TEACHER'S COURSE 
 
 IN 
 
 PHYSICALTRAINING 
 
 BOWEM 
 
 GEORGE WAHR 
 
 PUBLISHER 
 
A TEACHERS' COURSE 
 
 IN 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 DESIGNED FOR TEACHERS OF THE 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 BY 
 
 WILBUR P. BOWEN 
 
 PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE 
 
 ANN ARBOR 
 
 GEORGE WAHR 
 
 PUBLISHER 
 1917 
 
: 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1917 
 GEORGE WAHR 
 
 THE ANN ARBOR PRESS- 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Twenty years ago, when this course was first published, prep- 
 aration of teachers for the work had been little more than begun. 
 During these years it has progressed rapidly and now full courses 
 of a half year or more are given in Anatomy, Physiology, Me- 
 chanics of Exercise, Physiology of Exercise, and several other 
 topics. Altho students preparing to be specialists in Physical 
 Education pursue this more extensive course, there are still those 
 who wish to read the general theory of the subject within the 
 limits of a single brief volume, and for such this book is prepared. 
 
 W. P. BOWEN. 
 Ypsilanti, July 18, 1916. 
 
 6S8638 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER TITLE PAGE 
 
 I. The Place of Physical Training 7 
 
 II. The Neuro-Muscular Mechanism 10 
 
 III. The Vital Organs of the Body 39 
 
 IV. The Body as a Machine 53 
 
 V. The Mechanism of the Upper Limb 60 
 
 VI. The Mechanism of the Lower Limb 95 
 
 VII. The Mechanism of the Trunk 129 
 
 VIII. Posture 147 
 
 IX. The Effects of Exercise 159 
 
 X. Swedish Gymnastics 175 
 
 XI. German Gymnastics 221 
 
 XII. Play 240 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PLACE OF PHYSICAL TRAINING IN EDUCATION,, AND ITS 
 CHIEF SUBDIVISIONS. 
 
 TERMS DEFINED. Physical training means the exercise and 
 training of the motor powers of the body, carried on primarily for 
 the sake of health, discipline, or pleasure. The term implies some- 
 thing systematic and regular, done intelligently according to hy- 
 gienic principles. Physical education has a slightly wider mean- 
 ing, including all of physical training and also the knowledge of 
 the principles that should guide such training. Physical training 
 gives the hygienic results and the development that is desired at 
 the time ; physical education does this and also prepares the in- 
 dividual to carry on his own physical training and that of other 
 people. 
 
 The term physical culture is sometimes used in the sense of 
 physical education, but it has never been used by the best authori- 
 ties, for it means too much. The culture of the body would in- 
 clude not only exercise, which is the main thing here, but also 
 feeding, clothing, housing, nursing, and all that pertains to bodily 
 welfare. The term has also won disrepute by its being used wide- 
 ly by teachers and promoters of certain superficial types of phy- 
 sical training who have claimed absurd things and have lacked 
 scientific knowledge of the human body. 
 
 Physical training includes (i) play, and the exercises natural- 
 ly related to it, those known under the names of games, sports, 
 athletics, recreation, etc., and (2) the more formal exercises called 
 gymnastics. The most fundamental and natural form of physical 
 training is play. We see this in its simplest and most typical 
 form in the activities of young children and the young of some 
 animals. It is aimless activity, instinctive and natural, and hence 
 pleasurable. As the child learns to make voluntary movements, 
 there is added to the pleasure of mere activity the satisfaction 
 
8 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 of doing something he has seen others do, the beginning of the 
 imitative plays of childhood. By the time he enters school the 
 spirit of emulation shows itself, and plays having a competitive 
 element have an added interest. As his judgment and motor 
 ability develop he comes to prefer plays in which he has to ac- 
 complish some object by methods of his own choosing, or in 
 accord with circumstances. Here we have the beginning of games, 
 into which there is later introduced the element of team-play or 
 co-operation. Finally, as maturity is reached, and the competitive 
 element is made to assume great proportions by the giving of 
 costly prizes, the honor and notoriety attending the making and 
 breaking of records, and the tremendous excitement prevailing at 
 the contests, that which started as the simplest play reaches its 
 climax in college athletics. These various stages in the evolution 
 of play merge gradually into one another, so that it is often diffi- 
 cult to define a certain form or to set it off by definite lines. There 
 are also a number of other offshoots from the line of evolution 
 above indicated, among which, as types, may be mentioned danc- 
 ing, boating, camping, sea-bathing, mountain-climbing, bicycling, 
 hunting, etc. 
 
 Gymnastic exercises differ from play in the artificial and 
 measured character of the movements. In a game each movement 
 is made on the spur of the moment, being suggested by the imme- 
 diate necessity of the game or the choice of the player; in gym- 
 nastics each movement is made according to a preconceived plan 
 which has been made known in the form of a definition or model. 
 Every gymnastic movement is definite as to its beginning, its 
 course, its speed, and its ending. Exercises of this sort are there- 
 fore much more immediately and completely under control of the 
 teacher than those of the other group. The relation of the two 
 groups of exercises, plays and gymnastics, is fundamental and 
 important, and it can easily be shown that each is calculated to 
 accomplish some purposes better than the other. In gymnastics 
 the movements can be chosen definitely to suit the needs of the 
 class. Excess can be prevented, faulty postures corrected, sym- 
 metrical development provided for, and a wide range of skill and 
 coordination secured. All these things are accomplished, how- 
 
PHYSICAL TRAINING DEFINED 9 
 
 ever, at the sacrifice of the spontaneity and self-direction that 
 characterize play, and which develop self-reliance and a habit of 
 enthusiastic and vigorous activity. In the one, the pupil's will 
 submits completely to the will of another and is trained in habits 
 of order, obedience, promptness, and accuracy. In the other the 
 pupil is placed in a community of individuals possessing equal 
 rights and privileges, where the law and its enforcement are in 
 the interests of all, and there he learns the lessons of civilized 
 society : cooperation, honesty, forbearance, courtesy. That is in- 
 deed a defective plan of physical training that fails to employ 
 both kinds of exercises. 
 
 When gymnastics are used for the treatment of disease they 
 are called medical gymnastics. As such they are classified into 
 active movements, passive movements, and massage. Active move- 
 ments are those made voluntarily by the patient, under direction 
 of the physician. Passive movements are those movements of 
 the body which are like active movements, except that they are 
 made by some outside force, which may be another person or a 
 machine. Massage consists in the manipulation or percussion of 
 the tissues by the hands. 
 
 Gymnastics used for educational, developmental, or hygienic 
 purposes are known as educational or pedagogical gymnastics. 
 In this large division are included ( i ) free movements, taken 
 without apparatus; (2) light gymnastics, in which such light 
 apparatus as bells, clubs, rings, wands, hoops, etc., are held in 
 the hands, and (3) heavy gymnastics, in which the work is done 
 upon stationary apparatus and the performer lifts his own weight 
 in the exercises. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE: NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 
 
 Physical training is directly concerned with bodily move- 
 ments, and with the tissues and mechanisms producing those 
 movements. This leads us first to the consideration of the struc- 
 ture and functions of the muscular system and the nervous system. 
 These two systems are so intimately connected that they are often 
 known as the neuro -muscular system. They constitute the means 
 by which the body is able to move itself and other bodies, and the 
 instrument through which the activities of thinking, feeling, will- 
 ing, knowing, etc., are manifested. The supreme importance of 
 the muscular and nervous tissues is still further shown by the fact 
 that the subordinate activities of digestion, circulation, respiration, 
 and excretion are carried on with the aid of muscular movements 
 controlled by the nervous system. Physiologists therefore speak 
 of the muscular and nervous tissues as the master tissues, and of 
 all other tissues as subordinate tissues, for the support, mainten- 
 ance, and protection of the former. 
 
 The muscular system includes (i) the skeletal or voluntary 
 muscles, (2) the involuntary muscles, and (3) the heart. The 
 characteristic property of muscle, its power of movement, is due 
 to the presence of contractile tissue, a form of living protoplasm. 
 It is reddish yellow, semi-transparent, and of the consistency of 
 jelly. The ability of muscle to retain a definite form is due to the 
 presence of connective tissue, a strong fibrous tissue which is not 
 living substance, but which* is formed by minute cells of proto- 
 plasm scattered through it. There are two varieties of con- 
 nective tissue ; white fibers, long, unbranched, wavy, and inelastic,- 
 and yellow fibers, branching, elastic, sometimes flattened, having 
 less strength. 
 
 The structural unit of muscle is the muscle-fiber, which con- 
 sists of a minute portion of the contractile tissue enclosed in a 
 
THE NEURO-MUSCUEAR SYSTEM 
 
 II 
 
 thin, delicate sheath of connective tissue. This covering, called 
 the sarcolemma, is so transparent that the structure of the proto- 
 plasm can be seen through it. In voluntary and in heart fibers 
 the jelly-like contractile substance, when seen through a lens of 
 high power, is striped transversely with light and dark bands. 
 For this reason these muscles are known as striated muscles, while 
 the involuntary muscles, lacking this marking, are called smooth 
 
 FIG. 2. Muscle-fibers, striated, n, 
 nucleus, a. contractile tissue. 
 (From Piersol.) 
 
 FIG. i. Connective tissue. 
 
 or'unstriped muscles. The fibers of voluntary muscles are long 
 and thread-like, their length being from 10 to 100 times their 
 diameter. The protoplasm of these fibers contains many nuclei, 
 which, in haman muscle, are just beneath the sarcolemma. The 
 fibers lie parallel to one another in bundles of various sizes and 
 lengths. Several small bundles are bound up by connective tissue 
 into a larger bundle, and several of these are enclosed in a sheath 
 to form a muscle. 
 
 The involuntary fibers are found in the stomach, intestines, 
 arteries, veins, and other tubular organs. They are spindle- 
 shaped, being about five to ten times as long as their diameter. 
 
12 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 There is a single nucleus in each fiber, very large, and centrally 
 placed. The usual arrangement of the fibers includes a longi- 
 tudinal layer and a circular layer, the latter being much the 
 stronger. 
 
 Heart fibers differ most noticeably from the voluntary in 
 being composed of short cells joined end to end. They also have 
 branches connecting the different fibers. Each cell contains a 
 single large nucleus. 
 
 FIG. 4. Muscle fibers of heart. 
 (From Piersol.) 
 
 FIG. 3. Involuntary muscle-fibers. 
 (From Piersol.) 
 
 The nervous system consists of the central and peripheral 
 portions. The central portion is further divided into the brain, 
 medulla, and spinal cord, and the brain still further divided into 
 cerebrum, cerebellum, and basal ganglia. The peripheral portion 
 includes the sympathetic system, lying within the body cavity, and 
 the spinal and cranial nerves, distributed throughout the tissues 
 of the body. These parts of the nervous system are all intimately 
 connected, and have no sharply marked boundaries separating 
 them. 
 
 The characteristic properties. of the nervous system are due 
 to the presence of gray nervous tissue. This tissue is jelly-like 
 
THE NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM 13 
 
 and semi-transparent, and, like other forms of living protoplasm 
 in the body, owes its permanence of form to connective tissue. 
 
 The structural unit of the nervous system is the nerve-cell, 
 or neurone, which consists of a minute portion of gray matter, 
 the cell-body, together with all its branches or processes. When 
 these processes are long they are called nerve-fibers. (Fig. 5, a.) 
 The supporting tissue of the nervous system has two distinct 
 
 FIG. 5. A nerve cell, a, axone. (From Howell.) 
 
 forms of arrangement. In the central portion it is in the form 
 of a fine network enclosing and supporting the nervous tissue ; 
 this is called the neuroglia. In the peripheral portion each in- 
 dividual cell and fiber is enveloped in a delicate sheath called the 
 neurilemma. Some fibers have within the neurilemma a white 
 fatty coat known as the medullary sheath. These are called 
 medullated fibers, and those without it are called non-medullated 
 fibers. The central thread of gray nervous tissue in each nerve- 
 fiber is called the axis-cylinder. It appears in a cross section of 
 
14 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 a nerve-fiber as a dark round dot in the center. The cell-body 
 contains the nucleus, and is the vital center of the nerve-cell. 
 When a fiber is severed, the part cut off from the cell-body dies, 
 or degenerates, while the part joined to the cell-body may still 
 live. The dead fiber is sometimes replaced by new tissue, the axis- 
 cylinder growing out again from the end of the uninjured portion. 
 The principle of division of labor is illustrated in the activi- 
 ties of a single neurone. The cell-body with its nucleus serves as 
 a reservoir of food material and presides over the nutrition and 
 
 Fie. 6. Nerve-fiber, n, neurilem- 
 ma. in, medullary sheath, a, 
 axis-cylinder. (From Piersol.) 
 
 FIG. 7. Motor end-plate in mus- 
 cle, in. contractile tissue; n, 
 axis-cylinder. (From Piersol.) 
 
 growth of the whole neurone, even to the ends of the longest 
 fibers. The fibers carry messages. That which passes along the 
 fiber is called an impulse, and may be thought of as a wave of 
 energy or excitement. Impulses travel on the nerve fibers of man 
 at the rate of 30 meters per second. The ends of some fibers are 
 developed into special organs for receiving impressions ; the ends 
 of others have special organs for transmitting messages to other 
 structures. Fibers that carry messages from the ending to the 
 cell-body are called dendrites; those that carry messages out 
 from the cell-body are called axones. Notice that the terms axoiie 
 
THE: NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM 15 
 
 and dendrite indicate which way the impulse travels with respect 
 to the cell-body of the neurone and not with respect to the nervous 
 system as a whole. 
 
 The muscular and nervous systems are closely related in 
 structure as well as in function. Every voluntary muscle fiber, as 
 far as is known, is joined to a nerve cell. The neurilemma of the 
 connecting nerve-fiber is continuous with the sarcolemma of the 
 muscle-fiber, and the axis-cylinder passes within. After entering 
 the muscle-fiber the axis-cylinder terminates in a number of min- 
 ute branches that spread out like the roots of a tree. In this way 
 the gray tissue of the nerve-cell is brought into close proximity 
 to the contractile tissue of the muscle-fiber. This particular form 
 of nerve-ending, although very much like the endings in other 
 parts, is called the motor end-plate. (Fig. 7.) The terminations 
 of fibers in other parts are usually called end-brushes, or brush- 
 endings. 
 
 Many functions and properties of muscle are studied by the 
 use of an instrument called the myograph. The essential parts of 
 this instrument are (i) a standard supporting a clamp for sus- 
 pending a muscle, (2) a small scale-pan that can be attached by 
 a hook to the other end of the muscle, and several metal weights 
 of two or three grams each, (3) a light pointer connected with 
 the moving end of the muscle, and hinged so as to swing in a 
 vertical plane and magnify the movement made by the muscle, 
 (4) a moving surface upon which the end of the pointer can 
 record the movements. The most common recording instrument 
 used in physiological work is the kymograph, which consists of 
 a cylindrical drum revolved at a uniform rate by means of clock- 
 work. A piece of paper with a glossy surface is drawn tightly 
 around the drum and then coated with lamp-black over a flame. 
 This takes an impression very readily, and the latter can be made 
 permanent by dipping the paper in an emulsion of shellac. 
 
 The muscles of cold-blooded animals are used in laboratory 
 experiments of this character, because they retain their vitality for 
 a considerable time after removal from the body if suitable con- 
 ditions of temperature and moisture are maintained. On account 
 
i6 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 of the ease with which they can be captured and kept, frogs are 
 commonly used. A frog is killed, and the muscle of the calf of 
 the leg is dissected out. A portion of the femur is left attached to 
 
 FIG. 8. Myograph. 
 c, clamp; d, drum; 
 m, muscle; n, 
 nerve. 
 (From Howell.) 
 
 the muscle, for attachment to the clamp mentioned above. In 
 some experiments a portion of the nerve supplying the muscle 
 is dissected out with it, care being taken to leave it uninjured. 
 In this case we have what is called a nerve-muscle preparation. 
 It should be borne in mind that such a nerve is a bundle of nerve- 
 fibers, some of which join the individual muscle-fibers of the 
 muscle. 
 
 If we set up the myograph, with a nerve-muscle preparation 
 in place, we can cause the muscle to contract by (i) pinching 
 the muscle with fine forceps, piercing it with a needle, giving it 
 a shock from an induction coil, or by applying a heated point or 
 a drop of acid to its surface; or by (2) treating the nerve in the 
 same way. 
 
THE NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM 1 7 
 
 The experiments illustrate two fundamental properties of 
 muscle : irritability and contractility. By irritability is meant the 
 ability to be thrown into a state of activity by a sudden change 
 of outside conditions. When thus influenced a muscle is said to 
 be irritated, excited, or stimulated. The exciting cause is called 
 an irritation or stimulus. By contractility is meant the. ability to 
 change its form when irritated. The contraction of a muscle con- 
 sists in the shortening and thickening of its individual muscle- 
 
 Nerve 
 trunk. 
 
 Nerve 
 fiber. 
 
 Motor 
 end-plate. 
 
 Muscle 
 fibers. 
 
 Sensory 
 fibers. 
 
 ,,,uaO^i-^ ' " "'--- -,;- >-. 
 
 FIG. 9. Distribution of motor nerve-fibers in muscle. (From Landois.) 
 
 fibers, by which the ends of the muscle are brought nearer to- 
 gether with considerable force. The lateral stretching of the con- 
 nective tissue of the muscle makes the latter harden as it con- 
 tracts. The return to the quiet condition is called relaxation. 
 
 The explanation of irritation and contraction involves micro- 
 scopic and chemical experiments that cannot well be given in this 
 course. In such experiments it is shown that muscular tissue, 
 like other forms of living protoplasm, is at all times in a state 
 of chemical activity. This chemical activity is a double process, 
 including (i) a constructive process, in which tissue is built up 
 
1 8 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 and energy stored, and (2) a destructive process, in which tissue 
 is torn down, energy set free, and waste products formed. In the 
 constructive process there are prepared highly inflammable com- 
 pounds of carbon, oxygen, etc. In the destructive changes these 
 are burned. When the muscle is at rest, the energy set free by 
 these changes is slight, and in the form of heat only ; when the 
 muscle is irritated, there occurs a very sudden and comparatively 
 violent chemical activity that may be called an explosion, setting 
 free a great amount of energy, a part of which is in the form 
 of mechanical motion. The waste products are principally carbon 
 dioxide and water, with minute quantities of organic poison. 
 
 No amount nor intensity of stimulation will cause the nerve 
 to contract ; in other words, gray nervous tissue is wholly lacking 
 in contractility, but makes up for the lack by its remarkable irri- 
 tability. It is of all tissues the most susceptible to outside influ- 
 ences. The explanation of the irritability of nervous tissues is 
 the same as that of muscle tissue, but the amount of chemical 
 change as shown by the quantity of waste products is much less 
 in the case of the former. That which passes along the fiber is 
 called an impulse. When an impulse passes down a fiber whose 
 axis-cylinder enters a muscle-fiber, the end-plate is able to trans- 
 mit the irritable condition to the muscle substance, and a contrac- 
 tion results. The contraction may be even greater than when the 
 muscle is itself irritated. 
 
 The question may arise whether it is the muscle substance 
 that is irritated when we pinch or shock a muscle, or whether it 
 is the nerve-fibres scattered through it which are first influenced. 
 This can be determined by the aid of a drug called curari. When 
 curari is injected into the blood of a living animal it paralyzes 
 all the motor end-plates, and thus cuts off all communication be- 
 tween the nervous and muscular systems. But the muscles of 
 animals so treated, while powerless to move by their own volition, 
 may be made to contract by external irritation as well as under 
 normal conditions. There can be no doubt, then, that muscular 
 tissue is itself irritable. 
 
 For the purposes of experiment, the current from an induc- 
 tion coil is better than the other forms of stimulation mentioned, 
 
THE: NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM 19 
 
 because it is more easily and accurately applied, and also because 
 it causes the greatest contraction of any with least injury to the 
 tissues to which it is applied. A common companion piece of the 
 myograph is therefore a battery connected to the primary circuit 
 of an induction coil, with a key or other means of opening and 
 closing at will, while the muscle or nerve is introduced between 
 the terminals of the secondary circuit. Where a repeated stimu- 
 lation at regular intervals is desired, a pendulum is often intro- 
 duced into the primary circuit. Several devices are also used for 
 the same purpose. 
 
 In order to study the effects of continuous exercise upon 
 muscle, we stimulate by induction shocks of uniform strength at 
 regular intervals of about one second, and observe the resulting 
 tracing on the drum of the kymograph. Care must be taken that 
 the stimulus is constant and that the muscle is kept moist with 
 normal salt solution. The tracing, which is called the "curve" 
 of the muscle, is a very accurate record, enabling us to notice 
 very minute changes in the frequency, height, or character of the 
 movements. We notice (i) the almost perfect regularity with 
 which the muscle responds to the stimulus, and the uniform height 
 of the contractions. After a short time there is seen (2) a gradual 
 and uniform decrease in the height, indicating a corresponding 
 loss of contractile power resulting from the work. Accompany- 
 ing this it may be observed that the records of the individual con- 
 tractions become broader at the top, showing that relaxation is 
 slower. It may become so slow that the muscle does not have 
 time to relax fully between the contractions. The height of the 
 contractions keeps on diminishing until finally they cease entirely. 
 The gradual loss of power which always follows work is called 
 fatigue, while the final stage is known as exhaustion. 
 
 If the intervals between successive stimulations of a muscle 
 are several seconds in length, not only is the relaxation complete, 
 but there is almost complete recovery from fatigue, so that the 
 contractions are of practically the same height for some time. By 
 making long intervals we are therefore enabled to eliminate the 
 element of fatigue and study the effects of changing the load, 
 the temperature, the strength of stimulus, etc. 
 
20 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 If we begin with no weights in the scale-pan and add one 
 during each interval, we obtain a record of changes in height of 
 contraction due to change of load. We find that the muscle con- 
 tracts highest when a small weight is used, then gradually dim- 
 inishes until the load is reached that it is unable to lift. The work 
 done in each case is found by multiplying the weight by the height. 
 The muscle will be found to do the greatest amount of work 
 neither with the smallest nor greatest load, but with somewhat 
 more than half it can lift. 
 
 The strength of stimulus is varied either by varying the re- 
 sistance in the primary circuit or by varying the distance between 
 the primary and secondary coils. Beginning with a current too 
 small to produce a contraction, we gradually increase it. The 
 height of contraction increases with the increased stimulus until 
 a certain point is reached, when it becomes stationary, and no 
 amount of increase in strength of current will make it contract 
 higher. On -the contrary, a stimulus stronger than is necessary 
 makes relaxation slower, a condition which, in the body, tends 
 to stiffness and awkwardness of movement. 
 
 By gradually increasing the rapidity of stimulation a point 
 is reached, when the intervals are about one-tenth of a second, 
 where no relaxation occurs, the muscle remaining in a state of 
 contraction until exhausted. This kind of stimulation is called 
 tetanic, and the contracted condition is known as tetanus. The 
 stimulus given to the muscles from the central nervous system is 
 tetanic, the rate being variable in different muscles from 30 to 
 1 20 per second. 
 
 We have seen in the preceding experiments that a muscle, 
 removed from the body and separated from the central nervous 
 system, remains in a state of rest unless stimulated by some out- 
 side force. It has frequently been shown by cases of bodily in- 
 jury and by experiments upon living animals that muscles whose 
 nerves are severed no longer perform their normal function, but 
 waste away, unless the nerve reunites. We are therefore justified 
 in concluding that, normally, voluntary muscles do not act auto- 
 matically nor by direct influence of the will, but only in response 
 to impulses sent to them from the central nervous system. A 
 
THE NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM 21 
 
 search for the origin of these impulses requires a study of the 
 structure of the spinal cord and the spinal nerves. 
 
 The spinal cord is a cylindrical column about 18 inches in 
 length and half an inch in diameter, lodged in the neural canal 
 in the backbone. It consists of a vast number of neurones, along 
 with the supporting tissues and the blood and lymph vessels. The 
 cord is cleft deeply lengthwise by two fissures : the anterior and 
 posterior median fissures. They divide the cord into its right 
 and left halves. The fissures serve as a convenient guide to the 
 study of the cord, since the anterior fissure is always an open one 
 and the posterior fissure is always closed, making it easy to dis- 
 tinguish directions. Cross sections of the cord show two distinct 
 portions : an inner or gray portion and an outer or white portion. 
 The gray portion is wholly enclosed within the white portion, 
 and its cross section is shaped roughly like a capital H. The 
 four extremities of the H are evidently cross sections of four 
 ridges or columns extending up and down within the cord. The 
 cross bar of the H is called the commissure, and is the path of 
 fibers crossing from one side to the other. Microscopic study 
 shows that the inner or gray part of the cord is composed of cell- 
 bodies and uncovered fibers'. Some of these fibers are the dend- 
 rites of the cell-bodies that lie among them ; some are the axones 
 of the same cell-bodies ; some are the terminal endings of the 
 axones of distant cell-bodies. The fibers form a jungle-like net- 
 work, having cell-bodies of various sizes and shapes scattered 
 through it. Here the neurones are able to influence one another, 
 since they are without coverings and lie close together. 
 
 The outer or white portion of the cord is composed mainly 
 of medullated nerve fibers, the greater number of them extending 
 vertically or lengthwise of the cord. When looking at a cross 
 section of the cord in a microscope we see these fibers in cross 
 section, each appearing as a circle with a dot in the center; the 
 dot is the central nerve thread ; the circle is the neurilemma ; 
 within the circle is the transparent medullary sheath. A smaller 
 number of fibers can be seen to pass across the white part of the 
 cord from the gray to the outside where the nerves join it. 
 
22 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 The spinal nerves pass out from the spinal cord in pairs, one 
 pair at the junction of each two vertebrae; one nerve passes out to 
 the right and its mate to the left. Each nerve joins the cord by 
 two roots : one opposite the anterior gray column and called the 
 
 FIG, 10. The spinal cord and nerve roots. 
 
 anterior root, and the other opposite the posterior gray column 
 and called the posterior root. (Fig. 10.) The two roots join before 
 they leave the spinal canal to form the nerve; just before they 
 join the posterior root has an enlargement on it that is called the 
 spinal ganglion. The four roots and the two fissures divide the 
 
THE NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM 23 
 
 white part of the cord into six columns that extend its whole 
 length : two posterior, two anterior, and two lateral. 
 
 The brain, lying within the skull, includes the cerebrum, the 
 cerebellum, and the basal ganglia. The medulla, or bulb, about 
 two inches in length, joins the brain and cord. The cerebrum 
 and the cerebellum have the gray part on the outside, forming a 
 layer called the cortex. The area of the cortex is greatly in- 
 creased by deep folds called convolutions. (Fig. n.) Passing 
 inward from the cortex are medullated fibers forming the white 
 portion. Among the bundles of nerve fibers are large masses of 
 nerve cells, called the basal ganglia. 
 
 FIG. ii. Motor area of cortex. 
 
 The nervous system, considered as to its internal structure 
 and its activities, consists of four systems of neurones : motor, 
 sensory, association, and sympathetic. The motor neurones have 
 their cell-bodies in the central nervous system with fibers passing 
 outward ; the sensory neurones have their cell-bodies just outside 
 of the central nervous system with fibers passing both outward and 
 inward; the association neurones are wholly within the central 
 system ; the sympathetic neurones are entirely without the central 
 system. 
 
 The motor neurones constitute the only path by which im- 
 pulses can be sent from the central system to the muscles; the 
 sensory neurones provide the only path over which stimuli can 
 enter the central nervous system from without; the association 
 
24 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 neurones serve the purpose of maintaining- a system of communi- 
 cation between different parts of the central nervous system ; the 
 sympathetic neurones have nothing to do with bodily movements, 
 directly, and hence will not be studied farther at present. 
 
 THE; MOTOR NEURONES 
 
 The cell-bodies of the motor neurones are situated in the 
 anterior gray columns of the spinal cord, forming two long groups 
 of cells extending the whole length of the cord. From each of 
 these cell-bodies arise several dendrites that may extend for vary- 
 ing distances into the gray part : up, down, toward the posterior 
 column, or through the commissure to the other side of the cord. 
 Through these uncovered and exceedingly sensitive dendrites the 
 motor neurones receive their stimuli. 
 
 Each motor neurone has a single axone. From the cell-body 
 the axone passes outward across the white portion of the cord, 
 traverses the anterior root of a spinal nerve to its junction with 
 the posterior root and then follows the nerve and its branches to 
 its termination in a muscle. 
 
 The fibers of voluntary muscle can contract only when each 
 receives a separate stimulus, because the protoplasm of each is 
 completely isolated from the others by the sarcolemma. It fol- 
 lows that every muscle fiber must have its own nerve fiber, and 
 that these nerve fibers must be so insulated from one another that 
 no impulse can jump across from one to another in the nerve, 
 where they lie close together for long distances. To accomplish 
 this insulation each fiber takes on a medullary sheath as soon as 
 it leaves the gray part of the cord, and soon after, before it enters 
 the anterior root, the neurilemma begins. Many of the axones 
 branch before they terminate, so that one of them can supply sev- 
 eral muscle fibers. It has been estimated that there are over a 
 million muscle fibers in the body, and 400,000 motor axones have 
 been counted in all the anterior roots of a subject. The motor 
 axones enter a muscle along with sensory fibers, forming a mixed 
 nerve ; the nerve divides on entering the muscle, and the various 
 branches go to different parts ; each motor fiber finally terminates 
 
THE: NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM 25 
 
 in a muscle fiber with an ending like the one shown in Figs. 7 
 and 9. The office of this ending is to transmit to the muscle 
 protoplasm the impulse sent from the cell-body, far away in the 
 spinal cord. This is the only function of a motor neurone ; under 
 normal conditions it never carries an impulse the other way. 
 
 THE: SENSORY NEURONES 
 
 The cell-bodies of the sensory neurones are situated in the 
 enlargements or ganglia on the posterior roots of the cranial and 
 spinal nerves. Each sensory cell has one axone that shortly 
 divides into two (Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15). One of these branches 
 serves as a dendrite ; it passes out along the nerve and its branches 
 to its place of termination somewhere in the tissues, where it has 
 an end-organ specially developed for receiving stimuli. There 
 are in each individual anywhere from half a million to a million 
 and a half of these sensory dendrites extending out from the 
 ganglia to the tissues of all parts of the body. They are most 
 numerous of all in the skin. They terminate in endings of various 
 forms, some simple and some more complex, in the skin, bones, 
 tendons, muscles, etc. Endings near the surface serve as organs 
 of touch, taste, temperature, etc., while those in muscles and 
 tendons make us aware of the extent and force of our muscular 
 contractions and the positions of the various parts of the body. 
 All the influences that come to us from the outside world must 
 come in through these sensory neurones. 
 
 The second branch of each sensory neurone extends from 
 the ganglion along the posterior root to the spinal cord (Figs. 12, 
 13, 14, 15). Penetrating the posterior column of the white part 
 of the cord, it divides into an ascending and a descending branch. 
 These two branches extend vertically for a greater or less distance 
 in the posterior white column, giving off at intervals horizontal 
 branches that penetrate the gray part of the cord and end in 
 brush-like terminations among the cell-bodies and dendrites there. 
 The sensory brush-endings frequently intertwine with similar end- 
 ings of dendrites, forming what are called synapses, supposed to 
 be the places where one neurone transmits its impulse to another. 
 
26 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 FIG. 12. A section of the spinal 
 cord, showing a sensory neu- 
 rone on the right and several 
 motor cells on the left. 
 
 The ascending branches are of various lengths. The greater 
 number of them extend no further from the point of division than 
 the width of one or two vertebrae ; the longest of them extend up 
 as far as the medulla, which joins the cord with the brain; some 
 are of intermediate length. The horizontal branches are of vari- 
 ous lengths. Some pass directly to the anterior gray columns, to 
 
THK NEURO-MUSCUI.AR SYSTEM 
 
 FIG. 13. Sensory paths in the central system. (From Howell.) 
 
 form synapses with motor dendrites ; some end near the commis- 
 sure; some penetrate the gray matter but a slight distance. None 
 cross the opposite side of the cord or go up to the brain. 
 
 Since the sensory neurones can communicate directly with 
 motor neurones, it is possible for the stimulation of sensory end- 
 ings to give rise to muscular movements. Such movements, when 
 they take place without the intervention of the will, are called 
 reflex movements or reflexes. Since each sensory neurone has 
 brush-endings in different levels of the cord, stimulation of one 
 sensory ending may give rise to contraction of several muscles. 
 
28 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 THE ASSOCIATION NEURONES 
 
 These neurones lie wholly within the central nervous system. 
 Their cell-bodies are seen in the gray part of all levels of the 
 spinal cord and brain. They are by far the most numerous class 
 of neurones in man, including a large percentage of those in the 
 spinal cord and practically all of those in the brain. The superiority 
 of man over lower forms of vertebrate life is indicated by the 
 greater development of this class of neurones. Their office is to 
 maintain the most complete communication between all parts. They 
 are best studied in separate groups, of which there are many, 
 each with its peculiarities of form, location, and office. 
 
 One important group serves to make more complete and inti- 
 mate communication between the sensory and motor neurones of 
 the cord. (Fig. 14.) Their cell-bodies are seen near the middle 
 of the gray part of the cord at all levels ; their axones pass out 
 into" the white columns, where they divide into ascending and 
 descending branches which pass up and down and give off hori- 
 zontal branches like the sensory axones. Some of the cell-bodies 
 send their axones across the commissure, where they divide and 
 terminate in the same way on the opposite side of the cord. Some 
 of the ascending and descending branches extend past several 
 vertebrae, and they make so complete a communication between 
 the sensory and motor neurones that a stimulation of a single point 
 on the skin may give rise to a contraction of all the muscles of 
 the body at the same time. This often happens in such instances 
 as the sting of an insect, the unexpected discharge of a gun, or 
 even less violent stimuli. 
 
 Another group of association neurones whose cell-bodies form 
 two ganglia in the medulla that are known as the ''nuclei of Goll 
 and Burdach" receive stimuli from the long ascending branches 
 of the sensory neurones and convey them up to the cortex of the 
 cerebrum, where they give rise to sensations. Sensory impulses 
 may reach the seat of consciousness by other paths, but this is the 
 simplest and most direct sensory path to the brain. (See Fig. 13.) 
 
 Another group of association neurones affords a path for 
 sensory impulses to reach the cerebellum, which has something 
 
THE NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM 29 
 
 to do with the coordination of complex movements, especially 
 those involving the poise of the whole body. The cell-bodies of 
 this group form a column extending up and down the cord just 
 posterior to the center of the gray part, and known as the "column 
 
 FIG. 14. Association neurone of 
 cord in the middle sensory at 
 the right and motor at the left. 
 
 of Clarke". The axones pass out into the lateral white column 
 and there turn and pass upward in a bundle known as the "direct 
 cerebellar tract" to the brain. 
 
 A fourth group of neurones, called the "pyramidal cells", 
 serve as a connection between the will and the muscles in the vol- 
 untary control of muscular movements. The cell-bodies are situ- 
 
30 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 ated in the cortex of the cerebrum along the top and sides, group- 
 ed around an important convolution known as the "fissure of Ro- 
 lando/' (see Fig. n) ; axones pass down the cord to various 
 levels and terminate in the gray matter, forming synapses with 
 the cells of the cord. This group of axones pass down in the 
 lateral columns of the white matter and form a bundle called the 
 "pyramidal tract". They terminate at some distance from the 
 motor columns and hence it is likely that they act on the motor 
 neurones mainly through association neurones of the first variety. 
 (SeePyr. Fig. 15.) 
 
 Association neurones lying wholly within the brain connect 
 different areas of the cortex, forming the paths of nerve impulses 
 that accompany mental processes. 
 
 The regulation and control of muscular movements so as to 
 make them useful is called coordination. This involves the distri- 
 bution of nerve impulses so as to cause contraction of some 
 muscles and inhibition of the action of others. 
 
 We are accustomed to think of a nerve impulse as a form of 
 energy that can stimulate muscles to action ; now we must recog- 
 nize the fact that a nerve impulse may inhibit a muscle from act- 
 ing. The central nervous system is constantly receiving thousands 
 of stimuli from the great number of sensory endings in the skin 
 and other tissues ; any one of these impulses may spread to all the 
 muscles ; if there were no means of suppressing reflex movements 
 all of the muscles would be stimulated to action all of the time, 
 making useful movement impossible. It has been conclusively 
 shown that whenever a group of muscles is stimulated to contract, 
 other muscles, the antagonists of the former, relax because of the 
 reflex effect of the contraction. For example, a vigorous contrac- 
 tion of the biceps is normally accompanied by relaxation of the 
 triceps ; not a passive failure to act, but actual inhibition, involving 
 a condition of diminished tone as compared with the resting con- 
 dition. This is essential to perfect and graceful movement of the 
 body, and persons who lack it are called awkward. It is essential 
 to the utilizing of all the strength of the muscles ; if one has, in 
 closing the hand, to overcome a resistance due to the normal tone 
 or a more active contraction of the extensors, power of contrac- 
 
THE; NEURO-MUSCUI.VAR SYSTEM 31 
 
 tion is wasted and the machine is not economical. Normally the 
 contraction of any muscle, by stimulating nerve endings of the 
 "muscular sense" variety contained within the muscle, starts an 
 impulse which acts reflexly to inhibit the muscles antagonizing the 
 movement. 
 
 Stimulation takes place normally at every sensory end organ, 
 synapse, and motor ending in muscle or gland, but inhibition prob- 
 ably takes place only at a synapse. The reason why a nerve im- 
 pulse sometimes results in stimulation and sometimes inhibition is 
 probably not because of any difference in nerve impulses but be- 
 cause of a difference in the transmitting brush-endings, some of 
 them being capable of stimulating the neighboring receptive end- 
 ings and others being able to inhibit them. A sensory neurone, for 
 example, may have some of its transmitting brush-like endings in 
 the cord of the stimulating variety and some of them of the in- 
 hibiting variety; in this way it may produce coordinated move- 
 ment by stimulating some motor neurones while it inhibits others. 
 Association neurones probably have both kinds of endings also ; 
 some writers assume that a single association neurone has just the 
 right stimulating and inhibiting endings to control the muscles 
 for a certain movement, and thus to constitute a "master neurone" 
 for that movement. This is an interesting hypothesis and has 
 much evidence in its favor. 
 
 REFLEX MOVEMENTS 
 
 Most useful movements involve the strong contraction of cer- 
 tain muscles, to overcome some resistance; the milder action of 
 other muscles, to guide the movement and check it at exactly the 
 right time and place ; and the complete inhibition of other muscles, 
 whose action in any degree would hinder the performance. As an 
 illustration, take the raising of a glass of water to the lips and 
 drinking it. Accurate correlation of all the muscles involved is 
 plainly essential to avoid injuring yourself or spilling the water. 
 This is unconsciously performed as a reflex. We simply will to 
 drink the water, and the reflex machinery does the work. This 
 machinery includes sensory, motor, and association cells. Sensory 
 
32 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 endings in joints, tendons, and muscles keep sending in to the 
 central nervous system impulses that serve to guide the action of 
 the muscles, and impulses arising in the eye may aid them; the 
 attention may be directed to other things while this is being done. 
 Most of the useful movements of every day life are much 
 less simple than the one just used as an illustration. Walking, 
 eating, talking, dressing, etc., are readily seen to be a continuous 
 series of simpler reflexes in which there is a regular or irregular 
 repetition of certain simple movements, the order and time of the 
 movements being essential as well as the form of each separate 
 movement. The reflex machinery is the same as in the simpler 
 movements. In walking, for example, when we lift one foot and 
 swing it forward the muscles of the other limb contract in re- 
 sponse to sensory impulses received from the sole of the foot and 
 from other places so as to sustain the whole weight and balance 
 the body ; as soon as the free limb has swung far enough forward, 
 impulses set up in it act again on the supporting limb and the 
 weight is shifted to the free limb; the touching of this foot to the 
 ground and the tension on joints, ligaments, and muscles as the 
 weight is placed on it, in turn sets up other impulses which cause 
 the raising and swinging of the other limb ; this continues alter- 
 nately as long as we will to go on, and we are free to talk, view 
 the scenery, or engage in other occupations while this is being 
 done. Such movements are sometimes called "automatic", but 
 the point of chief importance is that they consist of a series of 
 reflexes, each in the chain being brought about in its time by im- 
 pulses produced by the preceding reflex. 
 
 VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS 
 
 The pyramidal neurones of the brain form the connecting link 
 between the will and the muscles ; through them we are able to 
 control the reflex movements of the body and to acquire the ability 
 to perform new ones. The pyramidal neurones whose cell-bodies 
 are located in certain places on the surface of the cerebrum con- 
 trol definite muscle groups, so that the so-called "motor area" of 
 the cerebrum has been minutely mapped out into the areas of con- 
 
THE: NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM 
 
 33 
 
 trol, as shown in the figure. (Fig. n.) Careful stimulation of 
 the cortex gives rise to coordinated movements, certain muscles 
 being stimulated to just the proper degree and their antagonists 
 inhibited. This suggests that the pyramidal fibers passing down 
 the cord have some stimulating and some inhibiting endings, or 
 else that they act through association neurones with both kinds of 
 endings. As long as a movement is purely voluntary it is not very 
 
 SPINAL GANfrLION CELL 
 
 MU1TI POLAR CELL | 
 OF ANT. HORN-.... 
 
 FIG. 15. Diagram to show paths of nerve impulses in 
 reflex and voluntary movement. (From Klein.) 
 
34 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 useful, as the attention must be given to it all the time ; but such 
 movements rapidly become reflex with practice, as is shown in 
 the next paragraph. 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF REFLEX MACHINERY 
 
 In the earliest stages of animal life the neurones are merely 
 round globules of protoplasm, each containing a nucleus. Gradu- 
 ally the axones and dendrites grow out, and, penetrating the 
 tissues of the body, finally extend to the places of termination. As 
 the last stages of their growth they develop the endings which are 
 to serve as organs of reception and transmission, and take on their 
 insulating coverings. Not until the synapses are developed can 
 reflex movement take place. The child can perform some reflexes 
 at birth, including swallowing, breathing, and some modifications 
 of the latter, such as coughing, sneezing, laughing, and crying. 
 These are often called inherited reflexes to distinguish them from 
 reflexes acquired later, but the distinction is neither fundamental 
 nor important. The child can do none of these things perfectly, 
 and because of this fact some diseases, notably pneumonia and 
 croup, are more often fatal in the child than in the adult, the child 
 not being able to remove mucous from the bronchi successfully by 
 coughing. The fact that the child can do these things at birth 
 shows that at birth the machinery of these reflexes, including the 
 synapses, is complete enough to make a coordinated movement 
 possible ; practice improves the performance. In such reflexes as 
 walking the child has to learn by successive trials, but he will not 
 be able to try nor will he be interested in trying until the ma- 
 chinery has been so far perfected by the growth of the neurones 
 that impulses can pass the proper synapses. By continued practice 
 he stimulates the growth of the minute fibrils of each synapse 
 until the reflex is perfect; then he practices more complex com- 
 binations including this one and so builds up a remarkable degree 
 of motor ability. 
 
 The part of the pyramidal cells in this process is important. 
 Wnen the synapses are still imperfect and the movement conse- 
 quently not well done, by bringing the will to work through the 
 
THE NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM 35 
 
 pyramidal cells, one stimulates certain dendrites where the synapse 
 is not complete enough to give a full stimulation and inhibits 
 others that should not enter in ; by this process the development 
 of each synapse is accelerated or retarded so as to bring about the 
 right coordination. It is seen here that we secure the general 
 growth of the reflex machinery by inherited tendencies, but that 
 the final touches, giving accuracy and ease of movement, must be 
 secured by practice ; practice modifies the structure by its influ- 
 ence of the growth of the terminations of the neurones. A reflex, 
 once perfected, becomes a unit, which can be used as a part of a 
 more complex reflex just as a simple contraction is used. These 
 are the changes in the nervous system that underlie the formation 
 of habits ; the formation of a habit consists essentially in the de- 
 velopment of certain nerve paths for the passage of impulses. 
 
 There is an inherited order in the development of neurones 
 and as a consequence, in the development of reflexes also. Breath- 
 ing, swallowing, crying, coughing, and other reflexes necessary to 
 maintain life, develop first ; coarse movements of the larger joints 
 come next ; walking and talking are perfected only after several 
 months of life; finer and more accurate reflexes come still later. 
 This inherited order of development is believed to bear a relation 
 to the order of development of the race ; reflexes acquired early 
 in the history of the race developing earlier in the child than those 
 which the race acquired at a later period. The order of these 
 reflexes may be modified by practice, but experience has shown 
 that it is not to the advantage of the child to try to stimulate the 
 development of reflexes before their time. In the kindergarten, 
 for example, it is found that some fine work attempted with small 
 children was begun too early; in schools for the feeble minded 
 it is found that exercise of racially old and relatively simple re- 
 flexes, like movements of hip and shoulder, running and jumping, 
 help to prepare the child for work the normal child can do but 
 which the feeble minded child is unable to do. These racially old 
 and mechanically simpler reflexes have been named "fundamental" 
 to distinguish them from some called "accessory'' that are new in 
 racial history and hence can be developed later. For example, 
 walking, throwing, striking, and climbing are "fundamental" 
 
30 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 while sewing, writing, and playing musical instruments are 
 "accessory". 
 
 Voluntary and reflex movements have been studied by the 
 ergograph. (Fig. 16.) The ergograph is an instrument for re- 
 cording the movements of the middle finger, which is flexed and 
 extended voluntarily at regular intervals, lifting a weight of from 
 two to ten pounds. It consists of ( I ) a clamp or other device 
 for holding the arm and hand firmly, (2) a cord passing over a 
 pulley and connecting the finger with the weight, (3) a pointer 
 
 FIG. 16. Ergograph. D, drum of kymograph; L, loop to hold finger; 
 P, pulley; W, weight; R, recording pointer: H, supports in which 
 rod can slide; S, spring. 
 
 for recording, connected to the finger by another cord, (4) a re- 
 cording surface, usually a kymograph. The weight is lifted as 
 high as possible at every contraction, and the work is continued 
 until the weight can no longer be lifted. 
 
 The curve thus obtained has irregularities of two kinds. 
 There is a small irregularity in the heights of adjacent contrac- 
 tions, giving the appearance of a partly rythmical rise and fall, 
 and a more general irregularity in the form of the entire curve, 
 which seldom approaches anywhere, near a straight line, and dif- 
 fers remarkably in the cases of different individuals. Since the 
 curve of muscle, as taken with the myograph, has no such irregu- 
 
THE: NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM 37 
 
 larities, these must be attributed to the nervous mechanism in- 
 volved in the ergograph work. Lack of uniformity in height of 
 contraction indicates lack of uniformity in the strength of stimuli 
 received by the muscles. 
 
 The irregular form of the ergograph curve is partly due to 
 mental characteristics of the individual and is partly the effect of 
 outward conditions. The general health and strength of the 
 muscles and the nervous system will determine how soon fatigue 
 will become exhausting, but the general form of the curve, indi- 
 cating the degree of fatigue at the various stages of the work, is 
 determined by the temperament and character of the individual. 
 Some are able to lift the weight to almost the full height as long 
 as their power lasts, but give out completely when the curve 
 begins to fall. Others can maintain the full height but a short 
 time, but are able to continue the work for hundreds of contrac- 
 tions after the curve has diminished to half or one-third of its 
 full height. 
 
 In order to secure uniform rhythm, the contractions are 
 usually made to correspond to the beat of a pendulum or metro- 
 nome placed in sight or hearing of the one at work. This gives 
 an external sensory stimulus that is perfectly regular in its in- 
 tensity, but the attention given to it will vary, on account of dis- 
 tracting occurrences, causing the slight irregularities before men- 
 tioned. It is also likely that changes of mental states give similar 
 effects. An encouraging word heightens the contractions for a 
 moment. 
 
 The influence of mental states upon the intensity of muscular 
 contraction is further illustrated in the phenomenon known as 
 knee jerk. If the tendon connecting the patella with the tibia is 
 struck, while the knee is at a right angle and hanging freely, the 
 extensor muscles will contract. This was formerly called a 
 "tendon reflex," but is now considered a direct response of the 
 muscle to the jerk given its tendon by the blow. Connecting the 
 foot with the recording part of the ergograph we are able to reg- 
 ister the amount of movement made. A small hammer, swung 
 on a pivot, is used to give a uniform stroke at regular intervals. 
 The experiment shows a remarkable influence of mental condi- 
 
38 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 tions upon the muscles. If the person is undisturbed and tries to 
 go to sleep, the knee-jerk almost ceases. A sudden noise of any 
 kind causes a large movement. Telling him an exciting story 
 results in large movements as long as the excitement lasts. Sud- 
 denly telling him some startling news causes a movement ten times 
 as large as the preceeding. The common explanation of this is 
 that the muscles, as well as the nervous system, are constantly 
 under influence of what is passing in the mind. Some diseases of 
 the nervous system increase this influence. Others destroy it 
 entirely. The effect upon the athlete of the excitement of the con- 
 test and the applause of his fellows is more far-reaching than he 
 supposes. The teacher of physical training should realize thor- 
 oughly how much the intensity of work depends upon the mental 
 state of the worker. 
 
