b) Those ending in es must be divided into two classes. 
 Those belonging to the first increase in the genitive, the 
 letters d or t, which were dropped in the nominative, being 
 restored to their place, and their termination is either Uis, 
 etis, etis, or idis, edis, edis. The genitive in itis occurs in 
 most of them, as in antistes, comes, eques, hospes, miles, pedes, 
 satelles, caespes, 'fomes, gurges, limes, merges, palmes, stipes, and 
 frames, together with the adjectives ales, codes, dives, sospes, and 
 superstes, in all of which the es is short. (See § 28.) The follow- 
 ing make their genitive in etis : abies, aries, paries, interpres, seges, 
 teges, and the adjectives hebes, indiges, praepes, and teres. The 
 genit. in etis occurs in the Greek words lebes, tapes, Cebes, Mag- 
 nes ; in the words quies, inquies, requies, and the adjective locu- 
 ples. Those which make idis are obses, praeses, and the adject. 
 deses and reses. The genitive in edis occurs in pes, pedis, and 
 its compounds,, e. g. the plural compedes. Heres and merces, 
 lastly^ make their genitive in edis. The following words must 
 be remembered separately : bes, bessis ; Ceres, Cereris ; pubes 
 and impubes, puberis and impuberis; but the forms impubis, genit. 
 impubis, neut. impube are also found. The proper name Caeres, 
 (from the town of Caere), has Caerltis and Caei-Uis. The second 
 class of words "in es change the es of the nominative into is, without 
 increase, such as caedes, clades, fames, nubes, rupes ; it must also 
 be observed, that several words belonging to this class vary in 
 the termination of the nominative between es and is, so that 
 along with feles, vulpes, vehes, aedes, we also have vulpis, vehis, 
 aedis (see Liv. iv. 25. ; Cic. in Verr, iv. 66.)',- and on the other 
 hand, we have torques and valles along with the more usual 
 forms torquis and vallis, 
 
 c) Most words in is form their genitive in is, without 
 any increase, as avis, civis, panis, piscis, and a great many 
 others, together with the adjectives in is, e. Others in- 
 crease by one syllable, and make their genitive in idis, itis or 
 eris : idis occurs in cassis, cuspis, lapis, and in the Greek words 
 aegis and pyramis ; Itis occurs only in lis, Quiris and Samnis, 
 
46 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 plur. Quirites, Sammies ; and eris only in cinis, cucumis, and 
 pulvis, gen. pulveris, cucumeris, and cineris. Glis has gliris ; 
 pollis (the existence of which, in the nominative, cannot be 
 proved, so that some suppose pollen to have been the nom.) and 
 sanguis have pollinis, sanguinis (but the compound exsanguis 
 remains in the genit. exsanguis) \ semis, being a compound of 
 as, makes semissis. Greek words which have the genit. in 1,09 
 or 5(09 form their genit. in Latin in is, without increase ; but, if 
 their genit. is 1^09, they increase in Latin and have idis. Of 
 the former kind we have only the verbal substantives in sis, as 
 basis, mathesis, the names of towns compounded with TroXts-, 
 e. g. Neapolis, and a few other proper names of the feminine 
 gender, such as Lachesis, Nemesis, Syrtis, Charyhdis, All 
 other proper and common nouns regularly make the genitive in 
 idis ; tigris alone has both forms, and ihis, ibidis, takes in the 
 plural the shorter form ibes. Later authors use the genitive 
 in is, €ind the dative and ablative in i, instead of idis, idi, ide, in 
 other cases also, such as Serapis, Tanais, for Serapidis, Tanaidis, 
 and in the dat. and ablat. Serapi and Tanai, for Serapidi, Sera- 
 pide, and Tanaidi, Tanaide. (See below, § 62.) Salamis stands 
 alone by making its genitive Salaminis (from a nominative 
 Salamin), 
 
 [§ 59.] d) Those in os sometimes have otis, as cos, dos, nepos, 
 sacerdos, and sometimes oris, like os (the mouth), ^6>5, glos, mos, 
 ros, and in like manner honos and lepos, the more common forms 
 for honor* and lepor. Custos makes custodis ; os (bone), ossis ; bos, 
 bovis. The adjectives compos and impos have potis. The Greek 
 masculines herds. Minds, and Tros have dis, and some neuters 
 in OS, such as Argos, epos, occur only in the nominative and 
 accusative. 
 
 e) Of the words in us, the feminines in us make their 
 genitive in utis, as virtus, juventus, senectus; or udis, as the three 
 words incus, palus, and suhscus. Tellus alone has telluris, and 
 Venus, Veneris, The neuters in Us have sometimes eris, viz. 
 foedus, funus, genus, latus, munus, olus, onus, opus, pondus, scelus, 
 sidus, ulcus, vulnus ; and sometimes oris, as corpus, decus, dedecus, 
 /acinus, fenus, frigus, litus, nemus, pectus, pecus, which in an- 
 
 * Cicero uses throughout only honos (for Philip, ix. 6. must be cor- 
 rected from the Vatican MS.), and there is no doubt but that honor in the 
 fra^^m. Pro Tvllio, $ 21. ed. Peyron, must likewise be changed into honos. 
 
THIKD DECLENSION. — GENITIVE. 47 
 
 other sense has pecicdis, pigrius, stercus, tempus, and the noun 
 epicene lepus, leporis, a hare. All monosyllables which have a 
 long u, form their genitive in uris, as crus^ jus, pus, rus, tus, 
 and mus. Grus and sus have uis : gruis, suis ; the adjective 
 vetus, veteriSf and intercus, intercutis. Greek proper names 
 in us have untis, as Amathus, Selinus, Trapezus ; the compounds 
 of irovs make podis, as tripus and Oedipus, which name, how- 
 ever, is sometimes made to follow the second declension, the us 
 being in that case shortened. Polypus always follows the 
 second. 
 
 f) Greek words in ys make the genitive yis, contracted 
 ys, or altogether in the Greek form yos. Some few, as chlamys, 
 have ydis, 
 
 g) The only nouns ending in aes are aes, aeris, and praes, 
 praedis. 
 
 h) There are only two words in aus, viz. laus and fraus, of 
 which the genitives are laudis, fraudis. 
 
 i) Among the nouns ending in s preceded by a consonant, 
 those in Is (except puis), ns, and rs, change the s into tis, e. g. 
 
 fons, mons, pons, ars, pars. Mars — fontis, partis, &c. There 
 are only a few, such as frons (a branch), glans, juglans, 
 
 'and some others, which make dis — frondis ; hut frons (iho. fore- 
 head) makes frontis. The other words in s with a consonant 
 before it, that is, those in bs, ps, and ms, form their genitive 
 in bis, pis, mis, e. g. urbs, urbis ; plebs, plebis ; stirps, stirpis ; 
 hiems, hiemis, which is the only word of this termination. Cae- 
 lebs has caeUbis ; the compounds of capio ending in ceps have 
 ipis, as princeps, particeps — principis, participis ; auceps alone 
 has auciipis. The compounds of caput, which likewise end in 
 ceps, such as anceps, praeceps, biceps, triceps, make their genitive 
 in cipitis, like caput, capitis, Greek words follow their own 
 rules: those in ops make opis, as Pelops, epops, merops; or opis, 
 as Cyclops, hydrops, Gryps (a griffin) has gryphis, and Tiryns, 
 Tirynthis. 
 
 10. The termination t occurs only in caput audits compounds, 
 gen. capitis. 
 
 [§60.] 11. The genitive of words in x varies between cis 
 and gis, according as the x has arisen from cs or gs, which 
 may be ascertained by the root of the word. The former 
 is more common, and thus the following monosyllables with a 
 
48 LATIN GKAMMAR. 
 
 consonant before the x make their genit. in cis : arx, calx, falx, 
 lanx, merx ; gis occurs only in the Greek words phalanx, sphinx, 
 and syrinx. 
 
 But when the x is preceded by a vowel, it must be ascer- 
 tained whether this vowel remains unchanged, and whether it is 
 long or short. The Latin words in ax have dcis, as pax, fornax, 
 and the adjectives, e. g. audax, efficax. Fax alone has a short 
 a, fads, Greek words too have mostly ads, as thorax, Ajax, 
 and only a few have ads, as corax, dimax, while the names of 
 men in nax have nactis, such as Astyanax, Demonax, Words 
 in ex generally make their genitive in ids, as judex, artifex, 
 supplex ; but egis occurs in rex and lex, and egis in aquilex, grex, 
 Lelex ; eds in nex, foenisex, and in preds (from prex which is 
 not used) ; eds in vervex, Myrmex. Remex has remigis ; senex, 
 senis ; and supellex, supellectilis. The words in ix sometimes 
 make their genitive in Ids and sometimes in ids. Of the former 
 kind are cervix, cicatrix, comix, coturnix, lodix, perdix, phoenix, 
 radix, vibix, and all the words in trix denoting women, such as 
 nutrix, victrix, and the adjectives felix and pernix, and probably 
 also appendix ; ids occurs in calix, choenix, coxendix, Jilix, fornix, 
 fulix, hystrix, larix, natrix, pix, salix, varix, and Cilix. Nix has 
 nwis, and strix, strigis. The words ending in ox have dcis, e. g. 
 vox, vocis ; ferox, ferocis ; but two words have ocis, viz. Cappadox 
 and the adjective praecox. Nox has noctis ; Allobrox, Allohrogis. 
 The following words in ux form the genitive in ucis : crux, dux, 
 nux, and the adjective trux ; the u is long only in two words, viz. 
 lux and Pollux, genit. lucis, Pollucis. Conjux {conjunx is es- 
 tablished on better authorities) has conjUgis, and frux (which, 
 however, does not occur), frugis. The words in yx are Greek, 
 and vary very much in the formation of their genitive : it may 
 be yds {Eryx), yds (homhyx'), ygis {Japyx, Phryx, Styx), ygis 
 {coccyx), and ychis (onyx). There is only one word ending in 
 aex, viz. faex, gen. faecis, and in aux only faux, gen. faucis. 
 
IIEMAINING CASES OP THIRD DECLENSION. 49' 
 
 CHAP. XY. i 
 
 THE REMAINING CASES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 [§ 61.] All the remaining cases follow the genitive in regard to 
 the changes we have mentioned. It should be remarked that 
 any other of the oblique cases might have been chosen, instead 
 of the genitive, for the purpose of showing the changes in which 
 all participate; but we have followed the common practice. 
 It now only remains to give a tabular view of the terminations. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plueai.. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 — 
 
 Nom. 
 
 es, neut. d (some ia). 
 
 Gen. 
 
 IS, 
 
 Gen. 
 
 um (some ium). 
 
 Dat. 
 
 I. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 thus. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 em (neut. like nom.). 
 
 Ace. 
 
 like nom. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 like nom. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 like nom. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 e (some i). 
 
 Abl. 
 
 thus. 
 
 Examples for exercise are contained in the preceding chapter;" 
 but we subjoin the following words, either with or without 
 adjectives, as exercises in which the student may also apply 
 the rules contained in the next chapters : Sol splendens (lucidus), 
 the shining sun; agger eminens (altus), a high mole; pater 
 prudens (jprovidus), the prudent father; dolor levis {parvus), 
 a slight pain ; uxor concors {fidd), a faithful wife ; leo nohilis 
 (superbus), a noble lion ; virgo eruhescens (jpudica), the blushing 
 maiden; urhs vetus (vetusta), the ancient town; lex acris'{as- 
 pera), a severe law; frons tristis (sever a), a grave forehead; 
 civitas immunis (libera), a free city ; cassis fulgens (splendida), 
 a brilliant helmet ; judex clemens (benignus), a mild judge ; miles 
 fortis (strenuus), a brave soldier ^ avis cantrix (canora), a singing 
 bird ; rupes praeceps (ardua), a^steep rock ; calcar acre (acutum), 
 a sharp spur ; animal turpe (foedurn), an ugly animal ; carmen 
 dulce (gratum), a sweet poem; corpus tenue (macrum), a thin 
 body; ingens (yastum) mare, the vast sea; sidus radians (au" 
 reum), the radiant star. 
 
50 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Remarks on the separate Cases, 
 
 1. Cicero commonly, and other authors of the best age fre- 
 quently, make the genitive of Greek proper names ending in es, 
 i instead of is. Thus in the most accurate and critical editions 
 we read Isocrati, Timarchidi, Theophani, Aristoteli, Praxiteli, 
 and even Herculi; i instead of is is found most frequently (even 
 in ordinary editions) in the names ending in cles, as Agathocli, 
 Diocli, Neocli, Prodi, Pericli, Themistocli, The genitive i is 
 used also in barbarian names in es, which were introduced 
 through the Greek into the Latin language, such as Ario- 
 harzani, Mithridati, Hystaspi, Xerxi, and others. The genitives 
 Achilli and Ulixi, which likewise frequently occur in Cicero, 
 probably arose from the contraction of Achillei and TJlixei first 
 into Achillei and Ulixei, and then of ei into z, which had the 
 same sound. (See above. Chap. XII. 4.) After the time of 
 Cicero, however, the genitive in is alone was used. 
 
 [§ 62.] 2. Many words in is make the accusative singular im 
 instead of em, viz. — 
 
 a) AU Greek nouns, proper as well as common, and such 
 as have passed through the Greek into the Latin, and form 
 the accusative in that language in iv, but those which have 
 in Greek both terminations iv and iha (i. e. the barytons in 
 L9, gen. ihos) may in Latin also have the accusative in idem, 
 though it does not often occur.* The ordinary Latin accu- 
 sative of such words therefore is : hasim, poesim, paraphrasifn, 
 Charyhdim, Neapolim, Persepolim, Tanaim, and of those which 
 make their genitive in ihos, idis, at least when they are proper 
 names, the accusatives Agim, Memphim, Osirim, Parim, Pha- 
 larim, Serapim, Tigrim, Zeuxim, &c., are more frequent than, 
 e. g., Busiridem, Paridem. But in feminine derivatives from 
 names of places and in substantives (properly adjectives) in tis, 
 and especially itis, the accusative in idem is more frequent, e. g. 
 Limnatidem, Phthiotidem, arthritidem, pleuritidem. The accusa- 
 tive in im for idem, therefore, does not prove that the genitive 
 
 * Those which in Greek end in ig, gen. i^og (oxytona), have in Greek 
 only i^a, and in Latin only idem: e. g. aegis^ pyramis, tyrannis, Thais^ Bacchis, 
 Lais, ChalciSy and especially the feminine patronymics and gentile names, 
 such as Aeneisj Heracleis, Thehais^ Aeolis^ Doris, Phocis. 
 
REMARKS ON THE SEPARATE CASES. 51 
 
 ends in is instead of idis, or the ablative in i instead of ide, 
 although an ablative in i not seldom occurs in proper names 
 in is, which make their genitive in idis, e. g. Osiri, Phalari, 
 Tigri, instead of the regular Osiride, &c. Latin writers, how- 
 ever, and especially the poets, for metrical reasons, often use 
 the Greek form of the accusative in instead of im. (See Chap. 
 
 XVI.) 
 
 b) Many proper names (not Greek) of rivers and towns which 
 do not increase in the genitive, make, according to the analogy 
 of the Greek, the accusative in im instead of em, e. g. Albim, 
 Athesim, Baetim, Tiherim, Bilhilim, Hispalim. 
 
 c) The following Latin common nouns : amussis, ravis, sitis, 
 tussis, and vis. In the following the termination em is less 
 common tham im: febris, pelvis, puppis, restis, turris, and 
 especially securis. The words clavis, messis, navis, have com- 
 monly clavem, messem, navem, but may have also im. 
 
 Note. An accusative in im now and then occurs in some other words, 
 as in hipennim from hipennis ; hurim from hurls ; cucumim, a rare form for 
 cucumerem, from cucumis ; neptim ; and sementim, which is much less common 
 than sementem. 
 
 [§ 63.] 3. The dative and ablative singular seem originally to 
 have had the same termination which was either i or e, just as 
 those two cases are alike in the second declension, and in the 
 plural of all declensions. At a later time it became the general 
 rule to use ^ exclusively in the dative and e in the ablative ; but 
 aere (from aes), for aeri, in Cicero {Ad Fam, vii. 13.), and Livy 
 (xxxi. 13.), QXidi jure £or juri in inscriptions and in Livy (xlii. 28.) 
 seem to be remnants of early times. The termination i, however, 
 which properly belongs to the dative, is much more commonly 
 used in the ablative instead of e. It occurs — 
 
 a) In all words which form their accusative in im instead of 
 em, with the exception of those Greek words which make the 
 genitive in idis. Thus we have poesi, Neapoli, Tiberi, some- 
 times also Osiri, Phalari, and among Latin common nouns not 
 only tussi and vi, but febri, pelvi, puppi, turti, securi, though 
 the ablative in e is not entirely excluded in these latter words. 
 But restim has more commonly reste, and navem on the contrary 
 more usually navi than nave. Clave and clavi, and semenfe and 
 sementi, are equally in use. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 h) In neuters in e, al, and ar, e. g. mari, vectigali, calcdri, 
 &c. ; but far, f arris, and baccar, juhar, hepar, nectar, and 
 sal, which have a short a in the genitive, form the ablative in e. 
 Rete has both rete and reti, and rus ruri as well as rure, hut 
 with some difference in meaning. (See § 400.) The poets some- 
 times use the ablative mare, e. g. Ovid, Trist. v. 2. 20. Names 
 of towns in e (see § 39.) always make their ablative in e, as 
 Caere, Reate (at Caere, at Reate), Livy, xxvii. 23. ; xxx. 2. ; 
 and Praeneste (at Praeneste), in Cicero. 
 
 c) In adjectives and names of months ending in is, e, and in 
 er, is, e, for example, facili, celehri, celeri, Aprili, Septemhri, and 
 in those substantives in is which are properly adjectives, e. g. 
 aequalis, ajffinis, annalis, bipennis, canalis, familiaris, gentilis, 
 molaris, aatalis, popularis, rivalis, sodalis, strigilis, vocalis, tri- 
 remis and quadriremis, and according to their analogy, per 
 haps also contubernalis. But these words being used also as 
 substantives have more or less frequently the termination e, 
 and juvenis always makes juvene, aedilis commonly aedile ; in 
 affinis, familiaris, sodalis, and triremis, the ablative in e is at- 
 tested by the authority of prose writers, although i is generally 
 preferred. When such adjectives as these become proper 
 names, they always have e, as Juvenale, Martiale, Laterense, 
 Celere. 
 
 Note. The ablative in e from adjectives in is, and in er, is, <?, is very 
 rare, though it is found in Ovid. (Heroid. xvi. 277. ; Metam. xv. 743. : 
 coeleste. Heroid. viii. 64. ; Fast. iii. 654. : perenne. Fast. vi. 158. : porca 
 bimestre.) The ablative in i instead of e, on the other hand, is used by good 
 writers in several substantives in is, besides those mentioned above, e. g. in 
 amnis, avis, civis, classis, fustis, ignis, orhis, unguis, and sometimes in su- 
 peltex, supellectili. Of substantives in er, imher has more frequently imhri 
 than imbre ; vesper has both vespere and vesperi ; but the latter, especially 
 in the sense of " in the evening," as opposed to mane, in the mornino-. 
 Cicero and Livy often use the ablatives Carthagini, Anxuri, Tihuri, to 
 denote the place where (see the commentat. on LIv. xxviii. 26.) ; and in 
 the preface of Corn. Nepos we find Lacedaemoni. But the common practice 
 of the ancient writers does not allow us to extend this system, or to make 
 it the rule for all names of towns which follow the third declension ; it must 
 rather be supposed that, though the ancient language was so uncertain 
 between e and i, that we find in Plautus carni, parti, sermoni, along with 
 came, &c., the forms became more decidedly separated in the course of 
 time, and only a few isolated remnants and particular phrases remained 
 in use with the classic authors. (Comp. § 398. in fin.) Thus we have iempori^ 
 « in times." (See § 475.) 
 
REMARKS ON THE SEPARATE CASES. 53 
 
 [§ 64.] 4. The ablative singular in i or e indiscriminately 
 occurs, generally speaking, in adjectives of one termination 
 and in the comparative, as prudens, prudente and prudenti; 
 elegans, elegante and eleganti ; vetus, vetere and veteri ; locuples, 
 locuplete and locupleti; dives, divite and diviti ; degener, degenere 
 and degeneri; felix, felice and felici; Arpinas, Arpinate and 
 Arpinati ; major, majore and majori. But it is also a general 
 rule, that words in ans and ens, when used as substantives, 
 e. g. infans and sapiens (except continens), and when they are 
 actual participles, especially in the construction of the ablative 
 absolute, always prefer e; e. g. Tarquinio regnante, when 
 Tarquinius was king ; but when they are adjectives, they prefer 
 i to e. 
 
 Note 1. It should however be observed, that there is no rule so full of 
 exceptions as this, for on the one hand the adjectives themselves vary 
 their terminations according to euphony or the requirement of a verse, and 
 on the other, the writers (and the editions of their works) widely differ from 
 one another. In Horace, for example, we find the participles in ans and ens 
 when used as adjectives, almost invariably forming the ablative in e (see 
 Bentley on Carm. i. 25. 17.), whereas the same words are generally found 
 with i in Cicero. On the whole, however, it will always be safest to 
 make the ablative of adjectives of one termination in i; for the e exclusively 
 occurs only in pauper, senex and princeps, and in the majority of those in es, 
 viz. Tiospes, sospes, deses, pubes, impubes and superstes. The z, on the other 
 hand, is certain in the following words mentioned by the ancient gram- 
 marians : memor, immemor, and par with its compounds (in par also when 
 used as a substantive), and also in most adjectives in x, as tnix, atrox, audax, 
 pertinax and pervicax ,* especially in those in plex : simplex, duplex, triplex, 
 multiplex : further in anceps and praeceps, inops, iners and hebes, concors, 
 discors, ingens, recens and repens. It must further be observed, that praesen^, 
 when used of things, makes the ablative in i, and when used of persons, in e, 
 as is confirmed by the phrase in praesenti (scU. tempore), which is of frequent 
 occurrence. Comparatives are found in Cicero and Livy more frequently 
 with e than with i, but the latter afterAvards became more general, especi- 
 ally in Curtius and Tacitus. 
 
 Note 2. The following substantives, which are properly adjectives, 
 a7'tifex, consors, nutrix, vigil, victrix, and ultrix, have as substantives the 
 termination e, but as adjectives of the feminine or neuter gender they 
 prefer the ablative in i. Proper names also, when they are in reality ad- 
 jectives, have only e, as Felix, Clemens — Felice, Clemente. 
 
 [§ 65.] 5. The nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of 
 neuters end in a ; but neuters in e, al, and ar, which also form 
 the ablative singular in i, and all participles and adjectives which 
 make the ablative singular either in i alone, or vary between e 
 
 E 3 
 
54 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 and i, have ia instead of a, except the adjective vetus and all 
 comparatives ; e. g. maria, vectigalia, calcaria, paria, facilia, 
 sapientia, ingentia, victricia; amantia, sedentia, audientia; but 
 majora^ doctiora, &c. 
 
 Note. The neuter far liowever has farra ; jubar, hepar, and nectar have 
 no plural ; and sal has no neuter plural, but only sales with masculine 
 gender. 
 
 Those adjectives which make the ablat. sing, in e exclusively, should for 
 this reason make their plural only in a ; but with the exception of hospita 
 (if it be really derived from hospes, and not from hospitus'), no neuter plural 
 of them is found, although some grammarians mention paupera and libera. 
 It must be remarked in general, that the neuter plural occurs in adjec- 
 tives of one termination in as, ans^ ens^ rs, and x, and besides these only in 
 par, hebes, teres, locuples, quadrupes, versicolor, anceps, and praeceps, and 
 that in all these cases it ends in ia. Thus there remains only vetus, Vetera, 
 although the ablative sing, is vetere or veteri. No authority has yet been 
 adduced for bicorpora and tricorpora. 
 
 Pluria is said to make an exception among the comparatives, but it is 
 only an obsolete form, and is not found in ancient writers, who invariably 
 have plura. Complures, on the other hand, which has lost its signification 
 of a comparative in the ordinary language (it signifies several or some), makes 
 both compluria and complura. 
 
 [§ 66.] 6. The following words make their genitive plural 
 in iiLTfYi instead of um : 
 
 a) All neuters which have ia in the nominative plural, that 
 is, those in ^, al, and ar, and all participles and adjectives 
 which follow the third declension. Comparatives therefore 
 (with the exception of plurium and compluriurn) and those ad- 
 jectives which have only e in the ablative singular, retain the 
 termination um in the genit. plur., as pauperum, supcrstitum. 
 To these we must add the adjectives caelehs, celer, cicur, compos, 
 impos, dives, memor, immemor, supplex, uher, vetus, and vigil; 
 all compounds of facio and capio, and of such substantives as 
 make the genitive plur. in um, e. g. degentrum, bicorporum, 
 inopum, quadrupMum, versicolorum, and perhaps also ancipitum 
 and tricipitum. The poets sometimes form the genitive plural 
 of adjectives, especially of participles in ns, by a syncope, in 
 um instead of ium ; and later prose writers, such as Seneca 
 and Tacitus, sometimes follow their example, and use, e. g., 
 potentum, dolentum, salutantum. 
 
 h) Words in es and is, which do not increase in the genitive 
 singular (e. g. nubes, nubium; civis, civium; but militum and 
 lapidum from miles and lajns, gen. militis, lapidis) ; the follow- 
 
REMARKS ON THE SEPARATE CASES. 55 
 
 ing words in er: imber, linter, venter, uter, and the word caro^ 
 carnium. Votes, strues, the plural ambages, and generally also 
 sedes, together with apis, cams, juvenis, and volucris, form excep- 
 tions, and make their genitive plur. in um, Panis is uncertain. 
 (Respecting mensis see my note on Cic. in Verr, ii. 74. ; 
 Schneider on C«s. Bell Gall. i. 5.) 
 
 c) Many monosyllabic substantives, and without exception 
 those ending in s and x preceded by a consonant, make ium, as 
 montium, dentium, arcium, mercium, from mons, dens, arx, merx. 
 Lynx however has lyncum; sphinx, sphingum; and opes, from ops, 
 has opum, Gryphum also is probably the genit. plur. of gryps. 
 But the greater number of monosyllabic words ending in s 
 and X preceded by a vowel make their genitive plur. '^^i um, 
 and not in ium. The latter occurs only in as, assium; glis, 
 glirium; lis, litium; mas, marium; os, ossium; vis, virium; and 
 generally also in fraus, fraudium, and mus, murium. To these 
 we must add faux (which, however, is not used in the nomi- 
 native singular), yawczMw; nix, nivium; strix, strigium; and nox, 
 noctium. 
 
 Note. The genitive plural in .um therefore is used in aes^ cruSj 
 dos, Jios, grus, jus, laus, mos, pes with its compounds (except compedes, of 
 which the form compedium is well attested), joraes, stts, Cres, Tros, dux, fax, 
 frux and prex (which occur only in the plur.), grex, lex, mix, rex, vox, 
 Phryx and Thrax. Fur and ren have furum, renum ; lar, too, has more 
 frequently larum than larium. Of those words, which have not been noticed 
 here, a genitive cannot be proved to exist ; but it is probable that the genit. 
 plur. of vas (vadis) was vadium, and in like manner cor, par, and sal proba- 
 bly had cordium, parium, solium, in order to avoid the ambiguity which would 
 arise from vadum^ cordum, parum, solum. Cordium occurs in the Vulgate, 
 Jerem. iv. 4. 
 
 d) Substantives of two or more syllables ending in ns and 
 rs have ium and um, though the latter occurs more rarely ; e. g. 
 cliens, cohors, Picens, Vejens, Camers; and in like manner those 
 which, like adolescens, infans, parens, sapiens, serpens, are properly 
 participles, and admit um only because they are substantives 
 (whence we frequently find parentum from parentes), commonly 
 make their genitive in ium: adolescentium, sapientium, &c. The 
 names of people in as, atis, such as Arpinas, Fidenas, form their 
 genitive almost exclusively in ium: Arpinatium, Fidenatium. 
 Penates and optimates, which usually occur only in the plural, 
 
 E 4 
 
56 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 follow their analogy. Other substantives in as generally have 
 um : e. g. aetatum, civitatum ; but ium also is correct, and Livy, 
 for example, always uses civitatium. The genit, plur. ium in 
 words with other terminations, if it should occur, must be 
 regarded as an exception. Quiris and Samnis, however, con- 
 trary to the rule, generally make Quiritium, Samnitium. 
 
 [§ 67.] 7. Names of festivals in alia which are used only in 
 the plural, as Bacchanalia, Compitalia, Saturnalia, Sponsalia, 
 make their genitive plural in ium or orum, as Bacchanalium, 
 or Bacchanaliorum. And Horace {JJarm, iii. 5. 10.), on this 
 principle, makes anciliorum from ancile, plur. ancilia ; and 
 Suetonius, in several passages, has vectigaliorum instead of 
 vecti^t Hum. 
 
 8. With regard to the dative and ablative plural, it is to be 
 remarked, that the Greek words in ma prefer the termination is 
 of the second declension to ibus. Thus Cicero and other authors 
 use poematis, epigrammatis, emblematis, hypomnematis, peripetas- 
 matis, peristromatis, toreumatis ; but ibus occurs now and then, 
 as diplomatibus, in Tacitus and Suetonius ; poematibus in the 
 Rhetor, ad Herenn. iv. 2. ; and in Sueton., Tit. 3. ; strategema- 
 tibus in Frontinus, Strateg., Prsef. lib. iv. 
 
 [§ 68.] 9. The accusative plural of words which make the 
 genitive plur. in ium ended, in the best age of the Latin 
 language, in Is, which was also written eis, but not pronounced 
 so : e. g. artis, montis, civis, omnis, similis, mediocris. But the 
 termination es was also in use, and in the course of time became 
 so prevalent that is was preserved only in a few exceptions, such 
 as tris. 
 
 Note. Priscian, towards the end of his seventh book, discusses the accu- 
 sative plur. in is instead of es^ more minutely than any other ancient writer. 
 Among modern works see especially Norisius, in his Latinitas et Orthogra- 
 phia utriusque Pisanae Tabulae^ which is reprinted in Cellarius, Orthographia 
 Latina, vol. ii. p. 233. foil. ed. Harles. There is no doubt, that until the 
 time of Augustus, those words which form their genitive plural in ium 
 (to which must be added celer^ as in all other respects it follows the 
 analogy of the adjectives in er, zs, e, although it makes the genit. plur 
 celerum)^ had in the accusative plural more commonly the termination is 
 than es ; but it must be borne in mind, that es was at the same time in use 
 with is. Thus we find even in the Columna Rostrata of Duilius, dases, that 
 is, classes, together with claseis ; and in the ancient Florentine MS. of Virgil 
 we find urhes, ignes, tres^ fines., as well as urhis., ignis, &c., although es, on the 
 whole, is not so frequent as is. (Comp. Gellius, xiii. 20.) In the newly dis- 
 covered fragments of Cicero, it is true, we generally find is in words of this 
 
REMARKS ON THE SEPARATE CASES. 57 
 
 kind, but there are instances also of es being used in the same words. The 
 ancient grammarians in vain attempted to fix the varying practice by rules 
 and exceptions. Pliny (ap. Charisium, p. 104. ed. Putsch.) denied the accu- 
 sativeyM?zw, and Varro (ibid.) the accusativesya^cw, mercis, axis, lintris, ventris, 
 stirpis, corbis, vectis, neptis, and even urbis, and in his work De Ling. Lot. (viii. 
 67. ed. Miiller), he asserts that gentis alone was used, and, on the other hand, 
 that mentes and denies were the only correct forms. Valerius Probus (see 
 Orthograph. Noris. p. 242.) gives us to understand that the words in es, genit. 
 is, did not form the accusative in is, although they have ium in the genitive 
 plural. Thus much is clear, that the termination is gradually became anti- 
 quated, and that the desire of scholars to have an outward distinction of the 
 accusative from the nominative, gave way to the general practice. Charisius 
 (p. 122. ed. Putsch.) says : consuetndo traduxit ad nominativi et accusativiformani. 
 And this probably took place about the end of the Augustan age ; for in the 
 ancient MS. containing the fragment of the ninety-first book of Livy, we 
 no longer find the accus. in is ; and in the best MSS. of the complete books, 
 it OQCurs only in a few isolated passages, and Quintilian does not mention 
 this disputed point at all. Afterwards is was still sometimes used by Tacitus 
 and Gellius ; but with Tacitus this arose from his desire to revive the ancient 
 power and energy of the language, and with Gellius from his antiquarian 
 studies. This Is not the place to inquire in what manner an editor of ancient 
 authors has to act in the face of this obvious inconsistency of the writers 
 themselves ; there are few who faithfully follow the authority of the MSS. ; 
 others, such as Bentley in his Terence and Horace, every where restore the 
 accus. in is (why Bentley, without inconsistency, edited arces and rates in 
 Horace, has not yet been examined) ; and most of them pay as little atten- 
 tion to the difference in doubtful cases, as to the ancient orthography in 
 general, but merely follow the vulgar tradition. We have noticed here 
 the difference of opinions to caution the student, that in reading the ancients 
 he may not confound the short is of the genit. sing, with the long Is of the 
 accus. plur. 
 
 [§ 69.] 10. Juppiter (which was much more common than 
 Jupiter) is declined as follows : genit. Jovis, dat. Jovi, accus. 
 Jovem, voc. Juppiter, abl. Jove. In the plural Joves only is 
 found. 
 
 Bos, hovisy makes the nominat. and accus. plur. boves, gen. 
 houm, dat. and ablat. bubus, and less frequently bobus. Sus 
 makes the dat. and ablat. plur. subus, which is a contraction of 
 the less frequent form suibus. 
 
58 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAP. XVI. 
 
 GREEK FORMS IN WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 [§ 70.] A GREAT number of Greek words, especially proper 
 names, belong to the third declension ; and as their genitive ter- 
 minates in OS {scos, ovs), they follow the third declension in their 
 own language also. Among the terminations of the nominative 
 mentioned above, some belong exclusively to Greek words, viz. 
 ma, iy y, an, m, on, yn, er, yr, ys, eus, yx, inx, ynx, and the plurals 
 in e; but there are also Greek words with other terminations, 
 most of which, however, are quite treated as Latin words, for 
 which reason the termination on is generally Latinized into o 
 (see above, § ^^.\ and the Greek forms are used by Latin 
 writers, especially the poets, only in some cases. 
 
 1. In the genitive singular, the poets frequently use the 
 Greek termination as instead of the Latin is, especially in words 
 in is which usually make their genitive idis, whether simple 
 or derivative (see § 245.), e. g. Daphnidos, Phasidos, Atlantidos, 
 Erymanthidos, Nere'idos ; so also in nouns in as and ys, as 
 Pallados, Tethyos ; and in eus, as Peleos, Theseos (Ovid, Metam. 
 viii. 268.), although the Latin termination el or contracted ei 
 (according to the second declension), as in Thesei, Terei, is more 
 commonly used. (See above, Chap. XII. 4.) 
 
 But in prose the Greek termination of the genitive is seldom 
 used. Substantives in is derived from verbs in particular, 
 such as basis, ellipsis, mathesis, poesis, make their genitive like 
 the nominative, and not haseos, matheseos, &c., which forms are 
 found only in unclassic writers. (See Vitruv. x. 15. ; Spartian. 
 Ael. Verus, 3. ; Sever, 3.) In the few words in y the genit. in 
 yos is used for the sake of euphony, e. g. misyos. Pan, the 
 shepherds' god, admits the Greek genit. Panes in prose, to 
 distinguish the word from panis, bread. 
 
 The feminines in o, however, such as echo. Calypso, Dido, 
 lo, Sappho, have usually the Greek genitive in iis, as echus, 
 Didus, Sapphus, the Latin termination onis being less common. 
 Their dative, accusative, and ablative end in o, and the Latin 
 terminations oni, onem, one, are but rarely used. 
 
GREEK FORMS IN THE THIRD DECLENSION. 59 
 
 [§ 71.] 2. The Greek accusative of the third declension in a is 
 very often used by the Latin poets instead of em. Thus Horace 
 uses only heroa, Cyclopa, Memnona, Agamemnona, Helicona, 
 Chremeta, and not Cyclopem, Agamemnonem, &c. Among the 
 prose writers Cicero most studiously avoids the Greek ter- 
 mination, except in aer, aether , and Pan, of which he makes the 
 accusative aera, aethera. and Pana (for the reason mentioned 
 above). In all other instances the Greek accusative in a must 
 be looked upon, in Cicero, as an exception. It occurs much 
 more frequently in Nepos, Livy, Curtius, and the authors of 
 what is called the Silver Age, though principally in proper 
 names and along with the common Latin termination em, e. g. 
 Bahylona, Eleusina, Lacedaemona, Marathona, Parmeniona, 
 Sidona, Timoleonta, Troezena, also Periclea, Stratoclea, and 
 similar names ending in the nominative in cles. In like manner 
 words in is and ys admit even in prose the Greek forms in and 
 yn together with the Latin im and ym, but Cicero uses them 
 only by way of exception ; Livy and Curtius have them more 
 frequently, e. g. Nahin, Agin, Halyn, Tigrin. The accus. 
 Eleusin, instead of Eleusinem (a), must be traced to the form 
 JEleusis, gen. is, which, however, is not well attested. For the 
 accusative of words in eus, which later writers usually make ea, 
 as Persea, Demetrium Phalerea, see above, Chap. XII. 4. 
 
 Proper names in es, which in Greek follow the first declension 
 (gen. ov), and in Latin the third (gen. is) (see Chap. IX. 3.), have 
 in the accusative the termination en along with that in em, e. g. 
 Aeschinen, Achillen, and Ulixen (inasmuch as these names are not 
 formed from ^AfXiWsvs and ^Ohvacrevs, but from the less common 
 ^AfxIXKris and ^Ohvaa-Tj^, ov), and especially barbarian names, 
 such as Mithridaten, Phraaten, Xerxen, Araxen, Euphraten. 
 The termination en for em is moreover found in those com- 
 pounds which in Greek follow the third declension, but in the 
 accusative admit of r)v and tj (contracted from so); but en is 
 used much less frequently. Instances of this kind are Sophoclen 
 in Cic. De Off. i. 40., Hippocraten and Epicyden in Livy. 
 Some words are in Greek declined in two ways, either after 
 the first or after the third declension, such as ^aXrjs, 'Kpsfjirjs, 
 gen. ov and i^ros ; in Latin they may have the shorter form and 
 yet follow the third declension (e. g. the ablat. Thale), and in 
 
60 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 the accusative they admit also of the termination en^ e. g. Chre- 
 metem and Chremen, Thalem or Thaletem and Thalen, 
 
 [§ 72.] 3. The vocative singular is in most Greek words like 
 the nominative ; but those ending in s form a distinct vocative 
 by rejecting that consonant, both in Greek and Latin. Thns 
 the vocative of words in is, ys, eus : Daphni, Phylli, Thai, 
 Coty, Tiphy, Orpheu, Perseu, Words in is, idis, however, make 
 the vocative just as often like the nominative, as Bacchis, My sis, 
 Thais. Nouns in as, antis, make their vocative in Greek av and 
 a, but the latter only is used in Latin, e. g. Atla, Calcha. 
 
 Proper names in es, gen. is, have the vocative of the first de- 
 clension in e together with the regular one. This is the case with 
 those which in Greek follow the first declension (e. g. Carneade, 
 Simonide and Achille, see above), and with those which although 
 they follow the third in all other respects, yet admit of the 
 accusative in r}v. Thus we somxctimes find Damocle, Pericle, 
 Sophocle, Socrate. 
 
 [§ 73.] 4. The plural of those Greek proper names which by 
 the forms of their accusative and vocative sing, show their ten- 
 dency to follow the first declension, is sometimes formed after 
 that declension. Thus we find in Cicero, De Orat. ii. 23., the 
 nom. Naucratae ; and Orat. 9., the accus. Thucydidas. 
 
 5. The Greek termination of the nominat. plur. es, instead of 
 the Latin es, is not uncommon in poetry, e. g. Arcades, At- 
 lantides, Erinnyes ; but the metre must decide. The termination 
 19, Latin Is, occurs even in the nominative of the names of 
 towns Trallis and Sardis, though principally in the latter. 
 Horace, Epist. i. 11. 2., says: Croesi regia Sardis. 
 
 In the nominative plural the neuters in 09 have the Greek 
 termination e, as cete, mele, and the plural Tempe, ra Ts/ulttt}. 
 
 Note. No other cases are formed from these neuters in oc, and in the sin- 
 gular too they occur only in the nom. and accus,, and we must therefore use 
 the Latin forms cetus and melum (according to the second declension). So 
 also chaos, gen. chai, abl. chao. See § 87. 
 
 6. In the genitive plural only a few words retain the Greek 
 termination on (cov), and that generally only in titles of books, 
 e. g. metamorphoseon, epigrammaton. 
 
 Note. Curtius, iv. 50. (13.) makes the genitive Maleon, from MaXittg., or 
 MaXtEie (sing. MaXuvg), entirely in the Greek fashion, for the Latin name is 
 Malienses. 
 
GENDER OF WOKDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 61 
 
 7. In the dative plural the Greek termination si or sin is 
 used very rarely, and only by poets. Ovid, e. g., has Lemniasi 
 and Troasin, from Lemniades and Troades. In prose writers 
 there are very few examples that can be relied upon, such as 
 ethesi from ra tjOt]. 
 
 [§ 74.] 8. The accusative plural in as is admissible in all 
 words which have this termination in Greek. It is however 
 seldom used in prose, though in common nouns it occurs more 
 frequently than the accusat. sing in a, e. g. harpagonas, pha- 
 langas, pyramidas, and even in Cicero we find aspidas, can- 
 tharidas. He also uses the proper names Aethiopas, Arcadas, 
 and Cyclopas, and Livy always has the accusat. Macedonas, It 
 is surprising to find, that the same termination is now and then 
 given also to barbarian names of nations, e. g. Allobrogas in 
 Caesar, and Lingonas, Nemetas, Ordovicas, Brigantas, Siluras 
 and Vangionas in Tacitus. 
 
 CHAP. XYII. 
 
 GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. — MAS- 
 CULINES. 
 
 [§ 75.] Masculine are those which end in o, or, os, and er, 
 and those in es which increase in the genitive, especially those 
 in es, itis, e. g. sermo, error, sudor, flos, mos, venter, stipes. 
 
 Exceptions in o. Words ending in do, go and io are feminine, 
 e. g. consuetudo, forrmdo, grando, imago, oratio, dictio, lectio, 
 auditio, communio, &c., also caro and the Greek words echo and 
 Argo (the ship of the Argonauts). The following, however, are 
 masculine : in do, the words cardo and ordo, together with udo 
 and cudo or cudon ; in go : ligo, margo, and harpago ; and all 
 words in io, which are not abstract nouns derived from verbs 
 and adjectives, but common names of things, such as pugio (a 
 dagger), scipio (a staff), septentrio (north pole), titio (a fire-brand) ; 
 several names of animals, as curculio*, papilio, scorpio, stellio, 
 vespertilio, and a few others of rare occurrence ; and lastly those 
 formed from numerals, such as unio, hinio or duplio, ternio, qua- 
 
 * Also spelled gurgvlio ; it is masculine in its two significations of " air- 
 pipe," and " wood worm." 
 
62 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ternio, quinio, senio, &c. Unio in the sense of a particular pearl 
 {margarita) is likewise masculine; but when it signifies unity 
 (unitas), and is used in an abstract sense, it is feminine ; but it 
 is only in ecclesiastical writers that it has this meaning. 
 
 Note. Cupido, desire, therefore is feminine, hut masculine wlien it is the 
 name of the god of Love. Poets, however, sometimes use it as a masculine, 
 even in the former signification, and Horace does so always, aspravics cupido-, 
 falsus cupido. Margo may have either gender, but the masculine is more 
 frequent, as was remarked above. 
 
 [§ 76.] Exceptions in or. The following words in or, oris, are 
 neuter : ador, aequor, marmor, and cor, cordis. Arbor is feminine 
 according to the general rule. (See § 39.) 
 
 Exceptions in os. Cos, dos, and the Greek eos are feminine. 
 Os, ossis, and os, oris, and the Greek words chaos, ethos, epos, 
 melos, are neuter. 
 
 Exceptions in er, A great many words in er are neuter, viz. 
 cadaver, iter, spinther, tuber (a hump), uber, ver, and verber 
 (rarely used in the singular, but very frequently in the plural, 
 verbera), and all the names of plants in er : acer, cicer, laser, 
 papaver, piper, siler, siser, suber and zingiber. Tuber (a kind of 
 peach-tree) is feminine ; but when it denotes the fruit, it is mas- 
 culine. Linter is commonly used as a feminine, but is well 
 attested also as a masculine. 
 
 Exceptions in es increasing in the genitive. The following 
 are feminine: merges, itis ; seges and teges, etis ; merces, edis ; 
 quies, etis, with its compounds inquies and requies, Compes, 
 which, however, does not occur in the nominative sing., but 
 only in the plural compedes, is feminine. Aes, aeris, is neuter ; 
 ales and quadrupes are properly adjectives, but as substantives 
 they are mostly used as feminines. 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 
 GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. — FEMI- 
 NINES. 
 
 [§ 77.] Feminine are those which end in as, is, ys, aus, and x, 
 those in es which do not increase in the genitive, and those in 
 
GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 63 
 
 s preceded by a consonant, e. g. auctoritas, navis, chlamys, laus 
 dindifraus, pax, radix, arx, nubes, pars, mors, hiems. 
 
 Exceptions in as. The following are masculine : — as, gen. 
 assis, and its compounds, though they have different terminations, 
 as quadrans, a fourth of an as ; bes, two-thirds of an as ; decussis, 
 ten ases * ; and the Greek words which make their genitive in 
 antis, as adamas, elephas, and the names of mountains : Acragas, 
 Atlas, Mimas. Mas, maris, and vas, vddis, are, of course, mas- 
 culine. The following are neuters : Greek words in as, which 
 make their genitive atis, as artocreas, erysipelas (see § 58.), and 
 the Latin words vas, vasis, and fas and nefas, which, however, 
 occur only in the nom. and accus. 
 
 Exceptions in is. The following are masculine : — 1) Those in 
 is, gen. eris, as cinis, cucumis,pulvis and vomis (commonly vomer); 
 2) The following which increase in the genitive : ylis, lapis, 
 pollis, and sanguis; 3) The following which do not increase: 
 amnis, axis, callis, canalis, cassis (used especially in the plural 
 casses, a hunter's net, and not to be confounded with cassis, idis, 
 a helmet) ; caulis or colis, collis, crinis, ensis, fascis (generally in 
 the plural, fasces), Jinis, follis, funis, fustis, ignis, mensis, orbis, 
 panis, piscis, postis, scrobis, sehtis, torquis, torris, unguis, vectis, 
 vermis. Some of these words, however, are used by good 
 authors also as feminines, though not often, especially callis, 
 canalis, scrobis, torquis, and Jinis, cinis, in the singular, whereas 
 the plural fines in the sense of boundary or territory, and cineres 
 in the sense of the ashes of a corpse, are always masculine. 
 
 As mensis is masculine, Aprilis, Quintilis, and Sextilis have the 
 same gender. Some substantives in is are properly adjectives, 
 and a substantive masculine being always understood, they are 
 themselves used as masculines : e. g. annalis, commonly in the 
 plural annales (Jibri), annals ; jugales (equi), two horses yoked 
 together ; molaris {lapis), a millstone, or if dens is understood, 
 a back- tooth or grinder; natalis (dies), birth-day; pugillares 
 (libelli) a tablet for writing. 
 
 Note. Anguis and tigris may have either gender ; cards is generally 
 mascul., but when it denotes a dog used in hunting, it is very often feminine. 
 (See § 42.) Aqiialis, callis, corbis, and clunis, plur. dunes, are used by good 
 writers as words of either gender. Delphis is masculine, but the more 
 
 * See the Appendix on Roman weights, coins, and measures. 
 
64 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 common forms are delphinus, or delpJiin. Cossis has not been mentioned 
 above, because the only authority we have for it is a doubtful passage in 
 Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxx. 39., and cossus, i, is more probable. 
 
 That the . names of rivers in is are masculine follows from the general 
 rule (§ 37.) ; thus we read ho7'ridus Alhis, fiavus Tiheris^ rapidus Tigris. 
 Names of mountains with this termination are not numerous : Lucretilis, a 
 hill in Latium, is masculine, for Horace says, amoenus Lucretilis. The 
 Greek names, Carambis, a promontory on the Asiatic coast of the Black 
 Sea, and Peloris in Sicily, are feminine, the word c'lKpa being understood. 
 
 All the masculines in is, whatever may be their genitive, are contained 
 in the following hexameter lines : 
 
 Mascula sunt panis, piscis, crinis, cinis, ignis, 
 Funis, glis, vectis, follis, fascis, lapis, amnis, 
 Sic fustis, postis, scrohis, axis, vermis et unguis, 
 "Et penis, collis, callis, sic sanguis et en^is, 
 Mugilis et mensis, pollis, cum caide canalis, 
 Et vomis, sentis, pulvis, finis, cucumisque, 
 Anguis, item torquis, torris, cum cassihus orbis. 
 
 Exceptions in i/s. Names of rivers and mountains with this 
 termination are masculine, according to the rules laid down in 
 Chap, yi.; e. g. Halys, Othrys. 
 
 [§ 78.] Exceptions in x. The following are masculine : 1) 
 The Greek words in ax: as anthrax^ cordax, thorax, 2) The 
 majority of those in ex: apex, caudex, codex, cimex, cortex, culex, 
 frutex, grex, irpex, latex, murex, obex, podex, pollex, pulex, pumex, 
 ramex, silex, sorex, ulex, vertex or vortex. 3) Some in ix: viz. 
 calix, fornix, phoenix, sorix; and generally also varix. 4) One 
 word in ux: viz. tradux, properly an adjective, palmes being 
 understood. 5) The following Greek words in yx : calyx, 
 coccyx, onyx, oryx and hombyx (in the sense of silkworm ; it is 
 femin. when it signifies silk) ; and the names of mountains, such 
 as Eryx. 6) The subdivisions of an as which end in unx: as 
 quincunx, septunx, deunx. (See Appendix III.) 
 
 Note. Many words in ex commonly enumerated in these lists are mas- 
 line from their signification, such as rex, pontifex, carnifex, foenisex, vervex. 
 Some words vary between the masculine and feminine genders, as cortex, 
 obex, pumex, and silex, which have been mentioned above, but the masc. is 
 better attested. To these we must add imbrex and rumex, both genders of 
 which are supported by equal authority. It may be remarked, that the 
 number of masculines in ex is greater than that of feminines ; for if we put 
 aside the above-mentioned masculines, there remain only the following 
 feminines : forfex, lex, nex, supellex, prex (not used in the nom.), and/aear. 
 Pellex, ilex, vitex, and carex are feminines from their meaning, according to 
 the general rule. Atriplex is the only iveuter in ex, and is rai-ely used as a 
 feminine. 
 
 I 
 
GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 65 
 
 Onyx is masculine when it denotes a species of marble, or a vessel made 
 of it ; but as the name of a precious stone (see § 39.) it is feminine. Calx 
 is sometimes used as a masculine like the diminutive calculus^ but it does not 
 occur in ancient writers. Lynx occurs as masculine only in a single passage 
 of Horace (timidos lyncas), and is otherwise feminine, as in Greek. The 
 archaic cum primo luci is believed to be preserved in a passage of Cicero 
 {De Off. iii. 31. 5 comp. Varro, De L. L. vi. 9.). 
 
 Exceptions in es, gen. is yvithout increase. The Greek word 
 acinaces alone (aKi,vdK7]9, ov) is decidedly masculine. Vepres, 
 which rarely occurs in the singular, and palumhes, though com- 
 monly masculines, are found also as feminines. 
 
 Exceptions in s preceded by a consonant. The following are 
 masculine : dens, fons, mons and pons; adeps commonly, and 
 forceps sometimes. Some words are properly adjectives, but 
 are used as masculine substantives, because a substantive of that 
 gender is understood : confluens or conjiuentes (amnes), torrens 
 (amms)f oriens and occidens (sot), rudens (funis), bidens and tri- 
 / dens; and several Greek words, such as elops, epops (Lat. upupa), 
 merops, gryps (grypliis), hydrops, chalybs. 
 
 Note. The divisions of the a& ending in ns^ e. g. sextans^ qiuidrans^ triens, 
 dodrans, are masculine, as was remarked § 77. Serpens, in prose writers, is 
 generally feminine, but the poets use it ■ also as a masculine. Stirps, in a 
 figurative sense, is always feminine, but in its original sense of " stem" it 
 is frequently found as a masculine. Continent, the continent, properly an 
 adjective, is of doubtful gender, though the feminine is perhaps preferable. 
 Bidens, a fork, is masculine, but when it signifies " a sheep two years old " it 
 is feminine, ovis being imderstood. The plural torrentia, from torrens, occurs 
 in Curtius ix. 35., and must be explained by supplying y?MWzw«, torrent being 
 properly an adjective. A few participles used as substantives in philoso- 
 phical language are neuters, as erw, accidens, consequens. Animans, being 
 properly a participle, occurs in all three genders; but according to the 
 practice of Cicero it is generally feminine in the sense of " a living being," 
 and masculine in the sense of " a rational creature." (See Schneider, For- 
 menlehre, p. 126. fol.) 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. NEUTERS. 
 
 [§ 79.] Words ending in a, e, i, y, c, I, n, t, ar, ur, us are 
 neuter : e. g. poema, mare, sindpi, misy, lac and alec, animal, mel, 
 carmen, flumen, caput (the only word of this termination), calcar, 
 pulvinar, fulgur, guttur, opus, tempus. 
 
 P 
 
66 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. Exceptions in /. The following are masculine: sol, sal and 
 mugil, which form is more common than mugilis. Sat in the 
 singular is sometimes found as a neuter, but in the plural the 
 ancients use only sales both in the sense of "salt" and in the 
 more common one of " witticisms." Salia in the sense of " dif- 
 ferent kinds of salt" is only a modern medical term. 
 
 2. Exceptions in n. There are only three Latin words in en 
 which are masculine, viz. pecten, pectinis, ren and lien (or lienis) ; 
 the others in en are of Greek origin : e. g. attagen, lichen and 
 splen. Delphin (commonly delphinus^, paean, agon, canon, gno- 
 mon, horizon, and the names of mountains in on, as Cithaeron, 
 Helicon, are likewise masculines. The following in on are 
 feminine : aedon, halcyon (Lat. alcedo), icon, and sindon; and, 
 according to the general rule, all the Greek names of towns, 
 with a few exceptions, such as Marathon, which is more fre- 
 quently masculine. 
 
 3. Exceptions in ar. Par is common in the sense of " mate," 
 but neuter in the sense of " a pair." 
 
 4. Exceptions in ur. Astur, turtur, vultur and furfur are 
 masculine. 
 
 5. Exceptions in us. All words of two or more syllables 
 which retain the u in the genitive, that is, which end in utis 
 or udis, are feminine : e. g. juventus, salus, senectus, servitus, 
 virtus; incus, palus, and subscus; also tellus, telluris, and pecus, 
 pecudis, a sheep, whereas pecus, pecoris (neut.), signifies " cattle" 
 in general. Venus, Veneris, the name of a goddess, is naturally 
 feminine ; but it retains the same gender in the sense of " grace- 
 fulness" (generally in the plural). Respecting the names of 
 animals in us, see above, § 42. Lepus and mus are masculine ; 
 grus and sus are feminine, when the particular sex is not to be 
 specified. Of Greek words in us, tripus, tripodis, is masculine ; 
 apus and lagopus are feminine, perhaps only because avis is 
 understood. Rhus, as a tree, is feminine, as a seed or spice 
 masculine. 
 
FOURTH DECLENSION. 67 
 
 CHAP. XX. 
 
 FOURTH DECLENSION. 
 
 [§ 80.] The fourth declension is only a particular species of the 
 third, which has arisen from contraction and elision. The 
 nominative of masculine and feminine words ends in us, and of 
 neuters in u. The following is the form of their declension : — 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Nom. fruct-us, fruit. 
 
 corn-u, horn. 
 
 Gen. fruct-us. 
 
 corn-US. 
 
 Dat. fruct-ui. 
 
 {corn-ui) corn-u. 
 
 Ace. fruct-um. 
 
 ~ com-u. 
 
 Voc. fruct-us. 
 
 corn-u. 
 
 Abl. fructu. 
 
 corn-u. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. fruct-us. 
 
 corn-ua. 
 
 Gen. fruct-uum. 
 
 corn-uum. 
 
 Dat. fruct-ibus. 
 
 corn-ihus. 
 
 Ace. fruct-us. 
 
 corn-ua. 
 
 Voc. fruct-us. • 
 
 corn-iia. 
 
 Abl. fruct'lbus. 
 
 corn-ibus. 
 
 The following words may be used as exercises: actus, coetus, 
 cursus, gradus, lusus, magistratus, motus, sensus, sumptus, vultus: 
 the only neuters are, genu, gelu, veru, pecu (the same as pecus, 
 oris). Tonitrus and tonitruum, plur. tonitrua, are more com- 
 monly used than tonitru. 
 
 Formerly it was believed that the neuters in u were inde- 
 clinable in the singular, but recent investigations (especially 
 those of Freund, in an Appendix to the preface to his Latin 
 Dictionary) compel us to give up this opinion, especially with 
 regard to the genitive; for it is only in late technical writers 
 that we find, e. g., cornu cervinum and cornu hubulum making 
 the genitive without any termination of the first word : cornu- 
 cervini, cornuhuhuli. The dative ui is likewise mentioned by 
 an ancient grammarian (Martian. Capella, lib. iii.), but there 
 is no instance except cornu in Livy, xlii. 58., which must be 
 looked on as a contraction of cornui. 
 
 F 2 
 
68 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 81.] Note 1. The genitive of the words in us was originally uis^ which 
 was afterwards contracted into us. Instances of the ancient form are still 
 found in our authors, as anuis in Terence. Sometimes, on the other hand, 
 the genitive of words in us was ?, after the second declension, which is still 
 found now and then as well as zw, not only in comic writers, but in good 
 prose, e. g. senati and tumulti in Sallust. The dative in u instead of ui is 
 still more frequent, especially in Cassar, who is said by Gellius (iv. 19.) to 
 have sanctioned this form exclusively; e.g. equitatu, 7nagistratu, usu, for 
 equitatui, &c. ; it is, however, found also in a few passages of other writers. 
 
 [§ 82.] Note 2. Some words make the dative and ablative plural in ubus 
 instead of ibus. They are contained in the following two hexameters : — 
 
 Arcus, acus, partus, quercus^ Jicus, lacv^^ artus, 
 Et tribus et partus, specus^ adde veruque pecuque. 
 
 But it must be observed, that instead ofjicubus a better form is j^m, from 
 ^czw, i (see § 97.), and that arcubus and quercubus, though mentioned by 
 ancient grammarians, do not occur in other writers any more than arcibus, 
 or quercibus. Portus has both forms, ubus and ibus, and tonitru^ has more 
 commonly tonitribus than tonitrubus. 
 
 [§ 83.] Note 3. Domus takes, in some of its cases, the forms of the second 
 declension ; but this is exclusively the case only in the genit. domi in the 
 sense of " at home ;" in the abl. dome in the sense of " from home ;" and in 
 the ace. plur. domos in the sense of " home," when several places are alluded 
 to. In the other signification, the forms of the fourth declension prevail, 
 though we find the ablat. domo, genit. plur. domorum, ace. plur. domos, 
 along with domu (see Garatoni on Cic. Philip, ii. 18.), domuum, and domus 
 (see my note on Cic. in Verr. iv. 4.) ; but domo for domui seldom occurs. 
 
 Gender or Words or the Fourth Declension. 
 
 [§ 84.] The words in us are masculine. The following only are 
 
 feminines : acus, domus, manus, porticus, tribus, and the plurals 
 
 idus, iduurn, and quinquatrus, quinquatruum. To these must be 
 
 added colus, which however also follows the second declension. 
 
 (See §§53. and 97.) The words anus, nurus, socrus, and quercus 
 
 are feminine, according to the general rule, on account of their 
 
 signification. 
 
 Note. Penus, us (provisions), is feminine ; but there are two other forms 
 of this word, one after the second declension, penum, i, and the second after 
 the third, penus, oris, both of which are neuter. Specus is most frequently 
 masculine, but in the early language, and in poetry, it is found both as a 
 feminine and as a neuter. In Valer. Maximus, i. 2., we have in quoddam 
 praealtum specus for in quendam specum; but the reading is doubtful. Secu^, 
 when used for sexus, is neuter, but occurs only in the nominat. and accus. in 
 the connection of virile and muliebre secus. (Comp. § 89.) 
 
 The few words in u are neuter, without exception. 
 
FIFTH DECLENSION. 69 
 
 . CHAP. XXL 
 
 FIFTH DECLENSION. 
 
 [§ 85.] The fifth declension, like the fourth, may, with a few 
 changes, be traced to the third. The nominative ends in es, 
 and the declension is as follows : — 
 
 F* 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Pltjral. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 di-es, a day. 
 
 Nom. di-es. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 di-ei. 
 
 Gen. di-erum. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 di-el. 
 
 Dat. di-ebus. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 di-em. 
 
 Ace. di-es. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 di-es. 
 
 Voc. di-es. 
 
 I Abl. 
 
 di-e. 
 
 Abl. di-ebus. 
 
 Note 1. Only the three words dies^ res, and species^ have theu* plural 
 complete ; and Cicero condemned even specierum and speciebus as not being 
 Latin. The words acies, fades, effigies, series, and spes, are found in good 
 prose writers only in the nominative sing, (perhaps in the vocative also) 
 and accusative plural ; the others have, from their signification, no plural. 
 
 Note 2. The e in the termination of the genitive and dative singular is 
 long, when preceded by a vowel, as in diei, maciei, but short after a consonant, 
 as in Jidei, rei. 
 
 Note 3. An old termination of the genitive was es (contracted from eis), 
 but is not found in our authors, except in the word Diespiter =■ Diei pater. 
 But there are several instances of e and i being used for the ei of the genitive 
 and dative. The e for the genitive occurs very frequently in poetry (Virg. 
 Georg. i. 208. die; Horat. Carm. iii. 7. 4.; Ovid. Metam. iii. 341., and 
 vii. 728. Jide^ ; and also in some passages of Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust ; e. g. 
 pernicie causa (some write pemicii), in Cic. pro Rose. Am. 45. In sinistra 
 parte acie in Cses. Bell. Gall. ii. 23., and several times in Sallust. Instances 
 of the dative ending in e occur in Horace, Serm. i. 3. 95. commissa fide ; and 
 in Livy, v. 13. insanabili pernicie nee causa nee finis inveniebatur. The 
 dative in i occurs in Nepos, Thrasyb. 2. : pemicii fuit; and the genitive in i 
 appears in Livy, ii. 42., in the connection oi tribuni plebi for plebei (plebes = 
 plebs). 
 
 Gender or Words of the Fifth Declension. 
 
 [§ 86.] The words of the fifth declension are feminine, with 
 the exception of dies, which is mascul. and femin. in the singular, 
 and masculine only in the plural. The compound meridies is 
 masculine only, but does not occur in the plural, as was re- 
 marked above. 
 
 r 3 
 
70 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 Note. Good prose writers make the singular of dies much more frequently 
 masculine than feminine. The latter gender, generally speaking, is used 
 only when dies denotes duration or length of time, and in the sense of a 
 fixed or appointed day. Thus we find certa^ co7tstituta, praestiiuta, dicta, 
 finita dies, but also stato die. 
 
 CHAP. XXII. 
 
 IRREGULAR DECLENSION. — INDECLIN ABLES. — DEEECTIVES. 
 
 [§87.] The irregularities in the declension of substantives may 
 be comprised under two general heads : A. Indeclinahles and de^ 
 fectives ; B. Heteroclita and heterogenea, 
 
 A. Some substantives have a defective declension, inasmuch 
 as they have either no terminations at all to mark the different 
 cases (indeclinahles), or want particular cases, or even a whole 
 number (defectives). 
 
 I. Indeclinahles, or words which retain the same form in all 
 cases, are chiefly the names of the letters of the Greek and 
 Latin alphabets, e. g. alpha, beta, gamma, digamma, delta, iota, 
 a, c, V, &c. It is only late and unclassical authors that decline 
 the Greek names in a. Delta, as a name of a country, is like- 
 wise indeclinable ; but it is found only in the nomin. and accus. 
 Further, a number of foreign words, such as git, manna, pascha, 
 and a few Greek substantives in i and y, such as gummi and 
 misy, which, however, occurs also as a declinable word (see 
 § 55.)\ and besides the indeclinable gummi there exist other 
 declinable forms also, e. g. haec gummis, hoc gnmma, and hoc 
 gumen. Hebrew proper names, which differ in their termi- 
 nations from Greek and Latin words, are either not declined 
 at all, as Betldeem, Gabriel, Ruth, or they take a Latin ter- 
 mination in the noriiinative also, e. g. Abrahamus, Jacobus, Jo- 
 sephus, Juditha. David and Daniel are the only names which, 
 without taking any termination in the nominative, make the 
 genitive Davidis and Danielis, Others, as Joannes, Moses, 
 Judas, Maria, have already acquired through the Greek a de- 
 cliuable termination, and are accordingly declined after the first 
 
 i 
 
I 
 
 IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 71 
 
 or third declension. Jesus makes the accusat. Jesum, but in 
 the other cases it remains unchanged, Jesu, 
 
 Among the genuine Latin words we must notice pondo, which 
 is used only as a plural, and remains unchanged in all its cases, 
 e. g. auri quinque pondo, five pounds of gold. This peculiarity 
 arose from the omission of the word librae, to which was added 
 the superfluous pondo, an ablative in the sense of " in weight" 
 (in which it still often occurs ; see § 428.), afterwards librae was 
 omitted and pondo retained its place. Semis, half an a^f^^^^ \_ \ B 
 become an indeclinable adjective (one half) from a declinable of 'r"^' 
 substantive, gen. semissis, and is used as such in connection withrr TJ ^ \ 
 other numerals. ^^ 
 
 [§ 88.] II. Defectives in case are those substantives which wan|^Tf Q'^^ 
 one or more cases. There are many words ^f which the nomi»—- ^^"^ 
 native singular cannot be proved to have existed, as for instance, 
 of the genitives dapis, dicionis, feminis (for which the nominat. 
 femur is used), frugis, internecionis, opis, pollinis, vicis, and of 
 the plurals preces and verbera (for which we use as a nom. sing. 
 plaga or ictus). The genitive neminis from nemo occurs veiy 
 rarely, and its place is supplied by nullius. (See § 676.) The 
 vocative is wanting in a great many words, from their signifi- 
 cation. The genitive plural is wanting, that is, does not occur 
 in our authorities, in several monosyllabic words, as os, oris ; 
 vas, vadis ; glos, pax, and others. (See § 66.) The geiiit. and 
 dat. sing, of vis is very rare, but the plural vires, virium, &c., is 
 complete. 
 
 [§ 89.] With regard to words which want several cases, it 
 most frequently happens, that only those cases exist which are 
 alike (i. e. especially the nominat. and accusat.), all the others 
 being wanting. This is the case, «) With Greek neuters in 
 es (properly adjectives) and os in the singular, and with those 
 in e in the plural, e. g. cacoethes, chaos, epos, melos, cetos (which 
 make the plural mele, cete, as in Greek), and Tempe. Some of 
 these words, however, have a declinable Latin form in us, i, or 
 um, i, viz. chaus, cetus, melus (mascul.), and melum, from which 
 the ablatives chao, melo are derived; and besides (to) Argos, 
 there is a declinable Latin form Argi, Argorum, Argis. b) 
 With the Latin neuters fas, nefas, nihil, parum (too little), and 
 instar, which was originally a substantive signifying " an image," 
 or " resemblance," and was then used as an adjective in the 
 
 F 4 
 
72 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 sense of " like," but only in such connections as admit of its 
 being explained as a nominative or accusative. Secus, sex, is like- 
 wise used only in cases that are alike, especially as an accusative 
 absolute, virile secus, muliebre secus, e. g. canis muliehre secus ; 
 in other phrases sexus, us, is the ordinary word, c) With the 
 plural of many monosyllabic words, as neces, kinds of death ; 
 paces, treaties of peace ; especially neuters, as aera, brazen 
 images ; jura, rights ; rura, fields ; tura, incense ; and others, 
 the plural of which generally occurs only in poetical language, 
 as farra, corn ; mella, honey ; fella, bile. To these we must 
 add the poetical plurals Jlamina, murmura, silentia, colla. 
 The following plurals grates, munia, munera, likewise occur 
 only in the nom. and accus., and the ablatives gratibus and 
 munibus are rarely *used. Metus which is complete in the sin- 
 gular, and astus, of which the ablat. singular is used, have, in 
 the plural, those cases only which are alike. 
 
 The following must be remembered separately : fors occurs 
 only in the nom. and abl. singular {forte, by chance); lues, in 
 the nom., ace, and ablat. singular ; mane, in the nom., ace, and 
 abl. singular, and is alike in all of them, but it is used also as 
 an adverb. Satias for satietas does not occur, in good prose, 
 in any other form. There are several words which are frequently 
 used in the plural (see § 94.), but which in the singular have 
 only one or other case, more especially the ablative ; e. g prece 
 from preces occurs in prose also ; but the ablative singular of 
 ambages, compedes, fauces, obices, and verbera is used only in 
 verse, and not in ordinary prose. 
 
 [§ 90.] Some words occur only in particular combinations 
 and in a particular case: dicis with causa and gratia; nauci 
 in the phrase non nauci facer e or esse; diu noctuque, or die 
 et noctu, old ablatives, for which however nocte et interdiu 
 are more commonly used ; derisui, despicatui, divisui, ostentui, 
 in combination with duci or esse ; irifitias with ire ; suppetias 
 with ferre ; pessum and venum with ire and dare, whence venire 
 and vendere, for which Tacitus, in the same sense, uses veno 
 ponere, exercere ; foris and foras (from force —fores) ; gratis (for 
 gratiis), ingratiis ; sponte with a pronoun, as mea, tua, sua, or a 
 genitive ; in promptu and in procinctu commonly with esse and 
 stare. We must particularly notice some verbal substantives, 
 which frequently occur in good writers, but rarely in any other 
 
irregiTlar declension. 73 
 
 form than the ablat. sing, in combination with a genitive or still 
 more frequently with a pronoun, such as meOi tuo, &c., e. g. con- 
 cessu and permissu ; monitu and admonitu; mandatu,rogatu, oratu; 
 arbitratu, jussu et injussu ; accitu, coactu atque efflagitatu meo. 
 
 [§91.] III. Defectives in number are words which have either 
 no plural or singular. 
 
 1. Many words from their signification can have no plural, 
 and are termed singularia tantum. This is the case : a) With 
 abstract nouns which have a simple and universal meaning, 
 e. g. justitia, pietas, pudor, temperantia, experientia, infantiUf 
 pueritia^ adolescentia, juventus, senectus, fames, sitis ; b) With 
 words which denote a substance or mass without division or 
 subdivision, as aurum^ argentum, argilla, sabulum, coenum, 
 limus, sanguis, and panis, inasmuch as we thereby do not un- 
 derstand a single loaf but the substance of bread in general. 
 Some words of this kind however, when used in the plural, de- 
 note separate objects, consisting of the substance indicated by 
 the name, as aera, works in bronze ; cerae, wax- tablets ; ligna, 
 pieces of wood ; c) Collective words, as indoles, the whole na- 
 tural abilities of a person; plebs and vulgus^ victus, supellex, 
 virus. Proper nanies should strictly have no plural, but cases 
 often occur, where a plural is necessary, viz. when persons of 
 the same name or character are spoken of, and it may be re- 
 marked in general that in cases like this the person who speaks 
 or writes must decide for himself. It is surprising that there 
 exists no plural of the words vesper (yespera), meridies, ver, 
 justitium, letum, and specimen. 
 
 [§ 92.] Note 1. It is, however, remarkable, that the plural of abstract 
 nouns is much more common in Latin than in our own language, to denote 
 a repetition of the same thing, or its existence in different objects. Cicero 
 ( Pro Leg. Man. 5.), for example, says : advent us imperatorum nostrorum 
 in urbes sociorum ; in Pis. 22. : concursus fehant undique ; effusiones fiomi- 
 num ; De Off. ii. 6. : inieritU^ exeixituum ; ibid, ii. 8. : exitus erant hellorum 
 aut mites aitt necessarii ; ibid. ii. 7. : reliquorum similes exitus tyrannorum ; in 
 Verr. v. 11.: exitus conniviorum tales fuerunt. The phrases incurrere in odia 
 hominum and animos addere militihus^ are of quite common occurrence, and 
 animus is used in the plural whenever the courage or anger of seve/al per- 
 sons is spoken of, just as we always read terga vertere^ to take to flight, 
 when the act is ascribed to many, and never tergum. Animi, however, like 
 spiritUs^ is used in the plural also to denote the ferocia animi of one man. 
 Qualities, when attributed to several persons, are frequently (not always) 
 used in the plural ; e. g. proceritates arborum, Cic. Cat. 17. ; odistis hominum 
 novorum industria^^ in Verr. iii. 4. : ingeniis excellentibus praediti homines^ De 
 
74 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Fin. V. 24. The plural in this case often denotes different species of the 
 same quality ; e. g. sapiens nostras amhitiones levitatesque contemnit, Cic. Tusc. 
 V. 36. ; saepe excellentiae quaedam in amicitia sunt, Lael. 19. ; somnus et quietes 
 ceterae, De Off. i. 29. In like manner we find invidiae multitudinis, insaniae, 
 desperationes, iracundiae, fortitudines, turpitudines, mortes, exitia, omnes et 
 metus et aegritudines ad dolorem referuntur., &c. (See in particular Cic. De 
 Off. iii. 32.) We must further, notice the frequent use of the plural in 
 words denoting the phenomena of the weather, as nives, pruinae, grandines, 
 imbres, pluviae ; n. e. falls of snow, showers of hail, &c. ; and soles, sunbeams. 
 (See Quintil, xi. 3. 27.) All we have said hitherto relates to good prose ; the 
 poets go still further, and use the plural without either of the two reasons 
 mentioned above ; e. g. amoves, irae, metUs, and timores, flamina, murmura, 
 otia, silentia, partly for the purpose of being more emphatic, and partly on 
 account of the metre, where the singular does not suit it. 
 
 Note 2. The names of fruits of gardens and fields, on the other hand, 
 are frequently used in the singular in a collective sense, where we are in the 
 habit of employing the plural ; e. g. Pythagorei faha ahstinuerunt (Cic.) ; 
 faham, lentem, rapum severe ; ciceris catinus. In like manner nux or uva does 
 not denote a single nut or grape, but the particular kind of fruit, as in 
 Horace, Serm. ii. 2. 121. : pensilis uva secundas et mix ornahat mensas. In a 
 similar way Cicero uses the names of species of animals : villa abundat porco, 
 Tiaedo, agno, gallina, Cat. 17. ; and Livy, v. 53., of building materials : tegula 
 publice praehita est. 
 
 [§ 93.] 2. Other words (jpluralia tantum) occur only in the 
 .plural, and in the singular either not at all, or only in writers 
 who cannot be taken as models. This is the case 
 
 a) With the following collective names of personal beings : 
 liheri, gemini, majores, posteri, primores and proceres, superi and. 
 inferi, coelites, consentes, penateSf lemures, excubiae, operae. When 
 in any of these cases an individual is to be indicated, it can be 
 done only by making it a part of the collective, e. g. one child, 
 unus or una liberorum or ex liberis. Manes or dii manes how- 
 ever is used in the plural also to denote the departed soul of an 
 individual. 
 
 b) A great number of other pluralia tantum denote a complex 
 of things, the constituent parts of which are not conceived 
 separately, or at least are not designated by the same word as 
 the whole complex itself. Such words are rendered in English 
 either by plurals or collective words. The most important 
 among them are : — 
 
 a) Artus, exta, intestina and viscera, foria (orum), tormina, 
 ilia, armamenta, impedimenta, utensilia, induviae, exuviae, manubiae, 
 parietinae, reliquiae, sentes, vepres, virgulta, bellaria, crepundia, 
 scruta, donaria, lautia, inferiae, justa, serta, compedes, verbera, 
 grates, lamenta, minae, preces, dirae, ambages, argutiae, deliciae, di- 
 
IRKEGULAE DECLENSION. 75 
 
 vitiae, facetiae, nugae,gerrae, quisquiliae, insidiae,praestigiae, tricae. 
 To these we may add some other but similar ideas, which are 
 more frequently expressed by the plural than the singular, as an- 
 gustiae, hlanditiae, illecebrae, ineptiae, minutiae, latebrae, salehrae, 
 
 [§ 94.] ^) The following words are used in Latin in the plural, 
 because they denote things composed of several parts, whereas we 
 frequently express the same things in the singular: — Altaria 
 (altare is less common), arma, moenia, bigae, trigae, quadrigae (in 
 the so-called Silver Age the singular also was used, the chariot 
 being the main thing thought of), cancelli and clathri, casses and 
 plagae, exequiae, fides (a lyre, properly the strings which were 
 also called nervi), fores and valvae, loculi, phalerae, salinae, scalae, 
 scopae, codicilli, pugillares, tabulae, cerae, dunes and nates. The 
 meaning of the plural is more obscure in the following words : 
 cervices*, fauces, clitellae, cunae, cunabula and incunabula, inimi- 
 citiae (is used by Cicero in the singular only as expressing a 
 philosophical idea, otherwise it is a plurale tanturn), induciae, 
 nuptiae, obices, pantices, praecordia {oruni), sordes, tenebrae. 
 
 It is curious that the plural of some of the words of this 
 class expresses also a plurality of the same things of which the 
 jjlurale tantum indicates but one, e. g. that fauces signifies not 
 only " a throat," but " several throats," or " mouths." In this 
 case the distributive nimierals are used instead of cardinal 
 ones. (See § 119.) 
 
 [§ 95.] The names of certain days in the Roman calendar are 
 plurals, as calendae, nonae, idus, nundinae and feriae ; so also the 
 names of festivals and festive games (like ludi itself), e. g. 
 Bacchanalia, Floralia, Saturnalia, Olympia, and natalicia, 
 sponsalia and repotia ; further, many names of towns, such as 
 Athenae, Thebae, Gades, the neuters Arbela, Bactra, Leuctra, 
 and a considerable number of names of towns which are pro- 
 perly names of the people, as Delphi, Leontini, Parisii, Treviri. 
 Such plural names of nations are often used for that of the 
 country they inhabit. Horace, for example, says: tollor in 
 arduos Sabinos, i. e. into the high country of the Sabines. 
 (See § 680.) 
 
 * In ancient Latin prose, i. e. especially in Cicero, it is a plurale tantum ; 
 for cervicem in Cic. in Verr. v. 42. is only a misprint in the modern editions ; 
 but the poets, and, after the Augustan age, prose writers also, use the word 
 in the singular. (Comp. Quintil. viii. 3. 35.) 
 
76 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 96.] Some words which are apparently the same vary in 
 meaning according to their number, which is sometimes ac- 
 companied by a difference of gender. Lustrum is a period of 
 five years, and lustra, dens of wild beasts ; fastus, us, plur. 
 fastus, pride ; and fasti, the calendar ; forum, market, and fori, 
 passages ; tempus, time, and tempora (sometimes tempus also), 
 the temples of the head. 
 
 In other words the plural has a different meaning from the 
 singular, though one nearly allied to it, and without giving 
 up the meanmg of the singular for the plural, e. g. 
 
 Singular. 
 Aedes, a temple. 
 
 Aqua, water. 
 Auxilium, help. 
 Bonum, something good. 
 Career, a prison. 
 Castrum, a fort. [forum. 
 
 Comitium, a part of the Roman 
 Copia, abundance. 
 Cupedia, daintiness. 
 Epulum, a solemn feast. 
 Faeultas, power to do some- 
 thing. 
 Fortuna, fortune. 
 Hortus, a garden. 
 
 Littera, letter of the alphabet. 
 
 Ludus, pastime. 
 
 Naris, nostril. 
 
 Natalis (dies), birth-day. 
 
 {Ops, obsol.) Opis, help. 
 
 Opera, labour. 
 
 Pars, a part. 
 
 Rostrum, a beak, pointed head 
 
 of a ship. 
 Sal, salt. 
 
 Plural. 
 Aedes, a house. 
 Aquae, medicinal springs. 
 Auxilia, auxiliary troops. 
 Bona, property. [course. 
 
 Car ceres, the barriers of a race- 
 Castra, a camp. 
 Comitia, assembly for election. 
 Copiae, troops. 
 
 Cupediae, or cupedia, dainties. 
 Epulae, a feast, a meal. 
 Facultates, property. 
 
 Fortunae, goods of fortune. 
 
 Horti and hortuli, pleasure- 
 grounds. 
 
 Litterae, an epistle. 
 
 Ludi, public games. 
 
 Nares, ium, nose ^nasus, 
 
 Natales, birth, high or low. 
 
 Opes, power, wealth. 
 
 Operae, workmen. 
 
 Partes, (commonly) a party. 
 
 Rostra, the raised place from 
 which the orators spoke. 
 
 Sales, witticisms. 
 
IRREOULAR DECLENSION. 77 
 
 CHAP. XXIII. . 
 IRREGULAR DECLENSION. — HETEROCLITA. — HETEROGENE A. 
 
 [§ 97.] B, The second kind of irregularity in tlie declension 
 of substantives consists in too great an abundance of forms. 
 It happens either, that although there is but one nominative, 
 the other cases have two forms after different declensions, or 
 that both the nominative, and aU the other cases, have two dif- 
 ferent forms. If owing to the different terminations, such a 
 word has at the same time different genders, it is called a 
 heterogenes ; if it has merely different forms, it is called a 
 heteroclUon, It must however be observed that there are only 
 very few words in which the practice of good prose does not 
 give preference to one of the forms, and in the following list 
 we shall always put the preferable form first. 
 
 Forms of different declensions are found with the word 
 jugerum; for, besides the ablative sing, and plur. jugero and 
 jugeriSf poets for metrical reasons use jugere and jugeribus. 
 Some names of trees in us, viz. cupressus, Jicus, laurus, pinus, 
 besides the forms of the second declension, also take those 
 of the fourth in us and u, i. e. in the genit. and ablat. sin- 
 gular, and in the nom. and accus. plural, e. g. laurus (after the 
 second and fourth declension), gen. lauri and laurus, dat. lauro, 
 ace. laurum, voc. laure, abl. lauro and lauru, Nom. plur. lauri 
 and laurus, gen. laurorum, dat. and abl. lauris, accus. lauros 
 and laurus, voc. lauri. In other names of trees the second de- 
 clension greatly predominates, except quercus, which follows t{ie 
 fourth entirely. The same fe the case with colus, a distaff; but 
 the cases in i, orum, is, do not exist, perhaps only accidentally, 
 for, according to the ancient grammarians,' the word may follow 
 both the second and fourth declensions. Respecting senatus, 
 tumultus, gen. Us and i, see § 81. Vas, vasis, a vessel, sometimes 
 makes the genit. vasi from vasum, which is not altogether out of 
 . use. The plural ilia has iliorum and iliis along with ilium and 
 ilibus, 
 
 [§ 98.] Words which have different forms in the nominative 
 as well as other cases may follow the same declension in either 
 case, as balteus and balteum, callus and callum, clipeus and cli- 
 
78 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 peum (especially a consecrated shield), carrus and carrum, com- 
 mentarius and commentarium, cuhihis and cubitum, pileum and 
 pileus, haculum and bacillus, palatum and palatus, jugulum and 
 juguluSf catinus^ catillus, and catinum, catillum; and some names 
 of plants, as lupinus and lupinum, papyrus and papyrum, por- 
 rum and porrus : or they follow different declensions ; as 
 
 Alimonia, ae, — aliTnonium, i. 
 
 Amygdala, ae, — amygdalum, i, 
 
 Vespera, ae. — vesper, i, the evening star, is regular. In 
 the sense of evening, we find the nom. 
 vesper and accus. vesperum, but the ab- 
 lative vesper e and vesperi, from vesper, is; 
 in the Silver Age generally, we also find 
 vespera, ae, 
 
 — cingula, ae, 
 
 — esseda, ae. 
 
 — incestus, us. 
 
 — delphin, inis. 
 
 — elephas, antis. 
 
 — consortium, i. 
 
 — menda, ae. 
 
 — penus, us; and penus, oris. 
 
 — tergus, oris, only in poetry, and in prose 
 
 after Augustus. 
 Pavo, onis. — pavus, i. 
 
 Scorjno, onis. — scorpius, i, 
 Palumbes, is. — palumbus, i; and palumba. 
 Colluvio, onis. — colluvies, ei. 
 Crater, eris. — crater a, ae. 
 Plebs, is. — plebes, ei. 
 
 Paupertas, atis — pawperies, ei. 
 Juventus, utis — juventa, ae; and juventas, dtis. 
 Senectus, Utis. — senecta, ae. 
 Gausdpe, is (oXso — gausapum, i; sind gausapa, ae. 
 
 gausapes, is, 
 
 masc). 
 Praesepe,is{2dso — praesepium, i. 
 
 praesepes, is, 
 
 fern.). 
 Tapete, is. — tapetum, i; and tapes, etis. 
 
 Cingulum, i. 
 Essedum, i. 
 Incestum, i. 
 DelpMnus, i. 
 Elephantus, i. 
 Consortia, onis 
 Mendum, i. 
 Penum, i. 
 Tergum, i. 
 
IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 79^ 
 
 AngiportuSy us. — angiportum, i. 
 
 Rictus, us. — rictum, i. 
 
 Arcus, us. — arcus, i (in Cic. De Nat. Deor. iii. 20.). 
 
 Tonitrus, us — tonitruum. 
 (tonitru). 
 
 Fames, is, and requies, etis, take the forms of the fifth. declension : 
 fames makes the ablat. fame, and requies has requiem and requie 
 besides requietem and requiete. It is of comparatively frequent 
 occurrence that substantives have different forms both of the 
 first and fifth declensions, as harbaria, harbaries; luxuria, es; 
 duritia, es ; materia, es ; mollitia, es; segnitia, es (the forms 
 after the fifth declension commonly occur only in the nom., ace, 
 and ablat.), and that verbal substantives of the fourth declension 
 have a second form in um, i, like the participle of the perfect, as 
 conatus and conatum, eventus and eventum, praetextus and prae- 
 textum, suggestus and suggestum. 
 
 [§ 99.] To this class belong those substantives which, in the 
 plural, assume a different gender and a different form, in some 
 instances, along with the regular one : — 
 
 1. Masculines, which in the plural become neuters : jocus, 
 plur. joci and joca (of pretty equal authority, though joca is 
 better established by the practice of Cicero) ; locus, plur. loci 
 (generally passages in books or subjects for investigation and 
 discussions topics) and loca (in the common sense of "places," 
 whence the difference is briefly expressed thus : loci librorum, 
 loca terrarum.). The poets use sibila for sibili; and of intubus 
 and tartarus they make the plural intuba and tartara. 
 
 2. Feminines which in the plural become neuters : carbasus, 
 a species of flax, plur. carbasi and carbasa, sails made of it ; 
 astrea, plur. astreae and astrea, orum; margarita, plur. marga- 
 ritae, and in Tacitus also margarita, orum, 
 
 3. The following neuters become — «) Masculines: coelum, 
 coeli; siser, siseres; porrum (which is much more frequent in the 
 singular than ^orrws), joorn; b) Femiuines : delicium, deliciae; 
 epulum, epulae ; balneum, balneae (in the sense of a public 
 bath balnea is more frequent) ; c) Both masculines and neuters : 
 rastrum, rastri and rastra; frenum, freni* and/rew«. 
 
 * The nominative freni^ for which Schneider {Formerdehre^ p. 476.) has 
 no authority, occurs in Curtius, iii. 34. vii. 40. ; Valer. Maxim, ii, 9. 5. ; 
 Seneca, de Ira, i. 7. ; Sil. Ital. i. 240. 
 
80 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 s 
 
 CHAP. XXIV. 
 
 NOUNS ADJECTIVE. — TERMINATIONS. — DECLENSION. 
 
 [§100.] 1. The noun adjective denotes a quality of a person 
 or a thing, expressed either by a substantive or a pronoun. The 
 participle is an adjective formed from a verb, and, as far as 
 its form is concerned, is an adjective. An adjective has three 
 genders, and can thus be joined with substantives of different 
 genders. But there are only two classes of adjectives in which 
 the three genders are indicated by three different terminations ; 
 namely, the adjectives and participles in us, a, um, such as bonus, 
 bona, bonum; amatus, amata, amatum; and those in er, a, um, 
 such as liber, libera, liber um ; and the isolated satur, satura, 
 saturum. 
 
 To these adjectives of three terminations the following thir- 
 teen in er, is, e must be added : acer, acris, acre; alacer, alacris, 
 alacre; campester, campestris, campestre; celeber, Celebris, celebre; 
 celer, celeris, celere; equester, equestris, equestre; paluster, paluS' 
 tris, palustre; pedester, pedestris, pedestre; puter, putris, putre; 
 saluber, salubris, salubre; Silvester, silvestris, silvestre; terr ester, 
 terrestris, terrestre; volucer, volucris, volucre. Originally they 
 had only two terminations, is for the masculine and feminine, 
 and e for the neuter. The termination er for the masculine ex- 
 clusively was afterwards added to them ; but as the termination 
 is is not very often used in good prose for the masculine, it will 
 be best to treat them as a class of adjectives which have three 
 terminations for the three genders. 
 
 Note 1. Ernesti on Tacit. Annal. ii. in fin. goes too far in asserting that 
 the masculine in is is not suited for prose. He himself quotes two passages 
 from Tacitus for Celebris, and one in the Auct. ad Herenn. ii. 4. : locus Cele- 
 bris. Several others may be added from Curtius. In Cicero, De Divin. i. 57. 
 we find annus salubris ; and in like manner locus^ ventus, effectv^ salubris in 
 Celsus, i. 3., ii. 1., iii. 6. ; in Livy, xxvii. 1. : tumultus equestris; xxix. 35. : 
 exercitu^ terrestris ; and xxvii. 26. : tumultus silvestris ; also collis and locus 
 silvestris in Caesar, Bell. Gall. ii. 18., vi. 34. ; vomitus acris in Celsus, 
 viii. 4. 
 
 Note 2. The names of the months, September^ October, November, De- 
 cember, also belong to this class of adjectives. As adjectives, however, they 
 are defective, since th^ neuter never occurs, and the masculine and feminine 
 
NOUNS ADJECTIVE. 81 
 
 scarcely in any other connection than with mensis (masc), Calendae, Nonae, 
 and Idus. Horace uses Uhertate Decembri. 
 
 [§101.] 2. Other adjectives have m reality two forms, 
 
 the one for the masculine and feminine in common (^generis 
 
 communis), and the other for the neuter. This class consists 
 
 of those in is, neut. e, as levis (masc. and fem.), leve, and the 
 
 comparatives in or (masc. and fem.), us (neut.), as levior, levius. 
 
 Note. Some adjectives have a double form ; one in us, a, wm, the other in 
 is, e. 
 
 Hilarus, cr, um. — hilaris, e. 
 
 Tmbecillus, «, um. — imbecillis, e (rare). 
 
 Imberbu^, a, um (rare). — imberbis, e. 
 
 Inermus, a, um (rare). — inermis, e. 
 
 Semermus, a, um. — semermis, e. 
 
 Semisomnus, a, um. — but insomni% e. 
 
 Exanimus, a, um. — exanimis, e. 
 
 Semianimu^, a, um. — semianimis, e. 
 
 Unanimus, a, um. — unanimis, e (rare). 
 
 Bijugus, a, um. — bijugis, e (rare). 
 
 Quadrijugus, a, um. — quxidrijugis, e. 
 
 Multijugus, a, um. t— midttjugis, e. 
 
 The forms acclivus, decUvus, procUvus, and a few others not mentioned 
 here, are but rarely used for acclivis, decUvis, and prodivis. 
 
 [§ 102.] 3. All other adjectives have only one termination 
 for all three genders ; as felix, prudens, anceps, sollers, pauper, 
 dives, vetus, Arpinas. So also the present participles in ns, 
 as laudans, monens, leg ens, audiens. But all the adjectives of 
 this class have the termination ia in the nom., accus., and voca- 
 tive plural of the neuter gender. (Very few, and properly 
 speaking only vetus, veteris, have the termination a, respecting 
 which see above, § 65.) E. g. felicia, prudentia, ancipitia, sol- 
 lertia, laudantia. Opulens and violens are only different forms of 
 opidentus, violentus. 
 
 Note 1. Dives is an adjective of one termination, and the neuter therefore 
 is dives, as dives opus, dives munus. There is another form of the word with 
 two terminations, dis, neut. dite, but it very rarely occurs in the nominative 
 singular : dis being found only in Terence,, J.rfeZp A. v. 1. 8., and dite in Valer. 
 Flacc. ii. 296. : but in the other cases and in the plural it is frequently used, 
 as ditem Asiam, diti gaza, ditia stipendia facere, ditibus promissis ; the nomi- 
 native plural divitia does not seem to occur at all. In the comparative and 
 superlative both forms divitior, divitissimus, and ditior, ditissimus, are equally 
 in use ; the longer forms in the prose of Cicero, and the shorter ones in 
 poetry and later prose writers. Pubes, genit. puberis, is an adjective of one 
 termination; but the compound impUbes, eris, appears also in the form 
 impubis, e, genit. impiibis, e. g. impube corpus. 
 
 G 
 
OZ LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 Note 2. Substantives ki tor derived from transitive verbs may like- 
 wise be classed among adjectives, as praeceptor^ victor; for as they may 
 easily form a feminine in trix (see § 41.), they have almost the character 
 of adjectives ; and even in prose we read, e. g., victor exercitus, victrices 
 litter ae^ in tarn corruptrice provincia. Thus Livy says of L. Brutus, 
 ille liberator populi Romani animus ; that is, aliquando liberaturus populum 
 Rom. ; and Tacitus, eductus in domo regnatrice. (See Bentley on Horace, 
 Carm. iv. 9. 39.) The use of these substantives as adjectives is limited in 
 prose; but the poets extend it much further, and use even the Greek 
 patronymics in as and is in the same manner. Ovid, e. g., says, Pelias hasta^ 
 laurus Parndsis, Ausonis ora, Sithonis unda ; and Virgil, ursa Libystis, &c. 
 A singular feature of these words is, that, together with the feminine termi- 
 nation of the plural trices, they have also a neuter termination, tricia ; e. g. 
 victricia bella, idtricia tela ; hence in the plural they become adjectives of 
 three terminations, as victores, victrices, victricia. The substantive hospes, 
 too, has in poetry a neuter plural, hospita, in the sense of an adjective. 
 
 [§ 103.] 4. With regard to the declension of adjectives, it 
 must be observed that the feminines in a follow the first de- 
 clension ; the masculines in us and er, which make the feminine 
 in a, and the neuters in um, follow the second. All other ter- 
 minations belong to the third declension. As therefore adjec- 
 tives follow the same declensions as substantives, the former also 
 have been treated of above, and their irregularities have been 
 pointed out. (See §§ 51. and 66,, &c.) 
 
 Note. The following table shows the declension of adjectives of one 
 termination : — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. — Nom. es, neut. ia. 
 
 Gen. is Gen. ium, sometimes urn. 
 
 Dat. i Dat. ibus. 
 
 Ace. em, neut. like nom. Ace. like nom. 
 
 Voc. like nom. Voc. like nom. 
 
 Abl. i, sometimes e. Abl. ibus. 
 
 5. Indeclinable adjectives are : nequam ; frugi (properly a 
 dative of the obsolete frux, but is used quite as an adjective ; 
 its derivative f rug alls is not found in any ancient writer) ; 
 praesto (occurs only in connection with the verb esse) ; and semis, 
 which is always added to other numerals in the sense of " and a 
 half," the conjunction being omitted, e. g. recipe uncias quinque 
 semis, take five ounces and a half. It must not be confounded 
 with the substantive semis, gen. semissis. Potis or pote is obso- 
 lete, and occurs only in poetry in connection with esse (whence 
 arose the contracted form posse). Damnas, guilty, is used only 
 as a legal term, in connection with esto and sunto. 
 
NOUNS ADJECTIVE. 83 
 
 Adjectives defective in number are pauci and plerique, -which, 
 in ordinary language, have no singular. The diminutive of 
 paucus, however, occurs as a neuter pauxillum or pauxillulum, 
 though rarely in other genders. The singular plerusque is ob- 
 solete, and is found only in Sallust, who was fond of old forms 
 of expression, e. g. pleraque juventus, nobilltas ; plerumque 
 exercitum ; but the neuter plerumque (the greatest part) likewise 
 occurs, though only in an isolated passage of Livy. It is 
 usually an adverb, signifying " mostly," or, "for the most part." 
 (See § 266.) 
 
 Of adjectives defective in case there are several of which 
 the nominative is not in use, or, at least, cannot be proved to 
 have been used ; e. g. sons, seminex (or semmecis), and a few 
 similar compounds. We further do not find ceterus and ludi- 
 C7'us (or ceter, ludicer?), but the other genders occur in the 
 nominative. The genitive primoris has neither a nomina- 
 tive {primor or primoris^, nor the neuter forms. Cicero uses 
 the word only in the phrase primoribus lahris (equivalent to 
 primis), others frequently use the plural in the sense of prin- 
 cipes, or the grandees of a nation. Parum, too little, is the 
 neuter of the obsolete parus connected with parvus, and is 
 used as a substantive only in the nom. and accusative. Ne^ 
 cesse exists only as a neuter in connection with est, erat, &c., 
 and with habeo, habes, &c. ; necessum, which is likewise used 
 only with est, erat, &c., very rarely occurs except in old Latin, 
 the adjective necessarius, a, um, being used in its stead. Vo- 
 lupe is likewise obsolete, and is used only with est, erat, &c. 
 Of mactus, a, um, which is believed to be a contraction of magis 
 auctus, we have only macte and macti with the imperative of 
 the verb esse, (Comp. § 453.) The genitive of plerique is 
 wanting ; but plurimi, which has the same meaning, supplies the 
 deficiency. 
 
 G 2 
 
84 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAP. XXV. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 [§ 104.] 1. Adjectives (also the present and past participles 
 when used as adjectives,) may, by means of a change in their 
 termination, be made to indicate that the quality they denote 
 belongs to a subject in a higher or in the highest degree. 
 The degrees of comparison {gradus comparationis), as this 
 change is called, are, the comparative, when a comparison is 
 made between two (persons, things, or conditions), and the 
 superlative, when a comparison takes place among three or 
 more. The fundamental form of the adjective in this respect 
 is called the positive. 
 
 Note. An object may be compared either with another, or with itself at dif- 
 ferent times, or one of its qualities may be compared with another ; e. g. Gajus 
 doctior est quam Marcus^ or Gajus doctior nunc est quam fuit^ or Gajus doctior est 
 quam justior. (Kespecting this peculiarity of the Latin language, see § 690.) 
 The comparative, however, is also used, in an elliptic mode of speaking, 
 instead of our " too" (nimis) ; e. g. si tibi quaedam videhuntur ohscuriora; that 
 is, too obscure, or more obscure, than it should be (guum, par erat), or, as we 
 may say, " rather obscure," in which sense paulo is sometimes added, as in 
 paulo liberius locutus est, he spoke rather freely. In like manner the superla- 
 tive, when used without the objects of comparison being mentioned, indicates 
 only that the quality exists in a high degree, which we express by the adverb 
 very, e. g. homo doctissimus, does not always mean " the most learned," but 
 very often " a very learned man;" and intemperantissime vixit, he lived very 
 intemperately. 
 
 2. The comparative has the termination tor for the masculine 
 and feminine, and ms for the neuter ; and these terminations are 
 added to the stem of the word such as it appears in the oblique 
 cases. The rule may be practically expressed thus : to form the 
 comparative add or or us to that case of the positive which 
 ends in i, that is, in words of the second declension to the 
 genitive, and in those of the third to the dative, e. g. doctus 
 (docti), doctior ; liber (liheri), liberior ; pulcher (^pulcliri), puU 
 clirior ; levis, levior ; acer (acri), acrior ; prudens, prudentior ; 
 indidgens, indulgentior ; audax, audacior ; dives, divitior ; velox, 
 velocior, (^Sinister alone makes the comparative sinisterior, which 
 
 1 
 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 85 
 
 lias the same meaning as the positive, although its genitive is 
 t sinistri and not sinisteri). 
 
 Note. Some comparatives also have a diminutive form, as grandiuscidus^ 
 majuscylus, longiusadus., nteliusculus, minusculus^ tardiuscidus, plusculum. Their 
 signification varies between a diminution of the comparative and of the 
 positive ; e. g. minuscidus may mean rather small or rather smaller. 
 
 3. The superlative ends in issimus, «, wm, and is formed as the 
 comparative by adding this termination to the stem of the posi- 
 tive, such as it presents itself in the genitive and the other oblique 
 cases, after the removal of the terminations, e. g. doct-issimus, pru- 
 dent-issimus, audac-issimus, concord-issimus. It has already been 
 remarked (§ 2.) that this termination of the superlative was 
 originally written and pronounced umus, and it is even now 
 retained in the editions of some ancient authors, as the comic 
 poets and Sallust. 
 
 [§ 105.] 4. The following cases must be noticed as ex- 
 ceptions : 
 
 a) All adjectives in er (those In er, a, um^ as liber an^ 
 pulcher, as well as those in er, is, e, as acer, celeber, and 
 those of one termination, as pauper, gen. pauperis) make the 
 superlative in errimus, by adding rimus to the nominative of 
 the masculine gender, as pulcher -rimus, acer-rimus, celeber- 
 rimus, pauper-rimus. Vetus and nuperus, too, have veterrimus, 
 nuperrimus. Maturus has both forms, maturissimus and ma- 
 turrimus, though the latter chiefly in the adverb. 
 
 h) Some adjectives in His, viz. facilis, difficiUs, similh, 
 dissimilis, gracilis and humilis, make the superlative in ilUmus, 
 by adding Umus to the positive after the removal of the ter- 
 mination is, as facil'limus, humil-limus. Imbecillus or imbecillis 
 has two forms, imbecillissimus and imbecillimus ; agilis, on the 
 other hand, has no superlative. 
 
 c) Adjectives compounded with dicus, ficus and volus (from 
 the verbs dicere, facere, velle) make the comparative in entior 
 and the superlative in entissimus, from the unusual and obsolete 
 forms dicens, volens, faciens, e. g. maledicentior, benevolentior, 
 munificentior, munijicentissimus, magnijicentissimus. 
 
 Note. Terence (PTiorm. v. 6. 3 1 .) makes mi?'i/icissimus^ from miri^cus, but this 
 and similar forms are considered by the ancient grammarians as anomalies, 
 and mirijicejitissimus is the usual form. Several adjectives in dicus^ and most of 
 
 G 3 
 
86 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 those in Jicus, have no comparative and superlative, at least they are not found 
 in our writers. Adjectives compounded with, loquus (from loqui)^ such as 
 grandiloquus, vaniloquus, are said to form their degrees of comparison from 
 loquens^ but no instance of the kind occurs ; in Plautus, however, we find 
 mendaciloquius, and confidentiloquius. 
 
 CHAP. XXVI. 
 
 COMPARISON BY ADVERBS AND INCREASED COMPARISON. 
 
 [§ 106.] 1. Instead of the peculiar forms of the comparative 
 and superlative, we sometimes find a circumlocution, magis 
 and maxime^ or adverbs of a similar meaning (as summe), being 
 added to the positive. This rarely occurs in the case of adjec- 
 tives which form their degrees of comparison in the regular 
 way, and for the most part only in poetry (Horace, e. g., uses 
 magis heatus and magis aptus) ; but where the regular or gram- 
 matical comparison cannot be used, its place is supplied by 
 circumlocution. (See below, § 114.) 
 
 [§ 107.] - 2. A degree is also expressed by the adverbs ad- 
 modum, bene, apprime, imprimis, sane, oppido, valde. and multum, 
 and by the particle per, which is united with the adjective (or 
 adverb) into one word, as in perdifficilis (though per is some- 
 times separated by some intervening word, e. g. per mihi diffi- 
 cilis locus), and, like sane, it is made still more emphatic by the 
 addition of quam, e. g. locus perquam difficilis, an extremely 
 difficult passage. Generally speaking, all simple adjectives, pro- 
 vided their meaning admits of an increase or decrease, may become 
 strengthened by being compounded with per. Some few (espe- 
 cially in late writers) are increased in the same way by being 
 compounded with prae, e. g. praedives, praepinguis, praelongus. 
 Adjectives to which per or prae is prefixed, admit of no 
 further comparison; praeclarus alone is treated like a simple 
 adjective. 
 
 Note. Oppido^ for the etymology of which we must refer to the dictionary, 
 is of rare occurrence, and belongs to the more ancient language, though 
 it is now and then used by Cicero, e. g. oppido ridiculus, and increased by 
 quam : oppido quam pauci. Multum also is but rarely used in this way. Valde 
 is indeed frequent in Cicero ; but it has a peculiar and ethical shade of mean- 
 ing, and is rarely used in the prose of later times. 
 
IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 
 
 87 
 
 ' [§ 108.] 3. When the adverb etiam (still) is added to the 
 comparative, and longe or multo (far) to the superlative, the sense 
 of the degrees is enhanced. Vel, even, and quam^ as much as 
 possible, likewise serve to denote an increase of the meaning 
 expressed by the superlative. Both words have acquired this 
 signification by ellipsis : vel by the ellipsis of the positive, 
 e. g. Cicero vel optimus oratorum Romanorum ; i. e. Cicero, a 
 good or rather the very best of Roman orators (so also vel with 
 a comparative in the only passage of Cicero where it is known 
 to occur, De Orat. i. 17.: ingenium vel majus,) ; quam, by the 
 ellipsis of posse, which however is frequently added to it ; e. g. 
 quam maximum potest militum numerum colligit ; quam maximas 
 possum tibi gratias ago. As these words increase the sense, so 
 paulum or paulo, paululum or paululo, on the other hand, 
 diminish it, as paulo doctior, only a little more learned. Ali- 
 quanto increases the sense, and has an affirmative power ; 
 it may be expressed by " considerably " or " much." (See. 
 Chap. LXXIY. 15.) 
 
 CHAP. XXVII. 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 
 
 [§ 109.] 1. Some adjectives make their degrees of comparison 
 from obsolete forms, or take them from other words of a similar 
 signification. 
 
 Bonus, 
 
 melior. 
 
 optimus. 
 
 Mains, 
 
 pejor. 
 
 pessimus. 
 
 Magnus, 
 
 major, 
 
 maximus. 
 
 Multus, 
 
 ' plus (pi. plures. 
 
 plurimus (equivalent in 
 
 
 plura). 
 
 the plural to plerique). 
 
 Parvus, 
 
 minor. 
 
 minimus. 
 
 Nequam 1 
 Frugi J 
 
 ^QQ^IOZA nequior, 
 indeclin. \frugalior. 
 
 nequissimus, « 
 
 frugalissimus. 
 
 E genus. 
 
 egentior. 
 
 egentissimus {egens). 
 
 Providus, 
 
 providentior. 
 
 providentissimus (pro- 
 videns). 
 
 Q 4 
 
88 LATIN GllAMMAR. 
 
 Note. Multus Sind plurimus as numerals are used only in the plural. In 
 tlie singular multus is equivalent to " manifold," or " great," as multus labor, 
 multa cura, and sometimes joZwrmMs has the same sense, e. g. plurimam scdutem 
 dico. Poets, however, use the singular multus and plurimiis also in the sense 
 of the plural, e. g. multa and plurimxi avis, i. e. multae, plurimae aves, a great 
 many birds ; multa canis, many dogs. Of the comparative the neuter only 
 occurs in the nom. and accus, singular {plus), and is used as a substantive ; 
 in the genitive pluris, and ablat. plure, with the ellipsis of pretii or pretio, it 
 is used with verbs of value, in the sense of " for more," or " at a higher 
 price." The plural is complete, gen. plurium (better than plurum) ; but 
 the neuter is commonly plura, and rarely pluria. (See §§ 65, 66.) The 
 superlaiive plerique is derived from the obsolete joZents^Me (see § 134.), and 
 has no genitive. In ordinary language plerique only means " most people," 
 or " the majority;" but plurimi both " most people" and " a great many." 
 All writers, however, do not observe this difference. Nepos often uses 
 plerique in the sense of " a great many," and Tacitus quite reverses the sig- 
 nifications; comp. Hist. i. 86. and iii. 81., where plerique is followed by 
 plures, and iv. 84,, where we read : Deum ipsum multi Aesculapium, quidam 
 Osi?'im, plerique Jovem, plurimi Ditem patrem conjectant. The sense of 
 plerique is sometimes enhanced by the addition of omnes, as plerique omnes, 
 by far the greater number. 
 
 [§ 110.] 2. The following adjectives have a double irregular 
 superlative : — 
 
 Exter or exterus, a, um, exterior, extremus and extimus. 
 {Infer or inferus), a, um, inferior, infimus and imus, 
 (Super or sicperus), a, um, superior, supremus and summus. 
 {Poster or poster us), a, um, posterior, postremus and postumus. 
 
 Note. The forms enclosed in brackets are either not found at all, as poster, 
 posterns, or occur only in ofesoiete Latin, which, however, does not pre- 
 vent the use of the oblique cases and of the other genders. Exter signifies 
 " being without," and the plural exteri, foreigners ; inferus, " being below," 
 superus, " being above," e. g. mare superum and inferum, the two seas which 
 surround Italy. Posterus (that it once existed is clear from, praeposterus) 
 signifies that which succeeds or follows, but the plur. posteri, descendants. 
 The superlative extimus is much less common than extremus, and postumus 
 occurs only in the sense of a last or posthumous child. 
 
 [§111.] 3. There are some forms of the comparative and 
 superlative which have no adjective for their positive, but an 
 adverb which is derived from an adjective, and has the signifi- 
 cation of a preposition. 
 
 (citraj, citerior, citimus. 
 
 (ultra), ulterior, ultimus. 
 
 (intra), interior, intimus, 
 
 {j)rope, whence ^:>ro- 
 
 pinquus), propior, proximus. 
 
IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 89 
 
 The following, on the other hand, have neither an adjective 
 nor an adverb for their positive : — 
 
 . deterior, deterrimus, 
 
 odor, ocissimus, 
 
 potior, potissimus, 
 
 prior, primus. 
 
 Note. Deterior and deterrimus may be compared, but not confounded, 
 "withpejor and pessimus. Pejor generally means " worse tlian something which 
 is bad," and is therefore used as comparative of malus^ whereas deterior means 
 something which is inferior, or worse than something which is good, so that 
 it is a descending, just as melior is an ascending comparative of bonus. Potior 
 and potissimus are derived from the obsolete positive j9ofe* (see § 103), and 
 prior may be traced to the adverb prae. 
 
 [§ 112.] 4. The following adjectives have a superlative, but 
 no comparative : — 
 
 Falsus, falsissimus ; diversus, diversissimics ; incUtus, incli- 
 tissimus ; novus, novissimus ; sacer, sacerrimus ; vetus (the com- 
 parative is supplied by vetustior), veterrimus (yetustissimus), and 
 some participles which are used as adjectives, as .meritus, meri- 
 tissimus. 
 
 [§ 113.] 5. Most adjectives in ilis sindMlis derived from verbs, 
 together with those in Uis derived from substantives (see § 250.), 
 have no superlative. To these we must add the following: 
 agrestis, alacer, ater, caecus, declivis, proclivis, deses (comparative 
 desidior^f jejunus, longinquus, propinquus, protervus, salutaris, 
 satur, surdus, teres, and vulgaris. In like manner there is no 
 superlative of adolescens, juvenis (comparative junior contracted 
 from juvenior), and senex (comparative senior), which words are 
 regarded as adjectives. 
 
 Note. The verbal adjectives amabilis, fertilis, nobilis, ignobilis, mobilis, 
 and utilis, however, have their degrees of comparison complete. 
 
 6. The two SidjectiYes, , anterior and sequior, exist only as 
 comparatives. The neuter of the latter, sequius, and the adverb 
 secius (otherwise), differ only in their orthography. 
 
 [§114.] 7. Many adjectives have no degrees of comparison 
 at all, because their signification precludes comparison ; such are 
 those which denote a substance, origin, possession, or a definite 
 time ; e. g. aureus, adamantinus, Graecus, peregrinus, equinus, 
 socialis, paternus, aestivus, hibernus, vivus. 
 
90 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Note. Dexter and sinister seem likewise to belong to this class; the 
 comparatives dexterior^ sinisterior, and the irregular superlative dextimus, 
 do indeed occur (sinistimus is mentioned, but its use cannot be proved), but 
 "without differing in meaning from the positive. Dexter also signifies skilful, 
 and in this sense dexterior is used as a real comparative. 
 
 Others do not form the comparative and superlative in the 
 usual grammatical manner by the terminations ior and issimus, 
 but by the adverbs magis and maxime, which are put before 
 the adjective, and by thie particles mentioned above. Such ad- 
 jectives are : — 
 
 a) Those in which the termination us is preceded by a vowel, 
 as idoneus, dubius, necessarius, noxius, arduus, ingenuus : com- 
 parative magis necessarius, superlative maxime necessarius, &c. 
 In qu however, the u is not regarded as a vowel (see above, 
 § 5.) ; hence antiquus, e. g., has its regular comparative, anti- 
 quior, and superlative antiquissimus. 
 
 Note. As this rule depends entirely upon euphony, respecting which 
 opinions differ, we cannot be surprised to find exceptions. Adjectives 
 in uus in particular frequently make the superlative in the regular gram- 
 matical way. Cicero and Suetonius use assiduissimus, Sallust, strenuissimus, 
 and Ovid, exiguissimus and vacuissimus, while the comparative of these words 
 occurs only in much inferior authorities. Adjectives in ius are found much 
 more seldom with the grammatical degrees of comparison than those in uus, 
 and whenever they do occur, they reject one z, as noxior, in Seneca, de Clem. 
 13. ; industrior in the Pseudo-Cicero, De Domo, 11. ; egregius in Juvenal, xi. 
 12. The only superlatives that occur are egregiissimus, in Gellius, and piis- 
 simus very frequently in the silver age of the language, in Cur tins, Seneca, 
 and Tacitus, though Cicero had censured the triumvir Antony for having 
 used this wholly un-Latin form. (Philip, xiii. 9.) The forms (piens) pientes 
 and pientissimus are found in inscriptions only. Among the adjectives in eus 
 there are no exceptions, and it is only the later jurists that use the compa- 
 rative idoneor for the inharmonious idoneior. 
 
 b) Many adjectives compounded with substantives and verbs, 
 e. g. degener, inops, magnanimus, consonus, foedifragus, pestifer; 
 and those which have the derivative terminations icus, idus, 
 ulus, dlis, ilis, bundus, e. g. modicus, credulus, trepidus, rabidus, 
 rubidus, garrulus, sedulus, exitialis, unortalis, principalis, anilis, 
 hostilis, scurrilis, furibundus. 
 
 Note. This remark cannot form a rule, for there are a great many com- 
 pounded adjectives and derivatives like the above, which have their de- 
 grees of comparison ; for example, those compounded with mens and cor : 
 amens, demens, concors, discors, vecors, and the adjectives ending in dicus, 
 Jicus, and volus, which were mentioned above. (§ 105. c). Although it is 
 useful to classify the whole mass of such words under certain divisions, still 
 the dictionary can never be dispensed with. 
 
CARDINAL NUMERALS. 91 
 
 c) A great number of adjectives which cannot be said to 
 form a distinct class ; their want of the degrees of comparison 
 is surprising, and they must be carefully committed to memory : 
 albus, almus, caducus, calvus, canus, curvus, ferus, gnarus, lacer, 
 mutilus, lassuSf mediocris, memor, merus, mirus, mutuSy navus, 
 nefastus, par, parilis, dispar, properus, rudis, trux (the degrees 
 may be formed from truculentus), vagus. 
 
 CHAP. XXVIII. 
 
 NUMERALS. — CARDINAL NUMERALS. 
 
 [§ 115.] Numerals are partly adjectives and partly adverbs. 
 The adjectives are ; 1) Cardinal, denoting simply the number 
 of things, as tres, three; 2) Ordinal, indicating the place or 
 number in succession, as tertius, the third ; 3) Distributive, 
 denoting how many each time, as temi, each time three, or 
 three and three together ; 4) Multiplicative, denoting how ma- 
 nifold, as triplex, threefold ; 5) Proportional, denoting how 
 many times more, as triplum, three times as much ; and 6) Ad- 
 verbial numerals, denoting how many times, as ter, thrice or 
 three times. 
 
 I. CARDINAL numerals. 
 
 The cardinal numerals form the roots of the other numerals. 
 The first three, unus, duo, tres, are declined and have forms for 
 the different genders ; the rest, as far as one hundred, are in- 
 declinable. The hundreds, as 200, 300, 400, &c., are declinable 
 and have different terminations for the genders. Mille, a thou- 
 sand, is indeclinable, but has a declinable plural for the series 
 of numbers which follows. A higher unit, such as a million or 
 billion, does not exist in Latin, and a million is therefore ex- 
 pressed by the form of multiplication : decies centena milia, i. e. 
 ten times a hundred thousand, or decies alone, with the omission 
 of centena milia, at least when sestertium (HS) is added, and 
 in like manner vicies, two millions ; octogies, eight millions ; 
 
92 
 
 LATIN GKAMMAR. 
 
 centies, ten millions ; millies, a hundred millions ; bis millies, two 
 hnndred millions. 
 
 Plural. 
 Nom. uni, unae, una. 
 Gen. unorum, unarum, unorum, 
 Dat. unis. 
 
 Ace. unos, Unas, una. 
 Voc. 
 Abl. imis. 
 
 Singular. 
 Nom. unus, una, unum, one. 
 Gen. unius. 
 Dat. uni. 
 
 Ace. unum, unam, unum. 
 Voc. une, una, unum. 
 Abl. uno, una, uno. 
 
 Note. The genitive singular uni and the dative uno^ unae, are of rare oc- 
 currence and unclassical. (Comp., however, § 49.) The plural uni, unae, una, 
 occurs as a numeral only in connection with pluralia tantwm, i. e. such nouns 
 as have no singular, e. g. unae nuptiae, one wedding ; una castra, one camp ; 
 unae litterae, one letter. (See Chap. XXX). Unus is used also as a pure ad- 
 jective by dropping its signification of a numeral and taking that of " alone," 
 or "the same," e. g. Cazs. Bell. Gall. iv. 16. : uni Ubii legatos miserant, the 
 Ubians alone had sent ambassadors; Cic. Pro Flacc. 26. : Lacedaemonii septin- 
 gentosjam annos unis moribus vivunt, with the same manners. 
 
 Duo and tres are naturally plurals. 
 
 !N^om. duo, duae, duo. 
 Gen. duorum, duarum, duorum. 
 Dat. duobus, dudbus, duobus. 
 Ace. duos and duo, duas, duo. 
 Abl. duobus, duabus, duobus. 
 
 Nom. tres (mas. and fem.), tria. 
 
 Gen. trium. 
 
 Dat. tribus. 
 
 Ace. tres (mas. and fem.), tria* 
 
 Abl. tribus. 
 
 Note. Ambo, ae, o, both, is declined like duo, and has likewise two forms 
 for the accusat., ambos and ambo, which have entirely the same meaning. In 
 connection with pondo (pounds) we find dua pondo, and tre pondo, for duo 
 and tria, a barbarism noticed by the ancients themselves. (Quintil. i. 5. 15.) 
 Duum, a second form of the genit. of duo, is the regular one in compounds, 
 as duumvir, but is frequently used also in connection with milium. Thus 
 Pliny says that he had compiled his work e lectione voluminum circiter duum 
 milium ; but Ceesar and Livy likewise use this form. 
 
 4. IV. quattuor, 
 
 5. T. quinque. 
 
 6. VI. sex. 
 
 7. VII. septem. 
 
 8. VIII. octo. 
 
 9. IX. novem. 
 
 10. X. decern. 
 
 11. XI. undecim. 
 
 12. XII. duodecim. \tres. 
 
 13. XIII. tredecim or decern et 
 
 14. XIV. quattuordecim. 
 
 15. XV. quindecim. 
 
 16. XVI. sedecim or decern et sex. 
 
 17. XVII. decern et septem, or 
 
 septendecim. 
 
 18. XVIII. decern et octo, or duo- 
 
 deviginti. 
 
 19. XIX. decem et novem, or un- 
 
 deviginti. 
 
 20. XX. viginti. 
 
CARDINAL NUMERALS. 93 
 
 21. XXI. unus et viginti, or vi- 100. C. centum. 
 
 ginti unus. 109. CIX. centum et novem, 
 
 22. XXII. duo et viginti, or vi- or centum novem. 
 
 ginti duo. 200. CC. ducenti, ae, a. 
 
 23. XXIII. tres et viginti, or vi- 300. CCC. trecenti, ae, a. 
 
 ginti tres. 400. CCCC. quadringenti, ae,a. 
 
 28. XXVIII. duodetriginta, or 500. jy.orio.quingentijae, a. 
 
 octo et viginti. 600. DC. sexcenti, ae, a. 
 
 29. XXIX. undetriginta, or no- 700. DCC. septingenti, ae, a, 
 
 vem et viginti. 800. DCCC. octingenti, ae, a. 
 
 30. XXX. triginta. 900. DCCCC. nongenti, ae, a. 
 40. XL. quadraginta. 1000. M. or CIO. mille. 
 
 50. L. quinquaginta. 2000. CIDCIO. or MM. c?MO mz- 
 
 60. LX. sexaginta. lia, or Jz^ Twz'Z/e. 
 
 70. LXX. septuaginta. 5000. loo. quinque milia. 
 
 80. LXXX. octoginta. 10,000. CCIOO. decem milia. 
 
 90. xc. nonaginta. 100,000. CCCiooo. centum milia. 
 
 Note 1. The Roman signs for numbers have arisen from simple geome- 
 trical figures. The perpendicular line (I) is one ; two lines crossing one 
 another (X) make ten ; half this figure (V) is five ; the perpendicular line 
 with an horizontal one at the lower end (L) is fifty, a^d if another horizontal 
 line is added at the upper end ( Q) we have one hundred. From this sign 
 arose the round C, which is accidentally at the same time the initial of centum. 
 This C reversed (0), which is called apostrophus, with a perpendicular line 
 preceding it (ID), or drawn together as D, signifies 500. In every multipli- 
 cation with ten a fresh apostrophus is added, thus 100=5000, 1000= 
 50,000. When a number is to be doubled, as many C are put before the 
 horizontal line, as there are behind it. Thus CI0=1000, CCIOO = 10,000, 
 &c. A thousand is expressed in MSS. by oo, which is evidently a contrac- 
 tion of CIO. M, which is used for the same number, is the initial of mille. 
 
 Note 2. Wherever, in the above list, two numerals are put together, the 
 first is always preferable. Forms like octodecim and novendecim, which are not 
 mentioned in the list, are not supported by any authority ; even septendecim^ 
 according to Priscian {De Sign. Num. 4.), is not so good as decem et septem, 
 although it is used by Cicero (/w Ferr. v. 47. ; De Leg. ^^r. ii. 17.; Philip. 
 V. 7.), and also by Tacitus {Annal. xiii, 6.). Septem et decem in Cicero {Cat. 6.) 
 and octo et decem in Pliny (JEpist. viii. 18.) are isolated peculiarities. Instead 
 of octoginta we sometimes find octuaginta^ and corresponding with it octuagies; 
 but these forms cannot be recommended. 
 
 [§ 116.-] The intermediate numbers are expressed in the fol- 
 lowing manner : — from twenty to a hundred, either the smaller 
 number followed by et precedes, or the greater one precedes 
 without the et ; e. g. quattuor et sexaginta or sexaginta quattuor. 
 
94 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 For 18, 28, 38, 48, &c., and for 19, 29, 39, 49, the expressions 
 duodeviginti, duodetriginta, up to undecentum, are more frequent 
 than decern et octo, or octo et viginti. In such combinations 
 neither duo nor un (unus) can be declined. Above 100, the 
 greater number always precedes, either with or without et, as 
 mille unus, mille duo, mille trecenti, or mille et unus, mille et duo, 
 mille et trecenti sexaginta sex. The et is never used twice, and 
 poets when, they want another syllable take ac, atque, or que, 
 instead. There are indeed exceptions to this rule, but being 
 less common, they cannot be taken into consideration, and some 
 of them are mere incorrect readings. (See my note on Cic. in 
 Verrem, iv. 55.) 
 
 The thousands are generally expressed by the declinable sub- 
 stantive milia and the cardinal numbers, as duo milia, tria milia, 
 quattuor milia, decern milia, unum et viginti milia, quadraginta 
 quinque milia. The distributive numerals are used more rarely, 
 as hina milia, quina milia, dena milia, quadragena sena milia. 
 The objects counted are expressed by the genitive which de- 
 pends on the substantive milia-, e. g. Xerxes Mardonium in 
 Graecia reliquit cum trecentis milibus armatorum, unless a lower 
 declined numeral is added, in which case things counted may be 
 used in the same case with milia ; e. g. hahuit tria milia tre- 
 centos milites, or milites tria milia trecentos hahuit; but even 
 then the genitive may be used, e. g. hahuit militum tria milia 
 trecentos, or hahuit tria milia militum et trecentos. (See the com- 
 mentators on Livy, xxxix. 7.) It is only the poets that express 
 the thousands by the indeclinable adjective mille preceded by an 
 adverbial numeral, as his mille equi, for duo milia equorum ; 
 they are in general fond of expressing a number by the form 
 of multiplication; Ovid (Trist. iv. 10. 4.), for example, says: 
 milia decies novem instead of nonaginta milia. 
 
 Note. With regard to the construction of the word mille we add the fol- 
 lowing remarks. Mille is originally a substantive, which is indeclinable in the 
 singular, but occurs only in the nom. and accus. As a substantive it governs 
 the genitive, like the Greek x'^'«c, e. g. Cic. Pro Milon. 20. : quo in fundo 
 propter insanas illas substructiones facile mille hominum versdbatur valentium ; 
 Philip, vi. 5: quis L. Antonio mille nummum ferret expensum^ and^very fre- 
 quently mille passuum. Livy joins mille as a collective noun (see § 366.) to 
 the plural of the verb, xxiii. 44. : mille passuum inter urbem erant castraque ; 
 XXV. 24. : jam mille armatorum ceperant partem. But mille is also an inde- 
 clinable adjective, and as such is most frequently used in all its cases, 
 e.g. equites mille praemissi; senatus mille hominum numero constahat; da 
 
ORDINAL NUMERALS. 
 
 95 
 
 mihi hasia mille; rem mille modis temptavit, Sfc. With this adjective mille^ as 
 with numerals in general, a genitivus partitivus may be used, according to 
 § 429., and thus we read in Livy, xxi. 61. : cum octo milibus peditum, mille 
 equitum, where the genitive stands for the ablative, owing to its close con- 
 nection with the word peditum ; and xxiii. 46. : Romunorum minus mille 
 interfecti. 
 
 CHAP. XXIX. 
 
 II. ORDINAL NUMERALS. 
 
 [§ 117.] The ordinals denote the place in the series which any 
 object holds, and answer to the question quotus 9 All of them 
 are adjectives of three terminations, us, a, um. 
 
 1. primus. 
 
 2. secundus {alter), 
 
 3. tertius, 
 
 4. quartus. 
 
 5. quintus. 
 
 6. sextus, 
 
 7. Septimus. 
 
 8. octavus. 
 
 9. nonus. 
 
 10. decimus. 
 
 11. undecimus, 
 
 12. duodecimus, 
 
 13. tertius decimus, 
 
 14. quartus decimus. 
 
 15. quintus decimus. 
 
 16. sextus decimus. 
 
 17. Septimus decimus. 
 
 18. octavus decimus, or duode- 
 
 vicesimus. 
 
 19. nonus decimus, or undevi- 
 
 cesimus. 
 
 sometimes 
 
 20. vicesimus, sometimes vige- 
 
 simus. 
 
 21. unus et vicesimus, vicesimus 
 
 primus. 
 
 22. alter et vicesimus, vicesimus 
 
 secundus. 
 
 30. tricesimus, some- 
 times trigesimus. 
 40. quadragesimus, 
 50. quinquagesimus. 
 60. sexagesimus. 
 70. septuagesimus. 
 80. octogesimus. 
 90. nonagesimus. 
 100. centesimus, 
 200. ducentesimus, 
 300. trecentesimus. 
 400. quadringentesimus, 
 500. quingentesimus. 
 600. sexcentesimus. 
 700. septingentesimus. 
 800. octingentesimus. 
 900. nongentesimus. 
 1000. millesimus. 
 2000. bis millesimus. 
 3000. ter millesimus. 
 10,000. decies millesimus. 
 100,000. centies millesimus. 
 1,000,000. decies centies mille^ 
 simus. 
 
96 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§118.] In expressing the intermediate numbers, the most 
 common practice is to place the smaller number before the 
 greater one with' the conjunction et, or to make the greater 
 number precede the smaller one without et, as quartus et vicesi- 
 mus, or vicesimus quartus. But there are many instances in 
 in which the smaller number precedes without et ; e. g. quintus 
 tricesimus ; and from 13 to 19 this is the ordinary riiethod, 
 though we also find tertius et decimus, decimus tertius, and deci- 
 mus et tertius. (See Cic. de Invent., i. 53. and 54.) Instead of 
 primus et vicesimus, &c., we find still more frequently unus et 
 vicesimus, fem. una et vicesima, or with the elision of the vowel, 
 unetvicesima, with the genitive unetvicesimae, as in Tacit. Annal. 
 1. 45., and Hist. i. 67. The 22d, 32d, &c., is more fre- 
 quently and better expressed by alter et vicesimus or vicesimus 
 et alter, than by secundus et vicesimus, Now and then we meet 
 with duoetvicesimus, duoettricesimus, in which case the word duo 
 is indeclinable. The 28th, 38th, &c., are expressed also by 
 duodetricesimus, duodequadragesimus, and the 29th, 39th, 99th, 
 by undetricesimus, undequadragesimus, undecentesimus, the words 
 duo and unus (un) being indeclinable ; and both forms are of more 
 frequent occurrence than octavus and nanus et vicesimus, or vice- 
 simus octavus, vicesimus nonus. There is a class of adjectives in 
 anus which are derived from ordinal numerals, e. g. primanus, 
 secundanus, tertianus, vicesimanus : they express the class or 
 division to which a person belongs; in Roman writers they 
 chiefly denote the legion of the soldiers, whence the first word 
 in their compounds is feminine, e. g. tertiadecimani, quqrtade- 
 cimajii, tertia et vicesimani, that is, soldiers of the thiyteenth, 
 fourteenth, twenty-third legion. In Tacitus^-w^ jDaCej/with the 
 forms unetvicesimani and duoetvicesimani. 
 
 CHAP. XXX. 
 
 III. DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS. 
 
 [§ 119.] Distributive numerals denote an equal number dis- 
 tributed among several objects or at different times, and answer to 
 the questions ; — " How many apiece ? " and, " How many each 
 
DISTRIBUTIVE NU3IEKALS. 97 
 
 time ? " {quoteni ?) They are always used in the plural. The 
 English language having no corresponding numerals has recourse 
 to circumlocution. 
 
 Examples. Horat. Serm. i. 4. 86.: Saepe tribus lectisvideas coenare qua- 
 ternos, to dine four on each couch ; Liv. xxx. 30. : Scipio et Hannibal cum 
 singulis interpretibus congressi sunt, each with an interpreter ; Cic. in Verr. 
 ii. 49. : pueri senum septenumve denum annorum senatorium nomen nundinati 
 sunt, boys of sixteen or seventeen years each purchased the title of senator ; 
 Liv. V. 30. : Senatus consultum factum est, ut agri Vejentani septena jugera 
 plebi divider entur, each plebeian received seven jugera. The passage in 
 Cicero (ac? Att. xvi. 8.), Octavius veteranis quingenos denarios dat, has the 
 same meaning as (ad Fam. x. 32.) Antonius denarios quingenos singidis 
 militibus dat ; that is, five- hundred denarii to each soldier. When the 
 distributive singuli is expressly added, the cardinal numeral is sometimes 
 used ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. ii. 55. : singulis censoribus denarii trecenti ad statuam 
 praetoris imperati sunt. 
 
 Hence the distributives are applied in multiplication (with adverbial 
 numerals), the same number being taken several times ; e. g. non didicit bis 
 bina quot essent ; lunae curriculum conjicitur integris quater septenis diebus ; 
 Gellius, XX. 7. : Homerus pueros puellasque Niobae bis senos dicitfuisse, Eu- 
 ripides bis septenos, Sappho bis novenos, Bacchylides et Pindaru^ bis denos ; 
 quidam alii scriptores tres fuisse solos dixerunt. Poets in this case sometimes 
 apply the cardinal numerals ; c. g. Horace has, bis quinque viri, i. e. decem- 
 viri; and in prose we find c?eaes (vicies, tricies) centum milia, although the 
 form decies centena milia, mentioned above (§ 115.), is much more common. 
 
 Distributives are further used, instead of cardinals, with words which have 
 no singular ; e. g. bini codicilli, bina post Romulum spolia opima (see § 94.) ; 
 and with those substantives the plural of which, though it has a different 
 signification from the singular, yet retains the meaning of a singular, 
 e. g. aedes, castra, litterae, ludi (§ 96.). It must however be observed, that in 
 this case the Romans commonly used uni instead of singuli, and irini instead 
 of terni, since singuli and terni retain their own distributive signification. 
 We therefore say, for example, bijia contra uno die cepit ; tnnae hodie nuptiae 
 celebrantur ; quotidie quinas aut senas litteras accipio ; for duo castra would 
 mean " two castles," duae aedes " two temples," and dvxie litterae " two letters 
 of the alphabet." This, however, is not the case with liberi (children), 
 for this word has not the meaning of a singular (liberi are children, and 
 not a child), and we accordingly say duo liberi, ju^ trium liberum, &c. 
 
 Bini is used for duo to denote things which exist in pairs, as bini boves, 
 binae aures ; and in Virgil, Aen. i. 317.: bina manu crispans hastilia. No 
 prose writer goes beyond this in the use of the distributives instead of the 
 cardinals (except in combination with milia, see § 116.). Poets and Pliny 
 the elder use these numerals in the singular in the sense of multiplicatives, 
 e. g. Lucan, viii. 455. : septeno gurgite, with a sevenfold whirl ; Plin. xvii. 3. : 
 campus fertilis centena quinquagena fruge, with one hundred and fifty fold 
 corn. In the ordinary language they occur only in the plural, and as adjec- 
 tives of three terminations, i, ae, a. 
 
 1. singuli. 4. quaterni. 7. septeni. 
 
 2. hini, 5. quini, 8. octoni. 
 
 3. terni, or trini. 6. seni, 9. noveni, 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAE. 
 
 10. deni, 
 
 11. undeni. 
 
 12. duodeni, 
 1*3. terni denL 
 
 14. qiiaterni deni. 
 
 15. quini deni, 
 
 16. seni deni, 
 
 17. septeni deni. 
 
 18. octoni deni, 
 
 19. noveni deni. 
 
 90. nonageni, 
 
 100. centeni, 
 
 200. duceni, 
 
 300. treceni, 
 
 400. quadringeni, 
 
 500. quingeni. 
 
 600. sexceni. 
 
 700. septingeni, 
 
 800. octingeni. 
 
 900. nongeni. 
 
 20. viceni, 
 
 21. viceni singuli. 
 
 22. vzce/zz 5mzz. 
 
 23. viceni terni, &c. 
 30. triceni. 
 40. quadrageni. 
 50. quinquageni. 
 60. sexageni. 
 70. septuageni. 
 80. octogeni, 
 
 A longer form of the hundreds: ducenteni, trecenteni, qua- 
 dringenteni, kc, which is mentioned by Priscian, cannot be 
 proved to exist. Here too there is some freedom in the com- 
 bination of the numerals: instead of viceni quaterni, we may- 
 say quaterni et viceni or quaterni viceni, and for 18 and 19 we 
 have also the forms duodeviceni and undeviceni. The genitive of 
 these numerals is commonly in wm instead of orwm, as hinum, 
 ternum, quaternum, quinum, &C.5 but not singulum for singula- 
 rum. 
 
 " A thousand each time " mighty according to analogy, be expressed by 
 milleni, and then continued &w milleniy ter milleni, &c. ; but this form is not 
 in use, and instead of it we say singula milia, bina, terna, quaterna, quina 
 milia ; e. g. Sueton. Octav. extr. : Legavit Augustus praetorianis militibus 
 singula milia nummum (that is, one thousand to each), cohortibus urbanis 
 quingenos^ legionariis trecenos nummos ; Livy : in singulis legionibus Romanis 
 quina milia peditum, treceni equites erant. Milia alone is frequently used for 
 singula milia, if its distributive meaning is indicated by some other word ; e.g. 
 Livy, xxxvii. 45. : dabitis milia talentum per duodecim annos, i. e. one thousand 
 talents each year ; Curtius, v. 19. : singulis vestrum milia denarium darijussi^ 
 where mille is an incorrect reading ; comp. Liv. xxii. 36. This use of the 
 plural, which occurs in other words also, as asses, librae, jugera, with the 
 ellipsis of singuli, ae, a, has been established by J. Fr. Gronovius on Livy, iv. 
 15. and xxix. 15. ; and by Bentley on Horace, Serm. ii. 3. 156. 
 
 From these distributives are derived adjectives in arius, which 
 indicate of how many units or equal parts a thing consists, 
 whence they are termed partiaria, e. g. numerus hinarius, a 
 number consisting of two units, i. e. two ; scrohes ternarii, holes 
 of three feet ; versus senarius, b. verse of six feet ; nummus de- 
 narius, a coin of ten units, that is, asses ; senex octogenarius, an 
 old man of eighty; rosa centenaria, a rose with one hundred 
 leaves ; cohors quingenaria, of 500 men. The word numerus is 
 most frequently combined with these adjectives, to supply the 
 
 I 
 
MULTIPLICATIVE NUMERALS. 99 
 
 place of the substantives unio, binio, ternio, which are not based 
 on very good authority. (See § 75.) SingulaHs and milliarius 
 are more commonly used instead of singulariusy miUenarius, 
 
 CHAP. XXXI. 
 
 IV. MULTIPLICATIVE NUMERALS. 
 
 [§ 120.] MuLTiPLiCATiVES answcr to the question, '' How 
 many fold?" (quotuplex?) They are: simplex, duplex, triplex, 
 quadruplex, quincuplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex. These 
 are the only ones that can be shown to have been in use. Sixfold 
 does not occur in Latin; it might be sexuplex or seplex, but 
 not sextuplex, as some grammarians assert. Octiiplex is attested 
 by the derivative octuplicatus, and novemplex by the analogy of 
 septemplex, (Modem writers use also : undecimplex, duode- 
 cimplex, sedecimplex, vicecuplex, tricecuplex, quadragecuplex, quin- 
 quagecuplex, sexagecuplex, septuagecuplex, octogecuplex, nonage- 
 cuplex, ducentuplex, trecentuplex, quadringentuplex, quingentuplex, 
 octingentuplex, &c., and millecuplex.) 
 
 It will not be out of place here to add the Latin expres- 
 sions for fractions, which are always denoted by pars: | is 
 dimidia pars, ^ tertia pars, \ quarta pars, quinta, sexta, 
 septima pars, &c. In cases where the number of the parts into 
 which a thing is divided, exceeds the number of parts mentioned 
 only by one, as in f , |, |, the fractions are expressed in Latin 
 simply by duae, tres, quattuor partes, that is, two out of three, 
 three out of four, and four out of five parts : ^ may be ex- 
 pressed by octava pars, or by dimidia quarta. In all other 
 cases fractions are expressed as in English : f , duae septimae ; f , 
 tres septimae, &c., or the fraction is broken up into its parts, 
 e. g. f by pars dimidia (f ) et tertia (f ) ; and ^$ by tertia et 
 septima. 
 
 H 2 
 
100 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAP. XXXII. 
 
 V. PROPORTIONAL NUMERALS. 
 
 [§ 121.] Proportional numerals express how many times more 
 one thing is than another, but they cannot be used throughout. 
 They answer to the question quotiiplus ? They are : simplus, a, 
 um ; duplus, triplus, quadruplus, quinquiplus, (probably sexu- 
 plus,) septuplus, octuplus, (perhaps nonuplus,) decuplus, centuplus, 
 and according to the same analogy we might form ducentuplus, 
 and so on, as in the multiplicatives above. But they are almost 
 universally found only in the neuter. ■ 
 
 GHAP. XXXIII. 
 
 VI. NUMERAL ADVERBS. 
 
 [§ 122.] 1. The numeral adverbs answer to the question, " How 
 many times ? " quotiens 9 to which totiens is the demonstrative, 
 and aliquotiens the indefinite. The form in ns is the original, 
 and prevailed in the best periods of the language ; subsequently 
 the termination es was preferred in numerals, but ens still re- 
 mained in the words just mentioned. 
 
 1. semel, 14. quaterdecies or quattuor 
 
 2. bis* decies. 
 
 3. ter, 15. quinquiesdecies or quinde- 
 
 4. 
 
 quater. 
 
 
 cies. 
 
 5. 
 
 quinquies. 
 
 16. 
 
 sexiesdecies or sedecies. 
 
 6. 
 
 sexies. 
 
 17. 
 
 septiesdecies. 
 
 7. 
 
 septies. 
 
 18. 
 
 duodevicies, or octiesdecies. 
 
 8. 
 
 octies. 
 
 19. 
 
 undevicies, or noviesdecies. 
 
 9. 
 
 novies. 
 
 20. 
 
 vicies. 
 
 0. 
 
 decies. 
 
 21. 
 
 semel et vicies. 
 
 1. 
 
 undecies. 
 
 22. 
 
 his et vicies. 
 
 2. 
 
 duodecies. 
 
 23. 
 
 ter et vicies, &c. 
 
 3. 
 
 terdecies or tredecies. 
 
 30. 
 
 tricies. 
 
NUMERAL ADVERBS. >'•, J, .^ .' ' \ ;' ' [h.&l 
 
 40. quadragies. 400. quadringenties, 
 
 50. quinquagies. ^00. quingenties, &c. 
 
 60. sexagies, 800. octingenties, &c. 
 
 70. septuagies. 1,000. millies. 
 
 80. octogies, 2,000. ^25 millies, 
 
 90. nonagies, 3,000. fer millies, &c. 
 
 100. centies, 100,000. centies millies, 
 
 200. ducenties, 1,000,000. wz'Z/ze* TWzVZze^. 
 
 300. trecenties. 
 
 With regard to the intermediate numbers, 21, 22, 23, &c., 
 the method above adopted is the usual one, but we may also say 
 vicies semel and vicies et semel, though not semel vicies ; for his 
 vicieSf for example, would mean twice twenty, i. e. forty. 
 
 [§123.] 2. The numeral adverbs terminating either in um 
 or o, and derived from the ordinals, or rather the ordinals them- 
 selves in the ace. or ablat. singular neuter gender, are used in 
 answer to the question " of what number ? " or " what in num- 
 ber ? " (The Latin quotum ? or quoto ? cannot be proved to 
 have been used in this way.) e. g. primum or primo, for the 
 first time, or first ; secundum or secundo, tertium or tertio, &c., 
 decimum, undecimum, duodecimum, tertium decimum, duodevi- 
 cesimum. The ancients themselves were in doubt as to whether 
 the termination um or o was preferable (see GeUius, x. 1.); but 
 according to the majority of the passages in classical writers, 
 we must prefer um ; the form secundum alone is less common ; 
 and instead of it we find iterum, a second time, and securvdo, 
 secondly, for which however deinde is more frequently used. 
 The difference between primum and primo is this, that the sig- 
 nification "for the first time" is common to both, but that of 
 *^ firstly" belongs exclusively to primum, while primo has the 
 additional meaning of " at first." 
 
 [§ 124.] Note. It may not be superfluous to notice here some substan- 
 tives compounded with numerals : thus, from annus are formed hiennium, 
 triennium, quadriennium^ sexennium, septuennium (more correct than sept- 
 enniuni), decennium^ a period of two, three, four, six, &c., years. From 
 dies we have biduum, triduum, quatriduum, a time of two, three, four days. 
 From viri are formed duoviri^ tresviri^ qtuittuorviri^ quinqueviri, se- or seX' 
 viri^ septemviri, decemviri, quindecemviri, all of which compounds, if they 
 may be so called, denote a commission consisting of a certain number of 
 men, appointed for certain purposes. A member of such a commission is 
 called duumvir, triumvir, from which is formed the plural triumviri, which, 
 properly speaking, is ungrammatical, and, in fact, still wants the sanc- 
 
 H 3 
 
1^2,' ■ LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 tion of a good authority. In inscriptions triumviri does not occur, and 
 duomviri only once (Gruter, p. 43. No. 5.) : the ordinary mode of writing it 
 was // viri, III viri. Printed books, without the authority of MSS., are not 
 decisive. To these words we may add the three, bimus, trimus, and qimdri- 
 mm ; i. e. a child of two, three, four years. 
 
 CHAP. XXXIV. 
 
 PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 [§ 125.] 1. Pronouns are words which supply the place of a 
 substantive, such as, I, thou, we, and in Latin, ego, tu, nos, &c. 
 These words are in themselves substantives, and require nothing 
 to complete their meaning ; hence they are called pronouns 
 substantive (^pronomina substantiva), but more commonly per- 
 sonal pronouns, pronomina personalia. 
 
 Note. Sui is a pronoun of the third person, but not in the same way that 
 ego and tu are pronouns of the first and second persons. For the third 
 person (he, she, it) is not expressed in Latin in the nominative, and is im- 
 plied in the third person of the verb ; but if it is to be expressed, a de- 
 monstrative pronoun, commonly ille^ is used. The other cases of the 
 English pronoun of the third person are expressed by the oblique cases of 
 t«, ea, id^ the nominative of which belongs to the demonstrative pronouns. 
 Thus we say, pudet me mei, tui, ejus ; laudo me, fe, eum. Sui, sibi, se, is the 
 pronoun of the third person in a reflective sense, as : laudat se, he praises 
 hifeiself, in which proposition the object is the same as the subject. The 
 use of this reflective pronoun in Latin is somewhat more extensive than in 
 our language ; for sui, sibi, se, and the possessive suus, sua, suum, are used 
 not only when the subject to which they refer occurs in the same sentence, 
 but also when in a dependent sentence the subject of the principal or govern- 
 ing sentence is referred to ; e. g. putat hoc sibi nocere, he thinks that this 
 injures him (instead of himself). The beginner must observe that where- 
 ever he may add " self" to the pronoun of the third person, he has to use 
 the reflective pronouns and the possessive suus, sua, suum ; e. g. Oajus con- 
 temnebat divitias, quod se felicem reddere non possent, because they could not 
 make him (i. e. himself, and not any other person) happy ; but quod eum 
 felicem reddere non possent would mean, because they could not make him 
 (some other person, e. g. his friend) happy. 
 
 [§ 126.] 2. Besides these there is a number of words which 
 are adjectives, in as much as they have three distinct forms for 
 the three genders, and their meaning is not complete without a 
 substantive either expressed or understood. But their inflection 
 
- PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 103 
 
 differs so widely from what are commonly called adjectives, and 
 they are so frequently used instead of a substantive, that they 
 are not unjustly termed pronouns. They are — 
 
 1) The adjunctive: ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self. 
 
 2) The demonstrative: hie, haec, hoc; iste, ista, istud; ille, ilia, 
 illud; is, ea, id, and the compound idem, eadem, idem, 
 
 3) The relative: qui, quae, quod, and the compounds qui- 
 cunque and quisquis, 
 
 4) The two interrogatives : viz. the substantive interrogative, 
 quis, quid? and the adjective interrogative, qui, quae, quod? 
 
 5) The indefinite pronouns : aliquis, aliqua, aliquid and ali- 
 quod; quidam, quaedam, quiddam and quoddam; aliquispiam, or 
 abridged quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam and quodpiam ; quis- 
 quam, neuter quidquam; quivis, quilibet, and quisque; and all 
 the compounds of qui or quis. 
 
 Respecting the use of these pronouns, see Chap. L XXXIV. 
 C. The following observations are intended to develope only 
 the fundamental principles. 
 
 [§ 127.] Note 1. Signification of the Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 — Hic^ this, is used of objects which are nearest to the speaker, whereas 
 •more distant objects are referred to by ille. The person nearest of all to 
 the speaker is the speaker himself, whence Mc homo is often the same as ego 
 (see some passages in Heindorf on Horace, Sat. i. 9. 47.) ; and in this respect 
 hie is called the pronoun of the first person. — Iste points to the person to 
 whom I am speaking, and to the things appertaining to him. Thus iste 
 liber, ista vestis, istud negotium, are equivalent to thy book, thy dress, thy 
 business ; and iste is, for this reason, called the pronoun of the second person. 
 — Hie, that, is the pronoun of the third person ; that is, it points to the person 
 of whom I am speaking to some one, hence ille liber means the book of 
 which we are speaking. (Compare on these points § 291.) — Is is u^ed : 1) 
 to point to something preceding, and is somewhat less emphatic than " the 
 person mentioned before ; " and, 2) as a sort of logical conjunction, when 
 followed by qui, is qui answers to the English "he who." — Idem, the same, 
 expresses the unity or identity of a subject with two predicates ; e. g. Cicero 
 did this thing, and he did that also, would be expressed in Latin, idem illud 
 perfecit, hence idem may sometimes answer to our "also;" e.g. Cicero 
 was an orator and also a philosopher, Cicero orator erat idemque (et idem) 
 philosophus. 
 
 [§128.] Note 2. The compounded Relatives. — They are formed 
 by means of the suffix cunque, whicB, however, is sometimes separated from 
 its pronoun by some intervening word. It arose from the relative adverb 
 cum (also spelled quum) and the suffix que, expressive of universality (as in 
 quisque, § 129. ; and in adverbs, § 288.). Cunque therefore originally signi- 
 
 h4 
 
104 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 fied "whenever." By being attached to a relative pronoun or adverb, 
 e. g. qualiscunque, quotcunque, ubicunque, utcunque^ quandocunque^ it renders 
 the relative meaning of these words more general, and produces a relativum 
 generale ; and as qui signifies " who," quicunque becomes "whoever," or "every 
 one who ;" e. g. quemcunque lihrum legeris^ ejus summam paucis verbis in com,' 
 mentaria referto^ or utcunque se res habuit, tua tamen culpa est. It thus always 
 occurs in connection with a verb, as the subject of a proposition. The same 
 signification is produced by doubling the relative ; e. g. quotquot^ qualisqualis ; 
 and in the case of adverbs, ubiubi, utut, quoquo, &c. Thus we should have quiquij 
 quaequae, quodquod=: quicunque, quaecunque, quodcunque ; but these forms are 
 not used in the nominative, and instead of them quisquis, quidquid^-were formed 
 from the substantive interrogative quis ? quid ? and the doubled relative 
 quisquis retained its substantive signification, " every one who," whereas 
 quicunque has the meaning of an adjective. So, at least, it is with the neuter 
 quidquid, whatever. The masculine quisquis, by way of exception, is like- 
 wise used as an adjective; e. g. in Horace: quisquis erit vitae color; and 
 Pliny : quisquis erit ventus (nay, even the neuter quidquid in Virgil, Aen. x. 
 493., and Horace, Carm. ii. 13. 9., which is a complete anomaly). In the 
 oblique cases the substantive and adjective significations coincide. 
 
 [§129.] Note 3. The Indefinite Pronouns. — All the above-men- 
 tioned words are originally at once substantives and adjectives, and for this 
 reason they have two distinct forms for the neuter. According to the 
 ordinary practice, however, quisquam is a substantive only, and is often ac- 
 companied by the adjective ullu^s, a, um. Quispiam, too, is principally used 
 as a substantive ; but aliquispiam, in the few passages where it occurs (it is 
 found only in Cic. Pro Sext. 29. : aliquapiam vi ; and Tuscul. ill. 9. : aliquod- 
 piam membrwm), is used as an adjective ; and aliquis, which has the same 
 meaning, is found in both senses. Quisquam, with the supplementary 
 ullu^, has a negative meaning ; e. g. I do not believe that any one (quis- 
 quam) has done this : quispiam and aliquis are affirmative, and quidam 
 may be translated by " a certain." By adding the verbs vis and libet to 
 the relative we obtain quivis and quilibet, any one ; and by adding the 
 particle que we obtain quisque and the compound unusquisque. All of these 
 words express an indefinite generality : respecting their difference, compare 
 Chap. LXXXIV. C. 
 
 [§ 130.] 3. The possessive pronouns are derived from the 
 substantive pronouns, and in form they are regular adjectives 
 of three terminations : meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester ; to which 
 we must add the relative cuJ2is, a, um; and the pronomina gen- 
 tilicia (which express origin), nostras, vestras, and cujas, 
 
 4. Lastly, we include among the pronouns also what are 
 called pronominalia, that is, adjectives of so general a meaning, 
 that, like real pronouns, they frequently supply the place of a 
 noun substantive. Such pronominalia are. a) Those which 
 answer to the question, who ? and are partly singk words and 
 partly compounds : alius, ullus, nullus,^ nonnullus. If we ask, 
 which of two ? it is expressed by uter? and the answer to it is 
 alter, one of two; neuter, neither; alteruter, either the one or 
 
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 105 
 
 the other ; utervis and uterlibet, either of the two. The relative 
 pronoun (when referring to two) is likewise uteV) and in a more 
 general sense utercunque. b) Those which denote quality, size, or 
 number in quite a general way. They stand in relation to one 
 another (whence they are called correlatives^, and are formed 
 
 according to a fixed rule. 
 
 The 
 
 interrogative 
 
 beofinninff with 
 
 qu coincides with the form of the relative, and according to the 
 theory of the ancient grammarians they diflfer only in their 
 accent (see § 34.) ; the indefinite is formed by prefixing ali; 
 the demonstrative begins with t, and its power is sometimes 
 increased by the sufl&x dem (as in idem) ; the relative may ac- 
 quire a more general meaning by being doubled, or by the suffix 
 cunque (§ 128.) ; the indefinite generality is expressed (according 
 to § 129.) by adding the words libet or vis to the (original) 
 interrogative form. In this manner we obtain the following 
 pronominal correlatives, with which we have to compare the ad- 
 verbial correlatives mentioned in § 288. 
 
 Elelat. g( 
 qualisqw 
 qualisci 
 quantusq 
 quantusc 
 juotquot, 
 cunque 
 quotuscunque. 
 
 Interrog. Demonst. 
 qualis talis 
 
 quantum tantus^ tan- 
 
 tundem 
 quot tot, totidem. 
 
 Relat. 
 qitalis 
 
 quantus 
 
 quot 
 
 Relat. generale. 
 qiuilisqualis, 
 qualiscunque. 
 quantusquxintus, 
 quantuscuTique 
 quotquot, quot- 
 
 Indefin. 
 
 Indef. gener. 
 qualislihet. 
 
 quantuslihet, 
 quantusvis. 
 qux)tlihet. 
 
 aliquantus 
 aliquot 
 
 quotum totus 
 
 quotus 
 
 (aliquotus) 
 
 To these we must add the diminutives quantulus, quantuluscunque, tantulus, 
 aliquantulum. 
 
 ^^ 11 
 
 CHAP. XXXV. 
 
 DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 m. 
 
 or THE 
 
 UNIVEKSn 
 
 [§ 131.] 1. Declension of the personal pronouns e^o, tu, sui. 
 
 Nom. JE(/o, I. 
 Gen. mei, of me. 
 
 Dat. mihi, to me. 
 Ace. me, me. 
 Voc. like nom. 
 Abl. me, from me. 
 
 SiNGULAB. 
 
 Tu, thou. 
 tui, of thee. 
 
 tibi, to thee. 
 te, thee, 
 like nom. 
 te, from thee. 
 
 sui, of himself, her- 
 self, itself. 
 stbi, to himself, &c. 
 se, himself, &c. 
 
 se, from himself, &c. 
 
Nom. 
 
 , Nds, we. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 nostri, nostrum, 
 
 
 of us. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 nobis, to us. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 nos, us. 
 
 Voe. 
 
 nos, we. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 nobis, from us. 
 
 106 LATIN GKAMMAR. 
 
 Plueal. 
 
 Vos, you. 
 
 vestri, vestrum, sui, of themselves. 
 
 of you. 
 
 vobis, to you. sibi, to themselves. 
 
 vos, you. se, themselves. 
 
 vos, O you ! 
 
 vobis, from you. se, from themselves. 
 
 Note. The suffix met may be added to all the cases of these three pronouns 
 to express the English emphatic self^ as egomet, mihimet, temet, semet^ and even 
 with the addition of ipse after it, as mihimet ipsi, temet ipsum. The genit. 
 plur. and the nominat. tu alone do not admit this suffix. Instead of it the 
 emphasis is given to tu by the suffix te^ as tute, and to this again by the ad- 
 dition of met^ as tutemet. The accus. and ablat. singular of these pronouns 
 admit a reduplication, meme^ tete^ sese; of sui alone it is used in the plural 
 also. 
 
 The contracted form of the dative, mi for mihi (like nil for nihil) is fre- 
 quently found in poetry, but rarely in prose. The genitives mei, tui, sui^ 
 nostri, vestri^ are properly genitives of the possessive pronouns meum, tuum, 
 suum, nostrum, vestrum, for originally the neuters meum, tuum, Sfc. were used 
 in the sense of " my being," or of " as regards me, thee," &c. (the Greek ro 
 ijxov), instead of the simple I, thou, &c. In like manner the genitives nos- 
 trum, vestrum, are properly the genitives of the possessives nostri and vestri. 
 (See §51.) The beginner may pass over the origin of these forms, since 
 they are used as the real genitives of the personal pronouns ; but he must be 
 reminded of it in the construction of the gerund, § 660. Respecting the dif- 
 ference between nostri, vestri, and iiostrum, vestrum, see § 431. 
 
 [§ 132.] 2. Declension of the demonstrative pronouns and ipse. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. & Yoc. Hie, haee, hoe, Nom. & Voc. hi, hae, haec, 
 
 this. these. 
 
 Gen. hujus, of this. Gen. horum, harum, horum, 
 
 of these. 
 Dat. hula (or hiiic), to this. Dat. his, to these. 
 
 Ace. hunc, hanc, hoc, this. Ace. hos, has, haee, these. 
 
 Abl. hoe, hae, hoc, from this, Abl. his, from these. 
 
 Note. The ancient form of this pronoun was hice, haece, hoce, in which we 
 recognise the demonstrative ce, which when a word by itself appears in the 
 form ecce. The cases ending in c arose from the omission of the e, which is 
 still found in old Latin, e. g. hance legem, haee lege. (This explains the ob- 
 solete form haec for hae or haece in Terence. See Bentley on Ter. Andr. i. 
 1. 99.) In ordinary language the cases in s alone sometimes take the com- 
 plete ce to render the demonstrative power more emphatic, e. g. hujusce, 
 hosce. By adding the enclitic interrogative ne to ce or c, we obtain the 
 interrogative hicine, haecine, hocine, 8fc. 
 
I 
 
 DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 107 
 
 The pronouns iste, ista, istud, and ille, ilia, illud, are declined 
 alike, and in the following manner: 
 
 Singular. Plubal. 
 
 Norn. & Voc. ille, ilia, illud, Norn. & Voc. illi, illae, ilia, 
 
 he, or that. they or those. 
 
 Gen. illius. Gen. illorum, illarum, illorum, 
 
 Dat. illi, Dat. illis. 
 
 Ace. ilium, illam, illud. Ace. illos, illas, ilia, 
 
 Abl. illo, ilia, illo, Abl. illis. 
 
 Note. Besides the forms iste^ ista, istud, and ille, ilia, illud, there exist 
 in early Latin the forms istic, istaec, istoc or istuc, and illic, illaec, illoc 
 or illuc, which with regard to inflection follow hie, liaec, hoc, but occur only 
 in the cases ending in c, except the dative, that is, in the accus. istunc, istanc, 
 illunc, illanc; ablat. istoc, istdc, illoc, iliac; neut. plur. istaec, illaec. (Istuc 
 and istaec sometimes occur even in Cicero.) Priscian regards these forms as 
 contractions from iste and ille with hie, but it probably arose from the addi- 
 tion of the demonstrative ce according to the analogy of hie, for in early 
 Latin we find also istace, istisce, illace, illisce, illosce, illasce, though very 
 rarely. By means of the connecting vowel i, both c and the complete ce 
 may be united with the interrogative enclitic ne, e. g. istucine, istocine, illicine, 
 illancine, istoscine. 
 
 nii and isti are obsolete forms of the genitive for illius and istius, and 
 the dative istae, illae, for isti, illi ; and the nom. plur. fern, istaec, illaec, for 
 istae, illae. (See Bentley on Terence, Hec. iv. 2. 17.) 
 
 Virgil uses olli as a dative sing, and nom. plur., and Cicero, in an antique 
 formula (Z>e Leg. ii. 9.), the plural olla and olios, from an ancient form ollus. 
 
 Ipse (in the ancient language ipsus), ipsa, ipsum, is declined 
 like ille, except that the neuter is ipsum and not ipsud. 
 
 Note. This pronoun is called adjunctive because it is usually joined to other 
 nouns and pronouns. In connection with some cases of is, viz. eo, ea, eum, 
 earn, it loses the i in early Latin ; thus we find eapse (nom. and ablat.), eopse, 
 eumpse, eampse, in Plautus ; and in Cicero the compound reapse = re ipsa, or 
 re ed ipsa, in fact, is of common occurrence. The suffix pte in possessive 
 pronouns is of a similar kind. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. is, ea, id, he, she, it, Nom. ii (ei), eae, ea, they 
 
 or that. or those. 
 
 Gen. ejus. Gen. eorum, earum, eorum, 
 
 Dat. ei, Dat. iis {eis). 
 
 Ace. eum, earn, id. Ace. eos, eas, ea, 
 
 Abl. eo, ea, eo, Abl. iis {eis). 
 
 By the addition of the suffix dem we form from is — Idem, 
 eadem, idem (as it were isdem, eadem, iddem), which is declined 
 in the other cases exactly like the simple is, ea, id. In the 
 accusative eundem. and eandem are preferable to eumdem. 
 
108 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 eamdem, and in like manner in the genitive plur. eorundem, 
 earundem. 
 
 Note. Eae as a dative singular feminine for ei, and thus and eahus for iis^ 
 are obsolete forms. The plural ei is rare, and eidem is not to be found at all. 
 In the dative and ablative plural, too, eis and eisdem are not as common 
 as iis^ iisdem. It must, however, be observed that iidem and iisdem were 
 always pronounced in poetry, and therefore probably in the early prose 
 also, as if they had only one i ; but whether it was ever written with one i 
 cannot be determined, on account of the fluctuation of the MSS. In most 
 passages, however, only one i is written. In what manner ii and Us were 
 dealt with cannot be ascertained from the poets, because they dislike the 
 pronoun is in general, and more particularly these cases of it, for which they 
 use the corresponding forms of hie (see § 702.) ; but Priscian (p. 737., and 
 Super xii. vers. p. 1268.) asserts that in this word, as in dii, diis, the double i 
 was formerly regarded in poetry as one syllable, and that in his time it still 
 continued to be thus pronounced. 
 
 By composition with ecce or en (behold ! the French voila), 
 we obtain the following expressions, which were of frequent 
 use in ordinary life : eccum^ eccam, eccos, eccas ; eccillum or ellum, 
 ellarrif ellos, ellas ; eccistam. 
 
 [§ 133.] 3. Declension of the relative pronoun, qui, quae, 
 quod. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. Qud, quae, quod, who Nom. qui, quae, quae, who or 
 
 or which. which. 
 
 Gen. cujus {quojus, obsol.), Gen. quorum, quarum, quorum, 
 
 of whom. 
 
 Dat. cm ov cm {iquoi, oh^oi.), Dat. quihus, 
 
 to whom. 
 
 Ace. quem, quam, quod, w^hom. Ace. quos, quas, quae, 
 
 Abl. quo, qua, quo, from whom. Abl. quibus. 
 
 Note. An ancient ablat. singular for all genders was qui. Cicero uses It 
 with cum appended to it, quicum for quocum (§ 324.), when an indefinite person 
 is meant, and when he does not refer to any definite person mentioned before 
 (compare the examples in §§ 561. and 568.). Quicum for quacum is found in 
 Virgil, Aen. xi. 822, Otherwise the form qui for quo occurs in good prose 
 only in the sense of "in what manner?" or "how?" as an interrogative or 
 relative, e.g. qui jit?\^ovi does it happen? qui convenitf qui sciehas? qui 
 hoc prohari potest cuiquamf qui tihi id facer e licuitf qui ista intellecta sint^ 
 deheo discere, &c., and in the peculiar phrase with uti: habeo qui utar, est 
 qui utamur (I have something to live upon), in Cicero. Instead of quihus in 
 the relative sense, there is an ancient form quis^ or queis (pronounced like 
 quis), which is of frequent occurrence in late prose writers also. 
 
 [§ 134.] There are two interrogative pronouns, quis, quid? and ' 
 qui, quae, quod ? the latter of which is quite the same in form as 
 
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 109 
 
 the relative pronoun, and the former differs from it only by its 
 forms quis and quid. The interrogatives quisnam, quidnam? 
 and qiiinam, quaenam, quodnam? express a more lively or em- 
 phatic question than the simple words, and the nam answers to 
 the English " pray." • 
 
 Note. The difference between the two interrogative pronouns as observed 
 in good prose is, that quis and quid are used as substantives, and qui^ quae^ 
 quod as adjectives, and this is the invariable rule for quid and qux)d^ e. g. 
 quod f acinus commisit f what crime has he committed ? not quid f acinus^ but 
 we may say quid facinoris f Quis signifies "what man?" or "who?" and 
 applies to both sexes ; qui signifies " which man ? " But in dependent inter- 
 rogative sentences these forms are often confounded, quis being used for the 
 adjective qui, and vice versa qui for quis. We do not, however, consider quis 
 to be used for qui in cases where quis is placed in apposition with sub- 
 stantives denoting a human being, as in quis amicus, quis hospes, quis miles, for 
 in the same manner quisquam is changed into an adjective, although there is 
 no doubt of its substantive character, e. g. Cic. In Verr. v. 54. : qiuzsi enim 
 uUa possit esse causa, cur hoc, cuiquam civi Romano jure accidat (viz. ut virgis 
 caedatur). But there are some other passages in which quis is used for qui, 
 not only in poets, such as Virgil, Georg. ii. 178. : quis color, but in prose 
 writers, e. g. Liv. v. 40. : quisve locv^ ; Tacit. Annal. i. 48. : qvx)d caedis initium, 
 quis Jinis. In Cicero, however, it is thus used with very few exceptions (such 
 as, Pro Dejot. 13.: quis casus) only before a word beginning with a vowel, 
 e. g. quis esset tantus fructus, quis iste tantus casus. Qui, on the other 
 hand, is used for quis, partly for the same reason of avoiding a disagree- 
 able sound, when the word following begins with s, as in Cic. Divin. 6. : 
 nescimu^ qui sis ; c. 12. : qui sis considera; Ad Att. iii. 10. : non possum ohU- 
 visci quifuerim, non sentire qui sim ; but partly without any such reason, as in 
 Cic. In Verr. v. 64. : qui esset ignorabas ? Pro Rose. Am. 37. : duhitare qui 
 indicarit; In Verr. v. 59.: interrogehir Flavius, quinam fuerit L. Herennius. 
 Cicero In Catil, ii. 3. : video qui habeat Etruriam, is an incorrect reading, and 
 in Pro Rose. Am. 34. : qui primus Ameriam nuntiat ? the qui must probably be 
 changed into quis. Thus much remains certain, that the rule respecting the 
 use of quis and qui cannot be denied even in indirect questions. 
 
 [§ 135.] The indefinite pronoun aliquis also has originally two 
 different forms : aliquis, neut. aliquid which is used as a substan- 
 tive, and aliqui, aliqua, aliquod. But aliqui is obsolete, although 
 it occurs in some passages of Cicero, e. g. De Off. iii. 7. : aliqui 
 casus; Tuscul. v. 21. : terror aliqui; Acad. iv. 26.: anularius aliqui; 
 De Re Publ. i. 44. : aliqui dux; ibid. iii. 16. : aliqui scrupus in 
 animis haeret, and a few other passages which are less certain. 
 In ordinary language aliquis alone is used, both as a sub- 
 stantive and as an adjective ; but in the neuter the two forms 
 aliquid and aliquod exist, and the difference between them must 
 be observed. The femin. singul. and the neuter plur. are both 
 aliqua, and the form aliquae is the femin. nom. plural. 
 
110 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 136.] But there is also a shorter form of the indefinite 
 pronoun, without the characteristic prefix ali, and exactly like the 
 interrogative pronoun : quis, quid, as a substantive, and qui, quae, 
 quod, as an adjective. This form is used, in good prose, only 
 after the conjunctions si, nisi, ne, num, and after relatives, such 
 as quo, quanto, and quum. This rule is commonly expressed 
 thus: the prefix ali in aliquis and its derivatives aliquo, ali- 
 quando, smdalicubi is rejected when si, nisi, ne, num, quo, quanto, 
 or quum, precede ; e. g. Consul videat, ne quid respuhlica detri- 
 menti capiat ; quaeritur, num quod officium aliud alio majus sit ; 
 sometimes another word is inserted between ; e.g. Cic. De OratAi. 
 41.; si aurum cui commonstratum vellem ; Pro Tull. § 17.: si quis 
 quern imprudens occiderit ; Philip. \, 7.: si cui quid ille promisisset 
 Some consider the combination of this indefinite quis or qui 
 with the conjunctions si, ne, num, and with the interrogative 
 syllable en (ec) as peculiar and distinct words, as siquis or siqui, 
 numquis or numqui, although properly speaking, ecquis or ecqui 
 alone can be regarded as one word, for en by itself has no 
 meaning. (See § 351.) For the particulars respecting the 
 use of this abridged form, and the difference between it and 
 the complete one, see Chap. LXXXIY. C. With regard to the 
 declension of these compounds it must be observed, 1) that in 
 the nominative the forms quis and qui are perfectly equivalent, 
 which is accounted for by what has been said about aliquis ; hence 
 we may say both si qui, ecqui, and si quis, ecquis ; 2) that in the 
 femin. singul. and the neuter plur. the form qua is used along 
 with quae, likewise according to the analogy of aliquis. We 
 may therefore say siqua, nequa, numqua, ecqua, but also si quae, 
 ne quae, num quae, ecquae. 
 
 Note. Which of the two is preferable, is a disputed point. Priscian 
 (v. p. 565 and 569.) mentions only siqua^ nequa, numqua, as compounds of 
 aliqua. As the MSS. of prose writers vary, we must rely on the authority 
 of the poets, who are decidedly in favour of the forms in a, with a few 
 exceptions, such as si quae, the neut. plur. in Propert. i. 16. 45., and the 
 femin. sing., according to Bentley's just emendation, in Terent. Heaut. Prol. 
 44., and Horat. Serm. ii. 6. 10. {Si quae tihi cura, in Ovid, Trist. i. 1. 115., 
 must be changed into siqua est.) Respecting ecqua and ecquae, see my note 
 on Cic. In Verr. iv. 11. 
 
 [§ 137.] The compounds of qui and quis, viz. quidam, quispiam, 
 quilihet, quivis, quisque, and unusquisque, are declined like the 
 relative, but have a double form in the neuter singular. 
 
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINALS. Ill 
 
 quiddam and quoddam, unumquidque and unumquodque, accord- 
 ing as they are used as substantives or as adjectives. (See above, 
 § 129.) Quisquam (with a few exceptions in Plautus) is used 
 only as a substantive, for ullus supplies its place as an adjective, 
 and the regular form of the neuter therefore is quidquam (also 
 written quicquam). It has neither feminine nor plural. Qui- 
 cunque is declined like qui, quae, quod, and has only the form 
 quodcunque for the neuter; quisquis, on the other hand, has 
 only quidquid (also written quicquid), being generally used in 
 these two forms only as a substantive. The other forms of this 
 double relative are not so frequent as those formed by the suflSx 
 cunque. 
 
 Note. In Cicero, Pro Rose. Am. 34., and In Verr. v. 41., we find cuicuimodi 
 instead of ay'uscitjusmodi, of what kind soever. See my note on the latter 
 passage. 
 
 [§ 138.] Each of the two words of which unusquisque is com- 
 posed is declined separately, as gen. uniuscujusque, dat. unicuique, 
 ace. unumquemque, &c. 
 
 CHAP. XXXVI. 
 
 DECLENSION OP THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS AND OF PRO- 
 NOMINALS. 
 
 • 
 
 [§139.] 1. The possessive pronouns mens, mea, meum; tuns, 
 tua, tuum; suus, sua, suum ; noster, nostra, nostrum; vester, 
 vestra, vestrum, are declined entirely like adjectives of three ter- 
 minations. Meus makes the vocative of the masculine gender 
 mi, as O mi pater ! It is only in late writers that mi is used 
 also for the feminine and neuter. 
 
 Note. The ablative singular of these pronouns, especially the forms suo^ 
 stui, frequently t^kes the suffix pte, which answers to our word " own ; " 
 e. g. in Cicero, suapte manu, suopte pondere ; in Plautus, meopte and tuopte 
 ingenio ; in Terence, nostrapte culpa, &c. All the cases of suus may, with 
 the same sense, take the suffix met, which is usually followed by ipse ; e. g. 
 Liv. vi. 36. : intra suamet ipsum moenia compvlere ; v. 38. : terga caesa svxmiet 
 ipsorum certamine impedientium fugam ; xxvii. 28. : Hannibal suamet ipse 
 fraude captus abiit. The expression of Sallust, Jug. 85., meamet facta dicere, 
 stands alone. 
 
neuter, 
 
 neutrius. 
 
 alter 
 
 alterius, 
 
 alius (neut. aliud), 
 
 alius, 
 
 ullus, 
 
 ullius. 
 
 nullus, 
 
 nullius. 
 
 112 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 2. The possessive pronoun cujus, a, um, has, besides the 
 nominative, only the accusative singular, cujum, cujam, cujum ; 
 cuja, the ablative singular feminine, and cujae, cujas, the nomi- 
 native and accusative plural feminine ; but all these forms occur 
 only in early Latin and legal phraseology. 
 
 . 3. Nostras, vestras, and cujas (i. e. belonging to our, your 
 nation, family, or party), are regularly declined after the third 
 declension as adjectives of one termination : genitive nostrdtis, 
 dative nostrdti, &c., plural nostrates, and neuter nostratia ; e. g. 
 verba nostratia, in Cic. Ad Fam. ii. 11. 
 
 [§ 140.] 4. The peculiar declension of the pronominal adjec- 
 tives uter, utra, utrum ; alter, altera, alterum ; alius (neut. aliud), 
 ullus, and nullus, has already been explained in § 49. 
 
 Nom. uter. Gen. utrms, Dat. utri, 
 
 neutrL 
 
 alteri, 
 
 alii, 
 
 ulli. 
 
 nulli. 
 
 Note. In early Latin there occur several instances of the regular 
 formation of the genit. z, ae, and of the dative o, «e, and some are met 
 with even in the best writers. Cic. De Div. ii. 13. : aliae pecudis ; De Nat. 
 Deor. ii. 26.: altera fratri ; Nepos, Eum. 1.: alterae alae ; Caes. Bell. Gall. 
 V. 27. : alterae legioni ; Cic. Pro Rose. Com. 16. : nulli consilii ; Caes. Bell. 
 Gall. vi. 13. : nullo consilio ; Propert. i. 20. 25. : nullae curae ; ibid. iii. 9. 
 57. : toto orhi. According to Priscian, the regular form of neuter was even 
 more common than the other, and in a grammatical sense we find, for 
 instance, generis neutri ; but neutrius is nevertheldSs preferable. 
 
 The compound alteruter is either declined in both words, 
 genitive alter iusutrius, accusative alter umutrum, or only in the 
 latter, as alterutri, alterutrum. The former method seems to 
 have been customary chiefly in the genitive, as we now gene- 
 rally read in Cicero, for the other cases easily admitted of an 
 elision. The other compounds with uter, viz. uterque, uterlibet, 
 utervis, and utercunque, are declined entirely like uter, the suf- 
 fixes being added to the cases without any change. The words 
 unu's, solus, and totus are declined like ullus. 
 
 [§ HI.] Note 1. Alter signifies the other ^ that is, one of two ; aliris^ 
 another, that is, one of many. But it must be observed, that where we use 
 another to express general relations, the Latins use alter ; e. g. detrahere 
 alteri sui commodi causa contra naturam est, because in reality only two 
 persons are here considered as in relation to each other. 
 
THE VERB. 113 
 
 Note 2. Uterque signifies both, that is, each of two, or one as well as the 
 other, and is therefore plural in its meaning. The real plural utrique is 
 used only when each of two parties consists of several individuals ; e. g. 
 Macedones — Tyrii^ uni — alteriy and both together, vtrique. But even good 
 prose writers now and then use the plural utrique in speaking of only two 
 persons or things, as Nepos, Timol. 2.: utrique Dionysii ; Curtius, vii. 19. : 
 utraeque acies ; Liv. xlii. 54. : utraque oppida ; and xxx. 8. : utraque cornua ; 
 but this is altogether opposed to the practice of Cicero. (See my note on 
 Cic. in Verr. III. 60.) 
 
 CHAP. XXXVII. 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 [§ 142.] 1. The verb is that part of speech by which it is 
 declared that the subject of a sentence does or suffers something. 
 This most general difference between doin^ which originates in 
 the subject, and suffering which presupposes the doing or acting 
 of another person or thing, is the origin of the two main forms 
 of verbs, viz. the active and passive (activum et passivum), 
 
 2. The active form comprises two kinds of verbs : trans- 
 itive or active properly so called, and intransitive or neuter 
 verbs. The difference between them is this: an intransitive 
 verb expresses a condition or action which is not communicated 
 from the agent to any other object ; e. g. I walk, I stand, I 
 sleep; whereas the transitive verb expresses an action which 
 affects another person or thing (which in grammar is called the 
 object and is commonly expressed by the accusative) ; e. g. I love 
 thee, I read the letter. As far as form is concerned this differ- 
 ence is important, for neuter verbs cannot have a passive voice, 
 whereas every transitive or active verb (in its proper sense) 
 must have a passive voice, since the object of the action is 
 the subject of the suffering; e. g. I love thee — thou art loved; 
 I read the letter — the letter is read. 
 
 [§ 143.] Note 1. It is not meant that every transitive verb must have 
 an object or accusative, but only that an object may be joined with it. 
 It is obvious, that in certain cases, when no object is added, transitive 
 verbs take the sense of intransitive ones. Thus edit^ amat^ when without an 
 accusative, may be considered to be used for coenat and est in amore^ and 
 with regard to their meaning they are intransitive, though in grammar 
 they remain transitive, since aliquid may be understood. In some cases 
 
 I 
 
114 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 the difference between the transitive and intransitive meaning is ex- 
 pressed, even in the formation of the verbs themselves, as in jacere, 
 iacere ; pendere, pendere ; albare^ alhere ; fugare, fugere ; placare, pla- 
 cers ; sedare, sedere, and some others of the same kind. Assuesco and 
 consuesco (I accustom myself) have assumed an intransitive meaning, the 
 pronoun being omitted, and the new forms assuefacio and consuefacio were 
 devised for the transitive sense. In the same manner we have the intransi- 
 tive calere^ patere, stupere, and the transitive calefacere^ patefacere and 
 stupefacere. 
 
 [§ 144.] Note 2. When an accusative is found with a neuter verb, the 
 neuter verb has either assumed a transitive meaning, and then has also a 
 passive voice, or the accusative is used in the sense of an adverb, and is to 
 be accounted for by some ellipsis, or by a licence of speech. (Concerning 
 both, see § 383.) 
 
 Sometimes however a passive voice is formed from real neuter verbs, but 
 only in the infinitive and in the third person singular, and the verb becomes 
 impersonal, i. e. it is without any distinct subject : for instance, stari juhet^ 
 he orders (one) to stand ; favetur tibi, favour is shown to thee ; via excessum 
 est^ (people) went out of the way ; ventum est, itum est, itur, eatur, ibitur. 
 Thus, when in comedy the question is asked quid agitur ? the humorous 
 answer is statur, or vivitur. When the subject is to be added, it is done 
 by means of ab, as in Livy, Romam frequenter migratum est a, parentibus 
 raptarum, which is equivalent to parentes migraverunt ; and in Cicero, ejv^ 
 orationi vehementer ab omnibus reclamatum est, and occurritur autem nobis 
 et quidem a doctis et eruditis, equivalent to omnes reclamamnt and docti 
 occurrunt. '» 
 
 [§ 145.] Note 3. With transitive verbs the subject itself may become 
 the object, e. g. moveo, I move, and moveo me, I move myself. It often 
 occurs in Latin that the pronoun is omitted, and the transitive is thus 
 changed into an intransitive. The verb abstineo admits of all three con- 
 structions ; transitive, as in manus ab aliqua re abstineo, I keep my hands 
 from a thing ; with the pronoun of the same person, abstineo me, and intran- 
 sitive, abstineo aliqtia re, I abstain from a thing. There are some other 
 verbs of this class, consisting chiefly of such as denote change ; e. g., 
 vertere and convertere, mutare, fiectere and deflectere, inclinare ; hence we 
 may say, for instance, inclino rem, sol se declinat ; and in an intransitive 
 sense, dies, acies inclinat ; animus inclinat ad pacem faciendam ; verto rem, 
 verto me; detrimentum in bonum vertit, ira in rabiem vertit; fortuna reipub- 
 licae mutavit ; mores populi Itomani magnopere mutaverunt. In like manner 
 the following verbs are used both as transitive and intransitive, though with 
 greater restrictions : augere, abolere, decoquere, durare, incipere, continuare, 
 insinuare, laxare, r^rnittere, lavare, movere (chiefly with terra, to quake, in 
 an intrans. sense, though now and then in other connections also), praeci- 
 pitare, ruere, suppeditare, turbare, vibrare. The compounds of vertere, — 
 devertere, divertere and revertere, — are used only in this reflective sense, but 
 occur also in the passive with the same meaning. 
 
 [§ 146.] We must here observe that the passive of many words has not 
 only a properly passive meaning, but also a reflective one, as in crucior, I 
 torment myself; delector, I delight myself; fallor, I deceive myself; feror, I 
 throw myself (upon something) ; moveor and commoveor, I move or excite 
 myself; homines effunduntur, men rush (towards a place); vehicula frangun- 
 tur, the vehicles break ; lavor, I bathe (myself) ; inclinor, I incline ; mutor, I 
 
THE VERB. 115 
 
 alter (myself) ; vertor^ but especially de- di- and rC'Vertor. Many of these 
 passive verbs are classed among the deponents, the active from which they are 
 formed being obsolete, or because the intransitive meaning greatly dijBfers. 
 
 [§ 147.] 3. It is a peculiarity of the Latin language, that 
 it has a class of verbs of a passive form, but of an active 
 (either transitive or intransitive) signification. They are called 
 deponents (laying aside, as it were, their passive signification), 
 e. g. consolor, I console ; imitor, I imitate ; fateor, I confess ; 
 sequor, I follow ; mentior, I lie ; morior, I die. These verbs, 
 even when they have a transitive signification, cannot have a 
 passive voice, because there would be no distinct form for it. 
 
 Note. Many deponents are in fact only passives, either of obsolete 
 actives, or of such as are still in use. The latter can' be regarded as depo- 
 nents only in so far as they have acquired a peculiar signification: e.g. 
 gravor signifies originally " I am burdened," hence, " I do a thing unwil- 
 lingly," " I dislike," " I hesitate ; " vehor, I am carried, or I ride, equo, on 
 horseback, curru, in a carriage. Several passives, as was remarked above, 
 have acquired the power of deponents from their reflective signification ; 
 e.g. pascor, I feed myself; versor, I turn myself, and thence I find my- 
 self, or I am. The following deponents are in this manner derived from 
 obsolete actives ; laetor, I rejoice ; projiciscor, I get myself forward, I 
 travel ; vescor, I feed myself, I eat. With regard to the greater number of 
 deponents, however, we are obliged to believe that the Latin language, 
 like the Greek with its verba media, in forming these middle verbs, followed 
 peculiar laws which are unknown to us. It must be especially observed, 
 that many deponents of the first conjugation are derived from nouns, and 
 that they express being that which the noun denotes : e. g. ancillor, ar- 
 chitector, argutor, aucupor, auguroY, &c., as may be seen from the list in 
 §207. 
 
 [§ 148.] 4. Before proceeding we must notice the following 
 special irregularities. The three verbs Jio, I become, or am 
 made, vapulo, I am beaten, and veneo, I am sold or for sale, 
 have a passive signification, and may be used as the passives 
 of facio, verhero, and vendo, but, like all neuter verbs, they 
 have the active form, except that Jio makes the perfect 
 tense f actus sum, so that form and meaning agree. They are 
 called neutralia passiva. The verbs audeo, Jido, gaudeo, and 
 soleo have the passive form with an active signification in the 
 participle of the preterite, and in the tenses formed from it : as 
 ausus, Jisus, gavisus, solitus sum, eram, &c. They may there- 
 fore be called semideponentia, which is a more appropriate name 
 than neutro-passiva, as they are usually termed, since the fact of 
 their being neuters cannot come Ijere into consideration. To 
 
 I 2 
 
 I 
 
116 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 these we must add, but merely with reference to the participle 
 of the preterite, the verbs jurare, coenare, prandere, and potare, 
 of which the participles juratus, coenatus, pransus, and potus, 
 have, like those of deponents, the signification : — one that has 
 sworn, dined, breakfasted and drunk. The same is the case 
 with some other intransitive verbs, which as such ought not to 
 have a participle of the preterite at all ; but still we sometimes 
 find conspiratus and coalitus, and frequently adultus and ohsoletus 
 (grown up and obsolete) in an active, but intransitive sense, 
 and the poets use cretus (from cresco), like natus. 
 
 CHAP. XXXVIII. 
 
 MOODS. — TENSES. 
 
 [§ 149.] There are four general modes (moods, modi), in which 
 an action or condition expressed by a verb may be represented : 
 — 1) Simply as a fact, though the action or condition may differ 
 in regard to its relation and to time : this is the Indicative ; . 
 2) As an action or condition which is merely conceived by the 
 mind, though with the same differences as the indicative. Con- 
 junctive, or Subjunctive ; 3) As a command,' Imperative ; 4) In- 
 definitely, without defining any person by whom, or the time 
 at which, the action is performed, although the relation of the 
 action is defined. Infinitive, 
 
 [§ 150.] To these moods we may add the Participle which 
 is, in form, an adjective, but is more than an adjective by 
 expressing at the same time the different relations of the action 
 or suffering, that is, whether it is still lasting or terminated. A 
 third participle, that of the future, expresses an action which is 
 going to be performed, or a condition which is yet to come. 
 The Gerund, which is in form like the neuter of the participlei 
 passive in dus, supplies by its cases the place of the infinitive] 
 present active. The two Supines are cases of verbal substantives, 
 and likewise serve in certain connections (which are explained 
 in the syntax) to supply the cases for the infinitive. 
 
 When an action or condition is to be expressed as a definite 
 and individual fact, either in the indicative or subjunctive, we 
 
NUMBERS. — PERSONS. 117 
 
 must know whether it belongs to the past, the present, or the 
 future, or in one word, its time, and time is expressed in a verb 
 by its Tenses, We must further know its position in the series 
 of actions with which it is connected, that is, the relation of the 
 action, viz. whether it took place while another was going on, 
 or whether it was terminated before another began. If w© 
 connect these considerations, we shall obtain the following six 
 tenses of the verb : — 
 
 An action not terminated in the present time ; I write, scribo : Present 
 
 tense. 
 An action not terminated in the past time ; I wrote, scriheham : Imperfect 
 
 tense. 
 An action not terminated in the future ; I shall write, scribam : Future 
 
 tense. 
 
 An action terminated in the present time ; I have written, scripsi : Perfect 
 tense. 
 
 An action terminated in the past time ; I had written, scripseram : Plu- 
 perfect tense. 
 
 An action terminated in the future; I shall have written, scripsero : 
 Future perfect tense. 
 
 The same number of tenses occurs in the passive voice, but 
 those which express the terminated state of an action can be 
 formed only by circumlocution, with the participle and the 
 auxiliary verb esse : scribor, scribebar, scribar, scriptus sum, 
 scriptus eram, scriptus ero. The subjunctive has no future tenses : 
 respecting the manner in which their place is supplied, see § 496. 
 The infinitive by itself does not express time, but only the 
 relation of an action, that is, whether it is completed or not 
 completed. By circumlocution we obtain also an infinitive for 
 an action or a suffering which is yet to come. 
 
 CHAP. XXXIX. 
 
 NUMBERS. PERSONS. 
 
 [§ 151.] The Latin verb has two numbers, singular and plural, 
 and in each number three persons. These three persons, I, the 
 one speaking, tliou, the one spoken to, and he or she, the one 
 spoken of, are not expressed in Latin by special words, but are 
 
 I 3 
 
118 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 implied in the forms of the verb itself. The same is the case in 
 the plural with we, you, they, and these personal pronouns are 
 added to the verb only when the person is to be indicated in an 
 emphatic manner. 
 
 The following is a general scheme of the changes in termi- 
 nation, according to the persons, both in the indicative and 
 subjunctive ; — 
 
 In the Active, 
 
 Person: 1. 2. 3. 
 
 Sing. — 5, t, • 
 
 Plur. mus, tiS) nt. 
 
 The termination of the first person singular cannot be stated 
 in a simple or general way, since it sometimes ends in o, some- 
 times in m, and sometimes in i (see the following Chapter). 
 In the second person singular the perfect indicative forms an 
 exception, for it ends in /z. Respecting the vowel which pre- 
 cedes these terminations, nothing general can be said, except 
 that it is « in the imperfect and pluperfect indicative. 
 
 
 In the Passive, 
 
 
 Person : 
 
 1. 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 r, risy 
 
 tur. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 mur, mini, 
 
 ntur. 
 
 This, however, does not apply to those tenses of the passive, * 
 which are formed by a combination of the participle with a 
 tense of the verb esse. 
 
 The imperative in the active and passive has two forms, viz. 
 for that which is to be done at once, and for that which 
 is to be done in future, or an imperative present and an 
 imperative future. Neither of them has a first person, owing 
 to the nature of the imperative. The imperative present has 
 only a second person, both in the singular and plural ; the im- ; 
 perative future has the second and the third persons, but in the 
 singular they have both the same form, to in the active, and tor 
 in the passive voice. The imperative future passive, on the 
 other hand, has no second person plural, which is supplied by 
 the future of the indicative, e. g. laudabimini. 
 
FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 119 
 
 CHAP. XL. 
 
 FOEMATION OF THE TENSES. 
 
 [§ 152.] 1. There are in Latin four conjugations, distinguished 
 by the infinitive moocl, which ends thus : — 
 
 1. are, 2. ere, 3. ere, 4. Ire, 
 
 The present indicatives of these conjugations end in : 
 
 ' \. o, as. 2, eo, es, 3. o, is, 4. to. Is, 
 
 Note. Attention must be paid to the difference of quantity in the termi- 
 nation of the second person in the third and fourth conjugations, in order to 
 distinguish the presents of the verbs in to, which follow the third conjugation, 
 e.g.fodio^fugio^ capio (see Chap. XL VI.), from those verbs which follow the 
 fourth, such as audio^ erudio. This difference between the long and short i 
 remains also in the other persons, with the exception of the third singular, 
 which is short in all the four conjugations ; e. g. legimiis, legttis ; audlmusj 
 auditis ; foi* when i is followed by another vowel, it is short according to the 
 general rule that one vowel before another is short. The long a was men- 
 tioned above as the characteristic of the first conjugation, but the verb dare 
 is an exception, for the a here is not a mere part of the termination as in 
 lauddre, but belongs to the stem of the word. The syllable da in this verb 
 is short throughout, damns, datis, dabam^ &c., with the only exception of the 
 monosyllabic forms das and da. 
 
 [§ 153.] 2. In order to obtain the forms of the other tenses, 
 we must further know the perfect and the supine; for the 
 three tenses of the completed action in the active are derived 
 from the perfect ; and the participle perfect passive, which is 
 necessary for the formation of the same tenses in the passive, is 
 derived from the supine. These four principal forms, viz. 
 Present, Perfect, Supine, and Infinitive, end thus : — 
 
 Praes. Perf. Supine. Infinit. 
 
 1. o, dvi, atuiriy are 
 
 2. eo, ui, ituniy ere. 
 
 i 
 
 3. o, i, turn, ere, 
 
 4. w, wi, Itum, ire. 
 
 Note. We have here followed the example of all Latin grammars and of 
 the Roman grammarians themselves, in regarding the supine as one of the 
 main forms, that must be known in order to derive others from it. But 
 the beginner must beware of supposing that the two participles, of the 
 perfect passive and the future active, are derived in the same manner from 
 the supine as, for example, the pluperfect is from the perfect ; and that the 
 
 I 4 
 
120 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 supine exists in all the verbs to which one is attributed in the dictionary 
 or grammar. The whole derivation is merely formal ; and the supine 
 in fact occurs very rarely. But its existence is presupposed on account 
 of the two participles which do occur, in order to show the changes which 
 the stem of the verb undergoes. If we were to mention the participle of 
 the perfect passive instead of the supine, we should do little better, since it 
 is wanting in all intransitive verbs, though they may have the participle 
 future active ; and again, if we were to mention the future participle, we 
 should find the same difficulty, for it cannot be proved to exist in all verbs^ 
 and in addition to this we ought not to mention among the main forms of 
 the verb one which is obviously a derivative form. In dictionaries it would 
 be necessary to mention, first the participle perfect, or where it does not 
 occur, the participle future active ; but if, as is the case in a grammar, we 
 have to show in one form that which is the basis of several changes, a 
 third form is necessary, and it is best to acquiesce in the supine. In making 
 use of the list which will be given hereafter, the beginner must always bear 
 in mind, that the supine is scarcely ever mentioned for its own sake, but 
 merely to enable him to form those two participles correctly. 
 
 3. With regard to the first, second, and fourth conjugations, 
 no particular rule is needed as to how the perfect and supine are 
 formed. According to the above scheme they are : — 
 
 1, laud-o, laud-avi, laud-atum, laud-are. 
 
 2. mon-eo, mon-ui, Tnon-itum, mon-ere. 
 4. aud-is, aud-ivi, aud-ltum, aud-ire. 
 
 [§ 154.] 4. But in the third conjugation the formation of the 
 perfect and supine presents some difficulty. The following 
 general rules therefore must be observed (for the details, see 
 the list of verbs of the third conjugation). When the termi- 
 nation of the infinitive ere, or the o of the present tense, is 
 preceded by a vowel, the forms of the perfect and supine are 
 simply those mentioned above, that is, i and turn are added to 
 the stem of the verb, or to that portion of the verb which re- 
 mains after the removal of the termination, e. g. acuere, acu-o, 
 acu-i, acu-tum. The vowel becomes long in the supine, even 
 when it is otherwise short. So also in minuo, statuo, tribuo, and 
 solvo, solutum, for v before a consonant is a vowel. 
 
 But when the o of the present is preceded by a consonant, 
 the perfect ends in si. The s in this termination is changed 
 into X when it is preceded by c, g, h, or qu (which is equal 
 to c) ; when it is preceded by h, this letter is changed into p ; 
 if d precedes, one of the two consonants must give way, and 
 either the d is dropped, which is the ordinary practice, or the s ; 
 e.g. duco, duxi; rego, rexi ; tralio, traxi ; coquo, coxi ; scribo, 
 scripsi ; claudo, clausi, but defendo, defendi. Yerbs in po pre- 
 
FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 121 
 
 sent no difficulty : carpo, carpsi ; sculpo, sculpsL That lego 
 makes legi, biho, hibii and emo, emi, is irregular according to 
 what was remarked above: but Jigo, Jixi; nuho, nupsi; demo, 
 demsi (or according to § 12. dempsi), are perfectly in accordance 
 with the rule. 
 
 5. The supine adds turn to the stem of the verb, with some 
 change of the preceding consonants : h is changed into p ; 
 g, h, and qu into c ; instead of dtum in the verbs in do, we find 
 sum, e. g. scriho, scriptum ; rego, rectum ; traho, tractum ; 
 coquo, coctum (verbs in co remain unchanged, as dictum, 
 ductum) ; defendo, defensum ; claudo, clausum. The supine in 
 xum is a deviation from the rule, as in Jigo, Jixum, and so also 
 the throwing out of the n of the stem, as in pingo, pictum ; 
 stringo, strictum ; although this is not done without reason ; for 
 in several verbs of the third conjugation the n is only an in- 
 crease to strengthen the form of the present, and does not 
 originally belong to the root ; it is therefore thrown out both 
 in the perfect and in the supine, as in vinco, fundo, relinquo — 
 vici, victum ; fusi, fusum ; reliqui, relictum ; or in the supine 
 alone, as in the two verbs mentioned before, and in Jingo, sup. 
 
 Jictum, Of the words in which o is preceded by /, m, n, r, or s, 
 only a few in mo follow the ordinary rule ; e. g. como, demo; 
 perf. compsi, dempsi ; sup. comptum, demptum : all the others 
 have mixed forms. 
 
 6. Two irregularities are especially common in the formation 
 of the perfect of the third conjugation. The first is the addition 
 of a syllable at the beginning of the verb, called reduplication, in 
 which the first consonant of the verb is repeated either with the 
 vowel which follows it, or with an e, e. g. tundo, tutUdi; tendo, 
 tetendi; cano, cecmi ; curro, cucurri ; fallo, fefelli ; parco, pepercL 
 In the compounds of such words the reduplication is not used, 
 except in those of do, sto, disco, posco, and in some of curro. The 
 second irregularity is that many verbs of the third conjugation 
 form their perfect like those of the second, just as many verbs 
 of the second make that tense like those of the third. This is 
 the case especially with many verbs in lo and mo, as alo, alui, 
 allium ialturn) ; molo, molui, molitum ; gemo, gemui, gemitum. 
 Concerning this and other special irregularities, see the list 
 of verbs in Chap. L. 
 
 {§ 155.] 7. The derivation of the other tenses and forms of a 
 verb from these four (present, perfect, supine, and infinitive). 
 
122 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 which are supposed to be known, is easy and without irregu- 
 larity in the detail. 
 
 From the infinitive active are formed : 
 
 a) The imperative passive, which has in all conjugations the 
 same form as the infinitive active. 
 
 b) The imperative active, by dropping the termination re. It 
 thus ends in conjugation, 1. in a, 2. e, 3. e, 4. ^asama^mone, 
 lege, audi. 
 
 c) The imperfect subjunctive active, by the addition of m, so 
 that it ends in the four conjugations in drem, erem, erenii irem, 
 e. g. amarem, monerem, legerem^ audirem. 
 
 d) The imperfect subjunctive passive, by the addition of r, as 
 in amdrer, monerer, legerer, audirer. 
 
 e) The infinitive present passive, by changing e into z, e. g. 
 amari, moneri, audiri, but in the third conjugation the whole 
 termination ere is changed into i, as in legere, legi. 
 
 From the present indicative active are derived : 
 
 a) The present indicative passive, by the addition of r, as 
 
 amor, moneor, legor, audior. 
 
 h) The present subjunctive active, by changing the o into em 
 
 in the first conjugation, and in the three others into am; as, 
 
 amem, moneam, legam, audiam. 
 
 c) The present subjunctive passive, by changing the m of 
 the present subjunctive active into r ; as amer, monear, legar, 
 audiar. 
 
 d) The imperfect indicative active, by changing o into abam 
 in the first conjugation, in the second into bam, and in the 
 third and fourth into ebam. A change of the m into r makes 
 the imperfect indicative passive, e. g. amabam, amabar ; mo- 
 nebam, monebar ; legebam, legebar ; audiebam, audiebar. 
 
 e) The first future active, by changing o into abo in the 
 first conjugation, in the second into bo, and in the third and 
 fourth into am. From this is formed the first future passive by 
 adding r in the first and second conjugations, and by changing 
 m into r in the third and fourth ; e. g. laudabo, laudabor ; mo- 
 nebo, monebor ; legam, legar ; audiam, audiar. 
 
 f) The participle present active, by changing o in the first 
 conjugation into ans, in the second into ns, and in the third and 
 fourth into ens ; e. g. laudo, laudans ; moneo, monens ; lego, 
 legens ; audio, audiens. From this participle is derived the 
 
THE VERB ESSE. 123 
 
 participle future passive, by changing ns into ndus ; e. g. aman- 
 
 dusy monendus, legendus, audiendus ; and the gerund : amaridum, 
 
 monenduvtiy legendum, audiendum. 
 
 From the perfect indicative active are derived : 
 
 cl) The pluperfect indicative, bj changing i into eram : lauda- 
 
 veranif monueram, legeram, audiveram, 
 
 b) The future perfect, by changing i into ero: laudavero^ 
 monuerOf legero, audwero, 
 
 c) The perfect subjunctive*, by changing i into erim : lauda- 
 verim, monuerim, leg erim, audiverim. 
 
 d) The pluperfect subjunctive, by changing i into issem 
 (originally essem) : laudavissem, monuissem; legissem, audivissem, 
 
 e) The perfect infinitive active, by changing i into isse 
 (originally esse) : laudavisse, monuisse, legisse, audivisse. 
 
 From the supine are derived : 
 
 ct) The participle perfect passive, by changing um into us, a, 
 um : laudatus, a, um ; monitus, a, um ; lectus, a, um ; auditus, 
 a, um, 
 
 h) The participle future active, by changing um into urus, a, 
 um : laudaturus, a, um ; moniturus, a, um ; lecturus, a, um ; 
 auditurus, a, um. 
 
 By means of the former participle we form the tenses of the 
 passive, which express a completed action ; and by means of the 
 participle future we may form a new conjugation expressing 
 actions which are to come. See Chap. XLIII. 
 
 CHAP. XLI 
 
 THE VERB ESSE, 
 
 [§ 156.] The verb esse, to be, is called an auxiliary verb, 
 because it is necessary for the formation of some tenses of the 
 passive voice. It is also called a verb substantive, because it is 
 the most general expression of existence. Its conjugation is 
 
 * "We use this name because the tense is most commonly used in the sense 
 of a perfect subjunctive, although its form shows that it is in reality the 
 subjunctive of the future perfect, the termination ero being changed into 
 
124 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 very irregular, being made up of parts of two different verbs, 
 the Greek et//,4 io-rt, saofiai (from which sim and sum, est, eso 
 or ero, were easily formed), and the obsolete fuo, the Greek 
 ^uo). The supine and gerund are wanting, but the inflection in 
 the persons is regular. 
 
 iNDigATIVE. 
 
 Sing. Sum, I am. 
 
 es, thou art. 
 
 est, he is. 
 Plur. sumus, we are. 
 
 estis, ye are. 
 
 suntf they are. 
 
 Sing. Eram, I was. 
 
 eras, thou wast. 
 
 erat, he was. 
 Plur. erdmus, we were. 
 
 erdtis, ye were. 
 
 erard, they were. 
 
 Sing. Ero, I shall be. 
 
 eris, thou wUt be. 
 
 erit, he will be. 
 Plur. erimus, we shall be. 
 
 eritis, ye will be. 
 
 erunt, they will be. 
 
 Sing. Ful, I have been. 
 
 fuisti, thou hast been. 
 
 fait, he has been. 
 Plur. fuvmus, we have been. 
 
 fuistis, ye have been. 
 
 ;^™f'}they have been. 
 
