f Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/deaftheirpositioOObestrich THE DEAF THEIR POSITION IN SOCI- ETY AND THE PROVISION FOR THEIR EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES BY HARRY BEST ll NEW YORK THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY PUBLISHERS ^0 • » • :• : • cjoptright, 191^ By ELAERY best. \ Published April, 1914. TO THE DEAF OF THE LAND AND TO THOSE WHO LOVE THEM 292220 FOREWORD THE aim of the present study is to ascer- tain as far as possible the standing of the deaf, or, as they are so often called, the " deaf and dumb," in society in America, and to examine the treatment that has been accorded to them — to present an account of an element of the population of whom little is generally known. In this effort regard is had not only to the inter- ests of the deaf themselves, but also, with the growing concern in social problems, to the fixing of a status for them in the domain of the social sciences. In other words, the design may be said to be to set forth respecting the deaf something of what the social economist terms a " survey," or, as it may more popularly be described, to tell " the story of ' the deaf and dumb.' " The material employed in the preparation of the work has been collected from various docu- ments, and from not a little personal correspond- ence: from the reports and other publications of schools for the deaf, of organizations interested in the deaf, of state charities, education or other departments, of the United States bureaus of education and of the census; from the proceed- vi FOREWORD ings of bodies interested in the education of the deaf, of organizations composed of the deaf, of state and national conferences of charities and corrections; from the statutes of the several states ; and from similar publications. From the American Annals of the Deaf the writer has drawn unsparingly, and to it a verj^ considerable debt is owed. Valuable assistance has also been obtained from the Volta Review, formerly the Association Review, and from papers published by the deaf or in schools for the deaf. Other sources of information used will be noted from time to time in the work itself. For all that has been set down the writer is alone responsible. He is, however, keenly mind- ful of all the co-operation that has been given him, and it would be most pleasant if it were possible to relate by name those who have been of aid. Mere words of thanks could but ;^ very little express the sense of obhgation that is felt towards all of these. Indeed, one of the most delightful features connected with the work has been the response which as a rule has been elicited by the writer's inquiries ; and in some cases so courteous and gracious have been the correspondents and informants that one might at times think that a favor were being done them in the making of the request. To certain ones the writer cannot escape mentioning his appreciation: to Dr. E. A. Fay, FOREWORD vii editor of the American Annals of the Deaf, and vice-president of Gallaudet College; Dr. J. R. Dobyns, of the Mississippi School, and secretary of the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf; Mr. Fred Deland, of the Volta Bureau; Mr. E. A. Hodgson, editor of the Deaf-Mutes' Journal; Mr. E. H. Currier, of the New York Institution, and Dr. T. F. Fox and Mr. Ignatius Bjorlee, also of this institution; Dr. Joseph A. Hill, of the Census Bureau; Mr. Alexander Johnson, formerly secretary of the National Con- ference of Charities and Corrections ; Dr. H. H. Hart, of the Russell Sage Foundation; Profes- sor S. M. Lindsay and Dr. E. S. Whitin, of Co- lumbia University; and to the officials of the Library of Congress, of the New York Public Library, of the New York State Library, of the New York School of Philanthropy Library, of the New York Academy of Medicine, of the Columbia University Library, of the Volta Bur- eau, and of the Gallaudet College Library. CONTENTS PAGB INTBODUCTION 2dil Part I POSITION OF THE DEAF IN SOCIETY CHAPTER I. The Deaf in the United States 3 Meaning of Term " Deaf " in the Present Study — Number of the Deaf in the United States — Age when Deafness Occurred — Ability of the Deaf to Speak — Means of Communication Employed by the Deaf. 13 II. The Deaf as a Pebmanent Element of the Popula- tion Increase in the Number of the Deaf in Relation to the Increase in the General Population — The Adventitiously Deaf and the Congenitally Deaf — Adventitious Deafness and its Causes — Possible Action for the Prevention of Adventi- tious Deafness — Adventitious Deafness as an In- creasing or Decreasing Phenomenon — ^The Con- genitally Deaf — The OfiPspring of Consanguine- ous Marriages — ^The Deaf Having Deaf Relatives — ^The Offspring of Deaf Parents — Possible Action for the Prevertion of Congenital Deafness — Con- genital Deafness as an Increasing or Decreasing Phenomenon — Conclusions with Respect to the Elimination or Prevention of Deafness. III. Tbeatment of the Deaf by the State 63 General Attitude of the Law towards the Deaf — Legislation Discriminatory respecting the Deaf — Legislation in Protection of the Deaf — Legisla- tion in Aid of the Deaf — Tenor of Court Decis- ions Affecting the Deaf — Present Trend of the Law in Respect to the Deaf. ix X CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE IV. Economic Condition of the Deaf 75 The Extent to which the Deaf are a Wage-earn- ing and Self-supporting Element of the Popula- tion — Views of the Deaf as to their Economic Standing — The Deaf as Alms-seekers — Homes for the Deaf — Conclusions with Respect to the Eco- nomic Position of the Deaf. 'C: V. Social Obganization of the Deaf 91 Social Cleavage from the General Population — Desirability of Organizations Composed of the Deaf — Purposes, Activities, and Extent of Such Organizations — Newspapers of the Deaf. VI. PopuLAB Conceptions concerning the Deaf. Viewed as a Strange Class — Viewed as a Defec- tive Class — Viewed as an Unhappy Class — Viewed as a Dependent Class — Need of a Changed Regard for the Deaf. VII. Pbivate Obganizations Interested in the Deap. . . . 107 General Societies Interested in the Deaf — ^The Volta Bureau — Parents' Associations for the ^ Deaf — Church Missions to the Deaf — Organiza- tions Interested in the Education of the Deaf — Publications Devoted to the Interests of the Deaf. Part II PROVISION FOR THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF VIII. The Education of the Deaf Priob to its Introduc- tion INTO the United States 119 IX. History of Education of the Deaf in the United States 129 Early Attempts at Instruction — Beginning of the First Schools — Early Ideas concerning the Schools for the Deaf — Aims of the Founders — Extension of the Means of Instruction over the Country. CONTENTS xi f!HAPTEB PAGE X. Organization of the Institutions and General Pro- visions 171 Arrangements in the Different States — Semi- Public Institutions — " Dual Schools " — Provision for the Deaf-Blind — Provision for the Feeble- minded Deaf — Government of the Different In- stitutions — Procedure in States without Institu- tions. XI. The Day School for the Deaf 187 Inception and Growth of the Day School — Design and Scope of Day Schools — Extent and Organ- ization of Day Schools — Arguments for the Day School — Arguments against the Day School — Evening Schools for Adults. Xn. Denominational and Private Schools 202 Denominational Schools — Private Schools. XIII. The National College 206 XIV. Provision for Education by States 209 XV. Constitutional Provisions for Schools 242 Extent of Constitutional Provisions — Language and Forms of Provisions. XVI. Question of the Charity Connection of Schools . . 248 Institutions Sometimes Regarded as Educational : Sometimes as Charitable — Charity in Connection with Schools for the Deaf — Arguments for the Connection with Boards of Charities — Arguments in Opposition to the Connection — Conclusions in Respect to the Charity Connection of Schools for the Deaf. XVII. Provisions concerning Admission of Pupils into Schools 262 Rules as to the Payment of Fees — Provision for the Collateral Support of Pupils — Age Limits of Attendance. xii CONTENTS GHAPTSB PA6B XVIII. Attendance upon the Schools 268 The Proportion of the Deaf in the Schools— The Need of Compulsory Education Laws for the Deaf — Present Extent of Compulsory Education Laws. XIX. Methods of Instbuction in Schools 277 The Use of Signs as a Means of Communication — Rise and Growth of the Oral Movement — Present Methods of Instruction — Courses of Study and Gradations of Pupils — Industrial Training in the Schools. XX. Cost to the State fob Education 293 Value of the Property Used for the Education of the Deaf — Cost of the Maintenance of the Schools — Form of Public Appropriations — Cost to the State for Each Pupil. XXI. Public Donations of Land to Schools 299 Grants by the National Government — Grants by the States — Grants by Cities or Citizens. XXII. Pbivate Benefactions to Schools 303 Donations of Money — Gifts for Pupils — Present Tendencies of Private Benefactions. XXIII. Conclusions with Respect to the Wobk fob the Deaf in Amebica 309 APPENDIX A 325 Table with Respect to Homes fob the Deaf in Amebica. APPENDIX B 326 Tables with Respect to Schools fob the Deaf in Amebica. I. Public IxsTmrTioNs 326 II. Public Day Schools 329 III. Denominational and Pbivate Schools 331 INDEX 333 INTRODUCTION SOCIETY as a whole knows little of the deaf, or the so-called deaf and dumb. They do not form a large part of the population, and many people seldom come in contact with them. Their affliction to a great extent removes them from the usual avenues of intercourse with men and debars them from many of the social activities of life, all tending to make the deaf more or less a class apart in the community. They would seem, then, to have received separate treatment, as a section not wholly absorbed and lost in the general population, but in a measure standing out and differentiated from the rest of their kind. Thus it comes that society has to take notice of them. By reason of their condition certain duties are called forth respecting them, and certain provision has to be made for them. The object of the present study of the deaf is to consider primarily the attitude of society or the state in America towards them, the duties it has recognized in respect to them, the status it has created for them, and the extent and forms, as well as the adequacy and correctness, of this treatment. Hence in our study of the problems xiii xiv INTRODUCTION of the deaf, the approach is not to be by the way of medicine, or of law, or of education, though all these aspects will be necessarily touched upon. Nor is our study to deal with this class as a problem of psychology or of mental or physical abnormality, though more or less consideration will have to be given to these points. Nor yet again are we to concern ourselves principally with what is known as the " human interest " question, though we should be much disappointed if there were not found an abundance of human interest in what we shall have to consider. Rather, then, we are to regard the deaf as certain components of the state who demand classification and at- tention in its machinery of organization. Our attitude is thus that of the social economist, and the object of our treatment is a part or section of the community in its relation to the greater and more solidified body of society. More particularly, our purpose is^jtwofold. We first consider the deaf, who they are, and their place in society, and then examine the one great form of treatment which the state gives, namely, the making of provision for their educa- tion. This we have attempted to do in two parts. Part I treating of the position of the deaf in society, and Part II of the provisions made for their education. As we shall find, the special care of the state for the deaf to-day has assumed INTRODUCTION xv practically this one form. Means of education are extended to all the state's deaf children, and with this its attention for the most part ceases. It has come to be seen that after they have re- ceived an education, they deserve or require little further aid or concern. But it has not always been the policy of the state to allow to the deaf the realization that they form in its citizenship an element able to look out for themselves, and demanding little of its special oversight. They have a story full of interest to tell, for the way of the deaf to the attainment of this position has been long and tortuous, being first looked upon as wards, and then by slow gradations coming to the full rights and responsibilities of citizenship. In this final stage, where the state provides education for the deaf only as it provides it for all others, and attempts little beyond, the deaf find themselves on a level with citizens in general in the state's regard. In Part I, after we have ascertained who are nieant^by: the--" deaf/' and ^to^^^iany of them, there are, we are to find ourselves confronted by a question which is of the foremost concern to society; namely, whether the deaf are to be con- sidered a permanent part of the population, or whether society may have means at hand to eliminate or prevent deafness. After this, our discussion will revolve about the deaf from dif- xvi INTRODUCTION ferent points of view, regarding them in the several aspects in which they appear to society. We shall examine the treatment which the state in general accords the deaf, how they are looked upon in the law, and what changes have been brought about in its attitude towards them. This may be said to be the view of the publicist or legalist. Next, we shall attempt to see how far the deaf are really a class apart in the life of the community. This will involve an examination, on the one hand, as to whether their infirmity is a bar to their independent self-support, that is, whether they are potentially economic factors in the world of industry, how far their status is due to what they themselves have done, and to what extent this result has modified the regard and treatment of society; and, on the other, how far their want of hearing stands in the way of their mingling in the social life of the community in which they live, whether the effect of this will tend to force the deaf to associate more with them- selves than with the rest of the people, and what forms their associations take. These will be the views respectively of the economist and the socio- logist. Then we shall consider the regard in which the deaf are popularly held, the view of " the man in the street," and whether this regard is the proper and just one. Lastly, we shall note what movements have been undertaken in the interests INTRODUCTION xvii of the deaf by private organizations, and to what extent these have been carried. In Part II we shall consider the provision that has been made for the instruction of deaf chil- dren. First we shall review the attempts at instruction in the Old World, and then carefully follow the development of instruction in America, considering the early efforts in this direction, the founding of the first schools, and the spread of the work over the land; and noting how it was fijsl taken up by private initiative, in time to be seconded or taken over by the state, and how far the state has seen and performed its duty in this respect. Public institutions have been created in nearly all the states, and we shall examine the organizations of these institutions and the gen- eral arrangements in the different states. The development of the work also includes a system of day schools, a certain number of private scBools and a national college, all of which we shall con- sider, devoting especial attention to the day schools and their significance. Following this, we shall consider how each state individually has been found to provide for the instruction of the deaf, observing also the extent to which the states have made provision in their constitutions, and the extent to which the schools are regarded as purej[y_ediicational. Next, we shall proceed to inquire into the terms of admission of pupils into xviii INTRODUCTION the schools; and we shall particularly concern ourselves with the investigation of the question of how far the means provided for education by the state are actually availed of by the deaf. The great technical problems involved in the educa- tion of the deaf will be outside the province of this work, but we shall indicate, so far as public action may be concerned, the present methods of instruction. This done, we shall mark what is the cost to the state of all this activity for the education of its deaf children, noting also how far the state has been assisted in the work by private bengvplence. In the final chapter of our study we shall set down the conclusions which we have found in respect to the work for the deaf on the whole in the United States. PART I POSITION OF THE DEAP IN SOCIETY CHAPTER I THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES Meaning of Term " Deaf " in the Present Study BY the " deaf " in the present study is meant that element of the population in which the sense of hearing is either wholly absent or is so slight as to be of no practical value ; or in which there is inability to hear and understand spoken language ; or in which there exists no real sound perception. In other words, those persons are meant who may be regarded as either totally deaf or practically totally deaf/ With such deafness there is not infrequently associated an inability to speak, or to use vocal language. Hence our attention may be said to be directed to that part of the community which, by the want of the sense of hearing and oftentimes also of the power of speech, forms a special and distinct class; and is known, more or less inaccurately, as the " deaf and dumb " or " deaf-mutes " or " mutes." * There are no sharply dividing lines between the different degrees of deafness, but it is only those described that really S •THE DEAF * In' our (Tiis'ciiskiori ft "is with deafness that we are . primarily concerned. Deafness and dumbness are, physically, two essentially different things. There is no anatomical connection between the organs of hearing and those of speech; and the structure and functioning of each are such as to preclude any direct pathological relation. The number of the so-called deaf and dumb, more- over, who are really dumb is very small — so small actually as to be negligible. Almost all who are spoken of as deaf and dumb have organs of speech that are quite intact, and are, indeed, con- structively perfect. It comes about, however, that dumbness — considered as the want of normal and usual locution — though organically separate from deafness, is a natural consequence of it; and does, as a matter of fact, in most cases to a greater or less extent, accompany or co-exist with it. The reason of this is that the deaf, particularly those who have always been so, being unable to hear, do not know how to use their organs of speech, and especially are unable to modulate their speech by the ear, as the hearing do. If the deaf could regain their hearing, they would have back their speech in short order. The character of the human voice depends thus on the I ear to an unrealized degree. constitute a special class. Persons whose hearing is such as to be of use even in some slight degree are rather to be dis- tinguished as " hard of hearing." THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES 5 Number of the Deaf in the United States According to the census of 1900 there were 37,426 persons in the United States enumerated as totally deaf; ^ and according to that of 1910 there were 43,812 enumerated as " deaf and dumb." ^ Hence we may assume that there are between forty and fifty thousand deaf persons in the United States forming a special class.* • The following table will give the number of the deaf in the several states and the number per million of population, according to the census of 1910.* ^ By this census both the partially deaf and the totally deaf were enumerated, or 89,287 in all. The former should not have been enumerated, the enumerators being instructed not to in- clude those able to hear loud conversation. ^ For the census returns for 1900, see " Special Reports of the Census Office. The Blind and the Deaf," 1906. This report was under the special direction of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, who has long been interested in the deaf. The returns of the census for 1910 are yet to be revised, while at the same time additional data are to be secured to be published as a special report like that of 1906. As yet the census office has for 1910 only the actual enumeration of the deaf and dumb in the vari- ous states, and the returns with respect to other particulars regarding them are yet to be completed. See Volta Review^ xiii., 1911, p. 399. Hence in our discussions we shall, except for the number by states, deal with the census of 1900. For a review of this census, see American Annals of the Deaf, Sept., 1906, to May, 1907 (li., lii.). In a number of states cer- tain county officers are required from time to time to enu- merate the deaf. For a census in one state, see Bulletin of Labor of Massachusetts, July-Aug., 1907. ' Included in the census of 1900 were 491 deaf -blind persons (totally deaf), and in that of 1910, 584. *From statistics kindly furnished by the Census Bureau. 6 THE DEAF NUMBER OF THE DEAF IN THE SEVERAL STATES No. United States .. 43,812 Alabama 807 Arizona 53 Arkansas 729 California 784 Colorado 243 Connecticut 332 Delaware 59 District of Co- lumbia 114 Florida 216 Georgia 956 Idaho 114 Illinois 2,641 Indiana 1,672 Iowa 950 Kansas 934 Kentucky 1,581 Louisiana 774 Maine 340 Maryland 746 Massachusetts . . 1,092 Michigan 1,315 Minnesota 1,077 Mississippi 737 Missouri 1,823 No, Peb MUililON OP Popula- tion 476 Montana 377 Nebraska 259 Nevada 464 New Hampshire 329i New Jersey . . . 304 New Mexico . . . 297 New York 291 North Carolina 344 North Dakota . 286 Ohio 366 Oklahoma 349 Oregon 468 Pennsylvania . . 619 Rhode Island . . 427 South Carolina . 552. South Dakota . 690 Tennessee 468 Texas 458 Utah , 576 Vermont 324 Virginia 468 Washington 519 West Virginia . . 410 Wisconsin 553 Wyoming No. Pbb Million OF POPULA- NO. TION 311 531 281 443 263 540 522 644 117 636 23 191 667 177 4,760 1,421 239 2,582 826 241 3,656 208 735 315 1,231 1,864 232 126 1,120 368 713 1,251 24 414 539 491 359 477 383 485 539 563 478 621 354 543 323 584 537 159 From this table the largest proportions of the deaf appear to be found in the states rather to- ward the central part of the country, and the smallest in the states in the far west and the ex- treme east. The highest proportions occur in itentucky, North Carolina, Utah, Indiana, West Virginia, Maryland, Tennessee, Missouri, Kansas, Virginia, New Mexico, Ohio, South Dakota, Wisconsin, Nebraska, New York, and Minnesota, all these states having over 500 per THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES 7 million of population. The lowest proportions are found in Wyoming, Arizona, New Jersey, Nevada, Florida, Delaware, Connecticut, Colo- rado, Montana, Washington, Massachusetts, California, District of Columbia, Idaho, Ver- mont, Oregon, Alabama, and Rhode Island, in none of these states the mmiber being over 400 per million. Why there should be these dif- ferences in the respective proportions of the deaf in the population of the several states, we cannot say ; and we are generally unable to determine to what the variations are to be ascribed — whether they are to be set down to particular conditions of morbidity, the intensity of congenital deafness, or other influences operating in different sections ; or, perhaps in some measure, to the greater thoroughness with which the census was taken in some places than in others. Age When Deafness Occurred The vast majority of the deaf lost their hearing in early life, and most of them in the tender years of infancy and childhood. More than ninety per cent (90.6, according to the returns of the census) became deaf before the twentieth year; nearly three-fourths (73.7 per cent) under five; over half (52.4 per cent) under two; and over a third (35.5 per cent) were born deaf. Deafness thus occurs in a strongly diminishing 8 THE DEAF ratio with advancing years.^ These facts may be indicated by the following table,^ which shows the percentages of those who became deaf at different ages. THE DEAF ACCORDING TO AGE OF OCCURRENCE OF DEAFNESS At birth 35.5 After birth and under two 16.9 Under two years 52.4 2 and under 4 17.1 4 and under 6 7.3 6 and under 8 4.5 8 and under 10 2.8 10 and under 12 1.8 12 and under 14 1.6 14 and under 16 1.3 16 and under 18 1.0 18 and under 20 0.8 Under five 73.7 5 and under 10 10.5 10 and under 15 4.0 15 and under 20 2.4 Under 20 90.6 20 and under 40 5.7 40 and under 60 2.4 60 and under 80 1.1 80 and over 0.2 Ability of the Deaf to Speak We have just seen that " dumbness " fre- quently follows upon deafness, or that it is usually believed to be an effect of deafness. It is true that with the majority of the deaf phonetic speech is not employed to any large extent ; but *This is just the opposite of the case with the blind. 2 Special Reports, 1906, p. 79. Some 2,000 cases were thrown out for indefinite replies, leaving 35,479, upon which our per- centages are based. THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES 9 there is at the same time a fair number who can, and do, use vocal language. This speech varies to a wide degree, in some approximating normal speech, and in others being harsh and understood with difficulty; and it depends in the main upon three conditions: 1. the age at which deafness occurred, this being the most important factor; 2. the extent to which the voice is cultivated ; and 3. the remaining power of the ear (which is found but seldom) .^ Of the deaf persons enumerated in the census,^ 21.5 per cent were reported able to speak well; 15.8 per cent imperfectly; and 62.7 per cent not at all. In other words, somewhat over a third of the deaf can speak more or less, one-fifth being able to speak well, and one-sixth imperfectly, while over three-fifths do not speak at all. The dependence of the ability to speak upon the age of becoming deaf is clearly in evidence here, the proportion of those not able to speak showing a * A somewhat frequent classification of the deaf in respect to their power to speak is to regard them roughly as falling into three great divisions : 1. " Deaf-mutes," who come nearest to being deaf and dumb. They have always been deaf, and have never had natural speech. What speech they may possess has come from special instruction, with the result that it is more or less artificial. 2. " Semi-mutes," who are deaf, but who have once had hearing as well as speech; and this speech they are able to use to a greater or less degree, though in time it is likely to become more and more astray. 3. " Semi-deaf " per- sons, who are only partly deaf, and possess a little hearing, though it is too slight to be of real practical use; and who have voices most nearly approaching the normal. They belong somewhere between the really deaf and the hard of hearing. * Special Reports, pp. 82, 240. 10 THE DEAF great decrease with the rise of this age. Thus, of those born deaf, 83.5 per cent cannot speak at all ; of those becoming deaf after birth and under five, 74.6 per cent; of those becoming deaf after five and imder twenty, 26.5 per cent; and of those becoming deaf after twenty, 3.4 per cent. Some of the deaf are able to read the lips of the speaker, or as it is better expressed, to read speech, or to understand what is being said by watching the motions of the mouth. This in reality is a distinct art from the ability to speak, though popularly they are often thought to be co-ordinate or complementary one to the other. Like the ability to speak, it varies in wide degree, from the ability to understand simple and easy expressions only, to the ability to follow pro- tracted discourse; and like the ability to speak, it is found in increasing frequency with the rise of the age of becoming deaf. According to the census,^ 38.6 per cent of the deaf are able to read the lips. Of those born deaf, 28.0 per cent have this ability; of those becoming deaf after birth and under five, 37.1 per cent; of those becoming deaf after five and under twenty, 64.3 per cent; and of those becoming deaf after twenty, 43.6 per cent.^ * Ibid., pp. 87, 240. For 8,966 no returns were made. ^On the subject of lip-reading, see especially E. B. Nitchie, " Ldp-Reading : its Principles and Practice", 1912. THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES 11 Means of Communication Employed by the Deaf If the larger number of the deaf do not use the speech which is used by those who can hear, how is it that their communication is carried on? The chief method is a certain silent tongue pe- culiar to the deaf, known as the " sign lan- guage," ^ ^part of which may be said to be the manual alphabet, or the system of finger-spelling,^ the two usually going hand in hand. In this way most of the deaf are enabled to communicate with each other readily and fluently. But this lan- guage, or at least the greater part of it, not being known to people generally, the deaf frequently have to fall back on writing to convey their ideas in communicating with hearing persons. This, while slow and cumbersome, is the surest and most reliable method of all. In addition, as we have seen, a certain number of the deaf are able to use speech, which of course has manifold advantages. These are the several methods, then, of com- munication employed by the deaf; but they are not usually employed singly, as most of the deaf are able to use two or more. According to the census,^ the sign language alone or in combina- tion with other methods is employed by 68.2 per * This " sign language " is referred to at somewhat more length in Chapter XIX. 2 Sometimes called " the deaf and dumb alphabet ". =* Special Reports, pp. 89, 240. For 2,365 no returns were made. 12 THE DEAF cent, or over two-thirds of the deaf ; finger-spell- ing by 52.6 per cent, or over one-half; writing by almost the same proportion — 51.9 per cent; and speech by 39.8 per cent, or some two-fifths. It is probable, however, that the proportions employ- ing the sign language, finger-spelling and writ- ing, either singly or with other methods, are really somewhat larger. In this case, likewise, we find that the lower the age of becoming deaf, the smaller is the proportion of the deaf with speech, which shows again the connection of the ability to speak with the age of the occurrence of deaf- ness. Of those born deaf, speech alone or in com- bination with other methods is used by 18.2 per cent; of those becoming deaf after birth and under five, by 27.4 per cent; of those becoming deaf after five and under twenty, by 75.3 per cent; and of those becoming deaf after twenty, by 97.7 per cent. CHAPTER II THE DEAF AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT OF THE POPULATION Increase in the Number of the Deaf in Relation to THE Increase in the General Population ARE the deaf to be a permanent element in the constitution of the population? Are they always to be reckoned with in the life of the state and the regard of society? Would it not be well to inquire whether or not deafness may be eliminated, or at least reduced to an ap- preciable degree? These are questions that present themselves at the outset in a considera- tion of the relation of the deaf to society, and to them we now devote our attention. Our first inquiry in the matter is directed to the question whether deafness as a whole is in- creasing, decreasing or remaining stationary, in relation to the general population. To deter- mine this, we have recourse to the census returns of the deaf in connection with those of the gen- eral population. Unfortunately, however, com- parisons of the different censuses respecting the 13 14 THE DEAF deaf are not altogether to be depended upon, for the reason that they have not always been taken on the same basis, and conclusions from them consequently have to be accepted with qualifica- tions. Special census returns of the deaf have been made since 1830; but the censuses of 1830- 1870 purport to be of the deaf and dumb; the census of 1880, of the deaf who became deaf under sixteen years of age; that of 1890, of the deaf and dumb; that of 1900, of the totally deaf; and that of 1910, of the deaf and dumb. The results thus obtained are in the main analogous, but there are a certain number of cases included on one basis that would be excluded on another, and vice versa} Taking the statistics as they are, we have the following table,^ which gives the number of the deaf as found in the several censuses, according to the bases upon which they were made, together with the ratio per million of population. ^Moreover, later censuses are probably taken more thor- oughly than former, with a consequent discovery of a larger number of the deaf; while at the same time greater care is employed in preparing the later censuses, with the more rigor- ous elimination of doubtful cases, all in some measure, how- ever, tending to even up the differences. On the difficulty of making comparisons of the censuses of the deaf, see Special Reports, pp. 66-69; Annals, li., 1906, p. 487. » lUd. AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 15 NUMBER OF THE DEAF ACCORDING TO THE CENSUSES OF 1830-1910 No. PER Mil- lion OF Year Number Population 1830 (the deaf and dumb) 6,106 475 1840 (the deaf and dumb) 7,665 449 1850 (the deaf and dumb) 9,803 423 1860 (the deaf and dumb) 12,821 408 1870 (the deaf and dumb) 16,205 420 1880 (deafness occurring under sixteen). 33,878 675 1890 (the deaf and dumb) 40,592 648 1900 (the totally deaf) 37,426 492 1910 (the deaf and dumb) 43,812 476 From this table there appears to be a steady de- crease in the number of the deaf in relation to the general population from 1830 to 1860, this latter year seeming to be the low water mark. From 1860 to 1870 there is a slight increase, and from 1870 to 1880 a very large one, due to some extent to the method of taking the census. From 1880 to 1890 there is a certain decrease, though the proportion is still very high. From 1890 to 1900 there is a very considerable decrease, probably indicating a return to true conditions ; and a not negligible decrease from 1900 to 1910. On the whole, with respect to these statistics, probably the most that we can safely say is that deafness is at least not on the increase relatively among the population, while there is a possibility that at present it is decreasing. For further de- terminations, we shall have to seek other means of inquiry. 16 THE DEAF The Adventitiously Deaf and the Congenitally Deaf We may perhaps best approach the problem of deafness as an increasing or decreasing phenonie- non in the population, if we think of the deaf as composed of two great classes: those adventi- tiously deaf, that is, those who have lost their hearing by some disease or accident occurring after birth, and those congenitally deaf, that is, those who have never had hearing.^ In regard to the former class, it follows that we are largely interested in the consideration of those diseases, especially those of childhood, which may affect the hearing, and in their prevention or diminution we can endeavor to ascertain how far there are pos- sibilities of reducing the number of the deaf of this class. In the latter case we are called upon to examine some of the great problems involved in the study of heredity, especially in respect to the extent that the offspring is affected by defects OP abnormalities of the parent, and to see what, if any, means are at hand to alter conditions that bring about this form of deafness. We shall first discuss the causes of adventitious deafness, to- * Deafness has also been divided into three classes: adven- titious deafness, congenital or hereditary deafness, and in- fantile or sporadic congenital deafness, the last class including many cases where there are other antecedent defects, mental or physical, or where the deafness occurred shortly after birth with the exact cause not definitely determined. See Proceed- ings of International Otological Congress, ix., 1913, p. 49; Volta Review, xiv., 1912, p. 348; xv., 1913, p. 209. AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 17 gether with the possibilities of its prevention and the likelihood of its diminution, and then consider the questions involved in congenital deafness. Adventitious Deafness and its Causes From three-fifths to two-thirds of the cases of deafness are caused adventitiously — by accident or disease. To accidents, however, only a very- small part are due, probably less than one-fiftieth of the entire number.^ Nearly all adventitious deafness results from some disease, either as a primary disease of the auditory organs, or as a sequence or product of some disease of the system, often one of infectious character, the deafness thus constituting a secondary malady or ailment. The larger portion is of the latter type, probably less than a fourth resulting from original ear troubles.^ In either case deafness occurs usually in infancy or childhood, and does its harm by attacking the middle or internal ear. From diseases of the middle ear results over one- fourth (27.2 per cent, according to the census) of all deafness, and from diseases of the internal ear, one-fifth (20.7 per cent), very little (0.6 *Of the cases usually ascribed to accidents, as falls, blows and the like, the probabilities are that a large part are really to be attributed to some other cause. Deafness is not often likely to result from such occurrences. ^ See Proceedings of International Otological Congress, ix., 1913, p. 49; Volta Revieiv, xiv., 1912, p. 348. 18 THE DEAF per cent) being caused by disorders of the outer ear. Of the classified cases of deafness, ac- cording to the census, 56.3 per cent are due to diseases affecting the middle ear, and 42.7 per cent to diseases affecting the internal. Of dis- eases of the middle ear, 72 per cent are of sup- purative character, often with inflammation or abscess, and 28 per cent non-suppurative, or rather catarrhal in character. Of diseases of the internal ear, 89 per cent are affections of the nerve, and 10 per cent of the labyrinth. It is to be noted that when the affection is of the internal ear, the result is usually total deafness. By specified diseases, the leading causes of deafness are scarlet fever (11.1 per cent), men- ingitis (9.6), brain fever (4.7), catarrh (3.6), "disease of middle ear" (3.6), measles (2.5), typhoid fever (2.4), colds (1.6), malarial fever (1.2), influenza (0.7), with smaller proportions from diphtheria, pneumonia, whooping cough, la grippe, and other diseases. A large part of deaf- ness is seen to be due to infectious diseases, the probabihties being that fully one-third is to be so ascribed, with one-fifth from infectious fevers alone. After birth and under two years of age, the chief causes of deafness are meningitis, scarlet fever, disease of middle ear, brain fever, and measles. From two to five scarlet fever and AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 19 meningitis are far in the lead, with many cases also from brain fever, disease of middle ear, measles, and typhoid fever. From five to ten scarlet fever alone outdistances all other diseases, followed in order by meningitis, brain fever and typhoid fever. From ten to fifteen the main causes are meningitis, scarlet fever, brain fever, and catarrh; from fifteen to twenty catarrh and meningitis; from twenty to forty catarrh, colds and typhoid fever ; and from forty on, catarrh. The following table ^ will show in detail the several causes of deafness and their respective percentages. CAUSES OF DEAFNESS Total classified 48.5 External ear 0.6 Impacted ceramen 0.2 Foreign bodies 0.1 Miscellaneous 0.3 ^ Special Reports, pp. 110, 122, 124. See also Annals, xxxiii., 1888, p. 199 ; lii., 1907, p. 168. In the table are given only the specified causes that represent at least 0.7 per cent of the total amount of deafness. In respect to external ear trouble, im- pacted ceramen is usually found to result from water in the ear, or wax in the ear. Other diseases of the middle ear of suppurative character are diphtheria, pneumonia, erysipelas, .smallpox, tonsilitis, teething, bronchitis, and consumption, other non-suppurative diseases of the middle ear are whooping cough, scrofula, exposure and cold, disease of the throat, thickening of eardrum, croup, etc. Of the internal ear, other causes affecting the labyrinth are malformation, noise and concussion, mumps, and syphilis ; affecting the nerve, paralysis, convulsions, sunstroke, congestion of brain, and disease of nervous system; and affecting brain center, hydrocephalus and epilepsy. Among unclassified causes are also adduced neural- gia, childbirth, accident, medicine, heat, rheumatism, head- ache, fright or shock, overwork, lightning, diarrhea, chicken- pox, operation, and other causes. 20 THE DEAF Middle ear 27.2 Suppurative 19.6 Scarlet fever 11.1 Disease of ear 3.6 Measles 2.5 Influenza 0.7 Other causes 1.7 Non-suppurative 7.6 Catarrh 3.6 Colds 1.6 Other causes 2.4 Internal ear 20.7 Labyrinth 1.8 Malarial fever 1.2 Other causes 0.6 Nerves 18.5 Meningitis 9.6 Brain fever 4.7 Typhoid fever 2.4 Other causes 1.8 Brain center 0.3 Miscellaneous 0.1 Unclassified 45.3 Congenital 33.7 Old age 0.3 Military service 1.0 Falls and blows 2.8 Sickness 2.7 Fever 2.0 Hereditary 0.3 Miscellaneous 2.5 Unknown 6.2 In fairly approximate agreement with the re- turns of the census, are the records of the special schools for the deaf in respect to the causes of deafness in their pupils, with information also as to the amount from the minor diseases. The fol- lowing table will give the causes by specific diseases, as f oimd in one school, the Pennsylvania Institution, for two years : ^ * Proceedings of National Conference of Charities and Cor- rections, 1906, p. 250 ; Ceremonies of Laying of Corner Stone of Rhode Island School, 1907, p. 27. AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 21 CAUSES OF DEAFNESS OF PUPILS IN PENNSYLVANIA INSTITUTION Total number 510 Born deaf 213 Scarlet fever 43 Meningitis 36 Falls 24 Diseases of ear and throat. . . 13 Catarrh and colds 13 Measles 18 Brain fever 17 Convulsions 14 Abscesses 10 La grippe 10 Accidents (not stated) 9 Whooping cough 7 Typhoid fever 7 Diphtheria 6 Mumps 5 Paralysis 5 Marasmus 2 Pneumonia 4 Dentition Dropsy of blood 2 Chicken pox 1 Poisoning 1 Intermittent fever 1 Blood clotting on brain 1 Cholera infantum 1 Gastric fever - Sickness (not stated) 10 Unknown 37 K)6 1907 Pbb Cent Pbb Cent 100.0 500 100.0 41.8 206 41.2 8.2 47 9.4 7.1 40 8.0 4.7 25 5.0 2.6 23 4.6 2.6 3.5 18 3.6 3.3 16 3.2 2.8 13 2.6 2.0 12 2.4 2.0 7 1.4 1.8 7 1.4 1.4 7 1.4 1.4 6 1.2 1.2 6 1.2 1.0 5 1.0 1.0 4 0.8 0.4 4 0.8 0.8 2 0.4 — 2 0.4 0.4 _ 0.2 1 0.2 0.2 1 0.2 0.2 1 0.2 0.2 - — 0.2 _ — — 1 0.2 2.0 8 1.6 7.3 38 7.6 Possible Action for the Prevention of Adventi- tious Deafness In respect to present activities for the preven- tion of adventitious deafness, we find the situa- tion very much like that of marking time. Deaf- ness, since the beginning of time, has largely been accepted as the portion of a certain fraction of the race, and any serious and determined efforts 22 THE DEAF for its eradication have been considered for the most part as of little hope/ With the auditory- organs so securely hidden away in the head, entrenched within the protecting temporal bone, and with their structure so delicate and com- plicated, the problem may well have been re- garded a baffling one even for the best labor of medicine and surgery. Hence it is that after deafness has once effected lodgment in the sys- tem, a cure has not usually been regarded as within reach, though for certain individual cases there may be medical examination and treatment, with attempts made at relief. For deafness in general, it has been felt that there has been little that could be done in the way of prevention or cure beyond the preservation of the general health and the warding off of diseases that might cause loss of hearing. As a matter of fact, however, altogether too little attention has been given hitherto to the possibilities of the prevention of deafness. With- out question there is much at the outset that can be accomplished towards the prevention of those diseases that cause deafness. A large part, per- haps fully a third, as we have seen, are due to * There are no general or organized movements on foot for the prevention of deafness as there are for the prevention of blindness. This is perhaps chiefly because there are believed to be nothing like so many preventable cases of the one as of the other, so much of blindness being due to diseases that might have been avoided without great difficulty, and to acci- dents and other injuries to the eye. AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 23 » infectious diseases, and it is probably here that measures are likely to be most efficacious. A considerable portion likewise are the result of diseases affecting the passages of the nose and throat, and help should be possible for many of these if taken in hand soon enough. In certain diseases also, as scarlet fever, measles, typhoid fever, diphtheria, and others, there are not a few cases which, so far as deafness as a development is concerned, would prove amenable to skillful and persistent treatment. At the same time due attention to primary ear troubles would in a num- ber of instances keep off permanent deafness. Indeed, it is possible that some thirty or forty per cent of adventitious deafness is preventable by present known means.^ Aside from direct medical treatment for those diseases that cause deafness, there are other measures available in a program for the preven- tion of deafness. One of the foremost essentials is the report to the health authorities of all serious diseases that are liable to result in deafness. In this way proper medical care may be se- cured, and due precautions may be taken to isolate infectious cases. Even with meningitis, which is so hard usually to deal with and which is *It has been estimated that three-fourths of deafness from primary ear diseases, and one-half from infectious diseases, is preventable. See Proceedings of International Otological Con- gress, loc. cit.; Volta Review, xiv., 1912, pp. 251, 348. 24 THE DEAF so severe in its ravages, there is often some con- comitant trouble, and if made notifiable in all cases deafness from it might be checked in no inconsiderable measure. The report of births is also especially needed, and as it becomes obliga- tory in general, with the consequent detection of physical ailments or disabilities, early cases of deafness may come increasingly to notice, and timely treatment may be availed of. Particular attention is likewise necessary in respect to the medical examination of school children. The proportion of such children with impaired hear- ing is not slight, even though no great part of them become totally deaf. A committee on defective eyes and ears of school children of the National Educational Association in 1903 found that of 57,072 children examined in seven cities, 2,067, or 3.6 per cent, were extremely defective in hearing.^ An investigation of the school children in New York City has dis- closed the fact that one per cent have seriously defective hearing.^ Under proper and adequate medical inspection of schools, not only would the need of treatment for adenoids and similar troubles be brought to light, with the result that a nimiber of incipient cases might be stopped in time, but in some instances of deafness already * Proceedings, 1903, p. 1036. » Volta Review, xv., 1913, p. 136. See also ibid., v., 1903, p. 415 ; Outlook, civ., 1913, p. 997. AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 25 acquired beneficial treatment might be possible.^ There is thus a considerable sphere for action towards the prevention of adventitious deafness both by legislation and by education. For the ultimate solution of its problems, however, we have to look mainly to the medical profession. In recent years medical science has won some great triumphs, and in the field of the preven- tion of deafness no little may be in store to be accomplished in the years to come.^ Even now, with more particular attention to the diseases of children, and with stronger insistence upon gen- eral sanitary measures, the probabilities are that there is less deafness from certain diseases than formerly — a matter which we are soon to con- sider. Though as yet there has been little direct action for the prevention of adventitious deaf- ness, there is an increasing concern in the matter, and in this there is promise. By medical bodies in particular is greater attention being given to the subject,^ and in the widening recognition *See Medical and Surgical Monitor, vii., 1904, p. 47; Neio York Medical Journal, Ixxxiii., 1906, p. 816; Annals, Iv., 1910, p. 192; Volta Review, xiii., 1911, p. 332. ^The possibilities, for instance, in the use of antitoxins and vaccines in certain diseases are just beginning to be known, and some results as affect deafness may be expected from such operations. ' In 1909 a special committee in regard to the prevention of deafness was created by the Otological Section of the Ameri- can Medical Association, and in 1910 both by the American Laryngologlcal, Rhinological and Otological Society and by the 26 THE DEAF of their part as guardians of the public health it may be possible for them to do much for the enlightemnent of the public. In one state legislative action has been taken expressly for the protection of the hearing of school children. This is Massachusetts, which requires the ex- amination of the eyes and ears of the school chil- dren in every town and city, the state board of education furnishing the tests.^ In some states also general inspection of schools is mandatory by statute, and in others permissive, while in several there are local ordinances with the force of a state law. In combating adventitious deafness, then, our attack is to be directed in the largest part upon those diseases, especially infantile and infectious diseases, that cause deafness; and it is upon the checking of their spread that our main efforts for the present have to be concentrated. At the same time the better safe-guarding of the general health of the community will insure a proportionate diminution of deafness. Beyond this, we will have to wait upon the developments of medical science, both in the study of the pre- vention of diseases and of their treatment; and can trust only to what it may off er.^ American Otological Society. See Laryngoscope, xx., 1910, pp. 596-665; Yalta Review, xii., 1910, pp. 267, 545. ^Laws, 1906, ch. 502. 'On the possibilities of the prevention of adventitious deaf- AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 27 Adventitious Deafness as an Increasing or Decreas- ing Phenomenon Our main interest in the problem of adventi- tious deafness lies in the possible discovery whether or not it is relatively increasing or de- creasing among the population, and in what respects signs appear of a diminution. We have just seen the likelihood of a decrease from certain causes; but we are to find what is indicated by statistical evidence. To be considered first is adventitious deafness as a whole. Respecting it our only statistics are in the returns of the censuses since 1880, the dif- ferent forms of deafness not being distinguished before this time. The following table will show the number of the adventitiously deaf as reported by the censuses of 1880, 1890 and 1900, with their respective percentages and ratios per million of population.^ ness, see Dr. J. K. Love, *• Deaf -Mutism ", 1896 ; Archives of Otology, xxiv., 1895, p. 50 ; Journal of American Medical Asso- ciation, liii., 1909, p. 89; New York Medical Journal, 1., 1889, p. 205; Ixxxix., 1909, p. 1007; xcv., 1912, p. 1180; New York State Journal of Medicine, xii., 1912, p. 690ff. ; Maryland Medi- cal Journal, Iv., 1912, p. 33; Pediatrics, xxiv., 1912, p. 335; Popular Science Monthly, xli#., 1892, p. 211 ; " Progress in Amelioration of Certain Forms of Deafness and Impaired Hearing," Proceedings of American Association to Promote the Teaching cf Speech to the Deaf, iv., 1894; Annals, xxxiv., 1889, p. 199 ; Ivi., 1911, p. 211 ; Iviii., 1913, p. 131 ; Volta Review, xii., 1910, p. 143; xv., 1913, p. 303; New York Times, April t), 1913; Public School Health Bulletin, Eyes and Ears, by Superintendent of Public Instruction of North Carolina, 1910. " Census Reports, 1880. Report on Defective, Dependent and Delinquent Classes of the Population of the United States, 28 THE DEAE NUMBER OF THE ADVENTITIOUSLY DEAF IN 1800, 1890 AND 1900 TOTAIi ADVBWTITIOnSLX PbBCSNTAGE RaTIO NUMBXB DeAT per MILLION 0» Population 1880 33.878 10,187 30.1 20.3 1890 40,563 16,767 41.1 26.8 1900 37.426 18,164 48.4 23.9 From this it appears that adventitious deafness is increasing in relation to total deafness, which is most likely the case, as congenital deafness, as we shall see, is evidently decreasing. Whether or not adventitious deafness is increasing in respect to the general population, the table does not dis- close definitely. The statistics probably are not full enough to afford any real indication yet. Our next inquiry is in respect to the increase or decrease of adventitious deafness from the several diseases individually, which is, upon the whole, the more satisfactory test. Here also, unfortunately, our statistics are very limited, and our findings will have to fall much short of what could be desired. The following table, based on the returns of the censuses of 1880, 1890 and 1900, so far as the approximate identity of the several diseases can be established, will give the respective per- centages found.^ 1888, p. 402fe. ; Census Reports, 1890. Report on Insane, Feeble-minded, Deaf and Dumb and Blind, 1895, pp. 108ff., 648 ; Special Reports, 1906, p. 122. AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 29 CAUSES OF ADVENTITIOUS DEAFNESS IN 1880, 1890 AND 1900 1880 1890 1900 Scarlet fever 7.9 11.8 11.1 Meningitis 8.4 7.8 9.6 Catarrh and catarrhal fevers... 0.9 3.3 3.6* Diphtheria 0.2 0.5 —^ Abscess and inflammation 1.0 2.5 — ' Measles 13 2.5 2.5 Whooping cough 0.5 0.8 — ' Malarial and typhoid fevers 1.7 1.8 3.6 Other fevers 1.1 — 2.0 In this table the most noticeable thing is perhaps the persistency with which we find most of the diseases to recur, with apparently no great change, while in certain ones, as catarrh and malarial and typhoid fevers, there seems to be rather an increase. It would be best, however, not to place very great confidence in these figures, but, so far as the census reports are concerned, to wait for more precise and uniform statistics. We have, further, the statistics published in the reports of certain schools for the deaf. While these are perhaps not of sufficient extent to war- rant full conclusions, they may be regarded as quite representative ; * and though to be taken with something of the caution as the census figures, they may serve to throw some light upon * Probably with the "fevers" the proportion would be larger. ^ Less than 0.7 per cent. ^ Probably included with certain of the suppurative diseases. * Not a large number of schools, it is greatly to be regretted, give, regularly and over an extended period of time, such in- formation in statistical form and upon the same basis from year to year. 30 THE DEAF the situation. Comparison of the proportions of pupils deaf from the several diseases at different times may be made in two ways: by finding the respective proportions over a series of successive years from a certain time back down to the present, and by contrasting the proportions in two widely separated periods, one in the present and one in the past. These will be taken up in order. The following tables give the percentages of cases of deafness in pupils from the important diseases as found in six schools in successive years: in the New York Institution in the total annual attendance from 1899 to 1912; in the Michigan School in the total biennial attendance from 1883 to 1912; in the Pennsylvania Institu- tion in the number of new pupils admitted quadriennially from 1843 to 1912 ; in the Western Pennsylvania Institution in the number admitted biennially from 1887 to 1912; in the Maryland School in the number admitted biennially from 1884 to 1911 ; and in the Wisconsin School in the number admitted biennially from 1880 to 1908. AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 31 212 OS to ^ ^ >o6»c 1C1010&410 d d d d 00 <©t^OO'0OOt^t*»Ot* ^lOOOOiOOOMO^OOOO 1 ooi-iOieo^cO'-i05>coot^>-H»oco P^COl^OOO-00C0'-i'-iOt-HO'-lO»0 CO "-I 'H 1 IS »o TttOOCC^t^CCOOOOOOOSIN ■*»OOOQOtO-*.-i,-lr-l.-lOOO-* e«3 1— 1 i-H 1 M«OOOaiQOC003lOO>OST-«05'-<0»0 1 "3 0005INt-i(Mi-hOOOCOOQO'-iCOOJ rH Tj< 0^ t^ 10 ■<*< rH i-H rH (N rH ^ 1 1 ooot^ «OCD^>CeO-*rHl-(TH,-(Ol-lO-* i i rH050i05-i'-(oo-ico 1 i r-i.-i© CO X> t- 1^ CO CO (N i-l 1-1 ■-< >-" 00 1 05rH05,-oooo«o(Noo Ot^t^«-*CC0>HC0rH.-l.-(O.-H5O 1 § 1-1 I-H Tj* (N OS t^ CO (N •<*< -1 (N --( -O a> g ■^ 0-01>.r^ S «Oj-ja)OOS>CiCOCO(N(NrH^^(N . > »; » oS Ills! iS-s^ :-^-3^s Itillilllliill 050 050 00 OS OS OS 00 00 »c«o OS OS 00 00 OS OS 00 00 00 t^oo 00 00 00 00 1^4 0000 tcodd rjj^oo -at 050 i ooooeotO'0 t^ CO ■ U3»oosd»-ioo'-l-' lOSOS- idi-i. St^CO COCOOSC cslddc ) OS CO 00 <(Ndd CO 10 (NrH rHrHCOOOrHOS >OlO )(NrH 00>-(00lOCO. OOONINCOCOCOCOOSCO t>^o6(NdT}ot^wt»t^»C'i«d< TOO -H O CM >rH . -oeo h-OO 0000 CM Tjlt^t^fflOO »O00 CM t^t^ 00 0000 CM CM »-l rH t* CO 1 0000 ^ <-( CD CO 1-1 « to cm' 00 OS •-i d d t^o o «ot^ o 00 00 OO^^Ocot^^*«o^^ dd.-<-^.-^ ^n ©-a AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 33 3 22 00 05 00 00 0>0i 00 00 00 00 2 S « CS1(N rM (N -NTllTtiOi -^TjJcOCO -CO -Mb^l U50CS •<0(N CO t^ t^ t^ CO CO co^d •CO CO CO ■*'o6» Tj-lC0rHCOC0Tt<'H oo CTOi 34 THE DEAF We may take these tables together to see how the proportions of deafness from the leading dis- eases have changed in the course of the several periods indicated, proper allowance being made for the shorter length of time covered in some schools than in others. In respect to scarlet fever, one of the two foremost causes, we find in the New York Institution, the Michigan School and the Maryland School, a distinct and steady de- cline ; in the Pennsylvania Institution a decline of late years, which is especially significant in view of the extended period covered by it; and in the Western Pennsylvania and the Wisconsin School little change, though in the latter there is less than at the beginning. In meningitis, on the other hand, the second of the two most im- portant causes, a marked increase is seen in the Pennsylvania Institution for the entire period, while in the New York a sharp increase is found in the time designated, this being all the more noticeable because of the large proportion already attributed here to convulsions, often a trouble of kindred origin. In the Western Penn- sylvania Institution and the Maryland School little change is observed, though in the latter some decline is apparent in the later years. In the Wisconsin and Michigan schools a very strong decline is seen. On somewhat the same order as meningitis is brain fever. It, however, shows little AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 35 change on the whole, though in the Michigan and Maryland schools and the New York Institution some decline is evident. Of the remaining dis- eases none plays singly a large part in the causa- tion of deafness, and in most of them the results are similar. Measles, typhoid fever, diphtheria, pneumonia, and whooping cough show, with some fluctuations at times, little change on the whole, beyond certain local differences. In the New York Institution a decline is reported in nearly all. In the Pennsylvania Institution a rather larger proportion for measles is seen in later than in earlier years. In the Michigan School an in- crease seems to be the case with whooping cough, but a decrease with typhoid fever. In catarrh the results are not so uniform. In the New York and Pennsylvania institutions a decline is mani- fest, though in the latter a larger proportion is reported than at the beginning. In the Michigan and Wisconsin schools rather an increase is noted. La grippe is only reported occasionally of late years, and its real effects cannot yet be ascertained. With respect to general fevers, their classification is found to be so varying that little can be determined. We now proceed to make comparison of the proportions of deafness from the principal dis- eases in a series of years some time past with similar proportions in recent years. The follow- 36 THE DEAF ing tables give the several proportions in the American School (Connecticut) in the entire attendance from 1817 to 1844 and from 1817 to 1857, and in the new admissions from 1901 to 1913; in the Ohio School in the entire attendance from 1829 to 1872, and in the average annual attendance in 1904, 1905, 1906, and 1911; in the Iowa School in the entire attendance from 1855 to 1870 and from 1855 to 1912; and in the New York Institution in the entire attendance from 1818 to 1853 and in the average annual atten- dance from 1899 to 1912;' ^ These tables are based upon statistics given in the reports of the schools, and given in Annals, vi., 1854, p. 237; xv., 1870, p. 113; xvii., 1872, p. 167. AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 37 ^2 },H «3 og^g'«»^'<«; S?l5S O o 12 jS 1857, J PNEU- MONIA H 1817 T BRAIN FEVER :U3 o i w O !5 ta ,.; r^ rH t;j HMO 00 ^ o 55 -< ^1 f;^5 ^Si3 WOOO* >- 2 05 t3^ O g i t; o p:1 2 S 00 a O o R M H m ;? M O I C3S 8g2 -co g oo a g 2 QQ os^ ^ 11 eo ^ P s« Oh 1 2 H is S 8 "a ^ : 38 THE DEAF Taking these tables also collectively, we find in respect to scarlet fever a decline in all the schools, this being especially pronounced in the case of the Ohio. In meningitis, however, there is an increase so heavy as to call in question the accuracy of the earlier records ; and it is possible that it failed to be entirely recognized then. In most of the other diseases, as in the previous case, no very great change is perceptible. In general fevers a decline is apparent in all, in most being considerable; and probably several diseases were formerly included which are now listed separ- ately. In measles rather a decline is found in the American and Ohio schools, but a slight in- crease in the Iowa, and a somewhat larger one in the New York Institution. In typhoid fever there is a slight increase also in the Iowa School, but a decrease in the Ohio. In brain fever a considerable increase is observed in the Iowa School, but a slight decrease likewise in the Ohio. In whooping cough there is an increase in the New York Institution and the Iowa School, but a decrease in the American. Such diseases as pneumonia, diphtheria and catarrh seem not usually to have been separately classified in the past, though in the Ohio School we find diph- theria noted, and with somewhat smaller propor- tions than in later years; while in several of the AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 39 schools we find " colds " given in former times, which may have been in part really catarrh. Combining now the results of our two groups of tables, we may be able to reach some conclu- sions with respect to the increase or decrease of deafness from certain diseases, though on the whole far less definite than we could wish. In the first place, it seems safe to affirm that deafness from scarlet fever is becoming relatively less with the years; and it is possible that if it con- tinues its present rate of decline, it will in time cease to be one of the main causes of deafness. On the other hand, meningitis, its great com- panion in evil, shows a striking increase in com- parison with past years, as a cause of adventitious deafness; while its accretion may be traced as well in a series of recent years in certain schools, though not in others. But how far there is an absolute increase in meningitis over the past, and whether it is tending at present actually to in- crease, may be a matter for question. In view of the possibility that the disease was not sufficiently accounted for in the past, and in the absence of any knowledge to indicate a reason for its less prevalence in earlier years, at least not to the ex- tent indicated by the statistics, it may be that its increase is, after all, more apparent than real. The fact, moreover, that in the series of recent years a marked increase is found in some schools, 40 THE DEAF but a marked decline in others, may perhaps be taken to mean that at present meningitis may be on the increase only in certain sections, depend- ing possibly on local conditions. With the greater medical skill of to-day, and with a larger proportion of children in the schools, it may be open to considerable doubt if the movement of this disease is really one of increase, though it seems that we are on the whole making no great headway against it. As to the minor diseases causing deafness, our statistics do not indicate just to what extent and in what direction deafness from them is being affected, and no precise conclusions can at present be set down. It is probable, however, that with the increased attention to children's diseases, as we have noted, there is really less deafness from most of them than formerly.