 When a movement is made in response to a stimulus or 
 signal, a certain amount of time intervenes between the signal and 
 the response. A part of this is used in the transmission of ner- 
 vous impulses, and a part in the mental processes, in case of vol- 
 untary movement. When thought, or memory, or judgment is 
 involved, more time is used. A convenient and accurate method 
 of measuring the time used in all these mental and physiological 
 processes is by use of a tuning-fork of4:nown rate which is made 
 to record its vibrations upon the moving drum of the kymograph 
 along with the record of the movement. An electric time marker 
 for registering the exact time of the stimulus, the pointer for re- 
 cording the movement, and the pointer attached to the tuning- 
 fork are all made to touch the drum in a vertical line. Whatever 
 time intervenes between the signal and the response will be meas- 
 ured by the recorded vibrations of the fork. By experiments of 
 this kind it has been found that muscle has a "latent period" of 
 about .01 sec., that its contraction occupies about .04 sec; that the 
 time occupied in a reflex movement, while varying considerably 
 for different persons and under various conditions, averages about 
 .06 sec. ; and that the time for voluntary movements may be any- 
 thing from .05 sec. to an indefinite length of time, depending upon 
 how difficult are the problems of judgment and choice involved 
 and also upon the individual. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE VITAL ORGANS OF THE BODY. 
 
 The neuro-muscular system is generally understood to in- 
 clude only the tissues and organs considered in the preceding 
 chapter. The circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems are, 
 strictly speaking, also neuro-muscular systems, since their func- 
 tions involve the actions of muscles, which are controlled by the 
 nervous system. The movements belong to the class of natural or 
 inherited reflexes, and, with the exception of breathing, are not 
 subject to the influence of the will. The nerve-cells whose fibers 
 pass to these muscles are situated in the medulla. The group of 
 cells controlling a certain organ or function is called the center 
 for that organ or function. The cells composing these centers, 
 lying within the range of influence of brush-endings of fibers from 
 the spinal ganglia and from the brain, are subject to the influence 
 of mental states and of various kinds of sensory stimuli. Most 
 of the nerve-fibers are non-medullated. 
 
 The circulatory system includes the heart, arteries, capillaries, 
 and reins. The function of the heart is to propel the blood ; of the 
 arteries, to distribute it to the tissues ; of the capillaries, to bring 
 it into intimate relation to the tissues ; of the veins, to collect and 
 return it to the heart. The circulatory system in man is a double 
 system, having one complete circuit to the lungs and another to 
 the body. The larger arterial trunks convey the blood to various 
 parts of the body, where they give off branches 'which enter the 
 bones, muscles, and other organs. The arteries entering a muscle 
 pass through the sheath and between the bundles, sending smaller 
 branches into the bundles. Within the bundles of fibers the small 
 arteries, called arterioles, divide into the still smaller capillaries, 
 which surround each fiber with a network of connecting tubes. 
 (Fig. 17.) These do not penetrate the muscle-fibers nor open into 
 the spaces between them. Finally the capillaries unite to form the 
 
40 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 veins, which pass back to the heart by a course similar to that 
 of the arteries. The distribution of blood to the lungs and other 
 organs is very similar. 
 
 The heart is a hollow organ with muscular walls. When the 
 walls contract the cavity is made smaller, and this forces the blood 
 out. Valves allow the blood to pass out only to the arteries, and 
 to enter only from the veins. It is a double organ, the right half 
 sending blood to the lungs and the left half to the body. The 
 upper chambers, or auricles, receive the blood from the veins and 
 empty it into the chambers below, the ventricles. The latter, hav- 
 ing much the heavier work to do, have their walls developed to a 
 greater thickness. The left side of the heart is for the same reason 
 stronger than the right. 
 
 Heart muscle differs from voluntary muscle in function as 
 well as in structure. A frog's heart, removed from the body and 
 severed from all nervous connections, will beat for some time in 
 regular rythm, if suitable conditions are provided as to tempera- 
 ture and moisture. A small strip cut from a turtle's heart will 
 beat in like manner. The hearts of birds and mammals are not 
 so tenacious of life, but they can be made to beat for a short time 
 after separation from the nervous system. This automatic con- 
 traction at regular intervals is peculiar to the heart muscle, and 
 seems to be a characteristic of the muscle substance itself, although 
 there are ganglia within the heart. 
 
 The strength and speed of the heart's contractions are con- 
 trolled from two centers in the medulla, called the cardiac inhibi- 
 tory and the cardiac accelerator centers. (Fig. 18.) If the axones 
 from the inhibitory center are severed, the beat at once be- 
 comes more rapid. When they are stimulated by induction shocks, 
 the beat becomes slower, and a strong stimulus will stop it for 
 some moments. If the axones from the accelerator centers are 
 cut, no immediate effect is produced, but stimulation causes in- 
 creased heart action. The commonly accepted explanation is that 
 the inhibitory center is constantly sending impulses that inhibit 
 the action of the heart, while the accelerator center acts only when 
 need of increased action occurs. Through these agencies the 
 heart's action is lessened in certain cases, as in loss of blood, 
 
VITAL ORGANS 
 
 severe injury or pain, and some emotions, and increased in others, 
 such as the presence of an unusual amount of oxygen in the lungs 
 or of waste products in the tissues, excitement, etc. 
 
 The arteries are cylindrical tubes whose walls are composed 
 of three layers. The outer layer is elastic connective tissue. The 
 
 - VI 
 
 Heart 
 
 FIG. 17. Voluntary muscle fibers, 
 injected to show the capillaries. 
 
 FIG. 18. Diagram of nervous mechanism of cardiac 
 inhibition. /, sensory fiber from heart; //, fiber 
 from cerebrum ; III, sensory fiber from the body ; 
 IV, inhibitory fiber to heart; V, inhibitory cen- 
 ter; VI, brain. (From Mills' Animal Physiology.) 
 
42 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 middle layer, which is the thickest of the three, consists of fibers 
 arranged in circular form, a part of them being elastic connective 
 tissue and a part involuntary muscle fibers. The inner layer is a 
 soft membrane, which is continued into the capillaries, where the 
 other layers are lacking. 
 
 If the arterial walls were rigid, the sudden increase of pres- 
 sure produced by contractions of the left ventricle would be trans- 
 mitted through the whole length of the tubes, and the soft, deli- 
 cate walls of the capillaries would be in danger of rupture from 
 the violence of these waves. The elastic walls of the arteries yield 
 at each beat and then shrink more slowly to their former size, 
 thus softening the force of the waves and changing the current 
 gradually into a more constant stream. The sudden enlargement 
 of an artery at the time of these waves is called the pulse, and 
 furnishes a convenient means of investigating the character of the 
 blood flow. The pulse may be felt wherever a large artery is near 
 the surface. 
 
 A record of the pulse may be made upon the drum of the 
 kymograph by means of two tambours, one for receiving and one 
 for recording. The tambour is a shallow disk with the concave 
 side covered with a piece of sheet rubber, drawn tight and fastened 
 around the margin with a thread. A small tube opens into the 
 interior. By means of this tube the tambour is connected with a 
 piece of rubber tubing which joins the other tambour in the same 
 manner. (Fig. 19.) The air chambers of the two tambours are 
 thus put into free communication, and any pressure upon the face 
 of one will cause a corresponding enlargement of the other. One 
 of the tambours is applied to the skin over the artery. The other 
 is arranged so as to move a pointer which writes on the drum. 
 The best results are obtained from the carotid artery, in the neck. 
 The instrument records the rate and character of the heart's beat, 
 and shows also any changes in the strength, speed, or character 
 of the beat resulting from exercise or other influences. 
 
 In flowing through the vessels the blood meets with resistance 
 due to friction between the blood and the vessel walls. The fric- 
 tion is greatest in the small tubes and is proportional to their 
 length. The result is that the heart has to exert a considerable 
 
THE: 
 
 ORGANS 
 
 43 
 
 force to pump the blood, and the blood is under pressure in the 
 arteries. The amount of this pressure is an important item in the 
 study of the circulation, for if the pressure is too small to over- 
 come the resistance of the small tubes, enough blood is not sent 
 
 FIG. 
 
 Apparatus for recording pulse. 
 
 through to feed the tissues, while if the pressure is too great, it 
 may overwork the heart or rupture the capillaries. 
 
 The arterial pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury ; 
 a pressure sufficient to force a column of mercury to a height, 
 for example, of 100 mm. is called a pressure of 100. Under nor- 
 mal conditions and at rest the pressure in the arteries of a full 
 
44 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 grown man is between 90 and 125. When it falls below 80, one 
 is apt to feel faint, from insufficient supply of blood to the brain ; 
 a pressure of 150 or 175 gives a mild feeling of exhiliration ; when 
 it goes above 200 it is apt to cause a feeling of heat and pressure 
 in the head; at 250 there is danger of straining the- heart or rup- 
 turing vessels. When the heart or vessels are diseased, the danger 
 point is reached sooner. 
 
 The arterial pressure is measured in man by an instrument 
 that produces .enough pressure around the upper arm to stop the 
 pulse at the wrist. As the examiner feels the pulse disappear he 
 reads the pressure indicated by the instrument; this gives the 
 amount of arterial pressure that has been overcome in the arm, 
 and this is practically the same as that in the other large arteries. 
 
 Since the pressure in the arteries is caused by the pumping 
 action of the heart working against the resistance the blood meets 
 in the vessels, it is evident that the pressure increases with in- 
 crease of heart action and with constriction of the arteries ; and 
 that it decreases with decrease of heart action and dilation of 
 arteries. In other words, arterial pressure varies directly with 
 the heart action and inversely with the size of the arteries. 
 
 The function of the muscular fibers in the arterial walls is 
 to control the size of the arteries. They are supplied with nerve- 
 fibers from the vaso-motor center, which is situated in the medulla. 
 (Fig. 20.) Through its influence the muscle-fibers are kept in a 
 state of partial or tonic contraction. By changing the amount of 
 contraction of these fibers throughout the whole arterial system, 
 the blood pressure is controlled. For example, a bundle of nerve- 
 fibers, called the depressor fibers, passes from the heart to the 
 vaso-motor center. When the heart is injured or overworked, these 
 fibers carry impulses which act upon the center, causing relaxa- 
 tion of the arterial walls and consequent reduction of blood pres- 
 sure. Again, the vaso-motor mechanism is the means of changing* 
 the distribution of blood to different parts of the body. Change in 
 the heart action can change the amount of blood sent to the body 
 in a given time, but this change affects all parts alike. When 
 some parts need more blood than others, the distribution is con- 
 trolled by the vaso-motor center. In response to sensory stimuli 
 
THE: VITAL ORGANS 
 
 45 
 
 acting upon the center the fibers in regions needing a greater 
 blood supply are relaxed, while those in other parts are corre- 
 spondingly contracted. Thus when food is introduced into the 
 
 VI. 
 
 IV. 
 
 FIG. 20. Diagram of vaso-motor mechanism. I, sens- 
 ory fiber from heart II, fiber from brain. Ill, 
 fiber from body. IV, fiber to muscle in walls of 
 blood vessels. V, spinal cord. VI, vaso-motor 
 center. (From Mills.) 
 
 digestive tract, impulses go the vaso-motor center and more blood 
 is sent there. The same is the case when waste products are 
 formed in the brain or in the muscles. Other cases of vaso-motor 
 action will be mentioned later. 
 
46 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 The circulation in the veins, while primarily caused by the 
 action of the heart, is materially assisted by (i) bodily movements 
 of a rythmical character and by (2) breathing. These two 
 agencies act directly in a mechanical way upon the circulation, and 
 not, like the other influences mentioned, through the nervous 
 system. The same effect is produced at the same time upon the 
 circulation in the lymphatic vessels. The effect of rythmical ex- 
 ercises is due to the easy compressibility of the veins and lym- 
 phatics and the presence of valves. When the portion of a vein 
 between two valves is pressed between contracting muscles, the 
 blood contained in it is squeezed out, in a direction toward the 
 heart. When the pressure is removed, it is filled again from the 
 opposite direction. It will be seen that this is the identical action 
 of a syringe pump, indeed, the same as that of the heart itself, 
 except that the pressure is from without. The value of passive 
 movements and massage is largely dependent upon this effect. 
 The influence of breathing upon the circulation in veins and lym- 
 phatics is due to the great reduction of pressure in the chest when 
 it expands, causing a suction, which cannot act upon the arteries, 
 because of the valves at the beginning of the aorta. The fluid in 
 the veins and lymphatics is drawn toward the heart, and, when the 
 chest falls in expiration, it cannot return because of the valves. 
 
 Normal breathing is automatic and rythmical, like the action 
 of the heart. Unlike the heart, the action stops short when the 
 nerves supplying the breathing muscles are severed. The respira- 
 tory center not only presides over the range and rapidity of the 
 movements, but it is necessary to the existence of breathing move- 
 ments. The automatic part of the mechanism is in this case the 
 center, which is at the same time under the influence of impulses 
 reaching it from the brain and all parts of the body. It responds 
 instantly to an increase of waste products in the tissues, showing 
 noticeable increase with the slightest additional exercise. Par- 
 ticular stimuli cause modified forms of the movement, such as 
 coughing, sneezing, sighing, yawning, laughing, crying, etc. Vol- 
 untary control of the breathing is very important, as we are not 
 only able to control the movements to suit our purpose at any 
 given time, but also to modify the habit of breathing, so as to 
 
THE VITAL ORGANS 
 
 47 
 
 Respiratory 
 center. 
 
 _.i 1 Intercostal muscles. 
 
 Muscles of nose and throat. 
 
 Membranes of nose and 
 
 throat. 
 
 Diaphragm. 
 
 Abdominal muscles. Skin. 
 
 FIG. 21. Nervous mechanism controlling the breathing muscles. 
 
48 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 change, somewhat, its manner or form. In other words, the 
 respiratory center is susceptible of education, like other centers 
 of reflex action. (Fig'. 21.) 
 
 The movement of the wall of the chest or abdomen during 
 breathing may be recorded by the apparatus used in recording 
 heart action, except that in place of a tambour for receiving we 
 use a bulb. 
 
 We have seen how the chemical activities in the tissues con- 
 sume food and oxygen and form certain waste products. We have 
 also noticed some of the injurious effects of these substances upon 
 the tissues, and something of the urgent haste with which the body 
 endeavors to get rid of them. The elimination of these poisonous 
 gases consists of the following four steps : 
 
 (1) The gas, principally carbon dioxide, passes from the 
 tissue where it is formed into the blood in the capillaries. There 
 are three reasons for this movement of the gas. First, it tends to 
 diffust in all directions, with a force proportionate to the differ- 
 ence of it's densities in the different places. Second, it passes 
 readily through the thin membranes of the animal body, consist- 
 ing, in the present case, of the sarcolemma of the muscle-fiber and 
 the wall of the capillary. Third, it is readily absorbed by water, 
 which constitutes about 85 per cent, of the blood. 
 
 (2) It is transported in the blood from the muscles to the 
 lungs. This, as we have seen, is due to the action of heart, aided 
 by the action of other muscles. 
 
 (3) It passes from the blood, now in the capillaries in the 
 lungs, to the air in the adjacent air-cells ; a process very similar 
 to the first step, and having the same explanation. 
 
 (4) It is removed from the air of the lungs by breathing. 
 In quiet breathing about 25 cu. in. of air is expelled at a breath. 
 This is only about i/io of the air in the lungs, so that the elim- 
 ination by a single breath is not complete. 
 
 A consideration of these processes shows us that two of them 
 depend upon muscular action, with their success dependent upon 
 the strength and healthy activity of those muscles. The other 
 two depend upon natural forces, the completeness of elimination 
 
THE VITAL ORGANS 49 
 
 being dependent upon differences in the densities of the gas in 
 the muscle-fibers and in the air outside of the body, in other 
 words, upon the completeness of ventilation. 
 
 It follows from what has been said that the effect of bodily 
 exercise upon respiration consists in a quickening of the pro- 
 cesses in each of the four steps ; the increase in the rapidity of 
 diffusion of the gas in the first and third steps being due to the 
 increased density of the gas in the muscle-fibers, and the increased 
 muscular action of the second and fourth steps resulting from 
 stimulation of the cardiac and respiratory centers. Since it is by 
 the action of the heart and the breathing muscles that all the 
 carbon dioxide formed in the body has to be eliminated, it is 
 evident that the amount of work thrown upon these muscles at 
 any time will depend upon the size of the muscular area that is 
 being exercised and also upon the intensity of the exercise. Look- 
 ing at the same question in another way, we may say that the 
 quantity of waste products to be removed, and consequently, the 
 amount of work to be done by the heart and breathing muscles, is 
 proportional to the total amount of ivork done in the exercise. 
 Now that the total amount of work done is the product of the 
 weight lifted by the distance through which it is lifted. For ex- 
 ample, a person who weighs 150 pounds, in walking up stairs 
 10 inches in height at the rate of two steps per second, does work 
 at the rate of 250 foot-pounds per second. This would increase 
 the heart rate and breathing considerably. To do the same amount 
 of work on the ergograph one would have to lift a ten-pound 
 weight to the height of five inches at the rate of 60 times per 
 second, which is clearly impossible. If the amount of work done 
 in a short time is very great, it produces a condition known as 
 breathlessness. This is characterized by very strong and rapid 
 action of heart and breathing muscles, accompanied by an ap- 
 parent difficulty to empty the lungs. 
 
 Of the energy liberated by the chemical activity in the muscles 
 in moderate exercise, only about 15 per cent, is in the form of 
 mechanical motion. Nearly all the remainder of it is in the form 
 of heat. The heat thus produced keeps the body warm, and the 
 
50 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 excess is lost. A small amount is thrown off with the excretions 
 and the air expired, but nearly four-fifths of it is lost through the 
 skin. With the great variation in the amount of exercise taken 
 at different times and the wide ranges of temperature of the air 
 outside the body, we would expect great changes in the bodily 
 temperature. In spite of all these varying conditions, bodily tem- 
 perature is almost constant in health, at 98.6 Fahrenheit. 
 
 The maintenance of uniform bodily temperature is so essen- 
 tial to comfort and health that much is done voluntarily to secure 
 it; shelter, fire, clothing, baths, changes of food and drink, and 
 exercise being among the means so used. The more exact and 
 minute regulation of the" temperature of the body is nevertheless 
 accomplished by reflex mechanism within the body itself. First 
 may be mentioned the agency of the blood in distributing the heat 
 to all parts of the body. In vigorous exercise not only the work- 
 ing parts are warmed, but the blood scatters the heat throughout 
 the system. It has been found by experiment that when one is 
 in a colder place more combustion takes place in the tissues than 
 when in a warmer place. The test is made by measuring either 
 the oxygen consumed or the carbon dioxide exhaled. The fact is 
 explained upon the theory that sensory impulses produced by 
 heat and cold act upon the motor cells of the spinal cord and thus 
 influence the activity of the protoplasm in the muscles, where 
 most of the heat is produced. When impulses caused by heat 
 enter the cord, the heat producing activity is inhibited ; when the 
 stimulus is cold, the activity is increased. The existence of a 
 center for the control of heat production is accepted by some 
 authors and denied by others. 
 
 The rapidity with which heat is lost from the surface of the 
 body is controlled by two reflex mechanisms. ( I ) Impulses which 
 enter the spinal cord as the result of external cold act upon the 
 vaso-motor center, and as a result, arteries supplying the skin are 
 constricted and those lying deep within are dilated. When the 
 sensory endings that respond to heat are irritated, the action is 
 the reverse, sending more blood to the skin. (2) The presence 
 of more blood in the skin increases the activity of the sweat 
 
THE: VITAL ORGANS 51 
 
 glands, causing them to pour out upon the surface an increased 
 amount of moisture. The sweat glands are at the same time under 
 direct control of a center called the sweat center, which is situated 
 near the other centers mentioned. The evaporation of moisture 
 is a very efficient cooling process. 
 
 Brisk exercise causes the liberation of so much heat that 
 nature uses all means to throw it off. Consequently, when such 
 exercise is concluded, the skin is wet and the clothing often satu- 
 rated with perspiration. With the conclusion of the exercise the 
 production of heat almost ceases, necessitating a checking of the 
 loss of heat. The vaso motor mechanism soon decreases the 
 amount of blood sent to the skin, but unless the evaporation can 
 be stopped, the temperature is apt to fall below the normal point 
 and the person will "take cold." It is necessary at such times to 
 remove the moisture from the skin and to put on dry clothing. 
 We have here one of the chief reasons why physical training is 
 usually taken in special clothing, and why facilities for bathing 
 are commonly provided with it. 
 
 For the reason just given, all exercise vigorous enough to 
 leave the skin wet with perspiration should be followed by a bath 
 and change of clothing. Water has so great a capacity for heat 
 that it has an intense influence upon the heat regulating mechan- 
 ism. The condition in which it leaves this mechanism depends 
 entirely upon the temperature of -the water. 
 
 When one bathes in warm water, especially if the body is 
 immersed in warm water, the regulating mechanism has to do its 
 best to get rid of the heat fast enough. It checks the production 
 of heat in the tissues, sends as much blood as possible to the skin, 
 and stimulates the sweat glands. 
 
 In a cold bath the body loses heat with the greatest rapidity. 
 The regulating mechanism meets this emergency by stimulating 
 the production of heat, constricting the arteries supplying the 
 skin, and checking the flow of perspiration. 
 
 As a preparation for meeting outward changes of tempera- 
 ture without taking cold the latter is plainly preferable. The 
 warm bath leaves the system in about the same condition as the 
 exercise, with the muscles more relaxed and the heat production 
 
52 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 at the lowest point. The only time at all suitable for such a bath 
 is just before retiring, or at some time when the body can be 
 protected from cold air and draughts for two or three hours. The 
 cold bath, by causing a stimulation of the whole system, an abund- 
 ant heat production, and keeping the blood within, puts the body 
 in the best possible condition for withstanding changes of tem- 
 perature. 
 
 Whatever the temperature of the bath, it should be followed 
 by thorough drying of the skin, or it will cause the same bad 
 effects as when perspiration is left on the surface. It should 
 also be borne in mind that a cold bath takes heat from the body 
 so rapidly that it is weakening unless it is brief. The warm bath, 
 taken for cleansing, requires time, and may be prolonged with- 
 out harm. 
 
 The exact temperature of water that is suitable for a cold 
 bath depends entirely upon the individual. It should be cool 
 enough to have the right kind of influence on the heat regulating 
 mechanism, but not cool enough to chill the body nor cause too 
 intense a stimulation. The latter tends to cause nervousness and 
 sleeplessness. Those who are fleshy and phlegmatic are benefitted 
 by baths that are too cold for the thin and nervous. A sponge 
 bath is milder than a plunge or shower of the same temperature. 
 Probably the best plan for all to follow until they learn exactly 
 what kind of bath is best for them, is to begin with warm water 
 and cool it gradually until it begins to feel cold, then stop and dry 
 at once by brisk rubbing. Persons having heart trouble should 
 get advice from a competent physician about bathing, and follow 
 his directions closely. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE BODY AS A MACHINE 
 
 The human body may be considered as a machine for doing 
 muscular work. In this machine the muscles furnish the power, 
 the bones are used as levers, the joints serve as the axes on which 
 the levers turn, and the work done is the overcoming of some 
 resistance. Work reacts on the machine, modifying all its parts 
 in various ways according to the nature of the work, so that an 
 expert in physical education can often tell from an examination 
 of a man's body what kinds of work have constituted the main 
 part of his occupation. It is the object of this course to guide 
 the student in the study of some of the most important types of 
 muscular work so as to teach him two things: (i) how certain 
 common types of bodily exercise affect the development, form, and 
 posture of the body, and (2) how to study the effects of exercise 
 on the body, that he may be able to solve such problems for him- 
 self as they present themselves, as they must in great numbers 
 if he teaches in the department of physical "education. 
 
 MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. Each muscle is composed of a great 
 number of thread-like fibers, a single muscle often containing sev- 
 eral hundred thousands of them. Each of these fibers is an inde- 
 pendent unit, having its own special connection with the central 
 nervous system by a nerve fiber, over which it may receive stimuli. 
 Contraction of muscle is a shortening due to the shortening of 
 its separate fibers. As the fibers shorten they swell out in thick- 
 ness, stretching the sheaths that cover them and thus making them 
 feel harder to the touch. This furnishes a convenient way to tell 
 whether a muscle is taking part in a certain exercise or not. The 
 lateral enlargement during contraction may be used as a way to 
 exert force, as may be illustrated by tying a band tightly about 
 the upper arm and then forcibly bending the elbow ; the muscles 
 swell out as they contract and exert a strong pressure on the band. 
 
54 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 Professional strong men often break heavy chains in this manner, 
 but it is an exception to the usual way of doing muscular work ; 
 the normal method by which muscles exert their force is a pull 
 upon the bones to which they are attached. 
 
 FIG. 22. Muscular attachments. M, muscle ; T, tendon ; O, origin ; /, inser- 
 tion; L, bone serving as a lever; A, axis or fulcrum; 5*, stationary bone. 
 
 How ATTACHED TO THE BONES. Sometimes the fibers of a 
 muscle are joined directly to a bone, but more often there is at the 
 end of the muscle a strip of connective tissue called a tendon to 
 which the muscle is attached and which connects it with the bone. 
 The contraction of a muscle usually moves both bones to which 
 it is attached, but for sake of simplicity the bone that moves least 
 is assumed to be stationary. The point where the muscle joins the 
 stationary bone is called the origin of the muscle, while the point 
 where it joins the movable bone is called its insertion. (Fig. 22.) 
 
THE BODY AS A MACHINE 55 
 
 The latter is the point of application of power to the lever, 
 and its distance from the axis or fulcrum is the power arm of the 
 lever. The bone that is stationary in one exercise is often mov- 
 able in another exercise. For example, in lifting the hand to the 
 face while sitting, the upper arm is stationary and the forearm 
 moves up to it; in grasping a bar overhead and lifting the face 
 up to the hand by use of the arms the forearm is stationary and 
 the upper arm moves up to it. It is evident that the origin and 
 insertion of the muscles that bend the elbow are reversed in this 
 case ; still it is customary to speak of one end of a muscle as its 
 origin all the time; for the sake of clearness in description, the 
 end nearest the. center of the body being selected as the origin. 
 
 AMOUNT OF WORK DONE. When one lifts a weight he is 
 said in the language .of mechanics to "do work" ; the amount of 
 work done is the product of the weight by the distance it is lifted, 
 and is usually expressed in kilogram-meters or foot-pounds. If 
 the resistance encountered at any time is too great to be overcome, 
 as in pushing against a tree or a wall, no "work" in the mechanical 
 sense is .done, although the muscles contract and expend a con- 
 siderable amount of energy in the attempt. This is "work" in the 
 physiological and practical sense of the term, and to distinguish 
 it from the other we speak of the work done in actually moving 
 something as "external work", and of the work done in and by 
 the contracting muscles as "internal work". The same distinction 
 should be made whenever a part of the body is held in a fixed 
 position and kept from moving by muscular action, as in sitting 
 and standing, and in holding a weight at arm's length. Muscular 
 contractions serving in this way to prevent motion are called 
 "static contractions" ; they do internal work and may lead to 
 muscular development. Still a third case is where the force of 
 muscular contraction is overcome by the resistance, as when a 
 wrestler is unable to resist his opponent, or where a weight is 
 slowly lowered. Here the external work, instead of being done 
 "by the muscles" is said in the language of mechanics to be done 
 "upon the muscles", although the latter are all the time doing 
 internal work. We may summarize the three cases by saying that 
 
56 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 a muscle may do external work, static work, or have work done 
 upon it, according as its internal work overcomes, balances, or is 
 overcome by the resistance. 
 
 POWER, RANGE, AND WORK. When we speak of the "power" 
 or "strength'' of a muscle we mean the maximum amount it can 
 lift ; when we speak of its "range" we mean the greatest distance 
 it can shorten ; these are the two factors whose product is the 
 maximum of work it can do at one contraction. There is a wide 
 difference in the way muscles do their work. For example, among 
 several muscles of the same size and condition one may be able 
 to lift eighty pounds one inch, that is, it may have a strength of 
 eighty pounds and a range of one inch; another may have a 
 strength of forty pounds and a range of two inches ; a third may 
 have a strength of twenty pounds and a range of four inches ; a 
 fourth may have a strength of fifteen pounds and a range of five 
 and one-third inches ; all can do the same amount of work at one 
 contraction, viz: eighty foot-pounds. These differences in the 
 way muscles work are due to the way the fibers are arranged in 
 the muscle. The explanation requires a consideration of the 
 strength and range of separate fibers and groups of fibers. 
 
 STRUCTURE AND WORK. The strength of a single muscle 
 fiber depends on its size and its range depends on its length ; more 
 exactly, the strength of single fibers varies directly as their cross 
 section and their range varies directly as their length. In other 
 words, a large fiber will be stronger but its greater size will not 
 increase its range; a longer fiber will have more range, but its 
 greater length will not increase its strength. When in the struc- 
 ture of a muscle several fibers of the same length are placed side 
 by side, the bundle thus formed will evidently have the same range 
 as one of the fibers and the strength of all combined ; if these 
 same fibers were joined end to end into a long strand they would 
 be able to do the same amount of work, but in a different way ; 
 they would have the strength of one of the fibers and the range 
 of all combined. From these illustrations it will be seen that the 
 range of a muscle depends on the length of the fibers or strands 
 composing it, and that its strength will depend on the number of 
 
THE BODY AS A MACHINE 
 
 57 
 
 FIG. 23. Types of Muscle Structure. 
 
 fibers pulling side by side, or what is the same thing, the area of 
 its cross section. 
 
 Figure 23 shows how fibers are arranged in muscles of the 
 same size and of approximately the same shape so as to give the 
 variations in strength and range that we need. In (a) the fibers 
 or strands extend the whole length of the muscle ; as we pass from 
 (a) to (e) the muscles increase in strength and decrease in range. 
 The arrangement of fibers in (a) is called longitudinal, (b), (c), 
 and (d) penniform, and (e) is bipenniform. 
 
 A muscle or a fiber can lift most when it is fully extended, 
 and its strength gradually diminishes as it shortens. Fibers in 
 good condition can shorten in contraction to half their full length. 
 Well trained human muscle, when fully extended, can lift about 
 eighty-five pounds for every square inch of its cross section. Such 
 a cross section must of course be taken at right angles to the fibers 
 and must include all of them. Varying with the condition of the 
 individual, the strength may be anywhere between this and zero. 
 
58 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 TERMS RELATING TO BONES. A projection upon a bone is 
 called a process, and if long a spinous process or spine. A short 
 projection is called a tuber osity and when small a tubercle. A 
 depression in a bone is called a fossa, and a hole into or through 
 a bone is called a foramen. 
 
 The junction of two bones is called an articulation, of which 
 there are several kinds. The bones of the skull and those of the 
 pelvis are so joined as to permit no movement; articulations that 
 permit movement are commonly called joints. The vertebrae of 
 the spinal column are joined with a disc of cartilage between, the 
 movement being due to the yielding of the discs; the name 
 umphiar thro sis is applied to these joints. Many joints, like those 
 of the wrist and foot, permit only a slight gliding of one bone 
 upon another; these are called arthrodial joints. Others permit 
 wide movement in one plane, like the elbow and ankle, and are 
 called hinged joints. A few, like the wrist joint, permit movement 
 freely in two planes, but no rotation ; such are called condyloid 
 joints ; finally we have the ball and socket joints, like the shoulder 
 and hip, permitting free movement in all planes and rotation on 
 .an axis besides. 
 
 Articulating surfaces of bone are always lined by a synovial 
 membrane, which is reflected across from one bone to the other to 
 form a closed sac. The synovial membrane secretes a fluid, called 
 the synovial fluid, which lubricates the joint and so prevents any 
 considerable friction. In most joints there is at least one piece of 
 cartilage to form a surface of contact, movement apparently taking 
 place with less friction between bone and cartilage than between 
 two bones. The bones forming a joint are kept in place by strong, 
 bands of connective tissue called ligaments. They are usually less 
 elastic than tendons, and connect bone to bone as shown in Fig. 24. 
 The several ligaments surround the joint and their edges are al- 
 ways joined to form a closed sac called a capsule which serves to 
 protect the joint and to prevent rupture of the synovial membrane 
 and escape of the fluid. 
 
 The ligaments limit the extent of movement of the joint and 
 bring the motion to a stop when one of them is drawn tight. Vig- 
 orous bodily exercise, especially when we are young, modifies this 
 
THE BODY AS A MACHINE 
 
 59 
 
 limitation considerably by stretching a ligament or even by a 
 change in the shape of a bony surface; for example, persons in 
 some occupations, like that of seamstress, where the elbow is 
 rarely extended, become unable to fully extend this joint, while 
 in other occupations, such as sweeping and scrubbing, the elbow 
 is modified so that it can be over-extended. In the same way boys, 
 by continued practice in throwing, come to have a shoulder joint 
 that permits more free motion of that kind than is found in girls, 
 who practice this action but little. 
 
 The bones of children are comparatively soft and flexible, 
 being largely composed of cartilage. In the process of growth this 
 cartilage is gradually replaced by true bone, the change being com- 
 plete at about the age of thirty. As a consequence of this fact 
 children are more liable than adults to faults of posture and for 
 the same reason treatment is more effective in the young. 
 
 L 
 
 FIG. 24. Structure of a typical ioint. B, bone; A, articular sur- 
 face; C, cartilage; L, ligament; S, synovial cavity. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE MECHANISM OF THE UPPER LIMB. 
 
 /. Movements of the Shoulder Girdle. 
 
 The shoulder girdle includes two bones : the clavicle and the 
 scapula. The arm is joined to the scapula and the clavicle makes 
 a bony connection between the arm and the main part of the 
 skeleton. The clavicles extend sideward almost horizontally from 
 the sternum just above the first rib ; the scapulae lie on the outer 
 surface of the chest at the back. 
 
 A 
 Co.. 
 
 Sc. - 
 
 FIG. 25. The shoulder girdle, viewed from front. Sc., 
 inner surface of scapula ; A, acromion ; Co, coracoid 
 process; Cl, clavicle;' V, vertebrae; S, sternum; H, 
 humerus. 
 
 The clavicle is straight when viewed from the front, but when 
 seen from above it is shaped like an Italic /, with the inner end 
 convex to the front and the outer end convex to the rear. The 
 inner end is thicker and the outer end more flattened. 
 
 The scapula is a flat bone of triangular shape with two prom- 
 inent processes projecting from it : the spine from the rear and the 
 
THE UPPER IvIMB 6l 
 
 coracoid from the front; the spine ends in a flattened process 
 called the acromion. The shallow depression into which the 
 humerus fits is called the glenoid fossa ; the deep fossa above the 
 spine is called the supra-spinous fossa ; the one below it is called 
 the infra-spinous fossa. 
 
 The scapula is joined to the clavicle by an arthrodial joint, the 
 end of the acromion articulating with the outer end of the clavicle, 
 permitting considerable rotation of the scapula on the clavicle. 
 
 The clavicle is joined to the sternum by a double arthrodial 
 joint, the bones being separated by a cartilage, with one joint be- 
 tween the clavicle and the cartilage and another between the carti- 
 lage and the sternum. These joints allow the outer end of the 
 clavicle to move up and down and forward and back. 
 
 The two joints included in the shoulder girdle do not move 
 independently ; both are involved in all movements of the scapula 
 and shoulder. The following movements of the scapula take place : 
 
 (1) Backward toward the spinal column (adduction) ; 
 
 (2) Forward away from the spinal column (abduction) ; 
 
 (3) Entire bone moved upward (elevation) ; 
 
 (4) Entire bone moved downward (depression) ; 
 
 (5) Rotation on a center so as to raise the acromion (rota- 
 tion up) ; 
 
 (6) Rotation so as to lower the acromion (rotation down) ; 
 
 MUSCLES ACTING ON THE SHOULDER GIRDLE. 
 
 There are six muscles connecting the shoulder girdle with the 
 main skeleton : 
 
 Trapezius 
 Serratus Magnus 
 Levator Anguli Scapulae 
 Pectoralis Minor 
 Rhomboid 
 Subclavius 
 
 These muscles produce the movements of the scapula men- 
 tioned above and are also involved in movements of the arms. 
 
62 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 TRAPEZIUS. 
 
 The trapezius is a flat sheet of muscle located on the upper 
 part of the back. It lies just beneath the skin throughout its ex- 
 tent. The name comes from the shape of two muscles of the 
 right and left sides taken together; the single muscle is triangular. 
 (Fig. 26 ) 
 
 FIG. 2,6. The trapezius. B, base of the 
 skull; L, ligament of the neck; A, 
 acromial fibers of the trapezius; a, 
 acromion process; Ad, adducting fi- 
 bers of trapezius; In, inferior fibers; 
 V, vertebrae. 
 
 ORIGIN. The base of the skull, the ligament of the neck, 
 and the spinous processes of all the vertebrae from the seventh 
 cervical to the twelfth dorsal inclusive, 
 
 INSERTION. The outer one-third of the posterior border of 
 the clavicle, the top of the acromion, and the upper border of 
 the spine of the scapula. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The upper part of the muscle is a thin sheet of 
 parallel fibers passing downward and sideward from their origin 
 on the skull and the ligament of the neck to their .insertion on the 
 
THE UPPER LIMB 63 
 
 clavicle, from which it is sometimes called the clavicular portion 
 of the trapezius. It is so thin and so easily stretched when relaxed 
 that the tips of one or two fingers can be easily pushed down be- 
 hind the clavicle, pushing the muscle along with it and forming a 
 small pocket ; as soon as the muscle contracts the pocket disappears 
 and no depression can be made there with the finger tips. This 
 makes it possible to tell when the upper trapezius is acting, al- 
 though it is so thin that its contraction cannot be observed in the 
 usual way. 
 
 FIG. 27. Mechanical conditions of the trapezius. 
 The black lines show the direction of pull of 
 the different parts of the muscle. 
 
 The middle part of the trapezius, inserted on the acromion 
 and the upper border of the spine of the scapula, is much the 
 thickest and strongest part of the muscle; the fibers are shorter 
 than those of the upper trapezius and are tendinous near the 
 origin, which is in the lower part of the neck and the upper chest 
 region ; they converge slightly from the origin to the insertion ; 
 they form a large crooked ridge when they contract. 
 
 The lower trapezius is a triangular sheet whose fibers con- 
 verge upward and sideward from their origin on the lower thoracic 
 
64 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 vertebrae to a small tendon which is inserted into a small triangular 
 space on the scapula at the posterior end of the spine. This part 
 is stronger than the upper part but not so strong as the middle part. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. While we learn a good deal about a mus- 
 cle by studying its mechanical conditions on a mounted skeleton, 
 we cannot always be sure of all the details. We are able to clear 
 up obscure points here by observations of two kinds that have 
 been made by medical experts: (i) the effect of stimulating 
 the muscle in question by electricity and seeing what it really does, 
 and (2) observing what movements are lost by persons in whom 
 the muscle is paralyzed or missing. Facts of this kind will be 
 given throughout the course under the head of "isolated action." 
 
 When the upper part of the trapezius is stimulated by elec- 
 tricity the resulting contraction bends the head to the same side 
 and turns the face to the opposite side ; when the muscles of both 
 sides are stimulated at the same time the head is bent backward 
 and the chin raised. If the subject holds his head as still as pos- 
 sible by the use of other muscles while the upper trapezius is stim- 
 ulated, the outer end of the clavicle and the shoulder are lifted. 
 
 Stimulation of the middle trapezius shows that the muscle 
 acts as if composed of four parts, instead of the three parts shown 
 in its structure. Contraction of the acromial fibers lifts the 
 shoulder and the outer end of the clavicle; when the fibers in- 
 serted into the upper border of the spine contract they adduct the 
 scapula powerfully, moving the point of the shoulder backward. 
 
 On stimulating the lower part of the trapezius the vertebral 
 border of the scapula is adducted and depressed, and the scapula 
 is held flat against the chest. 
 
 Electrical stimulation of all four divisions of the trapezius at 
 once produces the rotation on a center that was anticipated in the 
 study of the mechanical conditions, and at the same time the 
 shoulder is drawn backward. 
 
 Weakness or paralysis of the trapezius results in the scapulae 
 being drawn away from the spinal column by other muscles, and 
 the shoulders lowered. 
 
THIS UPPER UMB 65 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. In the study of muscular action that we 
 have made thus far we can determine what a muscle is able to do 
 when it contracts ; we must also study its normal action under the 
 control of the nervous system and the will to learn in what exer- 
 cises it does contract and when it does not, for muscles do not 
 always do what they are able to do. Their habitual action in dif- 
 ferent individuals is so nearly the same that it is only necessary to 
 observe normal action in a few cases to learn the general rule ; in 
 most cases the main facts can be learned by study of one in- 
 dividual. 
 
 FIG. 28. The trapezius in action. T, trapezius; D, deltoid. 
 
 To study normal action we have some one take the exercise 
 in question and notice what muscles are in contraction in the per- 
 formance of the exercise. This is usually done by feeling of the 
 muscles to determine by their degree of hardness when they enter 
 into contraction; sometimes it can be seen; sometimes special 
 methods must be used. When muscles lie immediately under the 
 skin, like the trapezius, the problem is usually easy of solution. 
 (Fig. 28 and Fig. 35.) 
 
66 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 When anyone acting as subject for this kind of study lifts his 
 shoulders as high as possible, or when he carries a weight on his 
 shoulder, the second or acromial part of the trapezius can be felt 
 to contract strongly ; the third and fourth parts do not enter into 
 the exercise. The same is true in carrying a weight in the hand, 
 in the manner of carrying a pail of water ; but if the subject stoops 
 forward a little, so that the work demands adduction of the 
 scapula, the third and fourth parts of the muscle spring at once 
 into action. 
 
 The third part of the trapezius, and to a less extent the fourth 
 part, can be found to work strongly in all movements involving 
 vigorous adduction of the scapula. This is seen when one simply 
 draws the scapulae backward or when the arms are swung back- 
 ward while held at the height of the shoulders, when using pulley 
 weights facing the machine; rowing a boat; driving a spirited 
 horse ; in all exercises in which we pull back in nearly a horizontal 
 direction. 
 
 All parts of the trapezius come into action at the same time in 
 raising arms sideward and in raising them above the horizontal in 
 any direction. All exercises that involve these movements of the 
 arms bring the whole trapezius into play ; they are apparently the 
 only exercises that do so. (Fig. 27.) 
 
 LEVATOR ANGULI SCAPULAE. 
 
 This is a small muscle, usually called simply the "levator", 
 situated at the back and side of the neck and under the upper 
 trapezius. (Fig. 30.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The transverse processes of the upper four cervi- 
 cal vertebrae. 
 
 INSERTION. The vertebral border of the scapula, above the 
 spine. 
 
 STRUCTURE. A thick band of parallel fibers, tendinous near 
 the origin. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. A disease of the muscles called progres- 
 sive atrophy sometimes destroys a muscle completely, and several 
 
UPPEK LIMB 
 
 6 7 
 
 muscles may be lost in the same way, one alter another. The 
 trapezius is one of those most often destroyed by this disease, and 
 then the levator lies directly under the skin and can be stimulated 
 by electricity. 
 
 Stimulation of the levator produces first a lifting of the verte* 
 bral border of the scapula one or two centimeters and then a lift- 
 ing of the whole bone two or three times as far. 
 
 FIG. 29. Levator and middle trap- 
 ezius in action. L, levator ; T, 
 trapezius. 
 
 FIG. 30. Levator, rhomboid, latis- 
 simus dorsi, and deltoid. 
 
 Persons whose levator and middle trapezius are weak or par- 
 alyzed are apt to have long, slim necks; those in whom these 
 muscles are exceptionally strong have large short necks. 
 
 NORMAL, ACTION. The upper trapezius is so thin that when 
 it is relaxed the contraction of the levator can be felt through it. 
 
 The levator can be felt to contract in all exercises in which 
 the shoulder is lifted strongly, as in shrugging the shoulders, 
 
68 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 carrying a weight on the shoulder or in the hand or in lifting, 
 providing always that the shoulder is actually lifted in doing the 
 work. In carrying a pail of water in the hand, for example, the 
 second part of the trapezius works without the levator unless the 
 shoulder is lifted in doing it, but as soon as the shoulder is lifted 
 bv the slightest amount the levator springs at once into action. 
 (Fig. 29.) 
 
 RHOMBOID. 
 
 Named from its shape, an oblique parallelogram. It lies 
 just beneath the middle of the trapezius. (Fig. 30.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The spinous processes of the seventh cervical and 
 the first four thoracic vertebrae. 
 
 INSERTION. The vertebral border of the scapula, from the 
 spine to the lower angle. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Parallel fibers, extending downward and side- 
 ward from the origin to the insertion. It is in two parts, the major 
 and minor; the minor is above and is thin and weak, while the 
 major is thick and strong at its lower edge. The insertion is thin 
 and weak for its upper two-thirds, and is sometimes lacking in 
 its middle half ; it is attached strongly near the lower edge. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Electrical stimulation of the rhomboid, 
 given in a subject who has no trapezius, produces a rotation of 
 the scapula on its external angle as a center, the lower angle being 
 drawn toward the spinal column and its vertebral border lifted. 
 It does not adduct the entire scapula, nor does it draw the shoulder 
 back as the trapezius does ; it holds the lower angle of the scapula 
 close to the chest wall, preventing the deep hollow seen under the 
 lower end of the bone. When the rhomboid is weak or paralyzed 
 the lower angle of the scapula is prominent. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The rhomboid acts powerfully in all 
 downward movements of the arms, especially when they are 
 raised to the level of the shoulders or higher ; chopping with an 
 ax, striking with a hammer, and pulling down on a rope are good 
 examples. The arms cannot be lifted above the horizontal while 
 the rhomboid TS in contraction. In pulling backward horizontally, 
 
THE UPPER LIMB 
 
 6 9 
 
 as in rowing and similar movements, the rhomboid is usually as- 
 sumed to be acting, although the contracting trapezius covers it 
 so that the question cannot be answered with certainty ; it cannot 
 work to as good advantage in these exercises as when the pull is 
 more directly downward, and probably does not do so except in 
 conjunction with the tsres major. (Fig. 31.) 
 
 FIG. 31. The arm depressing mus- 
 cles in action, as^seen from the 
 rear. R rhomboid ; T.M., teres 
 major; L.D, latissimus dorsi. 
 
 FIG. 32. The serratus magnus. S, 
 scapula; H, humerus; R, ribs. 
 
 SERRATUS MAGNUS. 
 
 This muscle, named from the serrated or saw-toothed form 
 of its anterior border, lies on the outside of the ribs at the side 
 of the chest, covered by the scapula at the back and by the pec- 
 toralis major muscle in front. It lies just beneath the skin over 
 a triangular space as big as one's hand below the edge of the 
 pectoralis major. (Fig. 32 and Fig. 33.) 
 
7o PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 ORIGIN. The outer surfaces of the first nine ribs near their 
 middle. 
 
 INSERTION. The vertebral border of the scapula from the 
 spine to the lower angle, beneath the insertion of the rhomboid. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The muscle is in two distinct parts, both as re- 
 gards its structure and its action. 
 
 The upper part consists of fibers arising from the four upper 
 ribs and passing backward horizontally to be inserted into the 
 
 FIG. 33. The Serratus and triceps 
 in action. S, lower serratus ; T, 
 triceps; D, anterior portion of 
 the deltoid. 
 
 vertebral edge of the scapula from the spine to the lower angle ; 
 the lower part, which is thicker and stronger, is a triangular sheet 
 arising from the fourth to the ninth ribs and converging to a 
 point at the lower angle of the scapula. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Stimulation of the upper serratus causes 
 the scapula to be drawn forward; stimulation of the lower ser- 
 ratus causes the lower angle of the scapula to move forward 
 
THE: UPPER UMB 71 
 
 around the side of the chest, the inner and upper angle being the 
 axis of motion. 
 
 Persons who have lost the use of the upper serratus cannot 
 push forward with the arms or strike a blow with the fist ; those 
 who have lost the use of the lower serratus cannot lift with the 
 arms, and when they try to do so the vertebral border of the 
 scapula is made prominent, especially its lower angle. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The upper serratus contracts and draws 
 the scapula forward in all movements of pushing, reaching, or 
 striking forward, as in pushing a lawn mower, lacing a shoe, or 
 boxing. The contraction of the muscle cannot be felt because of 
 its position unless the pectoralis major is absent, but on simply 
 reaching forward the hands the scapula can be felt to glide for- 
 ward several inches on the surface of the chest, a movement that 
 only this muscle is calculated to give. 
 
 The lower serratus takes part along with the trapezius in all 
 exercises involving raising the arm, with this difference : the 
 trapezius contracts as soon as the arms leave the sides, while the 
 serratus does not begin its part until the arm has been raised 
 through an angle of forty-five degrees, as can be seen by watching 
 the position of the scapula. 
 
 Both parts of the serratus take part in exercises involving 
 holding the arms forward and upward, such as carrying a tray of 
 dishes, after the manner of waiters ; or in putting the shot and 
 many forms of throwing ; also in boxing. 
 
 PECTORAUS MINOR. 
 
 This muscle lies under the middle of the pectoralis major on 
 the front of the chest. (Fig. 34.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The outer surfaces of the third, fourth, and fifth 
 ribs, a little sideward from the points where the ribs join their 
 cartilages. 
 