 Sing. Fueram, I had been. 
 
 fueras, thou hadst been. 
 fuerat, he had been. 
 VXnr.fuerdmus, we had been. 
 fuerdtis, ye had been. 
 fuerarU, they had been. 
 
 "Subjunctive. 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. Sim, I may be. 
 
 sis, thou mayst be. 
 sit, he may bet 
 Plur. slmus, we may be. 
 sltis, ye may be. 
 sint, they may be. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Sing Essem, I might, be. 
 
 esses, thou migl^tst be. 
 
 e55e^, he might be. 
 Plur. essemus, we might be. 
 
 essetis, ye might be. 
 
 essent, they might be. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Instead of a subjunctive, the parti- 
 ciple /M^wrz^^ is used with sim. 
 
 Futurus sim, sis, &c. I may be 
 about to be. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Sing. Fuerim, I may have been. 
 
 fueris, thou mayst have been. 
 
 fuerit, he may have been. 
 VhjLY.fuerimus, we may have been. 
 
 fueritis, ye may have been. 
 
 fuerint, they may have been. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Sing. Fuissem, I should, or would 
 have been. 
 fuisses, thou shouldst, &c. 
 fuisset, he should, &c. 
 Vhiv. fuissemus, we should, &c. 
 fuissetis, ye should, &c. 
 fuissent, they should, &c. 
 
THE VERB ESSE. 125 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 Sing. Fuero^ I shall have been. No Subjunctive. 
 
 fueris, thou wilt have been. 
 fuerit, he will have been. 
 Plur. fuerimus^ we shall have been. 
 fuerltis^ ye will have been. 
 fuerint^ they will have been. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Present, Sing. Es, be thou. Plur. este, be ye. 
 
 Future, Sing. Esto, thou shalt be. Plur. estote, ye shall be. 
 esto, he shall be. suntOj they shall be. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Present, state not terminated, esse^ to be. 
 Perfect, terminated, /wme, to have been. 
 Future, futurum (am, um) esse, ox fore, to be about to be. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present, not terminated (ens'), being. 
 Future, futurus, a, um, one who is about to be. 
 
 Note. The participle ens is only used as a substantive in philosophical 
 language (see above, § 78. in fin.), and also in the two compounds, absens 
 and praesens. 
 
 The compounds dbsum^ adsum, desum, insum, intersum, ohsum, praesum, 
 subsum, supersum, have the same conjugation as sum. Prosum inserts a d 
 when pro is followed by e ; e. g. prodes, prodest, &c. Possum, I can (from 
 pot, for potis, and sum), has an irregular conjugation. (See the irregular 
 verbs, § 211.) 
 
 The i in simus and sitis is long, and the e in eram, ero, &c., is short, as is 
 indicated above in the conjugation itself, and also in the compounds : pro- 
 slmus, proderam, proderant, proderit, &c. 
 
 Stem, sies, siet, sient, and fuam, ftms, fuat, fuant (from the obsolete fiw), 
 are antiquated forms for the corresponding persons of sim, and occur in the 
 comic writers and in Lucretius. Instead of essem we have another form for 
 the imperfect subjunctive, forem (likewise from fujo), in the singular and 
 the third person plural. The infinitive fore belongs to the same root. 
 Cicero rarely uses the form forem, but Livy frequently, especsally in the 
 sense of the conditional mood, " I should be." Other writers, especially the 
 poets and TacituS, use it in all respects like essem. The perfect fuvi, and 
 the tenses derived from it, fuveram, fuvissem, fuvero, are other forms offui, 
 &o., and occur in the earliest poets ; and in like manner we find, in the an- 
 cient language, escit, escunt, for erit and erunt. 
 
 ,^' 
 
126 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAP. XLII. 
 
 THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 [§ 157.] In the following table the terminations are separated 
 from the root of the verb, which renders it easy to conjugate any- 
 other verb according to these models. The verb lego (see Chap. 
 XL.) is irregular in the formation of its perfect, but it has been 
 retained as. an example of verbs of the third conjugation, because 
 the very absence of any peculiar termination in the perfect is a 
 safeguard against misunderstandings which might arise ; for 
 example, from ducoyduxi; scribo, scripsi; or claudo, clausi. 
 
 I 
 
 , ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 First Conjugation. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. Am-o^ I love. 
 
 Sing. Am-em, I may love. 
 
 am-ds, thou lovest. 
 
 am-es, thou mayst love. 
 
 am-at, he loves. 
 
 am-et, he may love. 
 
 Plur. am-dmiis, we love 
 
 Plur. am- emus, we may love. 
 
 am-dtis, ye love. 
 
 am-etis, ye may love. 
 
 am-ant, they love. 
 
 am-ent, they may love. 
 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Sing, am-dham, I loved. 
 
 Sing, am-drem, 1 might love. 
 
 am-abds. 
 
 am-ares. 
 
 am-dbat. 
 
 am-aret. 
 
 Plur. am-abdmus. 
 
 Plur. am-aremus. 
 
 am-dbdtis. 
 
 am-aretis. 
 
 am-abant. 
 
 am-arent. 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 Sing, am-dbo, I shall love. 
 
 " 
 
 am-abis 
 
 
 am-abit 
 
 
 Plur. am-abimus. 
 
 
 am-abitis. 
 
 
 am-abunt. 
 
 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Sing, am-dviy I have loved. 
 
 Sing, am-averim^ I may have loved. 
 
 am-avisti. 
 
 am-averis. 
 
 am-avit. 
 
 am-averit. 
 
 Plur. am-avimus. 
 
 Plur. am-averimus. 
 
 am-avistis. 
 
 am-averltis. 
 
 am-averunt (e). 
 
 am-averint. 
 
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 127 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive, 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Sing, am-averam^ I had loved. Sing, am-avissem, I might have loved. 
 
 am-averds, am-avisses. 
 
 ant'ttverat. am-avtsset. 
 
 Plur. am-averdmus. Plur. am-avissemics. 
 
 am-averatis. am-avissetis. 
 
 am-averant. am-avissent. 
 
 Second Future, or Future Perfect. // TT 
 
 Sing, am-averoj I shall have loved. 
 
 am-averis. 
 
 am-averit. 
 Plur. am-averlmus^ 
 
 am-averltis. 
 
 am-averint. 
 
 iMPEBATIVB. 
 
 Present, Sing, am-d, love thou. Plur. am-dtey love ye. 
 
 Future, Sing, am-dto^ thou shalt love. Plur. am-atote, ye shall love. 
 
 am-aniOf they shall love. 
 
 V^ or THE ^ 
 
 NIVEESn 
 
 am-dto, he shall love. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Pres. and Imperf. (or of an action still going on) am-dre, to love. 
 Perf. and Pluperf. (or of an action completed) am-avisse, to have loved. 
 Future, am-aturum esse, to be about to love. 
 
 Gerund. 
 Gen. am-andi ; Dat. am-ando ; Ace. am-andum ; Abl. am-ando. 
 
 Supine. 
 am-atum ; am-atu. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Pres. and Imperf. (of an action still going on) am-ans, loving. 
 Future, am-aturus, about to love. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Sing. Mon-eo, 1 advise. 
 
 mon-es. 
 
 mon-et. 
 Plur. mon-emus. 
 
 mou'etis, 
 
 mon-ent. 
 
 Second Conjugation, 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. Mon-eam, I may advise. 
 
 mon-eds. 
 
 mon-eat. 
 Plur. mon-edmus. 
 
 mon-eatis. 
 
 mon-eant. 
 
12S LATIN GEAMMAR, 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Sing, mou'ebam, I advised. Sing, mon-erem, 1 might advise. 
 mon-ehds. mon-eres. 
 
 mon-ebat mon-eret 
 
 Plur. mon-ebdmus. Plur. mon-eremus^ 
 mon-ebdtis. • mon-eretis. 
 
 mon-ebant. mon-erent 
 
 Future. 
 
 Sing, mon-ebo, I shall advise. 
 
 mon-ebis. 
 
 mon-ebit 
 Plur. mon-ebimus. 
 
 mon-ebitis. 
 
 mon-ebunt 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Sing, mon-ui, 1 have advised. Sing, mon-uerim, I may have advised. 
 
 mon-uisti. mon-ueris. 
 
 mon-uit. mon-uerit. 
 
 Plur. mon-uimus. Plur. mon-uerimus. 
 
 mon-uistis. mon-ueritis. 
 
 mon-uerunt (e). mon-uerint. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Sing, mon-ueram, I had advised. Sing, mon-uissem^ I should have ad- 
 
 mon-uerds. mon-uisses. [vised. 
 
 mon-uerat. mon-uisset. 
 
 Plur. mon-uerdmus. Plur. mon-uissemus. 
 
 mon-uerdtis. mon-uisseiis. 
 
 mon-uerant. mon-uissent 
 
 Second Future, or Future Perfect. 
 
 Sing, mon-uero^ I shall have advised. 
 
 mon-ueris. 
 
 mon-uerit. 
 Plur. mon-uerlmus. 
 
 mon-ueritis. 
 
 mon-uerint. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Present, Sing, mon-e, advise thou. Plur. mon-ete, advise ye. 
 
 Future, Sing, mon-eto, thou shalt advise. Plur. mon-etote, ye shall advise. 
 mon-eto, he shall advise. mon-ento, they shall advise. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Pres. and Imperf. mon-ere, to advise. 
 Perf. and Pluperf. mon-uisse^ to have advised. 
 Future, mon-iturum esse, to be about to advise. 
 
THE POUR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 129 
 
 Gerund. 
 Gen. mon-endi ; Dat. mon-endo ; Ace. mon-endum ; Abl. man- 
 
 Supine. 
 mon-xtum; mon-ttu. 
 
 Pabticiples. 
 
 Pres. and Imperf. mon-cns, advising. 
 Future, mon-iturus, about to advise. 
 
 Indicative, 
 
 Sing. Leg-o, I read. 
 
 leg-is. 
 
 leg-it. 
 Plur. leg-imus. 
 
 leg-itis. 
 
 leg-unt. 
 
 Sing, leg-ebam^ I read. 
 
 leg-ebds. 
 
 leg-ehat. 
 Plur. leg-ehamus. 
 
 leg-ehdtis. 
 
 leg-ehant. 
 
 Sing, leg-am^ I shall read. 
 
 leg-es. 
 
 leg-et. 
 Plur. leg-emus. 
 
 leg-etis. 
 
 leg-ent. 
 
 Sing. leg-{, I have read. 
 
 leg-isti. 
 
 leg-it. 
 Plur. leg-imus. 
 
 leg-istis. 
 
 leg-erunt (e). 
 
 Third Conjugation, 
 
 • Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. Leg-am^ I may read. 
 
 leg-at. 
 Plur. leg-dmus. 
 leg-atis. 
 leg-ant. 
 
 • 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Sing, leg-erem^ I might read. 
 
 leg-eres.' 
 
 leg-eret. 
 Plur. leg-eremus. 
 
 leg-eretis. 
 
 leg-erent. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Sing, leg-erim, I may have read. 
 
 leg-eris. 
 
 leg-erit. 
 Plur. leg-erimus. 
 
 leg-eritis. 
 
 leg-erint. 
 
13Q LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Sing, leg-eraniy I had read. Sing, leg-issem, I should have read. 
 
 leg-eras. leg-isses. 
 
 leg-erat. leg-isset. 
 
 Plur. leg-erdmus. Plur. leg-issemns, 
 
 leg-eratis. leg-issetis. 
 
 leg-erant. f leg-issent. 
 
 Second Future, or Future Perfect. 
 
 Sing, leg-ero^ I shall have read. 
 
 leg-eris. 
 
 leg-erit. ^ 
 
 Plur. leg-enmus. ^ 
 
 leg-eritis. - ^ 
 
 leg-erint. 
 
 Imperative. 
 Present, Sing, leg-e^ read thou. Plur. leg-ite^ read ye. 
 
 Future,^ Sing, leg-ito^ thou shalt read. Plur. leg-itote, ye shall read. 
 leg-itOy he shall read. leg-unto, they shall read. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Pres. and Imperf. leg-ere, to read. 
 Perf. and Pluperf. leg-isse, to have read. 
 Future, lec-turum esse, to be about to read. 
 
 £rEBUND. 
 
 Gen. leg-endi; Dat. leg-endo; Ace. leg-endum; Abl. leg-endo. 
 
 Supine. 
 lec-tum; lec-tu. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Pres. and Imperf. leg-ens, reading. 
 Future, lec-turus, about to read. 
 
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 131 
 
 IlOJICATIVE. 
 
 Sing. Aud-io, I hear. 
 
 aud-ls. 
 
 aud-it. 
 Plur. aiid-lmm. 
 
 aud-itis. 
 
 aud-iunt. 
 
 Fourth Conjugation, 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. Aud-iam^ I may hear. 
 
 aud-ids, 
 
 avd-iat. 
 Plur. aud-iamus. 
 
 aud-iatis. 
 
 aud-iant. 
 
 Sing, aud-iebam, I heard. 
 
 aud-iehds. 
 
 aud-iebat. 
 Plur. aud-iebdmus. 
 
 aud-iebdtis. 
 
 aud-iebant. 
 
 Sing, aud'iem, I shall hear. 
 
 aud-ies. 
 
 aud-iet. 
 Plur. aud-iemus. 
 
 aud-ietis. 
 
 aud-ierU. 
 
 Sing, aud-lvi, I have heard. 
 
 aud-ivisti. 
 
 aitd-ivit. 
 
 Plur. aud-ivimus. 
 
 aud-ivistis. 
 aud-iverunt (e). 
 
 Sing, aud'iveram, I had heard. 
 
 aud-iverds. 
 
 aud-iverat. 
 Plur. aud-iverdmus. 
 
 aud-iveratis. 
 
 aud-iverant. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Sing, avd-lrem^ I might hear. 
 • aud-ires. 
 aud-iret. 
 Plur. aud-iremus. 
 aud-iretis. 
 aud-irent. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Sing, aud-iverim^ I may have heard. 
 
 aud-iveris. 
 
 avd-iverit. 
 
 Plur. aud-iverlmus. 
 
 aud-iveritis. 
 aud-iverint. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Sing, aud-ivissem, I might have heard. 
 
 aud-ivisses. 
 
 aud-ivisset. 
 Plur. avd-ivissemus. 
 
 aud-ivissetis. 
 
 aud-ivissent. 
 
 Second Future, or Future Perfect. 
 
 aud-nvero, I shall have heard. 
 
 aud-iveris. 
 
 aud-iverit. 
 
 Plur. aud-iverlmus. 
 
 aud-iveritis. 
 
 aud-iverint. 
 
 K 2 
 
132 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Impeeative. 
 Present, Sing, avd-l, hear thou. Plur. aud-ltCy hear ye. 
 
 Future, Sing, and-lto^ thou shalt hear. Plur. aud-itote^ ye shall hear. 
 
 aud-Uo, he shall hear. aud-iunto, they shall hear. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Pres. and Imperf. aud-lre, to hear. 
 
 Perf. and Pluperf. aud-ivisse, to have heard. 
 
 Future, aud-iturum esse, to be about to hear. 
 
 Gerund. 
 Gen. and-iendi ; Dat. aud-iendo ; Ace. aud-iendum ; Abl. aud-iendo. 
 
 Supine. 
 and-itum; aud-ltu. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Pres. & Imperf. aud-iens, hearing. 
 Future, aud-iiurus, about to hear. 
 
 [$ 158.] II. PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 First Conjugation, 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. Am-or, I am loved. Sing. Am-er, I may be loved. 
 
 am-dris (e). am-eris (e). 
 
 am-atur. am-etur. 
 
 Plur. am-amur. Plur. am-emur. 
 
 am-amini. am-emini. 
 
 am-antur. am-entur. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Sing, am-abar, I was loved. Sing, am-drer, I might be loved. 
 
 am-dbdris (e). am-areris (e). 
 
 am-dbatur. am-aretur. 
 
 Plur. am-abamur. Plur. am-aremur. 
 
 am-abamini. am-aremini. 
 
 am-abantur. am-arerttur. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Sing, am-abor, I shall be loved. 
 
 am-aberis (e). 
 
 am-abitur. 
 Plur. am-abimur. 
 
 am-dbimini. 
 
 am-abuntur. 
 
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 433 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 Perfect. 
 
 Sing, am-atus (a, um) sum, I Sing, am-dtus (a, urn) sim, I may 
 
 have been loved. have been loved. 
 
 am-atus es. am-dtus sis. 
 
 am-atus est. am-dtus sit. 
 
 , Plur. am-ati (ae, a) sumus. Plur. am-dti (ae, a) simus. 
 
 am-ati estis. am-dti sitis. 
 
 am-ati sunt. am-dti sint. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Sing, am-dtus (a, um) eram, I Sing, am-dtus (a, um) essem, I might 
 had been loved. have been loved. 
 
 am-dtus eras. am-dtus esses. 
 
 am-dtus erat. am-dtus esset. 
 
 Plur. am-dti (ae, a) eramus. Plur. am-dti (ae, a) essemv^. 
 
 am-dti eratis. am-dti essetis. 
 
 am-dti erant. am-dti essent. 
 
 Second Future, or Future Perfect. 
 
 Sing, am-dtus (a, um) ero, I shall have been loved. 
 
 am-dtus eris. 
 
 am-dtus erit. 
 Plur. am-dti (ae, a) erimus. 
 
 am-dti eritis. 
 
 am-dti erunt. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Present, Sing, am-are, be thou loved. Plur. am-amini, be ye loved. 
 
 Future, Sing, am-ator, thou shalt be loved. Plur. am-aww'nor, ye shall be loved. 
 am-ator, he shall be loved. am'anior, they shall be loved. 
 
 iNriNITIVE. 
 
 Pres. and Imperf. (or of a passive state still going on), am-ari, to be loved. 
 Perf. and Pluperf. (or of a state completed), am-dtum (amy um) esse, to have 
 
 been loved. 
 Future, am-dtum iri^ to be about to be loved. 
 
 Participles. * 
 
 Perfect, am-dtus, a, um, loved. 
 
 In dus (commonly called Future, or Future of Necessity), am-andus, a, um, ^ 
 deserving or requiring to be loved. 
 
1^ 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Second Conjugation. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Sing. Mon-eor^ I am advised. 
 
 mon-eris (e). 
 
 mon-etur, 
 Plur. mon-emur. 
 
 mon-emini. 
 
 mon-eniur. 
 
 Sing, mon-ebar, I was advised, 
 
 mon-ehdris (e). 
 ■ mon-ebatur. 
 Plur. mort'ebamur. 
 
 mon-ebamini. 
 
 mon-ebantur. 
 
 SUBJITNCIIVE. . 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. Mon-ear^ I may be advised. 
 mon-edris (e). 
 mon-eatur. 
 Plur. mon-eamur. 
 mon-eamini. 
 mon-eantur. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 . Sing, mon-erer^ I might be advised. 
 mon-ereris (e). 
 mon-eretur. 
 Plur. mon-eremur. 
 mon-eremini. 
 mon-erentur. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Sing. mo7i-ebor, 1 shall be advised. 
 
 mon-eberis (e). 
 
 mon-ebitur. 
 Plur. mon-ebimur. 
 
 mon-ebimini. 
 
 mon-ebuntur. 
 
 Sing, mon-itus (a, urn) sum, I 
 have been advised. 
 
 mon-itus es. 
 
 mon-itus est. 
 Plur. mon-iti (ae, a) sumus. 
 
 mon-iti estis. 
 
 mon-iti sunt. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Sing, mon-ttus (a/ um) sim, I 
 have been advised. 
 mon-itus sis. 
 mon-itus sit. 
 Plur. mon-iti (ae, a) simus. 
 mon-iti sitis. 
 mon-iti sint. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 may 
 
 Sing, mon-itus («, um) eram, 1 
 had been advised. 
 
 mon-itus eras. 
 
 mon-itus erat. 
 Plur. mon-iti (ae, a) eramus. 
 
 mon-iti eratis. 
 
 mon-iti erant. 
 
 Sing, mon-itus (a, um^ essem, I 
 should have been advised. 
 
 mon-itus esses. 
 
 mon-itus esset. 
 Plur. mon-iti (ae, a) essemus. 
 
 mon-iti essetis. • 
 
 mon-iti essent. 
 
 Second Future, or Future Perfect. 
 
 Sing, mon-itus («, urn) ero, I shall have been advised. 
 
 mon-itus eris. 
 
 mon-itus erit. 
 Plur. mon-iti (ae, a) erimus. * 
 
 mon-iti eritis. 
 
 Xnon-iti erunt. 
 
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 135 
 
 Imperative. 
 Present, Sing, mon-ere, be thou advised. Plur. mon-emini^ be ye advised. 
 
 Future, Sing, mon-etor^ thou shalt be Plur. mon-eminor, ye shall be 
 advised. . advised. 
 
 mon-etor^ he shall be, &c. mon~entor, they shall be, &c. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Pres. and Imperf. mon-eri^ to be advised. 
 
 Perf. and Pluperf. mon-itum (am^ urn) esse, to have been advised. 
 Future, mon-itum iri, to be about to be advised. 
 
 Paeticipi.es. 
 
 Perfect, mon-ttus, advised. 
 
 In dus (commonly called Future, or Future of Necessity), mon-endusy de- 
 serving or requiring to be advised. 
 
 Third Conjugation, 
 
 Indicativb. Subjunctivb. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. Leg-or, 1 am read. Sing. Leg-ar, I may be read. 
 
 leg-eris (e). " • leg-dris (e), 
 
 leg-itur. leg-atur. 
 
 Plur. leg-imur. Plur. leg-amur. 
 
 leg-imini. leg-amini. 
 
 leg-untur. leg-avtur. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Sing, leg-ebar, I was read. Sing, leg-erer, I might be read. 
 
 leg-ebdris (e). leg-ereris (e). 
 
 leg-ebatar. leg-eretur. 
 
 Plur. leg-ehamur. Plur. leg-eremur. 
 
 leg-ehamini. leg-eremini. 
 
 leg-ehantur. leg-ereniur. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Sing, leg-ar, I shall be read. 
 
 leg-eris (e). 
 
 leg-etur. 
 Plur. leg-emur. 
 
 leg-emini. 
 
 leg-entur. 
 
 Perfect.* 
 
 Sing, lec-ius (a, urn) sum, I Sing, lec-tus (a, «m) sim^ I may have 
 
 have been read. been read. 
 
 lec-tus es. lec-tus sis. 
 
 lec-tus est. lec-tus sit. 
 
 . Plur. lec-ti (ae, a) sumus. Plur. lec-U (ae, a) simus. 
 
 lec-ti estis. lec-ti sitis. 
 
 lec-ti sunt. lec-ti sint. 
 K 4 
 
136 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Sing, lec-ius (a, urn) eram^ I Sing, lec-tus (a, um) essem, I should 
 
 had been read. have been read. 
 
 lec-tus eras. lec-tus esses, 
 
 lec-tus erat. lec-tus esset. 
 
 Plur. lec-ti (ae, a) eramus. Plur. lec-ti (ae, a) essemu^. 
 
 lec-ti eratis. lec-ti essetis. 
 
 lec-ti erant. lec-ti essent. 
 
 Second Future, or Future Perfect. 
 
 Sing, lec-tus {a, um) ero, I shall have been read. 
 
 lec-tus eris. 
 
 lec-tus erit. , 
 
 Plur. lec-ti erimus. 
 
 lec-ti eritis. 
 
 lec-ti erunt. 
 
 Imperative. 
 Present, Sing, leg-ere, be thou read. Plur. leg-imini, be ye read. 
 
 Future, Sing, leg-itor, thou shalt be read. Plur. leg-iminor, ye shall be read. 
 leg-itor, he shall be read. leg-untor, they shall bei'ead. 
 
 Infinitive, 
 
 Pres. and Imperf. leg^i^ to be read. 
 
 Perf. and Pluperf. lec-tum (am, um) esse, to have been read. 
 
 Future, lec-tum iri, to be about to be read. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Perfect, lec-tus, read. 
 
 In dvs (commonly called Future, or Future of Necessity), leg-endus, de- 
 serving or requiring to be read. 
 
 Fourth Conjugation, 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. Aud-ior, I am heard. Sing. Aud-iar, I may be heard. 
 
 aud-lris (e). aud-idris (e). 
 
 aud-ltur. aud-iatur. 
 
 Plur, aud-lmur. Plur. aud-iamur. 
 
 aud-imini. aud-iamini, 
 
 aud-iuntur. aud-iantur. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Sing, aud-iebar, I was heard. Sing, aud-lrer, I might be heard. 
 
 aud-iebdris (e). aud-ireris (e). 
 
 aud- iehatur. aud-iretur. * 
 
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 137 
 
 Indicative. 
 Plur. aud-iehamur. 
 aud-iehamini. 
 aud-iehantur. 
 
 Sing, aud-iar, I shall be heard. 
 
 aud-ieris (e). 
 
 aud-ietur. 
 Plur. aud-iemur. 
 
 aud-iemini. 
 
 aud-ientur. 
 
 Sing, avd-ltus (a, urn) sum^ 
 have been heard. 
 
 avd-ltus es. 
 
 aud-ltus est. 
 Plur. aud-iti (ae, a) sumus. 
 
 atid-lti estis. 
 
 aud-Ui sunt. 
 
 Sing, aud-ltus (a, uni) eram, 
 had been heard. 
 
 aud-ltus eras. 
 
 aud-ltus erat. 
 Plur. aud-lti (ae, a) eramus. 
 
 aud-iti eratis. 
 
 aud-lti erant. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Plur. aud-iremur. 
 aud-iremini. 
 aud-irentur. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Sing, aud-ltus (a, um) sim, I may 
 have been heard. 
 aud-ltus sis. 
 aud-ltus sit. 
 Plur. aud-lti (ae, a) simus. 
 aud-lti sitis. 
 aud-lti sint. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Sing, aud-ltus (a, um) essem^ I might 
 have been heard. 
 aud-ltus esses, 
 aud-ltus esset. 
 Plur. aud-lti (ae, a) essemus. 
 aud-lti essetis. 
 aud-lti essent. 
 
 Second Future, or Future Perfect. 
 
 Sing, aud-ltus (a, urn) ero, I shall have been heard. 
 
 aud-ltus eris. 
 
 aud-ltus erit. 
 Plur. aud-lti (ae, a) erimus. 
 
 aud-lti eritis. 
 
 aud-lti eruvt. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Present, Sing, aud-lre^ be thou heard. Plur. aud-imini, be ye heard. 
 
 Future, Sing, aud-ltor^ thou shalt be heard. 'P\uY.aud-iminor,ye shall be heard. 
 aud-ltoTy he shall be heard. aud-iuvtor^ they shall be, &c. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Pres. and Imperf. aud-lri, to be heard. 
 
 Perf. and Pluperf. aud-ltum (am, um) esse, to have been heard. 
 Future, aud-ltum iri, to be about to be heard. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Perfect, aud-ltus, heard. 
 
 In dus (commonly called Future, or Future of Necessity), aud-iendus, de- 
 serving or requiring to be heard. 
 
138 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 III. DEPONENTS. 
 
 [§ 159.] With regard to conjugation the deponent differs from 
 the passive only by the fact that it has both the participles 
 of the active and of the passive voice, that is, for aU the three 
 states of an action : that in ns for an action not completed ; that 
 in usy a, um for an action completed ; and that in urus, a, um 
 for one about to take place. The fourth participle in ndus with 
 a passive signification is an irregularity, and is used only in 
 those deponents which have a transitive signification ; e. g. hor- 
 tandus, one who should be exhorted. Of deponents which have 
 an intransitive meaning, e. g. loqui^ this participle is used only 
 sometimes, chiefly in the neuter gender (often, but erroneously, 
 called the gerund), and in a somewhat different sense, e. g. 
 loquendum est, there is a necessity for speaking. It will be 
 sufficient in the following table to give the first persons of each 
 tense, for there is no difficulty, except that these verbs with a 
 passive form have an active meaning. 
 
 A. Indicative. 
 
 1st Conjug. 2d Conjug. 3d Conjug. 4th Conjug. 
 
 Present. 
 
 S. hort-or^ I ex- ver-eor, I fear. sequ-or, I follow, bland-ior, I flatter. 
 
 IIUIL. 
 
 P. hort-amur. 
 
 ver-emur. sequ-imur. 
 Imperfect. 
 
 
 bland-imur. 
 
 S. hort-abar. 
 
 ver-ebar. sequ-ebar. 
 
 
 bland-iebar. 
 
 P. hort'dbamur. 
 
 ver-ebamur. sequ-ebamur. 
 First Future. 
 
 
 bland-iebamur. 
 
 S. hort'dbor. 
 
 ver-ebor. sequ-ar. 
 
 
 bland-iar. 
 
 P. hort-abimur. 
 
 ver-ebimur. sequ-emur. 
 Perfect. 
 
 
 bland-iemur. 
 
 S. hort-atus (a, 
 
 ver-itus (a, um) secu-tus (a, 
 
 um) 
 
 bland-ltus (a, um) 
 
 um) sum. 
 
 sum. sum. 
 
 
 sum. 
 
 P. hort-ati (ae, a) 
 
 ver-iti («e, a) su- secu-ti («e, a 
 
 ) su- 
 
 bland-lti (ae, a) su- 
 
 sumus. 
 
 mus. mus. 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 
 mus. 
 
 S. hort-atus (a, 
 
 ver-itus (a, um) secu-tus (a, 
 
 um) 
 
 bland-itus (a, um) 
 
 um) eram. 
 
 eram. eram. 
 
 
 eram. 
 
 P. hort-ati (ae, a) 
 
 ver-iti (ae, a) era- secu-ti (ae, a) 
 
 era- 
 
 bland-iti (ae, a) era- 
 
 eramus. 
 
 mus. mus. 
 
 
 mus. 
 
DEPONENTS. 
 
 139 
 
 1st Conjug. 
 
 , - S. hort-atus (a, 
 um) ero. 
 P. kort-cdi (ae, a) 
 erimus. 
 
 2d Conjug. 3d Conjug. 4th Conjug. 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 ver-itus (a, um) secu-tus (a, urn) hland-itus (a, um) 
 
 ero. ero. ero. 
 
 ver-iti (ae, a) eri- secu-ti (ae, a) eri- hland-iti (ae^ a) eri- 
 
 mus. 
 
 mm. 
 
 S. hort-er. 
 P. hort-emur. 
 
 S. hort-arer. 
 P. hort-aremur. 
 
 S. hort-atus (a, 
 
 urn) sim. 
 P. hort-ati (ae, a) 
 
 B. Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 ver-ear. sequ-ar. 
 
 ver-eamur. 
 
 bland-iar. 
 hland-iamur. 
 
 S. hort-atus (a, 
 um) essem. 
 
 P. hort-ati (ae, a) 
 essemus. 
 
 sequ-amur. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 ver-erer. sequ-erer. hland-lrer. 
 
 ver-eremur. sequ-eremur, bland-iremur. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 ver-itus (a, um) secu-tus (a, um) hland-itus (a, um) 
 
 sim. sim. sim. 
 
 ver-iti (ae, a) si- secu-ti (oe, a) si- hldnd-iti (ae, a) si- 
 
 mus. mu^. mus. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 ver-itus (a, um) secu-tus (a, um) bland-itus (a, um) 
 
 essem. essem. essem. 
 
 ver-iti (ae, a) es- secu-ti (ae, a) es- hland-iti (ae, a) es- 
 
 S. 2. hort-are. 
 P. 2. hort-amini. 
 
 S. 2. hort-ator. 
 
 3. hort-ator. 
 P. 2. (is wanting, 
 
 3. hort-antor. 
 
 C. Impebative. 
 
 Present. 
 ver-ere. sequ-ere. 
 
 ver-ernini. sequ-imini. 
 
 Future. 
 ver-etor. sequ-itor. 
 
 ver-etor. sequ-itor. 
 
 but is supplied by the Future Indicative.) 
 ver-entor. sequ-untor. hland-iuntor. 
 
 bland-ire. 
 hland-imini. 
 
 bland-ltor. 
 bland-itor. 
 
 hort-ari. 
 
 hort-atum (am, 
 um) esse. 
 
 hort-aturum (am, 
 um) esse. 
 
 D. Infinitive. 
 
 Present and Imperfect. 
 ver-eri. sequ-i. bland-iri. 
 
 Perfect and Pluperfect. 
 ver-itum (am, um) secu-tum (am, um) bland-itum (am, um) 
 esse. esse. esse. 
 
 Future. 
 ver-iturum (am, secu-turum (am, bland-iturum (am, 
 um) esse. um) esse. um) esse. 
 
140 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 E. 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 
 Gen. hort-andi. 
 Dat. hort-ando. 
 Ace. hort-andwm. 
 Abl. hort-ando. 
 
 ver-endi. 
 ver-endo. 
 ver-endum. 
 ver-endo. 
 
 
 sequ-endi. 
 sequ-endo. 
 sequ-endum. 
 sequ-endo. 
 
 hland-iendi. 
 hland-iendo. 
 hland-iendum. 
 hland-iendo. 
 
 hort-ans. 
 hort-atm, a, um. 
 hort-afurus, a,um. 
 hort-andu^, a, um. 
 
 1. hort-atum. 
 
 2. hort-atu. 
 
 F. Participles. 
 Present and Imperfect. 
 ver-ens. sequ-ens. 
 
 Perfect and Pluperfect. 
 ver-itus, a, um. secH-tus, a, um. 
 
 Future. 
 ver-iturus, «, um. secu-turus, a, um. hland-iturus, a, um. 
 
 Future, with Passive Signification. 
 ver-endus, a, um. sequ-endus^a^um. hland-iendus^ a, um. 
 
 hland-iens. 
 hland-itus, a, um. 
 
 ver-itum. 
 ver-itu. 
 
 G. Supine. 
 
 secu-tum. 
 secU-tu. 
 
 hland-ltum. 
 hland-itu. 
 
 Note. The supine secutum and the participle secutus are analogous to 
 solutum and solutus, from solvo^ in pronunciation and orthography ; for the 
 consonant v, which is audible in the present sequor, is softened into the 
 vowel M, and lengthened according to the rule mentioned above, § 154. In 
 sequutum, as some persons write, the additional vowel u cannot be explained 
 in any way. The same is the case with locutum from loquor. (Comp. above, 
 § 5. in fin.) 
 
 CHAP. XLIII. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS, 
 
 [§ 160.] 1. In the terminations avi, evi, and ivi of the tenses 
 expressing a completed action, viz. of the perfect and pluperfect, 
 indicative and subjunctive, and of the future perfect, as well as 
 of the infinitive perfect active, a syncopation takes place. 
 
 a) In the first conjugation the v is dropped and the vowels a-i 
 and a-e are contracted into a long a. This is the case wherever 
 avi is followed by an s, or ave by an r ; e. g. amavisti, amdsti ; 
 amavissem, amdssem ; amavisse, amdsse ; amaverunty amdrunt ; 
 
EEMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 141 
 
 amaverim, amdrim ; amaveram, amdram ; amavero, amdrOf 
 &c. Both forms, the entire and the contracted one, are on the 
 whole of the same value, but the latter seems to be chiefly- 
 used, when the contracted vowel is followed by an s, whereas 
 the entire form was preferred in those cases where an r foUows, 
 although even in this case Livy is rather partial to the con- 
 tracted form ; e. g. vindicanmusy oppugnarimus, necarimus, ma- 
 turarimus ; in Cicero too it is not uncommon. A contracted 
 form of the verb juvare {adjuvare) occurs only in the more 
 ancient language ; e. g. adjuro for adjuvero in a verse of Ennius 
 (ap. Cic Cat. Maj. 1.). 
 
 h) The termination evi in the second and third conjugations 
 IS treated in the same manner; e. g. neo, I spin, nevi, nesti, 
 nestis, nerunt. Thus we often find compJessem, deleram, and in the 
 third conjugation consuerunt for consueverunty q^dessem, decressem, 
 decresse for decrevisse ; sins, sirit, for siveris and siverit The 
 termination ovi however is contracted only in novi, novisse, with 
 its compounds, and in the compounds of moveo, mom; e. g. 
 norunt, nOsse, cognoram, cognOro, commossem, 
 
 c) In the fourth conjugation ivi is frequently contracted be- 
 fore Sy hence instead of audivisse, audivisUy audivissem, we find 
 audisscy audistiy audisserriy and in the time of Quintilian the 
 latter forms must have been more commonly used than the 
 others. But there is another form of the tenses expressing a 
 completed action, which arises from simply throwing out the v : 
 attdiiy audiissem, audieraniy audiero. But it must be observed 
 that those forms in which two i meet are not used at all in good 
 prose (as in Cicero), except in the compounds of the verb ire (see 
 § 205.), and are foimd only here and there in poetry, as in Virgil: 
 audiit, mugiity muniity especially when the word would not 
 otherwise suit the dactylic hexameter, as for example oppetiiy 
 impediit In those forms, on the other hand, where i and e meet, 
 the V is frequently thrown out even in good prose ; e. g. audie- 
 runty desierunty definieram, quaesieram. 
 
 Note. A contraction occurs in the perfect of the first, second, and fourth 
 conjugations, when b. t or m follows ; the forms of the perfect then be- 
 come externally like those of the present tense, and can be distinguished 
 only in some cases by the length of the vowel. This contraction occurs only 
 in poetry, but not* very commonly. Some grammarians have denied it alto- 
 gether, and have endeavoured to explain such passages by supposing that 
 they contain an ejiallage, that is, an interchange of tenses ; but such a sup- 
 
142 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 position involves still greater difficulties. Priscian, in several passages, men- 
 tions the contracted forms fumdt^ audita cuplt, for fumavit, audivit, cupivit, as 
 of common occurrence, which at least supports in general the view of the 
 ancient grammarians, although it does not render an examination of the par- 
 ticular passages superfluous. We shall pass over the less decisive passages ; but 
 it for at is undeniable in petiit (in Virg. Aen. ix. 9.) ; desit (in Martial, iii. 
 75. 1., and x. 86. 4.) ; abit, obit, and perit (in Juvenal, vi. 128. 559. 295. 
 563., and x. 118.). We accordingly consider that quum edormit, in Horace 
 {Serm. ii. 3. 61.), is likewise a perfect. In the first and second conjugations 
 there are some instances which cannot be denied. To view donat in Horace 
 (^Serm. i. 2. 56.) as a present would be exceedingly forced ; but if we con- 
 sider it as a contracted perfect, it quite agrees with the construction. Com- 
 pare Terent. Adelph. iii. 3. 10. : omnem rem modo seni quo pacto haberet 
 enarramus ordine ; Propert. ii. 7. 2. : flemus uterque diu ne nos divideret. 
 Lastly, the first person in ii is found contracted into {,• Persius, iii. 97.: 
 sepeli ; Seneca, Here. Oet. 48. : redi ; Claudian, in Rujin. ii. 387. : unde redi 
 nescis. 
 
 2. Another syncopation, which frequently occurs in early 
 Latin, and is made use of even in the later poetical language of 
 Virgil and Horace, consists in the throwing out of the syllable 
 is in the perfect and pluperfect of the third conjugation after an 
 s or an x ; e. g. evasti, for evasisti ; dixti, for dixisti ; divisse, for 
 divisisse ; admisse, for admisisse ; iss too is rejected in forms like 
 surrexe, for surrexisse ; consumpse, for consumpsisse ; so also 
 ahstraxe, for abstraxisse ; abscessem, for abscessissem ; erepsemus, 
 for erepsissemusy and others. 
 
 [§161.] 3. The forms of the future perfect and of the perfect 
 subjunctive in the first conjugation in asso and assim, for avero 
 and averim ; in the second in esso and essim, for uero and uerim ; 
 and in the third in so and sim, for ero and erim, are obsolete. 
 Numerous instances of these occur in ancient forms of laws (and 
 in later imitations of such forms) and in Plautus and Terence. 
 
 Note. In this manner are formed, commonstrasso, levasso, peccasso, creas- 
 sit, cooptassit, imperassit, and many others of the first conjugation. The 
 following belong to the second : Ucessit, cohibessit, prohibessls, and ausirn. 
 Capso, capsis, capsit, capsimus, accepso, rapsit, surrepsit, occisit, incensit, 
 adempsit, axim, adaxint, taxis, ohjexim, objexis, and others, occur in the third 
 conjugation. The following forms deserve especial mention : faxo, faxim, 
 faxit, faximus (Plaut. True. i. 1. 40.), faxitis, faxint. But there is no in- 
 stance of such a syncopation in the fourth conjugation. We believe that this 
 form is to be explained by the ancient interchange of r and s (comp. § 7.) 
 and a syncopation : hence the transition would be this : levavero — levaveso — 
 levasso ; aeeepero — aceepeso — aceepso ; ademero — ademeso — adempso ; oe- 
 ciderit — occidesit — oceisit, where the d before the s is dropped, as in incen- 
 derit, incensit. The few words of the second conjugation seem to have 
 been formed in this manner, on the model of the very numerous words 
 of the third. The irregularity in forming the perfect of words of the third 
 
REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 143 
 
 conjugation (capso, accepso, faxo, and axim, instead of fexo, exim) is in 
 accordance with the ancient language : thus taxis is derived from tago^ tango^ 
 and ausim from the perfect ausi, which has fallen into disuse. The 
 form in so is acknowledged to have the meaning of a future perfect : one 
 example may suffice : Ennius ap. Cic. Cat. Maj. 1. : si quid ego adjuro (for 
 adjuvero) curamve levasso^ ecquid erit praemi ? For this and other reasons 
 we cannot adopt Madvig's view {Opusc. torn. ii. nr. 2.), that this form is a 
 future made according to the Greek fashion : levo^ levasso, like ytXaw, 
 
 A few remnants only of this formation remained in use in 
 the best period of the Latin language ; e. g. jusso for jussero in 
 Virg. Aen. xi. 467.; SLudfaxo, in the sense of " I will" or " am 
 determined to do" (see § 511.) in poetry, and in Livy, vi. 35., 
 faxo ne juvet vox ista Veto, I will take care that this word Veto 
 shall be of no avail to you. But especially the subjunctive ^a-zY, 
 faxint, expressing a solemn wish, as Cicero (in Verr, iii. 35.) says 
 in a prayer, diiimmortales faxint ; and Livy (xxix. 27.) in a 
 prayer says, dii — faxitis — auxitis; and in a subordinate sentence 
 in Horace, Serm. ii. 6. 15., oro ut faocis, and in Persius, i. 112., 
 veto quisquam faxit. Lastly ausim and ausit as a subjunctive 
 expressive of doubt or hesitation — "I might venture," — oc- 
 curs in Cicero, Brut. 5., and frequently in Livy and Tacitus. 
 From these and the numerous passages in Plautus and Terence, 
 however, it is clear that this subjunctive in sim never has the 
 signification of a perfect subjunctive, but, in accordance with 
 its formation, it retains the meaning of a future subjunctive. 
 
 Note. In the ancient Latin language we find a passive voice of this form 
 of the future ; viz. turbassitur, in a law in Cic. de Leg. iii. 4., and jussitur in 
 Cato, de Re Rust. 14., instead of turhatum fuerit and ju^sus fuerit ;. and the 
 deponent mercassitur in an inscription (Gruter, p. 512. line 20.), for mer- 
 catus fuerit. An infinitive also, with the signification of a first future active, 
 is formed from it : as in Plautus : expugnassere, impetrassere, reconciliassere ; 
 and in Lucretius (Fragm. Non. iu 218.) : depeculassere et deargentassere 
 (consequently only in verbs of the first conjugation) ; for which, in later 
 times, the circumlocution expugnaturum esse, &c. was used exclusively. 
 
 [§ 162.] 4. In the remains of the early Latin language, and 
 sometimes also in the poetical productions of the best age, tjie 
 infinitive passive is lengthened by annexing the syllable er; e. g. 
 amarier, mercarier, labier, legier, mittier; the e in the termi- 
 nation of tlie imperfect of the fourth conjugation is thrown out, 
 e. g. nutribam, leniham, sciham, largibar, for nutriebam, leniebam, 
 sciebam, largiebar, — and the future of the same conjugation 
 is formed in ibo instead of iam; e. g. scibo, servibo, for sciam, 
 
144 * LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 serviam (the two last peculiarities are retained, in ordinary 
 language, only in the verb ire) ; and lastly, the termination im 
 is used for em and am in the present subjunctive of the first and 
 third conjugations, but only in a few verbs ; e. g. edim and co- 
 medim for edam and comedam, frequently occur in Plautus ; also 
 in Cicero, ad Fam. ix. 20. in fin., and Horace, Epod, iii. 3., and 
 Serm. ii. 8. 90. Duim for dem, and perduim for perdam, from 
 duo and per duo, ancient forms of these verbs, are found also in 
 prose in forms of prayers and imprecations ; e. g. Cic. in CatiL 
 i. 9., pro Dejot 7. The same form has been preserved in the 
 irregular verb volo, with its compounds, and in sum: velim, no- 
 lim, m,alim, and sim. • 
 
 [§ 163.] 5. For the third person plural of the perfect active 
 in erunt there is in all the conjugations another form, ere, which 
 indeed does not occur at all in Nepos, and in the prose of Cicero 
 very rarely (see Cic. Orat 47., and my note on Cic. in Verr, i. 
 6.), but is very frequently used by Sallust and later writers, 
 especially by the historians, Curtius and Tacitus. In the con- 
 tracted forms of the perfect this termination cannot well be 
 used, because the third person plural of the perfect would in 
 most cases become the same as the infinitive ; e. g. if we were to 
 form : amaverunt, amarunt, amare; or deleverunt, delerunt, delere. 
 
 The vowel e, in the uncontracted termination erunt, is some- 
 times shortened by poets, as in Horace, Epist. i. 4. 7. : Di tibi 
 divitias dederunt artemque fruendi; and Virg., Aen, ii. 774. : 
 ohstupui steteruntque comae, vox faucibus haesit 
 
 [§164.] 6. The four verbs, 6?2cere, ducere, facere, 2indL ferre, 
 usually reject the e in the imperative (to avoid ambiguity): 
 hence we say die, due, fac, fer, and so also in their compounds, 
 as educ, effer, perfer, calefac, with the exception of those com- 
 pounds oi facer e which change a into i; e. g. confice, perjice, 
 Inger for ingere is rare and antiquated. 
 
 Of scire the imperative sci is not in use, and its place is sup- 
 plied by the imperative future scito. Scitote is preferred to 
 scite in order to avoid the possible confusion with scite, the ad- 
 verb, which signifies " skilfully." 
 
 Note. The imperative future of the passive voice, but more especially of 
 deponents, has some irregularities in the early language and later imitations 
 of it : a) The active form is used instead of the passive one ; thus we find 
 arbitrator amplexato^ utito^ nitito, for arbitrator, amplexator, &c. ; and censento 
 
REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 145 
 
 for censentor; utunto^ tuento, patiunto, in laws. (See CIc. de Leg. iii. 3. fol.) 
 b) In the second and third persons singular we not uncommonly find the 
 forms hortamino, veremino^ and others, for hortator^ veretor^ &c. The forms 
 antestamino^ arhitramino^ praef amino, profitemino, fruimino, and progredimino, 
 occur in Cato, Plautus, and in laAvs ; and passages of this kind have given 
 rise to the erroneous opinion that there is a second person plural in mbior^ 
 such as hortaminor. 
 
 [§165.] 7. Eespecting the quantity of the i in the terminations 
 rimus and ritis, in the future perfect and the perfect subjunctive, 
 the statements of the ancient grammarians not only differ, but 
 contradict one another. The poets use it long or short ac- 
 cording as the verse requires it ; though to judge from the 
 analogy of erimus, eritis, it seems to be naturally short. In 
 connection with this (comp. § 29.) it must be observed, that the 
 termination ris of the second person singular is used by poets 
 both long and short, as in Horace, Carm. III. 23. 3., and IV. 7. 
 20 and 21., and in the following distich of Ovid, Amor. 1. 
 4.31.: 
 
 Quae tu reddideris, ego primus pocula sumam, 
 Et qua tu biberis, hac ego parte bibam : 
 
 where however the influence of the caesura also has its effect. 
 
 [§ 166.] 8. Instead of the termination ris in the second person 
 in the passive, re is also used, and with Cicero this is the common 
 termination in the present and imperfect subjunctive, and in the 
 imperfect and future indicative, even in cases where the repe- 
 tition of the syllable re produces a disagreeable sound, as in 
 vererere, pro Quint. 16., m Verr. iii. 18.; merer ere, Divin. 18., de 
 Fin. ii. 35. In the present indicative, on the other hand, re is 
 used for ris only in the following passages : Divin. 12. in fin. 
 and in Verr. iii. 80. init. : arhitrare ; pro Ball). 18.: delectare ; 
 Philip, ii. 43.: inaugurare ; ad Fam. \\. 21. : recordare ; and 
 V. 13. : videre. Such forms as amere, moneare, loquare, audiare; 
 amarere, amahare, amahere, monerere, loquerere, &c. are of 
 common occurrence in all the conjugations. 
 
 [§ 167.] 9. The participle future passive of the third and fourth 
 conjugations (including the deponents) is formed in undus in- 
 stead of endus, especially when i precedes. In the verb potior 
 potiundus is the usual form. In other verbs it seems to have 
 been indifferent which of the two forms was used ; though 
 in some phrases, such as, injinibus dividundis or regundis, injure 
 dicundo, there seems to have been something conventional in thq 
 
 L 
 
146 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 use of these forms. We must leave it to the student's own ob- 
 servation to collect other peculiarities of this kind. Respecting 
 the verbal adjectives in hundus, see § 248. 
 
 [§ 168.] 10. This is the place to speak of what is called the 
 conjugatio periphrastica, or the conjugation by circumlocution. 
 This name is applied in general to any conjugation formed by 
 means of a participle and the auxiliary verb esse; but it is 
 usually limited to the conjugation formed by means of the two 
 participles future, in the active and passive, and of the verb 
 esse^ for a conjugation made up of the participle present and 
 esse does not occur in Latin, (e. g., amans sum would be the 
 same as «mo,) and the combinations of the participle perfect 
 passive with sum, sim, eram, essem, ero, esse, are considered as a 
 part of the ordinary conjugation of a verb in the passive voice, 
 as*for example amatus eram, which is the pluperfect passive of 
 amo. But it must be observed, that in the conjugation of the 
 passive the perfects oiesse are sometimes used instead of the above- 
 mentioned forms for an incomplete action, such as sum, eram, 
 ero, &c. Amatum fuisse, therefore, is equal to amatum esse as 
 an infinitive perfect passive ; amatus fueram is equivalent to 
 amatus eram, and amatus fuero to amatus ero. Amatus fuero, 
 in particular, is used so frequently for amatus ero, that formerly 
 it was looked upon as the ordinary future perfect passive, and 
 was marked as such in the tables of the four conjugations.* But 
 when the participle is used in the sense of an adjective, and 
 expresses a permanent state, a difference is clearly discernible ; 
 e. g. epistola scripta est, when it is a perfect tense, signifies 
 the letter has been written ; but if scripta is conceived as an 
 adjective (in contradistinction to a letter not written), the 
 meaning is, the letter is written, and epistola scripta fuit, in 
 this case, would signify, the letter has been written (has been 
 a written one), or has existed as a written one, meaning, that 
 at present it no longer exists. And this is the usual sense in 
 which fui is used with the participle perfect, e. g. Liv. xxxviii. 
 56.: Literni monumentum monumentoque statua superimposita 
 
 * We have abandoned the common practice, partly on account of the 
 analogy, and partly because the number of instances in which the regular 
 future perfect with ero occurs is so considerable that there can be no doubt 
 about it. We do not quote any passages, because this truth is now uni- 
 versally recognised. 
 
REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 147 
 
 fuit (is there no longer), quam tempestate dejectam nuper vidimus 
 
 ipsi ; Martial, i. 44. : bis tibi triceni fuimus vocati, that is, " we 
 
 were invited, but got nothing to eat:" tantum spectavimus 
 
 omnes. The passages therefore in which amatus fui is found 
 
 as an ordinary perfect in the sense of amatus sum, may be 
 
 doubted in good authors. 
 
 Note. Justin (i. 19.), however, writes : Itaque grave bellum natum, in quo 
 et diu et varia victoria proeliatum fuit (passive); Gellius (v. 10.): Sic ma- 
 gister eloquentiae confutatus est, et captionis versute excogitatae frustratus fuit 
 (passive) ; and Plautus several times in deponents ; e. g. ohlitus fui^ Poenrd. 
 Prolog. 40. ; miratus fui^ ibid. v. 6. 10. ; and other passages. 
 
 [§ 169.] But by the combination of the participle future active 
 with the tenses of esse, a really new conjugation is formed, de- 
 noting an intention to do something. This intention may 
 arise either from the person's own will, or from outward cir- 
 cumstances, so that, e. g., scripturus sum may either mean " I 
 have a mind to write, or I am to write," or " I have to write." 
 The former sense is also expressed by " I am on the point of 
 writing," or " I am about to write," and this signification is 
 carried thi'ough all the tenses of esse. 
 
 Scripturus sum, I am about to Scripturus fui, I was or have 
 
 write. been about to write. 
 
 Scripturus eram, I was about Scripturus fueram, I had been 
 
 to write. about to write. 
 
 Scripturus ero, I shall be about Scripturus fuero, I shall have 
 
 to write. been about to write. 
 
 But the last of these forms was very seldom used, and occurs 
 only in one passage of Seneca, Epist. ix. §14.: sapiens non 
 vivet si fuerit sine homine victurus, that is, if he should be 
 obliged to live without human society. The subjunctive oc- 
 curs in the same manner. 
 
 Scripturus sim, Scripturus fuerim. 
 
 Scripturus essem. Scripturus fuissem. 
 
 Scripturus sim and scripturus essem serve at the same time as 
 subjunctives to the future scribam ; but scripturus fuerim and 
 scripturus fuissem are not used as subjunctives to the future 
 perfect, scripsero. The infinitive scripturum fuisse denotes an 
 action to which a person was formerly disposed, and answers to 
 the English " I should have written," so that in hypothetical 
 
 I 
 
148 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 sentences it supplies the place of an infinitive of the pluperfect 
 subjunctive; e. g. in Sueton. Caes. 5^.'. Pollio Asinius Caesarem 
 existimat suos rescripturum et correcturum commentarios fuisse, 
 that is, that he would have re-written and corrected, if he had 
 lived longer. The infinitive with esse likewise first denotes an 
 intention: scripturum esse, to intend writing, or to be on the 
 point of writing ; but it then assumes, in ordinary language, the 
 nature of a simple infinitive future, for which reason it is in- 
 corporated in the table of conjugations. For the particulars, 
 see the Syntax, Chap. LXXYI. 
 
 Note. In the passive these gerundive tenses (tempora gerundiva), as they 
 may be called, are expressed by longer circumlocutions : in eo est, orfuturum 
 est ut epistola scribatur, the letter Is to be written, or about to be written ; 
 in eo erat, or futurum erat ut epistola scriheretur, the letter was to be written, 
 or about to be written ; in eo erit or futurum erit ut epistola scrihatur, it will 
 then be necessary for the letter to be written. 
 
 [§ 170.] The participle future passive expresses (in the nomi- 
 native) the necessity of suffering an action, and in combination 
 with the tenses of esse it likewise forms a new and complete 
 conjugation (tempora necessitatis) ; e. g. amandus sum, I must 
 be loved ; amandus eram, it was necessary for me to be loved, 
 and so on with all the tenses of esse. Its neuter combined with 
 esse and the dative of a person expresses the necessity of per- 
 forming the action on the part of that person, and may likewise 
 be carried through all the tenses, as, 
 
 mihi scrihendum est, I must mihi scrihendum fuit, I have 
 write. been obliged to write. 
 
 mihi scrihendum erat, I was mihi scrihendum fuerat, I had 
 obliged to write. been obliged to write. 
 
 mihi scrihendum erit, I shall be mihi scrihendum fuerit, I shall 
 obliged to write. have been obliged to write. 
 
 And so also in the subjunctive and infinitive : mihi scrihendum 
 esse ; mihi scrihendum fuisse. 
 
149 
 
 LIST OF VEEBS 
 
 WHICH ARE 
 
 'IRREGULAR IN TJIE FORMATION OF THEIR PERFECT 
 AND SUPINE. 
 
 CHAP. XLIV. 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 [§ 171.] The irregularity of the verbs of this conjugation consists 
 chiefly in this, that they take ui in the perfect, and itum in the 
 supine, like verbs of the second ; which i, however, is sometimes 
 thrown out. It will be seen from the following list* that some 
 verbs, in some form or other, again incline towards a regular 
 formation of their tenses. 
 
 Crepo, crepuiy crepitum, make a noise, rattle, creak. 
 ft) Compounds : concr^o, make an intense noise ; discrepo^ differ ; increpo^ 
 chide, rattle. 
 
 ibo, cuhuif cubitum, cuhare, lie. 
 
 There is some authority for the perfect cubavi^ incubam. (See Ouden- 
 dorp on Caes. B. Civ. iii. 63.) Compounds : accubo, recline at table ; ex- 
 cubo, keep watch ; incubo, lie upon ; recubo, lie upon the back ; secubo, 
 lie apart, and some others. When the compounds take an m before ft, 
 they are conjugated after the third, but keep their perfect and supine in 
 wi, itum. (See Chap. XLVUI.) 
 
 DomOf ui, itum, tame, subdue. 
 
 Eddmo and perdomo strengthen the meaning. 
 
 Sono, ui, itum, resound. (Participle sonaturus,) 
 
 Consono, agree in sound ; dissono, disagree in sound ; persono^ sound 
 through ; resono, resound. {Resonavit, Manil. v. 566.) 
 
 * It has not been the object to include in this list every irregular verb, 
 especially compounds, but those only which are necessary in good prose. 
 "When no meaning is assigned to a compound verb, it is because the sense is 
 easily discoverable from that of the root and the preposition with which it 
 is compounded. 
 
 I. 3 
 
150 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 Tono, ui, (itum), thunder. 
 
 Attono (active), strike with astonishment (participle attonitus)-^ in- 
 tonoy commonly intransitive, make a sound (participle intonatus) ; circum- 
 tono. 
 
 Veto, ui, iturriy forbid. ( Vetavit, only in Persius, V. 90.) 
 
 Mico, ui, (without supine,) dart out, glitter. 
 
 EmXco^ ui, atum, dart forth rays; but dimico, fight, makes dimicavi, 
 atum. 
 
 Frico, fricui, fricatum, and frictum, rub. 
 
 Defrico, infrico, perfrico^ refrico^ are formed in the same way. 
 
 Seco, ui, sectum, cut. (Part, secaturus.^ 
 Deseco, reseco, cut off; disseco, cut in parts. 
 
 Jicvo, Juvi, support, assist ; the supine jutum is rare (see Tac. 
 Ann. xiv. 4.) ; but the participle j2<?;a^wrM5 is found in SaUust, 
 Jug, 47. ; and Plin., Epist iv. 15. 
 
 So also the compound adjuvo, adjuvi, adjuium, in the participle adjuturus 
 (Liv. xxxiv. 37.), and adjuvaturus in Petron. 18. Frequentative, adjuto. 
 
 Lavo, idvi, lavatum, lautum, lotum, lavare, wash, or bathe, 
 which is properly lavari. 
 The infinitive lavere, whence the perfect lavi seems to come, is pre- 
 served in old Latin, and is found in poetry, e. g. Hor. Carm. iii. 12. init. : 
 mala vino lavere. 
 
 Neco, kill, is regular; but from it are formed, with the same 
 meaning, eneco, avi, atum, and enecui, enectum, both of which 
 forms are equally well established, but the participle is usually 
 enectus ; interneco has internecatus. 
 
 From Plico, fold, are formed appUco, avi, atum, and ui, itum ; 
 so explico, avi, atum, unfold, explain; implico, implicate. 
 Cicero regularly uses applicavi and explicavi ; otherwise usage 
 on the whole decides in favour of the perfect ui, and the 
 supine atum. But those derived from nouns in plex form the 
 perf. and sup. regularly : supplico, duplico, multiplico. Of 
 replico, whose perfect replicavi occurs in the vulgate, replicatus 
 only is in use (replictus is an isolated form in Statins, Silv. 
 iv. 9. 29.). 
 
 Pdto, drink, is regular, except that the supine usually, instead 
 of potatum, is potum, whence potus, which is both active and 
 passive, having been drunk, and having drunk. Compounds, 
 appotus, active ; and epotus, passive. 
 
SECOND CONJUGATION. 151 
 
 Do, dtdi, datum, dare, give. 
 
 Circumdo, surround ; pessundo., ruin ; satisdo, give security ; venundoy 
 sell ; are formed like do. The other compounds addo, condo, reddo, belong 
 to the third conjugation. (See Chap. XLVII.) From a second form duo 
 we find in early Latin the subjunctive duim, duis, duit, also in the com- 
 pounds credo and perdo — creduam and creduim^ perduim. Cic. p. Reg. 
 Dejot. 7. : di te perduint. See § 162. 
 
 Sto, steti, statum, stare, stand. 
 
 The compounds have iti in the perfect ; e. g. consto, to consist of; exsto^ 
 exist or am visible ; insto, insist ; ohsto^ hinder ; persto, persevere ; 
 praesto, surpass ; resto^ remain over and above. Only those compounded 
 with a preposition of two syllables retain eti in the perfect, viz. antesto, 
 circumsto^ intersto^ supersto. The supine, which is mentioned especially 
 on account of the participle future, does not exist in all the compounds, 
 but wherever it is found, it is dtum. The supine praestitum of praesto is 
 certain in late authors only, whereas praestaturus is frequent. Of disto, 
 the perfect and supine are wanting. 
 
 The active verbs juro and coeno have a participle with a 
 passive form, but an active signification : juratus (with the com- 
 pounds conjuratus and injuratus), one who has sworn ; and 
 coenatus, one who has dined. From the analogy of conjuratus, 
 the same active signification was afterwards given to conspiratus, 
 one who has formed a conspiracy or joined a conspiracy. 
 
 CHAP. XLV. 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 [§ 172.] The irregularity of verbs of the second conjugation 
 consists partly in their being defective in their forms, and 
 partly in their forming the perfect and supine, or one of them, 
 like verbs of the third conjugation. With regard to the 
 first irregularity, there are a great many verbs in this con- 
 jugation which have no supine, that is, which not only have no 
 ])articiple perfect passive (which cannot be a matter of surprise, 
 since their meaning does not admit of it), but also no participle 
 future active. (See § 153.) The regular form of the perfect is 
 ui, and of the supine Uum ; but it must be observed at the same 
 
 l4 
 
152 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 time that some verbs throw out the short i in the supine ; and 
 all verbs which in the present have a v before eo undergo a 
 sort of contraction, since, e. g., we find cdvi, cautum, instead 
 of cdvui, cdvitum, from caveo, but this can scarcely be considered 
 as an irregularity, since v and u was only one letter with the 
 Romans. Respecting the lengthening of the vowel in dissyllabic 
 perfects, see § 18. 
 
 We shall subjoin a list of the regular verbs of this conjugation 
 as exercises for the beginner, confining ourselves to the form 
 of the present. 
 
 Cdleo, am warm. Mereo, merit. 
 
 Inchoat. calesco. Moneo, admonish. 
 
 Cdreo, am without. Noceo^ injure. 
 
 Debeo, owe. Pdreo, obey (appear). 
 
 Doleo, feel pain. Compound : appureo^ appear. 
 
 Hdbeo, have. Pldceo, please. 
 
 Compounds : adhibeo, cohibeo, Praebeo^ offer, afford. 
 
 &c., a being changed into i. Tdceo, am silent. 
 
 Jdceo, lie. The partic. tacitus, is commonly 
 
 Liceo, am to be sold. an adjective. 
 
 Not to be confounded with the Terreo, terrify, 
 
 impersonal licet, it is permitted. Vdleo, am well. 
 See Chap. LX. 
 
 To these regular verbs Vv^e may first add those of which we 
 spoke shortly before, viz. ; 
 
 [§ 173.] a) Those which make the Perfect in vi instead of vui. 
 
 Cdveo, cdvi, cautum, cavere, take care. 
 Praecaveo, take precaution. 
 
 Connweo, nivi, or nixi (neither very common), no supine ; close 
 the eyes. 
 
 Fdveo, fdvi, fautum, am favourable. 
 
 Foveo, fovi, fotum, cherish. 
 
 Moveo, movi, motum, move. 
 
 Commdveo and permoveo strengthen the meaning ; amoveo and submoveo, 
 remove ; admoveo, bring to ; promoveo, bring forwards ; removeo, brino- 
 back, or remove. 
 
 iPdveOf pdvi, (no supine), dread. 
 
 Hence the compound inchoat. expavesco, expavi, is more commonly 
 ' used, especially in the perfect. 
 
SECOND CONJUGATION. 153 
 
 Voveo, vovi, votum, vow ; devoveo, devote with imprecation. 
 
 Ferveo, fervi, and ferbui, (no supine,) glow, am hot. 
 
 Fervit^ fervat, fervere^ after the third (comp. Virg. Georg. i. 455., with 
 Quintil. i. 6. 7.), is an archaism. The inchoatives of the third conjugation 
 effervesco, refervesco, have the perfect in vi and bui (vi is more frequent 
 in Cicero) ; in confervesco^ hui alone is known. 
 
 [§ 174.] b) Tliose which make the Perfect in evi instead ofvii. \ 
 
 DeleOi delevi, deletum, extinguish, destroy. 
 
 Fleo, Jievi, fietum^ weep. 
 
 Neo^ nevi, netum, spin. 
 
 (From Pleo), compleo, compleoi, completunii fill up ; expleOy impleo. 
 
 From oleo, grow, we have the compounds : aholeo, abolish ; aho^ 
 lesco, cease ; adoleo, adolesco, grow up ; exoleo or exolesco and 
 ohsoleo or obsolesco, grow obsolete ; all of which have evi in 
 the perfect ; but the supine of aboleo is abolitum, of adolesco, 
 adultum, and the rest have etum : exoletum, obsoletum. Be- 
 sides abolitum, however, there exist only the adjectives adultus, 
 exoletuSi obsoletus. 
 
 [§ 175.] c) Those ivhich throw out the short i iii the Supine, 
 
 Doceo, docui, doctum, teach. 
 
 Compounds : edoceo and perdoceo, strengthen the meaning ; dedoceo, 
 teach otherwise. 
 
 Teneo, tenui, {tentum, rare,) hold, keep. 
 
 Abstineo, abstain ; attineo, keep occupied by or at a thing ; contineo, 
 keep together ; detineo, keep back ; distmeo, keep asunder ; retinco, retain ; 
 sustineo, keep upright. All these have in the supine tentum. Pertineo, 
 belong to, has no supine. 
 
 Misceo, miscui, mixtum or mistum, mix. 
 
 Mixtum is better attested by MSS. than mistum. Compounds are, 
 admisceo, commisceo, immisceo, permisceo. 
 
 Torreo, torrui, tostum, roast. 
 
 To these we may add — 
 Censeo, censui, censum (participle also censltus), estimate, be- 
 lieve. 
 
 Percenseo^ enumerate, without supine. Of accenseo, reckon with, we 
 find accensus ; of succenseo, am angry, succensurus ; and recenseo, examine, 
 makes both recensum and recensltum, the latter of which is perhaps better 
 attested. 
 
154 LATIN GKAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 176.] (T) Those which make the Perfect regularly in m, hut 
 have no Supine, 
 
 ArceOf arcui, arcere, keep off. 
 
 But the compounds coerceo, coerce ; exerceo, exercise ; have a supine 
 in itum. 
 
 Calleo, have a hard skin, am skilled in (callidus), 
 
 Candeo, shine, glow {candidus), 
 
 Egeoy want. Compound, indigeo, 
 
 (From mineo)^ emmeo, stand forth. 
 
 Floreo, flourish. 
 
 FrondeO) have foliage ; effrondui. 
 
 Horreo, shudder, am horrified Qiorridus), 
 
 Compounds : abhorreo, and a number of inchoatives, as horresco^ per' 
 horresco. 
 
 Langueo, am languid (languidus), 
 
 Lateo, am concealed. 
 
 Compounds : interlateo, perlateo^ suUateo. 
 
 Madeo, am wet (madidus). 
 
 NiteOi shine (nitidus). 
 
 Compounds : eniteo, interniteo, praeniteo. 
 
 Oleo, smell. 
 
 Compounds : dboleo and redoleo^ have the smell of; suholeOj smell a 
 little. 
 
 PalleOy am pale. 
 
 Pdteo, am open. 
 
 Rigeo, am stiff (rigidus). 
 
 Rubeo, am red (ruhidus), 
 
 StleOf am silent. 
 
 Sorheo, sorbui, sip. 
 
 Perf. sorpsij very rare. Compounds : ahsorheo and exsorheo. 
 
 Sordeo, am dirty (sordidus), 
 
 Splendeo, am splendid {splendidus). 
 
 Studeo, endeavour, study. 
 
 StupeOy am startled, astonished (stupidus). 
 
SECOND CONJUGATION. 155 
 
 TtmeOf fear (timidus), 
 
 Torpeo, am torpid. 
 
 Tumeoy swell, am swollen (tumidus). 
 
 Vigeo, am animated. 
 
 Vireo, am green or flourish. 
 
 Besides these, there is a number of similar verbs which are 
 derived from adjectives, and occur more rarely, and chiefly in 
 the form of inchoatives, for the Latin language has great 
 freedom in the formation of these intransitive verbs and in that 
 of inchoatives either with or without a primary form. Compare 
 Chap. LII. 
 
 The following are really irregular verbs, and follow the ana- 
 logy of the third conjugation : — 
 
 [§ 177.] 1. Verbs which make the Perfect in si and the Supine 
 
 in sum. 
 Ardeo, arsi, arsum, ardere, bum. 
 
 Haereo, haesi, haesum, cleave. 
 
 Compounds : adhaereo, cohaereo, inJiaereo. 
 
 Jiibeo, jussi, jussum, command. 
 
 Mdneo, mansi, mansum^ remain. (But mdno, as, flow). 
 Permaneo {permanes)^ wait ; remaneo, remain behind. 
 
 Mulceo, mulsi, midsum, stroke, caress. 
 
 The compounds demulceo and pemiulceo strengthen the meaning. The 
 participle permvlsus is certain, but demvlctus and permvlctus likewise 
 occur. 
 
 Mulgeo, mulsi, mulsum, milk. 
 
 Participle comp. emulsus. The derivative nouns mulctus^ us, the milk- 
 ing, mulctra, and mulctrale, show that formerly mulctum also existed. 
 
 Rideo, risi, risum, laugh. 
 
 Compounds : arrideo (arrldes), smile upon or please : derideo and 
 irrideo, laugh at, scorn ; sitbrideo^ smile. 
 
 Suadeo, suasi, suasum, advise. 
 
 Disstiadeo, dissuade ; persuadeo, persuade ; but, like suadeo, with the 
 dative. 
 
 Tergeo, tersi, tersum, tergere, wipe ; is used also as a verb of the 
 third conjugation : tergo, tersi, tersum, tergere, 
 Cicero uses tergo more frequently as a verb of the thu"d conjugation, 
 
156 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 whereas the compounds abstergeo, detergeo^ extergeo^ incline more towards 
 the second (abstergebo, Cic. ad.Q. Frat. ii. 10.), although in these com- 
 pounds too the forms of the third are not uncommon. 
 
 Of denseo, the ancient and poetical form for denso, densare, 
 condense (see Bentley on Horace, Carm. i. 28. 19.), the perfect 
 densi is mentioned by the grammarians, and the existence of a 
 supine is attested by the adjective densus, 
 
 [§ 178.] 2. Verbs which make the Perfect in si, but have no 
 
 Supine, 
 
 Algeo, aisi, algere, shiver with cold. 
 
 The supine is wanting, but from it is derived the adjective alsus^ a, wm, 
 cold. 
 
 FulgeOi fulsi, fulgere, shine, am bright. {Fulgere is poetical, 
 but occurs also in Livy, xxxiv. 3.) 
 
 Turgeo, tursi (rare), swell. 
 
 Urgeo or urgueo, ursi, press. 
 
 3. Verbs with the Perfect in si and the Supine in turn. 
 
 Indulgeo, indulsi, indultum, indulge. 
 
 TorqueOf torsi, tortum, twist. 
 
 Compounds : contorqueo, twist together ; distorqueo, twist away ; extor- 
 queo, wrest out or from. 
 
 4. Verbs with the Perfect in xi a7id the Supine in turn. 
 Augeo, auxi, auctum, increase. 
 
 Luceo, luxij lucere, shine ; has no supine. 
 Lugeo, luxi, lugere, mourn ; has no supine. 
 Frigeo, frixi, frigere, am cold ; has no supine. 
 
 [§179.] 5. Verbs with the Perfect in i, and the Supine in sum. 
 
 Prandeo, prandi, pransum, dine. The participle pransus has an 
 active signification : one who has dined. 
 
 Sedeo, sedi, sessum, sit. 
 
 Assideo (assides), sit by ; desideo^ sit down ; circumsedeo or circumsideo, 
 surround ; insideo, sit upon ; supersedeo, do without ; possideo, possess ; 
 dissideo, dissent ; praesideo, preside ; resideo, settle down. The last three 
 have no supine. 
 
SECOND CONJUGATION. . 157 
 
 Video, vidi, visum, see. 
 
 Invideo (invides)^ envy, alicui ; pervideo, see through ; praevidec 
 see ; provideo, provide. y^t/^Jt. L I B ^(~A 
 
 Strideo, stridi, without supine. In poetry stridere,^ V* of the 
 
 „UinTBRSl 
 
 6. Verbs with a Reduplication in the Peijj^,^ ^^ 
 
 Mordeo, momordi, morsum, bite. ^^S^*^F-Q**^^ 
 
 Pendeo, pependi, pensum, am suspended. 
 
 Dependeo, depend, and impendeo, soar above, am impending, lose the 
 reduplication. 
 
 Spondeo, spospondi, sponsum, vow. 
 
 Despondeo, despondi, promise ; respondeo, respondi, answer, are likewise 
 without the reduplication. 
 
 Tondeo, totondi, tonsum, shear. 
 
 The compounds lose the reduplication, as attondeo, detondeo. 
 
 [§ 180.] 7. Verbs without Perfect and Supine, 
 
 Aveo, desire. Compare Chap. LIX. 9. 
 
 Calveo, am bald {calvus). 
 
 Cdneo, am grey (canus), 
 
 Clueo (also in the passive clueor, and after the third conju- 
 gation, duo, clutre), am called, is obsolete. 
 
 Fldveo, am yellow (Jlavus), 
 
 Foeteo, stink (foetidus). 
 
 Hebeo, am dull, stupid (Jiebes), 
 
 Humeo, am damp {humidus), 
 
 Liveo, am pale or envious (lividus), 
 
 (Mineo) immineo, to be imminent, threatening. Promineo, am 
 
 prominent. 
 Maereo, moui'n (maestus), 
 Polleo, am strong. 
 Renideo, shine, smile. 
 Scateo, gush forth {Scatere in Lucretius). 
 Squdleo, am dirty (^squalidus). 
 Vegeo, am gay (vegetus). 
 
158 LATIN GRAMMAE. 
 
 Cieo, ciere, is the same word as the rare and obsolete cio, cire, 
 stir up ; both make the perfect cwiy according to the fourth 
 conjugation ; in the supine they differ in quantity, cieo making 
 citum, and cio, citum. 
 
 Note. In the compounds too, e. g. concieo, excieo, the forms of the 
 second and fourth conjugation cannot be separated 5 but we must observe, 
 that in the signification of " to call," the forms of the fourth are preferred, 
 e. g. imperf. cibam, cirem ; infinit. ciri ; the participles concitus and excitus 
 signify " excited ;" whereas excitus means " called out." Percieo and incieo 
 retain the signification of " to excite," hence percitus and incitus ; but acclre^ 
 to call towards, summon or invite (of which the present indicative does not 
 occur), has only accltus. Derived from citum are : cito, quick ; the fre- 
 quentative citfire, and hence excito, incito, and suscito, 
 
 [§ 181.] 8. Semideponejits. (See above § 148.) 
 
 Audeo, ausus sum, venture. (Partic. future ausurus.') 
 
 The ancient future subjunctive (see § 162.) ausim, ausis, ausit, ausint, is 
 a remnant of the obsolete perfect au^i. The participle ausus, and its com- 
 pound inausus, are used in poetical language with a passive signification. 
 
 Gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice. (Partic. fut. gavisurus.) 
 
 Soleo, soUtus sum, am accustomed (to do something). 
 
 The impersonal compound assolet, signifies " it usually happens." 
 
 CHAP. XL VI. 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 In the list of verbs of this conjugation it seems to be still more 
 necessary, than in the preceding one, to include those verbs 
 which, according to Chapter XL., form their perfect and 
 supine regularly. We divide them into several classes ac- 
 cording to the characteristic letter which precedes the in the 
 present, agreeably to the method which has long since been 
 adopted in Greek grammars. 
 
 [§ 182.] 1. Verbs lohich have a Vowel before o including those 
 
 in vo. 
 
 The following have the Perfect and Supine regular : 
 
 Aciio, aciii, acutum, sharpen. 
 
 Exacuo and peracuo, strengthen the meaning ; praeacuo, sharpen at the 
 end. 
 
 I 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION. 159 
 
 Arguo, accuse, convict of (perf. passive in the latter sense 
 usually convictuSf from convincere.) Argutus as an adjective 
 signifies " clear." 
 Coarguo^ the same ; redarguo, refute a charge. 
 
 Imbuo, to dip, imbue. 
 
 Induo, put on ; exuo, strip off. 
 
 Liio (participle luiturus), pay, atone for. 
 
 Ahluo and eZwo, wash off; polluo, defile ; dihio^ refute, are derived from 
 another luo (lavo), and all make the supine in lutum. 
 
 MinuOf lessen. 
 
 Comminuo, deminuo, diminuo^ imminuo, strengthen the meaning. 
 
 (^Nuo, nod, does not occur ; from it are formed) 
 
 Ahnuo^ refuse ; annuo, assent ; innuo, allude, or refer to ; renuo, decline ; 
 all of which have no supine ; dbnuo alone has a participle future, abnui- 
 turns. 
 
 Ruo (supine ruitum, ruiturus at least is derived from it ; rutum 
 occurs only in compounds, and is otherwise obsolete), fall. 
 
 Diriio, dirui, dirutum, destroy ; obruo, overwhelm ; pronto, rush for- 
 wards. Corruo, fall down ; and irruo, rush on, have no supine. 
 
 Spuo, spit. 
 
 Conspuo, spit on ; despuo, reject with disgust. 
 
 Statuo, establish. 
 
 Constituo and instituo, institute ; restituo, re-establish ; suhstituo, establish 
 instead of; destituo, abandon. 
 
 Sternuo, sneeze (without supine) ; the frequentative sternuto is 
 more commonly used. 
 
 Suo, sew. 
 
 Consuo, sew together ; dissuo and resuo, unsew. 
 
 Tribuo, allot to. 
 
 Attribuo, the same ; distrihuo, divide ; contrihuo, contribute. 
 
 Solvo, solvi, solutum, loosen. 
 
 Absolvo, acquit ; dissolvo, dissolve ; exsolvo, release ; persolvo, pay. 
 
 Volvo, roll (frequentative voluto). 
 
 Evolvo, unroll ; involvo, roll up ; pervolvo, read through. 
 
 The following are without a Supine : 
 
 Congruo, congrui, agree, and ingruo, penetrate. The simple 
 verb {gruo or ruo ?) does not exist. 
 
160 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 MetuOf metui, fear. ( Timeo likewise without supine.) So Pris- 
 cian. But metutum occurs in Lucret. v. 1139. 
 
 Pluo^ pluvi, usually impersonal, it rains. Priscian knows only 
 the perfect plui, which often occurs in Livy. Charisius men- 
 tions pluxi, Impluvi or implui are doubtful. The comp. 
 compluo and perpluo do not occur in the perfect. 
 
 The following are irregular : 
 
 [§ 183.] Capio, cepi, captum, capere, take hold of. 
 
 The compounds change a into f, and in the supine a into e, except ante- 
 capio. Accipio, receive ; excipio^ receive as a guest, succeed ; recipio^ 
 recover ; suscipio, undertake ; decipio, deceive ; pei^cipio^ comprehend ; 
 praecipio, give a precept. 
 
 Fdcio, feci, factum f do, make. 
 
 Arefacio, dry up ; assuefacio and consuefacio^ accustom ; calefacio and 
 tepefacio, warm ; frigefacio, cool ; lahefacio^ make to totter ; patefacio^ 
 open ; satisfacio, satisfy. These have in the passive -fo, -/actus sum, 
 'fieri. But those which change a into i form their own passive in -ficior, 
 and make the supine in -fectum : officio, affect ; conficio and perficio, com- 
 plete ; deficio, fall off, am wanting ; interficio, kill ; proficio, make pro- 
 gress ; reficio, revive, repair; officio, stand in the way, injure. Cotifit, 
 confieri, however, is used as a passive of conficio, but only in the third 
 person, and not by Cicero. Defit, it is wanting, is common in the comic 
 writers. 
 
 Other compounds of facio follow the first conjugation : amplifico, sacri- 
 fico, and the deponents gratificor, ludificor. 
 
 Jdcio, jeci, jactum, throw. 
 
 The compounds change d into i, and in the supine into e, except super- 
 jacio, of which, however, superjectum also is found. Abjicio, throw away ; 
 adjicio, add ; dejicio, throw down ; ejicio, throw out ; injicio, throw in ; 
 ohjicio, throw against ; rejicio, throw back ; transjicio or trajicio, throw or 
 carry across. These compounds are sometimes found with i instead of ji : 
 abicere, inicei^e, reicere (in the last ei is a diphthong in Virg. Mel. iii. 96. : 
 a flumine reice capellas) ; and this pronunciation was with the ancients 
 much more frequent, or perhaps the common one, for in MSS. it is 
 written so almost everywhere ; and Priscian mentions a form icio as syno- 
 nymous with jacio. No certain conclusion, however, can be come to, as 
 the most ancient MSS., such as the Codex Mediceus of Virgil, have a 
 simple i where the length of the preceding syllable shows the existence of 
 the consonant/. 
 
 [§ 184.] The following have a; in the Perfect : 
 
 (From the obsolete lacio, entice, of w^hich lacto is the fre- 
 quentative), allicio, exif ectum, allure ; illicio, entice in ; pellicio, 
 lead astray ; but elicio makes elicui, elicHum, draw out. 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION. 161 
 
 (From specio, xi, ctum, see, of which the frequentative is 
 specto) aspicio, exi, ectum, look on ; conspicio, the same ; 
 despicio, look down, despise; dispicio and perspicio, under- 
 stand ; inspiciOf look into ; respicio, look back ; suspicio, look 
 up, reverence. 
 Fhio, Jluxi, Jluctum, flow. 
 
 Affiuo, flow in ; conflm)^ flow together ; effluo^ flow out ; interfluo^ flow 
 between. 
 
 Struo, struxif structum, build, pile. 
 
 Construo and exstruo, build up ; destruo^ pull down ; instrvx)^ set in 
 order. 
 
 Vivo, vixi, victum, live. 
 
 [§ 185.] Other Irregularities. 
 
 FodiOf fodi, fossum, dig. 
 
 JEffodio, dig out ; confodio and perfodio^ dig, pierce through ; suffodio, 
 undermine. 
 
 Fugio, fugi, fugitum, flee. 
 
 Aufugio and effugio, flee away, escape ; confugio and perfvgio^ take 
 refuge. 
 
 Ciipio. -wi, -ttum, desire. 
 
 Discupio, percupio, strengthen the meaning. Concupio only in the 
 participle concupiens, otherwise concupisco. 
 
 Rdpio, rapuii raptum, rob, snatch. 
 
 Arripio, arripui, arreptum^ seize ; abripio and eripio, snatch away ; 
 deripio, plunder ; surripio, steal clandestinely. 
 
 FdriOf peperi, par turn, bring forth. (But the particip. fut. act. 
 pariturus.) Lucretius has pariri. 
 
 Qudtio (quassi is not found), quassum, shake. 
 
 Conditio, ussi, ussum, shake violently ; discutio, shake asunder ; excvMo, 
 shake out, off (fig. examine) ; incutio, drive into ; percutio, strike ; reper- 
 cutio, rebound. 
 
 Sdpio, ivi and ui, (no supine,) am wise. 
 
 Desipio (without perfect), am foolish ; resipio, have a taste of, or become 
 wise again. 
 
 (From the obsolete present coepio,) coepi and coeptus sum, coe^ 
 ptum, (coepere^ have begun. See § 221. 
 
 ^i 
 
IQ& LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAP. XLVII. 
 
 [§ 186.] 2. VERBS IN DO AND TO. 
 
 The following are regular : 
 
 Claudo, clausi, clausum, claudere, close. 
 
 Concludo, shut up, conclude ; excludo and sedudo, shut out ; includo ; 
 shut in, are all derived from a form cludo which is still in use. 
 
 Divido, divisi) divisum, divide. 
 
 Laedo, injure. 
 
 AUldo, strike against; illido, strike upon; coUido, strike together; elido, 
 strike out. 
 
 Ludo, sport. 
 
 Colludo^ play with ; allildo, play upon ; elvdo, deludo, and illvdo, ridicule. 
 
 Plaudo, si) sum, clap. 
 
 Applaudo^ applaud. The other compounds (with a different pro- 
 nunciation) have -o6?o, -osz, -osum; as explodo, explode; complodo, clap the 
 hands ; supplodo^ stamp with the feet. 
 
 RddO) shave, scrape ; so in ahrddo, circumrddo, derddo, erddo ; 
 corrddo, scrape together. 
 
 Rodo, gnaw. 
 
 Abrodo and derodo^ gnaw off; arrodo^ nibble; circumrodo, nibble all 
 round ; perrodo, gnaw through. 
 
 . Trudo, thrust, with its compounds : detrudo, thrust down ; 
 extrudoy thrust out ; protrudo, thrust forwards. 
 
 Vddo (no perfect or supine), go. 
 
 But evddo, evasi, evasum^ escape ; invado, attack ; pervado, go through. 
 
 [§ 187.] The following are irregular : 
 
 a) With a Reduplication in the Perfect 
 
 Cddo, cecidi, cdsum, fall. 
 
 Of the compounds, these have a supine : incido, incidi, incdsum, fall in 
 or upon ; occido, set ; recido, fall back. The rest have none : concido, 
 sink together; c^ecz^Zo, fall down ; excido, fall out of; accidit, it happens 
 (used most commonly of a misfortune). 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION. 163 
 
 Caedoy cecidi, caesum, cut. 
 
 Abscldo, ahscldiy absclsum, cut. off; concldo, cut to pieces; incido, cut 
 into ; occldo, kill ; recldOi cut away. So decldo, excldo, praecldo, and 
 others. 
 
 Pedo, pepedi, (^peditum,) irsphsaOai, 
 
 Pendo, pependi, pensum, weigh. 
 
 Appendo, appendix appensum^ weigh out to; expendo^ spend, also con- 
 sider, like perpendo ; suspendo^ hang from; dependo, T^a.y; impendo^ employ 
 upon or in something. See § 179. 
 
 Tendo, tetendi, tensum and tentum, stretch. 
 
 Extendo, ostendo, protendo, and retendo, have both supines ; but ex- and 
 protentum are more frequent ; but ostensum. Retentus is found only in 
 Ovid, Metam. iii. 166., retensus only in Phaedrus, iii. 14. 5. Detendo has 
 detenstis, in Caes. B. C. iii. 85. ; this participle does not elsewhere occur. The 
 other compounds have only turn in the supine : attendo (sc. animuni), attend ; 
 contendo (sc. me), strive ; distendo, separate, or enlarge by stretching ; 
 intendo, strain ; ohtendo and praetendo, commonly used in the figurative 
 sense of alleging ; subtendo, stretch beneath. 
 
 TundOf tutiidi, tunsum and tusum, beat, pound. 
 
 The compounds have only tusum; contundo, contudij contusum, pound 
 small ; extundo^ (figurative) elaborate ; obtundo and retundo^ blunt. 
 
 Credo, credidi, creditum, believe. 
 Accredo, accredidi, give credit to. 
 
 The compounds of do, except those mentioned in § 171. 
 
 Condo, coTididi^ conditum^ build, conceal ; abdo, abdidi^ hide. So addo, 
 add ; dedo^ give up ; edo^ give out, publish ; perdo^ ruin, lose ; reddo^ give 
 back, render, with an adjective of quality ; trado^ deliver ; vendo, sell. 
 (The passive vendi, except the participles venditus and vendendus, is rare, 
 and occurs only in late writers; venire is used instead. See § 215. But 
 abscondo appears in the perfect more frequently without the reduplication, 
 abscondi, than with it, abscondidi.) 
 
 [§ 188.] b) Making di in the Perfect, and sum in the 
 Supine. 
 
 Accendo, incendo, succendo, -cendi, -censum, light, kindle. 
 
 CUdo, forge. 
 
 Excudo dioA procudo^ fashion, hammer out. 
 
 Defendo, defend, ward off. 
 
 Edo, eat. See § 212. 
 
 Exedo and comedo^ -edi, -esum, (but also comestuSf) consume. Ibid. 
 
 U 2 
 
164 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Mando (perfect very rare), chew. 
 
 Offendo, ofFend. 
 
 Prehendo, seize ; in early times frequently contracted into 
 
 prendo, ^ /A ^''^ 
 
 Apprehendo, comprehendo, lay hold of, (figurative) understand ; depre- 
 
 kendo, detect, seize in the fact ; reprehendo, blame. 
 
 ScandOi climb. 
 
 Ascendo and escendo, climb up ; descendo, descend ; conscendo and in- 
 scendoj mount, embark. 
 
 Strido (also strideo), stridi (no supine), grate, make a harsh 
 noise. 
 
 Fundo, fudi, fusum^ pour, 
 
 Diffando^ pour out, spread abroad ; offundo^ pour over ; profunda^ waste ; 
 affundo^ confundo, effundo^ infundo. 
 
 [§ 189.] c) Other Irregularities, especially that of a double s in 
 
 the Supine. 
 
 Cedo, cessi, cessum, yield, go. 
 
 Abscedo, go away ; accedo, go to ; antecedo, surpass ; concedo, give way ; 
 decedo, go away ; discedo, separate myself ; excedo, go out ; incedo, march ; 
 intercedo, come between, interpose ; recedo, retreat ; succedo, come into 
 one's place. 
 
 Findoyfidiyfissum, split. 
 
 Diffindo, diffidi^ split asunder. 
 
 Scindo, scidi, scissum, cut. 
 
 Conscindo, conscidi, conscissum, tear to pieces ; e. g. vestem, epistolam ; 
 discindo, interscindo (e. g. pontem)^ perscindo^ and proscindo have similar 
 meanings. Rescindo, annul. Respecting the forms of abscindo, cut off, 
 and exscindo, destroy, there is considerable doubt. According to Gro- 
 novius on Livy, xliv. 5., and Drakenborch on Silius Ital. xv. 473., two 
 analogous formations are now generally distinguished : abscindo, abscidi, 
 abscissum, and exscindo, excidi, excissum ; and abscissum and excissum are 
 said to occur where the present is abscindo, exscindo ; but absclsum and 
 excisum, where abscldo and excldo are derived from caedo. But this sup- 
 position is contradicted by usage ; for we find, e. g., urbes excises, although 
 exscindere urbem is a frequent expression ; and all the MSS. of Horace, 
 Serm. ii. 3. 303., have caput absclsum, although we may say abscindere 
 caput. In short, our opinion is that the forms abscissum and exscissum do 
 not exist at all, because, in pronunciation, they are the same as absclsum 
 and excisum, from abscidere and excidere, whose signification is not very 
 different ; and, moreover, that the perfect exsctdi also is not founded on 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION. 165 
 
 any autliorlty, since the s by which it is distinguished is not heard in 
 pronunciation, and is better not introduced in writing. Respecting the 
 pronunciation and orthography, see § 6. and Chap. LXVI. Thus there 
 remain only abscindo, absctdi^ abscindere^ and excindo^ excindere. 
 
 Frendo (the perfect does not occur), fressum and fresum, gnash 
 with the teeth ; also frendeo, frendere. 
 
 Meto, messui, messy m, cut, reap. 
 
 JDemeto, cut off. The perfects messui and demessui are not common ; in 
 the sense of reaping, messemfeci is more commonly used. 
 
 Mitto, misi, missum, send. 
 
 Admitto, admit, commit ; amitto, lose ; committo, intrust, commit a fault ; 
 demitto and dimitto, dismiss ; emitto^ send forth ; immitto, send in, against ; 
 intermitto^ omit ; omitto and praetermitto^ leave out ; permitto, permit ; pro- 
 mitto, promise ; remitto, send back ; submitto, send up, send aid. 
 
 Pando, pandi, passum {jpansum rare), spread abroad. 
 
 Expando has expansum and expassum ; dispando only dispansum. 
 
 Peto, petlvi (in poetry, especially in compounds, petii), petitum, 
 ask, seek. 
 
 Appeto and expeto, strive for ; oppeto, encounter ; repeto, repeat, seek 
 again ; competo, meet together, correspond. 
 
 Sldo (the perfect and supine usually from sedeo), sit down. 
 
 The compounds, too, usually take the perfect and supine from sedco : 
 consido, consedi, consessum ; so assido, seat myself beside ; subsido, sink ; 
 insido, sit upon; desido and reside, seat myself down. But the form 
 sldi cannot be entirely denied, either in the simple verb or its com- 
 pounds. 
 
 SistOf stUi (obsolete), stdtum, stop (whence status), but sisto, 
 in a neutral sense, makes the perfect and supine from 
 stare. 
 
 The compounds are all intransitive, and have stiti, stitum; subsisto, sub- 
 stiti, substitum, stand still ; absisto (no supine) and desisto, desist ; assisto, 
 place myself beside ; consisto, halt, consist ; existo, come forth (perf, exist) ; 
 insisto, tread upon ; obsisto and resisto, resist ; persisto, persist. Those com- 
 pounded with dissyllabic prepositions may make the perfect in steti, e. g. 
 circumsteti in Suet. Caes. 82. ; Tacit. Ann. xiii. 52. 
 
 Sterto, stertui, (no supine,) snore : the perf. sterti rests on the 
 authority of the old reading in Ov. Her. viii. 21. 
 
 Verto, verti, versum, turn. 
 
 Adverto and converto, turn towards ; animadverto (animum adverto), turn 
 attention to; averto, turn from; everto, destroy; perverto and subvertOy 
 overturn. 
 
 Devirto, turn in to a house of entertainment ; praeverto, anticipate ; and 
 
 M 3 
 
166 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 revertOj turn back; are used in the present, imperfect, and future as 
 deponents more commonly than as actives. 
 
 Fido,fisus sum,Jidere, trust. 
 
 So confldo, confide ; diffldo^ distrust ; which have rarely confUi^ diffidi, 
 in the perfect. 
 
 CHAP. XL VIII. 
 
 [§ 190.] 3. VERBS IN BO AND PO. 
 
 Regular are : 
 
 Glubo (jfflupsi), gluptum (at least degluptum is found), glubere, 
 peel. 
 
 Nuho, cover, am married (applied only to the female), participle 
 nupta, one who is married. 
 Obnubo, cover over. 
 
 Scribo, write. 
 
 Descrtbo^ copy ; adscribo, inscribo, praescriboy &c. 
 
 Carpo, pluck. 
 
 Concerpo and discerpo^ tear asunder ; decerpo^ gather. 
 
 Repo, creep. 
 
 Arrepo, creep up to ; irrepo, obrepo, subrepo, prorepo. 
 
 Scalpo, grave with a pointed tool, or scratch with the finger. 
 
 Sculpo, work with the chisel. 
 
 ExcdpOy cut out ; imcidpo, engrave. 
 
 Serpo, creep. The supine has not yet been found. 
 
 Inserpo, proserpo. 
 
 [§191.] The following are irregular: 
 
 The compounds of cubare, to lie, which take an m with a change 
 
 of meaning ; those which do not change the simple cubare, 
 
 denote * to lie ; ' the compounds of the 3d Conjugation 
 
 commonly signify * to lay oneself down.' ^ 
 
 Accumbo, -cubui, -cubitum, recline at table ; incumbo, lean upon, apply to 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION. 167 
 
 something; procumbo^ lie down; succumbo, fall under; occumbo (suppl. 
 mortem), die. 
 
 Bibo, btbi, bibiturriy drink. 
 
 JEbibo, imbibo. 
 
 Lambo, Iambi, {lambitum, Priscian,) lambere, lick. 
 
 Rumpo, rupi, ruptum, break, tear. 
 
 Abrumpo, break off; erumpo, break out ; corrumpo, destroy ; interrumpo, 
 interrupt ; irrumpo, break in ; perrumpo, break through ; prorumpo, break 
 forth. 
 
 Scaboy scabi, scabere, scratch with the finger. 
 
 Strepo, strepui, strepitum, make a noise. 
 
 CHAP. XLIX. 
 
 \ 
 
 [§ 192.] 4. VERBS WITH A PALATAL LETTER, G, C, CT, H, 
 QU, AND GU (in WHICH U IS NOT CONSIDERED AS A 
 
 vowel), before 0. 
 
 Regular are : 
 
 CingOf cinxi, cinctum, cingere, gird, surround. 
 
 Accingo, in the passive, or me, has the same meaning ; discingo, ungird ; 
 and others. 
 
 Yrom JltgOf which rarely occurs, are formed : 
 
 Affligo, strike to the ground ; confiigo, fight ; infligo, strike upon. Pro- 
 fligo belongs to the first conjugation. 
 
 Frigo (supine regular, /Wc^mtw, rarely yhxMw), roast, parch. 
 
 Jungo, Join. 
 
 Adjungo and conjungo, join to, with ; disjungo and sejungo, separate ; 
 suhjuvgo, annex. 
 
 Lingo, lick. (Hence ligUrio or ligurrio.) 
 Mungo, blow the nose (rare) ; emungo, 
 Plango, beat, lament. 
 
 Rego, rule, guide. 
 
 iArrigo, arrexi, arrectum, and erigo, raise on high; corrigo, amend; 
 dirigo, direct ; porrigo, stretch out. Pergo (for perrigo), perrexi, per- 
 I 
 
168 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 rectum, go on; surgo (for surrigo), surrexi, surrectum, rise; and hence 
 assurgo, consurgo, exurgo, insurgo. 
 
 Sugo, suck, exugo, 
 
 Tego, cover. 
 
 Contego and obtego, cover up ; detego and retego, uncover ; protego, 
 protect. 
 
 Tingo or tinguo, dip, dye. 
 
 Ungo or unguo, anoint. 
 
 Perungo, strengthens the meaning ; inungo, anoint. 
 
 Stinguo, put out (has no perfect or supine, and is of rare occur- 
 rence). 
 
 Compounds : extinguo, and restinguo, -inxi, -inctum ; so distinguo and 
 instinguo, though from a different root, the Greek anXw. Only the par- 
 ticiple instinctus is used in the sense of ' spurred on, inspired,' and no other 
 tense is found (otherwise instlgare is used). 
 
 Traho, draw. 
 
 Pertraho strengthens the meaning; attraho, contraho, detraho, extraho, 
 proiraho, retraho; subtraJio, witlidraw secretly. 
 
 Veho, carry (active) ; frequent, vecto, -as, 
 
 Adveho., carry to; inveho, carry or bring in. The passive of this verb 
 veJior, vectus sum, vehi, is best rendered by a neuter verb of motion. So 
 circumvehor, travel round ; praetervehor, sail past ; invehor, inveigh against 
 These verbs therefore are classed among the deponents. 
 
 Dico, say. 
 
 Addico, adjudge; contradico, edico, indico; inierdico, forbid; praedico. 
 
 Duco, guide, lead, draw. 
 
 Ahduco, adduco, circumduco ; conduco, hire ; deduco, diduco, educo, induce, 
 introduco, obduco, perduco, produce, reduco ; seduco, lead aside ; subduco, 
 traduco. 
 
 Coquo, coxi, coctum, dress. 
 
 Concoqua, digest; decoquo, boil down, squander. 
 
 [§ 193.] Irregular in the Supine, throwing out n, or 
 assuming x. 
 
 Fingo, Jinxi, Jictum, feign. 
 
 Confingo, the same; affingo, falsely ascribe; effivgo, imitate; rejingo, 
 fashion anew. 
 
 Mingo (a more common form of the present is meio)^ minxi, 
 mictum, make water. 
 
 1 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION. 169 
 
 Fingo, pinxi, pictum, paint. 
 
 Depingo^ represent by painting ; appingo, expingo. 
 
 Stringo, strinxi, strictum^ squeeze together. 
 
 Astringo, draw close ; constringo, draw together ; destringo, draw 
 out ; distringo, draw asunder ; obstringo, bind by obligation ; perstringo, 
 ridicule. 
 
 Figo,JixiiJixu7n^ fasten.' 
 
 Affigo^ affix ; transfigo^ pierce through. 
 
 Verbs in cto, in tchich i only strengthens the form of the 
 Present, 
 
 Flecto, flexi, Jlexum, bend. Comp. injiecto, 
 
 Necto, next and nexui, nexum, bind. 
 
 Pecto, pexi, pexum, comb. 
 
 Plecto, without perfect and supine, from the Greek, irX'ijaa-co, 
 strike; usually only in the passive, plector^ am punished, 
 smart for. Another plecto, from the Greek irXe/cco, twist, is 
 obsolete as an active, but forms the foundation of the de- 
 ponents : amplector, complector ; participle amplexus^ com- 
 plexus. 
 
 Of ango^ anxi, torment ; and ningo, ninxi, snow, no supine is 
 found. 
 
 Of clango, ring loudly, neither perfect nor supine ; according to 
 analogy the former would be clanxi. 
 
 [§ 194.] The following are irregular in the formation of the 
 
 Perfect : 
 
 «) Taking a Reduplication, 
 
 Parco, pepercif parsiim, spare ; parsi is rare, and an archaism ; 
 
 parcitum is uncertain. 
 
 The distinction is commonly made, that in the sense of sparing life, 
 health, peperch parcitum, in that of sparing money parsi, parsum, are used ; 
 but the distinction cannot be carried out, for the sense is, in fact, the same, 
 viz. to consume as little as possible of any thing. Parco or comparco, 
 -parsi or -persi, -parsum, to accumulate by saving, with the accus., occurs 
 indeed in comedy ; but this use of the word is very rare, and does not 
 seem to have been common in ordinary life, where other expressions were 
 used, such as pecuniam facere, or in futuros usus colUgere, and parco re- 
 tained its dative and its ordinary meaning. 
 
170 LATIN GRAMMAE. 
 
 Pungo, pupugi, punctum, pierce. 
 
 The compounds have in the perfect punxi; as compungo^ dispungo, and 
 interpungo, distinguish with points. 
 
 Tango, tetigi, tactum, touch. 
 
 Attingo and contingo, -ttgi, -tactum, touch ; contingit, contigit; obtingit, 
 ohtigit (as impersonals), it falls to the lot ; usually in a good sense. 
 
 Pango, in the sense of strike, drive in, panxi (obsolete pegi), 
 
 panctum ; in the sense of bargain, pepigi, pactum. In this 
 
 sense paciscor is employed in the present. 
 
 The compounds have pegi^ pactum; as compingo^ fasten together; im- 
 pingo. So also oppango, oppegi, strike upon. Of depango and repango^ 
 the perfect and supine are found in the classics. 
 
 [§ 195.] b) Without changing the Characteristic Letter. 
 
 AgOy egi, actum, agere, drive. 
 
 Cogo (coago), coegi, coactum, drive together, force; perago, carry 
 through ; abigo, drive away ; adigo^ exigo, redigo, suhigo^ transigo. Pro- 
 digo, -egi (without supine), squander ; ambigo, am irresolute, doubt, and 
 satago (satis ago), am busy, are both without perfect and supine. 
 
 Dego, degi (rare), no supine, spend {yitam, aMateyn). 
 
 Frango, fregi, fractum, break. 
 
 Confringo and perfringo strengthen the meaning ; effringo and refringo, 
 break open. 
 
 Lego, legi, tectum, read. (But lego, as, send off). 
 
 So perlego, praelego, with those changing e into ?, as colligo, deligo, eligo, 
 and seligo, are conjugated. But diligo, intelligo (obsolete intellego), and 
 negligo (obsolete neglego), have -exi in the perfect. The perfects intellegi 
 and neglegi are uncertain or unclassical. 
 
 Ico or icio, wi, ictum, strike, in connection with foedus. Priscian 
 (p. 877. and 886.) mentions both forms, but nothing can be 
 decided, as icit only occurs in the present, and iciunt in Ta- 
 citus (Ann. xi. 9.) is only a wrong conjecture for faciunt. 
 Otherwise ferio is used in the present instead. 
 
 Vinco, vici, victum, conquer. 
 
 Convinco, persuade ; devinco, overcome ; evinco, carry a point, establish 
 by argument. 
 
 Linquo, liqui, leave, (no supine,) chiefly used in poetry. 
 
 The compounds rclinquo, derelinquo, delinquo, have lictum in the 
 supine. 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION. 171 
 
 [§ 196.] c) Perfect si. Supine sum. 
 
 MergOf mersi, mersum, dip. 
 
 JSmergo, demergOj and immergo^ svbmergo. 
 
 Spargo, sparsi, sparsum, scatter. 
 
 Aspergo, conspergo, and respergo, -ersi, -ersum, besprinkle; expergo^ 
 sprinkle abroad. 
 
 Tergo, tersi, tersum, wipe. (See above, § 177.) 
 
 Vergoy vergere^ incline towards, without perfect and su- 
 pine. 
 
 CHAP. L. 
 
 [§ 197.] 5. VERBS WHICH HAVE i, M, N, R, BEFORE 0. 
 
 Regular verbs in mo, 
 
 Como, compsiy compturriy comere, adorn. 
 
 Demo, take away. 
 
 Promo, bring out. 
 
 Depromo, expromo^ the same in signification. 
 
 Sumo, take. 
 
 Absumo and c&nsumo, consume ; assumo^ desunio. 
 
 Temno, temnere, despis^ (poetical). 
 
 Contemno, contempsi^ contemptum, the same meaning. 
 
 Irregular. 
 
 [§ 198.] a) Conjugated according to the Analogy of the Second 
 Conjugation. 
 
 Alo, alui, alitum (or altum), alere, nourish. 
 
 Alius occurs in Cicero and Sallust; afterwards (ditus becomes the 
 common form, as in Livy and Val. Maximus. See Garatoni on Cic. p. 
 Plane. 33. 
 
172 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Colo, colui, cultum, till. 
 
 Excolo and percolo strengthen the meaning ; incolo^ inhabit a country. 
 
 Consulo, consului, consultum, ask advice. 
 
 MolOf molui, molitum, grind. 
 
 Occulo, occului, occultum, conceal. 
 
 FremOi fremui, fremitum, murmur. 
 Adfremo^ confremo. 
 
 GemOi gemui, gemitumf groan. 
 
 Congemo (congemisco), ingemo (ingemisco), ui, no supine, lament. 
 
 Tremo, tremui (no supine), tremble. 
 Cordremo strengthens the meaning. 
 
 Vomo, vomiiif vomitum, vomit. 
 Evomo^ revomo. 
 
 Gigno, beget, has (from the obsolete geno\ genui, genitum. 
 Ingigno, implant ; progigno, bring forth. 
 
 Pono, posui (posivi obs.), positum, place. 
 
 A ntepdno, prefer ; appono, phice by ; compono^ arrange ; depono, lay 
 down ; dispono, set out, or in order ; expono, explain ; oppono, oppose ; 
 posfpono, to place after ; praepono, prefer ; sepono^ set on one side. Re- 
 specting the short a in the perfect and supine see § 18. 3. 
 
 (From the obsolete cello) — 
 
 AntecellOj excello, praecelln, ui, (without supine,) surpass ; but percello^ 
 perculi, perctdsufn, strike down. 
 
 [§ 199.] b) Forming the Perfect with Reduplication. 
 
 CdnOf cecmi, cantum, canere, sing. 
 
 Succmo, succinui, succentum, sing to ; so occino (or occano)^ sing, sound 
 against ; concino, ui, harmonize, or, in an active sense, begin a song, with- 
 out supine, but the substantive concentus is derived from it. Of accino, 
 intercino^ and recino (or recano)^ no perfect or supine is found ; but from 
 accino we have the substantive acccntus. 
 
 Curro, cucurri, cur sum, run. 
 
 The compounds, accurro, decurro^ excurro^ incurro, percurro, praecurro, 
 and others, sometimes retain, but more frequently drop the reduplication 
 in the perfect. 
 
 Fallo, fefelli, falsum, cheat. 
 
 Ilefello^ refelli^ (no supine,) refute. 
 
 Pello, pepuli, puhum, drive away. 
 
 AppcUo, appuli, appulsuni^ come to land. In the same way are conjugated, 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION. 173 
 
 compeUo, urge, compel; depello, propello, repello^ drive away; expello^ drive 
 out ; impello and perpello, urge on. 
 
 [§ 200.] c) Making vi in the Perfect, 
 
 Cerno, crevi, cretum, separate, see, perceive. In the sense of 
 seeing, perceiving, the verb has neither perfect nor supine. 
 The perfect crevi is used in juristical language in the sense of 
 decrevi, and in the phrase hereditatem cernere for hereditatem 
 adire, , 
 
 Compounds : Deeemo^ decrevi, decretum, decree ; so discemo, excemo, 
 secerno, separate, distinguish. 
 
 Lina, levi (or livi), Utum, smear. 
 
 Colltno, illino, perlino, ohlino (participle oblttuSy not to be confounded 
 with oblltus from oUiviscor)^ pei-lino^ besmear. There is also a regular 
 verb, of the fourth conjugation, of the same meaning, from which the 
 compounds allinio, circumlinio, illinio, and others used by later writers, are 
 derived. 
 
 Sino, sivi, situm, allow. In the perfect subjunctive we find 
 sirim, siris, sirit, along with siverit, (^Situs, situated, is per- 
 haps derived from this verb). 
 
 DesmOy desivi and desii (at least desit for desiit in Martial, see § 160. 
 note, for desierunt is no proof), desitum, cease. {Desitus est is also used 
 as a perfect with the infin. passive, like coeptus est. See § 221.) 
 
 Sperno, sprevi, spretum, despise. 
 
 Sterno, strdvi, stratum, stretch out on the ground. 
 
 Constemo, imtemo, spread out (but constemo, as, frighten) ; prostemo, 
 throw down ; substerno, spread under. 
 
 Sero, in the sense of sowing, has sevi, satum ; in that of ar- 
 ranging and connecting together it is said to have serui, 
 sertum, but these forms of the simple verb do not occur, 
 though serta, garlands, is derived from sertum. 
 
 The compounds are variously conjugated according to their meaning. 
 Consero and insero make -mz, -ertum, in the sense of joining ; -evi, -itum, 
 in the sense of sowing. The following compounds are used only in the 
 sense of joining : — Desero, dissero, exsero, and accordingly make only 
 serui, sertum. That the verbs sero, sevi, and sero, serui, are really the same, 
 is proved by the interchange of inserere and conserere in good authors, of 
 wMch any dictionary may furnish examples. 
 
 Tero, trivi, tritum, rub. 
 
 Contero, rub to pieces ; attero, rub away, injure (perfect also atterui) ; 
 extero, remove by rubbing. 
 
174 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 201.] d) Other Irregularities, 
 
 Velio, vein, and vulsi (but more frequently velli), vulsum, pluck 
 out. 
 
 The compounds convello, revello, and divello, have only velli in the 
 perfect, but avello and evello have also avidsi and evulsi. 
 
 Psallo, psalli, psallere, play on a stringed instrument. 
 
 Emo, emi, emptum, buy. 
 
 Coemo, collect by purchase ; redimo, purchase back. The signification 
 " take " appears in the copipounds adimo, take away ; dirimo, divide ; 
 eximo, take out ; interimo^ take away, kill ; perimo^ destroy. 
 
 Premo, pressi, pressum, press. 
 
 Comprimo, press together; deprimo^ opprimo^ supprimo, press down; 
 exprimo, press out. 
 
 Gero, gessi, gestum, carry, transact. 
 
 Congero^ bring together ; digero^ arrange ; ingero, introduce. 
 
 Uro, ussi, ustum, burn. 
 
 Aduro^ kindle ; comburo^ consume by fire ; inwro, burn in, brand ; exuro^ 
 burn out. 
 
 Verro, verri, versum, sweep out. 
 
 Quaero, quaeslvi, quaesitum, seek. 
 
 Another pronunciation of the same word is quaeso. (See § 224.) Acqulro, 
 acquire ; conquirOy collect ; anquiro, exquiro, inquiro^ perquiro, examine ; 
 require^ miss, require. 
 
 (Ficro), furere, rage (without perfect or supine); insanim is 
 used as a perfect instead. Even the first person present is 
 not found, though furis and furit are common. 
 
 Fero, tan, latum, ferre, is irregular in several points. See below, 
 §213. 
 
 CHAP. LI. 
 
 [§ 202.] 6. VERBS IN SO AND X0» 
 
 Depso, depsui, depsitum and depstum knead. 
 
 Pinso, pinsui and pinsi, pinsitum and pistum (also pinsum), 
 pound, grind. 
 
^ THIRD CONJUGATION. 175 
 
 Vlso, visi, visere, visit. The supine visum belongs to videre, 
 from which visere itself is derived. 
 
 Texo, texui, textum, weave. 
 
 Compounds frequently with a figurative signification : attexo^ add ; 
 contexo^ put together ; obtexo, cover ; pertexo^ carry out ; praetexo^ add a 
 hem ; retexo, to undo that which is woven, destroy. 
 
 After the Analogy of the Fourth Conjugation : 
 
 Arcesso, or accerso, -wU -Itum, summon. 
 
 Both modes of writing this word are found in good MSS. and editions ; 
 compare Schneider's Elementarlehre^ p. 257. foil., and the quotations in 
 Kritz on Sallust, Catil. 40. The infinitive passive arcessiri occurs 
 sometimes, as in Caes. Bell. Gall. v. 11. Oudendorp. 
 
 Capesso, undertake. 
 
 FacessOy give trouble, especially with negotium and periculum, 
 also equivalent to prqficiscor, get off. (facesseris, in Cic. 
 Div, in Q. Caec. 14.) 
 
 Incesso, attack ; no supine. Perfect, incessivi : incessi is doubtful 
 (Tac. Hist. iii. 77.), unless we refer to this root, and not 
 to incedo, the frequently occurring phrase, cura, desperatio, &c , 
 incessit animos, 
 
 Lacesso, provoke. 
 
 [§ 203.] 7. Verhs in sco, either not Inchoatives, or of which the 
 Simple is no longer found, 
 
 Cresco, crevi, cretum, grow. 
 
 So also con.', rfe-, excresco, and without a supine : accresco, incresco, 
 grow up, and mccresco, grow up gradually. 
 
 Nosco, novi, notum, become acquainted with. The original 
 
 form is gnosco (Greek jtryvaxTKco), and the g reappears in the 
 
 compounds, if possible. 
 
 The perfect novi takes the signification of the present, " I know " 
 (§ 221.); the supine is mentioned only on account of the compounds, for 
 the participle notus has become an adjective, and the participle future 
 does not occur. The comp. agnosco, recognise, cognosco (perf. cognovi, I 
 know), and recognosco, recognise, have in the supine agnitum, cogniium, 
 
176 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 recognitum ; igjiosco, pardon, has ignotum ; dignosco and intemosco have 
 no supine. 
 
 Pasco, paviy pastum, feed. 
 
 Depasco^ feed down. The deponent pascor^ feed or eat. 
 
 Quiesco, quievi, quietum, rest. 
 
 Acquiesco^ repose with satisfaction ; conquiesco^ requiesco, rest. 
 
 SuescOf suevi, suetum, mostly intransitive, grow accustomed, or, 
 more rarely, accustom another. But suetus signifies " ac- 
 customed." 
 
 So also assuesco, consuesco, insuesco^ generally accustom one's self; 
 desuesco, disaccustom one's self. Some passages where they occur in a 
 transitive sense (in which otherwise the compounds with facio are used, 
 see § 183.) are referred to by Bentley on Horace, Serm. i. 4. 105. 
 
 Compesco, compescui, (no supine,) restrain. 
 
 DispescOf dispescui, (no supine,) divide. 
 
 Disco, didici, (no supine : disciturus in Appuleius,) learn. 
 
 Addisco^ addidici, learn in addition ; dedisco^ unlearn ; edisco, learn by 
 heart. 
 
 Posco, poposci, (no supine), demand. 
 
 Deposco, depoposci, and reposcOj demand back ; exposco, expoposci, 
 challenge. 
 
 Glisco, gliscere, increase. 
 
 Hisco, hiscere, open the mouth, gape. 
 
 CHAP. LIT. 
 
 /U^^^/4l^i^^ INCHOATIVES. 
 
 [§ 204.] The inchoatives (see § 234.) in sco are partly formed 
 from verbs (chiefly of the second conjugation*), and partly from 
 nouns (substantives or adjectives), and are accordingly called in- 
 choativa verbalia or inclioativa nominalia, that is, verbal or nominal 
 
 * According to a passage in Gellius, vi. 15., they were probably pro- 
 nounced with a naturally long e, as calesco^ pallesco. 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION. 177 
 
 inchoatives. The first have no other perfect than that of the 
 simple verb; the others either have none, or form it in a 
 similar way in ui. Few of the verbal inchoatives have the 
 supine of the simple verb. 
 
 Only those which are of most frequent occurrence are given 
 in the following list. There are a great many more, but their 
 formation is easy. and analogous. Thus we may form in- 
 choatives to the intransitive verbs in Chap. XLV., if there is 
 any occasion for it, and we may be assured that it occurs in 
 some passage or other of the ancients. 
 
 1. Verbal Inchoatives with the Perfect of the Simple Verb, 
 
 Acesco (aceo), acui, grow sour ; coacesco, peracesco. 
 
 Albesco^ and exalhesco (albeo)^ exalbui, grow white. 
 
 Aresco (ar^oi)^ ami, grow dry. 
 
 Calesco (caleo), calui, become warm. 
 
 Canesco (caneo), canui, become grey. 
 
 Conticesco (faced), conticui, am reduced to silence. 
 
 Contremisco (tremo), contremui, tremble. 
 
 Defervesco (ferveo), deferbui, gradually lose my heat. 
 
 Delitesco (lated), delitui, lurk. 
 
 Effervesco {Jerveo), effsrbui, grow hot. 
 
 Excandesco (candeo), excandui, grow of a white heat; figuratively, am 
 
 enraged. 
 Extimesco, pertimesco (timed), extimui, am terrified. 
 Floresco, de-, effloresco (flored), efflorui, bloom. 
 Haeresco, and ad-, inhaeresco (haered), ad-, inhaesi, adhere to. 
 Horresco, exhorresco, perhorresco (horred), exhorrui, am struck with horror. 
 Ingemisco (gemd), ingemui, groan. 
 Intumesco (turned), intumui, swell up. 
 Irraucisco (rancid), irrausi, become hoarse. 
 
 Lariguesco, elanguesco, relanguesco (langued), elangui, become feeble. 
 Liquesco (liqued), licui, melt away. 
 Madesco (maded), madui, become wet. 
 
 Marcesco (marced), comp. commarcesco, emarcesco, emarcui, fade. 
 Occallesco (called), occallui, acquire a callous surface. 
 Pallesco, expallesco (palled), pallui, turn pale. 
 Putresco (putred), putrui, moulder. 
 Resipisco (sapid), resipui and resipivi, recover wisdom. 
 Rubesco, erubesco (rubed), grow red, blush. 
 Senesco, consenesco (sened), consenui, grow old. The participle senectus, 
 
 grown old, is little used. 
 Stupesco and obstupesco (stuped), dbstupui, am struck. 
 Tabesco (tabed), tabui, pine, waste away. 
 Tepesco (tepeo), tepui, grow lukewarm. 
 
 Viresco, comp. conviresco, eviresco, reviresco (vired), viruiy grow green. 
 
 N 
 
178 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 2. Verbal Inchoatives which have the Supine as well as Perfect 
 of the Simple Verb. 
 
 {Abolesco, abolevi, abolitum, cease, am annihilated. 
 JExolesco, exolevi, exoletum, grow useless by age. So also ohsolesco. 
 Adolesco, adolevi, adidtum, grow up. See § 174. Oleo. 
 Coalesco (alere), coalui, coalitum, grow together. 
 Concupisco (cupere), concupivi, concupitum^ desire. 
 Convalesco (valere), convalui^ convalitum^ recover health. 
 JExardesco (ardere)^ exarsi, exarsum, am inflamed. 
 Indolesco (dolere)^ indolui, Uuni, feel pain. 
 Inveterasco (inveterare), inveteravi^ atum^ grow old. 
 Ohdormisco (dormire)^ ivi, itum, fall asleep ; edormisco, sleep out. 
 Revivisco (vivere)^ revixi, revictum^ recover life. 
 Scisco (scire), scivi, scttum^ resolve, decree. Hence plebiscitum, popidiscitum. 
 
 [205.] 3. Inchoatives derived from Nouns, 
 a) Without a Perfect. 
 
 Aegresco (aeger), grow sick. 
 
 Ditesco (dives), grow rich. 
 
 Dvlcesco (dulcis), grow sweet. 
 
 Grandesco (grandis), grow large. 
 
 Gravesco and ingravesco (gravis), grow heavy. 
 
 Incurvesco (curvus), become crooked. 
 
 Integrasco (integer), become renovated. 
 
 Juvenesco (juvenis), grow young. 
 
 Mitesco (mitis), grow mild. 
 
 Mollesco (mollis), grow soft. 
 
 Pinguesco (pinguis), grow fat. 
 
 Plumesco (pluma), get feathers. 
 
 Puerasco, repuerasco (puer), become a child (again). 
 
 Sterilesco (sterilis), become barren. 
 
 Teneresco, tenerasco (tener), become tender. 
 
 b) With a Perfect. 
 
 Crebresco, increbresco, and percrebresco (creber), crebrui^ grow frequent or 
 
 current. 
 Duresco, obduresco (duriis), durui, grow hard. 
 Evanesco (vanus), evanui, disappear. 
 Innotesco (notus), innotui, become known. 
 Macresco (macer), macrui, grow lean. 
 Mansuesco (mansuetus), mansuevi, grow tame. 
 Maturesco (maturus), maturui, grow ripe. 
 Nigresco (niger), nigrui, grow black. 
 Obmutesco (mutus), obmiUui, become dumb. 
 Obsurdesco (surdus), obsurdui, become deaf. 
 Recrudesco (crudus), recrudui, to open again (of a wound that had been 
 
 closed). 
 Vilesco and evilesco (vilis), evilui, become cheap or worthless. 
 
FOURTH CONJUGATION. 179 
 
 CHAP. Lin. 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 [§ 206.] The desiderative verbs (see § 232.) in iirio, e. g. 
 coenaturio, dormiturio, empturio, have neither perfect nor supine 
 with the exception of esurio, desire to eat, perfect esurivi, par- 
 ticip. esuriturus ; nupturioy desire to marry, and parturio, am 
 in labour, have only perfects, nupturivi and parturivi, but no 
 supine. 
 
 The following verbs vary, either in the perfect or in the 
 supine, or in both, from the regular form (Ivi, Uum), 
 
 Cio, civif cituniy regular; but see § 180. 
 
 Eo, iviy itum, with its compounds. See Defective Verbs, 
 §215. 
 
 Farcio, farsi, fartum (also written farctum), farcire, stuff. The 
 supine /«r5M77i is more rare and not as good. 
 
 Confercio and refercio^ fersi^ ferturn^ fill up ; effercio^ infercio, are con- 
 jugated like the simple verb. • 
 
 Fulcio, fulsi, fultum, fuldre, prop. 
 
 The perfect thus presents no external difference from the perfect of 
 fvlgeo. 
 
 Haurio, hausi, haustum, haurire, draw. 
 
 The supine Tiausum is rare, but the participle hausurus is as common as 
 haiLsturus. 
 
 Qtieo, quivi or quii, quitum, quire. See § 216. 
 
 Raucio, rausi, rausum, raucire, am hoarse (raucus). 
 The compound irrauserit^ in Cic. de Orat. i. 61. See § 204. 
 
 SaepiOf saepsi, saeptum, saepire (some write sepio), hedge in. 
 
 Siilio, salui, more i*arely salii (saltum), salire, spring. 
 
 In the comp. desflio^ exilio^ ijisilio, &c., the perf. -silui is far better than 
 the forms in silii and salivi, and must be restored in the authors of the 
 best age from the MSS. See Drakenb. on Liv. ii. 10., and Schwarz on 
 Pliny, Paneg. 66. The supine does not exist either in the simple verb or 
 in the compounds, though the derivatives saltus^ its, desidtor, irmdtare, lead 
 us to a form saltum, and in compounds sidtum. The regular verb salire, 
 N 2 
 
180 LATIN GKAMMAR. 
 
 salt, must not be confounded with salire^ spring. The former is synony- 
 mous with the obsolete salere or sallere, from which salsus is derived. 
 
 Sancio, sanxi, sancitum and sanctum, sancire, decree, sanction. 
 Sanctus is found as a participle, though it is commonly an 
 adjective, but sancitus is more common. 
 
 Sarcio, sarsi, sartum, sarcire, patch. 
 Resarcio, repair. 
 
 Sentio, sensi, sensum, sentire, feel, think. 
 
 Consentio, agree ; dissentio, disagree ; praesentio, perceive beforehand. 
 The compound assentio is not as common as the deponent assentior, but is 
 founded on good authority, e.g. Cic. ad Att. ix. 9.: assentio ; ad Fam. v. 2. : 
 assensi ; and three other instances of the perfect, which are quoted by 
 Biinemann on Lactant. i. 15. 19. 
 
 SepeliOf -ivi, seputtum, sepelire, bury. 
 
 Venio, veni, ventum, venire, come. 
 
 Advenio, arrive ; convenio, meet ; obvenio, encounter ; pervenio^ reach ; 
 invenio, find. 
 
 VinciOf vinxif vinctum, vincire, bind. 
 Devincio, bind closely, bind by duty. 
 
 AmiciO) amictum, amicire, clothe. (The perfects amixi and 
 amicui are attested by the grammarian Diomedes, p. 364., but 
 are not found in our authors. Amicivi (amicisse) on the 
 other hand occurs in Fronto). 
 
 AperiOf ui, rtum, aperire, open. 
 
 So operio and cooperio, cover. But comperio makes comperi, compertum, 
 comperire (is used in the present and infinitive, also as a deponent, com- 
 perior, comperlri), experience, and reperio, reperi (or repperi)^ repertum, 
 find. 
 
 Ferio — ferire, strike. (In the active percussi is used as a perfect, 
 and in the passive ictus sum.) 
 
 Ferocio — ferocire, am wild or insolent. 
 
 Visio — visire, ^Bsco. 
 
 Punio, punish, is regular; but is sometimes used by Cicero, as 
 a deponent, de Off, i. 25. : punitur ; Tuscul. i. 44. : puniantur; 
 Philip, viii. 3.: puniretur ; p, Milon, 13.: punitus es ; de In- 
 vent, ii, 27. : punitus sis. 
 
DEPONENT VEEBS. 
 
 181 
 
 CHAP. LIV. 
 LIST OF DEPONENT VERBS .♦ 
 
 [§ 207.] DEPONENT VERBS OP THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 Adminicvlor, aid. 
 
 Adverser, oppose myself. 
 
 AduloTy flatter. 
 
 Aemuior, rival. 
 
 *Altercor, quarrel. 
 
 Alucinor (also cdluc. and halluc.^ 
 dote, talk idly. 
 
 Amplexor, embrace. 
 
 Andllor, am a handmaid. 
 
 AprlcoTj sun myself. 
 
 Aquor, fetch water ; frumentor, col- 
 lect corn ; lignor, collect wood ; 
 materior, fell timber ; pabidor, 
 forage. 
 
 Arhitror, think. 
 
 ArchitectoTy build (architectus). 
 
 Argumentor, prove. 
 
 Argutor, chatter, am argutus. 
 
 Aspemor, despise. 
 
 Assentor, agree, flatter. 
 
 Auctionor, sell at auction. 
 
 Aucupor, catch birds, am auceps. 
 
 Aversor, dislike, avoid with horror. 
 
 Augur or (augur), -. 
 
 *Auspicor (auspex), I practise sooth- 
 
 Hariolor Qiariolus), j saying. 
 
 Vaticinor (votes), J 
 
 Auxilior, aid. 
 
 Bacchor, revel as a Bacchanal. 
 
 Cabimnior, cavil. 
 
 CaviUor, ridicule. 
 
 Cauponor, deal, retail. 
 
 Causor, allege. 
 
 Circtdor, form a circle around me. 
 
 Comissor, feast. 
 
 Comitor, accompany (comes, active 
 only in the poets). 
 
 CommerUor, reflect upon, dispute. 
 
 Contionor, harangue. 
 
 *Conflictor, contend. 
 
 Conor, attempt. 
 
 Consilior, advise. 
 
 Conspicor, behold. 
 
 Contemplor, contemplate. 
 
 Convicior, revile. 
 
 Convivor, feast (conviva). 
 
 Comlcor, chatter as a crow. 
 
 Criminor, accuse. 
 
 Cunctor, delay. 
 
 Depeculor, plunder. 
 
 Despicor, despise; despicio, but de- 
 
 spicatus is passive, despised. 
 Deversor, lodge. 
 Digladior, fight. 
 
 Dignor, think worthy. Cicero how- 
 ever sometimes uses it in a passive 
 sense, " I am thought worthy." 
 Dedignor, disdain. 
 Dominor, rule (dominus). 
 Elucubror, produce by dint of labour. 
 Epvlor, feast. 
 Execror, execrate. 
 *Fahricor, fashion. 
 Fabvlor, confahvlor, talk. 
 Famvlor, serve (famulus). 
 Feneror, lend at interest (the active, 
 
 * The words to which an asterisk is prefixed, are used also as actives, but 
 better as deponents. Some deponents have been omitted in the list, which 
 are either of very rare occurrence or more commonly used as actives. 
 Respecting the latter see the note at the end. 
 
 N 3 
 
182 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 . " to restore with interest," occurs 
 
 in Terence ; in later writers it is 
 
 the same as the deponent). 
 Ferior^ keep holiday. 
 Frustror, disappoint. 
 Furor, suffuror, steal. 
 Glorior, boast. 
 Graecor, live in the Greek style, that 
 
 is, luxuriously. 
 Grassor, advance, attack. 
 Gratificor, comply with. 
 Grator, and gratulor, give thanks, 
 
 present congratulations. 
 (Gravor, think heavy, is the passive 
 
 ofgravo.) 
 Helluor, gluttonise (helluo). 
 Hortor, exhort ; adhortor, exhortor, 
 
 dehortor. 
 Hospitor, am a guest (hospes), lodge. 
 Imaginor, imagine. 
 Imitor, imitate. 
 
 Indignor, am indignant, spurn. 
 In/itior, deny. 
 Insidior, plot. 
 
 Interpretor, explain, am an interpres. 
 Jaculor, throw, dart. 
 Jocor, jest. 
 
 Laetor, rejoice (laetus). 
 Lamentor, lament. , 
 
 Latrocinor, rob, am a latro. 
 Lenocinor (alicui), flatter. 
 Lihidinor, am voluptuous. 
 JAcitor, bid at an auction. 
 Lucror, gain. 
 Luctor, strive, wrestle (phluctor and 
 
 reluctor, resist). 
 * Ludificor, ridicule. 
 MacMnor, devise. 
 Medicor, heal. 
 Meditor, meditate. 
 3fercor, buy. 
 *Meridior, repose at noon. 
 Metor, measure out. 
 Minor and minitor, threaten. 
 Miror, wonder ; demiror, the same ; 
 
 admiror, admire. 
 Miseror, commiseror, pity. 
 Moderor, restrain, temper. 
 Modulor, modulate. 
 Morigeror, comply, am morigerus. 
 
 Moror, delay ; trans, and intrans. ; 
 comp. commoror. 
 
 *Muneror, remuneror, aliquem ali- 
 qua re, reward. 
 
 Mutuory borrow. 
 
 Negotior, carry on business. 
 
 Nidulor, build a nest. 
 
 Nugor, trifle. 
 
 Nundinor, deal in buying and selling. 
 
 Nutrlcor, nourish. 
 
 Odoror, smell out. 
 
 Ominor, prophesy ; abominor, abomi- 
 nate. 
 
 Operor, bestow labour on. 
 
 Opinor, think. 
 
 Opitulor, lend help. 
 
 *Oscitor, yawn. 
 
 Osculor, kiss. 
 
 Otior, have leisure. 
 
 *Palpor, stroke, flatter. 
 
 Parasitor, act the parasite (^parasitus). 
 
 Patrocinor, patronize. 
 
 Percontor, inquire. 
 
 Peregrlnor, dwell as a stranger. 
 
 Periclttor, try, in later writers, am 
 in danger. 
 
 Philosophorj philosophize. 
 
 *Pigneror, take a pledge, bind by a 
 pledge. 
 
 Pigror, am idle (piger). 
 
 Piscor, fish. 
 
 *Populor, lay waste. 
 
 Praedor, plunder. 
 
 Praestolor, wait for, with the dat. or 
 accus. (the quantity of the o is un- 
 certain, though probably short). 
 
 Praevaricor, walk with crooked legs, 
 act dishonestly, as a praevaricator, 
 that is, as a false accuser. 
 
 Precor, pray ; comprecor, invoke ; 
 deprecor, deprecate ; imprecor, im- 
 precate. 
 
 Proelior, fight a battle. 
 
 Patiocinor, reason. 
 
 Recordor, remember. 
 
 Pefrdgor, oppose. 
 
 Rimor, examine minutely. 
 
 Rixor, wrangle. 
 
 Rusticor, live in the country. 
 
 Scitor and sciseitor, inquire. 
 
DEPONENT VERBS. 
 
 183 
 
 Scrvior^ perscrutor, search. 
 
 Sector, the frequentative of sequor, 
 
 follow ; assector, consector, insector. 
 Sermocinor, hold discourse. 
 Solor, consolor, comfort. 
 Spatior, expatior, walk. 
 Speculor, keep a look out. 
 Stipulor, make a bargain ; adstipuJor, 
 
 agree. 
 StomacJior, am indignant. 
 Suavior, kiss. 
 Suffrdgor (the contrary of refragor), 
 
 assent to. 
 Suspicor, suspect. 
 Tergiversor, shuffle. 
 Testor and testificor, bear witness. 
 Tricor, make unreasonable difficulties 
 
 (tricas). 
 Tristor, am sad. 
 
 Trutinor, weigh. 
 
 Tumvltuor, make uproar. 
 
 Tutor, defend. 
 
 Vador, summon to trial. 
 
 Vagor and pdlor, wander. 
 
 Velificor, steer towards (figuratively, 
 gain a purpose), whence it is con- 
 strued with the dat., as honori meo. 
 
 Velitor, skirmish with light troops. 
 
 Veneror, venerate. 
 
 Venor, hunt. 
 
 Vereeundor, feel shame at doing. 
 
 Versor (properly, the passive of 
 verso), dwell, am occupied in ; 
 aversor, detest ; obversor, float 
 before. 
 
 Vociferor, vociferate. 
 
 Urinor, dip under water (to void 
 urine is urinamfacere or redder e). 
 
 Note. We must here notice some verbs which are commonly used as 
 actives, but by some writers, and of good authority, as deponents also. Such 
 are : communicor, commurmuror (Cic. in Pis. 25.), fluctuor, frvMcor (Cic), 
 lacrimor, luxurior, nictor. Velificor, in the figurative sense of striving after, 
 is used by Cicero as a deponent, but in the primary sense of " sailing " it is 
 much more usually active. Advlor, arhitror, criminor, and more especially 
 dignor, are used by Cicero as passives, as well as deponents, throughout, and 
 not merely in the participle, as is the case with many others. See the 
 Chapter on the Participle, in ihe Syntax. 
 
 CHAP. LV. 
 
 [§ 208.] DEPONENTS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 Fateor, fassus sum,fateri, acknowledge. 
 
 Confteor, confessus sum, the same, but usually, confess a crime ; pro- 
 fiteor, profess ; diffiteor (no participle), deny. 
 
 Liceor, licitus sum, with the accus., bid at an auction. 
 
 PoUiceor, promise. 
 Medeor, without a participle, for which medicatus, from medi- 
 cari, is commonly used. 
 
 N 4 
 
184 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 * Mereor, meritus sum, deserve. The active is used in the sense 
 of serving or earning, as merere stipendia ; but the forms are 
 not kept distinct. 
 Commereor^ demereor, promereor^ have the same meaning. 
 
 Misereor, miseritus or misertus sum, pity. 
 
 Respecting the impersonal verb miseret or miseretur me^ see § 225. 
 
 Reor, ratus sum, reri, think. 
 
 Tueor, tuttus sum, look upon, fig. defend. 
 
 Contueor, intueor^ look upon. There was an old form tuor, after the 
 third conjugation, of which examples are found in the comic writers and 
 in Lucretius, and in Nep. Chahr. 1. 3. intuuntur is found for the common 
 intuentur. The adject, tutm is derived from the form tuor. 
 
 Vereor, veritus sum, fear. 
 
 Revereor, reverence ; subvereor^ slightly fear. 
 
 CHAR LVI. 
 
 [§ 209.] DEPONENTS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 From the obsolete apiscor, aptus sum, apisci, are derived : 
 Adipiscor, adeptus sum, and indipiscor, obtain. 
 
 JExpergiscor, experrectus sum, expergisci, awake. 
 
 The verb expergefacere signifies to awaken, whence expergefactus, 
 awakened. Expergo, with its participle expergitus, is obsolete. 
 
 Fruor^ fructus and fruitus sum, frui, enjoy. (Particip. frui- 
 turus). 
 Perfruor, perfructus sum, strengthens the meaning. 
 
 Fungor, functus sum, fungi, perform, discharge. 
 Defungor, perfungor, completely discharge, finish. 
 
 Gradior, gressus sum, gradi, proceed. 
 
 Aggredior, aggressus sum, aggredi, assail ; congredior, meet ; digredior, 
 depart; egredior, go out of; ingredior, Qni^v on-, progredior, advance; 
 regredior, return. 
 
 Irascor, wasci, properly an inchoative, grow angry ; iratus sum 
 
DEPONENT VERBS. -«-.--,. 
 
 means only, I am angry. I have been or was anjj^ Aay be 
 expressed by succensui. 
 
 Labor, lapsus sum, Idbi, fall. 
 
 Colldhor^ sink together ; dilabor^ fall in pieces ; proldbor, fall down ; 
 delaboTy reldbor. 
 
 Loquor, locutus sum, loqui, speak. 
 
 Alloquor, address ; coUoquor, speak with ; eloquor, interloquor ; obloquor, 
 speak against, revile. 
 
 (From the obsolete miniscor,) 
 
 Comminiscor^ commentus sum^ comminisci, devise, imagine (the participle 
 commerdus usually in a passive sense, feigned) ; reminiscor, reminisci, has 
 no perfect ; recordatus sum is used instead of it. 
 
 Morior, mortuus sum, (participle future, moriturus,) mori, die 
 {moriri is obsolete, but still occurs in Ovid, Metam, xiv. 
 215.). 
 Emorior^ commorior, demorior. 
 
 Nanciscor, nactus sum, nancisci, obtain. The participle is also 
 found written nanctus, as in many passages of Livy. 
 
 Nascor, natus sum, nasci (nasciturus only in late writers), am 
 born ; passive in sense, but without an active. It was ori- 
 ginally gnascor, and the g reappears in agnatus, cognatus, 
 
 Enascor^ innascor^ renascor. 
 
 Nitor, nisus or nixus sum, niti, lean upon, strive. 
 
 Adnltor^ strive for ; connitor and enltor, exert myself; in the sense of 
 "bring forth," or "give birth," enixa est is preferable; ohnitor, strive 
 against. 
 
 Obliviscor, oblitus sum, oblivisd, forget. 
 
 Paciscor, pactus sum (or pepigi), make a bargain. 
 
 Comp. compaciscor^ depaciscor, or compeciscor and depeciscor, compacttiSy 
 depactus sum^ whence the adverb compacto or compecto for ex or de com- 
 pacto, according to contract. 
 
 Pascor, pastus sum, feed; intransitive. Properly the passive 
 of pasco, pavi, pastum, give food ; see above. Chap. LI. 
 
 Potior, passus sum, pati, suffer. 
 
 Perpetior, perpessus sum, perpeti, endure. 
 
 (From plecto, twine,) 
 
 Amplector and complector, complexus sum, embrace. 
 
 Projiciscor, profectiis sum, projicisci, travel. 
 
186 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Queror, questus surriy qneri^ complain. 
 Conqueror^ lament. 
 
 Ringor, ringi, grin, show the teeth, whence rictus, 
 
 Sequor, secutus sum, sequi, follow. 
 
 Assequor and consequor, overtake, attain ; exequor, execute ; insequor^ 
 follow ; obsequor^ comply with ; persequor^ pursue ; prosequor^ attend ; 
 subsequor, follow close after. 
 
 Vehor, see § 192. 
 
 Vescor, vesci, eat. JEdi is used as the perfect. 
 
 Ulciscor, ultus sum, ulcisci, revenge, punish. 
 
 Utor, usus sum, uti, use. 
 
 Abator, abuse; devtor only in Nepos, Eum. 11. 
 
 Devertor, praevertor, and reverter, see under verto. They take 
 
 their perfects from the active form : reverti, reverteram, re- 
 
 vertissem ; only the participle reversus is used in an active 
 
 sense, one who has returned. 
 
 Reversus sum for reverti is very rare, but occurs in Nep. Them. 5. ; 
 Veil. ii. 42. ; Quintil. vii. 8. 2. xi. 2. 17., and other less classic authors, but 
 never in Cicero. 
 
 CHAP. LVII. 
 
 [§ 210.] DEPONENTS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 Assentior, assensus sum, assentiri, assent. (As an active, as- 
 sentio, assensi, assensum, assentire^ it is not so common; see 
 above, § 206.) 
 
 Blandior, hlanditus sum, hlandiri, flatter. 
 
 Experior, expertus sum, experiri, experience, try. 
 
 Comperior, am informed, is used only in the present tense, along with 
 comperio ; the perfect therefore is comperi. 
 
 Largior, largitus sum, largiri, give money ; dilargior, distribute 
 money. 
 
 Mentior, mentitus sum, mentiri, lie ; ementior, the same. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 187 
 
 Metior, mensus sum, metiri, measure. 
 
 Dimetior^ measure out ; emetior^ measure completely ; permetior, 
 Molior, molitus sum, moliri, move a mass (molef) ; plan. 
 
 Amolior, remove from the way ; demolior, demolish, and others. 
 
 Opperior, oppertus sum, in Terence, and opperitus sum in Plau- 
 tus, opperiri, wait for. 
 
 Ordior, orsus sum, ordiri, begin. 
 
 Exordior^ the same ; redordior, begin over again. 
 
 Orior, ortus sum, oriri (partic. oriturus), rise. (The partic. fut. 
 pass, oriundus has a peculiar signification " descended" from 
 a place or person.) The present indicat. follows the third 
 conjugation : oreris, oritur, orimur. In the imperf. subjunct. 
 both forms orerer and orirer are found. See Li v. xxiii. 16. ; 
 Tac. Ann, ii. 47. ; comp. xi. 23. 
 
 So also the compounds coorior and exorior {exoreretur in Lucretius, 
 ii. 506.) ; but of adorior, undertake, the forms adoriris and adorUur are 
 certain, whereas adoreris and adorCtur are only probable ; adoreretur is 
 commonly edited in Sueton. Clavjd. 12. 
 
 Partior, partitas sum, pariiri, divide (rarely active). 
 
 Dispertior, dispertitus sum (more frequently active), distribute ; impeV' 
 tior (also impertio, impartio, impartior)^ communicate. 
 
 Potior, potitus sum, potiri, possess myself of. 
 
 It is not uncommon, especially in the poets, for the present indicative 
 and the imperfect subjunctive to be formed after the third conjugation ; 
 potitur, potimur, poteretur, poteremur. 
 
 Sortior, sortitus sum, sortiri, cast lots. 
 
 Punier, for punio. See § 206. in fin. 
 
 CHAP. LVIII. 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 [§211.] The term Irregular Verbs is here applied to those 
 which depart from the rule not only in the formation of their 
 perfect and supine, but have something anomalous in their 
 
188 LATIN GKAMMAR. 
 
 conjugation itself. They are, besides sum (treated of before, 
 § 156,), possum, edo.fero, volo, nolo, malo, eo, queo, nequeo, Jio. 
 
 1. Possum, I am able. 
 
 Possum is composed of potis and sum, often found separately 
 in early Latin ; by dropj)ing the termination of potis, we obtain 
 potsum, possum. It therefore follows the conjugation of sum in 
 its terminations, but the consonants t, s, and/, produce some 
 changes, when they come together. 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 Possum^ potes, potest. possim, possis, possit. 
 
 possumus, potestis, possunt. possimtis, possitis, possint. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 poteram, poteras, poterat. possem, posses, posset, 
 
 poteramus, -eratis, -erant. possemus, possetis, possent. 
 
 Future. 
 patera, poteris, poterit. 
 paterimus, -eritis, -erunt. 
 
 Perfect. 
 potui, potuisti, potuit. potuerim, -eris, -erit. 
 
 potuimus, -istis, -erunt. potuenmus, -itis, -int. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 potueram, -eras, -erat. potuissem, -isses, -isset. 
 
 potueramus, -eratis, -erant. potuissemus, -issetis, -issent. 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 potuero, potueris, potuerit. 
 potuerlmus, potuerltis, potuerint. 
 
 (No Imperative.) 
 
 Infinitive. Pakticiple. 
 
 Pres. & Imp. posse. Potens has become an adjective). 
 
 Perf. & Plup. potuisse. 
 
 2. Edo, I eat. 
 
 [§ 212.] The verb eda, edi, esum, edere, is declined regularly 
 according to the third conjugation, but here and there it has 
 syncopated fonns, besides its regular ones, similar to the cor- 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 189 
 
 responding tenses of sumy except that the quantity of the vowel 
 in the second person singular of the indie, present and of the 
 imperative makes a difference, the e in es from edo being long 
 by nature. The tenses in which this resemblance occurs are 
 seen in the following table : — 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. 
 
 Sing. Edo^ edis, edit, Sing, ederem, ederes, ederet, 
 
 (or es, est.) (or essem, esses, esset.) 
 
 Plur. edimm, editis, edunt. Plur. ederemus, ederetis, ederent, 
 
 (estis.) (or essemus,^ essetis, essent.) 
 
 Imperative. Infinitive. 
 
 Sing, edey es. edere or esse. 
 Plur. edite, este. 
 
 Sing, edito, esto. 
 
 Plur. edito, esto, editote, estate. In the Passive only editur, esiur ; 
 
 edunto. ederetur, essetur. 
 
 In the same way the compounds abedo, ambedo, comedo, exedo, 
 and per edo are conjugated. 
 
 3. Fero, I bear. 
 
 [§ 213.] Fero consists of very different parts, perfect tiili 
 (originally tetuli, which is still found in Plautus and Terence) ; 
 supine, latum ; infinitive, ferre ; passive, ferrL But with the 
 exception of the present indicat. and the imperative, the detail 
 is regular. 
 
 Active. Passive. 
 
 Indicative. Indicative. 
 
 Pres. Sing. Fero, fers, fert. Pres. Sing, feror, ferris, fertur. 
 
 Plur. ferimus, fertis, ferunt. Plur. fertmur, ferimini, ferurUur, 
 
 Imperative. Imperative. 
 
 Pres. Sing. fer. Plur. ferte. Pres. Sing, ferre. Plur. ferimini. 
 
 Fut. Sing, ferto. Plur. fertote. Put. Sing, fertor. Plur. feruntor. 
 ferto. ferunto. fertor. 
 
 Nots. The rest is regular ; imperfect, ferebam ; future, feram, -es ; future 
 passive, ferar, fereris {fer ere), feretur, &c. ; present subjunctive, feram^ 
 feras ; passive, ferar, feraris, feratur ; imperfect subjunctive, ferrem ; pas- 
 sive, ferrer. 
 
 The compounds of fero — affero, antefero, circumfero, confero, defero, and 
 others, have little that is remarkable. Aufero (originally dbfero) makes 
 abstuli, ablatum, auferre. Suffero has no perfect or supine, for sustvli, subla- 
 
190 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 iurn^ belong to tollo. Cicero, however (N. D. iii. 33.), has poenas sustidit, but 
 sustinui is commonly used in this sense. Differo is used only in the present 
 tense, and those derived from it in the sense of " differ ; " disMi and dilatum 
 have the sense of " delay." 
 
 4. VolOf I will. 5. Nolo, I will not. 6. Malo, I will rather. 
 
 [§ 214.] Nolo is compounded of ne (for non) and volo. The 
 obsolete ne appears in three persons of the present in the usual 
 form of non ; malo is compounded of mage (i. e. magis) and volo, 
 properly mavolo, mavellem, contracted malo, mdllem. 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 Sing. Volo 
 
 Nolo 
 
 Malo 
 
 vis 
 
 non vis 
 
 mavis 
 
 vvlt 
 
 non vult 
 
 mavult 
 
 Plur. volumus 
 
 nolumus 
 
 nrudumus 
 
 vultis 
 
 non vultis 
 
 rmvultis 
 
 volunt. 
 
 nolunt. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 malunt. 
 
 Sing, volebam, &c. 
 
 nolebam, &c. 
 
 maleham, &c. 
 
 Plur. volehamus^ &c. 
 
 nalehamus, &c. 
 Future. 
 
 malehamus, &c. 
 
 Sing, volam^ voles, et 
 
 nolam, vales, et 
 
 malam, males, et 
 
 Plur. volemus, etis, ent. 
 
 nolemus, etis, ent. 
 Perfect. 
 
 malemus, etis, ent. 
 
 Sing, volui 
 
 nolui 
 
 malui 
 
 . voluisti, &c. 
 
 noluisti, &c. 
 
 maluisti, &c. 
 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 
 volueram, &c. 
 
 nolueram, &c. 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 malueram. See. 
 
 . voluero, is, &c. 
 
 noluero, is, &c. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Present. 
 
 maluero, is, &c. 
 
 Sing, velim 
 
 nolim 
 
 malim 
 
 veils 
 
 noils 
 
 mulls 
 
 velit 
 
 nolit 
 
 malit 
 
 Plur. vellmus 
 
 nollmus 
 
 mallmus 
 
 velitis 
 
 nolltis 
 
 *. Tnalltis 
 
 velint. 
 
 nolint. 
 
 malint. 
 
IBREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 191 
 
 Sing, vellem, &c. 
 Plur. veUemus^ &c. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 nollem^ &c. 
 noUemuSj &c. 
 
 mallem^ &c. 
 mallemus, &c. 
 
 Sing, voluerim, &c. 
 Plur. volueAmus^ &c. 
 
 Perfect. 
 noltierim, &c. 
 Twlmrimus^ &c. 
 
 rmluerim, &c. 
 mcUuenmuSj &c. 
 
 Sing, voluissem, &c. 
 Plur. voluissemtLS^ &c 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 noluissem, &c. 
 noluissemus^ &c. 
 
 maluissem, &c. 
 maluissemuSy &c. 
 
 — 
 
 Imperative. 
 2d Pers. noZt, noZife. 
 2d Pers. nollto, nolitote. 
 3d Pers. nolito, nolunto. 
 
 — 
 
 Pres. velle 
 Perf. voluisse. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 itolle 
 noluisse. 
 
 malle 
 moluisse. 
 
 volens. 
 
 Pabticiple. 
 
 nolens. 
 
 _ 
 
 volendi 
 volendo. 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 nolendi. 
 
 — 
 
 
 7. Eo, I go. 
 
 
 [§ 215.] The verb eo, zzjz, z^mtw, zVe, is for the most part formed 
 regularly, according to the fourth conjugation ; only the present, 
 and the tenses derived from it, are irregular. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Sing. Eo^ is^ it. 
 Plur. Imus^ itiSy eunt. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Sing, earn, eas, eat. 
 Plur. edmus, edtis, eant. 
 
 Sing. Ibam, ibas, that. 
 Plur. ihamuSy ibatis, ibant. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Sing, irem, ires, iret. 
 Plur. iremus, iretis, irent. 
 
 Future. 
 Sing, ibo, ibis, ibit. 
 Plur. ibimus, ibitis, ibunt. 
 
 Imperative. 
 Sing. i. Sing. 2. ito. 3. ito. 
 Plur. ite. Plur. 2. itote. 3. eunto 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Pres. ire. 
 
 Perf. ivisse or isse. 
 Fut. iturum {-am, 'um) esse. 
 
192 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Gerund. Supine. 
 
 Gen. eundi. Dat. eundo, &c. itum, itu. 
 
 Participles. 
 Pres. iens, euntis. Fut. iturus, -a, -um. 
 
 In the passive voice it exists only as an impersonal, itur, itum 
 est. Some compounds, however, acquire a transitive meaning ; 
 they accordingly have an accusative in the active, and may also 
 have a complete passive : e. gr. adeo, I approach ; ineo, I enter ; 
 praetereo, I pass by. Thus the present indie, pass, adeor, 
 adiriSf aditur, adimur, adimini, adeuntur ; subjunct. ad ear ; 
 imperf. adibar ; subj. adirer ; fut. adibor, adiberis (e), adibitur, 
 &c. ; imperat. pres. adire, adimini ; fut. aditor, adeuntor ; par- 
 ticiples, adituSf adeundus. 
 
 These and all other compounds, abeo, coeo, exeo, inter eo and 
 pereo (perish), prodeo, redeo^ have usually only ii in the perfect : 
 peril, redii. Circumeo and circueo, I go round something, differ 
 only in their orthography, for in pronunciation the m was lost ; 
 in the derivatives, circuitus and circuitio, it is therefore, with 
 more consistency, not written. Veneo, I am sold, a neutral 
 passive verb, without a supine, is compounded of venum and eo, 
 and is accordingly declined like ire ; whereas ambio, I go about, 
 which changes the vowel even in the present, is decHned regu- 
 larly according to the fourth conjugation, and has the participle 
 ambiens, ambientis, and the gerund ambiendi. The part. perf. 
 pass, is ambitus, but the substantive ambitus has a short i. See 
 the Commentators on Ovid, Metam. i. 37. 
 
 Note. A second form of the future, earn instead of iho^ is mentioned by 
 Priscian, but is not found in any other writer. It is only in compounds, 
 though chiefly in late and unclassical authors, that we find -mm, ies^ iet, tent, 
 along with ibo, ibis, &c. See Bunemann on Lactant. iv. 13. 20. Transiet in 
 Tibull. i. 4. 27. is surprising. Veneo, I am sold, sometimes abandons the 
 conjugation of eo, and makes the imperfect venieham instead of veniham, for 
 so, at least, we find in good MSS. of Cicero, Philip, ii. 37., and in Verr. III. 
 47. Amhio sometimes follows eo; e. g. ambihat in Ovid, Metam. v. 361.; 
 Liv. xxvii. 18. ; Plin. Epist. vi. 33. ; Tac. Ann. ii. 19. ; and amhihunt for 
 ambient is said to occur in Pliny (AT. N. viii. 35.?). 
 
 [§216.] 8. Queo, I can. 9. Nequeo, I cannot. 
 
 These two verbs are both conjugated like eo : perfect, quivi, 
 nequivi ; supine, quitum, nequitum. Most of their forms occur ; 
 
 I 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 193 
 
 but, with the exception of the present, they are not very fre- 
 quent in prose, and some authors, such as Nepos and Caesar, 
 never use this verb at aU. Instead of nequeo, non queo also was 
 used, and in Cicero the latter is even more frequent. Quis and 
 quit are found only with non. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. Queo^ quis, quit. Nequeo, non quis, non quit. 
 
 Plur. quimu^, quitis, queunt. nequimus, nequUiSy nequeunt. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 Sing. Quibam, quibat, &c. nequlbam, nequibat, -ant. 
 
 Future. 
 Sing. Quibo. Plur. quibunt. Sing. Plur. nequibunt. 
 
 Perfect. 
 Sing. Quivi, quivit nequivi, nequisti, nequivit (iit). 
 
 Plur. quiverunt. • nequiverunt orne- 
 
 qyierunt (e). 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 nequierat, nequierant. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 Sing. Queam, queas, queat, nequeam, nequeas, nequeat. 
 
 Plur. queamus, queatis, queant. nequeamus, nequeatis, nequeant. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 Sing. Quirem, quiret. nequirem, nequiret. 
 
 Plur. quirent. nequiremus, nequirent. 
 
 Perfect. 
 Sing. quiverit. nequiverim, nequierity nequierint. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 gino-. — . nequisset. * 
 
 Plur. quissent. nequissent. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Quire, quivisse (quisse). nequire, nequivisse (nequisse). 
 
 Participle. 
 Quiens (gen. queuntis). nequiens (gen. nequeuntis). 
 
 There is also a passive form of these verbs : quitur, nequitur, quita est, ne- 
 quitum est, but it occurs very rarely, and is used, like coeptus sum, only when 
 an infinitive passive follows ; e. g. in Terence : forma in tenebris nosci non 
 quita est, the figure could not be recognised. 
 
 O 
 
194 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 [§ 217.] 10. Fio, I become, or am made. 
 
 Fio is properly an intransitive verb, the Greek (f>v(o, without 
 a supine. But owing to the affinity existing between the 
 ideas of becoming and being made, it was used also as a passive of 
 facio, from which it took the ^QV^QCt f actus sum, and the latter 
 then received the meaning ** I have become," along with that 
 of "I have been made." In consequence of this transition 
 into the passive, the infinitive became Jieri instead of the 
 original form Jiere. Hence, with the exception of the sup- 
 plementary forms from facere {Jactus, faciendus, factus sum, 
 eram, &c.) and the passive termination of the infinitive, there is 
 no irregularity in this verb. In the present, imperfect, and 
 future, it follows the third conjugation ; for the i belongs to the 
 root of the word, and is long, except in Jit and those forms in 
 which an r occurs in the inflection. (See § 16.) 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. Present 
 
 Sing. Fio^Jis,Jit. fiam^ fias^ fiat. 
 
 Plur. fimus^ fitis, fiunt. fixxmus^ fiatis, fixint 
 
 Imperfect. Imperfect. 
 
 Sing.^e&am, «s, at. fierem^ es, et. 
 
 Fhir. fiebarmis, atis, ant. , fieremus^ etis, ent. 
 
 Future. Imperative. 
 
 S'mg. fiam, fies, fiet. Pres. Sing.^. 'Phir.fite. 
 
 Vim:. fiemuSy fietis^ fievt. (rare, but well attested.) 
 
 Infinitive. 
 fieri (^factum esse, factum iri). Part. Pres. is wanting. 
 
 Note. Among the compounds the following must be noticed as defectives : 
 infit, which is used only in this third person sing., he or she begins ; e. g., 
 loqui, or with the ellipsis of loqui; and defit, defiat, defiunt, defieri, which 
 does not occur in prose. Respecting co?ifit, see above, § 183. 
 
 CHAP. LI?:. 
 
 [§ 218.] DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 The term Defective Verbs is here applied to those only in 
 which the defectiveness is striking, and which are found only in 
 certain forms and combinations, for there is, besides, a very 
 large number of defective verbs, of which certain tenses are not 
 
DEFECTIVE VERBS. 195 
 
 found on account of their meaning, or cannot be shown to have 
 been used by the writers whose works have come down to us. 
 Many of them have been noticed in the lists of verbs in the 
 preceding Chapters ; with regard to others, it must be left to 
 good taste cultivated by reading the best authors, as to whether 
 we may use e. g. cupe from cujpio^ like cape from capio^ and 
 whether we may say dor, I am given, like prodor, or putatus sut^ 
 like habitus sum. {Putatum est occurs in Cicero, p, Muren. 17.) 
 We shall here treat of the verbs ajo and inquam, I say ; fari, to 
 speak ; the perfects coepi, memini, novi and odi ; the imperatives 
 apage, ave, salve, vale ; cedo and quaeso ; and lastly o£ forern. 
 
 Y 
 
 1. Ajo, I say, say yes, or affirm. 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. Present. 
 
 Sing. Ajo, ais, ait Sing. > ajas, ajat, 
 
 Plur. ajunt. Plur. ajant. 
 
 Imperfect. (The imperative ai is obsolete. The 
 
 Sing, ajebam, ajebas, ajebat. participle ajens is used only as an ad- 
 
 Plur. ajebamus, ajebatis, ajebant. . ject. instead of qffirmativus.) 
 
 Perfect. All the rest is wanting, or unclas- 
 
 Sing. — ait (like the present). sical. 
 
 Note. In prose, as well as in poetry, am' ? do you think so ? is frequently 
 used for aisne, just as we find viden\ abirC for videsne, abisne. See § 24. The 
 comic writers, especially Terence, use the imperfect aibam, &c., as a word of 
 two syllables. 
 
 [§ 219.] 2. Inquam, I say. 
 
 This verb is used only between the words of a quotation, 
 while ait, ajunt, are found most frequently in the oratio obliqua. 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 . Present. ^ Present. 
 
 Sing. Inqttam, inquis, inquit. Sing. inquias, inquiat. 
 
 Plur. inquimus, inqmtis, inquiwnt. Plur. inquiatis, inquiant. 
 
 Imperfect. Future. 
 
 Sing, inquiebam, &c. Sing. inquies, inquiet. 
 
 Plur. inquiebamus, &c. Plur. . 
 
 Perfect. ' Imperative. 
 
 Sing. inquisti, inquit. Sing, inque, inqui^o. 
 
 Plur. inquistis, . Plur. inquite. 
 
 o 2 
 
196 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Note. The first person of the perfect (more probably ingui than inquii) is 
 not found ; the present inquam is used instead, and inquit may therefore just 
 as well be taken for the present. The present subjunctive has been here 
 given according to Priscian, p. 876., but has not yet been confirmed by any 
 other authority. 
 
 [§ 220.] 3. Fari, to speak, say. 
 
 This very irregular verb, with its compounds affdri, effdri, 
 profdri, is, generally speaking, more used in poetry than in 
 ordinary prose. The third persons of the present, fatur, fantur, 
 the imperative/ar^, and the participle /«/w5, «, um {effatum is used 
 also in a passive sense), occur most frequently. The ablative of 
 the gerund, fando, is used in a passive sense even in prose, in the 
 phrase y<2w^o audire, to know by hearsay. 
 
 Compounds : affamur^ Ovid ; affamini^ Curtius ; affabar^ Virgil ; effahor 
 and effaberis also occur in poetry. The first person for^ the subjunctive 
 fer, feris, fetur^ &c., and the participle fans in the nominative, do not occur, 
 though the other cases of fans are found in poetry. Fandus, a, um, only in 
 the combination yan^wm et nefandum; fanda, we/ancfa, which are equivalent 
 to fas et nefas. 
 
 [§221.] 4. Coepi, 5. Memmi, 6. Novi, 7. Odi, 
 
 I have begun. I remember. I know. I hate. - i 
 
 These four verbs are perfects of obsolete presents, which 
 have gone out of use, with the exception of nosco, and 
 coepiOf coepere. They consequently have those tenses only, 
 which are derived from the perfect. In meaning, memmi, novi, 
 and odi are presents ; novi, I know, shows the transition most 
 clearly, for it properly means " I have learnt to know." (See 
 § 203.) Hence the pluperfect has the meaning of an imperfect : 
 memineram, I remembered ; noveram, I knew ; oderam^ I hated, 
 not " I had hated," and the future perfect has the signification 
 of a simple future, e. g. odero, I shall hate ; meminero, I shall 
 remember. Otherwise the terminations are quite regular. 
 
 Coepi, 
 
 coepisti, 
 
 coepit. 
 
 coepirmiSy 
 
 coepistis, 
 
 coeperunt. 
 
 X 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 
 Memini, 
 
 Novi, 
 
 Odi, 
 
 meministi. 
 
 novisti (nosti). 
 
 odisti. 
 
 meminit. 
 
 novit. 
 
 odit. 
 
 meminimus, 
 
 novimuSj 
 
 odimm, 
 
 meministis, 
 
 novistis (nostis), 
 
 odisiis, 
 
 meminerunt. 
 
 noverunt (norunt). 
 
 oderurU 
 
DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 197 
 
 coeperam^ &c. 
 coepero, &c. 
 
 coeperim, &c. 
 
 coepissem^ &c. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 memineram^ &c. noveram^ &c. 
 (noram.) 
 
 Future. 
 meminero, &c. novero. 
 
 noveris^ &c. 
 (worn.) 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Perfect. 
 meminerim, &c. noverim^ &c. 
 (wonm.) 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 meminissem, &c. novissem^ &c. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 only the sing, me- , 
 
 wiewto and plur. 
 mementote. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 meminisse. novisse. 
 
 oderarn^ &c. 
 odero^ &c. 
 
 oderim^ &c. 
 odissem^ &c. 
 
 odisse. 
 
 (j)erosus, exosus, with an 
 active meaning.) 
 
 Participles 
 
 Perf. pass, coeptus 
 
 (begun). 
 Put. act. coepturus. 
 
 Note. Hence coepisse has a perfect passive coeptus (a, urn) sum; e. g. 
 Liv. XXX. 30. : quia a me helium coeptum est; xxviii. 14. : quum a nevtris 
 pvgna coepta esset; but it is used especially in connection with an infinitive 
 passive, as in pons institui coeptus est; Tyrus septimo mense, quam oppugnari 
 coepta erat^ capta est; de re puhlica considi coepti sumus; the active forms 
 coepit^ coeperat^ however, may likewise be used in this connection. Compare 
 desitus est, § 200. Compounds are occoepi, which is not unfrequently used 
 along with the regular occipio (the same as incipio), and commemini. 
 
 [§222.] 8. Apage, 9. Ave, 10. Salve, 11. Vale, 
 
 K be gone. hail. hail. farewell. 
 
 Note. Apdge is the Greek imperative airayt of aTrdyoj, and akin with 
 abigo: apage istas sorores! away with them! especially apage fe, get thyself 
 off, or, with the omission of the pronoun, apage, begone. Salveo in Plautus, 
 Trucul. ii. 2. 4., may be regarded as the present of salve. Comp. Probus, 
 Jnstit. Gram., p. 141., ed. Lindemann. Vale and ave, on the other hand, are 
 regular imperatives of valeo, I am well, and aveo, I desire ; and they are 
 mentioned here only on account of their change of meaning. 
 
 The plural is, avete, salvete, valete; the imperat. fut. aveto, salveto, valeto. 
 The future, salvehis, valehis, is likewise used in the sense of an imperative, 
 and the infinitives mostly yfithjuheo: avere, salvere, valere. 
 
 o 3 
 
198 ' LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 223.] 12. Cedo, give, tell. 
 
 This word is used as an imperative in familiar language, for 
 da and die, both with and without an accusative. A plural 
 cette occurs in old Latin. 
 
 The e is short in this word, which thus differs from the complete verb cedo^ 
 I yield, give way. 
 
 [§224.] 13. Qwae5o, I beseech. 
 
 Quaeso is originally the same as quaero, but in good prose it 
 is generally inserted in another sentence. Besides this first 
 person singular, we find only the first person plural quaesumus. 
 
 14. For em, I should be. 
 
 This imperfect subjunctive, which is conjugated regularly, 
 has arisen from fuerem of the obsolete verb fuo, and belongs 
 to sum, (See above, § 156.) 
 
 CHAP. LX. 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 [§ 225.] J. The term Impersonal Verbs strictly applies only 
 
 to those of which no other but the third person singular is used, 
 
 and which do not admit a personal subject (I, thou, he), the 
 
 subject being a proposition, an infinitive, or a neuter noun 
 
 understood. (See § 441. &c. Verbs of this kind are: 
 
 Miseret (me), I pity, perfect miseritum est 
 
 Piget {me), I regret, piguit or pigitum est, 
 
 Poenitet (me), I repent, poenituit, fut. poenitebit, 
 
 Pudet (me), I am ashamed, puduit or puditum est, 
 
 Taedet (me), I am disgusted with (taeduit very rare), per- 
 
 taesum est, 
 
 Oportet, it is necessary, oportuit, fut. oportebit. 
 
 Note. Miseruit^ the regular perfect of miseret^ occurs so seldom, that we 
 have not here noticed it. The form commonly used is miseritum or misertum 
 
IMPERSONAL VERBS. 199 
 
 est, which is derived from the impersonal me miseretur tui, which is not un- 
 common, although the deponent misereri is otherwise used only as a personal 
 verb, misereor tui. Compare the passages, Cic, j9. Ligar. 5. : cave te fratrum 
 pro salute fratris obsecrantium misereatur; in Verr. i. 30. : jam me tui misereri 
 non potest, where the verb is likewise impersonal. 
 
 [§ 226.] 2. Besides these impersonala, there are some others, 
 which likewise have no personal subject, but yet are used in the 
 third person plural, and may have a nominative (at least a neuter 
 pronoun) as their subject. Such verbs are : 
 
 Lihet (mihi), I like, choose ; perf. libuit or libitum est. 
 
 Licet (mihi), I am permitted ; perf. licuit or licitum est. 
 
 Decet (me), it becomes me, and dedecet, it does not become me ; 
 perf. decuit, dedecuit. 
 
 Liquet, it is obvious ; perf. licuit. 
 
 Note. Libuit has been mentioned .here as a perfect of libet, but it is 
 usually found only as a present, in the sense of libet. 
 
 [§ 227.] 3. There is also a considerable number of verbs 
 which are used impersonally in the third person, while their 
 other persons occur with more or less difference in meaning. 
 To these belong : interest and refert in the sense of " it is 
 of importance to," with which no nominative can be used as a 
 subject ; further, accidit. Jit, evenit, and contingit, it happens ; 
 accedit, it is added to, or in addition to ; attinet and pertinet 
 {ad aliquid), it concerns ; conducit, it is conducive ; convenit, it 
 suits ; constat, it is known or established ; expedit, it is expedient ; 
 delectat and juvat, it delights, pleases ; fallit, fugit, and praeterit 
 me, it escapes me, I do not know ; placet, it pleases ; perf. 
 placuit and placitum est ; praestat, it is better ; restat, it remains ; 
 vacat, it is wanting ; est in the sense of licet, it is permitted or 
 possible, e. g. est videre, non est dicere verum, but especially in 
 poetry and late prose writers. 
 
 [§ 228.] 4. The verbs which denote the changes of the 
 weather : pluit, it rains ; ningit, it snows ; grandinat, it hails ; 
 lapidat (perf. also lapidatum est), stones fall from heaven ; ful~ 
 gurat and fulminat, it lightens (with this difference, that fulmi- 
 nat is used of a flash of lightning which strikes an object); 
 tonat, it thunders ; lucescit and illucescit (perf. illuxit), it dawns ; 
 vesperascit and advesperascit (perf. advesperavit), the evening 
 approaches ; — in all these cases the subject understood is sup- 
 
 o 4 
 
 I 
 
200 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 posed to be deus or coelum, which are in fact often added as their 
 subjects. 
 
 [§229.] 5. The third person singular passive of a great 
 many words, especially of those denoting movement or saying, 
 is or may be used impersonally, even when the verb is neuter, 
 and has no personal passive, e. g. curritur, they or people run ; 
 itur, ventum est, clamatur, Jletur, scribitur, hibitur, &c. 
 
 [§ 230.] 6. All these impersonal verbs, as such, have no 
 imperative, the place of which is supplied by the present sub- 
 junctive, e. g. pudeat te, be ashamed of ! The participles also 
 (together with the forms derived from them, the gerund and the 
 infinitive future) are wanting, with a few exceptions, such as 
 lihens, licens and liciturus, poenitens and poenitendus, pudendus. 
 
 CHAP. LXI. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 
 
 [§ 231.] We have hitherto treated of the changes which one 
 particular form of nouns and verbs, supposed to be known (the 
 nominative in nouns, and the infinitive in verbs), may undergo 
 in forming cases and numbers, persons, tenses, moods, &c. But 
 the origin of that form itself, which is taken as the basis in in- 
 flection, is explained in that special branch of the study of lan- 
 guage, which is called Etymology. Its object is to trace all the 
 words of the language to their roots, and it must therefore soon 
 lead us from the Latin to the Greek language, since both are 
 nearly allied, and since the Greek was developed at an earlier 
 period than the Latin. Other languages, too, must be consulted, 
 in order to discover the original forms and significations. We 
 cannot, however, here enter into these investigations, and 
 must content ourselves with ascertaining, within the Latin 
 language itself, the most prominent laws in the formation of 
 new words from other more simple ones ; a knowledge of these 
 laws is useful to the beginner, since it facilitates his acquir- 
 ing the language. But we shall here confine ourselves to nouns 
 (substantive and adjective) and verbs, for the derivation and 
 
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 201 
 
 composition of pronouns and numerals have been discussed in 
 a former part of this work ; with regard to the (unchangeable) 
 particles, on the other hand, etymology is i^ecessary, as it sup- 
 plies the place of inflection. 
 
 The formation of new words from others previously existing 
 takes place either by Derivation, or the addition of certain ter- 
 minations; or by Composition, In regard to derivation, we 
 have to distinguish primitive and derivative words ; and, with 
 regard to composition, simple and compound words. We shall 
 first treat of derivation. 
 
 I. Verbs. 
 
 Verbs are derived either from other verbs or from nouns. 
 
 A. With regard to the former, we distinguish four classes of 
 verbs: 1. Frequentative; 2. Desiderative ; 3. Diminutive; and 
 4. Inchoative. 
 
 1. Frequentatives, all of which follow the first conjugation, 
 denote the frequent repetition or an increase of the action ex- 
 pressed by the primitive verb. They are derived from the 
 supine by changing the regular dtum, in the first conjugation 
 into ito, itare ; other verbs of the first conjugation as well as 
 of the others remain unchanged, the termination of the su- 
 pine, um, alone being changed into o, are. Of the former 
 kind are, e. g., clamo, clamito ; impero, imperito ; rogito, volito ; 
 of the latter, domo, domitum, domito ; adjuvo, adjUtum, adjuto ; 
 and from verbs of the third conjugation : curro, cursum, curso ; 
 cano, cantum, canto ; dico, dictum, dicto ; nosco, notum, noto ; 
 and so also accepto, pulso, defenso, gesto, quasso, tracto. Some 
 of these latter frequentatives, derived from verbs of the third 
 conjugation, serve again as primitives from which new frequen- 
 tatives are formed, as cursito, dictito, defensito. There are 
 some double frequentatives of this kind, without the interme- 
 diate form of the simple frequentative being used or known, 
 such as actito from ago {acto\ and so also lectito from lego, scrip- 
 tito from scribo, haesito from haereo, visito from video, ventito from 
 venio, advento. 
 
 Some few frequentatives with the termination ito, itare, are 
 not derived from the supine, but - from the present of the pri- 
 mitive verb. This formation is necessary when the primitive 
 
202 ' LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 verb has no supine, as is the case with lateo, paveo — latito, 
 pavito. But the following are formed in this manner with- 
 out there being such a reason: agito, noscito, quaerito, cogito. 
 Some frequentatives have the deponential form, as amplexor 
 from amplector, minitor from minor, tutor from tueor, scitor and 
 sciscitor from scisco, 
 
 [§ 232.] 2. Desideratives end in urio, urire (after the fourth 
 conjugation), and express a desire of that which is implied in 
 the primitive. They are formed from the supine of the latter, 
 e. g. esurio, esuris, I want to eat, from edo, esum ; so also coe- 
 naturio from coenatum, dicturio from dictum, empturio from 
 emptum, parturio from partum, and in this manner Cicero 
 {ad Att. ix. 10.) jocosely formed Sullaticrit et proscripturit, he 
 would like to play the part of Sulla and to proscribe. 
 
 Note. Some verbs in urio after the fourth conjugation, such as ligurire^ 
 scaturire, prurire, are not desideratives, and it should be observed that the 
 u in these words is long. 
 
 [§ 233.] 3. Diminutives have the termination illo, illare, 
 which is added to the stem of the primitive verb, without any 
 further change, and they describe the action expressed as some- 
 thing trifling or insignificant ; e. g. cantillare from cantare, to 
 sing in an undervoice, or sing with a shaking; conscrihillare, 
 scribble ; sorhillare from sorbere, sip. The number of these 
 verbs is not great. 
 
 [§ 234.] 4. Inchoatives have the termination sco, and fol- 
 low the third conjugation. They express the beginning of 
 the act or condition denoted by the primitive; e. g. caleo, I 
 am warm, calesco, I am getting or becoming warm ; areo, I am 
 dry, aresco, I begin to be dry ; langueo, I am languid, languesco, 
 I am becoming languid. It frequently happens that a pre- 
 position is prefixed to an inchoative, as in timeo, pertimesco ; 
 taceo, conticesco. The vowel preceding the termination sco, 
 scere, is either a {asco), e (esco), or i (isco\ according as the in- 
 choative is derived from a primitive of the first, second, or third 
 and fourth conjugation (in the last two cases it is isco) ; e. g. 
 
 tabasco from labare, totter. 
 pallesco from pallere, be pale. 
 ingemisco from gemere, sigh. 
 obdormisco from dormire, sleep. 
 
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 203 
 
 Many inchoatives, however, are not derived from verbs, but 
 from substantives and adjectives, e. g. 
 
 puerascO) I become childish, from puer, 
 maturesco, I become ripe, from maturus, a, um. 
 
 All inchoatives take their perfect and the tenses derived from 
 it from the primitive verb, or form it as it would be in the 
 primitive. (See Chap. LII., the list of the most important 
 inchoatives.) It must, however, be observed, that not all verbs 
 ending in sco are inchoatives. See § 203. 
 
 [§ 235.] B. In regard to the derivation of verbs from nouns, 
 we see that in general the language followed the principle of 
 giving the termination of the second conjugation to verbs of an 
 intransitive signification, and that of the first to such as have a 
 transitive signification. Thus we have, e. g., 
 
 "a) flos^ floris^ florere^ bloom. and from adjectives: 
 
 from., frondis, frondere, have fo- albu&, albere, be white, 
 
 liage. calvits, calvere, be bald. 
 
 viSi vires, mrere, be strong. flavus, flavere, be yellow. 
 
 lux, hicis, lucere, shine. hebes, hebere, be blunt or dull, 
 
 but, albus, albare, whitewash, 
 
 b) numerus, numerare, count. aptus, aptare, fit. 
 
 signum, signare, mark. liber, a, um, liberare, liberate. 
 
 fraus, fraudis, fraudare, deceive. celeber, bris, bre, celebrare, make 
 
 nomen, nominis, nominarey name. frequent, or celebrate. 
 
 indnus, vtdneris, vidnerare, wound. memor, memorare, mention. 
 
 arma, armare, arm. communis, communicare, com- 
 
 municate. 
 Both kinds are found compounded with prepositions, without the simple 
 verbs themselves being known or much used ; e. g. 
 
 Laqueus, illaqueare, entwine ; acervv^, coacervare, accumulate ; stirps, ex- 
 tirpare, extirpate ; hilaris, exhilarare, cheer. 
 
 The observation of § 147. must be repeated hei:e, that many- 
 deponents of the first conjugation (in ari) are derived from sub- 
 stantives for the purpose of expressing " to he that which the 
 substantive indicates ; " e. g. among the first verbs in the list 
 there given, we find aemulari, ancillari, architectari, aucupariy 
 augur ari ; and in like manner : comes, comitis, comitari ; dominus, 
 dominari; fur, furari. See § 237. The Latin language has 
 much freedom in formations of this kind, and we may even now 
 form similar words, just as Persius invented (or was the first, as 
 far as we know, that used) cornicari, chatter like a crow, and 
 Horace graecari, live luxuriously like a Graeculus. 
 
204 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 II. Substantives. 
 [§ 236.] Substantives are derived — 
 A. From Verbs. 
 1. By the termination or, appended in place of the um of the 
 supine in transitive verbs, to denote a man performing the action 
 implied in the verb ; e. g. 
 
 amator, monitor, lector, auditor, 
 
 adulator, fautor, condltor, condltor, 
 
 adjutor, censor, petttor, largitor, 
 
 and a great many others. Those which end in tor form femi- 
 nines in trix, as fautrix, adjutrix, victrix ; and if in some cases 
 no such feminine can be pointed out in the writings that have 
 come down to us, it does not follow, considering the facility of 
 their formation, that there never existed one. In regard to the 
 masculines in sor, the formation of feminines is more difficult, 
 but tonsor makes tonstrix ; defensor, defenstrix ; and expulsor, 
 throwing out the s, makes expultrix. 
 
 Some few substantives of this kind ending in tor are formed 
 also from nouns ; as aleator, gambler, from alea ; janitor, from 
 janua ; viator from via, 
 
 2. The same termination or, when added to the unaltered 
 stem of a word, especially of intransitive verbs, expresses the 
 action or condition denoted by the verb substantively; e. g. 
 pavere, pavor, fear ; furere, furor, fury ; nitere, nitor, shine or 
 gloss. So also, e. g. 
 
 clamor, albor, horror, favor, ardor, 
 
 amor, rubor, timor, maeror, splendor, 
 
 [§ 237.] 3. Two terminations, viz. io gen. ionis, and us, 
 gen. us, when added to the supine after throwing off the um, 
 express the action or condition denoted by the verb abstractedly. 
 Both terminations are frequently met with in substantives 
 derived from the same verb, without any material difference, as 
 concursio and concur sus, consensio and consensus ; so also con- 
 temptio and contemptus, digressio and digressus, motio and motus, 
 potio and potus, tractatio and tractatus, and others. Some verbs 
 in are which have different forms of the supine (see § 171.), 
 make also substantives of two forms ; thus we have fricatio and 
 
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 205 
 
 frictio, lavatio and lotio, potatio and potio, and according to 
 their analogy also cubatio and cubitio^ althougH the supine of 
 cubare is cubitum only. 
 
 In this manner are formed from actives and deponents, for 
 example, 
 
 a) sectio. motio, lectio. auditio. 
 cunctatio. cautio. ultio, sortitio. 
 acclamatio. admonitio, actio. largitio. 
 
 b) crepitus. fletus. cantus. ambitus, 
 sonitus. visus. congressus. ortus. 
 
 Note. Strictly speaking, the Latin language makes this difference, that 
 the verbal substantives in io denote the action or condition as actually going 
 on, and those in us as being and existing ; but this difference is frequently 
 neglected, and it is to be observed, that the writers of the silver age (es- 
 pecially Tacitus) prefer the forms in us without at all attending to the dif- 
 ference. A third termination producing pretty nearly the same meaning is 
 ura; as in jBzc/Mra, painting; cow/ec^wra, conjecture ; czfZ^wra, cultivation. Some- 
 times it exists along with the other two, as in positio, positus^ positura ; cejisio, 
 census, censura. Usually, however, one of them is preferred, in practice, 
 with a definite meaning. Thus we have mercatus, the market, and merca- 
 tura, commerce. In some substantives the termination ela produces the 
 same meaning; as querela^ complaint; loquela, speech; corruptela^ corrup- 
 tion. 
 
 [§ 238.] 4. The termination men expresses either the thing 
 to which the action belongs, both in an active and passive sense, 
 as fulmen from fulgere, lightning ; flumen from Jluere, river ; 
 agmen from agere, troop or army in its march; examen from 
 exigere, a. swarm of bees driven out : or, the means of attaining 
 what the verb expresses ; e. g. solamen, a means of consolation ; 
 nomen (from novimeri), a means of recognising, that is, a name. 
 The same thing is expressed also by the termination mentum, 
 which sometimes occurs along with men; as tegmen and tegu- 
 mentum, velamen and velamentum, but much more frequently 
 alone, as in adjumentum from adjuvare, a means of relief; con- 
 dimentum from condire, condiment, i. e. a means of seasoning; 
 documentum, a document, a means of showing or proving a 
 thing. Similar words are : 
 
 allevamentum. monumentum. additamentum. experimentum. 
 
 ornamentum. /omentum. alimentum. blandimentum. 
 
 Some substantives of this kind are derived from nouns; thus 
 from ater, black, we have atramentum. The connecting vowel 
 
/ 
 
 206 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 I 
 
 a before mentum, however, may show that a link was conceived 
 to exist between the primitive ater and the derivative atra- 
 mentum, such, perhaps, as a verb atrare, blacken. In like 
 manner we have calceamentum, a covering for the feet ; capilla- 
 mentum, a head-dress, wig. 
 
 [§ 239.] 5. The terminations bulum and ciilum (or ulum, when 
 
 c or (/ precedes) denote an instrmnent or a place serving a 
 
 certain purpose ; e. g. venahulum, a hunter's spear ; vehiculum, a 
 
 vehicle ; ' jaculum^ a javelin ; cingulum, a girdle. So also, 
 
 umbraculum. cuhiculum, ferculum. vinculum, 
 
 poculum, latibulum, stabulum. operculum. 
 
 The termination culum is sometimes contracted into clum, as in 
 vinclum ; and clum is changed into crum, and hulum into brum, 
 when there is already an I in the stem of the word ; e. g. ful- 
 crum, support ; lavacrum, bath ; sepulcrum, sepulchre ; Jlagrum, 
 scourge ; ventilabrum, A similar meaning belongs to trum in 
 aratrum, plough ; claustrum, lock ; rostrum, beak. Some words 
 of this class are derived from substantives, as turibulum, censer 
 (tus, turis) ; acetabulum, vinegar cruet ; candelabrum, can- 
 delabre. 
 
 6. Other and less productive terminations are a and o, which, 
 when appended to the stem of the word, denote the subject of 
 the action : conviva, guest ; advena, stranger ; scriba, scribe ; 
 transfuga, deserter ; erro, vagrant ; bibo, drunkard ; comedo, 
 glutton. By means of the termination io words are derived 
 from substantives, denoting a trade to which a person belongs, 
 as ludio, the same as histrio, an actor; pellio, furrier; restio, 
 rope maker. 
 
 "ium expresses the effect of the verb and the place of the 
 action ; e. g. gaudium, joy ; odium, hatred ; colloquium, colloquy ; 
 conjugium and connubium, marriage ; aedijicium, building, edifice; 
 re- and confugium, place of refuge ; comitium, place of as- 
 sembly. 
 
 -igo expresses a state or condition : origo from oriri, origin ; 
 vertigo, giddiness ; rubigo, a blight ; petigo and impetigo, scab ; 
 prurigo, itch; and hence, porrigo, scurf. A similar meaning 
 belongs to ido in cupldo, libido, formido. 
 
 [§ 240.] B. From other Substantives. 
 1. The diminutives, or, as Quintilian, i. 5. 46., calls them. 
 
 I 
 
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 207 
 
 vocabula deminuta, are mostly formed by the terminations ulus, 
 ula, ulum, or cuius, a, um, according to the gender of the pri- 
 mitive word : ulus, a, um, is appended to the stem after the 
 removal of the termination of the oblique cases, e. g. virga, 
 virgula ; servus, servulus ; puer, puerulus ; rex (regis), regulus ; 
 caput (capitis), capitulum. So also : 
 
 portula. nummulus, rapulum. facula. 
 
 litterula, hortulus. oppidulum, adolescentulus. 
 
 Instead of ulus, a, um, we find olus, a, um, when the termination 
 of the primitive substantive, us, a, um, is preceded by a vowel, 
 e. g. 
 
 Jiliolus. gloriola, ingeniolum, 
 
 alveolus. lineola. horreolum. 
 
 The termination cuius, a, um, is sometimes appended to the 
 nominative, without any change, viz. in the words in I and r, 
 and those in os and us of the third declension, which take an r 
 in the genitive ; e. g. 
 
 corculum, fraterculus. flosculus, munusculum. 
 tuherculum. sororcula, osculum, corpusculum. 
 
 And so also pulvisculus, vasculum from vas, vasis ; arhuscula from 
 the form arbos ; and in a somewhat different manner rumusculus 
 from rumor ; lintriculus and ventriculus from linter and venter. 
 Sometimes the s of the nominative terminations is and es is 
 dropped, as in 
 
 igniculus. aedicula, nubecula. diecula. 
 
 pisciculus. pellicula. vulpecula. plebecula. 
 
 In words of other terminations of the third declension, and 
 in those of the fourth, i steps in as a connecting vowel between 
 the stem of the word and the diminutive termination cuius; e. g. 
 
 ponticulus. denticulus. versiculus. anicula. 
 
 particula. ossiculum. articulus. corniculum. 
 
 coticula. reticulum. sensiculus. geniculum. 
 
 The termination ellus, a, um, occurs only in those words of 
 the first and second declensions which have I, n, or r in their 
 terminations. Thus oculus makes ocellus; tabula, tabella; asinus, 
 asellus; liber, libellus; libra, libella; lucrum, lucellum. So also 
 
208 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 popellus, fabella, lamella^ patella, agellus, cultellus, Jlabellum, fla- 
 gellum, labellum, sacellum, Cistella is the same as cistula, and 
 thence we have again cistellula, just as puellula from puella, 
 Catellus from canis, BJid porcellus ^roinporcuSf cannot be brought 
 under any rule. The termination illus, a, um, occurs more 
 rarely, as in bacillum, sigillum, tigillum, pupillus, like pupulus, 
 from the obsolete pupus; villum from vinum. So also codicilhis, 
 lapillus, anguilla. The termination unculus, «, um, is appended 
 chiefly to words in o, gen. onis or inis; as, 
 
 sermunculus. ratiuncula. homunculus, 
 
 pugiunculus, quaestiuncula. virguncula, 
 
 A few diminutives of this sort are formed also from words of 
 other terminations, viz. avunculus from avus, domuncula from 
 domus, furunculus from fur, ranunculus from rana. The dimi- 
 nutive termination leus occurs seldom ; but it is found in equus, 
 equuleus; acus, aculeus; liinnus, hinnuleus. 
 
 Note. Only a few diminutives differ in gender from their primitive words, 
 as aculeus from acusy fem. ; curriculum from currus, masc. ; and also ranunculus 
 from rana, and scamillus (a foot-stool) from scamnum, along with which 
 however we also find the regular diminutives ranula and scamellum. Hence, 
 there are instances of double diminutives in cases where the primitives have . 
 double forms (see $ 98.) ; e. g. catillus and catillum ; pileoltis and pileolum, 
 and a few others. The diminutives of common nouns ($ 40.) are said to have 
 regularly two forms, one in zas and the other in a, to designate the two 
 sexes, as infantulus and infantula, tirunculus, a, from infans and tiro. 
 
 [§ 24i] 2. The termination ium appended to the radical syl- 
 lable of the primitive expresses either an assemblage of things or 
 persons, or their relation to one another ; e. g. collega, col- 
 legium, an assembly of men who are collegae (colleagues) of one 
 another; so convivium, repast, or assembly of convivae; ser- 
 vitium, the domestics, also servitude ; sacerdotium, the office of 
 priest ; minister, ministerium, service ; exul, exilium, exile ; cen- 
 sors, consortium, community. When this termination is ap- 
 pended to verbal substantives in or, it denotes the place of the 
 action, as in repositorium, repository ; conditorium, a place where 
 a thing is kept, tomb ; auditorium, a place where people assemble 
 for the purpose of listening to a person. 
 
 [§ 242.] 3. -arium denotes a receptacle ; e. g. granarium, a 
 granary or place where grain is kept ; armarium (arma), a cup- 
 board ; armamentarium, arsenal, or place where the armamenta 
 
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 209 
 
 are kept. So also plantarium and seminarium, aerarium, colum- 
 harium, tabularium, valetudinarium. 
 
 [§ 243.] 4. —etum appended to the names of plants denotes the 
 place where they grow in great number; e. g. quercus, quer- 
 cetum, a plantation of oaks ; so also vinetum) lauretum, esculetum, 
 dumetum, myrtetum, olivetum; and, after the same analogy, sax- 
 etum, a field covered with stones ; and, with some change, salic- 
 turn (from saJix), pasture, instead of salicetum; virgultum instead 
 of virguletum, arhustum from arbos (for arbor), instead of arbo- 
 retum. 
 
 [§ 244.] 5. -Ue appended to names of animals indicates the 
 place in which they are kept ; e. g. bubile (rarely bovile), stall 
 of oxen ; equile, stable (of horses) ; so also caprile, hoedile, ovile. 
 Some which are formed from verbs indicate the place of the 
 action expressed by the verb, as cubile, sedile. All these words 
 are properly neuters of adjectives, but their other genders are 
 not used. Compare § 250. ' 
 
 [§ 245.] 6. With regard to patronymics, or names of descent, 
 which the Latin poets have adopted from the poetical language 
 of the Greeks, the student must be referred to the Greek 
 grammar. The most common termination is ides, as Priamus, 
 Priamides; Cecrops, Cecropides; names in eus and cles make 
 %des (sihrjs) ; e. g. Atrides, Pelides, Heraclidae. The names in 
 as of the first declension make their patronymics in ades; as 
 Aeneas, Aeneades. The termination iades should properly occur 
 only in names ending ivTius, such as Thestius, Thestiades; but 
 it is used also in other names, according to the requirements of 
 the particular verse ; as Laertes, Laertiades ; Atlas, Atlantiades; 
 Abas, Abantiades; Telamon, Telamoniades. 
 
 The feminine patronymics are derived from the masculines, 
 ides being changed into is. Ides into eis, and iades into ias; e. g. 
 Tantalides, Tantalis; Nereus, Nereis; Thestius, Thestias. Aene- 
 ades (from Aeneas) alone makes the feminine Aeneis, because the 
 regular feminine, Aeneas, would be the same as the primitive. 
 In some instances we find the termination me or ione, as Nep- 
 tunine, Acrisione, 
 
 [§ 246.] C. From Adjectives. 
 1. The termination itas is the most common in forming sub- 
 stantives denoting the quality expressed by the adjective as an 
 
n 
 
 210 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 abstract notion, and is equivalent to the English ty or ity. The 
 adjective itself in appending itas undergoes the same changes 
 as in its oblique cases, especially in the one which ends in L 
 Thus from atrox, atroci, we obtain atrocitas; from cupidus, 
 cupidi, cupiditas. So also capax, capacitas; celer, celeritas; 
 saluber, saluhritas; crudelis, crudelitas; facilis, facilitas; clarus, 
 claritas ; fecv/ndus, fecunditas ; verus, Veritas, Libertas is formed 
 without a connecting vowel, and facultas and difflcultas with 
 a change of the vowel, as in the adverb difficulter. 
 
 The adjectives in ius make their substantives in ietas; e. g. 
 anxietas, ebrietas, pietas, varietas; those in stus make them in 
 stas: honestas, venustas, vetustas ; in a similar manner potestas 
 and. voluntas are formed from posse and veJle. 
 
 2. Another very common termination is ia, but it occurs 
 only in substantives derived from adjectives of one termi- 
 nation, which add ia to the crude form of the oblique cases. 
 From audax, dat. audaci, we have audacia, and from concorsy 
 concordi, concordia. So also clemens, dementia; constans, con- 
 stantia; impudentia, elegantia; appetentia and despicientia occur 
 along with appetitio and appetitus, despectio and despectus. Some 
 adjectives in us and er, however, likewise form their substan- 
 tives in ia; e. g. miser, miseria; angustus, angustia; perfidus^ 
 perfidia; and several verbal adjectives in cundus; as, facundus, 
 facundia; iracundus, iracundia; verecundus, verecundia. 
 
 [§ 247.] 3. There are numerous substantives in which tUdo is 
 appended to the case of the adjective ^ding in i; e. g. acritudo, 
 aegritudo, altitudo, crastitudo, longitudo, magnitmdo, fortitudo, 
 similitudo; and in polysyllables in tus, tudo directly grows out 
 of this termination, as in consuetudo, mansuetudo, inquietudo, 
 sollicitudo, Valetudo stands alone. Some of these substantives 
 exist along with other forms, as beatitudo, claritudo, Jirmi- 
 tudo, lenitudo, and sanctitudo, along with beatitas, claritas, fir- 
 mitas, &c. In these cases the words in Udo seem to denote the 
 duration and peculiarity of the quality more than those in itas. 
 To these we must add the termination monia, which produces 
 the same signification, e. g. sanctimonia, castimonia, acrimonia, 
 after the analogy of which parsimonia and querimojiia (stronger 
 than querela) are formed from verbs. 
 
 4. Substantives in itia, from adjectives in us, are of more rare 
 occurrence, as justitia from Justus, justi. So avaritia, laetitia, 
 maestitia, pudicitia; but also tristitia from tristis. 
 
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 211 
 
 5. The termination edo occurs only in a few substantives ; as 
 albedo, dulcedo, gravedo (heaviness or cold in the head), pinguedo 
 (along with pinguitudo), 
 
 , III. Adjectives. 
 
 Adjectives iire derived : — 
 
 A. From Verbs. 
 
 [§ 248.] 1. With the termination hundus, chiefly from verbs 
 of the first conjugation, e. g. errabundus from err are, cogita- 
 hundus from cogitare, gratulabundus from gratulari, popula- 
 bundus from populari. Their signification is, in general, that of 
 a participle present, with the meaning strengthened, a circum- 
 stance which we must express in English by the addition of other 
 words ; e. g. haesitabundus, full of hesitation ; deliberabundus, 
 fuU of deliberation ; mirabundus, full of admiration ; venera- 
 bundus, full of veneration ; lacrimabundus, weeping profusely. 
 Thus Gellius explains laetabundus as one qui abunde laetus est 
 There are but few adjectives of this kind derived from verbs of 
 the third conjugation ; fremebundus, gemebundus, furibundus, 
 ludibundus, moribundus, nitibundus. There is only one from a 
 verb of the second conjugation, viz. pudibundus; and likewise 
 one only from a verb of the fourth, lascivibundus. 
 
 Note. These verbal adjectives in bundus however cannot be regarded as 
 mere participles, for in general tliey do not govern any case. But We 
 find in Livy the expressions vitabundus castra^ mirahundi vanam speciem. A 
 considerable list of such expressions is given in Ruddimannus, Instit. Gram- 
 mat. Lat. torn. i. p. 309. ed. Lips. . * 
 
 Some verbal adjectives in cundus are of a similar kind: 
 facundus, eloquent ; iracundus, irascible ; verecundus, fuU of 
 bashfulness ; rubicundus, the same as rubens, reddish. 
 
 [§ 249.] 2. The ending idus, chiefly in adjectives formed from 
 intransitive verbs, simply denotes the quality expressed by the 
 verb : 
 
 calidus, from calere, rubidus, from rubere. 
 
 algidus, from algere, turgidus, from turgere. 
 
 madidus, from mddere. rapidus, from rapere. 
 
 The termination uus is of more rare occurrence ; e. g. con- 
 gruus from congruo, agreeing; assiduus, nocuus and innocuus, 
 
 p 2 
 
212 LATIN GRAMMAE. 
 
 When derived from transitive verbs, it gives to the adjective a 
 passive meaning, as in irriguus, well watered ; conspicuus, visi- 
 ble; individuus, indivisible. 
 
 3. The terminations ilis and Ulis denote the possibility of a 
 thing in a passive sense; e. g. amahilis, easy to love, hence 
 amiable ; placahilis, easy to be conciliated ; delebilis, easy to be 
 destroyed; vincibilis, easy to be conquered; facilis, easy to do; 
 docilis, docile ; fragilis, fragile. Some of these adjectives, how- 
 ever, have an active meaning : horribilis, producing horror, hor- 
 rible ; terrihilis, terrible, that is, producing terror; fertilis, 
 fertile. 
 
 4. -ax appended to the stem of the verb expresses a pro- 
 pensity, and generally a faulty one : 
 
 pugnax, furax. 
 
 edax and vorax, audax, 
 
 loquax. rapax. 
 
 The few adjectives in iilus have a similar meaning, as credulus, 
 credulous ; hibulus, fond of drinking ; querulus, querulous. 
 
 [§ 250.] B. From Substantives, viz. 
 a) From Appellatives : 
 
 1. The ending eus denotes the material, and sometimes simi- 
 larity, e. g. 
 
 ferreus. ligneus, plumheus, virgineus. 
 
 ■ aureus, citreus, cinereus. igneus, 
 
 argenteus, buxeus, corporeus, vitreus. 
 
 Some adjectives of this kind have a double form in -neus and 
 -nus ; as, eburneus and eburnus, ficulneus 2CiAjiculnus, iligneus 
 and ilignus, querneus and quernus, saligneus and salignus. 
 
 2. -icus expresses belonging or relating to a thing ; e. g. 
 classicus from classis ; civicus, relating to a citizen ; dominicus, 
 belonging to a master; rusticus^ rur^l ; aulicus, relating to a 
 court ; bellicuSf relating to war, &c. 
 
 3. The termination His (comp. § 20.) has the same meaning, 
 but assumes also a moral signification, e. g. civilis and hostilis, 
 the same as civicus and hosticus, but also answering to our civil 
 and hostile. So servilis, senilis, anilis, juvenilis, puerilis, virilis, 
 
 4. The endings aceus and icius sometimes express a ma- 
 terial and sometimes the origin, e. g. chartaceus, membranaceus. 
 
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 213 
 
 papyraceus ; caementicius, latericius, patricius, trihunicius. So 
 also those derived from participles : collaticius, arisen from con- 
 tributions ; commenticius, fictitious ; suhditicius, supposititious, 
 and others. 
 
 [§ 251.] 5. The termination dlis (in English at) is appended 
 not only to words in a, but also to substantives of other ter- 
 minations, in which, however, the termination is appended 
 to the crude form of the oblique cases ; e. g. ancora, conviva^ 
 letum — ancoralis, convivalis, letalis ; but from rex, regis, we 
 have regalis ; virgo, virginalis ; sacerdos, sacerdotalis ; caput, 
 capitalis ; corpus, corporalis. So also auguralis, aditialis, comi- 
 tialis, annalis, Jluvialis, mortalis, novalis, socialis, and others. 
 Also from proper names, as Augustalis, Claudialis, Flavialis, 
 Trajanalis, to denote classes of priests instituted in honour of 
 those emperors. The ending aris is somewhat more seldom, 
 and principally occurs in such words as contain an /; such as, 
 articularis, consularis, popularis, puellaris, vulgaris, Apollinaris. 
 
 The termination atilis denotes fitness for the thing expressed 
 by the root ; as, aquatilis, Jluviatilis, volatilis. 
 
 6. The termination ius occurs most frequently in derivatives 
 from personal nouns in or ; e. g. accusatorius, amatorius, alea- 
 torius, censorius, imperatorius, praetorius, uxorius. It occurs 
 more rarely in substantives of other terminations, though we 
 have regius, patrius, aquilonius. From substantives in or which ^ 
 do not denote persons, but abstract notions, adjectives are formed 
 by simply appending us ; as decor, decorus, and so also canorus, 
 odorus, honorus (less frequently used than honestus), 
 
 [§ 252.] 7. -Inus is found especially in derivations from names 
 of animals (especially to denote their flesh), e. g. 
 
 asininus. ferinus, haedinus anserinus, 
 
 caninus. equinus, cahallinus, anatinus. 
 
 camelinus. taurinus, arietinus, viperinus. 
 
 But it also occurs in adjectives derived from names of other 
 living beings, e. g. divinus, libertinus, inquilinus (from incolci), 
 masculinus, femininus (marinus, living in the sea, stands alone). 
 Medicina, sutrina, tonstrina, pistrinum, textrinum, are to be 
 explained by the ellipsis of a substantive, and denote the locality 
 in which the art or trade is carried on. 
 
 p 3 
 
214 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 The termination mus, on the other hand, occurs chiefly in 
 derivations from names of plants and minerals, to denote the 
 material of which a thing is made ; e. g. cedrmus, fagmus, 
 adamanfinus, crystalUnuSf and the ending tinus in derivative 
 adjectives denoting time, as crastinus, diutmus, hornotinus, an- 
 notinus. See § 20. 
 