^ ' * Letters of inquiry as to whether or not " total " deafness appeared to be decreasing were sent by the writer to the profes- sors of diseases of the ear of the medical schools of Johns Hopkins University, University of Pennsylvania, Columbia Uni- versity, Cornell University, Harvard University, University of Chicago, Northwestern University, University of Michigan, and the Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia. The opinion of four of these is that such deafness is clearly decreasing; of three that little or no decrease is apparent ; while by two no opinion can be vouched yet. The greatest encouragement is found in respect to treatment for middle ear affections and in- fections from fevers. By Dr. S. MacCuen Smith, of the Jeffer- son Medical College, it is believed that there is a decrease, " largely due to the fact that not only the general medical profession, but the public at large, are recognizing the importance of having the minor aural lesions promptly and properly cared for. This being the case, it is no longer possi- ble for children in the public schools to continue their studies AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 41 The Congenitally Deaf When we come to consider the question of congenital deafness, which comprises a Httle over a third of the total amount of deafness, we have an even more difficult problem on our hands, for here we are to deal with some of the great ques- tions of heredity — though hereditary deafness and congenital deafness are not altogether one and the same thing.^ For the purposes of our inquiry, let us think of the congenitally deaf as divided into three great classes in respect to their family relations: 1. the offspring of parents who were cousins; 2. the offspring of parents who were themselves deaf or members of families in which there are other deaf relatives; and 3. the product of families without either consanguinity or antecedent deafness. Of these three classes the first two only will engage our attention. Of the last, comprising, according to the census, when suffering from diseased tonsils and enlarged adenoid vegetations. From this cause alone, many cases of impair- ment of hearing which usually occur later in life will be pre- vented in the future". By Dr. E. A. Crockett, of Harvard University, it is believed that, although there is a larger amount of deafness from measles, there is less, not only from scarlet fever, but also from chronic suppurations, from adenoid and throat troubles in general, and even from meningitis, owing to the use of serums. Regarding his own observations, within a period of twenty-five years " the number of extremely deaf persons and deaf-mutes has very materially diminished ". * Hereditary deafness is sometimes of a kind that mani- fests itself some years after birth, often with certain relatives similarly affected. This is especially true of catarrhal and middle ear affections, though their results may more often be partial rather than total deafness. 42 THE DEAF nine-twentieths, or 44.4 per cent, of the con- genitally deaf, there is not much that we can say. For a great part of it there no doubt exists in the parent, or perhaps in a more remote ancestor, some abnormal strain, physical or mental, in the nature of disease or other defect. But in respect to such deafness we have too little in the way of statistical data to help us arrive at any real deter- mination; and for it as a whole we shall have to wait till we have greater knowledge of eugenics and the laws of heredity.^ The Offspring of Consanguineous Marriages Not all the deaf born of consanguineous marriages are congenitally deaf, but as the majority are so, and as the fact of the parents being blood relatives is assumed to have at least a contributing influence in the result, we may con- sider the matter in this place. It is in fact closely connected with the question of deaf relatives in general. In the census investigations,^ of the number who answered on this point, 2,525, or 7.4 per cent, have parents who were cousins. Of these *In a part of such deafness, and also in a portion of that occurring shortly after birth, the cause is said to be syphilis. See Proceedings of International Otological Congress, ix., 1913, p. 49; Volta Review, xiv., 1912, p. 348; xv., 1913, p. 209. » Special Reports, pp. 125, 236. There were 3,341 who failed to answer, and if all had made reply, our percentage would probably be higher yet. AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 43 cases, deafness occurred in 87 per cent before the fifth year of age, and in 60 per cent at birth. Of all the deaf bom without hearing, 13.5 per cent are the offspring of consanguineous mar- riages. The proportion of those born deaf is thus nearly twice as great when the parents are cousins as it is among the whole class of the congenitally deaf; and the proportion is also nearly twice as great of the offspring of con- sanguineous marriages among the congenitally deaf as the proportion of the deaf from such marriages among the total number of the deaf. Moreover, 55.0 per cent of the offspring of cousin-marriages have deaf relatives of some kind, and of the congenitally deaf from cousin- marriages, 65,6 per cent have deaf relatives; while the respective proportions when the parents are not cousins are 25.5 per cent and 40.7 per cent — in the one case less than half, and in the other two-thirds, as great. Further statistics bear out the findings of the census. Dr. E. A. Fay in his " Marriages of the Deaf " ^ — a work we are soon to notice — finds that, though consanguineous marriages form only about one per cent of the total number con- sidered, 30.0 per cent of the children of deaf parents who are cousins are deaf, and that 45.1 per cent of such marriages result in deaf off- »P. 108. 44 THE DEAF spring ; but that when the parents are not cousins, the respective proportions are 8.3 per cent and 9.3 per cent — only about a fourth and a fifth as great. In the Colorado School, out of 567 pupils in attendance from the beginning to 1912, in 17, or 3 per cent, the parents were related before marriage. In the Kentucky School, out of 83 pupils admitted in 1910 and 1911, 18, or 19.3 per cent, and out of 42 admitted in 1912 and 1913, 8, or 19 per cent, were the offspring of parents who were cousins. In the Iowa School, out of 62 admissions in 1911 and 1912, 4, or 6.5 per cent, and in the Maryland School, out of a total attendance in 1911 of 135, 13, or 9.2 per cent, had parents who were cousins.^ Consanguineous marriages, so far as the effect on deafness is concerned, are not of relatively fre- quent occurrence. But where they do take place, there is found a decided connection between them and deafness, the increased tendency thus to transmit a physical abnormality being plain. How far, however, if at all, such deafness is to be directly ascribed to consanguineous mar- riages, is a matter for question. The main con- * In the Louisiana School 10 per cent of the pupils are said to have parents who were blood relatives ; in the Illinois, 5 per cent; and in the Kansas, from 5 to 5.5 per cent. Re- port of Louisiana School, 1906, p. 17. See also Transactions of American Medical Association, xi., 1858, pp. 321-425; Pro- ceedings of Conference of Principals, iii., 1876, p. 204; AnnaU, xxU., 1877, p. 242, AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 45 sideration seems to be that in such marriages the chances are at least doubled of the offspring acquiring the characteristics of the parents; and that in them the liability is thus proportionately enhanced of transmitting deafness/ The Deaf Having Deaf Relatives We are now to examine what traces there may be of deafness in a family by noting what propor- tion of the deaf have deaf relatives, and are to attempt to see what may be its bearings upon the question of heredity. In the census investiga- tions,^ we find that out of 34,780 deaf persons who answered, there are 10,033, or 28.8 per cent, who have deaf relatives of some kind, direct or collateral, 8,170, or 23.5 per cent, having deaf brothers, sisters or ancestors. In all of these we can without difficulty discover the influ- ence of heredity. In the congenitally deaf the trace of a physical defect is even more clearly in- dicated. Of these 40.1 per cent have deaf brothers, sisters or ancestors, and 46.2 per cent have also deaf uncles, cousins, etc.^ It is thus evident that there are certain fam- ilies in society deeply tinged with deafness, that ^On this subject, see Francis Galton. "Natural Inher- itance", 1889, p. 132ff. See also G. B. L. Arner, "Consangu- ineous Marriages", 1908, p. 65ff.; C. B. Davenport, "Heredity in Relation to Eugenics ", 1911, p. 124fe. ' Special Reports, pp. 128, 235, and passim. » These proportions are further indicated in the succeeding section. 46 THE DEAF it sometimes passes from parent to child, from generation to generation, and that Hke a cloud it hangs over a section of the race. The Offspring of Deaf Parents All this argument leads up to one most per- tinent question: Are the statistics which we have indicative that this deafness which passes so re- morselessly in certain families will be found all the stronger in the children of deaf parents? Have we ground to believe or fear that this deaf- ness will crop out far more surely than in the children of parents not deaf? And can we deter- mine to what extent possibilities are increased of the offspring of deaf parents being likewise deaf? Let us now consider the statistics which we have in this matter, first examining the results of the census investigation.^ Of the 8,022 mar- ried deaf persons for whom statements are made, we find that there are 190 who have deaf off- spring, or 2.4 per cent. Of the 4,116 deaf persons who are married to deaf persons, 137 have deaf children, or 3.3 per cent; and of the 3,906 deaf persons married to hearing persons, 53 have deaf children, or 1.4 per cent. Of the married deaf having deaf children, 52.5 per cent have deaf re- latives of some kind, and 54.7 per cent are con- genitally deaf, the proportion of those having » Special Reports, p. 135ff. AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 47 deaf relatives who are also congenitally deaf be- ing 66.7 per cent. Of the deaf married to hear- ing partners, who have deaf children, 26.4 per cent are congenitally deaf, while 50.9 per cent of the partners in such marriages have deaf re- latives of some kind. From the census statistics, then, it appears that the married deaf as a class do not have a large proportion of deaf children, and that this proportion is only a little more than twice as great when the deaf are married to the deaf as when they are married to the hearing. It ap- pears also, however, that when there are deaf rel- atives involved in either kind of marriages, or when there is congenital deafness in the deaf parent, the effect is quite marked in the offspring. Besides the census returns, we have the statis- tics presented in the reports of certain schools, which are found to point, as far as they go, to the same conclusions. In the Kentucky School, out of 83 pupils admitted in 1910 and 1911, there were none the children of deaf parents, though 35, or 30.1 per cent, had deaf relatives; and out of 42 admitted in 1912 and 1913, there were 2, or 4.8 per cent, the children of deaf parents, and 12, or 28.8 per cent, with deaf relatives. In the Iowa School, out of 62 admissions in 1911 and 1912, 4, or 6.5 per cent, had deaf parents, and 21, or 33.9 per cent, " defective " relatives. In the Michigan 48 THE DEAF School, with an annual enrollment of some three hundred, there were from 1903 to 1908 but three children of deaf parents/ In the Colorado School, out of a total attendance since its found- ing to 1912 of 567, 3, or 0.57 per cent, were the children of deaf parents, though 83, or 14.6 per cent, had deaf relatives. In the Missouri School, out of a similar attendance to 1912 of 2,174 there were 52, or 2.4 per cent, with deaf parents, though there were 235, or 10.8 per cent, with deaf relatives.^ The most exhaustive study of the question of the liability of the deaf to deaf offspring is that of Dr. E. A. Fay in his " Marriages of the Deaf " — covering the majority of the marriages of the deaf in America at the time it was made (1898) .^ Statistical information is presented for 7,227 deaf persons and for 3,078 marriages with either deaf or hearing partners.* In the following ^Report, 1908, p. 31. ^ Out of 107 children born to former pupils of the Minnesota School up to 1892, 2, or 1.9 per cent, were deaf. Report, 1892, p. 39. Out of 811 children born to former pupils of the Ameri- can School up to 1891, 105, or 12.9 per cent, were deaf. Re- port, 1891, p. 20. 'The study had been originally planned by Dr. F. H. Wines for the International Record of Charities and Corrections. See issue for October, 1888. The work was published by the Volta Bureau. For a discussion of the results, see Association Review, ii., 1900, p. 178; Publications of American Statistical Association, yi., 1899, p. 353; Biometrika (London), iv., 1904-5, p. 465. See also charts in current numbers of Volta Review. ^ From the total number of marriages, 974 were deducted, being cases concerning the offspring of which no information AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 49 table are summarized the results of this investi- gation.^ MARRIAGES OF DEAF PERSONS NTTMBEB OP MARBIAQE8 NUMBEK OP CHILDnEN Partners in Marriage Total Result- ing in deaf children Per cent Total Deaf Per cent One or both deaf 3,078 2,377 699 300 220 75 9.7 9.2 12.5 6,782 5,072 1,532 588 429 151 8.6 Both deaf 8.4 One deaf, other hearing 9.8 One or both congenitally deaf.. One or both adventitiously deaf 1,477 2,212 194 124 13.1 5.6 3,401 4.701 413 199 12.1 4.2 Both congenitally deaf One congenitally, other adven- titiously deaf 335 814 845 83 66 30 24.7 8.1 3.5 779 1,820 1,720 202 119 40 25.9 6.5 Both adventitiously deaf 2.3 One congenitally deaf, other 191 310 28 10 14.6 3.2 528 713 63 16 11.9 One adventitiously deaf, other hearing 2.2 Both had deaf relatives One had deaf relatives.other not Neither had deaf relatives 437 541 471 103 36 11 23.5 6.6 2.3 1,060 1,210 1,044 222 78 13 20.9 6.4 1.2 Both congenitally deaf Both had deaf relatives One had deaf relatives.other not Neither had deaf relatives 172 49 14 49 8 1 28.4 16.3 7.1 429 105 24 130 21 1 30.3 20.0 4.1 Both adventitiously deaf Both had deaf relatives One had deaf relatives, other not Neither had deaf relatives 57 167 284 10 7 2 17.5 4.1 0.7 114 357 650 11 10 2 9.6 2.8 0.3 Partners consanguineous 31 14 45.1 100 30 30.0 It is thus seen that 9.7 per cent of the mar- riages of the deaf result in deaf offspring, and that 8.6 per cent of the children born of them are deaf — proportions far greater than for the the population generally.^ A striking fact to be could be obtained, and also 434 cases where there were no off- spring. ^From p. 134. It has also been computed by Dr. Fay from his data that of 5,455 married deaf persons, 300, or 5.5 per cent, have deaf offspring. Annals, lii., 1907, p. 253. 2 The proportions for the general population are hardly over 0.3 per cent and 0.05 per cent respectively. 50 THE DEAF noted, however, is that these proportions are greater when one parent is deaf and the other hearing than when both are deaf. The per- centage of marriages resulting in deaf offspring when only one parent is deaf is 12.5, and when both are deaf, 9.2; while the percentage of deaf children born of them when only one parent is deaf is 9.8, and when both are deaf, 8.4. This is apparently a very strange result, though it probably may be accounted for in some part on the theory that it is not so much deafness itself that is inherited, but rather an abnormality of the auditory organs, or a tendency to disease, of which deafness is a result or symptom, and that with different pathological conditions in the parent there is less likelihood of deafness result- ing. The most significant part of the results seems to be found, as before, in respect to whether or not deaf parents are themselves congenitally deaf or have deaf relatives. On the one hand, when one or both of the parents are adventitiously deaf, the percentage of marriages resulting in deaf chil- dren is 5.6, and the percentage of deaf children is 4.2 ; when both parents are so, the percentages are lower: 3.5 and 2.3. The percentages rise when one parent is adventitiously deaf, and the other congenitally: 8.1 and 6.5, In respect to deaf relatives of parents, the percentages are very AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 51 low when neither has such relatives: 2.3 and 1.2. The lowest percentages of all are in the case where both parents are adventitiously deaf and neither has deaf relatives: 0.7 and 0.3. On the other hand, we find the proportion of marriages resulting in deaf offspring and the proportion of deaf children much greater when there is congenital deafness in one or both par- ents, when one or both have deaf relatives, and greatest of all when these influences are com- bined. When one or both parents are congen- itally deaf, the percentage of marriages result- ing in deaf offspring is 13.1, and the percentage of deaf children is 12.1 ; when both parents are so, the percentages are doubled: 24.7 and 25.9. When one parent has deaf relatives and the other has not, the percentages are 6.6 and 6.4; when both have, the percentages are nearly four times as great: 23.5 and 20.9. When both parents are congenitally deaf but neither has deaf rela- tives, the percentages are 7.1 and 4.1. When both are adventitiously deaf and both have deaf relatives, the percentages are 17.5 and 9.6. When both are congenitally deaf and one has deaf relatives, the percentages are 16.3 and 20.0; and when both have deaf relatives, the percen- tages are 28.4 and 30.3. The evidence is very strong, then, with regard to the form of deafness and the presence or ab- 52 THE DEAF sence of deaf relatives. In cases where the par- ents are not eongenitally deaf and have no deaf relatives, the proportion of deaf children is very low. When one or both parents are eongenitally deaf or have deaf relatives — when the deafness is inherited or in the family — the likelihood be- comes far greater, and greater still when the two influences are in con j miction. In general, in re- spect to the influences of heredity upon deafness, the main determinants seem to be found in the existence in the parties, whether hearing or deaf, of deaf relatives, and, to a less extent, in the ex- istence in parties who are deaf of congenital deafness. Possible Action fob the Prevention of Congenital Deafness We come now to the consideration of the ques- tion of possible action for the prevention of con- genital deafness. This examination naturally centers about the matter of the regulation of mar- riage, with due attention to the extent that action on the part of the state is to be regarded as desirable or feasible. We have seen that congenital deafness may, hypothetically, be divided into three distinguish- able classes: that in which consanguineous mar- riages are concerned, that in which there is antecedent deafness in the family, and that in AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 53 which neither of these conditions occurs; and in our inquiry it has seemed best to take up each of these separately. It may be, however, that there is in fact no very radical difference between these several forms, and that with increased knowledge on the subject a more or less intimate relation will be found to exist. Of that form of deafness in which neither con- sanguineous marriages nor antecedent deafness is involved, we are at present, as we have noted, able to say little definitely. In most cases we may be convinced that there exists in the parent some peculiar state of morbidity or other affection, latent or manifest, perhaps to some extent of hereditary influence, which has an effect on the organs of hearing of the offspring. A certain proportion is quite possibly due to recognizable defects both of physical and mental character. Our statistical evidence, however, in respect to this form of congenital deafness is too slight to warrant any positive deductions; and we will have to wait for further investigation to deter- mine its nature fully. None the less, marriage of persons known to be liable to have ill effect on possible offspring is objectionable for not a few reasons, from the standpoint of the interests of society ; and in their reduction there will probably be a greater or less diminution of congenital deaf- ness. 54 THE DEAF With regard to consanguineous marriages and their effect on deafness we are on surer ground, so far as may be indicated by statistical data. This question is found in very great measure to be connected with that of deaf relatives in general. The matter appears to be largely a part of a law of wide application, namely, that in the blood relationship of parents the possibilities are intensified of the perpetuation of a certain strain, which holds true no less with the transmission of deafness. Consanguineous marriages are per- haps not of sufficiently frequent occurrence, so far as concerns the effect on deafness, to require special action ; but in the consideration of such marriages in general, their part in the causation of deafness should have due weight; and whatever may be said regarding them in other relations, they are to be avoided if we wish to remove all chances of this kind of deafness resulting. The problem of deaf relatives and their con- nection with congenital deafness is a very large one. Attention however, has mostly been fo- cused upon it in relation to the intermarriage of the deaf and its effect upon their offspring. In- deed, in such unions there has already been more or less concern, and there has even been question whether it is a wise or unwise policy to allow the deaf to marry other deaf persons. The deaf, as AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 55 we shall discover, not only find their companions for social intercourse among similar deaf persons, but a fortiori very often seek such persons for their partners in marriage — in fact, more often than they do hearing partners, nearly three- fourths of the married deaf being married to deaf partners.^ Not only has it been feared that the offspring of such marriages might likewise be deaf, but there has also been apprehension lest in their encouragement there might result a deaf species of the race.^ From our discussion, however, we have found that in most of the marriages of the deaf we have but small reason for disquiet. If deafness in the parent is really adventitious, there is little pos- sibility of its passing on to the offspring. When *The proportion of the married deaf who are married to deaf partners is found by Dr. Fay to be 72.5 per cent, and of those married to hearing partners, 20 per cent, there being no information for the remaining 7.5 per cent. The census re- turns, however, give the respective proportions as 51.3 per cent and 48.7 per cent. ^ See Proceedings of National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1879, p. 214; A. G. Bell, "The Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race", Memoirs, 1883, ii, part 4, p. 177 ; Proceedings of Conference of Principals, i., 1868, p. 91 ; v., 1884, p. 205; A. G. Bell, "Marriage, an Address to the Deaf", 1898; Evidence before the Royal Commission on the Deaf, etc., 1892, ii., pp. 74-129 ; Annals, xxix., 1884, pp. 32, 72 ; XXX., 1885, p. 155; xxxiii., 1888, pp. 37, 206; Popular Science Monthly, xvii., 1885, p. 15; Science, Aug., 1890, to March, 1891 (xvi., xvii.) ; Arena, xii., 1895, p. 130; Association Review, x., 1908, p. 166; Volta Review, xiv., 1912, p. 184; Proceedings of Reunion of Alumni of Wisconsin School for the Deaf, vi., 1891, p. 46 ; National Association of the Deaf, iv., 1893, p. 112 ; ix., 1910, p. 69; Report of Board of Charities of New York, 1911, L, p. 150. 56 THE DEAF the deafness in the parent is itself congenital, the situation becomes more serious. If in such case there is no added risk from the existence of deaf relatives, the likelihood of transmitting deafness need not always be a matter of deep concern, though the hazard is materially larger than for adventitious deafness. When there are deaf rela- tives involved, the peril, made stronger if coupled with congenital deafness, is most pronounced; and, indeed, the existence of collateral deafness seems a more certain sign of warning than direct heredity itself. Finally, even in the marriage of the deaf with the hearing, the dangers are not in fact lessened if conditions otherwise unchanged are attendant. What action should be taken in respect to that part of the deaf who may marry under conditions favorable to the production of deaf offspring is not at present clear. Legislation would not ap- pear on the whole to be advisable ; ^ and the exer- tion of moral suasion, so far as possible, in the individual cases concerned would seem a more acceptable course. The matter, however, really belongs in the province of eugenics, and we will probably do best to await the authoritative pro- *No statutory action seems ever to have been taken in the matter. In Connecticut, however, in 1895 when a law (Laws, ch. 325) was enacted forbidding the marriage of the feeble- minded and epileptic, a provision respecting the congenitally deaf and blind came near being included. Annals, xl., 1895, p. 310. AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 57 nouncement of its decrees before full procedure is resolved upon. Congenital Deafness as an Increasing oe Decreas- ing Phenomenon The final matter to be ascertained in respect to congenital deafness is whether it is relatively in- creasing or decreasing. The following table will show the number of the congenitally deaf in the censuses of 1880, 1890, and 1900, with their respective percentages and the ratios per million of population.^ » Census Reports, 1880. Report on Defective, Dependent and Delinquent Classes of the Population of the United States, 1888, p. 402fC. ; Census Reports, 1890, Report on Insane, Feeble- minded. Deaf and Dumb and Blind, 1895, pp. 108ff., 684; Special Reports, 1906, p. 122. The ages of the deaf were re- ported less fully in 1880 than in 1890, and less fully in 1890 , than in 1900; and if we take the numbers of those whose ages were reported in these three censuses, we have the fol- lowing table, showing the proportion of the congenitally deaf. THE CONGENITALLY DEAF ACCORDING TO NUMBERS IN WHICH AGE WAS REPORTED Whose Age Congenitally Per Was Reported Deaf Cent 1880 22,473 12.155 54.7 1890 37,204 16,866 45.8 1900 35.479 12,609 35-3 If we assume that the proportion of the congenitally deaf to all the deaf in each census was the same that it was among the cases in which the age of the occurrence of deafness was reported, we have this table to show the number of the con- genitally deaf and the ratio of the deaf among the popula* tion. THE CONGENITALLY DEAF ACCORDING TO NUMBERS ASSUMED Assumed Number op Ratio Per Congenitally Million op Deaf Population 1880 18.531 369 1890 18,375 293 1900 13.286 175 These tables are taken from Annals, li., 1906, p. 487. 58 THE DEAF NUMBER OF THE CONGENITALLY DEAF IN 1880, 1890, AND 1900 Ratio pbb Total Congkn^itallt Per Million of Nttmbeb Deaf Cent Population 1880 33,878 12,155 35.6 242 1890 40,562 16,866 41.2 269 1900 37,426 12,609 33.7 166 From this it appears that congenital deafness is decreasing both in relation to all deafness, and to the general population. For further statistics, we may revert to our tables under adventitious deafness. In the tables relating to periods of successive recent years we find in respect to three schools, the New York and Western Pennsylvania institutions and the Maryland School, with certain fluctuations, no great change on the whole, though the last named school shows still a very high proportion. In two schools, the Michigan and Wisconsin, rather an increase is observed. In the Pennsylvania In- stitution, which covers a period of seventy years, there is a decrease from over 50 per cent to less than 40. A better test perhaps lies in the comparison of the proportions found for congenital deafness in the tables relating to periods widely separated in time. In these an increase is seen in the single case of the Ohio School; while a decrease is apparent in three, namely, the American and Iowa schools and the New York Institution. These decreases in percentages are respectively AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 59 from 44.8 and 50.1 to 35.2; from 37.2 to 26.9; and from 42.9 to 38.0.^ From the evidence that we have, then, taken together, it seems reasonable to conclude that con- genital deafness is, though slowly, becoming less in the course of the years. Conclusions with Respect to the Elimination or Prevention of Deafness Most of what has been said in this chapter with respect to the elimination or prevention of deaf- ness may be summed up as follows : 1. There are two kinds of deafness — adventi- tious and congenital. Of the total number of cases adventitious deafness comprises nearly two- thirds, and congenital deafness a little over one- third. 2. Nearly all adventitious deafness is caused by some disease of infancy or childhood attacking the middle or internal ear, a large part being of infectious character. The two chief diseases causing such deafness are scarlet fever and men- ingitis, with a less amount from brain fever, ty- * In the three schools where an increase in congenital deaf- ness appears to be found, namely, those of Michigan, Wisconsin and Ohio, a partial explanation probably lies in the fact that in these states a number of day schools have been created of late years, which are not likely to draw congenitally deaf pupils to the extent that the institutions do, thus leaving a larger proportion for the latter. See also E. A. Fay, op. cit., p. 125. 60 THE DEAE phoid fever, measles, catarrh, diphtheria, whoop- ing cough, etc. A considerable part of this deafness is pre- L?^le under enlightened action. Medical sci- «^nc6 is principally in control of the situation, but tkere is also much that can be done in general measures for the protection of the health. In attacking the problem, the most immediate practical program lies in the arrest of those diseases, especially infantile and infectious dis- eases, that cause deafness. 4. Our evidence is incomplete to determine definitely whether adventitious deafness is in- creasing or decreasing relatively among the popu- lation ; but it is hardly other than likely that it is decreasing. Although certain diseases producing deafness fail to show any extensive signs of abate- ment, there are other diseases from which there can be little doubt that deafness is decreasing. 5. In the outlook there is, on the whole, prom- ise, both in respect to the treatment of deafness itself and of the diseases that lead to deafness, though it cannot be said in any sense that any large or general relief is at present in sight. 6. Of congenital deafness nearly half occurs in families often without any positively known strain to indicate a predisposition to deafness. Though concerning this deafness little in the present state of our knowledge can be predicated. AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT 61 it is likely that with measures to secure a race sound in all particulars there will be a reduction to a greater or less extent of such deafness^ ' ,* 7. Consanguineous marriages do not tal^ place, so far as deafness as an effect is concerned^ to any great extent; though where they do the consequences are very marked. Their relation to deafness consists apparently for the greatest part in the fact that the chances of its transmission are thereby intensified, there being also a very strong connection with the question of deaf rel- atives in general. 8. There are a certain number of families in society deeply tainted with deafness, in evidence both lineally and collaterally, and this deafness may be transmitted from parent to offspring. 9. Children of deaf parents are far more likely to be deaf than children of hearing parents. 10. The^reatmajority of the children of dea£^^ parents, however, are able to hear, the proportioi| of those who are not being small. 11. The likelihood of deaf offspring is not ^^ necessarily greater when both parents are deaf than when one is deaf and the other hearing. 12. The liability to deaf offspring depends in the greatest degree upon the presence or absence in the parents, deaf or hearing, of deaf relatives, and, to a less extent, upon whether or not the . existing deafness is congenital — being especially 62 THE DEAF great under a combination of these two condi- tions. 13. Action in respect to marriages of the deaf likely to result in deaf offspring seems for the present rather to be limited to moral forces. 14. Congenital deafness appears, from all the evidence, to be decreasing relatively among the population, though probably only at a very slow rate. 15. Finally, with respect to our original in- quiry, it is to be said that there are no indications that deafness will disappear from the human race within any time which we can measure ; and hence that the deaf are to be in society not only for a season, but for a period apparently as yet indefinite. Nevertheless the situation is not without encouragement. From the data in our possession regarding deafness as a whole, it seems certain that deafness is not on the increase rel- atively among the population. From our knowl- edge concerning adventitious deafness, the prob- abilities are that, if anything, it is decreasing; while the evidence as to congenital deafness is that it is decreasing. It is likely, then, that deafness in general is tending to decrease; and we are thus justified in believing that the number of the deaf will in time become less. CHAPTER III TREATMENT OF THE DEAF BY THE STATE General Attitude of the Law towards the Deaf AFTER examination of the question of how long the deaf are to be an element of the population, our discussion turns to their position at present as an actual part of society. The first relation to be considered is that of the state to them. The state acts on men through the law, and in the law is represented not only its authority, but its attitude as well towards the problems that confront society, including the treatment of the various elements of its population. In this chapter it is our purpose by a study of the law in respect to the deaf to discover the attitude of the state towards them and the treatment which it has accorded them. Generally in ancient and even in more modern days the deaf, especially the congenitally deaf without education, have been held in the eyes of the law more or less as though they were an abnormal element in the state, at times being re- garded as though they were of defective minds, 63 64 THE DEAF and now and then being considered practically as idiots. Though there was usually meditated no unduly harsh treatment of the deaf, they were for the most part deemed incapable of performing the full duties of citizenship, certain of the rights that belonged to their f ellowmen were denied to them, and they were held in considerable degree in what amounted to legal bondage. It was only in the course of time in most countries that the law came to look upon the deaf differently, to regard them more as normal persons, and to grant them in greater measure the rights of other men.^ In America the attention of the law has been directed to the deaf both by legislation relating to them, and by court decisions affecting them. In addition, in the constitutions of a number of states, as we shall see, provision is made for institutions for the education of the deaf; and in one state, Mississippi, ^ a provision is found * The legal treatment of the deaf, however, in past times has not been as severe as has been often supposed. Both the Justinian Code and the Civil Law, as well as the Common Law, granted a number of rights to the deaf, these being in some cases as far as the policy of the law would permit. In a few instances a not unsympathetic attitude was displayed towards them. In the early Roman law and in some other systems word of mouth was necessary to accomplish certain legal acts, and this of course bore hardly upon the deaf. In all cases it was the deaf-mute from birth who suffered most. On this sub- ject, see A. C. Gaw. "The Legal Status of the Deaf," 1907; H. P. Peet, " Legal Rights and Responsibilities of the Deaf," 1857 (Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, iv., p. 17). 2 Constitution, 1890, sec. 243. The blind are also included in the exemption. LEGAL TREATMENT 65 exempting the deaf from the payment of a poll tax. The law cannot be said to have con- cerned itself extensively with the deaf, but the light in which they have been viewed has been indicated fairly clearly. Judicial dicta and opinions have been of less frequency and im- portance than legislation, and have rather dealt with the mental capacity of the deaf in certain legal relations and proceedings, as in their re- sponsibility for crimes, the making of wills, the appointment of interpreters, etc. Legislation it- self has not often been engaged in providing for the deaf as a special class, beyond maintaining schools for the education of the young. Where this legislation has taken place, it may be said to be of three kinds. First, the deaf have been re- garded as mentally deficient or incapable of cer- tain civic actSj and discriminatory laws have been enacted. Next, the deaf have been thought to need special consideration or protection on the part of the state, and laws have been passed for the appointment of guardians or otherwise for their security or benefit. The third class of legislation is where the state bases its action upon the supposed weakness of the deaf, their " phy- sical disability," as it is frequently termed, and here we have a series of what may be called negative benefactions, designed to make less hard the way of the deaf. Such special provision has 66 THE DEAF consisted chiefly in the remission of taxes in cer- tain instances or of some other form of more or less direct assistance. Legislation Discriminatoey eespecting the Deaf Legislation which may be termed discrim- inatory in respect to the deaf has really been of but slight extent/ In Georgia we find an enact- ment of 1840,^ in which the deaf were to be re- garded pro tanto as idiots, so far as concerned the managing of their estates, though this was in fact intended for their protection. In New Mexico a law has been enacted, forbidding those deaf by birth from making wills, unless their in- tention is declared in writing ; ^ and in Louisiana a deaf man is incapable of acting as a witness to a testament.* In several states, as New York and Massachusetts, there have been enactments in regard to deaf-mute immigrants together with other classes who might be likely to become a * In New York we find an early reference to the deaf in the rules adopted in 1761 by the state assembly regarding suf- frage qualifications in the election of its own members, one of which rules declared that " no man deaf and dumb from his nativity has a vote," though this may have been partly due to the fact that nearly all voting then was viva voce. William Smith, " History of the Late Province of New York," 1830, ii., p. 358. ^ Laws, p. 110. A Kentucky statute refers to " idiots and those by speech or sign incapable" of understanding (Stat., 1894, § 2149), but the deaf may not necessarily be included. "Cod. Laws, 1865, ch. 3, § 2; 1884, § 1378. *Civ. Code, 1838, § 1852; 1898, § 1591. LEGAL TREATMENT 67 public charge, with the exaction of bond as security.^ In Georgia ^ there is an enactment in reference to various itinerant concerns which might leave deaf persons, as well as others, in the state as public charges.^ Legislation in Protection of the Deaf Legislation of the second class, where the deaf are thought to require particular consideration or protection, has likewise been infrequent. The first instance is an enactment of Massachusetts in 1776, * relating to the appointment, on certain occasions, of guardians for the deaf, especially those deaf " from their nativity," together with other persons — which is probably the earliest statutory reference to the deaf in America. A later example is an enactment in Georgia in 1818,^ and still in force, providing for the ap- pointment of guardians, on somewhat the same * In 1849 New York required the masters of ships landing in New York City to report to the mayor what passengers were deaf, blind or insane. Laws, ch. 350. See also Laws, 1851, ch. 523; 1881, ch. 427. See Public Statutes of Massachusetts, 1882, p. 468. The present United States immigration laws do^ not directly exclude the deaf, but they have been thought at' times to have been made to bear unduly upon them. *Code, 1911, § 559. The application is to "proprietors of circuses and other migratory companies." ' In a few states, as California and New York, attempts have been made to secure laws barring the deaf from licenses to run automobiles. Such measures, however, are to be re- garded less as discrimination against the deaf than for the public safety. *Laws, 1776, ch. 20. "Laws, 1818, p. 342; 1840, p. 345; Code, 1911, § 3089. 68 THE DEAF order as that which we have indicated, for deaf and dumb persons incapable of managing their estates. In New Jersey in 1838 ^ a law was enacted, forbidding deaf persons under seven- teen years of age to be bound out as apprentices. In Ohio a statute also of 1838 ^ provided for guardians for the deaf, and several modern statutes are somewhat of this nature. In Maine the deaf cannot be sent to the reform school.^ In Arkansas * and Missouri ^ it is provided that the court may appoint guardians for deaf persons from fourteen to twenty-one years of age in case of the death of a parent. Of somewhat different character, but still for the protection of the deaf, is the enactment in several states, as Wisconsin ® and Virginia,"^ where injury or abuse of the deaf is made a matter of special attention in the law. Legislation in Aid of the Deaf Examples of legislation designed to be of material aid to the deaf are rather more common, "Laws, p. 128. *Laws, 1838, p. 40; 1841, p. 573. •Rev. Stat, 1883, ch. 142, § 2. * Digest, 1894, § 3571; 1904, § 3760. » Stat, 1872, p. 672 ; Rev. Stat., 1909, § 407. In Kansas by opinion of the attorney-general, the juvenile court laws do not apply to the deaf. •Gen. Stat, 1898, p. 2672. Abuse or ill-treatment of an in- mate of a state institution for the deaf, the blind and other classes may be punished by fine or imprisonment. ' Laws, 1908, p. 55. It is made a misdemeanor to abduct or kidnap inmates of " deaf and dumb and blind hospitals ". LEGAL TREATMENT 69 the chief of which, as we have noted, is the exemp- tion from the payment of some personal or prop- erty tax/ Thus is Missouri we find a statute of 1843 ^ allowing a deaf man to be exempt from the poll tax and the tax on property up to $300. Indiana in 1848 ^ exempted its deaf and blind citizens from a poll tax and a property tax up to $500. Mississippi * exempted these classes from the road duty in 1878, and two years later from the poll tax as well, this exemption being incor- porated in the state constitution, as we have seen. Tennessee ^ in 1895 also exempted from the poll tax the deaf, the blind and those incapable of labor. In Pennsylvania legislation seems to have gone the furthest in its desire to be of material help to the deaf, for here we find the deaf with the blind exempted from the penalties which usually apply to tramps.^ Such are instances of this form of legislation, but similar legislation has been enacted in other states. Very rare are instances where the state makes special provision for the care of, or extends special poor relief to, any of its deaf population. * In several states there are provisions in regard to the em- ployment of interpreters for the deaf. See Code of Georgia, 1911, § 5864 ; Gen. Laws of Rhode Island, 1909, § 3855. ^Laws, p. 202. 'Laws, ch. 76. *Laws, 1878, ch. 52; 1880, p. 20. ''Laws, 1895, ch. 120; Ann. Code, 1896, § 686. "Purdon's Digest, 1903, p. 5023. In Georgia persons deaf and blind are expressly permitted to make wills if properly scrutinized. Code, 1911, § 3844. 70 THE DEAF The chief example seems to be the action of some of the New England states with their so-called " missions for the deaf." These are associations, composed in great part of the deaf and engaged in various forms of mission work, and to them state funds are granted to aid the aged, infirm and helpless deaf. By this plan Maine is said to have been without a deaf-mute pauper in ten years. The amounts allowed, however, for this purpose are not large, being $200 a year in Maine and $150 in New Hampshire.^ In Ohio the counties are allowed to contract with private homes for the maintenance of the aged and infirm deaf — there being but one such in the state, that supported by the deaf themselves — and the state board of charities is given power to remove deaf persons thereto from the county infirmaries.^ Instances are likewise rare where the state makes a distinct appropriation of money for the benefit of the deaf other than for schools. We have one instance in New York where the state for a certain number of years allowed a small sum to the publishers of a paper for the benefit of poor deaf-mutes.^ * See Laws of New Hampshire, 1895, ch. 131. This relief is here known as the " Granite State Mission ". See also Deaf- Mutes' Journal, Feb. 9, 1911. ^ See Laws, 1896, p. 419 ; 1898, p. 212 ; 1900, p. 369. 'This seems to have been begun in 1839, and continued nearly fifty years. See Laws, 1839, ch. 329; 1858, ch. 546; 1886, ch. 330. The sum of $100 was first granted to the Radii, and later appropriations to succeeding publications. LEGAL TREATMENT 71 As a last species of legislation in aid of the deaf, we have a single enactment of quite dif- ferent character from that which we have hitherto found, and of later appearance. This is the law enacted in Minnesota in 1913,^ which provides for a division for the deaf in the state bureau of labor. Its duties are to Collect statistics of the deaf, ascertain what trades or occupations are most suitable for them and best adapted to promote their interests, use [its] best efforts to aid them in securing such employment as they may be best fitted to engage in, keep a census and obtain facts, information and statistics as to their condition in life with a view to the betterment of their lot, and endeavor to obtain statistics and information of the conditions of labor and employment and educa- tion in other states with a view to promoting the gen- eral welfare of the deaf in this state. Such legislation may prove highly beneficial to the deaf, not only in rendering very desirable aid to them, but also in offering means of learning very important facts as to their condition. Tenor of Court Decisions AFFECtiNG the Deaf The opinions of the courts of law in regard to the deaf have, as we have noted, rather revolved upon the mental capacity of the deaf in certain *Laws, p. 330. The law was secured by the efforts of the deaf themselves. See Deaf-Mutes' Journal, May 22, 1913. 7« THE DEAF proceedings, and upon their competence in cer- tain legal relations. These judicial expressions have in the main referred to four relations of the deaf in the law: 1. in their responsibility for crime; 2. in acting as witnesses; 3. in requiring guardians; and 4. in the making of wills and contracts generally. As to the responsibility of the deaf man for his misdeeds, there has been in times past more or less presumption against it, especially if he were born deaf and were without education ; but to-day he is quite generally held fully answerable for his crimes and misdemeanors, and his deafness cannot mitigate his punishment.^ As a witness, the deaf man under proper circumstances is now allowed to appear without hindrance before virtually any court.^ As to special guardians, these will be accorded the deaf when there ap- pears sufficient need, though there is less of this than formerly.^ With respect to the testa- mentary capacity of the deaf, we find that in times past the deaf were often said to be more or less incapable of making wills, though this pre- ^See Hoiist. Crim. Cas. (Del.), 291; 8 Jones L. (N. C), 136; 14 Mass., 207. This last case was one of larceny. See also I. L. Peet, " Psychical Status and Criminal Responsibility of the Totally Uneducated Deaf and Dumb," 1872 (Journal of Psychological Medicine, Jan., 1872) ; Annals, xvii., 1872, p. 65. *37 S. W. (Tex.), 440; 118 Mo., 127; 39 S. C, 318; 1 Den. (N. Y.), 19; 23 Col., 314; 3 N. M., 134. ^ See 16 Ohio St., 455, where a guardian was allowed ; 41 N. J. Eq., 409, where the deaf were said to be liable to guar- dianship. LEGAL TREATMENT 73 sumption could always be overcome. Naturally their wills were subjected to considerable scrutiny for the purpose ^f preventing fraud; but if written and apparently genuine, they could usually stand. To-day the deaf are practically everywhere held to be quite capable in this respect, and probably nowhere would a will be set aside for reason of the deafness of the testator alone. Likewise the deaf are now generally held capable of entering into all contractual rela- tions.^ Present Trend of the Law in Respect to the Deaf In most of the statutes and decisions to which we have referred there appears a distinct trend towards treating the deaf quite as normal per- sons, and the tendency may be considered to be general to-day to hold them very much as other citizens. The greater part of all the special legis- lation has ceased of late years, and it is seldom *See 1 Jones Eq. (N. C), 221. In 4 Johns. Ch., 441, a New York case in 1820, it was said by Chancellor Kent that the deaf and dumb were considered prima facie as insane, in- capable of making a will and fit subjects for guardianship, by the civil law. The presumption was due, he said, to the fact that " want of hearing and speech exceedingly cramps the powers of the mind," but it was to be overcome by proof. In this case the presumption was overruled. The implication, however, never applied to the deaf not born so. At present there is no presumption in connection with wills, deeds, wit- nessing, or guardianship. See 3 Conn., 299; 27 Gratt. (Va.), 190; 6 Ga., 324; 3 Ired. (N. C), 535. In the Missouri case, quoted above, it was said: "Presumption of idiocy does not seem to obtain in modern practice, at least not in the United States." 74 THE DEAF now that a particular enactment is placed upon the statute books. Where such does occur, it arises chiefly where some peculiar protection of the deaf has been felt to be needed. Discrim- inatory legislation has practically disappeared, as has also beneficial legislation of the old sort, the only kind likely to be enacted in the future being along the new lines pointed out. In judicial proceedings likewise particular usage in respect to the deaf has almost entirely passed away, and the deaf to-day receive little distinctive treatment. Practically the sole special consideration now accorded them is in the pro- curement of interpreters for proper occasions. On the whole, then, the present attitude of the law may be said to be to regard the deaf more and more fully as citizens, to allow them all the rights and duties of such, and to consider them in little need of particular aid or attention.^ *The deaf as a class may be said to be strongly opposed to nearly all forms of legal treatment different from those of their fellow-citizens. In Texas, where they have been ex- empted from a personal or property tax, they have made formal protest against the exemption. Annals, 1., 1905, p. 263; Report of Mississippi School, 1911, p. 72. They have, as an- other instance, voiced opposition to the release of criminals on the ground of their deafness. See Proceedings of Con- vention of National Association of the Deaf, ii., 1883, p. 16. CHAPTER IV ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE DEAF Extent to Which the Deaf are a Wage-earn- ing AND Self-supporting Element of the Population IN the want of the sense of hearing, and with it oftentimes the faculty of speech, the deaf are deprived of most important powers, and, it might appear, of an essential equipment for work among men. It is not to be denied that the deaf start out into life severely handicapped, nor can the difficulties which they must face in meeting the world pass unregarded. Yet notwithstanding the particular adversity under which the deaf have to labor, they remain in full possession of all their other physical forces, and it may be a question whether on the whole they are to be considered disqualified from engag- ing in the industrial pursuits of men. It may be that there are occupations in which their deaf- ness will not prove of material consequence, and that in such fields they will be able to enter with- out serious impediment. In the present chapter we shall attempt to see how far these possibilities seem to be realized in the actual industrial life of the community. In other words, we shall consider 75 76 THE DEAF what is the place of the deaf as economic factors in this hfe, and how far they are independent wage-earners, at the same time comparing their economic standing with that of the general popu- lation. The returns of the census, covering the entire country and presenting the results of a careful investigation, will furnish our most complete source of information. Here ^ are reported in gainful occupations 12,678 deaf persons over ten years of age, or 38.1 per cent of the number of the deaf over this age.^ This is somewhat less than the percentage for the general population, which is 50.2. Of the deaf twenty years of age and over, however, the percentage gainfully em- ployed is 50.1, embracing 11,670 persons. In the following table is shown the number of the deaf over ten years of age in the five great occupa- tions, with the respective percentages, and also the percentages for the general population. GENERAL OCCUPATIONS OF THE DEAF Peb cent of Per GENERAii OccTTPATiON Number cent Population Agricultural pursuits 4,761 37.5 35.7 Manufacturing and mechanical. 4,583 36.1 24.4 Domestic and personal 2,395 18.9 19.2 Trade and transportation 552 4.4 16.4 Professional 387 3.1 4.3 * Special Reports, p. 146fif. ^The proportion for the deaf would no doubt be higher but for the large number in the schools. It should also be noted that " keeping house ", the most usual occupation reported by females, is not listed among the occupations. ECONOMIC CONDITION 77 It is seen from this that the proportions are very nearly the same for the deaf and the general population in agricultural pursuits, domestic and personal service, and professional service. In manufacturing and mechanical occupations the proportion of the deaf is indeed considerably higher. In trade and transportation, on the other hand, the proportion for the deaf is far lower than that for the general population — a condition to be accounted for by the very evident need of hearing in such pursuits. Of the deaf engaged in agricultural pursuits, 3,366, or about three-fourths, are in a position of ownership or direction, being farmers, planters, or overseers; 1,218 are agricultural laborers, while 75 are gardeners, florists, or nursery- men. The large number of the deaf in profes- sional occupations is in part explained by the fact that 206 are themselves engaged in the instruc- tion of the deaf. Other specified occupations where fifty or more of the deaf are employed in each are as follows: SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS OF THE DEAF Laborers not specified 1,217 Servants and waiters 712 Boot and shoemakers and repairers 559 Printers, lithographers and pressmen 382 Carpenters and joiners 371 Dressmakers 314 Seamstresses 306 Tailors 236 Painters, glaziers and varnishers 223 78 THE DEAF Launderers 210 Cigar and tobacco operators 162 Cabinet-makers 119 Merchants and dealers (retail) 115 Iron and steel workers 106 Clerks and copyists 105 Housekeepers and stewards 91 Machinists 87 Blacksmiths 84 Miners and quarrymen 81 Cotton mill operators 78 Barbers and hairdressers 74 Bakers 61 Agents 61 Artists and teachers of art 60 Harness and saddle makers and repairers 59 Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc 56 Manufacturers and officials 55 Masons 52 So far, then, as appears from the findings of the United States census, the deaf are seen to be distributed among the chief industries very gen- erally, and in very many of what are known as " trades " they are able to be profitably employed. In some activities of life deafness is of course an effectual barrier, but these are rather restricted ones. There is but one great division of employ- ment in which the deaf cannot enter extensively, namely, commercial and mercantile pursuits. With these exceptions, the deaf are found to be industrially occupied like the rest of the com- munity, and to be able to engage, and actually engaging, in most of the employments of men.^ In respect to the general economic status of * Several of the deaf have won distinction as artists, and there have been not a few inventors. In the civil service of the National government there are said to be nearly two score. In 1908 an order was issued by the Civil Service Commission, debarring deaf persons from this service. So great was the ECONOMIC CONDITION 79 the deaf, a second source of information, at the bottom of the scale, as it were, is to be f omid in the proportion of the deaf cared for in pubhc alms-houses. Though a much greater proportion of the deaf are discovered here than of the gen- eral population, the deaf do not on the whole con- stitute a large part of the alms-house population of the country. In 1910 the census reported 540 deaf-mutes to be in alms-houses, or six-tenths of one per cent of all their inmates.^ That is to say, a little over one per cent (1.2) of the total number of the deaf in the United States are found to-day in alms-houses.^ Such is the evidence we have in respect to the economic standing of the deaf. Yet the fact that the deaf are usually found capable of taking care of themselves should not be, after all, a mat- ter either of doubt or of wonder. They are for the most part, as we have indicated, quite " able- protest, however, made by the deaf and their friends that the decision was reversed by the President, and the deaf were al- lowed to compete for any position where their deafness would not interfere. See Annals, liii., 1908, p. 249 ; liv., 1909, p. 387 ; Volta Review, x., 1908, p. 224 ; Silent Worker, Feb., 1909 ; Pro- ceedings of National Association of the Deaf, ix., 1910, pp. 26, 70. ^Paupers in Alms-houses, 1913, p. 76. In 1911 there were in the alms-houses of Illinois, according to the Report of the state board of charities, 38 deaf-mutes, or 0.5 per cent of the entire alms-house population; in Indiana, 81, or 2.6 per cent ; in New York, 191, or 1.8 per cent ; and in Virginia, 17, or 0.7 per cent. In Michigan, according to the annual Abstract of Statistical Information Relating to the Insane, Deaf and Dumb, etc., for 1912, of the 1,059 deaf persons reported, 32, or 3 per cent, were cared for at public expense. * The percentage for the general population is 0.1. 80 THE DEAF bodied," and but for their want of hearing are perfectly normal in respect to ''' doing a job." If they are skillful and efficient, their deafness proves comparatively httle of a drawback. An- other contributing cause in the situation lies in the fact that most of the deaf have attended the special schools provided for them, where in- dustrial preparation with the opportunity to learn a trade is offered and largely availed of.^ When they go out into the world, they may be supposed to have an industrial equipment, which, besides taking in view their handicap, is one in many respects fully equal to that of their hear- ing fellow-laborers ; and though many of the deaf, apparently the greater number, do not follow the trade learned at school, yet there is no doubt that the training and lessons in industry there acquired prove of decided practical advantage.^ *In many schools it is said that few of their former pupils have failed to be self-supporting, especially those who have taken the full prescribed course. Of the New York Institu- tion the proportion is stated to be as low as four per cent. Report, 1907, p. 37. Of the Michigan School it is asserted that out of 1,800 former pupils, only three are not self-supporting. Proceedings of Michigan Conference of Charities md Correc- tions, 1907, pp. 32, 63. Similar claims are made for other schools in respect to the condition of the deaf. By the head of the New Jersey School it is stated : " Inquiry at the state prison elicits the fact that there is not among its vast number of inmates a single deaf man or woman, and, indeed, I know of no educated deaf convict or pauper in the state." Report of Board of Education of New Jersey, 1904, p. 323. In 1911 a committee of the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf was appointed to collect information and statistics as to the occupations and wages of the deaf. Proceedings, xix., p. 217. ' A special committee on the industrial condition of the deaf ECONOMIC CONDITION 81 Views of the Deaf as to theie Economic Standing To what extent the deaf hold themselves able to stand alongside the general population may- well be indicated by what they themselves have to say. Of the adult deaf who have had school- ing, it is claimed that eighty-one per cent are gainfully employed; ^ and that of the adult male deaf ninety per cent are self-supporting.^ A large proportion are said to be the heads of families and the possessors of homes.^ In re- spect to the conditions of their employment, in- cluding that of wages, they are usually ready to declare that they are little different from those of the general population, sometimes taking pains of the National Association of the Deaf stated as a conclusion : " More deaf workmen learn a new trade when they leave school than follow the one they were taught at school." Proceedings, vii., 1904, p. 216. In Minnesota the division for the deaf in the state bureau of labor works in connection with the state school. See Deaf-Mutes' Journal, March 7, 1912. On the gen- eral industrial training of the deaf and its results, see AnnaU, 1., 1905, p. 98; Ivii., 1912, p. 364; Volta Review, xi., 1909, p. sil (Proceedings of American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf); xiii., 1912, pp. 542, 595; Proceedings of American Instructors, xv., 1898, p. 86; xvi., 1901, p. 238 ; xvii., 1905, p. 93 ; Report of Special Committee of Board of Directors of Pennsylvania Institution to Collect In- formation as to Lives and Occupations of Former Pupils, 1884 ; Report of Pennsylvania Institution, 1885, p. 30; Mississippi School, 1893, p. 9; 1911, pp. 36, 52; Manual and History of Ohio School, 1911, p. 16; Report of United States Commis- sioner of Education, 1885, p. ccxxxv. ; Journal of Social Sci- ence, xxvi., 1889, p. 91. ^ Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, viii., 1907, p. 41; Indiana Bulletin of Charities and Corrections, June, 1912. * Proceedings of National Conference of Charities and Cor- rections, 1906, pp. 232, 239. ^IMd.; Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, loc. cit. 82 THE DEAF to point out the substantial equality of the two.^ The views of the deaf in the whole matter of their industrial footing may be expressed as summed up in the following resolutions, which were reported by a special committee on indus- trial conditions of the deaf at the convention of the National Association of the Deaf in 1904: ^ 1. There are few ordinary occupations in which the deaf do not or cannot engage. 2. Employers and foremen treat deaf workmen as they do hearing workmen. * In New York the deaf are said to " earn from $2500 a year to $6 or $7 a week ", most being " journeymen at their trades or skilled factory operatives ". Proceedings of Empire State Association of Deaf-Mutes, xx., 1899, p. 7. In Missouri the earnings of the graduates of the state school are reported as ranging up to $1300 a year. Report of Missouri School, 1912, p. 28. In Massachusetts, In an investigation of the state board of education, it has been found that of 84 deaf men who had left school between 1907 and 1912, the average wage was $7.78 a week. Volta Review, xv., 1913, p. 183. The deaf when opportunity offers often become members of labor unions. They are said " quite generally to join labor unions where the nature of their occupation permits ", though, on the whole, it does not seem that a large proportion do. Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, vii., 1904, pp. 143, 218. For other views of the deaf on their employment and its returns, see ibid., i., 1880, p. 10 ; iv., 1893, pp. 122, 167 ; v., 1896, p. 35 ; vi., 1899, p. 64; viii., 1907, p. 53; Empire State Association of Deaf-Mutes, xi., 1887, p. 9; Illinois Gallaudet Union, v., 1897, p. 25; Reunion of Alumni of Wisconsin School for the Deaf, vii., 1895, p. 2 ; Louisiana Pelican, of Louisiana School, Oct. 17, 1908. ^ Proceedings, vii., p. 190ff. Questionnaires were submitted to deaf workmen and their employers, and the conclusions (p. 227) were based on their replies. These resolutions were con- firmed by further findings reported in 1907, especially as to the similarity of the wages of the deaf and the hearing, and as to the satisfaction of employers with deaf workmen. Proceedings, viii., p. 48. ECONOMIC CONDITION 83 S. Deafness is a hindrance to a great extent, but it is not such a formidable barrier as has popularly been supposed. 4. The deaf workman usually has steady work. Those that do not generally have only themselves to blame. 5. The deaf invariably get the same wages for the same class of work as the hearing. 6. Employers and foremen are glad to have deaf workmen who can show that they have the ability to do the work expected of them, and take them on a basis equal to that of the hearing. If they are competent, their services secure ready recognition.