 INSERTION. The end of the coracoid process of the scapula. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The fibers converge as they pass upward from 
 the three points of origin to form a single tendon of insertion. 
 
7 2 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Isolated contraction of the pectoralis 
 minor due to electrical stimulation causes strong depression of the 
 shoulder; if the scapula is held firmly in place by voluntary con- 
 traction of other muscles, the stimulation of the pectoralis minor 
 results in raising the ribs. 
 
 FIG. 34. The pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, and sub- 
 clavius. H, humerus; S, sternum; E, ensiform cartil- 
 age; R ribs; c.c, costal cartilages; Co, coracoid; P, 
 pectoralis major; p, the minor; s. subclavius; I, inser- 
 tion of the pectoralis major. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The pectoralis minor can be seen to act in 
 deep breathing in favorable subjects, if the pectoralis major is 
 completely relaxed. In movements of the arm and scapula the two 
 muscles act so fully in unison that the contraction of the larger 
 and outer one always prevents observation of the minor. We are 
 obliged to assume that the actions made possible by the mechanical 
 conditions and produced by isolated contraction of the pectoralis 
 minor actually take place in normal action. 
 
THE UPPER LIMB 73 
 
 SUBCIvAVIUS. 
 
 A small and comparatively unimportant muscle situated be- 
 neath the clavicle at about its middle. (Fig. 34.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The first rib, at the point of junction with its 
 cartilage. 
 
 FIG. 35. Neck firm. D, deltoid ; T, trapezius. 
 
 INSERTION. The middle half of the under surface of 
 the clavicle. 
 
 STRUCTURE. From a small tendon of origin the fibers radiate 
 to their broad insertion. 
 
 No observations have been made of the isolated or normal 
 action of the subclavius, but it can be reasonably assumed that it 
 will aid in depressing the clavicle and protect the sterno-clavicular 
 joint. 
 
74 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 2. Movements of the Shoulder Joint. 
 
 The shoulder joint is the most freely movable of all the ball 
 and socket joints. It is formed by the articulation of the head of 
 the humerus with the glenoid fossa of the scapula. This shallow 
 cavity is deepened by a cup of cartilage called the glenoid cartilage 
 which is attached firmly to the bottom of the fossa and into which 
 the head of the humerus fits. The joint is surrounded by the 
 usual capsular ligament ; across the front of it is a strong band of 
 fibers connecting the head of the humerus with the coracoid and 
 called the coraco-humeral ligament. The ligaments of the shoul- 
 der joint are so loose that when the muscles are fully relaxed the 
 head of the humerus can be pulled out of the socket for a distance 
 of two inches or more, but in most persons the tone of the muscles 
 does not permit it except when they are under the influence of an 
 anesthetic. The acromion protects the joint from above and the 
 coracoid from in front. 
 
 In describing the movements of joints, especially those be- 
 tween long bones, the words flexion and extension are used. When 
 the main axes of the two bones are in the same straight line the 
 joint is said to be in a position of extension ; movement away from 
 this position in the direction in which movement is most free is 
 called flexion; movement from a flexed position toward the ex- 
 tended position is called a movement of extension; if such a 
 movement goes beyond the position of extension it is called over- 
 extension. 
 
 In comparative anatomy the scapula is found to be in most 
 vertebrates a rather long bone with its spine in line with its main 
 axis ; it is customary for this reason to consider the spine as indi- 
 cating the axis of the scapula in man, and so position C in Fig. 36, 
 with the arms horizontal sideward, is taken as the position of ex- 
 tension of the shoulder joint. Swinging the arms forward hori- 
 zontally to position B is flexion. Position B does not show com- 
 plete flexion, which is limited by contact of the arm with the chest 
 and tension of the back side of the ligament of the shoulder joint ; 
 in most subjects an over-extension of 20 or 30 degrees is possible. 
 From any position in the horizontal plane the arm can be moved 
 
THE: UPPER LIMB 75 
 
 downward ; this i adduction, which is limited by contact of the 
 arm with the trunk. Raising the arm from the side at any angle 
 is called abduction; this the shoulder joint permits to an angle of 
 90 degrees when it is directly sideward, and then the top of the 
 greater tuberosity of the humerus hits the top of the glenoid fossa, 
 
 c 
 
 FIG. 36. Positions of the shoulder joint. 
 
 stopping the movement. Raising the arm higher than this in the 
 sidewise direction is accomplished by rotation of the scapula. If 
 the arm is abducted forward the shoulder joint permits the move- 
 ment up to about 120 degrees ; backward, to only 45 degrees. The 
 movements may be summarized as follows : 
 
 (1) Moving arm forward in horizontal plane (flexion) ; 
 
 (2) Moving arm backward in horizontal plane (extension, 
 over-exfension) ; 
 
76 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 (3) Moving arm down toward the trunk (adduction) ; 
 
 (4) Moving arm upward away from body (abduction) ;' 
 
 (5) These four movements in succession, moving hand in a 
 circle (circumduction) ; 
 
 (6) Turning humerus on its axis (rotation). 
 
 MUSCLES ACTING ON THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 The muscles acting on the shoulder joint include three large 
 and six small ones ; three of the small ones are associates of the 
 large ones ; the other three are rotators of the humerus, aiding 
 also to hold the head of the bone into the socket. 
 
 LARGE MUSCLES SMALL ASSOCIATES ROTATORS 
 
 Deltoid Supraspinatus Infraspinatus 
 
 Pectoralis Major. Coraco-brachialis Subscapularis 
 Latissimus Dorsi Teres Major Teres Minor 
 
 DELTOID. 
 
 The deltoid is a triangular muscle, as its name signifies, lo- 
 cated on the shoulder, with one angle pointed down and the other 
 two bent around the shoulder to front and rear. (Fig. 30.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The outer third of the anterior border of the 
 clavicle, the end of the acromion, and the posterior border of the 
 spine of the scapula. 
 
 INSERTION. A rough spot on the outer surface of the shaft 
 of the humerus, just above its middle. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The deltoid is composed of three parts, the 
 front and rear portions being of simple penniform structure and 
 the middle more complex. The tendon of insertion divides into 
 five strands ; the outer two of these, placed front and rear, receive 
 .the muscular fibers from the front and rear portions of the muscle, 
 which arise directly from the clavicle and spine of the scapula ; the 
 middle portion has four tendons of origin arising from the acro- 
 mion and alternating with the three parts of the tendon of inser- 
 
THE UPPER LIMB 
 
 77 
 
 tion; the muscular fibers pass across obliquely from one to the 
 other, as shown in Fig. 37. This penniform arrangement of the 
 muscle gives the deltoid great power with but slight range. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Stimulation of the front part of the del- 
 toid swings the arm forward; of the middle part, sideward; of 
 
 FIG. 37. Structure of deltoid. A, acro- 
 mion; S, spine of scapula; C, clavicle; 
 H, humerus; T, tendon of insertion, 
 with its five divisions ; t, the four ten- 
 dons arising from the acromion. 
 
 the back part, backward ; the front part can lift the arm highest 
 and the back part to the least height, because the limitation of 
 movement by the ligaments of the joint is different in different 
 directions. Loss of the anterior deltoid makes it impossible to 
 place the hand on the opposite shoulder; the arm cannot be used 
 to put a hat on the head, nor to bring food to the mouth without 
 
78 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 bending the head. Without the posterior deltoid the hand cannot 
 be placed behind the back above the hips. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The anterior deltoid takes part in all exer- 
 cises in which the arms are raised forward or swung forward in 
 the horizontal plane ; the middle deltoid, in all exercises in which 
 they are raised sideward or swung sideward in the horizontal 
 plane; both parts contract to raise the arm above the horizontal 
 in any direction. The posterior deltoid acts to carry the arm back- 
 ward when it hangs by the side or is raised in any direction ; if it 
 is raised above 45 degrees it helps to depress it ; when the arm is 
 held horizontal and moved back of the position of extension the 
 middle deltoid must contract strongly or the posterior part will 
 lower it. (Fig. 35.) 
 
 The angle of pull of the deltoid is so small that it tends to lift 
 the humerus lengthwise and so to make its head press against the 
 under side of the acromion ; this is prevented by the action of its 
 small associate, the supraspinatus. 
 
 SUPRASPINATUS. 
 
 A small muscle filling up the deep supraspinous fossa. It is 
 covered by the acromion and the trapezius, but it may be felt in 
 contraction in some exercises in which the latter is relaxed. 
 
 ORIGIN. The whole inner surface of the supraspinous fossa, 
 as far as the upper edge of the scapula and the upper edge of 
 the spine. 
 
 INSERTION. The top of the greater tuberosity of the 
 humerus. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The fibers arise from the bone and join the 
 tendon in a penniform manner. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Upon stimulation of the supraspinatus the 
 arm is raised diagonally sideward and forward with considerable 
 force, but this direction is not essential, because the arm thus 
 raised may be moved forward or backward for a considerable 
 range without antagonizing the action of the muscle. This action 
 
THE: UPPER UMB 79 
 
 pulls the head of the humerus into the socket and thus prevents 
 friction with the lower surface of the acromion. 
 
 NORMAL, ACTION. The supraspinatus joins the deltoid in all 
 movements involving raising the arms, to hold the head of the 
 humerus firmly into the socket ; in raising the arm sideward it is 
 able to aid in the lifting. It also helps to hold the humerus in the 
 socket in some cases in which the deltoid does not act, as in carry- 
 ing a pail of water in the hand. The deltoid can raise the arm 
 when the supraspinatus is paralyzed, the work of the latter prob- 
 ably being done by other muscles. 
 
 PECTORAUS MAJOR. 
 
 A large fan shaped muscle lying on the front of the chest 
 just beneath the skin. (Figs. 34 and 38.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The inner two-thirds of the anterior border of the 
 clavicle, the whole length of the anterior surface of the sternum, 
 and the cartilages of the ribs from the second to the seventh. 
 
 INSERTION. By a flat tendon about three inches wide into 
 the ridge that forms the external border of the bicipital groove 
 of the humerus, extending from the greater tuberosity almost to 
 the insertion of the deltoid. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The fibers arise directly from the bone on the 
 front of the chest and converge to join the tendon of insertion. 
 Near its insertion into the humerus the tendon is twisted on itself 
 through 180 degrees, the lower part of the muscle turning be- 
 neath to be inserted next to the head of the humerus, the fibers 
 from the clavicle being on the outside and joining the humerus 
 lowest down. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Stimulation by electricity shows that the 
 pectoralis major works like two muscles that may act together or 
 separately. All parts of the muscle draw the arm forward, but 
 the upper part acts more strongly and raises the arm more when 
 it hangs by the side, while the upper part depresses it more 
 strongly when raised overhead. 
 
80 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 Loss of use of the pectoralis major makes one unable to press 
 the hands together forcibly and lessens the force of arm de- 
 pression. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The pectoralis major takes part in all 
 movements in which the arms are raised or pushed forward, the 
 part that is used most depending on the height at which the arm 
 is held. 
 
 FIG. 38. The pectoralis major in action. 
 P pectoralis major; I, upper part; 2, 
 lower part; D, anterior deltoid; B, 
 short head of biceps; Co, coraco-bra- 
 chialis ; R, rectus abdominis. 
 
 In putting the shot, for example, the upper part alone acts, 
 while in pushing diagonally downward, as in sawing a board, the 
 lower part acts alone ; in boxing or pushing a lawn mower, when 
 the movement is directly forward, both parts are used. This fact 
 may be easily demonstrated by having a subject hold arms hori- 
 zontally forward with elbows nearly or quite extended and press 
 the palms strongly together; in this position the whole muscle 
 may be seen in strong contraction. Now if, while this is being 
 done, the observer presses down on the subject's hands and the 
 
THE UPPER UMB 8 1 
 
 latter pushes up to resist it, the upper half of the muscle springs 
 into stronger contraction; then if the observer lifts against the 
 subject's hands and the latter pushes down to resist it, the lower 
 half of the muscle acts instead. 
 
 When the arms are raised forward the pectoralis major aids 
 the anterior division of the deltoid until the arm is nearly as high 
 as the shoulder, the upper part of the muscle alone acting toward 
 the upper part of the movement. In this way the pectoralis major 
 is an aid in lifting, especially when the arms are straight forward, 
 with the hands not far apart ; as the hands are placed farther apart 
 the muscle acts less and less, until it ceases entirely when the arms 
 are separated at an angle of 25 or 30 degrees. 
 
 CORACO BRACHIAUS. 
 
 This is a little muscle situated deep beneath the anterior del- 
 toid and pectoralis major on the front and inner side of the arm. 
 (Fig. 38 and Fig. 43.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The coracoid process of the scapula. 
 
 INSERTION. The inner side of the shaft of the humerus, a 
 little above the level of the insertion of the deltoid. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Parallel fibers attached at each end by a short 
 tendon. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Isolated contraction of the coraco- brachi- 
 alis produces a strong movement of the humerus up into the 
 socket and a feebler movement forward and across the chest. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. While the coraco-brachialis cannot be 
 readily felt or seen in action, because of its position and small size, 
 we have reason to believe that it acts with the pectoralis major 
 as a slight aid in moving the arm forward but mainly to hold the 
 head of the humerus up into the socket so that the larger muscle 
 may act with its greatest power without danger of pulling the 
 joint apart, as it might do when there is strong resistance at the 
 hand when the pectoralis is pulling at an obtuse angle. When 
 the coraco-brachialis is lacking the muscles that depress the arm 
 draw the head of the humerus down out of the socket. 
 
82 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 LATISSIMUS DORSI. 
 
 Literally translated, "the broadest muscle of the back" ; lo- 
 cated on the lower half of the back, just beneath the skin except 
 where covered for a short space by the lower corner of the 
 trapezius. (Fig. 30.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The spinous processes of the lower six thoracic and 
 all the lumbar vertebrae, the back of the sacrum, the crest of the 
 hip, and the lower three ribs. 
 
 INSERTION. The bottom of the bicipital groove on the front 
 of the humerus by a flat tendon attached parallel to the upper half 
 of the insertion of the pectoralis major. 
 
 STRUCTURE;. The fibers converge from their wide origin to 
 the tendon of insertion much like the pectoralis major, and like the 
 latter the tendon twists on itself, the lower fibers of the muscle 
 going to the upper side of the insertion and the upper fibers to 
 the lower. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. On electrical stimulation of the latissimus 
 dorsi the arm is drawn downward and backward and the humerus 
 rotated to turn the palm inward ; if the upper fibers alone are 
 stimulated the scapula is adducted ; if the lower fibers alone, the 
 acromion is depressed and the head of the humerus pulled out of 
 the socket. Loss of the latissimus dorsi greatly lessens the power 
 to strike with a hammer or to support the body on the arms. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The latissimus dorsi aids powerfully in all 
 movements in which the arm is moved down and back against 
 resistance, as in striking with a hammer, chopping with an ax, 
 climbing, rowing, and the like. In movements where the push is 
 more directly down and not so much to the rear, as in climbing a 
 rope or supporting the body on the arms on the parallel bars in 
 the position called "cross rest", the latissimus dorsi works with 
 the lower part of the pectoralis major. (Fig. 39.) 
 
 TERES MAJOR. 
 
 Latin for "large round muscle", acting as a smaller assistant 
 of the latissimus dorsi and located along the axillary border of 
 the scapula, just beneath the skin. 
 
THE UPPER LIMB 
 
 FIG. 39. The arm depressing muscles in action, as seen 
 from the front. P, pectoralis major; L, latissimus 
 dorsi. 
 
 ORIGIN. The outer surface, of the scapula just at the lower 
 end of the axillary border. (Fig. 40.) 
 
 INSERTION. The ridge that forms the inner border of the 
 bicipital groove of the humerus, slightly lower than the latissimus 
 dorsi, nearly even with the lower half of the insertion of the pec- 
 toralis major. 
 
8 4 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 STRUCTURE. Fibers arising directly from the scapula and in- 
 serted in a penniform manner into the side of -the flat tendon. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Pull arm down and back, rotate humerus 
 inward, pull lower angle of scapula forward and thus rotate 
 acromion upward. 
 
 FIG. 40. Muscles at the back of the 
 scapula and humerus. S, supraspin- 
 atus; I, infraspinatus ; t.m, teres min- 
 or; T.M, teres major; o.t, outer head 
 of triceps; m.t, middle head of tri- 
 ceps; i.t, inner head of triceps; O, 
 olecranon; A, acromion. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The teres major aids the latissimus dorsi 
 in pulling the arm down and back and in rotating the humerus in- 
 ward. To prevent the scapula from moving in response to its pull 
 the rhomboid always acts with it, holding the lower end of the 
 scapula back firmly and so giving the teres major a solid point 
 of origin. 
 
THE UPPER LIMB 85 
 
 INFRASPINATUS AND TERES MINOR. 
 
 Two small muscles lying just beneath the skin on the back of 
 the shoulder. (Fig. 40.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The outer surface of the scapula below the spine. 
 INSERTION. The posterior part of the greater tuberosity of 
 the humerus. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Slightly converging fibers. 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Rotate humerus to turn palm out, when 
 arms are at sides ; pull arm backward when raised to horizontal. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. These muscles are involved in all move- 
 ments in which the palm is turned outward ; the same movement 
 is involved, when the elbow is flexed, in moving the hand along 
 the table in writing and in the twist of the arm in some forms 
 of throwing. The extent of the movement in the shoulder joint 
 is 90 degrees. When these muscles are paralyzed the palm is 
 turned inward and ability to write and to turn a screw driver is 
 nearly lost. 
 
 SUBSCAPULARIS. 
 
 Named from its position beneath the scapula. 
 
 ORIGIN. The whole of the anterior surface of the scapula, 
 except a small portion near the glenoid fossa. 
 
 INSERTION. The lesser tuberosity of the humerus. 
 STRUCTURE. Complex penniform arrangement. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Rotation of humerus to turn palm in- 
 ward. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. Although the subscapularis is not in a 
 position to be felt when it contracts, its mechanical conditions and 
 its action when stimulated, which can be done through its nerve, 
 are very plain ; it is reasonable to believe that it takes part in all 
 movements in which the humerus is rotated inward, as in turning 
 a screw driver, wringing a wet cloth, or throwing ; it probably 
 acts also to aid in swinging the arm forward when it has been 
 raised to horizontal position. 
 
86 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 j. Movements of Elbow, Forearm, Wrist, and Hand. 
 
 We have included here a hinge j'oint at the elbow, a rotary 
 union of radius and ulna in the forearm, a condyloid joint at the 
 wrist, and several hinge joints in the hand and fingers. 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF THE ELBOW JOINT. 
 
 The elbow is a typical hinge joint, the humerus articulating 
 closely with the ulna and slightly with the radius. The move- 
 ments are simply those of flexion and extension, taking place 
 
 FIG. 41. Bones of the arm. I, front view; II. back view; H, humerus; 
 U, ulna; R, radius; b.g, bicipital groove; gr, greater tuberosity of 
 humerus; 1, lesser tuberosity; o.c, outer condyle; ic, inner condyle; 
 O, olecranon process ; b.t, bicipital tuberosity of the radius. 
 
 through an angle of 120 to 150 degrees. Extension is limited by 
 the striking of the olecranon process of the ulna against the back 
 of the humerus ; flexion is limited partly by contact of the muscles 
 of the arm and partly by the striking of the coronoid process of 
 the ulna against the front of the humerus. Some individuals can 
 
THE UPPER LIMB 87 
 
 overextend the elbow, while others are not able to fully extend it. 
 Some of the muscles acting on the elbow joint also act on the 
 rotary joint of the forearm, so that it is best to describe that joint 
 before taking up the study of the muscles. 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF THE FOREARM. 
 
 We have here a double pivot joint. The radius rotates in a 
 ring of ligament at the elbow and the radius and ulna describe 
 semi-circles about each other at the wrist. The ulna cannot ro- 
 tate at the elbow, and the hand cannot rotate on the radius at the 
 wrist, yet by means of the union of the two bones with each other 
 the hand can be turned freely through an angle of 180 degrees. 
 This together with the 90 degrees of rotation possible in the 
 shoulder joint, makes it possible to rotate the hand through 270 
 degrees. The movements are : 
 
 (1) Turning the palm inward and downward (pronation) 
 and 
 
 (2) Turning the palm inward and upward (supination). 
 There are five muscles acting on the elbow joint, named as 
 
 follows : 
 
 Triceps Biceps Brachio-radialis 
 
 Brachialis Anticus Pronator Teres 
 
 TRICEPS. 
 
 The triceps is located on the back side of the upper arm, and, 
 as its name signifies, has three points of origin. (Fig. 40 and 
 Fig- 33-) 
 
 ORIGIN. Middle or long head, from the scapula, just below 
 the glenoid fossa ; 
 
 External head, from a space on the back of the humerus not 
 
 exceeding half an inch wide and extending from the middle 
 
 of the shaft up to lesser tuberosity ; 
 
 Internal head, from the lower part of the back of the 
 
 humerus, over a wide space extending nearly two-thirds of the 
 
 length of it. 
 
88 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 INSERTION. By a flat tendon to the end of the olecranon 
 process of ulna, 
 
 STRUCTURE. The long head has a short tendon ; the fibers 
 of the other two heads arise directly from the bone. The tendon 
 of insertion, as it leaves the ulna, broadens into a flat sheet that 
 extends far up on external surface of the muscle, and the fibers 
 are attached in a penniform manner into the deeper surface of it. 
 The long head passes down between the teres major, which lies in 
 front of it, and the teres minor, which is behind it. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Stimulus of the shorter heads cause vig- 
 orous extension of the elbow ; stimulation of the long head causes 
 extension of the elbow with less force, lifts the humerus directly 
 into the socket of the shoulder joint, and depresses the arm. 
 Paralysis of the triceps abolishes all power to extend the elbow. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The triceps enters into contraction to aid 
 in all movements involving forcible extension of the elbow joint, 
 such as striking with the fist, striking with a hammer, throwing, 
 putting the shot, thrusting dumb bells, pushing a lawn mower, etc. 
 The advantage of having one end of the triceps originate from the 
 scapula is seen in such movements as striking downward with an 
 ax or heavy hammer ; the centrifugal force of the swing tends to 
 pull the head of the humerus from the socket, and the lateral pull 
 of the latissimus dorsi and teres major, which always join in such 
 movements, tends to do the same thing; the pull of the long head 
 of the triceps and the coraco-brachialis holds the joint firmly in 
 its place and at the same time aids in the depression of the arm. 
 When these two muscles are lacking the head of the humerus is 
 pulled down out of the socket in all vigorous arm depression. 
 
 BICEPS. 
 
 This muscle is on the front side of the upper arm and, as its 
 name indicates, has two points of origin. (Fig. 42.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The long or outer head, from the top of the glenoid 
 fossa ; the short or inner head, from the coracoid. 
 
 INSERTION. The bicipital tuberosity of the radius. 
 
THE UPPER LIMB 89 
 
 STRUCTURE. The tendon of the long head is long and 
 slender; it passes outward over the head of the humerus, being 
 blended with the capsular ligament, and below this lies in the 
 bicipital groove, becoming muscular at the lower end of the 
 groove. The short head has a much shorter tendon. The tendon 
 of insertion is flattened and passes upward as a septum between 
 the two parts of the muscle, which join it in a penniform manner. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Flexion of the elbow and supination of 
 the forearm ; the latter movement much stronger when elbow is 
 at a right angle. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The biceps takes part in all movements 
 involving forcible flexion of the elbow, as in lifting, rowing, etc., 
 also forcible supination of the forearm, as in turning a screw 
 driver to turn a screw in with right hand or out with left, or in 
 wringing a wet cloth ; when the arm is raised sideward the biceps, 
 by its short head, aids in moving it forward. The origin of the 
 biceps on the scapula, while it does not make the muscle effective 
 to move the shoulder joint except in the last case, is of great serv- 
 ice in holding the head of the humerus up in its socket, from which 
 it would otherwise tend to be pulled by heavy lifting; when the 
 biceps is lacking the elbow can be flexed by other muscles, but if 
 there is much to be lifted the head of the humerus is pulled down- 
 ward out of the socket, causing pain which compels cessation of 
 the movement. 
 
 BRACHIO-RADIALIS. 
 
 A long slender muscle lying along the outer edge of the fore- 
 arm. It was named "Supinator Longus" by the ancient anatomists, 
 who entirely misjudged its action. (Fig. 43.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The upper two-thirds of the external condyloid 
 ridge of the humerus. 
 
 INSERTION. The external surface of the radius at its lower 
 end, near the base of the thumb. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Arising directly from the humerus, the fibers 
 are inserted in a penniform manner into the tendon of insertion, 
 which lies on the deeper surface of the muscle for its lower half. 
 
PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 FIG. 42. The biceps and pronator 
 teres. B, biceps; T, pronator 
 teres; L, long head; S, short 
 head ; p, tendon of pectoralis 
 major, pulled out of place; t, 
 tendon of teres major; 1, tendon 
 of latissimus dorsi. 
 
 FIG. 43. The brachialis anticus, 
 Coraco-brachialis, Brachio-rad- 
 ialis, Subscapularis, and Prona- 
 tor quadratus. A, acromion: C, 
 coracoid ; S, subscapularis ; Cb, 
 coraco-brachialis ; D, insertion 
 of deltoid; H, humerus; b.a, 
 brachialis anticus; b.t, bicipital 
 tuberosity of radius; br, bra- 
 chio-radialis : U, ulna; R, radi- 
 us; P.Q, pronator quadratus 
 
THE UPPER LIMB 91 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Vigorous flexion of the elbow, with tend- 
 ency to keep the forearm midway between pronation and supina- 
 tion. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The brachio-ra'dialis joins in all exercises 
 involving vigorous flexion of the elbow. 
 
 BRACHIALIS ANTICUS. 
 
 A short muscle lying beneath the biceps near the elbow joint. 
 (Fig. 43-) 
 
 ORIGIN. Anterior surface of the humerus for its lower half. 
 
 INSERTION. Anterior surface of the ulna near the joint, over 
 the rough prominence called the coronoid process. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The tendon of insertion flattens into a thin sheet 
 and the fibers, arising directly from the humerus, join its under 
 surface in a penniform manner. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Flexion of the elbow. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. Involved in all cases of forcible flexion of 
 the elbow. 
 
 PRONATER TERES. 
 
 A small round muscle lying obliquely across the front of the 
 elbow joint. (Fig. 42.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The front side of the internal condyle of the 
 humerus. 
 
 INSERTION. The outer surface of the radius near its middle. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Fibers arising from bone and inserted penni- 
 form. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. To pronate the forearm, and when this 
 is complete, to flex the elbow. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The pronator teres joins in all movements 
 of pronation and in all flexions of the elbow when supination is 
 not taking place. It aids by counteracting the supinating action 
 of the biceps when pure flexion is desired. 
 
92 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 PRONATOR QUADRATUS. 
 
 A thin square sheet of muscle lying deep under the muscles 
 of the forearm, on the front side just above the wrist. (Fig. 43.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The lower fourth of the front side of the ulna. 
 INSERTION. The lower fourth of the front side of the radius. 
 STRUCTURE. Parallel fibers attached directly to bone. 
 ACTION. Pronation. 
 
 SUPINATOR BREVIS. 
 
 A small muscle on the back of the forearm near the elbow. 
 
 ORIGIN. External condyle of the humerus, neighboring part 
 of the ulna, ligaments between. 
 
 INSERTION. The outer surface of the upper third of the 
 radius. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Mostly parallel fibers. 
 ACTION. Supination. 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF WRIST, HAND, AND FINGERS. 
 
 The human hand is a complex mechanism including 26 bones, 
 fifteen or twenty muscles, and thirty or more articulations, but 
 the detail of the structure and action of this mechanism is beyond 
 the scope of a treatise on exercise for physical education, except 
 the two movements of opening and closing the hand. For our 
 purpose the muscles of the forearm and hand may be divided into 
 two groups : the flexors and the extensors. 
 
 FLEXORS OF HAND AND WRIST. 
 
 These muscles lie on the front of the forearm, with small 
 associates in the palm of the hand and ball of the thumb. (F, 
 Fig. 44.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The inner condyle of the humerus and the front 
 side of the radius and ulna. 
 
THE: UPPER UMB 
 
 93 
 
 INSERTION. The palmar side of the bones of the hand and 
 fingers. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The main mass of muscle fibers is high up on 
 the front of the forearm, connection being made with hand and 
 
 FIG. 44- 
 
 F : flexors of hand ; B, biceps ; B.R, brachio- 
 radialis; P.T, pronator teces. 
 
 fingers by long slender tendons that are held in small space at the 
 wrist by a ring of ligament. Notice the deep groove on the front 
 of the wrist for the passage of these tendons. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Stimulation of the flexor muscles causes 
 flexion of fingers, then of the hand, and if still continued, flexion 
 of the wrist. 
 
94 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 NORMAL, ACTION. The muscles of the front of the forearm 
 contract in all movements involving vigorous closing of fingers 
 and hand. 
 
 EXTENSORS OF HAND AND WRIST. 
 
 A group of muscles similar to the flexors lying on the back 
 of the forearm. 
 
 ORIGIN. The outer condyle of the humerus and the back of 
 the radius and ulna. 
 
 INSERTION. The back side of the bones of fingers and hand. 
 STRUCTURE. Similar to flexors. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Extension of fingers, then hand, then 
 wrist. Over-extension of the wrist may be produced as far as 
 75 degrees. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The extensors of hand and fingers have 
 little vigorous action in most bodily exercises. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE MECHANISM OF THE LOWER LIMB. 
 
 Movements of the Hip Joint. 
 
 The pelvic girdle, which corresponds in a way to the shoulder 
 girdle, consists of three bones : the ilium above, the pubes below 
 and forward, and the ischium below and backward. These bones 
 do not articulate with one another, but in the adult form one solid 
 bone which articulates with the sacrum and the bone of the other 
 side to form the pelvic basin or pelvis., These articulations be- 
 tween the bones of the pelvis do not permit of any considerable 
 movement in exercise. The socket of the hip joint is at the point 
 of junction of ilium, pubes, and ischium. 
 
 The femur is the longest bone in the body and articulates 
 with the pelvis to form the hip joint. This is a ball and socket 
 joint, the head of the femur fitting closely into the socket, which 
 is named the acetabulum. Unlike the shoulder joint, the hip is 
 dislocated with much difficulty, considerable force being required 
 to draw the ball out of the socket, even when the muscles and 
 ligaments are not holding it in its place. 
 
 The movements of the hip joint correspond quite closely with 
 those of the shoulder joint, and are similarly named: 
 
 (1) Swinging the limb forward (flexion) ; 
 
 (2) Swinging it backward from the flexed position (ex- 
 tension) ; 
 
 (3) Swinging it away from the other limb (abduction) ; 
 
 (4) Swinging it toward the other limb (adduction) ; 
 
 (5) These four movements in succession, moving the foot 
 
 in a circle (circumduction) ; 
 
 (6) Turning the limb on its longitudinal axis (rotation). 
 
 Flexion of the hip is very free, being limited only by contact 
 .of the limb with the front of the trunk when the knee is also 
 
96 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 flexed ; if the knee is extended the movement is usually less than 
 90 degrees, for reasons that will be evident later. Extension is 
 limited by the "inverted Y" ligament, a thick band of fibers on the 
 front side of the capsular ligament of the joint ; this ligament pre- 
 vents all over-extension of the hip joint in normal individuals. 
 
 FIG. 45. Bones of the lower limb. Out- 
 er side on the right, inner side on the 
 left. A, head of femur; B, greater 
 trochanter ; C, lesser trochanter ; D, 
 shaft of femur; E, condyles of fe- 
 mur: F, head of fibula; G, head of 
 tibia; H, outer malleolus; J, inner 
 malleolus; P, patella. 
 
 Abduction is quite variable, some being able to abduct the limb 
 through 90 degrees and others not more than 45, the difference 
 being in the length of ligaments and muscles. Adduction is lim- 
 ited by contact with the other limb. Rotation is possible to 90 
 degrees in the extended position and a little more in the flexed 
 position. 
 
THE LOWER LIMB 97 
 
 MUSCLES ACTING ON THE HIP JOINT. 
 
 There are sixteen large muscles and a group of six small ones 
 acting on the hip joint. They are conveniently classified for our 
 purposes as follows : 
 
 MAINLY FLEXORS : Psoas, iliacus, sartorius, rectus femoris, 
 pectineus, tensor vaginae femoris. 
 
 MAINLY EXTENSORS: glutens maximus, biceps, semitendi- 
 nosus, semimembranosus. 
 
 MAINLY ABDUCTORS : gluteus medius, gluteus minimus. 
 
 MAINLY ADDUCTORS: gracilis, longus, brevis, magnus. 
 
 OUTWARD ROTATORS : pyriformis, obturator internus, obtura- 
 tor externus, gemellus inferior, gemellus superior, quadratus 
 femoris. 
 
 PSOAS. 
 
 The greater part of the psoas lies in the lower part of the 
 abdominal cavity behind the internal organs, where its action can- 
 not be observed. It is rather long and slender, and is usually ac- 
 companied by a small and undeveloped companion, the psoas par- 
 vus. (Fig. 46.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The sides of the bodies of the twelfth dorsal and 
 all of the lumbar vertebrae. 
 
 INSERTION. The lower and back part of the lesser trochanter 
 of the femur. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Fibers arising directly from the bones, penni- 
 form attachment to the tendon of insertion. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Too deeply covered to admit of stimu- 
 lation. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. While the psoas is too deep to be felt when 
 it contracts, which is the only absolute proof of normal action, 
 yet its mechanical conditions and its association with the iliacus 
 make it likely that it enters into all movements of vigorous flexion 
 of the hip. It is especially calculated to act in movements where 
 the hip and trunk are flexed at the same time, as when one hangs 
 by the hands and then lifts the knees to the chest. 
 
9 8 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 FIG. 46. Psoas, iliacus, pectineus,_ and 
 quadratus lumborum. P, psoas ; I, ili- 
 acus; Q, Quadratus lumborum; Pect, 
 pectineus ; f, femur; s, sacrum; c.i, 
 crest of ilium; G.tr, greater trochan- 
 ter. 
 
 FIG. 47. Muscles of the front of 
 the thigh. P, psoas; II, iliacus; 
 T, tensor ; p, pectineus ; 1, ad- 
 ductor longus; g, adductor gra- 
 cilis; S sartorius; R, rectusfe- 
 moris; E, vastus externus; In, 
 vastus internus ; pt. patella ; c.p., 
 crest of pubes; c.i, crest of ili- 
 um. 
 
 ILIACUS. 
 
 Named from the bone to which it is attached. (Fig. 46.) 
 ORIGIN. The inner surface of the ilium and a part of the 
 
 inner surface of the sacrum close to the ilium. 
 
 INSERTION. The tendon of the psoas, just where the latter 
 
 crosses the front edge of the pelvis. 
 
THE: LOWER LIMB 99 
 
 STRUCTURE. Fibers arising directly from the bone, converg- 
 ing and joining the psoas tendon in a penniform manner. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Stimulation of the iliacus, sometimes pos- 
 sible through a thin abdominal wall, causes flexion of the hip and 
 outward rotation of the limb, the latter with little force. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The iliacus comes into action along with 
 the psoas in all movements which, like walking and running, in- 
 volve flexion of the hip joint. 
 
 SARTORIUS. 
 
 Latin for "tailors' muscle", because the ancient anatomists 
 wrongly attributed to it the crossing of the legs in the manner of 
 oriental tailors at their work. It is the longest muscle of the 
 body. (Fig. 47.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The lower side of the anterior superior spine of 
 the ilium and the upper part of the notch below it. 
 
 INSERTION. Front part of the interior surface of the tibia, 
 along with the gracilis and the semitendinosus. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Parallel fibers extending the whole length of the 
 muscle. The middle of the sartorius is so firmly imbedded in a 
 sheath of connective tissue called the fascia of the thigh that its 
 upper and lower halves can act independently of one another. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Stimulation of the sartorius, when the 
 subject is standing with the weight on the other foot, causes 
 flexion of the hip and flexion of the knee at the same time, with 
 little tendency to rotate the hip in either direction. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The sartorius is employed constantly in 
 walking, in which it is able to lift the foot as one always does in 
 beginning a step. (Fig. 50.) 
 
 RECTUS FEMORIS. 
 
 This is a large muscle named from its position straight down 
 the front of the thigh. It corresponds closely to the long head of 
 the triceps, being the middle part of the three-headed extensor of 
 the knee. (Fig. 47.) 
 
ioo PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 upper border of the patella. 
 
 STRUCTURE:. The upper tendon passes down the middle of 
 the muscle while the lower tendon is a flat aponetirosis extending 
 up on its deeper surface. The fibers are short, crossing obliquely 
 between the tendons, giving the muscle great power and small 
 range. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Flexion of the hip and extension of the 
 knee with great force. Either movement is much more powerful 
 if the other is prevented from taking place. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The rectus femoris takes part in most 
 movements of flexion of the hip and of extension of the knee. 
 It is especially useful in combinations of these two, as in kicking. 
 It is in fact the only muscle able to perform this movement alone. 
 and so can properly be called "the kicking muscle". It contracts 
 in walking to help extend the knee on the side supporting the 
 weight, but does not aid in swinging the leg forward, since it 
 cannot flex the hip without extending the knee. (Fig. 53.) 
 
 PECTINEUS. 
 
 A short and thick muscle of the front of the thigh which can 
 alone give the combination of flexion and adduction employed in 
 crossing one limb over the other while sitting, the movement at- 
 tributed by early anatomists to the sartorius. (Fig 46.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The front side of the pubes, just below the rim of 
 the pelvic basin. 
 
 INSERTION. The back side of the femur, on the lower part 
 of the lesser trochanter and extending about two inches below it. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Penniform arrangement, both ends of the mus- 
 cle having fleshy and tendinous fibers intermingled. The muscle 
 is twisted about 90 degrees as it passes downward. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Flexion with considerable force, adduc- 
 tion with less force, and slight outward rotation. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The pectineus takes part in all vigorous 
 flexion or adduction of the hip. It is the one muscle able to lift 
 the knee and cross it over the other while sitting, without the aid 
 of other muscles. 
 
THE LOWER UME ( \ ; f,OI 
 
 TENSOR VAGINA FEMORIS. 
 
 A small muscle situated at the front and side of the thigh, 
 its name indicating that it tightens the sheath or. fascia of the 
 thigh. It is peculiar among muscles in having no bony insertion, 
 the fibers attaching to the thick layer of fascia that envelopes the 
 thigh. (Fig. 47.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The notch between the two anterior spines of the 
 ilium. 
 
 INSERTION. The fascia of the thigh, one-fourth of the way 
 from the crest of the ilium to the knee. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Tendinous sheet at the origin, parallel fibers, 
 penniform insertion into two layers of the fascia, one lying be- 
 neath the muscle and the other to the outside. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Flexion and abduction of the thigh, the 
 former predominating, with rotation to turn the toes inward. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The tensor acts strongly in walking, along 
 with the psoas, iliacus, and sartorius ; it joins with the other mus- 
 cles studied in all vigorous flexion of the hip, and especially when 
 there is abduction at the same time ; it also acts in movements of 
 pure abduction. Persons lacking this muscle always turn the toes 
 far out in walking, except when they think of it; they can with 
 effort prevent the outward rotation by using other muscles. 
 (Fig. 50.) 
 
 GLUTEUS MAXIM us. 
 
 A very large fleshy muscle at the back of the hip. (Fig. 48.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The outer surface of the ilium along the posterior 
 one-fifth of its crest, the posterior surface of the sacrum close to 
 its junction with the ilium, and the fascia of the lumbar region. 
 
 INSERTION. A rough line about two inches long extending 
 vertically down the back side of the femur, its middle being on a 
 level with the lesser trochanter. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Fibers arising directly from the ilium and sac- 
 rum and making an oblique junction with the tendon of insertion, 
 which is a flat sheet running along the lower edge of the muscle. 
 
102 
 
 TRAINING 
 
 C.L . 
 
 / 
 
 FIG. 48. Gluteus maximus, medius. and minimus, adductors gracilis 
 and brevis. G.M, gluteus maximus ; g.m, gluteus medius ; A.g. 
 adductor gracilis; A.b, adductor brevis; S, sacrum; c.i, crest of 
 ilium; t.i, tuberosity of ischium; f, femur; T, tibia. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Powerful extension of the hip accom- 
 panied with slight outward rotation of the femur, the latter with 
 little force. There was for centuries disagreement among anato- 
 mists as to the action of this muscle until electric stimulation was 
 used to determine it. Persons who have lost the use of the 
 gluteus maximus cannot climb stairs or walk up a steep incline, 
 and can rise from a chair with difficulty. 
 
THE LOWER LIMB 103 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The gluteus maximus takes part in all 
 such exercises as running, jumping, climbing, etc., where the hip 
 is flexed to a considerable angle and then extended ; exercises like 
 walking, in which the hip is but little flexed, are performed with- 
 out it, as one can easily discover upon himself. This is a pecu- 
 liarity in the nervous control of the gluteus maximus; like the 
 serratus magnus, it is not habitually contracted in some cases 
 where its mechanical conditions would enable it to help if it were 
 used. (Fig. 65.) 
 
 SEMITENDINOSUS. 
 
 Named from its long tendon of insertion, which reaches half 
 way up the thigh ; it is the first of three muscles known as "the 
 ham-string group." (Fig. 49.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The tuberosity of the ischium. 
 
 INSERTION. The front part of the inner surface of the tibia, 
 along with the sartorius and the adductor gracilis. 
 
 STRUCTURE. A flat tendon two inches long joins the fibers to 
 the ischium ; the tendon of insertion receives these fibers in a 
 penniform manner for about four inches of its length just about 
 the middle of the thigh ; the tendon below this is round and just 
 under the skin. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Flexion of the knee and extension of the 
 hip ; either is much more powerful if the other movement is pre- 
 vented. When the knee joint is flexed to a right angle or more 
 the semitendinosus can rotate the toes inward, but this movement 
 is of little importance compared with its other actions. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The semitendinosus, along with the other 
 muscles of the hamstring group, are the principal muscles involved 
 in extension of the hip in walking and other mild exercises; they 
 take part in all the more vigorous extensions of the hip, such as 
 running, jumping, climbing, lifting, etc. ; they also help to flex 
 the knee as the foot is raised from the ground in walking and 
 running. 
 
104 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 SEMIMEMBRANOSUS. 
 
 Named from its shape, which is that of a knife with a thin 
 and membranous edge. It lies beside the semitendinosus. (Fig. 
 49-) 
 
 -Q 
 
 Fie. 49. Muscles of back of low- 
 er limb. B, biceps ; Sm, semi- 
 membranosus ; St, semitendino- 
 sus ; G, gastrocuemius ; R, three 
 of the outward rotators ; T, tu- 
 berosity of the ischium; S, sa- 
 
 ORIGIN. The tuberosity of the ischium. 
 
 INSERTION. The inner and back side of the inner tuberosity 
 of the tibia, close to its upper edge. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The upper tendon extends down to the middle 
 of the thigh and the lower tendon up to nearly the same level ; the 
 
THE LOWER LIMB 105 
 
 muscular fibers, which are comparatively short, extend diagonally 
 across from one tendon to the other. The long upper tendon 
 brings the bulk of the fibers below those of the semitendinosus, so 
 that the two muscles do not' crowd each other as they contract. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Powerful extension of hip with little ef- 
 fect on the knee, except the rotary action when the knee is flexed 
 to 90 degrees. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. A companion of the preceding in all move- 
 ments of extension of the hip. 
 
 BICEPS. 
 
 Named from its double origin ; forms the outer division of 
 the hamstring. (Fig. 49.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The long head, from the tuberosity of the ischium ; 
 the short head, from the lower half of the linea aspera. 
 
 INSERTION. The outer tuberosity of the tibia and the head 
 of the fibula. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The upper tendon is rather long and serves as 
 a septum between the biceps and the semimembranosus ; the lower 
 tendon is flat and extends half way up the thigh ; the muscular 
 fibers of the two parts of the muscle join the lower tendon in a 
 penniform manner just below the middle of the thigh. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Powerful extension of hip and flexion 
 of knee, without outward rotation in knee joint after flexion to 90 
 degrees. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The hamstring muscles act together in the 
 extension of hip and flexion of knee, as before mentioned. 
 
 GLUTEUS MEDIUS. 
 
 This muscle gives the rounded contour that is found at the 
 side of the hip. (Fig. 48 and Fig. 50.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The outer surface of the ilium near the crest. 
 INSERTION. The top of the greater trochanter of the femur. 
 
io6 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 FIG. 50. Knee raising. R, rectus femoris; V.I, vastus interims; S, sar- 
 torius; G.Med, glutens medius; V.E, vastus externus; T, tensor. 
 
THE LOWER 'LIMB . 107 
 
 STRUCTURE. Fibers arising from the bone are inserted 
 obliquely into both sides of the flat tendon of insertion. The front 
 part of the muscle is the thicker and stronger. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Stimulation of the gluteus medius, given 
 when the limb is free to move, causes strong abduction. Paralysis 
 of this muscle permits the opposite side of the pelvis to drop when 
 unsupported, and in walking the limb is apt to strike the other 
 one as it moves forward 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The gluteus medius is in action in walk- 
 ing, running, and in all movements in which the body is supported 
 for a time on one limb, to support the opposite side of the pelvis. 
 It is brought into most vigorous action in running and jumping, 
 where the weight of the whole body is received on one foot from a 
 height. It of course abducts the limb in leg raising sideward. 
 In walking the front edge enters into contraction first, thus help- 
 ing to swing the opposite side of pelvis forward. 
 
 GLUTEUS MINIMUS. 
 
 A somewhat smaller muscle just beneath the preceding. 
 
 ORIGIN. The lower part of the outer surface of the ilium. 
 
 INSERTION. The top of the greater trochanter. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Fibers arise directly from the bone to converge 
 into the flat tendon of insertion. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. The same as the medius. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The gluteus minimus joins the gluteus 
 medius and the tensor vaginae femoris in all movements of abduc- 
 tion of the hip joint, both when the limb is free to move and when 
 it is supporting the weight. 
 
 ADDUCTOR GRACILIS. 
 
 A slender muscle passing down the inner side of the thigh. 
 (Fig. 48.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The inner edge of the ramus of pubes and ischium. 
 
 INSERTION. The inner surface of the tibia, along with the 
 sartorius and the semitendinosus. 
 
I08 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 STRUCTURE. A thin, flat tendon above, fibers almost parallel 
 but converging as they pass downward ; round tendon below. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Adduction of limb and flexion of knee. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The adductor gracilis joins in all exercises 
 involving adduction of the thigh and flexion of the knee. 
 
 ADDUCTOR LONGUS. 
 
 Lies just to the inner side of the pectineus. (Fig. 47.) 
 
 ORIGIN. Front of the pubes, just below the crest. 
 
 INSERTION. The linea aspera, in the middle third of the 
 thigh. 
 
 STRUCTURE. A thick triangular sheet arising by a short 
 round tendon and diverging fan-wise, attaching to the femur by 
 an aponeurosis. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Adduction and flexion of the hip joint ; 
 the flexion is not enough to make the adducted limb pass in front 
 of the other, as is the case with the pectineus. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The adductor longus takes part in all move- 
 ments like walking and running, that involve combined flexion 
 and adduction of the thigh ; it also acts in vigorous adduction or 
 vigorous flexion. 
 
 ADDUCTOR BREVIS. 
 
 A short muscle beneath the longus. (Fig. 48.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The front of the pubes and a part of the ramus, 
 just below the origin of the longus. 
 
 INSERTION. The upper half of the linea aspera. 
 
 STRUCTURE. A fan-shaped sheet similar to the longus but 
 shorter. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Never investigated. 
 
 ADDUCTOR MAGNUS. 
 
 One of the largest muscles of the body, situated beneath 
 the gracilis on the inner side of the thigh. ( Fig. 51.) 
 
THE LOWER UMB 
 
 I0 9 
 
 ORIGIN. The front of the pubes, the tuberosity of the 
 ischium, and the whole length of the ramus connecting these two 
 bones. 
 
 INSERTION. The whole length of the linea aspera and the 
 inner condyloid line. 
 
 FJG. 51. Adductor magnus. P, 
 pubes; I, ischium; R, ramus; F, 
 femur; I,, linea aspera. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The fibers from the pubes and the front part of 
 the ramus pass in a nearly horizontal direction to the upper part of 
 the linea aspera, much like the adductor brevis; this arising 
 farther back pass lower ; the fibers from the tuberosity of the 
 ischium are inserted on the condyloid line at the lower end of the 
 femur. 
 
110 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. The whole muscle acting together gives 
 direct and powerful adduction; the front and upper fibers give 
 some rotation inward; the lower fibers give extension and rota- 
 tion outward. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The adductor magnus joins with the other 
 adductors in the movement their name indicates ; in addition to this 
 the lower and most posterior fibers, which make up a large part 
 of the bulk of the muscle, aid in all movements of extension of the 
 hip, entering actively into walking, running, and jumping. Per- 
 sons whose adductors are weak or lacking swing the limb forward 
 and outward as they walk. 
 
 SIX OUTWARD ROTATORS. 
 
 A group of small muscles beneath the gluteus maximus. 
 