 8. The termination arius expresses a general relation to the 
 noun from which the adjective is formed, but more particularly 
 the occupation or profession of a person ; e. g. 
 
 coriarius, carbonarius. scapharius. ostiarius, 
 
 statuarius. aerarius. navicularius, consiliarius. 
 
 sicarius, argentarius, codicarius, classiarius, 
 
 9. The ending osus denotes fulness or abundance ; as in 
 
 aerumnosus, aquosus, bellicosus. 
 
 animosus. lapidosus- caliginosus. 
 
 artificiosus. vinosus, tenehricosus. 
 
 The ending uosus occurs exclusively in derivations from words 
 of the fourth declension : actuosus, portuosus, saltuosus, vul- 
 tuosus ; but also monstruosus which is used along with monstrosus. 
 
 10. The termination lentus denotes plenty, and is commonly 
 preceded by the vowel u, and sometimes by o : 
 
 fraudulentus. vinolentus. pulverulentus. 
 
 turhulentus. opulentus. violentus. 
 
 esculentus, potulentus. sanguinolentus, 
 
 11. Less productive and significant terminations are ; -anus 
 which denotes belonging to a thing : urhanus, montanus, humanus 
 (from homo). (Respecting the adjectives formed from numerals 
 by means of this termination, see § 118. Thus we &nd febris 
 tertiana, quartana, a fever returning every third or fourth day) ; 
 — Ivus generally denotes the manner or nature of a thing : fur- 
 tivus, votivus, aestivuSy tempestivus ; also from participles : capti- 
 vus, nativusy sativus ; — emus denotes origin : fraternus^ maternus, 
 paternus, infernuSi externus. The same termination and urnus 
 occur in adjectives denoting time : vernus, hibernus, liesternus, 
 aeternus (from aeviternus), diurnus, nocturnus ; — itimus occurs in 
 
 Jinitimus, legitimus, maritimus. The termination -ster in the 
 adjectives mentioned in § 100. denotes the place of abode or 
 a quality. 
 
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 215 
 
 y 
 
 [§ 253.] A very extensive class of derivative adjectives end 
 in atus^ like participles perfect passive of the first conjugation, 
 but they are derived at once from substantives, without its 
 being possible to show the existence of an intermediate verb. 
 Thus we have, e. g., aurum and auratus^ gilt ; but a verb aurare 
 does not occur, and its existence is assumed only for the sake of 
 derivation. Some adjectives of this kind are formed from sub- 
 stantives in is and end in itus, as auritus, provided with ears ; 
 pellitus, covered with a skin; turritus, having towers, and so 
 also mellitus, sweet as honey. Some few are formed by the 
 ending utus from substantives in us, gen. us ; as, cornutus, as- 
 tutus; and according to this analogy nasutus, from nasus, i. 
 Those in atus are very numerous, e. g. 
 
 barbatus. calceatus, aeratus, ' 
 
 togatus. clipeatus, dentatus, 
 
 galeatus. oculatus. falcatus. 
 
 [§ 254.] b) From Proper Names. 
 
 We may here distinguish four classes: — 1. names of men, 
 2. of towns, 3. of nations, 4. of countries. 
 
 1. The termination ianus is the most common in forming; 
 adjectives from Roman names of men, not only from those 
 ending in ius, such as Tullianus, Servilianus, but also from 
 those in tis and other endings ; as Crassianus, Marcellianus, Pau- 
 lianus, Caesarianus, Catonianus, Ciceronianus : anus occurs only 
 in names in a, and is therefore found less frequently; as 
 Cinnanus, Sullanus, still, on the other hand, we find septa 
 Agrippiana, legio Galbiana, Gracchus is the only name in us 
 that commonly makes Gracchauus ; for Augustanus, Lepidanus, 
 and Lucullanus occur along with Augustianus, Lepidianus, and 
 Lucullianus. The termination inus is found chiefly in derivatives 
 from names of families, e. g. Messalinus, Paulinus, Rufinus, 
 Agrippina, Plancina ; in real adjectives it occurs much more 
 rarely, but it is well established in Jugurtha, Jugurthinus (for 
 which however Jugurthanus also might have been used) ; Plau- 
 tus, Plautinus ; Verves, Verrinus, to distinguish them from 
 Plautius, Plautianus ; Verrius, Verrianus. In Suetonius, more- 
 over, we find belium Viriathinum, fossa Drusina, and in Cicero 
 oratio Metellina (an oration delivered against Metellus), ad Att, 
 i. 13. ; belium Antiochinum, Philip, xi, 7. ; and partes Antio- 
 
 V 4 
 
216 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 chinae, ad Fam. ix. 8. The termination eus in Caesar eus, 
 Herculeus, Romuleus, is used only by poets. 
 
 There are two terminations for forming adjectives from Greek 
 names of men, eus or lus (in Greek suos, see § 2.) and wus. 
 Some names form adjectives in both terminations with a slight 
 difference in meaning, e. g. Philippeus and Philippicus^ Pytha- 
 goreus and Pyihagoricus, Isocrateus and Isocraticus, Homerius 
 and Homericus. Of others, one form only is used, as De- 
 mosthenicus, Platonicus^ Socraticus. To these we must add 
 those in -iacus formed from names in ias, e. g. Archias. On the 
 other hand, we have Antiochius, Aristotelius, or with a different 
 pronunciation, Achilleus, Epicureus, Heracleus, Sophocleus, Theo- 
 doreus. Sometimes adjectives in eus are formed also from Latin 
 names, -though, at the best period of the language, never without 
 a definite reason ; e. g. in Cicero, in Verr. iii. 49., Marcellia and 
 Verria, Greek festivals in honour of those persons; but after- 
 wards we find, without this peculiar meaning, Augusteus, Lu- 
 culleus (in Pliny and Suetonius), Neroneus, Roman objects being 
 thus designated by words with a Greek termination. 
 
 Note. It must however be observed that the Roman gentile names in lus were 
 originally adjectives, and were always used as such. We thus read lex Cor- 
 nelia., Julia., Tullia, via'Flaminia, Valeria, Appia, aqua Julia, circus Flaminius, 
 theat^um Pompejum, liorrea Sulpicia, instead of the adjectives in anu^. IS'ay, the 
 Romans made this very proper distinction, that the adjectives in ius denoted 
 every thing which originated with the person in question and was destined for 
 public use, while those in anus denoted that which was named after the 
 person for some reason or other ; e. g. lex Sulpicia, but seditio Sulpiciana ; 
 aqua Appia, but mala Appiana ; porticus Pompeja, but classis Pompejana, &c. 
 The former meaning is also expressed when the name itself is used adjectively, 
 as aquxi Trajana, portus Trajanus, though an adjective in ianus was formed 
 even from names ending in anus, as malum Sejanianum, SCtum Silanianum. 
 According to this analogy Augustus, a, um, was used for Augustianus, Augus- 
 tanus, or Augustalis ; e. g. domus Augusta, pax Augusta, scriptores historiae 
 Augustae. The poets went still further, and Horace, for example (Carm. iv. 
 5. 1.) says; Romulae gentis custos, for Romuleae. 
 
 [§ 255.] 2. From names of places, and chiefly from those 
 of towns, adjectives are derived ending in ensis, Inus, as and 
 anus,, 
 
 a) -ensis, also from common or appellative nouns, e. g. castr en- 
 sis from castra ; circensis from circus ; and from names of towns : 
 Cannae, Cannensis ; Catina, Catinensis ; Ariminum, Ariminensis ; 
 Comunif Comensis ; Mediolanum, Mediolanensis ; Sulmo, Sul- 
 monensis ; from (Greek) towns in la (ea) : Antiochensis, Antigo- 
 
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 217 
 
 nensis, Attalensis, Nicomedensis, but in Heracliensis the i is 
 preserved. 
 
 /S) -Inus from names in la and ium ; e. g. Ameria, Amerinus ; 
 Aricia, Aricinus ; Florentia, Florentinus ; Caudiunif Caudinus ; 
 Clusium, Clusinus ; Canusium, Canusinus, And so also from 
 Latium, Latinus, and from Capitolium, Capitolinus. 
 
 7) -as (for all genders) is used less extensively, and only 
 forms adjectives from names of towns in um, though not from 
 all. It occurs in Arpinum, Arpinas ; Aquinum, Aquinas ; 
 Privernunii Privernas ; Ferentinum, Ferentinas {ager)\ Casili- 
 num, Casilinas (along with Casilinensis), But Ravenna also 
 makes Ravennas ; Capena, Capenas ; Ardea, Ardeas ; Inter- 
 amna, Interamnas (also ager) ; Frusino, Frusinas, Antium 
 makes Antias, but we find also Antiense templum and Antiatinae 
 sortes. 
 
 S) -anus from names of towns in a and ae ; e. g. Roma, Ro- 
 manus ; Alba, Albanus* ; Sparta, Spartanus ; Cumae, Cu- 
 manus ; Syracusae, Syracusanus ; Thehae, Tliebanus ; also from 
 some in um and i : Tusculum, Tusculanus ; Fundi, Fundanus. 
 
 [§ 256.] Greek adjectives, however, formed from names of 
 towns, or such as were introduced into Latin through the litera- 
 ture of the Greeks, follow different rules which must be learned 
 from a Greek grammar. We will here only remark that the 
 most frequent ending is lus, by means of which adjectives are 
 formed also from Greek names of countries and islands ; e. g. 
 Aegyptus, Aegyptius ; Lesbos, Lesbius ; Rhodus, Rhodius ; Co- 
 rinthus, Corinthius ; Fphesus, Fphesius ; Chius, Chius (instead 
 of Chiius) ; Lacedaemon, Lacedaemonius ; Marathon, Maratho- 
 nius ; Salamis, Salaminius ; Eretria, Eretrius. Other names 
 in « take the termination aeus, as Smyrna, Smyrnaeus ; Tegea, 
 Tegeaeus ; Larissa, Larissaeus ; Perga, Pergaeus, and so also 
 Cumae (Kvfjbrj) makes the Greek adjective Cumaeus, In the 
 case of towns not in Greece, even when they are of Greek 
 origin, we most frequently find the termination mus : Tarentum, 
 Tarentinus ; Agrigentum, Agrigentinus ; Centuripae, Centuri- 
 pinus ; Metapontum, Metapontinus ; Rhegium, Rheginus, whereas 
 the Latin Regium Lepidi makes the adjective Regiensis. It not 
 unfrequently happened that the Romans, as may be observed 
 
 * Albaniis is formed from Alba Longa, Albensis from Alha on lake Fucinus. 
 
218 LATIN GRAMMAE. 
 
 in some instances already mentioned, formed adjectives from 
 Greek names of towns in their own way, and without any 
 regard to the Greek forms ; e. g. Atheniensis instead of Athe- 
 naeus, Thehanus instead of Thehaeus (while Thehaicus is an ad- 
 jective derived from the Egyptian Thebes), Eretriensis along 
 with EretriuSy Syracusanus along with Syracusius, Eleusinus 
 more frequently than the Greek form Eleusinius. The Greek 
 ending svs was most commonly changed into ensis ; sometimes, 
 however, it was retained along with the Latin form, as Hali- 
 carnasseus and Halicarnassensis. In like manner the Greek 
 It7)s was sometimes retained, as in Ahderites ; and sometimes 
 changed into anus, as in Panormitanus, Tyndaritanus, especially 
 in all the Greek name^ of towns compounded with polis, as 
 Neapolitanus, Megalopolitanus, The other Greek terminations 
 are usually retained in Latin. 
 
 [§ 257.] 3. From names which originally belong to nations, 
 adjectives are formed in icus and ius, in most cases in icus, e. g. 
 from Afer, Britannus, Gallus, Germanus, Italus, Marsus, Medus, 
 Celta, Persa, Scytha, Arabs, Aethiops, we have the adjectives 
 Africus, Britannicus, Celticus, Arahicus, &c. ; those in ius are 
 formed from some Greek names, as Syrus, Syrius ; Cilix, 
 Cilicius ; Thrax, Thracius. Other names of nations are at 
 once substantives and adjectives, as Graecus, Etruscus, Sardus, 
 or adjectives and at the same time substantives, as Romanus, 
 Latinus, Sahinus. Other substantive names again serve indeed 
 as adjectives, but still form a distinct adjective in icus, as His- 
 panus, Hispanicus ; Appulus, Appulicus ; Samnis, Samniticus. 
 In like manner, Caeres, Vejens, Carriers, Tihurs are both 
 substantives and adjectives, but still form distinct adjectives 
 according to the analogy of names of towns : Caeretanus, Vejen- 
 tanus, Camertinus, Tiburtinus, 
 
 Note. It must be remarked that poets and the later prose writers, in ge- 
 neral, use the substantive form also as an adjective ; e.g. Marsm aper^ Colcha 
 venenuy although Colchicus and Marsicus exist ; Herat. Carm. iv. 6. 7. : Dar- 
 danas turres quateret ; vers. 12. : in pulvere Teucro ; vers. 18.: Achivis Jlammis 
 urere^ instead of Achaicie. And this is not only the case with these forms of 
 the second declension, which externally resemble adjectives, but Ovid and 
 Juvenal say Numidae leones, Numidac ursi instead of Numidici ; and Persius 
 says : Ligus ora for Ligustica. The Greek feminine forms of names of nations 
 are likewise used as adjectives ; thus Virgil says : Cressa pJiaretra for Cretica^ 
 Amonis ora for Ausonia, and the like. The same liberty is taken by poets 
 with the names of rivers m us'. Thus Horace, Carm. iv. 4. 38. has : Metau- 
 
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 219 
 
 rumflumen; de Art. Poet 18. : flumen Rhenum. Even prosewriters sometimes 
 follow their example in this respect: Plin. Hist. Nat. iii. 16. : ostium Erida- 
 nttm; Caes. B. G. iii. 7., and Tacit. Ann. i. 9., Hist. iv. 12. : mare Oceanum. 
 
 [§ 258.] 4. The names of countries, with some exceptions, 
 such as the Latin names of districts, Latium and Samnium, and 
 those borrowed from the Greek language, Aegyptus, Epirus, Per sis, 
 are themselves derived from the names of nations ; e. g. Bri- 
 tannia, Gallia, Italia, Syria, Thracia, sometimes with slight 
 changes, as in Sardi, Sardinia; and Siculi, Sieilia. Africa and 
 Corsica are real adjectives, to which terra is understood. From 
 some of these countries, adjectives are formed witii the terminations 
 ensis and anus, as Graeciensis, Hispaniensis, Siciliensis; Africanus, 
 Gallicanus, Germanicianus, which must be carefully distinguished 
 from the adjectives derived from the names of the respective 
 nations. Thus exercitus Hispaniensis signifies an army stationed 
 in Spain, but not an army consisting of Spaniards ; but spartum 
 Hispanicum is a plant indigenous in Spain. The following are 
 some peculiar adjectives of Greek formation : Aegyptiacus, Sy~ 
 riacus. Graecanicus is strangely formed, and expresses Greek 
 origin or Greek fashion. 
 
 [§ 259.] C. From other Adjectives. 
 
 Diminutives are formed from some adjectives by the termina- 
 tions ulus, olus, cuius, and ellus, according to the rules which 
 were given above, § 240., with regard to diminutive substantives. 
 Thus we have parvulus, horridulus, nasutulus, primulus ; au- 
 reolus ; pauperculus, leviculus, tristiculus ; misellus, novellus, 
 pulchellus, tenellus. Double diminutives are formed from, paucus 
 and paulus : paululus or pauxillus, and pauxillulus, a, um ; and 
 from bonus {benus), hellus and bellulus. Respecting the diminu- 
 tives derived from comparatives, comp. § 104. 2. Note. 
 
 The termination aneus appended to the stem of an adjective 
 (and participle) in us, expresses a resemblance to the quality 
 denoted by the primitive ; e. g. supervacaneus, of a superfluous 
 nature ; but there are only few words of this kind : rejectaneus, 
 suhitanev^, collectaneus, and, according to. their analogy, consen- 
 taneus, praecidaneus, succidaneus. 
 
 [§ 260.] Besides derivation new words are also formed by 
 composition. In examining such Avords we may consider either 
 the first or the second part of which a compound consists. 
 
 The first word is either a noun, a verb, or a particle. The 
 
220 . LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 second remains unchanged, e. g. benefacio, beneficium, maledico, 
 satago ; a contraction takes place only in nolo, from ne (for non) 
 and volOf and in mdlo, from mage (for magis) and volo, Prepb- 
 sitions are used more frequently than any other particles in 
 forming compound words. Respecting their signification and 
 the changes produced in pronunciation by the meeting of hete- 
 rogeneous consonants, see Chap. LXVI. 
 
 There are only a few words in which verbs form the first 
 part of a compound, and wherever this is the case, the verb 
 facio forms the latter part, as in arefacio, calefacio, madefacio, 
 patefacio, condocefacio, commonefacio, assuefacio and consuefacio. 
 The only change in the first verbs (which belong to the second 
 conjugation) is that they throw off the o of the present. 
 
 When the first word is a noun (substantive or adjective), it 
 regularly ends in a short i. 
 
 patridda. 
 
 armiger. 
 
 particeps. 
 
 aequiparo. 
 
 artifex. 
 
 aquilifer. 
 
 ignivomus. 
 
 amplifico. 
 
 tubicen. 
 
 capripes. 
 
 misericors. 
 
 breviloquens. 
 
 causidicus. 
 
 carnivorus. 
 
 rupicapra. 
 
 alienigena. 
 
 aediflco. 
 
 belligero. 
 
 stillicidium. 
 
 vilipendo. 
 
 So also biceps, trigeinini fratres, centifolia rosa, centimanus Gyges, 
 from centum, whereas otherwise the compositions with numerals 
 are different, as quadrupes, and without any change ; quinquere- 
 mis. A contraction takes place in tibicen for tibiicen, from tibia 
 and cano, whereas in tubicen and Jidicen the connecting vowel 
 is short according to the rule, there being no i in the words 
 tuba and fides. When the second word begins with a vowel, 
 the connecting i is thrown out, as in magnanimus, unanimis, 
 with which we may compare unimanus and uniformis. 
 
 Those words the parts of which are declined separately, may 
 likewise be regarded as compounds, although they form one 
 word only in so far as they are commonly written as such ; as 
 respublica, jusjurandum, rosmarinus, tresviri. So also those of 
 which the first word is a genitive, as senatusconsultum, plebiscitum, 
 duumvir, triumvir, thai is, one of the duoviri or tresviri. 
 
 Note, The Greek language regularly makes the first part of a compound, 
 when it is a noun, end in o; e. g. (pt\6cro<pog, Xoyoypacpog, (TojfxarocpvXaKy ^vpo^oi- 
 viK. As many such Greek compounds passed over into the Latin language, 
 such as philosopkus, philologus, graecostasis^ Gallograeci^ we may form similar 
 compounds in modern Latin, but only in the case of proper names. "« 
 
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 221 
 
 Francogalli, Graeco-Latinus. There is no good reason for rejecting them, if 
 they really denote one thing which is formed by the combination of two 
 elements. .^ 
 
 [§ 261.] Tlie latter word in the composition determines to 
 what part of speech the whole belongs. In compositions 
 with particles, the second word either remains unchanged, or 
 undergoes only a slight variation in its vowel. This variation 
 must be here considered, especially with regard to the radical 
 vowel of the verb ; for the vowels i, o, u, a and e remain un- 
 changed, as in ascrlbo, comminor, appono, excolo, adducoy illdhor, 
 suhrepo ; but a and e and the diphthong ae frequently undergo a 
 change: 1. a remains only in the compounds of caveo, maneo, 
 and traho ; but in most other cases it is changed into t, e. g. 
 constituo from statuo, accipio from capio, abjicio from jacio, ar^ 
 ripio from rapio, incido from cado, adigo from ago; so also at- 
 tingo from tango, confringo from frango ; it is changed into e in 
 ascendo, aspergo, confercio, refello, impertio (along with impartio). 
 2. e sometimes remains unchanged, as in appeto, contego, contero, 
 congerO, but sometimes it is changed into ^ ; assideo from sedeo, 
 ahstineo from teneo, arrigo from rego, aspieio from specio. Both 
 forms occur in the compounds of legere, e. g. perlego, read 
 through ; intelUgo, understand, but intellego too was used in 
 early times. 3. The diphthong ae remains unchanged only in 
 the compounds of haereo, as adhaereo ; it is changed into i in the 
 compounds of caedo, laedo, quaero, e. g. incido, illido, inquiro. 
 Other particulars may be gathered from the lists of irregular 
 verbs. 
 
 In the composition of nouns with verbs, the second word 
 undergoes more violent changes, and the rules already given 
 respecting derivation must be taken into account here. But 
 nouns are also formed in composition with verbs by the mere 
 abbreviation of the ending, and without any characteristic syl- 
 lable of derivation. Thus we have from cano, tuhicen ; from 
 gero, claviger, armiger ; from fero, cistifer, signifer ; from facio, 
 artifex, pontifex ; from capio, princeps, municeps, particeps. 
 Compounded adjectives are derived from verbs by the termina- 
 tion us, which is appended to the verbal stem : mortiferus, igni- 
 vomus, dulcisonus, like consonus, carnivorus, causidicus ; and from 
 substantives with a very slight or no change at all, e. g. centi- 
 manus, capripes, misericors, uniformis. 
 
222 LATIN GKAMMAE. 
 
 Note. When the parts of a compound word are separated by the insertion 
 of one or two unaccented words, it is called, by a grammatical term, a tmesis. 
 Such a tmesis, however, occurs in prose only in the case of relative pronouns 
 compounded with cunque, more rarely in those with libet and in adjectives or 
 adverbs compounded with per, so that we may say, e. g. quod enim cunque 
 Judicium subierat vicit ; qua re cunque potero tihi serviam ; qu^de id cunque 
 est; per mihi gratum feceris ; per mihi, inquam, gratum feceris. 
 
 CHAP. LXII. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY OF PARTICLES. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 [§262.] 1. As the adjective qualifies a substantive, so the 
 adverb qualifies a verb, an adjective (consequently a participle 
 also), and even another adverb ; e. g. prudens homo prudenter 
 agit; felix homo feliciter vivit ; eximie doctus ; domus celeriter 
 extructa ; satis bene scripsit. 
 
 Note. There are only certain cases in which an adverb can be joined with 
 a substantive, viz. when the substantive is used as an adjective or participle, 
 and accordingly denotes a quality, as populv^ late rex for late regnans:, ruling 
 far and wide ; admodum puer erat, he was very young, or very much like a 
 boy ; — or when a participle is understood to the adverb, e. g. Tacit. Ann. ii. 
 20. : gravihv^ supeme ictihus conflictabantur, that is, supeme accidentibus, com- 
 ino- from above; ibid. 12. 61.: nullis extrinsecus adjumentis velavit, that is, 
 extrinsecus ductis or assumptis, by outward or external reasons. In this manner 
 Livy frequently uses the adverb circa in the sense of neighbouring ; e.g. i. 17. : 
 multarum circa civitatum irritatis animis. An adverb may be joined with pro- 
 nominal adjectives, when their adjective character predominates, as in homo 
 plane noster, entirely ours, that is, devoted to us. 
 
 2. Adverbs belong to those parts of speech which are in- 
 capable of inflexion, for they have neither cases nor any other 
 forms to denote the difference of persons, tenses, or moods. 
 But an adverb approaches nearest the declinable parts of speech, 
 inasmuch as adverbs derived from adjectives or participles 
 take the same degrees of comparison as the latter. We have, 
 therefore, in the first place to consider only the etymology of 
 adverbs and then their degrees of comparison. 
 
 With regard to their etymology, adverbs are either simple or 
 
ADVERBS. 223 
 
 primitive {primitiva) or derived (derivata). We shall first treat 
 of derivative adverbs ; their number is great, and certain laws 
 are followed in their formation. 
 
 [§ 263.] 3. By far the greater number of derivative adverbs 
 end in e and ter, and are derived from adjectives and participles 
 (present active and perfect passive). 
 
 Adjectives and participles in usy a, um, and adjectives in 
 er, a, um (that is, those which follow the second declension), 
 make 
 
 Adverbs with the termination e. 
 
 Thus altus, longus, molestus, doctus, emendatus, ornatus, make 
 the adverbs alte, longe, moleste, docte, emendate, ornate. With 
 regard to adjectives in er, a, um, the formation of adverbs 
 varies according as they throw out the e in the oblique cases or 
 retain it (see § 48. and 51.), for the adverbs follow the oblique 
 cases. Thus liher and miser make lihere and misere ; but aeger 
 {aegri) and pulcher [pulchri) make aegre and pulchre. Bonus 
 makes the adverb bene, from an ancient form benus. Bene and 
 male are the only adverbs of this class that end in a short e. 
 
 Note 1. Inferne^ below, and irderne^ within, although derived from adjectives 
 in us^ are used with a short e, the former by Lucretius and the latter by 
 Ausonius, the only writers in which these adverbs respectively occur. To 
 these we must add «Mj9erne, above, in Lucretius and Horace, Carm. ii. 20. 11., 
 though in the latter the quantity of the e is a disputed point. It cannot be 
 ascertained whether the poets made the e in these words short by a poetical 
 licence, or whether these adverbs have any thing particular. 
 
 Note 2. Some adverbs in e differ in their meaning from their respective 
 adjectives, but they must nevertheless be regarded as derived from them. 
 Thus sane (from sanus^ sound, well) signifies " certainly ;" valde (from validus, 
 strong, contracted from t?a/2C?e, which furnishes the degrees of comparison) 
 signifies "very;" &nd plane signifies "plainly," like planus^ but also takes the 
 meaning of " entirely," or " thoroughly." 
 
 [§ 264.] 4. All other adjectives and the participles in ns (con- 
 sequently all adjectives which follow the third declension) form 
 their 
 
 Adverbs in ter, 
 
 and retain the changes which occur in the genitive. The 
 genitive is is changed into iter, except the genitive in ntis (from 
 the nom. in ns), which makes the adverb in nter ; e. g. elegans, 
 eleganter ; amans, amantef ; conveniens, convenienter ; but par. 
 
224 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 pariter ; utilis, utiliter ; tenuis, tenuiter ; celer, eris, celeriter ; sa- 
 luber, salubriter, and so also ferociter, simpliciter, dupliciter, 
 concorditer, audaciter (or more frequently contracted into au- 
 dacter). 
 
 Note 1. The termination ter serves also to form the adverbs aliter^ other- 
 wise, and propter^ beside ; the former from the original form alis^ neuter alid^ 
 and the latter from prope^ being abridged for propiter. (See No. 7. note 1.) 
 Vehementer is derived from vehemens, but takes the signification of " very," 
 like valde; e. g. Cic. de Off", ii. 21. : vehementer se moderatum praehuit. The 
 indeclinable nequam has the adverb nequiter. 
 
 Note 2. The adjectives mentioned in § 101., which have double termi- 
 nations, us^ a, Mm, and w, e, ought to have also a double form of their 
 adverbs, but this is the case only in hilare and hUariter; with regard to imbe- 
 cillus it remains uncertain, as the positive of the adverb does not occur ; and 
 in the case of the other adjectives of this kind the adverb is wanting alto- 
 gether. There are, on the other hand, some adjectives in ms, a, nm^ of which 
 the adverbs have two forms (abundantid) ; as dure, duriter; firme, Jirmiter; 
 nave, naviter ; humane, inhumane — humaniter, inhumaniter; large, largiter; 
 luculente, luculenter; turbulente, turbulenter; and in the early language many 
 more, which are mentioned by Priscian, xv. 3. Of violentus, fraudulentm^ 
 and temulentv^, adverbs in ter only exist : violenter, fraudidenter, temulenter. 
 
 [§ 265.] 5. Although in grammar an adverb is assigned to 
 every adjective, yet the dictionary must frequently be consulted, 
 for there are some adjectives whose very signification does not 
 admit the formation of an adverb, as, for example, those 
 which denote a material or colour ; while with respect to others 
 we can say no more than that no adverb of them is found in the 
 writers whose works have come down to us, as of the adjectives 
 amens, dims, discors, gnarus, rudis, trux, imbellis, immobilis, in- 
 flexibilis, and others compounded in the same mariner. Of vetus 
 the adverbs are vetuste and antique, and oi fidus, Jideliter, de- 
 rived from other adjectives of the same meaning. It frequently 
 happens that adverbs exist in the degrees of comparison, without 
 their form of the positive being found ; e. g. tristiter and socor- 
 diter are not to be found, and instead of uberiter, ubertim is used ; 
 but the comparatives tristius, socordius, uberius, and the super- 
 latives are of common use. The adverb magne does not occur, 
 but its irregular comparative magis, and the superlative maxime, 
 are of very common occurrence. Multum, plus, plurimum have 
 no adverbs, but these neuters in some cases serve themselves as 
 adverbs. 
 
 [§ 266.] 6. Sometimes particular cases of adjectives supply 
 the place of the regularly formed adverbs in e; a) of some ad- 
 
ADVERBS. 
 
 Xfci 225 
 
 I 
 
 jectives in us, a, um, and er, a, um, the ablative singular in o 
 is used as an adverb; e. g. arcano and secreto, secretly; cito, 
 quickly ; continuo, immediately ; crebro, frequently ; falso, 
 wrongly; gratuito, gratis; liquido, clearly; manifesto, mani- 
 festly : mutuo, as a loan, hence mutually ; necessario, neces- 
 sarily; perpetuo, perpetually; precario, by entreaties; raro, 
 rarely; sedulo, sedulously; serio, seriously; suhito, suddenly; 
 tuto, safely. To these must be added some adverbs formed 
 from participles : auspicato, composito, consulto, directo, festinato, - 
 nee- or inopinato, improviso, iterato, merito, optato, praeparato, 
 sortito. Along with several of these ablative adverbs, the forms 
 in e also are occasionally used ; but apart from the origin, the 
 forms in o do not differ either in meaning or in their degrees of 
 comparison fVom those in e. 
 
 Note 1. Vere and vera have a somewhat clIfTerent sense : the regular ad- 
 verb of vems^ true, is vere : but vero is used in answers in the sense of " in 
 truth," or " certainly," but it is more commonlj applied as a conjunction in 
 the sense of " but," or " however." We will explain its use in answers by 
 an example. When I am asked, adfuistine heri in convivio? I answer, ego vero 
 adfiU; or, without a verb, ego vero, minime vero; and vero thus being merely 
 indicative of a reply, will often be untranslatable into English. The case of 
 certe and certo is generally different from that of vere and vero: the adverb 
 which usually takes the meaning of its adjective is certo, while certe takes the 
 signification of " at least," to limit an assertion ; e. g. victi sumus, ant, si dig- 
 nitas vinci non potest, fracti certe. Certe, however, is frequently used also in 
 the sense of our " certainly," especially in the phrase certe scio, which, in 
 Cicero, is even more frequent than certo scio. See my note on Cic. lib. i. 
 in Verr. 1. 
 
 Note 2. Omnino, from omnis, altogether, or in general, may also be 
 reckoned among this class of adverbs. The etymology of oppido, very, is 
 very doubtful. Profecto, truly, also belongs to this class, if it be derived 
 from profectus, a, um; but if it be the same as pro facto, which is more 
 probable, it belongs to those which we shall mention under No. 10. 
 
 [§ 267] 7. b) In some adjectives of the. third declension the 
 neuter singular supplies the place of the adverb ; as facile, dif- 
 ficile, recens, sublime, impune and abunde, \vhich, however, is not 
 derived from an adjective abundis, but from abundus. To these 
 we must add some belonging to adjectives of the second de- 
 clension: ceterum, plerumque, plurimum, potissimum more fre- 
 quent than potissime, multum and paulum (for which, however, 
 in combination with comparatives, the ablatives multo and paido 
 are more commonly used), nimium (the same as nimis^, parum, 
 and lastly the numeral adverbs primum, iterum, tertium, quartum, 
 kQ., which have also the termination o (see § 123.), and pos- 
 
 Q 
 
226 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 tremum (o), and ultimum {o), which are formed according to the 
 analogy of the numeral adverbs. Poets in particular and Tacitus 
 who follows their example are accustomed to use the neuter of 
 adjectives, of the second as well as of the third declension, as 
 adverbs; e. g. multum similis, acutum cernere^ mite, dulce, 
 crassum, perfidum ridere, indoctum canere, certum and incertum 
 vigilare, triste and torvum clamare, immite sibilare, aeternum dis- 
 cordare, and in the plural multa gemere, tristia ululare, crehra 
 ferire. 
 
 Note 1. We have every reason to consider the adverb jorojoe, which has 
 become a preposition, as the neuter of an obsolete adjective, propis; for 
 propter, which, as an adverb, has the same meaning, is evidently the regular 
 adverb, being contracted from propiter, and the comparative propior, and the 
 adverb pj'opius, must likewise be traced to propis. Saepe is perhaps a word 
 of the same kind, but the degrees of the adjective, saepior and saepissimus, 
 are no longer in use.. 
 
 Note 2. Instead of difficile, however, the regular adverbial forms dijffi- 
 ciliter and difficulter are still more common. Faciliter is unclassical. 
 
 [§ 268.] 8. A considerable number of adverbs have the ter- 
 mination im, and are for the most part derived from participles ; 
 e, g. caesim, punctim, conjunctim, mixtim, contemptim, cursim, 
 citatirrif gravatim (the same as gravate)^ nominatim, passim (from 
 pandere), praesertim (from prae and sero), privatim, pedetentim, 
 raptim, sensim, carptim, separatim, statim, strictim, tractim. 
 Adverbs of this kind however are formed also from other parts 
 of speech, but they generally take the participial termination 
 atim^ even when they are not derived from nouns of the first 
 declension: catervatim, cuneatim, gregatim, turmatim, curiatim, 
 gradatim, ostiatim, oppidatim, provinciatim, vicatim, paulatim, 
 singulatim, generatim, summatim, minutatim. Also confestim 
 (connected with festinare), furtim, singultim, tributim, uhertim, 
 viritim, vicissim. Affdtim is of doubtful etymology ; interim is 
 derived from inter ; olim from the obsolete ollus which is the 
 same as ille. 
 
 [§ 269.] 9. A smaller class of adverbs is formed from nouns 
 by the termination Uus, generally to denote origin from that 
 which is expressed by the primitive ; as coelitus, from heaven ; 
 funditus, from the foundation, radically ; medullitus, penitus, 
 primitus the same as prim^im, radicitiis, stirpitus. Some are 
 derived from adjectives, as antiquitus, divinitus, and humanitus. 
 
 Among the same class we reckon those adverbs which end in 
 
ADVERBS. 227 
 
 US or itus, and are not derived from nouns, but from other parts 
 of speech. That they are derivatives is obvious, but their sig- 
 nification is variously changed. Such are cominus, from a near 
 point; eminus, from afar; intus, from within; suhtus, from 
 below; extrinsecus and intrinsecus, from without and within; 
 mordicus (from mordere), e. g. mordicus tenere ; versus, towards 
 (from vertere), which is commonly used as a preposition. 
 
 [§ 270.] 10. A large number of adverbs, lastly, arises from 
 the adverbial use of different cases of substantives, and from 
 the composition of different parts of speech. In this manner 
 arose the adverbs of time : noctu, vesperi, mane, tempore or tern' 
 port, simul (from similis), diu and quamdiu, tamdiu, aliquamdiu, 
 interdiu, hodie (though contracted from hoc die), quotidie, quot- 
 annis, postridie, perendie, pridie, nudius tertius (from nunc dies 
 tertius, the day before yesterday, or the third day from the 
 present), nudius quartus, nudius quintus, nudius tertiusdecimus, 
 propediem, initio, principio, repente and derepente (ablative of 
 repens), imprimis and cumprimis, protenus and protinus (from 
 pro and the preposition tenus), alias, actutum, commodum (just 
 or directly, while the regular adverb commode retains the 
 meaning *' conveniently "), modo, postmodo, alternis, interdum, 
 cummaxime, tummaxime, nunc ipsum and turn, ipsum, denuo (i. e. 
 de novo), ilicet (ire licet), illico (properly in loco), and extemplo ; 
 interea and praeterea lengthen the a, so that it is not quite 
 certain whether they may be considered as compounds of inter, 
 praeter and ea, the neuter plural. * So also the adverbs of 
 place : foris, foras, insuper, obviam, obiter (from oh and iter), 
 peregre, praesto, recta, (scil. via), una. In hactenus, eatenus, 
 quatenus, aliquatenus, the ablative is governed by the prepo- 
 sition tenus. The signification of these adverbs is originally that 
 of locality, but they are frequently used also in a figurative sense. 
 
 [§ 271.] The mode or manner of an action, in answer to the 
 question qui (an ancient ablative of quid), how ? is expressed by 
 adverbs of the same class ; as sponte, an old ablative ; forte, an 
 ablative of /br5 ; fortuito (u), forsit, forsitan (Jhrs sit an), forsan 
 and fors have the same meaning as fortasse and fortassis (in 
 
 * Prof. Kej, The Alphabet^ p. 77. foil., accounts for the length of the a by 
 the very probable supposition that the original forms were posteam^ inteream^ 
 praeteream^ on the analogy of the existing words postquam^ anteqiuzm, praeter- 
 quarriy &c. — Transl. 
 
 Q 2 
 
 I 
 
228 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 prose fortasse and forsitan alone are used) ; nimirum, scilicet^ 
 videlicet, utpote (from ut and pote, properly " as possible/' hence 
 *^ namely," or "as"), durntaxat, praeterquam, quomodo, quemad- 
 modum, admodum, quamohrem, quare, quapropter, quantopere, 
 tantopere, maximopere and summopere, or separately quanta opere, 
 tanto opere, &c. ; quantumvis or quamvis, alioqui or alioquin, cete- 
 roqui or ceteroquin, frustrd, to be explained by the ellipsis of via, 
 and to be derived from fraus, fraudo ; incassum, nequicquarn, 
 summum (not ad summuni), tantum, solum, and tantummodo, so- 
 lummodo, gratis (from gratiis, whence ingratiis), vulgo, hifariam, 
 trifariam, multifariam and omnifariam, with which partem must 
 be understood. 
 
 Lastly partim which was originally the same as partem, as in 
 Liv. xxvi. 46 : partim copiarum ad tumulum expugnandum 
 mittit, partim ipse ad arcem ducit, but it is more commonly 
 used either with a genitive or the preposition ex, in the sense of 
 alii — alii; e. g. Cic. Phil, viii. 11. : quum partim e nobis ita ti- 
 midi sint, ut omnem populi Romani benejiciorum memoriam abje- 
 cerint, partim ita a republica aversi, ut huic se hosti favere prae 
 se ferant; and in the sense of alia — alia, as in Cic. De Off. ii. 
 2 1 : eorum autem benejiciorum partim ejusmodi sunt, ut ad uni- 
 versos cives pertineant, partim singulos ut attingant. 
 
 [§ 272.] Note. On the signification of some of the above-mentioned adverbs. 
 The adverbs continuo, protinus^ statim, confestim, subito, repente and derepente^ 
 actutum., illico^ ilicet, extemplo, signify in general "directly" or " imme- 
 diately," but, strictly speaking, continuo means immediately after ; statim, 
 without delay ; confe^tim, directly ; subito, suddenly, unexpectedly ; pro- 
 tinus, further, i. e. in the same direction in which the beginning was made ; 
 hence, without interruption ; repente, and derepente, which strengthens 
 the meaning, signifies " at once," and is opposed to sensim, gradually ; 
 e. g. Cic. de Off. i. 33. : amicitias^ quae minus delectent et minus probentur., 
 magis-decere censent sapientes sensim dissuere, qiuim repente praecidere ; actutum 
 is instantaneously, eodem actu ; ilicet occurs more rarely than illico^ but has 
 almost the same meaning, " forthwith," or " the instant ;" e. g. Sallust, Jug. 
 45. : ubiformido ilia mentibus decessit, ilicet lascivia atque superbia incessere ; 
 Cic. p. Muren^ 10. : simulatque increpuit su^picio tumultus^ artes illico nostrae 
 conticescunt. Extemplo^ which is similar in its derivation (for templum is a 
 locus religiosu^), is similar also in meaning ; e. g. Liv. xli. 1. : alii gerendum 
 bellum extemplo^ antequam contrahere copias hostes possent,^ alii considendum 
 prius senatum censebant. 
 
 [§ 273.] Praesertim, praecipue, imprimis, cumprimis, and apprime, are gene- 
 rally translated by " principally ;" but they have not all the same meaning. 
 Praesertim is our " particularly," and sets forth a particular circumstance 
 with emphasis ; praecipue retains the meaning of its adjective, praecipuus 
 
ADVERBS. 229 
 
 being the opposite of communis : jus praecipuum therefore is a privilege and 
 opposed to j^is commune, so thsit praecipue answers to our "especially." The* 
 sense of imprimis and cumprimis is clear from their composition — before or 
 in preference to many others, principally ; apprime, lastly, occurs more 
 rarely, and qualifies and strengthens only adjectives, as apprime doctus^ 
 apprime utilis. Admodum also strengthens the meaning ; it properly signifies 
 " according to measure," that is, in as great a measure as can be, e. g. ad- 
 modum gratum mihi feceris ; litterae tuae me admodum delectaruiU. In com- 
 bination with numerals it denotes approximation, and occurs frequently in 
 Livy and Curtius ; in Cicero we find only nihil admodum, that is, " in reality 
 nothing at all." 
 
 [§ 274.] It is difficult to determine the difference among the words which 
 we generally translate by " only," viz. modo, dumtaxat, solum, tardum, solum- 
 modo, tantummodo. The common equivalent for only is modo ; solum (alone) 
 is " merely," and points to something higher or greater ; tantum is only or 
 merely, but intimates that something else was expected, e. g. dixit tantum, non 
 prohavit. • These significations are strengthened by composition : tantummodo 
 and solummodo, the latter of which however occurs only in late writers. 
 Dumtaxat is not joined with verbs, and seems to answer to our " solely ;" e. g. 
 Caes. Bell. Civ. iii. 40. : peditatu dumtaxat procul ad speciem utitur, solely 
 from afar; Curt. viii. 4. (1.) : quo (carmine) signijicahatur male instituisse 
 Graecos, quad tropaeis regum dumtaxat nomina inscriherentur ; ibid. ix. 36. (9.) : 
 aestus totos circa fiumen campos inundaverat, tumulis dumtaxat eminentibus, 
 velut insulis parvis. In another signification this word is the same as certe^ 
 at least (see § 266.), and denotes a limitation to a particular point, as in 
 Cicero : nos animo dumtaxat vigemus, re familiari comminuti sumus, in courage 
 at least I am not wanting; valde me Athenae delectarunt, urhs dumtaxat 
 et urhis ornamenta et hominum benivolentia. Saltem also signifies " at least," 
 but denotes the reduction of a demand to a minimum ; e. g. when I say : 
 redde mihi lihros, si non omnes, saltem tres, or, as Cicero says, eripe mihi hunc 
 dolorem, aut minue saltem ; finge saltem aliquid commode. 
 
 [§ 275.] Frustra conveys the idea of a disappointed expectation, as in 
 fimstra suscipere labores ; nequicquam that of the absence of success, as in 
 Herat. Carm. i. 3. 21. : n£quicquxim deus abscidit Oceano terras, si tamen 
 impiae rates transiliunt vada. Incassum is less commonly used ; it is composed 
 of in and eassum, hollow, empty, and therefore properly signifies " into the 
 air," or " to no purpose," as tela incassum jactare. 
 
 Alias and alioqui both mean " elsewhere," but alias signifies " at another 
 time," or "in another place," whereas alioqui (like ceteroqui and ceterum) 
 means "in other respects;" as in Livy: triumphatum de Tiburtibus, alio- 
 quin mitis victoria fuit, or " or else " (in case of a thing mentioned before 
 not taking place), like aliter; as in Tacitus : dedlt tibi Augustus pecuniam non 
 ea lege, ut semper daretur : languescet alioqui industria. No difference in the 
 use of alioqui and alioquin has yet been discovered. The addition or 
 omission of the n, at least, does not appear to depend upon the letter at the 
 beginninff of the word followino^. 
 
 1 
 
230 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 CHAP. LXIIL , 
 
 PRIMITIVE ADVERBS. 
 
 [§ 276.] 1. The Simple or Primitive Adverbs are few in num- 
 ber^ when compared with the derivatives, especially with those 
 derived from adjectives, and ending in e and ter. The significa- 
 tion of the latter depends upon that of their adjective, and has 
 generally a very definite extent ; but the primitive adverbs ex- 
 press the most general circumstances that are to be considered 
 in connection with a fact, and are indicated by the questions 
 how ? when ? where ? whether ? and the general answers to 
 them ; but they are for this reason deserving of particular 
 attention, together with their compounds and derivatives.* 
 
 2. To this class belong the negative particles : non, haud, and 
 ne, together with immo ; the affirmatives : nae, quidem, and utique, 
 certainly (from which word the negative adverb neutiquam, by 
 no means, is formed), nempe^ namely, surely ; vel^ in the sense 
 6f "even" (see § 108.); and the interrogative cur, why? (pro- 
 bably formed from quare or cui rei) : the words which express, 
 in a general way, the mode of an action, viz. paene, fere, and 
 fermdf nearly, almost; temere, at random; rite, duly, according 
 to custom ; vix, scarcely ; nimis (and nimium, see § 267.), too 
 much ; satis or sat, enough, sufficiently ; saltern, at least ; sic and 
 ita, so, thus; and item and itidem (which are derived from 
 ita), just so, and the double form identidem, which, however, 
 has assumed the meaning of a particle of time, " constantly," 
 '^ one time like the other ; " ut or uti, as, and hence sicut or sicuti; 
 quam, how much ; tam, so much ; tamquam, like ; perinde and 
 
 * With regard to the following list of particles, which, from their great 
 importance towards understanding the ancient writers, has been drawn up 
 with care, we must observe, that by the term primitive adverbs we do not 
 understand those, of which no root is to be found, but those which cannot 
 in any useful or practical way be included among the classes of derivative 
 adverbs mentioned before. A more deep etymological investigation would 
 lead us into too slippery ground, on which we could expect but little 
 thanks either from teachers or pupils. 
 
PRIMITIVE ADVERBS. 231 
 
 proinde (derived from inde), as though, like ; secus, otherwise, 
 differently : the adverbs of place : uspiam and usquam, some- 
 where ; nusquam, nowhere ; procul, far ; prope, near (§267. note) ; 
 uhi, where ? ihi, there ; unde, whence ? inde, hence, together 
 with their numerous compounds and correlatives, of which we 
 shall speak presently : tlie adverbs of time : quando, when ? 
 with its compounds aliquando, once ; quandoque, at some time ; 
 quandocunquey whenever; quondam, formerly (contains the 
 original relative quum, which has become a conjunction) ; nunc, 
 now ; tu7ic and turn, then ; unquam, ever ; nunquam, never ; 
 jam, already ; etiqm (from et and jam) and quoque, also ; etiam- 
 nunc and etiamtum, still, yet ; semel, once ; bis, twice (the other 
 adverbial numerals, see Chap. XXXIII.) ; saepe, often ; usque, 
 ever ; heri or here, yesterday ; eras, to-morrow ; olim, formerly ; 
 mox, soon after ; dudum, previously ; pridem, long since ; tandem, 
 at last or length ; demum, not until ; from inde are derived 
 deinde and exinde, or abridged dein and exin, thereupon, after- 
 wards; subinde*, immediately after, or repeatedly; deinceps, in 
 succession ; denique, lastly : further, the adverbs with the suffix 
 per : semper, always ; nuper, lately ; parumper and paulisper, for 
 a short time ; tantisper, for so long, commonly to indicate a short 
 time, " for so short a time." 
 
 Most of the prepositions are originally adverbs, but as they 
 usually take the case of a substantive after them, they are regarded 
 as a distinct class of the parts of speech. But they must still be 
 looked upon as adverbs when they are joined with a verb with- 
 out a case ; as in Virgil, Pone subit conjunx, " behind there foUow^s 
 my wife." Hence it happens that clam, secretly, and coram, in 
 the presence of, are generally reckoned among the prepositions, 
 whereas palam (^propalarri), publicly, is universally called an 
 adverb, though it is formed precisely in the same manner. Ante 
 2ivApost, when used as adverbs, generally have the lengthened 
 forms antea and postea (also antehac and posthac), but occur as 
 adverbs also without any change of form. 
 
 Note 1. We must not pass over unnoticed the transition of particles of 
 place into particles of time, which occurs in other languages also. This 
 
 * The accent on the antepenultima for the compounds of inde is necessary 
 according to Priscian, p. 1008. (613. Kr.) 
 
 Q 4 
 
232 LATIN GPwAMMAR. 
 
 accounts for the use of hic^ ibi, uhi, where we should use an adverb ex- 
 pressive of time. Nor can we wonder at several of these adverbs ap- 
 pearing frequently as conjunctions (in which character they will have to 
 be mentioned again in Chap. LXVII.), for whenever they serve to connect 
 sentences, they become, grammatically speaking, conjunctions; but when 
 within a sentence they denote a circumstance connected with a verb, they 
 are real adverbs. Some of them are used in both characters. 
 
 [§ 277.] Note 2. The Signification of the above Primitive Adverbs. 
 The ordinary negation is non; hand adds to the negation a- special 
 subjective colouring, with very different meanings — either " not at all," 
 or " not exactly." The comic writers use this negation frequently, and 
 in all kinds of combinations ; but the authors of the best age limit 
 its use more especially to its combination with adjectives and adverbs 
 denoting a measure ; e. g. hand multum, hand magnum, hand parvus, Mud 
 mediocris, haud paulo, haud procul, hand longe, especially hajid sane in con- 
 nection with other words ; as haud sane facile, res haud sane difficilis, haud 
 sane intelligo ; also haud quisquam, haud unquam, haud quaquam, by which com- 
 bination something more is expressed tlian by the simple negation. In con- 
 nection with verbs, haud appears much less frequently, and on the whole 
 only in the favourite phrase haud scio an, which is the sam^ as nescio an, 
 until later writers, such as Livy and Tacitus, again make unlimited applica- 
 tion of it. 
 
 Ne does not belong to this place as a conjunction in the sense of " in order 
 that not," but only in so far as it is used for 7ion in the connection of ne-quidem, 
 not even, and with imperatives, e. g. Tu ne cede malis, sed contra audentior 
 ito, do not yield to misfortunes. Hence nee (neque) also must be mentioned 
 here, because it is used instead of ne-quidem, seldom with Cicero, but more 
 frequently with Quintilian ; e. g. ii. 13. 7. : alioquinec scriherem ; v. 10. 119. : 
 alioqui nee tradidissem; i. v. 18.: extra carmen non deprehendas, sed nee in 
 carmine vitia ducenda sunt. 
 
 Immo signifies " no," but with this peculiarity, that at the same time 
 something stronger is put in the place of the preceding statement which is 
 denied ; e. g. Cic. ad Att. ix. 7. : causa igitur non bona est? Immo optima, sed 
 agetur foedissime ; de Off.xa. 23.: si patriam prodere conabitur pater, silebitne 
 Jilius ? Immo vero obsecrabit patrem, ne id faciat. This increase may be 
 sometimes expressed in English by " nay," or " nay even." But this does 
 not justify the assertion that immo is an affirmative adverb. 
 
 [§ 278.] Quidem is commonly used to connect sentences, and must then be 
 looked upon as a conjunction ; but it is employed also as an adverb to set 
 forth a word or an idea with particular emphasis, and then answers to our 
 " certainly " or " indeed." Very frequently, however, especially with pro- 
 nouns, it only increases their force by the emphasis ; e. g. optare hoc quidem 
 est, non docere, this I call wish, but not teach ; praecipitare istud quidem est, non 
 descendere. Hence it also happens that on the other hand, when quidem is 
 necessary to connect sentences, a pronoun .is added, for the sake of quidem, 
 which might otherwise be dispensed with. Cicero, e. g., says : Oratorias ex- 
 ercitationes non tu quidem, ut spero, reliquisti, sed certe philosophiam illis ante- 
 posuisti. From quidem arose equidem, which is considered to be a compound 
 of ego and quidem, and is used exclusively in this sense by Cicero, Virgil, 
 and Horace ; but in others, and more particularly in later authors, it occurs 
 precisely in the same sense as quidem; e.g. Sallust. Cat. 52. 16.: quare 
 
PllIMITlVE ADVEKBS. 233 
 
 vanum equidem hoc consilium est; Curt. v. 35.; certiora deinde cognoscit ex 
 Bagistane Bahylonio^ non equidem vinctum regem^ sed in periculo esse, aut 
 mortis aut vinculorum. 
 
 Nempe answers pretty nearly to our " surely," and frequently assumes a 
 sarcastic meaning, when we refute a person by concessions which he is obliged 
 to make, or by deductions. It is never used for the merely explanatory 
 " namely," or " that is," which in the case of simple ideas is either not ex- 
 pressed at all, or by the forms is (ea, id) est, qui est, dico, or intelligi volo, or 
 by the adverbs scilicet and videlicet. Respecting the manner in which it is 
 expressed in the connection of propositions, see § 345. 
 
 [§ 279.] The adxerhs paene, fere, andferme, to which we may add prope, on 
 account of its meaning (from § 267. note), all serve to limit a statement, but 
 there are certain differences in their application. Paene and prope approach 
 each other nearest : paene being almost and prope nearly ; and thus we say 
 in Latin paene dixerim and jorope dixerim in quite the same sense, I might 
 almost say. As prope contains the idea of approximation, so paene denotes a 
 degree. Thus we say : hi viri prope aeqvnles sunt, are nearly of the same age ; 
 and Caesar, on the other hand, says : non solum in omnibus (Galliae) civitati- 
 bus, sed paene etiam in singulis domibus factiones sunt, "but almost in every 
 family," which is more than the factions in the towns. Propemodum, in a 
 certain degree, is formed irovo. prope. Fere and ferme di^ev from the other 
 primitive adverbs, in regard to their long e, for the others end in a short e. 
 They therefore seem to be derived from adjectives ; but the derivation from 
 feru^ leads to no results. The two words differ only in form, and are used 
 in inaccurate and indefinite statements, especially with round numbers and 
 such notions as may be reduced to a number. We say centum fere homines 
 aderant to express our " somewhere about one hundred ;" paene ov prope cen- 
 tum, nearly a hundred, implying thereby that there should have been exactly 
 one hundred. And so also /ere omnes,fere semper; and with a verb : sic fere 
 fieri solet, so it mostly or generally happens, the same as fere semper fit. 
 Hence it is frequently used as a mere form of politeness, when there can be 
 no doubt about the correctness of a statement; as in quoniam fere constat, as 
 it is a fact, I presume. 
 
 [§ 280.] Temere, at random, is opposed to a thing which is done consulto, 
 or deliberately ; hence the expressions inconsidte ac temere, temere et impru- 
 denter, temere et nullo consilio. Combined with non, temere acquires (but not 
 in Cicero) a peculiar signification ; it becomes the same as non facile, and 
 softens an assertion ; for instance, in Horace : vatis avarus non temere est 
 animus, a poet is not easily avaricious ; or non temere quis tam invitis omnibus 
 ad principatum accessit quam Titus, Rite seems to be an ancient ablative 
 like ritu ; its meaning accords with the supposition, but the form' (ris, ritis) 
 is uncertain. 
 
 [§ if!!.] The words sic, ita, tam, answer to the English "so ;" and to them 
 we may add tantopere from § 271., and adeo from* § 289. With regard to 
 their difference we remark, that sic is more particularly the demonstrative 
 " so " or " thus," as in sic sum, sic vita hominum est, sic se res habet ; ita 
 defines more accurately or limits, and is our " in such a manner," or " in so 
 far ; " e. g. ita senectus honesta est, si suum jus retinet ; ita defendito, ut nemi- 
 nem laedas. Yery frequently, however, ita assumes the signification of sic, 
 but not sic the limiting sense of ita, respecting which we shall have occasion 
 to speak in another place (§726.). Taw, so much, increases the degree, 
 
234 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 and has its natural place before adjectives and adverbs, but rarely before 
 verbs, where tantopere is used instead. Adeo^ to that degree or point, 
 increases the expression to a certain end or result ; e. g. adeone hospes es in 
 hac urbe, ut haec neacias ? Hence in the connection of propositions, it forms 
 the transition to the conclusion of an argument, or to the essential part of a 
 thing. Cicero, when he has related a thing, and then chooses to introduce 
 the witnesses or documents themselves, frequently says : id adeo ex ipso 
 senatusconsulto cognoscite ; id adeo sciri facillime potest ex litteris publicis 
 civitatum (in Verr. iv. 64. iii. 51.), and puts the adeo always after a pronoun. 
 (Comp. Spalding on Quintil. ii. 16. 18.) 
 
 [§ 282.] Ut, as, must be mentioned here as a relative adverb, expressive 
 of similarity. From it is formed utique by means of the suffix que, which 
 will be considered in § 288. It signifies " however it may be," and hence 
 " certainly." Curt. iv. 44. : 7iihil quidem habeo venale, sed fortunam meam 
 utique non vendo. 
 
 The compounds sicut, velut, tamquam, to which we must add quasi, when 
 used without a verb and as an adverb, signify " as " or " like." The differ- 
 ence in their application seems to be, that tamquam and quasi express a 
 merely conceived or imaginary similarity, whereas sicut denotes a real one. 
 Hence Cicero says : tamquam serpens e latihulis intulisti te ; gloria virtutem 
 tamquam umhra sequitur ; philosophia omnium artium quasi parens est, where 
 the similarity mentioned is a mere conception or supposition ; but it ap- 
 proaches nearer to reality in me sicut alterum parentem ddigit ; defendo te 
 sicut caput meum. Velut is used by late authors in the same sense as quasi ; 
 but in Cicero it has not yet acquired this signification, but has the peculiar 
 meaning of our " for example," as bestiae, quae gignuntur e terra, vehit 
 crocodili ; non elogia monumentorum hoc significant, velut hoc ad portam ? and 
 other passages. All these adverbs occur also as conjunctions ; in Cicero, 
 however, only tamquam (besides quasi), with and without the addition 
 of si. 
 
 Perinde and proinde have the same meaning, and are adverbs of similarity ; 
 but perinde is much more frequently found in prose writers. The reading is 
 often uncertain ; and as proinde is well established as a conjunction in the 
 sense of " therefore " (see § 344.), many philologers have been of opinion 
 that proinde, wherever the sense is " like," is only a corruption of perinde. 
 But this supposition is contradicted by the authority of the poets, who use 
 proinde as a word of two syllables. (Comp. Kuhnken on Rutil. Lupus, 
 p. 31.) We most frequently find the combinations perinde ac, perinde ac si, 
 as if, as though ; perinde ut, in proportion as, to connect sentences. (See 
 § 340.) But without any such additions, Cicero, for example, de Fin. i. 
 21. says: vivendi artem tantam tamque operosam et perinde fructuosam (and 
 as fruitful) relinquat JSpicurus ? 
 
 [§ 583.] Secus has been classed among the primitives, because its deriva- 
 tion is uncertain. We believe that it is derived from sequor ; and we might 
 therefore have included it, like mordicus, among those adverbs mentioned in 
 § 269. We hold that its primary signification is " in pursuance," " after," 
 " beside," which still appears in the compounds intrinsecus and extrinsecus. 
 ($ 289.) Hence it comes to signify " less," or " otherwise," viz. " than it 
 should be." Thus we say, mihi aliter videtur, rede secusne, nihil ad te, 
 justly or less justly, where we might also say an minus; si res secus ceciderit, 
 
PRIMITIVE ADVERBS. 235 
 
 if tLe thing should turn out differently, that is, less well. A comparative 
 secius (also spelled sequius) occurs very rarely, because secus itself has the 
 signification of a comparative ; it is joined with an ablative, nihilo secius, 
 not otherwise, nevertheless ; quo secius the same as quo minus, in order 
 that not. 
 
 [§ 234.] To unquam, ever, and usqwam, somewhere, we must apply that 
 which has already been said of quisquam, § 129. : they require a negation in 
 the sentence ; and although this negation may be connected with another 
 word, unquam and nsquam become the same as nunquam and nusquam ; e. g. 
 neque te unquam vidi, the same as te nusquam vidi. The place of a negative 
 proposition may, however, be taken by a negative question, as num tu eum 
 unquxim vidisti ? hast thou ever seen him ? But uspiam is not negative, any 
 more than the pronoun quispiam ; but it is the same as alicubi, except that 
 its meanmg is strengthened, just as quispiam is the same as aliquis. In the 
 writings of modern Latinists and grammarians we find the form nuspiam, 
 which is said to be the same as nusquam. But nuspiam does not exist at all, 
 and its formation is contrary to analogy. 
 
 [§ 285.] It is difficult to define the difference between turn and tunc, be- 
 cause the editions of our authors themselves are not everywhere correct. 
 But in general the difference may be stated thus : tunc is " then," " ^t that 
 time," in opposition to nunc ; turn is " then," as the correlative of the relative 
 quum ; e. g. quum omnes adessent, turn ille exorsus est dicere, when all were 
 present, then he began to speak. Without a relative sentence, tum is used in 
 the sense of our " hereupon," " thereupon ; " but we may always supply such 
 a sentence as " when this or that had taken place." The same difference 
 exists between etiamnunc and etiamtum, which we translate by " still " or 
 " yet," and between nunc ipsum and tum ipsum, quummaxime and tummaxime, 
 just or even then; for etiamnunc, nunc ipsum, and quummaxime, refer to the 
 present ; but etiamtum, turn ipsum, and tummwcime to the past ; e. g. etiam- 
 nunc puer est, and etiamtum puer erat ; adest quummaxime f rater mens, and 
 aderat tummaxime f rater, n\y brother was just then present. Compare 
 §732. 
 
 [§ 286.] Jam, combined with a negative word, answers to our " longer ; " 
 e. g. niMl jam spero, I no longer hope for anything; Brutus Mutinae vixjam 
 sustinebat, could scarcely maintain himself any longer. It is also used for 
 the purpose of connecting sentences, and then answers to our " further " or 
 " now." 
 
 Usque, ever and anon, does not occur very frequently in this sense ; e. g. 
 in Horace, Epist. i. 10. 24. : naturam expellos furca^ tamen unique recurret. It 
 is commonly accompanied by a preposition ,• viz. ad and in, or ah and ex, and 
 denotes time and place ; e. g. usque ad portam, usqu£ a prima aetate. See 
 Chap. LXV. 4. 
 
 [§ 287.] Nuper, lately, is used in a very relative sense, and its meaning de- 
 pends upon the period which is spoken of; for Cicero {de Nat Deor. ii. 50.) 
 says of certain medical observations, that they were nuper, id est paucis ante 
 saeculis reperta, thinking at the time of the whole long period in which men 
 had made observations. In like manner, the length of time expressed by 
 modo (see § 270.) and mox is indefinite. The latter word, as was observed 
 above, originally signified " soon after," but it is very often used simply in 
 the sense of " afterwards." Dudum is probably formed from diu (est) 
 
236 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 dum^ and answers to the English " previously " or " before," in relation to 
 a time which has just passed away ; whence it may often be translated by 
 " shortly before;" e. g. Cic. ad Att. xi. 24. : quae dudum ad me et 'quae etiam 
 .ante ad Tulliam scripsisti^ ea seittio esse vera. But the length of time is set 
 forth more strongly in jamdudum, long before, or long since. This word, with 
 poets, contains the idea of impatience, and signifies " without delay," " forth- 
 with," as in the line of Virgil, Aen.n. 103.: jamdudum sumite poenas. The 
 same strengthening of the meaning appears in jampridem^ long since, a long 
 time ago. Tandem, at length, likewise serves to express the impatience 
 with whicjh a question is put, and even more strongly than nam (§ 134.) ; e. g. 
 Cic. Philip, i. 9. : haec vtrum tandem lex est an legum omnium dissolutio ? 
 
 [§ 288.] 3. The Adverbs of Place, mentioned above, No. 2., 
 uU, where ? and unde, whence ? together with the adverbs derived 
 from the relative pronoun, viz. quo^ w^hither ? and qua, in what 
 way ? are in relation to other adverbs, demonstratives, relatives, 
 and indefinites, which are formed in the same manner. All 
 together form a system of adverbial correlatives, similar to that 
 of the pronominal adjectives. (See above, § 130.) We shall 
 begin with the interrogative form, which is the simplest. Its 
 form (as in English) is the same as that of the relative, and 
 differs from it only by its accent. The relative acquires a more 
 general meaning, either by being doubled, or by the suffix cun- 
 que, which is expressed in English by "ever," as in " wherever." 
 Without* any relative meaning, the simple form acquires a more 
 general signification by the suffix que, or by the addition of the 
 particular words vis and lihet. (We call it an adverbium loci 
 generale.) The fact of the suffix que not occurring with quo and 
 qua is easily accounted for by the possibility of confounding 
 them with the adverb quoque and the ablative quaque ; but still, 
 in some passages at least, quaque is found as an adverb, and so 
 also the compound usquequaque, in any way whatever. The 
 demonstrative is formed from the pronoun is, and its meaning is 
 strengthened by the suffix dem. The indefinite is derived from 
 the pronoun aliquis, or by compositions with it. We thus obtain 
 the foUowinoj correlative adverbs : — 
 
 * We say without in regard to the general analogy. There are, however, 
 passages in which the sufBx que forms a generalising relative, ajid in 
 which, e. g. quandoque is used for quwidocunque, as in Horat. Ars Poet. 359. : 
 quandoque bonus dormitat HomeruSy and frequently in Tacitus. See the com- 
 mentators on Livy, i. 24. 3. 
 
PRIMITIVE ADVERBS. 
 
 237 
 
 Interrog. 
 
 Relative. 
 
 Demonstr, 
 
 Indefinite. 
 
 Universal. 
 
 Ubi^ where ? 
 
 vJ)i, where. 
 
 ibi, there. 
 
 alicubi, some- 
 
 ublque, ] 
 
 
 ubiubi. 
 
 ibidem. 
 
 where. 
 
 ubivis, I every- 
 ubilibet, J^^^^^- 
 
 
 ubicunque. . 
 
 
 
 Unde, whence ? 
 
 unde, whence. 
 
 inde, thence. 
 
 alicunde, from 
 
 undique, 1 
 
 from 
 
 
 undeunde. 
 
 indidem. 
 
 some place. 
 
 undevis. 
 
 ■ every- 
 
 
 undecunque. 
 
 
 
 undelibet, ^ 
 
 where. 
 
 Quo, whither ? 
 
 quo, whither. 
 
 eo, thither. 
 
 aZe^zfo, to some 
 
 quovis. 
 
 to 
 
 
 quoquo. 
 
 eodem. 
 
 place. 
 
 quolibet, 
 
 - every 
 
 
 quocunque. 
 
 
 
 
 place. 
 
 Qua, in what 
 
 qua, in the 
 
 ea, in that 
 
 aliqua,'msomQ 
 
 quavis, 
 quolibet. 
 
 in 
 
 direction? in 
 
 way in which. 
 
 way. 
 
 way. 
 
 - every 
 
 what way ? 
 
 
 
 
 
 way. 
 
 
 quaqua. 
 
 eadem. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 quacunque. 
 
 
 1 
 
 [§ 289.] To these we must add those which are formed by com- 
 position with alius, nullus, uter, and answer to the question where ? 
 alihif elsewhere ; nullibi, nowhere (which, however, is based only 
 on one passage of Vitruvius, vii. 1., its place being supplied by niis- 
 quam) ; utrubi or utrobi, in which of two places ? with the answer 
 utrobique, in each of the two places. Inibi is a strengthening form 
 of ibi, and signifies "in the place itself." To the question 
 whence ? answer aliunde, from another place ; utrimque, from both 
 sides, ,which formation we find again in intrinsecus, from within, 
 and extrinsecus, from without. To the question whither ? 
 answer alio, to another place ; to utro, to which of two sides ? 
 answer utroque, to both sides, and neutro, to neither. The fol- 
 lowing are formed with the same termination, and have the 
 same meaning : quopiam and quoquam, to some place (the former 
 in an affirmative, and the latter in a negative sentence, like 
 quisquam) ; intro, into ; retro, back ; ultro, beyond ; citro, this 
 side, chiefly used in the combination of ultro et citro, ultro citro- 
 que (towards that and this side), but ultro al»o signifies "in 
 addition to," and "voluntarily." Porro is formed from pro, 
 and signifies "onwards" or "further," e. g. porro pergere. In 
 the latter sense it is used also as a conjunction 16 connect 
 sentences. Compounds of eo are : adeo, up to that degree or 
 point, so much ; eousque, so long, so far ; and of quo : quousque 
 and quoad, how long ? We have further to notice the adverbs 
 with the feminine termination of the ablative a (which is probably 
 
238 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 to be explained by supplying via), which have become preposi- 
 tions ; viz. citra, contra, extra, intra, supra, deriYed from the 
 original forms, cis, con, ex, in, super ; also infra, below ; and 
 ultra, beyond (from the adjectives infer and ulter, which however 
 do not occur) ; circa, around ; and juxta, by the side or in like 
 manner. The derivation of the two last is doubtful, but they 
 belong to the adverbs of place. In this way arose also : nequa- 
 quam and haudquaquam, in no way ; usquequaque, in all points, 
 in all ways, composed of the above-mentioned quaque and usque. 
 
 [§ 290.] We here add the correlatives to the question whither ? 
 quorsum or quorsus ? (contracted from quoversum or quoversus). 
 The answers to them likewise end in us and um (but sometimes 
 the one and sometimes the other is more commonly used): 
 horsum, hither ; aliquoversum, towards some place ; aliorsum, to- 
 wards another place ; quoquoversus, towards every side ; utroque- 
 versum, introrsum, prorsum, forward (prorsus is better known 
 in the derivative sense of "entirely"); rursum, or more fre- 
 quently retrorsum, backward (rursus remained in use in the 
 sense of "again"); sursum, heavenward (also sursum versus, a 
 double compound); deorsum, downwards; dextrorsum, to the 
 right ; sinistrorsum, to the left ; adversus or adversum, towards 
 or opposite, usually a preposition ; seorsus or seorsum, separately. 
 
 [§ 291.] 4. The above-mentioned demonstratives, ibi, there ; 
 inde, hence, and eo, thither, are used only with reference to rela- 
 tive sentences, which precede ; e. g. uhi te heri vidi, ibi nolim te 
 iterum conspicere, where I saw thee yesterday, there I do not 
 wish to see thee again; unde venerat, eo rediit, he returned 
 thither, whence he had come. More definite demonstratives, 
 therefore, are requisite, and they are formed in Latin from the 
 three demonstative pronouns by means of special terminations. 
 The place where ? Mc, istic, illic, (there), 
 whither? hue, istuc, illuc, (thither), 
 whence? hinc, istinc, illinc, (thence). 
 Instead of istuc and illuc, the forms isto and illo also are in use. 
 These adverbs are employed with the same difference which we 
 pointed out above (§ 127.) as existing between the pronouns hie, 
 iste, and ille, so that hie, hue, and hinc point to the place where 
 I, the speaker, am; istic, istuc, and istinc, to the place of the 
 second person, to whom I speak ; and illic, illuc, and illinc to 
 
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 239 
 
 the place of the third person or persons, who are spoken of. 
 The following are compounds of hue and hinc : adhuc, until 
 now ; hucusque, as far as this place ; abhinc and dehinc, from this 
 moment (counting backwards). To the question qua ? in what 
 way ? we answer by the demonstratives hac, istac, iliac, which 
 are properly ablatives, the word via being understood. 
 
 Note 1 . Cicero thus writes to Atticus, who was staying at Rome, while 
 he himself lived in exile at Thessalonica, in Macedonia (iii. 12.) : Licet tibi 
 significarim, tit ad me venires^ id omittam tamen : intelligo te re istic prodesse^ 
 Mc ne verbo quidem levare me posse. Istic, where you are, that is, at Rome, 
 you can be really useful to me ; hie, here where I live, that is, at Thessa- 
 lonica, you would not even be able to comfort me with a word. In this 
 manner the Romans in their letters briefly and distinctly express the lo- 
 calities of the writer and the person addressed, as well as of the persons 
 written about. 
 
 [§ 292.] Note 2. Adhuc expresses the duration of time down to the present 
 moment, and therefore answers to our " still," when it signifies " until 
 now " (we also find usque adhuc) ; and strictly speaking, it should not be 
 confounded either with etiamnunc, which does not contain the idea of du- 
 ration of time, and answers to the question when ? or with v^que eo and 
 etiamtum, which are the corresponding expressions of the past time. But 
 even good authors apply the peculiar meaning of the word to the present, 
 and use adhuc also of the relative duration of the time past ; e. g. Liv. xxi. 48. : 
 Scipio quamquam gravis adhuc vvlncre erai, tamen — profectus est; Curt. vii. 19. : 
 praecipitatus ex equo barbarus adhuc tamen repugnabat. " !Not yet," is ex- 
 pressed by nondum, even in speaking of the present, more rarely by adhuc 
 
 CHAP. LXIV. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 
 
 [§ 293.] 1. The Comparison of Adverbs is throughout depend- 
 ent upon the comparison of adjectives, for those adverbs only 
 have degrees of comparison, which are derived from adjectives 
 or participles by the termination e (o) or ter ; and wherever the 
 comparison of adjectives is wanting altogether or partly, the 
 same deficiency occurs in their adverbs. 
 
 2. The comparative of adverbs i§ the same as the neuter of 
 the comparative of adjectives (majus only has the adverb magis, 
 § 265.), and the superlative is derived from the superlative of 
 the adjectives by changing the termination us into e; e. g. 
 
240 LATIN GIIAMMAK. 
 
 doctior, doctius ; elegantior, elegantius ; emendatior, emendatius ; 
 
 superlative : doctissimus^ doctissime ; elegantissime, emendatissime ; 
 
 summus, summe. The positives in o (e. g. cito, raro) also make 
 
 the superlative in e ; meritissimo and tutissimo however are more 
 
 commonly used than meritissime and tutissime. 
 
 Note. Thus the positive (see §111.) is wanting of deterius, deterrime ; 
 potius^ potissime (we more frequently find potissimum) ; prim, primum or 
 primo (for prime is not used, but apprime, principally) ; the positive ociter, 
 to which ocius and ocissime belong, occurs very rarely, since the comparative 
 ocius has at the same time the meaning of a positive. Of valde, very (con- 
 tracted from valide, § 263.) the degrees validius and validissime do not, 
 indeed, occur in Cicero, but are used in the silver age of the language. 
 
 [§ 294.] 3. The primitive adverbs, and those derived from 
 
 other words by the terminations im and tus, together with the 
 
 various adverbs enumerated in § 270. foil., that is, in general 
 
 all adverbs which are not derived from adjectives and participles 
 
 by the endings e (or o instead of it) and ter, do not admit the 
 
 degrees of comparison. The only exceptions are (iz?^ and saepe : 
 
 diiitiusy diutissime ; saepius, saepissime. Nuper has a superlative 
 
 nuperrime, but no comparative, and satis and temperi have the 
 
 comparatives satius (also used as a neuter adjective) and tem- 
 
 perius (in Cicero). Respecting secius, the comparative of secus, 
 
 see § 283. 
 
 Note. There are a few . diminutive adverbs : clanculum from clam, pri- 
 mulum from p?Hmum, celeriuscule, saepiuscule, from the comparatives celeriiis 
 and saepius. Belle, prettily, is a diminutive of be7ie, and from belle are de- 
 rived bellus and bellissimus, without a comparative, and hence the adverb 
 bellissime. 
 
 CHAP. LXV. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 [§ 295.] 1. Prepositions are indecUnable words, or, to use 
 the grammatical term, particles, which express the relations of 
 nouns to one another or to verbs : e. g. a town in Italy ; a 
 journey through Italy ; my love for you ; the first century after 
 Christ ; he came out of his house ; he lives near Berlin ; on the 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 241 
 
 Rhine, &c. They govern in Latin either the accusative or 
 ablative, and some (though mostly in a different sense) both 
 cases. Their Latin name is derived from the fact of their being 
 placed, with a few exceptions, before their noun. We have 
 already observed (Chap. LXII.) that a considerable number of 
 these particles are properly adverbs, but are justly reckoned 
 among the prepositions, as they more or less frequently govern 
 a case. Apart from their etymology, and considering only their 
 practical application in the language, we have the following 
 classes of prepositions : — 
 
 1. Prepositions with the Accusative, 
 Ad, to. 
 
 Apud, with, near. 
 
 Ante, before (in regard to both time and place). 
 Adversus and adversum, against. 
 Cis, citra, on this side. 
 Circa and circiim, around, about. 
 Circiter, about (indefinite time or number). 
 Contra, against. 
 Erga, towards. 
 Extra, without. 
 
 Infra, beneath, below (the contrary of supra). 
 Inter, among, between. 
 Intra, within (the contrary of extra), 
 \ Juxta, near, beside. 
 Oh, on account of. 
 Penes, in the power of. 
 Per, through. 
 Pone, behind. 
 
 Post, after (both of time and space). 
 Praeter, beside. 
 Prope, near. 
 
 Propter, near, on account of. 
 
 Secundum, after (in time or succession), in accordance with, as 
 secundum naturam vivere, 
 
 R 
 
242 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Supra, above. 
 
 Trans, on the other side. 
 
 Versus (is put after its noun), towards a place ; e. g. in Galliam 
 
 versus, Massiliam versus. 
 Ultra, beyond. 
 
 2. Prepositions with the Ablative. 
 
 A, ah, ahs {a, before consonants; ah, before vowels and some 
 consonants ; and ahs only in the combination of ahs te, for 
 which, however, a te also is used), from, by. 
 
 Absque, without (obsolete). 
 
 Coram, before, or in the presence of. 
 
 Cum, with. 
 
 De, down from, concerning. 
 
 E and ex {e before consonants only, ex before both vowels and 
 consonants), out of, from. 
 
 Prae, before, owing to. 
 
 Pro, before, for. 
 
 Sine, without. 
 
 Tenus (is put after its noun), as far as, up to. 
 
 3. Prepositions with the Accusative and Ablative. 
 
 In with the accus. — 1. in, on, to, to the question Whither? — 
 2. against. With the ablat. in, on, to the question 
 Where? 
 
 Sub, with the accus. — 1. under, to the question Whither? — 
 2. about or towards, in an indefinite statement of time, as 
 sub vesperam, towards evening. With the ablat., under, to 
 the question Where? Desub is also used in this sense. 
 
 Sicper, with the accus., above, over ; with the ablat, upon, con- 
 cerning, like de. 
 
 Subter, under, beneath, is used with the accusative, whether it 
 expresses being in or motion to a place ; it rarely occurs 
 with the ablative, and is in general little used. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 243 
 
 Remarks upon the Signification of the Prepositions. 
 
 [§ 296.] 1. Prepositions with the Accusative. 
 
 Ad denotes in general an aim or object botlvin regard to time and place, 
 and answers to the questions Wiiither ? and Till when ? e. g. venio^ projiciscor 
 ad te ; Sophocles ad summam senectiitem tragoedias fecit. Hence it also 
 denotes a fixed time, as ad horam^ at the hour ; ad diem, on the day fixed 
 upon ; ad tempus facere aliquid, to do a thing at the right time. In other 
 cases ad tempus signifies "for a time," e.p^. perfu7'batio animi plerumque hrevis 
 est et ad tempus. Sometimes also it denotes the approach of time, as ad 
 lucem, ad vesperam, ad extremum, towards daybreak, evening, towards the 
 end ; and the actual arrival of a certain time, as in Livy : ad prima signa 
 veris profectiis, at the first sign of spring. 
 
 Ad., in a local sense, signifies " near a place," to the question Where ? as 
 ad urhem esse, to be near the town ; ad portas urhis ; cmentissima pugna ad 
 lacum Trasimenum ; pugna navalis ad Tenedum ; urhs sita est ad mare ; it is 
 apparently the same as in in such phrases as ad aedem Bellonae ; or with the 
 omission of the word aedem : ad Opis ; ad omnia deorum templa gratula- 
 tionem fecimus ; negotium habere adportum; ad forum; but in all these cases 
 there is an allusion to buildings or spaces connected with the places named. 
 With numerals ad is equivalent to our "to the amount of" or " nearly," 
 e. g. ad ducentos, to the amount of two hundred, or nearly two hundred, and 
 without any case it is an adverb like circiter, as in Caesar, occisis ad hominum 
 milihus quntuor, reliqui in oppidum rejecti sunt; Liv. viii. 18 : ad viginti 
 matronis per viatorem accitis ( ablat. absol.) ; iv. 59 : quorum ad duo milia et 
 quingend capiuntur. The phrase omnes ad unum, ad unum omnes perierunt 
 means, " even to the very last man," including the last himself 
 
 Ad, denoting an object or purpose, is of very common occurrence, and 
 hence arises its signification of" in respect of; " e. g. vidi forum comitiumque 
 adoniatum, ad speciem magnifico omatu, ad sensum cogitationemque acerho et 
 lugubri ; or facinus ad memoriam posteritatis insigne ; homo ad lahores belli 
 impiger, ad usum et disciplinam peritus ; ad consilia prudens, &c. But this 
 preposition is used also in figurative relations to express a model, standard, 
 and object of comparison, where we say " according to," or " in comparison 
 with ; " as a<i modum, ad effigiem, ad similitudinem, ad speciem alicujus rei, ad 
 normam, ad exemplum, ad arbitrium et nutum, ad voluntatem alicujus facere 
 aliquid; persiuident mathematici, terram ad universum coeli complexum quasi 
 puncti instar obtinere. Particular phrases are, ad verbum, word for word ; 
 nihil ad hanc rem, ad hunc hominem, nothing in comparison with this thing or 
 this man. 
 
 [§ 297.] Apud, " with," both in its proper and figurative sense ; e. g. with 
 me the opinion of the multitude has no weight, apud me nihil valet hominum 
 opinio. In connection with names of places it signifies " near," like ad ; e. g. 
 JSpaminondas Lacedaemonios vicit apud Mantineam ; male pugnatum est apud 
 Caudium, apud Anienem (the name of a river). It must however be 
 observed that the early writers sometimes (see my note on Cic. in Verr. 
 iv. 22.), and Tacitus and later authors frequently, use apud for iji, and not 
 merely for ad ; as Augustus apud urbem Nolam extinctus est ; statiui apud thea- 
 trum Pompeji locatur ; apud Syriam morbo absumptiis est ; apud senatum dixit, 
 and in many other passages, in which the context leaves no doubt. In apud 
 
 R 2 
 
244 LATIN GKAMMAK. 
 
 praetorem and apud judices^ the preposition must likewise be taken to 
 denote the place of the judicial transactions ; we use in this case " before," 
 which however cannot be rendered in Latin by ante. 
 
 Apud is used also with the names of authors, instead of in with the name 
 of their works ; as apud Xenophontem, apud Terentium, apud Ciceronem legi- 
 tu}% &c., but not in Xenophonte^ because in Latin the name of an author is 
 not used for that of his works as in our language. 
 
 Ante, " before," denotes also a preference, as ante omnia hoc mihi maxime 
 placet, above all other things ; hie erat gloria militari ante omnes, he excelled 
 all. 
 
 [§ 298.] Cis and cit?'a are commonly used in reference to place, e. g. cis 
 Taurum montem, and are the contrary of trans : citra Ruhiconem, on this side 
 of the Rubicon. But in later though good prose writers (Quintilian, Pliny) 
 it frequently occurs for sine, " without," as in citra invidiam nominare ; citra 
 musicen grammatice non potest esse perfecta nee did citra scientiam musices 
 potest. 
 
 Circum is the more ancient, and circa the later form ; Cicero uses them 
 both in the sense of " around" (a place) ; and circum, with the strengthened 
 meaning, " all around ; " e. g. ui^hes quae circum Capuam sunt, and urhes 
 circa Capuam ; homines circum and circa se habere ; terra circum axem se 
 convertit; homo praetorem circum omnia fora sectatur. The phrases circum 
 amicos, circum vicinos, circum villas, circum insidas mittere, signify to send 
 around to one's friends, &c. Circa is used besides, of time also, in the sense 
 of sub (but not by Cicero) ; Livy and Curtius, e. g., say : ci7xa lucis ortum, 
 circa eandem horam, circa Idus. Circa in the sense of concerning, like de, 
 erga, and adversus, the Greek Kara, occurs only in the silver age of the 
 language, in Quintilian, Pliny, and Tacitus; e.g. varia circum haec opinio; 
 circa deos et religiones negligentior ; puhlica circa bonas artes socordia. 
 
 Circiter is used, it is true, with an accusative, as in circiter meridiem, about 
 noon ; circiter Calendas, circiter Idas Martias, circiter octavam horam, but it 
 is more frequently an adverb. 
 
 [§ 299.] Adversus and contra originally signify " opposite to ;" but they ex- 
 press also the direction of an action towards an object, with this difference, 
 that contra always denotes hostility, like our " against" (while erga denotes a 
 friendly disposition, "towards"), whereas adversus is used in either sense. 
 Thus Cicero says : praesidia ilia, quae pro templis omnibus cemitis, contra vim 
 collocata sunt ; and frequently contra naturam, contra leges ; but meus erga te 
 amor, patemus animus, benivolentia, and similar expressions. We say adversus 
 aliquem impetum facer e as well as modestum, justum esse, and reverentiam ad- 
 hibere adversus aliquem. But erga also occurs now and then in a hostile 
 sense, not indeed in Cicero, but in N'epos and Tacitus, e. g. Nep. Datam. 10.: 
 odio communi, quod erga regem susceperant. 
 
 [§ 300.] Extra, " without," " outside of," occurs also in the sense o^ praeter, 
 excepting, apart, as extra jocum. 
 
 Infra, e. g. infra lunam nihil est nisi mortale et caducum. It also implies a 
 low estimation ; as in infra se omnia humana ducere, judicare, or infra se 
 posita; and " below" or " under" in regard to measure or size : uri sunt mag- 
 nitudine paulo infra eleplmntos. 
 
 Inter denotes also duration of time, like our " during ;" as inter tot annos, 
 inter coenam, inter epidas. AYIth regard to its ordinary signification " among," 
 we must observe that inter se is our " one another ;" e. g. amant inter se pueri, 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 245 
 
 ohtrectant inter se, furtim inter se aspiciebant, where in reality another pro- 
 noun is omitted. 
 
 Intra, "within," to both questions Where? and Whither? intra hostiuni 
 praesidia esse and venire; nvllam intra Oceanum praedonuni navem esse auditis ; 
 majores nostri Antiochum intra montem Taurum rcgnare jussermd. It also 
 denotes time, both in its duration and a period which has not come to its 
 close, e. g. omnia commemorabo quae intra decern annos nefarie facta sunt^ dur- 
 ing the last ten years ; hdra nonum diem opera absoluta sunt, iidra decimuni 
 diem urbem cepit, that is, before nine or ten days had elapsed. 
 
 Juxta, " beside," e.g.juxta murum, juxta urhem, sometimes also " next to" 
 in rank and estimation, as in Livy : Jides liumanxi colitur apud eos juxta divinas 
 religiones. But it is only unclassicai authors that use Juxta in the sense of 
 secundum or according to. 
 
 Oh, " on account of," implies a reason or occasion, e. g. oh egregiam virtutem 
 donatus; oh delictum; oh earn rem, for this reason; quamohrem or quamohcausam, 
 for which reason ; oh hoc ipsum, for this very reason. In the sense o^ ante, its 
 use is more limited, as in oh ocvlos versari. 
 
 Penes rarely occurs as a preposition of place in the sense of apud, and is 
 more commonly used as denoting, in the possession or power of; e. g. penes 
 regem omnis potestas est; penes me arhitrium est hujus rei. 
 
 [§ 301.] Per, denoting place, signifies "through" and occurs very frequently ; 
 but it also signifies "in" in the sense of " throughout;" e.g. Caesar conjura- 
 tionis socios in vinculis hahendos per municipia censuit, that is, in all the mu- 
 nicipia; per domos hospitaliter invitaniur; milites fuga per proximas civitates 
 dissipati sunt. When it denotes time, it signifies during : per noctem ceimuntur 
 sidera ; per hosce dies, during these days ; per idem tempus, during the same 
 time ; per tinennium, per secessionem plebis, during the secession of the plebs. 
 
 Per with the accusative of persons is " through," " by the instrumentality 
 of," e. g. per te salvus sum. Per, in many cases, expresses the manner in 
 which a thing is done ; as per litteras, by letter ; per injuriam, per scelus et 
 latrocinium, per potestatem auferre, eripere, with injustice, criminally, by au- 
 thority ; per hidum ac jocum fortunis omnihus evertit, by play and joke he 
 drove him out of his property ; per iram, from or in anger ; per simulationem 
 amicitiae me prodiderunt ; per speciem honoris or auxilii ferendi, &c., per 
 causam, under the pretext ; per occasionem, on the occasion ; per ridiculum, in 
 a ridiculous manner. In many cases a simple ablative might be used instead 
 o^ per with the accus., but per expresses, in reality, only an accidental mode 
 of doing a thing, and not the real means or instrument. 
 
 Per, in the sense of " on account of," occurs only in a few phrases : per 
 aetatem, on account of his age;j»er valetudinem, on account of illness ; joer me 
 licet, it is allowed, as far as I am concerned. In supplication or swearing, 
 it is the English " by;" as jurare per aliquid, aliquem orare per aliquid; and 
 so also in exclamations : per decs immortales, per Jovem, &c. 
 
 [§ 302.] Pone, " behind," is not frequently used either as an adverb or a 
 preposition, and is almost obsolete. Tacitus, e. g., says, manus pone tergum 
 vinctae, for post tergum. 
 
 Praeter. From the meaning " beside," or " along " (Implying motion 
 or passing by), as in Cicero : Servi praeter oculos Lolli pocula ferehant, 
 there arises the signification of " excepting ;" e. g. In Livy : In hoc legato 
 vestro nee hominis quidquam est praeter Jiguram et speciem, ncque Romani 
 civis praeter hahitum et sonum Latinae linguae ; and in Cicero : Amicum tihi ex 
 
 K 3 
 
 I 
 
246 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 consularihus neminem esse video praeter Lucullum^ except, or beside Lucullus. 
 It also signifies " besides," when something is added to what has been al- 
 ready said, and it is then followed by etiam ; e. g. praeter mictoritatem eiiam 
 vires ad coei'cendum habet, praeter ingentem populationem agroi^um — pugnatum 
 etiam egregie est, and may often be translated by "independent of," or 
 " not to mention." 
 
 Praeter also indicates a distinction, as in praeter ceteros, praeter alios, 
 praeter omnes excellere qy facer e aliquid. 
 
 The signification of " against," or " contrary to," is connected with that 
 of beside ; e. g. praeter consuetudinem, praeter opinionem, expectationem, vo- 
 luntatem alicujus ; praeter modum, immoderately ; praeter naturam, contrary to 
 nature. 
 
 Propter, for prope, near, is not uncommon, e. g. propter Siciliam insulae 
 Vulcaniae sunt; duo filii propter patrem cubantes, &c. It has already been 
 remarked (§ 264.), that it is a contraction ot'propiter. 
 
 But it most frequently signifies " on account of," implying the moving 
 cause, as in ego te propter humanitatem et modestiam tuam diligo. It is more 
 rarely used in the sense of per with persons, as in propter te liber sum, 
 propter quos vivit, through whose aid he lives. 
 
 [§ 303.] Secundum is derived from sequor, secundus, and therefore properly 
 signifies " next," " in the sequel," " in succession," e. g. secundum comitia, 
 immediately after the comitia ; Livy : Hannibal secundum tam prosperam ad 
 Carinas pugnam victoris magis quam bellum gerentis curls intentus erat. Also 
 " next in rank ; " as in Cicero, secundum deum homines hominibus maxime 
 utiles esse possunt ; secundum fratrem tibi plurimum tribuo ; secundum te nihil 
 est mihi amicius solitudine ; Livy says that the Roman dominion was maximum 
 secundum deorum opes imperium. The signification " along," is still more 
 closely conected with its original meaning, as in secundum mare iter facere, 
 secundum fiumen paucae stationes equitum videbantur. 
 
 In a figurative sense secundum is the opposite of conti^a : consequently, 1. 
 " in accordance with," as secundum naturam vivere, secundum arbitrium ali- 
 cujus facere aliquid; 2. "in favour of," as in secundum praesentem judicavit, 
 secundum te decrevit, secundum causam nostram disputavit. So also in the 
 legal expression vindicias secundum libertatem dare, postulai^e, for a person's 
 liberty. 
 
 Supra is the opposite of infra, and is used to both questions. Where ? and 
 Whither ? In English it is " above," implying both space and measure, e. g. 
 supra vires, supra consuetudinem, supra numerum ; and with numerals, supra 
 duos menses, seniores supra sexaginta annos. It is more rarely used in the 
 sense o^ praeter, beside ; as in Livy, supra belli Latini metum id quoque acces- 
 serat; and in that o^ ante, before, as in Caesar, joawZo supra hanc memoriam, a 
 little before the present time. 
 
 Versus is joined also (though rarely) to the prepositions ad or in: ad 
 Oceanum versus profcisci, in Italiam versus navigare. 
 
 Ultra not unfrequently occurs as denoting measure ; e. g. ultra feminam 
 mollis, ultra fortem temerarius, more than a woman, and more than a brave 
 man usually is. ' 
 
 2. Prepositions with the Ablative. 9 
 
 [§ 304.] Ab (this is the original form, in Greek airo), from, in regard to 
 both place and time (a cujus morte^ ab illo tempore tricesimus annus est), and 
 
I 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 247 
 
 also to denote a living being as the author of an action, as in amari, diligi ab 
 aliquo, discere ah aliquo, and with neuter verbs, which have the meaning of a 
 ])assive ; e, g. interire ab aliquo, which is the same as occidi ab aliquo. The 
 following particulars, however, must be observed : — 
 
 a) With regard to its denoting time, we say a prima aetate^ ab ineunte 
 aetate^ a primo tempore or primis temporibus aetatis, ab initio aetatis and ab 
 infantia^ a pueritia, ab adolescentia, as well as in connection with concrete 
 nouns : a pitero, a pueris^ ab adolescentido, ab infante, all of which expressions 
 signify " from an early age." The expressions a parvis, a parvido, a tenero, a 
 teneris unguicidis, are less common and of Greek origin. A puero is used in 
 speaking of one person, and a pueris in speaking of several ; e. g. Diodorum 
 Stoicum a puero avdivi, or Socrates docuit fieri nullo modo posse, ut a pueris 
 tot rerum insitas in animis notiones haberemus, nisi animus, antequam, corpus 
 intrasset, in rerum cognitione viguisset. 
 
 Ab initio and a principio, a primo properly denote the space of time from 
 the beginning down to a certain point. Tacitus, e. g., says, urbem Romam 
 a principio reges habuere, that is, for a certain period after its foundation. 
 Frequently, however, this idea disappears, and ab initio, kc. become the 
 same as initio, in the beginning ; e. g. Consuli non animus ab initio, non fides 
 ad extremum defuit, he was neither wanting in courage at first, nor in faith- 
 fulness at the last ; ah initio Jiujus defensionis dixi, at the beginning of my 
 defence. 
 
 &) When ab denotes place, it frequently expresses the side on which a 
 thing happens, or rather whence it proceeds ; as a fronte, a tergo, ab occasu 
 et ortu (solis) : Alexander a fronte et a tergo hostem habebat; Horatiu^ Codes 
 a tergo pontem interscindi jubebat ; Caesar a dextro cornu proelium commisit. 
 Hence a reo dicere, to speak on behalf of the defendant, and with the verb 
 stare; as a senatu stare, to stand on the side of the senate, or to be of the 
 party of the senate ; a bonorum causa stare, to be on the side of the patriots, 
 — or without the verb stare, in the same sense : hoc est a me, this is for me, 
 in my favour, supports my assertion ; haecfacitis a nobis contra vosmet ipsos, 
 to our advantage, or facere in an intransitive sense : hoc nihilo magis ab 
 adversariis, quam a nobis facit, this is no less advantageous to our opponents 
 than to ourselves. So also, the adherents or followers of a school are called 
 a Platone, ab Aristotele, a Critolao, although in these cases we may supply 
 profecti, that is, persons who went forth from such a school. Sometimes, 
 though chiefly in the comic writers, ah is used instead of a genitive : ancilla 
 ah Andria, fores and ostium ah aliqua concrepuit. 
 
 [§ 305.] In a figurative sense it signifies " with regard to ; " e. g. Antonius 
 ab equitatu firmus esse dicehatur ; imparati sumus quum a militibus, tum a 
 pecunia ; mediocriter a doctrinxi instructus ; inops ab amicis ; felix ah omni 
 laude ; Horace : Nihil est ab omni parte heatum. In the sense of " on the 
 side of," it also denotes relationship, as in Augustus a matre Magnum Pom- 
 pejum artissimo contingehat gradu, on his mother s side. 
 
 Ab denotes that which is to be removed, and thus answers to our " from," 
 or " against," e. g. forum defendere a Clodio, custodire templum ah Hannibale, 
 munire vasa a frigore et tempestatihus, that is, contra frigus. So also tutus a 
 periculo, secure from danger, and timere a suis, to be afraid of one's own 
 friends. 
 
 Statim, confestim, recent ah aliqua re, "immediately after," have originally 
 reference to place, but pass from their meaning of place into that of time ; 
 
 R 4 
 
248 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 e.g. Scipio confestim a proelio — ad naves rediif, immediately after the battle 
 Scipio returned to the fleet ; hostes a prospera pugna castra oppugnaveimnt^ 
 Liv. ; ah itinere facere aliquid^ to do a thing while on a journey. 
 
 Ab^ further, often describes a circumstance as the cause of a thing, and may 
 be translated by, " in consequence of," "from," or "out of," as in Livy : dice- 
 hantur ah eodem animo ingenioque, a quo gesta sunt, in consequence of the same 
 sentiment ; ah eadem Jiducia animi, ah ira, a spe. Legati Carthaginienses ali- 
 quanto minore cum misericordia ah recenti memoria perjidiae auditi sunt, in 
 consequence of the yet fresh recollection ; Curtius : Alexander vates quoque 
 adhihere coepit a superstitione animi, from superstitious prejudices. 
 
 Ah, used to denote an official function, is quite a peculiarity of the Latin 
 language ; e. g. alicujus or alicui esse (scil. servum or lihertum) a pedihv^, to 
 be a person's lacquey, ah epistolis (secretary), a rationihus (keeper of 
 accounts), a studiis, a voluptatihus. 
 
 [§ 306.] Absque is found only in the comic writers, and modern Latinists 
 should not introduce such antiquated words into their writings. See Burmann 
 on Cie. de Invent, i. 36. ; Ruhnken, Diet. Terent. p. 228. ed. Schopen. There 
 is only one passage in Cicero, ad Att. i. 19. : nullam a me epistolam ad te siiu) 
 absque argumento pervenire, in which the writer seems to have intentionally 
 used absque, because he could not well have written the proper word sine, 
 on account of the proximity of sino. 
 
 [§ 307.] Cum, "with," not only expresses "in the company of persons," as cum 
 aliquo esse, cum aliquo ire, venire, prqficisci, facere aliquid (also secum, that 
 is, with one's self), but also accompanying circumstances, as Verres Lampsa- 
 cum venit cum magna calamitate et prope pernicie civitatis; hostes cum detrimento 
 suntdepulsi; and numerous other instances; also equivalent to our "in," 
 in the sense of " dressed in ;" as in hac officina Praetor (Verres) mojorem 
 partem diei cum tunica pidla sedere solebat et pallio. When combined with 
 verbs denoting hostility, cum, like our " with," has the meaning of " against :" 
 cum aliquo helium gerere, to be at war with somebody ; thus cum aliquo queri, 
 to complain of or against a person. 
 
 [§ 308.] De is most commonly " concerning," " about," or " on," as in 
 multa de te audivi, liber de contemnenda morte, scil. scriptus ; Regulus de cap- 
 tivis commutandis Homam missus est. Also in the phrases de te cogito, I think 
 of thee ; actum est de me, I am undone. Consequently, traditur de Homero, 
 is something very different from traditur ah Homero ; in the former sentence 
 Homer is the object, and in the latter the subject. In the epistolary style, 
 when a new subject is touched upon, de is used in the sense of quod attinet 
 ad aliquid ; as in Cicero : de fratre, confido ita esse, ut semper volui; de me 
 autem, suscipe paulisper meas partes, et eum te esse Jinge, qui sum ego ; de 
 rationihus referendis, non erat incommodum, &c. But very frequently it has 
 the si""nification of " down from," or " from a higher point ;" as dcscendere 
 de rostris, de coelo ; Verres palam de sella ac trihunali pronuntiat; further, it 
 denotes the origin from a place ; as homo de schola, declamator de ludo, 
 nescio qui de circo maximo, Cic. pro Milon. 24. ; or " of," in a partitive 
 sense, as homo de plehe, unus de populo, unus de multis, one of the many ; 
 Unas de septem, one of the seven wise men ; C. Gracchum de superioribus 
 paene solum lego; versus de Phoenissis, verses from the tragedy of the 
 Phoenissae ; partem de istius impudentia reticebo, and in the phrases de meo, 
 tuo, suo, &c., de alieno, de publico. 
 
 De also denotes time, which arises from its partitive signification. Cicero 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 249 
 
 says, Milo in comitium de node veiiit, that Is, even by niglit, or spending 
 a part of the night in coming to the comitium ; vigilare de node, Alexander 
 de die inihat convivia, even in the daytime ; hence multa de node, media de 
 node, that is, " in the depth of night," " in the middle of the night," the 
 signification of the point of beginning being lost in that of the time in general. 
 Fac, si me amas, ut considerate diligenterque naviges de mense Decembri, i. e. 
 take care, as you are sailing in (a part of) the month of December. 
 
 In other cases also de is not unfrequently used for ab or ex ; thus Cicero 
 says, audivi hoc de parente meo puer, and with a somewhat far-fetched dis- 
 tinction between Y'^hat is accidental and what is intentional ; in Verr. iii. 57. : 
 Non hoc nunc primum audit privatus de inimico, reus ab accusatore ; effugere 
 de manibus ; Dionysius mensas argenteas de omnibus delubris jussit auferri ; 
 especially in connection with emere, mercari, conducere de aliquo. Gloriam, 
 victoriam parere, palmare, de aliquo or ex aliquo ; triumphum agere de Gallis, 
 Allobi'ogibv^, Aetolis, or ex Gallis, &c. are used indiscriminately. 
 
 Iin some combinations de has the signification of "in accordance with," or 
 " after," like secundum : de consilio meo, de amicorum sententia, de consilii 
 sententia, according to the resolution of the council ; de communi sententia ; de 
 more. In other cases de with a noun following denotes the manner or cause 
 of an action : denuo, de integro, afresh ; de improviso, unexpectedly ^ de in- 
 dustria, purposely ; de facie novi aliquem, I know a person by his appearance. 
 In combination with res and causa : qua de re, qua de causa, quibus de causis, 
 for which reasons. 
 
 [§ 309.] JEx (for this is the original form, it was changed into e when 
 consonants followed, whence a certain custom was easily formed), " from," 
 " out of," is quite common to denote a place, as an answer to the question 
 whence? and in some peculiar phrases; such as: ex equo pugnare; ex equis 
 colloqui, to converse while riding on horseback ; ex muro passis manibus pacem 
 peter e; ex arbore pendere ; ex loco superiors dicer e; ex itinere scribere; con- 
 spicari aliquid ex propinquo, e longinquo videi^e aliquid, ex tj-ansverso impetum 
 facere; ex adverso, and e regione (not ex}, opposite; ex omni parte, in or from 
 all parts. Fx aliquo audire, accipere, cognoscere, scire, and the like, to hear 
 from a person's own mouth ; victoriam reportare ex aliquo populo, where ex is 
 the same as de. Ex vino, ex aqua coquere, bibere, where we say, " with wine," 
 &c. are common medical expressions. 
 
 Ex, when a particle of time, denotes the point from which : ex illo die, from 
 that day; ex hoc tempore, ex quo (not e), since; ex consulatu, ex praetura, ex 
 didatura, after the consulship, &c. ; diem ex die expectare, to wait one day 
 after another, or day after day. 
 
 Ex, " from," denoting cause ; as in ex aliquo or aliqua re dolere, laborare 
 ex pedibu^, e renibus, ex oculis, ex capite; perire ex vulne?^ibus; ex quodam ru- 
 mor e nos te hie ad mensem Januarium expedabamus; ex lassitudine artiu^ 
 dormire, after a fatigue, or on account of fatigue ; quum e via languerem, 
 from or after the journey; ex quo vereor, whence I fear, and still more fre- 
 quently, ex quo, whence, or for which reason. Hence it has also the signifi- 
 cation of " in consequence of," or " in accordance with," and that in a great 
 many expressions ; such as : ex lege, ex decreto, ex testamento, ex Senatuscon- 
 sulto, ex Senatus audoritate, ex sententia equivalent to de sententia, ex con- 
 suetudine, e more. 
 
 With this we must connect the cases in which ex denotes the manner of an 
 action ; as in ex animo laudare, to praise heartily ; ex sententia and ex voluntate. 
 
250 LATIN GRAMMAll. 
 
 according to one's wish ; e iiatura vivere, in accordance with nature ; ex im- 
 proviso, ex inopinato, ex composito, ex praeparato^ ex aequo^ &c. 
 
 Ex denoting a change of a previous state : e servo te lihertum meumfeci; 
 nihil est tarn misercibile quam ex heato miser ; repente Verres ex Tiomine tamquam 
 epoto poculo Circaeo f actus est verres. 
 
 In a partitive sense, ex denotes the whole from which something is taken, 
 and is of frequent occurrence : thus unus e plehe^ unus e multis, is the same as 
 unus de plehe and de multis. Connected with this are the phrases : aliquid 
 est e re mea^ something is to my advantage ; e repuUica (not ear), for the good 
 of the state. 
 
 [§ 310.] Prae^ " before," signifies place only in combination with agere^ ferre^ 
 or other verbs expressing motion, and with pronouns : prae me fero^ prae se 
 fert^ prae vobis tulistis, which denote the open display of a thing or of a 
 sentiment. 
 
 Prae is commonly used in comparisons ; as in Cicero : prae se omnes con- 
 temnit: ut ipse Consul in hac causa prae me minus etiam quxim privatum esse 
 videatur^ in comparison with me ; Pomam p7rie sua Capua irridehunt; omnium 
 minas atque omnia pericula prae salute sua levia duxerunt. 
 
 It is frequently used also in the sense of " on account of," implying an 
 obstacle ; e. g. solem prae sagittarum multitudine non videhitis ; non medius 
 jidius prae lacrimis possum reliqua nee cogitare nee scrihere; non possum prae 
 Jietu et dolor e diutius in hoc loco commorari^ and so always with a negative 
 particle, which however is sometimes implied in the negative signification of 
 the verb ; e. g. Liv. vi. 40. : quum prae indignitate rerum stupor silentiumque 
 ceteros patrum defixisset ; xxxviii. 33.: silentium prae metu ceterorum fuit. 
 
 [§ 311 ] Pro, in regard to place " before," or " in front of a thing ;" e. g. 
 pro vallo, pro castris aciem instruere, that is, in the front of, close by, or under 
 the wall; copias pro oppido collocare; pro templis omnibus ])raesidia collocata 
 sunt; hasta posita est pro aede Jovis Statoris; Antonius sedens pro aede Cas- 
 toris inforo. It also signifies, "at the extreme point of a thing," so that the 
 person spoken of is in or upon the thing, e. g. pro suggestu aliquid pronun- 
 tiare, pro trihunali edicei'e, pro rostris laudare. Hence also pro testimonio 
 dicere, to declare as a witness, and other expressions denoting place, where 
 pro is the same as m; e.g. Tacit. Ann. i. 44. : stabant pro contione, the same 
 as in contione; ibid. ii. 81.: pro muris vocans, on the edge of the wall. 
 
 The signification of something standing " before " a thing is the origin of 
 that of " for," both in the sense of " instead," and that of protection : Unus 
 Cato est pro centum milibus ; Marcelli statua pro patibulo fuit; homo jam pro 
 damnato est ; se gerere or esse j)ro cive ; habere pro hostibus, pro sociis ; habere 
 pro certo ; aliquid pro mercede, pro praemio est; aliquid pro nihilo estimare, 
 habere, putare ; also " for" in speaking of payment : pro vectura solvere, to 
 pay for freight ; dixit se dimidium, quod pactum esset, pro illo carmine daturum; 
 praemia mihi data sunt pro hac industria maxima. " For," the opposite of 
 " against:" hoc pro me est, or valere debet; Cicero pro Murena orationem ha- 
 buit, and in numerous other instances. 
 
 [§312.] Pro, "in accordance with" or, "in proportion to," occurs very 
 frequently ; e. g. civitatibus pro numero militum pecuniarum summas describere, 
 according to the number of soldiers furnished by them ; ego vos pro mea 
 summa et vobis cognita in rempublicam diligentia moneo, pro auctoritate consu- 
 lari hortor, pro magnitudine periculi obtestor, ut pad consulatis. Hence in 
 many particular phrases; as, pro tempore or pro temporibus, in accordance 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 251 
 
 with the, circumstances of the time, that is, pro condiiione temporurtL, but by 
 no means " for the time being," or " for a time 5" pro re or pro re nata^ ac- 
 cording to circumstances or emergencies ; pro meo jure^ according to my 
 right ; pro eo ut, pro eo ac, according as ; e. g. Di gratiam mihi referent pro eo 
 ac mereor,, i.e. pro eo quod, quantum, according to my merits ; especially to 
 denote divisions or share : pro parte, or pro mea, tua, sua parte, for my part, as 
 far as lies in me ; pro virili parte, according to the capacity of an individual ; 
 as in : pro virili parte rempuhlicam defender e ; pro portione, in proportion ; 
 pro rata portione, or pro rata parte, in a correct proportion. In the phrase 
 pro se quisque, every one for his part, the three words have almost grown into 
 one ; e. g. pro se quisque aurum, argentum et aes in publicum conferunt, every 
 one, though with a somewhat strengthened meaning, " every one without 
 exception."- Quam pro after comparatives deserves especial notice ; e. g. 
 major quam pro numero hominum pugna editur ; sedes excelsior quam pro habitu 
 corporis. 
 
 [§ 313.] Tenus is used to denote limitation, e. g. Antiochus Tauro tenus 
 regnare jussus est, as far as Mount Taurus, especially in the combination of 
 verbo and nomijie tenus, as far as the word or the name goes. So also ore 
 tenus sapientia exercitatus in Tacitus, that is, that he could speak wisely, but 
 not act wisely. It is only in poetry that this preposition is connected with a 
 genitive, and chiefly with a genitive plural; e. g. labrorum tenus, up to the lip ; 
 crurum tenu^, laterum tenus ; but inLivy, xxvi 24., too we find Corcyrae tenus. 
 The accusative is still more rare. 
 
 3. Prepositions with the Accusative and Ablative. 
 
 [§ 314.] In with the accusative expresses the point in space towards which 
 a movement is directed, like our " to," or " into :" in aedem ire, in publicum 
 prodire, in Graeciam proficisci, in civitatem recipere ; also the direction in 
 which a thing extends, e. g. decem pedes in latitudinem, in longitudinem, in 
 altitudinem, in breadth, length, height ; further, independent of locality, it 
 denotes the object towards which an action is directed, either with a friendly 
 or hostile intention : amor in patriam, odium in malos cives, in duces vehemens, 
 in milites liberalis, dicere in aliquem, and so also oratio in aliquem, a speech 
 against some one. 
 
 It also denotes an object or purpose : haec commutari ex veris in falsa non. 
 possunt; in majus celebrare, for something greater, so that it becomes some- 
 thing greater ; is imperator in poenam exercitus expetitus esse videtur ; pecunia 
 data est in rem militarem ; paucos in speciem captivos ducebant, for the sake of 
 appearance ; in contumeliam perfugae appellabantur, for the purpose of dis- 
 gracing them; cum in earn sententiam multa dixisset, in support of this 
 opinion ; in hanc foi^mulam, in has leges, in haec verba, &c., scribere, foedus 
 facere. 
 
 [§ 315.] "V\Tien joined with words denoting time, it expresses a prede- 
 termination of that time like the English " for ;" e. g. invitare aliquem in 
 posterum diem, for the following day ; praedicere in midtos annos, in paucos 
 dies, in multos menses subsidia vitae habere, in hodiemum diem, for this pre- 
 sent day ; and so in many phrases ; as, in diem vivere, to live only for the day ; 
 in futurum, in posterum, in reliquum, for the future ; in aetemum, in per- 
 petuum, for ever ; in praesens, for the present ; in all these cases the word 
 fempus may be added. Without denoting time, in is used also with the 
 
252 LATIN GRAMMAE. 
 
 accusative of other words to express the future ; e. g. Patres in incertiim 
 comitiorum eventum auctores jiunt^ give their sanction to the yet uncertain 
 resolutions of the coniitia. 
 
 AVhen joined with the numeral singulis or when this word is to be under- 
 stood, in expresses a distribution, like the English " on," " for," or " over ;" 
 e. g. in singulas civitates hinos ccnsores descrihere ; queritur Sicilia tota^ Veri^em 
 ah aratorihus pro frumento in modios singulos duodenos sestertios exegisse ; so 
 also pretium, in capita statuere^ i. e. in singula capita ; ternis nummis in pedem 
 tecum transegit, i. e. in singulos pedes. We must here notice also the ex- 
 pression in singulos dies, or in dies alone, " from day to day," with compa- 
 ratives and verbs containing the idea of a comparative, such as crescere, 
 augere. 
 
 It lastly denotes, in some phrases, the manner of an action ; servilem, 
 hostilem, miserandum in modum ; mirum, mirabilem, mirandum in modum ; in 
 universum, in general ; in commune, in common ; in vicem, alternately, or 
 instead of; in Bruti locum consulatum petere, in the place or instead of. 
 
 [§ 316.] In with the ablative, when it denotes place, most commonly ex- 
 presses " being in a place or in a thing," while with the accusative it indi- 
 cates a movement or direction towards it.- It may sometimes be translated 
 by " on," or " upon," but always answers to the question Where ? e. g. 
 coronam in collo habere ; aliquid in humeris ferre ; in ripa Jiuminis ; in litore 
 maris urbs condita est; pons in fiumine est. When a number or quantity is 
 indicated it answers to " among ;" e. g. esse, haberi, poni, numerari in bonis 
 civihus ; in magnis viris, in mediocribus oratoribus, in septem vagantibus, 
 among the seven planets, so that in is equal to inter. A particular phrase is 
 aliquid in manibus est, a thing is in hand, or has been commenced ; as in Livy : 
 liaec contentio minime idoneo tempore, quum tantum belli in manibus esset, oc- 
 cuparat cogitationes hominum. In manibus habere, to be engaged upon a 
 thing ; as in Cicero : Quam spem nunc habeat in manibus et quid moliatur, 
 breviter jam exponam. Aliquid in oculis est, a thing is obvious. 
 
 Now and then we find, in good authors, in with the accusative, where the 
 grammatical rule requires the ablative. See the commentators on Livy ii. 14. ; 
 but this is limited to a very few political and legal expressions, such as in 
 potestatem, in amicitiam dicionemque esse, rnanere (Cic. Divin. in Q. Caecil. 20., 
 in Verr. v. 38), in vadimonium, in moram esse, and even these cases must 
 be considered only as exceptions. In the comic writers, however, we not 
 unfrequently find mihi in mentem est. See.Bentley on Terent. Ileaut. v. 2. 
 33. 
 
 [§ 317.] The general signification of in with the ablative is " in," or " with," 
 and without reference to locality it denotes a coincidence of certain circum-r 
 stances and attributes ; e. g. in hoc homine, in hac re, hoc admiror, hoc laudo, 
 hoc displicet, in this man ; a phrase of this kind is quantum in eo or in me, te, 
 &c., fuit, as much as was in my power. In the following sentences it is our 
 " with," or " notwithstanding : " in summa copia oratorum, nemo tamen 
 Ciceronis laudem aequavit ; in summis tuis occupationibus, with all thy very 
 important engagements ; alter, uti dixit Isocrates in Ephoro et Theopompo, 
 frenis egit, alter calcaribus, as Isocrates said when speaking of Ephorus and 
 Theopompus. 
 
 [§ 318.] When real expressions of time, such as saeculum, annus, mensis, 
 dies, nox, vesper are employed, the simple ablative denotes the time at Avhich 
 (see § 475.) ; but in is used Avith substantives, which by themselves do not 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 253 
 
 denote time, but acquire that meaning by being connected with in ; as, in 
 considatu, in praetura, in meo reditu^ in primo conspectu, in principio^ in hello, 
 although in these cases too the simple ablative is sometimes used ; but in 
 appears more especially in connection with a gerund, as in legendo and in 
 legendis libris, in urbe oppugnanda, in itinere faciendo — all these expressions 
 in the first instance denoting time, but passing into kindred meanings. In 
 praesenti or praesentia, signifies " at the present moment," or " for the 
 present." The phrase, est in eo, ut aliquid fiat, signifies, something is on the 
 point of happening. 
 
 [§ 319.] Sub, e. g. Romani sub jiigum missi sunt ; se conjicere sub scalas, to 
 throw oneself under the stairs ; alicui scamnum sub pedem dare, and figu- 
 ratively, sub imperium tuum redeo, and so also aliquid cadit sub aspectum, " a 
 thing falls within the horizon," as well as cadit sub judicium et delectum sapi- 
 entis, sub intelligentiam, it belongs to the philosopher, is left to him. When 
 it denotes time, it signifies, 1. " about," that is, shortly before, as sub ortum 
 solis, shortly before sunrise ; sub noctem, sub vesperam ; 2. more rarely, 
 " immediately after ;" e. g. sub eas litteras statim recitatae sunt tuae, Cic. ad 
 Fam. X. 16.; statim sub mentionem, Coelius in Cic. ad Fam. viii. 4.; Africa 
 hello, quod fuit sub recentem Romanam paeem, Liv. xxi. 11.; and sub haec 
 dicta, sub hanc vocem, are used by the same writer. The phrase sub idem 
 tempus contains only an approximate definition of time, and signifies " about 
 the same time." 
 
 Sub, with the ablative, is always " under ; " first, with regard to things 
 that strike our senses, and secondly, to denote inferiority in rank : sub divo, 
 or sub c?i^ under the sky, in the open air ; sub oculis, under, i. e. before our 
 eyes ; sub regibus esse, sub imperio, sub hoc sacramento militari, sub magistro 
 esse : it rarely denotes a condition, and only in late writers ; e. g. sub lege, 
 sub poena. Sub specie, " under the appearance," and sub obtentu, " under the 
 pretext," are little used. Sometimes sub is found with the ablative to 
 denote time, but only where cojitemporaneity is to be indicated ; e. g. 
 Ovidi. Fast. \. 491.: Haec tria sunt sub eodem tempore festa; Caes. Bell. 
 Civ. i. 27. : ne sub ipsa profectione milites oppidum irrumperent ; and in like 
 manner we may say sid) adventu, e. g. Romanorum, while they were arriving. 
 Compare Drakenborch on Liv. ii. 55. ; who, however, gives to this sub too 
 great an extent. 
 
 [§ 320.] Super has, in prose, the ablative only when used in the sense of 
 de, " concerning," or " in respect of," as in super aliqua re ad aliquem scribere, 
 but chiefly in writers of the silver age of the language. ^ 
 
 With the accusative it signifies " over," " above," and answers to both 
 questions Whither ? and AVhere ? super aliquem sedere, accumbere, situ^ est 
 Aeneas super Numicium flumen, Aeneas was buried above the river ; that is, 
 on its banks, but on an eminence of the bank. The phrase super coenam 
 signifies " during dinner." AVith numerals it is " above," or " more than ; " 
 e. g. Annulorum tantus acervus fuit, ut metientibus dimidium super tres modios 
 explesse sint quidam auctores, one half more than three modii, or three modii 
 and a half; and in other expressions, as res super vota fiuunt, more than was 
 wished. In these two significations of " above " (in its sense of place as well 
 as that of " more than "), super is the same as supra ; but it is used more fre- 
 quently than the latter in the sense of " besides," or " in addition to : " super 
 helium annona premit ; super morbum etiam fames affedt exercitum, super 
 cetera ; so also in the phrase aliu^ super alium, one after the other. 
 
254 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 Siibter is rarely used with the abhitive, and only in poetry : Cicero uses 
 the accusative in the expression Plato warn in pedore^ cupiditatem suhter 
 jJraecordia locavit. Otherwise it frequently occurs as an adverb, in the sense 
 of our " below." 
 
 [§321.] 2. The adverbs clam, palam, simul SLud procul, are 
 sometimes connected by poets and late prose writers with an 
 ablative, and must then be regarded as prepositions : clam, and 
 its diminutive clanculum, " without a person's knowledge," 
 e. g. clam uxore mea et Jilio, are frequently found as prepositions 
 in the comic writers, but are joined also with the accusative; 
 palam is the opposite of clam, and the same as coram ; e. g. 
 palam populo, in the presence of the people ; simul is used by 
 poets, without the preposition cum, in the sense of "with;" 
 e. g. Sil. Ital. V. 418. : avulsa est protinus hosti ore simul cervix, 
 the neck together with the face : Horace uses simul his, together 
 with these, and Tacitus frequently ; e. g. Annal. iii. 64. : Sep- 
 temviris simul ; procul, with the omission of ah, is frequent in 
 Livy and Tacitus, and signifies, " far from ; " e. g. procul urhe, 
 mari, voluptatibus, and in the phrase procul dubio -er duhio 
 procul, instead of sine duhio. 
 
 [§ 322.] Respecting usque 2^^ an adverb, see above, § 286. It 
 is commonly accompanied by a preposition ah and ex, or ad, in 
 and suh, and expresses the idea of .continuity from one point to 
 another ; e. g. vetus opinio est, usque ah heroicis ducta temporihus ; 
 usque ex ultima Syria atque Aegypto navigare ; similis plausus 
 me usque ad Capitolium celehravit ; usque in Pamphyliam legatos 
 mittere ; usque suh extremum hrumae imhrem, where usque is our 
 " until." It is only in poetry and late prose writer^, that usque 
 alone is used for usque ad; e. g. Curtius, viii. 31., says of the 
 Indians: — corpora usque pedes carhaso velant. This is inde- 
 pendent of the names of towns, where the prepositions ad and 
 ah are generally omitted. 
 
 [§ 323.] 3. But many of the above-mentioned prepositions 
 are used as adverbs, that is, without a noun depending on 
 them. This is chiefly the case with those which denote place : 
 ante and post, adversum and exadversum (opposite), circa 
 (around), circumcirca (all around), contra (opposite), coram (in 
 the presence of), extra, infra, juxta, prope and propter (near), 
 pone (behind), supra, ultra, super and suhter. Circiter also. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 255 
 
 and sometimes ad (§ 296.), are used in the adverbial sense of 
 *^ about" or "nearly" with numbers, which are indefinitely 
 stated. Contra, when used without a case and for the purpose 
 of connecting sentences, is a conjunction, like our " but," or 
 " however." 
 
 Note. Instead of ante and post as adverbs, we have also the special 
 forms anted and posted (consequently the conjunctions antedqiuxm^ posted- 
 qiuim)^ see § 276. Ante^ however, is preferred as an adverb in combina- 
 tion with participles ; e. g. ante dicta, vita ante acta, and post is frequently 
 used to connect sentences. 
 
 Contra, as an adverb, occurs in the phrase of Plautus, auro contra, or 
 contra auro ; that is, gold being placed on the other side ; so that aitro is 
 not a dative, but an ablative ; for which other authors, however, use the pre- 
 position contra aurum, for gold, when a price is indicated. 
 
 Juxta, as an adverb, commonly signifies " equally," or " in like manner," and 
 is the same as aeque ; e. g. in Livy : aliaqiie castella (dedita sunt) j/ixta igno- 
 hilia ; Sallust : eorum ego vitam mortemque juxta aestimo, I deem of equal 
 importance ; margaritae a feminis juxta virisque gestantur, by women as well 
 as by men. It is frequently followed by ac or atque, in the sense of " as." 
 
 Praeter is used as an adverb for praeterqiuim ; that is, not with the accu- 
 sative, but with the case required by the verb preceding, as in Sallust : 
 ceterae multitudini diem statiiit, ante quam sine fraude (without punishment) 
 liceret ah armis discedere, praeter rerum capitdli7im condemnatis. We thus 
 might say, hoc nemini, praeter tihi, videhir ; but it is better to say praeter te, 
 ov praeterquam (nisi) tihi. 
 
 Prope and propter are very frequently used as adverbs ; prope, however, 
 is sometimes accompanied by the preposition ah, as in tam prope a Sicilia helium 
 gestum est, so near Sicily ; prope a meis aedihu^ sedehas, near my house. 
 
 Ultra, as an adverb, and accompanied by a negative particle, signifies " no 
 longer : " haud ultra pati possum ; helium Latinum non ultra dilatum est. 
 "When it denotes place or measure, it signifies " further " or " beyond." 
 
 [§ 324.] 4. It was remarked above, that the prepositions 
 versus and tenus are placed after their case. Some other pre- 
 positions also may take the same place, but not indiscriminately. 
 Thus, the four prepositions ante, contra, inter and propter, 
 are sometimes placed after the relative pronoun (occasionally 
 after the demonstrative hie also); e. g. diem statuunt, quam 
 ante ah armis discederet, quern contra venit, quos inter, quem 
 propter ; other prepositions of two or more syllables, as circa, 
 circum, penes, ultra, and adversus, are more rarely used in 
 this way ; the monosyllabic prepositions, post, per, ad and de, 
 are thus used only in isolated cases or phrases, and de scarcely 
 in any other than legal formulae ; e. g. quo de agitur, res qua de 
 judicatum est. Further, those same four dissyllabic prepositions 
 
256 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ante, contra, inter and propter^ together with the monosyllabic 
 oh, post, de, ex and in, when they govern a substantive accom- 
 panied by an adjective or pronoun, are frequently placed between 
 the adjective and substantive ; e. g. medios inter liostes, certis de 
 causis, magna ex parte, aliquot post menses, and still more fre- 
 quently between the relative pronoun and the substantive ; e. g. 
 quod propter studium, qua in re, quam oh rem, quam oh causam. 
 Per, ah, and ad are but rarely placed in this way. The prepo- 
 sition cum is always placed after or rather appended to the 
 ablative of the personal pronouns me, te, se, nohis and vohis. 
 The same is commonly the case with the ablatives of the 
 relative pronoun, quo, qua, and quihus, but we may also say, 
 cum quo, cum qua, and cum quihus. This preposition also 
 prefers the middle place between the adjective or pronoun and 
 the substantive. (See § 472.) What has been said here applies 
 to ordinary prose ; and the practice of those prose writers, 
 who place the above-mentioned prepositions and others even 
 after substantives, must be regarded as a peculiarity. In 
 Tacitus, for example, we often find such arrangements as, Mise- 
 num apud, viam propter, Scythas inter, Euphratem ultra, cuhi- 
 culum Caesaris juxta, litora Calahriae contra, ripam ad Araxis, 
 verhera inter ac contumelias, and the like. The place of coram 
 after its noun seems, comparatively speaking, to be established 
 by better authority than that of any other. Poets go still fur- 
 ther, and separate a preposition entirely from the case belonging 
 to it; e. g. in Horace, Serm. i. 3. 70.: — Amicus dulcis cum mea 
 compenset vitiis bona. 
 
 CHAP. LXVI. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 
 
 [§ 325.] The majority of the prepositions are used also to 
 form compound words, especially verbs, modifying, naturally, 
 by their own meaning that of the words to which they are joined. 
 The prepositions themselves often undergo a change in their pro- 
 
PEEPOSITIONS. 257 
 
 nunciation and orthography, on account of the initial letter of 
 the verb to which they are prefixed. But the opinions of ancient 
 as well as modern grammarians differ on no point so much as 
 upon the detail of these changes, some taking into account 
 the facility of pronunciation, and assimilating the concur- 
 rent letters of the prepositions and the simple verb accord- 
 ingly, others preferring to leave the prepositions unchanged, 
 at least in writing, because the former method admits of much 
 that is arbitrary. Even in old MSS. and in the inscribed 
 monuments of antiquity the greatest inconsistency prevails, and 
 we find, e. g., existere along with exsistere, collega along with 
 conlega, and imperium along with inperium, in the same book. 
 In the following remarks, therefore, as we must have some- 
 thing certain and lasting, we can decide only according to 
 prevalent usage, but there are some points which we must 
 determine for ourselves as well as we can. 
 
 Ad remains unchanged before vowels, and before the con- 
 sonants d, j, V, m; before other consonants it undergoes an 
 assimilation, that is, the d is changed into the letter which 
 follows it, and before qu into the kindred c, as in acquiroy 
 acquiesco. Before gn the d is dropped, as in agnatus, agnosco. 
 But grammarians are not agreed as to whether d is to be re- 
 tained before Z, w, r, s, and still less, as to whether it may stand 
 before /. Even the most ancient MSS. are not consistent, and 
 we find in them, e. g. adloquor, adfecto, adspiro, and on the 
 other hand, allicio, affligo, assuetus, aspectus, ascendo. Our 
 own opinion is in favour of the assimilation, and we make an 
 exception only in the case of adscriho, on account of the agree- 
 ment of the MSS. on this point. The signification of ad remains 
 the same as usual, as in adjungo, assumo, affero, appono, alloquor. 
 In approbo and affirmo it either expresses a direction towards, 
 or merely strengthens the meaning of the simple verb. 
 
 Ante remains unchanged ; in anticipare and antistare alone, the 
 e is changed into i, though antesto also is approved of. Its 
 meaning is " before," as in anteponos antefero. 
 
 Circum remains unchanged, and retains, in writing, its m 
 even before vowels, although in pronunciation (but without the 
 elision of the vowel preceding) it was lost. Only in circumco 
 and its derivatives the m is often dropped, as circueo. Its 
 
 s 
 
258 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 meaning is " around," " about," as in circumago^ circumdo, cir- 
 cumfero. 
 
 Inter remains unchanged, except in the word intelligo. Its 
 meaning is "between" or " among," as in interpono. 
 
 Oh remains generally unchanged, and undergoes the assi- 
 milation only before c, f, g, and p. In obsolesco, from the 
 simple verb oleo, and in ostendo from tendo, we must recognise 
 an ancient form ohs, like ahs for ab. Its meaning of ** against" 
 or "before" appears in oppono, offero, occurro, oggannio. 
 
 [§ 326.] Per remains unchanged even before Z, though some 
 think otherwise ; in pellicio, however, it is universally assimi- 
 lated. The r is dropped only in the word pejero, I commit a per- 
 jurium. Its meaning is " through," as in perlego, perluceo, perago. 
 When added to adjectives it strengthens their meaning (§ 107.), 
 but in perfidus and perjurus, it has the power of a negative 
 particle. 
 
 Post remains unchanged, except in pomoerium and pomeri- 
 dianus, in which st is dropped ; its meaning is " after," as in 
 postpono, 
 
 Praeter remains unchanged, and signifies " passing by," as in 
 praetereo, praetermitto. 
 
 Trans remains unchanged before vowels, and for the most part 
 also before consonants. In the following words the ns is dropped : 
 trado, traduco, trajicio, trano, which forms are more frequent 
 than transdo, transduco, transjicio, transno, though the latter are 
 not to be rejected. When the verb begins with s, the s at the 
 end of trans is better omitted, and we should write transcribe, 
 transilio. Its meaning " through," " over," or " across," appears 
 in transex), trqjicw, and transmitto, I cross (a river) ; trado, sur- 
 render. 
 
 [§ 327.] A, ab, abs, viz. : a before m and v ; ab before vowels 
 and most consonants, even before f, though afui exists along with 
 abfui ; in aufero (to distinguish it from affero) and aufugiq, ab 
 is changed into av or au ; abs occurs only before c and t, but 
 appears mutilated in asporto and aspernor. Its meaning is 
 "from" or *^away," as in amitto, avehor, abeo, abjicio, abrado, 
 aufero, abscondo, abstineo. 
 
 De, " down " or " away from," as in dejicio, descendo, detraho, 
 deter o, rub off; despicio, look down upon, despise. In some 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 259 
 
 compounds, especially adjectives, it has a negative power, as in 
 decolor, deformis, demens, desipio, despero ; in derriiror, deamo, 
 and dejero, on the other hand, it seems to strengthen the meaning. 
 JS and ex, viz. : ex before vowels, and before consonants some- 
 times e and sometimes ex : ex before c, p, q, s, t, except in 
 escendo and epoto ; before f it assimilates to it ; e is used before 
 all the other consonants, except in exlex. We, therefore, should 
 write exspecto, exsilium, exstinguo, but the ancient grammarians, 
 as Quintilian and Priscian, are for throwing out the s, and in 
 MSS. we usually find extinguo, extruxi, exequor, and expecto, 
 exul, exilium, notwithstanding the ambiguity which sometimes 
 may arise. Its meaning "out of" or ""from," appears in ejicio, 
 emineo, enato, eripio, effero (extuli), excello, expono, exquiro, ex- 
 traho, exaudio, exigo, exulcero, &c. The idea of completion is 
 implied in several of these compounds, as in ejfficio, enarro, exoro. 
 [§ 328.] In is changed into im, before b and p and another 
 m, and it is assimilated to I and r. Its meaning is "in" or 
 " into," as in incurro, impono, illido, irrumpo. ^Vlien prefixed 
 to adjectives and participles, which have the signification of 
 adjectives, it has a negative power, and does not appear to be 
 the preposition in, but equivalent to and identical with our in or 
 un, e. g. indoctus, incautus, ineptus (from aptus), insipiens, im- 
 providus, irnprudens, imparatus, the negative oi paratus, because 
 there is no verb imparo. Some other compounds of this kind 
 have a double meaning, since they may be either negative adjec- 
 tives, or participles of a compound verb : e. g. indictus, unsaid, 
 or announced ; infr actus, unbroken or broken into ; invocatus, 
 uninvited, or accosted, called in. The participle perf. passive, 
 when compounded with in, often acquires the signification of 
 impossibility : e. g. invictus, unconquered and unconquerable ; 
 indefessus, indefatigable; infinitus, immeasurable. 
 
 Prae remains unchanged, but is shortened when a vowel fol- 
 lows. (See above, § 15.) Its meaning is "before," as in praefero, 
 praecipio, praeripio. When prefixed to adjectives, it strengthens 
 their meaning. (See § 107.) 
 
 Pro remains unchanged, but in many words it is shortened 
 even before consonants. (See above, § 22.) For the purpose 
 of avoiding hiatus, a ^ is inserted in prodeo, prodigo, and in those 
 forms of the verb prosum in which the initial e would cause 
 
 s-2 
 
260 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 hiatus, as prodeSf prodest, proderam. (See above, § 156.) Its 
 meaning, "forth" or "forward," appears in jt?ro/e?-o, jt?r<?cMrro, 
 prodeo, projicio, prospicio. 
 
 [§ 329.] Sub remains unchanged before vowels (but sumo 
 seems to be formed from suhimo, as demo and promo are formed 
 from the same root), but undergoes assimilation before c, f, 
 g, 7W, p; not always before r, for we have surripio and yet 
 suhrideo, where however the difference in meaning is to be 
 taken into account. In suscipio, suscito, suspendo, sustineo, 
 and the perfect sustuli, an s is inserted instead of the h, 
 whence an ancient form subs is supposed to have existed, ana- 
 logous to abs and obs. The b is dropped before sp, but before 
 sc and st it is retained. Its meaning is " under," as in sum- 
 mitto, suppono, sustineo ; or " from under," as in subduco, sum- 
 moveo, surripio ; an approach from below, is expressed in subeo, 
 succedo, suspicio, look up to, esteem ; and to do a thing instead 
 of another person, in subsortior. It weakens the meaning in 
 such verbs as subrideo, siibvereor, and in adjectives, such as sub- 
 absurdus, subtristis, subrusticus, subobscurus. 
 
 Super, "above," as in superimpono, supersto, supersedeo, set 
 myself above, or omit. 
 
 Subter, " from under," as in subterfugio. 
 
 Com for cum appears in this form only before b, p, m ; before 
 /, w, r, the final m is assimilated to these letters, and before all 
 other consonants it is changed into n. Before vowels the m is 
 dropped, e. g. coeo, cohaereo, and in addition to this a contrac- 
 tion takes place in cogo and cogito (from coago, coagito). The 
 m is retained only in a few words, as comes, comitium, comitor, 
 comedo. It signifies *'with" or "together," as in conjungo, con- 
 sero, compono, collido, colligo, corrado, co'eo, coalesco, cohaereo. 
 In some verbs and participles it merely strengthens the mean- 
 ing, as corrumpo, concerpo, confringo, consceleratus. 
 
 [§ 330.] Note. We must not leave unnoticed here what are called the 
 inseparable prepositions (among which con is reckoned, although it is only 
 a different pronunciation for cum) ; that is, some little words, which are 
 never used by themselves, but occur only in compound verbs and adjectives, 
 where they modify the meaning in the same way as the above-mentioned 
 separable prepositions. The following is a list of them : 
 
 Amb (from the Greek a^^/), " around," " about," as in amhio^ amhuro (am- 
 hustus), ambigo, amhiguus. In amplector^ amputo^ the h is dropped on account 
 of the p ; before palatals amb is changed into an ; e. g. anceps, anquiro, and 
 also before /, in the word anfractus. 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 261 
 
 Dis or di, denoting separation, as in digero, dirimo, dijudico, dispono, dis- 
 sero, distingvx)^ dimitto (to be distinguished from demitto). It strengthens the 
 meaning in discupio. Before c, j9, q^ t, dis is retained entire ; before j, we 
 sometimes have dis, as in disficio, disjungo ; and sometimes di, as in dijvdico. 
 Before s, with a consonant after it, di is used, and dis when the s after it is 
 followed by a vowel : di-spergo, di-sto, dis-socio, dis-suadeo ; disertus, how- 
 ever, is formed from dissero. Before y, dis is changed into dif, as in differo. 
 Di is used before all other consonants. 
 
 Re signifies " back : " remitto, rejicio, revertor. Before a vowel or an h, a 
 d is inserted : redeo, redigo, redhibeo : this is neglected only in compounds 
 formed by late and unclassical writers ; e. g. reaedifico, reagens. The d in 
 reddo, I give back, is of a different kind. Re denotes separation in resolvo., 
 revello, retego, recingo, recludo, refringo, reseco; and in relego, rebiboy and 
 others, it denotes repetition. 
 
 «Sie, "aside," "on one side" : seduco, sevoco, secubo, sepono, sejungo. In adjec- 
 tives it signifies " without :" securus, sobrius for sebrius (non ebrins), socors 
 for secors. Seorsum is contracted from sevorsum., aside. A c? is inserted in 
 seditio, separation, sedition, from se and itio. 
 
 The prefixes ne and ve are of a somewhat dlfierent nature : ne has ne- 
 gative power, as in nefas, nemo (ne hemo, obsolete for homo), nescio. Ve is 
 likewise negative, but occurs in a much smaller number of words, viz. in 
 vesanus and vecors (vecordid), senseless. In vegrandis and vepallidus, it 
 seems to denote ugliness. 
 
 CHAP. LXVII. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 [§331.] 1. Conjunctions are those indeclinable parts of 
 
 speech which express the relations in which sentences stand 
 
 to one another. They therefore are, as it were, the links of 
 
 propositions, whence their name conjunctions. 
 
 Note 1. Some conjunctions, and more particularly all those which form 
 the first class in our division, connect not only sentences, but single 
 words. This, however, is in reality the case o«ly when two propositions 
 are contracted into one, or when one is omitted, as in Mars sive Mavors 
 beUis praesidet : here sive Mavors is to be explained by the omission 
 of sive is Mavors appeUandus est, which phrase is, in fact, not unfrequently 
 used. The propositions vive diu ac feliciter and ratio et oratio homines 
 conjungit, again may be divided each into two propositions joined by the 
 conjunctions vive diu et vive feliciter and ratio conjungit homines et oratio 
 conjungit homines. The practice of language, however, did not stop short in 
 this contraction, but as we may say ratio et oratio conjungunt homines, and as 
 we must say pater etflius dormiunty the language, by the plural of the pre- 
 
262 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 dicate, clearly indicates that the two nouns are united. Hence we may- 
 say, that the (copulative) conjunctions et^ que, ac, and atque join single words 
 also. With regard to the other, especially the disjunctive conjunctions (for 
 there can be no doubt about the conjunction " also,") we must have recourse 
 to the above explanation, that two propositions are contracted into one, for 
 in ego aut tu vincamus necesse est, the nos, which comprehends the two 
 persons, is the subject of vincamus, and not ego aut tu. 
 
 Note 2. Many of the conjunctions to be mentioned presently origi- 
 nally belonged to other parts of speech ; but they have lost their real sig- 
 nification, and as they serve to join propositions, they may at once be looked 
 upon as conjunctions ; e. g. ceterum, verum, vero, licet, quamvis, and such 
 compounds as quare, idcirco, quamohrem. But there are also many adverbs 
 denoting time and place, respecting which it is doubtful, whether in conse- 
 quence of the mode of their application in language, they should not be 
 classed among conjunctions. Those denoting time (e. g. deinde, denique, pos- 
 tremum) retain, indeed, their original signification, but when they are doubled, 
 as turn — turn, nunc — nunc, modo — modo, they evidently serve only to con- 
 nect propositions ; the adverbs of place, on the other hand, are justly classed 
 among the conjunctions when they drop their meaning of place and express a 
 connection of propositions in respect of time, or the relation of cause and 
 effect, as is the case with ubi, ibi, and inde, and with eo and quando. 
 
 2, In regard to their form {Ji(/ura), they are either simple or 
 compound. Of the former kind are, e. g. et, ac, at, sed, nam ; and 
 of the latter atque, itaque, attamen, siquidem, enimvero, verum- 
 enimvero. 
 
 3. In reference to their signification, they may be divided into 
 the following classes. They denote : 
 
 [§ 332.] 1. A union {conjunctiones copulativae), as et, ac, 
 atque, and the enclitic que, combined with the negation belonging 
 to the verb, neque or nee, or doubled so as to become an affirma- 
 tive, nee (neque) non, equivalent to et. JEtiam and quoque also 
 belong to this class, together with the adverbial item and itidem. 
 As these particles unite things which are of a kind, so the dis- 
 junctive conjunctions, signifying "or," connect things, which are 
 distinct from each other. They are aut, vel, the suffix ve, and 
 sive or seu. 
 
 Note. Ac is never used before vowels (which, however, do not include j) 
 or before an h; atque occurs most frequently before vowels, but before 
 consonants also. Hence the two forms in the same sentence of Cicero 
 p. Balb. 3. : non contra ac liceret, sed contra atque oporteret, and it is pro- 
 bable that in prose as well as in poetry the hiatus was avoided by elision. 
 The rule here given is not invalidated by the fact of ac being found here 
 and there before vowels, in editions of Latin authors, as is the case, for 
 example, in two passages of Ernesti's edition of Cicero, ad Quint. Frat. u. 6., 
 and ad Att. xiii. 48. For as this difference in the use of oc and atque was not 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 263 
 
 noticed till recently* (in the schools of the Dutch philologers, Burmann and 
 Drakenborch), and as the MSS. have not yet been collated in all cases of 
 this kind, such isolated remnants of former carelessness cannot be taken 
 into account. Drakenborch (on Liv. x. 36. in fin.) observes, that where- 
 ever, before his time, ac was found in Livy before vowels, the MSS. 
 give either atque^ aut, at, or something else, and that even those pas- 
 sages, in which he retained it, such as iii. 16., ac emergentihus malisj 
 should be corrected. We cannot, however, enter into the question, why 
 ac was not used before a vowel, while nee and neque are used indis- 
 criminately both before vowels and consonants. One language avoids a 
 sound as displeasing, which in another produces no such efiect ; suffice it 
 to say, that the fact itself is beyond all doubt. Another remark, however, 
 which is made by many Grammarians, that ac is not used by good writers 
 before c and q, is unfounded, at least ac before con is frequent in Cicero, 
 and other authors do not even scruple to use ac before ca^ which is other- 
 wise, and with justice, considered not euphonious. 
 
 [§ 333.] The difference between et and que is correctly described by 
 Hermann in Elmsley's ed. of the Medea, p. 331., ed. Lips, in these 
 words : " et (koi) is a copulative particle, and que (jt) is an adjunc- 
 tive one." In other words, et connects things which are conceived as 
 different, and que adds what belongs to, or naturally flows from, things. In 
 an enumeration of words, therefore, qv£ frequently forms the conclusion of 
 the series ; e. g. Cicero says : hi, qui solis et lunae reliquorumqu^ siderum ortus, 
 obitus motusque cognorunt ; and by means of qu£ he extends the preceding 
 idea, without connecting with it any thing which is generically different, as in : 
 de ilia civitate totaque provincia optime meritus ; Dolabella quique ejus facinoris 
 ministri fuerunt ; jus potestatemque habere; Pompejus pro patris majorumque 
 suorum animo studioque in rempublicam suaque pristina virtute fecit. In con- 
 necting propositions with one another, it denotes a consequence or result, 
 and is equivalent to " and therefore," which explains its peculiarly frequent 
 application in senatusconsulta (which are undoubtedly the most valid docu- 
 ments in determining the genuine usage of the Latin language), framed as 
 they were to prevent different points being mixed up in one enactment. 
 E. g. in Cic. Philip, ix. 7. : Quum Ser. Sulpicius salutem reip. vitae suae prae- 
 posuerit, contraque vim gravitatemque morbi contenderit, ut — perveniret, isque 
 vitam amiserit, eju^que mors consentanea vitae fuerit : quum talis vir mortem 
 obierit, senatui placere, Ser. Svlpicio statuam aeneam — statui, circumque eam 
 locum liberos posterosque ejus — habere, eamque causam in ba^i inscribi, utique 
 Coss. — locent, quantique locaverint, tamtam pecuniam — attribuendam solvendam- 
 que curent. 
 
 Atque is formed from ad and que, and therefore properly signifies " and in 
 
 * Or, we should rather say, was not noticed again, for the observation waa 
 first made in a brief but unequivocal manner by Gabriel Faernus, in his 
 note on Cic. pro Place. 3. in fin. ed. Rom. 1563. ; but it was disregarded. It 
 is still more remarkable, that none of the ancient grammarians, though they 
 carefully notice other phenomena of a similar kind, have thought it necessary 
 to draw attention to this circumstance, which is by no means unimportant. 
 The passages in Ernesti's edition of Cicero, above referred to, have been 
 corrected in Orelli's edition. 
 
 s 4 
 
264 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 addition," " and also," thus putting things on an equality, but at the same 
 time laying stress upon the connection. We express this by pronouncing 
 " and" more emphatically than usual. For example, >ocm et exterae nationes 
 simply indicates the combination of two things independent of each other ; 
 but in socii atque exterae nationes the latter part is more emphatic, " and also 
 the foreign," &c. In the beginning of a proposition which further explains 
 that which precedes, and where the simple connection is insuiScient, the par- 
 ticles atque and ac introduce a thing with great weight, and may be rendered 
 in English by " now ;" e. g. atque Jiaec quiclem mea sententia est; atque — de ipsis 
 Syracusanis cognoscite; also in answers : cognostine hos versus? Ac memoriter. 
 Num hie duae Bacckides habitant? Atque amhae sorores^ i, e. yes, and that, 
 &c. Ac is the same as atque, but being an abridged form it loses somewhat 
 of its power in connecting single words ; but it retains that power which puts 
 the things connected by it on an equality, and its use alternates with that of 
 et; it is preferred in subdivisions, whereas the main propositions are con- 
 nected by et; e. g. Cic. in Verr. v. 15. : Cur tibi fasces ac secures, et tantam 
 vim imperii tantaque ornamenta data censes f Divin. 12. : Difficile est tantam 
 causam et diligentia consequi, et memoria complecti, et oratione expromere, et 
 voce ac viribus sustinere. 
 
 [§ 334.] Neque is formed from the ancient negative particle and que, and 
 is used for et non. Et non itself is used, when the whole proposition is 
 affirmative and only one idea or one word in it is to be negatived ; e. g. Cic. 
 Brut. 91. : Athenis apud Demetrium Syrum, veterem et non ignobilem dicendi 
 magistrum, exerceri solebam; in Verr. i. 1.: patior et non moleste fero; de 
 Orat. iii. 36. : videris miM aliud quiddam et non id quod suscepisti disputasse, 
 and when our "and not" is used for " and not rather," to correct an improper 
 supposition; e.g. Cic. in Verr. i. 31. : si quam Rubrius injuriam suo nomine ac 
 non impidsu tuo fecisset. See § 781. Et non is, besides, found in the second 
 part of a proposition, when et precedes, but neque may be and frequently is 
 used for et non in this case ; e. g. Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 23. : Manlius et semper me 
 coluit, et a studiis nostris non abhorret; ad Att. ii. 4. : id et nobis erit perjucun- 
 dum, et tibi non sane devium. Nee (neque} non is not used in classical prose 
 in quite the same way as et to connect nouns, but only to join propositions 
 together (see Ruhnken on Yell. Pat. ii. 95.), and the two words are sepa- 
 rated ; e. g. N"epos, Att. 13. : Nemo Attico minus fuit aedijicator, neque tamen 
 non imprimis bene habitavit. Cicero several times uses nee vero non and the 
 like ; but in Varro and later writers, such as Quintilian, nee non are not se- 
 parated, and are in all essential points equivalent to et. 
 
 [§ 335.] Etiam and quoque are in so far different in their meaning, that 
 etiam, in the first place, has a wider extent than quoque, for it contains also 
 the idea of our " even ;" and secondly etiam adds a new circumstance, whereas 
 quoque denotes the addition of a thing of a similar kind. Hence etiam is pro- 
 perly used to connect propositions. This difference seems to be correctly 
 expressed in stating that etiam is " and further," and quoque " and so also." 
 As in this manner quoque refers to a single word, it always follows that word ; 
 etiam in similar cases is usually placed before it, but when it connects pro- 
 positions, its place is arbitrary. Et too is sometimes used in the sense of 
 "also" in classical prose; e. g. Curt. iii. 31.: non errasti, mater, nam et hie 
 Alexander est; Cic. de Legg. ii. 16. : quod et nunc multis infanisfit, for nunc 
 quoque; in Verr. iv. 61. : simul et verebar; and v. 1.: simul et de illo vulnere 
 — multa dixit; and often non modo — sed et; e.g. Cic. in Verr. i. 1. : non modo 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 265 
 
 Homae, sed et apud exteras nationes; Nepos, Thrasyh. 1. : non solum princeps^ 
 sed et solus helium indixit. (See Bremi's remark on this passage, who states 
 that sed et is not merely " but also," but always " but even.") But passages 
 of this kind are not very numerous, and not always certain, for the MSS. 
 usually have etiam^ so that this use of et in prose (for poets cannot be taken 
 into account) must at least be very much limited, and it should not be used 
 to that extent in which modern Latinists apply it. 
 
 [§ 536.1 The disjunctive conjunctions differ thus far, that aut indicates a 
 difference of the object, and vel a difference of expression. Vel is coitnected 
 with the verb velle (vel — vel, will you thus or will you thus ?), and the single 
 vel is used by Cicero only to correct a preceding expression, commonly combined 
 with dicam or potius or etiam ; e.g. peteres velpotius rogares ; stuporem hominis 
 vel dicam pecudis videte (Philip, ii. 12.) ; laudanda est vel etiam amanda (p. 
 Plane. 9.) ; it very rarely occurs without such an addition, but even then its 
 meaning is corrective; e. g. Ttisc. ii. 20. : summum honum a virtideprofectum^ 
 vel (or rather) in ipsa virtide positum ; de Nat.Deor. ii. 15. : in ardore coelesti, 
 qui aether vel coelum nominatur, where it likewise denotes not so much the 
 equivalence of the terms, as the preference which is to be given to the 
 Latin word. (Concerning the use of vel to denote an increase, see 
 § 108. and § 734., where also its signification of "for example," velut, is 
 explained. Both these significations are derivable from what has here been 
 said.) From this in later, though still good, prose, arose the use of vel in the 
 sense of " or," that is, that in point of fact one thing is equal to another, a 
 meaning which ve in connecting single words has even in Cicero ; e. g. Philip. 
 V. 19. : Consules alter ambove faciant, that is, in point of fact it is the same 
 whether both consuls or only one of them do a thing ; Top. 5. : Esse ea dico, 
 quae cerni tangive possunt, that is, either of the two is sufficient. Sive either 
 retains the meaning of the conjunction si (which is commonly the case) and 
 is then the same as vel si, or it loses it by an ellipsis (perhaps of dicere mavis), 
 and is then the same as vel, denoting a difference of name, as in Quintilian : 
 vocabulum sive appellatio; Cic. : regie seu potius tyrannice. The form seu is 
 used by Cicero very rarely, and almost exclusively in the combination seu 
 potius; but in- poetry and later prose it occurs frequently. 
 
 [§ 337.] The disjunctive conjunctions aut and ve serve to continue the 
 negation in negative sentences, where we use " nor ;" e. g. Verres non Honori 
 aut Virtuti vota debebat, sed Veneri et Cupidini; and we may say also non Honori 
 neque Virtuti, and in other cases we might use ve, analogous to the affirm- 
 ative que. See Ruhnken on Veil. Pat. ii. 45., and the commentators on 
 Tacit. Ann. i. 32. in fin. Examples : Cic. p. Place. 5. : Itaque non optimus 
 quisque nee gravissimus, sed iinpudentissimus loquacissimusque deligitur; 
 Horat. Sei^m. i. 9. 31. : Hunc nee hosticus auferet ensis, nee late7'um dolor aut 
 tarda podagra; ibid. i. 4. 73. : Nee recito cuiquam nisi amicis, non ubivis 
 coramve quibuslibet; Cic. ad Fam. v. 13. : Nullum membrum reip. reperies, 
 quod non fractum debilitatumve sit; and in negative, questions, Cic. Philip, v. 
 5. : Num leges nostras moresve novit? in Verr. v. 13. : Quid me attinet dicere 
 aut conjungere cum istius Jlagitio cvjusquam praeterea dedecusf or after com- 
 paratives, Cic. p. Mur. 29. : Accessit istuc doctrina non moderata nee mitis, 
 sed paulo asperior et durior, quam Veritas aut natura patiatur. It is only in 
 those cases in which both words are to be united into one idea that a copu- 
 lative conjunction is used ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. iii. 86. : nummos non exarat 
 arator, non aratro ac manu quaerit. Corap. the longer passage in Cic. De 
 Nat. Deor. ii. 62. in fin. 
 
266 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 338.] The Latin language is fond of doubling the conjunctions of this 
 kind, whereby words and propositions are more emphatically brought under 
 one general idea. The English " as well as" is expressed by 
 
 et — et^ which is of very common occurrence ; 
 
 et — que, occurs not unfrequently in late writers, in Cicero by way of 
 exception only ; 
 
 que — et, connects single words, but not in Cicero ; 
 
 que — que, is found only in poetry. 
 The only prose writer who uses it is Sallust, Cat. 9. : seque remque publicam 
 curabant; Jug. 10. : meque regnumque meum gloria honoramsti; but it is not 
 uncommon in the case of the conjunction being appended to the relative 
 pronoun ; e. g. quique exissent, quiqne ihi mansissent; captivi, quique Campa- 
 norum, quique Hannihalis militum erant, in Livy ; ov junctis exercitibus, quique 
 sub Caesare fuerant, quique ad eum venerant, in Vellejus. The latest critics 
 have removed similar passages from the works of Cicero; see the comment, 
 on de Orat. i. 26., and de Fin. v. 21. ; noctesque diesque, in de Fin. i. 16., is 
 an allusion to a passage in a poem. Negative propositions are connected in 
 English by " neither — nor," and in Latin by 
 
 neque — neque, or nee — nee; 
 
 neque — nee, which is not unfrequent, and by 
 
 nee — neque, which seldom occurs. 
 Propositions, one of which is negative and the other affirmative, " on the one 
 hand, but not on the other," or " not on the one hand, but on the other," 
 are connected by 
 
 et — neque (nee) \, . c x- j. 
 
 neque (nee)-et] ^°*^ ^^ ^'^^^ frequent occurrence. 
 
 nee (neque) — que, occurs occasionally. 
 [§339.] Our "either — or," is expressed hy aut — aut, denoting an oppo- 
 sition between two things, one of which excludes the other, or by vel — vel, 
 denoting that the opposition between two things is immaterial in respect of 
 the result, so that the one need not exclude the other. E. g. Catiline, in 
 Sallust, says to his comrades, vel imperatore vel milite me utimini, that is, it is 
 indifferent to me in which capacity you may make use of me, only do make 
 use of me. A similar idea is described more in detail by Terence, Eun. ii. 
 3. 28. : Hanc tu mihi vel vi, vel clam, vel precario fac tradas: mea nihil refert, 
 dum potiar modo; i. e. you may effect it even in a fourth way, if you like. 
 Sive — sive is the same as vel si — vel si, and therefore transfers the meaning 
 of vel — vel to the cases in which it is applied ; e. g. Cicero : Illo loco liben- 
 tissime soleo uti, sive quid mecum cogito, sive aliquid scribo aut lego. If there 
 is no verb, and nouns only are mentioned in opposition to each other, an 
 uncertainty is expressed as to how a thing is to be called ; e. g. Cic. Tu^c. 
 ii. 14. : Cretum leges, quas sive Juppiter sive Minos sanxit, laboribus erudiunt 
 juventutem, i. e. I do not know, whether I am to say Juppiter or Minos ; ad 
 Quint. Frat. i. 2. : His in rebus si apud te plus auctoritas mea, quam tua sive 
 natura paulo acrior, sive qu£iedam dulcedo iracundiae, sive dicendi sal face' 
 tiaeque valuissent, nihil sane esset, quod nos poeniteret. 
 
 [§ 340.] 2. The following express a comparison, " as," " like," 
 ''than as if" {conjunctiones comparativae) : ut or uti, sicut, velut, 
 prout, praeut, the poetical ceu, quam, tamquam (with and with- 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 267 
 
 out si), quasi, ut si, ac si, together with ac and atque, when they 
 signify " as." 
 
 Note. Ac and atque are used in the sense of " as" or " than" after the ad- 
 verbs and adjectives which denote similarity or dissimilarity : aeqv£^ juxta, par 
 and pariter, perinde and proinde, pro eo, similis^ dissimilis and similiter^ talis, 
 totidem, alius and aliter, contra^ secus, contrarius; e. g. non aliter scribo ac 
 sentio; aliud mihi ac tihi videtur; saepe aliud fit atque existimamus ; simile 
 fecit atque alii; cum totidem navibus rediit atque erat profectus, Quam after 
 these words (as in Tacit. Ann. vi. 30. : perinde se quam Tiberium falli potu- 
 isse) is not often used, except in the case of a negative particle being 
 joined with alius; e. g. Cicero : virtus nihil aliud est, quam in se perfecta et 
 ad summum perdu£ta natura, where nisi might be used instead of quam. 
 Respecting proinde ac, instead of the more frequent perinde ac^ see above, 
 § 282. Et and que do not occur in this connection like ac and atque; and 
 wherever this might appear to be the case, from the position of the words, as 
 in Sal lust, juxta bonos et malos interficere; suae hostiumque vitas juxta peper- 
 cerant; and in Cicero : nisi aeque amicos et nosmetipsos diligimus, the et and 
 qu£ retain their original signification "and ;" but where the words compared 
 are separated, as in reip. juxta ac sibi consuluerunt; or where propositions are 
 compared, as in Cic. de Fin. iv. 12., similem habeat wUum ac si ampullam. 
 perdidisset, the ac ox ut has justly been restored in the passages in which 
 formerly et was read. 
 
 Ac is used for quam, after comparatives in poetry, in Horace generally, 
 and in a few passages also of late prose writers ; but never in Cicero ; e. g. 
 Horat. Epod. xv. 5. : artiu^ atqu£ hedera; Sei-m. i. 2. 22 : vt non se pejv^ cru- 
 ciaverit atque hie; i. 10. 34. : In silvam iwn lig7mferas insanius ac si, &c. 
 
 [§341.] 3. The following express a concession with the gene- 
 ral signification "although" {conjunctiones concessivae) : etsi, 
 etiamsi, tametsi (or tamenetsi), quamquam, quamvis, quantumvis, 
 quamUbet, licet, together with ut in the sense of "even if" or 
 " although," and quum, when it signifies " although," which is 
 not unfrequently the case. 
 
 Note. Those particles which signify "yet," especially tamen^ form the 
 correlatives of the concessive conjunctions ; e. g. zf^ desint vires, tamen est 
 laudaTida voluntas. Tametsi is a combination of the two correlatives ; and 
 in its application we not unfrequently meet with a repetition of the same 
 particle ; e. g. Cic. : tametsi vicisse debeo, tamen de meo jure decedam ; tametsi 
 enim verissimum esse intelligebam, tamen credibile fore non arbitrabar. The 
 adverb quidem also belongs to this class of conjunctions, when it is used to 
 connect propositions, and is followed by sed. See § 278. 
 
 A difference in the use of these conjunctions might be observed : some 
 jnight be used to denote real concessions, and others to denote such as are 
 merely conceived or imagined ; and this would, at the same time, determine 
 their construction, either the indicative or the subjunctive. But such a dif- 
 iference is clearly perceptible only between quamquam and quamvis. (See 
 § 574.) We shall here add only the remark, that quamquam has a peculiar 
 place in absolute sentences, referring to something preceding, but limiting 
 and partly nidlifying it ; e. g. Cic. in Cat. i. 9. : Quamquam quid loquor ? 
 
2G8 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Yet why do I speak ? j). Muren. 38. in fin. : quamqiiam hvjusce rei potestas 
 omnis in vohis sita est^ judices ; that is: and yet, judges, why should I say 
 more ? for surely you have the decision entirely in your own hands. 
 
 [§ 342.] 4. The following express a condition, the funda- 
 mental signification being "if" {conjunctiones condicionales) : si, 
 sin, nisi or ni, simodo, dummodo, if only, if but (for which duin, 
 and modo are also used alone), dummodo ne, or simply modo ne 
 or dumne. 
 
 Note. In order to indicate the connection with a preceding proposition, 
 the relative pronoun quod (which, however, loses its signification as a pro- 
 noun) is frequently put before *z, and sometimes also before nisi and etsi^ so 
 that quodsi may be regarded as one word. Comp. § 806. 
 
 Sin signifies " if however," and therefore stands for si autem or si vero ; 
 not unfrequently, however, autem is added, and sometimes vero (sin vero in 
 Columelfa, vii. 3., and Justin). 
 
 [§ 343.] Ni and nisi have the same meaning, except that ni is especially 
 applied in judicial sponsipnes ; e. g, centum dare spondeo, ni dixisti, &c. In- 
 stead of nisi, we sometimes find the form nisi si. Both particles limit a 
 statement by introducing an exception, and thus differ from si non, which 
 introduces a negative case, for si alone has the character of a conjunction, 
 and non, the negative particle, belongs to the verb or some other word of the 
 proposition. It is often immaterial whether ?zm or 5mow is used ; e.g. Nep. 
 Con. 2. : fuit apertum, si Conon non fuisset, Agesilaum Asiam Tauro tenus 
 regi fuisse erepturum ; and the same author. Ages. 6. says : talem se impera- 
 torem praebuit, id omnibus apparuerit nisi ille fuisset, Spartam futuram non 
 fuisse. And thus Cicero, Cat. Maj. 6., might have said : memoria minuitur^ 
 si earn non exerceas, instead of nisi earn exerceas ; and nisi, on the other hand, 
 might have been used instead of ««' non, in Cic. in Verr. iii. 18. : glebam com- 
 mosset in agro decumano Siciliae nemo, si Metellus hanc epistolam non misisset. 
 But the difference is nevertheless essential ; e. g. if I say impune erit, sipecu- 
 niam promissam non dederitis, I mean to express that, in this case, the ordi- 
 nary punishment will not be inflicted ; but if I say, impune erit, nisi pecuniam 
 dederitis, the meaning is, " it shall remain unpunished, except in the case of 
 your having paid the money ; " which implies, " but you shall be punished, 
 if you have paid the money." Si non, therefore, can be used only when one 
 of the sentences is not complete ; as in Horace : Quo mihi fortunam, si non 
 conceditur uti ? What is the good of having property, if I am not allowed 
 to make use of it ? If we express the former sentence by nidlius pretiifor- 
 tunae surd, we may continue in the form of an exception, nisi concedatur iis 
 uti, or in the form of a negative case, si non concedatur uti. Si non is further 
 used only when single words are opposed to one another, as is particularly 
 frequent in such expressions as dolorem, si non potero frangere, occultabo ; 
 disiderium amicorum, si non aequo animo, at forti feras; cum spe, si non op- 
 tima, at aliqua tamen vivere. In this case si minus may be used instead of si 
 non ; e. g. Tu si minus ad nos, nos accurremus ad te. If after an afiirmative 
 proposition its negative opposite is added without a verb, our "but if not" 
 is commonly expressed (in prose) by si (or sm) minus, sin aliter ; e. g. Cic. 
 in Cat. i. 5. : educ tecum etiam omnes tuos : si minus, quam plurimos ; de Orat. 
 ii. 75. : omnis cura mea solet in hoc versari semper, si possim, ut boni aliquid 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 269 
 
 efficiam : sin id minus, ut certe nequid mali ; but rarely by si non, which occurs 
 in Cicero only once (ad Fam. vii. 3. in fin.). 
 
 [§ 344.] 5. The following express a conclusion or inference 
 
 with the general signification of " therefore ; " consequently 
 
 {conjunctiones conclusivae) : ergo, igitur, itaque, eo, ideo, iccirco, 
 
 proinde, propterea, and the relative conjunctions, signifying 
 
 " wherefore : " quapropter, quare, quamobrem, qiiocirca, unde. 
 
 Note. Ergo and igitur denote a logical inference, like " therefore." Jtaque 
 expresses the relation of cause in facts ; it properly signifies " and thus," in 
 which sense it not unfrequently occurs ; e. g. itaque fecit. Respecting its 
 accent, see § 32. Ideo., iccirco, and propterea express the agreement between 
 intention and action, and may be rendered by " on this account." JEo is 
 more frequently an advei'b of place, " thither ; " but it is found in several 
 passages of Cicero in the sense of " on this account," or " for this purpose ; 
 c. g. in Verr. i. 14. : ut hoc pacto rationem referre liceret, eo Sullanus repente 
 factus est; Liv. ii. 48. : muris se tenehant, eo nulla pugna memorahilis fuit. 
 Proinde, in the sense of " consequently," is not to be confounded with pe- 
 rinde ; both words, however, are used in the sense of " like," so that we 
 cannot venture to adopt the one to the exclusion of the other. (See § 282.) 
 But as we are speaking here of conclusive conjunctions, we have to consider 
 only proinde, which implies an exhortation ; e. g. Cicero : Proinde, si sapis, 
 vide quid tibi faciendum sit ; and so also in other writers, as proinde fac 
 magno animo sis, " consequently, be of good courage ! " Unde is properly 
 an adverb " whence," but is used also as a conjunction in a similar sense, 
 alluding to a starting point. Hinc and inde cannot properly be considered 
 as conjunctions, as they retain their real signification of "hence." But adeo 
 may be classed among the conjunctions, since the authors of the silver age 
 use it as denoting a general inference from what precedes, like our " so 
 that,"or simply " so ;" e. g. Quintil. i. 12. 7. : Adeofacilius est multa facere 
 quam diu. 
 
 [§ 345.] 6. The following expresses a cause, or reason, with 
 the demonstrative meaning of ''' for," and the relative of 
 " because " (conjunctiones causales) : nam, namque, enim, etenim, 
 quia, quod, quoniam, quippe, quum, quando, quandoquidem, 
 siquidem. The adverbs nimirum, nempe, scilicet and videlicet, 
 are likewise used to connect propositions. 
 
 Note. Between nam and enim there is this practical difference, that nam 
 is used at the beginning of a proposition, and enim after the first or second 
 word of a proposition. The difference in meaning seems to consist in this, 
 that nam introduces a conclusive reason, and enim merely a confirming cir- 
 cumstance, the consideration of which depends upon the inclination of the 
 speaker. iVaw, therefore, denotes an objective reason, and enim merely a 
 subjective one. Namque and etenim, in respect of their signification, do not 
 essentially differ from nam and enim, for the copulative conjunction, at least 
 as far as we can judge, is as superfluous as in neque enirn, respecting which, 
 see § 808. But at the same time they indicate a closer connection with the 
 
270 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 sentence preceding, and the proper place for etenim, therefore, is in an ex- 
 planatory parenthesis. Namque^ in Cicero and Nepos, occurs only at the 
 beginning of a proposition, and usually (in Nepos almost exclusively) before 
 vowels ; but even as early as the time of Livy, we find it after the beginning 
 of a proposition just as frequently as at the beginning itself. We may add 
 the remark, that enim is sometimes put at the beginning by comic writers 
 in the sense of a^ enim or sed enim. Drakenborch on Livy, xxxiv. 32. § 13., 
 denies that Livy ever used it in this way. 
 
 Nam, enim, and etenim are often used in Latin in the sense of our 
 " namely," to introduce an explanation which was announced ; e. g. Cic. 
 Partit. 11.: Rerum honarum et mxdarum tria sunt genera: nam aut in animis, 
 aut in corporihus, aut extra esse possunt. Nimirum, videlicet, and scilicet 
 likewise answer to our " namely," or " viz." Nimirum is originally an 
 adverb signifying "undoubtedly," or "surely;" e.g. Cic. p. Mur. 15.: Si 
 diligenter quid Mithridates potuerit — consideraris, omnibus regibus — hunc 
 regem nimirum antepones. As a conjunction it introduces the reason of an 
 assertion, suggesting that it was looked for with some impatience ; e. g. Cic. 
 in Verr. ii. 63. : is est nimirum soter, qui salutem dedit. Videlicet and scilicet 
 introduce an explanation, and generally in such a manner that videlicet in- 
 dicates the true, and scilicet a wrong explanation, the latter being introduced 
 only for the purpose of deriving a refutation from it ; e. g. Cic. p. Mil. 21. : 
 Cur igitur eos manumisit? Metuebat scilicet, ne indicarent, but he was not 
 afraid of it, as is shown afterwards. However, the words nam, enim, etenim, 
 nimirum, videlicet are sometimes used in an ironical sense, and scilicet 
 (though rarely in classical prose) sometimes introduces a true reason without 
 any irony. Nempe signifies " namely," only when another person's con- 
 cession is taken for granted and emphatically dwelt upon ; it may then be 
 rendered by " surely." Comp. above, § 278. 
 
 [§ 346.] Quia and quod differ from quoniam (properly quum jam) in 
 this : the former indicate a definite and conclusive reason, and the latter 
 a motive ; the same difference is observed in the French parceque and 
 puisque. Ideo, iccirco, propterea quod, and quia are used without any es- 
 sential difference, except that quia introduces a more strict and logical 
 reason, whereas quoniam introduces circumstances which are of importance, 
 and properly signifies " now as." Quando, .qmmdoquidem, and siquidem ap- 
 proach nearer to quoniam than to quia, inasmuch as they introduce only 
 subjective reasons. Quandoquidem denotes a reason implied in a circum- 
 stance previously mentioned, and siquidem a reason implied in a concession 
 which has been made. Siquidem is composed of si and quidem, but must be 
 regarded as one word, as it has lost its original meaning and as si has be- 
 come short. Cic. p. Mur. 11 : Summa etiam utilitas est in iis, qui militari 
 laude antecellunt, siquidem eorum consilio et periculo quum re publica turn etiam 
 nostris rebus perfrui possumus ; Tusc. i. 1. : antiquissimum e doctis genu^ est 
 poetarum, siquidem (since it is admitted, for no doubt is to be expressed 
 here) Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam. Sometimes, how- 
 ever, it is still used in the sense of " if indeed ;" e. g. Cic. de Fin. ii. 34. : 
 Nos vero, si quidem in voliqytate sunt omnia (if, indeed, all happiness consists 
 in enjoyment), longe multumque superamur a bestiis ; in Cat. ii. 4.: o fortu- 
 natam remp., si quidem hanc sentinam ejecerit. In these cases si and quidem 
 should be written as two separate words. 
 
 Quippe, when combined with the relative pronoun or quum, is used to 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 271 
 
 introduce a subjective reason. When it occurs in an elliptical way, without 
 a verb, it is equivalent to " forsooth," or " indeed ;" e. g. Cic. de Fin. i. 6. : 
 sol Democrito^ magnus videtur^ quippe homini erudito ; sometimes it is fol- 
 lowed by a sentence with enim ; as in Cic. de Fin. iv. 3. : a te quidem apte et 
 rotunde (dicta sunt) ; quippe ; habes enim a rhetorihus. And in this way 
 quippe gradually acquires the signification of nam. 
 
 [§ 347.] 7. The following express a purpose or object, with 
 
 the signification of " in order that,'' or, " in order that not " {con- 
 
 junctiones finales) : ut or uti^ quo, ne or ut ne, neve or neu, qumf 
 
 quomhius. 
 
 Note. Ut as a conjunction indicates both a result and a purpose, " so 
 that," and " in order that ;" when a negative is added to it, in the former 
 sense, it becomes ut non ,• in the latter ne or ut ne. Ut non is very rarely 
 used for ne; e.g. Cic. in Verr. iv. 20.: ut non conferam vitam neque existi- 
 mationem tuam cum illius — hoc ipsum conferam, quo tu te superiorem Jingis ; 
 p. Leg. Manil. 15.; Itaque ut plura non dicam neque aliorum exemplis con- 
 firmem, &c. instead of ne plura dicam, neve conjirmem. For neve which is 
 formed from vel ne, is " or in order that not," and frequently also " and in 
 order that not." See § 535. Ut ne is a pleonasm, not differing perceptibly 
 from ne, except that it chiefly occurs in solemn discourse, and hence es- 
 pecially in laws. The two particles occur together as well as separately, 
 e. g. operam dant, utjudicia ne fiant; and still more separated in Cic. de Nat. 
 Deor. i. 17. : Sed ut hie, qui intervenit, me intuens, ne ignoi-et quae res agatur : 
 de natura agehamus deoinim ; Div. in Q. Caec. 4. : qui praesentes vos orant, 
 ut in adore causae suae deligendo vestrum judicium ah' suo judicio ne discrepet. 
 It must however be observed that ut ne is very frequently used by Cicero, 
 but rarely by other and later writers ; in Livy it occurs only in two pas- 
 sages, and in Valerius Maximus and Tacitus never. See Drakenborch on 
 Liv. X. 27. The pleonasm quo ne for ne occurs in a single passage of Horace, 
 Serm. il 1. 37. 
 
 [§ 348.] 8. The following express an opposition, with the sig- 
 nification of " but " (conjunctiones adversativae) : sed, autem, 
 verum, vero, at (poetical as£), at enim, atqui, tamen, attamen, sed- 
 tamen, veruntamen, at vero (enimvero), verumenim, vero, ceterum. 
 
 Note. Sed denotes a direct opposition; avtem marks a transition in a 
 narrative or argument and denotes at once a connection and an opposition, 
 whereas sed interrupts the narrative or argument. The adverb porro, 
 further, is likewise used to express such a progression and transition, but 
 does not denote opposition, except in later authors, such as Quintilian. See 
 Spalding on Quintilian, ii. 3. 5. Verum and vero stand in a similar relation 
 to each other. Verum with its primary meaning " in truth," denotes an 
 opposition, which at the same time contains an explanation, and thus brings 
 a thing nearer its decision, as our " but rather." Non ego, sed tu, is a 
 strong, but simple opposition ; but non ego, verum tu, contains an assurance 
 and explanation. Cic. in Verr. iv. 10. says, that the inhabitants of Messana 
 had formerly acted as enemies to every kind of injustice, but that they 
 favoured Verres, and he then continues : Verum haec civitas isti praedoni ac 
 piratae Siciliae Phaselis (receptaculum furtorum) fuit, i. e. but I will ex- 
 
272 . LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 plain the matter to you, for the fact is, that this town was the repository of 
 his plunder and shared in it. Vero bears to ve7mm the same relation as. 
 autem to sed : it connects things which are different, but denotes the point 
 in favour of which the decision should be, e. g. Cic. p. Arch. 8. : Homerum 
 Colophonii civem esse dicunt suum., Chii suum vindicant, Salaminii repetunt, 
 Smyrnaei vero suum esse confirmant ; in Verr. iii. 4. : Odistis hominum no- 
 vorum industriam^ despicitis eorum fnigalitatem^ pudorem cojitemnitis, inge- 
 nimn vero et virtutem depressam extinctamque cupitis. It thus forms the 
 transition to something more important and. significant In the phrase : Illud 
 vero plane non est ferendum., i. e. that which I am now going to mention. 
 Respecting the use of vero in answers, in the sense of "yes," see §716. 
 Enimvero is only confirming " yes, truly," " in truth," and does not denote 
 opposition.' See the whole passage in Cic. in Verr. i, 26. : enimvero hoc 
 ferendum non est ; and Terent. Andr. i. 3. init. : Enimvero^ Dave., nil loci est 
 segnitiae neque socordiae, i. e. now truly, Davus, there is no time for delay 
 here. Comp. Gronovius on Livy, xxvli. 30. Enimvero, further, forms the 
 transition to that which is most important, like vero ; as In Tac. An7i. xii. 64. : 
 Enimvero certamen acerrimum, amita potius an mater apud Neronem prae- 
 valeret, which is the same as acerrimum vero certamen. The compound 
 verum enimvero denotes an emphatic opposition which, as it were, surpasses 
 everything else in importance, as in Cic. in Verr. ill. 84. : Si ullo in loco ejus 
 provinciae frumentum tantifuit, qwinti iste aestimavit, hoc crimen in istum reum 
 valere oportere non arhitror. Verum enimvero cum esset HS. binis aut etiam 
 ternis qidhusvis in locis provinciae, duodenos sestertios exegisti. 
 
 [§ 349.] At denotes an opposition as equivalent to that which precedes ; e. g. 
 non ego, at tu vidisti, I have not seen it, but you have, and that is just as good; 
 homo etsi Jion sapientissimus, at amicissimus; and so we frequently find it after' 
 si In tlie sense of " yet," or " at least," and denoting a limitation with which, 
 for the time, we are satisfied ; e. g. Cic. p. Quint. 31 . ; Qidntius Naevium ohse- 
 cravit, id aliquam, si non propinqidtatis, at aetatis suae; si non hominis, at 
 humanitatis rationem haheret. Hence it is especially used to denote objec- 
 tions, even such as the speaker makes himself for the purpose of upsetting or 
 weakening that which was said before ; Cic. p. Flac. 14. : At enim negas, &c. ; 
 p. Mur. 17. ; At enim in praeturae petitione prior renuntiatus est Servius. By 
 atqui we admit that which precedes, but oppose something else to it, as by 
 the English " but still," " but yet," or " nevertheless ; " e. g. in Terent. 
 Phorm. i. 4. 26. : iVbw sum apud me. Atqui opus est nunc cum maxime ut sis; 
 Horat. Serm. i. 9. 52. : Magnum narras, vix credihile. Atqui sic hahet; Cic. 
 ad Att. vlii. 3. : O rem difficilem, inquis, et inexj^licabilem. Atqui ezplicanda 
 est. And so also in the connection of sentences, wlien that which is admitted 
 is made use of to prove the contrary, as in Cic. Cat. Maj. 22. : Videtis nihil 
 esse morti tarn simile quam sonmum. Atqui dormientium animi maxime de- 
 clarant divinitatem suam, and yet the souls of sleeping persons show their 
 divine nature. Atqui Is used, lastly, in syllogisms, when a thing is assumed 
 which had before been left undecided, as in Cic. Parad. iii. 1. : Quodsi vir- 
 tutes sunt pares inter se, paria etiam vitia esse riecesse est. Atqui pai^es esse 
 virtutes facile potest perspici. Atqui thus frequently occurs as a syllogistic 
 particle in replies in disputations, but it does not denote a direct opposition 
 of facts. Ceterum properly signifies " as for the rest," but is often used, 
 especially by Curtius, in the same sense as sed. Contra ca, in the sense of 
 " on the other hand," may be classed among the conjunctions, as in LIvy : 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 273 
 
 Superhe a Samnitihus legati prohihiti commercio sunt, contra ea benigne ah 
 Siculorum tyrannis adjuii. So also adeo^ in as much as this adverb is used in 
 a peculiar way to form a transition to something essential, on which par- 
 ticular attention is to be bestowed ; e. g. when Cicero, in Verr. iv. 64., has 
 told us that he prefers introducing the witnesses and documents themselves, 
 he forms the transition : Id adeo ex ipso Senatusconsvlto cognoscite; and so 
 frequently, ibid. iv. 63. : id adeo ut mild ex illis demonstratum est, sic vos ex 
 me cognoscite; p. Caec. 3. : id adeo, si placet, considerate. The pronoun 
 always accompanies it. Autem may be used in its place ; in English it may 
 be rendered by " and," but the pronoun must be pronounced with emphasis. 
 
 [§ 350.] 9. Time is expressed by the conjunctiones temporales : 
 
 quum, quum primum, ut, ut primum, uhi, postquam, antequam 
 
 and priusquam, qitando, simulac or simulatque or simul alone, 
 
 dum, usque dum, donee, quoad. 
 
 Note. Ut as a. particle of iime signifies " when." Ubi, properly an adverb 
 of place, is used in the same sense. Simulatque answers to our " as soon as," 
 in which sense simul alone is' also used. Quando instead of quum is rare, as 
 in Cic. in Rvll. ii. 16. : auctoritatem Senatus extare hereditatis aditae sentio, 
 turn, quando, rege Aegyptio mortuo, legatos Tyrum misimus. The words dum, 
 donee (donicum is obsolete), and quoad have the double meaning of " as long 
 as," and " until ;" e. g. do?iec erisfelix, multos numerahis amicos, " as long as 
 you are in good circumstances ; " and foris expectavit, donee or dum exiit, 
 " until he came out." Donee never occurs in Caesar, and in Cicero only 
 once, in Verr. i. 6. : usque eo timui, ne quis de mea Jide dubitaret, donee ad 
 rejiciendos judices venimus, but it is frequently used in poetry and in Livy. 
 The conjunction dum often precedes the adverb interea (or interim^ ; and the 
 two conjuctions dum and donee are often preceded by the adverbs usque, 
 usque eo, usque adeo, the conjunction either following immediately after the 
 adverb, or being separated from it by some words, as in Cicero : mihi usque 
 curae erit, quid agas, dum quid egeris sciero. 
 
 [§ 351.] 10. The following interrogative particles likewise be- 
 lon?^ to the conjunctions : num, utrum, an, and the suffix ne, which 
 is attached also to the three preceding particles, without altering 
 their meaning, numne, ^ utrumne, anne, and which forms with 
 non a special interrogative particle nonne ; also ec and en, as they 
 appear in ecquis, ecquando and enumquam, and numquid, ecquid, 
 when used as pure interrogative particles. 
 
 Note. The interrogative particles here mentioned must not be confounded 
 with the interrogative adjectives and adverbs, such as quis? uter? ubi? 
 The latter, by reason of their signification, may likewise connect sen- 
 tences, in what are called indirect questions. (See § 552.) The inter- 
 rogative particles have no distinct meaning by themselves, but serve only to 
 give to a proposition the form of a question. This interrogative meaning 
 may, in direct speech, be given to a proposition by the mere mode of accentu- 
 ating it, viz. when a question at the same time conveys the idea of surprise or 
 astonishment; but in indirect questions those interrogative particles are 
 absolutely necessary (the only exception occurs in the case of a double ques- 
 tion, see §554.). Numquid and ecquid can be reckoned among them only 
 
 T 
 
274 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 in so far as they are sometimes mere signs of a question, like wmtw, quid in this 
 case having no meaning at all ; e. g. Cic. de Leg. ii, 2. : Numquid vos duas 
 habetis patrias, an est ilia una patria communis ? have you perhaps two native 
 countries, or, &c. ; ecquid (whether) in Italiam venturi sitis hac hieme, fac 
 plane sciam. This is very different from another passage in the same writer : 
 ecquid in tuam statuam contulit? has he contributed anything? rogavit me., 
 numquid vellem, he asked me whether I wanted anything : in these latter 
 sentences the pronoun quid retains its signification. For en or (when fol- 
 lowed by a q) ec is (like num, ne and an) a purely interrogative particle, 
 probably formed in imitation of the natural interrogative sound, and must 
 be distinguished from ew, "behold!" See § 132. It never appears alone, 
 but is always prefixed to some other interrogative word. JEnunqu£im is the 
 only word in which the en is used difierently, e. g. enumquam audisti? didst 
 thou ever hear? enumquam futurum est? will it ever happen? 
 
 But there are difierences in the use of these particles themselves. Num 
 (together with numne.^ numnam^ numquid^ numquidnam) and ec (en) in its 
 compounds, give a negative meaning to direc^uestions, that is, they are 
 used in the supposition that the answer will be " no ;" e. g. num putas me tarn 
 dementem fuisse ? you surely do not believe that, &c. Ecquid alone is some- 
 times used also in an affirmative sense, that is, in the expectation of an af- 
 firmative answer ; e. g. Cic. ad Att. ii. 2. : sed Tieus tu., ecquid vides calendas 
 venire ? in Catil. i. 8. : ecquid attendis, ecquid animadvertis horum silentium ? 
 do you not observe their silence ? It must however be borne in mind, that 
 in general the negative sense of these particles appears only in direct and 
 not in indirect questions, for in the latter num and ec are simply inter- 
 rogative particles without implying negation ; e. g. quaesivi ex eo, num in 
 senatum esset venturus, whether he would come to the senate, or ecquis esset 
 venturus, whether any body would come. 
 
 [§ 352.] Ne which is always appended to some other word, properly denotes 
 simply a question ; e. g. putasne me istudfacere potuisse ? Do you believe that, 
 &c. But the Latin writers use such questions indicated by ne also in a more 
 definite sense, so that they are sometimes affirmative and sometimes negative 
 interrogations. (Respecting the former, see Heusinger on Cic. de Off. iii. 17.) 
 The negative sense is produced by the accent, when ne is attached to an- 
 other word, and not to the principal verb ; e. g. mene istud potuisse facere putas? 
 Do you believe that I would have done that? or hocine credihile est? Is that 
 credible ? The answer expected in these cases is " no." So also in a question 
 referring to the past; e.g. Cic. in Verr. i. 18. : Apollinemne tu Delium spoliare 
 ausU:S es ? where the answer is : " that is impossible." But when attached to 
 the principal verb, ne very often gives an affirmative meaning to the question, 
 so that we expect the answer " yes," e. g. Cic. Acad. ii. 18. : videsne^ ut inpro- 
 verbio sit ovorum inter se similitudo ? Do you not see that the resemblance 
 among eggs has become proverbial ? Cat. Maj. 10.: videtisne, ut apud Ho- 
 merum saepissime Nestor de virtutihus suis praedicet ? Do you not see, &c. 
 In the same sense we might also say : nonne videtis ? for nonne is the sign of 
 an affirmative interrogation; e. g. Nonne poetae post mortem nohilitari volunt? 
 Canis nonne lupo similis est? Utrum in accordance with its derivation (from 
 w^er, which of two) is used only in double questions, and it is immaterial 
 whether there are two or three; e. g. Cic. Cat. Maj. 10. Utrum has (Milonis) 
 corporis., an Pythagorae tibi malis vires ingenii dari ? ad Att. ix. 2. : Utrum 
 hoc tu parum commeministi, an ego non satis intellexi, an mutasti sententiam ? 
 Senec. Ep. 6Q. : Si sitis (if you are thirsty), nihil interest, utrum aqua sit, 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 275 
 
 an vinum ; nee refert, utrum sit aureum poculum, an vitreum, an manus con^ 
 cava. Utrum is sometimes accompanied by the interrogative particle we, 
 which however is usually separated from it by one or more other words : e. g. 
 Terent. Eun. iv. 4. 54. : Utrum taceamne an praedicem? Cic. de Nat. Dear, ii, 
 34. : Videamus utrum eaforiuitane sint, an eo statu, Sfc. ; Nep. Iph. 3.: quum 
 interrogaretur utrum pluris patrem matremne faceret. In later writers, 
 however, we find utrumne united as one word. iVe is rarely appended to 
 adjective interrogatives, though instances are found in poetry, as in Horat. 
 Sat. ii. 2. 107. : uteme ; ii. 3. 295. : qvx)ne malo; and 317. : quxintane. It is 
 still more surprising to find it attached to the relative pronoun, merely to 
 form an interrogation. Ibid. i. 10. 2.: Terent. Adelph. ii. 3. 9. 
 
 [§ sss.] An as a sign of an indirect interrogation occurs only in the writers 
 of the silver age (beginning with Curtius). It then answers to "whether," 
 e.g. consulit deinde (Alexander), an iotius orbis imperium fatis sibi destinaret 
 pater. In its proper sense it is used only, and by Cicero exclusively*, in a 
 second or opposite question, where we use " or," as in the passage of Seneca 
 quoted above. A sentence like qu/iero an argentum ei dederis cannot there- 
 fore be unconditionally recommended as good Latin (though it is frequently 
 done), and, according to Cicero, who must be regarded as our model in all mat- 
 ters of grammar, we ought to say num pecuniam ei dederis, or dederisne eipecu- 
 niam. In direct interrogations, when no interrogative sentence precedes, 
 an, anne, an vero can likewise be used only in the sense of our " or," that isy 
 in such a manner that a preceding interrogation is supplied by the mind. 
 E. g. when we say : " I did not intentionally oifend you, or do you believe that 
 I take pleasure in hurting a person?" we supply before " or" the sentence : 
 " Do you believe this ?" and connect with it another question which contains 
 that which ought to be the case, if the assertion were not true. The Latin 
 is : invitus te offendi, an putas me delectari laedendis hominibu^ ? Examples 
 are numerous. Cic. Philip, i. 6. : Quodsi scisset, quam sententiam dicturus essem, 
 remisissetaliquidprofecto de severitate cogendi (in senatum). An me censetis 
 decreturum fuisse, &c., that is, he would certainly not have obliged me to go 
 to the senate, or do you believe that I should have voted for him ? p. Mil. 
 23 : Causa Milonis semper a senatu probata est: videbant enim sapientissimi 
 homines facti rationem; praesentiam animi, defensionis constantiam. An vero 
 obliti estis, &c.; de Fin. i. 8. : Sed ad haec, nisi molestum est, habeo quae velim. 
 An me, inquam, nisi te audire vellem, censes haec dictwum fuisse ? In this 
 sentence we have to supply before an : dicesne f An after a preceding ques- 
 tion is rendered by " not ? " and it then indicates that the answer cannot be 
 doubtful; e.g. Cic. in Verr. v. 2. : Quid dicis? An belle fugitivorum Siciliam 
 virtute tua liberatam ? Do you not say that Sicily, &c. (In Latin we must 
 evidently supply utrum aliud?) So also Cat. Maj. 6. : A rebus gerendis senec- 
 tus abstrahit. Quibus f An his, quae geruntur juventute ac viribus ? Supply 
 
 * The passages which formerly occurred here and there in Cicero, with an 
 in the sense of "whether" in simple indirect questions, are corrected in the 
 latest editions. See p. Clueid. 19. § 52. ; in Catil. ii. 6. § 13. ; in Verr. iv. 12. 
 § 27. There remains only quaesivi an misisset in the last passage, of which 
 no certain correction is found in MSS., although the fault itself is obvious, 
 and Topic. 21. § 81., where quum an sit, aut quid sit, aut quale sit quaeritur, 
 must be corrected according to MSS. into aut sitne, aut quid sit, &c. 
 
 T 2 
 
276 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Aliisne? de Off. I. 15.: Quidnam henejicio provocati facere dehemus? An 
 imitari agros fertiles^ qui multo plus efferunt quam acceperunt? Must we not 
 imitate ? Hence such questions may also be introduced by nonne^ but with- 
 out allusion to an opposite question which is implied in an. 
 
 [§ 354.] There is, however, one great exception to the rule that an is used 
 only to indicate a second or opposite question, for an is employed after the 
 expressions duhito^ dubium est, incertum est, and several similar ones, such as 
 delibero, haesito, and more especially after nescio or haud scio, all of which 
 denote uncertainty, but with an inclination in favour of the affirmative. 
 Examples are numerous. Nep. Thrasyh. 1.: Si per se virtus sine fortuna 
 ponderanda sit, dubito an hunc primum omnium ponam, if virtue is to be es- 
 timated without any regard as to its success, I am not certain whether I 
 should not prefer this man to all others. Comp. Heusinger's note on that 
 passage. Curt. iv. 59. : Dicitur acinace stricto Darev^ dubitasse, an fugae 
 dedecus honesta morte vitaret, that is, he was considering as to whether he 
 should not make away with himself. It is not Latin to say Dubito annon for 
 dubito an, for the passage of Cicero, de Off. iii. 12., dubitat an turpe nan sit, 
 signifies, he is inclined to believe that it is not bad, putat non turpe esse, sed 
 honestum. Respecting incertum est, see Cic Cat. Maj. 20. : Moriendum enim 
 certe est, et id incertum, an eo ipso die, and this is uncertain, as to whether we 
 are not to die on this very day. Nescio an, or haud scio an, are therefore 
 used quite in the sense of " perhaps," so that they are followed by the nega- 
 tives ntdlus, nemo, nunquam, instead of which we might be inclined to use 
 vllus, quisqwam, unquam, if we translate nescio an by "I do not know 
 whether." See § 721. The inclination towards the affirmative in these 
 expressions is so universal, that such exceptions as in Curtius, ix. 7., et in- 
 terdum dubitabat, an Macedones — per tot naturae obstantes difficultates secuturi 
 essent, even in later writers, although in other connections they use an in 
 the sense of " whether," must be looked upon as rare peculiarities. We must 
 further observe, that when the principal verb is omitted, an is often used in 
 precisely the same sense as aut; this is very frequently the case in Tacitus, 
 but occurs also in Cicero, de Fin. ii. 32. : Themistocles, quum ei Simonides, 
 an quis alius, artem memoriae polliceretur. Sec. ; ad Att. i. 2. : nos hie te ad 
 mensem Januarium expectamus, ex quodam rumore, art ex litteris tuis ad alios 
 missis. There can be no doubt but that the expression incertum est is under- 
 stood in such cases ; in Tacitus it is often added. Comp. Cic. ad Fam. vii. 9. ; 
 ad Att. ii. 7. 3. ; Brut. 23. 89. Cicero, however, could not go as far as 
 Tacitus, who connects an with a verb in the indicative : Ann. xiv. 7. : Igitur 
 longum utriusque silentium, ne irriti dissuaderent, an eo descensum credebant, 
 instead of incertum est factumn£ sit cam ob causam, ne irriti dissuaderent, an 
 quia credebant. 
 
 The conjunction si is sometimes used in indirect interrogations instead of 
 num, like the Greek el ; e. g. Liv. xxxix. 50. : 7iihil aliud (Philopoemenem) 
 locutum ferunt, quam quaesisse, si incolumis Lycortas evasisset. After the verb 
 experior, I try, it is used also by Cicero, Philip, ix. 1. : non recu^avit, quo- 
 minus vel extremo spiritu, si quam opem reip. ferre posset, experiretur. Re- 
 specting expectare si, see Schneider on Caes. Bell. Gall. ii. 9. 
 
 [§ 355.] 11. Most conjunctions are placed at the beginning of 
 the proposition, which they introduce; only these few, eninif 
 autem, vero, are placed after the first word of a proposition, or 
 
 i 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 277 
 
 after the second, when the first two belong together, or when 
 one of them is the auxiliary verb esse, as in Cicero {de Or at. i. 44 ) : 
 incredibile est enim, quam sit omne jus civile, praeter hoc nostrum, 
 inconditum ac paene ridiculum ; but rarely after several words, 
 as in Cic. p. Cluent 60 : Per quern porro datum venenum ? unde 
 sumptum ? quae deinde interceptio poculi ? cur non de integro 
 autem datum ? Comp. Ellendt on Cic. Brut. 49. Quidem and 
 quoque, when belonging to single words, may take any place in 
 a proposition, but they are always placed after the word, which 
 has the emphasis. Itaque and igitur are used by Cicero with 
 this distinction, that itaque, according to its composition, stands 
 first, while igitur is placed after the first, and sometimes even 
 after several words of a proposition ; e. g. in Verr. i. 32. : Huic 
 homini parcetis igitur, judices ? de Nat. Deor. iii. 1 7. : Ne Orcus 
 quidem deus igitur ? But other authors, especially later ones, 
 place both indiscriminately either at the beginning of a pro- 
 position, or after it. In like manner, tamen is put either at the 
 beginning of a proposition, or after the first word. 
 
 [§356.] Note. All the other conjunctions stand at the beginning: with 
 some this is the case exclmively ; viz. with et^ etenim^ ac^ at^ atque^ atquiy 
 neque^ nee, aut, vel, sive, sin, sed, nam, verum, and the relatives quare, quo- 
 circa, quamobrenL; others are generally placed at the beginning, but when a 
 particidar word is to be pronounced with peculiar emphasis, this word (and 
 all that belongs to it) stands first, and the conjunction follows it, as in 
 Cicero : Tantum moneo, hoc tempus si amiseris, te esse nullum unquam magis 
 idoneum reperturum; valere vt mails, quam dives esse; nullum injustitia partum 
 praemium tantum est, semper ut timeas, semper ut adesse, semper ut impendere 
 aliquam poenam putes. The same is not unfrequently the case in combi- 
 nations of conjunctions with pronouns, especially with the relative pronoun ; 
 e. g. Hoc quum dicit, illud vult intelligi; qui quoniam quid dicer et intelligi 
 noluit, omittamus, Cic. It must be observed as a peculiarity, that vi, even 
 without there being any particular emphasis, is commonly placed after the 
 words vix, paene, and prope, and also after the negatives nullum, nemo, nihil, 
 and the word tantum; e. g. vix ut arma retinere posset; nihil ut de commodis 
 suis cogitarent. The conjunctions que, ve, and ne are appended to other words, 
 and stand with them at the beginning of a proposition ; but when a mono- 
 syllabic preposition stands at the beginning, they often attaith themselves to 
 the case governed by those prepositions ; e. g. Romam Cato (Tusculo) demi- 
 gravit, in foroque esse coepit; legatum miserurd, ut is apud eum causam ara- 
 jftorum ageret, ah eoque peteret; and so also ad populum ad plehemoe ferre ; in 
 nostrane potestate est quid meminerimus ? We never find adque, ohque, aque ; 
 whereas proque summa henevolentia, and the like, are used exclusively ; and 
 in other combinations either method may be adopted : cumque his copiis and 
 cum firmisque praesidiis; exque his and ex Usque; eque republica, deqiie uni- 
 versa rep. and de provinciaque decessit. Apud quosque in Cic. de Off', i. 35. 
 
 T 3 
 
 \ 
 
278 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 is an excusable peculiarity, because apudque quos would be against all 
 euphony. 
 
 [§ 357.] What was said above concerning the dijEferent positions of itaque 
 and igitur in Cicero is well known and generally correct ; but it is not so 
 well known that igitur is nevertheless placed by that author now and then at 
 the beginning of a proposition, and that not only in philosophic reason- 
 ings, as Bremi states on Cic. de Fin. i. 18., and as we find it in de Fin. iv. 
 19. : si illud, hoc : non autem hoc, igitur ne illud quidem; but in the ordinary 
 connection of sentences : in Rull. ii. 27. : igitur pecuniam omnem Decemviri 
 tenehunt; de Prov. Cons. 4. : igitur in Syria nihil aliud actum est ; Lael. 11. ; 
 igitur ne suspicari quidem possumus; Philip, ii. 16. in fin. : igitur fratrem 
 exheredans te faciehat heredem; Philip, x. 8. : igitur illi certissimi Caesaris 
 actorum patroni pro D. Bruti salute helium gerunt ; de Leg. i. 6. : Igitur doc- 
 tissimis viris projicisci placuit a lege; ad Att. vi. 1. 22. : Igitur tu quoque 
 salutem utique adscrihito. Sallust too frequently places igitur at the be- 
 ginning. But itaque in the second place does not occur in Cicero, for in 
 Philip, vii. 3. we must read, according to the best MS., igitur instead of 
 itaque in the sentence, ego itaque pads, ut ita dicam, alumnus, and in Partit. 
 Orat. 7. quidem is more correct. In Curtius itaque appears in the second 
 place only once (vii. 39.). In like manner, the rule cannot be upset by the 
 few passages, in which Cicero places vero, in answers, at the beginning (just 
 as enim is used by the comic writers). See de Repuhl. i.^37. § 43. ; de Leg. i. 
 24. ; in Hull. ii. 25. ; p. Mur. 31. § 65. 
 
 [§ 358.] All this applies only to the practice of prose writers. Poets, accord- 
 ing to the necessity of the verse, place even the prepositive conjunctions 
 after one or more words of a proposition ; e. g. Horat. Epod. 17. 45. : et tu, 
 potes nam, solve me dementiae; Serm. i. 5. 86. : quattuor hinc rapimur viginti 
 et milia rhedis; ibid. i. 10. 71. : vivos et roderet ungues. They separate et 
 from the word belonging to it ; as Horat. Carm. iii. 4. 6. : audire et videor 
 pios errare per lucos; Serm. ii. 6. 3. : Auctius atque dii melius fecere: and 
 they append que and ve neither to the first word of a proposition, nor to 
 their proper words in other connections ; e. g. TibuU. i. 3. 55. : 
 
 Hicjacet immiti consumptus morte Tihullus, 
 Messallam terra dum sequiturque mari, 
 
 instead of the prose form terra marique; and in Horat. Serm. ii. 3. 139. : 
 
 Non Pyladen ferro violare aUsSusve sororem. 
 
 But it is to be observed, that those conjunctions in such arbitrary posi- 
 tions are joined only to verbs. Isolated exceptions, such as in Horat. 
 Carm. ii. 19. 28. : pads eras mediusque belli; and iii. 1. 12. : Aloribus hie 
 meliorque fama contendat; Ovid. Met. ii. 89.: dum resque sinit; and Pedo 
 Albin. de Morte^.Drusi, 20., cannot be taken into account. 
 
INTEKJECTIONS. 279 
 
 CHAP. LXVIIL 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 [§359.] 1. Interjections are sounds uttered under the in- 
 fluence of strong emotions. They are indeclinable, and stand 
 in no close connection with the rest of the sentence ; for the 
 dative and accusative, which are joined with some of them, are 
 easily explained by an ellipsis. See §§ 402. and 403. 
 
 2. The number of interjections in any language cannot be 
 fixed. Those which occur most frequently in Latin authors 
 are the following. 
 
 a) Of joy: io, iu, ha, he, hahahe, euoe, euax, • 
 
 h) Of grief: vae, heu, eheu, ohe, au, hei, pro. 
 
 c) Of astonishment : o, en or ecce, hui, hem, ehem, aha, atat, 
 papae, vah ; and of disgust : phui, apage. (See § 222.) 
 
 d) Of calling : heus, o, eho, ehodum ; of attestation : pro, also 
 written proh. 
 
 e) Of praise or flattery : eia, euge. 
 
 [§360.] 3. Other parts of speech, especially nouns substan- 
 tive and adjective, adverbs and verbs, and even complex ex- 
 pressions, such as oaths and invocations, must in particular con- 
 nections be regarded as interjections. Such nouns are: pax 
 (be still !) ; malum, indignum, nefandum, miserum, miser ahile — to 
 express astonishment and indignation ; made, and with a plural 
 macti, is expressive of approbation. (See § 103.) Adverbs: 
 nae, profecto, cite, bene, belle! Verbs used as interjections are, 
 quaeso, precor, oro, ohsecro, amaho (to all of which te or vos may 
 be added), used in imploring and requesting. So also age, agite, 
 cedo, sodes (for si audes^, sis, sultis (for si vis, si vultis), and 
 agesis, agedum, agitedum. 
 
 Note. Nae in the best writers is joined only with pronouns : nae ego^ nae 
 illi vehementer errant^ nae ista gloriosa sapientia non magni aestimanda est. 
 Pyrrhus, after the battle of Heraclea, said : Nae ego, si iterum eodem modo 
 vicero, sine ullo milite in Epirum revertar, Oros. iv. 1. 
 