^ The Deaf as Alms-seekers It might be thought that the deaf might some- times find their infirmity a useful means of soliciting alms from the public. But it is grati- fying to learn that very few of them ever try to make capital out of their affliction. That a deaf man merely as such is in no wise to be considered a special beneficiary of charity is a principle spiritedly endorsed by nearly all the deaf them- selves ; and they are found to be the last to lend encouragement to any appeals for aid from the charitably disposed.^ On the other hand, it is a fact, perhaps not as widely known as it should be, that there are per- * Another conclusion was that rural pursuits are better for the deaf than factory work. ^ See Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, v., 1858, p. 351 ; Report of Kentucky School, 1867, p. 13n. ; Annals, X., 1858, p. 161 ; xxiv., 1879, p. 194. 84 THE DEAF sons able to hear who often pretend to be deaf and dumb in order to work on the sensibihties of the pubHc. To such appeals a far more ready response is met with than should be the case. The deaf themselves usually do what they can to pre- vent this, a certain number indeed going to con- siderable lengths in this direction, and not in- frequently running such impostors down/ In nearly all the state associations of the deaf as well as in the national organization it is made a particular object to investigate and prosecute mendicants simulating deafness, while in their .papers a vigorous war is being waged.^ At the same time by many of the deaf a campaign of education is being conducted for the enlighten- ment of the public. The following resolutions, adopted by the National Association of the Deaf in 1910,'attest their feeling in the matter: ^ Whereas, There is no necessity for an educated deaf * In the year 1911 the number of impostors whose arrest was secured by the deaf was 38. Deaf-Mutes' Journal, Sept. 4, 1913. * In many issues this is made a prominent feature. 'Proceedings, ix., p. 89. See also Proceedings of Pennsyl- vania Society for the Advancement of the Deaf, xxiv., 1910, pp. 12, 32 ; Iowa Association for the Advancement of the Deaf, vi., 1895, p. 29. The action on the part of the deaf is worthy of the highest praise, and speaks volumes for them. The real cause for wonder, however, is that the public should ever allow itself to be deceived by those asking alms on the pretexts given. By no disease known to medical science, save paralysis alone, can a man lose his speech and hearing at one and the same time. It may be safely estimated that of such gentry 98, perhaps 100, per cent are rank frauds. ECONOMIC CONDITION 85 person to beg or solicit alms on account of deafness ; and Whereas, There are many cases of persons who are not really deaf, but hearing people, who prey on the sympathy of the public to the injury of the respectable and self-supporting deaf; therefore be it Resolved, That it is the sense of the Association that stringent laws should be enacted, making it a penal offense to ask pecuniary aid on account of deafness or on pretense of being " deaf and dumb." Only very rarely, however, has legal cognizance been taken of this evil, though it may some- times be included under the general charge of " vagrancy " or " imposture." In a few states there have been special enactments, as in New York ^ and Minnesota,^ in the former the im- personation of a deaf man being expressly added to the offenses that constitute imposture, and in the latter to those that constitute vagrancy. Homes for the Deaf Homes for the deaf in America have never been organized on other than a small scale, and in the main they may be said to serve a purpose similar to that of homes for the aged and infirm *Rev. Stat., 1896, p. 1242. See also Annals, xxxi., 1886, p. 295. On the other hand, it would seem that such statutes as that in Pennsylvania which we have noted, exempting the deaf from the provisions against tramps, would lend encourage- ment to alms-seeking. ^Laws, 1911, p. 356. The law in this state was secured by the action of the deaf. 86 THE DEAF generally. Though there is little call for such establishments to a wide extent, and though the proportion of the deaf to be benefited by them is small/ yet for a number of the deaf there is a peculiar need. These are deaf persons, usually the old and decrepit, who are without means to support themselves, and have no family or friends to look to for help. To them a special retreat in association with others in similar con- dition proves an immeasurable blessing, and in such their last years may be spent in tranquillity and comparative happiness. The object of a home for the deaf is thus given for one of them.^ To take care of such of the deaf of the state as are in- capacitated by reason of old age or other infirmity from taking care of themselves, to the end that they may have the comforts of a home, where they can associate with each other, and have the consolation of religious services in their own language of signs, instead of being sent to a county infirmary. The purpose of another home is thus de- scribed: ^ *It is said that less than 400, or less than one per cent of the entire number of the deaf, are in need of special homes. Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, ix., 1910, p. 51. 'Report of Ohio Home for Aged and Infirm Deaf, 1912, p. 15. 'From an address given at opening of Pennsylvania Home for the Deaf, 1902. On the objects of a home, see also Proceed- ings of Reunion of Alumni of Wisconsin School for the Deaf, vii., 1895, p. 10. ECONOMIC CONDITION 87 Thishome is unique, being the only institution of its kind in the state, owned and controlled by the deaf, who have formed themselves into an association, known as the Pennsylvania Society for the Advancement of the Deaf. Like our Ohio cousins, who have already established a similar home, we pride ourselves upon our ability to own and control such a responsible institution. The home owes its existence entirely to the charitable impulse of the deaf themselves, aided by the generosity of their hearing friends. It exists because of the desire to provide a home of rest for the infirm of our class during their declining years, so that they may find here comfort and happiness in congenial companionship and intelligent conversation. At present there are five homes for the deaf .^ They are found in the states of Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, there being two in New York.^ The first to be created was the Gallaudet Home at Wappinger's Falls, New York, founded in 1885; the second the Ohio Home at Westerville in 1896; the third the home ^In three other states funds are being collected to establish homes: Illinois, Indiana and Missouri. To that in Indiana 20 acres of land have been donated. A private home was opened in New Jersey in 1854 for colored deaf, blind and crippled, lasting but a short time, and having less than a dozen inmates. See Report of New Jersey School for the Deaf, 1893, pp. 3, 7. ^A national home for the deaf has also been proposed. For arguments for and against it, see Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, ix., 1910, p. 51. In 1872 such a home was projected, to be located in New York City, some $4,000 being collected for it. Little encouragement, however, was met from outside, and the plan was abandoned for a local institu- tion. See Report of Church Mission to Deaf-Mutes, 1874, p. 18; 1875, p. 17 ("Report of Committee on Building and Fund of National Home for the Aged and Infirm Deaf " ) ; New York Times, Sept. 1, 1875. See also International Record of Charities and Corrections, June, 1886. 88 THE DEAF of St. Elizabeth's Industrial School in New York City in 1897 ; the fourth the New England Home at Everett, Massachusetts, in 1901 ; ^ and the fifth the Pennsylvania Home at Doyleston in 1902. The homes in Ohio and Pennsylvania are owned and controlled by the societies for the deaf in these respective states, the management being in the hands of trustees, in the former of twenty, and in the latter of nine. The Gallaudet Home is under the Church Mission to Deaf-Mutes of the Protestant Episcopal Church, with the direction vested in a board of twenty-five trustees. The home in Massachusetts is controlled by a private society organized for the purpose, with a board of fifteen trustees in charge. The home in New York City is a part of St. Elizabeth's Industrial School of the Roman Catholic Church.^ The homes are for the most part for the deaf of restricted areas, those in Pennsylvania and Ohio being for the deaf in these respective states. With but one exception,^ they are open to the " aged and infirm," in some there being an age limitation of sixty years. The homes are in gen- eral free to those qualified to enter, and though a charge may be exacted from persons able to pay, this is seldom done, the homes being intended for the destitute and friendless. *This home was at Roxbury till 1905. ' In one or two cases there are ladies' auxiliary societies. "The home in New York City receives only women from sixteen to fifty years of age. ECONOMIC CONDITION 89 The total number of inmates in the homes is 106, ranging in different ones from 13 to 30, and averaging about 20. The total annual cost of maintenance is $30,190, making the average cost of each inmate $290/ The value of the property of the homes is about $375,000, one home having two-thirds of this, and two homes four-fifths. As little is received in the way of pay from inmates,^ the homes have to depend for the most part upon private benevolence for their support. In the case of the Ohio and Pennsylvania homes this support comes largely from the deaf them- selves.^ In nearly all the homes there are a cer- tain number of inmates, but usually a very small number, cared for at public expense. Private contributions to the homes are seldom large, though in one case these have amounted to a con- siderable sum.* They usually range from three or four thousand dollars a year to several times as much.^ *One home is exceptionally provided for, however. With- out it the average is $252. ^ In 1903 the amount from pay inmates was $1,600. Special Report of the Census. Benevolent Institutions, 1904. The nominal charge is usually $250. 3 Over $3,000 was contributed by the deaf of Ohio for the establishment of a home in this state. *The Gallaudet Home has an endowment fund of $153,150, of which $107,000 came from one legacy. ^ See Appendix A for table in respect to the homes for the deaf. In connection with the scheme of homes for the deaf, it is interesting to note that there have been one or two sug- gestions for colonies for them, though such have never been taken seriously. One was by a deaf man in 1860 in the form of a memorial to Congress for the creation of a deaf-mute commonwealth. See Annals, viii., 1856, p. 118; x., 1858, pp. 90 THE DEAF Conclusions with Respect to the Economic Posi- tion OF THE Deaf From all the foregoing we may conclude the following with respect to the economic position of the deaf : 1. The deaf are not a burden upon the com- munity. 2. They are wage-earners in a degree that compares well with the general population. 3. The occupations open to them and in which they are successfully employed are much larger in number than is generally thought, and in many their infirmity is very little of a drawback. 4. The deaf hold themselves on an economic equality with the rest of their fellow-citizens, and ask no alms or favors of any kind. 5. Beyond homes for certain of the aged and infirm, which are called for in not a few quarters, the deaf stand in need of little distinctive economic treatment from society. 40, 72, 136 ; xxix., 1884, p. 73. See also " Facts and Opinions Relating to the Deaf from America ", 1892, p. 182 ; Proceed- ings of National Association of the Deaf, i., 1880, pp. 36-39. Farm colonies on a small scale for poor deaf-mutes have also been considered occasionally, but little further has ever been attempted. See Deaf-Mutes' Journal, Aug. 8, 1912; Sept. 12, 1912. CHAPTER V SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF THE DEAF Social Cleavage from the General Population THE preceding chapter has dealt with the economic possibihties of the deaf, and the extent to which they stand alongside the population generally. The other side of the shield in relation of the deaf to society is now to be presented, that is, how far their want of hear- ing will count in their participation in the social life of the community. While the deaf man may be an active com- ponent in the economic and industrial life of society, yet his inability to hear and his frequently consequent inability to speak stand in the way of his prompt and continuous partaking in its social life. He may, and does, have many friends among his neighbors and acquaintances, but in the discourse between man and man which forms such a large part of the interest and delight in living, he is unable to join. There is usually at hand no ready and rapid means of communica- tion as there is between two hearing persons in conversation, and his intercourse must necessarily 91 92 THE DEAF be slow and tedious. The privileges of his church he cannot enjoy; in his lodge he misses the fel- lowship which is one of its fundamental ends ; in few forms of convivial entertainment can he take part. Thus seeking an outlet for those social in- stincts which charge through his being, the deaf man finds himself among men, but as though sur- rounded by a great impenetrable wall against which their voices break in vain. Placed, however, with his deaf fellows, he dis- covers himself in a different situation. He soon learns that by the use of that language of signs so largely employed by other deaf men, and of which he in a short time becomes master, he is able to converse with an ease and quickness fully as great as by that means of which he has been deprived. Hence he ceases in large measure to carry on his social intercourse with the hearing, and turns to his deaf comrades; in them he builds up an ap- proximately congenial companionship and fellow- ship, and to them he looks largely for his means of social diversion. With them he feels a close bond of sympathy, and is moved to co-operate with them, and to stand with them when their mutual interests are concerned. In time associa- tions in various forms come to be organized among them. In such wise is realized the desire of the deaf as of all men to commune with their fellows. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 93 Desirability of Organizations Composed of the Deaf By some people societies or organizations com- posed exclusively of the deaf have been opposed, or at least looked upon with disfavor. This is because it has been felt that it is not well for the deaf to form a class apart in the community, and that unless discouraged the practice will cause intermarriage among the deaf, which may result in an increasing number of deaf people — a mat- ter to which we have already given attention. But in combating this tendency of the deaf to organize among themselves, we are really un- mindful of an elemental sociological principle, that like-minded persons are prone to congre- gate, and will seek to form purposive societies and associations, exemplified as well in a boys' athletic club, in a church sewing circle, in a lodge of free and accepted masons, as in a " league of elect surds." ^ If " clannishness " is the outcome, it must be accepted only as the necessary conse- quence of the infirmity of the deaf, in the prac- tical affairs of life such men being bound to seek out and associate with others of like condition. By the deaf themselves it is claimed that the good readily outweighs the possible evils, and that, as the fact of their deafness forbids them belonging generally to societies for the hearing, * The deat ai:e not usually eligible to regulai: secret order^^ 94 THE DEAF they are thus forced to band together, or almost entirely to go without the social amalgamations which form such a conspicuous and valuable part of hfe.^ PuEPosEs, Activities and Extent of Such Organizations The organizations of the deaf are of several kinds: termed clubs, leagues, societies, associa- tions and the like ; and wherever a number of deaf persons are congregated, some such organization is likely to be effected.^ In large cities not a few may be found, planned perhaps on different lines or appealing to different kinds of people. The majority of the societies are formed for the mutual pleasure and culture of the members.^ A *Oii the subject of societies of the deaf, see Annals, xviil., 1873, pp. 200, 255; xxL, 1876, p. 137; xxxii., 1887, p. 246; xxxiiL, 1888, p. 28 ; xlix., 1904, p. 369 ; Proceedings of Conven- tion of American Instructors, ix., 1878, p. 117; National As- sociation of the Deaf, ii., 1883, p. 12 ; iv., 1893, pp. 25, 40 ; vii., 1904, p. 132; viiL, 1907, p. 26; Reunion of Alumni of Wisconsin School for the Deaf, v., 1888, p. 36; Empire State Association of Deaf -Mutes, xiiL, 1890., p. 12; Deaf-Mutes' Friend, Aug., 1869. See also E. A. Hodgson, " The Deaf and Dumb ; Facts, Anecdotes and Poetry", 1891; J. E. Gallaher, "Representative Deaf Persons in the United States ", 1898 ; International Re- view, ii., 1875, p. 471. ' The oldest organization of the deaf now existing is the New England Gallaudet Association of the Deaf, which began in 1853, It resulted largely from the Gallaudet Memorial As- sociation, organized two years before to raise funds for a monument to Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. In 1859 was created the Alumni Association of the High Class of the New York Institution; in 1865 the Empire State Association; and in 1870 the Ohio Alumni Association. See Proceedings of Na- tional Association of the Deaf, iv., 1893, p. 25. * Some of these have special club rooms for social and liter- SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 95 part are organized on fraternal principles, some with benefit features, paying out so much in case of illness and the like; while in a few a certain amount of relief may be dispensed* to those dis- covered to be in need. In most of the societies, as with the body of the deaf generally, there is a considerable amount of solidarity, and the mem- bers are usually quick to act in a common cause or to apply the principle that the concern of one is the concern of all/ While these societies of the deaf are usually local in their composition, there exists more or less communication with bodies in other cities and communities. In over a fourth of the states there are state societies, while in most of the states there are also alumni associations of the special schools, which are of state-wide extent.^ A na- ary meetings, where conversation can be carried on freely without attracting public notice. Some of these club rooms are large and well appointed. In not a few of the younger clubs athletics forms a prominent feature. ^This spirit is illustrated in many ways, perhaps most strikingly in the case where a deaf man seems likely to be debarred from some public position because of his want of hearing, when the deaf promptly rally to his support. We have already seen their action in connection with the order of the Civil Service Commission. Sometimes candidates for office have been asked to state their views on this subject. As a further instance of mutual assistance among the deaf may be mentioned the raising of relief funds for deaf sufferers in other localities in times of some great disaster. * In Ohio and Pennsylvania the state societies manage homes for the aged deaf, as we have seen; and in Virginia the state association supports a special missionary to the deaf. In Pennsylvania there are many county sections of the state body. In a number of centers a leading association is that of the alumni of Gallaudet College. 96 THE DEAF tional body is likewise in existence, the National Association of the Deaf, founded in 1880, and in- corporated in 1900; and there is a National Fraternal Society of the Deaf, with benefits for sickness, injury and death, which has many local branches, this being probably the largest organi- zation of the deaf in the country.^ An interna- tional organization has also been formed, known as the World's Congress of the Deaf. Among the various associations of the deaf, particular mention may be made of church or- ganizations in some of the larger cities and towns, which not infrequently serve in some measure the purpose of a social center. These deaf congrega- tions are usually in communion with some denom- inational body, often being the result of church " missions " to the deaf, and are ministered to regularly or at stated times by clergymen, most of whom are themselves deaf. For the use of the deaf, the church building or rooms in it are gen- erally given over at certain times. In a few cases the deaf are in possession of edifices of their own.^ * There has also frequently been discussion of a federation of the various state and local organizations. See Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, iii., 1889, p. 14 ; ix., 1910, p. 25. ' Such churches are now in New York, Philadelphia and Wheeling, under Protestant Episcopal auspices; in Milwaukee under Lutheran; and in Baltimore under Methodist. Special church buildings are also in contemplation in other cities. Funds for these churches are raised by the deaf with the as- sistance of their hearing friends. In the Roman Catholic SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 97 Newspapers of the Deaf With the deaf there have been a number of special papers, published by and for them, and circulating for the most part only among them. Their chief purpose is to chronicle the various happenings in deaf circles, and to serve as a medium for the discussion of matters of general interest to the deaf. These papers are usually weeklies or monthlies, more often the former, and frequently have correspondents in a greater or smaller number of localities. There have been not a few ventures in the establishment of such independent papers, but most of them have proved short-lived for want of sufficient support, some being of very brief duration, and only an exceptional one continuing over an extended period. As a rule there have been seldom more than two or three in existence at any one time.^ In addition, there have been several religious papers for the deaf, often under the auspices of some denominational body, but usually published by the deaf themselves. These, Church there is a special organization of the deaf, founded In 1910, and known as the Knights of 1' Ep6e. * There have been about thirty such publications created, the first of which seems to have been begun in 1839, and the second in 1860. See especially " Periodicals Devoted to the Interests of the Deaf," by the Volta Bureau, 1913. See also Volta Review, xii., 1910, p. 456; Proceedings of National Asso- ciation of the Deaf, ix., 1910, p. 45. The present publications are: the Deaf -Mutes' Journal, of New York, a weekly; the Observer, of Seattle, a bi-weekly; the Frat, of Chicago, a monthly; and the Pennsylvania Society News, a quarterly. 98 THE DEAF however, have never been numerous, and have been of limited circulation.^ * Those now existing are: the Catholic Deaf-Mute, of New York, under Roman Catholic auspices; the Silent Churchman, of Chicago, under Protestant Episcopal; the Silent Herald, of Chicago, under Methodist; and the Deaf Lutheran, of Mil- waukee, under Lutheran. CHAPTER VI POPULAR CONCEPTIONS CONCERNING THE DEAF Viewed as a Strange Class THE position of the deaf in society is yet to be seen from another standpoint. The question may be asked. How does the public at large, how does " the man in the street," look upon the deaf? Are the deaf viewed merely as so many people deprived of the sense of hearing, in whom also the power of speech is often wanting? Or is there superimposed upon this a feeling, owing perhaps to the supposed isolation of the deaf, that they are in other ways a peculiar class of beings? Unfortunately, it is the latter of these two conceptions that is the prevailing one — unfor- tunately for the deaf, for their burden is quite sufficient as it is. The public has been and is under many misapprehensions and delusions re- garding the deaf. ^ Being thrown intimately with them but seldom, people often come to form ^Very often in the public mind the deaf and the blind are associated, the two classes sometimes becoming more or less merged the one into the other, and the problems of the one are not infrequently assumed to be those of the other. As a mat- 100 THE DEAF curious ideas respecting the deaf, but ideas which are more or less unhappy ones. There is frequently an attitude towards them combined of wonder, misgiving, fear, aversion — a vague feel- ing or behef that the deaf are more or less dis- tinct in their thoughts and actions from other people, that they are somehow " unnatural " or " uncanny." ^ Viewed as a Defective Class Not only are the deaf often looked upon as a strange class in the community, but they ter of fact, there is but one i)oint of similarity in the two classes — both are "defective" in that they are deprived of a most important physical sense. The gulf that really separates the blind from the deaf is far deeper than that which lies be- tween either of the two classes and the normal population. *In this connection it may be interesting to note the regard for the deaf as has been indicated by the deaf characters that have been created in fiction. Though not a large number are found, there is displayed towards them an attitude largely of kindly sympathy, in some cases mingled with wonder. Such characters appear in Lew Wallace's " Prince of India ", where three deaf-mutes are instructed to speak; Scott's Fanella in "Peveril of the Peak"; Dickens' Sophy in "Dr. Marigold" (an unusually attractive and lovable character) ; Collins' Madonna Mary in " Hide and Seek " ; Caine's Naomi in " The Scapegoat"; Haggard's "She"; Maarten's "God's Fool"; de Musset's " Pierre and Camille " ; and elsewhere. Thomas Hol- croft's " Deaf and Dumb ; or the Orphan Protected " is an adaptation from the French play " Abb§ de 1' Epee" of J. N. Bouilly, in 1802, in which the founder of the first school for the deaf and his pupils are touchingly portrayed. Feigned characters are also found, as Scott's mute in " The Talisman " ; in Moliere's " Le M§decin malgr§ Lui " ; Jonson's " Epicoene " ; and John Poole's "Deaf as a Post". Defoe has a character, Duncan Campbell, which is possibly based on one from real life, being referred to by Addison in the Spectator and the Tatler. On the subject of the deaf in fiction, see Silent Worker, Dec, 1893; Annals, xxxix., 1894, p. 79; Indiana Bulletin of Charities and Corrections, June, 1897; Athenaeum, Feb., April, 1896. POPULAR C6NqEI>Tt(i>NS' i . \ 'i UTOl are not uncommonly known as " defectives," and this is the classification frequently applied to them. It is true that the deaf are " defective " in that they are deprived of one of the most im- portant of the physical senses; but, in addition, the term often carries a connotation of mental, or even of moral, aberrance, and results in the inflic- tion upon the deaf of an unnecessary brand. In many libraries such a classification is found, and the deaf are catalogued under the heading " de- fective." In the " Index of the Economic Ma- terial in Documents of the States of the United States " of the Carnegie Foundation, the deaf and the blind are grouped as " defectives " along with the feeble-minded and consumptives.^ Though in such a classification, any untoward signification is disclaimed, and it is held to be merely one of convenience of arrangement, it re- mains true that terms are employed and associa- tions involved that to a certain extent do a very real injury to the deaf.^ *It may be recorded here that in the present compilation of the Bibliography of the United States Bureau of Education, the expression formerly used, " Delinquents, Dependents and Defectives ", has been dropped in favor of the term, " Special Classes of Persons". On this subject, see Proceedings of National Educational Association, 1901, p. 876. *A possibly more serious misapprehension respecting the deaf arises from the impression often current among a large number of people, and apparently encouraged not infre- quently in the proceedings of some scientific bodies, to the effect that nearly all deaf-mutes are so either because of a sim- ilar condition in their parents or because of the existence in the parents of some physical disease, sometimes of an immoral lOiv^ -'K*" .THE DEAF Viewed as an Unhappy Cu^-ss People are also prone to think of the deaf as an unhappy, morose or dejected class. Professor E. T. Devine in his " Misery and its Causes " (1909) ^ enumerates the deaf, among other classes, as embodiments of misery — " not for the most part," he is careful to state, " personally unhappy," but rather with reference to their im- perfect senses. This view is clear enough, and in one sense is doubtless correct; but it does not character. This is in a great part due to the increasing empha- sis upon eugenics, with the desire to weed out from the popula- tion as many as possible of the " unfit " or " defective ". In consequence has been the belief that if there were proper regu- lation of certain marriages, especially of the deaf and of others suffering from particular maladies, " deaf-mutism ", which is looked upon as an excrescence upon society, would In the course of a short time be stamped out. An illustration of this conception is the following extract from the Handbook of the Child Welfare Exhibit held in New York in 1911 (p. 38) : " Mating of the Unfit. ' The Law '. Marriages of cousins, Insane or feeble-minded, alcoholic, syphilitic parents and effects. The cost— 7,369 blind infants, 89,287 deaf and dumb, 18,476 feeble-minded ". See also Proceedings of National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1912, p. 277; Report of Philadelphia Baby Saving Show, 1912, p. 37; Annals, Ivii., 1912, p. 284. As a matter of fact, as we have already seen, the question of deafness is not one so much of eugenics as of medical science, although eugenics may well be called in play in respect to the marriages of persons under unfavorable con- ditions, including to an extent the congenitally deaf and those having deaf relatives. The total number of the deaf, how- ever, marrying under unfavorable conditions, is not large. Every effort to remove or diminish deafness is entitled only to the highest praise; but when it is made to appear that deafness generally results from such causes as are often ascribed, it is seen how wrongly the deaf, upon whom a great affliction is already resting, may be made to suffer. ^ P. 45. See also Proceedings of Empire State Association of Deaf-Mutes, xii., 1888, p. 35 ; National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1883, p. 416. POPULAR CONCEPTIONS 103 express the entire situation in respect to the deaf. While their deafness must always be a serious and distressing affliction, and even handicap and burden as well, and while the deaf must often bemoan their fate, it yet seems to be true that the deaf as a lot are not " unhappy." They are good-natured, see the world from an odd angle sometimes, yet are as much philosophers as the average man; and when in the company of their deaf associates are able to derive fully as large a portion of happiness as any other group of human beings. The deaf are cheerful, swayed by the same emotions as other mortals, responsive equally to all the touches of life, and are not, at least in these days of education, a morbid, brood- ing, passionate folk, as is too often the popular judgment. Viewed as a Dependent Class In some quarters the deaf continue to be looked upon as one of the dependent classes of society. Mr. Robert Hunter in his " Poverty " (1904) ' under the head of " Dependents and their Treat- ment " places the deaf and dumb as " absolute dependents." Such views, however, are no longer general, the deaf having themselves dem- *P. 76. See also p. 96. Similarly Professor C. R. Hender- son in his "Dependents, Defectives and Delinquents" says (p. 170) : "Many of the deaf and blind are so deficient in in- dustrial efficiency, owing to their infirmity, that they must be cared for in adult life and old age ". 104 THE DEAF onstrated to what extent they are a self-support- ing part of the community. But where this be- lief is still shared, the deaf are thought in many cases to be in need of aid or public charity; or at any rate to be economically inferior to the rest of society. Deaf pupils in the schools, for in- stance, are often referred to as " inmates "or even as " patients," not only by the public but by news- papers as well; and the schools themselves are often spoken of as " asylums " or as charitable in- stitutions.^ This nomenclature is hardly de- fensible on any ground, and by it the education of the deaf is not even given its true status. As a further illustration of the general feel- ing, though rather of different order, may perhaps be cited the attitude of the general in- surance companies toward the deaf. Though some of the companies accept the deaf at their regular rates, a nimiber refuse them altogether, while others limit their liability or demand an ex- tra premium.^ This is largely because of the fear *Iii the special census report of Benevolent Institutions of 1904 schools for the deaf and the blind are included, because they contain " free homes for care and maintenance ". In some charity directories schools for the deaf are listed. 'It is claimed that 95 per cent of the general fraternal organizations consider the deaf as " hazardous " or " undesir- able". Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, ix., 1910, p. 53. Accident insurance is usually refused by all. When an extra rate is charged in life insurance, this is usually one-half of one per cent. On the subject of insurance and the mortality of the deaf, see Annals, xxxiii,, 18S8, p. 246; xlix., 1904, p. 274; Proceedings of Convention of American In- structors, ii., 1851, p. 168 ; iii., 1853, p. 85 ; xi., 1886, p. 67 ; Em- POPULAR CONCEPTIONS 105 that the deaf are more liable to accidents than other people; but in point of fact the deaf seem to be a long-lived people, and it is likely that with greater statistical knowledge concerning them, most of the discrimination would cease.^ Need of a Changed Regard for the Deaf Thus in many ways are the deaf made to suf- fer from popular misconceptions, and quite un- necessarily. Too long have designations been employed regarding them that call up unde- served associations. Too long have they been set down as a strange and uncertain body of human beings, removed in their actions, manners and modes of thought from the rest of society. The interests of the deaf require a different considera- tion and treatment. They demand that the deaf plre State Association of Deaf -Mutes, xii., 1888, p. 35; xiii., 1890, p. 30; xvi., 1894, p. 28; xix., 1897, p. 93; National As- sociation of the Deaf, ii., 1883, p. 12 ; vii., 1904, p. 183 ; Report of New York Institution, 1853, p. 70. ^The foregoing illustrate some of the most striking miscon- ceptions regarding the deaf. On the other hand, no doubt the deaf as well as the blind suffer from sentiment on the part of the public, and from the sensational accounts which appear from time to time in the newspapers and magazines concerning what the deaf have been found able to accomplish. Many- things are referred to as " wonders ", as though it were strange that they could be done by people without hearing, some of the achievements of the deaf being set down as most remarkable. Such writings are usually in a Mndly spirit, and may often serve a useful purpose in making known the simi- larity of the capabilities of 'the deaf and of the hearing; but when they make the deaf appear as a peculiar and unlike part of the race, their effect may be most misleading. The worst result is that the public becomes ready and willing to believe almost any thing about the deaf. 106 THE DEAF be regarded exactly as other people, only unable to hear. Theirs will be a great boon when they are looked upon no more as a distinct and dif- ferent portion of the race, but entirely as normal creatures, equally capable and human as all other men.^ * In 1908 the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf appointed a committee to consider the question of the dis- semination of knowledge regarding the attainments of the deaf. Proceedings, xviiL, p. 210. ^ CHAPTER VII PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN THE DEAF General Societies Interested in the Deaf WE have now considered the interest of society in the deaf in its several rela- tions, together with the treatment that has been extended to them. It remains to be noted whether there have been any private undertak- ings organized in behalf of the deaf or interested in their welfare, and what has been done by such bodies. In America virtually the only organizations composed of persons not deaf and formed for the purpose of advancing the interests of the deaf have been those more or less closely related to the education of deaf children, and with their excep- tion practically no movements in respect to the deaf may be said to have been undertaken.^ These organizations interested in the instruc- tion of the deaf are of two divisions: bodies actively engaged in the work of this instruction, * General organizations of a philanthropic or other character have seldom extended activities to include the deaf, though at times some institution, as the Young Men's Christian Associ- ation or a social settlement, has manifested an interest, chiefly in providing a place for meeting. 107 108 THE DEAF and bodies only indirectly concerned. The first division includes, on the one hand, associations of instructors of the deaf, and, on the other, societies or corporations formed to promote and establish schools, which have either passed out of existence, their mission being fulfilled, on the taking over of the school by the state, or have remained in control of certain schools — to be considered when we come to the general provisions for the educa- tion of the deaf. In the second division are three kinds of organizations: the Volta Bureau, an organization in a class of its own; associations of parents concerned mainly with the instruction of their own children; and undertakings interested in the extension of religious knowledge to the deaf, usually in the form of church missions. The Volta Bureau The one organization in America of large com- pass and concerned solely with the interests of the deaf is the Volta Bureau, located in Washing- ton. This has resulted from the gift of Dr, Alex- ander Graham Bell in 1880, who having received 50,000 francs from the French government in recognition of his services in the field of invention, decided to use the money to establish the bureau for the " increase and diffusion of knowledge re- lating to the deaf." The bureau now contains much information regarding the deaf as a class, as well as carefully compiled data regarding PRIVATE SOCIETIES 109 many individuals; and also publishes works on the deaf, including the " Volta Review," a monthly periodical. It is much interested in the methods of instruction of the deaf, while another important aim may be said to be the elimination of deafness as far as possible, or the removal of many of the effects of deafness. Dr. Bell's total benefactions to this bureau, together with the As- sociation to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, to which it is now joined, have amounted to more than a quarter of a million dollars.^ Parents' Associations fob the Deaf Associations of parents have been organized chiefly in relation to the education of their own deaf children, though in some cases friends as well as parents are included. They have often been particularly concerned in the creation of day schools for the deaf, but have also shown an interest in other ways.^ These associations have *The bureau contains a card catalogue of more than 50,000 deaf children who have been in the special schools from 1817 to 1900; authentic manuscript respecting 4,471 marriages of the deaf; and the special schedules of the census of 1900 re- specting the deaf. It serves, moreover, as a bureau of infor- mation and advice, with suggestions for the hard of hearing also, and as a teachers' agency. On the work of the bureau, see Deaf -Mute Advance, of Illinois School, March 14, 1891; Silent Worker, May, 1895; and current numbers of the Volta Review, especially that for Jan., 1913 (xiv., p. 605). ^The purpose of the Boston Parents' Education Association for Deaf Children is " to encourage home instruction, aid schools for the deaf in Boston, help deaf children to continue 110 THE DEAF been mostly confined to cities, and have been or- ganized in a dozen or so of them, as Boston, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, Detroit, Milwau- kee, St. Paul, New York, Los Angeles, and San Francisco/ State associations have been rare, being found in only two or three states, as Ohio, Wisconsin and Nebraska,^ Chuech Missions to the Deaf Practically all the religious denominations have shown more or less concern in the spiritual wel- fare of the deaf, so far as individuals have been affected, and many churches have deaf members on their rolls. Some of the church bodies have, in addition, given more particular attention to the deaf, and have instituted special activities to embrace as many of them as possible. Such movements have their greatest opportunities in their education in schools or colleges for hearing persons, aid them in acquiring a practical knowledge of useful trades and business, assist them in obtaining remunerative employment, bring them into more extensive social relations with hearing persons, and employ such other means for their advancement as may be deemed advisable." See " Offering in behalf of the Deaf", by this association, 1903, p. 8. See also Association Review, ii., 1900, p. 146. Most of the associations have also been interested in the employment of the oral method of in- struction. Dues in such associations are usually only one or two dollars, and there is often a board of directors appointed. ^ The first seems to have been the Boston Association, formed in 1894. ^ In several of these associations membership is over a hun- dred. In Milwaukee there is also a similar society known as the Wisconsin Phonological Institute to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, which was organized in 1878, and in- corporated in 1879, as a philanthropic society. See Report, 1878, p. 5. PRIVATE SOCIETIES 111 the cities, where it is easier to reach the deaf than in the scattered districts of the country, though some efforts have been made there too. On the whole, however, only a small part of the re- ligious duty towards the deaf is found to have been done; and it remains beyond question that they have been neglected in this regard far too much, and that there is indeed a field " white unto the harvest " for the spiritual well-being of the deaf. Perhaps also there is no sphere of re- ligious endeavor where the need of mutual un- derstanding and co-operation is so manifest as with the deaf. The denominations that have taken special action usually maintain what are called " mis- sions to the deaf," and have clergymen, both deaf and hearing, who give part or all of their time to the work. In a few of the larger cities, as we have seen, special churches for the deaf have been organized, supported with the aid of the denomi- national body, while in other cases the use of the church building is allowed to the deaf at certain times. Visits are also made from time to time to smaller places when a number of deaf people may be assembled together, and special meetings are arranged for them.^ In such missions, while * On the subject of church work among the deaf, see Pro- ceedings of National Association of the Deaf, i., 1880, p. 19 ; iv., 1893, p. 53 ; vi., 1899, p. 58 ; vii., 1904, p. 153 ; Empire State As- sociation of Deaf -Mutes, xii., 1888, p. 31; Conference on Church Work among the Deaf (Protestant Episcopal), i., 112 THE DEAF the aims are largely spiritual, there are often in addition operations of a material character, with appropriate attention to individual cases of need/ Among Protestant Churches, the Protestant Episcopal may .be considered the pioneer, and it has taken up the work with considerable zeal and effectiveness. In 1850 work was begun in the East, and in 1871 formally organized. In 1873 it was extended to the Mid- west, and in 1875 to the North-west and South-west. In a number of the dioceses the work is now given attention, in some of the large cities, as New York, Philadel- phia and Chicago, its labor being notable.^ The Lutheran Church has been active particularly in some of the states of the Middle West, as in the synods of Missouri, Ohio, and others, and in a few cities of the East. The Methodists have like- wise been engaged in certain sections of the coun- try, especially in the South and in the Mid- west. The Baptists have also taken up work, especially 1881, p. 5 ; il, 1883, p. 4 ; iv., 1887, p. 3 ; v., 1888, p. 23 ; Report of Diocesan Commission on Church Work among the Deaf, 1886; Church Mission to the Deaf (New York), 1873, p. 14; 1886, p. 3 ; 1888, p. 3 ; Annals, xxix., 1884, p. 24. * Dii'ect relief may be afforded in some cases, and in others visits made to hospitals, prisons and the like, where deaf persons may be found, without regard to religious aflSliation. Assistance is also often rendered in acting as interpreters in court, though this work is frequently shared in by instructors of the deaf. In one or two instances, as we have seen, homes for the deaf have been established by religious bodies. ^ In the Protestant Episcopal Church there are now some twelve clergymen engaged in this work, ten of whom are deaf, and more than twice this number of lay helpers. PRIVATE SOCIETIES 113 in the South and in New England. Together with the Congregationahsts, they started action in the latter section in 1884, though most of the work in New England is now done by a union organization of several denominations, called the "Evangelical Alliance." In other Protestant bodies little has been attempted beyond local un- dertakings in a few places. The work of the Roman Catholic Church in respect to the deaf is well organized in a number of centers, and many of the Catholic deaf are carefully looked after. With the Hebrews most of the attention has been confined to certain large cities.^ Organizations Interested in the Education of the Deaf There are in America three large bodies inter- ested in the education of the deaf, and composed for the most part of those directly connected with the work of education. These are the Conven- tion of American Instructors of the Deaf, the Conference of Superintendents and Principals, and the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, all meeting, as a usual thing, triennially in different years. Of *In New York there is a Society for the Welfare of the Jewish Deaf, which was organized in 1910, and incorporated in 1913. Laws, ch. 313. It is controlled by a board of from seventeen to thirty governors, and is interested in the edu- cational, industrial, social and religious concerns of the deaf. See Hebrew Standard, March 15, 1912; Jewish Charities, Jan,, 1912. See also Proceedings of National Conference of Jewish Charities, 1908, p. 28. 114 THE DEAF these the oldest is the Convention of American Instructors, which was organized in 1850/ It is a large and representative body, and has mani- fested its interest from the beginning in the gen- eral welfare of the deaf, as well as in the particu- lar demands of education. The Conference of Superintendents and Principals, as its name im- plies, is composed of the heads of schools, and was organized in 1868.^ The Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf was incorporated as such in 1890, though it was not the first body concerned in this work.^ It is now countrywide, and embraces a large number of those interested in the teaching of speech to the deaf, whether active educators or not. A large section of its members are " pure oralists," that is, believing in the exclusive use of speech with the deaf. In 1908 the Volta Bureau was taken over by this body.* It may be mentioned here also that the educators of the deaf are represented in the National Educational Association.^ * Its first meeting was at the New York Institution, after a call had been issued by several of the leading educators. In 1897 this body was incorporated. 'The organization was effected at Washington. See Report of Columbia Institution, 1868, p. 16. *A convention of articulation teachers was held as early as 1874. Another meeting was held in 1884. See Annals, xix., 1874, pp. 90, 217 ; xxix., 1884, pp. 154, 237 ; Volta Review, xiv., 1913, p. 394. In 1894 was formed the Association to Promote Auricular Training of the Deaf, which was subsequently merged with the larger organization. *The Association has a board of fifteen directors, and an advisory board of twelve. °This was organized in 1897. Proceedings, p. 36. It is PRIVATE SOCIETIES 115 Publications Devoted to the Interests of the Deaf There are two publications devoted to the in- terests of the deaf: the "American Annals of the Deaf " and the " Volta Review," both pub- lished in Washington. The former was begun in 1848. It appears bi-monthly, and is under the di- rection of the Conference of Principals.^ It has long been known as the standard periodical re- lating to the deaf in America, and represents current thought and opinion of practical educa- tors of the deaf, as well as constituting a general record of the work. The " Volta Review," for- merly known as the " Association Review," was begun in 1899, and was published by the Associa- tion to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf. It is now published conjointly by the As- sociation and the Volta Bureau, and appears as . an illustrated monthly. It is " devoted to the problems of deafness," but deals in the greatest measure with the matters pertaining to the edu- cation of the deaf.^ In most of the residential known as Department XVI, or the Department of Special Education. Both instructors of the deaf and of the blind are represented, those interested in the education of the feeble- minded having also been included up to 1902. In addition to the three general organizations of educators of the deaf, there have been several local conferences, as of the principals of schools in the Southern states and in New York, and of teach- ers in the state of Michigan and of the city of New York. ^ Its first publication was by the instructors of the Hartford School. Publication was omitted in 1849, and from 1861 to 1868. =^For other publications that have appeared in the interest of the deaf, see " Periodicals Devoted to the Interests of the Deaf," by the Volta Bureau, 1913. 116 THE DEAF schools, or institutions, there are also papers, which often serve to keep parents and others in- formed of the work of the respective schools. We have already referred to the publications by the deaf themselves, both secular and rehgious. PART II PROVISION FOR THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF CHAPTER VIII THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF PRIOR TO ITS INTRODUCTION INTO THE UNITED STATES AMONG the ancient peoples generally the deaf and dumb, especially those so by birth, " were deemed as of deficient mentality, and were accounted, intellectually, as little better than children, or, indeed, as idiots. Though treated, it seems, for the most part humanely, they were regarded not without some aversion; and their affliction was not infrequently looked upon as a visitation of the gods, some of the hardy races even destroying their deaf offspring. For a long period there were scarcely any serious at- tempts to give instruction to the deaf. Allusions to the deaf and their state with re- spect to education are found in certain of the Greek and Latin writers, and occasionally in those of other languages. ^ Herodotus speaks of the deaf son of Crcesus, and ^Hippocrates has reference to the deaf as a class. Plato and Aris- totle also make mention of the deaf, the latter considering them incapable of education because of the absence of the sense of hearing. Among Latin authors we find an account by Pliny the 119 120 THE DEAF Elder of a deaf man who had learned painting. It is only after the fifteenth century that we have more or less authenticated accounts of the instruction of the deaf, and many of these are hardly more than a passing reference here and there. It was, moreover, well after Europe had taken its present political appearance that the modern attitude towards the deaf and their instruction began. Before this their education as a class was not thought of, and while no doubt there have always been sporadic instances of the instruction of the deaf, it is only since the middle of the eighteenth century that the deaf have come generally into the birthright of their education. Yet it is not so great a matter of wonder that the movements for the instruction of the deaf took organized shape so late in the world's civili- zation. Learning or schooling was in no sense popular till some time after the passing away of the so-called dark ages. For long it was rather the privilege of the rich and powerful. The great mass of the people were not deemed worthy of learning, and education itself in any general ap- plication did not have a recognized standing in society. After the Renaissance, however, had ushered in a new age, and when the desire for learning was the master passion among many men in Southern and Western Europe, it is natu- ral to suppose that efforts should have more fre- EARLY INSTRUCTION 121 quently been made to instruct the deaf child; and after this time we are prepared to find an increas- ing number of instances of the instruction of the deaf. This was all the more true when an air of mystery was felt to surround these silent ones, and to bring the light of the new learning to these afflicted creatures was considered well worth the attempt. The earliest instance recorded of instruction given to the deaf in the English language is that of the Venerable Bede about the year 691, who tells of a deaf person taught to speak by Bishop John of York, related as though it were a miracle. After many yekrs we meet accounts of other cases. Rudolph Agricola (1443-1485) of Gronin- gen, Holland, and later a professor at Heidel- berg, cites in his '' De Inventione Dialecta'' a deaf man who could write. In Italy a little later we find certain deaf children whose instruction is mentioned by Pietro de Castro ; while in the six- teenth century Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), the distinguished physician of Pavia, attempted to state the principles of the education of the deaf, demonstrating the use of a written language for them, and advocating the teaching of speech. He further invented a manual alphabet, which was one of the first of its kind. In 1616 Giovanni Bonif accio also wrote regarding the " art of sign- ing " and speech for the deaf. 122 THE DEAF But it is to Spain that credit is to be given as being the first country of Europe where there are recorded accounts of successful instruction of the deaf. In 1550, or perhaps earher, Pedro Ponce de Leon of the Order of St. Benedict taught, chiefly by oral methods, several deaf children in the convent of San Salvador de Ona. Great success must have attended his efforts, for in addition to the Spanish language and arithmetic, his pupils are reported to have mastered Latin, Greek and astrology. About this time there lived a deaf ai-Jist, known as El Mudo, and he had very likely received instruction in some way. In 1620 Juan Pablo Bonet, who had had several deaf pupils, instructing them largely in articulation methods, published a treatise on the art of instructing the deaf, called " Reduccion de las Letras y Arta para Ensener a Hablar los Mudos;" and he was the inventor of a manual alphabet, in considerable part like that used in America to-day. Sir Kinelm Digby of England, visiting Spain about this time, saw Bonet's work and wrote an account of his pupils. In 1644 appeared in England '' Chirologia, or the Natural Language of the Hand " by a physician, Dr. John Bulwer, who had perhaps also observed the results in Spain. This was followed in 1648 by his more important work, " PhilocophuSy or the Deaf and Dumb Man's EARLY INSTRUCTION 123 Friend," mostly describing a kind of process in articulation and lip-reading. Bulwer's friend, John Wallis, a professor at Oxford, seems to have been the first practical teacher here, in- structing two deaf persons by writing and in speech, and showing them to the King. In 1653 his '' Tractatus de Loquela " was published. Along the same line was the writing of Dr. William Holder on the " Elements of Speech," published in 1669, in which he advocated articula- tion teaching. In 1670 there appeared a treatise by George Sibscota on " The Deaf and Dumb Man's Discourse," but this was really a transla- tion from the writings of a German named Deu- sing. In 1680 Dr. George Dalgarno of Scotland published his " Didascalocophus, the Deaf and Dumb Man's Tutor," in which preference was given to the use of a written language and a manual alphabet, of one of which he was himself the inventor. In 1698 appeared '' Digiti Lingua/^ written " by a person who had con- versed no otherwise in above nine years." Some half a century later we find the name of Henry Baker, son-in-law of Daniel Defoe, who gave instruction in speech. Other countries of Europe were hardly be- hind England in their interest in the deaf and their instruction. Spain, besides the names we have mentioned, had notably Ramirez de Carion, 124 THE DEAF himself a deaf man, who lived not long after Bonet. Italy had in particular Padre Lana Terzi, who in 1670 published a work on articula- tion; and also Fabrizio d' Acquapendente and Affinite, who in their writings threw out ref- erences to speech for the deaf. In Holland there were Peter Montans, who about 1635 issued several tracts on speech; Jan Baptista Van Helmont, who in 1667 wrote on speech and an alphabet; and John Conrad Amman, formerly a Swiss physician, who in 1692 gave out his " S Urdus JLoquens/' which was enlarged and republished in 1700 as " Dissert atio de Loquela" The name of Amman is especially notable, not only for his instruction in speech of several deaf children, but for his influence on later oral methods. In Switzerland we find at Basel in 1531, or perhaps a few years sooner, an account of a deaf person who was instructed in speech by CEcolampadius, the Reformer and friend of Luther; at Geneva in 1604 of a deaf child in- structed by St. Francis de Sales; and also in Geneva in 1685 of a deaf person who had prob- ably received instruction. In Germany we have a regular succession of names of those who either attempted to instruct the deaf or who wrote of this instruction, some of these names being among the earliest of those in Europe who showed an interest in the matter. EARLY INSTRUCTION 125 In the year 1578 we meet the name of Pasch, a clergyman of Brandenburgh, who taught his daughter by means of pictures. In 1621 Rudolph Camerarius wrote a book on speech, and in 1642 Gaspard Schott mentions a case of successful instruction. In 1701 or 1704 Kerger at Liegnitz in Silesia taught some pupils orally, having what seemed a temporary school. In 1718 Georges Raphel, who had taught his three deaf daughters, wrote a book explaining his process of instruc- tion. Among other names appearing earlier or later were those of Morhoff, MaUenkrot, Wild, Niederoff, Lichwitz, Shulze, Ettmuller, Arnoldi, Lasius, Heinicke, and Nicolai. Of all these much the most renowned is that of Samuel Heinicke. In 1754 at Dresden he became inter- estedT in the deaf, and a few years later started a school near Hamburg. In 1778, at the instance of the state, he moved to Leipsic, his school thus being the first public school for the deaf to be established. He was also the author of several books on the education of the deaf. Heinicke was instrumental in bringing the oral method into favor, and in many respects, so far as its present use is concerned, may be said to be its father. He was in fact one of the greatest teachers of the deaf, and the influence of his work has been felt in no small measure in America. In France, too, there were great names, though 126 THE DEAF they were late in appearing; Pere Vanin, Rousset, Ernaud, de Fay, Pereire, Abbe de r^fipee, Abbe Deschamps, and others/ Of these Vanin, Pereire, Deschamps, and de I'Epee are the most notable. Vanin about 1743 instructed some children by means of pictures and a manual alphabet. Rodriguez Pereire, a Portuguese Jew, had several pupils at Bordeaux before the middle of the eighteenth century, and though his methods were kept secret for the most part, he appeared to have met considerable success, in 1749 giving an exhibition before the Academy of Sciences. Abbe Deschamps in 1779 published at Orleans a work on the instruction of the deaf, largely favoring the oral method. It is to Charles Michel abbe de V fipee, however, that is given the highest reverence of all the initial workers for the deaf, being the founder of the first regular school, and receiving nearly equal distinction for his impression on early methods of instruction — this being especially true in respect to America, where his influence in the introduction of the sign language has been greater than any other man's. The abbe had become interested in two deaf orphans in Paris, whom he attempted to teach, and in 1755 established a school near the city, conducting it at his own expense. This proved ^ In 1751 Diderot published his " Lettre sur les Sourds et Muets" in which there is reference to the education of the deaf. EARLY INSTRUCTION 127 a success, and he decided to give his whole life to the instruction of the deaf. He wrote several works on their education, the chief one being ''La Veritable Maniere df Instruire les Sourds et Muetsf' published in 1784. The achievements of de TEpee were soon far-famed, and the people were taken with their novelty. Many honors were offered him, and his work was brought to the notice of the French Academy and approved. In 1791 his school was adopted by the state. The successor of abbe de Y Epee was abbe Sicard, and the work continued to flourish in France. Not long after de V fipee and Heinicke had started their schools in France and Germany re- spectively, Thomas Braidwood, in 1760, opened a school in Edinburgh, Scotland. In 1784 a school was established in Rome, in 1788 in Madrid, and in 1801 in Genoa. In the early years of the nineteenth century other schools were started over Western Europe. Thus by the time that the work for the education of the deaf was to enter America, in the establishment of the first school in the second decade of the century, there were already in Europe a number of schools in existence.^ *For accounts of the early work for the education of the deaf, both before and after it was taken up in the United States, the following may be referred to : Thomas Arnold, " A Method of Teaching the Deaf and Dumb Speech, Lip-Reading and Language ", 18S1 ; " The Education of Deaf -Mutes ", 1888 ; E. M. Gallaudet, " Life of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet ", 1888 ; 128 THE DEAF H. N. Dixon, "A Method of Teaching Deaf -Mutes to Speak, with a Historical Introduction" (including a translation of Bonet's work), 1890; J. K. Love, " Deaf -Mutism ", 1896; Henry Barnard, " A Tribute to Gallaudet ", with other papers, 1852; Heman Humphrey, "Life and Labors of T. H. Gallau- det", 1857; H. W. Syle, "Retrospect of the Education of the Deaf", 1886; J. A. Seiss, "The Children of Silence", 1887; J. R. Burnet, "Tales of the Deaf and Dumb", 1835; E. J. Mann, "Deaf and Dumb", 1836; J. N. Williams, "A Silent People ", 1883 ; W. R. Scott, " The Deaf and Dumb, their Edu- cation and Social Position", 1870; History of First School for Deaf -Mutes in America, 1883; Addresses delivered at the New York Institution, 1847; H. P. Peet, Address at Laying of Corner Stone of North Carolina Institution, 1848; Proceedings of Laying of Corner Stone of Michigan Institution, 1856; Col- lins Stone, "Address on History and Methods of Deaf -Mute Instruction", 1869; Addresses Commemorative of the Virtues and Services of Abraham B. Hutton, 1870; Ainerican Annals of the Deaf (especially early numbers, often giving accounts of individual schools as well as of the general work) ; North American Review, vii, 1818, p. 127; xxxviiL, 1834, p. 307; Ixxxvii., 1858, p. 517; civ., 1867, p. 512; American Journal of Edxication, (n. s.) i., 1830, p, 409; American Annals of Educa- tion, iv., 1834, p. 53; Literary and Theological Review, ii., 1835, p. 365; American Biblical Repository, viii., 1842, p. 269; De Bow's Review, xvii., 1854, p. 435; National Magazine, ix., 1856, pp. 385, 487 (Sketches of Humane Institutions); ScriJ)- ner's Magazine, xii., 1892, p. 463; Association Review, ii.