 ORIGIN. The inner and back sides of the pelvis. 
 
 INSERTION. The greater trochanter of the femur. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Many kinds. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. The six muscles unite to turn the femur 
 outward or the opposite side of the pelvis backward ; individually, 
 some of them act slightly in other movements. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The six outward rotators do most of the 
 work of turning the toes outward or the opposite side of the pelvis 
 backward, according to which side is free to move. 
 
 INWARD ROTATION. 
 
 Inward rotation in the hip joint is performed mainly by the 
 gluteus medius and minimus, the tensor vaginae femoris, and the 
 adductors brevis and longus ; this is the same movement as turning 
 the opposite side of the pelvis forward. Rotation inward is in- 
 volved in many forms of bodily exercise, as in striking a blow with 
 the fist, throwing, batting in baseball, putting the shot, throwing 
 the hammer and discus, the lunge in fencing, and many others. 
 Outward rotation is sometimes involved in these exercises but 
 not so frequently as the opposite. 
 
THE I/)WER IvIMB III 
 
 Movements of the Knee Joint. 
 
 The knee joint is the largest and most complicated joint in 
 the body, the two condyles of the femur articulating with the two 
 tuberosities of the tibia, forming two separate points of contact. 
 On the top of each tuberosity is a cartilage upon which the con- 
 dyles move.. There is present the usual capsular ligament sur- 
 rounding the joint, the patella lying between its layers and the ten- 
 don of the extensor muscles forming a part of it. Besides the 
 ligaments forming the capsule there are two ligaments called the 
 crucial ligaments within the joint and acting to limit its motion. 
 The knee acts much like a hinge joint, permitting only flexion and 
 extension, excepting in the position of flexion of 90 degrees or 
 more, when rotation is possible. This is readily demonstrated by 
 anyone upon himself. In standing erect on one foot one can 
 easily rotate the free limb, but the rotation is all in the hip joint; 
 when he sits in a chair, with the knees flexed to a right angle 
 or more, the toes can be easily turned in and out, the rotation now 
 taking place in the knee. As in case of the elbow, there is some 
 difference in individuals as to the possibility of extension or slight 
 over-extension; usually the knee is slightly over-extended when 
 one stands erect, and the extensor muscles remain relaxed as long 
 as the poise is not disturbed. See figure 104, page 206. 
 
 The patella glides up and down in the notch in front of the 
 two condyles as the joint is flexed and extended. 
 
 The movements of the knee may be summarized as follows : 
 
 (1) Flexion, taking place through 130 to 150 degrees; 
 
 (2) Extension; 
 
 (3) Rotation to turn the toes inward; 
 
 (4) Rotation to turn the toes outward. 
 
 The latter two are possible only when the joint is flexed to 
 more than 90 degrees. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 i. Point out on an unmounted tibia the two tuberosities, the 
 tubercle where the patellar ligament joins it, and the prominence 
 
ii2 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 that forms the inner malleolus of the ankle ; tell which is the inner 
 side of the bone and which the outer side ; and whether it belongs 
 to the right or left limb. 
 
 MUSCLES ACTING ON THE KNEE JOINT. 
 
 The muscles acting on the knee joint are naturally classified 
 in four groups as follows : 
 
 Flexors : Semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps, sartori- 
 us, gracilis. 
 
 Extensors: Rectus femoris, vastus externus, vastus internus. 
 
 Rotators inward: Semitendinosus, semimembranosus, sar- 
 torius, gracilis. 
 
 Rotators outward : Biceps. 
 
 All of these muscles but two have been studied in connection 
 with the actions of the hip joint. 
 
 VASTUS EXTERNUS. 
 
 A large muscle on the outer side of the thigh, forming the 
 rounded contour that stands out half way down the thigh. (Fig. 
 
 52.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The outer surface of the femur just below the 
 greater trochanter, and the upper half of the linea aspera. 
 
 INSERTION. The upper half of the upper border of the 
 patella. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The fibers arise in part directly from the bone 
 and in part from a flat tendon of origin that covers the outer sur- 
 face of the upper two-thirds of the muscle ; the tendon of insertion 
 is a flat sheet lying on its deeper surface ; the fibers cross obliquely 
 from one sheet to the other, giving the muscle great power with 
 small range. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Powerful extension of the knee, pulling 
 the patella outward. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The vastus externus comes into vigorous 
 action in all exercises involving extension of the knee while the 
 
THE LOWER UMB 
 
 FIG. 52. The yastus externus and the vastus internus. 
 B, back view; F front view; E. externus; I, in- 
 ternus; R, rectus; P, patella. 
 
114 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 subject is on the feet, as in running, jumping, knee flexion and ex- 
 tension while standing on one or both feet, fallouts and lunges, 
 etc. (Fig. 53.) 
 
 VASTUS INTERNUS, 
 
 This muscle is on the inner side of the thigh, somewhat lower 
 than the externus. It is sometimes considered as two separate 
 muscles, the deeper part being called the crureus, but for our pur- 
 poses this division has no advantage. (Fig. 52.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The front side of the shaft of the femur and the 
 whole length of the linea aspera. 
 
 INSERTION. The inner half of the upper border of the 
 patella. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The fibers arise from the shaft of the bone and 
 a flat tendon from the linea aspera and join the tendon of insertion 
 in a penniform manner, the lower tendon being a flat sheet lying 
 on the outer surface of the muscle. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Same as for the externus except that the 
 patella is drawn inward. Persons lacking the extensors of the 
 knee can stand erect but cannot walk or run without falling. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The vastus internus works normally with 
 the externus and the rectus femoris, just as the three parts of the 
 triceps of the arm work together, in the movements mentioned 
 under the preceding. (Fig. 53.) 
 
 Movements of the Foot. 
 
 The weight of the body is supported by the foot, which con- 
 sists of 26 bones so combined as to form two arches, touching the 
 ground at three points. The bones of the foot are classified as 
 follows : 
 
 (1) Seven tarsal bones: astragalus, calcaneum, cuboid, 
 
 scaphoid, and three cuneiform bones ; . 
 
 (2) Five metatarsal bones, numbered from within outward; 
 
 (3) Fourteen phalanges, three for each toe except the first, 
 
 which has but two. (Fig. 54.) 
 
LOWER LIMB 
 
 FIG. 53. Inclining backward from sitting position. S, sartorius ;' R, rectus 
 femoris; V.E, vastus externus; V.I, vastus internus ; T, tensor. 
 
n6 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 FIG. 54. Skeleton of the foot. Upper figure, view from above ; lower 
 figure, view from below. T, tibia; F, fibula; A, astragalus; Cal, cal- 
 caneum; Cub, cuboid; S, scaphoid; 1, 2, 3, the three cuneiform bones; 
 M, the metatarsals. 
 
 The principal movements of the foot are as follows : 
 
 (1) Lifting the toes and foot (flexion) ; 
 
 (2) Depressing the toes and foot (extension) ; 
 
 (3) Turning the sole of the foot inward (adduction) ; 
 
 (4) Turning the sole of the foot outward (abduction). 
 
THE LOWER UMB 117 
 
 These movements of the foot result from movements taking 
 place in the ankle joint and in several joints within the foot itself. 
 
 The ankle is a hinge joint in which the tibia rests upon and 
 articulates with the astragalus, while a projecting process of the 
 tibia and the lower end of the fibula reach past on each side, giv- 
 
 FIG. 55. Side view of foot, showing the position of the plantar ligaments, 
 which are indicated in white. 
 
 ing firmness to the joint and forming the two rounded prominences 
 called the inner and the outer malleolus. The ankle can be flexed 
 and extended through about 45 degrees ; no other movements are 
 possible in the ankle- There is ho rotation between the tibia and 
 fibula, like that between the radius and ulna ; the axes of the knee 
 and ankle joints are parallel, so that the flexed knee points the 
 same wav as the toes. 
 
118 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 There is a complex series of joints between the tarsal bones 
 and between them and the metatarsals which permit some flexion 
 and extension and all the adduction and abduction. Flexion and 
 extension of the foot are therefore movements taking place in all 
 the joints of the foot, including the ankle, while the other two 
 movements take place in the tarsal joints only. 
 
 The main arch passes" under the foot transversely, the heel 
 (calcaneum) forming its rear base and the broad part of the foot 
 at the front end of the metatarsal bones (the ball of the foot) 
 forming its front base. The arch is largest on the inner side of 
 the foot and is also weakest there, because the two principal liga- 
 ments for supporting this arch, the short and long plantar liga- 
 ments, connect the calcaneum with the cuboid and the last meta- 
 tarsals with no corresponding connection with the scaphoid and 
 the bones of the inner margin. There are smaller and weaker liga- 
 ments there, but the main support for the inner side of the arch 
 is supplied by muscular contraction. 
 
 The second arch is at right angles to the first and in front of 
 it, having as its bases the front ends of the first and fifth meta- 
 tarsals. This arch, like the inner end of the other arch, derives its 
 main support from muscles. 
 
 MUSCLES ACTING ON THE FOOT. 
 
 The principal muscles acting on the foot may be classified 
 as follows : 
 
 Mainly flexors: tibialis anticus, extensor longus digitorum, 
 extensor proprius hallucis. 
 
 Mainly extensors : gastrocnemius, soleus, peroneus longus. 
 
 Mainly adductor : tibialis posticus. 
 
 Mainly abductor : peroneus brevis. 
 
 TIBIAUS ANTICUS. 
 
 Named from the tibia and from its position on the front of 
 the leg. (Fig. 56.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The upper two-thirds of the front side of the tibia 
 and of the interosseous membrane. 
 
THE: LOWER LIMB 
 
 119 
 
 FIG 56. Flexors of Ankle. T, 
 tibia; T.a, tibialis anticus; F, 
 extensor longus digitorum ; f , 
 extensor hallucis; G, gastroc- 
 nemius; S, solcus. 
 
120 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 INSERTION. The inner margin of the inner cuneiform bone 
 and of the first metatarsal. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The fibers arise directly from the tibia to be in- 
 serted in a penniform manner into the long tendon of insertion, 
 which is held close to the ankle by its passing under a ring of 
 ligament. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Strong flexion of ankle and tarsal joints, 
 straightening out the inner side of the main arch of the foot, 
 adducting the sole. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The tibialis anticus is in constant action in 
 such exercises as walking, running, and jumping, to lift the front 
 of the foot and the toes and so prevent their dragging on the 
 ground as the foot is swung forward. The action being on the 
 inner side of the foot, flexion will be accompanied by adduction 
 unless it is associated with another muscle to prevent it. This 
 office is performed by the next muscle. 
 
 EXTENSOR LONGUS DIGITORUM. 
 
 Latin for long extensor of the toes ; it lies on the front of the 
 leg to the outer side of the preceding. " (Fig. 56.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The outer tuberosity of the tibia and the front of 
 the fibula and of the interosseous membrane. 
 
 INSERTION. The upper surfaces of the bones of the four 
 outer toes. 
 
 STRUCTURE. It is a penniform muscle with a long tendon be- 
 ginning at the middle of the leg: As it passes under the ring liga- 
 ment at the ankle it divides into four tendons which pass to the 
 four toes. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Extension of the four last toes and then 
 combined flexion and abduction of the foot. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. This muscle normally acts with the tibialis 
 anticus to produce normal flexion of the foot, which is not possible 
 if either muscle is deficient. 
 
THE LOWER UMB 121 
 
 EXTENSOR PROPRIUS HALLUCIS. 
 
 Latin for "special extensor for the great toe" ; a small muscle 
 also found on the front of the leg. (Fig. 56.) 
 
 ORIGIN. Front of the fibula and of the interosseous mem- 
 brane at the middle of the leg. 
 
 INSERTION. The upper surfaces of the bones of the great toe. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Like the preceding. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Strong extension of the great toe ; feeble 
 flexion of the tarsal joints ; no effect on the ankle. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The extensor proprius hallucis works nor- 
 mally along with the tibialis anticus to prevent the toe from taking 
 the position of extreme flexion that would otherwise follow from 
 the action of the latter. 
 
 GASTROCNEMIUS. 
 
 A large muscle that gives the rounded form to the calf of the 
 leg. (Fig. 57.) 
 
 ORIGIN. By two heads from the back sides of the condyles 
 of the femur. 
 
 INSERTION. By a very large tendon (tendon of achilles) into 
 the back side of the calcaneum. 
 
 STRUCTURE, Short tendons above ; the lower tendon has a 
 cross section like the capital T with the longer part passing up 
 between the right and left halves of the muscle and the cross bar 
 on its posterior surface ; the fibers from the two heads are in- 
 serted obliquely into the sides of this tendon. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. First, complete extension of the ankle 
 joint, by which the foot is depressed, the outer margin with 
 great force and the inner margin with very little force ; then, if the 
 contraction goes farther, the calcaneum is flexed on the astragalus. 
 The joint here is such that the foot is not flexed directly, as in the 
 ankle joint, but by a combination of flexion and adduction, the 
 
122 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 external border of the foot being depressed further than the inner 
 border, turning the sole in. 
 
 No considerable action on the knee is produced. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. This is the most important muscle for lift- 
 ing the body on the toes in walking, running, jumping, etc. Its 
 special connection with the outside of the foot makes it necessary 
 to have an associate to correct the pull to one side and thus give 
 direct extension of the foot. 
 
 FIG. 57. Gastocnemius, soleus, peroneus longus. 
 SOLEUS. 
 
 This associate of the gastrocnemius lies directly beneath it 
 on the back of the leg and can be felt bulging out on both sides 
 during vigorous contraction. (Fig. 57.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The upper part of the posterior surfaces of the 
 tibia, fibula, and interosseous membrane. 
 
 INSERTION. Into the tendon of Achilles. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Complex penniform, similar to the preceding. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Same as the preceding, but with less 
 power. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The same as the gastrocnemius. 
 
THE: LOWER iviMB " 123 
 
 PERONEUS LONGUS. 
 
 This muscle is remarkable for its great power in proportion 
 to its size and for the long and tortuous course of its tendon of 
 insertion. It is situated along the outside of the leg along the 
 fibula. (Fig. 57.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The outer tuberosity of the tibia and the outer sur- 
 face of the fibula. 
 
 INSERTION. The outer margin of the under surface of the 
 first metatarsal bone and the first cuneiform bone near it, under 
 the ball of the great toe. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The fibers are short and arise directly from the 
 bone, making a typical example of the simple penniform arrange- 
 ment ; the tendon passes first behind the outer malleolus as a pulley, 
 turning forward at an angle of about 60 degrees, and then through 
 a groove in the cuboid bone, where it turns across the sole of the 
 foot at an angle of 100 degrees ; passing across beneath the foot 
 it. reaches its insertion at the inner margin. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. First, strong depression of the great toe, 
 increasing the curvature of the main arch at its inner margin, the 
 toe moving outward as well as downward ; then it causes abduc- 
 tion, turning the sole of the foot outward, the movement being 
 mainly between the calcaneum and the astragalus; finally it ex- 
 tends the ankle joint, but only to a small extent and with little 
 force. All these movements are made with very little force unless 
 the gastrocnemius and soleus act at the same time to extend the 
 ankle, since the peroneus longus pulls around the cuboid bone, 
 which must be held firmly downward to enable it to act. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The peroneus longus acts in association 
 with the muscles pulling on the tendon of Achilles to produce 
 direct extension of the foot, which is not secured by either alone. 
 If the gastrocnemius is weak, too much weight is thrown on the 
 heel, with resulting deformity; if the peroneus 'is weak, the great 
 toe is not held down, the inner side of the arch straightens out, 
 and flat foot results. 
 
124 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 TIBIALIS POSTICUS. 
 
 ORIGIN. The posterior sides of the tibia, fibula, and interos- 
 seous membrane. 
 
 INSERTION. The under side of the scaphoid bone. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Strong penniform arrangement. The tendon 
 of insertion passes around the inner malleolus, turning its direc- 
 tion a little more than 90 degrees. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Adduction of the foot and increased cur- 
 vature of the arch ; it affects the ankle but slightly and with no 
 force. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The tibialis posticus helps to support the 
 weight on the foot by preventing the ankle from turning inward, 
 and so is a guard against certain kinds of deformity. It is the 
 only muscle producing a simple adduction of the foot without 
 flexion or extension. 
 
 PERONEUS BREVIS. 
 
 ORIGIN. The lower two-thirds of the outer surface of the 
 fibula. 
 
 INSERTION. The outer side of the base of the fifth metarsal 
 bone. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Arrangement of fibers like the longus ; similar 
 turn around the outer malleolus ; passes directly forward to in- 
 sertion. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Abduction of the foot with great force. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The peroneus brevis acts with the longus 
 in abducting the foot and in preventing adduction when the 
 weight is on it, thus helping to maintain it in normal position. 
 
 FLAT FOOT. 
 
 Sometimes the arches of the foot fail to support the weight 
 of the body and flatten out, giving the condition known as flat foot. 
 (Fig. 58a.) The inner end of the transverse arch usually gives 
 
THE 
 
 125 
 
 (a) 
 
 (b) 
 
 FIG. 58. (a) a flat foot, (b) a normal foot, viewed from the 
 inner side. 
 
 way first, allowing the ankle to bend inward, making the inner 
 malleolus prominent ; the sole of the foot is abducted and the inner 
 margin of the foot becomes convex, when it should be straight ; 
 pressure is brought to bear on nerves and blood vessels beneath 
 the foot, causing swelling and pain. 
 
126 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 The main predisposing cause of flat foot is muscular weak- 
 ness ; inability of the muscles supporting the arches of the foot to 
 sustain the weight placed upon them and to maintain the foot in 
 proper position. (Fig. 59a.) Among the great number of con- 
 tributing factors found in particular cases the most important are 
 improper shoes, general weakness, rapid increase in weight, vio- 
 lent strain, and too long continued standing on a hard floor. 
 
 Tight shoes, and those with high heels are always conducive 
 to the deformity, since they interfere with the natural action of the 
 muscles ; shoes that have been worn until they turn over inward 
 at the heel are especially bad. 
 
 The general weakness that always follows continued illness 
 unfits one to stand much on the feet, and the arches are apt to 
 give way if too much standing is attempted at such a time; weak- 
 ness resulting from disuse of the limb made necessary by injury of 
 any kind may also cause the difficulty. 
 
 Persons who have been light and slender for many years fre- 
 quently become heavy at or before middle age, and the feet, un- 
 used to supporting the added weight, fail to do so properly. 
 
 Athletes who practice jumping to excess without a sufficiently 
 long preliminary training to prepare the muscles of the feet for 
 it, often have flat foot as a result of the strain of alighting ; pro- 
 fessional strong men and others doing heavy lifting are liable to 
 the same thing. 
 
 By far the greater number of cases arise among those whose 
 occupation requires long standing on the feet, with little or no 
 exercise that is calculated to strengthen the supporting muscles. 
 Clerks, nurses, and motor-men are especially liable to flat foot 
 from this cause. 
 
 The muscles directly concerned in the prevention of the posi- 
 tion of flat foot are the peroneus longus, the tibialis posticus, and 
 the muscles acting on the tendon of Achilles, together with sev- 
 eral smaller muscles of the sole of the. foot which we have not 
 studied. The one most often at fault in the first stages of flat 
 foot is the peroneus longus, which has for its duty to depress the 
 ball of the great toe and thus to support one end of each arch 
 
THE LOWER UMB 
 
 127 
 
 (a) 
 
 (b) 
 FIG. 59. Prints of feet on paper, (a) flat foot, (b) normal foot. 
 
 at the same time. When this muscle, from strain or fatigue, fails 
 to perform its part, the tibialis posticus and the ligaments sustain- 
 ing the inner edge of the foot are not able to support the weight 
 and the arch gives way. If the gastrocnemius and soleus are 
 strong it is still possible to avoid permanent harm to the foot, for 
 
12.8 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 the subject can use these muscles strongly, walking on the outer 
 edge of the foot and adducting the sole, taking all strain off from 
 the inner side and allowing the two weakened muscles and the 
 ligaments to rest and recuperate. When left to himself, however, 
 one is not apt to do this ; it is easier to relax and let the ankle turn 
 in, which is the usual next stage of the deformity. It seems like 
 a contradiction to say that weakness of the peroneus longus, an 
 abductor of the foot, will lead to a habitual adbuction, but that is 
 the case. Stretching of the two strong plantar ligaments by jump- 
 ing or lifting causes still greater flatness. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE: MECHANISM OF THE TRUNK 
 
 Movements of the Spinal Column. 
 
 The bony axis of the trunk is the spinal column, which con- 
 sists of 33 vertebrae, classified as follows: 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 
 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 4 coccygeal. The vertebrae increase in size 
 from above downward as far as the lumbar region; the sacral 
 vertebrae are fused into a single bone, the sacrum; the coccygeal 
 vertebrae are not fully developed. Each vertebra has ten parts 
 that should be observed: I body, 2 pedicles, 2 laminae, i spinous 
 process, 2 transverse processes, and 2 articular processes. 
 (Fig. 61.) 
 
 Articulating with the spinal column are 12 ribs, classified into 
 10 fixed and 2 floating ribs, the latter not being attached to the 
 cartilages in front. In front of the chest is the sternum, consist- 
 ing of three parts and attached to the ribs by the costal cartilages. 
 
 The sacrum is firmly bound to the two ilia to form the pelvis 
 and serves as a base on which the spinal column rests. The verte- 
 brae are separated by discs of cartilage which are firmly attached 
 to each vertebra, forming an amphiarthrosis, a form of joint 
 moving only by virtue of the elasticity of the discs. There are 
 arthrodial joints between the articular processes. 
 
 The normal spinal column is straight when viewed from front 
 or rear, excepting a slight deviation to right in the middle thoracic 
 region, probably due to the pressure of the aorta against the left 
 side of the bodies of the fourth and fifth thoracic vertebrae. When 
 viewed from the side four normal curves are seen: cervical and 
 lumbar curves convex toward the front and thoracic and sacral 
 curves convex to the rear. (Fig. 60.) 
 
 The thoracic and sacral curves exist before birth and are 
 mainly due to the shape of the vertebrae themselves ; the cervical 
 and lumbar curves are developed during childhood and are mainly 
 
130 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 due to the shape of the intervertebral discs. When the child begins 
 to creep he holds his head up so as to look ahead ; this gradually 
 gives rise to the normal cervical curve. The lumber curve first 
 makes its appearance when he begins to stand erect on his feet. 
 
 FIG. 61. A typical vertebra. B, body; P, pedicle; T, trans 
 verse process ; A, articular process ; L, lamina ; S, Spir 
 ous process. 
 
 FIG. 60. The spinal column, viewed from the side. C, 
 cervical region ; T, thoracic ; L, lumbar ; S, sacrum ; 
 Co, coceyx. The anterior side is at the right. 
 
THE; TRUNK 131 
 
 The "inverted Y" ligaments at the front of the hip joints are lax 
 in the positions of sitting and creeping, and as the erect position is 
 assumed on the feet for the first time the pelvis tips back on the 
 heads of the femurs until these ligaments become tense. This 
 prevents the pelvis from tipping further, and the trunk is raised 
 to the erect position by over extending the spine in the lumbar 
 region, thus giving rise to the normal lumbar curve. 
 
 Normal posture of the trunk is the result of the effort of the 
 individual to balance himself, under the guidance of the sense of 
 equilibrium and the muscular sense. The weight of head, shoul- 
 ders, arms, and chest is constantly tending to bend the spinal col- 
 umn while the muscles, under the guidance of the senses and the 
 central nervous system, act so as to keep the weight of these parts 
 poised as perfectly as possible above the bodies of the vertebrae. 
 
 The movements of the spinal column are as follows : 
 
 (1) Bending the spine forward (flexion) ; 
 
 (2) Backward movement from a position of flexion, as far 
 
 as the normally erect position (extension) ; 
 
 (3) Backward movement beyond the extended position 
 
 (over-extension) ; 
 
 (4) Bending sidewise (lateral flexion) ; 
 
 (5) Twisting on an axis (rotation). 
 
 Flexion may take place through the whole extent of the spinal 
 column, and is most free in the lumbar region ; the normal lumbar 
 curve can be nearly and in some subjects completely obliterated 
 by voluntary flexion. 
 
 Over-extension is possible to but a slight extent in the upper 
 parts of the spine, but is quite free in the lumbar region ; the com- 
 pletely over-extended spine is shaped much like a hockey stick, 
 with the curve below and the straight part above. 
 
 Lateral flexion occurs through the whole length of the spine 
 and is most free at the junction of the thoracic and lumbar regions. 
 
 Rotation is most free in the upper regions of the spine and 
 diminishes as we pass downward ; it is very slight or lacking in 
 the lumbar region. 
 
132 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 Lateral flexion and rotation never occur independently ; each 
 of these movements of the trunk always involves the other. This 
 results from a principle of mechanics to the effect that when a 
 straight flexible rod is bent in one plane and then in another the 
 combination of the two movements necessarily involves a twisting 
 of the rod on its axis, the convex side of the first bend turning 
 toward the concave side of the second. The normal spine is already 
 bent in one plane, and therefore any lateral curve will involve a 
 rotation. Fig. 72 shows the direction and char acter of this rota- 
 tion. It is of course equally true that any twist of the trunk will 
 necessarily involve a lateral flexion of the spine ; this can be readily 
 observed in any subject who is taking the Swedish gymnastic ex- 
 ercise of trunk twisting. 
 
 MUSCLES ACTING ON THE SPINAL COLUMN. 
 
 The muscles that act to move the spinal column and to sup- 
 port it against the force of gravitation are classified as follows : 
 Mainly flexors : rectus abdominis, external oblique, internal 
 
 oblique, psoas. 
 
 Mainly extensors : splenius, erector spinse, oblique extensors. 
 Mainly lateral flexor : quadratus lumborum. 
 
 RECTUS ABDOMINIS. 
 
 A rather slender muscle extending vertically up and down the 
 front of the abdominal wall. The muscles of the right and left 
 sides are separated by a tendinous strip about an inch wide called 
 the linea alba. (Fig. 62, R.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The crest of the pubes. 
 
 INSERTION. The cartilages of the 5th, 6th, and 7th ribs. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Parallel fibers, crossed by two or three tend- 
 inous bands. The inner portion attaches to the 5th rib and the 
 outer parts to the ribs next lower. The lower six inches of the 
 muscle lies within the transversalis muscle, next to the internal 
 organs of the abdominal cavity, passing through a slit in the latter 
 muscle. 
 
Tut; TRUNK 
 
 133 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Flattening of the front of the abdomen 
 and vigorous flexion of the spinal column. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The rectus abdominis takes part in all 
 movements in which the spine is flexed against resistance ; in de- 
 pression of the ribs ; in flattening the abdomen on the front. 
 
 FIG. 62. Abdominal muscles. R, rectus ; 
 E, external oblique; I, internal oblique. 
 
 EXTERNAL OBLIQUE. 
 
 This muscle covers the front and side of the abdominal wall 
 from the rectus to the latissimus dorsi. (Fig. 62, E.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The front half of the crest of the ilium, the front 
 of the fascia of the thigh, and the linea alba. 
 
 INSERTION. By tooth-like attachments to the lower eight ribs, 
 in alternation with the similar attachments of the serratus magnus 
 and the latissimus dorsi. 
 
134 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 STRUCTURE:. A sheet of parallel fibers extending upward and 
 sideward from the origin below, the fibers of the two muscles of 
 the opposite sides forming a letter V on the front of the abdomen. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Flexion of the spinal column direct and 
 flattening of the abdomen when both muscles act at the same time; 
 when one acts alone, lateral flexion to same side, rotation to oppo- 
 site side. 
 
 INTERNAL OBLIQUE. 
 
 Situated just beneath the externus, with fibers running at 
 right angles to those of the latter. (Fig. 62, I.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The fascia of the lumbar region, anterior two-thirds 
 of the crest of the ilium, and the front of the fascia of the thigh. 
 
 INSERTION. The linea alba and the cartilages of the 8th, Qth, 
 and loth ribs. 
 
 STRUCTURE. A sheet of nearly parallel fibers, the muscles of 
 opposite sides forming a letter A on the front of the abdomen. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Flexion of the spine and compression of 
 the abdominal wall when both muscles work ; lateral flexion to 
 same side and rotation to same side when one works alone. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. When direct flexion of the trunk is in- 
 volved, both internal obliques work with both external obliques 
 and the rectus ; when lateral flexion is desired, the internal of that 
 side works with the external and if the movement is vigorous, 
 with the rectus of the same side ; in rotation the internal of one 
 side works with the external of the other side, turning the face 
 toward the side of the internal oblique. 
 
 THE MUSCLES OF THE BACK. 
 
 The muscles of the back can be best remembered as so many 
 distinct layers, as follows : 
 
 First layer, the trapezius. 
 
 Second layer, levator, rhomboid, latissimus dorsi. 
 
THE TRUNK 
 
 135 
 
 Third layer, serratus posticus superior and inferior, two mus- 
 cles of respiration, to be studied later. (Fig. 63.) 
 Fourth layer, the splenius. 
 Fifth layer, the erector spinae and its branches. 
 . Sixth layer, the oblique extensors. 
 
 FIG. 63. Third and fourth layers of 
 back. S, splenius of the head; S, 
 splenius of the neck; S.p.s, serratus 
 posticus superior; S.p.i, serratus pos- 
 ticus inferior. 
 
 SPLENIUS. 
 
 The splenius is situated on the upper part of the back with 
 fibers extending diagonally sideward and upward. (Fig. 63.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The spinous processes of the upper six thoracic 
 vertebrae, the seventh cervical, and the lower two-thirds of the 
 ligament of the neck. 
 
136 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 INSERTION. The transverse processes of the upper four cer- 
 vical vertebrae and the base of the skull, well around at the sides. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Like all the extensors of the spinal column, the 
 splenius has a continuous series of origins below and insertions 
 above. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Extension, lateral flexion and rotation to 
 same side.. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The splenius is especially important in 
 holding the head and neck firmly erect, as in the fundamental 
 standing position and in exercises for correction of round shoul- 
 ders ; it also acts in twisting the head and bending it laterally. 
 
 ERECTOR SPIN^. 
 
 This is a very large mass of vertically directed parallel fibers 
 lying in and filling up the hollow along each side of the spinal 
 column. (Fig. 64.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The back of the sacrum, the posterior one-fifth of 
 the crest of the ilium, the spinous and transverse processes of all 
 the vertebrae, and the angles of the ribs. 
 
 INSERTION. The processes of the vertebrae, the angles of the 
 ribs, and the base of the skull. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Beginning as a thick fleshy mass in the lower 
 lumbar region the erector spinse divides into three parts at the 
 level of the lowest rib. One of these divisions passes up along 
 the line of spinous processes ; the next follows the line of the 
 transverse processes ; the third follows the line of the angles of 
 the ribs ; all continue up to the base of the skull. 
 
 Lumbar region Thoracic region Cervical region 
 
 illio-costalis Accessories Cervicalis ascendene 
 
 Longissimus dorsi Transversalis colli Trachelo mastoid 
 Spinalis dorsi Spinalis colli 
 
 For surgical purposes these are separate muscles, but for our 
 purposes they may be considered as one muscle with three 
 branches above. Each of the separate divisions has its series of 
 origins and insertions, the fibers from each origin passing up to 
 
THE TRUNK 
 
 137 
 
 FIG. 64. Erector spin.T, fifth layer on 
 the left, and the oblique extensors, 
 sixth layer, on the right. 
 
 be inserted four or five vertebrae above. Each group of fibers acts 
 on the joints lying between its origin and insertion ; only by co- 
 ordination of all the parts at once do we secure extension of the 
 whole spine. It is because of this structure that one can learn to 
 extend one part of the spine and at the same time flex other parts. 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Extension and lateral flexion of the spinal 
 column. 
 
138 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. All the parts of the erector spinae act at 
 once in vigorous and direct extension of the spine, as in lifting. 
 (Fig. 65.) It is constantly used in maintaining erect standing or 
 sitting position, if the trunk is inclined slightly forward and if 
 the pelvis is level ; tripping the upper part of the trunk backward 
 throws the weight behind the vertebrae and the erector spinse in- 
 stantly relax, the abdominal muscles contracting in their stead. 
 By poising the trunk exactly very little action is required of either 
 back or abdominal muscles ; lifting arms forward in such exact 
 poise makes the back muscles work again ; pushing with the raised 
 arms against an object in front instantly changes the action to the 
 abdominal muscles. If the pelvis is not level the erector of only 
 one side contracts in standing erect, but both may act if the spine 
 is curved. In walking the right and left erector spinae act alter- 
 nately. 
 
 Persons in whom the erector spinae are paralyzed or feeble 
 cannot lift the weight of the trunk in direct extension and habitu- 
 ally stand with the trunk over-extended, so that the center of 
 gravity falls back of the lumbar vertebrae and the abdominal mus- 
 cles support it. 
 
 THE OBLIQUE EXTENSORS. 
 
 This is a mass of oblique fibers lying beneath the erector 
 spinae and filling the bottom of the deep hollow on each side of 
 the center of the back. Its upper part is called the complexus. 
 (Fig. 64.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The transverse processes of all the vertebrae. 
 
 INSERTION. The spinous processes of the fourth or fifth ver- 
 tebra above the one serving as origin. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The fibers pass diagonally upward and inward 
 from the transverse process below to the spinous process above. 
 It forms a single muscular mass, but its action is that of a series 
 of fibers, each small group acting on a few vertebral joints and all 
 together moving the spinal column. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Extension, lateral flexion to same side, 
 rotation to opposite side. 
 
THE TRUNK 
 
 139 
 
 FIG. 65. Trunk bending forward. B, biceps; G.M, gluteus 
 maximus; E.S, erector spinae. 
 
140 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The normal action of the oblique exten- 
 sors cannot be observed in normal cases, but we can judge of their 
 action by the mechanical conditions under which they work. 
 
 THE; MOVEMENTS OF BREATHING. 
 
 The ribs are joined to the spinal column by arthrodial joints 
 that permit a slight movement upward and downward. The ten 
 upper ribs are attached to the sternum by cartilages that permit a 
 slight movement, and there is also a slight movement possible in 
 the joints between the ribs and their cartilages. Two forms of 
 movement of the ribs are distinguished, as follows : 
 
 (a) Elevation and depression of the whole rib on its articu- 
 
 lation with the spinal column as a center. 
 
 (b) Elevation and depression of the middle of the rib on its 
 
 two extremities as centers. 
 
 The chest gradually becomes wider and relatively less deep 
 with age and growth. 
 
 To understand the act of breathing it must be remembered 
 that the lungs, lying within the chest, are connected with the out- 
 side air by the open bronchial tubes and the passages of the throat 
 and nostrils, and that in consequence an enlargement of the chest 
 permits the outside air, always under pressure, to flow into the 
 lungs ; depression of the ribs and the resulting decrease in the 
 size of the chest forces the air out of the lungs. (Fig. 66.) 
 
 THE MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION. 
 
 Muscles used in quiet inspiration : external intercostals, in- 
 ternal intercO'Stals, diaphragm. 
 
 No muscles are used in quiet expiration, the air 'being ex- 
 pelled from the lungs by the weight of the chest, the elasticity of 
 the tissues that have been stretched in inspiration, and the elas- 
 ticity of the lungs themselves. The elasticity of the lungs is 
 absolutely necessary to rapid expulsion of the air in breathing, use 
 of the voice, coughing, etc. 
 
 Muscles used in deeper inspiration : sterno-mastoid, the three 
 scaleni, the serratus posticus superior, and the pectoralis minor. 
 
THE TRUNK 
 
 141 
 
 Muscles used in forced expiration, as in speaking, singing, or 
 in deeper breathing: rectus abdominis, external oblique, internal 
 oblique, transversalis, serratus posticus inferior, quadratus 
 lumborum, latissimus dorsi. 
 
 St 
 
 Movements of the chest in breathing. 
 
 EXTERNAL, INTERCOSTALS. 
 
 Muscular fibers located in the spaces between the ribs. 
 (Fig. 67, E.) 
 
 ORIGIN. The lower borders of all the ribs except the twelfth. 
 
 INSERTION. The upper borders of all ribs except the first. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Parallel fibers extending from each rib to the 
 rib below, extending diagonally downward and forward in the 
 direction of the external oblique of the abdominal wall; like the 
 latter muscle it is the outer of the layers. The external inter- 
 costals occupy all the space between the ribs from the spinal 
 column forward to the cartilages of the ribs, where they come 
 to an end. 
 
142 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. To raise the ribs. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. No muscles in the body have been in so 
 much dispute among anatomists and physiologists as the inter- 
 costals. Duchenne, who has done more than any other one man 
 to discover the isolated action of the muscles, gives a list of seven 
 different opinions that have been held by various eminent anat- 
 omists as to the action of the intercostals but his own studies make 
 it about certain that both the external and the internal intercosals 
 aid in raising the ribs in normal breathing. 
 
 INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS. 
 
 ORIGIN. The same as the preceding. (Fig. 67, I.) 
 INSERTION. The same as the preceding. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The same as the preceding, except that the 
 fibers extend downward and sideward, like those of the internal 
 oblique of the abdominal wall, and that in each intercostal space 
 the muscle extends from the sternum as far as the angle of the 
 ribs, where they come to an end. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. To raise the ribs. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. In cases of loss of the pectoralis major, 
 the external intercostals can be felt to contract during inspiration, 
 and also the internal intercostals in the space from the end of the 
 rib to the sternum. Duchenne states that he did this in many 
 cases and found that the two sets of intercostals work together in 
 the normal act of breathing. He also stimulated both sets of 
 muscles by electric current and secured a lift of the ribs in each 
 instance. The absence of those fibers of each muscle that would 
 produce depression of the ribs if present is also a strong argument 
 for this view, and Morris' argument as to the advantages of two 
 sets of oblique fibers is also good. In spite of much opinion to the 
 contrary and to the impossibility of our studying the question in 
 normal cases, it seems conclusive that the actions of the intercostal 
 muscles is as stated. 
 
THE; TRUNK 
 
 143 
 
 DIAPHRAGM. 
 
 A dome shaped sheet forming a partition between the chest 
 and the abdomen. (Fig. 67, D.) 
 
 ORIGIN. An approximately circular one, passing entirely 
 around the inner surface of the body wall, attachment being to the 
 
 FIG. 67. The muscles of respiration E, 
 external intercostals ; I, internal inter- 
 costals ; D, diaphragm ; c.t, central 
 tendon of diaphragm; St, sternum, 
 cut away to show diaphragm; Si, 82, 
 83, the three scaleni; C, clavicle, cut 
 away to show the scaleni ; T, trans- 
 varsalis; E, ensiform cartilage. 
 
 fascia of the lumbar region, the cartilages of the six lower ribs, 
 the ensiform cartilage, the ribs near the cartilages, and to the 
 bodies of two or three vertebrae. 
 
 INSERTION. Its own central tendon, which is an oblong sheet 
 of connective tissue forming the summit of the dome. 
 
144 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 STRUCTURE. The fibers pass vertically upward from their 
 origin and then curve inward to their insertion. The sternal por- 
 tion is shortest; the lateral part has toothed attachments to the 
 ribs in alternation with those of the transversalis. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. To depress the central tendon and to raise 
 the ribs to which it attaches, resulting in deepening of the chest 
 and inhalation of air through the bronchi into the lungs. The 
 contraction of the diaphragm does not raise the lower ribs unless 
 the abdominal walls are strong enough to offer a normal amount 
 of resistance to the descent of the central tendon. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The diaphragm acts in. unison with the 
 intercostal muscles in taking in the breath. The extent of move- 
 ment here depends on the clothing and the muscular habits of the 
 individual. 
 
 In quiet breathing the intercostals and the diaphragm are 
 sufficient to enlarge the chest cavity, and the pressure of.the atmos- 
 phere drives air into the lungs until they are inflated to fill the 
 space thus made. When these muscles relax, the weight of the 
 chest and the elasticity of its walls are sufficient to bring it back 
 to normal position-, and the elasticity of the abdominal walls is 
 sufficient to bring the diaphragm up to the starting point ; the 
 elasticity of the lungs also aids in expelling the air. 
 
 In deeper inspiration the pectoralis minor and the following 
 muscles take .part ; when the intercostals or the diaphragm are 
 paralyzed all these muscles have to work hard to supply enough 
 air for quiet breathing. 
 
 STERNO-MASTOID. 
 
 Seen prominently at front and side of neck on twisting the 
 head ; named from the two bony points to which it is attached. 
 
 ORIGIN. The mastoid process of the skull. 
 
 INSERTION. The upper end of the sternum and the inner one- 
 fourth of the clavicle. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Parallel fibers, separating into two parts below. 
 
THE TRUNK 145 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. When the head is held rigidly erect the 
 contraction of the sterno-mastoid lifts the chest ; when the head 
 is free to move, it is bent forward; if one muscle is stimulated 
 alone, the head is turned to the opposite side. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The sterno-mastoid may be seen to con- 
 tract in great efforts to get a deep breath ; in persons suffering 
 from asthma or paralysis of one of the regular muscles of quiet 
 inspiration this is noticeable all the time. Its action to turn the 
 head and to bend it forward against resistance is also easily shown. 
 
 (Fig. 390 
 
 THE: SCALENI. 
 
 Three closely related muscles located on the side of the neck. 
 
 ORIGIN. The cervical vertebrae. 
 
 INSERTION. The two anterior scaleni, on the first rib; the 
 posterior, on the second rib, Fig. 65. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Fibers converging as they pass downward. 
 
 MECHANICAL CONDITIONS. Study the pull of these muscles 
 on the ribs so as to be ready to demonstrate what they can do. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. To raise the first two ribs and the 
 sternum. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The scalene muscles take part in all efforts 
 to take a deep breath, holding the upper rib up so that the pull of 
 the intercostals can raise the others. In some persons these mus- 
 cles act in quiet breathing, as shown by the breathing curve re- 
 corded when we try to take a pulse record from the carotid artery. 
 
 SERRATUS POSTICUS SUPERIOR. 
 
 Located on the back beneath the scapulas, Fig. 63. 
 
 ORIGIN. The spinous processes of the seventh cervical and 
 the first two thoracic vertebrae. 
 
 INSERTION. The second to the fifth ribs inclusive, just ex- 
 terior to their angles. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Tendinous sheet near the spinal column ; fibers 
 inserted directly into the ribs. 
 
 ACTION. To raise the upper ribs. 
 
146 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 TRANSVERSALIS. 
 
 The deepest and strongest layer of the abdominal wall, named 
 from the direction of its fibers, Fig. 67, T. 
 
 ORIGIN. The anterior two-thirds of the crest of the ilium, 
 the fascia of the lumbar region, and the lower six ribs. 
 
 INSERTION. The linea alba. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Horizontally placed fibers, forming a thick 
 sheet. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. To compress the abdomen. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. The transversalis takes part in forced ex- 
 pulsion of the breath, , working in unison with the three less 
 powerful muscles of the abdominal wall. 
 
 SERRATUS POSTICUS INFERIOR. 
 
 Named from its position and its saw-toothed insertion. 
 
 (Pig- 63.) 
 
 ORIGIN. Spinous processes of the two lower thoracic and 
 the two upper lumbar vertebrae. 
 
 INSERTION. The last four or five ribs, just external to their 
 angles. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Inner half is a thin tendinous sheet, blended 
 with origins of latissimus dorsi and erector spinae ; muscular fibers 
 attached directly to the ribs. 
 
 ISOLATED ACTION. Never observed. 
 
 NORMAL ACTION. Without doubt an aid in forced expira- 
 tion and probably in lateral flexion of the trunk. 
 
 In forced expulsion of the breath, such as takes place in all 
 uses of the voice : whistling, coughing, and blowing wind instru- 
 ments, glass blowing, etc., the ribs are lowered by the contraction 
 of the rectus, the external and internal oblique, the quadratus 
 lumborum, the serratus posticus inferior, and the ilio-costalis. In 
 the same movement the abdominal cavity and the organs within 
 it are compressed by the contraction of the three abdominal mus- 
 cles just mentioned and the transversalis. When the abdominal 
 muscles are paralyzed the voice is very weak and the ability to 
 clear the bronchial tubes of mucous by coughing is lost. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 POSTURE. 
 
 'I o appreciate the full significance of posture one must bear 
 in mind that the framework of the body consists of many separate 
 bones so joined as to admit of free movement and poised upon a 
 small base below. In the trunk we have an exceedingly flexible 
 column of twenty-four vertebrae separated by elastic discs and 
 resting upon the pelvis; this in turn is poised upon the bones of 
 the lower limbs. The base is so small that any deviation from the 
 vertical at any level necessitates a deviation in the opposite direc- 
 tion at another level. 
 
 The weight of the upper parts of the body is constantly tend- 
 ing to deepen the normal curves of the spinal column and any 
 others that may be present temporarily, so that normal posture 
 must be maintained in constant opposition to the force of gravita- 
 tion and at the expense of a considerable amount of muscular 
 force. A defect anywhere in bones, ligaments or muscles evi- 
 dently puts the whole out of balance and results in abnormal 
 posture. 
 
 A definition of normal posture involves two views of the 
 body, one from the front or back and one from the side. Viewed 
 from front or back, there is bilateral symmetry. This means that 
 a vertical plane passing in an antero-posterior direction through a 
 point midway between the feet will divide the body into two 
 equal parts. The weight is divided equally between the feet, the 
 spinal column is straight and vertical, while the hips, waist, chest 
 and shoulders are of the same height on each side and equally 
 distant from the spine. (Fig. 68.) When a view from the side 
 is taken, we see that the weight is poised well forward over the 
 balls of the feet, knees and hips straight (not overextended) ; and 
 the trunk exhibiting the three norma 1 curves in the lumbar, 
 thoracic and cervical regions. 
 
148 
 
 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 Every young child learns how to stand and sit as voluntary 
 movements, but in the usual way they gradually become reflex, 
 and pass under control of the lower nerve centers. Until he 
 learns to stand erect the thighs are flexed upon the pelvis, and the 
 plane of the latter is nearly at right angles to the line of the trunk. 
 The spine presents one continuous curve, convex backward, from 
 
 FIG. 68. Outline tracing of normal female figure. 
 
 the head to the pelvis. When he straightens up, the muscles and 
 ligaments in front of the hip joint prevent the pelvis from taking 
 the horizontal position, and keep it tilted forward at a consider- 
 able angle. The upper surface of the sacrum, upon which the 
 spinal column rests, tilts forward at about the same angle. This 
 necessitates a backward bending of the trunk, giving rise to the 
 lower or lumbar curve of the spine, with the convexity forward. 
 The original curve remains in the middle or thoracic region, 
 
POSTURE 149 
 
 while the raising of the face to look forward produces the curve 
 in the cervical region. 
 
 While deviation of any part of the body from its normal 
 position is more or less inconvenient and unsightly, the main- 
 tenance of normal posture is. most essential in case of the trunk, 
 because it contains the vital organs and the spinal cord and spinal 
 
 FIG. 69. Effect of posture of the spine on depth of chest 
 
 nerves, any of which may be crowded or displaced. The position 
 of the lower limbs is incidentally important, because they support 
 the trunk and its posture depends largely upon theirs. In a 
 similar, though less important way, the position of the arms and 
 shoulders influence the posture of the trunk. 
 
 ROUND SHOULDERS. This is the most common defect of pos- 
 ture caused by school life. (Fig. 69, right.) It consists in part 
 
150 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 in a drooping forward of the head, increasing the curvature in the 
 upper part of the chest. The shoulders are often drawn forward 
 too, contracting the chest and rounding the back. The first part 
 of the defect, the drooping of the head, is due to the weight 
 of the head not being supported by the weak muscles, and to the 
 habit of bending over a book or other work ; the position of the 
 shoulders is caused by the habit of holding the arms forward and 
 using them much in this position. This shortens the muscles on 
 the front of the chest and stretches those on the back, pulling the 
 shoulder blades forward. 
 
 The chief objection to round shoulders is its effect on the 
 chest. (Fig. 69.) Two groups of muscles, the scaleni and the 
 sterno-mastoid, pass from the head and the vertebrae of the neck 
 to the two upper ribs and the sternum, and normally act as sup- 
 ports for the chest, holding it up and thus giving it a large ca- 
 pacity. When the head droops forward these supports are without 
 their upper point of vantage and allow the ribs to sink. The 
 abnormal deepening of the curve of the spine in the chest region 
 also acts to depress the ribs. All this flattens the chest in front, 
 lessening the range of the breathing movements and leaving some 
 of the upper parts of- the lungs unused. The other organs are 
 crowded and their action hindered. General vitality is lessened 
 and tendency to lung diseases is especially increased. 
 
 HOLLOW BACK. This is an exaggeration of the lumbar curve 
 of the spine. It is sometimes due to the pelvis tipping forward too 
 far, probably the result of learning to stand too late, after the 
 tissues at the front of the hip are too strong to admit of extending 
 these joints. Sometimes the fault is due to weakness of the 
 abdominal muscles ; more often to the habits of allowing the hips 
 to sway too far forward and the shoulders too far backward. 
 
 Hollow back causes the spinal column to have less supporting 
 power than it should have, and often occasions pain in the small 
 of the back. The pain is usually believed by the subject to be due 
 to weak back muscles, but this is not the case ; the weight of parts 
 above is transmitted, not through the whole extent of each verte- 
 bra, but by small margin at its posterior edge, causing excessive 
 
POSTURE 151 
 
 pressure and often pain. Hollow back also tends to cause round 
 shoulders, because it puts the shoulders so far back that the head 
 must be drooped forward to keep the balance. 
 