 [§361.] 4. Among the invocations of the gods, the following 
 are particularly frequent : mehercule, mehercle, hercule, hercle, or 
 mehercules, hercules, medius Jidius, mecastor, ecastor, pol, edepol, 
 per deum, per deum immortalem, per deos, per Jovem, pro (or 
 
 T 4 
 
 I 
 
280 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 proh) Juppitcr, pro sancte {supreme) Juppiter, pro dii immortales, 
 
 pro deumjidem, pro deum atque hominum fidem^ pro deum or pro 
 
 deum immortalium (scil. Jidem), and several others of this kind. 
 
 Note. Me before the names of gods must be explained by an ellipsis : the 
 complete expression was : ita me (e. g. Hercules) juvet ; or with the vocative : 
 ita me Hercvle juves. The interjection medim Jidius arose, in all probalaility, 
 from me dius (^Aiog) ^dius, which is archaic for JiliuSj and is thus equivalent to 
 mehercules, for Hercules is the son of that god. Mehercule is the form which 
 Cicero (Orat 47.) approves, and which, along with hercule^ occurs most fre- 
 quently in his writings. See my note on in Verr. iii. 62. The oath by 
 Pollux (j)oZ) is a very light one, and hence it is given especially to women in 
 the comic writers. In edepol and edecastor the e is either the same as me, or 
 it is a mere sound of interjection ; de is deus. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 I. CONNECTION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 
 
 CHAP. LXIX. 
 
 [§ 362.] 1. The subject of a proposition is that concerning 
 which anything is declared, and the predicate that which is de- 
 clared concerning the subject. The subject appears either in 
 the form of a substantive, or in that of an adjective or pronoun, 
 supplying the place of a substantive. Whenever there is no 
 such grammatical subject, the indeclinable part of speech or 
 proposition which takes its place, is treated as a substantive of 
 the neuter gender. (Comp. § 43.) 
 
 [§ 363.] Note 1. The manner in which a pronoun supplies the place of a 
 substantive requires no explanation. An adjective can be used as a substan- 
 tive only when a real substantive is understood. The substantive most fre- 
 quently and easily understood is homo^ and many Latin words which are 
 properly adjectives have thus acquired the meaning of substantives, e.g.amicm, 
 familiaris, aequalis^ vicinus, &c. (see § 410. foil.), and others, such as socius^ 
 servus^ lihertinus^ reus, caJididatu^s, although most frequently used as substan- 
 tives, nevertheless occur also as adjectives. But upon this point the dictionary 
 must be consulted, and we only remark that ordinary adjectives are used as 
 substantives with the ellipsis of homo, as bonus, nocens, innocens. But an ad- 
 jective in the singular is not commonly used in this way, and we scarcely 
 
 I 
 
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 281 
 
 ever find such a phrase as prohus neminem laedit, instead of homo prohus 
 neminem laedit. Sapiens^ a sage, or a philosopher, and liher^ a free man, alone 
 are used as substantives in the singular. In the plural however the omission 
 of the substantive homines^ denoting general classes of men, is much more 
 frequent, and we find, e. g. pauperes, divites, boni, improbi, docti, and indocti, 
 just as we say the rich, the poor, &c. It must however be observed that very- 
 few adjectives, when used as substantives, can be accompanied by other ad- 
 jectives, and we cannot say, e. g. midti docti for multi homines (viri) docti. 
 The neuters of adjectives of the second declension however are used very 
 frequently as substantives, both in the singular and plural. Thus we read 
 bonum, a good thing ; contrarium^ the contrary ; verum,, that which is true ; 
 malum, evil ; honestum in the sense of virtus, and bona, mala, contraria, &c. 
 In the plural neuter adjectives of the third declension are used in the same 
 way, as turpia, levia, coelestia. But the Latins, in general, preferred adding 
 the substantive res to an adjective, to using the neuter of it as a substantive, 
 as res contrariae, res multae, res leviores, just as we do in English. 
 
 [§ 364.] Note 2. It is worth noticing that the word miles is frequently used 
 in Latin in the singular, where we should have expected the plural; e.g. 
 in Curtius, iii. init. : Alexander ad conducendum ex Peloponneso militem Clean- 
 drum cum pecunia mittit; Tac. Ann, ii. 31.: cingebatur interim milite domus, 
 strepebant etiam in vestibulo. Similar words, such as eques, pedes, are used in 
 the same way, and the instances are very numerous. Romanus, Poenus and 
 others, are likewise used for Romani and Poeni in the sense of Eoman, Punian 
 soldiers. 
 
 [§ 365.] 2. The predicate appears either in the form of a 
 verb, or of the auxiliary combined with a noun. 
 
 The predicate accommodates itself as much as possible to its 
 subject. When the predicate is a verb, it must be in the same 
 number as the subject ; e. g. arbor viret, the tree is green ; «r- 
 bores virent, the trees are green ; deus est, god is ; dii sunt, the 
 gods are or exist. When the predicate is an adjective, par- 
 ticiple, or adjective pronoun, combined with the auxiliary 
 esse, it takes the number and gender of the subject, e. g. puer 
 est modestus, libri sunt met, prata sunt secta. When the predi- 
 cate is a substantive with the auxiliary esse, it is independent of 
 the subject both in regard to number and gender ; e. g. captivi 
 militum praeda fuerant ; amicitia vinculum quoddam est homi- 
 num inter se. But when a substantive has two forms, one mas- 
 culine and the other feminine, as rex, regina ; magister, magistra ; 
 inventor, inventrix ; indagator, indagatrix ; corruptor, corruptrix ; 
 praeceptor, praeceptrix, the predicate must appear in the same 
 gender as the subject ; e. g. licentia corruptrix est morum ; stilus 
 optimus est dicendi effector et magister. When the subject is a 
 neuter the predicate takes the masculine form, the latter being 
 more nearly allied to the neuter than the feminine ; e. g. tempus 
 
282 LATIN GRAMxMAR. 
 
 vitae magister est. When the subject is a noun epicene (see 
 §42.), the predicate follows its grammatical gender; as aquila 
 volucrum regina, jida ministra Jovis, though it would not be 
 wrong to say aquila rex volucrum. 
 
 It is only by way of exception that esse is sometimes con- 
 nected with adverbs of place, such as aliquis or aliquid prope, 
 propter, longe, procul est, or when esse signifies "to be in a 
 condition ; " e. g. Cic. ad Fam. ix. 9. : praeterea rectissime sunt 
 apud te omnia, everything with you is in a very good state or 
 condition; de Leg. i. 17.: quod est huge aliter ; Liv. viii. 19.: 
 (dicebant) se sub imperio populi Romani Jideliter atque ohedienter 
 futuros, Sallust and Tacitus connect esse also with the adverbs 
 ahunde, impune, and frustra, and use them as indeclinable ad- 
 jectives ; e. g. omnia mala ahunde erant ; ea res frustra fuit ; 
 dicta impune erant. 
 
 [§ 366.] Note 1. Collective nouns, that is, such as denote a multitude of 
 individual persons or things, e. g. multitudo, tiirha, vis, exercitus, juventus, 
 nohilitas, gens, plehs, vulgus, frequently occur in poetry with a plural verb 
 for their predicate ; e. g. Ovid. Metam. xii. 53. : Atria turha tenent, veniunt 
 lege vulgus euntque ; Fast. ii. 507. : Tu7^a f erant placentque novum pia turha 
 Quirinum. As for the practice of prose writers, there is no passage in Cicero 
 to prove that he used this construction (see my note on Cic. in Verr. i. 31. 
 80.), and in Caesar and Sallust it occurs either in some solitary instance, as 
 Caes. BelL Gall. ii. 6. : quum tanta multitudo lapides ac tela conjicerent, or the 
 passages are not critically certain. (See Oudendorp on Caes. Bell. Gall. iii. 
 17., and Corte on Sallust, Jugurth. 28.) But Livy takes greater liberty, and 
 connects collective substantives with the plural, as ii. 5. : Desectam segetem 
 magna vis hominum immissa corbibus fudere in I'iberim; xxiv. 3. : Locros 
 omnis multitudo abeunt; xxxii. 12.: Cetera omnis multitudo, velut signum 
 aliquod secuta, in unum quum convenisset, frequenti agmine petunt Thessaliam. 
 (Comp. Drakenborch on xxxv. 26.). He even expresses the plurality of a 
 collective noun by using the noun standing by its side in the plural, as in 
 XX vi. 35. : Haec non in occulto, sed propalam. in foro atque oculis ipsorum 
 Consulum ingens turba circumfusi fremebant; xxv. 34. : Cuneu^ is hostium, 
 qui in confertos circa ducem impetum fecerat, ut exanimem labentem ex equo 
 Scipionem vidit, alacres gaudio cum clamore per totam aciem nuntiantes discur- 
 runt; xxvii. 51.: tum enimvero omnis aetas currere obvii; so also in i. 41.: 
 clamor inde concursusque populi, mirantium quid rei esset. But such instances 
 are after all rare and surprising. The case is different when the notion of a 
 plurality is derived from a collective noun of a preceding proposition, and 
 made the subject of a proposition which follows. Instances of this kind occur 
 now and then in Cicero : de Nat. Deor. -ii. 6. : ut hoc idem generi humane 
 evenerit, quod in terra collocati sint, because they (viz. homines) live on earth ; 
 p. Arch. 12. : qui est ex eo numero, qui semper apud omnes sancti sunt habiti; 
 and with the same collective noun, p. Marc. \.', p. Quint. 23. They are still 
 more frequent in Livy ; iv. 56. : Ita omnium popidorum juventas Antium con- 
 tracta: ihi castris positis hostem opperiebantur ; vi. 17.: Jam ne nocte quidem 
 
SUBJECT AND PKEDICATE. 283 
 
 turba ex eo loco dilabebatur, refracturosqtie carcerem mindbantur. See the pas- 
 sages in Drakenborch on xxi. 7. 7. 
 
 [§ 367.] A plural verb is sometimes used by classical prose writers (though 
 not by Cicero) after uterque^ quisque (especially pro se quisque\ pars — 
 pars (for alii — alii)^ alius — alium, and alter — alterum (one another or each 
 other), for these partitive expressions contain the idea of plurality ; e. g. 
 Caes. Bell. Civ. iii. 30. : Eodem die vterque eorum ex castris stativis exercitum 
 educunt ; Liv. ii. 15.: missi honoratissimus quisque ex patribus ; ii. 59. : cetera 
 mvltitudo decimus quisqv£ ad supplicium lecti. Sometimes the plural of a 
 participle is added ; as Curt. iii. 6. : pro se quisque dextram ejv^ amplexi 
 grates habebant velut praesenti deo; Liv. ix. 14.: Pro se quisque nan haec 
 Furctdas^ nee Caudium, nee saltus invios esse memorantes, caedunt pariter 
 resistentes fusosque ; Tacit. Ann. ii. 24. : pars navium haustae sunt, plures 
 ejectae (instead of pars — pars, the place of one of them being fi-equently 
 supplied by pauci, nonnulli, plerique or plures, as in our case) ; Liv. ii. 10.': 
 dum alius alium ut proelium incipiant, circumspectant. Expressions like 
 these may derive their explanation from propositions, in which the compre- 
 hensive plural is used in the first part, and afterwards the partitive sin- 
 gular ; e. g. Sallust, Jug. 58. : At nostri repentino metu perculsi, sibi quisque 
 pro moribus consulunt: alii fugere, alii arma caper e, magna pars vulnerati ant 
 occisi ; and in Livy : Ceteri suo quisque tempore aderunt, or Decemviri per- 
 turbati aliu^ in aliam partem castrorum discurrunt. 
 
 [§ 368.] Note 2. The natural rule, according to which the adjective parts 
 of speech take the gender of the substantives to which they belong, seems 
 to be sometimes neglected, inasmuch as we find neuter adjectives joined 
 with substantives of other genders : Triste lupus stabulis ; varium et mu- 
 tabile semper femina in Virgil, and Omnium rerum mors est extremum, even in 
 Cicero. But in these cases the adjective is used as a substantive, and triste, 
 for example, is the same as "something sad," or "a sad thing," and we 
 might use res tristis instead ; as Livy, ii. 3. says : leges rem surdam, inex- 
 orabilem esse. A real exception occurs in what is called constructio ad 
 synesim, that is, when substantives, which only in their figurative sense de- 
 note human beings, have a predicate in the true gender of the person spoken 
 of, without regard to the grammatical gender ; e. g. Liv. x. 1 . : capita conjura- 
 tionis g'us, quaestione ab Consvlibus ex senatu^consulto Ttabita, virgis caesi ac 
 securi percussi sunt. So also auxilia (auxiliary troops) irati, Liv. xxix. 12., 
 where Gronovius' note must be consulted. The relative pronoun (see 
 § 371.), when referring to such substantives, frequently takes the gender of 
 the persons understood by them. Thus mancipium, animal, furia, scehis, 
 monstrum, prodigium, may be followed by the relative qui or quae, according 
 as either a man or a woman is meant ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. ii. 32, : Quod un- 
 quam hujusmodi monstrum aut prodigium audivimus aut vidimtts, qui cum reo 
 transigat, post cum accusatore decidat ? ad Fam. i. 9. : Primum ilia furia 
 muliebrium religionum (Clodius), qui non pluris fecerat Bonam Beam quam 
 tres sorores, impunitatem est assecutus. See Drakenborch on Liv. xxix. 12. 
 After milia the predicate sometimes takes the gender of the persons, whose 
 number is denoted by milia; e.g. Curt. iv. 19.: duo milia Tyriorum, cru- 
 cibus affixi, per ingens litoris spatium pependerunt; Liv. xl. 41.: ad septum 
 milia hominum in naves impositos praeter oram Etrusci maris Neapolim trans- 
 misit. Usually, however, the neuter is used. See the collection of ex- 
 amples in Drakenborch on Liv. xxxvii. 39. in fin. As to other cases of 
 
284 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 constructio ad synesim^ which, do not belong to grammar, but are irregularities 
 of expression, see Corte on Sallust, Cat. 18. 
 
 [§ 369.] Note 3. When the substantive forming the subject has a different 
 number from that which is its predicate, the verb esse (and all other verbs 
 of existence) follows the subject, as in the above quoted passage of 
 Livy, xxi. 15. : Qiiamquam captivi militiim praeda fuerant. So also, Cic. de 
 Fin. V. 10.: quae (omnia) sine dubio vitae sunt eversio; Ovid, Met. viii. 636. : 
 tota domus duo sunt; Tac. Ann. iv. 5.: praecipuum rohur Rhenum juxta octo 
 legiones erant^ for legiones is the subject ; Plin. Hist. Nat. iv. 5. : angustiae, 
 unde procedit Peloponnesus., Isthmos appellantur. But we also find, and 
 perhaps even more frequently, that the verb takes the number of the sub- 
 stantive which is properly the predicate ; e. g. Cic. in Pis. 4. : aude nunc, o 
 furia., de tuo consulatu dicere, cujus fuit initium ludi Compitalicii ; Sallust, 
 Jug.2\.: possedere ea loca, quae proxuma Carthaginem Numidia appellatur ; 
 Terent. Andr.m.2. 2^.: amantium irae amoris integratio est; Liv. i. 34. : 
 cui Tarquinii materna tantum patria esset; ii. 54. : Manlio Vejentes provincia 
 evenit ; xlv. 39. : pars non minima triumphi est victimae praecedentes. In 
 propositions like that of Seneca, Epist. 4. : Magnae divitiae sunt lege na- 
 turae composita paupertas ; and Cicero, Parad. in fin. : Contentum vero suis 
 rebus esse maximae sunt certissimaeque divitiae., the plural is less surprising. 
 But it is clear, that where the subject and predicate may be exchanged or 
 transposed, the verb takes the number of the substantive nearest to it. When 
 the predicate is a participle combined with esse or videri, the participle takes 
 the gender of the substantive which is nearest to it, according to the rule 
 explained in § 376. Thus we find in Cicero, de Divin. ii. 43. : non omnis 
 error stultitia est dicenda ; de Leg. i. 7. : unde etiam universus hie mundus una 
 civitas communis deorum atque hominum existimanda (est) ; Terent, Phorm. i. 
 2. 44. : paupertas mihi onus visum est miserum et grave. If we transpose non 
 est omnis stultitia error dicendus, and visa mihi semper est paupertas grave onus 
 et miserum, the propositions are just as correct. But in Justin, i. 2. : Se- 
 miramis, sexum mentita, puer esse credita est, the feminine would be necessary 
 for the sake of clearness, even if there were no verb esse. 
 
 [§ 370.] 3. When nouns are combined with one another, 
 without being connected by the yerb esse, or by a relative 
 pronoun and esse, in such a manner as to form only one idea, as 
 in " a good man," the adjective, participle, or pronoun follows 
 the substantive in gender, number, and case ; e. g. huic modesto 
 puero credo, hanc modestam virginem diligo. 
 
 When two substantives are united with each other in this way, 
 they are said, in grammatical language, to stand in apposition to 
 each other, and the one substantive explains and defines the 
 other ; e. g. oppidum Paestum, arhor laurus, Taurus mons, lupus 
 piscis, Socrates vir sapientissimus. The explanatory substantive 
 {suhstantivum appositum) takes the same case as the one which 
 is explained ; e. g. Socratem, sapientissimurn virum, Athenienses 
 interfecerunt (an exception occurs in names of towns, see § 399.). 
 They may differ in number and gender, as uros Athenae, pisces 
 
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 285 
 
 signum ; Virg. Eclog. ii. 1.: Formosum pastor Cory don ardehat 
 Alexin, delicias domini ; but when the substantive in appo- 
 sition has two genders, it takes the one which answers to that 
 of the other substantive. (Comp. above, § 365.) The predicate 
 likewise follows the substantive which is to be explained, as in 
 Cicero: Tidliola, deliciolae nostrae, tuum munusculum flagitat ; 
 Quum duo fidmina nostri imperii subito in Hispania, Cn. et 
 P, Scipiones, extincti occidissent, for the words duo fulmina, 
 though placed first, are only in apposition. When plural names 
 of places are explained hj the apposition urfis, oppidum, civitas, 
 the predicate generally agrees with the apposition ; e. g. Pliny : 
 Volsinii, oppidum Tuscorum opulentissimum, concrematum est 
 fulmine. 
 
 O vitae philosopJda dux (magistra), virtutis indagatrix expultrixque 
 vitiorum ! Cic. Tusc. v. 2. Pythagoras velut genitricem virtutum 
 frugalitatem omnibus ingerebat (commendabat), Justin, xx. 4. 
 
 Note. Occasionally however the predicate follows the substantive in ap- 
 position ; e. g. Sallust, Hist. i. Orat. Phil. : Qui videmini intenta mala, quasi 
 fulmen, optare se quisque ne attingat, although the construction is : optare ne 
 mala se attingant. It arises from the position of the words, the verb accom- 
 modating itself to the subject which is nearest. Hence it not unfrequentlj 
 happens, 1. that the verb, contrary to the grammatical rule, agrees with 
 the nearest noun of a subordinate sentence ; as in Sallust, Cat. 25. : Sed ei 
 cariora semper omnia, quam deans atque pvdicitia fuit ; Cic. Phil. iv. 4. : Quis 
 igitiir ilium consulem, nisi latrones, putaiit? and 2. that the adjective parts of 
 speech take the gender and number of the noun in apposition or of the sub- 
 ordinate sentence ; e. g. Cic. p. Leg. Man. 5. : Corinthum patres vestri, totius 
 Graeciae lumen, extinctum esse voluerunt; Nep. Them. 7. : illorum urhem ut 
 propugnaadum oppositum esse barbaris. 
 
 [§371.] 4. When a relative or demonstrative pronoun refers 
 to a noun in another sentence, the pronoun agrees with it in 
 gender and number ; e. g. tarn modestus ille puer est, quern vi- 
 disti, de quo audivisti, cujus tutor es, ut omnes eum diligant. 
 When the verb itself or a whole proposition is referred to, it is 
 treated as a neuter substantive, and in this case id quod is ge- 
 nerally used instead of quod; e. g. Nep. Timol. 1 : Timoleon, 
 id quod difficilius putatur, multo sapientius tulit secundam, quam 
 adversam fortunam. 
 
 [§ 372.] Note. Exception to this rule : when a word of a preceding pro- 
 position or this proposition itself, is explained by a substantive with the verbs 
 esse, dicere, vocare, appellare, nominare, habere, putare, &c. or their passives, 
 the relative pronoun usually takes the gender and number of the expla- 
 natory substantive which follows ; e. g. Liv. xlii. 44. : Thebae ipsae, quod 
 
286 LATIN GllAMMAR. 
 
 Boeotiae caput est, in inagno tumvltu erant. (A great many instances of the 
 same kind are collected by Drakenborch on Liv. xxxii. 30.) Caes. Bell. Civ. 
 iii. 80. : Caesar Gomphos pervenit, quod est oppidum Thessaliae ; Cic. Brut. 
 33. : extat ejus peroratio, qui epilogus dicitur ; de Leg. i. 7. : animal plenum 
 rationis, quern vocamus hominem ; p. Sext. 40. : domicilia conjuncta, quus urbes 
 dicimus, moenibus saepseruni; Phil. v. 14. : Pompejo, quod imperii JRomani 
 lumen fuit, extincto; in Pis. 39. : P. Rutilio, quod specimen habuit haec civitas 
 innocentiae ; Liv. i. 45. : Romae fanum Dianae populi Latini cum populo 
 Romano fecerunt : ea erat confessio, caput rerum Romam esse ; Cic. de Off. 
 iii. 10. : Si omnia facienda sunt, quae amid velint, non amicitiae tales, sed con- 
 jurationes putandae sunt, i. e. such things or connections cannot be looked 
 upon as friendships, but are conspiracies. So also : ista quidem vis, surely 
 this is force ; haecfuga est, non prof ectio ; ea ipsa causa belli fuit, for idipsum, 
 &c. This explains the frequent forms of such explanatory sentences, as qui 
 tuus est amor erga me ; quae tua est humanitas, for with the demonstrative 
 pronoun it would likewise be ea tim humanitas est, this or such is thy 
 kindness. 
 
 Levis est animi lucem splendoremque fvgientis, justam gloriam, qui est fructus 
 
 verae virtutis honestissimus, repudiare, Cic. in Pis. 24. 
 Omnium artium, quae ad rectam vivendi viam pertinent, ratio et discipline, studio 
 
 sapientiae, quae philosophia dicitur, continetur, Cic. Tusc. i. 1 . 
 Idem velle et idem nolle, ea demumjirma amicitia est, Sallust, Cat. 20. 
 
 It must however be observed, that when a noun is to be explained and to 
 be distinguished from another of the same kind, the relative pronoun follows 
 the general rule, agreeing in gender and number with the substantive to be 
 explained ; e. g. Caes. Bell. Gall. v. 11. : Jlumen, quod appellatur Tamesis, i. e. 
 that particular river ; Kep. Paus. 3. : genu^s est quoddam hominum, quod Ilotae 
 voCatur ; especially when a demonstrative pronoun is added, as in Curt. iii. 
 20. : Darius ad eum locum, quem Amanicas pylas vocant, pervenit. But when 
 the noun following is a foreign word, the pronoun agrees with the preceding 
 one, as in Cic. de Off. ii. 5. : cohibere motus animi turbatos, quos Graeci TrcWtj 
 nominant; Quintil. viii. 3.16.: quum idem frequentissime plura verba signijicent, 
 quod (Tvviovvfjiia vocatur. Comp. Gronov. on Senec. Consol. ad Marc. 19., and 
 Drakenborch on Livy, ii. 38., with the commentators there mentioned. 
 
 [§ 373.] 5. When the subject consists of several nouns in 
 the singular, the predicate is generally in the plural, if either all 
 or some of those nouns denote persons; but if they denote 
 things, either the singular or plural may be used. If, however, 
 one of the nouns is in the plural, the predicate must likewise be 
 in the plural, unless it attach itself more especially to the 
 nearest substantive in the singular. 
 Apud Regillum hello Latinorum in nostra acie Castor et Pollux 
 
 ex equis pugnare visi sunt, Cic. De Nat. Deor. ii. 2. 
 Cum tempus necessitasque postulat, decertandum manu est, et 
 
 mors servituti turpitudinique anteponenda, Cic. De Off. i. 23. 
 Benejicium et gratia homines inter se conjungunt. 
 
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 287. 
 
 Vita, mors, divitiae, poMpertas omnes homines vehementissime 
 
 permovent, Cic. De Off. ii. 10. 
 
 Note 1. When the subject consists of two nouns denoting things in the 
 singular, the predicate varies between the singular and plural, according as 
 the two nouns constitute, as it were, only one idea, or two different or op- 
 posite ones. It may be remarked here that the subject Senatus populusque 
 Romanus (but also Syracusanus^ Cic. in Verr. ii. 21. ; Centuripinus, ibid. iii. 
 45. ; Saguntinus, Liv. xxviii. 39.) is always followed by the predicate in the 
 singular- A relative pronoun, referring to two singular nouns, is always in 
 the plural, unless it be intended to refer only to the last. 
 
 Even when the subject consists of the names of two or more persons, the 
 predicate is not un frequently found in the singular, and that not only in cases 
 where it may seem that the writer at first thought only of one person and 
 afterwards the other, as In Cic. Ora^. 12. : nam quum concisusei ThrasymacTius 
 minutis numeris videretur et Gorgias ; or Tusc. i. 1. : siquidem Homerusfuit et 
 Hesiodus ante Romam conditam; comp. Brut. 11. init. — but also without this 
 excuse, as Cic. Brut. 8.: Sed ut intellectum est, quantam vim haberet accurata 
 et facta quodammodo oratio, tum etiam magistri dicendi multi suhito extiterunt. 
 Nam Leontinus Gorgias, Thrasymachus Chalcedonius, Protagoras Abderites, 
 Prodicus Ceus, Hippias Eleus in honore magno fuii, aliique multi temporibus 
 iisdem; de Orat. ii. 12.: Qualis apud Graecos Pherecydes, Hellanicus, Acusilas 
 fuit aliique permulti, talis noster Cato et Pictor et Piso; de Divin. i. 38. : hac 
 ratione et Chrysippus et Diogenes et Antipater utitur ; de Fat. 17. : in qua sen- 
 tentia Democritus, Hei-aclitus, Empedocles, Aristoteles fuit ; in Verr. i. 30. 
 condemnatur enim perpaucis sejitentiis Philodamus et eju^flius ; ibid. iv. 42. 
 dixit hoc apud vos Zosippus et Ismenias, homines nobilissimi ; de Orat. i. 62. 
 haec quum Antonius dixisset, sane dubitare visus est Sulpicius et Cotta ; Caes. 
 Bell. Civ. i. 2. : inter cedit M. Antonius, Q. Cassius, tribuni plebis. It is un- 
 necessary to add passages from the poets, who, especially Horace, frequently 
 use the predicate in the singular, when the subject consists of several nouns 
 denoting persons ; e.g. Horat. Carm. ii. 13. in fin.: Quin et Prometheus et 
 Pelopis parens dulci laborum decipitur sono. Comp. Bentley on Carm. i. 24. 8. 
 The plural, however, must be considered as the rule in prose. Only the 
 words unus et alter have invariably the predicate in the singular. When the 
 subject consists of nouns denoting persons and things, the plural of the pre- 
 dicate is preferable to the singular ; e. g. Cic. ad Att. iv. 15. : coitio consulum 
 et Pompejus obsunt; Liv. xxviii. 18. : nee dubitare quin Syphax regnumque 
 eju^jam in Romanorum essent potestate, and so in xxxix. 51. : Pru^iam sus- 
 pectum Romanis et receptus Hannibal et bellum adversus Eumenem motum fa- 
 ciebant, is more probable than faciebat. 
 
 [§ 374.] Note 2. When the subject consists of nouns connected by the disjunc- 
 tive conjunction aut, the predicate is found in the plural as well as in the sin- 
 gular, though it would be more in accordance with our feeling to use the sin- 
 gular ; e. g. Cic. Tusc. v. 9. : Si Socrates ant Antisthenes diceret; de Off. i. 28. : si 
 Aeacus aut Minos diceret ; but de Off. i. 41. : nee quemquam hoc error e duci 
 oportet, ut, si quid Socrates aut Aristippus contra morem consuetudinemque 
 civilem fecerint locutive sint, idem sibi arbitretur licere ; Liv. v. 8. : ut quosque 
 studium privatim aut gratia occupaverunt. In Cicero, de Orat. ii. 4., the 
 reading is uncertain : ne Sulpicius aut Cotta plus quum ego apud te valere vide- 
 antur. Ernesti, who approves of videatur exclusively, was not struck by the 
 same peculiarity in the preceding passage. With aut— aut, the singular is un- 
 
288 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 questionably preferable, as In Cic. Philip, xi. 11.: nee enim nunc primum aut 
 Brvtm aut Cassius salutem lihertatemque patriae legem sanctissimam et morem 
 optimum Judicavit ; with nee — nee we likewise prefer the singular, with Bentley 
 on Horace, Carm. i. 13. 6., but the plural occurs in Pliny, Panegyr. 75. : 
 erant enim (acclamationes) quibv^ nee senatus gloriari nee prineeps possent, 
 ^vhere posset would certainly be just as good. Comp. Liv. xxvi. 5. in fin. 
 The plural seems to be necessary only when the subject does not consist of 
 two nouns of the third person, but contains a first or second person, as in 
 Terence, Adelph. i. 2. 23. : haee si neque ego neque tufeeimus; I). Brutus in 
 Cic. ad Fam. xi. 20. : quod in Decemviris neque ego nego Caesar hahiti esse- 
 mus. With sen — seu and tam — quam, the predicate is in the plural : Frontin. 
 de Aquaed. Praef. and § 128. (ut proprium jus tam res publiea quam privata 
 haberent.} 
 
 [§ 375.] Note 3. When the subject is a singular noun joined to another 
 (either plural or singular) by the preposition eum, the grammatical con- 
 struction demands that the predicate should be in the singular, as in Cic. ad 
 Att. vii. 14. : tu ipse eum Sexto scire velim quid cogites; ad Quint. Frat. Hi. 
 2. : Domitius eum Messala eertu^ esse videbatur; Ovid, Fast. i. 12. : tu quoque 
 cum Druso praemia fratre feres. But the plural is more frequent, the sub- 
 ject being conceived to consist of more than one person ; Liv. xxi. 60. : ipse 
 dux eum aliquot principibus capiuntur ; Sallust, Cat. 43.: Lentvlus cum ceteris 
 — eonstituerant ; Jug. 101. : Bocchus eum peditibus — invadunt; Nep. Phoc. 2. : 
 ejus consilio Demosthenes cum ceteris^ qui bene de rep. mereri existimabantur, 
 populiseiio in exilium erant expulsi; and to judge from these and other in- 
 stances, quoted by Corte on the passages of Sallust, it seems that the plural 
 is preferred, when the main subject is separated from the predicate by inter- 
 mediate sentences, so that the plurality spoken of Is more strongly impressed 
 on the writer's mind than the grammatical subject. Even in reference to 
 gender (of which we shall speak hereafter) nouns connected with each other 
 by cum, are treated as if they were connected by et. Ovid, Fast. iv. 55. : 
 Ilia cum Lauso de Numitore sati ; Liv. xlv. 28. : jiliam cum filio aecitos ; 
 Justin, xlv. 16. : Jilium Alexandri cum matre in apcem Amphipolitanam cu^to- 
 diendos mittit. 
 
 [§ 376.] 6. With regard to the gender, which the predicate 
 (an adjective, participle, or pronoun), takes, when it belongs to 
 several nouns, the following rules must be observed : — 
 
 a) When the nouns are of one gender, the predicate (ad- 
 jective, participle, or pronoun) takes the same. 
 
 h) When they are of diiFerent genders, the masculine (in case 
 of their denoting living beings) is preferred to the feminine, 
 and the predicate accordingly takes the masculine. When the 
 nouns denote things, the predicate takes the neuter, and when 
 they denote both living beings and things mixed together, it 
 takes either the gender of the living beings, or the neuter. 
 Jam pridem pater mihi et mater mortui suntf Ter. 
 Labor voluptasque, dissimilia naturdf societate quadam inter se 
 
 naturali juncta sunt, Liv. v. 4. 
 
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 289 
 
 Jane, fac aeternos pacem pacisque ministros ! Ovid, Fast, 
 Romani, si me scelus fratris, te senectus absumpserity regem reg^ 
 
 numque Macedoniae sua futiira sciunt, Liv. xl. 10. 
 
 Or the predicate (adjective, participle, or pronoun), agrees 
 only with one of tlie nouns, and is supplied by the mind for 
 the others ; this is the case especially, when the subject consists 
 of nouns denoting living beings and things. 
 Thrasybuliis contemptus est primo a tyrannis atque ejus soli- 
 
 tudo, Nep. Thras. 2. 
 L, Brutus exulem et regem ipsum, et liheros ejus, et gentem 
 
 Tarquiniorum esse jussit, Cic. De Re Publ. ii. 
 Hominis utilitati agri omnes et maria parent, Cic. 
 Nunc emergit amor, nunc desiderium ferre non possum, nunc mihi 
 
 nihil libri, nihil litterae, nihil doctrina prodest : ita dies et noctes 
 
 tamquam avis ilia, mari prospecto, evolare cupio, Cic. ad Att. 
 
 ix. 10. 2. 
 
 [§ 377.] Note. We have not mentioned the case of a subject consisting 
 of living beings of the feminine and neuter genders ; e. g. soror tua et ejus 
 mamipium. No instance of such a combination occurs, but we should be 
 obliged to make the predicate ; e. g. inventae or inventi sunt, according as 
 mancipium may denote a male or female slave. The grammatical preference 
 of the masculine gender to the feminine is clear also from the fact of the 
 mascul. words filii, fratres, soceri, reges, comprising persons of both, sexes ; 
 as in Livy : legati missi sunt ad Ptolemaeum Cleopatramque reges; Tac. Ann. 
 xii. 4. : fratrum incustoditum amorem., in speaking of a brother and his sister. 
 The following examples of the predicate being in the neuter gender, when 
 the subject consists of nouns denoting things, may be added to those already 
 quoted. Sallust : divitiae, decus, gloria in ocidis sita sunt; Livy : Foi-miis 
 portam murumque de coelo tacta esse; Merico urhs et ager in Sicilia jussa 
 dari; and so also with the relative pronoun; Sallust: otium atque divitiae^ 
 quae prima mortales putant. The neuter is further not unfrequently used 
 when the two nouns of the subject (denoting things) are of the same gender ; 
 e. g. Liv. xxxvii. 32. : postquam ira et avaritia imperio potentiora erant; Cic. 
 de Nat. Dear. iii. 24. : fortunam nemo ah inconstantia et temeritate sejunget, 
 quae digria certe non sunt dec. Those passages, on the other hand, in which 
 the subject consists of names of things of different gender, and the predicate 
 agrees in gender with a more distant masc. or femin., must be considered as 
 exceptions ; but in such cases the noun with which the predicate agrees is 
 usually the more prominent, the other or others being considered as depend- 
 ent or subordinate ; e. g. Plancus in Cic. ad Fam. x. 24. : Amor tuus ac 
 judicium de me utrum mihi plv^ dignitatis an voluptatis sit allaturus., non facile 
 dixerim; i. e. thy love, and thy favourable opinion of me, which is the result 
 of it ; Cic. de Leg. i. 1 . : Lucus ille et haec Arpinatium quercus agnoscitur^ 
 saepe a me lectus in Maino, the oak being only a part of the grove. See the 
 commentators (Wesenberg) on Cic. p. Sext. 53., and on Suet. Caes. 75. 
 
 [§ 378.] 7. When the personal pronouns ego, tu, nos, vos, 
 
 u 
 
290 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 combined with one or more other nouns form the subject of a 
 proposition, the predicate follows the first person in preference to 
 the second and third, and the second in preference to the third. 
 Si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valetis, ego et suavissimus Cicero 
 
 valemus, Cic. Ad Fam. xiv. 5. 
 Quid est quod tu aut ilia cum Fortuna hoc nomine queri 
 
 possitis, Sulpic. in Cic. Ad Fam. iv. 5. 
 
 Note. So also Cic. in Verr. i. 45. : hoc jure et major es nostri et nos semper 
 usi sumus; in Bull. i. 7. : Errastis^ Rtdle, vehementer et tu et nonnuUi collegae 
 tui. But in this case also the predicate frequently agrees with one of the 
 subjects, and is supplied by the mind for the others ; e. g. Cicero : Vos ipsi 
 et senatus frequens restitit; et ego et Cicero meus flagitabit. With regard to 
 the relative pronoun, the above rule remains in force, and we must accord- 
 ingly say : tu et pater ^ qui in convivio eratis; ego et tu, qui eramus. 
 
 II. ON THE USE OF CASES. 
 CHAP. LXX. 
 
 NOMINATIVE CASE. 
 
 [379.] 1. The subject of a proposition is in the nominative 
 (see § 362.), and the noun of the predicate only when it is con- 
 nected with the subject by the verb esse and similar verbs: 
 apparere, appear ; existere, fieri, evadere, come into existence, 
 become ; videri, seem, appear ; manere, remain ; or the passives 
 of the actives mentioned in § 394 ; viz. did, appellari, existimari, 
 haheri, &c. ; e. g. Justus videbatur, he appeared just ; rex appel- 
 lahatur, he was called king. The personal pronouns ego, tu, 
 ille, nos, vos, and illi are implied in the terminations of the verb, 
 and are expressed only when they denote emphasis or opposition. 
 (In) rebu^ angustis animosus atque fortis appdre, Ilorat. 
 
 Carm. ii. 10. 21. 
 Appius adeo novum sibi ingenium induerat, ut plebicola repente 
 
 omnisque aurae popularis captator evaderet, Liv. iii. 33. 
 Ego reges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis ; ego libertatem, quae 
 
 non erat, peperi, vos partam servare non vultis, says L. Brutus 
 
 in the Auct. ad Herenn. iv. 53. 
 
 Note \. The construction of the accusative with the infinitive is the only 
 case in which the subject is not in the nominative, but in the accusative. 
 
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 291 
 
 (See § 599.) In this case the predicate, with the above-mentioned verbs, is 
 likewise in the accusative. 
 
 {§ 380.] Note 2. Videf^i is used throughout as a personal verb, as (ego) 
 videor, (tu) videris, &c. ; vir bonus esse; videmur, videmini viH honi esse, 
 or hoc fecisse. The impersonal construction is sometimes found, as in 
 Cic. Tmc. V. 5. : Non mihi videtur, ad beate viverudum satis posse virtutem 
 (comp. Davis' remark), but much more rarely than the personal one. AVhen 
 connected with the dative of a person, it is equivalent to the English " to 
 think or fancy ;" e. g. amens mihifuisse videor ; fortunatus sibi Damocles vide- 
 hatiir (esse) ; si hoc tibi intellexisse videris, or even in connection with videre ; 
 e. g. videor mihi videre imminentes reipublicae tempestates, &c. It should how- 
 ever be observed that the dative of the first person is sometimes omitted ; 
 e. g. Cic. de Nat. Deor. ii. 61. : satis docuisse videor; ibid. i. 21. : saepe de L. 
 Ci-asso videor audisse; de Fin. ii. 5. : cum Graece, vt videor, lu^identer sciam, 
 1. e. as it seems to me, or as I think. 
 
 [§ 381.] 2. The nominative is sometimes not expressed in 
 
 Latin. Thus the word homines is understood with a verb in 
 
 the third person plural active, in such phrases as laudant hunc 
 
 regem, they, or people praise tliis king ; dicunt, tradunt, ferunt 
 
 hunc regem esse justum, people say that this king is just. 
 
 CHAP. LXXL 
 
 ACCUSATIVE CASE. 
 
 [§ 382.] 1. The accusative denotes the object of an action, and 
 is therefore joined to all transitive verbs, whether active or de- 
 ponent, to express the person or thing affected by the action 
 implied in such verbs ; e. g. pater amat (tuetur) filium, AYhen 
 the verb is active, the same proposition may be expressed without 
 change of meaning in the passive voipe, the object or accusative 
 becoming the subject or nominative; thus instead oi pater amat 
 Jilium, we may say Jilius amatur a patre. 
 
 The transitive or intransitive nature of a verb depends en- 
 tirely upon its meaning (see § 142.), which must be learned from 
 the dictionary. It must however be observed that many Latin 
 verbs may acquire a transitive meaning, besides the original 
 intransitive one, and accordingly govern the accusative. 
 
 [§383.] Note 1. Some verbs are called transitive and others intransitive, 
 according as they occur more frequently in the one sense or the other. All 
 particulars must be learned from the Dictionary. Ludere, to pLay, for ex- 
 ample, is naturally an intransitive, but has a transitive meaning in the sense 
 
 u 2 
 
292 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 of " play the part of ; " e. g. ludit honum civem, lie plays the good citizen, 
 affects to be a good citizen. Horrere properly signifies " to feel a shudder," 
 and fastidire " to be disgusted with," but both are frequently used as tran- 
 sitives : horrere dolorem^ fastidire preces or mores alicujus^ to dread pain, to 
 reject a person's petition, to be disgusted with his manners. There are several 
 other such verbs, as dolere^ gemere^ lamentari, higere, maerere, lacrimare^ 
 plorare; e. g. casum liunc. Festinare and properare, moreover, signify not 
 only " to hasten," but " to accelerate ;" e. g. mortem suam; manere not only 
 " to wait," but " to expect ;" e. g. hostium adventum; i^idere^ to laugh and to 
 ridicule (like irridere). Such examples being sanctioned by usage, the 
 Latin writers, in some cases, extended the principle still further, and Cicero 
 (de Fin. ii. 34.) has the bold, but beautiful and expressive, phrase : Quum 
 Xerxes^ Hellesponto juncto^ Athone perfosso^ mare ambulavisset, terram navi- 
 gasset, instead of the ordinary expression in mari amhulavisset^ in terra navi- 
 gasset. In such phrases as dormio totam hietnem, tertiam aetatem vivo, nodes 
 vigilo, the accusative might seem to express only duration of time (§ 395.), 
 but as the passive forms also occur, tota mihi dormitur hiems, jam tertia 
 vivitur aetas, nodes vigilantur amarae, it will be more judicious to consider 
 the verbs dormire, vivere, vigilare, in those cases as transitives, equivalent to 
 "" spend in sleeping, living, waking." 
 
 The words which denote "to smell" or "taste of any thing," viz. olere, 
 redolere, sapere, resipere, are in the same manner used as transitive verbs, 
 and joined with an accusative (instead of the ablative which they would require 
 as intransitive verbs). Their meaning in this case is "to give back the smell 
 or taste of any thing ;" e. g. olet unguenta; piscis ipsum mare sapit; unguenta 
 gratiora sunt, quae terram, qnam quae crocum sapiant; uva picem resipiens, 
 and in a figurative sense : olet peregrinum, redolet antiquitatem; together with 
 such expressions as, anhelat crudelitatem, pingue quiddam et peregrinum sonat, 
 sanguinem nostrum sitiehat. The poets go still further, and use, e. g., pallere^ 
 ■pavere, tremere, trepidare aliquid, instead of timere; ardere, calere, tepere, pe- 
 rire, deperire mulierem, instead of amare mulierem. Such expressions should 
 not be imitated in prose, any more than the use of a neuter adjective instead 
 of an adverb ; as in : torvum damare, tremendum sonare, lucidum fulgent oculi, 
 concerning which see § 266. Tacitus however says, Ann. iv. 60. : Tiberius 
 falsum renidens vultu; and vi. 37.. : Euphraten nulla imhrium vi sponte et im~ 
 mensum attolli. 
 
 [§ 384.] We must here mention a peculiar mode of joining an accusative 
 with intransitive verbs, which is of frequent occurrence in Greek and also in 
 English. It consists of a substantive of the same root as the verb, or at least one 
 of the same meaning, being added in the accusative ; but this substantive is 
 usually qualified by an adjective ; e. g. vitam jncundam vivere; longam viam 
 ire, hoc helium hellare, gravem pugnam (proelium) pugnare, alteiHus gaudimn 
 gaudere, honas preces precari, risum Sardonium ridere, consimilem ludum lu- 
 dere, servitutem servire duinssimam, somnium somniare. 
 
 (Odi) qui Curios simidant et Bacchanalia vivunt. — Juven. ii. 3. 
 [§ 385.] But even without any change or modification of meaning, intran- 
 sitive verbs may have the accusative of pronouns and adjective pronouns 
 in the neuter gender, in order to express, in a general way, the direction in 
 which a feeling or condition is manifested ; if this tendency were expressed 
 more definitely by a substantive, the accusative could not be used. We thus 
 i'requently find such phrasos as : hoc laetor, I rejoice at this ; hoc non dubito^ 
 
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 293 
 
 I do not doubt this ; hoc laboro, illud tihi non assentior, aliquid tibi succenseo, 
 non possum idem gloriari^ unum omnes student^ where the accusative of a de- 
 finite substantive, such as, hanc unam rem omnes student^ could not have beeu 
 used. So Terence says : id operam do^ I strive after this ; Cicero, ad Fam. 
 vi. 8. : consilium petis, quid tibi sim auctor; and Livy often uses the phrase 
 quod quidam auctores sunt, which is attested by some authors. 
 Dolores autem nunquam tantam vim habent, ut non plus habeat sapiens quod 
 
 gaudeat quam quod angatur, Cic. de Fin. i. 14. 
 Utrumque laetor, el sine dolore corporis te fuisse et animo valuisse, Cic. ad 
 
 Fam. vii. 1. 
 
 Note 2. The rule that in the change of a proposition from the active into 
 the passive form the accusative of the object becomes the nominative of the 
 subject, remains in force even when after the verbs denoting "to say" or 
 " command" the accusative does not depend upon these verbs, but belongs 
 to the construction of the accusative with an infinitive ; e. g. dico regem esse 
 justum, jubeo te redire (see § 607.); in the passive : rex dicitur Justus esse, ju- 
 beris redi?'e, as though dico regem or jubeo te belonged to each other. 
 
 [§ 386.] 2. Intransitive verbs which imply motion, as ire, 
 vadere, volare, and some also which imply " being in a place," 
 as jacere, stare and sedere, acquire a transitive meaning by 
 being compounded with a preposition, and accordingly govern 
 the accusative. This, however, is generally the case only in verbs 
 compounded with the prepositions circum, per, praeter, trans, 
 and super, and in those compound verbs which have acquired a 
 figurative meaning. Such verbs become perfect transitives, and 
 the accusative which they take in the active form of a propo- 
 sition as their object, becomes the nominative of the subject, 
 when the proposition is changed into the passive form ; e. g, 
 flumen transitur, societas initur, mors pro republica obitur. With 
 other compounds the accusative is only tolerated, for generally 
 the preposition is repeated, or the dative is used instead of the 
 preposition with its case (§415.). 
 
 Amicitia nonnunquam praecurrit judicium, Cic. Lael. 17. 
 Nihil est turpius quam ccgnitioni et praeceptioni assensionem prae- 
 
 currere, Cic. Acad. i. 12. 
 
 Note. The rule here given applies to a great number of verbs, for there are 
 many which imply motion, as, ire, ambidare, cedere, cw^rere, equitare, fluere, 
 gradi, labi, nare, and natare, repere, salire, scandere, voder e, vehi, volare, and 
 perhaps also venire, and their compounds are very numerous. The fol- 
 lowing is a list of them : adire, accedere, adequitare, adnare, aggredi, allabi 
 ascendere, assilire and assvltare, advenire and adventure, advehi, advolare, 
 advolvi, anteire, antecedere, antecurrere, antegredi, antevenire, circumjluere, 
 circumire, circumvenire, circumvolare, coire, convenire, egredi, elabi, erumpere, 
 evadere, excedere, exire, inire, incedere, incurrere and incursare, ingredi, illabi, 
 innare and innatare, insilire, insultare, invehi, interfiuere, intervenire, invaders 
 
 u 3 
 
294 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 (irrumpere), irrepere, ohambulm^e^ ohequitare^ ohire^ peramhulare^ percurrere^ 
 permeare, pervadere^ pe?'vagari, pervolare, praecedere, praecurrere^ praejluere^ 
 praegredi, praevenire^ praeterire, praeterfluere, praetergredi, praetervehi, 
 praetervolare, subire, succedere, subrepere, supergredi, supervadere^ super- 
 venire, transire, transnare, transilire, transvolare. To these we must add 
 some compound verbs, which do not imply motion, but in general " being 
 in a place," as adjacere, assidere, accumbere and accubare, adstare, antestare, 
 circumsidere, circumstare, and circumsistere, incubare, insidere, instare, inter- 
 jacere, obsidere, praesidere, praejacere, praestare, superstare. All these verbs 
 may be joined with an accusative of the place to which the action implied in 
 the verb refers ; in poetical language many more verbs are joined with an 
 accusative, partly from a resemblance with those mentioned above, and 
 partly because a transitive meaning and construction are, in general, well 
 suited to a lively description. Tacitus, Hist. ili. 29., for example, says : ba- 
 lista obruit quos inciderat, where quos is not governed by the preposition in 
 (for he uses the accus. also with prepositions which otherwise require the 
 ablative : praesidebat exercitum, praejacet castra, elapsus est vincidd), but is the 
 real accusat. of the object. We must not however forget, that, with the 
 exception of verbs compounded with the prepositions circum, per, praeter, 
 trans, and super, we are speaking only of what may be, and what frequently 
 occurs in modern Latin prose ; for the ancient Romans seldom used the ac- 
 cusative with such verbs ; they preferred them in their intransitive sense 
 either with a preposition or the dative. The verbs compounded with ante 
 alone are construed indifferently either with the accusative or the dative, 
 and antegredi occurs only with the accusative. Cicero, in the case of verbs 
 compounded with ex, repeats the preposition ex or ab; Sallust and Livy use 
 the ablative alone, Avhich is governed by the preposition understood. It is 
 not till the time of Tacitus that we find these verbs construed with the ac- 
 cusative; e.g. evado amnerri, silvas, sententiasjudicum. 
 
 [§ 387.] We must especially notice those verbs which acquire a transitive 
 meaning by a modification of their original signification, i. e. by being used in a 
 figurative sense. Such verbs either lose their intransitive meaning altogether, 
 or retain it along with the transitive one, and accordingly govern the 
 accusative either exclusively, or only in their particular transitive meaning. 
 Of this kind are adeo and convenio in the sense of " I step up to a person for 
 the purpose of speaking to him ;" aggredior (and adorior), invado and incedo, 
 I attack, where especially the perfect incessit aliquem, e. g. cupido, cura, 
 metus, must be observed ; alluo, wash, in speaking of the sea or a river ; 
 anteeo, antecedo, antevenio, jiraecedo, praegredior, praevenio, all in the sense of 
 " I excel " (the principle of which is followed also hy praemineo, praesto, ante- 
 cello, excello, and praecello) ; coeo, I conclude, e. g. an alliance ; excedo and 
 egredior, I transgress, e. g. the bounds ; ineo and ingredior, I begin a thing ; 
 obeo, I visit, undertake ; occumbo (mortem, which is much more frequent 
 than morti or morte), I suffer death, or die ; obsideo and circumsideo, I be- 
 siege ; subeo, I undertake. But even among these verbs there are some, 
 such as incedere and invadere, which are preferred in the more ancient prose 
 with a preposition or with the dative. Livy, for example, frequently says 
 patres incessit cura, and Sallust uses metus invasit populares ; but Cicero, An- 
 tonius invasit in Gallium, or timer invasit improbis ; Terence, qiiae nova religio 
 nunc in te incessit ; Caesar, dolor incessit improbis. Anteire is the only one 
 among the verbs signifying "to excel," that is used by Cicero with the 
 accusative, though not exclusively, and antecedere, praestare, antccellere, and 
 
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 295 
 
 excellere are used by him only with the dative ; the others do not occur in 
 his works in this sense. 
 
 There are, on the other hand, some verbs which, according to the above 
 rule, might be joined with the accusative, but never are so, and take either the 
 dative or a preposition, viz. arrepere^ obrepere^ incumhere (§ 416.). Lastly, 
 verbs compounded with the prepositions ah, de, and ex, which imply motion, 
 are construed with the ablative, the idea of separation being predominant ; 
 the few verbs mentioned above only form an exception to the rule. 
 
 [§ 388.] 3. The verbs deficio, juvo, adjiivo, defugio, effugio, 
 profugio, refugio, and suhterfugio, and the deponents imitor, 
 sequor^ and sector govern the accusative. They are real tran- 
 sitives and have a personal passive. 
 Fortes fortuna adjuvat, Ter. Phorm. i. 4. 26. 
 Nemo mortem effugere potest, Cic. Philip, viii. 10. 
 Gloria virtutem tanquam umbra sequitur, Cic. Tusc. 
 
 Note 1. The compounds of sequor and sector: assequor, assector, consequoTy 
 consector, inseqvjor, insector, per sequor, prosequor, likewise govern the accu- 
 sative ; obsequor, I comply with, alone governs the dative. Comitor, I accom- 
 pany, may be classed with sequor; for it usually governs the accusative ; but 
 Cicero in some passages (de Re Puhl. ii. 24., Tmc. v, 24. and 35.), uses it 
 with the dative, in accordance with its original meaning " to be a companion 
 to a person" (§ 235.). The few passages in which deficio occurs with the 
 dative cannot affect the rule ; thus we read : vires, tela nostras defecerunt; 
 tempus me deficit; and in the passive : quum miles a virihus dejiceretur; aqua 
 cihoque defectum. The frequentative adjuto is used with the dative only by 
 unclassical writers ; otherwise it has the accusative likejMyo. The passive 
 forms of defugio, refugio, and effugio are rare ; but always in accordance 
 with the rule ; e. g. Cic. Tusc. i. 36. : haec incommoda morte effugiuntur; p. 
 Plane. 32. : nullas sibi dimicationes pro me defugiendas putavit; Quintil. iv. 
 5. : Interim refugienda est distinctio quaestionum. Of the other compounds 
 the passive cannot be' proved to have been used. 
 
 [§ 389.] Note 2. The verb acquire and its compounds have likewise their 
 object in the accusative. Aequare properly signifies " to make equal," rem cum 
 re or rem rei, one thing to another ; e. g. urbem solo aequare, turrim moenibus ; 
 and without a dative, "to attain ;"^ e.g. gloriam alicujus, superiores reges, 
 cursum equorum. The accusative of the person may be joined, without any 
 difference in meaning, by the ablative of the thing in which I equal any 
 one ; e g. Curt. ix. 26. : Nondum feminam aequavimus gloria, et jam nos 
 laudis satietas cepit f The same is the case with the compound adaequare ; 
 and the dative with this verb, in the sense of " attain " or " equal," is doubt- 
 ful or unclassical. (See Caes. Pell. Gall. viii. 41.) Exaequare commonly 
 signifies "to make equal," or "equalise ;" and aequiparare " to attain ;" and 
 both govern the accusative. 
 
 Note 3. Aemulari, emulate, commonly takes the accusative of the thing 
 in which, and the dative of the person whom we emulate : aemulor pruden- 
 tiam, virtides majorum, and aemvlor alicui homini, although some authors use 
 it in both connections with the accusative like imitari. Adulari, properly 
 used of dogs, signifies " to creep " or " sneak up to a person," and figu- 
 ratively, like the Greek TrpoaKwt'iv, the servile veneration paid to Asiatic 
 
 u 4 
 
296 LATIN GRAMMAE. 
 
 kings, and hence In general " to flatter." In its proper sense it occurs only 
 with the accusative, e. g. Colum. vii. 12. : Canes mitissimi furem quoque adit- 
 lantur; in its figurative sense also it is found only with the accusative : Valer. 
 Maxim, vi. 3. extr. : Athenienses Timagoram inter officium salutationis Dariiim 
 regem more gentis illius adulatum capitali supplicio affecerunt. In its most 
 common sense of " servile flattery," it is used by Cicero likewise with the 
 accusative: in Pis. 41.: adulans omnes; bylSTepos with the dative; Attic. 8. : 
 neque eo magis potenti adidatus est Antonio; by Livy with both cases, see 
 xxxvi. 7. and xlv. 31. (for in xxiii. 4. there is no reason for giving up the 
 old reading plebem, affari), and Quintilian (ix. 3.) states that in his time the 
 dative was commonly used. Tacitus and other late writers, however, re- 
 turned to the ancient practice and used the accusative. It should be re- 
 marked that the active form adulo was not uncommon, as in Valer. Maxim, 
 iv. 3. in fin. : Cum olera lavanti (Diogeni) Aristippus dixisset, si Dionysium 
 ndulare velles, ita non esses : Immo, inquit^ si tu ita esse velles, non adulares 
 Dionysium. Comp. the commentators on Cic. Tiisc. ii. 10. § 24. 
 
 [§ 390.] 4. Five impersonal verbs (§ 225.), which express 
 certain feelings, viz. piget (I am) vexed ; pudet (I am) 
 ashamed ; poenitet, (I) repent ; taeclet (I am) disgusted, and mi~ 
 seret, (I) pity, take an accusative of the person affected. As to 
 the case by which the thing exciting such a feeling is expressed, 
 see § 441. 
 
 Note. On the principle ofpuditum est, Cicero {de Fin. ii. 13.) uses veritum 
 est as an impersonal verb with the accusative of the person : Cyrenaici, quos 
 non est veritum in voluptate summum honum ponere. 
 
 Decet, it is becoming, and its compounds condecet, dedecet, and 
 indecet likewise govern the accusative of the person, but they 
 differ from the above-mentioned impersonal verbs, inasmuch as 
 they may have a nominative as their subject, though not a 
 personal one. 
 
 Candida pax homines, trux decet iraferas, Ovid, A. A. 
 
 Note. In the early language (especially in Plautus) decet is found also 
 with the dative. We may here notice some other verbs which, when used 
 as impersonals, govern the accusative, this case being suited to their original 
 meaning : juvat and delectat me, I am rejoiced ; fallit, fugit, praeterit me, it 
 escapes me, that is, I have forgotten, or do not knoAv. Latet me occurs more 
 frequently than latet miki, but the impersonal character of this verb is not 
 founded on good authority, for the passage of Cicero, in Cat. i. 6., is cor- 
 rupt. Cicero uses this verb without any case : lateo, I am concealed or 
 keep out of sight. 
 
 [§ 391.] 5. The verbs docere (teach) with its compounds edo^ 
 
 cere and dedocere and celare (conceal), have two accusatives of the 
 
 object, — one of the thing, and another of the person, as in 
 
 Nepos, Eum. 8. : Antigonus iter, quod liabehat adversus Eu- 
 
 menem, omnes celat. 
 
 Fortuna belli artem victos quoque docet. Curt. vii. 30. (7.) 
 
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 297 
 
 Catilina juventutem, quam illexerat, rnultis modis mala facinora 
 edocebat, Sallust, Cat. 16. 
 
 Note ] . When such a proposition takes the passive form, the accusative of 
 the person becomes the nominative, as omnes celahantur ah Antigono ; but the 
 thing may remain in the accusative, e. g. Liv. vi. 32. : Latinae legiones longa 
 societate militiam Romanam edoctae; and: omnes belli artes edoctus. But it 
 rarely occurs with doctus and edoctus^ and with celari scarcely ever, except 
 when the thing is expressed by the neuter of a pronoun, e. g. hoc or id cela- 
 ha7\ I was kept in ignorance of it, for celai'e and especially its passive 
 generally has the preposition de^ as in Cic. : non e$f profecto de illo veneno 
 celata mater; dehes existimare te maximis de rebus afratre esse celatum. The 
 construction aliqua res mihi celatur in Nep. Alcib. 5. is very singular. Docere 
 and edocere with their passive forms are likewise used with de^ but only in 
 the sense of " to inform," as in Cicero ; jtuliees de iitjuriis alicujus docere ; 
 Sulla de his rebus docetur ; Sallust : de itinere hostium senatum edocet. 
 
 It must, however, be observed, that although any word expressing an art 
 may be joined to doceo and doceor (doceo te artem, doceor te Latine loqui, do- 
 ceor artem, doceor (commonly disco) Latine loqui), the instrument on which 
 the art is practised, is expressed by the ablative, e. g. Cic. ad Fam. ix. 22. : 
 Socratem Jidibus docuit nobilissimus ^dicen; Liv. xxix. 1.: quern docendum 
 cures equo armisque, and in a passive signification Cic. Cat. Maj. 8. : discebant 
 Jidibus antiqui. Litterae may be used either in the accus. or ablat. : Cic. in 
 Pis. 30. : Quidnunc te, asine, litteras doceam ; Brut. 45. : doctus Graecis litteris, 
 doctus et Graecis litteris et Latinis. 
 
 [§ 392.] Note 2. The verbs compounded with trans : transduco, transjicio, 
 transpo7^to, take a double accusative, on account of the omission of the pre- 
 position, which however is often added, e.g. Agesilaus Hellespontum copias 
 trajecit ; Hannibal nonaginta milia peditum, duodecim milia equitum Iberum 
 transduxit; Caesar exercitum Rhenum transportavit, Ligerim transducit, but also 
 multitudinem hominum trans Rhenum in Galliam transducere. In the passive 
 construction the accusative dependent upon tran^ is retained, as in Caesar : 
 ne major multitudo Germanorum Rhenum transducatur ; Belgae Rhenum anti- 
 quitus ti^ansducti. Transjicere and transmittere are also used intransitively, 
 the pronouns me, te, se, &c. being understood. The participles transjectus 
 and transmissus may be used both of that which crosses a river, and of the 
 river which is crossed : amnis trajectus, transmissus, and classis transmissa, 
 Marius in Africam trajectus, and the name of the water may be added in the 
 ablative : mari, freto. 
 
 [§ 393.] 6. The verbs posct;, reposco,Jlagito, I demand; oro,rogo, 
 I entreat ; interrogo and percontor, I ask or inquire, also admit a 
 double accusative, one of the person, and another of the thing, 
 but the verbs which denote demanding or entreating also take 
 the ablative of the person with the preposition ab, and those 
 denoting inquiring may take the ablative of the thing with de, 
 Peto, postulo and qaaero are never used with a double accusa- 
 tive, but the first two have always the ablative of the person 
 with ab, and quaero wdth ab, de and ex. 
 Nulla salus bello, pacem te poscimus omnes, Yirg. Aen. xi. 362. 
 
298 LATIN GRAMMArw. 
 
 Legatl Ilennenses ad Verrem adeunt eumque simulacrum Ce~ 
 
 rerls et Victoriae reposcunt, Cic. in Verr. iv. 51. 
 Pusionem quendam Socrates apud Platonem interrogat quaedam 
 Geometrica, Cic. Tusc. i. 24. 
 
 Note 1. A double accusative is used most commonly, when the thing is 
 expressed indefinitely by the neuter of a pronoun or an adjective ; e. g. hoc 
 te veJiementer rogo; illud te et oro et hortor; sine te hoc exorem^ let me entreat 
 this of you ; nihil aliud vos orat atque ohsecrat; hoc quod te interrogo responde. 
 The accusat. with the passive is rare, but in accordance with the rule ; thus 
 we say : rogatus sententi^m, asked for his opinion (for rogo may mean the 
 same as interrogo), interrogatus testimonium. 
 
 Note 2. Respecting what is called the Greek accusative^ which only supplies 
 the place of the Latin ablative, see § 458. 
 
 [§ 394.] 7. The following verbs (which in the passive voice 
 have two nominatives), have in the active two accusatives, one 
 of the object and the other of the predicate : dicer e, vocare, 
 appellare, nominare, nuncupare, also scribere and inscribere ; du- 
 cere, habere, judicare, existimare, numerare, putare {arbitrari), 
 also intelligere, agnoscere, reperire, invenire, facere (pass. j^^rz')^ 
 reddere, instituere, constituere, creare, deligere, designare, declarare, 
 renuntiare, and others ; se praebere, se praestare. Thus we say 
 in the active, Ciceronem universus populus adversus Catilinam 
 consulem declaravit (Cic. in Pis. 1.), and in the passive Cicero 
 ab universo populo consul declaratus est, 
 itomulus urbem, quam condidit, Romam vocavit. 
 Socrates totius mundi se incolam et civem arbitrabatur, Cic. 
 
 Tusc. V. 37. 
 Bene de me meritis gratum me praebeo, Cic. p. Plane. 38. 
 Scytliarum gens antiquissima semper liabita est. 
 
 Note 1. Hence we say : facio te certiorem, I inform thee, with the genitive ; 
 e. g. consilii mei, or with the preposition de: de consilio meo, and in the passive 
 voice : certior factus sum. With other adjectives reddere is preferable to 
 facere; e. g. reddere aliquem placidum et mollem, meliorem, iratum, &c. ; ho- 
 mines coecos reddit cupiditas; loca tuta ah hostihus reddebat. In the passive 
 we rarely find reddi iov fieri. 
 
 Utor, in a sunilar sense, is used with a double ablative : utor aliquo ma- 
 gistro, I have a person for my teacher ; utor aliquo aequo, benigno, I find a 
 person just, kind towards myself. Terent. Heaut. ii. 1.5.: Mihi si unquamfilius 
 erit, nae ille facili me utetur patre, he shall have in me an indulgent father. 
 
 Note 2. With regard to the participle passive the rule respecting the 
 agreement of the predicate with the cases of the subject rarely apj)lies to any 
 other cases than the nominative and accusative, at least in ordinary language. 
 There are however a few instances of the ablative in the construction of the 
 ablative absolute : Nep. Hann. 3. : Ilasdriibale imperatore suffecto; Liv. iv. 
 46. : magistro equitum creato filio sua profectus est ad helium] ibid. xlv. 21. : 
 
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 299 
 
 Consulihus certioribus factis ; Flor. iii. 21.: ex senatusconsulto adversariis hos' 
 tibus judicatis. There are no instances of other oblique cases. It is not how- 
 ever improbable that a Roman might have said : Dareus Scytharum genti, 
 quaniqiLam justissimae habitae^ bellum intulit. 
 
 Note 3. "The verbs putare, ducere^ and habere may have the preposition 
 pro instead of the accusative of the predicate, but not quite in the same 
 sense, pro expressing rather an approximation ; e. g. habere pro hoste, to 
 deem a person equal to an enemj ; aliquid pro non dicto habere^ to consider a 
 thing as though it had not been said ; aliquid pro certo putare, to regard a 
 thing as though it were certain ; pro nihilo, as though it w^ere nothing. We 
 may here notice also the phrases aliquem in numero; ^. g. imperatorum^ sapi- 
 entium^ and aliquem in loco parentis ducere or habere. 
 
 [§ 395.] 8. The accusative is used with verbs and adjectives 
 to express the extent of time and space, in answer to the ques- 
 tions : — how far ? how long ? how broad ? how deep ? how 
 thick ? e. g. nunquam pedem a me discessit, he never moved one 
 step from me ; a recta conscientia non transversum unguem (or 
 digitum) oportet discedere, not one finger's breadth; fossa duos 
 pedes lata or longa; cogitationem sohrii hominis punctum tern- 
 poris suscipe, take, for one moment, the thought of a rational 
 man ; so also : Mithridates annum jam tertium et vicesimum 
 regnat ; tres annos mecum habitavit, or per tres annos, which 
 however implies that the period was a long one. 
 Campus Marathon ah Athenis circiter milia passuum decern 
 
 ahest, Xep. Milt. 4. 
 Quaedam hestiolae unum tantum diem, vivunt, Cic. 
 Decem quondam annos urbs oppugnata est ob unam mulierem 
 
 ab universa Graecia, Liv. v. 4. 
 Lacrimans in carcere mater noctes diesque assidebat, Cic. in 
 
 Verr, v. 43. 
 
 [§ 396.] Note 1 . The ablative is rarely used by Cicero to express the dura- 
 tion of time ; e. g. de Off. iii. 2. : Scriptum est a Posidonio triginta annis vixisse 
 Panaetium^ posteaquam libros de officiis edidisset; but it is more frequent in the 
 authors of the silver age : Tac.-4wi. i. 53. : quattuordecim annis exilium toleravit; 
 Suet. Calig. 59. : vixit annis undetriginta. The ablative of distance must in 
 general be regarded as an exception, although it occurs not only in later 
 Avriters, but in Caesar and Livy : abest^ distat qidnque milibus passuum^ or spa- 
 tio aliquot milium; Tac. Ajin. xii. 17. : JExercitus Romanus tridui iiincre 
 abfuit ab amne Tanai; but Cicero and others, in accordance with the rule, 
 say iter quinque, decem dierum, or biduum, triduum, or bidui, tridui (scil. spa- 
 tium) abest ab aliquo loco. If however not the distance is to be expressed, 
 but only a place to be designated by the circumstance of its distance from 
 another, the ablative should be used, though the accusative sometimes occurs ; 
 e. g. Liv. xxvii. 41.: mille fere et quingentos passus castra ab hoste locat; xxv. 
 13. : tria passuum milia ab ipsa urbe loco edito castra posidt, and in other pas- 
 sages. Spatio and intervallo are the only words in which the ablative is used 
 
300 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 exclusively ; e. g. Liv. xxv. 9. : quindecim ferme milium spatio castra ah 
 Tarento posuit^ but the ablative is found also in many other cases agreeably 
 to the rule ; e. g. Caes. Bell. Gall. i. 48. : Eodem die castra promovit et 
 milihus passuum sex a Caesaris castris sub monte consedit. When the place 
 from which the distance is calculated is not mentioned, but understood from 
 what precedes, ah is placed at the beginning, as if the ablative of the distance 
 depended on it ; e. g. Caes. Bell. Gall. ii. 7. : a milihus passuum duohus castra 
 posuerunt., i. e. at a distance of 2000 paces from the spot, or 2000 paces off, 
 duo inde milia (for more instances from Caesar see Schneider on Caes. I. c.) ; 
 Liv. xxiv. 46. : a quingentis fere passihus castra posuit; Flor. ii. 6. 56. : non 
 jam a tertio lapide (i. e. at a distance of three miles), sed ipsas Carthaginis 
 portas ohsidione quatiehat. (Comp. Matthiae, Greek Grammar, § 573. p. 994. 
 5th edit.) 
 
 [§ 397.] Note 2. Old^ in reference to the years which a person has lived, is 
 expressed in Latin by natus, with an accusative of the time ; e. g. JDecessit 
 Alexander mensem unum, annos tres et triginta natus (Justin, xii. 16.). Alexander 
 therefore died quarto et trigesimo anno, or aetatis anno. A person's age, how- 
 ever, may be expressed without natus, by the genitive, if his name is closely 
 joined to the words denoting the time (see § 426.) ; e. g. Alexander annorum 
 trium et triginta decessit, i.e. as a man of thirty-three years. The expressions 
 " older '' or " younger than thirty-three years," are accordingly rendered in 
 Latin hy plus or minus (see § 485.) tres et triginta annos natus ; but also by 
 major or minor, either without quam, as major (minor) annos tres et triginta 
 natus, and major (minor) annorum trium et triginta; or with quam: major 
 (mino?') quam annos tres et triginta natus, and major (minor) quam annorum 
 trium et triginta. Natu may be joined to annorum as anno is to aetatis in 
 the case of ordinal numerals. Lastly, the ablative is made to depend upon 
 the comparative : major (minor) trihus et triginta annis ; and in the Roman 
 laws we frequently find the expression minor viginti quinque annis. 
 
 [§ 398.] 9. The names of towns, and not unfrequently of 
 small islands, are put in the accusative with verbs implying 
 motion, without the preposition in or ad, which are required 
 with the names of countries ; e. g. Juvenes Roma7ii Athenas stii- 
 diorum causa prqficisci solehant. We may here mention at once 
 all the rules relating to the construction of the names of towns.. 
 If they denote the place whence^ they are in the ablative ; if the 
 place wliere ? singular nouns of the first and second declensions 
 are put in the genitive, all plurals and nouns of the third de- 
 clension in the ablative. * When w^e have to express " through 
 a town," the preposition per is required. 
 
 * This rule, varying as it does with the number and declension of a name 
 of a town, is obviously quite arbitrary, and not traceable to any principle. 
 The first (at least in this country) proper explanation of this apparent pe- 
 cidiarity of the Latin language is given by a writer in the Journal of Edu" 
 cation (vol. i. p. 107.), from which we extract the following passage: — 
 " We are usually directed to translate at Borne by the genitive, at Athens by 
 the ablative, &c., giving different rules according as the number or the 
 gender differs, while, in fact, they are all datives. With Romae, Athcnisy 
 
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 301 
 
 Demaratus quidam, Tarquiiiii regis pater, tyrannum Cypselum 
 quod ferre non poterat, Tarquinios Corintho fugit, et ibi suas 
 
 fortunas constituit, Cic. Tusc. v. 37. 
 Dionysius tyrannus Syracusis ex'pulsus Corinthi pueros docebat, 
 
 Cic. Tusc. ili. 12. 
 Romae Consules, Athenis Archontes, Carthagine* Suffetes, sive 
 
 judices, quotannis creabantur, Nep. Hann. 
 
 Note 1. The use of names of countries without a preposition, like the 
 names of towns, and of names of towns with the prepositions in^ ab^ ex, is 
 an irregularity which should not be imitated. Of these prepositions ah is 
 found most frequently, especially in Livy, though sometimes also in Cicero : 
 ah Epidauro Piraeeum advectus, ah Epheso in Syriam profectus, a Brundisio 
 Tudla adhuc fama venerat ; and eases may occur in which the preposition is 
 absolutely necessary, as in Cic. in Verr. iv. 33. : Segesta est oppidum in 
 Sicilia, quod ah Aenea, fugiente a Troja, conditum esse demonstrant. Ad is 
 joined with names of towns when only the direction towards a place is to be 
 expressed, and not the place itself; e. g. in Cicero: iter dirigere adMutinam; 
 tres viae sunt ad Mutinam : further, when the vicinity of a place is to be 
 denoted (§ 296.) ; in this sense, the elder Cato says in Cic. Cat. Maj. 5. : 
 ad^lescentulus miles profectus sum ad Capuam, quintoque anno post ad Tar en- 
 turn Quaestor; that is, in castra, ad Capuam, ad Tarentum. So ad is also 
 used to denote the approach of a fleet to a maritime town ; e. g. Caes. Bell. 
 Civ. iii. 100. : Laelius cum classe ad Brundisium venit. 
 
 What has been said above in re'erence to islands applies not only to those 
 which have towns of the same name, such as Delos, JRhodus, Samos, Cor- 
 ct/ra, but to others also, as in Cicero : Ithacae vivere otiose ; in Nepos : Conon 
 plurimum Cypri vi.rit, Iphici^ates in Thracia., Timotheus Leshi; Pausaniam 
 cum classe Cyprum atque Hellespontiim miserunt ; so also Chersonesum colonos 
 mittere., Chersonesi hahitare ; but Cicero, de Divin. i. 25. says : in Cyprum 
 redire. The larger islands, as Sardinia, Britannia, Creta, Euhoea, Sitilia, 
 are subject to the same rules as names of countries; and the few exceptions 
 
 there is no difficulty. As to Beneventi, domi, &c., an earlier form of the 
 dative of the second declension was oi (ot'/coj), whence arose the double form 
 nullo and nuIU. In the plural the two languages exhibit the same analogy : 
 SovXoi, covXoig, in Greek, and in Latin puerl, pueris. In the third declension 
 a common occurrence has taken place." This explanation is confirmed by 
 the fact that in most cases v,-e find Carthagini, Anxuri, Tihwi, and also 
 Lacedaemoni, when the place where f is to be expressed. See above, § 63. 
 in fin. Tbansl. 
 
 * The writer above quoted justly remarks : " Our editions often present 
 Carthagine, Lacedaemone, where the MSS. have the correct dative. It is 
 true that authority exists for the other form ; but the change of Carthagini 
 into Carthagine is precisely similar to the change of heri into here, pictat 
 into pictae, and not unlike the absorption of the i in the datives of so many 
 declensions, Greek and Latin : gradui gradu, jidei fide. In the third de- 
 clension, the preceding consonant saved it from total extinction. The com- 
 monest effect of time upon language is to soften away the final letters. 
 Hence miraris, mirare ; agier, agi ; ipsus, ipse ; quis, qui ; fuerunt, fuere ; 
 homo, homo; lyiov, eyw ; ego, ego, &c.^ Transl. 
 
3U2 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 which occur cannot be taken mto account ; e. g. Cic. p. Leg. Man. 12. : inde 
 Sardiniam cum classe venit ; Liv. xxxii. 16. : Euhoeam trajecerunt ; Flor. iii. 
 10. : Britanniam transit; and some others. 
 
 Names of countries, also, are not unfrequently used in the accusative 
 without the preposition in when motion is expressed. This is most fre- 
 quently the case with Aegi/ptus (once even in Cic. de Nat. Deo?\ iii. 22.), 
 and other Greek names of countries in us, as JEpirus, Peloponnesus, Cher- 
 sonesus, Bosporus, perhaps owing to their resemblance to names of towns ; 
 but also with others ; e. g. Caes. Bell. Gall. iii. 7. : Illyricum profectus ; Bell. 
 Civ. iii. 41.: Macedoniam pervenit ; Liv. x. 37. : Etruriam transducto exer- 
 citu ; XXX. 24. ; Africam transiturus. All these expressions, however, are 
 only exceptions, rarely used by the earlier writers, and somewhat more fre- 
 quently by the later ones. Even names of nations, when used for those of 
 countries, are construed in this way by Tacitus, Ann. xii. 32.: ductus inde 
 Cangos exercitus; xii. 15. : Ipse praeceps Iheros ad patrium regnum pervadit. 
 The genitive of names of countries in answer to the question wliere? is much 
 more rare, and is confined to Aegypti in Caesar, Bell. Civ. iii. 106. ; Chei^so- 
 nesi in Nep. Milt. 1.; Florus, i. 18. 11. uses Lucaniae in the same way; in 
 Sallust the combination Romae Numidiaeque is easily accounted for.* 
 
 The grammatical explanation of this genitive, however, is connected with 
 difficulties. Formerly grammarians accounted for it by the ellipsis in loco ; 
 modern comparative philology has called in the aid of the locative singular 
 in i of the Sanscrit language, which is akin to the Latin. (See Bopp, 
 Vergleich. Grammatik, p. 229.) This would account for the ae in the first 
 declension, the ancient form being ai (see § 45.), and for the i in some 
 nouns of the third declension ; e, g. Tiburi, Ca?ihagini, ruin. (See § 62. foil.) 
 The use of the accusative to denote " motion to," and of the ablative to denote 
 the place where or whence, is perfectly in accordance with the syntactical 
 system of the Latin language ; and this accounts for the fact of later writers, 
 especially Justin, frequently putting names of towns of the second declension 
 in the ablative to denote the place where ; e. g. Abydo, Corintho ; Liv. v. 52. : 
 in monte Alhano Lavinioque, for et Lavinii.'f 
 
 [§ 399.] Note 2. With regard to adjectives and nouns of apposition joined 
 with names of towns, the following rules must be observed. When a name of a 
 town is qualified by an adjective, the answer to the question where ? is not ex- 
 pressed by the genitive, but by the preposition in with the ablative ; e. g. Cic. 
 ad Att. xi. 16. : in ipsa Alexandria; Plin. Hist. Nat. xiv. 3.; in Narhonensis 
 provinciae Alba Helvia ; and consequently not Albae Longae, but rather the 
 simple ablative Alba Longa, as in Virgil, Aen. vi. 766. In Cicero, however, 
 we find Teani Apuli (p. Cluent. 9.), in'the Apulian Teanum. When a name 
 of a town answers to the question where ? in the ablative, the addition of 
 an adjective produces no change; e. g. Cic. ad Att. xvi. 6.: Malo vel 
 cum timore domi esse, quxim sine timore Athenis tins ; Liv. i. 18. : Numa Pom- 
 pilius Curibus Sabinis habitabat ; ibid, xxviii. 17. : Carthagine nova reliquit; 
 and hence the reading in the epitome of the same book should be Cartha- 
 gini nova, and not novae. In answer to the questions whither ? and whence f 
 
 * According to the remark made above, Aegypti, Chersonesi, Lucaniae, 
 &c., are all datives, answering to the Sanscrit locative, and not genitives. 
 Transt.. 
 
 t According to what was said above, these are not exceptions ; Abydo, Co- 
 rintho, being datives, and not ablatives. Transl. 
 
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 303 
 
 the accus. and ablat. are used both with and without prepositions ; e. g. Ovid, 
 Heroid. ii. 83. : Aliquis doctas jam nunc eat^ inquit, Athenas ; Cic. m Verr. i. 
 19.: quae ipsa Samo suhlata sunt; but Propert. iii. 20.: magnum iter ad 
 doctas projicisci cogor Athenas ; and Martial, xiii. 107. : de vitifera venisse 
 Vienna. 
 
 When the words wrft*, oppidum^ locus, &c. follow the names of towns as 
 appositions, they generally take a preposition ; e. g. Demaratus Corinthius 
 se contulit Tarquinios, in urbem Etniriae Jiorentissimam ; Cic. in Verr. v. 51. : 
 Cleomenes dicit, sese in terram esse egressum, ut Pachyno, e terrestri praesidio, 
 milites colligeret. In answer to the question rvhere ? however, the simple 
 ablative may be used, but never the genitive ; e. g. Cic. p. Arch. 3. : Archias 
 Antiochiae natus est, celehri quondam urhe et copiosa ; p. Rab. Post. 10. : De- 
 liciarum causa et voluptatis cives Romanos Neapoli, in celeherrimo oppido, cum 
 mitella saepe vidimus. When these words, with their prepositions, precede 
 the names of towns, the latter are invariably put in the same case ; e. g. ad 
 urbem Ancyram, ex urbe Roma, ex oppido Thermis, in oppido Athenis ; Nep. 
 Cim. 3. : m oppido Citio : Tac. Ann. xi. 21. : in oppido Adrumeto. Excep- 
 tions are rare : Vitruv. Praef. lib. x. : nobili Graecorum et ampla civitate 
 Ephesi ; and in Cic. ad Att. v. 18. : Cassiu^ in oppido Antiochiae cum omni 
 exercitu est, where Antiochiae depends upon oppido, just as we say " in the 
 town of Antioch." 
 
 [§ 400.] Note 3. The words domus and ru^ ai'e treated like the names of 
 towns, consequently domum (also domxjs in the plur.) and rus, home, into 
 the country ; dome and inire, from home, from the country ; domi, ruri (more 
 frequent than rure), at home, in the country. But although the rule re- 
 quires, e. g. domo abesse, to be absent from home, Livy uses esse ab domo ; 
 and besides domi se tenere, to keep at home, we also find domo se tenere. 
 (See the comment, on Nep. Epam. 10.) Domi also takes the genitives 
 meae, time, suae, nostrae, vestrae, and alienae ; but if any other adjective is 
 joined with it, a preposition must be used ; e. g. in ilia domo, in domo publica, 
 in privata domo. When the name of the possessor is added in the genitive, 
 both forms, domi and in domo, are used ; e. g. domi or in domo Caesaris or 
 ipsius. In the case of domum and domo, the rule is on the whole the same : 
 we say, e. g., domum meam venit, nihil domum suam intulit, damos suas in- 
 vitant, domo sua egredi ; but in domum meretriciam induci ; in domum veterem 
 remigrare e nx)va ; Livy : in domum Maelii tela inferuntur ; Cicero : e domo 
 Caesaris multa ad te delata sunt ,• Cicero, however, very commonly says : do- 
 mum alicujus venire, convenire, domos omnium concursare. 
 
 Humus, bellum, and militia are, to some extent, construed in a similar way, 
 their genitives being used to denote the place where f humi, on the ground 
 (but not humum, (I throw) upon the ground, and rarely humo, from the 
 ground, prepositions being required to express these relations ; hence humo 
 is often used as an ablative of place for humi) ; belli and militiae, always in 
 combination with, or in opposition to, dom.i : belli domique, or domi bellique, 
 domi militiaeque, at home and in the camp ; nee ducem belli, nee principem 
 domi desideramu^ ; nihil domi, nihil militiae gestum. But we also find in bello, 
 in war. Viciniae for in vicinia, occurs in Terence in such connections, as hie, 
 hu£ viciniae, where, however, the genitive might be regarded as dependent 
 upon the adverb (see § 434.), but Plautus (Bacch. ii. 2. 27.) uses it without 
 the adverb : proximae viciniae habitat. Foras (out through the door) and 
 foris (out at the door) have become adverbs, but the one is properly an 
 accusat., and the other an ablat. 
 
304 LATIN GKAMMAK. 
 
 [§ 401.] The poets may express by the accusative any lo- 
 cality answering to the question whither ? as in Virgil : Italiam 
 fato -profugus Lavinaque venit litora ; Speluncam Dido dux et 
 Trojanus eandem deveniunt ; Ovid : Verba refers aures non per^ 
 venientia nostras. 
 
 [§ 402.] 10. In exclamations the accusative of the person or 
 thing wondered at is used, either with the interjections o, heu, 
 eheu, or without them. The accusative may be explained by 
 supplying some verb of emotion or declaration ; e. g. Heu me 
 miserum ! O wretched man that I am ! heu dementiam existi- 
 mantium ! O the folly of those Avho believe, &c. ! or without 
 heu : me miserum ! Beatos quondam duces Romanos ! exclaims 
 Corbulo in Tacit. Ann. xi. 20. ; Cic. in Verr. v. 25. : Huncine 
 hominem I hancine impudentiam, judices ! hanc audaciam ! and 
 in an ironical sense, p. Coel. 26.: Iri balneis delituerunt: testes 
 egregios ! de Or at. iii. 2. : O fallacem hominum spem fragi- 
 lemque fortunam et inanes nostras contentiones ! 
 
 [§ 403.] Note 1. With these as with all other interjections the vocative also 
 is used, when the person or thing itself is invoked ; e. g. Cic. Philip, xiii. 17. : 
 o miser., quum re, turn hoc ipso quod non sentis, quam miser sis! Vae and hei 
 are usually joined with the dative, as vae misero mihi! vae victis! hei mihi, 
 quails erat! 
 
 Note 2. Ecce and en (Greek ^v, r}v'i) are preferred with the nominative ; 
 as Ecce tune litterae! Ecce nova turha atque rixa! En ego! En memoria 
 mortui sodalis! en metus vivorum existimationis ! Ecce with the accusative 
 occurs only in comedy, in the expression ecce me! and in the contracted 
 forms cecum.) eccos, eccillum, eccillam, eccistam. 
 
 [§ 404.] 1 1 . The following prepositions govern the accu- 
 sative : ad, apud, ante, adversus and adversum, cis and citra, circa 
 and circum, circiter, contra, erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, juxta, 
 oh, penes, per, pone, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, 
 trans, versus, ultra, and in and sub when joined with verbs of 
 motion. Respecting super and subter see § 320. 
 
 CHAP. LXXIL 
 
 DATIVE CASE. 
 
 [§ 405.] 1. The dative is the case of reference, or if Ave 
 compare it with the accusative, the case denoting the remoter 
 object ; for as the accusative serves to denote the effect or that 
 which is acted upon, in contrast to the agent or active subject. 
 
DATIVE CASE. 305 
 
 SO the dative denotes that with reference to which the subject 
 acts, or in reference to which it possesses this or that quality ; 
 e. g. scribo vohis hunc librum, I write this book (the agent and 
 effect, or cause and effect) for you (with reference to you, for 
 your advantage) ; prosum tibi, I am useful to you (in reference 
 to you). Hence the dative is used — 
 
 a) With all transitive verbs, besides the accusative, either ex- 
 pressed or understood, to denote the person in reference to whom 
 or for whom a thing is done ; e. g. date panem pauperibus, com- 
 mendo tibi liberos meos, mitto tibi librum, rex mihi domum aedifi- 
 cavit ; in the following sentences the accusative is understood, or 
 its place is supplied by the sentences which follow : suadeo tibi, 
 persuadeo tibi, nuntiavit imperatori, promisit militibus. This rule 
 implies that the person for whose benefit or loss anything is 
 done, is expressed by the dative (dativus commodi et incommodi) ; 
 e. g. Pisistratus sibi, non patriae, Megarenses vicit, Justin ; JVon 
 scholae, sed vitae discimus, Senec. Epist. 106. 
 
 [§ 406.] b) AVith intransitive verbs, which though they 
 usually do not govern any case, may yet express that the action 
 is done with reference to something or somebody. We mention 
 here especially vacare, nubere, and supplicare. Vaco signifies 
 " I am free," hence vaco alicui rei, I have leisure for a thing or 
 occupy myself with it, as vaco philosophiae, Nubo originally 
 signifies " I cover ; " and as according to an ancient custom the 
 bride on her wedding-day covered her face, she was said nubere 
 alicui viro, " to cover herself for a man," that is, " to marry." 
 (In the passive, however, we find nupta cum viro.) Supplico 
 signifies"! am a suppliant" {supplex), hence supplico alicui, 
 I implore a person. Homo non sibi se soli natum meminerit, sed 
 patriae, sed snis, Cic. De Fin. ii. 14. 
 Civitas Romana inter bellorum strepitum parum olim vacabat 
 
 liberalibus disciplinis. Sueton. De Grammat. 
 Plures in Asia mulieres singulis viris solent nubere, Cic. 
 Neque Caesari solum, sed etiam amicis ejus omnibus pro te, 
 
 sicut adhuc feci, libentissime supplicabo. Cic. Ad Fam, vi. 14. 
 
 [§ 407.] Note 1. Suadeo tibi hanc rem^ has nothing that is strange to us, 
 as we use the same construction in English. Persuadeo denotes the comple- 
 tion of suadeo, and must be noticed here because its construction differs 
 from that of our verb " to persuade." We use the passive form " I am per- 
 suaded," but in Latin we must say hoc (or any other neuter pronoun) mihi 
 persuadetur, as the construction is managed in such a way as to make the 
 
 X 
 
306 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 clause which follows the subject : persuadetur mihi, persuasum mihi est^ mihi 
 persuasufn habeo (this occurs only in Caes. JBell. Gall. iii. 2.) esse aliquid, but 
 also de aliqua re. Persuadeo te has been found in a fragment of Cicero, 
 p. Tull. § 39. ed. Peyron, but is otherwise altogether unclassical ; it explains 
 however the personal participle persuasus which occurs now and then. 
 Mihi quidem nunqtiam persuaderi pohiit, animos^ dum in corporibits essent 
 
 mortalibusj vivere, quum exissent ex ?iis, emori, Cic. Cat. Maj. 22. 
 
 [§ 408.] Note 2. The free application of the dative, or what is termed 
 the dativus commodi et incommodi, enabled the Romans to speak with great 
 nicety and conciseness. Compare, for example, the following passages, 
 whose number might be greatly increased, Cic. in Verr. ii. 8. : (Yerres) hunc 
 hominem Veneri absolvit^ sihi condemnat, to the loss of Venus (whose temple 
 was to have received a bequest) he acquits him, but for his own benefit he 
 condemns him ; Terent. AdelpJi. i. 2. 35. : quod peccat^ Demea, mihi peccat. 
 In Plautus (Capt. iv. 2. 86.), a person answers to the impertinent remark 
 esurire mihi videris: mihi quidem esurio, non tihi; i. e. it does not concern 
 you. The dative of personal pronouns is very often used where it is super- 
 fluous as far as the meaning is concerned, but it always conveys the expres- 
 sion of a lively feeling, and is therefore termed dativus ethicus; e. g. Liv. 
 Praef. Ad ilia mihi pro se quisque acriter intendat animum; Horat. Epist. i. 
 3. 15. : Quid mihi Celsus agit? What is my old friend Celsus doing? In 
 some cases the pronoun gives to the expression an almost personal shade of 
 meaning, Sallust, Cat. 52. : hie mihi quisquam misericordiam nominal! Let 
 no one talk to me of mercy ! Cic. Philip, viii. 4. : hie mihi etiam Q. Fu^us 
 pads commoda commemorat! The following phrases also should be observed : 
 quid tibi vis ? what do you want ? quid sibi iste vult ? what does he want ? 
 quid vult sibi haec oratio.? what does this speech mean ? quid haec sibi dona 
 voluntf what is the meaning of these presents ? or what is their object ? 
 
 [§ 409.] 2. The dative is joined with all adjectives (and 
 adverbs) whose meaning is incomplete, unless a person or an 
 object is mentioned for or against whom, for whose benefit 
 or loss the quality exists. Of this kind are those which ex- 
 press utility or injury, pleasantness or unpleasantness , inclination 
 or disinclination, ease or difficulty, suitableness or unsuitableness, 
 similarity or dissimilarity, equality or inequality. 
 
 Adjectives expressing a friendly or hostile disposition towards 
 a person, may take the prepositions in, erga, adversus, instead of 
 the dative ; and utilis, inutilis, aptus, ineptus generally take the 
 preposition ad to express the thing for which any thing is useful 
 or fit ; e. g. homo ad nullam rem utilis ; locus aptus ad insidias ; 
 but the person to or for whom a thing is useful or fit, is always 
 expressed by the dative. 
 Canis nonne similis lupo ? atque, ut Ennius, " simia quam 
 
 similis, turpissima hestia, nobis P'' Cic. De Nat. Deor. i. 35. 
 Fidelissimi ante omnia homini canis et equus, Plin. 
 Invia virtuti nulla est via, Ovid, Met. xiv. 113. 
 
DATIVE CASE. 307 
 
 Cunctis esto benignus^ nulli hlandus, paucis familiaris, omnibus 
 
 aequus, Seneca. 
 I 
 
 [§ 410.] Note 1. Amicus^ inimicus, familiaris^ are properly adjectives, and 
 as such have their degrees of comparison and are joined with the dative, as 
 in Nepos : Miltiades amicior omnium lihertati^ quam suaefuit clominationi; and 
 homo mihi amicissimus, mihi familiarissimus, are very, common expressions. 
 When used as substantives they are joined with a genitive or an adjective, 
 as amicus patris^ mei^ amicus meus; and it is owing to their character of sub- 
 stantives that even in the superlative we find amicissimtcs, familiarissimu^, ini- 
 micissimus (and on the same principle iniquissimus) meus. Cicero, in Verr. i. 
 26., uses the genitive : amicissimus nostrorum hominum. Invidus, envious, and 
 intimus, intimate, when used as adjectives, take the dative, as in Cicero : in- 
 timus erat Clodio, but as substantives they take the genitive or a possessive 
 pronoun ; e. g. ab invidis tuis, ex intimis meis, invidus laudis. Hostis^ on the 
 other hand, though a real substantive, sometimes takes a dative according to 
 the analogy ofinimicus; e. g. dis hominihusque hostis. 
 
 [§ 411.] Note 2. The dative is also joined with adjectives and adverbs de- 
 noting affinity and propinquity, as conterminu^, propinquus, vicinus, ^nitimus, 
 affinis. As prope, the preposition, governs the accusative, its degrees of com- 
 parison (§ 266.) propior and -propius, proximus and proxime, take both the 
 dative and accusative, e. g. Curt. ix. 12. : yropius tribunal accedere, and in 
 Sallust : Libyes propiv^ mare Africum agitabant, proxime Hispaniam Mauri 
 sunt. (Comp. Gronovius on Livy, xxii. 40.) Affinis, in the sense of " par- 
 taking," sometimes takes the genitive, as in Cicero : affinis hujus suspicionis.; 
 affinis rei capitalis, together with affinis Tiuic sceleri, ei turpitvdini. Vicinus 
 and vicina are both adjectives and substantives, and in the latter sense they 
 take the genitive. 
 
 The following adjectives govern both the dative and the genitive: aequalis, 
 cognominis, contrarius, communis, peculiaris, proprius, superstes. The geni- 
 tive is very frequent with proprius, e.g.'Cic.: Imprimis hominis est propria veri 
 investigatio ; Aliae nationes servitutem pati possunt, populi Romani est propria 
 libertas, especially when the neuter proprium is used as a substantive in the 
 sense of " property," or " peculiarity," e. g. Proprium est oratoris ornate 
 dicere. The same is the case with communis, as in Cic. de Fin. v. 23. : Haec 
 justitiae ita propria sunt, ut sint reliquarum virtutum communia. Hence a pos- 
 sessive pronoun is frequently joined to proprium, as ademit nobis omnia, quae 
 nostra erant propria ; both constructions are combined in Cic. p. Sulla, 3. : 
 Nulla est enim in re publica causa mea propria : tempus agendi fuit magis 
 mihi proprium, quam ceteris. Aequalis governs the genitive only in the 
 sense of " contemporary," in which it occurs also as a substantive, whence 
 mens aequvlis but the dative is not unusual in this sense. Superstes occurs 
 in Plautus andTerence with the dative, but in later writers the genitive is 
 more prevalent. Even Cicero (ad Quint. Frat. i. 3.) says : TJtinam te non 
 solum vitae, sed etiam dignitatis superstitem reliquissem, and Tacitus often 
 uses the genitive, e. g. Agr. 3. : pauci, vi ita dixerim, non modo aliorum sed 
 etiam nostri superstites sumu3. 
 
 The adjectives similis, assimilis, consimilis, dissimilis, par and dispar, take 
 the genitive, when an internal resemblance, or a resemblance in character 
 and disposition, is to be expressed. Thus we always find mei, tui, sui, nostri, 
 vestri similis; Liv. i. 20. : quia in civitate bellicosa plures Romuli, quam Numae 
 similes reges putabat fore ; iii. 64. : collaudatis consulibu^, quod perseverarent 
 
 X 2 
 

 ■^.t 
 
 308 .^ LATINMgpllf^l. V /r 
 
 a<Z ultimum dissimiles decemvirorm»f^e^^,bfC.Cat. Maj. 10.': Dux iUe Grae- 
 ciae nusquam optat^ ut Ajacis similes s^abeat decern, at ut Nestoris. And 
 Cicero may therefore say both mors somni and somwo similis. Par and- ^ 
 dispar are joined with the genitives of pronouns, like similis, e. g. Cic. in 
 Pis. 4. : Q. Metellum, cujus paucos pares haec civitas tulit ; Cat. Maj. 21.: 
 Simplex animi natura est, neque Tiahet in se quicquam admixtum dispar sui 
 Qtque dissimile. 
 
 [§ 412.] 3. Hence the dative is joined with those intransitive 
 verbs which express the same ideas as the adjectives mentioned 
 in § 409., and also with those denoting, to^command, serve, trust, 
 mistrust, approach, threaten, and to he angry. They are com- 
 prised in the following list : prosum, auxilior, adminiculor, opi- 
 tulor, patrocinor, suhvenio, succurro, medeor ; noceo, obsum, desum, 
 officio, incommodo, insulto, insidior ; faveo, placeo, gratijicor, in- 
 dulgeo, ignosco, studeo, pareo, adulor, hlandior, lenocinor, palpor, 
 assentior, assentor, respondeo ; adversor, refragor, ohsto, renitor, 
 repugno, resisto, invideo, aemulor, obtrecto, convicior, maledico ; 
 placeo, orrideo — displiceo ; impero (may be used also as a tran- 
 sitive), pareo, cedo, ausculto, ohedio, obsequor, ohtempero, mori- 
 geror (morem gero), alicui dicto audiens sum, servio, inservio, mi- 
 nistro, famulor, ancillor, praestolor ; credo (is used also in a 
 transitive sense), Jido, conjido, diffido ; immineo, propinquo, ap- 
 propinquo, impendeo, occurro ; minor, comminor (both are used 
 also in a transitive sense), irascor, stomachor, succenseo. To 
 these must be added the impersonals convenit, it suits ; conducit 
 and expedit, it is conducive, expedient ; dolet, it grieves. The 
 beginner must take especial care not to use the passive of these 
 verbs personally, to which he might easily be tempted by the 
 English equivalents ; e. g. / am envied, I am molested, I am 
 scolded, I am spared, and the like. In Latin the passive is 
 impersonal : mihi invidetur, obtrectatur, incommodatur, mihi ma~ 
 ledicitur, parcitur, Jubeo, I command, forms an exception, 
 requiring the accusative with the infinitive. 
 Probus invidet nemini, Cic. Timaeus, 3. 
 Efficit hoc philosophia : medetur animis, inanes sollicitudines 
 
 detrahit, cupiditatibus liberat, pellit timores, Cic. Tusc. ii. 4. 
 Antiochus se nee impensae, nee labori, nee periculo parsurum pol~ 
 
 licebatur, donee liberam vere Graeciam atque in ea principes 
 
 Aetolos fecisset, Liv. xxxv. 44. 
 Demosthenes ejus ipsius artis, cui studehat, primam litteram non 
 
 peter at dicere, Cic. De Or at. i. 61. 
 
• 'DiTiv^«'<5AS-E.,^ \j^ 309 
 
 [§ m.^^-Nate 1. Medicor, like medeor^ takes the dative, but also the 
 accusative. Medico^ in the sense of, " to mix substances in an artificial 
 manner," governs the accusative. JBenedico, like maledico (I speak well or ill 
 of a person, and hence, I praise or blame), governs the dative ; but benedico, 
 in this sense, is very rare : in the sense of " blessing," with the accusative, 
 it occurs only in the ecclesiastical writers. Ohtrectare alicui and alicui 
 rei, to detract, is sometimes joined with the accusative ; but not in Cicero, 
 as ohtrectare numen deorum^ libellum. Invideo is commonly used intransi- 
 tively with one dative, either of the person or the thing ; but sometimes 
 the accusative of the thing is added to the dative of the person ; e. g. Cic. 
 Tusc. iii. 2. : invident nobis optimam magistram (naturam) ; Horat. Serm. 
 i. 6. 50. : honorem mihi invidet. Quintilian (ix. 3,), however, observes that 
 his contemporaries used the ablat. instead of the accusat. of the earlier 
 writers, but only when invidere is equivalent to privare : this construction 
 first occurs in Livy, ii. 40. : non inviderunt laude sua mvlieribus Romani (ac- 
 cording to the best MSS.) ; very fi-equently in the younger Pliny, and some- 
 times in Tacitus ; e. g. Plin. Epist. ii. 10. : Quousque et tibi et nobis invidebis^ 
 tibi maxima laude, nobis voluptate f (See Corte on Epist. i. 10.) Tac. Ann. 
 1. 22. : ne Tiostes quidem sepulturd invident, scil. occisis ; German. 33. : ne spec- 
 taculo quidem proelii invidere, scil. nobis. The genitive instead of this abla- 
 tive or ancient accusative, in Horace, Serm. ii. 6. 84., neque ille sepositi 
 ciceris nee longae invidit avenae, is a mere Grecism ; and the personal 
 passive in the same poet {Ars Poet. 56.), cur ego invideor, is a gram- 
 matical innovation, which the poet tried intentionally, and as an ex- 
 ample. Respecting adUlor and aemidor with the dative and accusative 
 see § 389. Praestolor, I wait upon a person, and ausculto, I listen or obey, 
 are used by equally good authorities both with a dative and accusative, 
 though Cicero prefers the dative. Dominor, I rule, is joined with a dative 
 or genitive only in the latest Latin writers ; in the classical language it does 
 not govern any case, but according to its proper meaning, " I am master," 
 is joined with in aliquem or in aliqzia re ; e. g. dominatur in cetera animalia, 
 or in civitate. Fido and" confido take the dative ; e. g. confido mihi, causae 
 meae, virtuti constantiaeque militum; the thing which produces the confi- 
 dence is put in the ablative (ablativus causae, see § 452.) ; e. g. confido arte, 
 natura loci, celeritate navium, propinquitate castrorum, and this ablative oc- 
 curs, on the whole, more frequently than the dative. The adjective fretus, 
 which has the same meaning, occurs with the dative only in Livy, iv. 37. : 
 fortnmie fretus ; vi. 13.: nulli rei; vi. 31.: discordiae hostium, and usually has 
 the ablative. Cedo, I yield, give up, when used transitively, takes a dative of 
 the person and an accusative of the thing : cedo tibi locum, regnum, mvJierem ; 
 sometimes, however, the thing is expressed by the ablative, as cedo tibi horto- 
 rum possessione. So also concedo : concedo tibi locum, praemia, libertatem, or 
 concedo tibi loco, de victoria. Convenit aliquid mihi, something suits me ; 
 convenit mihi tecum is used impersonally in the sense of " we agree," and 
 equivalent to convenimus de aliqua re. The verbs denoting similarity or 
 dissimilarity should be construed with the dative, like the adjectives similis 
 and dissimilis, but in prose they are commonly joined with the prepositions 
 cum and ab ; e. g. congruo, consentio, abhorreo, dissideo. Comp. § 468. foil. 
 
 [§ 414.] Note 2. Several verbs have a different meaning according as they 
 take the accus. or dat. 
 Metuo and timeo te, I fear thee ; — tibi, I ain alarmed on thy account, which 
 
 is also expressed by tud causa. 
 
 X 3 
 
310 fllk. LATIN^raMMAR 
 
 Consvlo te, I consult thee ; — tibi^ I provide for thy interests. 
 
 Prospicio and provideo te, I see thee at a distance ; — tibi, I provide for thy 
 interests. 
 
 Caveo, without any case, " I am on my guard ;" — a te, against thee, and in 
 a legal sense, " I make thee give security to me for something," de aliqua 
 re. Caveo te, I avoid thee : caveo tibi, I provide or am concerned for thy 
 safety, and hence in a legal sense " I give thee security." 
 
 Tempero and moderor aliquid, I regulate or arrange a thing ; — mihi, animo, 
 irae, lacrimis (scil. meis), I set bounds to, or check. Tempero mihi db 
 aliqua re, I abstain from a thing, and tempero (scil. mihi) tibi, I am sparing 
 in regard to thee, or I spare thee, equivalent to parco tibi. 
 
 [§ 415.] 4. Verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, 
 ante, con, in, inter, oh, post, prae, sub, and super, retaining, as 
 compounds, the meaning of the prepositions, may be joined with 
 a dative instead of repeating the preposition or an equivalent 
 one with the case it requires. They are either transitives, and 
 as such have an accusative besides, or intransitives without an 
 accusative of the object. 
 
 The following are the most important transitive verbs of this 
 kind: addo, affero, affigo, adhibeo, adjicia, adjungo, admoveo, 
 alUgo, applico; circumjicio; comparo, compono, confer o, conjungo ; 
 immisceo, impono, imprimo, incido, includo, infero, ingero, injicio, 
 insero, inuro; inter jicio, inter pono ; objicio, off undo, oppono; post- 
 habeo, postpono ; praefero, praejicio, praepono; suhjicio, suppono, 
 substerno. 
 
 The following are intransitive: accedo, acquiesco, adhaereo, 
 alludo, annuo, arrepo, assideo, aspiro ; antecello ; cohaereo, col- 
 ludo, congruo, consentio, consono; excello; incido, incubo and in- 
 cumbo, indormio, inhaereo, inhio, immorior, immoror, innascor, 
 insisto; interjaceo, inter venio; obrepo, obstrepo, obversor; praemineo, 
 praesideo, praevaleo ; succumbo, supersto, supervivo, and the 
 compounds of esse: adsum, insum, intersum, praesum, subsum, 
 super sum. 
 
 Note. We must pay particular attention to the difference between 
 the dative joined with these verbs, and the dative governed by those men- 
 tioned in § 412. With the latter it is necessary and dependent upon the 
 signification of the verbs ; but with those just enumerated, it is to be re- 
 garded as a short mode of speaking, in which the dat. supplies the place of a 
 preposition with its case ; e. g. leges axibus ligneis incisae, and leges in aes 
 incisae, or Senatusconsultum in aere incisum. The beginner must further 
 observe, that we are speaking of those compounded verbs only, in which the 
 prepositions retain their meaning of place, for in some compounded with ad 
 
DATIVE CASE. 311 
 
 and CMm, this is not the case ; e.g. confugere^ to take refuge, cannot take either 
 the preposition cum or a dative, the meaning of the preposition con being 
 lost in this compound. This is still more apparent in confringere^ corrum- 
 pere^ where con (cum) only strengthens the sense of the simple verb. Af- 
 firmare and approhare may indeed be joined with a dative, but only because 
 they are transitive verbs, and not on account of the preposition they contain. 
 We have not been able above to mention aU those compound verbs, in 
 which the preposition retains its meaning, and which, instead of repeating 
 the preposition, take the dative, for their number, especially that of tran- 
 sitives, is unlimited ; we have given those only with which, comparatively 
 speaking, the dative occurs most frequently. There are some with which 
 the dative is used exclusively, and the repetition of the preposition would 
 be offensive, the reason being the signification of the verbs themselves: 
 praejicio and praepono^ e. g. might have been mentioned among the verbs 
 in § 412., being joined exclusively with the dative. But there can be no 
 fear of mistakes in these words. 
 
 [§ 416.] It must be remarked in general that in the early 
 and unpolished prose, the preposition or one equivalent to 
 it, is usually repeated; more especially in verbs compounded 
 with adf con, and in : e. g. adhibeo, confero, conjungo, com- 
 munico, comparo, imprimo, inscriho, insum, and also interest in 
 the sense of " there is a difference ; " e. g. Cicero : studium ad- 
 hihere ad disciplinas ; conferte (comparate, contendite) hanc pacem 
 cum illo hello ; hospitio et amicitia mecum conjunxi, or, cum aliquo 
 conjunctus sum; consilia sua mecum communicavit ; in omnium 
 animis dei notionem impressit ipsa natura ; in hac vita nihil inest 
 nisi miseria. The dative, however, is not to be rejected, being 
 used sometimes by Cicero, and more frequently by later writers. 
 Illacrimare, to weep over, e. g. morti Socratis, is generally 
 used with the dative only; the preposition at least is never 
 repeated. 
 
 The following verbs require some further explanation. In- 
 cumbo, I lean or press upon, and figuratively, " I apply to or 
 study a thing ; " in the former sense alone it is joined with the 
 dative, though sometimes also with the preposition super ; in its 
 figurative sense, it is construed in prose with ad, and still more 
 frequently with in with the accusative. The verbs assuescere, 
 consuescere, and insuescere, to accustom a person or one's self {se 
 however is omitted) to a thing, are sometimes construed with 
 the dative and sometimes with the ablative ; acquiescere, to ac- 
 quiesce, hkewise takes either the dative or ablative ; e. g. 
 Cic. pro Mil. 37 : Qui maxime P, Clodii morte acquierunt, but 
 
 X 4 
 
312 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 more frequently in with the ablative, in the sense of " to find 
 peace or satisfaction ; " e. g. in tuis litteris, in juvenum caritate. 
 Supersedere likewise takes the ablative, and indeed more fre- 
 quently than the dative, probably because its sense is equivalent 
 to ahstinere ; e. g. supersedere labor e itineris. 
 
 It is not difficult to determine which prepositions may be 
 used for others, in case of repetition being necessary, for it 
 always depends upon the sense : in is used for ad : e. g. «f- 
 cedere in oppidum, aspirare in curiam ; ah for ex ; e. g. eripere ex 
 miseriis and a miseria ; ad for in ; e. g. incumhere ad studia ; in, 
 ad, ante, and contra for ob ; e. g. aliquid obrepit in animum, ob- 
 repere ad honores, obversari ante oculos, vallum objicere contra 
 impetum hostium ; ad and ante for pro ; e. g. procumbere ante 
 pedes, ad genua. 
 
 [§ 417.] The compounds of verbs of motion are construed 
 with both cases, either the dative or the accusative, and some 
 compounds of jacere, stare and seder e, follow their analogy. 
 (See § 386.) Hence the verbs of excelling, if their simple verbs 
 denote motion, are construed chiefly with the accusative, and 
 antecello, praecello and praemineo, which at least admit the accu- 
 sative, follow their example. (See § 386.) The following must be 
 noticed separately on account of their twofold construction : — 
 allatro, I bark at, address in a coarse manner ; attendo, I attend 
 to (the same as animum attendo ad aliquid or ad aliquem) ; 
 obumbro, I overshadow, — all these occur most frequently with 
 the accusative, whence they have a personal passive ; but illudo, 
 I ridicule, is found with the dative as often as with the accusa- 
 tive ; e. g. illudo memoriae, existimationi alicujus, signis et aquilis 
 Rornanis, and praecepta rhetorum, corpus Vari. Despero, I de- 
 spair of a thing, is used as an intransitive verb with de or with 
 the dative ; e. g. des'perat de re publica, sibi, fortunis suis ; as a 
 transitive verb (I give up) it takes the accusative ; e. g. despero 
 rem publicam, pacem, 
 
 Praeverto, in the transitive sense of '^ I prefer," takes an ac- 
 cusative of the object and a dative, instead of which however 
 the preposition 'prae may be repeated; e. g. uxorem praeverto 
 prae republica or reipublicae ; in the intransitive sense of " I go 
 before," " precede," or " anticipate," it may take either the ac- 
 cusative or dative, praeverto te, fata, pietas praevertit amori ; in 
 
DATIVE CASE. 313 
 
 a reflective sense, praeverto, soil, me, or praevertoTi it takes either 
 the preposition ad or the dative, praeverto ad interna, praeverto 
 rei mandata£. The deponent again takes the meaning of " I 
 prefer," aliquam rem alicui rei, Liv. viii. 13. : consules coacti 
 omnibus earn rem praeverti. 
 
 [§ 418.] 5. The verbs aspergo and inspergo, circumdo and cir- 
 cumfundo, dono and impertio, exuo and induo are used, like the 
 above-mentioned transitives, with an accusative of the thing 
 and a dative of the person, or with an accusative of the person 
 and an ablative of the thing ; e. g. circumdo alicui custodias, or 
 circumdo aliquem custodiis, and consequently in the passive 
 voice custodiae tibi circumdantur or (tu) circumdaris custodiis. 
 So also : maculas aspergo vitae tuae, or maculis vitam tuam as- 
 pergo ; dono tibi pecuniam, or pecunid te dono; impertio tibi 
 laudes, or laudibv^ te impertio, &c. We find exuo tibi clipeum, 
 induit sibi torquem, or still more frequently exuo and induo 
 vestem, the dative expressing my own person being omitted. 
 JSxuo te aliqua re occurs only in the figurative sense of " I rob 
 thee of a thing." Induo, I betake myself into some place, is 
 commonly joined with the preposition in or with a dative. In- 
 tercludo, I cut off, alicui aliquid, e. g. hostibus fugam, or as a 
 verb implying distance, aliquem aliqua re and ab aliqua re, e. g. 
 milites itinere, or ab exercitu. Interdico tibi aliquid, I forbid 
 thee something ; the construction interdico te aliqua re does not 
 occur, but a mixture of both interdico tibi aliqua re (e. g. in the 
 Roman form of outlawry aqua et igni), I forbid thee the use of 
 a thinor. The double construction of mactare does not beloncr to 
 this place, as it arises from two different meanings of the word : 
 the original one ** to honour," requires the accusative and abla- 
 tive ; e. g. Cic. in Vdtin. 6. : puerorum extis deos manes mactare 
 soles; the derivative meaning "to slaughter" is the ordinary 
 one, victimas diis mactare. 
 
 [§ 419.] 6. With passive verbs the dative is sometimes used 
 alone, instead of ab with the ablative. 
 Quidquid in hac causa mihi susceptum est, Quirites, id omne me 
 
 rei publicae causa suscepisse confirmo, Cic. p. Leg, Man. 24. 
 Barbarus hie ego sum, quia non intelligor ulli, Ovid, Trist. 
 
 Note. It is a rule of the Latin language to join the dative instead of ab 
 with the ablat. to the participle future passive ; e. g. moriendum mihi est. 
 See § 649. K this were not the case, we shoidd consider the dative with 
 passive verbs as a Grecism, for it rarely occurs in the earlier Latin prose 
 
314 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (especially in Cicero and Caesar), and with the exception of a few instances, 
 is confined to the participle perfect passive and the tenses formed from it. In 
 poetry and the later prose writers instances like the above quotation from 
 Ovid are extremely numerous, as poets, in general, were fond of introducing 
 Greek constructions. The following passages are the only ones in which Cicero 
 adopted the practice : de Invent, i. 46. : ilia nobis alio tempore explicabuntur ; 
 in Verr. iii. 16. : tihi consulatus quaerebatur; de Nat. Deor. ii. 48. : sic dissimil- 
 limis bestiolis communiter cibus quaeritur; de Ojff. iii. 9. : honesta bonis viris, 
 non occulta quaeruntur; Cat. Maj. 11. : semper in his studiis laboribusque viventi 
 nan intelligitur, quando obrepat senectus; ad Att. i. 16. : in ea praesertim epis- 
 tola, quam nolo aliis legi, probably for ab aliis. I doubt whether there are 
 any other passages in Cicero, for the phrase mihi probatur is of a different 
 kind, since probo tibi is of quite common occurrence in the sense of " I make 
 a thing plausible to thee." 
 
 [§ 420.] 7. Esse with the dative of a person expresses the 
 English " to have," e. g. sunt mihi multi libri, I have many- 
 books, the same as haheo multos libros. 
 Homini cum deo similitudo est, Cic. de Leg, i. 8. 
 An nescis, longas regihus esse manus ? Ovid, Heroid. 17. 
 
 Note. "We must here notice a Grecism which occurs in Sallust and Tacitus : 
 aliquidmihi volenti est^ I like a thing. Sallust, Jug. 84. -..quia neque plebi 
 militia volenti (esse) putabatur; Tacit. Agr. 18. : quibus bellum volentibus erat; 
 Ann. i. 59. : ut quibusque bellum invitis aut cupientibus erat, as in Greek tovto 
 fioi l3ovXofisv(i) Igt'iv. Comp. Tac. Hist. iii. 43. ; Ann. xv. 36. Abest and deest 
 mihi, as opposed to est mihi, therefore means " I have not," as in Cic. Brut. 
 80. : Hoc unum illi, si nihil utilitatis habebat, abfuit, si opus erat, defuit; de 
 Leg. i. 2. : abest enim historia litteris nostris. 
 
 [§ 421.] Hence mihi est nomen or cognomen (also cognomentwn, 
 and in Tacitus vocahulum) signifies " I have a name," that is, 
 " my name is" or *^ I am called." The name itself is put either 
 in the nominative or the dative, being attracted by the dative 
 of 'the person. 
 Syracusis est fons aquae dulcis, cui nomen Arethusa est, Cic. in 
 
 Verr. iv. 53. 
 Consules leges decemvirales, quibus tabulis duodecim est nomen, in 
 
 aes incisas, in publico proposuerunt, Liv. iii. 57. 
 
 Note. The same is the case with the (passive) expressions datum, inditum, 
 factum est nomen; e. g. I'arquiniv^, cui cognomen Superbo ex morilms datum. 
 The name itself is commonly put in the dative also with the active verbs 
 dare, addere, indere, dicer e, ponere, imponere, tribuere alicui nomen; e. g. dare 
 alicui cognomen tarda ac pingui; desipiunt omnes aeque ac tu, qui tihi nomen 
 insano posuere, Horat. ; but it may also be put in the same case as nomen, 
 that is, in the accus., as in Livy : stirps virilis, cui Ascanium parentes dixere 
 nomen, and in the edict of the censors in Suetonius, de Clar. Rhet. 1 . : eos 
 sihi nomen imposuisse Latinos rhetores. The nominative in Ovid, Met. i. 
 
DATIVE CASE. 315 
 
 169. : (via) lactea nomen habet, and xv. 96. : (aetas) cuifecimus aurea nomen, 
 is a purely poetical licence, where the names are taken, ungrammatically, as 
 mere sounds. 
 
 The name may be expressed also by the genitive, according to the general 
 rule that of two substantives joined to each other, one is put in the geni- 
 tive ; e. g. Plant. Amphitr. Prol. 19. : nomen Mercurii est mihi; in prose, 
 Veil. Pat. i. 11. : Q. Metellus praetor, cui ex virtute Macedonici nomen inditum 
 erat; and ii. 11. : Q. Metello meritum virtute cognomen Numidici inditum est. 
 But this is not the ordinary practice in the case of real proper names, and 
 the dative must be regarded as the proper Latin case. See Ruhnken on 
 Veil. Pat. ii. 11. 
 
 [§ 422.] 8. With the verbs esse, dare, mittere and venire, and 
 others of the same meaning, besides the dative of the person, 
 another is used to express the purpose, intention, and desti- 
 nation. 
 
 Dare belongs to this class both in its sense of *^ to give," and 
 in that of " to put to one's account." The following verbs have 
 a similar meaning : apponere, ducere, habere, tribuere and vertere. 
 Esse, in this respect, is equivalent to the English ^^ to do," in 
 ^' it does him honour," and the passives Jieri, dart, dud, haberi, 
 tribui, verti, have a similar meaning. Prqficisci is sometimes 
 construed like venire. 
 
 Virtutes hominibus decori gloriaeque sunt, Seneca. 
 Attains, Asiae rex, regnum suum Romanis dono dedit, 
 Mille Plataeenses Atheniensibus adversus Persas auxilio vene" 
 
 runt. 
 Quid in Graeco sermone tarn tritum atque celebratum est, quam 
 
 si quis despicatui ducitur, ut Mysorum ultimus esse dicatur ? 
 
 Cic. p. Place. 27. 
 
 Note. There is a great variety of datives of this kind ; e. g. dono aliquid 
 muneri, praemio; relinquo milites auxilio, subsidio, praesidio, custodiae; tri- 
 buitur or datur mihi vitio, crimini, odio, probro, opprobrio, laudi, saluti, uti- 
 litati, emolumento, &c. The phrase cui bonofuitf signifies " to whom was it 
 an advantage ? We must especially notice such datives as esui, usui, quaestuij 
 derisui, cordi, curae aliquid est, and also canere receptui, to sound a retreat ; 
 doti dico, I set aside as a dowry ; appono pignori, I pawn. Instead of hoc 
 argumento est, we may also say hoc argumentum, documentum, indicium est; and 
 with dare and similar verbs we may also use the accusative in apposition; 
 e. g. Liv. ii. 22. : Latini coronam auream Jovi donum in Capitolium mittunt. 
 Sometimes also the prepositions in or ad may be used ; e. g. reliquit ibi 
 exercitum ad praesidium, gloriam mihi in crimen vertis. 
 
316 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAP. LXXIIL 
 
 GENITIVE CASE. 
 
 [§ 423.] 1. When two substantives are united with each other 
 so as to form the expression of one idea, one of them is in the 
 genitive ; but if one of the substantives serves to explain or de- 
 fine the other, they are said to be in apposition to each other, 
 and both are in the same case. This genitive, dependent upon 
 a substantive, is in Latin of a double kind, according as it ex- 
 presses either the subject or the object. The genitive is subjec- 
 tive, when it denotes that which does something or to which a 
 thing belongs ; e. g. hominum facta, liber pueri : it is objective 
 when it denotes that which is affected by the action or feeling 
 spoken of. 
 
 This objective genitive is used very extensively in Latin, for 
 it is not only joined with those substantives which are derived 
 from verbs governing the accusative — e. g. expupiatio urbis, 
 the taking of the town ; indagatio veri, the investigation of 
 truth ; scientia linguae, the knowledge of a language ; amor pa- 
 triae, the love of one's country ; cupiditas pecuniae, desire for 
 money ; cura rerum alienarum, care of other men's affairs ; 
 odium hominum, hatred against men — but wuth those also, the 
 corresponding verb of which requires either a different case, or 
 a preposition ; e. g. taedium laboris, disgust for work ; Jiducia 
 virium suarum, confidence in his own strength ; contentio ho^ 
 norum, a contest for honours; incitamentum periculorum, cog^ 
 nitio orbis terrarum omniumque gentium, &c. 
 Nuper Gn. Domitium scimus M. Silano, consulari homini, diem 
 
 dixisse propter unius hominis, Aegritomari, paterni amici atque 
 
 hospitis, injurias, Cic. Divin. 20. 
 Est autem amicitia nihil aliud, nisi omnium divinarum humana- 
 
 rumque rerum cum benivolentia et caritate summa consensio, 
 
 Cic. Lael. 6. 
 Initium et causa belli (civilis) inexplebilis honorum Marii fames, 
 
 Flor. iii. 21. 
 
GENITIVE CASE. 317 
 
 Note 1. Something analogous to the Latin subjective and objective geni- 
 tive occurs in English in such expressions as " God's love," that is, the love 
 which God shows to men, and the " love of God," that is, the love which 
 men bear to God. The Latin language having no such means of distin- 
 guishing, is frequently ambiguous ; e. g. fuga hominum may be either " the 
 escape from men," or " the flight" or " escape of men," and in all such com- 
 binations as metus hostium, injuria mulierum, judicium Verris, triumphus 
 Bojorum, opinio deorum, the genitive may be either subjective (active) or 
 objective (passive), but the context generally shows what is meant, as in sine 
 metu hostium esse, magnus incesserat timor sagittamm, ex injuria mulietnim 
 Sabinarum helium ortum est; Empedocles in deorum opinione turpissime lahitur, 
 Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 12. But in case of any real ambiguity, a preposition 
 may be used in Latin instead of the genitive ; e. g. ex injuria in or adversMS 
 mvlieres, in opinione de diis. This is the case especially with substantives 
 denoting a disposition, either friendly or hostile towards any thing ; e. g. 
 amor (animus) mev^ erga te, odium (ird) adversu^ Cartfiaginienses, helium in 
 Romanos, conspiratio contra dignitatem tuam; triumphus de Gallis, judicium de 
 te meum, liber de philosophia, in libro quinto de natura deorum. In general, 
 however, a preposition is much more rarely used in joining two substantives, 
 and it is a part of the conciseness of the Latin language to express the rela- 
 tion of the genitive, if possible, by the genitive itself. This however is im- 
 possible, for instance, when a place whence ? or whither ? is mentioned ; e. g. 
 trammissus (the passage) ex Gallia in Britanniam, reditus in coelum, iter ex 
 Italia in Macedoniam. Sometimes the two kinds of construction are com- 
 bined : Cic. de Off. i. 28. : Adhihenda est igitur quaedam reverentia adversus 
 homines et optimi cujusque et reliquorum. (See our note on this passage.) 
 Sometimes even a subjective and an objective genitive are found by the side 
 of each other, as in Cic. de Off. i. 14. : L. Sullae et G. Caesaris pecuniaruni 
 translatio a justis dominis ad alienos non debet liberalis videri; ad Fam. x. 3 : 
 orbitas reipublicae talium virorum; in Verr. v. 50. : nihil est quod multorum 
 naufragia fortunae colligas; Caes. Bell. Gall. i. 30. : pro veteribus Helvetia- 
 rum injuriis populi Romani; i. e. which the Helvetians had done to the 
 Roman people. Comp. ISynt. omat. § 791. 
 
 [§ 424.] Note 2. As a personal pronoun supplies the place of a substantive, 
 its genitive generally with an objective meaning may be joined with a substan- 
 tive ; e. g. vestri causam gero, I take care of you ; misericordiam nostri habe^ 
 have pity upon us, — especially with verbal substantives ending in or, iar, and 
 io ; e. g. Cicero : misitfilium non solum sui deprecatorem, sed etiam accusaiorem 
 mei ; nimia aestimatio sui ; valet ad commendationem tui ; milites ad deditionem 
 sui incitare ; rationem et sui et aliorum habere. The place of the subjective 
 genitive of personal pronouns is supplied by the possessive pronouns, whence 
 we do not say liber mei, but liber mens. Sometimes, however, the genitive of 
 personal pronouns has a subjective meaning, as in Curtius, iv. 45. : ad Cyrum 
 nobilissimum regem originem sui referens, and vi. 32. : conspectus vestri vene- 
 rabilis (see the comment, on Caes. Bell. Gall. i. 4.) ; and sometimes, on the 
 other hand, a possessive pronoun not unfrequently takes the place of an ob- 
 jective genitive, and that not only when joined with verbal substantives in 
 or and ix, e. g. ipse suus fuit accusator, terra altrix nostra, but in other cases 
 also, as invidia tua, envy of thee ; fiducia tua, confidence in thee ; familiaritas 
 tua; friendship for thee ; spes mea, the hope placed in me (Taxi. Ann. ii. 71.); 
 amori nostra plusculum largiare, from love towards us ; noluit rationem habere 
 mam^ that notice was taken of him ; won sua solum ratio habevda est^ sed etiam 
 
318 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 aliorum, Cic. de Off, i. 39. This is especially frequent in connection with the 
 substantive injuriae^ e. g. injurias meas, tuas, persequor, ulciscor^ that is, the 
 wrong done to me, thee. The peculiar expressions med^ tud, sud, nostra^ 
 vestrd, causa, for my, thy, his, &c., sake, must be especially noticed, for the 
 genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are never used in this connection with 
 causa. Sometimes the genitive of the person implied in such an adjective 
 pronoun is added, as in : tuum hominis simplicis pectus vidimus ; juravi rem- 
 publicam mea unius opera esse salvam; tot homines med solius solliciti sunt 
 causd; ad tuam ipsius amicitiam aditum habuit; vestra ipsorum causd hoc feci. 
 The genitive of a participle in this connection occurs only in poetry, as in 
 Horat. Serm. i. 4. 23. : quum mea nemo scripta legat, vulgo recitare timentis. 
 See Heindorfs note on this passage. 
 
 [§ 425.] Note 3. The immediate connection between two substantives, which 
 is expressed by the genitive of the substantive dependent upon the other, is 
 entirely diflferent from the juxtaposition of two substantives in apposition to 
 each other. But there are cases where the construction of the genitive is 
 preferred, although the substantives are in reality in apposition. This is the 
 case especially with vox, nomen, verhum, and similar words to which the name 
 itself is joined in the genitive ; e. g. Cic. de Fin. ii. 2. : JEpicurus non intelligit, 
 quid sonet haec vox voluptatis, that is, this word pleasure ; ii. 24 : ex amore 
 nomen amicitiae ductum est, i. e. the word amicitia i Sueton. Aug. 53. : domini 
 appellationem semper exhorruit. This is regularly done, when the genus is 
 defined by the species, as in arhor jici, a fig tree ; flos violae, a violet ; virtus 
 continentiae, the virtue of abstinence ; vitium ignorantiae, the defect called igno- 
 rance ; /a/wiYta Scipionum, the family of the Scipios — and also in geographical 
 names, as oppidum Antiochiae, promontorium Miseni, in which case however 
 it is more usual to put the name in apposition in the same case as the generic 
 term. There are some other cases in which one substantive intended as an 
 explanation of another is put in the genitive, instead of the case of the word to 
 be explained {genitivus epexegeticus) ; e. g. Curt. viii. 35. : Nocturnum frigus 
 vehementius quam alias horrore corpora affecit, opportunumque remedium ignis 
 ohlatum est, i. e. a convenient remedy, viz. fire. Cicero frequently uses genus 
 and cau^a in the same way ; e. g. in Cat. ii. 8. : unum genus est eorum qui — ; 
 de Leg. Agr. ii. 14. : DvMe sunt hujus obscuritatis causae, una pudoris, altera 
 sceleris, the one is shame and the other malice ; Philip, i. 11. : nee eritjustior 
 in senatum non veniendi causa morbi, quam mortis; in Verr. iv. 51. : omnia 
 propter earn causam sceleris istius evenire videntur, for this reason, viz. his 
 crime. Comp. de Off. ii. 5. : collectis causis eluvionis, pestilentiae. Sec, the 
 other causes, inundation, plague, &c. The genitive of, gerunds is used in the 
 same way as that of substantives ; e. g. Cic. Tusc. i. 36. : Triste est nomen 
 ipsum carendi, the very word to want is sad ; Senec. ad Polyb. 29. : Est 
 magna felicitas in ipsa felicitate moriendi. In such cases the construction of 
 apposition is very unusual in Latin ; see however § 598. 
 Q. Metellus Macedonicus, quum sex liberos relinqueret, undecim nepotes reliquit^ 
 
 nurus vero generosque et omnes, qui se patris appellatione salutarent, viginti 
 
 septem, Plin. Hist. Nat. vii. 11. 
 
 [§ 426.] 2. The genitive in the immediate connection of two 
 substantives also expresses the external condition or the internal 
 nature of a thing ; and if any of the tenses of esse, fieri, haheri, 
 appears in such a combination, the genitive is not dependent 
 
GENITIVE CASE. 319 
 
 upon these verbs, but must rather be explained by the omission 
 of a substantive as homo and res. This at the same time con- 
 stitutes the diflference between the genitive of quality {genitivus 
 qualitatis) and the ablative of quality with the verb esse. But as 
 there is a special part of speech to express qualities, viz. the ad- 
 jective, the quality can be expressed by a substantive only when 
 this substantive itself is qualified by an adjective. We cannot 
 say, for axample, homo ingenii, a man of talent (which is ex- 
 pressed by homo ingeniosus)^ but we may say homo magni, summi, 
 excellentis ingeniL Again, we cannot say homo annorum, but 
 we may say homo viginti or quadraginta annorum. We must 
 notice also the genitive modi which joined with a pronoun sup- 
 plies the place of a pronoun of quality ; e. g. cujusmodi libri, 
 the same as quales libri, what kind of books ; hujusmodi libri, 
 that is, tales lihri, such books. The genitive '^ewem, which is 
 used in the same sense, is less frequent. 
 Athenienses belli duos duces deligunt, Periclem, spectatae virtutis 
 
 virum, et Sophoclem, scriptorem tragoediarum, Justin, iii. 6. 
 Titus facilitatis tantae fuit et liber alitatis, ut nemini quidquam 
 
 negaret, Eutrop. vii. 21. 
 Hamilcar secum in Hispaniam duxitjilium Hannibalem annorum 
 
 novem, Nep. Ham. 3. 
 Spes unica populi Romani, L. Quinctius, trans Tiberim quattuor 
 jugerum colebat agrum, Liv. iii. 26. 
 
 [§ 427.] Note. The genitive thus serves to express all the attributes of a 
 person or thing, relating to its extent, number, weight, duration, age, and the 
 like, provided such attributes are expressed by the immediate connection of 
 substantives. Thus we say c'olossus centum viginti pedum, a colossus of 120 feet 
 in height ; fossa quindecim pedum, a ditch of 15 feet (in length or breadth); 
 corona parvi ponderis, a crown of little weight ; Aristides exilio decern annorum 
 mtdtatus est; frumentum dierum triginta in urbe erat; classis centum navium ; or 
 with esse, which however has no influence upon the construction, although we 
 sometimes translate it by " consist of," e. g. classis Persarum mille et ducentarum 
 navium longarum fuit, consisted of 1200 ships of war. With the genitive of 
 extent or measure, we may connect the ablatives which we express in Eno-h'sh 
 by "with regard to," as longitudine,latitudine,crassitudine, altitudine, or in longi- 
 tudinem, &c. ; e.g. duo actus jugerum efficiuntlongitudine pedum CC XL, lati- 
 tudine pedum CXX ; Inter Mosam Rhenumque trium ac viginti milium spatio 
 fossam perduxit, Tac. Ann. xi. 20. ; but the genitive does not depend upon ' 
 these words. 
 
 The fact of this genitive of condition or quality being limited to the im- 
 mediate connection of two substantives, must be strongly impressed upon the 
 mind of the beginner, in order that he may distinguish from it the accusative 
 denoting extent of space and time, which is joined to verbs and adjectives, 
 and the ablative of quality, which is governed by esse, or praeditus, instructus, 
 
320 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ornatus. For, without the influence of any other part of speech, we say : 
 fossa quindecim pedum ; but when the adjective longus or latus is added, we 
 must s&y fossa quindecim pedes lata ; in like manner jower decem annorum, but 
 puer decem annos natus. (§ 395. foil.) When the ablative of quality is closely 
 joined with another substantive, praeditus or the participle of esse being 
 understood, as in eximia forma pueri, this expression is quite the same as pueri 
 eximiae formxie in meaning, but by no means in reference to the grammatical 
 construction of the words. 
 
 [§ 428.] Lastly, we must notice some peculiar expressions, in which the 
 accusative is used adverbially instead of the genitive of quality : Secus (see 
 above §§ 84. and 89.) joined to virile or muliebre signifies " of the male " or 
 " female sex," and is equivalent to sexUs virilis ; e. g. Liv. xxvi. 47. : libe- 
 rorum capitum virile secus ad X milia capta. Genus, joined with a pronoun, 
 as hoc, id, illud, quod, or with omne, is used for Jiujus, ejus, omnis generis ; 
 e.g. C\c. ad Att. xiii. 12.: orationes aut aliquid id genus scrihere; Horat. 
 Serm. ii. 6. 44. : concredere nugas hoc genus ; it is more curious in connection 
 with other cases, as Yarro, de i. L, x. in fin. : in verbis id genus, quae non 
 declinantur; de R.R.'Ai. 5. : porticu^ avibus omne genus appletae ; Sueton. 
 Tit. 7. : uno die quinque milia omne genus ferarum dedit, for ferarum omnis 
 generis. Pondo (see § 87.), joined quite as an indeclinable word to the 
 accusatives libram and libras, instead of the genitive, occurs frequently in 
 Livy ; e. g. iv. 20. : Dictator coronam auream libram pondo in Capitolio 
 Jovi donum posuit : and in the plural, xxvi. 47. : Paterae aureae fuerunt 
 CCLXXVI. libras ferme omnes pondo. 
 
 [§ 429.] 3. The genitive is used to express the whole, of 
 which anything is a part, or to which it belongs as a part. This 
 is the case : a) with substantives denoting a certain measure of 
 things of the same kind ; e. g. modius, medimnum tritici, libra 
 f arris, magna vis auri, ugerum agri, ala equitum. This geni- 
 tive may be termed genitivus generis, b) With all words which 
 denote a part of a whole (genitivus partitivus) where we often 
 use the preposition, " of or " among." All comparatives and 
 superlatives belong to this class ; e. g. doctior horum {duorwm) 
 juvenum ; doctissimus omnium ; eloquentissimus Bomanorum, fe- 
 rocissimi exulum, and also all words implying a number, whether 
 they are real numerals, or pronouns and adjectives, as quis, ali- 
 quis, quidam, uter, alter, neuter, alteruter, uterque, utervis, aliquot, 
 solus, nullus, nonnulli, multi,pauci; or substantives, as nemo, pars, 
 numerus. The genitive belonging to the superlative of adjec- 
 tives is retained also with superlatives as adverbs. Thus we 
 say optimus omnium est, and also optime omnium vixit, 
 Graecorum oratorum praestantissimi sunt ii, qui fuerunt Athenis, 
 
 eorum autem princeps facile Demosthenes, Cic. de Opt. Gen. 
 
 Orat. 4. 
 Populus Romanus legem dedit, ut considum utique alter ex plebe 
 
 crearetur, Liv. vi. 35. 
 
GENITIVE CASE. 321 
 
 "Duo sunt aditus in Ciliciam ex Syria, quorum uterque parvis 
 praesidiis propter angustias intei^cludi potest, Cic. ad Fam, 
 XV. 4. 
 
 [§ 430.] Note 1. The poets use the genitive also with other adjectives - 
 (in the positive), but this seldom occurs in prose. Livy frequently has the 
 expressions delecti equitum^ expediti mUitum; in Sallust (Cat 53.) we find 
 effoeta parentum^ and in Veil. Pat. ii. 8. : veteres Romanorum ducum. (See 
 the remarks of Corte and Euhnken on these passages.) The genitive, how- 
 ever, always denotes the whole, from which a part is taken. When, there- 
 fore, the above-mentioned adjectives are used in the same number and 
 case as the substantive denoting the whole, the case is different, although 
 the diflference in meaning is sometimes very slight ; e. g. multi, aliquot, 
 pauci militum and milites ; Varro doctissirmis fuit Romanorum and doctis- 
 simus Romunus; alter consttlum and alter consul. Uterque^ however, can- 
 not, like the English "both," be joined to a pronoun in the same case, 
 except when a substantive is added ; thus, " both these " or " these two " 
 cannot be translated into Latin by hie (or ille, qid) uterque, but we must say 
 horum, illorum, quorum uterque, whereas uterque f rater and quod utrumque 
 exemptam are quite common expressions. 
 
 The genitive, however, cannot be used, when the numeral contains the 
 same number of things as that of which the whole consists, that is, when there 
 is no relation of a part to a whole. We make this remark only because we 
 use the preposition " of" (the equivalent to the genitive), when we are not 
 speaking of a greater whole, but of an equal one. We say, for example : 
 " the people who served under Frederic the Great, and of whom few are 
 surviving," but in Latin we cannot say qujorum admodum pauci supersunt, but 
 qui pauci supersiM, for these few are all. Cic. Philip, ii. 6. : Venicmus ad 
 vivos, qui duo de consularium numero supersunt ; Liv. i. 55. : Tarquinius 
 sacella exaugurare statuit, quae aliqujot ibi a Tatio rege consecrata fuerant; 
 QuintiL v. 10. 63. : (Quaeritur) quot sint species rerum puhlicamm: quas 
 ires accepimus, quae populi, quae pau/;orum, quae uniu^ potestate regerentur. 
 
 Instead of the genitive we may also use the prepositions ex and inter, and 
 sometimes de, but never ah. (Compare the passages quoted in Chap. LXV.) 
 
 [§ 431.] Note 2. The words uter, alter, neuter, differ from quis, alius, nidlu^, 
 by their referring to a whole consisting of only two. (See § 14L) The dif- 
 ference betiyeen nostri, vestri, and nostrum, vestrum is this : the forms ending 
 in um are used as partitive genitives ; e. g. uterque nostrum, nostrum cujusqu£ 
 vita ; nemo vestrum ignorat ; imperium summum Romae liahehit ; qui vestrum 
 primus osculum matri tulerit ; but nostri melior pars animus est, miserere nostri, 
 immemor nostri, amor nostri, odium vestri, vestri similes. Vestrum, however, 
 occurs also without any partitive meaning ; e. g. frequentia vestrum ^incre- 
 dibilis, Cic. in Rull. ii. 2L, and Philip, iv. L ; comp. p. Plane. 6.; quis erit tarn 
 cupidus vestrum, Cic. iw Ferr. ill. 96.; vestrum quoque non sum securus, Liv. 
 xxxix. 16. The forms nostrum, vestrum, moreover, are always used when 
 joined with omnium, even when the genitive is a subjective one ; e. g. Cic. 
 de Orat. iii. 55. : Voluntati vestrum omnium parui; in Cat. i. 7. : patria quae 
 communis est omnium npstrum. par&ns. 
 
 [§ 432.] 4. The neuters of pronouns and of some adjectiyes 
 used as pronouns, ar^ joined with a genitive for two reasons : 
 
322 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 first, because in meaning they have become substantives, and 
 secondly, because they express a part of a whole. Such neuters 
 are: — hoc, id, illud, istud, idem, quid and quod with their com- 
 pounds (aliquid, quidquid, quippiam, quidquam, quodcunque), 
 aliud ; tantum, quantum, aliquantum, multum, plus, plurimumy 
 minus, minimum, paulum and nimium with their diminutives and 
 compounds ; tantulum, tantundem, quantulum, quantulumcunque, 
 &c. To these we must add nihil, nothing, which is always 
 used as a substantive; and the adverbs satis, enough; parum, 
 too little ; abunde, offdtim, and sometimes largiter, abundantly, 
 — when they are used as substantives. 
 
 It is however to be observed that these neuters are used as 
 substantives only in the nominative and accusative, and that 
 they must not be dependent upon prepositions. 
 Quantum incrementi Nilus capit, tantum spei in annum est, 
 
 Senec. Nat, Quaest. iv. 6. 
 Potest quidquam esse ahsurdius, quam, quo minus viae restat, 
 
 tanto plus viatici quaerere, Cic. Cat, Maj. 18. 
 Procellae quanio plus habent virium, tanto minus temporis, Senec. 
 
 Nat. Quaest. vii. 9. 
 Pythagoras, quum in geometria quiddam novi invenisset, Musis 
 
 bovem immolasse dicitur, Cic. de Nat. Deor. iii. 36. 
 Justitia nihil expetit praemii, nihil pretii, Cic. de Leg. i. 18. 
 Satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum (in Catilina fuit), Sallust. 
 
 [§433.] Note 1. The genitive joined with these neuters is often not a 
 real substantive, but the neuter of an adjective, which is used as a substan- 
 tive, as above quiddam novi. It must be observed here, that only adjectives 
 of the second declension (in um) can be treated as substantives, and not 
 those of the third in e, nor the comparatives in us. We may therefore say 
 aliquid novum and aliquid novi, but only aliquid memorabile, and gravius 
 aliquid. Aliquid memorahilis cannot be used, except, perhaps, in connection 
 with neuters of the second declension ; e. g. aliquid novi ac memorahilis tihi 
 narraho (as in Livy, v. 3. : si quidquam in vohis non dico civilis sed humani 
 esset) ; but even in this case it is preferable to say aliquid novum ac memora- 
 hile, as in Seneca : vide ne ista lectio multorum auctorum Tiaheat aliquid vagum 
 et instahile. It must further be remarked, that when there is any case 
 dependent upon the neuter adjective, the latter can scarcely be put in the 
 genitive, and we must say : nihil expectatione vestra dignum dico, as Cicero 
 {de Oral. i. 31.) does. 
 
 [§ 434.] Note 2. The adverbs of place, libi, uhique, uhicunque, usquam, 
 nusquam Qonge'), unde, hie, hue, eo, eodem, quo, quocunque, quoquo, aliquo are 
 joined with the genitives gentium, terrarum, loci, locorum, and by the addition 
 of such a genitive their meaning is strengthened; e.g. uhinam gentium 
 sumu^f abes longe gentium ; aliquo terrarum migrandum est ; ubi terrarum es ? 
 The expressions hoc loci, quo loci sum, res eodem est loci, quo tu reliquisii, in 
 
^ V^ or THB 
 
 GENITIVE CASE. >^ ^^^ 
 
 Cicero and other writers are equivalent to quo^ eodem loco, and the ablatives 
 quo, eodem, are used as if loco were to follow. The adverbs* Awe, eo, qvo, when 
 used figuratively to express a degree, are joined also with other genitives ; 
 e,g. hitc arrogantiae venerat, to this degree or pitch of arrogance ; eo inso- 
 lentiae furorisque processit; scire videmini quo amevtiae progressi sitis. In 
 the phrase minim^ gentium, by no means, the genitive merely strengthens 
 the meaning of minime. 
 
 In the following expressions denoting time the genitive appears to be 
 quite superfluous : postea loci, afterwards ; ad id locorum, up to this point ; 
 in Sallust and Livy : interea loci, in the meantime ; and adhuc locorum, 
 until now, in the comic writers ; turn temporis, at that time, occurs in late 
 writers and should not be imitated. In the phrase quantum or quoad ejus 
 facere possum, or in the passive form, fieri potest, the ejus refers to the pre- 
 ceding sentence, " as much of it," or " as far as this is possible." 
 
 [§ 435.] 5. Poets and prose writers later than Cicero use the 
 neuters of adjectives in general, both in the singular and plural, 
 as substantives, and join them with a genitive, e. g. Curtius : 
 reliquum noctis acquievit, he slept the remainder of the night ; 
 Livy : exiguum campi ante castra erat, for which Cicero would 
 have said exiguus campus ; in ultima Celtiberiae penetrare, summa 
 tectorum ohtinere, instead of in ultimam Celtiberiam penetrare, 
 and summa tecta obtinere. 
 
 Note. So also vltimum inopiae is equivalent to ultim/x inopia; medium or eX' 
 tremum anni, aetatis, for which media aetas is the ordinary expression ; extrema 
 agminis, infimxi dim ; saeva ventorum, opportuna locorum, avia itinerum, tacita 
 suspicionum ; and with a preposition : in immen^um altitudinis dejecit, for in 
 immensam altitudinem; ad ultimum vitas perseverare, in ultima Orientis re- 
 legare, cum pretiosissimis rerum fugere, where the ablat. must not be taken 
 for a feminine, although the expression is used for cum pretiosissimis rebus. 
 Ad multiim diei or noctis is a peculiar phrase of the same kind, for a neuter 
 like mvltum may indeed be joined with a genitive, but not with a prepo- 
 sition ; hence the ordinary construction is in multam noctem scribere. Very 
 frequently there is a peculiar meaning in such a neuter plural : incerta, 
 8vd)ita belli ; i. e. the uncertain, sudden occurrences in war, or subitae occa- 
 siones belli ; quassata muri, the shaken parts of the wall ; infrequentissima 
 urbis, the most uninhabited part of the town ; plana urbis Tiber is stag- 
 naverat. Livy has many expressions of this kind (Drakenborch on Liv. 
 xxxvii. 58.), and in Tacitus they are innumerable. Respecting the analogy 
 with the Greek language, see Vechner, Hellenolex. i. 2. 9. p. 202 foil., and 
 Heindorf on Horat. Sat. ii. 2. 25. 
 
 [§ 436.] 6. Many adjectives denoting a relation to a thing 
 (adjectiva relativa), especially those which express partaking, 
 desiring, fullness, experience, capacity, or remembering, and their 
 contraries, are joined with the genitive of a substantive or 
 pronoun. Thus we say memor promissi, remembering a pro- 
 mise ; compos mentis, in possession of his mind ; ignarus sermonis 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Latinii ignorant of the Latin language. Such relations are ex- 
 pressed in English by prepositions. 
 
 The following in particular are construed in this way : — par- 
 ticeps, affinis (e. g. alicujus culpae, suspicionis, see however 
 § 411.), expers, inops, consors, exsors ; cupidus, studiosus, avidus, 
 avarus ; plenus, inanis, capax, insatiahilis, fecundus, fertilis, 
 ferax, sterilis ; peritus^ imperitus, conscius, inscius, nesciusy prae- 
 scius, gnarus, ignarus, rudis, insolens and insolitus, or insuetus, 
 prudens, providus, compos, impos, potens and impotens ; memor, 
 immemor, tenax, curiosus, incuriosus. 
 
 Pythagoras sapientiae studiosos appellavit philosophos, Cic. 
 • Tusc, V. 3. 
 Themistocles peritissimos belli navalis fecit Athenienses, Nep. 
 
 Them. 2. 
 Venturae memor as jam nunc estote senectae^ Ovid. 
 Conscia mens recti famae mendacia ridet, Ovid, Fast, 
 Nescia mens hominumfati sortisque futurae, Virgil. 
 
 [§437.] Notel. The poets and those prose writers who, deviating 
 from the ordinary mode of speaking, use poetical constructions, to give 
 animation to their style (especially Tacitus), extend the rule of joining 
 a genitive with adjectives very far. They construe in particular all ad- 
 jectives expressing mental emotion with the genitive of the thing to which 
 it is directed ; e. g. amhiguus consilii ; anxius futuri, securitatis ; henignus 
 vini ; certus sceleris ; duhius viae ; impiger militiae ; interritus leti ; incauius 
 futuri ; incertus sententiae ; laetus laboris ; modicus voluptatum ; pervicax 
 irae^ recti ; piger periculi ; segnis occasionum ; socors futuri ; securus futuri ; 
 timidvs lucis ; formidolosus hostium; ohlatae occasionis propera; ferox scelerum 
 Sejanus; atrox odii Agrippina, — where in ordinary prose the prepositions de, 
 in or ad, would be required, and where we use "in respect of" or "in regard 
 to." In some cases the genitive is used, in imitation of the Greek, instead 
 of the Latin ablative ; e. g. integer vitae for integer vita ; diversus morum ; 
 lassus maris, viarum, militiae ; vetus operis ac laboris ; sacerdos scientiae ceri- 
 moniarumque vetus. In some cases, however, the adjective is only a bold ex- 
 pression and used in the same sense as one of those mentioned above ; e. g. 
 vetus operis equivalent to peritus operis. In the case of superlatives the 
 genitive is to be explained in a different way, as Tacit. Ann. vi. 6. : praes- 
 tantissimus sapientiae, for sapientum ; i. 46. : princeps severitatis etmunifcentiae 
 summus, for omnium qui et severi et munifici sint. Comp. § 470. We must 
 notice especially the use of the genitive animi (instead of the ablative) 
 which occurs so frequently in late prose writers, and is joined with all 
 adjectives. (See Ruhnken on Veil. Pat. ii. 93.) We thus find aeger, anxius, 
 atrox, aversus, caecus, captus, confidens, confuMis, incertus, territus, validus, 
 exiguus, ingens, modicus, immodicus, and nimius animi; and owing to this 
 frequent use of the genitive with adjectives, it is found also with verbs 
 denoting anxiety ; e. g. absurde fads, qui te angas animi ; discrucior animi, 
 
GENITIVE CASE. 326 
 
 ftnd even in Cicero we find more than once ego quidem vehementer animi 
 pendeo ; it occurs more rarely with verbs denoting joy, as recreabar animi. 
 
 Note 2. The adjectives ji^Zenzw and inanis (full, empty), as well as fertilis 
 and dives^ may be construed also with the ablative (§ 457. foll.)^ and with 
 refertus (the participle of a verb denoting " to fill ") the ablative is com- 
 monly -asQ^.-^ plenus in the early prose is rarely. joined with the ablative, 
 but in later times frequently : — Cicero, e. g. Philip, ii. 27. says : domus 
 (Antonii) erat aleatoribus referta^ plena ehriorum. We may use either case 
 in jurisperitus and jureperitus, jurisconsultus and jureconsultus (abridged 
 ICtus). Compos and expers are but rarely found with the ablative instead 
 of the genit., as Liv. iii. 71. : praeda ingenii compotem exercitum reducunt; 
 Sallust, Cat. 33. : omnes fama atque fortunis expertes sumus. Immunis (not 
 partaking) is commonly joined with the genitive, but when used in the sense 
 of " free from" in takes either ah or the simple ablat. (See § 468.) 
 
 Conscins is construed with a genitive and a dative of the thing ; e. g. 
 Sallust, Cat. 25.: caedis conscia fuerat ; Qic. p. Coel.2\.'. Jiuic facinori tanto 
 m£ns tua conscia esse non dehuit. The person who is conscious of a thing is 
 always expressed by the dative, as sihi conscium esse alicujus rei, 
 
 [§ 438.] 7. The participles present active are joined with a 
 genitive when they do not express a simple act or a moment- 
 ary condition, but, like adjectives, a permanent quality or con- 
 dition; hence most of them have degrees of comparison like 
 real adjectives. The following list contains those most in 
 use : — amans, appetens, colens, fugiens, intelligens, metuens, 
 negligens, observans, retinens, tolerans, patiens, impatienSy tern- 
 perans, intemperans ; e. g. amans patriae, Gracchi amantissimi 
 plebis Romanae, appetens laudis, sancti et religionum colentes, 
 fugiens laboris, imminentium (^futuri) intelligens, officii negligen&y 
 miles patiens or impatiens solis, pulveris, tempestatum, 
 Epaminondas adeo fuit veritatis diligens, ut ne joco quidem men- 
 
 tiretur, Nep. Epam, 3. 
 Romani semper appetentes gloriae praeter ceteras gentes atque 
 
 avidi laudis fueruntf Cic. p. Leg. Man. 3. 
 
 Note. The passage from Nepos shows that the participles admitting this 
 construction are not limited to such as have the meaning of the adjectives 
 mentioned above (§ 436.), but they are used in this way throughout, pro- 
 vided they express a permanent quality ; miles patiens frigus, for example, 
 is a soldier who at a particular time bears the cold, but miles patiens frigoris 
 is one who bears cold well at all times. Hence cupiens, efficiens, experiens^ 
 sciens, sitiens^ timens^ and a considerable number of others, are joined with a 
 genitive. Some participles perfect passive have been mentioned in § 436., 
 as their number is very limited ; and completus, expertus, inexperius, invictus^ 
 and consultiiSy may be classed with the above-mentioned adjectives. If., \n 
 poetical language, we find any other perfect participles joined with a 
 genitive, we must regard them as adjectives. 
 
 Y 3 
 
 i. 
 
326 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 439.] 8. With verbs of reminding, remembering and for- 
 getting {admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio aliquem ; memini, re- 
 miniscor, recorder , also in mentem mihi venit ; obliviscor^, the 
 person or the thing, of which any one reminds another or him- 
 self, or which he forgets, is expressed by the genitive ; but 
 there are many instances also in which the thing is expressed 
 by the accusative. 
 Medicus, ut primum fnenfis compotem esse regem sensit, modo 
 
 matris sororumque, modo tantae victoriae appropinquantis ad- 
 
 monere non destitit, Curt. iii. 16. 
 Hannibal milites adhortatus est, ut reminiscerentnr pristinae vir- 
 
 tutis suae, neve mulieriim liberumque (for et liberorum) obli- 
 
 viscerentur, 
 Tu, C. Caesar, oblivisci nihil soles, nisi injurias, Cic. p. Leg. 12. 
 Non omnes (senes) possunt esse Scipiones aut Maximi, ut urbium 
 
 expugnationes, ut pedestres navalesque pugnas, ut bella a se 
 
 gesta triumphosque recordentur, Cic. Cat. Maj. 5. 
 
 [§ 440.] Note. "With regard to the accusatire of the thing., it must be ob- 
 served that the neuters of pronouns, and the neuter adjectives used as sub- 
 stantives, are joined to the above-mentioned verbs only in the accusative ; 
 for their genitive would present no difference from the masc. gender. Hence 
 Cicero {de Off. ii. 8.) is obliged to say : Externa lihentius in tali re quam 
 domestica recordor ; and the verbs of reminding are thus joined with two 
 accusatives, one of the person and the other of the thing ; e. g. illud me 
 praeclare adrnones, unum te admoneo. (Comp. § 393.) An accusative of the 
 thing, expressed by a real substantive, occurs only with verbs of remem- 
 bering and forgetting ; e. g. memini or ohlitus sum mandata^ henejicia., dicta 
 factaqiie tua ; pueritiae memoriam recordari ultimam. An accusative of the 
 person is very rarely used with these verbs ; but memini., in the sense of " I 
 remember a person who lived in my time," is invariably joined with an ac- 
 cusative of the person; e.g. Cic. Philip, y. 6.: quod neque reges fecerunty 
 neque ii, qui regihus exactis regnum occupare voluerunt : Cinnam memini., vidi 
 Sullam, modo Caesarem, &c. ; de Orat. iii. 50. : Antipater ille Sidonius, quern 
 tu probe meministi. Sometimes verbs of reminding and remembering take 
 the preposition de ; memini takes de more especially, when it signifies mentio- 
 nem facere ; but the genitive also may be used. With venit mihi in mentem., 
 the person or thing may be put in the nominat., so as to become the subject ; 
 e. g. aliquid, haec, omnia mihi in mentem venerunt. 
 
 [§ 441.] 9. The impersonal verbs pudet, piget, poenitet, taedet 
 and miseret, require the person in whom the feeling exists to 
 be in the accusative, and the thing which produces the feel- 
 ing in the genitive. The thing producing the feeling may 
 also be expressed by the infinitive, or by a sentence with quod 
 or with an interrogative particle, e. g. pudet m^ hoc fecisse. 
 
GENITIVE CASE. 327 
 
 poenitet me quod te offendi, non poenitet me (I am not dissatisfied) 
 quantum prof ecerim. As to the forms of these verbs, see § 225. 
 Malo, me fortunae poeniteat, quam victoriae pudeat, Curt. iv. 47. 
 Eorum nos magis miseret, qui nostram misericordiam. non requi- 
 
 runt, quam qui illam ejfflagitant, Cic. p. Mil, 34. 
 Non poenitet me vixisse, quoniam ita vixi, ut non frustra me na- 
 
 turn existimem, Cic. Cat. Maj. in fin. 
 Quem poenitet peccasse, paene est innocens, Senec. Agam. 243. 
 
 [§ 442.] Note 1. The personal verbs misereor and miser esco, " I pity," are 
 joined with a genitive, like the impersonal verbs miseret (and miseretmr) : 
 miseremini sociorum, misertus tanti viri, generis miseresce tut; but we also 
 find miser escit me tui, impersonally, in Terence (Heavt. v. 4. 3.) : inopis te 
 nunc miserescat mei. Miserari and commiserari (to pity), orj the other hand, 
 require the accusative. The above-mentioned impersonal verbs are very 
 rarely used personally ; as in Terence, AdelpJi. iv. 5. 36. t non te haec pudent. 
 In the passage of Cicero (Ttisc. v. 18.) : sequitur ut nihil (sapientem^ poeni- 
 teat^ the word nihil must not be taken for a nominative : it is the accusative, 
 for both this particular word and the neuters of pronouns are thus used in 
 the accusative (see § 385.) ; whereas real substantives would necessarily be 
 in a different case. So also in Cic. de Invent ii. 13. : qnaeri oportet^ utrum id 
 f acinus sit, quod poenitere fuerit necesse, for cujus rei. The participle per- 
 taesus (belonging to taedet) governs the accusative, contrary to the rule 
 by which participles are joined with the same case as the verbs from which 
 they are formed ; e. g. Sueton. Jul. 7. : quasi pertaesus igvaviam suam ; but 
 it is also used with a genitive, as in Tacitus, Ann. xv. 51. : postremo lenti- 
 tudinis eorum pertaesa. 
 
 [§ 443.] Note 2. Pudet requires a genit. also, in the sense of " being re- 
 strained by shame or respect for a person ;" e. g. Terent. Anelph. iv. 5. 49. : 
 et me tui pudet ; Cic. in Clod. : Nonne te hujus templi, non urbis, non vitae, non 
 lucis pudet f It is found more frequently without an accusat., as in Livy, iii. 
 19. : pudet deonim hominumque ; Cic. Philip, xii. 3. : pudet hujus legionis, 
 pudet quartae, pudet optimi exercitus. 
 
 [§ 444.] 10. The verbs of estimating or valuing and their pas- 
 sives (aestimare, ducere, facere, fieri, habere, pendere, putare, 
 taxare and esse^ are joined with the genitive, when the value is 
 expressed generally by an adjective, but with the ablative, 
 when it is expressed by a substantive. (Comp. § 456.). Geni- 
 tives of this kind are : — magni, permagni, pluris, plurimi, maximiy 
 parvi, minoris, minimi,*tanti, quanti, and the compounds tanti- 
 dem, quantwis, quanticunque ; but never (or very rarely) multi 
 and majoris. The substantive to be understood with these 
 genitives is pretii, which is sometimes expressed (with esse). 
 Si prata et hortulos tanti aestimamus, quanti est aestimanda 
 
 virtus 9 Cic. Parad. 6. 
 
 T 4 
 
328 . LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 XJnum Hephaestionem Alexander plurimi fecerat, Nep. Eum. 2, 
 Ego a meis me amari et magni pendi postulo, Terent. Adelph. v. 
 
 4.25. 
 Mea mihi conscientia* pluris est, quam omnium sermo, Cic. ad 
 
 Att. xii. 28. 
 
 Note. Tanti est, " it is worth so much," signifies also absolutely, " it is 
 worth tvhile ; " e. g. Cic. in Cat. i. 9. : Video quanta tempestas invidiae nobis 
 impendeat. Sed est mihi tanti : dummodo ista privata sit calamitas. In ad- 
 dition to the above genitives we must mention a^sis, fiocci, nauci, pensi, pili 
 habere^ or commonly nan habere, ducere, aestimare ; further, the comic 
 phrase hujus non facio, " I do not care that for it," and nihili. But we find 
 also pro nihilo habere, putare, and ducere ; e. g. omnia, quae cadere in hominem 
 possint, despicere et pro nihilo putare. The phrase acqui boni, or aequibonique 
 facio, consulo, and boni consulo, I consider a thing to be right, am satisfied 
 with it, must likewise be classed with these genitives. A genitive expressing 
 price is joined also to such words as coeno, habito, doceo ; e. g. quanti hahi- 
 ias ? what price do you pay for your house or lodging ? quanti docet ? what 
 are his terms in teaching ? 
 
 *[§ 445.] The same rule applies to general statements of price 
 with the verbs of buying, selling, lending and hiring {emere, ven- 
 dere, the passive venire, conducere, locare, and as passives in 
 sense, stare and constare, prostare and licere, to be exposed for 
 sale). But the ablatives magna, permagno, plurimo, parvo, 
 minima, nihilo, are used very frequently instead of the genitives. 
 Mercatores non tantidem vendunt, quanti emerunt, Cic. 
 X^ulla pestis humano generi pluris stetit, quam ira, Senec. 
 Nan potest parva res magna constare, Senec. Epist. 19. 
 
 Note. With verbs of buying therefore the genitive and ablative alternate 
 according to the particular words that are used. Cic. ad Fam. vii. 2. writes : 
 Parum acute ei mandasti potissimum, cui expediret illud venire quam plurimo : 
 sed eo vidisti multum, quod praejinisti, quo ne pluris emerem — nunc, quoniam 
 tuum pretium novi, illicitatorem, potiu^ ponam, quam illud minoris veneat ; Plant. 
 Epid. ii. 2. 112.: Quanti emere possum minimo? What is the lowest price 
 I can buy at? Aestimare is sometimes joined with the ablatives magno, 
 permagno, nonnihilo, instead of the regular genitives. The adverbs care, bene, 
 male, sometimes take the place of the ablative with the verbs of buying, 
 though not very frequently. Instead of nihilo constat, it costs me nothing, 
 we find in Cicero gratis constat. 
 
 [§446.] 11. The genitive is used to denote the crime or 
 offence, with the verbs accuso, incuso, arguo, intervogo, insimulo, 
 increpo, infamo ; convinco, coarguo ; judico, damna, condemno ; 
 ahsolvo, libera, pur go ; arcesso, cito, defero, postulo, reum facio, 
 alicui diem dico, cum aliquo ago. The genitive joined to these 
 verbs depends upon the substantive crimine or nomine, which is 
 understood, but sometimes also expressed. 
 
GENITIVE CASE. 329 
 
 Genitives of this kind are : — peccati, maleficii, sceleris, caedis, venejidiy 
 parricidii^ furti^ repeiundarum^ peadatus, falsi, injuriarum, vei capitalis, pro- 
 ditionis, majestatis ; probri, sttdtitiae, avaritiae, audaciae, vanitatis, levitatis, te- 
 meritatis, ignaviae; timoris, impietatisy and others^. 
 
 Miltiades proditionis est accusatus, quod, quum Parum expugnare 
 
 posset, e pugna discessisset, Nep. Milt, 
 Thrasyhulus legem tulit, ne quis ante actarum rerum accusaretur 
 
 neve multaretur, Nep. Thras. 3. 
 
 Note 1. To these verbs we must add a few adjectives, which are used in- 
 stead of their participles : reiis, compertm, noxius, innoxius, insons, manifestus. 
 Sometimes the preposition de is used, with the verbs of accusing and con- 
 demning, instead of the genitive, e. g. de vi condemnatus est, nomen alicujtis de 
 parricidio deferre. 
 
 [§ 447.] Note 2. The punishment, with the verbs of condemning, is com- 
 monly expressed by the genitive ; e. g. capitis, mortis, multae, pecuniae, quad- 
 rupli, octupli, and less frequently by the ablative, capite, morte, multa, pecunia. 
 The ablative, however, is used invariably when a definite sum is mentioned; 
 e. g. decern, quindecim milihus aeris. Sometimes we find the preposition ad or 
 in: ad poenam, ad hestias, ad metalla, in metallum, in expensas, and Tacitus 
 uses also : ad mortem. The meaning of capitis accusare, arcessere, ahsolvere, 
 and of capitis or capite damnare, condemnare must be explained by the signi- 
 fication of what the Romans called a causa capitis. Voti or votorum damnari, 
 to be condemned to fulfil one's vow, is thus equivalent to " to obtain what 
 one wishes." 
 
 [§ 448.] 12. The genitive is used with the verbs esse and 
 Jieri, in the sense of " it is a person's business, office, lot, or 
 property," the substantives res or negotium being understood : 
 e. g. Jwc est praeceptoris, this is the business of the teacher ; 
 non est mearum virium, it is beyond my strength ; Asia Roman- 
 arum facta est, Asia became the property of the Romans. The 
 same genitive is found also with some of the verbs mentioned in 
 § 394., esse being understood. 
 
 But instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns mei, tui, 
 sui, nostri, vestri, the neuters of the possessives, meum, tuum, 
 suum, nostrum, vestrum est, erat, &c., are used. 
 Cujusvis hominis est errare, nullius nisi insipientis in errore per- 
 
 severare, Cic. Phil. xii. 2. 
 Sapientis judicis est, semper non quid ipse velit, sed quid lex et 
 
 religio cog at, cogitare, Cic. p. Cluent. 58. 
 Bello Gallico praeter Capitolium omnia hostium erant, Liv. vi. 40. 
 Tuum est, M, Cato, qui non mihi, non tibi, sed patriae natus es, 
 
 videre quid agatur, Cic. p. Muren, 38.' 
 
330 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 Note 1. We have here followed Perizonlus (on Sanctius, Minerva^ in 
 many passages), in explaining the genitive by the ellipsis of negotium. This 
 opinion is confirmed by a passage in Cicero, ad Fam. iii. 12. : non horum tern- 
 porum^ non horum hominum et morum negotium est ; but we ought not to have 
 recourse to such an ellipsis, except for the purpose of illustrating the idiom 
 of a language, and we should not apply it to every particular case ; for, in 
 most instances, it would be better, and more consistent with the Latin idiom, 
 to sw^^ly proprius as an adjective and proprium as a substantive. (Comp. 
 § 411.) In the following sentences from Cicero, proprium, est animi bene 
 constituti laetari bonis rebus, and sapientis est proprium^ nihil quod poenitere 
 possit facer e, we might omit proprium and use the genitive alone. In the 
 following sentences the words munus and officium might be omitted : Cic. p. 
 Mil. 8. : principum munus est resistere levitati multitudinis, and Terent. Andr* 
 ii. 1. 30. : neutiquam officium liberi esse hominis puto, quum is nil mereat, pos- 
 tulare id gratiae apponi sibi ; and hence we may also assume the ellipsis of 
 munus and officium for the purpose of illustratino- the Latin idiom. 
 
 FJsse is joined with a genitive expressing quality, est stuUitiae, est levitatis, 
 est hoc Gallicae consuetudinis, especially moris est, for which without dif- 
 ference in meaning, we may say stultitia est, levitas est, haec consuetudo est 
 Gallomm, mos est; e. g. Cic. in Verr. i. 26. : negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut 
 in convivio virorum accumberent mulieres, the same as morem esse Graecorum, 
 
 Note 2. As it is the rule to use the neuter of the possessive pronouns, in- 
 stead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, so in other cases, instead of a 
 genitive of a substantive, an adj ective derived from the substantive may be 
 used, e. g. humanum est, imperatorium est, regiumest; etfacere etpatifortia 
 Momanum est, Liv. ii. 12. 
 
 [§ 449.] 13. A similar ellipsis takes place with the imper- 
 sonal verbs interest and refert, it is of interest or importance (to 
 me), the person to whom any thing is of importance bei^ig ex- 
 pressed by the genitive ; but instead of the genitive • of the 
 personal pronouns, the possessives mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, 
 are used. These possessives are commonly considered to be 
 accusatives neuter plural, commod'a being understood ; but from 
 some verses in Terence, especially Phorm. iv. 5. 11. and v. 8. 47., 
 we are obliged to consider them with Priscian (p. 1077.) as 
 ablatives feminine singular, and it is not impossible that causa 
 may be understood.* The thing wdiich is of interest or im- 
 portance is not expressed by a substantive, but sometimes by 
 the neuter of a pronoun ; e. g. hoc mea interest, and usually by 
 an accusative with the infinitive, or by ut and the interroga- 
 
 * Tliis explann tion solves only half the difficulty, but both the use of the 
 genitive and the length of re in refert are sufficiently accounted for by what 
 has been said in a note at the foot of p. 1 6. We should add here that mea, 
 tad, sua, &c., are accusatives for meam, tuam, suam, &c. Comp. Key, llie 
 Alphabet, p. 77. — Transl. 
 
ABLATIVE CASE. 331 
 
 tive particles with the subjunctive: e.g. multum^mea interest, 
 te esse diligentem, or ut diligens sis, (utrum) diligens sis nee ne. 
 Semper Milo, quantum interesset JP. Clodii, se perire, cogitabat, 
 
 Cicjo. Mil 21. 
 Caesar dicere solebat, non tam sua, quam reipublicae interesse, uti 
 
 salvus esset. Suet. Caes. 86. 
 Inventae sunt epistolae, ut certiores faceremus ahsentes, si quid 
 
 esset, quos eos scire^ aut nostra aut ipsorum interesset, Cic. 
 
 ad Fam. ii. 4. 
 Quid refert, utrum voluerim fieri, an factum gaudeam ? Cic. 
 
 Philip, ii. 12. *• 
 
 Note 1. When an infinitive alone is joined to interesse, the preceding 
 subject is understood, e. g. omnium interest recte facere^ scil. se. The nomi- 
 native of the subject in Cicero, ad Att. iii. 19., non quo mea interesset loci 
 natura, is very singular. It has been asserted that refert is not joined 
 ■with the genitive of the person ; in Cicero, it is true, it does not occur, 
 for he generally uses it with the pronouns mea, tua, sua, &c. ; but other 
 authors use the genitive; e.g. Sallust, J^o-. 119.: faciendum aliquid, quod 
 illorum Magis, quam sua rettulisse videretur, and Liv. xxxiv. 27. : ipsorum 
 referre, &c. Most frequently, however, refert is used without either a 
 genitive or any of the pronouns m.ea, tun, &c. : refert, quid refert ? magni, 
 parvi, magnopere refert. The dative of the person in Horace, Serm. i. 1.50.: 
 vel die quid referat intra naturae fines viventi, jvgera centum, an miUe aret, is a 
 singular peculiarity. 
 
 [§ 450.] Note 2. The degree of importance is expressed by adverbs or 
 neuter adjectives, or by their genitives : magis, magnopere, vehementer, 
 parum, minime, tam, tantopere; multum, plus, plurimum, permultum, infinitum^ 
 mirum quantum, minu^, nihil, aliquid, quiddam, tantum, quantum; tanti, quanti, 
 magni, permagni, parvi. The object for which a thing is of importance is 
 expressed by the preposition ad, as in Cicero : magni interest ad honorem 
 nostrum; a dative used in the same sense occurs in Tacitus, Ann. xv. 65. : 
 non referre dedecori. 
 
 CHAP. LXXIV. 
 
 ABLATIVE CASE. 
 
 [§ 451.] 1. The Ablative serves to denote certain relations of 
 
 substantives> which are expressed in most other languages by 
 
 prepositions. 
 
 Note. This is an important difference between the ablative and the other 
 oblique cases ; for the latter expressing necessary relations between nouns, 
 
332 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 occur in all lai%uages which possess cases of inflection, and do not, like the 
 French or English, express those relations by prepositions. But the abla- 
 tive is a peculiarity of the Latin language, which might indeed be dispensed 
 with, but which contributes greatly to its expressive conciseness. 
 
 The ablative is used first with passive verbs to denote the 
 thing by which any thing is eifected {ahlativus efficientis), and 
 which in the active construction is expressed by the nominative : 
 e. g. sol mundum illustrat, and sole mundus illustratur ; fecundi- 
 tas arhorum me delectat, and fecunditate arborum delector. If 
 that by which any thing is effected is a person, the preposition 
 ah is required with the ablat^^e (see § 382.), with the sole ex- 
 ception of the participles of the verbs denoting " to be born " 
 {natus, genitus, ortus, and in poetry also cretus, editus, satus), to 
 which the name of the father or family is generally joined in the 
 ablative without a preposition. Ah cannot be used with the 
 ablative of a thing by which any thing is effected, unless the 
 thing be personified. 
 
 Dei providentid mundus administratur, Cic. 
 Non est consentaneum, qui metu non frangatur, eum frangi cupi- 
 
 ditate ; nee qui invictum se a lahore praestiterit, vinci a volup- 
 
 tate, Cic. De Off. i. 20. 
 
 Note. The words denoting " born" usually have the preposition ex or de 
 joined to the name of the mother, but the ablative alone is also found, and 
 there are a few passages in which ex or db is joined to the name of tlie 
 father ; e. g. Terent, Adelph. i. 1. 15. : Atque ex me hie natus non est^ sed ex 
 fratre; Caes. Bell. Gall. vi. 18. : prognati ab Dite patre. Ortm ab aliquo is 
 frequently used in speaking of a person's ancestors ; e. g. Cic. p. Muren. 21 . : 
 gut ab illo ortus es; Caes. Bell. Gall. ii. 4. : plerosque Belgas esse ortos a 
 Germanis (the same as oriundos). 
 
 [§ 452.] 2. An ablative expressing the cause {ahlativus 
 causae) is joined with adjectives, which, if changed into a verb, 
 would require a passive construction : e. g. fessus, aeger, saucius 
 (equivalent to quifatigatus, morho affectus, vulneratus est) — and 
 .with intransitive verbs, for which we may generally substitute 
 some passive verb, of at least a similar meaning, as inter iit fame, 
 consumptus est fame ; expectatio rumore crevit, expectatio aucta 
 est rumore ; gaudeo honore tuo, delector honore tuo. Thus verbs 
 expressing feeling or emotion are construed with the ablative of 
 the thing which is the cause of -the feeling or emotion, as doleo, 
 gaudeo, laetor ; exllio, exulto, triumpho, lacrimo, paene desipio 
 g audio, ardeo cupiditate, desiderio. Sometimes the prepositions 
 
ABLATIVE CASE. 333 
 
 propter and per are used instead of such an ablative, and when a 
 person is described as the cause of an emotion, they are just as 
 necessary as a6 is with passive verbs. 
 
 We must notice in particular the construction of the follow- 
 ing verbs : — Glorior, I boast, is joined with an ablative denot- 
 ing the cause : e. g. victoria med, but is also construed with de, 
 and in the sense of " glory in a thing," with in : e. g. Cic. 
 £>e Nat. Deor, iii. 36. : propter virtutem recte laudamur, et in 
 virtute recte gloriamur, Lahoro, I suffer from, e. g. morbo, ino- 
 pia, odio, is frequently joined also with ex, especially when the 
 part of the body, which is the seat of the pain, is mentioned : e. g. 
 ex pedibus, ex intestinis, Nitor and innitor aliqua re, I lean upon, 
 is used, in a figurative sense, also with in ; e. g. Cicero : in vita 
 Pompeji nitebatur salus civitatis (in the sense of " strive after," 
 with ad or in with the accus., as nitirnur in vetitum), Sto aliqua 
 re, I depend upon a thing, 3sjudicio meo, auctore aliquo ; also in 
 liie sense of " I persevere in or adhere to a thing," as foedere, 
 jurejurando, condicionibus, promissis ; it rarely takes in, as in 
 Cicero : stare oportet in eo, quod sit judicatum. (Respecting 
 acquiesco with the ablat. see § 416.) Fido and confide, '' I trust 
 in a thing," and the 2id}ecti\e fretus are joined with the ablat. of 
 the thing trusted in, but may also be used with the dative of 
 the person or thing trusted in. (See § 413.) The verbs constare, 
 contineri, to consist of, are construed with the ablat. to denote 
 that of which a thing consists : e. g. domus amoenitas non aedificio, 
 sed silva constabat ; tota honesta^ quattuor virtutibus continetur ; 
 but canstare is joined more frequently with ex or in, and con- 
 tineri in the sense of '' to be contained in a thing," is generally 
 used with in, but even then not unfrequently with the ablative 
 sdone. ( Consistere in the sense of " exist," is construed, like 
 positum esse, only with in.) 
 Concordia res parvae crescunt, discordid maximae dilabuntur, 
 
 Sallust, Jug. 10. 
 £st adolescentis majores natu vereri exque his deligere optimos et 
 
 probatissimos, quorum consilio atque auctoritate nitatur, Cic 
 
 Be Off. I 34. 
 Virtute decet, non sanguine niti, Claud. Cons. Hon. iv. 219. 
 IHversis duobus vitiis, avaritia et luxuria, civitas Romana lab<H 
 
 rabat, Liv. xxxiv. 4. 
 Delicto dolere, correctione gavAere ngs oportet, Cic, 
 
334 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 {§ 453.] Note 1. We must here mention also the ablat. virtute joined with 
 the defective adjective 7nacte and macti, which, either with the imperative of 
 esse (esto, este, estate), or without it, is used as an exclamation of encourage- 
 ment or approbation. 
 
 The use of the accusative vicem (with a genitive or possessive pronoun), 
 instead of the ablative vice (in accordance with the above rule) in connection 
 with intransitive verbs and adjectives denoting feelings, especially those of 
 care, grief, and sorrow, is a peculiarity which does not occur when vicem is 
 used in its ordinary sense of "change" or "turn" (as in Phaedr. v. 1. 6. : 
 tacite gementes tristem fortunae vicem)^ but only when it is equivalent to the 
 English "for;" e. g. Liv. ii, 31.: apparuit causa plebi, suam vicem indig- 
 nantem magistratu abisse; i. e. that for their sake he had indignantly resigned 
 his office ; xxxiv. 32. : Remittimus hoc tibi, ne nostram vicem irascaris, that 
 you may not be angry on our account ; xl. 23. : Simplicitatem juvenis incauti 
 assentando indignandoque et ipse vicem ejus captabat, by showing indignation 
 on his account. In like manner we must explain Cic. ad Fam. xii. 23. : 
 Tuam vicem saepe doleo, quod nullam partem per aetatem sanae et salvae rei 
 puUicae gustare potuisti, and in Verr. i, 44. : si alienam vicem pro nostra in- 
 juria doleremus^ if we grieved for other people, as though a wrong had been 
 done to ourselves. Hence we should read, with Bentley, in Horace Epod. 
 xvii, 42. : infamis Helenae Castor offensus vicem^ Castor offended on account 
 of his ill-famed sister, where Bentley quotes the following instances of this 
 use of vicem with adjectives, Liv. viii. 35. : suam vicem magis anxios, quam 
 ejus, cui auxilium ab se petebatur; xxviii. 43. : ut meam quoque, non solum rei 
 puhlicae et exercitus vicem videretur sollicitiis; Curt. vii. 6. : maestus non su/im 
 vicem, sed propter ipsum periclitantium fratrum, not sad on his own account, 
 but on account of his brothers who ran into danger for his sake. The 
 ablative in this sense occurs only in late writers ; e. g. Quintil. vi. 2. 35., and 
 xi. 1. 42. But it is difficult to decide whether the accusative vicem may be 
 used also in the sense of " like," more modoque, instead of vice, as is com- 
 monly read in Cic. ad Att. x. 8. : Sardanapali vicem in suo lectulo mori, or 
 whether we should correct vicem into vice, as in Tacitus, Ann. vi. 21. : quae 
 dixerat oraculi vice accipiens. The difficult passage in Horace, Epod. v. 87. : 
 Venena magnum fas nefasque non valent convertere humanam vicem, must 
 undoubtedly be explained in the same manner, whether we retain the accu- 
 sative or read humana vice; the meaning is : " Poison cannot upset the eternal 
 laws like things human." 
 
 [§ 454.] Note 2. With transitive verbs also, the cause or the thing in con- 
 sequence of which anything is done, is expressed by the ablative, but this is 
 the regular practice only with substantives ending in the ablat. in u (§ 90.), 
 which have no other cases ; e. g. jussu, rogatu, admonitu tuo veni, feci, misi or 
 missus sum. With other substantives it is more rare ; e. g. Cic. p. Rose. Am. 
 32. : ut omnes intelligant me non studio accusare, sed officio defendere; de Fin. 
 ii. 26. : sifructibus et emolumentis et utilitatibus amicitias colemus; de Off. i. 9. : 
 Suntetiam, qui aut studio rei familiar is tuendae aut odio quodam hominum suum 
 se negotium agere dicant; Sallust, Cat. 23. : inopid minus largiri poterat ; Cic. 
 Divin. in Caec. 3. : judiciorum desiderio tribunicia potestas efflagitata est, ju- 
 diciorum levitate ordo aflus postulatur, &c. ; de Leg. iii. 7. : Regale civitatis 
 genua's non tam regni, quam regis vitiis repudiatum est. The preposition propter 
 or a circumlocution with causa, however, is generally used instead of the 
 ablative ; e. g. instead of joco dicer e, jaco mentiri, we find joci causa; hoc 
 onus suscepi tuu causa; honoins tui causa, propter amicitiam nostram. When 
 
ABLATIVE CASE. 335 
 
 the cause is a state of feeling, the best Latin writers prefer a ctrcumlocution 
 with the perfect participle of some verb denoting " to induce ; " e. g. to do 
 a thing from some desire, cupiditate ductus, inductus, incitatus, incensus, infiam- 
 matus, impvLsus, motus, captus, &c. Livy is fond of using the preposition ab 
 in this senscr as ab ira, a spe, ab odio, from anger, hope, hatred. See § 305., 
 and Hand, Tursellin. i. p. 33, 
 
 [§ 455.] 3. An ablative is joined with verbs of every kind to 
 express the means or instrument by which a thing is done (g5- 
 lativus instrumenti). Thus we say manu ducere aliquem, to lead 
 a person by the hand ; equo, curru, nave vehi, the horse, carriage, 
 and ships being the means of moving. 
 Benivolentiam civium hlanditiis colligere turpe est, Cic. 
 Cornihus tauri, apri dentibus, morsu hones, aliae fuga se, aliae 
 
 occultatione tutantur, Cic. De Nat. Deor. ii. 50. 
 Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret, Horat. Epist, i. 
 
 10. 24. 
 Male quqeritur herhis ; morihus et forma conciliandus amor, 
 
 Ovid. Heroid. vi. 93. 
 
 Note. When a man is the instrument by which anything is effected, the 
 ablative is rarely used, but generally the preposition per, or the circum- 
 locution with opera alicujus, which is so frequent, especially with possessive 
 pronouns, that med, fud, sud, &c. opera are exactly the same as per me, per 
 te, per se, &c. ; and are used to denote both good and bad services ; e. g. Cic. 
 Cat. Maj. 4. : mea opera Tarentum recepisti; Nep. Lys. 1. : Lysander sic sibi 
 indulsit, vt ejus opera in maximum odium Graeciae Lacedaemonii pervenerint; 
 that is, eju^ culpa, through his fault. Beiieficio is used in the more limited 
 sense of good results, as beneficio tuo salvus, incolumis sum, where it is the 
 same as per te. Per is soiiietimes used to express a means, but only when we 
 are speaking of external concurring circumstances rather than of that which 
 is really done to attain a certain object. We always say, e. g., vi oppidum 
 cepit, but per vim ei bona eripuit. See § 301. The material instrument is 
 always expressed by the ablative alone, and never with a preposition, such 
 as cum; hence conjicere cervum sagittis, gladio aliquem mdnerare; comp. 
 §473. 
 
 [§ 456.] 4. Hence with verbs of huying and selling, of esti- 
 mation, value, and the like (§ 444.), the price or value of a 
 thing is expressed by the ablative, provided it is indicated by a 
 definite sum or a substantive. (Respecting the genitive in 
 general expressions, see § 444., where it is observed that, con- 
 trary to the general rule, the ablatives magno, permagno, plurimo, 
 parvo, minimo, are commonly joined to verbs denoting "to buy" 
 and "sell.") 
 Ego spem pretio non emo, Tcrent. Adelph. ii. 2. 11. 
 
33^ LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Si quis aurum venderis putet se orichalcum vendere, indicahitne ei 
 
 vir bonus aurum illud esse, an emet denario, quod sit mille 
 
 denariumf Cic. De Off. iii. 23. 
 Viginti talentis unam orationem Isocrates vendidit, Plin. Hist. 
 
 Nat. vii. 31. 
 Denis in diem assibus anima et corpus (militum) aestimantur, 
 
 Tacit. Ann. i. 17. 
 Quod non opus est, asse carum est, Senec. Epist. 94. 
 
 Note. To the verbs of buying and selling we must add many others which 
 express an act or an enjoyment, for which a certain price is paid ; e. g. lavor 
 qvadrante^ hahito triginta milibus HS, doceo talento, parvo aere mereo. Esse 
 in the sense of "to be worth" is therefore joined with the ablative of the 
 definite price ; e. g. Modius frumerdi in Sicilia hinis sestertiis, ad summufn 
 ternis erat; sextante sal in Italia erat. We make this observation chiefly to 
 direct attention to the difference between this ablative and the genitive of 
 quality which occurs in the passage of Cicero quoted above. Est mille 
 denarium there means, it is a thing of one thousand denarii (in value), and 
 may be bought for that sum. 
 
 Mutare and its compounds, commutare and permutare., are commonly con- 
 strued in the same way as the verbs of selling : e. g. Jidem suam et religionem 
 pecunidj stadium belli gerendi agricultural pellium tegmina vestihus, monies ac 
 siivas urhibus^ and in Virg. Georg. i. 8. : Chaoniam glandem pingui mutavit 
 arista, alluding to the first husbandman, who exchanged corn for acorns. But 
 prose writers as well as poets reverse the expression, by putting that which 
 we receive in the accusat., and that which we give for it in the ablative, 
 either alone or with the preppsition cum; e. g. Horat. Carm. iii. 1. 47. : cur 
 voile permutem Sabina divitias operosiores, why should I exchange my Sabine 
 valley for more wearisome riches ? Epod. ix. 27. : Terra marique victus 
 hostis Punico lugubre mutavit sagum; Curt. iii. 18. : exilium patria sede mu- 
 taverat; Ovid, Met. yn. 60. : Quemque ego cum rebus, quas totus possidet orbis, 
 Aesonidem mutasse velim ; Curt. iv. 4. : Habitus hie cum isto squalore permu- 
 tandu^ tibi est; Sulpicius in Cic. ad Fam. iv. 5. : Usee temporibus nonpessime 
 cum lis esse actum, quibus sine dolore licitum est mortem cum vita commutare. 
 Livy too uses both constructions, but the ablat. alone is better attested. 
 See Drakenborch on v. 20. 
 
 [§ 457.] 5. The ablative is joined with nouns (both substan- 
 tive and adjective) and verbs to express a particular circumstance 
 or limitation, where in English the expressions " with regard 
 to," "as to," or " in" are used: e. g. Nemo Romanorum Ciceroni 
 parfuit, or Ciceronem aequavit eloquentid, in eloquence, or with 
 regard to eloquence. Hence a great number of expressions by 
 which a statement is modified or limited, as med sententid, mea 
 opinione, meo judicio, frequently with the addition of quidem ; 
 natione Syrus, a Syrian by birth; genere facile primus ; Hamil- 
 car cognomine Barcas, &c. 
 
ABLATIVE CASE. 337 
 
 Agesilaus claudus fait (claucllcabat) altera pede, Nepos. 
 Sunt quidam homines, non re, sed nomine, Cicero. 
 
 [^458.] Note 1. The Latin poets, and those prose writers who are fond of 
 poetical expressions, sometimes use the accusative instead of this ablative, 
 in imitation of the Greeks ; hence the accusative is termed accusativus 
 Graecus. It occurs most frequently with passive verbs, especially with per- 
 fect participles, to determine the part of tlie body to which a statement applies 
 or is limited ; e. g. vite caput tegitur^ he is covered (or covers himself) with a 
 vine branch, but the covering is limited to the head : " his head is covered 
 with," &c. ; membra sub arbuto stratus^ lying with his limbs stretched out ; 
 redimitu3 tempora lauro^ his temples surrounded with a laurel wreath ; nuhe 
 candentes humeros amictu^ ; liumeros oleo perfu^us ; miles fractiis membra 
 laboj-e. Such expressions are pleasing, especially when an ablative is joined 
 to the participle, as in Livy, xxi. 7. : adversum femur tragula graviter ictus; 
 Sueton. Octav. 20. : dexterumgenu lapide ictus; Ovid, Met. xii. 269. : Gryneus 
 eruitur oculos, appears rather harsh for Gryneo eruuntur oculi. This use of the 
 accus. may be compared with that explained in § 393., ^doctus artes and in- 
 terrogatus sententiam ; for an active verb may be joined with a twofold ac- 
 (msative, either of the person or of a part of the person, as redimio te victorem, 
 or redimio tempera^ crines, — and when such a sentence takes the passive 
 form, the accusative of the person becomes the nominative, but that of the 
 part remains. (Com. Buttmann's Greek Grammar, § 131.) 
 
 But the poets go still further, and use this accusative of the part also wit h 
 neuter verl3S and adjectives ; e. g. Virg. Georg. iii. 84. : tremit artus; Aen. i. 
 589.: OS humerosque deo similis; Tacit. Germ. 17.: feminae Germanorum 
 nudae bracliia et lace7'tos, and in the same writer we find clari genus^ for the 
 usual clari genere, where genus is not an accusative of the part, but is com- 
 pletely a Greek construction. 
 
 The accusative expressing the articles of dress, used in poetical language 
 with- the passive verbs induor, amicior, cingor, accingor, exuor, discingor, is of 
 a different kind ; but it may be compared to the accus. of the part. The 
 active admits two constructions : induo me veste and ijiduo mihi vestem (see 
 above § 418.), and in the passive the two constructions are combined into 
 one ; and instead of saying induor veste^ the poets and those who imitate them, 
 say induor vestem. Instances of this occur in all the poets, but they are ex- 
 tremely frequent in Ovid ; e.g. protinu^ induitur faciem cultumque Dianae; in- 
 duiturqne aures lente gradientis aselli; Virg. Aen. ii. 510.: inutile fcrrum cingitur. 
 To this accusative, the Latin ablative is sometimes added, to denote the part 
 of the body which is dressed or adorned ; e.g. Ovid, Met. vii. 161. : inductaque 
 cornibus aurum Victima vota cadit, and x. 271. : pandis inductae cornibus aurum 
 juvencae. The accusative in Horace, Serm. i. 6. 74.: pueri laevo suspensi 
 loculos tabulamque lacerto^ is curious, but suspensi is here used according to 
 the analogy of accincti, like the Greek eKT]prr]ixsvoi rrjv irivaKa. 
 
 [§ 459.] Note 2. Something of this Greek construction was adopted by tlie 
 Romans even in their ordinary language, and there are some cases where the 
 accusative is used in prose instead of the ablative. Magnam and maximam 
 partem are thus used adverbially ^ov fere or magna {maxima) ex parte ; e. g. 
 CIc. Orat. 56. : magnam partem ex iambis nostra constat oratio., consists to a 
 great extent of iambics ; de Off. i. 7. : nmximam partem ad injuriam faciendam 
 aggrediuntur, ut adipiscantur ea, quae concupiverunt. (Comi^. partim §271.) 
 In the same manner cetera and reliquxi are joined to adjectives in the sense 
 
 Z 
 
338 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 of ceteris; i.e. "for the rest," or "in other respects;" e. g. Liv. i. 32.: 
 Proximum regnum^ cetera egregium, ab una parte haud satis prosperum fuit, and 
 in many other passages, cetera similis, cetera laetus^ cetera bonus. Further, id 
 temporis or id (hoc, idem) aetatis, for eo tempore, ea aetate; e.g. Liv. i. 50. : 
 purgavit se, quod id temporis venisset; xl. 9. : Quid hoc noctis venis ? Cic. p. 
 Cluent. 51.: non potuit honeste scribere in halneis se cum id aetatis Jilio fuisse ; 
 Tacit. Ann. xiii. 16. : cum ceteris idem aetatis nohilibus ; i.e. cum ceteris ejus- 
 dem aetatis nobilibus. On the same principle Tacitus, -4ww. xii. 18., says: 
 Romanorum nemo id auctoritatis aderat, for ea auctoritate. 
 
 [§ 460.] 6. The ablative is used with verbs denoting plenty 
 or want, and with the corresponding transitives oi filling, en- 
 dowing, depriving, {Ahlativus copiae aut inopiae.) Verbs of 
 this kind are: — 1. ahundare, redundare, affluere, circumfluere, 
 scatere, florere, pollere, valere, vigere {m. the figurative sense of 
 "being rich or strong in anything"); carer e, egere, indigere, 
 vacare ; 2. complere, explere, implere, opplere, cumulare, refer- 
 cire, ohruere, imhuere, satiare, exatiare, saturare, stipare, consti- 
 pare ; afficere, donare, remunerari, locupletare, ornare, augere ; 
 privare, spoliare, orbare, fraudare, defraudare, nudare, exuere, 
 and many others of a similar meaning. The adjective praeditus 
 takes the place of a perfect participle (in the sense of "en- 
 dowed'^), and is likewise joined with an ablative. 
 Germania rivis Jluminihusque abundat, Seneca. 
 Quam Dionysio erat miserum, carere consuetudine amicorum, 
 
 societate victus, sermone omnino familiari! Cic. Tusc. v. 22. 
 Arcesilas pMlosophus quum acumine ingenii Jloruit, turn admira- 
 
 bili quodam lepore dicendi, Cic. Acad, iv. 6. 
 Consilio et auctoritate non modo non orbari, sed etiam augeri 
 
 senectus solet, Cic. Cat, Maj. 6. 
 Mens est praedita motu sempiterno, Cic. Tusc, i. 27. 
 
 [§461.] Note I. Afficere properly signifies to "endow with," but it is 
 used in a great many expressions, and may sometimes be translated by " to do 
 something to a person : " afficere aliquem honore, benejicio, laetitia, praemio, 
 ignominia, injuria, poena, morte, sepultura. Remunerari (the simple munerare 
 or munerari is not often used), properly " to make a present in return," 
 hence " to remunerate." Respecting the different construction of the verbs 
 donare, exuere, and others with the accusat. of the thing, and the dative of 
 the person, see § 418. 
 
 [§ 462.] Note 2. The adjectives denoting full and empty are sometimes 
 joined with the ablative although as adjectiva relativa they take a genitive 
 (see § 436). Refertus, filled, as a participle of the verb refer do has regu- 
 larly the ablative, and it is only by way of exception that, according to the 
 analogy of plenus, it takes the genitive ; e. g. Qhc.p. Font. 1. : referta Gallia 
 negotiatorum est, plena civium Romanorum. Orbus, destitute ; creber and den- 
 sus in the sense of " thickly covered with," are found only with the ablative. 
 
ABLATIVE CASE. 339 
 
 Vacuus, liber, imrmads andpurus are joined with the ablat or the preposition 
 
 ab. See §468. 
 
 [§ 463.] Note 3. A genitive is sometimes joined with egeo, and frequently 
 with indigeo ; e. g. Cic. : hoc heUum indiget celeritatis ; and following the 
 analogy of plemis the verbs complere and implere are joined with a genitive 
 not only by the poets, but by good prose writers ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. v. 57. : 
 qvMm conipletus jam mercaiorum career esset ; Cat Maj. 14. : convivium vici" 
 norum quotidie compleo; ad Fam. ix. 18. : ollam denariomm implere, and in 
 Livy : spei animorumque implere, temeritatis implere. 
 
 It is obvious that with many of these verbs the ablative may justly be 
 regarded as an ahlativus instrumenti. The verb valere in the sense of "being 
 healthy or well," takes the ablative of the part, as corpore, pedihus, stomacho ; 
 in the sense of " being strong," the ablat. joined to it is generally an ablat. 
 instrumenti ; e. g. valeo auctoritate, gratia, pecunia, armis ; but in many cases 
 it may be regarded also as an ablative of plenty, as in valere eloqueniia, 
 equitatu valere. 
 
 [§ 464.] 7. Opus est, there is need, is used either as an im- 
 personal verb, in which case it takes, like the verbs denoting 
 want, an ablative, e. g. duce (exemplis) nobis opus est, or per- 
 sonally, in which case the thing needed is expressed by the 
 nominative (just as aliquid mihi necessarium est), e. g. dux nobis 
 opus est, exempla nobis opus sunt. The latter construction is 
 most frequent with the neuters of pronouns and adjectives. 
 Athenienses Philippidem cursorem Lacedaemonem miserunt, ut 
 
 nuntiaret, quam celeri opus esset auxilio, Nep. Milt. 4. 
 Themistocles celeriter quae opus erant reperiebat, Nep. Them, 1. 
 
 Note 1. The genitive of the thing needed in Livy, xxii. 51.: temporis 
 opus esse, and xxiii. 21.: quanti argenti opus fmt, is doubtful. But when 
 the thing cannot be expressed by a substantive, we find either the accusat. 
 with the infinitive, or the infinitive alone, the preceding subject being under- 
 stood : e. g. si quid erit, quod te scire opus sit, scribam, or quid opus est tarn 
 valde affirmare, scil. te ; or the ablat. of the perfect participle is used with 
 or without a substantive ; e. g. Tacito quum opus est, clamas ; Livy : maturato 
 opus est, quidquid statuere placet; Cic. ad Att. x. 4.: sed opus fuit Hirtio 
 convento ; Liv. vii. 5. : opus sibi esse domino ejus convento. The ablat. of 
 the supine (in u) is less frequent. Priu^quam incipias, consuUo, et, ubi con- 
 mdueris, mature facto opus est, Sallust, Cat. 1. 
 
 Note 2. Usus est, in the sense of opus est, is likewise used impersonally, as 
 in Livy : vi reducer et naves, quibus consvli v^us non esset, of which the consul 
 was not in want. 
 
 [§ 466.] 8. The ablative is joined with the deponent verbs 
 utor,fruor,fungor, potior and vescor, and their compounds abutor, 
 perfruor, defungor and perfungor, 
 Hannibal quum victoria posset liti, frui maluit, Florus. 
 Qui adipisci veram gloriam volet, ju^titiae fungatur ojfficiis, Cic. 
 
 de Off. ii. 13. 
 
 z 2 
 
340 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Numidae^plerumque lacte et fcrina came vescehantur, Sallust, 
 
 Jug. 89. 
 
 [§ 466.] Note. In early Latin these verbs were frequently joined with 
 the accusative, but in the best period of the language it seldom occurs, and 
 only in less correct writers. (In Nepos, Datam. 1. : militare munus fungens 
 is well established, but JEumen, 3.: summam imperii potiri is doubtful, and 
 so are the passages quoted from Cicero with the accusat. See my note on 
 de Off. ii. 23.) This, however, is the reason why even classical writers use 
 the construction with the participle future passive, where otherwise the 
 gerund only could have been used. (See § 657.) Potior occurs (in classical 
 writers) also with the genitive ; e. g. regni^ imperii., but more especially 
 in the phrase rerum potiri, to assume the supremacy. Apiscor and adipiscor 
 are used by Tacitus in the same sense with~a genitive (rerum., dominationis), 
 and Horace goes so far as to join regnare (which is otherwise an intransitive 
 verb) with a genitive, Carm. iii. 30. 12. : agrestium popuiorum. TJtor often 
 signifies " I have," especially when the object (the ablat.) is accompanied by 
 another noun (substant. or adject.) in apposition; e.g. utor te amico., I 
 have you as a friend ; Nep. : Hannibal Sosilo Lacedaemonio litterarmn 
 Graecarum usus est doctore ; Cic. : vide quam me sis usurus aequo., how fair I 
 shall be towards thee. 
 
 [§ 467.] 9. The adjectives dignus, indignus and contentus are 
 joined with the ablative of the thing of which we are worthy, 
 unworthy, and with which we are satisfied. Dignari, to be 
 deemed worthy, or, as a deponent, to deem worthy, is construed 
 like dignus. 
 Si vere aestimare Macedonas, qui tunc fuerunt, volumus, fate- 
 
 himuVi et regem talihus ministris, et illos tanto rege fuisse dig- 
 
 nissimos, Curt. iv. in fin. 
 Quam multi luce indigni sunt, et tamen dies oritur ! Senec. 
 
 Note. Dignari is used by Cicero only as the passive of the obsolete active 
 dignare, and that not only in the participle, but in the various tenses. The 
 writers of the silver age use it as a deponent ; e. g. Sueton. Vespas. 2. : 
 gratias egit ei, quad se honore coenae dignatus esset., that he had thought him 
 worthy. When joined with an infinitive, dignor with those writers signifies 
 " I think proper to do a thing." Vignus^ in poetry and unclassical prose 
 writers, is sometimes joined with a genitive, like the Greek alioc. When it 
 is followed by a verb, the Latin language generally requires a distinct 
 sentence beginning with a relative pronoun, the verb being put in the sub- 
 junctive ; sometimes, however, the infinitive is used, as in English. (See 
 § 568.) Contentus is likewise joined with the infinitive of a verb, see 
 § 590. The ablat. with this adjective arises from the meaning of the verb 
 contineri, of which it is, properly speaking, the participle passive ; hence in a 
 reflective sense it signifies " confining one's self to," or " satisfying one's self 
 with a thing." 
 