-v., 1900-1904 ("Historical Notes concerning the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf " ) ; Proceedings of Convention of Ameri- can Instructors of the Deaf, i., 1850, p. 99; v., 1858, p. 275 (H. P. Peet, "Memoirs on the Origin and Early History of the Art of the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb") ; iii., 1853, p. 277 ; iv., 1856, p. 17 ; ix., 1878, p. 195 ; American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, v., 1896, p. 27 (P. G. Gillet, " Some Notable Benefactors of the Deaf") ; National Association of the Deaf, iii., 1889, p. 21; National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1907, p. 512; Calif ornian, iv., 1881, p. 376; Iowa Bulletin of State Institutions, viii., 1906, p. 175; xii., 1910, p. 24; Transactions of Royal Historical So- ciety, viii., 1880; Encyclopedia Americana, 1883 (History of the Education of the Deaf in the United States, given in Annals, xxxi., 1886, p. 130) ; various reports of the several schools for the deaf in America (as that of New York In- stitution, 1839, p. 8 ; 1843, p. 11 ; 1876, p. 48 ; American School, 1844, p. 25; 1867, p. 13; Pennsylvania Institution, 1843, p. 9; 1892, p. 64 ; Kentucky School, 1857, p. 8 ; 1867, p. 13 ; Michigan School, 1858, p. 40; Illinois School, 1868, p. 42; New York In- stitution for Improved Instruction, 1869, p. 26; Mississippi School, appendicles, 1907, 1909, 1911); "Histories of American Schools for the Deaf ", edited and with an introduction by Dr. E. A. Fay, 1893 (containing accounts of individual schools, and a most valuable work). CHAPTER IX HISTORY OF EDUCATION OF THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES Early Attempts at Instruction THE first instance of which we have record in America of an attempt to teach the deaf was in 1679 ^ when a man named Philip Nelson of Rowley, Massachusetts, tried to instruct a deaf and dumb boy, Isaac Kilbourn by name, in speech, though with what success we do not know.^ These, however, were the witchcraft days, and the work of Nelson seemed such an extraordinary thing that the ministers of the community are said to have made an investiga- tion, fearing that witches might be involved in the affair. The next instance of which we have * There is, however, a case reported before this of a deaf person who had received instruction, though hardly in Amer- ica. This was a woman who was blind as well as deaf, and who lived at Ipswich, Massachusetts, in 1637. She had come from England; but whether or not she had been taught be- fore the coming on of her affliction, we are left in ignorance. All that we are sure of is that communication could be had with her. See John Winthrop, " History of New England ", ed. 1853, i., p. 281; Annals, xlv., 1900, p. 91. 2 Association Review, ii., 1900, p. 34 ( " Historical Notes con- cerning the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf"). No little debt is owed to Dr. Alexander Graham Bell for his researches into the early attempts at instruction in America. 129 130 THE DEAF mention occurred in Virginia a century later, when John Harrower, a school-master of Fred- ericksburg, had in his school from 1773 to 1776 a deaf boy named John Edge, reference to whose instruction is made in his diary. ^ The earhest effort for the establishment of a school for the deaf in America of which we know was made almost contemporaneously with the opening of the nineteenth century, and at the time that such schools were being created over Europe. There lived at this time in Boston a man named Francis Green, who had a deaf son. This boy he sent to the school in Scotland which Braidwood had started; while he himself became much interested in the subject of the education of the deaf. In 1783 he pubhshed in England a work entitled " Vox Oculis Suhjecta" In 1803 he had, with the help of some of the ministers, a census made of the deaf in Massachusetts, when 75 were found, and it was estimated that there were 500 in the United States. Green felt the need of a school, and in several of the publica- tions of the time appeared his writings, in which he urged the creation of one.^ * American Historical Review, vi., 1900, pp. 65, 81, 82, 95. See also Association Review, ii., 1900, p. 527. ^ See A. G. Bell, " A Philanthropist of the Last Century Identified as a Boston Man ", 1900 ; North American Review, civ., 1867, p. 512; Annals, 1, 1848, p. 189; ix., 1857, p. 169; xli., 1860, p. 258; xiii., 1861, p. 1; Association Review, ii., 1900, pp. 42, 119. In some of these are given letters of Green ap- pearing in the New England Palladium and Columbian Cen- EDUCATION IN AMERICA 131 It was in 1810, however, and in the city of New York that the real beginning of deaf-mute education in the United States was marked. This was when John Stanford, a minister, found several deaf children in the city almshouse and attempted to teach them. Though his efforts continued but a short time, it was these from which resulted the establishment a few years later of a school in the city, the New York Institution.^ In Virginia shortly afterwards a second school was started, which in itself is to be set down as an important stage in the course of the early at- tempts to create schools for the deaf in America. In 1812 there came to the United States John Braidwood, a member of the family which was in control of the institution at Edinburgh, Scot- land, in the hope of establishing a school. He began plans for one at Baltimore, but before it had gotten under headway, he was called to Virginia to undertake the instruction of the deaf children of William Boiling, of Goochland County. This private school continued, with seemingly satisfactory results in the progress of tinel, of Boston, and the Medical Repository and Review of American Publications on Medicine, Surgery and the Auxiliary Branches of Science, of New York. Green also published a translation of de 1' Ep4e's main work and extracts from his other writings. A review of "Vox Oculis Subjecta" appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine, Sept., 1783, and in the Boston Magazine, Dec, 1784, Jan., 1785. ^Report of New York Institution, 1843, p. 17; Annals, ix., 1857, p. 168. 132 THE DEAF the pupils, for two and a half years. In 1815 it was moved to Cobbs, Chesterfield County,^ to be open to the public. The school now promised well, and there were already several pupils. However, Braidwood was looking about for other opportunities, and had been in touch with several parties in regard to the employment of his services.^ In 1816 he went to New York, where he proposed to start a school, and collected a few pupils, only to return to Virginia again after a few months. In 1817 he began opera- tions anew, this time at a private classical school at Manchester under John Kilpatrick, a minister. In less than a year this too was abandoned by Braidwood, who soon after met his death. Kil- patrick attempted to continue the school only a year or two longer, possibly even taking a few pupils with him when he moved to Cumberland County in 1819; and so was brought to an end the checkered career of this early school for the deaf in Virginia.^ *At this time the United States and England were at war, and Braidwood's adventure received official notice in a permit from the Commissary General of Prisoners to the Marshal of Virginia. ^Braidwood was in communication with the promoters of the schools now beinj organized in Hartford and New York. ' On these schools, see History of Virginia School, 1893, p. 3 ;. Report, 1853, p. 25; Report of New York Institution, 1856, p. 17; Annals, ix., 1857, p. 170; xxi., 1876, p. 130; Associatioti Re- view, u., 1900, pp. 257, 385, 489; v., 1903, p. 400. In the last are given advertisements and notices concerning the school from the Richmond Enquirer, the Petersburg Republican, and Niles* Weekly Register, of Baltimore. EDUCATION IN AMERICA 133 Such were the beginnings of the instruction of the deaf in America. With the exception of these undertakings, barely touching the surface in the number of children reached, the only means of education possible in the land was in sending children to a school in Europe, which was done in the case of a few wealthy parents. For the great mass of the deaf, isolated and scattered though they were at the time, there was no in- struction to be had. But this period was now nearly passed. Atten- tion in more than one quarter was being directed to the deaf and the possibilities of their educa- tion; and in the breasts of not a few men a feel- ing was astir that instruction was somehow to be brought to them.^ The seed was already sown, and by the time the school in Virginia was broken up, others were beginning to arise elsewhere. When the work was finally to be taken up, it was to be upon a solid foundation which should last with the lastingness of education. * Among those who had given the matter thought was Dr. William Thornton of Philadelphia, who in 1793 published " Cadmus : a Treatise on the Elements of Written Language ", there being an appendix on " A Mode of Teaching the Deaf, or Surd, and Consequently Dumb, to Speak". Transactions of American Philosophical Society, iii., p. 262, as cited in Associa- tion Review, ii., 1900, p. 113. See also ibid., v., 1903, p. 406; Annals, i., 1848, p. 190. He was the first writer in America upon the education of the deaf. 134 THE DEAF Beginning of the Fikst Schools The seat of the first permanent school to be established in the United States for the education of the deaf was Hartford, Connecticut; and the name of the one man with which the beginning work will forever be coupled is that of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. America, however, was not to commence the work* of itself: the spirit and the method had to be brought from Europe. Efarly in the nineteenth century there lived at Hartford a young deaf girl, AHce Cogswell by name, the daughter of a physician, and in her a group of men had become interested. An in- vestigation of the number of the deaf had been made in 1812 by a body of clergymen, when 84 were found, and it was estimated that there were 400 in New England, and 2,000 in the United States; and the question of a school had been considered.^ In 1815 the friends of Alice Cogs- well decided to organize a society for the purpose of providing means to instruct some of these, and to secure an instructor. To take up this work, attention was directed to Gallaudet, then a young theological student. He was fixed upon as the man to go to Europe and acquaint himself with the methods there employed. Gallaudet ' By some at this time there were not believed to be a suffi- cient number of the deaf to justify a school, and it was due to this mainly that the investigation was made. EDUCATION IN AMERICA 135 responded at once to the appeal made to him, and proceeded to prepare himself forthwith. The same year, 1815, saw Gallaudet start upon his errand, his expenses being defrayed by the society.^ He first visited England, but finding there a monopoly composed of the Braid- wood and Watson families, he betook himself to France. In this country he met with a warm reception, and here he eagerly set upon his labors of study and investigation at the school which de r Epee had established. He observed closely, and then the following year turned his face to- wards America, equipped for the great work before him, and bringing with him one of the deaf teachers from Paris named Laurent Clerc. On Gallaudet's return the second part of the undertaking for the creation of a school was to be accomplished, namely, the securing of funds, which required half a year more. For this pur- pose Gallaudet and a few others set about soliciting contributions. New York, Philadel- phia, Albany, New Haven, and other cities were visited, and the interest in the new undertaking was shown by the response made.^ By the time the school was ready to open, over $12,000 had been obtained, which was soon after more * Funds to the amount of $2,278 were subscribed before the departure of Gallaudet. Association Review, iii., 1901, p. 329. ^ rt is said that Stephen Girard declined to contribute be- cause Philadelphia was not chosen as the site of the school. Tribute to Gallaudet, p. 114. 136 THE DEAF than doubled/ The contributions came from various sources, including individuals, societies and churches, and were from not a few states, and even foreign countries. A charter was granted the society in 1816 by the legislature of Connecticut; and $5,000 was appropriated for the school,^ which was probably the first ap- propriation of public money for education not in regular schools.^ On April 15, 1817, the new school threw open its doors, and thus was established the first in- stitution for the instruction of the deaf — in fact, the first for any of the so-called " defective classes." Its success was assured from the start, and there were many applicants, coming from dif- ferent parts of the country. The school had to depend mainly upon private contributions, and for its maintenance efforts had to be continued to collect funds, pupils being taken for this pur- pose to several cities for exhibition, especially before church assemblies and the legislative bodies of New England.* It was not long in appearing, however, that, as the school was really ^ Ibid., p. 155. 'This grant seems to have been used later for the benefit of Connecticut pupils. 'This, however, was not the first appropriation to a benevolent institution. The colony of Pennsylvania in 1751 had voted an appropriation for certain of its insane in a hospital to be opened the following year, while New York in 1S06 granted $15,000 for the care of its insane in a hospital. Virginia established its insane asylum at Williamsburg in 1773. *See Laws of Maine, 1829, p. 24. EDUCATION IN AMERICA 137 to be national in scope, the United States govern- ment might be appealed to for aid. Visits were accordingly made to Washington in 1819, and the interest of certain of the members of Con- gress was secured. Among these was Henry Clay, who showed a particular regard for the new undertaking, and it was largely through his influence that Congress was prevailed upon to bestow upon the school 23,000 acres of the public land, from which in time $300,000 was realized.^ It was the understanding, there being no census of the deaf at this time, that any state or indi- vidual might participate in the benefit of this grant, and that the school was to be open on equal terms to all.^ Though the school was regarded as national in one sense, it was also felt to be particularly New England's from the share that these states took in its development. Very soon after it had com- menced operations a lively interest had been manifested; and in 1825 a meeting was held at Hartford of official representatives of all these states except Rhode Island, to discuss the pos- sibilities of co-operation in its work.^ Hardly, "^Annals, iv., 1851, p. 63; National Magazine, ix., 1856, p. 489. 2 Tribute to Gallaudet, p. 136. This was also expressed in the Missionary Herald, Sept., 1826, quoted in American Journal of Education, i., 1826, p. 631. At the same time caution was advised as to the result, as the benefit was to depend upon the sale of the land. ^Report of American School, 1825, p. 5; 1836, p. 22. 138 THE DEAF indeed, had the school entered upon its labor when, without solicitation, Massachusetts began sending its deaf children to it. It was followed in turn by the others, all the states of New Eng- land thus coming to provide for their children here as at a common school — a policy continued with all for many years. By this arrangement a certain amount from the state treasury was allowed for each pupil. The action of Mass- achusetts was taken in 1819, of New Hampshire in 1821, of Vermont and Maine in 1825, of Con- necticut in 1828, and of Rhode Island in 1842. Two other states, far removed from New Eng- land, also by special legislative grants provided for pupils in this school for a time. These were Georgia and South Carolina, both beginning in 1834.^ In addition, there were private pupils sent here from a number of states.^ The school at Hartford was now in full opera- tion, with a nation-wide interest upon it.^ But -In 1821 steps were taken to establish a school in South Carolina. A census of the deaf children in the state was made, 29 being found. The school here, however, was not started till some years later. See Report of South Carolina School, 1904, p. 7. In neither the case of this state nor that of Georgia was the number of pupils annually sent to Hartford large, ranging from 2 to 8 in each. See Report of American School, 1835, p. 9; Georgia School, 1874, p. 11; American Annals of Education, v., 1835, p. 93. A joint school for the couth-eastern states was also contemplated at this time. -There were several pupils here supported by the United States government, who were the children of deceased vet- erans, the first coming from Maryland in 1819. History of Maryland School, 1893, p. 11. •Gallaudet remained at the head of the American Asylum, EDUCATION IN AMERICA 139 scarcely had it received its first pupil when other schools began to be established, and indeed New York and Pennsylvania are hardly to be con- sidered behind Connecticut at all, schools in these states being in the course of formation when the Hartford school was opened. From the con- cern now apparent in many sections, it was soon evident that the new work was to spread over the land, and that the education of the deaf had achieved for itself an established position. f In New York, as we have seen, the Rev. John Stanford had found several deaf children in the almshouse of the city, and, moved by their condi- tion, had sought to teach them. Interest was felt by other men, and the agitation for a school was furthered by letters from the American consul at Bordeaux in 1816, one of which was written by a French teacher and addressed to the " Philan- thropists of the United States." A census was made of the deaf in the city,^ meetings were held as It was then called, till 1828, when he resigned. He was engaged thereafter in various philanthropic activities, and was invited to lead in the work for the education of the blind, towards which attention was now being directed. Notwith- standing the impairment of his health, his different labors were continued, not the least of which was his office as chaplain of the Connecticut Asylum for the Insane. To Thomas Hop- kins Gallaudet America owes a rare debt. Without him the work for the deaf would have been taken up eventually by other hands, but he brought to his task a disregard for obsta- cles, a splendid idealism, a fine conception of duty, a complete forgetfulness of self, a singular beauty of character, and a great human love that could have existed in but few other men. ^ There were 66 found in a very short time. 140 THE DEAF in their behalf, a notable one taking place at Tammany Hall, and private funds collected. In 1817 a charter was secured from the legislature, and the following year the school was opened. The city of New York displayed a warm interest in it, making a special appropriation at its be- ginning, and undertaking the support of a num- ber of pupils for a time, besides furnishing quarters free of cost. In 1819 the state legisla- ture, after an exhibit of pupils, decided to assist, making an appropriation for the benefit of the school, and soon afterward allowing a certain amount for each pupil. In 1821 New Jersey began sending children to the school, action being taken in this state by a imanimous vote. Pennsylvania followed close upon Connecticut and New York. A committee had l)een organized in Philadelphia in 1816 to secure contributions for a school, and meetings had been held, though without immediate result. Late in the year 1819, or early in 1820, David Seixas, a Jew, find- ing several poor deaf-mute children to whom he gave shelter, made attempts to teach them. In the latter year a society was formed by certain citizens, after a meeting in the rooms of the American Philosophical Society; and being pleased with the work of Seixas, it decided to adopt his school. The following year, after an exhibit of pupils, the school was incor- EDUCATION IN AMERICA 141 porated by the legislature, and granted a per capita appropriation of $160, while contributions from friends were numerous. In 1821, also, pupils were admitted from New Jersey, this state providing for them both at the New York and Philadelphia schools. In 1827 Maryland, and in 1835 Delaware, authorized the sending of chil- dren to the Pennsylvania Institution, exhibits of pupils having been made before the legislatures of these states.^ j Kentucky in 1823 was the fourth state in the ^^^^f Union to establish a school. In this case, how- ^^ ever, action was taken directly by the legislature, and the school has always been the property of the state. In 1826 ^ Congress granted to it a township of land in Florida, on the theory that this school would be the center for pupils from the western and southern states; and it was for some years the place of education for many of * Volumes lii. and iv. of the Association Review (1901 and 1902) contain most interesting accounts of these first schools, with extracts from early reports, letters of Dr. Cogswell, Gallaudet and others ; extracts from the Hartford Courant and the Connecticut Mirror, both urging the importance of the school established at Hartford and the need of contributions, and the latter (in the issue of March 24, 1817) giving the conditions and terms of admission; also extracts from other papers, as the Albany Daily Advertiser, the New York Com- mercial Advertiser, the General Aurora Advertiser, Poulson's American Daily Advocate, the Christian Observer, the Free- man's Journal and Columbian Chronicle, of Philadelphia, and Tifiles'' Weekly Register, of Baltimore. See also E. M. Gallau- det, "Life of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet." »Pub. Stat. eh. 24. 142 THE DEAF the children from the southern states,^ and also for a number from western states. With the establishment of this school directly by the state begins a new policy in the provision for the education of the deaf — the work no longer being entrusted to private individuals and societies. All the states that followed Kentucky in the crea- tion of schools, with the exception of Maryland and some of the New England states, adopted this policy. Ohio came next in 1829, although an attempt had been made to establish a school in Cincinnati as early as 1821.^ Pupils were also received into it from neighboring states.^ In 1838 Vir- ginia estabhshed a joint school for the deaf and the blind, after exhibitions of pupils had been given in the state. In Indiana a private school was started in 1841, and three years later the state institution, action being taken by the legislature without a single dissenting vote. In this state another stage is reached in the work of educating the deaf: education which had hitherto * Pupils were in time received here from all the Southern states. History, 1893, p. 5. 'This was to be called "The Western Asylum for the Edu- cation of the Deaf and Dumb ". An association was formed, and the legislature was asked to incorporate the school. In 1822 a census was taken for all the state except two counties, when 428 deaf persons were found. The school was not es- tablished on the ground that it was too far removed from the center of the state. See Annals, v., 1853, p. 221; xxv., 1880, p. 30; Report of Ohio School, 1876, p. 30. •A school under Roman Catholic auspices was established near St. Louis in 1837. EDUCATION IN AMERICA 143 been, by statute, free to the " indigent " only is in positive terms made free to all. This was done in 1848, and the action has been thus de- scribed: ^ The doors of all asylums built at public expense for mutes, for the blind, and for lunatics were thrown open to all, that their blessings, like the rain and dew of heaven, might freely descend on these children of mis- fortune throughout the state, without money and with- out price. Well might this paean break forth, for this is probably the broadest benevolent legislation ever enacted up to this time. In Georgia a private school was opened in 1842, and in 1846 the state school was established, after a visit of pupils from the Hartford school. In 1845 a school was started in Tennessee, after an exhibit of pupils from Kentucky. The same year in North Carolina, after an exhibit of pupils from Virginia, a school was opened for the deaf and the blind, though one had been projected as early as 1828.^ In 1846 a school was established ^Report of Indiana School, 1851, p. 26. See also Annals, vi., 1854, p. 150. This honor is also to be shared in by the state of Ohio. In 1844, or four years before the action of Indiana, the laws prohibiting the trustees from receiving more than a certain number of indigent pupils in one year at the expense of the state were repealed, and the trustees were authorized to admit suitable pupils, as they might deem neces- sary and proper. This probably had the effect of allowing all pupils free attendance, though it remained with the trustees to decide. The formal removal of limitations respecting in- digent pupils did not take place till 1854. ^'A society was formed for the purpose, a charter secured 144 THE DEAF in Illinois, the bill passing the legislature by a unanimous vote. To it came pupils from Missouri, Iowa and Wisconsin. In 1849 a school was established in South Carolina. Thus by the middle of the nineteenth century, or thirty-two years after the founding of the first school in America, there were schools in a dozen states. In the next quarter century schools were created in nineteen other states, and since in nearly all the remainder. Eaely Ideas concerning the Schools for the Deaf It was but natural that for some years the providing of schools for the education of the deaf should be looked upon with wonder. To many the very thought of their instruction seemed strange. Curious notions had been held as to the deaf-mute's mind, and it was not cer- tain how far it was capable of instruction. By some the idea of the education of the deaf was received with scarcely concealed skepticism, and despite the enthusiasm of the promoters and despite the cordial interest manifested in many quarters, there were not a few doubters. Efforts to educate the deaf were even declared quixotic and absurd. When the state of Illinois was erecting a building to be used as a school, it was by some called "the state's folly." ^ The from the legislature, and Congress petitioned for land. Annals, xiii., 1868, p. 233. ^History, 1898, p. 9. EDUCATION IN AMERICA 145 legislatures themselves occasionally had misgiv- ings, and now and then an appropriation was voted for a school more in hope than otherwise.^ The work was thus with many often misunder- stood, and a few of the schools did not have alto- gether easy sailing. But when it was found that the deaf could be, and were being, educated, not only were all doubts dispelled, but the astonishment almost goes beyond bounds, and even passes into a rapture of thanksgiving. Visitors, in some cases, flocked to the places where these wonder- ful things were transpiring. They came to con- vince themselves, and stood hushed in admiration at the spectacle before them. The accounts of a number of the early schools attest the greeting given to the new work. The New York Institution in its first report^ speaks of the " numerous visitors " and their " ex- pressions of mingled surprise and delight." In the new Pennsylvania Institution interest was markedly aroused. By Poulson's American Daily Advocate of Philadelphia it was stated that 1,600 people crowded into a church to wit- ness an examination of pupils, and by the Columbian Observer it was declared that this *In Maryland, for instance, we find an early appropriation for those " teachable ". The American Journal of Education tells of the wonder on the part of the legislators of Massa- chusetts when a class of deaf-mutes was exhibited in their presence, iv., 1829, p. 78. *P. 5. 146 THE DEAF scene " was impressive beyond description," and that " the exercises excited wonder mingled with the acutest sensations of compassion for these isolated beings." ^ An early report of the Tennessee School ^ speaks of the interest " evinced by the great nimibers of persons " who visited the school, which was shown " by the sjTTipathy warmly expressed with the great affliction " of the pupils, and the " surprise at the attainments made by them." Indeed, the new work is more than once re- ferred to in the accounts of the ^period as a miracle. The age of miracles, we are told, was not past,^ When a private school was opened in Kansas, the advertisement ran: " Behold the educational miracle of the nineteenth century. The deaf hear, the dumb speak, the bhnd see." * The wonders of education had become all the more marked and expectations were aroused to a high pitch, when it was seen about this time that the blind and other classes as well were being instructed. Great things were believed to be in store for the human race. With the schools for the deaf there was now general approbation and support. Doubters * See Sketch of Origin and Progress of the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb in Pennsylvania, 1821. 'Report, 1867, p. 12. ' See Annals, iii., 1851, p. 123, quoting from the Boston Congrega tiona list. * History, 1893, p. 3. EDUCATION IN AMERICA 147 were silenced, and the promoters took heart. Soon the new institutions had won for themselves a place in the intelligent and affectionate regard of all ; and to those instrumental in their creation the people universally " pledged their gratitude." Aims of the Founders Though the first schools for the deaf in the United States were founded to a considerable extent with the idea of charity or benevolence present, yet^ this was not so much the uppermost purpose as to provide instruction for them; or rather, it may be said that the benevolence itself was prompted by the desire to see the deaf led from the darkness of ignorance to the light of education. It is true that many of the pupils were recognized as entitled to material assistance as well as instruction. Some of the schools were chartered as benevolent institutions, while several even avowed themselves as charitable affairs.^ It is also true that the promoters were in part concerned with deaf children found in poverty, these being likely to engage not a little attention. It was desired to furnish homes for a number without charge; and early accounts and statutes speak of the " care," *See Report of American School, 1823, p. 5; 1824, p. 10; 1840, pp. 5, 24 ; New York Institution, 1829, p. 17 ; Pennsylvania Institution, 1839, p. 6; Illinois School, 1856, p. 10; Report of Select Committee to Visit Pennsylvania Institution, 1838, p. 3. 148 THE DEAF " aid," " maintenance " or " support " ^ of these children. But it is none the less true that the great purpose in establishing institutions was educational, and the instruction of the children was the primary and chief thing guiding the hands of the men who created the schools. In the prospectuses of some of the schools any ob- ject is disclaimed other than that of education. In a circular describing the proposed school in Kansas were the words : " This is not an asylimi, but a school for the education of the deaf." ^ Homes, or institutions, were provided largely for the reason that this plan appeared the only practicable means of reaching a considerable number of pupils. With the early workers, then, the purpose was to give the children an education. But this was not all. In their vision, a far greater opening presented itself. Heretofore the deaf had been outcasts from society, had no place among civilized beings, and were a dead weight in the commiltiity. Now all was to be changed. Eyes saw a glorious transformation: the deaf were to be restored to society, and education was the *Tt Is interesting to note that of the first four Institutions incorporated in New York, the purposes are thus respectively given : " to afford the necessary means of instruction to the deaf and dumb, and also provide for the support and main- tenance of those whose parents are unable " ; " to aid and instruct the deaf and dumb " ; " to instruct and support " ; and " to receive, care for, support and educate ". "History, 1893, p. 4. See also Annals, vL, 1853, p. 234. EDUCATION IN AMERICA 149 magic by which it was to be done. In full meas- ure were the founders thrilled with this prospect ; and to reclaim the deaf from their condition was the great resolve. Many of the early reports, charters and or- ganic acts express such a purpose, arid speak of the " lonely and cheerless condition " of the deaf, and the hope to " restore them to the ranks of their species." In the preamble of an " Address to the Inhabitants of Pennsylvania," prepared by the society to establish the school in this state,^ the deaf are ^aid to be in " entire and in- vincible separation from the vast stores of knowl- edge which human talent has accumulated — ignorant of the truths of Revelation, her glorious assurances and unspeakable consolations," all being " among the bitter ingredients which fill up the vast measure of the affliction to the deaf and dumb;" and that "among the various efforts of philanthropy and learning to enlarge the circle of human happiness and knowledge, none should perhaps rank higher than those which have been directed to the discovery and application of means for the instruction of the deaf and dumb." In language glowing and impassioned the con- * Account of Origin and Progress of the Pennsylvania In- stitution, 1821, pp. 4, 7. See also " Sketch of Origin and Progress," etc., 1821, p. 4; Report of Pennsylvania Institution, 1875, p. 22. 160 THE DEAF dition of the deaf without education is described. Almost universally they are thought of as abid- ing in impenetrable silence and deep darkness. In an address delivered before the New York Forum in behalf of the New York Institution ^ in its early days, it is asserted that the deaf dwell in " silence, solitude and darkness," and in the second report of this school ^ they are declared to be " wrapt in impenetrable gloom of silence, sorrow and despair." In an Ohio report ^ they are said to be in " intellectual and moral mid- night; and in a Michigan report * to be " grop- ing in thick darkness." In a Louisiana report ^ they are called " sorrow- stricken children of silence; " and in a Kentucky report^ their lives are described as " dark, dreary and comfortless." The Southern Literary Messenger'^ of Rich- mond, Virginia, characterizes their existence as " intellectual night." The New York Commer- cial Advertiser ^ in the year the first school was opened affirms that " their intellectual faculties . . . are . . . locked in the darkness of night and shrouded in silence." In an address delivered *By Silvanus Miller, 1819, p. 15. »1819, p. 31 (reprint of 1894). *1839, p. 5. *1862, p. 5. "1853, p. 20. •1848, p. 3. M., 1835, p. 136. «Jan., 18, 1817. Quoted in Association Review, iii., 1901, p. 434. EDUCATION IN AMERICA 151 shortly after the opening of the Tennessee School * they are referred to as " entombed in a prison/' The Albany Argus and Daily City Gazette ^ points to the deaf man as *' abandoned to his hard fate, to wander in darkness, the piti- able object of dismal despair." In an address delivered in the Capitol in Washington ^ the deaf are said to be " doomed to wear out their lives in intellectual darkness." The results of education were to be great be- yond measurement, and the passing of the deaf from ignorance to education is likened even to the glories of the Resurrection. A Committee of Congress * in recommending the granting of land to the Kentucky School speaks of education as " the only means of redeeming this unfortunate portion of our species from the ignorance and stupidity to which they would otherwise be con- signed by the partial hand of nature, and, indeed, of transferring them from a state of almost mental blindness to that of intellectual and ac- countable beings." The New York Statesman ^ speaks of the effects in " improving the moral principle, which is torpid and almost obliterated, * Address at Proceedings of Laying of Corner Stone, 1848, p. 13. ^ March 1, 1827. Quoted in Report of New York Institution, 1827, p. 19. "By Lewis Weld, 1828, p. 3. * Report of Select Committee of 18tli Congress, 1st sess., upon a Memorial to Give Land, etc., 1824, p. 12. "Quoted in American Journal of Education, i., 1826, p. 432. 152 THE DEAF and opening the way to moral and religious instruction and knowledge of the Deity which is almost void." An early report of the American School ^ tells of the transition of their " imprisoned minds which have too long been enveloped in the profoundest shade of in- tellectual and moral darkness to the cleansing and purifying light of Divine Truth." An Ohio report ^ states that they " have come forth into the light of truth, that truth that teaches them that they possess a rational and immortal spirit." In the address in behalf of the New York In- stitution before noted,^ it is said of the deaf that the " powers of torpid and dormant intellects are resurrected from an eternal night of silence." The first report of the Minnesota School ^ refers to the deaf as " liberated from the winding sheets of silence and ignorance," and tells how " their souls vibrate with such joy as Lazarus felt when he stepped forth from the gloom of the grave." In the first report of the Indiana School ^ the * 1827, p. 10. ^1834, p. 5. 'Address of Silvanus Miller, loc. cit. *1863, p. 17. "Quoted in History, 1893, p. 6. For other accounts of the condition of the deaf without education and the blessings to be obtained from it, see Report of Kentucky School, 1824, p. 10; Ohio School, 1842, p. 13; Kansas School, 1870, p. 12; History of Mississippi School, 1893, p. 3; Southwestern School Journal (Tennessee), i., 1848, p. 49; J. H. Tyler, "Duty and Advan- tages of the Education of the Deaf", etc., 1843; Sermon by John Summerfield, in behalf of the New York Institution, 1822 ; Discourse of Samuel L. Mitchell, Pronounced at Request of So- EDUCATION IN AMERICA 153 state of the deaf without education is thus con- trasted with that of the deaf with education: Indeed, the difference between the uneducated and the educated mute is almost incredible. The former " winds his weary way " through life in ignorance and obscurity, often an object of charity, and almost a burden to himself; but the latter, gladdened by the genial rays of knowledge and fitted for the discharge of duty, becomes a blessing to his friends and to society, acts well his part as a member of the great human family, enjoys the present, and looks forward to the future with cheerfulness and hope. The charter of the Pennsylvania Institution refers to the desire of certain citizens " to restore the deaf and dumb to the ranks of their species ; " and the preamble of the statutes creating schools in Kentucky and other states contains similar language. The purpose of the Illinois school is given in the organic act, the language of that of Nebraska and other states being almost iden- tical: To promote by all proper and feasible means the mental, moral and physical culture of that portion of the community, who by the mysterious dispensations of Providence, have been born, or by disease have be- come deaf, and of course dumb, by a judicious and well adapted course of education, to reclaim them from their lonely and cheerless condition, to restore them to the ciety for Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, New York, 1818; Addresses of Joseph H. Lane and Ebenezer Demorest, before Legislature of Indiana, 1851. 154 THE DEAF ranks of their species, and to fit them to discharge the social and domestic duties of life. The object of the schools in Wisconsin, South Dakota, and other states is declared to be: To afford the deaf and dumb of the state, so far as possible, an enlightened and practical education, that may aid them to obtain the means of instruction, dis- charge the duties of citizenship, and secure all the happiness they are capable of obtaining. The early educators of the deaf felt themselves that they were indeed carrying the light to shine in a dark place. In the language of one of the foremost of them: ^ Then the great triumph of science and benevolence over one of the most terrible of human calamities will be complete, and the deaf and dumb, objects of interest, but hardly of compassion, will stand forth among their kindred who hear, heirs of all the hopes, the privileges and the lofty aspirations of their race. Extension of the Means of Instruction ovee the Country Interest in the education of the deaf had thus become general, public concern was awakened, and movements were early on foot in not a few states to start schools. The enthusiasm aroused by the success of the first schools only increased ^Harvey Prindle Peet, at first Convention of American In- structors, 1850, p. 141. See also Annals, iii., 1850, p. 160. EDUCATION IN AMERICA 155 the hopes that others would be provided to reach the deaf children in all the states. A writer in the North American Review in 1834 ^ declared that there were " no doubts that the wants of the deaf and dumb will soon be supplied, and that the public beneficence already extended to a por- tion will, before the lapse of many years, be ex- tended to all." Nor were these hopes to be shattered, for the states followed each other in rapid succession in providing means for the instruction of their deaf youth. Indeed, when we consider how early some of the newly settled states began to devote attention to the education of the deaf — a work that was undertaken in Europe only after the middle of the eighteenth century — we are per- suaded that it speaks no less for the regard for and devotion to education implanted in the breasts of the American people, than for the big- ness and benevolence of their hearts. The credit remains just as deep, even though it has ever been the mission and spirit of America to bring education to the door of every one of its children, and though what it has done for the deaf is but a part of this great principle. The early workers, despite the preliminary journeys to Europe, were largely pioneers, and this country owes an immeasurable debt to the »xxxviii., p. 357. 166 THE DEAF founders and directors of the first schools. Many of them were ministers of the Gospel, and all of them were men of high ideals. Possibly there has never been a movement undertaken for the good of humanity that has drawn to it a more capable or earnest band of men. These early workers were possessed of a determination, an ardor, a resourcefulness, combined with scholar- ship and understanding of no common order, that would have graced any human cause. They were truly of those in America that have blazed trails, and to them belonged those elements of character that are a pride to any people.^ The first schools were created by societies of private citizens, funds being contributed from ** membership fees " in the societies, from sub- scriptions and from other private donations.^ To the aid of these schools the state later came with appropriations; but while an oversight and general control were assumed by it, the schools ^When the accounts of brave endeavor, and the rolls of those inflamed for human service, are finally made up, high indeed will stand the names of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, Lewis Weld, John A. Jacobs, Abraham B. Hutton, Harvey P. Peet, Collins Stone, Horatio N. Hubbell, Thomas Mclntyre, Luzerne Rae, Barabas M. Fay, David E. Bartlett, William W. Turner, Newton P. Walker, Jacob Van Nostrand, William D. Kerr, and others both of those who worked with them and who followed in their steps. ^ Where the institutions were under regularly chartered societies, these dues were usually fixed at $5, with life member- ship at $50, though the size of the fees varied in the different schools. In the American School the office of vice-president was created for those paying $200. In some of these schools the fees proved of considerable assistance. Education in America 157 were left as private corporations. With the es- tablishment, however, of the Kentucky School in 1823, a second stage is reached in the extension of the new work, the state now undertaking the task itself and providing the schools at its own initiative and expense. At first admission into the schools was restricted to a certain number of pupils, often based upon some political division of the state, as a senatorial district in Tennessee, or a judicial in Ohio. When such limitations were swept away, we have the third stage in the provision for the education of the deaf. The fourth and last stage — though not necessarily in this order in any one particular state, and not in every case formally accomplished — is attained when in Indiana all charges are removed, and education is made free to all.^ In the schools created in later times all these steps were usually merged into one: limitations of any kind were mostly omitted, and the schools were in general thrown open to all from the beginning. ^ Thus is reached the culminative point in the course of the provision for the education of the deaf in America. No longer was private ^The course of provision may be illustrated in the case of the Ohio School. In 1829, at the beginning, an indigent pupil was to be admitted from each of the nine judicial districts of the state, " to be selected by the board of trustees from persons recommended by the associate judges of the counties where they reside". In 1830 the number was increased to eighteen, in 1832 to twenty-seven, in 1834 to forty-eight, and in 1835 to sixty. In 1844 all suitable applicants were to be received, and in 1854 all limitations as to financial ability were removed. 168 THE DEAF benevolence to inaugurate and carry on the work, but the state was coming to see its respon- sibility in part, finally to realize its full duty in making education free to all its deaf popula- tion, just as it was free to the rest of its citizens.^ In many instances, before action by the state, instruction of a small collection of deaf children was taken up by a group of citizens ; ^ but hardly had this been done when as a rule the state proved itself ready and willing to move in and shoulder the responsibility. These private schools were thus often the nucleii of the state institutions, at first aided to an extent, and then taken over. In fact, the private schools were not infrequently started more or less as experimental affairs, but with the expectation that the state would speedily come to their help. " The idea of the founders seemed to be to give barely enough to keep the school going, and to depend upon getting support of a substantial character in the course of time." ^ In some cases there were exhibitions of pupils, either from the school which was hoped to be aided, or from an already established school in another state. These were designed to awaken interest in the public, and especially among the *In many instances the school for the deaf was the first " benevolent " or " humane " institution created by the state. 2 In several instances a deaf man himself came to a com- munity and organized a school. »Mr. E. S. Tillinghast, of the Oregon School, in a letter to the writer. See also Report of Oregon School, 1880, p. 4. EDUCATION IN AMERICA 159 legislators, and to quicken the desired action. In more than one instance the school was established at or near the state capital to show the legislatures what could be done and to influence their pro- ceedings. Not infrequently memorials or peti- tions, in some cases containing a great number of names, were presented to the legislatures, praying for the establishment of the schools. Sometimes if doubt as to the wisdom of the pro- posed course seemed to delay matters, a point was to be gained in the dispatch as a preliminary procedure of a special committee or agent to some existing school in another state, to examine and report upon its work, this report being, as was expected, nearly always highly favorable.^ But appeals to these bodies, whatever their nature, were rarely turned away, and usually secured prompt response. When action was finally to be obtained, the measure relating to the deaf was passed with few dissenting votes, some- times with none at all. So eager had the repre- sentatives of the people now become, that, if it was not deemed practicable at once to create a state institution, haste was made to provide for the children in a school in another state till one within their own borders could be established. In some cases steps were taken to this end by the *0n efforts to secure schools, see Southern Literary Mes- senger, i., 1835, pp. 134, 201. 160 THE DEAF legislative assemblies of territories before state- hood had been bestowed upon them.^ At the same time not to be forgotten, in the narration of the extension of the means of educa- tion to the deaf of the country, is the real debt to private action. It was private initiative that often brought the schools into being, and it was private solicitude that often won their final en- dorsement and adoption by the state. In not a few places there were citizens found who were willing to give of their substance to forward the new work.^ For some of the schools money was not only subscribed, but it came also from the proceeds of fairs and concerts, and for a few also from lectures, debates, exhibits of pictures, and similar affairs; while exhibitions of the pupils themselves from the schools seldom failed to draw a generous offering.^ Indeed, many were glad *It is to be noted that some of the older schools did not look with favor upon the rapid increase in the number of the schools. The creation of many new ones was sometimes advised against, it being declared that the existing ones could answer for all the country, and that pupils would gain by attending them. See Report of Pennsylvania Institution, 1830, appendix, p. 14; American School, 1824, p. 6; 1826, p. 4. ' In some cases pathetic appeals were made for money. See Address before New York Forum in behalf of New York Institution, 1819; Discourse pronounced at Request of Society for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, appendix (address to the public), 1818; Circular of President and Directors of New York Institution, 1818; Addresses to Contributors to the Pennsylvania Asylum, 1821; Report of Pennsylvania Institu- tion, 1826, appendix, p. 19. ' In New York exhibits of pupils were given in a score of cities and towns, in a third of which there were repetitions. Annals, xviii., 1873, p. 80. In Illinois there were more than two score exhibits given, witnessed by some 50,000 persons. Report of Illinois School, 1868, p. 36. EDUCATION IN AMERICA 161 of the opportunity to lend a hand, and contribu- tions were tendered not only by various individ- uals, but also by different societies and organiza- tions ^ — churches probably among the latter proving the most ready givers, with aid, in addi- tion, at time from newspapers, and now and then from a school or college. In some cases funds were collected by citizens with which to purchase a site, and sometimes the land required was given by the cities themselves. Indirect aid was ex- tended as well of not a few kinds; and in the early schools there was seldom great difficulty in securing reduced transportation on railroads and steamboats.^ However, except in a few instances, private assistance in the aggregate did not prove great: as a rule in most schools it was limited, usually sufficing only to tide them over their nascent stage, and in large part ceasing upon their full establishment. From then on the maintenance was assumed practically entirely as a public charge, the legislatures of the several states un- dertaking themselves to provide for the schools. In a few cases, however, there was public aid of ^In connection with the New York Institution there was a society called the New York Female Association, "to aid in giving support and instruction to the indigent deaf and dumb ", which lasted from 1825 to 1835. It raised in one year $1200 for " unsuccessful applicants ". See Address and Constitution, 1830 ; Report of New York Institution, 1826, p. 6. ^ See Report of Mississippi School, 1872, p. 17 ; Annals, ix., 1857, p. 178. 162 THE DEAF another sort. In several schools there were allow- ances for a longer or shorter period from munici- pal funds, as in Maryland, Pennsylvania and New York, and from county, as in North Caro- lina and Utah.^ But much the most important assistance of this character came from the national government; and while only a few schools were favored by its action, the benefactions to those were hardly less than munificent. For the bene- fit of the Connecticut and Kentucky schools early in their careers Congress granted great areas of the public domain ; and later, on the ad- mission of half a dozen or so states in the West into the Union, set apart extensive tracts for the schools to be established in them.^ When the school for the deaf had been for- mally recognized by the state, its first act of * In a few instances, as in North Carolina, the counties were authorized to raise funds by a special tax. * Aid was besought of the national government by a number of schools. In 1826 Congress was asked for the endowment of the institutions then in being which had not already been assisted. See Address of Lewis Weld in the Capitol in Wash- ington, 1828, p. 8. In 1833 the Senate passed bills granting land to the schools in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, but these failed to be acted upon in the House. Proceedings of Laying of Corner Stone of Ohio Institution, 1864; Report of Ohio School, 1869, p. 52. Later there were applications from individual schools, most seeking grants of land. Requests came from Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Georgia, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Nebraska. A township was usually desired, though Vermont asked for 10,000 acres for the benefit of a hospital for the insane and for the education of the deaf and blind. See Laws of Vermont, 1851, no. 81; New Jersey, 1823, p. 124; Report of New York Institution, 1846, p. 14 ; Michigan School, 1858, p. 46; History of Wisconsin School, 1893, p. 6; Proceed- ings of Convention of American Instructors, i., 1850, p. 171. EDUCATION IN AMERICA 163 assistance as a rule was in the form of 'per capita allowances for the pupils, with only occasionally a specific appropriation. These allowances were in the beginning small, but in time were gradually increased. It was usually some years before the policy was adopted of making regular appro- priations. In a few cases, as in Indiana and Illinois, when it was decided to create a state institution, the first proceedings were, in lieu of a direct appropriation, the levying of a small mill tax upon the assessed property of the state. In New York benefit was allowed from the fines or licenses on lotteries, and in Ohio from the receipts of a tax on auctions in one of the counties of the state. In a few cases the schools were even located where there appeared the greatest finan- cial inducement,^ as with the requirement that a certain number of acres of land should be donated for the school.^ For the organization of the new schools a small body of citizens was appointed, often the original promoters of the undertaking, to act as trustees, and to them was confided its direction, with the support and general oversight of the ^In Indiana several cities made efforts to secure the scliool. In Bloomington $4,000 was raised, and an offer extended of a special local tax levy of one cent on $100 of property for Its benefit. Armals, vi., 1854, p. 150. =*Thus in Kansas the school was established on condition that 20 acres be granted for a site, and 150 for its benefit; in Minnesota that 40 acres be provided; and in Colorado that 5 be provided. In Indiana the school was first only provision- ally located by the statute. 164 THE DEAF state back of them.^ Now and then the trustees of an existing educational or other institution were given charge as a temporary arrange- ment.^ In the material projection of the schools, lit- tle was to be expected at the beginning. With the meagre resources at their disposal, the di- rectors had small choice in what was to be pro- vided. In not a few cases the schools started out under conditions far from auspicious, and in some the circumstances in connection with their origin were quite discouraging.^ The quarters secured for the schools were nearly al- ways of unpretentious, and sometimes of humble^ type. Many began in a single rented room, and a few in a church building lent for the pur- pose. It was only in the course of the years, as the communities grew in population and wealth, that the establishments for the deaf assumed appearances in keeping with their character. * In one or two instances " contract " schools were provided for, the managers receiving a certain amount from the state and reserving the balance left after the payment of expenses as their compensation. This plan, however, did not continue long, and was generally condemned. See Annals, iii., 1851, p. 34. ''In Kentucky the school was placed under the trustees of Centre College at Danville, and so remained for fifty years. ^The schools in Indiana and Tennessee were compelled for financial reasons to close for six months, and that in Oregon for eight months, shortly after they had been opened. Report of Tennessee School, 1847, p. 9; History of Oregon School, 1893, p. 4; Annals, x., 1858, p. 106. To add to the difficulties in some instances, was the belief that not enough deaf chil- dren could be assembled for a schooL EDUCATION IN AMERICA 165 The schools for the deaf were now in being, and were ready for the reception of their pupils. But what of these pupils, and where were they? Were they found at the doors of the new institu- tions, clamoring for admission? The situation was hardly this. In point of fact, in nearly every case the schools were ahead of the pupils. Though in practically every community where a school was created, there were a greater or less number of children in need of an education, these children, or rather their parents, were slow in availing themselves of the privilege. It was thus that the schools when established had to wait, as it were, for the coming of their pupils, and in- deed, in not a few instances, to go out after them. On the opening of the schools, none was found to have a large number of pupils, and in most there were only a handful, as three, four or five.^ It was discovered that it was a far from easy task to get the children in.^ The parents were in no small measure ignorant themselves, and the real value of the school was not always readily understood. Besides, in many sections the coun- ^Tlie number in the beginning at the Kentucky and Texas schools was 3, at the New York and Illinois 4, at the Indiana and Tennessee 6, at the Hartford 7, and at the Ohio and Mis- souri 1. 2 On the difficulty in getting the pupils in, see Report of Iowa School, 1865, p. 12; 1868, p. 8; Arkansas School, 1872, p. 15; Indiana School, 1877, p. 15; Kentucky School, 1846, p. 1; West Virginia School, 1879, p. 10; Illinois School, 1854, p. 11; Wisconsin School, 1859, p. 15; Annals, iv., 1852, p. 241. 166 THE DEAF try was new, the roads bad, and the facilities for travel scant. Oftentimes in the course of the founding of the schools, before any direct act was attempted, a census was taken of the deaf of the state. It was also frequently made the duty of certain local officers as county clerks, assessors, etc., to reg- ister and report prospective pupils. By many of the schools circulars were distributed to post- masters, tax-collectors, ministers, school-teachers and others to enlist their help in reaching deaf children ; ^ and by certain of the schools the news- papers were even availed of to carry their adver- tisements. Sometimes special agents were sent out to scour the state and gather in pupils. In many of the schools at the same time the terms of admission were carefully prescribed,^ and in some, especially the older ones, these terms were often published. Notices of vacancies were also in a few cases put in the newspapers, while in one or two instances, as in Massachusetts, it was provided that lots should be drawn when it was found that the number of applicants ex- ceeded the number allowed. In a large portion of the schools at first the pupils were individually committed, or were " appointed," as it was called.^ It was usually some years before the ^ See Report of Michigan School, 1874, p. 43. * In many of the schools there was, and still is, a formal re- quirement of good character. • In some of the states the pupils were long known as " bene- EDUCATION IN AMERICA 167 greater part of such formalities ceased. Charges were also occasionally made at the beginning,^ later to be reduced and in time to be abolished.^ In most of the schools in their first days the period of attendance allowed to the pupils was very short, often being three or four years, and sometimes only two. Usually, however, after a time one or two years were added to the number permitted, which procedure was repeated after certain intervals, and the length of residence was thus gradually increased. In few of the schools, moreover, was an early age held essential; and, indeed, in a considerable number pupils were not admitted at an early age, the limit not infre- quently being ten or twelve.^ The up- per limit was high as well, and in some ficiaries ". The power of appointment was not infrequently vested in the governor of the state. ^In Tennessee a charge was at first made for board, with the result that no pupil appeared; and after a month or two this was removed. Report of Tennessee School, 1845, p. 14; Annals, ix., 1857, p. 118. See also Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, iii., 1853, p. 169. As to the desir- ability of free transportation, see Report of Ohio School, 1843, p. 11. * At the American School a charge of $200 was laid for each pupil at first. This was reduced after a time to $150, then to $115, then to $100, and finally removed altogether. 'In Massachusetts the law for a number of years allowed no applications under fourteen, while in Georgia the age limits for pupils sent to Connecticut were from ten to forty. At the first Convention of American Instructors, it was agreed that it was not expedient to receive pupils under ten, while twelve was considered more suitable. Proceedings, i., 1850, p. 223. On the ages of admission and attendance, see Annals, v., 1852, p. 141; xviii., 1873, p. 176; Report of American School, 1833, p. 23; Iowa School, 1865, p. 11; Indiana School, 1871, p. 19; Missouri School, 1856, p. 14; Proceedings of Conference of 168 THE DEAF cases pupils might enter up to thirty. These age limitations were also in turn lowered in the course of time. Thus eventually we find the ages of attendance as well as the general rules and regulations of admission conforming more and more to those of the regular schools. The various schools that have been created for the deaf have been for the most part boarding institutions, in which the pupils have lived during the school year. But beginning in 1869, and in- creasing rapidly since 1890, a system of day schools has been brought into being, more on the order of the regular common schools, and more distinctly an integral part of the state's educa- tional economy. Such schools, now over three score in number, have been established in fourteen states, and belong especially to large cities. They may be regarded in many respects as denoting a new departure in the educational treatment of the deaf, and as marking the latest development in the course of the instruction of the deaf in the country. In addition, there have been created a class of schools, numbering some score at present, which are of denominational or private character, and arcv not affected by state control. Finally, there has been established by the United States Principals, i., 1868, p. 43; Documents of Senate of New York, 1838, no. 25 (Report of Secretary of State on Relation to Deaf and Dumb). EDUCATION IN AMERICA 169 government a national college for the deaf of all the country — which may be called the crown- ing feature in the provision for the education of the deaf in America. For the great number of the deaf — over five- sixths of the total — the institutional schools re- main the one means of instruction. They have been created in all but a few of the states, and in those without them the children are sent to a school in a neighboring state. In some of the more populous states two or more schools have been estabhshed. These schools are as a rule supported entirely from the public treasury, and are controlled by the legislatures, the actual ad- ministration being delegated to boards of trustees or other bodies. In half the states a regard of an enduring kind has been manifested for the schools in that provision for them has been in- cluded in the constitutions, and these states are thus committed to their maintenance. In the schools themselves not only is education presented in the usual sense, but in practically all industrial training has also been provided to no mean extent, and constitutes a prominent feature of the work. We have now traced the origin and develop- ment of the schools for the deaf in the United States. The present organization and arrange- ments are to be considered in the following chap- 170 THE DEAF ters. We have found that the duty of the education of the deaf has been recognized in all the states of the Union ; that to-day everyivhere in America provision has been made for the instruc- tion of the deaf; and that to all the deaf children of the land the doors of education are open wide.