 LATERAL CURVATURE. Lateral deviation of the spine also 
 weakens it, and if the amount of curvature is great, it is apt to 
 cause compression of the spinal nerves where they pass out at the 
 sides of the vertebrae, causing pain, cramp, or paralysis of the 
 parts to which the nerve goes. 
 
 Lateral curvature of the spine is often caused by the pelvis 
 not being held at the same height on the two sides. The spine 
 starts upward at right angles to the line joining the hip joints, and 
 if these two joints are not at equal height there must be a curve 
 convex toward the side of the lower hip. This may arise from 
 inequality in the length of the lower limbs, or from the habit of 
 standing on one foot with the opposite hip held up or dropped 
 down or sitting on one foot. A lateral curvature may also result 
 from habits of position due to occupation, as when the head is 
 held to one side in writing the slanting style of penmanship, or 
 when a weight is habitually carried in one hand or under one 
 arm. Waiters in restaurants and women who carry babies often 
 acquire lateral curvature from always carrying the weight on the 
 same side. The same is true of newsboys. 
 
 The form of a lateral curve usually changes and becomes 
 more complex in later stages. Consider as an illustration the 
 case of one who stands habitually on the left foot. The unsup- 
 ported side of the pelvis sinks, partly from the weight resting 
 on it normally and partly from the weight of the relaxed limb, 
 which now drags down upon it from below. The spine, as it 
 leaves the pelvis, inclines to the right, and then in order to pre- 
 serve the balance, sweeps gradually over to the left. The shoul- 
 ders tip in an opposite direction from the pelvis, and the head 
 is held to the left. The spine thus takes the form approaching 
 the letter C, and the curve is called a "C curve." (Fig. 70.) The 
 deviation from the perpendicular is considerable, causing a con- 
 siderable strain upon the side muscles of the convex side. As a 
 result of the fatigue and discomfort thus occasioned there is a 
 
152 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 tendency to bend more . sharply to the left in the lumbar region, 
 and then to preserve the balance by bending sharply to the right 
 in the thoracic region, tipping the shoulders in the same direction 
 as the pelvis and holding the head to the right. This gives what 
 is called an "S curve," the lower curve being known as the pri- 
 
 FiG. 70. Lateral curve of 
 the spine, the "C" type. 
 
 FIG. 71. Scoliosis. Tracing 
 of a girl who has a curve 
 of the "S" type. 
 
 mary curve and the other as the compensating or secondary curve. 
 (Fig. 71.) In the S curve the amount of deviation from the 
 vertical is less than in any one place than in the C curve from 
 which it develops, but the curves are sharper, with increased 
 deformity of the vertebrae and increased chance of compressing 
 the spinal nerves as they pass out of the spinal canal. The weight 
 constantly tends to deepen all the curves, especially if the muscles 
 
POSTURE; 153 
 
 are weak or fixed positions required. It should also be said that 
 upper curve may be the primary curve and the lower one com- 
 pensatory, as in a case produced by the habit of carrying the 
 head on one side. 
 
 Besides the decrease of supporting power and displacement 
 of the vital organs that always accompany scoliosis there is another 
 inseparable condition fully as serious in its consequences. The 
 anterior portion of the spinal column consists of the bodies of 
 the vertebrae and the intervertebral discs. They are intended 
 to support the weight, and consequently resist compression. The 
 greater the deviation from the vertical, the greater is the tendency 
 for the weight above to push this part of the spine still farther. 
 The posterior portion of the column consists of neural arches and 
 spinous processes. They do not rest upon one another, but are 
 connected by strong ligaments and muscles which resist any sep- 
 aration of the processes and tend to draw them closer together. 
 The greater the deviation from a straight line, the greater is the 
 tendency of this portion to resist such deviation. It necessarily 
 follows that whenever the spine is bent to one side the bodies of 
 the vertebrae will tend to go to the longer or convex side of the 
 curve, while the processes will tend to go to the shorter or con- 
 cave side ; in other words, the anterior portion of the spine will 
 move farther from the vertical than the posterior portion. But 
 the posterior portion is the portion that is visible, and the portion 
 from which we must estimate the amount of curvature. The 
 actual amount of curvature will therefore always be greater than 
 the apparent curvature, as indicated by the line of spinous pro- 
 cesses. Again, the greater deviation of the anterior portions of 
 the vertebrae is equivalent to a rotation of each vertebra thus 
 moved, about a vertical axis. (Fig. 72.) According to some au- 
 thorities, the rotation sometimes precedes and leads to the bend- 
 ing. In either case the rotation, if it is in the thoracic region, 
 produces a pronounced distortion of the chest by the effect of the 
 torsion upon the ribs. 
 
 GENERAL CAUSES: MUSCULAR WEAKNESS AND FATIGUE. 
 The prime factor in faulty posture, ever present and unavoidable, 
 
154 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 is the force of gravitation. It follows that anything that causes the 
 muscles to be deficient in power and efficiency is an important 
 factor in the causation of all kinds of bad postures. 
 
 FIG. 72. Lateral flexion to right with 
 spinal column flexed. The cardboard 
 pointers indicate the direction of tor- 
 sion. (By permission of Dr. Lovett.) 
 
 Muscular weakness is evidently a serious evil in this connec- 
 tion. No one who lacks the strength of muscle to hold himself 
 erect, can be expected to maintain good posture habitually. No 
 one can stand erect for an indefinite time. It is a mere matter of 
 time when the strongest will fall from complete fatigue. We all 
 avoid such extreme fatigue by spending nearly one-half of our 
 
POSTURE) 155 
 
 time in bed, where all the muscles can be relaxed, and by varying 
 our positions while standing, sitting and walking, so as to rest 
 some of the muscles while using others. The natural tendency to 
 avoid the fatigue of holding one fixed position is one cause of the 
 restlessness of children ; they seldom acquire bad postures until 
 we have taught them to stand and sit still. Such occupations as 
 writing, sewing, reading, etc., are apt to cause bad postures, partly 
 because the positions assumed in them are bad, but still more be- 
 cause they bring on fatigue of the muscles that are used in hold- 
 ing good posture. The great problem of preventing bad postures 
 is the problem of avoiding excessive fatigue of the supporting 
 muscles. 
 
 GENERAL, CAUSES : OCCUPATION. Next to weakness and fa- 
 tigue, occupation is the most important cause of bad postures. 
 When muscles are habitually used in a certain position, they tend 
 to grow into the form given to them in that position. For ex- 
 ample, when one works most of the time with the head bent for- 
 ward to look closely at something, the muscles on the back of the 
 neck, as they are gradually renewed in the repair that accompanies 
 and follows work, come to be longer than they formerly were ; 
 when the arms are used vigorously in a forward position, as in 
 pushing a lawn mower, the muscles in front of the chest gradu- 
 ally grow shorter, unless they are also used in some other way to 
 counteract the tendency. It is evident that these effects of occupa- 
 tion are much more marked in the young than with the older per- 
 sons, and at the same time the possibility of correction by gym- 
 nastic exercises is much greater during the earlier period. 
 
 THE THREE STAGES. In the history of a case of bad posture 
 resulting from occupation or habit there are three stages. In the 
 first or transient stage, the posture is taken because circumstances 
 favor it. For example, the pupil droops forward as he writes, and 
 the clerk leans sidewise against the counter, but each leaves the 
 position as he leaves the place and the occupation. He can stand 
 well, and usually does so. In the second or habitual stage the 
 position so often assumed seems to be natural and the correct one. 
 The bad posture goes with him, and he feels unnatural if he stands 
 
156 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 erect. He has the muscular strength to straighten up, but he has 
 forgotten how to do it ; his muscular sense tells him he is straight 
 when he is not. The effect of the posture is worse than before, 
 simply because he holds it all the time instead of occasionally. In 
 the third or permanent stage the muscles and perhaps the bones 
 have adjusted themselves to the abnormal posture, and he lacks 
 the strength to correct the defect, even when he is taught how. 
 
 REMEDIAL MEASURES : GENERAL. In the first stage it is only 
 necessary to see that no bad posture becomes habitual. This de- 
 mands watchfulness on the part of the teacher, and caution given 
 in time. To be taught the correct standing position is a great help 
 here. In the habittfal stage one must learn over again the correct 
 posture he once learned as a child, and must practice it until it be- 
 comes habitual again. In the third stage the work of the second 
 must be done, but it has to be preceded by a course of treatment 
 including outside force to aid in the straightening ; even then im- 
 provement is slow and complete recovery is doubtful. 
 
 Since muscular weakness plays such an important part in the 
 causation of bad postures, the general development of the muscles 
 that are used in maintaining normal posture must be of first im- 
 portance. Swedish gymnastic exercises are intended to accomplish 
 this purpose ; other forms of exercise are also useful. 
 
 Among exercises that are especially good for all forms of bad 
 posture are those where the weight of the body is suspended by 
 the arms ; here the tendency of the weight is to straighten rather 
 than to increase the curvatures. The most valuable single exercise 
 is the fundamental standing position of gymnastics. In teaching 
 this exercise the individual faults of the pupils are pointed out and 
 each is aided in the correction of his own ; when one has learned 
 this position he is much less apt to reach the habitual stage of any 
 bad posture he may happen to assume, for he knows the correct 
 position and is able to assume it at any time when he finds himself 
 in a bad posture. Pupils should be tested individually, and given 
 to understand that it is expected of them to know how to assume 
 the correct fundamental position at any time ; pupils unable to do 
 so should be given individual help, outside of class hours if neces- 
 
POSTURE 157 
 
 sary. Often it is necessary to push the pupil into the correct 
 position and then have him try to hold it for a short time ; in this 
 way he will gradually gain the strength and the coordination. 
 
 REMEDIAL MEASURES : SPECIAL. If the cause of any partic- 
 ular defect is evident, it is of course best to try to have it re- 
 moved; the posture will not yield promptly to treatment if the 
 cause continues to act. For example, a lateral curvature caused 
 by a short limb should first be treated by adding a lift to the shoe 
 to equalize the length ; but in lateral curvatures the causes and the 
 special forms of treatment are so difficult that only a specialist 
 should attempt more than general measures. With round shoul- 
 ders and hollow back the case is simpler, and an intelligent teacher 
 with a fair knowledge of Swedish gymnastics should be able to 
 give effective help in the earlier stages. Here the Swedish system 
 provides special corrective exercises : the Arch Flexions for round 
 shoulders, and the Back and Abdominal exercises for the hol- 
 low back. 
 
 Often a lateral curvature in the habitual stage can be cor- 
 rected by using an auxiliary or "Key-note" position. This is 
 sometimes raising one arm upward, or taking a fallout. By try- 
 ing all kinds of arm and foot positions, one can usually be found 
 which gives the spine a perfectly straight position. Now have the 
 pupil take this "Key-note" position until it is well learned ; then 
 have him try to return to fundamental position while holding the 
 spine in the straight line that the position enables him to get. 
 Repeated practice of this kind is often successful in early stages 
 in accomplishing a complete cure. (Fig. 73.) 
 
 SCHOOL ROOM METHODS. In her book on "The Posture of 
 School Children," which is the most complete and useful book on 
 the subject yet published, Miss Bancroft recommends the follow- 
 ing three tests to apply to pupils : 
 
 (i) Standing. Look at the pupils from the side and ask 
 those to step aside or sit down who do not stand in normal pos- 
 ture. This is sometimes called "The window pole test," because a 
 straight pole held vertically beside the pupil aids a teacher who is 
 not experienced to detect faults in this position. 
 
158 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 FIG. 73. Correction of a lateral curve by a suitable key-note position. 
 
 (2) Have the pupils who have passed the standing test 
 march for four or five minutes and as they do so pick out and 
 eliminate those who do not maintain their good position while 
 marching. 
 
 (3 Give the pupils who pass these two tests a few gymnastic 
 exercises, including neck firm, arm raising forward upward, trunk 
 incline forward, and head backward bend. Pupils who pass the 
 triple test are considered normal in posture and are placed in a 
 separate line or division of the class during all gymnastic work. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE. 
 
 Some of the effects of exercise are immediate and others 
 appear later ; some are desirable and to be secured to the greatest 
 extent that is possible; some are harmful or unpleasant and are 
 to be avoided as far as possible. The study we have made thus 
 far is mainly to enable us to conduct exercises so as to secure the 
 largest measure of good and avoid as much as. possible of the 
 bad effects. 
 
 Probably the first effect of exercise is a rise of temperature. 
 This is caused by the great amount of heat produced by the chem- 
 ical action in the muscles. As before stated, this is usually nearly 
 85% of all the energy liberated ; it is quickly carried by the blood 
 from the muscle to all parts of the body and soon gives rise to a 
 higher temperature of the whole body. 
 
 There is a considerable difference in the amount of heat 
 developed during exercise due to the condition of the individual. 
 In those who are ill or in poor physical condition a larger portion 
 of the energy set free is in the form of heat ; in well trained ath- 
 letes it is much less. Professional bicycle riders have been found 
 who could transform from 36 to 40% of all the energy of their 
 food into muscular work. This is one of the advantages of train- 
 ing, or habitual bodily exercise; the machine transforms more 
 of the latent energy of the food into muscular work and wastes 
 less of it in heat. Most observing persons have noticed how much 
 more they become heated by a certain amount of work when they 
 are unused to it and how they gradually acquire the ability to 
 work hard without being overheated. This ability is one of the 
 most important things to be secured by the habitual practice of 
 vigorous bodily exercise. 
 
 The amount of heat produced in proportion to the work done is 
 dependent to a considerable extent on the kind of work. A mus- 
 
160 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 cle should be suitably loaded to give the best result in work. As 
 before stated, it is shown by experiment and generally verified by 
 experience that a moderate load is best. Shovelers are found to 
 do most in a day or a week when their shovels hold about 21 
 pounds of the material moved ; handlers of freight accomplish 
 most when it is in parcels of moderate size. When we increase 
 the load until the muscle cannot shorten, as in pushing against 
 a wall or trying to lift too great a weight, practically all the 
 energy of the muscle takes the form of heat. There is always 
 a considerable amount of this so-called "static contraction" in the 
 body, because many muscles have to contract in all forms of 
 exercise to hold the framework of the body in position. In gen- 
 eral, exercises requiring much of the body to be held still are more 
 heating. Turning a bit or screw-driver, for example, warms one 
 up rapidly, because of the need to contract so many muscles 
 strongly to prevent motion. 
 
 The body temperature may be raised from the normal (98.6 
 Fahr.) to 102 or even higher by vigorous work. To a certain 
 point this rise of temperature is beneficial ; it increases the strength 
 and speed of the muscular contractions and seems to improve 
 nervous activity. An athlete can do his best after he is "warmed 
 up," the actual increase of temperature being a part of the reason 
 for it. As soon, however, as a certain increase has been passed 
 he begins to lose instead of gain, so that the rise in temperature 
 must be very limited to be of use rather than a hindrance. 
 
 When a muscle mounted on the myograph is set to work, the 
 force of contraction increases for a time. This is partly due to 
 the warming up of which we have just been thinking, but the 
 increase still is present if the rise of temperature is counteracted. 
 The commonly accepted explanation is that the waste products 
 of muscular action, when present in small amounts and for a 
 short time, are stimulating in their effects and aid the muscle in 
 its work. It has been shown that lactic acid, potassium phosphate 
 and carbon .dioxide, when made to circulate through an acting 
 muscle, separately or together, at first increase the force of con- 
 traction if not too strong. This shows that there is another benefit 
 
THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE l6l 
 
 secured from a "warming up" exercise besides the actual rise in 
 temperature. 
 
 When the work is vigorous and continuous this increase in 
 working ability soon changes to a decrease and ends in complete 
 inability of the muscle to contract after a time. The final stage 
 is exhaustion ; the gradual loss of power leading to exhaustion is 
 called fatigue. 
 
 When fatigue is brought on rapidly by vigorous work, as in 
 heavy gymnastics, lifting, climbing, etc., it is probably largely 
 due to the rapid accumulation in the muscle of waste products in 
 sufficient amount to lessen the power of contraction and also to 
 paralyze the motor nerve endings which convey the impulses that 
 give rise to the contraction. This suggests the advantage of 
 exercising where there is abundance of pure air and a like ad- 
 vantage in having the heart and lungs in good condition as a 
 means of postponing fatigue. It is one of the reasons why jump- 
 ers find an advantage in massaging their leg muscles between 
 jumps, to hasten the elimination of the waste products through 
 the blood ; also a reason why fatigue is slower to come on in 
 rhythmic movements than in static contractions, because the 
 former aids the circulation and removal of waste by the pumping 
 action of the rhythmic contractions and relaxations while static 
 contraction compresses the veins and slows it. 
 
 In prolonged and milder exercise, as in walking for several 
 hours, the circulation and breathing are able to dispose of the 
 waste easily, and then the fatigue that results is apt to be due to 
 the gradual using up of the food supply. This is why such exer- 
 cise is apt to increase the appetite, and also why the fatigue can 
 be relieved on the way by eating, preferably of starch or sugar, 
 because these foods are quickly absorbed and usable by the 
 muscles. 
 
 In some very rapid exercise, especially sprinting, lack of suf- 
 ficient oxygen in the muscles is believed to play an important 
 part in the rapid increase of fatigue. Nerve endings are espe- 
 cially dependent on a full supply of oxygen to do their work. The 
 habit of divers of inhaling several forced breaths before going 
 down and the evident advantage they derive from it are based on 
 
1 62 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 this idea, and it is claimed that sprinters can be helped to win 
 by inhaling pure oxygen at the moment they experience the acute 
 lack of air. 
 
 It is claimed by a German scholar that there is a "toxin" that 
 causes fatigue and that the body produces a corresponding "anti- 
 toxin" to neutralize it. Some look forward to the day when one 
 can postpone fatigue indefinitely by securing a supply of this anti- 
 toxin and having it injected into the blood at the proper times. 
 The more reasonable plan is to get the body in the habit, through 
 active living, of manufacturing this antitoxin and keeping it on 
 hand. The safest and best antidote for fatigue is that produced 
 by one's own body, and it will produce it in goodly quantities if 
 proper habits of training are followed. 
 
 It is interesting to inquire how much of the neuro-muscular 
 mechanism is subject to fatigue. Nerve fibers are sensitive to 
 the presence of waste products but do not produce these products 
 in any appreciable amount. Nerve cells show evident signs of 
 fatigue under the microscope. The nerve cells of birds that have 
 been resting in a dark room look very different from those of like 
 birds that have been unusually active. Birds that have flown long 
 distances have been shown to have excessive amounts of carbon 
 dioxide in their nervous as well as their muscular tissues. All 
 this shows that the nervous system shares in the fatigue as well 
 as the muscles. It is believed that when fatigued somewhat the 
 muscles require much stronger stimula than when rested, because 
 of the effect of the waste products on the motor endings and the 
 inability of the latter to transmit the impulses to the muscle tissue. 
 This in turn rapidly fatigues the nerve cells that send those im- 
 pulses, so that the most extreme fatigue is in the nerve centers 
 rather than in the muscles. 
 
 Fatigue, wherever located, is for normal individuals a per- 
 fectly natural and harmless condition, and cannot be entirely 
 avoided. The best way to avoid extreme fatigue is to keep the 
 body up to a good condition, well above the usual needs of the day, 
 so that extreme fatigue will not be necessary. 
 
 Besides the motor fatigue we have been discussing there is 
 a sensory fatigue, a feeling of weariness that often accompanies 
 
THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 163 
 
 the true fatigue. This is often confused with motor fatigue and 
 a clear distinction is not made between them. Sensory fatigue, 
 the "tired feeling," is the effect of the waste products on sensory 
 instead of motor nerve endings. It often is due to something else 
 than work, over-eating, poor ventilation, fever, or ennui. The 
 people who suffer most from this form of fatigue are those who 
 do the least,-^-people whose inactive lives makes them so weak 
 that the least exertion or change of conditions upsets them com- 
 pletely. The best way to avoid sensory as well as motor fatigue 
 is to be strong. 
 
 When muscles are used with much more vigor than usual 
 they are apt to become stiff and sore. Here again there is a dis- 
 tinction to be made between the motor and the sensory phase. 
 Stiffness is the inability of the muscle to do its best work; sore- 
 ness is the condition of the sensory nerve endings that gives rise 
 to pain when the muscle is contracted. Stiffness is caused in part 
 by tearing the muscle fibers and by the presence of poisonous 
 waste products of unusual character that are nof normally present. 
 Hot applications and massage tend to prevent and relieve the con- 
 dition. The only prevention is to advance in vigor so gradually 
 that no injury of the kind will be received. This is almost im- 
 possible, as a mis-step or a loss of balance is apt to bring it on. 
 Soreness is due to similar causes, tearing and bruising of the sen- 
 sory endings and the presence of waste products that have an 
 unusually irritating effect upon them. The practice of taking a 
 hot bath immediately following exercise is the most efficient way 
 to relieve and prevent these harmful effects, besides taking pains 
 not to increase the vigor of the work too suddenly. Warming up 
 before putting forth extreme effort is also important. 
 
 One effect of exercise upon the nervous system depends en- 
 tirely on the nature and particularly on the speed of the move- 
 ments. Slow and rhythmic movements have a quieting effect on 
 the nerves ; fast movements are irritating and stimulating. A class 
 that was quiet and self-controlled during the most of a class hour 
 will often become boisterous and excited after a short run. The 
 rapid stimulation of the sensory endings in the tissues by rapid 
 movements seems to produce an excitable condition of the nervous 
 
1 64 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 system, and the corresponding effect of slow and rhythmic move- 
 ments is quieting. 
 
 Under normal conditions the repair that takes place during 
 rest more than makes good the waste that occurred during the 
 exercise. The result is that parts used develop in size, strength, 
 endurance, speed, and general vitality. This development is due 
 in part to the increased blood supply during the exercise and in 
 part to the increased absorption of food materials by the proto- 
 plasm, which seems to have a kind of intelligence for selecting that 
 amount and kind of food material best suited to the demands 
 made upon it. The muscle that has been used rebuilds its tissues 
 so as to be able to better endure the same work again. Particular 
 powers demanded of it are provided for; efforts of strength bring 
 increased strength, efforts of speed cause increased ability to act 
 quickly, and the same is true of endurance and other qualities. 
 
 Under normal conditions, the more work a muscle does, the 
 more rapidly it develops. There is a limit to the degree of devel- 
 opment an individual can attain, but it is rare for an individual to 
 approach this limit even remotely. The amazing strength and 
 endurance exhibited by the professional "strong men" of the circus 
 and theatre, who lift tons and break heavy iron chains with theii 
 hands or their teeth, and bicycle racers who perform in one da) 
 the work of ten or twelve laborers illustrate how far most of us 
 are from attaining our possibilities. Football players and soldiers 
 in training develop great power and ability under five or six 
 times the work done by the average laboring man. The general 
 law is that the more a muscle works the more and the faster it 
 develops, and the limits of the law are far above what we are 
 inclined to suppose. It is irregular methods of exercise, leading 
 to stiffness, soreness, and injury to the heart and blood vessels 
 that causes most of the harm from severe exercise, and not the 
 severity itself. 
 
 The development of strength and other qualities mentioned 
 above is not development of muscle alone but quite as much 
 development of nerve cells. The ability to run far or fast, to put 
 the shot or to jump a great distance is quite as much in the 
 
THE EFFECTS OI- EXERCISE) 165 
 
 development of the nerve cells and endings involved in muscular 
 movement as in that of muscle. 
 
 The amount of exercise that is desirable for a person who 
 wishes to improve his physique depends on two or three considera- 
 tions. 
 
 (1) The physical condition of the individual. What is just 
 enough for one is far too much for another and altogether too 
 little for a third. One just recovering from a long and severe ill- 
 ness may be injured by the exertion of sitting in a chair, while 
 a man in hard training for it can turn handsprings or climb ladders 
 for hours at a time with no danger of overdoing. One of the best 
 tests of the severity of one's exercise is whether he can fully re- 
 cover from it by a night's rest. 
 
 (2) The other demands that are to be met during the day. 
 A student or teacher who must spend from eight to ten hours a 
 day on his assigned duties would fail to get benefit from an amount 
 of exercise entirely suited to a soldier or a professional athlete. 
 If he tries it the fatigue resulting from his exercise will unfit him 
 for study and the time required for mental work will prevent him 
 from having the amount of rest needed to recover from the 
 fatigue. A child, needing long hours of sleep and rest to accom- 
 pany his rapid growth, cannot profit from as long continuous 
 exercise as one who has reached full size and maturity. 
 
 (3) Conditions surrounding the work and hygienic care of 
 the body. One can push exercise and development to a much 
 greater pace with good bathing facilities and restful living condi- 
 tions. Good and wholesome food and plenty of it are indispens- 
 able. 
 
 Most people would profit greatly by setting apart from the 
 hours of the day more time than they now allot for bodily develop- 
 ment. It would result in better power for doing what must be 
 done and reserve power to prevent illness and accident. Most 
 people can afford more time for it, which could be taken from the 
 time they give to idle and injurious pastimes. 
 
 EXERCISE AND THE RATE OF THE HEAR'T. The lightest bodily 
 exercise, such as operating a typewriter or playing on a piano, 
 causes a sudden increase in the rate of the heart. When such 
 
1 66 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 exercises are taken with great rapidity the rate goes quickly up to 
 90 or 100 beats per minute, continues at about this rate as long as 
 the speed of the exercise continues, and quickly returns to the 
 normal rate as soon as the exercise stops. 
 
 With exercises of moderate vigor, such as a rapid walk, the 
 rate goes up to about 125 ; a moderate run may bring it up to 
 150; races or games often produce a rate of 175 or 200. A 
 heart rate of 250 per minute has been known at the end of a 
 bicycle race. In all vigorous work the change in the rate of heart 
 shows two well marked stages ; a rapid primary rise, from two or 
 three minutes, followed by a more gradual secondary rise that 
 continues until the exercise stops. When the work stops the re- 
 turn of the normal rate has two corresponding stages ; a rapid 
 primary fall followed by a gradual secondary fall. The rapid 
 primary changes come about through the action of the cardiac 
 center ; the causes of the slow secondary changes are not definitely 
 known. 
 
 The response of the heart to the influence of exercise is ex- 
 ceedingly prompt. When one suddenly changes from a condition 
 of rest to vigorous exercise, the very next heart beat is quicker 
 than the last one during rest. The rate increases very rapidly 
 in hard work, sometimes doubling within 30 seconds from the time 
 the work begins. The primary fall on cessation of exercise is 
 equally prompt, and rapid ; for this reason the counting of the 
 pulse after stopping gives little evidence as to the rate while 
 working. 
 
 DILATION OF ARTERIES. One effect of exercise on the ar- 
 teries is brought about by the action of the vasomotor system. 
 When certain muscles begin to work, the presence of waste prod- 
 ucts in them influences the sensory nerve endings there, and the 
 vasomotor center responds by causing a dilation of the arteries 
 leading to the working muscles, at the same time constricting 
 those leading elsewhere, especially those leading to the digestive 
 organs. The result is a gradual increase in the blood supply to 
 the working parts, beginning a few minutes after the work begins 
 and slowly increasing for half an hour or more. This slow change 
 
THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE i67 
 
 is characteristic of the involuntary muscle of the vessel walls. On 
 cessation of the exercise the arteries return to their normal size by 
 a similarly slow change. 
 
 The dilation of the arteries, by opening up a wider passage 
 for the blood, lessens the work of the heart, which will be ex- 
 plained more fully in connection with the effect of the arterial 
 pressure. This is an important reason for warming up gradually 
 before attempting to do one's best, especially in speed contests. 
 
 The arteries are so firm and have so thick walls that they 
 retain their cylindrical shape in spite of the pressure exerted upon 
 them by the contracting muscles ; the veins are more easily com- 
 pressed, and are flattened and the blood squeezed out of them with 
 each contraction. The presence of valves at frequent intervals in 
 the veins brings it about that the blood forced out of a portion 
 of vein in this way must move onward toward the heart and not 
 back toward the capillaries; as the muscles relax the veins that 
 have been pressed upon and emptied are filled again from the 
 other side. It is readily seen, therefore, that rythmically repeated 
 exercises increase the flow of blood in the veins, hastening it 
 toward the heart. 
 
 The contraction of muscle has a similar effect on the lymph 
 in the spaces between the muscle fibers and in the lymph vessels. 
 The vigorous contraction of the muscle squeezes the lymph out of 
 the spaces between the fibers and sends it along the lymph vessels, 
 which, like the veins, have valves. This action on the venous blood 
 and lymph is what gives massage its great value, since in this re- 
 spect it answers the purpose of exercise. The increase of circula- 
 tion of the fluids in the tissues is of special value in hastening re- 
 covery from sprains and similar injuries. 
 
 EXERCISE AND ARTERIAL PRESSURE. With exercise of mod- 
 erate vigor, such as riding a bicycle over an ordinary road at 
 eight or ten miles an hour, we get changes in pulse rate and ar- 
 terial pressure, as follows : the pressure rises rapidly at first, fol- 
 lowing the primary increase in the rate of the pulse, to a height 
 of 1 80 or 200 mm. of mercury, a height reached in eight or ten 
 minutes. This is due to the increase in heart action, pumping 
 
1 68 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 much more blood than usual into the arteries. Now the slow 
 relaxation of the involuntary muscle in the vessel walls begins to 
 have an opposite effect, dilation being produced through the 
 action of the vasomotor center. The muscular action sets free 
 great quantities of heat, and this gives rise to impulses that incite 
 the vasomotor center to dilate the arteries going to the skin, so 
 as to hasten the loss of heat. Dilation of arteries in both muscles 
 and skin at the same time at once diminish the resistance to the 
 blood flow so much that the pressure stops rising and begins to 
 fall. Through the half hour that the ride continues the pressure 
 continues to fall, while the pulse rate continues to rise ; this shows 
 that the dilation of vessels keeps on increasing. The highest pres- 
 sure is soon after beginning the ride. 
 
 Upon the sudden cessation of the exercise there is a rapid fall 
 of arterial pressure which soon reaches a point below the normal. 
 This happens because the heart action lessens quickly while the 
 arteries are still widely dilated, and with diminished heart action 
 and widely dilated arteries we necessarily have an exceedingly low 
 pressure. Sometimes, at the end of a hard race, a man faints as 
 a result of the low pressure brought about in this way. As the 
 arteries gradually constrict, the pressure slowly rises until the 
 normal is reached again. 
 
 The highest pressure that occurred in this case might have 
 been avoided by beginning more slowly, so that the arteries might 
 have time to dilate before the most vigorous work was done. The 
 subnormal pressure after stopping might have been avoided, by 
 diminishing the work gradually instead of stopping suddenly, or 
 by taking a suitable bath, which would stimulate the falling heart 
 action and hasten the constriction of the vessels. 
 
 With more violent exercise, such as riding a bicycle up hill 
 or at utmost speed, the arterial pressure will mount higher and 
 higher until the rider is obliged to stop, in spite of the dilation of 
 the arteries. In such exercise the heart action becomes so great 
 that no dilation of vessels that can be brought about can com- 
 pensate for it. Warming up before such a test will be of great 
 help, since complete dilation of vessels will permit the blood to 
 
THE EJECTS OF EXERCISE; 169 
 
 pass with less pressure, but in spite of all the pressure will go up 
 to the danger line if one works hard and long enough. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. The heart de- 
 velops with increased exercise the same as other muscles, and the 
 amount of development follows the same general law, viz : the 
 more exercise the heart has, the more it will develop. Heart mus- 
 cle is also liable to fatigue and strain, the same as other muscle, 
 and these effects are much more serious matters here than in most 
 muscles. If one's arm is severely fatigued or strained, he can rest 
 it until it recovers with no greater hardship than a little pain and 
 inconvenience ; but life itself depends on the heart's being able to 
 do its regular work every minute. Now some exercises work the 
 heart harder than they work the muscles ; some exercises tend 
 to make the doer forget how nearly exhausted he is ; it is import- 
 ant therefore that teachers should control the exercise, especially 
 of those unused to it, so as to avoid excess of work for the heart. 
 
 It should be noticed first of all that the term "excess of work" 
 is a relative term, depending as much on the condition and degree 
 of development as an individual as upon the amount of work 
 he does. One just recovering from a long and severe illness may 
 overwork the heart by the exertion involved in standing up and 
 dressing himself, while a trained athlete can run, swim, or prac- 
 tice heavy gymnastics for hours without any danger of such in- 
 jury. This is not only true of different persons, but it is to a great 
 extent true of the same person at different times. An amount of 
 practice that would cause heart strain in every member of a basket 
 ball team may be perfectly safe for the same team after a few 
 weeks of progressive work.* 
 
 Exercise also brings about the development of the muscle of 
 the arterial walls. The changes in the caliber of these vessels, by 
 action of the vasomotor center, constitutes the proper exercises of 
 these muscle fibers, increasing the facility with which they change 
 their size and making them stronger and more elastic. The im- 
 portance of this in relation to health is indicated by an old maxim 
 of medical men that "a man is as old as his arteries." An athlete's 
 arteries respond more quickly and fully to vasomotor control than 
 
1 70 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 those of an untrained person, rendering him less liable to over- 
 work the heart. 
 
 To develop the heart rapidly and safely it is only necessary 
 to grade the exercise carefully, so as to make it a little more vig- 
 orous each day without any sudden increase. By following this 
 plan the heart can soon be brought to a condition where vigorous 
 exercise will not cause any signs of overwork. 
 
 The exercises causing greatest heart action are those which 
 bring into strong action many of the largest muscles of the body 
 at the same time and with great rapidity, so as to use up a great 
 amount of fuel and oxygen and set free a great quantity of waste 
 products. The best examples are running, swimming, wrestling, 
 and those games involving rapid movement of the whole body by 
 action of the lower limbs. The size of the muscle district in action, 
 the speed of the movements, and their vigor, are three elements 
 involved equally in the result. If the muscle district is small, as 
 in piano playing or club swinging ; if the speed is slow as in pois- 
 ing and balancing, or if the vigor of movement is small as in walk- 
 ing and facings, the effect on the heart is relatively mild. 
 
 INJURY OF THE HEART BY EXERCISE. Injury of the heart by 
 exercise is usually one of two kinds ; chronic fatigue or strain. 
 Chronic fatigue of the heart gives a feeling of general lassitude 
 and a lack of endurance that athletes call being "stale." It results 
 from exercise calling for greatly increased heart action that is 
 too long continued, or from disease or faulty nutrition. Stale- 
 ness is most common among the players of games and those who 
 engage in competitive sports, because of their anxiety to get into 
 form too soon after the period of illness or inaction. If one is 
 stale the heart beats too fast all the time, and the rate goes up too 
 quickly with any slight exertion, although no abnormal condition 
 of the heart may be found on examination. The only remedy is 
 complete rest and attention to diet and general health until the 
 condition passes off ; medical treatment may help. 
 
 Strain of the heart sometimes causes dilation, which is a 
 stretching of the heart muscle, so that the heart is enlarged and 
 its walls thin and weak. The symptoms are like those of staleness. 
 
THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 17 1 
 
 only more severe, and examination shows the enlargement of the 
 heart, which is sometimes accompanied by incomplete closure of 
 one or more of the valves, because their orifices are stretched so 
 that the valve flaps fail to cover them. This condition is brought 
 on by violent exertion by those in whom the heart has not been 
 prepared for the strain ; and the cause of the dilation of the heart 
 is probably an excessive pressure in the arteries, such that the 
 heart is not strong enough to empty itself, and stretches its own 
 walls instead. Dilation of the heart is a serious condition, and 
 often requires years for recovery; it may not entirely recover at 
 all. Those suffering from dilation must avoid all vigorous exercise 
 as long as the condition lasts. It most often occurs among men 
 and women who ordinarily take little or no exercise, but who 
 suddenly have to exert themselves to their utmost, as in running 
 to catch a train or going up several flights of stairs rapidly. The 
 frequency of this injury and the serious nature of it are strong 
 reasons for taking exercise enough to keep the heart strong. 
 Young persons recover from this injury much more readily than 
 older ones. It is not unusual among young athletes at the end 
 of an important race. 
 
 EXERCISE AND BREATHING. As soon as one begins any light 
 exercise, such as walking, the increased production of carbon 
 dioxide affects the respiratory center and breathing is increased. 
 It is interesting to notice that one's breathing increases to about 
 double the usual amount before he is able to sense any change. 
 With vigorous exercise the amount of air breathed and of carbon 
 dioxide exhaled is sometimes as high as six times the normal 
 amount. 
 
 The breathing movements are usually both deeper and faster 
 in vigorous work, but not always so ; the breathing tends to follow 
 the rythm of the bodily movements when they are rhythmical, as 
 in running, walking, bicycling, etc., and the depth changes to com- 
 pensate lack in rapidity. 
 
 Breathlessness. The general feeling of discomfort that occurs 
 in the chest in such exercises as running is usually called "being 
 out of breath," but the difficulty is as often with the heart as with 
 
172 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 the breathing. Breathlessness occurs in those who practice run- 
 ning or games when unused to so severe exercise, and is to be 
 avoided by gradually habituating the lungs to the work. Some- 
 times the symptoms pass off on persisting in the exercise, giving 
 the condition called "second wind." The cause of this phenom- 
 enon is not definitely known, but is apparently related to the dila- 
 tion of the blood vessels taking place after work begins, lowering 
 the arterial pressure and so lessening the work of the heart. 
 
 RESPIRATORY DEVELOPMENT. The breathing muscles develop 
 with exercise in exactly the same way as other muscles, except 
 that they are made to work more than usual to meet the needs of 
 the body rather than by voluntary effort. The exercises causing 
 greatest increase in the breathing are the same as those that have 
 been mentioned in explaining development of the heart. The 
 lungs are also developed by exercise, since it sends great quantities 
 of blood through them and causes a filling of air-cells that are not 
 filled at all in quiet breathing. It is in these unused cells that the 
 disease germs get a foothold, making it useful to have them 
 opened up frequently by deep breathing. On the other hand, 
 breathlessness, if excessive, weakens the lungs and makes them 
 liable to disease also. 
 
 Voluntary deep breathing exercises are often used and are 
 good to exercise the breathing muscles mildly and to open up the 
 unused air cells ; deep breathing also stretches the chest walls so 
 as to make the ribs move more easily and at the same time edu- 
 cates the respiratory center to make wider excursions of the mus- 
 cles in unconscious breathing. All these effects are beneficial and 
 make voluntary breathing exercises a valuable part of physical 
 training. It is claimed by some that the taking in of great amounts 
 of air, as in deep breathing, when the system does not demand it 
 is not natural, and is likely to irritate and thus weaken the lungs. 
 This may be an objection to the deep breathing exercises if taken 
 apart from other work, but teachers of gymnastics usually give 
 them at the close of the lesson, when the exercise taken has put the 
 system in condition to benefit from the increased breathing. At 
 such a time no bad effects are found. 
 
THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 173 
 
 TAKING COLD AFTER EXERCISE. Anyone taking vigorous 
 exercise and not following it by proper hygienic precautions is 
 apt to experience what is commonly called "taking cold." Colds 
 are usually inflammatory conditions of the mucous membranes, 
 either in the respiratory passages or in the digestive tract. Two 
 conditions that may follow exercise are apt to set up these in- 
 flammations, or to make them worse if already present. 
 
 The first of these conditions is the fall of arterial pressure to 
 a point below normal. This results in deficient feeding of the 
 tissues and lowering of their vitality as a consequence. Disease 
 germs are generally present in large numbers on the mucous mem- 
 brane, but in favorable conditions the tissues are able to resist 
 their attacks ; with the lowered vitality due to low arterial pres- 
 sure, especially when the temperature is somewhat high, they are 
 better able to gain an entrance: 
 
 The second unfavorable condition is the presence of sweat in 
 the clothing and .consequent evaporation in full force when work 
 has stopped and the rapid production of heat no longer necessi- 
 tates such rapid heat dissipation. As soon as the skin begins to 
 grow cold the vasomotor center takes vigorous measures to pre- 
 vent too great loss of heat; the vessels in the skin are strongly 
 constricted while the inner parts of the body are still above normal 
 temperature and the heart action has not yet come back to normal. 
 The result is a rise of arterial pressure above the normal, sending 
 blood to the inflamed parts in too great quantities and under too 
 great pressure where shortly before the opposite condition pre- 
 vailed, thus adding to the inflammation and congestion. By the 
 time one begins to feel chilly, the increased pain and increased 
 discharge of mucous from the inflamed membranes is often plainly 
 noticeable. 
 
 BATHING AFTER EXERCISE. Bathing after the exercise is a 
 hygienic measure that should always be considered a part of the 
 proceeding ; it can be safely omitted only when the exercise has 
 not been so vigorous to cause any sweat to be collected in the 
 clothing, or in the hottest weather of the summer. By a bath 
 following the exercise the low arterial pressure that commonly 
 
174 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 follows sudden cessation of exercise is avoided, since the bath 
 stimulates the heart and helps to bring down the temperature of 
 the body to where it should be ; by removing the perspiration from 
 the skin and changing to dry clothing, all excessive constriction 
 of skin vessels is prevented. In fact, by means of the bath, prop- 
 erly taken, and followed by thorough rubbing or massage of the 
 skin, unfavorable effects of exercise are largely avoided. One of 
 the chief reasons why athletes get more benefit from their exercise 
 than laborers, and men more than women, is because athletes al- 
 most universally use the bath as a necessary accompaniment of the 
 exercise, while the laborer does not ; the women who do take the 
 same hygienic measures as men receive the same profit, but usually 
 they take less care in the matter. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 SWEDISH GYMNASTICS. 
 
 During the last twenty years several systems of gymnastics 
 have been on trial in schools and colleges, and of these the Swedish 
 and the German systems have gradually forged to the front. Each 
 of these two systems fills a place, .the Swedish being most useful 
 for correction of posture and the German more popular for all 
 around development and training of the body. The Swedish. in- 
 cludes a few exercises chosen with great care, while the German 
 system includes an almost unlimited number of exercises; each 
 exercise in Swedish is devised for a particular purpose, while this 
 is not true of the exercises of the German system. In the Swedish 
 gymnastics, apparatus is used sparingly and only so as to give 
 certain physiological effects; in German gymnastics apparatus is 
 used extensively to stimulate interest in exercise. The Swedes 
 claim that their exercises can not be improved upon, and therefore 
 any other exercise must be inferior ; the Germans welcome the in- 
 vention of new exercises, and believe in a wide range of gymnastic 
 training rather than a narrow one. 
 
 SWEDISH GYMNASTICS GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 The Swedish system of gymnastics represents the most thor- 
 ough attempt ever made to discover all of the bodily conditions 
 common to school children and students that can be improved by 
 exercise, and to devise a system of exercises to meet these condi- 
 tions. The following principles are emphasized : 
 
 (i) The main object of gymnastics is to improve the condi- 
 tions of the vital organs; strength of muscle is to be gained in- 
 cidentally. 
 
176 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 (2) Exercise should not begin or end suddenly, but should 
 increase gradually to a climax and then gradually decrease. 
 
 (3) Exercises should be carefully graded, so that the easier 
 exercises will lead up to and prepare for the more difficult ones. 
 
 (4) School life causes not only a general lack of vigor, but 
 also gives rise to definite faults of posture and development, call- 
 ing for definite corrective exercises. 
 
 (5) Exercises should be used only when they are known to 
 produce good effects on the body ; never because they are pretty 
 or amusing. 
 
 (6) Gymnastics should be conducted by command rather 
 than by having the teacher lead in the exercise or by having pupils 
 memorize them. 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 The first step in learning a new muscular movement is to get 
 a clear idea of it. It is plain that the teacher who is to give this 
 clear idea to the pupils must have a perfectly clear and accurate 
 idea of it himself. There can be no true teaching without this ; to 
 go before a class and pretend to teach when one has no clear and 
 vivid concept to present is the most unpardonable sin in all teach- 
 ing. All attempts in courses like this to develop methods and 
 principles of teaching are lost on people who do not know what 
 they are to teach. 
 
 The process of making an exercise in gymnastics clear to a 
 class may be called demonstration, using the word in the sense in 
 which it is used in geometry. To make the most clear and vivid 
 mental picture of anything it is necessary to appeal to the eye; 
 that is, the exercise must be seen by the class. It follows that the 
 teacher must not only have a clear idea of the exercise but he 
 must be able to perform it accurately; everything depends on this. 
 If clothing or some physical disability makes it impossible for the 
 teacher to do this, a pupil who can take the exercise will answer, 
 or even a chart showing pictures of it can be used. 
 
 While the exercise is being shown the essential things about 
 it must be stated, to prevent the pupils from emphasizing non- 
 
<\\ SH GYMNASTICS 177 
 
 essentials: just as the pupils need, when they explain their prob- 
 lems iu mathematics, to point to the work on the blackboard, so as 
 to direct the attention of their hearers to what they are saying, so 
 the teacher needs to refer directly to the exercise while it is before 
 their eyes. If it has a definite purpose, or a particular fault is 
 common, it is well to mention it, as it may add to the clearness of 
 the idea given to the class. The exercise usually needs to be shown 
 from different points of view, and nothing should be neglected that 
 will make plain what is to be done. The common language of con- 
 versation is to be used rather than the condensed form of definition 
 used in books. 
 
 \; the same time the teacher must avoid telling too much. 
 Clearness demands simplicity. 1 f an exercise has too many points 
 about it to be rapidly grasped and remembered at one telling, it 
 should he divided into parts if possible; if this is not feasible it is 
 sometimes best to tell of the details in part only and have the 
 pupils try it. pviiu: the minor details after the most important 
 things have been fixed in mind. It requires some judgment to 
 decide how much to say and how to say it; the tendency of the 
 teacher is in general to talk too much, to fail to plan well enough 
 what to say. and to say it in too indifferent a tone. 
 
 When i^yir \ercises are taught to pupils individually, 
 
 it is not necessary to ^ive commands, any more than to pupils who 
 are beini; sent to the blackboard or to those who are called on to 
 recite. Commands are needed when exercises are to be performed 
 hy classes in unison. There is a feeling abroad that commands are 
 something imposed upon pupils in an objectionable way, ordering 
 them ahont and treating them as menials. As a matter of fact, a 
 command is in these respects just like the other directions given 
 hy the teacher in conducting the work of the school. The com- 
 mand is simply a direction of what to do coupled with a signal 
 telling when it is to be done. 
 
 Class work in gymnastics should be done in unison for several 
 reasons. 
 
 i i ^ For the sake of appearance. Exercise done out of 
 unison pve an appearance of confusion and disorder that not only 
 
178 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 looks bad to spectators but reacts badly on pupils and teacher. 
 There is a feeling of system and unity produced by work in exact 
 unison that is worth having. 
 
 (2) What is probably more important, gymnastics must be 
 taken in unison so that the teacher can observe the work of the 
 class and give the assistance needed. When the exercises are 
 taken in exact unison it is possible for an experienced teacher to 
 see at once who is doing the work correctly, who is wrong, and 
 what is the fault, but the least defect in the unison will always 
 attract the teacher's attention from the movements themselves, 
 thus hiding what should be seen. 
 
 The wording and speaking of commands must therefore be 
 such as will secure exact unison in the work of the class. 
 
 A typical command consists of two parts : 
 
 (1) an explanatory part, which should give all necessary 
 information of what is to be done ; 
 
 (2) an executive part, or signal for action, which tells when 
 to do it. 
 
 The typical form of the explanatory part is the" imperative 
 form of sentence, which begins with the verb ; as, Raise arms for- 
 ward; swing bells sidewise; place right foot backward; march 
 forward; face about. The wording is as if the command was 
 addressed to one individual; as, bend head backward (not heads) ; 
 swing right foot sidewise (not feet); tzvist trunk to right (not 
 trunks) . 
 
 The executive part of the command is formed in either of 
 two ways : 
 
 (1) the verb is taken from its place at the beginning of the 
 explanatory part and used as the signal for action ; as, arms for- 
 ward, raise! bells sidewise, swing! right foot backward, 
 place! forward, march! etc., or 
 
 (2) the explanatory part is left in its regular form, with the 
 verb leading, and the numbers, one, two, etc., are used as the exec- 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 179 
 
 utive. As, raise arms sidewise, one I lower them to sides, two! 
 swing bells forward, one! swing them downward, two! face 
 about in two counts, one! two! 
 
 There are some familiar exceptions to these rules for word- 
 ing commands ; as, hips, firm! right shoulder, arms! Such ex- 
 ceptions work no inconvenience in case of exercises that everyone 
 knows, and especially in systems where there are but few com- 
 mands in all ; but in school gymnastics, where exercises are many, 
 it is a big advantage, both to teachers and pupils, to have com- 
 mands worded according to some uniform plan. The guiding 
 principle must in every case be the need of clearness ; the com- 
 mand must leave no doubt whatever as to what is to be done, h'ow 
 it is to be done, and when it is to be done. 
 