 [§ 468.] 10. The verbs of removing, preventing, delivering, 
 and others which denote separation, are construed with the ab- 
 lative of the thing, without any of the prepositions ab, de or ex ; 
 
m 
 
 ABLATIVE CASE. 341 
 
 but when separation from a person is expressed the preposition 
 
 ab is always used. The principal verbs of this class are: — 
 
 arcere, pellere, depellere, expellere, deturbare, dejicere, ejicere, ab- 
 
 sterrere, deterrere, movere, amovere, demovere, removere, prohibere, 
 
 excludere ; abire, exire, cedere, decedere, discedere, desistere, eva- 
 
 dere, abstinere ; liberare, expedire, laxare^ solvere, together with 
 
 the adje/etives liber, immunis, purus, vacuus and alienusy which 
 
 may be used either with the preposition ab or the ablative alone, 
 
 e. g. liber a delictis and liber omni metu, but the verbs exolvere, 
 
 exonerare and kvare, although implying liberation, are always 
 
 construed with the ablative alone. 
 
 llie verbs which denote " to distinguish " and " to differ," viz. distinguere^ 
 discemcre^ secemere^ differre^ discrepare^ dissidere, distare, abhorrere, together 
 with alienare and abalienare^ are generally joined only with the preposition 
 fli, and the ablat. alone is rare and poetical ; e.g. Tacit. Ann. i. 55. : neque 
 ipse ahhorrehat talibus studiis; Ovid, Met. iii. 145. : sol ex aequo metd distabat 
 utrdque. The verbs denoting " to differ " are construed also with the dative, 
 and not only in poetry, but sometimes even in prose ; e. g. Horat. Epist. i, 
 18. 4. : distat infdo scurrae amicus; ibid. ii. 2. 193. : simplex hilarisque nepoti 
 discrepat; Quintil. xii. 10. : Graecis Tu^canicae statuae differunt. The same 
 principle is followed by the adjective diversusy as in Quintil. I. c. : Nihil fam 
 est Lysiae diversum quam Isocrates ; Horat. Serm. i. 4- 48. : (Comaedia) nisi 
 quod pede certo Differt sermoni, sermo merus, 
 
 L. Brutus civitatem dominatu regio liberavit, Cic. p. Plane, 25. 
 Te a quartana liber atum gaudeo, Cic. ad Att x» 15. 
 Esse pro cive, qui civis nan sit, rectum est non lieere, v^u vera 
 urbis prohibere peregrinos sane inhumanum est^ Cic. de Off, iii. 
 11. 
 Apud veteres Germanos quemcunque mortalium arcere tecto ne- 
 
 fas habebatur. Tacit. Germ. 21. 
 Tu, Juppiter, hunc a tuis aris, a tectis urbis, a moenibus, a vita 
 fortunisque civium arcebis, Cic. in Cat, i, in fin. 
 
 [§ 469.] Note 1 . The verb separare Itself is commonly construed with ab^ 
 but the ablative alone is also admissible ; e.g. Ovid, Trist. i. 10. 28. : Seston 
 Ahydena separat urhe fretum. ^ Evadere is joined by Cicero with ex and ab^ 
 but Livy and Sallust use it with the ablat. alone ; it may take the accusal, 
 according to § 386. ; e. g. evadere amnem, fximmam^ insidias^ silvas^ but this 
 occurs only in the silver age. Prohibere, to keep at a distance, prevent, 
 admits of a double construction : the most common is to put the hostile 
 thing or person in the accusative, as hostes prohibere populationibus or ab 
 oppidis ', Cic. /?. Leg. Man. 7. : a quo perictdo prohibete rempublicam^ and in 
 the same chapter : erit humanitatis vestrae, magnum horum civium numerum 
 calamitate prohibere. In like manner defendere is joined with the accusative 
 of the thing to be warded off, or of the thing or person to be defended. In 
 
 z 3 . 
 
342 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 tte former sense defendere is commonly used with the accusat. alone, as 
 defender e nimios ardor es solis, but ab aliquo may also be added ; in the latter 
 sense ab is very frequently joined to it, as a periculo, a vi, ab injuria. After 
 the analogy of prohibere, the verb interdicere alicui is used almost more 
 frequently with the ablative, aliqua re, than with the accusat. aliquid ; e. g. 
 Caes. Sell. Gall. i. 46. : Ariovistus ornni Gallia interdixit Romanis ; Quintil. 
 vi. 3. 79. : quod ei domo sua interdixisset, and hence the well known formula 
 alicui aqua et igni interdicere. See the excellent disquisition of Perizonius 
 on Sanctius, Minerv. p. 345. foil. ed. sexta ; comp. § 418. 
 
 The dative with verbs denoting " to differ," is attested by a sufficient 
 number of passages ; but it is impossible to ascertain what was the practice 
 with the verbs denoting " to distinguish," for there are no decisive passages. 
 Horace says vero distingv£re falsum, turpi secemere honestum, secemere pri- 
 vatis publica, but it is uncertain whether vero, turpi and privatis, are datives 
 or ablatives. The poets now and then use the dative instead of ab with the 
 ablat., with verbs denoting separation ; e. g. Virg. Eclog. vii. 47. : solstitium 
 pecori defendite ; Georg. iii. 155.: oestrum arcebis gravido pecori; Horat. 
 Carm. i. 9. 17. : donee virenti canities abest. For otherwise abesse is always 
 joined with ab. (Comp. however § 420.) Dissentire, dissidere and discrepare, 
 are construed also with cum, and discordare cum aliquo is more frequent than 
 ab aliquo. The genitive, which is sometimes joined by poets to verbs of 
 separation, is entirely Greek ; e. g. Plant. Rud. i. 4. 27. : me omnium jam 
 laborum levas ; Horat. Carm. ii. 9. 17.: desine mollium tandem querelarum ; 
 ibid. iii. 27. 69. : abstineto irarum calidaeque rixae; ibid. iii. 17. in fin. : cum 
 famulis operum solutis ; Serm. ii. 3. 36. : morbi purgatus ; and according to this 
 analogy the genitive is used also with adjectives of the same meaning, Horat. 
 Serm. ii. 2. 119. : operum vacuum; de Art. Poet. 212. : liber laborum; Carm. 
 i. 22. : purus sceleris. So Tacitus, Annal. i. 49., uses diversus with the 
 genitive instead of ab aliqua re. 
 
 [§ 470.] Note 2. The adjective alienus (strange), in the sense of " unfit " 
 or " unsuited," is joined either with the ablative alone or with ab. ; e. g. Cic. 
 de Off", i. 13. : frav^ quasi vulpeculae, vis leonis videtur, utrumque homine 
 alienissimum est ; non alienum putant dignitate, majestate sua, institutis suis ; 
 but Cicero just as often uses the preposition ab. In the sense of " disaf- 
 fected" or " hostile " ttZzewM* always takes ab; e.g. homo alienus a litteris, 
 animum alienum a causa nobilitatis habere. In the former sense of " unsuited," 
 being the opposite of proprius (§411.), it may also be joined with the 
 genitive ; e. g. Cic. de Fin. i. 4. : quis alienum putet ejus esse dignitatis, and in 
 the latter (after the analogy of inimicus) with the dative, as Cic. p. Caec. 9. : 
 id dicit quod illi causae maxime est alienum. Alius too is sometimes found 
 with the ablative, which may be regarded as an ablative of separation ; e. g. 
 Horat. Epist. i. 16. 20. : neve putes alium sapiente bonoque beatum; Epist. ii. 
 1. 239.: alius Lysippo; Phaedr. Prolog, lib. iii. 41.: alius Sejano ; Varro, 
 de R. R. iii. 16. : quod est aliud melle ; Cic. ad Fam. xi. 2., in speaking of 
 Brutus and Cassius, says : n£c quidquam aliud libertate communi qvaesisse. 
 But this ablat. may also be compared with the ablat. joined to comparatives. 
 
 [§471.] 11. The ablative is used with esse (either expressed 
 or understood) to denote a quality of a person or a thing {ahla- 
 tivus qualitatis). But the ablative is used only when the sub- 
 stantive denoting the quality does not stand alone (as in the 
 
ABLATIVE CASE. 343 
 
 case of the genitive, see § 426.), but is joined with an adjective 
 or pronoun-adjective. Hence we cannot say, e. g. Caesar fuit 
 ingenio, or homo ingenio, a man of talent (which would be ex- 
 pressed by an adjective), but we say Caesar magnoy summon or 
 excellenti ingenio, or homo summo ingenio. 
 Agesilaus statura fuit humili et corpore exiguo, Nepos. 
 Omnes habentur et dicuntur tyranni, qui potestate sunt perpetua 
 
 in ea civitate, quae libertate usa est, Nep. Milt, 
 L, Catilina, nobili genere natus,fuit magna vi et animi et corporis, 
 
 sed ingenio malo pravoque, Sallust, Cat, 5. 
 Prope (Hennam) est spelunca quaedam, inflnita altitudine, qua 
 
 Ditem patremferunt repente cum curru extitisse, Cic. in Verr. 
 
 iv. 48. 
 
 Note. The explanation of the ablative of quality by the ellipsis of prae- 
 ditus is only intended to suggest some mode of accounting for the fact of a 
 substantive being joined with an ablative. With the same object in view 
 we prefer connecting the ablative with esse or its participle ens (though it 
 does not occur), in the absence of which a substantive enters into an imme- 
 diate connection with an ablative, without being grammatically dependent 
 upon it : Claris natalibus est, he is of noble birth ; vir claris natalibus, homo 
 antiqua virtute etjide. With regard to the difference between the ablative 
 and the genitive of quality, the genitive is more comprehensive, all ideas of 
 measure being expressed by this case alone ; but in other respects the dis- 
 tinction is not very clear. In general, however, it may be said, that the 
 genitive is used more particularly to express inherent qualities, and the 
 ablative both inherent and accidental qualities. Thus, in speaking of tran- 
 sitory qualities or conditions, the ablative is always used, as bono animo sum, 
 maximo dolore eram, and Cicero, ad Att. xii. 52., by using the genitive summi 
 animi es, suggests that he is speaking of something permanent, not merely 
 transitory. See Kriiger's Grammat. p. 532. The genitive of plural sub- 
 stantives is rare. Sometimes the two constructions, with the ablative and 
 the genitive, are found combined ; e. g. Cic. ad Fam. iv. 8. : neqiLe monere te 
 audeo, praestanti pmdentia virum, nee conjirmare maximi animi hominem; 
 ibid. i. 7. : Lentulum eximia spe, summae virtutis adolescentem ; Nep. Datam. 3. : 
 Thyum, hominem maximi corporis terribilique facie — optima veste texit. 
 
 [§ 472.] 12. The ablative with the preposition cum is Used 
 to express the manner in which any thing is done (usually indi- 
 cated by adverbs), provided the manner is expressed by a sub- 
 stantive ; e. g. cum fide amicitiam colere ; litterae cum cura dili" 
 gentiaque scriptae ; cum voluptate audire ; cum dignitate potius 
 cadere, quam cum ignominia servire, are equivalent to fideliter 
 colere, diligenter scriptae, libenter audire, &c. If an adjective is 
 joined with the substantive, the ablative alone {ablativus modi) 
 is generally used, and the preposition cum is joined to it only 
 
 z 4 
 
344 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 when an additional circumstance, and not an essential charac- 
 teristic of the action, is to be expressed. The substantives im- 
 plying manner, as modus, ratio, mos, and others, never take the 
 preposition cum. 
 
 Thus we always read : — hoc modo scripsi ; non uno modo rem tractavi ; 
 omni modo egi cum rege ; aliqua ratione tollere te volunt; constituerunt qua 
 ratione ageretur^ and the like ; in the same way humano modo et usitato more 
 peccare^ more hestiarum vagari^ latronum ritu vivere, more institutoque omnium 
 defendere^ the genitive in these cases supplying the place of an adjective. 
 We further say aequo animo fero ; maxima fide amicitias coluit ; summa 
 aequitate res constituit^ and very frequently viam incredibili celei'itate confecit; 
 lihrum magna cura diligentiaque scripsit, the action of the verb b'eing in in- 
 timate connection with the adverbial circumstance. But when the action and 
 the circumstance are considered separately, the preposition cum is used ; e. g. 
 majore cum fide auditur ; conclamant cum indecora exultatione (in Quintil.) ; 
 tanta multitudo cum tanto studio adest (Cic. p. Leg. Man. 24.) ; Verres Lamp- 
 sacum venit cum magna calamitate civitatis (Cic. in Vei-r. i. 24.), the calamitas 
 being only the consequence of his presence. Hence cum is also used when 
 the connection between the subject and the noun denoting the attribute is 
 only external; e. g. procedere cum veste purpurea; heus tu qui cum Mrquimi 
 astas barba (Plant. Pseud, iv. 2. 12.) ; yvhereiis procedere coma madenti, nudis 
 pedibus incedere, aperto capite sedere express circumstances or attributes in- 
 separable from the subject. 
 
 Quid est aliud gigantum modo hellare cum diis, nisi naturae re- 
 
 pugnare? Cic. Cat. Maj. 2. 
 Legiones nostrae in eum saepe locum profectae sunt alacri animo 
 
 et erecto, unde se nunquam redituras arbitrarentur, Cic. Cat. 
 
 Maj. 20. 
 Epaminondas a judicio capitis maxima discessit gloria, Nep. 
 
 Epam. 8. 
 Romani ovantes ac gratulantes Horatium accipiunt, eo majore cum 
 
 gaudio, quo prope metum res fuerat, Liv. i. 25. 
 Miltiades (cum Parum expugnare non potuisset) Athenas magna 
 
 cum offensione civium suorum rediit, Nep. Milt. 7. 
 
 Note 1. The difference observed between the ablativus modi and cum., in 
 the case of substantives joined with adjectives, is a nicety of the Latin lan- 
 guage, which it is difficult to explain by a rule, although it is based on 
 sound principles. Cicero, de Orat. i. 13., in speaking of the peculiar dif- 
 ference between the oratorical and philosophical style, combines the two 
 constructions : illi (the philosophers) tenui quodam exanguique sermone 
 disputant., hie (the orator) cum omni gravitate et jucunditate explicat: by 
 cum Cicero here denotes the additional things which the orator employs. If 
 he had alluded only to the mode of speaking, he would have said magna 
 gravitate rem explicat. But there are, nevertheless, some passages, in which 
 no difference is apparent, as Cic. de Invent, i. 39. : Quod cnim certius legis 
 scriptor testimonium voluntatis suae relinquere potuit., quam quod ipse magna 
 cum cura atque diligentia scripsit? de Nat. Deor. ii. 38.: impetus coeli cum 
 
ABLATIVE CASE. 345 
 
 admirabili celeritate movetur. The beginner must observe that the ablativus 
 modi is more frequent than the use of cum^ which, we hope, is explained in 
 an intelligible manner. 
 
 The ablativus modi occurs also in the words covdicio or lex, in the sense 
 of " condition," or " term," and in periculum, danger, risk ; e. g. nulla con- 
 dicione (like mdlo pacto) fieri potest; quavis condicione pacem facere ; aequa 
 condicione disceptare ; hac, ea condicione or lege ut or ne (§ 319.) ; meo, tuOy 
 vestro, cdicujiis periculo facere aliquid (but when the substantive stands alone, 
 we say cum perictdo, that is, pericidose) ; auspicio, auspiciis, ductu imperioque ali- 
 cujus rem gerere or militare. Some cases in which the ablative is used, and 
 which are commonly considered as ablativi modi, are in reality of a different 
 kind : hac mente, hoc consilio feci, for example, should rather be called ab- 
 lativi causae ; navi vehi, pedihns ire, pervenire aliquo, capite onera ferre, vi 
 urbes expugnare, on the other hand, are ablativi instrumenti, but they ac- 
 quire the nature of an ablativus modi, if the substantive is joined with an 
 adjective, as magna vi irruere, magna vi defender e aliquem, or they become 
 ablatives absolute, implying a description ; e. g. nvdis pedibus ambulare, pro- 
 cessit madenti coma, composito capillo, gravibus oculis, fluentibus buccis, pressa 
 voce et temtdenta. (Pseud. Cic. post Red. in Sen. 6.) See § 645. The ablat. 
 in Cic. Lael. 15. : miror (de Tarquinio) ilia superbia et importunitate si quem- 
 quttm amicum Tiabere potuit, must likewise be regarded as an ablative ab- 
 solute, being the same as quum tanta ejus superbia et importunitas fuerit. As 
 the preposition cum cannot be used in any of these cases, we may consider 
 it as a practical rule, that the manner in which a thing is done is expressed 
 by the ablativus modi. 
 
 In some expressions the ablative of substantives alone is found without 
 cum. Thus we say silentio praeterire, or facere aliquid (but also cum silen- 
 tio audire}, lege agere; jure and injuria facere; magistratus vitio creatus is a 
 common expression, indicating that an election had not taken place in 
 due form. Cicero uses aliquid recte et ordine, modo et ratione, ratione et 
 ordine fit, via et ratione disputare, and frequently also ratione alone ; e. g. 
 ratione facere, ratione voluptatem sequi (de Fin. i. 10.), with reason, i. e. in 
 a rational way ; sometimes also voluntate facere in the sense of sponte^ volun- 
 tarily. 
 
 [§ 473.] Note 2. If we compare the above rules with those given under 
 Nos. 1. and 2., the ablative expressing company alone is excluded, for com- 
 pany is expressed by cum, even in such cases as servi cum telis comprehensi 
 sunt, cum ferro in aliquem invadere, when we are speaking of instruments 
 which a person ha^ (if he uses them, it becomes an ablativus instrumenti) ; 
 i\xri\\Q.r y^Romxim veni cumfebri; cum nuntio exire, as soon as the news arrived; 
 cum occasu solis copias educere, as soon as the sun set. It must be observed 
 as an exception that the ancient writers, especially Caesar and Livy, in 
 speaking of military movements, frequently omit the preposition- cum, and 
 use the ablat. alone ; e. g. Liv. vii. 9. : Dictator ingenti exercitu ab urbe pro- 
 fectus; XXX. 11.: exercitu hand minoj'e, quam quern prius habuerat, ire ad 
 hostes pergit; xli. 1. : eodem decern navibus C. Furius duumvir navalis venit; 
 i. 14. : egresms omnibus copiis, where Drakenborch gives a long list of 
 similar expressions in Livy, with which we may compare the commentators 
 referred to by him and Oudendorp on Caes. Bell. Gall. ii. 7. This omission 
 of the preposition occurs also when accompanying circumstances are men- 
 tioned, and not persons; e. g. Liv. vii. 20. : quum popvlatione peragrati fines 
 esseid; v. 45. : castra clamor e invadunt. The Greeks, especially Xenophon, 
 
346 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 use the dative in the same way ; comp. Matthiae, Greek Gram. § 405., and 
 also Livy, x. 25. : majori mihi curae est, ut omnes locupletes reducam, quam ut 
 mvltis rem geram militihus, which is an ablativus instrumenti, unless it be 
 explained by the analogy of the expressions mentioned above. 
 
 [§ 474.] We may add here the remark that the participles Jmwc^z** and con- 
 junctus are joined by Cicero with the ablative alone, instead of the dative 
 (according to § 412. and 415.) or the preposition cum; e. g. ad Att. ix. 10. : 
 infinitum helium junctum miserrima fuga; p. Cluent. 6. : repente est exorta 
 mulieris importunae nefaria libido, non solum dedecore, verum etiam scelere 
 conjunda; de Orat. i. 67. : dicendi vis egregia, summa festivitate et venustate 
 conjuncta. See Garatoni's note on Philip, v. 7. : huju^ mendicitas aviditate 
 conjuncta in fortunas nostras imminebat. See also p. Plane. 10. ; Philip, iii. 
 14. ; Brut. 44. This construction is also found with implicatus in Cic. Phil. 
 ii. 32., and with admixtus in de Nat. Deor. ii. 10. Compare the construction 
 o£ simul in § 321. 
 
 [§ 475.] 13. a) The ablative, without a preposition, is used 
 to express the point of time at which any thing happens. 
 (Duration of time is expressed by the accusative, see § 395.) 
 Qua node natus Alexander est, eddem, JDianae Ephesiae templum 
 
 dejiagravit, Cic. De Nat, Deor. ii. 27. 
 Pyrrhi temporibus jam Apollo versus facere desierat, Cic. De 
 
 Divin. ii. 5Q. 
 Pompejus extrema pUeritia miles fuit summi imperatoris, ineunte 
 
 adolescentia maximi ipse exercitus imperator, Cic. p. Leg, 
 
 Man. 10. 
 
 Note. Our expressions " by day" and " by night," are rendered in Latin 
 by the special words interdiu and noctu, but the ordinary ablatives die and 
 node also occur not unfrequently, as in the combination : die ac node, die 
 noduque, node et interdiu. Vespere or vesperi is " in the evening," see §§ 98. 
 and 63. Ludis is also used to denote time, in the sense of tempore ludorum, 
 and on the same principle we find Saturnalibus, Latinis, gladiatoribus, for 
 ludis gladiatoriis. See Drakenborch on Livy, ii. 36. Other substantives 
 which properly speaking do not express time, are used in that sense either 
 with the preposition in (comp. § 318.), or without it; e.g. initio and principio, 
 adventu and discessu alicujus, comitiis, tumultu, and bello; but of bello the ablat. 
 alone is more common, if it is joined with an adjective or genitive, as bello 
 Latinorum, Vejenti bello, bello Punico secundo, and after this analogy also 
 pugna Cannensi for in pugna Cannensi. Thus also we say in pueritia; but 
 when an adjective denoting time is joined to pueritia, the ablative alone is 
 used. It is in general very rare and unclassical to use in with substantives 
 expressing a certain space of time, as hora, dies, annus, &c., for the purpose 
 of denoting the time when anything happens ; for in tempore is used only 
 when tempus signifies "distress" or "misery" (as it sometimes does in 
 Cicero : in illo tempore, hoc quidem in tempore, and in Livy : in tali tempore, 
 where we should say " under such circumstances"), and " in time," " at the 
 right time ;" but in both cases the ablative alone also occurs, and tempore in 
 the sense of "early" has even become an adverb. An earlier form of 
 this adverb is tempori or temperi, of which a comparative temperius is formed. 
 
ABLATIVE CASE. . 347 
 
 Livy (i. 18. and 57.) however has the expression in ilia aetate, at that period, 
 for which Cicero would have used the ablative alone. 
 
 [§ 476.] b) The ablative is also used to express the time 
 before and the time after a thing happened, and ante and post 
 are in this case placed after the ablative. The meaning, how- 
 ever, is the same as when ante and post are joined with the 
 accusative in the usual order, just as we may sometimes say, in 
 the same sense, " three years after," and " after three years," 
 post tres annos decessit, and tribus annis post decessit. In this 
 connection the ordinal numerals may be employed, as well as the 
 cardinal ones : post tertium annum, and tertio anno post, are the 
 same as tribus annis post; for by this, as by the former exjpres- 
 sions, the Romans did not imply that a period of three full 
 years had intervened, but they included in the calculation the 
 beginning and the end (the terminus a quo and the terminus ad 
 quern). If we add the not unusual position of the preposition 
 between the adjective and the substantive (noticed above, § 324.), 
 we obtain eight different modes of expression, all of which have 
 the same value. 
 
 {ante) post tres annos tribus annis post, 
 
 post tertium annum tertio anno post, 
 
 tres post annos tribus post annis, 
 
 tertium post annum tertio post anno. 
 
 When ante or post stands last (as in tribus annis post or tertio 
 anno post), it may be joined with an accusative following it to 
 denote the time after and before which any thing took place. 
 Themistocles fecit idem, quod viginti annis ante apud nos fecerat 
 Coriolanus (ut in exilium proficisceretur, B. c. 471), Cic. 
 
 Lael, 12. 
 L, Sextius primus de plebe consul factus est annis post Romam 
 
 conditam trecentis duodenonaginta, 
 
 [§ 477.] Note, Post and ante sometimes precede the ablatives : ante annis 
 octo, post paucis diehus (Liv. xl. 57., and elsewhere), and also before such 
 ablatives as are used adverbially : post aliquanto^ post non multo^ post paula 
 (ante aliquanto, Cic. in Verr. ii. 18.; ante paulo,, de Re Publ. ii. 4.) ; but the 
 usual place of these prepositions is that mentioned above in the rule. Diit 
 post must be avoided, for it is only the ablatives in o that are used in this way. 
 
 When ante and post are joined with quam and a verb, the expression admits 
 of great variety : we may say tribus annis postquam venerat, post tres annos 
 quam venerate, tertio anno postquam venerate post annum tertium quam venerate or 
 post may be omitted and the ablative used alone : tertio anno quam venerate — 
 and all these expressions have the same meaning, viz. " three years after he 
 had come." 
 
348 , LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 478.] c) The length of time before the present moment 
 is expressed by abhinc, generally with the accusative, but also 
 with the ablative ; e. g. Demosthenes abhinc annos prope trecentos 
 fuit, and abhinc annis quattuor. The same is also expressed by 
 ante, with the pronoun hie, as in Phaedrus : ante hos sex menses 
 maledixisti mihi. 
 Demosthenes, qui abhinc annos prope trecentos fuit, jam turn 
 
 (j^tXcTTTn^stv Pythiam dicebat, id est quasi cum Philippo facer e, 
 
 Cic. DeDivin. ii. 57. 
 
 Note. Abhinc without reference to the present moment, in the sense of 
 ante in general, occurs only in Cic. in Verr. ii. 52. ; «wte, on the other hand, 
 is used more frequently instead of abhinc, Cic. Leg. Agr. ii. 18.: vos mihi 
 praetori hiennio a\ite personam hanc imposuistis ; comp. Tusc. i. 5. 9. Hand 
 (Tursellin. i. p. 63.) observes that no ancient writer ever used an ordinal 
 numeral with abhinc, and Pliny (Hist. Nat. xiv. 4.) alone says : septimo hinc 
 anno. Sometimes the length of time before is expressed by the ablat. alone 
 joined with hie or ille, as paucis his diehus, or paucis illis dicbus, a few days 
 ago. Respecting the difference between these pronouns, in reference to the 
 present or past time, see § 703. ; comp. Q'lcin Verr.iv. 18. ^ 39. and c.63. init. 
 
 [§ 479.] d) The length of time within which a thing happens 
 is expressed by the ablative alone as well as by in with the 
 ablative. Cicero uses the ablative alone, and introduces in only 
 in connection with numerals (in answer to the question, " how 
 often during a certain time ? ") ; e. g. bis in die saturum fieri, vix 
 ter in anno nuntium audire, sol binas in singulis annis conversiones 
 facit, but not exclusively so. Other good authors use in when 
 they wish to express more decidedly the idea of within, which is 
 generally expressed by intra. (See § .300.) 
 Agamemnon cum universa Graecia vix decem annis unam cepit 
 
 urbem, Nep. Epam. 5. 
 Senatus decrevit, ut legati Jugurthae, nisi regnum ipsumque 
 
 deditum venissent, in diehus proximis decem Italia decederent, 
 
 Sallust, Jug. 28. 
 
 [§ 480.] Note. The ablative expressing " within a time " often acquires the 
 signification of " after " a time, inasmuch as the period within which a thing is 
 to happen, is passed away. Thus Tarraconem paucis diebus pervenit, in Caesar 
 (Bell. Civ. ii. 21.), signifies " after a few days," and Sallust (Jug. 39. 4.) fol- 
 lows the same principle in saying : paucis diebus in Africam proficiscitar, and 
 (ibid. 13.) paucis diebus Romam legatos mittit, for paucis diebus post. (See 
 Kritz on Sallust, Jug. 11.^ Suetonius (Ner. 3., Tib. 69.) in the same sense 
 says in paucis diebus. This use of the ablative occurs in Cicero (and other 
 good authors), inasmuch as the ablative of time, when followed by a pre- 
 position with a relative pronoun, signifies " later than ;" e. g. Plancius in Cic. 
 
ABLATIVE CASE. 349 
 
 ad Fan), x. 18. : ipse octo diehus^ quihus has litteras dabam^ cum Lepidi copiis 
 me conju7igam, that is, eight days after the date of this letter; p. Rose. Am. 36. : 
 Mors Sex. Roscii qiiatriduo^ quo is occisus est, Chrysogono nuntiatur, four days 
 after he had been killed ; Caes. Bell. Gall. i. 48. : accidit repentinum incom- 
 modum biduo, quo haec gesta sunt, two days after this had happened ; v. 26. : 
 diebu^ circiter xv., quibus in hiberna verdum est, defectio orta est; also with 
 quum iiistead of a relative pronoun, Plancius in Cic. ad.Fam. x. 23. : quern 
 triduo, quum has dabam litteras, expectabam, three days later than the date of 
 this letter. Sometimes in is joined with the abl., Terent. Andr. i. 1. 77. : in 
 diebus paucis, quibus haec acta sunt, moritur. 
 
 [§ 481.] 14. The ablative without a preposition is used to 
 denote the place where? in some particular combinations, as 
 terra marique, by land and by sea. The names of towns follow 
 their own rules (§ 398.). The preposition is omitted with the 
 word loco (and locis), when it is joined with an adjective, and has 
 the derivative meaning of " occasion ; " e. g. hoc loco, multis locis, 
 aliquot locis, certo loco, secundo loco, meliore loco res nostras sunt ; 
 but this is done more rarely when locus has its proper meaning 
 of "spot " or "place." In loco, or simply loco, is equal to suo 
 loco, in its right place ; when joined with a genitive, loco signi- 
 fies "instead," and in this sense in loco is used as well as loco 
 (also numero) alicujus esse., ducere, habere. Libro joined with an 
 adjective or pronoun, as hoc, primo, tertio, is used without in, 
 when the whole book is meant, and with in when merely a 
 portion or passage is meant. 
 
 The poets know of no limits in the use of the ablative with- 
 out in to denote a place where ? e. g. Ovid, Met. vii. 547. : 
 silvisque agrisque viisque corpora foeda jacent, any more than in 
 the use of the accusative to denote the place whither? (See 
 § 401.) They further use the abfative without ex or ab to 
 indicate the place whence ? without limiting themselves to the 
 verbs of separation (§ 468.) ; e. g. coder e nubibus, descender e coelo, 
 labi equo, currus carceribus missi. 
 
 [§ 482.] Note. The writers of the silver age imitated the poets, and began 
 more and more to use the ablative without a preposition to designate the 
 place where ? Livy, for example, says : aequo dimicatur campo, medio alveo 
 concursum est, medio Etruriae agro praedatum profectus, ad secundum lapidem 
 Gabina via considere jubet (ii. 11.), ad moenia ipsa Romae regione portae 
 Esquilinne accessere; in the special signification of regio, a division of the 
 city, Suetonius always uses it without in, e. g. regione campi Martii, and 
 others go still further. The ablative denoting the place whence ? likewise 
 appears in the prose of that time, e. g. Tacit. Ann. xii. 38. : ni cito vicis et 
 castellis proximis subventum foret, for e vicis. With regard to ordinary prose, 
 it only remains .to observe, that the ablative joined with the adjective toto or 
 
350 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 tota is generally used without in; e. g. Cic. p. Rose. Am. 9. : urbe tota gemitiis 
 Jit; in Verr. v. 35.: concursahat tota urbe maxima multitudo; p. Leg. Man. 11., 
 and very often toto mart; Philip, xi. 2. : tota Asia vagatur; p. Leg. Man. 3. : 
 tota Asia., tot in civitatibus; in Verr. ii, 49. : tota Sicilia per triennium nemo vlla 
 in civitate senator f actus est gratis; in Verr. iv. 19.: conquiri hominem tota 
 provincia jubet ; sometimes, however, we find in tota provincia^ and in toto 
 orbe terrarum; Caes. Bell. Civ. i. 6. ; tota Italia delectus habentur; tAyy fre- 
 quently uses toto campo dispersi, and Curtius : ignes qui totis campis collucere 
 coeperunt^ cadavera totis campis Jacentia. 
 
 [§ 483.] 15. The ablative is used with adjectives in the com- 
 parative degree, instead of quam with the nominative, or in the 
 construction of the accusative with the infinitive, instead of 
 quam with the accusative of the subject ; e. g. Nemo Romanorum 
 fuit eloquentior Cicerone; neminem Romanorum eloquentiorem 
 fuisse veteres judicarunt Cicerone, The ablative instead of quam 
 with the accusative of the object occurs more rarely, but when 
 the object is a relative pronoun, the ablative is generally used. 
 Villus argentum est auro, virtutibus aurum, Horat. Epist. 
 Sapiens humana omnia inferiora virtute ducit, Cic. Tusc, 
 Phidiae simulacris, quibus nihil in illo genere perfectius videmus, 
 cogitare tamen possumus pulchriora, Cic. Orat. 2. 
 
 [§ 484.] Note 1. The ablative, instead of quam., with the accusative of the 
 object, is found very frequently in poetry : e. g. Horat. Carm. i. 8. 9. : Cur 
 olivum sanguine viperino cautius vital? i. 12. 13.: Quid prius dicam solitis 
 parentis laudibus ? i. 18. 1.: Nullam, Vare, saci^a vite prius severis arborem^ 
 &c. In prose it is much more uncommon, though well established ; e. g. 
 Cic. de Re Publ. i. 10. : Quern auctorem de Socrate locupletiorem Platone 
 laudare possumus? p. Rob. 1. : Est boni consulis suam salutem posteriorem 
 saluti communi ducere ; Caes. Bell. Gall. vii. 19. : nisi eorum vitam sua sa- 
 lute habeat cariorem ; Val. Maxim, v. 3. ext. 2. : Neminem Lycurgo aut 
 majorem aut utiliorem virum Lacedaemon genuit. This construction is more 
 frequent with pronouns; and Cicero often uses such phrases as hoc mihi 
 gratius nihil facere potes ; but it is necessary in the connection of a com- 
 parative with a relative pronoun, e. g. Liv. xxxviii. 53. : Scipio Africanus 
 Punici belli perpetrati, quo nullum neque majus neque periculosius Romani 
 gessere^ unu^ praecipuam gloriam tulit; Curt. vi. 34. : Hie Attalo, quo gravi- 
 orem inimicum non habui, sororem suam in matrimonium dedit. But the 
 ablat. instead of quain with any other case was never used by a Roman. 
 Quam with the nomin. or accusat., on the other hand, frequently occurs, 
 where the ablative might have been employed ; e. g. Livy : melior tutiorque 
 est certa pax., quam sperata victoria., which in the infinitive would be me- 
 liorem esse certam pacem putabat quam speratam victoriam. If the verb 
 cannot be supplied from the preceding sentence, as in the passages just 
 quoted (where est and esse are thus supplied), quam — est or quam— fuit must 
 be expressly added ; e. g. Gellius, x. 1. : Haec verba sunt M. Varronis, quam 
 fuit Claudiu^y doctioris ; Cic. in Verr. iv. 20. : Argentum. reddidisti L. Curidioy 
 homini non gratiosiori, quam Cn. Calidius est ; Senec. Consol, ad Polyb. 34. : 
 
ABLATIVE CASE. 351 
 
 Drusum Germanicium minor em natu, quam ipse erat, fratrem amisit. But 
 when an accusative precedes, quam may follow with the same case, just as if 
 esse preceded; Terent. Phorm. iv. 2. 1. : Ego hominem callidiorem vidi nemi- 
 nem quam Phormionem^ instead of qiuim Phormio est. Cicero (ad Fam. v. 7.) 
 combines both constructions : Ut tibi multo majori qvma Africanus fuit (he 
 could not have said qtuim Africano) me non multo minorem quam Laelium (he 
 might have said quam fuit Laelius^ et in repuhlica et in amicitia adjunctum 
 esse patiare. Comp. p. Plane. 12. 30. Hence, instead of the ablative in the 
 sentence quoted above, neminem Lycurgo majorem Lacedaemon genuit^ we 
 may say qvum Lycurgum or quam Lycargus fuit^ the latter of which con- 
 structions is more frequent. 
 
 The ablatives opinione, spe, aequo, justo, solito, dicto, are of a peculiar 
 kind, and must be explained by quam est or erat ; e. g. Cic. Brut. init. : 
 opinione omnium majorem animo cepi dolorem, greater than the opinion of all 
 men was that it would be ; Virgil : dicto citius tumida aequora placat, quicker 
 than the word was spoken. Quam pro, joined to a comparative, signifies 
 " than in proportion to ; " e. g. Liv. xxi. 29. : proelium atrocius quam pro 
 numero pugnantium editur. 
 
 In poetry alius, another, is sometimes treated like a comparative, and con- 
 strued with the ablative, instead of atque with the nomin. or accus. See 
 § 470. The poets further sometimes use atque instead of qun,m. See 
 §340. 
 
 [§ 485.] Note 2. Minus, plu^, and amplius (or non minus, haud minu^, &c.), 
 when joined to numerals and some other words denoting a certain measure 
 or portion of a thing, are used with and without quam, generally as inde- 
 clinable words, and without influence upon the construction, but merely to 
 modify the number; e. ^. Liv. xxxix. 31.: non plus quam quuttuor milia 
 effugerunt, not effugit ; Nep. lliras. 2. : non plu^ habuit secum quam triginta 
 de suis (plures would rarely be used in such a case) ; Cic. Brut. 18. : pictores 
 antiqui non sunt usi plus quam quMtuor coloribus, not pluribu^ ; Liv. xxvii. 25. : 
 negabant unam cellam amplius quam uni deo rite dedicari. Quam is omitted 
 very frequently, and with all cases ; e. g. Liv. xxiv. 16. : minus duo milia 
 hominum ex tanto exercitu effugerunt ; xxxvi. 40. : plu^ pars dimidia ex quin- 
 quagijita milibus hominum caesa sunt; Cic. ad Att. v. 1. : qux) magis erit tibi 
 videndum, ut hoc vx)strum desiderium ne plus sit annuum; Tusc. ii. 16. : milites 
 Romani saepe plu^ dimidiati mensis cibaria ferebant ; Terent. Adelph. ii. 1. 
 45. ; plus quingentos colaphos infregit mihi ; Liv. iii. 64. : si vos minus hodie 
 decem tribunos plebis feceritis ; xl. 2. : quum plus annum aeger fuisset; xxx. 
 27. : sedecim non amplius eo anno legionibus defensum imperium est ; Cic. in 
 Verr. ii. 57. : minus triginta diebus Metellus totam triennii praeturam tuam 
 rescidit. These examples prove the omission of quam in connection with the 
 other cases. Its omission with the dative is attested by Propertius, ii. 19. 18. 
 (iii. 19. 32.) : et se plus uni si qua parare potest ; i. e. for more than for one ; 
 and why should we not say mille amplius hominibus quoiidie panem dedit f It 
 must be observed that these comparatives are sometimes inserted between 
 the words which they modify ; e. g. Tacit. Hist. iv. 52. : decem haud amplius 
 dierum frumentam in horreis fuit ; Liv. i. 18. : centum amplius post annos; 
 and sometimes, when joined with a negative, they follow the words they 
 modify as a^ort of apposition ; Liv. xl. 31. : quinque milium arnrntorum, non 
 amplius, relictum erat praesidium, a garrison of 5000 soldiers, not more. 
 Sometimes, however, the ablative is used with these comparatives as with 
 others, instead of quam with the nomin. or accus. ; e. g. Liv. xxiy. 17. : ea 
 
352 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 die caesi sunt Romanis minus quadringentis ; Cic. in Verr. ill. 48. : nemo minvji 
 t?'ibus medimnis in jugerum dedit: p. Rose. Com. 3. : quamohrem hoc nomen 
 triennio amplius in adversariis relinquebas, instead of the more common am- 
 plius trieyinium, as above. Comp. also in Verr. iv. 43. : hora amplius molie- 
 bantur. Longius is used in the same way ; see Caes. Bell. Gall. v. 53. : 
 Gallorum copias non longius milia passuum octo ab hibernis suis afuisse ; but 
 vii. 9. : ne longius triduo ab castris absit ; iv. 1 . : apud Suevos non longius 
 anno remanere uno in loco incolendi causa licet. 
 
 [§ 486.] Note 3. The English word " still," joined with comparatives, is 
 expressed by adhuc only in the later prose writers, as Senec. JSpist. 49. : 
 Punctum est quod vivimus et adhuc puncto minus. In the classical language 
 etiam^ and sometimes vel^ are equivalent to the English " still." 
 
 [§ 487.] 16. The ablative is used to express the measure or 
 amount by which one thing surpasses another, or is surpassed by- 
 it. Paulo, multOf quo, eo, quanto, tanto, tantulo, aliquanto, hoc, 
 are to be considered as ablatives of this kind. Alter o tanto 
 signifies 'Hwice as much;" multis partihus is the same as 
 multo. 
 
 Ilibernia dimidio minor est quam Britannia, Caes. 
 Homines quo plura hahent, eo cupiunt ampliora. Just. 
 Diogenes disputare solehat, quanto regem Persarum vita fortuna- 
 
 que super aret, Cic. Tu.sc, v. 32. 
 
 [§ 488.] Note 1. We thus perceive that these ablatives are joined not 
 only with comparatives, but with verbs which contain the idea of a compa- 
 rison with other things, as malle., praestare., superare^ excellere., antecellere antc- 
 cedere, and others compounded with ante. Also with ante und post, their mean- 
 ing being " earlier," and " later." Hence multo ante, mucli earlier ; non midto 
 post, not much later, or not long after. As to multo with a superlative, 
 see § 108. In the case of plus there may be some ambiguity. The words 
 in Cicero {de Nat. Deor. i. 35.) uno digito plus habere might mean " to have 
 more than one finger," and Liv. ii. 7. : uno plus Etruscorum cecidit, more 
 than one man fell on the part of the Etruscans. But this is the reason why 
 in this sense (according to § 485.) we usually say plu^ unum digitum habere, 
 plus unus Etruscorum ; and with the ablat. the meaning is, " to have one 
 finger more," viz. than we have, that is six ; and, " on the part of the 
 Etruscans one man more," viz. than on the part of their enemies. Biit still 
 it would be clearer to say uno plures digitos habere, uno plures Etrusc. ceci- 
 derunt, as in Liv. v. 30. : una plures tribus antiquarunt. Respecting the differ- 
 ence between aliquanto and paulo, see § 108 : aliquanto has an affirmative 
 power, " considerably more," nearly the same as "much more;" paulo like 
 pauci is of a negative nature, " a little more," where the " little" may imply 
 a great deal, and the word pavlo may have been chosen with a view to repre- 
 sent it as little. An excellent passage to prove this \s, G\c. p. Qidnt.\2.: 
 Si debuisset, Sexte, petisses statim ; si non statim, paulo quidem post ; si non 
 paulo, at aliquanto; sex quidem illis mensibus profecto; anno vero vertente 
 sine coniroversia. 
 
 Note 2. Multum, tantum, quantum, and aliquantum are sometimes used 
 adverbially with a comparative, instead of the ablat. multo, tanto, quanto, and 
 
ABLATIVE CASE. 353 
 
 (diqvanto; e.g. Terent. JEunuch.{.2. 51.: ejus /rater aliqtuintum ad rem est 
 avidior ; Val. Maxim, iv. 1. 1.: quantum domo inferior, tantum gloria superior 
 evasit. Sometimes they are used only to avoid ambiguity, Liv. iii. 15.: 
 quantum juniores patrum plehi se magis insinuabant, eo acrius contra trihuni 
 tendebant; Juven. x. 197. : multum hie robustior illo. Cicero uses tantum and 
 quantum in this way only in connection with antecedere, excellere, and prae- 
 stare ; e. g. de Off. i. 30.; Orat, 2. § 6. ; p. Leg. Man. 13.; de Re Publ. ii. 2.: 
 but both multum and muMo praestare. The adverb tarn — quam with a com- 
 parative, instead of tanto — quanto, is rare and poetical. Longe (far) alone 
 is frequently used for midtOy in prose as well as in poetry. 
 
 [§ 489.] 17. The ablative is governed by the prepositions ah 
 (a, abs), absque, clam, coram, cum, de, ex (e), prae, pro, sine, 
 tenus (is placed after its case) ; by in and sub when they an- 
 swer to the question where ? and by super in the sense of de, 
 " concerning," or " with regard to." Subter is joined indiffer- 
 ently either with the ablative or the accusative, though more 
 frequently with the latter. 
 
 The preposition in is generally joined with the ablative even 
 after the verbs of placing {jpono, loco, colloco, statue; constituo, 
 and consldo), although strictly speaking they express motion: 
 on the other hand, in is commonly used with the accusative 
 after the verbs advenire, adventare, convenire, commeare, although 
 we say, " to arrive at" or " in a place," and not " into." When 
 the place at which a person arrives is expressed by the name of 
 a town, the accusative alone is used, and when by an adverb, 
 we must use hue, quo, and not hie, ubi, &;c. ; e. g. advenit in 
 Italiam, fn provinciam, advenit Romam, Delphos, adventus hue 
 tuus. 
 
 In is used with either case after the verbs of assembling {con- 
 gregare, cogere, constipare, and others), concealing {abdere, con- 
 dere, abscondere, abstrudere), and including (includere, concludere). 
 It must however be observed, that the accusative is preferred 
 when an action is indicated, and the ablative, when a state or 
 condition (in the participle perfect passive). Sometimes these 
 verbs take an ablativus instrumenti, e. g. abdere se litteris, in- 
 cludere carcere, verba concludere versu, which is the case most 
 frequently with implicare. 
 Aegyptii ac Babylonii omnem curam in siderum cognitione posue^ 
 
 runt, Cic. de Divin, i. 42. 
 Herculem hominumfama, beneficiorum memor, in concilio coelestium 
 
 collocavit, Cic de Off. iii. 5. 
 
 A A 
 
354 LATIN GRAMlvrAR. 
 
 [§ 490.] Note. The compounds of pono sometimes have in with the ab- 
 lative and sometimes with the accusative, but more frequently the former ; 
 e. g. aliquem in numero deorum^ spem in felicitate reponere. Imponere takes 
 in with the accusat. (unless it is joined with the dative, according to § 415.); 
 e. g. milites in naves, corpus in plaustrum ; sometimes, however, it has, like 
 jooTiO, in with the ablat., e. g. Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 20. : imposuistis in cervi- 
 cibus nostris sempitemum dominum. In like manner, defigere, insculpere, 
 inscribere, and inserere (unless they are joined with the dative) are usually 
 construed with in with the ablative ; e. g. natura insculpsit in mentihus nostris; 
 nomen suum inscribunt in basi ; legati in vultu regis defixerunt oculos. This 
 and similar things arise from a mixture of two ideas, that of the action 
 implied in the verb, and that of the result, and hence m.with the ablative is 
 preferable after the preterites of doubtful verbs. In with the accusative 
 after esse and habere occurs only in obsolete formulae, as esse (habere') in 
 potestatem, and others. See § 316. In custodiam haberi, and in carcerem as- 
 servari in Livy, viii. 20. and xxii. 25., are irregularities. 
 
 [§ 491.] " To do anything with a person," is expressed in Latin by facer e 
 with c?e, and more frequently with the simple ablative or dative : quid facias 
 hoc homine, or huic hominif and in the passive voice quid de me fiet? what 
 will become of me ? quid pecuniae fiet ? what will become of the money ? 
 Cicero : quid illo myoparone factum sit. It is never expressed by cum, for 
 facere cum aliquo signifies " to be of a person's party." 
 
 CHAP. LXXV. 
 
 VOCATIVE CASE. 
 
 [§ 492.] The vocative is not in immediate connection with either 
 nouns or verbs, but is inserted to express the object to which 
 our words are addressed. 
 
 Note. It only remains to observe, that the vocative is usually placed after 
 one or two words of a sentence ; at least, it is not placed at the beginning 
 without some special reason, and the interjection O is used only when we 
 are speaking with great animation or emotion. The poets not uncommonly 
 adopt the Attic practice of using the nominative instead of the vocative ; 
 e. g. Terence : o virfortis atque amicus ! Horat. de Art. Poet. 292. : Vos a Pom- 
 piliu^ sanguis! In some instances the same practice occurs in prose, ns 
 Liv. i. 24. : audi tu, populus Romanus ! viii. 9. : agedum pontifex publicus 
 popidi Romani, praei verba, quibu^ me pro legionibus devoveam. The nominat. 
 in apposition to the vocat. occurs in Juvenal, iv. 24. : tii, succinctu^ patria 
 quondam, Crispine, papyro ; other poets, on the contrary, by a mixture 
 of two constructions, use the vocative of words which, belonging to the 
 verb, ought to be in the nominative ; e. g. Virg. Aen. ii. 283. : quibus, Hector, 
 ab oris expectate venis f ix. 485.: heu! canibus date — jaces ; Pers. i. 123.: 
 Quicunque afflate Cratino — aspice. Comp. iii. 28. The passage of Pliny 
 {Mist Nat. vii. 31.), in which Cicero is addressed : salve primus omnium 
 parens patriae appellate, primus in toga triumphum linguueque lauream merite ! 
 is of a different kind, primus signifying "being the first." 
 
 I 
 
17SE OF THE TENSES. 355 
 
 in. USE OF TIIE TENSES, 
 
 CHAP. LXXVL 
 
 [§ 493.] 1. The tenses of the Latin verb are used on the whole 
 in the same way as those of the English verb, with the excep- 
 tion of one great peculiarity, which is explained in § 498. 
 (Comp. § 150.) The only general rule that can be laid down 
 is this : we must first determine whether the action or condition 
 to be expressed falls in the present, the past, or the future, and 
 in what relation it stands to other actions or conditions with 
 which it is connected. For example, / was writing, and / had 
 written, are both actions belonging to the past, but in regard 
 to their relation they differ, for in the sentence, " I was writing 
 when the shot was heard,^^ the act of writing was not completed 
 when the shot was heard ; whereas in the sentence " / had 
 written, w^hen my friend arrived," the act of writing was com- 
 pleted when the other (the arrival of my friend) occurred. The 
 same difference exists between, / shall write to- morrow, and / 
 shall have written to-morrow ; between / am writing to-day, i. e. 
 I am engaged in an act not yet terminated, and / 1mm written 
 to-day, which expresses an act already terminated. This last is 
 the proper signification of the Latin perfect, as advenit pater, 
 the father has arrived, that is, he is here now. Horace, at the 
 close of a work says : exegi monumentum acre perennius ; and 
 Ovid : jamque opus exegi. An orator, at the conclusion of his 
 speech, says : din, that is, " I have done," and Virgil (^Aen. ii. 
 325.), with great emphasis : fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium, i. e. we 
 are no longer Trojans, Ilium is no more. 
 
 Note. Other grammarians distinguish three relations of an action ; 1 . 
 an action is lasting^ that is, incomplete ; 2. it is completed ; and 3. not yet com" 
 menced. But the distinction between a completed and a not completed 
 action excludes every thing else, for an action either is taking place or has 
 taken place : a third is impossible, and an action not yet commenced does 
 not exist as an action, except in the imagination. The tenses, for the sake 
 of which other grammarians have recourse to a third relation (scripturus sum, 
 eram^ ero^fui, fuercmu fuero).^ form in our opinion a distinct conjugation, in 
 which the action is described as intended (I am, was, have been, &c. intending 
 to write). Comp. § 169. 
 
 AA 2 
 
356 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 494.] 2. The Latin language therefore has two tenses for 
 
 each of the three great divisions of time, — past, present, and 
 
 future ; one expressing a complete and the other an incomplete 
 
 action. And the six tenses of the Latin verb are thus the result 
 
 of a combination of time and relation. 
 
 f scribo, I write, or am writing — present time, and ^ction going on. 
 1 scripsi, I have written, — present time, and action terminated. 
 
 {scribebam, I wrote, or was writing, — past time, and action going on. ' 
 scripseram, I had written, — past time, and action terminated. 
 fscribam, I shall write, or be writing, — future time, and action not com- 
 -j pleted. 
 
 t scripsero^ I shall have written, — future time, and action completed. 
 
 Note. It is not difficult to see why in the conjugation of verbs we pre- 
 ferred that order of the tenses which is based upon the relation which they 
 bear to one another. (Comp. § 150.) But in syntax, the above arrange- 
 ment and division is necessary for the purpose of presenting a clear view of 
 the kindred nature of the present and perfect (for both are presents, as far 
 as time is concerned), and of the use of the two futures. 
 
 3. The passive has the same tenses with the same meaning ; 
 but with this difference, that they do not express an action, but 
 a condition or suffering, as we may call it. 
 
 {laudor^ I am praised, — present time, and condition still going on. 
 laudatus sum, I have been praised, — present time, and condition termi- 
 nated. 
 {laudabar, I was praised, — past time, and condition going on. 
 laudatus eram, I had been praised, — past time, and condition terminated. 
 {laudabor, I shall be praised, — future time, and condition not completed. 
 laudatus ero, I shall have been praised, — future time, and condition com- 
 pleted. 
 
 [§ 495.] Note. The participle perfect passive, however, is also used in 
 the sense of an adjective to express a lasting condition ; e. g. scripta epistola, 
 a written letter, and in this sense the participle may be joined with all the 
 six tenses of esse ; as, epistola scripta est, erat, erit, fuit, fuerat, fuerit. All 
 this may be said in Latin ; but the question here is only as to how the 
 tenses of the passive voice are formed by the combination of the participle 
 perfect passive with sum, eram, and ero. We here repeat (see § 168.), that 
 laudatus fueram and laudatus fuero are sometimes used as passive tenses for 
 laudatus eram and laudatus ero, which arose from a desire to express by the 
 auxiliary verb esse the terminated condition already implied in the parti- 
 ciple perfect passive. Thus Livy (xxiv. 30.) says : ceterum Leontinorum 
 nemo — violatus fu£rat, nobody had been injured ; Pompey in Cic. ad Att. viii. 
 12. (C.) : si copiae in unum locum fuerint coactae, when they shall have been 
 collected. In like manner the subjunctive laudatus fuissem is equivalent to 
 laudatus essem; e.g. Ovid, ilifetam. vi. 156.: si non sibi visa fuisset; He- 
 roid. vii. 140. : si Punica non Teucris pressa fuisset humu^, — and laudatus 
 fu£rim to laudatus sim. In the infinitive laudatum fuisse, the participle is 
 generally to be considered as an adjective. 
 
USE OP THE TENSES. , 357 
 
 [§ 496.] 4. The tenses of the present and past time, that is, 
 the present, perfect, imperfect and pluperfect, have also a sub- 
 junctive mood, as scribam^ scrip serim, scrihebam, scripsissem, and 
 in the passive, scribar, scriptus sim, scriberer, scriptus essem. For 
 the relations in which the subjunctive is required, see Chap. 
 LXXVIII. As tenses, these subjunctives do not differ from 
 the signification of the indicative. 
 
 6. Neither the active nor the passive voice has a subjunctive 
 of the future, and the deficiency is supplied by other means. 
 When the idea of futurity is already implied in another part of 
 the proposition, the other tenses of the subjunctive supply the 
 place of the future, viz. the present and imperfect supply the 
 place of the future subjunctive, and the perfect and pluperfect 
 that of the future perfect. The choice of one or other of these 
 four subjunctives is to be determined by the time expressed by 
 the leading verb of the proposition, and by the relation of the 
 action, being either completed or not completed, e. g. Affirmo 
 tibi, si hoc beneficium mihi tribuas, me magnopere gavisurum, and 
 affirmabam tibi, si illud beneficium mihi tribueres, magnopere me 
 gavisurum. It is clear that tribuas and tribueres here supply 
 the place of the future subjunctive, for in the indicative we say 
 si mihi tribues — magnopere gaudebo. Again, Affirmo tibi, si hoc 
 beneficium mihi tribueris, me quamcunque possim gratiam tibi re- 
 laturum, and affirmabat mihi, si illud beneficium ipsi tribuissem, 
 se quamcunque posset "gratiam mihi relaturum, where tribueris 
 and tribuissem supply the place of the future perfect, for in the 
 indicative we should say si hoc beneficium mihi tribueris (from 
 tribuero), quamcunque potero gratiam tibi referam, when you 
 shall have shown me this kindness. The same is the case in the 
 passive voice: affirmo tibi, si hoc beneficium mihi tribuatur, me 
 magnopere gavisurum ; affirmabam tibi, si illud beneficium mihi 
 tribueretur, magnopere me gavisurum ; affirmo tibi, me, si hoc 
 beneficium mihi tributum sit (or fuerii), quamcunque possim 
 gratiam tibi relaturum ; affirmabam tibi, si illud beneficium 
 mihi tributum esset (or fuisset), quamcunque possem gratiam 
 me tibi relaturum. 
 
 Note. This rule is not affected by the supposition (which was a subject of 
 dispute even in ancient times; see Gellius, xviii. 2.; Perizon. on Sanct. 
 Minerv. i. 13. note 6.), that trihuerim^ which we called above a perfect sub- 
 
 A A 3 
 
358 ' LATIN GKAM3IAR. 
 
 junctive, is in these cases the subjunctive of the future perfect. It is quite 
 certain that this form is used wherever the subjunctive of the future perfect 
 is wanted ; e. g. Plant. Pseud, i. 1 . 89. : Quis mi igitur drachmam reddet^ si 
 dederim tihi? Cic. ad Fam. i. 7. 9. : Haec profecto vides, quanta expressiora, 
 quantoque illustriora futura sint, quum aliqunntum ex provincia atque ex m- 
 perio laudis accesserit; de Leg. Agr. ii. 20. : Putant, si quam spem exercitus 
 habeat^ hone non habiturum, quum viderit. That it is a perfect may be inferred 
 even from the manner in which the pluperfect of the subjunctive is used 
 instead of the subjunctive of the future perfect, and in which the passive of 
 this tense is expressed. As the question is beyond all doubt, we shall quote, 
 in confirmation, only classical passages : Cic. p. Rose. Am. 38. : ostendit., si 
 sublata sit venditio bonorum., ilium pecimiam grandem amissurum esse; Horat. 
 Serm. i. 1. 32. : Hac mente laborem sese ferre^ senes ut in otia tuta recedarit, 
 ajunt, quum sibi sint congesta cibaria; Tacit. Hist. iv. 57. : quum spoliati 
 fuerint quieturos. But Madvig (in the dissertation above refei-red to, p. 174.) 
 has proved that the form tribuerim is at the same time the subjunctive of the 
 future perfect, and other applications of this form thus receive their correct 
 explanation. We retain the designation o^ perfect subjunctive merely for the 
 sake of convenience. 
 
 [§ 497.] If no future has gone before, and the construction 
 of the sentence requires the subjunctive, the participle future 
 active is employed for this purpose, with the appropriate tense 
 of the verb esse. This paraphrased conjugation (conjugatio peri- 
 phrastica), as it is called, properly expresses an intended action 
 (see §498.); but the subjunctives with sim and essern are used 
 also as regular subjunctives of the future, the idea of intention 
 passing over into that of futurity ; e. g. Non dubito quin redi- 
 turus sit, I do not doubt that he will return; non duhitabam 
 quin rediturus esset, I did not doubt that he would return. The 
 perfects rediturus fuerim and rediturus fuissem retain their 
 original meaning, implying intention; e. g. non dubito quin 
 rediturus fuerit, I do not doubt that he has had the intention to 
 return. (It is only in hypothetical sentences that this meaning 
 passes over into that of the pluperfect subjunctive, of which we 
 shall speak hereafter.) If we want simply to express futurity, 
 we must use the circumlocution with futurum sit and futurum 
 essct ; e. g. nescio num futurum sit, ut eras hoe ipso tempore 
 jam redierit, and nesciebam num futurum esset, ut postridie eo 
 ipso tempore jam redisset. This same circumlocution must be 
 employed in the passive of which the participle future implies 
 necessity, and cannot be used in the sense of a simple future ; 
 e. g. non dubito, quin futurum sit, ut laudetur, I do not doubt 
 that he will be praised ; multi non dubitahant, quin futurum esset. 
 
USE OF THE TENSES. 359 
 
 ut Caesar a Pompejo vinceretur, that Caesar would be conquered 
 by Pompey. 
 
 [§ 498.] 6. The conjugatio periphrastica, which is formed by 
 means of the participle future active and the auxiliary verb esse, 
 is peculiar to the Latin language, and is used to express an 
 intended action, or, in the case of intransitive verbs, a state or 
 condition which is to come to pass (the Greek fisXkstv). It has 
 its six tenses like the ordinary conjugation. The realization 
 depends either on the will of the subject or on that of others, or 
 upon circumstances. In the first case we say in English, " I 
 intend," or " am on the point of," and in the others, " I am to" 
 (be, or do a thing), i. e. others wish that I should do it ; e. g. 
 Sallust, Jug. 5. : Bellum scripturus sum, quod populus Romanus 
 cum Jugurtha gessit, I am on the point of writing, or intend to 
 write; Varro, De Re Rust iii. 16.: Quum apes jam evoliturae 
 sunt, consonant vehementer, when they are on the point of flying 
 out ; Cic. De Fin. ii. 26 : Me ipsum igitur ames oportet, non 
 mea, si veri amid futuri sumus, if we- are to be friends ; Cat, 
 Maj. 22. : Quare si haec ita sunt, sic me colitote, ut deum : sin 
 una est interiturus animus cum corpore, vos tamen memoriam 
 nostram pie servabitis, which is not equivalent to interibit, as 
 interiturus est intimates that it is the opinion of others ; Tacit. 
 Agr. 46. : Quidquid ex Agricola amavimus, manet mansurumque 
 est in animis hominum, i. e. is to remain. Imperfect : Liv. xxviii. 
 28. : llli sicut Mamertini, in Sicilia Messanam, sic Rhegium habi- 
 turi perpetuam sedem erdnt, they intended to keep Rhegium. 
 Future: Cic. De Invent, i. 16; Attentos faciemus auditores, si 
 demonstrabimus, ea, quae dicturi erimus, magna, nova, incredibilia 
 esse ; De Orat. ii. 24 : hoc ei primum praecipiemus, quascunque 
 causas erit acturus, ut eas diligenter penitusque cognoscat ; i. 52 : 
 (orator) eorum, apud quos aliquid aget aut eHt acturus, mentes 
 sensusque degustet oportet. The future perfect occurs only in 
 one passage of Seneca, Epist. ix. 14 : Sapiens tamen non vivet, si 
 fuerit sine homine victurus, if he should be under the necessity 
 of living. 
 
 The perfect and pluperfect likewise occur in their proper 
 signification ; e. g. Cic. p. Lig. 8 : Quid facturi fuistis ? I 
 ask, what did you intend doing there ? Liv. xxviii. 28. : Vos 
 cum Mandonio consilia communicastis et arma consociaturi fuistis, 
 you have had the intention of uniting your arms with theirs ; 
 
 A A 4 
 
360 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Justin, xiii. 5. : Alexander excursurus fuerat cum valida manu 
 ad Athenas delendas, had had the intention of marching, &c. 
 Scripturus fui, however, most frequently acquires the signi- 
 fication of a phiperfect subjunctive, when it occurs in a sentence 
 containing the result of, or inference from an hypothetical 
 sentence (which is either untrue or impossible), according to 
 the rule explained in § 518, that the Latins commonly use the 
 indicative of a preterite with verbs implying possibility, viz. 
 that in the time past something might have happened ; e. g. 
 Liv. ii. 1 : Quid enim futurum fuit, si ilia plebs agitari coepta esset 
 tribtmiciis procellis ? Curt. iv. 38. ; Mazaeus, si transeuntibus 
 Jlumen supervenisset, haud dubie oppressurus fuit incompositoSy 
 equivalent to accidisset and oppressisset. 
 
 The subjunctives of these tenses are used in the same way as 
 the corresponding tenses of the indicative, if the construction of 
 a sentence requires the subjunctive. Hence scripturus fuerim, 
 in hypothetical sentences, takes the place of a pluperfect sub- 
 junctive, and that not only after a present tense, as Liv. xxxi. 7. : 
 Quis enim dubitat, quin, si Saguntinis impigre tulissemus opem, 
 totum in Hispaniam aversuri bellum fuerimus ; but also after 
 preterites, as Liv. iv. 38. : nee dubium erat, quin, si tarn pauci 
 simul obire omnia possent, terga daturi hostes fuerint ; xxii. 32. : 
 adeo est inopia coactus (Hannibal), ut, nisi tum fugae speciem 
 abeundo timuisset, Galliam repetiturus fuerit ; Cic. Ad Att. ii. 
 16. : (Pompejus ecto^I^sto) quid futurum fuerit, si Bibulus tum 
 in forum descendisset, se divinare non potuisse. The pluperfect 
 subjunctive itself, however, occurs in Livy, xxviii. 24. 2, and 
 xxxviii. 46. 6. 
 
 [§ 499.] 7. The participle future passive in ndus, or the 
 participle of necessity (^participium necessitatis), in combination 
 with the tenses of the verb esse, forms another distinct con- 
 jugation denoting future necessity and not future suffering, for 
 epistola scribenda est, for example, does not signify " the letter 
 is about to be written," which is expressed by the simple 
 future epistola scribetur, but " the letter must be written," there 
 being either an internal or external necessity for its being 
 written, either of which is expressed in English by " the letter 
 is to be written." This conjugation may accordingly be re- 
 garded as the passive of the conjugatio periphrastica. The 
 tenses are the same as those of the auxiliary verb esse, and in 
 
USE OF THE TENSES. 361 
 
 SO far do not differ from the general rule ; e. g. the future : 
 TibuU. iv. 5. init : Qui mihi te, Cerinthe, dies dedit, hie mihi sanctus 
 atque inter festos semper habendus erit ; future perfect, in 
 Quintil. xi. 2.21 : Si longior complectenda memorid fuerit or alio, 
 jproderit per partes ediscere. But it is to be observed with 
 regard to these tenses of necessity, that, as in the active con- 
 jugatio periphrastica, the tenses of the past (imperfect, plu- 
 perfect, and the historical perfect) are used at the same time, 
 in hypothetical sentences, as the imperfect and pluperfect sub- 
 junctive of the verb debeo, I must ; e. g. Sulpicius in Cic. Ad 
 Fam. iv. 5 : Quae si hoc tempore non suum diem obisset, paucis 
 post annis tamen ei moriendum fuit, i. e. she would have beeD 
 obliged to die. 
 
 [§ 500.] 8. The perfect indicative, both active and passive, has 
 in Latin, besides its signification of an action terminated at the 
 present time, that of an aorist, that is, it is used to relate events 
 of the past, which are simply conceived as facts, without 
 any regard to their being terminated or not terminated, in 
 respect to each other ; e. g. Itaque Caesar armis rem gerere con- 
 stituity exercitum Jinibus Italiae admovit, Rubiconem transiit, 
 Romam et aeraHum occupavit, Pompejum cedentem persecutus est, 
 eumque in campis Pharsalicis devicit. In English the imperfect 
 is used to relate events of the past, and hence we translate the 
 above passage : — Caesar resolved to use armed force, he ad- 
 vanced with his army to the frontiers of Italy, passed the 
 Rubicon, took possession of Rome and the treasury, pursued 
 Pompey, and defeated him in the plain of Pharsalus. But the 
 Latin imperfect is never used in this sense; it always ex- 
 presses an incomplete or continuing action or condition of the 
 past time, the ancient correct rule being perfecto procedit, imper- 
 fecta insistit oratio. 
 
 Note 1. But even in historical narrative actions or conditions may be repre- 
 sented as continuing, and we may introduce, e. g., into the above narrative 
 things which are conceived as continuing, and are accordingly expressed by 
 the imperfect : Caesar armis rem gerere constituit: videhat enim inimicorum in 
 dies majorem fieri exercitum^ suorum animos debilitari, repvtdbatque appro- 
 pinquare hiemem; itaque exercitum admovit^ &c. Comp, the examples in 
 § 599. The Latin language observes this difference between the perfect and 
 imperfect indicative so strictly, that even the worst writers do not violate the 
 rule. An Englishman therefore must be very cautious not to transfer the 
 aoristic meaning of the English imperfect to the Latin language. In Latin 
 the perfect and imperfect are sometimes very significantly put in juxta- 
 
362 LATIN GRAMMAR* 
 
 position ; e. g. Liv. ii. 48. : Aequi se in oppida receperunt, murisque se tene- 
 bant (receperunt describing the momentary act or simple fact, and tenehant 
 the continued action) ; Cic. Tusc. i. 30. : Ita enim censebat, itaque disseruit 
 (the last word introducing the speech delivered upon a particular occasion). 
 The following passage of Cicero (Orat. 38.) is striking, but most strictly 
 correct : Dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensim^ for the imperfect makes us 
 think of the time during which he spoke, whereas the perfect expresses 
 simply an opinion as a sort of resume. Comp. de Divin. ii. 37. § 78. It only 
 remains here to mention the use of the imperfect in historical narrative, 
 among perfects, to denote actions which remained incomplete. The expla- 
 nation is implied in the foregoing remarks. In Tacitus, e. g., we read, Ann. 
 ii. 34. : Inter qua L. Piso ambitumfori, corrupta judicia — increpans, abire se 
 et cedere urbe testabatur^ et simul curiam relinquebat. Commotus est TiberiuSj 
 et qvumquam Pisonem mitibus verbis permulsisset, propinquos qu^que ejus im- 
 pulit, ut abeuntem auctoritate vel precibus tenerent. The imperfect relinquebat 
 is used here to indicate that his intention of leaving the curia was not carried 
 into effect, for he was repeatedly stopped, and at last he remained. This is 
 quite in accordance with the signification of the imperfect (see Pliny, Hist. 
 Nat. Praef. lib. i. § 26., where he speaks of the signature of Greek artists 
 tTToifi), and also occurs elsewhere, even in Cicero (comp. Div. in Caec. 17. 
 § 55.)^ although otherwise he expresses the same meaning by a circumlo- 
 cution with coepit. 
 
 Conticuere omnes, intentique ora tenebant: 
 
 Inde toro pater Aeneas sic orsus ab alto (est), Virg. Aen. ii. init. 
 [§ 501.] Note 2. In Latin, as in many modern languages, the present tense 
 is often used instead of the aorist of the past, when the writer or speaker in 
 his imao-ination transfers himself to the past, which thus becomes to him 
 present, as it were. Narrators by this figure frequently render their descrip- 
 tions very animated ; but in regard to dependent sentences, they often regard 
 such a present as a regular perfect, and accordingly use the imperfect or 
 pluperfect in the dependent sentence which follows. E. g. Cic. in Verr. 
 iv. 18. : Quod ubi Verres audivit, sic cupiditate injlammatus est non solum 
 inspiciendi^ verum etiam auferendi, ut Diodorum ad se vocaret ac poscere 
 (pocula). i?/e, qui ilia non invitiis haberet, respondet se Lilybaei non habere: 
 Melitae apud quendam propinquum suum reliquisse. Turn iste (Verres) cow- 
 tinvx) mittit homines certos Melitam : scribit ad quosdam Melitenses, ut ea vasa 
 perquirant: rogat Diodorum^ ut ad ilium suum propinquum det litteras: nihil 
 ei longiu^ videbahir, quam dum illud videret argentum. Diodorus^ homo frugi 
 ac diligens^ qui sua servare vellet^ ad propinquum suum scribit^ ut iis\ qui a 
 Verre venissent, responderet^ illud argentum se paucis illis diebv^ misisse Lily- 
 baeum. We here see how the historical present is followed both by the 
 present and the imperfect subjunctive, and on the whole, the imperfect is 
 perhaps the more frequent of the two. Cic. in Cat. iii. 6. : Deinde L. Flaccus 
 et C. Pomptinus^ praetor es^ quod eorum opera forti usus essem^ laudantur. 
 
 [§ 502.] 9. The peculiar character of the Latin imperfect 
 therefore is to express a repeated action, manners, customs and 
 institutions, which are described as continuing at some given 
 period of the past time, and is invariably used where in English 
 the compound tense, " I was writing," " he was waiting," is em- 
 ployed. 
 
USE OF THE TENSES. 363 
 
 Socrates dicere solebat (or dicebaf), omnes in eo, quod scirent, 
 
 satis esse eloquentes, Cic. De Or at, i. 14. 
 Anseres Romae publice alehantur in Capitolio, 
 
 Note 1. An action often repeated, however, may also be conceived as a 
 simple historical fact, and accordingly be expressed by the perfect. Hence 
 we may say, Socrates solitus est dicere^ just as well as solebat ; but the idea 
 is different. Solebat reminds us of the whole period of his life ; whereas 
 solitus est describes the habit of Socrates simply as an historical fact. 
 
 [§ 503.] Note 2. It is a peculiarity of the epistolary style in Latin that 
 the writer transfers himself to the time at which the letter is read by the 
 person to whom it is addressed ; and hence the writer speaks of actions and 
 conditions in the same terms as he would use if he were present at the 
 moment the letter is received. In consequence of this he frequently uses 
 the imperfect and perfect, where in English we should use the present ; e. g. 
 Haec scribeham media nocte, I write this at midnight (or scripsi haec media 
 nocte, when the action is to be described as a completed one, and not as 
 going on at the time) ; Novi nihil nunc erat apud nos, siquidem certa tihi af- 
 ferri vis, there are no news here ; Quae ad earn diem, quum haec scribebam, 
 audiveramus, inanis rumor videbatur. Dicebant tamen, &c., what we have 
 heard till the moment I write this, &c. ; but people say, &c. As these pre- 
 terites are only formal, they may be joined with the adverbs nunc, etiam- 
 nunc; instead of which real preterites would require tunc and etiamtum. 
 Comp. Cic. ad Att. v. 16. 4. ; xvi. 3. 6. ; ad Quint. Frat, iii. 1. 2. But this 
 peculiarity is very frequently not observed. 
 
 [§ 504.] 10. The perfect subjunctive has not this meaning 
 of an aorist, but is always used to express a terminated action 
 with reference to the present time, and thus completely answers 
 to the perfect in English. The imperfect subjunctive, on the 
 other hand, in historical narratives, has the aorist sense of the 
 perfect indicative, when past, events are mentioned (with the 
 conjunction ut), without reference to the action or condition 
 being completed or not. 
 
 This difference is easily perceived ; e. g. puer de tecto decidit, 
 ut cms fregerit, "the boy has fallen from the roof, so that he 
 has broken his leg," is not a narrative, but the statement of an 
 event completed at the present time ; but puer de tecto decidit, 
 ut crus frangeret, "the boy fell from the roof, so that he broke 
 his leg," is a real historical narrative, for the perfect decidit is 
 here used in its aorist sense, and the imperfect subjunctive 
 supplies its place in the dependent sentence. 
 
 A comparison with the English language thus leads to this 
 conclusion, that the perfect and imperfect subjunctive are used 
 in Latin in the same sense as in English ; but the perfect indi- 
 cative in Latin, as an historical tense, answers to the English 
 
364 LATIN -GRAMMAR. 
 
 imperfect, and the Latin imperfect indicative to the English 
 paraphrased tense with "1 was" and a participle. 
 
 Note. The principle of the Latin language relative to the use of the 
 perfect indicative and the imperfect subjunctive in historical narratives is 
 attested by so many passages that it is unnecessary here to mention any in 
 confirmation of it. But we must observe that Latin writers nevertheless 
 sometimes use the perfect subjunctive in the historical sense, which properly 
 belongs only to the indicative of this tense. This may have arisen from a 
 feeling that there ought to be a tense to express actions in their progress in 
 a dependent sentence (in the subjunctive), since the imperfect originally and 
 properly expressed a continued and incomplete action ; and in this manner 
 we account for the perfect subjunctive which now and then occurs in 
 Cicero after the historical forms inventus est or fuit; e. g. jo. Muren. IL : in- 
 ventus est scriha quidam^ Gn. Flavins^ qui cornicum ocidos conjixerit et singulis 
 diebus ediscendos fastos populo proposuerit, &c. ; in Verr. iv. 26. : Nulla 
 domus in Sicilia locuples fuit^ uhi ille non textrinum institu£rit; for after all, if 
 the construction is altered so as to make the dependent sentence indepen- 
 dent, we are obliged to use the historical tense, i. e. the perfect indicative. 
 But the prevailing custom was to assign to the imperfect subjunctive the 
 sense of an aorist; and the perfect subjunctive in an historical narrative 
 can only be regarded as an exception from the rule, however frequently it 
 may occur. Nepos uses the perfect subjunctive in this sense more fre- 
 quently than other writers ; and he thereby shows his desite, in his short 
 historical sketches, to put the facts one by the side of the other, rather than 
 to give a progressive historical narrative. For example, in his life of Han- 
 nibal, where he says : Hie autem velut hereditate relictum odium paternum 
 erga Romanos sic c'onservavit, ut prius animam^ quam id, deposuerit — Anti- 
 ochum tanta cupiditate incendit bellandi, ut usque a ruhro mari arma conatus sit 
 inferre Italiae, we at once perceive this character of his style ; though in 
 other passages he uses the imperfect subjunctive, and gives to his narrative 
 a real historical character. In Livy, too, the perfect subjunctive is found in 
 this sense, but only now and then, and more for the sake of variety than on 
 any definite principle ; hence, when in i. 3. he says : Tantum tamen opes 
 creverant, ut movere arma nee Mezentius nee uUi alii aecolae ausi sint, instead 
 of the more usual auderent, it cannot afiect the general rule concerning the 
 conseeutio tempo?nim. 
 
 [§505.] 11. The duration and completion of an action in 
 reference to another are expressed in Latin more accurately 
 than in English, by the imperfect and pluperfect. When one 
 action must be completed before another can begin, the former 
 is invariably expressed by the pluperfect ; e. g. guum domuin 
 intrasset, quum in forum venisset, animadvertit ; quum amicum 
 conspexisset, dixit, &c., " when he had entered the house, he 
 perceived." We are less accurate in saying " when I entered 
 the house, I perceived," or " I entered the house, and perceived." 
 But this cannot be done in Latin, and the pluperfect is used 
 wherever the relation of the actions permits it. Examples are 
 extremely numerous. 
 
USE OF THE TENSES. 365 
 
 Lysander quum per speculatores comperisset, vulgum Atheniensium 
 in ierram exisse navesque paene inanes relictas, tempus rei 
 gerendae non dimisit, Nep. Alcib, 8. 
 
 Nbte. Considering this general accuracy of the Latin language in express- 
 ing the natural succession of actions, which is evident also in the application 
 of the participle perfect (see § 635.), it is the more surprising, that in inter- 
 rogative expressions the imperf. subjunct. is used so frequently, where we 
 should have expected the pluperfect ; e. g. Cic. Tusc. v. 37. : Socrates 
 quum rogaretur (for rogatu^ esset) cujatem se esse dicerei, Mundanum, in- 
 quit. 
 
 [§ 506.] It must be observed here, 1) that the conjunction dum 
 (while, as) is generally joined with the present indicative, even 
 "when events of the past time are spoken of, and when we should 
 consequently expect either the imperfect or perfect ; e. g. dum 
 paucas res retinere nolo, omnes fortunas perdidi, Cic. Divin. 17.; 
 dum expectat quidnam sihi certi afferatur, ante noctem non discessit; 
 dum ego in Sicilia sum, nulla statua dejecta est, in Verr. ii. 66. 
 2) That in historical narratives the conjunctions postquam (or 
 posteaquam), uhi, uhi primum, ut, ut primum, quum primum, 
 simul ut, simul ac, simul atque (or simul alone), all of which are 
 equivalent to the English " as soon as," are generally joined 
 with the historical perfect, and not with the pluperfect, as might 
 be expected from the succession of the actions indicated by 
 these conjunctions. Hence we say, uhi illud audivit, nuntium 
 ad regem misit ; ut Lacedaemonem venit, adire ad magistratus 
 noluit ; simulatque provincia ei obvenit, statim quaerere coepit, &c. 
 JDum ea Romani par ant consultantque, jam Saguntum summa vi 
 
 oppugnabatur, Liv. xxi. 7. 
 Unus ex captivis domum abiit, quod fallaci reditu in castra jure- 
 jurando se exsolvisset. - Quod ubi innotuit relatumque ad sena- 
 tum est, omnes censuerunt comprehendendum et custodibus publice 
 datis deducendum ad Hannibalem esse, Liv. xxii. 61. 
 
 [§ 507. a.] Note 1. Dum (while), with the present, occurs very frequently ; 
 but it is very surprising to find it sometimes used by Livy in transitions 
 from one event to another ; for example, at the beginning of the 38th book : 
 Dum in Asia helium geritur, ne in Aetolis quidem quietae res fuerant. Comp. 
 Drakenborch on Livy, i. 40. ; Heinrich on Cic. Part. ined. p. 75. ; Heindorf 
 on Horace, Sat. i. 5. 72. However, that the present is not absolutely neces- 
 sary, is proved by such passages as Cic. p. Rose. Am. 32. : Dum Sulla in 
 aJiis rebus erat occupatus^ erant interea, qui suis vulneribv^ mederentur ; Liv. 
 X. 36. : dum haec in Apulia gerebantur, Samnites — non tenuerunt ; Nep. 
 Hann. 2. : Quae divina res dum confieiebatur., quaesivit a me. The perfect 
 also is sometimes joined with dum, as de Fin. ii. 13. : dum voluerunt — sustu- 
 lerunt. Dum in the sense of quamdiu (as long as), however, when referring 
 to the past time, is regularly joined with the imperfect. 
 
366 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 507. b.] With regard to our rule respecting the conjunctions which 
 signify "as soon as," it is a remarkable point that the Latins, contrary to 
 their usiftil practice, here neglect to express that one action was completed 
 before the second began. The perfect is less necessary, for its place is 
 supplied not only by the historical present (which is easily explained from 
 § 501.), but frequently by the imperfect, at least in connection with the 
 principal conjunction postquam ; e. g. Liv. i. 54. : Itaque, postquam satis virium 
 collectum videbat, e suis unum Romam ad pair em mittit ; iii. 46. : postquam — 
 nemo adibat, domum se recepit ; and so in many other passages of Livy. But 
 the surprising point is, that the pluperfect is not used, even where the com- 
 pletion of the action introduced by those conjunctions is manifest ; e. g. Cic. 
 p. Rose. Am. 6. : posteaquam victoria (nobilitatis) constituta est ab armisque 
 recessimus — erat ille RoTniae frequens. There are only few exceptions in 
 which the pluperfect is used ; as Cic. in Yerr. iv. 24. : posteaquam tantam 
 multitudinem collegerat emblematum — instituit officinam Syracusis ; and hence 
 the ordinary mode of explaining an ablative absolute by postquam with the 
 pluperfect cannot be approved of. It is only in descriptions of repeated 
 conditions in the past time that the pluperfect is indispensable, as Nep. 
 Alcib 1. : Idem simulac se remiserat neque causa suberat, quare animi laborem 
 perferret, luxuriosus reperiebatur. Postquam is further joined with the plu- 
 perfect when a long or a definite space of time intervenes between a preced- 
 ing and a subsequent event, so that there is no connection between them ; 
 e. g. Kep. Hann. 8. : Hannibal anno tertio^ postquam donio profugerat^ cum 
 quinque navibus Africam accessit. It is remarkable to find also the imperfect 
 and pluperfect subjunctive joined with postquam., as in Cicero, p. Leg. Man. 4. : 
 qui posteaquam vnaximas aedificasset ornassetque classes — legatos ac litteras 
 misit; and p. Cluent. 64. 181. ; ad Fam. ii. 19. They* may, however, be 
 explained from § 570. The passage p. Reg. Dejot. 13. 36. is doubtful. 
 
 [§ 508.] Note 2. The pluperfect is sometimes used by historians instead 
 of the historical tense merely to express the rapidity with which actions 
 succeed one another, one being described as already completed before any 
 thing else could begin; e.g. Curt. x. 17.: Nee muris urbis luctus contine- 
 batur, sed proximam regionem ab ea, deinde magnam partem Asiae cis Eu- 
 phraten tanti mali fama pervaserat. Here the pluperfect is used without 
 reference to a subsequent action, and is equivalent to the English " the 
 report immediately spread," &c. 
 
 [§ 509.] 12. In the use of the two futures the Latin language 
 is likewise more accurate than the English. For when a future 
 action is spoken of, either in the future or in the imperative (or 
 in the subjunctive used imperatively), and another is joined with 
 it, which has not yet come to pass, the latter also is put in the 
 future if the actions are conceived as continuing together, and 
 in the future perfect, if the one must be completed before the 
 other can begin. This is perfectly in accordance with the ideas 
 expressed by these tenses ; but it must be specially mentioned, 
 because in English we often use the present instead of the 
 future, especially in the case of the verbs "lean" and "I 
 will ; " e. g. faciam si potero, I shall do it, if I can ; facito hoc, 
 uhi voIps, do it when you will ; because owing to the awkward^ 
 
USE OF THE TENSES. 367 
 
 ness of the future perfect, we frequently supply its place either 
 by the simple future or by the present ; e.g. Cic. De Orat. ii. Q6. : 
 ut sementem feceriSi ita metes, as you sow, so will you reap. We 
 must here draw particular attention to the application of the 
 future perfect in hypothetical sentences, where the conclusion 
 depends upon the fulfilment of the preceding condition ; e. g. 
 si invenero, tecum communicaho, for which we very inaccurately 
 say, " when I find it," or " when I have found it." 
 Naturam si sequemur ducem, numquam aberrahimus, Cic. De 
 
 Off. I 28. 
 Adolescentes quum relaxare animos et dare se jucunditati volent, 
 
 caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae, Cic. De Off. 
 
 i. 34. 
 De Carthagine vereri non ante desinam, quam illam excisam esse 
 
 cognovero, Cic. Cat, Maj, 6. 
 Malevolentiae hominum in me, si poteris, occurres, si non potueris, 
 
 hoc consolahere, quod me de statu meo nullis contumeliis deter- 
 
 rere possunt, Cic. ad Fam, xi. 11. 
 
 [§ 510.] Note. When the leading sentence contains the present impera- 
 tive, si is often joined with the present, as defende si potes (Cic. Philip, ii.44.) ; 
 perjice si potes (Cic. Tmc. i. 8.) ; expone nisi molestum est (ibid. i. 12.) ; and 
 hardly ever with the future. (See Chap. LXXIX.) The present with si^ 
 instead of the future, is sometimes found also in other connections ; e. g. 
 Cic. in Verr. i. 2. : Si reus condemnatur, desinent homines dicere, his judiciis 
 pecuniam plurimum posse, sin absolvitur, desinemus nos de Judiciis transferendis 
 recusare ; and very frequently in the comic poets. The rule, however, is 
 that the future should be used. Attention was above directed to the prac- 
 tice of using the future of the verbs posse and velle with the conjunction si, 
 and with the same accuracy these verbs are used in the future perfect, when 
 the possibility or the intention of doing a thing must be proved before the 
 action relating to it can take place. Hence we say si voluero, si potuero, si 
 licuerit, si placuerit, si otium habnero, instead of which we should iise either 
 the present or future ; e. g. Cic. Tiisc. i. 43. : Veruntamen, Crito, si me as- 
 sequi potueris, sepelito ; de Re Puhl. i. 43. : Turn Jit illud, quod apud Plato- 
 nem est luculente dictum, si modo id exprimere Latine potuero ; de Leg. ii. 18. : 
 Plato, si modo interpretari potuero, his fere verbis utitur, for he must have 
 made the attempt to translate Plato before he can make him speak. See 
 Heinrich on Cic. de Re Pizbl. p. 48. foil. 
 
 [§ 511.] We add the following remarks on the further use of the future 
 perfect. As this tense expresses a future action as completed, it acquires the 
 meaning of the simple future, implying, however, the rapidity with which 
 the action will be completed. This occurs, in the first place, when another 
 future perfect, or any other tense supplying its place, is contained in the 
 leading sentence, so that the two actions are contemporaneous ; e. g. Cic. 
 ad Fam. x. 13. : Qui M. Antonium oppresserit, is bellum confecerit ; in Verr. 
 ii. 62. : Da mihi hoc (i. e. si hoc mihi dederis), jam tibi maximam partem de" 
 fensionis praecideris ; Liv. xxii. 54. : non aggrediar narrare, quae edissertando 
 
368 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 (i. e. si edissertavero) minora vero fecero ; Cic. ad Att. v. 1 . : Tu invita 
 muUeres, ego accivero pueros. But the future perfect has the meaning of a 
 quickly completed future action also without any such express relation 
 to another action ; e. g. Cic. p. Plane. 33. : sed medius Jidius, multo citiiis 
 meam salutem pro te ahjecero, quam Cn. Plancii salutem tradidero ; ad Att. iii. 
 1 9. : Nusqiiam facilins hanc miserrimam vitam vel sustentaho, vel, quod est 
 melius, abjecero ; ix. 7. : De triumpho tibi assentior : quern quidem totum facile 
 ct lihenter abjecero ; de Re Publ. i. 13. : Nihil est adhuc dispviatum, etquoniam 
 est integrum, libenter tibi, Laeli, ut de eo disseras, equidem concessero. This is 
 particularly frequent with the future perfect videro, because the act of seeing 
 is most easily accomplished ; e. g. Liv. viii. 33. : Videro cessurusne provo- 
 cationi sis, cui rex Romanus Tullus Hostilius cessit, which is not irreconcilable 
 with the expressions mox, post, alias, alio loco videro, for a rapid completion 
 can only be spoken of at the moment when the action is beginning ; e. g. Cic. 
 de Fin. i. 10. 35. : qune fuerit causa, mox videro ; de Re Publ. ii. 9. : habuit 
 plebem in clientelas principum descriptam, quod quantae fuerit utilitati, post 
 videro ; Acad. ii. 44. : recte secusne, alias viderimus. Hence this mode of 
 speaking generally implies, that for the moment a thing is to be dismissed 
 from our thoughts, and can scarcely be taken into serious consideration. In 
 the comic writers the future perfect is still more frequently used instead of 
 the simple future. 
 
 [§^ 512.] 13. The tenses of the indicative may be connected in 
 any way which the intention of the speaker may require ; e. g. 
 I am writing now^, but this time yesterday I took a walk ; I 
 know the person whom you will see to-morrow. But in depen- 
 dent sentences, that is, in the subjunctive, similar tenses alone 
 can be connected with one another, that is, the tenses of the 
 present (present and perfect) and the tenses of the past (imper- 
 fect and pluperfect). In the rules respecting what is usually 
 called the succession of tenses, but more correctly the dependence 
 of sentences upon one another, everything depends upon the 
 time, for the present time is suited only to the present, and the 
 past to the past ; the relation of an action depending only upon 
 itself, is never doubtful. Hence we have only to remember, 
 that the perfect naturally, and in the subjunctive always, ex- 
 presses the present time, and that consequently 
 
 The Present and Perfect are followed by a Present and 
 Perfect, and 
 
 The Imperfect and Pluperfect by an Imperfect and Plu- 
 perfect ; 
 E. g. scio quid agas and scio quid egeris ; audivi quid agas and 
 audivi quid egeris ; but scieham quid ageres, and scieham quid 
 egisses ; audiveram quid ageres, and audiveram quid egisses. 
 
 Note. The Latin language, however, is not so constrained as not to be 
 able, in cases where the sense requires it, to make presents dependent upon 
 preterites, and preterites upon presents. It is sometimes necessary that a 
 
USE or THE TENSES. o69 
 
 preterite should be followed by a present, viz. when the result of a past 
 action extends to the present time ; e. g. Cic. Brut. 88. : Ardehat autem Hor- 
 tensius cupiditate dicendi sic, ut in nullo unquam fiagramiius studium viderim, 
 that is, that up to this time J have never seen ; Nep, Aristid. 1. : Quamquam 
 adeo excellehat Aristides ahstinentia, ut unus post hominum memoriam cognomine 
 Justus sit appellatus : tamen a Themistocle collahefactus testula ilia exilio 
 decern armorum multatus est. Here too the perfect subjunctive makes the 
 dependent sentence proceed from the past, or the time to which the 
 action of the leading verb belongs ; and the result combined with the 
 author's opinion is extended to the present time : " he was the only one in 
 the whole range of history, down to the present time, that was surnamed the 
 Just." Such variations must be admissible, although no special rule is given 
 on their account, for they do not often occur. (Comp. my note on Cic. in 
 Verr. v. 10. in fin., and Cic. de Fin. ii. 20. init.) A preterite, on the other 
 hand, might follow a present, when the dependent sentence is to express a 
 continuing action in the past, as in Cic. in Verr. v. 11. : Scitote oppidum esse 
 in Sicilia nullum ex iis oppidis, in quihus consistere praetores et conventum 
 agere soleant, quo in oppido non isti delecta midier ad lihidinem esset (esset 
 here alludes to the whole period of the praetorship), but such sentences can 
 only be considered as exceptions, and fuerit would be more regular. There 
 are also passages in ancient writers, which cannot be explained, and must be 
 considered as irregularities; see my note on Cic. in Verr. i. 30. 75., and thus 
 we sometimes find, especially in Caesar, an irregular transition from the 
 preterite of the leading verb to the present of the dependent one. We can- 
 not here enter upon the detail of such matters, and we shall only add the 
 remark that when the hypothetical imperfect subjunctive is followed by a 
 present or perfect subjunctive, the above rule is not violated, because the 
 imperfect of the subjunctive refers to the present time ; e. g. Sallust, Cat. 7. : 
 Memorare possem (differs from memorare possum only by the hypothetical 
 form of the expression), quihus in locis maximas hostium copias populus 
 Romanu^ parva manufuderit, quas urbes, natura munitas, pugnando ceperit, ni 
 ea res longius nos ah incepto traheret. {Fudisset would have continued the 
 hypothetical expression, but actual facts are here meant.) But even in 
 cases like this the imperfect is generally used in the dependent sentence for 
 the sake of the succession of tenses, as Cic. de Fin. 1. 8. : Quid enim me pro^ 
 hiheret Epicureum esse, si probarem quae ille diceret, quum praesertim ilia 
 perdiscere ludus esset, where we should have expected dicit and sit; ad Fam. 
 xill. 66. : A. Caecinam non commendarem tihi, quum scirem, qua fide in tuos 
 soleras esse, nisi me patris ejus memoria moveret, where we might say sciam 
 and soleas. Similar expressions occur frequently; comp. Cic. Philip, v. 18. 
 in fin. ; de Off. 11. 14. in fin. ; Tusc. i. 21. inlt. 
 
 [§ 513.] The simple rule respecting the succession of tenses 
 becomes somewhat difficult through the double signification of 
 the perfect indicative. In the above rule it was treated only as 
 the present of a completed action (in which sense it is equivalent 
 to the English perfect) ; but as it is at the same time an aorist 
 of the past (see § 500.), it is also connected with the tenses of 
 the past time, viz. with the imperfect and pluperfect. In this 
 sense the Latin perfect is translated by the English unperfect. 
 
 B B 
 
 k 
 
3tO LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 The above rule therefore will be completed by the following 
 addition : — 
 
 The historical perfect is followed by the imperfect and plu- 
 perfect. 
 
 E. g. Audivi quid ageres and audivi quid egisses. The two 
 meanings of the perfect and their influence upon the tense of 
 the dependent verb may be seen in the following sentences : — 
 Verves Siciliam per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea res- 
 
 titui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit, says Cicero {in 
 
 Verr. iv. init.) with reference to the actual state of Sicily. 
 Conon quum patriam ohsideri audisset, non quaesivit, uhi ipse 
 
 tuto viveret) sed unde praesidio posset esse civibus suis, says 
 
 Nepos {Con. 2.) in speaking of past events. 
 
 [§ 514.] Note 1. We may in general be guided by the English language^ 
 as we translate the Latin historical perfect by our imperfect. It must, how- 
 ever, be observed that the Latins, owing to the very frequent use of the 
 perfect as an aorist of the past or an historical tense, became so accustomed 
 to its connection with the imperfect, that in many cases they used this tense 
 even where the Latin perfect is equivalent to the English perfect ; but this 
 occurs only when there is a possibility of conceiving the action in its progress, 
 and not merely its conclusion or result. Thus Cicero {in Verr. i. 1.) says: 
 adduxi enim hominem, in quo satisfacere exteris nationihus possetis, in whom 
 you may satisfy, &c. In the same manner Q. Cicero says at the close of an 
 explanation {de Petit Cons. 4.) : quoniam quae subsidia novitatis haberes, et 
 habere posses, exposui, nunc de magnitudine petitionis dicam. In these sen- 
 tences we should require adduxi hominem, in quo satisfacere possitis, and 
 quoniam exposui, quae subsidia habeas et habere possis, which would not be 
 wrong by any means, but it would be against the usage of the Latin lan- 
 guage ; for the Latins conceived the action in its duration, while we describe 
 it together with its result by the perfect, and this is the case more especially 
 when the acting person had an intention accompanying him from the be- 
 ginning to the end of the action. We say, for example, " I have done this 
 that you may see," and the Latin feci hoc, ut intelligas, would not be wrong, 
 but as it was my intention from the beginning, it is preferable to say feci hoc, ut 
 intelligeres, although I am not relating events, but speaking with reference 
 to the present time. (Comp. Cic. Philip, ix. 2. § 5., where restaret is quite 
 correct.) Hence such sentences as : diu dubitavi num melius sit, saepe mecum 
 cogitavi quidnam causae sit, would sound strange to a Latin ear, and the more 
 correct mode of speaking is : diu dubitavi num melius esset and saepe cogitavi 
 quidnam causae esset, and the words diu and saepe indicate that the perfects 
 dubitavi and cogitavi are conceived, as it were, as an aggregate of single 
 doubts and thoughts, which themselves belong to the past time, while the 
 conclusion extends to the present. But the rule is not upset by this remark, 
 for when the sentence following does not refer to the separate parts of the 
 action, but exclusively to the result, the perfect is followed by the present ; 
 e. g. Cic. ad Fam. v. 6. : Ego meis rebus gestis hoc sum assecutus, ut bonum 
 nomen existimer; Eutrop. viii. 2. : Trajanus rempublicam ita administravit, 
 ut omnibus principibus merito praeferatur. These are the results of completed 
 
USE OP THE TENSES. 371 
 
 actions, and not intentions continuing along with the actions; The present 
 may be used in subordinate and dependent sentences, even after an historical 
 perfect, if that which is to be expressed is universal, and not valid for that 
 time only which is indicated by the leading verb ; e. g. Justin, xxxi. 8. : An- 
 tiocho pacem petenti ad priores condiciones nihil additiim^ Africano praedi" 
 cante, neque RomaniSj si vincantur^ animos minui, neque, si vincant, secundis 
 rebus insolescere. Here the presents express the fact of the Romans not 
 losing their courage in misfortune and of their not being Insolent in pros- 
 perity, as peculiar characteristics of the Romans, and as true at all times ; 
 if the imperfect had been used, it would not indeed have been implied that 
 at any other time the statement was not true, but the universality would 
 not have been so clearly expressed. 
 
 [§ 515.] Note 2. The remaining question now is this : when the leading 
 verb Is a present, or (according to §516.) a future, and the infinitive of a 
 completed action Is dependent on it, is it necessary to put the verbs dependent 
 upon this infinitive in the present or the preterite, that is, the imperf. or 
 pluperf. subjunctive ? The answer to this question depends upon another, 
 viz. as to whether on changing the infinitive into the perfect indicative this 
 tense is the real perfect or the aorist ? When this is ascertained, the de- 
 cision is easy according to the two preceding paragraphs, and we may say, 
 e, g. satis mihi mvltas causas aitidisse videor^ quamobrem tibi in Italiam pro- 
 Jiciscervdum sit, I think I have mentioned to you sufficient reasons why you 
 should go to Italy ; and in this manner Cicero (p. Cluent. 24.) says : nisi 
 docet, ita se possedisse (that he has taken possession), ut nee vi nee clam nee 
 precario possederit. But the usage of the Latin language Is nevertheless dif- 
 ferent, the perfect Infinitive being like the perfect indicative (§ 5 14.), usually 
 followed either by the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive. Hence the 
 above sentence should be quamobrem in Italiam tibi proficiscendum esset; 
 comp. Cic. p. Leg. Man. 10. : satis mihi mvlta verba fecisse videor, qimre esset 
 hoc beUumgenere ipso necessarium, magnitudine pericidosum, although reference 
 is here made to the present time, and although we should say : " why this war 
 is necessary;" in Verr. i. 12. : hoc me projiteor suscepisse magnum fortasse 
 onus et mihi pericvlosum, verumtamen dignum, in quo omnes nervos aetatis 
 industriaeque meae contenderem. Both tenses are found combined in Cic. 
 p. Caec. 13. : Quid proficies, quum iUi hoc respondebunt tibi, quod tu nunc 
 mihi: armatos tibi obstitisse, ne in aedes acceder^s, dejici porro nullo modo 
 potuisse, qui non accesserit. 
 
 [§ 516.] The futures are similar to the tenses of the present, 
 for only that which is past stands apart and by itself. Hence, 
 a future is followed by a present or a perfect, e. g. mox intelligam, 
 quantum me ames or amaveris, but not quantum me amares or 
 amasses. The same is the case with the future perfect : si cog- 
 novero, quemadmodum te geras or te gesseris. But as the four 
 subjunctives of the conjugatio periphrastica (formed by the fu- 
 ture participle and esse) are regarded as subjunctives of the 
 futures, we must add, that these paraphrased tenses may be 
 dependent upon preterites (see the examples in § 497.), and 
 that a mutual dependence exists between the presents and futures, 
 
 B B 2 
 
372 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 but only a partial one between the preterites and futures, since 
 the futures only may depend upon preterites, but not vice 
 versa ; e. g. ignorabam quid dicturus esset, but not discam quid 
 herifaceres for discam quid herifeceris. 
 
 The complete rule respecting the succession of tenses there- 
 fore is this : the tenses of the present and future, i. e. the pre- 
 sent, perfect (in its proper sense), and the two futures are 
 followed by the tenses of the present, i. e. by the present and 
 the perfect subjuiictive : and the tenses of the past, i. e. the im- 
 perfect, pluperfect, and the historical perfect, are followed by 
 the tenses of the past, i. e. by the imperfect and pluperfect 
 subjunctive. 
 
 IV. OF THE MOODS. 
 CHAP. LXXVIL 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 [§517.] 1. The indicative is used in every proposition the sub- 
 stance of which is expressed absolutely and as a fact, e. g. I 
 go, thou wrotest, he believed. 
 
 Hence the indicative is used even in the expression of con- 
 ditions and suppositions with the particles si, nisi, etsi and etiamsi, 
 if without that expression an event is supposed actually to take 
 place or (with nisi) not to take place. 
 Mors ant plane negligenda est, si omnino extinguit animum, aut 
 
 etiam optanda, si aliquo eum deducit, ubi sit futurus aeternus, 
 
 Cic. Cat, Maj. 19. 
 Si feceris id, quod ostendis, magnam habeho gratiam, si non fe- 
 
 ceris, ignoscam, Cic. ad Fam. v. 19. 
 Adhuc certe, nisi ego insanio, stulte omnia et incaute fiunt, Cic. 
 
 ad Att. vii. 10. 
 Ista Veritas, etiamsi jucunda non est, mihi tamen grata est, Cic. 
 
 ad Att. iii. 24. in fin. 
 
 Note. The conjunctions si and nisi express nothing else but a relation of 
 one sentence to another ; that is, the relation of condition or exception : one 
 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 373 
 
 thing is on condition that another is ; and one thing is, except in the case of 
 another being, &c. Sentences which stand in this relation to each other are 
 expressed by the indicative, i. e. objectively or in the form of reality. All 
 expression of our own opinion is avoided, for this would be expressed by 
 the subjunctive. In using the indicative, I donot express any opinion as to 
 the possibility or impossibility of a thing ; but, without any comment, I 
 suppose a thing as actual, or (with nisi) I make an exception, which may be 
 or may not be, but which I take as actual for the sake of the inference. 
 
 [§ 518.] 2. The following peculiarities deserve to be noticed 
 as differing from the English. 
 
 The verbs oportet, necesse est, debeo, convenit, possum, licet, 
 and par, fas, aequum, justum, consentuneum est, or aequius, me- 
 lius, idilius, optabilius est, are put in the indicative of a preterite 
 (imperf., pluperf., and the historical perfect), where we should 
 have expected the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive. The 
 imperfect indicative in this case expresses things which are not, 
 but the time for which is not yet passed ; and the perfect and 
 pluperfect indicative things which have not been, but the time 
 for which is passed; e. g. Cic. in Cat, i. 1. : Ad mortem te duci 
 jam pridem oportehat, i. e. thy execution was necessary and is 
 still so ; hence it ought to take place. In going back to the 
 beginning, however, the speaker might have used the pluper- 
 fect with this meaning : " thy execution ought to have taken 
 place long ago." Cic. de Fin, iii. 10. : perturbationes animorum 
 poteram ego morbos appellare, sed non conveniret ad omnia^ I 
 might have called them, and might do so still ; Cic. ad Att, ii. 
 1. : si mihi omnes, ut erat aequum, faverent, it was fair, and is 
 still fair, but it does not happen to be the case. The perfect 
 and pluperfect, on the other hand, clearly express that all is 
 over; e. g. Cic. ad Fam. iv. 16. : Volumnia debuit in te officio- 
 sior esse, et id ipsum, quod fecit, potuit facere diligentius ; p, 
 Muren, 25. : Catilina erupit e senatu triumphans gaudio, quem 
 omnino vivum illinc exire non oportuerat ; Curt. iii. 9.: longe 
 utilius fuit angustias aditus occupare, it would have been much 
 better to occupy the pass. In the paraphrased conjugation 
 with the participle future active and passive, too, the preterites 
 of the indicative very frequently have the meaning of a sub- 
 junctive; e. g. Ovid, Her, xvi. 152. ; tam bona constanter praeda 
 tenenda fuit, ought to have been kept. This is the case more 
 especially in hypothetical sentences. (§ 519.) The subjunctive 
 in independent sentences is much less frequent than the indica- 
 
 B n 3 
 
374 LATIN GRAM3IAR. 
 
 tive; e.g. Nep. Epam, 4.: Plurima quidcm proferre possemus,' 
 
 sed modus adhibendus est. 
 
 Chaldaei oculorum fallacissimo sensu judicant ea, quae ratione 
 
 atque animo videre debebant, Cic. de Divin. ii. 43. 
 Aut non suscipi bellum oportuit, aut geri pro dignitate populi 
 
 Homani, Liv. v. 4. 
 Is (Tib. Gracchus) fugiens decurrensque clivo Capitolino, frag' 
 
 mine subsellii ictus, vitam, quam gloriosissime degere potuerat, 
 
 immatura morte Jinivit, YelL Pat. ii. 3. 
 
 [§ 519. <2.] Note 1. This indicative supplying the place of the subjunctive, 
 is frequently retained even when an hypothetical sentence with the imper- 
 fect or pluperfect subjunctive is added ; and it is here in particular that the 
 indicative of the preterites of the paraphrased conjugation is employed ; 
 e. g. Cic. Philip, ii. 38. : Omnibus eum contumeliis onerasti, quern patris loco^ 
 si ulla in te pietas esset, colere dehehas ; Sallust, Jug. 85. : quae si duhia aut 
 procul essent, tamen omnes honos rei puhlicae consulere decehat; Liv. xlii. 34. : 
 Quodsi mihi nee omnia stipendia emerita essent, necdum aetas vacationem daret, 
 tamen aequum erat me dimitti ; Cic. p. Log. Man. 17. : Quodsi Gn. Pompejus 
 privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen erat mittendus. With the perfect, Liv. xxxii. 
 12. : deleri totus exercitus potuit, si fugientes persecuti victores essent ; Cic. de 
 lie Publ. i. 6. : Consul esse qui potui, nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem ; in 
 Vatin. 1 . : Etenim debuisti, Vatini, etiamsi /also venisses in suspicionem P. 
 Sextio, tamen mihi ignoscere ; in Verr. iii. 61. : Quern hominem, si qui pudor 
 in te., atque adeo si qui metus fuisset, sine supplicio dimittere non dehuisti, hunc 
 abs te sine praemio discedere noluisti ; p. Milon. 11. : quodsi ita putasset, certe 
 optabilius Miloni fuit dare jugulum ; ibid. 22. : quos nisi manumisisset, tor- 
 mentis etiam dedendi fuerunt ; Petron. 94. : Si te non invenissem^ periturus per 
 praecipitia fui. See also §§ 498. and 499. But the subjunctive is also ad- 
 missible, as in Cic. in Cat. iii. 7. in fin. : dedendi fuissent ; and p. Lig. 7. in 
 fin. : periturus fuissem (according to the common reading) ; de Divin. ii. 8. 
 §21. 
 Res publico poterat esse perpetun, si patriis viveretur institutis et moribuSy Cic. 
 
 de Re Pull. iii. 29. 
 Nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potue?'unt, Tacit. Agr. 31. 
 
 [§519. b.] Independent of this use of the indicative, instead of the subjunc- 
 tive, to express that which might or should have taken place, the historians 
 use the indicative of a preterite instead of the pluperfect subjunctive to ex- 
 press that which would actually have taken place, in sentences containing the 
 inference from an hypothetical sentence, although the premises are not true. 
 This figure (i. e. a mode of expression differing from the ordinary one) which 
 is only intended to render a description more animated, is used in the first 
 place when a part of the inference has already come to pass, and would have 
 been completely realised, if something else had occurred, or more frequently, 
 if some obstacle had not been thrown in the way, whence the adverb jam is 
 frequently added ; e. g. Liv. iv. 52. : jam fames quum pestilentia tristior erat, 
 ni annonae foret suhventum ; Tacit. Hist. iii. 46. : jamque castra legionum ex- 
 cindere parabant, ni Mucianus sextam legionem opposuisset; the same is also 
 expressed by coepisse, in such passages as Tacit. Agr. 37. : Britanni degredi 
 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 375 
 
 pavlatim et circumire terga vincentium coeperant; ni id ipsum veritm Agricola 
 quattuor equitum alas venientibus opposuisset Without the adverb /am; e. g. 
 Tacit. Ann. i. 35. : Germanicus ferrum a latere deripuit^ elatumque deferehat 
 in pectus (thus much he actually did do, and he would have accomplished his 
 design), ni proximi prensam dextram vi ottinuissent; Tacit. Ann. iii. 14. : ef- 
 figies Pisonis traxerant in Gemonias ac divellehant (and would have entirely 
 destroyed them), ni jussu principis protectae forent. The perfect and plu- 
 perfect are likewise used in this sense, and a thing which was never accom- 
 plished is thus, in a lively manner, described as completed : Sueton. Caes. 
 52. : et eadem nave paene Aethiopia tenm Aegyptum penetravit, nisi excrcitus 
 sequi recusasset; paene or prope is frequently added in such cases (even with- 
 out an hypothetical sentence, as prope ohlihis sum^ I had nearly forgotten) ; 
 Flor. iv, 1 . : et peractum erat helium sine sanguine^ si Pompejum opprimere 
 Brundisii (Caesar) potuisset; Plin. Paneg. 8. : temere fecerat Nerva, si ad- 
 optasset alium (non Trajanum). In Cicero however this use of the indicative 
 occurs only in a few passages, as in Verr. v. 49. : si per Metellum licitum esset, 
 matres illorum miserorum sororesque veniebant; de Leg. i. 19. : labebar longius^ 
 nisi me retinuissem; ad Fam. xii. 10. : Praeclare viceramus., nisi spoliatum^ 
 inermem^ fugientem Lepidus recepisset Antonium. The imperfect indicative is 
 sometimes, though rarely, used also for the imperfect subjunctive when the 
 hypothetical part of the sentence does not contain a pluperfect, but an im- 
 perfect subjunctive ; e. g. Cic. de Off. ii. 19. : Admonebat me res, ut hoc 
 quoque loco intermissionem eloquentiae, ne dicam interitum, deplorarem, ni 
 vererer, ne de me ipso aliquid viderer queri; Quintil. ii. 8. 8. : num et omnino 
 supervacua erat doctrina, si natura sufficeret; iv. 1. 11. : stultum erat monere, 
 nisifieret. 
 Pons sublicim iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, HoraMus Cocles^ 
 
 qui, &c. Li v. ii. 10. 
 Actum erat de pulcherrimo imperio, nisi ilia conjuratio (Catilinae) in Cice- 
 
 ronem consulem incidisset, Flor. iv. 1. 
 
 [§ 520.] Note 2. When we in English use the expressions " I ought" or 
 "I should" without implying impossibility, the Latins express the same 
 meaning by the present indicative ; e. g. debes esse diligentior or diligentiorem 
 te esse oportet, you ought to be more diligent. The subjunctive in this case 
 would be quite foreign to the Latin idiom. Li the same manner the present 
 indicative possum is frequently used for possem ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. i. 47 : 
 Possum sexcenta decretaprqferre; and it is the common custom to say diffi- 
 cile est, longum est, infinitum est; e. g. narrare, for which we should say " it 
 would be difficult," " it would lead too far," " there would be no end," &c. 
 See Ruhnken on Veil. Pat. ii. 42. 
 
 [§ 521.] 3. The Latins commonly use the indicative after 
 many general and relative expressions, some fact being implied. 
 This is the case after the pronouns and relative adverbs which 
 are either doubled or have the suffix cunque : quisquis, quotquot, 
 quicunque, quantuscunque, quantuluscunque, utut, utcunque, and 
 the others mentioned in §§ 130 and 288. ; e. g. Utcunque sese 
 res habety tua est culpa, however this may be, the fault is thine ; 
 quicunque is est, whoever he may be. 
 
 B B 4 
 
vy 
 
 376 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, Vlrg. Aen, ii. 49. 
 
 Quern sors dierum cunque dahit, lucro appone, Horat. Carm. i, 
 
 9. 14. 
 
 Note. Other examples are, Cic. p. Lig. 7. : sed quoquo modo sese illud 
 habet; Jiaec querela vestra, Tubero, quid valet? Parad. 2. : quocunque ad- 
 spexistiy utfuriae^ sic tuae tibi occurrunt injuriae^ and in the same manner we 
 must read inp. Milon. init. : tamen Tiaec novijudicii nova forma terret oculosy 
 qui, quocunqu£ inciderunt^ veterem consuetudinem fori re^'mrMw/, where Ernestl, 
 mistaking the usage of the Latin language, edited inciderint. See Heusinger, 
 Praef. ad Cic. de Off. p. Iv. (xL). In de Orat. iii. 50. also we now read 
 versus debilitatur, in quacunque est parte titubatuniy where formerly sit was 
 read. Later writers however join these general relatives and sive — sive (of 
 which we shall speak presently) with the subjunctive. 
 
 [§ 522.] 4. In the same way sentences connected by sive — 
 sive commonly have the verb in the indicative (unless there is a 
 special reason for using the subjunctive) ; e. g. sive tacebis, sive 
 loquere, milii perinde est ; sive verum est, sive falsum, mihi quidem 
 ita renuntiatum. est. 
 Nam illo loco libentissime uti soleo, sive quid mecum ipse cogito, 
 
 sive quid aut scribo, aut lego, Cic. De Leg. ii. 1. 
 
 CHAP. LXXVIII. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 [§ 523.] 1. The subjunctive is used in general, when a pro- 
 position is stated, not as a fact, but as a conception of the mind. 
 Note. The subjunctive is only a form which is given to a proposition; its 
 substance does not come into consideration. Hence "I believe," " I suspect," 
 are expressed by the indicative, although these words indicate only certain 
 conceptions, but my belief and suspicion are siated as real facts. When, on 
 the other hand, I say "I should believe," "I should think," the acts of 
 believing and thinking are represented as mere conceptions, which perhaps 
 do not exist at all, or even cannot exist. Hence the Latins always use the 
 subjunctive when a sentence is to express an intention either that something 
 is to be effected or prevented, for the actions here exist only as conceptions ; 
 e. g. pecuniam homini do, ut me defendat, ne me accuset. The English lan- 
 guage, which has no subjunctive, avails itself of a variety of other verbs to 
 express the nature of the subjunctive, as may, might, could, should, would. 
 
 [§ 524.] 2. We must here first notice the difference between 
 the four tenses of the subjunctive in hypothetical or con- 
 ditional sentences, both in that part of the sentence containing 
 the condition (beginning with the conjunctions si, nisi, etsi, 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 377 
 
 eiiamsi, tdmetsi), and in the one containing the inference or 
 conclusion. The present and perfect subjunctive are used when 
 a conception is to be expressed together with the suggestion 
 that it does exist or may exist ; but the imperfect and pluperfect 
 subjunctive are used when a conception is expressed together 
 with the suggestion that it did not or could not exist ; and the 
 imperfect in this case implies present time as in English ; e. g. si 
 velit, " if he wishes,'' or " should wish," implying that he either 
 actually wishes or at least may wish : in the consequent member 
 of the proposition (the apodosis), the present or perfect sub- 
 junctive or indicative may stand ; but si vellet, " if he wished," 
 implies that he does not or cannot w^ish, and here the con- 
 sequent member of the proposition requires the imperfect or 
 pluperfect subjunctive. The subjunctive without si has the same 
 meaning as facerem^ " I should do," implying that I do not or 
 cannot do ; vellem, " I should wish," implying that I might have 
 a wish, but that in fact I do not wish, seeing that it would be 
 of no avail. Velim and cupiam thus do not much differ from 
 volo and cupio. 
 
 The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive therefore are ne- 
 cessary in hypothetical sentences ; but the present and perfect 
 subjunctive differ only slightly from the indicative, and their 
 use cannot be fixed by grammatical rules. The indicative 
 gives to a sentence the forai of reality, whereas the subjunc- 
 tive represents it as an arbitrary conception, which however 
 may at the same time be a reality ; e. g. etiamsi te non laudo or 
 laudabo, tamen, &c., even if I do not or shall not praise thee, — 
 the reality is admitted : etiamsi te non laudem or laudaverim^ if 
 (perhaps) I should not praise thee, or should not have praised 
 thee, — the possibility is conceived. The use of the present and 
 perfect subjunctive in these cases arises in some measure from 
 the circumstance that an indefinite person is addressed in Latin 
 by the second person singular, but only in the subjunctive; 
 hence the subjunctive is used in such cases even where the 
 indicative would be used, if a definite person were addressed. 
 It must further be observed that these two subjunctives supply 
 the place of the subjunctive of the two futures. Comp. § 496. 
 
 The difference between the tenses of the subjunctive in hy- 
 pothetical sentences is observed also in indirect speech (oratio 
 obliqua), when the leading verb is a present or a future ; but 
 
378 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 when it is a preterite or the historical perfect, the rule re- 
 specting the succession of tenses must be observed (§ 512.), and 
 the difference between possibility and impossibility is not ex- 
 pressed ; e. g. we may say Gajus dicit se Latine loqui posse, si 
 pater juheat (or jusserit), which may possibly happen ; and si 
 pater juberet (or jussisset\ which however is not the case. But 
 we can say only Gajus dicebat se Latine loqui posse, si pater 
 juberet or jussisset. 
 Si*Neptunus, quod Theseo promiserat, non fecisset, Theseus filio 
 
 Hippolyto 7wn esset orbatus, Cic. De Off. i. 10. 
 Dies dejiciat, si velim numerare, quibus' bonis male evenerit, nee 
 
 minus si commeynorem^ quibus improbis optime, Cic. De Nat, 
 
 Deor. iii. 32. 
 Si gladium quis apud te sana mente deposuerit, repetat insaniens : 
 
 redder e peccatum sit, offcium non reddere, Cic. De Off. iii. 25. 
 Aequabilitatem vitae servare non possis, si aliorum virtutem imitans 
 
 omittas tuam, Cic. De Off. i. 31. 
 Memoria minuitur, nisi earn exerceas, aut si sis natura tardior, 
 
 Cic. Cat. Maj. 7. 
 
 Note 1. It cannot be sufficiently impressed upon the mind of the begin- 
 ner, that in hypothetical sentences, and when used alone, the imperfect and 
 pluperfect subjunctive are of a totally different nature from the present and 
 perfect, and that the two latter which express a conceived reality, approach 
 very near the actual reality expressed by the indicative. (See ^ 523. note.) 
 Hence the future indicative is often used in the apodosis, when in the condi- 
 tional member or the protasis of a sentence 8i is joined with the present sub- 
 junctive; e.g. Cic. Tusc. V. 35. : Dies dejiciet^ si velim paupertatis causam de- 
 fendere ; comp. Cic. de Nat. Deor. iii. 32., quoted above. Possible cases which 
 are devised to serve as examples, either for the purpose of judging of other 
 analogous cases, or of drawing conclusions from them, are expressed by si 
 with the subjunctive, as in the passage of Cic de Off. iii. 25., which was quoted 
 above. Compare de Off. i. 10. : Ut si constitueris (supposing you had agreed) 
 te cuipiam advocatum in rem praesentem esse venturum, atque interim graviter 
 aegrotare Jilius coeperit: non sit contra officium, non facer e quod dixeris. The 
 perfect subjunctive is at the same time the subjunctive of the future perfect, 
 for in speaking of an actual case we may use the perfect indicative as well 
 as the future perfect ; e. g. si tibi promisi me affutiirum nee veni, contra offcium 
 me fecisse fateor^ and si tibi promisero nee venero^ contra offcium me fecisse 
 fatehor. In the subjunctive both tenses are alike, and as in the passage just 
 quoted we recognise the perfect subjunctive, so we look upon 7'ogaiwrit, 
 scripserit^ and dixerit in the following passage as future perfects : Cic. de Fin. 
 ii. 18.: si te amicus tuus moriens rogaverit, ut hereditatem reddn.s suae jiliae., 
 nee usquam id scripserit.^ nee cuiquam dixerit: quid fades? For practical pur- 
 l)oses the distinction is not necessary ; but the subjunctive is essential, since 
 the case was to be expressed merely as a conception. This signification of the 
 Latin subjunctive is clear, especially in its frequent occurrence when the sub- 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 379 
 
 ject is an indefinite person (si quis), and In the second person singular, which 
 implies an indefinite person (equivalent to the French on and the German 
 man). 
 
 With regard to the expression of possibility (by the present subjunctive) 
 or impossibility (by the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive), it must not 
 be overlooked, that it depends upon the speaker as to how he intends to re- 
 present a thing. For we are not speaking here of objective truth, but of 
 subjective conceptions. Cicero {Divin. in Caec. 5.) says : Si universa 
 provincia loqui posset^ Jiac voce uteretur, implying that it cannot speak. But 
 in another passage (in Cat. i. 8.) he says: Haec si tecum patria loqiuztur, nonne 
 impetrare debeat ? personifying his country, and endowing it with speech. 
 This may serve to explain several other passages of the same kind. Comp. 
 Cic. p. Milon. 29. : Ejus igitur mortis sedetis ultores^ cujus vitam si putetis per 
 vos restitui posse., nolitis, where, without his rhetorical object, he would have 
 said : si putaretis — noUetis. 
 
 [§ 525.] Note 2. We must notice a peculiarity of the Latin language in 
 hypothetical sentences, which appears strange to us (though not to the Greeks), 
 for completed actions of the past time are often transferred, at least partly, to 
 the present, by using the imperfect instead of the pluperfect, either in the 
 protasis or in the apodosis ; e. g. Cic. Brut. 67. : Hujus si vita, si mores, si 
 vvltus denique nan omnem commendationem ingenii everteret, majus nom£n in 
 paironis fuisset; in Verr. v. 51.: quod certe non fecisset, si suum numerum 
 (nautarum) naves hdberent; LaA. 4. : Mortuis tarn religiosa jura (majores 
 nostri) tribuerunt, quod non fecisseni pro/ecto, si nihil ad eos pertinere arbitra- 
 rentur; Liv. xxxix. 42.: Longe gravissima (M. Catonis) in L. Quinctium 
 oratio est., qua si accusator ante notam usus esset, retinere Quinctium in senatu 
 ne f rater quidem T. Quinctius, si turn censor esset, potuisset. Numerous other 
 examples from Cicero, Sallust, and Livy, are quoted by Garatoni on Cic. in 
 Verr. ii. 1. in fin.; p. Milon. 17. init. ; p. Sext. 67. in fin. In the following 
 passages, on the other hand, the imperfect is used for the pluperfect in the 
 apodosis. Cic. in Verr. i. 31. : Nam si quam Rubriu^ injuriam suo nomine ac 
 non impidsu tuo et tua cupiditate fecisset : de tui comitis injuria questum ad te 
 potius, quam te oppvgnatum venirent, instead of venissent; Philip, iii. 5. : esset 
 enim ipsi (Antonio) certe statim serviendum, si Caesar ab eo regni insigne ac- 
 cipere voluisset, where Ernesti remarks, that the ordinary usage of the Latin 
 language requires fuisset for esset; Flor. iii. 3. 13. : Cimbri si statim infesto 
 agmine urbem petissent, grande discrimen esset; sed in Venetia, quo fere tractu 
 Italia jnollissima est, ipsa soils coelique dementia robur elanguit. For other 
 passages see Bentley on Horace, Serm. ii. 3. 94. Sometimes the imperfect 
 subjunctive instead of the pluperfect appears both in the protasis and apodosis, 
 although the actions spoken of are completed, and do not belong to the pre- 
 sent time ; e. g. Cic. Philip, viii. 4. : Num tu igitur eum, si turn esses, temera- 
 rium civem avt crudelem putares ? instead oifuisses and putasses. See Goerenz. 
 on Cic. de Leg. iii. 13. 30., and de Fiji. v. 3. 8. It is true that all this arises 
 from a lively and rhetorical mode of speaking, the past time being represented 
 as present ; but it must be observed, that it is more frequent in Latin, and 
 especially in Greek, than in modern languages. Those hypothetical sentences, 
 in which either a case or a conclusion from it is represented as continuing 
 to the present time, afibrd no matter for special remark, for there the imper- 
 fect is in its proper place. Compare the learned and profound dissertation of 
 Fred. Ellendt, Deformis enunciatorum conditionalium linguae Latinae, Regim. 
 Pruss. 1827. 
 
380 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 526.] Note 3. Nisi, nisi vero, and nisi forte are joined with the indi- 
 cative when they introduce a correction of the sentence preceding. Nisi in 
 this case signifies " except ; " e. g. Cic. p. Rose. Am. 35. : nescio : nisi hoc 
 video. Nisi vero, nisi forte (unless perhaps), introduce a case as an excep- 
 tion, and describe it at the same time as improbable ; e. g. Cic. p. Sail. 9. : 
 Plenum forum est eorum hominum — nisi vero paucos fuisse arhitramini ; p. 
 Muren. 6. : Nemo fere saltat sobrius, nisi forte insanit ; ad Att. ii. 14. : erat 
 autem nihil novi, quod aut scriberem^ aut ex te quaererem^ nisi forte hoc ad te 
 pvtas pertinere^ &c. Nisi forte is thus chiefly used in an ironical sense, 
 " unless you suppose," introducing a case which is in fact inadmissible, but 
 is intended to suggest to another person that he cannot differ from our 
 opinion, without admitting as true a thing which is improbable and ab- 
 surd. 
 
 [§ 527.] 3. Hence the present subjunctive is used also in 
 independent propositions to soften an assertion or statement, 
 and without any essential difference from the present indicative 
 or the future. We generally express the same by " I may " or 
 " I might" (the subjunctive as ix, potential mood)\ e. g. Forsitan 
 quaeratis ; nemo istud tibi concedat ; quis duhitet? velim (nolim, 
 malim) sic existimes. The perfect subjunctive may likewise be 
 used in the sense of a softened perfect indicative ; e. g. forsitan 
 temerefecerim, I may perhaps have acted inconsiderately ; fortasse 
 errore effectum sit, it may perhaps have been done by mistake ; 
 but this occurs very rarely, and the perfect subjunctive, when 
 used independently, usually has the meaning of a softened 
 future, and in so far is equivalent to the present, without regard 
 to the completion of the action. Hence Quintilian (x. 1. 101.) 
 combines the two tenses : At non historia cesserim Graecis, nee 
 opponere Thucydidi Sallustium verear. 
 Quid videatur ei magnum in rebus humanis, cui aeternitas omnis 
 
 totiusque mundi nota sit magnitudo ? Cic. Tusc.\y.\7. 
 Hoc sine ulla duhitatione confirmaverim, eloquentiam rem esse 
 
 omnium difficillimam, Cic. Brut. 6. 
 Tu vero Platonem nee nimis valde unquam, nee nimis saepe lau- 
 
 daveris, Cic De Leg. iii. 1. 
 Nil ego eontulerim jucundo sanus amico, Horat. Serm. 
 ' [§ 528.] Note 1. If the form which we usually call the perfect subjunctive 
 is only the perfect subjunctive, it is difficult to derive this potential significa- 
 tion, which belongs to the future, from the idea of an action completed at 
 the present time. And it can only be done in the manner described above, 
 § 511., where we have seen that the future perfect acquires the meaning of 
 a simple future, and by a certain liveliness of expression represents an in- 
 complete action as completed. But it is preferable to suppose (see ^§. 496. 
 and 524. note) that the form which from its most usual meaning in dependent 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 381 
 
 sentences is called the perfect subjunctive active, is at the same time the 
 subjimctive of the future perfect {scripserim the subjunct. of scripsi and 
 scripsero), which future perfect frequently acquires the meaning of a simple 
 future. Hence the perfect subjunctive, in a potential sense, is generally 
 used only in the active voice, and very rarely in the passive ; as in Veil. 
 Pat. i. 18. : iion ego hoc magis miratus sim ; and Livy, xxii. 59. : ne illi 
 quidem se nobis merito praetuleriiit gloriatigue sint ; xxx. 14. : nulla virtus 
 est, qua ego aeque atque temperantia gloriatus fuerim. After it had once 
 become customary to use the perfect subjunctive in the potential sense of 
 the present subjunctive, the former was sometimes also employed in de- 
 pendent sentences (after ut and we) instead of the present. JJt sic dixerim 
 occurs in Quintilian, Tacitus (de Orat. 34. 40.), and the classical jurists ; 
 ne longius abieinm (for abeam) is used by Tacitus {Ann. vi. 22.), and ne quis 
 sit admiratus for nequis admiretur by Cicero (de Off. ii. 10.). 
 
 It must, however, be observed that, on the whole, the subjunctive is 
 sparingly used by the earlier writers in the sense of a potential mood ; but 
 later writers, such as Quintilian, do not keep within the same limits. 
 
 Note 2. The first person of the imperfect subjunctive is used more rarely 
 without implying the falsity or impossibility of a condition; but vellem, 
 nollem, and mallem are used to express a wish, the non-reality and impossi- 
 bility of which we know, whence vellem becomes equivalent to " I should 
 have wished." But in the second person, when it implies an indefinite 
 person, and in the third when the subject is an indefinite person, the imper- 
 fect subjimctive is used in independent propositions to express things which 
 might have happened, that is, in the sense of the pluperfect, and we can 
 easily supply the supposed condition, ".if you had been present." This is the 
 case especially with the verbs dicere, putare, credere ; e. g. Liv. ii. 43. : 
 maestique (crederes victos) redeunt in castra, one might have believed that 
 they were defeated; ii. 35.: quidquid erat Patrum, reos diceres; Cic. in 
 Verr. iv. 13. : quo postquftm venerujd, mirandum in modum (canes venaticos 
 diceres) ita odorabantur omnia et pervestigabant, ut, ubi quidque esset, aliqua 
 ratione invenirent ; Curt. vi. 6. : discurrunt milites et itineri sarcinas aptant : 
 signum datum crederes, vi vasa colligerent. Videre, cemere, and discemere 
 are used in the same way ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. iv. 40. : Vix hoc erat plane 
 imperatum, quum ilium spoliatum stipatumque lictoribus cemeres, one might 
 have seen him, scil. if one had been present ; Sallust, Cat. 25. : pecuniae an 
 famae minus parceret, haud facile discemeres. The third person is more 
 rarely used in this way, although it occurs in Cicero, in Verr. iv. 23. : qui 
 videret equum Trojanum introductum, urbem captam diceret ; but frequently 
 with the interrogative quis, as Cic. in Verr. i. 41. : quis unquam crederet ? 
 p. Leg. Man. 11.: quis unquam arbitraretur ? p. Flacc. 40. : quis putaret? 
 Juven. vii. 212. : Cui nan tunc eliceret risum citharoedi cauda magistri ? 
 
 [§ 529.] 4. The subjunctive is further used in independent 
 sentences to express a wish or desire (^optative). In the second 
 and third persons of the present (to some extent also of the 
 perfect) it supplies the place of the imperative ; e. g. dicas 
 equivalent to die, loguare to loguere, especially when the person 
 is indefinite ; further dicat, faciat, loquatur. The present sub- 
 junctive is used in the first person to express an assurance; 
 
382 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 e. g. moriar, inter earn, per earn ; and in the plural a request, which 
 may be addressed to ourselves as well as others ; e. g. eamus, 
 moriamur, nunc revertamur ad propositum ! let us go ! let us 
 die ! let us return ! The imperfect and pluperfect are used to 
 express wishes belonging to the past time, when a thing ought 
 to have been or to have been done ; e. g. dicer et, dixisset, he 
 should have said. 
 
 Connected with this is the use of the subjunctive (called 
 in this case concessivus), to express a concession or admission, 
 both with and without the conjunctions ut and licet; e. g. dicat, 
 he may say ; diceret, he might say ; dixerit, he may have said, 
 and so on through all the tenses. The negative with these sub- 
 junctives (optative and concessive) is usually not non but ne ; 
 e. g. ne dicas, ne dicat, ne dixeris (this negative way is the most 
 common case of the perfect subjunct. being used in the sense of 
 the present) ; further ne vivam, ne desperemus, ne fuerit, equiva- 
 lent to licet nonfuerit. 
 Meminerinfius, etiam adversus infimos justitiam esse servandam, 
 
 Cic. De Off. i. 13. 
 Nihil incommodo valetudinis tuae feceris, Cic. ad Att. vii. 8. 
 Emas', non quod opus est, sed quod necesse est, Seneca. 
 Donis impii ne placare audeant deos ; Platonem audiant, qui 
 
 vetat duhitare, qua sit mente futurus deus, cum vir nemo bonus 
 
 ah improho se donari velit, Cic. de Leg, 
 Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret, Horat. Epist, i.' 
 
 10. 24. 
 Ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, Cicero. 
 
 Note. We are of opinion that the subjunctive which expresses a wish^ and 
 is apparently not dependent upon any other sentence, may be grammatically 
 explained by supplying the verb volo, according to § 624. With regard to 
 the use of the subjunctive instead of the imperative, we may observe, that it 
 occurs principally in the third person (this person of the imperative being 
 usually avoided in ordinary language), and in the second with a negation, 
 and in the latter case the perfect regularly takes the place of the present (in 
 deponent as well as active verbs ; e. g. ne sis aspernatus, Cic. ad Quint. 
 Frat. ii. 12.) ; hence we usually say ne dixeris and dicat or ne dicat^ but 
 rarely ne dixerit; e.g. Tacit. Ann.iy.32.: nemo contenderit. Beginners 
 must be especially cautioned not to prefer the present subjunctive (dicas) 
 to the imperative (die) on the ground of its being more polite. The im- 
 perative die expresses a wish as well as a command, and it may be still more 
 softened by adding such a word as oro, giiaeso, dum, sis. Dicas for die 
 oc(!urs in Cicero, when it is addressed to an indefinite person ; e. g. Tusc. v. 41. : 
 sic injurias fortvnae^ quas ferre nequeas^ defagiendo relinquas ; Cat. Maj. 1 0. : 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 383 
 
 Demque isto bono (corporis robore) utare dum adsit, quum ahsit ne requiras. 
 But when addressing a definite person he very rarely uses dicas and ne dicaa 
 for die and noli dicere (ad Att. x. 15. in fin. xiv. 1.2.). But the poets and 
 later prose writers (even Livy) frequently employ the second person of the 
 present subjunctive in addressing definite persons; e. g. Liv. vi. 12.: Til, 
 Quinti, equitem intentus — teneos, &c. ; xxii. 53. : Si sciens fallo, turn me Jup- 
 piter Opt. Max. pessimo leto afficias ; xxvi. 50. : amicus populo Romano sis^ 
 et si me virum bonum credis esse, scias multos nostri similes in civitate JRomana 
 esse, are words addressed by Scipio to Masinissa. The third person of the 
 present subjunctive, however, is used quite commonly to express a precept, 
 as in Cicero (de Off. i. 37.), where the following precepts are given re- 
 specting conversational style: Sit igitur sermo lenis minimeque pertinax ; 
 insit in eo lepos ; nee vero, tamquam in possessionem venerit, excludat alios, sed 
 quum in reliquis rebus, turn in sermone communi, vicissitudinem non iniquam 
 puiet, ae videat imprimis, quibu^ de rebus loquatur, si seriis, severitatem adhi- 
 beat, si jocosis, leporem ; impnmisque provideat, &c. In this manner the 
 present and perfect subjunctive are used for the imperative; but the im- 
 perfect and pluperfect also are employed to express a precept, referring to 
 the past time, when a thing should have been done ; e. g. Terent. Heaut. \. 
 2. 28. : pater ejus fortasse aliquxmio iniquior erat : pateretur, he should have 
 borne it ; Cic. p. Sext. 20. : forsitan non nemo vir fortis dixerit, restitisses^ 
 mortem pugnans oppetisses, you should have resisted; ad Att. ii. 1, 3.: Mittam 
 tibi orationes meas, ex quibus perspicies et quae gesserim et quae dixerim : avt 
 ne poposeisses, ego enim me tibi non offerebam, or you should not have asked 
 for them. 
 
 The concessive mood must be supposed to exist wherever we may para- 
 phrase the subjunctive by licet. In English, its place is usually supplied by 
 the expressions " suppose," or " supposing," and the like, which are equi- 
 valent to the Latin esto ut. Comp. Cic. de Leg. Agr. ii. 23. 62. : parta sit 
 pecunia, &c. The perfect retains the signification which it has in the in- 
 dicative; e.g. Cic. in Verr. i. 41.: Malus civis Cn. Carbo fuit. Fu£7nt aliis : 
 tibi quando esse coepit ? he may have been so to others. The imperfect in 
 this sense is based only on the authority of the MS. reading in Tacit. 
 Ann. iii. 11.: ac premeret is, where Walther's note should be consulted. 
 There is another independent subjunctive which expresses suppositions 
 as merely conceived, and which may be called the hypothetical subjunc^ 
 tive, e. g. roges me, if you ask me, or supposing you ask me ; dares illi ali- 
 quid, if you gave, or supposing you gave him anything ; but we prefer 
 classing this subjunctive with that of hypothetical sentences, and explain it 
 by supplying the conjunction si, for the indicative too is thus used. See 
 j 780. 
 
 Non is sometimes joined with the subjunctive expressing a prohibition or 
 request, as Horat. Serm. ii. 5. 91. : JEpist. i. 18. 72.: Quintil. vii. 1. 56.: 
 non desperemus ; i. 1. 15. : non assuescat vitioseloqui ; ii. 16. 6. : non fabricetur 
 militi gladius. In the same manner nequ£ is used for neve in connection with 
 such subjunctives, and that not only by the poets and Quintilian (ii. 1. 5.: 
 rhetorice officia sua non detractet nee occupari gaudeat), but even by Cicero 
 (de Re Publ.'i. 2.: p. Plane. 6. § 15.). 
 
 [§ 530.] 5. Lastly, the subjunctive is used, in aU its tenses, 
 in independent sentences to express a doubtful question con- 
 taining a negative sense ( conjunctivus duhitativus) ; e. g. quo 
 
384 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 earn 9 whither shall I go ? quo irem ? whither should I go ? quo 
 eas ? whither wilt thou go ? quo ires ? whither wouldst thou go ? 
 qito iverim ? whither was I to have gone ? quo ivissem ? whither 
 should I have gone ? The answer implied in all these cases is 
 " nowhere," and this is the negative sense of such questions ; for 
 in questions to which we expect an affirmative answer, the in- 
 dicative is used. 
 Cum tempestate pugnem periculose potius, quam illi ohtemperem et 
 
 paream? Cic. Pro Plane. 39. 
 Valerius quotidie cantahat : erat enim scenicus : quid faceret 
 
 aliud ? Cic. De Orat. iii. 23. 
 Apud exercitum mihi fueris, inquit, tot annos ? forum nan atti- 
 
 geris ? abfueris tamdiu ? ut, quum longo intervallo veneris, cum 
 
 lis, qui in foro hahitarint, de dignitate contendas ? Cic. Pro 
 
 Muren. 9. 
 
 Note. For the purpose of a grammatical explanation of this subjunc- 
 tive, we supply the question " should you perhaps like that," &c., which 
 implies the contrary of what the question asks, and is equivalent to 
 " surely you will not," or " would not that," &c. Hence when I ask quid 
 doceamf the negative answer "nothing" is pre-supposed ; and when I 
 put the negative question quid non doceum ? I suggest the affirmative answer 
 " any thing;" hoc non noceatf do you mean to say that this does not injure? 
 (i.e. it certainly does mjure). There is nothing to be said against this 
 ellipsis in the first and third persons ; with regard to the second we can only 
 say, that it is an imitation of the two others. But that there actually is an 
 ellipsis, is clear from the indignant interrogation with ut {§ 609.). As to the 
 use of the imperfect, compare also Caes. Sell. Civ. i. 72. : Caesar in earn spem 
 venerate se sine pugna et sine vulnere suorum rem conficere posse, quod re fru- 
 mentaria udversarios interclusisset : cur etiam secundo proelio aliquos ex suis 
 amitteret? cur vulnei'ari pateretur optinie de se meritos milites? cur denique 
 fortunam periclitaretur ? i.e. Why should he lose any more? Why should 
 he allow them to be wounded? Why should he tempt fortune ? The imper- 
 fect therefore can occur only in narratives. 
 
 [§ 531.] 6. Dependent sentences in which an intention or 
 purpose or a direction towards the future is expressed, take the 
 subjunctive. The conjunctions ut, ne, quo, quin, quominus serve 
 to connect such sentences with others, and consequently govern 
 the subjunctive, the tenses of which must be chosen as required 
 by that of the leading verb of the sentence. (See above, § 512, 
 foil.) 
 
 a) lit or uti (that or in order that) refers either to some- 
 thing future which is the intention, object, result or effect of 
 another action (which is often expressed in English by "in 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 385 
 
 order to," or simply "to" with the infinitive), or when used 
 after the words sic, ita, tarn, talis, tantus, ejusmodi, &c., it ex- 
 presses a quality or the nature of a thing in the form of a 
 result. The English conjunction "that," which introduces 
 sentences supplying the place either of a nominative or accu- 
 sative, cannot be rendered by ut, as " it is a consolation for the 
 subjects that the king is a just man," equivalent to " the king's 
 justice is a consolation," &c. ; or " I know that the king is just," 
 equivalent to " I know the king's justice." 
 Esse oportet ut vivas, non vivere ut edas, Auct. Ad Heren. 
 
 iv, 28. 
 Pylades Orestem se esse dixit, ut pro illo necaretur, Cic. Lael. 7. 
 Nemo tarn malus est, ut videri velit, Quintil. iii. 8. 44. 
 Sol efficit ut omnia jioreant, Cic. De Nat, Deor, ii. 1 5. 
 
 Note. Ut is originally an adverb denoting manner, and as a relative 
 adverb it corresponds with the demonstrative ita. As an adverb it properly 
 governs nothing, and is joined according to the nature of the sentence either 
 with the indicative or the subjunctive. As a particle of time in the sense of 
 " as" or " as soon as" it is likewise joined with the indicative (if theie are no 
 additional reasons requiring the subjunctive) and usually with the perfect 
 indicative. See above § 506. It requires the subjunctive only when it ex- 
 presses a relation to a future time conceived by the mind, and a purpose or 
 a result which is yet to come. It has already been observed (§ 286.) that 
 ita ut, tantus ut, &c. only indicate more definitely a future result, and may 
 have both an increasing and a limiting power. The adverbs ita, sic, tarn, 
 however, are often omitted with verbs and adjectives, and ut alone is equiva- 
 lent to ita (sic, tarn) — ut, e.g. Nepos: Epaminondas fuit etiam disertus, ut nemo 
 Thehanus ei par esset eloqueritia, instead of tarn disertus. Respecting ut, in the 
 sense of " would that" and " supposing that" with the subjunctive, see below 
 §§ 571 and 573. 
 
 [§ 532.] h) Ne (in order that not, or, lest) is used only to 
 express a negative intention or intended effect ; e. g. aura ne 
 denuo in m,orbum incidas, or haec vitae ratio effecit, ne denuo in 
 morhum inciderem, Ut non is used, on the other hand, when an 
 effect is to be expressed without an intention, that is, a simple 
 result or consequence, and when a quality is to be determined, 
 in which case the adverbs ita, sic, tam are either expressed or 
 understood ; e. g. tum. forte aegrotaham, ut ad nuptias tuas 
 venire non possem; i. e. in consequence of my illness, but no 
 intention is expressed. Compare however § 347. Ut non is 
 further used when the negation does not refer to the whole 
 sentence, but only to a part of it or to a particular word, just 
 as in a similar case si non must be used and not nisi. 
 
 C C 
 
386 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Confer te ad Manlium, ut a me non ejectus ad alienos, sed invi- 
 
 tatus dd tuos isse videaris, Cic. in Cat. i. 9. 
 Nemo prudens punit, ut ait Plato, quia peccatum est, sed ne pec- 
 
 cetur, Seneca, De Ira, i. 16. 21. 
 Nihil agitiSf inquit AnHa, potestis enim efficere, ut male moriar ; 
 
 ne moriar, non potestis, Plin. Epist. iii. 16. 
 
 [§ 533.] We have here to notice a peculiarity of the Latin 
 language, according to which the verbs metuo, timeo, vereor are 
 treated as implying an intention. They are therefore followed 
 by ne, when anything is to be prevented, or when it is wished 
 that something should not happen ; e. g. metuo, ne frustra la- 
 bor em susceperis; and by ut, when it is wished that something 
 should take place ; e. g. vereor, ut mature venias. These same 
 verbs are followed by the infinitive when they express only a 
 state of mind, without implying any wish either the one way 
 or the other ; e. g. metuo manus admovere, vereor dicer e ; but 
 vereor ut apte dicam. 
 
 Vereor, ne, dum minuere velim, labor em, augcam^ Cicero. 
 Adulator es, si quem laudant, vereri se dicunt, ut illius facta verbis 
 
 consequi possint, Auct. Ad Heren. iii. 6. 
 
 [^ 534.] 'Note 1. To the verbs denoting /e«r we must add the substantives 
 expressing fear, apprehension, or danger, as well as the verbs terrere^ conter- 
 rere^ deterrere^ and also cavere^ which in its usual sense of " to be on one's 
 guard," is rarely joined with the infinitive, but is usually followed by ne, e.g. 
 Cic. de Off. i. 26. : cavendum est^ ne assentatoribus patefaciamus aures iieu 
 adulari nos sinamus. (^Cavere^ however, sometimes also signifies "to take 
 care of a thing," in which case it is followed by ut; e.g. Cic. de Fin. ii. 31. : 
 Epicurus testamento cavity ut dies natalis suus ageretur.) Further videre and 
 ohservare in requests {vide^ videte^ videndum est), in the sense of " to consider," 
 are followed either by ut or ne just as the verbs denoting fear ; e. g. vide ne 
 hoc tihi obsit, consider whether this is not injurious to you, that is, I am 
 afraid it will injure you. See Heusinger on Cicero de Off. i. 9. For videre 
 in the sense of curare, see § 614. 
 
 It rarely happens that timere is followed by the accusative with the infini- 
 tive, instead of ne with the subjunctive, as in Cic. de Leg. ii. 22. : Quod 
 (Sulla) timens sua corpori posse accidere, igni voluit cremari ; de Orat. ii. 72. : 
 quum suhest ille timor, ne dignitatem quidem posse retineri, instead of ne ipsa 
 dignitas retineri non possit. Comp. Liv. ii. 7. 5. ; iii. 22. 2. 
 
 [§ 535.] Note 2. Neve is used in negative sentences to continue that which 
 is introduced by ut and ne (see § 347.). It is properly equivalent to aut we, 
 and therefore only intended to continue a preceding ne, but it is also used 
 for et ne after a preceding ut, as on the other hand et ne is used after a nega- 
 tion instead of aut ne. Hence we find, e. g. Liv. xxiii. 34. : mandatum ut in 
 omnes naves legatos separatim custodiendos divideret, daretque operam, ne quod 
 iis colloquium inter se, neve quae communicatio consilii esset ; Nep. Thras. 3. : 
 legem tulit, ne quis ante actarum rerujn accusaretur, neve mxdtaretur ; Caes. 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 387 
 
 Bell. Gall. ii. 21. : Caesar milites non longiore oratione cohortatus, quam uti 
 suae pristinae virtutis memoriam retinerent^ iieu perturharentvr animo, — proelii 
 committendi signum dedit. Neque should properly not come into considera- 
 tion here, as it is equivalent to et non^ but it cannot be denied that even 
 Cicero sometimes uses it for et ne after id^ e. g. in Verr. iii. 48. : tit ea prae- 
 termittam, neque eos appellem ; de Orat. i. 5. : Tiortemurque potius liheros 7ios- 
 tros^ ut animo rei magnitudinem complectantur^ neque — conjidant. It occurs 
 very rarely, and is not quite certain after ne., as would be the case in Nepos, 
 Pau^. 4. : orare coepit, ne enunciaret nee se meritum de illo optime proderet, if 
 we ought not to correct nee into neu. See my note on Cic. m Verr. iii. 6. 14. 
 In Livy however there are many passages in Avhich neque (nee) occurs after ne 
 as well as after u£, e. g. ii. 32. : conspirasse (membra) ne manus ad os cihumfer- 
 rent^ nee os aceiperet datum nee denies^ quae conficerent ; iv. 4. : cur non 
 sancitis ne vicinu^ patricio sit plebejus nee eodem itinere eat; v. 3. : interdicitis 
 patribus commercio plebis, ne nos comitate pjrovocemiis plebem, nee plebs nobis 
 dido audiens sit. 
 
 Respecting vt ne for ne., see above, § 347. ; but it does not occur with the 
 verbs denoting fear. They are however sometimes followed by ne non, 
 which is equivalent to m/, the two negations neutralising each other, e. g. 
 timeo ne non impetrem, I fear I shall not obtain it (i. e. though I wish it) ; 
 Cic. ad Fam. ii. 5. : non quo verear^ ne tua virtus opinioni hominum non re- 
 spondeat; — or non belongs to the verb alone, as Cic. ad Att. v. 18. : Unum 
 vereor, ne senatus Pompejum nolit dimittere, I fear the senate will not let 
 Pompey go (viz. though I wish it may do so). 
 
 [§ 536.} c) Quo is properly the ablative of the relative pro- 
 noun, and stands for ut eo (§ 567.), " in order that," or " that 
 by this means." But it is commonly joined only with compara- 
 tives. Non quo answers to the English, "not as if" (instead 
 of which however we may also say non quod), and non quin, 
 " not as if not." The apodosis following after such a sentence 
 begins with sed quod or sed quia with the indicative (sometimes 
 also with sed alone), or with ut, 
 Ager non semel aratur, sed novatur et iteratur, quo meliores fetus 
 
 possit et grandiores edere, Cic. de Orat. ii. 30. 
 Legem brevem esse oportet, quo facilius ah imperitis teneatuvy 
 
 Senec. Epist. 94. 
 Ad te litteras dedi, non quo haherem magnopere, quod scriberem, 
 
 sed ut loquerer tecum ahsens, Cic. ad Att. vii. 15. 
 
 Note 1. Quo is also used for et eo, and when joined with comparatives it 
 corresponds with a subsequent eo or hoc, in the sense of ^e more — the more. 
 In both cases it is no more than an ordinary relative, and is joined with the 
 indicative, for the subjunctive after qux) is used only, as in the above exam- 
 ples, when it expresses an intention or purpose. 
 
 [§ 537.] Note 2. The above-mentioned use of non quo was formerly very 
 much disputed, and critics wanted every where to substitute for it non quod, 
 and to confine nan quo to those passages in which a presumed intention is 
 denied. But this would require an alteration in too many passages. See 
 
 oc 2 
 
388 I.ATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 my note on Cic. in Verr. ii. 35. in fin. It cannot however be denied, that on 
 the whole it is more safe to say non quod, also non eo quod or non idea quod 
 (and in later writers non quid)^ all of which are joined with the subjunctive. 
 Examples are numerous : non quin, e. g. Cic. ad Att. vii. 26. : Ego me ducem 
 in civili hello negavi esse, non quin rectum esset, sed quia, quod multo rectius 
 fuit, id mihi fraudem tulit ; in like manner non quin conjiderem diligentiae 
 tuae, not as if I had not confidence in your diligence ; non quin breviter 
 responsum reddi potuerit, not as if a short answer could not have been given. 
 But in the same sense we may also separate the negation and say non quo 
 non, non quod non or non quia non, as Cic. Tusc. i. 1. : non quia philosophia 
 Graecis et litteris et doctoribus percipi non posset, and p. Milon. 22. : Majores 
 nostri in dominum de servo quneri noluemnt, non quia non posset verum inve- 
 niri, sed quia videhatur indignum esse. Hence Ernesti should not have been 
 surprised at finding this expression in Tacitus, Hist. i. 15. But non quia in 
 the protasis, with the indicative (in Liv. xxxiii. 27. : non quia satis dignos 
 eos credebat, and Tacit. Hist. iii. 4. : non quia industria Flaviani egebant, sed 
 vt^ &c.) — and sed quod in the apodosis with the subjunctive — (in Cic. ad 
 Fam. iv. 7. : consilium tuum reprehendere non audeo, non quin ah eo ipse dis- 
 sentiam, sed quod ea te sapientia esse judicem, ut meum consilium non ante- 
 ponam tuo) — Seem both to be contrary to usage. 
 
 [§ 538.] d) Quin is used after negative sentences and doubtful 
 questions with quis and quid, which differ only in the form of ex- 
 pression from affirmative propositions with nemo and nihil, first, 
 for qui non, quae non, quod non, and secondly, for ut non (" that 
 not" or " without" when followed by a participle). Quin, equi- 
 valent to a relative pronoun with non, is used especially after the 
 expressions nemo, nullus, nihil, vix, aegre — est, reperitur, inveni- 
 tur, e. g. Cic. in Verr. ii. 36. : repertus est nemo quin mori diceret 
 satius esse ; the use of quin for ut non cannot be limited to par- 
 ticular expressions, but we must especially observe the phrase 
 facere non possum quin, and in the passive voice, Jieri non potest 
 quin, where the double negation renders the affirmative meaning 
 more emphatic. So also nulla causa est, quid causae est ? nihil 
 causae est — quin hoc faciam, 
 
 Quis est quin cernat, quanta vis sit in sensibus ? Cicero. 
 Nihil tam difficile est, quin quaerendo investigari possit, Terent. 
 
 Heaut. iv. 2. 8. 
 Nunquam tam male est Siculis, quin aliquid facete et commode 
 
 dicant, Cic. in Verr, iv. 43. 
 Facere non potui, quin tibi et sententiam et voluntatem declararem 
 
 meam, Cic. ad Fam, vi. 13. 
 
 [§ 539.] Note 1. We said above that quin was used only for the nominat. 
 qui, quae, quod with non, and this must indeed be considered as the general 
 rule, although quin is sometimes found in prose instead of the accusat. quod 
 
 I 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 389 
 
 ruyn^ which may be partly owing to the identity of the nom. and ace. in the 
 neuter gender, and instead of the ablat. quo non (after dies) ; e. g. Cic. in 
 Verr. iv. 1.: nego in Sicilia quidquam fuisse^ quin conquisierit ; Sueton. Nero^ 
 45. : nihil contumeliarum defuit quin subiret ; Cic, ad Att. i. 1. : dies fere nul- 
 lus est quin hie Satrius domum meam ventitet; Brut. 88. : nullum patiehatur 
 esse diem (Hortensius) quin aut in foro diceret aut meditaretur extra Jorum. 
 Here too the fact of qui being equivalent to qua may have had some influ- 
 ence. Other passages may be explained by ut non. It has already been 
 remarked that qui non, &c. may be used for quin, and this occurs very fre- 
 quently, e.g. Cic. jt>. Flacc. 25. i-quis enim erat qui non sciret, &c. It must 
 b^ observed that when quin stands for qui non or quod non, the pronoun is, 
 id, although superfluous, is sometimes added for the sake of greater emphasis, 
 as Cic. in Verr. i. 59. : Quis in circum maximum venit, quin is unoquoque gradu 
 de avaritia tua commoneretur f de Nat. Deor. ii. 9. : Cleanthes negat ullum 
 cihum esse tarn gravem, quin is die et node concoquatur; ibid. iii. 13.: nihil 
 est q^iod sensum hdbeat, quin id intereat ; Sallust, Jug. 63. : novu^ nema tarn 
 clarus erat quin is indignus eo honore haberetur. 
 
 The place of quin is further not unfrequently supplied by ut non. Thus we 
 read, on the one hand, quin in Terence, Eun. iv.7.21. : Nunquam accedo, quin 
 abs te abeam doctior, I never visit you without leaving wiser (than when I 
 came) ; and in Nepos, Timol. 1 . : Mater vero post id factum (necem fratris) 
 neque domum flium ad se admisit neque adspexit, quin eum fratricidam impium- 
 que detestans compellaret, without calling him a fratricide ; — and on the 
 other hand ut non in precisely the same sense, as in Cicero, p. Leg. Man. 7. : 
 mere ilia non possunt, ut haec non eodem labefacia niotu concidant ; Sueton. 
 Octav. 5^. : Augustus nunquam fUios suos populo commendavit, ut non adjiceret 
 (without adding) si mereburdur. It also occurs after /ocere non possum, ox^ ■ 
 fieri non potest, e.g. Cic. ad Att. xi. 21.: Tu etsi non potuisti ullo modo facere^ 
 ut mihi illam epistolam non mitteres : tamen mallem non esse missam ; in Verr. 
 ii. 77. : feri non potest, ut eum tu in tua provincia non cognoris. 
 
 It is obvious that both qui non and vi non must be used, and not quin, 
 when no negation precedes, or when non belongs to a particular word of a 
 seiitence, and not to the leading verb. Accordingly, we cannot say non 
 adeo imperitus sum quin sciam, but ui nesciam, since non negatives only the 
 word adeo. 
 
 [§ 540.] From this we must distinguish the use of quin after 
 non dubito, non est dubium, non ambigo (I doubt not), and many 
 other expressions containing a negation; as non abest ; nihil, 
 paulum, non procul, hand multum, abest ; non, vix, aegre abs- 
 tineo ; tenere me, or temperari mihi non possum ; non impedio, 
 non recuso, nihil praetermitto, and the like. For in these 
 cases the negation contained in quin is superfluous, and is only 
 a sort of continuation of the preceding non (as the Greek fxr] ov 
 before an infinitive) ; hence it is generally not expressed in 
 EngHsh, quin being rendered by "that," or by "to" with an 
 infinitive. E. g. 7ion dubito quin domi sit, I have no doubt, 
 (that) he is at home : non multum -abest quin miserrimus sim, 
 
 c c 3 
 
390 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 not much is wanting to make me the most wretched of men ; nulla 
 morafuit, quin decernerent helium, they did not hesitate to decree 
 war. Hence, as quin in this case is only a form of expression, 
 non is superadded, if the dependent sentence is to have a really 
 negative meaning. Thus we find not unfrequently, at least, 
 non duhito quin non, which is easily explained by translating non 
 duhito quin by " I believe," e. g. Gic. in Verr. i. 40. : in quibus 
 non duhito quin offensionem negligentiae vitare atque effugere non 
 possim, I believe that I cannot escape the charge of negligence ; 
 comp. ad Att. v. 11. in fin. ; de O^. iii. 3. : Duhitandum non est, 
 quin nunquam possit utilitas cum honestate contendere, we must 
 believe, or be convinced that utility can never be opposed to 
 virtue. It should however be observed that expressions im- 
 plying an obstacle are properly followed, according to § 543., by 
 quo minus instead of quin. 
 Dux ille Graeciae nusquam optat, ut Ajacis similes haheat decem, 
 
 sed ut Nestoris ; quod si acciderit, non duhitat quin hrevi Troja 
 
 sitperitura, Cic. Cat. Maj. 10. 
 Num duhitas quin specimen naturae capi deceat ex optima quaque 
 
 natura 9 Cic. Tusc. i. 14. 
 Quis igitur duhitet, quin in virtute divitiae sint ? Cicero. 
 Ego nihil praetermisi, quantum facere potui, quin Pompejum a 
 
 Caesaris conjunctione avocarem, Cic. Philip. 
 Infesta contio vix inhiheri potuit, quin protinus suo more saxa in 
 
 Polemonem jaceret. Curt. vii. 6. (2.). 
 Tiherium non fortuna, non solitudines protegehant, quin tormenta 
 
 pectoris suasque ipse poenas fateretur. Tacit. Ann. vi. 6. 
 
 [§ 541.] Note 2. If we are to take the language of Cicero as our guide, it 
 is less correct to use the accusative with the infinitive after non duhito^ in the 
 sense of " I do not doubt," instead of quin ; but it often occurs in Cur tins 
 and Livy (see Drakenborch on Liv. xxii. 55., and xxxvi. 41.), and in Nepos 
 exclusively, which may be considered as a peculiarity of this author ; in later 
 writers it is found frequently. But the only passage in Cicero, which is 
 alleged as an example of non duhito followed by the accusative with the 
 infinitive, viz. ad Att. \\i. 1., has hitherto had a wrong punctuation, and 
 according to Bremi (on Nep. Praefat.) we must read : Me autem vXerque 
 numerat suum, nisi forte simuldt alter : nam Pompejus non duhitat. Vere enim 
 judicata ea, qvxie de repuhlica nunc sentiat, mihi valde prohari. The partiality 
 for the construction with quin is attested by some passages, in which this 
 conjunction is used instead of the accusat. with the infinitive, because the 
 leading sentence may be conceived to contain the same idea as non duhito^ as 
 Cia. p. Flacc. 11. \ Quis ignorat quin tria Graecorum genera sint; comp. 
 Quintil. xii. 7, 8.: quis ignorat quin id huge sit hoiicstissimum'; Cic. Tusc. v. 
 
 I 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 391 
 
 7. : atqui alterum did (i.e. in dvbium vocarn) non potest quin ii^ qui nihil 
 metuant, heati sint. 
 
 But when dubito and non duhito signify " I scruple " or " hesitate," and the 
 sentence following contains the same subject, they are generally followed by 
 the inj&nitive ; e.g. non dubito respondere ; Cicero non dubitabat conjuratos 
 supplicio afficere ; though Cicero often uses quin even in these cases, as in Verr. 
 ii. 13. : nemo dubitavit, quin voluntatem spectaret ejus^ quem statim de capite 
 sua putaret judicaturum ; p. Flacc. 17. : dubitatis, judices, quin ab hoc igno- 
 tissimo Phryge nobilissiniu?n civem vindicetis ? (a negative question, the mean- 
 ing of which is "you must not hesitate.") Comp. ^. Leg. Man. 16. in fin. 
 and 23. ; p. Milon. 23. § 63. ; de Leg. Agr. ii. 26. § 69. Schneider on Caesar, 
 Bell. Gall. ii. 2. 
 
 We here add the remark that "I doubt whether" is expressed in Latin 
 by dubito sitiie, dubito utrum — aw, dubito sitne — «w, or dubito num., numquid; 
 for dubito an and dubium est an are used, like nescio an^ by the best writers with 
 an affirmative meaning. See § 354. 
 
 [§ 542.] Note 3. Quin is used in another sense with the indicative^ implying a 
 question or an exhortation ; this is in accordance with its original elements, being 
 compounded of ne (i. e. non) and the ancient ablative qui of the interrogative 
 pronoun quid^ e. g. Liv. : quin conscendimus equos ? Why do we not mount 
 our horses ? Cic. p. Habir. 6. : Quin continetis vocem indicem stultitiae vestrae? 
 Curt. V. 22. : Quin igitur ulciscimur Graeciam., et urbi faces subdimus? and so 
 in many other passages. As such questions are equivalent to exhortations 
 (and different from questions with cur non, which always require an answer), 
 quin in this sense is also joined with the imperative, e. g. quin die statim, well, 
 tell me ! quin sic attendite judices, pray, pay attention ! — or with the first 
 person plural of the subjunctive, as quin experiamur, why do we not try, or 
 let us try ! Hence quin, without being connected with any verb, signifies 
 " even" or " rather," just as quin etiam, quinpotius, quin immo; as in Cicero : 
 credibile non est, quantum scribam die, quin etiam noctibus. 
 
 [§ 543.] e) Quommus (for ut eo minus, in order that not) is 
 mostly used after verbs expressing a hindrance, where also ne, 
 and if a negative precedes, quin may be used. The principal 
 verbs of this kind are: — deterrere, impedire, intercedere, obsistere, 
 obstare, qfficere, prohibere, recusare, repugnare ; but there are 
 several other expressions which convey the same meaning, e. g. 
 Stat or Jit per me, I am the cause ; non pugno, nihil moror, non 
 contineo me, &c. 
 Cimon nunquam in hortis custodem imposuit, ne quis impediretur, 
 
 quominus ejus rebus, quibus quisque vellet, frueretur, Nep. 
 
 Cim. 4. 
 Parmenio, quum audisset, venenum a Philippe medico regi parari, 
 
 deterrere eum voluit epistola scripta, quominus medicamentum 
 
 biberet, quod medicus dare constitueret, Curt. vi. 40. (10.). 
 
 [§ 544.] Note. Impedire, deterrere, Siudreciisare, however, are sometimes, and 
 prohibere frequently (§ 607.), followed by the infinitive ; e.g. Caes. Bell. Gall. 
 iii. 22.: neque adhuc repertus est quisquam, qui mori recusaret; Cic. de Off. ii. 
 
 c c 4 
 
392 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 2. : quid est igitur, quod me impediat, ea, quae mihi prohahilia videantur, sequif 
 in Verr. i. 5. : nef arias ejus lihidines commemorare pudore deterreor ; in 
 Verr, v. 45. : prohibentur parentes adire ad filios^ prohihentur liheris suis 
 cibum vestitumque ferre; de Off. iii. 11.: rrmle^ qui peregrinos urhihus uti 
 prohibent. In one passage of Cicero {p. Rose. Am. 52.) proMhere is followed 
 by ut : Di prohibeant, judices, id hoc, quod major es consilium publicum vocari 
 voluerunt, praesidium sectorum existimetur. This however should not be 
 imitated. Instead of quominus we sometimes find quo seciu^ (see § 283.), es- 
 pecially in the work ad Herennium. 
 
 [§ 545.] 7. The subjunctive is used in propositions which are 
 introduced into others, after relative pronouns and conjunctions, 
 when those propositions express the thoughts or words of 
 another person. (In many cases they are the thoughts or 
 words of the speaker himself, but he then speaks of himself as 
 of a third person.) To make this general rule more clear, we 
 shall distinguish the various cases in which such clauses are 
 inserted. 
 
 a) Clauses inserted in the construction of the accusative 
 with the infinitive, when they are to express the thoughts or 
 words of the person spoken of, or when they form an essential 
 part of the statement implied in the accusat. with the infinitive. 
 Socrates dicer e solehat, omnes in eo^ quod scirent, satis esse elo- 
 
 quenteSf Cic. de Orat. i. 14. 
 Mos est Atlienis laiidari in contione eos, qui sint in proeliis in- 
 
 terfecti, Cic. Orat. 4:4:. 
 Quid potest esse tarn apertum, tamque perspicuum, quum coelum 
 
 suspeximus, coelestiaque contemplati sumus, quam esse aliquod 
 
 numen praestantissimae mentis, quo haec regantur, Cic. de 
 
 Nat. Deor. ii. 2. 
 
 Note. If we take the first of these examples, the words which Socrates 
 said are : omnes in eo, quod sciunt, satis sunt eloquentes, and the clause in eo 
 quod sciurd is a part of his statement; hence it is expressed by the subjunc- 
 tive, if the leading verb is changed into the infinitive. In the last example, 
 the belief is : est deus ab eoque hie mundus regitur., and not merely deus est; 
 hence regitur, which is an essential part of it, is expressed by the subjunc- 
 tive. The tense of such an inserted clause depends upon that of the leading 
 verb, on which, in fact, the whole sentence is dependent. The inserted clause 
 has the indicative when it contains a remark of the speaker (or writer) himself, 
 and not a thought or words of the person spoken of (the subject of the leading 
 proposition). Let us examine the sentence quos viceris amicos tibi esse cave 
 credas, do not believe that those whom you have conquered, are your friends. 
 Here the other person whose opinion is refuted, thinks that those whom he 
 has conquered are his friends. If we use the indicative cave tibi amicos (hos) 
 esse credas, quos vicisti, the last two words are merely an addition of the speaker, 
 by which he describes those people, the person to whom the advice is given not 
 being supposed to have expressed that thought. Hence the subjunctive has 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 393 
 
 its peculiar place In general sentences, in which a class of things is mentioned, 
 which exists only as a conception or idea, while the individual thing has a 
 real existence ; e. g. Cic. de Off. i. 11. : Est enim vlciscendi et puniendi modus, 
 atque haud scio an satis sit eum qui lacessierit injuriae suae poenitere, i. e. each 
 individual offender. This is commonly called an indefinite expression ; but 
 we should rather call it a general or universal one. 
 
 [§ 546.] Explanatory clauses, especially circumlocutions, introduced by a 
 relative pronoun, are sometimes found with the indicative, because such an 
 explanation may be regarded as standing by itself, and therefore need not 
 share in the relation of dependence in which the other sentence stands ,'^ e. g. 
 Cic. p. Arch. 9. : Itaque ille Mariu^ item eximie L. Plotium dilexit, cujus ingenio 
 putahat m, quae gesserat, posse celehrari. Ea, quae gessisset would not be 
 incorrect ; but ea quae gesserat is a circumlocution for res a segestas, his deeds. 
 Comp. Goerenz on Cic. de Leg. iii. 5. : nam sic habetote, magistratibus Usque 
 quipraesunt rempublicam contineri, where the common reading ispraesint. Liv. 
 iii. 71. : Ibi injit: annum se tertium et octogesimum agere, et in eo agro, de quo 
 agitur, militasse; that is, the field in question, de quo agitur standing by itself 
 and independent. But the use of the indicative in such cases must not be 
 extended too far ; the subjunctive is so universally employed in clauses in- 
 serted in the construction of the accusative with the infinit., when they really 
 contain the thoughts or words of another person, that exceptions even in 
 classical prose writers, as Caesar and Livy, are only isolated peculiarities, and 
 ought not to tempt us to neglect the rule. The following passages of Livy, 
 for example, can only be regarded as careless expressions, iii. 13. : se haud 
 multo post, quam pestilentia in urbe fuerat, in juventutem grassantem in Subura 
 incidisse, and iii. 2. : legatos nuntiare ju^sit, Q. Fabium consulem Acquis bellum 
 afferre eadem dextra nrmata, quam pacatam illis antea dederat, — instead of 
 fuisset and dedisset. But in Caesar, Bell. Gall. iii. 2. : per exploratores certior 
 factum est, ex ea parte vici, quam Gallis concesserat, omnes noctu discessisse, — 
 we are reminded by the indicative that the addition quam Gallis concesserat 
 is to be regarded as an explanatory remark of Caesar, and not as words of 
 the exploratores, who would probably have expressed themselves otherwise. 
 
 [§ 547.] b) Clauses introduced into a proposition which is 
 expressed by the subjunctive, are likewise in the subjunctive, 
 when they are to be considered as an essential part of the 
 leading proposition, being included in the purpose, request, 
 precept, or command of another person, or (with si) in the sup- 
 posed circumstances, e. g. Rex imperavit, ut, quae bello opus 
 essent, pararentur. 
 Eo simus animOi ul nihil in malis ducamus, quod sit vel a dec 
 
 immortaliy vel a natura constitutum, Cic. Tusc, \. in fin. 
 Memoria erat tanta (Hortensius) quantam in nulla cognovisse 
 
 me arhitror, ut, quae secuni commentatus esset, ea sine scripto 
 
 verbis eisdem redder et, quibus cogitavisset, Cic. Brut. 88. 
 
 Note. In the first of these examples the conviction required is this : nihil 
 in malis duco, quod a deo est constitutum, and not merely nihil in malis duco. 
 The clause beginning with quod, therefore, is a part of the conviction, and is 
 
394 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 therefore expressed by the subjunctive, like the other. But here we must 
 observe — 1. that not all propositions with a subjunctive express a purpose or 
 object, but some of them merely a quality (when /to, torn, talis^ &c. precede), 
 in which case the inserted clause has the indicative, as Cic. p. Leg. Man. 6. : 
 Asia vero tam opima est et fertilise ut — multitudine earum rerum, quae expor- 
 tantur, facile omnibus terris antecellat; 2. that the indicative is used in cir- 
 cumlocutions, just as in similar clauses inserted in the construction of the 
 accus. with the infinit. ; e. g. Cic. de Nat. Deor. ii. 59. : Eloquendi vis efficit, 
 ut ea, quae ignoramus, discere, et ea, quae scimus, alios docere possimus ; in 
 Verr. iv. 7. : verumtamen a vohis ita arhitror spectari oportere, qiuznti haec 
 eorum judicio, qui studiosi sunt harum rerum, aestimentur ; Brut. 49. : efficiatur 
 autem ab oratore, necne, ut ii qui audiunt ita efficiantur, ut orator velit, vulgi 
 assensu et populari approhatione judicari solet, where Ernesti made the ar- 
 bitrary emendation audiant. The same is the case in definitions, as Cic. de 
 Invent, ii. 12. : Videre igitur oportet, quae sint convenientia cum ipso negotio, 
 hoc est, quae ah re separari non possunt. 
 
 [§ 548.] There are other cases also, in which clauses thus inserted arc 
 treated as remarks of the speaker (or writer), and expressed by the 
 indicative, although they ought to have been treated as parts of the 
 dependent proposition, and accordingly expressed by the subjunctive; e.g. 
 Nep. Milt. 3. : Miltiades hortatus est pontis custodes, ne afortuna datam occa- 
 sionem liberandae Graeciae dimitterent. Nam si cum his copiis, quas secum 
 transportaverat, interisset Darius, non solum Europam fore tutam, &c. ; Them. 
 5. : nam Themistocles verens, ne (rex) bellare perseveraret, certiorem eum fecit, 
 id agi, utpons, quem ille in Hellesponto fecerat, dissolveretur. Here the writer 
 is speaking to his reader, as is shown in the last passage by the pronoun ille; 
 but this is not common, and in the first passage the indicative is very sin- 
 gular, and at least contrary to the practice of Cicero. So also in Curtius, x. 
 26. : ubi ille esset, cujus imperium, cujus auspicium secuti erant, requirehant, 
 where secidi essent should have been used, as the clause is part of the words 
 of the Macedonians ; and it is strange to see the writer add it as his own 
 remark. 
 
 [§ 549.] c) Lastly, when a proposition containing the state- 
 ment of a fact, and therefore expressed by the indicative, has 
 another dependent upon it or added to it (by a conjunction or a 
 relative pronoun), the dependent clause is expressed by the 
 subjunctive, provided the substance of it is alleged as the sen- 
 timent or the words of the person spoken of, and not of the 
 speaker himself. Thus the proposition: Noctu ambulabat in 
 publico Themistocles, quod somnum caper e non posset (Cic. Tusc. 
 iv. 19.) suggests, that Themistocles himself gave this reason for 
 his walking at night. But I, the writer of the proposition, may 
 express the reason as my own remark, and in this case the in- 
 dicative poterat is required, as well as ambulabat. 
 Bene majores nostri accubitionem epularem amicorum, quia vitae 
 
 conjunctionem haheret, convivium nominarunt, Cic. Cat. Maj. 
 
 13. 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 395 
 
 Socrates accusatus est, quod corrumperet juventutem et novas su- 
 
 perstitiones induceret, Quintil. iv. 4. 
 Aristides nonne oh earn causarn expulsus est patria, quod praeter 
 
 modum Justus esset ? Cic. Tusc, v. 36. 
 
 The clause beginning with quod in the second of these ex- 
 amples contains the reasons alleged by the accusers of Socrates ; 
 and the subjunctive in the last example indicates that the 
 reason there stated was alleged by the Athenians themselves, 
 according to the well-known story, and it remains uncertain 
 whether Aristides was really so just; but this uncertainty 
 would not exist if the indicative had been used. 
 
 [§ 550.] Note 1. When a clause thus appended or inserted contains the 
 sentiment of the subject of the leading sentence, or his own words, all re- 
 ferences to him are expressed by the reflective pronoun sui, sihi, se, and by 
 the possessive sum (see above § 125.) ; e. g. Cic. ad Fam. ix. 15. : nam mihi 
 scitojam a regihus idtimis allatas esse litteras^ quihus mihi gratias aganty quod 
 se mea sententia reges appellaverim^ — and we might add : quod se suosque 
 liheros oh sua meinta in populum Romanum reges appellaverim, &c. ; Nep. 
 Them. 8. : hac necessitate coactus domino navis qui sit aperit, multa pollicens^ si 
 se conservasset. It is most frequently the case, when the conjunctions express 
 an intention, for an intention most commonly originates in the subject ; e. g.. 
 Cic. de Divin. i. 27. : turn ei dormienti idem ille visits est rogare, ut^ quoniam 
 sihi vivo non subvenisset, mortem suam ne inultam esse pateretur. It is of no 
 consequence whether the person to whom the pronoun refers, is expressed (in 
 the nominat.) as the grammatical subject of the proposition or not ; and it is 
 sufficient, if it can be conceived as such, that is, if it is the logical subject ; 
 e. g. Nep. Paus. 4. : quum ei in suspicionem venisset, aliquid in epistola de se 
 esse scriptum, for the words quum ei in suspicionem venisset are equivalent to 
 quum suspicaretur ; Cic. adAtt.ii. 18.: A Caesare valde liheraliter invitor 
 (i. e. Caesar me invitat), sibi ut sim legatus^ whereas in another place (ad Att. 
 X. 4. 7.) Cicero writes : a Curione mihi nuntiatum est^ eum ad me venirey 
 because this is not equivalent to Curio mihi nuntiat^ but to nuntiu^ e domo 
 Curionis venit. 
 
 But it not unfrequently occurs that a sentiment which should have been 
 expressed in the form of dependence, being the senthnent of the subject, is 
 expressed by the writer as if it were a remark of his own ; e.g. Cic. in Verr. 
 ii. 34. : ferebat Sthenius, utpoterat; tangehatur tamen animi dolor e necessario^ 
 quod domum ejus exomatam atque instructam fere jam iste reddiderat nudam 
 atque inanem : the more usual mode of speaking would have been quod 
 domum suam iste reddidisset. Such sentences should be our guide in recog- 
 nising and explaining the irregularity of those, in which tjie pronoun is is 
 added notwithstanding the subjunctive ; e.g. Liv. i. 45. : Sex. Tarquinius e 
 suis ujium sciscitatum JRomam ad patrem mittit, quidnam se facere vellet, 
 qimndoquidem, ut omnia U7ius Gabiis posset, ei dei dedissent. The ordinary 
 practice requires sibi; but other examples of a similar kind in which the 
 reflective pronoun is neglected are found here and there, in clauses expressing 
 an intention after ut and we, and in clauses dependent upon the construction 
 of the accus. with the infinitive ; e. g. Cic. de Orat. i. 54. § 232. ; and rather 
 
396 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 frequently in Caesar. {Bell. Gall. i. 5. 4. ; i. 11. 3. ; i. 14. 4.) It occurs more 
 especially, when the dependent clause has its own subject, for then the 
 pronoun se or sihi might be referred to the subject of the dependent clause : 
 hence the cases oiis or ille are used instead, as Qi'xc. p. Arch. 10. : Sulla malo 
 poetae^ quod epigramma in eum fecisset tantummodo alternis versibus longius- 
 cidis, statim praemium trihui jussit, — for in se might be referred to the poet 
 himself; Caes. Sell. Gall. i. 6. : Helvetii sese Allohroges vi coacturos existi- 
 mahant., ut per suos fines eos ire paterentur ; Sallust, Jug. 96. : (Sulla) magis 
 id laborare, ut illi (Sullae) qu/:im plurimi deberent ; Cic. in Verr. iv. 39. : 
 Audistis nuper dicere legatos Tyndaritanos^ Mercurium^ qui sacris anniversariis 
 apud eos coleretur, Verris imperio esse sublatum. Sometimes, however, such 
 ambiguity is less carefully avoided, and Nepos {Hann. 12.) in one dependent 
 clause even uses two reflective pronouns referring to different persons : 
 Patres conscripti legatos in Bithyniam miserunt, qui ab rege peterent^ ne 
 inimicissimum suum secum haberet sibique dederet ; Curt. viii. 1 . : Scythae 
 petebant, ut regis sui filiam matrimonio sibi jungeret, for which regis ipsorum 
 filiam might have been used, if it had been necessary. See § 702. The case 
 is also reversed, and good writers sometimes use sibi instead of ei or ij)si; 
 e.g. Cic. in Verr. v. 49. : Dexo hie non quae privatim sibi eripuisti, sedunicum 
 abs te filiam flagitat ; comp. p. Rose. Am. 2. § 6. ; I)e Divin. i. 54. init. ; 
 Caes. Bell. Gall. vi. 9. Sometimes suv^ seems to stand for eju^ or ipsius, as 
 it refers only to a subject mentioned in the proposition, witliout the clause 
 itself being the sentiment of the leading subject; e.g. Cic. Philip, iv. 2. : 
 Quod erat praesidium libertatis vestrae., nisi C. Caesaris fortissimorum sui 
 patris militum exercitus nonfuisset ? Nep. Cim. 3. : inciditin eandem invidiam^ 
 quam pater suus ceterique Atheniensium principes, &c. ; but it has been ob- 
 served before ($125.) that suus also signifies "his own" as opposed to 
 alienus, whence the plur. sui signifies " his people," or " those belonging 
 to him." 
 
 [§ 551.] Note 2. We may here notice a peculiarity which is in itself 
 faulty, but of which many examples occur in Cicero, viz. clauses like " be- 
 cause he said," or "because he believed," are expressed by the subjunctive, 
 although properly speaking, not these verbs themselves, but the clauses 
 dependent on them should be in the subjunctive. See Cic. de Ofi". i. 13.: 
 Quum enim Hannibalis permissu exisset de castris, rediit paulo post, quod se 
 oblitum nescio quid diceret — according to grammatical rules it should be quod 
 n£scio quid oblitus esset, or quod se oblitum esse nescio quid dicebat. These two 
 constructions are combined in such a manner, that dicebat assumes the form 
 of dependence expressed by the subjunctive. The same occurs in de Off". 
 iii. 31. : cui (Pomponio trib. pleb.) quum esset rmntiatum, quod ilium iratum 
 allaturum ad se aliquid contra patrem arbitraretur, surrexit e lectulo ; Sulpicius 
 in Cic. ad Fam. iv. 12. : Ab Atheniensibus, locum sepulturae intra urbem ut 
 darent, impetrare non potui, quod religions se impediri dicerent. Comp. in 
 Pison. 36. in fin. ; in Verr. i. 38. in fin. ; ii. 14. in fin., and ii. 46. § 113. with 
 my note ; Caes. Bell. Gall. vii. 75. : Bellovaci suum numerum non contiderunty 
 quod se suo nomine atque arbitrio cum Romanis gesturos bellum dicerejit. In 
 like manner the subjunctive dicerent occurs in Sallust (Cat. 49.) with the 
 relative pronoun : Sed ubi consulem ad tantum f acinus impeller e nequeunt, ipsi 
 singillatim circumeundo atque ementiundoy quae se ex Volturcio aut Allobrogibus 
 audisse dicerent, magnam illi invidiam confiaverant — and in Cicero, in Verr. 
 v. 7. § 17. ; Philip, ii*. 4. Init. 
 
 [§ 5.'52.] 8. All sentences which contain an indirect question, 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 397 
 
 that is, which state the subject of a direct question in a manner 
 which makes them dependent upon some other verb, have the 
 verb in the subjunctive mood. An indirect question, not to 
 mention the verb " to ask " itself, generally depends upon those 
 verbs and expressions which usually govern the accusative with 
 the infinitive. 
 
 All the words which are used in direct questions are also 
 used in introducing indirect or dependent questions, viz. quis, 
 quid ; qui, quae, quod; quot, qualis, quantus, quam, uhi, unde, 
 quare, cur, uter, quo (whither ?), quomodo, utrum, an, ne (the 
 suffix), num. 
 
 Saepe ne utile quidem est scire, quid futurum sit, Cicero. 
 Qualis sit animus, ipse animus nescit, Cic. Tusc. i. 22. 
 Incertum est, quo te loco mors expectet, Senec. Epist. 26. 
 Permultum interest, utrum perturbatione aliqua animi, an consulto 
 
 fiat injuria, Cic. de Off. i. 8. 
 Tarquinius Superbus Prisci Tarquinii regis filius neposne fuerit, 
 
 parum liquet, Liv. i. 46. 
 
 [§ Bbs.l Note 1. The indicative in dependent questions is often found in 
 Plautus and Terence ; e.g. Terent. Adelph. v. 9. 39. : Tihi pater permittimus : 
 plus scis quid opus facto est ; Hecyr. iii. 5. 21. : si nunc memorare hie velim^ 
 quamjideli animo et benignoin illam et dementi fui, vere possum; — and in the 
 later poets too it occurs now and then ; but in the best prose the subjunctive 
 is used so universally, that the few cases in which the common practice is 
 abandoned, cannot aiFect the rule. For these few cases derive their ex- 
 planation from the fact, that sometimes a direct question is used, where an 
 indirect one might stand. After the imperatives die and vide^ in particular, 
 a question is sometimes put in a direct and sometimes in an indirect form ; 
 e. g. Cic. Tusc. i. 5. : die, quaeso, num te ilia terrent ? ad Att. viii. 13. : vide^ 
 quam conversa res est! Liv. ix. 33. : dic^ agedum, quidnam acturus fueris. So 
 in Cic. ad Att. vii. 12. : sin discedit : quo, aut qua, aut quid nobis agendum est, 
 nescio, the question does not depend upon nescio, but must be conceived as 
 independent : " whither, how, or what shall I do ? I do not know." In the 
 passage (Lael. 25.) : meministis — quam popularis lex de sacerdotiis C. Licinii 
 Crassi videbatur, the indicative shows that the sentence quam — videhatur is 
 to be taken by itself : " how popular did that law appear ? you surely re- 
 member it." In other cases a careful examination shows, that the sentence 
 is not a question, but a clause commencing with a relative pronoun, and the 
 beginner must pay the greater attention to the meaning, as the interrogative 
 adverbs and pronouns are in form the same as the relatives. There is a 
 remarkable instance of this kind in Quintilian, iv. 5. 26. : Non enim quid 
 dicamus, sed de quo dicturi sumus, ostendimus, which Spalding has correctly 
 explained : in the division of the speech we do not indicate, quale idsitde quo 
 cummaxime dicimus, but we indicate beforehand that of which we are going 
 to speak. In like manner, in Cic. p. Rose. Am. 30. : quaeramus ubi male- 
 ficium est, the est is not used for sit, but the sentence is to be translated : 
 
398 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 " let us seek there, wliere the crime actually is," and uhi therefore is a 
 relative adverb. Cic. Cat. Maj.4.: multain eo viro (Q. Maximo) ^raecZara 
 cognovi, sed nihil est admirabilius, quam quomodo ille mortem jilii tulit ; i. e. 
 than the manner in which he bore it. Lastly, there are even at the present 
 time, some fjxults in the editions, as the difference between the subjunctive 
 and indicative often consists only in a single letter or an abridged final 
 syllable. See my note on Cic. in Verr. ii. 53. It must further be observed 
 that nescio quis and nescio quid., have by practice become one word, equivalent 
 to aliquis., quidam^ and that consequently the indefinite pronoun in this case 
 does not govern any particular mood of the verb ; e.g. Cic. ad Fam. v. 15. : 
 Sed casu nescio quo in ea tempora aetas nostra incidit ; if nescio here were the 
 leading verb, he would have said nescio quo casu inciderit. Cic. Philip, ii. 
 14. : Nescio quid turhatus mihi esse videris; i.e. you seem to me to be some- 
 what perplexed. In like manner nescio quomodo is used in the sense of 
 " somehow " or " in some way," as Cic. Tusc. i. 15. : Sed., nescio quomodo^ 
 inhaeret in -mentibus quasi augurium. Mirum quam., mirum quantum^ nimium 
 quardiim., and some similar expressions, when united to express only one idea, 
 do not affect the mood of the verb ; e.g. Cic. Orat. 26. : Sales in dicendo 
 nimium qua7itu7n valent ; ad Att. xiii. 40. : mirum quam inimicu^ ibat ; Liv. ii. 
 1.: id mirum quantum prof nit ad concordiam civitatis ; but the same writer 
 (i. 16.) says : mirum quantum illi viro nuntianti haec Jidei fuerit. 
 
 [§ 554.] Note 2. With regard to disjunctive questions, both direct and 
 indirect, expressed by " whether — or," it must be observed that the English 
 " or" is never translated by aut., but by an or by the suffix ne. The first 
 question is introduced by utrum, or likewise by we, or has no interrogative 
 particle at all. Hence there are four forms of such double questions : — 
 
 1 . idrum (utrumne') — an 
 
 2. — an (anne) 
 
 3. the suffix ne — an 
 
 4. — the suffix ne. 
 
 Utrum (whether) is not used in a simple question, hence we cannot say 
 quaerebam utrum pecuniam haberet., unless another question is added. The 
 interrogative particle utrum., however, must be distinguished from the neuter 
 of the pronoun uter., as in quaerebam^ utrum vellet., I asked which of the two 
 he wished. Respecting utrumne (commonly separated) in the first part of a 
 disjunctive question, and anne in the second, as in Cicero {Acad. ii. 29.) : 
 quum interrogetur tria pauca sint., anne multa., see above §351. Num — an 
 (always in direct questions) denotes a double question only in form, for the 
 first part already implies the negative answer (see § 35 1 .), so that only the 
 second part remains as a question ; e. g. Horat. Serm. ii. 5. 48. : Numfuris., 
 an prudens ludis me? Comp. Cic. de Orat. i. 58. §249., and de Leg. ii. 2. : 
 numquid — an., above § 351. The English " or not" in the second part, which 
 is used without a verb, unless the one preceding is understood, is expressed 
 in Latin by annon or necne, and likewise either with or without a verb ; but 
 necne occurs only in indirect questions ; e. g. Cic. de Nat. Deor. iii. 7. : Dii 
 vtrum sint necne sint quaeritur; p. Muren. 11.: posset lege agi necne pauci 
 quondam sciebant; ibid. 32. : factum sit necne vehementer quaeritur. (The 
 only instance in which it occurs in Cicero in a direct question is Tusc. iii. 18. : 
 Sunt haec tua verba necne f) Ne — ne, an— an., or num — num.., are exceptions 
 which occur only in poetical or unclassical language. (But Caesar, Bell. 
 Gall. vii. 14., says : neque interesse ij)sosne interficiant impedimentisne exuant, 
 quibus amissis bellum ge?n non possit.) Of a different kind are repeated ques- 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 399 
 
 tions ; i._e. those which go parallel with one another; as Cic. ^. Hose. Am. 
 11. : Quod auxilium petamf Deorumne immortalium? popidlne Romani? ves" 
 tramne, qui summam potestatem habetis^ fidem f or of which the first is cor- 
 rected by the second, as Cic. Philip, ii. 37. : Num me igitur fefellit^ aut num. 
 diutius sui potuit esse dissimilis f 
 
 [§ 555.] 9. Relative pronouns and relative adverbs require 
 the subjunctive (besides the cases already mentioned in § 549.) 
 when the connection of the propositions is based upon a con- 
 ception, that is, when the sentence introduced by the relative 
 does not merely contain some additional characteristic, but is 
 connected with the preceding sentence in such a manner that it 
 expresses either a consequence, an innate quality, or a cause, 
 a motive and purpose. 
 
 E. g. Miles., quern metus mortis non perturharet^ a soldier whom fear of death 
 could not disturb. Here the sentence introduced by the relative pronoun 
 contains an innate quality of the miles^ which may at the same time be 
 expressed as a consequence : — of such a character, that death could not 
 frighten him. Let us take another case : O miserum senem, qui mortem con- 
 temnendam esse in tarn longa aetate non viderit: here the sentence qui — viderit 
 does not contain a mere additional characteristic or quality, but rather the 
 cause, why I called him wretched. 
 
 Subjunctives of this kind are expressed in English by means 
 of some other part of speech, as " a soldier not to be disturbed 
 by fear of death," " O wretched old man, not to have learnt," 
 &c. The particular cases in which a relative introduces sen- 
 tences with the subjunctive, are : — 
 
 [§ 556.] a) When one of the demonstratives is, hie, ille, talis, 
 tantus, ejusmodi, hujusmodi, or tam with an adjective precedes, 
 and is modified or qualified by a sentence which follows. Here 
 the relative pronoun may be resolved by ut, so that cujus is 
 equivalent to ut mei, tui, sui, illius, ejus : cui to ut mihi, tibi, ei, 
 sihi, and so on through all the cases of the singular and plural. 
 Qui potest temperantiam laudare is (Epicurus), qui summum bo- 
 
 num in voluptate ponat ! Cic. de Off. iii. 33. 
 Non sumus ii, quibus nihil verum esse videatur, sed ii, qui omnibus 
 
 veris falsa quaedam adjuncta esse dicamus, Cic. de Nat. 
 
 Deor. i. 5. 
 Nulla gens tam f era, mmo omnium tam immanis est, cujus mentem 
 
 non imbuerit deorum opinio, Cic. Tusc. 
 
 [§ 557.] Note. The person of the verb to be used with qui is always clear 
 from the preceding sentence ; e. g. Cic. in RuU. ii. 5. : Non sum ego is Consul^ 
 qui, ut plerique, nefas esse arbitrer Gracchos laudare; Ser. Sulpicius in 
 
400 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Cic. dd Fam. iv. 5. : Denique te noli ohlivisci Ciceronem esse, et eum, qui 
 aliis consueris praecipere, where the second person is determined by the 
 preceding pronoun te. 
 
 [§ 558.] The relative pronoun is sometimes used with the 
 subjunctive, without a demonstrative preceding it, provided 
 however the latter is understood. 
 
 Nunc dicis aliquid, quod ad rem pertineat, Cic. p. Rose. Am. 18. 
 Nonne satius est mutum esse, quam quod nemo intelligat dicere? 
 
 Cic. Philip, iii. 9. 
 Homines nan inerant in urbe, qui malis contionibus, turhulentis 
 
 senatus consultis, iniquis imperils rempuhlicam miscerent et 
 
 rerum novarum causam aliquam quaererent, Cic. de Leg. 
 
 Agr. ii. 33. 
 Mea quidem sententia pad, quae nihil hahitura sit insidiarum, 
 
 semper est consulendum, Cic. de Off. i. 11. 
 
 Note. The following sentences also may be compared. Liv. xxxiv. 1. : 
 Inter hellorum magnorum curas intercessit res parva dictu, sed quae studiis in 
 magnum certamen excesserit; i. e. but still of such a kind, that through the 
 spirit of the parties it ended in a great contest ; xxv. 14. : multi vulnerati, 
 etiam quos vires sanguisque desererent, ut intra vallum hostium caderent, nite- 
 hantur; i. e. even such as had already lost their strength ; xxiv. 5. : Syra- 
 cu^ani, qui per tot annos Hieronem Jiliumque ejus Gelonem nee vestis hahitu nee 
 alio ullo insigni differentes a ceteris civibu^ vidissent, conspexere purpuram 
 (HIeronymi) ac satellites armatos; i. e. the Syracusans, who up to that time 
 had not seen, — is a connection or combination of facts in the narrative, 
 which at the same time implies the internal reason for the state of mind of 
 the Syracusans. 
 
 [§ 559.] We must here mention those expressions in which the relative 
 pronoun joined with the subjunctive implies a restriction: quod sciam, as far 
 as I know ; quod meminerim, as far as I recollect ; quod ego intelligam, quod 
 (facile) intelligi possit, quod conjectura provideri possit, quod salva fide possim^ 
 quuod commodo tu/) fiat, quod sine altering injuria fiat or fieret, &c. ; e. g. Cic. 
 in Verr. iv. 1 6. : omne argentum ablatum ex Sicilia est, nihil cuiquam, quod 
 suum did vellet, relictum, nobody had any thing left, which he would have 
 liked to call his own. Attention must also be paid to quidem,, which is added 
 in such restrictive sentences ; e. g. Cic. Brut. 17. : Refertae sunt Catonis 
 orationes amplius centum quinquaginta, quas quidem aut invenerim aut legerim, 
 et verbis et rebus illu^stribus ; de Off', iii. 7. : neque quidqimm est de hac re post 
 Panaetium explicatum, quod quidem mihi probaretur, de iis, quae in manus mcas 
 venerint. In the phrases quantum possum, quantum ego perspicio, on the other 
 hand, the indicative is used. 
 
 [§ 560.] In like manner the subjunctive is used with com- 
 paratives after quam qui (through all its cases), for here too the 
 degree is defined and modified by a sentence implying an in- 
 nate quality and a consequence, so that quam qui is equivalent 
 to quam ut, which in fact sometimes occurs. 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 401 
 
 Major sum quam cui possit fortuna nocere, says Niobe in her 
 
 folly, Ovid, Met vi. 195. 
 Famae ac Jidei damna majora sunt, quam quae aestimari possint, 
 
 Liv. iii. 72. 
 
 Note. This accounts for the subjunctive being sometimes used after quam 
 even without a relative pronoun, as Cic. in Verr. iv. 34. : postea quidquid erat 
 oneris in nautis remigibttsqite exigendis, in frumento imperando, Segestanis 
 praeter ceteros imponehat^ aliquanto amplius qimm ferre possent; ad Quint. 
 Frat. i. 1. ^ 12. : in his litteris longior fui^ qvxim aut vellem, aut quam me 
 putavi fore. And in like manner frequentiy in the case of the verbs velle 
 and posse. 
 
 [§ 561.] h) With indefinite and general expressions (both 
 affirmative and negative) the relative with the subjunctive in- 
 troduces the sentence containing the circumstances which cha- 
 racterise the class indefinitely referred to. Such expressions 
 are est, sunt, reperiuntur, inveniuntur, existunt, exoriuntur (scil. 
 homines) ; the general negatives nemo, nullus, nihil est ; the ne- 
 gative indefinite questions quis est ? quid est f qui, quae, quod 
 (as interrogative adjectives), quotus quisque, quantum est ? &c. 
 In all these cases a demonstrative may be understood before the 
 relative^ 
 Sunt qui censeant, una animum et corpus occidere, animumque 
 
 in corpore extingui, Cic. Tusc, i. 9. 
 Nihil est, quod tarn miseros faciat, quam impietas et scelus, Cic. 
 
 de Fin. iv. 24. 
 Quotus enim quisque est, cui sapientia omnibus omnium divitiis 
 
 praeponenda videatur ? 
 Quae latebra est, in quam non intret metus mortis ? Senec. 
 Quid dulcius quam habere, quicum omnia audeas sic loqui ut 
 
 tecum 9 Cic. Lael. 6. 
 
 Observe that Cicero here uses quicum of an indefinite person, whereas 
 quocum would refer to some definite person mentioned before. (See § 133. 
 note.) 
 
 \§ 562.] Note 1. This is the case also with the phrases est quod^ or non est 
 quod, nihil est quod (or quare, cur), there is no reason for doing a thing, or 
 why a thing should happen or be done ; e. g. in viam quod te des hoc tempore, 
 nihil est, there is no reason for setting out, &c. ; — and with quid est quod, cur, 
 quamohrem, what reason is there for ? &c. ; e. g. quid tandem est, cur festims f 
 Quid est quamohrem haec cuiquam vita videatur f Causa or causae (witli quid 
 and nihil) is sometimes added, as in Cicero: non fuit causa cur posttdares; 
 quid erat causae cur metueret? We must here notice also est ut (for m/ is 
 originally a relative adverb, see § 531.), when used in the sense of est air, as 
 Cic. p. Coel. 6. : magis est ut ipse moleste ferat errasse se, quam ut istius ami- 
 citiae crimen reformidet; p. Milon. 13. : iUe erat ut odisset defensorem saJuHs 
 meae ; i. e. he had reason to hate ; de Divin. i. 56. : non est igitur ut mi- 
 
 D D 
 
402 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ramdum sit^ there is no occasion for wondering. We must further notice 
 habeo, or non habeo, quod; e. g. non hdbeo quod dicam, I have nothing to say 
 (sometimes they have the infinitive, as habeo dicere) ; non habeo qui (ablat.) 
 «tor, I have nothing to live upon ; non habebam quod scriberem, I had nothing 
 to write (we less frequently find nihil habebam scribere as in Cicero, ad Att. 
 ii. 22.). Of a different kind are the expressions non habeo quid dicam, I do 
 not know what to say ; quidfaceret non habebat, he did not know what to do, 
 — for these are dependent or indirect questions. See § 530. 
 Non est quod invideas isHs, quos magnos felicesque populus vocat, Senec, Epist 
 
 94. 59. 
 Quid estj quod tanto opere te commoveat tuus dolor intestinus? Sulpicius in 
 
 Cic. ad Fam. iv. 5. 
 
 [§563.] Note^. But the case is different when the subject is expressly added 
 to sunt qui. The subjunctive may even then, indeed, be used, if the subject is 
 a general and indefinite one, which requires a qualification ; but when a dis- 
 tinct individual or thing is mentioned, the indicative is employed ; e. g. Cic. de 
 Off. i. 2. : sed sunt nonnuMae disciplinae (philosophical schools), qvxie propositis 
 honorum et malorum finibus officium omne pervertunt; de Fin. v. 14. : sunt 
 autem bestiae quaedam^ in quibus inest aliquid simile virtutis. In Cicero, ad 
 Fam. ix. 14., and ad Att. xiv. 17., we meet in the same letter first : sunt enim 
 permvlti optimi viri qui valetudinis causa in haec loca veniant; and afterwards^: 
 sunt enim permulti optimi viri, qui valetudinis causa in his locis conveniunt, and 
 ii cannot be decided which of the two is the correct mode of speaking. But 
 when the subject is not expressly mentioned with est and sunt qui, the sub- 
 junctive is far more frequent, and the indicative is justly looked upon as a 
 Grecism, which often occurs in poetry, in Horace, for example, almost con- 
 stantly, though it is found also in Sallust (e. g. Cat. 19. 4.) and in later 
 prose writers. In Cicero, de Off. i. 24. : Sunt enim, qui, quod sentiunt, etsi 
 optimum sit, tamen invidiae metu non audent dicere, the indicative has without 
 cause given offence to critics. 
 
 [§ 564.] c) When the sentence introduced by the relative 
 contains the reason of what precedes, the verb is put in the sub- 
 junctive. The connection between such sentences may also be 
 expressed by " because " or " since," instead of the relative : — 
 Alexander, quum in Sigeo ad Achillis tumulum adstitisset, o for- 
 tunate, inquit, adolescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem 
 inveneris! Cic. p. Arch, 10. 
 Caninius fuit mirifica vigilantia, qui suo toto consulatu somnum 
 
 non videritf Cic. ad Fam, vii. 30. 
 Quern ardorem studii censetis fuisse in Archimede, qui, dum in 
 pulvere quaedam descrihit attentius, ne patriam quidem captam 
 esse senserit! Cic. de Fin. v. 19. 
 
 [§ 565.] Note 1. What is expressed in these and similar cases by qui 
 alone, is expressed in others more emphatically by quippe qui, vtpote qui and 
 vt qui (which is not used by Cicero, though frequently by Livy and later 
 writers) through all the cases of qui, e.g. Q'lc. p. Rose. Am. 18.: convivia 
 cum patre non inibat, quippe qui ne in oppidum quidem nisi perraro veniret ; 
 Nep. Dion, 2. : (Plato) quum a Dionysio tyranno crudeliter violatus esset, 
 quippe quern venundari jussisset. The indicative in these expressions occurs 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 403 
 
 in Sallust and Livy, but Cicero has only in one passage (ad Att. ii. 24.) 
 utpote qui with the indicative : ea nos^ utpote qui nihil contemnere solemusy nort 
 pertimescehamus. 
 
 [§ 566.] Note 2. Attention must be paid to the person of the verb with 
 the relative, as it depends upon the noun to which the relative refers. 
 Hence in the first of the above passages the second is used, because Achilles 
 is addressed ; but the first is used in sentences like the following : Me infe- 
 licetfiy qui per tat annos te videre non potuerim ! 
 
