A Selection from Messrs. SAMPSON LOW'S CATALOGUE Of Books in the Eastern Languag^es.* Dr. Forbes's Forbes, ] HiNDUST word Chan lllNDUST Chari ind Schools with the Hindi in the English I in the English paracter. I2s. siaa and Nagari ons explanatory lIlNDUST Char: HiNDUST latior entire Hagh-o-I 8vo. IJac.h-o-I Chan BAr,H-o-l East wick The Bag notes Holroyd, Tas-hil Mulvihil] A \'ocabulary for the Lower Standard"Tn Hindustan;. Containing the meanings of every word and idiomatic expression in '"Jarrett's Hindu Period," and in " Selections frpm the r>agh-o-Bahar." Fcap. 3^-. 6^. Pincott, Frederic, M.R.A.S., &c. .-^akuniala in H'MJi. Translated fi-om the Birg\li recension of tlie Sanskrit. Critically edited, with grammatical, idiomaticai, and exegetical notes. 4to. i2s. 6a. Hindi Manual. Comprising a grammar of the Hindi language both Literary and Provincial ; a complete Ibyntax ; Exercises in various styles of Hindi composition ; Dialogues on several subjects ; and a complete Vocabulary. Ihird edition, thoroughly revised. Fcap. 6s. * A complete Catalogue sent Post Free on af plication. .atts, J. T., Persian Teacher at the University of Oxford. Hindustani Dictionary. Dictionary of Urdu and Classical Hindi and English Super Royal 8vo. £2, Z^- Grammar of the Uruu or Hindustani Language. 8vo. 12s. Baital Pachisi, translated into English. 8vo. Ss. Ikhwanu-s-Safa, translated into English. 8vo. los. 6d. ogers, E. H. How TO SPEAK Hindustani. Royal i2mo. is. tnall, Rev. G. Dictionary of Naval Terms, English and Hindustani. For the use of Nautical Men trading to India, &c. Fcap. 2s. 6d. albort, F. W. H. Alif Laila ba-Zaban-i-Urdu. (The Arabian Nights in Hindustani.) Roman Character. Crown 8vo. los. 6d. ^ _ ^ PERSIAN. ►temgass, F., Ph.D. A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary ; including the Arabic Words and Phrases to be met with in Persian Literature, being Johnson's Richardson's Persian, Arabic, and English Dictionary, minutely revised : enlarged from the latest sources, and entirely reconstructed. Imp. 8vo. 1600 pages. ^3 3J-. net, JVollaston, Arthur N., C.T.E., H.M. Indian (Home) Civil Service. A Complete English-Persian Dictionary. Compiled from Original Sources. 1491 pages. 4to. ;^l lis. 6d. Smaller English-Persian Dictionary. Compiled from Original Sources. 8vo. IDS. (>d. B'orbes, Duncan, LL.D. Persian Grammar, Reading Lessons, and Vocabulary. Royal 8vo. 12s. 6d, Lbraheem, Mirza. Persian Grammar, Dialogues, &c. Royal 8vo. 12s. dd. Keene, Rev. H. G. First Book of the Anwari Soheili. Persian Text. 8vo. 5^. Akhlaki Mushini. Translated into English. 8vo. 3^. bd. Driental Penmanship : comprising specimens of Persian Hand- writing, illustrated with Facsimiles from Originals in the South Kensington Museum, to which are added Illustrations of the Nagari Character. By the late Professor Palmer and Frederic Pincott. 4to. \2s. 6d. Ouseley, Lieut. -Col. Akhlaki-i-Mushini. Persian Text. Demy 8vo. ^s. Platts, J.-T., Persian Teacher at the University of Oxford. GULISTAN. Carefully collated with the Original MS., with a lull Vocabulary. Royal 8vo. 12s. 6d. GULISTAN. Translated from a Revised Text, with copious Notes. Svo, I2s. 6d. Platts, J. T. (Persian Teacher at the University of Oxford), and Rogers, A. (late Bombay Civil Service). The Btjstan of Sa'adi. Photographed from a MS., Collated and Annotated. Imp. Svo. i8j. Rogers, A. (late Bombay Civil Service). Persian Plays. With Literal English Translation and Vocabulary. Crown Svo. "js. 6d. GAnr-EMTiER ••/ TM£ ELMMENTS or THE DEVAIVAOARJ CUARAt'TER . •', ' HI I. . f^ fi. M191399 PEEFACE. The following work has been compiled with a view to enable every one proceeding to India to acquire a fair know- ledge of the most useful and most extensively spoken language of that country. Of late years, a neW aera may be said to have commenced with regard to the study of the Hindustani language ; it being now imperative on every junior officer in the Company's service to pass an examination in that language before he can be deemed qualified to command a troop, or to hold any staff appointment. Such being the case, it is desirable that every facility should be afforded to young men destined for India to acquire at least an elementary knowledge of Hindustani in this country, so as to be able to prosecute the study during the voyage. A large impression of this work having been exhausted, I have availed myself of the opportunity, in this new Edition, of adopting such improvements as have been naturally suggested by several years' experience in teaching. The plan and arrangement of the work remain the same as before ; and so do the numbers of the sections and the paragraphs. The first section treats very fully of the Persi-Arabic alphabet, and of the elementary sounds of the language. In this section I have been enabled to introduce several improvements, and, if I mistake not, the subject is now so simplified that a learner of ordinary capacity will have no difficulty in making some progress in this elementary part, even if he should not have the aid of a teacher. The next three sections treat of the parts of speech, to the defining and explaining of which I have strictly confined myself. I have carefully avoided mixing up the syntax of the language with that part of the work which is and ought to be purely etymological. The Yl PREPAOB. mode of confounding the syntax with the etymology, which prevails in most grammars, I have always looked upon as highly preposterous. It is utterly absurd to embarrass the student with a rule of syntax, at a stage of his progress where he probably does not know a dozen words of the language. In the first four sections (up to p. 91), I have generally accompanied every Hindustfoi word and phrase with the pronunciation in Roman characters, in order that the learner mignt not be delayed too long in acquiring the essential rudiments of the grammar, and also to guard against his contracting a vicious mode of pronunciation. When he has made himself acquainted with what is technically called the accidence — that is, the declension of the nouns and pronouns, and the conjugation of the verbs — he may, after a few verbal instructions respecting the arrangement of words, proceed to read and translate a few pages of the Selections, by the aid of the Vocabulary. This done, he may read over the Grammar carefully > from the beginning ; for, in fact, the Grammar and Selections mutually assist each other. Section V. (from p. 92 to 135) treats of the Syntax of the language. This is a portion of the work, in which, if I do not greatly mistake, I have made many improvements. I have been particularly careful in explaining those peculiarities of the language in the use of which I have observed learners most apt to err, when trying to translate English into Hindu- stani. I have also, in several instances, ventured to diflfer from all my predecessors on certain important points, which of course I have justified by an appeal to the language itself. In the sixth and last section, I have given a concise account of the Devanagari alphabet, together with the mode of trans- ferring the same into the corresponding Persian character, and vice versa. To this I have added an explanation of the various plates accompanying the work, together with a brief account of the Musalman and Hindu calendars. The perusal of the plates will initiate the student into the mysteries of the manuscript character, which is much used in India, both in PREFACE. TU lithographed and printed works, to say nothing of numerous productions which still remain in manuscript. When the learner is well grounded in the Nashhi, or printed character, he should, as an exercise, endeavour to write out the same in the TaHik, or written character. When he has attained some facility in writing the latter, he will find it a very profitable exercise to transcribe the various phrases, etc., in my Hindustani Manual^ from the Roman character into the TaHik, and at the same time commit them to memory, as directed in the preface to that small work. An elementary grammar of a language is incomplete without a certain portion of easy extracts, accompanied by a suitable vocabulary, and occasional notes explanatory of any obscure or idiomatic phrases that may occur in the text. This is the more essential in a grammar of the Hindustani, or of any other Asiatic language, because the characters and words, being totally diffe rent from our own, it is necessary, though it may sound strange, to learn the language to a certain extent, before the grammar can be perused to any advantage. As to the use of translation? and other fallacious aids, such as giving the English of each word as it occurs at the bottom of the page or elsewhere, it is a method deservedly scouted by all good teachers. On the other hand, to put a large dictionary in the hands of a beginner is equally useless ; it is asking of him to perform a difficult work, with an instrument so unwieldy as to be beyond his strength. In order, therefore, to render this work as complete as possible, I have appended to the Grammar a selection of easy compositions for reading, commencing with short and simple sentences. All the words occurring in the extracts will be found in the Vocabulary, at the end of which I have added a few notes explanatory of difficult passages or peculiarities of the language, with references to the page and paragraph of the Grammar where further information may be obtained. In the extracts from the * Khirad Afroz,' a work which is eonsidered to be the easiest and most graceful specimen of the Jrdii dialect, I have left off the use of the jazm -^, except in viii PREFACE. rery rare instances, in order that the student may gradually learn to read without it. In like manner the virdmaT is omitted in the last five or six stories of the Hindi extracts. I have been careful, throughout, to give the essential short vowels, convinced that without them the most attentive learner will be apt to com- mit mistakes in pronunciation. I have also adopted a rigid system of punctuation, the same as I should have done in the editing of a Latin Classic. There may be a few individuals so thoroughly wedded to what is foolish or defective, merely because it is old, as to feel shocked at this innovation. They will complacently ask, What is the use of punctuation, when the natives have none in their manuscripts ? I answer — The use is simply to facilitate, for beginners, the acquisition of a knowledge of the language. When that is once attained, they will find no difficulty in reading native works, though utterly void, not only of punctuation but of vowel-points and other diacritical marks The use of stops is merely a question of time ; four hundred years ago we had no such things for our books in Europe, and the excellent monks who had the management of these matters went on comfortably enough without them. But, after all, it was found that stops were an improvement; and so they are admitted to be even in the East. Almost all the books printed in India since the beginning of the present century have punctuation; and those who would make beginners attempt to translate from a strange language, in a strange character, without the least clue to the beginning or end of the sentences, seem to have a marvellous love for the absurd. All Oriental as well as European books ought to have stops ; the omission is a sure indication either of extreme idleness or culpable apathy on the part of the editor. In conclusion, I may safely say that I have spared no pains to render this edition worthy of the extensive patronage which ^e work has hitherto attained. D. FORBES. 58. Burton Cbbsoent, HINDUSTANI GEAMMAE, SECTION I. ON THE LETTERS AND SYMBOLS USED IN WRITINGS. 1. The Hindustani language may be printed and written in two distinct alphabets, totally different from each other, viz., the Persi- Arabic, and the Devanagari. We shall at present confine ourselves to the former, and devote a section to the latter towards the end of the volume. The Persi- Arabic alphabet consists of thirty-two letters, to which three more are added to express sounds peculiar to the Hindustani. These letters, then, thirty- five in number, are written and read from right to left ; and, consequently, Hindustani books and manuscripts begin at what we should call the end of the volume. Several of the letters assume different shapes, according to their position in the formation of a word, or of a combined group ; as may be seen in the following table, column Y. Thus, in a combination of three or more letters, the first of the group, on the right-hand side, will have the form marked Initial ; the letter or letters between the first and last will have the form marked Medial ; and the last, on the left, will have the Final form. Observe, also, that in this table, column I. .con- tains the names of the letters in the Persian character ; '2' THE ALPHABET. n. the same in Roman characters; III. the detached form of the letters, which should be learned first ; and rV. the corresponding English letters. THE HINDUSTANI ALPHABET. i. n. III. IV. V. VI. Nune. Detached Form. Power. Combined Form. Exempllflcailoni . FlnaL Medial. Initial. FlnaL Medial. Initial. m alif \ a, etc. I I \ b- j\ Ml ^ ^ be C-^ I ^ f A \ v..^.^ j^ y ^ Lji pe C-> V V V V V jk cf ^' te LU t Ll^ - T" s^ z i5 ta <^ t LiU .•: ••y \a^ « ^ t 86 UL? s ^J^ A C^^ ^ jr rr Jim Ti y t JS 5>- / * J^ ^ ^ che ^ cA t V r e ^. t V f ^ he z A t .s - r O 9 J^ ^ ^ hhe t M 't .s £w €■ r^ ^ ^ ji^ Ml d j^ vX Ju» iji 2" 2fJ da « d K j^ R RO>> jh JU !)^ t» » 3 s« %e J 2 J J 1 J / ! fj'- jj THE ALPHABET. 1. 11. Kama. in. Detached IV. Power. V. Combined Form. VI. Exemplifications. Form. Final. Medial. Initial. Final. Uedlal. InltiaJ. <7 , %he J sA J J yh ^ji ^Jj ^ cr^ sin U^ s L/«. AM wJ u- c^ ^ ^ ^ shin i. sh lA dM) u^ p =5ri jU sdd u^ 8 U^ «a *c (> Ju^ Ju? ^ jU %U u^ z (> m2 *a u^. .r^ I-i CT .5> toe L t L k \: u. c;l=V ^> ^ ^> we )c % k k k air*- ^ > • cr:''' (tin t a, etc. t ,x .c e- J^ 3T * cr4 ghain t gh t X £. t^" >:5? J-a*i • 4 fe i_i f ^ i i .-i^ >■ J 'J' • ^U Mf J k J il i (i^ >- Jj ^ >_il^ hdf d/ k ci5: ^ r ^. ^ >> 3r ^ir gdf ^ 9 ^ f r ;^!; A .^ off r^ Urn J I J 1 ! J r^ ■^ •q- r: mim r m r ^'^ '^ r; c)^ cr' ^ wy niin li) n iir - > 3 u;-" r A .•b wdw J w?,etc. J ^ J 'yl ^ >^ he s h * •^ « J^ iU I. ^ j^ ^ ^.|. s? y,etc. L5 A ' stroke underneath [Teh). J is much softer and more dental than the English d; it represents the Sanskrit ^, and corresponds with the d of the Celtic dialects, and that of the Italian and Spanish. J This letter represents the Sanskrit ^, and is very nearly the same as our own d. The tongue, in pronouncing it, should be well turned up towards the roof of the mouth. J is properly sounded (by the Arabs) like ou\: i-h soft, in the words thy and thine; but in Persian and Hindustani it is generally pro- nounced like our z in zeal. J is always sounded very distinctly, as the French and Germans pronounce it. J This letter is sounded like the preceding, only the tip of th^ tongue must be turned up towards the roof of the mouth. It is very much akin to J, with which it often interchanges ; or, more strictly speaking, in the Devanagari the same letter serves for both ; as wiU be seen in the section on the Devanagari alphabet. j is pronounced like the j of the French, in the word jour, or ov^ c in the word azure. It is of rare occurrence. 6 POWERS OF THE LETTERS. jjfl In Arabic this letter has a stronger or mere hissing sound than our i. In Hindustani, however, there is little or no distinction between it and (jm, which is like our own a. ^jo is pronounced by the Arabs like a hard d or dh ; but in jBLindiistani it is sounded like %. ]o and 1? These letters are sounded in Hindustani like CD and J, or very nearly so. The anomalous letter c will be noticed hereafter. ^ has a sound somewhat like g in the German word sagen. About the banks of the Tweed, the natives sound what they fancy to be the letter r, very like the Eastern 4 . This sound will be represented in English letters hj gh, with a stroke underneath {gh). jj bears some resemblance to our c hard, in the words calm, cwp ; with this difference, that the ^ is uttered from the lower muscles of the throat. (^ is sounded like our ^ hard, in give, go ; never like our g in gem, gentle. .^ at the beginning of a word or syllable is sounded like our n in the word now ; at the end of a word, when preceded by a long vowel, it generally has a nasal sound, like the French n, in such words as mon and son, where the sound of the n is scarcely heard, its effect being to make the preceding vowel come through the nose. The same sound may also occur in the middle of a word, as in the French sans. In the Homan character, the nasal sound of ^ will be indicated by n, with a dot over it ( w ). 4 is an aspirate, like our h in hand, heart ; but at the end of a word, if preceded by the short vowel a (Fatha § 4), the n has no sensible sound, as in <)L3lj ddna, a grain; in which case it is called ^cr..^ (^Ito hde-mukhtafi, i.e., the obscure or imperceptible A.' As this final h, then, is not sounded in such cases, we shall omit it entirely in the Roman character whenever we have occasion to write such words as t. The Persians generally convert the 'i into clJ ; but sometimes they leave it unaltered, and frequently t>^"^ omit the or THE PRIMITIVE TOWELS. 7 two dots, in which case the letter is sounded according to the general rule. Lastly, the Hindustani usually receives such words in whatever form they may happen to be used in Persian. h. The letter JJ> or ^ is frequently employed as a mere aspirate in combination with the letters «--^ c—? cu c3 — _ J J J l1:> and i^f; as in the words 1^, pha ; \^:, tha, etc. In such cases the learner must be careful not to sound the pJi and th as in English ; the h is to be sounded separately, immediately after its preceding letter, as in the compound words wp-hill, hot-house. In most printed books the rouud form of the h (Ji> and ^) is employed to denote the aspirate of the preceding letter, otherwise the form ^, is used ; but this rule does not apply to manuscripts, particularly those written before the days of Dr. Gilchrist, under whose auspices the distinction was first adopted. e. Much might have been said in describing the sounds of several of the letters ; but we question whether the learner would be greatly benefited by a more detailed description. It is difl&cult, if not impos- sible, to give in writing a correct idea of the mere sound of a letter, unless we have one that corresponds with it in our own language. "When this is not the case, we can only have recourse to such languages as happen to possess the requisite sound. It is possible, however, that the student may he as ignorant of these languages as of Hindustani. It clearly follows, then, as a general rule, that the correct sounds of such letters as differ from our own must be learned by the ea/r — we may say, by a good ear ; and, consequently, a long description is need- less. This remark applies in particular to the letters lU ^ ^ d ^^ jjo ^ jj and the nasal ^, OF THE PEIMITIVE VOWELS. 4. In Hindustani, as in many of the Oriental lan- guages, the primitive vowels are three in number. They are represented by three small marks or symbols, two of which are placed above and one beneath the letter after which they are sounded, as in the following syllables, k> da^ J J^, and j du ; or J^ sar^j^ sir, and^ sur. 8 « WEAK CONSONANTS. a. The first is called ^^sP^ fatha (by the Persians^j mhnr), and is written thus, — over the consonant to which it belongs. Its sound is that of a short a, such as we have it in the word calamm, which is of Eastern origin, and of which the first two syllables or root, calam or ialam, are thus written, Ji. In such Oriental words as we may have occasion to write in Eoman characters, the a, unmarked, is under- stood always to represent the vowel fatha, and to have no other sound than that of a in calamus or calenda/r. h. The second is called by the Arabs kasra s^ (by the Persians -; \ zer), and is thus -^ written under the consonant to which it belongs. Its sound is that of our short i in the word sip and fin, which in Hindustani would be written c_^^*rf and ,. J. The unmarked f , therefore, in the course of this work, is understood to have the sound of t in sip and fin, in all Oriental words written in the Roman character. ■Si XI e. The third is called by the Arabs zamma (or dhamma) tf (by the Persians, ^jL^i pesJi,) which is thus — written over its consonant. Its sound is like that of our short u in the words pull and push, which in Hindustani would be written Jj and ^Juj : we have also its true sound in the English words foot and hood, which would be written f tip u5-Nd and JJb. We shall accordingly, in the following passages, repre- sent the zamma by the unmarked u, which in all Oriental words in the Eoman character, is understood to have the sound of u in pull and push ; but never that of our u in such words as use and perfume, or such as w in sun and/ww. OF THE LETTEES \, Q , j, AND ^, VIEWED AS CONSONANTS. 5. At the beginning of a word or syllable, tbe letter \, like any other consonant, depends for its sound on the accompanying vowel; of itself, it is a very weak aspirate, like our A in the words herh^ honour^ and hour. It is still more closely identified with the spiritus lenis of the Greek, in such words as airo, iirl, 6p6p6^, where the mark [ ' ] represents the alif^ and the a, e, and o WEAK CONSONANTS. 9 the accompanying vowel. In fact, when we utter the syllables ah, ib, and uh, there is a slight movement of the muscles of the throat at the commencement of utterance ; and that movement the Oriental grammarians consider to be the ^^^ maJdiraj\ or ^ place of utter- ance' of the consonant 1, as in 1 a) \ ^; and \ u\ just the same as the lips form the makhraj of h, in the syllables cl^ ha, l_? hi^ and c-> hu. Finally, the \ may be considered as the spiritus lenis, or weak aspirate of the consonant 2^. a. The consonant c has the same relation to the strong aspirate _ that \ has to i ; that is, the c , like the 1, is a spiritus lenis or weak aspirate; but the malchraj, or 'place of utterance' of c, is in the lower muscles of the throat. Hence the sound of the letter c , like that of the letter \, depends on the accompanying vowel ; as c--vS ^al, c^^ '«3, (..^■^ ^ub, which in the mouth of an Arab, are very different sounds from L^\ ab, c->i ih, and c-^l uh. At the same time, it is impossible to explain in writing the true sound of this letter; as it is not to be found in any European language, so far as we know. The student who has not the advantage of a competent teacher may treat the c as he does the \ until he has the opportunity of learning its true sound by the ear. In representing Oriental words in the Eoman character, the place of the c will be indicated by an apostrophe, thus, J-u*£ ^asal. h. Of the consonants J and ^j- very little description is necessary. The letter J has generally the sound of our w in we, went ; but occa- sionally in words from the Sanskrit it has the sound of our v, which must be determined by practice. The sound of the consonant ^j is our own i/ in yow, i/et, or the German/ injener. c. It appears, then, that the thirty -five letters constituting the Hindustani alphabet are all to be considered as consonants, each of which maybe uttered vrith any of the three primitive vowels, as \ a,\ i, and \ u; <— ^, la, L^ hi, and C->, hu, etc. : hence the elementary sounds of the language amount to one hundred and five in number, A.«ich consonant forming three distinct syllables. . 10 CONSONANTS — MOVEABLE ANU INERT. 6. When a consonant is accompanied by one of the three primitive vowels, it is said to be % j^ mardum^ the rmm is moveable by fatha ; the re is inert ^ having no vowel ; the dot is moveable by zamma ; and, finally, the w^im is inert. As a general rule, the last letter of a word is inert^ and in that case the mark jazm - is unnecessary. 7. When a letter is doubled, the mark — , called tashdidj is placed over it. Thus, in the word cljIj^ skid-dat, where the first syllable ends with j (d) and the next begins with t> (J), instead of the usual mode ci?jj.-i) the two dais are thrown into one, and the mark tashdid — indicates this coalition. The student must be careful to utter each of the letters thus doubled, dis- tinctly — the first letter ends the preceding syllable, and the second begins the following; they must not be slurred over as we do it, in such words as mummy ^ summer. The meaning of the term tashdid^ is, 'strengthen- ing or corroboration.' ^ The term inert is here employed for want of a better. In most Arabic, Persian, and Hindtast&,ni Grammars, a letter not followed by a vowel is called quiescent, which is objectionable, as it is apt to mislead the beginner, the term quiescent being already applied in the English Grammar in the sense of not sounded. For instance, the letter g is quiescent in the word phlegm ; we cannot, however, say that m is quiescent in the same word, though we may say that it is inert. The student will be pleased to bear in mind, then, that a letter is said to be inert when it is not followed by a ToweL LONG VOWELS. ' 1] OF THE LETTERS \ . AND ^ VIEWED AS VOWELS Ofi LEITERS OF PROLONGATION. 8. The letters \ j and ^ when mert, serve to prolong the preceding vowel, as follows. When \ inert is pre- ceded by a letter moveable by fatha.^ the fatha and alif together form a long sound like our a in war^ or au in /!«w/, which in Hindustani might be written ^Ij and JU-. Now it so happens that the \ inert is always preceded by fatha : hence, as a general and practical rule, alif not beginning a word or syllable forms a sound like our a in war^ or au in ^a^^?. In the Eoman character, the sound of long \ will be represented by ^, whilst the unmarked a is always understood to represent the short primitive vowel fatha, 9. When the letter ^ inert is preceded by a consonant moveable by the vowel zamma^ the zamma and j together form a sound like our oo in tool; which in Hindustani might be written Jy, or, which is the same thing, like oui' u in rule^ which might be written JjJ. The same combination forms also another sound, like our o in mole^ which would in the same manner be written jj^, or, perhaps still nearer, like our oa in coat^ which might be written ~ pronounced IcMh, not hhawdh. When we have occasion to write any such words in the Eoman character the w will be written with a dot under ; thus, ii\yi^ hhwdh. 10. When the letter ^ inert is preceded by a con- sonant moveable by kasra^ the kasra and the ^ unite, and form a long vowel like our ee in feel^ which in Hindustani might be written jli ; or, which is the same thing, like our i in machine^ which might be written jj-A^. The same combination may also form a sound like our ea in hear^ which would be written Jo or like the French e in the words pre^ donne, but longer; or the German e followed by A in the words sehr, gelehrt In the Arabic language, the latter sound of ^ is unknown : hence, when the ^ forms the sound of ea in bear^ etc., it is called Yde Majhul^ or Yae ^Ajami^ that is, the Unknown or Persian ^s ] whilst the former sound- that of ee in feel^ or i in machine — is called Yde Ma'riff^ the Known or Familiar ^. When the letter ^ inert is preceded by a consonant, moveable by fatha ^ the fatha and the ^ unite, and form a diphthong, like ai in the LONG VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. 13 German word Kaiser^ which in Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani, is written j2Ji. This sound is really that of our own i in wise^ size^ which we are pleased to call a vowel, but which, in reality, is a genuine diphthong. When the letter ^^ is preceded by zammaj no union takes place, and the ^ retains its usual sound as a consonant, as in the word j^j^ muyassar. Lastly, if the letter ^ be followed by a vowel, the above rules do not hold ; and the ^5 is to be sounded as a consonant, as in the words ^,Lj hayan^ and ^bj ziyan^ not hai-an and zi-an^ to represent which latter sounds the mark Tiamza (No. 15) would be requisite. A similar rule applies to the j . a. It must be observed, that there are very few Hindustani works, printed or manuscript, in which all the vowels are marked as we have just described ; the primitive short vowels being almost always omitted, as well as the marks Ji- ja%m and jz. tasM'id. This omission occasions no serious inconvenience to the natives, or to those who know the language. To the young beginner, however, in this country, it is essential to commence with books having the vowels carefully marked ; otherwise he will contract a vicious mode of pronunciation, which he will find it difficult afterwards to unlearn. At the same time, it is no easy matter in printing to insert all the vowel-marks, etc. in a proper and accurate manner. In the present work, a medium will be observed, which, without over-crowding t^e text with symbols, will suffice to enable the learner to read without any error, provided he will attend to the following rules. 11. The short vowel fatha — is of more frequent occurrence than the other two ; hence it is omitted in the printing ; and the learner is to supply it for every consonant except the last, provided he see no other vowel, nor the mark/t^^m, nor the ^ (butterfly) form of the letter he (par. 3, h) accompanying any of the consonants aforesaid. 14 PRACTICAL RULES. a. The letter j at the beginning of a word or syllable is a con- sonant, and generally sounded like our w, as in the words ^j^j tois, ^. watan. "When j follows a consonant, that has no vowel-mark or ja%m accompanying it, the^ has the sound of o long, as in the words «m9 80, ^ ko. When the consonant preceding the ^ has the mark tamma _L over it, the j has the sound of u in rule, or oo in fool, as in the words ^ sii or soo, and ^ kit or koo ; and if the preceding con- son ant has the vowel mark fat^ia -^ over it, thej forms the diphthong aUf as j«9 sau or sow, ja kau or cow. b. The letter ^^ at the beginning of a word or syllable is a con- sonant like our letter y, as in ^j yih, t>lj i/dd. When the letter ^ is medial or final, if the consonant preceding it has no vowel-mark or jazm, the ^ is sounded like ea in bear, or ai in fail, as in the words -*j ber, and r^-j ser. If the consonant preceding the ^ has the mark kasra —r under it, the (^ has the sound of i in machine, or ee in feel, as -J b\r or beer, and -»«3 «ir or s^er ; and if the preceding consonant has the mark /a^A« -^ over it, the ^^ forms the diphthong ai as -o bair or iyr^, and -*«; aair or «m*«. c. There are a few instances in which the letters j and ^ unite with the preceding consonant, as in the words ^^^y^ swdmi, and Li kt/d; but such combinations being of comparatively rare occurrence, they may safely be left to the student's own practice. Lastly, in a few Arabic words the final ^ occurs with an \ alif written over it, in which case the \ only is sounded, as in the words 1.^. ukbd; JJUj tu'dld. 12. We shall now at one view exhibit the practical application of the principles treated of in the precediQg paragraphs. The vowels in Hindustani, as the student may have ere now perceived, are ten in. number, the manner of representing which may be seen in the fol- lowing ten words. The upper Irue (1) contaius ten English words in common use, iu each of which occurs the corresponding sound of the Hindustani word beneath, rhe lower line (3) shews the mode in which the Oriental EXAMPLES OF VOWELS MEDIAL OR FINAL. 15 vowels will be uniformly represented in Eoman clia» racters in the course of this work. 1. fun fin foot fall foal fool fowl fail feel file '^ j^ jt ^'^ d^ Jy Jy J^ L^ i-y jj 3. fan fin fut fdl fol fid faul fel f'll Jail 13. We have now, we trust, fully explained how the vowels are to be represented when they follow an audible consonant, such as the letter cJ / in the foregoing list of words. In order to represent the vowels as initial or commencing a word, it will at once occur to the student that we have merely to annihilate or withdraw the letter uJ from the above words, leaving everything else as it stands, and the object is effected. This is precisely what we do in reality^ though not in appearance. The Arabian grammarians have taken into their heads a most subtle crotchet on this point, which is, that no word or syllaUe can hegin with a vowel. Therefore, to represent what we call an initial vowel, that is, a vowel com- mencing a word or syllable, they employ the letter \ alif as a fulcrum for the vowel. We have already stated (No. 5) that they consider the \ as a very weak aspirate or spiritus lenis ; hence its presence supports the theory, at least to the eye, if not to the ear. In order, then, to exhibit the vowels in the preceding paragraph as initial, we must, after taking away the letter uJ substitute \ in its place, which \ being nothing^ or very nearly so, the process amounts in reality to the with- drawal of the letter t«i /, and the substitution of what may be considered as mere nothing .^ thus — 1. >m in ddt all 61 661 owl ail eel aisle 2. J ^\ djf JU Jj\ j/ j/ J,\ J.t J,J S an in id dl ol id ml el H ail 16 INITIAL VOWELS. Instead of writing two alifs at the beginning of a word, as in JU dl, it is usual (except in Dictionaries) to write one alif with the other curved over it ; thus JT. This symbol — is called j^iL* madda^ ' extension/ and denotes lb it tho aJlf is sounded long, like our a in water. M. de Sacy (v. Grammaire Arabe^ p. 72) considers the mark madda — to be nothing else than a ,♦ mm^ the initial of the word madda; but our business is simply with its practical use, and the reader if he pleases may view it as a contraction of our letter w, meaning * Make it long.' 14. If, iQstead of \ in the above series, we substitute the letter c, we shall have virtually the same sounds, only that they must be uttered from the lower muscles of the throat, thus — ^ ^^ l::^ JU Jy^ J/ J^ Jt?^ ct^ Jr^^ 'm 'in 'ut 'dl 'ol 'U 'aul 'el 'U 'ail a. It appears, then, that when in Hindustani, a word or syllable begins with what we consider to be a vowel, such word or syllable must have the letter \ or c to start with. Throughout this work, when we have occasion to write such words in the Eoman character, 1 he corresponding place of the t will be indicated by an apostrophe or spiritus lenis ; thus, J-u*£- 'dsal, Jolc 'dlid, Sxj ha'd, to distinguish the same from J-jI asal, jj! dbid, Jo lad, or Sb lad. In other respects the reader may view the \ and c in any of the three following lights. 1st. He may consider them of the same value as the spiritus lenis ( ' ) in such Greek words as av, eV, etc. 2ndly. He may con- sider them as equivalent to the letter h in the English words hour, herl, honour, etc. Lastly. He may consider them as mere blocks, whereupon to place the vowels requisite to the formation of the syllable. Practically speaking, then, \ and ^ when i7iitial, and the J and ^ when not initial, require the beginner's strictest attention, aa they all contribute in such cases to the formation of several sounde OF THE MARK HAMZA. 17 15. We have stated that, according to the notions of the Arabian grammarians, no syllable can begin with a vowel. In practice, however, nothing is more common, at least according to our ideas of such matters, than to meet with one syllable ending with a vowel, and the next beginning with one also. When this happens in Persian and Hindustani, the mark -i- called hamza is in- serted between the two vowels a little above the body of the word, as in the words ^^ jd^m^ t^*b pd^e\ and sometimes there is a vacant space left for the hamza^ like the initial or medial form of the ye without the dots below, thus [j] or [J as in the words ^jJli fd^ida ; ^J^ Mji-e, The hamza^ then, is merely a substitute employed in the middle of words for the letter 1, to serve as a com- mencement (or as the Orientals will have it, consonant) to the latter of two consecutive vowels. Practically speaking, it may be considered as our hyphen which serves to separate two vowels, as in the words co-ordinate^ re4terate. It serves another practical purpose in Persian, in the formation of the genitive case, when the governing word ends with the imperceptible x h^ or with the letter 4^ as in the words JLj\^ ^^joj dida-i-ddnish^ ^the eye of intelligence,' where the hamza alone has the sound of the short i or e, a. The sound of the mark ham%a, according to the Arabian gram- marians, differs in some degree from the letter \, being somewhat akin to the letter c, which its shape £ would seem to warrant; but in Hindustani this distinction is overlooked. We have here confined ourselves solely to the practical use of this symbol as applied in Persian and Hindustani; for further information on the subject, the reader may consult De Sacy's Arabic Grammar. 16. Before we conclude the discussion of the alphabet, 2 18 LETTERS PECTJLIAELY ARABIC, PERSIAN, ETC. it may be proper to inform the student that the eight letters lIj ^^ ^^)i> * and j are peculiar to the Arabic ; hence, as a general rule, a word containing any one of these letters may be considered as borrowed from the Arabic. "Words containing any of the letters ^ J j ox i maybe Persian or Arabic, but are not of Indian origin. The few words which contain the letter j are purely Persian. Words containing any of the letters c-> ^ or c^ may be Persian or Indian, but not Arabic. Lastly, words con- taining any of the four-dotted letters db j J are purely Indian. The rest of the letters are common to the Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani languages. 