 The speaking of commands is just as important as their word- 
 ing ; the popular feeling against commands has arisen largely be- 
 cause some pompous persons speak them in such a domineering 
 manner. The explanatory part of the command should be spoken 
 plainly, so that all in the class can hear, at about the speed of com- 
 mon conversation, and should close with a falling inflection. The 
 falling inflection is an aid to clearness, because it indicates that the 
 explanatory part of the command is completed ; as, Hips firm and 
 right foot forward!\ 
 
 Following the explanatory part should come a pause, long 
 enough for the pupils to think over and fully comprehend all that 
 has been said. Few beginning teachers appreciate the importance 
 of this or realize how long it requires. Failure to give a sufficient 
 pause results in two serious faults in the class work for which of 
 course the pupils are not responsible : 
 
 1 i ) a part of the class is not ready to act when the execu- 
 tive part is given, and consequently the work is not in unison. 
 
 (2) slow pupils get in the habit of watching pupils in front 
 of them, imitating their movements, and paying no attention to 
 commands. The length of pause that is necessary varies both 
 with the complexity of the exercise and with the quickness with 
 which it should be done. Slight lack of unison is not conspicuous 
 
i8o PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 and hence not troublesome in slow exercises, such as heel raising, 
 leg raising, and some other movements, while in quick movements 
 like foot placing, arm flinging, etc., it is very important that all the 
 pupils start the exercise at the same instant ; a long pause is there- 
 fore much more necessary in the latter. 
 
 The executive word should be spoken in a vigorous and ani- 
 mated tone, not necessarily louder than the preceding part, and 
 should end with a slightly rising inflection. This rising inflection 
 helps the voice to be heard plainly and gives a pleasant and encour- 
 aging effect, while the mental effect of the falling inflection in 
 this case is not good. Any teacher who habitually finishes com- 
 mands with the falling inflection will get the reputation of being 
 cross and arbitrary ; in fact, it sounds that way to one who hears 
 it. Arms sideward, \ Raise!/ 
 
 The tone of voice in which commands are spoken is important. 
 It is not easy to explain distinctions here, but it is easy to notice 
 them ; one who speaks as if interested, enthusiastic, and confident, 
 will impress the pupils as having those qualities ; an indifferent, 
 monotonous, or cross tone affects the class seriously. Teachers 
 are apt to drop to an indifferent tone on the command for return- 
 ing from an exercise, as they think of the. next exercise and begin 
 to plan it before they finish the preceding one ; it is as important to 
 return in good form as to take the exercise in good form. An in- 
 different tone should be used only in the commands for resting and 
 dismissal ; it is of course absurd to command, "Class, Rest!" with 
 the same vim and enthusiasm that is used commanding a jump 
 or run. 
 
 It rarely happens that one is able to perform a wholly new 
 exercise accurately the first time, no matter how clear a demon- 
 stration of it has been made. The process by which one learns a 
 new exercise is called coordination. It involves control of the 
 muscles in new combinations and a training of the muscular sense, 
 the sense by which we get direct knowledge of the position of 
 our joints and of the force with which our muscles are contract- 
 ing. We try to make the new movement several times, and grad- 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS l8l 
 
 ually gain in accuracy by recognizing our faults and correcting 
 them. 
 
 By practicing many times we may acquire the ability of taking 
 the exercise correctly without directing our attention to it. The 
 movement is then said to be reflex. The learning of a new and 
 simple movement is seen therefore to include three stages: (a) 
 getting a clear mental picture, (b) perfecting the coordination, 
 and (c) making it reflex. 
 
 Success in perfecting the coordination depends largely on 
 how promptly and clearly the pupil recognizes his mistakes as he 
 tries to take the exercise. Since he can see his own positions to 
 only a slight extent, he will learn much faster if some one can tell 
 or show him how far his attempts are successful and to what ex- 
 tent they are faulty. This stage of teaching, therefore, requires 
 of the teacher two things : 
 
 i. Observation of the class as the exercise is taken, with the 
 object of discovering where the movement is accurate and where 
 it is inaccurate. This is probably the most difficult of all the 
 duties of the teacher of physical training. Before he can do this 
 successfully he must not only have a very clear concept of what 
 the exercise should be, and such a mastery of the commands that 
 he can give undivided attention to the work of the pupils, but his 
 eye must be trained to observe exercises and detect mistakes 
 quickly. 
 
 It is an aid to the teacher here to keep the most common 
 faults in mind ; for this purpose the faults that are most common 
 are given in the text along with the definition of the exercises. 
 
 The custom of leading the class in the exercises, which is 
 habitually followed by some teachers of gymnastics, is inevitably 
 fatal to the best results in this stage of the teaching because it 
 takes the attention of both the teacher and the pupils away from 
 wha all should be watching, viz : the work the pupils are doing. 
 The mental picture should be made so clear and vivid by a good 
 demonstration that this continuous leading is unnecessary. 
 
 Some exercises can best be observed from the front, some 
 from the rear, and some from the side. This makes it necessary 
 
1 82 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 for the teacher to move about among the pupils as the work goes 
 on. The common custom of sitting before a class causes teachers 
 to feel that they should always stand or sit in front of a class to 
 give commands, but this is not at all necessary. It is well to have 
 the class face in all four directions during the lesson, since it pre- 
 vents pupils from forming the habit of imitating those in front of 
 them, and also places all near the teacher a part of the time when 
 new exercises are shown. 
 
 2. Criticism of the work of the pupils. 
 
 The object here is to give the pupils the benefit of what the 
 teacher has learned in observing their work. The attitude of the 
 teacher in making these criticisms should be one of encourage- 
 ment and enthusiastic helpfulness. The word "criticism" does not 
 mean fault finding, but the giving of a true estimate of the degree 
 of success the pupils have reached in their attempts to do the work. 
 A class can be kept wide awake and interested by keeping them 
 informed all of the time of the progress they are making. Faults 
 of course must be noticed, but as the work improves the class 
 should be told of it and especially good work commended. 
 
 Criticism of faults in an exercise should be specific, stating 
 exactly what is the matter in the clearest possible way. An ob- 
 jective showing of the fault in contrast with the right way of 
 doing it is often the clearest and the quickest way. 
 
 The first faults to be criticised are naturally those that are 
 general; they should be mentioned in a general remark to the 
 whole class. Individual mistakes require help for each pupil, 
 which can usually be given by word but sometimes best by direct 
 assistance with the hand. The latter is especially true of posture 
 of the trunk. As a general principle it is well to give more in- 
 dividual criticisms to older pupils and more general criticisms to 
 younger children, since children sometimes misinterpret the per- 
 sonal attention. 
 
 Each position should be observed and criticised quickly while 
 the pupils are holding it ; then return to fundamental position and 
 repeat, observing and criticising again ; this is done enough times 
 to secure accurate performance. 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 183 
 
 SIMPLE GYMNASTIC POSITIONS. 
 
 i. FUNDAMENTAL POSITION. (Pos.) Fig. 74. 
 
 Command, In position, Stand! 
 
 Heels together, or nearly so, toes turned out making an angle 
 of from 30 to 60 degrees ; entire body .erect, inclined slightly for- 
 ward from ankles ; knees extended, hips drawn back, chest high, 
 head erect, chin in ; arms at the sides, wrists and fingers extended 
 but not stiff, palms resting against the sides of the thighs and held 
 well back. 
 
 Return command, In place, Rest! or Class, Rest! 
 
 Move right foot one foot length to the rear and assume an 
 easy posture without leaving floor position. 
 
 Purpose : To cultivate normal posture and to serve as a start- 
 ing position for other exercises. 
 
 As a posture exercise, fundamental standing position aims to 
 do three things : 
 
 (a) To strengthen muscles used in holding good posture ; 
 
 (b) To stretch some tissues and contract others, so as to 
 correct the effects of bad postures ; 
 
 (c) To train the muscular sense and the proper nerve cen- 
 ters so that correct posture will be taken reflexly. 
 
 To criticise fundamental position effectively it must be viewed 
 from two directions : From front or rear and from the side, the 
 latter being more important. Viewed from front or rear there 
 should be bilateral symmetry : weight equally divided between the 
 feet, spinal column straight and vertical, and hips and shoulders 
 at the same height on each side and equally distant from the spine 
 on each side. Viewed from the side, the general line of the body 
 should be straight from head to heel with inclination forward at 
 such an angle as will bring the center of gravity of the body over 
 the balls of the feet ; the spinal column should exhibit the three 
 normal curves : cervical, dorsal, and lumbar. The poise is tested 
 by rising on the toes ; if one has to sway forward or back before 
 rising, the weight was not over the balls of the feet. 
 
184 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 FAULTS : Seen from the side : (See Fig. 75.) 
 
 (a) Weight poised too far back, 
 
 (b) Hips and abdomen too far forward, 
 
 (c) Head too far forward, 
 
 (d) Arms and hands too far forward. 
 Seen from the front or rear : 
 
 (a) Weight not evenly divided, 
 
 (b) Uneven hips or shoulders, 
 
 (c) Head held to one side. 
 
 FIG. 74. Fundamental 
 standing position. 
 
 FIG. 75. Faulty standing position. 
 
 The combined effect of the first group of faults is to flatten 
 the chest and lessen the range of the breathing movements ; at the 
 same time the organs in the body cavity are crowded and their 
 action hindered. The combined effects of the second group is to 
 cause lateral curvature of the spine, which lessens its supporting 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 185 
 
 power and in severe cases causes pressure upon the spinal nerves 
 where they pass out from the spinal canal. 
 
 2. FUNDAMENTAL SITTING POSITION. (Sit.) Fig. 76. 
 
 Command, In position on the bench (or chair or school seat), 
 Sit! 
 
 Pupils promptly seat themselves and at once assume erect 
 position of the trunk as described for fundamental standing 
 position. 
 
 FIG. 76. Fundamental sitting po- 
 sition. 
 
 At the command, In place, Rest! an easy posture is assumed. 
 Return command. In position, Stand! 
 
 Purpose : To furnish a starting position for certain exercises 
 that can be taken from it to a better advantage than from stand- 
 ing position. 
 
 Faults : The most common fault in this position is letting 
 the pelvis tip back, taking out all the normal lumbar curve of the 
 spine and giving what is called the "rocking chair" position. Let- 
 ting head fall forward is also a common fault. 
 
1 86 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 NOTES: The fundamental standing and sitting positions are 
 used in two different ways : 
 
 1 i ) As corrective . exercises. Here the purpose is to 
 strengthen the muscles needed to hold erect posture and to stretch 
 such ligaments, muscles, and other tissues as hinder the taking of 
 erect posture. For this purpose the position must be taken vig- 
 orously and repeated many times with resting positions between. 
 Such exercises are needed in the case of those pupils who have 
 faults of posture so marked and so firmly rooted that they cannot 
 take an erect position easily. Their appropriate place is in the 
 corrective room with individual pupils and in a limited amount of 
 home work for such pupils. 
 
 (2) As ideal positions to be practiced with the object of 
 making them habitual. Here the fundamental position is taken 
 with less force but held for a much longer time, which is gradually 
 increased until position can be maintained through the entire class 
 period. 
 
 Many teachers have used the first method with all classes, but 
 there is a marked tendency at present to favor the second and to 
 treat special cases needing corrective exercises out of class. Miss 
 Bancroft says that she is able to get much better results in this 
 way, as shown by tests of 250,000 children in Brooklyn. It is 
 claimed that the fatigue of taking the rigidly erect posture, and 
 that the frequent taking of resting positions which are not criti- 
 cised by the teacher also gives bad habits of standing and sitting. 
 Instead of commanding position and rest at carefully planned in- 
 tervals, the work of the teacher, in the new method of training, 
 consists in watching the pupils individually, reminding those who 
 get out of good position, and urging and encouraging them to 
 maintain it. 
 
 3. HANDS ON HIPS, (Hf.) Fig. 77. 
 
 Command, Hips, Firm! 
 
 The hands are placed firmly against the waist, just above the 
 hips, palms on the crest of the hip bone, fingers forward ; elbows 
 drawn slightly backward ; wrists straight or lower than the line 
 of the hand or arm. 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 
 
 I8 7 
 
 Return command. Arms, Down! 
 
 Purpose: (a) To aid in holding the trunk firm; (b) to serve 
 as a convenient position for the hands in exercises in which it is 
 not advantageous to leave them hanging freely. 
 
 Faults: (a) Elbows too far forward; (b) wrists too high. 
 
 FIG. 77- 
 hips. 
 
 Hands on 
 
 FIC-. 78. Stride side- 
 ward with hands on 
 neck. 
 
 4. HANDS ON NECK. (Nf.) Fig. 78 and Fig. 91. 
 Command, Neck, Firm! 
 
 Start as in flinging arms sideward, then flex elbows and bring 
 finger tips together at the back of the neck, with head erect and 
 elbows well back. 
 
 Return command, Arms, Down! 
 
 Purpose: (a) To aid in chest expansion; (b) to cultivate 
 good posture; (c) to increase the difficulty of other exercises. 
 
 Faults: (a) Arms brought up toward the front; (b) head 
 moved forward ; (c) elbows not held well back. 
 
 5. ARMS BEND. (A bd.) Figs. 79 and 83. 
 Command, Arms, Bend! or Shoulders, Firm! 
 
 The forearms are raised sideward, flexing the elbows, which 
 remain close to the sides as possible; the hands are closed, 
 raised over the shoulders and carried as far to the rear as possible. 
 
1 88 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 Return command, Arms, Down! or Arms doivnward, 
 Stretch! 
 
 In the latter case the elbows are raised slightly and then thrust 
 downward with force. 
 
 FIG. 80. Arms for- 
 ward. 
 
 FTG. 79. Arms bend, or shoulders 
 firm. 
 
 Purpose: (a) To aid in chest expansion; (b) to serve as a 
 starting point for arm stretchings; (c) to vary the difficulty of 
 other exercises. This exercise aids in chest expansion only when 
 the elbows are held down and the hands far to the rear at the 
 same time. 
 
 Faults: (a) Elbows not held down with enough force; (&) 
 hands not held back with enough force ; (c) back hollowed. 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 189 
 
 6. ARMS FORWARD. (Af ) Fig. 80. 
 Command, Arms forward, Raise! 
 
 Arms raised slowly forward to horizontal position, parallel, 
 elbows and wrists extended, palms toward each other. 
 
 Return command, Arms, Sink! 
 
 Also taken quickly at the command, Arms forward, Fling! 
 and also at the command, Arms forward, Stretch! The latter 
 command is given while pupils have the arms bent, as in exer- 
 cise 5. 
 
 Purpose: (a) Cultivation of posture; (b) to vary the diffi- 
 culty of other exercises. 
 
 Faults: (a) Leaning back at the waist; (&) arms too high; 
 (c) shoulders forward. 
 
 7. ARMS SIDEWARD. (As) Fig. 81. 
 Command, Arms sideward, Raise! 
 
 The arms are raised slowly sideward until they are hori- 
 zontal, with elbows and wrists extended, palms turned downward, 
 and arms held well back. 
 
 Return command, Arms, Sink! 
 
 The commands Fling and Stretch are used in this exercise as 
 in the preceding one, and with the same meaning, the latter com- 
 mand being given when the arms are bent. 
 
 Purpose: (a) Cultivation of posture; (b) chest expansion; 
 (c) to vary the difficulty of other exercises. This exercise aids in 
 chest expansion if the arms are held well back, but not otherwise. 
 
 Faults: (a) Arms are not at the correct height; (&) arms 
 not held well back; (c) class facing in such a way that collisions 
 of arms occur between pupils. 
 
 8. ARMS UPWARD. (A u) Fig. 82. 
 Command, Arms forward upward, Raise! 
 
 Beginning as in raising arms forward, the movement is com- 
 tinued up to a vertical position, with arms extended and palms 
 toward each other. 
 
 Return command, Arms forward downward, Sink! 
 
190 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 The arms may also be raised sideward upward ; in this case 
 the palms are turned upward as the arms pass the horizontal 
 position. 
 
 FIG. Si. 
 ward. 
 
 Arms side- 
 
 FIG. 82. 
 ward. 
 
 Arms up- 
 
 FIG. 83. *Stride for- 
 ward and shoulders 
 firm. 
 
 Purpose: (a) Cultivation of posture; (b) chest expansion; 
 (c) to vary the difficulty of other exercises. 
 
 Faults: (a) Back hollowed; (b) head forward; (c) elbows 
 not extended; (d) palms forward. 
 
 The commands Fling and Stretch are used here as in the pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 9. STRIDE SIDEWARD, (std s) Fig. 78. 
 
 Command, Right (or 1) foot sideward, Place! 
 
 The foot is lifted, moved two foot lengths toward the side, 
 and placed on the floor, with the line of the foot at the same angle 
 as before, and the weight equally divided between the two feet. 
 
 Return command, Foot, Replace! 
 
 * Do not infer from the fact that most of the pictures show two posi- 
 tions that the positions shown together must always be given together. 
 They are combined here for economy of space, not to indicate a preference 
 of combination. 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 19 1 
 
 This position is sometimes taken, in more advanced work, in 
 two counts, moving the left foot on the first count and the right 
 in the second count, each moving one foot length. The command 
 is Feet sideward, Place! Sometimes with children both feet are 
 moved at the same time at the command, Feet apart , Jump! 
 
 Purpose : To increase the stability of the standing position. 
 
 Faults: (a) Feet not far enough apart; (b) weight not 
 equally divided; (c) one knee bent; (d) feet not at proper angle. 
 
 10. STRIDE FORWARD, (std f ) Fig. 83. 
 Command, Right (or 1) foot forward, Place! 
 
 The foot is lifted, moved two foot lengths to the front, and 
 placed on the floor with the line of the foot at the same angle as 
 before and the weight equally divided between the two feet. 
 
 Return command, Foot, Replace! 
 
 The foot may also be placed backward in a similar manner 
 and at a similar command. 
 
 Purpose: To vary the standing position and to increase its 
 stability. 
 
 Faults: (a) Feet too close together; (b) weight not far 
 enough forward; (c) toes not turned out at proper angle. 
 
 11. HEEL RAISING. (H rse) Fig. 84. 
 Command, Heels, Raise! 
 
 Rise high on tiptoes. 
 
 Return command, Heels, Sink! 
 
 Purpose: (a) To narrow the base of support, so as to give 
 more difficulty in balancing; (b) to serve as a warming up exer- 
 cise when taken rapidly in series; (c) to test the poise in funda- 
 mental standing position. 
 
 Faults: (a) Heels turn out; (b) hips thrown forward. 
 
 12. KNEE BENDING. (Kbd) Fig. 85. 
 Command, Knees, Bend! 
 
 The knees are slowly flexed until there is a right angle at the 
 knee ; the knees separate as they bend, moving diagonally forward 
 
192 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 in the direction of the lines of the feet ; the heels are lifted a little 
 during the movement, because of the limited movement possible 
 in the ankle joints. 
 
 Return command, Knees, Stretch! 
 
 Purpose : To cultivate posture and balance. 
 
 .Faults: (a) Trunk tipped forward; (b) knees held close 
 together. 
 
 
 FIG. 85. Knee bending, 
 with hands on hips. 
 
 FIG. 84. Heel raising 
 with hands on hips. 
 
 13. LEG RAISING. (L rse) Fig. 86. 
 
 Command, Right (left) leg sideward, Raise! 
 
 The foot is lifted and moved two foot lengths to the side, 
 with knee and ankle extended and the trunk erect. The leg is also 
 raised in a similar way forward, backward, and outward, at similar 
 commands. 
 
 Purpose : To cultivate posture and balance. 
 
 Faults: (a) Trunk not held erect; (b) ankle not extended. 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 
 
 193 
 
 14. KNEE RAISING. (K rse) Fig. 87. 
 
 Command, Right (left) knee upward, Raise! 
 
 The knee is raised to the level of the hip, hip and knee joints 
 being flexed to a right angle ; trunk erect ; ankle of free foot 
 extended. 
 
 Return command, Knee downward, Stretch! 
 
 Purpose : To cultivate posture and balance. 
 
 Faults: (a) Trunk not held erect; (b) knee not as high as 
 hip; (c) free foot not extended or too far back. 
 
 FIG. 86. Leg raising. FIG. 87. Knee raising. 
 
 Head back- 
 
 15. HEAD BACKWARD. (Hb) Fig. 88. 
 Command, Head Backward, Bend! 
 
 The head is held erect and moved backward as far as possible, 
 and at the same time a deep breath is taken. 
 Return command, Head, Raise! 
 
 Purpose : To correct round shoulders and to raise the chest. 
 "Round shoulders" is a defect of posture that seriously affects the 
 health, because it flattens the chest and lessens the range of the 
 breathing movements. Habitual flattening of the chest leaves 
 many air cells without fresh air, a condition favorable to the 
 growth of disease germs. (See Fig. 69.) 
 
194 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 Faults: (a) Raising the chin too high; (>) bending the 
 lower part of the spine, thus sacrificing the fundamental position. 
 This may be avoided by having the beginners take the exercise at 
 first while sitting in. the school seat, where the back of the seat 
 prevents the fault. See Fig. 107. (c) Failure to take a deep breath 
 as the head is moved backward. 
 
 FIG. 89. Chest arching. 
 
 16. CHEST ARCHING. (Ch arch) Fig. 89. 
 
 Command, Chest Arching, One! Two! 
 
 Like the preceding but more extended, the backward bend be- 
 ginning in the neck and eextending down into the region of the 
 chest. A deep breath, as before. 
 
 Purpose : Same as the preceding. 
 
 Faults: (a) The bend extends too low, so as to hollow the 
 back. 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 
 
 195 
 
 17. TRUNK FORWARD. (Tr f) Fig. 90. 
 
 Taken only from stride position sideward. 
 
 Command, Trunk forward, Incline! 
 
 The trunk is inclined forward, the movement taking place in 
 the hip joints only, as far as the hips can be flexed ; normal curves 
 of spine are maintained, and head, shoulders, and trunk held in 
 the same relative positions as in fundamental position. 
 
 FTC. 90. Trunk for- 
 ward with hands on 
 hips. 
 
 Fie. QI. Trunk down- 
 ward with hands on 
 neck. 
 
 18. TRUNK DOWNWARD. (Tr d) Fig. 91. 
 
 Command, Trunk downward, Bend! 
 
 Return command, Trunk upward Stretch, or Trunk, 
 Raise. 
 
 Purpose : To cultivate the correct posture of the spine and 
 develop and train the muscles of the back,' which are the ones 
 chiefly involved. 
 
 Faults : Hips not completely flexed ; normal posture of the 
 spine lost. 
 
 Starting the movement from stride sideward enables one to 
 bend farther than from fundamental position. 
 
 Given while the pupils have trunk forward ; may also be given 
 while the pupils are in stride sideward with trunk erect. The 
 
196 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 trunk is bent further downward by relaxing the muscles in the 
 small of the back. The relative positions of the head, shoulders, 
 and chest are kept as in fundamental position. 
 
 Return command, Trunk upward, Stretch! or Trunk, 
 Raise! 
 Purpose : Same as for trunk forward. 
 
 Faults : Failure to maintain the normal position of the head 
 and shoulders. 
 
 FIG. 92. Trunk side- 
 ward. 
 
 FIG. 93. Trunk twist- 
 ing with hands on 
 hips. 
 
 FIG. 94. Fallout for- 
 ward. 
 
 19. TRUNK SIDEWARD. Tr s) Fig. 92. 
 
 Command, Trunk to right (or 1), Bend! 
 
 The trunk bends directly to the side, as far as possible, with 
 the relative positions of the head and shoulders unchanged. 
 
 Return command, Trunk upward, Stretch, or Trunk, 
 Raise ! 
 
 Purpose: (a) To cultivate flexibility of the spine; (b) to 
 strengthen the muscles used in maintaining the normal position 
 of the spine; (c) to stimulate the internal organs by variations of 
 pressure. 
 
 Faults: (a) Trunk twisted; (b) head not in normal posi- 
 tion; (c) one knee partly flexed ; (d) leaning backward. 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS IQ7' 
 
 20. TRUNK TWIST. (Tr tw) Fig. 93. 
 Command, Trunk to right (or 1), Twist! 
 
 Trunk twisting on- vertical axis, not twisting the head or hips. 
 
 Return command, Trunk forward, Twist! 
 
 Purpose : Same as for side bend. 
 
 Faults : Twisting legs and hips, and twisting head. 
 
 21. FALLOUT FORWARD, (fal f) Fig. 94. 
 Command, Right (or 1) forward, Fallout! 
 
 The foot is lifted and placed forward three foot lengths, toes 
 turned out at the same angle as in fundamental position, heels on 
 the floor; forward knee bent until it is vertically over the toe; 
 trunk and rear limb in straight line from head to heel ; face and 
 shoulders squarely to the front. The body should remain straight 
 and fall forward as the foot is lifted. 
 
 Return command, Foot, Replace! 
 
 In returning to position the body remains straight as before, 
 and is brought to the vertical position by a spring made by sud- 
 denly extending the ankle and knee. 
 
 22. FALLOUT SIDEWARD, (fal s) Fig. 95. 
 
 This fallout is taken like the other except that the foot is 
 moved sideward and the body is inclined sideward in the same 
 direction, while the face and shoulders remain turned to the front. 
 
 23. FALLOUT OUTWARD, (fal o) Fig. 96. 
 
 This fallout is defined like the others except as to the direc- 
 tion ; the foot is placed diagonally, midway between forward and 
 sideward. Face and shoulders are turned to the front, not in 
 the direction of the foot. 
 
 Purpose : (a) To cultivate the muscular sense and the ability 
 to coordinate good posture ; this is accomplished by the practice it 
 .gives in holding the trunk in its correct form while it is out of 
 vertical position; (b) to serve as a starting point for certain exer- 
 cises; (c) to serve as warming up exercises when taken rapidly 
 in series. 
 
I 9 8 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 Faults: In criticising fallout positions the teacher should 
 observe them from all directions and should keep in mind all of 
 the points specified in the definitions, as all of these points are apt 
 to be wrong, and all are important. In the outward fallout, which 
 is much the most difficult of the three to take, there is a special 
 
 FIG. 95. Fallout sideward. 
 
 FIG. 96. Fallout outward. 
 
 tendency to turn the face and shoulders toward the foot, instead 
 of keeping toward the front, thus making it merely a forward 
 fallout with a turn of 45 degrees. 
 
 24. LEANING POSITION. (In) Fig. 97. 
 
 Command, In leaning position with hands on desk, One! 
 T^vo ! 
 
 The command is given while the pupils are standing between 
 the desks and the movement is executed in two parts : at the com- 
 mand One! the hands are placed on the desks, and at the command 
 Two ! the feet are placed backward, bringing the body to the posi- 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 199 
 
 tion shown in Figure 97, with the weight resting on the arms and 
 the body straight from head to heels. 
 
 Return command, In position, Stand! The feet are placed 
 forward and the hands are immediately removed from the desks. 
 The return may be commanded and executed in two parts if the 
 teacher prefers. 
 
 Purpose: To exercise the abdominal muscles and to culti- 
 vate posture. 
 
 Faults : Body not kept straight. 
 
 FIG. 97. Leaning position, with arms bent. 
 
 25. HANGING POSITION, (hg) Fig. 98. 
 Command, Hands over head, Grasp! Feet, Raise! 
 With the hands grasping some bar, ladder, or other support 
 
 overhead, the feet are raised from the floor so that the weight is 
 borne by the arms. The pupils may, in some cases, jump and 
 catch the bar ; sometimes they may climb up the wall ladder ; and 
 sometimes they stand on a bench and this is removed when the 
 feet are raised ; then the feet can hang freely. 
 
 Return command, In position, Stand! 
 
 Purpose: (a) To aid in chest expansion; (b) to serve as a 
 starting point for other exercises, especially abdominal exercises. 
 
 26. LEANING HANG POSITION. ( In hg) Fig. 99. 
 Command, Backward, Lean! 
 
 Given while class stand close to a wall ladder or other object 
 of support, with hands grasping bar and elbows completely flexed. 
 
200 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 When the class is close to the wall ladder and facing it the com- 
 mand may be, Hands on round at height of eyes, Place! Feet 
 on lower round, Place! Arms, Stretch! 
 
 At the command Stretch the arms are extended and the body 
 leans backward as far as the arms will permit ; body remains 
 straight as in fundamental position. 
 
 FIG 98. Hanging position. 
 
 FiG. 99. Leaning hang. 
 
 Return command, In position, Stand! 
 
 Purpose: (a) To exercise back muscles; (b) to cultivate 
 posture. 
 
 Faults : Body not held straight. 
 
 27. INCLINE: BACKWARD, (inc b) Fig. 100 and Fig. 101. 
 Command, Backward, Incline! 
 
 Given while pupils are in stride forward, sitting position with 
 foot support, or in half kneeling or kneeling position. When 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 2OI 
 
 taken from sitting, half kneeling, or kneeling position the trunk 
 inclines slowly backward, all the normal curves of the spine re- 
 maining unchanged. When taken from the stride position the 
 rear knee is bent and the entire body leans backward, with body 
 straight from head to the forward foot. 
 Return command, Trunk, Raise! 
 
 FIG. IOT. Incline backward while 
 sitting. 
 
 Fie. 100. Incline backward. 
 
 Purpose: (a) To cultivate normal posture; (b) to develop 
 the abdominal muscles. 
 
 Faults: (a) Head drooped forward ; (b) back hollowed ; (c) 
 trying to incline too far, causing faulty position and strain. When 
 taken from sitting position, the feet must be supported to prevent 
 falling backward. 
 
202 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 A FEW GYMASTIC MOVEMENTS. 
 
 1. ARM CIRCUMDUCTION. (A cmd). 
 Command, Arm circumduction, One! Two! 
 
 At the command, One! the arms are raised forward upward 
 as in Figure 82 on page 190 ; at the command, Two! they sink side- 
 ward, downward, turning palms down as the arms pass the hori- 
 zontal. 
 
 Purpose : Chest expansion. 
 
 2. ARM PARTING. (Apt). 
 Command, Arm parting, One! Two! 
 
 This command is given only when the arms have been raised 
 forward or upward ; at the command, One ! they are quickly sepa- 
 rated to the position of arms sideward; at the command, Two! 
 they return to the starting position. 
 
 3. ARM ROTATION. (A ro). 
 Command, Arm rotation, One! Two! 
 
 This command is given when the arms are sideward; at the 
 command, One ! the palms are quickly turned upward ; at the com- 
 mand Two! they return. 
 
 4. ARM- STRETCHINGS. (A str). 
 
 Command, Arm stretching sideward, One! Two! At the 
 command, One! the arms are bent, as in Figure 79 on page 188; at 
 the command, Two ! they are quickly extended sideward, finishing 
 as in Figure 81 on page 190. The return movement is made at the 
 command Arm stretching downward, One! Two! This is exe- 
 cuted in a similar manner, finishing in fundamental position. 
 
 Arm stretchings are also taken forward and upward. 
 
 When pupils have become accustomed to the movements we 
 may command Arms sideward, Stretch! from fundamental posi- 
 tion, and the two counts are executed in rhythm, the class counting. 
 
 5. BREATHING, (br). 
 
 Command, Deep breathing, One! Two! 
 A deep breath is inhaled at the command, One! and exhaled 
 at the command, Two ! 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 203 
 
 6. CHANGE OF FEET, (ch F). 
 Command, Change of Feet, One! Two! 
 
 This command is given only when one foot has been moved 
 away from its position beside the other, as in stride positions and 
 fallouts. At the command, One! the foot that has been moved 
 away is brought back to position and at the command, Two! the 
 other one is placed in a similar position. Later we may command, 
 Feet, Change! and the pupils execute the two counts in even 
 rhythm, listening to the sound made by the foot to help them 
 keep in unison. 
 
 7. CLOSING AND OPENING FEET. (F cl) (F op) 
 Commands, Feet, Close! Feet, Open! or Feet, Out! 
 At the first of these commands the toes are turned in so that 
 
 the inner margins of the feet touch ; at the second command they 
 are turned out to the usual angle. 
 
 8. SWING OF FOOT, (sw F) 
 Command, Free foot forward, Swing! 
 
 This command is given only when one leg is raised, and the 
 command may be to swing it forward, sideward, outward, or 
 backward. Swing of the free foot is also used in hopping exer- 
 cises, the foot being swung as the hop is taken. 
 
 9. KNEE STRETCHINGS. (K str) 
 Command, R knee sideward, Stretch! 
 
 This command is given only when the knee is raised as in 
 Figure 87. At the command the limb is quickly extended to the 
 position of Figure 86. The knee can also be stretched forward, 
 backward, or outward to the positions mentioned in exercise 13, 
 page 192. 
 
 10. PREPARATION FOR JUMPING, (pr jp) 
 
 Command, Preparation for jumping, zvith counting, Start! 
 
 -The following four movements are taken in even rhythm: 
 (i) raise heels (2) bend knees (3) stretch knees (4) heels 
 sink. The third count is taken as if to jump, but the toes do not 
 leave the floor. 
 
204 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 KNEEUNG. (y 2 kn) 
 
 Command, On the right (or left) knee, Kneel! 
 
 Executed in three counts, as follows: (i) Place the right 
 foot backward; (2) Bend knees until right knee rests on the 
 floor; (3) Place the left foot forward to bring the knee to a right 
 angle. (Figure 102 shows count 2.) 
 
 Return command, In position, Stand! 
 
 The three parts of the exercises are reversed. 
 
 FiG. 102. Half kneeling. 
 
 FiG. 103. Kneeling. 
 
 KNEEUNG. (kn) Fig. 103. 
 
 Command, On both knees, Kneel! 
 
 This is also executed in three counts, the first two being the 
 same as the preceding ; the third count of this movement consists 
 in placing the forward knee on the floor beside the other. 
 
 Return command, In position, Stand! In three counts, as 
 in the preceding exercise. 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 2O5 
 
 JUMPING EXERCISES, (jp u) (jp f) (jp s) (jp turn 90). 
 
 Command, Jumping upward, with counting, Start! 
 
 This exercise consists of six counts, as follows : 
 
 Raise heels bend knees spring upward alight on toes with 
 knees bent straighten knees lower heels. Some teachers prefer 
 three counts, taking I and 2 together, 3 and 4 together, and 5 and 
 6 together. 
 
 Common faults in jumping are (i) alighting with knees 
 straight and thus striking the floor too hard, jarring the whole 
 body, and (2) bending trunk forward on alighting. Accurate form 
 is especially important in jumping. 
 
 Upward jumping may be done with a turn of 90, 180, 270, 
 or even 360 degrees, the turn being made while in the air, the 
 words, "with a turn of 90 degrees to right (or left)" being in- 
 cluded in the command. 
 
 The jump may be taken forward or sideward instead of di- 
 rectly upward without changing the form of the exercise, changing 
 a single word in the command. Turns can also be made in these 
 jumps. When the jump is forward it can be taken with a running 
 start, inserting into the command the words (f -zvith one (or more) 
 running step, starting with left foot (or right)." Here the form 
 of the exercise is changed. There are five counts with one step, 
 as follows : 
 
 Place foot forward and bend knees ready to spring jump 
 forward alight with feet together straighten knees lower 
 heels. With each added step one count is added. To get the 
 benefit of the running start there must be no pause after the first 
 count, the jump being taken at once. The turn can also be made 
 with the running jumps, but the turn is most easily made toward 
 the foot from which the jump is taken. 
 
 GYMNASTICS TACTICS. 
 
 i. ALIGNMENT FORWARD. (Al f) Fig. 104. 
 This command is given only when the pupils are standing in 
 line, one behind another. The front pupil of the line stands fast 
 
206 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 in, position as a guide for the positions of the others ; all the others 
 measure the distance by raising the arms forward and moving up 
 until just able to touch the one next in front ; at the same time the 
 line is straightened. Pupils stand in this position until the return 
 command, Arms, Down! 
 
 By placing one pupil in front of the class to represent a guide, 
 the teacher can demonstrate the manner of measuring distance, as 
 it is to be done by the pupils. 
 
 FIG. 104. Alignment forward. 
 
 ... 2. ALIGNMENT SIDEWARD. (Al s) Fig. 105. 
 
 Command, Right, Dress! 
 
 This command is given only when the pupils are standing in 
 one or more lines, side by side. The pupil at the right end of the 
 line is the guide ; he stands still when the command is given, with 
 eyes to the front. 
 
 All including the guide place left hand on hip ; all the others 
 in" the line turn head and eyes to the right and move up until right 
 arm touches the left elbow of the one next on the right; at the 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 
 
 207 
 
 same time the line is straightened. When there is more than one 
 line the second line is about 30 inches behind the first ; those in 
 the second do the same as those in the front line excepting that 
 they do not measure the distance by raising the arms forward and 
 moving up behind the corresponding one in front ; the guide of 
 the rear line measures distance as for alignment forward. 
 
 Return command, Eyes, Front! 
 
 At the return command all turn eyes to the front and drop 
 the hand to the side, in fundamental position. 
 
 Fie. 105. Alignment Sideward. 
 
 By placing a pupil in front of the class to represent a guide, 
 the teacher can demonstrate the manner of measuring distance; 
 by placing two pupils in position for a front line and one for the 
 guide of the rear line, the manner of getting position in the rear 
 line can be demonstrated. 
 
 Each pupil should take his place in line as quickly as possible. 
 Pupils may be spaced farther apart by having them extend left 
 .arm sideward instead of placing hand on hip. The command is, 
 Full arm distance, Right Dress! 
 
208 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 3. FACING TO THE RIGHT, (r fc) 
 Command, To the right, Face! 
 
 The exercise is in two parts: (i) lift the right toe and the 
 left heel and pivot to the right 90 degrees on the right heel by a 
 whirl of the body and the push of the left toe; (2) lift the left 
 foot and place it beside the right, bringing it in from the side with 
 an accent, which is made by a stroke of the ball of the foot on the 
 floor, made by extending the ankle, the knee being kept straight. 
 
 4. FACING ABOUT, (ab fc) 
 Command, About, Face! 
 
 This is exactly like the right face except that a turn of 180 
 degrees is made in the first part. 
 
 5. FACING TO THE LEFT. (1 fc) 
 Command, To the left, Face! 
 
 Turn to the left, pivoting on the left and pushing with the 
 right toe. 
 
 6. NUMBERING, (num) 
 
 Command, Count twos (or fours), Start! 
 
 This command is given only when the pupils are standing in 
 line side by side. At the command, count twos, each pupil turns 
 head slightly to the right, except the guide, who keeps eyes to the 
 front; at the command, Start! the guide says, "One 3 / then the 
 pupil at his left turns his head quickly to the front and says, 
 "Two" the next similarly says, "Three," and so on until all have 
 numbered. When the class is in two lines, the teacher instructs 
 those in the rear line either to count in unison with the front line 
 or to listen and get the number from the pupil in front as he calls 
 it. The counting should be done in a clear tone, but not neces- 
 sarily a loud one. 
 
 7. MARCHING STEPS, (i stp f) (2 stp b) 
 
 Command, One (or two or three) step forward (or b), 
 March ! 
 
 The number of steps commanded are taken as in marching, 
 beginning in all cases with the left foot and bringing in the foot 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 2Og 
 
 beside the other in similar rhythm to complete the movement. It 
 follows that one step will occupy two counts, two steps three 
 counts, etc. The last count is accented as in facings. 
 
 8. SIDE STEPS, (i s stp r) 
 
 Command, One side step to right (or left,) March! 
 
 The movement occupies two counts : the foot is placed to the 
 side as in stride sideward on the first count, and the other foot is 
 brought up beside it on the second. We may command two side 
 steps, but the second step is only a repetition of the first. 
 
 9. OPENING AND CLOSING RANKS, (op rk) (cl rk) 
 Command, Open ranks. March! 
 
 This command is given only when the class is in two lines, as 
 in diagram (a) ; the lines separate by taking two steps away from 
 each other, giving position (b). When the pupils are facing the 
 end of the class, the steps are necessarily side steps; when one 
 line is behind the other, the front rank step forward and the rear 
 rank backward. 
 
 Return command, Close ranks, March- 
 
 ' I2I2I2I2I2I2 
 
 I2I2I2I2I2I2 
 I2I2I2I2I2I2 
 
 I2I2I2I2I2I2 
 
 10. OPENING AND CLOSING SPACES, (op sp) (cl sp) 
 
 Command, Open spaces, March! 
 
 This command is given only when ranks are open or there is 
 only one line, and must be preceded by numbering. The numbers 
 one take one step in one direction and the numbers two take one 
 step in the opposite direction. When the pupils face the end of 
 the line steps are necessarily side steps ; when they stand side by 
 side in the line the steps are necessarily forward and backward. 
 It is customary to have the numbers one take the step forward or 
 
210 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 to the right and the numbers two to the left or back. This brings 
 the class to the position shown in the following diagram : 
 
 I i i i i i 
 
 2222222 
 I I I I I I 
 2222222 
 
 Return command, Close spaces, March! 
 
 When taken directly after opening spaces, this movement is 
 the reverse of the former; but since other exercises are usually 
 taken in the open order, and the class may be facing in another 
 direction when the time comes to close the spaces, it is best to 
 think of returning to the line without regard to the numbers or 
 the way the spaces were opened. For this reason we teach pupils 
 to go by the number and its corresponding direction in opening 
 spaces, but to ignore these and go in such direction as to close up 
 in the reverse movement. 
 
 ii. OPENING AND CLOSING ORDER, (up ord) (cl ord) 
 
 Command, Open order, March! 
 
 This exercise is simply a combination of the last two, mean- 
 ing to open the ranks and then to immediately open the spaces, in 
 even rhythm. 
 
 Return command, Close order, March ! 
 
 NOTE: Opening and closing order are often troublesome to 
 pupils and sometimes to teachers, usually because they do not fully 
 comprehend how simple the movements really are. The class 
 should be able to open or close order correctly at any time, no 
 matter which way they are facing or how many facings have been 
 taken. The following questions, if clearly thought out, should 
 make the matter easy : 
 
 (a) What are the four distinct movements involved in open- 
 ing and closing order? See 9 and 10 above.) 
 
 (&) In which one of these four movements does the pupil 
 need to think of his number? (He should pay no attention to his 
 number in the other three. This is the key to the situation.) 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 211 
 
 (c) What should the pupil think of to tell him which way to 
 go in opening and closing ranks ? When he has done it once, why 
 not take the same steps whenever he has it to do again ? 
 
 ( d) What should the pupil think of to tell him which way to 
 go in closing spaces? Why not simply remember to reverse the 
 move made in opening spaces? 
 
 12. MARCHING, (mch) 
 
 Command, Class forward, March! or Forward, quick time, 
 March ! 
 
 At the explanatory command the weight of the body is poised 
 far forward; at the command, march! pupils start promptly for- 
 ward, beginning with the left foot, keeping even rhythm and all in 
 unison, with trunk erect (not stiff) and arms hanging easily at the 
 sides. For quick time 120 steps to the minute is the usual rate. 
 
 At the command. Class, Plait! one more step is taken and 
 the rear foot is placed beside the other on the next count, with an 
 account as in facing. Because of the momentum of the body and 
 its inclination forward in marching it is almost impossible to stop 
 instantly, which is the reason for the extra step after the com- 
 mand, "Halt!" To make the command, "Class" of any value as a 
 warning signal it must be spoken on the step immediately pre- 
 ceding the word, Halt! instead of leaving a considerable pause be- 
 tween as we eeed to do in most commands. When it is desired 
 to march slowly the command is Forward, slow time, March! 
 
 13. MARKING TIME, (m t) Fig. 106. 
 
 Command, Mark time, March! 
 
 This exercise is similar to marching and begins like it with 
 the left foot ; the feet are raised directly upward by bending the 
 hip and knee joints, keeping even rhythm and exact unison with- 
 out advancing. Class, Halt! is commanded and executed as in 
 marching. 
 
 Faults : Rocking sidewise alternately as the foot is lifted. , 
 
212 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 (.' ,14. RUNNING, (run) 
 
 / Command, Running forward, March ! or Forward, double 
 time, March! 
 
 , At the command forward the weight is thrown on the right 
 ,foot and the arms are bent at about a right angle, with the hands 
 half closed and the elbows held slightly back ; at the command, 
 March! the left foot is swung forward with the knee slightly bent 
 
 FIG. 106. Marking time. 
 
 and the weight thrown upon it by a spring from the right foot; 
 then the right foot executes the same movement and it is con- 
 tinued in even rhythm, with the arms swinging easily at the sides 
 of the chest. 
 
 At the command, Class, Halt! three steps are taken to give 
 time to check the momentum of the body, and the foot is brought 
 in on the fourth count. If it is desired to change to marching 
 time without stopping the command, Quick time, March! or 
 Slow time, March! 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 213 
 
 . 15. HOPPING EXERCISES, (hop) 
 
 Command, Hopping on left (or r) foot with free foot for- 
 ward (or s or b), Start! 
 
 At the explanatory command raise the free foot in the direc- 
 tion given; at the command, Start! spring upward from the sta- 
 tionary foot and repeat in even rhythm, alighting each tim,e on 
 the same foot. At the command, Class, Halt! stop the movement 
 and bring the free foot beside the other on the next count. The 
 number of hopping may be varied by hopping two, four, or a 
 larger number of times on one foot and then changing to the 
 other; the free foot may be swung in rhythm to the hopping; 
 appropriate commands must be given. 
 
 16. SKIPPING, (skip) 
 
 Command, Skipping forward, Start! . 
 
 Skipping consists in moving rapidly forward by hopping 
 twice on one foot and twice on the other in succession, taking a 
 full step in distance each time. Start with the left foot and stop 
 as in running. 
 
 17. MARCHING TO THE REAR, (mch rr) 
 Command, To the rear, March! 
 
 This is usually given while the pupils are marching, but may 
 be given first from standing position to acquire the coordination. 
 
 At the command, March! which is given just as the right foot 
 strikes the floor, (i) take one step with the left foot, placing it 
 directly in front of the right foot; (2) lift the heels, with both 
 feet on the floor, and turn 180 degrees toward the right on the 
 balls of the feet; (3) step forward with the left foot and continue 
 marching in the opposite direction. 
 
 This is the first example of a command that must be spoken 
 at a given time, and so requires special attention and practice by 
 the teacher. The command, "To the rear"' should be spoken 
 rapidly just as the left foot strikes the floor, the three words all in 
 the time of the one step; the word, "March" is then spoken in 
 unison with the stroke of the right foot. Advanced classes may 
 
2I 4 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 be taught to take the movement at a command with a long pause, 
 but beginners do best as stated above. 
 
 To teach the exercise it should be developed in the manner 
 previously used for complex exercises, starting from the standing 
 position. 
 
 ^ Marching to right (mch r) and to left (mch 1) are command- 
 ed in a similar manner. The execution differs in the following 
 points : In marching to the right the foot is placed outward in- 
 stead of in front of the other on the first count, and the turn is 
 90 degrees ; marching to the left is commanded in the same way 
 but two steps are taken, bringing the right foot forward; then 
 the turn can be. made to the left. 
 
 THE SWEDISH DAY'S ORDER. 
 
 The Swedish Day's Order is a standard form of lesson fol- 
 lowed by teachers of Swedish gymnastics and designed to guide 
 the teacher in the selection of exercises. It puts into practice the 
 principles of the Swedish system stated on page 175 and uses the 
 exercises we have been studying. The exercises are divided into 
 eleven groups, each of which is given to accomplish a certain 
 definite purpose. The names of these groups are shown in the 
 following chart: 
 
 The 
 Day's " 
 Order 
 
 Preparatory 
 
 1 
 
 Body of Lesson < 
 
 I. Order Movements. 
 II. Leg Movements. 
 III. Arch Flexions. 
 IV. Heave Movements. 
 V. Balance Movements. 
 VI. Back Exercises. 
 VII. Abdominal Exercises. 
 VIII. Lateral Trunk Movements. 
 IX. The Climax ; Running, 
 Jumping and Games. 
 
 Quieting 
 
 f X. Slow Leg Movements. 
 \ XL] 
 
 -Breathing Exercises. 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 215 
 
 The Day's Order is intended for use in the school room, where 
 the pupils go directly from various school occupations to gymnas- 
 tics, and go back at once to their other tasks when the gymnastic 
 lesson is finished ; this explains some of its peculiar features. The 
 first two groups merely prepare the pupils for the main body of 
 the lesson, and the last two prepare them to resume their mental 
 work to best advantage. The different groups will now be 
 described. 
 
 GROUP I: ORDER MOVEMENTS 
 
 Pupils going directly to gymnastic practice from other school 
 activities are not apt to be in the best possible mental condition for 
 entering into it promptly. These exercises aim to attract the at- 
 tention of the pupils from what they have been doing and to turn 
 it toward muscular control. To be good for this purpose, exer- 
 cises must be quick, with a definite start and finish, so that the 
 teacher can require accuracy of both form and rhythm; they 
 should be given by command, since exercises in series soon be- 
 come reflex and so permit the attention to wander ; coming at the 
 beginning of the lesson, they should require but little muscular 
 effort. Facings, simple arm and foot positions, and opening 
 order, are good examples of Order Movements. Since attention 
 is especially required in learning new exercises, we may reason- 
 ably call any new movement an Order Movement while it is being 
 learned, unless it plainly falls in some other group of the Day's 
 Order. 
 