 [§567.] d) When the sentence introduced by the relative 
 expresses the intention and object of the action of the pi*eceding 
 sentence, the relative is followed by the subjunctive. The 
 relative in this case is equivalent to ut. 
 Sunt autem multi, qui eripiunt aliis, quod aliis largiantur, Cic. 
 
 de Off. i. 14. 
 Populus Romanus sibi trihunos creavit, per quos contra senatum 
 
 et consules tutus esse posset, Eutrop. 
 Super tahernaculum regis, unde ah omnibus conspici posset, imago 
 
 solis crystallo inclusa fulgebat. Curt. iii. 7. 
 
 [§ 568.] e) After the adjectives dignus, indignus, aptus and 
 idoneus, the relatives are commonly used with the subjunctive, 
 as dignus est, indignus est, qui laudetur. 
 Voluptas non est digna, ad quam sapiens respiciat, Senec. 
 Rustici nostri quum Jidem alicujus bonitatemque laudant, dignum 
 
 esse dicunt, quicum in tenebris mices, Cic. de Off, iiL 19. 
 
 Note. The infinitive with these adjectives is rare in prose, but frequent 
 in poetry, e. g. Quintil. x. 1. 96. : Lyricorum Horatiusfere solus legi dignus ; 
 Plin. Paneg. 7. : uterque (princeps) optimus erat^ dignusqu£ alter eligi, alter 
 eligere. Ut also may be used, as Liv. xxii. 59. : quum indigni, ut a vohis 
 redimeremur, visi simus ; in xxiii. 42. both constructions are combined : si 
 modo, quos ut socios haberes dignos dujcisti,, haud indignos judicas, quos infidem 
 receptos tuearis^ because it was necessary to avoid the repetition of the same 
 pronoun. , : , 
 
 [§569.] /) Lastly we must here notice the- circumstance 
 that in a narrative the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are 
 sometimes used after relative pronouns and adverbs, when actions 
 of repeated occurrence are spoken of (in which case the Greek 
 language requires the relative with the optative mood : see Butt-^ 
 mann's Greek Gram. § 139. note 6.); e.g. Liv. iii. 11.: quern- 
 ^-^imquelictor jussu consulis prehendisset, trihunus mitti jubebat ; iiL 
 1 9. : consilium et modum adhibendo, ubi res posceret, priores 
 erant ; xxxiv. 38. : ut quisque maxime laboraret locus, aut ipse 
 occurrebat, aut aliquos mittebat ; Tacit. Ann. vL 21.: quotiens 
 
 DD 2 
 
404 LATIN GBAMMAR. 
 
 super tali negotio consultaret, edita domus parte ac liherti unius 
 conscientia utehatur ; Nep. Eum. 3. : Macedones vero milites ea 
 tunc erant fama, qua nunc Romani feruntur : etenim semper 
 hahiti sunt fortissimi, qui summam imperii potirentur ; Justin, 
 XXV. 4. : nee quisquam Pyrrhum, qua tulisset irnpetum, sustinere 
 valuit. In the same manner Cicero (de Or at, iii. 16.): Socrates ^ 
 quam se cunque in partem dedisset, omnium facile fuit princeps, 
 is to be explained. As in this way the action is not referred to 
 a distinct individual case, the subjunctive is generally called the 
 indefinite, but it should more properly be called the subjunctive 
 of generality. The indicative, however, is likewise used in 
 these cases, and even more frequently than the subjunctive. 
 
 [§ 570.] Note. As in the above quoted passages the subjunctive is used 
 after relatives, so it is sometimes also found after those conjunctions which 
 are originally relative adverbs (see § 331. note 2.), e.g. after quum^ as Liv. 
 ii. 27. : desperato enim consulum senatusque auxilio, quum in jus dud dehitorem 
 vidissent, undique convolabant (comp. also Cic. in Verr. iv. 20. 44.) ; after uhi 
 and ut^ as Liv. i. 32. : id uhi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum emittehat; even 
 after si (but only when used in the sense of quum), in Sallust, Jug. 58. : 
 Sin Numidae propius accessissent, ibi vero virtutem ostendere et eos maxima vi 
 caedere. To the same practice we refer the circumstance that such relatives 
 are also followed by the present subjunctive, when used in an aorist sense, 
 to express things which have happened repeatedly, and still happen, as in 
 Sallust, Cat. 3. : ubi de magna virtute et gloria bonorum memores, quae 
 sibi quisque facilia facta putat, aequo anima accipit, supra ea, veluti ficta p7'0 
 falsis ducit. 
 
 [§571.] 10. It has already been remarked that all con- ' 
 junctions, and more especially the causal conjunctions, require 
 the subjunctive, when they introduce sentences containing the 
 thoughts or words of another person. Respecting the sub- 
 junctive with si and its compounds, see § 524. It now remains 
 to speak of those conjunctions which require the subjunctive on 
 account of their peculiar nature and signification. 
 
 The particles expressing a wish, utinam, or more rarely ut, and 
 the poetical o si, govern the subjunctive, because the wish 
 exists only as a conception of the mind ; but there is this dif- 
 ference in regard to the tenses, that the present and perfect 
 are used of wishes which are conceived as possible, and the 
 imperfect and pluperfect of those which are to be described 
 as not in accordance with reality. (See above, § 524.) The 
 English, "Oh, would that not" should properly be expressed I 
 in Latin only by utinam ne, but utinam non is frequently I 
 
I 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 405 
 
 used instead of it; see Cic. ad Fam. v. 17.: illud utinam ne 
 vere scriberem ! ad Att. xi. 9. in fin. : Haec ad te die natali 
 meo scripsi, quo utinam susceptus non essem, aut ne quid ex eadem 
 matre postea natum esset ! plura scribere fietu prohibeor. Some- 
 times the particle utinam is omitted ; e. g. Catull. ii. 9. : tecum 
 ludere sicut ipsa possem. 
 
 [§ 572.] Quasi {aeque, perinde, non secus\ ac si, tamquam si, 
 velut si, or tamquam and velut alone (sometimes also sicut and 
 the poetical ceu), all of which signify "as if/' "as though/' 
 always introduce a sentence which contains only a conception of 
 the mind, and are consequently used with the subjunctive. 
 (Compare § 282.) The tense of the subjunctive with these con- 
 junctions depends upon that of the leading verb ; e. g. Senec. 
 JEpist. 83. : Sic cogitandum est, tamquam aliquis in pectus in- 
 timum inspicere possit ; Cic. Divin, 4. : Sed quid ego his testibus 
 utor, quasi res dubia aut obscura sit? Brut. 1. : angimur, tam- 
 quam illi ipsi^ acerbitatis aliquid acciderit. We must notice espe- 
 cially the ironical quasi and quasi vero, which are joined with 
 the present subjunctive to denote a continuing action, and with 
 the perfect subjunctive to express a completed one, when the 
 speaker himself belongs to the time present ; e. g. quasi me 
 pudeat, as if I were ashamed ! quasi paulum differ at I quasi vero 
 ego ad ilium venire debuerim ! as if I had been obliged to go to 
 him! Qic. p. Muren. 17.: populus nonnunquam aliquid factum 
 esse (in comitiis) admiratur, quasi vero non ipse fecerit. The 
 imperfect subjunctive, however, is also used after a present, when 
 we mean to express that in reality the thing is not so, in which 
 case we must always supply a hypothetical imperfect ; e. g. Cic. 
 ad Fam. xiii. 42. : Egnatii rem ut tueare aeque a tepeto, ac si mea 
 negotia essent, i. e. ac peterem, si mea negotia essent, as I would 
 pray, if &c. ; ad Att. iii. 13.: Qua de re quoniam nihil ad me 
 scribis, proinde habebo ac si scripsisses nihil esse, i. e. atque 
 haberem si scripsisses. 
 
 The subjunctive with non quo, non quod, non eo quod, non 
 ideo quod, non quia, arises from the same cause, and is of the 
 same kind. These expressions which have already been dis- 
 cussed in § 537, are usually followed by sed quod or sed quia 
 with the indicative, because the sentence introduced by them 
 states the real reason. Cic. Tusc. ii. 23. : Pugiles vero, etiam 
 quum feriunt adversarium, in jactandis caestibus ingemiscunt, 
 
 D D 3 
 
406 ' LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 non quod doleant animove succumbant, sed quia profundenda voce 
 omne corpus intenditur, venitque plaga vehementior, 
 
 Dummodo (if only, if but), for which dum and modo are also 
 used alone, governs the subjunctive because it expresses an 
 intention or a purpose conceived by the niind. Therefore when 
 joined with a negation, it becomes dummodo ne, dum ne, modo 
 ne; e. g. Cic. de Off. \\i, 21. : (multi) omnia recta et konesta neg- 
 ligunt, dummodo potentiam consequantur ; ad Quint Fratr. i. 1.: 
 Quare sit summa in jure dicundo severitas, dummodo ea ne 
 varietur gratia, sed conservetur aequahilis. 
 
 [§ 573.] Ut, in the sense of "even if," or "although" (see 
 § 341.), expresses a supposition merely as a conception, and 
 accordingly governs the subjunctive. It takes the negative non ; 
 e. g. Cic. Philip, xii. 3. : Exercitus si pads, id est, timoris nostri, 
 nomen audierit, ut non referat pedem (even if it does not with- 
 draw), insistet certe. The same however may be expressed by 
 ne with the concessive subjunctive. (See § 529.) 
 Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas, Ovid. 
 Ut rationem Plato nullam afferret, vide quid homini tribuam, ipsa 
 
 aucforitate me frangeret, Cic. Tusc, i, 21. 
 
 The conjunction nedum, i. e. " not to mention that," receives 
 its meaning from the negative ne, and accordingly governs the 
 subjunctive. Ne is sometimes used in the sense of nedum; 
 e- g. Sallust, Cat. 11.: Igitur hi milites, postquam victoriam 
 adepti sunt, nihil reliqui victis fecere. Quippe secundae res sa- 
 pientium animos fatigant ; ne illi corruptis moribus victoriae tem- 
 perarent, i. e. not to mention that they were moderate, &c. ; 
 Liv* iii, 52. : Novam earn potestatem (tribunorum plebis) eri- 
 puere patribus nostris, ne nunc dulcedine semel capti ferant desi- 
 derium, where Gronovius gives a full explanation of this use 
 of ne ; Cic. p. Cluent. 35. : Optimis temporibus clarissimi atque 
 amplissimi viri vim tribuniciam sustinere non potuerunt : nedum 
 his temporibus sine judiciorum remediis salvi esse possimus. If 
 nedum has no verb, it acquires, like ne dicam, the meaning of an 
 adverb, and is commonly preceded by a negative ; e. g. Liv. vi. 
 7. : Aegre inermis tanta multitudo, nedum armata, sustineri 
 potest, (Even ne is thus used once in Cicero, ad Fam. ix. 26. : 
 Me vero nihil istorum, ne juvenem quidem movit unquam, ne nunc 
 senem.) Hence ,we find nedum ut in Livy (iii. 14.), and later 
 writers, in the sense of a conjunction " not to mention that." 
 
 I 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 407 
 
 [§ 574.] Quamvis, as distinct from quamquam, is often used 
 in the sense of quantumvis and quamlibet, i. e. " however much," 
 with the subjunctive. For this is its real meaning, and hence 
 the subjunctive is also used when its parts are separated, as 
 quam vqlent in conviviis faceti sint ; quam volent impudenter 
 rnentiantur. Licet (although), properly a verb which has become 
 a conjunction, has the same meaning and construction as 
 quamvis. 
 Licet strenuum metum putes esse, velocior tamen spes est, Curt. 
 
 vii. 16. (4.) 
 
 Note. In later writers quamvis and quamquam have changed their signifi- 
 cation, quamqv/im being joined with the subjunctive, and quamvis with the 
 indicative. Tacitus uses both conjunctions mostly with the subjunctive. 
 Quamquam with the subjunctive occurs even in some passages of C5icero, 
 though they are comparatively very few : ad Fam. iv. 4. : quamquam videam ; 
 p. Muren. 9. : quamxpmm pra£sente Lucidlo loquar ; de Fin. iii. 21. : quam- 
 quam in amidtia alii dicant, aeque caram esse sapienti rationem amici ac suam^ 
 tamen, &c. ; Tusc. v. 30. : quamquam enim sint in quibusdam malis, tamen hoc 
 nomen heati longe et late patet; de Off. i. 2. : quae quamquam ita sint in 
 promptu; and with the subjunctive videatur in Orat. 55. 183; Top. 8. 34. 
 Quamvis with the indicative occurs p. Rab. Post. 2. : quamvis patrem suum 
 nunquam viderat. But it must be observed that quamvis is used also as an 
 adverb in the sense of " however much," and as such governs no particular 
 mood, as in Cicero : quamvis multos proferre possum ; quamvis parvis latebris 
 contentus essem, I should be satisfied with ever so small a corner. In this 
 sense it is joined with licet to enhance the meaning of this conjunction, e. g. 
 Cic. de Leg. iii. 10. : quamvis enumeres multos licet, you may enumerate as 
 many as ever you can ; de Nat. Deor. iii. 36. : quamvis licet Menti delubra 
 consecremus ; Tusc. iv. 24. : quamvis licet insectemur istos. 
 
 [§ 575.] The particles of time dum, donee and quoad have 
 the indicative, when they are used in the sense of quamdiu or 
 " as long as ; " in the sense of " until," they may have either 
 mood ; the indicative, if a thing is expressed as a fact, and the 
 subjunctive, if it is merely conceived as a thing which may pos- 
 sibly be realised, or if at the same time a purpose is expressed 
 in the sentence. Respecting the present indicat. with dum, 
 see § 506. foU. ; and it must be observed that the indicative with 
 this conjunction is often retained even in the oratio obliqua, which 
 otherwise requires the subjunctive, as in Tacit. Ann, ii. 81. But 
 such cases are only exceptions. 
 Lacedaemoniorum gens fortis fuit, dum Lycurgi leges vigebant, 
 
 Cic. Tusc. i. 42. 
 Epaminondas quum animadverteret, mortiferum se vidnus ac- 
 
 cepisse, simulque, si ferrum, quod ex hastili in corpore reman- 
 
 D D 4 
 
408 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 serat, extraxisset, animam statim emissurum : usque eo retinuit, 
 quoad renuntiatum est, vicisse Boeotios, Nep. Epam. 9. 
 
 Quoad perventum sit eo, quo sumpta navis est, non domini est 
 navis, sed navigantium, Cic. de Off. iii. 23. 
 
 Iratis aut suhtrahendi sunt ii, in quos impetum conantur facere, 
 
 dum se ipsi colligant, aut rogandi orandique sunt, ut, si quam 
 
 habent ulciscendi vim, differ ant in tempus aliud, dum defer- 
 
 vescat ira, Cic. Tusc, iv. 35. 
 
 Note. Tacitus neglects this distinction, and uses the subjunctive with 
 donee, though a simple fact is expressed, e. g. Hist. iv. 35. : Pugnatum longo 
 ugmine et incerto Marts, donee proelium nox dirimeret ; and he is so partial to 
 this construction, that the perfect indicative must be noticed as of rare 
 occurrence with him. Respecting the few passages in which donee is used 
 by Cicero and Caesar, see § 350. 
 
 [§ 576.] Antequam and priusquam are commonly used in a 
 narrative with the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive, if 
 there is some connection between the preceding and the sub- 
 sequent action ; but if the simple priority of one action to 
 another is expressed, the indicative is used ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. ii. 
 66. : haec omnia ante facta sunt, quam Verres Italiam attigit. 
 The present indicative is used when the action is described as 
 certain and near at hand, or as being already begun, e. g. Cic. 
 ad Fam, vii. 14. : daho operam, ut istuc veniam, antequam plane 
 ex animo tuo effluo ; ad Att. x. 15. : si quemquam nactus eris 
 qui perferat litter as, des antequam discedimus ; p. Muren. 1.: 
 Antequam pro L. Murena dicere instituo, pauca pro me ipso 
 dicam ; Philip, ii. 2. : Cui priusquam de ceteris rebus respondeo, 
 de amicitia, quam a me violatam esse criminatus est, pauca dicam. 
 The subjunctive must be used when the thing is still doubtful, 
 e. g. Cic. de Leg, Agr, ii. 27. : Hac lege ante omnia veneunt, 
 quam gleha una ematur ; Parad. 6. 1. : nunquam eris dives an- 
 tequam tihi ex tuis possessionihus tantum rejiciatur, ut eo tueri 
 legionem possis ; and in general propositions, as Senec. Epist. 
 103. : tempestas minatur antequam, surgat ; Quaest. Nat. ii. 12.: 
 Ante videmus fulgurationem, quam sonum audiamus. But the 
 subjunctive is used also in other cases to denote actions about 
 to take place, and without any difference in meaning from the 
 indicative, as Cic. Philip, i. 1. : Antequam de repuhlica dicam ea, 
 quae dicenda hoc tempore arbitror, exponam breviter consilium 
 profectionis meae. 
 
 [§577.] 11. With regard to quum, there is this difference, 
 that quum causale governs the subjunctive, and quuju tempo- 
 
SUBJUNCTIYE MOOD. 409 
 
 rale by itself requires the indicative, and in narratives only- 
 it is joined with the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive. 
 
 The following remarks however may serve to explain and 
 modify this general rule. Quum is properly a relative adverb 
 of time, corresponding to the demonstrative adverb turn, as in 
 turn — quum, then — when. If therefore nothing further is to 
 be expressed, it is joined with the indicative. But quum is also 
 employed to express the relation of cause and effect, and in this 
 sense it governs the subjunctive, e.g. quum sciam, quum scirem, 
 quum intellexerim, quum intellexissem, i. e. as I know, as I knew, 
 as I have learnt, as I had learnt — I will do this or that. When 
 it has the meaning of " though" or "' although," the sentence 
 introduced by it does not indeed express the cause of what is 
 contained in the preceding sentence, but still indicates some 
 internal or logical connection between the two sentences, and 
 it is therefore joined only with the subjunctive, e. g. Cic. de 
 Invent, i. 4. : homines, quum multis rebus infirmiores sint, hac re 
 maxime hestiis praestant, quod loqui possunt ; Nep. Phoc. 1. : 
 Phocion fuit perpetuo pauper, quum ditissimus esse posset. 
 
 [§ 578.] In a narrative however quum temporale is joined with 
 the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive, because in a continuous 
 narrative, a preceding event is always conceived and represented 
 a&ihejsause of a subsequent one ; e. g. Caesar, quum Pompejum 
 apud Pharsalum~mcisWet^^ift Asiam trajecit: here we perceive a 
 combination of time and cause, which is expressed by the 
 "subjunctive. It only remains to be observed that this is always 
 the case in an historical narrative, although if we consider only 
 the relation of time or priority, we might believe the indicative 
 also to be correct. Examples are extremely numerous. See 
 §505. 
 
 [§ 579.] But when quum is a pure particle of time, that is, 
 when it does not occur in a narrative, and when no relation of 
 cause and effect is to be expressed, it may be joined with all 
 the tenses of the indicative, even with the imperfect and plu- 
 perfect, in the sense of eo tempore quum, or tum quum, which 
 expressions, in fact, often occur. 
 Qui non defendit injuriam, neque propulsat a suis, quum potest, 
 
 injuste facit, Cic. de Off. iii. 18. 
 Sed da operam, ut valeas, et, si valebis, quum recte navigari po- 
 
 terit, tum naviges, Cic. ad Tir, Ep, 12. 
 
410 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Credo turrif quum Sicilia Jlorebat opihus et copiisy magna artifida 
 
 (studios of artists) jTwrne in ea insula, Cic. in Verr. iv. 21. 
 O acerbam mihi memoriam temporis illius et loci, quum hie in 
 
 me incidit, quum complexus est, conspersitque lacrimis, nee loqui 
 
 prae maerore potuit ! Cic. p. Plane. 41. 
 
 In like manner quum is joined with the pluperfect indica- 
 tive, when it expresses an action frequently repeated ; in this 
 case the apodosis contains the imperfect. (See § 569. foil.) 
 Quum autem ver esse coeperat, cujus initium iste non a Favonio, 
 
 neque ah aliquo astro notabat, sed quum rosam viderat, tum 
 
 incipere ver arbitrabatur : dabat se lahori atque itineribus, Cic. 
 
 in Verr, v. 10. 
 Sic (Verres) confecto itinere, quum ad aliquod oppidum venerat, 
 
 eadem lectica usque in cubiculum deferebatur, Cic. in Verr. v. 
 
 11. 
 
 Note. The following passage of Cicero {p. Plane. 26.) is particularly 
 instructive : At ego, quum casu diebus Us, itineris faciendi causa, decedens e 
 provincia Puteolos forte verdssem, quum plurimi et lautissimi solent esse in Us 
 locis, concidi paene, quum ex me quidam quaesisset, &c. In this passage qmim 
 
 — venissem is the historical protasis to concidi ; but quum — solent merely 
 explains the time implied in Us diebus ; the former quum may be translated 
 by " as," but the latter is " when." Among the numerous passages in which 
 quum is used, there are, it is true, some which seem to contradict, or actually 
 do contradict, the rule given above, for the Latin language has a sort of 
 partiality for quum with the subjunctive, especially with the imperfect sub- 
 junctive. Thus we find in Cicero, Philip, iii. 2. : C. Caesar adolescens tum, 
 quum maxims furor arderet Antonii, quumque ejus a Brundisio reditu.^ time- 
 retur, frmissimum exercitum ex invicto genere veteranorum militum comparavit, 
 
 — here the idea of time is combined with that implied in " although ; " Cic. 
 in Pis. 13. : An tum eratis consides, quum cunctus or do reclamabat, quum — 
 cupere vos diceretis, — here quum at first simply indicates time, but then the 
 passage assumes the character of an historical narmtive. The present sub- 
 junctive is used more rarely in cases which properly require the indicative, 
 as Cic. p. Muren. 3. : nunc quum omnes me causae ad misericordiam voceid, 
 where nunc quum is equivalent to " now as ; " in the same chapter we find : 
 Neque enim si tibi tum quum consulatum peteres, favi, idcirco nunc quum 
 Murenam ipsum petas, adjutor eodem pacto esse debeo, — where peteres is ex- 
 cusable, but joeta* must be corrected from MSS. intojoeft*. In other passages 
 there are other reasons for using the subjunctive, e. g. p. Muren. 38. : qui 
 locus est, quod tempus, qui dies, quae nox, quum ego non ex istorum insidiis 
 divino auxilio eripiar, — here the subjunctive arises from the indefinite or 
 general question ; Cic. in Verr. i, 10. : Haec neque quum ego dicerem, neque 
 quum tu negares, magni momenti nostra esset oratio. Quo tempore igitur aures 
 judex erigeret animumque attenderet ? Quum Dio ipse prodiret, quum ceteri, 
 qui tum in SiciUa negotiis Dionis interfuissent : quum tabidae viroynim bonorum 
 proferrentur, &c. &c. Opinor, quum haecfierent, turn vos amUretis, tum causa 
 vereagi rideretur, — here the subjunctive with ^/«<m arises from the hypo- 
 thetical construction of the whole senten<;e. in the peculiar passage, de 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 411 
 
 Leg. Agr. ii, 24. 64. : unum hoc certe videor mihi verissime posse dicere^ turn 
 quum haheret respuhlica Luscinos — et turn quum eraivt Catones — tamen 
 hujuscemodi res commissa nemini est^ — commentators justly explain as an 
 anacoluthon, for the sentence begins in a direct way, and afterwards becomes 
 an indirect speech. Whatever therefore may be the explanation in each 
 particular passage, the statement of some critics that quum temporale is used 
 indiscriminately with the indicative or subjunctive, must be rejected from 
 grammar. If we take into consideration the deviations from the rule men- 
 tioned in this note, and what was said in § 570., the beginner may perhaps 
 take the following as his general guide : quum may always he joined with the 
 imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive ; the other tenses are in the indicative 
 with quum temporale, and in the subjunctive with quum cav^ale. 
 
 [§ 580.] 12. The following must be observed as peculiarities 
 in the use o^ quum temporale: 1. Quum is joined with the per- 
 fect or imperfect indicative to express simultaneous occurrences 
 which are indicated in English by " while." This simultaneous- 
 nees is marked more emphatically by adding inferea or interim* 
 The perfect, in this case, is used in historical narratives, and 
 the imperfect in descriptions. 2. Quum is joined with aU tenses 
 of the indicative, and more especially with the present to 
 express the decided beginning of an action, in which case it 
 does not introduce a protasis, but rather an apodosis. It is 
 commonly preceded by adverbs, as jam, nondum, vix, aegre, or 
 quum itself is joined with repente and suhito, 
 Catulus, quum ex vohis quaereret, si in uno Cn. Pompejo omnia 
 poneretis, si quid eo factum esset, in quo spem essetis habituri : 
 cepit magnum suae virtutis fructum ac dignitatis, quum omnes 
 prope una voce, in eo ipso vos spem habituros esse, dixistis, Cic. 
 p. Leg. Man. 20. 
 Caedebatur virgis in medio foro Messanae civis Romanus, judices, 
 quum interea nullus gemitus, riulla vox alia istius miseri inter 
 dolorem crepitumque plagarum audiebatur, nisi haec : civis 
 Romanus sum, Cic. in Verr. v. 62. 
 Evolarat jam e conspectu fere fugiens quadriremis, quum etiam- 
 tum ceterae naves uno in loco moliebantur, Cic. in Verr. v. 34. 
 Jam in conspectu, sed extra teli factum utraque acies erat, quum 
 priores Persae inconditum et trucem sustulere clamorem. Curt, 
 iii. 25. (10.) 
 Jamque, qui Dareum vehebant equi, confossi hastis et dolore 
 efferati, jugum quatere et regem curru excutere coeperant, quum 
 ille, veritus ne vivus veniret in hostium potestatem, desilit et in 
 equum, qui ad hoc sequebatur, imponitur. Curt. iii. 27. (ll.)> 
 and in innumerable other passages of this writer. 
 
412 LATIN GRAMMAIi. 
 
 Non dubitahat Minucius, qui Sopatrum defendebat, quin iste 
 (Yerres), quoniam consilium dimisisset, illo die rem illam quae- 
 siturus non esset, quum repente jubetur dicere, Cic. in Verr, ii. 
 29. 
 
 [§ 5S1.] Note 1. In further confirmation of our first remark, that quum in 
 the sense of "while" is construed with the perfect indicative, we add Cic. p. 
 Ligar. 1. : Bellum (inter Caes. et Pomp.) suhito exarsit^ quod^ qui erant in 
 Africa^ ante audierunt geri, quam parari. Quo audito, partim cupiditate incon- 
 siderata^ partim caeca quodam timore^ primo salutis, post etiam studii sui quae- 
 rebant aliquem ducem : quum Ligarius domum spectans et ad suos redire cupieiu 
 nullo se implicari negotio passus est, — quum here properly introduces the prin- 
 cipal action " while Ligarius would not allow himself to be implicated," 
 although at the same time it expresses simultaneousness. Comp. also Qic. in 
 Pis. 34. : quum quidem tibi etiam accessio fuit ; Philip, ix. 4. 9. : quum quidem 
 ille pollicitus est ; for these passages must be read in their connection, in order 
 to see the difference between the indicative which expresses the actual begin- 
 ning of the actions, and the imperfect subjunctive. The addition of quidem 
 too must be observed, as well as interim in Florus, iii. 17. in fin. : Sed pretium 
 rogationis statim socii fiagitare (Perfect) : quum interim imparem Drusum 
 aegrumque rerum temere motarum matura (ut in tali discrimine) mors abstulit. 
 [§ 582.] Note 2. Quum, in both cases, is used by historians (Livy, Tacitus) 
 also with what is called the historical infinitive (injinitivus historians) . In- 
 stances of quum in the sense of "while" are Tacit. Ann. ii. -31. : Cingebatur 
 interim milite domus, strepebant etiam in vestibulo, vt audiri, at aspici possent : 
 quum Libo, ipsis, quas in novissimam voluptatem adhibuerat, epulis excruciatus, 
 vocare percussorem, prendere servorum dextras, inserere gladiurn; Liv. ii. 27. : 
 victor tot intra paucos dies bellis Romanu^ promissd consulis fidemque senatus 
 expectabat : quum Appius quam asperrime poteratjus de creditis pecuniis dicere. 
 The following is an instance of quum expressing the actual beginning of an 
 action, Tacit- Ann. xiv. 5. : nee multum erat progressa navis, quum dato signo 
 mere tectum loci. Cicero does not use such expressions, but as the infinitive 
 is a real substitute for the present in lively descriptions, there is nothing to 
 be said against it. 
 
 CHAP. LXXIX. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 [§ 583.] 1 . The imperative, both in the active and passive, has 
 two forms — the imperative present and the imperative future. 
 (See § 151.) Both express a command, but also a v^ish, an 
 advice or exhortation. The difference in the meaning of the 
 two imperatives is this ; the imperative present expresses that 
 something is to be done directly or at once ; as lege, read ! mo- 
 
IMPEBATIVE MOOD. 413 
 
 rere^ die ! or that a thing which exists at present is to continue 
 to exist, as vive felix. The imperative future puts the com- 
 mand in connection with some other action, and expresses that 
 something is to be done in future, when, or as soon as, some- 
 thing else has taken place. It is however not necessary that 
 the other action should be expressed in words, but in many 
 cases it is supplied by the mind; e. g. Cic. in Verr. iv. 1. : Rem 
 vobis proponam ; vos earn suo, non nominis pondere penditote, i. e. 
 weigh it, viz. quum proposuero. 
 Quum valetudini tuae consulueris, turn consulito navigationi, Cic. 
 
 ad Fam. xvi. 4. 
 Quodquum hujus vobis adolescentiam ' proposueritis, constituitote 
 
 vobis ante oculos etiam hujus miseri senectutem, Cic. p. Coel, 
 
 in fin. 
 Prius audite paucis ; quod cum dixero, si placuerit, facitote, 
 
 Terent. Eun. v. 11. 19. 
 
 Note. This is the view of the ancient grammarians respecting the difference 
 between the two tenses of the imperative. Vossius and Perizonius (on Sanct. 
 Minerv. i. 13. no. 8.), and after them the modern grammarians have without 
 cause abandoned that view, and substituted a groundless theory about a 
 milder and a stronger expression of a command. Comp. Nic. Bygom Krarup's 
 dissertation de natura et usu imperativi, Havniae, 1 825 (reprinted in Friedemann 
 and Seebode's Miscellanea Critica, vol. ii. p. 728. foil.) There are some ex- 
 ceptions in which the imperative present is used for the imperative future ; 
 but a poet has a right to represent things as taking place at once, which in 
 reality can occur only at a subsequent time. (So also in Livy, vi. 12. : Tm, 
 T. Quintiy equitem intentus adprimum initium moti certaminis teneas : uhi haerere 
 jam aciem collato pede videris, turn terror em equestrem occupatis aliopavore infer, 
 invecttisque ordines pugnantium dissipa). Respecting scito and scitote instead 
 of the imperative present which is wanting, see § 164. Otherwise our rule is 
 only confirmed by passages in which the two imperatives occur, as that of 
 Terence quoted above, or Cic. Philip, vi. 6. 17.; ad Fam. xvi. 6., and also 
 by those in which the preceding action is not expressed, but may be under- 
 stood, e. g. in the Rhet. ad Herenn. iv. 51., where the conduct of a boaster is 
 described : Itane ? inquit : eamus hospites, f rater venit ex Falemo ; ego illi oh- 
 viam pergam ; vos hue decuma venitote, i. e. return towards the evening, after 
 you have gone away, and attended to your other business. It should also be 
 observed that the imperative present has no third person, because a person 
 not present cannot obey at the moment. 
 
 [§ 584.] 2. Hence the imperative future is properly used in 
 contracts (comp. Liv. xxxviii. 38.), laws and wills, inasmuch as 
 it is stipulated in them that things are to be done after a certain 
 time ; further in precepts and rules of conduct, that is, to ex- 
 press actions which are to be repeated as often as the occasion 
 occurs. 
 
414 ■ LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Regio imperio duo sunto, iique consules appellantor, inilitiae sum- 
 mum jus habento, nemini parento, illis salus poptili suprema lex 
 esto, Cic. de Leg. iii. 3. 
 
 Causam igitur investigato in re nova atque admirahili, si poteris. 
 Si nullam reperies, illud tamen exploratum habeto, nihil fieri 
 potuisse sine causa, eumque ferrorem^ quern tibi rei novitas at- 
 tulerit, naturae ratione depellito, Cic. de Divin, ii. 28. 
 
 Non satis est pulchra esse poemata, dulcia sunto, 
 
 Et quocunque volent, animum auditoris agunto, 
 
 Horat. de Art, Poet 99. 
 
 Ignoscito saepe alteri, nunquam tibi, Syrus, Sent. 143. 
 
 [§ 585.] 3. With the imperative the English "not" must be 
 
 rendered by ne and " nor" by neve, but not by non or neque. 
 
 The imperative with ne however is peculiar only to the early 
 
 language, and at all times in legal phraseology. 
 
 Hominem mortuum {inquit lex in duodecim tabulis) in urbe ne 
 sepelito neve urito, Cic. de Leg. ii. 23. 
 
 Note. Non and neque with the imperative are rare. Ovid. Met. iii. 117. : 
 ne cape — nee te civilihm insere hellis ; viii. 433. : Pone, age, nee titulos intercipe 
 femina nostros; de Art. Am. iii. 129. : Vos quoque non carts aures onerate 
 lapillis, nee prodite graves insuto vestibus auro. But when the subjunctive is 
 used for the imperative, non and especially neque are found more frequently. 
 See §529. 
 
 The imperative with ne is of quite conjmon occurrence in conversational 
 language in Plautus and Terence, and along with it we find we with the present 
 subjunctive without any difference : ne clama, ne crucia te, ne me ohsecra ; ne 
 credos, ne erres, ne metuas. Later poets chiefly use ne with the present 
 subjunct., and ne with the imperative only when they speak emphatically. 
 Servius, on Virg. Aen. vi. 544. expressly remarks : ne saevi antique dictum 
 est. Nam nunc ne saevias dicimus, nee imperativum jungimu^ adverhio impe- 
 rantis. In saying that ne saevias was used in his time, he was probably 
 thinking more especially of poets. It is not used in the classical prose 
 writers, who always prefer the paraphrased imperative noli saevire. (§ 586.) 
 
 [§ 586.] 4. The following forms are used instead of both 
 tenses of the imperative : — 
 
 «) The future, which however takes the negative non, if 
 anything is forbidden ; e. g. fades or non fades hoc ; Cic. ad 
 Fam. vii. 20. : Sed valebis, meaque negotia videbis, meque diis 
 juvantibus ante brumam expectabis, instead of vale, vide, expecta ; 
 Liv. vii. 35. : Ubi sententiam meam vobis peregero, turn quibus 
 eadem placebunt, in dextram partem taciti transibitis, instead of 
 transitote. 
 
 h) The third person of the present subjunctive, both in an 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 415 
 
 affirmative and negative command, Is even more frequently used 
 than the imperative, unless a writer intentionally uses the 
 legal phraseology. 
 
 c) The second person of the perfect subjunctive, with the 
 negative ne, as Cic. Acad. ii. 40. : Tu vero ista ne ascineris neve 
 fueris commenticiis rebus assensus ; ad Fam. vii. 25. : Secreto 
 hoc audi, tecum habeto, ne Apellae quidem, liberto tuo, dixeris. 
 Respecting the subjunctive used for the imperative, see § 529. 
 
 The affirmative imperative is paraphrased by cura (or curato) 
 ut, fac ut, or fac alone with the subjunctive ; e. g. cura ut 
 quam primum venias, facite ut recordemini, fac animo forti 
 magnoque sis. The negative imperative is paraphrased by fac 
 ne, cave ne, or commonly by cave alone (without we), with the 
 present or perfect subjunctive: cave putes, cave dixeris; but 
 especially by noli with the infinitive ; noli putare, nolite {noli" 
 tote) existimare. 
 
 Tu nihil invita dices faciesve Minerva, Horat. Ars Poet, 385. 
 Qui adipisci veram gloriam volet, justitiae fungatur officiis, Cic. 
 
 de Off. ii. 13. 
 Quod dubitas ne feceris, Plin. Epist. i. 18. 
 Nihil ignoveris, nihil omnino grntiae concesseris, misericordia 
 
 commotus ne sis! Cic. p. Muren. 31. 
 Magnum fac animum habeas et spem bonam, Cic. ad Quint. 
 
 Frat. 2. in fin. 
 Nolite id velle quod fieri non potest, et cavete ne spe praesentis 
 
 pads perpetuam pacem omittatis, Cic. Philip, vii. 8. 
 
 [§ 587.] Note. We also find an imperative of the perfect passive, but very 
 rarely; Ovid, Trist. iv. 8. 51.: At vos admoniti nostris quoque casibiis este ; 
 and the famous exclamation of Caesar before passing the Rubicon, in Sueton. 
 Caes. 32. : Jacta alea esto ! dvippi^Bio kv§oc. The subjunctive is more com- 
 monly used instead of it, as jacta sit alea ! 
 
 CHAP. LXXX. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 [§ 588.] 1. The infinitive expresses the action or condition 
 implied in the verb in the form of an abstract generality, with- 
 
416 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 out specifying either person, number, or time ; it merely indi- 
 cates the relations of an action, that is, whether it is in progress 
 or completed. Scribere, to write, expresses the action as in 
 progress ; scripsisse, to have written, as completed. To what 
 time the action thus described belongs, is determined by the 
 verb on which the infinitive depends. 
 
 Note 1. The one of these infinitives is called the present and the other 
 the perfect infinitive. The former name is incorrect, for it is not the present 
 time that is expressed by scribere, since, besides volo scrihere^ we may say, 
 Qieri) voleham scribere, volueram scribere, and (eras) volam scribere ; but the 
 action is described only as in progress. The infinitives should therefore 
 rather be called infiniticus rei infectae and injimtivus rei perfectae. If, how- 
 ever, we compare the two infinitives with the tenses of the verb, we are 
 naturally struck by the resemblance between scribere and scribo, and be- 
 tween scripsisse and scripsi ; although, with regard to the relation of the 
 action, the imperfect scribebam and the pluperfect scripseram have the same 
 claim as scribo and scripsi. Hence the first infinitive is also called infinitivus 
 praesentis et imperfectly and the other injinitivus perfecti et plusquamperfecti ; 
 but neither of these designations comprises the whole of their signifi- 
 cation. 
 
 [§ 589.] Note 2. Memini, in a narrative of events at which the speaker 
 himself has been present, is joined with the present infinitive, although the 
 action may be completed ; and the speaker thus transfers himself to the 
 past, and describes the action as if it was in progress before his eyes ; e. g. 
 Cic. in Verr. ii. 4. : memini Pamphylum mihi narrare ; Lael 3. : memini Ca- 
 tonem mecum et cum Scipione disserere; p. Sext. 35. : meministis turn, judices^ 
 corporibiis civium Tiberim compleri, cloacas referciri^ e foro spongiis effingi 
 sanguinem. So also memoria teneo^ Q. Scaevolam bello 3Iarsico, quum esset 
 summa senectute, quotidie facere omnibus conveniendi sui potestatem, in Cicero, 
 Philip, viii. 10.; and even scribit is construed like meminit, as Cic. de Off. 
 iii. 2. in fin. And after the analogy of memini^ Cicero {de Off. i. 30.), with- 
 out speaking of things he has witnessed himself, and merely for the sake of vivid 
 expression, says : M. Maximum accepimus facile celare, tacere, dissimidare, in- 
 sidiari, praecipere Tiostium consilia. But when the sentence is not a narrative, 
 but only a statement of a result, memini is also joined with the infinitive of 
 the completed action ; e. g. Cic. p. Rose. Am. 42. : meministis me ita dis- 
 tribuisse initio cau^am, where the judges are requested to remember the 
 division he had made ; Cic. p. Milan. 35. : meminit etiam^ sjbi vocem praeconis 
 modo defuisse, qvam minime desiderarit, populi vera cunctis suffragiis, quod 
 unum cupierit, se consulem declaratum ; Liv. xxxvi. 34. : quamquam merito 
 iratus erat Aetolis, qu^d solos obtrectasse gloriae suae meminerat. 
 
 [§ 590.] Note 3. The infinitive perfect is sometimes used in Latin instead 
 of the infinitive present, to express the result of an action rather than its 
 progress ; e. g. juvat me, pudet me hoc fecisse. This is the case chiefly after 
 the expressions satis mihi est, satis habeo, contentus sum^ which are usually 
 joined with the infinitive perfect in the prose of the silver age ; e. g. 
 Quintil. ii. 1.2.: Grammatici non satis credunt excepisse, quae a rhetoribus 
 relicta erant ; Veil. Pat. ii. 103. : contenti simus id unum dixisse; and many 
 other instances. In like manner the infinitive perfect is joined with melius 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 417 
 
 enY, as Terent. Adelph. ii. 1. 26. : ante aedes non fecisse convicium; Liv. iii. 
 48. : quiesse erit melius ; iii. 41, : vocem non misisse. In ancient laws forbid- 
 ding anything, velle is joined in like manner with the infinitive perfect ; 
 e.g. in the senatusconsultum de Bacchanalibus : Ne Bacchanal hahuisse velit^ 
 Bacchas ne quis adisse velit ; and this mode of speaking is often imitated by 
 later writers, as Horat. Serm. ii. 3. 187. : ne quis hwnasse velit Ajacem^ 
 Atrida, vetas cur ? Ovid, Am. i. 4. 38 : Oscvla praecipue nulla dedisse veils ; 
 and is further extended to mere negative sentences ; e. g. Horat. Serm. i. 2. 
 28. : sunt qui nolint tetigisse ; Liv. xxii. 59. : haud equidem premendo alium 
 me extuJisse velim ; Plin. Hist. Nat. x. 30. : quum illam (ciconiam) nemo velit 
 attigisse. Also, with a verb equivalent in meaning to ne velit, as Horat. de 
 Art. Poet. 168.: commisisse caret, quod mox mutare laboret ; or with the 
 positive velim and similar verbs, as Liv. xxx. 14. : Hanc te quxjque ad ceteras 
 tuas eximias virfutes, Masinissa, adjecisse velim ; Horat. Carm. iii. 4. 52. : 
 tendentes Pelion imposuisse Olympo. The poets go still further, and use the 
 infinitive perfect, without any reference to a completed action, in the sense 
 of the Greek aorist infinitive, where in ordinary language we should expect 
 the infinitive present ; e. g. Virg. Aen. vi. 78. : Bacchatur votes, magnum si 
 pectore possit exctississe deum; Ovid, Ars Am. ii. 583.: non vvltus texisse sues 
 possunt. 
 
 [§ 591.] 2. In the passive voice there are also two infi- 
 nitives, the one to express the progress of a state of suffering, 
 and the other the completed state of suffering. The one is 
 called the infinitive present and the other the infinitive perfect ; 
 the former is simple, laudari, to be praised ; the second is formed 
 by a combination of the participle perfect with the verb esse, as 
 laudatus esse, or in the accusative laudatum esse, to have been 
 praised ; the participle of course takes the number and gender 
 of the object to which it refers. 
 
 [§ 592.] Note. In the absence of a special infinitive to express the com- 
 pleted state of sufiering, custom has assigned to the combination of the 
 participle perfect with esse the signification of such an infinitive ; and esse 
 thus loses its own signification of a continued state; if, however, the latter 
 must be expressed, another infinitive must be chosen ; e. g. scio urhem 
 ohsessam teneri, I know that the town is besieged, for scio whem ohsessam 
 esse would not express the continuance of the state, but its completion. 
 Thus we read in Cicero, in Cat. i. 1. : constrictam jam horum conscientia 
 teneri conjurationem tuam non vides ? Where, however, the context is so 
 clear that no ambiguity can arise, the participle with esse (e. g. ohsessam esse) 
 may be used, and esse retain its original meaning. Thus Cic. (de Off. i. 19.) 
 says : Apud Platonem est, omnem morem Lacedaemoniorum infiammatum esse 
 cupiditate vincendi. But fuisse is used with the participle perfect in its 
 peculiar sense of a doubly completed state, i. e. a state completed previous 
 to a certain past time, and there can be no ambiguity ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. iv. 
 36. : certiorem te faciunt, simulacrum Dicmae apud Segestanos P. Africani 
 nomine positiim ac dedicatum fuisse; Liv. i. 41. : jubet bono animo esse ; sopi- 
 tum fuisse regem suhito ictu ; Tacit. Ann. iv. 23. : tradidere quidam, Macroni 
 
 E E 
 
418 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 praescripium fuisse, si arma ah Sejano moverentur, Juvenem ducem populo im- 
 ponere. 
 
 [§ 593.] 3. Besides these infinitives expressing an action 
 or a state in progress and completed, there is, both in the 
 active and passive, an infinitive of future time (infinitivus fu- 
 turi), which denotes an action or condition as continued. It is 
 formed in the active by a combination of the participle future 
 active with esse, as laudaturum esse; and in the passive by a 
 combination of the supine with iri, as laudatum iri. The former, 
 owing to its participle, may take different genders and numbers, 
 the latter admits of no such change; e.g. Quintil. ix. 2. 88.: 
 Reus videhatur damnatum iri; Cic. in Verr, v. 29.: Sciehat sihi 
 crimini datum iri pecuniam accepisse / de Off. i. 14. : arbitrantur 
 se benejicos visum iri. 
 
 Note. The future participle in urns properly expresses an intention or 
 desire; and in this sense it takes the infinitives esse and fuisse, as laudaturum 
 esse, to intend praising ; laudaturum fuisse, to have intended praising ; scio 
 te scripturum fuisse, I know that you have had the intention to write. Naj, 
 even /ore is found with the part. fut. in two passages pointed out by Vossius 
 (de Analog, iii. 16.), viz. Cic. ad'Att. v. 21. : deinde addis, si quis secu^, te ad 
 m£ fore venturum, where Ernesti thinks fore corrupt ; and Liv. vi. in fin. : 
 quum senatus censeret deorum immortalium causa lihenter facturos fore. But 
 this is a pleonasm ; for, according to common usage, venturum esse and fac- 
 turos esse would be suflicient. The infinitive of an action that had once 
 been intended (scripturum fuisse) is further used, especially in the apodosis 
 of hypothetical sentences belonging to the past, where in direct speech the 
 pluperfect subjunctive would be used, as Cic. de Divin. ii. 8. : etiamsi obtem- 
 perasset auspiciis, idem eventurum fuisse puto ; Tusc. i. 2. : An censemus^ si 
 Fahio laudi datum esset quod pingeret, non multos etiam apud nos futuros 
 Polyclitos fuisse f and in like manner the infinitive future with esse is used 
 in the apodosis of hypothetical sentences instead of the imperfect subjunc- 
 tive ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. i. 47. : libertus, nisi jurasset, scelus se facturum (esse) 
 arhitrdbatur. The infinit. perfect potuisse occurs in Cic. de Off. i. 1. : Equi- 
 dem Platonem existimo, si genus forense dicendi tractare voluisset, gravissime et 
 copiosissime potuisse dicere, in the sense of " that he would have been able to 
 speak," and is to be explained by what has been said in § 518. 
 
 [§ 594.] 4. Besides this a circumlocution may be employed 
 for the infinitive of future time, by means of futurum esse or 
 fore followed by ut, and the subjunctive. Here, too, the dif- 
 ference between an action continued and an action completed 
 in future time may be expressed : the former by the present 
 and imperfect, and the latter by the perfect and pluperfect of 
 the subjunctive. The choice of one of these four subjunctive 
 tenses depends upon that of the leading verb ; e. g. credo fore 
 
 \ 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 419 
 
 ut epistolam scrihas, and credebam fore ut epistolam scriberes, 
 both expressing a continued action in future time; but credo 
 fore ut epistolam scripseris, and credebam fore ut epistolam scrip- 
 sisses, expressing a completed action in future time. And so 
 also in the passive : credo fore ut epistola scribatur, and credebam 
 fore ut epistola scriberctur, both expressing a continued state of 
 future suffering ; but in order to express a completed state in 
 future time, we avail ourselves in the passive of the participle 
 perfect scriptus, which was. wanting in the active; hence credo 
 and credebam epistolam scriptam fore, for thus we read ; e. g. 
 in Cic. ad Fam. xi. 7. : a te jam expectare litteras debemus, quid 
 ipse agas, quid noster Hirtius, quid Caesar mens, quos spero brevi 
 tempore societate victoriae tecum copulatos fore ; and in Liv. xxiii. 
 13. : rebantur debellatum mox fore, si anniti paululum voluissent. 
 The circumlocution by means o^ futurum esse or fore ut is 
 necessary, when the verb has no supine or participle future 
 active, which is the case with many intransitives. Hence w^e 
 cannot say otherwise for example, than spero futur am esse (fore) 
 ut sapias, ut te hujus rei poeniteat, ut brevi omnibus his incom- 
 modis medeare. But it is also used in many other cases, and in 
 the passive this form occurs almost more frequently than tlie 
 infinitive formed by the supine wdtli iri. 
 Video te velle in caelum migrare, et spero fore id contingat id 
 
 nobis, Cic. Tusc. i. 34. 
 Non eram nescius, fore ut hie noster labor in varias reprc" 
 
 hensiones incurreret, Cic. de Fin. init. 
 IHolemaeus mathematicus Othoiii persuaserat, fore ut in imperium 
 
 ascisceretur, Tacit. Hist. i. 22. 
 
 [§595.] Note 1. The passive form corresponding to the active infinitive 
 fuisse with the participle future act., in a hypothetical sense, is the circum- 
 locution by means of futurum fuisse ut with the imperfect subjunctive; e. «■. 
 rex ignorabat, futurum fuisse ut oppidiim ipsi dederetur^ si unum diem ex- 
 pectasset, the king did not know that the town would have been surrendered 
 to him, if he had waited one day longer. Comp. Caes. Bell. Civ. iii. 101. ; 
 nisi eo ipso tempore nuntii de Caesaris victoria essent allati, existimahant 
 plerique futurum fuisse ut oppidum amitteretur ; and Cic. Tusc. iii. 28. : Theo- 
 phrastus autem moriens accusasse naturam dicitur^ quod cervis et corniclhus 
 vitam diuturnam, quorum id nihil interesset ; hominibus, quorum maxime itder- 
 fuisset, tarn exiguam vitam dedisset ; quorum si aetas potuisset esse longinquior, 
 futurum fuisse uf, omnibus perfeciis artibus., omni doctrina Jwminum vita 
 erudiretur. 
 
 [§ 59G.] Note 2. What is called the participle future passive can never be 
 used to form a paraphrased infinitive future passive, for this participle has 
 
 E E 2 
 
420 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 the exclusive meaning of necessity, and as such it has its three regular 
 infinitives : laudandum esse, laudandum fuisse (equivalent to necesse fuis-se ut 
 laudaretur), and laudandum fore; e.g. Liv. xxxvii. 39. : Instare hiemem, aut 
 sub pellibus habendos milites fore, aut differendum esse in aestatem bellum ; and 
 the correct reading in Curtius, iii. 21., probably is : laetus, quod omni expetierat 
 voto, in illis potissimum angustiis decemendum fore. 
 
 [§ 597.] 5. The infinitive may be regarded as a verbal sub- 
 stantive of the neuter gender, with two cases — the nominative 
 and accusative ; differing from other substantives of the same 
 kind in this respect that it governs the case which it requires as 
 a real verb, and at the same time expresses the complete or 
 incomplete state of an action. The infinitive must be considered 
 as the nominative, when it is the subject of a sentence, that is, 
 when anything is declared of it ; e. g. invidere non cadit in sa- 
 pientem, where invidere is equivalent to invidia ; virtus est vitium 
 fugere, i. e. fuga vitii; est ars difficilis recte rempublicam regere, 
 i. e. recta guhernatio rei puhlicae ; ignoscere amico humanum est ; 
 laudari jucundum est, juvat, delectat ; peccare nemini licet. The 
 infinitive must be considered as the accusative, when it is the 
 object of a transitive verb ; e. g. volo, cupio, audeo, conor facer e 
 or dicere aliquid, just as we say cupio aliquam rem, nescio mentiri, 
 didici vera dicere. The infinitive is very rarely dependent upon 
 prepositions which govern the accusative, as in Cic. de Fin. ii. 
 13, : Aristo et Pyrrlio inter optime valere et gravissime aegrotare 
 nihil pr or sus dicehant interesse ; Ovid, Heroid. vii. 164.; Qtwd 
 crimen dicis praeter amasse meum ? 
 Majus dedecus est parta amittere quam omnino non paravisse, 
 
 Sallust. Jug. 31. 
 Didicisse Jideliter artes emollit mores nee sinit esse ^eros, Ovid, 
 
 ex Pont. ii. 9. 48. 
 Vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis, Liv. xxii. 51. 
 
 [§ 598.] Note. As the infinitive expresses the action, state, or suffering 
 implied in the verb, in the form of abstract generality, it approaches to the 
 nature of a substantive (comp. §§ 237. and 681.), which ig indicated most 
 clearly in Greek, where the infinitive may be preceded by the article. But 
 it retains its character of a verb by its objective case, and still more by the 
 expressed or understood accusative of the subject. The substantive nature 
 of the infinitive is also visibly indicated by its being joined with the adjective 
 pronoun ipsum; e.g. Cic. adAtt. xiii. 29. : cum vivere ipsum turpe sit nobis; 
 Parad. 3. init. : ipsum quidem peccare, quoquo te verteris, unum est; de Orat. 
 ii. 6. : me hoc ipsum nihil agere delectat. Other adjective pronouns are rarely 
 joined with it, as Petron. 52. : meum intelligere nulla pecunia vendo. 
 
 But we cannot assign to the infinitive more than two cases, although there 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 421 
 
 are some passages, in which the infinitive appears in such connections, that 
 if a substantive were substituted for it, we should be obh'ged to use the ge- 
 nitive, dative, or ablative But some of these passages admit of ample 
 explanation, for a certain phrase may have the meaning and construction of 
 a simple verb ; e. g. when Cicero says : paratus sum friimentum dare^ in 
 the sense vdo dare ; and when consilium mihi est, consilium capio are used 
 in the sense of comtituo with the infinitive ; e. g. praeterire in Sallust, Cat. 
 53., and hominis propinqui fortunas evertere in Cic. p. Quint. 16. On the 
 same principle we may explain Nepos, Lys. 3. : iniit cons ilia reges Lacedae- 
 moniorum tollere ; Sallust, Cat. 17.: quibus in otio vivere copia erot ; i.e. 
 quihus licehat vivere ; Cat. 30. : quibus omnia vendere mos erat ; i. e. qui 
 svlebant vendere ; Curt. iv. 33. : cupido incesserat non interioi^a modo Aegypti 
 sed etiam Aethiopiam invisere ; i. e. cupiverat. See Drakenborch on Liv. iii. 
 4. 9. Some, however, are real exceptions from the ordinary practice ; e. g. the 
 relative adjectives which are joined by the poets with the infinitive, instead 
 of the genitive of the gerund, as cedere nescius, avidus committere pug-nam., 
 cupidus attingere, cardure peritus. The infinitive instead of the dative is 
 sometimes joined with the adjectives idilis^ aptus, idoneus, natus ; e.g. Horat. 
 Epist. i. 2. 27. : Nos numerus sumus et fruges consumers nati ; Ovid, Heroid. 
 I. 109. : nee mihi sunt vires inimicos pellere tectis, instead ofpellendis inimicis 
 or ad pellendos inimicos. But this too is of rare occurrence, and an imitation 
 of the Greek. The place of the ablative is supplied by the infinitive, if we 
 may say so, with the adjectives dignus and contcntus, which we have already 
 explained in §§ 568. and 590. In classical prose, therefore, we cannot con- 
 sider the infinitive in any other light than as a verbal substantive with two 
 equal cases. 
 
 [§ 599.] 6. When the mfinitlve has its own subject jomed to 
 it, it is put in the accusative. 
 
 Note. An exception here presents itself at once in the historical infinitive 
 {infinitivus historicus), to which the subject is joined in the nominative. The 
 historical Infinitive is a peculiar mode of using the present infinitive (or the 
 injinit. rei infectae., according to § 588.) in a narrative instead of the imper- 
 fect Indicative, when actions or conditions are to be described in a lively 
 and animated manner as continuing : In this case the infinitive represents 
 the idea implied In the verb as a noun, and independent of all the ad- 
 ditional meanings conveyed by the tenses. The Imperfect therefore main- 
 tains its place along with the historical Infinitive, and re-enters when an 
 explanatory clause Is inserted In the description; e.g. Cic. in Verr. Iv. 18. : 
 Quod ubi iste audivit, usque eo est commotus, ut sine ulla dubitatione insanire 
 omnibus ac furere videretur. Quia non potuerat argentum eripere, ipse a 
 Diodoro erepta sibi vasa optime facta dicebat : minitari absenti Diodoro, voci- 
 ferari palam., lacinmas intei^dum vix teriere ; Liv. xxxi. 41. : Philippus inopi' 
 nantibus advenit. Quern quum adesse refugientes ex agris quidam pavidi nun- 
 tiassent, trepidare Damocritus ceterique duces : et erat forte meridianum tempus., 
 quo plerique graves cibo sopiti jacebant : excitare igitur alii alios, juhere arma 
 capere, alios dimittere ad revocandos, qui palati per ogros praeddbantur. Such 
 historical infinitives thus have their subject joined to them in the nomina- 
 tive, whether it be a substantive or a pronoun, as Terent. Andr. i. 1, 120. : 
 JEgo illud sedulo negare factum : ille instat factum (esse). We shall add only 
 one more instance from the writer who is particularly fond of describing 
 
 E E 3 
 
422 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 things by the historical infinitive, Sallust, Cat. 
 finitimi hello temptare, paiici ex amicis auxilio esse : nam ceteri meiu percuLsi a 
 periculis abei'ant : at Romania domi militiaeqae intenti, festinare^ parare^ alius 
 alium Iwrtain^ Jiostihus obviam ire, libertatem^ patriam parentesque armis tegere. 
 Post, ubi pericula virtute pyropiderant^ sociis atque amicis auxilia portabant. 
 Respecting the mode of introducing such infinitives by means of quum^ see 
 § 582. Their introduction by ut, ubi, postquam, in the protasis occurs only 
 in Tacitus; e.g. Ann. xii. 51.: ubi quati uterus, et viscera vibrantur ; ii. 6. ; 
 postquam exui aequalitas, et ambitio ineedebat ; comp. i. 20. 
 
 [§ 600.] This is the construction of the accusfitivc with the 
 infinitive, which like the infinitive alone is used in two ways, 
 either as the subject or as the object of a proposition. The ac- 
 cusative wdth the infinitive is the subject, wherever if we would 
 or could use a substantive in its place, it w^ould be in the nomi- 
 native. So it is especially when a substantive or adjective is 
 added as predicate by means of est, crat, fuit, &c., as justum, 
 aequum, verisimile, consentaneumy apert-iun est, necesse est and 
 opus est, or an impersonal verb, as apparet, constat, coiwenit, 
 decet, licet, oportet, or the third person singular of the passive, 
 as intelligitur, perspicitur, and the like ; e. g. Victorem parcerc 
 victis aequum est, it is fair that the conqueror should spare the 
 conquered, i. e. the clemency of the conqueror towards the con- 
 quered is fair. 
 Accuso.tores multos esse in civitate utile est, itt metu contineatur 
 
 audacia, Cic. p. Rose, Am. 20. 
 Hoc quidcm apparet, nos ad agendum esse natos, Cic. de Fin. v. 21. 
 Constat profecto ad salutem clvium inventas esse leges, Cic. de 
 
 Leg. ii. 5. 
 Leqem hrevem esse oportet, quo facilius ah imperitis teneatur, 
 
 Senec. Epist. 94. 
 Non sine causa dictum est, nihil facilius quo.m lacrijnas inares- 
 
 cere, Quintil. vi. 1. 27. 
 
 Note 1. Sometimes a circumlocution by means of quod, properly id quod 
 (the fact that), is used for the accusative with the infinitive ; further, after 
 several adjective expressions, even after some of those mentioned above, ut 
 with the subjunctive is used for the infinitive ; in which case, however, the 
 meaninf» is somcAvhat altered. We shall return to these points hereafter, 
 §§ G26. and 623., in order not to interrupt our present discussion by excep- 
 tions. We shall add only the remark, which is of importance to the beginner, 
 that it is, properly speaking, inaccurate to say that the accusat. with the infinit. 
 i?. governed by utile est, constat, or ojiortet, for the infinitive is here the nomi- 
 native ; and we might say, e. g. accusutorum midtitudo utilis est, or legum 
 Ireritas neccssaria est. We have not noticed above the fact that the infinit. 
 and the accusat. with the infinit. may alrso be the nominative of the predicate ; 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 423 
 
 for as two substantives may be placed in such a relation to each other that 
 the one is the subject and the other the predicate, so also may two infinitive 
 sentences stand to each other in the relation of subject and predicate ; e. g. 
 Saliust, Jug. : Impune quaelihet facere id est regem esse. Id might here be 
 omitted, and only represents the infinitive expression as a substantive : fa- 
 cere (see § 608.) is the subject, and regem esse the predicate. 
 
 [§ 601.] Note 2- Licet may be joined with the accus. with the infinit., or 
 we may say licet mihi with the infinit. alone ; e. g. scrihere. The latter is 
 more frequent ; and when the infinitive esse (or others of a similar meaning, 
 as Jieri^ vivere, vitam degere, abire) is accompanied by a noun as a predicate, 
 the latter, too, is put in the dative ; e. g. Cic. Tusc. i. 15. : licuit enim esse 
 otioso Themistocli; ad Att. i. 17. : quo in genere mihi negligenti esse non licet; 
 p. Flacc. 29. : cur his esse liberis non licet f Liv. iii. 50. : sibi vitam Jiliae sua 
 cariorem fuisse, si liber ae ac pudicae vivere licitum fuisset (ei) ; xxvi. 41. : 
 Hannibal precatur deos, ut incolumi cedere atque abire ex hostium terra liceat. 
 But the accusat., too, is frequent enough ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. v. 32. : Syra- 
 cusanum in insula habitare non licet; ibid. 59. : non licet me isto tanto bono uti. 
 See my note on Cic. in Verr. v. 18. 45. The same is the case with the in- 
 finitive of the passive, as Cic. ad Fam. iii. 10.: ne cooptari quidem sacerdo- 
 tem licebat. See Heusinger on Cic. de Off. i. 7. It is surprising to find both 
 cases in the same sentence, as in Cic. p. Balb. 12. : si civi Romano licet esse 
 Gaditanum, sive exilio, sive postliminio, sice rejectione huju^ civitatis ; and in 
 Caes. Sell. Civ. iii. 1. : is enim erat annus , quo per leges ei consulem fieri 
 liceret. We also find mihi necesse est dicere ; and, in connection with licet., we 
 find mihi necesse est esse with the predicate in the dative, Liv. xxi. 44. : 
 litis timidis et ignavis licet esse., vobis necesse est fortibu^ viris esse. It must, 
 however, be observed, that licet^ oportet., and necesse est are also joined with 
 the subjunctive ; e- g. fremant omnes licet^ sequantur Hermagoram licebit, 
 which accounts for the construction of licet, when it is used as a conjunction 
 in the sense of quamvis. See above, § 574. and § 625. 
 
 [§ 602.] 7. The accusative with the infinitive is the object, 
 after verbs which have a sentence for their direct object, i. e. 
 after those which denote an action of our external or internal 
 faculties or a declaration {verba sentiendi et declarandi). The 
 principal verbs of this kind are: audio, video, sentio, animad- 
 verto, cognosco, intelligo, percipio, disco, scio, credo, arbitror, puto, 
 opinor, duco, statuo, memini, recordor, obliviscor ; — dico, trado, 
 prodo, scribo, refero, nuntio, confirmo, nego, ostendo, demonstro, 
 perhiheo, promitto, polliceor, spondeo, and several others denoting 
 feeling, knowing, thinking, or saying. These and other verbs of 
 the same kind, instead of being followed by a dependent sen- 
 tence with a conjunction (that, quod), require the infinitive, and 
 the subject of the dependent sentence is put in the accusative. 
 (In English the two sentences are sometimes put in juxtaposi- 
 tion without any sign of dependence or connection, e. g. he 
 feels that he is unhappy, or he feels he is unhappy.) 
 
 E E 4 
 
424 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Sentit animus, se sua vi, non aliena, moveri, Cicero. 
 
 .Ego ne utllem quidem arhitror esse nobis futurarum rerum scien- 
 
 tiam, Cic. de Divin. li. 9. 
 Pompejos, celehrem Campaniae urbem, desedisse terrae motu au- 
 
 divimus, Senec. Nat. Qtiaest. vi. init. 
 Clodius adhuc mihi denuntiat periculum : Pompejus affirmat non 
 
 esse periczdum, adjurat, addit etiam se prius occisum iri ah eo, 
 
 quam me violatum iri, Cic. ad Att. ii. 20. (He might have 
 ■ said prius futurum esse, or fore, ut ah eo occidatur, quam ego 
 
 violer.) 
 
 [§603.] Note \. The propositions which are in direct dependence upon 
 the above-mentioned verbs are put in the accusative with the infini- 
 tive ; the clauses inserted in such a proposition are, according to circum- 
 stances, either in the indicative or the subjunctive, and in the latter more 
 especially when they are inseparably connected with the proposition expressed 
 by the accus. with the infinitive, containing either the words or sentiments 
 of the person spoken of. (See § 545.) Respecting such inserted clauses we 
 must add the following remarks : 
 
 a) When a relative clause has the same verb as the proposition with the 
 infinitive, but without its being repeated, the noun which is the subject of 
 the relative clause is put in the accusative; e.g. Cic. Tusc. i. 17.: Platonem 
 ferunt primum de animorum aeteimitate sensisse idem, quod Pythagoram ; Cat. 
 Maj. i. : 7e suspicor eisdem rebus, quihus me ipsum, commoveri ; if, however, 
 the verb of the relative clause is expressed, we must say idem quod Pytha- 
 goras sensit, and iisdem quihus (ego) ipse commoveor. For more examples 
 see § 774. 
 
 b) The same is the case with the particle quam after a comparative. We 
 say : e. g. Terentium censeo elegantiorem fidsse poetam, quam Plautum, instead 
 of quam Plautus fuit, as in Cicero, de Fin. iii. 19. : decet cariorem esse patriam 
 nobis, quam nosmet ipsos ; i.e. qu£im nosmet ipsi nobis sumus. Sometimes, 
 however, it happens that the clause with quam, even when it has a verb of its 
 own, attaches itself so closely to the preceding construction, as to accompany 
 it in the accusat. with the infinit., as Cic. ad Fam. ii. 16. : Nonne tibi af- 
 firmavi, quidvis me potius pe?pessurum, quam ex Italia ad bellum civile me 
 exiturum, instead oi' the more regular quam exirem, or quam ut exirem, as 
 in Livy, xl. 4. : Mulier ausa est dicere, se sua maim potius omnes (liberos 
 suos) interfecturam, quam in potestatem Philippi venirent : and xxxv. 31.: 
 (testatus est) Magnetas in corpora siuz citins saevituros, quam ut Bomanam 
 amicitiam violarent. 
 
 c) When long speeches of other persons are given in the historical form 
 (which is called oratio obliquu in a narrower sense), even complete relative 
 clauses (i. e. such as have a verb of their own), which properly should be in 
 the subjunctive, are put in the accusative with the infinitive, if the relative 
 clause is not subordinate to or dependent upon the one with the infinitive, 
 governed by a vei^bum sentiendi et declarandi, but rather co-ordinate or run- 
 ning parallel with it, in which case the relative pronoun is equivalent to the 
 demonstrative with et, and only a grammatical form to connect two sen- 
 tences. Thus, for example, Cic. in Verr. v. 62. : Res ad eum defertur : esse 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. ^^*/ 425 
 
 ^IV 
 
 civem Romanum, qui se Si/racusis in lautumiis fuisse quereretur ; quern jam 
 ing7'edientem navcm et Verri nimis atrociter minitantem,, a se retractum esse 
 et asservatum, ut ipse in eum statueret, quod videretur, for eumque a se re- 
 tractum esse ; Nep. Them. 7. : nam illorum urbem (Athenas) ut propug- 
 naculum oppositum esse harharis, apud quam jam his classes regias fecisse 
 naufragium., for et apud earn jam his classes regias fecisse naufragium. 
 (See the note of J. M. Heusinger on this passage.) Li Livy and Tacitus 
 there are some passages in which the accus. with the infin. is used in the 
 oratio ohliqiia instead of the subjunctive, even after conjunctions, as after 
 quum in Liv, iv. 51. : (plebs aegre ferebat) jacere tarn diu irritas actiones, 
 quae de suis commodis ferrentur, quum interim de sanguine ac supplicio suo 
 latam legem confestim exerceri, where et would have been sulficient, and 
 quum is used to express simultaneity (§ 580.) ; but the infinitive is rather an 
 anomaly : after quamquam in Tacit. Ann. ^\\. 65. : quamquam ne inipudicitiam 
 qiiidem nunc abesse, is justified by the absolute signification of quamquam 
 (§ 341.) ; after quia in Liv. xxvi. 27. : Flaccus ideo se moenibus incliisos tenere 
 eos (dicebat) m quia, si qui evasissent aliquo, velutferas hestias vagari, is much 
 more surprising, and too great a licence. 
 
 The leading propositions in the oratio obliqua (which in the oratio recta 
 would be in the indicative) are thus put in the accus. with the infinit. ; and 
 all other clauses, the tenses of which depend upon that of the leading verbum 
 sentiendi et declarandi, are put in the subjunctive. We add the remark, 
 that the imperatives of the direct speech become subjunctives in the oratio 
 obliqua ; e. g. hoc mihi dicite, but in the oratio obliqua hoc sihi dicant, or hoc 
 sibi dicereiit, according as the leading verb expresses either present or past 
 time. Direct questions, which in direct speech are in the indicative, are 
 expressed in the oratio obliqua by the accus. with the infinit., except questions 
 addressed to the second person, which, like the imperatives, become subjunc- 
 tives ; e. g. when in du-ect speech we say etiamsi veteris contiimeliae oblivisci 
 velim, num possum etiam recentium injunarum memoriam deponere ? the oratio 
 obliqua will be (Caes. Bell. Gall. i. 14.) : Caesar respondit (histor. perf.) — 
 A'i veteris contumeliae oblivisci vellet, num etiam recentium injuriarum, quod eo 
 invito (should be se invito, but see § 550.) iter per provinciam per vim temp- 
 tassent, memoriam deponere posse f Again, in direct speech, we say Hocine 
 patienduin fuit, si ad nutum dictatoris non respondit ? Fingite mentitum esse ; 
 cui servo unqiiam mendacii poena vincula fuerunt ? but in the oratio obliqua 
 (Liv. vi. 17. ) : (Indignabantur) Hocine patiendum fuisse, si ad nutum dicta- 
 toris non responderit vir consularns f Fingerent mentitum ante, atque ideo non 
 habuisse quad tum responderet : cui sej-vo unquam mendacii poenam vincula 
 fuisse ? But questions addressed to the second person are expressed in the 
 oratio obliqua by the subjunctive ; e. g. Liv. vi. 37. : (affirmabant) An jam 
 memoria exisse (direct an exiit?) XLIV annis neminem ex plebe tribunum 
 militum creatum esse f Qui crederent (direct Qui creditis ? how do you 
 think ?) duohus nunc in locis impartituros plebi honorem, qui octona loca tri- 
 hinis militum creandis occupare soliti sint. For other examples of questions 
 which are expressed in the oratio obliqua, either by the accus. with the infin., 
 or by the subjunctive, see Liv. iii. 72. ; vii. 4. ; viii. 33. The accus. with 
 the infin. is rarely found in a question of the second person, as in Liv. vi. 17., 
 where, however, it is combined with one of the third person : selihi-isnef arris 
 gratiam servatori patriae relatam ? et, quem cognomine Capitolino prope Jovi 
 parem fecerint, pati (for paterentur) vinctum in carcere ? The subjunctive in 
 questions of the third person is less uncommon in C^sar, e. g. Bell. Gall. i. 
 
426 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 43.: Quis pati jiosset ? for quem pati posse ? v. 29. : quis hoc sihi persiuxderetf 
 tor quern sihi persuasurum f Cottae consilium quern haberet exitum f for quern 
 habiturum esse exitum ? 
 
 [§ 604.] Note 2. It must be particularly observed that the personal pro- 
 nouns, which are expressed in the other moods only in case of their having 
 the emphasis, are always expressed with the infinitive. The beginner must 
 here pay especial attention to the use of the reflective pronoun 6-e, which, as 
 well as the possessive suus^ is employed with other oblique cases, when re- 
 ference is made in the dependent sentence to the subject of the leading one ; 
 and in explanatory clauses, when any thing is stated as the sentiment of the 
 subject ; see above §§ 125 and 550. We say, e. g. Caesar se non sui commodi 
 causa arma cepisse dicebat, but an explanatory clause cannot always take 
 these pronouns, as Caesar, quum eum nonnulli injustitiae accusarent, or Caesar^ 
 quod ejus causa a plerisque damnabatur, se non sui commodi causa arma cepisse 
 dicebat; but when the explanatory clause contains the sentiment of the 
 subject, we use se and suus, e. g. Caesar, quod suumjus a senaiu laesum esset, 
 or postquam nihil sibi ac suis postidatis tributum esset, se non sua sed ipsius rei 
 publicae causa arma cepisse dicebat, 
 
 [§ 605.] This rule that the personal pronouns must be expressed (in the 
 accus.) with the infinitive must be particularly attended to with regard to 
 the verbs " to promise " and " to hope," since in English they are usually 
 joined with the infinit. present without any pronoun. In Latin the pronouns 
 are not only expressed, but the infinitive which follows is- that of the future, 
 e. g. promisit se venturum, daturum esse, spero hoc me assecuturum (with the 
 omission of esse, as is very frequently the case with this infinitive and that of 
 the perfect passive). There are, it is true, many instances, both of the in- 
 finitive present instead of that of the future (for which see the commentators 
 on Caes. Bell. Gall. iv. 21. : pollicentur obsides dare, and Oudendorp on ii. 
 32.), and of the accusative of the pronoun being omitted ; but such excep- 
 tions can never afiect a rule which is so frequently followed, and they occur 
 much more rarely in Cicero than in Curtius and Livy. In the following 
 passages of Cicero, de Nat. Deor. i. 39. : puderet me dicere non intellexisse ; in 
 Q. Caec. 18. : quod dicturum te esse audio quaestorem illius fuisse; in 
 Rull. ii. 36. : haec ego vos sperasse me consule assequi posse demiror — the omis- 
 sion of me, te, and vos, is excused by the fact of there being two constructions 
 of the accus. with the infinit. with the same subject. The following passages 
 ai-e less excusable, Cio. p. Rose. Am. 22. : conjitere hue ea spe venisse ; p. Sidl. 
 23.: ugimriae legi intercessorem fore prof essus est: p. Muren. 3. : qui gravis- 
 sirne et acerbissime ferre dixit. But such passages, as was said above, are 
 comparatively rare ; and the omission of se as the accusat. of the subject 
 (which would be ego in direct speech) is frequent only in a long oratio 
 obliqua in historians. 
 
 f§ 606.] Note 3. When the use of an infinitive active would bring two ac- 
 cusatives together, one of the subject and the other of the object, and an 
 ambiguity would be likely to arise, it is the rule to prefer the passive con- 
 struction, by which the accusat. of the object becomes the subject, and the 
 other is avoided or explained by the preposition ab or per. 
 At vero ne fando quidem auditum, est, crocodilum aut ibim aut felem violatum 
 
 (esse) ab Aegyptio, Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 29. 
 y If we were to say crocodilum violasse Aegyptium, there would certainly be a 
 great ambiguity ; but where no such ambiguity is to be apprehended, even 
 the best authors use two accusatives by the side of each other. 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 427 
 
 [§ 607.] 8. The accusative of the subject in the construction 
 of the accusative with the infinitive after the verbs denoting 
 saying, showing, and believing (dicere, negare, tradere, ferre, me- 
 viorare, narrare, nuntiare, perhibere, prodere, scribere ; demon- 
 strare, ostendere, arguere, credere, putare, existimare, and some 
 others of the same meaning), is regarded also as an accusative 
 of the object, governed by those verbs, and hence the passive 
 constniction also is admissible (according to § 382.), by which 
 the accusative becomes the nominative. This is the case es- 
 pecially, when the subject of those verbs is indefinite, as dicunt 
 (they or people say) me virum probum esse, or dicor vir probus 
 esse, and so through all persons and tenses : diceris, dicitur vir 
 probus esse ; dicimur, dicimini, dicuntur viri probi esse or fecisse. 
 The same is frequently the case with the \QYhs jubere, vetare and 
 j)ro]dbere (comp. § 617.), so that the passives of these verbs are 
 used jDcrsonally, as vetamnr, prohibemur hoc facere, abire jussus 
 sum, consules jubentur exercitum scribere, and sometimes even 
 an infinit. passive is added, e. g. Cic. Philip, ii. 32. : jussus 
 es rcnuntiari consul. Further, instead of the impersonal videtur 
 (it appears) with the accusat. with the infinit., it is quite common 
 to say personally videor, videris, videtur, videmur, videmini, vi- 
 dentur with the infinitive, as videor errasse, it appears that I 
 have erred ; videor deceptus esse, it appears that I have been de- 
 ceived. See above § 380. 
 Xanthippe, Socratis philosophi uxor, morosa admodum fuisse 
 
 fertur et jurgiosa, Gellius, i. 17. 
 Regnante Tarquinio Superbo Sybarim . et Crotonem Pythagoras 
 
 venisse repcritur, Cic. de Re Publ. ii. 15.. 
 Atlienis actor movere affectus vetabatur, Quintil. ii. 16. 
 
 Note. The accus. with the infinit. after the passives dicitur^ traditur^ fertur^ 
 narratur, existimatur^ &c., that is, the impersonal use of these passives, is in- 
 deed admissible, but occurs more rarely than the personal construction. (See 
 Duker on Florus, ii. 6. § 45. ; Drakenborch onLivy, i. 31.) Hence we must 
 regard it as an exception when we read in Nepos, Pans 5. : dicitur eo tem- 
 pore matrem Pausaniae vixisse; Li v. v. 33.: earn gentem traditur faTtia^ didce- 
 dine frugum maxivieqiie villi captain Alpes trcnisisse ; xl. 29.: ereditur Pytha- 
 gorae auditoi'cm fuisse Numam. It is more frequently the case with mmtiatur^ 
 nuntiabatur, as in Caes. Bell. Civ. i. 51. ; Cic. p. Milon. 18. ; but it is very 
 common with the compound tenses (traditmn est, proditum est, creditum est) 
 and with the pai'ticiple future passive (credendinn est, intelligendum est, existi- 
 mandum est), e. g. Cic. de Nat. Dear. ii. 63. : Fides et tihias eorurn causa factas 
 dicendum est, qui illis uti possimt, and ibid. 66. : quorum neminem nisi juvantc 
 deo tulcm (tarn fortcin ac reip. utilern) fuisse credendum est. 
 
428 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 608.] 9. The subject cannot be expressed with the infini- 
 tive, when it is an indefinite person, for the Romans had no 
 word to express the English " one" (French on), and hence we 
 say ignoscere amico humanum est, to forgive a friend is humane, 
 or it is humane that one (or we) should forgive a friend ; fa- 
 cinus est viiicire civem Romanum, 
 
 But even in this case the verb esse and those denoting " to 
 appear," "to be considered" or "called" (§394.) require the 
 predicate, if it be declinable, to agree with the non-expressed 
 subject in the accusative, e. g. ignoscere amico humanum est, 
 recordantem henejiciorum ah eo acceptorum, it is humane that 
 one should forgive a friend, remembering the benefit received of 
 him. 
 Contentum suis rebus esse maximae sunt certissimaeque divitiae, 
 
 Cic. Parad. 6. 
 Licet opera prodesse multis, benejicia petentem, commendantem 
 
 magistratihus, vigilantem pro re alterius, Cic. de Off. ii. 19. 
 Atticus maximum existimavit quaestum, memorem gratumque cog^ 
 
 nosci, Nep. Att. 9. 
 Magnis in laudihus tota fere fait Graecid victorem Olympiae ci- 
 
 tariy Nep. Praef. 
 
 Note. The indefinite pronoun, which may be supplied in these cases, is 
 aliquem^ and when the accus. plur. is used, aliqiios. The same indefinite- 
 ness, however, may be expressed by te or nos, or what is to be especially ob- 
 served, by the infinitive passive. Hence the sentences ignoscere amico 
 humanum est and /acinus est vincii-e civem Romanum^ may also be expressed by 
 ignosci amico humanum est^f acinus est vinciri civem llomanum ; e.g. Nep. Milt. 4. : 
 guum viderent de eorum virtute non desperari, et hostes eadem re fore tardiores, 
 si animadverterent auderi adve'rsus se tam exiguis copiis dimicare. This is to 
 be observed especially on account of the impersonal verbs licet, decet, oportet, 
 opus est, necesse est, which if there is no definite subject are joined with the 
 infinitive active alone; e.g. licet hoc facer e, decet specimen caper e ex hac re, 
 ex malis eligere minima oportet, or with a complete accusat. with the infinit. 
 in the passive construction, as licet hoc fieri, decet specimen capi, ex malis eligi 
 minima oportet. 
 
 [§ 609.] 10. Tlie accusative with the infinitive sometimes 
 stands apparently quite independent, but is to be explained by 
 an ellipsis of credihile est 9 verumne est ? This is the case in ex- 
 clamations, and, when the interrogative particle is annexed, in 
 interrogations expressive of indignation ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. v. 
 44. : lllam clementiam mansuetudinemque nostri imperii in tantam 
 crudelitatem inhumanitatemque esse conversam ! ad Fam. xiv. 2. : 
 Hem, mea Inx^ te nunc, mea Terentia, sic vexari, sic jacere in 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 429 
 
 lacrimis et sordibus ! idque fieri mea culpa, &C. ; Virg. Aen. i. 
 37. : Mene incepto desistere victam, Nee posse Italia Teucrorum 
 avertere regem ! Terent. Andr. i. 5. 10. : Adeone esse hominem 
 infelicem quemquam, ut ego sum ! Cic. p. Rose. Am. 34. : Tene, 
 quum ceteri socii tui fugerent ac se occultarent, tihi potissimum 
 istas partes depoposcisse, ut in judicio versarere et sederes cum 
 accusatore ! in Verr. v. 6. : O praeclarum imperatorem ! tan-- 
 tumne vidisse (eum) in metu periculoque provinciae ! But it must 
 be observed that a sentence with ut may also be used, both with 
 and without an interrogative particle, to express a question 
 with indignation, e. g. Terent. Andr. i. 5. 28. : Eine (patri) 
 ego ut adverser ? Liv. iv. 2. : Illine ut impune hella concitent ? v. 
 24. : victamne ut quisquam victrici patriae praeferret f Cic. in 
 Cat. i. 9. : Tu ut unquam te corrigas ? in Verr. iii. 10. : judicio 
 ut arator decumanum persequatur ? where we may supply fieri 
 potest ? 
 
 [§ 610.] 11. The verbs, 1 can, shall, hasten, venture, am ac- 
 customed, and others of the same kind, are followed in Latin as 
 in English by the mere infinitive and not by a proposition. 
 When they are joined with esse, haberi, judicari, videri. Sec, the. 
 predicate is put in the nominative, e. g. solet tristis videri, aude 
 sapiens esse, proper at ahire, coepit mihi molestus esse, dehes esse 
 diligens, potest liber esse, and so also meretur, scit, didicit liber 
 esse. But the verbs volo, nolo, malo ; cupio, opto, studeo, admit 
 of a twofold construction : the mere infinitive is used after them, 
 when the subject remains the same, and when they are followed 
 by esse or any of the above-mentioned verbs, the predicate is in 
 the nominative ; but the accusat. with the infinit. is used, when 
 the subject is changed, or when the pronoun of the same person 
 is repeated. On the one hand therefore we say volo eruditus 
 fieri, and on the other volo te eruditum fieri, and volo me eruditum 
 fieri. Hence it is indifferent whether I say discipulum me haberi 
 volo, non doctorem, or discipulus haberi volo, non doctor; prin- 
 cipem se esse maluit quam videri, or princeps esse maluit quam 
 videri. 
 
 Volo is esse, quern tu me esse voluisti, Cic. ad Fam. i. 7. 
 
 Cupio me esse clementem, cupio in tantis rei publicae periculis me 
 non dissolutum videri (or cupio esse clemens nee dissolutus 
 videri), Cic. in Cat. i. 2. 
 
 Omnis homines, qui sese student praestare ceteris animalibus, 
 
430 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 summa ope niti decet, ne vitam silentio transeant, Sallust, Cat. 
 init. 
 
 [§ 611.] Note 1. Particular attention is to be paid to the infinitive pas- 
 sive with velle, e. g. me amari volo, I wish to be beloved ; hoc velim inteUigi^ 
 I wish this to be understood. The infinitive perfect passive is joined with it, 
 originally to express the zeal and rapidity with which a thing was done ; 
 e. g. Cic. p. Leg. Man. 5. : Legati quod erant appellati siiperhius^ Corinthum 
 patres vestry totius Graeciae lumen^ extinctum esse voluerunt; in Q. Caec. 6. : 
 quihus maxime lex consultum esse vult; p. Lig. 5. : saluti civis calamitosi con- 
 sultum esse volumus ; but it occurs still more frequently with the omission of 
 esse (or, as it may be expressed, with the participle perf. pass.), e. g. Cicero : 
 hoc natu7'a praescrihiU ut homo homini consultum velit; his omnibus me vehe^ 
 menter excusatum volo; hoc factum volo; nunc illos commonitos velim; patres 
 ordinem puhlicanorum offensum nolehant ; aliis hanc laudem praereptam nolo ; 
 patriam extinctam cupit^ &c. 
 
 [§ 612.] Note 2. But the nominat. with the infinitive after the other above- 
 mentioned verha sentiendi et declarandi occurs very rarely even in poetry, and 
 is to be explained only as an imitation of the Greek, in which language 
 it is the rule to use the nominat. with the infinit., when the same subject re- 
 mains. Thus we find in Catullus, iv. : Phaselus ille, quern videtis hospites, ait 
 fuisse navium celer7'imus ; in Horace, Epist. i. 7. 22. : vir bonus et sapiens dignis 
 ait esse paratus; Ovid, Met. xiii. 141. : quia rettulit Ajax esse Jovis pronepos., 
 instead of se esse Jovis pronepotem; Trist. ii. 10.: acceptum refero versibus 
 esse nocens, and Propert. iii. 6. (4.) 40. combines both constructions : me 
 quoque consimili impositu7n torquerier ignijurabo, et bis sex integer esse dies. 
 But there are no other Instances of the kind in these classical poets, for in 
 Horace, Carm. iii. 27. 73., Tixor invicti Jovis esse nescis, is used for non vales, 
 or non audes esse uxor rather than for te esse uxorem. And in like manner we 
 may, in other passages, explain the nominat. with the infinit. as a mere poet- 
 ical licence in the choice of the expression, as in Ovid, Ars Am. i. 34o. : 
 gaudent tamen esse rogatae., where gaudent is equivalent to volunt. There is 
 only one more passage (Virg. Aen. ii. 377.) in which the poet uses the par- 
 ticiple in this way : sensit medios delapsus in hostes, in imitation of the Greek 
 YJcrQeTo si.nTS(TU)v, instead of the Latin se delapsum esse. 
 
 [§613.] 12. There are many Latin verbs which, according 
 to our notions, seem to require a proposition for their direct 
 object, that is, the accusative with the infinitive, but which 
 nevertheless are followed in Latin by ut with the subjunctive, 
 either exclusively, or admit the construction of the accusat. 
 with the infinit. besides. This arises from the circumstance 
 that such propositions may be or more properly must be con- 
 ceived as expressing a design, purpose, effect, or result of the 
 leading proposition, which is indicated by ut (or ne\ 
 
 a) The verbs patior and sino are generally followed by the 
 infinitive, and more rarely by ut ; the * verbs opto, concedo, 
 permitto, whicli have a more forcible meaning, may have either 
 
INFIXITIVE MOOD. 431 
 
 the infinitive^ or ut ; posco, postulo, flagito and cogo have more 
 
 frequently ut than the infinitive. 
 
 Consuetudo laborum perpessionem dolorum efficit faciliorem. Ita- 
 
 que illi, qui Graeciae formam rerum publicarum dederunt, 
 
 corpora juvenum Jirmari labore voluerunt, Cic. Tusc. ii. 15. 
 Phaethon optavit ut in currum patris tolleretur (instead of tolh 
 
 or se tolli), Cic. de Off. iii. 25. 
 lllud natura non patitur, ut aliorum spoliis nostras facultates^ 
 
 copiaSi opes augeamus, Cic. de Off. iii. 5. 
 Augustus dominum se appellari ne a liheris quidem aut nepotibus 
 
 suis passus est, Sueton. Aug. 53. 
 
 Note. Volo ut is more rare, but is used to express a strong emphasis ; 
 e. g. Cic., in Yatin. 7., lias several times : volo uti mihi respondeas. Nolo ut 
 does not occur. Malle is used by Cicero, ad Att. viil. 9., in both construc- 
 tions : Balbus minor ajebat, nihil 7nalle Caesarem, quam ut Pompejum asse- 
 queretur. Balbus quidem major ad me scribit, nihil malle Caesarem quam 
 principe Pompejo sine metu vivere. Postidare, too, is found with different 
 constructions, Curt. vi. 43. : Non homines solum, sed eiiam deos despicit qui 
 postulat dev3 credi; Cic. m Verr. iii. 60. : Hie postulat se Romae absolvi, qui 
 in sua provincia judicarit se absolvi nidlo modo posse. Ut is of quite common 
 occurrence with^jos^Zo ,• e. g. Liv. iii. 19. : Tribuni plebis postulant, ut sacro- 
 sancti hdbeantur. Cicero uses optare ut exclusively ; but in other good authors 
 the infinitive is found frequently. Recusare is used indiscriminately either 
 with the infinitive or with ne. 
 
 [§ 614.] b) The verbs of resolving and endeavouring to do or 
 prevent a thing are followed by ut and ne, when the dependent 
 clause has a subject of its own, but when the same subject re- 
 mains they are generally followed by the infinitive (i. e. the 
 nominat. with the infinit.), though ut is found in this case also. 
 Verbs of this kind are : statuo, constituo, decerno, tempto (also 
 spelled tento), paro, meditor, euro, nitor, contendo, and the 
 phrases consilium capio, in animum induco, or animum induco. 
 Hence, we may say constitui domi manere, as well as constitui 
 ut domi manerem ; but we can say only constitui ut Jilius mens 
 tecum habitaret. Ut is used almost exclusively after the ex- 
 pressions operam do, I exert myself; id {hoc, illud) ago, I en- 
 deavour or exert myself (see § 748.); nihil antiquius habeo or 
 duco, quam, nothing is of more importance to me ; and videre in 
 the sense of curare. 
 Qui sapientes appellari volunt, inducant animum divitias, honores, 
 
 opes contemner e, eaque, quae his contraria sunt, pro nihilo du- 
 
 cere, Cic. Tusc. v. 10. 
 
432 LATIN GKAMMAR. 
 
 Erat certi accusatoris officium, qui tanti sceleris argueret, expli- 
 care omnia vitia Jilii, quibus incensiis parens potuerit animum 
 inducere, ut naturam ipsam vinceret, ut amorem ilium penitus 
 insitum ejiceret ex animo, ut denique patrem esse sese oblivis- 
 ceretur, C'lG. p. Rose. Am. 19. 
 Omne animal se ipsum diligit, ac simul ut ortum est id agit, ut se 
 
 conservet, Clc, de Fin. v. 9. 
 Videndum est igitur, ut ea liberalitate utamur, quae prosit amicis, 
 noceat jiemini, Cic. de Off. i. 14. 
 
 [§ 615.] c) The verbs rogo, oro, precor, peto, moneo^ admoneo, 
 commoneo, hortor^ adhortor, cohortor, exhortor, suadeo, persuadeo, 
 instituo (I instruct), impello, perpello^ excito^ incito, impero, and 
 some others, are followed by ut and ne in both cases, when the 
 subject remains the same and when it is changed, and by the 
 infinitive only by w^ay of exception, and by a licence in speaking. 
 The complete accusat. with the infinit. occurs with some of 
 them only when their meaning is different, as with moneo and 
 admoneo in the sense of " I remind" a person that a thing is, 
 not is to be ; w^ith perstiadeo in the sense of " I convince." But, 
 on the other hand, even such verbs as nuntio, dzco, scribo, are 
 followed by ut, when the meaning is " I announce, say or write 
 with the intention that," &c. 
 lllud te oro et hortor, ut in extrema parte muncris tui diligentis- 
 
 simus sis, Cic. ad Quint. Frat. i. 1. 
 Moneo obtestorque, ut hos, qui tibi genere propinqui sunt, caros 
 habeas, neu malis alienos adjungere, quam sanguine con- 
 junctos retinere, Sallust. Jug. 10. 
 Themistocles persuasit populo, ut pecunid publicd, quae ex metallis 
 
 rediret, classis centum navium aedijicaretur, Nep. Them. 2. 
 2^ibi persuade, praeter culpam et peccatum homini accidere nihil 
 posse, quod sit horribile aut pertimescendum, Cic. ad Fam, 
 V. 21. 
 Parmenio litteras aperit, in quis erat scriptum,, ut mature Alex- 
 ander aliquem ex ducibus suis mitteret, Curt. iii. 33. (13.) 
 
 [§ 616.] Note 1. We have above described the infinitive as of rare occur- 
 rence, that is, in comparison with the much more frequent use of ut in the 
 prose of the best period of Roman literature. It must however be observed 
 that the poets and later prose writers, in imitation of the Greeks, are partial 
 to the infinitive with these verbs, and use it, instead of m^, with the subjunc- 
 tive without any difference ; Tacitus in particular almost invariably prefers 
 the infinitive, being more concise than the construction with ut. Some few 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 433 
 
 Instances of the same kind occur even in Cicero ; e. g. p. Sext. 3. : Mihi ante 
 ocvlos ohversatur rei puhlicae dignitas, quae me ad sese rapit, haec minora 
 relinquere hortatur; de Fin. i. 20. : Cum vita sine amicis insidiarum et metus 
 plena sit, ratio ipsa monet amicitias comparare; and in Nepos, Dion, 3. : Plato 
 autem tantum apud Dionysium auctoritate potuit valuitqv£ eloqueiitia, ut ei per- 
 suaserit tyrannidis facere finem lihertatemque reddere Syracusanis; comp. 
 Xep. Phoc. 1. But this should not be imitated, and must be remembered 
 onlj because it often occurs in the poets and later prose writers. The poets 
 go even further, and use the infinitive to express a design or purpose, for 
 which ui ought to be employed ; e. g. Horat. Carm. i. 2. 7. : Proteus pecus 
 egit altos visere monies. 
 
 [§ 617.] Note 2. The verbs of commanding, as imperare^ mandare^ prae^ 
 scribere, edicere (to issue a command), legem dare^ decemere, are followed by 
 ut according to the above rule. Jubere and vetare alone form an exception, 
 being construed with the accusat. with the infinit., but attention must be 
 paid as to whether the infinit. active or passive is to be used ; e. g. militem 
 occidi jussit, he ordered the soldier to be put to death ; eum dbire jussit, he 
 ordered him to depart ; vetuit castra vallo muniri^ and vetuit legatos ab opere 
 discedere. Exceptions from this regular construction are rare, but some- 
 times the subject is omitted, when it is indefinite or one which is al- 
 ways understood with certain actions, as in Cicero : lex recte facere jubet^ 
 vetat delinquere, viz. homines; Caes. Sell. Gall. v. 34. : duces eorum tota acie 
 pronuntiare jusserunt^ v\z. praecones; ii. 5. : castra munire jubet, viz. milites; 
 Liv. iii. 22. : signum observare jussit; xlili. 3. : tribuni militum pabulum lig- 
 naque projicere jubent; xxix. 7. : receptui canere cum jussisset, viz. tubicines; 
 XXV. 10. : Hannibal Tarentinos sine armis convocare jubet, viz. eum, qui con- 
 vocandi potestatem habebat. Nor is there any objection to the subject being 
 omitted, if it is mentioned shortly before. The poets however sometimes 
 go too far, and the infinitive active then seems to be used for the passive ; 
 their example is followed by some prose writers. See Horat. Carm. ii. 
 3. 14. ; ii. 15. in fin. ; iii. 21. 7. ; and Ernesti on Tacit. Hist. i. 38. — Jubeo 
 tibi ut hoc facias, or with the omission of ut: jubeo tibi hoc facias, is likewise 
 rare, but is found in Tacit. Ann. xiii. 15. and 40. But the expression y^^eo 
 tibi facere must be rejected, for it is only based upon two doubtful passages 
 in Cicero, ad Att. ix. 13. 2., and Curt. v. 20. (6. 8.) Compare the comment- 
 ators on Liv. xxvii. 24. But jubeo ut hoc facias, without a dative of the 
 person, may be used, just as veto ne hoc facias, and is in accordance with the 
 general rule ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. iv. 12. : hie tibi in mentem non venit jubere^ 
 ut haec quoque re ferret? Jussi venires, for ut venires, occurs in Ovid, Met. 
 iv. 111. Imperare, on the other hand, is sometimes used, Y]ke jubere, with 
 the accusat. with the infinit. (pass.) ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. v. 27. : eodem ceteros 
 piratas condi imperarat; ibid. 56. : ipsos in lautumias abduct imperabat; but 
 it is more frequently construed with ut. Censeo, too, in the sense of " I 
 give my opinion to the efiect that," is construed like jubeo, and takes the 
 accusat. with the infinit. pass, instead of ut, as Liv. ii. 5. ; de bonis regis, quae 
 reddi ante censuerant, res Integra refertur ad patres, where Drakenborch 
 adduces several other passages. It is construed very frequently with esse 
 and the participle of necessity, or with this participle alone, esse being under- 
 stood ; e. g. Carthaginem delendam censeo. Censeo does not occur in prose with 
 the infinitive active, instead of which vt or the subjunctive without trf is used 
 
 according to § 624. 
 
 ■t 
 F P 
 
434 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 [§ 618.] d) The verbs of effecting, viz. facio, efficio, perficio, 
 evinco, pervinco, impetro, assequor, and consequor, are nevet 
 construed with the infinitive or the accusative with the infi- 
 nitive, but with vt and ne ; since the relation of dependence 
 upon these verbs is regarded in Latin as that of an intended 
 result. Hence arises a frequent circumlocution by means of 
 facere ut to express a real fact, and instead of dimisit milites, we 
 accordingly find fecit ut dimitteret milites. 
 Epaminondas perfecit, ut auxilio sociorum Lacedaemonii priva^ 
 
 rentur, Nep. Epam, 6. 
 Tu quidquid indagaris de re publica, facito ut sciam, Cic. ad 
 
 Att. ii. 4. 
 
 Note 1. Fac frequently has the sense of " suppose" or " granting," and is 
 then construed as a verhum sentiendi with the accus. with the infinit., as in 
 Cicero : fac animos interire ut corpus^ fac animos non remanere post mortem^ 
 fac qui ego sum esse te. In like manner efficere ^the sense of " to infer by 
 logical reasoning" is treated as a verhum declaranm^ and takes the accus. with 
 the infinit., as Cic. Tusc. i. 31. : Dicaearchus tres lihros scripsit, in quibus vidt 
 efficere animos esse mortales. But efficitur in the sense of " it is inferred," or 
 " it follows," is also followed by ut^ as Cic. de Off, ii. 3. : ex quo efficitur^ uty 
 quidquid honestum sit^ idem sit utile, whereas in iii. 5. we read : ex quo efficitur 
 hominem naturae obedientem homini nocere non posse. Conficitur in this sense 
 is found only with ut, but occurs on the whole rarely, Cic. de Invent, ii. 49. 
 and 6Q. 
 
 Facere, used of writers, in the sense of " to introduce," or " represent" 
 (yikQ fingere, inducer e), is joined with the present or perfect participle, as in 
 Cicero, de Nat. Deor. i. 12. : Xenophon facit in iis, qwae a Socrate dicta ret- 
 tulit (i. e. in Memorabilibus), Socratem disputantem, formam dei quaeri non 
 oportere; Tusc. i. 40. : oratio, qua Plato Socratem usum facit; in the passive, 
 however, we also find the accus. with the infinitive, there being no participle 
 present ; e. g. Cic. de Opt. Gen. 6. : Isocratem Plato admirahiliter laudari 
 facit a Socrate; de Nat. Deor. i. 8. : quibus enim oculis animi intueri potuit 
 vester Plato fabricam illam tanti operis, qua construi a deo atque aedificari 
 mundum facit. 
 
 [§ 619.] Note 2. The fact oi facere in the sense of " to effect" being joined 
 with ut cannot be surprising (it is much more surprising to find in Cicero, 
 Brut. 38. : (actio) tales orator es videri facit, quales ipsi se videri volunt) ; but 
 especial attention must be paid to the periphrasis facio ut to express a thing 
 which really takes place, as some other peculiarities of the Latin syntax are 
 connected with it, of which we shall speak in § 623. Thus we read in Cicero, 
 Cat. Maj. 12. : invitus quidemfeci, ut L. Flamininum e senatu ejicerem, instead 
 ofinvitus ejeci; in Vatin. 9. : invitus facio, ut recorder ruinas rei publicae; p. 
 Plane. 30. : At etiam gregarii milites faciunt inviti, ut coronam dent civicam, et 
 se ab aliquo servatos esse fateantur ; ad Fam. i, 7. : Facio libenter ut per lit- 
 teras tecum colloquar; in Verr. v. 63. : et Glabrionem, id quod sapientissime 
 fecit, facere laetatus sum, ut repente testem dimitteret, instead of laetatus sum, 
 quod — dimisit; in Verr. ii. 4. : fecerunt etiam, ut me prope de vitae meae statu 
 dolore ac lacrimis suis deducerent, instead of deduxerunt; p. Cluent. 40. : /a- 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 435 
 
 rnte enim, ut non solum mores ejus et arrogantiam, sed etiam vultum atque amic' 
 tum^ atque illam usqy£ ad talos demissam purpuram recordemini^ instead of 
 recordamini; ad Fam. iii. 8. : faciendum mihi piUavi, vt tuis litteris hreviter 
 responderem, instead oi respondendum mihi esse putavi; in Cat. iii. 3. : negavi 
 me esse facturum^ ut de periculo publico non ad consilium publicum rem integram 
 deferrem; i. e. negavi me rem non integram delaturum^ or dixi me rem integram 
 delaturum. 
 
 [§ 620.] 13. Hence it not unfrequently happens in narratives, 
 that the verbs of begging, commanding, admonishing, &C. are 
 first followed by ut or ne and the subjunctive, and afterwards 
 by the accusative with the infinitive, only the words or sen- 
 timents of the subject of the narrative being recorded. For the 
 purpose of explanation, we supply from the preceding verb the 
 general idea of thinking or saying, which is always implied in 
 the leading verb; e. g. Caes. Bell. Civ, iii. 89.: Simul tertiae 
 aciei totique exercitui imperavit, ne injussu suo concurreret : se, 
 quum id fieri vellet, vexillo signum daturum. 
 His (colonis Athen.) consulentibus nominatim Pythia praecepit, 
 
 ut Miltiadem sibi imperatorem sumerent : id si fedssent, incepta 
 
 prosper a futura, Nep. Milt, 1. 
 
 [§ 621.] 14. Lastly, ut is used, and not the accusative with 
 the • infinitive (which would here be the accusative of the 
 subject) : — 
 
 «) After the expressions denoting *'it happens:" fit {fieri 
 non potest^, accidit, incidit, contingit (chiefly of desirable things), 
 evenit, usu venit, occurrit, and est (it is the case or happens, and 
 hence also after esto, be it that). 
 
 ^) After the words denoting " it remains," or " it follows : " 
 futurum, extremum, prope, proximum, and reliquum est, relin- 
 quitur, sequitur, restat, and superest ; sometimes also accedit ut 
 (" to this must be added that," where, however, quod is more 
 common). 
 Fieri autem potest, vt recte quis sentiat, et id, quod sentit, polite 
 
 eloqui non possit, Cic. Tusc. i. 3. 
 Persaepe evenit, ut utilitas cum honestate certet, Cicero. 
 Amicis quoniam satisfeci, reliquum est, ut egomet mihi consulam, 
 
 Nep. Att, 21. 
 
 [§ 622.] Note 1. Contingit mihi is not unfrequently joined with the in- 
 finitive ; e.g. antecellere omnibus, in .Cic. p. Arch. 3., and non cuivis homini 
 contingit adire Corinthum, in Horat. Epist. i. 17. 36. The predicate is also 
 found in the dative (as in the case of licet), with esse and other verbs of 
 similar meaning ; e.g. Veil. Pat. ii. 124. : mihi fratrique meo destinari prae» 
 
 F r 2 
 
436 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 torihus contigit. Sequitur^ which in the sense of " it follows," should take the 
 accusat. with the infinit., is frequently followed by ut; e.g. Cicero: si hoc 
 verum non est, sequitur ut falsum sit. The same is the case with nascitur, 
 " the result is," and sometimes with efficitur (which has the same meaning), 
 though it appears more frequently to take the accusat. with the infinit. 
 Respecting accedit ut, see the passages of Cicero, p. Rose. Am. 31. §86.; 
 in Verr. ii. 12. § 31. ; Cat.Maj. 6. ; ad Ap. Claudii senectutem accedebat etiam, 
 ut caecus esset ; p. Reg. Dejot. 1 . : accedit ut accu^atorum alterius crudelitate^ 
 alterius indignitate conturher ; Tusc. i. 19.: accedit, ut eo facilius animus evadat 
 ex hoc aere, quod (because) nihil est animo velocius. The same principle ap- 
 pears to be followed in Cic. p. Leg. Man. 17. : nunc quum haec quoque oppor- 
 tunitas adjungatur, ut in his ipsis locis adsit, ut hatfeat exercitum, &c., quid 
 expectamus ? and Liv. ii. 27. : qui ad id, quod de credita pecunia ju^ non 
 dixisset, adjiceret, ut ne delectum quidem ex SCto haheret. 
 
 After consuetudo and mos or moris est, ut is frequently used instead of the 
 infinitive, the fundamental idea being " it usually happens that ; " e. g. Cic. 
 Brut. 21. : sedest mos hominum, ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere; in 
 Verr. i. 26.: negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum accumberent 
 viulieres. For the same reason the expressions natura or consuetudo fert are 
 follo'^ed by ut; e.g. Cic. p. Muren. 2. : natura fert, ut iis faveamus, qui eadem 
 pericula, quibu^ nos perfuncti sumus, ingrediantur. 
 
 [§ 623.] Note 2. What has become the ordinary practice with the ex- 
 pressions " it happens " and " it remains," may at least serve to explain why 
 ut is used, by way of exception, after several other expressions with an 
 adjective conveying the idea of happening, instead of the accusat. (of the 
 subject) with the' infinitive. For the Latin language expresses happenings 
 as a result or effect, by ut, and is fond of paraphrasing even the expression 
 of a simple act by means oi facio ut; see § 619. Hence many such phrases 
 as novum est, varum, naturale, necesse, usitatum^ mirum, singulare est, &c. are 
 construed with ut, because all of them imply the idea of happening, and ac- 
 cordingly novum est ut in Cic. in Verr. v. 6., is equivalent to nova rations Jit; 
 and rarum est in Quintil. vi. 3. 38. and x. 7. 24., equivalent to raro Jit, &c. 
 Ernesti, therefore, ought not to have doubted the correctness of the expres- 
 sion in Cic. Tu^c. v. 21. : Atque ei (Dionysio) ne integrum quidem erat, ut ad 
 justitiam remigraret, civibus libertatem etjura redderet; and the same expres- 
 sion occurs p. Muren. 4. : nequ£ est integrum, ut meum laborem hominum 
 pericvlis sublevandis non impertiam, for we may easily complete the expression 
 integrum ei erat ui, by that common periphrasis integrum ei eratfactu ut. Non 
 verisimile est ut occurs in Cicero four times, p. Rose. Am. 41. § 121. ; in Verr. 
 iv. 6. § 11. ; jo. Sull. 20. § 57. ;' p. Sext. 36. § 78., and in all of them it has the 
 meaning of the periphrasis non videtur re vera factum esse ut. In the same 
 manner we must explain verum est ut in Nepos (Hann. i.), which is other- 
 wise very singular : si verum est, quod nemo dubitat, ut populus Romanu^ 
 omnes gentes virtute superarit. Comp. Cic. Lael. 4. § 14., and in the same 
 rawcLUQY falsum esse ut is used by Cicero, de Divin. ii. 31. 
 
 The transition being thus formed we may add lastly, that ut is sometimes 
 used after adjectives implying an abstract relation, as aequum, rectum, utile 
 est, although the infinitive is commonly employed after them, as after similar 
 expressions with verbs ; e.g. Cic. de Off. ii. 22. : quam autem habet aequitatem^ 
 ut agrum multis annis aut etiam saeculis ante possessum, qui nullum habuit, 
 habeat, qui autem habuit, amittat ; i. e. qu/im aeque ft ut; and in Cicero (de 
 ^in. ii. 33., and Tu^c. iii. 3.) we twice meet with qui probari potest ut in the 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 437 
 
 « 
 sense of qui potest cutquam verisimile factu esse. But the beginner should not 
 forget, that we are here speaking only of peculiarities, which are indeed 
 based upon the analogy of other grammatical rules, and supported by the 
 authority of classical writers, but which we are not bound to imitate. 
 
 [§624.] 15. The verbs denoting willingness and permission, 
 Avhich may take ut instead of the accusative with the infinitive 
 (volo, nolo, malo, sino, permitto and licet)-, those which denote 
 asking, advising, reminding (especially postulo, peto, rogo, oro, 
 quaeso, precor, hortor, suadeo, censeo, moneo, admoneo), which are 
 generally construed only with ut, and some others of a similar 
 kind, as euro, decerno, mando, jubeo^ may also be followed by the 
 subjunctive alone, without ut. To these we must add the two 
 imperatives /ac (in its periphrastic sense "take care that"), 
 which usually takes ut, and cave, which usually takes ne; for 
 tliey too are frequently joined with the subjunctive alone. 
 VeEem equidem ant ipse (Epicurus) doctrinis fuisset instructior, 
 
 aut ne deterruisset alios a studiis, Cic. de Fin. L 7. 
 Malo te sapiens hostis metuat, quam stulti cives laudent, Liv. 
 
 xxii. 39. 
 Summa militum alacritate, juhentium quocunque vellet duceret, 
 
 oratio excepta est. Curt. vi. 10. (4.) 
 Itaque, quod plerumque in atroci negotio solet, senatus decrevit, 
 
 darent operam consules, ne quid respublica detrimenti caperet, 
 
 Sallust, Cat. 29. 
 
 [§ 625.] Note. Oportet and necesse est may likewise be followed either by 
 the accusative with the infinitive, or by the subjunctive alone ; e. g> leges 
 oportet breves sint; Seneca : philosophiae servias oportet^ ut tihi contingat vera 
 Ubertas ; Cicero : virtm necesse est vitium aspernetur atque oderit. Opus est 
 generally takes the infinitive ; ut^ however, occurs, though rarely, with ojjus 
 est as well as with necesse est, but never with oportet. 
 
 The subjunctive alone after the verbs of entreating is rare in Cicero, but it 
 occurs ad Fafn. v. 18. : tamen te magno opere non hortor solum, sed etiam pro 
 amore nostro rogo atque oro te coUiga^ virumqu^ praebeas. 
 
 [§ 626.] 16. The infinitive and the accusative with the infi- 
 nitive, according to §§ 588 and 597., serve to express a propo- 
 sition as a thought, so that it resembles an abstract noun. 
 Quod with a tense of the indicative or subjunctive, on the 
 other hand, represents a proposition simply as a fact. This is 
 obviously the case, e. g. when in replying to a person, we 
 take up and repeat a previous remark of his. It is fre- 
 quently indifferent whether we express a proposition bv the 
 
 F F 3 
 
438 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 accusative with the infinitive, or by quod, as, for example, in 
 those cases where the predicate " it is agreeable," or " dis- 
 agreeable," "it is pleasant" or "unpleasant," follows the pro- 
 position. But the infinitive is always more properly made the 
 subject, when the predicate expresses an abstract idea ; but 
 when it implies a fact, the proposition is more properly intro- 
 duced by quod, to which is frequently joined a demonstrative 
 pronoun hoc, id, illud, in order to mark its character as a fact 
 still more emphatically. 
 Quod autem me Agamemnonem aemulari putas, fallens. Namque 
 
 iUe vix decern annis unam ctpit urhem : ego contra ea, una urbe 
 
 nostra, dieque uno, totam Graeciam Lacedaemoniis fugatis 
 
 liber avi, Nep. Epam. 5., where Epaminondas makes this answer 
 
 to an opponent. 
 Inter causas malorum nostrorum est, quod vivimus ad exempla, 
 
 Seneca, Epist. 123. 
 Supra belli Latini metum id quoque accesserat, quod triginta jam 
 
 conjurasse populos satis constabat, Liv. ii. 18. 
 Ex tola laude Reguli illud est admiratione dignum, quod captivos 
 
 (Poenorum) retinendos censuit, Cic. de Off. iii. 31. 
 
 Note I. It is unquestionably a great nicety of the Latin language to be 
 able, by means of the accusative with the infinitive, to metamorphose, as it 
 were, a proposition into a single abstract thought, and at the same time to 
 express it in its natural relation by means of the conjunction quod. In 
 Eno"lish these two constructions likewise exist, as " I know him to be a good 
 man," and " I know that he is a good man ;" but the former is not used as 
 extensively as in Latin, and the distinction between them is not observed 
 with the same accuracy as in Latin : in Greek, too, the distinction is not 
 adhered to with the same accuracy. Let us explain the practice of the Latin 
 language by an example. Take the proposition victor pepe7'cit victis ; if we 
 make it the subject, or object of another proposition, we may say either 
 quod victor pepercit victis, or victorem pepercisse victis. The first is used 
 when the proposition is to be left in its natural relation ; e. g. quod victor 
 victis pepercit, magnum est, sed majus etiam, quod eos in numerum suorum 
 recepit, i. e, the fact that he spared them and, &c ; quod rex victis pepercit, 
 ipsi causa multorum malorum fuit. The infinitive, on the other hand, changes 
 the proposition into an abstract noun, victorem victis pepercisse ; and this 
 mode of speaking is generally adopted when the predicate also contains some 
 abstract notion ; e. g. regem victis pepercisse justum est, magnum est, or mag- 
 num videbatur ; and especially when, by the use of the infinitive present, the 
 sentence acquires the character of generality, and is no longer limited to a 
 particular case ; e. g. victorem victis parcere justum, magnum est, magnum 
 videtur, &c. See § 599. 
 
 It is clear that in a great many cases, and with many predicates, the 
 vhoice between the two constructions must be left to discretion. We find in 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 439 
 
 Cic. ad Att. xv. 1 . : Sed ad haec omnia una consolatio est, quod ea condicione 
 nati sumus, ut nihil, quod homini accidere possit, recusare deheamus, where, 
 with the same justice, the accusat. with the infinit. might have been used : 
 ea condicione nos esse natos. Cicero, ad Quint. Frat. ii. 13. says : Te hilari 
 animo esse valde me juvat; and Pliny, Epist. i. 13.: juvat me quod vigent 
 studia ; Liv. iii. 9. : Invidiosum vobis est, desertam rem puhlicam invadi ; Cic. in 
 Cat. ii. 7. : Timeo ne mihi sit invidiosum, quod ilium emiserim potius, quam quod 
 ejecerim. Compare the examples in the treatise of Fickenscher, Commentat. de 
 conjunctione quod, Norimberg. 1826. But the great difference pointed out 
 above must be observed, and we must add that quod generally refers to past 
 time ; for which reason it is preferable to say, e. g. gratissimum mihi est, 
 quod ad me tiui manu scripsisti, and gratissimum mihi est te bene valere. 
 Wherever a Roman thought it necessary to express the individual fact more 
 emphatically, he added to quod a demonstrative pronoun, which has no influ- 
 ence whatever upon the construction ; and hence (to take up again the 
 above sentence) we might say : illud ipsum, quod rex victis pepercit, cau^a ei 
 multorum malorum fuit; magnum est hoc, quod victor victis pepercit, &c. 
 Compare Cic. de Off. ii. 20. : Videndumque illud est, quod, si opulentum fortu- 
 natumqu£ defenderis, in uno illo manet gratia ; sin autem inopem, prohum tamen 
 et modestum, omnes non improhi humiles praesidium sihi paratum vident. 
 
 [§ 627.] Note 2. The use of quod in repeating a previous expression or pro- 
 position of a person for the purpose of answering it occurs most frequently 
 in letters ; and quod in this case may be rendered in English by " with regard 
 to," or " as regards ; " e. g. Cic. ad Fam. i. 7. : Quod mihi de nostra statu 
 gratularis, minime miramur te tuo opere laetari. Quod scrihis te velle scire, 
 qui sit rei puhlicae status : summa dissensio est. Quod mihi de filia et de Cras- 
 sipede (to whom she was betrothed) gratularis : agnosco humanitatem tuam. 
 Further, Cicero writes to Terentia : Quod scrihis, te, si velim, ad me ventu- 
 ram : ego vero te istic esse volo. Quod ad me, mea Terentia, scrihis, te vicum 
 vendituram : quid, ohsecro te, quid futurum est ? Such sentences, therefore^ 
 are not in any grammatical connection with the verb that follows after 
 them. 
 
 Nisi quod and praeterquam quod, except the fact that, or except that, are 
 of a different kind (see §. 735.) ; e.g. Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 1. : Cum Pah'one 
 Epicureo mihi omnia communia sunt : nisi quod in philosophia vehementer ah eo 
 dissentio ; but this, too, is simply an external addition of a proposition stating 
 a fact. 
 
 [§ 628.] 17. A purely objective proposition is expressed by 
 guod only when it depends upon the very general transitive 
 verbs adder e (mostly in the imperative adde or adjice, adde hue 
 quod) and facer e joined with an adverb, as hene fads quod me 
 mones. Otherwise the infinitive is employed exclusively in 
 propositions of this kind, for a proposition, when represented as 
 the object of a verb, is already converted into a single thought. 
 Fecit humaniter Licinius, quod ad me, misso senatu, vesperi venit, 
 
 Cic. ad Quint Frat ii. 1. 
 Hippocrates, clarus arte medicinae, videtur honestissime fecisse, 
 
 quod quosdam errores suos, ne posteri errarent, confessus est, 
 
 r r 4 
 
440 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Quintil. iii. 6. 64. (He might also have said ut — confiteretur, 
 
 according to § 619.) 
 
 [§ 629.] But it must be observed that after the verbs denoting 
 a feeling of pain or joy, and the outward expression of those 
 feelings, viz. gaudeo, delector, angor, doleo, graviter fero, suc- 
 censeo, poenitetf miror, admiror, glorior, gratulor, gratias agoy 
 queror, indignor, and others of a similar meaning, we may 
 either use quod in the sense of " because," or " of" or " at the 
 fact that," or the accusative with the^ infinitive, in the same way 
 that we say either ilia re gaudeo or illud gaudeo. Whether quod 
 is to be joined with the indicative or subjunctive, must be 
 determined by the general rules concerning these moods : the 
 indicative expresses a fact, and the subjunctive a conception, 
 Guadeo, quod te interpellavi, Cic. de Leg. iii. 1. 
 Meum factum prohari ahs te triumplio g audio, Caesar in Cic. ad 
 
 Att. ix. 16. 
 Quod spiratis, quod vocem mittitis, quod formas hominum habetiSf 
 
 indignantur, Liv. iv. 3. 
 Vetus illud Catonis admodum scitum est, qui mirari se ajehaty 
 
 quod non rideret haruspex, haruspicem cum, vidisset, Cic. de 
 
 Divin. ii. 24. 
 Scipio saepe querebatur, quod omnibus in rebus homines diligen- 
 
 tiores essent, ut, capras et oves quot quisque haheret, dicere 
 
 posset, amicos quot haberet, non posset dicere, et in illis quidem 
 
 parandis adhibere curam^ in amicis eligendis negligentes esse, 
 
 Cic. Lael 17. 
 
 Note. We should carefully mark the distinction between real objective 
 propositions of the accus. with the infinit. (§ 602.) and those in which the ac- 
 cusat. with the infinit. may be used along with the construction of quod. The 
 use of quod to express a purely objective proposition would be contrary to 
 the pure Latin idiom (the instances adduced from Cicero belong to § 626. ; 
 and those from Livy, iii. 52. 2., and xlv. 41., have been corrected), and is 
 found only in the earliest Latin (see Forcellini, Lexic. s. v. quod), and in 
 the unclassical author of the work de Bell. Hispan. 36. : Icgati renuntiarunt 
 quod Pompejum in potestate haberent. In the silver age, beginning with 
 Celsus, again, some few instances occur ; e. g. Celsus, i. 3. p. 25. or p. 30. ed. 
 Bip. : illvd quoque nosse (scire) oportet, quod, &c. ; Martial, xi. 65. : hoc scio 
 quod scrihit nulla puella tibi, where the pronoun forms the transition ; Sueton. 
 Tit. 8. : recordatu^ quondam super coenam, quod nihil cuiquam toto die prae- 
 stitisset. This use of qux)d afterwards increased, and through the Vulgate it 
 became with Christian writers the ordinary mode of speaking. See Madvig, 
 Opusc. Acad. ii. p. 232. foil. But after the verbs enumerated above both 
 constructions are, on the whole, equally in use, because they may be looked 
 at from two points of view : the dependent clause may be regarded either as 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 441 
 
 a kind of object (such as we frequently find with intransitive verbs), or as an 
 explanatory sentence answering to the ablative of a noun. We may indeed 
 notice this further difference that the verbs expressing a feeling (gaudeo^ doleo, 
 miror) are more commonly followed by the accusat. with the infinit., and those 
 denoting the outward expression of feeling (laudo^ reprehendo, accuso, consolor, 
 misereor, gi^atias ago, gratvlor, &c.) are more commonly construed with quod. 
 But there are passages in which this distinction is reversed ; e. g. gratias agere, 
 is joined by Cicero with quod, and by Tacitus with the accusat. with the infi- 
 nitive ; Hist. iv. 64. : Redisse vos in corpus nomenque Germaniae communibus 
 deis et praecipuo deorum Marti grates agirnus, vobisque gratulamur quod tandem 
 liberi inter liber os eritis. Gratulor when joined to a noun takes the prepo- 
 sition de or the ablative alone, as Cic. ad Fam. viii. 13. : gratidor tibi affini- 
 tote viri optimi; sometimes also the accusative, as Cic. ad Att. v. 20. : miJii 
 gratulatus es iUius diei celebritatem, qua nihil me unquam delectavit magis, or 
 with the addition of a participle, Cic. Philip, ii. 21. : Brutus Ciceroni recupe- 
 ratam victoriam est gratulatus; Liv. i. 28. : Mettus Tullo devictos hosfes gra- 
 tulatur; but when a proposition is dependent upon g-rafeZor, it most commonly 
 takes the conjunction quod (answering to the preposition de), but the accus. 
 with the infim't. is also used. 
 
 [§ 630.] 18. Quod is used exclusively in explanatory or pe- 
 riphrastic propositions, which refer to a preceding demonstrative 
 pronoun {hoc, id, illud, istud), unless this pronoun be added in 
 the nominative or accusative, as a pleonasm to verbs governing 
 the accusative with the infinitive. Hence this rule finds its 
 certain application only when the demonstrative pronoun is in 
 some other case, or dependent upon a preposition. 
 Mihi quidem videntur homines hac re maxime beluis praestare, 
 
 quod loqui possunt, Cic. de Invent, i. 4. 
 Socrates apud Platonem hoc Periclem ceteris praestitisse oratoribus 
 
 dicit, quod is Anaxagorae fuerit auditor, Cic. Orat. 5. 
 Trihunos (militum) omnes patricios creavit populus, contentus eo, 
 
 quod ratio plehejorum habita esset, Livy. 
 Quam te velim cautum esse in scribendo, ex hoc (or hinc^ conjicito, 
 
 quod ego ad te ne haec quidem scribo, quae palam in re publica 
 
 turbantur, ne cujusquam animum meae litterae interceptae of-' 
 
 fendant, Cic. ad Quint. Frat. iii. 9. 
 
 Note. The pleonastic use of the accusat. of demonstrative pronouns with 
 the verba seniiendi et declarandi, and with the verbs of effecting, asking, and 
 others, which require ut for the purpose of directing attention to what fol- 
 lows, must be carefully distinguished from this necessary use of those pronouns. 
 The pleonastic use of this pronoun, of which we shall speak in § 748., has no 
 influence whatever upon the construction. We remarked above that the 
 nominat. of the demonstrative pronoun is likewise used pleonastically, and 
 serves, in conjunction with quod following, to express more distinctly that 
 the proposition contains a real fact ; but we are here speaking of the oblique 
 cases, especially the ablative, both with and without a preposition. 
 
442 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAP. LXXXI. 
 
 USE OF THE PARTICIPLES. 
 
 [§631.] 1. The Participle expresses the action or condition of 
 the verb in the form of an adjective, governing the case of the 
 verb, and at the same time marking the complete or incomplete 
 state of the action or condition. In Latin, as in English, this 
 form of the verb is very defective, for it has, in the active, one 
 participle to express an action still going on, as scribens, writing ; 
 and, in the passive, one to express the completed state of suf- 
 fering, as scriptuSf written ; consequently, there is no participle 
 of a completed action (for which we say having written), nor 
 of a state of suffering still going on. The Greek language has 
 participles for all these cases. The Latin deponent is the only 
 kind of verb which has the participles complete, its passive form 
 having an active meaning : imitans, imitating, and imitatus, one 
 who has imitated. 
 
 To these, however, we must add two participles, one in the 
 active and the other in the passive, which express the action or 
 suffering as not yet begun, that is, as something which is to 
 take place in future, whence they are called participles of the 
 future. The participle future active properly expresses the in- 
 tention or obligation to perform an action, as scripturus, one 
 who intends or has to write, but has also the signification of 
 simple futurity, "one who is about to write." The_mrti- 
 ciple future passive expresses in the nominative theneces- 
 sity that "something shoilldr~bS^one or suffered, as eplstola 
 scrihenda, a letter which must be written, and not one that will 
 be written. In the other cases it serves to supply the very sen- 
 sible want of a participle present passive, expressing a state of 
 suffering going on. But of this hereafter, § 652. foil. 
 
 Note 1. The participle contains in itself no specification of time. When 
 we say written^ we suppose indeed the act of writing to have taken place at 
 some period of the past time; but the state expressed in written may exist in 
 
USE QF THE PARTICIPLES. 443 
 
 the present as well as in the past or future time. For we may say : a thing is 
 now written, was written three years ago, and will be written many years 
 hence : the participle written expressing in all these cases only the completion 
 of a passive state. 
 
 [§ 632.] Note 2. The want of the participle of 'a completed action in the 
 active is often felt very sensibly, for neither circumlocution nor the change 
 into the passive form (e. g. victoria partd^ after he had gained the victory) 
 always conveys exactly what is meant. But the perfect participles of depo- 
 nents are a very convenient means of supplying this want, as their number 
 is not small, and it is always easy to find some deponent which is syno- 
 nymous with an active; in the case just mentioned we may say victoriam 
 adeptus^ assecutus^ or consecutus. 
 
 On the other hand, the Latin writers use many perfect participles of depo- 
 nents in a passive sense, along with the proper active one ; but the following 
 only are attested by the authority of correct writers : adeptus^ comitatus, 
 commentatiis, complexus^ confessus, demensiis and emensus, effatus^ ementitus, 
 emeritus, expertus (especially inexpertus), execratus, interpretatus, meditatus, 
 metatus, moderatus, opinatus, pactus, partitus, perfunctus, periclitatus, popidattis, 
 depopidatus, stipulatus, testatus, and its compounds contestfitus and detestatus. 
 A pretty complete list of them is given in Joh. Conr. Schwarz, Grammat. Lot. 
 p. 382. foil. The perfect tenses of these deponents thus sometimes acquire a 
 passive signification, and some participles are also used in a passive sense in 
 the construction of the ablative absolute ; partitus is frequently used so by 
 Caesar : partitis copiis, Sell. Gall. vi. 6. : partito exercitu, ibid. vi. 33., and 
 Liv. xxviii. 19. ; partita classe, Liv. xxvii. 8. ; and depopvlato agro in Liv. 
 ix. 36. : adepta lihertate in Sallust, Cat. 7. But such things must be looked 
 upon as exceptions, though there may be less objection to such an expression 
 as adepta lihertate uti nescis. 
 
 [§ 633.] There are, however, some active verbs which have a participle 
 perfect with a passive form. (See § 148.) Such participles are : juratus, 
 pransus, coenatus (which however has also a passive meaning), potus ; ausus, 
 gavisus, solitus, Jism, conjisus ; further, exosus, perosus, and pertaesus, which 
 belong to odisse and the impersonal taedet. The participles assuetus and 
 desuetus have a reflective meaning besides the passive one, and signify one 
 who has accustomed or disaccustomed himself. 
 
 [§ 634.] Note 3. The periphrasis of habere with a participle perfect passive, 
 which in English forms the perfect active, occurs also in Latin, but almost 
 exclusively in those expressions which denote knowing and determining. 
 Hence we say : cognitum, perspectum, perceptum, comprehensum, exploratum, 
 statutum, constitutum, deliberatum, persuasum mihi habeo, equivalent to cognovi, 
 perspexi, percepiy &c. ; e. g. hoc cognitum habeo comprehensumque animo ; qui 
 homines amicitiam nee usu nee ratione habent cognitam ; omnes habeo cognitos 
 sensus adolescentis. Persuasum mihi habeo, and persuasissimum habeo can only 
 be used in the neuter gender, and with an accusative with the infinitive, in 
 the sense of mihi persuxisi or persuasum mihi est. In other cases, where this 
 periplirasis occurs, it differs in meaning from the ordinary perfect active ; 
 inchoatum and institutum habeo opus express more than inchoavi, institui, and 
 absolutum habeo is more than absolvi. Quint. Cic. in Cic. ad Fam. iii. in fin. : 
 quod me hortaris ut absolvam : habeo absohdum suxive epos ad Caesarem, i. e. I 
 have it ready ; in Verr. iii. 14. : ut decumas ad aquas deportatas haberent. It 
 has a strengthening power in Cic. in Ridl. ii. 6. : non enim naturd bellum nescio 
 quod habet susceptum consulatus cum tribunatu; in Verr. v. in fin. : Verres de- 
 
414 LATIN GRAMMAI?. ' 
 
 orum templis et religionibus helium semper hahuit indictum ; ibid. ii. 32. : Jidem 
 et religionem tuam jam alteri addictam pecunid acceptd habuisti ; ad Att. xvi. 
 16. : quod sifeceris^ me maxima henejicio devinctum habebis, which is stronger 
 than devinxeris ; but ad Att. vi. 2. : Senatum inclusum in curia habuerunt, must 
 be understood in its literal sense : they kept the senate imprisoned, i. e. in- 
 clusum tenuerunt, an expression which frequently occurs. 
 
 [§ 635.] 2* Participles are employed in Latin more frequently 
 than in English, not only to express the verb in explanatory 
 clauses, connected, by means of a relative pronoun, with a noun 
 of the leading sentence ; but clauses which are introduced by 
 means of particles of time (e. g. as, when, although, since), may 
 be expressed by participles, provided their subject occurs in the 
 leading sentence. 
 Est enim lex nihil aliud, nisi recta et a numine deorum tracta ratiOf 
 
 imperans honesta, prohibens contraria, Cic. Philip, xi. 12. 
 Curio, ad focum sedenti, magnum auri pondus Samnites quum 
 
 attulissent, repudiati ah eo sunt, Cic. Cat. Maj. 
 Dionysius tyrannus, Syracusis expulsus, Corinthi pueros docehat, 
 
 Cic. Tusc. iii. 12. 
 Dionysius, cultros metuens tonsorios, candenti carhone sibi adure^ 
 
 bat capillum, Cic. de Off. ii. 7. 
 Risus interdum ita repente erumpit, ut eum cupientes tenere 
 
 nequeamus, Cic. de Or at. ii. 58, 
 
 Note 1. It must be observed, as one of the most frequent occurrences, 
 that clauses denoting time are connected, by means of a participle, with a 
 noun of the leading proposition, e. g. regem forte inamhulantem homo adiit, 
 i. e. while he was taking a walk ; domum reversus litteras tuas inveni, when I 
 returned home. One of two verbs connected in English by " and " may be 
 expressed by the present participle, in Latin, when the actions expressed by 
 them are to be regarded as simultaneous, e. g. he came to me and cried out 
 (or crying out), venit ad me clamitans. The perfect participle both of passive 
 and deponent verbs, however, must be used, whenever one of the actions pre- 
 cedes the other, although in English they are sometimes connected by " and," 
 and described as simultaneous, e. g. Caesar hostes aggressus fugavit, Caesar 
 attacked the enemy and defeated theui ; Caesar hostes in fugam conjectos 
 persecidus est., Caesar put the enemy to flight and pursued them. Examples 
 of this kind occur in great numbers. Sentences which we connect by " al- 
 though " must be more especially attended to, as the Latin language here 
 differs more widely from ours, e. g. in the last passage above quoted (Cic. 
 de Orat. ii. 58.), and in other passages of Cicero, as Misericordia occurrere 
 solet supplicibus et ralamitosis, nullius oratione evocata. Such a participle is 
 often followed by tamen; e. g. Cicero; Scripta tuajam diii expectans non audeo 
 tamen Jlagitare ; quis hoc non intelligit, istum absolutum tamen e manibus populi 
 Romani et^ipi nullo modo posse ? Later writers join the particles quamquam^ 
 quamvis^ etiam and vel with the participle itself e.g. Sueton. : Caesarem mi- 
 
USE OF THE PARTICIPLES. 445 
 
 lites quamvis recusantem vitro in Africam sunt secuti. Conditional clauses also, 
 implying an unreal hypothesis, which should be expressed by the subjunc- 
 tive, are not unfrequently put in the participle. But, on the other hand, it 
 must be observed, that a general protasis describing an object only as con- 
 ceived to be endowed with certain qualities ; e. g. he who does or thinks this, 
 are generally not expressed by a participle, but as in English by is qui^ or 
 with the omission of is^ by qui alone, or by si quis^ since a participle cannot 
 appear in the independent character of a substantive any more than an adjec- 
 tive. (See § 363.) It is only in later Latin that participles are used more fre- 
 quently in this sense, e, g. adstajttes, audientes^ instead of ii qui adstabant^ 
 audiehant. (Comp. § 714.) 
 
 [§ 636.] Note 2. A participle is used with the verbs denoting " to repre- 
 sent " and " perceive," especially with those denoting " to see " or " hear," 
 when a thing is described or perceived in a particular state, as in Pliny : 
 Apelles pinxit Alexandrum Magnum fidmen tenentem. In English we fre- 
 quently join the infinitive with such verbs ; e.g. audivi te canentem, 1 heard 
 you sing ; vidi te ambulayitem, I saw you take a walk ; but audivi te canere, in 
 Latin either means : " I heard (from somebody) that you sang," or I heard 
 that you sang a song (e.g. carmen Catulli, Trojae excidium), so that the 
 object of my perception was not the person in the act of singing, but the 
 action of the person. Audivi te quum caneres (see § 749.) would refer to a 
 portion of his song. 
 
 Timoleon, quum aetate jam provectus esset, lumina oculorum 
 amisit, quam calamitatem ita moderate tulit, ut neque €um 
 querentem quisquam audierit, neque eo minus privatis puhli- 
 cisque rebus interfuerit, Nep. TimoL 4. 
 
 [§ 637.] 3. Substantives expressing the action of the verb ; 
 e. g. the building, instituting, writing, hearing, are expressed by 
 the participles perfect and future passive, the Latin language 
 not always having substantives of this kind (at least they are 
 not in common use). There is of course this difference, that 
 the perfect participle is employed when the action is to be repre- 
 sented' as completed, and the future participle, when it is con- 
 ceived as still incomplete. (The participle future passive, 
 however, only in its oblique cases, as the nominative has the 
 signification of necessity, see § 649.) This is done in all the 
 cases of such participles, and even when they are governed by 
 the prepositions ad, ante, ob, post, propter, ab, and ex ; e. g. Liv. 
 xxvii. 29. : hae litter ae recitatae magnum luctum fecerunt, the 
 reading of this letter ; Tacit. Anii. i. 8. : Occisus Caesar aliis 
 pessimum, aliis pulcherrimum facinus videbatur, the murder of 
 Caesar, &c. ; Tarentum captum, the taking of Tarentum ; re~ 
 ceptus Hannibal, the reception of Hannibal ; ob receptum Han- 
 nibalem, on account of the reception of Hannibal ; Curt. iv. 58. : 
 
446 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 sibi quisque caesi regis expetebat decus^ the glory of having killed, 
 
 or of killing the king (for both expressions are here equivalent). 
 
 It must, however, be observed, that the nominative is not 
 
 thus used by Cicero, but is peculiar to the silver age of the 
 
 language. 
 
 P. Scipio propter Africam domitam Africanus appellatus est, 
 
 Eutrop. iv. 4. 
 Thebae et ante Epaminondam natum et post ejus interitum per- 
 
 petuo alieno paruerunt imperio, Nep. Epam. 10. (So also 
 
 post Christum natum, ab urbe condita, &c.) 
 
 Note 1. It deserves to be especially noticed, that Livy uses the neuter of 
 the participle perfect passive, without a noun, as a verbal subject of a. pro- 
 position ; e. g. vii. 22. : Tentatum domi per dictatorem^ ut amho patricii con- 
 sides crearentur, rem ad interregnum perduxit ; i. e. the attempt, or properly, 
 the fact of the attempt being made by the dictator ; xxviii. 26. : Hand 
 procul ab urbe aberant, quum ex obviis auditum, postero die omnem exercitum 
 prqficisci, omni metu eos liberavit, the news freed them from all fear. Comp. 
 i. 53. init. ; iv. 16. ; iv. 59. ; and in many other passages. With this we 
 must compare the use of the neuter of the same participle in the ablative. 
 See § 647. 
 
 [§ 638.] Note 2. The English " without " with a verbal substantive is not 
 expressed in Latin by sine, but a negative particle is used instead ; e. g. 
 Caesar exercitum nunquam per insidiosa itinera duxit, nisi perspeculatus loco- 
 rum situs, without having examined the localities ; — especially with the 
 ablative absolute ; as : Athenienses non expectato auxilio adversus ingentem 
 Persarum exercitum in proelium egrediuntur, without expecting assistance ; 
 7iatura dedit usuram vitae, tamquxim pecuniae, nulla praestituta die, without 
 fixing any time ; nulla valetudinis Jiabita ratione celeriter profectus sum, with- 
 out paying any regard to my health ; Virgilii Aeneidem noli legere, nisi lectis 
 Homeri carminibus, without having read the Homeric poems. 
 
 [§ 639.] 4. The participle future active is used especially 
 with verbs of motion (such as go, send, &c.) to express a pur- 
 pose, which we indicate in English by the particle " to ; " the 
 conjunction ut, or a relative pronoun with the subjunctive, 
 however, is very commonly used in Latin instead of the 
 participle. 
 Hannibal in Etruriam ducit, earn quoque gentem aut vi. aut volun- 
 
 tate adjuncturus, Liv. xxi. 58. 
 
 Note. This participle is also used to supply the place of the conjunctions 
 "since," "when," "although" (§ 635.) ; e.g. plura locuturos abire nosjussit; 
 i.e. when or although we intended to say more; Sueton. Tib. 18. : Tiberius 
 trajecturus Rhenum commeatum omnem non ante transmisit, quam, &c., when 
 he wanted to cross ; Tacit. Germ. 3. : Herculem Germani, ituri in proelium, 
 canunt, yf\\QXi they intend to go to battle ; Phaedr. iii. 2. : Alii onerant saxis. 
 
USE OF THE PARTICIPLES. 447 
 
 quidam contra miseriti picturae quippe, quamvis nemo laederet, misere panem, 
 since the animal was to die after all. (Notice here the addition of quippey 
 and utpote in this sense.) Hence this participle is also used as apodosis to 
 express the inference from an hypothetical proposition : Liv. iii. 30. : egre- 
 ditur castris RomanuSy vallum invasurus, ni copia pugnae Jieret ; Tacit. Ann. i. 
 36. : avgebat metum gnarus Romanae seditionis et, si omitteretur ripa^ invasurus 
 hostis; and with the repetition of the preceding verb, Plin. Epist. iii. 13. : 
 librum misi exigenti tibi; missurus^ etsi non exegisses; iii. 21.: dedit mihi 
 quantum maxime potuit, daturas amplius^ si potuisset ; i. e. ac dedisset ampliu^. 
 Comp. Nep. Them. 2. : aliter illos nunquam in patriam recepturi, for aliter 
 here is equivalent to nisi id fecissent. But it must be observed, that this 
 concise mode of using the participle future active is foreign to the language 
 of Cicero : it belongs to the silver age, in which, however, the language was 
 still in its progress of development. 
 
 It must further be remarked that the genitive plural of this participle, 
 with the exception of futurorum and futurarum, is of extremely rare occur- 
 rence, probably on account of its unpleasant sound. The only instances that 
 are known are venturorum^ Ovid, Met. xv. 835. ; exiturarum and transi- 
 turarum, Senec. Epist. 98. and 95. ; periturorum, 3enec. de Tranquil, xiv. 4., 
 and Petron. 123. ; moriturorum in St. Augustin. 
 
 [§ 640.] 5. In the cases hitherto considered the participle 
 supplies the place of an inserted clause, the subject of which 
 is a noun contained in the leading proposition. If, however, a 
 new subject is introduced, it is put with the participle in the 
 ablative, independent of the leading proposition. [Ahlativus ah- 
 solutus or consequentiae^ A similar construction is sometimes 
 used in English, as " he could not live in his own country any- 
 longer, his influence being too great for the republic ; " but it 
 is more common to express such sentences by the conjunctions 
 " as," " when," or by a verbal substantive with a preposition, 
 e. g. Cyro regnante, in the reign of Cyrus ; Cyro mortuo or 
 occiso, after the death or fall of Cyrus, or after Cyrus had been 
 killed. In the passive construction, a special reference to the 
 subject of the leading sentence is generally not needed, but is 
 understood, e. g. his dictis ahiit, or his ille dictis ahiit, and not 
 his ah eo dictis ahiit See § 766. 
 Pythagoras quum Tarquinio Superho regnante in Italiam ve- 
 
 nisset^ magnam^illam Graeciam quum honore disciplinae, turn 
 
 etiam auctoritate tenuit, Cic. Tusc, i. 16. 
 L, Valerii virtute, regihus exterminatis, lihertas in re puhlica 
 
 constituta est, Cic. jt?. L, Place, 11. 
 
 [§ 641.] Note. Beginners must be particularly attentive to the various 
 modes in which we render the Latin ablative absolute ; e. g. te adjuvante^ 
 with thy assistance ; non — nisi te adjuvante^ only with thy assistance ; te non 
 
448 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 adjuvante, without thy assistance. (See § 638.) They must also be cau- 
 tioned not to put together two participles in the ablative, one of which, 
 stands in apposition to the other : e. g. it is correct to say : quum Cn. Pom- 
 pejus Strabo, de coelo tactus, mortuus esset; but if mo7'tuiis esset is changed 
 into a participle, we cannot say : Pompejo de coelo tacto mortuo. Again, we 
 may say : Porcia saepe maritum cogitantem invenerat, but not marito cogi^ 
 tante invento. (Comp. § 394. note 2.) 
 
 The ablative absolute is rarely used, when its subject is contained in the 
 leading proposition, still instances sometimes do occur, as Cic. Philip, xi. 
 10. : nemo erit qui credat^ te invito^ provinciam tihi esse decretam, instead of 
 tibi invito ; ad Att. x. 4. : me libente, eripies mihi hunc errorem ; Liv. xxxviii. 
 54. : M. Porcius Cato, vivo quoque Scipione, allatrare ejus magnitudinem 
 solitus erat. 
 
 [§ 642.] 6. An ablative absolute may also be used instead of 
 the other particles " when," " since," " while," " although," 
 which were mentioned in § 635. And the writers after Cicero 
 even retain the conjunctions quamquam and quamvis with the 
 ablat. absolute. 
 
 Reluctante natura, irritus labor est, Senec. de Tranquil. 6. 
 Eclipses non uhique cernuntur, aliquando propter nubila, saepius 
 
 gloho terrae obstante, Plin. Hist. Nat. ii. 13. 
 Hand scio an, pietate adversus deos sublata, fides etiam et societas 
 
 generis humani et una excellentissima virtus justitia tollatur^ 
 
 Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 2. 
 Mucius solus in castra Porsenae venit, eumque inter jicere, pro- 
 
 posita sibi morte, conatus est, Cic. p. Sext. 21. 
 
 [§ GiS-l Note. The ablative absolute with the participles future active 
 and passive occurs less frequently, especially with the latter, though it is 
 attested by sufficient authority : Plin. Hist. Nat. xi. 16. : rex apum 7iisi 
 migraturo agmine foras non procedit; Tacit. Hist. ii. 32. : quoniam (Vitelliani) 
 deserere Rheni ripam, irrupturis tam infestis nationibus, non audeant ; Liv. 
 xxxvi. 41. : Antiochus securus admodum de bello Romano erat., tamquam non 
 transituris in Asiam Romanis ; Curt. iv. 15. : Tyrii aurea catena devinxere 
 simulacrum (ApolL'nis), araeque Herculis, cujus numini wbem dicaverajit, 
 inseruere vinculum., quasi illo deo Apollinem retenturo; v. 28. : cetei^m pro- 
 palam compreliendi Dareus non poterat., tot Persarum milibus laturis opem ; 
 Cic. ad Att. iv. 1. : quum contio plausum, meo nomine recitando., dedisset, when 
 my name was pronounced (respecting this meaning of the part. fut. pass, in 
 its oblique cases we shall speak hereafter) ; Orat. 22. : quum immolanda 
 IpMgenia tristis Calchas esset., maestior Ulixes, maereret Menelaus^ ko,. ; in 
 Cat. ill. 6. : tardissime autem Lentulus venit., credo quod litteris dandis praeter 
 consuetudinem proxima node vigilarat; de Off. I. 5. : quis est enim, qui, nullis 
 officii praeceptis tradendis., pJiilosophum se audeat dicere f Comp. Cic. p. MurcK. 
 8. init., which is correctly explained by Ernesti, and Wunder on Cic. 
 p. Plane. 6. § 15. It ocQurs also in Livy, v. 43. : quum diis hominihusque 
 accusandis senesceret ; xxi. 2. : ita se Africo bello, ita in Hi^pania, augendo 
 Punico imperio, gessit; xxxiii. 3. : exercendo cotidie milite hostem opperiebatur. 
 
USE OF THE PARTICIPLES. 449 
 
 » 
 
 [§ 644.] 7. Instead of a participle certain substantives also 
 may be used, which express the action of a verb, as dux, comes, 
 adjutor and adjutrix, auctor, testis, judex, interpres, magister, 
 pr acceptor, and magistra, praeceptrix ; e. g. duce natura in the 
 sense of ducente natura, under the guidance of nature; comite 
 fortuna, i. e. comitante fortuna ; judice Polybio, according to the 
 judgment of Polybius. So also official titles, as consul, 
 praetor, imperator, rex, generally only to denote time, as Cice^ 
 rone consule, in the consulship of Cicero. 
 Magis auctorihus (on the advice of the Magi) Xerxes inflam- 
 
 masse templa Graeciae dicitur, Cic. de Leg. ii. 10. 
 Sapientia enim est una, quae mdestitiam pellat ex animis, quae 
 
 nos exhorrescere metu non sinat : qua praeceptrice in tranquil" 
 
 litate vivi potest, omni cupiditatum ardore restincto, Cic. de 
 
 Fin. i. 13. 
 O quam facile erat orbis imperium occupare, aut mihi, Romanis 
 
 militihus, aut, me rege, Romanis! Flor. i. 18. 
 
 £§ 645.] As the Latins have no participle of esse in current 
 use, an adjective alone must sometimes supply the place of a 
 participle ; e. g. dee propitio, when God is gracious ; invita Mi" 
 nerva, serene coelo, aspera hieme, me ignaro, illis consciis, 
 Romani, Hannihale vivo, nunquam se sine insidiis futures arbi- 
 
 trabantur, Nep. Hanh. 12. 
 Obvius Jit Miloni Clodius expeditus, nulla rhedd, nullis impedi- 
 
 mentis, nullis Graecis cemitibus, Cic. p. Milon. 10. 
 
 [§ 646.] Note. Owing to the want of a participle of esse, an adjective is 
 used alone in descriptions of the weather, the substantive being- understood ; 
 thus we frequently find sereno, scil. coelo, the heaven being bright; tranquiUo, 
 scil. mari, the sea being tranquil ; Plin. Hist. Nat. xi. 28. : iidem sereno texunt, 
 nuhilo texunt. Substantives when used thus absolutely must be considered 
 as ablatives of time, as comitiis, ludis, ci7'censibus ; but it is surprising to find, 
 e. g. Sueton. Caes. 11. : qui proscriptione pecunias ex aerario acceperant, where 
 we have to supply durante, during the proscription ; Tacit. Ann. iii. 28. • 
 dedit jura, quis pace et Principe uteremur; i. e. under a Princeps, or there 
 being a Princeps ; xvi. 1 . : mvltis palam et pluribus occultis, many being 
 present openly and still more secretly. Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish 
 such an ablative absolute from an ablativus modi, as in Liv. xxxiv. 47. : 
 aequis viribus, pari spe pugnatum est, where we prefer regarding the ablat..as 
 ablativi modi; but in Cic. Acad. ii. 21.; Siquis ex hoc loco prqfici.scatur 
 Puteolos, stadia triginta, probo navigio, bono guhernatore, hac tranquillifate, 
 probabile videatur se illuc venturum esse salvum, we regard them as real 
 ablatives absolute. Comp. § 472. 
 
 [§ 647.] 8. The simple ablative of the participle perfect 
 
 G G 
 
450 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 passive sometimes supplies the place of the whole construction of 
 the ablative absolute, the proposition following being considered 
 as a noun of the neuter gender, and as the subject of the par- 
 ticiple, e. g. Hannibal, cognito insidias sibi parari, fuga salutem 
 quaesivitf equivalent to cognitis insidiis sibi paratis. This use 
 however is confined to a few participles, as audita, cognito, com- 
 perto (in a passive sense), explorato, desperato, nuntiato, edicto. 
 Alexander, audito Dareum appropinquare cum exercitu, obviam 
 
 ire constituit. Curt. v. 35. (13.) 
 Excepto quod non simul esses, cetera laetus, Herat. Ep, 
 
 [§ 648.] Note. The place of such an ablative is sometimes supplied by an 
 adjective, as Liv. xxviii. 35. : multi adnantes navibus, incerto prae tenehris 
 quid peter ent aut vitarent, foede interierunt; i. e. quum incertum esset, which 
 would be much more in accordance with the ordinary practice ; Tacit. Ann. 
 i. 6. : juxta periculoso, jicta seu vera promeret; iii. 60. : ipsorumque numinum 
 religiones introspexit^ libera, ut quondam., quid firmaret mutaretve. Sometimes, 
 though very rarely, a participle is found in the ablative absolute so inde- . 
 pendently, that the proposition following cannot even be conceived as its 
 subject, as in Liv. xxii. 55. : quum, nondum palam facto, vivi mortuique pro- 
 miscue complorarentur ; Tacit. Ann. xi. 10. : in cujms amnis transgressu multum 
 certato, pervicit Bardanes; and Terent. Hecyr. v. 1. 10. : Nam jam aetate ea 
 sum, ut non siet, peccato, mi ignosci aequum; i. e. si peccatum fuerit. In a 
 similar passage in Cicero, de Leg. Agr. ii. 2. in fin., we must read according 
 to the majority of MSS. cujus errato, instead of cut, errato. Some of these 
 ablatives absolute, as auspicato, have by long usage become adverbs, see 
 §266. 
 
 [§ 649.] 9. The participle future passive has in the nomina- 
 tive (and in the construction of the accusative with the infini- 
 tive, in the accusative also) the signification of necessity, and 
 less frequently that of possibility : laudandus, one who must be 
 praised, or ought to be praised. The person by whom a thing 
 must be done is expressed with this participle by the dative, 
 and not by the preposition ab. 
 
 The neuter of this participle, joined with a tense of esse, re- 
 tains the signification of necessity, as audendum est, moriendum 
 est, omnibus hominibus moriendum est, we must venture, we must 
 die, &c. An accusative of the object, if the verb is transitive, 
 is joined with this neuter only in the early and unclassical writers, 
 as Plautus, Lucretius, and Varro, and sometimes also by the 
 poets who are fond of ancient expressions (as Silius Ital, viii. 
 36. ; xi. 562. and xv. 105., on which passages see the notes 
 of Drakenborch). Such an accusative is generally changed 
 into the nominative, and the participle is made to agree with 
 it in gender and number ; e. g. virtus laudanda est, virtue must 
 
USE OF THE PARTICIPLES. 451 
 
 be praised, or we must praise virtue; omnes captivi occidendi 
 sunt, all the prisoners must be put to death, or we must put to 
 death, &c. ; haec via tihi ineunda {ingrediendd) est, you must take 
 this road, or this road must be taken by you. 
 
 Hence it is better to say : quoniam aeternae poenae in morte 
 timendae sunt, than aeternas quoniam poenas in morte timendum 
 est, as we read in Lucretius, i. 112. The only passages in 
 which Cicero joins an accusative of the object with such a 
 participle, are the following : Cat. Maj, 2. : Volumus sane, nisi 
 molestum est, Cato, tamquam longam aliquam mam confeceris, 
 quam nobis quoque ingrediendum sit, istuc, quo pervenisti, videre 
 quale sit; and ¥ragm. p. Scaur. 13.: Obliviscendum nohi^ putatis 
 matrum in liheros, virorum in uxores scelera 9 Comp. Quintil. iv. 
 5. 17. : Quod tamen nemo sic accipiet, ut omnia credat audendum. 
 Quum suo cuique judicio sit utendum, difficile factu est, me id 
 
 sentire semper, quod tu velis, Cic. de Nat. Deor. iii. 1. 
 Diligentia in omnibus rebus plurimum valet: haec praecipue co^ 
 
 lenda est nobis, haec semper adhibenda, Cic. de Or at. ii. 35. 
 
 •[§ 650.] Note 1. The participle in dus never has the signification of possi' 
 hility in classical prose, for although we frequently read in Cicero's work de 
 Officiis inteUigendum est in the sense of intelligitur or facile potest intelligi, 
 still it implies at the same time that it is proper or becoming to see or under- 
 stand. In like manner a kind of moral obligation is expressed, in Verr. iv. 
 59. : hi qui hospites ad ea quae visenda sunt ducere solent, the things to be 
 seen, the curiosities of towns ; and iv. 60. : longum est commemorare^ quae 
 apud quosque visenda sunt tota Asia et Graecia. A similar obligation is 
 expressed in the following passages, Cic. de Off. i. 31. : si Circe et Calypso 
 mulieres appellandae sunt; de Fin. iii. 2. : qunsi heluari libris, si hoc verho in 
 tarn praeclara re utendum est; Tusc. i. 1. : jam ilia, quae natura, non litteris 
 assecuii sunt (Romani), neque cum Graecia, neque ulla cum gente sunt confe- 
 renda; i. e. conferri dehent. In classical prose it signified possibility only 
 when joined with the particle vix (compare Bremi on Nep. Att. 18.) : e. g. 
 Cic. de Orat. i. 21. : vix optandum nobis videbatur; Caes. Bell. Gall. v. 28. : 
 vix erat credendum, equivalent to vix credi poterat. Writers of the subsequent 
 period use it in this sense with negative particles, and this use was extended 
 by still later writers who employ the participle fiit. pass, in the sense of pos- 
 sibility as well as in that of necessity. 
 
 [§ 651.] Note 2. Ab with the ablative is sometimes found in Cicero with 
 the participle future pass, instead of the dative. In some cases h'e adopts 
 this construction for particular reasons, as p. Leg. Man. 2. : aguntur bona 
 multorum civium, quibus est a vobis et ipsorum et rei publicae causa consu' 
 lendum, for the two datives quibus vobis might for a moment prevent our 
 understanding the passage, p. Muren. 26. § 54. ; and p. Plane. 3. § 8., on 
 account of the parallel ab which precedes, and p. Milon. in fin. : fortem et a 
 vobis conservandum virum, since the dative vobis might be taken as a dativus 
 commodi (comp. also jo. Sext. 18. §41.). Sometimes however ab is used 
 
 G G 2 
 
452 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 without any special reason, as ad Fam. xiii. 16. : eos a se ohservandos e( 
 colendos putabat; ad Ait x. 4. : patris lenitas amanda potius ah illo quam tarn 
 crvdeliter negligenda; p. Rah. 2. : sic enim existimare dehetis, rem nullam 
 nuijorem, magis periculosam, magis ah omnibus vohis providendam^ ad populum 
 jRomanum esse delatam; in Bull. ii. 35. : non eos in deorum, immx)rtalium 
 numero venerandos a vohis et colendos putatis? p. Leg. Man. 12. : atque haec a 
 me in dicendo praetereunda non sunt. Hence we are inclined to think that no 
 alteration is needed in the passage of the same oration : ne forte a vohis, 
 quae diligentissime providenda sunt^ contemnenda esse videantur. But these are 
 all the passages of Cicero, and their number is very small in comparison with 
 the very numerous instances in which the rule is observed. We mention 
 this to prevent beginners from believing that these exceptions are frequent, 
 because three happen to occur in one oration. 
 
 [§ 652.] 10. In the remaining cases this participle has like- 
 wise occasionally the signification of necessity (e. g. Cic. Philip, 
 iii. 4. : a L. Bruto, principe hujus maxime conservandi generis et 
 nominis) ; but it much more frequently supplies the place of the 
 participle present passive, that is, it has the meaning of a con- 
 tinued passive state ; e. g. occupatus sum in litteris scrihendis, in 
 letters which are being written ; peritus rei puhlicae regendae, A 
 reference to future time also may be implied, but this arises from 
 the connection, and not from the participle itself; e. g. consilium 
 lihertatis recuperandae ; missus erat ad naves comparandas. For 
 the rest see the chapter on the gerund. 
 
 [§ 653.] Note. With the verbs dare and tradere, mittere^ concedere, and 
 permittere^ accipere and suscipere, locare and conducere, and others of a similar 
 meaning, the purpose for which anything is given, sent, &c., is expressed 
 passively by the future participle : e. g. rex Harpago Cyrum infantem occi- 
 dendum tradidit^ to be killed ; Cicero : Clodius uherrimas provincias vexandas 
 diripiendasque consuUhtLS permisit; demus nos philosophiae excolendos; Lentulus 
 attrihuit nos trucidandos Cethego, ceteros elves interjiciendos Gabinio^ urhem 
 infiamnmndam Cassio, totam Italiam vastandam diripiendamque Catilinae ; 
 quattuor columnas locavit dealhandas, ceteras aedificandas ; conduxerat columnas 
 faciendas ; Horace : Tiaec porcis comedenda relinques. But the same may be 
 expressed actively by means of ad with the gerund ; e. g. Scaevola nemini se 
 ad docendum dabat; Caesar oppidum ad diripiendum militihus concessit; 
 auctores nobis propositi sunt ad imitandum. (The poets use the infinitive 
 active, as Horat. Carm. i. 26. : Tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare 
 Caspium portare ventis ; in prose it is a rare exception, and occurs only in 
 the phrase hibere dare in Cic. Tusc. i. 26. or ministrare, in Terent. Andr. 
 iii. 2. 4.) The construction of curare with the same participle also 
 deserves to be noticed; e.g. Conon muros dirutos a Lysandro reficiendos 
 curavit, he ordered them to be restored, or had them restored ; Fabriciu^ 
 perfugam reducendum curavit ad Pyrrhum, he ordered him to be taken back ; 
 funus ei satis amplum faciendum curavi, I had him honourably buried. In 
 the silver age we also find the expression haheo faciendum^ I have to do, or 
 must do ; e. g. Plin. Hist. Nat. Praef. : huic epistolae subjunxi, quid singulis 
 contineatur lihris, ne pcrlegendos eos habei^es ; Tacit. Ann. xiv. 44. : si nunc 
 
 
USE OF THE GERUND. 453 
 
 primvm statuendum Jiaberemus. Hdbeo facere^ I can do, occurs in Cicero. 
 See § 562. 
 
 [§ 654.] 11. This participle should properly be formed only 
 from active transitive verbs, but it is formed also from de- 
 ponents which have a transitive meaning ; e. g. in imitando hoc 
 scriptore, i. e. if this writer is imitated. Of intransitive verbs, 
 horwever, only the neuter of this participle is used with est, erat, 
 &c. ; e. g. quiescendum est, dormiendum, eundum est. 
 
 CHAP. LXXXIL 
 
 USE OF THE GERUND. 
 
 [§ 655.] 1. The Gerund is in form nothing else than the four 
 oblique cases of the neuter of the participle future passive. It 
 governs the case of its verb, and with regard to its signification 
 it supplies the place of a declinable infinitive present active, 
 and is a verbal substantive, just as in English the present par- 
 ticiple is used as a verbal substantive. Thus we find the dative 
 in ' Quintilian, xi. 2. 35. : illud ediscendo scribendoque commune 
 est, this is common to learning by heart and writing ; the ab- 
 lative in Cicero, Tusc.iii. 7.: discrepat a timendo conjidere ; 
 Lael, 27. : amicitia dicta est ah amando. Examples of the ge- 
 nitive are given above, § 425. The accusative presents a dif- 
 ference from the infinitive ; for the latter, which is also used as 
 an accusative (§ 597.), has the power of an abstract noun, whereas 
 the gerund expresses a real action ; e. g. Senec. de Benef, v. 10. : 
 multum interest inter dare et accipere ; but on the other hand, 
 Cic. de Fin. iii. 20. : Non solum ad discendum propensi sumus, 
 sed etiam ad docendum. 
 
 [§ 656.] 2. The relation of the gerund to the real participle 
 future passive is this: as the gerund has an active meaning, 
 e. g. consilium scrihendi, the design of writing or to write, it may 
 have an accusative as its object, as consilium scribendi epistolam, 
 and this construction may, without any change of meaning, be 
 changed into the passive : consilium scribendae epistolae, the design 
 of a letter to be written, or, that a letter should be written. 
 The accusative is thus always changed into the case in which 
 
 G G 3 
 
454 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 the gerund stood. This change into the passive may take place 
 wherever no ambiguity is likely to arise, i. e. v/herever the 
 gender is distinguishable; hence it generally does not take 
 place, when the accusative dependent upon the gerund is the 
 neuter of a pronoun or adjective ; e. g. studium illud efficiendi, 
 cupido plura cognoscendi, not illius efficiendi, or plurium cognos- 
 cendorum, because it would be impossible to see whether the 
 genitives illius and plurium are masculine or neuter. Hence it 
 is better to say lex appellata est a suum cuique tribuendo, than a 
 siio cuique tribuendo. But independently of this reason, the change 
 of the active construction into the passive with the participle 
 future (which modern grammarians call gerundivum to dis- 
 tinguish it from the gerund), is less frequent iii some writers, 
 Livy and Curtius for example, than in others. 
 
 [§ 657.] Note 1. The passive construction is also found with utor^ fruor, 
 fungor^ and potior^ because these verbs were originally joined with an accu- 
 sative, and sometimes are still so used in our writers. (See § 465.) Hence 
 we read in Cicero, de Fin. i. 3, : sapientia non paranda nobis solum, sed etiam 
 fruenda est ; de Off. ii. 12. : justitiae fruendae causa videntur olim bene morati 
 reges constituti; de Off. i. 8. : expetuntur autem divitiae quum ad usus vitae ne- 
 cessarios, turn ad perfruendas voluptates ; Tusc. iii. 7. : ocidus probe affectus 
 ad suum munus fungendum ; in Verr. ii. 18. : omnia bona ei utenda ac possi- 
 denda tradiderat ; Caes. Bell. Gull. iii. 6. : hostes in spcm potiundo9ytm cas- 
 trorum venerant^ — and thus we very frequently find in Livy and Curtius 
 spes potiundae icrbis, petrae. As an exception the same occurs with the verb 
 mederi., which in the early language was likewise sometimes joined with the 
 accusative, whence we find in Livy, viii. 36., and Veil. Pat. ii. 25., medendis 
 corporibus. Invidendus, poenitendus, and pudendus have become adjectives. 
 
 [§ G58.] Note 2. There are a few passages in good authors, in which the 
 gerund is used in a passive sense : Cic. in Verr. i. 18. : censendi causa haec 
 frequentia convenit^ for the purpose of undergoing the census ; p. Flacc. 32. : 
 si aliena censendo Decianus sim facere posset ; Veil. Pat. ii. 15. : ad censendwn 
 ex provinciis in Italiam revocare ; Cic. ad Fam. vii. 3. : ades ad imperandum ; 
 i. e. ut imperetur tibi ; Tusc. i. 23. : ceteris, qvxie moventur, hie /oris, hoc prin- 
 cipium est movendi ; Nep. Att. 9. : spes restituendi, the hope of being restored. 
 See Bremi's note on this passage. 
 
 [§ 659.] 3. The particular cases in which the gerund, and, 
 under the limitations above mentioned, the participle future 
 passive are used, are the following: — 
 
 a) The genitive of the gerund is used after substantives and 
 after relative adjectives. (See § 436.) In English, substantives 
 and relative adjectives are followed either by " of" with the 
 participle present, or by " to " with the infinitive ; e. g. ars 
 dicendi, the art of speaking ; discendi cupidus, desirous to learn. 
 Such substantives, among many others, are: ars, causa, con- 
 
USE OF THE GERUND. 455 
 
 silium, consuetudo, cupiditas, facultas, occasio, potestas, spes, 
 studium, voluntas. The ablatives causa and gratia are also 
 joined with the genitive of the gerund ; e. g. discendi causa^ for 
 the sake or purpose of learning ; quidam canes venandi gratia 
 comparantur. 
 
 Note. It must, however, be observed, that with these and other sub- 
 stantives the infinitive may also be used (see § 598.), when with a tense of 
 esse they form a periphrasis for a verb which is joined with the infinitive, or 
 when they supply the place of an adjective expression, of which the infinitive 
 is the subject; e.g. Sallust, Cat.^0.: quibus omnia honesta atqtie inhonesta 
 vendere mos erat^ with whom it was a custom, or who were accustomed ; Cic. 
 Tusc. i. 41. : tempus est abire, it is time, that is, tempestivum est, it is proper 
 to go ; but we may also say est (i. e. adest) tempus abeundi, as in Quintil. xi. 
 3. 61. : jam tempus est dicendi, quae sit apta pronuntiatio ; Liv. ii, 53. : Mos^ 
 credo, non placebat, sine Romano duce exercituque socios propriis viribus con- 
 siliisque bella gerere, — here the accusative with the infinitive depends upon 
 the whole construction, and more especially upon placebat, for else it would 
 have been necessary to say socioj^m mos bella gerendi. All other construc- 
 tions, especially the infinit. after relative adjectives, are poetical. 
 
 Beate vivendi cupiditate incensi omnes sumus, Cicero. 
 Parsimonia est scientia vitandi sumptus supervacuos, aut ars re 
 
 familiari moderate utendi, Senec. de Benef. ii. 34. 
 Postremo Catilina dissimulandi causa aut sui expurgandi, sicuti 
 
 jurgio lacessitus foret, in senatum venit, Sallust, Cat. 31, 
 Epaminondas studiosus erat audiendi, Nep. Eparn, 3. 
 
 h) If the verb governs the accusative, the passive construction 
 with the participle future is commonly preferred. 
 Quis ignorat Gallos usque ad hanc diem retinere illam immanem 
 
 ac barbaram consuetudinem liominum immolandorum? Cic. 
 
 p. Font. 10. 
 Liita sunt (a Catilina ejusque sociis) consilia urbis delendae, 
 
 civium trucidandorum, nominis Romani extinguendi, Cic. p. 
 
 Muren. 37. 
 Timotheus rei militaris (beUi gerendi) fuit peritns, neque minus 
 
 civitatis regendae, Nep. Timoth. 1, 
 
 [§ fi60.] Note 1. The rule respecting the agreement of the participle with 
 the noun in gender and number is apparently violated in the genitive of the 
 personal pronouns, since tui, even when feminine, is joined with the mas- 
 culine or neuter form of the participle: Plant. Ti-ucul. ii. 4. 19.: quoniam 
 tui videndi est copia ; Ovid, Heroid. xx. 74. : copia placandi sit modo parva 
 tui, — and vestri and sui, even when they are plural, are joined with the sin- 
 gular of the participle. Thus we read in Liv. xxi. 41. : non vercorne quis 
 hoc me vestri adhortandi caiuta magnijice loqui existimet ; Cic. de Divin. ii. 1 7. : 
 doleo tantum Stoicos vestros Epicureis irridendi sui facultatem dedisse; in Cat. 
 
 G G 4 
 
456 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 i. 3. : quum multi prineipes civitatis Roma non tarn sui consercundi, guam 
 tiiorum consiliorum reprimendorum causa profugerunt ; and frequently in 
 Caesar; e.g. Sell. Gall. iii. 6. : neque sui colli gendi hostHus facultatem re- 
 linquunt; iv. 13. : in castra venerunt^ sui purgandi causa. No instance has 
 yet been found of a feminine mei or nostri being joined with the mascul. (or 
 neuter) of the participle, but there is no reason for doubting it. It must be 
 supposed, that this peculiarity arises Yrom the singular form of these genitives, 
 which are properly derived from the neuters meum^ tuum^ suum, nostrum^ 
 vestrum (analogous to the Greek ro f/xoi', to iijxiTtpov). But with the de- 
 monstrative pronouns, ejus., hujus, illius the rule respecting the agreement 
 between the noun and participle is observed, although ejus., referring to a 
 woman, is found with the genit. masc. of the participle, in Terent. Phorm. i. 
 3. 24., and Hec. iii. 3. 12. (for in Phorm. v. 6. 40., this is only a correction 
 of Bentley). 
 
 [§ mi.^ A similar irregularity, but more difficult to explain, occurs in the 
 combination of the genitive of the gerund with the genitive plural of sub- 
 stantives, instead of the accusative. It is found not only in some passages of 
 Plautus and Terence, and frequently in Gellius, who was fond of reviving 
 obsolete forms, but also in the following passages of Cicero, de Invent, ii. 2. : 
 ex mnjore enim copia nohis^ quam ilU, fuit exemplorum eligendi potestas ; de 
 Univ. § 9. : reliquorum siderum quae causa collocandi fuerit, quaeque eorum sit 
 collocatio, in alium sermonem differendum est; in Verr. ii. 31. : homines quibu^ 
 ne rejiciundi quidem amplius quam trium judicum praeclarae leges Corneliae 
 faciunt potestatem ; in Verr. iv. 47. : earum autem rerum nullam sibi iste neque 
 injitiandi rationem^ neque defendendi facultatem reliquit; Philip, v. 3. : Agitur, 
 utrum M. Antonio facultas detur opprimendae rei puhlicae, caedis faciendae 
 bonorum, diripiendae urbis, agrorum suis latronibus condonandi, populum 
 Romanum servitute opprimendi : an horum nihil facer e ei liceat. It once occurs 
 in Cicero with the genit. plur. of a pronoun, de Fin. v. 7. : eorum (for ed) 
 adipiscendi causa. Comp. Sueton. Aug. 98. : permissa licentia diripiendi 
 pomorum., with the remarks of the commentators. We are of opinion, that 
 the noun, which properly depends upon the gerund, is by some confusion, of 
 which instances occur in every language, connected and made to depend 
 upon the substantive. Suetonius, e.g. might have said licentia diripiendi 
 poma., or licentia pomorum diripiendorum^ but what he does say is a combina- 
 tion of both. Another method of explaining this peculiarity is adopted by 
 Kritz (on Sallust, Cat. 31.), who thinks that the gerund and the leading 
 substantive are so closely united as to constitute only one idea, and form as 
 it were only one compound word as eligendi potestas (elective power), exem- 
 plorum (of examples). But see Madvig on Cic. de Fin. i. 18. § 60. 
 
 [§ 662.] Note 2. The genitive in general serves to express quality in the 
 case of a substantive joined to an adjective ; and hence the genitive, not 
 only of a gerund, but of a substantive joined with the participle futurt 
 passive and esse., is used in the sense of " having a tendency to a thing," oi 
 " serving a certain purpose ;" e. g. Sallust, Cat. 6. : Regium imperium initic 
 conservandae libertatis atque augendae rei publicae fuerat; Caes. Bell. Alex. 
 65. : quum multa contra morem consuetudinemque militarem fierent., qmie dissol- 
 vendae disciplinae severitatisque essent; Liv. xxvii. 9. haec prodendi imperii 
 Romani, tradendae JIannibali victoriae sunt; xl. 29. : lectis rerum summis 
 quum animadvertisset pleraque dissolvendarum religionum esse, L. Petillio dixit^ 
 sese eos llbros in ignem conjecturum esse. The same construction occurs fre- 
 quently in this author ; comp. iii. 39. and xxxviii. 50. : nihil tarn aequundae 
 
USE OF THE GERUND. 457 
 
 lihertatis esse, and v. 3., with the notes of Gronovius and Drakenborch. 
 Esse must be understood in Sallust, Jug. 88. : quae postquam gloriosa modo 
 neque belli patrandi cognovit, — and in direct connection with a substantive in 
 Sallust's speech of Lepidus, in the Fragm. Hist. lib. i. : Svlla eo processit, td 
 nihil gloriosum nisi tutum et omnia retinendae dominationis honesta aestumei; 
 i. e. omnia quae sunt dominationis retinendae. In Cicero this use of the geni- 
 tive with esse occurs only de Leg. ii. 23. : Cetera in duodecim (tabulis) minu- 
 endi sunt sumptm lameniationisque funeris, and. in Verr. ii. 53. : ui studia 
 cupiditatesque honorum atque ambitiones ex omnibus civitatibus tolleret, quae res 
 evertendae rei publicae solent esse, which, accor^ng to the above examples, it 
 is better to consider as a genitive than as a dative, for which Garatoni 
 takes it. 
 (Carthagine) pro se qidsque quae diutinae obsidionis tolerandae sunt, ex agris 
 
 convehit, Liv. xxx. 9. 
 
 [§ 663.] Note 3. It is a deviation from the ordinary principles of the Latin 
 Syntax, and a decided imitation of the Greek idiom, to use the genitive of 
 the gerund to express a purpose or intention (it does not occur in Cicero), 
 for this is generally expressed by the addition of causa, or by the dative of 
 the gerund. (See § 764.) Another irregular use of the genitive of the 
 gerund, instead of the infinitive, occurs in Tacit. Ann. ii. 43. : Plancinam hand 
 dubie Augusta monuit muliebri aemulatione Agrippinam insectandi, though 
 the genitive may perhaps be explained as dependent upon monere; but in 
 Ann. xiii. 26. : nee grave manumissis, per idem obsequium retinendi libertatem, 
 per quod assecuti sunt; xv. 21. : maneat provincialibus potentiam suam tali 
 modo ostentandi; and xv. 5. : Vologesi vetus et penitus injixum erat arma jRo- 
 mana vitandi, — the genitive of the gerund is used quite in the sense of the 
 infinitive, and can scarcely be explained otherwise than by the ellipsis of 
 negotium^ to tov tpevyeiv. Compare the observations of Gronovius on Livy, 
 XXXV. 49. 
 
 [§ 664.] 4. The dative of the gerund is used after adjectives 
 which govern this case (§ 409.), especially after utilis, inutilis, 
 noxius, par, aptus, idoneus, and after verbs and other expressions 
 denoting a purpose or design. In this sense, however, it is much 
 more common, at least in Cicero, to use ad with the accusative 
 of the gerund, or a clause with ut. (The expressions wliich 
 from their meaning are most frequently joined with the dative 
 of the gerund, are: studere, intentum esse, tempus impendere, 
 tempus consumers or insumere, operam dare, sujfficere, satis esse, 
 deesse and esse in the sense " serving for," " being adequate to." 
 In the language of the silver age, however, the dative is not 
 limited to particular expressions, but is used very extensively, 
 chiefly after verbs of motion, to express the purpose.) The 
 participle future passive, as was remarked above, is u^ed much 
 more frequently than the dative of the gerund with ad and 
 the accusative. 
 Aqua nitrosa utilis est hibendo, Plin. Hist. Nat, xxxvi. 6. 
 
4,58 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Non fuit consilium socordia atque desidia honum otium conterere, 
 
 neque vero agrum colendo aut venando intentum aetatem agere, 
 
 Sallust, Cat. 4. 
 Brutus quum studere revocandis in urbem regibus liberos suos 
 
 comperisseti securi eos percussit, Flor. i. 9. 
 Tiberius quasi Jirrnandae valetudini in Campaniam concessit^ 
 
 Tacit, Ann. iii. 31. 
 
 Note 1. Esse with the dattve of the gerund is usually explained by the 
 ellipsis of idoneus, but it is better not to have recourse to an ellipsis, and to 
 consider it as analogous to the expression auxilio alicui esse. Thus we read 
 in Cicero : non solvendo esse, to be insolvent ; in Livy, ii. 8. : divites, qui 
 oneri ferendo essent, able to bear the burden ; xxvii. 25. : rem puhlicam 
 esse gratiae referendae, able to show its gratitude ; and in Celsus, viii. 10. 7. : 
 medicamenta, quae puri movendo sunt. We must add the political expres- 
 sion scrihendo affuerunt; i. e. at the drawing up of a senatus consultum, 
 there were present. 
 
 [§ 665.] Note 2. The dative of the gerund is generally also used with the 
 names of dignities and offices; e. g. decemviri legihus scribendis, the ten com- 
 missioners for drawing up a code of laws ; duumvir, or, quindecimvir sacris 
 faciundis; triumvir agro dando; triumvir coloniis deducendis, juventuti conqui- 
 , rendae, senatui legendo; tresviri rei puhlicae constituendae, and also with the 
 word comitia, as in Livy : comitia regi creando, creandis decemviris, though 
 here the genitive may also be used. 
 
 [§ 666.] 5. The accusative of thegerund is always dependent 
 upon prepositions, most frequently upon ad (to), or inter (during 
 or amidst), but sometimes also upon ante, circa, and ob. The 
 change into the passive construction with the participle future, 
 takes place almost invariably when the gerund governs an 
 accusative. 
 3Iores puerorum se inter ludendum simplicius detegunt, Quintil. 
 
 i. 3. 
 Musicen natura ipsa nobis videtur ad tolerandos facilius labores 
 
 velut muneri dcdisse, Quintil. i. 10. 16. 
 
 Note. The beghmer must particularly attend to the use of the gerund 
 (without a noun) with inter, which is equivalent to our " during" or 
 " amidst ; " e. g. inter eundum, inter hibendum, inter amhulandum, inter vapu' 
 laudum. 
 
 [§667.] 6. The ablative of the gerund is used: — a) With- 
 out a preposition, as an ablativus instrumenti, b) With the 
 prepositions ab, de, ex, and in. In the first case the construction 
 is commonly, and in the latter always, changed into the passive, 
 when the gerund governs an accusative. The accusative of a 
 neuter pronoun or adjective alone are generally retained. (See 
 § 656., and the last of the following passages.) 
 
USE OF THE 8UPINE. 459 
 
 Hominis mens discendo alitur et cogitando, Cic. de Off, 
 
 Caesar dando, sublevando, ignoscendo, Cato nihil largiundo gloriam 
 
 adeptus est, Sallust, Cat. 54. 
 Superstitione tollenda non tollitur religio, Cic. de Divin. ii. in fin. 
 Fortitudo in laboribus periculisque suheundis cernitur, temper antia 
 
 in praetermittendis voluptatihus, prudentia in delectu bonorum 
 
 et malorum, justitia in suo cuique tribuendo, Cic. de Fin. v. 
 
 23. 
 
 Note. The ablative of the gerund is very rarely employed in any other 
 way : Cic de Off. i. 15. : nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium 
 est; instead of relatione gratiae; Liv. vi. 14.: iiec jam possidendis publicis 
 agris contentos esse instead of possessione agrorum. To the prepositions found 
 with the ablative of the gerund we must add pro^ which occurs in a passage 
 of Livy, xxiii. 28. : pro ope ferenda sociis pergit ire ipse ad urhem deditam 
 nuper injidem Homanomm oppugnandam^ instead of giving assistance to his 
 allies. An irregular use of the ablat. of the gerund occurs in Tacit. Ann. xiv. 
 4. : Nero matrem prosequitur abeuntem, artius oculis et pectori haerens, sive 
 explenda simulatione seu periturae matris supremus aspectus quamvis ferum 
 animum retinehat^ where the ablat. is employed for the dative ; Ann. iii. 1 9. : 
 is finis fuit vlciscenda Germanici morte, — here the ablative implies time : " in 
 avenorinjj the death of Germanicus." 
 
 CHAR LXXXIII 
 
 USE OF THE SUPINE. 
 
 [§ 668.] 1. The two Supines are, in form, cases of a verbal 
 substantive of the fourth declension. The first supine, or that 
 in urn, is the accusative, and the second, or that in w, may be 
 either the dative or the ablative, according to § 81. But with 
 regard to construction, the supine in um remains a true part of 
 a verb, for it does not govern the genitive, but the case of the 
 verb. The supine in u does not govern any case, and for this 
 reason we assign to it a passive meaning. 
 
 2. The supine in um is used with verbs which express motion 
 to a place ; e. g. ire, prqficisci, contendere, pergere, festinare, 
 venire, mittere, trajicere : and it indicates the object ; e. g. cubi- 
 tum ire, to go to sleep : exploratum, speculatum, aquatum, fru- 
 mentatum, pabulatum mittere, oratum obsecratumque venire; — or 
 
4G0 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 with a case depending on the supine, Cicero : ynittit rogatiim ea 
 vasa ; Livy : legati venerunt questum injurias et res repetitum ; 
 Virgil : non ego Grajis servitum matribus ibo. The same mean- 
 ing is implied in the expression alicui nvptum dare (or tradere, 
 collocare), to give a woman in marriage. But the Latin writers 
 in general prefer using the gerund in the accusat. with ad^ or in 
 the genit. with causa^ or the participle future active, instead of 
 the supine. 
 
 Philippus Argis a Pausania, quum spectatjum ludos iret, juxta 
 theatrum occisus est, Nep. de Reg. 2. 
 
 [§ 669.] Note. JEo, is, it, with the supine literally signifies '' I go to do a 
 thing," and hence " I intend," or " am going to." Instances of this meaning 
 occur in Plautus and Terence, and in the prose of the period after the time 
 of Cicero, who himself does not make use of it (comp. Cic. ad Fam. xiv. i. 5.), 
 for the periphrastic conjugation by means of esse and the participle future 
 active expresses the same meaning; e. g. Terent. Aiidr. i. 1. 107.: Mca 
 Glycerium, quidagisf cur te is perditum? Heaut. ii. 3. 74.: in mea vita tu 
 tibi laudem is quaesitum, scelus ? villain, do you intend to acquire fame at the 
 cost of my life ? In like manner Sallust, Jug. 85. : uhi se fiagitiis dedecora- 
 vere turpissimi viri. honorum praemia ereptum eunt; and in the infinitive, 
 Liv. xxviii. 41. : qui te in Italia retineret, materiam glojnae tuae isse ereptum 
 videri posset ; in the same chapt. : Hoc nutura prius est, quum tua defenderis, 
 aliena ire oppugnatum. In dep^dent clauses however this mode of speaking 
 is used as a mere circumlocution for a simple verb, the relation to the future 
 being implied in the conjunction or (with the infinitive) in the leading verb ; 
 Sallust, Cat. 52. : Sint sane misericordes infwihus aerarii, ne illi sanguinem 
 nostruin largiantur, et, dum paucis scelei'atis parcunt, honos omnes perditum 
 eant, equivalent to perdant; Liv. xxxii. 22. : ohte status Jilium, ut consulere 
 Achaeos communi saluti pateretur, neu pertinacia sua gentem universam perditum 
 iret, i. e. perderet; Sallust, Jug. 68. : ultum ire injurias festinat, i. e. ulcisci ; 
 Liv. xxxix. 10. : vitricus ergo tuus pudicitiam, famam, spem vitamque tuam 
 perditum ire hoc facto properat; Curt. x. 25. (comp. Tacit. Ann. xvi. 1.) : 
 Meleagri temeritatem armis ultum ire decreHerant ; Tacit. Ann. xiii. 17. : illu- 
 sum isse, instead of illusisse : xii. 45. : (belli causas confingit, se) eam injuriam 
 excidio ipsiu^ ultum iturum, for ulturum esse. 
 
 But it must be observed, that the form of the infinitive future passive, 
 perditum iri, is derived from the proper signification of perditum ire, to go to 
 destroy, the notion of going or intending easily passing over into that of 
 futurity. 
 
 [§ 670.] 3. The supine in u has a passive sense, and is used 
 after the substantives fas, nefas, and opus, and after the adjec- 
 tives good or had, agreeable or disagreeable, xcorthy or unworthy, 
 easy or difficult, and some others of similar meaning. Of the 
 adjectives which are joined with this supine, the following occur 
 most frequently : honestus, turpis, jucundus, facilis, incredibilis, 
 memorabilis, utilis, dignus and indignus. But the number of 
 
SYNTAXIS OKNATA. 461 
 
 these supines actually in use in good prose is very small, and 
 almost limited to the following : dictu, auditu, cognitu, factUy 
 inventu, memoratu, to which we may add natu (by birth, accord- 
 ing to age), which occurs in the expressions grandis, major, 
 minor, maximus, and minimus natu. But we also find magno 
 natu, of an advanced age, and maximo natu Jilius, the eldest son, 
 where natu is the ablative of a verbal substantive. 
 
 Later prose writers, however, use a great many other supines 
 in u, and it cannot be denied that ttis form adds considerably to 
 the conciseness of the Latin lano^uao^e. 
 Pleraque dictu quam re sunt faciliora, Liv. xxxi. 38. 
 Quid est tarn jucundum cognitu atque auditu, quam sapientihus 
 
 sententiis gravibusque verbis ornata oratio ? Cic. de Orat. i. 8. 
 
 [§ 671.] Note. The best writers however prefer using /aciZw, difficilis^ and 
 .ucundus with ad and the gerund : res facilis ad judicandum, ad intelligendum; 
 •'or the neuter (it is easy, &c.) with the infinitive active : facile est invenire., 
 existimare, cognoscere. In some cases there exist verbal nouns, as lectio^ cog- 
 nitio^ potus^ which are used in the dative or ablative in the same sense as the 
 supines lectu^ cognitu^ potu; e. g. Plin. Hist. Nat. xxiii. 8. : arbutus fructum 
 fert difficilem concoctioni; vi. 8.: aqua potuijiumnda; and Cicero frequently 
 says res cognitione dignae. Dignu^ is most commonly followed by the relative 
 pronoun with the subjunctive (see § 568.), and it is only the poets and later 
 prose writers that join it with the infinitive passive. 
 
 SYNTAXIS ORNATA. 
 
 The preceding portion of this Grammar contains the rules 
 according to which the forms of the declinable parts of speech 
 (cases, tenses, and moods) are employed in the Latin language 
 for the purpose of forming sentences. Hence that section is 
 called Syntaxis Regularis. If we observe those rules, the lan- 
 guage (whether spoken or written) is grammatically correct 
 {emendata, grammatical It now remains to treat of certain 
 peculiarities of the Latin idiom, which we meet with in the 
 works of the best authors, and the use of which gives to the 
 language its peculiar Latin colouring {color Latinus, Latine 
 
462 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 scribere), A systematic collection of remarks of this kind is 
 commonly termed Syntaocis Ornata. 
 
 These remarks, however, cannot be reduced to fixed rules, 
 and their application must be left entirely to the discretion of 
 the individual writer ; for when used too frequently or impro- 
 perly, they render the Latin style affected and unpleasant, instead 
 of embellishing it. The beginner must also beware of suppos- 
 ing that the following remarks contain the whole secret of a good 
 Latin style. A good style depends for the most part upon the 
 application of general principles in expressing correct thoughts 
 in an appropriate manner. These principles are the same for all 
 languages, and are explained in rhetoric, a distinct and highly 
 important branch of mental cultivation. But we are here offering 
 a supplement to the Latin Syntax, and can accordingly discuss 
 only those points which are either peculiar to the Latin language 
 as a language, or at least belong to it more peculiarly than to 
 the English, with which alone we have here to compare it. 
 Many peculiarities have already been discussed in the Syntax, 
 especially in the notes, and it will not be difficult to find them 
 by means of the Index. 
 
 We shall comprise all we have to say under four heads : 1 . 
 Peculiarities in the use of the Parts of Speech ; 2. Pleonasm ; 
 3. Ellipsis ; 4. Arrangement of Words and Structure of Periods. 
 
 CHAR LXXXIV. 
 
 PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 A. Substantives, 
 
 [§ 672.] 1. The place of an adjective, in case of a particular 
 stress being laid upon it, is often supplied by a substantive ex- 
 pressing the quality in the abstract, and the other substantive is 
 accordingly joined to it in the genitive ; e. g. in hac {tanta) 
 varietate studiorum consensus esse non potest, i. e. in his tarn 
 variis studiis ; Cic. de Orat, iii. 35. : quum Aristoteles Jlorere 
 Isocratem nobilitate diseipulorum videret, i. e. nobilibus or claris 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 463 
 
 discipulis ; p. Rose, Am. 17.; in hanc calamitatem venit propter 
 praediorum honitatem et multitudinem, 
 
 [§ 673.] 2. In stating the age at which a person performed 
 any action, it is not customary in Latin to use the abstract nouns 
 pueritia, adoleseentia, juventus, senectus, &c., with the preposition 
 in, but the concrete nouns puer, adolescens, juvenis, senex, &c., 
 are joined to the verb (§ 304.). The same frequently takes place in 
 stating the number of years that a person has lived, provided 
 there are adjectives ending in enarius, with this meaning, as 
 tricenarius, sexagenarius, octogenarius, perhaps also vicenarius, 
 septuagenarius, nonagenanus {see § 119.). Those in ennis from 
 annus are less frequently used in the sense of substantives. 
 
 [§ 674.] 3. When official titles are used to indicate time, the 
 concrete nouns usually take their place ; e. g. instead of ante 
 or post consulatum Ciceronis, it is preferable to say ante or post 
 Ciceronem consulem. ; and instead of i?i consulatu Ciceronis, it is 
 better to use the ablat. absolute, Cicerone consule, and in liko 
 manner with the substantive pronouns, ante or post te praetorem 
 is more common than ante or post praeturam tuam, and te prae- 
 tore is better than in praetura tua. 
 
 [§ 675.] 4. Sometimes abstract nouns are used instead of 
 concrete ones ; thus we frequently find nobilitas for nohiles, ju- 
 ventus for juvenes, vicinia for vicini, servitium for servi, levis 
 armatura for leviter arniati. Other words of this kind, as renii- 
 gium for remiges, matrimonium for ujcores, mhiisterium for ministri, 
 and advocatio for advocati, are less common, and occur only 
 here and there. See Drakenborch on Livy, iii. 15., and on Silius 
 Ital. XV. 748. Adolescentia is not used in this way; it only 
 signifies the age of an adolescens, but is never equivalent to 
 adolescentes as juventus is to juvenes. 
 
 We must add that the neuters nihil and quidquam are some- 
 times used instead of the masculines nemo and quisquam, as in 
 the expressions hoc victore nihil moderatius est; non potest insi- 
 piente fortunato quidquam fieri intolerabilius, Cic. Lael. 15. 
 
 [§ 676.] 5. Names of nations are used as adjectives, and 
 joined to other substantives which denote persons, as miles 
 Gallus, Syrus philosophus. Comp. §257. 
 
 The use of substantives in tor and trix as adjectives has been 
 sufficiently explained above (§ 102.) They are most frequently 
 joined as predicates to the substantive animus, as in Sallust : 
 
464 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ajiimus Catilinae cujuslibet rei simulator ac dissimulator ; animus 
 rector Tiumani generis, &c. ,. 
 
 The substantive nemo (nobody) is frequently joined to other 
 substantives denoting male persons, in such a way that it becomes 
 equivalent to the adjective nullus ; Cic. de Orat. i. 28. : sae-pe 
 enim soleo audire Roscium, quum ita dicat, se adhuc reperire discipu- 
 lum, que7n quidem proharet, potuisse neminem ; Tusc, v. 22. : adhuc 
 neminem cognovi poetam, qui sibi non optimus videretur ; de Off, 
 iii. 2. : ut nemo pictor esset inventus, qui Coae Veneris eam 
 partem, quam Apelles inchoatam reliquisset, ahsolveret ; de Orat. 
 i. 4. ; nemo fere adolescens non sibi ad dicendum studio omni 
 enitendum putavit. Sometimes we even find homo nemo, as 
 Cic. ad Fam, xiii. ^5. '. tum vero, posteaquam mecum in hello 
 atque in re militari fuit, tantam in eo virtutem, -prudentiam, Jidem 
 cognovi, ut hominem neminem pluris faciam; de Leg. ii. 16.: 
 quum nemo vir bonus ah improbo se donari velit. Quisquam, 
 which has likewise the value of a substantive, sometimes follows 
 the same principle : hence we find quisquam homo, quisquam 
 civis ; and homo itself is joined pleonastically to nouns express- 
 ing age, as homo adolescens, homo juvenis ; this however may be 
 explained by the fact of adolescens and juvenis being properly 
 adjectives. Nullus and ullus, on the other hand, are used as 
 substantives, instead of nemo and quisquam, especially the 
 genitive nullius and the ablative nullo, neminis not being used at 
 all, and nemine very rarely. See the manner in which Cicero 
 varies his expression in p. Muren. 40. : si injuste neminem laesit, 
 si nullius aures voluntatemve violavit, si nemini, ut levissime dicam, 
 odio nee domi, nee militiae fuit ; de Off. i. 4. : honestum vere 
 dicimus, etiamsi a nullo laudetur, natura esse laudabile ; Lael. 9. : 
 ut quisque sic munitus est, ut nidlo egeat. 
 
 [§ 677.] 6. Nihil, properly a substantive, is used adverbially 
 as an emphatic non (like the Greek ovhsv for ov), in the sense of 
 ** in no way," " in no respect," e. g. nihil me fullis, nihil te im- 
 pedio, nihil te moror, Graeciae nihil cedimus ; Terent. Andr. 
 init. : nihil istac opus est arte; Cic. in Rull. ii. 23.: Pompejus 
 beneficio isto legis nihil utitur ; Liv. iv. 33. : ea species nihil ter- 
 ruit equos ; xxii. 45. : nihil consulto collega ; xxxviii. 40. : 
 Thraces nihil se mover unt. Also with adjectives, Liv. iv. 9. : 
 nihil Romanae plebis similis ; Sallust, Cat. 17.: Senatus nihil 
 sane intentus. Nonnihil is likewise used adverbially in the sense 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 465 
 
 of " to some extent," " In some measure," e. g. Cic. ad Fam, iv. 
 14. : nonnihil me consolatur^ quum recordor. Quidquam, like 
 nihil, is also used as an adverb, as Cic. de Invent, ii. 27. : ne hoc 
 quidem ipso quidquam opus fuit. Respecting aliquid, e. g. res 
 aliquid differt, see § 385., and compare what is said of quid in 
 §711. 
 
 {§ 678.] 7. Some substantives are used frequently for the 
 purpose of forming circumlocutions, especially res, genus, modus, 
 ratio, animus, and corpus. 
 
 Res is often used for the neuter of pronouns and adjectives (see above, 
 § 363.) in such a manner, that sometimes even references to the preceding 
 res are expressed by a neuter, as Cic. de Divin. i. 52. : earum rermn vtrumque ; 
 Sallust, Jug. 102. : humanarum rerum pleraque fortuna regit; Liv. xliii. 17.: 
 nequis ullam rem magistratihus Romanis conferret, praeterquam quod senatus 
 censuisset; Cic. de Divin. ii. 57. : mens provida rerum fvtwrarum^ ut ea non 
 modo cernai., &c. 
 
 Genus is used in circumlocutions like the English Tiind^ regard., respect; in 
 hoc genere., in this respect ; qao in genere^ in which respect ; in omni genere 
 te quotidie desidero, in every respect : in like manner, omni genere virtutis 
 fiorere., " to be possessed of every virtue," instead of which we at least should 
 be inclined to say virtute omnis generis. 
 
 Modus \Q.Tj frequently serves as a circumlocution for adverbs (like the 
 English way or manner) : in this manner, hoc or tali modo., or with the pre- 
 position in : in hinc modum locutus est, majorem in modwrn peto (I beg more 
 urgently), mirum (mirabilem, incredibilem) in modum gaudeo, miserandum in 
 modum necatvs est, servilem in modum cruciari. Ad is found less frequently ; 
 e. g. Cicero : Est igitur ad hunc modum sermo nobis institutus ; Caesar : Ipso- 
 rum naves ad hunc modum factae armataeque erant. The genitive modi with 
 a pronoun supplies the place of the pronomiiia qualitatis (§ 1 30.), which are 
 either wanting, or not much used. Thus cujusmodi is used for qualis ; hnjus' 
 modi, istiusmodi, ejusmodi, ejusdemmodi for talis, and cuju^dammodi for the 
 indefinite pronomen qualitatis, which does not exist. 
 
 Ratio properly signifies " an account," and is also used in the same sense 
 as the English " on account of ; " e. g. Cicero : propter rationem belli Gallici, 
 equivalent to propter bellum GaUicum ; in Verr. i. 40. : multa propter ratio- 
 nem brevitatis ac temporis praetermittenda existimo, for the sake of brevity, 
 brevitatis causa. Sometimes, however, this explanation is inapplicable, and 
 we must have recourse to the supposition of a mere circumlocution ; e. g. 
 in Verr. iv. 49. : oratio mea, aliena abjudiciorum ratione, instead of ajudiciis • 
 p. Muren. 17. : quod enim /return, quem Euripum tot motus, tantas, tarn varias 
 habere putatis agitationes fluctuum, quantas perturbationes et quxmtos aestus 
 habet ratio comitiorum ? instead of comitia ; and in the same chapter : Nihil 
 est incertius vulgo, nihil obscui'ius voluntate hominum, Jiihil fallacius ratione 
 tota comitiorum, than the whole character of the comitia, to tuju apxaipaffiuJv ; 
 comp. the same speech, Chap. 2. : pi-aecipere tempestatiim ?'ationem et praedo' 
 num ; de Off. ii. 17. : tota igitur ratio talium largitionum vitiosa. est, sed inter - 
 dum necessaria, instead of tales largitiones omnes, which, however, would be 
 less idiomatic. 
 
 Animus (and the plural aiiimi, when several persons are spoken of) is ofteij 
 
 H H 
 
466 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 used as a periphrasis for the person himself, but only when the feelings of a 
 person are spoken of. Thus we say, e. g. animus (meus) dbhorret db aliqua 
 re, instead of ego ; and in like manner animum contineo or suhmitto^ instead 
 of me ; cogitare aliquid cum animo suo, statuere apud animum suum, pro 
 animi mei voluntate^ and very frequently animum aliciijus movere, commoverei 
 turbare, qffendere, &c. 
 
 Corpus is used in some expressions instead of the personal pronoun ; e. g. 
 imponere corpus lecto, to go to bed ; levare corpus in cubitum, to lean upon the 
 elbow ; corpus applicare stipiti, to lean against a tree ; librare corpus, to swing 
 one's self. 
 
 [§ 679.] 8. The periphrasis by means of causa and opera is 
 common in ordinary language ; hence it has been noticed 
 above §§ 454. and 455. Gratia is used in the same sense 
 as causa, but less frequently ; e. g. Cic. de Nat. Deor. ii. 63. : 
 tantumque abest ut haec bestiarum causa parata sint, ut ipsas 
 bestias hominum gratia generatas esse videamus ; ergo (originally 
 spyq)), which has the same meaning, occurs still more rarely, 
 and chiefly in early juridical language, e. g. in the formula 
 in Cic. ad Att. iii. 23. : si quid contra alias leges hujus legi& 
 ergo factum est ; de Opt. Gen. Or. 7. : donari virtutis ergo beni- 
 volentiaeque. 
 
 Nomen also belongs to this class of substantives, inasmuch as 
 the ablat. nomine (in respect of) is often used in the sense of 
 " on account of," or " on the part of," c. g. Cic. p. Muren. 38. : 
 neque isti me meo nomine interjici, sed vigilantem Consulem de rei 
 publicae praesidio demovere volunt ; ad Quint. Frat. ii. 2. : Quod 
 ad me Lentuli nomine scripsisti, locutus sum cum Cincio. 
 
 [§ 680.] 9. Names of nations are very often used for those 
 of countries, and many names of countries very seldom occur at 
 all. (See § 95.) . In Nepos we read : in Persas proficisci, ex 
 Medis ad adversariorum hibernacula pervenit, in Lucanis aliquid 
 fecit, and similar expressions are of very frequent occurrence in 
 other writers also : in Colchos abiit, in Bactrianis Sogdianisque 
 urbes condidit ; and we can only say in Volscis res bene gestae 
 sunt, in Acquis nihil memorabile actum, in Sabinis natus, versatus, 
 for there are no names for the countries inhabited by these 
 people ; in like manner there is no name (at least in Latin 
 writers) for the town of the Leontini who are mentioned so fre- 
 quently. Hence, verbs are joined with names of nations, which 
 are properly applied only to countries ; thus we commonly read 
 in the historians vastare, devastare, and 2lsoferro atque igni vas^ 
 tare, e. g. Samnites, instead of agros Samnitium. Liv. xxiii. 43. : 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 467 
 
 Nolaiii in medio siti ; and names of nations, on the other hand 
 are construed as names of towns, e. g. Liv. xxiv. 30. : Leontinos 
 ire, and Cicero often has Leontinis, Centuripinis instead of in 
 Leontinis, &c. 
 
 [§ 681.] 10. Verbal substantives are sometimes joined with 
 the case governed by the verb, from which they are derived. 
 There is only one instance of the accusat. in Plant. Asin. v. 2. 
 70. ; Quid tihi hue receptio ad te est virum meum 9 but the da- 
 tive is more frequent, Cic. de Leg. i. 15. : Justitia est ohtempe- 
 ratio scriptis legibus institutisque populorum ; Topic. 5. : traditio 
 alteri; p. Plane. 1. : quum tarn multos et bonos vivos ejus honori 
 viderem esse fautores ; Liv. xxiii. 35. : praeceperat, ne qua ex- 
 probratio cuiquam veteris fortunae discordiam inter or dines sereret. 
 Hence Cicero says, reditus Romam, Narbone reditus, adventus in 
 Italiam, domum itio, and Caesar domum reditio. The dative, 
 which is often joined- to the words legatus, praefectus, and ac- 
 census, instead of the genitive, is of a different kind, these words 
 being originally participles, and therefore admitting both con- 
 structions : legatus Luculli and Lucidlo, praefectus castrorum 
 and praefectus urbi. 
 