17. As words and phrases from the Arabic language enter very freely into the Hindustani, we cannot well omit the following remarks. Arabic nouns have fre- quently the definite article J^ 'the' of the language pre- fixed to them ; and if the noun happens to begin with any of the thirteen letters c:j«^jijj(jwj^^ ^\^^ or ^ , the J of the article assumes the sound of the initial letter of the noun, which is then marked with tasMid ; thuSjyJl the light,' pronounced an-nur^noi al-nur. But in these instances, though the J has lost its sound, it must always be written in its own form. Of course, when the noun begins with the J, the J of the article coincides with it in like manner, as in the words iLLUi al-lailat^ ' the night ;' and in this case the J of the article is sometimes omitted, and the iaitial lam of the noun marked with tashdid, thus, IL\ \ al-lailat a. The thirteen letters (CL? etc.) above mentioned, together with the letter J, are, by the Arabian grammarians, called solar or sunny letters, because the word ^^u^^^Ji shams, *the sun,' happens to begin ^th one of them. The other letters of the Arabic alphabet are called ARABIC WORDS AFD PHUASES. 19 hnar, because, we presume, the word^^ kamar, the moon/ begim with one of the number, or simply because they are not solar. Of course, the captious critic might find a thousand equally valid reasons for calling them by any other term, such as gold and silver, hlach and Hue, etc. ; but we merely state the fact as we find it. 18. In general, the Arabic nouns of the above descrip- tion, when introduced into the Persian and Hindustani languages, are in a state of construction with another substantive or preposition which precedes them ; lil^e the Latin terms jus gentium^ vis inertice, ex officio^ etc. In such cases, the last letter of the first or govern- ing word, if a substantive, is moveable by the vowel zamma^ which serves for the enunciation of the \ of the article prefixed to the second word ; and, at the same time, the \ is marked with the symbol ss^ called ai^j wasla^ which denotes * union ;' as in the words ^^^^^^ \ ^1 Armr -ul- mumimn^ ^ Commander of the Faithful ; ' ^^^ ^> h^"^® the same value as their cognate Arabic letters of which they are modifications, that is, of c—? »-l^ ,- J j J, and CiJ respectively. The mode of recording any event is, to form a brief sentence, such that the numerical values of aU. the letters, when added together, amount to the year (of the Hijra) in which the event took place. Thus, the death of Ahli of Shiraz, who may be considered as the last of the classic poets of Persia, happened in a.h. 942 (a.d. 1635). This date is recorded in the sentence ^JJbl t>jJ ]y«-i ^Li>jb 'Ahli was the king of poets;' where the sum of all the letters be, alif, ddl, etc., when added together, will be found to amount to 942. The following date, on the death of the renowned Haidar 'AH of Maisiir (a.h. 1196), is equally elegant, and much more appropriate: {j:^j C-Jl^^b ,jU- * The spirit of Balaghat is gone.' h. Sometimes the title of a book is so cunningly contrived as to express the date of its completion. Thus, several letters written on various occasions by Abu-1-Fazl, surnamed 'Allami, when secretary to the Emperor Akbar, were afterwards collected in one volume by '4bdu-s-samad, the secretary's nephew, and the work was entitled OF DATES. 21 ^Ic lTjUjIL* muMtahdf-i ^alldmk, * The letters of 'Allamf,' which at the same time gives the date of publication, a.h. 1015. We may also mention that the best prose work in Hindustani— the j^j ^ ib * Bagh Bahar,' by Mir Amman, of Delhi, was so called merely because the name includes the date ; the discovery of which we leave as an exercise to the student. c. It is needless to add that the marks for the short vowels count as nothing ; also a letter marked with tashdid, though double, is to be reckoned but once only, as in the word 'alldmi, where the lam though double counts only 30. The Latin writers of the middle ages some- times amused themselves by making verses of a similar kind, although they had only seven numerical letters to work with, viz., i, v, x, l, c, D, and M. This they called carmen eteostichon or chronostichon, out of which the following eflPusion on the Eestoration of Charles II., 1660, will serve as a specimen : Cedant arma olesB, pax regna serenat et agros. Here the numerical letters are c n m l x =1660. d. In Arabia, Persia and India, the art of printing has been, till recently, very little used ; hence their books, as was once the case in Europe, are written in a variety of different hands. Of these, the most common are, 1st, the NasTcM ^^s^ , of which the type employed in this work is a very good imitation. Most Arabic Manuscripts, and particularly those of the Kur'an, are in this hand; and from its com- pact form, it is generally used in Europe for printing books in the Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Hindustani languages. 2ndly. The Ta^Vih Jf-3jO', a beautiful hand, used chiefly by the Persians and Indians in disseminating copies of their more-esteemed authors. In India, the Ta'lik has been extensively employed for printing, both Persian and Hindustani works ; and within the last twenty years, a few Persian books, in the same hand, have issued from the Pasha of Egypt's press at Bulak. 3rdly. The SMkasta dCuL^Lt) , or 'broken' hand, which is used in correspondence. It is quite irregular, and unadapted for printing; but not inelegant in appeftiance, when properly written. n SECTION 11. OF THB NAMES (Ul\ asmd) INCLUDING SUBSTANTIVES, 20. Oriental grammarians, both Hindu and Musal- man, reckon only three parts of speech, viz. the noun or name (J^\ ism), the verb (j*i JiH), and the particle (uJ^ harf). Under the term noun, they include sub- stantives, adjectives, pronouns, infinitives of verbs, and participles. This verb agrees with our part of speech so named ; and under the general term of ' particle' are com- prised adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and inter- jections. The student will find it necessary to bear this in mind when he comes to read or converse with native teachers ; in the meanwhile we shall here treat of the parts of speech according to the classification observed in the best Latin and English grammars, with which the reader is supposed to be familiar. OF THE ARTICLE. 21. The Hindustani — ^and all the other languages of India, so far as we know — ^have no word correspondiag exactly with our articles the, a, or an; these being reaUy inherent in the noun, as in Latin and Sanskrit Hence, as a general rule, the context alone can deter- mine whether, for example, the expression IfLj l^ U-ij raja Jed hetd^ ^ regis filius,' signifies 'a son of a king,' * the son of a king,' ' a son of the king,' or Hho son of the GENDERS OF NOTJNS. 23 king.' When, however, great precision is required, we often meet with the demonstrative pronouns ^ yih, Hhis,' and sj wuh^ ^ that,' together with their plurals, employed in the same sense as our definite article. Our indefinite article is expressed in many instances by the numeral Lliol elc^ * one ; ' or by the indefinite pronoun ^^J> ko^i^ ' some,' * a certain one '; as^;---> \lSS\ j^\ ^y* CSS\ ek mard aur eJc slier ^ ' a man and a tiger '; (^^-^ ^j^^ kojt shajchs ' some person '; but of this we shall treat more fully in the Syntax. OF SUBSTANTIVES. 22. Substantives in Hindustani have two genders only, the masculine and the feminine ; two numbers, the singular and plural ; and eight cases (as in Sanskrit), viz. nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, locative, instrumental or agent, and vocative. The ablative, locative, and instrumental, correspond with the Latin ablative. It has been deemed proper here to retain the Sanskrit classification of the cases, in accord- ance with the grammars of the Marathi, Bengali, and other cognate Indian dialects. 23. Gender. — ^To the mere Hindustani reader, it is difficult, if not impossible, to lay down any rules by which the gender of a lifeless noun, or the name of a thing without sex, may be at once ascertained. With regard to substantives that have a sexual distinction, the matter is easy enough, and is pithily expressed in the two first lines of our old school acquaintance, Buddimau. 1. Quae maribus solum tribuuntur, mascula sun to. 2. Esto femineum, quod femina sola reposcit. 24 GENDER OF INAJSIMATE OBJECTS. This means, in plain English, that * All animate beings of the male kind, and all names applicable to males only, are masculine. Females, and all names applicable to females only, are feminine.' a. To the foregoing general rules, there is one (and perhaps but one) exception. The word habila, which literally means tribe or family, also denotes a wife, and is used, even in this last sense, as a masculine noun. Thus in the Bdgh o Bahar,' p. 27, we have the expression U -f>Lj ^ l::---..s^«w-'%-wj y\j ^f^^on M, -ke, -ki, ~ j^ ^J,y\) rdton-kOf ffj^\) rdten, LS*** li^yb rdton-sef ji' ^^ i^yb '^o^ton-men, -par, (J i^y^j rdton-ne, ^^j ljS\ ^* rdto, Feminine nouns ending in ^- i, add ^!- dn in the nominative plural ; thus ^^*j roti, * bread/ 'a loaf/ nom. plur. ^V-!^J rotiydn. In the oblique cases plural, they add ^y on as above. In like manner a few words in ^ iiy a wife/ nom. plur. joruwdn ovjorii,dh. a. We may now take a brief view of the formation of the cases. Dative Accusative Ablative Locative Agent Yocative the night of the night to the night the night from the night in, on, the night by the night night ! the nights of the nights to the nights the nights from the nights in, on, the nights by the nights nights ! add ^\^\ an, JJJ^ joru, 28 DECLENSION. It will be seen that in the singular, the oblique cases are formed directly from the nominative, which remains unchanged, by the addi- tion of the various post-positions. The genitive case has three forms of the post-position, all of them, however, having the same significa- tion, the choice to be determined by a very simple rule which belongs to the Syntax. The accusative is either like the nominative or like the dative ; the choice, in many instances, depending on circumstances which will be mentioned hereafter. The nominative plural adds en to to the singular {dn if the singular be in 4). The oblique cases plural in the first place add on to the singular, and to that they affix the various post-positions ; it will be observed that the accusative plural is either like the nominative or dative plural. The vocative plural is always formed by dropping the final n of the oblique cases. Let it also be remembered that the final ^ added in the formation of the cases of the plural number is always nasal. Fide letter ^j page 6. Class II. — Including aU Masculine Nouns, with the exception of such as end in \ d (purely Indian), ^V\\ an, and s h. Example, J^ Singular. K", J^ mard, man. G. ^'iS -^ '^j^ mard-kd, etc., of ^ " man. D. jS J^ mard-ko, to man. Ac. Ab. dj^ mard, ^ J^ mard-ko, ^ J^ ma/rd-u, from man. o ^* y* \:y^ 'V* '^(^d-men, -par, in, on, man. Ag. (J liy* «tar«?-w^, byman. V. 4)^ t^i ai mard,0 man! This class, throughout the singular, is exactly like class I., and in the plural the only difference consists in the absence of any termination added to the nominative, and consequently to the first form of the accusative, which is the same. Plural. i'-^^-l^ 0''y^ ^^^^on-kd, etc., " " " of men. 4$ /o"V* mardon-ko, to men. o J-^ mard, ) ^ y ^o^tV* mardon-ko, ) 3 LS*** d>^*^ mardon-se, from men. -par, in, on, men. (J loJ'V* ^f^^^on - ne, by men. ^^y cfl ai mar do, Omen I DECLENSION. 29 All the other cases in the plural are formed precisely as before. It must be admitted that the want of a distinct termination to dis- tinguish the nominative plural from the singular, however, in Class II. is a defect in the language. This, however, seldom occasions any ambiguity, the sense being quite obvious from the context. The German is liable to a similar charge, and sometimes even the English, in the use of such words as * deer,' * sheep,' * swine,' and a few others. Class III. — Including Masculine Nouns purely Indian ending in \ a, a few ending in f^\ an, and several words, chiefly from the Persian, ending in the imperceptible s or short a. Example, l::*^ kuttd, * a dog. Singular. N. ^ huttdj a dog. G. ^- ^- ^ ^ kuUe-M, etc., " of a dog. D. ^ ,J^ kutte-lco, to a dog. ( ^Icuttd, \ ^ Ac. J y a dog . ^ j^ii hutte-lco, ) Ab. j<«o ,^^ kutte-se, from a " ^ dog. Loo. J- \*^ ^^ Tcutte-men, -pa/r^ "in, on, a dog. Ag. (J ^^^ Tcutte-ne, by a Voc. ^^ ^\ ai lutte, dog ! Plural. ^^ Icutte, dogs. ^S' iS- ^ (^j^ hutton-lcd, etc., of dogs. /d.^ kuttok-lco, to «,/' dogs. ^, hutte, it ^^6 lutton-lco, 1 ' ^uf^ kutton-se, from — -.9 dogs. ji- ^^^ ^^ hutton-men, -par, ^9 in, on. dogs. tJ ^j5^ kutton - ne, hy ^ o 1 ai kutto, dogs ! a. In like manner may be declined many words ending in a, as if Jaj landa, ' a slave,' gen. lande-kd, etc., nom. plur. lande, slaves,' gen. handon-kd, etc. Nouns in dn are not very numerous, and as the final n is very little, if at all, sounded ; it is often omitted in writing ; thus ^jl-^ laniydn or Ljo haniyd, * a trader,' gen. haniyen-kd or laniye- kd, which last is the more common. In the ordinal numbers, such as ^^^•-jJ daswdn, the tenth,' etc., the nasal h generally remains in the inflection, as ^jly^*^ daswen-kd, etc., of the tenth.* In the oblique 80 GENERAL RULES FOR DECLENSION. cases plnral, the ^^\ ah, is changed into ^j oh. "With regard to this third class of words, we have one remark to add ; which is, that the vocative singular is ^often to be met with uninflected, like the nominative as l2-j i^\ at hetd for ^JLj i^\ , ' son ! ' h. The peculiarity of Class III. is, that the terminations \ d and S a, of the nominative singular, are entirely displaced in the oblique cases singular and nominative plural by ^ e, and in the oblique cases plural by ^^oh. This change or displacement of termination is called inflection,' and it is limited to masculine nouns only with the above terminations ; for feminines ending in \ ^ or s, are never inflected, nor are all masculines ending in the same, subject to it. A consider- able number of masculine nouns ending in \ a, purely Arabic, Persian, or Sanskrit, are not inflected, and consequently belong to Class TI. On the other hand, masculine nouns purely Indian, such for example as the inflnitives and participles of verbs used substantively or adjec- tively, are uniformly subject to inflection. In like manner, several masculine nouns ending in the imperceptible a are not subject to inflection, and as these are not reducible to any rule, the student must be guided by practice. c. Masculines in a from the Persian often change the a into \ in Hindustani; thus i^j^ darja, 'grade,' 'rank,' becomes l^ju> darjd', so ^U ma%a, 'taste,' becomes |u mazd. All such words are subject to inflection, for by this change they become as it were Indianized.' The final s is not inflected if in a state of construction (agreeably to t.e rules of Persian grammar) with another word, as ^j^ {J^^ ^^„^ d'lda-i hosh men, in the eye of prudence ; ' ^-^ i^^^^j ^^j zabdn-t rekhfa men, in the Eekhta or mixed dialect.' 26. General rules for the Declension of Nouns, — 1. In classes I. and II. the nominative singular remains unaltered throughout, the plural terminations being superadded. 2. In class III. the nominative singular is changed or inflected into ^^ e^ for the oblique singular and nominative plural, and the terminations of the oblique cases plural are substituted for, not added to, the termination of the singular. 3. All plurals end in POST-POSITION. ^j oh in the obliqne cases, that is, whenever a post- position is added or understood. 4. The vocative plnral always ends in^ o, having dropped the final ^ h oi the oblique. 5. Words of the first and second classes, con- sisting of two short syllables, the last of which being fatha^ drop the fatha on receiving a plural termination ; thus lJ)^ pmf^ 'aside,' nom. plur. ^Jjb prfeh^ gen. l^ ^^Sjb prfoh-kay etc., not tarafeh^ etc. a. A few words are subject to slight deviations from the strict rule, among which we may mention the following. 1. Words ending •3 nw, preceded by a long vowel, as y Ij ndnw, ' a name,' y b pdnw, 'the foot,' and yli gdnw, ' a village ;' reject the y nw, and substitute the mark hamza on receiving a plural termination : thus, l^ (oj*^ pd,on hd, etc. * of the feet.' 2. The word ^^'li gd,e, ' a cow,' makes in the nominative plural ^^"^ gd,en, and in the oblique plural r^y\S gd,on, thus resembling the oblique plural of yli' gdnw, 'a village.' 3. A few feminine diminutives in u- ?ya, like randiyd, chiriyd, etc. form the nominative plural by merely adding a nasal n, as ^V. Jrr" chiriydn, which is evidently a contraction for chiriyd, en, the regular form. 4. Masculines of the third class ending in <1L> ya, may follow the general rule, or change the ^^ y into a ham%a before the inflection ; thus a;jLj sdya, a shade (of a tree),' gen. l^ ^Lj sdye-hd, or l^ ^J^Lj / < Sr" " s.f sd,e-hd. 5. The word ^^^j riipiya, a rupee,' has generally ^^j rupa,e, for the nominative plural. 27. Post-position. — In this work, to avoid confasion, we apply the term post-position only to those insepar- able particles or terminations which invariably follow the nouns to which they belong. They may be united with their substantives so as to appear like the case terminations in Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, or they may be written separately, as we have given them in the examples for declension. The most useful and important of them are the following, viz. : \^ My ^ Jce^ ^ h^ 82 ADJECTTVES. 'of,' the sign of the genitive case; ^ ho * to,' the sign of the dative, and sometimes of the accusative or objective case; ^ Be 'from,' or 'with,' (also ^^ 8oh, ^^^^ sen, ,^^, stUj are occasionally met with), the sign of the ablative and instrumental ; jj par (sometimes in poetry ~ *{?fd.^-«e^^ 'base-lorn, 34 PRONOUNS. yaJc-sdlahy * annual,* * one year old,* ^s>' judd, 'separate,' 'distinct,' and a few that may have become naturalized in Hindustani by changing the final a of the Persian into I d, like UI5 fuldnd, such a one,' or ' so and so.' 29. Degress of Comparison. — The adjectives in Hindustani have no regular degrees of comparison, and the manner in which this defect is supplied will be fully explained in the Syntax. SuflB.ce it here to say that when two objects are compared, that with which the comparison is made is put in the ablative case, like the Latin. Thus, for example, Hhis house is high,' ^ joL j^ ^^ yih ghar huland hai ; ' this house is higher than the tree,' ^ jil; .^ e:^jj j^ ^, yih ghar darakht-se huland hai, literally Hhis house (compared) with the tree is high.' The superlative degree is merely an extreme comparison formed by reference to the word i_^wj sah, ' all,' as ^ jIL ^ ^^^ j^ ^ yih ghar sah-se huland hai^ ^ this house (compared) with all is high,' or ' this is the highest house of all.' OF PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns. 30. The pronouns diflfer more or less from the sub- stantantives in their mode of inflection. Those of the first and second persons form the genitive m\j ra^ ^j re J and ^^j rij instead of l^ ka^ etc. They have a distinct PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 35 dative and accusative form in ^5 ^ (singular), and ^^ eh (plural), besides that made by the sign ^ ko. They also form the oblique in a manner peculiar to themselves, and admit generally of the elision of the termination ^j oht in the oblique plural. They have the dative and accu- sative cases in both numbers the same ; and lastly, the cases of the agent are never inflected in the singular, these being always maih-ne and tu-ne or taih-ne ; never mujh-ne^ or tujh-ne. The first personal pronoun is thus declined : — •h-^ matUf I. Singular. N. ^jj^ main, I. a i ^J^ \j^ merd, mere \ my, D. & j L5f? ^ '"""J"^* j me, or Ac. ( ^ ^"^ mujh-TcOf ) to me. A. ^ .^^ mujh-se, from me. Plural. Ub ham, We. t^Ujb I^Ujb hamdrd, hamdre \ i^Ujb hamdri, f. ) us, or ^ jjt> ham-ho, . ^ ' 7 . , I to us. ^ i^y^ namon-ko, J -men, m me. ^S' ci iji^ main-ne, by me. se, I w se, j ^^-1^ aJI> ham-men, ) from us. hamoh men, j m us. ti *ii> ham-ne, \ a ^y^ US. In this example we have three forms essentially distinct from each other, viz., the nominative, genitive, and oblique modification in the singular, as \yJ» main, \j>f^ mera, ^^r* mujh; and in the plural u& ham, J^Ujb hamdrd, and *ji> ham or ^yiJt> hamoh. From the oblique modifications, — ^s^ w^^(;'>^, and ♦Ji> ham or ^^ hamQh,^ — the 36 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. other oblique cases are formed by adding the requisite post-positions, except that the case denoting the agent is in the singular J ^ main ne, 9 X The second personal pronoun y tit. or ^-J tain is declined in a similar manner. Singular. N. ^ ox y til or tain, Thou. G. ^jij^ \j^ terdf etc., thy. B.&l ,^/njhe, I to thee, Ac. ( ^ .^ tujh-h, } or thee. A. j^ ..fsT tujh-se, from thee. 9 L. ^^^ ,^ssr ttyh men, in thee. 9 Ag. (J y tii-ne, by thee. 9 y V. y c^l aitii, Othou! Plural. aJ ^Mm, You. i^j- ^j- \J^ tumhdrd, etc.. . / your. ( i^9 tumhen, to you. tum-ko, or tumhon- ko, you. tum-se, or tumhon 86, from you. turn-men, or ^mwj- hon-men, in you. tum-ne, or tumhon- ne, by you. rs^' a» ^Mw, ye ! Demonstrative Pronouns. 31. In Hindustani the demonstrative pronouns, 'this, 'that,' 'these,' and 'those,' at the same time supply the place of our third person 'he,' 'she,' 'it,' and ' they.' They are the same for both genders, and the context alone determiaes how they are to be rendered into English. The word ^, T/ih, ' this,' 'he,' ' she,' or ' it,' is used when reference is made to a person or object that is near ; and nj wuh, ' that,' 'he,' ' she,' or ' it,' M^neu we refer to that which is more remote. I'he DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 37 proximate demonstrative ^^. yih^ ^ he,' ^ she,' ^ it,' ^ this,' is declined as follows : — Singular. N. M^^ yih, this, he, etc. Q(.^-^-^ijJ\ is-hd, -h,-M,of this, him, etc. D. -**j^ ^ {j*)\ is-Tco or ise, to this, to him, etc. Ac. ^ ijM\ ^^ yih, is-ko, ise, this, ^g^\ him, «^-^ {jm\ is-men, in this, or in him, etc. Ag. tj ^jm\ is-ne, by this, or by him, etc. Plural. j^ ye, these, they. ^- ^- 1^ jjl *w-^a, -^^, ^i, of Stx St x" these, of them. :^\ ^ ^^\ ) i^-^0 ^ inhm, or " ^ .T [ *^^^^*^^j *^ these, J^ li?^ I ; or to them. ^ ^ ^-> ye, w-^o, or inhen, ^^P^\ these, them. ^ ^ ^ in-se, from these, from them. ^j^ ^ in men, in these, in them, ci ^ in-ne, by these, by them. In this example we see that the nominative yih is changed into is for the oblique cases singular, and the nominative plural ye becomes in for the oblique plural, just as in the English ^he' becomes ^ him,' and Hhey' ' them.' In the oblique cases plural, it may be men- tioned that besides the form ^\ in^ we sometimes meet with ^\ ink and ^^\ inhoh, though not so commonly. The dative singular has two forms, one by adding Jco^ like the substantives, and another by adding ^ e^ as is-Jco or is-e ; in the plural we have in-ko and in-heh. The accusative is generally like the dative, but often the same as the nominative, as in the declension of substantives. 32. The demonstrative ^j, ' that,' ' he,' ' she. ' it ' the interrogative ^^ kaun^ ' who ? ' ^ what ?' the relative 38 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. ^ yo, * he who/ ^ she who,' etc., and the correlative ^ », * that same,' are precisely similar in termination to ^^ in the foregoing example ; hence it will suffice to give the nominatives, and one or two ohliqne cases of each, thus: — Remote Demonstrative. Singular. N. ij touh, he, she, it, or that. G. ^ \^ /jwl tts-Icd, etc. D. ^^J\ if {jm\ m-ho, or me. Plural. fcj^j we, they, those. P 9 l^ ^*^ \ l^ (^1 un-lcd, or unhon-kd. ^p^\ ^ f^ un-ho, or unhen. Interrogatwe (applied to persons or individuals). N. ^^ ^aww, who, which. ^f kaun, who, which. G. l^ ijj kiS'M, etc. l^ ^^i^ ^ ^j/ Mn-M, or kinhon- kd, etc. Interrogative (applied to matter or quantity). », L^ kgd, what. Same as the singular. G. ^(^ Mhe-M, etc. i2^^a^«W. Singular. Plural. N. ^ Jo or j^^ yaww, He y^ jo 01 jaun. They whft, who, she who. those who, or that which. which. G. l^ \j*>^ jis-kd, etc. li ij,^^^ ^ ^jp^jin-kd,jinhon-kdf etc. D. (, 'I myself,' which meaning may be conveyed by em- ploying lJ\ hp alone. But the most frequent use of c-;T dp is as a substitute for the second person, to express respect, when it may be translated, ^you,' ^sir,' ^your honour,' ^ your worship,' etc. When used in this sense, c-:T dp is declined like a word of the second class of substantives under the singular form, thus : — N. c-^l dp, your honour. G. ^- ^- ^ c->T dp-kd, -le, -li, of your honour. D. & Ac. if t-^T dp-ho, to your honour, your honour. A. ^ c-^t apse, from your honour. L. ^^ c->T dp-men, in your honour. Agt. J c-jT dp-ne, by your honour. When the word c->T dp denotes ' self,' it is declined as follows :— - W. c->T , dp, self, myself, etc. a \^} -ijl liJ^ apnd, apne, apni, own. of self, <»f«. 40 INDEFDflTE PRONOUNS. D.&A.\^ ST^ < *o, ^ ^ ,. to-self, self. \ ij^ |-X>1 OT apne ta,in, ) The phrase ^^ ^^T apas-meh denotes ^ among our- selves,' * yourselves,' or themselves,' according to the nominative of the sentence. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 34. Under this head we class all those words which have more or less of a pronominal signification. The following are of frequent occurrence : — clioj ek, ' one ;' l^jj dusrd, ^another ;' y^j donOj or ^,y^j donohj ^hoth ;' j^\ aur, ' other (more) ;' jJ. ghair^ ' other, (different) ;' ^^jAi_ IcCze^ ' certain ;' l::^ bahut, ' many,' ^ much ;' c-^-c "sah, * all,' ' every ;' ^ har, ' each ;' ajlj fuldna or liij fuldnd, ^ a certain one ;' ,^^ ^o'^, ^ any one,' ' some one ;' ^^ kuchh, ' any thing,' ' something ;' ^ ha^i and x^ chand^ * some,' ^several,' ^many;' li^ Mtnd or \l^ kittd^ ^how many ?' \j^ jitnd or IL?- y^#^, ^ as many ;' LjI ^Yw« or Ui ^#a, ^ so many.' They are all regular in their inflec- tions, with the exception of ^^ ko^i^ 'any,' and ^ kuchh^ ' some,' which are thus declined : — Singular. lS ,f ko,i N. (^ .i kOfi, Any one, some one. Obi. l^ (^ Msl-M, etc. Plural. t_^ ji ^,i or ^-S ^fl!,5, some, several. *l^ j«:^ A;mi-^a, etc. .^ kiichh. N. -fs^ ^w{?M, Any tiling, something. Obi. l^ ^-1^ Msii-M, etc. ^s^ ^wcM, any, some, * l^ ^i^ hinii-hd, etc. * We have given tlie oblique forms of tlie plural kini and ktnu on the authority of Mr. Yates ; at the same time we must confess that we never met with either oi them in the course of our reading. INDEFINITE PRONOTJKS. 41 a. The word ^o,i, unaccompanied by a substantive, is generally understood to signify a person or persons, as Tco^ihai? is tbere any one ? ' (vulgarly qui hy) ; and in similar circumstances huchh refers to things in general, as Tcuchh nahkn, there is nothing,' no matter.' When used adjectively, ho,i and huchh may be applied to persons or things indifferently, particularly so in the oblique cases. h. The following is a useful list of compound adjective pronouns; and as almost all of them have already been noticed in their simple forms, it has been deemed superfluous to add the pronunciation in Roman characters. They are for the most -part of the indefinite kind, and follow the inflections of the simple forms of which they are com- posed; thus eh ho,i, some one,' eh hisi-hd, etc., of some one.' If both members be subject to inflection in the simple forms, the same is observed in the compound, as jo-ho,i, whosoever,' jis-hisi-hd, etc., of whomsoever,' so jo-huchh, * whatsoever,' Jis-hisu-hd, etc., ' of whatsoever.' The compound adjective pronouns of the indefinite kind are jj\ uJoJ, lSAjJ\ or lL^\ \j>*ij<^, ' another,' ^^ '-^l * so°ie one,' i^jf \j^^i^ or -fs^ ]/*^*^» * some other,' l1X>J ^ <— ^,^> * oiie or other,' ^fj^i ' some one else,* ^sr jjl, * something else,' c^^ jjl, * the rest,' ^^ ^j^ ^^ jj' ^s^' *some others,' (JJol l::^n.^, ' many a one,' -fs^ "^^i-^, *much,'jjl ^-^^^^ 'many more,' ^^ c^^ or ^ifjSbf ' everyone,' ^s^ c-^w: or "^ j^y 'every thing,' (Jiol i^^^^^ CSj\ jib or ^jiS jib, 'every one,' l!Jo1 ^Jiif ' whichever,' jjl i^^^t 'some other,' ^^ y>- 'whoever,' ^s^ ^, * whatever,' J^ dj ^^ some one or other,' lLx>1 -fs^ or ^^ ^% ' somewhat, 'jjt ^^, some more,' ^^ ij ^^, 'something or other. The use and application of all the pronouns wiU be fuUy explained under that head in the Syntax. 42 SECTION ill. OF THE VERB ( jXi FI'l). 35. All verbs in Hindustani are conjugated in ex- actly the same manner. So far as terminations are concerned, there is not a single irregular verb in the language. There is, strictly speaking, but one simple tense (the aorist), which is characterized by distinct per- sonal endings ; the other tenses being formed by means of the present and past participles, together with the auxiliary ^ to be.' The infinitive or verbal noun, which always ends in l3 na (subject to inflection), is the form in which verbs are given in Dictionaries ; hence it will be of more practical utility to consider this as the source from which all the other parts spring. 36. From the infinitive are formed, by very simple and invariable rules, the three principal parts of the verb, which are the following : — 1. The second person singular of the imperative or root, by rejecting the final \i na; as from Uy lolna^ Ho speak,' comes J^ hol^ ^ speak thou.' 2. The present participle, which is always formed by changing the final l3 na of the infinitive into b* ta^ as UJ^j holna^ ^ to speak,' Wy lolta^ * speaking.' 3. The past participle is formed by leaving out the ^ w of the infini- tive, as li^j lolnd^ Ho speak,' j^ lola^ ^spoken.' If, however, the U na of the infinitive be preceded by the long vowels \ a or ^ o, the past participle is formed by changing the ^ n into ^ y^m order to avoid a disagree- able hiatus ; thus from 'J^ Idnd^ ^ to bring,' comes W lay a (not V^ Id-d) ^brought;' so Ujj rond^ Ho weep,' makes ATTXILIARY VERB. 43 Ijj royd in the past participle. These three parts being thus ascertained, it will be very easy to form all the various tenses, etc., as in the examples which we are about to subjoin. 37. As a preliminary step to the conjugation of all verbs, it will be necessary to learn carefully the following fragments of the auxiliary verb ^ to be,' which frequently occur in the language, not only in the formation of tenses, but in the mere assertion of simple existence. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. •j^ -j^ main h-kn, I am. jjfc y til. hai, thou art. ^ ifj wuh Mi, he, she, it is. Past Tense. \^ ^2^ main thd, I was. Iff y til thd, thou wast. Iff ^j wuh thd, he or it was. hib J^J turn ho, you are. ^f» AJb ham the, we were. ^f/ mJ turn the, you were. L5^ c^j w^ the, they were. a. The first of these tenses is a curiosity in its way, as it is the only present tense in the language characterized by different termi- nations, and independent of gender. Instead of the form ^ hai, in the second and third persons singular, ILa haigd is frequently met with in verse ; and in the plural, xL^ hainge for /-J& hain in the first and third persons. In the past tense, '»f» thd of the singular becomes i^' thi when the nominative is feminine, and in the plural j>*fi' thin. "We may here remark that throughout the conjugation of all verbs, when the singular terminates in d (masculine), the plural becomes e; and if the nominative be feminine, the d becomes i for the singular, and kn (contracted for iydn) for the plural. If several feminine terminations in the plural foUow in succession, the kn is added only to the last, but even here there are exceptions. 44 CONJUGATION. 38. We shall now proceed to tlie conjugation of an intransitive or neuter verb, and with a view to assist the memory, we shall arrange the tenses in the order of their formation from the three principal parts already explained. The tenses, as will be seen, are nine in number — three tenses being formed from each of the three principal parts. A few additional tenses of comparatively rare occurrence will be detailed hereafter. Infinitive, Uj) holm, To speak. ( Imperative and root J^ hoi, speak (thou). Present participle ls)»J boUd, speaking. P- I \ Past participle ^^ hold, spoke or spoken. 1. TENSES FORMED FEOM THE ROOT I Aorist. English — I may speak/ etc. uj^y- iJ^ ^**^ holun. Jy y til hole. jj4j i^ wuh hole. tSb ham holeh. J^ f^ turn holo, ^ 4j ^ we holen. Futv/re. English — * I shall or will speak/ etc. ^ J 4j -j^ main holiingd, IxJjj y tii holegd. &J»j a^ wuh holegd. fern, holungi, etc. English — *Let me /.•J*j ^J^ main hol-kh, Jy y td h6l. ^^ Xj wuh hoU ^^y^y, /^ ham holenge* ^^^, [•J* turn hologe, j^xLjJ^ t^j we holenge, fem. holengin, etc ve. ., speak thou/ etc, •J! jj Ub ham holm, jiji J^J turn holo. CONJUGATION. 45 2. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE : English (as a present tense) — ' I speak, thou speakest,' etc. ; (conditional) — * If I spoke, had I spoken,' etc. ; (habitual) — I used to speak.' laly ^^ main holtd. Isly y tit holtd. y^ s^ wuh loltd. ^jjy aA ham hoUe. ^i!*j p tum holte. Present. English — I speak or am speaking,' etc. ^^ Isly 1^^ main holtd Mn. ^ \\ ' ^ bJ^ jj tk holtd hai. ^ bJy i^ wuh holtd hai. -yjb ^c^ji z*^ ham holte hain. yb ,<-J aj *J tum holte ho. Imperfect. English — I was speaking, thou wast,' ete. l^ Is)^ ^j-^ jwaiw io^M ^Arf. Uj Uy J ^li JoZ^fi thd. \^ l:Jjj ^^ (^t«A 5o^^a ^Aci. ^^* is4^ f^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^* 3. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PAST PARTICIPLE! Fast. English — * I spoke, thou spokest,' etc. ^^ ^^^ main hold, i^ jj til. hold. sy^ Hj wuh hold. ^Jy aJ^ Aaw hole, ^y J tum hole. Jy ^j we hole. Perfect. English — I have spoken, thou hast,' etc. • ,yi> sy ^j^ main hold hiin. ^Jb iy y td hold hai. 1 ^y oj wvih Ma mi. ^^ ^y Ajb ham hole hain. yb ^y aj tum hole ho. \:J^ lJjJ ^^ we hole hain. / 46 FORMATION OF TENSES. Pluperfect. English — I had spoken, thou hadst spoken/ ete. \^ Lj ^,-^« main hold thd. \^ "iyi y til bold thd. l|7 iyi Sj ipuh bold thd. ^^ ^^ j^ ham b&le the* j^ff J^ aJ" turn bole the. l5^ JjJ c^j we bole the. 4. MISCELLANEOUS VERBAL EXPRESSIONS : Respectful Imperative or Precative. JLI4J holiye or j-?^ Jo%o, You, he, etc.^ be pleased to speak.' .0*^ boliyegd, 'You, he, e^^., will have the goodness to speak.' Infinitive (used as a gerund or verbal noun). TTom. U^ Jo^wi, * Speaking:' gen. l^ 15^^ bolne-M, etc., 'Of speaking,' etc., like substantives of the third class. -ZVoww of Agency. ^b L5^y bolne-wdld, and sometimes IjU ^^^ holne-hdrd, 'A speaker,' ' one who is capable of speaking.' Participles, med adfectively. Singular. Pres. y^J boltd or V^ U^ io?M h-liyd, fern. ioZ^i or Past. i!y Jo?a or V^ ^jj JoZaM, ^J^ Jo?^ M,^, fern. 5o?m or Jo?i hiiyin. Conjunctive (indeclinable). J^ bol, Jy JoZ^, l^^^ JoZ^^, i3y bolkar, ^^ J^ Jo? hvr-ke, or ^^^ J^j Jo? harhvr, * having spoken.' Adverbial participle (indeclinable). ^__^ lS^^ bolte-hi, On speaking, or on (the instant of) speaking.' a. "We may here briefly notice how the various portions of the verb are formed. The aorist, it will be seen, is the only part worthy of the name of tense, and it proceeds directly from the root by adding the terminations /iw, tf, e, for the singular, and eh, 0, en, for th^ >ORMATION OF TENSES. 47 plural. The future is formed directly from tlie aorist by adding ga to the singular and ge to the plural for masculines, or by adding gi and giydk (generally contracted into gkn) when the nominative to the verb is feminine. The imperative differs from the aorist merely in the second person singular, by using the bare root without the addition of the termination e. Hence, the future and imperative are mere modifications of the aorist, which we have placed first, as the tense par excellence. It is needless to offer any remark on the tenses formed from the present participle, as the reader will easily learn them by inspection. The three tenses from the past participle are equally simple in all neuter or intransitive verbs ; but in transitive verb» they are subject to a peculiarity of construction, which will be noticed further on. The proper use and application of the various tenses and other parts of the verb will be fully treated of in the Syntax. h. As the aorist holds the most prominent rank in the Hin- dustani verb, it will be proper to notice in this place a few euphonic peculiarities to which it is subject. 1 . When the root ends in d, the letter w is optionally inserted in the aorist between the root and those terminations that begin with e ; thus li^ Idnd, ' to bring,' root ^ Id, Aorist, i^^i Idwi or tj-*^ Id^e. 2. "When the aorist ends in o, the letter w is optionally inserted, or the general rule may be observed, or the initial vowels of the termination may all vanish, as will be seen in the verb hond, which we are about to subjoin. Lastly, when the root ends in e, the letter w may be inserted between the root and those terminations which begin with e, or the w being omitted, the final e of the root is absorbed in the terminations throughout. Thus UjJ dend, 'to give,' root t^J de, Aorist, deiin, dewe, dewe ; dewen de,o, dewen ; or, contracted, ddn, de, de ; den, do, den. It is needless to add that the future and imperative of all such verbs are subject to the same modification. With regard to the respectful form of the imperative and future, we see at once that it comes from the root by adding iye, iyo, or iyegd ; if, however, the root happens to end in the long vowels i or ii, the letter j is inserted between the root and the termination. Thus L-j pind, ' to drink/ root, pi, respectful form, pijiye, p'ljiyo, and pijiyegd. 48 THE VERB 'to BE,* 39. We now come to the verb \j^ hond, * to be, or become,' which, being of frequent occurrence, is worthy of the reader's attention. It is perfectly regular in the formation of all its tenses, etc., and conjugated precisely like holnd, already given. The past participle changes the of the root into u, instead of retaining the o and inserting the euphonic 2/ (No. 36), thus V^ hu,d, ^been or become,' not lyb hot/ a; so the respectful imperative is huji;i/e, etc. ; but these slight peculiarities do not in the least affect the regularity of its conjugation, as will be seen in the paradigm. Infinitive, \j^ hond, ^ To be, or become.' Eoot^ ho, present participle \j^ hotd, past participle \^ hu,a. Aorist. * I may, or shall be, or become.' ijy^" IJA?^ cLt^ main IiOfiin, or hon. Jb- cftto- <-?jy^ y ^^ howe, ho,e or ho. •Jb- t^tto- i-^y^ h ^^^ howe, ho,e, or ho, 4j5^" iji'i^' ijij?y^ (^ ^^^ howen, ho,en, or hon. Jb- ji& tii turn ho,o or ho. d>J^" crf^' d^«-y^ ^^ ^^ howen, ho,en, or hon. Futitre. *I shall or will be, or become.* ICjjJb- Kjjiyb j-*^ main hojiingd, or hiingd. l^- l^. lib- ^l 9>^ y ^^ howegd, ho, eg a, or ^o^rf. l^ib- l>y.tA- ^.jy^ ^j ^^^ howegd, ho,egd, or Ao^a. Joyb- Joj t&- j<^. 5^ (*-^ A^^ howenge, ho,enge, or Aow^a , -S^fc- «;^»ti> ^* ^wm ho,oge, or Ac|^«. lJ^'J^' lJ^J^" iJ^'^T^ *-^J ^*' ^^^^^i ho,enge, or A<>n^«- THE VERB 'to BE.* 49 Imperative. Let me be, be thou," etc. •ib- /oj^*^ Mt^* ^**^ ho-ikk, or ]ion. ^ y til ho. \i^ yi,- lJ^' ^J^ h ^^^ Jiowe, ho ,6,, or Ap 4ii^" dJ^'J^" iji*3^ f^ ^^^ Ao«^^w, Ao-6^w, or hon. jJ&- j^ aj turn ho,o, or ^o. Mt^" iji^' d^.J>>^ 4^J ^^ how en y ho, en, or Aow. *I am, I might be, I used to be, or become.' >Jb ham fU^ mam !fj wuh hotd. LS^y aJ turn ^3 ^^ Ut^ Present. *1 am, or I become,' etc, • jjfe byb ^-^ main hotd hiih. ^ \j^ y til hotd hai. |Jfc \j^ ^J w7wA Ao^' tum t^j we lU,t 60 IHJB VEKB 'TO BK.' Terftci. *I have become/ tiU, Singular. ' I*' ^ •• T. / . • ^yb ufe \^ mam hu,a nun. Jb \Jb J ik h^,d hat, jJb \y^ Sj wuh hiijd hat. *j^ mam Iff 1^1 y~ tu \M,dthd. il wuh Plural. jj-Jb t,^ aA ham hu,e hain, 9 9 i^ji^ uJ^ lS^ ^^ ^^>^ hain. Phperfeet. *I had become/ etc. t ftib ham \ L5^ u?^ < /J turn \ hu,e the, [ ijj we ] Respectful Imperative, etc. i^-*5»- *ib hiijiye, y^^ hkjiyo^ or \>w*-.:>-jji kkjiyegd, be pleased to be, or to become.' Infinitive, or Verbal Noun. li jjb Aowd, ' being/ hone-kd, etc., ' of being.' JVbwn o/ Agency or Condition. ^i*-Jyb honewdln, that which is, or becomes.* Participles. Pros. Uyb Ao^i, or V^ b^ Ao^a Att,^, being, becoming.' Past. \^ hitfd, ' been, or become.* Conjunctive Participle. i^yb ^^ ^ ho, hoTca/r, hoTce, etc., * having been, or become.' Adverbial Participle. ^ ^Jy» hote-M, on being, or becoming.' a. We may here observe that the aorist, future, and indefinite of byb hand, * to be,' are sometimes used as auxiliaries with the present and past participles of other verbs, so as to give us three additional tenses. These, from their nature, are not of very frequent occurrencej and some forms of them we confess we have never met with in any work, printed or manuscript, except in grammars. They are, how- ever, considered as distinct parts of the verb by native grammarians, ADDITIONAL TENSES. 51 therefore it is but right that they should find a place here. We therefore snbj in them, together with their native appellations, re- serving the account of their use and applicatioa till we come to tne Syntax. 1 . H^dl^ mutashaikif literally; ' present dubious.' English — * I may or shall be speaking.' uJ^yb- i^^y^ ^y, (j--^ »wa«'w boltd ho,i,n or hOfinngd, iLj^b- lS}^ ^y y t"^ holtd howe or howegd. -^y^" ^3i^ ^^ *J ^^^ holtd howe or ho»joegd. L5^-?y^' vl'i-?y^ Li^^ (*^ ^^"^ ^^^^^ Aozrew or Twwenge, iS^^' j^ L5^^ f*"* ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^>^ ^^ ho,oge. L5^«-?y^' (i^-jy* L5^-?^ ^J *^^ ^^^^^ A(W^ or howmge. 2. .3/y^ V y ^^ ^'^^^ ^^^^ ^^ howegd. ..jy^" ^rL?y^ ^^ ^ *^^^ ^''^^ ^^"'^ ^' howegd. iXjjyb- J;ijy^ lJ^ (^ ^^''w* ^ofo AoM?«i or howenge„ ^y^- jpi> iJy /J ^wm 5o?e Ao,o or ho,oge. jJ^jjJb- jjijjJ^ (Jy c5^ M'^ hole howen or howenge. 3. Jf(£z4 shartiya or wazS ?ww^a?wawwi. Pa«^ Conditional. English — Had I been speaking,' or * had I spoken.* / ^j-^ mam byi jy ^ 'jyb ^j^ I y ^M I holtd hotd, ot hold hoU. \ Sj wuh IMfSb ham ^ mm { holte hoUt, or hU h^* iJj we 62 TRANSITIVE VERBS. h. Of these three tenses, the first is of rare occurrence ; the iecond is more common, and the future form o! the auxiliary is more usual than the aorist in hoth tenses. The third tense, or past conditional, is of very rare occurrence under the above form, its place being generally supplied by the simpler form liy^ ^^ main boltd, the first of the tenses from the present participle, which on account of its various significations we have given under the appellation of the Indefinite Tense. In the Father of Hindustani Grammars,' that of Dr. Gilchrist, 4to. Calcutta, 1V96, and also in two native treatises in our possession, the various forms main boUd,' main loltd hotdj' ' main boltd h{i,d Tiotd,^ and main bold hotd,'' are all included under the appellation of mdzk sharti, or mdzi mutamanni, that is. Past Conditional.' It is true, the form main boltd' has occasionally a present signification, but to call it a present tense, as is done in some of our grammars, is leading the student into a gross error, as we shall shew hereafter. 40. We shall now give an example of a transitive verb, which, as we have already hinted, is liable to a peculiarity in those tenses which are formed from the past participle. The full explanation of this anomaly belongs to the Syntax. Suffice it here to say that the construction resembles to a certain extent the passive voice of the corresponding tenses in Latin. Thus for example, the sentence, ' He has written one letter,' may in Latin, and in most European tongues, be expressed in two different ways, by which the assertion amounts to exactly the same thing, viz., ' Ille unam epistolam scripsiV or * Ab illo una epistola scripta esV Now these two modes of expression convey the same idea to the mind, but in Hindustani the latter form only is allowed ; thus * us-ne ek chitKi likKi hai^'' literally, ' by him one letter has been written.' Hence, in Hindustani those tenses pf ^ transitive verb which are formed from the past CONJUGATION OF A TRANSITIVE VERB. 53 participle, will have their nominative cases changed into that form of the ablative expressive of the agent. What ought to be the accusative of the sentence will become the real nominative, with which the verb agrees accord- ingly, except in some instances when it is requisite that the accusative should have the particle Jco affixed, in which case the verb is used in its simplest form of the masculine singular, as we have given it below. a. It is needless to say that in all verbs the tenses from the root and present participle are formed after the same manner, and the peculiarity above alluded to is limited to transitive verbs only,— and to only four tenses of these, — which it is particularly to be wished that the student should well remember. In the following verb, lijt* mdrnd, to beat or strike,' we have given all the tenses in ordinary use, together with their various oriental appellations, as given in a treatise on Hindustani Grammar, compiled by a munshi in the service of Mr. Chicheley Plowden. It is a folio volume, written in Hindustani, but without author's name, date, or title. Infinitive (masdar) IjJU mdrnd^ ' To beat.' iU mar, * beat thou ; bjt« mdrtd, * beating'; \j\^ mdrd, 'beaten.' 1. TENSES OF THE ROOT I Aorist {mmdrV). Singular. ^^U» ^\j^ I may beat. i^J^ y thou mayst beat. <^U Sj he may beat. UsJ^'w« ^^ I shall or will beat. uojUt y thou shalt or will beat. Plural. ^2^ jt« ^ we may beat. jjU >j you may beat. j^jU (^ they may beat. Future {mustaTcbil). jXjjjL* >ji> we shall or will beat. ^^VjjU aJ you shall or will UjjU if he shall or will beat. 1 ^_^,jU tjrj they shall or M-iJ beat, y sh? beut. 64 CONJUGATION OF A TRANSITIVE VEEB. ImperatHo {amr). Singular. Plural. ^^U ^^-^ let me beat. sv yi beat thou. fc^U *j let him beat. ^2^jU *Jb let UB beat. jjU -J beat ye or yoiL J. J jU 1^^ let them beat Respectful form — MdriyBf mdrtyo, or mdriyegd. 2. TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE : — Indefinite, or Past Conditional fmd%l sharti or mdzi mutamannij. ^J ^j^ I beat, etc. U^U ij he beats. lj^t« y thou beatest. tJ^U >Jb we beat. iJ^U ^' ye beat. (J;U tJj they beat. Present {Ml). ^j^ \J;U ^\py« I am beating. j^ IjjU y thou art beating ^Jb ujU ^ he is beating. l^ Ij^U (j-^ I was beating. Iff bjU y thou wast beating If! \jj\y* ij he was beating. dr?^ cj;^ A^i we are beating. yi» cJ; t« w you are beating. c^ 4j;U t^j they are beating Imperfect (istimrdri). ^ i^ ^'^''^ *^ \j\^ " V% \mdrd LU ^ ^ \ ^ ^ til ne \ < ci /*^' ^Mw ne ^" , ( Ma. "^- •. ^' P«s^ Dubious {mdzi mashlcuTc). English — *I shall have beaten,' i.e. 'it shall have been beaten by me, thee,' etc. ^ dr?^ ma%n ne sir tk ne mdrd hogd. l^ ^J, tfib ham ne (J A.J* turn ne ti (jyg^ US ne J V S:^ c;' ^'^ ^^ All the other parts formed as in the verb bolnd. 41. We have now, we trust, thoroughly explained the mode of conjugating a Hindustani verb. There is no such thing as an irregular verb in the language ; and six words only are slightly anomalous in the formation of the past participle, which last being known, the 66 ANOMALOUS PAST PARTICIPLES. PAST PARTICIPLES. various tenses unerringly follow according to rule. We here subjoin the words to which we allude, together with their past participles. INFINITIVES. Ijl^j* j'dnd, To go UJi karnd, to do \jj^ marnd, to die l3y& hond, to be L> J dend, to give Lj lend, to take Singular. Mas. Fern. \^ gayd ^ ga.k. \S kiyd ^ hi Vy^ m{i,d ^y^ miifk V^ M,d ij-ji h{L,i bt> diyd ^c) di U Uyd J Ik Plural. Mas. Fem. ^ ga,e ^ ga,in . -A-^ ki.e '*^ kin V "y ^'\ i^y m{i,0 ^j^^y mii,m ^y h-dye (ItJ^ hiifkn i^x> J di,e ^ J din ^^^aJ lk,e ^ Un a. Of these, jdnd and marnd are neuter or intransitive, and con- jugated like lolnd. The conjugation of hond we have already given in full, and that of karnd, dend, and lend, is like mdrnd, ' to beat.* It vs^ould be utterly ridiculous, then, to call any of these an irregular verb ; for, at the very utmost, the deviation from the general rule is not so great as in the Latin verbs, do, dedi, datum ; or cerno, crevi, etc., which no grammarian would on that account consider as irregular. I. The peculiarities in the past participles of hond, dend,^ and lend, are merely on the score of euphony. The verb jdnd takes its infinitive and present participle evidently from the Sanskrit root ^T yd, the y being convertible into j, as is well known, in the modem tongues of Sanskrit origin. " Again, the past participle gayd, seems to have arisen from the root ^^>., which also denotes * to go.' In the case of karnd, to do, make,' it springs naturally enough from the modified form kar, of the root ^ kri, and at the same time there would appear to have been another infinitive, kind, directly from the Sanskrit root, by changing the ri into i, ; hence the respectful impe- rative of this verb has two forms, kariye and kiji^e, while the past participle kiyd comes from kind, the same as pvyd from jsind, ' to The verb dend makes dij'iye, etc., and lend, Ujiye, etc., in the respectful imperative JPASSIVE VOIC^. 57 drink.' Lastly, marnd, mar, is from the modified form of 1^ mri ; at the same time the form mttwa, whence miL,d, may have been in use ; for vre know that in the Prakrit, which is a connecting link between the Sanskrit and the present spoken tongues of Northern India, the Sanskrit vowel ri began to be generally discarded, and frequently changed into u, and the Prakrit participle is mudo, for the Sanskrit mrito ; just as from the Sanskrit verbal noun prichhana, we have the Hindustani ^McMwa, to ask,' through the Prakrit ^wcMawa. 42. Passive Voice. — In Hindustani the use of the passive voice is not nearly so general as it is in English and other European languages. It is regularly formed by employing the past (or passive) participle of an active or transitive verb along with the neuter verb liU- jdnd^ 'to go,' or ^ to be.' The participle thus employed is subject to the same inflection or variations as an adjective purely Indian {v. page 33), ending m\ a. Of the verb jidnd itself, we have just shown that its past participle is gayd^ which of course will run through all the tenses of the past participle, as will be seen in the following paradigm. Infinitive, UU- )jU mdrd jdnd^ ^To be beaten.' Imperative, \:>- \j\^ mdrdjd, * be thou beaten.' Present Participle, \j\>- \j\^ mdrdjdtd, ' being beaten.' Past Participle, L^ \J^ mdrd gayd, ' beaten.' TENSES OF THE ROOT. Aorist. Plural. ^j^jU" uf )U AJb we may be Singular. ^j^l5>" l^U ^^p^ I may be beaten. i^j^ i>^ y ^^°^ mayest be beaten. beaten beaten. jU- lJj^ (J you may be beaten. beaten. 58 PASSIVE VOICK. I\Uure. Biiunilar. \{w»^U- !jU ^^j-J« I shall or will be beaten. UJ^lsf- \jU» y thou shalt or wilt be beaten. Iwjlflj- l^U ij he shall or will be beaten. j^U>- ]^U ^%--^ let me be beaten. Uj- 5^U y be thou beaten. j^lsf- \j\^ Kj let him be Piuial. j^iJjlsj- <^;»^ j*^ we shaJl of will be beaten. LtJ^ uf^fU aJ you shall or will be beaten. will be beaten. Imperative. beaten. jjjjU- (^U ^ let us be beaten. jc>- i^j^ (W be ye beaten. d^J^ u^U ti;; let them be beaten. TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. Conditional. IjU- V,U ;j^^\ if I be, or had been, beaten. \j\s^ \jl* J J\ if thou be, or hadst been, beaten. IjIsj- i^U «^ j^l if he be, or had been, beaten. tjlsj- tJ?;^ (*^ ^"^^ if we be, or i »d been, beaten. tiU- iJ?;^ f' f^ if you be, or had been, beaten. vjlsj- ^J^ u^ ^^ if they be, or Lad been, beaten. Present. . yb \}Ip- ^U ^2j^ I am being beaten. Jb IjIsj- !^^y thou art being beaten. Jb ISUf- \;t« i![^ he is being beaten. ^^ iS^ ^.jj^ (^ we are be- ing beaten. yb ci^- 4-£;^ (*^ yeu are be- ing beaten. cT!^ ciW" ^sL'^ Sr^ they are be- ing l^eaten. PASSIVE VOICSE. Imperfect. 59 Singular. l^* b'U- \j\^ ^.^ 1 was beaten or being beaten. l^* b'ls*- \j\^ y thou wast beaten. l^' b'lsj- \j\^ Sj he was beaten. Plural. , Jj ^U- u^jU j^a we were Deaten. i^ A we have been beaten. fi ,^_jls ^U aJ you have been beaten. dw^Lf^*-^^ *-0 they have been beaten. Pluperfect. \^ *\^ \j\^ \^ I had been beaten. l^ L^ \jU y thou hadst been beaten. l^ ^)»^ ^j he had been beaten. a. Muhammad Ibrahim Munshi, the author of an excellent Hin- dustani grammar entitled ' Tuhfae Elphinstone,' printed at Bombay, 1823, would seem to conclude that the Hindustani has no passive voice at all. He says, p. 44, Dr. Gilchrist and Mr. Shakspear arfc of opinion that there is a passive voice in Hindustani, formed by com- pounding the past participle of ictive verbs with the verb Ijlsj-; but ^^ f^^ lSj^ /»^ we had been beaten. ^5^' L5^ ^j^ (^ y®^ ^^^ ^^^^ beaten. LS^ LS^ ^J^ S^ they had been beaten. 60 PASSIVE VOICB. the primitive signification of this verb (' to go') seems so irreconcileabie with the simple stnte of being,' as to render it improbable that it could ever be used in the same manner as the substantive verbs of other languages." Now, the fact is, that the worthy Munshf is carried too far, principally from a strong propensity to have a slap at his brother grammarians, Messrs. Gilchrist and Shakespear, whom he hits hard on every reasonable occasion ; and, in addition to this, the passive voice in his native language is of rare occurrence. But there is undoubtedly such a thing as a regular passive voice occasionally to be met with, and it is formed with the verb l) 1=^ j'dnd, * to go,' as an auxiliary. Nor is the connection of j and, to go,' with the passive voice so very irreconcileahle as the Munshi imagines. In Gaelic, the very same verb, viz., ' to go,' is used to form the passive voice, though in a different manner, the verbal noun denoting the action being used as a nominative to the verb *to go;' thus the phrase, "he was beaten," is in Gaelic literally " the beating of him went," i. e., ' took place,' which is not very remote from the Hindustani expression. Again, in Latin, the phrase, '*I know that letters will be written," is expressed by "Scio literas scriptum iri," in which the verb to go,' enters as an auxiliary : to say nothing of the verb veneo {ven + eo), to be sold.' h. We have seen in the conjugation of mdrnd, ' to beat,' that those tenses which spring from the past participle, have a construction similar to the Latin passive voice. This construction is always used when the agent is known and expressed ; as ^ \jV* dj^ <-^J ci ^V** U**^ U8 sipdhi-ne eh mard mdrd hai, ' that soldier has beaten a man,' or (more literally) ' by that soldier a man has been beaten.' Again, if the agent is unknown or the assertion merely made in general terms, the regular form of the passive is used ; as, ek mard mdrd gay a, ' a man has been beaten,' and even this might be more idiomatically expressed by saying ek mard-ne mar khd,k hai, a man has suffered a beating.* e. One cogent reason why the passive voice does not frequently occur in Hindustani is, that the language abounds with primitive simple verbs of a passive or neuter signification which are rendered active by certain modifications which we are about to state. Thus LJl5>- jahid signifies ' to bum,' or *take fire,' in a neuter sense; and becomes an active or transitive verb by inserting the vowel \ d, between DERIVATIVE VERB3. 61 the root and the termination li nd of the infinitive as, l3l5»- jaldnd, to kindle or set on fire ;' and this becomes causal or doubly transitive by assuming the form ^\j^ jalwdnd, to cause to be set on fire/ as will be more amply detailed in the next paragraph. DERIVATIVE VERBS. 43. In ffindustani a primitive verb, if neuter, is ren- dered active, as we have just hinted, by certain modifica- tions of, or additions to, its root. In like maimer, an active verb may, by a process somewhat similar, be rendered causal or doubly transitive. The principal modes in which this may be effected are comprised under the following RuUa. 1. By inserting the long vowel \ d between thejoot and the U nd of the infinitive of the primitive verb ; thus, from L^j pahnd, — a neuter verb, ' to grow ripe,' 'to be got ready' (as food), — becomes \j\Li paMnd (active), ' to ripen, or make ready,' 'to cook.' Again, this active verb may be rendered causal or doubly transitive by inserting the letter • w between the root and the modified termination \j\ dnd; thus, from Ijl^ pahdnd, 'to make ready,' inserting the letter j w, we get the causal form l3 ^^o pahwdnd, to cause (another) to make (any thing) ready.' To show the use of the three forms of the verb, we wiU add a few plain examples. 1. ^ib l::^ 1)1^ Tchdnd paUd hai, 'the dinner is getting ready, cooking, or being cooked.' 2. ^Jb lj"lio Ul^ is^jV hdwarchi hhdnd pakdtd hai, the cook is ( himself) cooking the dinner or food;' 3. ^ Iji^ \j\^ J\dj\^i^ mihmdnddr hhdnd pahwdtd hai, ' the host is causing dinner to be cooked.' These examples show the copiousness of the Hindustani verb as compared with the English. For whereas we are obliged to employ the same verb both as neuter and active, like the word cooking ' in the first and second examples, ^the Hindustani has a distinct expression for each. And the form \j\(^ pakwdnd in the last example is much more neat and concise 62 DERIVATIVB VERBS. than the English 'is having,' 'i» getting,' or is causing* the dinner (to be) * cooked.' In like manner, the neuter \:Xs^ j'alnd, * to burn,' jaldnd, *to kindle,' and jalwdnd, to cause to be kindled ;' for example, hattiJaUi hat, 'the candle burns;' a man will say to his servant, hatti- ho jaldo, * light the candle (yourself),' but he may say to his munshf, hatti-h j'alwdo, * cause the candle to be lit (by others).* 2. "When the root of the primitive verb is a monosyllable with any of the long vowels \ d, j o or {i, and ,^ e or i, the latter are shortened in the active and causal forms, that is, the \ of the root is displaced by fatha, the j by zowwa, and the i^ by kasra ; as, U^U- j'dgnd, * to be awake,' UUi*- jagdnd, 'to awaken,' or 'rouse up,' \j\^^ jagwdndy * to cause to be roused up;' US4J lolndy 'to speak,' UL huldnd, 'to call,' UljL hulwdnd, 'to cause to be called, to send for;' so U^ hhiilndf 'to forget,' l)^ hhuldnd, 'to mislead,' Ijl^i^ hhulwdnd, 'to cause to be misled;' \i3j letnd, to lie down,' liliJ litdnd, 'to lay down,* Ijl^ll litwdnd, 'to cause to be laid down;' LLf hUgnd, 'to be wet,' Ul^ hUgdnd, 'to wet, U^^^ lUgwdnd, 'to cause to be made wet.' When the vowel-sound of the root consists of the strong diphthongs • 1 au, and ^ C ai, these undergo no change, and con- sequently such words faU under Kule 1 ; as, Ijjj J daurnd, to run,' Uljji daurdnd; \jj^^ pairndy 'to swim,' l3]^ pairdnd. The verb li^iLj haithnd, 'to sit,' makes Ulfb 5»YArfw(i or UI^ILj laithdndf 2l'&o \j£fj Uthldndy etc. Vide No. 4, below. 3. A numerous class of neuter verbs, having a short vowel in the last syllable of the root, form the active by changing the short voveel into its corresponding long ; that \% fatha becomes 1 a ; as zamma becomes J 0^ (or A), and hmra becomes ^ e (or k) : as, lib palnd, ' to » The forms « and are by fer the most common ; the / and li comparatirelj rare. DERIVATIVE VERBS. 63 thrive, CfV be nourished,' Ul> pdhd, *to nourish;* Li^ hhutnd, *to open (of itself' ), U^ ^Wwa, *to open (anything).* These form their causals regulariy, according to Eule 1; as, ^\^ khuhcdnd, *to cause (another) to open (any thing).' 4. A few verbs add l)^ Idnd to the root, modified as in Eule 2 •. thus, \\\(y..^ s'lkhndy 'to learn,' UI^Lj sihhdnd, and l3^1JL*j sikhldnd^ 'to teach;' Ul^ Tchdnd, 'to eat,' U^ Mildnd, to feed;' U^ «owa, * to sleep,' \j'L^ suldnd, ' to lull (asleep) ;' lv{V.«,> haithnd, to sit.' to be placed,' has a variety of forms, viz., hithdnd, haithdnd, hithldnd^ and laithldnd ; also laithdlnd and haithdrnd, to cause to sit,' ' to set,' or cause to be seated.' 5. The following are formed in a way peculiar to themselves : — ^iio UJcnd, 'to be sold,' lirs^ hechnd, *to sell;* \lSbj rahnd, 'to stay,* liZ. rahhnd, 'to keep, or place;* Lj*!) ^A^wci, 'to burst,' 'to be broken,' UfJ tornd, 'to break;' lv%"v- chhutnd, to cease,' to go off (as a musket, etc.), Ijj^^^ chhornd, to let off,* to let go;' LSfj phatndj ' to be rent,' l}Jlf> ^A^f/wrf, ' to rend,' l^Jj^ phiiind, ' to crack, or split,' IjJ^ phornd, ' to burst open ' (actively). 6. Verbs are formed from substantives or adjectives by adding \j\ dnd or IJ nd; as from Jl> pdni, 'water,' liUiJ paniydndj 'to irrigate;' so from \jy^, 'wide,' chawdnd, ' to widen.* A few in- finitives spring, as Hindustani verbs, regularly from Arabic and Persian roots, by merely adding \j nd. If the primitive word be a monosyllable ending with two consonants, a fatha is inserted between the latter, on adding the l) nd ; as from {jmJj tars, ' fear, pity,' comes L-y taras-nd, ' to fear ;' so from jjl lam, ' trembling,' \jjj laraz-nd ; and from iJL.yssr hahs, argument,' lahas-nd, to dispute,' etc. General Rule. — Primitive words consisting of two short syllables, the last of which is formed by the vowel fatha^ on the accession of an additional syllable beginning 64 COMPOUND VERI^S. with a vowel, whether for the purpose of declension, con- jugation, or derivation, reject the fatha of the second syllable. Conversely, primitive words ending in two consecutive consonants, on adding a verbal termination beginning with a consonant, generally insert a fatha between ^Jjo two consonants, as we have just seen in Eule 6. COMPOUND VERBS. 44. The Hindustani is peculiarly rich in compound verbs, though it must be admitted that our grammarians have needlessly enlarged the number. "We shall, how- ever, enumerate them all in the following list, and, at the same time, point out those which have no title to the appellation. Compound verbs are formed in various ways, as follows : — I. FROM THE ROOT. 1. Ii^TENsrvKS, BO Called from being more energetic in signification than tte simple verb. Bx. Ul 3 jU mdr-ddlnd, * to kill outright,' from L"»t« mdrnd, 'to strike,' and Ulj ddlnd, *to throw down;' lij J ^j rakh-dend, ' to set down,' from U^ rahhnd, ' to place,' and UjJ dend, ' to give ; l)U- l^ Ichd-jdnd, * to eat up,' from \j\^ khdnd, 'to eat,' and UU- jdnd, 'to go,' etc. The main peculiarity of an intensive vsrb is, that the second member of it has, practically speaking, laid aside its own primary signification, while at the same time the sense of the first member is rendered more emphatic, as in our own verbs ' to run off,' to march on,' to rush away,' etc. ; thus, wuh MtM par se gir-pa/rdy ' he fell down from off (or, as the Hin- dustani M^ it, more logically, from upon) the elephant.' 2. r>'^FTiALS, formed with L^ Boknd, 'to be able;' as UL-j Jy lol-sahno, * to be able to sv^eak,* li^ Is*- jd-salcndy * to be able to go/ COMPOUND VERBS. 65 etc. The using the root of a verb in composition with saknd in all its tenses may be viewed as the potential mood of such verb ; thus, main bol-aaUd hun, * I am able to speak,' or ' I can speak;' so main hol-sakd, * I could speak.' 3. CoMPLETivES, formed with \:Ss>- chuknd, ' *to have done;' as \Ss>- \^ khd-chuhnd, 'to have done eating,' \:Jj>- ^ Uhh-chuhnd, * to have finished writing.' The root of a verb with the future of chuknd, is considered, very properly, as the future perfect of such root; thus, jah main likh-chukiingd, when I shall have done writing,' that is, ' when I shall have written,' postquam scripsero.' So, agar main likh-chukiin, ' if I may have written, or h«ve done writing,' * si scripserim.' n. FROM THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 1. CoNTiNUATivEs, as IjU- li^ haUd jdnd, or L&j l::*^ hakfdrahnd, to continue chatting.' This is no^ a legitimate compound verb ; it is merely a sentence, the present participle always agreeing with the nominative in gender and number, as, wuh mard haktdjdtd Jiai, that man goes on chatting ;' we mard hakte jdte hain, ' these men go on chatting;' wuh randi haUkjdtk hai, * that woman goes on chatting.' 2. Statisticals, \j\ ^"^ gdte dnd, 'to come singing,' or 'in singing ;' Ujjj i^JJ ^^^"^ daurnd, ' to run crying.' Here the present participle always remains in the inflected state, like a substantive of the third class, having the post-position men, in,' understood, hence this is no compound verb properly speaking. m. FROM THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 1. Feequentatives : Ijji \j\^ mdrd-karnd, to make a practice beating;' UJi \}\s>- jdyd-kdrnd, to make a practice of going.' 2. Desideeatives, as Liil^. ^^ hold-chdhnd, ' to wish, or to be about, or like to speak.' rV. FROM SUBSTANTIVES OR ADJECTIVES, HENCE TERMED NOMINALS. From substantives, as fi:om ^^ jo^t collection/ U^ CT^ 5 66 COMPOUND YERBS. fiwn' kamd, * to collect, or bring together,' and \jyt> ^^*^ j'om' hond, ' to be collected, or come together ;' also from i^^ ^o!5a, * a plunge,* IjjU iio^ ghota mdrnd, 'to dive,' 1)1^ - Ujj holnd cJidVndj to converse;' but the use of these is generally confined to tenses of the present participle, or the conjunctive participle ; and they are not regularly conjugated, for the auxiliary is added to the last only, as we holte cMlte Jiain, not holte ham chdlte hain, ' they converse (chit-chat) together ;' so hol-chdl-kar, not hol-har chdl-kar, ' having conversed.' Those which are called Inceptives, Permissives, Acquisitives, etc., given in most grammars, are not pro- perly compound verbs, since they consist regularly of two verbs, the one governed by the other, in the inflected form of the Infinitive, according to a special rule of Syntax ; as, 12 ,c^^ ^ wuh lolne lagd, 'he began to say;' Jb \zj<^ S^^ ^ ^^^ J^'^^ ^^^^ ^^^> *^® gives (permission) to go;' ^Jb Ij'b (JU- Sj wuh jdne pdtd ^a*, 'begets (permission) to go ; ' all of which expressions are mere sentences, and not compound verbs. h. Hence the compound verbs in the Hindustani language are really five in number, viz. : the Intensive, Potential, Completive, Frequentative and Desiderative. In these, the first part of the compound remains unchanged throughout, while the second part is always conjugated in the usual way. But among such of the nominals as are lormed of an adjective vdth a verb, the adjective will agree in gender with the object of the verb, unless the concord be cut off by ^ ko. Thus : ^ ufj^ u-?;^ 90'r} hhark kar^ ox ^ \j^ ^ ^j€ gdri- ko khardkar, 'stop "the carriage.' In the latter case only can the verb IjJ^ \^ khard-karnd be regarded as belonglu^ to the class of compounds. 67 SECTION lY. ON THK INDECLINABLE PARTS OF SPEECH CARDINAL AND ORDINAL NUMBERS — DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS. I. ADVERBS. 45. The adverbs in Hindustani, like the substantives, adjectives, and verbs, are to be acquired mainly by practice. Hence it would be a mere waste of space to swell our volume with a dry detached list of such words, which in all probability no learner would ever peruse. We shall therefore notice only those which have any peculiarity in their character or formation. As a general rule, most adjectives may be used adverbially when requisite, as is the case in German, and often in English. A series of pure Hindustani adverbs of frequent use is derived from five of the pronouns, bearing to each other a similar relation, as will be seen in the following table. Dr. Gilchrist's old pupils will no doubt recollect with what pains the learned Doctor used to impress upon them the necessity of learning this ^quintuple series,' or, as he called it, ^ The philological harp.' a. Adjectives and adjective pronouns, when used adverbially, remain uninflected in the simplest form, viz., that of the nominative singular masculine ; as, ^J^ l:;^ l^\ '■^^•V^ ^J ^^^ laliut achcJiM Uhhtd hai, ' he writes very well.' This is exactly the rule in German, * er schreibt sehr gut.' In the following series, accordingly, number8 5, 6, and 7, are merely the adjective or iiidefinite pronouns, formerly enumerated, employed as adverbs. 68 H g 5 I' 1 3 * ^ r QUINTUPLE SERIES. 'Q "O J ^^> J^l ^ If a OJ r^ s I— I 1 3 :s •s -^ |,rt|Ji-J;,J'.J; '^ ^ ^ ^1> 1 J^%-^ ^ .'J 1 S I I a t ^ 1 -J 's -§' f y -l^^^"^ J ^5^5=3 ^j' 00 ADYBBBS. 69 a. From the first class we have other adverbs rendered more smphatic by the addition of jJb M, etc. Thus: ^^\ ahhi, just now/ i_5^ kahM, ^^ kahhib, or ^'^ JcadM, ' ever,' etc. Erom the second class, by changing ^ dn into •jj iw ; thus, (jtl-v^ yaMuj ex- actly here,' ,^;»^ hahih, 'whereabouts, somewhere,' etc. Trom the fourth, by adding j^ Un ; ,^j^^i yiinMuj 'in this very way,' ^^^j w&nMn, ' thereupon, at that very time, exactly, the same m before,' etc. b. From among these may also be formed, by means of post- positions, etc., a number of useful compounds ; as CSj c->t ab-talc, or cl^b" c-jI ah-talah, ' till now ;' lISj k— ^ hah-tah, * till when,' etc. i ^^ lstt^ ^«Mi Aa5A2, ' sometimes ; ' ^^^ ^ l5^ ^«M4 na kabU, ' some time or other •' ^*^' ^l^ Jahdn tahdh^ here and there ;' {1P^ (1)W^ y^Aa^ ^dAm, ' wherever ;' ^>>^jj^ «wr kahih, ' somewhere else ;' i<^ '^r'^ i^^ ^«iAi, ' whenever ;' ^ ^yS kyiin kmr, * how ?' c. A. few adverbs of time have a twofold signification, i.e. past or future, according to circumstances ; thus, Ji kal, to-morrow, or yesterday ;' ^j^jJ parson, the day after to-morrow, or the day before yesterday ;' J;^-jy tarson, the third day from this, past, or to come ;' ^y^y narson, * the fourth day from this.' The time is restricted to past or future by the tenses of the verb and by the context of the sentences in which such words are found. d. Many adverbs occur from the Arabic and Persian languages ; as \iLi> kazdrd (or .l^Ldi kazdkdr), 'by chance,' from Uijj kazd, 'fate,' etc., and \j rd, the sign of the objective case ; <)jjjC>- chigiina, ' how ;' i^j\i bdre, 'once, at last;' Ifc^b JdrM (pi.), 'often (times);' JoL^ shdyad, perhaps (Hindustani ^ ^ ^ ho to ho, it may be) ;' }i\y6^ ii\^ ^ hhwdh na Tchwdh, volens-nolens, positively, at all events •' Sj^ J wa ghaira, ' et-cetera,' etc. ; kiii fakat, ' merely, finis.' e. Adverbs purely Arabic occur chiefly as follows: 1. Simply a noun with the article ; thus, iUlziill alkissa (literally, ' the story ') ; and ^J^\ algharaz (literally, 'the end, purport,' etc.), 'in short;' JW! nJMl (the y/esent), 'at this time;' i^\ albatta^ 'certainly;' etc 70 PREPOSITIONS. 2. The Arabic noun in the accusative case, marked with the termina- tion 1- an (p. 20); thus, \i\sj\ ittifdkan, *by chance,' (from jUj^ itti/dk, fortune, accident,' eic); 'La] aalan (or L?i asld), *by no means ; * iLy* mislan, ' for example,' (from JL« mislf parable, similitude * ) ; \*cya:>^ khusiisan, ' especially,' etc. Lastly, a noun with a proposition ; as, Jxilb bi-l-Ji*l, 'in fact;' J Is' \ ^J Ji-l-hdlf (in the present), jys^ \ ^J fi-l-fawr (in the heat), all signifying ' instantly, immediately ; ' \jl^'sua^ \ ^ Ji-l-haUkat (in truth), really ; * ^J*J^^ ya^nk, that is to say, to wit, viz.' / Many adverbial expressions occur consisting of a pronoun and substantive governed by a simple postposition understood, as, —Ja ^jwj is tarah, *in this manner ;' —Jb ,j*S Us tarah, ' how ? ' etc. ; ,Ja«j\j ^j-*^ his todste, why ? ' i.e. for what reason ? ' and so on, with many other words of which the adverbial use is indicated by the inflection of the accompanying pronoun. ff. The pluperfect participle may also very often be elegantly applied adverbially ; as, jL^iJb hanskar, laughingly,' j^j-^ soch- kar, deliberately,' from \iZjLjb hamnd, ' to laugh,' ^^^y^ sochnd, to think,' l^^ jL ^i.cJb (J (jm\ us-ne hanskar kahd, 'he laughingly (or having laughed) said.' n. PKEPOSITIONS. 46. The prepositions in Hindustani are mere sub- stantives iQ the locative case, having a postposition understood and sometimes expressed. Most of them are expressive of situation with regard to place, and thence figuratively applied to time, and even to abstract ideas. Hence as substantives, they all govern the geni- tive case, those of them which are masculine (forming the majority) require the word which they govern to have the postposition ^ he after it ; as, ^T ^ t^^ mard- ke age^ ^before the man,' literally, ^ in front of the man '; while those that are feminine require the word they govern to have ^ ki; as, uJ^ s/>rv-^ shahr-ki taraf, PEEPOSITIONS. 71 ' towards the city,' literally, ^ in the direction of the city.' It is optional to put the preposition before or after the noun which it governs ; thus in the foregoing example we might have said age mard-ke^ or mard-Jce age^ with equal propriety. The following is an alphabetical list of masculine prepositions requiring the nouns which they govern to have the genitive with he, for reasons explained in the beginning of the Syntax. ^^^ dge, before, in front. J Jul andar, within, inside. j^\ i-par, above, on the top. ci-%c.lj Ja'ts, by reason of. jitXi hdha/Tf or hdUr, without (not within.) ^^*lsr la-jd,e, instead. jj Jj hadle,OT^ ^ hadal, instead. wji^Jo bid'&n, without, except. y\ji bardhar, equal to, oppo- site to. i^\j hard,e, for, on account of. C/ Jaj ba'd, after (as to time). yJtj baghavr, without, except. 1^ bin, liJ bind, without, -^j b'lch, in or among. j\i pdr, over (other side). (jMi\j pds, by, near. .^^:s\> pkchhe, behind, in the rear, jjj tale, under, beneath. ^^j--u ta,in, to, up to. — jW- MArij, without, outside. jjU^J dar-miydn, in the midst, between, among. -^Lj sdth, with (in company). ^^x^Lj sdmhne, before, in front. c,>^«.o sabal^ by reason of. \y^ siwd or 8iwd,e, except. j^yi Hwaz, instead, for. J-o kaU, before, (time). iw^Oji Tcarkb, near. ^^ hane, near, with. J^ gird, round, around. ^-0 liye, for, on account of. tj£^L» mdre, through (in conse- quence of). ^ux^ mutdbik, conformable to. (j^\yt miidfih, according to. L--'C>-^ miijib, or c-.,c>-y4J Jtf- mujib, by means of. lIJoJ;} na%diTc, near. (^_jsnj wk^^, under, beneath. (' Ikhattr, for the sake of. ceming. L larah, after the manner LiJji ba-daulat, by means of. ^^' ^®- (^^ijff tarqf, towards. JA^ ha-madad, by aid of. . «- , . - ^ , i^:^^jX^ man/at, by, or through. >- yiAa^, on account of. ^(^hkn-to, otherwise. J-j ni%, also, likewise. J 0, J wa, and, but. jj war, for, ^J wa-gar, and if. <)jjj war-na, and if not, unless. ♦Jb Afltm, also, likewise. j>~jit) harchand, although. jyjb hanoz, yet, still. I) ya, or, either. dZjj\\ az las-U, since, for as much as. ^\ agar, ^ gar, if. t!o-^\ agarchi, although. \!,«1 ammd, but, moreover. ,^^ awr, and, also. d^ Jflt/^e, but, on the con- trary. ^ bhi, also, indeed. J par, but, yet. ^jj^ pas, thence, therefore. y to, then, consequently. - jahtak, until, while ^ yo, if, when. iCT JU- hdl-dnki, whereas, not- withstanding. i)\^ kkwdh, either, or. IV. INTEEJECTIONS. 48. These scarcely deserve the appellation of ^ part of speech ; ' we shall therefore content ourselves by enumerating a few of common occurrence. /pbUj shdhdsh (i. e. i^v jLij shdd hdsh,) * happiness or good luck to you!' ,jJ^iT dfrin blessings on you,' i\j !i\^ wdh wdh * admirable ! ' ^->^ ^ kyd Miib how excellent 1 * ^ J ^ J dhan-t 74 NUMERALS. dhan 'how fortunate!* ^^ ii\^ todhji, ^-fc CjIj L^ kyd hat hat 'what an affair !' all express joy, admiration and encouragement, like 'bravo' well done ! ' etc. But ijj t— >b bdp re (lit.f father) ' astonishing ! dreadful !' tJ*U ^^'U h,de h,de, or ^ -Jb hat hai, t^'lj i^*\j wd,e ipd,e, ibj t^*\J wd,e waild, ' alas, alas ! alackaday ! woe is me !' l::--Ji> haty Lj^ Lf^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^* ' ty^Q^, pshaw, pish, fie fie !' .J dwr, ' avaunt !' express sorrow, contempt, and aversion. ^^1 ai, ^\ o, ' Oh !' 4^ re or ^>jl ar^, holla you !' are used in calling attention : the two last in a disrespectful way. i^j re (m.) or ^jj ri (f.) agrees in gender with the object of address ; as, ,^j ^'^j launde re, you boy !' t^J^jl ^jj laundi ri, you girl !' NUMERALS. 49. The Hindustani numeral adjectives, ^ one,' ^ two,' ' three,' etc., up to a hundred, are rather irregular, at least in appearance, though it would not be very difficult to account for the seeming irregularity on sound etymological principles. This, however, would not greatly benefit the student, who must, in the meantime, learn them by heart as soon as he can. FIGUEES. NAMES. FIGURES. NAMES. 1 ABABIO. HTDIAS. CSA eh. 6 ABABIO. IWDIAW. <^5»- chha. \ \ 1 4 2 r "^ ^d do. 7 V ^ CjL sdt. 3 r 5? ^Jin. 8 A ■c ^J dth. 4 p 8 jU- chdr. 9 1 £^ y nau. 5 e ^ ^\jpdnck 10 w ^o {jMii das. NUMERALS 75 PIGUEBS. NAMES. FIGURES. NAMES. 11 ABABIO. iHsiur. ijlfi tffdrah. 31 ABABIO. IITDIAIT. jjo^l ««. w \\ r\ ^\ 12 \r ^"^ iSj\j hdrah. 32 rr ^"^ jjyw-:u hatia. 13 \r \^ ijZ Urah. 33 rr ^^ 14 \f \8 Xi^y>- eJuiudah. 34 rf- ^8 ^jtt^y>^ chautis. 15 U \^ !fj*^^ pandrah. 35 re V^ ^w;f..v^,,) paintis. 16 n 14 d^^ 86M. 36 n \\ 17 IV ^vQ ^^ satrah. 37 rv ^« o ^ ^M..%,u.o saintis. 18 u 1^= iij\^\ athdrah. 38 TA ^'^ {jM^j\ at Mis. 19 n \£- 9 39 ri ^^ (ja*JI:J1 ww^fi/is. 20 r* V U*^^ Ms. 40 f-^ 8« ^^U- - chauhis. 44 pjc 8tt ^^i^ chau,dUs. 25 re 1^1 ^j»^, paeMs. 45 PC 81i jjjk*JuLj paintdlis. 26 n M, 46 f1 84 jjmu-jL^:>- chhifdl'is. 27 rv ^-s ^juuJ'liUrf satd,is. 47 fv B^ (jyuJli^M-j saintdVis. 28 TA 'l'^ ^jj»j^''\^j\ athd,is. 48 PA «^ ^Jl^ji «^i^A^ti/i«. 29 n !^e_ ^^-sj^ untis. 49 PI «£- ^Wi unchds. 30 **»♦ V U^ ^^. 50 C* V (jM\s^pachd8. i 7« NUMERALS. *iauMe. NAMBS. PIQUItBS. NAMES. 51 ilUBIO. nrDiur. ^jl^^ ihdwan. 71 ARABIC. nTDiAir. ^;Xy^\ ikhattar. c^ y.1 vl -o^ 52 cr M.1 ^jj\j hdwan. 72 vr ^!^ ji^ hahattar. 53 cr ^^ ^Jl t^P(in. 73 vr ^^ j^ tihattar. 54 ct^ \9 jjij^ chauwan. 74 vp -as ^^ chauhattar. 55 cc "iX (j?^v pachpan. 75 vo ^^L J^^pacJihattar. 66 Cl W c;?«r chhappan. 76 VI ^^ J^'^^^^ chhihattar. 57 cv H^ jjjliLj sattdwan. 77 vv VQVO J^^^ sathatta/r. 58 CA V= ^jl^jl athdwan. 78 VA ^t:; j^^\ athhattar. 59 Cl «f- ^9 79 v1 vQt. ^\j\ undsk. 60 V A' -fILj «df^. 80 A* TZO J^\ assi. 61 ^\ i\ 81 A\ ^x (^l^! iMsL 62 ir i\ .fLiU hdsath. 82 Ar ^^ ^_^Lj hi,d8i. 63 ir i\ -i^i-j^ tirsath. 83 Ar ^^ ,^]y tirdsk. 64 IP 48 ,.^fL:j£k» chausath. 84 AP ^8 ^\jy>' chaurdsi. 65 To H u • 85 Ac ^^ ^\£^^pachd8i. 66 11 44 .^L^j>- chMjdsath. 86 A1 ^^ ^L^ ehhifdsi. 67 IV 4^ o 87 AV ^^ j^la*-j satdsi. 68 1A 4^= .^■^, (.4 athsath. 88 AA •cc j^l^l athdsi 69 11 4^ ^Jx^l unhattar. 89 Al x:£-. ^\y nauM- 70 j:^ mttar. 90 1* ^o t^Jj nauwL NUMEEAliS. 77 FIGURES. NAMES, FIGTJEES. NAMES. 91 AEABIO. nrDiAjr. t^yl^l ihdnawL 96 ASABIO, HTDIAK. 11 £.\ 11 £_^ \jy\^c7iU,dnawe 92 U f-*^ i^yb hdnawi. 97 Iv ^^ 't^yls-o satdnawL 93 ir ^^ i^y>\P tirdnawe. 98 1A £.^ i^yl^l atJidnawL 94 IP f-8 ^y \j^s>-cJiaurdnawe 99 »,"i £^^ Ljy^ nindnawL 95 Ic t- chauntis. 38 t/*:?Jj' ^^^** 39 (j-Jlsrl unchdlis. 73 i6 ^^ygjl::^ chhatdlis. i8 ^'/^ or^a^i*. I 51 {j^^} ihdwan. 85 |^Lsi> 54 u^J^ chawgan. 55 (j^^^ pachdwm 61 -#^J ^>^««?A. L!i-^.s*-l^ cJihdchhat or ..^iLv^ ^ chha-sath. -fi«3;i arsath. j£^J ikhattar. J-^^ tirhattar. 66 ,^Lsx> panchdsL 86 ^*«:l^rs- chhdsi. •90 Jjj nauwad. i^y 1^1 iMnawi or ij-ylii ihdnauwL my. t^yb hdnauwSoi LSy]j^ htrdnauwS, "ft 93 «-0^J/ tirdnauwe. ., •; . ^ - 95 (_f*3l.2^ mwcAawfl^^ 41 j^li^J ^y^i^a^i*. 76 Jjb^chha-hattar --^ v v^ y y. 91 92 82 ^^b Jrf*i 01 « y .^\;i hirdai. 96 ijyl^ chhdnawL y. y 99 ^^lij wwdwowtf;^. T8 PRACTIONAL NUMBEES. a. The numbers above one hundred proceed somewhat like our own, only the conjunction is generally suppressed ; as -^b ^ <^-^J ^^ «<*« pdnohf one hundred (and) five ;' (jw J y^ jJ do sau das, * two hundred (and) ten/ etc. The present year, 1855, may be expressed as with us» ^J^^ y^ -$jT jl^ <-^.^ *^ hat&r dth sau pachpan, or ^^;-^, ^ ^'«^5^ a^AdraA «aw pachpan, that is, one thousand eight hundred,' etc., (tr * eighteen hundred,* etc. h. The following are used as collective numbers : \^ gandd, a group of four. , ^l^ gdhi, a five. ^^ hori, a score. LyJU- chdlisd, a forty. JjL-j saikrd, a hundred. jUfe hazdr, a thousand. ^i ^aM, a hundred thousand. j£^ ha/ror, one hundred lakhs, or ten millions. c. The Ordinals proceed as follows : ^ jt?aA?d or pahild, 1st. l^j^ chauthd, 4th. j2,U:srl> pdnchwdn, 5th. j^l^5^ chhatwdhf 6th. LLj ot paihld, L*j.J - chauth, . ^c*\±)^^^ chauihd,k, ' ^J*\^ tihdyi, i. UC(J| UU/tMBf ^ paund \y^ sawd, ij, ^ J ^A, Ij. f In the use of the fractional numbers, a few peculiarities oocux DERIVATION OF WORDS. 79 wnich it will be wtil to notice ; thus, J,jJ paune, when prefixed to a number, signifies ' a quarter less ' than that number ; lj*-o sawd, a quarter more ;' iJ^j^ sdrhe, ' one half more,' etc. To the collective numbers for a hundred, a thousand, etc., th^ are similarly applied ; thus, 5-0 i^J paune sau = 75 ; ^ ly-s sawd sau = 125. The words derh and arhd,i. denote multiplication; as, j|jJJ> ^3 derh ha%dr = 1500, i. e. (1000 x IJ) ; jJjJb iJ'^J^ ^M^'^ ^^^"^ = 2^^^' ^' (1000 X 2J). e. It will be seen then, that altogether the management of the numerals, whole and fractional, is no easy matter. The swre plan is to commit them carefully to memory up to 100. As a check upon this the learner should get the first ten, and the multiples of 10, as 20, 30, 40, etc. ; then, if he is not quite certain of any number (not an o unlikely occurrence), for example 35, he may safely say /^^ y l/**^ tispar pdnch, 'five over thirty.' Lastly, let him get the first twenty thoroughly, and then count by scores i^J^ kori ; thus, 35 is eh hori pandraJi; but the more scientific mode is, of course, to carry the hundred numerals in his head, and be quite independent. DERIVATION OF WORDS. 50. The Hindustani abounds with derivative words both of native origin and of foreign importation. Those from the Arabic are generally single words modified from a triliteral root, according to the grammatical rules of that language. From the Persian, on the other hand, not only derivative words are freely borrowed, but also a multitude of compounds, for the formation of which the Persian language has a peculiar aptitude, and to the number of which there is no limit. In like manner, compositions in the Hindi dialect abound in Sanskrit words both derivative and compounded according to the genius of that highly-cultivated language. Hence, in omer no itnow Hindustani on sound etymological prm- dples, a slight knowledge of Arabic, Persian, and 80 DERIVATIVES. Sanskrit is absolutely retiuifiite. To the majority of students in this country, however, this is impracticable, their time being necessarily occupied in the acquisition of those essential branches of knowledge usually taught at schools. As a general rule, then, we may take it foi granted that an acquaintance with the words of the Hindustani language, whether native or foreign, primi- tive or derivative, must be ultimately acquired by prac- tice in reading, with the aid of a vocabulary or dictionary, together with exercises in composition. This being the case, it will not be necessary for us to enter deeply into the subject of derivation or composition; the reader, if inclined, may consult Dr. Gilchrist's quarto Grammar, edit. 1796, where he will find twenty-nine goodly pages devoted to this department. NOUNS DENOTING AGENCY OR POSSESSION. 51. We have already seen that the agent of a verb is denoted by adding the termination ^\^ wdld (sometimes 5^U hard) to the inflected form of the infinitive, as holne- wdld or holne-hdrd^ ' a speaker.' The same termiuations added to a substantive denote in general the possessor of such substantive, real or temporary ; as ^^j ^ ghai^-wdld^ *the master of the house;' ^U J-J hail-wdld^ Hhe owner of the bullock ;' or, simply, ^ the man with the bullock.' A noun of the third class is inflected on the addition of V\^ wdldj thus, J\j ^^ gadhe-wdla^ ' the owner of the ass ;' or * the man with the donkey.' Yarious nouns of agency, etc. are also formed by adding the following termmations, thus : — ^'u to jlj a garden, jjV^V ^^^^-*. — Jjtil^ a torch, L the hand, vi-j a place, j^ a grave, ^u^s^ kahr-istdn, a bury- ing-ground. ^^ a place, JSarose, ^ju^ gul-shan, a rose- bower. ^flTaplace, aI^T rest, i)^^\J\ drdm-gdh, o. ve^i- ing-place. j& city, ^jJm^ Kishn, ^^jL^ Kishn-nagoTj the town of Krishna ABSTRACTS. 64 Abstract nouns are formed chiefly from adjec- tives, by affixing some termination, of which the follow- LQg are of common occurrence : \ to z^warm, ^^^flfr»^ is generally added to form abstracts ; as, Jis>^ huhm, a command,' ^^:l.-^^J>- hukiimat, * dominion ;' so z*^^ hojijdm, a barber,' hajjdmat, ' shaving.' A few abstracts are formed by a repetition of the word, with a slight alteration in the last, as ^y* ^^^ jJikth-miithy falsehood.* • VEEBALS. 55. The verbal noun denoting the action (in pro- gress) is generally expressed by the infinitive. The action, in the abstract, is frequently expressed by the mere root; as, Jy hol^ ^speech,' j^U- chdti^ ^desire,' etc. Others are formed from the root by adding certain terminations; as, . \ to ^ speak, l^ Tcahdy a saying. ^\ — ^ sow, i^W *^>^»^» ^ sowing. c->T — J-^ mix, ^-J^ mildp, a mixing or union. {jt^ — . ^ drink, (jwjW P^V^^i desire to drink, thirst. /^- — jj\j know(Per8.)(jijlj ddnish, knowledge. ^ — Jj^ burn, ^J^ jaUn^ a burning. \^ — ^ deceive, ^j^^ ihuldwd, a deception. <3j — Ur* prepare, (^jlsr* sajdwat, preparation. ^5J1 — c¥ feed, ^14 ^^^'^^^^ a feeding. C*^ — • \i call, l2-^^ luUhaty a calling. S4 DETITVATTVF9. DIMINUTIVES. 66. These are formed from other nouns, by adding to them various terminations ; as, \ to ^5-j a daughter, L2j hitiyd, a little daughter. ^^>- or \ji brahman, a Braliman, ^^^j>,AJb\jj hrdhmank. ' / jjjU-j sunann, or jU**s iundr, a goldsmith, ) ^^ ^ a. A few are irregular in their formation ; thus, from ci*^^ M-\j rdjd, 'king,' ^]j ^«w^j 'queen;' i^fil^ hdthi, m. 'an elephant,' ^^"^ hathnz, f. In other cases, as l_>Ij bdp, ' father,' U wa, ' mother,' the words are totally- different, as in our own language, and often taken from different tongues, as J^ mard, man' (Persian), <^^jy^ 'aurat, woman' (Arabic). ADJECTIVES. 58. Adjectives are formed from substantives by the addition of certain terminations, most of which will be found in the following alphabetical list : their ordinary meaning will be obvious from the various examples ; thus, by adding \ to ^^i hunger, l^^ hhitJchd, hungry. &j\ — JiL? a child, <0laL tijldna, childish. ^^ ^ " j^\ — jj5J strength, J3\)3J zor-dwar, strong. joj — J L^ arms, Jco^U^ hathydr-hand, armed. ^b — lij fidelity, jbli^ wafd-ddr, faithful. \j — <-^.^j foreign country, \y:^)^ wiMgat-zd, foreign-bora jLj — s^ a. mountain, jLjbj^ koJi-sdr, mountainous. j^ — J J the heart, j-^^ dil-gir, grieved. ^j^ — aX sorrow, U^i*"^ gham-gin, sorrowful ^ or j! — k^?V hehind, ^^^i pichhld, hindermost JU^ — c:-JjJ wealtn, JCviol^J daulat-mand, wealthy. 86 DERTVATiyES. U to ^0 two, CJ\j — J^ terror, j\j — <^.^ grief, J J — /•li name, X — JL>j4^ two years, ^ — j\j\i a market, JjorL — ci^lo tooth, ^^ - wood, UjJ diindf double. ci/Lifc& haul-ndk, terrible. j^IjoJ rfi^dHt, slightly. j^^y^ 8og-wdry grievous. jj^U » do-sdla, biennial. ijj\j^, hdzdrif of the market. J-:i3j dantel, tusked. ^^>- (jAoJk, wooden. /♦li /aw and ^^ gun are added to words to denote colour ; as, ^U \^J^] '^o^fardn-fdm, ' saffron-coloured,' .^^ J-J nil-giin, ' blue coloured.' li^ ^owd and ^^ gosha are added to numerals to express the figure of things; as, Ijj^^^ chau-kond, 'quadrangular, g; * J he-sahr, impatient. /♦Uaj bad-ndm, infamous. ^U-^ gJiai/r-Mmr, absent. Jlc wisdom, jlcuJ^U- IcUldf-'aU, foolish. ::-.>.«: fortime, t::^^.s?:j»i kam-laMitj unfortunate. ^•U- help, ^^^ Id-cMra, helpless. ^ pUw present, COMPOUNDS. 87 I3 to u^y^ pleased, ^^d-U nd-^hush, displeased. ^ — ^^s. age, JJXiJi) ham-umr, coeval. 59. In concluding our remarks on the derivation of words, we would particularly direct the student's atten- tion to the various uses of the termination , «_ «. 1. It may be added to almost every adjective of the language, simple or compound, which then becomes the corres- ponding abstract substantive. 2. It may be added to all substantives denoting country, city, sect, tribe, physical substances, etc., which then become adjectives, signifying of or belonging to^ or formed from^ etc., the primary substantive. Lastly. It is used in forming feminines from masculines ; and it is the characteristic of the feminine gender in all present and past participles, as well as in all adjectives purely Indian ending in \ a, COMPOUND WOEDS. 60. In all works written in the Urdu or mixed dialect of Hindustani, a vast number of compound words from the Persian may be met with in almost every page. These are generally formed by the union of two sub- stantives, or of an adjective with a substantive. Many of them are giv^ in dictionaries, but as there is no limit to their number, the student must not place much re- liance on that source. A few weeks' study of Persian will make the matter clearer than any body of rules we could lay down on the subject ; we shall therefore notice here only the more important compounds, referring the student for further information to our Persian Grammar, last edition. 88 COMPOUNDS. SUBSTANTIVES. a. A Persian or Arabic substantive with its regimen is of fire quent occurrence in Hindustani; as, i-^\^ <--'! dh-i-haiydt, ' watei of immortality;* jjiulj'^fJjJ dida^i-ddniah, the eye of discernment ;' f^j^jL^jU r^-6-zamin, the face of the earth.' In a similar form a Persian substantive with its adjective occasionally occurs ; as, ^ J^ mard-t-niM, 'a good man;' ^-jli Jlc ' dlam-i-fdni, 'the perishable world.' These, when introduced into Hindustanf, are viewed as single words, and form their various cases by adding the post-posi- tions like nouns of the first or second classes; as, dh-i-havydt kd, db-i-haiydt se, etc. h. A numerous class of Compound Substantives is formed by the mere juxta-position of two nouns ; as, &j\:>- ^^j}^. idwar-chk- Ihdna, * cook-house, or kitchen,' from ij^^V cook,' and - a house ;' so, ^^/^j razm-gdh, * the battle-field,' from /^jj ' contest,' and ii\^ *a place;' in like manner, ^L) (j^rT J<^hdn-pandh, the asylum of the world,' *. e. 'your majesty,' from ^^^-^ the world,' and iUj refuge;' so, . Ichirad-ndma, 'the book of wisdom,' etc. In compounds of this kind, the two words are generally written separate, though they may also be united into one. These are upon the whole like our own compounds, look-stall, coffee house, newspaper, etc., of which it is customary to write some with a hyphen between, others quite separate, and a few united into one word. c. There is a class of verbal Nouns, not very numerous, consisting, 1st. Of two contracted infinitives, connected with the conjunction ^ ; as, tJ^i-i) J ci-JS' guft shaniid, ' conversation,' literally, ' speaking and hearing;' li^j j Ju«i dmad o raft or dmad o shud, coming and j;oing, intercourse.' 2ndly. A contracted infinitive, with the cor- COMPOUNDS. 89 responding root ; as ^ j c:^vuuc»- j%t8t o /A, * searching ;* ^ j <:l^ guft gii, 'conversation.' The conjunction j in such cases is occa- sionally omitted; as, Jl^ Jw«i, j^ c:— i^, the same as vX^ j 4X^1, etc. d. There are a few compounds similar to the preceding, consisting of two substantives, sometimes of the same, and sometimes of different signification ; as, /%^ j jy* or j^y^o j J^ marz h-km or mar% kishwar, ' an empire ' or ' kingdom,' literally, * boundary and region ;' bc^ \^ J c-^T ah hawd, 'climate,'- literally, water and air;' l^ J jjuuJ nashv namd, rearing or bringing up * (a plant or animal). In these, also, the conjunction j may be omitted, as L«u yJ^f e. Compounds purely Hindustani or Hindf are not nearly so numerous as those borrowed from the Persian ; the following are occasionally met with : Ist. A masculine and feminine past participle, generally the same verb, though sometimes different; as, (-^^ l^ hahd-TcaU, 'altercation,' Jwj l^ Icahd-sunij 'disputation.' 2nd. Two nouns of the same, or nearly the same signification; as, i^W iy servants,' t^j '•^:^lj a custom or mode,' etc. Such expressions are very common- in the ' Bagh Bahar,' which is the standard work of the language. 3rd. Two words having something of alliteration about them, or a similarity of rhyme ; as, AltoJ t*^^ hurly-burly,' j«j j^ ' uproar,' ^^^^ 'trickery,' etc., all of which we should of course vote to be vulgarisms, only that they occur in the very best writers. Lastly, the Hindustani is particularly rich in imitative sounds, such ^s ^Ji^ ^jis>- 'jingling,' ^ ^^ 'simmering.' /. Arabic phrases, such as we described in p. 19 (No. 18), are occasionally met with, such as c— jL**j^1 t— ,.^-m*v<, ' the Causer of causes,' God,' ete»; but we believe that all such are explained in good dictionaries. 90 COMPOUNDS. ADJECTIVES. a. A very numerous class of epithets is fonned by the union of two substantives; as, ^j ajj Idla rukh, 'having cheeks like the tulip ;' ^*^ i^jJ pdri-rii,6 or park-rii, * having the face of a fairy ;' J J c^C;..i sang-dily ' having a heart like stone ;' i^ Jj^i shakar-lah^ having lips (sweet) as sugar.' In English we have many instances, in the more familiar style, of this kind of compound; as, 'iron- hearted,' 'bull-headed,' 'lynx-eyed,' etc. h. Another numerous class, similar to the preceding, is formed by prefixing an adjective to a substantive; as, ^'».j i^y>- kMb-ritje, * having a fair face ;* ,^*\j l1/1> pdk-rd,e, ' of pure intention ;' J J ^,^Ji:J tang-dil, distressed in heart.' We make use of many such compounds in familiar conversation and newspaper style, such at 'clear-sighted,' 'long-headed,' sharp-witted,' ' hard-hearted,' «^tf. e. Perhaps the most numerous class of the epithets is that com- posed of verbal roots, joined to substantives or adjectives ; as,^^ Jlc 'dlam-gir, world-subduing;' jSj] <5j»::>j fitna-ange%, strife-exciting;* LjT ^o^" Jdn-dsd, 'giving rest to the soul;' ^^1:^-0 J<^ dil-sitdn, 'ravishing the heart;' ^ CS^ suluh-raw, 'moving lightly.' Our best English poets frequently indulge in compounds of this class ; thus, ' the night-tripping fairy,' * the temple-haunting martlet,' ' the cloud- compelling Jove,' etc. d. A knowledge of these Persian compounds will be absolutely necessary, in order to peruse with any advantage the finest productions of the Hindustani language. The poets in general freely use such terms; nor are they of less frequent occurrence in the best prose works, such as the ' Ba^ o Bahdr,' the * Ikhwanu-s-safa,' the * Khirad COMPOUNDS. 91 Afroz/ etc., for the thorough understanding of which, a slight know ledge of the Persian is absolutely requisite. In proof of this, we eould point out many compounds which occur in our own selections from the ' Khirad Afroz,' not to be found in any dictionary, the meaning at the same time being quite obvious to any one who knows Persian . Such, for example, are l^^ ^j-^ marham-lahd, ' medicine- money ; ' ^^ {j^ nafas-kmU, ' mortifying of the passions ; ' ^\y* (i-i^ siif'i-mizdjf of philosophic disposition,' e. We may reckon among the compounds such expressions as L-->b L« md-hdp, 'parents,' j^J^ Idr-Jcapur, 'Lar and Kapiir,' names of two brother minstrels who lived at the court of Akbar. It is barely possible that this may be an imitation of the Sanskrit compound called Dwandwa ; though the probability is in favour of its being an idiomatic omission of the conjunction j^\ * and,' between two such words as are usually considered to be associated together. In works purely Hindi, translated from the Sanskrit, such as the * Prem Sagar,' it is most likely that such phrases as IJW:?- Joj nandarjasodd, *!N"anda and Jasoda;' ^^j ^J^^J^ hrishna-lalardm, 'Krishna and Balaram,' are bona-fide Dwandwas ; but it would savour of pedantry to apply the term to such homely expressions as ^^j^^ ^jj ' bread and butter,' or the very un-classical beverage commonly called ^Jl) i^^jit videlicet, ' brandy and water.' 02 SECTION V. SYNTAX, OR THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 61. In all languages a simple sentence must necessarily consist of three parts, expressed or understood: 1st, a nominative or subject; 2nd, a verb; and 3rd, a predicate or attribute ; as, ' fire is hot,' ^ ice is cold.' In many instances the verb and attribute are included in one word ; as, ^ the man sleeps,' ' the horse runs,' ' the snow falls,' in which case the verb is said to be neuter or intransitive. When the verb is expressive of an action, and at the same time the sense is incomplete without stating the object acted upon, it is called an active or transitive verb, as, ' the carpenter made a table,' ' the masons built a church.' In each of these sentences it is evident that something is required beyond the verb to complete the sense, for if we merely said ^ the carpenter made,' Hhe masons built,' the hearer would instantly ask, ^ made what?' ^ built what?' In Hindustani and several of its kindred dialects, it is of the utmost import- ance that the learner should discriminate the active or transitive from the neuter or intransitive verb, in order that he may adopt that mode of construction peculiar to each. In a sentence whose verb is active or transitive, we shall designate the three parts as agent, verb, and object ; thus, the carpenter is the agent ; made, the verb ; and a table, the object. a. In the arrangement of the three parts of a sentence, different languages follow rules peculiar to themselves; for instance, in the ARRANGEMENT OP WORDS. 98 sentence, *the elephant killed the tiger,' the Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit languages have the option of arranging the words in any order. The Arabic and the Gaelic put the verb first, then the nomi- native, and lastly the object. The English and French follow the logical order as we have given it, and the Hindustani and Persian have also an arrangement of their own, which we shall now proceed to explain, as our first rule of Syntax or construction. 62. The general rule for the arrangement of the parts of a sentence in Hindustani is, "first, the nominative or agent ; secondly, the predicate or object ; and, last of all, the verb; thus, ^ /»X^T ag garm hai^ ^fire is hot,' 15^ tjiS ^j^\ \^ji parhez achchhi dawd hai, ^ abstinence is good physic,' ^ ^^jjU ^ j^ J ^'l& hdtkt-ne sher-ko mdr-ddld hai^ ^ the elephant has killed the tiger.' a. Though the above rule holds in short sentences, such as those we have just given, yet it is by no means of stringent application. In the first place, poets are freely allowed the proverbial license of the genus ; that is, to adopt that arrangement of the words which best pleases the ear, or suits the metre. In prose, also, it may sometimes be more emphatic to put the object first ; as, \i) \j>- y ^ ^jxi ^ \ *thou hast stolen those images.' Sometimes the object is, for the sake of contrast or emphasis, put last, in the place usually occupied by the verb; as follows, ^ JUi JiU jj\— _j^JU ^ bj^ t_,JJ? J^U- the fool seeks for wealth, and the sage for excellence,' where mdl-lco and hamdl-lco are put last. h. The Hindustani makes no difference in the arrangement of a sentence, whether it be interrogative or affirmative. In conversation, the tone of the voice, or the look, suffices to indicate whether or not a question is asked, and in reading it must be inferred from the context ; thus, i^^lss- (*J' may signify 'you will go,' or 'wiU you go?' There ore, however, several words which are used only in asking a question, such as those given in the middle column of p. 68. These, when used, come immediately before the verb, as ^/^ jjly^ *j * where 94 OOKCOBD OF ADJECTIVES. will you go ?' The word L^ is sometimes employed at the beginning of a sentence to denote interrogation, like the Latin num or an ; as, ^i-j ^J^ Jl^ ^ iJ aj L^ * have you not heard this proverb ? ' CONCORD OF ADJECTIVES WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 63. The adjective, as in English, generally precedes its substantive. If the adjective be capable of inflection, that is, if it be a purely Indian word ending in \ «, the following rule holds : The termination V d is used before all masculine nouns in the nominative (or first accusative) case singular ; the termination ^ e is used before mas- culine nouns in any other case singular, or in the plural nimiber ; and the termination ^5 _ ^ is used before all feminine nouns, in any case, singular or plural ; thus, i> j^ il^ ij wuh hhald mard hai^ * he is a good man,' '^ Jy* ^J^ hhale mard-se, ' from a good man,' S^ ^J^ hhale mard, ' good men,' ^ ij^'^j^ ^J^ hhale mardoh-se, 'from good men,' c-j^i^ ^J^, hhali ^aurat, ^ a good woman,' ^ l;^>^ u5^ ^^^^^ '«^^mifo7^-^6^, ^ of good women.' a. The same rule applies to such adjectives in ^ dn and a o, as admit of inflection ; as, J^ (J^y^<^ ' the tenth man,' l^ J^ ^yi,y^^ * of the tenth man,' Ll^lj ^,,y^^ the tenth night;' so,^Luu« i^jlssnj *the helpless traveller,' ^ Jt\u*y* ^J^^. 'to the helpless traveller,' jIj i_5^L^ * the helpless queen.' h. If adjectives, capable of inflection, be separated by means of the particle ^ from the noun which they qualify, and united with the verb, they undergo no change ; as, ^^ t^ ^ .^ 15^^ * blacken his face ; ' but in this sentence Mld-harnd is to be reckoned a com- pound verb (p. 66, h). Adjectives, ending with any letter except \, i and ^^f restricted as above, do not undergo any change GENITIVE CASE. 96 as, ;<^ST CS\j^ 'a pure man, <-^^ C/^ *a pure woman,' L^ ci/b 'o ' an unclean thing.' e. As a general rule, adjectives, when followed by their sub- stantives, never receive the nasal terminations {an, en, or on) of the plural ; and the same rule applies to such tenses as are formed of participles with or without an auxiliary verb, it being deemed sufficient to add the nasal n to the last word only; as •j-jl:;^ isF*"^ fl!cA i^Ssif 'the worship of thanksgiving.' "We may here state that the Persian genitive is formed by placing the governing word first, having its last letter marked with the vowel I^asra; as, ^^Iti ^^ ganj-i ddnish, 'the treasury of wisdom,' where the short vowel t is the sign of the genitive, similar in its use to our particle of in English. Persian words ending with a and t_^- take * ; and those ending with i or j take ^^ for the sign of the genitive; as, \jd^ iiX»i 'a servant of God,' ^sT fc^^yj) ' air of the sea.* ;i&. The genitive sign is employed idiomatically in such expressions' GENITIVE CASE. 97 as V — ^«3 Is w_^v-j 8ah-hd sal, * one and all,' l::-^-^ l^ ^-^^^^ Tchet-hd khet, ' the whole (field) of the field,' Cjb ^ Cub hdt-hk bdf, ' mere talk ;' and adjectivehj to convert a substantive into an attributive ; thus, tt^sf l^ ^J***j 8one-hd taMita, a golden plate,' or * plate of gold;' l^j^ l^^ ^jji *a boy with a large head.' ' ' c. In some cases it is idiomatically omitted; as ^y^ ^j^^ daryd kandre, 'on the river bank,' for ^^ ^J^ iS ^.J^ daryd-he kandre-men, 'on the bank of the river.' It is also omitted in many expressions in which the governing words denote weight or measure ; as, c:^^-i3»^ -w: uJoJ 'one pound of flesh,' ^j^j ^<^^, '-^J *a bigha of ground,' where the words are used merely in apposition, the same as in German. d. The genitive is also used to signify possession, value, etc. ,• as, lf> ULj lIXjI ^ x\j^iS[.i^ pddshdh-KE [^pds or yahdn understood] ek beta thd, ' the king had a son ;' in like manner, ^^ ^g^ JLj uJoJ ^^ ls^^ ws-ke \_pd8, etc.] hhi ek heti thi, * he Sr^ Sr^"* '* Spy' STj^ i p had also a daughter ;' Jy^ ^^ '>S^^3J ^--^.^ ^* rA^i,<'-Aci chdnwal, ' one rupee's (worth of) rice.' e. Compounds formed of two common substantives in English will in Hindustani be expressed by the genitive case ; as J-^ ^ ij^ likhne-ki mez, ' a writing-table ;' ci-^j l^ ci^ khdne kd wakt, * dinner time ;' and sometimes the genitive sign is used in Hindustani when in English it is inadmissible, as lail l^ J3 jikr kd lafz, ' the word FIKE.' /. Instances sometimes occur in which a genitive case is used in consequence of a noun or preposition understood ; such a8y-«o yS^\ ♦J* 'hear ye him,' i.e. Cl-Jb ^_^^ * his word;' so in the tale of the First Darwesh ( ' Bagh o Bahar,' p. 34,) we have ^l^* ^jj^Ujb i^\ o' *y> ^^^" ^L.5^^ (where the word -.-u or ^^L^J is understood), between you and me there has arisen a sincere friendship.' The 7 98 PRErt>SITIONS. editors of a recent Calcutta edition have made an ammdment here, by using hamdri tumhdri / GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 65. The list of prepositions, page 71, beginning with ^^ dge^ etc., govern the genitive with ^ Jce ; as ^^ ^ j^ ghar-ke age, ' before (in front of) tie house ;' ^L ^J l/Jj daryd-Jce pdr^ ' over (on the other side of) the river,' etc. The less numerous list, beginning with cr^b hdhat^ etc., page 72, govern the genitive with ^ hi; as, i^jo y^ j^ shahr-ki taraf^ ^towards (in the direction of) the city.' All the prepositions may be optionally put before or after the word which they govern, their effect on the substantive, with few ex- ceptions, remaining the same. a. The prepositions being all substantives in an oblique case whose termination is (No. 64, c) idiomatically omitted, it is easy to see from what we have just stated why they should govern the genitive in Tee or U, but never in kd. There is however one pecu- liarity attending some of the feminine prepositions which custom seems to have established; though the rationale of it be not at all evident. We have excellent authority for saying that the words JA/ij, ^^-^, (— ^, and JcJU, when they precede the sub- stantive, require the genitive in ^ Jce ; and when they follow, they require ^ kk. In the second volume of the * Khirad Afroz,' p. 277, we have ^S J^ ^^ hamadad 'akl-ke, by aid of the understanding.' In the Bagh o Bahar,' ^ p. 40, we have ^ jy^ ^sjj^ L^ 1 Whenever reference is made to the ' B&gh o Bah&r,' it is understood to be the edition recently edited by me, at the desire and expense of the Honourable the East- India Company. It is not only the cheapest, but in every respect the best work that the student can peruse, after he has gone through the Selections appended to this Grammar. — D. F. PREPOSITIONS. 99 be-mar%i hm^ir-h, * without consent of her highness the princess;' and in page 188 of the same work, we have ^ ^^ ^J^ ^— ^J eh tar of shahr-ke, ' on one side of the city ;* all of them with he in every edition and copy, printed or manuscript. The wonder is, how it escaped the critical amendments of the Calcutta editors already alluded to ; but so it has, for even they have here followed the established reading. h. The preposition JcJw mdnand or mdnind has been amply discussed by Dr. Gilchrist in several of his works, but it must be confessed that the learned doctor does not in this instance appear as a sound and fair critic. He assumes that one of the Munshis used he instead of hi by mistahe, and that he had sufficient influence with all the other learned natives of the country to make them take his part, and sanction the error. This argument is so very ridiculous that refu- tation is superfluous. Use is everything in language, and if in Hin- dustani custom has ordained that several of the prepositions when they precede the word which they govern, require the genitive with he, and when they follow require hi, then it is the duty of the grammarian fairly to state the fact. It is quite probable that many instances of this mode of construction, in addition to those which we have shown above, may yet be detected. c. The adverbs ^l^j here,' and ^^Uj ' there,' govern the genitive with he, like nouns or prepositions. When thus used, they convey idiomatically the signification of at, to, or in the house of,' or 'in the possession of.' ys>- ^^j ^^ c^s^Ls? go to the gentleman's house,' which is not unHke the use of the French particle chez. The pre- positions (>yl> and uioJjJ are used in the same general sense as (jM\i ^^^ near or with him,* and more generally in his possession,' * chez luiJ The word lLx> JJJ denotes idiomatically *in the opinion of,' as uJoi^ ijj ^jja1ac in the opinion of the wise;' *apud Bapientes.' 100 DATIVE CASE. d. Several of the propositions, when they follow their substantives, may dispense entirely with the genitive signs ke and ki, thus shewing a tendency to become real postpositions; as, {^^\j ^^\i 'near or before the judge.' If the word they govern be a noun of the third class, or a pronoun, the inflected form remains the same as if ke or ki had been expressed; as, (jwb ^jS 'near the boy;' lij ^j^] 'with- out him or her ; ' and if the word governed be the first or second personal pronoun, when the genitive is thus dispensed with, the oblique forms mujh and tujh are used ; as, (jywl> ..^^ * near me ; ' (jm\j -^sT ' near thee.* DATIVE CASE. 66. The use and application of tMs case is very nearly the same as in most European languages. As a general rule, an English noun, governed by the pre- positions to or for, will be expressed in Hindustani by means of the dative case. a. The Hindustani dative sometimes corresponds with the Latin accusative, expressive of motion to a place ; for instance, ^ j^ \^ UL) A,>- ' I will go home,' ' ibo domum.' In this last sense also, the sign ko is often omitted, which brings it still nearer the Latin ; as, ^yi> \}i\>- j^ '^^ 'l am going home,' ' eo domum.' The dative case is also used to express time when ; as, <^ ^i^ by day ; ' ^ CL?1^ 'by night;' f ^^ 'at evening.' In such expressions the post-position ko is frequently and even elegantly omitted; as, ^ J CSsi\ * one day ; ' and if the word expressive of time be accom- panied by an adjective or pronoun subject to inflection, the inflected form of the latter remains the same as if ko had been expressed : ns» ,^ J (jwgl ' on that day ; ' ci^j ^jS ' at w^at time ? ' ^ -ICCUSAIIVE CASE. 101 ACCUSATIYE CASE. 67. The accusative in Hindustani, as iu. English, is generally like the nominatiye, but when it is desirable to render the object of an active verb very definite or specific, then the termination Ito (of the dative) is added to the object. a. We believe this rule to be quite sound as a general principle, though by no means of rigid application. JVFany words are sufficiently definite from accompanying circumstances, such as an adjective, a genitive case, a pronoun, etc., so as not to require any discriminative mark. Others again, though sufficiently definite in themselves, gene- rally require the particle ho \ such are proper names, names of offices, professions, etc.; as, j*L ^ cjjsjt* 'call Manik;' j*)Jj ^ j^'^j^ * call the Sardar.' In these instances, however, the Hindustani assimilates with the Greek, which would employ the definite article in. like cases. h. The use of the particle ho to denote the object of an active verb forms one of the niceties of the Hindustanf, which can only be arrived at by practice. A well-educated native, and many Europeans who have studied the language and associated much with natives, will without effort supply the particle ho in its proper place, and nowhere else. It follows then that there must be some principle to regulate all this, though it may be difficult to lay hold of, or to express within a short compass. The rule given by Muhammad Ibrahim of Bombay, and we assuredly know of no better authority, is in substance the same as we have just stated. — Vide 'Tuhfae Elphinstone,' page 80. c. When a verb governs an accusative and also a dative, both being substantives, the first or nominative form of the accusative is generally used, as the repetition of ho in both cases would not only sound ill, but in many instances lead to ambiguity ; thus, jJ \j^ ^ J^ ' give the horse to the man.' If, however, it be deemed essential to add ho to ihe accusative, even this rule must give way ; as iu the following 102 ABLATIVE AND LOCA^HVE. Bentence : l> J ^ ^j^^ 15^^ ^ sS^^"^ L^ S^*^' L5*^^' S^ ^^ * ^® gave his brother's share to his (brother's) wife.' When the iative is a pronoun, the repetition of ko is easily avoided by using the termination « or en for the latter ; as, L^ '^/?^ i^^ ^ ^Sy ^ the executioner smote the prisoner with a sword.' In Dr. Gilchrist's Story-Teller (No. 97), we have an instance of se denoting the agent, the onh/ one we have ever met with in our reading; ^ ^ ^'\^ JjyS ^!ljj ^.j ^ .i=f 'how is it that stale bread was eaten by thee ? ' With a neuter verb se may be used to denote the source or origin of the event described ; as follows, ^y^ (^jj^ jy^ -gjs^ ^ jcXj^ ^^^ ' by some poet {or through some poet) a fault took place.' b. With the verb bw^ kahnd, ' to say' or 'tell,' the particle ^ m seems to be used idiomatically, and must often be translated in English by to ; ' as, ^^Ji b^ ^ ^ ijm\ ^j^ I am saying to him,' or telling him, truth ; ' because the sentence ^^^ \z^^ ^ ^ ^jj\ -.-^ will mean, ' I declare him {or her, or it) to be true,' or ^ I call that truth ; ' so ^^^Lf ^j-^-J <^ ;^^ ^li\ means * people do not caU him a man.' The use of ^^--j %e with Ix^ therefore is obvious. c. The locative sign ^^« men generally denotes in, sometimes to THE AGENT WITH * NE.' 103 or into ; as, Ji> ^^j^ j^J^ he is in the city;' LS v-^ ^-^ ij he is gone to (into) the city.' The locative signs v-^ and j have fre- quently the post-position ^^ joined to them; as, y j^jij" ^^ ^^j^ he brought a sword from in the city;' ^y J> s^ ? <^>t^ L5^' *^J * he fell down from on his horse.' Here the English idiom is * from 3ff ' his horse, which is less logical. CASE OF THE AGENT. 69. The case of the agent, characterized by the par- ticle those four persons.' Words expressive of time, as year, month, day, etc., add on in the nominative plural; as, t^Jo jj^*^ years have passed away.* c. In Hindustani the conjunction, etc., is idiomatically omitted in such phrases as ^-j jt) two (or) three,' //^ (jwi^ ' (from) ten (to) twenty.' A doubtful number is expressed by adding lU^\ to the numeral; as, lISj} ^juuJ i^^i^T about ten men;' {jjjjJ U-^J ^ ' about a hundred years.' To signify fold,' Juj*- or LS is added to numerals; as JOr^jJ * two-fold;' LS^ ^J 'ten-fold.' Distributives are formed by doubling the number ; as, j J ^J * two by two,* or ' two COMPARISON OF ADJECTIYES. 107 apiece.* Thus, suppose we wist to say, give these men three rupees each,' or * three rupees apiece,' the Hindustani will be •J ^<-^ ^J^ iji^ ^ ij^--^^^ ^ * ^^ these men, three three rupees give.* COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 71. We have already observed that adjectives in Hindustani do not admit of con^arison by any regular or systematic terminations. The comparative degree is indicated by merely putting the standard of comparison in the ablative, and the superlative by prefixing to that the word sah, ' all.' a. The comparative and superlative are to he inferred in general from the context, as the adjective has only one form, that of the positive or simple word, thus ^-'l^ ^^ LUy ^ % >^ ^ L5^ the miser is better than the liberal man if he (the miser) give an answer quickly.' It is obvious that if the standard of comparison should include the whole class spoken of, the adjective will express the superlative degree. Ex. j^-Jfe S-^y^ j«^ ,<-j j;-./» ;j^/^ t.»-v«j of all accomplishments two are best' (viz. learning and the art of war). h. To express the comparative degree, the particles jjl aur^ and if Jb J ziydda, ' more,' may also be employed exactly as in French and English; as, ^^ S-'*lr*" ^'^Vj ;^ e.i^ ^) oj 'those people are worse than dogs.' The adjective is sometimes doubled to express the superlative degree; as, \^\ \^\ 'very good;' but the wordt most commonly used and prefixed for this purpose are Ijj 'great, very;* L::-^^ much;' A>- 'beyond bounds;' <.::^i}^ 'extremely;' L::.-vsf^ very' (generally in a bad or disagreeable sense); and Uj ' most, very,' which last is added. It is to be *urther observed thai 108 PERSOXAL PRONOUNS. \^j, though thus used apparently as an adverb, agrees in gende^ and number with the substantive ; as, Jb 101 s->]^ \y s^ 'heis a. very wicked boy;' and again, ^ ^y '^^j=>- kJji *j she is a very wicked girl.' e. The particle L; sd {se, si), when added to a substantive, con- verts such substantive into an adjective denoting similitude ; as, jy\^ l1/IjI) Lj 11^ * a dog-like unclean animal.' When added to an adjective, it seems to render the same more intensive, though fre- quently it is difficult to find for it an equivalent English expression ; as, jT J (^^ ^ 1;^' 'bring a little water ;' ^ ^,Uj j^^^€^ ^^ ^-^^:' * there were many weapons there.' When the comparison made by Lj alludes to one thing out of many, it governs the genitive case ; as in the sentence ^ amjs^ Lj l^ ,^j^\ ^^ \M^ jo^ also have a body exactly like theirs ;' Cl?^^ ^ [J J^ * ^^^"^ ^^® *^^^ °^ * tiger.' USB OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 72. The personal pronouns, as in Latin, are very often merely understood, particularly before such tenses of the verb as possess distinct personal terminations ; and as a general rule, the pronouns need not be expressed when the sense is quite clear without them, except it be by way of contrast or emphasis. a. When the third personal pronount become the object of an active verb, they are generally used in the second (or dative) form of the accusative ; as, jjU ^^ ' beat him ;' ^\ ^\ ' call them ;' •t-s^ , ^i * take this away.' If, however, they are employed as aajectives, along with their substantives, they may be used in the nominauve form : as, ^ . ^^^-^ c:-'* V -^ ^ you hear this word.* With the conjunctive participle, they are elegantly used in the PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 109 nominative form ; as, J^ ^^. 'having said this.' Sometimes, though rarely, the nominative form may be used when a dative follows ; as, /.^ J LfF?^ ^J (Irr^ ' -^ '^^ S^^^ ^^^* *® thee.' When the first or second personal pronouns are governed by an active verb, the dative form is always used ; as, ^ bjU ^^fs^ 2i^ or ^ bjU ^j^^ ^j ' he is beating me ;' ^^ ^^.<^ ^f^) \J^ ijii^ ' I ^^^ t^^®-' b. It may be observed that the personal, relative, and interrogative pronouns have two distinct terminations for the dative and accusative cases, viz. h or e for the singular, and Jco or ^w for the plural. Hence, when an active verb governs an accusative (second form) and dative at the same time, it will be easy to avoid a repetition of the termination h) by employing e or en in the one case, and ko in the other ; thus, ujjt> ^Lij ^\ ^j^ I will giveitto you ; L^ J^ ^\ ^^^j S^l5*^^ ' the judge gave up the child to her.' In sentences of this kind, the accusative is generally put before the dative, but not always ; thus, in the Baital Pachisi,' a very sagacious young lady says to her father, ^j^ ^^^ \^^k¥* ^ ^^ ^^ i ^--j f>- l^j ' father, who- soever may be acquainted with all the sciences, give me to him,' or * bestow me upon him in marriage,' but then, in another part of the same work, we have a similar expression differently arranged, as ? 9 Lj J itffsT* ^^J\ lij where the dative is placed first. e. When the first and second personal pronouns are accompanied by a qualifying word, the genitive of the whole expression is made by h&, JcBf ki, not rd, re, ri, and the pronouns are used in the inflected forms mujh and tujh ; as, l^ j-ii ^s'^ * of me wretched j' l^ UL^ .^^ * of thee wise.' This oblique form is also used when the particle sd, 86, si is added to denote similitude ; as, iSuaXas. Lj ..^ss^ a sensible man like thee.' d. In Hindustani, as in English, it is customary to address an 110 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. individual generally in the second person plural, the singular being used in prayer to a deity, or to express familiarity or contempt j but in the vulgar tongue they go a step further, and the speaker uses the plural AJb ' we,' when it really refers to no more than himself. This abuse has led to the nesessity of adding the word {^^ * people,' to denote a genuine plural, as ham log, 'we (people),' turn log, 'you (people).' Thus, ^\j^ l<^^" ^ *I know' (literally 'we know'); and if a real plural is meant, then they say ham log jdnte hain ; so, ^^ ^ ^ c->li^ 'give me (us) the book.' To testify great respect, the third person must also be used in the plural when speaking of a king, saint, or any illustrious or respected man in general; as, d^ - aj ^ ham tum chalenge, ' we and you {i.e. I and thou) will go,' meaning, ' we shall go.' The speaker politely assumes precedence to himself; and when two difi'erent persons thus occur in a sentence, the verb agrees with the first person in preference to the second, and with the second in preference to the third; as, ^^^jCi^jU- *J ^Jb *we and you wiU go;' ^^ Jls^ ijTj aJ you and they will go.' /. We here subjoin the rules laid down by Muhammad Ibrahim of Bombay respecting the etiquette to be observed in the use of the pronouns. "1. When the speaker and the person whom he addresses are of the same rank, each should speak of himself in the singular number, and address the other in the second person plural. 2. A person of superior rank may speak of himself in the plural number, but this is not considered to be polite, nor is it thought correct to address even the lowest rank in the singular number. 3. The pronouns of the third person may be used in the singular when speak PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Ill ing of any person in their presence, unless they be of superior rank, when they ought to be spoken of in the plural. 4. When one person of rank addresses another of the same or superior rank, or speaks of him in his presence, it is most correct to make use of the respectful pronoun c-^l, or the great man's title, or some respectful phrase, as Jjjljci- 'your honour,' iJLlfj^a^ 'honour, highness,' etc., and the like, with the third person plural (of the pronouns and verbs); and when an inferior addresses a superior, he ought at all times to use similar expressions of respect, suitable to the rank of the person addressed." We may further add, that an inferior at the same time speaks of himself in the third person singular, under the appellation of /♦ili your servant' or slave;' u^j^Xj your devoted;' * Jcj your bondsman ;' ^j^^^ your sincere friend,' etc. g. When a person relates the speech of another, he makes use of the identical words which the person whose speech is reported is supposed to have used. Hxample, He said he should go next day, l$l3^ U- J^ ^^ ^ ^r^ s/ U^^ ^^^^' *^® ^^^^' ■'■ ^^^ ^° to-morrow.') So in the sentence, He told me to go home, j'U- ^ <^ L^ ^J ^^wl {lit. 'he said, go home.') This idiomatic use of the pronouns, and conse- quently of the persons and tenses of the verb, is well worthy of the student's attention. It is perhaps that point in which the Hindustani differs most widely from the English, as will be seen in the following sentence, which to save room we shall give in the Roman character. Kal main-ne dp-Ice hete-ho shahr-men deTchd, wuh yaJidh dyd-chdhtd thd tum-se milne-ho, par hahd hi ghord merd mar-gayd, aur hamen ishdra hiyd hi dp-se %dhir Tcarnd U apn'i pdlhi mere wdste hhej-dend; fi-l-Ml jo tumhdri pdlhi maujiid na ho, to mukhlis apni pdlhi us-he wdste hhej- degd. ' I saw your son yesterday in the city, he wished to come here to see you, but mentioned that his horse was dead, and desired me to tell you to send your palki for him ; if your palki be not now at hand, I shall despatch mine for him.' Prom the preceding sentence it will appear that considerable attention and experience will be necessary before the student can readily apply the pronouns agreeably to the rules of grammar, idiom, and etiquette, which last is a point of great importance among the Orientals. 112 THi USE OF THE POSSESSIYE * APNi.' 73. When there occurs in the complement of a sen- tence a possessive pronoun belonging to the nominative or agent, such possessive is expressed in Hindustani by lJ\ apnd {-ne or -111). a. We may define the complement of a sentence in general, as that portion of it which in English follows the verb ; thus, in the sentences, *he returned to his house,' 'he was transacting his business,' the phrases 'to bis house,' and ' his business,' form the complement. Again, in each of these, the possessive pronoun his, if it refers solely to the nominative he, will be expressed by ajpnd in Hindustani; as, LT »f> rf^ ^c^^ ^ and l^* \f^ *l^ UjI ij ; but if the pronoun his refers to another person, then it will be expressed by \L^\ tts-kd {-he, -M) ; for instance, 1>T j^ ^j^^ ^3 ' he name to his house,' meaning not his own house, but the house of some other third person. h. When the nominative of a sentence consists of the first or second personal pronoun, and its possessive occurs in the complement, the matter admits of no hesitation ; as, ' I am going to see my father ; ' * we have seen our new house ; ' ' you are destroying your health ; ' in all of which apnd would be used for ' my,' ' our,' and ' your,' respec- tively. In the use of the third person, however, the English language is liable to an ambiguity, for example, the sentence ' he was beating his slave' has two meanings; it might be his own slave, or another man's. The Hindustani is much more explicit; ' his own slave' would be expressed by apne ghuldm-ho, and 'another man's slave' by us-Jce ghuldm-ho', hence, as a practical rule, if the possessive in the com- plement of a sentence denotes own, it will be expressed in Hindustani by apnd {-ne, -ni). Sometimes, apnd is elegantly repeated, to denote separation or distinction; as follows, ^^ j^ ^\ ^\ ^^y^J ^% 'they both went, each to his own house,' whereas a^pne gha/r would merely denote ' their own house/ as common to both. DEMONSTEATIVE PRONOUNS. 113 0. It is needless to add, that if a possessive pronoun occurs in the nominative part of a sentence, the use of apnd is inadmissible; as, ^^CL|U- -j^ CS^ ^\ L-jb4^^j^l ^^j^ * I and my father will go to our own country.' Here main aur merarldp is the nominative of the sentence, and apne mulk men is the complement ; in the former, the regular possessive mer&r is used; and in the latter, a^nd^ according to our rule above stated. d. When in the first clause of a sentence there occurs the conjunctive participle, the possessive in it will be apnd ; as lOj U- ^r^ (JJl* ^\ JJi -ft'L ^ c-jb ^\ ^^ *I, having taken my father with me, will go to my own country.' Here, the use of apnd is strictly according to rule, for the sentence is equivalent to 'I will take my father with me; and I will go to my own country.' e. We occasionally meet with apnd used irregularly instead of the other possessives ; as, LS lIX^j -^^ ,^ \^\ * my own disposition even was led astray.' ('Bagh o Bahar,' p. 21.) In ordinary discourse, according to Dr. Gilchrist, we may hear such expressions as the following, namely, bji luoj llo IjjI ^ * if my son had done so.' Lastly, apnd is used substantively in the general sense of ' one's people, friends,' etc., like the Latin expression * apud sues ;' thus, l^ <0 J^ ^\ cj ^y^}ji^ — V^ U**^ l/ tJ!^/^ *^ *he came to his own, but his own received him not.' DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 74. The demonstratives -^ yih^ Hhis,' and /^ wuh^ *that,' together with their plurals, are sometimes used in the same sense as our definite article ^ the.' They are applicable to both genders, and agree with their sub- stantives in case, and generally in number. 8 114 INl-EREOGATI VES. a. We have seeu it stated in some grammar, 'tlmt a demon- strative pronoun in the singular may be used with an Arabic plural/ etc., from which the reader is left to infer that it is not dsed with any other plural. Now, the fact is, that i/ih and wuh are frequently used with any plural, and represent the plural even without the substantive; as, ^J>^ (jwb ^ *^l5>- ^5*1^ e^^L?^ -W. * these two brothers went to the magistrate ; ' and again, give something.'^ It would be needless to multiply examples, as they may be met with in any author. We have reason to believe, how- ever, that when the singular is thus used, it is either to denote a collective group, or in a disrespectful sense ; on a principle analagous to that of applying the plural to one person in order to denote respect or reverence. INTERROGATIVES. 75. The interrogative ^^ kaun^ when used by itself, generally applies to persons, and L^ hjd to irrational or lifeless beings ; but if the substantive be expressed, kaun will agree with it adjectively in case and number, whereas the inflection of kyd is never used adjectively. a. For example, in the phrase ^& ^^ 'who is there?' the inference is, what person?' so, ^ ui signifies what (thing) is it ?' At the same time we may not only say J^^ r^^ ' what man ? ' 4^ J^ ^jM^ ' to what man ? ' but also y^ ^^ ' what thing ? ' l^ J-j»- ^jj^ * of what thing ?' We can also say, J^ L^ ' what thing?' but we cannot say l^ -j>- ^l^ to denote *of what 1 Here is another instance oi a feminine preposition requiring the genitive in Ae, agreeably to what we stated page 98, a. The example is from tlie ' B&gh o Bah&r,' p. 144. It is the reading of half-a-dozen different copies (two of them manuscript), as well as of the Calcutta edition, 1836, printed in the Roman character. — D. F. RELATIVE AND CORRELATIVE. 115 thinsr.' The oblique form Mhe is used only as a substantive ; as, ,__^«^ ^ jb\^ 'a watch of what (substance, etc.)?' the answer to which may be ^ i^y^ 'of gold,' etc. Sometimes hyd is applied to a person or thing 3y way of exclamation ; as, bd\yt\js>^ Li what a rogue !' cub Ls^ what an affair " When hyd is repeated, it seems to convey the idea of ' what various »* iS, i^^Ls"^ lo l-^ what various wonders ?' Sometimes, kyd is iised as a conjunction, meaning 'whether,' 'or;' like the Latin ?\v( ;' as, ^J^ '-^^tr^ ^ jV ^ whether in the garden or in the field.' b. The interrogative ig used for the relative in such sentences ^^ L5^ ^f '^ cA?'^ ^'^ (:X^ 'l know who it is.' Also adverbs derived from the interrogative {vide page 68) are in a similar manner substituted for those from the relative; for instance, l>j*l5^ c--^ ^ ^ ^^ ^ \s>' ^^j^ \>^ ' I do not know when he •will go.' e. Sometimes a question is used to denote negation or surprise; as, iL jT ^li ^jj> ^j^ U ^ CS^ LjI 'all the territory which thou hast taken will be of no use to thee;' literally, of what use will it be to thee?' and again, ^j^ ^^ ^^l^^ ^ l^ U-1^ ^J^ where is the king's son? and where this report?' meaning the king's son has nothing to do with this report.' RELATIVE AND CORRELATIVE. 76. Strictly speaking, the Hindustani does not pos- sess a relative pronoun corresponding with, our ^who,' 'which/ and ^ that/ and as this want is a source of much perplexity to the learner, we shall endeavour in the following paragraphs to explain fully how the place of the relative is supplied. 116 RELATIVE AND COllRELATIVE. a In page 38 vre have given the declension of ^>- and ^ which from want of a better term we called relative and correlatioe, respectively. The word ^5j- signifies he who,' she who,' or that which,* and refers, not to an antecedent, like our relative 'who,' but to a noun following, like our words * whosoever,' * what- soever,* * whoso.' Hence *>- usually begins the sentence, and is followed in a second clause by ^ and the use of the two together generally forms a substitute for our relative pronouns * who,' * which,* and * that,' as will be seen by the following examples ; ^ .xLo LL^ J \^\j )^ - ^ ^5=s^ 4 (^ ^h^^ ^ *the king much approved of the horses which you sent,' literally, * what horses you sent, the king much approved of the same;' Jj> ^ L-^^ y^ — ^ \^ (^ j^' ^ that is all true which you have said,' literally, * whatever you have said, that is all true.' In like manner, the relative and correlative adverbs usually accompany each other; jU- ^I^j Jj^ jj^V^ - J^ «j;V -^^jjW^ * where the treasure is, there is the snake ; and where there is a flower there is a thorn.' 5. Sometimes, the remote demonstrative may be used instead of the correlative, both pronominally and adverbially ; as follows, wJ ^S-^ f-:>^ 15^-***^ '^^ ^^° ^^^ ^^ po^ ^^s ^^ sword' (he who pays best, is best served); iJijj*l> l-^ l^""^ ^^^tr^ '^^ 7®^ shall give, so shall you get.' In the following sentence, the demon- strative a(?verb ^^5 is used; whereas in a few sentences before, the author uses the correlative ^^ for the same expression {vide Selections in Devanagari, page 8, lines 3 and 10); UjU- UU- * where there shall be ninety-nine pitchers of milk, how will a single pitcher of water be there discovered ?' "Wc may here at IMDEFINITES. 117 the same time see the negative effect of the question, as the speaker means that ' there is no chance of detecting one pitcher full of water among ninety-nine of milk.' 0. The conjunction i^ frequently accompanies the relative, and sometimes occupies its place entirely; as in the phrases, ^j^ &j ^r^^U- ^ LT?^ f Jb d ci^-jjl ^ 'let us not bring into mind the trouble which has come upon us ; ' so also, ^^y^ f jI^^aLsT^ ^J-^ ^^ I*^ ^ ^ b '^^^^ '^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^ man, who, before the commencement, thinks of the end of his work ; ' l^ \3s>. ^ i)**^ ^ j./*^ ^ *the man who wrote the letter.* Sometimes, the demonstrative is substituted, in imitation of the Persian; thus, ^^ ^ ^jj-j l::^ ^^ ^^^ ^j*i\ i^ ^ ajlkuj there is a temple in which there are several idols of gold.' d. In many instances the relative ^ corresponds with our 'who,' 'which,' or 'that,' but the student must be careful not to consider this as a rule, for it is only the exception ; as follows, \J^ cjl^ ,<5-j ^ \^hj J*^ ' ^^^ ^^° loaves which my children eat.' Here the word ^ is not put first, because there is another word jt> already used to define roti ; but suppose the sentence were the bread which I ate was very good,' we should have to say in Hindustani, jo roti main-ne hhdX so (or wuh) bahut achchM tM.' INDEFINITES. 77. The indefinite^*/ kOyi, ^somebody' or ^anybody/ when used alone, refers to a person, whereas ^- kuc/ih, ^something,' ^anything,' refers to matter in general. As an adjective, however, ko^i may agree with any sub- stantive, as, ^si ^*^ 'any or some man,'j-o- ^*^ ^any or some thing.' ^ is seldom applied to persons in 118 CONCORD OF VERBS. the nominative, but in the oblique cases; kisi or Jcisu seems to be equally applicable to persons or things. a. The indefinites koX and Jcuohh, as well as the numeral uJot vtty one,' frequently supply the place of our articles 'a,* 'an,' or *a certain;' as, It* <^lj -^ j^ ^^^ Jc^k^Ij <-^.^ 'a sage arrived in a certain city;' \jj jU-j yJti uiol c::-^^ ^^ 'on a certain time a tiger fell sick.' The indefinite article frequently occurs more than once at the beginning of a story, and it is a point of good taste to use ko,i and ek alternately, as in the preceding examples, so as to avoid the clumsy repetition of the same word. The emphatic particle ^-i or ^Jb hi may be affixed to many of the pronouns; as, ^Jb c-/r 'my (your, etc.) own self;' ^.^j 'this same;' ^j that same.' Also in the oblique cases ^<-^^, ^^^\ etc., as in ^ ,^\, ^ ,<->j1 'to this or that self-same person or thing.' Some- times jj-J5 is added with the same effect. CONCORD OF THE VEEB WITH THE NOMINATIVE. 78. As a general rule, the Hindustani verb agrees with its nominative in number, person, and gender, subject, however, to the following exceptions : 1. To mark respect, a singular nominative has a verb in the plural ; 2. If the nominative consist of different irrational objects in the singular number, they may take a singular verb ; 3. If the nominatives be of various genders, the verb takes the masculine form, or agrees with that next to it ; Lastly. If the verb be transitive, and in any tense formed of the past participle, the nominative assumes the case of the agent, and the verb follows a special rule already illustrated, p. 103, IN'o. 69, etc. a. We shall here add a few examples in illustration of the GOVERNMENT 01 VERBS. 119 preceding rule, embracing, as it does, the whole subject of verbal concord, which differs in some respects from that of the European languages. Thus, ^ ^SJ n^ he is writing; ^ ^^^ h * she is dancing ; ' ^j^ ^yj t_fj they {males) are talking ; ' and v^ L^^ tJ) 'they (females) are singing.' The following examples refer to the exceptions: 1. ^yti ir jo joT ^^^L^ J iLijlj ' the king having seen (this), became tearful,* or ' wept ; ' where the verb ^^^ is plural, expressive of respect to the king,' which is in the singular nominative. In like manner we have ^S (-i/=r^ ^^ i^k^ ^ c^'^ '--r'^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ proper that your majesty should submit.' 2. In the following sentences we have two nouns in the singular number, coupled by a conjunction, whilst the verb is in the singular, agreeing with the nearest noun ; as, ^ ^-^V ll^J^^ ~j ^ ^jy^ \j^ 'r^J J^ c^^ kD^ * my people, my wealth, and my kingdom, why are they not all gone (from mo) this day?' 3. Several nouns of diflPerent genders occur in the next two sentences, but the verb takes the masculine plural in preference to the feminine ; as, ^ ^^^ ^ ^ u5t)U> ^J^\ ^^ ^\^ c-?lj U ^^S^\ 'her father, mother, and brother, were all three meditating the accom- plishment of her marriage;' ^^-^ l5^W" ^"^ ^f^ ^"^^^ \J¥^ ^S^ — " y •• -^ «r' * his elephant, camel, and carriage are being loaded.* GOVEENMENT OF VERBS. 79. In this department the Hindustani differs very little from the English. Actives or transitives naturally govern the accusative case, which, as we have shewn, is generally like the nominative, and sometimes like the dative {vide p. 101, IS'o. 67.) a. Causal verbs, verbs of clotliing, giving, etc., may be considered 120 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. aa ji:overning two accusative cases, or the accusative and the dative ; fi^, ^\>- j^ ^fi^ \j\^ ^ L5V^ * having given the child food, go home;* •l^j \^ ^j ^\ ' put on him these clothes;' andjJ ^}J CJ^\^^\ give him a rupee.' h. Some neuter verbs, as \j\ *to come,' liL 'to become,' \j\^ o o ^ to suit,* Uj^ to fall,' li.^^/J * to arrive,' LI^ * to become,' La>l>. * to be desirable,' U^ * to remain,' U^^ * to appear,' IJj ' to unite,' LL« 'to meet, to occur,' and IjJb 'to be,' govern the dative case, and are frequently used impersonally ; as follows, ^ U ! f,»^j iA^ I feel compassion;' ^Ji) ..^^ ^^^ Cl^b ^jtA ^^j^ I have some doubt in this matter;' ^^J^^- ^J^J ^ l5"^^ ^""^ *^^ ^® desirable that we should go there.' We may here observe that the form ^^^^U- from chdhnd, is frequently used impersonally in the sense of *it is proper,' 'it is fit;' like the Latin decet,' 'oportet.' When thus em- ployed, governs the dative of the person, and either the past participle or the aorist of the accompanying verb, as in the preceding example, which might also be expressed ^^^\:>- bU- ^ *Jfe ' we must go.' Sometimes, it may be used personally ; as, ^^^SjbU- L^ ^ ^J which may mean ' what is proper for you,' or what do you require,' etc. We could in this way say j^Aibl>- \j\^ (J^3 ^^ 7®^ must go there,' or 'to go there behoveth you.' c. Verbs meaning 'to sell,' or implying gain,' have ^'U 'hand,' connected with them; as ^^ I^j ^'l& ^^^^ i^J^ '^^ whom have you sold it?' bT -fflfc ^ lil ^'s' ^ ^^^^^. (^^ ^J 'that busi- ness was accomplished with great difficulty;' in like manner, uT *^U iAssT J4f> CS>i\ 1^1 *he gained a flower as his prize.' In such expressions the word ^'Ife is used in the sense of possession.' d. Verbs which in English require ' with,' ' from.' or * by' after them, govern the ablative, and those which require *in,* TENSES OF THE ROOT. 121 ' within,' * into, ' the locative case ; as in the following sentencie : ^j^jj^ t<-» this IS better, that by means of his friendship I should escape from the hand of my enemies ; ' in like manner W ^^j^^ ^^^ Jj^U- ^^j^ ^jij] bj 'going into his house, he began to think within himself Yerbs of fear and caution require the ablative case ; as, ^ \jjJ ^^ >!• Sj JaLi perhaps he is afraid of you;' ^ liJfe; j^'^ji^ (^ U3^\y*\;^ J^^ '*^® ^^S^ keeps on his guard against reprobates.' TENSES OF THE ROOT. 80. We have already given the general signification of each tense, in the various paradigms of the verb, pp. 44 to 59. We shall now, following the same order, briefly notice such peculiarities as some of them present. The reader will recollect that they are three in number — ^the aorist, future, and imperative, of which the aorist is the most important, on account of its extensive use and application. a. The Aorist generally corresponds vsdth the present subjunc- tive of the Latin, or what in English grammar goes under the name of * present potential' ; hence the conjunctions <^ and ^^\ ' although,' ulxi' ^-^=r * until,' and \jL^ *lest,' generally require the use of this tense after them; as, iy' P J ^ L5^^ y ^J^ i LJj'^ ^^ ^. "-r^ i uJ'k^ J.':r* ./^ * if I desire that he should stay till I come, what is it to thee ? ' It further implies possibility or obligation; as in the sentences, ^^ (Jbj ^^^ jJb .^ y>- ^ ' whatever it may be possible to do to-day, that do;' i^ji^ -♦Wl^ a\^ -^^^ liLj ^j^ ciW" ^ ^6 cannot go.' h. The aorist is very frequently employed to denote present time when general and unrestricted, hence it is used much in proverbial expressions, with which the language abounds; as, 4^ \s>- ^jlii JL« l^ ^^l) * the wealth of the wicked goes for nought.' It also expresses time future or past, conditionally; as, Jj^ j^lill^ JJj y ^j^ ^^ i^b ^\ ' if the nightingale find thy abode, then will the rose-garden be forgotten ;' or, 'if the nightingale found thy abode, then would the rose-garden be for- gotten.' On the subject of this tense, Muhammad Ibrahfm has given several sound remarks in his grammar, already alluded to ; p. 59, etc. He gives it the name of * future of the subjunctive or potential mood.' "We have discarded the term mood altogether, as utterly inapplicable to the Hindustani language, and infinitely more perplexing than useful. Lastly, the aorist is sometimes accompanied by the present auxiliary tense ^j^^, etc., page 43, the precise effect of which it is difficult to determine ; as, ^yn ^^ i /--^ I may speak ;' Jt> ^j^ iJyu:9- Jasoda is or may be saying.' e. The Future presents few peculiarities, save that in respectful hnguage it is often employed for the imperative, and occasionally for the aorist; as, ,X:Jt) Cj-;ls^ <-^-^^ l5^^ l^ ^ ui-^Lc w^o-Lj * have the kindness, Sir, to give me a book ; ' so, likewise, TE2^SES OF THE PRESENT rAilTICIPLE. 123 am thinking that whatever they say may be from envy.' Our /Second Future or Future Perfect is formed by the future of L^j>- ' to finish,' to the root of the verb ; as, \SJ^^ \^ /^-^ * I shall have eaten,' ^j^^ ^ ^j '^^ "w^l have eaten,' etc. d. The Imperative is confined in its application, strictly speaking, to the second person, singular and plural. The honorific form addresses itself as to a third person by way of respect; as, ^j k— ^o^ 'be silent ;' JT jJb til 'come hither;' ^^^^ssJ^ l_JU^ jLi^b pardon me,' or * may he pardon me.' It is not considered polite to use the second person singular of the imperative to any one, however low his con- dition. The adverb l:i-^^ is applicable to the imperative mood alone, A} is applied to it in common with the other modes, %^J is never used with it; as, ^j^ ^^i^^ or e^^ ^^! ^^^'^ forget;' jLj Lujl * don't do so.' The imperative mood is sometimes used idiomatically, as in the following expressions : ^ y yb * perhaps it is,' or * it may be ; ' jT y Jl ' come, if you mean to come.' TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 81. Of these, the Indefinite claims most attention. The name and signification given to it in most gram- mars, is ' Present Indefinite Tense. ' The epithet of present is misapplied, as the tense generally refers to the past a. Among the tenses of the present participle, the Indefinite holds the same rank that the aorist does in those derived from the root. Its most ordinary significations are, first, to denote conditional past time, in which case it is generally preceded by ^\ or ^ 'if,' and followed hj y then;' as in the sentences, \jyb ij j^Ual) ^^ y \j\ Sj S\ if he had come, then there would 124 TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. have been no loss ; ' \iLj «u ci^b ^^j^ y ^-^ ^;r* yr * ^^ ^ ^^ spoken, lie would not have regai'ded what I said,' or 'if I should speak, he would not regard.' So in the * Bagh o Bahar,' p. 71 : «3^" If oir days were at all lucky, then we should have some- where found Hatim, and having seized him, we should have carried him to Nauful, then he would have given five hundred ashrafis,' etc. The conjunction is frequently omitted in the former or latter part of the sentence, and sometimes in both ; as, bjLi ^yi^ ^^1 y wU>- jj--^ or \jj[^ ^-''^ l<^^ ^^ U^ ^^' * had I gone, I should have beaten hira soundly ; ' in like manner, b'l) ^2^ 'had I been present, the horse should not have been allowed to escape.* b. In the second place, the indefinite is employed to denote continuative past time, or to express an act or event that was habitual ; as the reader may observe in the following passage : ^i^ ^JL)1 tjj^ ^ \jU-^ Jili luo\ t-^ ^^^^-^ S^W S'^ \jyt> (*y^ ^ i<-'^ L5^y ^ J^^ * When the gamester used to win (jitfd) he used to become {ho-jdtd) so careless, that any one might take off (utdr-letd) his clothes ; then even it would not be {na hotd) known to him.' In like manner, 'Bagh o Bahar,' p. 9: l:xi^^ ^ l^.J ^"^ U**^ ^ c:-^£i-^t) (jwl v-^^ ^.^ L5^ l/^^ j^^ - ^ J^ l/ u^^^ j^ ujfj^ ^Jr'^ \^ (J>3^ j^l> o ^^^j^ j^ "~L5^ '^r'^?^ ''^^^ L^^ ^-^^.^^ t—J^b* ^ bis*- ^!b»- u-i;!? *When he arrived at the tree, he saw that on every branch of it a/re hanging hundreds of human heads; and under it is a beautiful tank full of water, and the stream of it is flowing towards the desert.' In such instances the past tense may be used, but it is less animated and impressive ; as ^ ^Ja^ ^ j^j^ {^S^ J-j * he went near the tree, and wha< does he see but a marble slab was placed at the bottom of it' 126 TENSES OF THE TAST PARTICirLE. /. The Imperfect denotes a past action in progress, and corresponds with onr own compound tense formed in a similar manner; as, \C Is^ ij 'he was writing.* In most of our English grammars, the Indefinite Past Tense, such as ' he wrote,' * ho spoke,' is very improperly called the Imperfect. It is needless to state that these expressions in Hindustani must be rendered by l^ y^<*^ ^^^ ^i ,<^«-»^ that is, the simple past, of which we shall say more immediately. g. The tense called the Present Dubious (page 51) is generally employed to denote a future action of uncertain occurrence; as, ujjijJb or J^^yjJ \ij\^ J^ (perhaps) I may beat,' or be beating;' so in ' Bagh o Bahar, p. 38 : Ifyb li^ L^ ^^r?^ [^^ \^} h * What will he (or may he) saying in his own mind ? ' TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 82. The main peculiarity in the use of these is, that when the verb is transitive, the nominative must be put in the case of the agent, as explained p. 103, etc. The Past Tense corresponds with what is improperly called the imperfect in most English grammars ; as, LT Is^ a^ ' he went away ; ' l^ (J >j* * you wrote ; ' which expressions, though inde- finite as to time, convey the idea of a complete or perfect action ; hence the absurdity of calling it the imperfect tense. In addition to its common acceptation, it is sometimes used with a present, and sometimes with a future meaning ; as in the following : ^? y ^^^ ^j jjU- o;^^ y J^ ^^ f^ ' i^ s^^ is found, then my life remains; if not, it is gone ; ' IjI^ ^ by ^^ * what he sows, that he reaps.' We have already stated that the present is sometimes used for the future to denote speed ; the past is employed for the same purpose. Thus a man says to his servant, ^'i ^^\J TENSES OF THE PAST PAETICIPLE. 127 hrlna: water,' and the answer will probably be Jj^^Jo- u^ I have Drought it, Sir,' meaning, * I will bring it immediately.' It ia some- times applied in an idiomatical manner, ; as, lyi> ^ !jA if it be so, why be it so.' h. The verb ' to be ' has, in Hindustani, two tenses expressive of the past, viz. l^' 'was,' and \^ was' lor became), which may often be translated by the same word in English. In many cases these appear to be synonymous in their application ; the student, however, must pay particular attention to the following rule. lf>* is used in reference to simple existence at a distant time or particular place, while \^ is applied to time or circum- stances less remote, in the sense of ' became ; ' as follows : \^ il^jb CJ<\ ^^^ CJ^-* (jw^ 'there was a king in that country;' Lib (jW^ ^J *^® "^^^ (became) confounded.' In short, l^* de- notes permanent existence, and \^ that which was^ or lecame existing, through circumstances generally stated in, or easily in- ferred from the context. c. The Perfect answers to the Perfect tense in English, being used to denote an action newly past and finished ; as follows, ^ ^-^^ -/*^ Irr* ' ^y brother has arrived ;* ^ ^}^ f J^ ci i^r* * I have eaten the fruit.' Sometimes it is used with adverbs of time, in a manner that cannot literally be rendered in English ; as j^yb LS ^^Uj J^ ^^y^ ' I have gone there yesterday,' for ' I went there yesterday.' In this case, the usage of the French 'je suis alle,' would have come nearer the Hindustani. d. The Pluperfect in English will generally be expressed by the Pluperfect in Hindustani, representing a thing not only as past, but as prior to some other event ; as in the sentence, \^* \^ kci- tj ^j^ ^^ ^ ^j^jsx^^ ^^\ 'l had written the letter previous to his arrival.' "But the converse of this ru3Q 128 TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. does not hold, the pluperfect being frequently used in Hindu- stani where in English we employ the simple past; thus in Story 16, a learned Kayath orders his slave to get up during the night, and see if it rains. The slave, feeling himself very com- fortable where he is, concludes, without getting up, that it does rain ; and gives the following ingenious process of reasoning : ^ ^S^. — V "^y^ !f^^ s^ (I'tr* — L5^ *^*^ L5^ ' *^® ^^* ^*°^® in, I put my hand upon her, she was wet' {ergo, it rains) ; but the literal meaning is, * the cat had come in, I had put my hand upon her, she had got wet.' The general rule is, that when one definite past even precedes another past event in point of time, the former is expressed in the pluperfect. It may happen that the latter of the two events is not expressed, but merely passing in the speaker's mind ; as in the above example, where the slave might have added, as he no doubt meant, ' thence, I have ascertained that it is raining,' which would have completed the chain of reasoning. e. The tense called the Past Dubious (p. 51), formed of the past participle and the aorist or future of UjJb is used to express remote probability past or future ; as in the following examples : l^ L^ LO^^ ^ ^ uy^ lij lr>- - ' to desire, ' with the past participle of another verb ; as, ^ hjAs^ \j/9 a^ *he is about to die,' is dying,* or will soon die.' There are also other ways of expressing the same idea; thus, ^^ S/* ^j or ^ 1i\^ ci/* ^j or ^ l^ Sj^ ifj. INTINITIVE. 