 GROUP II: LEG MOVEMENTS 
 
 These exercises are intended to give the general effect known 
 as "warming up," which includes a slight rise in the temperature 
 of the body, moderate increase in the heart action and breathing, 
 and the sending of more blood to the muscles. The heat that 
 causes the warming up arises from the chemical action that takes 
 place in the muscles during exercise. Since we wish a large 
 amount of this chemical change without much fatigue, we choose 
 exercises that employ the largest muscles in the body rather than 
 
2l6 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 the smaller ones. Marching, heel raising, running, and other 
 movements where the lower limbs lift the entire body make the 
 best movements for this group. 
 
 It is found as a matter of experience that exercises given by 
 separate commands are too slow to serve well for the present pur- 
 pose, and so leg measurements are always given in rhythm when 
 it is possible. 
 
 GROUP III: ARCH FU-XIONS 
 
 These are backward beandings of the neck and upper portion 
 of the spinal column, taken with the object of correcting round 
 shoulders. This fault of posture, so common among school chil- 
 dren and students, always flattens the upper part of the chest and 
 lessens the range of the breathing movements, and so diminishes 
 the capacity of the lungs. The alarming prevalence of fatal lung 
 diseases, like pneumonia and consumption, points to the import- 
 ance of keeping the chest in good condition. By the practice of 
 arch flexions, the muscles supporting the chest are developed, and 
 also those that hold the spinal column erect ; the tissues across the 
 front of the chest and shoulders are stretched at the same time, 
 making it gradually easier for the person to hold the normal 
 posture 'and to breathe deeply. 
 
 GROUP IV: HEAVE MOVEMENTS 
 
 Heave movements are movements of the arms that help to 
 expand the chest. The typical heave movements, sometimes called 
 "the true heave movements," are those in which the body is sus- 
 pended by the arms as in climbing, swinging on rings, etc. Large 
 muscles passing from the chest to the upper arm are used in these 
 movements, exerting an upward pull on the ribs and thus enlarg- 
 ing the chest and making it more pliable. Since these "suspen- 
 sion" exercises are too severe for some pupils, and as the neces- 
 sary apparatus is not always provided, milder arm movements 
 having a similar effect are used. Arm raising, arm stretching, 
 neck firm, etc., are examples. 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 
 
 GROUP V: BALANCE MOVEMENTS 
 
 217 
 
 These are for general improvement of posture and cultiva- 
 tion of ability to maintain the balance under difficulties. The 
 exercises are mainly standing positions that give an unstable poise, 
 held for a much longer time than positions taken for other pur- 
 poses ; marching on a narrow beam or wire and taking other 
 exercises on them are also used. (Fig. 108.) 
 
 Fie. 107. Head, back- 
 ward while sitting. 
 
 FIG. 108. Walking the beam. 
 
 GROUP VI : BACK EXERCISES 
 
 In order to cultivate control of the posture of the trunk and 
 to develop and train the back muscles to hold the trunk properly, 
 we use positions in which the trunk inclines so as to throw the 
 weight of the upper part of the body on the back muscles. This 
 is accomplished when we incline the trunk forward while sup- 
 
2i& PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 ported from below, as in fallout forward or trunk forward, or 
 when we incline it backward while it is supported at both extrem- 
 ities, as in leaning hang. 
 
 GROUP VII : ABDOMINAL EXERCISES 
 
 The purpose of abdominal exercise is to cultivate the ability 
 to maintain good posture of the trunk, to strengthen the abdom- 
 inal muscles, and to stimulate the digestive organs. The trunk 
 is held in normal position in all of these exercises, which aids in 
 promoting goofr postures ; every strong contraction of the ab- 
 dominal muscles presses upon the stomach, liver and other organs 
 in the abdominal cavity, and thus stimulates their activity directly, 
 and also indirectly by the inuence of the alternations of pressure 
 on the circulation of blood in them. Occupations of civilized life 
 provide exercise for the abdominal muscles less than for any other 
 important group, arid the resulting weakness of these muscles 
 leads to bad posture, displacement of the internal organs, and 
 disease. 
 
 GROUP VIII: LATERAL TRUNK EXERCISES 
 
 These are movements in which we bend the trunk laterally, 
 twist it, or incline it sideward, for the purpose of increasing the 
 mobility of the spinal column, improving the posture of the trunk, 
 and stimulating the abdominal organs. 
 I 
 
 GROUP IX: RUNNING AND JUMPING 
 
 Here is the climax of the lesson. The work should be the 
 strongest and most difficult of all. Games, when the space per- 
 mits, are useful; running, jumping, and the more vigorous fancy 
 steps are the exercises most used. Grade pupils often suffer from 
 lack of exercise of this kind, which they thoroughly enjoy but 
 which teachers are apt to neglect because it leads to some disorder 
 and noise. When the time given to gymnastics is short and the 
 work done in the grade room, it is often best to attempt little more 
 
SWKDJSH GYMNASTICS 2 19 
 
 than posture work in Swedish gymnastics, and plan to provide the 
 more vigorous exercises at other times in the form of plays and 
 games. 
 
 GROUP X: SLOW LEG MOVEMENTS 
 
 When a true climax has been reached and the pupils are con- 
 siderably warmed up, it is necessary to choose exercises that will 
 serve as a gradual descent from the preceding group, so as to 
 avoid the undesirable effects of stopping too suddenly. The exer- 
 cises usually chosen are like those of group two, but gradually 
 decreasing in vigor. Marching is the most satisfactory exercise 
 of this group. 
 
 GROUP XI : BREATHING EXERCISES 
 
 The object here is to continue the quieting effects of the tenth 
 group and at the same time to improve the development and con- 
 trol of the breathing muscles and increase the mobility of the 
 chest. Slow and deep inhaling and exhaling of the breath are used 
 as the exercises. It was formerly customary to take arm move- 
 ments with the breathing, on the supposition that they aid in chest 
 expansion, but it has been found out that the deepest breathing 
 can be done with the arms hanging easily at the sides. 
 
 A SERIES OF TWELVE LESSONS SUITABLE FOR HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS 
 
 WHO HAVE HAD NO PREVIOUS TRAINING, 
 
 WORKING IN AN OPEN HALL. 
 
 LESSON i. LESSON 2. LESSON 3. 
 
 I. Pos. Ht. Std. s. I. Std f. I. Std f, ch F. 
 
 II. M t. II. M t. II. Mch. 
 
 III. III. III. Hf, std f, H bd b. 
 
 IV. A rse s. IV. A fl s. IV. A rse f. 
 
 V. Hf, H rse. V. Hf, H rse. V. A s rse H rse. 
 
 VI. VI. Hf std s, Tr incl f VI. Hf std s, Tr incl f. 
 VII. VII. Hf std f, Tr VII. Hf std f, incl b. 
 
 VIII. Std s, Tr bd s. incl b. VIII. A fl s std s, Tr 
 
 IX. Mch. VIII. A fl s std s, Tr bd s. 
 
 X. Mch. bd s. IX. Mch. 
 
 XI. Br. IX. Mch. XI. Mch. 
 
 X. Mch. XL Br. 
 
 XI. Br. 
 
220 I'llYSU'AI, TRAIN INC 
 
 
 LESSON 
 
 4- 
 
 
 
 Ij-sso 
 
 N 5. 
 
 
 
 LESSON 
 
 6. 
 
 1 1 
 
 I. 
 
 I Stp f. 
 
 I sip h. 
 
 I. 
 
 2 Stps f. 2 StpS b. 
 
 L 
 
 3 stps. 
 
 
 
 II. 
 
 Mch. 
 
 
 
 II. 
 
 'Mi 1 1 . 
 
 
 
 II. 
 
 Mch. 
 
 
 
 III. 
 
 Mf sld f, 
 
 II hd h. 
 
 III. 
 
 A II | 
 
 std f, 
 
 II 
 
 III. 
 
 A 11 s std 
 
 f , H bd b. 
 
 IV 
 
 A II f. 
 
 
 
 
 hd h. 
 
 
 
 IV. 
 
 X 1. 
 
 
 
 V. 
 
 II rsc, A 
 
 fl B, 
 
 Mf 
 
 IV. 
 
 Nf. 
 
 
 
 V. 
 
 H rse, A 
 
 11 
 
 f, Hf, 
 
 etc. 
 
 V. 
 
 A 11 f, 
 
 IF rsc. 
 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 
 VI. 
 
 A fl f std s 
 
 Tr 
 
 VJ. 
 
 A 11 f 
 
 std s, 
 
 Tr 
 
 VI. 
 
 Std s, Tr 
 
 incl 1. \ 
 
 
 incl f. 
 
 
 
 
 incl f. 
 
 
 fl s. A fl f. 
 
 
 VII. 
 
 Mf sld f. incl 
 
 h. 
 
 VII. 
 
 II f std 
 
 f, incl 
 
 h. 
 
 VII. \ II 1 ,!,! f. 
 
 incl h. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 A II s std s. 
 
 Tr 
 
 VIM. 
 
 A 11 f 
 
 Std S, 
 
 T, 
 
 VIM. 
 
 Nf std s, 
 
 Ti l.d |, 
 
 
 hd s. 
 
 
 
 
 hd s. 
 
 
 
 IX. 
 
 Mch 
 
 
 
 IX. 
 
 Mch. 
 
 
 
 IX. 
 
 Mch. 
 
 
 
 X. 
 
 Mch! 
 
 
 
 X. 
 
 Mch. 
 
 
 
 X. 
 
 Mch. 
 
 
 
 XL 
 
 i:, 
 
 
 
 XL 
 
 Mr. 
 
 
 
 XL 
 
 Br, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LKSSON 
 
 7- 
 
 LESSON 8. 
 
 LESSON 
 
 9- 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Std s, K 
 
 oh. 
 
 
 1. 
 
 I Stp S. 
 
 \l i 
 
 
 r. 
 
 R fc. 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 fcfeh, 
 
 
 
 II. 
 
 Mch. 
 
 
 
 II. 
 
 Mrh 
 
 
 
 Ml. 
 
 \ 1 sld 1, 
 
 II h 
 
 d h. 
 
 III. 
 
 A hd sld f, II 
 
 III. 
 
 II f std s, 
 
 H 
 
 bd b. 
 
 IV. 
 
 A hd. 
 
 
 
 
 Ixl h. 
 
 
 
 IV. 
 
 A i < In 
 
 A 11 fu. 
 
 \ 
 
 II rsc. A 
 
 hd, Nf. 
 
 IV. 
 
 A Ixl. 
 
 
 
 V. 
 
 A s. I, rsc s. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Std s, T, 
 
 i. \ 
 
 1x1. 
 
 V. 
 
 Hf, L rse s. 
 
 VI. 
 
 II f std s, 
 
 Tr 
 
 hd h. 
 
 VII 
 
 1 1 1 -.Id 1. Ti in, 1 
 
 VI. 
 
 Sl.l s, 
 
 T. incl 
 
 f, 
 
 VII. 
 
 II f std f, 
 
 Tr 
 
 incl h. 
 
 h. Nf. \ III \ f, Tr hd s. 
 
 VIM. III. T, l,,l s VII. Ml std f, Tr inol IX. Km,. 
 
 IX. Km,, b. X M,-l, 
 
 X. Mch. VIII. A s, Trbd s. XI. lir. 
 XI. Br. IX. Run. 
 X. Mch. 
 XL Br. 
 
 LESSON 10. I.I-SSON ii. LESSON 12. 
 
 I. R fc. I. Ab fc. l. Ah iv. 
 
 II. Hf, H rse. M. Hf std B, H rse. 1 1. in std i // > 
 
 1 1 1. A s std s, Ch arch. III. A f std s, ch arch. III. A bd std s. Ch arch 
 
 i\ A bd, A str s. IV. A bd, A str s. IV. A hd. \st.sstds. 
 
 V. Nf, L rsc s. V. A bd, L rsc s. VI. N i sid s. Tr bd d. 
 
 \i A f std s, Tr bd d. VI. A bd std s, Tr bd VII. A f std f. T, in, 1 h. 
 
 VII. \ i ltd f, Tr incl d. VIII. Mf std I. l.d s. 
 
 b. VI I. A I std f. Tr incl I X. '/',/. ch I- ..n cmint 
 
 \ III \ hd. Tr hd s. b. 3. 
 
 IX. Hop. ch F on \ Ml. N f, Tr bd s. X. Mch. 
 
 .. .mi o. IX. Hop, ch F on XL Br. 
 X. Mch. count 3. 
 XL Br. X. Mch. 
 XI. llr. 
 
I'll. \ITKK XI. 
 
 ci n \i \\ .. M \ \..i [( 
 
 r,KNi;KAi, I'uiNrii'i.Ks. The (icrman system of gymnastics 
 represents a national movement to popnlari/e hodih 
 ediu ational and h\;;iemc pm p.. ..--, ,md lo m.ike ilu-m nnivei al. 
 I nlike the Swedish system, ihe recreative ell'ects <>| ex.-ici-.e ,ne 
 cmphasi/cd i;itli<-i lli.in llu- cnrn-ct ivr cllC(!s; in the place of a 
 fc\\ cxiTcisrs scK-clcd \\illi i-jcal cair, llic ( icnnaii sysli'in inrliulfs 
 an alnm-,1 endless iiiiiiilu-r. 'iMu* fnlli \\ in;; principles arc rniplia- 
 si/cd : 
 
 i. ('.yninaslirs should pmvidr li.ilaiu c<| dc\ d< ipmrnl ,|' ||i,> 
 
 inn iilar system. 
 
 J. To scriu-f \ iiMr <>i arlion and lirsl clVrcls, lln- < ci . 
 inns! lie pic. i Mif; to llic pupils. 
 
 ^. I'lacli U-aclici' should In- picpaicd, |)\ an C\|CIIM\C -.Indv 
 I anatomy, ph\ SKI|.>:;\ , .md ^vmnaslirs, lo make and cxecnlc- his 
 <>\vii lesson plans; no ii:;id loini nl lesson is advr-alilr. 
 
 4. The leaelu-r inii>,l assume Hie pupils lo he iioimal individ- 
 uals; eoiieihve and remedial ;;\ miiasl ics aie in (he province of 
 the pliysieian and the ho ,pilal, not ol the leaelu-i and ihe . h<ni|. 
 
 C'l,ASSKS (! MxivlU'lSlvS. Tlh- ( a-llliail SVstein ie.,r-n 
 
 following classes of exercises : 
 
 l. l ; ice c-\eieises, ineaiiin- those lakeii in slandin.i; p..,iiioii 
 
 witlmiii apparatus. These inelude some that closely resemble the 
 
 Swedish exercises, and als.i ilier ones. Taeties, 
 
 lii'.m r mai < Imi", and lain \ sti'ps .n c included hei e 
 
 2. Exercises wiih liidit a ppai a ins, such as dumb bells, wands, 
 
 I ndian clnhs, hoops, etc. 
 
 I CM i< on |I,M\ N .ippai. tins, .oineliines callcl, "heavy 
 
 gymnastics/' including work on parallel bars, horizontal bar, vault- 
 in:-, ha r an. I horse, Irape/e, havelin^ rin^s, iKiiii-; lilies, laddei-.. 
 
222 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 ropes, poles, etc. Here the body must be lifted, at least in part, 
 by the arms. 
 
 4. Companion exercises, including athletic contests, games, 
 and combats. The Germans as a race are especially fond of the 
 third class of exercises mentioned which require and develop great 
 individual strength and skill. They use apparatus as a means of 
 increasing interest in gymnastics, while the Swedes use it only to 
 produce definite effects on the body. 
 
 THE GERMAN PLAN OF LESSON 
 
 While not believing in the use of a uniform plan of lesson as 
 complex and unvarying as the Swedish, the teachers of German 
 gymnastics are inclined to follow a plan that is about as follows, 
 the lesson occupying about an hour : 
 
 1. Marching. For boys this is of a military character, last- 
 ing about eight minutes, and ending with a run; for girls it is 
 more often figure marching and fancy steps, lasting fifteen min- 
 utes. 
 
 2. Exercises with light apparatus, boys twelve minutes, girls 
 fifteen minutes. 
 
 3. Exercises on heavy apparatus with at least one change of 
 apparatus, and including some form of jumping; boys thirty min- 
 utes, girls twenty minutes. 
 
 4. A game, lasting ten minutes. 
 
 The Germans make more distinction than the Swedes be- 
 tween exercises for boys and for girls ; they agree with the Swedes 
 in giving games only a subordinate place in a gymnastic lesson, 
 instead of devoting whole periods to games as do the English and 
 Americans. 
 
 The plan of lessons outlined above can be used in school 
 gymnastics only in exceptional cases, where there is a fully equip- 
 ped gymnasium and full hour periods for gymnastics. The pres- 
 ent course will deal only with light apparatus and fancy steps, 
 since these illustrate best the exercises useful in the schools and 
 the methods of teaching and conducting them. 
 
GERMAN GYMNASTICS 223 
 
 The following movements with light aparatus are given to 
 illustrate common forms of German gymnastic exercises, and for 
 practice in teaching. Students should prepare to teach these move- 
 ments. The first thing in such preparation is to read the defini- 
 tions with the apparatus in hand, executing each movement as it 
 is read, thus fixing a clear idea of how it is done. While the 
 teacher may vary from the manner in which the movement is 
 defined, if he has reason for so doing, he must never leave it in- 
 definite, but must always teach a certain definite thing. On ac- 
 count of the great number of movements used, commands in Ger- 
 man gymnastics are less simple and exact than in Swedish. 
 
 DUMB BEU,S 
 
 Dumb bells for the following exercises should be of wood, 
 varying from one-fourth of a pound in weight for the smallest 
 pupils to one pound for the strongest of high school boys. Racks 
 may be obtained for hanging dumb bells on the wall, or they can 
 be conveniently kept in a strong basket, in which they may be 
 moved from place to place as needed. 
 
 Fundamental position is usually taken with the arms at the 
 sides ; if pupils are inclined to make too much noice with the bells 
 they may be directed to take rest position with bells on the hips. 
 
 i. POSITION OF BEU.S. 
 
 (a) Command, Bells on hips, Place! 
 
 The bells are lifted and the knuckles placed against the waist 
 just at the crest of the hip bone, with thumbs to the front. Fig. 109. 
 Return command, Bells, Down! 
 
 (b) Command, Bells on shoulders, Place! Fig. no. 
 Arms are raised sideward and bells placed horizontally on 
 
 the shoulders with thumbs to the rear. 
 Return command, Bells, Down! 
 
 (c) Command, Bells on chest, Place! 
 
 Bells are raised by bending arms and placing them high up on 
 chest in the form of the letter V, lower end of bells close to- 
 gether but not touching, elbows close to sides. Fig. 112. 
 
 Return command, Bells, Doivn! 
 
224 
 
 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 (d) Command, Poise the Bells to square, Raise! 
 The bells are raised sideward and then the elbows bent to a 
 right angle and the palms turned toward the head. See Fig. 1 14. 
 Return command, Bells, Down! 
 
 FIG. 109. Bells FIG. no. Bells 
 on hips, stride on shoulders, 
 sideward. . 
 
 P IG. in. Bells to right horizontal, 
 right sideward layout. 
 
 2. SWINGS OF BEI.LS. 
 
 These are movements of bells with elbows extended. 
 
 (a) Command, Bells sideward, Swing! Arms are raised 
 sideward until they are horizontal, palms down. 
 
 Return command, Bells downward, Swing! 
 
 Swings are also made in a similar manner forward and for- 
 ward-upward from fundamental position, forward and upward 
 from sideward, sideward and upward from forward, and sideward 
 and forward from overhead. When the bells are swung forward 
 or upward the palms are usually turned toward each other. The 
 
GERMAN GYMNASTICS 
 
 225 
 
 command Swing is used whenever the straight arm is swung 
 from the shoulder, except in strokes. The swing to right hori- 
 zontal is shown in Fig. HI. 
 
 3. STROKES. 
 
 Strike bells forward, One! The bells are swung sideward 
 and then forward in a curve and the thumb ends are struck strong- 
 ly together with the arms straight and horizontal forward. At 
 
 FIG. 112. 
 chest. 
 
 Bells on 
 
 FIG 113. Stroke in 
 front of thighs. 
 
 FIG. 114. The square. 
 
 the command "Two," the bells are swung back to the starting 
 point. Strokes are also made in a similar way overhead, in front 
 of thighs, (Fig. 113), behind hips, etc. A starting point should 
 be chosen that will permit a good full swing of the bells. 
 
 Anvil strokes are strokes in which one bell is held still to 
 represent an anvil while the other strikes it a swinging blow to 
 imitate a hammer. Anvil stroke on left shoulder, Strike! or 
 One! The left bell is placed on the left shoulder as in Fig. no 
 and the right bell strikes a strong blow against tfie front end of 
 it, as shown in Fig. 115. At the command "Two," the bells re- 
 turn. Anvil strokes are made at either hip or either shoulder, on 
 either knee with a fallout, at full arms' length, and in other places. 
 
226 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 4. THRUSTS. 
 
 These are extensions of the arms, starting from some position 
 in which the arm is bent, usually from bells on chest or shoulders. 
 Right bell sideward, Thrift! The arm is extended sideward 
 horizontal and as it extends the thumb is placed against the ball 
 of the bell and the wrist is bent so as to bring the bell in line with 
 the arm; the arm is rotated so as to turn the back to the front. 
 (Fig. 116). Bell, Replace! The command may also be given. 
 Thrust right bell sideward, One! Two! 
 
 Fir, 115. Anvil stroke 
 on left shoulder. 
 
 FIG. 116. Thrust bell 
 sideward. 
 
 FIG. 117. The Chop. 
 
 Thrusts are made also forward, upward, and downward, 
 either with hands singly, in alternation, or both at once. In the 
 forward, upward, and downward thrusts the arm is rotated as 
 above described in the sideward thrust, the backs of the hands 
 being turned toward each other in the three cases. 
 
 The twist of the arm is used to prevent the jerk that occurs 
 at the end of the thrust. Thrusts are sometimes given without it, 
 the thrust terminating in the same posiion of the bells as the cor- 
 responding swing. 
 
 5. TWISTING OF 
 
 Bells are raised forward with the elbows bent and at sides, 
 bells held vertical. On the first count the bells are both turned 
 
GERMAN GYMNASTICS 227 
 
 toward the R so that the thumb end of the L bell strikes the little 
 finger end of the R bell. The R palm is turned up, and the L palm 
 down. Bells are parallel. This exercise is used mostly as a varia- 
 tion from other exercises, and is used in drills. 
 
 A LESSON SUITABLE: FOR A PRIMARY GRADE 
 
 Exercise i. Strike B forward and std f r (i) pos (2) 
 same as (i) with 1 ft (3) pos (4). 
 
 Exercise 2. B on sh and std s r (i) pos (2) same as (i) 
 with the 1 ft (3) pos (4). 
 
 Exercise 3. B s (i) B under arms, elbows high (2) B 
 s (3) POS (4). 
 
 Exercise 4. B on chest (i) B s (2) strike thumb ends of 
 B overhead (3) pos (4). 
 
 Exercise 5. Jump upward landing with ft in std pos and B 
 square (see Fig. 114). (i) extend B sideward, palms up (2) 
 return to pos of (i). (3) jump to pos (4). 
 
 Exercise 6. Walk forward 3 steps starting with 1 ft and 
 bring ft together on 4 (1-4). Strike B forward, both ends to- 
 gether, 3 times (5-7) B down (8). Walk backward 3 steps, 
 starting 1 ft, and bring ft together (9-12), strike B as in (5-8) 
 
 (13-16). 
 
 When memorized and used as a drill take each exercise either 
 1 6 or 32 counts. Music, two-step, either working on each count 
 of the measure or on the. odd counts, according to the rate at 
 which the exercise is to be taken. 
 
 A LESSON SUITABLE FOR HIGH SCHOOL BOYS 
 
 Exercise I. (i) Bells on shldrs std s r (2) thr bells u 
 and lunge s r (3) swing bells f and lunge s 1 (4) pos. 
 
 Exercise 2. (i) Bells on chest std f r (2) thr B u and 
 lunge f r (3) strike B on floor in front of r ft (4) pos. 
 
 Exercise 3. Bells on shldrs std s r (2) thr bells u bd Tr d 
 sw bells between knees (Fig. 117) (3) rse Tr and sw bells u 
 and look at them (4) pos. 
 
228 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 Exercise 4. (i) Bells on shldrs std s r (2) thr bells f 
 lunge s r (3) sw bells s bd Tr r (4) pos. 
 
 Exercise 5. (i) Raise bells s bd r Knee upward (2) touch 
 r Toe b and strike bells under 1 knee (3) bd r Kn upward and 
 strike bells overhead (4) pos. 
 
 Exercise 6. ( i ) Knees deep bd, pi B on floor close to ft 
 (2) jump both ft backward, so the body is in pos of Fig. 40 (3) 
 turning the body so all weight is on 1 hand and r bell straight up- 
 ward (4) replace B on floor (5) raise 1 bell straight upwd 
 (6) replace B on floor (7) jump ft back to pos (i) (8) pos. 
 
 Exercise 7. (i) Sw bell s step pos s i (2) place r bell on 
 1 hip, arm behind waist, and cross step pos backward r (3) re- 
 verse of (2), coming back to position of (i) (4) position. 
 
 Exercise 8. (i) Bells on shoulders r K rse (2) thrust bells 
 f and str r K f, foot 6 inches from floor (3) reverse (2), com- 
 ing back to position of (i) (4) position. 
 
 When used as a drill, take each exercise on alternate sides 
 for 1 6 or 32 counts. 
 
 WANDS 
 
 THE WANDS. Wands are usually of wood, from 24 to 30 
 inches in length and from one-half inch to an inch in diameter; 
 high school boys can use steel wands of the same size. The ends 
 should be rounded. The wooden sticks can be purchased from 
 dealers in gymnasium supplies or from furniture manufacturers, 
 who use them for chair rounds, etc. Wands can be most con- 
 veniently kept in a strong box from 8 to 12 inches square and 
 20 inches high, with a heavy and broad base. 
 
 ELEMENTARY WAND MOVEMENTS 
 
 Fundamental position is usually taken with the wand held in 
 both hands and resting against the front of the thighs, backs of 
 the hands to the front (Fig. 118). For marching the wand is 
 usually carried in the manner described in military regulations for 
 carrying arms. A few movements with wands require it to be 
 held with palms forward. 
 
GERMAN GYMNASTICS 
 
 229 
 
 i. SWINGS OF WAND. 
 
 (a) Wand forward, Swing! Fig. 119. 
 horizontal. Wand downward, Swing! 
 
 (b) Wand forward upward, Swing! 
 straight and vertical. Wand downward, Swing! 
 
 (c) Wand to right horizontal, Swing! Fig. 121. Arms at 
 same height. Dowmvard, Swing! Same to left. 
 
 Arms straight and 
 Fig. 1 20. Arms 
 
 FIG. 118. Starting po- 
 sition. 
 
 FIG. 119. Wand for- 
 ward and touch-step 
 forward. 
 
 FIG. 1 20. 
 ward. 
 
 Wand up- 
 
 (d) Wand to right vertical, Swing! Right arm straight up, 
 left arm exactly as in (c) Fig. 122. Same to left, (e) Aim 
 forward right, Aim! Wand along right arm, left arm as in 
 (c) and (d). Same to left. 
 
 Swings are also taken to various diagonal positions. 
 
 2. POSITIONS OF WAND INVOLVING MOVEMENTS OTHER 
 THAN SWINGS. 
 
 (a) Wand on chest, Place! Wand, Down! 
 
 (b) While wand is on chest we may command, Wand for- 
 ward, Thrust! or Wand upward, Thrust! or Wand downward, 
 Thrust! 
 
230 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 (c) While wand is overhead we may command, Wand on 
 shoulders, Place! Then we may command, Wand upward, 
 Thrust! The wand may also be placed on shoulders from almost 
 any other position. 
 
 (d) While wand is forward we may command, Cross right 
 arm over left, One! Two! Elbows are bent to a right angle. 
 The movement may be reversed, and may also be taken from fund- 
 amental position or almost any other position. 
 
 FIG. 121. Wand to 
 right horizontal and FIG. 122. Wand to 
 
 leg raising. right vertical. 
 
 A LESSO'N WITH WANDS SUITABLE FOR SEVENTH GRADE GIRLS 
 
 Exercise I. (i) Swing wand f and step pos f r (2) swing 
 wand to r horizontal and touch pos s r (3) return to pos of (i) 
 (4) pos. 
 
 Exercise 2. (i) Wand on chest and touch pos f r (2) 
 thrust wand f and fal f r (3) return to pos of (i) (4) pos. 
 
 Exercise 3. (i) Swing wand f and touch pos b r (2) aim 
 f r and kneel on r Kn (3) return to pos of (i) (4) pos. 
 
 Exercise 4. (i) Swing wand f u to position half way be- 
 tween f and u and rse leg b (2-7) hold this pos (8) pos. 
 
 Exercise 5. (i) Wand on chest and fal f r (2) sway to 
 reverse fal and thrust wand f (3) return to pos of (i) (4) pos. 
 
GERMAN GYMNASTICS 
 
 231 
 
 Exercise 6. ( I ) Swing wand f u and touch step s r (2) fal s 
 r and let go of wand with 1 hand swinging wand down on r side 
 striking floor and place free hand on hip (3) return to pos of 
 (i) (4) pos. 
 
 Take each exercise on alternate sides, when used as a drill, 
 for 1 6 or 32 counts and group the class by having them in open 
 order facing the end of the lines and have the ones start to the 
 right and the twos to the left in each exercise. 
 
 FIG. 123. Walk position, with 
 hips firm. 
 
 FIG. 124. Knee flexion. 
 
 FANCY STEPS 
 ELEMENTARY MOVEMENTS 
 
 (a) (i) Step pos f 1 (Fig. 119) (2) walk pos f 1 (Fig. 123) 
 (3 and 4) repeat (i) and (2) with r foot. Continue in series, 
 (fr) Same as (a), using step pos outward. 
 (c) Same as (a), using step pos sideward. 
 
232 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 (d) Repeat exercises (a) to (r) with this change: swing 
 the leg in each case as if to take a step position, but do not touch 
 the floor with the foot. 
 
 (e) Same as (a), except that in place of a step position the 
 foot is lifted and swung in front of the other knee, the knee of 
 the moving foot being flexed to a right angle and the knee turned 
 outward. 
 
 COMBINATIONS OF FANCY STEPS 
 
 (a) Step pos sidewise and crosswise. This may be taken in 
 mazurka time in the following manner : 
 
 (i) Step pos s 1 (2) step pos crosswise 1 (3) walk pos f 1 
 (4, 5, 6) repeat with other foot; it may be taken with two-step 
 time in the following manner : 
 
 (i) Step N pos si (2) step pos crosswise 1 (3) repeat (i) 
 (4) walk pos f 1 (5 to 8) repeat with other foot. 
 
 Since the two-step time is much more likely to be played, the 
 second way of conducting the steps is much more important than 
 the first. 
 
 (b) Step position forward and backward. This may be taken 
 either as a 3 count or a 4 count exercise, as shown in (a). 
 
 (c) The change step. 
 
 (i) Walk pos f 1 and immediately bring r foot up close be- 
 hind 1, arch of r foot touching 1 heel (2) wk pos f 1 (3) repeat 
 with r foot ahead (4) repeat (2) with r foot. 
 
 In dancing this movement is taken with a slide of the foot 
 along the floor; in military marching the feet are lifted. The 
 former method can be used on a smooth floor, but the latter must 
 be used where the floor or the shoes are rough. 
 
 (d) Step position sideward, crosswise, and change step. The 
 step positions occupy counts one and two, the change step is taken 
 on three and four ; repeat on the other side. 
 
 (e) Step position forward and backward and change step. 
 
 (/) Knee flexion, step position forward, and change step. 
 
 (g) Repeat (d), (e), and (/), using three running steps for- 
 ward in place of the change steps. This adds more life and vigor 
 to the movement and makes it more pleasing to children. 
 
GERMAN GYMNASTICS 233 
 
 (/O The "Rye" step. 
 
 (i) Step pos outward (2) step pos crosswise (3) step pos 
 outward (4) step pos b (5) the first count of the change 
 step, as described in (c) (6, 7) repetitions of (5) (8) rest 
 (9 to. 16) repeat on other side. 
 
 (i) The half rocking step. 
 
 ( i ) Step pos crosswise 1, throwing all the weight on the 1 foot 
 and raising r foot backward (2) spring on r foot and rse 1 
 foot f continue springing on the 1 and r foot alternately, 
 keeping the feet in the same relative positions. Practice also 
 with r foot forward. 
 (/) The rocking step. 
 
 (i) Like count i of the preceding (2) hop on 1 and sw r 
 foot f (3) sw r foot across 1, throw weight upon it, and sw 
 1 foot b (4) hop on r foot and sw I foot f. Continue in 
 series. 
 
 (k) Mazurka step. (Mazurka time required.) 
 
 (i) Slide r foot two foot-lengths to r with heel raised (2) 
 spring lightly from both feet and alight on 1 where r foot fin- 
 ished the slide, with r foot raised s (3) hop on 1 and knee 
 flexion with r (4, 5, 6) repeat in same direction. 
 Count (2) is called the "Cut." 
 
 (/) Schottische, simple form. 
 
 (i, 2, 3) run forward 1, r, 1 (4) hop 1 and swing r foot f. 
 Repeat beginning r and continue. 
 
 (m) Schottische. 
 
 (1) Slide r foot two foot-lengths to r and transfer weight 
 to it. 
 
 (2) Cut, as in second count of mazurka step. 
 
 (3) Hop r and rse 1 slightly close behind r, knee turned out. 
 
 (4) Hop r and hold 1 in same position as in (3). 
 (n) Hop' Polka. 
 
 (1) Hop 1, rse r as in (3) of schottische. 
 
 (2) Slide r two foot-lengths, transfer weight to it. 
 
 (3) Cut, replacing r with 1. 
 
 (4) Hop r and rse 1 in (3) of schottische. 
 
PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 MAZURKA. 
 
 , 
 
 i 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 -*--- 
 
 
 
 Pirouette. 
 
 ( i ) Place r foot one foot-length to r, turning it to r and rear 
 (2) lift 1 foot, cross it in front of r, close to it and past it 
 to rear, at the same time turning on the balls of the feet in 
 the same direction until a complete revolution has been made. 
 The arch of the 1 foot will be behind the heel of the r when 
 the turn is complete. 
 
GERMAN GYMNASTICS 
 
 235 
 
 SIMPLE FOLK DANCES 
 
 (i) The Shoemakers' Dance. 
 
 Formation : A double circle, partners facing each other. 
 
 Measure (i). Winding thread. With arms shoulder high 
 and hands as if holding spool and thread, wind over from you 
 quickly three times. 
 
 Measure (2). Reverse (i), winding over toward you three 
 times. 
 
 7 t * fcjt 
 
 ^ 
 
 SHOEMAKER'S DANCE 
 
 Measure (3). Pulling thread tight. Jerk elbows back twice, 
 thus separating hands as in tightening thread. 
 
 Measure (4). Clap hands three times 
 
 Measurer (5 to 8). Turn facing clockwise, join inside hands 
 and skip around the circle 8 skips, beginning 1. 
 
 Measures (8 to 16). Repeat (i to 8), changing (4) to imi- 
 tate driving pegs, hammering one first with the other. 
 
 NOTE:: The Shoemaker's Dance is a simple dance for chil- 
 dren, and should be carried out with dash and spirit. Parts 1-4 
 make up the first exercise for teaching. 
 
236 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 THE KLAPPDANS 
 A SWEDISH FOLK DANCE, SUITABLE FOR PUPILS OF FOURTH GRADE 
 
 Formation : Pupils in double line around the room, turned so 
 as to march clockwise; boys occupy the inside line, girls the out- 
 side ; the hand and foot toward the partner will be called inside, 
 and the other outside; partners join hands and place outside 
 hands on hip. 
 
 Measures (1-8). The Frolic, (i, 2, 3) Take three running 
 steps, starting with outside foot (4) hop on outside foot, raising 
 inside foot forward (5 to 8) repeat, starting with inside foot. 
 Repeat the entire movement through 32 counts finishing facing 
 each other with hands on hips. 
 
 Measures (9-16). The Salutation. (9) Boys make a stiff 
 bow to partner, bending in hips only, while girls make a stiff 
 curtsy, crossing r toe behind 1 and bending knees, trunk erect 
 (10) clap hands three times in front of chest in the time of two 
 counts (n) repeat (9), girls making the bow and boys the 
 curtsy (12) repeat (10) (13) clap r hand against partner's and 
 hands on hips (14) clap 1 hand against partner's and hands on 
 hips (15) whirl completely around to 1 on 1 foot, clapping r 
 hand against partner's as the whirl begins (16) stamp r, 1, and r, 
 in the time of two counts. 
 
 Exercise 3. Repeat the frolic. 
 
 Exercise 4. Repeat the salutation, changing 10 as follows: 
 (10) rest r elbow in 1 palm and make three threatening gestures 
 toward partner by shaking the r hand with forefinger uplifted and 
 head inclined toward hand; change 12 in same way, using the 
 opposite hands. 
 
 THE IRISH LILT 
 A GYMNASTIC DANCE, SUITABLE FOR HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS 
 
 Pupils standing in regular class formation. Music, "The 
 Irish Washer Woman." 
 
 Exercise i. Hop 1 and rse r leg f (2) hop 1 and sw r leg s 
 (3) spring to r foot and rse 1 leg b (4) hop r and hold 1 leg 
 
GERMAN GYMNASTICS 
 
 KLAPPDANS. 
 
 237 
 
 " ~ 
 
 |_j_^:_ -^^h ^_ f __:__jL- _-> 
 
 
 in same position (5 to 12) repeat the preceding r and then 1 
 (13) spring upward and alight in stride pos s (14) spring again 
 and alight with feet together (15) hop 1 and knee flexion r 
 ( 16) hop r and rse 1 leg f . 
 
 Movements 16 to 16 make w hat is called the "Break," and 
 this is the finish for each exercise of the lilt. 
 
 Exercise 2. (i) Hop 1 and tap r toe f (2) hop 1 and strike 
 r heel in place of toe (3) hop 1 and tap r toe behind 1 heel (4) 
 
238 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 hop 1 and rse r leg f (5 to 12) repeat r and then 1 (13 to 16) 
 "break." 
 
 Exercise 3. (i) Hop 1 ancl rse r leg s (2) hop 1 and sw r 
 leg f (3) hop 1 and quickly flex and extend r knee (4) repeat 
 3 (5 to 12) repeat r and then 1 (13 to 16) "break." 
 
 Exercise 4. (i) Hop 1 and tap r toe s, toeing in (2) hop 
 1 and strike r heel in place of toe (3) hop 1 and tap r toe behind 
 1 heel (4) hop 1 and rse r leg s (5 to 12) repeat r and then 1 
 (13 to 16) "Break." 
 
 Exercise 5. (i) Hop 1 and tap r toe f (2) hop 1 and rse r 
 leg f (3) spring on r, crossing it over in front of 1 and rse 1 leg 
 b (4) hop 1 and rse r leg f (5 to 12) repeat r and then 1 (13 
 to 16) "break." 
 
 Exercise 6. (i) Hop 1 and strike r heel f (2) change to 
 same pos with 1 heel f (3 to 14) change r and 1 alternately as in 
 the preceding (15 and 16) stamp 1, r, and 1 in the time of two 
 counts. 
 
IRISH WASHERWOMAN. 
 
 
 
 
 
 zix:=== 1 rf =q 
 
 __ i?-[ *-j 1 ^-q 
 
 .?.$-,_ -^L 
 
 ^^^1 
 
 r 1 i r- p r"^ r i 1 n 1 1 - 
 
 QIC Id 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 PLAY. 
 
 There is a famous maxim which says that "It is what a pupil 
 does for himself and not what someone does for him that edu- 
 cates." We can safely go farther and say that the educative 
 value of what he does will depend on how much vigor he puts 
 into it and how long he keeps at it. This is why play is so im- 
 portant in education. Children enter into their play with so much 
 vim and enthusiasm and keep at it so many hours a day that it 
 does more than anything else to stimulate and guide their develop- 
 ment, physically, mentally, and morally. We employ play in 
 education in two ways. First, we try to bring the inspiring atmos- 
 phere of play into the regular subjects of the program by teach- 
 ing in such a way as to create interest. Second, we teach, either 
 as a part of the program or in addition to it, forms of play that 
 have in earlier times been used only as amusements and diversions 
 and that have not been supposed to be at all related to education. 
 It is with the latter use of play, the employment in the scheme of 
 education of forms of activity hitherto unused, that we are espe- 
 cially interested here. 
 
 THE: PLAY PROBLEM. How can we justify the use in schools 
 of such activities as story plays, song plays, tag games, and ball 
 games ? Is the need a new one, or have the schools always been 
 at fault in this matter? Why should the school provide play 
 rather than the home? Will not the young always play enough 
 anyway if they are left to themselves? And how can a grown 
 person teach a child anything about play? These questions can 
 be best answered by a brief account of the experiences through 
 which the correct answers have been learned. 
 
 FORMER HABITS OF LIVING. When our system of public 
 schools was founded, about ninety-five per cent of the people of 
 
PLAY 241 
 
 the United States lived in the country or in small country villages. 
 Active outdoor life and varied occupations made people healthy 
 and strong. The natural interest of children in the activities of 
 farm life in a new country, with a chance to wander freely over 
 the fields and through the forests, gave the play impulse free 
 reign. There was a lack of opportunity for social activities and 
 for reading and study. Schools and colleges were established to 
 meet this need. The school was kept up from three to six months 
 in the year. For good and evident reasons, plays and games had 
 no place in the system. 
 
 A CHANGE: IN LIKE HABITS. The last few decades have seen 
 a great change in our manner of living ; greater than the race has 
 ever experienced in any thousand years before. Half of the peo- 
 ple now live in cities and large towns. Industry has become enor- 
 mously specialized, and a large percentage of the people live and 
 work indoors. Social life is prominent, schools and colleges are 
 everywhere, reading matter is plentiful and cheap, and there is 
 much more leisure. The things that were especially lacking in 
 earlier life are now supplied in abundance, but we lack some things 
 that were not appreciated in earlier days because they were so 
 easy to get. Bodily vigor has notably declined. By improved 
 methods of sanitation and the control of some communicable dis- 
 eases the death rate of persons below thirty-five years of age has 
 been lowered, but the bodily weakness that results from a less 
 active life indoors has made chronic illness and invalidism more 
 common, and the death rate of persons above thirty-five has in- 
 creased. 
 
 THE EFFECT ON THE PLAY OF CHILDREN. The school year 
 has been increased to ten months and it is now proposed to make 
 it twelve. The rush to town and city renders the forms of play 
 in which the country child revels practically impossible. The town 
 is built for grown folks, with streets, houses, walks and lawns for 
 their convenience and pleasure. If the children could play with- 
 out interfering with this convenience and pleasure most of the 
 grown folks would be willing, but the space is too restricted and 
 forms of play suited to such restricted space are not well known. 
 
242 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 Land is too costly for the family to provide. Most of the play is 
 driven to the street. Here ball games, the most useful of all plays 
 for groups of children, are prohibited because they result in 
 broken windows and danger and inconvenience to the people on 
 the street. Driven from legitimate forms of play, the more tract- 
 able and timid children put up with less vigorous amusements in- 
 doors, while the more aggressive persist in forbidden and ques- 
 tionable pleasures. In many places this has gone as far as the 
 formation of gangs organized for thieving and other crimes. There 
 has been a great drop in the physical and moral status of children 
 and youth due to the removal from country to city. To relieve the 
 situation playgrounds are now being provided for city children, 
 and play is being taught in the schools. 
 
 FREE PXAY IN THE CITY. At the outset there was strong op- 
 position to the plan. Teachers and parents insisted that "play can- 
 not be taught." Having seen and experienced only the forms of 
 play used by the isolated country child, they could comprehend no 
 other kind that would be of value and stood out for the old-fash- 
 ioned "free play." But the school recess soon taught teachers and 
 parents that free play has its dangers in the city, even when the 
 teachers maintain a police regulation over it. It becomes evident 
 that with large numbers playing in a narrowly restricted space, in- 
 dividual freedom cannot have full sway. Some one is sure to 
 exert a dominating influence over the play of a group ; if it is not 
 a teacher, it is sure to be a self-appointed leader from the more 
 aggressive players. Unfortunately, an aggressive disposition is 
 not always associated with broad knowledge and good judgment. 
 The result is that "free play" at recess often includes unfair play 
 mingled with quarreling, teasing and hazing of certain pupils or 
 near-by residents or passers-by, breaking of windows, and other 
 mischievous pranks of all kinds and degrees. Play at recess hav- 
 ing proved even more objectionable educationally in many cases 
 than the .play of the street, the recess has been abolished by many 
 school boards. 
 
 THE KINDERGARTEN. For more than a century there has 
 been an occasional teacher who has used directed play success- 
 
PI,AY 243 
 
 fully as a regular part of the school program. The first of these to 
 achieve such notable success as to lead to its adoption by others 
 was Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852), the founder of the kinder- 
 garten. Froebel designed a unique plan for the education of chil- 
 dren between the ages of three and six, using play extensively. 
 The activities of the children here are largely dramatic imitations 
 of the activities of nature and of industrial and social life. 
 Through his trying to dramatize activities which he has seen, the 
 child's interest in them and his desire to know more about them 
 are stimulated. Playing together in groups under the guidance of 
 trained teachers, the children learn important social customs, and, 
 what is most important of all, they learn how to play happily with 
 other children. Many of the best of our story plays and song plays 
 originated in the kindergarten. 
 
 THE SUPERVISED PLAYGROUND. In the playgrounds which 
 are now being established rapidly in all of our cities and large 
 towns, children of all school ages are taught a variety of plays and 
 games and are given opportunity to play them under supervision. 
 On account of the problem of finding sufficient space the first 
 playgrounds have been most often opened in the parks, but, if 
 possible, it is preferable to have them on the school grounds. 
 This is better because the school grounds are nearer the homes of 
 the children than are the parks, because the children go to the 
 school anyway, and because it has been found that the teachers 
 succeed better than others in supervising and teaching play. No 
 new movement in education has ever met with such instant and 
 general favor. The teaching of play, so long condemned on the- 
 oretical grounds, has been found to succeed for the following 
 reasons : 
 
 ( i) System : Time and place for various kinds of play can 
 be arranged in a systematic way. This has several important ad- 
 vantages. Many more children can play at the same time in a 
 given space without interfering with each other's play. The in- 
 ability of the children to accomplish this for themselves is one of 
 the main reasons for the failure of free play. Boys and girls of 
 various ages can be sure of finding their favorite form of play 
 
244 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 going on at a regular hour. Children can join groups of their 
 own age and ability. Plays of different kinds can be placed at the 
 times of day best suited to them. 
 
 (2) Variety: A vastly greater variety of plays can be 
 taught than the children could ever know if left to themselves. 
 The best plays of all places and races have been studied and are 
 described in books that are within reach of every teacher. What- 
 ever is best suited to any particular group of children, or to any 
 particular place, time, or condition, can be had. New and im- 
 proved forms of play devised by ingenious players or teachers in 
 New York or Melbourne can be used the next month in Los 
 Angeles and Berlin. An interesting illustration of this occurred 
 a few summers ago in Rochester, N. Y., where one of the favorite 
 plays of the summer was one first played the preceding summer 
 in a small mining town in central Africa. 
 
 (3) Learning How: Players can be taught better ways to 
 play old and familiar games. This kind of teaching, which has 
 come to be called "coaching," often succeeds in giving a game a 
 life-long interest which without it would be attractive only as long 
 as it remained a novelty. Many of the best games, including ten- 
 nis, hockey, and basketball, require a considerable degree of 
 knowledge and skill before one is apt to enjoy them. A good 
 teacher, knowing the results of the experience of all the best play- 
 ers since the game began, can help any player to a much more 
 rapid advancement than he could ever acquire alone. This has 
 great moral as well as educational value, for the lack of ability to 
 succeed by good playing is one of the chief reasons why players 
 sometimes try to evade the rules. 
 
 (4) A Square Deal: Fair play can often be secured by 
 having an umpire for play in which an umpire is needed. Some 
 of the umpiring can be done by the teachers ; pupils can be trained 
 to become good umpires, or at least to act as such satisfactorily for 
 for a part of the time. Better ideals of conduct can be developed. 
 Fair play at all times is necessary to the success of all games and 
 such plays as involve rivalry. Here is another source of failure 
 in free play. Players rarely appreciate the necessity of providing 
 
PLAY 245 
 
 for fair play beforehand. The decisions being made by the play- 
 ers, who recognize that each one has something at stake, there is 
 apt to be suspicion, wrangling, loss of time, general dissatisfaction 
 with the play, and the development of bad habits. If there is 
 any one thing that should be emphasized more than another as 
 preparation for citizenship in a civilized community, it is the habit 
 of dealing fairly wih rivals. When games are played all the 
 time without an umpire they are apt to lead to habitual unfair- 
 ness, because each side suspects the other and justifies its own 
 action on that basis. 
 
 THE PLAYGROUND SUCCESSFUL. The unqualified success of 
 the playgrounds in the four ways just mentioned has practically 
 silenced all opposition to directed play. The children prefer well 
 directed play on the playground to free play on the street or on 
 playgrounds not so well directed. Bringing together in an in- 
 formal way so many children from all nationalities and conditions 
 of life is doing more than any other one thing to Americanize our 
 great foreign population. Children who have played on the play- 
 ground also play outside and carry on group games without direc- 
 tion with much better success than formerly. The physical con- 
 dition of city children is improving. Arrests of children are much 
 less frequent, and in some districts of the great cities where juve- 
 nile crime was formerly as its worst, the police force has been cut 
 to half that required before the playgrounds were established. 
 