 B. Adjectives. 
 
 [§ 682.] 1. An adjective is sometimes used in Latin where 
 in English we employ an adverb. This is the case, when the 
 state or condition of the subject during an action is described, 
 and when the action remains the same, in whatever state the 
 subject may be. Hence w^e say : Socrates venenum laetus 
 hausit ; invitus dedi pecuniam; imprudens in hoc malum incidi; 
 si peccavi insciens feci ; nemo saUat sobrius ; perterritus, trepidus, 
 or intrepidus ad me venit ; but we may say tardus or tarde ad 
 me venisti, laetus or laete vivit, libens hoc feci or libenter hoc feci, 
 since here the action itself may be conceived as being modified. 
 In such cases the poets are always more inclined to use the ad- 
 jective either because it has more of a descriptive power, or 
 because they like to deviate from ordinary practice. Horace, 
 e. g. says, domesticus otior, vespertinus tectum peto ; and Persius : 
 te juvat nocturnis impallescere chartis, instead of which the ad- 
 verbs domi, vesperi, and noctu would be used in prose. But it 
 must be remarked in general that the Latin language is partial 
 to expressing adverbial modifications by an adjective or partL- 
 
 H H 2 
 
468 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ciple joined to the substantive ; e. g. mortuo Socrati magnus 
 honos hahitus est, where we should say: "great honour was 
 paid to Socrates after (his) death ;" Nep. Att. 3. : Quamdiu affuit, 
 ne qua sibi statua poneretur restitit, ahsens prohibere non potuit, in 
 his absence ; Liv. xxi. 25» : praetor ejffusum agmen ad Mutinam 
 ducit, he led the army, without keeping it together, to Mutina. 
 [§ 683.] 2. The origin from a place or country is generally 
 expressed by adjectives formed from the names of the places, 
 and not by the names themselves, unless we prefer the circum- 
 locution by means of the participles natu&, ortus, profectus. 
 E. g. " Thrasybulus of Athens" is in Latin Thrasgbulus Athe^ 
 niensis ; and in like manner Gorgias Leontinus, Protagoras 
 Abderites, Prodieiis Ceus, &c. Livy often uses ab, as i. 50. : 
 Turnus Herdonius ab Aricia ; iv. 3. : Tarquinius incola ab Tar- 
 quiniis ; Caesar prefers the ablative alone, as Bell. Civ. i. 24. : 
 Cn. Magius Cremona, comp. iii. 71. The tribe to which a 
 person belongs is expressed by the ablative alone, e. g. Ser. 
 Sulpicius, Lemonid, Rufus ; Q. Verres Romilid ; C. Claudius 
 C. F. Palatind, 
 
 Note. Adjectives of this kind belong to the name and serve to distinguish 
 the person from others of the same name. There are some adjectives which 
 the Romans did not like to join to a proper name ; they would not have 
 said ; e. g. Socrates sapiens^ but would have put it in the form of apposition : 
 Socrates, homo sapiens, or sapientissimus. See § 796. 
 
 [§ 684.] 3. It is a very common practice in Latin to use adjec- 
 tives derived from proper names, instead of the genitive of those 
 names. Hence we say, e. g. Ciceroniana simplicitas, the sim- 
 plicity of Cicero ; Hercules Xenophonteus^ Hercules in Xenophon, 
 i. e. according to the description of Xenophon ; proelium Can- 
 nense, the battle of Cannae ; bellum in particular is frequently 
 joined with an adjective derived from the nation or king against 
 whom war was carried on, e. g. bellum Mithridaticum, Cimbri- 
 cum, Marsicum, Punicum, &c. On the same principle the 
 possessive pronouns are used instead of the personal ones with 
 a preposition, especially with the words epistola and litterae: 
 multas litteras tuas uno tempore accepi, tuas litteras expecto, nun- 
 quam epistolam meam legisti nisi manu mea scriptam. 
 
 Note. This is less frequently the case with adjectives derived from ap- 
 pellative nouns, as the derivation is not so easily made. But wherever there 
 are such adjectives, they are usually employed in preference to the genitive ; 
 hence herilis filius, the son of the master ; fulgor avitus, the fame of the 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 469 
 
 grandfather ; amorem servilem objicere, a love affair with a slave ; with 
 helium : helium sociale, hellwm servile^ instead of which, however, helium 
 sociorum^ servorum is more frequent. We must here also mention the 
 adjectives in ariu^ derived from substantives^ and denoting a trade or pro- 
 fession, as negotium vinarium, wine business ; negotiator vinariu^, a wine 
 merchant ; mercator frum^ntarius^ a corn merchant ; institor unguentarius, 
 medicus ocidarius. See § 252. 
 
 But it also happens very frequently that the English use an adjective 
 where the Latin language must have recourse to the genitive of a sub- 
 stantive, as mental contemplation, contemplatio mentis ; literary occupation, 
 litterarum studia^ &c. 
 
 [§ 685.] 4. The adverbial expressions denoting at, in or on a 
 place are generally expressed in Latin by adjectives ; e. g. in 
 summa arbore, on the top of a tree ; in media urbe, in the midst 
 of the city ; sol in medio mundo situs est ; Terence : quis est hie 
 senex, quern video in ultima platea ? whom I see at the end of 
 the street ; Caesar : prima luce summus mons a Lahieno tenebatur, 
 the summit of the mountain. The use of the neuter of these 
 adjectives as substantives, as in summo arboris, occurs only in 
 later writers whom we should not imitate. See above § 435. 
 Adjectives are also used in expressions denoting time, where we 
 say " at the beginning," " in the middle," " at the end," e. g. 
 prima, media node, prima luce (not primo die), extremo anno; 
 Cic. p. Leg. Man. 12. : Maximum bellum Cn. Pompejus extrema 
 hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit. 
 
 [§ 686.] 5. In like manner the corresponding adjectives are 
 often used for the ordinal adverbs prius, primum (or primo'), 
 posterius, postremum, when they belong to a noun in the pro- 
 position, e. g. Livy : Priori Remo augurium venisse fertur ; Curt, 
 iv. 20. : Ty riorum gens litter as prima aut docuit aut didicit ; 
 Liv. xxviii. 12. : Hispania postrema omnium provinciarum, ductu 
 Augusti Caesaris, perdomita est; Cic. in Verr, ii. 1. : Omnium ex~ 
 teraruvn nationum princeps Sicilia se ad amicitiam fidemque populi 
 Rom. applicuit : prima omnium, id quod ornamentum imperii est, 
 provincia est appellata : prima docuit majores nostras, quam 
 praeclarum esset, exteris gentibus imperare ; sola fuit ea fide 
 henivolentiaque erga populum Rom., ut civitates ejus insulae, quae 
 semel in amicitiam nostram venissent, nunquam postea deficerent. 
 
 [§ 687.] 6. In the same manner the adjectives solus and unus, 
 joined with a noun, are veiy frequently used for the adverbs 
 modo, solum, tantum, e. g. Cic. ad Att. v. 17. : Scaevola solos 
 novem menses Asiae praefuit, only nine months ; Terent. Phorm. 
 
 H H 3 
 
470 LATIN GKAMMAR. 
 
 iii. 3. 24. : Quantum opus est tibi argenti 9 Solae trlginta minae ; 
 Cio. de Fin. i. 14. : Homo non sibi se soli natum meminerit, sed 
 patriae, sed suis (but on the other hand, we read de Off. i. 7. : 
 non nobis solum nati sumus ; comp. de Fin. i. 13. 44.); ad Quint. 
 Frat. i. 1. : in tuis summis laudibus excipiunt unam iracundiarn ; 
 ibid. : me, cut semper uni magis, quam universis placere voluisti. 
 So also unum illud cogitent, unum hoc dico, 
 
 [§ 688.] 7. Nullus is used for the adverb non, not only with 
 esse and verbs of similar meaning, which is easily explained, as 
 in Cicero: nolite existimare, me, quum a vobis discessero, nus- 
 quam ant nullum fore, i. e. no longer exist: — but sometimes 
 also with verbs expressing a distinct action, e. g. Cic. p. Rose. 
 Am. 44. : haec bona in tabulas publicas nulla redierunt ; ad 
 Att. XV. 22. : Sextus ab armis mdlus discedit ; xi. 24. : Philo- 
 timus non modo nullus venit, sed ne per litter as quidem — certiorem 
 fecit me, quid egerit. But it occurs rarely in prose, frequently 
 in Terence; as, memini, tametsi nullus moneas, and the phrase 
 nullus dubito, which is so frequently, though improperly, used by 
 moderns, should be employed only in conversation, and never 
 without a comical or humorous shade of meaning. 
 
 [§ 689.] 8, The place of the adverb quam joined to a tense of 
 posse to strengthen the superlative of adjectives, is often sup- 
 plied by the adjective quantus, in the same case as the superla- 
 tive ; hence, instead of quam maximis potuit itineribus ad hostem 
 contendit, we may say quantis maximis potuit itineribus. Examples 
 are numerous ; those which occur in Livy are collected by Dra- 
 kenborch on xlii. 15. Cicero uses this mode of speaking only 
 when tantus precedes, e. g. de Fin. i. 12. : statue aliquem con- 
 fectum tantis animi corporisque doloribus, quanti in hominem 
 maximi cadere possunt ; Lael. 20. : tanta est inter eos, quanta 
 maxima esse potest, morum studiorumque distantia. 
 
 [§ 690.] 9. When two adjectives or adverbs are compared 
 with each other, both are put in the comparative, e. g. longior 
 quam latior, calidior quam cautior pericula adiit, fortius quam 
 felicius bellum gesserunt, acrius quam constantius proelium inie- 
 runt ; Cic. p. Milon. 29.: non timeo ne libentius haec in ilium 
 evomere videar quam verius ; Liv. xxii. 38. : Pauli Aemilii contio 
 fuit verior quam gratior populo. The same is the case when the 
 comparative is formed by means of magis, e. g. Cic. in Verr. ii. 
 72. : neque enim vereor, ne quis hoc me magis accusatorie quam 
 
1>ECULIAKITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 471 
 
 iibere dixisse arhitretur ; Brut. 68. : magis audacter qiiam parate 
 
 ud dicendum veniebaL 
 
 Note. Tacitus has his peculiarities in th's respect also : he uses the posi- 
 tive in one part of the proposition ; e. g. Agr. 4. : speciem excelsae gloriae 
 veJiementlus quam caute appetehat; or the positive in both: Ann.\Y. Q\.: 
 Claris majoribus quam vetustis. In a similar manner he and others modify 
 the construction quo magis — eo magis : Li v. i. 26. : JRomani Horatiwn eo 
 majore cum gaudio accipiuiit^ quo prope metum res fuerat; comp. Tacit. Ann. 
 i, 57. and 68. ; Hist. ii. 99. ; Ann. i. 74. : quantoque incautius efferverat., poeni- 
 tentia pattens tulit ; instead of taydo patientior ; but in Ann. iv. 67., we find : 
 Tiberius quanto intentus olim publicas ad curas., tanto occultos in luxus et malum, 
 otium resolutus^ if the common reading be correct. 
 
 [§ 691.] 10. The numeral unus is added to superlatives for 
 the purpose of strengthening their meaning, as Cic. Lael. 1. : 
 quo mortuo me ad pontijicem Scaevolam contuli, quern unum nos^ 
 trae civitatis et ingenio et justitia praestantissimum audeo dicer e ; 
 p. Plane. 41.: urbem unam mihi amicissimam declinavi ; in 
 
 Verr. i. init. : quod unum ad invidiam vestri ordinis sedandam 
 maxime pertinebat ; ad Fam, xiii. 43,: quo ego uno equite Ro" 
 mano familiarissime utor. The genitive omnium may be added 
 to uniLs, as Cic. Brut. 6. : eloquentiam rem unam esse omnium 
 difficillimam; ad Fam. xi. 16.: hoc ego uno omnium plurimum 
 utor. The same is the case with the verb excellere, e. g. Cic. 
 
 Tusc. ii. 18. : Virtutes appellatae sunt ah ea, quae una ceteris 
 excellebat. 
 
 [§ 692.] 11. The numeral sexcenti is used in conversational 
 language to express any large number, as we say a thousand; 
 e. g. Cic. ad Att. vi. 4. : in quo multa molesta, discessus noster, 
 belli periculum, militum improbitas, sexcenta praeterea; T^ent. 
 Pkorm. iv. 3. 63. : sexcentas proinde scribito mihi dicas, nihil do, 
 bring a thousand actions against me, I will not pay. Mille, and 
 especially millies, however, are used in the same way, as Cic 
 p. Milan. 20. : villam ut perspiceret ? millies in ea fuerat ; de 
 
 Off. I. 31. : Ajax millies oppetere mortem, quam ilia perpeti ma- 
 luisset, 
 
 C. Pronouns. 
 [§ 693.] 1. The personal pronouns are expressed in the no- 
 minative, when particular stress is laid on the subject of a 
 proposition ; in other cases the person is sufficiently indicated 
 by the termination of the verb. See above § 379. It must be 
 especially observed that tu is used in questions and addresses 
 
 H H 4 
 
^72 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 •expressive of indignation, as Aiict. ad Ilerenn. iv. 13. ; Tu in 
 forum prodire, tu lucem conspicere, tu in horum conspectum venire 
 .conaris ? Cic* in Verr. v. 52. : tu a civitatibus pecunias class is 
 nomine coegisti ! tu pretio remiges dimisisti ! tu, navis quum esset 
 ah legato et quaestore capta praedonum, archipiratam ah omnium 
 oculis removisti! See Heindorf on Horat. Sat. ii. 2. 20. It 
 occurs also with the subjunctive, according to § 529. ; e. g. Cic. 
 Philip, vii. 2. : Faveas tu hosti 9 litteras tibi ille mittat de sua spe 
 rerum secundarum ? eas tu laetus proferas ? recites ? describendas 
 etiam des improbis civibus ? &c., et te consularem, aut senatorem, 
 aut denique civem putes ? 
 
 [§ 694.] 2. The plural of the first person is often used instead 
 of the singular, 7ios for ego, and Jioster for mens, and the verb, 
 even without the pronoun being expressed, is put in the first 
 person plural instead of the first person singular ; e. g. Cic. de 
 Divin, ii. 1. : sex libros de re publica tunc scripsimus, quum guber- 
 nacula rei puhlicae tenebamus. This use of the plural, which 
 occurs also in modern languages, must not be considered as an 
 affectation, for nos gives the idea of communicating something 
 and makes the reader go along with the writer, whereas ego ex- 
 presses a distinct individual, and therefore produces the impres- 
 sion of assumption much more frequently than the plural. It 
 must be observed that the genitive nostri is used for mei, but 
 not nostrum, this genitive always expressing a plurality. 
 
 [§ 695.] 3. Ipse (self), is very frequently equivalent to the 
 English "just" or " very," when it denotes the agreement or co- 
 incidence of two things; when joined to numerals, it signifies 
 " neither more nor less," and when to other nouns, " only ; " 
 e. g. Cic. ad Att. iv. 1. : pridie Non. Sext. Dyrrhachio sum pro- 
 fectus, ipso illo die, quo lex est lata de nobis : Brundisium veni 
 Non, Sext, ibi mihi Tulliola mea fuit praesto, natali suo ipso 
 die; ill. 21.: triginta dies erant ipsi, quum has dabam litteras, 
 per quos nullas a vobis acceperam ; p. Leg. Man, 15. : et quisquam 
 dubitabit — quam facile imperio atque exercitu socios et vectigalia 
 conservaturus sit, qui ipso nomine ac rumore defenderit. 
 
 [§ 696.] 4. Ipse, when joined to personal pronouns, is put 
 in the case of the subject, i. e. in the nominative, or, in the con- 
 struction of the accusative with the infinitive, in the accusative, 
 when stress is to be laid on the idea implied in the subject ; but 
 it is put in the same case as the pronoun, when the object is to 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 473 
 
 be distinguished from other objects, as is the case, e. g. in Cic. 
 p. Leg. Man. 13. : Non potest exercitum is continere imperator, 
 qui se ipsum non continet ; ad Fam. ix. 14. ; Tu quoniam rem 
 puhlicam nosque conservas, fac ut diligentissime te ipsum custodias; 
 iii. 7. : Cn. Pompejum omnibus, Lentulum mihi ipsi antepono. 
 In the following passages stress is laid on the subject, Cic. 
 I.ael. 3. : Non egeo medicina (i. e. ut alii me consolentur ) : me 
 ipse consolor ; ad Fam. xii. 13.: Maximus consularis maximum 
 consulem, te ipse vicisti; in Verr. iii. 1.: Nos, nisi facile cupi- 
 ditates nostras teneremus, nunquam ipsimet nobis praecideremus 
 istam licentiam libertatemque vivendi ; Liv. iii. 6Q.i accusando 
 eum, a cujus crudelitate vosmet ipsi armis vindicastis. Hence we 
 say me ipsum diligo, but sihi ipse mortem conscivit, pro se ipse 
 dixit, de se ipse praedicat, and in the accusative with the infi- 
 nitive, deforme est de se ipsum praedicare (Cic. de Off. i. 38.). 
 It must be remarked in general that Cicero is partial to con- 
 struing ipse as the subject, even where the emphasis belongs to 
 the object ; e. g. in Verr. i. 6. : ut non modo populo Romano, sed 
 etiam sibi ipse condemnatus videretur ; ad Fam. -lY. 8.: non ita 
 abundo ingenio, ut te consoler, quum ijjse me non possim ; ad 
 Quint. Frat. i. 1. 2. : Quid est negotii continere eos, quibus praesis, 
 si te ipse contineas ? 
 
 Note. Ipse, when joined to a possessive pronoun in a reflective clause, 
 usually takes the case of the subject; e.g. meam ipse legem negligo, tuam 
 ipse legem negligis, not meam ipsius, tuam ipsius, &c., as we may say accord- 
 ing to § 424. Cic. de Orat. ii. 2. : si ex scriptis cognosci ipsi suis potuissent ; 
 p. Rose. Am. 29. : Conveniat mihi tecum necesse est, Roscium aut ipsum sua 
 manu fecisse, aut per alios ; Liv. xxiv. 38. : eam fraudem vestra ipsi virtute 
 vitastis; il. 9. : nee hostes modo timebant, sed suosmet ipsi cives ; viii. 25.: 
 velut capti a suism£t ipsi praesidiis ; i. 54. : alios sua ipsos invidia opportunos 
 interemit ; i. e. qui sua ipsi invidia opportuni erant. The genitive is necessary 
 only in those cases where there is no reference to the subject, as in tua ipsius 
 causa, vestra ipsorum causa hoc feci ; Quintil. ii. 6. : Aves foetus suos libera 
 coelo suaeque ipsorum fiduciae permittunt ; but sometimes we find the genitive 
 where the case of the subject should be used, as Cic. p. Muren. 4, : con- 
 jecturam de tuo ipsius studio ceperis, instead of ipse; Liv. x. 16.: omnia 
 expertos esse, si suismet ipsorum virihus tolerare tantam molem belli possent, 
 instead of ipsi ; xxx. 20. : suum ipsius caput execratuvi, for ipsum. But it 
 does not occur so often as Drakenborch on Liv. vii. 40. 9. thinks, for he 
 does not accurately distinguish the cases. 
 
 [§ 697.] 5. Idem is used (see § 127), when two predicates are 
 given to one subject ; hence it supplies the place of etiam, when 
 the predicates are of a similar kind, and of tamen, when they 
 are of a diiferent kind ; e. g. Cic. de Off. ii. 3. : ex quo efficitur, 
 
474 LATIN GllAMMAR. 
 
 ut, quidquid honestum sit, idem sit utile ; i. e. "also," or, " at the 
 same time," for which we might also use id etiam utile sit ; bene^ 
 Jicentiam, quam eandem henignitatcm appellari licet; Libera, 
 quam eandem Proserpinam vacant ; vivos fortes eosdem bonos 
 esse volumus ; Cic. j). Muren. 9. : Asiam istam refertam et eandem 
 delicatam sic obiit, ut in ea neque avaritiae neque luxuriae 
 vestigium reliquerit ; de Off. i. 6. : alterum est vitium, quod quidam 
 nimis magnum studium multamque operam in res obscuras atque 
 diffciles conferunt, easdemque non necessarias. Especial attention 
 must be paid to idem connecting two opposite predicates, where 
 tamen might be used in its stead, Cic. de Nat. Dear. i. 43. : 
 quum (although) enim optimam et praestantissimam naturam dei 
 dicat esse, negat idem in deo esse gratiam; Curt. v. 2. : Euphrates 
 et Tigris ex Armeniae montibus profluunt, ac magno deinde 
 aquarum divortio iter, quod cepere, percurrunt: iidem, quum 
 Mediae et Gordiaeorum terras secare coeperunt, paulatim in artius 
 coeunt, et, quo longius manant, hoc angustius inter se spatium 
 terrae relinquunt. 
 
 [§ 698.] 6. Et ipse, on the other hand, is used (like the 
 Greek koX avros), when the same predicate is given to a second 
 subject. It is rendered in English by "also" or "too;" e.g. 
 Eutrop. viii. 7. (15.): Antoninus Commodus nihil pater num ha- 
 buit, nisi quod contra Germanos feliciter et ipse pugnavit, for 
 item or ipse quoque. In Cicero, however, this use of et ipse occurs, 
 as far as we know, only in one passage, p. Caec. 20. : Etiamsi 
 tuus servus nullus fuerit, sed omnes alieni ac mercenarii, tamen et 
 ipsi tuae familiae et gcnere et nomine continebuntur, for Cicero, 
 in general, very rarely uses et for etiam; in the passage 
 p. Cluent. 51. § 141. we must read ipse, and not et ipse. But et 
 ipse frequently occurs in Livy, Curtius, and the later writers ; 
 e. g. Liv. xxi. 17. : quia L. Manlius et ipse cum haud invalido 
 praesidio in Galliam mittebatur ; ibid. c. 21. : credo ego vos, 
 socii, et ipsos cernere ; Quintil. ix. 4. 43. : Virtutes et ipsae taedium 
 pariunt, nisi gratia varietatis adjutae. In like manner nee ipse is 
 used in the sense of " neither; " e. g. Liv. xxiii.18. : Primis re- 
 pulsis Maharbal cum major e robore virorum missus nee ipse erup- 
 tionem cohortium sustinuit. 
 
 [§ 699.] 7. Is, as was remarked in § 127., refers to something 
 preceding, a person or thing spoken of before; e. g. Cic. iri 
 Verr. iii. 23. : Polemarchus est Murgentinus, vir bonus atque 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 475 
 
 honestus. Is quum medimna DCC decumae imperarentur, quod 
 recusabat, ad istum in jus eductus est ; i. 41. : C. Annius Asellus 
 mortuus est C. Sacerdote praetore. Is quum haheret unicam 
 Jiliam — earn bonis suis heredem instituit. If the noun thus re- 
 ferred to is to receive some additional predicate, we must use et 
 is, atque is, isque, et is quidem, and with a negative, nee is ; e. g. 
 Cic. in Cat. iv. 4. : Vincula vero, et ea sempiterna, certe ad sin- 
 gularem poenam nefarii sceleris inventa sunt ; de Finn i. 20. : At 
 vero Epicurus una in domo, et ea quidem angusta, quam magnos 
 quantaque amoris conspiratione consentientes tenuit amicorum 
 greges ! Liv. ii. 3. : Erant in Romana juventute adolescentes ali- 
 quot, nee ii tenui loco orti, quorum in regno libido solutior fuerat ; 
 Cic. Tusc. i. 3. : at contra oratorem celeriter complexi sumus, 
 nee eum primo eruditum, aptum tamen ad dicendum, post autem 
 eruditum. Sed idem is used when the additional predicate is 
 opposed to the one preceding, as Cic. Cat. Maj. 18. : Severitatem 
 in senectute probo, sed eam, sicut alia, modicam: acerbitatem 
 nuEo modo. The neuter {et id, idque) is used, when the pro- 
 position itself receives an addition, Cic. ad Fam, xiii. 16.: 
 doctum igitur hominem cognovi et studiis optimis deditum, idque a 
 puero; de Off. i. 1. : Quamquam te, Marce fili, annum jam au- 
 dientem Cratippum, idque Athenis, abundare oportet, &c. 
 
 [§700.] 8. Hie — ille, when referring to persons or things 
 mentioned before, generally follow the previous order, hie (the 
 former) referring to the person mentioned first, and ille (the 
 latter) to the one mentioned last; e. g. Quintil. vi. 1. 21. : Me- 
 ritis majorum Cicero atque Asinius certatim sunt usi, pvo Scauro 
 patre hie (Cicero), ille pro Jilio ; vi. 1.9.: Haec pars per- 
 orationis accusatori patronisque ex aequo communis est. Affectibus 
 quoque iisdem fere utuntur, sed rarius hie (accusator), ille saepius 
 ac magis. Nam huic concitare judices, illi Jlectere convenit ; 
 Cic. Lael. 2. : Cave Catoni anteponas ne istum quidem ipsum, 
 quern Apollo sapientissimum judicavit (Socratem): hujus enim 
 facta, illius dicta laudantur ; Liv. xxx. 30. : melior tutiorque 
 est certa pax, quam sperata victoria : haec (pax) in tua, ilia in 
 deorum potestate est. But the case is often reversed, hie referring 
 to the object mentioned last, as the nearer one, and ille to that 
 mentioned first, as the remoter one ; in this case, however, ille 
 — hie is used, and the order in which the objects were men- 
 tioned before is thus restored ; e. g. Cic. Lael. 24. : Scitum est 
 
473 LAilN GKAMMAR. 
 
 illud Catonls, ut multa: melius de quibusdam acerbos inimicos 
 mereri, quam eos amicos, qui dulces videantur ; illos (inimicos) 
 saepe verum dicere, hos nunquam ; Sallust, Cat. 54. : Caesar be- 
 nejiciis atque munijicentia magnus habebatur, integritate vitae Cato. 
 llle (Caesar) mansuetudine et misericordia clarus f actus, huic 
 severitas dignitatem addiderat. The same is sometimes found in 
 Quintilian, Both pronouns, but more frequently hie, are used 
 in the sense of the English " the following," which is never ex- 
 pressed by sequens. It should however be observed that hoc 
 dico is commonly equivalent to hoc tantum dico, I will say only 
 thus much. 
 
 Note. When alter— alter (the one — and the other) refer to things men- 
 tioned before, the reference may likewise be made in two ways : either the 
 previous order is observed, or it is reversed, reference being first made to 
 the thing mentioned last. The former occurs ; e. g. in Cic. de Off. i, 26. : 
 Philippum Macedonum regem^ rebus gestis et gloria super atum a jilio., facilitate 
 et humanitate video superiorem fuisse. Itaque alter (Philippus) semper magnus^ 
 alter (filius) saepe turpissimus ; the latter in Cic. p. Quint. 1. : Qiiae res in 
 civitate duae plurimum possunt, eae contra nos ambae faciunt, summa gratia et 
 eloquentia, quarum alteram (eloquentiam) vereor^ alteram (gratiam) metuo. 
 See de Off. iii. 18. init. ; i. 12. Wherever there is ambiguity, the latter 
 order must be observed. PHn. Epist. ix. 13. : Fuerat cum Arria et Fannia, 
 qunrum altera (Fannia) Helvidio noverca^ altera mater novercae. 
 
 [ § 701.] 9. llle, when not in opposition to hie, is often used 
 to refer to things which are well known or celebrated, and 
 although distant in time or place, are yet present to the minds 
 of all, as Cic. p. Leg. Man. 9. : Primum ex suo regno sic Mithri- 
 dates profugit, ut ex eodem Ponto Medea ilia quondam profugisse 
 dicitur ; p. Arch. 10.: Quam multos scriptores rerum suarwn 
 magnus ille Alexander secum habuisse dicitur ? Nep. Thrasyb. 
 4. : Bene ergo Pittacus ille, qui septem sapientum numero est ha- 
 bitus, quum ei Mitylenaei multa milia jugerum agri muneri darent, 
 Nollte, oro vos, inquit, id mihi dare, quod multi invideant, plures 
 etiam concupiscant ; Cic. Brut. 4. : Illud Ilesiodium laudatur a 
 doctis, quod eadem mensura reddere jubet, qua acceperis, aut etiam 
 cumulatiore, si possis. Hence ille is sometimes added to other 
 pronouns, to refer to something discussed before, as Tacit. Ann. 
 xi. 7. : quem ilium tanta superbia esse, ut aeternitatem famae spe 
 praesumat? xii. 36.: avebant visere, quis ille tot per anno- opes 
 nostras sprevisset ; xiv. 22. : hunc ilium numine deum destinari 
 credebant. Iste, on the other hand, wdiich is properly a pronoun 
 of the second person (see § 12V.), sometimes implies disapproval 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 477 
 
 or contempt. This arises from its frequent use in speeches 
 in the courts of justice and its application to the opponent. 
 
 Note. The pronouns Mc^ ille, iste are joined with talis and tantus, which 
 we cannot well render in English, except by making two sentences, e. g, Cic. 
 ad Fam. xvi. 21. : Da operam ut hunc talem — virum videas quam plurimum, 
 this man, who is of such a character ; de Orat. ii. 20. : Ista tanta tamque 
 multa profitenda non censeo, this, which is so great and manifold. Hie et hie, 
 hie et ille, ille et ille are used to refer to several indefinite objects, as in 
 English " this one and that one ; " any one" of indefinite persons or thiflgs 
 is expressed by hie ant ille. 
 
 [§ 702.] 10. The oblique cases of the personal pronoun of 
 the third person (English him) are commonly expressed in prose 
 by the cases of is, ea, id, as was remarked in § 125. The pro- 
 nouns hie and ille are more emphatic ; hence, as Bentley (on 
 Horat. Carm. iii. 11. 18.) has acutely observed, they supply in 
 lyric poetry throughout the place of the plain ejus, ei, eum ; in 
 prose, too, they are frequently so used, ille in this case answer- 
 ing to the emphatic " he." The cases of ipse, ipsa, ipsum, are 
 employed, when the individuality of the person is to be ex- 
 pressed, e. g. Caesar respondit, sicut ipsius dignitas postulahat, 
 as his own dignity demanded; sicut ipsi placuit, sicut ipsum 
 decebat; Cic. de Fiji. ii. 26.: FIoc etsi reprehendi potest, tamen 
 accipio quod dant : mihi enim satis est, ipsis non satis. Hence 
 ipse is joined to ego, tu, se, hie, ille, iste and idem. In reflective 
 sentences this pronoun is used for sui, sibi, se, only when the 
 person of the leading subject is to be referred to with particular 
 emphasis, as Cic. de Fin. iii. 1 9. : Inhumana vox ducitur eorum 
 qui negant se recusare, quo minus, ipsis mortuis, terrarum, om- 
 nium defiagratio consequatur ; Sallust, Jug. 46. : Igitur ( Jugurtha) 
 legatos ad consulem mittit, qui tantummodo ipsi liberisque vitam 
 peterent. Sibi, however, might also be used. Comp. § 550. 
 
 [§ 703.] 11. Hie and ille bear the same relation to time 
 present and past, as nunc and tunc (see §§ 285. and 291.), that 
 is, every thing which a person, when speaking of time really 
 present, expresses by hie and its derivative adverbs hie, hinc, 
 hue and adhuc, is expressed by ille and its derivatives, when it 
 is spoken of as belonging to time past. The Syracusans, as 
 Cicero {in Verr. iv. 62.) relates, complained senatum populumque 
 Syracusanum moleste ferre, quod ego, quum in ceteris Siciliae 
 civitatibus senatum populumque docuissem, quid eis utilitatis 
 afferrem, et quum ab omnibus mandata, legatos, litteras tes- 
 
478 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 timoniaque sumpsissem, in ilia civitate nihil ejusmodi facerern. 
 In direct speech they themselves would say : querimur in hac 
 civitate te nihil ejusmodi facer e. In the same manner, c. 29 : 
 Rex clamare coepit, candelabrum sibi C. Verrem abstulisse : id 
 etsi antea jam mente et cogitatione sua fratrisque sui consecratum 
 esset, tamen turn se in illo conventu civium Romanorum dare, 
 donare, dicare, consecrare Jovi Opt. Max, ; he himself would say 
 tamen nunc in hoc conventu do, &c. 
 
 [§ 704.] 12. In the connection of sentences is, idem, talis, 
 tantus, tot or totidem, are followed (sometimes the arrangement 
 of words produces the reversed order) by the relative pronouns 
 qui, qualis, quantus, quot. This must be particularly attended 
 to by the beginner, as the English language usually employs 
 " as " instead of the relative ; e. g. qualem te jam antea populo 
 Romano praebuisti, talem te nobis hoc tempore imperii; Cic. ad 
 Att. vii. 1. : videre mihi videor tantam dimicationem, quanta nun' 
 quamfuit, as there never was. Further, eo<iem modo me decepit 
 quo te ; eadem facilitate Graecos scriptores intelligere, qua 
 Latinos ; idem quod tu passus sum ; iidem abeunt qui venerunt. 
 Instead of the relative after idem, talis and totidem, however, we 
 may also use ac, atque or ut. See § 340. Cic. in Vat. 4. : honos 
 talis paucis est delatus ac mihi ; Tusc. ii. 3. : eisdem fere verbis 
 exponimus, ut actum disputatumque est. Idem cum also occurs, 
 as Tacit. Ann. xv. 2. : eodem mecum patre genitus, instead of 
 quo ego. The construction of idem with the dative is pure 
 Greek, and occurs only in poetry, and even there very rarely, 
 e. g. Herat. Ars Poet. 467. : Invitum qui servat idem facit occi- 
 denti, \. e. quod occidens, or quasi occidat; Ovid, Amor. i. 4. 1. : 
 Vir tuus est epulas nobis aditurus easdem. Similis is construed 
 like idem, in l^orvii. Serm. i. 3. 122.: quum magnis parva mineris 
 falce recisurum simili te, to cut down with equal sickle small as 
 well as great things. 
 
 [§ 705.] 13. Qui joined to esse and a substantive, either in 
 the nominative or ablative of quality, is used in explanatory 
 clauses instead of pro, " in accordance with," or " according to," 
 e. g. instead of Tu, pro tua prudentia, quid optimum factu sit, 
 videbis, in Cicero (ad Fam. x. 27.), we may say Facile, quae 
 tua est prudentia, or qua prudentia es, quid optimum factu sit, 
 videbis. Examples are numerous : D. Brut, in Cic. ad Fam, 
 xi. 13. : Attendere te volo, quae in manibus sunt. Qua enim 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 479 
 
 prudentia es, nihil te fugiet, si meas litteras diligenter legeris ; 
 Cic. ad Att vi. 9. : Quare de hoc satis : spero enim, quae tua 
 prudentia et temperantia est, te jam, ut volumus, valere ; ad Fam. 
 xii. 29. : Nee dubito, quin sine mea commendatione, quod tuum 
 est judicium de hominihus, ipsius Lamiae causa studiose omnia 
 facturus sis. 
 
 [§ 706.] 14. We observed above (§ 128.) that the relativa 
 generalia, which are formed either by doubling the simple re- 
 lative, or by the suffix cunque, as quisquis and quicunque, are 
 in classical prose always joined with a verb, and form, the 
 protasis. When, notwithstanding this, Ave sometimes read in 
 Cicero quacunque ratione and quoquo modo in the sense of omni 
 ratione, omni modo, we must explain such expressions by means 
 of an ellipsis, e. g. quacunque ratione fieri potest. But in later 
 writers we frequently find quicunque used in this absolute sense 
 for quivis or quilibet ; e. g. Sueton. Claud. 34.: quocunque gla- 
 diatorio munere prolapsos jugulari juhebat ; Quintil. x. 1. 105. : 
 Ciceronem cuicunque eorum fortit&r opposuerim, and this author 
 and Tacitus use it quite commonly in this sense ; but the fact of 
 such peculiarities, which are founded on the whole structure of 
 a language, being effaced, is a sign of the decay of the language. 
 Qualiscunque and quantuscunque are likewise used in an ab- 
 solute sense (by means of an ellipsis), w^hich, however, cannot 
 be censured, the force of the expression being thus enhanced ; 
 e. g. Senec. Epist. 80. : Tu non concupisces quanticunque ad 
 libertatem pervenire, at any price, be it ever so high ; Cic. ad 
 Fam, iv. 8. : Si libertatem sequimur : qui locus hoc dominatu 
 vacat ? sin qualemcunque locum : quae est domestica sede ju- 
 cundior, 
 
 [§ 707.] 15. Quidam, some, and substantively, "some one," 
 expresses qualitative indefiniteness, and it is strange to find 
 that certi homines is used in the same sense (e. g. Cic. Tusc. iii, 
 34.), just as we say " certain people." Quidam expressing 
 quantitative indefiniteness, in the sense of nonnulli, aliquot, 
 occurs more rarely. We must here observe that quidam, when 
 joined to substantives and adjectives, is very often used merely 
 to soften the expression, when the speaker feels that he has 
 made use of too strong an expression, especially when he means 
 to suggest that the word he has used, should not be taken in 
 its literal, but in a figurative sense. The best Latin writers, and 
 
480 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 more particularly Cicero, are very scrupulous in their appli- 
 cation of words, and add their quidam or quasi quidam^ where 
 later writers and modern languages do not feel any necessity for 
 such a modifying or softening word. When in English any 
 thing of the kind is required, it is expressed in different ways, 
 one of which is the expression, " so to speak," which is also not 
 unfrequently used in Latin, ut ita dicam. In' the following 
 passages quidam softens down adjectives, Cic. ad Fam. viii. 8. : 
 ex tuis litteris cognovi praeposteram quandam festinationem tuam ; 
 xii. 25. ; fuit enim illud quoddam caecum tempus servitutis ; de 
 Orat. ii. 74. : ut apud Graecos fertur incredibili quadam mag- 
 nitudine consilii atque ingenii Atheniensis ille fuisse TJiemistocles ; 
 Lael. 13.: non sunt isti audiendi, qui virtutem duram et quasi 
 ferream quandam volunt ; and in the following it softens down 
 substantives, Cic. de Orat. ii. 46. : Saepe enim audivi, poetam 
 bonum neminem sine hiflammatione anhnorum, existere posse, et 
 siiie quodam afflatu quasi furoris ; i. 3. : Neque enim te fugit, 
 artium omnium laudatarum procreatricem quandam et quasi 
 parentem philosophiam ah hominihus doctissimis judicari ; p. 
 Arch. 1. : Etenim omnes artes, quae ad humanitaiem pertinent, 
 hahent quoddam commune vinculum et quasi cognatione quadam 
 inter se continentur. Tamquam is used for the same purpose, as 
 Cic. de Orat. iii. 43. : Translatum verbum maxime tamquam 
 stellis quibusdam notat et illuminat orationem. 
 
 [§ 708.] 16. There is this difference between the shnple 
 indefinite pronovm, quis^ qui, and the compound aliquis, that the 
 latter is more emphatic than the former. Hence aliquis stands 
 by itself as an independent word, while the unaccented quis is 
 joined to other words, more especially to the conjunctions si, 
 nisi, ne, num, and to relatives, and quum which originally was a 
 relative (§ 136.); sometimes one or more words are inserted 
 between quis and the words to which it belongs, e. g. Cic. de 
 Off. i. 10. : Illis promissis standum non est, quae coactus quis 
 metu promiserit; Tusc.iy. 19.: Ubi enim quid esset, quod disci 
 posset, eo veniendum judicaverunt ; v. 27.: mulieres in India, 
 quum est cujus earum vir mortuus ; de Fin. v. 10. : quotiens- 
 cunque' dicetur male de se quis merer i. In other connections, 
 however, quis is used with somewhat more independence, as Cic. 
 ad Att. vi. 1.: credo Scaptium. iniquius quid de me scripsisse ; 
 de Off. iii. 6.: morbus aut egestas aM quid ejusmodi; de Fin. 
 
w 
 
 PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 481 
 
 iii. 21. ; alienum est ajustitia detrahere quid de aliquo, and imme- 
 diately after injuriam cuifacere ; de Nat Deor. i, 24. : priusque 
 te quis de omni vitae statu, quam de ista auctoritate dejecerit, and 
 we not unfrequently find dixerit quis, some one might say. 
 But such passages are, after all, of very rare occurrence in the 
 language of Cicero, and it is advisable to follow his example 
 rather than that of 'later writers, who used the indefinite quis 
 more frequently in the place of aliquis. 
 
 It must, however, be observed, on the other hand, that aliquis 
 is used after those conjunctions which usually require quis, when 
 it stands in an antithetical relation to something else, and accord- 
 ingly has a stronger emphasis, e. g. Cic. p. Milon, 24. : Timebat 
 Pompejus omnia, ne aliquid vos timer etis ; Philip, xiii. 1. : Si ali- 
 quid de summa gravitate Pompejus, multum de cupiditate Caesar 
 remisisset ; adPam. xiv. 1. : cui si aliquid erit (if he has but some- 
 thing) ne egeat, mediocri virtute opus est, ut cetera consequatur ; 
 Liv. xxiv. 8. : Create consulem T. Otacilium, non dico si omnia 
 liaec, sed si aliquid eorum praestitit. We are sometimes obliged, 
 in English, to express the emphasis of aliquis by the word 
 " really," e. g. Cic. Cat. Maj. 20. : Sensus moriendi, si aliquis 
 esse potest, is ad exiguum tempus durat ; ibid. 13.: si aliquid 
 dandum est voluptati, senectus modicis conviviis potest delectari. 
 Comp. ad Fam, xi. 18. 3. ; in Verr, ii. 31. 77. 
 
 Quispiam, which is used more rarely, is sometunes employed, 
 like quis, after conjunctions, as in Cicero ; pecuniam si cuipiam 
 fortuna ademit ; si grando quippiam nocuit, — and sometimes it 
 stands alone, e. g. quaeret fortasse quispiam, where quispiam is 
 rather more indefinite than aliquis would be. 
 
 [§ 709.] 17. The difference between quisquam and ullus is 
 this, that quisquam is used substantively (we must, however, 
 bear in mind what was said in § 676.), while ullus is an adjec- 
 tive ; both, however, have a negative sense, and are thus opposed 
 to the affirmatives quis, quispiam, and aliquis. They are used, 
 like the adverbs unquam and usquam (see § 284.), only in such 
 sentences as are negative, either through the negative particles 
 non, ncque, nemo, nunquam, &c., or through a negative verb, as 
 nego, nescio, veto, ignoro, or through their whole construction ; 
 e. g. nego fore quemquam, or nego fore ullum hominem, which 
 are equivalent to neminem, or nullum hominem fore puto, so that 
 quisquam corresponds to the substantive nemo, and ullus to the 
 
 I I 
 
482 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 adjective nullus. Clc. Philip, x. 7. : Ab hoc igitur quisquam 
 helium timet ? which, if we resolve the interrogative form, will 
 be nemo ah hoc helium timet. A sentence may acquire a negative 
 character from a comparative ; e. g. when I say : " he stayed in 
 this place longer than in any other," the meaning is : " he did 
 not stay so long in any other placie." Hence we say in Latin, 
 diutius in hac urbe quam in alia ulla commoratus est ; Cic. in 
 Verr, iv. 66. : Tetrior hie tyrannus Syracusanus fuit quam quis- 
 quam superiorum. It seems surprising that quis, and not quis- 
 quam, is used after the dependent negative particles ne, neve, 
 and after the negative interrogative particle num ; and this is 
 indeed an exception arising from fhe ordinary use of quis after 
 conjunctions. The preposition sine has likewise a negative 
 power ; hence we say sine ulla spe ; and hence non sine is af- 
 firmative, e. g. non sine aliqua spe hue venerunt, not without 
 some hope, i. e. cum aliqua spe. See my note on Cic, Divin. 18. 
 [§ 709. 5.] Quisquam and ullus, however, are sometimes used 
 after si, instead of aliquis or quis, not in a negative sense, but 
 only to increase the indefiniteness which would be implied 
 in aliquis or quis, e. g. Cic. Lael. 2. : Aut enim nemo, quod 
 quidem magis credo, aut, si quisquam, ille sapiens fuit; de 
 Off. i. ^31. : Omnino, si quidquam est decorum, nihil est pro- 
 fecto magis, quam aequahilitas universae vitae ; ad Fam. ii. 
 16. : Filio meo, si erit ulla res puhlica, satis amplum patri- 
 monium in memoria nominis mei : sin autem nulla erit, &c., 
 here the former part with ulla is meant as affirmative. In 
 Liv. V. 33. : Camillo manente, si quidquam humanorum certi est, 
 capi Roma non potuerat, the negative sense is still perceptible, 
 for, in fact, nothing human can be asserted with certainty ; and 
 such passages may serve to explain many similar ones. In this 
 manner it gradually came to pass, that quisquam, ullus, unquam, 
 usquam were also used without si, where the indefiniteness is to 
 be made emphatic (answering to the emphatic any), as Cic. in 
 Cat, i. 2. : Quamdiu quisquam erit, qui te dcfendere audeat, 
 vives ; p. Rose. Am. 43. : Dum praesidia idla fuerunt, Roscius 
 in Sullae praesidiis fuit ; Nep. Att. 19.: Tanta prosperitas Cae- 
 sarem est consecuta, ut nihil ei non trihuerit fortuna, quod cuiquam 
 ante detulerit; Liv. i. 18. : Curihus Sahinis habitabat consultis- 
 simus vir, ut in ilia quisquam esse aetate poterat ; xxi. 1. : helium 
 maxime omnium memorabile, quae unquam gesta sunt, scripturus 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 483 
 
 sum ; Tacit. Ann, xi. 24. : majores mei hortantur^ ut paribus 
 consiliis rem publicam capessam transferendo hue quod usquam 
 egregium fuerit ; Quintil. x. 1. 60.: Archilochus quod quoquam 
 minor est, materiae vitium est, non ingenii ; and Seneca (de 
 Tranquil. 11.) uses it in a witty antithesis, in a decidedly- 
 affirmative sense : cuivis potest accidere, quod cuiquam potest. 
 
 [§ 710.] 18. Quisque is every one distributively or relatively, 
 but unusquisque, quivis, quilihet, every one absolutely ; e. g, 
 natura unumquemque trahit ad discendum; but (Quintil. ii. 8. 
 init.) virtus praeceptoris haberi solet, quo quemque natura maxime 
 ferat, scire, presupposes a division or distribution, every one 
 in his own particular way. Hence quisque has its peculiar 
 place after relative and interrogative pronouns and adverbs ; 
 e. g. Cic. in Verr. iv. 33. : Scipio pollicetur sibi magnae curae 
 fore, ut omnia civitatibus, quae cujusque fuissent, restituerentur ; 
 de Divin. i. 1. : ut praedici posset, quid cuique eventurum et quo 
 quisque fato natus esset ; i. 39. : Cur fiat quidque quaeris : recte 
 omnino ; p. Rose. Com. 11. : Quo quisque est sollertior et ingenio^ 
 sior, hoe doeet iracundius et laboriosius ; de Or at. i. 26. : Ut 
 quisque optime dieit, ita maxime dicendi difficultatem timet ; Liv. 
 iii. 27. : vallum sumpsere, unde euique proximum fuit, and in 
 innumerable other passages. Hence the expression quotusquisque 
 in the sense of " how few among all ? " as Plin. Epist. iii. 20. : 
 Quotoeuique eadem honestatis cura seereto, quae palam ? Quisque 
 is further used distributively after numerals ; e. g. decimus quis- 
 que sorte leetus, every tenth man ; quinto quoque anno ludi cele- 
 brabantur, m every fifth year ; tertio quoque verba peeeat ; and 
 after suus, a, um, as sui euique liberi earissimi, suum cuique placet, 
 suae quemque fortunae maxime poenitet, where attention must be 
 paid to the arrangement of the words (see § 801.), and also to 
 the fact of quisque remaining in the nominat. in the construction 
 of the ablat. absolute ; e. g. Sallust, Jug. 18. : multis sibi quisque 
 imperium petentibus ; Justin, xxix. 1.: his regibus in suorum 
 quisque majorum vestigia nitentibus ; Liv. xxi. 45. : omnes, velut 
 diis auctoribus in spem suam quisque acceptis, proelium poscunt, 
 (See Kritz on the passage of Sallust.) In the same manner we 
 find quisque in the accusat. with the infinitive in Liv. xxvi. 29. ; 
 affirmantes, se non modo suam quisque patriam, sed totam Sici-^ 
 Ham relicturos. 
 
 [§ 710. b.l Quisque with a superlative, both in the singular 
 
 II 2 
 
484 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 and plural, as opHmus quisque, or (adject.) optimi quique, is in 
 general equivalent to omnes with the positive, but in connection 
 with the verb following it conveys the idea of a reciprocal com- 
 parison among the persons implied in the statement; as Cic. 
 Tusc, iii. 28.: Quid? ex ceteris philosophis nonne optimus quisque 
 et gravissimus confitetur, multa se ignorare ? Hence this superla- 
 tive is frequently in relation to another, which is joined with the 
 verb, whereby the reciprocal comparison is distinctly expressed, 
 Cic. Cat. Maj. 23. : Quod quidem ni ita se haberet, ut animi im~ 
 mortales essent, haud optimi cujusque animus maxime ad immor- 
 talitatem gloriae niter etur. Quid quod sapientissimus quisque. 
 aequissimo animo moritur, stultissimus iniquissimo ? de Fin, ii. 
 25. : in omni enim arte optimum quidque rarissimum ; Curt. vii. 
 16. : Altissima quaeque Jiumina minimo sono lahuntur ; Liv. xxx. 
 30. : Maxiamae cuique fortunae minime credendum est. 
 
 [§ 711.] 19. The interrogative quid is often used in the sense 
 of "why?" or "for what purpose?" (comp. nihil, §677.); 
 e. g. quid me ostentem ? why should I boast ? quid opus est plura? 
 why should I say more ? Also in indirect questions, as Cic. 
 p. Rose. Am. 12.: A Fimbria quaerebatur, quid tandem accusaturus 
 esset eum, quern pro dignitate ne laudare quidem quisquam satis 
 commode posset ; p. Muren. 37. ; Quaeris a me, quid ego Catilinam 
 metuam. Nihil, et curavi ne quis metueret. 
 
 [§ 712.] 20. Alius is joined in a peculiar way to other cases 
 of its own, or to adverbs derived from alius, for which in English 
 we use two sentences with the one, the other ; e. g. Cicero : aliud 
 aliis videtur optimum, one thinks this and another that the best ; 
 alius alio modo inter pretatur, the one interprets it in this, and 
 the other in another way, or every one interprets it differently ; 
 alia alio in loco intuebantur ; aliter cum aliis loquitur ; aliis 
 aliunde periculum est ; aliud alias mihi videtur. When only two 
 persons or things are spoken of, alter is used in the same way, 
 but there are no adverbs derived from alter ; e. g. alter in alterum 
 causam conferunt, they accuse each other. We may here add 
 the remark that alius — alius and the other derivatives are em- 
 ployed in two sentences for alius, aliter, alias, &c., with ac or 
 atque (than) ; e. g. aliud loquitur, aliud sentit, he speaks other- 
 wise than he thinks; aliter loquitur, aliter scribit, he speaks 
 otherwise than he writes. 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 485 
 
 D. Verbs, 
 
 t§ 713.] 1. The English verb "to order" or "have," in the 
 sense of " to order," is frequently not expressed in Latin, but 
 is implied in the verb, which, in English, is dependent upon 
 the verb "to order ;" e. g. Cic. in Verr, iv. 25. : Piso anulum sibi 
 fecit, Piso ordered a ring to be made for himself, or, had a ring 
 made for himself ; ibid. 29. : Verves ad palum alligavit piratas^ 
 he had them tied to a post; securi percussit archipiratam, he had 
 the archpirate put to death; multos innocentes virgis cecidit ; 
 Nep. {Jim, 4. : Cimon complures pauperes mortuos suo sumptu 
 extulit, had them buried. In like manner condemnare is used of 
 an accuser who brings about a person's condemnation. 
 
 [§ 714.] 2. It has already been observed (§ 637.) that the 
 Latins generally prefer using a verb in the form either of the 
 participle perfect or future passive, instead of a substantive ex- 
 pressing the action of the verb. The present participle is like- 
 wise often used in Latin to express a state or condition where 
 we employ a substantive with a preposition ; e. g. ignorans, from 
 ignorance ; metuens, from fear ; consulatum petens, in his suit for 
 the consulship ; omne malum nascens facile opprimitur, in its 
 origin. The Latin language is not fond of abstract nouns, and 
 prefers, if possible, to express them by verbs. 
 
 3. In like manner circumlocutions, by means of a verb and a 
 relative pronoun, are preferred to those substantives which denote 
 the person of the agent in a definite but not permanent condition ; 
 e. g. a qui audiunt, qui adsunt, qui cum aliquo sunt, qui tibi has 
 litteras reddent, i. e. the audience, the persons present, com- 
 panions, the bearer of the letter ; is qui potestatem habet, the 
 commander or ruler ; ea quae visenda sunt, things to be seen or 
 curiosities ; thus we often find ii qui consuluntur for juris con-- 
 sulti ; qui res judicant for judices, since in the Roman consti- 
 tution they did not form a distinct class of citizens. The 
 English expression "above mentioned" is likewise paraphrased 
 by a verb ; e. g. ex libris, quos dixi, quos ante {supra) laudavi ; 
 Cic. de Off. ii. 9. : primum de illis tribus, quae ante dixi, videa- 
 mus ; the English " so-called," or " what is called-," is expressed 
 by quem, quam, quod vocant, or by qui, quae, quod vocatur, did- 
 tur, &c. ; e. g. Cic. de Leg, ii. 26. : neque opere tectorio exornari 
 sepulchra, nee Hermas hos, quos vocant, imponi ( Athenis) licebat ; 
 Liv. xlv. 33. : ad Spelaeum, quod vocant, biduo moratus ; Cic. 
 
 n 3 
 
486 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 de Re PuhL vi. 14. : vestra^ quae dicitur, vita mors est ; p. Quint, 
 6. : Cum venissent ad Vada Volaterrana, quae nominantur^ vident 
 jL. Publicium. 
 
 [§ 715.] 4. The connection of two substantives by means of 
 a preposition is frequently paraphrased in Latin by a sentence ; 
 e. g. your conduct towards this or that person, agendi ratio, qua 
 uteris, or usus es adversus hunc vel ilium; Cicero's works on 
 Duties may be expressed by Ciceronis libri de Officiis, but more 
 generally Ciceronis libri quos scripsit de Officiis, or libri de Officiis 
 scripti. Certain pronominal expressions are likewise rendered 
 in Latin by special sentences ; e. g. I have no doubt of it, non 
 dubito quin lioc ita sit, quin hoc ita se habeat, quin hoc verum sit ; 
 many things have prevented me from it, multa me impediverunt, 
 quominus hoc facer em. The ablat. absolute quo facto, where- 
 upon, which is in common use, belongs to the same class of ex- 
 pressions. 
 
 [§ 716.] 5. It is customary in an answer to repeat the verb 
 used in the question ; e. g. Cic. Tusc, v. 4. : nempe negas ad 
 beate vivendum satis posse virtutem ? Prorsus nego ; Flor. i. 5. : 
 Tarquinius Navium rogavit, Jierine posset, quod ipse mente conce- 
 perat : ille posse respondit ; Cic. Tusc, iii. 4. : haecine igitur 
 cadere in sapientem putas ? Prorsus existimo, for puto, Comp. 
 the ancient formula of deditio in Liv. i. 38. The same is the 
 case when a negative is introduced : Estnef rater tuus intus ? Non 
 est. (^Non alone is used more rarely.) The adverb vero, certainly, 
 is frequently added to the verb in an affirmative answer, as 
 Cic. Tusc. i. 11.: dasne aut manere animos post mortem, aut 
 morte ipsa interire ? Do vero. Hence when the protasis supplies 
 the place of a question, vero is introduced in the apodosis merely 
 to show that it contains the answer ; e. g. Cic. p. Flacc. 40. : 
 Quod si provinciarum raiio vos magis movet quam vestra : ego vero 
 non modo non recuso, sed etiam postulo, ut provinciarum auctori- 
 tate moveamini ; p. Muren. 4. : Quodsi licet desinere, si te auctore 
 possum — ego vero libenter desino ; ad Fam. xiv. 3. : Quod scribis, 
 te, si velim, ad me venturam: ego vero, quum sciam magnam 
 partem istius oneris abs te sustineri, te istic esse volo. Cicero 
 begins his answer to the celebrated consolatory letter of S. Sul- 
 picius in the following manner : Ego vero, Servi, vellem, ut 
 scribis, in meo gravissimo casu affuisses. For Sulpicius had 
 mentioned in his letter what he would have done, if he had been 
 
PECULTARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 487 
 
 at Rome at the time. Hence we so frequently find quasi vero 
 and immo vero in the same connection, but the latter only when 
 that which precedes is denied, and something still stronger is 
 put in its place. The verb may also be omitted in the answer, 
 and in case of its being affirmative, the pronoun of the verb 
 alone is sometimes repeated with vero ; e. g. dicamne quod sentio ? 
 Tu vero ; Cic. de Off. iii. 13. : quaero, si hoc emptoribus venditor 
 non dixerit — num id injuste aut improbe fecerit. Ille vero, inquit 
 Antipater ; ad Att. xi. 7. : Quod rogas, ut in bonam partem a^ci- 
 piam, si qua sint in tuis litteris, quae me mordeant: ego vero in 
 optimam. Hence lastly the use of vero alone in the sense of 
 '^ yes," and equivalent to sane, ita, etiam ; e. g. Cic. de Divin, 
 i. 46. : illam autem dixisse : Vero, mea puella, tibi concedo meas 
 sedes. (See § 357.) Vero occurs very rarely in negative answers, 
 but is found in the expression minime vero, 
 
 [§717.] 6. When a circumstance is added, supplementary, 
 as it were, to a preceding verb, the verb is frequently repeated ; 
 e.g. Pompey obtained the highest dignities in the state, and 
 that at an earlier age than any one before him, Pompejus summos 
 in republica honores assecutus est, et assecutus est matuHus quam 
 quisquam ante eum ; Cic. de Off. iii. 14. : Emit (hortos) tanti, 
 quanti Pythius voluit, et emit instructos, 
 
 [§ 718.] 7. A similar repetition of a preceding verb, but in the 
 participle perfect passive, expresses the completion of an action, 
 which in English is commonly indicated by " then" or " after- 
 wards ; " e. g. mandavit mihi ut epistolam scriberem, scriptam sibi 
 darem; Caes. Bell, Civ. i. 76.: edicunt ut producantur : pro^ 
 ductos palam in praetorio interjiciunt ; Liv. i. 10.: exercitum 
 fundit fugatque, fusum persequitur ; comp. ii. 28. ; xxii. 20. 
 
 [§ 719.] 8. Respecting the circumlocution of the ablativus 
 causalis by means of the participles ductus, motus, commotus, 
 adductus, captus, incensus, impulsus, and others of similar mean- 
 ing, see § 454. ; e. g. Nep. Alcib. 5. : Lacedaemonii pertimuerunt, 
 ne caritate patriae ductus (from love of his country) aliquando 
 ab ipsis descisceret et cum suis in gratiam rediret ; Cic. de Off. i. 
 10.: Jam illis promissis standum non esse, quis non videt, quae 
 coactus quis metu promiserit ? de Invent, ii. 8. : dubia spe im- 
 pulsus certum in periculum se commisit ; ad Fam. iii. 8. : quum hoc 
 suscepissem non solum justitia, sed etiam misericordia adductus, 
 
 [§ 720.] 9. Soleo aliquid facere and solet aliquid fieri are very 
 
 II 4 
 
488 LATIN" GRAMMAR. 
 
 frequently nothing but forms of expression for saepe hoc facio, 
 saepe or plerumque Jit ; and in this sense it must be understood, 
 especially in the infinitive ; e. g. narrabat patrem suum solitum 
 esse dicere, he related that his father used to say, or often said. 
 
 [§ 721.] 10. The expressions nescio an and hand scio an (the 
 latter is frequent in Cicero, but occurs only once in Livy, iii. 60., 
 and in ix. 15., haud sciam an) have been discussed above, § 354., 
 but only briefly. This expression, which properly signifies " I 
 know not, whether not," has acquired the meaning of the adverb 
 fortasse, perhaps, e. g. Cic. ad Quint. Frat. i. 1. : Tanti tihi 
 honor es hahiti sunt, quanti haud scio an nemini ; Brut. 33. : elo- 
 quentid quidem (C. Grracchus, si diutius vixisset) nescio an ha- 
 huisset parem neminem, he would, perhaps, not have had his 
 equal ; p. Lig. 9. : Quae fuit unquam in ullo homine tanta con- 
 stantia ? constantiam dico ? nescio an melius patientiam possim 
 dicere ; de Fin. v. 3. : Peripateticorum fuit princeps Aristoteles, 
 quern excepto Platone haud scio an recte dixerim principem phi^ 
 losophorum. This adverbial signification perhaps accounts for 
 the indicative which occurs in Terence, Adelph. iv. 5. 33. : qui 
 infelix haud scio an illam miser e nunc amat, but should not be 
 imitated. Hence it appears that we ought always to say nescio 
 an nullus, nunquam, as in the above passages nescio an nemo, 
 and also in Cic. de Off. iii. 2., ad Fam, ix. 14. 12., and Nep., 
 Timol. 1. And this, indeed, is the reading which learned critics 
 (Lambinus, Ernesti, Goerenz) have introduced in Cicero, e. g. 
 Cat. Maj. 16.: mea quidem sententia haud scio an nulla heatior 
 esse possit ; de Leg. i. 21. : hoc dijudicari nescio an nunquam, sed 
 hoc sermone certe non poterit. See also ad Fam. ix. 9. 4. ; ad 
 Att. iv. 3. init. ; de Orat. ii. 4. 18. The authority of MSS has 
 recently been urged against this view, but we think with those 
 editors, that the authority of MSS. is of no weight in so undis- 
 puted an analogy ; and the more so, as in all cases the MSS. con- 
 tain evidence also in favour of the negative, and the differences 
 between the readings are insignificant. There is only one passage 
 in which the difference is considerable, viz. Cic. Lael. 6. : qua 
 quidem haud scio an excepta sapientia quidquam (or nihil) melius 
 homini sit datum ; but even here the reading nihil is sufficiently 
 attested by MSS., to which we may add one of the three 
 Berlin MSS., the two others having quicquam.. But we must 
 observe in conclusion, that the writers of the silver age (es- 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 489 
 
 pecially Qulntllian, see Buttmann on xii. 10. 2.) do not. Indeed, 
 give up the use of nescio an in the sense of fortasse, but along 
 with it they employ the expression also In the negative sense of 
 ** I know not whether," and with ullus after it, the ancient and 
 limited use of an having in the mean- time likewise become ex- 
 tended. 
 
 E. Adverbs, 
 
 [§ 722.] 1. The Latins frequently use an adverb, where the 
 English use a substantive with a preposition, e. g. vere hoc 
 dicere possum, I can say this in truth, or truly. In Latin the 
 preposition cum is sometimes thus employed with a substantive 
 (§ 471.), but the adverb occurs far more frequently, and It is easy 
 to perceive that cum with a substantive serves rather to denote 
 some accessory circumstance, than any thing Inherent in the 
 action. 
 
 2. As the adverb Is joined to a verb in the same manner that 
 an adjective is joined to a substantive, the beginner must be 
 reminded that participles, being parts of a verb, are qualified by 
 adverbs and not by adjectives ; and this rule is observed even 
 when a participle, as is sometimes the case, has acquired the 
 meaning of a substantive, e. g. invcntum, invention; factum, 
 fact, which are frequently joined with adverbs. We find in- 
 deed illustria, fortia, gloriosa facta, but, at the same time, bene 
 facta, recte facta, good deeds, and always res fortiter, praeclare, 
 feliciter a te gestae. 
 
 [§ 723.] 3. Respecting the special use of every separate 
 adverb, see Chap. LXII. : it only remains here to add some 
 remarks relative to the connection of sentences by means of 
 adverbs, and to the Interchange of adverbs. 
 
 Sentences are connected by the doubled adverbs modo — modoy 
 and nunc — nunc (sometimes — sometimes); as, modo hoc, modo illud 
 dicit; modo hue, modo illuc (volat) ; modo ait, modo negat. Nunc — 
 nunc does not occur in Cicero, but is found frequently in Livy 
 and others; as, nunc singidos provocat, nunc omnes increpat; 
 referre egregia facinora nunc in expeditionibus, nunc in acie. 
 Instead of the second modo other particles of time are sometimes 
 used, and Tacitus in particular is fond of varying his expression, 
 by substituting aliquando, nonnunquam, interdum, saepius, tum, 
 or deinde for the second modo. 
 
490 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Partim—partim, partly — partly, is sometimes used in quite the 
 same sense as alii — alii (or the other genders), that is, as the 
 nominat. of a noun. See § 271. 
 
 Simul — simul, ias well — as, does not occur in Cicero, but is 
 used by the historians, and once by Caesar, Bell. Gall. iv. 13. : 
 simul sui purgandi causa, simul ut, si quid possent, de induciis 
 impetrarent. 
 
 Qua — qua does not occur very frequently, and is equivalent 
 to et—etf as Cic. ad Att. ii. 19. : Gladiatorihus qua dominus, qua 
 advocati sibilis conscissi. 
 
 Tum — turn is used like modo — modo, as an adverb of time, or 
 like partim — partim, denoting divisions of equal value, e. g. Cic. 
 Lael. 21. : Erumpunt saepe vitia amicorum tum in ipsos amicos, 
 tum in alienos, quorum tamen ad amicos redundat infamia ; de 
 Fin. i, 14. : Plerique propter voluptatem tum in morbos graves, 
 tum in damna, tum in dedecora incurrunt ; de Off. ii. 1 9. : Quae 
 autem opera, non largitione, heneficia dantur, liaec tum in uni- 
 versaTn rem puhlicam, tum in singulos cives conferiintur. 
 
 Quum — tum is equivalent to et — et, except that it assigns a 
 greater importance to the second part; it must therefore be 
 translated by "both — and especially," "not only — but also," 
 or, ** but more particularly." This meaning is often expressed 
 more strongly by adding to tum the particles vero, certe, etiam 
 (sometimes quoque), praecipue, imprimis, maxime. The con- 
 struction and signification of this expression must be traced to 
 the use of quum with the subjunctive in a protasis which con- 
 tains the introductory premises, and is followed by an apodosis 
 with tum, containing the application of the premises to the 
 particular case in question; e. g. Cic. p. Sext. 1. : in quo quum 
 multa sint indigna, tum nihil minus est ferendum ; in Hull. iii. 3. : 
 Jam totam legem intelligitis, quum ad paucorum dominationem 
 scripta sit, tum ad Sullanae assignationis rationes esse accom- 
 modatam ; p. Arch. 4. : idque, quum per se dignus putaretur, tum 
 auctoritate et gratia Luculli impetravit. This frequent mode of 
 connecting sentences led the Romans to regard quum as an ad- 
 verbial correlative of tum, without any influence upon the con- 
 struction ; and hence it is joined with the indicative, e. g. Cic. 
 ad Fam. iii. 9. : Quum ipsam cognitionem juris augurii consequi 
 cupio, tum mehercule tuis incredihiliter studiis delector ; vi. 14. : 
 nam quum te semper maxime dilexi, tum fratrum tuorum sin^ 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 491 
 
 gularis pietas nullum me patitur officii erga te munus practer- 
 mittere, Quum then becomes a complete adverb, when being 
 followed by tum, it serves to express the opposition between 
 single words which have the same verb, e. g. Animi magnitudo 
 quum in utilitatibus comparandis, turn, multo magis in his despi- 
 ciendis elucet ; fortuna quum in reliquis rebus, tum praecipue in 
 bello plurimum potest ; Agesilaus quum a ceteris scriptoribus, tum 
 eximie a Xenophonte collaudatus est ; luxuria quum omni aetate 
 turpis, tum senectuti foedissima est ; quum multa indigna, tum 
 vel hoc indignissimum est. Sometimes the verb stands in the 
 first part of the sentence, Cic. Divin, 11.: quum omnis arro- 
 gantia odiosa est, tum ilia ingenii atque eloquentiae multo mo~ 
 lestissima ; in Verr. v. 2. 1.: Nam quum omnium sociorum 
 provinciarumque rationem diligenter habere debetis, tum praecipue 
 Siciliae, judices, plurimis justissimisque de causis. Such a sen- 
 tence, however, might also be expressed in the manner which 
 we mentioned first, e. g. Fortuna quum in ceteris rebus multum, 
 tum praecipue in bello dominatur, Tum is sometimes re- 
 peated in the second part of a sentence, e. g. Cic. in Verr, 
 i. 58. : quern, pater moriens quum tutoribus et propinquis, tum 
 legibus, turn, aequitati magistratuum, tum judiciis vestris com- 
 mendatum putavit, — and sometimes we find the gradation quum 
 ^tum — tum vero, as Cic. de Leg. Agr. i. 3. : quorum quum ad- 
 ventus graves, tum fasces formidolosi, tum vero judicium ac 
 potestas erit non ferenda ; p. Bab. perd. 1. : Nam me quum 
 amicitiae vetustas, tum dignitas hominis, turn ratio humanitatis, 
 tum meae vitae perpetua consuetudo ad C. Rabirium defendendum 
 est adhortata, tum vero, &c. It is doubtful whether the same is 
 allowable with quum. See Cic. p. Muren. 18. 38. ; Stiirenburg 
 on Cic. p. Arch. 12. 31. Lat. edition. 
 
 [§ 724.] 4. Non modo — sed etiam (or non solum, or non tantum 
 ' — verum etiam) generally expresses the transition from less im- 
 portant to more important things, like the English " not only 
 - — but (also)," e. g. Liv. L 22. : Tullus Hostilius non solum 
 proximo regi dissimilis, sed ferocior etiam Romulo fuit. When 
 a transition from greater to lesser things is to be expressed, we 
 usually find non modo (but not non solum) — sed, without the 
 etiam, e. g. Cic. p. Leg. Man. 22. : Quae civitas est in Asia, 
 quae non modo imperatoris aut legati, sed unius tribuni miUtwm 
 animos ac spiritus capere possit 9 Divin. 8. Qua in re non modo 
 
492 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ceteris specimen aliquod dedisti, sed tute tui periculum fecisti ? 
 p. SexL 20. : Jecissem me ipse potius in profundum, ut ceteros 
 conservarem, quam illos mei tarn cupidos non modo ad certam 
 mortem, sed in magnum vitae discrimen adducerem. We render 
 this non modo — sed in English by " I will not say — but only," 
 and in Latin too we may say non dicam, or non dico — sed, as in 
 Cic. p. Plane. 33. : Nihil tarn inhumanum est, quam committere 
 ut benejicio non dicam indignus, sed victus esse videare ; Philip, 
 ii. 4. : Quid est enim minus non dico oratoris, sed hominis, ho,. 
 We may further, without altering the meaning, invert such 
 sentences by means of ne dicam or nedum ; thus instead of the 
 above quoted passage (/?. Leg, Man, 22.), we may say: Quae 
 civitas est in Asia, quae unius trihuni militum spiritus caper e 
 possit, ne dicam (nedum) imperatoris aut legati. See above, 
 § 573. There are indeed some passages in Cicero, in which 
 non modo (solum) — sed expresses an ascending transition, and 
 non modo — sed etiam a descending one, in which case etiam is 
 added without any meaning ; but the majority of passages of this 
 author justifies us in adhering to the distinction drawn above. 
 
 [§ 724. b.l When the sentences are negative, i. e. when they 
 are connected by means of "not only not — but not even," non 
 modo (solum) non — sed ne quidem, the second non is omitted if 
 both sentences have the same verb, and if the verb is contained 
 in the second sentence, for the negative ne is then considered to 
 belong conjointly to both sentences, e. g. Cic. de Off, iii. 19. : 
 talis vir non modo facere, sed ne cogitare quidem quidquam au- 
 debit, quod non honestum sit, which is equivalent to talis vir non 
 modo facere, sed etiam cogitare non audebit , Lael, 24. : Assen- 
 tatio, vitiorum adjutrix, procul amoveatur ; quae non modo amico, 
 sed ne libero quidem digna est. This sentence may also be in- 
 verted : Assentatio he libero quidem digna est, non modo (not to 
 mention) amico, as in Cic. Tusc, i. 38. : ne sues quidem id velint, 
 non modo ipse. The case remains the same, when sed vix follows 
 in the second part of the sentence, e. g. Cic. p, Coel, 17. : verum 
 haec genera virtutum non solum in moribus nostris, sed vix jam in 
 libris reperiuntur, these virtues are not only not found in life, but 
 scarcely in books ; Liv. iii. 6. : non modo ad expeditiones, sed vix 
 ad quietas stationes viribus sufficiebant. But if each part of the 
 sentence has its own verb, or if the verb, although common to 
 both, is expressed in the first part, non modo non is used 
 
PECULI^UIITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 493 
 
 complete, e. g. Cic. p. Sull. 18. : Ego non modo tibi non irascor, 
 sed ne reprehendo quidem factum tuum ; ad Att, x. 4. : horum 
 ego imperatorum non modo res gestas non antepono meis, sed ne 
 fortunam quidem, ipsam. The negative is not unfrequently re- 
 tained in the first sentence, even when both negative sentences 
 have the same predicate, as Cic. p, Muren' 3. : Atque hoc non 
 modo non laudari, sed ne concedi quidem potest, ut, 8ic. So also 
 Liv. iv. 3. : Enunquam fando auditum esse, Numam Pompilium, 
 non modo non patricium, sed ne civem quidem Romanum, Romae 
 regnasse ? whereas the rule is observed in i. 40. : Anci Jilii 
 semper pro indignissimo habuerant, regnare Romae advenam, non 
 modo civicae, sed ne Italicae quidem stirpis, for the predicate of 
 both sentences here is the participle of the verb esse. Lastly, 
 it must be observed, that the second non, when its place is sup- 
 plied by a negative word, as nemo, nullus, nihil, nunquam, is 
 generally not omitted, e. g. Cic. in Verr. ii. 46. : quod non modo 
 Siculus nemo, sed ne Sicilia quidem tota potuisset ; iii. 48. : quum 
 multis non modo granum nullum, sed ne paleae quidem ex omni 
 fructu relinquerentur, — although quisquam or ullus would not 
 be wrong, and are actually used, e. g. by Livy. 
 
 [§ 725.] 5. Tam — quam express a comparison, as Cic. ad Att. 
 xiii. 20. : Vellem tam domestica ferre possem, quam ista contem- 
 nere; Or at. 30. : Nemo orator tam multa, ne in Graeco quidem 
 otio, scnpsit, quam multa sunt nostra. Hence we say Cicero 
 tam facile Graece, quam facile Latine dicebat; or in the inverted 
 order, Sallust, Jug. 34. : Quam quisque pessime fecit, tam 
 maxime tutus est. Tam — quam quod majnme signifies " as much 
 as possible." See § 774. note. 
 
 Non tam — quam, "not so much — as," e. g. Cic. de Orat. ii. 30. : 
 De eo non tam quia longum est, quam quia perspicuum, did nihil 
 est necesse; in Verr. ii. 34. ; Quae studiose compararat non tam 
 suae delectationis causa, quam ad invitationes suorum amicorum 
 atque hospitum; p. Muren. 8. : provincia non tam gratiosa et 
 illustiis, quam negotiosa ac molesta. The real meaning of " not 
 so much — as" thus vanishes, the former part of the sentence 
 being negatived altogether. 
 
 Non minus — quam and non magis — quam are on the whole equi- 
 valent to aeque ac, as much as ; but it must be observed that in 
 non magis — quam the greater weight is attached to the aflBrmative 
 part of the sentence beginning with quam; e. g. Alexander non 
 
494 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ducis magis quam militis munia exequehatur, Alex, performed 
 just as much the service of a soldier as that of a commander ; 
 Cic. ad Fam. xiv. 3. : conficior enim maerore, mea Terentia, nee 
 meae me miseriae magis excruciant, quam tuae vestraeque; Curt, 
 vii. 38.: Mover at eos regis non virtus magis, quam, dementia in 
 devictos Scgthas. The place of the adverb magis is frequently 
 supphed h J plus; e. g. Cic. de Prov. Cons, 10. : rei puhlicae plus 
 quam otio meo prospexi; p. Flacc, 31. : revera non plus aurum 
 tibi quam monedylae committehant ; ad Att. ii. 1. : Catonem non 
 tu amas plus quam ego. See my note on Cic. in Verr, ii. 7., 
 and Heusinger on de Off. iii. 23. (Otherwise plus is rarely 
 used for magis: Cic. de Leg. ii. 1. : inest nescio quid in animo ac 
 sensu meo, quo me plus hie locus fortasse delectet; Philip, ii. 15.: 
 An ille quemquam plus dilexit; for Philip, ii. 13. : plus quam si- 
 carii, plus quam homicidae sunt, is perfectly regular, " they are 
 something more.") 
 
 [§ 726.] 6. Sic and ita are demonstrative adverbs denoting 
 similarity, and corresponding to the relative ut (see § 281. foil.); 
 but ita, which differs from sic, also serves to indicate a more 
 special relation : hence it very often has a restrictive meaning, 
 " only in so far ; " e. g. Cic. p. Leg. Man. 3. : vestri impera- 
 tores ita triumpharunt, ut ille (Mithridates) pulsus superatusque 
 regnaret; i. e. your generals triumphed indeed, but in such a 
 manner, that Mithridates nevertheless continued to rule ; this is 
 sometimes expressed more emphatically by the addition of tamen 
 (e. g. p. Sext. 5. : Verum haec ita praetereamus, ut tamen intu- 
 entes ac respectantes relinquamus) ; p. Cluent. 32. : ita multum 
 agitata, ita diu jactata ista res est, ut hodierno die primum causa 
 ilia defensa sit; in Verr. iii. 82. : itaque hoc est, quod multi for- 
 tasse fecerunt, sed ita multi, ut ii, quos innocentissimos meminimus 
 aut audivimus, non fecerint. Tantus (but not tarn) is used in 
 the same sense, as Caes. Pell. Gall. vi. 35. : praesidii tantum 
 est, ut ne murus quidem cingi possit; i. e. only so much ; Nep. 
 de Reg. 1. : tantum indulsit dolori, ut eum pietas vinceret, and in 
 like manner we find in Cic. ad Fam. i. 7. : tantam vim hahet in 
 the sense of "so small a value." 
 
 Ut — ita {sic), places sentences on an equality; but this equa- 
 lity is sometimes limited to the result, to which both sentences 
 lead, so that ut — ita is equivalent to " although — still," or " in- 
 deed — but," Cic. ad Fam. x. 20. : Ut errare, mi Plance, potu- 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 495 
 
 isti, sic decipi te non potuisse quis non videt? Liv. xxi. 35. : 
 Pleraque Alpium ah Italia sicut hreviora, ita arrectiora sunt, 
 are indeed shorter, but steeper. 
 
 The adverb ut, " as," sometimes takes the signification of the 
 conjunction quod, " because ; " e. g. homo, ut erat furiosus, re- 
 spondit, the man, furious as he was ; i. e. because he was 
 furious ; Cic. p. Muren. 25. : Atque ille, ut semper fuit apertis- 
 simus, non se purgavit; in Verr. i. 26. : magnifice et ornate, ut 
 erat in primis inter suos copiosus, convivium comparat, rich as he 
 was, or because he was rich. 
 
 [§ 727.] 7. Instead of the adverbial numerals />n7w?^w, secundo 
 (for secundum is not often used, see § 123.), tertium, quartum, 
 unless the strict succession of the numbers is required, the 
 ancients preferred using the ordinal adverbs primum, deinde, 
 turn, denique, and generally in the order here adopted, but some- 
 times turn is used once or twice instead of deinde, or the series 
 is extended by such expressions as accedit, hue adde. Some- 
 times denique is followed by postremo to form the conclusion of 
 a series, which is otherwise so commonly the function of denique, 
 that, even without the other adverbs preceding, it concludes a 
 series by introducing the greatest or most important, and is 
 then equivalent to the English " in short," or " in fine ; "e. g. 
 Cic. in Cat, i. 5. : templa deorum immortalium, tecta urbis, vitam 
 omnium civium, Italiam denique totam ad exitium ac vastitatem 
 vocas» 
 
 [§ 728.] 8. The adverb folate differs in meaning from fortasse 
 and forsitan (comp. §271.), the former signifying "accident- 
 ally," and the two latter " perhaps." Forsitan, according to its 
 derivation, is chiefly joined with the subjunctive ; i. e. it is used 
 in those constructions the nature of which admits of the sub- 
 junctive in other connections also ; e. ^.forsitan aliquis dixerit ; 
 quod debeam forsitan ohtinere. But forte acquires the signifi- 
 cation of "perhaps" after some conjunctions, especially after si, 
 nisi, ne, num; e. g. siquis forte miratur, if perhaps any one 
 should be surprised. Hence arises the frequent confusion of 
 the two particles in modern Latin. 
 
 [§ 729.] 9. Modo non and tantum non acquire, like the 
 Greek fiovov am, the meaning of the adverb " nearly " or " al- 
 most," for properly they signify " only not so much ; " e. g. 
 Terent. Phorm. i. 2. 18. : is senem per epistolas pellexit modo non 
 
496 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 monies auri pollicens; i. e. paene or prope pollicens; Liv. iv. 2. r 
 hostes tantum non arcessiverunt ; xxxiv. 40. : nuntii afferebant, 
 tantum non jam captam Lacedaemonem esse. The same meaning 
 is also expressed by tantum quod non, which brings us still 
 nearer to the origin of the expression ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. i. 45. : 
 tantum quod hominem non nominate only (except) that he does 
 not mention him by name ; i. e. he almost mentions him by 
 name. 
 
 [§ 730.] 10. Non ita is used like the English " not so," 
 which is to be explained by an ellipsis, as non ita longe aheraty 
 he was not so far off, viz. as you might imagine ; but it also 
 acquires the meaning of " not exactly," " not very ; " i. e. it 
 becomes equivalent to non sane, non admodum. Cicero uses it 
 in this sense only before adjectives and adverbs, and before 
 verbs non ita valde is employed ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. iv. 49. : 
 simulacra praeclara, sed non ita antiqua; Brut. QQ. : Fimbria 
 non ita diu jactare se potuit; de Nat. Deor. i. 31. : quibus ho- 
 mines non ita valde moventur, and in many other passages. 
 
 [§ 730. Z>.] 11. Non item is used to express a "certain oppo- 
 sition or contrast, and properly signifies " not in the same 
 manner or degree," but it is usually rendered by the simple 
 "not" or "but — not;" Cic. de Off. i. 32.: hoc Herculi potuit 
 fortasse contingere, nobis non item; ad Att. ii. 21.: O specta- 
 culum uni Crasso jucundum, ceteris non item ! Orat. 43. : nam 
 omnium magnarum artium, sicut arborum, altitudo nos delectat, 
 radices stirpesque non item. Comp. § 781. 
 
 [§ 731.] 12. Minus is often used for non, e. g. Cic. de Divin. i. 
 14. : Nonnumquam ea, quae praedicta sunt, minus eveniunt. We 
 must especially notice si minus — at, if not — yet, e. g. Cic. in 
 Verr. v. 27.: si minus supplicio affci, at custodiri oportebat, — 
 and sin minus, " but if not," without a verb, after a preceding si; 
 but with si non the verb is repeated; Cic. ad Fam. y'li. 1.: 
 Quod si assecutus sum, gaudeo : sin minus, hoc me tamen con- 
 solor, quod posthac nos vises; ad Att. ix. 15.: si mihi veniam 
 dederit, utar illius condicione : sin minus, impetrabo aliquid a me 
 ipso. Comp. § 343. Parum always retains its proper signifi- 
 cation of " not — enough," though it may sometimes seem to be 
 used for non, e. g. parum diu vixit, he did not Uve long enough ; 
 parum multi sunt defensores nobilitatis, not numerous enough. 
 The English " how little" is in Latin quam non, and " so little" 
 
PECULIARITIES IN TtlE PARTS OF SPEECH. 497 
 
 ita non, or adeo non, e. g. adeo non curabaty quid homines de se 
 loquerentur. 
 
 [§ 732.] 13. Nunc, as was remarked in § 285., always ex- 
 presses the time actually present, and not merely relatively 
 present, or the time to which a narrator transfers himself for 
 the purpose of making his description livelier. In a narrative 
 we may say in English, e. g. Caesar now thought that he ought 
 not to hesitate any longer ; but the noio in this sentence must be 
 rendered in Latin by : tunc, or turn, Caesar non diutius sihi cunc- 
 tandum censebat. (In the connection of sentences, however, Jam 
 may be used instead, see § 288.) In speaking of the time ac- 
 tually present we say, e. g. nunc primum somnia me eludunt, or 
 eluserunt, this is the first time that a dream deceives me, or has 
 deceived me. In a narrative, on the other hand, we must say : 
 somnia tunc primum se dicebat elusisse. See the passage in 
 Tacit. Ann. xvi. 3. This rule is observed throughout. Re- 
 specting the same use of ille in contradistinction to hie, see 
 § 703. 
 
 [§ 733.] 14. The conjunction dum (while) alters its meaning 
 when added to negatives, and becomes an adverb signifying 
 " yet," as nondum or hauddum, not yet ; nequedum or necdum, 
 and not yet; nullusdum, no one yet; nihildum, nothing yet; 
 e. g. Cic. ad Att. xiv. 10. : Quid agat f rater meus si scis, ne- 
 quedum Roma est profectus, scribas ad me velim ; Sueton. Caes. 
 7. : Caesar quum Gades venisset, animadversa apud Herculis 
 templum Magni Alexandri imagine, ingemuit quasi pertaesus ig- 
 naviam suam, quod nihildum a se memorabile actum esset in aetate, 
 qua jam Alexander orbem terrae subegisset. Hence, when at 
 tached to the negative adverb vix — vixdum it signifies " scarcely 
 yet," e. g. Cic. ad Att. ix. 2. : Vixdum epistolam tuam legeram, 
 quum ad me Curtius venit. 
 
 [§ 734.] 15. The conjunction vel (or), which originally serves 
 to correct an expression, acquired through an ellipsis the meaning 
 of the adverb " even," and enhances the sense of the word 
 modified by it ; e. g. Cic. de Fin. i. 2. : quum Sophocles vel optime 
 scripserit Electram, tamen male conversam Attii mihi legendam 
 puto, — here the expression is to be explained by supplying the 
 word bene before vel. In this sense vel is used frequently, as in 
 Cicero : hac re vel mojcime praestat ; quam sint morosi qui amant, 
 vel ex hoc intelligi potest ; isto modo vel consulatus vituperabilis 
 
 K K 
 
498 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 est ; per me vel stertas licet. The derivation of this particle 
 from velle (wilt thou ?) accounts for its signifying " for example," 
 or "to mention a case at once;" e. g. Cic. ad Fam, ii. 13,: 
 Haras tuas quidem, sed suaves accipio litter as: vel quas proxime 
 acceperam, quam prudentes ! p. Flacc. 33. : Ita scitote, judices, 
 esse cetera. Vel quod ait L. Flaccum sihi dare cupisse, ut a fide 
 se ahduceret, H8. vicies. Velut is more frequently used in this 
 sense ; e. g. Cic. de Fin. ii. 35. : Non elogia monumentorum hoc 
 significant ? velut hoc ad portam ; de Nat. Deor. ii. 48. : Veluti 
 crocodili — simulac niti possunt, aquam persequuntur. 
 
 [§ 735.] 16. The conjunction nisi, by omitting its verb or 
 uniting it with the leading verb, acquires the sense of the 
 adverb " except," which is generally expressed by praeterquam 
 or the preposition praeter. (See § 323.) This, however, is the 
 case only after negatives and negative questions ; e. g. Nep. 
 Milt. 4. : Athenienses auxilium nusquam nisi a Lacedaemoniis 
 petiverunt ; Cic. p. Plane. 33. : Quid est pietas, nisi voluntas 
 grata in parentes ? p. Sext. 60. : Quern unquam senatus civem 
 nisi me nationibus exteris commendavit? — instead of which we 
 might say in the first passage, praeterquam a Lacedaemoniis, and 
 in the second praeter me; and we must say so, when no nega- 
 tive precedes, e. g. Li v. xxiv. 16. : praeda omnis praeterquam. 
 hominum captorum (or praeter homines captos) militi concessa est. 
 But the expression " except that" may be rendered in Latin 
 either by nisi quod or praeterquam quod, so that here we may 
 have nisi without a preceding negative ; e. g. Cic. ad Att. ii. 1. : 
 Tusculanum et Pompejanum me valde delectant, nisi quod me 
 acre alieno obruerunt. (^Nisi ut are likewise joined together, but 
 in a different sense, ut retaining its proper signification ; e. g. 
 nihil aliud ex hac re quaero, nisi ut homines intelligant, except that 
 people may see.) 
 
 As the Latin nisi after negatives is rendered in English not 
 only by " except," but by " than," the beginner must beware 
 of translating this " than" by quam. It is only after nihil aliud 
 that we may use either nisi or quam, nisi referring to nihil, and 
 quam to aliud. The difference is this, that nihil aliud nisi sig- 
 nifies "nothing further" or "nothing more," and nihil aliud 
 quam "nothing else," or "no other thing but this particular 
 one." Hence, Cicero (de Or at. ii. 12.) says: Erat historia nihil 
 aliud nisi annalium confectio (but it should be more) ; de Off. i. 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 499 
 
 23. : Bellum ita suscipiatur, ut nihil aliud nisi pax quaesita vi- 
 deatur (and not other advantages besides) ; Tusc, i. 34. : Nihil 
 aliud est discere, nisi recordari. Praeter is used in the same 
 sense in Cic. de Off, iL 2. : nee quidquam aliud est philosophia 
 praeter studium sapientiae (nothing more). But in de Leg, i, 8. 
 we read : Virtus est nihil aliud quam in se perfecta et ad summum 
 perducta natura (this definition comprising everything); Nep. 
 Lys, 1. : Nihil aliud molitus est quam ut omnes civitates in sua 
 teneret potestate. Quam must as a matter of course be used, 
 when it refers to a comparative, as nihil magis timeo quam 
 ilium. 
 
 fe 
 
 F. Prepositions, 
 
 [§ 736.] The use of every separate preposition has been 
 fully explained in Chap. LXV., and there is no further general 
 remark to be made, except that the beginner must be cautioned, 
 not to join two prepositions as we do in English ; e. g. " to 
 speak /<?r and against a law," or " I have learned this with, and 
 to some extent from, him." The only mode of rendering these 
 sentences in Latin is : pro lege et contra legem dicere ; haec cum 
 eo, partim etiam ah eo didici. Those dissyllabic prepositions 
 only, which are also used without a noun and as adverbs, may 
 follow another, without being joined with a case ; e. g. Cicero : 
 quod aut secundum naturam esset, aut contra ; Livy : cis Padum 
 ultraque, Caesar {Bell. Civ, iii. 72.) reverses the order : intra 
 extraque munitiones. Compare also § 794. 
 
 G. Conjunctions. 
 
 [§ 737.] 1. Respecting the signification of the several con- 
 junctions see Chap. LXVII. Those who wish to acquire a 
 thorough knowledge of the Latin language cannot bestow too 
 much attention to this part of speech. From a careful observ- 
 ation of their use in good authors we learn that many com- 
 binations have, in fact, quite a different meaning from what lies 
 on the surface. Atque adeo, properly " and even," acquires the 
 power of correcting that which precedes, and also enhances the 
 sense ; hence it becomes equivalent to vel potius, or rather. (See 
 § 336. Compare what is said of immo in § 277.) E. g. Cic. in 
 Verr. iii. 8. : Tu homo minimi consilii, nullius auctoritatis, injussu 
 
 K K 2 
 
500 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 populi ac senatus, tota Sicilia recusante, cum maximo detrimento 
 atque adeo exitio vectigalium, totam Hieronicam legem sustulisti. 
 At quam legem corrigit, judices, atque adeo totam tollit? and : 
 Verres tot annis atque adeo saeculis inventus est. 
 
 [§ 738.] 2. Attention must be paid to the following pecu- 
 liarity of the Latin language : when the negative power of a 
 proposition is not expressed by non, but contained in some other 
 word, the negative is usually combined with the copulative 
 conjunction ; hence, instead of et and ut with the negatives nemo, 
 nihilf nullus, nunquam, we find much more frequently neque 
 {nee) and ne with the corresponding affirmative words quisquam, 
 ullus, unquam, usquam. It must however be observed (see 
 § 709.), that " in order that no one" is rendered in Latin by ne 
 quis, and never by ne quisquam. But it should not be forgotten 
 that ne cannot be used everywhere, and that ut nemo, ut nullus, 
 &c., are required in all cases in which ut non must be employed 
 and not ne. (See § 532.) E. g. Cic. Cat. Maj. 12. : impedit enim 
 consilium voluptas ac mentis, ut ita dicam, praestringit oculos, nee 
 habet ullum cum virtute commercium ; ibid. 19.: horae quidem' 
 cedunt, et dies et menses et anni : nee praeteritum tempus unquam 
 recertitur ; Sallust, Cat. 29.: Senatus decrevit, darent operam 
 consules, ne quid respublica detrimenti caperet ; Caes. Bell. Gall. 
 i. 46. : Caesar suis imperavit, ne quod omnino telum in hostcs 
 rejicerent. 
 
 [§ 739.] 3. When any clause inserted in another has impeded 
 or disturbed the construction, the return to the construction of 
 the leading sentence is indicated by one of the conjunctions 
 igitur, verum, verumtamen, sed, sed tamen, which we commonly 
 render by " I say." In Latin, too, inquam is sometimes so used 
 (as in Cic. in Verr. iv. 29. 67, p. Muren. 30. 63.), but the con- 
 junctions are much more common ; Cic. de Off. iii. 16. : M. Cato 
 sententiam dixit, hujus nostri Catonis pater : (ut enim ceteri ex pa- 
 tribus, sic hie, qui illud lumen progenuit, ex Jilio est nominandus) : 
 is igitur judex ita pronuntiavit, emptori damnum praestari opor- 
 tere ; Philip, ii. 32. : Primum quum Caesar ostendisset, se, prius- 
 quam projicisceretur, Dolabellam consulem esse jussurum : quern 
 negant regem, qui et ifaceret semper ejusmodi aliquid et diceret : 
 sed quum Caesar ita dixisset, tum hie bonus augur eo se sacerdotio 
 praeditum esse dixit, &c. See Heusinger on this passage, and 
 compare in Cat. iii. 2. init. ; p. Plane. 4. ; de Leg. ii. 1. : Quare 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 501 
 
 ante mirahar — sed mirabar, ut dixi, &c. As for the other con- 
 junctions used in this manner, seem Cat. iv. 11. ; Philip, ii. 37.; 
 de Fin. ii. 22. ; p. Rose. Am. 43. ; in Verr. ill. 2. init. ; ad Att. 
 i. 10. init. ; p. Sext. 10. init. Nam is also employed in this 
 way, as p. Plane. 41. Itaque is doubtful in Cic. de Fin. i. 6. 
 19., but occurs in Liv. ii. 12. init. 
 
 [§ 740.] 4. Siquis often seems to stand for the relative pro- 
 noun, as in Greek i'lris for o(ttl9 ; but it always contains the 
 idea of " perhaps," which it naturally retains from its proper 
 signification of a possible condition ; e. g. Liv. xxi. 37. : Nuda 
 fere Alpium caeumina sunt, et si quid est pabuli, ohruunt nives ; 
 Cic. in Verr. v. 25. : iste quasi praeda sibi advecta, non prae- 
 donibus captis, si qui senes aut deformes erant, eos in hostium 
 numero ducit, qui aliquid formae, aetatis, artificiique habebant, 
 abducit omnes ; Brut. 69. : C. Coseonius nulla acumine, earn 
 tamen verborum copiam, si quam habebat, populo praebebat. 
 Ernesti proposed to strike out si, but it may be explained in the 
 manner stated above, for Cicero does not even like to admit that 
 Coseonius possessed copia verborum; and in a similar manner 
 he speaks with some doubt of his own eloquence, c. 87. : etsi tu 
 melius existimare videris de ea, si quam nunc habemus, facultate, 
 and also Divin. 15. : ipse Allienus ex ea facultate, si quam habet, 
 aliquantum detracturus est. 
 
 [§ 741.] 5. The conjunction et {que and atque) not unfre- 
 quently connects two substantives and places them on an equality 
 with each other, although properly one bears to the other the 
 relation of a genitive or an adjective. This kind of connection 
 is called %v Bia Bvoiv, that is, one idea is expressed by two words 
 independent of each other, for a genitive and an adjective 
 when joined to a substantive constitute only one idea. When, 
 e. g. Yirg. Georg. 1. 192. says: pateris libamus et auro, it is 
 equivalent to pateris aureis ; and Aen. i. 61.: molem et montes 
 insuper altos imposuit, equivalent to molem altorum montium. 
 But similar expressions occur also in prose, and oratorical diction 
 thereby gains in fulness and power; e.g. Cic. in Cat. i. 13.: 
 ut saepe homines aegri morbogravi, quum aestu febrique jactantur 
 i. e. aestu febris ; p. Flacc. 2. : quern plurimi does devincti ne- 
 cessitudine ac vetustate defendunt, i. e. vetustate necessitudinis ; 
 p. Arch. 6. : ex his studiis haec quoque crescit oratio et facultas, 
 i. e. facultas dicendi; in Verr. v. 14. : jus imaginis ad memoriam 
 
 K K 3 
 
502 LATIN GRAMMAE. 
 
 fosteritatemque prodere, i. e. ad memoriam posteritatis ; ibid. iv. 
 35. : complesse coronis et Jiorihus ; and in Curt. iv. 17. : navigia 
 redimita fioribus coronisque, with garlands of flowers. It is par- 
 ticularly frequent in Tacitus, as Ann, ii. 69. : carmina et devo- 
 tiones reperiehantur, for carmina devotionum ; ii. 83. : tempore ac 
 spatio, for temporis spatio ; xii. 27.: veteranos coloniamque de~ 
 ducere, for coloniam veteranorum. Of a somewhat different, 
 though similar, kind are those combinations of substantives, 
 where the second contains a more accurate definition of the 
 general meaning of the first. The substantive which occurs 
 most frequently in such combinations is visy as vz et armis, vi ac 
 minis, vi et contentione, vi ac necessitate. 
 
 CHAP. LXXXV. 
 
 PLEONASM. 
 
 [§ 742.] 1. Pleonasm is that mode of expression in which 
 several words of the same or similar meaning are accumulated, 
 or in which a thought is conveyed in more words than are 
 necessary to express the meaning. 
 
 2. The first kind of pleonasm does not, properly speaking, 
 belong to Latin grammar. Good authors accumulate words of 
 similar meaning only when they intend to set forth a particular 
 thing forcibly and emphatically, and they take care that there 
 is a certain gradation in the words they put together, as in 
 relinquere ac deserere, deserere ac derelinquere ; aver sari et 
 execrari; rogo te oroque, oro te atque obsecro ; gaudeo vehe- 
 menterque laetor, laetor et triumpho ; hoc animis eorum insitum 
 atque innatum videtur esse; agitatur et perterretur Furiarum 
 taedis ardentihus ; hoc maxime vestros animos excitare atque 
 infiammare debet. Innumerable instances of this kind are found 
 in the orators, and they constitute a great part of the copia 
 verborum which is required of orators. But they go even 
 further, and when their endeavour to accumulate words for the 
 sake of emphasis becomes still more striking, it is called a rhe- 
 torical figure ; e. g. when Cicero {in Cat. i. 5.) calls on Catiline 
 
 I 
 
PLEONASM. 503 
 
 to quit Rome : Quae quum ita sint, Catilina, perge quo coepisti : 
 egredere aliquando ex urbe: patent portae : prqficiscere ; and 
 where he describes Catiline's flight {in Cat, ii. 1.) : Ahiit, ex- 
 cessit, evasit, erupit. But in grammar we have to notice only- 
 certain combinations, which by usage have become so familiar, 
 that they do not appear to contain any particular emphasis, 
 as casu et fortuito, forte fortuna, forte temere, prudens sciens, 
 vivus vidensque, volens propitius, fundere et fugare ; and some 
 legal and political expressions, where it was originally in- 
 tended, by an accurate phraseology, to prevent a wrong or 
 ambiguous application. Expressions of this kind are pecunia 
 capta conciliata, Cic. in Verr, iii. 94. : ager datus assignatus, 
 Philip. V. in fin. ; nihil aequi honi impetravitf Philip, ii. 37. ; 
 quum Brutus exercitum conscripserit compararit, in a decree of 
 the senate, Philip, v. 13., and others. 
 
 [§ 743.] 3. The second kind of pleonasm belongs to grammar, 
 in as much as certain redundant expressions are sanctioned by 
 usage, and can no longer be considered faulty. But we must 
 not suppose that a tiling expressed by a redundancy of words is 
 quite equivalent to a shorter expression which we may meet 
 with elsewhere. The language of good authors is not arbitrary 
 in this respect, and two modes of expression never have quite 
 the same meaning. It is not, however, our object here to trace 
 such differences in their minutest details, but only in general to 
 mention those cases in which the Latin usage employs more 
 words than appear necessary to a person who judges of it by 
 the standard of a modem language. 
 
 4. A preceding substantive is often repeated after the relative 
 pronoun ; e. g. Cic. p. Place, 33. ; hahetis causam inimicitiarum, 
 qua causa infiammatus Decianus ad Laelium detulerit hanc ac- 
 cusationem ; de Or at, i. 38. : quum obsignes tabella^ clientis tui, 
 quibus in tabellis id sit scriptum ; in Verr, iii. 79. : quum in eo 
 ordirie videamus esse multos non idoneos, qui ordo industriae pro- 
 positus est et dignitati ; Divin, 1. : si quod tempus accidisset, quo 
 tempore aliquid a me requirerent. It is especially frequent in 
 Caesar, as BelL Gall, i. 6. : erant omnino itinera duo, quibus 
 itineribus domo exire possent ; but it is most frequent, and appears 
 indeed to have been customary, with the word dies ; e. g. Cic. 
 ad Att, ii. 11. : dies enim nullus erat, Antii quum essem, quo die 
 non melius scirem Romae quid ageretur, quam ii qui erant Romae ; 
 
 K K 4 
 
504 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Cic. in Cat, i. 3. : fore in armis certo die, qui dies futurus erat 
 a. d. VI. Cal. Novemhres. A great many passages of this kind 
 are found in Cicero and Caesar, and it was the regular practice 
 to say pridie and -postridie ejus dieL The repetition of the sub- 
 stantive is necessary when there are two preceding the relative, 
 and when it becomes doubtful to which of them the relative 
 refers ; e. g. Cic. p. Sext. 45. : Duo genera semper in hac civitate 
 fuerunt eorum, qui versari in re puhlica atque in ea se excellentius 
 gerere studuerunt, quihus ex generibus alteri se populares, alteri 
 optimates et haheri et esse voluerunt ; p. Flacc. 35. : litteras misit 
 de villico P. Septimii, hominis ornati, qui villicus caedem fecerat, 
 
 [§ 744.] 5. The pronouns is and ille are superfluously added 
 to quidem, and the personal pronouns ego, tu, nos, vos, though 
 already implied in the verb, are sometimes expressed separately, 
 see §§ 278. and 801. Respecting is, see above, § 699., and Cic. 
 Tusc. iv. 3. : Sapientiae studium vetus id quidem in nostris ; sed 
 tame7i ante Laelii aetatem et Scipionis non reperio quos appellare 
 possim nominatim. Ille is thus found frequently, as Cic. de Off, 
 I. 29. : Ludo autem etjoco uti illo quidem licet, sed sicut somno et 
 quietihus ceteris tum, quum gravibus seriisque rebus satisfecerimus ; 
 Tusc. i. 3. : Multi jam esse Latini libri dicuntur scripti incon- 
 siderate ab optimis illis quidem viris, sed non satis eruditis ; ad 
 Fam. xii. 30. : O hominem semper ilium quidem mihi aptum, 
 nunc vera etiam suavem ! Ille is further superfluous after at ; 
 e. g. Curt. iii. 1 9. : Hi magnopere suadebant, ut retro abiret 
 spatiososque Mesopotamiae campos repeteret ; si id consilium 
 damnaret, at ille divideret saltem copias innumerabiles. Is 
 (sometimes also hie), when referring to something mentioned 
 before, seems to us to be superfluous, but is used for the sake 
 of emphasis ; e. g. Cic. de Off. i. 38. : Quae cum aliqua pertur- 
 batione fiunt, ea non possunt iis, qui adsunt, probari ; i. 35. : 
 (Natura) formam nostram reliquamque figuram, in qua esset 
 species lionesta, eam posuit in promptu : quae partes autem cor- 
 poris ad naturae necessitatem datae aspectum essent deformem 
 liabiturae, eas contexit atque abdidit ; ii. 6. : Male se res habet, 
 quum, quod virtute effci debet, id temptatur pecunia. In Livy, 
 xxii. 30. in fin. ut vix cum eadem gente bellum esse crederent, 
 cujus terribilem eam famam a patribus accepissent, the eam refers 
 to something implied, which we may express by "so frightful." 
 
 [§ 745.] 6. The monosyllabic prepositions ab, ad, de, ex, and 
 
PLEONASM. 505 
 
 in are often pleonastlcally repeated, but according to the ob- 
 servation of some critics, only when two substantives, although 
 united by et, are yet to be considered as distinct. Hence we 
 should not say ad ludum et ad jocum facti, but we may say 
 deinceps de heneficentia ac de liberalitate dicamus, if the two 
 qualities are not to be mixed together, but considered sepa- 
 rately. This theory seems plausible ; but the texts of the Latin 
 authors, especially of Cicero, such as they are at present, do not 
 enable us to come to any definite conclusion, since a preposition 
 is very often repeated, when the substantives really belong 
 together and are of a kindred nature, while it is omitted in 
 cases of the opposite kind. Comp. Heusinger on Cic. de Off. i. 
 14. init. ; and my note on the Divinat. in Caec. 13. But it 
 may be considered as an invariable rule, that wherever the sub- 
 stantives are separated by et — et, the preposition must be re- 
 peated ; e. g. Cic de Off, i. 34. : ut eorum et in hellicis et in 
 civilibus officiis vigeat industria. 
 
 The preposition inter is frequently repeated by Cicero after 
 the verb interesse ; e. g. Lael. 25. : quid intersit inter popularem, 
 id est, assentatorem et levem civem, et inter constantem, severum et 
 gravem ; de Fin. i. 9. : interesse enim inter argumentum et inter 
 mediocrem animadversionem. Other writers repeat it after other 
 verbs also, as Liv. x. 7. : certatum inter Ap, Claudium maxime 
 ferunt et inter P. Decium. 
 
 [§ 746.] 7. The dative of the personal pronouns frequently 
 seems to be used pleonastlcally, as it expresses a relation of an 
 action to a person which is often almost imperceptible. See 
 above § 408., and Drakenborch on Sil. Ital. i. 46. ; Burmann 
 on Phaedr. i. 22. 3. But the addition of sihi to suus, or rather 
 to suo, for so we find it in the few passages (especially of the 
 comic writers) where this peculiarity occurs, is a real pleonasm. 
 Something analogous to it in English is the addition of the 
 word " own " to possessive pronouns. Plant. Capt, Prol. 50. : 
 ignorans suo sibi sennt patri; ibid. i. 1. 12. : suo sibi suco vivunt ; 
 Terent. Adelph. v. 8. in fin. : suo sibi hunc gladio jugulo, 
 
 [§ 747.] 8. Potius and magis are sometimes used pleonas- 
 tlcally with malle and praestare ; e. g. Cic. Divin. 6. : ab om- 
 nibus se desertos potius quam abs te defensos esse malunt; Liv. 
 xxii. 34. : qui magis vere vincere quam diu imperare malit ; Cic. 
 in Pis, 7. : ut emori potius quam servire praestaret, Comp. 
 
506 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ■p. Balb. 8. in fin., with the notes of Emesti and Garatoni. 
 Hence we sometimes find it also with comparatives, as Cic. 
 in Pis. 14. : mihi in tanto omnium mortalium odio, justo prae- 
 sertim et debito, quaevis fuga potius quam ulla provincia esset 
 optatior, Comp. p,Lig, 2. ; de Or at ii. 74. ; de Nat. Deor. ii. 13. 
 The pleonasm o£ prius, ante and rursus with verbs compounded 
 with prae, ante and re, is of a similar kind. See Drakenborch 
 on Liv. i. 3. § 4. 
 
 9. Respecting the superfluous genitives loci, locorum, ter- 
 rarum, gentium, and ejus in the phrase quoad ejus fieri potest, 
 see § 434. ; and for id quod, instead of ^'moc? alone, see § 371. 
 
 [§ 748.] 10. Sic, ita, id, hoc, illud, are very often super- 
 fluously used, as a preliminary announcement of a proposition, 
 and added to the verb on which this proposition depends ; e. g. 
 Cic. in Verr. ii. 3. : Sic a majorihus suis acceperant, tanta populi 
 Romani esse heneficia, ut etiam injurias nostrorum hominum per- 
 ferendas putarent ; ad Fam. xiii. 10. : quum sibi ita persuasisset 
 ipse, meas de se accurate scriptas litteras maximum apud te pondus 
 habituras, &c. ; ad Att. i. 10. : hoc te intelligere volo, pergraviter 
 ilium esse offensum; ad Quint. Frat. i. 1. : te illud admoneo, ut 
 quotidie meditere, resistendum esse iracundiae ; and afterwards : illud 
 te et oro et hortor, ut in extrema parte muneris tui diligentissimus 
 sis. These pleonastic additions, as we remarked above, have no 
 influence on the construction of propositions, and we find only 
 in a few instances that a pronoun or sic is followed by ut, 
 which would not otherwise be used, as Cic. de Orat. iii. 34. : 
 de cujus dicendi copia sic accepimus, ut, &c. ; Tusc. iv. 21. : ita 
 enim definit, ut perturbatio sit ; ibid. 6. : Est Zenonis haec de- 
 finitio, ut perturbatio sit aversa a recta ratione animi commotio. 
 This must be considered as a contraction of sentences, as vt 
 should properly be followed by a verb denoting " to say " or 
 *' to think," with an accusat. with the infinitive ; e. g. in the 
 last mentioned passage: ut dicat (j)utei) perturbationem esse. 
 In the phrase hoc, illud, id agere ut, however, the pronoun is 
 established by custom and necessary. See § 614. 
 
 [§ 749.] 11. A kind of pleonastical expression is observed in 
 quoting indirectly the words of another ; e. g. Cic. ad Fam. iii. 
 1.: A Pausania, Lentuli liber to, accenso mee, audivi quum dicer et, 
 te secum esse questum, quod tibi obviam non prodissem ; Brut. 56. : 
 Ipsius Sulpicii nulla oratio est ; saepe ex eo audiebam, quum se 
 
 I 
 
PLEONASM. 507 
 
 scribere neque consuesse neque posse dicer et, and in many other 
 passages; comp. in Verr, i. 61. init. ; de Fin, v. 19. in fin.: de 
 Orat. i. 28. ; Philip, ix. 4. : atque ita locutus est ut auctoritatem 
 vestram vitae suae se diceret anteferre ; in Verr, v. 18. ; ejusmodi 
 de te voluisti sermonem esse omnium, palam ut loquerentur ; Liv. 
 xxii. 32. : atque ita verba facta, ut dicerent, 
 
 [§ 750.] 12. A similar pleonasm is often found with the 
 verbs of thinking, believing, &c., inasmuch as putare and ex- 
 istimare are expressly added in the dependent sentence, although 
 a word of similar meaning has preceded ; e. g. Cic. in Verr, ii. 
 75. : Cogitate nunc, quum ilia (Siciha) sit insula, quae undique 
 exitus maritimos habeat, quid ex ceteris locis exportatum putetis, 
 instead of cogitate quid exportatum sit ; ibid. iv. 1 . : genus ipsum 
 prius cognoscite, judices ; deinde fortasse nonmagnopere quaeretis, 
 quo id nomine appellandum putetis, where quo nomine appelletis 
 would be quite sufficient; p. Leg, Man, 13.: turn facilius 
 statuetis, quid apud externa nationes fieri existimetis, and in 
 several other passages of this oration, especially chap. 9.: sed 
 ea vos conjectura perspicite, quantum illud bellum factum putetis, 
 where Ernesti found difficulties; Quintil. i. 10. : in hac fuere 
 sententia ut existimarent. 
 
 Such a redundancy occurs also with licet, when depending on 
 permittitur and conceditur ; e.g. Cic. in Bull, u, 13.: totam 
 Italiam suis coloniis ut complere liceat permittitur, and after- 
 wards: quacunque velint summo cum imperio vagari ut liceat 
 conceditur; in Verr. ii, 18.: neque enim permissum est, ut im- 
 pune nobis liceat ; de Off. iii. 4. : Jiobis autem nostra Academia 
 magnam licentiam dat, ut quodcunque maxime probabile occurrat, 
 id nostro jure liceat defendere. For other pecuharities of this 
 kind see Heusinger on Nep. Milt, 1. : Delphos deliberatum missi 
 sunt, qui consulerent Apollinem, 
 
 [§ 751.] 13. Videri in dependent sentences is often used in 
 a singularly tautological manner, as Cic. p. Leg, Man, 10. : 
 Restdt, ut de imperatore ad id bellum deligendo ac tantis rebus 
 vraeficiendo dicendum esse videatur ; ibid. 20. : Reliquum est, ut 
 de Q, Catuli auctoritate et sententia dicendum esse videatur. In 
 other cases too it is a favourite practice of Cicero to make a 
 circumlocution of a simple verb by means of videri, which how- 
 ever is not to be considered as a pleonasm, but as a peculiarity 
 of this writer, who likes to soften his expression by represent- 
 
508 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ing facts as matters of opinion, and consequently as subject to 
 doubt ; e. g. p. Leg, Man. 14. : Et quisquam dubitdbit, quin hoc 
 tantum helium hide transmittendum sit, qui ad omnia nostrae 
 memoriae bella conjicienda divino quodam consilio natus esse 
 videatur f another writer would, perhaps, have said simply qui 
 divino consilio natus est. Cicero softens the strong and some- 
 what offensive expression by videri, and the " divine decree " by 
 his peculiar quidam. We know from the author of the dialogue 
 de Oratoribus (c. 1. and 23.), that Cicero's own contemporaries 
 remarked upon the frequent use of his favourite conclusion esse 
 videatur; but it was certainly not the subjunctive, at which 
 they took offence, for it is the necessary result of the construc- 
 tion, but the use of videri in cases where there was no occasion 
 for representing a fact as a mere matter of opinion. But we 
 prefer, without hesitation, Cicero's views as to propriety of 
 expression, to the judgment of later writers, who lived at a time 
 \^'hen the language began to lose its natural elasticity of ex- 
 pression. 
 
 [§ 752,] 14. Respecting the circumlocution of facer e ut, see 
 § 619. A similar circumlocution by means of est ut is espe- 
 cially frequent in Terence, e. g. Phorm. ii. 1. 40. : Si est culpam 
 ut Antipho in se admiserit, if it is the case that Antipho is in 
 fault, equivalent to si Antipho culpam admisit ; Horat: Epist. i. 
 12. 2. : non est ut copia major a Jove donari possit tibi. The 
 same occurs in the following passages of Cicero, Orat. 59. ; est 
 autem ut id maxime deceat, non id solum ; p. Coel. 20. : quando 
 enim hoc factum non est ? quando reprehensum ? quando non per- 
 missum f quando denique fuit ut, quod licet, non liceret ? i. e. 
 quando non licuit, quod licet ? de Off. ii. 8. : haec est una res 
 prorsus ut non multum differat inter summos et mediocres viros, 
 i. e. haec una res non multum differt. But est ut, instead of est 
 cur, is of a different kind. See § 562. 
 
 The same circumlocution is also made, though very seldom, 
 by means of est with the infinitive, e. g. Propert. i. 10. 13. : Ne 
 sit tibi, Galle, montes semper adire, equivalent to ne adeas ; TibuU. 
 i. 6. 24. : At mihi si credas — non sit mihi oculis timuisse meis, 
 that is, non timeam or non timebo. Also in Sallust, Jug. 110. 3. : 
 Fuerit mihi eguisse aliquando amicitiae tuae, i. e. eguerim, may I 
 have been in want of your friendship. 
 
 [§ 753.] 15. Coepi with the infinitive is very often nothing 
 
PLEONASM. 509 
 
 else than a descriptive circumlocution of the verhum Jinitum, 
 though always implying temporary duration, e. g. Cic. in Verr. 
 iv. 29. : Rex maximo conventu Syracusis, inforo,flens atque deos 
 hominesgue obtestans, clamare coepit, candelabrum factum egemmis 
 — id sibi C Verrem abstulisse ; in Verr, ii. 22. : Primo negli- 
 gere et contemnere coepit, quod causa prorsus, quod dubitari posset, 
 nihil habebat, that is, negligebat et contemnebat aliquamdiu. Si- 
 milar passages are of frequent occurrence. Incipere is more 
 rarely used in this way, as in Verr. ii. 17. : cogere incipit eos, 
 ut absentem Heraclium condemnarent, it took place, but not till 
 after some delay ; iv. QQ, : retinere incipit, he did his part in re- 
 taining. Comp. § 500. note 1. 
 
 [§ 754.] 16. Another kind of pleonasm in Latin is the use of 
 two negatives instead of an affirmative; in English this does 
 not occur, except where a negative adjective, as unlearned, un- 
 skilful, unfrequent, acquires an affirmative meaning by the ad- 
 dition of the negative " not," as not unlearned, &c. In Latin 
 this use extends much further, for not only does non before a 
 negative word, as nemo, nullus, nihil, nunquam, nusquam, nescio, 
 ignoro, render this word affirmative, but also the negative con- 
 junction neque obtains the affirmative sense of et, by means of a 
 negative word following in the same proposition, e. g. neque haec 
 non evenerunt, and this took place indeed ; neque tamen ea non 
 pia et probanda fuerunt, and yet this was right and laudable ; 
 Cic. de Fin. iv. 22. : Nee hoc ilk non vidit, sed verborum magni- 
 Jicentia est et gloria delectatus ; de Nat. Deor. ii. 33. : Nee vero 
 non omni supplicio digni P. Claudius, L. Junius consules, qui 
 contra auspicia navigarunt. The sentence preceding is : aus- 
 picia ad opinionem vulgi retinentur ; Nep. Att. 13. : Nemo Attico 
 minus fuit aedijicator : neque tamen non imprimis bene habitavit. 
 As to ne non for ut, see § 535. in fin. 
 
 Note. Two negatives however do not mutually destroy each other in the case 
 of non beino- followed by ne — quidem; e. g. nonfugio ne hos quidem mores; non 
 praetermittendum videtur ne illud quidem genus pecuniae conciliatde^ in Cicero, 
 in Verr.; further, when the negative leading proposition has subordinate 
 subdivisions with neque — neque, neve — neve, in which case these negative par- 
 ticles are equivalent to aut — aut. Thus we very frequently find, e. g. Cic. 
 ad Att. xiv. 20. : nemo iinquam, neque poeta, nequ£ orator fuit, qui quemquam 
 meliorem quam se arhitraretur; ad Att. ix. 12. : nan medius fidius prae lacri- 
 mis possum reliqua nee cogitare, nee scribere; de Leg. ii. 27. : earn ne quis 
 nobis minuat neve vivv^ neve mortuus. Respecting ne non, we may add that 
 after vide (see § 534.) it must be rendered in English by " whether ;" e. g. 
 
510 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Cic. 6?e Divin. ii. 13. : multa istiusmodi dicuntur in schoUsj sed credere omnia 
 vide ne non sit necesse, but consider, whether it is necessary to believe it all ; 
 ii. 4. : vide igitur ne nulla sit divinatio, therefore consider, whether divinatio 
 exists at all. 
 
 There are some few passages where two negatives in the same proposition 
 do not destroy each other, but strengthen the negation. In Greek this is a 
 common practice ; but in Latin it can be regarded only as a rare exception, 
 apparently derived from the language of common life. See my remark on 
 Cic. in Verr. ii. 24. in fin. 
 
 It must be observed, however, that the use of non before a 
 negative word does not merely restore the affirmative sense, but 
 generally heightens it. The meaning depends upon the whole i 
 tenor of the speech, but usually it is merely a formal softening 
 of the expression, e. g. homo non indoctus, instead of homo sane 
 doctus ; especially with superlatives, non imperitissimuSf not the 
 most inexperienced, that is, a very experienced man. In like 
 manner non semel is equivalent to saepius, non ignoro, non nescio, 
 non sum nescius to " I know very well ; " non possum non to 
 necesse est, e. g. Cic. ad Att. viii. 2. : non potui non dare litteras 
 ad Caesar em, quum ille prior ad me scripsisset ; de Fin, iii. 8. : 
 Qui mortem in malis ponit, non potest earn, non timere ; ad Fam, 
 iv. 7. : Nemo potest non eum maxime laudare, qui cum spe vin-^ 
 cendi simul abjicit certandi etiam cupiditatem. 
 
 [§ 755.] 17. The words nemo, nullus, nihil, nunquarri have 
 a different sense, according as the non is placed before or after 
 them. 
 
 non nemo. 
 
 some one 
 
 ... nemo non. 
 
 everyone (subst.). 
 
 non nulli. 
 
 some 
 
 ... nullus non. 
 
 every (adject.). 
 
 non nihil. 
 
 something 
 
 ... nihiVnon, 
 
 everything. 
 
 nonnunquam. 
 
 sometimes 
 
 ... nunquam non, 
 
 , at all times. 
 
 So nusquam non, everywhere ; but nonnusquam is not in use, 
 alicuhi being used instead of it. Non — nisi acquires the meaning 
 of "only" (see the examples in § 801.), and modo non and 
 tantum non that of " almost." See above, § 729. 
 
 [§ 756.] -18. Ft seems to be pleonastically used after multi, 
 when another adjective follows, for in English the adjective 
 many is put, like numerals, before other adjectives without the 
 copulative "and." In Latin, however, we frequently find; 
 e. g. multae et magnae res, multa et varia negotia, multi being 
 used like other adjectives, and et also supplying the place of et 
 is, introducing a more accurate description (see § 699) ; e. g. Cic. 
 
ELLIPSIS. 511 
 
 in Rull, ii. 2. : versantur enim in animo meo multae et graves 
 cogitationes, quae mihi nullam partem neque diurnae neque noc" 
 turnae quietis impertiunt 
 
 The conjunction vero is used pleonastically in the apodosis to 
 indicate that it contains an answer, see above § 716. ^^ is si- 
 milarly used to express opposition, especially after si and its 
 compounds ; e. g. Terent. Eunuch, v. 2. 25. : Si ego digna hac 
 contumelia sum maxime, at tu indignus qui faceres tamen ; 
 Liv. X. 19. : Bellona, si hodie nobis victoriam duis, ast ego 
 templum tihi voveo. Also aher quoniam, as Liv. i. 28. : Quoniam 
 tuum insanahile ingenium est, at tu tuo supplicio doce, humanum 
 genus ea sancta credere, quae a te violata sunt. 
 
 [§ 757.] 19. A kind of pleonasm, which however partakes 
 of the nature of an anacoluthon, and is therefore beyond our 
 limits, consists in the repetition of a conjunction, when a sen- 
 tence has grown too* long, or has been interrupted by paren- 
 thetical clauses. This is the case most frequently with si and 
 ut; e. g. Terent. Phorm. i. 3. init. : Adeon' rem redisse, ut, qui 
 mihi optime consultum velit, patrem ut ' extimescam, where 
 Ruhnken's note is to be compared; Cic. in Verr. v. 11. : ut 
 quivis, quum aspexisset, nan se praetoris convivium, sed ut Can- 
 nensem pugnam, nequitiae videre arbitraretur ; Liv. iii. 1 9. : si 
 quis vobis humillimus homo de plebe — si quis ex his; Cic. de 
 Divin. 1. 61.'. Quid est igitur, cur quum domus sit omnium una, 
 eaque communis, quumque animi hominum semper fuerint futurique 
 sint, cur ii, quid ex quoque eveniat, et quid quamque rem signi- 
 Jicet, perspicere non possint ? An interrupted construction here 
 may be taken up again by the particles mentioned above, § 739. 
 
 CHAP. LXXXVL 
 
 ELLIPSIS. 
 
 [§ 758.] 1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words 
 which are necessary for the completeness of a construction, or at 
 least appear necessary to us who are not Romans, inasmuch as 
 we are inclined to consider the complete expression of a thought, 
 where no word is wanting, as the regular and original one. But 
 
512 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 it is manifest that grammar cannot notice all kinds of ellipsis, 
 as a speaker or writer very often begins to express a thought, 
 and after having used some words, drops it, being satisfied 
 with having merely suggested it, as in Yirgil, Aen. i. 139. : 
 Quos ego ! where we see from the connection what is to be sup- 
 plied, " I will teach you how to conduct yourselves," or some- 
 thing of a similar kind. To explain the reasons of such arbitrary 
 omissions made by the speaker for the sake of emphasis, and to 
 illustrate the practice by examples, is the province of rhetoric, 
 which considers it as a rhetorical figure, called aposiopesis. 
 Grammar has to treat only of things which often recur, and are 
 customary under particular circumstances, and grammatical 
 omissions of this kind alone will be the subject of the fol- 
 lowing remarks. 
 
 [§ 759.] Note. The ellipses occurring in proverbs cannot be taken into 
 consideration here, for it is the custom of all languages to indicate well- 
 known sentences only by a few words, and to leave it to the hearer to supply 
 the rest ; e. g. fortes fortuna; scil. adjuvat; nee sibi, nee alteri^ scil. prodest^ 
 in Cic. de Off. ii. 10. Of a similar kind is the expression in drinking the 
 health of a person : hene fe, scil. valere jubeo. Tibull. ii. 1. 31. ; Ovid, Fast. 
 ii. 637. 
 
 [§ 760.] 2. Respecting the omission and addition of the per- 
 sonal pronouns when forming the subject of a sentence, see 
 § 693. The indefinite homines (people), is also omitted, whence 
 the expressions dicunt, tradunt, ferunt, putant, vacant, &c. (see 
 § 381.), frequently with the addition of vulgo (commonly). The 
 expression " so called " is, by means of the same ellipsis, ren- 
 dered by quern, quam, quod or quos, quas, quae vocant or vo- 
 cahant. (See § 714.) 
 
 [§ 761.] 3. Proper names of persons are sometimes joined 
 with the genitive of the father's name, the words JiUus or Jilia 
 being omitted ; e. g. Faustus Sullae, in Cic. p. Cluent. 34. ; 
 Caecilia Metelli, Cic. de Divin. i. 46, — but more especially in 
 the case of foreign names, it being customary in Greek ; e. g. 
 Hannibal Gisgonis, Seleucus Antiochi, see Ruhnken on Veil. 
 Pat. ii. 5. An omission more common in Latin than that of 
 Jilia is that of uxor with the name of the husband ; hence we not 
 unfrequently find Terentia Ciceronis, Metella Crassi, Marcia 
 Catonis, and Fabia Dolabellae, Domitia Passieni in Quintil. vi. 
 3.73.; Apicata Sejani, Tacit. Ann.iY. 11.; Hectoris Andro- 
 
ELLIPSIS. 
 
 ^^ OF- THE '^ 
 
 UNIVERSITl 
 
 maclie, VIrg. Aen. iii. 319.; Elissa Sichaei, 0\i^,Jmrmd. t\\. 
 193. 
 
 [§ 762.] 4. Aedes or templiim is frequently omitted, the 
 name of the divinity alone being expressed in the genitive, but 
 a preposition is always added ; e. g. Liv. i. 41. : habitabat rex ad 
 Jovis Statoris ; Cic. ad Fam, xiv. 2. : Valerius mihi scripsit 
 quemadmodum a Vestae ad tabulam Valeriam ducta esses; 
 Philip, i. 7. : pecunia utinam ad Opis maneret ! 
 
 [§ 763.] 5. Other particular ellipses are those of the words 
 tempus, in the expressions ex quo, ex eo, and ex illo (since that 
 time), and brevi (shortly) ; pars, with adjectives, as in English : 
 tertia (a third), decuma (a tenth), quinquagesima (the fiftieth 
 part), and in the plural partes (parts performed by an actor), 
 with the adjectives primae and secundae ; febris with the ad- 
 jectives tertiana and quartana ; aqua with frigida and calida ; 
 caro with the adjectives ferina, agnina, bubula, canina, porcina, 
 &:c., is very common ; mare with altum ; castra with hiberna, 
 aestiva ; praedium (an estate), with adjectives derived from the 
 names of neighbouring towns, as in Pompejanum properabam, in 
 Tusculano eram, ex Formiano scripsit; or do in the expression 
 in quattuordecim seders ; i. e. to sit on one of the fourteen rows 
 of benches set apart for the equites ; pecuniae in the name of 
 the action of repetundae, i. e. of sums of money reclaimed, — and 
 other expressions, which must be learned from the dictionary. 
 
 [§ 764.] 6. The ellipsis o£ causa with the genitive of the gerund 
 (or Fut. Part. Pass.) is a decided imitation of a Greek idiom (viz. 
 the use of the genitive of the declined infinitive, rov (jisvysLv, to 
 express a purpose or object, the preposition svsKa or imep being 
 omitted), which, especially in later times, was looked upon and 
 sought for as an elegance, vide § 663. 
 
 But it is wrong to apply this ellipsis also to the immediate connection of a 
 noun with the genitive of the gerund ; for such expressions as, Cic. de Nat. 
 Deor. i. 22. : deliberandi sihi ununi diem postulavit^ " one day of (i. e. for) 
 deliberation," or Quintil. iv. 1 . in fin. : paulo longius exordium rei demonstrandue 
 repetam^ or Livy, ix. 45. : ut Marnicini, Peligni, &c. mitterent Bomam ora- 
 toi es pacis petendae amicitiaeque, do not require the ellipsis of causa for their 
 explanation. Nor must the dative (as is often done) be confounded with 
 the genitive ; for since the use of the dative as expressive of purpose is as 
 agreeable to Latin Syntax as that of the genitive is foreign to it, it 
 would be wrong to suppose the genitive where the text allows us to con- 
 sider it as the dative. In conformity to this, there occurs no decisive 
 passage of the ellipsis of causa, (or that Greek use of the genitive of thq 
 
 L L 
 
514 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 gerund) in Cicero, Nepos, or Livy, and it is not certain in Caesar, since in 
 the passage, Bell. Gall. iv. 17. : si naves dejiciendi operis essent a barharis 
 missae, and still more in others, the reading varies, and even here the genitive 
 may perhaps depend on naves. But the ellipsis in question certainly occurs in 
 Terence in one passage, probably a close imitation of the Greek original. 
 Ad. ii. 4. 6. : vereor coram in os te laudare amplius^ ne id assentandi magis 
 quam quo habeam gratum facere existumes. Further, in Sallust, designedly, 
 and with some affectation, in the speech of L. Philippus (Fragm. Hist. lib. i.) 
 §2.4. and 7. : avTua ille adversum divina et humana omnia cepit, non pro siui 
 aut quorum simulat injuria., sed legum ac libertatis subvertendae ; but nowhere 
 else in this author. In Velleius, in one passage, ii. 20., opus eratpartibus auc- 
 toritate., gratia : cujus augendae C. Marium cumjilio ab exilio revocavit, unless 
 we ought to read cui, which is more genuine Latin. But it occurs more fre- 
 quently in Tacitus, Ann. iii. 9. : ab Narnia vitandae suspicionis, an quia pa- 
 vidis consilia in incerto sunt, Nare ac mox Tiberi devectus; ibid. 27. : Secutae 
 leges dissensione ordinum, etapiscendi illicitos Jionores, aut pellendi claros viros, 
 aliaque ob prava per vim latae sunt; Ann. vi. 30. : quia pecuniam omittendae 
 delationis ceperant; Ann. xiii. 11. : quns (orationes) Seneca testificando quam 
 honesta pj-aeciperet, veljactandi ingenii, voce principis vulgabat; Hist. iv. 25. : 
 tum e seditiosis unum vinciri jubet, magis usurpandi juris, quam quia unius 
 culpa foret; ibid. 42. : accusationem subisse juvenis admodum nee depellendi 
 periculi, sed in spem potentiae videbatur. But even in Tacitus the dative of 
 the geruwd occurs more frequently in this sense, and in the passages Ann. 
 ii. 59. init, and iii. 41. in fin., this case might easily be restored. It is at all 
 events clear that this use of the genitive, generally speaking, remained 
 foreign to the Latin language. 
 
 [§ 765.] 7. The pronoun is, ea, id, is frequently omitted, when 
 it stands in the same case as the corresponding relative ; less 
 frequently, though not very rarely, when the cases are different. 
 It may also be observed that the relative part often precedes the 
 leading part of the proposition, in which case is, in the same 
 case, is put only when a certain emphasis is intended. Hence 
 we often meet with such passages as e. g. Cic. Lael. 22. : maxi- 
 mum ornamentum amicitiae tollit (is), qui ex ea tollit verecundiam, 
 i. e. " he bereaves friendship of its brightest ornament, who 
 takes away from it mutual respect ;" and very frequently witli 
 such as, terra quod accepit, (id) nunquam sine usura reddit. For 
 the demonstrative pronoun is expressly added only when it is to 
 be pronounced with emphasis ; see above, § 744. 
 
 Note. Upon the whole, however, it is a favourite practice in Latin to 
 omit the demonstratives, if they can be supplied from the relatives. We 
 should therefore say, discipulum tnuxime probo, qualem te fore jyromisisti, for 
 talem — qualem ; quanta potuit celeritate cucurrit; and so very frequently with 
 the same case of maximus, as e.g. Consul quantis maximis poterat itineribtui ad, 
 collegam ducebat ; dedit mihi quantum mnximum potuit ; i. e. " as much as" he 
 possibly could give," (See §689.) Qualis is used by Livy with a still 
 greater ellipsis, iii. 62. : proelium fuit, quale inter Jidentes sibi ambo exe7'citus, 
 i.e. tale quale esse debuit ; xxii. 49.: equitum pedestre proelium, quale jam 
 
ELLIPSIS. 515 
 
 haud dubid hostium victoria fuit With relative adverbs the corresponding 
 demonstrative adverb is omitted, as unde semel pecuniam sumpsisti, iterum 
 sume^ for inde iterum sume. 
 
 [§766.] 8. The pronoun is, ea, id, is likewise not expressed, 
 if it would be required to be put in the same oblique case as the 
 preceding noun to which it refers. Thus e. g. pater amat liheros 
 et tamen castigat, i. e. " and nevertheless he chastises them." 
 Sen. Epist. 79.: multos illustrat fortuna, dum vexat. The student 
 may also remember that in the construction of the ablative ab- 
 solute, those references to the subject of the proposition which 
 we in English express by means of a preposition and an un- 
 emphatical pronoun, are not expressed in Latin, e. g. Caesar, 
 Pompejo victo, in Asiam profectus est, i. e. " after Pompey had 
 been vanquished by him," where in Latin ab eo is never added. 
 Hence we usually render such ablatives absolute actively, thus, 
 " after having vanquished Pompey." 
 
 § 767.] 9. In those cases where we use " that,^^ " those,^'' in- 
 stead of a repetition of the preceding substantive, the pronoun 
 is is never used in Latin, and only later authors express this re- 
 lation by ille. It is the rule, that the preceding substantive, if 
 it can be conveniently omitted, is left to be supplied, and the 
 pronoun, wliich would refer to it, is not expressed, thus e. g. 
 Nep. Ale, 5. : quum Atheniensium opes senescere, contra Lacedae- 
 moniorum crescere videret, for illas Lacedaemoniorum, " those of 
 the Lacedaemonians ;" Curt. ix. 26. (6.): Philippus in acie tutior, 
 quam in theatro fuit : hostium manus saepe vitavit, suorum effugere 
 non valuit. And thus we should say, not only in the nominative, 
 fratris Jilius mihi placet, sororis displicet, but also in the dative, 
 fratris filio magnam pecuniam, sororis nihil prorsus testamento 
 legavit, and in the ablative, fratris filio multum, sororis longe 
 minus utor. So also with prepositions, as e. g. Cic. in Verr. i. 
 30. : Flehat uterque, non de suo supplicio, sed pater defilii morte, 
 de patris filius ; iii. 38. : ut aratores in servorum numero essent, 
 servi in puhlicanorum ; iv. 20. : ut non conferam vitam neque 
 existimationem tuam cum illius, i. e. " with those of that man." 
 There are also instances where another substantive of a similar 
 meaning is used, or the same is repeated, even with some harsh- 
 ness (e. g. Veil. Pat. ii. 128. : In hujus virtutum aestimatione jam 
 pridem judicia civitatis cum judiciis principis certant), or a deri- 
 vative adjective is made use of, as e. g. Terentii fabulas studiose 
 lego, Plautinis minus detector. We also meet with passage- 
 
 LL 2 
 
516 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 where, instead of the derivative adjective, or of the genitive of 
 the person depending on the omission of a substantive, the name 
 of the person itself is put in the case which the verb governs, as 
 e. g. Terentii fahulis magnopere ddector^ Plauto longe minus, or 
 libros Platonis lego, non multum ah Aristotele dissidentes, instead of 
 ab Aristotelis (libris) or ab Aristoteleis, Comp. Cic. de Orat. i. 4. 
 § 15. and 44. § 197. : si cum Lycurgo et Dracone et Solone nostras 
 leges conferre volueritis, and Heusinger on Cic. de Off, i. 22. 
 
 Note. Hie and ille, when the preceding substantive is understood, retain 
 in Cicero their demonstrative signification, and therefore do not merely 
 supply the place of the substantive which is omitted ; e.g. Cic. p. Arch. 11.: 
 Nullam enim virtutem aliam mercedem lahorum periculorumque desiderata, prae- 
 ter hanc (the one of which I am speaking) laudis et gloriae ; Divin. 11.; 
 Quum omnis arrogantia odiosa est, turn ilia (into which I should fall) ingenii 
 atque eloquentiae multo molestissima. But such cases form the precedent on 
 which later writers actually use ille in the place of a preceding substantive. , 
 
 [§ 768.] 10. The possessive pronouns are usually omitted, 
 when they can be easily supplied from the subject, which is 
 either a noun, or implied in the person of the verb. Thus pa- 
 ir em video, fratrem certe diligis, roga parentes, Cicero in libro de 
 senectute Catonem loquentem induxit, without the pronouns meum, 
 tuum, tuos, suo ; they are added, only when emphasis or contrast 
 is intended, where in English we might add **own" to the 
 pronoun. Hence the Latins did not say anirnum suum adjecit, 
 advertit, appulit ad aliquam rem, animos vestros attendite ad ea 
 quae consequuntur, but animum advertit, animos attendite alone, 
 since, in the absence of a genitive or of the pronoun of another 
 person, the reader or hearer would naturally understand no other 
 person than that of the verb. The contrast, however, requires 
 its addition in (Cic. in RulL ii. 24.): ego non dicam, tamen id 
 poteritis cum animis vesfris cogitare, and the precision in juro ex 
 animi mei sententia, jura ex animi tui sententia. But if, besides 
 the person of the subject, that of a remote object also occurs in 
 the proposition, the possessive pronoun will be supplied from 
 this latter, e. g. patris animum mihi reconciliasti, i. e. patris mei 
 animum rather than tui. 
 
 The possessive pronoun, as in English, is generally expressed 
 only once, when it belongs to two substantives, even if they 
 are of different genders, as amor tuus ac judicium de me ; ingeidum 
 tuum ac doctrina, 
 
 [§ 769.] 11. The interrogative interjection Quid? which is of 
 
ELLIPSIS. 517 
 
 such frequent occurrence, may easily be explained by an ellipsis 
 of ais, censes. It deserves to be noticed that this quid attracts, 
 or draws near to itself, the case of the succeeding verb, e. g. Cic. 
 de Off. ii. 7.: Quid? Alexandrum Pheraeum quo animo vixisse 
 arbitramur? p. Muren. 15.: Quid? illam pugnam navalem ad 
 Tenedum mediocri certamine commissam arbitraris ? in Pis. 36. : 
 Quid 9 illam armorum officinam ecquid recordaris? and further, 
 that in the phrase quid censes {censemus, censetis)? when another 
 clause depends on it, quid often serves merely to introduce the 
 interrogation, e. g. Cic. p. Rose, Am. 17. : Quid censes hunc 
 ipsum Roscium, quo studio esse in rusticis rebus? equivalent to 
 Quo studio censes Roscium esse ? de Off. ii. 7. : Quid censemus 
 superiorem, Dionysium, quo cruciatu timoris angi solitum, the. 
 same as Quo cmciatu censemus Dionysium angi solitum esse ? 
 V Quid vero f Quid igitur ? Quid ergo ? Quid enim ? are like- 
 wise easily explained by an ellipsis of censes or censetis. They are 
 always followed by another question which may be united with 
 that elliptical interrogation into one proposition. But of a 
 different kind are Quid postea ? Quid tum ? Supply sequitur, 
 i. e. " what follows then (or from this) ?" and Quid ita ? " How 
 so?" "Why?" which may be explained by an ellipsis of the 
 preceding verb ; thus, e. g. Cic. : Accusatis Sex. Roscium. 
 Quid ita ? Quia de manibus vestris effugit. 
 
 In the interrogative transition Quid quod, which is so fre- 
 t[uent in the Latin writers, dicam de eo is omitted, hence 
 properly " what shall I say about this, that, &c. ; " but it may 
 be rendered in various ways, as, e. g. by " way," " nay even,'^ 
 " but now^ " mor cover. ^^ Thus, e. g. Cic. : Quid quod salus 
 sociorum summum in periculum vacatur? Quid quod sapien- 
 tissimus quisque animo aequissimo moritur? 
 
 Quid multa ? quid plura ? ne multa ; ne multis ; ne plura, are 
 used with the ellipsis of dicam; we may perhaps also supply 
 verba and verbis, unless we consider the neuter to be used sub- 
 stantively. Similar expressions are quid quaeris? quid vultis 
 amplius? We also find the infinitive dicere omitted; Cic. 
 Brut. 92.: Nimis multa videor de me; ad Fam. v. 21.: Multa 
 alia coram brevi tempore licebit. 
 
 [§770.] 12. Pertinere, "to concern," "to have reference 
 to," is omitted in such expressions as nihil ad me ; recte an secus, 
 nihil ad nos ; aut si ad nos, nihil ad hoc tempus, in Cic. in Pis. 
 
 LL 3 
 
518 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 28. ; nihil ad rem ; or interrogatively quid hoc ad Epicurum ? 
 " what does this concern Epicurus ? " what does he care about 
 it ? Quorsus haec ? for quorsus haec pertinent 9 " what is that 
 for?" " what does this refer to?" 
 
 In the elliptical expression quo mihi hanc rem ? " what use is 
 this to me ? " and unde mihi aliquam rem ? " whence am I to get 
 any thing ?" paraho may be supplied ; e. g. Cic. ad Fam. vii. 23. : 
 Martis vero signum quo mihi, pads auctorif Horat. Epist, i. 
 5. 12. : quo mihi fortunam, si non conceditur uti ? Sen. de 
 Tranq. 9.: quo mihi bihliothecas ? Horat. Serm, ii. 5. 102.: 
 Unde mihi tamfortem atque Jidelem 9 ii. 7. 116.: unde mihilapi- 
 dem 9 In the indignant question, in Cic. Philip, i. 10. : Quas 
 tu mihi inter cessiones, quas religiones 9 supply profers or dicis. 
 
 A similar expression is quid mihi cum hac re 9 " what have I 
 to do with this?" " what does this concern me?" e. g. Cic. pro 
 Quint. 17. : Quid mihi, inquit, cum, ista summa sanctimonia ac 
 diligentia 9 viderint ista ojfficia viri boni, de me autem sic con- 
 siderent, 8fc. 
 
 [§ 771.] 13. A tense of facere is omitted in short pro- 
 positions containing an opinion on a person's actions, e. g. 
 Cicero: Recte ille, melius hi; Bene Chrysippus, qui docet ; de 
 Off. iii. 27. : At stulte (Regulus) qui non modo non censuerit 
 captivos remittendos, verum etiam dissuaserit. Quomodo stulte 9 
 p. Milon. 14. : Nihil per vim unquam Clodius, omnia per vim 
 Milo ; de Off. i. 11. : ne quid tale post hac (scil. facial^. Also 
 in the phrase Jinem facere, Cic. de Nat. Deor. iii. 40. : Quae 
 quum dixisset, Cotta Jinem ; de Fin. iv. 1 . : Quae quum dixisset, 
 finem ille. This ellipsis deserves especially to be noticed in the 
 phrases nihil aliud quam, quid aliud quam, nihil praeterquam, 
 which in sense are equivalent to " merely," e. g. Nep. Ages. 2. : 
 Tissaphernes nihil aliud quam helium comparavit ; Liv. xxxiv. 
 AQ. : Per hiduum nihil aliud quam steterunt parati ad pugnandum ; 
 Sueton. Caes. 20. : ut, quoad -potestate abiret, domo abditus nihil 
 aliud quam per edicta obnuntiaret ; Aug. 83.: mox nihil aliud 
 quam vectabatur et deambulabat ; Flor. iii. 23. : Nam quum jure 
 belli Sulla dictator proscripsisset inimicos, qui supererant, re- 
 vocante Lepido, quid aliud quam ad bellum vocabaniur 9 Liv. iv. 
 3. : rogationes quibus quid aliud quam admonemus, cives nos eorum 
 esse 9 Liv. iii. 26. : et ilia quidem nocte nihil praeterquam vigilatum 
 est in urbe. In like manner the verb is omitted with nihil amplius 
 
ELLIPSIS. 519 
 
 quam, nihil minus quam, and its place is supplied by the one 
 following, as Sueton. Domit. 3. : quotidie sihi secretum horarium 
 sumere solebat, nee quidquam amplius quam muscas capture; 
 Liv. xxvi. 20. : nihil minus quam verehatur, ne ohstaret gloriae 
 suae, he was far from fearing, &c. We observe a similar 
 eUipsis in the phrase si nihil aliud, e. g. Curt. iv. 28. : vincam 
 tamen silentium, et, si nihil aliud, certe gemitu interpellaho, " if 
 nothing else," i. e. " if I cannot do any thing else." See 
 Drakenborch on Liv. xxx. 35. 
 
 Note. The elliptical use of nihil aliud quam does not occur in Cicero. 
 (See § 735.) But nihil aliud nisi, nothing else than, occurs in Cicero, as p. 
 Arch. 4. : si nihil aliud nisi de civitaie ac lege dicimus, nihil dico amplius ; but 
 a real ellipsis of fajcere cannot be supposed to exist here, since there is a 
 direct connection with the verb following ; p. Leg. Man. 22. : vt nihil aliitd 
 nisi de hoste ac de lavde cogitet. 
 
 [§ 772.] - 14. Ait or inquit, w^hich serves to introduce the 
 direct words of another person, is sometimes omitted, e. g. 
 Phaedr. v. 5. 37.: turpemque aperto pignore err or em prolans: 
 En, hie declarat, quales sitis judiees ; but more frequently in 
 relating a connected conversation, in this manner, Tum ilk ; hie 
 ego ; huic ego. 
 
 Respecting the omission of the verb " to say " in indirectly 
 quoting some one's words, and the supplying it from some pre- 
 ceding verb, see above, § 620. Even without another verb 
 preceding, dicit is sometimes omitted in quoting a person's 
 words, e. g. Cic. de Nat. Deor, ii. 14. ; Seite enim Chrysippus: 
 lit gladii causa vaginam, sic praeter mundum cetera omnia aliorum 
 causa esse generata. 
 
 The omission of the idea implied in " I will tell you," or " let 
 me tell you " in the apodosis, and commonly after a protasis 
 with ne, is of a different nature ; e. g. Cic. p. Arch. 1. : Ac ne 
 quis a nobis hoe ita did forte miretur — (let me tell you) ne nos 
 quidem huic uni studio penitus unquam deditifuimus ; in Verr. ii. 
 73. : Ac ne forte omnia ita condita fuisse videantur : quae consilio 
 aliquo aut ratione inveniri potuervjit, inventa sunt, judiees, 
 
 [§ 773.] 15. In adjurations the verb oro (or rogo, precor, 
 &c.) is frequently omitted after the preposition per (by), which 
 makes the accusative of the person adjured appear to depend on 
 the preposition. Curt. iv. 66. (14.) : Per ego vos deos patrios, 
 vindicate ah ultimo dedecore nomen gentemque Persarum. The 
 
 L L 4 
 
520 LATIX GRAMMAR. 
 
 construction is this, per deos patrios vos oro, vindicate. Gronov., 
 in the 7th vol. of Drakenborch's Livy, p. 187. (on Liv. xxix. 
 18. 9.) has collected numerous examples of this kind. Comp. 
 § 794. 
 
 In the wish Di meliora ! either the verb dent is omitted^ or 
 velinti as we find at full length in Ovid, Metam. vii. 37. : Di 
 meliora velint ; Juven. vii. 207.: Di, mgjorum iimbris tenuem et 
 sine ponder e terram ! — supply date. 
 
 [§ 774.] 16. As occasionally in English, so often in Latin a 
 verb is put once only instead of twice, being left to be supplied 
 the second time, e. g. in Cic. de Leg. iii. 13.: ut enim cupidi- 
 tatibus principum et vitiis injici solet tota civitas, sic emendari et 
 corrigi continentid ; and even when the persons are different, as, 
 e. g. magis ego te amo quam tii we, supply amas. From a pre- 
 ceding negative verb the corresponding positive verb is some- 
 , times left to be supplied, as e. g. from nego, dico ; from veto, 
 juheo ; in which case the copulative et obtains the signification of 
 the adversative sed; e. g. Cic. ad Att. vii. 15. : plerique negant, 
 Caesarem in condicione mansurum, postulataque haec ah eo in- 
 terposita esse, quo minus quod opus esset ad helium a nohis 
 puraretur, which we should in English express either by " most 
 people say that — not — and that, &c.," or by using two verbs. 
 Comp. de Leg. ii. 27. § 67. Further, in a relative clause an 
 infinitive is left to be supplied from the tempus Jinitum of the 
 main proposition, as e. g. quos voluit omnes interfecit " he caused 
 all whom he wished to be kiUed ; " rogat Ruhrium, ut, quos com- 
 modum ei sit, invitet ; non facile irascetur judex cui tu velis, viz. 
 eum irasvi; and even in cases where an infinitive future is to be 
 supplied, e. g. Cic. de Off. ii. 22. : ne illam quidem consequuntur, 
 quam putant, gratiam, i. e. quam se consecuturos putant. An 
 ellipsis of the infinitive takes place alsQ in indirect discourse 
 after relatives, where the verb, if it were repeated, would have 
 to be put in the subjunctive ; and it deserves to be noticed that 
 the subject of the omitted infinitive is put in the s accusative, 
 e. g. Cic. in Verr. iii. 92. : (Verres) ajehat se tantidem aestimasse, 
 quanti Sacerdotem for quanti Sacerdos aestimasset, p. Lig. 1. : 
 conjitetur se in ea parte fuisse, qua te, qua virum omni laude 
 dignum patrem tuum ; de Fin. iv. 20. : Zeno negat, Platoncm, si 
 sapiens non sit, eadem esse in causa, qua tyrannum DiGnysium ; 
 Liv. viii. 14. : Cumanos Suessulanosque ejusdem juris condicio- 
 
ELLIPSIS. 521 
 
 nlsq lie, cujus Capuam, esse placuit, i. e. cujus Capua esset. See 
 § 603. The same attraction to the case of the leading propo- 
 sition, which is general in the construction of the accus. with 
 the infinit., sometimes also occurs with the participle, as Nep. 
 Hann, 5. : Hannibal Minuciunii magistrum equitum, pari ac dic- 
 tatorem dolo productum in proelium, fugavit ; Liv. xxxiv. 32. : 
 nam et Messenen uno et eodem jure foederis, quo et Lacedaemonem, 
 in amicitiam nostram receptam, sociam nobis urbem, vi atque 
 armis cepisti ; — and in the construction of the ablative absol., 
 Liv. iv. 39. : Quibus poterat sauciis duc.tis secum ; i. 29. : raptim 
 quibus quisque poterat elatis. Other kinds of attraction of the 
 relative pronoun are of Greek origin, and very rarely used, as 
 Luccejus in Cic. ad Fam. v. 14. : quum aliquid agas eorum, 
 quorum consuesti ; Horat. Serm. i. 6. 15.: judice, quo nosti, 
 populo, where Bentley has collected some similar passages from 
 Gellius, but Terent. Heaut. i. 1. 35. : hoc quidem causa, qua 
 dixi tibi, is of a different kind, as the ellipsis me scire velle is to 
 be supplied from the preceding scire hoc vis 9 
 
 Note. A peculiar construction of quam qui with the superlative is ex- 
 plained by the omission of the verb ; Cicero, ad Fam. xiii. 3. : tarn mihi 
 gratum id erit, quam quod grafissimum ; ibid, v, 2. : tarn enim sum amicus rei- 
 puhlicae^ quum qui maxime ; pro Sull. 31. : tarn sum misericors^ judices, quam, 
 vos, tarn mitts, quam qui Lenissimus. So also ut qui, without a preceding tam ; 
 e. g. Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 62. : Te semper sic colam et tuebor, ut quern dili- 
 gentissime ; Quintil. iii. 8. 12. : deliheratio affectus, ut quae maanme, postuht. 
 
 [§ 775.] 17. Zeugma (Isvyfjua, called by some syllepsis) is that 
 form of expression in which a verb which grammatically belongs to 
 two or more nouns is, as to its meaning, applicable only to one; so 
 that to the other noun or nouns another verb, sometimes of a quite 
 different meaning, must be supplied. This mode of expression 
 is not unfrequent in the poets, and in those prose writers who 
 are fond of deviating from the common mode of speaking ; e. g. 
 Tac. Ann. ii. 20. : Germanicus, quod arduum, sibi, cetera legatis 
 permisit, where from permisit another verb, perhaps sumpsit, 
 must be supplied with sibi; ibid. iii. 12. : si legatus officii terminos, 
 obsequium erga Imperatorem exuit, where to terminos we may 
 supply excessit, Sallust, Jug. 46. : In Jugurtha tantus dolus 
 tantaque peritia locorum et militiae erat, uti, pacem an bellum 
 gerens perniciosior esset, in incerto haberetur. Pacem gerere is 
 not said, but pacem agere ; on the other hand, bellum gerere is 
 common. But even in Cicero we find similar expressions ; 
 p. Mil, 1. : ilia arma, centuriones, cohortes ^on periculum nobis. 
 
522 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 sed praesidium denuntiant, where the verb denuntlare, " to 
 threaten," is applicable only to periculunii and for praesidium 
 we must supply promittunt. 
 
 [§ 77G.] 18. The auxiliary verb esse is frequently omitted 
 with the infinitives formed by means of it. This is so common 
 with the infin. perf. pass., depending on oportet, that it may be 
 regarded as the ordinary usage, as in Terence : adolescenti morem 
 gestum oportuit ; ancillas non oportuit relictas ; Cicero : quod 
 jam pridem factum oportuit ; totam rem Lucullo integram ser- 
 vatam oportuit; signum ahlatum non oportuit, &c. Comp. §611. 
 As regards the other forms, it is only the third persons of the 
 present, est and sunt, which, in the tenses of the passive, are 
 omitted ; though not so frequently in Cicero as in later prose 
 writers. Cicero, however, especially in his philosophical writ- 
 ings, often omits est and sunt as the predicate verb with adjec- 
 tives ; e.g. de Off. i. 12.: Poeni foedifragi, crudelis Hannibal: 
 reliqui justiores ; and in proverbial phrases this is almost the 
 general practice : summum jus summa injuria, in Cic. de Off, i. 
 10. ; omnia praeclara rara, Lael. 21. ; jucundi acti lahores, de 
 Fin. ii. 32. ; quot homines tot sententiae, suus cuique mos, in 
 Terence, Phorm. ii. 4. 14. 
 
 Note. In speaking of the passive forms, it deserves to be noticed that est 
 is most frequently omitted with the fut. part. pass. ; Cic. Cat. Maj. 11. : 
 Habenda ratio valetudinis, utendum modicis exercitationibus ; but it is done 
 only in short sentences, and when rhetorical emphasis is aimed at. 
 
 [§ 777.] 19. Ut (as) in interposed clauses, such as ut opinor, 
 itt puto, ut censeo, ut credo, is not unfrequently omitted, as is 
 the case also in English. It must be observed that credo, used 
 in this manner, very often takes an ironical meaning, like our 
 '• I should think ; " e. g. Cic. de Fin. i. 3. : male, credo, mererer de 
 meis civihus, si ad eorum cognitionem divina ilia ingenia transfer- 
 rem. The other verbs, however, are much more frequently used 
 as leading verbs followed by the accus. with the infin. ; hence it 
 is not advisable to say, e. g. nondum domi erat, ut sciebam ; non- 
 dum Romam venisti, ut puto, but rather nondum eum domi esse 
 sciebam ; nondum Romam te advenisse puto : this construction is 
 especially common with relatives ; e. g. libri, quos putabam mihi 
 surreptos esse, reperti sunt. 
 
 [§ 778.] 20. A preposition is sometimes pleonastically put 
 with two nouns joined by ct or aut ; respecting this, see § 744. 
 
ELLIPSIS. 523 
 
 foil. On the other hand, an ellipsis of* a preposition takes place 
 ■when it is omitted with the first of two nouns, and put with the 
 second only. This is, however, not often the case, and only in 
 the poets ; e. g. Horat. Carm. iii. 25. : Quae nemora, out quos 
 agor in specus, for in quae nemora aut in quos specus agor, comp. 
 Bentley's note to this passage ; Epist. ii. 1. 25. : foedera regum 
 vel Gahiis vel cum rigidis aequata Sabinis, Another ellipsis of a 
 preposition with the relative pronoun, together with the ellipsis 
 of the verb which preceded with the demonstrative, is of more 
 frequent occurrence ; e. g. Cic. ad Att. viii. 15. : in eadem 
 opinione fui, qua reliqui omnes, properly in qua reliqui omnes 
 fuerunt ; p. Rose, Am, 44. : In quem hoc dicam, quaeris, Erud 9 
 Non in eum, quem vis et putas, for in quem vis et putas me dicere ; 
 Tusc. i. 46. : si opinamur eos, quibus orbati sumus, esse cum 
 aliquo sensu in iis malis, quibus vulgo opinantur, i. e. in quibus eos 
 esse vulgo homines opinantur, Quintil. vi. 1. 16. : si percussus 
 sit ab eo, quo minime oportuit. See § 774., and comp. Heindorf 
 on Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 12. 
 
 [§779.] 21. In the phrase tantum abest ut, followed by 
 another clause with ut, an adverb, such as potius (rather), 
 contra (on the contrary), seems to be omitted with the second 
 ut. This potius, however, is never added, and contra but rarely ; 
 for the second clause with ut, another construction with vix or 
 etiam is sometimes used ; e. g. Cic. Or at. 29. : in quo tantum 
 abest, ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac morosi simus, 
 ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes ; Tusc. v. 2. : ac philo- 
 Sophia quidem tantum abest, ut proinde ac de hominum vita est 
 merita laudetur, ut a plerisque neglecta a multis etiam vituperetur ; 
 Brut. 80. : tantum abfuit, ut inflammares nostras animos : som- 
 num, vix tenebamus. 
 
 [§ 780.] 22. The conjunction si in the protasis is often 
 omitted in Latin, as is sometimes done in English with "if;" 
 in this case it is doubtful whether the clause should not be con- 
 sidered as a question, it being pronounced with the tone of a 
 question ; e. g. Cic. in Hull. ii. 25. : Libet agros emi. Primum 
 quaero quos agros ? et quibus in locis ? you will buy lands, or 
 will you buy lands ? i. e. if you will buy lands, I will first ask, 
 &c. ; Juven. iii. 100. : Rides, major e cachinno concutitur : Jlet, 
 si lacrimas conspexit amici, nee dolet ; Horat. Serm. ii. 6. 50. : 
 Frigidus a rostris manat per compita rumor : quicunque obvius est 
 
524 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 nie consulit ; Cic. in Rail. ii. 15. : Commodum erit Pergamum — 
 totam denique Asiam populi Romani factam esse dicere : utrum 
 oratio ad ejus i^ei disputationem deerit, an impelli non poterit ut 
 falsum judicei f The future perfect is particularly frequent in 
 these sentences, as Cic. in Verr, iii. 2. : Furem aliquem aut rapa- 
 cem accusaris ; vitanda tibi semper erit omnis avaritiae suspicio. 
 Malejicum quempiam adduxeris aut crudelem : cavendum erit 
 semper, ne qua in re asperior aut inhumanior fuisse videare ; Hor. 
 Serin, ii. 3. 292. : casus medicusve levarit aegrum ex praecipitiy 
 mater delira necahit, " should chance or the physician have 
 saved him," i.e. "if chance, &c., has saved him, the mother 
 will destroy him ; " Terent. Phorm. i. 2. 35. : Unum cognoris, 
 omnes noris, " if you know one, you know all." Also with the 
 imperf. and pluperf. subjunctive, in supposing a case which is 
 known not to be a real one ; in Verr, iii. 97. : negaret hac aesti- 
 matione se usum : vos id liomini credidisse videremini, for si ne- 
 garet ; de Off. iii. 19. : Dares hanc vim M. Crasso, ut digitorum 
 percussione heres posset scriptus esse, qui re vera non esset lieres : 
 in foro, mild crede, saltaret ; Plin. Epist. i. 12. : Dedisses huic 
 animo par corpus, fecisset quod optahat, for si dedisses. 
 
 [§ 781.] 23. The conjunctions vero, autem, are frequently 
 omitted in adversative clauses, especially in short ones, the 
 opposition being indicated by the position of the members of the 
 proposition ; e. g. Cic. in Rull. ii. 8. : Non defuit consilium : fides 
 erga plebem Rom. defuit; Liv. xxii. 51.: vincere scit Hannibal, 
 victoria uti nescit ; Senec. JSpist. 88.: ego, quid futurum sit, 
 nescio, quid fieri possit scio ; Plin. Epist. iii. 20. : multifamam, 
 conscientiam pauci verentur ; Cic. ad Att. ix. 10. : Sulla potuit, 
 ego non potero ? de Fin. v. 32. : An Scythes Anacharsis potuit 
 pro nihilo pecuniam ducere, nostrates philosophi non facer e 
 poterunt ? " and should our philosophers not do it ? " in Cat. 
 i. 1. : An vero vir amplissimus P. Scipio Ti. Gracchum mediocriter 
 labefactantem statum rei publicae privatus interfecit : Catilinam, 
 orbem terrae caede atque incendiis vastare cupientem, nos consules 
 perferemus ? And it occurs in this manner frequently, in de- 
 scribing a progress from smaller to greater things. We 'must 
 add the remark that non in a second negative member of a pro- 
 position, e. g. aliena vitia videt, sua non videt, is thli^ used without 
 the conjunction et or vero; Cic. Cat. Maj. 11. : Tantum cibi et 
 potionis adhibendum, ut reficiantur vires, non opprimantur ; I'usc. 
 
ELLIPSIS. 525 
 
 iii. 18.:^ gravibus et antiquis philosoj)his medicina petenda est, 
 non ah his voluptariis. But et (ac) non must be used in unreal 
 suppositions, or ironical sentences, where the second member 
 contains the truth. Here we may supply " rather," or " as is 
 really the case " (see above, § 334.) ; Cic. de Off, i. 2. : si sibi 
 consentiaty et non interdum naturae bonitate vincatur ; in Hull. ii. 
 26. : usus est hoc verba, exhauriendam esse plebem, quasi de 
 aliqua sentina, ac non de optimorum civium genere loqueretur ; 
 p. Rose, Am, 33. : Quasi nunc id agatur — ac non hoc quaeratur, 
 Potius is actually used in Cic. de Or at. i. 22. : Quando enim me 
 ista curasse aut cogitasse arbitramini, et non semper irrisisse potius 
 eorum hominum impudentiam ; in Cat, ii. 6. : quis denique ita ad~ 
 spexit ut perditum civem ac non potius ut importunissimum 
 hostem, which is equivalent to quasi perditus esset civis, ac non 
 importunissimus hostis, 
 
 [§ 782.] 24. The conjunction is likewise omitted when two 
 single words as comprehending the whole idea are opposed to 
 each other ; e. g. velim nolim, " whether I would or not ; " 
 maxima minima, " the greatest as well as the least ; " prima 
 postrema, " from the first to the last ; " dignos indignos adire, 
 " both those who do and those who do not deserve it ; " ire red- 
 ire, "to go to and fro." Thus Cic. in Verr, iv. 54. : Aedifi- 
 ciis omnibus publicis privatis, sacris profanis sic pepercit ; Sail. 
 Cat. 11. : Nam gloriam, honorem, imperium bonus ignavus aeque 
 sibi exoptant, at which passage Corte quotes several similar ones. 
 
 [§ 783.] 25. Et is very frequently omitted in mentioning the 
 names of two colleagues ; e. g. Consules declarati sunt Cn, Pom- 
 pejus, M, Crassus ; quo anno Cn, Pompejus, M, Ci*assus consules 
 fuerunt ; Cn, Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus ; and so also Cic. 
 in Verr. i. 41. : ab A. Postumio, Q. Fulvio censoribus ; ibid. 14. : 
 P, Lentulo, L, Triaiio quaestoribus urbanis. But sometimes 
 also when the names of two persons stand in another relation to 
 each other ; e. g. Cic. Brut, 74. : 3Iitto L. Laelium, P, Scipio- 
 nem; de Off, ii. 17. : dicebat idem Cotta, Curio ; ibid. ii. 19. : com- 
 mendare judicibus, magistratibus. Respecting another customary 
 omission of the conjunction in certain formulae, see § 740. In 
 other combinations et is seldom omitted with two words, in the 
 oratorical style ; e. g. Cic. in Verr, i. 48. : aderant amici, pro- 
 pinqui ; ii. 24. : inimicus, hostis esses ; iii. 66.: dejectos fortunis 
 omnibus, expulsos. See my note on Cic. in Verr, ii. 78., § 192 
 
526 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Also with verbs ; e. g. Cic. Divin. 4. : Adsunt, queruntur Siculi 
 universi ; p. Lig. 4. : Italia ■proUihetur^exulat, If three or more 
 substantives are joined, it is usual, in good prose, either to omit 
 the conjunction in all cases, or to insert it between each ; thus 
 either amicitiam summa fide, constantia, justitia servavit, or 
 summafide et constantia et justitia ; Cic. p. Muren, 8. may serve 
 as an example for both cases : qui non modo Curtis, Catonibus, 
 Pompejis, antiquis illis, sed his recentihus Mariis et Didiis et 
 Coeliis commemorandis jacehant. This is also the more common 
 practice with adjectives and verbs. Hence it is not proper to 
 conclude an enumeration of several persons or things with et alii, 
 et ceteri, et cetera, but rather without et, thus, alii, ceteri, reliqui, 
 reliqua. We must, however, observe that though et, ac, and 
 atque are not used alone in the third or fourth place, yet the 
 enclitic que very frequently occurs in this position ; as e. g. 
 Cic. />. Muren. 1.: precor — ut ea res vobis populoque Romano 
 pacem, tranquillitatem, otium concordiamque afferat ; and after- 
 wards idem ego sum precatus, ut ea res fauste, feliciter prosper eque 
 eveniret, and ut ah hujus honored fama fortunisque omnibus inimi- 
 corum impetus propulsare possim, and in a great many other 
 
 [§ 784.] 26. We may likewise suppose an ellipsis of the con- 
 junction et, when two protases introduced by si are joined toge- 
 ther ; where we say " if — and if,^^ or " if — «wJ," omitting 
 the second " if." Examples of this kind are common. Comp. 
 Cic. de Off. iii. 9. : Haec est vis hujus anuli et hujus exempli : 
 Si nemo sciturus, nemo ne suspicaturus quidem sit, cum aliquid 
 injuste fecerisf si id diis hominibusque futurum sit semper ignotum, 
 sisne facturus. An ellipsis of the conjunction ut is supposed 
 when ne precedes, and the mere et is used to continue the sen- 
 tence ; e. g. Curt. viii. 50. : monere coepit Porum, ne ultima 
 experiri perseveraret, dederetque se victori ; Nep. Eum, 6. : Olym- 
 pias ab Eumene petiit, ne pateretur Philippi domus et familiae 
 inimicissimos stirpem quoque interimere, ferretque opem liberis 
 Alexandri, and a little before huic ille primum suasit ne se move- 
 ret et expectaret, where the copulative conjxmctions et, atque, 
 que obtain the meaning of the adversative sed. Comp. § 774. 
 
 [§ 785.] 27. We may here mention in conclusion that a prae- 
 nomen which belongs to two persons in common is only put 
 once in the plural, before the other names, e. g. Cic. in Bull. ii. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 527 
 
 5. : Tib, et Gajus Gracchi; Cat. Maj. 9. : mild Gnaeus et 
 Puhlius Scipiones — fortunati videbantur ; Liv. i. 42. : Servius 
 duas Jilias juvenibus regiis,Lucio atque Avunti Tarquiniis, jungit. 
 Also when two names belong to two persons in common, as Cic. 
 in Verr. i. 39. : cum Q. et Cn. Postumis Curtiis ; Brut. 25. : 
 orationes L. et C. Aureliorum Orestarum. Such persons are 
 usually brothers, and the word fratres is added, Cic. Brut. 69. : 
 Eodem tempore C. et L. Caepasii fratres fuerunt. The singular 
 is not so frequent, but still occurs in Cic. p. Rab. perd. 7. : Cn. 
 et L. Domitius ; Liv. vi. 22. : *S^. et L. Papirius ; Sueton. 
 Caes. 80. : Marcoque et D. Bruto, which is attested by MSS. 
 The same is done with other substantives ; Veil. Pat. ii. 67. : legio 
 Martia et quarta ; Brutus in Cic. ad Fam. xi. 19.: quum pu- 
 tarem quartam et Martiam legiones mecum futuras ; Liv. x. 
 18. : cum legionibus secunda et tertia ; xxvi. 10. : circa portas 
 Collinam Esquilinamque, and inter Esquilinam Collinamque 
 portam. 
 
 Note. A praenomen belonging to two persons should, according to Gro- 
 novius (on Liv. iv. 48.), precede the other names, and be put in the plural, 
 as is there edited by Drakenborch : Turhatores vulgi erant Spurii Maecilius 
 qivartiim et Metilius tertium trihuni plehis ; so also x. 1. : Marcis Livio Ventre 
 etAemilio consulibus; x. 40. : equitibus Gajos Caediciumet Trehonium praefecit. 
 Others have doubted this, because the same praenomen is very frequently 
 repeated, and the question cannot be decided by means of MSS. But the 
 plural of the praenomen, joined with duo^ is well attested ; Sueton. Avg. 
 100. : Ohiit in cubicido eodem, quo pater Octavius, duobus Sextis Pompejo et 
 Appvlejo consulibus ; Liv. v. 24. : dux)s Publios Comelios, Cossum et Sci- 
 pionem. 
 
 CHAP. LXXXVIL 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, AND STRUCTURE OF PERIODS. 
 
 [§786.] 1. When we arrange the words according to the lo- 
 gical connection of ideas, the first place next to the conjunction 
 or connecting relative is taken by the subject ; next comes the 
 verb with its adverb ; then the cases of the nearer or remoter 
 object; and last the remaining additions of prepositions with 
 their cases. The adjective closely adheres to the substantive 
 
528 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 which it qualifies. This is commonly called the grammatical 
 order of construction which is strictly followed in most modern 
 languages. But the Latin language may place any one of the 
 four principal parts first, and has, besides, great freedom in the 
 arrangement of the rest : the adverb may be separated from the 
 verb, and the adjective from the substantive, being placed either 
 before or after, or even removed to some distance. Hence ora- 
 torical effect may be produced independent of accent, by the 
 position of words, and the language affords great facility for the 
 poetical numerus. In prose, however, the following general 
 principle is observed : words which are necessary for the com- 
 plete expression of a thought are put together, and should not 
 be separated by the introduction of ideas not connected with the 
 main thought. 
 
 [§ 787.] 2. But as we do not always speak emphatically, and 
 as in ordinary discourse we naturally choose the simplest ex- 
 pression for our thoughts, a certain arrangement has become 
 established in good Latin prose, especially in historical narra- 
 tive ; and this arrangement (which is not departed from with- 
 out a special reason) is this : the subject is placed first ; then 
 follow the oblique cases, with all other unemphatic additions, 
 and last of all the verb. For in the construction of a Latin 
 sentence we should avoid, what is so common in modern lan- 
 guages, the introduction of a train of subordinate and additional 
 matter, after the expression of the principal ideas : a Latin 
 sentence is compact, being enclosed by the subject on the one 
 hand, and by the princiiml verb of the predicate on the other ; 
 e. g. Caes. BeJl, Gall. i. 9. : Dumnorix gratia et largitione apud 
 Sequanos plurimum poterat 
 
 [§ 788.] Note. The verb, however, is often not placed at the end of a sentence, 
 when either this is too long for the hearer to be kept in expectation of it, or 
 when too many verbs would come together at the end. We should therefore 
 not say, e. g. se incolumem esse non posse demonstrate but rather se demonstrat 
 incolumem esse non posse. But without either of these reasons the verb is 
 placed earlier in the sentence In easy and familiar style, for the verb at the 
 end of a sentence, for the pu/pose of closing it, is more suited to the ora- 
 torical and historical style, and In general shows meditation and design. 
 Comp. a passage in a letter of Cicero to Luccejus (v. 12.), which Is written 
 with great care, but purposely with the ease and frankness of a man of the 
 world : genus enini scripto7'um tuorum^ etsi erat semper a me veTiementer expec- 
 tatum, tamen vicit opinionem meam^ meque ita vel cepit vel incendit, ut cuperem 
 quam celerrime res nostras monumentis commendari tiiis. In a narrative it 
 would be expressed thus : genus enim scriptorum Zucceji, etsi semper ah eo 
 
ABRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 529 
 
 pehementer expectatwn erat^ tamen opinionem ejus ita vicit, ut quam celerrime 
 res suas illius monumentis illustrari cuperet. The verb is placed at the very 
 beginning of a proposition, even where no oratorical emphasis is aimed at 
 •in explanatory clauses, in which case a conjunction is generally added ; e. g. 
 amicum aegrotantem visere volebam : habitat autem ille in parte urbis remotis- 
 sima. 
 
 [§ 789.] 3. With this rule respecting the arrangement of words 
 in ordinary statements of facts^ we must connect another, that 
 in sentences containing the expression of emotion or an inde- 
 ,pendent judgment, the pathetic word is put at the beginning or 
 the most significant at the end. The pathetic word is that 
 whose emphasis characterises it as especially affecting the feelings 
 or as forming a contrast. Innumerable instances show that it 
 is placed first, e. g. Cicero : Cito arescit lacrima, praesertim in 
 alienis malis ; Sua vitia insipientes et suam culpam in senectutem 
 conferunt ; A malis mors abducit, non a boniS) verum si qnaeri- 
 mus ; Insignia virtutis multi etiam sine virtute assecuti sunt. The 
 other words of the proposition then follow in the usual order. 
 If there be no pathetic word requiring prominence, or if the 
 sentence with the verb being placed first, is explanatory of the 
 preceding one, the place at the end of the proposition is re- 
 served for the significant word, that is, the word which is most 
 strongly to be impressed upon our understanding or memory. 
 This is especially frequent in Caesar, e. g. Gallia est omnis divisa in 
 partes tres ; i. 6. : quod ante id tempus acciderat nunquam ; i. 7. : 
 q^wd aliud iter haherent nullum, — but also in other authors, and 
 especially in the didactic style of Cicero, as de Off. i. 2. : Sequemur 
 igitur hoc quidem tempore et in hac quaestione potissimum Stoicos ; 
 i. 8. : Expetuntur autem divitiae quum ad usus vitae necessarios, 
 turn ad perfruendas voluptates ; de Leg. i. 32. : quae virtus ex 
 providendo est appellata prudentia. 
 
 Note. We have adopted the terms pathetic and significatit from the work 
 of Gehlius, Itatio ordinatioms verborum, Hamburg, 1746, 4to. Compare especi- 
 ally the rules laid down by Quintilian, ix. 4. 26. foil. : Verba sensum claudere 
 mvlto^ si compositio patiatur, optimum est. In verbis enim sermonis vis. — Saepe 
 tamen est veJiemens aliquis sensus in verba, quod, si in media parte sententiae 
 latet, transire intentionem et obscurari circumjacentibus solet, in clausula positum 
 assignatur auditori et infigitur ; quale illud est Cicerovis {Philip, ii. 25.) : Ut 
 tibi necesse esset in conspectu populi JRomani vomere postridie. Transfer hoc 
 ultimum, minus valebit. Nam totiu^ ductHs hie est quasi mucro, ut per se foeda 
 vomendi necessitas, jam nihil ultra expectantibus, hanc quoqv£ adjiceret deformi- 
 tatem, ut cibus teneri non poss^ postridie. But we should not deviate from 
 the common form of a proposition without a special reason : he who aims 
 
 M M 
 
530 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 at too much emphasis falls into affectajtion, the most unpleasant fault in com- 
 position. 
 
 [§ 790.] 4. What is common to several objects either pre- 
 cedes or follows them, but is not put with one exclusively ; 
 hence we say, e. g. in scriptoribus legendis et imitandis or in le~ 
 gendis imitandisque scriptoribus, not in legendis scriptoribus et 
 imitandis; further, hostes victoriae non omen modo, sed etiam 
 gratulationem praeceperant ; quum respondere neque vellet neque 
 posset; habentur et dicuntur tyranni; amicitiam nee usu nee ra- 
 tione habent cognitam ; philosophia Graecis et litteris et doctoribus 
 percipi potest, and the like. 
 
 Note. In this point, too, the familiar style differs from the oratorical. 
 In the former, words are very often subjoined, with a certain appearance of 
 negligence, which, in a more strict arrangement, would have been introduced 
 earlier, and more closely united with the rest; e.g. the last sentence might 
 have stood thus, pMlosophia et litteris Graecis percipi potest et doctoribus. 
 
 [§ 791.] 5. It is commonly laid down as a general rule that 
 the dependent cases, and therefore especially the genitive, pre- 
 cede the governing nouns. This rule, however, may easily lead 
 to mistakes, for it is arbitrary, and all depends on the idea 
 which is to be expressed. Fratris tui mors acerbissima mihi 
 fuit and mors fratris tui are both equally correct, according as 
 the idea of the person or his death is to be more strongly im- 
 pressed on the mind : mors fratris tui contrasts the death with 
 the preceding life ; and fratris tui mors describes this case of 
 death as distinct from others that may occur. Hence we say, 
 e. g. animi motus, animi morbus, corporis partes, terrae motus in 
 this order, since the general term receives its specific meaning 
 only from the genitive. A genitive, however, which expresses 
 an objective relation (see § 423.), usually follows the noun on 
 which it depends. Thus we read in Cicero, pro Leg. Man. 3. : 
 quod is, qui uno die, tota Asia, tot in civitatibus, uno nuntio 
 atque una significatione litterarum cives Romanos necandos truci- 
 dandosque denotavit, a notice " by letters," not una litterarum 
 significatione ; so in Verr. i. 40. : offensionem negligentiae vitare, 
 an " oifence by my negligence." When several genitives are 
 dependent on one noun (compare § 423.), the subjective genitive 
 commonly precedes, and the objective genitive may either pre- 
 cede or follow the governing noun ; e. g. Cic. in Caec. 6. : cur 
 eorum spem exiguam reliquarum fortunarum vi extorquere co- 
 
 I 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 531 
 
 naris? in Verr. \. 13.: cognoscite hominis principium magis" 
 tratuum gerendorum ; p. Mur. 4. ; hominis amplissimi causam 
 tanti periculi repudiare ; de Re Puhl. i. 28.: Atheniensium po- 
 puli potestatem omnium rerum, &c. ; Cic. Brut, 44. : Scaevolae 
 dicendi elegantiam satis cognitam hahemus ; de Fin. i. 5. : quod 
 ista Platonis, Aristotelis, Theophrasti orationis ornamenta neglexit 
 Epicurus ; because dicendi elegantia, orationis ornamenta in this 
 order express the idea which is to be set forth. 
 
 [§ 792.] Note. The genitive dependent on causa or gratia^ " on account 
 of," always precedes these ablatives ; gloriae causa mortem obire, emolumenti 
 sui gratia aliquid hominihu^ detrahere. Exceptions are very rare in Cicero 
 {Lael. 16. : muLtafacimus causa amicorum) ; more common in Livy. 
 
 [§ 793.] 6. The Adjective likewise may be placed before or 
 after its substantive ; it is before its substantive when it is de- 
 clarative of an essential difference of that substantive from 
 others ; it is placed after, when it merely expresses an accessory 
 or incidental quality. The natural accent will, in most cases, 
 be a suflScient guide. Pliny calls his work Lihri Naturalis His- 
 toriae, the idea of nature appearing to him of greater importance 
 in characterizing the work, than that of history ; Theodosianus 
 Codex is in the same way distinguished from other codices. It 
 must be observed that a monosyllabic substantive almost inva- 
 riably precedes a longer adjective, e. g. Di immortales, rex poten- 
 tissimus et nobilissimus ; especially with res : res innumerahiles, 
 res incertissimae, res dissimillimae ; if the position were inverted, 
 the impression would be unpleasant, and the shorter word would 
 be lost. Other qualifying words (besides adjectives) which 
 belong to the idea of the noun, especially genitives and prepo- 
 sitions with their cases, are usually placed between the sub- 
 stantive and the adjective ; e. g. amicitia usque ad extremum 
 vitae diem permansit ; tuorum erga me meritorum memoria. 
 Such words as respuhlica, jusjurandum, which are combinations of 
 a substantive and an adjective rather than compound words, are 
 separated only by particles. Other words which do not belong 
 to the substantive and adjective may be placed between them 
 only for the sake of a special emphasis which lies either on the 
 substantive or on the adjective ; e. g. magnum animo cepi dolor em ; 
 ut cuperem quam celerrime res nostras monumentis commendari tuis. 
 
 [§ 794.] Note 1. Other words may be introduced between a preposition 
 and the case governed by it : this, however, is usually the case only with 
 
 M M 2 
 
532 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 genitives or adverbs which are closely connected with the following noun or 
 participle; e.g. Cicero: inter hostium tela; propter Hispanorum, apud quos 
 consul fuerat, injurias ; ad bene heateque vivendum. Conjunctions also, in 
 the connection of clauses, are so interposed ; e. g. post vero Sullae victoriam ; 
 praeter enim tres disciplinas. Other words very rarely and only in certain com- 
 binations ; e.g. Cic. Brut. 12. : in bella gerentibus, which expression has, in a 
 certain measure, become one word ; ibid. 22. : in suum cuique tribuendo. We 
 mention this in order to caution the student against saying : e.g. ad praesidiis 
 firmanda moenia; in mihi invisum locum, or even ex a te laudato loco, the 
 proper order being this, ad moenia praesidiis firmanda, in locum mihi invisum, 
 ex loco a te laudato ; or ad firmanda praesidiis moenia, in invisum mihi locum, 
 ex laudato a te loco. 
 
 It deserves to be noticed that the preposition per " by," in adjurations, is 
 usually separated from its case by the accusative of the person adjured ; 
 e.g. Terent. Andr. v. 1. 5. : per ego te deos oro, and with the omission of oro, 
 Cic. p. Plane. 42. : Nolite, judices, per vos fortunes vestras, inimicis meis dare 
 laetitiam; Sail. Jz^^. 14.: Patres conscripti, per vos liberos atque parentes, 
 subvenite misero mihi. Comp. § 773. 
 
 [§ 795.] Note 2. The variation in the arrangement of words by the poets 
 properly consists in too great and ungrammatical a separation of the ad- 
 jective from its substantive -, and, generally speaking, in putting together 
 words from diiFerent parts of a proposition. We may illustrate this by an 
 example ; Cicero (Philip, v. 10.) -says bella civilia opinione plerumque etfama 
 gubernantur. He intended to conclude thus, opinione plerumque gubernantur, 
 but added (according to our remark in § 790.) etfama. This is very natural, 
 and plerumque is an unemphatical word, which must be somewhere inserted. 
 The arrangement still remains prosaic, if we say bella gubernantur civilia 
 fama plerumque et opinione, for civilia follows soon enough after bella. But 
 if we insert one word more, we have an entirely poetical diction, and by 
 substituting another word for civilia, a complete verse, Bella gubernantur 
 plerumque domestica fama. And it would likewise be poetical to say bella 
 fama et opinione civilia gubernantur, still more so civilia fama et opinione bella 
 gubernantur, and entirely lyric civilia fama et plerumque bella opinione guber- 
 nantur, but all these and similar arrangements of words occur in the poets ; 
 and we might easily prove this by quotations, and analyse the different 
 forms, were it not our object here only to show the point at which poetical 
 licence commences. 
 
 [§ 796.] 7. Names of honours or dignities, and everything of 
 the nature of a title, are commonly placed after the proper name, 
 as merely serving as explanatory additions. Thus especially the 
 names of changeable Roman dignities, e. g. Cicero Consul, Pro- 
 consul, Imperator, C. Curioni Tribuno plehis ; and the like. 
 But also permanent appellations, e. g. Ennius poeta, Plato philo^ 
 sophus, Zeno Stoicus, Dionysius tyrannus, and such epithets as 
 vir honestissimus, vir fortissimus, vir clarissimus, homo doctis- 
 simus. Cic. Lael. 1. : Q. Mucius Augur, multa narrare de 
 C. Laelio, socero suo, memoriter et jucunde solebat ; Tusc. i. 43. : 
 Cyrenaeum Theodorum, philosophum non ignohilem, nonne mi- 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 533 
 
 Tumur ? cui quum Lysimachus rex. crucem minaretur, Istis, quaeso, 
 inquit, ista horribilia minitare, purpuratis tuis : Theodori quidem 
 nihil interest, humine an sublime putrescat. But it must be ob- 
 served that the hereditary title rex is frequently placed before 
 the name ; e. g. rex Dejotarus ; and this also applies to the 
 Roman title Imperator, from the time that it became permanent, 
 in contra-distinction to the ancient usage. 
 
 [§ 797.] Note. In the use of the Roman proper names, the name of the 
 gens commonly precedes the name of the familia (i. e. the nomen precedes 
 the cognomen), which may here be considered as an apposition ; e. g. Q. 
 Fabius Maximus Cunctator, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, M. Tullius Cicero. 
 In the imperial times, however, when the ancient gentes had become extinct, 
 and lost their importance, we usually find the name of the familia or even 
 the agnomen of the individual placed first, and the name of the gens^ if men- 
 tioned at all, following as something subordinate. 
 
 [§ 798.] 8. Words expressing contrasted ideas are com- 
 monly placed by the side of each other, e. g. alius alium vitu- 
 perate alius aliunde venit, manus manum lavat, cuneus cuneum 
 trudit, vir virum legit ; so also the possessive and personal pro- 
 nouns, e. g. mea mihi conscientia pluris est quam omnium sermo ; 
 scquere quo tua te natura ducit ; suum se negotium agere dicunt. 
 
 [§ 799.] 9. Non, when it belongs to a single word of the pro- 
 position, always stands immediately before it ; e. g. non te re- 
 prehendo, sed fortunam, i. e. " I blame not thee, but fortune." 
 But if the negative belongs to the proposition generally, and not 
 to any specific word, non stands before the verb, and more par- 
 ticularly before the verbum Jinitum, if an infinitive depends on 
 it ; e. g. cur tantopere te angas, intelligere sane non possum. In- 
 stead of non dico, nego is generally used; negavit eum adesse, 
 " he said he was not there," not " he denied," &c. Respecting 
 vetare see § 774. 
 
 Note. We may further observe that the negatives wow, neque, nemo, nuHus, 
 joined to general negative pronouns or adverbs, such as quisquam, uUus, 
 unquam, always precede them, though not always immediately ; thus we 
 must say ; e. g. nemini quidquam negavit, not quidquam nemini negavit ; non 
 memini me unquam te vidisse, not unqvam me vidisse te non memini. See § 709. 
 
 [§ 800.] 10. In many phrases custom has established a cer- 
 tain order, which must therefore be attended to in reading the 
 authors. This is especially the case with many judicial and 
 political expressions, e. g. civis Romanus, populus Romanus, jus 
 civile, aes alienum, terra marique, Pontifex maximus, magister 
 
 M M 3 
 
0d4 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 equiturrif tribunus militum, tribiini militum consulari potestatc, 
 Juppiter optimus maximus, via Appia, via Flaminia, &c. 
 
 It more properly belongs to grammar to observe that the 
 ablatives opinione, spe, justo, solito (see § 484. extr.), generally 
 precede the comparative ; quisque, if joined with sui, sibi, se or 
 suus, always follows these pronouns, e.g. sibi quisque maxime 
 favet ; pro se quisque laborabat ; suum cuique pulchrum videtur ; 
 sua cuique dextra ultionem tot malorum pariet ; vigiles relicta sua 
 quisque statione fugiunt. But in relative clauses quisque joins 
 itself closely to the relative (see § 710.), in which case se or suus 
 follows, e. g. Cic. de Off. i. 31.: maxime decet, quod est cujusque 
 maxime suum ; expendere debet quid quisque habeat sui, 
 
 [§ 801.] Quidem is attracted by the pronoun (see § 278.), and 
 is therefore often separated from the word to which it properly 
 belongs, in order to be joined to a neighbouring pronoun, e. g. Cic. 
 de Off. iii. in fin. : tibique persuade, esse te quidem mihi carissimum, 
 sed multo fore cariorem, si, &c., instead of te carissimum quidem 
 mihi esse. And as the custom of joining quidem to a pronoun had 
 become established, the personal pronoun, although contained in 
 the verb, is expressly added (see § 801. :) Cic. ad Fam. ix. 13. : 
 Quod dicturus sum, puto equidem non valde ad rem pertinere, sed 
 tamen nihil obest dicer e ; ad Quint. Frat. ii. 16.: Timebam 
 Oceanum, timebam litus insulae (Britanniae). Reliqua non equidem 
 contemno, sed plus tamen habent spei quam timoris ; de Fat. 2. : 
 Oratorias exercitationes noil tu quidem, ut spero, reliquisti, sed 
 certe philosophiam illis anteposuisti, instead of the simple reli- 
 quisti quidem. 
 
 Ne — quidem are always separated, the word on which the 
 emphasis rests being placed between them, e. g. nepatrem quidem 
 venerabatur, " he did not reverence even his father." Preposi- 
 tions and conjunctions which belong to the word on which the 
 emphasis rests are placed with it between ne and quidem ; e. g. 
 Cicero : ne in fanis quidem ; ne si dubitetur quidem; ne quum in 
 Sicilia quidem fuit ; ne si extra judicium quidem esset ; even 
 ne cujus rei argueretur quidem, in Cic. p. Caec. 25. : ne quum, 
 esset factum quidem, p. Mur. 17. Hence compound expressions 
 which form one idea, such as res publica, go together, as 
 Cic. de Off. i. 24. : ne re publica quidem postulante. In like 
 manner non nisi (only) are separated (not indeed in all authors, 
 but in Cicero almost without exception) by some intervening 
 
AKRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 535 
 
 word or words, in such a way however that either non or nisi 
 may precede; e. g. Cic. Lael. 5. : sed hoc primum sentio, nisi in 
 bonis amicitiam esse non posse ; ibid. 8. : quae (caritas inter nates 
 et parentes) dirimi nisi detestabili scelere non potest ; the nega- 
 tive may also be contained in a verb ; e. g. ibid. c. 5. : negant 
 enim quemquam virum bonum esse nisi sapientem. 
 
 Mihi crede (mihi credited and crede mihi, in the sense of pro- 
 fecto, are both used detached from the rest of the construction ; 
 the former especially if the emphasis rests on the pronoun, i. e, 
 " believe me," implying " who know it better." 
 
 [§ 802.] 11. Inquit (says he, or said he) is used only after 
 one or more of the words quoted, or, still better, after a short 
 clause ; e. g. Liv. i. 58. : Sex. Tarquinius — stricto gladio ad 
 dormientevn Lucretiam venit, sinistraque manu mulieris pectore op- 
 presso, Tace, Lucretia, inquit, Sex. Tarquinius sum; ii. 10. : Turn 
 Codes, Tiberine pater, inquit, te sancte precor, haec arma et hunc 
 militem propitio flumine accipias, Ita sic armatus in Tiberim de- 
 siluit. When a nominative is added to inquit, it usually follows 
 this verb, as Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 7. : Mihi vero, inquit Cotta, 
 videtur. (For exceptions, see Heindorf on this passage.) Ait 
 is either placed before the words quoted, or, like inquit, between 
 them (see § 219.) ; dicit and dixit are used in this way only by 
 the poets. 
 
 [§ 803,] 12. Thus much respecting the arrangement of 
 words in single propositions. We now add some remarks on 
 the connection of sentences. It may be laid down as a general 
 rule for good Latin style, that no proposition should be uncon- 
 nected with another, and that the propositions and periods 
 should, as it were, form links of a chain which breaks off only 
 at last when the series of the thoughts themselves comes to its 
 close. At least, no proposition should stand detached without a 
 special reason. 
 
 Relative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs are particularly 
 useful for effecting this connection of propositions, and are 
 therefore very frequently employed to avoid the monotonous 
 connection by means of et or autem, and sometimes also of cer- 
 tain other conjunctions, such as nam (for). Every relative may 
 bfi used for the demonstrative with et; qui for et is, qualis for et 
 talis, quo for et eo, &c. They are therefore also found before 
 those conjunctions which admit of a connection by means of et 
 
 M M 4 
 
536 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 or autem ; e. g. quod quum audivissem, quod si fecissem, quod 
 quamvis non ignorassem^ for et quum hoc, et si hoc, et quamvis 
 hoc, or quum autem hoc, &c. ; often, also, where in English no 
 conjunction is used ; e. g. Cic. Cat. Maj. 6. : Quam -palmam 
 utinam di immortales tibi reservent I Further, even before other 
 relatives, quod qui facit, eum ego impium judico, i. e. et qui hoc 
 facit, or qui autem hoc facit ; contra quern qui exercitus dux- 
 erunt, lis senatus singulares honores decrevit ; p. Leg. Man. ^5.:. 
 a Cn. Pompejo omnium rerum egregiarum exempla sumuntur, qui 
 quo die a vobis maritimo hello praepositus est, tanta repente vilitas 
 annonae consecuta est, for nam quo die is. The connection by- 
 means of the relative pronoun in the ablative, with compara- 
 tives, deserves especial attention ; e. g. Cato quo nemo turn erat 
 prudentior ; liberi quibus nihil ^hi potest esse jucundius ; i. e. 
 " Cato, who was more prudent than all others ; " " my children, 
 Avho delight me more than anything else." 
 
 [§ 804.] In propositions consisting of two members, the rela- 
 tive pronoun is grammatically joined sometimes to the leading 
 proposition or the apodosis, and sometimes to the secondary 
 clause or the protasis ; the former is the case, e. g. in Cic. Cat. 
 Maj. 5. : qui (Gorgias) quum ex eo quaereretur, cur tam diu vellet 
 esse in vita, Nihil habeo, inquit, quod accusem senectutem ; Philip. 
 ii. 7. : Hoc ne P. quidem Clodius dixit unquam, quern, quia jure 
 ei fui inimicus, doleo a te omnibus vitiis esse superatum ; — but 
 the latter is much more frequent ; e. g. Cic. de Off. ii. 25. : a 
 quo quum, quaereretur, quid maxime expediret, respondit. In this 
 case the nominative of the demonstrative is supplied with the 
 apodosis from another case of the relative in the protasis, as in 
 the passage just quoted, and in p. Plane. 7. : In hortos me M. 
 Flacci contuli, cui quum omnis metus, puhlicatio bonorum, ex- 
 ilium, mors proponeretur, haec perpeti maluit, quam custodiam 
 mei capitis dimittere. But a demonstrative may also be used 
 with emphasis, as Cic. adFam. v. 16. : Saepissime legi, nihil mali 
 esse in morte, in qua si resideat sensus, immortalitas ilia potius 
 quam mors dicenda sit. In the other cases the demonstrative, 
 for the sake of clearness, is not merely understood, but ex- 
 pressed ; e. g. de Fin. ii. 1. : qui mos quum a posterioribus non 
 esset retentus, Arcesilas eum revocavit ; de Nat. Deor. i. 5. : 
 Multa sunt probabilia, quae quamquam non percipiantur, tamen 
 ' — iis sapientis vita regitur. Without a demonstrative the sen- , 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 537 
 
 tence becomes harsh, e. g. Cic. de Nat. Deor. iii. 14. : Heracli- 
 tum non omnes interpretantur uno modo, qui quoniam intelligi 
 noluit, omittamuSf instead of eum omittamus ; Liv. xxx. 30. : 
 Agimus ii, qui quodcunque egerimus, ratum (id) civitates nostrae 
 habiturae sint. These examples, however, show that the accusa- 
 tive is sometimes left to be supplied by the mind. When the 
 demonstrative precedes, and is followed by a proposition con- 
 sisting of two members, the relative attaches itself to the 
 secondary clause, which is placed first, and not to the leading 
 proposition or the apodosis ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. v. 38. : Eone 
 pirata penetravit, quo simulatque adisset, magnam partem urbis a 
 tergo relinqueret ? ad Fam. vi. 6. : Ea suasi Pompejo, quibus ille 
 si paruisset, Caesar tantas opes, quantas nunc habetf non haberet ; 
 in Verr, i. 14. : MiJii venit in mentem illud dicere, quod apud 
 Glabrionem quum commemorassem, intellexi vehementer populum 
 Rom, commoveri ; Nep. ^#^. 4. : noli, oro te, inquit Pomponius, 
 adversus eos me velle ducere, cum quibus ne contra te arma ferrem, 
 Italiam reliqui. (See Bremi's note on this passage.) 
 
 [§ 805.] Note 1. The English practice of connecting a clause, which is 
 introduced by a relative, to the preceding clause by the additional con- 
 junction "however" (e.g. who, however,) is not admissible in Latin. 
 Thus, e.g. *' he promised me many things, which, however, he did not 
 perform" (the latter part being equivalent to " but he did not perform 
 them ") cannot be expressed in Latin by multa mihi promisit, quae autem (vero) 
 non praestitit^ but by sed (verum) ea non praestitit, or, the relative imply- 
 ing the adversative conjunction, quae non praestitit. Qui autem and qui vero, 
 however, may be used in protases where the relative retains its relative mean- 
 ing, and a demonstrative in the apodosis corresponds to the relative preceding, 
 e.g. Talium juvenum consuetudine utere; qui vero petulantes sint, eos procul a 
 te remove; Cic. Cat. Maj. 2. : Qui autem omnia bona a se ipsis petunt^ iis nihil 
 malum videri potest^ quod naturae necessitas afferat, 
 
 [§ 806.] Note 2. In double relative clauses, Cicero not unfrequently 
 abandons the relative construction in the second member, and makes use of 
 the demonstrative ; e. g. Orat. 2. : Sed ipsius in mente insidehat species put- 
 chritudinis eximia quaedam^ quam intuens in eaque (for et in qua) dejixus ad 
 illim similitudinem manu^ et artem dirigehat; Brut. 74. : Omnes tum fere, qui 
 nee extra hanc urhem vixerard nee eos (for nee qux)s) aliqua harbaries domestica 
 infuscaverat., recte loquehantur. Comp. de Fin. ii. 2. : Finem dejiniebas id esse, 
 quo omnia referrentur, neque id ipsum usquam referretur, for et quod ipsum 
 nusquam, &c. ; comp. de Off", ii. 5. in fin. ; de Orat. ii. 74. § 299. And some- 
 times even where the cases are the same, as e. g. Cic. Tusc. v. 3. : quem Phli- 
 untem venisse ferunt, eumque cum Leonte disseruisse quaedam^ where et alone 
 would have been sufficient. 
 
 [§ 807.] From this tendency to connect sentences by re- 
 latives arose the use of quod before certain conjunctions. 
 
538 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 merely as a copulative. We may express this quod by " nay," 
 " now," or " and." It is most frequent before the conditional par- 
 ticle si, and its compounds wm and ef^i; e. g. Cic. in Verr, i. 14. : 
 Quodsi illinc inanis profugisses, tamen ista tua fuga nefaria, 
 proditio consulis tui conscelerata judicaretur ; i. e. " and even if 
 you had fled without taking anything with you, &c. ;" de Nat. 
 Deor. i. 18. : Quodsi omnium animantium formam vincit ho- 
 minis Jigura, eajigurd profecto est, quae pulcherrima sit omnium, 
 " If then, &c. ; " and this use of quodsi is especially intended to 
 introduce something assumed as true from which further infer- 
 ences may be drawn. It is, moreover, also equivalent to " al- 
 though : " comp. Cic. p. Mur. 2., which passage is too long to be 
 inserted here. Quodnisi; e. g. in Cic. in Verr. ii. 66. : Quod- 
 nisi Metellus hoc tarn graviter egisset atque illam rem imperio 
 edictoque prohibuisset, vestigium statuarum istius in Sicilia non 
 esset relictum; i. e. "if then — not;" ib. ii. 26.: Quodnisi ego 
 meo adventu illius conatus aliquantulum repressissem — tam multos 
 testes hue evocare non potuissem. Quodetsi; e. g. Cic. de Fin. 
 iv. 4. : Quodetsi ingeniis magnis praediti quidam dicendi copiam 
 sine 7'atione consequuntur, ars tamen est dux certior, nay, even 
 if, &c. But quod is found also, though more rarely, before 
 other conjunctions, as quodquum, quoduhi, quodquia, quod- 
 quoniam, quodne, quodutinam, where the conjunction alone 
 would have been sufficient, though quod is intended to effect 
 a closer connection of the sentences ; e. g. Cic. de Off. iii. 
 31. : Griminabatur etiam (L. Manlius), quod Titum Jilium, qui 
 postea est Torquatus appellatus, ah hominibus relegasset et ruri 
 habitare jussisset. Quodquum audivisset adolescens filius, ncgo- 
 tium exhiberi patri, accurrisse Romam et cum prima luce Pompo- 
 nii domum venisse dicitur. So also de Off. ii. 8. : quodquum 
 perspicuum sit, benivolentiae vim esse magnam, metus imbecillam, 
 sequitur ut disseramus, &c. ; in Verr. i. 26. : Quodubi ille intel- 
 lexit, id agi atque id parari, ut Jiliae suae vis afferretur, servos 
 suos ad se vocat. Comp. in Verr. iv. 66. ; de Orat. ii. 49. ; 
 de Fin. i. 20. : Quodquia nullo modo sine amicitia Jirmam et per- 
 pctuam jucunditatem vitae tenere possumus, neque vero ipsam ami- 
 citiam tueri, nisi aeque amicos et nosmet ipsos diligamus: idcirco 
 et hoc ipsum efficitur in amicitia, et amicitia cum voluptate connec- 
 titur; iii. 18. : quodquoniam (sapiens) nunquam falUtur in judi- 
 cando, erit in mediis rebus officium; Acad. ii. 25. ; Quodne id 
 
ARKANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 539 
 
 facere posses, idcirco heri non necessario loco contra sensus tarn 
 multa dixeram, Comp. Hottinger on Cic. de Dimn. ii. 62. ; 
 Cic. ad Fam. xiv. 4. : Quodutinam minus vitae cupidi fuissemusy 
 certe nihil in vita mali vidissemus, where the note of Manutius 
 may be compared. Even before the relative pron. we find quod 
 thus used in Cic. Philip, x. 4. in fin. : Quodqui ah illo abducit 
 exercitum, et respectum pulcherrimum et praesidium firmissimum 
 adimit reipublicae. 
 