^ * How well America has performed its duty towards the deaf has been generally recognized in other countries. In the En- cyclopedia Britannica (eleventh edition) the deaf of America are referred to as the best educated deaf in the world. A German opinion is that " America has given special attention to the care and education of deaf-mutes ". American Journal of Sociology, vii., 1902, p. 532. See also G. Ferreri, " American Institutions for the Education of the Deaf", 190S; Education of Deaf Children, Evidence of E. M. Gallaudet and A. G. Bell, Presented to Royal Commission of the United Kingdom on Condition of the Blind, the Deaf and Dumb, etc., 1892; E. M. Gallaudet, Report on Deaf-Mute Institutions in the American Commission at the Vienna International Exhibit, 1873, Report of United States Commissioners, 1876, ii. ; J. C. Gordon, "Notes and Observations upon the Education of Deaf Chil- dren ", 1892 ; E. E. Allen, " Education of Defectives " in " Edu- cation in the United States ", 1900 ; E. G. Dexter, " History of Education in the United States", 1906, p. 470; G. G. Smith, " Social Pathology ", 1911, p. 245 ; Cyclopedia of Education, 1911, p. 257; Education, xviii., 1898, p. 417; W. H. Addison, Report of a Visit to Some of the American Schools for the Deaf (the Mosely Commission), 1907; Association Review, ii., 1900, pp. 70, 159, 273; xi., 1909, p. 495; Annals, xUv., 1899, pp. 177, 342, 439; xlv., 1900, pp. 16, 126, 205, 297. CHAPTER X ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTITUTIONS AND GENERAL PROVISIONS Arrangements in the Different States PROVISION for the education of the deaf is made by the different states as a general rule in local institutions. In only four states are deaf children sent at public expense to a school outside for their instruction: Dela- ware, New Hampshire, Nevada, and Wyoming. In these, owing to their comparatively small pop- ulations, it has been considered more economical and satisfactory to contract with the schoo^n an adjoining state. In each of the other states there is at least one institution, or sixty-five in all. In Connflnticut and the District of Columbia ^ there are two, in Massachusetts three, in Pennsylvania four, and in New York eight. In some of these the schools are distributed over the state the bet- ter to reach all the pupils. In the Southern states there are usually separate departments in *the regular institutions for children of the colored ^The two institutions here are the Kendall School and Gallaiidet College, though both really form what is known as the Columbia Institution. 171 "^ 172 THE DEAF race/ but in some there are special arrange- ments. In Virginia there is one school for the white deaf and blind, and another for the colored. In North Carolina there is a school for the white deaf, and another for the blind with a depart- ment for the colored deaf and blind. In Ala- bama, Maryland, Oklahoma, and Texas each there is a school for the white deaf and another for the colored deaf and blind.^ In nearly all the states these schools are strictly public institutions, owned by the state and sup- ported wholly by taxation, and are under the direct control and supervision of the legislature. In a few of the Eastern states the institutions are in private hands and operated under their immediate direction, and in some cases supported in part by endowment funds, but at the same time receiving appropriations from the state, and subject to its authority and general oversight. They are thus " semi-public " or " quasi-public " institutions, and will need a brief separate treat- *In Louisiana full action has not been taken as yet for the creation of a special school for the colored deaf, though this may be expected soon. See Message of Governor, 1908, p. 78. In regard to the value of the schools for the colored, the opin- ion of the heads of the schools in the Southern states has been ascertained by the Board of Charities of Louisiana. The wisdom of the policy was agreed in by all, and the schools were reported as doing well, as were their graduates. By one superintendent it was stated that " ignorance is costly to the state in more ways than one ". Report, 1907, p. 43. * In the District of Columbia and West Virginia colored chil- dren are sent to Maryland for education. PROVISIONS FOR INSTITUTIONS 173 ment, as will also the " dual schools," where the deaf and blind are educated together. Semi-Public Institutions The semi-public institutions are seventeen in number, and are found in six states: Connecti- cut, Maryland, ^ Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania,^ and Vermont. Institutions in these states have remained private corporations from the time they were established, some of them being, as we have seen, the first schools that were created for the deaf. A certain number were es- pecially favored by private munificence at their beginning, and continued to be supported by private funds till the state came to their aid and undertook to assist by regular appropriations. Other schools have been similarly organized, but have always depended largely on the appropria- tions from the state. All of them are in the hands of societies,^ organized and chartered as corporations under the laws of the state. In some cases membership is open to those interested on the payment of the regular dues or fees.^ ^The Maryland School approaches more nearly a state in- stitution, though it is under a self -perpetuating body of trus- tees. ^Two schools in Pennsylvania are entirely state institutions, the Home for the Training in Speech and the Pennsylvania Oral School. ^In a few institutions there are aid or auxiliary societies composed of ladies, usually about flfteen in number, as in the New York Institution, the New York Institution for Improved Instruction, and the Pennsylvania Institution. * These fees and dues, as we have seen, are of varying size. 174 THE DEAF These institutions, while corporate bodies, are under the authority and supervision of the state. Their relation to the state and the conditions under which they exist may be understood from their position in New York. Here the institu- tions were chartered by the state as benevolent societies, the buildings and grounds being pre- sented, or the money for them collected, by the trustees, and the property reverting to the state if alienated to another use.^ These schools are all subsidized from the state treasury in per capita allowances for the pupils received ; ^ and to some, especially the newer ones, there are general appropriations from time to time for buildings and the like. The regular grants, how- ever, are often not sufficient for the cost of main- tenance, which means that the institutions are in- structing the children of the state, and maintain- ing them, at a cost to which the state contributes only a part. Such balances are covered from the endowment funds and private donations, but it would seem that the state gets a good bargain from the transaction.^ Annual membership dues are often $5, and sometimes as high as $25. Life membership fees range from $25 to $100, with corresponding fees for patrons, vice-presidents and others. The highest fee is that of life donor in the New York Institution for Improved Instruction, being $1,000. ^ Dr. I. L. Peet, Proceedings of National Conference of Chari- ties and Corrections, 1883, p. 415. =^The annual appropriations are from $265 to $360 for each pupil, but not often over $300 or $325. •In the case of the Pennsylvania Institution we are advised PROVISIONS FOR INSTITUTIONS 175 On the other hand, it is to be remembered in connection with these schools that in the matter of the education of certain of the children of the state this duty is turned over to a private society. An anomalous situation, it would seem, is thus created, the state abdicating one of its most im- portant functions as now conceived. The ques- tion, however, is not of great practical moment, and the matter may be likened to the general policy of the state when it contracts out for any of its work to be done. If economy and efficiency are secured, it is felt that there can be little ground for objection. A more important ques- tion arises in the matter of the granting of public money to a private institution. The matter of such state subsidies has already received con- siderable discussion,^ and may receive even more attention in the future. Notwithstanding, these that the per capita appropriation is $32 less than the actual cost. See also Report, 1900, p. 9; 1901, p. 10; 1908, p. 10. In the case of the Clarke School, the trustees declare that the state has never paid the school for each pupil the average annual cost of instruction and maintenance, and the legislature is repeatedly asked to increase its appropriations. See Report, 1904, p. 8 ; 1911, p. 9 ; 1912, p. 8. Of the American School we are told that the state appropriation " has never been enough to meet the actual cost". Report, 1909, p. 9. In the case of the New York Institution we are advised that the cost per pupil from 1903 to 1913 has ranged from $338 to $415, while the state appropriation has never exceeded $325; and that from 1893 to 1913 $357,579 has been expended for educational pur- poses, and $500,000 for buildings and equipment, from the school's own funds. ^On this subject, see American Journal of Sociology, vii., 1901, p. 359 ; Report of Superintendent of Charities of District of Columbia, 1891, p. 11; Proceedings of National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1911, p. 27. 176 THE DEAF private institutions for the deaf were largely organized before the present attitude in the mat- ter: they have in some cases really anticipated the duty of the state, and in a general considera- tion of the subject would probably be the last to be condemned. " Dual Schools " " Dual schools," that is, schools in which there are departments both for the deaf and the blind, are found in ten states: California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Montana, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia.^ In a number of other states the deaf and the blind were for a certain period educated together, either the two classes being provided for jointly from the first or a department for the blind being later created ; but in time in these the two classes have been separated, and distinct schools for the blind set up.^ As a general thing, this arrangement of having the deaf and the blind together in one school has been regarded as unfortunate, and educators of both classes have protested against it. The ques- *As we have noted, Alabama, Maryland, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Texas, and Virginia have similar arrangements for their colored deaf and blind. 2 In New Mexico, however, where there are schools for both classes, the governor has advised their consolidation, as one institution " could administer to the needs of both ". Message, 1907, p. 21. PROVISIONS FOR INSTITUTIONS 177 tion has thus been stated : The deaf and the bhnd " have nothing in common in the matter of educa- tion, and the bringing of the two classes together is a prolific source of friction and compromise." ^ The blind, it seems, are the worst sufferers, as they are in a minority, are often considered only a department or class in an institution designed primarily for the deaf, and consequently receive less attention than they should.^ However, this arrangement has not been adopted as a deliberate policy on the part of the state : rather, it was be- gun when the school was young, pupils of both classes few, and one plant was thought adequate ; and was allowed to continue as a makeshift till separate schools could be created. As the states have grown in population and resources, most have seen the wisdom of severing the blind from the deaf; and even in the states where the dual ^ Report of Colorado School, 1908, p. 20. See also Report of Board of Charities of West Virginia, 1910, p. 209. ^ The educators of the blind have particularly arraigned this plan. At one of the first conventions of the American Instruct- ors of the Blind, the following propositions were enunciated: 1. Deaf-mutes and the blind differ from each other more widely than either class differs from those having all the senses; 2. the methods of instruction peculiar to each are entirely un- like and incompatible ; 3. the deaf engross the main attention ; 4. the development of the blind department is retarded. Pro- ceedings, 1871, p. 87. Educators of the deaf have likewise stated their objections. At an early conference of principals, a resolution was adopted that the arrangement was bad, the methods being entirely different. Proceedings, ii., 1872, pp. 146, 151. See also Report of Michigan School, 1855 (first report), p. 1 ; 1880, p. 62 ; Louisiana School, 1870, p. 30. In times past, however, advantages of this arrangement have been pointed out. See Report of California Institution, 1869, p. 15; 1873, p. 19. 178 THE DEAF school is retained it is probably only a question of time till provision will be made for the separate education of the two classes, and eventually there will be independent schools for each in all the states. Peovision foe the Deaf-Blind In 1824 at the school for the deaf at Hart- ford, Connecticut, the first deaf-blind pupil in America began to receive instruction. To-day the names of certain illustrious deaf-blind persons are known over the civilized world.^ Such chil- dren are provided for at present more often in schools for the deaf than in schools for the blind, only one or two schools for the latter class in- structing them. The deaf-blind, however, do not form a large class, and only in a small number of schools are they to be found.^ In certain cases where the school is only for the deaf, special per- mission with a special appropriation has to be obtained, but there has been little difficulty met * See individual accounts in William Wade's monograph on the Deaf-Blind, 1901; see also National Magazine, xi., 1857, p. 27 ; Review of Reviews, xxv., 1902, p. 435 ; Ohio Bulletin of Charities and Corrections, xiii., 1907, p. 47; Proceedings of American Instructors of the Deaf, xvi., 1901, p. 175flE. ; Atinals, 1., 1905, p. 125. 'The chief schools where they have been of recent years or are now being instructed are the New York Institution, the Pennsylvania Institution, the Western Pennsylvania Institu- tion, and the schools in Ohio, Mississippi, Kentucky, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, Wisconsin, Colorado, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. The number in any one school at one time seldom exceeds two or three, most often there being but one. PROVISIONS FOR INSTITUTIONS 179 here from the legislatures. To certain of the deaf- blind individual benefactions have been made, as legacies, donations and subscriptions, sometimes given to the institutions to hold in trust; and in some cases these funds are for life. Provision for the Feeble-minded Deaf In many of the schools for the deaf a problem has arisen in connection with a number of feeble- minded children more or less defective in speech or hearing who have sought to gain admittance. Educators of the deaf have been called upon to give considerable attention to this class, and it has been a serious question what to do with them.^ Many of those who have applied at the institutions have been denied. Some have been allowed to enter, and their presence in the schools has constituted a difficult problem.^ It is felt by those concerned in the education of the deaf that they are out of place here, and that they should be removed to a regular institution for the f eeble- ^A considerable proportion of such children are rather dumb than deaf, having some oral, as well as mental, defect. ^On this question, see especially Report of Illinois School, 1860, p. 15; Michigan School, 1887, p. 25; Maryland School, 1885, p. 13; 1897, p. 13; Mississippi School, 1909, p. 24; Min- nesota Companion, of Minnesota School, Nov. 22, 1911; Re- port of Board of Charities of New York, 1912, i., p. 144. Of the Alabama School, it is said that it " has turned away a number of these feeble-minded children during the past two years". Report, 1904, p. 21. In Ohio there are stated to be a hundred such children. Report of Ohio School, 1909, p. 17. In another state there are said to be 150 feeble-minded deaf. Annals, liv., 1909, p. 444. 180 THE DEAF minded, or should otherwise be specially provided for.^ Government of the Different Institutions The government of schools for the deaf is prac- tically the same in the different states. They are, for the most part, in the hands of boards of trustees, boards of directors, boards of managers, or boards of visitors, as they are variously termed. The semi-public institutions, as we have seen, *In 1910 the census reported 294 deaf persons in institu- tions for the feeble-minded, or 1.4 per cent of all their in- mates. Insane and Feeble-minded in Institutions, 1914, p. 92. It has also been estimated that five per cent of the deaf are feeble-minded. Proceedings of Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1906, p. 254ff. On the subject of the feeble-minded deaf in institutions, Mr. Cyrus E. White, of the Kansas School, sent letters to the heads of 55 schools, receiving replies from 45. No state, it was found, had made special provision for the feeble-minded deaf. It vs^as the general agreement that they should be in institutions for the feeble-minded, one superin- tendent declaring that " f eeble-mindedness is a better classi- fication than deafness". Another superintendent suggested the establishment of such an institution in a central state, to which the different states could send suitable cases. See Annals, Iv., 1910, p. 133. A committee of the Pennsylvania Society for the Advancement of the Deaf has found that all of the three feeble-minded institutions in this state are crowded, and that there is no hope for the feeble-minded deaf in them. Proceedings, xxiv., 1910, p. 9. In one institu- tion for the feeble-minded there are said to be twenty deaf feeble-minded. Annals, liv., 1909, p. 444. In the institution for the feeble-minded in Iowa a special class of such inmates was organized in 1912. Ibid., Iviii., 1913, p. 107. It is to be re- membered in this connection that in many states there are no institutions for the feeble-minded. Educators of the deaf have often been instrumental in securing the creation of such institutions. See Proceedings of Convention of American In- structors, iv., 1S57, p. 227. In a few states, as Illinois, Min- nesota and Washington, departments for the feeble-minded have been created in schools for the deaf, the feeble-minded being removed later. In Montana a department is still main- tained. PROVISIONS FOR INSTITUTIONS 181 were started as private concerns under private boards of directors. These boards still exist, and control the affairs of the institutions, having full powers but subject to such regulation as the state may direct. Such boards are usually self- perpetuating bodies, though in some cases the governor has been allowed to name a part. In the American School the governors and secre- taries of state of the New England states are eoo- officio directors. In the case of some schools, as the Pennsylvania Institution, where membership is open to any one on the payment of the dues, the governing board is elected by the members of the society or corporation.^ In all these boards the members serve without compensation. Their size varies considerably, but they are usually large, having in some cases over twenty members.^ Where the school is strictly a state institution, the board is usually appointed by the governor, sometimes with the approval of the state senate.^ In a few cases the boards are elected by the legis- ^The Columbia Institution is considered a corporation, its governing board being composed of nine members, one of whom is a senator appointed by the President of the Senate, and two members of the House appointed by the Speaker, while the President of the United States is patron. ''In the New York Institution and the New York Institu- tion for Improved Instruction the number Is 21, and in the Maryland School, the Pennsylvania Institution and the West- ern Pennsylvania Institution, 27. ^ Such is the case in Alabama, Mississippi, New Mexico, North Carolina, Rhode Island, and Utah. Confirmation by the Senate is also usual with boards of control. 182 THE DEAF lature, as in Georgia and Tennessee. In Mon- tana appointment is made by the state board of education. In several of the states the governor or some other pubhc officer, most often the super- intendent of public instruction, is a member eoc- officio} These boards also as a rule serve with- out compensation, and are paid only for expenses actually incurred.^ Their size is smaller than that of the corporate boards, usually consisting of from three to seven members, though in a few cases they may go beyond the latter figure. They are appointed to serve two, three, four or five years, and in a few cases even longer. In states where the members are elected by the legislature, the term is usually indefinite; and in one or two states, as in Alabama, the board is self -perpetu- ating.^ In eight states the institutions are under special boards of their own, without supervision or regu- lation from other bodies: Alabama, District of Columbia, Georgia, Mississippi, New Mexico, South Carolina, Texas, and Utah. In eighteen states the schools are under special boards of trus- * On rare occasions a deaf man himself is made a member of the board. * In a few states compensation is allowed, as in Indiana, Montana, Oklahoma, Texas, and West Virginia. ' On the arrangements in the several states, see especially Annals, xlviii., 1903, p. 348; Iviii., 1913, p. 327. See also Pro- ceedings of American Instructors, iv., 1857, p. 199; vii., 1870, p. 144 ; ix., 1878, pp. 195, 217 ; Report of Royal Commission on the Blind, Deaf and Dumb, etc., 1889, iiL, p. 456£e. PROVISIONS FOR INSTITUTIONS 183 tees, while the state board of charities — or what- ever the official title — may visit, inspect, super- vise, advise, or may otherwise be connected with them: California, Connecticut, Idaho, Indiana, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Minne- sota, Missouri, Montana, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. It may be noted that such central boards — including the state boards of control — are found in thirty-nine states, and in all but five have some connection with the schools.^ In eleven states the schools are directly under the state boards of control, central boards or bodies with similar powers, no special or local board intervening: Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, Washington, and Wisconsin.^ *In certain of these states, however, as Idaho, Indiana, Maine, Minnesota, Montana, and West Virginia, the boards of charities or central boards have only more or less financial concern, the statutes usually referring to some such connec- tion with the several state institutions, though not always mentioning them by name. In one or two states, as Rhode Island, there is connection with a board of purchases and supplies. In Minnesota there is also a board of visitors for state institutions, exerting rather a moral supervision. 'The duties of such boards may be indicated from the fol- lowing extract in a letter to the writer from the Secretary of the Wisconsin Board: The board "appoints the chief officers, purchases all the supplies for the institutions, formulates the provisions under which the institutions are managed, and has almost unlimited power with reference to the institutions ". The boards thus have practically complete control of the public institutions of the state, and in some cases state uni- versities have come within their direction. The boards have come especially into favor in states of the West and Middle West. In their favor it is claimed that they secure economy, 184 THE DEAF In some of the states, on the other hand, the schools are related to the state department of education. In four states they are under boards of trustees, with supervision only by this depart- ment: Colorado, Kentucky, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. In Idaho and New Jersey the schools are directly under the department, ^ though in the former there is also connection with another state board. In Montana the board of trustees is appointed by the department. In In- diana and Oklahoma the schools have boards of trustees and are under the department of educa- tion, but with inspection also by the department of charities. In New York and North Carolina there is supervision both by the department of education and of charities. In several states the board of trustees includes the state superin- tendent of public instruction as a member ex- officio, as in Alabama, Louisiana, Minnesota, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. In Kansas the school is under the state board of administration for educational institutions, in- cluding the university, normal school and agri- cultural college, and in Florida the school is under accuracy, better discipline and more equitable appropriations, introduce business methods, relieve the heads of schools from financial problems, visit other states, and keep in touch with the people. See University of Nebraska Studies, Oct., 1905. The evolution of state control is also here traced. See also Bulletin of Ohio Board of Charities, Dec., 1908, xiv., 6. ^ In Iowa the school for the blind is under the board of education. PROVISIONS FOR INSTITUTIONS 185 the board of control of state educational institu- tions, while in Arizona the school is a department of the state university.^ Procedure in States without Institutions In states where pupils are sent to schools out- side the state, appointments and commitments are usually made in the East by the respective governors, and in the West by the boards of education or of charities. In Delaware the gov- ernor appoints pupils to outside schools, the state supreme court having first recommended. In New Hampshire the governor recommends, while the children are placed by the board of con- trol.^ In Wyoming the education of deaf chil- dren is directed by the board of charities and reforms, and in Nevada by the state department of education.^ ^In nearly all the states the schools were placed at first in the hands of special boards of trustees, with connection with no other bodies, and it was only later that any change was brought about. In some states there have been various ex- periments in the organization of governing boards and in the number of members they were to contain. Several schools at their beginning have been put under the direction of a state educational institution, as the university in Utah, and the normal school in Oklahoma. In a few states the schools have been placed under certain state officers, as in New Mexico and Oregon. In Washington the first board of trustees of the school consisted of a physician, a lawyer and a practical educator. 2 We have already noted that the colored deaf of the Dis- trict of Columbia and West Virginia are sent to an outside school. « In regard to the organization of the several boards that have to do with the education of the deaf, it may be stated 186 THE DEAF that in some states, as in Ohio and Indiana, the law restricts the number that may be of any one political party. In con- nection with the government of schools for the deaf, the saddest feature has too often been the political influ- ences which have been allowed to become factors in the con- ducting of some of them. In certain instances the playing of " politics " has been of serious moment, and with incalculable harm to the work of the schools. In some cases the adminis- tration of schools has been considered legitimate spoils to the party in power, and appointments have been made as a matter of reward, and removals as a matter oL punishment. The evil effect of such procedure it is hard to overestimate, and indeed in an enlightened land it is even difficult of credence. Public opinion should severely condemn all attempts at political inter- ference in the work of the education of the deaf, and those seeking to promote it should be dealt with befittingly. Hap- pily, however, such conduct seems now on the decline in the schools, and it may earnestly be hoped that the end is not far in the future. CHAPTER XI THE DAY SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF Inception and Growth of the Day School A SMALL number of the institutions for the deaf had begun as day schools, the pupils living away from the school outside school hours, and had continued so for a longer or shorter period. The schools were then in an ex- perimental stage, and this plan came first to hand. In the course of time it was found that this feature was not practicable, as the pupils were often far scattered, and the boarding ar- rangement was accordingly adopted.^ This was the policy finally chosen in all the states having schools. Later, however, when the states had grown in population, and in some of the cities there were found not a few deaf children, the demand was renewed for day schools.^ The re- ^The New York Institution, the Pennsylvania Institution and the Western Pennsylvania Institution notably started out as day schools, the first remaining so for eleven years. In some of the institutions also there have been at times day school pupils in attendance. ='Day schools have, moreover, been fostered and supported to a great extent by advocates of what is known as the oral method, in opposition to the manual, or sign method, which had been largely the method hitherto employed in the Institu- tions. The day school may even be said to have entered the field in part as a protest against this method. 187 188 THE DEAF suit has been the beginning and development of a system of day schools in a number of states; and they have come to occupy part of the field formerly covered by the state institutions alone. Of the day schools now existing, the Horace Mann School, of Boston, which was established in 1869, is accredited with being the initial one.^ Two others were opened before 1890, while from 1891 to 1900 there were 22 started, and since 1901, 40, making 65 in all now.^ These schools are found in fourteen states, but the movement has reached its greatest growth in the Middle West, especially in Wisconsin and Michigan. In some of the states special laws have been en- acted, providing for the establishment of day schools.^ Design and Scope of Day Schools The day school for the deaf is still sometimes regarded as an experiment, while its advocates insist that its success has been demonstrated. *A day school was started in Pittsburg two months pre- viously; but it was soon made into the Western Pennsylvania Institution. Annals, xv., 1870, p. 165. * A number of day schools which were started have been discontinued, but there were never so many as at present. 'Wisconsin was the first state to have a day school law, which was enacted in 1885. Bills were offered in 1881 and 1883, but were defeated. The movement in this state has been in large part due to the activities of the Wisconsin Pho- nological Institute to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, an organization formed in 1879. The question has even been considered in this state of abolishing the state school as a boarding institution. See Public Opinion, xxv., 1898, no. 16; Association Review, iii., 1901, p. 193. DAY SCHOOLS 189 Among school authorities in cities especially, pleas for the establishment of day schools are often listened to with favor, and there is fre- quently a tendency to give them at least a trial. General bodies interested in education or the public welfare are likewise inclined to counte- nance day schools, largely for the reason that they are opposed to the institution idea, and would place as many children as possible in the regular schools. An illustration of this view is found in the Report on Children of the National Confer- ence of Charities and Corrections in 1906.^ Institutional care of healthy, normal children is objectionable Institutional care for educational purposes is necessary for a portion of the deaf and blind children but it is recognized that in large cities public schools can be provided for many deaf and blind children. By some it is believed that in time the day school will supplant the large institution, so far at least as large cities are concerned, and that the deaf, and the blind as well, will not be dif- ferentiated from the pupils in the regular schools. Separate apartments and special teachers will be provided for them, but in all public school sys- tems these classes will be actual factors. On the other hand, it is maintained that there is an abundant field for both day school and in- * Proceedings, p. 88. 190 . THE DEAF stitution. The former should only supplement the work of the latter, especially in reaching children that cannot otherwise be brought into school. The reason why the day school is called into being is thus given by an educational author- ity of one city: ^ Institutions that care for these children throughout the entire year, that feed, clothe and educate them, that render skilful and prompt medical attention, and afford uplifting social advantages — all under one roof — have a worthy place under our social and educational systems ; but these institutions cannot care for all the unfortunate children in need of education. It is also suggested that it might be arranged that day schools should keep pupils during their early years, as from five to nine years of age, after which time they could enter the institution, and be placed in graded classes and in a suitable trade school.^ Hence it is pointed out that the day school and institution should not be antag- onistic, that their interests are common at bottom, and that they should work hand in hand, with- out friction or misunderstanding. *Mr. C. W. Edson, Associate Superintendent of Schools of New York, Charities and the Commons, xix., 1908, p. 1357. See also Report of Illinois Institution, 1874, p. 65. = See Report of Washington State School, 1910, p. 6. A like solution was offered before the National Educational Association in 1903. Certain children might be " trained in special schools and live at home if possible up to the age of adolescence, when they may acquire trades at special institu- tions maintained bj the state ". Proceedings, p. 1004. DAY SCHOOLS 191 The day school plan has not as yet been fol- lowed in a large number of states ; yet as these schools are being looked upon with more and more favor by city boards of education, and as in the centers of population there is said to be a need for them, it is not improbable that they may be extended much farther in the future. It is doubtful, however, if very soon they will spread beyond the large cities ; and states without great cities may be without such schools for many years at least.^ Extent and Organization of Day Schools The day schools, numbering 65 in all, as we have seen, are found in the states of California, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Washington, and Wis- consin. In Georgia, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, and Oregon each there is but one school, in New Jersey and Washington each 2, in New York 3, in California 4, in Ohio and Illinois each 5, in Michigan 14, and in Wis- consin 24. Where only one day school is found in a state, it is located usually in the largest city (Atlanta, New Orleans, Boston, St. Paul, St. Louis, and Portland), while the two schools of * It is to be remembered that in Michigan and Wisconsin schools have, under the operation of the state law, been or- ganized in comparatively small towns. 192 THE DEAF New Jersey are in Newark and Jersey City, the two of Washington in Seattle and Tacoma, and the three of New York in New York City. Of the five schools in Illinois, four are in Chicago. In six of these states, namely, California, Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey, Ohio, and Wis- consin, there are special state laws under which the schools are established and operated.^ By such laws it is generally provided that where there are a certain number of deaf children, usually three,^ a school may, on application of the local school trustees or district board, be or- ganized by the state department of education.^ The minimum age for such children is often three. A stated sum is frequently allowed for each pupil, as $150.* In the remaining eight states the schools are organized and directed by local school authorities, without assistance from legislative statute. These schools are supported by local funds or by state and local funds together. The latter is the more common procedure, and in the case * Efforts have been made in several other states to secure laws. In Ohio in 1902 the state law was declared unconsti- tutional, as being class legislation in granting special aid to the cities of Cleveland and Cincinnati. See Report of Ohio School, 1903, p. 14. 'In California the number is five, and in New Jersey ten. ' In Ohio the state commissioner of education may appoint and remove teachers, and inspect schools. In Wisconsin the state superintendent appoints inspectors, and the county judge may compel the establishment of schools. *In Wisconsin $100 additional is allowed for the board of children who move to a town to attend a school. DAY SCHOOLS 193 of schools operating under a state law, it is the usual, but not the necessary, practice. The schools in six states, namely, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Minnesota, Missouri, and New York, are thus maintained only by local funds of the city or county, the remainder receiving aid in whole or in part from the state.^ The school in Minnesota and one in California are aided by private contributions. In nearly all cases car- fare is provided to and from school when nec- essary. In the day schools special buildings are not usually provided, separate classes being created in the regular school buildings ; but in some of the larger cities there are special buildings, known as distinct schools, in which the class-rooms are for the different grades of deaf pupils. The number of pupils in the day schools in 1912-1913 was 1,942. The smallest schools have but three pupils, while the largest one, in Chicago, has 307, the number usually depending on the size of the city. The method employed in the day schools is exclusively the oral with but two excep- tions.^ In all but a few certain industries are also taught, or more or less of manual training is given. *Iii Massachusetts a direct appropriation of $150 per capita is made by tlie state. *The methods employed in the instruction of the deaf are treated of in Chapter XIX. 194 THE DEAF Aeguments for the Day School The great argument for the day school is that it is not well that children be " institution- alized." The institution life is said not to be the normal life, and its habits and associations are not in accord with the principles now being largely held in America. It is coming to be more and more realized that the home should always be the center of interest and attachment in the well established community, and that the char- acter and influence of the family should be main- tained unimpaired. In connection with orphan and other child-caring agencies, a greater em- phasis than ever before is being put on the ques- tion of how to reduce the life to one of normality, and the " placing-out " of dependent children in homes where they can grow up as normal children is now a popular faith. The great watchword to- day in intelligent and constructive philanthropy is the " ideal of the normal," and it is on this ground that the institution is declared to be re- moved from the standard of the highest interests of society. Even though a child should profit in the institution, and even though he should be sent out into the world strong and self-reliant, yet while in the institution, he is out of line, and is just so far displaced from the ideal of the normal; and even though the institution is cleanlier, more sanitary and otherwise better equipped than the DAY SCHOOLS 195 quarters from which the child comes, still the institution cannot be justified, for no solution can be acceptable if in the end it results in the break- ing up of the home/ More specific charges are also brought against the institution. Here life for the inmates is made too easy, and little can be known by them of the actual struggles of the world. The life is ma- chine-like, and all is routine clockwork. By the discipline, which is necessary, much of the spon- taneity of growing children is destroyed, and the surroundings are pervaded with the spirit of uniformity, " solidarity " and " dead levelism." On the other hand, the children fail to learn many important lessons in domestic economy which would be before them every day in the home ; and they lose the attitude towards life, morally and socially, which is given by the home.^ The arguments for the day school may be stated more concretely yet. The special day school may be co-ordinated with, or made a part of, the state's educational system, standing on a level with its other schools. Deaf children here come to feel their place in the normal world, while * The importance of this is accentuated in the present appre- hensions concerning the dissolving and loosening of the ties of the home, indicated in more ways than one in present pro- grams of social work. 2 See A. G. Warner, "American Charities", rev. ed., 1908, p. 283 ; R. R. Reeder, " How Two Hundred Children Live and Learn ", 1910, pp. 57, 88 ; " Philanthropy and Social Progress ", 1893, p. 172fle. 196 THE DEAF people in general become more ready to regard them in a proper manner. These children at the same time are not made strangers to their own family circles and communities ; and certain ones, by a school nearer home and consequently more acceptable to their parents, may be reached who would otherwise possibly never enter an institu- tion. In the way of cost the balance is distinctly on the side of the day school. With no costly special plant necessary, 'and with no charges to be in- curred for food supplies, attendants and the like, it appears to decided advantage in the mat- ter of economy in comparison with an institution; and its normal expenditures approach nearer those of the regular schools. At present the dif- ference between the cost per pupil in the day schools and in the institutions is the difference between $120 and $277.^ *It is claimed that in Wisconsin with the centralization plan of a state institution one-third of the deaf children failed to be reached, and that by the day school there is a saving to the state of $20,000 a year. Proceedings of Na- tional Educational Association, 1907, p. 986. See also iUd., 1897, p. 96; 1901, p. 870; 1910, p. 1039; Report of United States Commissioner of Education, 1881, p. ccxi. ; P. A. Emery, " Plea for Early Mute Education," 1884; Improvement of the Wis- consin System of Education of Deaf Children, 1894; Public School Classes for Deaf Children: Open Letter from Chicago Association of Parents of Deaf Children, 1897; Michigan Day Schools for the Deaf, 1908; Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction of Michigan, 1909, p. 61; Report of De- partment of Public Instruction of Wisconsin, 1910, p. 60; Re- port of Board of Education of Chicago, 1912, p. 155; A. J. Winnie, " History and Handbook of Day Schools for the Deaf", Wisconsin, 1912; Annals, xx., 1875, p. 34; Association DAY SCHOOLS 197 Arguments against the Day School The argument against the day school rests upon the fact that the deaf form, educationally, a special class, very small in most communities, who have to be reached by unusual methods. To them the large institution offers advantages not likely to be had outside. For this reason the case against the institution, however cogent and logi- cal it may be in general, cannot well apply. In the institution the children may be under intelligent supervision and direction their entire time, and they may be able to get, outside school hours, a part of the education which the hearing child so naturally acquires, for in an institution learning continues outside the classroom as well as within. The " picking up " of knowledge and bits of information, which the hearing child be- gins to make use of from the time he first hears human words, and the importance and value of which the general public cannot be expected to appreciate, is lost in the greatest measure to the deaf in the home. Here ready means of com- munication are lacking, and the necessary care and attention cannot be expected to be given in the household. Even though deaf children can and do mingle with their hearing acquaintances, Review, ii., 1900, p. 248; viiL, 1906, p. 136; xi., 1909, p. 30; Volta Review, xiii., 1911, p. 292; Independent, Ixxiv., 1913, p. 1140. 198 THE DEAF they cannot get so much happiness or zest out of their sports and intercourse as they can with their own deaf comrades; and while, no matter what their surroundings are, the difficulties of most of them in mastering language will never be over- come, still in associations with similar deaf chil- dren there will be far more stimuli to react on their consciousness, and the tendency will be for them to become more and more in their mental actions like the normal. In the home there can be no great assurance of study and supervision ; and the growing deaf child, not being able to appre- ciate the forces that surround him as the hearing child does, may the more easily fall under un- wholesome influences. In the institution there can be suitable discipline, regular attendance, en- lightened general oversight, and co-ordination of all that is concerned in the child's proper develop- ment. Furthermore, although there may be a growing feeling against the institution life, there is, on the other hand, an increasing social ques- tioning as to the advisability of a child's remain- ing in a particular home if his welfare is not properly safeguarded. In many day schools there are comparatively few pupils, and in most of these we cannot ex- pect to find the carefully graded classes, with a place for every pupil according to his needs, bright or dull, quick to learn or slow. A pupil DAY SCHOOLS 199 in a day school, if not neglected to some extent, may be required to do work for which he is quite unfitted, being either beyond it or incapable of it. The backward child will here be the worst suf- ferer, for if there are but few classes, he can get little of the special attention he needs; and his progress cannot be the same as when in a class of like pupils and under an appropriate and patient teacher. Again, the attention that is given in an institu- tion with a considerable number of pupils to the learning of a trade — accounting in strong meas- ure for success in after life — means much more to a deaf child than it could to any other. In an institution there will usually be found larger equipment, fuller apparatus and more varied lines than in any but a very large day school ; and in its trade department habits of industry will be formed, talents developed, a knowledge of mech- anism and the use of tools implanted, an ardor enkindled for the mastership of a trade, and an appreciation of the part to be played in the great world of industrial activity, besides the incentive of being in a great workshop with other work- ers — all in far greater measure and more effec- tively than would be possible anywhere else, save in a great trade school, in which there could not be expected to be taken the special care and pro- wo THE DEAF vision necessitated by the want of hearing of the pupils. Finally, it may be said that we have no evi- dence, as respects institutions for the deaf, to show that they have in any way undermined the character or mission of the home, or that their results have been other than desirable in a well- ordered state. Hence we are told, in a word, that no matter how strong and valid are the theo- retical objections to an institution, yet so far as the practical issues are concerned, in the prepara- tion of the deaf for the world, and in what really counts for their development and progress, the institution, for many at least, occupies a position of demonstrated usefulness, recognition of which cannot rightly be withheld.^ Evening Day Schools for Adults Thus far in this chapter we have discussed day schools in relation to children, that is, pupils in the usual sense. But there is another form of day schools to which attention is to be directed. Tliis is in the creation of evening day schools for *See Annals, xxvii., 1882, p. 182; xxix., 1884, pp. 165, 312; XXX., 1885, p. 121 ; 1., 1905, p. 70 ; Ivi., 1911, p. 91 ; Volta Re- view, XV., 1913, p. 180 ; Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, vii., 1870, p. 114; xiv., 1895, pp. 130, 350; Con- ference of Principals, vi., 1888, p. 202; viii., 1904, p. 70; Min- nesota Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1898, p. 88; Report of Iowa School, 1885, p. 16; Pennsylvania Institution, 1903, p. 38; California School, 1904, p. 20. DAY SCHOOLS 201 the use of adults only, the field open to which is as yet apparently but little realized. Occasion for such schools arises chiefly in com- munities, especially large cities, where a consid- erable number of adult deaf persons are within reach, and where a real need may often be found. The matter is to be regarded in effect as the ex- tension of the means of education by the state to include as large a part of the population as pos- sible — a movement which is being so notably evi- denced in the opening of evening schools of not a few kinds in cities to-day. With the deaf the demand is of a peculiar nature. Their avenues for receiving instruction are materially restricted, and for some, especially the congenitally deaf, the acquisition of correct language always re- main*s a difficult problem, while to others the ad- vantages of the regular schools may have been limited. A large number of the deaf will not require such special opportunities, but for a por- tion of them the assistance may be of quite sub- stantial character.^ *0ne or two evening schools have been started in the past, to be discontinued after a few years, both under private and under public auspices. In the consideration, however, of any general scheme for evening schools it should be arranged that the work of the regular schools for the deaf is not in- fringed upon, and that pupils in these schools should not have before them the temptation of leaving prematurely, with the expectation of making up later. Probably the safest plan would be the securing of a satisfactory compulsory at- tendance law before evening schools are attempted upon a broad scale. CHAPTER XII DENOMINATIONAL AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS Denominational Schools IN addition to the state institutions and the day- schools, there have been established in Am- erica certain schools for the deaf which are strictly under private management, and, as a rule, not subject to the immediate control and di- rection of the state. These are of two kinds: 1. denominational schools, maintained by some religious body; and 2. schools conducted as purely private and secular affairs. Such schools now number twenty-one, ten denominational and eleven private, all in 1912-1913 having 638 pupils. Most are of comparatively recent date, the first having been established in 1873, and nine since 1901.^ The denominational schools are found in Cali- fornia, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, ^ * There have been a number of private schools at various times, perhaps a score or more, which have been discontinued — besides those which were the nucleii of the state institutions. There are, moreover, several private schools for the hard of hearing, where instruction and practice are offered in lip- reading, and attended for the most part by adults. 202 PRIVATE SCHOOLS 203 there being two in Pennsylvania. They are for the most part boarding institutions, in a few cases being departments of larger institutions. Their controlling purpose is to surround their pupils with religious influences, and to provide them with religious instruction. All but one are under Roman Catholic auspices, as a usual thing in the hands of the Sisters. The single Protes- tant school is in the care of the Lutheran Church, and is controlled by the synod, with the direct management vested in a board of trustees. These schools are supported by denominational funds, by voluntary contributions, and in a small measure by tuition fees. In some of the schools, as in Maryland and Pennsylvania, there is state aid to a small extent. The fees paid by pupils are never high, and not many in the schools pay the full amount, though inability to pay is never al- lowed to keep any away who wish to attend.^ Private Schools The eleven non-denominational schools may be *Thus in the Michigan Evangelical Lutheran Institute, where the minimum fee is $10 a month, we are advised that only two or three pay the full amount. In St. John's In- stitute of Wisconsin, where $12 a month is asked, we are advised that the oflScials are " contented with whatever part of this sum the parents or guardians can pay ". Voluntary contributions likewise do not always prove large. Of the Im- maculate Conception Institution of St. Louis, we are advised that private contributions are " too meagre to support one child ". The industry of the Sisters often adds much for the maintenance of the Catholic schools. 204 THE DEAF themselves divided into two classes: those which are really homes for verj^^ young deaf children, sometimes under the control of a society organ- ized for the purpose ; and those which are purely private enterprises, owned and directed by one or more individuals. Of the former there are four homes or kindergartens — the Sarah Fuller Home of Boston, the McCowen Homes of Chicago, the Home School near Baltimore, and the Home School of San Francisco.^ Their main object is to give their pupils an early start in the use of speech as well as to provide a home, and children as young as three, or even younger, may be admitted. The management of these schools is usually in the hands of trustees. Sup- port is derived largely from the fees of pupils, though some schools are often the recipients of private donations, especially when children are taken without charge; and one or two have aid from public allowances.^ The private schools of the second class are al- most entirely dependent on tuition fees, though one or two hkewise receive some state aid. With two exceptions,^ they are found in large cities, New York having two, and Philadelphia, * Another such home is in Philadelphia, but is now a state institution. = To the Sarah Fuller Home the state of Id^assachusetts allows $250 per capita for some of the children. •At Lead, South Dakota, and Macon, Georgia. PRIVATE SCHOOLS 205 Baltimore and Cincinnati one each. These schools are both boarding and day schools. The method employed in the private schools is nearly always the oral, and this is the method also of some of the denominational schools. In some of the schools of both classes manual train- ing and instruction in trades are given to an extent. CHAPTER XIII THE NATIONAL COLLEGE AFTER our review of the various schools that have been created for the deaf in the United States, we come to what may be re- garded as the cuhninative feature in the provision for their instruction — an institution for their higher education. In this particular the work in America stands unique among the nations of the world. This institution is Gallaudet Col- lege — named after the founder of the first school — which is maintained at Washington by the national government, and is open to all the deaf of the coimtry. We have seen how the national government has rendered very distinct aid in the work of the education of the deaf; but in establishing the college it has gone far beyond this, and by this act may be said to have placed the capstone upon the structure of their educa- tion. This college has resulted from a school which was established in the District of Columbia in 1857, known as the Kendall School. Not long after Congress was asked to create an institu- tion for the higher education of the deaf as well, 206 THE NATIONAL COLLEGE 207 and to include all the country. No little interest was aroused in the matter, and zealous advocates appeared to present the claims of the new under- taking. The chief objection was the lack of prec- edent, while with some members of Congress the idea seemed strange of conferring college degrees upon the deaf. Opposition, however, did not prove strong, and the measure was finally enacted in 1864 by a practically unanimous vote.^ Thus was the college established, and Congress continues regularly to provide for it, together with the Kendall School, both being known as the Columbia Institution for the Deaf. In the college there are now provided one hundred full scholar- ships for students from the several states of the Union.^ It is not surprising that this action on the part of Congress should have been held without a prec- edent. In no other instance has the national * See E. M. Gallaudet, " Address in behalf of Columbia Insti- tution," 1858; Inauguration of the College for the Deaf and Dumb, 1864; Report of Columbia Institution, 1866; 1868, p. 104; 1889; 1000, p. 16; 1892; Proceedings of Alumni Asso- ciation of Gallaudet College, 1889-1899, p. 55; History of Charities in District of Columbia, 1898, part 3; Annals, xiv., 1869, p. 183; xix., 1874, p. 134; Ivi., 1911, p. 184; Journal of Social Science, vi., 1874, p. 160; Scribner's Magazine, iii., 1872, p. 727; Harper's Magazine, Ixix., 1884, p. 181; Review of Re- views, xvi., 1897, p. 57. The college was considerably aided in its first few years by private contributions. The first presi- dent was Edward Miner Gallaudet, son of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, who served more than fifty years. ^The number was at first small, and has gradually been in- creased to 100. It has also been suggested that the states assist in providing scholarships. Report of Columbia Institu- tion, 1876, p. 20. 208 THE DEAF government attempted to make provision for the education of any class or part of the inhabitants of the different states, beyond certain so-called wards of the nation, as the Indians, for example. Though the national government has very per- ceptibly encouraged learning in many ways,^ yet direct provision for the education of the youth of the several commonwealths has universally been regarded as their sole prerogative. In thus establishing a college for certain residents of the various states, the federal government has done something that stands out by itself. Though the reason lies in the fact that no other means for the higher education of the deaf seemed at hand, it would appear that thereby the government has signally favored the deaf, as it indeed has; and in taking under its immediate direction this higher education of the deaf, the national gov- ernment has won the gratitude of them all. *This is done, for instance, in the several bureaus estab- lished for investigation and the dissemination of knowledge, and in the grants of land for the benefit of agricultural col- leges or state universities. CHAPTER XIV PROVISION FOR EDUCATION BY STATES HAVING now considered the plan and or- ganization of the several kinds of schools for the deaf in America, namely, the in- stitutions, the day schools, the private schools and the national college, we proceed in this chapter to examine the work in the several states individu- ally, and to note to what extent and in what man- ner the education of the deaf has been provided for in each. Alabama, A private school was started near Montgomery in 1854, but was discontinued after one or two years. The state school was estab- lished at Talladega in 1858.^ In 1891 ^ a school was created for the colored deaf and blind. The schools are governed by a board of thirteen mem- bers, including the governor and the superinten- dent of public instruction.^ Arizona, Before the opening of a local school the deaf were sent to other states for instruc- *Laws, 1843-4, p. 43; 185&-60, p. 344. 'Laws, ch. 209. •Laws, 1870, p. 95; 1871, p. 89; 1879, p. 34; 1887, p. 70: 1889, p. 29; 1893, p. 943; 1901, p. 25; 1904, p. 45; 1907, p. 11; Code, 1907, § 1933fle. The school has received a gift of $5,000 for shops. no THE DEAF tion.^ The state school was created in 1912,^ and is a part of the state university. On the ad- mission of Arizona as a state, 100,000 acres of the public land were granted for the benefit of the school for the deaf and the blind. Arkansas, A private school was opened at Clarksville in 1850, which was moved to Little Rock in 1861.^ After a suspension, it was started anew in 1867, and in 1868 was taken over by the state.* The school is now in the hands of the state board of charitable institutions.^ California, The state institution for the deaf and the blind was established at Berkeley in 1860,^ after a society had been formed for the purpose. The school is controlled by a board of five directors, while the state board of charities supervises."^ There are four day schools in the state: ^ at Oakland, opened in 1898, and sup- »Laws, 1891, ch. 94; 1895, ch. 10; Rev. Stat, 1901, §§ 2267- 2271. »Laws, 1912, p. 149. 'To this the legislature appropriated a small sum. Another private school was started at Fort Smith in 1860, but lasted only one year. *Aets, July 17, 1868; April 9, 1869; Digest, 1874, p. 204. There were a few gifts at first, and aid came also from the city. The state granted two tracts of land, one of 100 acres. 'Laws, 1883, p. 182; 1891, ch. 155; 1893, chs. 31, 126; 1895, ch. 151 ; 1905, ch. 256 ; 1909, ch. 56 ; Digest, 1904, § 4129ff . « Laws, 1860, pp. 211, 277 ; 1861, p. 81 ; 1863, p. 583 ; 1865, p. 579; 1874, p. 751; 1875, p. 686. In the beginning there were contributions from friends and proceeds from fairs. The city of San Francisco gave $7,000 for a site, and the county a lot. 'Laws, 1905, ch. 382; Pol. Code, 1909, § 2236ff. In addi- tion to the funds given at first, over $50,000 has been donated to the school, three-fourths coming from one source in 1871. "Laws, 1903, p. 88; Code, § 1618. Separate classes (oral) PROVISION BY STATES ^11 ported by state and county; at Los Angeles in 1899, supported by city and private subscrip- tions; at San Francisco in 1901, supported by the city; and at Sacramento in 1904, supported by state and city. There is a private school in Oakland, the St. Joseph's Home, opened in 1895, and one in San Francisco, the Holden Home Oral School, opened in 1913. Colorado, The state school was opened at Colorado Springs in 1874,^ and is for the deaf and the blind. It is supported by a one-fifth mill tax on the assessed property valuation of the state. The school is in the hands of a board of five trustees, and is connected with the state board of education.^ Connecticut, The American School was es- tablished at Hartford in 1817.^ At the time the state made an appropriation of $5,000, and in 1828 began to allow a certain sum for each state pupil, a policy still continued. The school has remained a private corporation, and its board is may be established by city boards or district trustees where there are five or more pupils, 3 to 21 years of age. There were day schools in Fresno from 1904 to 1906, and in San Diego from 1912 to 1913; and private schools in San Fran- cisco and Oakland from 1898 to 1900. *Act Feb. 13, 1874; Gen. Laws, 1877, p. 653. The school resulted largely from the action of some public-spirited men. It was established on condition that 5 acres be given, and it re- ceived 12. 2 Laws, 1885, p. 277 ; 1891, p. 388 ; 1895, ch. 98 ; 1909, p. 333 ; Ann. Stat., 1908, § 4313if. ; 1912, § 5009ff. The school has been the recipient of $30,000 or more, largely from two men. «A charter was granted In May, 1816. See Laws, 1829, ch. 24; 1837, p. 26; 1843, p. 2a 2ia THE DEAF made up of eight vice-presidents and eight elected directors, together with the governors and secre- taries of state of the New England states. In 1819 Congress gave the school 23,000 acres of the public land, from which almost $300,000 has been realized. Gifts from private sources have nearly equalled this, about half coming since 1850.^ A second school is at Mystic, known as the Mystic Oral School, this having been started in 1870 at Ledyard, where it remained four years.^ It is imder a board of ten corporators. Both these schools receive per capita allowances from the state, and are visited by the state board of char- ities.^ Delaware, Deaf children are sent to schools in neighboring states, the first provision having been made in 1835. The supreme court judges act as trustees eoc-ojficio, and recommend pupils to the governor to be placed.* District of Columbia, The Kendall School, as *At the beginning about $30,000 was raised for the school. 'This was known as the Whipple School at first. In 1898 it was made a joint stock corporation, capitalized at $8,500. It began to receive state aid in 1872. Act July 24; Laws, 1874, p. 8. "Laws, 1895, p. 145; 1903, ch. 207; 1911, ch. 47; Rev. Laws, 1902, § 1831. The per capita allowance is $275. In 1860 a private school was opened at Hartford, lasting one year. ^The counties paid the cost at first. Act March 4, 1835; Laws, 1841, p. 418; 1843, p. 418; Rev. Stat, 1852, p. 138; Laws, 1860, ch. 119 ; 1875, ch. 58 ; 1899, ch. 245 ; 1907, ch. 143 ; Rev. Code, 1893, pp. 388-390. The president of the state hos- pital for the insane is authorized to visit the schools to which pupils are sent. PROVISION BY STATES 213 it is known, was opened in 1857/ aiiS was de- signed primarily for the children of the District and of persons in the army and navy service. In 1864 ^ Congress decided to establish a collegiate department for the deaf of all the country, which was first known as the National Deaf-Mute Col- lege, but is now Gallaudet College. The Colum- bia Institution, embracing both the college and the Kendall School, is supported by Congress, and is in the form of a corporation, of which the President of the United States is patron, and of the nine members of which one is a Senator and two are members of the House.^ Florida, The state school for the deaf and blind was opened at St. Augustine in 1885.