 NEED OF SPACE. The greatest difficulty in providing play- 
 grounds is the expense of securing enough land. School grounds 
 were laid out in most of our cities and towns before this want was 
 understood and the space is much too small. The last meeting 
 of the National Education Association expressed itself as believ- 
 ing that every schoolground should have at least a square rod of 
 space for each child in the school. This means an acre of land 
 for every one hundred sixty pupils. In most cities so great an 
 extent of space for play is now impossible for the schools already 
 built. This will necessarily keep the playgrounds from reaching 
 the highest efficiency. More space is being provided for new 
 schools. In the haste to provide play space, now that the need 
 
246 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 is realized, some cities have put all available funds into land and 
 equipment and have opened playgrounds without supervision. This 
 is a serious mistake, because it opens the way for all the evils of 
 the discredited "free play" of the street along with some new 
 dangers due to the presence of such apparatus as ladders, swings, 
 teeters, slides, and wading pools, by whose improper use much 
 harm may come. All kinds of bad results, including the worst 
 moral influences, and even loss of life, have followed from this 
 blunder in administration. The Playground Association of 
 America has issued through its field secretaries and institute work- 
 ers the following warning: "Equip no more playgrounds until 
 you have provided adequate supervision for all you now have." 
 
 COMMERCIAL PLAY. We can judge somewhat of how fully 
 the need of play is supplied by noticing the number of commer- 
 cialized amusements and the extent to which they are patronized. 
 By commercialized amusements is meant amusements provided in 
 order to make money from the patrons. These include not only 
 the toys and games you buy and take home, but more especially 
 the amusements you can go and enjoy by paying an admission fee. 
 In this class are baseball parks, bowling alleys, carnivals, circuses, 
 dance halls, excursion boats, fairs, gambling dens, horse races, 
 moving picture shows, music halls, opium joints, pool rooms, roof 
 gardens, saloons, scenic railways, skating rinks, theaters, etc. The 
 sums spent annually by the people of our cities in these ways are 
 enormous, exceeding many times over all that is spent for schools, 
 playgrounds, streets, walks, fire protection, city government, and 
 all other public expenditures met by taxation. It is very evident 
 that the play facilities thus far provided in public parks and play- 
 grounds do not satisfy the play impulses of the population. 
 
 RECREATION CENTERS. Just as rapidly as it can be seen how 
 and where the playground falls short of meeting the need, it is 
 now being supplemented by what is called a "recreation center." 
 This is a building, erected at public expense and designed to fur- 
 nish an opportunity for kinds of play not suited to the playg round, 
 and at times when the playground is not at its best, usually in 
 the evening, in bad weather, and especially during the winter. 
 
PLAY 247 
 
 The building is preferably located on the playground, and is apt 
 to contain one or two gymnasiums, baths, swimming pools, a li- 
 brary and reading room, a lunch room, a kindergarten, rooms that 
 can be used for lectures and concerts, mothers' meetings, social 
 clubs, literary societies and amateur theatricals, and special rooms 
 to meet special local needs. Any club, society or group in the 
 neighborhood can hold parties and dances in the gymnasium, or 
 meetings of various kinds in rooms suitable for them, by engaging 
 such rooms beforehand. Classes in folk dancing and recreative 
 gymnastics and games are taught. The teachers encourage all 
 forms of wholesome recreation and manage them for the best 
 interests of all. Many grown people and younger persons who 
 cannot profit from the playground are accommodated here instead 
 of being obliged to patronize the commercialized amusements. 
 School buildings are now coming into use as recreation centers, 
 and this use of them is proving so important that it is bringing 
 about changes in the construction of new school buildings so as 
 to make them more useful. 
 
 REFORMING PLAY HABITS. In spite of all that is being done, 
 there are still many who engage in forms of play that destroy 
 the health and character of the players. Some of these, such as 
 gambling, sexual vice, and various drug habits, are in themselves 
 vicious and harmful. In other cases, the most common of which 
 is the commercial dance hall, the harm comes chiefly from the way 
 the place is managed. Laws regulating dance halls and the com- 
 petition of the recreation centers are improving these conditions. 
 Reform began many years ago in attempts to suppress the worst 
 forms of vicious play by prohibitive laws. This method has not 
 been wholly successful. Just as a thirsty man will drink from a 
 disease laden pond if he can find nothing better, so men choose 
 vices as amusements, not because they are naturally vicious, but 
 because they crave play and have learned no better form. The 
 first and most important step in reforming the play habits of a 
 community is to teach everyone early in life how to play a lot 
 of good wholesome games. Such play is more fun than vice, 
 unless a bad taste has been cultivated. By supplying something 
 
248 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 better in the place of what is prohibited, the law may be made 
 more effective than it has been heretofore in suppressing these 
 unnecessary causes of physical and moral disease. 
 
 PLAY AMONG EDUCATED PEOPLE. A fair acquaintance with 
 a variety of good vigorous forms of recreation cannot fail to 
 raise the standard of health and physique among our well edu- 
 cated middle-class people. These people have, in the main, em- 
 ployments calling for much nervous force and little bodily exer- 
 cise ; and their play habits, while not including much that is im- 
 moral or positively harmful, are much too quiet to give a fair 
 degree of bodily strength. "Organized idleness with thrills" is 
 an apt phrase to describe the typical play activities of this class. 
 A play program consisting of banquets, calls, dinners, dances, 
 lectures, luncheons, musicales, receptions, theaters and the like 
 needs to be toned up by a sprinkling of baseball, coasting, canoe- 
 ing, cross-country walking, golf, horseback riding, rowing, skat- 
 ing, ski-running, swimming, tennis, etc. A moderate skill and 
 familiarity in such recreations as these go far to keep up the 
 enjoyment of vigorous exercise as age advances, and so help to 
 make men and women more efficient, postponing until old age, 
 where it belongs if anywhere, the fat and misshapen stage of 
 existence that we too often see in people of middle life. This is 
 another good reason for the teaching of the best kind of play. 
 
 COLLEGE ATHLETICS. American college students have main- 
 tained for themselves a system of partially directed play for 
 twenty years or more. The system is known by the name "college 
 athletics," and has been imitated in most of the high schools of 
 the country. At first the play was not directed in any way, but 
 gradually the colleges and such high schools as can afford it have 
 followed the example of the larger universities in employing a 
 "coach" to instruct the players in the details of play, and the 
 teachers have in most places assumed some direction over its 
 management. The original purpose of the play here was similar 
 to that of the modern playground, to provide students with the 
 best kind of recreation but from the start the system has failed 
 in large measure to accomplish its object. 
 
PI.AY 249 
 
 IN THE SYSTEM. The cause of this failure is pri- 
 marily the necessity of maintaining itself financially. Those who 
 furnish the funds to maintain the academic features of college life 
 have not seen their way to do the same for athletics, and so the 
 students have been obliged to give up the play or finance it them- 
 selves. In casting about for a way to do this they tried and 
 adopted the methods of the commercial baseball leagues. They 
 soon found that to make money from gate receipts of games it 
 is important to have a winning team, and ever since that day the 
 winning of games, and not the original purpose, has been the chief 
 aim of college athletics. The system supports itself, and also aids 
 in stimulating school and college spirit and loyalty. Incidentally 
 it gives the students a chance to see wholesome forms of play, if 
 not to take part in them, but college and high school students 
 need to form good play habits quite as much as other people. This 
 calls for the application of playground methods and purposes ta 
 supplement the athletic system, which provides vigorous play only 
 for the few who need it least. The commercial basis of the sys- 
 tem is also unfortunate in giving the students an exaggerated 
 idea of the importance of winning without putting enough em- 
 phasis on fair play and considerate treatment of opponents. Such 
 training tends to develop college men into politicians rather than 
 into statesmen. In many institutions the authorities have now 
 become interested in providing more students a chance for the 
 benefits of athletic training, and a few are already teaching games 
 and sports to the entire student body. Experience shows that it 
 is opportunity to play and instruction in how to play that are 
 needed to stimulate the play impulse; the excessive stimulation 
 that is given the college athletic team by coach and spectators is 
 not necessary. 
 
 BETTER PLAY FOR ALL. It is frequently said of the Ameri- 
 can people that they do not know how to play, and the charge 
 seems to be altogether too true. We have been too prone to look 
 upon our play as a dessert, something to tickle the palate, to 
 be taken or not according to convenience and mood, and to be 
 chosen by no better standards than those of whim and pocket 
 
250 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 book. It is time Americans were awakened to the full importance 
 of the educative force of play habits. Play of the wrong sort has 
 destroyed individuals, nations and races, when a better type of 
 play would have raised them to a greater eminence instead. As 
 leisure and wealth increase, as they are rapidly doing, the amount 
 of play must increase and its good effects be produced in pro- 
 portion. Commercialized play, with its large percentage of amuse- 
 ments that are useless and vicious, stands waiting to supply every 
 demand and to pocket the profits. This makes it imperative for 
 the future welfare of the nation and the race that wholesome play 
 shall be taught as an essential feature of education to all coming 
 generations. Such a plan calls for room and equipment far be- 
 yond the ability of the home to supply. Public spirit must inspire 
 the movement and public action carry it to full realization. 
 
 HOW AGE AND SEX INFLUENCE PLAY 
 
 Each age and sex has its special play interests. The boy of 
 three plays horse, the boy of six plays tag, at twelve he plays scrub, 
 at sixteen he plays baseball, at twenty-four he takes his lady friend 
 driving, at thirty-five he plays with his lawn and his garden, and 
 so on. The girl in like rotation takes up dolls, tag, ball, music, 
 fancy work, love, house decorations, the club, etc. One interest- 
 ing feature of these changes of interest is the remarkable com- 
 pleteness of the change. The boy who has played horse most 
 enthusiastically of all his companions will in a year or two come 
 to have the most unbounded contempt for any boy who can be so 
 foolish as to play horse. Probably the reason why adults seldom 
 speak of their own play by that name is because of the feeling that 
 the plays of children are so far beneath them. The same thing 
 will go far to explain why adults have been so slow to recognize 
 the educational value of the play of children. 
 
 The special characteristics and interests of the different ages 
 may be briefly states as follows : 
 
 INFANCY : FROM BIRTH TO 3 YEARS. During this period the 
 child grows more rapidly than at any other time, both proportion- 
 
PLAY 251 
 
 ately and in actual weight and height. The bodily movements are 
 chiefly large and simple ones, done with little sustained interest or 
 attention. The great incentive to action seems to be the instinctive 
 desire for free activity, the variety of the movements rather than 
 heir results being the main source of pleasure. Fatigue comes on 
 quickly, yet by constantly varying his exercise the infant is able 
 to keep up almost incessant activity.* f 
 
 THE AGE OF DRAMATIC IMITATION : FROM 3 TO 6 YEARS. 
 After the period of infancy there is a period lasting until the age 
 of about ten years when growth is nearly uniform from year to 
 year; four pounds in weight and two inches in height. During 
 the first part of this time, up to about six years of age, children 
 are especially interested in imitating what they see others do, 
 giving the period the name of the "age of imitation," or the "dra- 
 matic age." Occupations of the household, the farm, the store, 
 the railroad, and the street, are imitated with great interest and 
 enthusiasm, as are also the plays of older children and the activi- 
 ties of animals. Much imagination is involved, and the play is 
 often a make-believe of the most realistic kind. Children of this 
 age are eager to take almost any exercises of the simpler sort 
 given by imitation, but these are not copied exactly and are taken 
 with most interest and enthusiasm when there is a dramatization 
 of some activity of real life that they have seen. The children 
 like to run like horses, fly like birds, and imitate various occupa- 
 tions. The story plays are among the best exercises that can be 
 chosen for children of this age. 
 
 THE AGE OF SELF-ASSERTION : FROM 6 TO 12 YEARS. From 
 imitation of others the chief interest of the child now turns to the 
 doing of real things for himself, with great pride in what he can 
 do ; he often takes a great dislike to the make-believe he has hith- 
 erto enjoyed so much, and asserts his actual self, so that the period 
 has received the name of the "age of self-assertion." This is also 
 
 * Johnson : Education by Plays and Games, chapter 3. 
 
 t Oppenheim : The Development of the Child, chapters 2 and 3. 
 
252 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 the age of most rapid gain in muscular control. The interest and 
 ability are not so much in the line of minute and exact things, like 
 writing and sewing, although these things can be done much better 
 than before, but rather in feats of strength and skill, such as run- 
 ning, jumping, throwing, climbing, and the like. While great 
 precision of movement is not yet possible, still this is the time 
 when practice that will later demand the highest degree of skill, 
 as in playing the piano, must be begun if the best grade of excel- 
 lence in it is ever to be attained. Anyone who is to become expert 
 as a ball player, skater, pianist, etc., must begin at this time or he 
 will be handicapped ever afterwards. This is the main reason 
 why girls cannot usually perform such acts as throwing, catching 
 and batting accurately or gracefully. The average boy of ten 
 practices these acts a thousand times to the girl's one, and has 
 ability in proportion. An occasional girl can throw and catch a 
 ball as well as boys because she has practiced as much and has in 
 that way developed the nervous machinery of coordination ; boys 
 usually throw with the left hand as poorly and awkwardly as girls 
 do with the right, in fact, with the same style of motion. One 
 who has passed the golden period of learning coordinations and 
 has not learned them is necessarily less able and less inclined to 
 practice plays involving active movement. 
 
 The exercises most attractive at this age are the games in 
 which there is a good deal of vigorous exertion and skill and where 
 the individual player is prominent. The games in which one 
 player is "It" are popular here, because the one who is "It" is in 
 competition with all the others and holds a conspicuous place. 
 Boys of this age imitate the games of older players, not in any 
 make-believe way, but in place of team-play there is emphasis on 
 individual excellence. For example, baseball is very popular, but 
 the game played most often is not a team game, but one in which 
 each "works up" to the highest positions and holds his place at 
 bat, if skilfull enough, even when the others batting with him are 
 put out. There is still interest in dramatic play, providing, in the 
 case of boys, there is something warlike or heroic about it, as in 
 playing Indians or knights, and in military drill. Boys of this 
 
PI,AY 253 
 
 age enjoy gymnastic exercises if they are vigorous and rather 
 difficult, and if they are not given too much. 
 
 During this period the girls usually fall behind the boys in 
 strength and skill, but this is chiefly due to the social influences 
 which keep the girl from playing outdoors as actively and freely 
 as boys do ; in spite of this restraint some girls are fully equal to 
 the boys in physical ability at this age. The girls prefer the same 
 kind of games, but in general they are inclined to work with less 
 vigor and to have more interest in exercises that look better and 
 develop ease of movement rather than strength. Above the fourth 
 grade the games and gymnastics are usually more satisfactory if 
 the boys and girls are separate, but it is not absolutely necessary 
 until the seventh.* 
 
 ADOLESCENCE. At about eleven, girls begin another period of 
 rapid growth lasting five or six years ; the boys begin this period 
 from one to two years later. This is the period in which each sex 
 gradually takes on the form and characteristics of adult life. It 
 has been called the "age of loyalty," because the interest in exer- 
 cise centers about team games rather than individual play ; the 
 qualities most useful in civilized life are now beginning to take 
 the place of those most useful in savage life. The social element 
 in play now becomes more prominent, and various forms of purely 
 social play appear. Among these are "mating" plays, which lead 
 to and accompany courtship and marriage. 
 
 The growth in this period includes a great increase in the 
 bulk of the muscular tissues. In connection with this, and prob- 
 ably related to it, is a tendency to more severe effort than before, 
 but not to long sustained effort ; at the same time the interest is 
 gradually more and more sustained along certain lines. Boys and 
 girls now require different exercises ; those of the boys include the 
 athletic outdoor games, such as baseball, football, etc., and com- 
 petitive exercises of all kinds ; in gymnastic work the German 
 exercises on apparatus are most enjoyed; class exercises are able 
 
 Lee : Playground Education. Educational Review. Vol. 22, page 449. 
 
254 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 to hold the interest for a time if there is a conscious improvement 
 in some line of skill, as in club swinging, wand exercises, or even 
 posture work ; always providing there is a definite course leading 
 to a certain requirement of excellence, the course ending when 
 the work has been done correctly. Boys of this age especially 
 dislike an indefinite series of lessons that lead nowhere and have 
 no apparent reason or end, for they do not appreciate the esthetic 
 element. 
 
 During adolescence the girls are fond of many games, but 
 they do not play them with the same vigor as the boys, partly be- 
 cause of the restrictions imposed by society. Exercises like tennis, 
 that can be taken in a girl's style of dress, are popular, but indoor 
 games, such as basketball and the simpler games leading to it, and 
 class exercises with musical accompaniment are quite as well 
 liked. Of all exercises the gymnastic dances are the most popular, 
 although other kinds of class gymnastics are much more popular 
 with girls than with boys. 
 
 On account of the girls' beginning the period of rapid growth 
 sooner than the boys there is a time when the girls are larger than 
 the boys of the same age ; the more active of the girls often excel 
 the average boy in bodily exercises at this time. Later, the boys, 
 as they reach the time of most rapid growth, pass the girls and are 
 afterwards taller and heavier. 
 
 The danger from exercise in this period lies chiefly in the 
 direction of too long continued effort. Severe exertion is not so 
 apt to be injurious as is in earlier or later life, unless too much 
 prolonged. For example, it is not football, but long distance run- 
 ning that is most injurious for high school boys ; it is not so much 
 the severity of games as their length without interruption. This 
 makes basketball especially severe for boys of this age ; the girls' 
 game rightly has modifications that prevent the individual players 
 from too long continuous effort. 
 
 Under present conditions in school and college the boys and 
 girls of this age do not have sufficient encouragement to engage 
 in active games and sports. Space and equipment are usually not 
 provided except for the few best athletes, the winning of a few 
 
PI,AY 255 
 
 victories being considered of more importance than the develop- 
 ment of the physique of the mass of students. 
 
 T HE AGE OF MATURITY. After reaching full growth, which 
 is usually completed in women at 18 and in men at 21, we have 
 in the next 15 or 20 years the prime of life. Here is the age of 
 greatest physical ability. Practically all the world's athletic rec- 
 ords are made by men in this period of life. The possibilities of 
 bodily development, in strength, speed, endurance, and skill, are 
 so far beyond average attainment that they form one of the most 
 attractive features of exhibitions given on the stage. The marvels 
 of human strength and skill exhibited by ball players, jugglers, 
 trick riders, acrobats, and strong men are among the greatest 
 wonders of the world. And yet the average man is conspicuously 
 lacking in all these physical qualities, and the average woman still 
 more so, because these powers have not been developed. Strength 
 tests of 600 men and 600 women, taken at the Battle Creek Sani- 
 tarium, show that the women were not quite half as strong as the 
 men. Tests made at the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics 
 indicate that women students have less than one-fourth the work- 
 ing efficiency of men, in athletic games. 
 
 The difference in the physical ability of men and women is 
 due to a small extent to heredity, but probably much more to 
 habits of forms of adult play into which money is poured freely. 
 The equipment for the play of the grown-up, including houses, 
 furniture, musical instruments, silver, cut glass and china, horses 
 and carriages, automobiles, boats, costumes, jewelry, flowers, 
 books, newspapers, magazines, and scores of other things, should 
 be kept in mind when we are considering the expense of neces- 
 sary equipment for the play of children. 
 
 It is worth noticing in this connection that adults of primitive 
 races, especially the men, always incline to choose amusements 
 that are degrading and demoralizing, in place of the educative 
 plays of the young. Gambling and the use of intoxicants are the 
 most universal of these vices, and in spite of intelligent public 
 opinion and prohibitive laws many men among civilized nations 
 fall victims to them. A better acquaintance with outdoor games 
 
PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 and a better opportunity to play them would go far to keep young 
 men from falling into habits of vice and dissipation. With the 
 majority of women the purely social plays predominate, such as 
 conversation, gossip, calls, teas, literary clubs, musicales, recep- 
 tions, etc. 
 
 Occasionally a man or woman is seen who keeps up the prac- 
 tice of active plays and games with all the zest of childhood, and 
 as a result these people retain a standard of health and vigor much 
 above the average. The lack of interest of most adults of the 
 present time in the more healthful forms of play is no doubt due 
 in part at least to the fact that as children thev lacked opportunity 
 to become expert enough in them to make them permanently in- 
 teresting. The school should develop the powers and interests 
 that lead to intelligent and healthful play as well as those leading 
 to higher occupations and better citizenship. All that can be done 
 to interest younger boys and girls in the more active and whole- 
 some type of plav will help to prevent in their more mature years 
 the low grade of physique that probably will never be remedied 
 for the adults of the present generation.* 
 
 THE: AGE OF DECLINE:. Following the age of maturity, be- 
 ginning at widely varying times, is the period of gradually failing 
 powers. How early this will come on and how rapidly it will 
 approach its end in death depends on the conditions and habits of 
 life and on the grade of physique that has been developed during 
 preceding years. Workers in some kinds of factories are often 
 old and infirm at forty ; workers on the farm often live well past 
 ninety. This is another strong reason for providing for the bodily 
 development of young people in school and out of it. 
 
 After the time for the most strenuous games has passed, men 
 and women often enjoy and profit from active outdoor games that 
 are more moderate in their requirements. Among these are golf, 
 lawn bowling, archery, croquet, curling, and a few others.* 
 
 * Sargent: Health, Strength, and Power, chapter XI nnd XII. 
 
PLAY 
 
 257 
 
 CHART OF PLAY ACTIVITIES 
 
 locomotion 
 
 use of the arms-< 
 
 walking 
 
 running 
 
 jumping 
 
 dancing 
 
 swimming 
 
 climbing 
 
 with modified 
 
 with a vehicle 
 
 throwing 
 
 striking, with 
 
 j excursion on foot 
 1 marching 
 
 f sprinting 
 I running 
 1 hopping 
 L skipping 
 
 fhigh 
 J broad 
 1 jumping rope 
 
 [_ vaulting 
 
 gymnastic 
 social 
 
 folk dances 
 classic dances 
 round dances 
 square dances 
 
 fice skates 
 
 roller skates 
 shoes S snow shoes 
 skiis 
 
 L stilts 
 
 [" swinging 
 teetering 
 J coasting 
 1 rowing 
 
 paddling 
 (, bicycling 
 
 (tossing 
 pitching 
 rolling 
 putting 
 slinging 
 shooting 
 
 "hand 
 
 foot 
 
 bat 
 
 racket 
 
 hockey 
 
 mallet 
 ^. crosse 
 
258 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 CHART OF PLAY INTERESTS 
 
 simple activity 
 
 imitation 
 
 experimenting 
 
 constructive 
 
 competitive 
 
 f throw and catch 
 -< climbing 
 t. swimming 
 
 simple 
 
 dramatic 
 
 f imitating occupations 
 J imitating ways of living 
 [_ follow the leader 
 
 going to Boston 
 
 story plays 
 
 amateur theatricals 
 
 dancing (certain forms) 
 
 L 
 
 I" exploring 
 J collecting 
 L nature study 
 
 f~ building with blocks 
 
 modeling in clay 
 J paper cutting and folding 
 
 drawing and painting 
 L carpentry 
 
 f track and field sports 
 contests < golf 
 
 L bowling 
 r Lawn bowls 
 intermediate group < quoits 
 
 curling 
 
 games - 
 
 elementary- 
 
 goal 
 tag 
 
 bat and ball 
 
 puss in the corner 
 
 marching to Jerusalem 
 
 cross tag 
 
 pom pom pullaway 
 f tennis 
 I hockey 
 1 football 
 I baseball 
 
 PLAYS AND GAMES SUITABLE FOR A FIRST GRADE 
 
 STORY PLAYS 
 BUILDING BON-FIRE 
 
 1. Wind blows leaves from trees. Arms overhead fall slowly 
 
 to side with fingers fluttering. 
 
 2. Rake up leaves. 
 
 3. Take armfuls and put in cart. 
 
PLAY 259 
 
 4. Run with it to bon-fire. Running around room. Hands be- 
 
 hind back as if dragging cart. Empty cart on desk. 
 
 5. Blow fire to make it go. Fire is on desk. Stoop, take deep 
 
 breath and blow across desk,. facing side of room. 
 
 6. All skip around fire. Two rows around one row of desks. 
 
 7. Breathe in fresh air. 
 
 A PLAY IN THE; SNOW 
 
 1. All are sleepy. Heads on desks. 
 
 2. Wake up and sit straight, stretching arms as though just 
 
 waking. What shall we do to make us lively ? Go out in 
 the snow and play. 
 
 3. Hurry to best standing position. 
 
 4. Pull on rubber boots, first R and L. 
 
 5. Pull cap over ears (elbows kept out and back). 
 
 6. Very cold day. Arms must be warmed. Arms out at side. 
 
 Fling them across chest and slap opposite shoulders. 
 
 7. Stoop way down and pick up handful of snow, make snow- 
 
 ball while standing erect. Throw snow-ball at some spot 
 in room with R arm. Repeat and throw with L, arm. 
 
 8. Walk through snow drift with hands on hips, lifting feet and 
 
 knees high with each step. 
 
 9. Run home. 
 
 10. Take in long breaths of fresh air, raising the arms straight 
 from the sides to shoulder height as breath is taken in, 
 lowering them as breath goes out. 
 
 SNOW MAN 
 
 1. Pull on rubber boots. Bend knee up and stretch arms. As 
 
 you stretch knee, bend arms, pulling on boot. 
 
 2. Snow falling outside. Reach up and bring hands lightly 
 
 down to floor, bending at waist. 
 
 3. Walking through snow. Bend knee high and reach forward 
 
 with foot. Put foot down and straighten up. Repeat with 
 other foot, etc. 
 
260 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 4. To make snow man, roll balls of snow. Stoop down, gather 
 
 up and roll to front of room. First make body. Run back 
 and roll another to make head, etc. (When complete have 
 a child come forward for snow man). 
 
 5. Make snow balls. Kneel on one knee and gather up hand- 
 
 fuls and press hard on knee. 
 
 6. Throw at man, first L then R. As ball hits head child drops 
 
 head forward. Then one arm drops and then the other. 
 Finally legs are hit and child drops to floor in a heap. 
 
 7. Breathing to get warm. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PLAYS AND GAMES 
 
 SQUIRREL AND NUT 
 
 (Tag game). Players all seated but one, heads on desks and 
 eyes covered, one hand open on desk with palm up. The odd 
 player is a squirrel and passes up and down between the rows and 
 puts a nut in some player's hand. This one rises and chases the 
 squirrel. If the squirrel is caught before he can reach his own 
 seat, the one who caught him becomes squirrel ; if the squirrel is 
 not caught, he can be squirrel again. 
 
 I SAW 
 
 (Imitative.) Tell the players of some action you have seen, 
 then imitate it, tell them they are to imitate it too. Examples: 
 mowing grass ; picking apples and placing them in a basket ; chop- 
 ping wood; a tall man walking (on toes) ; a short man walking 
 (knees bent) ; a lame chicken (hopping on one foot) ; a pendulum 
 swinging (resting on hands on desks), etc. When they get the 
 idea, ask who has seen an action they would like to imitate, and 
 have players lead, each showing one action. Encourage a variety 
 of actions and those that are vigorous enough for good exercise. 
 Some can be done with pupils standing by their seats ; others in- 
 volve walking or running and the line must move forward and 
 pass around a course to the starting point. 
 
PLAY 26l 
 
 TWELVE O'CLOCK AT NIGHT 
 
 (Tag game). Mark off a fox's den in one corner and a 
 chicken yard in another. Choose a player to be the fox and an- 
 other to be the mother hen. The rest of the players are chickens. 
 The mother hen arranges the chickens in a compact group and 
 then leads them up close to the fox's den and inquires: "If 
 you please, Mr. Fox, what time is it?" If he replies an hour 
 except midnight, they are safe and may play about; the hen lets 
 them play a moment and then gets them together again and, stand- 
 ing between them and the fox, asks the time again. When he 
 replies "Twelve o'clock at night," they must run to the chicken 
 yard, and the fox tries to tag one. The fox chooses a fox for 
 next time, the mother hen chooses another player in her place, and 
 the game begins as before. 
 
 RUN FOR YOUR SUPPER 
 
 (Goal game). Players in a circle. One player chosen by 
 teacher goes around inside, holds out his hand between two play- 
 ers and says, "Run for your supper." The two run around oppo- 
 site ways outside; the one who first returns to the vacant place 
 wins, and may start the next runners. 
 
 BALL DRILL 
 
 (Imitative). Players grouped by twos or threes, and each 
 group has a ball or a bean bag. The players of each group pass 
 the ball among themselves in a manner stated by the teacher, but 
 all in unison. Various styles of pass can be used and players may 
 be placed at any suitable distance apart. Examples: Toss with 
 right hand and catch with both ; toss with left and catch with both ; 
 catch also with right or left ; throw forward from overhead ; toss- 
 ing backward over the head ; throwing backward under left arm, 
 etc. Players will suggest other good variations. Some pupils 
 will prefer to play this while the larger group plays some other 
 game. 
 
262 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 SQUIRRELS IN TREES 
 
 
 
 (Goal game). Have three players stand so as to represent 
 a hollow tree, facing center with hands on each other's shoulders ; 
 have a fourth player stoop within to represent a squarrel. Have 
 the other players notice how this is done and then have them all 
 form groups of four in same way. There must be one extra 
 player who is a squirrel without a tree. When the teacher claps 
 hands all the squirrels must change trees, and the homeless squir- 
 rel tries to get a tree. This leaves another squirrel out and the 
 game is repeated. After a time have each squirrel choose one 
 of the players of the tree to change places with him, so as to give 
 all a chance to be squirrels. 
 
 RACING 
 
 (Individual contest). Have two or more players race from 
 seats or class positions around a course or to a point and back to 
 starting place. Be sure all have a fair chance to win. Repeat 
 until all have taken a turn. Example : from front seat to front 
 wall and return. 
 
 BIRDS 
 
 (Tag game). Mark out a nest in one corner and a cage in 
 another, choose two bird catchers and a mother bird, and name 
 the other players in groups of three or four after kinds of birds. 
 Have the mother bird stand at the nest and the two catchers in 
 front of the players, between cage and nest. When teacher calls 
 "Robins" or "Quail" the players so named must rise, pass to rear 
 of room, and then try to reach the nest and be touched by the 
 mother bird before the catchers can tag them. The bird catchers 
 may not leave their place in front until the birds reach the rear of 
 the room. Birds tagged are put in the cage. Call one kind at a 
 time ; and see whether nest or cage has most birds when all have 
 flown. The children will enjoy having the bird catchers form a 
 door to the cage with raised arms, and all the other players count 
 the birds aloud as they come out. 
 
PLAY 263 
 
 CIRCLE BALL 
 
 (Imitative). Players in a circle, standing about three feet 
 apart. Have them pass a ball or bean bag around the circle. When 
 they are good at regular passing, have them pass Irregularly or 
 across in any direction. Sometimes, but not always, have those 
 who miss go out of the game. Encourage alertness and quickness 
 to see the ball and catch it. 
 
 PUSS IN THE CORNER 
 
 (Goal game). Each player but one has a goal. It may be 
 a chair, desk, mark, corner or other object. The one who has no 
 goal goes up to another player and says, "Pussy wants a corner." 
 The answer is, "Ask the next door neighbor." During this time 
 the others change goals, and the odd player tries to get one. When 
 he has tried several times without success he may go to the center 
 of the space and call, "All Change," and all must change goals, 
 giving him a better chance. The one left out is "It" and the 
 game begins as before. 
 
 DROP THE HANDKERCHIEF 
 
 (Tag game). Players in a circle facing in. One player, 
 who is called the "runner," runs around outside the circle and 
 drops a handkerchief on the floor behind some player, who then 
 becomes "chaser." The chaser tries to tag the runner before he 
 can reach the vacant place the chaser has left. Both may run 
 around, across, or through the circle. If the chaser tags the run- 
 ner, the latter is runner again ; if not, the chaser becomes runner 
 for the next game. 
 
 This can be played in the schoolroom. Players sit at their 
 desks and must face front. Runner goes up and down between 
 rows and drops handkerchief on the desk behind the one who is 
 to be chaser. If the runner reaches his own seat before the chaser 
 tags him, the latter is runner for the next game. 
 
264 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 CROSSING THE BROOK 
 
 (Individual contest). Draw two lines on floor for the banks 
 of the brook. It should be wider at one end than at the other. 
 If there are many players, make two or more such places. The 
 players form in line and take a running jump across the brook. 
 Those who step in the brook must drop out of line to dry their 
 feet. Those who are successful in the jump continue around a 
 course and jump again. Have them try to jump at a wider place 
 than at first. Standing jump may be used also. 
 
 i SAY STOOP 
 
 (Imitative). A leader stands before the class and says, "I 
 say stoop," at the same time stooping and rising, as in making a 
 deep curtsy. All the players must stoop also, but if the leader 
 sees any player stoop at the wrong time he calls that player to the 
 front and that one becomes leader. As the players become used 
 to it the play is carried on more rapidly. 
 
 FOX AND SQUIRREL 
 
 (Tag game). Players arranged in groups of four as in 
 "Squirrels in Trees." There must be an odd squirrel and also 
 another player who is the fox. The fox chases the odd squirrel, 
 who can escape the danger by going in a tree, since foxes cannot 
 go there. But a tree will hold only one squirrel, hence the squirrel 
 in a tree must run out as soon as the second one enters, and the 
 fox has one squirrel to chase all the time. Any squirrel tagged 
 by the fox when out of a tree becomes a fox, and the fox then 
 becomes a squirrel and must instantly run away and get in a tree 
 to avojd being caught. 
 
 SCHOOL BALL 
 
 (Imitative) . The leader tosses a ball or bean bag to different 
 players, who immediately return it to the leader. At first any 
 form of throw may be used; later the ball must be returned by 
 the kind of throw the leader uses. Carelessness may be corrected 
 
PLAY 265 
 
 by having those who miss leave the play, but this is not best for 
 all the time. It is a miss to drop the ball or to throw it beyond 
 the reach of the leader. Encourage quick and unexpected throws. 
 
 GOOD MORNING 
 
 (Goal game). Players in a circle. One player goes around 
 outside of circle and taps another player on the back. They run 
 around opposite ways and on meeting on the other side of the 
 circle they must stop and shake hands and bow and say "Good 
 Morning" three times and then go on in the same direction as 
 before. The one reaching vacant place last must start a new 
 game. 
 
 SQUAT TAG 
 
 Choose one player to be "It." Players stand in any irregular 
 places. The one who is "It" tries to tag players, and they are free 
 from being tagged as long as they hold a squatting position, 
 (knees bent). When the one who is "It" is not near they stand 
 up again. Each player may use this way to escape being tagged 
 three times, and then can escape only by running. Anyone who 
 is tagged is "It" and the game is repeated. 
 
 ADVANCING STATUES 
 
 (Group Contest). Divide players into two equal groups. 
 Place the groups on opposite sides of the playing space, with a 
 leader between. Explain that each player is to be a live player 
 when the leader is not looking at him, but must be an immovable 
 statue whenever the leader looks that way. Players advance to- 
 ward the leader when he is looking another way, and he sends 
 anyone back to edge of play space if he sees him moving. The 
 side which first reaches the center of the play space wins the 
 contest. 
 
 FOX AND CHICKEN 
 
 (Tag game). Choose a player to be fox and another to be 
 the mother hen. The other players are chickens and all form in 
 line behind the mother hen, each one grasping the waist of the one 
 
266 PHYSICAL, TRAINING 
 
 in front. The fox tries to tag the last chicken ; the line, led by 
 the mother hen, turns and tries to keep between the fox and that 
 chicken. When the last chicken is tagged he becomes fox and 
 the mother hen chooses another player in her place. 
 
 HUNTSMAN 
 
 (Goal game). Choose a leader and have this leader march 
 around in any way he chooses, having all the players fall in line 
 behind him and march as he does. When the leader sees that all 
 are in line and away from their seats he calls "Bang," when all 
 scamper for their own seats. The first one to be seated in his 
 own seat can be leader next time. Each leader starts the game by 
 saying "Who would like to go with me to hunt ducks?" (or bears, 
 rabbits, foxes, etc.) 
 
 PLAYS AND GAMES SUITABLE FOR A 
 FOURTH GRADE 
 
 OVERTAKE 
 
 (Relay). Players in a large circle in a clear space. Number 
 around the circle by ones and twos. The ones play against the 
 twos. One team should be marked by a paper pinned on hand- 
 kerchief around arm, or some other way that will make players 
 easily distinguished. Each team has a leader standing near the 
 center of the circle, and each leader has a ball. At a signal from 
 the teacher each leader tosses the ball to one of his team who 
 quickly tosses it back. It is tossed to each one of the team in 
 turn and tossed back, going around the circle clockwise. Each 
 team tries to overtake the other. The one finishing a round first 
 is given a score. Repeat, going in opposite direction. Each leader 
 may begin each time with any player of his side. The side first 
 getting ten scores wins. 
 
PLAY 267 
 
 HAVE YOU SEEN MY SHEEP? 
 
 (Tag game). Players in a circle. One player is chosen as 
 shepherd. He goes around the outside, taps a player on the back 
 and asks, "Have You Seen My Sheep ?" The players asks, "How 
 is he dressed?" The shepherd then tells something of the dress 
 of one of the players in the circle, as "He wears a blue coat and 
 low shoes." The player questioned tries to guess, as details are 
 added to the description. When he guesses correctly the shepherd 
 says "Yes," and the guesser chases the one described. Both must 
 run on the outside of the circle. If the chaser catches the runner 
 before the latter has returned to his place, the chaser becomes 
 shepherd ; if he does not, the runner becomes shepherd. Notice 
 that the shepherd does not run. 
 
 THE BEATER GOES ROUND 
 
 (Goal game). Players seated, eyes closed and hands held 
 behind the back. A player with a knotted handkerchief goes on 
 tip-toe up and down the aisles and drops the handkerchief in 
 some player's hands. The player receiving the handkerchief at 
 once begins to beat the one in front of him between the shoulders 
 with it. The one hit jumps up and runs around the room to escape 
 and the beater chases him and hits him as often as he can until 
 the runner has regained his own seat. The beater then goes round 
 on tip-toe, puts the handkerchief in another player's hands, and 
 the game goes on. This can also be played in a circle in an 
 open space. 
 
 TOSS 
 
 (Imitative). Players seated. Teacher or leader has a bean 
 bag or a rather large and light ball. Leader tosses the ball quickly 
 to any player, and that one must rise and catch it and throw it 
 back. If he misses it or fails to rise before it reaches him he 
 has one point counted against him. Success depends on quick 
 and accurate work by the leader and showing no partiality. Later 
 it may be best to require the ball to be returned by the same kind 
 of throw used by the leader. 
 
268 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 HURLY BURLY BEAN BAG 
 
 (Relay). Players seated, a bean bag on each front desk. At 
 signal each front player takes bag and tosses it up and back over 
 his head. The player behind him must clap his hands after bag 
 is thrown and then catch it or pick it up and do the same with it. 
 Rear player, on getting it, hops down aisle to front of room and 
 there executes some movement previously agreed upon ; while he 
 is doing this all the other players move back one seat. When he 
 has finished the movement the player from the rear takes the front 
 seat and begins as at first. This continues until the player who 
 wos in the front seat reaches it again and puts the bag on the desk 
 as in the beginning. The row doing this first wins. 
 
 PARTNER TAG 
 
 Players seated. Choose a chaser and a runner. Runner may 
 become free by taking a seat with another player, who must 
 then jump up and be runner. If the chaser tags the runner, the 
 latter at once becomes chaser and must tag the one who caught 
 him if possible. Notice that this is much like "Fox and Squirrel," 
 (First Grade, Second Half Year), but less dramatic. This can 
 be played and is more difficult with the players standing in couples 
 in an open space, the couples in a line or in irregular positions. In 
 this case the way to escape is to grasp the arm of one player of a 
 couple, and 'the partner of that player then becomes runner. 
 
 MEET AT THE SWITCH 
 
 (Individual contest). Teacher stands in front of the room, 
 a bean bag in each hand. Two players stand ready and at a 
 signal each takes one of the bags from the teacher's hand and 
 they run around the room in opposite directions, passing at the 
 rear of the room like cars on the switch, each turning to right. 
 The one returning the bag to the teacher first wins. This can be 
 made a group contest by having two teams, counting a score for 
 each winner, and seeing which side gets most scores. 
 
PI,AY 269 
 
 OVERHEAD RELAY 
 
 Players standing in rows in an open space, same number in 
 each row and end players of each row standing on a line on the 
 floor, to give the rows an equal length. Players face so as to stand 
 one behind another. Front player of each row has a ball. At a 
 signal the ball is passed back over the heads of the players ; the 
 rear player runs forward on right side of his row, takes his place 
 at the front, and at once begins the same player. This continues 
 until the player who was in front at first comes to the same place 
 again and holds the ball up. The row doing this first wins. It is 
 a foul if any player fails to handle the ball in his turn, if any 
 player who drops the ball does not himself get it and pass it on 
 from his place in the row, or if end players do not stand on the 
 floor lines. Fouls should be penalized as in Bean Bag Relay, 
 (Third Grade, Second Half Year). 
 
 POTATO RACE 
 
 (Individual Contest). Mark a starting line near one side of 
 an open playing space; six feet from it make a circle 18 inches in 
 diameter, and at intervals of 3 feet from the circle and beyond it 
 mark from 6 to 10 crosses, depending on the size of the room. In 
 the circle place as many bean bags, potatoes, erasers or blocks of 
 wood as you have crosses. This is the outfit for one runner; 
 provide as many as room and time allow. The players can do 
 this quickly by organizing -the work. At the signal each player 
 who is to run starts forward from the starting line, takes a bag 
 from the circle and places it on a cross, returns and gets another 
 and places it likewise, and continues until all are placed ; then he 
 returns to the starting line. The first to cross the starting line 
 after doing his work is winner. It is a foul to fail to leave a bag 
 off a cross. The next set of runners can start with the bags on 
 the crosses and bring them one by one to the circle. 
 
 This can be made a group contest by having teams and count- 
 ing the scores in the different races. It can also be done in the 
 aisles of the schoolroom. 
 
270 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 BLACKBOARD RELAY, SECOND 
 
 This like the blackboard relay played in the third grade, but 
 instead of marks and letters, words must be written; these may 
 be required to form a sentence, numbers may be written and 
 afterwards added, subtracted, etc., by the succeeding players, or 
 each player may write his own name. It is often interesting to 
 have the last player required to erase all his team has written, or 
 each child may erase his own writing, passing the eraser as he 
 did the chalk. 
 
 AND CARRY 
 
 (Relay). Draw a circle 18 inches in diameter in front of 
 each row of seats close to the front wall. Give each pupil a bean 
 bag. At the signal each front pupil runs forward, places his bag 
 in the circle, and resumes his seat. His being seated is the signal 
 for the next to do the same, and so on till all the bags are in the 
 circles. The first to finish is given a score, providing every bag 
 is in the circle. 
 
 Now the play is reversed. At the signal the last player goes 
 and gets his bean bag and after he is seated he touches the one 
 in front of him as a signal to go. In this way all the bags are 
 brought back to the seats and the winner given a score. The play 
 may be continued for a stated time and the score counted, or the 
 first to gain a certain score may be the winner, by previous 
 agreement. 
 
 STAND 
 
 (Tag Game) . Players scattered about an open playing space. 
 The teacher tosses up a basket ball, volley ball, or indoor baseball 
 and calls the name of a player. That player runs and gets the ball 
 and the others run as far away as possible in the space. As 
 soon as the first player gets the ball he calls "Stand," and all must 
 stop ; the one with the ball must stop also, and roll the ball at the 
 others from where he picked it up. No player may move a foot 
 to escape being hit ; if he does, or if he is hit, he is "It' and gets 
 the ball, calls "Stand," and in all ways does as the first one did. 
 As soon as one is hit the others are free to run away until he 
 
PI,AY 271 
 
 gets the ball and calls "Stand." If no one is hit, the same player 
 must go after the ball and be "It" again. The ball must be rolled, 
 not thrown at the players, unless all are equally large and strong, 
 when throwing may be allowed if all agree to it. 
 
 DUCKS FLY 
 
 (Imitative). Similar to "Do This," (Second Grade, First 
 Half Year), but more difficult. For example, the leader may say 
 "Boys run" and run in place, when all must imitate; but if he 
 should say "Fish run" or "Fences run" they should not imitate ; 
 Many exercises may be used, such as walk, jump, stoop, swim, 
 fly, hop, throw, catch, bat, whirl, etc. Whenever the leader sees 
 any player fail to imitate when he should or imitate when he 
 should not he may call that one to be leader in his place. 
 
 TEN TRIPS 
 
 (Relay). Players in groups of three, with the three in a 
 straight line ten to twenty feet apart. Each group has a ball. 
 The center player has the ball, and at the signal he throws it to 
 another of his group, who must throw it to the third, over the 
 head of the first player ; the third returns it to the one in the 
 center. When he receives it the center player says "One Trip," 
 and begins as before. The group completing ten trips first is 
 given a score ; the first to make ten scores wins the contest. 
 
 BEAN BAG TARGET 
 
 (Contest between Groups). A target consists of three con- 
 centric rings on the floor, five, ten, and fifteen inches in diameter. 
 Draw as many targets on floor at front of room as room and time 
 permit. Have as many teams as targets. Each team has three 
 bean bags, which are to be thrown at the targets from a distance 
 of fifteen feet, marked in the aisle. One player throws all three 
 bags at the target in turn and then the score is counted ; ten for 
 each bag in the center, five for each in the next, and one for each 
 in the outer circle. A bag on a line counts as if it were in the 
 space just outside of that line. There should be a score keeper 
 
272 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 to mark up the scores on the board as they are made. Each player 
 after throwing gets the bags and tosses them to the next. This 
 may be played slowly and without taking account of time used, or 
 a certain number of minutes may be set and each team try to earn 
 as many scores as possible in the time, each throwing in turn until 
 the time is up. The first method is best to develop accuracy in 
 throwing, while the second is better exercise. 
 
 SNATCH A CLUB 
 
 (Goal Game). This is like "Marching to Jerusalem," (Sec- 
 ond Grade, First Half Year), but is played without seats. Each 
 player but one has an Indian club. All march in a circle, stop and 
 place clubs on floor just within the circle of players. They march 
 forward around the circle of clubs with the music or by a signal, 
 and when the music stops or second signal is given, all try to 
 snatch a club. The one who fails to get a club must give the sig- 
 nals for next round and, when the clubs are placed on the floor, 
 must take one and go and sit down when his duty as leader is 
 done. Continue till but one player is left as the winner. Bean 
 bags may be used in place of Indian clubs. It is well to mark the 
 circle for clubs with chalk beforehand. 
 
 CORNER SPY 
 
 (Relay). Place a group in each of the four corners, N., S., 
 E., W. Four captains stand in the center facing their groups, 
 each having a bean bag. At the signal each captain tosses the 
 bag to the first player of his group who returns it to the captain. 
 It is passed in this way to all the players, and when it reaches 
 the last one the captain calls "Corner Spy," at which the first 
 player runs out and becomes captain, all the players move up one 
 place, and the former captain takes the last place. Each player 
 thus is captain in turn, and each tosses the bag to all the players 
 before calling, "Corner Spy." The team whose original captain 
 comes to the captain's position and receives the ball first after 
 all the rest have served, wins the contest. 
 
PLAY 273 
 
 (Tag Game). Players form a circle, count off by twos, and 
 each number one steps behind the player at his right. This quickly 
 gives a double circle, players facing center. Choose one for a 
 chaser and another for a runner. The play is like partner tag. 
 The runner may run around or between the players and may be- 
 come safe by going in front of any group of two and remaining 
 there, thus forming one group that is "three deep." The chaser 
 can tag the rear one of any group that is three deep. The player 
 who finds himself at the rear of a group of three should hasten 
 to go in front of a group before the chaser can tag him. One 
 who is tagged at once becomes chaser, and should tag the one 
 who caught him if possible. Discourage long runs and encourage 
 quick changes instead. 
 
 OVER AND UNDKR RKL,AY 
 
 Like "Overhead Relay" except that two balls or other objects 
 are passed, the first overhead and the second between the feet. 
 The first player counts ten between the passing of the first and 
 second objects ; the last player runs to head of line after receiving 
 both. It can be played in the school room by having alternate 
 rows play at same time, so as to leave a free aisle for running. 
 
 STATUE TAG 
 
 This is like "Squat Tag," (First Grade), except that the 
 one who is "It" begins by showing a posture to be taken by the 
 players. . This may be any gymnastic position or a position taken 
 in any sport or occupation. To escape tagging, the players may 
 assume this posture, but as in squat tag, each may do so but three 
 times, and then he may be tagged. The first one tagged is "It," 
 and may set a new posture to be taken. 
 
 For description of other games of the same character as the 
 above see Michigan State Course in Physical Training. 
 
 For more complex games see Handbook of Games, by Ban- 
 croft and Pulvermacher. 
 
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