129 INFINITIYE. 83. The infinitive is used as a substantive to denote the state or action of the verb ; it is frequently used for the imperative, and occasionally it is employed adjec- tively in connection with another substantive. a. All Infinitwes used as substantives or adjectives are subject to inflection like nouns of the third class ; thus, Jb l— -wjI^^ U \>- 1^1 *his departure is proper;' ^^ c:-^j ^^^, l^ ^^j>4 f*^^ 'this is the very time for taking revenge;' 1)1 ^ ■,^^*^,'^ j4 ^ ^^ \\ (Ja-^slj ^ ^j^ij^i^ j^ Hj *he has come to see the house.* The infinitive is often used as an imperative, and as such it may even have the negative mat before it ; as, Ij U5o >*uj> J^ * swear not at all;' \j\s>- ci-w^ L;^^ don't go there,' or 'you must not go there.' Sometimes it is used with the verb U^, instead of the regular tenses of the verb which it represents ; as follows, \^ I) ! ^-«j cLnL* ^j*S * from what country are you come ? ' instead of ^ ^^\ ^ LliX* ^j^. It is also used with the verb to be,' like the Latin gerund, to denote necessity or obligation ; as, l^Jb liU- :.l&. ^ ^ 'you must go there;' so, likewise, ^ Ijlss-J^^ -^ c..^ jj^ _ ^ ^j^ jl) CSi\ j^^A 'one must die {moriendum est) some day at last, and must give up every thing.' I. Sometimes the infinitive, together with its complement (that is, the noun which it governs, along with its circumstances), may form the subject or predicate of a proposition; as follows, ^jb\j ^^ci\ j}^^ LiiJij c;,^ ^ ^^ j^ ^ ^y^^^^, to laugh {lit. to display the teeth) in the presence of kings is unmannerly.' In the following sentence from the ' Khirad Afroz,' both the subject and the predicate are of this description: 130 INFINITIVE. children in the society of the vile, is to effect their ruin.* When an infinitive thus used has a feminine noun for its complement, it generally agrees adjectively with the substantive (like the Latin participle in du8) by changing U into ^J or j-J ; thus, i5t^^ ib^V^ L5^^ L^kj ^J^ s/ cT"* ' ^ ^*^® ^°* learned to speak your language ;' ^ J^LL* ,^5^^ ^^^iXJi ^ ^^lAi ' it is hard to put one's finger on a lancet.' So, in the Ba^ Bahar,' p. 32 : ^ L^* -'^^'^ ^ L;si^ L5^ \J^ J^^^i"^ ' Sir, if it was your \itention thus to act the stranger, then where was the necessity of previously tendering your friendship with such ardour?' Here the infinitive Tcwnh. agrees with n&-&BhnaJi and dodh. in the feminine gender ; so, p. 35, ^^^^ ^-'^^ ^5^.*^ T l^^V^ *— ^r^ ^^ S^"^® trouble to one's guest is not proper.' Sometimes (though rarely) the infinitive does not agree with the feminine noun which it governs ; as may be seen in the following sentence : *to toil much for this world is in fact much-ado about nothing.' If the infinitive, with the feminine noun which it governs, be not the subject or predicate of a sentence, this concord does not hold between the infinitive and the word which it governs; as ilS 15*^^ * ^^ ®^^ ™^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^® came to cut wood (sticks), and began to gather sticks.' Here the infinitives tornd and chunnd do not agree with lakrii/dn, because they are neither subject nor predicate to a sentence. We have been rather diffuse in explaining this peculiarity of the infinitive, because the rule respecting it, as given in most grammars, is, to say the least of it, unsound. It runs thus : " The termination jj is used with certain verbs or with post-positions; PARTICIPLES. 131 J (»{), \-J (nin), or j^lJ (w^yaw), when a feminine noun singular or plural is the object of tlie verb ; and b in all other cases ! " "We have just shewn from the best authority that ne is used when there is neither ' a certain verb ' nor post-position ' in the case, and that ni is not necessarily used at all times when a feminine noun is the object of the verb.' c. The inflected infinitive with M (Jce or U) is also used adjec- tively in a sense somewhat like the Latin participles in turns ; as, ^^ l^ iJyb -^, * this cannot be ; ' l^ (JU- j^^ (^ \j^ ^^ * now I do not mean to go to Persia ' (non sum iturus) ; so, l^ ^U ^p^ j^ *I am not the man to believe, or submit.' Lastly, the inflected infinitive is used with li>J when it means 'to begin;' with Ljti *to grant leave;' and with l)l> * to get leave;* as, W ^j^ b^ ' he began to say • ' j J «JU- ^ *j& ' allow us to go ; ' M-^ «J^ cii i^ they are allowed to come.' The verb \j^s>- to go,' may also govern the inflected infinitive of another verb {ko being understood) ; as, ^J^ ^_^'^^ ^3 ' ^^^7 went to play.' The verb l:iLj * to be able,' generally governs the root of another verb, but it is often used with the inflected infinitive, particularly when accompanied by a negative particle; as, IxJ^L^ J^ -.^ * I shall be able to move ; ' \^ l::^^! cU ,Aj>- !i ' he was not able to move;' lii^ ^j^ L5^^ il'^ ■'■ ^^^^^^ ^^7*' Lastly, the verb hond, denoting obligation, may govern the inflected infinitive; as, \^ (J\s>- ^dj ' you must go ; ' ISjJi ^ ^ ^^' ' you must write.' PARTICIPLES. 84. The present and past participles, when used par- ticipially and not forming a tense, generally add \^ (p. 46), and agree, like adjectives, with the noun which they qualify. In many instances they are used adverbially 132 PAKTICIPLE8. in the masculine inflection, or, more strictly speaking, they are verbal nouns in an oblique case. a. The following examples will illustrate what we have just stated regarding the participles when accompanied by h{i,d; ^J / J^,/ 4^y lT^ yr d;-* '^. U?*/ ^ 'is t^ere any one in Braj who will stop the departing Gopal ? ' So likewise, ^U Jdb ^ jJ^ 4^ jJb ^*y ' the bones of a dead tiger ; ' and, kettledrum suspended in a tree.' Sometimes the past participle is used like a mere adjective ; as, lf» 6 Ij \^ 1^ <-^J * there was a flowery and fruitful garden ' (not * flowered and fructified ' ) ; but the words j^A^^a and^Aa/a here may be real adjectives (not participles) derived from 'phiil, 'a flower,' and 'phal^ 'fruit,' by adding (f, which is agreeable to analogy. In expressions like the following, they are used adverbially; as, jjyi» -*sv«s 'when it was morning;' tjyi> /»L£> ' when it was evening ; ' ^^^j i^j^ ' while I remain ; ' ^j^^i^ l5^^ * at the sight of whom ; ' ;^^fsr*^ Lj * without understanding ; * c::-.^^ L ^1 (JlS ^j she comes singing.' The present participle in this case is employed precisely like the ablative of the Latin gerund. Dr. Gilchrist has suggested that M hdlat men should be considered to be understood '. thus, wuh gdti H hdlat men dti hak, %he comes in the state or condition pf (a person) singing;' but a moment's consideration will shew PAETICIPLES. 133 that this theory is more ingenious than sound. Tor instance, ^ \j\ (jrt^ l::^!U- ^) ^^ Hj ' he comes (in the state of) one singing,' is all very well, but, on the other hand, when the nominative is feminine, as, ^£ ^"T (j;-^ l::JU- ^) ^^ ij ' she comes (in the state of) one singing,' the expression is absurd ; because she is a female, and the one singing is a male ; and we leave the authors of the theory to account for the curious fact of her coming in the state of {a male) singing, at that particular juncture. We believe that in these instances the present participle is a verbal noun in the locative case, similar to those Sanskrit verbals in ti, etc. (corresponding to the tio of the Latin), which denote the abstract action or condition of the verb. In fact we could add many instances where the participle is clearly used like a mere substantive, as ^ ^y^ 'from sleep/ evidently the same as ^ sA?^' e. From the past participle are formed the compound verbs called frequentative and desiderativy, by adding ha^nd and chdhnd respectively to the simple masculine form of the participle. The only peculiarity about these is, that the verbs \jj^ 'to die,' and UU- 'to go,' employ the regular forms of the participle mard and Jdgd, in preference to the usual forms m{L,d and gaga; as, wuh mard chdhtd hai, he is about to die,' or will die,' or wishes to die;' so, wuh jdyd Tcartd thd, *he was in the habit of going.' The past participle with h{i,d in the inflected state is sometimes used like the conjunctive participle, or, indeed, it may be a compound form of the latter, for ought we can say; thus, Jb IfLjJ (-5*y^ 15^^ Li^J^^ L5"^^ ^^^} ' ^ ^^^ having applied the smoke (by way of penance) is seated;' so likewise, having put on various coloured garments, were dancing.' Some- times the past participle of a neuter verb is used adjectively (that 134 PARTICIPLES. J3, agreeing with the nominative), elong with another verb ; as, UU" 1>- ; thus, j^ (^[s^ L5^ *-^-^ 'they go along;* so, l5^ LTi/^ 4^ 4^^r '^^' * ^"^^ "^^^ roaming about.' d. The conjunctive participle, by connecting the similar numbers of a sentence, saves the use of verbs and conjunctions; it commonly refers to the agent, sometimes to the object of the verb; as, j\ ^ jLS l->1::^ s^^**^ ^^ il>^? tt' * ^^^^S gone there to-day, and having taken my book, return;' and again, regret has come upon me (through) making haste in this business.' The student will recollect that this participle has several forms, the first of them the same as the root; the second, the same as the masculine inflection of the past participle, or the second and third persons singular of the aorist; but the context generally suffices to prevent any ambiguity. e. The masculine inflection of the present participle with the addition of the particle ^Jb hi, forms what may be called the adverbial participle. Its signification is very nearly the same as that of the conjunctive participle above described; the adverbial form conveying perhaps the idea of more speed or precision; as, ^ ^J^^^ CL^V -;.J (immediately) on hearing this statement. This participle may be applied in three ways, all of them tending to prove what we have stated above, that it is merely a verbal noun. Thus we may say, ^ ^J^-^*^ ^^*V -W. "^l^ere yih hdt is the first form of the accusative; we may also say, ^ 15^-**' y ^-^V {j*>f where is hdt-Tco is the second form of the accusative ; lastly, we may say, ^ ^_5^^'^— ' ^ <-^V W'^^ on the hearing of this statement.* Here, we see sunte in the first two expressions scting the part of a transitive verb, and in the last that of a substantive. oaxcLUSiON. 135 85. We have littlb more now to add on the syntax of the Hindustani language, which, we believe, we have discussed more fully, and we would fain hope, more intelligibly, than has yet been done. The following few remarks may be still added, as belonging to no particular department of the subject. a. Sometimes a verb plural is used without a nominative case, some such word as * they ' or * people ' being understood ; as in the following examples: -..-.Jb ^^^^^ ^)^i thus they say;' and (i;^^ ^J^ f iJvL/^^* l5*^ J^^ '— -^.^ * °^®^ ^^ thousands with one sword.' In negative sentences, the verb to be ' is generally under- stood; as, ^j^ ^^ ^ ^l-i ij^ Uis 'oppression (is) not becoming your dignity.' The particle i^ hi is frequently used after verbs of speaking, asking, etc., in the sense of thus,' ' as follows,* etc. ; as, \Ji &j ^J, ^-^ ^ ^ ^j*>^ * te said he had not done it;' lit. 'he said thus, I have not done it.' This is very like the use of the particle on as it frequently occurs in the Greek text of the New Testament. In a sentence consisting of two or more clauses, it is not necessary to repeat the auxiliary verb in each ; as ^ ^jj ^ ^ j^\ ^ L5^ l/ CJ'^ 'V ^J^^. * ^^^^' ness is the thraldom of the body, and sorrow that of the spirit.' h. We may here state in conclusion, that throughout this long section on Syntax, it has been our principal aim to illustrate those peculiarities in which the Hindustani language differs from our own. Such rules and principles as completely accord with those of the languages supposed to be familiar to the reader, we have either passed over unnoticed, or handled very briefly. It may further be stated that there remains a difficult department of the language which must be overcome by practice, viz., the use of idiomatical expressions. These do not constitute the subject of grammar, and a knowledge of them is to be acquired by reading the best authors, and by free mten ourse with the natives of the country. 186 SECTION YL THE NlGAEI OR DEVANAGARI ALPHABET. 86. This is the character generally used by the Hindus. It is read and written from left to right, like our own. The alphabet, as used for the Hindustani, consists of eleven vowel sounds, and thirty-three con- sonants, aU arranged as follows : — ^ ^T T t ^ ^ ^ Tl \ ^ ^-v d d 2 i Hl ii r! i ai 6 «w Consonants. ^ -m ^ ^ ^• ^ W ^ ^ 3? Z h kh 9 gh n eh d?M y j^ » t 3 ^ ^ ^ fT ^ T V ^ ^ ^ th d dh n t th ) imdemeath, as in 4^^ aiitra, 'rule,' and "^"^ chand/ra, 'the moon.' h. In books recently printed at Calcutta, such as the Prem Sdgar, the Baitdl PacMsi, the Adventures of Hdtim Td,i, etc., all in the Devanagari character, very few compound letters occur; and as a general rule they are very little used in any of the spoken languages cf India, being chiefly confined to manuscripts and printed works in COREESPONDING NAGARI ANB PERSIAN LETTERS. 139 the Sanskrit language. The following, however, occur in our Selec- tions, and a perusal of these will suggest the method by which others may be formed. Compounds of which the letter "^ forms the first oi last element, are purposely omitted, that letter, as we have just seen, having special rules applicable to itself. w W ^ Jl m -^ ^ Tl c^r Ick U hj gn 9^ chckh Jf 25^ tth ^ w m ^ \ ¥ ^ ^ ^ ^ tn tm ty tw dd ddh dm dy dw w^ ^ ■^ ^ ^ -^ ^ ^ TT ■sr 121 nth nd ndh nn nm nj/ nh pt i?w py ^ ^ "«f ^ ¥ ¥ ^ ^ "^ M ps Id % 11 sht sMh shn St s^A sn w ^ w u ^ sm 8y 88 hm % c. Compounds of three letters are very rare, and when they do occur, it will be found that they generally consist of one of the semi- vowels ^ T ^ or ^ combined with a compound of two letters, thus : ^ ktw, -^ ntr, "^ pty, ^ sty. As for compounds of four letters, they are merely matters of curiosity, as "^''^ Ipsm, r[^ tsny. 88. The best dictionaries of the Hindustani language are printed in the Persian character ; hence it will be necessary for the student to know exactly how he may convert the Devanagari letters into the former. This he will be able to do efficiently by a reference to the following tables: — I. Initial Vowels. y 9 1 T t il 1 ,1 J il >1 ,\ ,\ 140 CORliESPONDlNG NAGARI AND PERSIAN LETTERS. II. Gomonanta. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 5? ^ ^ 4 r / u ^ -«^ ^ -R- ly (Jb 7 ^ ;r w rT ^ T V ^ ^ ^ n n u CJ -e^' J JbJ U ^^ ^. ^ ^ ^ ^ T W ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ •e^ r s^ >> J J i^or^ U^ * III. SecondtMry Vowels. ^ WT^ ftT ^T ^T ^T ■€^ ^ %T ^^ <|Vt ^: «- ^ X J^ «XJ JuJ J^* jUi A.* «. In the preceding table it will be observed that the ten aspirated letters of the Devanagarf alphabet are uniformly represented by the corresponding unaspirated letter, together with the round or lutterfly form of the letter ib, ^h\ thus, "^T^ ghar, ' a house,' .6^; V^ dhoTy a place,' Jr> J. The real h "% o^ the Devanagarf is represented in the middle of the word by ^ ; as, ^^T he said,' \^ : if, however, the letter preceding the Jb be t>, j, or j, then the form A must be used, and the preceding letter marked with the appropriate vowel ; as, ^^T«T dahdn, ' the mouth,' jjU^^. The cerebral letters Z and ^ are represented by cl? and J, or CLi and 3. Sometimes the ^ and ^ have the sound of a cerebral r and rh respectively; in which case they are generally marked with a dot beneath, thus ^f and "3", and and with J or j in the Persian character; as, which would amount to something like an absurdity. c. When, in a word, two vowels follow each other, the rule is, to write the second vowel in the initial form; for though not at the beginning of a word, it is the beginning of a syllable; thus, ■^■^T Aw'a ; "^T^T Mo. This is precisely the same in principle as the use of the mark ham%a (p. 17) in the Persi- Arabic alphabet. d. The best mode of learning the Devanagari character is to write out several times the whole of the single letters in Plate II. The various elements of each letter will be found in Plate I. fronting the title page; the small dot accompanying each shews where the pen starts from in their formation. When the student has made himself tolerably familiar with the letters, he may commence with the first story, which is the same as the third story of the Extracts in the Persian character. In like manner he will find that the Devanagari Stories, from 2 to 7 inclusive, are old acquaintances. Stories 8, 9, and 10 also occur in the other Extracts, but some of the words differ, viz., those of Persian or Arabic origin are displaced in the Devanagarf for words purely Indian and Sanskrit. The rest of the Extracts in OF MANUSCEIPTS. 143 this character are taken from the scarce and valuable 'Hindustani and Hindi Selections,' edited by Tarini Charan Mitr, head Munshl in the College of Fort William, Calcutta, 1827, in two vols. 4to. In their style and grammatical construction they offer no peculiarity differing from those of our Hindustani Extracts in the Persian character. OF MANUSCRIPTS. 90. We briefly alluded, at page 21, to the three most prevalent handwritings in use among the Arabs, Per- sians, and Musalmans of India. Of these, the [N'askhi, being like the type used in this country, requires no explanation ; and the Shikasta, from its extreme iiTegu- larity, scarcely admits of any. We shall therefore con- fine ourselves at present to the description of the TaHik^ of which we have given fourteen plates of engraved specimens at the end of this work. a. Plate I. Division 1st presents all the simple elements of this character, the small cross mark shewing the commencement of each. The 2nd elementary form, here marked t—^ , with one dot subscribed, so as io be equivalent to he, may, by a mere change of its dots, become t_^ O? cl^ [p, tf s). The third form, now a _ /, becomes in the same manner ^ ^ _ {ch, Ich, h). The 4th makes two letters, t> J . The 5th, j j j and J . The 6th is represented as con- sisting of two forms; one an indented, the other a protracted line, may in either shape form the sin and sMn (s and sh), as the only distinction between them is that the sin {s) wants, and the sMn (sh) has, three dots superscribed, whether short or protracted. The 7th form, ^Ja and ^ . The 8th, L and \^ {t, %). The 9th, c and i. The next letters are (_J J lL/ J (♦ c; J ^^^ ^ * Then follow the initial, medial, and final forms of the 5 ^ ^ or he linked together 144 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Lastly, the ^ * v^ (W, hamta, and y«), the latter under two varieties of form, the last of which is now conventionally used hy the natives to denote the yde nuyhid (p. 13). I. Division 2nd exhibits the second elementary form (viz. that of c--> c--> C-J cij ), and likewise that of ^ and ^ , as they appear initially, when combined with each of the others following them. Division 3rd shews the — (i.e. ^ ^ ^ or ^), prefixed in the same manner to each of the others. Division 4th (PI. II.), the (jw /Jj . Division 5th, the ^ ^JO . Division 6th, the 1? 1? Division 7th (PI. III.), the c 4 . Division 8th, uJ and j . Division 9th, the CS (^, and by leaving off the top part we shall in most instances have the initial J . Division 10th (PI. IV.), the (♦ . Division 11th, the Jb combined initially with the rest of the elementary forms. The tail of the he is given only in hdy My hh, hi, and hid, but omitted in aU the rest, according to the practice of Oriental writers. Hence the initial form of this letter is often too apt to be mistaken for the mim. The 12th Division contains the combi- nation of the characters Jis arranged in alphabetical notation, noticed in p. 20, forming the fanciful words, Ahjad, hawa%, hutti, Icaliman, sa^as, Jcarashat, sakhaz, ^amgh,,^ and the last line may be read thus, indicating the name of the chirographer : AVahd ul mu%nib, al faUr *uhaid ulldhi husaini shirin rakam ghaffara mniibahu. e. Plates V. to XIV. inclusive, consist of a series of words in alphabetical order containing combinations of three or more letters. The student should endeavour to transcribe these into the Roman character, and after some time retranscribe thera, as an exercise, into their original state. Thus, the first line of Plate V, forms the combinations blcht, hhjt, bhsht, pnj, hlkh, and hind, and so on with regard to the Test. Coming now to complete words, we may premise, as a general MUHAMMADAN CALENDAR. 145 remark, that when these contain of the letters ^-? c— > CLJ CL? ^ ^ in the middle of a combination, it is usual to give the middle one a bold dash upwards, terminating in a sharp point vertically, like the n in ^^ tnhw (Plate Y. line 8), or like the y in c, •>*>»'^ syl (Plate YII. Une 1). d. Concluding rema/rhs. — ^In manuscripts the short vowels and other marks seldom make their appearance; and even the diacritical dots are often either altogether omitted or irregularly placed. It may be useful to observe, then, that when from the ambiguous position of a dot, it may apply to more letters than one, it should of course be assigned rather to the letter, which is not complete without a point, than to one which may dispense with it. Thus the third combination Plate I. No. 2, should be read ITi, and the eighth ns, though the dot be over the last letter as if it intended to be a ^jo. But in many cases the sense alone can determine the point. Thus the last word of No. 2 may be either he or pe ; and the dot over the ninth word of No. 3 is so equivocally placed between that and the word above it, that it may be read either ^^/ir>- j^^^ or J^jb^, according as the dot is conceived to belong to one or the other, above or below. The grand key, however, to the reading of manuscripts, is to know the language ; at the same time many useful hints may be gleaned from Ouseley's 'Persian Miscellanies,' 4to. London, 1795; Stewart's 'Persian Letters,' 4to. London, 1825; and 'Essai de Calligraphie Orientale,' in the Appendix to Herbin's * Developpments des Principes de la Langue Arabe,' 4to. Paris, 1803. See also a work entitled ' Oriental Penmanship ; an Essay for facilitating the Eeading and Writing of the Ta'lik Character,' by the author of this Grammar. London: Wm. H. Allen & Co. 1849. MUHAMMADAN CALENDAR. 91. The Musalmans reckon by limar time, their aerg called the Hijra^ commencing from the day on whicJH Muhammad departed, or rather retreated, from Mecca ti 10 146 MUHAMMADAN CALENDAR. Medina ; which, according to the best accounts, took place on Friday, the 16th of July (18th, new style), A.D. 622. Their year consists of 12 lunations, amounting to 354 days and 9 hours, very nearly ; and hence their New-year's Day will happen every year about eleven days earlier than in the preceding year. a. To find the Christian year corresponding to that of the Hijra, apply the following rule: — ^From the given number of Musalman years, deduct three per cent., and to the remainder add the number 621.54, the sum is the period of the Christian sera at which the given current Musalman year ends. For example, we mentioned (p. 20), that the death of the poet Ahlf happened, a.h. 942 ; from this number deduct three per cent, or 28.26, and the remainder is 913.74. To this last add 621.54, and the sum = 1535.28, which shows that the Musalman year 942 ended in the spring of 1536. This very simple rule is founded on the fact that 100 lunar years are very nearly equal to 97 solar years, there being only about eight days of difference. A more accurate proportion would be 101 lunar to 98 solar years, but this would lead to a less convenient rule for practical use. h. "When great accuracy is required, and when the year, month, and day of the Muhammadan SBra are given, the precise period of the Christian sera may be found very nearly, as follows : — Hule. Express the Musalman date in years and decimals of a year; multiply by .97 ; to the product add 621.54, and the sum will be the period of the Christian aera. This rule is exact to within a few days, and if in the Musalman date the day of the week be given, as is generally the case, the vert/ day is easily determined. e. The Muhammadan or lunar months are made to consist of thirty and twenty-nine days alternately, but in a period of thirty years, it is found necessary to intercalate the last month eleven times so as to be reckoned thirty days instead of twenty-nine. The months retain their Arabic names in aU Muhammadan countries, as follows : — MUHAMMABAN CALENDAB. 147 LUNAE MOl^'I'HR. / DAYS. DATS. /^j^^ muharram 30 L^5>-j rq/aJ 30 Ju> safa/r 29 ^j^LXi. «Aff'5rf« 29 Jjil 1 *--jj Tobh. ul-awwal 30 ^Li^j ramazdn 30 i Jlj-ij shawwdl 29 js>^ \ ^^j raM ul-dkhir 30 1 ,n fjji \ jUw=»- jumdd-al-awwal 30 i(Ji« t_fj g^a'e?a 30 jjlill jUjs- jumdd-as-sdni ) ^^^^ i t/ J z*,? A^« ) ->.^ i jUj?" jumdd-al-dTchvr 29 <)Lsi^ tJj %i hijlfa i " (?. We here subjoin the days of the week ; on the left hand are the names in use among the Musalmans of India, next those of the Hindiis; and on the right, the Persian names, which last are much used in the dates of letters, etc. DAYS OF THE WEEK. musalmXn. HINDtJ. ENO. PERSIAN. j\jj\ itwdr. jL-jj rahi-bdr. Sun. jfj or j^j^y^ somtodr or pir. j^y^ som-hdr. Mon. aJLijJ JxX« mangal. Tues. if^ hudh. jL&tXj hudh-hdr. Wed. o o, cl:\j &jtA:>-juw>ardt 1 o ^ o _ ' " hdr. Thur. • * O 9 April. U^^^. August. (jwjJ December. -eW May. ^T ^T' j^f September. •^SU January. June. July. or lS^J^ October. November. Jjl^^ {February. k.::^%-»£*- March. ^TT^. rm ^'% I^IFT ^^T ^^T, f^^ ^^ %, ^ift^ ^4^ ^ ^^T, ^^TiT q^T^! ^^T 'IV^T^ ^fTT TT * * ^T^, If ^ 'T^' ^^T^ ^T WT ^. T^ ^ ^^T, ^ err 5ri^, ^T wt ^ ^^ ^^TTT^ ! ^^ ^^ ^TfT I, Wr ^ f%^T^ ^^ ^rT. I[T^ ^ ^^ f%, "^^ ^^T^cT ^ -RTT^ %, ^ f%^ f%^ ^^, ^ f^tt ^ ^T^ ^tv ^tw ^T ^^T, ftr ^Tf T^T^ ! -^rH ^T W ^, TTrT ^ 'T^T ^ T^ ^^ iTT% ^T^ ^ PlfT^, irx:T "^T^ ^TTf ^T^ § m^T^ ^ ^-^^ #r f^^^r I, trWT. ^^^ ^^T, ^TT ^T^ ^ft #r ^^T %, ^i -^^ ^. ^"f ^^ ^t ^ ^ "^^ f%^^. fttT t^"^^ f^ "^^ ^ iT^^^'TT fe^^ft ^ lit ^ri* ^TT 'TTT fVfft I. ^^ ^ qWT, ^ ^ tV^ I ? ^^^ ^^T, W ^T^r ^Yt ^W ^^^ 4t^^^ ! ^ f?t^ fw^T^. ftT^^ ^ ^^ ^T^T^ ^ ^^ qt^ ^t% ^T ^"f T, ^^^^ T^ ^T ^^^ ^^, '^I'T f^^ "3^7 ^ft ^T^ ; ^T^^ ft ^ ^ i q^ "^JT SfTfTT %. 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W ^^ ^J dr^ L>»; * ^^^ 9 f y ' * y y ^ y " y y ~« ^y y ^ 9 m «^ y y y - y " y " y " n y ^ y y y ^ y " W -^ LT" L5^ V L5^ ^5* ^ >^ <^*^-^ ^^ *^ (J1^ 9 u 9 /V^ ^jl:^ U^y fcj?;--* (♦'^J ^ (^ (^Id^ lJ^ JrL?^ L^^ ^ ^ ^ ' •• • y y " y •• X " y y y y 9 y ~ ^^ y y ^ 9 ^ y - y " y y y - ' y - y t^ ' ij^ iji^ '^^jfr ^3 J3^ - ^j^ LT" ^ c;^' ^M ^ ^^ y y 9 » 9 j^\ \J ^^ ^^ ^^j^ jj\ V ^J^ ^ uu J ^^\ wo- {jti\ ^js. # l&jJ L-Ji3\ ^^1 1^ ,2;-^ -f*^ ^i^/t^* ^ t^ ^*^"^ \^\ jJ^'^jiji uJj^jJ^ ^j^^jj^ -v^jj^^ us^^ Lsf jj^ V* r^" fcj?jj i>js <^ y ^ JW" * (^^ L/*"^ ^•^^^. ^j^^ (**4 -?^ si'^ • x' y - y " y ^ y ^ P y "9 LS^^ <^ J^ jj^ V L5«^. J ^j^h^ ^^ lT*^ tl;^ ^-^^-^ y -^ - y y 9 y y 9 9 dr^* ^r'vi l/^>v Jf t^ t^ ^^ J ^^j^ L^^ / c?>jl y m 9 9 ft -L5«-" s^-r* L^v>' L5^ Sr^" e:^j-:r '^- V Lf^ *^^^^ J EXTRACTS FROM THE 'KHIRAD AFROZ.' r. ^ f ^ ^ 9 , f^ P 9 ^ -^ ^ ijt^ U*"^ ^J JJ^ - ^^ uV. l/ ^^, l!^" ^ (:;t^ U^^ -^^^ \;e f d)jj/c>^.^ * ^V ^J c;-* (J^J^ jy J3^ ^/ ^>=^ i^ LT ^^ ^^* ^-^ ^/^^ ^i^ ^-^- ^'^ " S:^-^ s/^ *^^ ^ C O -' o ^ o / •• -^ «» «t <• V_ » ^ „ y ^ «. x" * Jrej*"^ Ls^.jy J^ nj^ ^. J^ ij^ ^^jjjjii Off . ^''^ o o ^^^ j^^^ fc>^ j^jlkc (JX>1 i^J j5/^ JlV^JIj tlX>l C* ^Ikfi * ^_^U j^jlkc (^ J jjl - bT ^ J^ ^^ CJJc^ l1X>1 * Ls o f 9 y ^ O o OO^ /'''- f y y 9y 9 ^ A / X s^^ ^ rr y - O X O <» C *' ^ O C/ • / S^" 1^>>J^ - ^.«^ U^^, ^ LS^J / U^>^ UJ * L5^ ^5^ LS^ y V_ ^ ^ ^ ^ tT ^ 9 ^ o ^ o c *Lr?/ d^ r^ -er JJi^ s£;t!-' d^ L5^> t^ JJ^J' J^ " y y y " •• ^y y li)^ ^y j^ j^ - ^; dr^V/^ y ^^-^ tr^ *J^/- O x* o / o o 9 \j 9 ^' ^ / ", ^^v]j^ L^'^ - ^J^^'i ^^J V* ^j^ ^ Jj. ^J "^.'^ b O O rr f CO • o/ / • o yljjjjjy ^ ^/Ai^cJjU-j c:-v.V * L5^^ J^ ^J!^ ^i^V L5^ O y 9 y « / ^yy^ Jyt^ (1;:^* ^2^ y - ^^^ -e*^ iir* S-'r^^ lT^^ lT^^ 4^^ J^ O • • / y» • •• *• X • n •\Si^ ^- c^*l3 \^^j ^ - li>jlj j^l 'Vj y -^^ l^ Ijc^ y o / o o o ^d'^ dr* d^y*^ s£;jf^ bV. ^ - ^> k^ ^W -vi>^ Lf-^ ^j cii - w j>j^^jj\ - 5;^e- Ly> ^r^J^ lt- r-^ d;^ ^^^^r?* t^lf^J y \ ^ *wj ( tJp ^ ^- l/ tJ^ L^^ J^V -L5^y^ *^J^ ^}^ y " c;i>^ L5^ r* up " ^ ^ ^ ' (^ j^_^l - U^ UUj> ^ uJi^ \i^j^ *-r^ * ^ f J^ S^^ jj^ 9 9 is. / m ^ 9 U i^ 9 "•' ^ ^ ^ ' 9 9 9 y^ Ljf *^ ^5' L5f ^ ^ - ^ J^ ^5^J *J S-^ * IJ^ L^^ ^-^^^ >?^^ mU « O O ^1 - V if J^ JU i;lel' ^i;-^ - ^*T J^ - jT^biii ^^^ ^ t*' ^9 C/ ^y - li*3^^ Id JU lj " "T " 13 9 9 O ** i.0 f X / lT* uVj Ls^ L55 c;r^^ *-?;^ s/ j^^L*^ Ir-y Jj^ * !;.^«?" ^ ^Ufi) ^j ^_^ s^ j^^ ^ cir?^ 4^^ u^^ <-^^ ^ u^ OCX / X ^jCj- lijil ^ ^,\^ :rLi,iib * ^ ^i !>^ V^ l^li ^/ d,nf^ «-r-^ ^-ui uV^ cT-'^ • o-Hi u^ ^^ l5*^J 4 ^y^ dJjl^X:^ 4->l _ V Isx^j u?^ ^\ V iO ^^ ^Jjj ^^jy^ o/ » o o o ^x O O^ X o o ^^ tl$l. ^1 Jjl l^l« j^ l^llk, * I^T ^;--. ^^ ^ju^ j^jJ ^_/ IV *t- ^^ c-^ ^ sTi^ 4^- '^.'^ ^ ^J3^ iji^\ * ^ ^^- O O , ^ y 9 y • Zjy^ ij ^j^ ^^ Li^b ^ C^li JJ ^jwl <)L^ . LS cLf l^ Ji^ O / O / X o L5^ b^ jr=^ J *^^^ j^Jjj * ^5'^ sT* ^^-^ ^^i-^j*^ ^/ d>jt/ ti-^*3 '•^^-^ j^j^ •-oi/^ t>j-««^'* j^UaLs ii ^^ ^j^ t^r ^ . ly^ ^ 2rLi> jb ij 4^^5/r<^ (..^^ c» yi ^ JuM^ * If? Is^ f y 9U y • «'' 07 cy w 9 099^^ 9999 CO ci ijM\ *^tAi> /J jjt isiyb jijL!iL«j^;i-i ^ i-jbji uJ^ ^y^^^ j^ L5H^ -fT JJ^ ^r" J U*"^ -y^ L5^''^ -?^ ^^ ^J^ ^ L5V. ^^ - uAj L5«^* d;^ -i^ l/ V" ^ * Ui>^ ^-^ ll''^ l^^ L5^ X ^ " • ** X » .. « ^ J>« c^jS C^\ 4 u-l' ^^" ♦ J^Ji4y:e J* ^J J^l \J ^^ Uy^'^ lTT LiV Liti 4» * »J ys) »*Xi.^^ )ac\^j^\ - ^^\ il^cV >Lc yL»^ ^ «lj^ j^ *U^ tliol jjjy b! vj i^lijlj ^^ n 9 9 O/ / / * j^ d?tJ^ jr^ \^\y - i^ ^^^ ij;i^ v^ -jle^ l»j^ JU/^ w-^c*- - V^ JjU j JjH ^^ j*ysr (^\ 2f j\j^ ! *U^lv^ 9 9^ 9 i^9 » fbr* dr^ L/«^ - L^ ^ J/ J/ -fT ' •^^jtfi *^ l/ uir^ 4 ^ji!^U*^,*^J^ ^vJy'J^ ^J^.'\J^J "^J^ ij^ ^,> - J c^ ,^J^ dr* ^ J -^J Jj- ^J f"^ vV >- J^^ J - ^ J}e. j'^ JSJ * J^ 4i ^i ^> / '' 9 9 o o o >• / • - y "y y " •• ^ » ^ I / VV 4 l15o\ ^ ci;b ^^ * ^^J JIO /i( ^ J^^ y ^ Kj9 <0 JL^ l^ j-^ ^^ jj\ - li J Iflo ^2^ .^ Llioi yol j^ Isr ^, <^ - bU- J t-.^ _ ^^4> bj)j ^ ^jwl * Jjj ^ j\jLj -g^fc> ^j ^Ji ^ u*'\ 4 *^.^ * l5^ ^jjj ^] ^ v^ J^l*r 1>J ^^/ " ^ y ^ y " "y y " y ' ^ y y y ^3^ l/ d)^^ y j^ - d?y^ ^V L^-' 'i>'^ J ^^ dr^« • vy* ^ \r , o c o «• o J/ j^\ - l^ l::.^ iO S^AZsS ji ^ ^ «\-5. jb *^ l5^1^ ^^ ~ ^/^*^^ ^ j=;^.o ^'^ . urV^^ J ^, 1^ ^'1;^ ^E5^ v4k ^.cr * y/i^ ui^ »^i^ jjt [i\^^ ^\j ^^\ . ^ ^ ^ e^- * la ^j ^^ c£j-^ ^\ ^ .xi^b - Ifey^ vi,^>^>-*> r^ ^T * \jJo ^ j^UL *^J - V" IT ^y> ^^ ^jJ J,\y^ O ^ O / o y .^^ ^ IjT / c-^T ^ ^>, -ff c^U ^ - l^ / ^^ik^ ^ * \J ^V^>r^ S^^ L5H^ lT^ '^ ^^^¥ <-^ U-^ - J" J^ji - L^y^^rr^^ s£5^ LT- -«^ ^ ^^ J^>^ * v^" v^»yv v:f l/ J^>^ U^^>. ^J J^^ - ^'^ d;:^^ -f^^ l/ J^j^ / c / o c u J fjj Ai\lj uiXti - Iff v^^iL^^ ^ ^^ ^?•/ r^ i^ ui-^ r" - drff L^yj! cT'"^ L^ Jb l^ ^"^^^ '^ - V^ vl;:?^ O O / ^ te • ^ ^ f X /o ^ CLJb ^1^ ?^ ^^UJi vi dr^* 'f ^ C-^ Z^ t^y ^- J> jy^ ^j^)<^ ^) 4:,^ tlio! * ^^ ^^ •..::^ Jlj ,j4^,d *^ Wf^ - ^ -e^y, S^'V. 4jT^ J^. *L5^^v l/ S^^^y U*"' *» 9 ^0^0 (/ O ."^ ^v •« . ..^ ^ ~ ^ P ** 9 X y Ob O b b b b b / ^ b b b b/b/ ^ ^ ^ jXS^ * ^r^=^ LS^ *-^^ ^-^ ^ "^^J) fj^ ^ LT^-*^ v/ b/ b b^ i. P f Ir-y - (^ LS-* L^t^ h£;^ ^ - l5^ 4^ J^r* J'^ s/ y ^^ S^ O y • ^^ ^ y^ l/^ J ^\ '^^ L5^ r^ ^j ^-?^ - If? li- Uj^^ ^^ ^ * l5'^J^ L5**' S-"^ -V^ ^ is'-r't^ \:^^ ^ ■-& f^Ji y**J * l^ U.(.M.iJ l^ „f _ ^^^ Jl^ J ^^j\j ^ j/ ^^ ^\ LlX.1 J _ iJL.^.ari^j ^^ 15^^ U*^ - t5^^" -^ J^^ *^J ^^5^ ^ J^ ^ Cl>l^ c£5^ J^i <-l^J ;^ «-i^ - LSf L5^ S^J^ S^ U*^ * ^ # liUirf/ j^ - ^2;-^j ^bj^l ,^/--» J ^l5 jj,j i^jj * Jb o o / 9 f %* 0/ tP^ 2[, • l:^ ^ 4«^ ^ j»^ l;^^ ^ ^.^ ^/ ^ • b J • y ^ j»i^ bi ^ j^j j^i . i^- • ijT;^ U^ LubJ 4|^ C^l 5 ^ ^ t^ '^^4y^ ^ 4 ^^'^V * i^ JV jy j^^ ^^ U^ \fl LTV^JJ^ !> <-^ '^^W; S-i/ *J -y^ L^ '' U^ u^i ^j^ *^ ^.j*^ J c^' - VVl'V !5^ '^J f * 9 ^ s* ^ « c^J 5Jl «^jJ C;^ ^^J ^^ ^^i-^ l:r^i J'^ ti ^^ * i^ * W^ ^!; dry -^ J3^ l/ ^j^^^ ^^r; W"^ ^J ^ ^ 9 ' " • i/' ^rlJi y ills' -v/* ^^ c^ u^y - W-Ji»sis* ^r' -^^ O «,• CO *„ «'' / ^ ^ o ^ ^ (jwl cSjy v::-^ * \^ jU-j *-L^ (JJoJ J \C * l&j5^ jU y^^f^ ^^„^ ^^ ^r^ * (2)^ LAi \J^^ k:^ y C O w / , 14 / S^^ L<-» ^j*i ^2,nr* *^ - ^♦^ *'^>*^ ( ^^=^ ' ^ J^y^' J^ - ^ L^/ Jr" ^Ir^^ L/-^J ^^ v/^ ssi '^ ^^.^U ^ cl.i ^ (^1 ^y * ^^ ^^T ^l^ ^ ly ^'V: ^ri >?^^ c:^" (^ c^" - ^5fc ^ - ^^ ^^ * ^^ V ^;b -yT^jl - l^ l1^" -^^ ^^ ^ _ ^ by j*^ \«^- ^_^ . ^ .O ^ 9 ^ ^ • cM/ t^ jIt* v/^ J V ^ c/**^ vV ^ ^/ u-^ *^^ - ^/> \ w " f y /' t, c ^ VOCABULARY. rv B.- -The letter m. signifies masculine, f. feminize, a activa u. neuter. It hae not been deemed necessary to give the names of the different parts of speech, except when a word belongs to more than one division. In the Hindustani words and phrases, k. stands for karnd ; h. for hond ; d. for dend ; /. for jdnd ; and I. for lend. The letters a, p, s, and A, at the end of each definition, denote respectively the Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, or Indian origin of the word explained,] \ (^\ ah, now, presently ; ah tale, till now; ah-hd, of now, of the present time. 8 C-^T dh, m. water, lustre, p IjcjI ihtidd, f. beginning, a ^^\ ahhdgi, ill-starred, wicked. 8 ^^\ ahhi, just now, immediately, s -jjl aher, m. time, delay, h c->T dp, self, selves ; your honour. 8 Ci^l aputrah, childless. « JbjU^ aparddh, m. fault, trans- gression, s ^juJ \ dpas, our-, your-, or them-, selves, one another ; dpas - men, among themselves, etc. s u:i^>^:luuj1 vpasthit, arrived, present. « U»l apnd, belonging to self, own. s lirsTvy I a pahunchnd, n. to arrive at h f strip off. 8 \j )^\ utdrnd, a. to cause to descend, jj\ uttar, m. an answer; the north, s \jji\ utarnd, n. to descend, to alight. » olaji ittifdkan, accidentally, a liji itnd, so much, so many. « -^Ji dth, eight. «. Ijlfil utJidnd, a. to lift or raise up, to take away. « U^jI uthnd, n. to rise up, to be abolished, to go away ; uth-jdnd, n. to depart. 8 t_fl:ol asw-\ ijdzat, f. permission, orders, a ^^j>-\ ajk, an interjection to call or bespeak attention, as: Sir, hark you! h \^\ acJwhhd, good, ey^ellent, well. % Jul Xi^, AmMd-dhdd, the capital of Gujerat. p r (2) fjAi^\ ahmak, very foolish, a fool, a ^}\^ \ ahwdl, m. condition, circum- stances, events, a ^ji^\ il^tird \ m. contrivance, in- vention, a )\p^\ %]ditiydr, m. choice, power, a yi- \ dTchir, last, at last, the end. a cl^^i dTdiirat, f. futurity, a future state, a ^^ \ dMiun, m. teacher, preceptor, p 1j1 add, performance; payment; blan- dishment, a {jm\S\ udds, grieved, dejected. « 4--JJ1 adah, m. institute ; politeness, • manners; plur. dddh, ceremonies, etc. a ^/«Jl ddmi, m. f. a descendant of Adam, a human being (man or woman), people, a UjT ddhd, half, « jJt>j\ udhar, thither, h y^J' idhar, hither, h lIX&jI adhik, more, exceeding, s liLj&jt adhydnd or adhyd-lend, a. to halve, h }iCi\j\ irdda, m. desire, purpose, a (t\j\ drdm, m. comfort, health, re- pose, f ^j\ arth, m. substance, purport. « ^jj\ drz{i, f. wish, desire, want. ^ :fj^)\ drurh, mounted, riding. « l \j\ urdnd, a. to dissipate, squander ; to cause to fly. « \ij\ umd, n. to fly, to soar up. s ii\j\ d%dd, free, solitary ; a hermit, p iwgujjl az-hm-ki, inasmuch as. p ^^jj\ dnurdagi, f, affliction; din- pleasure, vexation, p iCijj\ dzurda, afllicted, vexed, p ^Jjjj[^J\ s. f. dzmdjUh, trial. ^ \jt>iij\ azhdahd, m. a dragon, p fjj\ U8, that ; is, this ; inflections of the pronouns wuh and yiJi ; is-men, during this, in the meantime, h {jm\ ds, f. hope, desire, reliance. « ^^LjI dsdn, easy; dsdni, facility, p L^\^\ asbab, m. causes ; goods and chattels, a jli*j| mtdd, m. a teacher, master, p jLuuai-ji isUfsdr, m. searching for in- information, inquiry, a \j»^\ dsrd, m. refuge, s L^\j^\ isrdf, m. prodigality, ruin, a -.JaJ\ is-tarah, in this manner; U8-tarah, in that manner, h a ^--I-jI is-liye, on this account, h ijUw«j! dsmdn, m. the sky, the firma- ment, heaven, p j\y^\ aswdr, riding, mounted ; aswdri, act of riding. » jja-jlj«j^ iswdste, for this reason, uswdste, for that reason. ^j**^, asks (or ds'is), f. a benedic- tion. 8 iij\^\ ishdra, m. a hint, a signal, a J^j^\ ashrdr, miscreants, scoundrels, a uJj^l asJirdf, nobles, grandees ; ashrdf-zddi, daughter of a grandee, a (S) ^\ Jj^Ja ashrafi, f. a gold coin so called. The Calcutta ashrafi is worth a guinea and a half, a U-i»T dshnd, an acquaintance, lover, Mend, p OL-lT dshiydna, m. a nest, p JJa«5^ istabal, m. a stable, a J-tfl asl, f. root, origin, foundation, capital, a J-*-£>l asiZ, noble (as to blood or origin), a c^\ ittild\ f. manifesting, declaring; investigation, knowledge, a ^\jaja\ iztirdU, f. vehemence, pas- ■ sionateness. a ^Lucl i'tibdr, m. confidence, credit, respect ; ftihdr-k to believe, or confide in. a jU:lc1 iHimdd, m. reliance, trust, a. J^Lcl a' Id, higher, highest, a ^WA a'mdl, (plur. of 'amal) actions, conduct, a Cl>lil dfdt, f. calamities, misfortunes, evils, a u^ I dfat, f. calamity, a L^\:xi 1 dftdh, m. the sun, sunshine, p ijhJ)\ dftdha, m. an ewer, p ■ji,ji^ dfrin, f. praise, applause, p il ^as, m. poverty, destitution, a. ^jl:ilil AfidUn, m. Plato, a lLnjI^^ ihdyah, on a sudden. ^ ;-»^t Alcbar, name of the best and greatest of the Mogul emperors, a \^\ ihatthd, united, together, h J^\ ahsar, most, many, much; for the most part, a l^T dhJid, m. a bag, sack. A \^\ aheld, a. alone. « 4^1 a^, £ fire, a^-^. or lagdnd, to set on fire ; dg-lagnd, to take fire. « 4_^jir i aycfr^, f. the fore part. « i^lf T aya^, acquainted with, aware of. p. ^\ agoTy if, when, p ^^\ agarchi, although, p ^\ agid, prior, past, ancient. 8 ^1 dge, before, in front, formerly, forwards ; in future, s L^l dggd, f. an order, command. 8 ajJl alhatta, certainly, indeed, a L-^1 alp, small, few; alp-lay ask, of a tender age. « Cjlbl^ iltifdt, f. courtesy, respect, notice, a (jwlcJl iUmds, m. f. beseeching, petitioning, a L^^ ulajhnd, n. to be entangled, to quarrel. A IjlfsM uljhdnd, a. to entangle, h i^^alW al-Tcissa, in short, a {^J^\ alag, separate, apart. 8 (ji-^1 ulfat, f. habit, familiarity, a iii^^\ dliida, sullied, contaminated. ^lyJI HMm^ divine inspiration. « ii\ (*) y ^1 Hdhi, divine, a *\^\ imdmf m. a leader in religion, a prelate, priest, a c:^t«\ amdnat, f. tmst, deposit, a ^Ur^l imtihdnf m. proof, trial, examination, a *Xi, m. a present, a gift, a JS3\ inkdr, m. refusal, denial, a ^\ dhhh, f. the eye. « Jxil ww^aZ, m. a finger's breadth. « j^_^^ ww^/i, f. a finger, s j^j^i angUU, f. a ring worn on the finger. « j^jt aw^^r, m. a grape, p 4X:oT dnand, m. joy, happiness. «. -fJi and i^^\ inh and mAow, same as ^\ in ; unh and unhon, same as «w, (q.v.) h j\j\ dwdz, f. noise, sound, voice, p ^bj^ aubdsh, dissolute, depraved, a ji^^\ iipar, up, upwards, upon. « j^ or, f. direction, side, h jji awr, (conj.)and, but; (adj.) more, other ; aur Tcuchk, anything else, h j^L-^^ amdn, m. courage, presence of mind. h. cijlijl aukdt (pi. of e^^a^^), times (of devotion), a (J!-^jl liw^, m. a camel. A IsT^l Titwc^a, high, height. % A dh, f. a sigh. p. jUl dhdr, m. food, subsistence. « cl-Jbl a^a^, f. a sound, noise, h. Jjbl a^?, m. people. «. t^l Ij hdp, m. father, h CLj\) bdt, f. a word, affair; hdt hahte hk, on the speaking of a word, im- mediately ; hdt-cMt, f. conversation, chit-chat, h jb hdd, f. wind. p. iLl jIj hddshdh, m. a king ; hddshdM, royal, p. i_f jb bddi, m. a complainant, speaker, s L5»-Ij 5a; wa, n. to sound, to ring, s j\j bdr, m. load; fruit; time; door; water, p h 2(jJ bar ah, twelve, h ilTjlj bdrgdh, f. a king's court, p 'Xi bdz, back; bdz-dnd, to decline, reject; baz-rahhnd, to keep from, to prevent; (s.m.) a hawk. p. j\j[i bdzdr, m. a market; hdzdri, one who attends a market. ^ ^^b bdzi, f. play, sport, a game, p ^\} bdsan, m. a basin, plate, dish, goblet, pot, etc. h i\j bdgh, m. a garden, p ^L&Ij bd^bdn, m. a gardener, p Jb bdl, m. hair. «. ear of com. h. wing, p ^\i bdld, above, up, high, p CS^\i bdlak, m. a boy. « ^b dci?^, f. sand. « (JIjIj bdndti, made of broad cloth, woollen, h 1:^1} b bdntnd, a. to share, to distri- bute, to divide; bdnt-l. to divide and take, s liJbJjlj bdndhnd, a. to bind, to shut up ; to frame. « liub bdnhd, foppish, impudent, s jyi-jb Jd-M^w/M, notwithstanding. _^ a jl^b bdwar, m. credit, faith; bdwar-i. to believe. ^ ^b JaA^V or iciAar, without, outside, s AJ&b bdham, together, p jLj 5'/5a(?, m. quarrel, fight. 8 d-^ 5^a^, f. misfortune, calamity. « bbj bafdnd, a. to point out, to teach, h (^ Ja^^i, f. a candle, lamp. «. blfb bithdnd, a. to cause to sit, to seat, h b^ls::^ ba-jd Idnd, a. to perform, carry into effect, h blflsT lajdnd, a. to sound, to play on a musical instrument. » ^ (6) u^ ^^VrsT ba-jde or ha-Jd, in place, in- stead of. p ^^^-=f^ iijli, f- lightning, h. La:^ iajnd, n. to be sounded, to sound. 8. li \^sf] hujhdnd, a. to explain ; to extin- guish (a candle), h ljl:s^ hichdrd, helpless, wretched, p. \j\s^, lachdnd, a. to save, protect, h lisT hachnd, n. to be saved, to escape, h AcsT" bachcha, m. an infant, a child, the young of any creature, p. Ul^:sr' hichhdnd, a. to spread, s. ■J! JlasT la-Ml and, to recover, a. ^jii-uL=sr bakhshish, f. gift, grant, for- giveness. ^ uAisT baJdiashnd, or baJchsh-d. or bakhsMsh-k. a. to give, to bestow. ^ ^^^Askr baMisU, m. a g^eral, a com- * mander in chief. ^ Jjir buMd, m. avarice, stinginess, parsimony, a J-*isr bakhil,a., a miser, niggard, a JO Ja^, evil, bad ; used in compounds, as bad-zdt, a rascal; bad-Tcho, ill- disposed ; bad - surat, ugly, ill- fa\ cured, j? •j:^^sb^^Si bad - bakhf, unfortunate, wicked, p ^^Lj Jj bad-suluh'i, f. ill-usage. ^ a ;^Jj badan, m. the body. ^ 'JL^^iX> ba-daulat, by favour of. a ^Jj badi, f. badness, evil. p. b Jj J«%d, f. science, knowledge. « ^ Jar, f. bosom; produce; (prep.) upon. p. \ji bv/rd, bad, wicked, h. jAji bardbar, equal, like, level, p ijSJ^y, bardbari, f. equality ; compe- tition, p \j^S^j) barbdd k. or bar-bdd d. a. to cast upon the wind ; to destroy or waste, p 8 \j^ \iji bar-pd k. to excite, p ij:^\jji britdnt, m. affair, circum- stance. 8 ^Jjji barton, m. a dish, plate, vessel, utensil, h — . J Braf, name of a district, h j\i}jy>~jj bar-khurddr, hap^j ; a term applied to a son (p. 22). p {jMji baras, a year. «. Cl^Lrf^ barsdt, rain, the rainy sea- son. 8. L«j^ barasnd, n. to fall (as rain), to shower, s. ^ji baran, m. colour, complexion. & t^ji barham, offended, confused^ angry, p j,ljyj biriydn, f. time, h \ji bard, large, great, (adv.) very. 4 ^Vj bard,i, greatness, «. I) l&jj barhdnd, a. to increase, to pra mote. 8. uJbJj ba/rhnd, n. to increase. ». ^^^ybjj it«?^A«M?a», wise, intelligent. « . ^j-*^ ia#, enough, abundantly, p. (7) ^ ^\imJ histdTf m. extent, latitude. « jumJ hasti, f. an abode, a village, s \j^ i^-uuJ ha-sari karnd, a. to pass, to spend (one's time), p Jj ^-uuj bisan-pad, a song in praise of Yishnu. 8 UjyuuJ lisiirnd, n. to weep, to sob. h Cl^LaJ lasdrat, f. sight, vision, a yallaj ha-zdhir, ostensibly, a Jvxj 5«'(?, after, afterwards, at the end. a jji*j ha'z, some, certain ones, a ^*4io ia'ze or ia'zi, some, certain, a Jujo Ja'i^, remote, far off. a Jje lagfjialj s. f. the arm-pit. i? jJti laghair, ad. without, besides, except, a J lib iaM/, m. a grain-merchant, a shopkeeper, a 1^ hahrd, m. a he-goat. 8 ^jLi lalri, f. a goat, a female goat. « (jl^ lakhdn, m. explanation. « ^ Jfl;^?d, m. a crane, a heron. 8 Jj J«7, m. a hole. « ib bald, f. calamity, a l) lb buldndf a. to call for, to summon. billdnd, to cry. h JJj Jw?Jw?, f. a nightingale. ^ aj3j J«?H, yea, on the contrary, p Jcjj buland, high, lofty. ^ jJj i«7?i, f. a cat. s JJk/*j ba-madad, with the kelp of, by means of. p a iJijAJ ba-martaba, in a degree, con- siderably, p a c»^^:?-^ ba-miijib, by reason, ou account of. p a ^ bin, without, not having. « Ij lij bandnd, a. to make, to form. A Mfyi banaj, m. trade, traffic. « Jcj Jfl^w(?-/;.to shut up, to make fast.^y^ ^^Jcj bandagi, f. slavery, service, devotion. ^ yUfeJcj bandhwdnd, a. to cause to be fastened, h UiJ iawwei, n. to be made, h Ijlyj banwdnd, a. to cause to be made. 7i ^Jo Jfltwi, pi. sons, children; bant Isrd^il, the Israelites, a L:j m. a shopkeeper, mer- chant. 8 y bd or Jo, f. smell, fragrance, p ..p-jj %';^, m. a load, weight. A 45j"y J^'A, f. understanding, idea, s L^^ buj'hnd, a. to understand, comprehend. « Ul^ ioZwa, to speak, say. h \j^ bond, a. to sow, plant. « &j ba, by, with, in; ba-nisbat, with regard to. p l^ J«^a, m. price, value, p Ijil^ bhdsM, see bhdkhd. s l:Jjl^ bhdshnd, to speak, say. « ,1^1^ bhdlM, f. language, dialect. A 4^1^ JAay, m. good luck; destiny. « w (8) LTl^ hhdgnd, n. to flee, to run away; hhdg-j. to rim off. h Ci-Jl^ bhdnfi, m. manner, mode, way h <0l^ bahdna, m. pretence, evasion, contrivance, p (Jl^ bhdfi, m, brother, friend. « l::-^ JaAw^, much, many, very. 8 jx^ bihtar, good, well, better, p 1^-j^ bahuterd, much. «. Ui^^ bhijwdndf a. to cause to be sent. A ^ JAar, full ; 'umr-bhar, during life; din-bhaVf all day ; bhar-d. a. to pay, to fill ; bha/r-pdnd, to be satisfied. 8 1^ JaAra, deaf; bJiard, full. A jj.^^ hhraman, a walk. « U^ bharnd, a. to fill. A ujj^ bharosd, m. hope, faith. ». ^1^ JaAra, m. portion, lot. p. JUu^ M*s^z, bhisht'i or bihtsMi, m. a water-carrier. ^ Ijl^^ bahkdnd, a. to delude, to mis- lead. A 1^ Ma^a, good, worthy; MaZti ddmi, a gentleman. « ^il^ bhaldyi, f. kindness, good deed, h *^ baham, together, one with another, one against another, p ^^ bhiLkhd, hungry. « ij^ bhul, f. forgetfulness. » J^ bkulnd, n. to forget, to mistake, to be deceived, f LXJj^ bhaunknd, n. to bark, f ^-^ Mi, even, also. A L^ bhaiydf m. friend, brother. % c:-^ bhit, f. a wall. » j:^^ bhktar, within, inside, h Ls^ bhefnd, a. to send, convey. A *x*^ JA^ ^a^^z, f. a leaf; hemp. « biJb pataTcnd, a. to dash, to beat. A (jwbsr:, pachds, fifty. ^. 4->;W^ pichhdri, f. the rear; the hind -quarter of an animal, s 1^, pichhld, latter, last, modern. « ^j^^^sTy pacUs, twenty-five. » j4X> ^a(?ar, m. {pidwr, A), a tather. p (10) J^ jj par, (conj.) but ; (postp.) on or upon, at. A J par, m. a wing, p \j\j purdnd, old, ancient. « ^Lj^ J prithwi-ndthfliOTd oie&rih, your majesty. « fJ:^ji pratit, f. trust, confidence. « if J J parda, m. a curtain, a screen. ^ ^xLjJ^ pardesM (or pardesi), a stranger. « A— J.J parisram, m. care, labour. « ^-oj prasanna, pleased, content. « LuJwy prasansd, f. praise. « jjj^ purush, man, a person. «. jl^ praldr, m. mode, manner. « c!-^ pragat, current, well-known, s 2f Jjj paranda, m. a bird. ^ ^j^ji pa/rwarish, f. breeding,nouri8h- ment. ^ Ljfej parhez, m. temperance, conti- nence, control of the passions, p ^ji pa/r'i, f. a fairy, p (.j:^ J ^ri^, f. love, friendship. « j^l^ij J pareshdn, scattered, ruined, distressed, p ^jLlj J pareshdni, f. destruction, dis- tress, p by parnd, n. to fall, to happen, h ^^y pa/rosk, m. a neighbour. « UU^ parhdnd, a. to teach to read, to instruct. «. ^•itojj parhnd, a. to read, to repeat, to say, to speak. « ^_^ ^a«, hence, therefore, p JCwuuJ pasand, f. choice, approbation, jf A-io pashm, f. wool, fur. ^ ytj pashu (or j? pildnd, a. to give to drink. 8 U^j pinjrd, m. a cage. « CLJJaj pandit, a learned brahman. « L^jswy puchhnd, a. to ask, inquire. 8 jy paw, f. a door, gate. « Viy jp?'t/*a, full ; accomplished. 8 ^j^ puri, f. a kind of cake, s ijL-'^y post, m. poppy ; posti, one who intoxicates himself with infusion of poppy, p C/Liy posMh, f. vestments, dress, habits, garments, p jl^ pahdr, m. a mountain, h Ijjl^ phdrnd, a. to rend, to tear, t l!i^ pJiatd, rent, torn (from phatnd, n. to be rent). « lijlsrV^, pakchdnnd, a. to know, to recognize. 8 jj^^ pahar, a space of about three hours, a watch (of the day or night), p ^ pMr, again, back. A li^ pJiirnd, n. to turn 6aek, return h c^ (11) ,..\5 Jf) phal,m. fruit; effect; advantage; progeny, 5 JLj pahld or pahild, first, before; rather; ^a/J^, at first, previous to. h Ul^ phxilnd, n. to bear fruit, to be produced, s bLsay pahuncMnd, a. to convey; la-ham pahunchdnd, to get together, to store up. h Ussa^^ pahunchnd, n. to arrive. A LajuO^ phansnd, n. to be caught in a noose, to be strangled, h l:^.^^ pahannd, a. to put on, to wear. A Ll^ phulnd, n. to blossom, to bloom. « L^^ pahiyd, m. a wheel (of a chariot, etc.) h rjf> i?A^r, back, again, h ^j^ phernd ox pher-dend, a. to turn, to circulate, to give back, h IJ^ phailnd, n. to spread, to be divulged, h i^fjLj piydda, m. a pedestrian, an attendant on foot ; piydda-pd, on foot, as a pedestrian, p iLj pydr, m. affection. « \j\^ piydrd, dear, beloved. « LjL) piydsd, thirsty. « tiJLj p'lydla, m. a cup, goblet, p lS-x-j ^e^, m. the belly, stomach, womb. 8 .^i-j pUh, f. the back. « ^^Lj paithnd, n. to rush in, to enter, s »fsn.j picTihd, m. pursuit, following. A ^l^:saj pichhdri, f . the hinder part. A ^^^fsy pichhe, after, in the rear, ii pursuit of. h \ij> ^Juj paidd-h., a. to produce, ta procure; paidd-h., to be bom; td be found, h p cJ^jyfj^^ pkr murshid, your highness, sire, your worship, p a lLS\j^ pair die, m. a swimmer, h \ij>j pavrnd, n. to swim, h Lu^j paisd, m. a copper coin, money, cash, h lijuu-j pksnd, a. to grind, triturate. « b* tdpnd, a. to warm one's self before a fire. « j^\i ta,sir, f. impression, a ^b" ^azflj, fresh, new, green, young; fat; happy, p i^j\j tdzi, Arab, Arabian, a li^b' tdhnd, a. to look, stare at. 8 ^ \j td-hi, so that, to the end that, p J-^b ta,ammul, m. meditation, re- flection, purpose, a ^^j^^^ Tdn-sen, name of a musi* clan. « (12) e^ K.^ tah, then, at that time, after- wards; tahhi 8$, from that very time. 8 i\j taldh, ruined, lost; tahdh-h. to be in misery, p d^lrsT tijdrat, f. trading, traffic, a ,^sfr tuj'h, inflection of tit, thou. A J--aaKr tahsil, f. acquisition, a i^.'yrir^ takht, m. a throne, p JJ tad, conj. or adv. then, h jfjSi tadUr, f. deliberation, counsel; management, a ^jX) tadarv, a pheasant, p J tar, moist; j:jJj tar ha tar, all wet or weltering, p \:J^\jj tardshnd, a. to cut or clip, to shave, to shape out. p h ci^^-j^' tarhiyat, f. education, a Cjy tarh, abandoning, leaving, a {J^jj tarhasJi, a quiver, p ^jj Turki, of or belonging to ^ Turkomania. p li^Jj taraphnd, n. to tremble, quiver, h ^jmj tis (inflect, of so), which ; tis- par, whereupon, h ji-uJ' tasalh, i. consolation, soothing, a j^^^xjuU tishnagk, f. thirst, p «_>jua}* tasdV, f. trouble, privation, a ^ »Xa> tasdik, f. verifying, attesting, a t^j>aj tasarruf, possession, use. a ji,y^ taswir, f. a picture, an image, a j.lC.s^ tazUh, i. ridicule, sport, a u-.vi^' ta^ajljub, wondering, astonish- ment, a f^.y^ ia*rif, f. praise, description, a *-la*j' td'zim, f. reverence, honouring, a i Usry l!Uj tat-piinjiyd, bankrupt, h U^ tatolnd, a. to feel, to handle. A hC' ^w^r(i, m. a piece, a bit, a morsel. \:>jy tiitnd, n. to break, h J^Jy toral-mal, a man's name, h l^j thathd, m. a joke, a jest. A fj^^'jthathol, m. a jester, a buffoon. A jj^^j thatholi, f. fun, humour,, sport, joking. A U^.^* thaharnd, n. to stay, to rest, to be settled, h [deem, h UL^j thahrdnd, a. to determine, to Lu^'J thassd, m. vanity, ostentation, h \Su^ thandd, cold, h j^j ^^Aawr, f. place, spot, h tip, m. a note of hand, h iii cJlS sdni, second, equal, a aJu sika, trusty, confidential, a HjAJ samra, m. fruit ; result, a L^\y sawdh, m. the future reward of virtue, a \j\ff^ fdrd, m- cold, winter. « \:^\p^Jdffnd, n. to awake, to be awake. ^}\s>- j'dl, m. net. « i^\s>-jdma, m. a garment, robe, veBt._p ,^J'jdn-ddrj a living being, p liilsj- jdnnd, a. to know, to under- stand, to consider, s jy^ss^ jdnwar, m. an animal, a bird, p JjiXp^ j'dhil, m. a fool; (adj.) barba- rous, brutal, a i^^cj- Jah, when, at the time when ; jdb-na-tah, now and then, s Ls»- j'uhd, young, youthful, s uji i^.^'^p^ jaltah oTj'ah-tahk, so long as, till when. » h li5»- jtttd, as much (as), whatever much, h Ul:;^*- Jatdnd, a. to point out, to teach. 8 Uij>- y*Yw- jast, f. a leap, p .l^Urs- jafd-Mr, m. a tormentor, op- pressor, a p \j\x5j- jagdnd, a. to waken, to rouse up. 8 „Sp^ jagah, f. place, quarter, room, vacancy, stead, h Jis^jaUdd, m. an executioner; (adj.) cruel, hard-hearted, a d^jald, expeditious, quick,quickly.^ ^ jisj- jaldi, f. quickness, rashness, p Uj>- jalndf n. to burn, to be kindled ; to get into a passion. « ii^s>- jalwa, m. light ; jahva-ga/r, brilliant, beautiful, a yAs^- jalevy f. retinue, attendance, h ^-♦^ jam\ f. a congregation, collec- tion ; sum total, number ; /awi'- h. or -rahhnd or -Tcar-rahhnd, to collect ; -hond, to be collected, a ijj?- yaw, m. person, individual. 8 \ji*^ jins, f. genus; goods, com- modity, a J^lj?- jangal, m. a forest, a wood. « L:.^ jannd, a. to bear, to bring forth, s ^ jo, (rel. pron. ) he who ; jo-lo, i, who- soever ; jo-kuchh, whatsoever, h y>- jau, m. barley ; j6, if, when ,' y^, searching. ^ « \y>- ju,d, m. a yoke; dice, gambling, s c->ljr>- jawdh, m. an answer, a jj1^5>- jawdn, young, a young person ; jawdn-mardif valour, p iS^yr jawdni, f. youth or rather that period of life to which the Eomans applied the term j'uventus. p. j^^y>- jawdhir, f. (plur. of ^^:?-), gems, jewels ; jawdhir-Midna, a jewel-house or treasury, a ij$Jtiy>- jauJiarky m. a jeweller, a \j^j'iitd, m. a shoe, a pair of shoes, h CSj^ jotiky m. astrology. « L^^fT jo^^h ao astrologer. « o^ (15) LSyr J^^'h a slipper, a small shoe, h Lj^ Jotnd, to yoke, h l3j^ jarnd, a. to join, clasp, h ^y>- join or jaun, when, as ; jon-Mn, OTJaun-Mn, the instant when, h j^fT J^<^unpur, name of a city, s j\^jMr, m. bushes ; continued rain, h j^^ j\^ jMr-jhiir, f. a thicket, h \\s>- jaM%, m. a ship, a ci-Jl^^ jahdlat, f. ignorance, a ^ W" j^^^cWi f- a fringe ; jMlar-ddr, possessed of a fringe, fringed, jjl^ jahdn, m. the world ; jahdni, of or belonging to the world, man- kind, p (J^j^ Jahdn, where, in whatever place, h 2flx> (jl^^ jahdn pandh, m. refuge of the world ; your majesty ! p -f=^W^ y^dwc^A, f. a cymbal. « L^ l^ jhdnknd, a. to peep, to spy. ^ lS-^ jhat, quickly, h ^j^ jharnd, n. to ooze, to flow, h ^jjpr jharohhd, m. a lattice, a window, s Ijxp- jhagrd, m. wrangling, quar- relling, h l3j^5>- jhaga/rnd, n. to quarrel. A b'Ufsr^^^y^^m/'Afljmd^fi, glittering. A r|x4.^ jhamaTcrd, m. splendour, beauty. A ^j^ jhan, m. a clashing sound of metals, etc. A •^^^ /Ai^Ay false; a lie. • l^jj^ jh-kthd, a liar ; false. « ,^^ yi, m. life, soul, mind : (added to names, professions, etc., it signifies sir, master). « c-'^-^ jeh, f. a pocket, p l:ui>- yi^a, alive, living, s L:u5»- yi^wa, a. to win (at play), to conquer. « li-j^ yiwa, n. to live, to be alive. « L*-j»- y- chupTcd, ) chatur, clever; chaturdX ex- pertness. « l3 l^li>- chatMnd, a. to rend, split. A ,^_^^i5^ cMthi, f. a letter, an epistle. A ^1^ chird^ m. a lamp, a light. ^ \ (16) f^)/>- chardffdhf t a pasture, a meadow, p 1>L&- ohardnd, to graze; churdnd,&. to steal ; dnJchek churdnd, to with- draw the eyes. « LtoJ^ charhnd, n. to ascend, to come up. h \j\iby>- eharhdnd, a. to raise up. h I) »i=»- cUriyd, f. a bird. A «Uj*i>- cMrimdr, a bird-catcher, a fowler. A ,«Ad- cJiashm, the eye. jp ^Uuio^ chashma, m. a spring, a well^ a fountain, p ^^JJti>- chugM't, slandering, back- biting, p w:-X>- chaUt, astonished. » l:X^ chuhndj n. to have done, to have completed, h (Yide Gram, p. 65). ^^S-^ ^AfltMi, f. a mill, a mill-stone. « Ij1>- chilldnd, n. to scream out. h Ul.>- chalnd, n. to move, to go, pro- ceed, go off, pass (as coin), to be discharged (as a gun) ; cJiald-j. to go ; chald-dnd, to come. » CX*^:^*- chamahy f. brilliancy, glitter, beauty, h i^A>- chamnn, m. a lawn, a meadow, p cL=sr'L>- chundnchi, thus, accordingly.^ cur*- cJiintd, f. care, anxietv- « JfCi£s- changul, m. a claw; changul mdmd, to grasp with the claw, p fcy^^ (jA<>P, f. desire, selfishness. A <0 1>^5»- cJiaupdya, four-footed, a quad- ruped. 8 ^y>- chauthd, the fourth. « j^ ehoTf m. a thief, a robber, s ^]j^ chordnd, a. to steal. « lJj^ chork, f. theft, robbery, a. CS^ chiih, f. defect, error; chauhy an open place in a city, h {jM^y>^ chaukas, expert, alert. « LS^>- chaugund, a. fourfold. « ,^^^ choneh, f. beak, bill. « J^ Jkj »is- chaundol, m. a kind of sedan or palki. « LSj>y>- chaunri, f. a whisk, a fly- flapper, h l&p- chiihd, m. a mouse ; chiihe-mdr, a kind of haw ^ which feeds on mice, h ..^ chha, six. h (J\^s>^ chhdti, f. the breast ; chhdt'i se lagdnd, to embrace, h U-k^j>- chhipudy n. to be concealed, hidden, absent, h ^J-^ chhatrk, f. a covering or hood; chhatri-ddr, covered, hooded, s \j\j.^ chhutdpd, m. smallness. h ,.|^jsir?" chahchaha, m. warbling. A ^^.^ chihra, m. the face. ^ l!j^f>- chhotd, little, small. A Ixl^^rs- chhiifnd, n. to escape. A j4^5»- e?Mor, m. end, extremity, h ^j^^ chhornd, a. to release, leave, let go. h >^ (17) rOrv. chhoTcard, m. a boy, h Ju^j*- f?AA5- ehaind, m. a kind of com. «. cA^wrf, millet. A t_%5j-l*>- hdjib, m. an usher, a c:.-c^U- Mjat, need, want, a J^l>. ^as»7, m. produce, result, pur- port, profit, revenue ; Msil-i-haldm, in fine, in short; hdsil-h., to be obtained ; hdsil-k., to obtain, a -npU- M%ir, a. present, willing ; hdzir- jawdl'i, ready wit. a J)\^ hdUm, m. a ruler, a JU- Aa/, m. state, condition, busi- ness, affair; present time, a (ji^U- Mlat, i. state, condition. « j- hasbu-l-huhmf according to command, a Tuisad, f. envy, malice ; emula- tion, ambition, a i„a.^ Mssa, m. share, lot, portion division, a jnr^ ha%r, m. rest, repose, a CLJj^s- hatrat; your or his majesty, your or his excellency, etc. a jt^-v huziir, m. presence, appearance ; a regal court; his majesty, a fjs>- hahh, just, true; the Deity; right, justice; lot. hahhUnk, per- ception of right, a C-J^Us.. hihdrat, f. contempt, dis- grace, baseness, a L::.>^.. huTcm, m. order, decree, a ^j:^^saL^ hikmaf, f. wisdom, know- ledge, skill, contrivance, a v^:--^^ylr^ huMmat, f. reign, rule, a *-io" hakim, m. a sage, a philosopher, a physician, a jJl^U- halwdX m. a confectioner. L^ A«ya^, life, a fj\j^^ hair an, confounded, per- plexed, a CLij^^ hairat, f. confusion, a lo-io- haif, (interj.) ah ! alas ! m. iniquity, a pity ; haif-k. or -khdndf to sigh, to express one's sorrow. - Mtatiry f. the heart, mind; ^dtir Wiwdh, cheerfully, heartily ; Tduitir jam\ with heart at ease, contented, a (JJ'U- M^dk, f. earth, dust ; Tdidh-h. to be destroyed, p ^A\s^ Tdmlis, pure, a jJU- Tdidl'tf bare, empty, a ^:>' Man, a lord, a grandee ; khdn- daurdn (p. 29), a man's name ; khdn-khdndnf a man's name, a - Mtdnay m. house, place; (much used in composition, as bdwarcM- Jdidnaf a cook-house or kitchen.) p j^ Idwha/ry f. news, information, report, notice ; Miabar-ddr, careful, attentive; khabar-giri, taking care of. a j^ Miachchar, m. a mule. p. ijcv. Mmdd, m. God; Mmdd-shinds, God-knowing, p Juj\jcs- Jdmddwand, master, your majesty, your worship, etc. p (>::>% /js»- Miidmat, f. presence, service, duty; ]diid/mat-gdrj an attendant, a servant, a c->|^ khardb, bad, depraved, ruined, depopulated, a i. Mas, m. grass, straw, p ^yns- Tdiusiis, especially, a k^ Mhattj m. a letter ; a line ; mous- taches, beard, o Ikr^ ^aj{a, defect, error, missing, deficient, a Uri- M^a, angry. j> if^ Mk^'f^^g'^'i ^' displeasure, anger, p {^^Ji^ Jdwfif, vilified; Tdkafif-h. to feel one's self affronted, a d^\:>~ Tdmldsa, essence, the upshot or finale ; the moral (of a tale, etc.) a ^Ls- Tdialdyih, people, mankind, a (J^^ Mialh, m. people, the world, creation, a L:i-JiL>- Mhilhat, f. people, a y>~ khp, f. disposition, p i^\^ khwdb, m. sleep, p c-j'^rs- Miib, good, excellent, well; kMb-siirat (adj.\ beautiful, well- favoured, p ij!y^ MiiiJ, f. beauty; comfort; good deed, virtue, p ij^^ khush pleased, cheerful ; ele- gant ; Miush-dnd, to be agreeable ; Miush - ay and, comely, elegant ; khush - usliib or Tdmsh-dmil, well- proportioned, elegant, p lJj^ lA?^ Mk^^^-Mfl^^) f' good news, pleasing tidings, p L5*?^ U^^ Mk^^-i^^\ f» pleasan- try, mirth, p Lh^ (19) ^J> iJiiyi- Tdwshaj m. a cluster of grapes, etc. p \^y^ Mk^shi, f. delight, pleasure, p .«-j^ Tdkauf, m. fear; ]diauf-h. or -Midnd, to fear, a ci>>- Mm wz, a murderer J sanguinary.^ JW^- MiW^h m. thought, considera- tion; phantom, vision; Miiydl-k. to fancy ; Idbiydl-rahhnd, to keep in mind, a c:^ Uri- M«yawa^, f. perfidy, treachery, embezzlement, a -»:>- M^*h good, best, well ; m. good- ness; health; Miair-Miwdh, well- wisher, a V3jJb J^L'> ddTdbil-h., n. to enter, to arrive, h a C>\d ddd, justice, p ju'iJ ddrii, f. medicine, p 41 J ddgh, spot, stigma. ^ /t\ii ddm, m. a snare, p jj^Ij ddman, m. skirt, jp j^^J ^j daMl, m. entrance, intrusion; possibility, a J J ^ar, (prep.) in ; (used in comp. as dar-guzarnd, to pass away.)^ j\ji^ dardz, long; dardz-k., to stretch out. p J^ji^ darldrt m. the court of a king or prince, p ijlj^j^ darbdri, m. a courtier, p l}jJi> (jl-J J J darpesh hond, n. to occur, to await. ^ l::-cs.j J da/raMit, m. a tree, a stalk. ^ l::-^<«jUjs.jJ darMiwdst, f. application, request, wish, desire, p JjJ ^fl^^, m. pain, affliction, pity, p (^ji^jii daridri, poor, miserable, s J^ji^ darMr, useful, requisite, p ii€jd dargdhf f. a regal court, p Atji^ diram, m. money ; a coin about sixpence in value, p jjL^ J da/r-miydn, in the midst : be- tween, p JojJ daranda or darinda, m. a beast of prey, p Hj^^j*^ darwdza, m. door, gateway, p 6 jjJ darogh, m. a lie. p ^Juj^^jd da/rweshf m. a dervise, a beggar, p bjj darydf m. the sea, a river, p ^J> (20 ) ^ \j^ c;^bp darydft'h.f a. to con- ceive, understand. A p ^ J (^ (or dash), ten. » '«::^^J da%t, m. the hand; dast-har- ddr-h., to forbear, to desist, p ^L:>yi-o J dastar-Tchwdn, m. the cloth on which orientals eat. p ^j^^ dushmany m. an enemy, p ^i^J dushmani, f. enmity. ^ -♦liwi J dicshndm, f. abuse. « j? Ic J da^wai, f. entertainment, ban- quet, a ^J (?mM, m. pain, labour; duhM, grieved, afliicted. s Ul^J dikhdnd and dikhldnd, a. to shew, to point ou*^. « J J - Jj dhandhalpand, m. fraud, trickery, h j^lJjbJ dhu,dn, m. smoke. « (^ybJ t^AoJI, a washerman; dJiolin, a washerwoman. A |4.^J e?Aiim, f. noise, tumult, h IjjJb J (?Aowfj, a. to wash ; dho-dhdnd^ to wash thoroughly. $ j^LjbJ dhydn, m. mind, thonght. « cLp-o l> J diydnat, f. conscience, honesty, piety; diydnat-ddr, honest, just, a ^j-jJ i darnd, n. to fear. « (21 ) U^\ D J' LJ bjj dwrvyd-l., to lead by the bridle, h \y^dakvdndf a. to cause to be thrown, placed. ^ lujjj dubnd, to sink, to be drowned. A ijj doll, a plain kind of litter or sedan, h ;; a t^iXJjJ » mention, to praise, a J CLi\j rdt, f. night. « Isj-'j rdjd or <^-[; r^;^, a king, a J^^i/♦^!^ rdj-mandvr, m. a palace, a Jn rcfz, m. a secret, a mystery, p ci-^lj ras^, right, true; rdst-go^i^ speaking truth, veracity, p ^\j rdkhnd, to keep, stop, s p ( 22) ^!> ^j^ ^j rdm-eherd, a name frequently given to slaves, s ci^-v)^ rdhat, f. quiet, ease, a ii\j rah, f. road, way. p ij\j rd,e, f. sense, opinion, a ra^Ja^, f. desire, liking, a ^j^j rafkhf m. a friend, ally, a JJ riipiya, m. a rupee. » l5^JJ ro^i, f. bread, a loaf. « rA^ ^^4> ^- ^^^» spirit, a Jj)j ro2, m. a day. p ijM^j ros, m. anger; ros-k, to feel wroth. 8 cAj ^oshan, clear, illumined, j? ^_^jj rosAwi, light, brightness. ^ Ijjj rowcf, n. to weep; m. lamenta- tion, grief. 8 tJjJij rahzani, f. robbery, plunder, p ^J*Ji>J rahas, m. witticism, s \iJbj rahnd, n. to stay, be, live, con- tinue ; rahne-wdld, an inhabitant, h j\^j rahwdr, swift ; (lit., fit for the road.) p Lii-^j ret, f. sand, filings ; rit, custom. A j^iJ J riti, f. custom, habit. « L^^fj ^b^nd, n. to be pleased, satis- fied. « ifjjj z Lj «d (»«, *i), a termination added to substantives or adjectives to denote similitude or intensiveness. h ^Li sdlih, formerly, a «^i«o sdtJi, (prep.) with. « j^'Lj sdtU, m. a companion, s aS^ sdda, plain, unadorned, p \jLi sdrd, all, the whole. « UjL> sdrAa, with a half added. « JVm) ^(«2| il. f amlture, harness, etc. p (jwLs «d5, f. a mother-in-law. » jLj sa^, f. the leg, thigh. JLs sdl, m. a year, jp j^i^L: sdmhne, (prep.) in front of. ^ ^C^Lj 8d,ungi, f. a support for the pole of a chariot, h jl^JbL: sdhibhdr, m. a great merchant. » ^^Lj sa,ls m. a groom, p J^ sKpurd-h. a- to give in charge, to consign, p ijsp*^ stri, a woman. « bljjs^ sajwdnd, a. to cause to be fitted, prepared. « ^ sach or Ls**" sachchd, m. truth, true. « L::^•^.s:**'" saM^, hard, severe ; very, jp ^^^ sflfMi, generous, liberal, a \Xm sadd, always, « J^ JLo Sudani, well-shaped, graceful, h j^ sar, head ; sar-anjdm, m. livelihood, success ; sar-anjdm-h. to succeed. ^ --; sir, m. the head, the top. s \ujs\j^ sardhnd, a. to praise, extol, h i^\f*> sa/rde, f. a caravansary, house, p j^i^j-^ sarddr, m. chief, ruler, p f^tij>^ sardif f. coldness, cold wea- ther, p ^^-.^j^ 8ar-zamin, f. empire, region, p J^j'i sarkdr, f. court, mansion, p j^j^ swdr, f. joy. a U«j sazd, f. punishment, p c: -\ * i 8tt8t, lazy, idle, p ^^juajuj smti, f. laziness, dilatoriness. j? c:-?jU-j sa^ddat, f. felicity ; sa'ddaf- mandi, gratitude, felicity, a yi-j safar, a journey, voyage, p JuA-j ««{/»(?, sufaid, wliite. p LiLs «a^»ff, n. to be able, a jJcX-j Sikandar, m. Alexander. ^ l^Lrf «eH-U«-j samdchdr, m. news, tidings. « jjUn-j samdn, like, similar. « c:-.v4«-j «a»?^ or «m^, f. a way, path ; point of the compass, a ,^js^**' samajh, f. comprehension. « a. to teach, s. ufs:'*^ samajhnd, a. to comprehend, understand. « ^^^.^--j smaran, m. remembrance, re- collection, h jfcXiw*^ samundar, m. the sea, the wide ocean. « f^^j^*^ samay, m. time, season. « \jL«j sundnd, a. to cause to hear. « '^■^y-'***^ sampat, f. wealth. « UAjfaXikM) sandesd, m. a message. « jLuX«: sansdr, the world. « ^ji^sU*^ singauti, f. an ornament of gold, etc., on the horn of a bullock, a ui**j sunnd, a. to hear. « ^ «o, correlat. pron. that very, that same ; sau, a hundred, h \y^ siwd, except, besides, a j\yj> sawdr, a rider, one mounted or riding ; embarked, p lsJ'^ sawdri, f. riding; equipage.^ (j\y^ sawdl, m. request, begging, petition, a ^\y^ swdmi, m. master, husband, a 1^1^ siwde, same as siwd. a -.y^ 80ch, thought. 8 u.>-j*j sochnd, to consider, reflect. « 1 J^ 8audd, m. a bargain, purchase, p ^\dy^ 8auddgar, m. a merchant, p t_^iJj*«) sauddgari, f. merchandize, trade, p Jj J j*»j 8&-daul, elegant, well-shaped ^Iji^' siirdldi, m. a hole, cavity, p _.j^ stiro;*, m. the sun. a {jj\djy^ 8krdd8, name of a i)oet. A vi-^j«j saumpnd, a. to deliver over, oonsign. Also li-Jj«j saunpnd. s \jy^ sond, m. gold; sitnd, void, empty, s U^ sond, n. to sleep, to die. 8 l!l3^ amtd, m. a pestle. A ^j-^j*^ sair, f. a walk, perambulation, a jf^ ser, a certain weight, nearly two pounds, h ^TijJ^:*-* saikron, hundred, h. \i'«{\;.».i sikhnd, a. to learn. 8 li^li--j senhnd, a. to parch, to warm one's self, h \±f'--- sing, m. a horn. « ^Li shdkh, a branch ; horn. ^ (JUiJLj shddmdnk, f. joy, gladness, p ^JL^^\J^ sTidmat, f. spot, blemish, a J.^U) shdmil, comprehensive ; ex- tending to. a *U. shah, m. a king, prince; shdh- zdda, a royal son, a prince, p ^^^..sr'Uj shdhjahdn, name of one of the Emperors of Delhi. (25) ^ JoLl shdyad, possibly, probably, perhaps, p Ju-ij s^aJ,j^ sharir, vicious, wicked, a c:^^iiLiJ shafahat, f. kindness, affec- tion, a jIOj shihdr, m. hunting, prey ; shihdr-gdh, f. hunting-field, p i^J^ shikdri, relating to hunting; m. a fowler, hunter, p ^J:i shukr, m. thanks, gratitude, a (JxJ^ shakl, f. shape, figure, a Jj^i shikam, m. the belly; shikam- parwar, a pamperer of his belly, p jyti shoTf m. cry, noise, disturbance, p ^yJL skauk, in. desire, love, a ^j^^ shauk'm, desirous; amateur fanciers, a Jl^ shahd, m. honey, p -^ shahr, m. a city, p d jI^h^ shahzdda, a prince ; shahzddi, ft princess, p jJii sJier, m. a tiger, a lion, p ijjr^ sherni, f. a tigress, p shirini, f. sweetness ; elo- (26 J t^ quence. p ^L-i shigra, quickly, s *_^o-U> sahib, m. a lord, master; companion ; possessed of, as, sdhtb- Mdna, the master of the house; sdhib-i '»s»ia^,possessedofchastity.a (_JL? sdf, clean, clear, candid, a ^40 8ubh, f. morning, dawn, a -Mtf sabr, f. patience, endurance, a s„L^,^s!^ suhbaf, f. society, a cJLtf sarrdf, m. a banker, a money- changer, a i^j^ sarf, expenditure; sarf-k., to spend, a L^j^ sirf, merely, only, a ^\su> safdX purity, beauty, a ^^sus si/at, f. praise, quality, a <^.s^ safha, face, surface, a JLa saldh, f. counsel, advice, a U-Ls saldhmt peaceably, advisably, by way of advice a jjXMtf sandiik, m.f. a box, a trunk, a c-->l^ sawdb, m, rectitude, a virtu- ous action ; success, a CJj^ sitrat, f. form, face, a SL*a saiydd, a hunter, a said, f. game, hunting, chase, a j^j^o %aritr or zttriir, necessary, ex- pedient, a 5 za'if, frail, bedridden, a iLj ziydfat, f. entertainment, a jU? tdk, m. a shelf, a recess, a Lii^lL tdkat, f, power, endurance, a «JIL tdU\ fortune; star, a »-J? tab\ m. constitution, nature, a L-^^-J^ )[a5iJ, m. a physician, doctor. -lc ^djk, weak, helpless, a tjO>-lc 'tyVzi, f. weakness, helpless- JJjlc 'aM, wise, a sage, a Jlc 'a?a?w, m. the world, universe ; 'dlam-pandh, the asylum of the universe, his majesty, a Jlc 'dlim, a. learned, knowing, a CJ^Lc ^ihdrat, f. term, expression, a L-^oLs:"^ ^ajdfib, m. wonders, curiosi- ties, a c--.^^ '(?y«5, m. wonder, admiration; a. wonderful, rare, a y faryddk, a. complainant, plaintiff. ^ c_-^y /ar^, fraud, a trick, p tiLui fasdd, m. depravity, violence, a J-aJ/asZ, f. time, season, harvest, a J-iii fazl, bounty, munificence, a laiii faTcat, merely, only, no more, a j^ faUr, m. a beggar, dervise ; poor, indigent, a ^ fihr, m. f. thought, reflection, a \ji3 fuldnd oxfuldna, a certain one. a — ^ fauj, f. army, a multitude, a \jij5 fauran, quickly, instantly, a ^ fi, in (used in Ar. phrases, as, fi,l-wdU, in truth ; Ji,l-faur, in- stantly; fi,l-haU]cat, of a verity), a Jjljf MUl, fit, worthy, a ^^ Mzi, m. a judge, a Li^^ii Mmaf, f. bulk, height, size, a ^U Mni', contented, frugal, a iUiJ kahza, m. grasp, possession, a J^* ^aJ4?, m. consent; Jcabiil-kj to agree, accept, a ^ hatl, m. slaughter, killing, a jJ> i^a(?^, m. stature, size, a jjkjj ^atfr, f. worth, price, a *«3J (29) if m6^ hadam, m. foot, footstep, a *j jj Icadim, ancient, old. a j\Ji Tcardr, confirmation, rest, a f^Ji ha/rZy m. a loan ; Tcjvn dend, to lend, a jfMjj hasam, f. an oath; Tcism, kind, species, a jy^ kusur, m. want, fault, a i^ Tcissa, m. a story, a Lij ha%d, m. decree, a jLaJJ ha%%dh, m. a robber; (hence ^KLai ha%dhdr, by chance, a p JLy^ Tca%iya, m. a quarrel, a ajkis hatra, m. a drop, a ?;ma '«#, f. contentment, a Jy teZ, m. a statement, a word, a l::^^IJ liydmat, f. the general resur- rection; calamity, a Jui ^««^, f. fetter, imprisonment, a kJ J^zTwa^, f. price, value, a jI^ ^a^«5, m. a writer, a LjI^ Mtnd, a. to cut. « J^ Mr, m. use, business, service, work, deed, p ^^ J^ Jcdr-chohi, embroidered ** cloth, p X>jl^ Jcdriffar, skilful; a cunning workman, juil^ Jcd^M, m. paper, a scrap of paper, p ji\^ hdjir, m infidel, a Jl^ Ml, m. time. » aI^ ^(fw, m. business, action, use; desire; ham and, to be useful, of service, s p (JU/«l^ hdmrdni, f. happiness, p ^ Mn, m. the ear. s ^j l^ Mmpnd,m. to tremble, to shiver. « UjuI^ Mndhd, m. the shoulder, s ^l^ Icdnlch, the armpit. A ff!y^ ^ MnhMhja, the city of Kanoj. « ^l^ Myath, m. name of a caste of Hindus ; a scribe, a copyist. « t-^ /;aJ, when ? « ^^-»^ ^flfii, m. a poet. ^ ^^ kahhic, ever, some time or other ; hahhii-Tcabhu, occasionally ; ^^^ hahU, same as habhu. s \j^ kaprd, m. cloth, clothes. 8 dJ>^ ^ajpii^, unfilial. s l:;^ Tcuttd, m. a dog. « <«-jI::^ Mai, f. a book, writing, d l:c>^ Utnd, how much ? how many ? » J\^ kutwdl, an officer of police, s lSjJ^ katori, f. a small metal cup. h ,.^ kuchh, any, some, something, a little ; kachhu, any, the least. Ji \^^ kachcJihii^ a, m. a tortoise, s uJ c5^ ^/ra^ Una or ^iVa^ mfl!?^y• t^dwa, to get on hire, to borrow, h ^Ji Krishn, the god Krishna. 8 \j^ karnd, a. to do, to place, i 2fJ^ krodJi, angry, wroth. * i^J^ (30 ) > ^jtS iis, inflection of kaun, who? frequently joined to the following word, as kis-tarah, how ? his-wdste or -liye, why ? h jjUm^ Tcisdn, m. a peasant, farmer, h j^-o**^ ^a«M, a prostitute, courtesan, a Luu^ hasndj a. to draw, cover. A ^juw^ or jAAA^ Awi or kis-kf inflection " oikojk or kucJihy some, certain, any. h \j:^J1j^ kisht, m. f. a sown field, p fJ^jM^ kisMi, f. a boat, ship, p J^ kal, to morrow, yesterday, s aK Z^Zdw, m. a word, speech, a d-Jilli kaldwant, m. a minstrel, musician, h JL^^ ^a%*«, m. the liver ; courage, h 4 kam, deficient, less, little, rarely ; (used in composition : as kam-haMit, ill-starred; a rascal), p JU^ kamdl, m. perfection, excel- lence; (used adjectively, as: ex- treme, the utmost, etc.) a j\^kamdnd, a. to earn one's living, h \j^ kamard (camera), m. a room, chamber. (Port.) <^j^ kamina, base, mean fellow, p iij\:^ kindra, m. shore, side, limit, p ^fS^ kunji, f. a key. 8 JL^ kund, m. a cistern, basin. « Jlxi^ kangdly poor, wretched. A. ,j^ kane, near, beside, h \^ kauwd, m. a crow ; M,f{, a well, a draw-well, a pit. 8 i\jt^ kotdh, short; kotdh-k. to hold back, to refrain, p i^li^ kotdh'i, smallness, deficiency.^ Jly^ kotwdl, m. the chief officer of police. cfj4^ ^othri, f. a room. 8 ^^ kkch, departure, p ij^^ kucha, m. a lane, a street, p \j^ kord, m. a whip, a lash ; hitrd, rubbish, h ^S komalf soft, weak. 8 ^^ kaun, who ? which ? what ? h \j^ kond, m. a comer. 8 uf^^ kdndi, f. a mortar, h LJj^ kaunsd, what-like? of what sort ? h S^ koh, a mountain, p ^^ koX any, «ome one j 'artic.) a ' or an, a certain (person, etc.). * d^ hi, that, thus, as follows: (some- times a relative, who ? wnich ?) ^ l^ kahd, m. bidding, order; kahd- sunk, f. altercation. 8 Jl^ khdl, f. skin, hide. 8 ^\^ kahdn, where? whither? h \j\^ khdnd, a. to eat, suffer ; m. food, dinner. « CU>jl^ kahdwat, f. a byword, a saying. « UiLsr khujldnd, a. to tickle, to rub. $ \i> ^ kharahd, m. a hare. 8 \j^ khard, erect, standing, h ^Sj4 ^J^ifki, f. a window, h J^r ( 31 ) big^ Ihulnd, n. to be opened, to be revealed; to clear up after rain. » \A^ hhildnd, a. to give to eat, to feed. 8 Ij^ J^ khil-Tchildnd, n. to laugh. A. Ll^ khilnd, n. to blow (a flower), h li^^ hahnd, a. to tell, say, bid, call, affirm. 8 IjJi^ Ichodnd, a. to dig. A UJ^ hholnd, a. to open, untie, let loose. « l}j^ khond, a. to lose, to waste. 8 L2>%.*£$i' ^A^^, m. a fleld. « (^:u^ M(9^^, f. husbandry, crop. « J-^i khel, m. play, game, sport. 8 LL^ kheind, n. to play, to sport. « ^j-^ kaUn, somewhere, anywhere, somewhat, s Ur^U^ khenchnd or khainchnd, a. to delineate, draw. A ^^^ ka,i or ^fl5,e, some, a few. A L^ fy »f ^oy<£, as if, as one would say. p cl:\^ ghat, an ambush. A l1:\^ ghdt, m. a landing-place. « ^ U-^ ghahrdnd, n. to be confused, perplexed. A 4»ji»j lil^ ghatd-iop, m. a canopy, covering. A j^ ghar, m. house, dwelling. « ij\j^ ghardna, m. house, family. « l^^Aarti, m. ajar, pitcher. « ^5J^ yAfl^i, f. an hour ; a watch. « [:>jjj^ ghisnd, n. to be worn ; ghttmd, to enter. A i^lfli^ ghantdli, f. a small bell. « ^^f^ ghungrd, m. a small bell. « U^f5 ghord, m. a horse. « U %^ gholnd, a. to dissolve, to pound. » ^^ gM, m, clarified butter. « LS ^flfya, gone (past part, of Jdnd). A ^y^ gail, f. a road. A li-i^ gaind, m. a small bullock. A 1^:*-^^ ^ami, f. a small chariot. A ^V)^.^ ^^AAw, m. wheat. « C^S ^a^, f. a kick. A cL;!' Idt, f. trunk of a tree. A jjlj^ Id-fdni, unequalled, unrivalled, a J ?4/, m. shame. 8 L^\^'i Id-jawdh, silent, silenced, a jl>-i Id-chdr, helpless, destitute, p. J-tfU-^ Id-hdsil, useless, without result, a \jiSI Iddnd, a. to load, to embark. A j^ ji Ldr Kapiir, two celebrated minstrels at the court of Akbar. A >^^ Idzim, necessary, urgent, a ^)l Idlch, one hundred thousand. A '% Idldf m. master, sir. A ^"i Idlach, m. avarice, desire. » J^ (33) JU ^^fi Idkhi, covetous, greedy. 8 oil land, a. to bring; to breed, pro- duce, make. 9 Jj"^ IdjiTc, worthy, befitting, perfect, a LIL! Itpafnd, n. to cling, to stick to. h ufLJ lapetnd, a. to wrap up. h Ijuill latlcdnd, a. to suspend, h \j\J lajdndy n. to be ashamed. « l;:^^ la^'it, ashamed. « o jJ ladnd, n. to be loaded, to ride. Ji Jo jj Zaz2z, delicate, delicious, a i^!j|J /«rff,i, f. battle, quarrel, war. h l^ la/rkd, m. a boy, child, babe. « IjJfJ Z^jrwci, n. to fight, to quarrel, s liUjfJ lurhdnd, a. to spill, upset. « UijfejJ lurhaJcnd, n. to be spilt, upset 5 yluJ lashhar, m. an army. ^ ujy /wi(/, m. pleasure, enjoyment, a c:-^iJ«l Wnat, a curse. « w^JU Zflt^ai, m. a surname, a jjUiL) Luhmdn, name of a famous Eastern fabulist, a uJU lukmd, m. a morsel, mouthful, a tj^J^ MH, f. wood, a staff, stick, h L^ lilchnd, a. to write. « \jlj^ lihhwdnd, a. to cause to be written. « /♦uJ lagdm, bridle, bit. « Ij'uJ lagdnd, a. to attach, to apply. « LxJ lagnd, n. to touch ; to begin j to reach or come up to. « UljxJ lagwdndf a. to cause to be applied. < uJ ?^^ majdifi, hidden, a ^^jA^ maMiUsi, f. escape, deliver- ance, a LU^y^ muddat, f. a space of time, a long time, a JiX^ madad, f. aid, help; madad-ffdr, a helper, auxiliary, a Ujc^ mudd^d, m. desire, wish, a ^iX^ mudda'i, m. a plaintiff, claim- ant, a [grees. a l---JU^ mardtib, m. (pi.) steps, de- S\j^ murdd, f. desire, meaning, infer- ence, a y.^ marhiim, deceased, the late, a J^ mard, m. a male, a man, a hero ; marddna-wdr, like a man. p j\^j^ murddr, a dead body, p St^j^ mv/rda, dead, a dead body, p ^^j^ marzl, f. wish, inclination, p 4 j^ murgh, m. a fowl, bird, p \ij^ marnd, n. to die, to expire; mar- j'dnd, to die, expire. « CJj^ murawwat, generosity. — |j^ mtzdj, m. temperament, disposi- tion, a js\mj^ musdf/r, m. a traveller, a ^Jcmj^ musta^rtk, immersed, ab- sorbed, a (35) \l^ fjjiMj^ mastU, m. a mast, a jJU«/« maati, f. intoxication, p iiisf*^ masjid, f. a mosque, a XjSif**^ masMiara, a jester, a \j\J>Mj^ mushurdnd, n. to smile. Ji ^UJuju^ Musalmdn, a Muhammadan, a follower of Muhammad, a CSJ^ mashh, f. a leathern bag for water, p iUjyL^ mashwarat, f. consultation, a j^JL^ mash^hiir, noted, well-known, a ^_,^%*-L2.^ musdhib, m. a companion, friend, aide-de-camp, a jy^^ mttsauwir, m. a painter, a L::>w.»ga^ muslbat, f. calamity, afflic- tion, a Jp^jma^ wazJA^i, f. solidity, firm- ness. « J^lL/« mutdhik (prep.) conformable to. a c-->ii2^ matlah, m. a question, pur- pose, meaning, a «Jix^ muttaW, acquainted, in- formed, a ^jlL^ mutldk, in the least, at all. ,^l>.jilx^ Mumjffvr-Midn, a man's name. a. ^^Ux^ mazliim, injured, oppressed; mazl{im-nawdz, a cherisher of the oppressed, ap \xyt ma'an, together, a uJU^ mu^df, absolved, forgiven, excused ; mu^df-harnd, to forgive, a j^iu^ mangwdnd, a. to cause to be brought, h -^i^ munh, m. the mouth, face ; munh- %or, headstrong, obstinate, s yt mil, a hair, p \y w?t,-4^ wA/VJ, cause, means, a ^^y mocM, m. a cobbler ; saddler, h ijy miirh, m. a fool. « *^y« mamim or mausam, m. time, season, a 7^ uV* ^^«A-^^^j a kind of hawk which feeds on mice, p t_3 J */« mauhiif, depending on ; mauhiif- k., to conclude, to stop, a Ay» mol, m. price ; mol-lend, to buy. h A*y mom, wax ; mom-jdma, cloth covered with wax, oil-cloth. Jja^ mom-dil, soft-hearted, p \jbSjy tniindhd, m. a footstool, h IjL^ mahdhalk, powerful. « ^5»-l^^ mahdjan, a rich merchant, a J^il^ mahddol, a large sedan. A ^Ul^^ mdhdrdj, great king ! sir ! sire! « CL^X^ mahdrat, f. proficiency, skill, a ijY* wiwAra, m. the thigh bone, p IX^^ mahngd, dear, high-priced. ^S^r^ waAw^i or mahnagk, f. dearth, scarcity. J w^fltp, very, exceedingly, h A^sT w^ wasf, m. praise, encomium, virtue, worth, a jjl?^ wafan, m. native country, home, abode, a oo^ (39 ) t^ iJk^j wa^dttf m. a promise, a \ij wafdy f. performing a promise, sincerity, fidelity, a c:--%j>^ wakt, m. time, season, oppor- tunity, a ^^ winy inflec. plur. of wvh, he, she, etc. h \p^^^ wonMn, that instant, h ^ tt'wA, (pro.) he, she, that, it. h j^U, wahdn, there, thither, yonder, h ^^ wahi or m^mAJ, (pro.) he himself, that very (person or thing). A ^H«^j wuhkn, immediately h (jTj w^^, they, those ; pi. of wuh. h luuj J waUd, in that manner, so, like that, such as that. A. ^flto hdth, m. the hand, a cubit. < j^lto Acf^Ai, m. an elephant. « t3l& A<£(, f. a market. A j^U^U hdr-mdn, despairing, helpless. j^U Aaw, yes, even so. A ^JuLj hdndi, f. a pot. ^U hd,e, alas! M,e-k., to groan, sigh. A l:X)U hdnknd, to drive away. A •iJb A^'^u, m. a Mend. 8 •L^-iiA hathydrt m. a weapon, offen- sive armour. 8 ^jLsA hachlcold, m. jolt, jolting. A j_^ JUb haddk, f. a hone. « ^ Aar, each, every. ^ \jib hard, a. green, fresh, verdant, s ul5o^ Jb Aare^, (pro.) every one. p h JJo-yj> harchand, how much soever, howsoever, although, p Jjj Jb har-roz (ad.) every day. ^ liy& hargtz, (ad.) ever. jo;Ji> Aw*a«, m. a stag, a deer. » jVjH) hazdr, a thousand, p (U& Aaz?, m. jest, joke, a jUuJb hushydr (same as hoshydr), careful. j9 ^LxLfc hushydri, f. wakefulness, vigilance. ^ lJj]}^ ^ -^-g-^ haft-hazdri, a com- mander of seven thousand. j5 ci^lib haldkat, f. ruin, destruction, jj Ulfc hildnd, a. to move, set in motion. A \iiJi> A«7«a, n. to move or be moved. /» U3ji> AaZ^fi, light, not heavy. A AJb Aam, we ; plu. of main. 8. ^.JL'^A^ himmatf f. mind, ardour, energy, a aJ& haniy a particle denoting * to- gether,' used in composition, as jjy>- aJ& ham-Joli, a companion. ^ /♦Jc^Ji) ham-dam, m. a friend, com- panion, p jb\jAJb ham-rdM, m. a companion, fellow-traveller, p yaAiw,m. certainty, certain, true.a hunar-mand, skilful, p w- » • jjb ydwar, propitious, p uX> ya^, one, a, an. p yagdna, kindred, single, incom- parable, p ^^ yiin or yow, thus, in this man- ner, h ^%-^^ yknMn, thus, even so. A «^, y«%, this ; he, she, etc. h j^l^^ yahdn, here, used with the genitive (inflec.) to denote posses- sion, etc., as mere yahdn, in my possession ; apud me.' h (^^ yihi, this same, h ^^^^ yakin, here, in this very place, h ^ yd. thoy, these, /i hansnd, n. to smile- s Aa«(?a, f. wind, air. a ul?-jji> ho-jAnd, n. to become. A jjiyb Ao«A, m. sense, consciousness, perception, p ^Ljj^ Jioshydr, intelligent, attentive, cautious, p uyb Aowa, n. to be, become, grow. « ^ hi, (an emphatic particle) even, indeed, very, h ^j^ hin, even, indeed, h ^J^ hin, void of, without. « Lib hijfd, m. mind, Benae, h 41 HINTS TO THE LEARNER. 1.— EXTEACTS IN THE PERSIAN CHARACTBR. EXIBA.CT 1st. %ivdn hai. Jaldi-Tcd phal naddmat loss is. Haste-of (the) fruit regret drdm-Tci Icunji hai. Mihnat-se hard,i hai. is. hai. is. hai. is. hai is hai. is. Idleness-from Kind' at Contentment ease-of (the) key is. Labour-from greatness Parhez achchi dawd hai. 'Akil-ko ishdra has Abstinence good medicine is. (The) wise-to (a) hint enough Khudd-lid Miauf ddnish-M ad hai. Gung'i zabdn bihta/r God-of (the) fear wisdom-of the root is. Mute tongue better jhiithk zahdn se. 'Ilm-M dfat Ihiil lying tongue than. Knowledge-of (the) calamity forgetfulness Imdf-se Tdialh-lco drdm hai. Justice-from (the) people-to ease is. In the same way as the above, let the student endeavour to transcribe neatly into the Eoman character the first two or three pages of the Extracts. Let him be careful to write every letter with its appropriate mark; and, in the course of a week or two, let him restore the same into the Persian character. This is one of the best and speediest methods of making himself familiar with the elements of the language. Let me not be misunderstood here, as if I recom- mended the bare-faced quack system of the so-caUed " Hamiltonians." No, what I recommend is, that ''every man should be his own Hamiltonian," in which case he will be the gainer. It is utterly absurd to expect that a language can be learned without labour and thought on the part of the student. The Hamiltonians would persuade us that it can ; but their system is a mere deception, which flatters the vanity of the student with a show of progress utterly unreal, and which admirably conceals the ignorance and incapacity of the teacher ; hence its popularity. 42 NOTES, ETC., ON THE FIRST FIFTY STOKIES IN THE PERSIAN CHARACTER. The following few notes and observations are intended to illustrate Buch parts of the Reading Lessons as may appear least obvious to a beginner. The figures refer to the particular page and paragraph in the Grammar, in which the subject is fully explained. N.B. In this work, the final niin ^ when it has the nasal Bound (vide page 6), is marked with an extra dot over it, as in the words ^^y^ main, and ^»^ tain. This should have been stated in its proper place, but the author was not aware at the time those sheets were sent to press that the printer had the ^ in his fount. Extract 1. — Jaldi-hd phal, 'the fruit of rashness;' the genitive placed first, 95. 64. It will be observed that these sentences are arranged according to the rule, 93. 62, each sentence finishing with the verb hat, 'is.' — Oungi zahdn, etc., 'a speechless tongue is better than a lying tongue : ' in this sentence there are two clauses ; the verb hai is expressed at the end of the first clause, and is consequently unnecessary at the end of the second. 135. a. Ex. 2. — Thordhhdnd, 'little eating;' the infinitive used substan- tively, 129. a. — talab Ica/r 'ilm-ko, 'seek for knowledge' : talah karnd, a nominal verb, 65, last line; here the verb, contrary to the general usage, comes first. There are in this Extract a few more exceptions to the general rule as to arrangement, agreeably to what we have stated. 93. a. Ex. 3. — Jalne lagd, 'began to burn' — senhne lagd, 'began to warm himself,' 131. c. — thathol-ne hahd, 'a jester said,' or, 'by a jester was said.'— ^aZ^, 'bums,' tdpe, 'warms himself,' the aorist for the present, 122. h. Ex. 4. — The sentences in this extract foUow the general rule as to arrangement, which is, to commence with the nominative or agent, and end with the verb, the remainder or complement of the sentence being between these. — har-pd, literally, ' on foot.' — %iydda Mmrdh haih, ' an; more wicked,' the comparative degree, 71. h. NOTES. 43 Ex. 5. — Bahut kdm, 'many uses;' the nominative plural of masculinfe nouns of the second class (29), can be distinguished from the singular only by the context, such as a plural verb, etc. — ba^'d,e, ' in place of,' preposition requiring the genitive in ke, 98. — Mm ate haih, ' become useful.' — handed jdtd hai, passive voice of landnd, 57^ 42. — Yide p. 47, note to ' Extracts from the Xra,ish-i Mahfil.' Ex. 6. — Eh iint awr gadhe-se, between a camel and an ass.' — safa/r da/r pesh hii,d, lit. 'a journey came in front,' i.e., 'they both had occasion to travel;' — ma^l{im hotd hai, 'it appears; ' — diib-jdyungd, ' I shall be drowned,' intens. verb, 64. Ex. 7. — Jo ddnd, etc. 116. a. — le Tcahe, ' without being told,' 132.- ddl-rahhtd hai, * tosses away,' intensive verb ; — hi jis-he wdste, ' on whose account,' 117. c. Ex. 8. — Eh hamkne aur hhale ddmi-se, ' between a base man and a gentleman.' — hote-M, 'on becoming,' adverbial particip. 134. e. Ex. 9. — Ek shaMs-ne, etc., ' by a certain person it was asked ox' Plato;' respecting the use of the proposition w«, read carefully, 102, etc. — hahut harson, 'many years,' 106. b. — hyd hyd ^ajd,ih, 'what v^arious wonders,' 114. a. — dehhe, 'were seen' {tii-ne, 'by thee,' understood). — yihi ^ajibba, ' this wonder merely.' Ex. 10. — Kyd kdm did hai, 'what quality is S*.ost useful?' — ho- " jdwe, ' should become.' Ex. 11. — Chashme-pds 'to (or near) a fountain' {ke imderstood), 99. d. — charh na sakd, 'he was not able to descend.' — ufarne-se pahle, * previous to descending.' — dekh na liyd, ' you did not thoroughly look at,' intensive verb. Ex. 12. — Sher-se kahd, 'said to the tiger;' the verbs 'to say or speak' and 'to ask,' construed with the ablative, 102. b. — agar sher mu^awwir hotd, ' if a tiger had been the painter,' 81. a. Ex. 13. — Kuchh sawdl kiyd, ' asked something in charity.' — eh bdt meri, ' one request of mine.' — mat mdng, ' ask not,' the negative particle mat, ' don't,' used with the imperat., 123. d. — uske siwd, ' with the exception of that.' Ex. 14. — Ek-ne un-men-se, 'one of them.' — jd,iye and haithiye, respectful forms of the imperative, 123. d. Ex. 15. — Apni anguthk, 'thine own ring,' 112. — ydd karnd {tujh ko understood), the infinitive used imperatively, like the Latin gerund, 129. a. 44 KOTES. Fjc. 16. — B*ni d,i thi, pluperfect tense, 127. d. — hij'hd de, • extm- guish,' intenKive verb. — ^ard pard, etc., * all the time lying down, he continued giving answers.' Ex. 17. — Agar main bdzi na Jitdh, * if I do not win the game.' — tir Ihar gosht, * an exact pound of flesh ; ' the ser is nearly two English pounds. — tardsh-le, ' cut off.' — us-ne na-mdnd, * he did not (or would not) agree.' — Jcdu-pds (for kdzi-ke pds), ' near the judge.' — ek ser-se el rati %iydda, ' a single grain more than one ser. Ex. 18. — 'Ain kiVe-ke nkche, 'close under the very palace.' — lutd gayd, 'was plundered,' passive voice. — khidmat-meh, * in the presence.' — '(W'z ki, * made representation,' ki, fern, of kiyd, agrees with 'arz, but 'arz kiyd is also used as a nominal verb. — chirdgh, etc., ' under the lamp is darkness,' a proverb analogous to our own saying, * the nearer the church, the farther from God.' Ex. 19. — Anjdn hoka/r, 'as a stranger.' — kyd mujhe, etc., 'do you not recognize me ?' kyd, here used as a sign of interrogation, 93. h. Ex. 20. — Us-ke\ yahdhis here understood; mar-gay d and hdht-Tt end urd-d{, all intensive verbs, 65. 44. 1. Ex. 21. — !A.dmiyon-ko istabal-mehjdne detd, 'he allowed the people to go into the stable,' 131. c. — -phirtd and kartd, continuative past tenses, 124. h. — apnd kdm kar-liyd, 'gained his own object.' Ex. 22. — Asnde rdh-meh, 'in the midst of the way.' — chirdgh ghar-kd, etc., 'I did not put out the lamp of the house before I came away,' literally, 'I have not come (after) having put out,' etc. — d,e ga,e, * you have come and gone.'— Jutd na ghisd hogd, ' must not your shoes have been worn ? ' Ex. 23. — Is waktj 'at present;' ko, understood, 100. a. — honge and na-deh, etc., the plural used out of respect, 118. 78.— ^b unhon-ne, etc, ■ even should his worship have given the medicine.' — hdndhd-karegd frequentative verb, 66. III. 1. — ma/rnd ha/r hakk hai, 'death is certain.' Ex. 24. — Tabdh hokar, 'being in distress.' — -parhdne, 'to make read,' * to teach;' casual form oi parhnd, 62. 43. — lete lete hi, ' even when lying down;' the repetition of the conjunctive participle denotes a continuation of the state, or repetition of the action, denoted by the verb. — he hdth pdnw-ke hilde, ' without the mo\ang of his hands and feet.' — hildydf the preterite participle, used as a substantive. NOTES. 4b Ex.25. — Sab-Tce haw die hi 'he gave into the charge of each.' kdt-ddli, 'cut olt';' the intensive oi hdtnd. Ex. 26. — Donoh hd%{-ke pds ga,in, aur insdf ehdhd, 104. d. — eh eh •one to each/ 106, c. — larhe-ho use supurd hiyd, 101, c. Ex.27. — Chha roti-se, 'with six loaves;' the termination ow denoting the plural omitted, 107. 70. — 'Wuh ddl-dene-men ddkhil hai, ' that amounts to throwing it away.' Ex. 28. — ^Arz hiyd, (a nominal verh), 'he represented;' 'arz hi is also used in the same sense, vide Ex. 19. — dar-ldiwdst harnd, ' to make request.' — do sawdl hejd (properly do sawdl-i-hejd), 'two improper requests.' Ex. 29. — lAhhni thin, ' were to be written,' 83. — dam hhd rahd, an idiomatic expression, denoting, ' he remained quite silent,' lit., ' con- tinued devouring his breath.' Ex. 30. — Dehhne-wdle, 'the spectators,' 66. — diisre-he ghar {ho understood), ' to the house of the other.' — samjhd, etc., ' he perceived that it was not a screen.' — -farel hhdyd, ' were deceived,' lit., * experi- enced deception.' Ex. 31. — Sihhne-hd, etc., 'why then mention the learning of it?' — itne-men, 'in the meantime.' — ha/r hdd hi, 'have cast away,' lit., 'placed upon the wind.' Ex. 32. — Dushndm di thi, pluperfect tense, 127. d. — dth dth dne, etc., ' you share between you, each eight dnda ; ' observe that sixteen dnds make a rvpt. Ex. 33. — Ga/i'dan mdrnd, ' to decapitate.' — mere rii-ha-ru, ' in my presence.' — marddna-wdr, ' like a man or hero.' — terd bard halija hai, 'thou hast great courage.' — -jawdn-ma/rdi, 'heroism' or 'courage.' — dar-gu%rd, ' he passed over (or passed by) his fault.' Ex. 34. — Eh hard saTdd, ' a very generous man,' 107. h. Ex. 35. ^hahar harnd, the infinitive used as an imperative. Ex. 36. Karte hiie, vide 131, 84. — wdjih-tar, Persian comparative, by adding tar to the positive. Ex. 37. Bdithd diyd, intensive of laithdnd. — la/ra, in the last line means 'greater,' 'more important.' Ex. 38. — Bard mom-dil, ' very soft-hearted.' — in miydn-hi, ' of this reverend gentleman ; ' plural used out of respect. — a^nd is here used for merd, 113. ^. 46 NOTES. Ex. 89. — Sue^h got gol sd, * something quite round.* Ex. 40. — Suhh hote JU, ' immediately it was dawn of day.' — kaun si j'ins, ' what sort of commodity.' — itni ddnd,{ par, ' notwithstanding so much wisdom. — yiMfakaty ' this only and no more. — main bdz dyd, etc., * I will have nothing to do with such wisdom ; ' past used for the future, 126, a. Ex. 41. — Jo wuh her mile, 'if that (lost) sheep should be found.' — kkudd-M rdh-par, * in charity,' ' pour 1' amour de Dieu.' — Miudd-ki kasam {hhdtd hiin) ' I swear by God.' Ex. 42. — Admi-ke, etc., ' taller than a man's stature.' — Mkatt pahunchne tak, etc., 'by (the time of) the letter's arrival, the (wheat) season had expired.' — i'tibdr kijdwe, ' can be credited.' Ex. 43. — Mahmud of Ghazni died, a.d. 1030. Ayydz was one of his favourite slaves. Mahmud is famous both for his patronage of learned men, and for his success as a warrior. He made several in- cursions into India, in the last of which, a.d. 1026, he is supposed to have carried away in triumph the gates of Somnath, of which we heard so much some years ago. — Jauhar-MiAne men, 'into the jewel-house or treasury.' Ex. 44. — Jude jude makdnoh-meh, * in places quite apart,' or ' each in a separate place. — saldmat, ' in safety.' Ex. 45. — Sudani, * well-shaped,' ' elegant.' — had Tdw-wdle-ke, ' of the man of a bad disposition.'— ;;oya^sa, etc., 'whatever sort (of seed) a man may sow, the same will he reap.' Ex.46. — Kasam kha,i, 'swore an oath.' — imdnddr, 'faithful' or honest.' — rutha,e a^ld, 'very high rank.' — is hahdne-se, 'by this pretext.' Ex. 47. — Nau-joAodn, 'quite young:' the same phrase occurs in the Devanagari Extracts under the Sanskrit form, nava-yauvand. — der kar, ' though late.' Ex. ^8.—Likhd hud, ' written :' the participle with hud, agreeably to 131. — Ukhd hai; here the agent kisi-ne is understood. Ex. 49. — Saldhan, ' by way of advice.' — hdtkahteht, 'immediately.' — m-ke kahne ha-miijih, 'in conformity with what he said.' Ex. 50. — Biyinat-ddr, ' conscientious.'— ^V« wakt, 'when,' or *at the t^me when. — ^hdail-i-kaldrnf 'in short.' NOTES. 47 a.— EXTRACTS FROM THE 'KHIRAD AFROZ.' (From page To to page TV). These Extracts are selected as a specimen of genuine Urdu, the dialect spoken by the educated classes of the Musalman population throughout India. The style is exceedingly easy and elegant, and presents no difficulty to those who have acquired an elementary knowledge of Persian. Before the student commences with these, he is requested to read with care from page 88 to page 100 of the Grammar, which portion treats of Persian compounds, etc. I may here add (what I am afraid has been omitted in its proper place in the Grammar) viz., that "in phrases from the Persian, the adjective follows the sub- stantive, and the substantive is in that case marked with the izafat, as if it governed another substantive in the genitive." Thus mard-i pdrsd, * a pious man ; ' mard-i neh, ' a good man.' The reader will see in page 90, I. of the Grammar that when, in a Persian phrase, the adjective comes before the substantive, the two together form a com- pound epithet, as, tang-dil, ' distressed in heart : ' whereas ' a distressed heart' would be written * dil-i tang.'' 3.— EXTRACTS FROM THE *ARA,ISH-I MAHFIL.' (Page rV). This extract from the * Ara,ish-i Mahfil' was for the first time cor- rectly printed in the first edition of this work. In the Calcutta edition, the printers misplaced the letter-press of two pages, so that, while the paging appeared perfect, the text made nonsense. Several years ago I discovered this when endeavouring to make sense of the passage as it has all along stood in Mr. Shakespear's * Selections,' vol. i. p. 105. Mr. S. has endeavoured to cement the matter by throwing in a few connecting words of his own, which are certainly no improvement. A conscientious critic would have stated the fact of such an amendment, 80 that the original author might not incur blame for the sins of the Bengal printers, or of the English editor. I am glad to find that Mr. Shakespear in his more recent edition has adopted my amendment (without any acknowledgment, however), as preferable to his own. The subject of the extract is a description of a kind of chariot drawn by bullocks common in the province of Gujerat, more especially in the city of Ahmadabad. An account of the same, accompanied by a beautiful engraving, wiQ be found in the travels of Albert Mandelslo, 48 NOTES. who visited the spot in the reign of Shah Jahan. The edition of his travels to which T allude is the folio, printed at Leyden, 1719, page 74. In pages 21 and 22, of the same work there is an engraving of the Great Indian Fig-tree, commonly called the Banyan Tree, alluded to in our 5th Extract, page f It is the same as that mentioned by Quintus Curtius, Lib. ix. cap. i. " Having thus vanquished Porus and crossed the river (Acesines), he marched further into the country. There he found forests of vast extent, in which were shady trees of prodigious height. Most of their branches (or arms) equalled in size the trunks of ordinary trees; for, bending down into the earth, they grew up again in the same place, and appeared rather like separate tiees, than boughs springing from another stem." 4.— EXTRACTS IN THE DEVANlGARf CHARACTER. The first seven anecdotes in the Devanagari character correspond respectively with stories 3, 8, 10, 6, 18, 16, and 23, in the Persian character. They are the same word for word, and, conse- quently, require no further notice here. I^os. 8, 9, and 10, in the Devanagari, correspond respectively with Nos. 29, 38, and 39, in the Persian character ; with this difference, however, that in the Devanagari text, Arabic and Persian words are carefully excluded, and their places supplied with words purely Indian : and this exclusion of Arabic and Persian words, constitutes the m^in difference between the dialect of the Hindus, commonly called ' Hindi,^ or ' Kha/ri Boli^ and that of the Musalmans, generally called * Sindiistdnk,^ ' Urdit,' or ' Zabdn-i RelMa' The style throughout is exceedingly easy, and there is only one peculiarity in the orthography to which it may be requisite to draw the student's attention in this place, viz., that in the Devanagari character the letter "?J (y) is sounded like the vowel XT (e) when following any of the long vowels ^J d, or ^gY ^'- ^^^^ 'WSX^ y«j^> f^^T^ ru&,e, "^V^ ho,e, etc., instead of ^TT^ etc. I may mention, in conclusion, that in the last seven pages or so of these extracts, the symbol called the vvrdma is purposely discontinued, as the ja%m is in the selections from the 'Khirad Afroz.' The student should always bear in mind that he must ultimately qualify himself to read correctly books and manuscripts utterly void of vowel-points and aU other orthographical lymbols, such as the ja%m, the tashdid, the virdma, etc. 43 APPENDIX It has beea suggested to me that a more detailed explanation of the following fourteen engraved plates in the Ta'lik character would be very desirable for beginners. I have discussed the subject rather briefly in page 143, etc. ; and now, at the risk of a few repetitions, T deem it advisable to enter upon it again more fully, by giving a literal transcript of each plate in the Eoman character, together with a few additional explanatory notes and observations PLATE 1. TEANSCEIPT INTO THE EOMAN CHABACTEE. Div. 1, — a, h, J, Af z, r, z, s, sh, z, ^, ^, /, k, h, h, I, m, n, w, h, hhhs, Id, y, y. „ 2. — 5a, ht, hh, bd, br, bs, bsh, bs, bt, Je^, bf, bk, blc, bl, bm, bn, bw, bs, bhbf bid, by, by. „ Z.-^d, jty jh, jd, hr, hr, js, jsh, h%, U, h^ jf, jlc, j'k, jl, hm, hn, hw,js,Jhs,Jld, hy, jy. Division 1 . — The first division of this Plate shows the mere elements of the ta^ik alphabet; the small cross mark indicates the spot where the pen starts from in the formation of the letter, and a double cross denotes an additional formation. The first elementary form on the right hand is the alif, which differs very little from the printed character. The second form is the letter be {b), which by a mere cidange of its dots may become^, f, s. The third form, now Sijm (f), uecomes, in the same manner, eh, M, h. The fourth makes two letters 18 50 APPENDIX. d and z. The fifth, r, z, zA, and r. The sixth is represented as con- sisting of two forms — one an indented, the other a protracted line, and either may be used as sin and shin (« and sh), as the only distinction between them is, that the s(n {ftS wants, and the shin («A) has, three dots superscribed, whether short or protracted. The seventh form, M and %dd. The eighth, t, z. The ninth, 'ain and ghain. The next letters are /, hy 1c, I, m, n, w, and h, which are nearly the same as the pnnted type. Then follow the initial, medial, and final forms of the he linked together; then the Id and hamza; and lastly, the letter y« under two varieties of form, the latter of which is now conventionally used by the natives to denote the i/d,e majhid. a. The ddl may at first sight appear to resemble the w ; the dis- tinction consists in this, that the ddl has an angular top, whereas the w has it round. I. As the letters ^ain and the imperceptible he have no exact repre- sentatives in the Roman character, they have been allowed to stand in the transcript of the plates in their proper form. c. The fe and last form of yd are written above the line to show the mode they adopt where there are more words than the line will contain. d. The bottom of the Mf may be protracted, as in the second example, to fill up the line, a liberty frequently taken with letters by the Oriental penman. This letter is formed by two sweeps of the pen, the first commencing from the top of the vertical line at the angle — (marked in the plate with a single cross) ; the slanting top is put on afterwards. In old NasTM, MSS. the slanting top is never used, but instead thereof the mark =, is written over the letter. e. The yd (y) has two forms in the Plate. The former was appro- priated by Dr. Gilchrist for the sound i, the latter for the e (or yd,e majhUl), a distinction still observed by the natives of India in writing Hindustani. APPENDIX. 51 DrvTsiON 2 exhibits the second elementary form, viz. that of b, p, t, 8, n, and y, as they appear initially, when combined with each of tha others following them. Here are given all the combinations of the letter be, with each of the elementary forms of division first. It will be seen that many of the nuktas, or dots, are omitted ; as, for example, those necessary to form bs, bt, b<^, J/, bm, bn, bh, by, and without them the linear portion of the be, in these compounds, has no meaning. It may, of course, become b, p, t, s , n, or y, ad libitum, by the addition (above or below it) of one, two, or three dots. Division 3 shows the initial form of the /, cJi, h, and k/i, pretixed to each of the elements in their order. Here a similar irregularity of punctuation occurs, but as the form — constitutes a perfect letter in itself, without any dots, it is transcribed into the Eoman character by h. It may be observed once for all, that the object of these Plates is to exhibit the combinations of all letters of a certain form, independent of the adventitious dots which each form may necessarily require. PLATE II. Div. 4. — sd, si, sj, shd, sr, 88, shs, «z, st, s^ sf, s, skk, si, xi/i, sn, sJiw, 8}i, 8,hs, sld, sy, sy. f, &. — «<£, stf sj, sd, sr, ss, ssh, sz, st, st, sf, sk, sk, zl, sm, sn^ w), a, zi, %ld, sy, sy. „ 6. — tdf ttf tj, td, tr, U, tsh, fz, it, t^ tf, tk, tk, zl, im, zn, tw, ts, zs, tld, ty, ty. Division 4 represents the sin or shin in combination with the rest of the letters. It is needless to observe that the letters alif, ddl, re, and waw, never join to the left — consequently they have no distinct initial form. Divisions 5 and 6 show the sad and to,e followed by each of th« elementary forms. 52 APPENDIX. PLATE in. Div. 7.~^d, ^f ^j\ ^rf, jT, j.«, ^«A, j^z, ^^, ^^, J./, ^^. ^i;, J./, «,//» c-n, ^w;, t:f, ^A^f, ^/a, ^y, ^y. „ 8.— /a, A fj\ fd, fr, fr, A fsh, fs, ft, 4, ^ fk, fk, fi, fm, Jn fw, fs, Pin, fld, fy, fy. „ 9. — kd, kt, kj, kd, kr, ks, ksh, kz, kt, k^ kf, kk, kk, kl, km, kn, kw, ks, khs, kid, ky, ky. Plate III. shows the letters 'am, fe, and kdf in combination with all the rest ; and, with the exception of Id, the initial form of the Idm is found by omitting the bent top stroke of the letter kdf. Division 8. — The dots of the fe are again omitted in fa, fd, fr (2nd), /«, /z, ft, /j., etc., leaving the letter imperfect. It may become kdf, by superscribing two dots. Division 9. — The formation of the kd (made by two sweeps of the pen) commences from where the four lines meet ; the pen stops at the top of the alif, made upwards, and then forms tlie slanting top. Kid is made by three strokes of the pen, the alif, made downwards, being the second, the slanting top of the kdf the third. PLATE IV. Div. 10. — md, mt, mj, md, mr, ms, msh, m%, mt, m^, mf, mk, mi, ml, mm, mn, mw, mh, mhn, mid, my, my. „ 11. — hd, ht, hj, hd, hr, hr, hs, hsh, hz, ht, h^, hf hk, hk, hi, hm, Jin, hw, hh, hhhhJis, hid, hy, hy. ,, 12. — aljd, hwz, hty, klmn, scfs, krsht, sUiz, zzj[h, Id. alJ>d, almznh, alfkyr, <^yd, allh hsyny shyryn rkm ghfr znwhh. Division 1 1 . — The tail of the he is given only in hd, hd, hk. hi, and hid, but omitted in all the rest, according to the practice of Oriental writers. Hence the initial form of this letter is often too apt to be mistaken for the mkm («). APPENDIX. 53 DiTisiON 12 contains the combinatioii of the characters as arrangtjd in alphaoetical notation, noticed in p. 20 of the Grammar, forming the fanciful words, ^ Ahjad, hawa%, hutti, haliman, sa'fas, karashat, sakhaz, za%a^ ; and the last line may be read thus, indicating the name of the chirographer : AV abd ul muzmh, al fakir 'ubaidu-l-ldhi husaini shirin rakm ^affara sunuhahu. PLATE V. Consists of words beginning with letters of the be class ; i.e., 4, p, t, a, in which might be included w and y. r.. 1. hkht, hhjt, bhsht, pnj, blkh, bind. 2. b^yd, bstr, pyghmbr, b lghy s, bkhshsh, b gh z. 3. byz, bsyt, by^ bkbk, pink, bkhyl. 4. bl(jihm, by km, bin, byn, bychw, byzi, bnkU, byshky. ^- ^t y^> i^^yh} tklyd, tlmyz, tksyr, tksyr. ti. tfyr, tj'ss, tftysh, tkhsys, tkhlys, tslt. 7. ^Vwc., tsnyf, tTchfyf, thkyk, tmsk, t^jyl* 8. tfzl, tksym, tmkyn, tlkyn, tnbw, thnt, tky. Plate V — Coming now to complete words of more than two con- sonants; we may premise, as a general remark, that when these contain any of the letters b, p, t, s, n, y, consisting of a horizontal or sloping line, with one or more dots, for each letter there should be an incurva- tion in the continued running line, and at least two bends for the short indented sin or shin. "When several such letters come together, for the saKe of distinction it is usual to give the middle one a bold dash upwards, terminating in a sharp point vertically. L. 1.— The n of bind is protracted to fill up the line, according to custom. The pink of line 9, bykm of line 4, with a dash on kdf, here wanting, are intended for palang, ' a tiger,' and begam, ' a princess/ this being a very usual omission, especially where the word cannot be mistaken. In some works, indeed, the kdf is never distinguished from the gaff neither is b from p, nor fim from che. 64 APPENDIX. PLATE VI. Contains a list of words commencing with letters of the inird tbrm, viz. /, eh. ^ or XA L. 1. jnt, hshmt, Jilcmt, hhyJct, khllct, khili. 2. Jlij(f, J^d, hmt/d, hmd, khld, j\fr, hhjr, hshr. 3. IJimyr, khnjr, khnzr, jlys, hbs, jhyz^ jit. 4. mt, hf%, jmyt., jyf, Mkfyf, j'kfk, khllc. 5. chychk, khshk, jlyl, jmyl, jnkl, hml. 6. Jhnm, hlym, hkm hkym, khshm, j'byn, jstn. 7. hsn, khftn, j'lw, hzw, chmchs, khlyfi, hlki. 8. hgi, hknh, khyms, khtns,jhhj, hlcyky, khsmy. PLATE VII. Consisting of words beginning with stn or $/im. L. 1. syh, sib, sn/, slh sth sfyd. 2. stbr, slys, syhsh, sc/«, skyt, sm^. 3. skf, syf, shk, slk, sjnjl. 4. smsm, shm, shkyn, shw, sfyn^, ssty. 5. shkst, fhfkt, shy Mi, shhyd, shyr, shmshyr, shma. 6. shah, shMi^, shmyt, shm^, shny^, sh^?tf, sh/yk. 7. shlk, shkyl, shkl, shlghm, shkm, shbnm, shkstn. 8. ahstn, shfw, shknji, shyshi, shkyki, shky, shkftgii PLATE VIII. "Words beginning with sdd, aid, .tfl,e or «>,*. L. 1. s^bf slyb, sjibt, sliyh, slh, syd. 2. smd, sghtr, sfyr, .pnyh, x^/f. skyh 3. smkyk, nykl, smijm, shn, s^w, shyfi, ^yll^ 4. ilb, tbyb, tby^t, tykh, tpyd. 5. t^r, tnz, tshysh, tm^, tb^, tfyf. 6. Ibky tlyky tnk, tfl, tlyl, tkm. 7. thtPf tbhchs, tntns, t^ns, tbty, thty Al'PENDIX. 65 PLATE TX. Words beginning with 'ain, ghamf fn or kdf. ^ i- ^y^> tfli^ t?^^' ^'yj> t^'^' ^y^' &' 2. ^nbr, ^ss, Jcs, t^h^h, ^tsh, ^f^f, ^mlt. ^' t¥y tkyh t^^f tJy^> ^hh, ^ynh, ^yl, ^kl. 4. j7Z, ^l, dm, c-Eym, zjyn, zjw, ^jh, ^jmy. 5. f^yht, fzylt, f^^yh, fth, fi^d, fjr. 6. fkr, fls, fysh, fy%, fy^, fyf. 7 flhy flk fysl, fyl, fi}- H. fhm, fin, fiw, fshfw, fiyU, Jlsfy. PLATE X. Words beginning with kdf, gdf or lam. L. 1. Icsh, Iclhy hht, kyfyt, knj, klknd, knhz, kmtr 2. kshnyz, khnis, kshf, ksys, ksht, kJc^, knyf, Jctf. 3. klk, kink, knk, kmk, khjshk, khl, klym. 4 kmyn, kfn, kshtn, kftn, kysw, kfchi, knjjs. 5. kyss, klms, kikts, khts, kshty, kmy, kyty, kyf% 6. Ikh, l^nt, Ijlj, Ikd, Inkr, Ishkr. 7. Imsj Ifs, lyMish, Ihys, Ight . 8. Tkyt^ Im^, Ityfy Iklky Ink, Ihm. 9. Ibn, lykn, Ihw, Ihy^, IkmS, Ihy, hjly. PLATE XI. Words beginning with mim, L. I. msbl. mtlh, mnsf, mktb, mhtsh. 2. mt^jh, mtyh, mslht, mhlt, mshf. 8. mmlkt, mJchns, msjs, mlthj, mth, mykh. 4. mlMi, mtlMi, mhmd, msjd, m^tkd, mffrtui 5- mnjmd, mfsd, mst^t, mtfkr, m^tr, ^z/* 6. mntshr, mTMsr, m^kr, mnzr, mdtor. 7. m^sfr, m^jr, mnjt, mks, mjh. 8. tnfls. mnsh, mfdils, msTiTdis, nwfihz 56 APPENDIX. PLATE XII. Words beginning with m(m — continued. L. 1. mMz, mhyty mmtni, mti/^, rnjm^, mU^. 2. me ><^ j>^ ^Jef- /^ 'ijC.^ -^- ^. '^ ^ 'Ji > ^. y-> ^ }^ ij^ ^j^ ♦♦ ♦♦ ' ^ A/im I- (•• Lender iJ i; t V. 5. i ♦♦ ^ >. if ^ ♦ ♦ ♦♦ WKAIUn. i: C^ZpndcTi / 1 1; (, ii ,i .1 / ^ tc ■^ ^^^ J^^'^J^^Jf-^ ^ -^<^ ^ ^ si^ ^ J^ i^-^urci/^.Sc W.M.AUtn *- r'/.eruiiin > ^ J^ -^Cf u^ u & (J^ ^- /-fc^ ■J- . .VI I', II J»1.X /, /u^u:^^j^^ r u ♦♦ ♦ »' >/ ^«-^ t. €• Zr I /, [ /, I r, >, (' IM.XI. ♦ ♦ J^ J^ ^i^ ♦ ♦♦ « ♦ $t& ^^-^ ♦ J^ A y • ^jrrlay, Sc. irf/4/^, 'r,„j. (' , \' i /. I i: H.XFl, & d ^ e "^ <:r^ -^ ^ (T c^ CF / •• .♦ cT d^ J... ^ J' J arc/av fl Ylll. (f ♦ 4 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦♦ ♦ ♦ j^ C i/ LT^ * / ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ • ij^ J d ^ ^ -^ IV S All,,. ^r'-7..„Ar„, / I i. I PI. XIV. jj-^ J! >> je uXuS^. ij:, ^^ ^ jj- /: ♦♦ •♦ ^. :: ♦ ♦ ♦ 6 ♦ ♦♦ •■ ^- d u^- u^ l/- Lf' ♦ ♦ «"/>.,/., •<;,„,,/.», as, rue- By orces, i.A.S. Letters ■ R.A.S. A SELECTION FROM Messrs. 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