* It is now in the hands of the state board of control of educational institutions, which also directs the state university.^ ' *Stat., 1857, ch. 46; 1860, ch. 120. An unsuccessful attempt had been made a year or two before to start a school. To the new school $4,000 of a former orphans' home was turned over. » Stat., 1864, ch. 120 ; 1868, ch. 262. »U. S. Comp. Stat, 1901, pp. 3365-71. Colored children are sent to Maryland for education. To the college and school $25,000 or more was given at the beginning, funds coming from several cities in the East. A few acres of land w^re also given. For two years support largely came from" private funds. In the college there are now 100 full scholarships. In Washington also an experimental school was opened in 1883, continuing three years. Another private school was started in 1856, lasting one year. *Laws, 1883, ch. 3450. The school resulted from the work of the Association for the Promotion of the Education of the Deaf and the Blind. The city gave 5 acres of land and $1,000, and in 1905 gave 10 acres further. = Laws, 1895, no. 41; 1903, ch. 104; Gen. Stat., 1906, §§ 418- 425. A department for colored pupils was opened in 1895. 214 THE DEAF Georgia, The state began sending some of its deaf children to the Hartford school in 1834.^ A private school was started at Cedar Springs in 1842, which continued two years. The state school was established at Cave Spring in 1846.^ It is under a board of seven trustees.^ There is a day school in Atlanta, supported by the city, and a private one at Macon, both opened in 1912. Idaho. Before the opening of a state school, deaf children were sent to outside institu- tions.* The school for the deaf and the blind was opened at Boise in 1906, but in 1910 was re- moved to Gooding. It is under the state board of education, and subject to other state inspec- tion.^ Illinois. The state school was opened at Jack- sonville in 1846, although steps had been taken > Laws, 1834, p. 281 ; 1838, p. 92 ; .1842, p. 24. An appropri- ation, first of $3,500, tlien of $4,500, was made. ^Laws, 1845, p. 25; 1847, p. 94; 1852, p. 80; 1854, p. 30; 1856, p. 159; 1858, p. 47; 1860, p. 27. It was first part of an academy. Anotlier private school was established at Lexing- ton in 1856, but it too was short lived. At the school at Cedar Springs there were several state pupils. ^aws, 1876, p. 30; 1877, p. 32; 1881, p. 96; 1892, p. 83; 1897, p. 83; Code, 1911, § 1416ff. In 1882 a department was created for the colored. For a time the deaf and the blind were allowed free transportation on the state-owned railroad. Laws, 1853, p. 97. The school has received a gift of $500. * Laws, 1891, p. 226 ; 1899, p. 162. »Laws, 1907, p. 240; 1909, p. 379; Rev. Code, 1908, § 800ff. The school has been given 20 acres of land. In this state, 150,000 acres of public land are granted to the charitable and other institutions, the school for the deaf not being mentioned by name. PROVISION BY STATES S15 several years before for its establishment.^ The school is directed by the state board of admin- istration, while the board of charities has moral and auditing supervision.^ There are in the state five day schools, four of which are in Chicago, the first having been established in 1896, and the last in 1913. The other day school is at Rock Island, opened in 1901. All these schools are operated under the state law, and supported by city funds.^ In Chicago there are also two private schools: the Ephpheta, opened in 1884, and maintained by St. Joseph's Home for the *Laws, 1839, p. 162; 1845, p. 93; 1847, p. 47; 1849, pp. 93, 163; 1851, p. 102; 1853, p. 90; 1857, p. 84; 1875, p. 104. It seems that at first one-fourth of the interest of the school fund was allowed to the institution, but in 1851 a tax of one- sixth mill was laid for its benefit, which lasted four years. 2 Laws, 1897, ch. 23; 1909, p. 102; Rev. Stat, 1909, ch. 23. The school has been given five acres of land by the city, and a private gift of $2,000. "Laws, 1897, p. 290; 1905, p. 373; 1911, p. 502; Rev. Stat, 1909, p. 2013. The superintendent of public Instruction may grant permission for teaching one or more classes of not less than three pupils, average attendance, in the public schools. The amount authorized from the state is not to exceed $110 for each pupil. The first Chicago school was a private one, established in 1870, and lasting one year. In 1874 another school was opened, which was taken over by the city in 1875. The state allowed it $15,000, and appropriated $5,000 a year till 1887, instead of creating an institution in the northern part of the state. See Laws, 1879, p. 20; Report of Illinois Institution, 1874, p. 76 ; P. A. Emery, " Brief Historical Sketch of Chicago Deaf -Mute Schools ", 1886. There has been con- nection between the Chicago schools and the McCowen Homes. Other day schools in Illinois have been: La Salle, 1898-1899 Streator 1898-1905; Derinda, 1899-1900; Rockford, 1901-1905 Moline, 1901-1908; Galena, 1902-1903; Dundee, 1903-1904 Aurora, 1903-1912; and Elgin, 1905-1906. In 1913 there were eleven day schools in Chicago, which were consolidated into four. In this city a vacation school is also maintained for the deaf. gl6 THE DEAF Friendless/ and the McCowen Homes for Deaf Children, opened in 1883.^ Indiana, Prior to the opening of the state school, some children were sent to Kentucky and Ohio for education. In 1841 a private school was started in Parke County, which lasted one year.* In 1843 another private school was begun in In- dianapolis, which was adopted by the state in 1844.* The school is now governed by a board of four trustees, and is under the state board of education, with certain connection also with the board of charities.** Iowa. Before the opening of the state school some pupils were sent to the school in Illinois. In 1853 a private school was started at Iowa City, which in 1855 was taken over by the state,® *This school has received among other gifts a bequest of $43,000, a donation of $15,000 from a ladies' society, and of $40,000 from friends. "This school is under a board of twelve trustees. It has received some private gifts, in addition to an endowment fund from its first trustees. There was in Chicago a private school for adults from 1905 to 1913. •This school was taught by a deaf man largely at his own expense. In 1842 the state granted it $200. A census of the deaf was authorized in 1839. Laws, p. 58. * Laws, 1843, ch. 70 ; 1844, ch. 16 ; 1845, ch. 69 ; 1848, ch. 59 ; 1865, p. 124; Rev. Stat., 1852, p. 243. For the benefit of the school a tax levy was laid, first of two mills, then of five, and later of fifteen, which continued till 1851, netting the school some $50,000. •Laws, 1891, ch. 186; 1895, p. 157; 1899, ch. 118; 1907, ch. 98; 1909, ch. 146; Ann. Stat., 1908, p. lOlfif. There was a private school at Evansville from 1886 to 1902. •Code, 1851, ch. 73; Laws 1853, ch. 26; 1855, chs. 56. 87. An appropriation was made to the school while still a private one. PROVISION BY STATES 217 in 1866 being removed to Council Bluffs.^ The school is under the state board of control.^ Kansas. A private school was started in 1861 at Baldwin City. After being removed to Topeka in 1864 and back again to Baldwin City in 1865, it was taken over by the state in 1866,^ and permanently located at Olathe. The state board of administration for educational institu- tions has the direction of the school.^ Kentucky, The state school was established at Danville in 1823.^ In 1826 it received from Congress a township of land in Florida.^ The school is in the hands of a board of twelve com- missioners, and is related to the state department of education."^ *Laws, ch. 136. ^'Code, 1897, p. 926ff . ; Laws, 1902, ch. 122; 1909, ch. 175; 1913, p. 255 ; Code, 1907, p. 622ff. There was a private school at Dubuque from 1888 to 1899, which received contributions, proceeds of fairs, etc., of several thousand dollars. It was hoped that this would be made a state school for the children of Eastern Iowa. 'Laws, 1862, p. 95; 1864, ch. 50; 1865, ch. 36; 1866, ch. 48; 1871, ch. 34; 1873, ch. 135; 1877, ch. 130. To the private school the state granted some aid. The school was located at Olathe on condition that 20 acres of land be given for a site, and 150 for its benefit. *Laws, 1901, ch. 353; 1905, chs. 384, 475; Gen. Stat, 1909, § 8437ff. 'Laws, 1822, p. 179; 1824, p. 452; 1836, p. 379. A private school was opened at Hopkinsville in 1844, which lasted ten years. Pupils were received from several states. Annals, xliv., 1899, p. 359. « This grant seems not to have been wisely administered, but over $57,000 was realized from it. 'Laws, 1850, p. 23; 1851, ch. 26; 1852, p. 357; 1854, p. 15; 1870, p. 2; 1882, p. 16; 1912, ch. 71; Stat., 1909, § 270fe. A department for the colored was created in 1884. Laws, p. 175. There have been some private gifts to the school, amounting to about seven thousand dollars. 218 THE DEAF Louisiana. In 1837 the state began to send some of its children to schools in other states, many being sent to Kentucky.^ The state school was established at Baton Rouge in 1852.^ It is governed by a board of trustees, including the governor and the superintendent of public instruction, and is visited by the state board of charities.^ In New Orleans there is a day school, opened in 1911, and supported by the city.* At Chinchuba there is a private school, the Chinchuba Deaf-Mute Institute, under the Sisters of Notre Dame, opened in 1890. Maine, In 1825 the state began to send its children to the American School, and later to the schools in Massachusetts as well.^ In 1876 a pri- vate school was started in Portland with aid from the city, and the following year from the state also.^ In 1897 the state assumed charge, the school being placed under a board of five trus- tees.'^ Inspection is made by the state board of charities. * See Laws, 1838, p. 9 ; Digest, 1842, ch. 39 ; Report of Ken- tucky School, 1848, p. 8. ^ Laws, 1852, p. 220 ; 1866, p. 124 ; 1871, p. 203 ; 1888, p. 51. 'Laws, 1898, ch. 166; 1908, ch. 239; Rev. Stat., 1904, pp. 579-582. ^A day school was also maintained here from 1886 to 1891. •^Laws, 1823, p. 233; 1824, p. 353; 1829, p. 25; 1840, ch. 70; 1852, p. 359; 1879, p. 122. •In 1877 the state made appropriations for pupils outside of Portland, and in 1881 for the entire state. ^Laws, 1885, ch. 220; 1893, ch. 203; 1897, ch. 446; 1899, ch. 2; Rev. Stat., 1903, p. 226. The property was conveyed to the state. PROVISION BY STATES 219 Maryland, In 1827 provision was made for pupils in the Pennsylvania Institution, and in 1860 in the District of Columbia.^ In 1868^ the Maryland school was established at Freder- ick. It is under a private society, composed of twenty-seven visitors, but is supported and con- trolled by the state. In 1872 a department for the colored was opened in connection with the in- stitution for the blind, now located at Overlea.^ Both of these schools are inspected by the state board of charities.^ There are two private schools in Baltimore, the St. Francis Xavier under the Mission Helpers of the Sacred Heart, opened in 1897, and a department in the Knapp School, opened in 1877; and at Kensington a Home School, opened in 1908. These schools are aided by the state.^ Massachusetts, In 1819, just after the Amer- ican School had been established, Massachusetts * Laws, 1826, ch. 255 ; 1827, ch. 140 ; 1833, ch. 125 ; 1834, ch. 169; 1839, ch. 28; 1849, ch. 209; 1854, ch. 224; 1860, ch. 129; 1865, ch. 68. ^'Laws, 1867, ch. 247; 1868, chs. 205, 409; 1870, p. 922; 1874, ch. 42. The society was to have power of perpetual succession, and the state was to appropriate $5,000 a year till the endow- ment fund should reach $200,000. The school was opened in certain barracks belonging to the state. * Laws, 1874, p. 483. This school was formed under a board composed of three visitors each from the school for the deaf and that for the blind. *Laws, 1886, ch. 78; 1892, ch. 272; 1904, ch. 299; 1906, ch. 236; Gen. Laws, 1904, 1., p. 979. The school has received in gifts over six thousand dollars since 1880. Grants have also been made to it by the city of Baltimore. •^The first receives $1,000 a year, and the second $1,200. 220 THE DEAF began sending its deaf children to it, which policy was continued till the state had schools of its own/ The first of these was the Clarke School at Northampton, which was established in 1867.^ This had been started at Chelmesford the year before, but removed to Northampton when a citi- zen whose name it bears offered it $50,000 — sub- sequently adding to this till his total gifts reached $300,000.* In 1868 the legislature provided that state pupils might be sent to it. The school is under a board of twelve corporators. The New England Industrial School was opened at Beverly in 1879,^* for the purpose of teaching language and industrial training. It is under a board of thirteen incorporators. The Boston School at Randolph was established in 1899, and is under the Sisters of St. Joseph.^ In Boston there is a day school, known as the Horace Mann School, opened in 1869, and directed by the city.^ The Sarah Fuller Home is at West * r^ws, 1817, ch. 24 ; 1818, p. 496 ; 1825, ch. 83 ; 1828, ch. 97 ; 1841, ch. 45 ; 1843, ch. 79 ; 1855, ch. 84. ' Laws, 1867, chs. 311, 334 ; 1868, ch. 200 ; 1869, ch. 333. * Some other gifts have also been received, including a gymnasium and two donations of $50,000 each. * See Laws, 1886, ch. 42 ; 1899, p. 554. This school resulted from a gift of $1,500 to the New England Gallaudet Associ- ation, a home for adults first being contemplated. See Report, 1881, p. 7 ; Report of United States Commissioner of Education, 1880, p. clxviil The school has received a legacy of $50,000, and there are annual donations of two or three thousand dol- lars. ^This school came within the law as to state pupils. Some gifts have no doubt been received by it. « Lav/s, 1869, p. 637 ; 1885, ch. 201 ; 1905, ch. 468. The state PROVISION BY STATES m Medford, and was opened in 1888.^ All these schools receive state appropriations, and are su- pervised by the state department of education.^ Michigan. Action was taken in 1848 towards the establishment of an institution, but it was not till 1854 that the school was opened, Flint being chosen as the site.^ In 1850 the state granted the school fifteen sections of its salt spring lands, later increasing the number to twenty-five, which amounted in all to 16,000 acres.* The school is under a board of three trustees, and is visited by the state board of charities and corrections.^ There are fourteen day schools in the state, operating under the state law:^ Bay City, granted the land for a building. This school has received gifts of several thousand dollars. ^The home is under an executive committee of twenty-five, with powers of trustees. Subscriptions and donations average one or two thousand dollars a year, and in all have amounted to some $50,000. =^Laws, 1871, ch. 300; 1875, ch. 118; 1886, ch. 241; 1887, ch. 179 ; 1888, ch. 239 ; 1889, ch. 226 ; 1906, ch. 383 ; Rev. Stat., 1902, p. 412. Appointments are made by the governor with the approval of the secretary of the board of education. The state appropriations are $150 for the day school, and from $250 to $350 for the other schools. "Laws, 1848, pp. 246, 463; 1849, pp. 137, 327; 1850, p. 334; 1853, no. 80; 1857, p. 185. *The school also received 20 acres of land and $3,000 from the city. ''Laws, 1867, p. 128; 1873, chs. 109, 111; 1881, pp. 5, 274; 1891, ch. 169; 1893, ch. 116; 1907, chs. 48, 275; Comp. Laws 1897, §§ 1990-2008. « Laws, 1899, ch. 176 ; 1905, ch. 224. The law reads : " Upon the application of a district board or of a board of education of a city in this state to the Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, he shall grant permission to such board to establish, and such board shall be empowered to establish and maintain, within the limits of it^ jurisdiction, one or more day schools, 222 THE DEAF opened in 1901; Calumet, 1902; Detroit, 1894; Grand Rapids, 1898; Houghton, 1908; Iron Mountain, 1906; Ironwood, 1903; Jackson, 1912; Kalamazoo, 1904; Manistee, 1904; Mar- quette, 1907; Saginaw, 1901; Saulte Ste. Marie, 1906; and Traverse City, 1904. There is a private school at North Detroit, the Evangelical Lutheran Deaf-Mute Institute, opened in 1873.' Minnesota. The state school was opened at Faribault in 1863, though it had been planned in 1858.^ The school is governed by a board of seven directors, including the governor and the superintendent of pubhc instruction, while the state board of control has the financial admin- istration.^ There is a day school in St. Paul, having an average attendance of not less than three pupils, for the instruction of deaf persons over the age of three ", etc. The amount allowed for each pupil is $150. There have been other day schools in this state: Menominee, 1900-1907; Ish- peming, 1904-1909; Flint, 1911-1912; and L'Anse, 1912-1913. The school at Flint was an evening school for adults. ^Ten congregations may be incorporated to organize such an institution, and hold property to the value of $50,000. Laws, 1901, ch, 28. This school was for a time part of an orphan asylum. It has been given 20 acres of land. The control is in the hands of a board of nine trustees. A private school was maintained at Marquette from 1879 to 1883. 2 Laws, 1858, p. 175; 1863, ch. 9; 186i, ch. 71; 1868, ch. 17; 1874, ch. 18. In 1863 also provision was made for pupils in outside schools. The school was established on condition that the city give it 40 acres of land, and it received 25 acres in addition. 'Laws, 1887, ch. 205; Laws, 1902, ch. 83; 1907, ch. 407; 1909, ch. 396; Rev. Laws, 1905, §§ 1931-1937. There is also a board of visitors of state institutions. Departments for the blind and for the feeble-minded were created here, but later separated. PROVISION BY STATES 223 opened in 1913, and supported by the city and with private aid.^ Mississippi, The state school was opened at Jackson in 1854.^ It is in the hands of a board of six trustees, including the governor.^ Missouri, A school under Catholic auspices was estabhshed in St. Louis in 1837, to which the state sent some of its children, while others were sent to schools in other states.^ The state school was opened at Fulton in 1851.^ It is governed by a board of five managers, and is visited by the state board of charities.*^ There is a day school in St. Louis, founded in 1878, and managed as part of the public school system. In the same city is a private school, under the Sisters of St. Joseph, opened in 1885 and off- spring of the school of 1837. It is known as * There was another day school here from 1895 to and a private school from 1886 to 1893. A department for the deaf was established at St. Olaf College at Northfield in 1907, but discontinued in 1912. See Bulletin, May, 1909; Viking, 1909, p. 56. ' Act, March 1 ; Laws, 1855, p. 114 ; 1856-7, ch. 25 ; 1857, p. 40; 1858, p. 230; Stat. L., 1857, p. 169. The governor had recommended a school in 1841. 'Ann. Code, 1906, ch. 68. The school has received a gift of $5,000. A department for the colored was opened in 1882. * In 1839 $2,000 was appropriated for the deaf at St. Louis, and $210 for a pupil in the Kentucky school. Laws, pp. 27, 213. Some pupils were sent to Ohio and Illinois also. See also Laws, 1847, p. 48. ' Laws, 1851, p. 211 ; 1872, p. 155 ; 1874, p. 171 ; 1877, p. 264. Forty acres of land provided for the insane asylum were given to the school. * Laws, 1895, p. 188 ; Rev. Stat., 1909, § 1484flf. A department for the colored was opened in 1889. ^24 THE DEAF the Immaculate Conception Institute, and is part of a convent and orphans' home.^ Montana, Before the establishment of a school, deaf children were sent to schools in other states.^ The state institution for the deaf and blind was opened at Boulder in 1893,^ 50,000 acres of the public land having been given by Congress for its benefit. It is under a board of nine trustees, appointed by the state board of education, with a local executive board of three, there being other state inspection also.^ Nebraska, Before the establishment of a school, deaf children were sent to lowa.^ In 1869 the state school was opened at Omaha.^ It is governed by the state board of control of state institutions."^ Nevada, Deaf children have been sent since 1869 to California or Utah for education, the superintendent of public instruction contracting for them.^ *A branch of this school was maintained at Hannibal from 1882 to 1887, and another branch in St. Louis from 1893 to 1900. In St. Louis there was also a private school from 1885 to 1891, and from 1890 to 1892. 'Comp. Stat, 1887, p. 917. •Laws, 1893, p. 181; Code, 1895, § 2330ff. *Laws, 1903, chs. 9, 10; Rev. Code, 1907, § 1115ff. A department for the feeble-minded has been connected with this school. *Rev. Stat., 1866, p. 374. "Laws, 1867, p. 59; 1871, pp. 94, 231; 1875, p. 146. Ten acres of land were given by the city of Omaha. ^Laws, 1897, ch. 26; 1901, ch. 70; 1905, ch. 147; 1909, p. 230; 1911, p. 209; 1913, p. 537; Ann. Stat, 1911, § lO.OOOfif. A private school was opened in Omaha in 1897, lasting one year. »Laws, 1869, ch. 56; 1905, p. 253; 1907, p. 371; Rev. Laws, 1912, § 1702fe. PROVISION BY STATES 225 New Hampshire, In 1821 the state began sending its deaf children to the school at Hart- ford.^ They are now sent to the schools in the several New England states, as the governor and council may direct, on the recommendation of the board of control.^ New Jersey, In 1821 the state began to pro- vide for the education of its deaf children in the schools in Pennsylvania and New York.^ In 1883 the state school was established at Tren- ton.* It is related to the state department of education.^ There are two day schools in the state, at Newark and Jersey City, both opened in 1910, and operating under the state law.^ New Mexico, A private school was opened at *In 1819 a committee was appointed to inquire into the circumstances of the deaf and the blind. Laws, p. 245. See also Laws, 1821, p. 508 ; 1822, p. 92 ; 1836. ch. 256. ^'Laws, 1875, p. 484; 1879, ch. 58; 1899, ch. 99; 1905, ch. 106; Pub. Stat, 1901, ch. 86. •The first appropriation was of $2,000. Laws, 1821, p. 3; 1830, pp. 113, 314; 1838, p. 82; 1853, p. 140; 1860, p. 240; 1873, p. 45. A few pupils were sent to the school at Mystic, Connecticut, shortly before the state school was created. *Laws, 1882, p. 259; 1884, p. 160; 1885, p. 177. The prop- erty of an old school for the children of soldiers was first made use of. In 1825 a school was incorporated in this state, and $160 was allowed by the legislature for each pupil. Laws, pp. Ill, 124. Some private donations seem to have been made, but the school never came into being. In 1875 a tract of land was offered for a school. Report of Commission on Proposals for Sites and Plans for Buildings for the Deaf, Blind and the Feeble-minded, 1874. In 1860 a private school was opened in Trenton, which continued six years. »Laws, 1891, ch. 97; 1892, ch. 203; 1893, p. 327; 1895, ch. 411 ; 1910, p. 334 ; Comp. Stat, 1910, p. 1896fC. "Day schools are authorized where there are ten or more pupils in a city. Laws, 1910, p. 513. 226 THE DEAF Santa Fe in 1885, which in 1887 was taken over by the territory.^ It was given 50,000 acres of the public land, and on the admission of New Mexico as a state, this was increased to 100,000. The school is directed by a board of six trustees.^ New York, There are in this state eight in- stitutions, three day schools, and two private schools. The institutions are all private corpora- tions receiving state aid. The first of these was the New York Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, which was opened in 1818 in New York City.^ In 1819 the state began to make appropriations. The school is governed by a board of twenty-one trustees.* The next *Laws, 1887, ch. 31. There were a few contributions at first *Laws, 1899, ch. 42; 1903, ch. 2; Comp. Laws, 1897, p. 904. • Laws, 1817, ch. 264 ; 1819, chs. 206, 238 ; 1822, p. 247 ; 1827, p. 329 ; 1832, ch. 223 ; 1836, chs. 228, 511 ; 1841, p. 133 ; 1849, p. 589. See also Cammann and Camp, " Charities of New York ", 1868, p. 151 ; J. F. Richmond, " New York and its Institutions ", 1871, p. 287. The city granted $400 annually for several years, allowed the use of land at a nominal rental for twenty-one years, and later gave an acre of land, besides furnishing quar- ters in a public building for eleven years. By the state the In- stitution was, together with a certain free school society, allowed for fourteen years one-half of the proceeds from fines or licenses on lotteries, which from 1819 to 1827 netted over $20,000. In 1827 the legislature granted $10,000 on con- dition that an equal sum be raised from private funds, and that inspection be allowed to the state. In 1825 a school was established by the state at Canajoharie, but in 1836 its prop- erty was ordered sold, and its pupils brought to the New York Institution. Laws, 1823, p. 224; 1836, p. 779. * From 1879 to 1882 a primary department was maintained at Tarrytown. In 3857 it was proposed that the buildings and other property be conveyed to the state as trustee, but to be used always for the instruction of the deaf, on condi- PROVISION BY STATES 227 school was Le Couteulx St. Mary's Institu- tion for the Improved Instruction of Deaf- Mutes, organized in Buffalo in 1853 by a benevolent society, and opened in 1862. In 1872 it came within the state law as to public aid.^ It is controlled by a board of seven managers. In New York City in 1867 the New York In- stitution for the Improved Instruction of Deaf- Mutes was established, which had resulted from a private class. It is in the hands of an associa- tion formed for the purpose, the management being vested in a board of twenty-one trustees.^ In 1869 St. Joseph's Institution was opened in New York City, a branch being created in tion that the state pay all the debts and finish the buildings then in course of construction ; but this plan was not adopted. Report, 1858, p. 9; Assembly Documents of State of New York, 1857, no. 190. The total amount of private gifts to this school seems to be about $125,000, nearly all coming in the first few decades of its existence. See Report, 1879, p. 101. The institution holds 38 names in " perpetual and grate- ful remembrance ". The funds are given in 1912 as $1,030,059, which are largely due to favorable investments. ^Laws, 1871, ch. 548; 1872, ch. 670. Funds were received in the beginning from the proceeds of bazaars, etc., and an acre of land and a building were given to it. Contributions are still received from time to time. 2 Laws, 1867, ch. 721; 1870, ch. 180. Within a short time after opening, $70,000 was donated for the school. See Ad- dresses upon Laying of Corner Stone, 1880. Other consider- able gifts have come to it, one in 1909 being of $30,000, while there are annual contributions of several thousand dollars. Land for a building was granted by the city for ninety-nine years at an annual rental of one dollar. This school has been under Hebrew auspices, but there has been discussion of its being turned over to the city on the payment of its debts, to be kept as a public non-sectarian school. See Reports, 1909, 1910. THE DEAF Brooklyn in 1874/ It is under the control of the Ladies of the Sacred Heart of Mary, and directed by a board of seven managers. The Central New York Institution was opened at Rome in 1875, and is governed by a board of fifteen trustees.^ The Western New York In- stitution was established at Rochester in 1876, and has twenty-one trustees.^ The Northern New York Institution was established at Malone in 1884, and is under a board of fifteen trustees.* The Albany Home School for the Oral Instruc- tion of the Deaf was opened in 1889 as a private affair, and came under the state law in 1892.^ It has a board of eight trustees. The New York law admitting children into these several institu- tions is peculiar, pupils under twelve years of age being sent as charges of the counties, and those over that age as state pupils, who are ap- pointed by the state commissioner of education. The schools are visited both by the departments of education and of charities.^ The three day *Laws, 1877, ch. 378. To this school about $150,000 seems to have been donated, to gather from the reports. Several thousand dollars are received annually. ^Laws, 1876, ch. 13; 1880, ch. 335; 1890, ch. 469. Six acres of land and several thousand dollars were given at the beginning. "Laws, 1876, ch. 331. A few gifts were received at first. * Laws, 1884, ch. 275 ; 1890, ch. 280. In the Census Report of Benevolent Institutions of 1904 this school is given as under the direct control of the state. "Laws, 1892, ch. 36. *In 1863 it was enacted that county overseers or super- visors should place a deaf child when likely to become a PROVISION BY STATES schools are in New York City, one in Manhattan, opened in 1908, one in Brooklyn, opened in 1910, and one in Queens, opened in 1911, the last two being annexes of the first. The two private schools are also in this city: the Wright Oral, opened in 1894, and the Reno Margulies, opened in 1901.' North Carolina, A school was planned m this state in 1828, but it did not come into being till 1845, when the state institution was established at Raleigh,^ which was for both the deaf and public charge in an institution; or a parent or friend of such a child from five to twelve years of age might prove that the health, morals, or comfort of such child was endangered by the want of education or of proper care, and might apply to the county officer for an order to admit the child to an institu- tion. Laws, ch. 325. The per capita allowance to the schools is $350. See Laws, 1851, ch. 272 ; 1854, ch. 272 ; 1864, ch. 555 ; 1875, ch. 213; 1876, ch. 13; 1886, ch. 615; 1894, ch. 556; 1903, chs. 62, 223; 1909, ch. 21; 1910, ch. 140; 1912, p. 405; Cons. Laws, 1909, p. 727ff. The state allows $300 a year to a deaf person seeking a higher education. Laws, 1913, ch. 175. * There have been a number of private schools in the state: the Bartlett Family School, established in New York City in 1852, in 1853 moved to Fishkill, in 1854 to Pough- keepsie, and discontinued in 1861 ; a school at Niagara, 1857-1860; the Home for the Young Deaf in New York City, organized in 1854, and in operation from 1859 to 1862, which was intended for those too young to enter the New York Institution, and which received a number of con- tributions; a class in the Cayuga Lake Academy at Aurora, 1871-1878 ; Syle's Free Evening Class in New York City, prin- cipally for teaching trades to adults, 1874-1878; the Keeler School, a private class in New York City, 1885-1897 ; the War- ren Articulation School, 1890-1895 ; and the Peet School, 1893- 1894. 'Act, Jan. 12, 1845; Rev. Code, 1854, ch. 6; Laws, 1870-1, ch. 35; 1873, ch. 134; 1876, ch. 156; 1879, ch. 187; 1880, p. 170; 1881, ch. 211. At first the counties were to raise $75 by taxation for each pupil. In 1876 a tax of 9 cents on $100 was laid for the benefit of the school. This school has re- 230 THE DEAF the blind. In 1894 a school was opened at Morganton for the white deaf/ the colored re- maining in a department of the former school. Both schools are controlled by boards of di- rectors — eleven for the Raleigh and seven for the Morganton — and are inspected by the de- partments of education and of charities.^ North Dakota, Prior to the opening of a state school, children were sent to schools in other states. In 1890 the state institution was created at Devil's Lake.^ It is in charge of the state board of control.* On the admission of North Dakota as a state, 40,000 acres of the public land were set aside for the benefit of the school. It is further supported by a tax of six per cent of one mill on the assessed property valuation of the state.^ Ohio. A movement was on foot for the estab- lishment of a school at Cincinnati in 1821, but did not succeed. A private school was opened in 1827 at Tallmadge, which lasted two years. The state school was established at Columbus in ceived a gift of $4,000. In 1869 colored deaf and blind were admitted, and in 1872 a department was created for them, this being the first public action in the United States for their education. See Laws, 1872, ch. 134; Report of North Carolina Institution, 1869, p. 13. ^Laws, 1891, ch. 399; 1893, ch. 69. 'Laws, 1901, chs. 210, 707; 1907, chs. 929, 1007; Rev. Code, 1905, § 4187fif. •Laws, 1890, ch. 161. *Laws, 1891, chs. 56, 133; 1893, ch. 122; 1897, ch. 72; 1905, chs. 100, 103; Rev. Code, 1905, § 1133fif. •From this $1,000 a month is received. PROVISION BY STATES ^31 1829.^ It is now in the hands of the state board of administration.^ Five day schools are in operation in the state: Cincinnati, opened in 1886; Cleveland, 1892; Dayton, 1899; Ashta- bula, 1903; and Toledo, 1911." There are two private schools in Cincinnati: one, the Notre Dame, under the Sisters of Notre Dame, opened in 1890, and the other in 1906.^ Oklahoma, Before creating an institution of its own, Oklahoma provided for the education of its deaf children in a private school at Guthrie, ^Laws, 1822, p. 5; 1827, p. 130; 1831, p. 427; 1832, p. 20; 1834, p. 39 ; 1837, p. 118 ; 1844, p. 8 ; 1846, p. Ill ; 1854, p. 71 ; 1856, pp. 42, 96; 1866, p. 116; 1867, p. 124. To the school at Tallmadge the legislature granted $100 a year for two years. The state school was at first allowed the benefit from the taxes on auction sales in Hamilton County, which netted $2,000 a year at first, but afterward of diminishing amounts. The lots for the school were bought " at a price considerably below their supposed value". A donation of $15,000 has also been re- ceived by this school. In 1910 180 acres of land were be- queathed to the schools for the deaf and the blind. 2 Laws, 1885, p. 79; 1902, p. 273; 1908, p. 598; 1911, p. 211; Gen. Code, 1910, § 1872ff. ^ There was a school also in Cleveland from 1871 to 1874, and in Toledo from 1890 to 1893. In Cincinnati a school was established by the city in 1875, and in 1888 incorporated with the present one, which had been started as a private school. Both the Cincinnati and Cleveland schools received aid from the state, but in 1902 this was held up by the courts. Other day schools have been at Elyria from 1898 to 1907; at Canton from 1902 to 1904; and at Conneaut from 1909 to 1912. Ac- cording to the present law, on the application of a local board, schools may be established; $150 may be allowed from the state school funds for each pupil; and the state commissioner is to appoint teachers, and inspect schools. Laws, 1902, p. 37; 1906, p. 219; 1913, p. 270; Gen. Code, § 7755. In 1898 the establishment of day schools was made obligatory in certain cities. Laws, pp. 186, 236. Local tax levies have been of considerable aid in this state. *A private school was in operation in Cincinnati from 1887 to 1890, and in Columbus from 1902 to 1904. 232 THE DEAF which had been opened in 1898.^ In 1908 the state school was established at Sulphur,^ and in 1909 a second school was opened at Taft, known as the Industrial Institute for the Deaf, the Blind and Orphans of the Colored Race.^ The former school is directed by a board of four trustees, and the latter by a board of five regents, the state superintendent of public instruction being a member of each. The schools are related to the state department of education, and are in- spected by that of charities.* Oregon, A private school was started at Salem in 1870, which in 1874 was taken over by the state.^ It is now administered by the state board of control.^ There is a day school in Portland, opened in 1908, and supported by the city. *Laws, 1897, ch. 16; Rev. Stat., 1903, § 3960; Governor's Message, 1903, p. 13. In 1899 a tax of two-fifths of a mill was levied for the benefit of the deaf. Laws, p. 221. There was a private school at Byron from 1898 to 1899. 'Laws, p. 617. "»Laws, p. 546. *Laws, 1909, p. 534; 1913, p. 385; Rev. Laws, 1910, §§ 6986, 7014. The public land for the benefit of the schools is said to be worth $350,000. The school at Sulphur was given 60 acres of land by the city, and that at Taft 100 acres by citizens. 'Laws, 1872, p. 102; 1874, p. 88; 1880, p. IS. The legisla- ture made an appropriation to the school while it was still in private hands. It was largely founded through the efforts of the Society to Promote the Instruction of Deaf-Mutes. Dona- tions amounting to two or three thousand dollars, and four lots, were received at the beginning. • Laws, 1891, p. 138 ; 1893, p. 180 ; 1901, p. 300 ; 1907, ch. 79 ; 1913, pp. 120, 683 ; Oregon Laws, 1910, ch. 23. The school was formerly under the state board of education. PROVISION BY STATES 233 Pennsylvania, There are four institutions and two private schools in this state. Two of the institutions are private corporations receiving state aid, and two are state-owned schools. The first to be established was the Pennsylvania In- stitution, which was opened in 1820 in Philadel- phia.^ Friends of this school have been gen- erous from the start, and it has probably re- ceived several hundred thousand dollars in gifts. The governing board is composed of twenty- seven members.^ The Western Pennsylvania Institution near Pittsburg was established in 1876, and was the result of a church mission which had begun in 1868 and developed into a day school. It is directed also by a board of twenty-seven members.^ The Pennsylvania Oral School was founded at Scranton in 1883. It was a private institution till 1913, when it was made a state school. It is governed by a board of eighteen trustees, six of whom are appointed *A charter was granted in 1821. Laws, ch. 25. See also Laws, 1833, p. 512; 1836, ch. 268; 1838, pp. 263, 398; 1844, p. 221; J. P. Wickersham, "History of Education in Pennsyl- vania", 1886, p. 443; Report, 1870, appendix; 1875, appendix. ^ In 1889 a gift of $200,000 was received, and in 1892 one of $50,000, as well as other gifts. There are over 400 life mem- bers who have contributed each $30, while there are 13 scholarships of $5,000 each. The present endowment funds amount to about $400,000, as we are advised. See also Reports of State Board of Charities. From 1881 to 1885 a day school was conducted as part of the institution. 'Laws, 1872, p. 97; 1881, p. 149. Aid was received from the city of Pittsburg at first. The school has been given over $100,000, a number of acres of land, and a Carnegie Library* THE DEAF by the governor.^ The Home for the Training in Speech of Deaf Children before they are of school age was started in Philadelphia in 1892 as a private school, and then adopted by the state." It is under a board of five trustees. All these schools receive appropriations from the state, and are visited by the state board of charities.* The private schools are the Forrest Hall in Philadelphia, opened in 1901, the De Paul In- stitute of Pittsburg, opened in 1908, and the Archbishop Ryan Memorial Institute in Phila- delphia, opened in 1912. To these a certain amount of state aid is granted.* Rhode Island, In 1842 the state began to send its deaf children to the school at Hartford, a policy continued till a local school was created.^ In 1877 a class for the deaf was started in Providence, for the benefit of which the state made appropriations, and which was soon taken over as a state school.^ It is now under a board *Laws, 1887, p. 238. There have been some gifts, including five acres of land. =^Laws, 1891, p. 371; 1893, p. 272. About $7,000 came at the beginning as well as some land. Contributions now aver- age several thousand dollars a year. 'Laws, 1871, p. 245; 1872, p. 9; 1893, p. 250; 1909, p. 405; Purdon's Digest, 1903, p. 1281ff. The per capita appropri- ations to the several schools range from $260 to $357. In school districts of 20,000 population, special schools with eight or more pupils may be established. Laws, 1876, p. 157. * There have been day schools at Pittsburg, 1869-1876; Erie, 1874-1884; Allegheny, 1875-1870; and Philadelphia, 1880-1881. There was a private school in Philadelphia from 1885 to 1889. "Rev. Stat., 1857, p. 158. •Laws, 1878, p. 200. PROVISION BY STATES 235 of eleven trustees, including the governor and lieutenant-governor, and is related to the state board of education.^ South Carolina, A school was proposed in this state in 1821,^ but it was some years later that one was established. In 1834 the state be- gan sending deaf children to the Hartford school.^ In 1849 a private school was opened at Cedar Springs as a department in a hearing school, and in 1857 this was adopted by the state.* The school is for the deaf and blind, and is under a board of five commissioners, one of whom is the state superintendent of education.^ South Dakota, In 1880 a private school was started at Sioux Falls which the territory of Dakota soon took over,^ before this some of the deaf having been sent to the schools in Iowa, Nebraska and Minnesota. In 1889 when South Dakota was admitted as a state, the school was retained at the same location; and Congress granted it 40,000 acres of the public land. The *Laws, 1891, ch. 922; 1896, chs. 324, 332; 1893, ch. 1175; 1901, ch. 809; Gen. Laws, 1909, chs. 100, 101. The governor makes the appointments. There is a state board of purchases and supplies in connection with the school. 2 Act, Dec. 20. "Laws, 1834, p. 513. At first $2,500 was appropriated. See also Laws, 1848, p. 524. *Laws, 1852, p. 187; 1871, p. 609. = Laws, 1878, p. 707; 1895, ch. 521; 1902, ch. 546; 1910, ch. 468; Code, 1912, ch. 27. A department for the colored was created in 1883. •Laws of Dakota, 1881, pp. 16, 65; 1883, ch. 26; 1887, ch. 41; Comp. Laws, 1887, § 261ff. Ten acres of land and a thou- sand dollars or more were given to the school. 236 THE DEAF school is under the direction of the state board of control.^ A private school was established at Lead in 1911, known as the Black Hills School. Tennessee, The state school was established at Knoxville in 1845.^ It is under a board of fourteen trustees, including the superintendent, of public instruction, and is visited by the state board of charities.^ Texas, The state school was established at Austin in i857,* receiving 100,000 acres of the public land which had been set apart by the state for its several eleemosynary institutions. In 1887 a school for the colored deaf and blind was opened in the same city.^ The schools are each under a board of five trustees.^ Utah, In 1884 a class for the deaf was begun g at the state university at Ogden, and in 1888 a department was created. In 1892 the state school was established.'^ It is for both the deaf and the blind, and is under a board of six trustees, includ- *Laws, 1907, ch. 137; Comp. Laws, 1910, p. ISOfif. 'Act, Jan. 29,' 1844; Laws, 1845-6, ch. 157; 1849-^0, ch. 127; Code, 1858, p. 338; Laws, 1860, chs. 19, 69; 1866-7, ch. 42. The law creating the school was appended to one providing for the blind alone. At the beginning $6,400 and two acres of land were given to it. 'Laws, 1877, ch. 49; Ann. Code, 1896, §§ 2660-2670. A department for the colored was created in 1881. Laws, ch. 109. *Laws, 1856, p. 66; 1875, p. 66; 1883, p. 109. 'Laws, p. 150. "Laws, 1902, ch. 10; 1905, p. 47; Rev. Stat, 1911, p. 68. ' Laws, 1888, pp. 33, 44 ; 1890, pp. 44, 68 ; Comp. Stat., 1888, p. 662. For two years the school was conducted as a day school. It received some county assistance at first, and there were some private donationa* PROVISION BY STATES 237 ing the attorney-general.^ On the admission of UtaJi as a state, 200,000 acres of the public land were bestowed upon the school. Vermont. In 1825 the state began to send pupils to the American School,^ and later to the schools in Massachusetts as well.^ In 1912 a school for the deaf and blind was established at Brattleboro, known as the Austine Institute. It is a private institution, with a board of six trustees, but receiving state aid and under state supervision.* Virginia. A private school was started in 1812 in Goochland County, thence moved to Cobbs, and finally to Manchester, coming to an end in 1819. The state school for the deaf and the blind was established at Staunton in 1839, though planned several years before.^ In 1909 a school for the colored deaf and blind was created at Newport News.^ The first school is under a *Laws, 1892, p. 10; 1894, ch. 26; 1896, p. 100; 1897, p. 36; 1898, ch. 20 ; 1903, p. 51 ; 1907, pp. 14, 59 ; 1911, ch. 98 ; Comp. Laws, 1907, p. 789ff. 2 In 1817 a census of the deaf was taken. Laws, no. 25. 'Laws, 1823, no. 40; 1825, no. 21; 1833, no. 21; 1839, p. 121 ; Rev. Stat., 1840, p. 121 ; Laws, 1841, no. 22 ; 1842, no. 16 ; 1858, no. 3; 1872. nos. 16, 19; 1892, no. 27; 1898, chs. 29, 30; 1899, no. 27; 1906, chs. 55, 56; Pub. Stat, 1906, ch. 60. "Laws, 1908, p. 490; 1910, p. 84. The governor is commis- sioner for the deaf, and designates and commits them. This school resulted from a fund of $50,000, which was bequeathed for a " hospital for the temporary treatment of strangers and local invalids peculiarly situated", but which the court al- lowed to be used for the school. "Laws, 1838, ch. 19; 1839, p. 205; 1845, p. 385; 1846, p. 17; 1849, p. 385; 1856, p. 81. In 1825 a committee was sent to Kentucky to examine the school. In 1835 a private associ- ation was formed to organize a school. "Laws, ch. 164. THE DEAF board of seven trustees, including the superin- tendent of public instruction, and the second under a board of five. Both are visited by the state board of charities.^ Washington, Before the creation of a state school some of the deaf children were sent to Oregon for instruction.^ In 1885 a private school was started at Tacoma, which lasted one year. The state school was established at Van- couver in 1886.^ It is governed by the state board of control.* At Seattle and Tacoma there are day schools supported by the respective cities, the former opened in 1906 and the latter in 1908. West Virginia. The state school for the deaf and the blind was opened at Romney in 1870,^ before which time children had been sent to the schools in Virginia and Ohio.^ The school is ^Laws, 1875, ch. 177; 1879, ch. 244; 1896, ch. 702; 1898, p. 276 ; 1903, ch. 266 ; 1904, p. 75 ; Code, 1904, ch. 74. The Staun- ton school received some private donations at first, and 5 acres of land, besides a later legacy of $3,000 for poor deaf children ; and the Newport News school has received a few gifts, in- cluding some land. •Laws, 1881, p. 211. 'Laws, 1886, p. 136. At the beginning 100 acres of land were donated. The school seems not to have profited by the gift from Congress of 200,000 acres for charitable and re- formatory institutions. *Laws, 1890, p. 497; 1897, p. 443; 1903, p. 266; 1905, ch. 139; 1907, p. 238; 1909, p. 258; 1912, ch. 10; Code and Stat, 1910, § 4387ff. There was a department for the feeble-minded till 1906, and for the blind till 1912, all being known as the " school for defective youth ". "^Laws, 1870, ch. 116; 1871, ch. 71. A building and 15 acres of land were given by the city. •Laws, 1868, ch. 71. PROVISION BY STATES 239 under a board of nine regents, while the state board of control has charge of financial affairs.^ Wisconsin, Prior to the establishment of a school of its own, Wisconsin sent some of its deaf children to the Illinois School. The state insti- tution, which had been planned in 1843, was opened in 1852 at Delavan, resulting from a pri- vate school started two years previously.^ It is under the direction of the state board of control.^ There are 24 day schools in the state, operating under the state law : * Antigo, opened in 1906; Appleton, 1896; Ashland, 1898; Black River Falls, 1897; Bloomington, 1906; *Laws, 1887, ch. 52; 1895, chs. 25, 39; 1897, ch. 25; 1905, ch. 66; Code, 1906, § 1774ff. Colored pupils are sent to Maryland for education. » Laws, 1852, ch. 481 ; 1857, ch. 34 ; 1858, ch. 102 ; Rev. Stat., 1858, ch. 186. Eleven acres of land were given to the school. 'Laws, 1866, ch. 105; 1869, ch. 8; 1880, ch. 116; 1881, ch. 298; 1883, ch. 268; 1891, ch. 331; 1893, ch. 290; 1907, ch. 128; Rev. Stat, 1898, ch. 38. *Laws, 1885, ch. 315; 1897, ch. 321; 1901, ch. 422; 1903, ch. 86; 1907, ch. 128; Rev. Stat., 1898, § 578. It is pro- vided that on the application of a local board of education, the state Superintendent of Public Instruction, with the con- sent of the Board of Control, may authorize the establishment of schools. Inspectors are also appointed by him, and the creation of schools may be compelled by the county judge. For each pupil the amount first allowed was $100, then $125, and now $150. Fctr the board of pupils who do not live near the school, $100 additional is allowed. The first day school in the state was a private one at Milwaukee, founded in 1878 and lasting till 1885, when the law was enacted. It was under the auspices of the Wisconsin Phonological Institute, $15,000 being contributed for it by a ladies' society, and a city allowance being made to it in 1883. There have been other day schools in the state: Manitowac, 1893-1901; Oconto, 1898-1899; Neils- ville, 1898-1905; Sparta, 1899-1909; Tomah, 1899-1900; Rhinelander, 1902-1904 ; and Waupaca, 1905-1906. There was another school in Oshkosh from 1888 to 1889. 240 THE DEAF Eau Claire, 1895; Fond du Lac, 1895; Green Bay, 1897; Kenosha, 1913; La Crosse, 1899; Madison, 1908; Marinette, 1895; Marshfield, 1912; Milwaukee, 1898; Mineral Point, 1912; New London, 1906; Oshkosh, 1895; Platteville, 1906; Racine, 1900; Rice Lake, 1907; Sheboy- gan, 1894; Stevens Point, 1905; West Superior, 1897; and Wausau, 1890. A private school, the St. John's Institute, was established at St. Francis in 1876, and is conducted by the Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis. Wyoming, Deaf children have been sent since 1886 to the schools in California, Utah, Colorado and Montana, the state board of charities and re- form having them in charge.^ The American Possessions, Outside of the United States proper very little has been done for the education of the deaf. In the Philippine Islands a school has been established, this being opened at Manila in 1907.^ A school under Roman Catholic auspices was started in Porto Rico in 1911 ; and it is possible that one under the ^Laws, 1886, ch. 77; 1891, ch. 15; 1893, ch. -82; 1895, ch. 25; 1907, ch. 10; Comp. Stat., 1910, ch. 48. It has been pro- vided that when there are as many as 12 applicants, a state school will be organized. A building was erected and de- signed for the school in 1897, but was set aside for military purposes. By the act of admission to the Union, 30,000 acres of land were granted for the school. The income from this fund in 1910 was $2,849. 2 See Annals, lii., 1907, p. 208; lui., 1908, p. 173; liv., 1909, p. 193; Association RevieWy ix., 1907, p. 572. The school opened with 22 pupils. PROVISION BY STATES Ml direction of the state will be created in time, a school for the blind having already been opened. In Alaska there is no school, though the deaf have been looked after to some extent by mis- sionaries/ No provision has been made in the Panama Canal Zone or the Hawaiian Islands.^ * See report of Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Proceedings of Con- ference of Charities and Corrections, 1895, p. 322. In the Re- port of the Department of the Interior for 1908, pp. 274, 278, we have the following : " Congress in its appropriations for the education of the natives has also provided for their sup- port. Acting under this authority, an effort is being made to reach the sick and indigent". It is possible that the needs of the deaf will be discovered in this way. *In the Report of the Minister of Public Instruction to the Hawaiian legislature, April 14, 1854, p. 17, it is stated : " Pro- vision for the deaf, dumb and blind: No provision for such sufferers among us, and from the returns of the census there are on the islands 106 deaf and dumb, and 329 blind". No mention of "such sufferers" has been found in a later report. For much of the information concerning the American pos- sessions presented here, the writer is indebted to the Chief Bibliographer of the Library of Congress. J A.^- L^- CHAPTER XV CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR SCHOOLS Extent of Constitutional Provisions NOT only has provision for the education of the deaf been consummated in all the states, but in some of them this provision has been buttressed, as it were, by a permanent guarantee in the organic law. This regard, while not necessary practically for the continuance of the schools, is none the less commendable, — and indeed is one that should be declared in every state. Such provision concerning the education of the deaf, more direct in some than in others, is found in the constitutions of twenty-seven, or a little over half of the states. These are Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Min- nesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and West Virginia.^ * The constitutions of most of the states provide for the edu- cation of all their children, and the deaf could well be in- cluded here. Moreover, in the constitution of Nebraska (VIII., 242 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS MS New York in 1846 was the first state to make reference thus to a school for the deaf. Mich- igan, however, in 1850 was the first state to provide directly for their education, followed in 1851 by Indiana and Ohio. Of the forty-two states adopting constitutions since 1846, twenty- seven have made reference to schools, while fif- teen have failed to do so. Of the twenty states adopting constitutions since 1889, sixteen have made such provision.^ It is to be noted, however, that many of the states with special reference to the education of the deaf have comparatively re- cent constitutions, while in others where no such provision is found, the present constitutions often date far back in our national history, and were adopted before attention had been called to the needs of the deaf and sfmilar classes. Hence, in general, it is not to be concluded from the mere presence or absence of a reference in the constitution that certain states are more solicitous than others for the education of their deaf chil- dren. 12) there is a provision for children growing up in mendi- cancy and crime; and in that of Wyoming (VII., 18) that such charitable, penal or reformatory institutions shall be estab- lished as the claims of humanity and the public good many re- quire. In either of these the provision might be construed to apply to schools for the deaf. ^ In the constitutions of some states, as Michigan, Mississippi, New York, and South Carolina, there were provisions in the preceding as well as the present drafts. 244 THE DEAF Language and Forms of Provisions The language of these constitutional provisions for schools for the deaf varies to some extent.^ In all of the constitutions, with the exception of that in Minnesota, schools for the deaf are coupled with those for the blind, and unless the provision is under the caption of " education," institutions for the insane are likewise provided for in the same clause. In several instances there is more than one reference to the school for the deaf.2 The most usual statement is that institutions for the deaf and dumb, the blind, and the insane shall be estabhshed and maintained, or fos- tered and supported, by the state, as in Arizona,^ Colorado,* Florida,^ Idaho,^ Kansas,"^ Mich- ^ In the constitutions no reference is made to the deaf other than in provisions for schools, except in the case of Mississippi, where exemption from a certain tax is found. ' In these constitutional references, the provision is as a rule found under some general head as " public institutions ", " state institutions ", or " miscellaneous ". In the South Caro- lina constitution the provision is found under the caption " charitable ", and in the North Carolina under " charitable and penal ". Under the heading of " education " are the pro- visions in the constitutions of Arizona (one clause), Colorado (as an amendment), Michigan, Mississippi, New Mexico, Oklahoma (one clause), Texas (though under the sub-title ("charitable"), Utah (one clause), and Virginia. •XXII., 15; XL, 1. *VIII., 1. A later amendment classifies it with the educa- tional institutions of the state. *XIII., 1. Adopted the same year that the school was es- tablished. « X., 1. ' VII., 1. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS U5 igan/ Montana,^ Nevada,^ Ohio,* South Caro- lina,^ Utah,^ and Washington^ In the South Carolina constitution the school is also declared to be exempted from taxation; and in the Utah constitution a further provision establishes the location, and guarantees against diversion the lands granted by the United States.^ In the constitutions of Arkansas,® Indiana,^^ Mississ- ippi,^^ and Oklahoma,^^ the statement or its equivalent is that it is the duty of the legislature to provide by law for the support of institutions for the education of the deaf and dumb, and blind, and for the insane. In other states less direct or authoritative references are found. In West Virginia ^^ the legislature " may make suitable provision for the blind, mute and insane whenever it may be practicable," while in North Carolina ^* the mat- ter seems also optional. In the Minnesota con- »XI., 15. »X., 1; XL, 12. ^XIII., 1. *VII., 1. • XII., 1 ; X., 4. " X., 10 ; XIX., 2, 3. 'XIII., 1. *It is to be noted that in nearly all the states having gov- ernment donations of land, reference is made to its inviol- ability. »XIX., 19. "Vlil.,209. "XII., 2; XXL, 1. "XIL, 12. "XL, 10. 246 THE DEAF stitution ^ there is an amendment by which the public debt is increased for the purpose of estab- lishing certain public institutions, including the school for the deaf. In the South Dakota con- stitution ^ the several charitable and penal insti- tutions are enumerated, among which is the school for the deaf, while direction is also given as to the sale of land held for the benefit of the school. In New Mexico ^ the school is enumerated among the educational institutions, reference also being made to the public land ; and in Virginia * the school is mentioned in connection with the composition of the state board of education. In the Texas constitution ^ a permanent fund is provided from the lands which have been granted prior to its adoption, while another reference is made to the printing to be done at the school. In the North Dakota constitution^ the lands from Congress are declared to be a perpetual fund and inviolable, while in another place the location of the school is provided for. In the Alabama constitution "^ the legislature is ex- pressly declared not to be empowered to change the location of the school. In New York ^ the *IX., 14, as amended. «XIV., 1. •XII., 11. *IX., 130. •VII., 9; XVI., 21. •IX., 159; XIX., 215. See also amendment, 1904, sec. 5. »XIV., 267. »VIII., 9, 14. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS 247 constitutional provisions have reference to the subsidies granted to private institutions, it being stated that " nothing in the constitution shall pre- vent the legislature from making such provision for the education and support of the blind, the deaf and dumb, and juvenile delinquents as it may deem proper," and that the legisla- ture is not to be prohibited from action by the prohibition of the credit or land of the state being " given to private associations, corporations and undertakings." In Louisiana ^ a similar, though less explicit, reference to state aid is found, »53. CHAPTER XVI QUESTION OF THE CHARITY CONNECTION OF SCHOOLS Institutions Sometimes Regarded as Educational: Sometimes as Charitable IN considering the relation of the state to its schools for the deaf, the question is raised as to the way they are regarded by the state, and in what scheme of classification they have been assigned. We find that with many of the states the institutions are held to be charitable, and the further question is presented as to whether this is proper and just. In times past this has been the usual classifica- tion, but of late years an increasing number of states have made a change and now regard the institutions as merely educational. It would be difficult to say with precision to what scheme of classification the schools in the several states should be ascribed; and in quite a number the lines shade off one into the other. From what has been said in the preceding chapters and also from certain legislative classification, it would seem that the schools in the following states are regarded largely, if not entirely, as educational: 248 CHARITY CONNECTION 249 Alabama, Arizona, Colorado, District of Colum- bia, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Missis- sippi, Montana, New Jersey, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Utah, Vermont, and West Virginia. In about half of the states, however, the institutions continue to be regarded as charitable to a greater or less extent from their connection with charity boards or from some other classification. Some are recognized as educational, but at the same time not held altogether free from the charitable touch. ^ Chaeity IN Connection with Schools for the Deaf Considerable difficulty at the outset rests with the word charity. In its best sense, it is the finest word in our language, and from its springs flow all benevolence, material and spiritual: when looked upon scientifically much of the repug- nance and prejudice felt toward it is lost, and it becomes the touchstone for the remedy of human *Thus, in addition to the states named above, in the con- stitutions of Michigan, Oklahoma and Virginia the institutions are designated educational. In certain states also, as we have seen, the state superintendent of public instruction is ex- officio member of the governing board, and in a few other states report is made to the department of education. In New York and North Carolina the schools are visited by this department. In a number also an educational classification is found in some of the statutory references or captions. See in particular on this subject, Annals, xlviii., 1903, p. 348; Ivlii., 1913, p. 327. 250 THE DEAF ills. In one sense, education is most surely and deeply charitable, whether or not it is held to be but the equipment of the state for its self-preser- vation. This has long been accepted, and so unan- imously have the states undertaken the instruc- tion of their children that its very discussion is now unknown. But popularly conceived, charity is still some- thing doled out and granted by the giver as a matter of grace, and to the recipient are carried associations that do not comport with indepen- dence and manliness of character. Besides, education has long ceased to be thought of as charitable, and only such institutions as are for the education of the deaf and blind are left with the undesirable signification of the word. In addition, the state maintains institutions for cer- tain of its classes, as the insane, the feeble-minded and the infirm, which as a rule are in no sense educational from our standpoint, and other in- stitutions of a reformatory, corrective or punitive character, and with them have to be classed the institutions for the deaf, all being known as the state's " charitable institutions," or " state institu- tions; " while the public rarely makes discrimina- tion, or notes the distinctions involved. The chief trouble, then, in classifying the schools for the deaf as charitable is this connec- tion of the word charity, and the grouping of the CHARITY CONNECTION 251 deaf with certain other parts of the state's popu- lation which other children do not have to share. The deaf are thus differentiated from children who have no defect of sense, and the education of the one is thus education, and of the other char- ity. Schools in which the deaf are educated would thus seem not to be given their just status. They are misrepresented by being aligned, on the one hand, with people of defective or diseased minds, and on the other, with the state's delin- quent and criminal classes. The deaf thus be- come wards of the state, and constitute one of its dependent classes. They are " inmates " of an " eleemosynary " institution, and the fact that it is all for education is lost sight of.^ But, we are told, the treatment of deaf children should rest upon an altogether different basis, and they should, even in appearance, receive an education as a right and as nothing else. Educa- tion as the paramount privilege of American children is so deeply established in American in- stitutions and character that it would seem to be a principle to be applied to all the children of the ^The earlier conception of the schools is in part illustrated by the name " asylum " given. British schools were often called asylums or hospitals, and were largely founded and sup- ported by charity. Likewise in America the term " asylum " was frequently given to the schools when first started. But the name has now been generally discarded, and in but one state is the title retained, New Mexico. " School " is now mostly used, while in a few " institution " is employed. See Annals, loc. cit. See also Report of Board of Penal, Pauper and Charitable Institutions of Michigan, 1878, p. 41. 252 THE DEAF state. Admission into schools for the deaf has become more and more like that in the regular schools/ The schools are open, as a general rule, only to those able and fitted to be educated, and the mentally and physically disqualified are often rejected. When a child has completed the prescribed number of years of attendance, he can be provided for no longer, and at vacation time in nearly all schools he must depart. The schools, as we are to see, have become free to all, while compulsory education laws have also been made to apply. Hence if schools for the deaf are edu- cational, they can be regarded as charitable only to the extent that all schools are so considered; they should not be looked upon in a different light, and the public should be as fully alive to their claims.