 [§ 808.] 13. Another peculiarity, which at the same time 
 facilitates in Latin the connection of propositions, is the use of 
 the conjunctions neque and nee. They stand for et^ and at the 
 same time contain the negation, in whatever form it occurs in 
 the proposition (except when it belongs to one particular word, 
 as e. g. in an antithesis). For examples see § 738. The 
 Latin language is so partial to this kind of connection that, 
 for the sake of it, neque or nee is added to enim and vero where 
 in English we could not use " ajid,^^ and we therefore explain it 
 by saying that neque is used for non. In neque tamen too, the 
 copulative is to us superfluous, although the Latins appear to 
 have considered it as essential to the connection of the proposi- 
 tions. Examples are very numerous. Non vero, non tamen, are very 
 rarely used for this purpose, and are therefore not deserving of 
 imitation ; non enim, however, is common. To these negative 
 expressions the Latins often join (comp. § 754.) a second ne- 
 gative, in which case neque enim non is equivalent to nam; non 
 vero non to atque etiam, a stronger et; nee tamen non to attamen; 
 e. g. Cic p. Mil. 32. : Neque vero non eadem ira deorum hanc 
 ejus satellitihus injecit amentiam, ut sine imaginibus, sine cantu 
 atque ludis, sine exequiis — ambureretur abjectus; i. e. *' and, in 
 truth, the same anger, &c. ;" ad Fam. vi. 1. : nee enim is, qui in 
 te adhuc injustior fuit, non magna signa dedit animi erga te miti- 
 gati; \. e. "for he gave signs;" v. 12.: neque tamen, quum 
 haec scribebam, eram nescius; i. e. " and yet I knew ;" de Or at. 
 ii. 85. : neque tamen ilia non ornant, habiti honor es, deer eta vir- 
 tutis praemia, &c. ; i. e. " and yet these things also, &c." 
 Comp. § 334. 
 
 Note. The use of namque for nam (see § 345.) may likewise be considered 
 as an instance of this redundance of the copulative. 
 
 [§ 809.] 14. Upon the signification, the use, and the posi- 
 tion of the several conjunctions we have treated at large in 
 
540 LATIN GllAMMAR. 
 
 Chap. LXYII. It may here be observed in addition that it is 
 a favourite practice in Latin to make antitheses and to indicate 
 them by placing conjunctions in opposition to each other, as 
 et — et, aut — aiit, neque — neque, neque — et, et — neque, see 
 §338.; further, etsi — tamen, quum — turn, non magis — quam, 
 non modo — sed etiam, and the like. But compare also § V81. 
 foil, respecting the omission of copulative and adversative con- 
 junctions. 
 
 [§ 810.] 15. In a rhetorical point of view there are three 
 kinds of propositions, viz. commata, cola, and periodi. Compare 
 on this point Cic. Orat QQ., and Quintil. ix. 4. 122. foil. A 
 comma (Ko/jufxa, incisum) is an absolute or independent simple 
 proposition ; e. g. Bene res se hahet. Allud videamus. A colon 
 (kcoXov, membrum) is likewise a simple proposition, but which 
 by its form shows its relation to another proposition ; e.g. quum 
 bene res se haheat. A period is a proposition which is enlarged 
 by a combination of commata and cola, and is at the same time 
 absolute or complete in itself (i. e. it begins and ends in itself). 
 It therefore requires at least two propositions, which are united 
 into a whole either as precedent and consequent clauses {protasis 
 and apodosis), or by the insertion of the one into the other ; e. g. 
 quum bene res se habeat, oliud videamus (but not in an inverted 
 order), or Nunc igitur, quoniam res bene se habet, aliud videamus. 
 But according to the views of the ancients, it is not necessary 
 that a complete proposition should be inserted. The enlarge- 
 ment of a proposition, which is required to form a period, may 
 be effected by the insertion of parts of propositions, which con- 
 tain only the elements of entire propositions, as in the passage 
 of Cicero : Hominem foedum, perditum, desperatum pluris quam te 
 et quam fortunas tiias aestimasti. And such a period is called 
 a simple one {ijlovokwXos). The following period on the other 
 hand consists of two parts : Quern, quaeso, nostrum fefellit, ita 
 vos esse facturos ? , The period is the blossom of a finished style ; 
 it is generally employed in even and progressive descriptions, 
 and the highest perfection of style is displayed in its variety 
 and easy development. But as not all thoughts are so complex 
 as to admit of an enlargement of the principal by subordinate 
 propositions, or by a combination of protasis and apodosis, periods 
 should be intermixed with commata and cola. In Latin style 
 interrogative and exclamatory forms of expression are, among 
 others, particularly calculated to produce the desirable variety. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 541 
 
 Note. We have been obliged above to abandon the common definitions 
 given by the ancients of commata and cola^ for they do not explain the real 
 nature of the propositions. The correct definition of a colon is given by the 
 rhetorician Alexander in Ernesti's Technolog. Grace. Rhet. p. 258. : kuiXov 
 iarl Trepiodov fispoQ o Xsyerat fikv Ka9' avro^ avTiKiinevov ^k TrXtipol irepioSov. 
 The term period should not be confined exclusively to such propo- 
 sitions as are enlarged by the insertion of another proposition. Scheller, for 
 instance, in his Praecepta stili^ considers such a proposition as Quemadmodum 
 Concordia res parvae crescunt, ita discordia etiam maximae dilabuntur not to be 
 a period : we, however, do consider it a period, since by the very beginning, 
 quemadmodum^ we are made to expect the subsequent ita, and the course of 
 the proposition is fixed ; not, however, in an inverted position of the two 
 members. In like manner the above-mentioned period Quum bene res se 
 habeat, aliud videamus, would lose its periodic character, if the two members 
 were inverted; for it would merely represent two propositions in juxtaposi- 
 tion, not united either by their form or otherwise into a coherent whole. 
 
 [§811.] 16. Where, however, we have subordinate propo- 
 sitions introduced by conjunctions (excepting the copulative 
 conjunctions), it is certainly preferable to form a period 
 by inserting them ; for, as has already been observed above, 
 the placing of circumstances after the thought or idea, which 
 they are intended to introduce, is contrary to the common 
 practice of the Latin language. As in the construction of a 
 simple proposition minor additions or circumstances are put 
 between the subject and the verb, and especially as the verb 
 closes the whole, so propositions which contain secondary cir- 
 cumstances are in Latin thrown into the middle of the period. 
 A proposition, such as Scipio exercitum in Africam trajecit ut 
 Hannibalem e.x Italia deduceret^ is not periodic in its structure, 
 but it becomes so when we say Scipio, ut Hannibalem ex Italia 
 deduceret, exercitum in Africam trajecit. Thus propositions like 
 the following, where the subordinate member precedes with two 
 conjunctions, Quum igitur Romam venisset, statim imperatorem 
 adiit, are made stiU more strictly periodic by placing the con- 
 junction which belongs to the whole first, and then inserting 
 the subordinate proposition, Itaque, quum Romam venisset, 
 statim imperatorem adiit. And this must especially be recom- 
 mended in shorter propositions, though we do not mean to say 
 that quum igitur, quum autem, quum vero, quum enim are in- 
 correct, or that nam quum, sed quum, &c., are of themselves 
 preferable. 
 
 [§ 812.] It is therefore particularly necessary to see whether 
 in two propositions connected by a conjunction, the subject is 
 the same ; for in this case it is the almost invariable practice in 
 
542 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Latin to form them into one periodic proposition ; e. g. Nep. 
 de Reg, 3. : Antigonus, quum adversus Seleucum Lysimachumque 
 dimicaret, in proelio occisus est; Qio,. in Verr, \. 10.: Verves, 
 simulac tetigit provhiciam, statim Messana litteras dedit ; Tusc. 
 V. 18. : Stultitia, etsi adepta est, quod concupivit, nunquam se 
 tamen satis consecutam putat. Hence the Latins are rather 
 fond of expressing a complex thought in such a manner, that 
 the subject remains the same ; for a period with two subjects, 
 the one in the principal, the other in the subordinate proposition, 
 is less easily to be surveyed or followed by the mind. Instead 
 of, Antimachus, quum eum omnes praeter Platonem deseruissent, 
 Nihilominus, inquit, legam, it would accordingly be better to 
 say Antimachus, quum ah omnibus desertus esset, Nihilominus, 
 inquit, legam. The same practice is observed when the object 
 is the same in both propositions; e. g. Nep. Alcib. 10. : quem, 
 ut barhari incendium effugisse eminus viderunt, telis missis inter- 
 fecerunt. In such constructions, it cannot be said whether the 
 nominative or the oblique case, which stands first, belongs to 
 the leading or the dependent proposition. 
 
 When the object of the leadmg proposition is the subject 
 of the dependent proposition, it is likewise placed first, and 
 the nominative supplied in the dependent proposition from 
 the oblique case which has preceded; e. g. Cic. de Off. iii. 31. : 
 L. Manlio, quum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius, tribunus plebis, 
 diem dixit, quod is paucos sibi dies ad dictaturam gerendam addi- 
 disset ; and both united, p. Leg. Man. 12.: Idem Cretensibus^ 
 quum ad eum usque in Pamphyliam legatos deprecatoresque misis- 
 sent, spem deditionis non ademit. 
 
 [§ 813.] 17. Kelative propositions of every kind are very 
 frequently employed in constructing a period, being especially 
 adapted to form inserted clauses. If emphasis is required, the 
 relative proposition is generally placed before the demonstrative 
 pronoun or adverb ; e. g. Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 42. : Quid ? ii 
 qui dixerunt, totam de diis immortalibus opinionem Jictam esse ab 
 hominibus sapientibus reip. causa, ut, quos ratio non posset, eos ad 
 qfficium religio duceret, nonne omnem religionem funditus sustule- 
 runt? de Off. ii. 12. : Socrates hanc viam ad gloriam proximam 
 dicebat esse, si quis id ageret, ut, qualis haberi vcllet, talis esset ; 
 in Verr. ii. 2. : Itaque ad omnes res Sicilia semper usi sumus, ut, 
 quidquid ex sese posset efferre, id apud eos non nasci, sed domi 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 543 
 
 nostrae conditum putaremus ; in Verr. i. 2. : Quodsi, quam audax 
 est ad 'conandum, tarn esset ohscurus 4n agendo, fortasse aliqua in 
 re nos aliquando fefellisset ; p. Rose. Com. 11.: Nam, quo quis- 
 que est sollertior et ingeniosior, hoc docet iracundius et laboriosius. 
 It is, however, equally common, even in the elaborate and ora- 
 torical style, to place the demonstrative in its natural order 
 before the relative ; e. g. Cic. p. Rose. Am. 24. : Nolite enim 
 putare, quemadmodum in fabulis saepenumero videtis, eos, qui 
 aliquid impie scelerateque commiserint, agitari et perterreri Furi- 
 arum taedis ardentihus. The inversion, therefore, should be 
 adopted only occasionally for the sake of ornament, but should 
 not be used immoderately. Respecting the omission of the de- 
 monstrative after the relative, see § 765., note. 
 
 [§ 814.] Note. The poets not unfrequently take away the substantive from 
 the leading proposition, and join it to the relative pronoun in the depend- 
 ent clause, and in the same case as the pronoun ; the substantive either 
 preceding or following the pronoun ; e. g. Terent Eun. iv. 3. 11. : Eunuchum 
 quern dedisti nobis, quas turbos dedit! for Eunuchus ; Virg. Aen. i. 573. : 
 urbem quam statuo, vestra est; Terent. Andr. prol, 3. : poeta id sihi negotii 
 credidit solum dari, popido ut placej^ent quas fecisset fabulas ; Horat. Serm. i. 
 4. 2. : atque alii, quorum comoedia prisca vironim est; for atque alii viri, quo- 
 rum est; Serm. i. 10. 16.; illi, Scrijyta quibus comoedia prisca viris est, for illi 
 viri, quibus. Comp. also Epod. 2. 37.; 6. 7. ; Carm. iv. 13. 18 — 22. ; Serm. 
 ii. 2. 59. Ovid, A?'t. Am. ii. 342. : sub qua nunc recubas arbore, virga fuit; 
 Heroid. iv. 173. : Sic tibi dent Nymphae quae levet unda sitim, for dent undam, 
 quae levet. And also in Cicero, p. Sulla, 33. : Qiuie prima innocentis mihi 
 defensio est oblata, suscepi ; ad y^^^. vi. 1. : Cj[Uos pucros miseram, epistolam 
 mihi attulerunt; de Leg. iii. 5. : Jiaec est, quam Scipio laudat et quam maxime 
 probat temperationem reipublicae, comp. p. Clu. 42. in fin. ; and on the other 
 hand, de Leg. i. 17. : vel ab ea, quae penitus in omni sensu implicata insidet imi- 
 tatrix boni voluptas. The regular form, however, always is this, that the sub- 
 stantive has its place in the leading proposition, or, if it has preceded in the 
 relative proposition, that the retrospective pronoun is is put in the case which 
 the leading proposition requires ; hence either pueri, quos miseram, attulerunt, 
 or quos pueros miseram, ii attulerunt. 
 
 [§ 815.] 18. A period becomes more complex and artificial 
 if the dependent proposition has neither the same subject nor 
 the same object as the leading proposition ; e. g. Cic. p. Rose. 
 Am. init. : Credo ego vos, judices, mirari, quid sit quod, quum tot 
 summi oratores hominesque nobilissimi sedeant, ego potissimum sur- 
 rexerim, qui, &c. Here care must be taken that, by the in- 
 sertion and enlargement of a new proposition, the construction 
 of the main proposition be not suspended or embarrassed, which 
 would produce an Anacoluthon, as, e. g. if we were to enlarge 
 
544 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 the inserted proposition in the preceding period thus, quid sit 
 quod, quum tot summi oratores hominesque nohilissimi sedeant, 
 neque in hac causa, quod in aliis facere consueverunt, vocem pro 
 salute hominis innocentissimi mittere audeant — the beginning? 
 quid sit quod, would have been forgotten in the length of the 
 inserted propositions ; and an orator, following the train of his 
 feelings, would scarcely have proceeded by ego potissimum sur- 
 rexerim, but would probably have found it necessary to take up 
 the suspended construction with cur igitur ego potissimum sur- 
 rexerim. See § 739. and § 756. 
 
 [§ 816.] 19. In constructing a period, we must take care 
 that the apodosis be not too short in proportion to the protasis, 
 which would produce a disagreeable effect upon the ear. If, for 
 example, we had the protasis Qui putat magnam doctrinam sine 
 ingenio praeclaro, sine industria indefessa, sine libris optimis posse 
 comparari, and were to close with errat, the disproportionately 
 short apodosis would seem ridiculous ; we ought either to have 
 written unperiodically (though sufficiently well) errat qui putat ; 
 or we ought to produce the necessary counterpoise by an en- 
 largement of the idea errat, e. g. by saying magno vehementique 
 errore ducitur. This requires a knowledge and command of 
 words and phrases which is acquired from an accurate and 
 attentive study of the authors. The Auct. ad Ilerenn. iv. 1. 
 commences a periodic proposition thus : Quoniam in hoc libro de 
 elocutione scrip simus, et, quihus in rebus exemplis opus fuit, usi 
 sumus nostris, idque fecimus praeter consuetudinem eorum, qui de 
 hac re scripserunt^ — and had in mind, then, to conclude with the 
 apodosis ratio nostri consilii danda est. But in comparison with 
 that protasis, his apodosis would have been too short ; he there- 
 fore enlarges it thus ; necessano faciendum putavimus ut paucis 
 rationem nostri consilii demus. (Comp. § 619.) The following 
 passages from Cicero may serve as examples of a pleasing and 
 symmetrical structure of periods; de Leg. Agr. ii. 36. : Quemad- 
 modum, quum peteham, nulli me vohis auctores generis met commen- 
 darunt : sic, si quid deliquero, nullae sunt imagines, quae me a vohis 
 deprecentur ; in Cat. i. 13. : Ut saepe homines a£gri morho gravi, 
 quum aestu fehrique jactantur, si aquam gelidam hiherint, primo 
 relevari videntur, deinde multo gravius vehementiusque ajftictantur : 
 sic hie morbus, qui est in re publica, relevatus istius poena, vehe- 
 mentius, vivis reliquis, ingravescet ; p. Caec. init. : Si, quantum 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 545 
 
 in agro locisque desertis audacia potest, tantum in for o atque in 
 judiclis impudentia valeret : non minus nunc in causa cederet A, 
 Caecina Sex. Aehutii impudentiae, quam turn in vifacienda cessit 
 audaciae. It is easy, in these periods, to see tlie accurate pro- 
 priety with which the several propositions are separated and 
 again connected by the adequate use of corresponding particles. 
 
 [§ 817.] 20. We may here draw, attention to the difference of 
 periods in the historical and the oratorical style. Historical nar- 
 rative requires above all things variety of the propositions con- 
 taining statements of time : to form propositions possessing this 
 quality, historians have recourse to three methods ; the use of 
 the participle in the case of the preceding noun ; of the ablative 
 absolute; and thirdly of the conjunctions of time, quum, ubi, 
 postquam. By these means Livy can unite, without injury to 
 perspicuity, in one period, what in English we must express by 
 three or more propositions ; e. g. Liv. i. 6. : Numitor, inter 
 primum tumultum hostes invasisse urbem atque adortos regiam 
 dictitans, quum pubem Albanam in arcem praesidio armisque ob- 
 tinendam avocasset, postquam juvenes, perpetrata caede, pergere 
 ad se gratulantes vidit, extemplo advocato consilio, scelera in se 
 fratris, originem nepotum, ut geniti, ut educati, ut cogniti essent, 
 caedem deinceps tyranni, seque ejus auctorem- ostendit. Such a 
 period is, perhaps, not to be found in all the writings of Cicero ; 
 but it is well adapted to express all collateral circumstances in 
 their subordinate relation. In this way therefore most of i\w 
 periods in Livy are constructed, though, of course, with many 
 variations in the detail ; Liv. ii. 6. : His, sicut acta erant, nun- 
 tiatis, incensus Tarquinius non dolore solum tantae ad irritum 
 cadentis spei, sed etiam odio iraque, postquam dolo viam obseptam 
 vidit, bellum aperte moliendum ratus, circumire supplex Etrurian 
 urbes, &c. 
 
 [§818.] 21. A correct and ingenious arrangement of words, 
 find an artistic construction of propositions, naturally produce in 
 the delivery a symmetrical variety in the raising and sinking of 
 the voice, which the ancients called oratorical numerus (pvO/jLo^.) 
 The rhetoricians reduced the effect thus produced to metrical 
 feet, though we must not thereby be led to suppose that the 
 orator set out with a premeditated view to use and apply certain 
 metrical feet. The Greek and Latin languages possess the 
 peculiarity of marking in their pronunciation the natural quan- 
 
 N N 
 
546 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 tity of the syllables, along with and distinct from the accent of 
 the words : another peculiarity is their freedom in the arrange- 
 ment of words, and it is the admirable result of a thorough rhe- 
 torical cultivation, especially of the Latin language, that a well- 
 constructed proposition in prose, such as we have considered in 
 the preceding paragraphs, calls forth a natural variety in the 
 raising and sinking of the voice, which otherwise is not to be 
 met with but in poetical composition. There is, it is true, no 
 strictly uniform return of any change ; but the application of 
 the principle, that an important word which by its prominent 
 position draws the accent upon itself, is followed by a number 
 of less important words expressive of secondary qualities or cir- 
 cumstances, which again are succeeded by an important word 
 which forms the close of the proposition or period, produces the 
 same effect : the period has a beginning, a middle, and an end, 
 and the words form a compact whole, as well as the thoughts 
 they express. Thus, the orator need but follow the general 
 law, and his prose will naturally be rhythmical and melodious. 
 
 [§ 819.] Note. A regular verse in prose is considered by all rhetoricians 
 as a fault, though a verse is occasionally found in good prose writers. Nay 
 it seems as if at the commencement of a book or writing, as e. g. in Livy 
 Facturusne operae pretium sim, a poetically measured start were aimed at. 
 But an hexametrical close should certainly be avoided, especially in the com- 
 bination of esse videtur (C ^ ,_, i -)' This caution is the more necessary, 
 as in the passive construction we readily fall into such a cadence. See my 
 note on Cic. in Verr. ii. 9. 
 
 Hiatus^ that is, the concurrence of long vowels at the end of one word and 
 the beginning of another, should be avoided as much as possible ; for a con- 
 currence of short vowels, or of a long vowel followed by a short one, is not 
 objectionable. Comp. § 8. 
 
 [§ 820.] 22. The language of the orator differs from common 
 prose chiefly in the use of tropes and figures^ for these terms 
 denote modes of expression varying from the common form. 
 These modes of expression when they consist in single words 
 are called tropes ; and when in propositions, j^_^w?*e.9. There are 
 several tropes, i. e. modes by which one word is used for another 
 for the sake of rhetorical variety and ornament : 
 Metaphora or translation a contracted simile ; e. g. segetes sitiunt, 
 
 homo asper, fulmina eloquentiae ; 
 Synecdoche, when a part is mentioned instead of the whole, 
 
 e. g. tectum for domus ; 
 Metonymia, when a thing is expressed by means of circum- 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 547 
 
 stances connected with it, e. g. segne otium ; Vulcanus for 
 
 ignis, Ceres for panis ; 
 Antonomasia, substituting other nouns for a proper name, e. g. 
 
 Romanae eloquentiae princeps, for Cicero ; 
 'K.ard'XpT^G-LS, the use of a word in an improper sense, when the 
 
 language is in want of a proper or specific term ; e. g. aedi- 
 Jicare naves ; 
 and other tropes less applicable to the Latin language. The 
 store of words and expressions which have come down to us 
 and are collected in Dictionaries, must decide upon the degree 
 of propriety and applicability of these tropes. 
 
 [§ 821.] 23. The figures admit a greater freedom in their 
 use. They are divided into figurae sententiarum and figurae 
 verhorum ; the former are modes of conceiving and shaping an 
 idea or thought, which diiFer from the common or vulgar mode ; 
 the latter have reference merely to a different expression of the 
 same idea, and are therefore, as it were, transformations of the 
 same body. A knowledge and practice in the use of figures is 
 interesting and important even for the beginner, since in them 
 lies the secret of the most admired portion of the rhetorical art ; 
 and, in fact, they are indispensable for the orator, although the 
 essential part of his art consists in far different things, viz. the 
 invention and adequate arrangement and disposition of his 
 thoughts. The figurae verhorum arise from addition, from 
 resemblance of sound and form, and suppression. 
 
 The following arise from addition; — geminatio, a doubling of 
 words ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. v. 62. : crux, crux inquam, misero et 
 aerumnoso comparahatur ; — sirava^opd, r epetitio, VQ^Qiiiioxi. ', i. e. 
 when the several members of a proposition begin with the same 
 word ; e. g. Cic. in Cat. i. 1 . : Nihilne te nocturnum praesidium 
 Palatii, nihil urhis vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil consensus 
 honorum omnium, nihil hie munitissimus hahendi senatus locus, 
 7iihil horum. ora vultusque moverunt? Comp. p. Arch. 9. 21. ; in 
 Bull. ii. 6. The reverse (i. e. when the same word is used at 
 the end of several members) is called dvTLcrrpo(f>ri, conversio. — 
 Complexio arises froili a combination of repetitio and conversio; 
 e. g. Cic. in Ridl. ii. 9. : Quis legem tulit? Rullus. Quis 
 majorem partem populi suffragiis prohibuit? Rullus. Quis 
 comitiis praefuit? Rullus. Quis decemvir os quos voluit re- 
 nuntiavit ? Idem Rullus. — Traductio, when a word from a 
 
 NN 2 
 
548 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 preceding clause is repeated in the following, as in the Auct. 
 ad Her, iv. 14. : Eum tu hominem appellas, qui si fuisset homo, 
 nunquam tarn criideliter vitam hominis petisset. — HoKvavvhsrov, 
 i. e. the repetition of the same conjunction ; e. g. ad Her, iv. 
 19.: Et. inimico proderas, et amicum laedebas, et tihi ipsi non 
 consulebas. 
 
 [§ 822.] From resemblance of sound and form, or symmetry, 
 arise : irapovofiaaLa, annominatio, when words, with some re- 
 semblance of sound, are placed together or rather in oppo- 
 sition ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. v. 10. : ut eum non facile non modo 
 extra tectum, sed ne extra tectum quidem quisquam videret; in 
 Cat. i. 12. : hanc reip. pestem non paulisper reprimi, sed in 
 perpetuum comprimi volo ; de Off, i. 23. : expetenda magis est 
 decernendi ratio, quam decertandi fortitudo. For more examples 
 see my note on Cic. in Verr, iv. 5. 10. — 'O/jbocoTTTcorov, when 
 the same cases are in several members of the proposition ; and 
 ofioLorsXsvTov, when the members end similarly ; e. g. both 
 united appear in Cic. p, Clu, 6. : Vicit pudorem libido, timorem 
 audacia, raUonem amentia. To these may be added laoKwXov ; 
 i. e. when the members are of (about) equal length ; e. g. Auct. 
 ad Her, iv. 20. : Alii fortuna felicitatem dedit, huic industria 
 virtutem comparavit. Compare the quotation from Cic. p, 
 Caecina, at the end of § 816. — ' Avr l6stov, opposition, requires 
 this symmetry ; e. g. Cic. p. Mil, 4. : Est igitur haec, judices, 
 non scripta, sed nata lex, quam non didicimus, accepimus, legimus, 
 verum ex natura ipsa arripuimus, hausimus, expressimus, ad 
 quam non docti, sed facti, non instituti, sed imbuti sumus, ut, &c. 
 Of a similar nature is dvTc/ubSTa^oXrj, commutatio, where the oppo- 
 sition is expressed by an inverted order of the proposition ; e. g. 
 ad Her. iv. 28. : Quia stultus es, ea re taces, non tamen quia 
 faces, ea re stultus es ; si poema loquens pictura est, pictura 
 tacitum poema debet esse. If not the whole clause is inverted, 
 this figure is called sTrdvohos, regressio ; e. g. Cic. Brut. 39. : 
 ut eloquentium juris per itissimus Crassus, juris peritorum eloquen- 
 tissimus Scaevola haberetur. Lastly, KXl/jua^, gradatio, i. e. 
 gradation, at the same time repeating the p'feceding word ; e. g. 
 ad Her, iv. 25. : Imperium Graeciae fuit penes Athenienses, 
 Atheniensium potiti sunt Spartiatae, Spartiatas superavere The- 
 bani, Thebanos Macedones vicerunt, qui ad imperium Graeciae 
 brevi tempore adjunxerunt Asiam bello subactam. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 549 
 
 [§ 823.] The following arise from suppression, — aTroo-tcoTrrja-Lff 
 an intentional breaking off in the middle of a speech ; e. g. Cic. 
 p. Mil. 12. : De nostra enim omnium — non audeo totum dicer e. 
 Videte quid ea vitii lex hahitura fuerit, cujus pericidosa etiam 
 reprehensio est, and the well-known passage of Virgil {Aen. i. 
 135.), Quos ego — sed motos praestat componere fiuctus. — ^Kxrvv- 
 BsTov, dissolutio, the omissiop of- the copulative conjunctions ; 
 e, g. Cic. in Quintilian, ix. 3. 50. : Qui indicabantur, eos vocari, 
 custodiri, ad senatum adducijussi, — Correctio, sTravopOwcris, the 
 correction of an expression just made use of ; e. g. Cic. in Cat, 
 i. 1. : liic tamen vivit Vivit? immo vero etiam in senatum venit, 
 comp. atque adeo § 734. — Dubitatio, intentional doubt ; to 
 which the figure of an intentional forgetting «,nd recalling to 
 mind may also be added ; e. g. ad Her. iv. 29. : Tu istud 
 ausus es dicer e, homo omnium mortalium — nam quo te digno 
 moribus tuis appellem nomine? 
 
 [§ 824.] We must leave it to rhetoric to explain ihejigurae 
 sententiarum : some of them, however, are at the same time 
 Jigurae verborum ; as e. g. the question and the exclamation, 
 which are of very frequent occurrence in Latin. We may also 
 mention the addressing of absent persons or things without life 
 (aTTocrrpo^Ty) ; e.g. in Cic. p. Mil. 31.: Vos enim jam ego, 
 Albani tumuli atque luci, &c. ; further, personification ; as e. g. 
 Cicero in Cat. i. 7. introduces his native country as speaking; 
 hyperbole, irony, simile, sentence, &c., whose manifold use must 
 be learnt from the writings of the best authors, with which we 
 strongly advise the student to combine the study of the eighth 
 and ninth books of Quintilian's Institutio Oratoria, and the 
 excellent fourth . book of the Author ad Herennium among 
 Cicero's rhetorical writings. 
 
 [§ 825.] We add in conclusion, as an example for imitation, 
 a very simple proposition transformed according to the several 
 figures mentioned above. The theme gr subject is this, litteris 
 detector. 
 
 Geminatio. Litterae, litterae, inquam, solae me delectant. 
 Repetitio. Litterae me puerum aluerunt, litterae me juvenem ab 
 
 infamia libidinum servarunt, litterae virum in rep. adminis- 
 
 tranda adjuverunt, litterae senectutis imbecillitatem consola- 
 
 buntur. 
 Conversio, Litterae honestissima votuptate oblectant, rerum 
 
 UN 3 
 
550 LATIN GEAMMAR. 
 
 novarum inventione ohlectant, immortalitatis spe certissima 
 
 ohlectaiit 
 Complexio. Qui litteris delectatur^ qui vero inveniendo delectatur, 
 
 qui doctrina propaganda delectatur, eum vos malum esse civem 
 
 putatis f 
 Traductio, Quid vis ? Tune litteris delectaris, qui litterarum 
 
 fundamenta odisti? 
 Polysyndeton. Litterae ei erudiunt et ornant et ohlectant et con- 
 
 solantur. 
 Paronomasia. Qui passim ego litteris carere, sine quihus vitam 
 
 ipsam agerem invitus? 
 'O/jLOLOTrrcoToVf 6/ioLOTs\svTOV. Num putas fieri posse, ut, qui 
 
 litterarum studiis teneatur, lihidinum vinculis ohstringatur ? 
 ^KvTiOsTov. Qui litteris delectari te dicis, voluptatibus implicari 
 
 te pateris 9 
 ^AvTLfisra^oXij. Non quia delector, studeo litteris : sed quia 
 
 studeo,' detector. 
 Gradatio. Studia mihi litterarum doctrinam, doctrina gloriam, 
 
 gloria invidiam et ohtrectationem comparavit. 
 Aposiopesis. Quid 9 Tu audes hoc mihi objicere, qui nihil unquam 
 
 invita expetierim nisi virtutem et doctrinam : tu quid expetieris 
 
 — sed taceo, ne convicium tihi fecisse videar. 
 '' A.<TvvhsTov. Quid dicam de utilitate litterarum 9 Erudiunt, 
 
 ornant, ohlectant, consolantur, 
 Correctio, Litterae me delectant: quid dieo delectant9 Immo 
 
 consolantur, et unicum mihi perfugium praehent inter has vitae 
 
 lahoriosae molestias. 
 Duhitatio. Litterae me sive erudiunt, sive ohlectant, sive con- 
 solantur : nam quid potissimum dicam nescio. 
 
551 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 OF METRE; ESPECIALLY WITH REGARD TO THE LATIN 
 
 POETS. ^ 
 
 [§ 826.] 1. The words of a language consist of long and short 
 syllables. In measuring syllables the time consumed in pro- 
 nouncing a short syllable is taken as a standard, and this 
 portion of time is called mora, A long syllable takes two 
 morae, and is therefore, in this respect, equal to two short 
 syllables. Which syllables, in the Latin language, are con- 
 sidered short, and which long, has been shown in Chap. III. 
 From the combination of syllables of a certain quantity arise 
 what are called Feet {pedes), of which there are four of two 
 syllables, eight of three syllables, sixteen of four syllables, 
 thirty-two of five syllables, &c., since the respective number of 
 syllables admits of so many variations. For the sake of brevity, 
 specific names have been given to those feet which consist of 
 two, three, and four syllables, as well as to some of ^yQ : — 
 
 a) of two syllables : 
 
 ^ ^ Pyrrhichius ; hone, pater, lege, 
 
 _ _ Spondeus; audax, constans, virtus, 
 
 ^ _ Iambus ; potens, patres, legunt. 
 
 - ^ Trochaeus, or Choreus ; laetus, fortis, gaudet, 
 
 b) Of three syllables : 
 
 ^ ^ ^ Tribrachys; domine, dubius, legere, 
 
 Molossus; mirari, libertas, legerunt. 
 
 _ ^ ^ Dactylus; improbus, omnia, legerat. 
 
 ^ - yj Amphibrachys ; amare, peritus, legebat, 
 
 ^ ^ _ Anapaestus; bonitas, meditans, legerent, 
 
 ^ _ _ Bacchius; dolores, amavi, legebant. 
 
 _ „ _ Amphimacer, Creticus ; fecerant, legerant, cogitans. 
 
 ^ Palimbacchius, Antibacchius ; praeclarus, peccata, legisse, 
 
 c) Of four syllables : 
 
 v/ ^ V. w Proceleusmaticus ; celeriter, memoria, relegere. 
 
 _ _ _ _ Dispondeus ; praeceptores, inter rumpunt, perlegerunt. 
 
 ^ ^ _ _ lonicus a minori ; adolescens, generosi, adamari. 
 
 N N 4 
 
552 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 - _ v/ ^^ lonicus a majori ; sententia, mutahilis, loerlegerat, 
 
 _ ^ _ ^ Ditrochaeus, Dichoreus; educator ^ infidelis, eruditus. 
 
 ^ - ^ _ Diiambus; amoenitas, renuntians, szipervenis. 
 
 „ _ _ ^ Antispastus ; verecundus, abundahit, perilhtstris. 
 
 -\j ^ - Choriambus; impatiens, credulitas, eximios. 
 
 - yj sj ^ Paeon primus ; credibilis, historia, attonitus, 
 ^ - ^ ^ secundus ; modestia, amabilis, idoneus. 
 
 yj ^ - yj tertius ; ptierilis, opulentus, medicamen. 
 
 ^ ^ ^ _ quartus ; celeritas, misericors, refugiens. 
 
 ^ _ _ - Epitritus primus ; laborando, reformidant^ salutantes, 
 
 _ ^ _ « secundus ; administrans, imperatrix, com- 
 
 probavL 
 _ _ ^ -^ tertius ; auctoritas, intelligens, dissentiens. 
 
 _ _ _ ^ quartus ; assentator, irifinitus, naturalis. 
 
 [§ 827.] 2. These feet are, as it were, the material of which 
 prose and verse are equally composed : but while in prose the 
 sequence and alternation of long and short syllables is not par- 
 ticularly attended to, and only on certain occasions, ancient 
 poetry, so far as the outward form is concerned, consists entirely 
 in the adaptation of words, by the arrangement of long and 
 short syllables, to the reception of the Rhythm. Rhythm, in 
 this respect, is the uniformity of the duration of time, in the 
 raising and sinking of the voice, or Arsis and Thesis. We raise 
 and sink the voice also in common discourse, but not at definite 
 intervals, nor with a regular return. In these intervals, or in 
 the proportion of the duration of the Arsis to the duration of 
 the Thesis, consists the difference of the Rhythm. The Arsis 
 is either equal to the Thesis, or twice as long, as will be seen in 
 the difference of the two feet, the Dactyl and the Trochee, - ^j ^j 
 and i ^, the Arsis (marked thus ^) being combined with the long 
 syllable. The same proportion takes place when the Thesis 
 precedes the Arsis in the Anapaest and Iambus ^ ^ i and ^ i. 
 The first species, in which the Arsis forms the beginning, is 
 called the descending Rhythm ; the other, in which the Thesis 
 forms the beginning, the ascending. From these simple rhythms, 
 the artificial are composed, by the combination of two simple 
 series and the suppression of a Thesis, viz. the Paeonic, Cho- 
 riambic, and Ionic rhythms. The three Paeonic feet are, the 
 Creticus i. ^j C, the Bacchius ^ ^ -, and the Antibacchius ~-^\ 
 the Choriambus L ^ ^ (.% the two Ionics ^ ^ 1 rl and L <. y, ^j. 
 In verses of simple rhythm Arsis and Thesis are joined in alter- 
 
OF METKE. 553 
 
 nate succession ; whilst in verses of a complicate rhythm, partly 
 from the nature of the foot itself, and partly from the com- 
 bination of two feet, one Arsis may meet another Arsis, which 
 imparts to the verse an animated and impetuous character. 
 
 [§ 828,] Note. The metrical intonation, or Ictus, which falls on the syllable 
 that according to the rhythm receives the Arsis, is, in Greek and Latin, en- 
 tirely independent of the accent of words. The old Latin comic writers, 
 indeed, have endeavoured to bring the accent of words into conformity with 
 the rhythmical intonation, and this is the reason why they allowed them- 
 selves many shortenings of syllables which are long by position ; but far from 
 making the accent guide the rhythm, they only endeavoured to produce this 
 coincidence in the middle dipodia, and even there by no means uniformly. 
 In the other parts of Latin poetry, which more closely follow the regularity 
 of the Greek, no regard at all is paid to the accent of words, any more than 
 by the Greeks ; nay, it should seem that the ancients derived a pleasure from 
 the discordance between the metrical intonation and the ordinary accent. In 
 
 Arma virumque cano Trojae qui primus ah oris 
 rtaliumfato profugus Lavinaque venit, 
 
 it is only in the end of the verses that the prose accent and the metrical in- 
 tonation coincide. In the recitation of verse the latter should predominate, 
 but not so as entirely to suppress the ordinary accent of words. The metrical 
 accent or ictus has the power of giving short syllables the value of long ones. 
 This, however, is not frequent, except in the short final syllable of polysyl- 
 labic words, ending in a consonant, and especially where the force of the 
 arsis is aided by the principal caesura of the verse : e. g. Virg. Eel. x. 69. : 
 Omnia vincit amor., \ et nos cedamus amori; Horat. Serm. i. 5. 90. : callidus ut 
 soledt\humeris portare viator; Ovid, ^r^ylw. iii. 63.: Nee quae praeteriit\ 
 iteinim revoeahitur unda ; but also without the aid of the principal caesura ; 
 e.g. Hor. Serm. ii. 3. 260. : exclusus qui distatf \ aglt uhi seeum; eat, an non. 
 Ovid, Metam. ix. 610. : non adilt apte \ non legit idonea, credo. Final syllables 
 ending in a vowel are much less frequently lengthened by the arsis. It has, 
 however, been remarked (see Schneider s Elementarlehre, p. 752.), that this 
 occurs surprisingly often with the enclitic que in the second foot of the hex- 
 ameter, commonly supported by the caesura, of which we shall speak under 
 No. 8. ; e. g. Virg. Aen. iii. 91. : Liminaque laurusque dei; Ovid, JHet. v. 484. : 
 Sideraque ventique nocent. Short monosyllabic words are never lengthened 
 by the arsis. 
 
 [§ 829.] 3. Several feet, united in one simple rhythm, con- 
 stitute a seiies {or do). The dissyllable feet, i. e. trochees and 
 iambs (when they do not pass into another rhythm, in which 
 case a simple foot may be reckoned as a series), are united into 
 such series, of two feet each, or dipodiae : a dipodia is also 
 called a metre ; hence, e. g. an iambic verse of six feet is called 
 an iambic trimeter {trimeter iambicus). Of the feet of three 
 syllables, the dactyl, according to the metrical writers, makes a 
 metre by itself, though not the anapaest ; but two anapaests, 
 according to the analogy of two iambs, make an anapaestic 
 
554 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 metre (metrum anapaesticum). In some cases, especially in the 
 trochaic verse, the end of a series is marked by a syllaba anceps; 
 i, e. a syllable whose natural quantity is not attended to, but 
 which reckons long or short, as the rhythm requires; conse- 
 quently in the trochaic rhythm {i ^) short. A verse consists 
 of one or more series, of the same or different rhythms. It is, 
 however, distinguished from the series itself by the circumstance, 
 that the syllaha anceps, which is only allowed sometimes at the 
 end of the series, always occurs at the end of the verse, that 
 hiatus is allowed, and that a pause of the voice takes place. A 
 verse is called by the Greek name acatalecticus when the feet or 
 metres of which it is composed are complete ; catalecticus when 
 they want one syllable or two or even a foot. Of verses which 
 consist of trisyllabic feet, some are catalectici in syllabam, in 
 which one syllable only remains of the defective foot ; others 
 catalectici in bisyllabum, when two syllables remain, as e. g. in 
 the hexameter. Trochaic and iambic feet can be catalectic only 
 in syllabam. 
 
 [§ 830.] Caesura is the interruption of the rhythm by the 
 end of a word. In the dactylic hexameter of Ovid : 
 
 Donee erisfelix, multos numerdbis amicos^ 
 
 or in the one of Virgil : x 
 
 Tnfandum reginajubes renovate dolor em, 
 
 the end of the foot is throughout at variance with the end of 
 the word; and while the rhythm requires the union of two 
 words, the sense is opposed to it inasmuch as it requires a pause 
 at the end of each. On this circumstance, however, rests the 
 connection of the feet, and a long verse cannot exist without 
 some caesurae, especially one towards the middle of the line, 
 generally called emphatically the caesura. We must carefully 
 distinguish incision from caesura. Incision is the coincidence of 
 the end of the foot with the end of the word ; and in some 
 species of verse (in the trochaic tetrameter, in the dactylic 
 pentameter, and in choriambic verses), it is essential, and is 
 often used also in the hexameter under certain forms. 
 
 [§ 831.] 4. In what follows, we shall give a brief account of 
 those species of verse which the Roman poets have used and of 
 the laws they observed in their structure. We shall first speak 
 of verses with simple rhythm, then of those with artificial 
 
OF METRE. 555 
 
 rhythm, and shall lastly add some remarks on compound verses 
 and on the combination of different kinds of verse to a lyric 
 strophe. We shall thus be enabled at the same time to see the 
 difference of the forms of the several species of ancient poetry. 
 The epic makes use only of one simple rhythm, the dactylic ; 
 whilst the drama (with the exception of its lyric part) with 
 greater variety moves in the three other simple rhythms, the 
 iambic trimeter, however, being its principal verse. In both 
 species of poetry, verses of the same measure and of the same 
 length are repeated in uninterrupted succession {tcara (ttlxov). 
 Lyric poetry, on the contrary, on account of its lively character, 
 makes use of the artificial rhythms, as well as of verses of com- 
 pound or mixed rhythm ; repeating, however, in succession, 
 verses of artificial rhythm only in some of its species of verse; 
 whilst in the others, compound verses are combined into a 
 rhythmical whole, called strophe. 
 
 [§ 832.] 5. Trochaic verses, as has been observed above, are 
 generally measured by dipodiae. But the tribrachys may stand 
 for the trochee without injury to the metre ; and as the last syl- 
 lable of the series is doubtful, a spondee or an anapaest may 
 stand in the second foot ; or when the verse consists of several 
 dipodiae, in the second, fourth and sixth foot. Consequently 
 this is the measure of the trochaic dipodia. 
 
 As the arsis, when it falls on two short syllables after the re- 
 solution of the long syllable, cannot be expressed equally on 
 both, the ictus is laid on the first of the two shorts. 
 
 Note. The spondee or anapaest in the uneven places (i. e. 1.3. 5. &c.) is 
 found only in the Latin comic writers, and is at variance with pure rhythm. 
 The dactyl can only be admitted in the even places as the resolution of the 
 spondees, but is very seldom used, and is still more unsuitable to the uneven 
 places, where even the spondee is only admitted by too great a licence. 
 
 [§ 833.] The most common species of trochaic verse is the 
 tetrameter catalectic, called in Latin quadratus, or, from the 
 number of the complete feet, septenarius ; 
 
 ^ - ^ -1^ - ^ ^ 
 
 — \j — \j — yj-'KjX— \j — \j — yj ^ 
 
 It has its incision after the second dipodia, where a word 
 ends. In Plautus and Terence, that is, in the drama, many 
 scenes are found in this measure, which is well adapted to 
 express excitement and emotion. The following example, from 
 
556 LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 Terentianus Maurus de Syllah., exhibits the pure measure : we 
 have marked the first arsis of the dipodia with the accent ; 
 Nulla vox humdna constat\ absque septem litteris, 
 Rite vocales vocavit | quds magistra Graecia : 
 Quidquid audis praeter istas, \pdrs soni, non vox eriL 
 Quinque contenta estjiguris | Romuli Latinitas, 
 
 This verse, however, is not found in such purity in the comic 
 Avriters, but with all the changes mentioned above ; so that the 
 last catalectic dipodia alone shows the true measure. In the 
 following passage from Terence, Andr. ii. 1. 18. foil., every 
 arsis is marked with the accent : 
 
 A'd te advenio, spem, salutem, | eonsilium, auxilium expetens, 
 Neque pol consili locum hdbeo, | neque ad auxilium copiam. 
 Sed istuc quidnam est ? Hodie uxorem | ducis 9 A'junt. Pdmphilef 
 Si idfacis, hodie postremum\me vides. Quid ita ? Ei mihi. 
 Vereor dicere, huic die, quaeso, | Byrria. E'go dicdm. Quid est f 
 Sponsam hie tuam amat. Nae iste hand mecum\sentit. E'hodum 
 die mihi. 
 
 [§ 834.] Note. The name of versus ithyphalUcus is given to a trochaic verse 
 of three feet. It is found in its pure measure in Horace, at the close of an- 
 other verse, Carm. i. 4. appended to a dactylic tetrameter ; 
 Solvitur acris hiems grata vice \ veris et Favoni. 
 Ac neque jam stahulis gaudet pecus, \ aut ardtor igni. 
 
 [§ 835.] 6. The iambic rhythm is the reverse of the trochaic, 
 as it begins with the thesis, which may be regarded as an 
 anacrusis (prelude) to the trochee. As such it has no necessary 
 measure, and may therefore be long, whence arises the following 
 measure of the iambic dipodia, 
 
 _ _>^ _^ 
 
 Consequently, we may say that instead of the iambus in all places 
 
 the tribrachys may stand, except in the last place, since the last 
 
 syllable of the verse is anceps, and cannot therefore be resolved ; 
 
 and that in the uneven places 1, 3, 5, the spondee, and as its 
 
 resolutions the anapaest and dactyl, may stand instead of the 
 
 iambic (of course so that the second half of the dactyl be in arsi, 
 
 and the ictus rest on the first of the two short syllables). 
 
 [§ 836.] This is the general rule ; but poets either impose restrictions on 
 themselves, in order to produce greater harmony, or allow themselves greater 
 latitude, to facilitate the composition of their verses. The earliest Greek 
 iambographi are most careful in this respect, and seldom use even the tri- 
 brachys. The tragedians much more frequently admit the tribrachys in all 
 
OP METRE. 557 
 
 places but the last ; the spondee and dactyl, in accordance with the general 
 rule, in the uneven places : they do not like the anapaest ; they use it almost 
 exclusively in the first place and in a whole word, but in all places only in 
 the case of proper names, in regard to which greater latitude must be al- 
 lowed. The Greek comic writers introduced the anapaest in all places, the 
 last being always excepted, with certain limitations, as when a dactyl pre- 
 cedes. The Roman comic writers and Phaedrus adopted aU these licences, 
 and besides admitted the spondee in the even places, so that in their verses 
 the iambus maintains its right only in the last foot. On the other hand, 
 Horace, in his Epodes, and Seneca the tragedian, returned to the original 
 strictness, and they only use the tribrachys instead of the iambus occasion- 
 ally in the even places ; in the uneven, besides the iambus, they use the 
 spondee, and rarely the anapaest or dactyl ; e. g. Horat. Epod. 2. : 
 
 Hos inter e'pulas^ ut juvat pastas oves 
 Videre pro'perantes dormim, 
 
 Posttosque venias, ditis examen domus, 
 Circum renidentes Lares. 
 
 Haec ii'hi locutus fenerator Alfius^ &c. 
 
 [§ 837.] The iambic verse, which is in most, common use, is 
 the trimeter acatalecticus, or, from the number of its feet, called in 
 Latin, senarius; which is the usual measure of the dialogue of 
 the drama. It has generally a caesura in the third or fourth 
 foot ; the first is called penthemimeral (TrspOrj/jLi/jLspijs) after the 
 fifth half-foot, the second hephthemimeral {scjidrjfiifispijs) after 
 the seventh half-foot ; e. g. Hor. Epod. 1 7. 
 
 Jam jam efficaci\do manus scientiae 
 
 Supplex, et oro \ regna per Proserpinae, 
 
 Canldia, parce \ vocibus tandem sacris, 
 
 Citumque retro solve, | solve, turhinem. 
 
 It may be combined also with other caesurae, as is the case in 
 the third and fourth verse of this passage. The metrical writers 
 have pointed out many niceties in the structure of these verses, 
 as, e, g. that the third and fourth foot ought not to consist of 
 single words ; that, when the last word is a creticus, a preceding 
 long syllable ought not to be the last syllable of a polysyllabic 
 word. As these rules and observations have reference to the 
 Greek tragedians only, further particulars must be learned from 
 the works on metre. As an example of this species of verse we 
 take a passage from Phaedrus, and mark each arsis with the accent. 
 
 Ad rivum eundem lupus et dgnus venerant 
 
 Siti compulsi, superior stahdt lupus, 
 
 Longeque inferior dgnus. Tunc fauce improha 
 
 Latro incitdtusyjurgii causam intulit : 
 
 Cur, inquit, turhulentam fecisti mihi 
 
558 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Istdm bibenti ? Ldniger contra timens : 
 
 Qui possum, quaeso, fa cere, quod quereris, lupe9 
 
 [§ 838.] Verses consisting of iambic dimeters are commonly 
 found in Horace in the Epodes, subjoined to a longer iambic or 
 dactylic verse ; e. g. Epod, 2. : 
 
 Bedtus ille, qui procul negotiis, 
 
 Ut prisca gens mortdlium, 
 Paterna rura bobus exercet suis, 
 
 Solulus omni fenore. 
 
 Or Epod, 14. : 
 
 Mollis inertia cur tantdm diffuderit imis 
 
 Oblivionem sensibus, 
 Candide Maecenas, occidis saepe rogando : 
 
 Deus, deus, nam me vetat. 
 
 The metre in which a trimeter is followed by a dimeter was 
 that in which Archilochus, the most ancient writer of iambic 
 verse, composed his poems. 
 
 Dimeter catalectic verses, of which the first foot may be a 
 spondee, or instead of it an anapaest, but of which the other feet 
 are pure, are found among the Roman poets who have come 
 down to us, only in Seneca in choruses ; e. g. Med. 862. foil. 
 
 Ut t'lgris orba gndtis 
 Cursu furente lustrat 
 Gangeticum nemus, sic 
 Prendre nescit irasr 
 Medea, non amores. 
 
 And Terentianus Maurus uses this verse in speaking of it : 
 Et condere inde carmen 
 Multi solent poetae. 
 Hcfratium videmus 
 Versus tenoris hujus 
 Nusquam locasse juges. 
 At Arbiter disertus 
 Libris suis frequentat, 
 
 [§ 839.] Tetrameter iambics, complete and incomplete, are 
 common in the Roman comic writers; the first are called 
 octonarii, the others septenarii, from the number of the complete 
 feet. An example of octonarii is found Terent. Andr. i. 3. init. ; 
 
OP METRE. 559 
 
 Enimvero, Dave, nil locist \ segnitiae neque socordiae, 
 Quantum intellexi mo do senis \ sententiam de nuptiis. 
 Quae si non astu providentur, me aut herum pessumdabunt. 
 Nee quid dgam certum est : Pdmphilum \ ne adjutem an auscultem 
 seni. 
 
 Si ilium relinquo, ejus vitae ttmeo: sin opltulor, hujiis minas. 
 
 It 
 
 The septenarii have a very lively and animated rhythm. 
 There is an incision in the middle. An example is, Terent. 
 Andr. iv. 2. 11.: 
 
 Per omnes adjuro dees, \ nunquam earn me deserturum. 
 Nan, si capiundos mihi sciam esse inimicos omnes homines, 
 Hanc mi expetivi: contigit, | conveniunt mores. Va leant. 
 Qui inter nos discidiUm volunt : | hanc nisi mors mi adimet nemo. 
 
 [§ 840.] 7. The halting iambus {Choliambus), or Scazon 
 (a-Ka^cop), called also Hipponactean verse, is a compound verse, 
 and therefore properly belongs to another place, but may be 
 conveniently treated of here, that it may not be separated from 
 the other iambic verses. 
 
 The choliambic is an iambic senarius, instead of the last foot 
 of which, however, a trochee is introduced, the fifth foot being 
 for the sake of contrast usually a pure iambus. This species of 
 verse is adapted to satire ; the Roman poets, however, especially 
 Catullus, have also employed it for the expression of the softer 
 feelings ; e. g. in the 8th poem, where it is particularly suitable. 
 Miser Catulle desinas ineptire, 
 Et quod vides perisse, perditum ducas. 
 Fulsere quondam cdndidi tibi soles, 
 Quum ventitabas, quo puella ducebat 
 Amdta nobis quantum amabiticr nulla. 
 Ibi ilia multa turn jocosa fiebant. 
 Quae tu volebas, nee puella nolebat. 
 Fulsere vere cdndidi tibi soles! 
 Nunc ilia non vol^ tu quoque impotens noli. 
 Nee qudefugit sectdre, nee miser vive, 
 
 [§ 841.] 8. Of all the dactylic metres the Hexameter is the 
 most used. Being employed especially in epic poetry, it has 
 obtained the name of the heroic verse. It properly consists, ac- 
 cording to its name, of six dactyls, for the last of which, however, 
 a trochee (or, as the last syllable is doubtful, a spondee), is 
 
560 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 always substituted. The four first places admit dactyls or 
 spondees without distinction, and the verse gains in strength 
 and variety by their intermixture, — all dactyls producing too 
 tripping a movement; all spondees too heavy a movement. 
 These effects Virgil has designedly produced in the verses 
 
 Qaddrupeddnte putrem sonitu quatit ungula cdmpum. 
 
 I'm inter sese magna vi hrdchia tolliint. 
 
 In the fifth place a spondee seldom occurs, but when it does 
 occur, a dactyl generally precedes. Such a verse is called versus 
 spondiacus. It has a hard and heavy sound, but the slowness 
 of its movement is often suited to the thought, and therefore 
 constructed on purpose. In such lines the Roman poets are fond 
 of placing a word of four syllables at the end of the verse, as 
 Virg. Eel. iv. 49. and Aen. ii. 68. : 
 
 Cara deum soboles, magnum Jovis incrementum. 
 Cojistitit, atque oculis Phrygia agmina circumspexit. 
 
 Ovid, Met. vi. 69. : Et vetus in tela deducitur argumentum. 
 Ibid. 128. : Nexilibus fiores hederis habet inter textos. 
 
 Note. A word of three syllables at the end of a spondiacus would bring 
 the ictus on the last syllable of the preceding word, and this is contrary to 
 the Roman system of accentuation, which is not indeed generally attended 
 to in the construction of the hexameter, but, at the end of the verse, is 
 generally made, if possible, to harmonise with the ictus. For this reason the 
 best metricians avoid using a word of three syllables at the end of the spondiac 
 verse, or at least they make a monosyllabic word precede it (as e. g. Juvenal, 
 Sat. iv. 87. : turn quo de Jluviis aut aestihus aut nimboso Vere locuturi, and in 
 many other passages). Proper names, however, render exceptions necessary. 
 
 [§ 842.] The poets bestowed especial care on the caesura of 
 this verse, as it is too long to be read in one breath ; and by this 
 means it obtains a fresh variety, the caesura producing an appa- 
 rent change in the rhythm. The caesura most natural and the most 
 common is that in the third foot, either after the arsis, or in the 
 thesis, i. e. after the first short syllable of the dactyl. The 
 former is called the caesura (rofirj') TrsvOrjficfjLSpTJs {semiquinaria), 
 or masculine; the other is called J^y the Greek writers on metre 
 caesura Kara rplrov rpo^cilov, and by the moderns the trochaic 
 caesura, because a trochee i ^ immediately precedes, or the 
 feminine, because the half of the verse ends in the thesis. In 
 ancient heroic poetry the masculine caesura is the prevalent one ; 
 the trochaic, which is really expressive of less force, is also often 
 used accordinor to the character of the thousrht or sense. If the 
 
OF METRE. 561 
 
 caesura Is not in the third foot, it generally is in the fourth ; 
 but here only one species of it is allowed, that after the arsis. 
 This is called icpOrj/jLi/jbsprjs (semiseptenarici), and is considered a 
 beauty when at the same time there is a less considerable caesura 
 in the second foot. Catull. Epithal. Pel. 139. : 
 
 Eumenides | quibus anguineo || redimita capillo. 
 Virg. Aen. i. 9. : 
 
 Quidve dolens \ regina deum || tot volvere casus. 
 
 [§ 843.] Note 1. Every well-constructed hexameter has one of these three 
 caesurae ; with them may be combined several others made of the single feet. 
 And in this respect the caesura after the first arsis is particularly deserving 
 of notice, as giving great emphasis to a monosyllabic word. In the principal 
 caesura of the verse, poets frequently introduce a pause in the sense, which 
 must be attended to, in determining which caesura is the principal one. For 
 it often happens that at the common place for the caesura, in the third foot, 
 there is a caesura in the word, and in the fourth foot, besides the caesura in 
 the word, also a pause in the sense. In this case the latter is to be considered 
 as the principal caesura, and to be distinguished accordingly in reciting ; e. g, 
 Ilor. Se7"m. i. 4. 61. : 
 
 Postquam discordia tetra ' 
 
 Belli ferratos pastes portasque refregit^ 
 the caesura irevOtjixineprig would separate the adjective from the substantive ; 
 it is better, therefore, after pastes^ where by means of que at least a new noun 
 is added. In like manner it does not appear doubtful to us that in Horat, 
 Epist. ii. 3. 137. the caesura should be made thus : 
 
 Fortunam Priami cantaV \ et nobile bellum, 
 and not 
 
 Fortunam Priami \ cantabo et nobile bellum ; 
 for the elision of the vowel does not prevent the caesura, the word being 
 regarded as closed before the elided vowel. 
 
 [§ 844.] A peculiar kind of incision is that which is called caesura bucolica, 
 in which both the sense and the word close at the end of the fourth foot. It 
 may also be joined with one of the before-mentioned principal caesurae, but 
 the pause in the sense coinciding with the end of the foot, of course compels 
 the reciter to make a longer pause than usual before the fifth foot. This 
 caesura bucolica sometimes beautifully expresses the rapidity of a lively 
 movement till it comes to a sudden check : but in consequence of the dis- 
 proportionate shortness of the last member of the verse, it generally makes 
 the impression of an uncultivated simplicity ; and this appears to be the 
 reason why it was so much used by the Greek bucolic poets, from whom 
 it derives its name. 
 
 [§ 845.] Note 2. A monosyllabic word at the end of the verse, if another 
 monosyllable does not precede, produces a singular effect, by compelling the 
 reader, in order that it may be understood, to lay an accent upon it, which is 
 not suited to the thesis. This efiect, however, is sometimes designedly pro- 
 duced by the poets, either to express something harsh and rough, or in 9 
 ludicrous way something which is unexpected, e. g. 
 
 O O 
 
562 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ddt latus, insequitur \ cumuLo praeruptm aquae mons. 
 
 Virg. Aen. i. 106. 
 Ulic, ut perhihent\aut intempesta silet nox. 
 
 Virg. Georg. i. 247. 
 Parturiunt movies^ \ nascetur ridicvlus mus. 
 
 Horat. Art Poet. 139. 
 
 [§ 846.] 9. Next to the hexameter the most common dactylic 
 verse is the pentameter. It has this name from its containing 
 the number of five complete metres ; but it has properly six feet, 
 of which the third and sixth are incomplete. The measure is 
 the following : 
 
 In the second half there must be pure dactyls ; and in the 
 first, dactyls and spondees are commonly intermixed ; for two 
 spondees give a hardness to the rhythm. After the third arsis, 
 where the caesura is invariable, a pause equivalent to two morae 
 must be made in order to complete the rhythm. Hence the 
 lengthening of a short syllable by the force of the arsis is, 
 according to the strict rule, in this place not admissible ; though 
 there are several exceptions to be found in the Roman poets. 
 (Respecting the Greek, see Friedemann, Dissert, de media Syl- 
 laha Pentametri, in Spitzner's work,Z>e Versu Graecorum Heroico, 
 Lips. 1816.) There is the same pause at the end of the verse, 
 where, according to the general rule, a short syllable may stand, 
 but in fact is rarely found in a word ending in a short vowel. 
 This verse commonly ends in words of two syllables, and 
 words of three syllables are not often used for the conclu- 
 sion, as the accent in these falls unpleasantly. This verse is 
 used only as an appendage to an hexameter, and both together 
 constitute the elegiac verse. Although originally employed on 
 mournful or amatory subjects, it was soon turned to lighter 
 topics ; but it is not adapted to a long poem, and is best suited 
 to epigrammatic and sententious poetry ; e. g. Martial, Epigr, 
 V. 76. : 
 
 Profecit poto Mithridates saepe veneno 
 Toxica ne possent saeva nocere sibi: 
 Tu quoque cavisti, coenando tarn male semper, 
 Ne posses unqudm, Cinna, perire fame. 
 
 [§ 847.] 10. Of the other dactylic verses we shall mention 
 the dimeter catalecticus, called also versus Adontus, 
 
OF METRE. 563 
 
 used as an appendage to other verses in lyric poetry. Further, 
 the tetrameter catalecticus, or versus Alcmanius, from the lyric 
 poet Alcman, who frequently used it : the last foot of it is pre- 
 served pure. 
 
 The trimeter catalecticus in syllaham, 
 / — / — 
 
 used by Horace, after the example of Archilochus, before or 
 after a dimeter iambicus ; e. g. Epod, 11. : 
 
 T nachid furere \ silvis honorem decutit 
 Fervidiore mero | arcana promordt loco. 
 
 and Epod, 13. : 
 
 Tu vina Torquato move | consule pressa meo 
 Levdre duris pectora | sollicitudinibus, 
 
 Horace uses the tetrameter catalecticus as an appendage to the 
 heroic hexameter, Carm, i. 7. : 
 
 Albus ut ohscuro | deter get nubila coelo 
 Saepe Nbtus, neque parturit imbres 
 PerpetuoSf \ sic tu sapiens \Jinire memento 
 Tristitiam vitaeque labores. 
 
 [§ 848.] 11. The anapaestic rhythm (^ « -) is the reverse of 
 the dactylic. Instead of the pure anapaest, the spondee, dactyl, 
 or proceleusmaticus may stand, but the ictus must be placed as 
 in the pure anapaest, and consequently the dactyl must be read, 
 not i ^ ^ but _ i ^. 
 
 Anapaests are used by the Greek tragic and comic poets most 
 frequently in systems, in which there is no doubtful syllable, 
 except at the end. But they are generally divided into dimeters. 
 A system always ends in a dimeter catalecticus in syllabam^ called 
 versus paroemiacus. This is usually preceded by a monometer, 
 hence called basis anapaestica ; and sometimes such a verse is in- 
 troduced in the middle of the system. In the Roman poets whose 
 works have come down to us, we find but few anapaests of this 
 kind ; Terence nowhere uses them ; Plautus not unfrequently, 
 but with difficult measures and many licences ; Seneca the tra- 
 
 o o 2 
 
564 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 gedian did not use the paroemiacus, whence his anapaests have 
 no proper close. Besides these dimeters, the Greeks very fre- 
 quently use the tetrameter catalecticus in syllaham, which has a 
 caesura in the middle, after the second dipodia. Plautus like- 
 wise uses it ; but as he indulges . in great licences, and as his 
 text is very corrupt, we must refer the reader to Hermann's 
 Elementa Doctrin. Metr. p. 405. foil. We take a specimen of 
 the dimeter anap. from Seneca, Hipp. 974. : 
 
 * Res humanas or dine nullo 
 
 Fortuna regit spargitque manu 
 
 Munerd caeca, pejora f ovens, 
 
 Vincit sanctos dira libido, 
 
 Fraus sublimi regnat in aula ; 
 
 Trade re turpi fasces populus 
 
 Gaudetf eosdem colit dtque odit, 
 
 Tristis virtus perversa titlit 
 
 Praemid recti, castos sequitur 
 
 Mala paupertas : vitioque potens 
 " Regnat adulter. 
 
 O vane pudor falsumque decusl 
 
 [§849.] 12. The«r#2^c2aZrhythmsarisefrom the simple, by the 
 suppression of a thesis ; hence each foot of these rhythms, having 
 a double arsis, is equivalent to a metre. By this collision of 
 one arsis' with another, the impression of vehemence and vio- 
 lence is produced; and the Roman lyric and dramatic poets 
 with whom verses of this kind supply the place of the choral 
 songs of the Greeks, have made good use of them. From the 
 combination of the uneven rhythm (^ £ or £ ^) arise the Paeonic 
 rhythms, exhibited in their purity in the Creticus - ^ i, the 
 Bacchius ^ i i, and the Antibacchius - - ^. This rhythm is 
 called Paeonic, because these feet were regarded as originating 
 from contractions of the four Paeons ; for the Creticus £ ^ ^ 
 is equivalent to the first Paeon i ^ J~^, and to the fourth 
 J^ ^ i ; the Bacchius ^ ^ ^ to the second Paeon ^ i J^ ; and 
 the Antibacchius ^ £ ^ to the third Paeon ^ i ^. From the 
 even rhythm {C ^ ^ ov ^ ^ i) arose, by combination, the Cho- 
 riamhic and Ionic rhythm ; the Choriambic C ^ ^ C, the Ionic 
 in two forms, a majori ^ ^ ^ ^, a minori ^ ^ t C. 
 
OF METRE. 565 
 
 [§ 850.] 13. The Creticus t ^ i. allows the resolution of 
 either arsis, but at the close of the verse only the resolution of 
 the first into two shorts. In Plautus and Terence it is com- 
 monly used in tetrameters, a dimeter being occasionally inserted. 
 In the following example, from Terence, Andr. iv. 1. a dactylic 
 verse begins : — 
 
 Hocine credibile aut memorahile, 
 
 Tdnta vecordia inndta cuiquam ut siet, 
 
 U't mails gaudeant dtque ex incommodis 
 
 A'lterlus sua ut comparent commoda ? ah 
 
 I'dne est verum ? immo id est ge'nus hominum pessumum, in 
 
 Denegando modo quis pudor paulum adest, 
 
 Post^ ubi tempu^ promissa jam perfici. 
 
 Turn coacti necessdrio se afperiunt. 
 An iambic verse forms the conclusion (clausula) 
 nil opust I ihi verentur, 
 
 [§851.] 14. The Bacchius ^ i i i& frequently used by the 
 Roman comic poets in systems and in verses. It admits the 
 resolution of either arsis; the latter, however, not at the end 
 of the verse, because the syllable is doubtful. The close of such 
 verses is iambic or anapaestic ; e. g. Terence, Andr, iii. 2. 
 
 Adhuc, Archylis, quae adsolent quaeque oportet 
 Signa esse ad salutem, omnia huic esse vVdeo, 
 Nunc primum fac istaec lavet, post deinde 
 Quodjussi ei dari Mhere, et qudntum imperdvi 
 Date : mox ego hue revertor. 
 
 In the second verse, in the foot se video, the first arsis is re- 
 solved into two shorts, vide; in the fourth verse, in the foot 
 dari bibe, the second arsis is resolved. The ictus, as it cannot 
 be laid upon both syllables, is placed upon the first of the two 
 shorts. The Antibacchius does not form any verse. 
 
 [§ 852.] 15. The most common kind of verse of the Ionic 
 species a majori {C C\, J) is the tetrameter brachycatalectus, 
 also called Sotadeus, the poet Sotades having written his poems 
 in this metre. Its original measure is this : — 
 
 But as the long syllables may be resolved, and a trochaic di- 
 
 oo 3 
 
56G LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 podia may be substituted for an lonicus, it admits a great 
 variety of forms, and belongs altogether to the most difficult 
 metres. Terentianus Maurus employs it in his poem on the 
 letters, and generally uses the trochaic dipodia instead of the 
 third lonicus a majori. We take the beginning of his poem as 
 an example, and divide the metres : 
 
 Elementa ru\des quae pue\r6s docent ma\gistri 
 Vocalia \ quaedam memd\rant, consond | quaedam^ 
 Haec reddere\vocem quoni\dm vdUnt se\orsa, 
 Nullumque si\ne illis potis \ est coire \ verhum. 
 
 [§ 853.] 16. The lonicus a minori was much used by the 
 ^olic lyrists (Sappho, Alcaeus, Alcman). In Horace, Carm. iii. 
 12., we find, in imitation of Alcaeus, a system of ten feet, of 
 pure measure throughout, and without hiatus. The division 
 according to which twice four feet are combined and closed by 
 a shorter verse of two feet, is arbitrary. 
 
 Miserdrum est, | neque dmori \ dare ludum \ neque dulci 
 Mala vino \ lavere, aut ex\animdri \ metuentes 
 Patruae verbera linguae, 
 
 [§ 854.] 17. The so-called Anacreontic verse consists originally 
 of two lonici a minori, 
 
 / / / 
 
 WW — — WW — ~ 
 
 If, however, we consider the two first short syllables as an ana- 
 crusis, and combine with this the change of the lonicus a minori 
 into a trochaic dipodia, we obtain the following measure : — 
 
 or :l. 
 
 / / 
 / / 
 
 And these are the diiferent forms of the small Anacreontic 
 poems, most of which were composed at a very late period, after 
 the manner of the ancient lyric poet. The Romans did not use 
 this verse, unless we consider the dimeter iambicus catalecticus 
 mentioned in § 838. to be a specimen. It is, however, the 
 foundation of the Galliambus. 
 
OF METRE. 567 
 
 [§ 855.] The Galliamhus adds to a complete Anacreontic verse 
 another but incomplete Anacreontic, 
 
 whence, with the licences above mentioned, may be produced. 
 
 — /■ / — / / 
 
 W — v/ — vy — — wv — w — 
 
 and this is the form which Catullus has given to his GaUiambi, 
 the only complete specimens which remain in his 63d poem. 
 The example in which Terentianus Maurus has given instruc- 
 tions respecting this metre is as follows : — 
 
 S8nat hoc sicbinde metro | Cpbelemm nemus, 
 Nomenque Gdlliambis \ memordtur hinc datum, 
 Tremulos quod esse Gallis | habiles putdnt modes, 
 Adeo ut frequenter ilium \prdpe ab ultimo pedem. 
 Mage quo sonus vibretur, | studednt dare! tribrdchyn. 
 
 Catullus accordingly has generally resolved the last arsis be- 
 fore the catalexis into two short syllables. The beginning of 
 his poem is this — 
 
 Siiper dlta vectus Atys \ celeri rate! mdria 
 . Phrygium nemus citato \ cupide pede! tetigit, 
 
 [§ 856.] 18. The Choriambus t ^ ^ i. admits only the resolu- 
 tion of the first arsis into two shorts, very seldom the con- 
 traction of the middle short syllables into one long. Only the 
 dramatic poets have placed the iambic dipodia, which is of the 
 same measure, in the place of the choriambus ; yet always after 
 another choriambus, the second arsis of which, followed by an 
 iambic thesis, preserves the unity of the rhythm. The lyric 
 poets, when they made use of the choriambus in verse, always 
 preserved it pure. 
 
 [§ 857.] 19. As, however, the ancient poets did not compose 
 verses entirely of the choriambic foot, in consequence of its im- 
 petuous movement, but prefixed or subjoined to it feet of a 
 different rhythm, we are naturally led to speak of compound 
 verses. A compound verse is one in which series of different 
 rhythms are combined. This combination may be so accom- 
 plished, that either the alternation of arsis and thesis is not 
 
 o o 4 
 
668 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 interrupted, or two of each may come together. The first 
 species, in which the rhythmical connection is preserved, and 
 only a different proportion of the arsis and thesis takes place, 
 is by far the most common. The second, in which the tran- 
 sition from thesis to thesis, or from arsis to arsis takes place, is 
 in itself unrhythmical ; but a poet may sometimes neverthe- 
 less desire to produce such an effect. 
 
 [§ 858.] 20. The simplest species of composition is seen in 
 the logaoedic verses, where, in order to produce a simple prosaic 
 close, the verse descends from the trisyllabic feet, C ^ ^ and 
 ^ ^ :! to the dissyllabic i. ^ and i ^. This name is generally 
 given only to dactylic verses ending in trochees ; but the same 
 relation exists in anapaests. Such a logaoedic verse is that which 
 closes the Alcaic stanza : 
 
 / / / _ 
 
 Necte meo Lamiae coronam. Horat. 
 
 As the trochee in this verse serves to moderate the lively rhythm, 
 so a trochee is very often used before a dactylic series as a sort 
 of introduction. Hence it is now commonly called a Base. As 
 it supplies the place of a series, the final syllable is doubtful ; 
 i. e. a spondee may sometimes stand as base instead of the 
 trochee ; nay, occasionally this spondee is even resolved into a 
 trisyllabic foot. 
 
 [§ 859.] 21. Logaoedic dactylic verses with their base are 
 called by the general name of Aeolic verses, from the lyric poets 
 of that nation, who invented or used them. Some kinds have 
 also special names. 
 
 The Pherecratean verse : 
 
 X _ I / / 
 
 — <-< I — »-» vj — G 
 
 in which the dactyl is very seldom contracted. 
 
 The Glyconian verse is lengthened half a foot ; and has, in 
 Horace, always a spondee as its base : 
 
 Note. The unconnected juxtaposition of the Glyconian and Pherecratean 
 verses produces the Priapean verse (which is consequently a versxis asyn- 
 artetris) ; e. g. Catull. xviii. 
 
 Hunc lucum tihi dedico \ consecroque^ Priape, 
 Qua domus tiia Lampsaci est, | quaque silva, Priape^ 
 
OF METRE. 569 
 
 Nam te praecipue in suis I urbihus colit ora 
 Hellespontia, caeteris \ ostreosior ons. 
 
 [§ 860.] The Phalaecian verse consists of a dactyl and three 
 trochees ; 
 
 X I / / / / _ 
 
 *-G|— WW — w — <-» — w 
 
 This verse has eleven syllables, and is therefore called Hende- 
 casyllabus, and under this name it has often been used by the 
 Latin poets, especially Catullus and Martial, in smaller poems ; 
 e. g. CatuU. iii. 
 
 Lugete^ O' Veneres Cupidinesque 
 JB't quantum est hominum venustiorum : 
 Passer mdrtuus est meae pueUa£^ 
 Passer^ deliciae meae puellae. 
 Quern plus ilia oculis suis amdbat. 
 Nam mellitus erdt, sudmque ndrat 
 Ipsa tarn bene qudm puella mdtrem^ 
 Nee sese a gremio illius movebat, 
 Sed circumsiliens modo hue modo illuc 
 Ad soldm dominam usque pipildbat. 
 Qui nunc it per iter tenebricosum^ 
 I'lluc^ iLude negdnt redire quemquam. 
 At vobis male sit^ malae tenebrae 
 O'rci, quae 6mnia bella devordtiSj 
 Tdm beMm mihi pdsserem dbstulistis! 
 O' factum male '! O' miselle passer ! 
 Cuja nunc opera meae puellae 
 Flendo turgiduli rubent ocelli. 
 
 The base, as we here see, is commonly a spondee, and Ca- 
 tullus is the only one among the Latin poets who has allowed 
 himself greater licence, and occasionally uses the original 
 trochee. 
 
 [§ 861.] 22. As the dactyls in the logaoedio verse finish 
 with trochees, so choriambi must be resolved at the close into 
 iambi, because in the choriambus the arsis closes, and according 
 to the most common mode of composition a thesis should be 
 subjoined to it. In this way we find in the Roman poets (espe- 
 cially in Horace) a choriambus with an incomplete iambic 
 dipodia. 
 
 — v/ V — w — C 
 
 Sanguine viperino. 
 Commonly, however, the choriambus has a base prefixed, and 
 
570 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 thus we find in Horace two or three chorlambi closing with one 
 iambus. 
 
 This poet makes his metre still more difficult by using only 
 the sjoondce as a base, and by making an incision after every 
 choriambus except the last. Such verses are called Asclepiadei, 
 and are either short, as 
 
 Maecenas atavis | edite regihus 
 
 O et praesidium et | dulce decus meum ! 
 
 or longer, as 
 
 Nullam, Vdre, sacra | vite prius | severis arhorem 
 Circa mite solum\ Tiburis et\ moenia'CatUi. 
 Siccis omnia nam \ dura deus\pr6posuit : neque 
 Mordaces aliter | diffugiunt | sollicitudmes. 
 
 [§ 862.] 23. In the species of compound verse hitherto men- 
 tioned,* the base may be regarded as the smallest trochaic series, 
 from which a transition is made to another rhythm. In other 
 verses, however, we find a more complete trochaic series; in 
 Horace, Carm. i. 8, before a choriambic verse of two choriambi 
 Avith an iambic close. The poet has imposed on himself the 
 restraint of using the spondee throughout instead of the second 
 trochee. 
 
 _^:l-|:lllwv.--vw-v-c 
 The caesura after the arsis of the first choriambus is remark- 
 able, and cannot be considered appropriate. In the poem 
 referred to, this verse is combined with a shorter choriambic of 
 the kind mentioned above. 
 
 Lydia die, per omnes 
 
 Te deSs oro, \ Syharin cur properas amdndo. 
 
 The same trochaic dipodia before a logaoedic dactylic series 
 produces the hendecasyllabic Sapphic verse : — 
 / / / / / _ 
 
 — \J — ■^ — \J\J — V — v^ 
 
 Persicos odi puer apparatus. 
 
 The transition from iambi to dactyls may take place, if the 
 rhythmical connection is to be regarded, only by the iambic 
 series being catalectic. And this is the case in the hendeca- 
 syllabic Alcaic verse. 
 
OP METRE, 571 
 
 Frui paratis et valido mihi. 
 
 [§ 86S.] Note. We may here mention the Saturnian verse, an old Roman 
 measure, which in later times was rarely used. It consists of a dimeter 
 iambicus catalecticus, to the thesis of which three trochees are added. The 
 early Roman poets, however, allowed themselves many licences in the use of 
 this measure, and it is difficult to reduce the fragments which are here and 
 there quoted, to the proper measure. We shall therefore quote the regular 
 Saturnian verses, which Terentianus Maurus composed upon it as a model : 
 
 M#, si vocet Camoenas \ quis novem sordres 
 
 Et Naevio po'etae \ sicferunt Metellos 
 
 quum saepe laederentur \ esse comminatos : 
 
 dabunt malum Metelli\Naevio po'etae. 
 
 Dabunt malum Metelli \ clauda pars dimetri, 
 
 post Naevio po'etae : tres vides trochaeos, 
 
 TWLm nil ohest trochaeo, \ longa quod suprema est 
 
 [§ 864.] 24. This may be sufficient for the compound verses 
 which are used by the Latin lyric poets. A poem may consist 
 of a succession of verses of the same kind, as is usually the 
 case with simple verses, and the choriambic among compound ; 
 or verses of different measure and rhythm are combined into a 
 rhythmical whole, called a strophe, the single verses remaining 
 separate (which is chiefly indicated by the doubtful syllable). 
 In the combination of different verses into a strophe the poet is 
 guided by his feeling, and it is impossible to enumerate all the 
 varieties of the strophe that may be made. Horace (whom we 
 have here chiefly to attend to), without having any Grecian 
 model (as it appears) formed short strophes either of choriam- 
 bic verses alone, or of choriambic and Aeolic verses, of which 
 we spoke above. It will not be found difficult to resolve these 
 strophes into their elements. Of the more artificial Greek 
 strophes we find in this poet the Sapphic and the Alcaic. In 
 both he has introduced some changes, according to his own 
 views. 
 
 [§ 865.] The Sapphic strophe consists of a Sapphic hendeca- 
 syllabic verse thrice repeated, and closed with an Adonic (see 
 § 847.). Horace, instead of the syllaba anceps at the end of the 
 trochaic dipodia, uses only a spondee, and introduces a caesura 
 after the fifth syllable, but exchanged it sometimes for a tro- 
 chaic caesura after the sixth syllable. In some of his poems 
 (especially Carm. iv. 2.) he allows himself the use of versus 
 
572 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 lujpermetri; i. e. verses which with tlielr final syllable extend 
 by elision Into the following verse ; rarely however, and chiefly 
 with enclitics. Sometimes he unites In a singular manner the 
 Adonic verse with the preceding hendecasyllablc ; e. g. Carm, 
 i. 2. 19. : 
 
 lahitur ripa Jove non prohante u- 
 xorius amnis, 
 
 so that it might seem as if he regarded them both as one. The 
 hiatus; however, is also found, and m is not elided when the 
 following verse begins with a vowel. The former practice 
 therefore is to be considered only as a licence which Horace 
 assumed after the example of Sappho. But in point of rhythm 
 the verses are indeed so connected together that no chasm exists 
 anywhere, but the thesis is always succeeded by the arsis. 
 
 — \j — •' — \f\j — \j — \j 
 / / / / _ 
 
 — V^ — — — »^\i^ — S/ — Vm> 
 
 ^ ^ >' >' _ 
 
 Integer vitae scelerisque purus 
 Non eg et Mauris jaculis neque arcu 
 Nee venenatis gravida sagittis, 
 Fusee, pharetra. 
 
 [§ 866.] The Alcaic strophe consists of the Alcaic hendeca- 
 syllablc verse twice repeated, a dimeter iambic hypercatalectic, 
 and a logaoedic of two dactyls and two trochees. 
 
 The Greek metre is the following. 
 
 / / / 
 
 _ /_ _ / 
 
 / / / 
 
 Horace strengthens the three first verses by spondees, making it 
 his rule to use the long syllable in all the places in which by the 
 above scheme it is allowed, with the exception of the syllaba 
 anceps at the end of the verse, which remains anceps. The 
 metre therefore, according to the usage of Horace, is commonly 
 given thus : — 
 
THE ROMAN CALENDAR. 573 
 
 —\j \j — \j ^ 
 / / .. 
 
 / / 
 
 It is, however, useful to keep the original Greek measure in 
 view, because the Koman poet sometimes deviates from his own 
 rule, just because it is arbitrary, using an iambus instead of the 
 spondee at the beginning of the first three verses. (In the first 
 verse of the strophe, i. 9. 1, 31. 9, 35. 37.; ii. 9. 5.; in the 
 second, i. 37. 22.; ii. 1. 6, 14. 6, 19. 22.; iii. 1. 2, 1. 26, 
 3. 34, 5. ^2.; in the third, i. 35. 15, 37. 15.; ii. 3. 3.; iii. 
 29. 11.; but never in the fourth book.) But he never makes 
 use of a short syllable before the caesura, according to Bentley's 
 remark on Carm. iii. 2. 1. ; compare iii. 5. 17. The caesura of 
 the Alcaic hendecasyllabus is always observed by Horace, and 
 is an excuse for the hiatus; Carm. ii. 20. 13. The caesura, 
 however, is sometimes made in a compound word; it very 
 rarely (iv. 14. 17. and i. 37. 14.) falls on an uncompounded 
 word of more than two syllables. Horace is also careful in 
 observing the caesurae, and accordingly does not use two, or in 
 the third verse three, dissyllabic words one after another at the 
 beginning. The hiatus between several verses is not unfre- 
 quent: the third and fourth verses are sometimes united by 
 elision ; as e. g. in the last strophe of Carm, ii. 3. ; 
 
 Omnes eodem cogimur, omnium 
 Versatur urnd serins ocius 
 
 Sors exitura et nos in aeternum 
 Exilium impositura cymhae. 
 
 APPENDIX II, 
 
 THE ROMAN CALENDAR, 
 
 [§ 867.] The Eoman names of the days of the month are 
 entirely different from our own. Without entering here upon 
 
574 LATIN GIIAMMAK. 
 
 the manner in which in the early times the year was divided and 
 defined, w^e shall commence at once with the Julian year and 
 its division into months. According to this the month of 
 February in a common year had twenty-eight days; April, 
 June, September, and November thirty, and the others thirty- 
 one days. The days of these months are not reckoned in an 
 uninterrupted series, from one to thirty or thirty -one, but are 
 calculated backwards from three days, which are fixed in every 
 month. These three days are the first, fifth, and thirteenth, 
 which are called by their Roman names the CalendaC) Nonae, 
 and Idus, of a month. (The names of the months, as was 
 remarked in § 38., are used as adjectives, and as such they are 
 joined to the three feminine names just mentioned.) In the 
 Roman system of counting from a certain point, this point itself 
 is included in the calculation. Thus, e. g. the third day before 
 the nonae, i. e. before the fifth of the month, is not the second 
 of the month, but the third. Hence we may give it as a prac- 
 tical rule, that in calculating the days of the month, we must 
 add one to the number from which we deduct. "When the 
 point from which we have to count backward is the first of the 
 month ( Calendae), it is not suflficient to add one to the number 
 of days of the current month, but the Calendae itself must also 
 be taken into the account, i. e. the number of days of the 
 current month must be' increased by two before we deduct from 
 them. Hence dies tertius ante Cal. Julias is the 29th of June, 
 as June has thirty days. This is the cause of the whole ap- 
 parent difficulty in calculating the Roman dates. But besides 
 this we have to consider another peculiarity, which is a remnant 
 of the ancient arrangement of the Roman year, ascribed to king 
 Numa, viz. in the months of March, May, July, and October, 
 the Nonae fall on the 7 th, and the Idus on the 15 th, instead of 
 the 5th and 13th. In leap-years (i. e. according to the Roman 
 expression every fifth year) February has one day more, but 
 this intercalary day was not added at the end of the month, as 
 is the custom in modern times, but was inserted in the place 
 where formerly the intercalary month {mejisis intercalaris) had 
 been inserted to make the lunar year of king Numa harmonise 
 widi the solar year, that is, after the 23d of February, so that 
 the 24th of February, i. e. the sixth day before the Calendae of 
 
THE ROMAN CALENDAR. 575 
 
 March, was reckoned double, and was called his sextus or bis 
 sextum, whence the leap-year itself was called annus bis sextus. 
 On this subject see the classical work of Ideler, Handbuch der 
 mathematischen und technischen Chrojiologie, Berlin, 1825, in the 
 beginning of vol. ii. 
 
 [§ 868.] Respecting the grammatical form of stating the day 
 of a month the following points must be observed. The ab- 
 lative indicates the time when a thing occurs ; hence we say, 
 e. g. die tertio ante Calendas Martias, but die and ante may be 
 omitted, and we may say tertio Calendas, or in figures Hi. Cal. 
 Cicero and Livy, however, use a different form either exclu- 
 sively, or at least much more commonly than others ; e. g. ante 
 diem tertium Calendas, or Nonas, Idus (abridged a. d. iii. Cal.y 
 This peculiarity, instead of the correct die tertio ante Calendas, 
 cannot be explained otherwise than by the supposition that 
 ante changed its place, and that afterwards the ablat. was 
 changed into the accusat., as if it were dependent on ante; 
 while the real accusat. Calendas remained unchanged. Pridie, 
 the day before, and postridie, the day after, are either joined 
 with the genitive, as pridie ejus diei, or in the case of established 
 calendar names and festivals, with the accusative, to which 
 people were more accustomed, as pridie Idus, pridie CompitaUa, 
 pridie natalem, postridie ludos Apollinares. 
 
 [§ 869.] This expression ante diem must be considered as an 
 indeclinable substantive, since we often find it preceded by pre- 
 positions which govern the accusat. or ablat., e. g. Cic. in Cat. 
 i. 3. : dixi ego idem in Senatu, caedem te optimatum contulisse in 
 ante diem V. Cal. Novembris (or Novembres, is being probably 
 only the ancient termination of the accusat., instead of es) ; 
 Liv. xliii. 16. : zVi ante dies octavum et septimum Calendas 
 Octohres comitiis dicta dies ; xlv. 2. : supplicatio indicta est ex 
 ante diem quintum Idus Octobres, cum eo die in quinque dies ; and 
 in the same manner postridie, e. g. Cic. ad Att. ii. 11.: nos in 
 Formiano esse volumus usque ad pridie Nonas Majas. 
 
 [§ 870.] In order to facilitate the calculation of a date in the 
 ancient calendar (such as it was established by C. Julius Caesar, 
 in B. c. 45), we have annexed Broder's table, in which the 
 beginner may easily find his way. 
 
576 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Our Days 
 of 
 
 March, May, 
 July, 
 
 Jan., Aug., Decemb. 
 
 April, June, Septemb. 
 and 
 
 1 
 
 Febr. has 28 Days, 
 
 the Month. 
 
 and October 
 have 31 Days. 
 
 have 31 Days. 
 
 Novemb. have 
 30 Days. 
 
 and 
 in Leap Years 29. 
 
 1. 
 
 - Calendis. 
 
 Calendis. 
 
 Calendis. 
 
 Calendis. 
 
 2. 
 
 VI.] 
 
 TV. \ ante 
 III. ]■ Nonas 
 
 IV. 1 ante 
 III. J Nonas 
 
 IV. 1 ante 
 
 3. 
 
 V. 1 ante 
 
 III. j Nonas 
 
 4. 
 
 IV. f Nonas 
 
 Pridie Nonas 
 
 Pridie Nonas 
 
 Pridie Nonas 
 
 5. 
 
 III. J 
 
 Nonis. 
 
 Nonis. 
 
 Nonis. 
 
 6. 
 
 Pridie Nonas 
 
 VIII.-] 
 
 
 VIII. 1 
 
 
 VIIL1 
 
 
 7. 
 
 Nonis. 
 
 VII. 
 
 
 VII. 
 
 
 VIL 
 
 
 8. 
 
 VIIL1 
 
 
 VI. 
 
 ante 
 
 VI. 
 
 ante 
 
 VI. 
 
 ante 
 
 9. 
 
 VII. 
 
 
 V. 
 
 "Idus 
 
 V. 
 
 Idus 
 
 V. 
 
 " Idus 
 
 10. 
 
 VI. 
 
 ante 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 11. 
 
 V. 
 
 Idus 
 
 III. J 
 
 
 III. J 
 
 
 III. J 
 
 
 12. 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 Pridie Idus 
 
 Pridie Idus 
 
 Pridie Idus 
 
 13. 
 
 III. J 
 
 
 Idihus. 
 
 Idihus. 
 
 Idihus. 
 
 14. 
 
 Pridie Idus 
 
 XIX. 1 
 
 
 XVIIT. 
 
 ' 
 
 XVI. ^ 
 
 
 15. 
 
 Idihus. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 
 XVII. 
 
 
 XV. 
 
 
 16. 
 
 XVII. ' 
 
 
 XVII. 
 
 pd 
 
 XVI. 
 
 -5 
 
 XIV. 
 
 ^ 
 
 17. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 ^ 
 
 XVI. 
 
 fl 
 
 XV. 
 
 1 
 
 XIII. 
 
 TO 
 
 18. 
 
 XV. 
 
 +3 
 
 XV. 
 
 o 
 
 XIV. 
 
 ^ 
 
 XII. 
 
 ^ 
 
 19. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 1 
 
 XIV. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 r£3 . 
 
 XL 
 
 ^ 
 
 20. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 1^ 
 
 XII. 
 
 
 X. 
 
 ► §§ 
 
 21. 
 
 XII. 
 
 ^^0 
 
 xn. 
 
 "s.l" 
 
 XI. 
 
 IOC 
 
 IX. 
 
 1 
 
 22. 
 
 XL 
 
 ^.1 
 
 XI. 
 
 "^^ 
 
 X. 
 
 S o 
 
 VIII. 
 
 -§ 
 
 23. 
 
 24. 
 
 X. 
 
 IX. 
 
 
 X. 
 
 IX. 
 
 S-2 
 
 1^ 
 
 IX. 
 VIII. 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 VII. 
 VL 
 
 
 25. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 VIII. 
 
 4) 
 
 VII. 
 
 V. 
 
 i 
 
 26. 
 
 VII. 
 
 -s 
 
 VII. 
 
 o 
 
 VI. 
 
 ^ 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 27. 
 
 VI. 
 
 O 
 
 VI. 
 
 0) 
 
 V. 
 
 i 
 
 III. J 
 
 
 28. 
 
 V. 
 
 -2 
 
 V. 
 
 1 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 Pridie C£ 
 
 ilendas 
 
 29. 
 
 IV. 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 III. 
 
 
 Mart 
 
 las. 
 
 30. 
 
 III. , 
 
 
 III. J 
 
 
 Prid. Calend. 
 
 
 31. 
 
 Prid. Calend. 
 
 Prid. Calend. 
 
 (of the Month 
 
 
 
 (of the Month 
 
 (of the Month 
 
 following). 
 
 
 
 following). 
 
 following). 
 
 
 » 
 
 APPENDIX HI. 
 
 ROMAN WEIGHTS, COINS AND MEASURES. 
 
 [§871.] 1. The Roman pound {libra, pondo) is about | of the 
 Paris pound, that is II ounces and 1| drachm. (According to 
 Rome de I'lsle it contained 6048 Paris grains, according to Ch- 
 
ROMAN WEIGHTS, COINS, AND MEASURES. 577 
 
 gnazzi6135, according to Letronne 6154, according to Paucker 
 and Bockh 6165, 9216 of which make a Paris pound.) It is di- 
 vided into 12 parts {unciae), and these twelve parts together are 
 called an as. The names of the fractions are : -^-^ is uncia (about 
 an ounce in weight) ; y^ sextans, that is, ^ ; -f-^ quadrans, that is, 
 \ > T% triens, that is, ^ ; y^^ quincunx ; -^^ semis or semissis ; i. e. 
 half an as ; -^^ septunx ; ^^ bes or bessis, i. e. two parts out of 
 three or f ; -^^ dodrans, compounded from dequadrans, i. e. f ; 
 y§ dextans or decunx ; \\ deunx, i. e. one ounce less, sciL than 
 an as. These names are also applied to other relations ; thus 
 we say ; e. g. he was instituted heir ex dodrante ; i. e. he received 
 ■^^ ; ex deunce, he received |i of the whole property. An uncia 
 contains 2 semiunciae, 3 duellae, 4 sicilici, 6 sextulae, 24 scrupula 
 or scripula. One ounce and a half is sescuncia (from ses' 
 quiuncia). Compounds of as are tressis, 3 ases ; octussis, 8 ases ; 
 decussis, 10 ases; centussis, 100 ases. 
 
 [§ 872.] 2. The most ancient Roman money was of copper, 
 and the as as a coin, was originally a pound of copper coined. 
 At the time when the Romans commenced to coin silver (some 
 years before the first Punic war), the copper as was reduced, 
 at first to ^, afterwards to y^g, and at last to gV ^^ the original 
 weight, so that the coin which had originally weighed a pound 
 of copper, was afterwards only half an ounce in weight. 
 
 Silver coins were the denarius, originally equal to 10 ases, 
 and subsequently, after the reduction of the as to -^^, equal to 
 16 ases. Half a denarius was called quinarius ; ^ of a denarius 
 sestertius, that is, originally 2 ases and a half (hence it is written 
 HS ; i. e. 2~), but when the denarius had become equal to 
 16 ases, it was worth 4 ases. Silver coins of still smaller value 
 were the libella, = y^ of a denarius ; the sembella, = ^V of a 
 denarius ; teruncius, =: -^-^ of a denarius, 3 unciae of the ancient, 
 and 4 unciae of the reduced copper money. A denarius weighed 
 a little more or less than 73 Paris grains, but was gradually 
 reduced, under the first emperors, to 63 grains ; hence the 
 Roman pound in the times of the republic contained about 
 84 denarii (which, according to Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxiii. 46., 
 was the legal amount), and in the reign of Domitian from 96 
 to 100. 
 
 Gold was coined in various ways : an aureus in the times of 
 the emperors was equal to 25 denarii or 100 sestertii ; conse- 
 
 P P 
 
578 LATIN GKAMMAK. 
 
 quently 1000 HS are equal to 10 aurei, 100,000 HS to 1000 
 aurei, and decies HS to 10,000 aurei. The emperor Honorius 
 made 25 pounds of copper coin equal to one solidus (aureus), 
 that is, a pound of copper equal to a silver denarius. 
 
 [§ 873.] 3. The Romans generally calculated according to 
 sestertii, and a nummus is simply a sestertius. Instead of mille 
 sestertii, we may say with equal correctness, mille sestertium 
 (genit. plur.), just as we commonly say mille passuum. A 
 million, as was remarked in § 115., is expressed by the form of 
 multiplication : decies centena milia sestertium, or more com- 
 monly by decies alone, centena milia being omitted; centies 
 therefore is 10 millions, and millies 100 milUons. As people 
 were thus accustomed to hear the word sestertium in connection 
 with mille, they came by a kind of grammatical blunder to con- 
 sider sestertium as a substantive of the neuter gender, and hence 
 they said unum sestertium, septem sestertia, his dena sestertia, 
 sexcenta sestertia, &c., instead of unum mille sestertium, septem 
 milia sestertium, &c. In Cicero it does not often occur, but is 
 yet found in some passages, as in Verr, iii. 50. ; Parad. 6. 3. ; 
 but in the writers of the silver age it is quite common. 
 
 Decies sestertium, a million of sestertii, centies sestertium, &c. 
 is used as a singulare tantum of the neuter gender ; e. g. Cic. in 
 Verr. ii. 7. : HS decies numeratum esse ; Philip, ii. 16. : amplius 
 HS ducenties acceptum hereditatibus rettuli. But the mistake 
 was carried still further by declining this expression ; e. g. Liv. 
 xlv. 4. : argenti ad summam sestertii decies in aerarium rettuUt, 
 up to the sum of one million sestertii; Cic. Philip, ii. 37. : syn- 
 grapha sestertii centies, a bill of ten millions of sestertii ; Tacit. 
 Ann. xii. 58. : Bononiensi coloniae, igni haustae, suhventum centies 
 sestertii largitione, by a present of ten millions of sestertii; 
 Sueton. Caes. 50. : Serviliae sexagies sestertio margaritam mer- 
 catus est, he bought her a pearl for six millions of sestertii; 
 Sueton. Octav. 41. : Senatorum censum duodecies sestertio taxavit, 
 he fixed the senatorial census at 1,200,000 sestertii ; Cic. p. 
 Font. (Niebuhr, Fragm.) § 4. : Testis non invenitur in ducentis 
 et tricies sestertio ; ad Alt, iv. 2. : superficiem aedium aestimarunt 
 HS (sestertio) decies. 
 
 [§ 874.] 4. With regard to Greek weights and money, we 
 can here add only a few remarks. An Attic talent {talentum) 
 is equal to 80 Roman pounds ; a mina {fjuva) is the sixtieth part 
 
ROMAN WEIGHTS, COINS, AND MEASURES. 579 
 
 of it; i.e. equal to Ij Roman pound; and 100 drachmae make 
 one mina. Consequently a talent has 60 minae or 6000 
 drachmae. The same names and proportions occur in the 
 Greek coins. The most common silver coin, which forms the 
 unit in calculations, is the drachma (which is worth 6 oholi). 
 It varies very much in weight, according to the different places 
 and times, but in general it is considered equal to the Roman 
 denarius. The Attic drachma, however, is somewhat better 
 than the Roman denarius. (See Bockh, The Public Econom. 
 of Atheiis, chap. 4. 2d edit Engl, transl.) When compared with 
 Roman money, a mina is equal to 4 aurei, and a talent to 240 
 au7'ei, or to 24,000 sestertii. 
 
 [§ 875.] 5. The basis of Roman measures is the foot, pes, which, 
 according to the most accurate calculations of modern scholars, 
 contained 131 Paris lines, 144 of which make a Paris foot. The 
 Roman foot is di^dded either, according to the general fractional 
 system, into 12 unciae, or into 16 digiti (hdKTvXoi). Smaller 
 measures are : semipes, | foot ; palmus, ^ foot or 4 digiti, i. e. 
 the breadth of a hand (ira\ai<7Trj), but in later times, and even 
 down to the present day in Italy, the name palmus is transferred 
 to the length of a span, and is equal to f of a foot. Greater 
 measures are : palmipes, a foot and a palmus, i. e. 1^ foot ; cubitus 
 ('rrr)')(ys), IJ foot; passus, a pace, or 5 feet; actus, 120 feet, or 
 12 decempedae. The Greek stadium has 600 Greek and 625 
 Roman feet ; 40 stadia are somewhat more than a geographical 
 mile. On the Roman roads mile- stones were erected at intervals 
 of 1000 passus, and such a Roman mile of 5000 feet contains 
 8 stadia, amounting to very little more than j of a geographical 
 mile, whereas a modern Italian mile is | of a geographical one. 
 A Gallic leuca is 1 1 Roman mile. From le?ica the French 
 lieice is formed, but the Franks assigned to it the length of 3 
 Roman miles. 
 
 [§ 876.] Ajugerum is a square measure of 240 feet in length, 
 and 120 in breadth, that is 28,800 Roman square feet. 
 
 Roman cubic measures for fluids ai'e : the amphora or guad- 
 rantal, i. e. a Roman cubic foot ; it contains 2 urnae, 8 congii, 
 48 sextarii, 96 heminae, 192 quartarii, and 576 cyathi. There is 
 only one larger measure, ^'iz. \heculeus, containing 20 amphorae. 
 Greek cubic measures are: the metretes or cadus, equal to Ig 
 amphora; it is divided into 12 ^ous, and 144 Korvkm, so that 
 
 p p 2 
 
580 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 one KOTvXrj is half a sextariui. An amphora of water or wine 
 is said to weigh 80 Roman pounds, and consequently a congius 
 would weigh 10, and a sextarius If. As the sextarius, being 
 the most common measure, contains 12 cyathi, these twelfths 
 are denominated, like the 12 unciae of an as, according to the 
 common fractional system, e. g. sextans, quadrans, triens vini, for 
 I", ^, 3^ of a sextarius. 
 
 Dry substances were chiefly measured by the modius, which 
 is the third of an amphora, and accordingly contains 16 sextarii: 
 6 modii make a Greek medimnus. Respecting this whole subject 
 the reader is referred to the excellent work of Joh. Fr. Wurm, 
 De Ponderum, Nummorum, Mensurarum ac de Anni ordinandi 
 Rationihus apud Romanos et Graecos, Stuttgardiae, 1821. 8vo. 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 NOTAE SIVE COMPENDIA SCRIPTURAE ; OR ABBREVIATIONS 
 OF WORDS. 
 
 [§ 877.] Many words and terminations of frequent occurrence 
 are abridged in ancient MSS. as well as in books printed at 
 an early time ; e. g. atque is written atq3, per p ; the termination 
 us is indicated by ^, as in quilP, non by n, and m and n are fre- 
 quently indicated by an horizontal line over the preceding vowel. 
 Such abbreviations are no longer used in books, and whoever 
 finds them in MSS. or early prints, may easily discover their 
 meaning with the assistance of a modern text. Praenomina, 
 however, and certain political words, i. e. names of offices and 
 dignities, are still abridged in modern editions. We shall sub- 
 join a list of those which occur most frequently, for the assist- 
 tance of beginners. 
 
 1. Praenomina. 
 
 A. Aulus. C. or G. Gajus. 
 
 Ap. Appius. Cn. or Gn. Gnaeus. 
 
ABBREVIATIONS OF WORDS. 
 
 581 
 
 D. Decimus. 
 
 P. Publius. 
 
 K, Kaeso. 
 
 Q. or Qu. Quintus. 
 
 L. Lucius. 
 
 S. or Sex. Sextus. 
 
 M. Marcus. 
 
 Ser. Servius. 
 
 M'. Manius. 
 
 Sp. Spurius. 
 
 Mam. Mamercus. 
 
 T. Titus. 
 
 N. Numerius. 
 
 Tk or Tib. Tiberius. 
 
 2. Constitutional Designations, 
 
 Aed. Aedilis. 
 
 P C. Patres Conscripti. 
 
 Cal. or Kal. Calendae, or other 
 
 PI. Plebis. 
 
 cases of this word. 
 
 Pop. Populus. 
 
 Cos. Consul 
 
 P.R. Populus Romanus. 
 
 Coss. Consules, or Consulibus. 
 
 Pont. Max. Pontifex Max- 
 
 D. Divus. 
 
 imus. 
 
 Des. designatus. 
 
 Pr. Praetor. 
 
 Eq. Kom. Eques Romanus. 
 
 Praef. Praefectus. 
 
 F. Filius. 
 
 Proc. Proconsul. 
 
 Imp. Imperator. 
 
 S. Senatus. 
 
 Leg. Legatus, or Legio. 
 
 S. P. Q. R. Senatus populusque 
 
 Non. Nonae, or other cases. 
 
 Romanus. 
 
 O. M. Optimus Maximus, as 
 
 SC. Senatus consultum. 
 
 a surname of Juppiter. 
 
 Tr. Tribunus. 
 
 3. Other Abbreviations which are still in use. 
 
 A. Anno. 
 
 D. D. D. Dono dedit dicavit. 
 
 A. c. Anno currente. 
 
 D. M. Diis Manibus. 
 
 A. D. Anno Domini. 
 
 D. S. De suo. 
 
 A. pr. Anno praeterito. 
 
 D. S. P. P. De sua pecunia 
 
 A. M. Anno mundi. 
 
 posuit. 
 
 A. u. c Anno urbis conditae. 
 
 F. C. Faciendum curavit. 
 
 A. Chr. Anno Christi. 
 
 Ictus. lureconsultus. 
 
 a. Chr. ante Christum. 
 
 L. M. Libens merito. 
 
 c. caput. 
 
 L. S. Loco Sigilli. 
 
 cf. confer or conferatur. 
 
 MS. Manuscriptus. 
 
 B. M. Bene merenti. 
 
 i. e. id est. 
 
 Dn. Dominus. 
 
 1. loco or lege : h. 1. hoc loco 
 
 D. D. Dono dedit. 
 
 or hac lege. 
 
 pp 3 
 
582 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS OF WORDS. 
 
 1. c. or 1. 1. loco citato or loco scil 
 laudato. seq. 
 
 pag. m. pagina mea. 
 
 Ps. Postscriptum. 
 
 Q. D. B. V. Quod deus bene 
 vertat. 
 
 S. V. B. E. E. V. Si vales bene 
 est, ego valeo. 
 
 scilicet, 
 seq. sequens ; and seqq. se- 
 
 quentes or sequentia. 
 V. versus. 
 
 vid. vide or videatur. 
 S. Salutem. 
 S. D. P. Salutem dicit pluri- 
 
 mam. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 *^* The numbers indicate the paragraphs in brackets. 
 
 A (ab, abs, absque), its meaning, S04, 
 305, 306. 396. 
 
 a pedibus, ab epistolis, a rationibus esse, 
 and similar phrases, 305. in fin. 
 
 a principio, 304. 
 
 a puero, a pueris, 304. a. ab initio, 
 304. 
 
 a Flatone, and similar expressions, 304. 
 b, 
 
 abalienare, construction of, 468. 
 
 abest mihi, 420. note, 469. Non multum 
 abesi quin, 540. Tantum abest ut — ut, 
 779. 
 
 abhinc, 478. and note. 
 
 abhorrere, construction of, 468. 
 
 abbreviation, in case of several persons 
 having the same praenomen and cog- 
 nomen, 785. 
 
 ablative, with passive verbs, 451. Abla- 
 tivus instrumenti, 455. Ablativus cau- 
 salis, 452. Paraphrased by the partlc. 
 perf. passive, 454. 719. Ablative de- 
 noting price or value, 456. Ablat. 
 denoting in regard to, 457. Ablat. 
 with verbs denoting abundance or 
 want, 460. Ablat. with the adject. 
 full and empty, 462. Ablat. of quality, 
 471. Ablativus modi, 472. Ablat. 
 denoting the time when? 475. Ablat. 
 denoting how long before or after ? 
 476. foil. Ablat. in answer to the 
 question, " how long before the pre- 
 sent time?" 478. To the question, 
 " in what time ? " 479. Ablat. de- 
 noting duration of time, 396. Ablat. 
 of place, 481. Ablat. in poetry and 
 prose instead of ex or a with the 
 ablat., 481, 482. Ablat. with com- 
 paratives, 483. Ablat. of measure, 
 488. Ablat. absolute, 640. foil.; 
 formed with the partic. fut., 643. 
 Ablat. absolute in passive construc- 
 tions has no reference to the subject, 
 640. Ablatives absolute, of which the 
 subject occurs in the leading propo- 
 sition, are rare, 641. Ablat. of the 
 partic. perf. pass, as ablat. absolute. 
 
 647. Ablat. absolute as an adverb 
 
 648. Ablat. of the gerund denoting 
 instrumentality, 667. Ablat. of the 
 gerund with ab, de, ex, in, pro, 667. 
 
 abscissum and abscisum, 1 89. 
 
 absolvere, with the genit., 446. 
 
 abstinere, 145. ; construction, 468. 
 
 abstract nouns used for concrete ones, 
 675. 
 
 abundare, construction of, 460. 
 
 abunde, 267. ; with the genitive, 432. 
 
 ac, use of, 332. foil. ; instead of quam, 
 340. Ac and atque after aeque, jttxta, 
 &c., 340. 
 
 accedere, construction of, 415. 
 
 accedit ut, 621, 62^. ; accedit quod, 626. 
 
 accent of final syllables, 34. Accent in 
 verse, 828. 
 
 accidit ut, 621. 
 
 accipere, with the participle future, 653. 
 
 accusare, with the genit., 446. 
 
 accusative, 382. ; with intransit. verbs, 
 383 — 386. ; with impersonal verbs, 
 390. Accusativus Graecus, 458. ; the 
 same in prose, 459. Accus. denoting 
 space and time, 395. Accus, in an- 
 swer to the question, " how long be- 
 fore the present time ? " 478. Accus. 
 without a preposition in poetry, 401. 
 Accus. in exclamations, 402. Accus, 
 with prepositions, 404. ; with the 
 verbs of remembering and reminding^ 
 &c., 439, 440, Accus. of the subject 
 in the construction of the accus. with 
 the infinit., 605. Accus. with neuter 
 verbs indicating a particular part, 458. 
 Accus, to denote dress, 458. Accus. 
 in relative clauses with the accus. with 
 the infinit., 774. Accus. of the ge- 
 rund, 666. 
 
 accusative with the infinit. as subject or 
 object, 600. ; as nominat. of the pre- 
 dicate, 600. notej with the verbs of 
 saying, declaring, &c., 602. ; after re- 
 lative pronouns and conjunctions, in- 
 stead of the subjunctive, 603. ; used 
 as an exclamation or a question ex- 
 
 p p 4 
 
584 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 pressed with indignation, 609. ; alter- 
 nates with ut, 620. Difference between 
 the accus. with the infinit. and the 
 aceus. of the gerund, 655. 
 
 acquiescere, construction of, 415, 416. 
 
 ac non, 334. 781. 
 
 ac si, with the subjunctive, 572. 
 
 active verbs used as deponents, 207. 
 note. 
 
 ad, meaning of, 296. ; with the gerund, 
 666. 
 
 ad id locorum, 434. 
 
 ad tempus, meaning of, 296. 
 
 ad unum omnes, phrase, 296. 
 
 adde quod, 628. 
 
 adeo, meaning of, 281. 
 
 adesse, construction of, 415. 
 
 adhibere, construction of, 416. 
 
 adhuc, meaning of, 292. ; adhtic locorum, 
 434. 
 
 adjectives, used as adverbs, 266. 383. in 
 fin., 682. ; used substantively, 363. ; 
 their neuter gender with substantives 
 of other genders, 368. ; used for ad- 
 verbs of place, 685. ; used for ordinal 
 adverbs, 686. Adject, denoting origin, 
 
 683. Adject, without a substantive 
 in the construction of the ablat. ab- 
 solute, 645, 646. 648. Adjective, 
 position of, 683. 793. 796. Adject, 
 derived from proper names, and used 
 instead of the genitive of the latter, 
 
 684. The same is not frequent in the 
 case of adjectives derived from appel- 
 lative nouns, 684. note. Construction 
 of two adjectives being compared with 
 each other, 690. Adjectives from 
 which no adverbs are formed, 267. 
 Adjectives in arius, 684. note. Ad- 
 jectives formed from names of towns, 
 255, 256. Relative adjectives, their 
 construction with the infinit. is poeti- 
 cal, 598. 659. in fin. 
 
 adipisci, 466. 
 
 adire, construction of, 387. * 
 
 adjutare, construction of, 388. note. 
 
 adjuvare, with the accusat., 388. 
 
 admonere, construction of, 459. ; with ut 
 or the accusat. with the infinit., 615. 
 
 adolescentia, 675. 
 
 adscribo, orthography of, 325. 
 
 adspergere, construction of, 418. 
 
 adulari, construction of, 389. 413. 
 
 advenire and adventare, construction of, 
 489. 
 
 adverbs in e, 263. ; in o, 264. ; in ter, 
 265. ; in im, 268. ; in ittis, 269. ; with 
 double terminations, 265. note. Ad- 
 verbs in the form of neuters, 266. 
 Adverbs in the form of a particular 
 case, and in composition, 270. Ad- 
 verbs of place with a genitive, 434. 
 Adverbs joined to substantives, 262. 
 
 note; used as prepositions, 276. ; with 
 participles, 7ii2. Ordinal adverbs in- 
 stead of numeral adverbs, 727. 
 
 adversus, meaning of, 299. 
 
 ae, diphthong, 2. 
 
 aedes, ellipsis of, 762. 
 
 aenudari, construction of, 389. note 3., 
 413. 
 
 aequalis, construction of, 411. 
 
 aequare and aequiparare, construction of, 
 389. note 2. 
 
 aeque ac, 340, 
 
 aequi boni facio, &c., 444. note. 
 
 aequius and aequum erat, tlie indicative 
 instead of the subjunctive, 518. 
 
 aestimare, with the genitive, 444. 
 
 affutim, with the genitive, 432. 
 
 afficere, construction of, 461. 
 
 affinis, construction of, 411. 436. 
 
 affluere, construction of, 460. 
 
 agere cum aliquo, with the genitive of the 
 crime, 446. ; id agere ut, 614. 
 
 aggredior, construction of, 387. 
 
 uin' for aisne, 218. 
 
 ait, ellipsis of, 772. ; its position, 802. 
 
 Alcaic strophe, 866. 
 
 ali, dropped, 136. 70S. 
 
 alias and alioqui, difference between, 
 275. 
 
 alienare, construction of, ^6S. 
 
 alienus, construction of, 468. 470. 
 
 aliquanto and paulo, difference between, 
 108. in fin., 488. 
 
 aliquantian, with the genitive, 432. 
 
 aliquis and uliqui, meaning of, 129. ; de- 
 clension, 135. ^/I'^w/rf joined with an 
 adjective, 43i3. ; aliquid as an adverb, 
 385. 677. Aliquis and quis, difference 
 in the use of, 708. 
 
 aliquispiam, 129. 
 
 aliquo, adverb of place, 434. 
 
 — alls, the termination, 251. 
 
 aliter, adverb, 264. note 1. 
 
 alius and alter, difference between, 141. 
 
 alius — alius, 112. ', alius — alium, with the 
 plural, 367. 
 
 allies, with the ablative in poetry, 484. 
 Aliud, with the genitive, 432. 
 
 allatrare, construction of, 417. 
 
 alter and alius, difference between, 141. 
 
 alttr — alter, 700. note. Alter — alterum, 
 with the plural, 367. 
 
 alteio tanto, 487. 
 
 alteruter, 130. HO. 
 
 amb (afi<pl), inseparable preposition, 330. 
 
 ambire, conjugation of, 215. in fin. 
 
 amicior, with the accusative, 458. 
 
 amicus, construction of, 410. 
 
 amplius, with the omission of quam, 485. 
 
 an, use of, 353, 354 ; in indirect ques- 
 tions, 353. and note at the foot of the 
 page. An — an, a poetical and unclas- 
 sical form of a question, 554. in tin. 
 
OF Till; 
 
 '*r 
 
 UNIVERSITl 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 anacoluthon, 757. 815. 
 
 anacrusis, 835. 
 
 anapaestic verse, 848. 
 
 angor, construction of, 627. 
 
 animans, gender of, 78. in fin. 
 
 animi, in some expressions used for 
 
 animo, 437. 
 animo, 472. note 1. 
 
 animus, used as a circumlocution, 678. 
 an minus, 554. in fin, 
 anne, in double questions, 554. 
 an non, use of, 454. in fin. 
 annus, compounded with numerals, 124. 
 answer, implied in the question, 716. 
 a7ite, meaning of, 297. ; its position, 324. ; 
 
 with the ablative, 476. 
 antea and aniehac, 323. 
 antecedere, construction of, 488. 
 antecellere, construction of, 417. 488. 
 antequam, construction of, 576. 
 — anus, the termination, 254. 
 aorist of past time, 500. 
 apage, 222. 
 aposiopesis, 758. 823. 
 appellare, with two accusatives, 394. 
 appetens, with the genitive, 438. 
 apposition, 370. ; its place, 796. 
 apprime, meaning of, 273. 
 aptus, construction of, 409. ; aptus qui, 
 
 with the subjunctive, 568. ; aptus, with 
 
 the dative of the gerund, 664. 
 apud, meaning of, 297. ; with the names 
 
 of authors, 297. 
 aqua, ellipsis of, 763. 
 arcere, construction of, 468. ; with quo- 
 minus, we, or quin, 543. 
 arcessere or accersere, 202. ; construction, 
 
 446. 
 ardeo, construction of, 452. 
 Argos and Argi, 89. 
 arguere, with the genitive, 446. 
 — arium, the termination, 242. 
 — arius, the termination, 252. 
 arsis, 827. ; lengthened, 828. 
 as, and its division, 871. 
 — as, the ancient form of the genitive 
 
 singular, 45. 
 — as, the termination of the Greek accus. 
 
 plural, 74. 
 — as, the derivative termination, 255. c. 
 Asclepiadean verse, 861. 
 fissentio and assentior, 206. 
 assequi ut, 618. 
 assimilation in verbs compounded with 
 
 prepositions, 325. foil. 
 assis non habere, 444. note. 
 — asso, the termination, instead of avero, 
 
 161. e. 
 assuescere, construction of, 416. 
 assuetus, meaning of, 633. 
 asynartetus versus, 859. note. 
 at, use of, 349. ; is superfluous, 756. ; at 
 
 vero, use of, 349. 
 
 Atbos, Mount, declensiS 
 
 atque, use of, 332. note ; meaning, 333. ; 
 
 used for quam, 340. Atque adeo, 737. 
 atqui, use of, 349. 
 attendere, construction of, 417. 
 — atiis, the termination, 253. 
 attraction, with the dative with licet 
 
 esse, 601. ; with mihi nomen est, 421. 
 
 Attraction to the case of the leading 
 
 proposition with the particle quam, 
 
 in the case of the accusative with the 
 
 infinitive, 603. ; sometimes also in the 
 
 case of a participle, 774. 
 audio te canentem and te canere, diflTerence 
 
 of, 636. 
 auditur, construed like dicitur, with the 
 
 nominative and infinitive, 607. note. 
 auscultare, construction of, 413. 
 ausim, 161. 181. 
 aut and vel, 336. ; aut in a negative 
 
 sense, 337. Aut— aut, 338. 809. ; with 
 
 the singular, 374. 
 autem, its position, 355. ; ellipsis of au- 
 
 tem, 781. 
 avarus, with the genitive, 436. 
 avidus, with the genitive, 436. 
 the termination, 249. 4. 
 
 Bacchic verse, 851. 
 
 base, of a verse, 858. 
 
 belle, 294. note. 
 
 bello^ 475. note, in fin. 
 
 bellum, construed like the names of towns^ 
 
 400. 
 bene te ! 759. 
 
 benedicere, construction of, 413. 
 biduum, triduum, 124. 
 — bilis, the termination, 249. 3. 
 boni consulo, 444. note. 
 bos, declension of, 69. 
 brevi, scil. tempore, 7^3. 
 — bulum, the termination, 239. 
 — bundus, the adjective termination, 248. 
 
 C. for Gajus, 4. ; its pronunciation, 6. 
 
 caesura {roixif), 830. ; in the senarius, 
 837 ; in the hexameter, 842. foil. ; 
 caesura bucolica, 844. ; caesura in the 
 Sapphic verse, 865. ; in Asclepiadean 
 verse, 861. ; in Alcaic verse, 862. ; in 
 the Saturnian verse, 863. 
 
 calendar, calculation of, 867. foil. 
 
 canere receptui, to sound a retreat, 422. 
 note. 
 
 capax, with the genitive, 436. 
 
 capitis and capite damnare, accusare, 447. 
 
 caro, ellipsis of, 763. 
 
 causa and gratia, joined with mea, tua, 
 sua, &c., 424. 659. 679. ; its position, 
 792. ; is omitted, 663. 764. 
 
 cave, used as a circumlocution for the 
 imperative, 586. ; with the subjunc- 
 tive, without ne, 624. 
 
;86 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 cavere, construction of, 414. 534. 
 
 cedere, construction of, 413. 
 
 ccdo, the impei-ative, 223. 
 
 celare, with two accusatives, 391. 
 
 censeo, followed by ut, instead of the ac- 
 cusative with the infinitive, 617. 
 Ceos, declension of, 52. 3. 
 
 cenieres, 528. 
 
 certe and certo, 266. note 1. 
 
 cervices and cervicem, 94. 
 
 cetera and reliqua, for ceteris, 459. 
 
 ceterum, meaning of, 349. 
 
 cetos and cetus, 89. 
 
 ceu, poetical, 340. ; with the subjunctive, 
 572. 
 
 Chaos and Chaus, 89. 
 
 choriambic verse, 856. 861. 
 
 ci or ti, 6. note 1. 
 
 cingor, construction of, 458. 
 
 cio and cieo, 180. 
 
 circa and circum, meaning of, 262. 298. 
 
 circumdare, construction of, 418. 
 
 circumfundere, construction of, 418. 
 
 els, citra, meaning of, 298. 
 
 citare, with the genitive, 446. 
 
 clajn, adverb and preposition, 321. 
 
 clanculum, 321. 
 
 Cn., that is, Gnaeus, 4. 
 
 coarguere, construction of, 446. 
 
 coenare and habitare, with the genitive, 
 444. note. 
 
 coepi, used pleonastically, 753. 
 
 coeptus sum, 221. in fin. 
 
 cognomen, placed after the gentile name, 
 797. 
 
 co^o, construction of, 613. 
 
 collective nouns, with the plural of the 
 verb, 366. 
 
 coUocare, construction of, 489. 
 
 com for cum, in compound verbs, 329. 
 
 comitari, construction of, 388. note 1. 
 
 CDinitiis, 475. note in fin. 
 
 commiserari, construction of, 442. 
 
 commonere, commonefacere, construction 
 of, 439. 615. 
 
 co/nmunicare, construction of, 416. 
 
 communis, with the dative and genitive, 
 411. 
 
 commutare, construction of, 456. 
 
 comparare, construction of, 415, 416. 
 
 comparative, with the ablative, 483. ; 
 used pleonastically, 690. 
 
 compedes, 16, 
 
 compertus, with the genitive, 446. note. 
 
 complere, construction of, 463. 
 
 complures, meaning of, 65. in fin. 
 
 componere, construction of, 415. 
 
 compos, with the genitive, 436, 437. note 
 2. 
 
 compound words, 260. ; verbs com- 
 pounded with prepositions, 325. foil. ; 
 compound numerals, 116. 118.; com- 
 pounds ofsequor and sector, 388. note 1 . 
 
 conari, construction, 610. 
 
 concedere, with td and the accusative with 
 the infinitive, 613. 624.; with the 
 participle future passive, 653. 
 
 concessive mood, 529. and note. 
 
 concrete nouns, used for abstract ones, 
 673. ; for names of public offices, 674. 
 
 condicione, 472. note 1 . 
 
 conducere, 444. ; with the participle fu- 
 ture passive, 653. 
 
 conducit, with the dative, 412. 
 
 conferre, construction of, 415, 416. 
 
 conficitur ut, 618. 
 
 conjidere, construction of, 413. 452. 
 
 congruere, construction of, 415. 
 
 conjugation, ancient forms of, 161. foil. ; 
 paraphrased conjugation, 168. 498. 
 
 conjungere, construction of, 415, 416. 
 
 conjunctions, 331. foil. 356.; conjunc- 
 tioijs repeated, 756. ; omitted, 782. 
 
 conjunctiis, with the ablative alone, 474. 
 
 conscius, construction of, 437. note 2. 
 
 consecutio temporum, 512. foil. 
 
 consentaneum erat, the indicat. used for 
 the subjunctive, 518. 
 
 consentire, 415. 
 
 consider e, construction of, 489. 
 
 consors, with the genitive, 436. 
 
 constare, construction of, 444. 452. 
 
 constituere, construction of, 489. ; with 
 the infinitive and with ut, 614. 
 
 constructio ad synesim, 368. 
 
 consuescere, 143. ; construction of, 416. 
 
 consuetudo est, with the infinitive and 
 with ut, 622. in fin. 
 
 consvlere, construction of, 414. 
 
 consumere, with the dative of the gerund, 
 664. 
 
 contendere ut, 614. 
 
 contentus, construction of, 467. Contentus 
 sum with the infinit. perfect, 590. 
 
 conterminus, with the dative, 411. 
 
 contineri, construction of, 452. 
 
 conti7igit ut, 621. 
 
 continuo, meaning of, 272. 
 
 contra, meaning of, 299. ; contra ea, 
 349. ; contra auro, 323. 
 
 contraction, 1 1 . 
 
 convenio, construction of, 387. 
 
 convenit, construction of, 413. ; used in 
 the indicative instead of the subjiuict., 
 518. 
 
 convertere, 145. 
 
 conviciari, with the dative, 412. 
 
 convincere, with the genitive, 446. 
 
 corpus, used instead of the personal pro- 
 noun, 678. 
 
 correlative pronouns, 130. ; adverbs, 288. 
 
 Cos, declension of, 52. 3. 
 
 creare, with two accusatives, 394. 
 
 credo, 777. ; crederes, 528. 
 
 Creticus, verse, 850. 
 
 cretus, with the ablat., 451. • 
 
INDEX. 
 
 587 
 
 erimine, ellipsis of, 446. 
 
 —crum, the termination, SS9. 
 
 cut, a monosyllabic word, 11. 
 
 cut bonofuit, 422. note. 
 
 cujus, a, urn, 139. 2. 
 
 — culum, the termination, 239. 
 
 — cuius, diminutive termination of com- 
 paratives, 104. note. 
 
 cum, meaning of, 307. ; in answer to the 
 question " in what manner ? " 472. ; 
 ellipsis of, 473.; appended to the 
 ablative of personal and relative pro- 
 nouns, 324. in fin. 
 
 cumprimis, meaning of, 273. 
 
 — cunque, the suffix, 128. 
 
 cupere, construction of, 414. ; with the 
 nom. or the accus. with the infinit , 609. 
 
 cupido, gender of, 75. in fin. 
 
 cupidus, with the genitive, 436. 
 
 cnpiens, with the genit., 436. 
 
 cupio tihi, tua causa, 414. 
 
 cur, 276. 2. ; est cur, 562. 
 
 curare, construction of, 614. 653. 713. 
 
 curiosuSf with the genitive, 436. 
 
 Damnare, construction of, 446. 
 
 damnas, indeclinable, 103. 
 
 dare, quantity of, 152 note; with the 
 dative, 422. ; with the participle future 
 passive, 653. ; with the infinit. it is 
 poetical, except with biberc, 653. 
 
 Darius and Darius, 2. 
 
 dative with verbs compounded with pre- 
 positions, 415. ; with verbs of differ- 
 ence, 468. ; with verbs of separation, 
 469. Dative of attraction with licet 
 esse, 601.; with miki nomen est, 421. 
 Dative with passive verbs instead of 
 ab, 419.; with the participle perf 
 pass., 419. note. Dativus commodi 
 and incommodi, 405. Dativus ethi- 
 cus, 409. Dative of the gerund with 
 esse, 664. ; with names of dignities 
 and offices, 665. 
 
 de, meaning of, 308. ; its position, 324. ; 
 is used instead of the genitive, 430. ; 
 de nocte, 308. 
 
 debebat, the indicat. instead of the sub- 
 junct. 518. 
 
 decedere, construction of, 468. 
 
 decemere, construction of, 619. 
 
 decet, dedecet, with the accus., 390. ; 
 decet, with the infinit. active and pas- 
 sive, 608. 
 
 declarare, with two accusat., 394. 
 
 dedocere, construction of, 391. 
 
 deesse, with the dative of the gerund, 
 664. 
 
 deest mihi, 420. note. 
 
 defective nouns, in case, 88. foil. ; in 
 number, 91. foil. 
 
 defendere, construction of, 469. 
 
 deferre, scil. nomen, with the genit., 446. 
 
 dejicere, construction of, 388. 
 
 defungi, construction of, 465. 
 
 dejicere, construction of, 468. 
 
 dein, as a monosyllable, 11. 
 
 delectari, construction of, 629. 
 
 delectat me, 390. note. 
 
 deligere, with two accusatives, 394. 
 
 demonstratives, omitted, 765. note ; used 
 
 instead of relatives, 805. 
 demovere, construction of, 468. 
 denique, meaning of, 727. 
 depellere, construction of, 468. 
 dependence of tenses on one another, 
 
 512. 
 deponents, derived from nouns, 147. 
 note ; deponents with the ablat. , 465. 
 derivation of verbs from nouns, 235. ; 
 
 from adjectives, 235. 
 desiderative verbs, 232. 
 designare, with two accusatives, 894. 
 desitus sum, 200. 
 desperare, construction of, 417. 
 desuetus, 633. 
 deterior and pejor, difference between, 
 
 111. note. 
 deterrere, with qnominus and ne, 543. 
 deturbare, construction of, 468. 
 dicere, with two accusatives, 394. ; el- 
 lipsis of, 620. 769. 
 diceres, 528. 
 dicit, ellipsis of, 772. 
 dicitur, construction of, 607. 
 dies, its gender, 86. ; compounded with 
 numerals, 1 24. ; die, by day, 475. ; 
 dies repeated, 743. 
 differre, construction of, 468. 
 difficile, adverb, 267. and note 2. Diffi- 
 cile est, the indicat. being used for 
 the subjunct., 520. 
 difficilis, with the infinit., the supine, or 
 
 ad, 611. 
 dignari, with the ablat., 467. note. 
 dignus, with the ablat., 467.; with qui 
 and the subjunct., 568. ; with the su- 
 pine, 670. 
 diminutive verbs, 233. ; substantives, 
 240. ; adjectives, 250. ; comparatives, 
 104. note. 
 dis or di, the inseparable preposition, 
 
 330. 
 discemeres, 528. 
 discordari cum aliquo, 469. 
 dissidere, construction of, 413. in fin. 
 dissimilis, construction of, 411. 
 distare, construction of, 468. 
 distinguere, construction of, 468. foil, 
 distributive numerals and their use, 119. 
 diu, 294. 
 diversus with ab, dat. and genit., 468. 
 
 470. 
 divertor, as a deponent, 209. in fin. 
 dives, its declension and comparison, 
 102. note ; its construction, 437. note 2. 
 
588 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 division of words into syllables, 14. 2. 
 docere, construction of, 391. 
 dolere, construction of, 452. 629. 
 dominari, construction of, 413. 
 domus, its declension, 83. ; is construed 
 
 like names of towns, 400. 
 donare, construction of, 418. 
 donee, 350. 575. 
 donicwn, 350. note. 
 doti dico, 422. note, 
 dubitative mood, 530. 
 duhito or non dubito, construction of, 
 
 5^10, 541. ; dubito an, meaning of, 
 
 354. 541. 
 ducere, like habere, with two accusatives, 
 
 394. ; in numero or in loco, 394. note 
 
 3. ; with the genit. 444. ; with the 
 
 dative, 422. 
 dudum, 287. 
 duim for dem, 162. 
 dum, meaning and construction, 350. 
 
 note. 506, 507. 575. ; compounded 
 
 with a negative, 733. 
 dummodo, dummodo ne, its meaning, 342. ; 
 
 construction, 572. in fin. 
 dumtaxat, meaning of, 274. 
 duum, for duorum and duarum, 115. 
 duumviri, is doubtful, 1 24. 
 
 E or ex, meaning of, 309. ; is used in- 
 stead of the genitive, 430. ; cases in 
 which it may be omitted, 468. 
 
 e re publico, for the good of the republic, 
 309. in fin. 
 
 — e, the ancient termination of the dat. 
 of the third declension, 63. 
 
 — e for ei in the fifth declension, 85. 3. 
 
 e, elided in the imperfect of the fourth 
 conjugation, 162. 
 
 ea, quantity of, 16. note 1. 
 
 ecce, compounded with pronouns, 132. 
 in fin. ; with the nominat. and accus., 
 403. 
 
 ecqua and ecquae, 136. note. 
 
 ecquid, meaning of, 351. note. 
 
 ecquis and ecquisnam, meaning of, 136. 
 
 edepol, 361. note. 
 
 edicere ut, 617. 
 
 edim for edam, 162. 
 
 editus, with the ablat., 451. 
 
 edocere, with two accusat., 391. 
 
 efficere ut, 618. 
 
 eficiens, with the genit., 438. note. 
 
 efficitur, with the accus. with the infinit., 
 or ut, 618. note. 
 
 effugere, construction of, 388. 
 
 egere, construction of, 463. 
 
 ei was used anciently instead of «, 2. 
 
 ejus used for suus, 550. ; (quoad) ejus 
 fieri potest, 434. 
 
 — ela, the termination, 237. note. 
 
 elision, 8. 
 
 ellipsis, 758, foil. ; of a preposition, 778. 
 
 emere, construction of, 444. 
 
 en, compounded with pronouns, 132. in 
 fin. ; the interrogative particle, 351. ; 
 the interjection with the nominat., 
 403. 
 
 tu 5id Svo7u, 741. 
 
 — endus and undus, terminations of the 
 part. fut. pass., 167. 
 
 enim and nam, 345. note. 
 
 enimvero, meaning of, 348. note. 
 
 ens, 156. 
 
 — entissimus, termination of certain 
 superlatives, 105. c. 
 
 enunquam, 351. 
 
 — er, in the lengthening of the infinit. 
 pass., 162. 
 
 eo, 344. note ; with comparatives, 487. ; 
 as a conjunction, 444. note ; as an ad- 
 verb of place with the genitive, 434. 
 
 eodem, with the genit., 434. 
 
 epicene (nomina epicoena), 42. 
 
 epistola, with a possessive pronoun, 684. 
 
 epistolary style, requires the perfect and 
 imperfect instead of the present, 503. 
 
 epodus, gender of, 54. in fin. 
 
 eTTOjet and 4irolr]aev, 500. 
 
 equidem, 278. 
 
 — ere instead of erunt, 1 63. 
 
 erga, meaning of, 299. 
 
 ergo, 679, 
 
 — errimus, termination of certain super- 
 latives, 105. 
 
 — e7-unt (3d pers. plur. perf. act,), 
 shortened in poetry, 163. 
 
 esse, joined with adverbs, 365. ; esse a 
 pedibus, ah epistolis, a rationibus, &c,, 
 305. in fin. Esse with the dative, 
 420. 422. ; with the genit. of quality, 
 427. 448. note 1. ; with the dative of 
 the gerund, 664. ; with the genit. of 
 the gerund, 662. ; with the ablat. of 
 quality, 471. 
 
 esse videtur, to be avoided at the end of a 
 sentence, 819. 
 
 esse in the infinit. perf. pass., 592. 
 
 esse, est, ellipsis of, 776. 
 
 est equivalent to licet, 227. 
 
 est, qui, with the subjunct., 561. 
 
 est, quod, with the subjunct,, 562. 
 
 est ut, 621. 752.; equivalent to est cur, 
 562. 
 
 et, whether used for ac, 340. note ; for 
 etiam, 335. ; rarely by Cicero, 698. ; 
 is superfluous, 756. ; ellipsis of, 783. 
 Difference between et and que, 333. 
 
 et~et (que), 337. 809. 
 
 et ipse, for etiam, 698. ; for idem, 697. 
 
 et is (quidem), 699. 
 
 et — neque (nee), 337. 809. 
 
 et non, 334, 781. 
 
 etenim, 345. note. 
 
 etiam, its difference from quoque, 335. ; 
 with comparatives, 486. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 589 
 
 ttiumnunc and ettamtum, difference be- 
 tween, 285. 
 
 etsi, 341. 809. 
 
 — etum, the termination, 243. 
 
 etymology, 23]. 
 
 eu, the diphthong, 1. 
 
 — eus, the termination, 250. 
 
 evadere, construction of, 468. 
 
 evenit tct, 621. 
 
 exaequare, construction of, 389. note 2. 
 
 excedere, with the accusal., 387. 
 
 excellere, construction of, 488. 
 
 excludere, construction of, 468. 
 
 exire, construction of, 468. 
 
 existimare, with two accusat., 394.; is 
 used pleonastically, 750. 
 
 existunt qui, with the subjunct., 561. 
 
 expedire, construction of, 468. 
 
 expedit, with the dative, 412. 
 
 experiens, with the genit, 438. note. 
 
 expers, with the genit., 436, 437. note 2. ; 
 with the ablat., 437. note. 2. 
 
 ex quo (scil. tempore), 309. 478. 763. 
 
 exscissum and excisum, 189. 
 
 extemplo, meaning of, 272. 
 
 extra, meaning of, 300. 
 
 exfremum est ut, 621. 
 
 exuere, construction of, 418. 
 
 exulare, construction of, 468. 
 
 extior, construction of, 458. 
 
 Fahula, ellipsis of, 39. in fin. 
 
 fac (facio), quantity of, 24. Fae form- 
 ing a circumlocution for the impera- 
 tive, 586. ; with the subjunct., 618. 
 624. 
 
 facere de aliquo, aliquo, alicui, and facere 
 cum aliquo, 491. ; facere, with two ac- 
 cusatives, 394. ; with the genitive, 
 444. ; with a participle, 618. 
 
 facere certiorem, construction of, 394. 
 note 1 . 
 
 facere non possum quin, 538. 
 
 facere quod, 628. 
 
 facere Mf, 618, 619. 816. 
 
 facere, ellipsis of, 771. 
 
 facile, adverb, 267. 
 
 facilis and difficilis, with the supine or 
 ad, 671. 
 
 factum, egregie factum, 722. 
 
 faUit me, 390. note. 
 
 familiaris, with the dative and genit., 410. 
 
 familias, the ancient genit., 45. note 1. 
 
 fando audire, 220. 
 
 fas, with the supine in «, 670. 
 
 faxo, faxim, &c., 161. c. 
 
 fearing, verbs of, with Mfand ne, 533. 
 
 fehris, ellipsis of, 763. 
 
 fecundus, with the genit., 436. 
 
 fcr, quantity of, 24. 
 
 ferax, with the genit., 436. 
 
 fere and ferme, their difference from 
 paeue and prope, 279. 
 
 fertilis, with the genit., 436, 437. note 2. 
 fertur, 607. 
 
 fidere, construction of, 413. 452. 
 Jieri and esse, with the genit., 444. 448. 
 fieri non potest ut, 621. ; quin, 538. 
 figures, 821., &c. 
 fiiius and flia, ellipsis of, 761. 
 finitimus, with the dative, 411. 
 fit, construction of, 621. 
 fiagitare, with two accusat., 393. 
 flocci habere, 444. note. 
 florere, with the ablat., 460. 
 foras and foris, 400. in fin. 
 forem, 156. in fin. 224. 
 fore ut, 594. 
 
 forte, fortasse, for sitan, 271. 728. 
 for tuna fortes, 759. 
 
 fortuitus, as a word of three syllables, 11, 
 fractions, how expressed, 120. 
 freni, proved to occur, 99. 
 frequentative verbs, 231. 1. 
 fretus, construction of, 467. 
 frui, construction of, 465, 466. 
 frustra, meaning of, 275. 
 fugere, construction of, 388. ; fugit mc, 
 
 390. note. 
 fuisse instead of esse, with the part. perf. 
 
 pass., 592. 
 fulgurat and fulminat, difference of, 228. 
 fungi, construction of, 465, 466. 
 future tense, its use, 509, 510. 516. ; 
 
 in the sense of the imperat., 586. ; 
 
 future perfect, 511.; future perfect 
 
 with ero and fuero, 168. note. 
 futurum esse ut, 594. 621. 
 fuiurum fuisse ut, 595. 
 
 G, the letter, 4. 
 
 gaudeo, construction of, 629. 
 
 gender, of the predicate, 376. 
 
 genitive, of the subject and object, 423. 
 and note 1 . l"he genitive instead of 
 a noun in apposition, 425. The 
 genit. with adverbs of place, 434. ; 
 with neuters of adjectives, 435. ; 
 with relative adjectives, 436. j with 
 the participle present active, 438. ; 
 with neuters of pronouns, and adjec- 
 tive pronouns, 432. Genitive of qua- 
 lity, 426, 427. Pleonastic genitive in 
 expressions denoting time, 434. in fin. 
 Genitive paraphrased by prepositions, 
 430. ; of value and price, 444, 445. ; 
 of guilt and crime, 446. ; of punish- 
 ment, 447. 
 
 genitive of the gerund, 425. 659. foil. ; 
 joined with the genit. plural of sub- 
 stantives, 661. 
 
 genitive, of the participle fut. passive 
 with esse, 662. 
 
 genitivus partitivus, 429. 431. 
 
 genitive, its position, 791. ; instead of 
 the ablat., 437. 470. ; instead of the 
 
590 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 accusat., 661.; the genit. animi with 
 adjectives, 437. 1. 
 
 genitus, with the ablat. alone, 451. 
 
 gentium, used pleonastically, 434. 
 
 genus, used in circumlocutions, 678. ; 
 (hoc, id, illicd, omne) genus, used ad- 
 verbially, 428. ; genus clari, for genere, 
 in Tacitus, 458. 
 
 gerund, in a passive sense, 658. 
 
 gerundivum, 656. 
 
 gkidiatorihus, in answer to the question, 
 " when?" 475. note. 
 
 gloriari, construction of, 452. 
 
 gnarus, with the genit., 436. 
 
 gradatio, a figure, 822. 
 
 gratia and causa, 679. ; their position, 
 792. 
 
 gratias agere, construction of, 628. 
 
 gratias, 271. 
 
 gratis constat, equivalent to nihilo constat, 
 445. 
 
 gratulari, construction of, 629. 
 
 gratum mihi est, construction of, 626. 
 
 Greek words in pos. Latinized, 52. 1. 
 
 Habere, with two accusat., 394. ; in 
 numero, or in loco, 394. note 3. ; with 
 the genit., 444. ; with the dative, 
 442. ; with the participle perf. pass., 
 634. 
 
 habeo (non habeo) quod, with the sub- 
 junct., 562. ; haheo facere, 562. 653. 
 
 hac, 291. 
 
 hactenus, meaning of, 291. fin. 
 
 haec, instead of hae, 132. 
 
 haud and non, difference between, 277. ; 
 haud scio an, 354. 721 
 
 hei, with the dative, 403. 
 
 heu, with the accusat., 402. 
 
 hexameter, 841. 
 
 hiatus, 8. 10.; within a word, 11. 
 
 hie, meaning of, 127. ; in expressions of 
 time, 479. note ; as an adverb of place 
 with the genit., 434. 
 
 hie — iUe, 700. foil. ; ?iic joined with 
 talis and tanttis, 701. note; hie ethic, 
 hie et ille, 701. 
 
 Jiic, hue, hinc, adverbs of place, 291. 
 
 hinc, 344. note, 291. 
 
 historical infinitive, 582.; historical pe- 
 riod, 817. 
 
 hoc, pleonastic, 748. ; with the genit., 
 432. 
 
 hSc, with comparatives, 487. 
 
 hoc dico, 700. 
 
 homo, homines, ellipsis of, 363. 381. 760. 
 
 honor and honos, 59. 
 
 hortor, construed with ut, 615. 
 
 hortus and horti (hortuli), 96. 
 
 hostis, with the genit. and dative, 410. 
 
 huic, as a monosyllable, 11. 
 
 hue, with the genit., 434. 
 
 hufus non facto, 444. note. 
 
 hypothetical sentences, 519. 524. ; In 
 the infinitive, 593. 595, 596. Hypo- 
 thetical subjunctive, 529. 
 
 / and u, middle sounds, 2. ; i and e for 
 the Greek ei, 1. The letter i, 3. ; x in 
 the genit. singul. instead of t«, 61. 1. ; 
 in the ablative of names of towns, 
 63. in fin., and the note at the foot of 
 page ; i, for ii in the genit. sing, of the 
 second declens., 49. ; in the perfect, 
 160. ; i, instead of ji in the com- 
 pounds of jacere, 183. 
 
 — ia, the termination, 246. 2. 
 
 — ia, quantity of, 16. note 1. 
 
 jam, e. g. nihil jam, 286. 
 
 iambic verse, 835. foil. 
 
 jamdudum, 287. 
 
 jampridem, 287. in fin. 
 
 — ibam, instead of iebam, 1 62. 
 
 — ibo, instead of iam, 162. 
 
 — icio, instead of jicio, in the com- 
 pounds of jacio, 183. in fin. 
 
 — icus, the termination, 250. 2. 
 
 ictus, 828. 
 
 id, with the genit., 432. ; id aetatis, id 
 teynporis, 459. ; id agere vt, 614. ; id 
 quod, instead of quod, 371. 
 
 idem, meaning of, 127. ; with the genit., 
 432. ; instead of et iam and tamen, 127. 
 697. ; idem qui, ac, atque, ut, cum, 704. ; 
 idem with the dative, 704. in fin. 
 
 identidcm, 276. 2. 
 
 idoneus, with qui and the subjunctive, 
 568. ; with the dative of the gerund, 
 664. 
 
 jecur, declension of, 57. 
 
 igitur, 355.; placed first in Cicero, 357.; 
 equivalent to " I say," 739. 
 
 ignarus, with the genitive, 436. 
 
 — He, the termination, 244. 
 
 iidem and iisdem, pronunciation of, 132. 
 note. 
 
 — Xlis, the termination, 249. 3. 
 
 — llis, the termination, 250. 3. 
 
 iliac, 291. 
 
 illacrimare, construction of, 416. 
 
 illaec, instead of illae, 132. 
 
 ille, meaning of, 127. 700. ; in ex- 
 pressions denoting time, 479. ; as a 
 pronoun of the third person, 125. note; 
 the preceding substantive is under- 
 stood, 767 note. Ille and hie, 700. 
 702. ; ille joined with talis and tantus, 
 701 note; ille et ille, 701. note; ille 
 quidem, 744. 
 
 illic, illuc, illinc, 291. 
 
 — illimus, termination of superlatives, 
 105. 6. 
 
 ilh, 291. note. 
 
 illud, with the genit., 432. ; used pleo- 
 nastically, 748. 
 
 illudere, construction of, 417. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 591 
 
 imitari, 388. 
 
 immemor, 436. 
 
 immunis, 437. note 2. 468. 
 
 immo, meaning of, 277. 
 
 impatiens, with the genit., 438. 
 
 impedire, with quominus and ne, 543. c. ; 
 with the infinitive, 544. 
 
 imperare, construction of, 617. 
 
 imperative, 583. ; paraphrased by fac, 
 noli, cave, 586. ; the imperative of 
 direct speech becomes the subjunctive 
 in the oratio obliqua, 603. Use of 
 the imperative future, 584. ; the im- 
 perat. fut. passive has no second 
 person plur., 151. 164. The imperat. 
 perf. passive, 587. 
 
 imperfect of the indicative, 502. ; the 
 imperfect in hypothetical sentences, 
 
 524. ; used instead of the pluperfect, 
 
 525. 528. 
 
 imperfect, of the subjunctive, in doubtful 
 questions, 530. note ; its difference 
 from the perfect of the subjunct., 504. 
 
 imperitus, construction of, 436. 
 
 impersonal verbs, with the accusat., 390. ; 
 with the genit., 441. ; with the ablat, 
 464. ; with the dative, 412. 
 
 impertire, 418. 
 
 impetrare ut, 618. 
 
 implere, 463. 
 
 imponere, 490. 
 
 impos, 436. 
 
 irnpotens, 436. 
 
 imprimere, 416. 
 
 imprimis, meaning of, 273. 
 
 impune, adverb, 267. 
 
 in, meaning of, 314. foil.; with the ac- 
 cusat. instead of the ablat., 316. ; with 
 the ablat. in answer to the question 
 "whither"? 489.; omitted in ex- 
 pressions denoting place, 481, 482. ; 
 in expressions denoting time, 475. ; 
 with names of towns, 398. In ma- 
 nibus esse, habere, 316. ; in dies, with 
 comparatives, 315. 
 
 in, the negative prefix in compounds, 
 328. 
 
 inanis, 437. note 2. 
 
 incassum, meaning of, 275. 
 
 incedere, 387. 
 
 incertum est an, 354. 
 
 inchoatives, 234. ; list of them, 204. foil. 
 
 incidit ut, 621. 
 
 incommodure, 412. 
 
 increpare, 446. 
 
 incumbere, 415, 416. 
 
 incuriosus, with the genit., 436. 
 
 incusare, 446. 
 
 inde, 344. note. 
 
 indicative, in sentences of a condicio 
 imperfecta, 518, 519. 6. 520, 521, 
 522.; in inserted clauses, 516.; as a 
 circumlocution, 547, 548. 
 
 indiyere, 463. 
 
 indignari, 629. 
 
 indignus qui, with the subjunct., 568. ; 
 indignus with the ablative, 467. 
 
 indirect speech, 545. foil., 603. 
 
 induere, 418. 
 
 inesse, 415, 416. 
 
 infamare, 446. 
 
 infinitive perfect, instead of the infinit. 
 present, 590. 611. ; infinit. future 
 with verbs of promising and hoping, 
 605.; infinit. future, paraphrased; the 
 historical infinit., 599. note ; the in- 
 finit. as the subject, 597, 598. ; as the 
 object, 597. ; as the predicate, 600. 
 note. The infinit. with relative ad- 
 jectives is poetical, 598. 659. in fin. ; 
 the infinit. instead of the genit. of the 
 gerund, 659. ; instead of ut w^ith the 
 subjunct., 616. 
 
 infinitum est, the indicat. instead of the 
 subjunct., 520. 
 
 infra, meaning of, 300. 
 
 inimicitiae, a plurale tantum, 94. 
 
 inimicus, with the dative and genit., 410. 
 
 initio, at first, without a preposit., 495. 
 
 innitor, 452. 
 
 inquam, " I say," 739. 
 
 inquit, ellipsis of, 772. ; its position, 
 802. 
 
 insatiabilis, with the genit. , 436. 
 
 iyiscius, with the genit., 436. 
 
 inscribere, 416. 490. 
 
 insculpere, 490. 
 
 inserere, 490. 
 
 insimulare, 446. 
 
 insolens, 436. 
 
 insolitus, 436. 
 
 inspergere, 418. 
 
 instar, 89. 
 
 instituo, 615. 
 
 insuesco, 416. 
 
 insuetus, with the genit., 436. 
 
 insumere, with the dat. of the gerund, 
 664. 
 
 integrum est ut, 623. 
 
 intentum esse, with the dative of the 
 gerund, 664. 
 
 inter, meaning of, 300. ; with the gerund, 
 666. ; instead of the genit., 430. ; re- 
 petition of, 745. 
 
 intercedere, with quominus and ne, 543. 
 
 intercludere, 418. 
 
 interdicere, 418. 469. 
 
 interdiu, 475. 
 
 intered, 270. 
 
 interea loci, 434. 
 
 interesse, construction of, 415. 449. 745. 
 
 interjections, 359. foil. ; construction of, 
 403. 
 
 interrogare, with two accusat., 393.; 
 with the genit., 446. 
 
 interrogative particles, .351. note. In- 
 
592 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 terrogative sentences, .'552, 553, 554. ; 
 in the accusat. with the infinit., 603. 
 
 intra, meaning of, 300. 
 
 intransitive verbs used in a transitive 
 sense, and governing the accusat., 
 383. ; with the dative, 412. 
 
 invadere, 387. 
 
 invenire, with two accusat., 394. 
 
 inveniuntur qui, with the subjunct., 561. 
 
 inventum, as a substant. joined with an 
 adverb, 722. 
 
 invidere, 412, 413. 
 
 invidendus, as an adjective, 657. 
 
 — inus, the termination, 252. 
 
 inutilis, 409. ; with the dative of the 
 gerund, 664, 
 
 — is, the termination, 237. 
 
 Ionic verse, 852. foil. 
 
 ipse, meaning of, 125. note, 695. 702. ; 
 used as the subject, 696. ; with pos- 
 sessive pronouns, 696. note ; in the 
 oblique cases, 702. Ipswn joined to 
 an infinitive, 598. ; to nunc and turn, 
 270. ; et ipse, instead of etiam, 698. 
 
 irasci, with the dative, 412. ; its perfect 
 succensui, 209. 
 
 ire, with the supine, 669. 
 
 irony, implied in certain particles, 345. 
 note, 526. 
 
 is, meaning of, 127. ; at the beginning 
 of a sentence, 699. ; instead of the 
 reflective pronoun, 604. ; ellipsis of, 
 765, 766. ; used pleonastically with 
 quidem, 744. ; isque, et is (quidem), 
 699. ; is — qui, 556. 704. 
 
 IS (eis), in the accusat. plur. instead of 
 es, 68. note. 
 
 — is, dropped in the preterite tenses, 
 161. 
 ' islands, names of, construction of, 398. 
 note 1. 
 
 istac, 291. 
 
 iste, meaning of, 127. 701. ; iste joined 
 with talis and tantus, 701. note. 
 
 istic, istuc, istinc, adverbs of place, 291. 
 
 isto, as an adverb, 291. note. 
 
 istud, with the genitive, 432. 
 
 ita, 28 1. 726. ; used pleonastically, 748. ; 
 ita ut, 726. 
 
 itaque, 344. note ; its position, 355. ; 
 comp. 739. 
 
 — ttas, the termination, 246. 
 
 iterum, 123. 
 
 itinere without the preposit. in, 482. 
 
 juheor facere, vetor, 607. 
 
 jubere, construction of, 412. ; with the 
 accus. with the infinit. &c., 617. 
 
 jucundus, with the supine, infinit., or ad, 
 671. 
 
 judicare, with two accusat., 394. ; with 
 the genit. of a crime, 446. 
 
 jugerum, declension of, 97. ; its meaning, 
 875. 
 
 — ium, derivative termination, 241. 
 
 — ium, in the genit. plur. of the third 
 
 declens., 66. 
 junctus, with the ablat. alone, 474. 
 Juppiter, declension of, 69. 
 — ius, quantity of, 16. ; termination, 
 
 251. 6 
 juratus, with an active meaning, 1 23. 
 juris (e) consultus, 437. note 2. 
 justum erat, tlie indicat. instead of the 
 
 subjunct., 518. 
 juvare, 388. ; juvat me, 390. note. 
 juxta, as an adverb, 323. ; juxta ae 
 
 (atque), 340. note. 
 
 K, the letter, 5. 
 
 Laborare, 452. 
 
 laetari, with the ablat. , 452. 
 
 latet me and mihi, 390. note. 
 
 lavere, instead o( lavare, 171. 
 
 lanrus, declension of, 97. 
 
 laxare, 468. 
 
 legatus, joined with the genit. and dative, 
 681. 
 
 lege, 472. note 1. 
 
 legem dare, construction of, 617. 
 
 — lentus, the termination, 252. 10. 
 
 levare, 468. 
 
 liberare, with the genit., 446. ; with the 
 ablat. alone or with ah, 468. 
 
 liber, 468. 
 
 licere, with the genit., 444. 
 
 licet, construed as a conjunction, 574. ; 
 licet esse, with the accus. and the 
 dative, 601.; with the infinit. act. 
 and pass., 608. ; with the subjunct., 
 624. ; licet, the indicat. instead of the 
 subjunct., 518. ; used pleonastically, 
 750. 
 
 litterae, orthography of, 12.; with dis- 
 tributive numerals, 119.; w ith pos- 
 sessive pronouns, 684. 
 
 locare, with the genit., 444. ; with in 
 and the ablat., 489. ; with the par- 
 ticiple fut. pass., 653. 
 
 loci, locorum, 434. ; loci and loca, dif- ■ 
 ference between, 99. 
 
 loco and locis, without the prepos. in, 
 481. 
 
 locus, in apposition to names of towns, 
 399. 
 
 logaoedic verse, 858. 
 
 long syllables, 15. ; long vowels, 16 
 note 1. ; in certain words, 17. 
 
 longe, with comparatives and super- 
 latives, 108. 
 
 longus, with the accusat., 395. 
 
 longum est, the indicat. instead of the 
 subjunct., 520. 
 
 luci, in the phrase cum 'prima luci, 78. 
 note. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 593 
 
 ludere, transitive and intransitive, S83. 
 ludis, in answer to the question " vv^hen"? 
 
 475. note. 
 — lusy la, lum, the termination, 240. 
 
 Mactare, 418. 
 
 made, 103., and macti, 453. 
 
 magis, used in circumlocutions, 106. 114. 
 
 690. ; pleonastically, 747. 
 magnam, maximam partem, 459. 
 magni, parvi, &c., ^vith the verbs of es- 
 timating, 444, 445. 
 magna, parvo, &c., with the verbs of 
 
 buying, 445. 
 maledicere, 412. 
 
 malim, with the subjunct., 624. 
 mnUe, construction of, 488. 
 malltm, meaning of, 528. 
 mandare, 617. 
 mawe, 89. 270. 
 
 mxinere, with the accusat., 383. 
 manifestus, with the genit., 446. note. 
 mare, ellipsis of, 763. 
 mc, before the names of gods, 361. note. 
 medeii, with the dative, 412. 
 medicari and medicare, construction of, 
 
 413. 
 mcditari ut, 614. 
 viediusfidius, 361. note. 
 mehercnle, 361. note. 
 melius erat, the indicat. instead of the 
 
 subjunct., 518, 
 melos, melus, and melum, 89. 
 memini, construction of, 439, 440. , with 
 
 the infinit. present, 589. 
 memor, 436. 
 
 — men, the termination, 238. 
 in mentem venit, construction of, 439, 
 
 440. 
 — mentum, the termination, 238.' 
 — met, the suffix, 131. 139. 
 metuens, with the genit., 438. 
 metuere, construction of, 414. 533. 
 meum est, 448. 
 mi, for mihi, 131. 
 
 mihi crede, instead o£ profecto, 801. 
 mile, Roman, 875. 
 miles, instead of tnilites, 364. 
 militia, construed like the names of 
 
 towns, 400. 
 military expressions without the prepos. 
 
 cum, 473. 
 mille and milia, 1 1 6, 
 
 millies, in the sense of " very often," 692. 
 million, how expressed, 115. 
 minimum, with the genit., 432. 
 ministrare, construction of, 412. 653. 
 minus, with the genit., 432. ; instead of 
 
 non, 731. ; without quam, 397. 485. 
 miror, 629. 
 miserari, 442. 
 miserescere and misereri, 442. 
 
 miseret, 390. 441. 
 
 mittere, with the particip. fut. pass., 
 653. ; with the particip. fut. act., 668. 
 
 mode of an action, 271. 
 
 moderari, 414. 
 
 tnodi, joined with a pronoun, supplies 
 the place of a pronoun of quality, 678. 
 
 modo, 472. note 1. 
 
 modo — modo, 723. 
 
 modo non, i. e. " nearly," 729. 
 
 modo ne, 572. 
 
 modus, used in circumlocutions, 678. 
 
 monere, with ut, or the accus. with the 
 infinit., 615. 
 
 mora, in verse, 826. 
 
 mos or moris est, construction of, 622. 
 
 mover e, as an intransitive verb, 145. 
 
 mox, meaning of, 287. 
 
 multi et, 756. 
 
 muito, with superlatives, 108. ; with com- 
 paratives, 487. 
 
 multum, with the genit., 432. 
 
 multus and plurimus, the singul. instead 
 of the plural, 109. 
 
 muta cum liquida, 31. 
 
 mutare and commutare, construction of, 
 456. 
 
 mutuo, 264. 
 
 Nae, 360. note. 
 
 nam and enim, 345. note ; nam, namque, 
 
 345. note, 739. 808. note, 
 names in ius used as adjectives, 254. 
 nascitur, 615. 
 natu, 90. 670. 
 natura fert, ui, 622. in fin. 
 natus, " old," with the accus., 397. ; with 
 
 the ablat., 451. 
 nauci habere, 444. note. 
 ne, inseparable particle, 330. in fin. 
 ne, 24. note, 347. 532. 573. 
 ne, the interrogative particle, 352. 5.'"'4. ; 
 
 with the accus. with the infinit., 609. 
 ne—ne, a poetical and unclassical form 
 
 of a question, 454. 
 ne aliquid, 708. ; tie multa, ne multis, ne 
 
 plura, 769. ; ne non, 535. ; after vide, 
 
 754. note. 
 ne, with the subjunct. instead of the im- 
 
 perat., 529. note. 
 ne, with the imperative, in Plant us and 
 
 Terence, 585. 
 nee — Tiec, with the singular, 374. 
 nee, instead of we — quidem, 277. 
 nee, instead o( neu, 535. in fin. 
 ■wee ipse, 698. 
 nee is, 699. 
 necne, 554. ^ 
 wee non, 334. 
 
 necesse, 103. in fin. ; necesse est, con- 
 struction of, 625. ; with the infinit. 
 
 act. and pass., 608. 
 Q Q 
 
594 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 necesse fuit, the indicat. instead of the 
 subjunct., 519. 
 
 nedum, with the subjunct., 573. 724. a. 
 
 nefas, with the supine in «, 670. 
 
 negatives, doubled, 337. ; instead of an 
 affirmative expression, 754. foil. ; 
 joined with a conjunction, 738. 
 
 neffUfferis, with the genit., 438. 
 
 neffo, instead of non dico, 799. 
 
 negotium, ellipsis of, 448. 
 
 nemo and nullus, 88. 676. ; nemo est qui, 
 with the subj. 561. ; nemo non, 755, 
 
 nempe, meaning of, 278. 345. note. 
 
 nequa and nequae, 137. note. 
 
 nequaquam, 289. 
 
 neque and et non, 334. 
 
 neque, instead of et ne, 535. 
 
 neque — neque, or nee — nee, neque — nee, 
 Jiec — neque, 338. 
 
 tieque enim, neque vero, neque tamen, 808. 
 
 neque (nee) — et (que), 338. 
 
 neqtie non, 754. 
 
 neque quisquam, ullus, unquani, &c., 738. 
 
 nequicquam, meaning of, 275. 
 
 ne—quidem, 277. ; its position, 801. 
 
 ne quis, 137. 709. 738. 
 
 nescio an, meaning of, 354. 721. ; nescio 
 an nullus, nunquam, 721. ; nescio quis, 
 equivalent to aliquis, 553. in fin. 
 
 nescius, with the genit., 4'56. 
 
 7ieve, 347. 535. 585. 
 
 neuter, pronunciation of, 1. ; difference 
 between neuter and ulhis, 431. 
 
 neuters of adjectives, used as adverbs, 
 267. ; as substantives with a genit., 
 435. ; neuters of pronouns with in- 
 transitive verbs, 385. ; neuters of pro- 
 nouns, used as substant. with a genit., 
 432, 433. ; used as substantives, 368. ; 
 the neuters of possessive pronouns 
 used instead of the genit. of personal 
 pronouns, 448, 449. 
 
 neutral ia passiva, 148. 
 
 ni, use of, 343. 
 
 nihil, with the genit., 432. ; instead of 
 non, 677. ; nihil aliud quam,7S5. 771. 
 nihil est quod, with the subjunct., 562, 
 nihili facio, 4i4. note; nihil non, 755. 
 nihilo secius, 283. 
 
 nimirum, 271. 345. note. 
 
 nisi and si non, 343. ; nisi, with the in- 
 dicat., 526. ; nisi, " except," 7. '52. h. 
 735. ; nisi forte, with the indicat., 
 526. ; nisi quod, 627. ; nisi vero, with 
 the indicat., 526. 
 
 node, noctu, 475. 
 
 ytoli, used in paraphrasing the imperat., 
 586. 
 
 nolim, with the subjunct., 624. 
 
 nollem, meaning of, 528. 
 
 nomen est, construction of, 421 . 
 
 nominare, with two accusatives, 394. 
 
 nominative, with the infinit., in the case 
 of the passive verbs of thinking and 
 declaring, 607. ; with the active of the 
 same, 612. Import of the nominative, 
 379. ; nominative instead of the voca- 
 tive, 492. 
 
 nomine, 679. 
 
 non, followed by a negative, 754. in fin. ; 
 non without a conjunction, 781. ; its 
 position, 799. ; non with the impera- 
 tive, 585. note ; difference between 
 non and haud, 277. 
 
 nondum, necdum, &c. 733. 
 
 non est quod, with the subjunct., 562. 
 
 non ita, non item, 730. 
 
 non magis — quam, 725. 809. 
 
 non minus — quam, 725. 
 
 non modo — sed (verum), equivalent to non 
 dicam — sed, 724. 809. 
 
 non modo, instead of non modo non, 724. 
 b. 
 
 nonne, 352. 
 
 non nemo, nihil, nullum, nunquam, 755. 
 
 nonnihil, 677. 
 
 non nisi, " only," 755. ; its position, 801. 
 
 7ton possum non, 754. 
 
 non quo (quod, quin), 536, 537. 572. 
 
 non quia non, instead of non quin, 537. 
 
 non tarn — quam, 724. 
 
 nos, instead of ego, and noster instead of 
 mens, 694. 
 
 nostri and nostrum, difference between, 
 431. 694. 
 
 not, expressed by parum, minus, 731. ; 
 by non item, 730. 6. 
 
 not, how expressed with an imperat., 
 585. 
 
 not only — but (also), expressed by non 
 solum — sed etiam, 724. ; sed et, 335. 
 
 noun, placed in the dependent clause, 
 814. ; proper nouns used as adjectives, 
 258. 
 
 novum est ut, 523. 
 
 noxius, with the genit., 446. note ; witli 
 the dative of the gerund, 664. 
 
 nubere, with the dative, 406. 
 
 nubilo, 646. 
 
 nudius tertius, 270. 
 
 nullius and nullo, instead of neminis and 
 nemine, 676. 
 
 nidlus and neuter, difference between, 
 431. ; nullus est qui, with the subjunct., 
 561 . ; nullus, 676. ; used for non, 688. ; 
 nidlus non, 755. ; nullus dubito, 688. 
 in fin. 
 
 num, meaning of, 351. note; is not used 
 in double questions, 554. ; num — num, 
 in poetical and unclassical forms of a 
 question, 454. in fin. 
 
 number, of the verb when belonging to 
 several subjects, 373, 374. ; when they 
 are connected by cum, 375. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 595 
 
 numerals, with the genitive, 429. 
 
 Humerus, oratorical, 818. ; poetical, 827. 
 
 numqua and numquae, 137. 
 
 numquid, 351. note. 
 
 nuncupare, with two accusat., 394. 
 
 nunc — nunc, 723. ; nunc and tunc, 732. 
 
 nunquam non, T55. 
 
 nuntiatur, like dicitur, with the norainat. 
 
 and the infinit. 607. 
 nuper, 287. 
 nuspiam, 284. 
 nusquam, 433. 
 
 O, instead of u after », 2. ; instead of 
 mi, 2. 
 
 o, the termination of verbs, its quantity, 
 26. note. 
 
 o, with the accusat., 402. ; with tlie 
 vocat., 492. 
 
 o si, with the subjunct., 571. 
 
 oh, meaning of, 300. 
 
 ohire, 387 
 
 chlivisd, 439. 
 
 obruo, 460. 
 
 obsequi, 388. note 1. 
 
 obstare, with quorninus and «e, 543. 
 
 obtrectare, 412, 413. 
 
 obumbrare, 417. 
 
 occumbere, 387. 
 
 occurrit, ut, 621. a. 
 
 oe, the diphthong, 2. 
 
 Oedipus, declension of, 59. 
 
 officere, with quominus and «e, 543. 
 
 o/ere, 383. 
 
 oZ/i, o//a (from oZ/ms, i, e. tZZe), 132. note. 
 
 omnino, 266. note 2. 
 
 omnium, with superlatives, 691. 
 
 — on, termination of the genit. plur.,73. 6. 
 
 opera med, equivalent to per me, 455. 
 note. 
 
 operam dare, ut, 614. a. 
 
 oportehat, oportuit, the indicat. instead of 
 the subjunct, 518. 
 
 oportet, construction of, 600. 625. 
 
 oppetere mortem, 387. 
 
 oppido, 107. note, 266. note 2. 
 
 oppidum, in apposition to names of towns, 
 399. 
 
 oppleo, 460. 
 
 optabilius erat, the indicat. for the sub- 
 junct. 518. 
 
 optare, 610. 613. 
 
 opus, with the supine in u, 670. ; opus est, 
 construction of, 464. 625. ; with the 
 infinit. active and passive, 608. 
 
 — or, the termination, 236. 
 
 oratio obliqua, 603. 
 
 orbare, 460. 
 
 orbus, 462. 
 
 ordine, 472. note 1. 
 
 ordo, ellipsis of, 763. 
 
 oriundus, meaning of, 210, 
 
 oro, construction of, 393. 615. ; ellipsis 
 
 of, 773. 
 orthography, 12. 
 ortus, with the ablat. alone, 451. ; ortug 
 
 ah aliquo, 451. note. 
 — osus, the termination, 252. 9. 
 
 Paene and prope, differ from fere and 
 ferme, 279. 
 
 palam, 321. 
 
 par ac, 340. note. 
 
 par erat, the indicat. for the subjunct., 
 518. 
 
 parare, with the infinit. and ut, 61 1 . 
 
 parcere, 194. ; with the dative, 412. 
 
 pariter ac, 340. note. 
 
 pars, its use in fractional numerals, 1 20. ; 
 ellipsis of, 763. ; pars — pars with the 
 plural, 367. 
 
 particeps, with the genit., 436. 
 
 participles, with the genit., 438. ; used 
 in paraphrases, 454. 718. 
 
 participle perf. pass., used in circumlo- 
 cution for the ablat. denoting cause, 
 454. 719. ; denoting a permanent con- 
 dition, 495. 
 
 participle fut. pass., its signification, 
 499. 631. 649. ; in the infinit., 596. 
 
 participle perfect of deponents, in a pas- 
 sive sense, 632. 
 
 participle, used for the infinit., 636. ; for 
 a substantive, 637. 
 
 participle fut. act,, its genit. not in use, 
 its plural, 639. ; in the infinit, 593. 
 
 participle perf. pass., used alone as an 
 ablat. absolute, 647. 
 
 participle perfect, of both passives and 
 deponents, denoting merely priority, 
 635. 
 
 participle fut. pass., 631. 649. foil. ; with 
 the indicat, 518. ; comp. 650. 
 
 participle pres. act,, with a genit., 438. 
 714. 
 
 partim, 271. 723. 
 
 parum, with the genit., 432. ; in the 
 sense of " not enough," 731 . 
 
 parumper, 276. 
 
 parvi, see magni, 
 
 parvo, see magna. 
 
 passive verbs, with a reflective meaning, 
 146. ; with the accusat, 391. note. 
 
 passive construction, in the accusat. with 
 the infinit., 606. 
 
 pathetic word, 789. 
 
 patiens, 438. 
 
 patior, 613. 
 
 patrocinari, with the dative, 412. 
 
 patronymics, 245. 
 
 paulisper, 276. 
 
 paulo and aliquanto, diSerence between, 
 488. 
 
 peculiaris, 411. 
 
 QQ 2 
 
596 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 pecuniae, ellipsis of, 763. 
 
 pejor and deterior, difference between, 
 HI. note. 
 
 pel/ere, 468. 
 
 pendere, with the genit., 444. 
 
 penes, meaning of, 300. 
 
 pensi and pili habere, 444. note. . 
 
 pentameter verse, 846. 
 
 penus, penum, 84. 
 
 — per, the suffix, 276. 
 
 per, meaning of, 301.; used to denote 
 the means, 455. ; in adjurations, 794. 
 
 per and prae, strengthen the meaning of 
 adjectives, 107. 
 
 percontari, 393. 
 
 perditum ire, for perdere, 669 . 
 
 perduhn, for perdam, 162. 
 
 perfect, used as an aorist, 513. foil. ; per- 
 fect indicat., 500. ; perfect subjunct., 
 equivalent to the present, 527. 
 
 perficere ut, 618. 
 
 perinde and proinde, 282. ; perinde ac 
 {atque), 340. note. 
 
 period, 810.; its structure, 810, foil. 
 
 periodus ixovdKcaKos, 810. 
 
 perifus, 436. 
 
 permittere, with the infinit. or ut, 613. ; 
 with the subjunct. alone, 624. ; with 
 the participle fut. pass., 653. 
 
 Perseus, declension of, 52. 4. 
 
 persuadere, 407. ; with ut, or the accusat. 
 with the infinit., 615. ; persuasum mihi 
 haheo, 634. 
 
 pertaesus, construction of, 442. 633. 
 
 pertinere, ellipsis of, 770. 
 
 petere, construction of, 393. ; with ut, 
 615. 
 
 phalaecian verse, 860. 
 
 piget, construction of, 390. 441. 
 
 plane, 263. in fin. 
 
 plenus, with the genit., 437. 2. 
 
 pleonasm, 742. foil. ; in quoting the 
 words of another person, 749. ; in cer- 
 tain verbs, 750. 
 
 plerique and plurimi, difference between, 
 109. note. 
 
 plerumque, 266. 
 
 pluperfect, in English and Latin, 505. ; 
 how used by historians, 508. 
 
 plural, of verbs with collective nouns, 
 366. ; the plural of abstract nouns, 
 92. ; the plural of pronouns instead 
 of the singular, 694. ; in praenomens 
 and cognomens common to several 
 persons, 785. 
 
 pluralia tantum, 93. 
 
 plurimi and plerique, difference between, 
 109. note; plurimi, 444. 
 
 plurimo, 445. 
 
 plurimum, with the genit., 432. 
 
 plus, with the genit., 432. ; rarL-ly used 
 for magis, 725. ; non plus for non ma- 
 gis, 725. ; plus without quam, 485. 
 
 poenitendus, used as an adjective, 657. 
 
 poenitet, construction of, 390. 441, 442. 
 
 poetical arrangement of words, 795. 
 
 polleo, 460- 
 
 pondo Uhram, lihras, 428. 
 
 pondo, 87. 
 
 pone, 302. 
 
 ponere, 489. 
 
 pdno, posui, positum, 18. 3. 
 
 porro, meaning of, 289. 348. note. 
 
 poscere, construction of, 393. ; with ut 
 
 or the accus. with the infinit., 613. ; 
 
 with the subjunct. alone, 624. 
 position, 30, 31. 
 
 possessive pronouns, ellipsis of, 768. 
 possum, for possem, 520. 
 post, with the ablat., 476. ; with the 
 
 accusat., 477, 478. 
 postea, 276. in fin. ; postea loci, 434. 
 posterior and postremus, for posterius and 
 
 postremum, 686. 
 postquam and posteaquarn, with the per- 
 fect indicat., 506. ; with the imperfect 
 
 or pluperfect, 507. 
 postulare, construction of, 393. 613. ; 
 
 with the genit, 446. 
 potens, with tlie genit., 436. 
 poterat, the indicat. for the subjunct., 
 
 518. 
 potiri, 465, 466_. 
 potius, used pleonastically, 747. ; ellipsis 
 
 of, 779. 
 si potuero, 510. 
 
 potus, pransus, in an active sense, 633. 
 prae, meaning of, 107. 310. 
 praehere, with two accusat., 394. 
 praecedere, 387. 
 praecipue, 273. 
 
 praeditus, 460. ; ellipsis of, 471. note. 
 praeesse, 415. 
 , praefectus, with the genit. and dative, 
 
 681. 
 praescribere, 617. 
 
 praesente and praesenti, difference be- 
 tween, 64. note 1. 
 praesertim, meaning of, 273. 
 praestare, with the dative, 387. ; with 
 
 two accusat., 394.; with the ablat., 
 
 488. 
 praestolari, 207. 413. 
 praeter, meaning of, 302. ; used as an 
 
 adverb, 323. ; praeter modum, 302. 
 praetered, 270. 
 praeterquam quod, 627. 735. 
 praeterit me, 390. note. 
 praevertor, deponent, 209. ; construction 
 
 of, 417. 
 precari, 615. 
 
 prece, defective in the singular, 89. 
 predicate, 365. ; its number, 373. ; its 
 
 gender, 376. 
 prepositions, put after their case, 324. ; 
 
 inseparable prepositions, 330. ; pre- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 597 
 
 positions used as adverbs, 323. ; in I 
 composition with other words, 325. ; 
 their position, 324. 794. ; expressed 
 by participles, 454. ; repeated, 745. ; 
 ellipsis of prepositions, 778. 
 present tense, used for the future, 510. 
 
 as an historical tense, 501. 
 pretii and pretio, ellipsis of, 445. 
 prior and primus, for prius and primum, 
 
 686. 
 prizes, used pleonastically, 747. in fin. 
 priusquam, 576. 
 pro, meaning of, 311. ; pro nihilo habere, 
 
 444. note. 
 pro eo and proinde ac, 340. note. 
 pro se quisque, 312. ; with the plural of 
 
 the verb, 367. 
 probure aJicui, meaning of, 419. note. 
 procvl, 321. 
 profecto, '266. note 2. 
 prohibere, construction of, 468. ; with 
 quominus and ne, 543. ; with the in- 
 finit., 544. ; especially in the passive, 
 607. 
 proin, makes one syllable, 11. 
 proinde, 282. 344. note, 
 pronoun, relative, in the gender and 
 number of the noun following, 372. ; 
 attracts the noun of the leading sen- 
 tence, 814. Personal pronouns, how 
 their genit. arose, 660. ; with the ac- 
 cusat. with the infinit., 604. ; use, 
 693. Possessive pronouns, omitted, 
 768. ; used for the personal ones with 
 a preposition, 424. 684. 
 pronominal relations, expressed by 
 
 special sentences, 715. 
 prope, 267. note 1., 323. ; its construc- 
 tion, 411. ; prope and propter, 802. 
 propemodum, 279. 
 propinquus, with the dative, 411. 
 proprium, ellipsis of, 448. 
 proprius, construction of, 411. 
 propter, meaning of, 302. ; used as an 
 
 adverb, 265. note 1. 323. 
 prospicere, 414. 
 prostare, 444. 
 proverbs, elliptical expressions in, 759. 
 
 776. 
 protinus, meaning of, 272. 
 providere, construction of, 414. 
 providus, with the genit., 436. 
 prudens, with the genit., 436. 
 —pse, the suffix, 132. in fin. 
 — pte, appended to suo, sua, 139. note. 
 pudendus, used as an adjective, 657. 
 pudet, construction of, 390. 441. 443. 
 pugnu, for in pugna, SI 5. note. 
 pugnam pugnare, 384. 
 punior, a deponent, 206. in fin. 
 purgare, with the genit., 446. 
 purus, construction of, 468. 
 putare, with two accusatives, 394. ; with 
 
 the genit., 444. ; used pleonastically, 
 750. 
 pviares, 528. 
 
 Qu,5. 31. 106, note. 
 
 qua, as a correlative, 288. 
 
 qvxt — qua, 723. 
 
 quaero, construction of, 393. 
 
 quaeso, 223. ; with the accusal,, 393. 
 
 qualis, 165. note. 
 
 qualisqu^is, 128. i 
 
 qualis — talis, 704. } 
 
 quam and ac, 340. ; quam, with com- 
 paratives, 483, 484. ; ellipsis of, 485. ; 
 with superlatives, 108. 689. ; quam or 
 quum and ex quo after ante and post, 
 478. ; quam est {erat), ellipsis of, 484. 
 in fin. ; quam, with the subjunctive 
 after comparatives, 560. note ; quam, 
 proy with comparatives, 484. in fin. ; 
 quam qui, with comparatives, 560. ; 
 with superlatives, 774. note. 
 
 quamquam, peculiar xise of, 341. note; 
 construction of, 574. 
 
 quamvis, construction of, 574. 
 
 quando, quandoquidem, meaning of, 346. 
 
 quantity, 15. foil. ; of derivative words, 
 17. 1. ; of Greek words, 16. note t.; 
 of derivative syllables, 20. 
 
 quanta, with comparatives, 487. 
 
 quantuluscunque, with the indicat., 521. 
 
 quantum, with the genit., 432. 
 
 quantum possum, the indicat,, 559. 
 
 quantus, for quam with posse with super- 
 latives, 689. ; quantus — tantus, 704. ; 
 quantuscunque, with the indicat., 521. 
 
 quasi, adverb, 282. ; with the subjunct., 
 572. ; quasi and quasi vero, used in an 
 ironical sense, 572. 716. 
 
 que, its generalising character when ap- 
 pended to pronouns and adverbs, 
 288. ; its position, 358. ; used pleo- 
 nastically, 807. ; is lengthened " in 
 verse by the arsis, 828. in fin. ; differ- 
 ence between qu£ and et, 333. ; que — 
 et, que — que, 338. 
 
 queo and nequeo, 261. 
 
 qui, the ablat., 133. note; quicum for 
 quocum and quacum, 133. note, comp. 
 561. in fin. 
 
 qui, for quis, 1 34. ; diflference between 
 qui and quis, 134. note. 
 
 qui, with the subjunct., 556. foil., 559. ; 
 with esse and a substantive instead of 
 quo, 705. ; qui vero, qui autem, 805. 
 
 quia, meaning of, 346. 
 
 qrdcunque and quisquis, difference be- 
 tween, 128. ; quicunque, with the in- 
 dicat., 521. ; instead of omnis and 
 quivis, 706. 
 quid, with the genit., 432. ; in the sense 
 of cur, 677. 711.; quid and aliquid, 
 708. ; quid aliud quam, 771. ; quid est 
 
598 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 quod, with the subjunct., 562, ; quid 
 mihi cum hac re? 770.; quid? quid 
 censes ? 769. ; quid ergo ? quid enim ? 
 quid ita ? quid turn ? quid quod ? quid 
 tntdta ? quid plura ? 769. 
 quidam, meaning of, 1 29. 707. 
 
 quidem, its meaning and position, 278. 
 355. 801. 
 
 quidquam or quicquam, 137. ; used as an 
 adverb, 677. 
 
 quidquid, with the genit., 432. 
 
 quilibet, quivis, 137. ; use of, 710. 
 
 quii}, 538. foil. ; with the indicat., 542. ; 
 with the imperative, 542. ; non quin, 
 536. ; quin in the sense of even or 
 rather, 542. in fin. ; instead of quod 
 non (accus.), 539. ; instead of quo non, 
 after dies, 539. ; after dubito, 540. 
 
 quippe, 346. ; quippe qui, 565. 
 
 quippiam and. quidquam, with the genit. , 
 432. 
 
 quis (queis), for quihus, 133. note. 
 
 quis and qui, difference between, 134. 
 note; between quisnam and quhiam, 
 134.; quis and uter, 431.; quis and 
 aliquis, 136. 708. ; quis est qui, with 
 the subjunct., 561. 
 
 quispiam, quisquam, and aliquis, 129. 
 708, in fin. 
 
 quisquam, 129. 676. 709. 
 
 quisque, as a relative, 710. ; joined with 
 the superlative, 710. b. ; position, 
 800. ; pro se quisque, 367. 
 
 quisquis, quicunque, difference between, 
 128. 706, ; quisquis, with the indicat., 
 521. 
 
 quo, the correlative, 288. ; with a com- 
 parative, 487. ; for ut eo, 536. ; with 
 the genit., 434. ; quo magis — eo magis, 
 690. note; quo mihi hanc rem ? 770.; 
 quo secius, 544. 
 
 quoad, meaning and construction of, 
 575. 
 
 quocum, quacum, quihuscum, instead of 
 cum quo, qua, Sec, 324. in fin. 
 
 quod, a conjunct, expressing cause, 346. ; 
 with the subjunct. of dicere, putare, 
 551. ; in a limiting sense, quod sciam, 
 quod intelligam, 559. ; quod in the 
 sense of " in regard to," 627. ; quod is 
 unclassical in a purely objective pro- 
 position, 629. 
 
 quod, with the genit., 432. ; prefixed to 
 conjunctions, quodsi, quodnisi, &c., 
 342. note, 807. 
 
 quominus, 543. 
 
 quoniam, meaning of, 346. 
 
 quopiam, 288. 
 
 quoquam, 288. 
 
 quoque and etiam, difference between, 
 335. ; its position, 355. 
 
 quotquot, 1 28. ; construed with the in- 
 dicat., 521. 
 
 quot — tot, 130. 
 
 quotusquisque, 710. ; quotusquisque est 
 qui, with the subjunct., 561. 
 
 quum and cum, 5. 
 
 quum, the chief rule concerning it, 579. 
 in fin. ; construed with the indicat. 
 and subjunct., 577, 578. foil. ; with 
 the present indicat., 580. ; with the 
 perfect, 581.; with the historical in- 
 finit., 522. ; in lively descriptions, 
 580. ; difference between quum and 
 si, 579. note ; quum primum, with the 
 perfect indicat. , 506. ; quum— turn, 
 . 723. 809. 
 
 quummaxime and tummxixime, 285. 
 
 R and s, kindred sounds, 7. 
 
 raptum ire, for rapere, 669. 
 
 ratio, used in circumlocutions, 678. ; 
 ratione, 472. note 1. 
 
 — re, the termination for ris, 166. 
 
 re, the inseparable preposition, 330. 
 
 reapse, 132. 
 
 recens, an adverb, 267. 
 
 recordari, with the genit., 439. 
 
 rectum est, ut, 623. 
 
 recusare, with quominus and Jie, 543. 
 
 reddere, equivalent to facers, 394. ; reddi, 
 equivalent to fieri, is rare, 394. note 1. 
 
 redolere, with the accusat., 383. 
 
 refert, 23. in fin. ; 449. note. 
 
 refertus, construction of, 437. .2. 462. 
 
 regnare, with the genit. (Ilorat.), 466. 
 
 relative adjectives, with the genit., 436.; 
 the same principle applied to other 
 adjectives, 437. 
 
 relative clauses, in the construction of 
 the accusat. with the infinit., 603. ; 
 in relation to two different sentences, 
 804. 
 
 relative construction, changed into the 
 demonstrative one, 806. 
 
 relative pronouns, used instead of de- 
 monstrative ones with et, 803. ; joined 
 with conjunctions, 545. 547. ; in 
 quoting the sentiments of another 
 person, 549. ; used for ut, 556. 560. 
 567.; in general expressions, 561.; 
 used for quum, 564. ; after dignus, &c., 
 568.; to express a repeated action, 
 569. 
 
 relinquitur ut, 621. 
 
 reliqua, " for the rest," 459. 
 
 reliquum est ut, 621. 
 
 reminisci, construction of, 439. 
 
 remunerari, 461. 
 
 repente, 272. 
 
 reperire, with two accusat., 394. 
 
 reperiuntur qui, with the subjunct., 561. 
 
 repetundarum, 763. 
 
 reponere, 490. 
 
 reposcere, with two accusatives, 393. 
 
 repugnare, with quominus and ne, 543. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 599 
 
 res, used in circumlocutions, 678. 
 
 resipere, construction of, 383. 
 
 restat ut, 621. 
 
 revertor, as a deponent, 209. in fin. 
 
 reumfacere, with the genit., 446. 
 
 reus, with the genit, 446. note. 
 
 rhythm, of speech, 818.; of verse, 827. 
 
 — rimus, — ritis, termination, 165. 
 
 rite, 280. 
 
 rivers, names of, in «», used as adjec- 
 tives, 257. 
 
 Togare, with two accusatives, 393. ; with 
 ut, 615. 
 
 rudis, with the genit., 436. 
 
 rursus, used pleonastically, 747. in fin. 
 
 rtis, construed like the names of towns, 
 400. 
 
 Saepe, 267. note 1. ; its degrees of com- 
 parison, 294. 
 
 saltern, meaning of, 274. 
 
 sapere, with the accusat., 383. 
 
 Sapphic verse, 862. 865. 
 
 sat, satis, with the genit, 432. ; satis 
 esse, with the dative of the gerund, 
 664. ; satis habeo and satis mihi est, 
 with the infinit. perfect, 590. 
 
 satrapes, declension of, 46. 
 
 satus, with the ablat alone, 451. 
 
 sciens, with the genit, 438. note. 
 
 scilicet, 345. note. 
 
 scito for set, 1 64. 
 
 se and suusy in explanatory sentences 
 with the accusat. with the infinit., 
 604. ; se in the accus. with the in- 
 finit., after the verbs of promising and 
 hoping, 605. 
 
 se, the inseparable preposition, 330. 
 
 secundum, meaning of, 303. 
 
 secus, adverb, 283.; a substantive for 
 sexus, 84. 89. 428. 
 
 secutum and sequutum, 159. in fin. 
 
 sed and autem, 348. note ; sed, sed tamen, 
 in the sense of " I say," 739. ; ellipsis 
 of sed, 781. ; sed et, 335. ; sed is, 699. 
 
 semidepontnts, 148. 
 
 semis, 87. 103. 
 
 seorsus and seorsumj 290. 
 
 sequor and sector, with the accusat., 
 388. 
 
 sequitur ut, 621, 622. 
 
 sereno, 646. 
 
 serere, in two significations, 200. in fin. 
 
 servitutem servire, 384. 
 
 sestertius, sestertium, 873. 
 
 seu, 336. ; seu — seu, with the plural of 
 the predicate, 374. 
 
 sexcenti, sexcenties, in a general and in- 
 definite sense, 692. 
 
 short vowels, 16.; in certain words, 1 7. 
 
 si, for num, 354. in fin. ; differs from 
 quum, 579. note ; ellipsis of, 780. ; 
 si quid and aliquid, 708. ; si and nisi, 
 
 with the imperfect subjunct. instead 
 of the pluperfect, 525. ; si minus, 
 343. ; si nihil aliud, 771. ; si quis- 
 quam, 710. 
 
 sibi, used pleonastically with suo, 746. 
 
 sic, 281. ; used pleonastically, 748.; has 
 different accents, 33. note. 
 
 sicut, meaning of, 282. ; with the sub- 
 junct, 572. 
 
 siqua and siquae, 137. note. 
 
 siqui, siquis, 1 36. 708. 740. 
 
 similis, with the genit and dative, 411. 
 704. ; similiter ac, 340. note. 
 
 simvl, with the ablat, 321. ; simvl-~- 
 simul, 723. 
 
 simulac and simulatque, with the perfect 
 indicat., 506. ; with the pluperfect, 
 507. 
 
 sin, 342. ; sin minus, sin aliter, 343. 731. 
 
 sine uUo, &c., 709. 
 
 singular, the, has a collective meaning 
 in the names of different fruits, 92. ; 
 is used for the plural, 364. 373. 
 note 1. 
 
 singuli, 119. 
 
 siquidem, 346. 
 
 sis, for si vis, 360. 
 
 sive, meaning of, 336. ; sive — sive, 339. 
 374. 522. 
 
 sodes, 360. 
 
 solere, for saepe, 720. 
 
 solum, 274. 
 
 solu^, for solum, tantum, modo, 687. 
 
 spoliare, with the ablat, 460. 
 
 sponte, 90. 
 
 stare, with the genit, 444. ; with the 
 ablat., 452. ; stat per me, construction 
 of, 543. ; stare ah aliquo, 304. h. 
 
 statim, 272. 
 
 statuere, construction of, 489. ; with the 
 infinit. and ut, 611. 
 
 sterilis, with the genit., 436. 
 
 strophe, 831. 
 
 studere, with the dative, 412. ; with the 
 infinit or ut, 610. 614. ; with the 
 dative of the gerund, 664. 
 
 studiosus, with the genit., 436. 
 
 suadeo, 615. 
 
 sub, meaning of, 319. 
 
 subject and predicate, 362, foU. 
 
 subjunctive, of the future, 496, 497. ; 
 subjunctive in Latin and lEnglish, 
 512. ; in hypothetical sentences, 524. ; 
 in interrogative sentences, 552, 553. ; 
 after relative pronouns, 555. foil. ; in 
 explanatory clauses, 545. foil. ; the 
 subjunct. of the present and perfect, 
 instead of the indicat. of the future, 
 527. ; subjunctivus concessivus, 529. ; 
 in doubtful questions, 530. ; the sub- 
 junctive without ut, 625. ; subjunct 
 of the present, used as an imperative, 
 386. 529. ; subjunct perfect the same 
 
600 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 as the siibjunct. of the future perfect, 
 497. 524. ; the subjunct. perfect, a 
 softened indicative, 527. ; subjunct. 
 perfect, instead of the subjunct. pre- 
 sent, 528. ; instead of the indicat., 
 551. ; subjunct. denoting repeated 
 actions, 569. 
 
 subito, meaning of, 272. 
 
 sublime, an adverb, 267. 
 
 substance and origin of things, expressed 
 by a termination, 250. 252. 
 
 substantives, verbal, used only in the 
 ablat. sing., 90. in fin. ; substantiva 
 mobilia, used as adjectives, 102. j 
 comp. 41. 365. ; verbal substantives, 
 construed like their verbs, 681. ; sub- 
 stantives expressed by a participle, 
 637. ; used instead of participles, 644. ; 
 used as adjectives, 257. foil. ; instead 
 of adjectives, 102. 672. ; in circum- 
 locutions, 678. ; pleonastically, 773. ; 
 substantives, paraphrased by qui with 
 a verb, 714. ; two substantives con- 
 nected by a preposition and extended 
 into a proposition, 715. ; two substan- 
 tives joined together, the latter of 
 which defines the former, 741. 
 
 subter, 320. in fin., 489. 
 
 succensere, construction of, 412, 413. 
 
 sufficere, with the dative of the gerund, 
 660. 
 
 sui, sibi, se, 125. note; in parenthetical 
 clauses, 550. ; sui for se, with the 
 genit. of the gerund, 660. 
 
 summe and maxime, 106. 
 
 summum, 271. 
 
 sunt qui, with the subjunct., 563. ; sunt, 
 ellipsis of, 776. 
 
 super, meaning of, 320. 
 
 superare, with the ablat., 488. 
 
 superesse, construction of, 415. 
 
 super est ut, 621. 
 
 superlative, its formation, 104. 3. 105. 
 109. foil. ; strengthened, 108. ; with 
 the genit,, 429. 
 
 supersedere, construction of, 416. 
 
 superstes, construction of, 411. 
 
 supine, 153. note; 668. foil. 
 
 supplicare, with the dative, 406. 
 
 supra, meaning of, 303. 
 
 sus, declension of, 69. 
 
 suscipere, with the participle fut. pass., 
 653. 
 
 sustuli, not derived from sufferre, 213. 
 
 suus, instead of ejus, 550. ; opposed to 
 alienus, 125. 550. ; suus sibi, 746. 
 
 syllables, division of words into, 14. 2. ; 
 doubtful syllables, 829. 
 
 synaeresis, 11. 
 
 synesis, constructio ad synesim, 368. 
 
 syncope, in verbs, 160. 
 
 Taedet, construction of, 390. 441. 
 
 talentum, 874. 
 
 talis, followed by qui, and ellipsis of, 
 556, 557. ; talis ac, 340. note ; talis 
 — qualis, 704. 
 tarn, 281 ; tarn — quant, 374. 724. 
 tamen, used pleonastically, 341. note. 
 tamquam, an adverb, 282. ; a conjunc- 
 tion, 572. 
 tandem, meaning of, 287. 
 tanti est, 444. note 1 . 
 tantisper, 276. 
 
 tanto, with comparatives, 487. 
 tantum, "only," 274.; with the genit., 
 432. ; tantum abest ut — ut, 779. ; 
 tantum non, 729. ; tantum ut, 726. 
 tantus, followed by qui, and ellipsis of, 
 
 556, 551. ; tantus — quantus,704:. 
 taxare, construction of, 444. 
 — te, the suffix, 131. 
 temere, 280. 
 
 temperare, construction of, 414. 
 templum, ellipsis of, 762. 
 tempore and in tempore, 475. 
 tempori, " in good time," 63. note. 
 tempus est abire and abeundi, 659. ; ellip- 
 sis of tempus, 763. 
 tempus impendere, with the dative of the 
 
 gerund, 664. 
 tenax, with the genit., 436. 
 teneri, with the participle perf pass., 592. 
 tenses, of the verb, 493. foil. ; tenses of 
 the subjunct., 524. ; tenses used in 
 the epistolary style, 503. 
 tentare, with the infinit. and ut, 614. 
 tenus, meaning of, 313. 
 — ter, 264. 
 
 Teos, declension of, 52. 3. 
 terra mn.riqv£, 481 . 
 Thales, declension of, 71. in fin. 
 Thebaicus and Thebanus, difference be- 
 tween, 256. in fin. 
 thesis, 827. 
 
 — ti, pronunciation of, 6. 
 ti or ci, orthography of, 6. note 1. 
 time, particles expressing time, 270. ; 
 expressions of time in the accusat., 
 395. ; in the ablat., 396. 
 timens, with the genit., 438. 
 timer e, construction of, 414. 
 titles, where they are placed with names, 
 
 796. 
 — tor, trix, 102. 236. 
 toto, tota, ablat. without in, 4 82. 
 towns, names of in e, in the ablat. e, 
 63. 6. ; construction of names of towns, 
 398. 
 fradere, with the participle fut. pass., 653. 
 traditur, construction of, 507. 
 iranquillo, 646. 
 transjectus and transmissus, construction 
 
 of, 392. 
 tribuere, with the dative, 422. 
 trochaic verse, 832. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 601 
 
 — tudo, the termination, 247. 
 
 tut, feminine, with the particip. fut. 
 pass, in the masc. gender, 660, 
 
 turn and tunc, difference between, 285. ; 
 turn maxinie, 270. ; turn — tum, 723. ; 
 turn temporis, 434. 
 
 tu, in questions expressive of indigna- 
 tion, 6 S3. 
 
 U instead of e, 2. 
 
 V softened down into i*, 3. note. 
 
 u hardened into v, 3. note, 11. 
 
 vacate, 406. 
 
 vacuus, with the ablat,, 462. 468. 
 
 vae, construction of, 403. 
 
 valde, 107. 266. 
 
 valeo, construction of, 460. 463. 
 
 vapulo, 148. 
 
 ubi, with the genit., 434. ; with the 
 perfect indicat., 506. ; ubiubi, 128. 
 
 — ve, 330. in fin., 336, 337. 
 
 vehementer, 264. note 1. 
 
 vehi, construction of, 455. 
 
 vel and aut, difference between, 336.; 
 vel — &e/, 339. ; vel, strengthening, 
 734. ; with superlatives, 108. ; in the 
 sense of " for example," 734. 
 
 velim, with the subjunct., 527. 624. 
 
 velle, construction of,. 424. ; with the 
 infinit. pass., 611. 
 
 vellem, meaning of, 528. 
 
 veliit, " for example," 282. ; velut and 
 velut si with the subjunct., 572. 
 
 vendoe, with the genit. or ablat., 444. ; 
 its passive veneo, 187. 
 
 venire, with the dative, 422. ; with the 
 genit. and ablat., 444. 
 
 venit in mentem, construction of, 439. foil. 
 
 verbs, neuter passives, 148.; neuter 
 verbs joined with an accusat., 144. 
 S85. ; used impersonally in the third 
 person passive, 144. ; transitive verbs, 
 used as neuters, 1 43. 1 45. ; verbs with 
 a relative pronoun instead of a sub- 
 stant.,714. ; verbs repeated, 716,717. ; 
 their position, 787. foil. ; ellipsis of 
 verbs, 774. ; verbs compounded with 
 prepositions, 415. ; with trans, 392. ; 
 passive verbs with the dative, 419. ; 
 with the accusat., according to the 
 Greek fashion, 458. 
 vere and vero, 266. note I. 
 verisimile est, followed by the accusat. 
 
 with the infinit., 600. ; by ut, 623. 
 veritum est, used impersonally, 390. 
 vero, meaning of, 266. 348. ; use of in 
 answers, 716.; in the apodosis, 716; 
 ellipsis of, 781. 
 verses, feet of, 826. 
 versus, the preposition, 303. 
 verlere, in a reflective sense, 145. ; with 
 the dative, 422. 
 
 verum, verumtamen, 348. note, 739. ; 
 
 verum enimvero, 349. 
 verum est, followed by the accusat. with 
 
 the infinit., 600. ; by ut, 623. 
 vesci, construction of, -iSS, 466. 
 vestri and vestrum, difference between, 
 
 431. 
 vetare, construction of, 607. 617. ; with 
 
 quominus and ne, 543, 544. 
 vi and per vim, difference between, 455. 
 
 note. 
 via, ablat. without in, 482. 
 vicem, instead of vice, 453. 
 vicinus, construction of, 411. 
 videlicet, 345. note. 
 videre ut, 614. ; construed like the verbs 
 
 of fearing, 534. 
 videres, cerneres, meaning of, 528. in fin. 
 videri, construction of, 380. ; used pleo- 
 
 nastically, 751. 
 viri, compounded with numerals, 124. 
 vitam vivere, and similar expressions, 
 
 383. in fin. 
 vitio creati magistratus, 472. note, 
 ullus, 129. 709. 
 
 ultra, meaning of, 303. ; adverb, 323. 
 ultro, 289. 
 ultum ire for ulcisci, 669. 
 
 — ilium, the termination, 239. 
 
 — um, instead of arum, 45. ; instead of 
 orum, 51. ; in distributive numerals, 
 119. note 1. 
 
 — «?n, the genit. plur. for ium, 51. 
 
 unde, 344. ; with the genit., 434, 
 
 — unde, 344. note. 
 undecunque, 288. 
 
 — undus, instead of endus, 167. 
 
 uni, unae, una, 1 1 5. note. 
 
 unquam, 284., comp. 709. a. 
 
 U71US, for solum, tantum, modo, 687. ; 
 unus with a superlative and excellere, 
 691. 
 
 unusquisque, declension of, 138. ; mean- 
 ing of, 710. 
 
 vocare, with two accusatives, 394. 
 
 vocative, its position, 492. ; with inter- 
 jections, 403. 
 
 volam, the future, use of, 509. 
 
 volo, with the nominat. or the accusat. 
 with the infinit., 610. ; with the in- 
 finit. or the participle perfect pass., 
 611.; with ut, 613. ; with the sub- 
 junctive alone, 624. ; si voluero, 510. 
 
 voti and votorum damnari, 447. 
 
 urbs, used in apposition to names of 
 towns, 399. 
 
 urinor, 207. 
 
 — us, the termination, 237. 
 
 uspiam, 284. 
 
 usquam, 284. ; with the genit., 434. 
 
 usque, 286. 322. 
 
 nsquequaque, 289- in fin. 
 
 usu venit ut, 621. 
 
602 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 usus est, used Impersonally, 464. 
 
 ul, an adverb of similitude, 282. 531. 
 note ; a conjunction with the sub- 
 junctive., 531. 613. foil. ; in questions 
 expressive of indignation, 609. ; with 
 the perfect indicat., 506. ; its place, 
 356. ; ellipsis of, 777. ; ut after adjec- 
 tive expressions instead of the accusat. 
 with the infinit., 623. ; ut in the 
 sense of " even if," and in negative 
 sentences, ut non, 573. ; ut equiva- 
 lent to "because," 726.; ut — ita 
 (sic), 726. ; ut ne, 347. note, 535. ; 
 ut non, 347. note, 532. 573 ; ut non 
 for quin, 539. ; ut primum, with the 
 perfect indicat., 506. ; ut qui, 565. 
 
 utcunque, with the indicat., 521. 
 
 uter, its difference from quis, 431. 
 
 uterque, 141. note 2. ; with the plural 
 of the verb, 367. ; with a genit.,430. 
 
 uti, construction of, 465, 466. 
 
 utile est ut, 623. 
 
 utilis, construction of, 409. ; with the 
 
 dative of the gerund, 664. ; utilisfuit, 
 
 518. 
 utinam, ufinam ne, utinam nony with the 
 
 subjunct., 571. 
 utique, 282. 
 utpote qui, 565. 
 utrique, use of, 141. note 2. 
 utrum, 352. 
 
 utrumne, in double questions, 554. 
 utut, 128. ; with the indicat., 521. 
 — uus, the termination, 249. 
 uxor, ellipsis of, 761. 
 
 Words, their accent, in reference to 
 rhythm, 828. ; formation of words, 
 231. foil. ; arrangement of words in the 
 formation of sentences in prose, 786. 
 foil. J in poetical compositions, 795. 
 
 Y, in Greek words, 1. 
 Zeugma, 775. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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