^ *In Massachusetts appropriations were once "for benefici- aries in asylums for the deaf and dumb ", but now they are "for the education of deaf pupils in schools designated by law ". ' In a legal sense, nearly all educational institutions can be called charitable, especially if they are private affairs, and gifts for such purposes are held in the law as for charitable purposes. See 4 Wheaton, 518; 2 How. (U. S.), 227; 14 How., 277; 44 Mo., 570; 25 O. St., 229. Not many cases have arisen in regard to the status of institutions for the deaf. In 1900 the Columbia Institution was held in the opinion of the Attorney-General to be under the department of charities, but Congress the next year declared it to be educational. See Annals, xlvi., 1901, p. 345. In Colorado an opinion was ren- dered that the school was educational alone, and not subject to the civil service rules, and this was later ratified in the con- stitution and by the legislature. Some of the courts have been inclined to view the institutions as charitable. In Ne- braska the school for the deaf was at first considered an asy- lum and in the same class with almshouses, rather than edu- CHARITY CONNECTION 253 Aeguments foe the Connection with the Boaeds OF Chaeities Hitherto we have been discussing the theory in regard to the proper place in which the institu- tions are to be held, but we are now to see what are the actual grounds upon which the connection with the state board of charities is to be justified. Much might be said of the practical workings of schools in connection with such boards, and it is claimed that the schools get the substance at least in the way of beneficial treatment. By one super- intendant it has been stated thus : "In theory it is all wrong, but in practice it could not be improved upon." Where the boards are com- posed of capable, broad-minded, sympathetic men, the needs of the schools can be satisfactorily looked into, and their experience with other in- stitutions, where the problems are akin in the way of housing a large number of people, can be utilized to great advantage, especially in connec- tion with sanitary, hospital and other arrange- ments.^ Such boards may secure supplies on more favorable terms, may systematize all the in- cational. 6 Neb., 286. See also 43 Neb., 184. In New York the provision of the law allowing the State Board of Charities to inspect the Institution for the Blind was attacked, and it was held that, though the institution was partly educational and was visited by the department of education, yet the word charity was to be taken in its usual meaning, and If the Institution as a private body educated, clothed and maintained Indigent pupils, it was charitable. 154 New York, 14 (1897). ^See Report of Illinois Board of Charities, 1872, pp. ISflf.. 32fe. » > I'p , 254 THE DEAF stitutions, may properly apportion the appropria- tions to be asked of the legislature, may exercise a wider supervision, and may correlate all the means of the state for the maintenance of certain classes of its population. These boards may also have pecuhar opportunities for coming across poor and neglected children and of getting them in the schools. Lastly, and most important of all, even though the institutions are educational, there is much also to be considered besides educa- tion alone, for a home and board are furnished during the school year, and usually transporta- tion and clothing as well to those in need of them.^ By the boards of charity themselves the in- stitutions are not necessarily regarded as chari- table.^ Many of them hold the institutions to be educational, despite the charity connection, *In a few cases a home during vacation is afforded to the indigent or unprotected. "In order to discover how these institutions are regarded by the departments of charities, letters of inquiry were sent by the writer to all the states of the Union. Replies were re- ceived in 45 out of 49 cases, coming from boards of charities, boards of control, or in their absence from commissioners of education or other state officials, — and in a few cases from individuals or societies to whom the communication was turned over. In the answers, the institutions were called charitable by 6, educational by 13, both charitable and educa- tional by 12, while by 14 the question was not specifically an- swered. In some instances, these replies were only private opinions, but they represent none the less the views of those most in touch with the charity activities of the states. In a few cases the replies were at variance with what has been accepted regarding certain states. It was also found that boards of control do not necessarily consider the institutions as charitable. CHARITY CONNECTION 255 and few are unwilling to give recognition to their educational features. In none is there a desire to injure or stigmatize the deaf. The aim is to consider the matter in its practical bearings, and the question is held to be largely one of classifica- tion and administration. With all the fact weighs that board, lodging, etc., are given en- tirely free.^ The clearest and fullest presenta- tion of the point of view of the charity boards is given in the following extract from a letter by one board: ^ The institutions are doubtless both educational and charitable, or at least ought to be, using these words in their ordinary application. It is not a question of merit or demerit on the part of the unfortunates or their families. It is not a question whether they are entitled to an education as much as normal children. So far as there is any real issue, it is one of classification for purposes of administration. The question seems to be whether the institutions that care for the above men- tioned classes can best be administered under the depart- ment of charities that has charge of public institutions, or the department of education that usually has to do with institutions that furnish education only in the limited technical sense, where pupils attend school a few hours a day, but are not boarded at the institutions. Because an institution is an educational institution, I * By one board, while such schools are admitted to be partly educational, they are held "charitable in that they afford a home for certain defective persons during the time of their dependence". By one board the pupils are called "charity patients ". 'The District of Columbia. ^56 THE DEAF think it may be none the less a charitable institution. For example, it would hardly be denied that an orphan asylum is a charitable institution ; yet an orphan asylum that was not an educational institution would be de- plorable. In the state institutions for the deaf and the blind, throughout the country, the educational side is very properly emphasized These inmates would properly be classed as public dependents as they usually have been .... The whole trouble seems to arise from a feeling of aversion to the word " charity ", and probably the word has been degraded To refer to the institutions under consideration as " educational institutions ", without any qualification, would not be in the interest of clearness of thought, and would either lead to confusion or to some qualifying phrases, because the deaf and the blind are certainly different enough from the normal child to be considered, for many purposes, in a separate class, and the institu- tions which educate and support them, it would seem to me, need some term by which they can be designated, which would distinguish them from the educational institutions designed for the normal child. Aeguments in Opposition to the Connection Yet over against all the arguments for the connection with the boards of charities the voice of the educators of the deaf is in unison that the connection of the schools be completely severed with whatever is of charitable signification.^ ^Many of the schools in their reports take pains to dis- claim any but a strictly educational character. Of the Michi- gan school it is expressly stated that it is " not an asylum, re- formatory or hospital " ; of the Colorado that it is " not an • asylum ' or ' home ' for the afflicted ; it is not a hospital for the care and treatment of the eyes and ears; and it is not a place for the detention and care of imbeciles " ; of the Illinois CHARITY CONNECTION 257 This feeling cannot all be ascribed to the preju- dice regarding the words employed. In the dis- solving of the charity connection an issue not to be disregarded is the moral effect on the public. A right conception is to be obtained respecting the education of the deaf, and while in the schools and in after life they are entitled to the recogni- tion of the true character of this education and of their status in the community. If the deaf after they have left the schools have shown that they are capable of wrestling unaided with the diffi- culties of life, and are really not objects of charity at all, then they should be spared all discrim- inating associations. Indeed, as our new view of charity is the making of men capable of stand- ing alone, and economic units of gain in society, so the deaf should not be considered as a distinct or dependent class, when by the use of certain expressions this is done ; and we should hold that if their work in the world has justified them, then no barriers should be raised which their fellows in society do not have to meet, and that their edu- cation should be offered to them without dis- crimination or stigma. that it is " not a reformatory, poor house, hospital or asylum " ; of the Indiana that it is " not an asylum, place of refuge, re- form school, almshouse, children's home or hospital " ; of the Georgia that it is " in no sense an asylum .... or charitable institution " ; and of the Mississippi that it is " in no sense an asylum .... a home .... [nor a place] for medical treat- ment." See also Report of Commissioner of Public Lands and Buildings of Nebraska, 1896, p. 356; Education Department of New York, 1912, p. 81. 258 THE DEAF The benefits derived from the relation with the board of charities may be more than offset by the connection with educational agencies, where the school is recognized as part of the state's educational system. In respect to the providing of maintenance for the pupils, this can be regarded as but an incidence, when any other plan would be impracticable. The main, over- shadowing purpose in the work of the institu- tions is education, and what are supplied beyond are only to render this the more effective. But after all this is said, the opponents of the charity connection insist that the burden of proof is upon those who advocate the connection. Why, they ask, should the deaf children of the state who are as capable of being educated as others be con- sidered objects of the state's charity? Why any more than other children? The feeling in the matter may be indicated by two declarations on the subject, one by the edu- cators of the deaf, and the other by the deaf them- selves. The first is in the form of a resolution adopted by the Convention of American In- structors : ^ * Proceedings, xvil., 1905, p. 168. See also ihid., xv., 1898, p. 216; Annals, Iv., 1910, p. 133. The schools are also said to be "maintained solely for the instruction of a large and inter- esting class of children who, by reason of a physical infirmity, the loss of hearing, are denied instruction in the public schools ". Dr. A. L. E. Crouter, Proceedings of National Con- ference of Charities and Corrections, 1906, p. 249. See also Report of Kentucky School, 1909, p. 17. CHARITY CONNECTION 259 Rosolvedy that the deaf youth of our land unques- tionably deserve, and are lawfully entitled to, the same educational care and aid as their more fortunate brothers and sisters ; and that this education, the con- stitutional duty of the state, should be accorded them as a matter of right, not of charity, standing in the law, as it is in fact, a part of the common school system. The second is a resolution adopted by the Na- tional Association of the Deaf: ^ Whereas, the privilege of an education is the birth- right of every American child . . . . ; and Whereas, the deaf child .... has the same inalien- able right to the same education as his more fortunate hearing brother ; and Whereas, .... the fmodern] movement .... fis] giving schools for the deaf their proper place as part of the public school system of the country; and Whereas, eighty-one per cent [of the deaf are] gainfully employed of those who have had school- ing, thus indicating the value of education ; therefore be it Resolved, .... that education of the deaf on the part of the state is simply fulfillment of its duty as a matter of right and justice, not sympathetic charity and benevolence to the deaf; that schools for the deaf should not be known and regarded, nor classi- fied, as benevolent or charitable institutions, .... [but] as strictly educational institutions, a part of the common school system .... [and not with such as- sociations as] tend to foster a spirit of dependence in the pupils and mark them as the objects of charity of the state * Proceedings, viU., 1907, p. 40. See also iUd., v., 1896, p. 47. $160 THE DEAF Conclusions in Respect to the Charity Connection OF Schools foe the Deaf Certain inferences or conclusions may now be reached regarding our question as to whether schools for the deaf may be regarded and classi- fied as charitable. 1. In America the schools have been regarded both as educational and charitable, but there is an increasing tendency to consider them as purely educational. At present about half of the states Hold them entirely or in the main as educational. 2. The state boards or public authorities that regard the schools as charitable are in no wise prompted by any desire to discriminate against the deaf, or to deny that they are less capable or worthy of education than others. The ques- tion is held to be mainly one of administration. 3. Inasmuch as board and a home are pro- vided in the institutions, and in some cases cloth- ing and transportation also, the charitable ele- ment is present, and in point of fact the schools must be regarded ad hoc as charitable. 4. This charitable feature, however, plays a slight and almost negligible part in the work of the schools, being in fact only incidental, and the educational aims take precedence over all else. 5. Because of the associations involved in the charity connection, which are not shared in by the regular schools, and because of the little to sug- CHARITY CONNECTION 261 gest charity in the after lives of the deaf, the schools for the deaf have reason to protest against the connection. As education is the one purpose of the schools, and as their operations are con- ducted solely to this end, they are entitled to an educational classification. 6. That the schools for the deaf should thus be held and treated, to the farthest possible ex- tent, as purely educational, is demanded both by justice and by the regard for the proper effect on the deaf and on the public. CHAPTER XVII PROVISIONS CONCERNING ADMISSION OF PUPILS INTO SCHOOLS Rules as to the Payment of Fees HITHERTO we have considered the sev- eral forms of provision for the schools for the deaf, and the general treatment accorded them. We now turn our examination to the schools themselves in their relation to the pupils who enter them. Our first concern is with the provisions as to the admission of pupils into the schools. We find that the schools, to all intents and pur- poses, are free to all applicants mentally and physically qualified to enter. ^ Usually, when started, the schools were free to the indigent only, though some, especially in the West, were made free to all from the very beginning. However, there was httle attempt to observe closely these limitations, and in time, as we have seen, they * Certain of the schools receive a few pay pupils, but these are usually from outside the state or are otherwise exceptionally provided for. Receipts from such sources are inconsiderable, and have little effect on the revenues of the schools. Accord- ing to the Census of Benevolent Institutions of 1905, less than $55,000 came to the schools in this way, the greater amount being for pupils of other states. 262 ADMISSION OF PUPILS 263 were for the most part given up/ At present limitations of any kind are found in the smaller number of states, and exist in these in form rather than in practice, so that to-day laws or regula- tions of a restrictive nature may be regarded as but nominal. In all the states the schools are by statute free to the indigent at least, and in less than a score is there a regulation short of universal admittance prescribed. By the wording of the statute, either directly or by implication, it would seem to be indicated that the schools, or, in their absence, the proper public authorities, in the following states were still empowered to demand a charge in whole or in part from those able to pay: Ala- bama, Arizona, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, Mis- souri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mex- ico, Nevada, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Virginia — these states at least making reference in some place to the indigent.^ But with or with- out such reference, as we have noted, in but few instances is there a charge to any, indigent or *The statutes of some states, as of Maine and Massa- chusetts, even go so far as distinctly to declare that no dis- crimination shall be made on account of wealth. On this subject, see Report of Clarke School, 1885, p. 8. ^ In Florida tuition at least seems to be provided free by the statute, and in Georgia free admission seems to be provided only for the indigent blind, while education is made free to all the deaf. On this subject, see American Journal of Soci- ology, iv., 1898, p. 51ff. 264 THE DEAF not.^ In some states proof of indigence is still formally necessary,^ and in others payment may be made if desired.^ Little effort, then, is made to collect fees in American schools for the deaf. The circum- stances of the deaf themselves are usually such as to demand for them education without cost; while at the same time the general American feeling that education should be a free gift of the state to its youth would be sufficient to pre- vent attempts to secure payment, even if such action should be considered proper. Peovision fob Collateeal Suppoet of Pupils The state thus supplies the means for the edu- cation and maintenance of pupils without cost to them; but to insure the attendance of those who by reason of poverty might be prevented from *0n this subject the superintendent of the Mississippi School addressed letters to heads of Southern schools, and found only two — those in Texas and Mississippi — having any requirement as to payment. In Mississippi there had been only two payments in the course of a considerable number of years. In the Texas school for the year 1909 we find the sum of $1,546 collected as a " reasonable amount " for board, — an unusual item in the receipts of a school. ^Wherever a formal regulation is stated, we are advised that the schools are "free to the indigent", "free if parents are unable to pay ", " free under certain circumstances ", etc. In a few states, "certificates of inability" have been de- manded. •In Maine, for instance, the law states that the school is free, "provided, however, that nothing herein contained shall be held to prevent the voluntary payment of the whole or part of such sum by the parent or the guardian". ADMISSION OF PUPILS 265 availing themselves of its bounty, it assists even further. Where no other means are provided, clothing and transportation to and from the schools are furnished free of expense. Such charges are usually paid by the counties from which the pupils come, though a few states under- take this directly. A given sum may be allowed for this purpose, or the actual cost may be col- lected.^ Age Limits of Attendance With most of the schools the age limits of at- tendance are fixed, and pupils may be admitted only within the time prescribed by the law. In some the age permitted is the common school age ; in others pupils are admitted who are of " suitable age and qualifications," or "capacity;" and in some cases, no limits being set down, the matter seems to be left to the discretion of the author- ities.^ *Some states, notably Washington, Minnesota, Mississippi, South Carolina, Arkansas, Utah, Nebraska, and Oklahoma al- low funds to pay the transportation of students who enter the college at Washington, and in some cases an even further al- lowance is made. In Minnesota and Nebraska, for instance, the amount is $800 a year. See Annals, Ivi., 1911, p. 180. 2 Even where the age period is fixed by law, it is not always rigidly adhered to, and considerable elasticity may be allowed. Of the Michigan school we are told that the state " wisely allows the board of trustees the privilege of admitting those [pupils] who are older or younger, if they see fit ". Report, 1908, p. 32. For discussion of the age period, see Report of New York Institution for Improved Instruction, 1870, p. 28; Ohio School, 1872, p. 17; Clarke School, 1888, p. 8; American School, 1893, p. 32; Michigan School, 1894, p. 22; New 266 THE DEAF In schools where the limits of attendance are specified, the minimum age is usually six, seven or eight, while a few schools admit at five. In a few of the day schools, and in most of the oral home schools, children may be received as early as three, or even two, to make an early beginning in the use of speech, some of the home schools be- ing designed expressly to receive children under five, or before the regular school period. The age limit for the completion of the school period is often twenty or twenty-one, while a few schools may keep pupils longer, as to twenty-five. The most frequent age period at present, where age limits are stated, is from six to twenty-one, but the period often begins and ends at other ages.^ Jersey School, 1898, p. 20; Pennsylvania Institution, 1901, p. 35; Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, xviii., 1908, p. 156; Association Review, v., 1903, p. 380. * The formal age period is from 6 to 21 in Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Maryland, Montana, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Washington; from 7 to 21 in Kansas, Michigan, Nebraska and New Mexico ; 7 to 25 in Georgia and North Dakota ; 7 to 20 in Wisconsin ; 8 to 20 in Minnesota ; 8 to 21 in Indiana ; 8 to 25 in West Virginia; 8 to 26 in California; 5 to 21 in Iowa and Maine; 5 to 20 in Vermont; and in North Carolina at one school 6 to 21, and at the other 8 to 23. In Alabama pupils be- tween the ages of 7 and 21 may remain 10 years, with an ex- tension of 4, but none beyond 25. In Arkansas the limits are 6 and 21, and the time of residence may be extended to 13 years. In Texas they are 7 and 20, with a residence of 12 years per- mitted. In Missouri they are 8 and 21, with a residence of 12 years. In Kentucky and Virginia they are the same, with a residence of 10 years. In Rhode Island they are 3 and 20, with a stay of 10 years, which may be extended. In New Jersey the limits are 8 and 21, and a pupil is entitled to a stay of 8 years, which may be extended 3, and 3 more in addition. In Louisiana the limits are 8 and 22. pupils under 14 being allowed to stay 10 years; between 14 and 17, 8; and over 17, 5 — with an extension in each case of 4 years. ADMISSION OF PUPILS 267 In some cases pupils are allowed to remain a certain number of years, but none beyond a cer- tain limit, while in many the period may be ex- tended two, three or five years, when it appears that the progress of the pupil justifies a more protracted residence.^ Finally, it is to be noted that the limits of attendance have in general been lowered, and have been made to conform more and more with those of the regular schools.^ In Delaware a pupil may stay 5 years, with a further exten- sion of 5. In Ohio the lower limit is 7, and none may remain more than 13 years. In New York pupils may enter at 5, but after 12, the period is 5 years, with an extension of 3, and a further one of 3. In Wyoming pupils may enter at 6; and in Connecticut at 6, with a residence of 12 years and an extension of 6. In Massachusetts a residence of 10 years is permitted, which may be extended, but here the Clarke School has no fixed time, and the Horace Mann takes pupils over 5. In Penn- sylvania, though the statute seems to have provided from 10 to 20 years as the period, there are no strict limits, the Pennsyl- vania Institution receiving from 5 to 21, the Western Penn- sylvania from 6 to 20, and the Pennsylvania Oral none under 6, except in special circumstances, In Utah there seems to be only an upper limit of 30. ^ It sometimes happens that there are found a small number of deaf persons who are beyond the age allowed, but who are in need of a certain amount of schooling. Their condition is said to be " due to their environments, to merciless and ex- acting parents, to sickness, and to other causes." Report of Iowa School, 1812, p. 13. See also Report, 1910, p. 8. Under special arrangements, some of these might be benefited no little by a few years of instruction. In Iowa such persons may now be received -up to the age of thirty-five, if the State Board of Control consents. ^We have already noticed that in the first schools an early age was not insisted upon, some pupils entering at 10 or 12, while their attendance was also of short duration. The period was often from 9 to 30. The latter age has been al- lowed in some states till recent years, as in Texas, Arkansas and Missouri. It may be stated here that the law as to resi- dence applies usually only at the time of entrance, and the removal of the parent may not always effect a change. For a case in point, see 4 R. I., p. 587. CHAPTER XVIII ATTENDANCE IN SCHOOLS The Proportion of the Deaf in the Schools THE question now arises as to whether the deaf generally attend these schools pro- vided for them. This inquiry really re- solves itself into two parts: how far the deaf have at some time and for a longer or shorter period hia-d recourse to the schools; and how far they may be found to be in attendance at a given time. The one has relation rather to how widely the schools are extending their educational oppor- tunities, and the other to how effectively they are accomplishing their ends. As to the first consideration, the schools are found to reach most of the deaf children with the privileges of an education to a greater or less ex- tent. From the returns of the census ^ we find that nearly four-fifths (78.4 per cent) of the deaf have attended school, over three-fourths (77.5 per cent) of these having attended the special schools. The proportion would be greater still but for the number of the deaf too young to en- * Special Reports, 1906, pp. 145, 146, 242. Of the colored deaf less than one-half— 1,169 out of 2,836— had been to school. ATTENDANCE IN SCHOOLS 269 ter school. The proportion of the deaf of school age who have attended school may likewise be estimated by comparing the total number of ap- proximate school age with the number who were reported to have been in attendance. There were, according to the census, 13,905 deaf children from five to twenty years of age. Of these, 10,640, or 76.5 per cent, were reported to have attended school.^ In 1912-1913 the total number in at- tendance was 14,474, which probably means a higher proportion. On the whole, then, it would seem that, in respect to the number of deaf chil- dren actually reached at one time or another, the schools make a really commendable showing, and one that is becoming better from year to year. The second matter, however, cannot be dis- posed of nearly so satisfactorily. It is difficult to determine with any approach to exactness the respective proportions of the deaf in the several states of school age who are out of school. The census does not give us definite information on this point; and though the school authorities themselves are usually aware of conditions in their respective states, they seldom have the ^In 1890 the proportion of deaf children between five and twenty years found to be in school was only 40 per cent, to be accounted for in part by the fact that only those children actually in school at the time that the census was taken were included. Census Reports, 1890. Report on Insane, Feeble- minded, Deaf and, Dumb and Blind, 1895, p. 102. 270 THE DEAF means of fully ascertaining. But we may learn something of the general situation. In the re- ports of some of the schools complaint is not in- frequently made as to the number of deaf chil- dren out of school who should be in, and in a portion the number is said to be large.^ The pro- portions, furthermore, found in attendance in the different states in comparison with their total population, or with their total deaf population under twenty years of age, indicate that the at- tendance in some states is far greater than in others, which means that in the latter a relatively smaller part are in school.^ It would appear, * In the case of the Alabama School it is said that " there are many deaf children of school age in the state not in school ". Report, 1900, p. 24. In the case of the Kentucky School it is stated that " there are still 200 [children] of school age iu the state who have not received the benefit of the school". Report, 1903, p. 13. See also Report, 1S87, p. 98. In Tennessee it is stated that there are " doubtless quite a number of deaf children of whom we have no knowledge in certain counties ". Report of Tennessee School, 1910, p. 11. In Texas there are said ij be "300 deaf children in the state within scholastic age who are not in school ", this proportion possibly being 50 per cent. Report of Texas School, 1912, pp. 5, 12. See also Report of Board of Charities of New York, 1910, i., p. 151; Arkansas School, 1890, p. 44; Western Pennsylvania Institu- tion, 1888, p. 19; 1908, p. 19; Maryland School, 1SC3, p. G. * It has been fnand that, by comparing the number cf the 'leaf in school in the several states with the total population of 1910, the best record is 26.0 per 100,000 of population, which belongs to \ Wisconsin; and if this ratio be accepted ri an ap- proximate star.aard, the average proportion for all the United States is only one-half, with a ratio of 13.6 per 100,000, while in a few of the states it is only one-third, the lowest ratio being 6.1 per 100,000. If all the states had as high a ratio as 26, the number in attendance would be 23,913. The finding of these results is due to Mr. F. W. Booth, Volta Review, xii., 1911, p. 786, If we compare the number of the deaf reported by the ATTENDANCE IN SCHOOLS ml then, that the number of the deaf out of school who are of school age is probably not negligible in any of the states, and that in some.it is very con- siderable.^ The fact that the schools do not have their full quota of pupils is not all due to the refusal of deaf children to avail themselves of the oppor- tunity for a schooHng. It is in good part owing also to the failure of some of the pupils who at- tend to remain a sufficient length of time. In the preceding chapter we have seen what are the limits of attendance prescribed in the schools ; but as a matter of fact a large proportion of the pupils do not remain the full period allotted, and in some of the schools an appreciable number do not remain the better or a substantial part of the term.^ As in all schools, there is in the passing of the pupils from the years of childhood an in- creasing tendency to leave, and with the deaf this applies with no less force ; ^ so that on no census under twenty years of age with the number found at school in 1912-1913, the lowest proportion is seen to be 45 per cent, though only half a dozen states have proportions under 60. ^The proportion of children generally out of school is found by the Russell Sage Foundation to average 21.8 per cent in all the states, ranging from 7.3 to 44.7 per cent. Comparative Study of Public School Systems in 48 States, 1912. ^ In respect to the ages most common in the schools for the deaf, it has been found by Dr. Harris Taylor, of the New York Institution for Improved Instruction, that of 2,634 pupils in 38 schools for whom returns were made, 19.8 per cent were seven years of age; 17.3 per cent, eight; 10.9 per cent, six; 10.2 per cent, nine; and 9.6 per cent, ten. Only 1.4 per cent were over nineteen. Yolta Review, xiv., 1912, p. 177. ^See Report of Western New York Institution, 1888, p. 28; rt2 THE DEAF small portion of the pupils the work of the schools is not permitted to have full effect. The Need op Compulsory Education Laws for the Deaf It is thus quite evident, however large the true proportion of the deaf who attend the school may be, and whatever the proportion remaining a satisfactory period may be, that in practically every state there are a certain nmnber of deaf children not in the schools who should be there, and that the offer of the state to provide an edu- cation for all its deaf children is not availed of as it should be.^ For the existence of this condi- tion of affairs the schools are not to be held responsible. They are usually doing all they can to get the children in, and all the deaf if they will may receive an education. The cause lies further back: most often in the ignorance or short-sightedness of the parent. For it all there is but one remedy — the enact- ment of a strong compulsory education law and Kentucky School, 1889, p. 14. In the regular schools 85 per cent of the pupils are said to drop out between the twelfth and fifteenth years. F. M. Leavitt, " Examples of Industrial Education ", 1912, p. 54. See also Report on Condition of Women and Children Wage Earners in the United States, 1910, vol. 7. ^In some cases it happens that the school is already crowded, but the need is no less, and it should be the business of the state to provide sufficient accommodations for all those who seek an education. ATTENDANCE IN SCHOOLS 273 its uncompromising enforcement. No matter how strenuous and diligent may be the efforts to reach the children,^ it is only when such a law is on the statute books that the state's really ef- fective weapon is at hand to secure attendance.^ However urgent are the needs of compulsory education laws for children generally, there are special reasons for them with the deaf. The deaf stand in particular need of an education, and without it their condition is peculiarly helpless and pitiable. Compelling reason is also found in the fact that, besides the ordinary schooling, in- dustrial training is likewise afforded to the deaf, which is hardly possible elsewhere, and which may mean no little towards success in after life. Even though it sometimes seems hard to take a deaf child from his home, and separate him from his parents for a number of months at a time, es- pecially if the child is in his tender years, the greater necessity of the law is but indicated if such children are to be kept from growing up in ignorance. The hardship in separation is rather * Great credit is often due to the schools for their efforts to get all the children in. Of the Kentucky School it is said that " there remain but few deaf children whom we have not seen personally". Report, 1907, p. 14. *We do not have sufficient data to enable us to make com- parison between the attendance in states with a compulsory education law and those without it, though the former have In general apparently the better record. In Michigan it is stated that the compulsory education law has brought in many who otherwise would not have come. Report, 1908, p. 14. 274 THE DEAF apparent only and is temporary, while the gains are not to be measured. Not only should the deaf child be required to attend school, but for reasons equally strong it should be seen that he remains at school a suf- ficient number of years, and a sufficient length of time each year. It is a difficult matter as it is to secure full attendance, but too often also the temptation is at hand for pupils to leave early to take up work on their own account, or because the school routine seems irksome; and too often is a pupil called away to help on the farm or in the shop by what is sometimes hardly less than the greed of the parent, or by what is sometimes miscalled his poverty. The state should allow nothing at all to stand in the way of the child's best interests. Peesent Extent of Compulsory Education Laws How important are compulsory education laws for the deaf is being generally seen, and the de- mand has become practically unanimous for their enactment, the feeling not being confined to edu- cators of the deaf but shared in by others in- terested in them.^ Such laws have begun to find * See Proceedings of National Conference of Charities and Corrections. 1907, p. 498; Report of Commissioner of Charities and Corrections of Oklahoma, 1912, p. 430; Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, vii.. 1870, p. 137; x., 1882, p. 164; xi., 1886, p. 34; Conference of Principals, ii., 1872, p. ATTENDANCE IN SCHOOLS 275 their way upon the statute books, and are now being increasingly enacted. Already practically half of the states have them, nearly all of which were enacted since 1900. In other states the mat- ter is also being agitated, with the likelihood that provisions will be extended to them in time. States with such laws now number at least twenty- three : California, Colorado, Idaho, In- diana, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Da- kota, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin.^ With respect to the provisions of these statutes, we find that in some cases the general compulsory education law applies with its age- 178 ; National Association of the Deaf, iii., 1889, p. 52 ; Annals, XV., 1870, p. 216; xliv., 1899, p. 152; liv., 1909, p. 356; Iviii., 1913, p. 347; Association Review, v., 1903, p. 181; Report of Clarke School, 1888, pp. 8, 19; North Carolina School (Raleigh) 1896, p. 6; Illinois School, 1898, p. 13; Colorado School, 1898, p. 18; Indiana School, 1900, p. 20; Oregon School, 1901, p. 9; Nebraska School, 1912, p. 9; and current reports of schools generally. *In a certain number of states, moreover, as Connecticut and West Virginia, town and county authorities are required to make report of the deaf at fixed times, and this may some- times have the effect of a regular law. In addition, in some states with the full law, as Wisconsin, Michigan and North Carolina, it is the duty of certain county oflScials, as super- intendents of education, assessors, etc., to send in the names of possible pupils to the schools. In North Carolina many county superintendents of education are said to take an inter- est in thus getting the children in. Report of North Carolina School, 1908, p. 10; 1910, p. 9. By the secretary of the state board of charities of California, however, we are advised that the state does not compel a parent to send his deaf or blind child to an institution. 276 THE DEAF periods, fines, etc., while in others there are spe- cial enactments for the deaf. In most states an exception is made if there is instruction at home, or with equal facilities, and at the same time and in the same branches. In certain ones truancy officers are expressly designated to enforce the law.^ Fines for violation are placed at sums varying from $5 to $200.^ The period of at- tendance required may be the school year, but more often a part, as five, six or eight months ; ^ and the term for which attendance is required is either a designated number of years, as five or eight, or a period between certain age limits, as from eight to sixteen or from seven to eighteen, etc.* *As in Kansas, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, Ohio, and Oregon. ' The fines in some of the states are as follows : $5 in Mary- land, $5-$20 in Minnesota, $5-$25 in Montana and Oregon, $20 in Rhode Island, $25 in Iowa, $5-$50 in Wisconsin, $100 in Kansas, and $50-$200 in Washington. In Utah the offense is a misdemeanor. 'Kansas requires 5 months, Oklahoma, Oregon and Mon- tana 6, and Maryland, North Dakota and Wisconsin 8, * The number in Montana is 8, and in California 5, The limits in Wisconsin are 6 and 16, in North Carolina 7 and 17, in Indiana and Maryland 8 and 16, in North Dakota 7 and 20, in Kansas and Oklahoma 7 and 21, in Michigan, Nebraska and Rhode Island 7 and 18, in Montana, Ohio, Oregon and Utah 8 and 18, in Minnesota 8 and 20, and in Iowa 12 and 19. In Minnesota it is suggested that the law apply to those over 20 as well. Report of Board of Control, 1908, p. 356; Report of Minnesota School, 1909, p. 23. CHAPTER XIX METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN SCHOOLS The Use of Signs as a Means of Communication DEAF children cannot be educated as other children, and in the schools there have to be employed special means of instruction. In the present chapter it is our purpose to con- sider these methods only as they represent, in a complete study of the provision of the state for the education of the deaf, the means which have been found necessary to employ to attain this end. From the beginning of organized instruction of the deaf in America a system of signs has been in use to a wide extent. At the time when the methods of instruction of the deaf were intro- duced into the first schools, the " sign language " was brought in as an essential part from France, where it had largely been formulated. Modified somewhat and considerably enlarged — and in con- junction with the manual alphabet, of Spanish origin — the system has taken its place as a recog- nized means of education and communication in the great number of the schools. The deaf them- 277 278 THE DEAF selves after passing from the doors of the schools have employed the sign language mainly in their intercourse with one another, and with most of them meetings and social affairs are conducted virtually entirely in this manner. Thus the sign language has for long been one of the vehicles — usually the chief vehicle — of communication among the deaf and their instructors. With the sign language for practical use goes the manual alphabet, or " finger-spelling," by which the several letters of the alphabet are rep- resented on the hand, the two together really con- stituting the language.^ The order of signs it- self forms to an extent a universal language. It consists of gestures, bodily movements, mimic ac- tions, pantomime, postures — and to carry a close shade of meaning, even the shrugging of shoulders, the raising of eyebrows and the expres- sion of the face — all appealing graphically to the accustomed eye. The signs of which it is made up are partly natural, and partly arbitrary or con- *In America the one-hand alphabet is used practically alto- gether, which is also the case with most of the countries of Europe. In England the double-hand is employed mainly. Finger-spelling, as well as sign-making, is very old with the human race. The Egyptians, Greeks and Romans are said to have made use of a system of finger notation. In the Middle Ages monks in their enforced silence often resorted to a finger alphabet. Dalgarno, one of the early English writers on the deaf, had an alphabet in which the letters were represented by parts of the hand. See J. C. Gordon, " Practical Hints to Parents concerning the Preliminary Training of Young Deaf Children", 1886, p. 34ff. ; W. R. Cullingworth, "A Brief Re- view of the Manual Alphabet for the Deaf ", 1902. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 279 ventional ; and the whole system as now practiced has been codified, as it were, for experienced users. By the deaf it can be employed rapidly and with ease, and is readily and clearly under- stood. Many of them become such masters of this silent tongue that it may be used with grace, warmth and expressiveness.^ Rise and Growth of the Oral Movement This system of signs, however, has not been looked upon with favor by all parties. The " sign language " is said to be a foreign language, known and understood by only a very small part of the population, standing as a great barrier to the acquisition of language used by people gen- erally, and tending to make the deaf of a class apart or " clannish." In its place in the schools would be substituted what is known as the " oral method," and speech and lip-reading would be used as the means of instruction. It has been sought thus to give all the schools over to the oral method, and summarily to drive out the sign language.^ *For a description of the sign language, see J. S. Long, "The Sign Language: a Manual of Signs", 1910. See also American Journal of Science, viii., 1824, p. 348; Annals, 1., 1847, pp. 55, 79; v., 1852, pp. 83, 149; vii., 1855, p. 197; xvi., 1871, p. 221 ; xviii., 1873, p. 1 ; xxxii., 1887, p. 141 ; Ivii., 1911, p. 46; Proceedings of American Instructors, ii., 1851, p. 193; iv., 1857, p. 133 ; vii., 1870, p. 133 ; xii., 1890, pp. 100, 171 ; Re- port of New York Institution, 1838, p. 14 ; 1840, p. 17 ; Ameri- can School, 1856, p. 18; California School, 1875, p. 24. See also " The Deaf : by their Fruits," by the New York Institution, 1912. 2 Against the arguments to abolish the sign language, it Is 280 THE DEAF Though the system of signs has been used in America as the prevailing method from the begin- ning, it cannot be said that speech-teaching had not been employed at all in the early days. Sev- eral schools had started out as oral schools/ and in others speech had been employed to a greater or less extent.^ But in none of the schools had the oral method been retained to the exclusion of all others. In time, however, attempts were made to se- cure the adoption of a pure oral system. Atten- tion was called especially to Germany, which had long been known as the home of this method, and claimed that signs are free, and are as natural to the deaf as spoken words to the hearing; that with certain of the deaf, especially the congenitally deaf, they are all but indispen- sable; that they cause mental stimulation as cannot other- wise be done; that the acquisition of speech requires a great amount of time, which is often needed for other things; that the voices of many of the deaf are disagreeable and attract notice; that communication readily and with pleasure among the deaf by speech and speech-reading cannot be accomplished to any wide extent; that only with the gifted few, and not with the general body of the deaf, can such proficiency in the use of speech and speech-reading be attained as to cause them to be " restored to society ", in that they can with ease and with any considerable degree of satisfaction carry on inter- course with the hearing; and that, finally, the great majority of the deaf vigorously demand the retention of the sign lan- guage. *The New York Institution, by a resolution adopted at the first meeting of its board of directors in 1818, decided for the employment of articulation teaching, which policy was con- tinued for some ten years. Report, 1908, p. 30 ; E. H. Currier, "History of Articulation Teaching in the New York Institu- tion", 1894 (Proceedings of American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, iv., sec. 12) ; American Journal of Education, iii., 1828, p. 397. ' In addition, there have always been sporadic instances of private instruction in speech, as by one's family or friends. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 281 it was sought to introduce it into America.^ In 1843 Horace Mann and Dr. Samuel G. Howe visited that country, and on their return reported in favor of the oral method, though no change was then brought about.^ A few years later the matter was further agi- tated, and in 1864 an effort was made to have an oral school incorporated in Massachusetts, but without success. A small oral school was then started at Chelmesford in 1866, which after a short time was removed to Northampton, hav- ing been very liberally endowed, and becoming known as the Clarke School. In 1867 the leg- islature decided to incorporate this, and to allow some of the state pupils to be sent to it. In the meantime — in fact, seven months prior to the actual establishment of the Clarke School — a school which had resulted from a private class had been started in New York City, known as the New York Institution for the Improved In- struction of Deaf -Mutes. This was under a for- mer Austrian teacher, and its stated purpose was to use the oral method as in Germany. Two *It is also claimed that it was by accident that the sign method came into vogue in America, Gallaudet in his trip to Europe having found the London and Edinburgh schools closed to him, and having for this reason been compelled to turn to France, where the sign method was in use. ^It is interesting to note that after Mann and Howe had made their report, the American School at Hartford and the New York Institution sent special representatives to Europe to investigate, these advising little change on the whole. See Report of American School, 1845, p. 25; New York Institution, 1844, p. 62; 1851, p. 83. 282 THE DEAF years later the school board of Boston, having made a canvass of the deaf children of the city, resolved to establish a day school, which was to be a pure oral one, and which not long after was called the Horace Mann School. These three schools were thus the pioneers in the present oral movement.^ The oral method has gained ground steadily since these times. It is now used exclusively in twelve of the institutions, while it has always re- mained the prevailing method in the day schools.^ » See " Life and Works of Horace Mann ", 1891, iiL, p. 245 ; "Life and Journals of Samuel G. Howe", 1909, p. 169; Re- port of Board of Charities of Massachusetts, 1867, p. Ixxii. ; 1868, p. Ix. ; Report of Special Joint Committee of the Legis- lature on Education of Deaf -Mutes, Massachusetts, 1867; North American Review, lix., 1844, p. 329; civ., 1867, p. 528; American Review, iii, 1846, p. 497; Common School Journal (Boston), vi., 1844, p. 65; Nation, iv., 1867, pp. 249, 339; Re- port of New York Institution for Improved Instruction, 1868, p. 5 ; 1870, p. 10 ; American School, 1849, p. 33 ; 1866, p. 18 ; 1867, p. 29; 1868, p. 16; Clarke School, 1875, p. 5; Addresses at 25th Anniversary of Clarke School, 1892; Report of Committee of School for Deaf-Mutes (Horace Mann), 1873, p. 3; 1891, p. 8; Annals, xxi., 1876, p. 178; Lend a Hand, xiii., 1894, p. 346; International Review, xi., 1881, p. 503 ; G. G. Hubbard, " Edu- cation of Deaf Mutes", 1867, and "Rise of Oral Method" (in coUected writings, 1898) ; A. G. Bell, "The Mystic Oral School: Argument in its Favor ", 1897, and " Fallacies concerning the Deaf", 1883; Boston Parents' Education Association, " OfPer- ing in behalf of the Deaf", 1903; Fred Deland, "Dumb No Longer: the Romance of the Telephone", 1903; Educational Review, xiL, 1896, p. 236; Century Magazine, xxxi., 1897, p. 331; American Educational Review, xxxi., 1910, pp. 219, 281, 415; Proceedings of American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, i., 1891, p. 89 ; Volta Review, xiv., 1912, p. 579 (Proceedings of same) ; Evidence before Royal Commission on the Deaf, etc., 1892, i., p. 6; ii., p. 3; iii., p. 208. ' In many of the day school laws the use of the oral method is required, which is also partly the case in several state insti- tutions. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION A great extension is also found in the institu- tions employing what is called the " combined system," and in them more and more attention is given to the teaching of speech. The growth in the number of speech-taught pupils may be indicated in the following table, showing the number and percentage of those taught speech in different years from 1884, the year we first have record ; of those taught wholly or chiefly by the oral method since 1892; and also of those taught wholly or chiefly by the auricular method since 1893.^ NUMBER OF THE DEAF TAUGHT SPEECH, NUMBER TAUGHT WHOLLY OR CHIEFLY BY ORAL METHOD, AND NUMBER TAUGHT WHOLLY OR CHIEFLY BY AURICULAR METHOD. IN DIFFERENT YEARS Number Number Total Taught Taught Number Number Wholly Wholly Year OF Taught Per OR Per OR Per Pupils Speech CENT Chiefly BY Oral Method cent Chiefly BY Auric- ular Method cent 1884 7,482 2,041 27.2 1890 8,901 3,682 41.3 1892 7,940 3,924 49.4 1,581 19.9 1893 8,304 4,485 54.0 2,056 24.7 80 0.9 1895 9,252 5,084 54.9 2,570 27.7 149 1.6 1900 10,608 6,887 63.0 4,538 42.8 108 1.0 1905 11,344 7,700 67.8 5,733 50.5 149 1.3 1910 12,332 8,868 71.9 7,562 61.3 134 1.1 1913 13,459 10,138 75.3 1 8,791 65.3 135 1.1 * These statistics are taken from the Special Reports of the Census Office, 1906, p. 86, and the January issues of the An- nuls. See also Volta Review, xv., 1913, p. 90; Proceedings of American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf (Condition of Articulation Teaching in American In- stitutions), ii., 1892; Report of Committee of Horace Mann School, Massachusetts, 1891, p. 8flf.; 1895 (Proceedings of 25th Anniversary). 284. THE DEAF It thus appears that in a little over a quarter of a century the proportion of pupils in the schools taught speech has nearly trebled ; and that in a score of years the proportion taught chiefly or wholly by the oral method has more than trebled. The proportion of the pupils taught wholly or chiefly by the auricular method never rises above two per cent. It should be stated, however, that these figures are not to be taken as meaning that all the pupils thus enumerated have become proficient in the employment of speech, or have become able to speak clearly and intelligibly, and well enough for general practical use. It would be nearest the truth to say that they are " taught articula- tion," or that they are instructed by the use of speech and speech-reading. Oftentimes the greatest success lies in the preservation in fair shape of the speech of those who have once had it. The speech acquired by the deaf is of varying degrees, as we have seen; but in some it may be such as to be of distinct service, as well as the lip-reading which may be said to go with it.^ Present Methods of Instruction The methods of instruction at present em- ployed in American schools for the deaf are *The greatest usefulness of this speech is often found in one's own family circle, or with immediate friends. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 285 known as the manual, the manual alphabet, the oral, tlie auricular and the combined. They are thus described in the Annals: ^ I. The Manual Method. — Signs, the manual al- phabet, and writing are the chief means used in the instruction of the pupils, and the principal objects aimed at are mental development and facility in the comprehension and use of written language. The de- gree of relative importance given to these three means varies in different schools ; but it is a difference only in degree, and the end aimed at is the same in all. II. The Manual. Alphabet Method. — ^The manual alphabet and writing are the chief means used in the instruction of the pupils, and the principal objects aimed at are mental development and facility in the comprehension and use of written language. Speech and speech-reading are taught to all of the pupils in the school (the Western New York Institution) recorded as following this method. III. The Oral Method. — Speech and speech-read- ing, together with writing, are made the chief means of instruction, and facility in speech and speech-read- ing, as well as mental development and written language, is aimed at. There is a difference in the different schools in the extent to which the use of natural signs is al- lowed in the early part of the course, and also in the prominence given to writing as an auxiliary to speech and , speech-reading in the course of instruction ; but they are differences only in degree, and the end aimed at is the same in all. IV. The Auricular Method. — The hearing of semi-deaf pupils is utilized and developed to the greatest possible extent, and with or without the aid of artificial appliances, their education is carried on chiefly through »Jan., 1914, Ux., p. 41. 286 THE DEAF the use of speech and hearing, together with writing. The aim of the method is to graduate its pupils as hard- of-hearing speaking people, instead of deaf-mutes. V. The Combined System. — Speech and speech- reading are regarded as very important, but mental de- velopment and the acquisition of language are regarded as still more important. It is believed that in nmny cases mental development and the acquisition of lan- guage can best be promoted by the Manual or Manual Alphabet Method, and so far as circumstances permit, such method is chosen for each pupil as seems best adapted for his individual case. Speech and speech- reading are taught where the measure of success seems likely to justify the labor expended, and in most of the schools some of the pupils are taught wholly or chiefly by the Oral Method or the Auricular Method.^ Of these methods the oral and the combined are practically the only ones found. The auric- ular is employed only in connection with certain pupils in some of the schools; while the manual method is found in but two schools, and the man- ual alphabet in but one. In the institutions the combined is by far the preponderating system, being employed in all but fifteen of the sixty- five; while the oral is employed in twelve. On the other hand, the oral method is used in the day schools almost altogether, there being but two of the sixty-five schools employing the combined *The choice of methods for pupils may often depend on their classification, as noted before, into deaf-mutes, that is, those who have never been able to hear; semi-mutes, those who have been able to hear and speak, and retain their speech to some extent; and semi-deaf, those able to hear a little. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 287 system. In the twenty-one denominational and private schools the oral method predominates, fifteen employing the oral or the oral and am*ic- ular, and six the combined. In such schools, the denominational more often employ the combined method, while the strictly private are oral. In respect to the number of pupils in the schools using the two chief methods, we find that 83.7 per cent of those in institutions are in in- stitutions employing the combined system, and 13.9 per cent in oral institutions; that of those in day schools 96.1 per cent are in oral schools, and 3.9 per cent in combined; and that of those in denominational and private schools, 54.8 per cent are in combined schools, and 45.2 per cent in oral. Of all the pupils in the schools, 72.4 per cent are in schools employing the combined system of in- struction, and 25.6 per cent in schools employ- ing the oral. The percentage taught by the man- ual or manual alphabet method is 2.0. The per- centage given auricular instruction is 1.1. Courses of Study and Gradations of Pupils • Schools for the deaf have courses of study cor- responding in general with those in regular schools, although special emphasis and drill have to be put upon language — something the con- genitally deaf child in particular finds exceed- ingly difficult to use properly. Pupils capable 288 THE DEAF of taking the full course are carried through the kindergarten, primary, intermediate, grammar and high school grades; and on the completion of the prescribed course may receive diplomas, while in some cases a certificate may be granted for a certain period of attendance. Not a large proportion of the pupils, however, really grad- uate.^ In all the schools for the deaf in the United States in the year 1912-1913 there were 14,474 pupils. Of these, 11,894, or 82.2 per cent, were in institutions; 1,942, or 13.4 per cent, in day schools; and 638, or 4.4 per cent, in denomina- tional and private schools.^ The instructors em- ployed in all the schools (not including teachers of industries, but including superintendents or principals) number 1,419, or one instructor for every 9.5 pupils: in the institutions, 1,090, or one to 10; in the day schools, 223, or one to 7.9; and in the denominational and private, 92, or one to *For accounts of possible correspondence or extension courses for tlie deaf outside the schools, see Report of Cali- fornia Institution, 1904, p. 18. 'From Annals, Jan., 1914, (lix. p. 23). For a few schools the figures refer to the number present on November 10, 1913. The total number on this date was 13,450. The Volta Review for May, 1913 (xv., p. 99), gives the total number present on March 1, 1913, as 13,143. The Report of the United States Commissioner of Education gives the number for 1911-1912 as 13,690: in institutions, 11,244; in day schools, 1,928, and in denominational and private schools, 518. The total number of volumes in the libraries of the institutions was reported to be 132,461. For tables respecting the schools, see Appendix B. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 289 5.7/ The total number of pupils who have re- ceived instruction from the beginning is 72,453, of whom 89.0 per cent have been in institutions, 7.7 per cent in day schools, and 3.3 per cent in denominational and private schools. The following table, based on the figures given in the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education will show the number of pupils in the different grades and classes in the schools for the year 1911-1912.2 GRADES OF PUPILS IN THE SCHOOLS Kind of School KlNDERQAK- TEN DepABT- MENTS Classes Cor- responding TO Grades 1 TO 4 IN Ele- mentary Schools Classes Cor- bespondinq to Grades 5 to 8 Classes Cor- responding to High School Grades Institutions Day Schools Denominational and Private Schools 1,063 134 63 5,040 1,195 244 3,365 559 163 1,069 38 16 Total 1,260 6,479 4,087 1.123 For 1912 there were reported 133 graduates from the schools: 130 from institutions, 2 from day schools, and 1 from denominational or pri- vate schools.^ ^Normal departments for the training of hearing teachers of the deaf are maintained at Gallaudet College and the Clarke School, the latter having a special fund, largely con- tributed by the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf. Several of the institutions also have training classes, and there are normal departments in con- nection with the Chicago and Milwaukee day schools. On the subject of pensions for teachers of the deaf, see Annals^ xxix., 1884, p. 304; Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, xviii., 1908, p. 146; Report of California School, 1912, p. 12. 'Report, 1912, ii., ch. xiii. •It is hardly necessary to state that physical education is 290 THE DEAF Industkial Training in the Schools The industrial training given in the American schools for the deaf forms a very important fea- ture of the work — in many respects it may be said to be the most important. In many of the schools industrial instruction was recognized al- most from the very start, and in a number it commenced practically with the beginning of the work of education.^ It is now provided in all the institutions, in nearly all the day schools, and in over half of the denominational and pri- vate schools. Many of the institutions have large, well-equipped shop and trade departments, with skilled and capable instructors. Nearly every pupil at a suitable age is put at some industry, and encouragement and special opportunity are often given to those who show a particular bent or aptitude. The value of this industrial prep- aration of the schools in the after lives of the deaf has already been referred to.^ The following table will show the number and percentage of the pupils in the several kinds of schools in industrial departments, according to provided for in the schools for the deaf quite as fully as in the regular schools. ^The first school to give industrial training was the American School at Hartford, this being begun in 1822. See Historv, 1893, p. 15; Report of New Hampshire Board of Charities, 1908, p. 184. ''On this industrial training, see Craftsman, xiii., 1908, p. 400. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 291 the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1911-1912.^ NUMBER OF PUPILS IN INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENTS IN FOR THE DEAF SCHOOLS Kind op School Total NUMBEB NxjMBEB IN Industrial Depart- ments Peb cent Institutions 11,244 1,928 518 6,203 66S 196 7,061 65 2 Day Schools 34.3 Denominational and Private Schools 37.8 Total 13,690 51.8 In all the schools there are 403 industrial instruc- tors, 373 being in institutions.^ The industries taught in the schools, as given in the Annals,^ are as follows: Art, baking, barbering, basket-making, blacksmith- ing, bookbinding, bookkeeping, bricklaying, broom- making, building trades, cabinet-making, calcimining, carpentry, chalk-engraving, cementing, chair-making, china-painting, construction work, cooking, clay-model- ing, coopery, dairying, domestic science, drawing, dress- making, electricity, embroidery, engineering, fancy work, farming, floriculture, gardening, glazing, harness-mak- ing, house decoration, half-tone engraving, housework, horticulture, ironing, knife work, knitting, lace-mak- ing, laundering, leather work, manual training, mat- tress-making, millinery, needlework, nursing, painting, paper-hanging, photography, plastering, plate-engrav- ing, plumbing, pottery, poultry-farming, printing, pyrography, raffia, rug-weaving, sewing, shoemaking, shop work, sign-painting, sloyd, stone-laying, stencil *ii., ch. xiii. ^Annals, Jan., 1914 (lix., p. 23). *lhid, p. 42. ^92 THE DEAF work, tailoring, tin-work, tray work, typewriting, Venetian iron-work, weaving, wood-carving, wood- engraving, wood-turning, wood-working, working in iron, and the use of tools. The number and kinds of particular industries taught in the different schools vary not a little. In a few as many as a score are offered, while in \ others only three or four are given. The average seems to be about six or eight. The most usual industries afforded are art, cabinet-making, car- pentry, cooking, domestic science, drawing, dress- making, farming, gardening, laundering, paint- ing, printing, sewing, shoemaking, sign-painting, tailoring, wood-working, and the use of tools. The most common of all are carpentry, sewing, printing, farming, shoemaking, and painting. In most of the institutions papers are printed to af- ford practical instruction in printing, as well as to give local news of interest. These papers are published weekly, bi-weekly or monthly. A num- ber of the schools, especially those in agricultural states, also have small experimental farms in con- nection with their industrial work, and dairy farming and truck gardening are often given par- ticular attention.^ *In some of the schools, as we find from the reports, the value of the products of the farms and gardens may amount to a tidy sum, as may also be the case with the trade schools. CHAPTER XX COST TO THE STATE FOR EDUCATION Value of the Peoperty Used foe the Education op THE Deaf THE various provisions for the education of the deaf have now been examined. There is to be considered but one question further. This is, what is the cost of it all? In the present chapter we are to see if we may not obtain some figures representing this cost to the state. First we shall find what the plants, that is, the grounds and buildings in actual use, are worth in dollars and cents. Taking the nearest available statistics, which are those for the year 1912-1913, we have the plants of the institutions valued at $16,856,338,^ or, in round numbers, nearly seventeen million, *The figures in this chapter are for the most part from Annals for January, 1914 (lix., pp. 26, 27), usually for the latest fiscal year, these being supplemented in a few cases from the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1912 (ii., ch. xiii.). In the institutions where there are depart- ments both for the deaf and the blind, we have ascertained the proportionate part for the deaf of the entire Institution. If no allowance is made for the blind in these, the worth of all is $17,751,186, and the amount of property for each pupil $1,492. For 1911-1912 the value of all was $16,454,798, or according to the Report of the Commissioner of Education, $16,387,726. In this Report the value of scientific apparatus, furniture, etc., is stated to be $918,053. 293 294 THE DEAF dollars. In all the institutions there were in this year 11,894 pupils, and we may thus calculate that there is property worth $1,414 for each pupil. We do not know the full value of the property used in the day schools and the denomi- national and private schools,^ but this would no doubt increase by some two million dollars the value of the property employed in the instruc- tion of the deaf. Hence we have something like nineteen million dollars as the amount invested in plants for the education of the deaf in the United States. For new buildings, repairs, and general' ex- penditures for lasting improvements, so far as is reported, there was expended on institutions $848,068 for the year 1912-1913, which may rep- resent the yearly cost of the upkeep of the in- stitutions.^ For the other schools we have few figures, but they would add to this sum somewhat. * In most cases, as we have seen, the day schools are housed in public school buildings, special establishments being pro- vided only in a few large cities. In the Report of the Com- missioner of Education, the property value of four day schools, two being large ones, is put at $250,055, or $525 for each pupil ; and if this be accepted as a measure, the property value of all the day schools is $1,019,550. The property value of seven denominational and private schools is likewise given as $324,- 717, or $1,358 for each pupil ; and if this is taken as a measure, the property value of all is $865,404. ^ In 1910-1911 this was $503,323, and in 1911-1912, $772,245. If allowance be made for the dual schools, it is about ten per cent less. In the Report of the United States Commis- sioner of Education it is placed at $568,136 for 1911-1912. COST OF EDUCATION 295 Cost of the Maintenance of the Schools For the maintenance of the institutions for the year 1912-1913 there was expended $3,297,440.^ In forty-four, or about two-thirds, of the day schools for the year 1911-1912 there was ex- pended $182,710, and on the basis of $120 as the average cost of the pupils in them, we have $225,- 720 as the full cost of the support of the day schools. For five of the private schools, the cost per pupil was $225, and assuming that this will hold for all, we have $133,550 as the full cost of the support of such schools, a part of course coming from tuition fees. Then our total ex- penditures amount to $3,656,710,^ or to over three and a half million dollars, which represents the annual cost of the education of the deaf in the United States.^ Form of Public Appropriations Save for certain endowment funds in a few in- stitutions,^ and for limited donations in a small *With no allowance for the dual schools, this is $3,423,126. In the Report of the Commissioner of Education it is $3,285,- 099, for all but six institutions. ='At the Conference of Charities and Corrections in 1906 this was estimated to be $3,200,000. Proceedings, p. 249. 'For tables as to the cost of the support of the schools, see Appendix B, * These endowment funds are found for the most part only in certain of the semi-public institutions, and in a few state schools which have received land from the federal govern- ment. In the Report of the Commissioner of Education the amount of productive funds in thirteen states for 1911-1912 296 THE DEAF number of schools, all the means for the support of the schools for the deaf, other than the private ones, come from the pubhc treasury. In some of the day schools there are municipal subventions; in a few states the maintenance of certain pupils is paid for by the counties from which they come ; ^ and in the case of the Columbia Institu- tion at Washington support is received from the national government.^ With these exceptions, the entire maintenance of the schools is under- taken by the legislatures of the respective states.^ is given as $3,372,565, as follows: Maine, $2,000; Massa- chusetts, $193,674 (in 1910-1911, $369,723) ; Connecticut, $403,- 000; New York, $1,002,633; Pennsylvania, $373,758; Maryland, $4,500; District of Columbia, $11,000; Kentucky, $9,000; North Dakota, $600,000; South Dakota, $400,000; Montana, $160,000 ; Utah, $160,000 ; California, $53,000. Thus practically two-fifths belongs in the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York and Pennsylvania, nearly one-third being in New York alone; while a little under two-fifths belongs in North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Utah. *This is especially true of New York, where the counties pay the entire amount up to the age of twelve, and after that the state. 'In this connection it may be noted that Congress has been asked to grant $100,000 to "encourage the establishment of homes in the states and territories for teaching articulate speech and vocal language to deaf children before they are of school age". Teachers are to be trained for this purpose, and pupils are to enter at two years of age and remain tili the regular school age. See Report of Pennsylvania Home for Training in Speech of Deaf Children, 1904, p. 5; Pro- ceedings of Conference of National Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children, 1911, p. 6i. 'Charges for clothing and transportation of indigent pupils are as a usual thing paid for by the county, though this is assumed by gome states. Often a given sum, as thirty dollars, is allowed for clothing, or the actual cost thereof is collected from the county. This is done through the proper admin- istrative oflace^ of the county, there being also some judicial procedure, as where the county judge or similar official cer- tifies by proof. The school is then reimbursed for the ex- COST OF EDUCATION 297 Appropriations by the legislatures are usually made in lump sums.^ In the case of the semi- public institutions the allowances are upon a per capita basis, being from $260 to $357, but more often near $300. In a few of the state schools appropriations are also based upon the number of pupils, as in Alabama with $230 a year for each pupil, in Kentucky with $150 a year, and in Iowa with $35 a quarter, the last two states hav- ing additional annual grants. In the states in which pupils are sent to schools outside, a sum of from $200 to $300 is allowed for each pupil thus provided for. In a few cases funds are re- ceived from a special tax assessment levied for the benefit of the school, as in Colorado with a one-fifth mill tax on the assessed property valua- tion of the state,^ and in North Dakota with six per cent of one mill. penditures it may have made. Some such procedure is quite general, especially in the South and West, though in a few states, as Vermont and New Jersey, the town or township, where this is the political division, plays a similar part. In Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Maine, Louisiana, California, Nevada, and possibly other states, these charges are paid by the state. In Maryland they may be paid by the county, city or state. ^It happens sometimes that legislatures are inclined to reduce the appropriations to as low a sum as possible, and superintendents may receive commendation for efforts to cut down expenditures. There is danger, however, that ^uch a policy may be carried to a point where efficiency is sacrificed to seeming economy. On the question of cost, see Report of Mississippi School, 1909, p. 11; Iowa Bulletin of State In- stitutions, June, 1907, ix., 3; Ohio Bulletin of Charities and Corrections, Nov., 1907, xiii., 4. ^'On the value of this tax, see Report of Colorado School, 1896, p. 22. 298 THE DEAF Cost to the State for Each Pupil The average cost for the support of the pupils in the institutions for the year 1912-1913 was $277.23/ In few of the schools does the cost go as low as $200, while in a number it is between $300 and $400. The cost per pupil in the day schools averages, where known, $120.60; ^ and in the private schools, where known, $225.33.^ For pupils in the common schools of the country, the average cost is $31.65.* Thus it costs the state eight times as much to educate its deaf children in institutions as it does its hearing children in the regular public schools, and four times as much to educate them in day schools. The education of the deaf, then, is not an inex- pensive undertaking on the part of the state. Because of the special arrangements necessary for its accomplishment, it comes high, compared with the cost of education in general. But con- sidered merely as an investment, the outlay for this instruction bears returns of a character sur- passed in few other fields of the state's endeavor. ^In 1907-1908 this was $257.02; in 1909-1910, $253.92; in 1910-1911, $259.63; and in 1911-1912, $262.71. Without al- lowance for the blind in the dual schools, the amount in 1912-1913 is $289.60. According to the Report of the Com- missioner of Education, the average cost is $303.58. It may be noted in this connection that the per capita cost for the blind in schools is more than that for the deaf, being $359. ^ In 1910-1911 this was $130.28. » In 1910-1911 this was $264.06. * Report of Commissioner of Education for 1909-1910. The figures for subsequent years have reference rather to aver- age attendance. CHAPTER XXI PUBLIC DONATIONS OF LAND TO SCHOOLS Grants by the National Government TO the schools in some of the states land has been donated, either as an investment, the proceeds of which should be used for their benefit, or as sites for the erection of buildings. This has been done by the national government, by the states, by cities and by individuals and cor- porations. The most important of such gifts have been the grants of the public domain made by Congress for the benefit of certain of the state in- stitutions. Shortly after the work of the educa- tion of the deaf had commenced in the country, it bestowed 23,000 acres upon the Hartford school and a township of land upon the Kentucky.^ After nearly three-quarters of a century it came again materially to the aid of this education, this time by directing that certain tracts of the public lands located in states about to be admitted to the Union should be set apart for the benefit of the schools. Thus in the enabling act of ^ We have also seen how applications were made to Congress for the endowment of other schools. 300 THE DEAF 1889 ^ for the admission of the states of North Dakota, South Dakota and Montana, land was set aside for the benefit of the schools for the deaf and the blind, which are mentioned by name. In North Dakota and South Dakota the number of acres allowed to each was 40,000, and in Mon- tana 50,000.^ Likewise when Wyoming was ad- mitted in 1890,^ 30,000 acres were granted for an institution for the deaf and the blind, though the school has not yet been established. When Utah was admitted in 1896,^ 100,000 acres were granted to the school for the deaf. On the admis- sion of Arizona and New Mexico in 1910,^ like amounts were respectively granted for institu- tions for the deaf and the blind, 50,000 acres hav- ing already been set aside in the latter while a territory.^ *Stat. at Large, 1889, ch. 180. Washington was also ad- mitted by this act, and there was a grant of 200,000 acres for " charitable, penal and reformatory institutions ". The schools for the deaf and the blind, which were not mentioned by name, seem not to have shared in this grant. ' Similar amounts were allowed to the reform schools, the agricultural colleges and the universities. » Stat, at Large, ch. 664. When Idaho was admitted the same year (ibid., ch. 656) 150,000 acres were granted to charitable, educational, penal and reformatory institutions, the school for the deaf not being directly mentioned. *Ibid., 1894, ch. 138. Similar amounts were allowed for the school for the blind and other institutions. As the school in Utah is for both the deaf and the blind, it really has 200,000 acres. nbid., 1910, ch. 310. In the act admitting Oklahoma, though the school for the deaf is not mentioned among the institutions upon which land is bestowed, it has shared in the grant, having land reported to be worth at least $350,000. Annals, Ivi., 1911, p. 206. • In general with respect to the land granted by Congress, it GRANTS OF LAND 301 Grants by the States Grants by the states themselves for the schools on a large scale have not been numerous. The state of Texas has set apart large tracts of public land for its institutions, the school for the deaf coming in for 100,000 acres as its share. The school in Michigan has received a number of sec- tions of the state salt spring lands, amounting to 16,000 acres.^ Grants by Cities or Citizens Small tracts of land have been donated in some cases by cities where the schools were to be es- tablished, sometimes accompanied by a cash dona- tion as a further inducement for a particular location. Similar gifts have been made by indi- viduals and corporations. These donations have occurred in about half of the states, but they have usually been small in size, most being of five or ten acres.^ is provided that such land is not to be sold at less than $10 an acre. ^The state of Massachusetts granted a small parcel of land to the Horace Mann school in Boston. To the school in Missouri 40 acres were granted by the state, and to that in Arkansas two tracts of land, one being of 100 acres. ^Thus land of perhaps five acres or less has been donated to the schools in California, District of Columbia, Illinois, New York (New York Institution, Le Couteulx St. Mary's, and Central New York) Oregon, Pennsylvania (Oral and Penn- sylvania Home), Tennessee, Virginia, and doubtless to other schools. Larger tracts, of ten acres or more, have been given In Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Michigan (state school and THE DEAF Evangelical Lutheran Institute), Nebraska, Pennsylvania (Western), South Dakota, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and perhaps elsewhere. To the Kansas school 170 acres were presented, to the Minnesota 65, to the Washington 100, to the Oklahoma 60, to the school for the colored in Oklahoma 100, and to the school for the deaf, together with that for the blind, in Ohio 180. To the New York Institution for Improved In- struction the city of New York granted the land for ninety- nine years at an annual rental of one dollar. CHAPTER XXII PRIVATE BENEFACTIONS TO SCHOOLS Donations op Money to Schools IX our final chapter on the provision for the schools for the deaf we are to consider how far they have been assisted by private munifi- cence. We have already seen that certain of the schools in. the East — those we have called " semi- public institutions " — ^were started by private societies and were supported entirely by private funds till the state came to their aid, though in no instance was this dependence on private means of long duration. We have also seen that in a number of states private schools were first started, in a brief time to be taken over by the state, and thus received a modicum of private aid. In addition, there have been from time to time donations from private sources to one school or another. As to the entire amount of these private dona- tions to the schools, it is of course impossible to say. The full receipts of the various schools can- not be known, and our reckonings must neces- sarily be incomplete.^ However, the data which *In the case of some of the schools, figures of a financial 303 304 THE DEAF we have are quite suffeient to enable us to dis- cern in what measure schools for the deaf have been assisted by means other than public, and in what proportion the distribution has taken place ; and our calculations, based on the best informa- tion to be obtained, may not be altogether with- out value. ^ We find, then, that to a considerable number of the schools, apparently the majority, there have been gifts large or small from private sources. In most of these cases, however, the gifts have been slight, and have almost always come when the schools were being started, usually ceasing soon after their establishment or their taking over by the state. Nearly all the dona- tions of any importance have been to schools in the East, the greater part also coming in their early days and when still in private hands. At present in the great number of the schools such gifts are not bestowed. In perhaps a dozen schools — practically all in the East — they are still received in greater or lesser degree ; and come in three forms: 1. as membership fees in some half dozen schools; 2. as certain annual dona- tions, varying in amount, in about the same num- nature are not to be had, and in many little record has been kept, especially when gifts have been small. ^ In our discussion, few estimates have been made, and these have been conservative. It should be stated that only a part of the figures given are " official ", and for the rest the writer alone is responsible. No reference is made to schools that are not now in existence, nor is any money value set on the land which has been donated to some of the schools. PRIVATE BENEFACTIONS 305 ber; and 3. as an occasional legacy or similar gift to some school or other/ In respect to the funds already received, we find that the great preponderance have fallen in four states, namely, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York and Pennsylvania. In five others there have been gifts of what may be called meas- urable size: District of Columbia, California, Colorado, Illinois, and Vermont. In the remain- ing states private benefactions have been few: where they have occurred they have been small and infrequent. In a score of schools or more there seem to have been gifts of a few thousand dollars — ^hardly over ten or fifteen thousand, and in most much less.^ * Now and then a gift has been in the form of a scholarship, usually of $5,000. Some of the schools aided by fees are the Pennsylvania Institution, Western Pennsylvania, Pennsyl- vania Oral, New York Institution for Improved Instruction, and Le Couteulx St. Mary's (New York). Some that receive annual donations varying in amount are the New England (Massachusetts), Sarah Fuller (Massachusetts), Pennsylvania Home, New York Institution for Improved Instruction, St. Joseph's (New York), and Le Couteulx St. Mary's (New York). It should be remarked that the three last named in- stitutions are affiliated to an extent with certain religious bodies, receiving assistance from this source also. The smaller denominational schools receive similar aid irregularly. 2 Some of the schools that seem to have received gifts of from five to fifteen thousand dollars, or thereabouts, are the Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Central New York, Pennsylvania Oral, Tennessee, and the day schools of Milwaukee. Some of those that have received gifts somewhat smaller are the Ala- bama, Illinois, Michigan, Mississippi, Horace Mann (Massa- chusetts), Western New York, North Carolina, Virginia, and the day schools of Chicago. More trivial or more uncertain amounts have been received in Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Maine, New Mexico, Albany (New York), Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, and the day schools of a few cities. THE DEAF In some sixteen, donations appear to have been received of more appreciable size — twenty-five thousand dollars and upwards. In about half of these the gifts seem to have been from twenty- five thousand to fifty thousand, in one or two cases possibly more: the California, Colorado, Columbia, New England ( Massachusetts ) , Sarah Fuller (Massachusetts), Pennsylvania Home, and Austine (Vermont) } To six schools donations seem to have reached a sum between seventy-five or one hundred thousand dollars and twice that amount. Four of these are in New York : the New York Institution, the Institution for Improved Instruction, St. Joseph's and Le Couteulx St. Mary's; one in Pennsylvania, the Western Pennsylvania; and one in Illinois, the Ephpheta. In three schools the quarter million mark has been passed: the American in Con- necticut, and the Clarke in Massachusetts, both with receipts well beyond this figure; and the Pennsylvania Institution, which has probably been the largest recipient of all. Total private gifts to schools for the deaf in the United States would probably foot up to little under two and a quarter million dollars, and * Gifts to, semi-public institutions as the Mystic, Connecticut, and Boston, Massachusetts, have also probably been made, though we do not know of what size; and also to some of the denominational and private schools. The McCowen Homes of Illinois have received some gifts, .especially at their beginning. PRIVATE BENEFACTIONS 307 perhaps to two and a half millions, though these iSgures cannot be fully substantiated. Gifts for Pupils in the Schooi^s There have been gifts for the pupils in the schools as well as for the schools themselves. These have been of various kinds : clothing, books, pictures, magazines, newspapers, Christmas pres- ents, prizes, etc., as well as money gifts in a few cases. In many instances reduced transporta- tion has been allowed on railroads, and there have been a number of benefactions of like character. We have already referred to the funds left to certain of the schools in trust for deaf-blind pupils.^ Present Tendencies of Private Benefactions Private benefaction, as we see, has not played any great part in providing the means of educa- tion for the deaf in the United States. In a few schools private gifts have been of appreciable aid in the work, but on the whole they have not been of considerable moment, and in the great ma- jority of schools they have been practically negligible. To judge from past experience, it would not seem likely that in the future many of the schools will to any great extent be bene- • »The American School at Hartford has a fund of $2,000 to be used for the publication of books for the deaf. 308 THE DEAF ficiaries from private means, or that they will thus be enabled to extend their plants or to make innovations as yet unattempted, though of course such a thing is possible. This condition, however, is not to be entirely deplored. Many of the schools, it is true, could receive large money benefactions to most desir- able ends, and in many cases the work of the schools for the best results is hampered for lack of sufficient funds. Yet the schools may feel that they are in reality but agencies of the state in carrying out one of its great functions, and as such should have no need to call upon or depend upon means other than the state's. Whether or not in the course of time there may be an in- creased incentive for private gifts, it would seem that the schools should be entitled to look with full confidence to the attention and care of the state, since it is but contributing to the education of its citizens. CHAPTER XXIII CONCLUSIONS WITH RESPECT TO THE WORK FOR THE DEAF IN AMERICA WE have now examined the position of the deaf in society in America and the course and the extent of the treatment accorded them. It only remains for us to inquire if this treatment is well-considered, and how far it is commensurate with the real, actual needs of the deaf, and at the same time consonant with the larger interests of society. ^^ The question of paramount concern to society is in respect to the possibilities of the prevention of deafness. As yet it would seem that only a minor degree of attention had been directed to this consideration, though it is likely that in the future much more serious study and thought will be given to it. The problem is for the greater part in the hands of medical science, and for much of it we shall probably have to wait for solution in the laboratory; while no small aid can be ren- dered by general measures for the protection of health. Already there can be little doubt that there is less deafness from certain diseases than in the past, though the statistics that we have on 310 THE DEAF the question are not as definite as could be wished. The matter is really a part of the long battle against disease, and as human skill takes one position after another, it may be that many of those diseases bringing deafness will be forced to yield, and that such deafness will thus cease in great part to be an affliction upon human flesh. Eugenics also will be looked to for help, and it may in time bring to light much that is now hid- den from our ken. As yet ourk nowledge of the xauses ^ of deaf ness fromjiirth is vgg^^jmp erfect. A small part may be ascribed to consanguineous marriages, and a larger part to the marriages of those whose families are affected with deafness, these perhaps not being wholly distinct, and to- gether comprising a little over half of congenital deafness. Marriages of relatives, even though not of frequent occurrence so far as deafness is affected, have a relation to it which is not to be ignored. Intermarriages of the deaf themselves are not found for the most part to result in deaf offspring; while the likelihood of such is not always greater when both parents are deaf than when one is deaf and the other hearing. The one distinct fact of which we seem altogether certain in this matter is that when there is in the parent congenital deafness, or especially when there are deaf relatives concerned, the chances are vastly increased of deaf offspring. These are the CONCLUSIONS 311 danger signals, and not to be passed without heed. As to that form of deafness occurring when consanguinity and antecedent deafness are not involved, we are in greater ignorance. For most of it, however, we may believe that there is inherited some strain or influence predisposing to deafness; and that in the discovery and applica- tion of eugenic principles a greater or less portion will be eliminated. Though, so far as is discernible from the immediate prospect, we cannot look to an early disappearance of deafness from the race, there are indications at present that deafness is tending to become less. The probabilities are that the future will be able to report advance, and so far as the ultimate results are concerned, we have no reason to be other than hopeful. In respect to what has been accomplished for the deaf since America has become concerned in them, we have a record that may well be a dis- tinct cause o'f pride. The work for the deaf in America is hardly a hundred years old. Yet in that time there has transpired what, without violence being done to language, can be called a revolution. A century ago the deaf were prac- tically outside the pale of human thought and activities. They were in a measure believed to l^e without reason, and were little less than out- easts in society. To-day they have become active Sn THE DE^F components of the state, possessed of education, on a level with their fellow-men nearly every- where in the scale of human employment, capable of all the responsibilities of life, and standing in the full stature of citizenship. Perhaps the first workers for the deaf had not placed their faith too high after all, when they declared that the deaf and dumb were to be re- stored to the ranks of their species. Perhaps, after all, the visions of these men have come true. Perhaps this that we call education has had some- thing of the power they were trying to articulate. For it has come about that a part of society known as the deaf and dumb has been brought to a place of honor and worth and usefulness in the community in which they live. However much of what was claimed has been achieved, it is certain that a great part has been realized. It has been by a slow, silent process, keeping time with the years, but none the less wonderful things have been wrought; and through it all the advance of the deaf has been constant and onward. It might be said with all truth that this whole progress has been simply the march of events. Education has ever been the master passion of Americans, and in its wide sweep the deaf too have been gathered in, and have been borne to the place where all the state had to offer as instruction was laid before them. COi{CLUSIONS 313 Yet it remains thai by and through all this the deaf have been the gainers as no other people in the world have ever been, and their story is as no other's in the rise of a section of mankind to- wards the richness and fullness of living which are the fruits of humanized society. Great Indeed can be the rejoicing of the deaf, lor they are those to whom the way has been hard and long, but who have come from the dark- ness into the light. Yet the victory of the deaf is not complete. They have not reached the full position among men to which they are entitled. So long as peo- ple look upon them as an unnatural portiom^f the race, view them with suspicion or hold them as of peculiar temperament and habits, or otherwise consider them distinct from the rest of their kind, and by voice or in their own con- sciousness make use of terms or associations that give fixedness to such a classification or differ- entiation: just so long will the deaf be strangers in the land in which they dwell; and just so far will they be removed from the place in society which should be theirs, and which is accorded to all the rest of their fellow-men. With regard to their economic position in the world, the deaf have, on the whole, fared well. Their own achievements have thrown out of court the charge that they are a burden upon society. 314 THE DEAF It has been proved by themselves that they are not a dependent class, or a class that should exist to any degree on the bounty of the state. They are wage-earners to an extent that compares well with the rest of the population, and, economi- cally, they form generally a self-sustaining part of society. For a certain number who are aged and infirm and are otherwise uncared for, special homes are to be desired — and with such the need is peculiarly strong. These, however, do not comprise a large part of the deaf; and with their exception there is practically no por- tion, at least of those with an education, that de- mands particular economic attention. The community for the most part has been quite ready and willing to recognize the status of the deaf in this respect. Here the deaf are accepted on equal terms with the people collec- tively, and are in fact lost in the mass of the world's workers. The state has perhaps displayed more re- luctance to admit the deaf to the standing of its other citizens, largety no doubt due to the fact that in the sphere of law action is usually slow- moving, and responds less readily to newly rec- ognized conditions. Though on the statute books there are found few examples of legislation directed to the deaf as if they were peculiarly in need of the state's attention, and though such are CONCLUSIONS 315 hardly more than reminders of the past legal attitude, they are mostly an anachronism to-day, and should in great part be removed. The courts have quite generally adopted the true view in regard to the deaf, and hardly any- where now differentiate them. There is always one particular kind of provision which may be made for the deaf at law, and this is in the em- ployment of interpreters on proper occasion. But even here the inatter may be left to the or- dinary rules of the court, as well as to the good sense and justice of the law-makers and the law- dispensers. In most things, special attention of the law in relation to the deaf is not often required, and they should, in nearly all respects, be left in its eyes exactly as the rest of their fellow-citizens. When particular legislation is called for in respect to them, it is needed rather to meet some peculiar or unusual situation, which would prob- ably arise most frequently in connection with some special abuse of the deaf, though such is really seldom likely to occur. Provision for young deaf children who are otherwise without protection may well be included in " children's codes," or in other statutes of similar kind. Use- ful legislation is also feasible in connection with departments for the deaf in state bureaus of labor, the procedure possible being already in- 316 THE DEAF dicated; and it may be that a considerable field will be revealed, not only in assisting the deaf in securing employment but also in securing in- formation as to their condition. Opportunity is open to the national government likewise in this regard, and valuable statistics and other informa- tion may be collected for the country generally. In one further direction the law can be in- voked very materially in aid of the deaf, and just where very little has been attempted. In every state there should be enactments, backed up by vigorous public opinion and the co-operation of all citizens, providing severe punishment for those who go about begging alms on the pretense that they are deaf and dumb. For such creatures the law should have no mercy. The deaf them- selves demand that such impostors be put out of business, for a real and cruel injury is done to them. They ask this as a great boon, but it should be accorded them absolutely as a right. The deaf do not want alms or pity. But in unnumbered ways can they receive good at the hands of their fellow-men. They need friends as do all others, and power is never lost to the right hand of fellowship. To be desired above all else is the gaining of the right attitude on the part of the community. As one great need, there should be far more attention to the social and spiritual concerns of the deaf, even though they CONCLUSIONS 317 are often found scattered and far apart. There is much that can be done in many communities of a social nature for the deaf, and in manifold forms can life be made more abundant for them. Most important of all, there should be no longer in any place a neglect of the ministrations for the cure of souls, and it should be seen that all of the deaf are made to know the religion of the Man of Galilee, with its untold blessings and consola- tions. In our present review of the work for the deaf in America, most of our attention has been di- rected to the provisions for their education. It may be said that to-day this work is as a rule of a high order, and that in many respects, consider- ing the problems involved, it can compare well with the work of education in general. There is still more or less conflict as to methods, but this does not seem vital to the success of the schools, and their character has in general advanced. In the beginning of instruction in some of the states we read of the struggles of the early schools, but eager hands came to push on the new work. This work was taken up with an en- thusiasm and earnestness scarcely paralleled else- where in the history of education, or in any other of the great movements for the betterment of human kind. Strong and brave souls manned 318 THE DEAF the new enterprise, and these early workers are well worthy of honor at our hands. Oftentimes, at the first, private societies came forward as volunteers in the task of education, but the states early recognized their duty, and usually established schools as soon as they were deemed practicable, either taking over the exist- ing private school or creating one of their own. After a time, as another stage in their develop- ment, the schools were made free by express pro- vision, or have become so to all practical purpose. In time also all restrictions or limitations as to the admission of pupils have been in general swept away, and rules and regulations have come more and more to conform with those in the reg- ular schools. Now education is offered to every deaf child, and to the poor and destitute the state provides all collateral necessaries as well, so that instruction may be denied to none. At present much the larger part of the deaf are educated in institutions. But alongside this plan there has grown, especially of late years, a day school system with the pupils living in their own homes, and the result is that in a number of states such schools have now been established. Their main field is recognized to be in large cities, and it is here that they are able to be of the greatest usefulness. It is still a mooted point, however, how far they have passed the experi- CONCLUSIONS 819 mental stage, and it probably remains to be de- termined to what extent they really offer ad- vantages to the deaf over the institutions. As a part of this activity, and as an extension of the general public facilities for education to the en- tire community, we have also the question of evening schools for adult deaf. There seems to be a definite need for them in certain centers, and it may well be hoped that much greater at- tention will be given to the matter. All the schools are really parts of the public school system, with the exception of a compara- tively small number of private schools which have been create'd in certain communities. In addi- tion, the work in America is characterized by a national college, which represents the complet- ing mark in the system of their instruction. By this the education of the deaf is made not only to stand all along the way parallel with educa- tion in general, but also to assume a place ac- corded it in no other land. In the schools one of the great features is the industrial instruction, and this is rightly em- phasized. As much as the need of vocational training is insisted upon on all sides to-day, with the deaf it is essential to a greater degree than it can be anywhere else. The pupils of the schools who have had this industrial training as a rule do well in the world, and in many cases put 820 THE DEAF their training to most practical account. It could be wished, however, that we had a careful and detailed record, uniform over the country, of the former pupils, which would be a test, demon- strative as well as suggestive, of the efficiency of the industrial training of the schools, and which would be equally of value in other spheres of in- dustrial education. Though in the work of the educaton of the deaf in America, industrial instruction occupies a very prominent part, yet in the schools there is an abundance of " schooling " in the strictest sense. The problems of the education of the deaf are peculiar, and their instructors have to face difficulties of a kind not found in any other lines of education. Yet earnest thought and study are being given to these problems, and efforts made to solve them as far as it is possible. In the conventions and conferences of instructors notable work has been accomplished, and these bodies are insistent upon progress and better results. For the greater efficiency and success of the schools, the law as well as public sentiment can be called in aid. Deaf children everywhere should be prevailed upon or compelled to enter the schools, and should be required to remain as long as their best interests demand it. Education should be a matter, forced if need be, for every CONCLUSIONS 821 deaf child, for terrible as ignorance always is, in the deaf it is the most dreadful of all. In America private assistance to schools for the deaf has not been great, and very few schools have been beneficiaries from resources other than the state's. To-day, with the exception of a few cases, aid from private means has ceased to be expected, and calls for such bounty are now seldom made. At present nearly all the schools are public in- stitutions, and rely entirely upon the care of the state. The state has in general recognized its duty towards the education of the deaf, and has engaged to provide for it. In half of the states this responsibility is recognized, and provision guaranteed in the organic law. In all the states the legislatures have undertaken to see that means of instruction are offered to all their deaf chil- dren, and it is found that, all things considered, the states have in general taken a keen interest in their educational welfare. Few schools can boast of overgenerous appropriations; many not infrequently have failed to receive all that has been asked for, and have thus often been pre- vented from doing their best work. Yet it may be said that if the legislatures have not always responded with alacrity, or always bounteously, or at all times with a full sense of their responsi- bility, they have responded at least with cheerful- THE DEAF ness, and mindful of all the calls upon the state's treasury, and often according to the best of their light. It has been realized that the education of the deaf is an expensive undertaking, far more so than the education of ordinary children; but it is none the less reahzed also that this education pays — pays from every possible point of view. That the school for the deaf is not given its full educational recognition is a grievance in some states, and this cannot be regarded otherwise than unfortunate. In time, however, this will most likely be changed, and the schools every- where will come into their proper standing, and be considered only as the agencies of the state for the education of its children. The most deplorable thing in the treatment of the schools by the state is that in some quarters politics with its baneful influence has been al- lowed to interfere. But as hideous and disgrace- ful as is this action, we may now believe that in most places its back has been broken, and that hereafter men everywhere will think better of themselves than to allow it in a single instance. Finally, in respect to the work for the deaf in America as a whole, it may be said that the state makes but one form of provision in their behalf. This is in allowing to all its deaf children a means of education. Even this is hardly to be called " provision for the deaf." It is rather the CONCLUSIONS 323 attention that is paid to a certain portion of the population for its education. It is to be dis- tinguished from the provision for general educa- tion only in that special means and methods are necessary for its accomplishment. This being done, the state may practically let the deaf alone. No distinctive form of public treatment is usually to be called for in respect to them as a class. They demand little in the way of special care or oversight, they are able as a rule to look after themselves, asking few odds not asked by other men, they have become citizens without reservation or qualification, and economi- cally they form no distinct class, but are absorbed into the industrial life of the state. They have assumed the responsibilities of life in a highly organized community, and in turn reap the benefits that belong to all men in such an order. But though this is true, their affliction bestowed upon them by the partial hand of nature, is not to be minimized, nor its effects lightened by any human words. Their deafness rests indeed upon them as a very material, tangible burden, so sharp and pointed in its operations that they are in great measure cut off socially from the rest of their kind. Because of this their concern becomes great in respect to the form of consideration from the community about them, and their need turns to one not so much of material character as of the SM THE DEAF ^ attention of the good neighbor. From their con- dition all the more does it avail that no further load should be placed upon them, and that their prayer should be heard that they be treated fully as men. For even with their ever missing sense, the power of the deaf is only retarded, and not seriously diminished, to derive from life much of its richness and color and well-being. APPENDIX A HOMES FOR THE DEAF IN AMERICA Name State Location Year Found- ed Number OF Inmates Annual Cost OS- Sup- port Gallaudet Home New York W^^mger', 1885 24 87.311 Ohio Home for Aged and Infirm Deaf St. F.liTiabeth'a Industrial School Ohio New York Westerville New York City 1896 1897 30 20 6,710 8,433 New England Home for Deaf- Mutes Massa- chusetts Everett 1901 13 3,198 Pennsylvania Home for the Deaf Penn- sylvania Doyleston 1902 19 4.536 sm APPENDIX X P 8T6I-ZT6I uoj anax -laKadxg O ©©(Nt^O-^J* 00 t^00O»0Q0O0S(NOO«0»0 00 0<©^0(N t-i 00e0O0505»O"*«»0O^O S16I-2161 aaoKiix ao axvQ CJOiOOOOMO "* (N « 00 00 lO W5 1^ CO CO «0 Tj* ' CO N N b- 00 1^ •^ 50 »0 00 O 00 »0 '-• Tj* CSJ •<}< "5 T}< CO ' i-< Mf-^i-n-l «-t»-t •«*< CO M N CO 1-1 -< 1 )«N00Q'<*0 CO 00 ■* O T}t <5j< iC CO W lO t^ CO b- JOOOWOOXWOO 00 00 00 00 03 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 W 00 « o ! c3 -fs t f- o » S^.2 2:s -3 o"s^5:: s >'3 '?3'?5 > =3 CD V o 05 - a " 03 V fi o £ ^.13 P '•3J S Shilling- .2 CCQ i 3-2 o-S «^-S w-S^. '^o^^$. oJ.SOJ na MO o cj -3 2*^.2 c b |-| I g g §-5| APPENDIX 327 oo. ^^ S3 ^SisFSS^ r^t^fNO i 1 ooo i 11 ^ o>i> ?J lo S S Jo S O 00 00 000000000000000000 00 >o®^ 00 00 00 00 iHr-li-li-4 1 »H iH OSTttiOOCROO *00QO00QO0O 11 1 00 00 i jQ m o^-^-s «5 o 5a 03 2 :3 o a S S ►£ <5 Jill [iisiisiiillii •3 55 ISO o (5 328 APPENDIX 8T6T-ZI6I XHOddng HOd annx SS8! > ?« r* N. 00 •* 00 o o >i-'3»O00'^C.O^ I O W •^ t>» 00 -H t>. o ei6T-ZI6I B^IdIlc[ ■^o so axvQ a» >oa>c PJ> > APPENDIX 329 330 APPENDIX ZT6I-TI6T' xaoddag I aoxezanuL -lonadxa 8I6I-SI6I OKIXadQ .io axvQ >OOOOOOTf OOO "OPWQ 'OWN •©« •OOSt^'-oco-oo»«o«OMOioo»'-iooeoe«oo« e0C0C^O-^00O00OO00t^O»0i0f^C>0O00"3iM«(NOi0OQt^'*'0t*O oaooo— OSOOOOOOOJOiOCJ05QOOOOOC»00»»OOOC5000XCJOOOOJ00300a>0000 i V 03 XI iolol^'a t^ ^S"*-" ml— I (-1 aj ~ •3 O-^ O— . O**-! 0*"5'5 O O o l!I T: •— rS J3 O a d I c3 I SJ ^ ,2 "V O O . APPENDIX 331 8T6T-SI6I HaawaM ««OOJ>0000»0»-t ®OJOOOOOOeO O-^^itoMO W 05 •* ■0 (N rf M O 00 t» N. 00 CO « ,H rjf O «0 W 00 i-H rH CO i-H 05 "H 00 00 03 O t^ OJ OOt^OOOOOO .-iOO'-it» 05 00 05 00 00 00 CT> 00 00 00 00 00 05 00 00 OS 003050500 £2 ^1« O O 2 MOO ^Q rt3 2.2.S.9 fl^- ^1 •goo ci a ^ 3 o . s -5 o ;l ••s O -St O'S 03 ®« CI " § O oJ° 0^:^ o 3'>iJ iM^ a o ^ •Q aj'o.S fl a^ ^3 rtCQ 5*3 b^lj w o-^ o tj o g J • b o ■ « to -:«2 a WUa-So-^- :r^^ fl S a W-C3 o-^ g © o^4» I ill ^ 1 .1.1 5 o INDEX Accidents as a cause of deaf- ness, 17. Admission into schools, 157, 166-168, 262-267. See Fees ; Restrictions. Adult deaf in schools, 267n. See Evening schools ; Homes. Adventitious deafness, lG-40; ages of occurrence of, 18; action for the prevention of, 21-26; as an increasing or decreasing phenom- enon, 27-40; causes of, 17- 21 ; conclusions respecting, 59, 60, 309. Age of occurrence of deaf- ness, 7-10, 12, 17, 18. Agricola, Rudolph, 121. Aid to the deaf, see Homes for the deaf; Legislation; Private organizations. for schools, see Clothing and transportation ; Pri- vate benefactions. Aims of first schools, 147- 154. Alabama, education in, 172, 176n, 182, 184, 209, 297. Alms-houses, deaf in, 79. Alms-seekers, deaf as, 83-85, 316. Alphabet for deaf, see Man- ual alphabet. American Association to Pro- mote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, 109, 113, 114. American possessions, educa- tion in, 240. . American School, 132n, 134- 139, 141n, 156n, 181, 299, 306. See Connecticut. Amman, John, 124. Ancient treatment of deaf, 63, 119. " Annals of the Deaf, Ameri- can ", 115. Appropriations for schools, state, 136, 161, 163, 295, 321. See Day schools; Semi-public schools. Arizona, education in, 185, 209, 300. Arkansas, education in, 183, 210. Associations of the deaf, see Societies. "Asylums", use of term, 104, 148, 251n, 256n. Attendance in schools, 165, 268-276. See Age limits. Auricular instruction, 283, 285-287. Austine Institution, 306. Se6 Vermont. Baker, Henry, 123. Baptist Church, work of, see Church work. Bartlett, David E., 156n. Bede, Venerable, 121. Bell, A. G., 5n, 108. Benefactions, see Private bene- factions ; Endowment funds. Blind associated with deaf, 99n. See Dual schools. Boarding institutions, 168, 169» 187. Boiling, William, 131. 333 INDEX Bonet, Juan, 122. Bonifaccio, Giovanni, 121. Braidwood, John, 131, 132. Braidwood, Thomas, 127. Bulwer, John, 122. Califobnia, education in, 176. 183, 191, 192, 193, 202, 204, 210, 305. Camerarius, Rudolph, 125. Carion, Ramirez de, 123. Cardano, Giralamo, 121. Castro, Pietro de, 121. Catholic Church, work of, see Church work ; Denomina- tional schools. Causes of deafness, see Adven- titious deafness; Congenital deafness. Census of deaf, how taken, 5n, 14. Charges to pupils, «ee Fees; Restrictions. Charities, boards of, 182, 183. fi'ee Charity; States, pro- vision in. Charity in connection with schools, 104, 147, 248-261, 322; conclusions respecting, 260; in best sense, 249; in legal sense, 252n ; opposition to connection, 256; popular conceptions of charity, 250; regard by states, 248 ; views of boards of charities, 254; views of deaf, 259; views of instructors, 259. Church work for deaf, 96, 110-113. See Private bene- factions. Cities, aid of to schools, 161- 163, 301. See Day schools; States, provision in. Clarke School, 281, 306. See Massachusetts. Classes of pupils, see Grada- tions, Classical allusions to the deaf, 119. Clerc, Laurent, 135. Clothing and transportation provided for pupils, 255, 264, 265, 296, 307. Clubs of deaf, see Societies. Cogswell, Alice, 134. College for the deaf, see Gal- laudet College. Colorado, education in, 176, 184, 211, 297, 305. Colonies for the deaf, 89n. Combined method of instruc- tion, 283, 285-287. Communication, methods of among deaf, 11, 12, 277- 287. Compulsory education, 272- 276, 320. Conference of Principals, 113, 114. Congenital deafness, 41-60 ; as an increasing or decreas- ing phenomenon, 57; con- clusions respecting, 60-62, 310 ; consanguineous mar- riages aflfecting, 42; deaf parents affecting, 46; deaf relatives affecting, 45; pos- sible action for the preven- tion of, 52. Congregational Church, work of, see Church work. Congress, action of, see Na- tional government. Connecticut, education in, 136, 138, 171, 173, 183, 211, 305. See American School. Consanguineous marriages, 42, 54, 60. See Congenital deafness. Constitutional provisions, 64, 169, 242-247. 321. Control, boards of, 183. Convention of American In- structors of the Deaf, 113, 114. Corporations, see Semi-pub- lic schools. Cost of education, 293-298, 322; for maintenance. 295; for new buildings, 294; in day schools, 192; per pupil. INDEX 298; to states sending out- side, 297. See Property, value of ; Semi-public schools. County aid to schools, 162, 265, 296; officers, work of, 166, 275n. Courses of study, 287. Court decisions relating to deaf, 65, 71. See Law, atti- tude of. Crimes, responsibility of deaf for, 65, 72. Dactylology, see Manual alphabet. Dalgarno, George, 123. Day schools, 168, 187-201, 318 ; arguments against, 197 ; arguments for, 194 ; co- operation with institutions, 189, 190; co-ordination with ) public schools, 190, 193 ; de- sign of, 188; equipment of, 1 193, 196; evening schools as part of, 200, 201; institu- tions as, 187 ; laws for, 192 ; number, 187, 191; pupils in, 193; support, 192, 193. See Methods of instruction ; States, provision in. " Deaf ", meaning of term, 3. " D e a f-a n d-d u m b ", see " Deaf ". Deaf-blind, 5n, 178-179, 307. "Deaf-mute", 9n, 286n. See " Deaf ". " Deaf -mutism ", lOln. Deafness in different states, 5. "Defective" class, the deaf as a, 100. Delaware, education in, 141, 171, 185, 212. Denominational and private schools, 168, 202-205, 319. See Methods of instruction; States, provisions in. Dependent class, the deaf as a, 103. See Economic condi- tion. Deschamps, 126. Difficulties of early schools, 144, 145, 164, 165. Diseases, effect of, see Adven- titious deafness. District of Columbia, educa- tion in, 171, 172n, 182, 185n, 212, 213, 296, 305. See Gal- laudet College. Dual schools, 173, 176, 177, 293n, 294n, 295n. Dues, see Fees. " Dumbness ", see " Deaf ". Eab, diseases of, see Adventi- tious Deafness. Early attempts at instruction, 129-133. workers, character of, 155, 156. Economic condition of deaf, 75-90, 314, 316; conclusions respecting, 90; deafness, ef- fect of, 75, 80, 83; occupa- tions of deaf, 76, 77 ; unions, members of, 82n; views of deaf, 81; wage-earners, ex- tent as, 76-78, 81, 82. See Alms-houses ; Dependent class; Homes; Industrial training. Education, associations for, 113, 114; boards of, 184, 185, 248, 258; See States, provision in. , con- dition of deaf before, 146, 148-154, 312. Employment of deaf, see Eco- nomic condition. Endowment funds, 172, 174, 295. See Private benefac- tions. England, early education in, 121-123, 127. Ep6e, abb6 de 1', 126, 127. Ephpheta School, 306. See Illinois. Eugenics, see Congenital deaf- ness. Europe, first schools in, 119- 336 INDEX 128; recognition in of work in America, 170n. Evening schools for adults, 200, 201. Exhibits of deaf pupils, 136, 142, 158, 159, 160. Farming as an industry, 83n, 90n, 291, 292. See Economic condition. Fay, Barnabas M., 156n. Feeble-minded deaf, 179, 180. Fees for pupils, 143, 157. See Admission into schools; De- nominational schools ; Re- strictions. in semi- public schools, membership, 156, 173, 181, 304. Fiction, deaf in, lOOn. Finger-spelling, see Manual alphabet; Sign language. First schools, 131, 134-144. Florida, education in, 176, 183, 184, 213. France, early education in, 125-127. Fraternal organizations of deaf, 95, 96. Gallaudet College, 168, 206- 208, 265n, 319. See District of Columbia. Gallaudet, Edward Miner, 207n. Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins, 134-136, 138n, 156n. Georgia, education in, 138, 143, 182, 191, 193, 204n, 214. Germany, early education in, 121, 124, 125. Gifts, see Private benefac- tions. Government of institutions, 180-185. See States, pro- vision in. Gradations of pupils, 287-289. Graduates of schools, 80, 288, 289. Green, Francis, 130. Guardians for deaf, 67, 68. "Habd of hearing", 3n; schools for, 202n. narrower, John, 129. Hearing in school children, de- fective, 24. Hebrew work for deaf, see Church work. Heinicke, Samuel, 125. Heredity, see Congenital deaf- Holder, William, 123. Holland, early education in, 124. Homes for deaf, 85-89, 314; extent of, 87, 88; purpose, 86; support, 89. for children, 254n, 296n. See Denominational and pri- vate schools; Boarding in- stitutions. Horace Mann School, 188, 282. See Massachusetts. Hubbell, Horatio N., 156n. Hutton, Abraham B., 156n. Idaho, education in, 176, 183, 184, 214. Ideas of early schools, 144- 147. Illinois, education in, 144, 183, 191, 192, 193, 202, 204, 214, 215, 305. Immigration in respect to deaf, 66. ' Impostors simulating d e a f- ness, 82-84, 316. Increase of deafness, see Ad- ventitious deafness ; Congen- ital deafness. Indiana, education in, 142, 157, 183, 184, 216. Indigent pupils, see Admission into schools; Clothing and transportation ; Fees ; Re- strictions. Industrial training, 80, 169, 193, 199, 205, 290-292, 319. Institutions, general arrange- ments of, 171-186; govern- ment, 180-185 ; arguments INDEX 337 against, 194 ; arguments for, 197. See Boarding institu- tions ; Methods of instruc- tion; States, provisions in. Instructors, associations of, 113, 114; number of, 288; training schools for, 289n. Insurance companies and the deaf, 104; among the deaf, 95, 96. Interpreters for deaf, 65, 74, 112n. Iowa, education in, 144, 183, 216. Italy, early education in, 121, 124. Jacobs, John A., 156n. E^ANSAS, education in, 184, 217. Kendall School, see Gallaudet College; District of Colum- bia. Kentucky, education in, 141, 142, 157, 164n, 184, 217, 297, 299. Kerger, 125. Kerr, William D., 156n. Kilpatrick, John, 132. Kindergarten departments, see Denominational and pri- vate schools; Gradations of pupils. Labor bureaus for deaf, 71, 81n. Ladies' societies, 88n, 161n, 173n. Land given for schools, 137, 141, 162, 299-302. See States, provisions in. Language, difficulty of for deaf, 198, 201, 287. Law, general attitude of to- ward deaf, 63-74; trend of, 73; need of changed regard, 314. See Legal exceptions; Legislation. Le Couteulx St. Mary's Insti- tution, 306. See New York. Legal exceptions, views of deaf respecting, 74n. Legislation in aid of deaf, 68- 71; discriminatory, 66; in protection, 67, 68. Legislatures, appeals to, 159, 160. See Appropriations ; Law, attitude of; States, provisions in. Lip-reading, 10, 284. See Speech. Location of schools, 163, 301. Louisiana, education in, 172n, 183, 184, 191, 193, 202, 218. Lutheran Church, work of, see Church work ; Denomina- tional schools. McIntyee, Thomas, 156n. Maine, education in, 138, 183, 218. Mann, Horace, 281. Manual alphabet, 11, 12, 277, 278. See Sign language. Manual alphabet method, 285- 287. Manual method, 285-287. Maryland, education in, 141, 172, 173, 176n, 183, 202-205, 219. Marriages of deaf, advisa- bility of, 46, 54-56; laws to prohibit, 56n; partners in, 55; possibilities of deaf off- spring, 46-52. See Congeni- tal deafness. Massachusetts, education in, 130, 138, 171, 173, 184, 191, 193n, 219, 305. See Clarke School; Horace Mann School; New England In- dustrial School ; Sarah Fuller Home. Medical bodies and preven- tion of deafness, 25, 26. See Adventitious deafness. Mendicancy, see Alms-seekers. Methodist Church, work of, see Church work. Methods of instruction, 193, 205, 277-287. INDEX Michigan, education in, 183, 191, 192, 202, 221, 301. Middle ages, education in, 120, Minnesota, education in, 183, 184, 191, 193, 222. Mississippi, education in, 182, 223. Missions, see Church work for deaf; Legislation in aid of deaf. Missouri, education in, 142n, 144, 183, 191, 193, 202, 223. Montana, education in, 176, 182, 183, 184, 224, 300. Montans, Peter, 124. " Mute ", see " Deaf ". National college, see Gallau- det College. National Educational Associ- ation, 114. National government, granting land for schools, 137, 141, 162, 299, 300; creating Gal- laudet College, 206-208. See District of Columbia. Nebraska, education in, 183, 224. Negroes, education of, 172, 176n, 185n, 268n. Nelson Philip, 129. Nevada, education in, 171, 185, 224. New England School, 306. See Massachusetts. New England states, interest in American School, 136, 137, 138. New Hampshire, education in, 138, 171, 185, 225. New Jersey, education in, 140, 141, 184, 191, 192, 225. New Mexico, education in, 182, 185n, 225. New York, education in, 131, 139, 140, 148n, 171, 173, 183, 184, 191-193, 204, 226-229, 305. See Le Couteulx St. Mary's Institution ; New York Institution ; New York Institution for Improved In- struction; St. Joseph's In- stitution. New York Institution, 131, 132n, 139, 140, 161n, 187n, 280n, 306. See New York. New York Institution for Im- proved Instruction, 281, 306. See New York. North Carolina, education in, 143, 172, 176n, 183, 184, 229. North Dakota, education in, 183, 230, 297, 300. Occupations of deaf, see Eco- nomic condition. CEcolampadius, 124. Offspring, deaf, see Marriages of deaf. Ohio, education in, 142, 143n, 157n, 183, 191, 192, 202, 205, 230. Oklahoma education in, 172, 176, 183, 184, 185n, 231. Opinions of deaf, see Charity ; Economic condition ; Legal exceptions. Oral method, 187n, 193, 205, 279-287, 296n. Oregon, education in, 183, 185n, 191, 232. Papers of deaf, 97, 116; of schools, 116, 292. See Pub- lications for deaf. Parents, deaf, and offspring, see Marriages of deaf. Parents' associations, 109. Partially deaf, 3n. Pasch, 125. Pay pupils, see Fees. Peet, Harvey P., 156n. Pereire, 126. Pennsylvania, education in, 140, 141, 171, 173, 183, 202- 204, 233, 234, 305. See Pennsylvania Institution ; Western Pennsylvania Insti- tution. Pennsylvania Institution, 140, 141, 181, 187n, 306. See Pennsylvania. INDEX 339 Politics in schools, 185n, 322. Ponce de Leon, Pedro, 122. Popular conceptions of deaf, 99-106, 313, 314. Prevention of deafness, see Adventitious deafness; Con- genital deafness. Principals, Conference of, 113, 114. Private benefactions, 135, 136, 140, 142, 158, 160, 161, 163, 173-176, 179, 181, 281, 295, 296, 301, 303-308, 321. See Denominational and private schools ; Homes ; Private or- ganizations; States, provis- ion in. Private organizations for deaf, 107-116. See Denom- national schools; Semi-pub- lic schools. Private schools, see Denomi- national and private schools. Property, value of, 293. Protestant Episcopal Church, work of, see Church work. Public appropriations, see Ap- propriations. Public schools, deaf in, see Day schools. Publications for deaf, 115, 307n. See Papers; Volta Bureau. Pupils, at beginning, 165; number of, 288; proportion i n attendance, 268-270. See Clothing; Fees; Grada- tions; Restrictions. QuAsi-puBMc schools, see Semi-public schools. Rae, Luzerne, 156n. Raphel, Georges, 125. Relatives, deaf, see Congenital deafness. Relief for needy deaf, 69, 95, 112. ' ' teligious work, see Church work ; Denominatioal schools. Restrictions, 157, 166, 262, 263, 318. See Fees; Age- limits. Rhode Island, education in, 138, 184, 234. St. Francis de Sales, 124. St. Joseph's Institution, 306. See New York. Sarah Fuller Home, 306. See Denominational and private schools ; Massa- chusetts. Schott, Gaspard, 125. Seixas, David, 140. Self-supporting, the deaf as, see Economic condition. " Semi-deaf ", 9n, 286n. ♦' Semi-mute ", 9n, 286n. Semi-public schools, 156, 172- 176, 180, 181, 295n, 297, 303. Sensational accounts of deaf, 105n. Settlements, social, work of, 107n. Sibscota, George, 123. Sicard, 127. Sign language, 11, 12, 92, 187n, 277-279. See Manual alphabet. Societies for deaf, see Private organizations. Social organization of deaf, 91-98. Societies of the deaf, 92-96; desirability, 93 ; purposes, 94-96. Solidarity of deaf, 78n, 94, 95. South Carolina, education in, 138, 144, 176, 182, 184, 235. South Dakota, education in, 183, 204n, 235, 300. Spain, early education in, 122, 123. Speech, 8-12, 279-284; ability of deaf in, 8, 9, 284 ; growth of teaching of, 282-284; 340 INDEX relation to sense of hearing, 3, 4. See Oral method. Stanford, John, 131, 139. State, action of, see Law, at- titude of. States, provision in, 209-241; lands given by, 301; with- out schools, procedure in, 169, 171, 185, 297. See Ap- propriations ; Charity; Con- stitutional provisions; Gov- ernment of schools. Stone, Collins, 156n. Strange class, deaf as a, 99. Subsidies, see Appropriations ; Semi-public schools. Support of schools, see Cost. Tax, exemptions of deaf from, 65, 69. Taxation for schools, special, 163, 172, 297. Teachers, see Instructors. Tennessee, education in, 143, 182, 183, 184, 236. Terms, see Admission of pu- pils. Terzi, Lana, 124. Texas, education in, 172, 176n, 182, 236. Thornton, William, 133n. Totally deaf, see " Deaf ". Trades, see Industrial train- ing; Economic condition. Transportation, see Clothing. Trustees of schools, 163, 169, 180-184, 185n. See Homes; Denominational schools; States, provisions in. Turner, William W., 156n. Unhappy class, deaf as, 102. United States, number of deaf in, 5. See American possessions. Utah, education in, 176, 182, 185n, 236, 300. Vagbants, see Imi)ostors. Value of property, see Prop- erty. Van Helmont, Jan Baptista, 124. Van Nostrand, Jacob, 156n.* Vanin, 126. Vermont, education in, 138, 173, 176, 237. Virginia, education in, 131- 133, 142, 172, 176, 183, 184, 237. Volta Bureau, 108, 109, 115. " Volta Review ", 109, 115. Wages paid to deaf, see Eco- nomic condition. Walker, Newton P., 156n. Wallis, John, 123. Washington, education in, 183, lS5n, 191, 192, 238. Weld, Louis, 156n. West Virginia, education in, 172n, 176, 183, 185n, 238. Western Pennsylvania Institu- tion, 187n, 188n, 306. See Pennsylvania. Wills of deaf, 65, 72, 73. Wisconsin, education in, 144, 183, 188n, 191, 192, 202, 239. Witness, the deaf as, 72. Writing as means of communi- cation, 11, 12, 285, 286. Wyoming, education in, 171, 185, 240. Young Men's Christian Asso- ciation, work of, 107n. t^^ 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. luj'an'uliJW ; ^.^ . ^■ [ ' jAi ' i I t LD 21A-50m-4,*60 (A9562sl0)476B General Library UniTcnity of California Berkeley YB 07369 Zi^'^Z20 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY