GIFT OF 
 
THE 
 
 PRODUCTIONS, INDUSTRY, AND RESOURCES 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES. 
 
 CHARLES ST. JULIAN, AND EDWARD K. SILVESTER. 
 
 SYDNEY : 
 
 J. MOORE, GEORGE- STREET. 
 1853. 
 
to I 
 
 SYDNEY: 
 
 PRINTED BY KEMP AND FAIRFAX, 
 
 WWZR GBOBQE STKEET. 
 
 GAAPENTIER 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 THE following work is a mere reprint of a 
 series of papers which have appeared from 
 time to time in the Sydney Morning Herald. 
 
 Many of them were written and published 
 so long as two years back, but the severe and 
 protracted illness of one of the authors, and 
 other causes, with which it is unnecessary to 
 trouble the reader, produced delay. 
 
 Much improvement might doubtless be 
 effected by a revision of these papers. From 
 the mode in which they have been printed, 
 however, such a revision would, at the present 
 time, be very difficult, if not totally imprac- 
 ticable. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Part L Aboriginal Inhabitants Wild Animals- 
 Indigenous Vegetable Productions 
 
 Bushcraft 15 
 
 Part H. Whales and Whaling Seals the Dugong 109 
 
 Part IIL Mines and Mining Operations 124 
 
 Part IV. Agriculture Horticulture the Vine and 
 
 its products 165 
 
 Part V. Pastoral Pursuits 202 
 
 Part VI. fltommerce and Manufactures 224 
 
 Part VIL Present State and Future Prospects of 
 
 the Colony 259 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 As recent events will cause the regards of the 
 whole civilized world to be fixed upon this 
 colony as a field for enterprise, it is absolutely 
 necessary that accurate information relative to 
 the extent and nature of that field should be 
 provided. It is equally necessary that this 
 information should be given in a plain and 
 practical shape. Our desire, therefore, has 
 been to produce such a work as may be read 
 and understood by all. The use of scientific 
 terms and phrases, with which the ordinary 
 reader is not likely to be acquainted, has con- 
 sequently been, as much as possible, avoided. 
 
 On the face of every nation Nature has 
 stamped the features wherein intelligence and 
 experience may read the charecter and re- 
 sources which it possesses. 
 
 Its climate, soil, position, and natural pro- 
 ductions form the index which points out to 
 civilized man the direction in which to turn his 
 energies and his enterprise, and to ascertain 
 
 B2 
 
6 
 
 and assist in the accomplishment of its destiny. 
 It is in these outward and visible signs that we 
 trace the varied capabilities of countries, and 
 by them are our efforts guided in the develop- 
 ment of their resources. The vast fields of 
 industry which the world opens to us, must be 
 carefully surveyed before they can be profitably 
 cultivated, and it is in the wise adaptation of 
 natural facilities to human art that the earth is 
 to be subdued and replenished. 
 
 Every continent, every zone, every country 
 has its own peculiar fitness for the industrial 
 pursuits of man ; and it is by careful examina- 
 tion of this fitness that we educate, as it were, 
 the various districts of the world, and train up 
 nations in the way they should go. 
 
 In these times, indeed, when the earth is 
 grown grey with the experience of thousands 
 of years ; when science has subdued the ele- 
 ments, and industry turns to the use of man 
 every production which can be derived from it ; 
 it is the more necessary that we should con- 
 sider well what position in the world we are to 
 assume it is right that we should count our 
 resources and weigh our natural treasures, and 
 ponder carefully how we may turn them to the 
 best account. 
 
 We find under what seems to be a special 
 
ordination of Providence, that in this, as in 
 other quarters of the globe, the wild aboriginal 
 inhabitants give way before the civilized races 
 of the world ; it would seem indeed, that the 
 European races are ultimately to be spread all 
 over the earth that under the light of science, 
 every continent however varying in climate and 
 soil, is to be, at least to a very large extent, 
 peopled by these races. And we find too, with 
 slight modifications, the wants of these races, 
 wherever they may accidentally be placed, 
 assimilate. The same food, the same clothing, 
 the same appliances of usefulness, comfort, and 
 luxury are required wherever we find civilized 
 Europeans settled. The same vessels traverse 
 the waves of the Atlantic and Pacific, the 
 Northern and the Southern Oceans ; the same 
 vehicles, the same principles of conveyance, 
 obtain in Europe as do in America ; in all the 
 continents the same animals are reared for the 
 purposes of food and for service in the domestic 
 arts ; and the products of the soil, various as 
 they are, become the common property of all. 
 
 Whatever then may be the peculiarities of 
 production existent in any particular region, 
 that production must in its adaptation to the 
 purposes of civilization be convertible by 
 some industrial process into something use- 
 
8 
 
 ful, not only to the inhabitants of the spot 
 where it is produced, but to civilized man 
 every where. This is the principle on which 
 all commerce is based; this is the principle 
 on which labour, the punishment and the 
 portion of the human family, is made sub- 
 servient to the great design of peopling the 
 world and filling it with enlightenment. It is 
 on this principle that we are entitled to believe 
 that in the fulness of time all the families of 
 the world will be united together, because each 
 will be the producer of something which 
 custom or exigency renders indispensable to 
 the rest. Thus there must be great grain pro- 
 ducing nations, such as Egypt, South America, 
 and the European nations round the Baltic ; 
 there must be countries growing animal food 
 for man from the richness of their natural 
 grasses, such as Ireland and Australia ; there 
 must be wool growing countries, and cotton 
 growing countries ; lands where wine and oil, 
 the fig, the olive, and the pomegranate nourish, 
 and the more sterile wastes where the treasures 
 for man's use lie hidden beneath the surface 
 till brought to light by human art. The cedar 
 and the oak, the mahogany and the satin-wood, 
 are all alike required in other countries than 
 those where each is produced ; and it not unfre- 
 
9 
 
 quently happens, that the skill and ingenuity 
 of one country invests the productions of another 
 with nearly all their value. 
 
 A grand and sublime system of the division 
 of labour seems to prevail over the earth, 
 and to each clime, to each hemisphere is 
 appropriated its allotted share. Growing with 
 the growth of the world, human labour has 
 advanced step by step, until it has itself half 
 obliterated the curse by which it was entailed 
 on mankind. 
 
 In its creative powers, its wonderful pro- 
 cesses, its elevating and intellectual tendencies, 
 it has redeemed mankind from the low barba- 
 rism to which in our earlier condition we were 
 condemned. The beauties and the wonders of 
 creation become ennobled by the discoveries of 
 art and science, and the mind is exalted, the 
 passions chastened and subdued, the wisdom 
 strengthened and enlarged in the lofty appre- 
 ciation which we are now enabled to give to 
 the wondrous design of the universe. 
 
 Nor can we when we look around and see the 
 spread of industrial science the desire that ex- 
 ists, not only to furnish necessaries and comforts 
 for our support and sustenance, but to delight 
 the senses and to conquer what seemed impas- 
 sable obstacles to human improvement, human 
 
10 
 
 happiness, and human fellowship - regard this 
 magnificent development of the connexion of 
 the skill of man with the productions of the 
 earth, otherwise than as the great moral and 
 social amelioration of our condition. Industrial 
 pursuits as they are now prosecuted are, we 
 take it, almost apostolic in their influences upon 
 the world. It is to these that we must trace the 
 peopling of the earth in its lonely and deso- 
 late places. It is to these that we must ascribe 
 the spirit of civilization which is spreading over 
 the w r orld, that is gradually dispelling heathen 
 barbarism and heathen crime, and preparing 
 the advent of a holy and universal fellowship. 
 
 It is in no profane spirit, with no light and 
 unseemly regard to those higher institutions 
 of morality and religion which we have been 
 taught to reverence and have learned to love, that 
 we say we regard industrial science as the great 
 missionary engine of civilization. While one 
 island of the world remains unexplored there is 
 no limit to its energies -while one acre of the 
 giant field for its enterprise remains uncultiva- 
 ted there is no pause in its exertions. There is 
 no obstacle, no difficulty which it cannot sur- 
 mount, for obstacles and difficulties are only 
 suggestive of fresh designs on which it may 
 employ itself. 
 
11 
 
 The ocean rolls in vain across its path ; 
 it becomes the passive agent of enter- 
 prise ; the river and the mountain are sub- 
 dued, the desert is reclaimed, the morass 
 made fertile, the dull ore becomes impregnate 
 with life and beauty, and the solid rock and 
 giant tree glow with unknown majesty and 
 splendour. 
 
 Silently but surely this spirit of industry is 
 taking possession of the world ; silently but 
 surely it is setting down countless multitudes 
 in remote solitudes, and investing them with 
 all the comforts, all the intellectual advance- 
 ment of modern civilization. It is associating 
 communities one with another, by establishing 
 a system of mutual dependence, by an inter- 
 change of the labours of one nation for the 
 benefit of another. 
 
 And while thus fulfilling one revelation of 
 Scripture, that the earth shall bring forth its 
 fruit with increase this great civilizer of the 
 universe is the promoter of the fulfilment of 
 another. It is impossible that the artizan can 
 see the works of his hands, can see the mar- 
 vellous ingenuity, the bold and triumphant 
 design which these works display, without 
 having his intellect exercised and strengthened. 
 To him the works of the Great Creator must 
 
12 
 
 assume a higher and more ennobling teaching 
 than that which they impart in their wild soli- 
 tudes. He sees in every thing that comes under 
 his hand the unmistakeable evidence of wise 
 and benevolent design. He finds that there is 
 nothing that God has made which is not very- 
 good ; nothing that the plastic hand of 
 Nature has formed that man, in the 
 heritage of labour to which he is doomed, 
 cannot turn to his own advantage. He will 
 learn too, that there is some consolation in this 
 heritage of labour in the belief that it is giving 
 him the light of a high and holy knowledge ; 
 that it is teaching him to perform his part in 
 the world's regeneration, and to look upon 
 man as his brother wherever he may find him ; 
 that it is imparting kindly charities and 
 soft ameniti s to the human race ; that it ia 
 breaking down prejudices and clearing away 
 animosities ; that it is teaching all men to 
 appreciate more fully the blessings they enjoy, 
 and to look up in thankfulness to that great 
 and benevolent Being who has provided them ; 
 that while it is peopling the solitude and 
 making glad the desert with the sounds and 
 sights of busy life, it will preach as it goes 
 along its path to hearts exalted and refined, 
 the divinity of the Almighty Creator, the duty 
 
13 
 
 of man to his Lord and to his neighbour, 
 
 "till the earth shall be filled with the 
 
 knowledge of God as the waters cover the 
 sea." 
 
PART I. 
 
 Aboriginal Inhabitants Wild Animals Indigenous 
 Vegetable Productions Bush-craft. 
 
 THERE are few countries in the world which 
 afford so wide a field for the researches of the 
 naturalist as New South Wales. His list 
 of quadrupeds may soon, indeed, be com- 
 pleted, but in pursuing the other branches of 
 his science he will find an ample com- 
 pensation for this deficiency. Our feathered 
 tribes and the denizens of our waters are 
 exceedingly numerous and varied in species. 
 Of the inferior animals the varieties are so 
 great, that, notwithstanding the attention and 
 labour which many gentlemen of the highest 
 scientific attainments have devoted to this 
 species of research, new specimens are fre- 
 quently being discovered. To the botanist and 
 the geologist the field of research may be 
 almost described as inexhaustible. 
 
 THE ABORIGINES THEIR ARTS OF LIFE. 
 
 The aboriginal tribes of this territory stand 
 lower in the scale of humanity than, perhaps, 
 any other race of men upon earth; and in their 
 association with the white man they have 
 unhappily shown far greater aptitude in pick- 
 ing up his vices than in acquiring such useful 
 
16 
 
 information as an attentive observation of his 
 proceedings would serve to impart. As might 
 be expected, these people have never availed 
 themselves, to any great extent, of the natural 
 wealth by which they are surrounded, 
 neither has the teaching and example of their 
 Anglo-Saxon brethren been able to open their 
 eyes to the advantages of civilization. In those 
 arts of forest and prairie life, which may almost 
 be considered as the result of mere animal in- 
 stinct rather than of human reason, they are, 
 nevertheless, but little inferior to other 
 savages. Much useful information was ac- 
 quired by our pioneer colonists from these 
 untaught denizens of the wild ; and still, we 
 doubt not, many valuable hints might be re- 
 ceived by an attentive observation of their 
 habits and proceedings. With ciiltivation 
 even of the most rude nature they were 
 originally unacquainted ; and even at the pre- 
 sent time, when they see around them so many 
 agriculturists, from an observance of whose 
 motions they might acquire all the knowledge 
 which is necessary, they prefer a dependence 
 upon the spontaneous productions of nature to 
 the labor of subduing the earth, and drawing 
 from a particular spot their supplies of 
 vegetable food. They are, in fact, excellent 
 practical botanists. An aboriginal Australian 
 will find an abundance of food where most 
 white men would perish from hunger. It is in 
 reference to this knowledge, which tradition, 
 experience, and necessity has taught them, of 
 
17 
 
 the natural productions of the regions over 
 which they wander, and to their general skill 
 and acuteness in what may be termed bush- 
 craft, that the settlers may with most profit 
 submit to their instruction. 
 
 The wild animals of Australia are nearly *11 
 caught or killed in one way or another by 
 the blacks ; many of them being used for food, 
 which the civilised races have never applied 
 to such a purpose. From the skins of 
 opossums, they make very excellent and hand- 
 some winter cloaks, which were the only 
 articles properly describable as clothing among 
 them, until the importation of the favorite 
 blanket. Girdles and small nets they manu- 
 facture from vegetable fibres. Their canoes 
 are of the simplest structure, being formed 
 of a mere sheet of bark joined at the ends : in 
 some parts of the continent they are contented 
 with the still more primitive conveyance of a 
 small raft. Vessels for carrying water are Con- 
 structed of bark or wood. Their weapons both for 
 war and the chase, are made with considerable 
 skill, although these weapons are of the 
 simplest kind spears, clubs of various forms, 
 and shields ; archery is unknown to them, 
 but their want of this knowledge is made up 
 by the great skill and force with which they 
 throw their spears and boomerangs. Their 
 vegetable food is exceedingly varied, and they 
 exhibit much skill in destroying the deleterious 
 properties which some of the wild fruits and 
 roots possess, so as to render them fit for food. 
 
18 
 
 Their knowledge of the mineral kingdom and 
 their application of its products, extend only 
 to the use of the pigments with which they 
 color their bodies at times of festivity, and to 
 the use of flint for pointing their weapons. 
 
 Their dwellings, when they construct any, 
 are of the simplest kind, usually a mere arch 
 of boughs, affording some slight shelter to the 
 upper part of the body, while the lower 
 limbs are stretched out towards the fire which 
 burns at a short distance ; for rough weather 
 a similarly shaped structure of bark is put 
 up, but some of the central and northern 
 tribes erect more substantial huts in a bee-hive 
 form, about four feet high, and six or eight 
 feet in diameter. These are made of boughs 
 or thatch roughly plastered over, and entered 
 by a hole just large enough for a man to crawl 
 through. Ou the northern coasts two storied 
 huts have been found ; saplings are driven 
 into the ground with their forked ends upper- 
 most ; upon these thin poles are laid, and upon 
 the frame thus constructed a bark floor is 
 placed, arched over by a shallow bark roof : 
 this mode of building is resorted to in order 
 to avoid lying on the damp ground during wet 
 seasons. 
 / 
 
 QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 The first of the Australian quadrupeds, and 
 the largest existing animal of the marsupial 
 family, to which the gigantic Diprotodon be- 
 
19 
 
 longed, * is the KANGAROO ; as a class of animals 
 the kangaroos are now so well known, not only 
 by the description of explorers and naturalists, | 
 but by the transmission of specimens to all 
 parts of Europe, that it is unnecessary to 
 describe their appearance. There are a great 
 many varieties of this animal, but the variation is 
 not so much in appearance as in size and in their 
 places of resort. The forester is the largest of 
 the family, and is frequently found of two 
 hundred pounds weight. The large males of 
 this species are generally called the " old man 
 kangaroo" by the colonists, and by such of ^ 
 the aborigines as have a smattering of English ; 
 an accomplishment, by-the-by, which few of 
 them are without. The wallaby and the 
 pademelon are much smaller, the former in- 
 habiting rocky grounds, and the latter being 
 found exclusively in what is termed brush 
 lands. The average weight of the wallaby is 
 about 12 or 14 pounds, and that of the 
 pademelon about nine or ten pounds. The 
 kangaroo rat seldom weighs more than three 
 or four pounds, and is found in various localities, 
 even in the most barren scrub. It is not, as its 
 name would import, anything of the rat 
 species ; but a perfect kangaroo in miniature. 
 * Most of the hones of one of thrse animals are now 
 in the Australian Museum, and we believe that the 
 Curator intends to erect a skeleton. The living animal 
 must h<tve been from fourteen to sixteen feet in height. 
 It was a sort of kola, or native bear. There is also in 
 the Museum the under jaw of a true kangaroo, which 
 must have been upwards of twenty feet high. 
 D 
 
20 
 
 The rock wallaby is found in large numbers 
 on many of the small islands near the coast, as 
 well as the main land. Of all these kinds 
 there are several varieties. One species, com- 
 monly called the Kangaroo Mouse, discovered 
 by Sir Thomas Mitchell, is not larger than the 
 common field mouse. 
 
 What the colonists term "brush" lands are 
 those covered with tall trees growing so near 
 each other and being so closely matted together 
 by underwood, parasites, and creepers, as to be 
 wholly impassable. " Scrub" is a denomina- 
 tion applied to a move stunted but equally tan 
 gledkind of vegetation, composed of dwarf trees, 
 bushes, and creeping or other plants. This 
 kind of land, however, is more easily traversed 
 than the brush ; first, because the growth is sel- 
 dom so strong but that a passage may be forced 
 through it in most places ; and, secondly, be- 
 cause open spaces and tracks are more fre- 
 quently met with. 
 
 The larger Kangaroos, which inhabit the 
 open forest lands and the plains, are usually 
 taken by coursing ; a kind of sport in which, 
 owing to the nature of the country and of 
 the animal pursued, the horses, dogs, 
 and huntsmen have generally their work 
 to do. The kangaroo bounds off at a 
 pace which requires his pursuers to use their 
 best speed in following him, and the great 
 height to which he can spring enables him to 
 clear all ordinary impediments to his progress. 
 
21 
 
 For the most part, therefore, his course is 
 straightforward, through thick and thin, and in 
 anything of a difficult country, more especially 
 in some of the mountain regions, none but a 
 good steed and a good rider can follow with 
 any chance of success. The stock-horses bred 
 in the colony are admirably adapted to this 
 kind of service. Kangaroo hounds are also bred 
 and trained in the colony by the lovers of this 
 sport, and a good deal of training, indeed, is 
 necessary, for the kangaroo, besides the speed 
 and peculiarity of his course, is a much more 
 formidable antagonist to the canine race, and 
 even to their biped masters, than would at first 
 sight appear. The fore feet of this animal are 
 very short, and are not used by him for the 
 purposes of ordinary locomotion, but in. crop- 
 ping the herbage on which he feeds in fact, 
 as hands. The hinder legs, however, are large 
 and powerful, and are armed with sharp hooked 
 claws of great size and strength, with which he 
 speedily disembowels any unfortunate dog who 
 approaches him incautiously when he is stand- 
 ing at bay ; when hard pressed a kangaroo will 
 stand with his back to a tree, and a dog ven- 
 turing to attack him in this position is apt to 
 be caught by the assaulted animal with one of 
 his forepaws and held to the breast, while with 
 a single stroke of the hind foot he is either 
 destroyed or seriously injured. A man 
 approaching the animal in front would stand a 
 great chance of being similarly treated. On 
 D 2 
 
these occasions the huntsmen usually get 
 behind the kangaroo and cleave his skull, or 
 fire a charge into him from a short distance, 
 A dog seldom attacks the kangaroo when thus 
 standing at bay without receiving a severe 
 hurt for his pains ; but if the sportsman can 
 manage to lay hold of the animal's massive 
 tail and keep it off the ground, the dogs will 
 speedily kill him, for, in that case, he is unable 
 to raise either of the formidable hind feet, and 
 his canine assailants may spring at his throat 
 with impunity. Occasionally the pursued 
 " old man" will make for a waterhole, and 
 placing himself in a shallow, will drown any 
 dog which approaches him ; in this case the 
 only resource is a shot. A well-trained dog 
 will spring at a kangaroo while he is bounding, 
 and seizing him by the root of the tail will 
 bring him forcibly to the ground suddenly 
 quitting his hold, the dog will then sei^e the 
 kangaroo by the throat, and by a vigorous 
 shaking put a stop to all further resistance on 
 his part. Young dogs, however, in attempting 
 this manoeuvre are frequently hurt, and some- 
 times killed by a rending blow from one of the 
 hind feet. 
 
 The pademelon is sought for by the sports- 
 man, either alone or aided by a good dog, and 
 is brought down with the gun. A good deal 
 of experience in bush-craft, however, is neces- 
 sary for the acquisition of sufficient skill and 
 quickness in this kind of shooting, owing 
 
23 
 
 to the rapidity with, which the animal, on 
 being alarmed, bounds away through the 
 underwood, to the concealment which the un- 
 derwood affords him, and to the irregularity of 
 his course. Old bushmen, nevertheless, are 
 very successful in this sport, when they think 
 fit to pursue it, and the blacks are peculiarly 
 skilful in capturing and killing the pademelon 
 after their own fashion. This species of the 
 kangaroo seems to have a taste for music ; for 
 if the sportsman approaches him cautiously 
 whistling without intermission, in a low 
 monotonous tone as he advances, the amused 
 animal will allow him to go sufficiently near 
 for a fair shot. "When first started, the 
 pademelon seldom goes far, and his bounds 
 may be distinctly heard by the sportsman. 
 The latter, therefore, if he has failed to 
 get a shot at the fugitive, should remain 
 stationary until the noise of the jumping 
 has ceased ; marking the direction in which 
 the animal has gone, and approaching it cau- 
 tiously, in the manner already mentioned, with 
 a keen glance around him to detect the listen- 
 ing pademelon. He will by these means be 
 very likely to succeed in securing his game. 
 
 The kangaroo-rat is less sought for than its 
 larger relatives, except by the sawyers and 
 splitters, to whom these animals yield many a 
 fresh meal during their sojourn amidst the 
 heavily timbered flats and ranges. They are 
 very numerous, but are seldom seen in the day 
 D 3 
 
24 
 
 time. At night, however, with the exercise of 
 due caution they are easily shot. The plan 
 which is found most successful is the following. 
 Strew ashes or white sand over a small space 
 of ground, so as to form a light coloured spot 
 upon which the dusky forms of the kangaroo 
 rats may stand out in relief, amidst the sur- 
 rounding darkness. At some distance as far as 
 possible, consistent with a clear discernment 
 of the animals, and with the certainty of the 
 shot, the sportsman must crouch down, having 
 his gun pointed towards the white spot, and 
 resting upon a log or a forked stick. A little 
 maize or some broken bread strewed over this 
 white spot will attract the animals to it, and the 
 hidden sportsman can hardly fail to secure one 
 or more at a single shot. His movements, 
 however, must be very slow and silent, and if 
 he is concealed by a bush or a fallen tree, so 
 much the better, for these little animals are 
 very wary. 
 
 The flesh of all the kangaroos is good. The 
 fore quarters, indeed, of the larger animals are 
 somewhat inferior, and are usually given to the 
 dogs ; but from the hinder quarters some fine 
 steaks may be cut. These, cooked in the same 
 manner as venison collops, are, to most pa- 
 lates, very little inferior to the latter. The 
 flesh of the large kangaroo as well as that of 
 the wallaby is often dressed in the shape of a 
 hash, and in this form, also, it is excellent. 
 But the most admired part of the kangaroo is 
 his tail. This is of enormous size in proportion 
 
25 
 
 to the rest of the body, the tail of a full-grown 
 forester usually weighing ten or twelve 
 pounds. It makes a superb soup, very much 
 superior to ox-tail. The wallaby too is 
 most commonly used for soup. The pade- 
 melon when cooked like a hare affords a 
 dish with which the most fastidious gourmand 
 might be satisfied. The flesh of the kangaroo- 
 rat resembles that of a rabbit, and it eats best 
 when cooked in the same manner. The last 
 mentioned animal is but little eaten, except 
 by thorough bushmen, owing to the prejudice 
 excited by the unfortunate name which has 
 been bestowed upon it, but those who have 
 once conquered this prejudice usually become 
 fond of it. 
 
 The OPOSSUMS, of which there are several 
 varieties, are also marsupial animal, and are 
 very numerous in the open forest and brush 
 lands, their habitation is the hollows of large 
 tress, from which they rarely venture out 
 except at night . Shooting opossums is a very 
 favorite sport for moonlight nights, when a 
 great many may be killed by one whose eye is 
 quick at detecting them, and whose skill as 
 a marksman is sufficiently good to bring them 
 from their elevated perches ; to a person who 
 is well accustomed to its use, a long barrelled 
 pistol is better for this purpose than a gun, 
 first, because "it is a more portable article in 
 scrambling through the brushwood, and 
 secondly, because it is frequently necessary 
 
26 
 
 to fire at a point immediately above the head of 
 the sportsman. The presence of opossums may 
 be detected by a peculiar shrill cry to which 
 they give utterance ; or by the marks made by 
 their claws in ascending the trees. 
 
 The opossum seldom weighs more than five or 
 six pounds. Its flesh is good, but is not much 
 used by the settlers ; it affords to the blacks, 
 however, the largest portion of their animal 
 food, as they are able to get the opossum with 
 comparative ease, by climbing the tree on 
 which it abides. A good dog will scent an 
 opossum most readily ; the more readily indeed, 
 because he generally gets the carcass of the 
 little animal as his share of the spoil, the 
 sportsman contenting himself with the skin. 
 When the bushman's dog points out the locale 
 of an opossum, the dog's master will often 
 amuse himself by storming the dwelling of the 
 concealed animal and capturing him at once. 
 If he is in the hollow of a limb, the limb is cut 
 off, and he is speedily turned out ; if he is in 
 the body of a hollow tree the interior of which 
 is accessible near the root, a fire is lit below, 
 and the poor opossum is compelled either to 
 come out and face his enemies or to be suffo- 
 cated he chooses the former alternative and 
 is shot. 
 
 THE FLYING SQUIRREL is, likewise, a mar- 
 supial. There are several varieties of this 
 animal, the largest of them being a little 
 bigger than the opossum, and the smallest 
 
27 
 
 no larger than a common mouse. The 
 peculiarity of these beautiful little animals is 
 that their fore and hind legs have a membrane- 
 ous connexion, covered with fur like the rest of 
 the body, by means of which they are able to 
 spring a considerable distance from tree to tree. 
 The flying squirrel is shot only for its skin. 
 
 Most, if not all of the before mentioned 
 animals are easily tamed ; it is now no uncom- 
 mon thing to see one or two of the smaller 
 kangaroos quietly browsing on the grassy lawn 
 near a colonist's dwelling ; and an opossum 
 is a frequent pet. The latter is a merry little 
 fellow but rather mischievous; his gambols, 
 however, are very frequently confined within 
 the limits of a cage. 
 
 It is a matter of surprise that the kangaroos 
 are not still more frequently domesticated. 
 There are few animals more beautiful in aspect 
 or more gentle in disposition. In the parks and 
 grounds of our Australian gentry their presence 
 would be peculiarly graceful and appropriate, 
 and, as has already been demonstrated, they 
 are useful as well as ornamental. 
 
 All these animals disappear rapidly as 
 colonization advances, but many of the kan- 
 garoos, and especially the smaller kinds, are 
 still numerous enough within a comparatively 
 short distance of Sydney. In fact, there are 
 few parts of the country more wild than some 
 portions of the county of Cumberland within 
 an easy day's journey of the metropolis. Most 
 of the country between Sydney and the Lower 
 
28 
 
 Hawkesbury is of this description. In the 
 more distant wilds, where the colonists have 
 not yet penetrated, or which they traverse but 
 seldom, game of every description is still 
 abundant. 
 
 The NATIVE DOG or DINGO* is very like an 
 English fox in its aspect and general color. 
 Some, however, are found of different colors. 
 Its size, too, is much greater than that of the 
 fox. It is generally about two feet high, and 
 from two to three feet in length ; its jaws are 
 powerful, its teeth large and strong, and the 
 effects of its snapping bite are very severe. 
 Two or three of these animals, therefore, (and 
 they often hunt in small packs) would be a 
 formidable enemy to man, if they were only 
 courageous enough to attack him ; but happily 
 the dingo has no such courage. He will not 
 even attack the larger kinds of domestic 
 animals. To poultry, sheep, and even to young 
 calves, he is however, a most deadly foe, and 
 the more so because of his malice ; for not 
 content with the satisfaction of his hunger, he 
 wantonly destroys or injures all within his 
 reach. Vast numbers of sheep, some say 
 hundreds of thousands, are annually destroyed 
 by this pest. 
 
 For this reason, he is hunted out and de- 
 stroyed without mercy by the graziers and 
 
 * The Dingo, although common enontrh in all p Tta 
 of the territory to be classed among its indigenous 
 animals, is believed to have been originally of foreign 
 origin. 
 
29 
 
 settlers, who are not content with the slow 
 process of extirpating these enemies by the 
 aid of dog and gun, but call strychnine to their 
 aid ; deluding the dingo with a poisoned bait as 
 housekeepers and warehousemen serve the 
 rats. In some parts thay have been killed off 
 very rapidly in this way, but they are still very 
 numerous, even in the neighbourhood of 
 Sydney. 
 
 When hunted like a fox with a pack of 
 hounds, the dingo affords excellent sport. 
 Formerly there were several regularly or- 
 ganized hunts in different parts of the country, 
 but the famous period of monetary depression 
 broke them up. Since the arrival of the present 
 Governor, however, this sport has been 
 revived, so far as the neighbourhood of 
 the metropolis is concerned. Mr. George Fitz 
 Roy, his Excellency's son and Private Secre- 
 tary, has an excellent pack, and the old fox- 
 hunter possessing sufficient influence to take his 
 place among the sportsmen who attend the 
 meetings of "the Fitz Roy hounds," may at 
 the antipodes have as keen and exciting a 
 struggle for " the brush" as in England. In 
 most cases he may safely calculate upon a 
 difficult country, and upon ample room for 
 displaying his skill as a horseman, and for 
 trying the metal of his nag. In the interior 
 the dingo is hunted down with two or three 
 dogs, or perhaps with a single hound, for any 
 dog of ordinary size and power is more than 
 a match for him. Sometimes he is shot, but 
 
30 
 
 his tenacity of life is so extraordinary, that 
 with a wound, and sometimes with several 
 wounds, that would appear sufficient to cause 
 immediate death, he will make off. 
 
 The dingo is unable to bark, but howls fear- 
 fully ; and in places where these animals are 
 numerous, they keep up a serenade which sel- 
 dom fails to deprive a new colonist of his rest. 
 
 They do not bite with a steady hold after 
 the fashion of a dog, but their sharp angry 
 snap inflicts a severe wound. They are often 
 domesticated, but their orginal predilections 
 are never thoroughly subdued. No amount of 
 good feeding will preserve their honesty or 
 render them less spiteful in the vicinity of 
 a poultry yard or a sheep pen. They readily 
 breed, however, with the dogs of the graziers 
 and settlers, and the progeny is much esteemed. 
 
 The flesh of this animal is eaten by the 
 blacks, but the colonists, as might naturally 
 be supposed, never touch it. The skin of the 
 dingo has not hitherto been made any use of, 
 but the brushy and fox-like tail, and some- 
 times the head, is cut off by sportsmen as 
 a trophy. 
 
 The KOLA, so called by the aborigines, but \ 
 more commonly known among the settlers as 
 the native bear or monkey, is frmnd in brush and 
 forest lands chiefly in mountainous regions. 
 It is believed to feed principally upon leaves, 
 and climbs trees, after the manner of a bear, in 
 search of its food. In its slow movements and 
 its apparent indifference to surrounding objects 
 
31 
 
 it is more like a sloth, than a bear. Its ordinary 
 size is about two feet in length by about a foot 
 in height when standing upon its four legs, 
 (which is not often the case,) the circumference 
 of the body being about a foot and a-half. The 
 fur of this animal is of a fine woolly texture, and 
 principally of a dull grey color. The kola has 
 no tail, the absence of this appendage, its 
 naked muzzle, and its bushy ears, give to the 
 animal a singular aspect, in fact its appearance 
 is a sort of caricature upon gentlemen of the 
 legal profession with their wigs on. It is said 
 to be good eating, but is not frequently met 
 with, although believed to be numerous enough 
 in some of the heavy brush lands of the wil- 
 derness which the colonists do not traverse. 
 When seen, however, it may be easily captured, 
 and the captor has no wildness of disposition 
 to conquer, for the kola seems to all appearance 
 perfectly contented in every situation. It has 
 nevertheless been found difficult to rear this 
 animal, owing principally it is believed, to a 
 want of accurate knowledge as to the kind of 
 herbage upon which it feeds and its mode of 
 varying its diet. 
 
 The WOMBAT, sometimes called the native 
 pig, is a burrowing animal, feeding chiefly upon 
 roots. It is stout and heavy-bodied, and is 
 generally about three feet in length. Its fur 
 is very coarse and its skin tough. Its flesh, 
 although red and coarse in appearance, resem- 
 bles that of a pig in flavor, and is usually cooked 
 by the colonists as they would cook fresh pork. 
 
32 
 
 In some places the wombats are very numerous, 
 and as they burrow near the surface, the blacks 
 easily find the course of their under-ground pas- 
 sage by striking the earth and listening to the 
 sound. By this means they trace out the 
 animal, which they forthwith unearth and knock 
 on the head. The burrow oftens runs to a very 
 considerable distance, and it is dangerous to 
 ride over land beneath which the wombat has 
 labored, for the horse is very apt to break 
 through, damaging his own shins and giving 
 his rider a summerset. The wombat is easily 
 taken alive and domesticated. Remains of 
 wombats more than thrice the size of any now 
 existing have been found in the Bathurst caves. 
 The PORCUPINE ANT-EATER is similar in its 
 size and general appearance to the English 
 hedge-hog, except that it has a long and 
 slender snout, and has the power of protruding 
 its tongue to a considerable distance. It is a 
 burrowing animal, and although ordinarily of 
 dull and slothful habits it makes its way into 
 the ground with extraordinary rapidity ; in 
 fact, considering its size, its muscular power is 
 very great. The upper surface of the body is 
 covered with thick spines of a dirty yellowish 
 color, blackish at the points, and averaging 
 about an inch and three quarters in length. 
 Below these the body is covered with dark fur. 
 When attacked or alarmed the animal will 
 coil himself like a hedge-hog, and burying his 
 nose in the earth, leave nothing but a round of 
 prickles exposed, which neither man nor 
 
33 
 
 beast can touch with impunity. These ani- 
 mals, of which there are two species, are not 
 very numerous, but may frequently be met 
 with even in the vicinity of Sydney by those 
 acquainted with their habits and with the 
 mode of tracking them. The flesh is delicate, 
 resembling that of a young sucking pig. 
 
 The NATIVE CAT is a very beautiful little 
 animal, the larger species being about a foot 
 long, and the smaller about the size of a com- 
 mon rat. The skin of the larger and best 
 known kind is elegantly spotted, and the fur 
 long and fine. Some have light colored spots 
 upon a dark ground, and others dark spots 
 upon a light ground ; but these variations are 
 only accidental, and not, as some have 
 imagined, the characteristics of a different 
 species or sex. The fur of the smaller kind is 
 grey and greyish white, beautifully mingled 
 and pencilled, with black tips. The native cat 
 is a carnivorous animal, but has to content 
 itself with small prey. Occasionally it is 
 troublesome among the hen roosts, but is easily 
 capture^. When the new military barracks in 
 the vicinity of Sydney were in course of erec- 
 tion, the scanty remains of the workmen's 
 food, which lay about, attracted great num- 
 bers of these animals, who came either to feed 
 upon the fragments, or upon the rats which 
 these fragments attracted. They are pretty nu- 
 merous in most parts of the colony, and may 
 be readily hunted out with the aid of a dog, or 
 taken in traps. They are seldom used for 
 
34 
 
 food, even by the blacks. They are easily 
 tamed. There are other varieties of this ani- 
 mal no larger than a common mouse. 
 
 The BANDICOOT is a short-legged animal, 
 from twelve to sixteen inches in length, with a 
 coarse skin of a pale brown color, and a long 
 and pointed snout. Bandicoots are very nu- 
 merous, even in the neighbourhood of the 
 metropolis, and, feeding chiefly on roots, are 
 found very destructive in some of the gardens. 
 They are particularly shy and wary, and are 
 consequently not to be taken by the sportsman 
 without the exercise of some skill and perse- 
 verance, but they are frequently captured in 
 traps. The flesh of the bandicoot is very white 
 and delicate. Cooked like a rabbit, it 
 furnishes the sportsman's table with a splendid 
 dish. 
 
 The WATER MOLE is a most extraordinary 
 little animal. It is usually about a foot and 
 a half long, with the body stout, but some- 
 what depressed in form and tapering towards 
 the extremities. The head is small, and is 
 provided with a beak somewhat resembling 
 that of a duck. Its feet are webbed, and are 
 each provided with five claws. The male 
 having in addition a large spur similar to that 
 of a game cock upon each of the hinder feet. 
 Its tail is short, broad, and depressed. The fur 
 is of a brown color, very fine, close, and soft to 
 the touch. The water moles burrow in the 
 steep banks of a stream, near their favourite 
 haunts, which are the open and tranquil pools, 
 
where there is a good growth of aquatic 
 plants. In some localities of this description 
 they are very numerous, but are so timid and 
 wary that they are only to be shot by the ex- 
 ercise of great caution. The burrow has 
 usually two entrances, one below and one 
 above the surface of the water, both of which 
 communicate with a narrow serpentine pas- 
 sage, generally from twenty to thirty feet in 
 length, terminating in an oval chamber 
 sufficiently capacious for the old and young 
 water moles, and made comfortable by a 
 bedding of dry river weeds. When in the 
 burrow which an aborigine can usually tell 
 by examining its entrance these animals can 
 be captured by laying open the passage, but 
 they are more often shot in the water, and 
 brought ashore by a dog. They seldom re- 
 main on the surface many minutes, but can 
 easily be seen. Unless the sportsman is con- 
 cealed, however,- and is very noiseless in his 
 movements, they disappear the instant he 
 levels his gun. But if he remains still, they 
 will speedily reappear at a very short distance 
 from where they went down, and if, in the 
 meantime, the sportsman has kept his gun 
 pointed towards the direction in which their 
 rising might be calculated upon, he will get a 
 fair shot. They are often taken in nets, and 
 with the exercise of due skill and caution this 
 would probably be the best mode of capturing 
 them. 
 
 The whole of the six families of animals last 
 
36 
 
 mentioned belong to the marsupiata or pouched 
 order. 
 
 There are several other small quadrupeds, 
 including a burrowing or prairie rat, which, at 
 certain seasons and in certain localities, con- 
 stitutes the chief animal food of the natives. 
 None of these, however, are of any value to the 
 sportsman or settler. 
 
 BATS. 
 
 Of the bat family there is one kind 
 which, although a great pest to the growers of 
 fruit, is frequently of much value to those who 
 traverse the wilderness. This is the FLYING 
 Fox an animal whose sole resemblance to the 
 quadruped after which he is named is in the 
 color of his skin. This is a very large animal 
 of its class, its body being usually about a foot 
 long, and proportionately stout. It has a 
 great expanse of wing, measuring frequently 
 when spread about three feet from tip to tip. 
 The flying foxes are exceedingly numerous, 
 and sometimes, in the fruit season, make sad 
 havoc. They are, consequently, shot down 
 without mercy. Their flesh is delicate, and 
 they are almost invariably very fat ; but 
 owing to the demoniac appearance of their 
 black leathery wings, and to the prejudice 
 which this appearance excites, they are seldom 
 eaten by the settlers. Travellers, however, 
 are frequently indebted for a hearty meal to 
 their success in bringing down these creatures. 
 
37 
 
 They are generally fovmd in flocks and are 
 easily shot. They fly about in search of food 
 after nightfall. During the day they search 
 out a remote place, where they hang in thick 
 clusters from the trees. 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 First in size and in rank among the birds of 
 Australia is the EMU. This is one of the 
 family which may be termed winglass, and of 
 which the ostrich is generally considered as 
 the head ; for the wings of the Australian bird, 
 like those of the ostrich, are mere arms or fins, 
 wholly insufficient to raise it from the ground. 
 They are, however, a considerable aid to the 
 animal when running, which it does with great 
 swiftness. The emu is usually about five or 
 six feet in height, but sometimes much taller. 
 The feathers are of a brown color, fine but 
 wiry and brittle. The plumage near the tail, 
 however, is long and graceful. The flesh of 
 the emu is excellent, resembling good beef, and 
 is dressed in a similar manner. The fat, of 
 which a comparatively large quantity is found 
 adhering to the skin, yields, when melted, a 
 tasteless and almost scentless oil, of a light 
 yellowish color, which is used by bushmen 
 with great advantage as an anti-rheumatic. 
 In the wilds large numbers of the emu are met 
 with, but they retreat before the advance of the 
 white man. In the squatting districts they are 
 still numerous. 
 
38 
 
 The emu is usually hunted with dogs. Those 
 which are accustomed to this work spring at 
 the bird's neck, and despatch it at once, but 
 young and untrained dogs sometimes get near 
 its heels, in which case they are apt to get 
 severely injured, if not killed ; for the emu 
 kicks like a horse. In places where the pro- 
 tection of trees enables the sportsman to ap- 
 proach within convenient range, the emu may 
 be easily brought down by a ball. The natives 
 have a plan of capturing the emu by fencing 
 round the water hole, leaving only a single 
 narrow entrance by which it can approach to 
 drink, so that by watching its motions and by 
 the exercise of due care and caution it may 
 be blocked in and captured or speared before it 
 can effect its escape. 
 
 The emu lays about a dozen large eggs, of a 
 dark green color, which, although somewhat 
 strong in flavor are frequently eaten by bushmen 
 with great gusto. 
 
 This bird is easily tamed, and its presence 
 is a very suitable and graceful feature in an 
 Australian park. The emu is very hardy, and 
 like his relative the ostrich, has a stomach capa- 
 ble of digesting anything. 
 
 The bird next in size to the emu is the CAS- 
 SOWARY. The first specimen obtained of this 
 bird was procured by Mr. Thomas Wall, 
 naturalist of the late expedition commanded by 
 Mr. Kennedy. This was shot near Cape York, 
 in one of those almost inaccessible gullies which 
 abound in that part of the Australian con- 
 
39 
 
 tinent. The Cassowary stands, when erect, 
 between four and five feet high. The head is 
 without feathers, but covered with a blue skin ; 
 and, like the emu, it is almost without wings, 
 having mere rudiments. The body is thickly 
 covered with strong dark brown wiry feathers. 
 On the head is a large protuberance of a bright 
 red color, and to the neck are attached, like 
 bells, six or eight round fleshy balls of bright 
 blue and scarlet, which give to the bird a very 
 beautiful appearance. This first, and indeed 
 only specimen of the Australian Cassowary, 
 was unfortunately left at Weymouth Bay, and 
 has not been recovered. Mr. Wall being 
 anxious for its preservation had secured it in 
 a canvas bag, and carried it with him to the 
 spot where, unfortunately for himself and for 
 science, he was lost. In the ravine where this 
 bird was killed, as well as other deep and 
 stony valleys of that neighbourhood, they were 
 seen running in companies of seven or eight. 
 On that part of the north-eastern coast, there- 
 fore, they are probably plentiful, and will be 
 met with in all the deep gullies at the base of 
 high hills. The flesh of this bird was eaten, 
 and was found to be delicious; a single leg 
 affording more substantial food than ten or 
 twelve hungry men could dispose of at one 
 meal. The cassowary possesses great strength 
 in its legs, and makes use of this strength in the 
 same manner as the emu. Their whole build, 
 however, is more strong and heavy than that 
 of the latter bird. They are very wary, but 
 F 2 
 
40 
 
 their presence may be easily detected by their 
 utterance of a peculiarly loud note, which is 
 taken up and echoed along the gullies ; and it 
 would be easy to kill them with a rifle. 
 
 The BUSTAKD, better known by the erroneous 
 name of the Wild Turkey, ranks next in size 
 and importance to the emu and the cassowary. 
 This bird is an inhabitant of the plains in the 
 interior. It is larger and heavier than the 
 domestic turkey. Its plumage is by no means 
 brilliant, the colors being an olive brown, 
 black, and white. The bustard is provided 
 with a membraneous pouch or bag to hold 
 water, by which means it is enabled to traverse 
 the wide plains and deserts of the interior, far 
 removed from the streams and waterholes. 
 These birds are invariably found in pairs. 
 They are, however, very shy and difficult to 
 approach by a person on foot. A horseman they 
 will allow to come much nearer to them. They 
 may also be approached by following in the 
 wake of cattle, and this latter plan is often re- 
 sorted to. A pedestrian, however, without any 
 of these precautions, may easily bring them 
 down with a good rifle. The bustard affords 
 to the sportsman a splendid dish. 
 
 The BRUSH TURKEY is, as its name imports, 
 an inhabitant of the dense brushes. Its general 
 size is about equal to that of the common and 
 domesticated guinea fowl. Its color is black, 
 its head bare of feathers, and that ot the male 
 is provided with orange and red fleshy wattles. 
 Unlike the bustard, this bird is easily shot it 
 
41 
 
 keeps close in the thickets until started by the 
 aid of a dog ; when aroused, however, it usually 
 Hies to some tree near at hand, and gazes about 
 stupidly until it is knocked over by a shot. 
 The flesh is very delicate, and owing to the ease 
 with which it may be procured, the brush tur- 
 key speedily disappears before the advance of 
 population. They are still numerous, however, 
 in many parts of the country There are 
 several different species of this bird, of which 
 one, a very beautiful specimen, has lately been 
 procured by Hugh Gordon, Esq., at the head 
 of the Shoalhaven River, in the county of St. 
 Vincent, and presented by that gentleman to 
 the Australian Museum. One of the most 
 remarkable characteristics of this bird is the 
 process to which it resorts for bringing forth 
 its young. With dry leaves and grasses it 
 first forms a circle, and within this the female 
 lays her eggs, covering and bedding them in 
 with similar materials to those which compose 
 the outer circle. Other birds come and lay 
 their eggs at the same place, covering them up 
 in like manner. Thus a complete mound is 
 often erected, and the eggs within are hatched 
 by the heat generated from the decomposition 
 of the vegetable matter which surrounds them. 
 Whether the parent birds can recognise their 
 separate broods, or take the " callow young" 
 indiscriminately in sets, as they come forth, it 
 it is impossible to say. The eggs are larger 
 than those of the common turkey, and being of 
 excellent flavor, the discovery of one of these 
 p 3 
 
42 
 
 mounds is a perfect god-send to the bushman, 
 although a sad detriment to the race of brush- 
 turkeys and to the future success of the sports- 
 man. 
 
 Of the QUAIL there are numerous varieties in 
 Australia; more numerous, perhaps, than in 
 any other part of the world. The ordinary 
 quail, which is rather larger than that of 
 England, is plentiful in the vicinity of Sydney, 
 and it is no uncommon thin ^ for a good sports- 
 man to kill from twenty to thirty brace in a 
 single day. The quails are migratory, and 
 vast flocks of them are often found in the 
 sequestered nooks about the coast and its 
 vicinity. They are easily domesticated, and 
 are frequentiy bred and reared in our aviaries. 
 
 The SNIPE is one of the most punctual 
 visitors of the neighbourhood of Sydney, 
 appearing regularly and in vast numbers early 
 in September. There are but two species 
 known here the common and the painted 
 snipe. The former bird is much like the 
 snipe of England, but larger. The latter 
 closely resembles the painted snipe of India, 
 and is much more scarce than the first-named 
 species. 
 
 Of PIGEONS there are a greater variety in 
 Australia than in any other country on earth. 
 From one extremity of New South Wales to 
 the other they are to be met Avith in vast 
 numbers. The handsomest of the class is the 
 magnificent green or fruit pigeon, of which 
 Wollongong is the most favorite haunt ; 
 
43 
 
 occasionally, however, it is met with in gardens 
 near Sydney. * It feeds chiefly on wild figs. Of 
 all the pigeons the wonga wonga is the most 
 admired for the extreme delicacy of its flesh. 
 It is a large bird, but comparatively scarce and 
 difficult to shoot. The most common kind is 
 the bronze wing, so called from the metallic 
 lustre of its plumage. These are numerous 
 even in the brush and scrub lands about 
 Sydney. 
 
 All the rivers and lagoons of the interior 
 abound with water fowl. The BITTERN, which 
 in the palmy days of falconry furnished a 
 greatly admired dish, and which even at 
 present is much esteemed in Europe, is com- 
 monly met on the Parramatta River, and at 
 other places near Sydney. It is not much 
 eaten here, however, on account of its feeding on 
 small snakes, lizards, and such like animals ; 
 although to those who entertain no prejudice 
 against the bittern on this account, its flesh is 
 excellent. 
 
 The BLACK SWAN is numerous enough in the 
 more secluded waters, but has disappeared from 
 the vicinity of Sydney. Of GEESE, DUCKS, 
 and TEAL, there are a great variety, and on most 
 of the rivers and lagoons a little removed from 
 the common haunts of men, they may be shot 
 
 * It i frequently met with in the grounds of Mr. 
 W. S. M L>-y at Elizib'th B y. Tf e beautifully 
 kept and extensive gardens of this gentleman, intact, 
 are much resorted to ^y m ny of the migratory and 
 other birds which elsewhere are comparatively rare. 
 
44 
 
 in considerable numbers. There are varieties 
 of these birds which perch on trees. Ducks 
 are frequently killed by the aborigines with 
 their boomerangs ; it is believed, in fact, that 
 the boomerang originated in the necessity of 
 having some implement which would pass 
 before the retreating birds, fly back, and in the 
 event of its not striking any of them on its 
 return flight, would quietly deposit itself near 
 the feet of its owner.* 
 
 PELICANS of large size are numerous not 
 only in the vicinity of the coast, but on the 
 rivers of the interior ; they are very fat, and 
 yield a comparatively large quantity of good 
 animal oil, as much as a quart being sometimes 
 procured from a single bird ; the neck, breast, 
 wings, and legs, are good eating, but the body 
 of the bird has a strong and fishy flavor. 
 
 CRANES are also very numerous. The native 
 companion, a tall, handsome, and majestic bird, 
 is of this species, and is most easily domesti- 
 cated. It is a matter of surprise indeed that they 
 are not more frequently met with in the farm 
 yards and grounds of the colonists. Of the 
 SPOONBILL and IBIS there are many species, the 
 
 * It is generally known, we believe, that the hoome" 
 rang is a flattened piece of wood, curved in the form of 
 an obtuse angle, and partially sharpened at the edge; 
 which when cast by the aborigine, first proc^< ds with 
 a whirling motion to a considerable distance, and then 
 turning back up;>n ifs course, fall* nesir th" spot from 
 which it was thrown. There ure some boomer ngs, 
 however, which are used in war, that are somewhat 
 different in model, and do not return to the thrower. 
 
45 
 
 sacred ibis of the Egyptians, or a bird very 
 nearly allied to it, being included among the 
 latter family. Some of the birds belonging to 
 these three families are very beautiful. 
 
 The RED BILL, found principally near the 
 sea coast, is a bird much resembling the En- 
 glish Coot, but is larger. It is plump and fine 
 flavored. KAILS, WATER HENS, PLOVERS, and 
 CURLEWS, are also numerous. The bird which 
 is usually called the curlew by the colonists, 
 is in reality a plover, remaining close all day, 
 and at night seeking its food with a loud mew- 
 ing cry, forming a very disagreeable serenade to 
 young colonists. 
 
 Of sea GULLS there are but two varieties 
 the large grey or black-backed gull, and the 
 common red legged species found in nearly all 
 parts of the world. They may be easily shot 
 in the waters of Port Jackson. The ALBA- 
 TROSS and PETREL are common in the adjacent 
 seas, and the SOLAN GOOSE is, in bad weather, 
 a frequent visitor, even within the harbour. 
 This bird is excellent food when salted. The 
 small gulls are also good food, but the larger 
 are somewhat strong. 
 
 COCKATOOS are of many kinds. For the 
 most part, however, they are so well known as 
 to need no description. These are all excellent 
 eating. The common white cockatoos, 
 although met with in large flocks, are very 
 wary, and are consequently difficult to shoot. 
 They generally perch, if practicable, upon a 
 dead and bare tree, the upper bird keeping a 
 
46 
 
 sharp look out around, and giving the alarm 
 the moment he sees the sportsman approaching. 
 By advancing cautiously, however, under 
 cover of the bushes when any are at hand, 
 much havoc may frequently be made among 
 one of these flocks ; for if a bird is wounded 
 so that he will cry out lustily, without being 
 able to get away, the others will hover about 
 the spot and stand a good deal of " peppering." 
 The black cockatoo is a splendid bird, and is 
 more easily shot than the white variety ; but it 
 has never, we believe, been found possible to 
 domesticate one of them. 
 
 PAKROTS are of all Australian birds the most 
 numerous, and as a class the best known. The 
 number of varieties in this family, however, is 
 astonishingly great, and the catalogue is still 
 increasing, for the discovery of a new species 
 of parrot is a circumstance of frequent occur- 
 rence. All the Australian parrots have hand- 
 some plumage ; some of them indeed are ex- 
 tremely magnificent in the variety, the bril- 
 liancy, and the disposition of their colors. 
 That kind which is generally known in the 
 colony as the " blue mountaineer" or the "blue 
 mountains' parrot," is distinguished by plu- 
 mage so beautiful and brilliant that if it was 
 a scarce bird there can be no doubt it would be 
 greatly sought after and as greatly prized 
 when taken. It is however, an exceedingly 
 common bird, and, as a natural consequence, 
 it is, comparatively speaking, but little cared 
 for. Great numbers of these birds, as well as 
 
47 
 
 of smaller parrots, are shot near Sydney. But 
 the dwellers in the suburbs have discovered 
 a much more easy way of supplying themselves 
 with blue mountaineers than by searching for 
 them with a gun. A young sapling or a limb 
 from a tree of larger growth is fixed in the 
 ground, and near its summit is suspended a 
 cage containing one or two parrots. Upon 
 the branches above and around this cage 
 are affixed small running nooses of fine wire 
 or hair. The noise of the captive birds 
 attracts their wild companions, who alight 
 near the cage to see what is the matter, and one 
 if not more of each party, almost invariably 
 manages to put either its head or one of its 
 feet into one of the nooses. From this position 
 it is speedily released by the bird catcher, and 
 removed to the cage to increase the noise of its 
 occupants and decoy some more of their com- 
 panions. The number of birds taken in this 
 way is truly astonishing. Some of our juve- 
 niles will by this simple contrivance get a 
 tolerably large cage full in the course of a few 
 hours. It is this kind and a smaller green par- 
 rot, commonly known as the green paroquet, 
 which are usually captured for the purpose of 
 domestication and training ; the latter kind 
 being the most docile and teachable of the two. 
 Few of the parrot kind are particularly shy or 
 wary, and in the forests where they abound 
 they afford excellent sport. In fact the mode 
 in which parrots are occasionally brought down 
 and the number of them that are secured is 
 
48 
 
 scarcely credible to those who have never in- 
 dulged in this kind of shooting. In traversing a 
 piece of rich open forest land the sportsman 
 will frequently arrive at a good spreading 
 and thickly branched tree on which a 
 number of parrots, usually of the smaller green 
 kind, are feeding, and if he has shot of a 
 convenient size in his belt (No. 6 is about the 
 best for this kind of service) he may usually 
 bring them down as long as he chooses to load 
 and fire. His own patience is more likely to 
 be exhausted than that of the parrots. They 
 will start from the tree , indeed, at every shot, 
 but they will generally return to it at once, 
 and other birds, attracted probably by the 
 squalling of their wounded brethern, will 
 arrive at the scene of slaughter ; and this kind 
 of game is by no means despicable, for parrots 
 large and small are capital eating, either 
 curried, stewed, or in a pie. 
 
 The GILL BIRD, wattle bird, or honey 
 sucker, also makes its appearance in large 
 flocks near Sydney, about the month of May, 
 and affords a good deal of sport to the youthful 
 gunners of the metropolis ; it is a sober looking 
 bird, rather larger than an English thrush, and 
 has derived two of its names from certain 
 "gills" or "wattles" with which it is pro- 
 vided. The flesh is very delicate and well 
 flavoured. The FRIAR BIRD, so called from its 
 bald head, is about the size of the gill bird, 
 and although not met with in such large num- 
 bers as the latter, is a frequent and acceptable 
 
49 
 
 aid in filling up the game bag or the pockets of 
 the Sydney sportsman. 
 
 "We have now, we believe, enumerated all 
 the birds which are ordinarily shot or other- 
 wise captured for food ; but others are 
 occasionally used by bushmen, and to the 
 aborigines nothing comes amiss. The MAGPIE, 
 which is a large and handsome bird, every- 
 where abundant, is sometimes sought for the 
 table ; but is more generally captured alive in 
 order that it may be trained as a " family 
 musician," an office for which its melodious 
 whistling note and the facility with which it 
 can acquire an air, especially qualify it. The 
 common CROW is very grateful food to an abo- 
 riginal palate, but owing the partiality of this 
 bird to carrion, few white men ever taste it. 
 Such of them as have done so, declare that a 
 pie made of young crows is fully equal to one 
 composed of young rooks ; and the latter is a 
 well-known and favorite dish in England. 
 
 Birds of prey are, also, as nume- 
 rous and varied in kind as the smaller and 
 weaker species of the feathered races. The 
 WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE is the largest of this 
 class ; but the most common of the eagle 
 family is the bird called by the colonists the 
 EAGLE HAWK, some of which are sufficiently 
 large and powerful to carry off young 
 lambs. Of FALCONS there are many varieties, 
 some of them very beautiful. Among these 
 is one very closely allied to the PEIIEGRINE 
 FALCON, so much esteemed by the lovers of 
 G 
 
falcony in Europe. Birds of the rapacious 
 order, which, seek their prey in he waters, are 
 also common. The WHITE BELLIED SEA 
 EAGLE, which is the largest of this class, may 
 be frequently seen dashing into the waters of 
 the har our and carrying off a large mullet, 
 bream, or other fish to its eyrie. Sometimes 
 it will strike its claws into a fish so large that 
 the struggles of the captive will bring it 
 frequently to the water, nay, sometimes will 
 plunge it fairly in before it can obtain 
 a complete victory. It is but seldom however 
 that the fish escapes. The smaller birds of 
 prey the hawks and the buzzards, are very 
 numerous, and the owls are as fully and fairly 
 represented as the rest. 
 
 We have heard it said, nay we have seen 
 the assertion in print, that the woods and 
 meadows of Australia are destitute of singing 
 birds. No assertion can be more erroneous. 
 All who have lived in " the bush" and have 
 been accustomed to rise with the sun can bear 
 testimony to the fact that we have a full and 
 fair supply of those feathered choristers 
 whose presence gives life and cheerfulness to 
 the wilderness. There is a small brown bird, 
 one of the class termed warblers, which 
 has a note equal, if not superior, to that 
 of the English nightingale. Unhappily it 
 is scarce. But there are many kinds of 
 songsters which may be more frequently met 
 with. Of these, the LYRE BIRD has the first 
 rank. Its own note is good, but its chief 
 
51 
 
 excellence is in its extraordinary powers of 
 imitation. There is scarcely a sound which 
 this bird will not imitate to perfection, and 
 some imagine that the little mimic takes a 
 pride in the exercise of its deceptive powers. 
 The lyre-bird is small, and there is nothing 
 remarkable in its plumage with the exception 
 of the tail, from the form of which it derives 
 its name. This is unusually long, with two 
 large artd finely marked feathers curling out- 
 wards at their extremities in the form of a 
 lyre. These birds are most commonly found 
 in deep gullies and heavy brush lands, and are 
 very numerous in the district of Illawarra. A 
 second species has been observed by Dr. 
 Bennett,* whose reputation as a naturalist 
 stands deservedly high ; the chief variation 
 being that the large tail feathers of this latter 
 kind have an inward instead of an outward 
 curve at their extremities. It was discovered 
 at the Richmond River. Besides the songster 
 first mentioned, there are many of the warblers 
 which sing very melodiously. A small blue 
 wren, also, which is common enough in the 
 gardens around Sydney, has a sweet although 
 short note. No attempt, that we are aware of, 
 has ever been made to domesticate any of 
 these Australian songsters. 
 
 * This was discovered by a Mr. Stephenson ; and a Mr. 
 Lejcester being the first who suggested the probability 
 of its being a new species, it was proposed to name it 
 after that gentleman. Mr. Goold, however, to whom a 
 a specimen vvas stnt, has named it after H. R. H. Prince 
 Albert. 
 
There are many Australian birds which, 
 although not properly describable as songsters, 
 are distinguished by a singularity of note. 
 The most remarkable of these is the ORGAN BIKD 
 or ventriloquist ; it gives utterance to three 
 distinct and bell-like notes, following each 
 other in quick succession, but possess the 
 singular power of making these sounds appear 
 to proceed from various points consider- 
 ably removed from the place where it 
 is actually perched. We have heard of a 
 naturalist being led a terrible dance in search 
 of one of these little deceivers, when in reality 
 it was pouring forth its notes but a short 
 distance from the spot from which he started ; 
 the only certain way of getting hold of it is 
 by imitating its cry, when it comes to the spot 
 to have a look at its supposed neighbour. 
 The COACH WHIP BIRD, frequently heard but 
 seldom seen in the neighbourhood of Sydney, 
 derives its name from its utterance of a sound 
 very similar to the cracking of a small whip. 
 The DISH WASHER or wagtail, also common 
 in the vicinity of Sydney, is remarkable for its 
 indulgence in a peculiar cry of gratification, 
 half humming, half grunting, whenever it has 
 captured a fly or any other of the small insects 
 upon which it feeds. The LAUGHING JACKASS, 
 a large and coarse looking bird, with dark 
 plumage, which is pretty common every where, 
 gives utterance to most extraordinary sounds. 
 Generally they are of a kind perfectly inde- 
 scribable, but sometimes they resemble so much 
 
53 
 
 a loud derisive laugh as to grate with peculiar 
 harshness upon the ear of the juvenile sports- 
 man when roaming unsuccessfully in search of 
 game. The unlucky bird sometimes pays with 
 its life for the infliction of this annoyance, but 
 as it generally selects a high perch, it more 
 frequently escapes scathless from the shot of 
 the irate juvenile, in which case, whilst re- 
 moving to a safer distance, it usually expresses 
 its alarm by giving utterance to a laugh of 
 more than usual power, which in no way con- 
 soles the unsuccessful shooter. Old colonists 
 never kill these birds, for they are totally unfit 
 for the table, and they are really of great ser- 
 vice, inasmuch as they pursue and destroy the 
 venomous snakes, which, in all parts of the 
 bush are but too numerous. The laughing 
 jackass has also earned for itself the title of 
 the bushman's clock, from its usefulness, like 
 chanticleer, in arousing him to his labour at 
 early dawn. 
 
 There are a large number of birds, besides 
 those already mentioned, which are valuable 
 on account of the extreme beauty of their 
 plumage, such as the rifle bird, the regent 
 bird, the dragoon bird, the diamond bird, &c. 
 Of the robin, finch, wren, and other families, 
 there are also many and very splendidly 
 colored varieties, some of which may occasion- 
 be seen in our aviaries, although they are 
 far less sought for and prized than they 
 deserve to be. 
 
54 
 
 THE CROCODILE. 
 
 The crocodile or alligator is an inhabitant of 
 all the northern rivers ; at Port Essington and 
 in the waters around it, these creatures are 
 exceedingly numerous, and Mr. Kennedy's 
 party saw a very large one on the beach at 
 Rockingham Bay ; they may yet perhaps be 
 found still further south. The Australian 
 animal is closely allied to the gavial or 
 crocodile of India, but is more often termed, 
 like the American species, an alligator. It is 
 large and formidable, one captured by Captain 
 Stokes, in the Victoria River, and described 
 in his published journal, was fifteen feet long ; 
 and some have been taken still larger than this. 
 Like all animals of its class, the Australian 
 crocodile is a much more formidable enemy 
 in the water than on shore, but even in the 
 latter position, it is by no means to be despised, 
 for it progresses with tolerable speed, and 
 although it seldom or never attacks a man 
 openly when out of its own proper element, 
 still it is believed to have a strong liking for 
 human flesh, when that delicacy can safely be 
 obtained. One of these creatures paid a visit 
 to a seaman, who was asleep in his hammock 
 on shore after a hard day's labor, and being 
 unable to get conveniently at the man, it 
 managed to drag off and carry away the blanket 
 which covered him ; the sailor at first charged 
 his comrades with having made him the 
 subject of a practical joke, but the foot prints 
 
55 
 
 of the huge reptile, and the discovery of the 
 abstracted blanket in the water, soon shewed 
 him the real character of his nocturnal 
 visitant. 
 
 The flesh of the crocodile is white and 
 delicate, resembling veal. It was a favorite 
 dish among the Port Essington settlers, and 
 among the seamen employed in the surveys of 
 the northern coast and rivers ; and is frequently 
 pursued and killed for food by the aborigines 
 of that part of the country. The plan which 
 they adopt is to hunt it into some blind creek, 
 when the reptile finding itself closely pressed 
 and no water near, usually forces its head and 
 perhaps the upper part of its body into some 
 sandhole, fancying that it has by so doing 
 concealed itself from its pursuers. In this 
 position it is despatched with comparative ease. 
 The crocodile makes a terrible noise by 
 snapping its jaws, particularly when in pain 
 or when it is annoyed by the buzzing about 
 its mouth and eyes of the mosquitoes and 
 other insects, which are found in myriads 
 among the swamps, creeks, and shallow waters, 
 where it abides ; this snapping noise is often 
 a startling sound to explorers encamping near 
 waters frequented by the monster. 
 
 The aboriginal tribes far to the southward 
 of the localities in which the crocodile has 
 its habitation, have an imperfect knowledge 
 of the animal. Stories of its voracity and 
 fierceness have probably been recounted at 
 the friendly meetings of the tribes, and these 
 
56 
 
 stories have in the same manner passed across 
 the continent, changed and magnified with each 
 new-relation, until on reaching the coast 
 tribes of the south, the crocodile became a 
 nondescript animal of most terrible form, 
 frightening the blacks and puzzling the whites 
 under the name of the Bunyip. 
 
 IGUANAS AND LIZARDS. 
 
 The IGUANA, or, as it is more commonly 
 termed in New South AVales, the GOUANA, is 
 very frequently met with. There are several 
 varieties of this reptile, but that which is most 
 common is from four to six feet in length, and 
 from about a foot and a half to two feet across 
 the broadest part of the back, with a rough 
 dark skin, enlivened by yellow spots. This 
 huge lizard is a very formidable looking 
 animal, but it is perfectly harmless as far as the 
 human race are concerned, although a terrible 
 foe to the smaller quadrupeds opossums, ban- 
 dicoots, kangaroo-rats, &c., on which it preys. 
 It is very destructive, also, among hen roosts, 
 and often takes up its quarters in the vicinity 
 of a farm house for the convenience of supping 
 on the hens and their eggs. 
 
 The gouana is much sought for and esteemed 
 by the blacks as an article of food, and is fre- 
 quently presented as a great delicacy to the 
 young gins. By the settlers it is not often 
 eaten, owing to the natural feeling of dislike 
 which is created by its form and habits. Those, 
 
57 
 
 however, who do not entertain these feelings, 
 or are able to overcome them, find the flesh of 
 the creature really excellent. It is not unlike 
 that of a rabbit, to which, in flavor, it is fully 
 equal, and eats best when stewed or curried. 
 
 The gouana usually lives in trees, and on the 
 approach of man it invariably makes off with 
 great alacrity, scrambling rapidly up the 
 nearest trunk, but it is easily brought down 
 by a shot. 
 
 There are an almost innumerable variety of 
 lizards, properly so called, in all parts of the 
 colony, and the whole of the larger kinds are 
 used for food by the blacks, although but 
 very rarely eaten by the settlers. Those who 
 have eaten them, state that their flesh resembles 
 that of a fowl. The DRAGON LIZARD, or as 
 it is sometimes called the FRILLKD LIZARD, is 
 the most remarkable, being provided with a 
 large frill, which it has the power of extending 
 suddenly, and in a rather startling manner, 
 when attacked or alarmed ; it is usually about 
 a foot and a half or two feet long. The JEW 
 LIZARDS are dark coloured with a dewlapped 
 and puffy appearance about the throat and 
 neck, varying in size, but seldom exceeding 
 two feet in length. The SCALY LIZARDS are 
 fierce looking, although harmless reptiles, with 
 a spotted scaly hide, generally about a foot 
 long, and remarkable for having small round 
 club-shaped tails. They are easily domesticated, 
 but as their appearance is far from attractive, 
 they are seldom made pets of. The large 
 H 2 
 
58 
 
 SPINY-BACKED ROCK LIZARD resembles a 
 gouana, the only material points of difference 
 being that it has a heavy dewlap beneath its 
 chin, and a row of spines along the back 
 from the head to the tail. The FLAT-TAILED 
 LIZARD, called by the natives the rock scorpion, 
 is imagined by them to be venomous, 
 although in reality it is perfectly harmless ; it 
 is nocturnal in its habits, and possesses to a 
 peculiar extent the singular power, which is 
 more or less vested in all the lizard family, 
 of leaving its tail in the hands of any one who 
 attempts to capture it by laying hold of that 
 appendage, and of making off apparently 
 scatheless. The SLEEPING LIZARD is in body, 
 as well as in its sluggish habits, exactly like 
 the terrible death adder, from which it is only 
 to be distinguished by its short feet. 
 
 Many of the lizard family are believed by 
 the settlers to be venomous, but such is not 
 the case ; we believe, in fact, that no four footed 
 reptile has yet been discovered which is 
 possessed of venom. 
 
 A remarkable power possessed by the 
 gouana, and perhaps by others of the lizard 
 family, is its power of resisting the poison, 
 ordinarily most destructive to animal life 
 prussic acid. A middling sized gouana took 
 a small bottle of prussic acid, and seemed 
 rather to have been exhilirated by it than 
 otherwise ; it was killed however by a dose of 
 arsenic and spirits of wine. 
 
 The skins of the gouana and of most of the 
 
59 
 
 larger lizards, are very tough and may be 
 usefully applied to all the purposes for which 
 shagreen is used ; belts and pouches are, 
 however, we believe, the only articles which 
 have yet been made of them, and these have 
 usually been manufactured in a very primitive 
 manner, by the bushmen who have killed the 
 reptiles. 
 
 The small nimble-footed lizards which 
 swarm in all parts of the bush, although occa- 
 sionally hunted up and captured by the 
 natives when hard pressed for food, cannot be 
 said to be of any practical use to the settler, 
 except in the continuous and destructive war 
 which they wage against insects. 
 
 TURTLES AND TORTOISES. 
 
 This class of amphibious animals are largely 
 represented both upon the coasts and in the 
 rivers and swamps of the interior. The large 
 GREEN TURTLE the honored food of civic 
 dignitaries in the mother country abounds on 
 the northern and north-eastern coasts. It is 
 seldom found near Sydney, but the dwellers in 
 the metropolis are supplied by the steamer 
 and trading vessels which run to Moreton Bay. 
 Gigantic specimens of this animal, at which a 
 London alderman would gaze with mixed 
 feelings of astonishment and delight, are so 
 frequently seen lying upon the pavement out- 
 side some of our hotels that few passengers 
 bestow upon them more than a passing and 
 H 3 
 
60 
 
 careless glance. The prices of turtle in the 
 Sydney market vary, of course, -with the 
 supply and demand, but in spite of the incon- 
 venience and increased expense of bringing 
 them from a place distant several days' voy- 
 age, and notwithstanding the additional 
 charges for cookery and hotel-keepers' profit, 
 a citizen of Sydney may, for a single shilling, 
 lunch off green turtle, and enjoy " calipash 
 and calipee" superior in flavor and freshness 
 to any which makes its appearance upon a 
 London board. The HAWK'S-BILLED TURTLE, 
 which produces the well-known tortoise-shell 
 of commerce, is also caught upon the northern 
 and north-eastern coasts, but, as yet, it has not 
 been much sought for. 
 
 Of fresh- water turtles, or TORTOISES, there 
 are several varieties. About the Murrum- 
 bidgee and other rivers of the interior they are 
 found of considerable size some from a foot 
 and a half to two feet in length -but they are 
 usually less than half that size. The smaller 
 kinds are frequently taken in the Botany 
 swamps, within a mile or two of the city, espe- 
 cially after heavy rains. 
 
 The whole of these species are esteemed 
 good food by the blacks, but are seldom, if 
 ever, eaten by the settlers. In Russia, how- 
 ever, and in some parts of Germany, the fresh 
 water turtles are fattened for the table, and 
 are esteemed a very great delicacy. Some of 
 these animals, and in particular the larger 
 kinds, have the power of putting forth a very 
 
disagreeable exhalation when first captured, 
 so as to make the carrying of them an unplea- 
 sant task. The shells of all these small tor- 
 toises are, we believe, useless. 
 
 SNAKES. 
 
 Of these reptiles many species are to be met 
 with in all parts of the colony and some of 
 them are but too numerous. The majority of 
 the Australian snakes are more or less veno- 
 mous, but they are, as a family, by no means 
 so dangerous as they are reputed to be. 
 With the exception of the dreaded death adder, 
 the water snakes, which are occasionally met 
 with on the coast and in the rivers of the 
 interior, and a small brown species, there is 
 none of them possessed of venom sufficiently 
 virulent to occasion death if the most ordinary 
 care and promptitude be exercised in the ap- 
 plication of remedies, and the bite of even the 
 most deadly may be readily cured if proper 
 measures are taken on the instant. 
 
 The largest individual of this great family of 
 reptiles which is found in New South Wales 
 is the DIAMOND SNAKE. Although formerly 
 reputed to be a venomous serpent, and still 
 bearing that character among some of the 
 settlers, the diamond snake is perfectly harm- 
 less, destroying its prey by strangulation like 
 the boa-constrictor. It is marked with black 
 and yellow spots in a diamond or lozenge 
 shape, and hence its name. Its ordinary 
 
62 
 
 length, is from eight to ten feet, but, occasion- 
 ally, it is found much larger. There is a very 
 fine specimen in the Sydney Museum, twelve 
 feet in length, which was presented by the late 
 Sir George Gipps ; it was killed in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Cook's River, while in the act of 
 swallowing a full grown opossum, which was 
 subsequently taken from its stomach and is 
 now set up along with the snake in the Museum. 
 
 The CARPET SNAKE greatly resembles the 
 foregoing in size, habits, and general aspect, 
 but its skin is marked with irregular brown and 
 yellow stripes or patches. It has no venom. 
 
 The BLACK SNAKE, which is frequently met 
 with near Sydney, and is common, indeed, 
 throughout the entire country, is the largest 
 of the poisonous snakes. Its bite has some- 
 times occasioned loss of life, but is not neces- 
 sarily mortal, and could only have proved so 
 in consequence of proper remedies not having 
 been applied, or of the extreme terror and 
 nervousness which the conviction of having 
 received a mortal wound has naturally bred in 
 the mind of the person bitten. This snake is 
 of a dull black colour on the back, with 
 a reddish belly, generally about four or 
 five feet long, but occasionally much larger. 
 It is very active in its habits, and although it 
 will always fly from man, it is very bold and 
 vindictive when assailed. To the smaller 
 animals upon which this reptile preys its bite 
 is certain death. 
 
 Of the BROWN SNAKE there are four 
 
63 
 
 varieties, two of which are venomous, and two 
 harmless. The largest of these seldom exceeds 
 four or five feet in length. A brown snake 
 four feet five inches long was brought some 
 time back to the Curator of the Sydney Mu- 
 seum, and on dissecting it a second brown 
 snake of another species, four feet six inches 
 long, was found in its stomach. It is clear, 
 therefore, that these venomous reptiles prey 
 upon each other, and but for this circumstance 
 they would probably be still more numerous 
 than they are. 
 
 The WHIP SNAKE is long and slender, de- 
 riving its name from its supposed resemblance 
 to the lash of a whip. It is of a greenish tint. 
 Its habits are active, and, as it flies from man, 
 it seldom does much injury, although its bite 
 is poisonous. 
 
 Of WATER SNAKES there are several varieties, 
 and they are all exceedingly venomous, but they 
 are happily not very numerous, and we have 
 never heard any well authenticated instance 
 of a person being bitten by an Australian 
 water snake. Ordinarily they are small, but 
 some of them, especially those which inhabit 
 the ocean, are of a large size. One of them, 
 which was discovered by Captain Stokes, and 
 which has been well and truly described as 
 the giant of this class, had a body as thick as 
 a man's thigh. Most of the ordinary snakes, 
 and particularly the black kind, are occasion- 
 ally seen in the water, where they swim with 
 great ease and speed, and are frequently taken 
 
64 
 
 for water snakes. The true water snakes, 
 however, may be easily distinguished from all 
 others by their possessing a flattened tail, 
 similar to that of an eel. 
 
 The RING SNARE is small, marked by 
 alternate circles of black and white, and is 
 nocturnal in its habits. The GREEN SNAKE 
 and the BLUISH-GREY SNAKE are also of 
 small size. There are other small varieties 
 of the snake family which it is unnecessary to 
 describe in detail, some venomous and some 
 harmless, but none deadly. The SAND SNAKE, I 
 which is more commonly known as the slow \ 
 worm, is frequently met with near Sydney, 
 and, although perfectly harmless, has acquired 
 the reputation of being peculiarly venomous. 
 When alarmed this snake has the power of 
 contracting and stiffening itself in an extraor- 
 dinary manner. When in this state it is sin- 
 gularly brittle, and by a very slight blow may 
 be broken up like a piece of glass or china ; it 
 often loses its tail by accidents which occur to 
 it while in its contracted state, but it is speedily 
 furnished with a new one. There is one of 
 this species, with two tails, in the Sydney 
 Museum. 
 
 We now come to the DEATH ADDER. This 
 is a truly venomous reptile, well worthy of the 
 terrible and expressive name by which it is 
 now known, although originally and properly 
 called the Deaf Adder from the sluggishness 
 of its habits, occasioned, as is popularly be- 
 lieved, by its inability to hear the sound of 
 
65 
 
 approaching footsteps. It is most disgusting 
 and repulsive in its aspect, and is at once re- 
 cognised most easily even by those who have 
 never before seen it. It is seldom more than 
 two feet and a half in length, but is of more 
 than ordinary thickness, and does not taper 
 gradually towards the extremities like other 
 snakes. It has, however, a little hardened 
 and sting-like tail, with which it is generally 
 supposed to have the power of inflicting a 
 wound as deadly as its bite. This, however, 
 is a mere error. The tail, at least, is harmless ; 
 although it assists the snake in springing at an 
 assailant. This reptile is of a dusky brown 
 colour, with numerous grey spots, and its 
 general appearance is not much unlike 
 that of a dried branch, for which it may 
 at a casual glance be easily mistaken as 
 it lies stretched motionless on the 
 earth. The death adder never moves aside to 
 avoid the approaching pedestrian, but, on the 
 other hand, it is never the assailant. Unless 
 it is fairly trod upon or struck at, it sdeadly 
 fangs are never called into requisition. It is 
 consequently easily avoided, and as easily 
 destroyed. The only risk is that of treading 
 upon it accidentally, or of striking at and 
 missing it. Its poison is very deadly in its 
 operation, and diffuses itself so rapidly 
 throughout the system, that the life of any 
 person who has been bitten by it can only be 
 preserved by immediate and decisive appli- 
 cations of a remedial nature. 
 
66 
 
 One species of brown snake is believed to 
 be almost as destructive as the death adder, 
 but it is from the bite of the latter reptile that 
 most casualties of this nature have taken place. 
 Death, however, has ensued not only from the 
 bite of snakes whose venom is not so virulent 
 as necessarily to prove fatal when infused into 
 the system, but even from the bite of snakes 
 which are now known to have no venom 
 whatever. This result can only be accounted 
 for by ascribing it to the powerful operation of 
 the mind upon the body. The bite of a snake, 
 particularly if it be a large one, will, like that 
 of most other animals, cause some inflamma- 
 tion and pain. This of itself alarms the per- 
 son who has been bitten, but when, the terrors 
 of approaching death are added, the mind and 
 nerves become so fearfully excited that these 
 fears bring about their own fulfilment. We 
 have heard of persons suffering an agony of 
 terror, and exhibiting many of the symptoms 
 of a snake bite, when in reality they have only 
 been stung by some of the small prickly plants 
 which are found in the bush, or nipped by a 
 large ant ; the true and only canse of their 
 pain and annoyance being their belief that it 
 was in reality the teeth of a venomous snake 
 which they had felt. 
 
 Any snake by which a person has been 
 bitten is usually killed. In this case, it 
 is very easy to discover whether it is 
 venomous or harmless by examining its 
 mouth. The venomous kinds are invariably 
 
67 
 
 furnished with additional teeth, sharp, long, 
 and tubular, which are termed the poison 
 fangs. These teeth are connected at their 
 roots with a gland by which the poison is 
 secreted, and from whence it is instilled into 
 the wound through the hollow of the fang. 
 As a general rule, the virulence of a snake's 
 poison is diminished, in proportion to the 
 activity of the reptile's habits The snakes 
 which have no venom are stronger in the jaws, 
 and better furnished with teeth than those 
 which are provided with this means of offence. 
 Hence the bite of a harmless snake is to a 
 person unacquainted with its nature, far more 
 startling than the scarcely perceptible wound 
 which has infused into the system a deadly 
 animal poison ; any one who has been bitten, 
 should therefore satisfy himself that there is 
 real danger before he allows his fears to get 
 the better of his reason and confidence. 
 Where there is any doubt, however, it is 
 always safest and best to adopt precautionary 
 measures. 
 
 The bite from a venomous Australian ser- 
 pent does not ordinarily, like that of the 
 rattlesnake and some other poisonous serpents, 
 cause any immediate change in the appearance 
 of the skin around the wound, nor does it pro- 
 duce much bodily pain. The poison operates 
 by dispersing itself rapidly through the nervous 
 system, and causes the person bitten to fall 
 into a state of stupor, impairing greatly his 
 powers of vision, of smell, and of taste, 
 i 
 
68 
 
 although, usually without affecting his con- 
 sciousness. 
 
 When a person has been bitten by a poison- 
 ous snake, a handkerchief or some other liga- 
 ture should be tied round the limb immediately 
 above the wound, so tightly as to stop, as far 
 as possible, the circulation of the blood. An 
 incision should then be made on either side of 
 the punctures from the fangs of the snake 
 to a depth a little below that to which these 
 fangs have penetrated, and the intervening 
 flesh cut fairly out. To do this requires some 
 nerve, but a man has only to bear in mind that 
 this course is absolutely necessary for the pre- 
 servation of his life, and he will cut boldly 
 enough. The blood should be allowed to flow 
 freely from the gash thus made, and if there 
 is any one at hand to suck the wound, this pre- 
 caution should be taken. This may be done 
 without the slightest fear, for the poison of a 
 snake is only dangerous when infused into the 
 veins through a wound. It is better, indeed, 
 that any person who thus extracts the venom 
 from a snake bite should wash his mouth out 
 occasionally with salad oil if at hand, but this 
 is by no means absolutely necessary. The 
 aborigines readily suck out the poison infused 
 by a snake bite without any such precaution as 
 this, and without sustaining any inconvenience- 
 If any nitric acid can be procured, and about 
 half a dozen drops of it applied to the wound 
 it will materially aid the cure. The wound, 
 having been thus enlarged and purged, a poul- 
 
69 
 
 tice of ipecacuanha, if procurable, should be 
 applied without loss of time, but if this is not 
 at hand a poultice of linseed meal or bread and 
 milk may be substituted. In either case it will 
 be well to accompany the external applications 
 with strong internal medicines of a purgative 
 and cleansing nature. 
 
 The plan which has been successfully 
 adopted in India for curing the bite of the 
 water snakes, has been to enlarge the wound 
 with a lancet, and to bind in it, with a ligature, 
 a small piece of carbonate of ammonia, well 
 moistened with pure nitric acid, administering 
 internally, at the same instant, thirty drops of 
 eau-de-luce in a glass of water, arid repeating 
 the latter dose at intervals of a few 
 minutes, until it produces a violent nausea and 
 profuse perspiration. The following is said 
 to have been found an effectual remedy 
 for the bite of the American rattlesnake, and 
 and might perhaps be used with advantage 
 in Australia. Take equal quantities of the 
 herbs plantain and horehound, gathered when 
 fresh and verdant, and pound them, roots and 
 all, in a mortar, so as to extract their juices. 
 Of the liquor thus obtained, give to the 
 patient a table-spoonfull, applying at the 
 same time some tobacco, moistened with 
 strong spirits, to the wound. If relief is not 
 obtained in the course of an hour, a second dose 
 of the vegetable juices is given. Both the 
 plants alluded to are plentiful enough here. 
 
 In all cases of this nature, however, the 
 
70 
 
 wisest and safest course is to call in with all 
 possible speed the aid of a competent medical 
 practitioner, but the operation of the poison 
 infused from the fangs of the venomous snakes 
 is so rapid, that it is absolutely necessary to 
 apply in the mean time the best remedies at 
 hand. 
 
 Snakes are eaten by the aborigines, and 
 white men who when very hard pressed have 
 partaken of them, describe the flesh as being 
 very delicate, like that of fowl. Belts are some- 
 times made from the skins of these reptiles, 
 as a trophy, by those who have destroyed 
 them. 
 
 VENOMOUS INSECTS. 
 
 The powers and malignity of the venomous 
 insects have been still more greatly 
 magnified than those of the snakes. The 
 centipede, the scorpion, and the tarantula, 
 are too well known to need description ; but 
 although all of them are frequently met with 
 people are but rarely injured by them. The 
 centipede is decidedly the worst of the three, 
 and although its bite is seldom or never fatal, 
 still, if neglected, it will usually produce violent 
 inflammation, if not worse results. Fingers 
 and toes have frequently been lost by neglect- 
 ing wounds of this nature. The application of 
 ammonia to the wounded part, with purgative 
 medicines taken internally, will usually allay 
 the pain and prevent all permanent injury. If 
 
no ammonia is at hand, any strong drawing 
 poultice may be applied. 
 
 The large ants bite very severely, but beyond 
 the sharp pang of the instant they inflict no 
 injury. 
 
 INSECTS GENERALLY. 
 
 For the researches of the entymologist, New 
 South Wales affords an almost boundless field. 
 But beautifully and singularly formed as are 
 many of these little creatures, they do not as a 
 class come properly within the scope of our 
 work ; for we do not profess to give, even in 
 outline, a natural history of the colony. Our 
 object, as was stated at the outset, is simply 
 to impart such information as will prove 
 practically useful to the ordinary settler. 
 
 Two insects a kind of butterfly and a thick 
 white grub, found chiefly in dead timber, are 
 much esteemed by the aborigines as articles of 
 food. The former is eaten at certain seasons 
 by whole tribes of natives in the northern 
 districts. Their 'practice is to follow up the 
 flight of the insects and to light fires at night- 
 fall beneath the trees in which they have 
 roosted. The smoke brings the butterflies 
 down, and their bodies are pounded together 
 into a sort of fleshy loaf. Upon this delicacy 
 the natives not only feed but fatten. The 
 white grub is swallowed whole in his living 
 state, and is much sought for by sable epicures. 
 It is scarcely necessary to say that neither of 
 
72 
 
 these dainties have found favour with the 
 white settlers. 
 
 There is a wild bee in all parts of the con- 
 tinent, but these insects are met only in small 
 communities, and their honey, when found, 
 seldom repays the seeker for the trouble and 
 labour of his search, owing to the smallness of 
 the quancity in each nest. Although this 
 honey is sought for by the blacks, the settlers 
 do not indulge in bee hunting. The honey of 
 the Australian wild bee bears a peculiar flavor, 
 imparted chiefly by the flowers of the euca- 
 lypti. The European bee, however, is now 
 very common in a wild state, and the honey is 
 of a superior kind. 
 
 Among the Australian beetles there are some 
 whose wings, shining with the richest metallic 
 lustre, would be of considerable value in 
 Europe for dress ornaments ; but they have 
 not hitherto been sought or used for any such 
 purpose. 
 
 FISH. 
 
 Of river fish there are but few varieties, but 
 this deficiency is amply compensated for by the 
 numbers and varieties of the finny tribes in the 
 salt water streams in the harbours and in the 
 neighbouring ocean. 
 
 Alarge fish, termed a COD, and resembling the 
 " genuine American," although of a different 
 species, is found in the western waters the 
 Murray, the Murrumbidgee, &c. PERCHES, 
 
73 
 
 similar to those of the European rivers, are 
 also common to those of Australia. There are 
 several other kinds, chiefly small. EELS, how- 
 ever, grow to a considerable size, and are of a 
 peculiarly fine flavor, the very heaviest of them 
 being as delicate as the smallest. 
 
 The rapid fall of the waters in the Austra- 
 lian rivers during the summer season, and the 
 frequent drying up of their beds, are natural 
 and obvious impediments to the breeding of 
 fish in these waters. But even for this diffi- 
 culty nature has, to a certain extent, provided. 
 Fish a few inches long, similar in fact to the 
 well-known "gudgeon" of the English streams, 
 have been fou' d in a torpid state embedded in 
 the soil of the dried creeks two or three feet be- 
 low the surface, and these, when placed in 
 their native element, have at once started into 
 life and activity in the same manner as if they 
 had been taken from a full and flowing 
 stream. 
 
 In the harbours, in the mouths of the 
 larger streams, and in the adjacent ocean, 
 SHARKS of various kinds are very numerous. 
 Several frightful accidents have occurred in 
 consequence of the recklessness with which 
 bathers resort to the waters where these mon- 
 sters are known to prowl, and considering the 
 extent of this practice it is surprising that many 
 more of these accidents have not occurred. 
 This is chiefly owing to the fact that the large 
 and more dangerous kinds of shark are found 
 almost exclusively in the deeper waters, while 
 
74 
 
 the bathers resort to the small and compara- 
 tively shallow bays. Sharks are frequently 
 caught when trying, with a large hook, for 
 other fish ; and as two of a trade can never 
 agree, so there is a natural antipathy between 
 the shark and the fisherman, which causes the 
 latter to seek eagerly the destruction of the 
 former. Sharks are even, at times, fished for 
 with strong tackle, in order that they may be 
 destroyed. This, however, is a somewhat 
 difficult matter when a large shark is hooked, 
 but practised fishermen usually carry an axe 
 or tomahawk for contingencies such as these. 
 In the absence of any such weapon the shark is 
 beaten with the oars and stretchers, or pierced 
 with the boat-hook. He frequently manages 
 however, to break through everything and 
 escape. Residents on or near the coast pro- 
 cure a good serviceable oil for their lamps from 
 the fat and liver of the shark, but this oil has a 
 most abominable smell. The shark is never 
 eaten. Fish of the finest flavor are so abun- 
 dant that all Australians are complete epicures 
 with regard to this species of diet, and besides 
 the shark, which although eaten readily at sea, 
 is coarse and strong in flavor, many kinds really 
 well fitted for the table are rejected. 
 
 The SCHNAPPER, a thick hunch-backed fish, 
 usually about a foot and a-half or two feet long, 
 is the one most commonly sought for, and this 
 for two reasons, first, because its flesh is white, 
 firm, and of superior flavor ; and secondly, 
 because being a bold and ready feeder, and 
 
75 
 
 plentifully met with on the coast neax Sydney, 
 its capture is found more profitable to the 
 fishermen than the capture of smaller prey. 
 Schnappers are seldom taken far up the har- 
 bour, but may be procured in large numbers 
 near the Sydney heads and at the reefs outside 
 the entrance. Professional fishermen, and 
 those with whom fishing has been so much 
 practised in the shape of an amusement as to 
 become almost a profession, are acquainted with 
 particular spots where these fish congregate in 
 larger numbers than usual. 
 
 The KINO FISH and the JEW FISH are also 
 large, resembling the European salmon in size 
 and outward appearance, although not in the 
 color or flavor of their flesh, which is not 
 generally esteemed so much as that of the 
 schnapper. A true COD FISH, closely allied to 
 that caught on the banks of Newfoundland, has 
 recently been discovered, but has not yet 
 found its way into the colonial markets. 
 
 There are an innumerable variety of smaller 
 fish in the harbour of Port Jackson, and, con- 
 sequently, in the bays and estuaries along the 
 coast, to say nothing of those which people 
 the ocean. MULLET, WHITING, MACKAREL, 
 BREAM, SOLES, and GUARD FISH, similar to 
 those known by the same names in Europe, 
 may be especially mentioned, but there are 
 very many others peculiar for the most part to 
 our own waters, and all, or nearly all of them 
 well flavored. Of ROCK FISH also, there are 
 many varieties, those of the ROCK COD 
 K 2 
 
76 
 
 black and red being the principal. These are 
 singularly ominous looking fish, having huge 
 heads covered over with spines. They take 
 a bait readily, and are well worth the trouble 
 of their capture, for their flesh is firm, white, 
 and of a peculiarly fine flavour. Large brown 
 snake-like EELS are also caught among the 
 rocks, which, although somewhat startling in 
 their aspect to those who capture them for the 
 first time, are of excellent flavour, and are 
 highly esteemed by the Australian epicures. 
 
 The sea CRAY FISH, usually called the 
 lobster by the colonists, are occasionally found 
 of an enormous size and weight on various 
 parts of the coast, and more particularly at 
 Broken Bay (the mouth of the Hawkesbury), 
 from whence the Sydney market is supplied. 
 From four to six pounds, however, is the most 
 common size, and when the weight exceeds 
 this the flesh is inferior. A small variety, 
 found in the fresh water rivers, and really 
 known, by a singular contradiction, as the 
 cray-fish, is in reality more of a lobster, 
 having the large claws which in the sea cray is 
 wanting. CRABS of large size and fine flavor 
 are plentiful on the north-eastern coast, and 
 are occasionally brought to the capital by the 
 Moreton Bay packets. Smaller kinds are very 
 plentiful on the shores of Port Jackson. 
 PRAWNS, some of large size, and all of superior 
 flavor, are plentiful in various localities, and 
 particularly in the River Hunter, from whence 
 they are sent to Sydney. 
 
77 
 
 Of OYSTERS there are three kinds the rock 
 oyster, the mud oyster, and the pearl oyster. 
 The latter are found to the northward, although 
 as yet but little sought after or cared for. The 
 two former kinds are plentiful everywhere. 
 The mud oysters are of large size, but it is the 
 rock oyster which is most esteemed by the 
 colonists. There is scarcely a stone which 
 is washed by the salt water that is not 
 covered with them, and the supply may be 
 said to be inexhaustible. COCKLES, similar in 
 appearance and equal in flavor to those of 
 England, although of a different species, are 
 to be found in abundance on every earthen fiat 
 over which the salt water- rises. PEKRI- 
 WINKLES, large and small, and other spiral 
 shelled varieties, fully as delicate and as 
 usefxil for the table as the English "welk," 
 are equally plentiful, although compara- 
 tively but little sought for. MUSCLES 
 are but seldom used for food, except by 
 the natives, although they are of good flavor 
 when partially boiled, after the English fashion. 
 There is a muscle common to the fresh water 
 rivers, which is much sought after and 
 esteemed as food by the aborigines. 
 
 The fisherman's craft, as practised in the 
 Australian waters, is simple enough, but an 
 European professor of the " gentle art" has 
 something to learn, or rather, perhaps, to 
 unlearn, before he can be considered proficient. 
 
 Angling, as practised in England, is almost 
 unknown here. The number and variety of 
 it 3 
 
78 
 
 large fish which may with ease be captured 
 from a boat, causes the Sydney fishermen to 
 look with contempt upon the smaller kinds 
 which may be taken near the shore with a rod 
 and line. 
 
 In the rivers, however, this sort of fishing 
 may be resorted to with far greater advantage 
 than the clumsy hand line system which is 
 usually practised ; and even upon the coast 
 the angler may, with proper tackle, be certain 
 of very excellent sport. Rod fishing, neverthe- 
 less, is practised almost exclusively by boys, 
 and that with the most rude description of 
 tackle. A short and half-crooked branch, torn 
 from the nearest gum-tree, a coarse cotton 
 twist line, with a thick wine cork for a float, 
 and a clumsy hook, still more clumsily fas- 
 tened, is the general equipment of a juvenile 
 angler ; but even with such implements as 
 these, such a number and variety of fish will 
 often in an hour or two be captured, as an 
 English sportsman would gaze at with great 
 satisfaction, even as the result of a day's fish- 
 ing with the superior skill and the costly 
 apparatus which he has at his command. We 
 have seen a boy, thus equipped, capture " yel- 
 low-tail" as fast as he could throw his line. 
 This yellow- tail is a very handsome fish about 
 six inches long, chiefly sought for as bait, but 
 making a capital fry in the absence of larger 
 prey. Many other varieties of fish may be 
 captured with a rod and line, among which are 
 mullet, whiting, bream, rock-cod, sweeps (a 
 
79 
 
 flattish black fish, of excellent flavor,) trum- 
 peters) a small striped fish, also well worth 
 the trouble of frying) ; and, in short, smaller 
 individuals of nearly all the kinds caught in 
 the deeper waters. 
 
 We hold, then, that a rod of somewhat better 
 description than the rude wands before men- 
 tioned, and a small assortment of tackle to be 
 used with it, are essential parts of a sports- 
 man's equipment here as well as in England. 
 But this tackle may be of the cheapest descrip- 
 tion strength only is necessary. The fish of 
 Port Jackson are bold biters, and are not to be 
 deterred by the use of even the coarsest tackle. 
 A common hazel rod, with three or four joints, 
 which may generally be procured for a few 
 shillings; two lines of silk twist, (that is, a 
 hand line of this material cut in two), which 
 will cost eight-pence, two cork floats, which 
 will, together, cost eight-pence or a shilling 
 more, and about six pennyworth of hooks and 
 gut will siiffi.ce for this branch of the fisher- 
 man's stock-in-trade. A good assortment of 
 hooks, however, an extra line or two, and a 
 fair supply of gut, will be found advantageous. 
 
 The places to which the angler may resort 
 with the greatest chance of success are the 
 wharfs where the larger ships lie, and the 
 deep waters where the shores are of a rocky 
 character. "Warm sunny days, when there is 
 but little wind, are the best ; and the fish bite 
 more readily in the mornings and evenings 
 than at mid-day. 
 
80 
 
 The common error into which, the Sydney 
 angler usually falls is in using hooks of too 
 large a size. A small hook, if it is a good one, 
 will suffice in the hands of a quick angler for 
 the capture of a good-sized fish ; while at the 
 the same time it brings up many of the lesser 
 kinds, which, if a large hook is used, will feed 
 away at the bait with perfect impunity. Many 
 of these bite so miiicingly that a hook like that 
 used for gudgeon and minnow in England 
 No. 13, we believe will be found the most 
 useful ; with such a hook, a well-balanced 
 float, and a tolerably quick eye and hand, few 
 fish that approach the bait will escape cap- 
 ture. 
 
 The hand line, as we have already said, is 
 the most common resource of Sydney fisher- 
 men, not only in boat fishing, but in fishing 
 from the shore. In the latter case it is usually 
 cast as far out as practicable into deep water, 
 and a heavy leaden sinker is necessary 
 not only for the purpose of bringing down the 
 line itself, but in order to aid the operation of 
 throwing it out. Larger fish are usually taken 
 in this way than would be captured by rod 
 fishing, but a true lover of the angle will 
 always prefer the latter mode, and, with a 
 skilful hand, it is far the most productive upon 
 the whole. 
 
 But it is by fishing from a boat that the 
 largest amount of sport may be ensured, and 
 hence this kind of fishing is the only one which 
 is ordinarily much cared for. The lines com- 
 
81 
 
 monly used are those known in Sydney as 
 bream lines and schnapper lines about thirty 
 fathoms long. A bream line may be pro- 
 cured at any of the ironmongers for a shil- 
 ling, and a schnapper line for half-a-crown. 
 Hooks are equally cheap. In this kind of 
 fishing, as well as in fishing with a rod, it is 
 inadvisable to use large sized hooks, but ex- 
 perience is, upon this point, as upon most 
 others, the safest and best guidt. It is unne- 
 cessary to use gut, except when fishing for 
 black bream, and as these are powerful fish it 
 is best that the gut should either be very 
 strong, or that a plait of two or three pieces 
 should be resorted to. It is generally advisa- 
 ble to use two or three hooks of various sizes, 
 the largest on the bottom, and the others at 
 short distances above. 
 
 A piece of fish is the best bait for most of the 
 kinds, but rock cod, bream, and many other 
 varieties, will seize as readily upon a piece of 
 fresh beef. The flesh of the yeUow tail is 
 esteemed the most attractive and killing bait, 
 but we do not believe that there is much 
 squeamishness upon this point among the 
 dwellers in the waters. Muscles are an excel- 
 lent bait for black bream, and for the perch of 
 the rivers there is nothing better than the com- 
 mon earth worm. 
 
 Night lines are laid with great success in the 
 rivers and lagoons. Cray-fish are captured in 
 baskets, and in shallow places the seine may 
 be always hauled with the certainty of pro- 
 
82 
 
 curing a plentiful supply. A net of a peculiar 
 construction, for deep waters, was used here by 
 the crew of the Ferrolana, a Spanish vessel of 
 war, with astonishing success, and was the 
 means of bringing to the light several varieties 
 of fish never before known to inhabit these 
 waters. A model of this net has been taken, 
 with a view to the manufacture of others of 
 the same kind. 
 
 All the sea fish, and particularly the mullet, 
 are excellent when salted and smoked, but this 
 system of curing them has been but little re- 
 sorted to. A Mr. Wilson had an establish- 
 ment, some time since, for the sale of fish 
 generally, in which the preparation and sale of 
 cured fish was a prominent feature; but we 
 regret to say that he did not meet with suffi- 
 cient encouragement to continue his enterprise. 
 The fact is, that the people of Sydney can buy 
 fish so readily and so cheaply at their own 
 doors from the men who hawk them about in 
 wheelbarrows, that they will not, as yet, pa- 
 tronise a regular fishmonger's establishment to 
 such an extent as to remunerate the proprietor 
 for his outlay. A wide field for employment, 
 however, lies untouched in this direction, 
 whenever the pressure of circumstances and 
 the wants of an increased population shall 
 create a sufficient demand for food of the 
 description alluded to. 
 
 By dwellers on or near the coast fish of all 
 kinds are so readily procured as to be but little 
 esteemed, and they are often greatly wasted. 
 
83 
 
 Such persons, however, would do well to salt 
 and cure their surplus fish. The process is a 
 very simple one : gut and bone the fish, soak 
 it for a short time in pickle, and smoke it 
 either by the ordinary wood fire of the house, 
 or in a small and close smoking hut of bark 
 which may be put up for tho purpose. 
 
 Sound practical knowledge in the fisher- 
 man's craft can only be acquired by experi- 
 rience, or by the example and instructions of 
 those who have acquired this experience ; but 
 the finny prey are here so abundant and are 
 such ready feeders that no great skill is neces- 
 sary in order to ensnare them, and those who 
 attach themselves particularly to this branch 
 of sport will readily afford to a new beginner 
 the necessary information. 
 
 The smaller fish eat best fried or stewed, but 
 the larger kinds are finest when baked. A 
 rock cod of seven or eight pounds' weight, 
 stuffed with green herbs, &c., well seasoned, 
 well buttered, and served up with a sauce in 
 which some good claret has been mixed to 
 impart a flavor, furnishes a dish off which 
 "the gods might dine." On fishing excur- 
 sions, where a frying pan or a grid- 
 iron is not at hand, the best mode of 
 cooking fish is that practised by savages 
 running a stick through the whole length of 
 the body, and fixing this in the ground near 
 the fire, turning it until the fish is done. Fish 
 fresh taken and cooked in this way are 
 delicious. 
 
84 
 
 Leeches are so plentiful in the swamps and 
 water holes, and even in damp brush lands, as to 
 be a pest. They may be captured readily by 
 casting into the water the skin of a sheep or 
 other animal recently killed, to the inner side 
 of which they will attach themselves. 
 
 INDIGENOUS TIMBER. 
 
 No country on earth is better supplied with 
 timber than Australia. Immense forests of 
 stately eucalypti, and even in some districts of 
 the more valuable cedar, are utterly worthless 
 under present circumstances for want of a 
 practicable route, either by land or water, to 
 the market ; or, at least, of such facilities of 
 transport as might be taken advantage of with- 
 out swallowing up the profits of the timber 
 merchant. 
 
 There are few woods, however, that are of 
 value for mere ornamental purposes, and the 
 CEDAR (Cedrela Australia} is the only one of 
 these worthy of particular mention ; this how- 
 ever is a truly valuable timber. There are few 
 varieties which have a more beautiful grain, or 
 which, from their texture, are so well fitted for 
 the purposes of the cabinet maker. The large 
 size of the tree renders it equally valuable for 
 building purposes, although the hard woods 
 are more generally used. The cedar is found 
 
85 
 
 only in New South. Wales in the vicinity 
 of the coast ; on the banks of rivers and creeks, 
 in gullies, and in the ravines of the coast 
 ranges. The cedar forests accessible by water 
 carriage have been so much, thinned that the 
 price has greatly increased of late years, and it 
 has become a matter of dispute among the 
 practical botanists of this colony as to whether 
 the time has not arrived when cedar must be 
 planted, and that extensively, in order to pre- 
 vent a total failure of the supply at no very- 
 distant period. 
 
 Of the GUM (Eucalyptus) there are very 
 many varieties, and some of them are ex- 
 ceedingly valuable for house and ship building. 
 The Iron Bark, a dark, heavy, and hard 
 wood, is the most durable of all the colonial 
 timber ; in fact its durability is such, that the 
 age of the colony has not permitted it to be 
 as yet fairly tested. It is consequently much 
 in demand, but owing to the difficulty of 
 working it, it is dearer than the ordinary 
 woods. It is exported to China and to Europe, 
 for girders, being peculiarly fitted for this pur- 
 pose. The aborigines prefer it to all other 
 woods for their weapons, owing to its great 
 weight and hardness. The blue and flooded 
 gums are the woods chiefly used for ship and 
 boat building. Black Butt, which grows to a 
 great height and with remarkable straightness, 
 is well adapted for masts, and is also greatly 
 in demand for joists, rafters, flooring boards, 
 &c. Stringy Bark is an equally valuable 
 
86 
 
 and useful timber. The bark of this variety 
 being easily stripped from the tree, is much 
 used for the roofs and even for the walls of the 
 shepherds' huts. Many trees, in fact, are 
 destroyed by stripping off circles of bark for 
 this purpose. There are many other trees of 
 the gum family, all more or less used for 
 building or for fencing. 
 
 The PINES, although some of them are of 
 surpassing beauty, are not peculiarly valuable 
 as timber trees. The Moreton Bay pine is 
 sometimes used for spars, but it is not well 
 adapted for this purpose, being much too brittle. 
 It is light however, and easily wrought, and is 
 consequently preferred for packing cases, and 
 other light works of a similar nature. Excel- 
 lent canoes are made by the aborigines from its 
 bark. It is very plentiful on and near the 
 north-east coast, but has not been found to the 
 southward of the Clarence River. The Bunya 
 Bunya is a fine handsome tree, the tallest in 
 fact in New Holland, found only in the vicinity 
 of Moreton Bay. Its name signifies in the 
 native dialect, a very large tree ; twice tree, or 
 tree-tree. Its timber is believed to be good, 
 but as its seed forms at certain seasons the 
 chief food of the aborigines, a sort of embargo 
 has been placed upon it by the Colonial 
 Government. 
 
 Various species of the Casuarina, which is 
 here termed the OAK, although very different 
 in its aspect from the monarch of the English 
 forest, are found throughout the colony. It is 
 
87 
 
 a tough grained and reddish colored wood, 
 and is much used for shingles, sheep hurdles, 
 staves, &c. A tree of a different species to 
 these, but known as the SILVER OAK, (Grevillea 
 robusta) is very valuable to coopers as furn- 
 ishing the finest stave timber. It is found 
 only to the northward of the Hunter. 
 
 The AUSTRALIAN BEECH (Monotoca elliptica) 
 yields a hard wood which is used for mallets 
 and other tools, in fact for all the purposes to 
 which the wood of the English beech is applied. 
 It is found near the coast in all parts of this 
 colony. The MANGROVE, which is found in the 
 immediate vicinity of the salt water, yields a 
 tough wood, which makes excellent blocks, and 
 is used by shipwrights for that purpose. Its 
 crooked limbs are also found exceedingly 
 useful for boats' knees. The ashes of the 
 mangrove were formerly much used in the 
 manufacture of soap, but they have been super- 
 seded by soda. 
 
 To the timber trade in its various branches 
 we shall have occasion to refer in a subsequent 
 part of our work. 
 
 NATIVE FRUITS. 
 
 The wild fruits are neither very numerous 
 nor very rich. The seed of the BUNYA BUNYA 
 pine, already mentioned, merits the first place, 
 owing to its great usefulness to the aborigines 
 as a staple article of food. The cones of this 
 tree are large, and the seed resembles a nut in 
 
88 
 
 character and taste. The NATIVE CURRANT, a 
 small green berry growing thickly upon a low 
 sized shrub, very commonly met with in the 
 neighbourhood of Sydney, has an agreeable 
 acid taste, and is much used by the colonists to 
 make jams and jellies of. The latter are deli- 
 cious : made thick, cut in squares, and used 
 with cream, native current jelly is no bad sub- 
 stitute for strawberries . It is probable that this 
 plant might be much improved by cultivation. 
 The NATIVE RASPBERRY resembles the com- 
 mon raspberry of Europe, but is very inferior to 
 it in flavour. The CAPE GOOSEBERRY differs in 
 appearance only from the common gooseberry 
 by having a sheath round the fruit. Both are 
 common. The QUONDONG, found to the west- 
 ward of our cordillera, is a fruit about the size 
 of a peach, which is used by the settlers for 
 puddings and pies, and sometimes, although 
 rarely, raw. It is eaten by the emu, and the 
 stones, which are about the size of a marble, are 
 collected by the natives after they have been 
 voided by that bird, in order that they may be 
 used for tobacco. They are prepared for the 
 pipe by pounding. The cone of the ENAM or 
 SCREW PINE, which resembles a pine-apple, 
 is greedily eaten by the natives after having 
 undergone a slight fermentation. It has a 
 sweet flavor, resembling that of honey, but is 
 very fibrous, and sticks most unpleasantly to 
 the teeth. The ILLAWARRA PLUM (one of the 
 Podocarpi) is a large and well flavored fruit, 
 resembling the plums of Europe. The Aus- 
 
89 
 
 TRALIAN TAMARIND is a tall tree, growing in 
 nearly all the scrubs and jungles near the 
 coast, and bearing a fruit resembling in ap- 
 pearance and taste the tamarind of the West 
 Indies. Some of the larger species of a plant 
 called by the colonists PIG-FACE (Mesembry- 
 anthemum,) bear a fruit not unlike a fig. 
 These plants are exceedingly plentiful in 
 barren grounds near the coast, and besides 
 yielding the fruit just alluded to, they are 
 valuable for two other purposes : they bear 
 an elegant flower, and their stems and leaves 
 are excellent for pickling. 
 
 The MORETON BAY CHESNUT, a very beau- 
 tiful and stately tree, bears a fruit which, 
 although almost poisonous to an European, 
 is eaten by the blacks without injury, after 
 they have by pounding and by careful pre- 
 paration deprived it of its acrid and unwhole- 
 some juice. The seed of the common AUS- 
 TRALIAN PALM, (Zamia Spiralis) which grows 
 in a large green cone resembling a pine apple, 
 is also prepared and eaten in a similar manner. 
 
 There are several berries eaten both by the 
 natives and the children of the settlers, gee- 
 bungs, five-corners, lillia-pillias, &c. ; none of 
 these, however, are of any value either for 
 flavour or as affording nutricious food. 
 
 INDIGENOUS TREES, &C., GENERALLY. 
 
 The CABBAGE TREE (Corypha), although it fre- 
 quently attains a great height, yields no timber 
 
90 
 
 suitable for ordinary building purposes. For 
 the erection of such, primitive structures as are 
 found sufficient for most purposes in the bush, 
 it is, however, very useful. The trunk splits 
 with great ease, and yields slabs with a surface 
 much smoother than the more heavy and 
 enduring timber of the Eucalypti. The cabbage 
 tree slabs, however, do not last very long, 
 and in order to preserve them more effectually, 
 it is necessary that their lower extremities 
 should be raised clear of the earth, either by 
 means of a stone foundation or of wooden 
 sleepers. The common name of the tree has 
 been derived from its yielding an edible sub- 
 stance, similar in flavor to a cabbage. This 
 substance is the imperfectly formed central 
 bud, and in order to procure it the destruction 
 of the whole tree is necessary. To obtain 
 this " cabbage," and to procure materials for 
 making hats, an immense number of these 
 beautiful and stately palms are destroyed 
 annually. The part used for hat making is 
 the young central leaves. These undergo a 
 process of steeping and bleaching, after which 
 they are twisted, or rather plaited, into what 
 is termed "sennet", and then made up into low- 
 crowned broad- brimmed hats, shaped and 
 finished according to the taste and skill of the 
 manufacturer. This branch of industry is not 
 practised as a trade, but is followed by hut- 
 keepers and other bushmen, who having some 
 leisure time on their hands, resort to this ex- 
 pedient for increasing their income. The 
 
91 
 
 cabbage tree hats are handsome and durable, 
 and are consequently much used. By the 
 native youth, in fact, they are regarded as a 
 sort of national badge. 
 
 The ACACIAS are numerous in the extreme, 
 and are all very beautiful, although none of 
 them attain the rank of timber trees. The 
 most common kinds are those known among 
 the colonists as WATTLES, (green wattle and 
 black wattle). Owing to the rapid growth of 
 these trees, as well as to their beauty, they are 
 much esteemed for ornamental purposes. A 
 whole grove may be raised in a couple of years, 
 but they do not last long, and it is therefore 
 necessary that a young growth should be 
 planted in readiness to succeed the older trees 
 as they die off, or are cut away for firewood. 
 The bark of these trees is astringent, some of 
 it particularly so, and it is very useful for 
 tanning purposes. A strong decoction of 
 wattle bark, carefully used, has been found 
 an effectual remedy in cases of dysentery. 
 The gum which exudes from the stems of these 
 trees in great abundance, is clear, sweet, and 
 transparent. When fresh it is frequently 
 gathered by the natives for food, and when dry 
 resembles in appearance and properties the 
 well known gum arabic of commerce. 
 
 The GRASS TREE is not, properly speaking, a \ 
 tree at all. From out of an immense and \ 
 spreading tuft of long, tough, and grass-like \ 
 leaves, springs a long slender shaft like a 
 bulrush. This, when dry, is peculiarly light, 
 
92 
 
 although hard in texture, and from the readi- 
 ness with which it ignites by friction it is much 
 used by the natives as a means of obtaining fire. 
 From among the old leaves and roots of the 
 grass tree is procured an abundance of gum, 
 exactly resembling gamboge in its color and 
 general appearance. This gum has an agreeable 
 although strongly medicinal odour, espe- 
 cially when burnt. It is powerfully astringent, 
 and has been found an effective medicine in 
 cases of dysentery, but requires to be used with 
 great care. 
 
 All the eucalypti produce gum resin in abun- 
 dance, and much of this has been exported 
 although it has not, we believe, been found 
 very valuable. Sometimes, however, it has been 
 put to a less worthy purpose on the spot. The 
 writer of this paper once saw, in company with 
 several others, a full cask of gum, drawn from 
 a comparatively small tree near Canterbury, 
 (a village on the banks of Cook's river, about 
 seven miles from Sydney), which was procured 
 for the adulteration of Colonial ale. 
 
 The WARATAH, or native tulip, which bears 
 a magnificent scarlet blossom, is used for all 
 the purposes to which osiers are applied in 
 England. A small shrub with silky seed pods, 
 called by the colonists the COTTON TREE is 
 equally useful for the same purpose. The 
 down to which the seeds of the latter plant are 
 attached makes superb pillows, but is not, we 
 believe, durable. 
 
 There are wild plants having the properties 
 
93 
 
 of FLAX, and some of them are called by that 
 name. They are not, however, of any material 
 use. There has indeed been some discussion 
 as to whether one plant of this description might 
 not be cultivated with advantage ; but as it 
 resembles the New Zealand flax (Phormium 
 tenax), and as the latter, which is of superior 
 fineness, could be produced with equal facility, 
 it is to this that the growers will most naturally 
 turn their attention, whenever the work of flax 
 culture shall be seriously entered upon. 
 
 There are many varieties of EDIBLE ROOTS in 
 the Australian bush, but they are known to 
 few beside the aborigines. Of these, a 
 tuberous root, known as the native yam, is the 
 principal. Some of the fern roots afford pass- 
 able food, and even among the grasses there 
 are varities which contribute in this way to 
 the subsistence of the wandering tribes of 
 Australia. 
 
 There are several plants used by bushmen as 
 substitutes for tea. The principal of these is a 
 creeper bearing a black berry, a blue flower, 
 and a long green leaf, abundant in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the metropolis, which, from its 
 being used in this way, is known as SWEET TEA 
 by the colonists. In flavour it somewhat re- 
 resembles liquorice, and like the latter, is 
 esteemed a valuable medicine for coughs. 
 
 INDIGO is abundant in a wild state, but no 
 attempt at indigo planting, as a work of com- 
 mercial enterprise, has yet been made. Useful 
 and valuable dye woods also exist, but the 
 
 512 
 
94 
 
 knowledge of them is chiefly confined to the 
 few persons who have had occasion to experi- 
 mentalise upon them for manufacturing pur- 
 poses. From a large species of wild vine, 
 which grows plentifully on the banks of the 
 
 \ northern rivers, known to the aborigines as 
 curranbilly, and to the settlers as cockspur, 
 Mr. Gee, of Sydney, has produced a beautiful 
 yellow. By the use of the " mordaunt," and 
 other means of varying colors known to 
 dyers, Mr. Gee has produced all shades of 
 this color, from a pale golden tint to a deep 
 yellowish brown. All the shades are good 
 and durable ; the dyed wools having been 
 well tested to be certain of the latter fact. 
 The wood itself is very handsome, of a deep 
 brownish yellow, with fine veins of a lighter 
 color, and of satin like appearance when 
 polished. It works well, especially in the 
 lathe, and would prove valuable to the turner 
 and the cabinet-maker. It is the inner part 
 of the stems alone that has been \ised to pre- 
 pare the dye, and it has been found to yield 
 about twenty-five per cent, more of coloring 
 matter, and that of a better quality, than can 
 be obtained from fustic. And yet it is much 
 more economical than the latter, even if it 
 
 ^ were only of equal usefulness, for while fustic 
 costs 12 per ton, this colonial wood could be 
 brought into the Sydney Market for 5 per 
 ton at the outside. 
 
 The wild GRASSES, although, as might be 
 expected, not so close in their growth as the 
 
95 
 
 green clothing of the English meadows, afford 
 excellent food to the immense nocks and herds 
 which are scattered throughout the districts 
 beyond the boundaries of location, and of which 
 we shall have to speak more fully when we 
 come to treat of pastoral occupations. 
 
 There are doubtless many other productions, 
 valuable for human sustenance, for medicinal 
 purposes, or for commerce, among the indi- 
 genous trees, plants, and herbage of Australia. 
 But although our country affords a wider scope 
 for the labours of the Botanist than any other 
 land on the earth's surface, and although in 
 fact, we have scientific gentlemen among us, 
 by whom extensive acquaintance with this 
 division of nature's gifts has been acquired, 
 there has not as yet been any publication, 
 on the spot, of information so much needed. 
 We trust that no lengthened period will elapse 
 before this great want is supplied. 
 
 To comment upon the immense variety, and 
 surpassing beauty, of the Australian wild 
 flowers would be foreign to our purpose. And 
 even if it were not so, no mere description could 
 convey to the distant reader a just idea of 
 the reality. Suffice it to say, that many plants 
 which in England are highly prized tenants of 
 the conservatory and the hot house, are in 
 Australia as abundant as mere weeds. 
 
 BU8HCRAFT. 
 
 The wilds of Australia being dce'gnaff d, in 
 colonial parlance-, ' the Bush," we use ihr 
 M 3 
 
I 96 
 
 term Bushcraft as an appropriate one for that 
 knowledge of the wilderness and its ways 
 
 I which is elsewhere cal ed Woodcraft. 
 
 This knowledge is a most essential branch of 
 a colonist's training, if he seeks to penetrate 
 the interior ; yet it can only be acquired by ex- 
 perience. But with fair powers of observation, 
 and a readiness to acquire and retain informa-, 
 tion from whatever quarter it may be pro- 
 curable, the immigrant may soon become a 
 tolerable bushman. Among his older fellow - 
 colonists he will find the disposition as well as 
 the ability to guide and instruct him. 
 
 Within the settled districts travelling is a 
 very simple matter. The highways, although 
 often, perhaps usually, in bad order, are so 
 
 | well defined that it is difficult even for a 
 stranger to miss his way ; unless he is deluded 
 into taking " a short cut through the bush," 
 in the vain hope of arriving with greater speed 
 and less bodily exertion at some given point, 
 instead of adhering to the main road. 
 This, by the by, is the way in which 
 most persons, even old bushmen, get bewildered. 
 No inexperienced hand should ever trust 
 
 | himself to the chances of safely traversing 
 these " short cuts," for although they often 
 save a good deal of time and distance to those 
 
 \ who are thoroughly acquainted with them, 
 they are just as often a source of delay and 
 trouble to those of the inexperienced who 
 seek by their aid to lessen their own fatigues. 
 And yet the temptation is often very strong. 
 
97 
 
 The " old hands," who are acquainted with 
 these by-paths, are ever ready to point them out 
 to the wayfarer, and, estimating his perceptive 
 faculties by the erroneous standard of their 
 own experience they will usually assure him 
 that " it is impossible he can miss his way." 
 The traveller seldom gets far before he dis- 
 covers that it is barely possible for him to find 
 his way. Paths dwindle to mere tracks, 
 branching off, perhaps, in all directions, and 
 amidst the natural objects which surround 
 him he finds a degree of uniformity sufficient 
 to baffle every attempt to make out the par- 
 ticular landmarks which he may have been 
 instructed to seek. A person who finds him- 
 self in this position will take the wisest course, 
 if he makes the best of his way back to the 
 high road. 
 
 Along the highways which traverse the 
 settled districts, there are almost everywhere 
 good inns sufficiently near each other to be 
 within reach even of the pedestrian. And th e 
 excellence of the country inns, in particular, is 
 a matter of surprise to the inexperienced tra- 
 veller, who thinks he has left all of luxury, 
 if not of comfort, behind in the metropolis . In 
 most places he will find the accommodation 
 good, the fare superior, and the charges, upon 
 the whole, moderate. 
 
 Travelling by the mail is the most common 
 mode of journeying among young colonists. 
 This is a very different thing from tra- 
 velling by the old mails and stage 
 
98 
 
 coaches in England. Although the 
 
 journeys here are performed with comparative 
 rapidity, when the nature of the country and 
 the state of the roads are taken into considera- 
 tion, there is none of that extreme hurry with 
 which we have been tormented on the English 
 roads. There is no tearing away of the half- 
 famished traveller from his scarcely tasted 
 ineal. Time is allowed him to feed heartily, 
 before the coachman summonses him to resume 
 his place. But there are many other pecu- 
 liarities of Australian mail-coach travelling, 
 some of which are, in the opinion of many, 
 not quite so agreeable. 
 
 The coaches which come into Sydney are 
 usually handsome and commodious vehicles ; 
 but before many stages from the metropolis 
 are got over, the traveller finds himself packed 
 in a sort of oblong box, open to the elements, 
 licensed to carry at least fifty per cent, more of 
 passengers and luggage than it will conve- 
 niently hold. A few jolts, however and many 
 pretty severe ones may be calculated upon 
 soon shake everyone into position; and, as the 
 driver is usually both skilful and obliging, 
 things pass on pretty well. When a steep 
 hill, or any other impediment of a similar 
 nature, tehnically termed a "pinch," has to be 
 encountered, the coachman requests his male 
 passengers to alight, and " walk on a bit." 
 Some of these walks extend upwards of a mile, 
 but after being packed up in a Western or 
 Southern mail, like herrings in a barrel, this 
 
99 
 
 exercise is found a relief rather than otherwise, 
 especially if the weather is fine. 
 
 Practised bushmen usually travel on horse- 
 back, or with drays, according to their means 
 and exigencies ; and where a new hand has an 
 opportunity of traversing the country 
 under guidance such as men of this 
 stamp can afford him, he will act 
 wisely in availing himself of it. 
 An equestrian thoroughly acquainted with the 
 country, seldom fails, even in the wildest re- 
 gion, to make out a halting place where he can 
 find bush fare, a hearty welcome, and a good 
 night's rest, beneath the shelter of a roof. 
 Travelling with a dray has more of the roman- 
 tic in it than a stranger would imagine. Drays 
 seldom go singly, but in parties, halting each 
 night at a convenient camping place. The 
 draymen and their fellow-travellers make a 
 temporary hut beneath the vehicles, where 
 they rest soundly, their dogs keeping a vigilant 
 watch around the camp fires. Some of these 
 encampments seen at nightfall or at early 
 dawn, have a very picturesque appearance. 
 
 There is something very attractive in the 
 free and healthful life of the bushman. Few 
 that have acquired a taste for this kind of life 
 can ever be contented or happy in the towns. 
 And such a taste is acquired by the majority 
 of those who have resided for any length of 
 time in the interior. 
 
 A bush life is not necessarily one of hard- 
 ship and privation. Stately edifices, indeed, 
 
100 
 
 are unknown in the wilds, but many of the 
 farmers, and even of the squatters, have sur- 
 rounded themselves not only with comforts, 
 but with luxuries. Their houses are often 
 commodious, their gardens large, and well 
 stocked, and their dairies well managed, while 
 at the same time, they have an abundance of 
 fowls, &c , ready at hand whenever they are 
 wanted. With these conveniences, and with 
 a regular supply of wines, groceries, and other 
 luxuries, received through the intervention of 
 the carriers, the bushman who is well to do in 
 the world, gets on admirably. These social 
 improvements .are usually most manifest 
 where the settler is himself " settled" that is, 
 when he has a wife and family to share his 
 home. Many of the bachelor squatters are 
 still incorrigible in their adherence to bark 
 huts, black pipes, salt beef, and damper. 
 
 Luxuries such as those above mentioned 
 are of course beyond the reach of the shepherd 
 and the stockman, but even the labouring 
 classes do not fare badly in the bush. Salt 
 meat, tea, and damper (an unleavened loaf 
 baked in the hot ashes,) form their staple food, 
 and their huts are usually not only 
 weather proof, but comfortable. The 
 presence of women has, with the men as 
 with the masters, done most towards soften- 
 ing down tha barbarism which, until lately, 
 prevailed in the unsettled districts. 
 
 But on the frontiers, and throughout tho 
 almost trackless wilds of the far interior, 
 
101 
 
 where even the stations of the squatters are 
 but widely scattered, the life of the bushman 
 is still one of adventure and of peril. His 
 habitation, his clothing, and his fare are of the 
 most simple kind. In traversing the coun- 
 try around him he has no guide but his per- 
 sonal knowledge of its features, and his ex- 
 perience in bush-travelling. He has con- 
 stantly to guard against the inroads of the 
 aborigines, who, although they usually con- 
 tent themselves with preying upon his sheep 
 and cattle, will occasionally attack himself 
 with a view of getting possession of his stores. 
 Many and many a collision takes place be- 
 tween these pioneers of colonisation and the 
 sable lords of the wild, of which not even the 
 slightest rumour ever reaches Sydney. 
 
 But the iife of the bushman has been graphi- 
 cally described by most of those who have 
 laid before the public narratives of their so- 
 journ and wanderings in Australia, and to 
 these narratives we must refer our readers 
 for those details of bush scenery and adven- 
 tures which it would be foreign to our purpose 
 to enter upon. 
 
 A knowledge of bushcraft is not more neces- 
 sary to any class of persons, than to sports- 
 men. The sportsman can never pursue his 
 most attractive amusements with pleasure and 
 with safety until he has acquired this know- 
 ledge. The pursuit of game will generally 
 lead him into wild and densely timbered 
 tracts from whence nothing but practical 
 
102 
 
 knowledge or a fortunate accident can extri- 
 cate him. And with all his knowledge and 
 care, he may often have to camp out for the 
 night. He should never, therefore, be un- 
 provided for such a contingency, 
 
 So many persons " go out a shooting" from 
 Sydney, without taking any of the necessary 
 precautions or making any of the necessary 
 provisions for being lost in the bush, that it 
 is a matter of surprise they do not pay more 
 often and more severely for their temerity. 
 But the fact is they seldom do more than 
 ramble near the beaten paths of the suburbs, 
 and as a natural consequence they generally 
 do but little towards filling their game bags. 
 
 In the first place no man should start out to 
 traverse the scrubs, as a sportsman ought to 
 do, without putting on a pair of stoutish boots, 
 and providing himself with leggings of leather 5 
 or fustian, so as to resist a snake bite. Most $ 
 persons who have been bitten would have 
 come off scathless if they had adopted this 
 precaution, and the few who have been wise 
 enough to do so, can tell of repeated escapes in 
 consequence. There are five other things 
 which he should never be without a pocket 
 compass, a large strong made clasp knife, a 
 small vessel to drink from, a piece of sponge, 
 and the means of making a fire. The useful- 
 ness of the first three articles is obvious. The 
 sponge may be the means of saving him from 
 the torments of unsatisfied thirst, in the event 
 of his being benighted in a place where there 
 
103 
 
 is no water near. During most nights there is 
 a considerable dew, and by the aid of a sponge 
 a comparative abundance of moisture may be 
 collected from the grass and foliage, although 
 without its aid no such supply could be pro- 
 cured. For making a fire nething beats our 
 old friend the tinder-box. Lucifer matches, 
 although first-rate articles at home, are often 
 from dam or from wind utterly useless in the 
 bush. Small tinder-boxes suitable for this 
 kind of service may be purchased cheaply in 
 Sydney, and a sort of fungus which grows 
 upon dead timber, and is well known to most 
 colonists by the name of " punk," makes, 
 when scorched, the best tinder. The ordinary 
 German tinder, however, is very good. By its 
 aid a few pieces of dry bark may be lighted, 
 and with the addition of a twig or two and 
 some dry leaves, there is speedily sufficient 
 foundation to "build," as the phrase is, a large 
 fire. The blacks procure fire very readily by 
 means of the grass tree, but few whites suc- 
 ceed in doing this, until they have seen it 
 practised several times by their sable brethren. 
 The best mode is this. Cut a piece of the 
 dried stalk of the grass tree in two ; point one 
 half, and hollow out in a cup shape one end of 
 the other half, so that the pointed part may fit 
 as nearly as possible the hollowed part ; put 
 the hollowed piece between the knees and in- 
 serting the point of the other, which is held 
 between the palms of the hands, twirl it 
 rapidly and regularly round by moving the 
 
104 
 
 hands backwards and forwards. If this is 
 dexterously managed the friction will soon 
 produce fire. 
 
 Want of water is the evil which he who tra- 
 verses the bush has most to fear. In some 
 parts of the country, rivulets and water-holes 
 are only to be met with at remote distances 
 from each other : in the scrubby lands inter- 
 sected by deep gullies, or ravines such lands 
 as the sportsman would naturally most resort 
 to a small brook or apiece of swampy ground 
 will usually be found at the lowest point of 
 each gully. Towards night-fall such places 
 may be traced out by the croaking of the 
 frogs. During the day the approach to a 
 river or to any considerable sheet of water may 
 be known by observing the flight of the cor- 
 morants and other aquatic birds. But in the 
 wilds, the chances of having to camp without 
 water are so great, that the sponge is, as we 
 have before mentioned, a part of the sports- 
 man's equipment that ought never to be 
 forgotten. 
 
 Sportsmen and travellers are often lost 
 almost beyond redemption by trying to extri- 
 cate themselves from their difficulties after 
 darkness has fairly set in upon them. 
 By so doing they are almost certain to 
 get deeper into the wilds, and to lose 
 all the traces by which they might hope to 
 return as they came. The best and the safest 
 course when a wayfarer in the bush 
 finds that night will certainly overtake him 
 I 
 
105 
 
 beforp he can retrace his steps or complete his 
 journey onward, is for him to stop for the 
 night at the first eligible spot that presents 
 itself. The vicinity of water is the most im- 
 portant thing. Where water is fou d, a 
 sheltered spot can almost invariably be pitched 
 upon close at hand, and a few bushes rapidly torn 
 down and interlaced to windward of the place 
 where the wayfarer intends to rest, will, in an 
 Australian climate, answer every purpose 
 unless the weather be unpropitious. Fern, 
 small branches, or bushes, will make an excel- 
 lent couch if the ground be damp ; and indeed, 
 under any circumstances, it is advisable to 
 strew a few of these on the spot selected as a 
 sleeping-place. 
 
 A party of three or four may " camp 
 out" with much greater comfort than a 
 single individual. Consequently, when sports- 
 men plunge into the wilds in search of game 
 they should go in such parties, or at all events 
 in couples. If they set out with the deter- 
 mination of passing a night or two in the 
 bush, each person should carry a blanket or 
 rug. One should also carry a small vessel to 
 make tea with, and another a light hatchet or 
 tomahawk. By the aid of the latter a suffi- 
 cient quantity of bushes for shelter and repose 
 may speedily be cut down. If a natural cover 
 of trees and shrubs presents itself so much 
 the better, and in most cases a place may 
 readily be found where, with but little labour, 
 a well sheltered camp may be formed. At a 
 
106 
 
 short distance, and in the direction towards 
 which the feet of the sleepers will be pointed 
 when they retire to rest, the fire should be 
 made, care being taken to remove from its 
 vicinity all dry grass, leaves, or twigs, which 
 might ignite and carry the flame into the sur- 
 rounding bush. If damp weather should set 
 in and a perfectly sheltered spot cannot 
 be found to camp in, one or more 
 blankets, according to the number of the 
 party, should be strained in the form of a roof, 
 while bushes are piled up on either side for 
 walls, sufficiently high to allow of the party 
 sitting upright within. With such precau- 
 tions, with a good fire, and with good bush 
 fare, the sportsman may defy the weather. 
 
 There are still many places within a day's 
 journey of the metropolis to which sporting 
 parties might resort at the proper season with 
 much profit arid amusement, although the 
 larger game has for the most part been 
 driven off to regions farther removed. The best 
 mode of proceeding is this. The party should 
 start for their proposed hunting ground at such 
 an hour as to arrive there in the afternoon. A 
 camping place should then be selected, and a 
 shelter constructed. Here the party may rest 
 for the night, and here also they may muster 
 on the following day for the purposes of re* 
 freshmerit, and for comparing their good or ill 
 fortune as hunters. For this reason the camp 
 should be in a central position, and on a slight 
 elevation ; near it a fire should be kept up. The 
 
107 
 
 smoke, during the day, or after nightfall the 
 fire itself, would serve as a guide to the 
 spot ; but each person should nevertheless take 
 bearings carefully before quitting the camp. 
 Three days, one in going to the ground, a 
 second for actual sport, and a third for the 
 k return, may in fine weather be thus very 
 pleasantly and healthfully spent. 
 
 In the far interior the traveller looks out for 
 a station, and there are many indications by 
 which the approach to one is at once made 
 known to a practised eye. Tie excrement of 
 cattle, the marks of the axe where wood has 
 been cut for burning, or bark removed for hut- 
 building ; and, on a nearer approach, the 
 barking of dogs, and the note of chanticleer, 
 are among these indications. 
 
 The way from one place to another in the 
 interior is often pointed out by lines of marked 
 trees only. In such a case the utmost vigi- 
 lance is necessary, for the line is easily lost, 
 and difficult to find again ; and it is usually 
 across a heavy and wild country that those i 
 lines are carried. Many such lines are formed 
 for the sake of shortening the distance 
 between two points even when there 
 is a practicable and well beaten but more 
 circuitous road. In such cases the traveller 
 who is not versed in bushcraft will usually 
 find it most to his advantage to keep on the 
 highway. 
 
 Equestrians should always carry hobbles for 
 their horses. To hobble the horses while their 
 
 I 
 
108 
 
 riders bivouac in the bush is generally better 
 than tethering them, especially in scrubby 
 lands ; and if both horses and cattle have been 
 accustomed to carry bells, so that they may be 
 traced by the sound, it will be all the better, 
 for much time is often lost in the morning in 
 hunting up the animals before making a start. 
 
 When a party of sportsmen, instead of form- 
 ing a particular camp as a resting-place during 
 the whole time of their excursion, shall deem 
 it better to proceed separately towards a more 
 distant place of rendezvous, the position and 
 bearings of this place should be distinctly un- 
 derstood, and if it is deep in the bush he who 
 arrives there first should at once make a fire to 
 guide the rest. 
 
 As a general rule it will be found well to 
 secure, if practicable, the presence and assis- 
 tance of an aboriginal native with all such 
 parties. The aid of one or more of these can 
 in most cases be obtained for a trifling consider- 
 ation ; and their sagacity in finding game, in 
 searching out water, or in tracking any of the 
 party who may happen to miss his way, renders 
 them well worthy of their hire. No intoxi- 
 cating drink, however, should be given to 
 them, and it is better, indeed, that nothing 
 of this kind should form a part of the equip- 
 ment. 
 
PART II. 
 
 Whales and Whaling Seals The Dugong. 
 
 WHALES AND WHALING. 
 
 THROUGHOUT the vast Pacific, which washes 
 the shores of the Australian Continent, the 
 sperm whale is hunted and destroyed by ad- 
 venturous seamen of all nations. Many of the 
 vessels engaged in this fishery belong to Syd- 
 ney HoTises, and the export of Oil and other 
 whaler's produce to Europe is very considera- 
 ble, to say nothing of its consumption in the 
 colony itself. 
 
 Although great attention has been directed 
 to ihe sperm whale by scientific men, it would 
 still seem that there is much to learn, not only 
 as to the habits of these animals, but as to the 
 number of varieties included in the family to 
 which they belong. There is much reason to 
 believe that Sydney will be the scene of the 
 most important investigations into this subject, 
 and of the discoveries by which these investiga- 
 tions will doubtless be rewarded. Already we 
 have promise of this. Two skeletons have been 
 set up at the Sydney Museum by Mr. Wall, the 
 Curator, who has published a most able and 
 interesting work upon this subject, describing 
 these skeletons anatomically, and demonstrat- 
 
110 
 
 ing the existence of a new genus of sperm 
 whales, called Euphysetes. The work of inves- \ 
 tigation thus entered on will doubtless be fol- 
 lowed up. Much valuable information and aid 
 may be expected from the captains of whaling 
 vessels, the attention of many of them having 
 been called to the subject ; and we have among 
 our colonists naturalists of high standing, who 
 will not fail to take advantage of all such in- 
 formation as can be attained. 
 
 The SPERM WHALE is one of that division of 
 animals termed " Cetacea," which includes 
 also many other species destroyed by man for 
 the sake of the oil which they yield. Some of 
 these we shall have hereafter to speak of. 
 
 This monster of the deep is, when full grown, 
 about eighty feet long, with a circumference of 
 from thirty to thirty-five feet. The head is 
 abrupt or blunted at the extremity, clumsy in 
 appearance, and generally about one third of 
 the entire length of the animal. The mouth is 
 enormous, extending the whole length of the 
 head, but the lower jaw only is furnished with 
 teeth, which though formidable enough in ap- 
 pearance, are, considering the vast size of the 
 animal, far too small for the purposes of masti- 
 cation. The whales, therefore, consume their 
 food without this preparatory process. The 
 tongue is small, but the gullet is large enough 
 to take in the body of a man. Nothing, how- 
 ever, which is larger than a medium sized fish 
 ever passes that way. The mouth is lined 
 throughout with a pearly white membrane, 
 
Ill 
 
 and it is asserted that the glistening of this 
 membrane is of service to the animal in its 
 feeding, by attracting the " squids" and small 
 fish upon which it feeds ; the whale poising 
 itself vertically in the water, with its mouth 
 open, for this purpose, until a supply of 
 the unlucky animals have been seduced with- 
 in the vortex. The squid is a kind of cuttle 
 fish, which forms the staple of thesperm whale's 
 diet. The skin of the whale is dark, varying 
 in shade according to its age. In young 
 whales the skin is about three-eighths of an 
 inch thick, but as the creature grows older it 
 diminishes in thickness, until it is as thin as 
 one-eighth. 
 
 Immediately beneath the skin lies the blubber 
 or fat, which, in a full grown whale, varies 
 from eight to fourteen inches in depth. It is 
 of a light yellow colour, and furnishes, when 
 melted, the sperm oil of commerce ; upwards 
 of eighty barrels being often procured from a 
 full grown male. It is called by seamen 
 the " blanket ;" and has, indeed, the effect of a 
 blanket in protecting the animal from '.he cold 
 of the surrounding waters. In the head is a 
 large and almost triangular cavity, called by 
 whalers, the " case," wherein is secreted an 
 oily liquor, which after death hardens into a 
 yellowish granulated substance the sperma- 
 ceti of commerce. From the head of a large 
 whale upwards of a tun, or ten barrels, of 
 spermaceti is frequently procurable. 
 
 The sperm whale makes its way through the 
 o 2 
 
112 
 
 water by the aid of its tail, or " flukes," but itis 
 provided with two swimming paws, wherewith 
 it can guide itself, and with which, as with 
 hands, the female is said to clasp her young to 
 her breast. 
 
 Whalemen speak of these animals as herds- 
 men do of their cattle. The males are termed 
 bulls ; the females, cows ; the young ones, 
 calves. A number of whales however is not 
 termed a herd, but a school. The females, 
 which are much smaller than the males, are 
 found associated together in these schools, and 
 with them are generally two or three sturdy 
 bulls, who are designated by sailors as school- 
 masters. These partiarchal gentlemen are 
 said to resent most fiercely the approach of 
 any interlopers of their own sex and species. 
 The male calves also go in schools. The old 
 bulls, however, are generally found singly, 
 and while from their bulk they are the most 
 profitable to the whaler, they are easier to 
 kill than the females, bearing the strokes of the 
 harpoon and the lance with more patience and 
 using less strenuous efforts to escape. But itis 
 only the old bulls which are thus so apparently 
 resigned to their fate. The young bulls are 
 exceedingly wary, and are very difficult to 
 capture. Those yielding about forty barrels, 
 and called forty-barrel bulls, by the whalemen, 
 are the most troublesome. Occasionally, the 
 whales make a violent resistance, staving the 
 boats and doing all manner of mischief ; but 
 more usually, all their efforts are directed to- 
 
113 
 
 wards escape. Their timidity is fortunate, for 
 an animal of such enormous bulk as the sperm 
 whale would otherwise be a terrible foe, under 
 any circumstances. 
 
 The females display much care and affection 
 for their young, and the cow is often killed 
 while aiding her calf to escape. In like 
 manner, the young animals will frequently 
 remain near the spot where their parents have 
 been deprived of life. The females will also 
 hover round, or ' heave to," as the sailors 
 have it, when one of their number is wounded. 
 Thus, a whole school has sometimes been de- 
 stroyed by bold and skilful fishers. It 
 is different, however, with a school of young 
 bulls. No sooner is one of them wounded 
 than the rest take the alarm and make off in 
 all directions, leaving their comrade to his 
 fate. It is a singular fact that all sperm 
 whales have some means of communicating to 
 each other, even when far apart, the approach 
 of danger. What these means are has not 
 been ascertained, but the fact itself is unde- 
 niable. 
 
 The sperm whale being, in common with all 
 the rest of the cetacea, a warm blooded and 
 respiring animal, is compelled to rise to the 
 surface of the water in order to breathe. This 
 it does at regular intervals, and its motions 
 in this respect are so precise that experienced 
 whalemen can calculate with certainty the 
 time of the whale's sinking below the surface. 
 It is by the vapour and water which is spouted 
 o 3 
 
114 
 
 forth from the nostrils of the whale when it 
 rises for the purpose of respiration that its 
 presence is made known to the look-out men 
 stationed at the mast-head of the whaling 
 vessels. They are seen in this way at a dis- 
 tance of several miles. When alarmed the 
 sperm whale indulges in many antics, very 
 different from the ordinary regularity of its 
 movements, sweeping the surface of the water 
 with its tail, and even placing itself in a 
 perpendicular position, with the whole of its 
 enormous head above water, in order that it 
 may better command a view of surrounding 
 objects. When a whale has thus taken the 
 alarm, it is said by the fisher to be " gallied," 
 and great energy and caution is necessary on 
 the part of its pursuers. 
 
 The black, or as the seamen term it, the 
 RIGHT WHALE, is less sought for in the seas 
 around Australia than the kind already spoken 
 of. It is much smaller than the common black 
 whale of the northern regions, measuring 
 usually from thirty-five to forty fee t in length, 
 although occasionally met with as long as fifty 
 feet. In colour and general appearance, how- 
 ever, it closely resembles its northern proto- 
 type, so much so that they were at one time 
 believed to be of the same species. The oil of this 
 animal is very inferior in quality to that pro- 
 cured from the sperm whale, but on the other 
 band, it is from the black kind that the well- 
 known whalebone of commerce is procured. 
 This substance is taken from the mouth. 
 
115 
 
 where it serves the animal as a substitute for 
 teeth. As much as a ton of this whalebone, or 
 baleen, as it is more properly called, is often 
 obtained from a full grown black whale of the 
 northern species. The whales of the south are 
 less productive on account of their diminished 
 size, but the quantity of baleen which is ob- 
 tainable from them is greater in proportion to 
 the entire bulk of the animal than that which 
 is procurable from the northern variety. 
 
 There is a species of whale called by those 
 engaged in the south sea fishery the BLACK- 
 FISH or BLACK-WHALE, but known to the 
 naturalist as the Southern Rorqual, which the 
 whalemen usually avoid. Although a large 
 animal, being frequently as long as 
 forty feet, and proportionately bulky, 
 this creature has less blubber than either 
 of the kinds already mentioned, and the oil ob- 
 tained from it is of an inferior description. It 
 is besides so active and powerful that its cap- 
 ture is all but impossible. 
 
 There has been of late years a great falling 
 off in the whaling operations of the Sydney 
 merchants, as the statistics given in the ap- 
 pendix will show. This is to be deplored, and 
 the more so because it is chiefly attributable to 
 want of enterprise and skill on the part of 
 those connected with the fishery. It is true 
 that whaling cruises have not been so profita- 
 ble of late, and when the wholesale manner in 
 which these huge creatures have been hunted 
 out and destroyed comes to be considered, it is 
 
116 
 
 scarcely surprising. But with, skill, energy, 
 and perseverance, the South Sea Fishery is 
 still a money-making enterprise. The Ameri- 
 cans, at all events, have contrived to make it 
 so. All the seas around us are traversed by their 
 whaling ships, which are usually fine and well 
 furnished vessels, and are generally successful 
 enough to afford their owners and crew a 
 handsome return for the investment of the 
 former and the enterprise of the latter. The 
 position of New South Wales, of the neigh- 
 bouring Australasian colonies, and of New Zea- 
 land, ought to give them, collectively, almost 
 a mastery of the fishery ; but the active and 
 persevering mariners of the United States have 
 decidedly obtained the upper hand in this 
 fishery, as they have also in the very lucrative 
 traffic with the almost innumerable islands of 
 Polynesia. The establishment at the Auck- 
 land Islands for the purpose of prosecuting 
 the southern fishery systematically, may do 
 much ; but this remains to be seen. 
 
 It is, we believe, to a want of scientific in- 
 formation on the part of those who are entrusted 
 with the conduct of whaling operations a want 
 of knowledge as to the habits of the creatures 
 they are in pursuit of, which has been the chief 
 cause of failure. Whalers run hither and 
 thither in search of their prey, and either meet 
 with it or not as their good or evil stars may be 
 in the ascendant ; whereas a knowledge of the 
 whale's habits, of its migrations, and of the 
 seasons of those migrations, might enable them 
 
117 
 
 to proceed at once to the spot where the animals 
 were to be taken. This knowledge is only to 
 be acquired by observation, by a record of the 
 facts observed, and by a scientific examination of 
 these facts, so as to arrive at the proper conclu- 
 sions to which they point. Suppose, for instance, 
 that the stomach of the whale was invariably 
 searched to ascertain the nature of its food at 
 the time of its capture, and a record kept of the 
 observations thus made. Suppose, as a next 
 step, it could be ascertained in what places and 
 at what times the particular kinds of food used 
 by the whales were most plentiful. The result 
 would show where and when whales might 
 with certainty be met with. It is by observa- 
 tions such as these, that experienced whaling 
 masters are enabled to ensure success. Now, 
 although much interesting and useful informa- 
 tion may occasionally be procured from the 
 captains and officers of whaling vessels, it is 
 but seldom that they are willing to com- 
 municate the result of their experience 
 to others. And this reluctance is natural. 
 It is the interest of the individual to keep his 
 knowledge for his own benefit. But the in- 
 terest of the community, and especially of a 
 community so circumstanced as New South 
 Wales, requires that a compilation of facts 
 and deductions should be made for the benefit of 
 all. This could only be done under the auspices 
 of the Government, of the Legislature, or of the 
 mercantile body, by setting one or more compe- 
 tent individuals to the task of investigation. 
 
118 
 
 The Australian whalers are for the most 
 part of from 200 to 300 tons burthen. All on 
 board, from the captain downwards, are paid 
 by a share of the oil procured, which share is 
 called, in whalemen's parlance, a " lay," and 
 is proportioned, of course, to the rank and abi- 
 lity of the man. The dangers and excitement 
 of whaling have been frequently and most gra- 
 phically sketched ; but there is one feature of 
 this trade in the Pacific, which is not so gene- 
 rally known. It is the intercourse of those 
 who follow it with the interesting tribes of 
 Polynesia. Whaling captains generally seek 
 some of the islands for the purpose of procu- 
 ring supplies of provisions, or of repairing 
 slight damages sustained at sea, because, in 
 the first place, they can obtain provisions there 
 at infinitely less cost than in any of the colo- 
 nial ports ; and in the second place they find 
 it easier by this course to keep their men to- 
 gether. Supplies are frequently, also, procured 
 in boats, without bringing the vessel to an 
 anchor. These supplies, consisting of pigs and 
 fowls, with yams, cocoanuts, bread fruit, and 
 other productions of a similar nature, are 
 obtained by barter ; calicoes, hardware, com- 
 mon trinkets, and other matters likely to 
 be prized by the untutored Islanders being 
 carried for that purpose. These articles are 
 technically known as "trade." Among the 
 native races the whalemen exercise a doubtful 
 influence. From his English or American 
 brother, the Polynesian learns something of the 
 
119 
 
 white man's science, but too often he learns 
 far more of the white man's evil ways. All 
 the precautions which the Captains can take is 
 insufficient to prevent occasional desertion; and 
 extraordinarily numerous as are the islands of 
 the Pacific, there is scarcely one of them which 
 has not one or more runaway sailors domesti- 
 cated among the people who inhabit it. 
 
 The Eden-like features of these Islands, and 
 the vast influence which even the most igno- 
 rant white man acquires among the Islanders, 
 are attractions too powerful to be resisted. 
 But the influence of the white man is usually 
 exerted for evil rather than for good, for it is 
 generally individuate of the worst class who 
 are most ready to abandon their connection 
 with civilised man, in order to lord it amongst 
 savages. 
 
 Bay whaling, or the capture of whales by 
 parties stationed on shore, who run off to the 
 chase in boats whenever a whale heaves in 
 sight, was formerly much practised. At pre- 
 sent, ve are not aware of its being carried on in 
 any other place than Twofold Bay. The boats 
 used in bay whaling are generally much 
 larger and more strongly made than those 
 attached to the vessels engaged in the 
 Fishery. 
 
 Besides the oil and spermaceti, the valuable 
 ambergris of commerce is procured from the 
 sperm whale. It is found in the intestinal 
 canal, but in uncertain quantities ; frequently 
 indeed, it is altogether wanting. 
 
120 
 
 The bones of all the whales are 
 too porous to be of much value ; walk- 
 ing-sticks and other trifles are, however, 
 occasionally made from them by the sailors, 
 for which a good price is obtained. It is a 
 matter of surprise that the least porous bones 
 of the whale have not been used for this pur- 
 pose by tradesmen. The teeth of the sperm 
 whale, being much prized by the Polynesian 
 islanders as ornaments, are usually bartered 
 away for supplies. They are, however, used 
 by colonial workmen as a substitute for 
 ivory. 
 
 SEALS." 
 
 Seals are plentiful on some parts of the 
 southern coast, and on the islands in its 
 vicinity. Formerly vessels were often fitted 
 out for the sole purpose of sealing, but the 
 herds have been so much thinned and scattered 
 by the reckless havoc which has been made 
 among them that such expeditions are no longer 
 profitable; The practice was to leave small 
 parties of men at various stations where seals 
 were to be met with, and to pick them up at a 
 future period with such spoil as they had 
 managed in the mean time to secure. Sealing 
 is now followed almost exclusively, we believe, 
 by a semi-barbarous set of men residing on the 
 islands in Bass' Straits. These sealers are of 
 three classes runaway seamen, fugitives from 
 penal settlements in the neighbourhood, or 
 
121 
 
 half-castes, the result of an union between 
 the men of the two first-named classes with 
 female aborigines carried off from the Aus- 
 tralian main. By persons occupying this 
 isolated position, and by residents on the coast 
 near spots where seals are to be found in 
 any numbers, the pursuit and capture of 
 these animals will usually be found very 
 profitable. 
 
 We are not able to state with accuracy 
 what kinds of the " carnivorous amphibia " are 
 the ordinary prey of the sealers, and 
 cannot therefore go into details. All the seals, 
 however, yield a good marketable oil, and the 
 skins are more or less valuable either as furs 
 or for tanning chiefly the latter. Their flesh, 
 and particularly that of the smaller kinds, 
 although not peculiarly delicate, is fair eating. 
 
 Seals are migratory in their habits, but they 
 display an extraordinary attachment to par- 
 ticular spots, to which they will return again 
 and again, although beset with the greatest 
 dangers. They are very tenacious of life, but 
 may readily be stunned by a heavy blow on 
 the nose. Although a seal will always fly 
 from the attack of man if practicable, still, when 
 driven to extremity, it is no despicable foe. 
 
 THE DUGONG. 
 
 This animal, resembling in form those of the 
 whale tribe, although far smaller, and differing 
 from them in many other respects besides size, 
 
122 
 
 is found abundantly on the northern coasts of 
 New South Wales, and is generally known to 
 the colonists as the sea pig. 
 
 The head of the dugong is small in propor- 
 tion to its body, and is most singularly 
 shaped. The upper lip is very thick, and flat- 
 tened at the extremity. It is to this qu^er 
 looking snout, we presume, that the animal is 
 indebted for the swinish cognomen by which 
 it is ordinarily known. The dugong has a 
 thick smooth skin, with a few hairs scattered 
 over its surface. Its colour is bluish on the 
 back, with a white breast and belly. In size 
 the full grown male has never, we believe, 
 been found more than eighteen or twenty feet 
 long; but those commonly taken are much 
 less than this. 
 
 The food of the dugong consists chiefly of 
 marine vegetables, which it finds at the bottom 
 of inlets, in comparatively shallow water, 
 where it is easily captured. Its flesh resem- 
 bles good beef, and is much esteemed. The 
 oil obtained from its fat is peculiarly clear 
 and limpid, and is free from any disagreeable 
 smell, such as most animal oils are accom- 
 panied with. It has not yet been produced in 
 sufficient quantities to acquire a recognised 
 market value. It was once contemplated, we 
 understand, to bring it into use, 
 with the addition of scent, as a 
 hair oil ; and the gentleman who con- 
 templated doing so as a matter of com- 
 mercial speculation first tried its qualities 
 
123 
 
 upon himself. Strange to say, its use was 
 followed by an extraordinary shedding of hair. 
 A trial by the wife of this experi- 
 mentalist was attended with similar results. 
 It is true that this might have arisen from 
 natural causes, but still the facts point to a 
 different conclusion a conclusion that, what- 
 ever may be our ability to produce a hair oil 
 which shall rival the famous Macassar of 
 Rowland, we can at all events furnish one 
 which shall have the contrary effect of pro- 
 ducing baldness. 
 
PART III. 
 
 Mines and Mining Operations. 
 MINERALS AND METALS. 
 
 WE have now come to a most important chap- 
 ter in the history of the natural resources 
 of New South Wales, a chapter abounding in 
 interest, and which must, principally, be de- 
 voted, less to the details of the mineral wealth 
 actually in our present possession, than to spe- 
 culations as to what that wealth may, here- 
 after, be. 
 
 Although scientific men have from a very 
 early period of the history of this colony, pre- 
 dicted its possession of vast mineral treasures, 
 these sources of wealth, have, for the most 
 part, remained undeveloped. The pursuits of 
 agriculture, pasture, and commerce, proved 
 more attractive to the early settlers, and the 
 profits derived from them were so considerable, 
 that they absorbed the whole available labour 
 of the colony. 
 
 It may, indeed, be to some matter of sur- 
 prise that the attractive metalliferous indica- 
 tions which many districts of the colony dis. 
 play, did not induce the British Government, 
 which has always shown the most prompt dis- 
 
125 
 
 position to take its share of mineral treasures, 
 in whatever part of its dominions they may be 
 found, to attempt the working of mines by 
 means of convict labour, somewhat on the 
 same principle that the Siberian mines are 
 worked for the revenue of the Emperor of Rus- 
 sia. There were, however, many reasons why 
 the Government should not adopt such a 
 course. The immense amount of labour re- 
 quired to open up the colony, even in its ear- 
 liest limited extent, afforded works of urgent 
 and immediate necessity for all the convicts 
 which it was either prudent or convenient for 
 the Government to retain on its own hand. 
 The assignment system had double recommen- 
 dations to a government oppressed with the 
 burthen of the cost of its swarms of convicted 
 offenders, and a population rapidly increasing 
 in the amount of its redundancy. Under this 
 system, the English treasury was relieved to a 
 vast extent from the expense attendant on the 
 maintenance of its convicts, after their arrival 
 at the place of their banishment, whilst the 
 labour which was thus at the disposal of the 
 local Government was most valuable as offering 
 a kind of a bounty to the sale of land, and the 
 settlement of the country by a free emigrant 
 class. 
 
 Far be it from us to dispute the wisdom of 
 this policy : on the contrary, it would seem a 
 wise dispensation of Providence that the at- 
 tention of the government was diverted from 
 any minute examination of the enormous mi- 
 
5 
 
 126 
 
 neral wealth, which it is now certain exists in 
 the bowels, and even on the surface, of the 
 earth in New South Wales. The civilization 
 and free settlement of these immense and 
 splendid territories, would, in such a case, 
 have been inevitably delayed, if not absolutely 
 prevented. A system of penal slavery would 
 have been made permanent ; a system radically 
 vicious in itself and rendered doubly abomina- 
 ble and oppressive by the insatiable appetite 
 for wealth, which would have increased, year 
 after year, as the stores on which it fed be- 
 came more abundant. Whether the Govern- 
 ment had chosen to work the mines itself, or 
 had farmed them out, after a few years, to pri- 
 vate enterprise, convict labour must have been 
 employed, and, once engaged in such a pursuit, 
 the profits derived from such unpaid labour 
 would have been too attractive to be surrendered 
 at any time, without a fierce and destructive 
 struggle. The emancipation of the negroes in 
 the West Indies was, as is well known, resisted 
 with that eagerness which near and touching 
 interest in the matter of dispute alone could 
 engender ; and it could, at last, only be effected 
 by paying a sum, by way of compensation, the 
 liberality of which was, for a time, the wonder 
 of surrounding nations, but which failed to sa- 
 tisfy the planter, or to preserve him from se- 
 vere distress, and, in many cases, ruin. The 
 same, or a more severe struggle, would have 
 taken place here, where no claim for compen- 
 sation could have been preferred on account of 
 
127 
 
 the cessation of the transportation to these 
 shores of English felons ; but with the urgent 
 desire of the colonists to receive them, there 
 would have been no overtures made by the 
 British Government towards any such cessa- 
 tion > and the evils of the old convict system, 
 exaggerated and increased under the centrali- 
 zation of population, consequent on mining 
 pursuits, would have been indefinitely perpetu- 
 ated. 
 
 Fortunately, then, the discovery of the full 
 importance of our mineral resources was 
 reserved till a later period ; a period when the 
 more attractive, and, it must be added, the 
 more natural, pursuits of labour were fully es- 
 tablished in the land ; when the system of 
 transportation, direct to this colony, had alto- 
 gether ceased for years, and when the last 
 taint that degrading system entailed was 
 rapidly dying out ; and when, instead of tend- 
 ing to increase its evil results, it would serve 
 to put an end to its continuance to any part of 
 these colonies for ever. Established as an 
 enterprising and commercial people, with laws 
 we are ready to acknowledge and obey, with 
 an administration of these laws pure and 
 trusted, because watched by the vigilance of a 
 community anxious to maintain the high cha- > 
 racter of British institutions, the discovery of 
 vast mineral treasures, it may be hoped, will 
 lead neither to the degrading and slavish indo- \ 
 lence which characterizes the Spanish posses- 
 sions, nor to the reckless licentiousness into 
 Q 
 
128 
 
 which the lust of gold has betrayed the early 
 settlers of California, In this colony we ought 
 to be free from both evils ; all the institutions 
 which have been tried* and which we believe 
 are loved and revered in this colony, can be 
 extended to the gold districts, and unless the 
 invasion of adventurers be much more nume- 
 rous and simultaneous than we can possibly 
 anticipate, we shall be happy and proud to 
 protect the shelter which these institutions 
 afford us. 
 
 That this colony, that this island continent, 
 possesses mineral, and particularly metallic, 
 wealth, in an eminent degree, is now esta- 
 blished beyond all doubt ; but to what extent, 
 and in what variety, is still matter of specula- 
 tion. Attention was first turned actively to 
 the surface indications which many districts of 
 this colony present, by the remarkable effect 
 which the discovery of the copper mines of 
 South Australia had in rescuing that colony 
 from a state of absolute ruin and insolvency 
 to one of affluence and wealth. South Aus- 
 tralia had pasturage for sheep ; she had greater 
 advantages than this colony possesses for the 
 growth of grain, but both of these were insuf- 
 ficient to enable her to take an independent 
 stand among this group of colonies, and in 
 spite of government patronage, and the most 
 influential assistance from men of power and 
 name at home, she must have sunk under her 
 burden of debt, had it not been for the timely 
 discovery of the value of her mineral treasures. 
 
129 
 
 It would be beside our purpose here to enter 
 into an account of the success which has 
 attended the working of the South Australian 
 mines ; it is sufficient for our purpose to say 
 that that success was sufficient to attract the 
 attention not only of British, but of European 
 capitalists and emigrants, to a falling, to a 
 ruined colony, and to resuscitate that colony 
 from a state of bankruptcy into one of the 
 most nourishing of England's dependencies. 
 Attracted by this success, speculation com- 
 menced as to the mineral capabilities of our 
 own colony, and with what success these spe- 
 culations were attended it will be our duty 
 presently to detail 
 
 We have stated that it is now established 
 beyond doubt, that Australia abounds with 
 mineral wealth, and we may further state that 
 almost unerring indications of this wealth 
 exist, in every variety, from the commonest, 
 but most useful shape in which it presents 
 itself, namely, that of coal, to the most pre- 
 cious, and the most valuable, that of gold. 
 
 We commence, then, with the lower step in 
 the scale of our mineral wealth, the agent, 
 however, by whose assistance alone, we can 
 turn all its more glittering brethren into use 
 and value. 
 
 The existence of coal in the immediate 
 vicinity of Sydney was very early discovered, 
 Q 2 
 
130 
 
 but, in the early years of the colony, for the 
 purpose of clearing the land, wood was used 
 as fuel for almost every purpose. There are 
 but few districts in the colony where coal fields 
 do not, in greater or less degree, prevail, but 
 they exist in the greatest abundance, and 
 exhibit the greatest facility for working, to the 
 north of Sydney, and particularly at the 
 mouth of the Hunter, in the vicinity of New- 
 castle ; in fact, the whole valley of the Hun- 
 ter is more or less a coal field. The working 
 of the various coal fields in the colony, has, 
 however, been deferred through a variety of 
 circumstances. The use of wood, for fuvl, 
 which obtains in all new countries, has pre- 
 vented a very great demand for coal, and the 
 absence of manufactories, and the mildness of 
 the climate, have prevented the very extensive 
 consumption of fuel, of any description, in 
 proportion to the population of the colony. 
 
 But the great obstacle to the development of 
 the coal fields has been the existence of a 
 monopoly in the working of them by the 
 Australian Agricultural Company. Certain 
 coal mines were worked by Government at 
 Newcastle, and, in consideration of cer- 
 tain conditions, these mines were handed 
 over to the company, with a grant of 2000 
 acres of the coal field at Newcastle, which 
 extends to a great distance, the strata 
 gradually bending down and sinking below the 
 level of the sea. From the period that this 
 grant was made to the Australian Agricultural 
 
131 
 
 Company, the coal in all lands granted or sold 
 by the government was reserved, and the 
 previous grants, in which coal was discovered, 
 were very few. The grant known as Threl- 
 keld's grant, at Lake Macquarie, was worked 
 for some time with considerable success ; and 
 another grant, " Pratt' s Grant, "was purchased 
 by the Company, who then secured to them- 
 selves an entire monopoly in the article. The 
 annual decrease in the amount of firewood in 
 the neighbourhood of Sydney, together with 
 its increased consumption of fuel, from its 
 increased population, the establishment of 
 extensive works and factories, and of steam 
 navigation and gas companies, have increased 
 the consumption of this useful mineral in an 
 extraordinary degree, and the monopoly 
 which was granted in the year 1825, was, 
 about the year 1845, found to be very oppres- 
 sive. An export trade in coals, had, in the 
 mean time, sprung up, with every prospect of 
 its continuance and increase, and measures 
 were adopted to relieve this branch of the 
 industrial resources of the colony from the 
 restraint to which it was subjected. Various 
 remonstrances against it were agreed to by the 
 legislature of the colony, and, in the year 18-47, 
 through the act of the company itself, the sole 
 right of working coal was resigned by the 
 company, and communicated by her Majesty's 
 Secretary of State to the local Government. 
 
 From this period the coal trade became free, 
 and the possessors of property on the Hunter, 
 Q 3 
 
132 
 
 which contained coal easily accessible, began 
 to take measures for turning their hitherto use- 
 less wealth to advantage. The discovery of 
 gold in California, about the same time, and 
 the demand which ensued from that country 
 for coal to supply the steamers from Panama 
 and other parts of America, gave a great 
 impetus to the trade, and, in the winter of 
 1850, the price of coals, in the Sydney market, 
 rose from about 16s. to 2 per ton. Fortu- 
 nately the freedom which was given to compe- 
 tition soon reduced this exorbitant rate, and 
 the current price of coals, for household pur- 
 poses, is about 18s. a ton. 
 
 In proceeding to examine the nature and 
 extent of the known available coal fields of 
 the colony, and comparing them with our pre- 
 sent and probable future consumption, both at 
 home and for exportation, we have procured 
 the information on which we are best able to 
 rely, and have made calculations accordingly. 
 
 The coal mines of the Australian Agricul- 
 tural Company are situated at Newcastle, at 
 the south entrance cf an excellent harbour, 
 called Port Hunter. The whole country to the 
 south is an extensive coal field, and presents 
 visible indications, on the most elevated cliffs, of 
 its richness and abundance, 
 
 In the year 1836, the total amount of coals 
 produced from these mines was 12,646 tons, 
 which was in fact the whole quantity of coals 
 produced in the colony. As we before stated, 
 the consumption of wood to a large extent in 
 
133 
 
 the towns, and exclusively in the country dis- 
 tricts, accounts for this apparently very small 
 consumption, as the yield of the mines in later 
 years has tended to show their inexhaustible 
 abundance, and the facility with which the 
 coal may be procured. 
 
 In the year 1849, the quantity of coals raised 
 at these mines was 33,390 tons, the estimated 
 official value of which was 10,543 12s. Od. 
 In 1850, the quantity raised was 45,084 tons, of 
 the estimated official value of 14,615 13s, Od. 
 In 1851, the quantity raised was 45,642 tons, of 
 the estimated official value of 17,894 4s. Od. 
 
 It will be seen from these returns, that in the 
 year 1 849, the estimated value of the coal raised 
 was at the rate of a fraction less than 6s. 6d. 
 per ton, a price which, at the rate at which 
 labour of this description always rules, shows 
 conclusively that the coal fields here are 
 worked with infinitely greater facility, and at 
 infinitely less cost, than those of Great Britain. 
 In 1850, the rate per ton was about 6s. 10|d., 
 the rate of wages being higher, and the de- 
 mand, both for home consumption and for ex- 
 portation, having very considerably increased. 
 In 1851, the price had risen to the rate of 
 7s. 6d. per ton, while, as the quantity raised 
 was not increased, but taken in the aggregate 
 with the produce of other mines, somewhat 
 diminished, it might be imagined that the de- 
 mand had fallen off. But the fact is, that the 
 demand for coals in the early part of 1 851 was 
 so great that the miners made extortionate de- 
 
134 
 
 mands for wages, which were withstood by the 
 proprietors, whilst after the discovery of the 
 gold fields, which took place in April, it was 
 with great difficulty that labour to work the 
 mines was procured at all, and consequently, 
 throughout the year, Sydney and the other 
 towns of the colony were miserably supplied 
 with coal, and that, for the most part, at an ex- 
 orbitant rate. 
 
 In the year 1849, the quantity of coal raised 
 from all other mines save those of the Austra- 
 lian Agricultural Company was 15,126^ tons, at 
 an official value of 4103 12s. Od., or at the 
 rate of 5s. 6d. per ton. In 1850, the quantity 
 raised was 26,132 tons, of the value of 8760 
 2s. Od., being at the rate of 6s. 7d. per ton. 
 In 1851, the quantity raised was 22,018 tons, of 
 the value of 7652 Os. Od., or at the rate of 
 7s. per ton. It is somewhat curious to remark, 
 that while the variations in the price, caused by 
 the increase of demand beyond the increase of 
 supply, rule in precisely the same ratio in re- 
 ference to coals produced from mines generally, 
 as to those produced from the mines of the 
 Company, yet the price obtained by the com- 
 pany has ruled throughout about 7| per cwt. 
 higher. The prestige of the former monopoly 
 still operates, and it is difficult to imagine what 
 social distress might have been caused by the 
 want of this necessary article for consumption, 
 or what injury our commerce might have sus- 
 tained, if that most unj ust monopoly had been 
 persisted in. The total quantity of coals pro- 
 
135 
 
 duced in the years 1849 to 1851, with the official 
 value, was as follows : 
 
 Tons. s. d. 
 
 1849 48,51 6* 14,647 7 4 
 
 1850 71,216i 23,375 15 
 
 1851 67,660 25,546 8 
 Thus, in the year 1850, the quantity of this 
 
 most inestimable of the earth's mineral trea- 
 sures obtained in this colony, was seven times 
 greater than it was in the year 1836, whilst the 
 price, we find, has been reduced since that time 
 from an average of 9s. or 10s. per ton, to an 
 average of from 5s. 6d. to 6s. 6d. per ton. 
 
 But large as this increase in production has 
 been, we find that it has not been by any means 
 commensurate with our present demand for 
 consumption. It has been, at various periods 
 for the last two years, almost a matter of favor 
 to obtain coals, even at the extravagant prices 
 asked by the dealers, and it must also be re- 
 membered that, even yet, coals are almost un- 
 known as fuel, excepting in the near vicinity of 
 the mines, and in Sydney, where the decrease 
 in the supply of firewood renders them an ac- 
 tual necessary of life. This decrease is going 
 on, and will continue to extend over wide dis- 
 tricts, until, on the general clearance of the 
 country round all the towns of the colony, we 
 shall have nothing but coal to resort to as fuel. 
 Even under present circumstances, as we have 
 before said, the increased supply has not met 
 the increased demand, and every year must 
 increase that demand in a twofold degree ; first 
 
136 
 
 by the natural increase of consumption by an 
 increasing population, and secondly by the 
 natural decrease of the only substitute which 
 we are likely to find for it in this colony to any 
 extent. Besides these causes of demand, we 
 have also to look to the growing wants of com- 
 merce, the growth of manufactures, into which 
 it enters so largely, the supply of steamboats, 
 perhaps of railways, and the incentives to 
 exportation which a high price from foreign 
 nations always affords. 
 
 But looking to the most extended develop- 
 ment of all these aids to demand, we are not 
 prepared to say that the coal fields at present 
 being worked, would not furnish an almost in- 
 exhaustible supply. But, fortunately for this 
 colony, there is no necessity to look to these 
 fields alone. Almost every great district in the 
 colony has been ascertained to possess in 
 abundance this great gift of Providence, and it 
 is in positions, for the most part, of compara- 
 tively easy access. To the south, to the west 
 and to the north it is to be found in our ranges 
 in immense quantities, and when enterprise, the 
 desire of gain, or the necessity of their position, 
 shall spur the inhabitants of these districts into 
 action, they will produce it with the like ease, 
 in the like abundance, and with the like profit 
 that the people of the Hunter have done. New- 
 castle may, like her namesake at home, be the 
 main source of the supply of the metropolis, 
 and her position on the coast enables her to do 
 so with great facility. The coal mines of 
 
137 
 
 Bathurst will not only supply the domestic 
 wants of the district, but by their very rich- 
 ness, combined with the other mineral wealth 
 with which they are closely associated, they 
 will, in course of time, like the Staffordshire 
 mines in England, force into existence towns 
 that will rival the Birminghams, the Wolver- 
 hamptons, the Bilstoiis, and the Dudleys at 
 home. 
 
 We have yet a word or two to say in regard 
 to the exportation of coal, and as this has been 
 going on only for a comparatively short time 
 our figures will be necessarily few, but they 
 involve some curious but highly important 
 facts. 
 
 The export of coals and coke, in the year 
 1849, was 10,423 tons, of the value of 4593 ; I 
 in 1850, it was 31,461 tons and 2950 bushels, 
 of the value of 15,558 ; in 1851, it was 15,292, 
 tons, of the value of 7550.* 
 
 It will be seen from these figures that the 
 export of 1850 was nearly three times as great 
 as it was in 1849, and in 1851 it was only one 
 half as great as in 1850. 
 
 The production of coals in each of these 
 latter years was about 70 per cent, greater 
 than in 1849 ; but deduct the export for 1849, 
 the amount left for home consumption was 
 38,093 tons. Deducting the exports in 1 850, 
 the amount left for home consumption was 
 
 j | 
 
 * The calculations for 1851 are only approximations, 
 the official returns not being made up. 
 
138 
 
 39,755 tons, or, in round numbers, only 1600 
 tons more than it was in 1849. In 1850, 
 deducting the export, the amount left for 
 home consumption was 52,368 tons. 
 
 The coal fields of Australia may then in every 
 sense be looked upon as one of the richest trea- 
 sures with which she is endowed. Planted 
 beneath and around us in such abundance as to 
 seem like the index hand of Providence, to 
 guide us to manufacturing wealth and com- 
 mercial greatness to the dark compact mass 
 which rests beneath the soil do we look in 
 future years for that wealth, which has hitherto 
 flowed so liberally from the scanty vegetation 
 existing upon its surface. 
 
 We have examined at some length and in 
 some detail the nature and capacity of our coal 
 mines, because on them must depend in a great 
 measure, the extent to which the metalliferous 
 treasures to which we shall presently refer, can 
 be made available. 
 
 MINERALS GENERALLY. 
 
 Amongst the more useful and valuable 
 mineral productions of New South Wales, we 
 may mention several kinds of freestone and 
 sandstone, admirably fitted for building purpo- 
 ses. Those are found in great abundance 
 all round the coast, and prevail to a great ex- 
 tent in and around the city of Sydney, which 
 might indeed be excavated into one vast quarry. 
 All the public buildings, and in fact almost all 
 
139 
 
 stores or houses of any pretension, are built of 
 this stone, which, though in some instances 
 friable from the action of the wind and rain, has 
 for the most part stood well. 
 
 There is abundance of clay suited for the 
 making excellent bricks, and in many parts for 
 the manufacture of delf and even porcelain. 
 A considerable quantity of articles of coarse 
 brown delf, such as jars, bottles, &c., are made 
 in the outskirts of the city. 
 
 In the interior granite is found extensively 
 through all the ranges, but as yet it has not 
 been much employed for building. Very 
 elegant marbles have been found, some beauti- 
 fully veined and bearing a high polish. They 
 are used pretty generally in fitting up gentle- 
 men's houses. 
 
 Slate has not yet been prepared and used 
 for building purposes, but large beds of it exist 
 in the ranges to the west and north. 
 
 A great variety of the lower classes of the 
 precious stones have been found, but hardly 
 yet in sufficient quantities to say whether they 
 may or may not hereafter form an item in the 
 list of the natural treasures of the colony. 
 Reasoning, however, from ordinary analogies, 
 it is probable this will be the case, and that the 
 development of our mines of gold and copper 
 will discover other hidden treasures. Jasper, 
 agate and onyx are frequently met with, and 
 topazes, amethysts, small rubies and emeralds 
 have also been found ; but to what extent they 
 exist is at present mere matter of speculation. 
 
140 
 
 Among the mineral productions of the country 
 it may, perhaps, be desirable to notice that in 
 the immediate neighbourhood of Sydney, from 
 the geological formation of the district, im- 
 mense quantities of sand accumulate, of the 
 very finest description for the manufacture of 
 glass. Small quantities of this sand have been 
 sent to England, and have been so highly 
 reported on as to make it somewhat doubtful 
 whether it would not answer to ship it from 
 the colony in large quantities. In addition to 
 this, the abundance of quartz rock throughout 
 the metalliferous districts of the interior, 
 would, if calcined, furnish inexhaustible 
 material for the manufacture of glass of the 
 very best description. In the same way the 
 decomposition of the granite rocks which 
 extend throughout the same districts, produces 
 porcelain clay fit for the manufacture of 
 articles of domestic use, and even for porcelain 
 of the first quality. Here again we find at our 
 hands the material for two most useful and 
 interesting branches of manufacture- manu- 
 factures which, while adding to the material 
 wealth of the colony, will encourage art by the 
 rewards they will hold out to colouring and 
 design. In both of these manufactures, too, 
 the abundance of coal on the spot will prove 
 a most advantageous auxiliary. 
 
 We now proceed to examine the other class 
 of our mineral pi eductions, metals and in 
 
141 
 
 these the color y of New South Wales may be 
 safely declared to vie in wealth with any 
 country in the known world. Wherever metalli- 
 ferous indications have been displayed, and 
 search has been made, the promise of the sur- 
 face has been fulfilled, but the search has 
 been made generally in so unscientific and 
 desultory a manner, that the discoveries made 
 have not been turned to profitable account. 
 The want of labour and machinery, the large 
 outlay of capital necessary for procuring both, 
 and the slow returns which must at first be 
 expected from any such investment, compared 
 with those arising from the ordinary pursuits 
 of commerce and agriculture, have deterred 
 enterprise from taking any very energetic or 
 persevering steps in this direction. Still, how- 
 ever, under all these disadvantages, some 
 attempts have been made, which have proved 
 sufficiently the abundance of our metalliferous 
 riches, and have also turned the attention of 
 the colonists here, and commercial men at 
 home, to consider the best means of making 
 those riches available. In the brief limits of 
 these papers it will be impossible to do more 
 than to give a very short and general outline of 
 the metals which have already been discovered 
 and the nature of the districts in which they 
 are found, but the increased interest which 
 every day affords to geological researches in 
 this colony, will soon furnish the student 
 whose attention may be excited by these pages, 
 with abundant means of information. 
 
142 
 
 IRON. 
 
 Iron, the most useful, and the most valuable 
 metal which has been placed in the bowels of 
 the earth for man's use, is ordinarily placed at 
 the bottom of the list, because from the beriin- 
 cient Providence which has supplied it abund- 
 antly in most parts of the world, its money 
 value is less in proportion to its weight, than 
 that of any other metal. It is found in grat 
 abundance almost throughout the colony of 
 New South Wales, and following the ordina^v 
 geological arrangement, is in> '> \ii-oughout 
 with coal. In the coal field* YT ?. . 
 River, iron ore of good quality prevails very 
 largely, but it has not hitherto, been worked. 
 In the western district, round Bathurst, which 
 may, in fact, be pre-eminently distinguished a 8 
 the metalliferous district of the colony, it is 
 found very abundantly, and the ores are of the 
 very highest character, such as magnetic 
 oxides, bog iron, &c. Along the Southern 
 Road too, iron ore of a similar valuable descrip- 
 tion has been found plentifully, and one mine, 
 called the Fitz Roy Mine, has been opened, 
 and on a small scale successfully worked. It 
 is situated in the dividing range of mountains 
 in the vicinity of the hill well known 
 to travellers on the Southern Road as the 
 Razorback. The iron produced from this mine 
 has proved to be of the highest quality, and 
 from it very superior articles of cutlery have 
 been manufactured in the colony. But to 
 make the speculation a good one, a very large 
 
outlay would be necessary, particularly as at 
 present tnere are no coal fields worked in the 
 vicinity. Blast furnaces would have to be 
 erected, with all the apparatus of rollers and 
 tilts for manufacturing the iron into bars, 
 sheets, or hoops, and as these would have to 
 be imported, a preliminary expenditure of ca- 
 pital of from 20,000 to 30,000 would be ab- 
 solutely necessary, and we see but little chance 
 of any such expenditure being made at pre- 
 sent. In fact, any such investment would not 
 and the sib ,,*""'&>$ many years. The roads of 
 eynp.^-- 1 "- - met first be improved to facilitate 
 carriage ; aim, the formation of railroads both 
 in the laying down the roads themselves, and 
 in the machinery employed upon them, will 
 increase the demand for iron till it grows to 
 that extent that our own exigencies will force 
 upon us the necessity of appealing to our own 
 productive resources. At present, and proba- 
 bly for many years to come, the process of 
 smelting is carried on by using green timber and 
 charcoal for fuel, and the ore run in this man- 
 ner naturally possesses nearly all the qualities 
 of steel. We have seen very excellent pocket 
 knives, and even surgical instruments, made 
 from iron manufactured in this manner, and 
 which is subjected to no subsequent process of 
 refining. 
 
 In some of the remoter districts, iron for the 
 use of the stations, in the formation of farming 
 implements, &c., has, in some rare instances, at 
 the suggestion of scientific men, been manufac- 
 
144 
 
 tured in the same way as it is in the interior of 
 theBiazils, and, I believe, in South Africa. 
 As the process is not, perhaps, very generally 
 known, and it may be advantag ously dissemi- 
 nated throughout the colony, it may not be 
 out of place to describe it here. 
 
 In a common smith's forge a space is cleared 
 out about four inches below the hole through 
 which the blast of the bellows enters the fire- 
 place. About eighteen inches from this hole a 
 clay form is made to keep the fire together, 
 and a strong fire of charcoal is blown up. A 
 quantity of from 70 Ibs. to 100 Ibs. of fine iron 
 ore, crushed to powder, is then strewed into 
 the fire, for the first hour and a half at the rate 
 of about four Ibs. every ten minutes, and during 
 the next two hours the remainder is gradually 
 strewn in. A strong fire must be kept up for 
 two hours and a half longer, making six hours 
 altogether. Some ores will require more, and 
 some less time in this smelting process, and 
 some will require lime to be strewed into the 
 fire. In the Brazils five or six forges are fre- 
 quently thus kept at work by a fall of water. 
 When the iron is sufficiently heated (in its 
 glowing liquid state) the top layer of charcoal 
 is taken off, and when the mass cools, 
 the lump of pure malleable iron remains 
 with fragments of charcoal adhering to 
 it, whit h are then broken off. It may then 
 be hammered out on the anvil to any size that 
 may be required. This process also is some- 
 times effected by large hammers worked by a 
 
145 
 
 water-wheel, but more frequently by hand 
 with sledge hammers. Of iron smelted this way 
 horse-shoe nails may be made so pliable that 
 they may be bent between the fingers, And 
 borers and other tools may be made, which by 
 plunging them in cold water when hot (not 
 quite at a red heat) will answer all the purposes 
 of common work, without steeling. In fact, 
 by care in tempering the iron during the pro- 
 cess of working, any degree of hardness may 
 be attained. A French gentleman of the name 
 of A. St. Miguel, in the province of Menas 
 Geries, supplies the mines with stamp heads 
 of wrought iron, of the weight ^f 300 Ibs. each, 
 which will last as long as three English cast 
 iron ones. 
 
 There can be little doubt that this system of 
 smelting for individual use might be advan- 
 tageously carried out. In most districts iron- 
 stone is found on the very surface of the 
 earth, and though it might require some little 
 patience to make experiments in order to 
 ascertain the nature of the ore, this would 
 soon be achieved, and the process then would 
 be perfectly simple. With the abundant lei- 
 sure which appertains to most persons in the 
 bush, this plan suggests a useful and economi- 
 cal occupation of time, and we confess we 
 should like to see it extend in the colony, as it 
 would give an impulse to the manufacture and 
 use of metals. We believe that this sys- 
 tem, simple as it may seem, was the 
 original foundation of iron smelting in Eng- 
 
 I 
 
146 
 
 land, and to these clay furnaces may be traced 
 those huge establishments, the roar of whose 
 blasts and the glare of whose fires rival the 
 terrors and the wonders of the craters of vol- 
 canoes. 
 
 "We have in the course of this digression 
 alluded to the use of lime as necessary in the 
 process of smelting some descriptions of iron 
 ores. Lime is an essential ingredient in the 
 smelting of most metallic ores, and is, therefore, 
 fortunately dispersed in large quantities over 
 most of the metalliferous regions of this coun- 
 try. 
 
 At present we have HO lead mine in process 
 of working, nor indeed has search been made 
 for this metal to sufficient extent to enable us 
 to state positively that any lead mine (properly 
 so called) exists ; but there is very little doubt 
 about the matter. In the Bathurst district in- 
 dications of lead in considerable quantities 
 occur, but it is principally in connection with 
 other metals, and geologists seem generally to 
 incline to the opinion, that for the production 
 of lead alone, it will not pay to work the veins 
 which have been discovered. 
 
 TIN. 
 
 There have been frequent rumours of the 
 discovery of tin mines in various parts of the 
 colony, and similar reports have also arisen 
 
147 
 
 with regard to South Australia ; but we do not 
 think that in any part of this island continent 
 either the selfish (we use the word in no sense 
 of disparagement) researches of the adventurer, 
 or the discoveries of the scientific geologist, as 
 yet justify the opinion that tin mines of any 
 richness or productiveness will be found. In 
 a country, however, so rich in mineral trea- 
 sures, and so remarkable for the unmistakeable 
 nature of its surface indications of those trea- 
 sures, it would be presumptuous to say that 
 this valuable and useful metal may not very 
 shortly be added to our list of products. 
 
 COPPER. 
 
 Perhaps the most striking metalliferous 
 feature of the Australasian continent is the 
 abundant indications which display them- 
 selves in almost every direction of the exis- 
 tence of copper. In almost all the ranges 
 these indications prevail in a greater or less 
 degree, sometimes in one variety of ore and 
 sometimes in another, and not unfrequently in 
 nearly a pure state, as if the native metal had 
 been smelted by the operation of subterranean 
 heat. 
 
 In the southern part of the continent these 
 indications are the most rich, and as yet they 
 have in that district proved themselves the 
 true index of metallic wealth. In the province 
 of South Australia, there were in the year 
 1851 upwards of sixty mining companies 
 s 2 
 
148 
 
 established, more than fifty of which in- 
 vested their capital in copper raining. Some of 
 these mines have proved very rich, and the 
 < original proprietors have amassed immense 
 sums of money, either by working the mines 
 themselves or disposing of them to English 
 and Colonial Joint-stock Companies. The 
 Burra Burra Mines are perhaps the richest 
 copper mines in the known world, at least as 
 \ far as the yield has at present developed 
 itself. Besides the very large shipments of 
 ore which have been made to Europe, there 
 were no less than five large smelting establish- 
 ments in active operation in the province. We 
 use the past tense in speaking of these Mining 
 and Smelting Companies, because from the 
 enormous emigration which has taken place 
 from the province to the sister colonies in con- 
 sequence of the gold discoveries, many of the 
 works are for the present abandoned. There 
 is no labour to work the mines, and the wealth 
 which has sustained the province for the last 
 ten years, and which has enabled her to pro- 
 l gress in population and importance, with 
 I almost unequalled rapidity, now lies dormant 
 \ on the earth. To the same cause may be 
 attributed the comparatively little success 
 which has attended mining operations in this 
 colony. 
 
 The prevalence of other pursuits, and the 
 deficiency of labour which pr< vailed, even for 
 the successful prosecution of them, left none 
 for the laborious enterprise of mining. 
 
149 
 
 In South Australia copper became the staple 
 article of export, and upon it depended the 
 prosperity of the country. In New South 
 Wales, wool, tallow, and other pastoral and 
 agricultural produce, were the means of 
 wealth. 
 
 Consequently, mining operations were few, 
 and of very limited extent. Still, however, 
 several private proprietors, and one or two 
 companies, have opened mines, and have 
 worked them with considerable success. 
 
 The principal copper district yet known in 
 the colony is in the Western District, around 
 Bathurst ; at Carcoar, Molong, the Cornish 
 Settlement, Wellington, and Yass. The prin- 
 cipal mines yet opened are, the Coonabing 
 Mine, about two miles south-west of Carcoar, 
 the Cornish Settlement Copper Mines, the Mo- 
 long Mines, and the Belubula Mines. 
 
 In all these mines shafts have been sunk, 
 and a considerable quantity of ore raided. These 
 ores are of a valuable kind, and of great variety, 
 and indicate the existence of copper in vast 
 quantities. More conspicuously among them 
 are found silicate of copper, blue and green 
 carbonate, phosphate, red oxide of copper, 
 black oxide of copper, manganese, pyrites, and 
 tile copper ore. At several of these mines 
 smelting works have been erected, and the 
 process of smelting with green timber is car- 
 ried on successfully. 
 
 This last operation is of very great import- 
 ance, for rich as the ores raised are on all 
 s 3 
 
150 
 
 hands admitted to be, the distance from the 
 sea coast, and the state of the roads in the 
 colony at present, would prevent them being 
 brought to a port of shipment with any profit. 
 The want of skilled labour to work the 
 mines has been severely felt, and mistakes 
 have been made from want of knowledge and 
 experience, which have tended to cast dis- 
 credit on the mines, and to bring their rich- 
 ness in question. During the last two 
 years, however, a good number of miners 
 have been imported from England, and when 
 the gold fever has, in some measure, subsided, 
 there can be little doubt that unpretending 
 copper will form as valuable an item in the 
 products of the colony. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 We now come to the first of metals, and in 
 the present, state of excitement it is almost 
 difficult to state calmly and concisely the facts 
 connected with the first discovery, and the pre- 
 sent search for this metal. 
 
 Scientific men, both in the colony and in 
 Europe, have predicted for some years past, 
 from the geological indications of the country, 
 that many of the mountainous ranges of the 
 Australian Continent would be found to be 
 auriferous. 
 
 They were similar in character to the 
 mountains of the other gold districts, both in 
 Europe and in America. 
 
151 
 
 In speaking on this subject the Reverend 
 W. B. Clarke, a geologist of high scientific 
 attainments, and who for many years past has 
 been deeply engaged in the study of the 
 geology of this colony, makes the fol- 
 lowing observations : " Years ago gold 
 was found in small specimens by the 
 earlier convicts ; but the value of the indica- 
 tions was not then known, and the facts were 
 concealed. In 1841, the author of these re- 
 marks again brought gold from the very basin 
 of the river now supplying it (theMacquarie). 
 This gold was exhibited to the members of the 
 Government and of the Legislature in the 
 Council Chamber itself, and to numbers of 
 persons in the community who have testified 
 to the fact : it was spoken of openly ; it has 
 been discussed in public journals ; it was made 
 the ground of enquiries into the probable ex- 
 tensive auriferous character of the colony, and 
 from the result of those enquiries, conducted 
 on scientific principles, and backed by occa- 
 sional additional proofs, it was openly declared 
 that gold exists " in considerable abundance in 
 our schists and quartzites" ; and further, the 
 very region was pointed out in which it would 
 be found. Still no one seemed willing to pro- 
 fit by the disclosure, made as it was cautiously 
 for reasons which can be appreciated when it 
 is considered that the country was still a penal 
 settlement. Th fact was not doubted, but 
 the public mind was directed to another 
 channel. So in England, though an illus- 
 
152 
 
 trious geologist (Sir R. Murchison) had 
 declared his suspicion that Australia offered in 
 some respects a parallel to the Ural, and 
 though another in Russia had done the same, 
 and though the former had spoken so late as 1 849 
 to the Ministers of England upon the subject 
 of gold in Australia, all the encouragement he 
 received was in being told not to let them 
 " have too much of a good thing.' 1 
 
 It will be seen then, notwithstanding the 
 overwhelming surprise with which the late dis- 
 covery has been regarded, both by the colo- 
 nists themselves, and by Europeans, that 
 amongst men acquainted with the geological for- 
 mation of the country, men of science, and even 
 by men moving in official circles, the announce- 
 ment of " the great fact" must have been in 
 some measure, looked for. But there were 
 many and cogent reasons, why the knowledge 
 possessed on the subject should be allowed to 
 remain unfruitful. We believe, even among 
 scientific men, while they were satisfied of the 
 auriferous character of the rocks of the Aus- 
 tralian cordillera, there existed very con- 
 siderable doubt as to the precious metal 
 being found in any such quantities 
 as would lead to gold seeking ever becoming a 
 profitable pursuit. The British Colonial Go- 
 vernment, ever averse to any changes which, 
 might disturb official laziness, cared not to en- 
 courage the discovery of so fruitful a bone of 
 contention as the precious metals in this distant, 
 enterprising, and enthusiastic community ; the 
 
153 
 
 offered wealth was encumbered with all the 
 accompaniments of royalties, territorial regu- 
 lations, and prerogative rights, and all the 
 mass of grumbling disaffection and resistance 
 which have ever followed in their train. They, 
 therefore, were content to leave New South 
 Wales to grow fat on its wool and tallow, be- 
 lieving, and probably with much truth, that in so 
 doing they woul d be better providin g afavourable 
 field for the redundant population of the mother 
 country. Amongst the colonial community, too, 
 there were many causes why these foretellings 
 should have been regarded coldly. Those who 
 had large stakes in the colony, whose capital 
 was invested in agricultural or pastoral pur- 
 suits, would naturally look not only with 
 distrust, but with dismay, at the introduction 
 of a pursuit the attractions of which would 
 necessarily absorb that scant labour on which 
 their very existence was dependent. Among 
 the rich then, the selfish law of self-preserva- 
 tion was at work, while among the poor, in their 
 minds, the idea of men picking up gold in gullies 
 and on the banks of rivers, of washing earth 
 in tin dishes or rocking it in cradles, had not 
 yet found a local habitation. To tell them that 
 because the primary rocks were displaced from 
 their usual order in this colony that quartz 
 and schist were found on the surface that 
 therefore gold was to be hud for the seeking, 
 was to make thf m smile in wonder and con- 
 tempt. 
 
 The wonderful discovery in California soon 
 
154 
 
 however put an end to this ignorance. The 
 mystery, as to the pursuit of gold digging, 
 was dispelled, and thousands on thousands 
 hurried across mighty deserts and rolling 
 oceans, to gather every man for himself his 
 share of the golden treasure. This colony felt 
 the impetus, and without pausing to consider 
 the prognostications of the existence of similar 
 riches here, hundreds and thousands rushed 
 to the American Dorado, leaving behind them 
 the treasure caves of the Australian moun- 
 tains, doomed still for a little period to remain 
 closed and sealed. But the public mind was 
 now alive to the subject of gold finding, and in 
 1850, a word, a hint, a suspicion of the exis- 
 tence of gold, was stronger than the most com- 
 plete and satisfactory deductions of science in 
 1840. 
 
 An adventurer from New South Wales to 
 California was struck by the similarity of the 
 formation o f the gold districts of California to 
 those which he had traversed in the county of 
 Bathurst in this colony. He wrote to a friend 
 in Sydney, assuring him he could point out a 
 gold field in New South Wales. The convic- 
 tion grew upon him stronger and stronger, till 
 at last, quitting the successful pursuit of gold 
 in California, impelled by an irresistible faith 
 in the opinion he had formed, he arrived in 
 the colony. Almost without means he com- 
 menced what all his friends thought his vi- 
 sionary search, and after many disappoint- 
 ments and severe trials, in the month of 
 
155 
 
 May, 1851, Edward Hammond Hargraves 
 announced and unmistakeably proved, that 
 New South Wales was to take its place 
 amongst the richest gold countries of the 
 known globe. 
 
 Mr. Hargraves did not pretend to arrive at 
 his conclusion, that gold was to be found in 
 New South Wales, on any very precise 
 scientific deductions. It was the surface in- 
 dications in the first place that struck him, and 
 the similarity of these indications in California 
 and in Aus'ralia was so great, that he could 
 not resist the opinion that if gold was to be 
 found in one, it was in the other also. Mr. 
 Hargraves, however, had the opportunity of 
 digging and seeing others dig successfully for 
 gold in California, and thus when he came here to 
 try the same experiment, and found the same 
 formations in the same position, he was the 
 more encouraged in his undertaking. He was 
 geologist sufficient to distinguish these forma- 
 tions one from another, and rightly judged that 
 if the quartz veins of the mountain ranges in 
 California produced gold, they would be 
 likely to do so elsewhere. 
 
 To the scientific geologist, however, the 
 analogy displayed in the Australian cordillera 
 to other prolific gold producing countries was 
 so striking, that it could hardly fail to ensure 
 conviction. The same rocks which produced 
 gold in other countries, were foaad in 
 Australia under the same normal conditions. 
 The mountain ranges in the gold district, (the 
 
156 
 
 western counties) exhibit the same disturbances 
 in their geological formation as exist in the 
 Ural mountains and in California; while the 
 same minerals, metals, and fossils are found in 
 abundance in all. 
 
 The same evidence which leads us to the 
 conclusion that gold exists in Australia, would 
 also tend to the belief that it is distributed in 
 considerable quantities, not here and there in 
 isolated spots, but throughout the ranges 
 where the same derangement of the primary 
 rocks prevails, and this conclusion has been 
 the more firmly established by the discovery 
 of gold in great abundance, under similar in- 
 dications, in the province of Victoria. The 
 field, in fact, seems almost illimitable, and 
 calculation grows into speculation in 
 any effort to determine the results which may 
 ensue from it. 
 
 The discovery of Mr. Hargraves was an- 
 nounced to the colonists on the 8th May, 1851. 
 The field he had discovered was in the county 
 of Wellington, at the foot of what is called the 
 " Big Hill." These diggings, extending over a 
 very considerable district, have subsequently 
 been termed the Ophir diggings, and although 
 their early richness has somewhat declined, 
 there is little reason to doubt that they will 
 yet prove of enormous wealth, under the de- 
 velopment which skill and capital will afford. 
 The gold is found principally in the bed and on 
 the banks of creeks generally tributaries of 
 the liver Macquarie. 
 
157 
 
 Early in June, g'\ld was reported by the 
 Colonial Geologist (Mr. Stutchbury) to exist 
 in considerable abundance at the junction of 
 the Turon and Macquarie rivers, and this 
 having been discovered to be true, a very large 
 number of gold seekers repaired there, and the 
 banks of the Turon and the numerous 
 creeks which are tributary to it, have since 
 been the principal point of attraction to the 
 diggers of New South Wales. In June, 1851, 
 600 licenses were granted by the government 
 tu dig in these localities, and in July 1500. In 
 a month or two after, as many as 5000 or 6000 
 people were assembled at the Turon, and for 
 some time the yield must have averaged very 
 considerably over 10,OUO ounces a week. A 
 township was established called Sofala, and it 
 is now a thriving and considerable place. 
 
 The search for gold now, however, prevailed 
 in every district in the colony, and not a day 
 passed without the news of some fresh dis- 
 covery appearing in the colonial journals. 
 Many of these reports were, doubtless, much 
 exaggerated, and probably in some instances 
 entirely unfounded ; but it is very likely that 
 in most instances small quantities of gold were 
 found, and though the search for more, may 
 have as yet been un uccessful, because 
 unskilfully prosecuted, these scattered locali- 
 ties may yet prove to be very ri';h in the 
 precious metal. 
 
 The discovery of gold at the Meroo Creek, 
 
158 
 
 in the beginning of July, 1851, which falls into 
 the Cudgegong Iliver about fifteen miles above 
 its junction with the Macquarie, was the next 
 step of material importance in the gold dis 
 covery. The discovery was in this spot made 
 by an aboriginal native, who having informed 
 his master (Dr. Kerr) of the circumstance, 
 the latter proceeded to the spot, and at once 
 secured several large blocks of quartz richly 
 impregnated with gold. The largest of these 
 blocks weighed 76 Ibs. and yielded 60 Ibs. of 
 pure gold. The whole quantity of gold and 
 quartz together weighed about 300 Ibs., and the 
 quantity of pure gold extracted from it was 
 106 Ibs., the largest quantity of gold, we believe, 
 ever discovered in one mass. The gold dis- 
 covered by Dr. Kerr, with the exception of some 
 specimens kept by him, was sold for 4160. 
 
 From this period a considerable number of 
 diggers have attended at Meroo Creek and a 
 considerable quantity of gold has been extracted, 
 but it is expected that very rich results may be 
 looked for from the investment of capital in 
 gold operations in this locality. 
 
 The spot on which the large mass we have 
 alluded to was found has been leased to an 
 association of persons who intend establishing 
 a quartz -crushing establishment there. 
 
 About the same period gold was discovered 
 in considerable abundance at Louisa Creek, 
 another tributary of the Macquarie, and a con- 
 siderable number of men have since been em- 
 ployed there. 
 
159 
 
 In October, 1851, diligent search having been 
 made for months previously, an extensive gold 
 field was discovered in the southern district of 
 the country, in the county of St. Vincent, and 
 this is now a favorite resort of the diggers, who 
 are at present employed on two creeks running 
 into the river Araluen. The yield from these 
 diggings is very extensive, and an escort for the 
 conveyance of the gold to Sydney has been 
 established. 
 
 But by far the richest gold field yet dis- 
 covered in Australia, is to be found still further 
 to the south, in the province of Victoria. 
 Gold was first discovered in any quantity in 
 this province, at Mount Ballarat, in the county 
 of Grant, where the yield was found to be very 
 great, and the gold of fine quality. These 
 diggings, however, were soon, in a great 
 measure, superseded by the discovery of a 
 field of unexampled wealth at Mount Alex- 
 ander, to the north-west of Melbourne. The 
 immense quantity of gold found here, at- 
 tracted thousands of adventurers from the 
 neighbouring colonies, and it is computed at 
 the present time there are not less than 50,000 
 persons employed at these diggings. 
 
 The quality of the gold discovered at all 
 the Australian fields is considered very 
 fine, very much of it being considerably 
 over standard gold. The price it has 
 fetched in the colony generally may 
 be said to have averaged about 3 6s. 
 but this price has been less governed by the 
 
160 
 
 positive value of the gold than by the pressure 
 on the money market occasioned by the acces- 
 sion of so enormous an amount to the export- 
 able produce of the colony. 
 
 The value of the gold shipped from Sydney up 
 to the present time, 1st April 1 852, is 1,200,000 
 but a large allowance is to be made in this for 
 gold received from Victoria. Up to the 1st April 
 1852 the amount of gold produced in the 
 province of Victoria was 563,471 ounces - the 
 value of which in the colony, say at the rate 
 of 3 5s. per oz., is 1,831,081. There is 
 however little reason to doubt that new and 
 abundant fields will be in continual course of 
 discovery, in fact several districts have been 
 pointed out by the scientific gentlemen em- 
 ployed by the government, which have all the 
 indications of being highly auriferous. 
 
 The regulations under which gold is allowed 
 to be dug for may be briefly described as 
 follows : 
 
 All persons digging or searching for alluvial 
 gold, to take out a license, the license fee being 
 at the rate of 1 10s. Od. per month. All 
 gold procured without due authority is liable 
 to seizure, in whose possession soever it be. 
 Persons applying for license, require to prove 
 they are not absent from hired service. Claims 
 to work unoccupied ground to be marked out 
 on the following scale : 
 
 1. Fifteen feet frontage to either side of a 
 river or main creek. 
 
 2. Twenty feet of the bed of a tributary to 
 
161 
 
 a river or main creek, extending across its 
 whole breadth. 
 
 3. Sixty feet of the bed of a ravine or water 
 course. 
 
 4. Twenty feet square of table land or river 
 flats. 
 
 These claims to be secured to parties only as 
 they may continue to hold licenses for the same, 
 except in case of flood or accident. Licenses 
 liable to be cancelled on conviction of the 
 holders of selling spirits, or of any disorderly 
 uad riotous conduct. Persons found working 
 alluvial gold, on public or private lands, with- 
 out a license, to pay a double license fee. 
 Disputes as to claims to be settled by the Com- 
 missioners. Licenses to dig on lands alienated 
 from the crown, to be issued only to the pro- 
 prietors, or persons authorized by the pro- 
 prietors in writing to apply for the same. The fee 
 for such licenses to be 15s. per month. 
 Licenses for draining ponds and water holes, 
 for the purpose of obtaining alluvial gold, to 
 be obtainable on paying as many license fees 
 as shall be proportioned to the area of the 
 water hole calculating twenty-five feet square 
 for every license. Reservoirs and dams for the 
 purpose of washing gold, to be constructed on 
 the permission of the Commissioners. Owners 
 of claims employing labourers and paying 
 license fees for them, allowed to tran>fer such 
 licenses to other labourers. All persons 
 searching for matrix gold, by working aurif- 
 erous quartz veins, to pay a royalty of ten per 
 
162 
 
 cent, on all gold obtained, to an officer 
 appointed by the Government. The party 
 working the vein to come under a bond in the 
 sum of 1000 to pay fuch royalty, the 
 Government officer to reside on the land, and 
 to have access to the buildings and premises 
 and to ail books and accounts connected 
 with the production of gold. All buildings, 
 and machinery, erected on the land to be con- 
 sidered as additional security to the Govern- 
 ment. The claim to consist of half a mile, 
 and in the course of the vein, with a quarter 
 of a mile on each side of the vein reserved for 
 building purposes, &c. The right to 
 cut timber and to use water on the 
 land to be granted ; the claim to be for- 
 feited by neglecting to pay the prescribed 
 royalty; by not employing twenty persons 
 or machinery, calculating one horse power to 
 seven men , within six months after the appli- 
 cation for the claim has been accepted ; or by 
 ceasing to employ that number subsequently ; 
 by the employment of unlicensed persons to 
 work alluvial gold on the claim, or violating in 
 any way the terms of the bond. The duration 
 of the claims to be three years, to be extended 
 further under instructions from Her Majesty's 
 government, if the conditions of the bond have 
 all been fulfilled. No portion of land, previ- 
 ously occupied and claimed for alluvial g"ld, 
 will bo open for selection for matrix gold while 
 it continues to be worked for the former. The 
 royalty for working auriferous quartz on private 
 
163 
 
 lands to be five per cent. Persons occupying 
 portions of the gold field for trading purposes, 
 to pay a license fee of 1 10s. Od. per month. 
 
 The life of the gold digger is very hard and 
 laborious, and is subject to many hardships 
 and privations. At the Turon and Ophir 
 diggings the operations are often suspended by 
 overwhelming floods, while down at Mount 
 Alexander, the most distressing state of things 
 prevail" from the want of water for the ordinary 
 purposes of life. 
 
 The equipment of the gold digger is simple, 
 even to rudeness clad in his red or blue 
 wollen shirt, fustian trowsers, nnd hat of any 
 material or shape, varying to suit either the 
 fancy or the convenience of the wearer ; his 
 outer man presents a wild and somewhat savage 
 appearance. A light tent made of oiled calico 
 is his shelter, and wrapped in his blanket, he 
 here sleeps with that soundness which hard 
 labour and fatigue are sure to produce. The 
 shovel pointed at the end the pick short and 
 stout, crow-bars of different sizes, tin dishes, 
 buckets to carry earth and water in, and the 
 cradle, form the apparatus of the alluvial gold 
 digger. Of course when capital shall be exten- 
 sively employed, the machinery will be much 
 more complicated and expensive, but we believe 
 the returns will be proportionately large and 
 much more certain. 
 
 It is a gratifying fact, and one with which 
 we are happy to be able to conclude this 
 paper, that contrary to the experience of all 
 v 
 
164 
 
 ages, in other auriferous countries, the dis- 
 covery of gold in New South Wales has not 
 induced any lawlessness or disorder ; nor has 
 it superseded the ordinary pursuits of the 
 country. On the contrary, there is every 
 reason to hope that by the stimulus which will 
 be given to population and capital in the colony 
 by this discovery, increased energy will be 
 given to those branches of industry which 
 have hitherto so successfully advanced our 
 position amongst British dependencies. 
 
PART IV. 
 
 Agriculture Horticulture the Vine, and its products. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 THE pursuit of agriculture has never been a 
 favorite one in this colony. This has arisen 
 not as some would have it from any scarci'y 
 of arable land, but from the greater profit and 
 consequently greater attraction to capitalists 
 of other avocations pastoral and commercial. 
 The occasional droughts, too, and the heavy 
 losses which they sometimes entail upon the 
 agriculturist, deter many from entering upon 
 this branch of industry. 
 
 There are few of the class designed em- 
 phatically "the farmers" in England. The 
 agriculturists of Australia are for the most part 
 either gentlemen who carry on a little farming 
 as an adjunct to other pursuits, or persons 
 cultivating small portions of land either their 
 own property or held at low rents from some 
 of the groat proprietors. A great deal of land 
 is held upon what are termed clearing leases 
 the removal of the timber and the subjection 
 of the land being held equivalent to rent, and 
 a nominal payment only being exacted for 
 the purpose of asserting the proprietorship. 
 The simplicity of this species of tenantcy and 
 v 2 
 
166 
 
 the little outlay which is required on the part 
 of the tenant renders it advantageous to a 
 certain extent; but it has its evils. The 
 tenant invests no capital in his undertaking ; 
 generally speaking he has little or none to 
 invest. A few implements of husbandry, and 
 a little store of salt beef, flour, tea, and sugar 
 are sufficient to start him in his enterprise, and 
 for a habitation, a hut of bark, or at best of 
 slabs, erected with his own hands, is deemed 
 sufficient. Just so much 1-ibour and skill as are 
 necessary to procure remunerative crops with 
 as little delay as possible are applied, but no 
 more. But little attention is paid to scientific 
 principles, even if the farmer knows anything 
 about them, which is not often the case, and 
 consequently the lands of better quality are 
 often completely exhausted. In short it is the 
 interest of the tenant to make the most of his 
 holding, and with the least possible trouble, 
 during the time it is in his possession, without 
 reference to its permanent improvement. 
 
 The extreme simplicity of farming operations 
 in New South Wales is, indeed, one of their 
 chief characteristics. Chemical science and 
 mechanical aids, as applied to these operations 
 by the cultivators of Europe, are but little 
 understood and still less resorted to. In the 
 case of drought, for instance, much evil 
 might be warded off with a little care and 
 industry. There are many situations where a 
 complete system of irrigation might be carried 
 out with a very small outlay, and yet the farmers 
 
167 
 
 prefer to go on as heretofore trusting to 
 Providence a"d grumbling throughout the 
 dry seasons. There are very many exceptions, 
 no doubt, and in some cases the force of 
 example has brought about a better system 
 of cultivation throughout whole neighbour- 
 hoods ; but taken as a class, the farmers of 
 New South Wales adhere to the more primitive 
 methods, and trouble themselves very little 
 about either chemistry or mechanics. 
 
 Agriculture has not, like many other 
 pursuits, progressed in a rate corresponding to 
 the increase of the population, but never- 
 theless, it has progressed to a very material 
 extent. Formerly we were dependent almost 
 wholly upon foreign supplies for our bread 
 stuffs. At present, although not wholly inde- 
 pendent of these supplies, our position in this 
 respect has very greatly improved. The pub- 
 lished official returns extend only to the 
 31st December, 1850, and include the colony 
 of Victoria, then known by the more humble 
 appellation of the Port Philip District. They 
 form, however, a very fair guide, for although the 
 population of the two colonies has been 
 materially increased since the gold discoveries, 
 the pickaxe and cradle have proved so much 
 more attractive than the plough and harrow, 
 that there has, upon the whole, been little if 
 any extension of agricultural operations. But 
 it is doubtful whether there has been much 
 diminution, especially in New South Wales 
 proper ; for the bulk of those who had farm- 
 v2 
 
168 
 
 steads, contrived, even in the midst of their 
 gold-hunting speculations, to look sharply after 
 seed time and harvest, rightly judging that the 
 coveted metal was more likely to be procured 
 by these means than by any other. If some of 
 the farming class neglected their legitimate 
 pursuits altogether, others on the contrary 
 extended them, which would keep matters 
 pretty even. 
 
 In 1843 there were imported 39-5,374 bushels 
 of wheat, 583 bushels of maize, 61,361 bushels 
 of barley, oats, and peas. 6,941,7601bs. of flour 
 and bread, 547 tons of potatoes, and 1,678,208 
 Ibs. of rice; the value of the whole, as entered 
 in the returns of imports, b^ing 112,387. In 
 the course of the same year there were ex- 
 ported 273 bushels ot wheat, 4687 bushels of 
 maize, 1870 bushels of barley, oats and peas, 
 3.146,192 Ibs. of flour and bread, and 47 tons 
 of potatoes. Official value of the whole 
 13,486. Thus the excess in value of imports 
 over exports during that year was 98,901. 
 
 In 1850, there were imported 84,562 bushels 
 of wheat, 100 bushels of maize, 71,896 bushels 
 of bailey, oats, and peas, 2,551,842 Ibs. of 
 flour and bread, 917,952 Ibs. of rice, 
 and 1524 tons of potatoes. Official value of 
 the whole 32,162. During the same year, 
 there were exported 6964 bushels of wheat, 
 1712 bushels of maiz^, 20,526 bushels of barley, 
 oats, and peas, 5,003,078 Ibs. of flour and 
 bread, and 52 tons potatoes. Official value of 
 the whole 24,^04. In this year, therefore, 
 
169 
 
 the excess of imports over exports was only 
 7958. 
 
 The quantity of land under cultivation in 
 1843, exclusive of gardens and orchards, was as 
 follows : Under wheat, 78,083 acres, yielding 
 1,000,225 bushels; under maize, 29,061 acres, 
 yielding 719,358 bushels ; under barley, 5727 
 acres, yielding 95,658 bushels ; under rye, 614 
 acres, yielding 5145 bushels ; under oats, 4537 
 acres, yielding 92 268 bushels ; under millet, 42 
 acres, yielding 410 bushels; under potatoes, 
 5872 acres, yielding 16,392 tons ; under tobacco, 
 655 acres, yielding 6098 cwt ; under sown grasses 
 oats, and barley for hay, 21,162 acres, yielding 
 27,774 tons. The total number of acres under 
 crop during this year, was 145,653; and the 
 population at this time, numbered 1 65,541 souls. 
 
 The same returns for the year 1850, show 
 the following results. Quantity of land under 
 crop for wheat, 99,230 acres, yielding a produce 
 of 1,477,749 bushels ; under maize, 23,197 
 acres, yielding 457,106 bushels ; under barley, 
 9740 acres, yielding 164,768 bushels ; under 
 oats, 7790 acres, yielding 152,848 bushels; 
 under rye, 293 acres, yielding 5529 bushels ; 
 under millet, 42 acres, yielding 848 bushels ; 
 under potatoes, 7074 acres, yislding 15,0 12 tons ; 
 under tobacco, 510 acres, yielding 4923 cwt. ; 
 under sown grasses, oats, and barley for hay, 
 49,948 acres, yielding 65,731 tons. The total 
 number of acres under crop during the year, 
 was 196,824, and the population at this time 
 numbered 26i,503 souls. 
 
170 
 
 These returns, as already stated, do not in- 
 clude either gardens or orchards, neither do 
 they include the vineyards which are now 
 scattered over the whole face of the country, 
 and from which one of its most valuable 
 products is obtained. 
 
 There is, besides, a good deal of cultivation in 
 the pastoral districts of the interior of which 
 no returns are furnished. Few stations of any 
 magnitude are without their " cultivation pad- 
 docks," where grain and vegetables are raised 
 for the use of the squatter and his establishment, 
 and sometimes tobacco for sheep-dressings. 
 Agricultural operations are greatly restricted in 
 the pastoral districts by the working of the 
 Government regulations, which, not only 
 prohibit the sale, but even the exchange of the 
 produce thus raised upon lands held under 
 depasturing licenses. Agriculture, therefore, 
 may be described as an operation from hand to 
 mouth, as far as these districts are concerned. 
 Still at very many stations the amount of 
 cultivation is quite respectable. Large, well- 
 managed, and tastefully laid out gardens are 
 common, and even tolerable orchards and vine- 
 yardsof course on a small scale are occa- 
 sionally met with. 
 
 Around the metropolis, as well as in the 
 vicinity of most of the larger towns, are many 
 highly-improved market gardens and orchards, 
 to say nothing of those attached to the 
 mansions of the rich, and the cottages of the 
 poor ; and cultivated as a matter of scientific 
 
171 
 
 and tasteful recreation, or as a relief from more 
 severe and oppressive toil. 
 
 The extent of the colony, and the variations 
 of temperature in different parts of it, owing 
 as well to a variance in altitude, as to a 
 variance in geographical position, have given 
 it peculiar advantages for agricultural and 
 horticultural purposes. There is, probably, 
 no known production of the vegetable world 
 which might not be raised in some parts of 
 New South Wales. Even as it is, there are 
 few fruits and vegetables which may not, when 
 in season, be procured at a cheap rate in the 
 Sydney markets, and those which are at 
 present most scarce, are grown in abundance, 
 and without difficulty, at no great distance, 
 gooseberries, for instance, which can be raised 
 only by very great care near Sydney, owing to 
 the warmth of the climate, are excellent and 
 abundant about Goulburn, and even nearer. 
 The contemplated railway between Sydney 
 and Goulburn will be the means, among other 
 and greater advantages, therefore, of bringing 
 us an abundant supply of this fruit. At 
 present it is found cheaper to import goose- 
 berries from Van Diemen's Land. 
 
 Many experiments have been made of late, 
 with a view to the development of new agri- 
 cultural resources. Some have proved failures, 
 but more have turned out satisfactorily. 
 Others again, either fiom having been only 
 partially tried or badly managed, have not led 
 to results sufficiently definite to warrant any 
 
172 
 
 distinct assertion as to whether they have 
 failed or succeeded. Cotton, for instance, has 
 been raised with such facility, and of such ex- 
 cellent quality, that there is scarcely a doubt 
 of its becoming ultimately a valuable and im- 
 portant export. The sugar cane, too, has been 
 cultivated with success in the northern districts, 
 but whether it will be possible to produce 
 sugars sufficiently cheap to compete with those 
 of Manila, or with the sugar producing com- 
 munities of Polynesia, which are just begin- 
 ning to struggle for a footing in the markets of 
 the southern hemisphere, is very doubtful. 
 
 Practical agriculture in New South Wales 
 differs in many essentials from practical 
 agriculture in Great Britain. The " farming 
 man" from the latter country, therefore, has a 
 good deal to learn, and some little, perhaps, to 
 unlearn before he can be said to have completed 
 his training for agricultural pursuits at the 
 antipodes. The variations in climate the re- 
 versal of the seasons the peculiar features and 
 qualities of the unfilled lands and the difficulty 
 of procuring many of the necessary dressings, 
 are the principal causes of the difference 
 alluded to. 
 
 Of course there are very many persons who, 
 having thoroughly mastered all these local 
 difficulties, are in a position to impart to others 
 the necessary instruction. And there is no 
 unwillingness to do this. But the tyro cannot 
 go rambling about the country from homestead 
 to homestead, in search of information ; and 
 
there are unfortunately no works of instruction 
 upon this subject to be procured. Many ex- 
 ceedingly valuable papers on the subject of 
 agriculture appear from time to time in the 
 public journals ; but, as everybody knows, 
 these journals are themselves ephemeral, and 
 the lessons of practical wisdom and ex- 
 perience imparted through their columns, ne- 
 cessarily partake of the same character. Con- 
 sequently they pass into oblivion without 
 leaving behind them a record of their existence. 
 A series of very able papers on the sub- 
 ject of grain culture, from the pen of a gentle- 
 man occupying perhaps the highest place 
 among the promoters and guardians of 
 agriculture in the colony, appeared a year or 
 two ago in the Herald. An excellent little 
 pamphlet upon cotton growing clear, practical, 
 and unassuming has been issued by Mr. 
 Gardiner, of the Hunter River district, and 
 there have been several other productions of a 
 similar character; to say nothing of the 
 various letters from correspondents in the 
 newspapers, and the reports and addresses, &c., 
 at meetings of the different associations from 
 time to time for the encouragement of agricul- 
 ture, horticulture, vine growing, and other 
 pursuits of a similar nature. That which is 
 wanted, and greatly wanted too, is a complete 
 practical work, containing a synopsis of all 
 these scattered materials. 
 
 It is to be hoped that some such work will 
 be undertaken ere long. It would, however, 
 
174 
 
 be beyond the scope of these papers to do 
 more than touch lightly upon the leading 
 characteristics of the various branches of pro- 
 duction and productive industry to which they 
 refer. 
 
 Two things have ever been impressed, by the 
 best authorities, upon persons entering into 
 farming operations in New South Wales : first 
 not to enter upon this pursuit until they have 
 sufficient capital, not only to procure a decent 
 outfit in the way of agricultural implements, 
 &c , but to maintain themselves for about a 
 year and a half independently of their crops : 
 secondly, to eschew the slovenly mode of cul- 
 ture, such as sowing grain with the tree stumps 
 in the ground, &c., which is too of ten practised 
 in the colony, and to clear and fence every 
 acre of land before cropping it. 
 
 Farms do not very often change hands in this 
 part of the world, so that the new beginntr has 
 generally to commence his operations upon the 
 virgin soil. Open forest land is that which is 
 generally selected for agricultural purposes. 
 This has consequently to be cleared. There are 
 two ways of clearing land: first, by grubbing 
 up trees at their roots, reducing them into logs 
 with a cross-cut saw, and burning these logs 
 in heaps : secondly, by " ringing" or "girdling" 
 the trees, that is, destroying them by a circular 
 incision through the bark, and burning them 
 as they stand. The latter, being the least ex- 
 pensive process, is the one most commonly re- 
 sorted to, except in cases where a speedy 
 
j 
 175 
 
 clearing, without reference to expense, is the 
 primary object. The " ring" is cut through the 
 the outer and inner barks ; a strip of about half 
 a foot wide being cut entirely away. If this is 
 carefully and efficiently done when the sap is up, 
 the tree soon dies, and a deep hole being cut 
 away at the roots, it is left standing until it has 
 become sufficiently dry for burning. This is 
 about a year or a year and a half after the 
 ringing. Fire is applied at the roots in the 
 holes dug for this purpose, and speedily does its 
 work if the trees be dry enough. When the opera- 
 tion of burning has been completed, the ashes 
 and burnt soil are spread over the land, and in- 
 crease very materially its productive capacity. 
 
 The papers upon grain culture, already men- 
 tioned, contain many earnest protestations 
 against the slovenly modes of culture, whichhave 
 grown up in this colony, and point out with 
 much force, the advantages derivable from strict 
 adherence to a better system. One of the 
 points thus urged, is, that land should be har- 
 rowed immediately after ploughing, instead of 
 being left exposed to the influences of the sun 
 and wind, which, in such a climate as this, 
 must harden the clods and render the work of 
 harrowing more difficult, besides depriving the 
 soil of a good deal of its moisture, and perhaps 
 of some of its principles of fertility. In this 
 and many other respects, particularly in the 
 details of maize culture, there seems to be an 
 almost incredible amount of carelessness and 
 inattention among the colonial farmers. 
 
176 
 
 The climate of Australia, notwithstanding 
 its dryness, affords very great advantages to the 
 husbandman ; for he may have here two prin- 
 cipal grain crops at exactly opposite periods of 
 the year ; he may sow wheat in April and 
 May, and maize in October and November, and 
 in the interim between these two periods, he 
 may sow barley, rye, and various kinds of pulse. 
 
 The growth of maize and wheat alternately, 
 has been found more advantageous and profitable 
 than the growth of wheat alone ; and maize has 
 the advantage of being grown with compara- 
 t ively little trouble, and without any demand 
 for skilled labour. It is very profitable also, 
 bearing heavy crops, particularly if the soil be 
 rich. Over a hundred bushels of grain to the 
 acre have been raised upon highly manured 
 land, and sixty bushels to the acre is an ordinary 
 product of the more prolific kinds of Indian corn. 
 
 But the great fault with the Australian 
 farmers, and particularly with those commonly 
 called the "small farmers," is that they are 
 content to plod on in a settled routine, plough- 
 ing and harrowing, sowing and reaping, as 
 their fathers have done before them, and as 
 their neighbours are doing around them, with- 
 out availing themselves of the aids which the 
 progress of science in latter years has placed 
 within their power ; or turning their attention 
 to other sources of production, not only within 
 their reach, but within whatmay be termed the 
 boundaries of their occupation. It is hard to coax 
 them out of their beaten paths. In some 
 
177 , 
 
 parts of the country a good deal of tobacco 
 has indeed been grown, and with profit, but it 
 is asserted by those who are presumed to be 
 best acquainted with this branch of agricul- 
 tural industry, that there is considerable room 
 for improvement in the system usually pur- 
 sued by the growers. The culture of the vine 
 has also, from the force of example, attracted 
 attention of late years, particularly in the 
 neighbourhoods of Cam den and the Hunter. 
 Other means of wealth within the reach 
 of the farming class, to which attention 
 has from time to time been drawn, have been 
 neglected. 
 
 The growth of COTTON is one of these. It 
 has been demonstrated, not only by articles in 
 the newspapers, and by speeches in the 
 Legislative Council, but by actual ex- 
 periment, that cotton of the finest quality 
 may be raised here at such a rate as to 
 yield a fair profit to the grower. But, not- 
 withstanding these demonstrations, and even 
 the offer of small premiums by our legislature 
 for the best specimens, cotton growing has 
 as yet excited very little attention among those 
 by whom it could be entered upon with the 
 greatest advantage to themselves and to the 
 community. Cotton has welt been termed 
 " the poor man's fleece." Commanding a 
 ready sale and good prices, it may be raised 
 without any outlay of capital beyond the 
 means of the poorer class of cultivators, and 
 without any demand for skill but such as may 
 
178 
 
 be readily acquired by persons of the most 
 ordinary capacity. 
 
 The varieties of the cotton plant which 
 have been found most valuable and pro- 
 ductive in America have answered equally 
 well in corresponding situations here ; very 
 superior samples of sea island cotton have been 
 occasionally exhibited at the periodical shows 
 of the Horticultural Society , and some which 
 have been sent to England have elicited highly 
 favourable opinions from the best judges of 
 the article. Many of the soils of this colony, 
 and especially the black sands, have been 
 found peculiarly adapted to the growth of 
 cotton. The times of planting and gathering 
 the crops are also most favourable to the 
 farmer ; the former being just before the 
 spring rains in October, and the latter about 
 March. He may easily so a? range, therefore, 
 as that the growth of cotton shall, 
 not interfere in the slightest degree 
 with his grain producing operations. This 
 branch of industry has also two other ad- 
 vantages. First, the greater portion of the 
 labour which it entails is such as can be pei- 
 formed as well by women and children as by 
 men, and perhaps better, thus furnishing 
 remunerative (employment for the husband- 
 man's family. Secondly, the cotton plants 
 will flourish and yield good crops in the driest 
 
 Much depends upon the quality of the seed, 
 but seed of the finest quality can be procured 
 
179 
 
 gratuitously from Mr. S. A. Donaldson, of 
 Sydney, who, both as a member of the Legis- 
 lature and as a merchant, has laboured 
 strenuously to call the attention of the 
 colonists to the great importance of 
 this species of production, Mr. Donaldson 
 makes it a condition that those taking the 
 seed shall render an account of its treatment 
 and its productiveness ; the object being to 
 gather practical information, wi'h a view to 
 the benefit of the growers generally, 
 
 The cotton seeds have to be separated from 
 the filaments, or wool, by passing the latter 
 through a simple machine, called a gin, con- 
 sisting of two small rollers set close together, 
 like the flattening machines used by jewellers. 
 A gin, wherewith some forty or fifty pounds 
 of cotton may be cleaned in a day by one 
 person, can be made in Sydney for 
 two or three pounds ; but if once the 
 growth of cotton becomes general, machines 
 worked by steam power will speedily be 
 established here as in America, whereby cotton 
 will be cleaned as corn is ground, either for a 
 fixed charge, or for payment in " multure,'' 
 and certainly at an infinitely cheaper rate than 
 the work can be performed by hand. 
 
 By a statement in a Sydney paper, which 
 has been quoted and adopted by Mr. Gardiner 
 in his pamphlet, as a fair and reasonable guide, 
 it would appear that an English acre planted 
 in cotton would yield just cent, per cent, upon 
 the outlay ; the expenses being estimated at 
 
180 
 
 15, and the yield (800 Ibs. of cotton at 9d 
 per Ib.) at 30. This, too, is reckoning upon a 
 rental of two pounds for the acre, and all the 
 inconveniences ot a small establishment. 
 
 The SUGAR CANE has been found by actual 
 experiment to thrive well, not only in the 
 northern regions of the territory, such as 
 Moreton Bay, but in districts much further 
 south. Single specimens of cane have been 
 brought to great perfection even in Sydney 
 and its vicinity, and a few canes may be seen 
 in the Government Gardens. The climate of 
 this part of the colony, however, is not suffi- 
 ciently warm throughout the entire year to 
 admit of cane planting on a more extended 
 scale. 
 
 There are a great many known varieties of 
 the sugar cane, and it is by no means impro- 
 bable that others may be discovered, on 
 a more extended exploration of the Poly- 
 nesian Islands, on most of which the cane is 
 indigenous. The Tahitian variety, which is 
 readily procurable, has long been celebrated 
 among planters as one yielding sugar of a su- 
 perior quality. Probably it would be the sort 
 best adapted to this colony. But we have as 
 yet no experience to guide us, and experience 
 is the only safe test in such matters. One 
 fact is worth fifty theories, however plausible. 
 
 The cane thrives best in strong and moist 
 soils, attaining its largest size and yielding its 
 finest juices when grown upon land of this 
 description. A mixture of clay and sand has 
 
181 
 
 has been found to produce crops of peculiar 
 excellence, both as to quantity and quality. 
 The next best description of soil is the rich black 
 mould on the banks of rivers. On mere sandy 
 lands the cane will not grow in any degree of 
 perfection, unless by the aid of constant irri- 
 gation. It is raised in two ways ; from slips 
 and from suckers. The latter, technically 
 called rattoons, produce the best juice, and 
 although the quantity of juice is less under 
 this system, still, as it entails less labour, it is 
 frequently if not generally, preferred. 
 
 Sugar planting, properly so called, is an 
 operation above all others requiring large in- 
 vestments of capital to ensure success. The 
 mere culture is simple enough, and requires 
 no more costly implements than such as are 
 necessary for any other species of husbandry ; 
 but the processes of expressing the juice, of 
 boiling, and of distilling, require machinery 
 and erections of an expensive character. The 
 juice of the cane may no doubt be expressed 
 in a mill of simple structure, and may be 
 boiled in common iron pots. The still also 
 may be a very inexpensive sort of affair. But 
 a planter carrying on business in this way 
 would have no chance whatever of competing 
 with the importers, especially if he had to em- 
 ploy labour at a high rate. The small farmer, 
 therefore, could scarcely grow the sugar cane 
 with profit, unless perhaps by disposing of the 
 cane juice for distillation, or sending the canes 
 to the mill of a capitalist. In the former case 
 x 
 
182 
 
 a simple and cheaply constructed kind of mill 
 would probably suffice. 
 
 The sugar mill consists of three rollers set 
 horizontally, one above and two below ; the 
 former is made to revolve by the application of 
 steam, water, or animal power, and a cog wheel 
 at its extremity turns the other two. The 
 canes passing between these rollers are crushed, \ 
 and the juice falls into a receiver at the bottom. 
 In old mills the rollers were set perpendicu- 
 larly, being put in motion by cogs from the 
 middle roller, to which the " first mover" was 
 directly applied. Mills upon this principle, 
 and of exceedingly simple structure, working 
 with hand bars like a ship's capstan, have been 
 introduced at many of the South Sea Islands ; 
 but the horizontal mill is so much easier fed, 
 and so much better in every respect, that even 
 when this extreme simplicity of structure is 
 desirable, it would be found the most advan- 
 tageous. And it may be constructed with equal 
 facility. The only addition required is a 
 bevel wheel to change the direction of the 
 motion. The best mill for the Australian 
 grower, where simplicity and cheapness are 
 the main objects, would be one of this nature, 
 to be worked by a horse or bullock. A slight 
 fall of water, where such can be had, is 
 peculiarly applicable as a moving power for 
 a horizontal sugar mill. The principle of the 
 windmill is occasionally applied, but it is 
 scarcely suitable on account of its uncertainty ; 
 for when the canes have once been cut they 
 
V^vySj^J 
 
 183 
 
 require to be passed through the mill as rapidly 
 as possible, in order to prevent fermentation. 
 
 In sugar growing countries it is only the 
 refuse which is subjected to the action of the 
 still, the average rates of produce being usually 
 from sixty to seventy gallons of rum to every 
 hogshead (16 cwt.) of sugar. In Java the 
 produce of sugar to the acre has been esti- 
 mated * at averages of from 1285 Ibs. to 1815 
 Ibs. In Sumatra and many other islands of 
 the Indian archipelago, where the cane is ex- 
 tensively cultivated, its juice is evaporated only 
 to the consistence of a syrup. 
 
 There are many other branches of productive 
 industry coming properly within the sphere of 
 an agriculturist's operations, which are as 
 yet untried or nearly so, although some of them 
 could scarcely fail to be very profitable. The 
 growth of the olive has been found to present 
 but little attraction, owing to the time which 
 must elapse before the plantation would arrive 
 at maturity, but the breeding of the SILK 
 WORM offers no objection of this nature. 
 There is no delay here, but a certain annual 
 produce obtained with little or no outlay, and 
 with only such an application of industry as a 
 settler's or labourer's children would readily 
 apply as a matter of amusement. The chief 
 cause of inattention to this branch of pro- 
 duction has been the failure of an experimental : 
 plantation which some of the leading colonists 
 
 * Vide Porter on the sugar-cane. 
 
 x 2 
 
 5 
 
184 
 
 established a few years since. But this failure 
 ought not to have any influence when it is 
 recollected at the same time how successful 
 private experimentalists have been. Mr. 
 Foster (formerly proprietor of the Australian 
 newspaper), and many others, have produced 
 silk of very superior quality and have 
 ascertained beyond question the practicability 
 of this being done profitably. In such a 
 country as this, establishments for producing 
 silk alone would not perhaps be found to pay 
 very well, but the settler might find great ad- 
 vantage in turning his attention to it in con- 
 nexion with his other pursuits. The production 
 of raw silk, is one of those employments which 
 might be introduced with peculiar advantage 
 into the pastoral districts of the interior, if the 
 regulations would admit of it. It would be 
 found a most powerful aid in getting rid of 
 the barbarism which even yet prevails in many 
 of those districts by the employment of men 
 only and by the consequent regard of women 
 and children as " incumbrances." 
 
 Many of the difficulties in the way of the 
 agriculturists, are such as may be over- 
 come with a little attention and industry. 
 Even the greatest of all, drought, may often 
 be thus successfully grappled with. The bad 
 effects of dryness, may at all times be greatly 
 counteracted by the judicious application of 
 manures. But in many situations, large 
 reservoirs of water might be made by taking 
 advantage of the natural formation of the 
 
185 
 
 ground, and erecting a small embankment 
 or two. The fall of rain during the 
 year is very great. In the neighbourhood of 
 Sydney it amounts to above forty inches. It 
 is clear, therefore, that if the water flowing 
 over the surface and serving only to increase 
 the destructive power of the floods, could be 
 secured in tanks, a very copious supply would 
 be ensured. In the neighbourhood of running 
 streams or large water holes (ponds), IRRIGA- 
 TION is simple enough, although but little 
 practised. Where there is anything like a 
 current a small water-wheel, fitted with float 
 boards and moved simply by the velocity 
 of the stream, may be used with 
 advantage, but generally speaking a small 
 windmill turning a simple crank, and 
 thus working an ordinary pump, will be found 
 best. The water should be pumped into a 
 reservoir, and from thence it may be spread 
 through a farm by means of wooden gutters. 
 The latter are readily formed by nailing 
 together at right angles two pieces of sawed 
 stuff, or even of the split stuff ordinarily used 
 for fencing. Water may be raised to any 
 height for the purposes of irrigation by the 
 formation of additional reservoirs, and the 
 construction of additional windmills. 
 
 MANURES are far more numerous than most 
 persons imagine. When manure is spoken of, 
 the produce of stables, cow-houses, &c., is sug- 
 gested to the mind of the hearer. But th( re is 
 scarcely anything in nature certainly nothing 
 x 3 
 
186 
 
 among the apparently useless rubbish cast out 
 from the abodes of men and animals, &c., which is 
 not eminently useful as manure for some 
 kind of land or another. An admixture of 
 soil is often more advantageous than manuring 
 to any extent would be : as for instance in 
 the admixture of dry sand and peat, or bog 
 soil. Many of the advantages of manuring 
 may likewise be derived from a judicious 
 rotation of crops. 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 We now come to the subject of horticulture, 
 
 and would remark that in very young commu- 
 nities, though from old associations at first the 
 hnbits and manners of the parent country are 
 imitated as closely as possible, yet, as they 
 advance in self-dependence, as they become 
 wrapped up in their own interests, these 
 associations gradually and silently die away, at 
 least such of them as may be uncongenial to the 
 circumstances in which the colonist is placed. 
 Such has been the case to some extent with 
 regard to horticulture. Even at this remote 
 date, in the oldest parts of the city on the 
 Hocks, in the middle of the most crowded busi- 
 ness thoroughfares the attentive observer may 
 trace the lingering signs of gardens which have 
 long since passed away. Some creeping 
 parasite giving verdure and freshness to a 
 bonded store, some green and weeping willow 
 shedding its rural influences over the pump 
 
187 
 
 and brew-house of the confined yard of a 
 Sydney mansion dwarf pines, whose stunted 
 growth is venerable from the affection that 
 leaves them standing amidst the smoke of 
 factories or the enclosed courts of official 
 buildings, in the vain hope that they may yet 
 rear their lofty heads in grand and matured 
 pride all these are the remnant of that 
 imitative spirit of the first settlers of the 
 colony here, who would, as far as they were 
 able, have carried out the garden-loving pro- 
 pensities of their ancestors. 
 
 The rapid growth of the city, the absorbing 
 nature of the pursuits of its inhabitants, have 
 destroyed, or rather worn away the English 
 tastes which at first prevailed, and although 
 even now, bounded on one side by the largest 
 and busiest of our wharves, and on the other by 
 the greatest business street of the city, a large 
 garden exists and flourishes it is the oasis in 
 the desert its companions in the old days of 
 the colony have vanished, and are now the 
 sites of the homes of the citizens, or the marts 
 of trade. 
 
 We regret to see a more decided and more 
 unamiable symptom of the indifference to 
 gardening which prevails in this colony. "We 
 mean that which is exhibited in the neglect of 
 the fine, large, and originally well laid out 
 gardens which surround many of our large 
 country mansions. There are some splendid 
 exceptions no doubt, where not only is the 
 strictest attention and most liberal expenditure 
 
188 
 
 devoted to this greatest ornament of a 
 gentleman's estate, but in which everything 
 that is rich and rare in the science of botany is 
 eagerly collected and carefully cultivated. But 
 round many of the beautiful country seats 
 which adorn the interior of the colony, the 
 gardens are desolate places, weeds and flowers, 
 shrubs and fruit trees, growing together in un- 
 pruned and untended luxuriance. 
 
 The neglect may in many instances perhaps 
 be accounted for, by the decay of the fortunes 
 of the original owners of these mansions. 
 They were ruined by the terrible financial 
 convulsions of the years 1842 and 1843. Their 
 property passed through the insolvent court 
 into new hands in many instances into the 
 hands of men of entirely different tastes and 
 different education men whose souls were in 
 mere material interests and physical enjoy- 
 ments, and who had no time and no thought to 
 give to the rural and the picturesque. 
 
 In the City of Sydney, from the nature of the 
 soil, and from the crowded design on which 
 the Government by their sale of the land, have 
 thought fit to cover it with houses, it is im- 
 possible that gardens should exist; but the 
 beautiful Botanic Gardens sloping down to the 
 waters of the harbour, and almost adjoining 
 the busy Circular Quay, give a proof of what 
 might under a more enlightened and more 
 liberal state of things have been done to have 
 crowned this great city in a manner worthy of 
 her royal dignity, as Queen of the Pacific. 
 
189 
 
 In the suburbs of the city, at Woolloomoolloo, 
 Newtown, and the Glebe, there are many 
 large and highly cultivated gardens ; and 
 accordingly these suburbs are sought after as 
 the dwelling places of the opulent classes, It 
 is an unfortunate thing that there is but little 
 opportunity of affording the working classes 
 the labourer and the mechanic the delightful 
 and beneficial relaxation of gardening. As we 
 have said the land in the city is entirely de- 
 voted to building, and the suburbs, where land 
 attached to a house of sufficient extent could 
 be rented at a moderate rate, are too distant to 
 allow the poor man to follow his ordinary 
 avocations. It has been suggested, that large 
 breadths of land suitable for gardens, (of which 
 there are many in the immediate neighbour- 
 hood of the city,) should be bought up, and 
 Garden Societies, on the principle of Building 
 Societies, be established. The land would be 
 divided into a number of small allotments, each 
 being as much as one man would be able to 
 cultivate in his leisure hours, and these little 
 gardens could be let on such a system, at an 
 almost nominal rent. Such a plan will we 
 hope yet be carried out, as we should certainly 
 like to see the luxury of rearing one's own 
 vegetables, and of pulling one's own 
 flowers, less exclusively enjoyed than it is at 
 present. 
 
 In the country towns of the colony, where 
 there is abundance of land fit for cultivation, 
 almost every hut and cottage has its patch of 
 
190 
 
 garden ground, but even there for the most 
 part, (if we except Parramatta,) very little care 
 is taken to make it either useful, ornamental, 
 or beneficial. A few vegetables -an old peach 
 tree and some flowers, which will bloom in 
 spite of neglect, shew rather what the garden 
 was, and what it might be made, than that it is 
 at all prized by the possessor. 
 
 These are bad syptoms, and we hope that a 
 reformation will soon take place, and we are 
 led to anticipate that it will. There was for- 
 merly a very great pride taken by the inhabi- 
 tants of the colony in the floral productions of 
 the colony, and we are inclined to think this 
 feeling is reviving. During its slumber, how- 
 ever, many scientific men of taste and wealth 
 have been busy cultivating, and our flower 
 shows, though for the most part meagre in 
 the collections they exhibit, always contain 
 specimens of beautiful and curious plants which 
 would do honor to any European exhibition. 
 
 The Botanic Gardens of Sydney are suffi- 
 ciently indicative of the capabilities of the soil 
 and climate of New South Wales for the pur- 
 suits of holticulture. There you have collected 
 the shrubs and flowers of almost every 
 country ; such as the English oak and the 
 Norway pine -dwarfed in their dimensions yet 
 still flourishing in their native verdure while 
 the violet, the primrose, the polyanthus are 
 even more bashful than at home ; and the little 
 snowdrop is a wonder, which chance only 
 enables the skilful florist to exhibit. 
 
191 
 
 But to make even a small garden gay and 
 beautiful is, in this colony, a very easy task. 
 Flowers of easy culture and which best set off 
 a garden, bloom all the year round. Hoses, 
 both white and red, are always in flower. 
 Verbenas, petunias, mignionette, sylvias and 
 the whole tribe of Labiates, orchids, amaryillds, 
 irids, geraniums, dahlias, and fuchsias are 
 almost continually blooming. Camellias, 
 azaleas, bignonias, gardenias, and magnolias 
 grow out of doors in great richness and 
 beauty. In shrubs there is even still greater 
 variety ; for joined to all the best European 
 varieties we have a large collection of charm- 
 ing ornaments to the garden selected from the 
 wild bush of this continent and the surround- 
 ing islands. 
 
 In trees the whole tribe of Fabaceae, includ- 
 ing many indigenous specimens of Acacia, 
 Mimosa, and Erythrina grown with surprising 
 rapidity, and with their glowing colours and 
 graceful verdure beautify our shruberries. 
 Our Moreton Bay and Norfolk Island pines 
 cannot be appreciated by those who have not 
 seen the grace and beauty to which they attain 
 in this colony, The Moreton Bay chestnut 
 (costasnospernum) is a beautiful tree and 
 the whole Ficus tribe grow with a grandeur 
 of leaf almost unequalled in any other part 
 of the world. To attempt to enter into a 
 detailed list of the various genera of the 
 flowers, shrubs, and trees, which would 
 freely flourish here, would be tedious and 
 
192 
 
 out of place in a work which makes no pre- 
 tension to scientific disquisition ; but we think 
 we have enumerated sufficiently the 
 distinguishing ornaments of our gardens, to 
 show that floriculture, and horticulture, may be 
 pursued here to the pleasure, instruction, and 
 benefit of all who have a taste for its delight- 
 ful fascinations. Nor are the more useful 
 adjuncts of the garden wanting. Vegetables 
 with but little care, may be cultivated with the 
 greatest ease, of the finest quality, and in the 
 richest abundance. We have potatoes, 
 cabbages, peas, pumpkins, beans of 
 all sorts, brocoli, cauliflowers, vege- 
 table marrows, lettuces, radishes, arti- 
 chokes, parsnips, carrots, turnips, spinach, sea 
 kale, celery, cresses, cucumbers, squash, 
 onions, leeks, in fact every imaginable variety 
 of esculent in a perfection, that is not surpassed 
 in any part of the world. 
 
 In fruit we have an immense variety of 
 apples, including all the most valued kinds 
 both for the table and the kitchen. Pears 
 grow fine and in greater luxuriance here than 
 we ever saw them in other parts of the world. 
 The Bergamot, Beaurre, and Marie Louise 
 pears carefully grown in this colony, would 
 furnish a desert for an emperor. "We have med- 
 lars, loquats, almonds, apricots, peaches, quinces 
 nectarines, plums, oranges, cherries, lemons 
 limes, citrons, guavas, shadocks, figs, mulberries, 
 nuts, bananas, cheromoyers, walnuts, passion 
 fruit, grapes, pine apples, strawberries, melons, 
 
193 
 
 pomegranates, and all these in no stinted store, 
 but in great profusion. Englishmen would be 
 astounded if they knew the enormous quantities 
 of apricots, peaches, nectarines, pears, and lo- 
 quats, which annually rot and perish under our 
 treees. And this abundance is, moreover, the 
 result of the richness of the soil and climate, 
 Art and skilful culture do but little. Trees are 
 left unpruned ; crops of the most cumbrous 
 luxuriance are allowed to destroy the healthful 
 energies of the plant, which ought to be 
 husbanded with a prudent hand. 
 
 It is to this cause that is to be attributed the 
 inferior quality which is talked of by some 
 unthinking persons, as the characteristic of 
 Australian fruits. It is not the character of 
 the fruit that is bad, it is the culture, 
 that is bad. The Australian peach, 
 nectarine, apricot, pear, or pine-apple, culti- 
 vated with equal skill and care, is equal in 
 quality to the same fruit grown in any part of 
 the world. It is attention and skill that is 
 wanted, and to obtain this a taste for gardening 
 must be more generally diffused through the 
 country. To the gratification of such a taste 
 the parterre, the kitchen garden, and the orchard 
 alike offer abundant opportunity, and rich 
 reward. 
 
 THE VINE AND ITS PRODUCTS. 
 
 The culture of the Vine, although it has not 
 yet attracted so much attention throughout the 
 
194 
 
 colony as could be wished, has nevertheless 
 become pretty general. 
 
 Many enterprising men among the early set- 
 tlers were convinced that Australia was pecu- 
 liarly suited, in soil and climate, to become a 
 great wine-producing country. But those who 
 rirst turned their attention to this branch of 
 industry laboured under great disadvantages. 
 It was found not only difficult, but almost im- 
 possible, to get out genuine collections of vines. 
 The European vigncrohs palmed off cuttings 
 of the most worthless kinds as the productions 
 of the finest. The fraud was one which 
 could not be detected for a considerable period, 
 and the cuttings were to be planted a long way 
 off. The temptation to palm off mere rubbish 
 was consequently very strong. But, perhaps, 
 the greatest mischief which was done in this 
 way proceeded, not from fraud or carelessness 
 on the part of the European vigneron, but from 
 the dishonesty of parties with whom it was 
 necessary to deposit the collections while they 
 awaited shipment. It was so easy for these 
 people to abstract the valuable sorts from a 
 collection, and to substitute some of their own 
 worthless cuttings, that in very many cases 
 they could not resist the temptation. Perse- 
 verance, however, conquered this, as well as 
 other difficulties, and cuttings or rooted plants, 
 of all the best kinds, may now be procured from 
 colonial vineyards at cheap rates. 
 
 Although the more intelligent settlers per- 
 ceived at once the advantages to be derived 
 
195 
 
 from vine culture, and, seeing this, turned their 
 attention to it, more or less, as a collateral pur- 
 suit ; the farmers, as a body, could not be 
 brought to appreciate these advantages. It 
 was not until vineyards of some magnitude 
 were in full and prosperous operation, and their 
 own senses of seeing and tasting convinced 
 them of the practicability of wine-making, 
 that the vineyard began to make its appearance 
 as one of the adjuncts of a " small farm." 
 
 But even at the present time vineyards are 
 not so general a feature of the settler's holding 
 as they ought to be. In the neighbourhood of 
 Camden, on the banks of the Hunter, and in a 
 few other situations where there are near at 
 hand the examples of the higher class of agri- 
 culturalisis to act as a spur, vineyards, small or 
 large, are everywhere to be met with ; but in 
 other parts of the country they are almost un- 
 known. 
 
 The progress of this branch of industry will 
 be best shewn by a glance at the statistical 
 returns of the last seven years. In 1845 there 
 were 611 acres of vineyard under cultivation 
 throughout the colony, producing 54,996 gal- 
 lons of wine, and 1433 gallons of brandy. In 
 1846 the quantity of land under vine was 749 
 acres, and its production was 52,337 gallons of 
 wine, and 1383 gallons of brandy. In 1847 
 there were 899 acres of vineyard, producing 
 54,035 gallons of wine, and 1402 gallons of 
 brandy. In 1848 there were 887 acres of vine- 
 yard, producing 97,300 gallons of wine, and 
 
196 
 
 1163 gallons of brandy. In 1849 there were 
 963 acres of vineyard, producing 95,843 gallons 
 of wine, and 1266 gallons of brandy. In 1850 
 there were 1069f acres of vineyard, producing 
 111,085 gallons of wine, and 1958 gallons of 
 brandy. And in 1851 there were 1060 acres 
 of vineyard, producing 84,843 gallons of wine, 
 and 1641 gallons of brandy. 
 
 There is at present no means of judging with 
 any degree of certainty as to how far the pro- 
 duction of colonial wines will be affected by 
 the progress of the gold discoveries. The dif- 
 ference between 1851 and the preceding year 
 was, it will be perceived, but 9 acres, and this 
 slight variation proves nothing definite. In all 
 probability there will not at present be either 
 an increabe or a decrease worthy of note ; but 
 as population becomes more dense throughout 
 the interior, and the necessity for enlarging the 
 means of remunerative employment becomes 
 more obvious, vineyards will spring up with 
 greater rapidity than heretofore. 
 
 The vine-grower is allowed, by a colonial 
 statute, to distil brandy from grapes the pro- 
 duce of his own vineyard, without being 
 subjected to the imposts placed upon other 
 kinds of distillation. This provision, as will be 
 seen from the returns already quoted, has not 
 been taken advantage of to such an extent as 
 might have been anticipated ; and the brandies 
 which have been made, although peculiarly 
 remarkable for strength, have been for the most 
 part of inferior flavor. A few samples of very 
 
197 
 
 superior spirit have, however, been produced ; 
 and the general inferiority has, probably, arisen 
 from a practice which has grown up of distilling 
 from refuse only, instead of cultivating certain 
 kinds of grape expressly with a view to the 
 manufacture of spirit. 
 
 The Australian wines are many of them very 
 fine, particularly those manufactured of late 
 years. In the first instance most of the growers 
 turned their attention rather to quantity than 
 quality, and some very inferior wines were the 
 result. Latterly, the example of the principle 
 vignerons, the good effect of co-operation, 
 the spirit of emulation, kindled by the periodi, 
 cal exhibitions of the Vineyard Associations 
 and the favourable i-eception which some of 
 our best wines have met in other lands, have 
 caused the production of a really good wine to 
 be generally regarded as of more importance 
 than the preparation of inferior stuff in large 
 quantities. 
 
 The wines of this country, like those of every 
 separate region where the vine flourishes, have a 
 character peculiarly their own. Many which 
 have been sold under the denominations of 
 clarets, &c., resemble indeed the European 
 wines of the same name ; bat all of.them have, 
 more or less, a flavor and bouquet which 
 is peculiarly Australian. By some 
 this has been regarded as a defect, 
 but as the flavor and bouquet are both 
 agreeable, (although peculiar and indescri- 
 bable,) they are more likely to prove a recom- 
 
198 
 
 mendation in Foreign Markets. Many of the 
 wines made in latter years want but age to 
 develop their true qualities in order to obtain a 
 reputation equal to those of the most favoured 
 wine-producing countries of Europe. The 
 general character of our wines, as a production, 
 will also no doubt improve as the vineyards 
 themselves get older, and the vignerons acquire 
 more experience. 
 
 The quantity of wine manufactured during 
 the past year affords but little guide as to the 
 quantity in the market, for much of the new wine 
 is of course stored to acquire age. But the 
 produce of the vintage of 1851 being less than 
 that of any year since 1847, it may be fairly 
 assumed that the quantity of wine actually 
 consumed at home or abroad, during the year, 
 was not less than the quantity produced. Now 
 the quantity of Colonial wine exported in this 
 period was but 3050 gallons, which gives 
 81,793 gallons as the quantity consumed within 
 the colony. As it is almost impossible for a 
 colonist to purchase Colonial wines in small 
 quantities for household use, and as Colonial 
 wines are very seldom to be met with (in their 
 true character at least) at houses of entertain- 
 ment, the obvious conclusion is that they must 
 be sold under " false colors" as the wines of 
 France or Germany. The true John Bull 
 partiality for things foreign is as strong in 
 Sydney as in London ; and as the better kinds 
 of Australian wines are rather dear, the retailers 
 re-christen their commodities to suit the whims 
 
199 
 
 of their customers. This practice however, is 
 really injurious to the vigneron. He has not 
 the advantage of that criticism upon his pro- 
 duce to which, and to its influence, he is as much 
 entitled as to the money value of the wine. 
 And even the latter is diminished. The 
 colonists as a body are victimised, and those 
 who would prefer the known and really ex- 
 cellent wines of our own growth, to the 
 equivocal and often inferior wines which are 
 imported, have no means of procuring the 
 former, unless by purchasing largely from the 
 growers. The writer of this paper has frequently 
 during the last five or six years endeavoured 
 to call the attention of the vine growers to this 
 fact, but without effect. Recently, however, 
 the Chief Justice having pointed out the evil, 
 and suggested to the New South Wales Vine- 
 yard Association the propriety of establishing 
 some kind of depot where colonial wines may 
 be procured in their true character, that body 
 has appointed a sub -committee to take the sub- 
 ject into consideration. 
 
 One error into which the wine growers have 
 fallen, has been a pertinacious adherence to the 
 spirit of imitation. All, or most of our wines, 
 are " claret," " Burgundy," &c., &c., accord- 
 ing to their resemblance, either real or fancied, 
 to the foreign wines of the same names. This 
 may be all very well in dealing with the infe- 
 rior productions which have no decided cha- 
 racter or merits of their own ; but the superior 
 wines really lose much by this system. Call a 
 
200 
 
 wine sherry, Burgundy, Constantia, or any 
 other name chosen in this spirit of imitation, 
 and a comparison with the foreign wine of the 
 same name is challenged. Judged by this 
 standard it will, in all probability, be pro- 
 nounced inferior ; but challenge for it a stand- 
 ing based upon its own merits call it by the 
 name of the estate on which it was produced, 
 or by any other original designation and its 
 true value will be appreciated. 
 
 Australian wine will not come into general 
 consumption until the small farmers, as a class, 
 thoroughly awakened to their own interests, 
 become vine growers ; each according . to 
 his means. Vignerons, possessed of capital, na- 
 turally turn their attention to the production of 
 a superior and high priced article. For cheap 
 light wines for ordinary consumption, we must 
 look to the man who, with his own hands and 
 the aid of his family, cultivates a small vineyard 
 with a view to the production of as large a 
 quantity of wine as possible for immediate sale. 
 From the Gouais grape, which grows and bears 
 admirably in this climate a well- flavored light 
 wine has been made, which, if manufactured 
 more extensively, would, with other wines -of 
 the same class, be sold with good profit to the 
 growers at a sufficiently low rate to come into 
 general consumption, and to drive out of the 
 market much of the adulterated and pernicious 
 yet costly stuff, now retailed in the character 
 of spirits and malt liquors. A light wholesome 
 wine, retailed at about 3s. per gallon, would 
 
 .1 
 
201 
 
 meet with ready sale. Most of the Australian 
 wines at present in the market are of a higher 
 quality, and not procurable in small quantities 
 under twice or thrice that price. 
 
 The small farmei, desirous of planting vines 
 can do so with very little outlay. Cuttings 
 of any kind, ready for planting, can be pro- 
 cured for 5s. to 2 per thousand, and the 
 labour which is entailed by a small vineyard, 
 he and his family may easily get through, with- 
 out materially interfering with their other 
 avocations, What is chiefly wanted at present 
 is a plain and cheap, but comprehensive manual 
 of instructions. Several able works of this 
 kind have been written, but they are for the 
 most part out of print. The gentleman who 
 produced one of the best of these works, how- 
 ever, as it is reported, promised to supply the 
 existing deficiency before long. 
 
 One of the greatest difficulties which the 
 manufacturer of the Australian wine has had 
 to contend against of late, has been that of 
 procuring bottles, and they now have under 
 consideration the propriety of establishing a 
 bottle factory. This however is a diificulty 
 which would not affect the producers of light 
 cheap wines for immediate consumption, as 
 these wines would need no bottling 
 
 z 2 
 
PART V. 
 
 Pastoral Pursuits. 
 
 THE pursuit by which the progress of the 
 Colony of New South Wales (including the 
 district of Port Phillip) to wealth and im- 
 portance has been most aided, has been un- 
 doubtedly that of sheep farming. 
 
 In the early days of the colony industry 
 among the free classes and their servants was 
 limited to the production of the necessaries of 
 life, while the convict population under the 
 restraint of the government were employed in 
 those public works which are so eminently 
 necessary to the settlement of all new and 
 wild countries. Houses for the governor and 
 his officers, barracks for the prisoners and the 
 soldiers who were sent to guard them, had to 
 be built. Land for the site of a township had 
 to be cleared and laid out, and to these 
 works for a number of years the labours 
 of the early colonists were mainly directed. 
 As, however, the settlers became comfortable 
 and prosperous in their wild and adopted 
 country, the spirit of British enterprise began 
 to incite them to bolder and more aspiring 
 
203 
 
 views. They looked round upon the land 
 
 and saw that it was good. They built houses, 
 and planted gardens and vineyards. They 
 looked on the broad waters spread open before 
 them, seeming to invite them to come and take 
 the wealth that lay beneath their glittering 
 waves ; and the colonists were not deaf to the 
 call, The fisheries were the first field of Aus- 
 tralian commercial enterprise ; oil, whalebone, 
 tortoiseshell, and seal skin?, were the first 
 Australian articles of export. 
 
 But at a very early period of the settlement 
 of the colony, it was found that the natural 
 grasses which grew abundantly on the pi tins 
 of New South Wales were admirably adapted 
 to the grazing of sheep and cattle. Flocks 
 and herds increased with great rapidity, and 
 seemed to point out that the national pursuit 
 of the colony, for a long period, in fact till the 
 whole land should be replenished and subdued 
 by the footsteps of civilisation and settlement, 
 would be wool-growing. 
 
 Of course, as in all other similar cases, it 
 required some penetrating and master mind to 
 seize upon the advantages thus opened to the 
 future to look with far-seeing eye into the 
 coming time, and with firm faith, and strong 
 and unswerving arm, to work out the event, 
 the shadow of which had been cast before. 
 
 Such a mind was not wanting, even at the 
 
 very outset of the colony. In the year 1793, 
 
 only six years after the settlement of the 
 
 colony, Captain John Macarthur, one of the 
 
 z 3 
 
204 
 
 earliest and most active settlers in New South. 
 Wales, was struck, from his experience in 
 Eiirope and the nature of the grasses here, 
 with the conviction that the Merino sheep, so 
 justly celebrated for the quality of its wool in 
 the markets of England, could be propagated 
 to an enormous extent here. Determined to 
 work this conviction out, Captain Macarthur 
 two years after obtained a Merino ram and two 
 ewes, which had been brought from the Cape, 
 where they had been sent by the Dutch govern- 
 ment. With these " patriarchs of the Aus- 
 tralian flocks," Captain Macarthur commenced 
 a series of experiments, crossing the common 
 coarse woolled sheep of his flock with the Me- 
 rinos, and at the expiration of four years his 
 stock of 70 animals was increased to 4000. 
 
 Up to the present time, in almost every 
 crisis in which the good or evil in the destinies 
 of Australia have seemed to tremble on the scale, 
 external circumstances have not only secured 
 the preponderance of the good, but the develop- 
 ment of what at first served to tend only to 
 individual prosperity, has secured the perma- 
 nent accumulation of great national wealth. 
 
 So it was with regard to the wool of Aus- 
 tralia ; the quality and abundance of the nattiral 
 grasses, the adaptation of the climate, the 
 unbounded plains would, perhaps, under any 
 circumstances have induced the occupation of 
 this country by a nomadic race but it would 
 have been a race such as ever existed in most 
 other pastoral countries, wild, ignorant, and 
 
205 
 
 semi-civlized, had it not been that coincidently 
 with the growth of sheep farming, other more 
 active energies were brought into play. 
 
 In the year 1803, Mr. Macarthur visited 
 England, and having exhibited samples of the 
 wool from his improved flocks to several 
 mercantile gentlemen, he was summoned 
 before the Privy Council to give information 
 on the subject. The growing importance of 
 the woollen trade of England, the enormous 
 increase in the manufacture and consumption 
 of woollen goods, and the entire dependence 
 for the supply of the finer wools under which 
 Great Britain was placed to Germany and 
 Spain, had enlisted the serious consideration 
 not only of the mercantile portion of the 
 English world but also of the government of 
 the empire. Under these circumstances it 
 may well be imagined that the Privy Council 
 were favourably disposed to hear Captain 
 Macarthur propound his theory for rendering 
 England independent of foreign countries for 
 the supply of fine wools. 
 
 There was, moreover, something peculiarly 
 encouraging and interesting in the hope that 
 a settlement which, in its origin and concep- 
 tion, had very little in common with the 
 ordinary work of colonization, properly so 
 called, but which was destined merely as the 
 receptacle of Britain's penal offenders, shoiild 
 become, in a commercial point of view, so 
 desirable an appanage of the British Crown. 
 
 Even in those old days there was something 
 
206 
 
 harsh and revolting in the idea of a mere 
 settlement of convicts ; there were some 
 compunctious visitings of conscience perhaps, 
 as to the right and justice of planting hordes of 
 abandoned, reckless, and hardened men on 
 distant shores, without any pursuit to elevate 
 them from their state of degradation by the 
 hopes and aspirations it might encourage. 
 Even in the good old times, " when 
 George the third was King," and 
 Botany Bay was as dark a blot on 
 the page of British history as the cities of the 
 plain were on that of Palestine, there was 
 something pleasing in the prospect of the ame- 
 lioration of the title " of one huge gaol" into 
 that of " one great sheep walk" the pic- 
 turesque of the shepherd's crook, and the 
 music of the shepherd's pipe, would at least 
 furnish some set-off to the disgrace of the pri- 
 soner's manacle and the sound of the scourger's 
 lash. We do not say that these ideas were 
 very vividly impressed on the minds of her 
 Majesty's government of that day, but they 
 might have exercised some sort of secret in- 
 fluence on the spirit of encouragement with 
 which Captain Macarthur's proposal was met. 
 Certainly, the "Australian Arcady" has not 
 been such as to fulfil such dreamy illusions if 
 they were ever indulged. 
 
 At the period at which Mr. Macarthur com- 
 menced his experiments, the sheep in the 
 colony were bred from stock imported almost 
 exclusively from the Cape of Good Hope and 
 
207 
 
 Bengal. In the first twelve years of the co- 
 lony's existence only 304 sheep were imported 
 altogether, but at the end of that period the 
 stock in the colony was 6757. An enormous 
 increase, considering that during this period 
 they were bred almost exclusively for food. 
 
 Captain Macarthur having received the en- 
 couragement of the Privy Council, purchased 
 from the Merino flock of George III. two 
 ewes and three rams, with which he returned 
 to New South Wales, and from that time de- 
 voted his attention to sheep-farming, with a 
 view mainly to the growth of wool. For several 
 years he continued to import from the best 
 European flocks, until at last, it having been 
 indisputably proved, that an almost illimitable 
 supply of fine wool could be produced in Aus- 
 tralia, enterprise was rapidly devoted to that 
 pursuit. Men of capital and of good family, 
 retired officers of the army and navy, anxious 
 for retirement, and unable to bear the expense 
 of respectable idleness in England, younger 
 sons who having received their thrifty portion 
 were expected thenceforth to provide for them- 
 selves, allured by the prospect of grants of 
 land, assigned servants, immense returns in 
 the produce of their flocks, and a life of easy 
 independence, flocked to the shores of the new 
 Arcadia, and from that period the growth of 
 wool became and has continued the leading 
 industrial pursuit of the^e colonies. 
 
 We have said that other energies were called 
 forth at the same period which prevented the 
 z 4 
 
208 
 
 inhabitants of this colony from sinking to the 
 level of the nomadic races which exist in most 
 other pastoral countries. It is proper here that 
 we should explain what those energies were, 
 and the circumstances which brought them into 
 play. In pastoral countries, generally, the in- 
 habitants are poor, they tend sheep for the 
 mere obtainance of a livelihood; they are 
 countries which possess little or no money 
 capital, and in which there are little or no 
 money exchanges ; they exchange wool and 
 sheepskins, as the North Americans do furs and 
 feathers, for articles of food and clothing, and 
 the implements of war and the chase. In New 
 South Wales, though the natural capabilities 
 of the soil and climate for the purpose of wool- 
 growing are unequalled in the whole world, 
 wool-growing was resorted to, not in conse- 
 quence of the natural fitness and adaptation of 
 things, but as a commercial enterprise, the 
 success of which was secured by two con- 
 current circumstances : first, by the increasing 
 want of an article in England, arising out of 
 advancing civilization and the increase of 
 population; and second, the ability of this 
 colony to supply that want to an indefinite 
 extent, from the almost boundless expanse of 
 its unpeopled plains. The pastoral element and 
 the commercial element were thus happily 
 blended together, the former invigorating the 
 latter in such a way as to make it effective in 
 reducing the colony gradually to a state of 
 settlement and civilization. 
 
209 
 
 There was no absolute necessity for resorting 
 to this pursuit ; the cultivation of the land and 
 the rearing of stock, poultry, the planting of 
 orchards and vineyards, were of themselves 
 sufficient to furnish the limited number of early 
 settlers with the comforts and luxuries of life, 
 and even to accumulate wealth, because there 
 was a very large money expenditure going on 
 in the colony by the commissariat for convicts 
 and military purposes. But, had it not been 
 for the growth of wool, or something in its 
 place, the colony must have remained for ever 
 a convict colony, shut out for ever from 
 those free, political, social, and educational 
 institutions which constitute the glory of a 
 state. It was to redeem the colony from this 
 state of degradation that the physical adapta- 
 tion of the country to the growth of wool was 
 revealed to us, and well has the pastoral enter- 
 prise thus excited fulfilled its mission. Thus, 
 as soon as the success of the first efforts became 
 apparent, its effect on the commerce of the 
 country was decisive. With the spread of 
 flocks over the vast interior, arose the stores 
 and wharves, which formed the nucleus of the 
 city of Sydney. Ships thronged into our 
 harbour, richly freighted with merchandise ; 
 Banks and merchants were established to 
 advance on wool and to ship it to the hungry 
 market 16,000 miles away ; the sheep farmer 
 was engaged in a sort of mixed pursuit, half 
 pastoral and half commercial, he was 
 growing wool but he was growing 
 
210 
 
 it, relying to profit by it in the 
 proportion of its suitableness to, and the de- 
 mand for it, in the English market. In this 
 colony, therefore, for the first time almost 
 in the history of the world, pasturage and com- 
 merce have gone on together hand in hand ; 
 one has been the useful handmaid of the other, 
 and both have been active agents in the 
 march of civilization. 
 
 It was soon found that not only was the 
 extent to which the flocks of the colony might 
 be increased in consequence of the abundance 
 of pastorage unbounded, but that even without 
 care in breeding, without crossing the nocks 
 with the pure blood of European countries, the 
 influence of the climate in improving the fleece, 
 was decisive and rapid. This fact was soon 
 declared in reports from various agricultural 
 societies and scientific men interested in the 
 subject, and was satisfactorily proved by many 
 series of experiments. Another great ad- 
 vantage which the sheep farmers derived in 
 New South Wales from the genial climate 
 was, that they were not obliged to fold their 
 sheep, and hand-feed them in any part of the 
 year, as the flockholders of Germany and Spain 
 are forced to do. 
 
 This of course lessened very much the 
 expense of growing the wool, and the quantity 
 of labour required for tending the flocks. 
 
 For a considerable period after sheep farming 
 became a settled pursuit in the colony, the 
 flocks were depastured within what are called 
 
the nineteen counties, being the extent of 
 territory first settled by the Government as 
 the colony of New South Wales. Sections of 
 land consisting of 640 acres were leased at a 
 small rental to the stock-holders, and the re- 
 venue thus derived, was placed to the credit 
 of the territorial fund. The rent paid for these 
 sections, was, at the first, only 1 per annum, 
 but it was soon raised to 5. 
 
 The rapid increase of the flocks and herds of 
 the colony, soon however rendered the country 
 within the limits of location too small for the 
 extended enterprise which now took this 
 direction, and the stock proprietors began to 
 drive their sheep and cattle into the vast 
 interior, and find pastures of sufficient capa- 
 bilities for themselves. 
 
 This was the origin of what is called the 
 squatting system in the colony, and it was at 
 first so called in contradistinction to the grazing 
 pursuits in the settled districts, the proprietors 
 of flocks depastured on the 640 acre sections, or 
 on private lands, being denominated settlers. 
 
 The squatting system has ever since pre- 
 vailed ; indeed it was only under some such 
 system that the flocks and herds could have 
 increased to the enormous extent to which they 
 have attained. They are now scattered over a 
 territory of more than 1500 miles in length 
 and 300 miles in breadth, and every year new 
 and more remote districts are brought under 
 this most primitive occupation of the land by 
 civilised man. 
 
 2 A 
 
212 
 
 For several years the squatters were allowed 
 to roam at large where they would, and they 
 consequently scattered themselves in every 
 direction, choosing the best spots on the banks 
 of rivers, or where from the nature of the 
 country an unfailing supply of water could be 
 assured to them. The long droughts which 
 sometimes prevail in the colony, and the arid 
 nature of many of the districts, have at all 
 times been ielt as severe drawbacks on grazing 
 pursuits ; and in every hot season a vast num- 
 ber of cattle die from the effects of heat and 
 thirst. 
 
 In the course of a few years, however, this 
 system of roaming through the country at 
 pleasure began to be attended with many seri- 
 ous difficulties. Many disorderly and reckless 
 characters were found at these remote stations, 
 and outrages, accompanied by violence, began 
 to be of frequent occurrence. Cattle stealing, 
 as might be expected, was carried on almost 
 with impunity. The absence of all sorts of 
 police protection, the wild nature of the 
 country, the perfect security with which a 
 daring man, well acquainted with the bush, 
 might drive off flocks and herds, and turn 
 squatter himself, some hundred of miles dis- 
 tant, all contributed to this evil, which at length 
 became so aggravated, that the more respect- 
 able of the squatters applied to the Governor of 
 that day for redress and protection. Accord- 
 ingly, in the year 1836, under the administra- 
 tion of Sir Richard Bourke, an act was passed 
 
213 
 
 to restrain the unauthorized occupation of 
 Crown lands. From the 1st of January, 
 1837, no persons were permitted to depasture 
 stock on Crown lands, without a license, 
 renewable every year, under certain conditions, 
 one of which was the yearly payment of a 
 license fee of 10.' Commissioners of Crown 
 lands were appointed throughout the pastoral 
 districts of the country, to issue the licenses, 
 collect the fees, and see that the detailed re- 
 strictions and regulations of the act were 
 preserved. 
 
 The main object of this system of licenses 
 was, to prevent persons of improper character 
 from depasturing stock on the Crown lands, 
 and also to enable the commissioner and his 
 agent to ascertain at once if parties who had no 
 honest ostensible means of obtaining stock of 
 their own, were depasturing flocks and herds. 
 
 But in a short time this was found in- 
 sufficient, and an amended act was passed, 
 imposing a small assessment on all live stock, 
 and the proceeds of this tax were appropriated 
 to the maintenance of a rural police known in 
 the colony for mary years as the Border 
 Police. 
 
 Under these, the early squatting acts, the 
 extent of territory occupied by the various 
 squatters respectively was not very clearly 
 denned. Each man took as much as he wanted, 
 or rather, in most cases, as much as very 
 extravagant notions of the increase of his 
 stock led him to hope he might want ; and as 
 
214 
 
 there seemed to be an almost illimitable extent 
 of territory over which they might spread, 
 this was not found to be of much inconvenience, 
 and from an implied principle, the squatters 
 were as a body very jealous of any encroach- 
 ment being made one upon another. 
 
 The system of squatting was carried on in this 
 way up to the year 1844, when the whole 
 system was brought under revision by Governor 
 Sir George Gipps. The immense increase of 
 the stock of the colony, and the rapid occupa- 
 tion of immense territory by single individuals 
 was thought to be impolitic, but there can be 
 no doubt the main object sought by the as- 
 tute Governor was to raise a revenue from 
 squatting licenses, which should compensate 
 for the almost total failure of that derived from 
 the sale of Crown Lands, in consequence of the 
 increase in the minimum price, first from 5s. 
 to 12s., and subsequently to 1 per acre. 
 
 Accordingly, on the 2nd of April, a code of 
 regulations was issued, the main principle ot 
 which was, that the license fee should be pro- 
 portioned to the extent of the area occupied, 
 or its capability for bearing stock. The fee of 
 10 was to be paid for every 4000 sheep, or 
 every 500 head of cattle, while the assessment 
 was continued as before. 
 
 The promulgation of these regulations caused 
 very great excitement among the squatters, 
 and meetings were held in different parts of the 
 country, in order to organise measures to oppose 
 them. The result of these meetings, was the 
 
215 
 
 establishment of the Pastoral Association, and 
 the roll of membership included the names of 
 a great majority of the large squatters of the 
 colony* 
 
 It was complained that the imposition of this 
 proportionate license fee, was an unjust tax 
 upon the squatters, and that it was an entire 
 departure from the principle on which thelicense 
 fee had been first established, it having been col- 
 lected in the first instance, not for the purposes of 
 revenue, but as a certificate of character. This 
 argument was no doubt strictly true, but there 
 could also be no doubt that when some of the in- 
 fluential men among the squatters held 
 millions of acres as stations at a merely 
 nominal rent, while they had not sufficient 
 stock to cover those stations, very considerable 
 abuses must have crept into the system. 
 
 The vigorous exertions of the association be- 
 fore alluded to, produced a modification of 
 the regulations, and a new code was promulga- 
 ted on the 10th July, 1845, which although 
 it gave but little satisfaction to the squatters, 
 was of a much more liberal character than 
 those of the 2nd April. 
 
 Under these later regulations the area of a 
 station, for which a 10 license was paid, was 
 increased from 20 square miles to 25 square 
 miles. The number of cattle, as equivalent to 
 4000 sheep, was increased from 500 to 640 ; 
 while for every thousand sheep, or proportionate 
 number of cattle, above the 4000 which one station 
 was taken to depasture, 2 10s. was to be paid. 
 
216 
 
 In this year, 1845, the amount of license 
 fees collected was 32,031. 
 
 The mam points with which the squatters 
 
 > were dissatisfied on these regulations were, 
 that they gave them no fixity of tenure, no 
 right of pre-emption, and no compensation for 
 improvements made on the Crown lands. 
 
 They contended that their occupation ought 
 to be in some degree permanent. That the 
 squatter ought not to be ousted from a station 
 to the ruin of his property, because 
 some person chose to purchase from the 
 Crown the choice bit of land, which 
 
 I perhaps gave value to all the pastoral 
 acres which surrounded it. They urged, 
 if at the claim of intending purchasers 
 land was put up for sale, the occupying squat- 
 ter should have the option of buying it at the 
 upset price ; and they demanded, that if their 
 stations were taken from them they should 
 have full value for all improvements made upon 
 them. These demands were resisted by the 
 Local Government, and a feeling of very con- 
 siderable bitterness was thus engendered ; and 
 it is a matter of very considerable doubt 
 whether this bitterness, together with the self- 
 interest of one of the contending parties, did 
 
 ^ not prevent the ultimate settlement of the 
 question by the Imperial Government, from 
 being based on wise policy and correct princi- 
 ples. It is quite certain that at the present 
 time, the feeling throughout the Colony that 
 the squatters have attained privileges which 
 
217 
 
 I 
 
 are unjust and which are dangerous to the 
 liberties of the country, is rapidly gaining 
 strength. 
 
 An agrarian spirit of discontent has been | 
 evinced at the locking up immense districts in 
 the most fertile parts of the colony from set- 
 tlement or cultivation ; it is exhibited by the 
 lower classes, who complain they are thus pro- 
 hibited from settling on small farms and country 
 homesteads of their own ; still more, reflective 
 men incline very much to the opinion that by 
 the undue encouragement given to sheep 
 farming, the industrial and productive energies 
 of the country have been materially crippled. 
 
 In these papers, however, it would be out of 
 place to discuss a question of this nature, we 
 therefore proceed to point out the principal 
 features of the regulations established under 
 an order of Council, and under which squat- 
 ting is at present carried on. 
 
 The order in Council was dated 9th March, 
 1847, and came into operation on the 7th Octo- 
 ber of that year ; and under it the lands of the 
 colony were divided into three classes the \ 
 settled, the intermediate, and the unsettled 
 districts. The settled districts in the colony 
 of New South Wales comprise the whole of 
 the nineteen counties, the counties of Stanley 
 and Macquarie, the towns in the country 
 districts with the lands immediately adjacent, 
 all the land within three miles of the sea, and 
 the lands at the head and along the banks of 
 some principal rivers. 
 
 2 B 
 
218 
 
 The intermediate districts in New South 
 Wales comprehend the county of Auckland, 
 Gipps Land, and some other partially settled 
 districts. 
 
 The unsettled districts comprise all the 
 remaining lands of the colony. 
 
 In the unsettled districts occupation leases 
 are given for 14 years, with the right to culti- 
 vate for the consumption of the establishment 
 of t>e lessee, and no further; the amount of 
 rent being ten pounds per annum for the 
 estimated capability of the run to carry 4000 
 sheep or an equivalent number of cattle ; the 
 capability of the run to be determined by two 
 valuers, one appointed by the Commissioner of 
 the district, and one by the occupier. During 
 the lease the land can be sold only to the 
 occupant. The lease may be renewed for the 
 whole run if no portion is sold, or for any 
 portion of the run, provided that one-fourth of 
 the whole remains unsold. 
 
 In the leases there are reservations for public 
 purposes, and conditions for the payment of 
 rent, &c., punishable by the forfeiture of the 
 run in case of non-observance. 
 
 In the intermediate districts, theleases are con- 
 fined to 8 years, it being, however, a condition 
 that at the end of every successive year from the 
 date of the lease, the Governor may, by giving 
 60 days' previous notice, offer for sale the whole 
 or any part of the lands on the said run. 
 
 In the settled districts the leases are given 
 from year to year only. 
 
219 
 
 This, then, is the position, politically speak- 
 ing, in which the pastoral districts now stand ; 
 but we may add that it was only under the 
 constitutional act of 1850, that the population 
 outside the boundaries were allowed the elec- 
 tive franchise. At present, however, the squat- 
 ting districts have been erected, under certain 
 combinations, into electoral districts, and exer- 
 cise very considerable influence in the Legis- 
 lature of the country. 
 
 We now proceed to examine what have been 
 the results of the workings of these successive 
 systems. 
 
 In the year 1810, twenty-two years after 
 the establishment of the country, the sheep of 
 the colony were 25,888 head, and the cattle 
 12,442. In the year 1821, the number of sheep 
 had increased to 119,777 ; in 1828, it was 
 563,691 ; in 1834, it reached one million ; in 
 1843, the number of sheep was 3,452,539 ; 
 in 1844, 3,743,732; in 1845, 4,409,504 ; in 1846, 
 4,909,819; in 1847, 5,673,266; in 1848, 
 6,530,542; in 1849, 6,784,494; in 1850, 
 7,092,209; in 185 J, 7,396,895. In 1837, the 
 export of wool was 4,273,715 Ibs. ; in 1840, 
 it was 7,668,960 Ibs.; in 1845, it was 
 10,522,921 Ibs. ; in 1850, it was 14,270,632 Ibs.; 
 in 1851, it was 15,268,473 Iba. 
 
 Whether therefore it be that the pasturage 
 and climate of New South Wales is peculiarly 
 favorable for the breeding of sheep, or whether 
 it be from the peculiar system under which 
 this pursuit has been carried on, there can be 
 B 3 
 
220 
 
 no doubt that the accumulation and dispersion 
 of this particular description of national wealth 
 has exceeded in rapidity and amount that of 
 any precedent which the world affords. 
 
 Admitting the natural facilities and advan- 
 tages which the country affords would go a 
 considerable way to account for the enormous 
 increase, it seems to be pretty certain, that the 
 squatting system under all its -variations has 
 been so favorable to the operations of private 
 enterprise, that to it must be attributed, to 
 some extent at least, the position to which 
 our pastoral pursuits have attained. "We find 
 by the authorised returns for the year 1851, 
 that the number of sheep within the settled 
 districts was 2,263,386, while beyond the 
 settled districts it was 5,133,509. The pro- 
 portion of cattle and other live stock between 
 the two classes is very nearly the same as will 
 hereafter appear. 
 
 With regard to the other live stock of the co- 
 lony which are included in the pastoral returns 
 of the colony, we find that in 1843 the number 
 of horses was 55,739 ; horned cattle, 850.160 ; 
 pigs, 54,607. In 1844, horses, 64,093; horned 
 cattle, 971,559 ; pigs, 52,196. In 1845, horses, 
 73,014; horned cattle, 1,116,420; pigs, 56,022. 
 In 1846, horses, 76,726; horned cattle, 
 1,140,297; pigs 39,723. In 1847, horses, 
 90,118 ; horned cattle, 1,270,706 ; pigs, 
 57,395. In 1848, horses, 97,400 ; horned 
 cattle, 1,366,164; pigs, 65,216. In 1849, 
 horses, 105,126 ; horned cattle, 1,463,65' ; 
 
221 
 
 pigs, 52,902. In 1850, horses, 111,458 ; horned 
 cattle, 1,374,768; pigs, 52,371. In 1851, 
 horses, 116,397 ; horned cattle, 1,375,257 ; 
 pigs, 65,510. 
 
 In the year 1851, the number of horses 
 within the settled districts was, 81,083 ; 
 horned cattle, 451,263 ; pigs, 59,439. Beyond 
 the settled districts there were horses, 35,214 ; 
 horned cattle, 923,994 ; pigs, 6081. 
 
 In order however fully to appreciate the 
 value of the live stock it is necessary to state 
 that in the year 1843, the export of tallow was 
 4660 cwt. ; in 1844, 48,029 cwt. ; in 1845, 
 64,440 cwt.; in 1846, 18,117 cwt.; in 1847, 
 58,478 cwt. ; in 1848, 71,304 cwt. ; in 1849, 
 84,454 cwt ; in 1850, 128,090 cwt. ; in 1851, 
 86,460 cwt. ; in the year 1850, the estimated 
 value of the export of tallow was 167,858. 
 We may also add, that in the year 1850, 
 190,791 yards of woollen cloth were manu- 
 factured in the colony. 
 
 We find then that during last year the ex- 
 ports derived from pastoral pursuits in this 
 coleny exceeded considerably the estimated 
 value of 1,000,000 sterling. We find 
 besides that the live stock of the 
 colony in proportion to the whole 
 adult and infant population of the colony 
 ( 97,168) is as follows : To every individual 
 37 sheep, 6 horned cattle, two-thirds of a 
 horse, and one-third of a pig. 
 
 A further consideration is also to be made. 
 It is probable as a whole that the community 
 B 4 
 
222 
 
 of New South Wales is, in proportion to the 
 number of its population, the largest meat 
 consuming one in the world. At all events, it 
 is the largest consuming community of beef 
 and mutton, as there is little fish, and scarcely 
 any game. 
 
 When then it is considered that the pastoral 
 pursuits of the colony afford an export very 
 nearly amounting to 6 per head for every 
 man, won: an, and child in the colony that they 
 supply in abundance, and at a very cheap rate, 
 the second important element in the food of the 
 country, and that they form, moreover, to such 
 an enormous proportionate extent as we have 
 described, the permanent and fixed capital of 
 the country, it is difficult to rate their im- 
 portance too highly, and it is certainly some- 
 what dangerous to interfere with interests so 
 essential to the present prosperity of the 
 country, and which from their magnitude 
 must be so powerful and influential. Sorry 
 indeed should we be to see the capital, labour, 
 and enterprise, which has hitherto been so 
 prosperously to the country, invested in these 
 pursuits, and which has so largely fructified, 
 either destroyed or depreciated. 
 
 But we cannot conceal from ourselves that 
 the wool and grazing interests in their present 
 state, impede in some degree the social progress 
 of the country. 
 
 The policy of dispersion as opposed 
 to concentration, though rendered almost in- 
 evitable under the natural circumstances of the 
 
223 
 
 country, can never be regarded as very favor- 
 able for the advancement of civilization and 
 refinement ; and in the case of New South 
 Wales, this has proved to be particularly the 
 case. The class who in general, in civi- 
 lized countries, are the promoters of material 
 progress, have here, under the influence of self- 
 interest, opposed it. 
 
 The formation of railroads, the establish- 
 ment of manufactures, the encouragement of 
 agriculture by the humble classes, have been 
 discountenanced, because they would have 
 absorbed the labour which was required for 
 pastoral pursuits. 
 
 The gold discovery is however rapidly 
 breaking up this spirit of monopoly, and 
 though we trust the pastoral interests will ulti- 
 mately escape from the injury its changes may 
 bring, we do warmly anticipate that it will do 
 more than any purely human efforts could 
 have effected, to extend the sphere of industrial 
 enterprise, and to advance the progress of moral, 
 social, and intellectual refinement. 
 
PART VI. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 THERE are perhaps few communities in 
 the world in which the mercantile character 
 is more decidedly developed than in the colony 
 of New South Wales. 
 
 Commerce indeed may be termed the genius 
 of this growing dependency, andto any reflecting 
 mind, having opportunities of observation, it 
 must be evident that to commerce will it owe 
 that place in the scale of nations which it 
 is doubtless destined to attain. 
 
 That this should be the case is to a certain 
 extent natural, while that this peculiar charac- 
 teristic tendency should be so strikingly dis- 
 played is perhaps somewhat singular. De- 
 scended from a great commercial nation, it was 
 to be expected that the habits and pursuits of 
 the colony should resemble those of the parent 
 state ; but the circumstances of the former its 
 physical features, its capacity for production, 
 and the nature of its products, all inclined to the 
 supposition that if habits of trade were 
 adopted they would exist only under a 
 very changed and modified form. 
 
MyvwwwM 
 
 225 
 
 This however has not turned out to be the ease, 
 at least to a very slight extent. Although, as 
 we have shown in a former paper, the wealth 
 of this colony has mainly depended on its 
 production of wool, and it may therefore to 
 that extent be termed a pastoral country, the 
 manners and habits of the community are by 
 no means such as we are accustomed to 
 attribute to a pastoral people. In New South 
 Wales there is all the vigorous energy, all the 
 ardent enterprise, all the shrewd speculative 
 spirit which are to be found amongst the most 
 intelligent of commercial communities. While 
 the true British genius is displayed in the 
 breadth and design of the commercial fabric, 
 there is almost an American cleverness and 
 activity in the conduct of the details of trade. 
 Alive to the fullest extent to the power and 
 greatness which in these modern times attaches 
 to the material wealth of communites, addicted 
 to the pursuit of commerce, as much from a 
 restless spirit of excitement as by the desire of 
 personal gain, all the productive capabilities 
 of the country have been nourished and fostered 
 with the view of making them subservient to 
 the commercial greatness of the colony. 
 
 It was this that engendered and encouraged 
 the growth of wool in the colony, as the lead- 
 ing pursuit. It was the merchants, the bankers, 
 the traders of the city of Sydney, who stimu- 
 lated this enterprise, by investing their own 
 funds largely in it, and by advancing means to 
 others. Pastoral pursuits were not resorted to 
 
226 
 
 in this colony as the means of subsistence, but 
 to furnish the materials of a trade. The great 
 reason why the increase in the production of 
 wool has been so large and so rapid has been 
 because the end to be obtained could be en- 
 larged to an indefinite extent. It was to give 
 us a large export : it became to the mercantile 
 man the sole measure of our commercial 
 relations, the guage of all our commercial 
 greatness. 
 
 It has been this active, business-loving spirit 
 that has prevented the Australians even in the 
 interior from falling into those indolent and 
 nomadic habits which have generally charac- 
 terised the " keepers of sheep ;" and which, 
 under other circumstances, might especially 
 have been engendered on the wild and far- 
 spreading plains of this colony. It is true 
 some may regret that the simplicity and soft- 
 ness of character which is said to prevail 
 amongst most pastoral races have been lost in 
 this more energetic spirit ; but it is impossible 
 to doubt that, in dealing with the stern realities 
 of life, a greater amount of good to the com- 
 munity and to the world at large will be done, 
 and consequently a greater amount of the bless- 
 ings of civilization attained. 
 
 There is one light in which we may dwell 
 with complacency on the preservation of this 
 quick, active, British spirit of enterprise, even 
 amidst the quiet and enervating pursuits in 
 which so large a share of the population has 
 been engaged. 
 
227 
 
 It gives good hope for the future. It en- 
 courages us to believe that, as the production of 
 wool has not degenerated us into the semi- 
 civilization of nomadic tribes, neither will the 
 production of gold plunge us into those habits 
 of indolent sensuality, reckless ferocity, or sel- 
 fish cupidity which have so frequently ac- 
 companied the production of the precious 
 metals in other parts of the world. It is our 
 belief that, instead of crushing or subduing this 
 commercial spirit, the discovery of gold will 
 stimulate it ; it is another instrument in our 
 hands to extend our enterprise, it is another 
 and a giant engine to propel the vessel of 
 Australian commerce with increased rapidity. 
 
 It is this spirit that will rob gold of those 
 mere selfish and sordid considerations which 
 have made other gold-producing communities 
 indolent and supine, and we will hope that this 
 spirit, based on British principle and carefully 
 nurtured by British honesty and British 
 liberality, will preserve us from the vices and 
 depravity which have but too often followed 
 on the glittering but dangerous gift. 
 
 In accounting for this national charac- 
 teristic, if we may so call it, of the Australian 
 people, and particuliarly of the people of New 
 South Wales, it may be remarked that, to a 
 very considerable extent, a tone had been 
 given to the manners and habits of the people 
 before the pursuit of woolgrowing was engaged 
 in to any great extent. The continual arrival 
 of vessels with convicts and emigrants from 
 
228 
 
 England rendered commercial establishments 
 to some extent necessary, Wharyes and 
 stores sprang up, and the capabilities of the 
 splendid harbour of Port Jackson to become 
 the great emporium of trade in the Pacific 
 were soon seen and appreciated. The Southern 
 fisheries held out peculiar attractions to the 
 bold and hardy adventurers of whom the early 
 colonists chiefly consisted ; and the splendid 
 success which met the enterprise of those who 
 engaged in this pursuit tended to the creation 
 and rapid increase of the colonial marine. The 
 gradual establishment and growth of the 
 sister colonies,- the advantages offered b} the 
 extension of our commerce to China, 
 all followed in their turn ; and Sydney soon 
 assumed the aspect of a busy commercial sea- 
 port town. 
 
 We must however proceed to trace the 
 growth and history of the commerce of New 
 South "Wales a little more minutely. 
 
 As the basis of all commerce we must in the 
 first instance refer to the monetary systems 
 which have at different times prevailed in the 
 colony. 
 
 After the first settlement, for upwards of 
 thirty years, the circulating medium of the 
 colony consisted of the private notes of indivi- 
 duals. These were sometimes issued to a con- 
 siderable extent by merchants and traders, 
 who in this respect added to their ordinary 
 business the functions of bankers. They were 
 however issued by private individuals, shop- 
 
229 
 
 keepers, publicans and others, to meet the 
 emergencies of their own business, and these 
 notes varied in amount from hundreds of 
 pounds down to 6d. 
 
 F oating and insecure paper of this descrip- 
 tion was of course subject to much depreciation, 
 and the evils of the system were felt very 
 severely. 
 
 In the year 1817, the first Bank was esta- 
 blished in the colony, under the title of the 
 Bank of New South Wales. This Bank was 
 incorporated under the seal of the colony, its 
 capital stock being 20,000, raised in shares of 
 100 each. The notes issued by this Bank 
 were for 2s. 6d., 5s., 10s., 1, and 5. In the 
 first year of its incorporation the bills discoun- 
 ted by the Bank amounted to only 12,193. 
 In 1818, they rose to 81,672; in 1819, to 
 107,256. The dividend declared in 1818, was 
 at the rate of 12 per cent. ; in 1819, it was 21 
 per cent. ; in 1820 and 21, 12 per cent. ; in 1822, 
 15 per cent. The Bank has continued to 
 flourish to this day, of course under many mo- 
 difications and alterations of its constitution, 
 its capital being gradually extended to 
 150,000. 
 
 The Bank of Australia was established in 
 1826, with a capital of 220,000. A small pro- 
 portion only of which, however, was paid up. 
 This bank was also a bank of issue and deposit, 
 and for a long period of years it maintained an 
 outward appearance of great prosperity. The 
 high dividends paid, however, were fictitious, 
 2 c 
 
230 
 
 and a reckless system of advances to merchants 
 and others engaged in reckless speculations 
 involved it in the vortex of insolvency, which 
 whirled the mercantile affairs of the colony 
 nearly into total ruin, in the years 1843 and 
 1844. The insolvency of this bank involved 
 a large number of its shareholders in the 
 deepest distress, many of them being widows 
 and retired officers, who had nothing else to 
 depend on. It is however to the credit of the 
 colony to state that after stupendous efforts the 
 whole of the liabilities of the bank, amounting 
 to upwards of 200,000, have been paid off. 
 
 In the year 1834, a London company, under 
 the title of the Bank of Australasia, was es- 
 tablished and incorporated by royal charter, 
 with a capital of 200,000, for the purpose of 
 establishing banks of issue in the various 
 Australian settlements. The Sydney branch 
 commenced business the 14th October, 1835 ; 
 and branches were subsequently established at 
 Maitland, Melbourne, Hobart Town, and 
 Adelaide. The bank suffered severely from the 
 failure of the Bank of Australia, to which it 
 had advanced, on promissory notes, upwards of 
 160,000. It has however since recovered 
 itself, and is now paying a dividend. 
 
 The Commercial Bank was established in 
 1834, and was incorporated by Act of the 
 Legislative Council ; its capital was 150,000, 
 and it has also been a very flourishing concern. 
 
 In 1838 another London Company entitled 
 the Union Bank of Australia was established. 
 
231 
 
 This company declined to be incorporated, and 
 is a mere partnership with an unlimited 
 liability, and unlimited circulation. This 
 bank has branch establishments throughout the 
 Australasian colonies, and from the excellent 
 management of its affairs it has been highly 
 profitable to the shareholders. 
 
 The charters of incorporation of the New 
 South Wales Bank and the Commercial Bank 
 have since been remodelled by local enactments, 
 and at present the principles on which they 
 are based are briefly as follows : The liability 
 of each shareholder is limited to twice the 
 amount of his shares. The whole amount of 
 capital must be paid up in two years the circu- 
 lation of notes is limited to theamountof capital. 
 
 The issue and liability of the shareholders of 
 the Bank of Australasia are regulated by the 
 same principles as govern English Banking 
 Companies, 
 
 The issue and liability of the Union Bank of 
 Australia are both unlimited. 
 
 Under a local enactment, all these banks are 
 required to furnish to the Government for 
 publication in the Government Gazette, a half- 
 yearly statement showing the amount and 
 nature of the debts, engagements, and liabili- 
 ties, and of the assets and property or securities 
 of the respective bank ; also, a quarterly 
 general abstract, showing the average amount 
 of the liabilities and assets of the respective 
 bank taken from the several weekly statements 
 during the quarter. 
 
232 
 
 Such is the system of banking which has 
 now been established in the colony, and under 
 which the currency of the colony is governed. 
 The notes issued by these four banks form 
 almost entirely the circulating medium of the 
 colony, at least with the exception of silver 
 coin. And although, no doubt, it is not a 
 system which would theoretically bear the 
 strict scrutiny of financiers, it has been found 
 practically to work beneficially. The most 
 unlimited confidence is felt in the stability of 
 the banks, and their notes are always passed 
 from hand to hand without the slightest depre- 
 ciation or distrust. 
 
 That this is not a mere vulgar feeling of 
 security, arising from ignorance or apathy, it is 
 enough to say that in the year 1850, a select 
 committee appointed to enquire into the whole 
 system of banking, having taken the evidence 
 of the managers of all the banks of the colony, 
 reported that it would not be expedient to 
 introduce a metallic currency into the colony, 
 or to recommend at present any alteration 
 in the laws affecting it. 
 
 We now proceed to show the present 
 position of the Banks. The aggregate note 
 circulation of the Banks in the colony of New 
 South Wales alone, in the quarter ending June 
 1852, was 600,400 ; of these 169,500 were 
 issued by the Bank of New South Wales ; 
 125,600 by the Commercial Bank ; 119,900 
 by the Bank of Australasia ; 185,400, by the 
 Union Bank. 
 
233 
 
 The aggregate amount of deposits held by 
 the four banks at the same period was 
 1,648,100. Of these, 686,100 were held by 
 the Bank of New South Wales ; 308,100, by 
 the Commercial Bank ; 314,800, by the Bank 
 of Australasia; 339,100, by the Union 
 Bank. 
 
 The aggregate of coin and bullion held by 
 the banks, was 769,100, being 354,700 in 
 the Bank of New South Wales ; 96,300, in 
 the Commercial Bank ; 118,700, in the Bank 
 of Austialasia; 199,400, in the Union 
 Bank. 
 
 The aggregate amount of the discounts of the 
 banks was 1,390,100; or 430,000 by the 
 Bank of New South Wales, 319,700 tty the 
 Commercial Bank, 289,500 by the Bank of 
 Australasia, and 350,900 by the Union Bank. 
 
 This brief sketch of the monetary system 
 of the colony, will be sufficient to indicate the 
 extent of those commercial transactions which 
 can only be represented and effected by the 
 means of the financial operations which the 
 banks are instituted to facilitate. 
 
 We now come to consider the trade of the 
 colony, and for this purpose it is unnecessary 
 that we should turn back farther than the 
 year 1830. 
 
 In the year 1830, the total population of the 
 colony, as near as it could be arrived at at that 
 day, was about 55,000. The amount of the 
 imports into the colony in that year was 
 420,480 ; arriving in 157 vessels, of a tonnage 
 
234 
 
 of 31,225. The amount of exports was 141,461, 
 exported in 149 vessels, of a tonnage of 28,822. 
 
 In 1840, the imports into the colony 
 amounted to 2,600,650, or an increase of 
 eleven fold in ten years. In the same year the 
 exports amounted to 1,270,823, or an increase 
 of nine fold in ten years. 
 
 In the year 1850, the imports were 
 1,333,413, being a decrease in the ten years 
 irom 1840, of 100 per cent. In the same year 
 the exports were 1,357,784, being an increase 
 over 1843 of about ten per cent. 
 
 It is, however, necessary to state that in the 
 year 1840 the trade of the colony was inflated 
 beyond all precedent. The supposed inex- 
 haustible wealth of our pastures and the high 
 prices paid for our wool in Englmd, induced 
 speculation to an enormous extent. The un- 
 limited credit which prevailed in the colony 
 stimulated the spirit here, while the hope of 
 enormous profits induced the English mer- 
 chants to increase consignments to an extrava- 
 gant degree. The consequences of this rash 
 inflation of the ordinary business of the colony 
 were ruinous ; it was the precursor of the 
 insolvency which followed three years after, 
 fatal both to the speculations of the Australian 
 colonist and the hopes of the British merchant, 
 three-fourths of the importations of 1840 being 
 sold under the hammer below prime cost in 
 succeeding years. 
 
 In 1851 the total amount of imports into the 
 colony was 1,563,931, consisting of 1,152,421 
 
235 
 
 from Great Britain, 15,609 from New 
 Zealand, 174,250 from other colonies, 6771 
 from the South Sea Islands, 23,033 from the 
 Fisheries, 14,127 from the United States of 
 America, and 177,720 from foreign states. 
 
 The exports of the year 1851 amounted to 
 1,796,912, being 1,477,452 to Great Britain ; 
 9-1,046 to New Zealand, 146,805 to other 
 colonies; 15,334 to the South Sea Islands; 
 33,784 to the United States of America; and 
 29,491 to foreign states. 
 
 The imports in 1851 comprised 72,341 for 
 wearing apparel; 10,000 for gunpowder; 
 25,000 for wool bags and sacks ; 57,000 for 
 beer and ale ; 10,000 for blankets; 12,000 
 for canvas; 10,000 for coffee; 12,0000 
 for confections and preserves; 11,000 for 
 cordage; 176,000 for cottons; 14,000 for 
 drugs and medicines; 18,000 for earthen- 
 ware and china ; 32,500 for flour and 
 bread ; 10,000 for fruits ; 11,000 for glass ; 
 32,000 for grain (including rice) ; 84,000 
 for haberdashery; 68,000 for hardware; 
 11,000 for hats and bonnets; 7000 for 
 hosiery and gloves ; 6000 for slops; 14,000 
 for iron and steel ; 19000 for leather 
 boots and shoes ; 92,000 for linens ; 10,000 
 for nails ; 35,000 for oils ; 44,000 for 
 oilmen's stores ; 13,000 for silks ; 60,000 
 for spirits ; 41,000 for stationary, books, 
 and papers; 108,608 for sugar; 48,000 
 for tea ; 54,000 for tobacco and cigars; 
 33,000 for wine; 151,000 for woollens and 
 
 2 D 
 
236 
 
 a very long list of other articles imported in 
 smaller quantities. 
 
 The exports of 1851, comprised wool, 
 828,342; tallow, 114,168; horses, 17,298; 
 other live stock, 6,000: oil, 26,000; salt' d 
 and preserved meats, 9,000 ; horned cattle, 
 22,600; coals, 12,000. These were all the 
 produce of the colony; the rest of the fxpoits 
 comprise chiefly British and foreign goods sent 
 to the surrounding colonies. 
 
 The total population of the colony on the 
 31st December, 1851, was 197,168, so that the 
 amount of imports to every man, woman, and 
 child in the colony, would be at the rate of 
 about 8 a-hea^, and of exports about 9 a- 
 head, a rate which we believe is hardly equalled 
 by any community in the world. 
 
 The import trade of New South Wales 
 comprises several branches of greater or less 
 importance. 
 
 The principal of these imports are from the 
 mother country, comprising nearly 1,200,000 
 of the principal articles of manufacture of that 
 country. Next in importance 's the trade 
 from Manila and the China Seas, consisting 
 chiefly of tea, sugar, and cigars, amounting to 
 nearly 200,000 per annum. An examination 
 of the trade with Manila, proves very clearly 
 the importance of these colonies to that settle- 
 ment, in a commercial point of view. The 
 rapid growth for the last few years, and the 
 present importance of the trade between 
 Manila and the Australasian colonies, is not 
 
237 
 
 generally known and appreciated. In the year 
 1849 the exportation of sugar from Manila to 
 these colonies was 86,546 piculs, or just one- 
 half what was imported into Great Britain. 
 In 1850, the export increased to 135,819 
 piculs, and in 1851 to 180,988 piculs, or just 
 20,000 piculs more than was exported to Great 
 Britain and the whole continent of Europe, 
 and 50,000 piculs mora than was exported 
 to the United States. In 1849 the export of 
 cigars to these colonies was 7277 M. ; in 1850, 
 10,938 M. ; in 1851, 16,270 M. ; while in the lat- 
 ter year the export to Great Britain was 
 7295 M. ; to the United States, 2532 M. ; to 
 the Continent of Europe, 4981 M., or 14,778 M. 
 in all being 1492 M. less than the export to 
 these colonies. The total export of sugar from 
 Manila in 1851, was 508,835 piculs, of which 
 we took nearly two- fifths ; the total export of 
 cigars 66,207 M., of which we took one-fourth; 
 the total export of coffee, 15,267 piculs, of 
 which we took one-fifth. 
 
 With regard to this trade it must be borne 
 in mind, that these exports are paid for in 
 cash only as there is very little export trade 
 to Manila, or any other port in the China 
 Seas. 
 
 The next most important branch of this 
 trade is the inter-colonial trade. This is very 
 important as regards our commercial position. 
 From the neighbouring colonies of Van 
 Dieman's Land and South Australia and New 
 Zealand, we obtain principally produce 
 
 D3 
 
238 
 
 breadstuff's, potatoes, fruits, and metallic 
 ores. 
 
 In return for these New South Wales is to 
 no inconsiderable extent the medium through 
 which these colonies receive their supplies of 
 British and foreign goods. At all events in the 
 absence of sufficient supplies direct, Sydney is 
 resorted to as the market, and it is very 
 necessary for the mercantile interests to en- 
 courage the growth of these feelings, and be pre- 
 pared to meet the demand, as it is only by 
 doing this that Sydney can maintain its 
 position as the emporium of the trade of the 
 Southern Seas. 
 
 The trade from the South Sea Islands is also 
 important in a mercantile point of view. 
 Although in 1851 it amounted only to 6,771 
 in the previous year it was 31,827. The 
 articles imported are coeoanut oil, sandal 
 wood, &c., which form articles of export to 
 foreign countries and serve to stimulate the 
 spirit of commercial enterprise. 
 
 There is every probability that in the course 
 of a few years a large and valuable trade may 
 spring up with these islauds, the fertility and 
 capabilities of which as well as the general 
 intelligence of their inhabitants, are far more 
 appreciated now than they were a few years 
 ago. 
 
 Another branch of trade is an uncertain one, 
 being the trade in bread stuffs, from the west 
 coast of South America in seasons of scarcity. 
 There is no export trade to balance these oc- 
 
239 
 
 casional importations, which are consequently 
 paid for in money. 
 
 The trade from foreign states, (except those 
 which we have specially referred to,) is very 
 small. An occasional cargo of wine from Spain 
 or Portugal, a miscellaneous cargo from the 
 United States, once, or perhaps twice a year, 
 and of late such little cargos as a few German 
 emigrant ships may bring with them, com- 
 prise the whole ; but it is not too much to 
 expect that under the influence of the repeal 
 of the Navigation laws, the gold discovery, and 
 above all, the abolition of all Customs' re- 
 strictions on foreign produce, native or manu. 
 factured, that the commercial intercourse of the 
 colony of New South Wales with foreign states, 
 will very soon be very largely increased. 
 
 The export trade is more simple, out of an 
 amount of 1,796 9s. 10d.~ 1,477,452 being 
 sent home to the mother country the ex- 
 ports to 'he neighbouring colonies ernrunt 
 to 240,000; to the South Sea Islands 
 15,334 ; and to the United States of 
 America, 95,473 ; most part of this latter 
 amount being accounted for by the trade lately 
 sprung up between Sydney and California. 
 The exports to foreign states was in 1851, 
 29,491, being 120 per cent, increase in this 
 class of exports on the previous year, shewing 
 that the alteration in the Navigation laws had 
 already begun to have its effect. There has 
 also been for some years past a trade in horses 
 to India ; this amounted in 185 , to 17,298. 
 B 4 
 
240 
 
 The statistics of the shipping of the colony 
 also afford evidence of the steady growth of its 
 commerce. 
 
 In the year 1841, the number of vessels 
 entered inwards was 442, of a tonnage of 
 131,278 ; in the year 1851, the number of ves- 
 sels was 553, tonnage 153,002. 
 
 In the latter year these vessels comprised 
 from Great Britain 73, tonnage 40,867 ; from 
 other colonies 271, tonnage 57,766 ; from the 
 South Sea Islands 40, tonnage 5,643 ; from the 
 Fisheries 33, tonnage 8,430 ; from the United 
 States of America (including California) 72, 
 tonnage, 20,473 ; from other Foreign States 64, 
 tonnage 19,822. 
 
 In 1841, the shipping entered outwards was, 
 vessels 462, tonnage 137,962 ; in 1851, it was 
 vesssls 503, tonnage 139,020, comprising to 
 Great Britain 54, tonnage 26,694; to other 
 colonies 278, tonnage 55,741; to the South 
 Sea Islands 32, tonnage 5,513 ; to the Fisheries 
 33, tonnage 9,658 ; to the United States of 
 America (including California) 26, tonnage 
 9,457 ; to Foreign States, 80, tonnage 31,957. 
 
 We now turn our attention to the system of 
 commercial government, under which the 
 commerce of the colony has hitherto been 
 carried on. 
 
 With regard to export duties, the small duty 
 formerly charged on colonial wool admitted 
 into the mother country was abolished a few 
 years ago, and almost every other description 
 of colonial produce is admitted duty free. 
 
241 
 
 The import duties, with the exception of 
 spirits and tobacco, were, until the present 
 year, an ad valorem duty of 15 per cent, on all 
 articles of foreign produce or foreign manufac- 
 ture. British goods were admitted free. The 
 duty on foreign tobacco was 2s. per Ifo. ; and 
 on brandy and gin 6s. per gallon ; rum and 
 whiskey, 3s. 6d. per gallon. 
 
 During the session of the Legislative 
 Council of 1852 however, a new 
 tariff has been established, based on 
 free trade principles, and the duties now 
 charged on goods imported to New South 
 are solely as follows : Ale and beer, in wood 
 Id. per gallon ; ale and beer in bottle, 3d. pe r 
 gallon ; coffee, chocolate, and cocoa, f d. per 
 Ib. ; currants, raisins, and other dried fruits, 
 id. per Ib. ; brandy, proof strength, 6s. per 
 gallon ; gin, ditto, 6s. per gallon ; rum, and 
 all other spirits, 4s, per gallon ; perfumed 
 spirits, of whatever strength, 4s. per gallon ; 
 all spirits, liqueurs, cordials, brandied fruits, 
 or strong waters, 6s. per gallon ; refined sugar, 
 3s. 4d. per cwt. ; unrefined ditto, 2s. 6d. per 
 cwt. ; molasses, Is. 8d. per cwt. ; tea, ld. 
 per. Ib. ; manufactured tobacco, other than 
 cigars and snuffs, Is. 6d., until the 31st day of 
 December, 1853, and thereafter, Is. ; unmanu- 
 factured tobacco, Is. per Ib. until 31st Decem- 
 ber, 1843, and thereafter 8d. per Ib. ; cigars 
 and snuffs, 2s. per Ib. ; wine, Is. per 
 gallon. 
 
 The eminent simplicity of this tariff has 
 
r 
 
 242 
 
 created the highest satisfaction throughout the 
 colony. The duties on spirits and tobacco 
 being articles of luxury, and the use of which 
 indeed a wise policy would as far as prudent 
 resist, can be no burden on any one. 
 
 The duty on tea and sugar is one which will 
 operate so equally and will so universally effect 
 all classes, thatno injustice canbe inflicted by it ; 
 and if it cause a fractional advance in the price of 
 these articles to the consumer, the absence of 
 taxation on all other articles will enable him to 
 procure those articles at a proportionably 
 cheaper rate. As long as a revenue must be 
 raised by taxation for revenue purposes the 
 one great principle to be observed is to make 
 that taxation bear equally on all, and it is wise 
 therefore to confine duties to those articles 
 only which are of very general consumption. 
 
 It is confidently anticipated that this altera- 
 tion of the Tariff will have a most beneficial 
 effect, both as regards the amount of revenue 
 collected, and the encouragement it will give to 
 trade. Concurrently with the passing of this 
 Act, all port and harbour dues, and all auction 
 duties, were repealed, and it may perhaps be 
 said, that New South Wales affords the first 
 example of a great commercial community, 
 abandoning almost without exception the legis- 
 lative restrictions by which trade has been 
 hitherto governed. 
 
 The wisdom of this course it is not the object 
 of these papers either to prove or disprove ; 
 and yet we may venture to indulge in the hope 
 
243 
 
 that it was a prudent and a happy course for a 
 young nation starting in full -vigour into the 
 commerce of the world, to lay aside those re- 
 strictions and limitations, which the experience 
 of older and more matured nations have found 
 too cumbersome to be borne. Free and un- 
 fettered to carry her produce to any of the 
 countries of the world, to go in the pride of her 
 wealth in gold, in wool, in wine, and in oil, 
 to all the markets of the habitable globe to 
 purchase for herself the things she needeth ; 
 what prescience of wisdom what 
 spirit of prophecy shall discern 
 and unfold the commercial eminence 
 to which this great colony may aspire. On the 
 extreme verge of the south eastern Pacific a 
 few years perhaps will see a mighty city a 
 majestic empire rolling back to the northern 
 and western world the treasures of her soil 
 the produce of hei vineyards and her fields, 
 the fabrics of her looms, and of her factories, the 
 glories of her art, and the wonders of her 
 science, to prove that the seed scattered on 
 the footsteps of civilization, trampling on the 
 elements, and annihilating space has not been 
 sown in vain. 
 
 It would scarcely be expected that we should 
 conclude this branch of our subject without 
 some enquiry into the changes which the recent 
 discovery of gold will have upon the commerce 
 of this country. 
 
 That it will exercise a vast influence must 
 be apparent to all, but whether that influence 
 
244 
 
 will be for good or ill is a disputed question, 
 It is however difficult to suppose that in a 
 country where the value of wealth and the 
 active use of it for the purposes of increase are 
 so well understood, this wonderful addition to 
 the natural resources should not be productive 
 of increased prosperity. 
 
 It is true that at present the production of 
 very large quantities of gold has been produc- 
 tive of considerable monetary confusion. The 
 enormous increase in the amount of exports 
 thus caused has turned the balance of trade so 
 strongly in favour of this country that the 
 exchanges have undergone alterations ex- 
 tremely adverse to our interests. The excess 
 of exports over imports renders the amount of 
 the balance due from Great Britain to this 
 country large, and consequently the amount 
 of bills drawn on London against that excess 
 of exports is large, while the demand for such 
 bills is small. 
 
 The ordinary rule which governs supply 
 and demand has consequently had its natural 
 effect, and bills on England have fallen to a 
 low discount bank bills to eight per cent 
 and private bills to 12 per cent. If this con- 
 sequence had affected operations in gold alone 
 it would have been a matter of comparatively 
 little consequence, but operating as it must on 
 all descriptions of produce it has proved 
 seriouslv detrimental to those industrial 
 pursuits which were already languishing 
 from the abstraction from them of the 
 
245 
 
 labour which has been attracted to the gold 
 fields. That the evil, loss, and confusion thus 
 caused has been great, it is impossible to doubt, 
 but a vast increase to the weath of a nation, by 
 the sudden development of its latent resources 
 has seldom proved an unmixed good. 
 
 The evil however is not likely to be of long 
 continuance, and the remedy for it, is likely, 
 although it may not repair individual IOSSFS, to 
 compensate the colony most amply for its 
 temporary distresses. 
 
 It has been proposed by the Legislative 
 Council of the colony, and has been assented 
 to by the British Government, that a branch of 
 the royal mint shall be established in Sydney. 
 
 This, with the exception of the Indian de- 
 pendencies, is the first instance of the establish- 
 ment of a mint in a British colony, for the 
 simple reason that in no other dependency of 
 the Crown have the precious metals been pro- 
 duced in sufficient quantities to warrant such 
 an establishment. 
 
 The mint in Sydney will be restricted to a 
 gold coinage, identical in all respects to that 
 of England, and subjected to periodical 
 tests by the officers of the mint in England. 
 Of course any distinctive mark between the 
 colonial and the imperial coin would at once 
 tend to the depreciation of the former. 
 
 What effect the establishment of a mint in 
 the colony, where gold is so plentiful, may 
 have upon the currency of the colony it is 
 difficult to say, but it does not seem very 
 
246 
 
 probable, even though sovereigns should 
 be abundant, that they will supplant the 
 issues of the banks as a circulating medium. 
 
 It is, however, likely that fixing a certain 
 arbitrary price to gold of a certain standard, 
 or giving the possessor of such gold the power 
 to turn it into coin at will, will lead to an altera- 
 tion in the basis of the bank issues, and that the 
 colonial banks will hereafter limit their issues 
 in proportion to the amount of coin or bullion 
 they have in their possession, as in England, 
 instead of their being limited, as at present, by 
 the amount of their paid up capital. 
 
 For use in the colony, then it is improbable 
 that the coinage will be extensive ; and for the 
 purpose of shipment or remittance, the exact 
 value having been ascertained, gold in bullion 
 would be more convenient, and to the extent 
 of the cost of coinage, cheaper. 
 
 There may, however, be a considerable 
 coinage for the purpose of paying for those 
 importations, for which the colony has to pay 
 in money, and the settlement of these accounts 
 will probably be made in sovereigns, instead 
 of bills on Europe. 
 
 But the most beneficial effect which the mint 
 must have, will be to restore the equilibrium 
 of the Exchanges, for when gold becomes con- 
 vertible in'o coin on the spot, at a fixed rate, 
 all demands for advances against shipments of 
 the precious metal to England will cease. As 
 far as the Exchange goes, therefore golc*, will 
 cease to operate, and leave it to those trifling 
 
247 
 
 variations which are regulated by the excess 
 or the deficiency in the ordinary exports of the 
 country. 
 
 Left to assert their own importance, there 
 need be little fear that these industrial pur- 
 suits will dwindle and decay. The imminent 
 danger which now threatens them, will prove 
 their most effective and permanent defence. 
 
 Without the gold fields, the ordinary supply 
 of labour (while to procure it would have de- 
 prived the colony of the means of perfecting 
 those means of internal communication, almost 
 as necessary as labour itself) would have been 
 miserably stinted. Now however no calcu- 
 lation can place the limit to voluntary Immi- 
 gration, while common sense tells us that the 
 numbers that can be profitably engaged or 
 that can be subsisted at the gold diggings, will 
 soon find their maximum. 
 
 Any increase of population in excess of this 
 maximum must resort to the ordinary occupa- 
 tions of labour, and thus a permanent and ex- 
 tended industrial class will be created. 
 
 We repeat our conviction that the enterpris- 
 ing spirit of the colony will not be subdued by 
 the enervating influences of gold. Gold will 
 be valued not as wealth, not as capital, but as 
 the creator of wealth and capital. It will be 
 sought here to give value to the baser metals, 
 by turning them to useful apppliances. 
 It will be sought for to bring together in fre- 
 quent communication the remote ends of this 
 vast continent. It will be sought for to 
 
 2E 
 
248 
 
 people the wilderness and to reclaim the 
 desert ; to nerve and invigorate the sinews of 
 this youthful commercial nation till they 
 harden into the giant-strength of its glorious 
 maturity* 
 
 MANUFACTURES. 
 
 In the course of previous papers, we have had 
 frequent occasion to notice the great natural 
 resources which New South Wales possessess 
 for the manufacture of useful and valuable 
 articles of commerce. 
 
 In the present paper, we shall bring more 
 closely together those facts which bear most 
 strongly on this branch of trade,' and show as 
 far as the means we'possess admit, the progress 
 which has been made in manufacturing arts in 
 the colony. 
 
 If the developement of these resources and 
 their application should appear to be slow, it 
 must be remembered that the same excuse 
 holds good for manufactures as for every other 
 pursuit except wool growing ; that there has 
 been little or no labour to spare to devote to them. 
 
 To create a manufacturing trade, would 
 engross and concentrate a large amount of 
 labour, more severe in its character, and at 
 first at least, more slow in its returns than 
 agricultural and pastoral pursuits ; while the 
 skill and experience essential for the first may 
 be to a considerable extent dispensed with in 
 the last. 
 
249 
 
 Of course from the earliest settlement, some 
 rude manufactures have existed, such as 
 of simple articles of necessity, and the 
 ruder implements required in other pur- 
 suits. 
 
 But it has been naturally the bent of the 
 policy which has directed the energies of this 
 country, to make its production of staple 
 materials of manufactures the first object, 
 rather than to turn them to account on the 
 spot. Because by exporting them to Great 
 Britain, they were there manufactured at 
 less expense, to the great benefit of 
 the manufacturing interests at home, and 
 at the same time the wealth they gave to the 
 colonists, rendered Australia a most valuable 
 market for a large share of these manufac- 
 tures. 
 
 Although it is desirable now to a consider- 
 able extent, that manufactures should be 
 gradually encouraged, there is no reason to 
 regret that this almost exclusive export of 
 material and almost exclusive import of 
 manufactures should have prevailed. To have 
 circumscribed the limit of our wants by pro- 
 viding for them all ourselves, would have 
 been to have cramped and confined our ener- 
 gies, and to have dulled the spirit of enterprise 
 which prevails so strongly amongst us. 
 
 We should never become a great manu- 
 facturing country if this were the case, and 
 it is much wiser that manufacturing enterprise, 
 as far as mere home consumption goes, should 
 
250 
 
 be restrained until, added to our own wants, 
 we are enabled to supply those of surrounding 
 and even distant communities. As it was by 
 growing wool for export we became a great 
 sheep farming country, without degenerating 
 into a mere pastoral community, so it will be 
 by encouraging manufactures as another 
 great ingredient in the commercial enterprise 
 of the colony, that we shall be enabled to take 
 our stand in these seas as the rival of European 
 and American artificers. 
 
 The manufactures of the colony are at 
 present very limited, and they have in fact, 
 in some branches, considerably diminished of 
 late years. 
 
 Three years after the foundation of the 
 colony brickmaking commenced, and the 
 first brick building built of colonial made 
 bricks was erected in 1791. In 1805, 
 the first sailing vessel was built ; in 
 1815, the first steam-engine was worked in the 
 colony. In 1820, colonial tobacco was first 
 manufactured, and colonial spirits first distilled ; 
 and in 1831, the first colonial steam-boat was 
 launched. 
 
 There were two distilleries established in the 
 year 1837, and these have remained in full 
 work, except at short intervals, up to the 
 present time. Under the old system of very 
 high duties on foreign spirits, these distilleries 
 made large profits, but even these were insuffi- 
 cient to satisfy the proprietors, and illicit distil- 
 lation took place to a considerable extent in 
 
251 
 
 1846 ; however more stringent regulations for 
 the inspection of distilleries were enacted, and 
 the duty on foreign lum was reduced from 
 7s. 6d, to 3s. 6d. The profits of the distillers 
 then began to fall off, and the largest of them 
 was compelled to shut up, but it has recently 
 been again set at work by a sugar refining 
 company, and the two distilleries are now 
 turning out from. 7000 to 1 0,000 gallons weekly. 
 Nearly the whole of the spirits distilled in this 
 colony, are manufactured from sugar and mo- 
 lasses. 
 
 In addition to these distilleries, there is one 
 extensive rectifying and compounding estab- 
 lishment, and in former years there were three 
 or four. In the year 1837, there were 7 
 breweries, three in Sydney ; two in Parra- 
 matta ; one in Windsor ; and one in Maitland. 
 In 1844 there were 12 ; in 1845 there were 15 ; 
 in 1846, 16 ; in 1847, 15 ; in 1848, 12 ; in 1849, 
 21; in 1850, 19 ; in 1851,17. 
 
 The beer brewed at these breweries is drank 
 to a very considerable extent in the colony by 
 the humbler classes, but a very large portion 
 of it is an unwholesome beverage, being 
 adulterated with many deleterious articles. 
 Medical men have attributed death in many 
 instances to the excessive use of this drink. 
 The two largest breweries in the colony are in 
 Sydney, and as they are carried on by men of 
 respectability and large capital, the profits are 
 large. 
 
252 
 
 The quantity of beer consumed in the 
 colony is very large, as in addition to the home- 
 made the importation of the article in 1851 
 amounted to 57,000. 
 
 The colonial beer is very inferior to 
 the British, and is sold at less than half the 
 price. It is probable however that a better 
 article will soon be produced to supply the 
 deficiency of English beer which frequently 
 exists. One of the Sydney brewers has lately 
 succeeded in producing a beer which success- 
 fully competed with the English beverage for 
 some months. 
 
 There are two sugar refining companies in 
 the colony, one of which has been established 
 ten years the other four. 
 
 The Australasian Sugar Refining Company 
 carries on a very large trade, supplying not only 
 nearly the whole of the home consumption but 
 also the wants of the neighbouring colonies. 
 The raw sugar is procured for the most part 
 from Manila, and the trade to that settlement is 
 much encouraged by these establishments. 
 The prices charged by the company for its 
 sugar in ordinary times are about 45s. per cwt. 
 for loaf, and 34s. per cwt. for crystallized. 
 
 The quantity of refined sugar manufactured 
 in 1847 was, 39,600 cwt.; in 1848, 26,000 
 cwt. ; in 1849, 35,000 cwt. ; in 1850, 51,000 
 cwt. ; in 1851, 74,000 cwt. 
 
 There are twelve soap and candle manufac- 
 turers in the colony, and they produce a 
 considerable quantity of both articles both 
 
253 
 
 for home consumption and lor exporta- 
 tion. 
 
 With the exception of sperm candles, indeed, 
 the whole colony is supplied by the home 
 manufactories. 
 
 The colonial soap has of late years nearly 
 superseded the English article, which used to 
 be imported in large quantities. The soap 
 made in the colony is preferred for use, while it 
 is produced at a cost of about 3d. per Ib. The 
 quantity of soap manufactured in 1847 was 
 19,925 cwt.; in 1848, 18,900 cwt. ; in 1849, 
 24,623 cwt.; in 1850, 25,986 cwt.; in 1851, 
 33,065 cwt. 
 
 There are at present only six manufactories 
 of tobacco in the colony, but in 1849, there 
 were fifteen; and in 1850, fourteen. These, 
 however, were on a small scale, and the quan- 
 tity manufactured was but small. 
 
 Many samples of tobacco grown and manu- 
 factured in the colony have been pronounced 
 by competent judges equal to Virginian ; but 
 a very considerable prejudice exists against it. 
 There is, however, no doubt, that the dealers 
 dispose of a great deal as American tobacco 
 and get a high price for it. The reduction of 
 the duties on foreign tobacco in the last session 
 of the Council will probably retard the pro- 
 gress of the production and manufacture of 
 this article ; but with an abundance of labor, 
 there is no question that this branch of 
 industry will be again profitably resorted to. 
 The quantity of tobacco manufactured in 1847, 
 
254 
 
 was 1321 cwt. ; in 1848, 714 cwt. ; in 1849, 2758 
 cwt.; in 1850, 3833 cwt. ; in 1851,4841 cwt. 
 
 There are five woollen cloth manufactories in 
 the colony, the largest of which is the Messrs. 
 Byrnes', at Parramatta. This establishment is 
 very extensive, and is conducted by its enter- 
 prising proprietors on the true British principle. 
 There was also a large manufactory at Stock- 
 ton, but the works have been interfered with 
 by a serious fire, which took place there some 
 time back, and this accounts for the falling off 
 in the production last year. The cloths princi- 
 pally manufactured in the colony are tweeds, 
 and the quality of these has been much im- 
 proved in the last few years. 
 
 The quantity of cloth and tweeds manufac- 
 tured in the colony in 1847, was 17-5,088 yards ; 
 in 1848, 164,749 yards ; in 1849, 180,197 yards ; 
 in 1850, 190,791 yards; in 1851, 114,394 yards. 
 
 In addition to these larger factories there are 
 two hat manufactories, fifty- five tanneries, nine 
 salting and meat preserving establishments, four 
 potteries, two copper smelting establishments, 
 and fifteen iron and brass foundries. 
 
 The export of unmanufactured leather is very 
 considerable, amounting in 1851 to 562 215 Ibs.^ 
 valued at 11,665. The consumption of co- 
 lonial leather in the colony is also very large, 
 both for shoes and boots, and for coach building 
 and harness. 
 
 The other establishments we have enume- 
 rated, are chiefly employed in supplying the 
 colonial consumption. 
 
255 
 
 The lighter handicrafts in a small way 
 are pursued with great avidity and con- 
 siderable skill in the towns of the colony, 
 especially in Sydney. There are plenty 
 of expert jewellers ; and the articles of colonial 
 workmanship, manufactured from colonial gold 
 and colonial gems, would, in many instances, 
 do credit to London establishments. Furniture, 
 and some of the larger articles of cabinetware, 
 \ are also manufactured with much taste in the 
 colony. Many of the woods of the colony are 
 peculiarly appropriate to this trade, which, we 
 have no doubt, will one day assume a very con- 
 siderable importance. There are also one or 
 two small cutlery establishments ; but though 
 very good knives and scissors, and even surgical 
 instruments have been made in the colony, 
 the colonial workmen are principally employed 
 in repairing such instruments. 
 
 As might be expected in a colony so much 
 and so actively engaged in mercantile pursuits, 
 ship-building has been engaged in to a very 
 considerable extent, and the colonial vessels 
 for the most part, both as models, and as to 
 their soundness, and durability, are highly 
 creditable to the country. Fortunately there 
 is an abundance of excellent timber suited for 
 every depaitment of ship-building, and it is 
 highly important that this useful art should 
 be carefully encouraged. 
 
 In 1840, the vessels built in the colony were 
 17 ; tonnage, 1196. In 1841, 33; tonnage, 
 2037. In 1842, 25 ; tonnage, 1297. In 1843, 
 
 F3 
 
256 
 
 41; tonnage, 1231. In 1844, 15; tonnage, 
 498. In 1845, 15; tonnage, 931. In 1846, 
 27; tonnage 1013. In 1847, 33; tonnage, 
 2122. In 1848, 26 ; tonnage, 1281. In 1849, 
 35; tonnage, 1720. In 1850, 36; tonnage, 
 1605. In 1851, 24 ; tonnage, 939. 
 
 Although therefore, New South Wales 
 cannot assume the character of a manufacturing 
 country, yet these pursuits are sufficiently en- 
 gaged in to excite the desire of turning her 
 resources for such pursuits to the best 
 account. 
 
 These resources are equalled by few coun- 
 tries in the world, either in extent or variety, 
 Her flocks and herds afford the materials for 
 the manufacture of woollens and leather, and 
 her mineral treasures offer inexhaustible ma- 
 terials for almost every branch of British trade. 
 Glass, at the lowest prices, and of the finest 
 quality, can be made from the sand that abounds 
 in almost every district of the colony; 
 while earthenware and porcelain of the finest 
 and most homely descriptions are provided for 
 in the clays and the detritus of the granite 
 formations, which so largely prevail. The 
 annual destruction in the colony of the ma- 
 terials for the manufacture of paper is seldom 
 thought of, and yet it must be immense, while 
 the consumption of the article is proportionably 
 extensive. In addition to the demand for 
 the ordinary purposes of trade, there are 
 four large daily newspapers in this colony and 
 Victoria, with an average circulation equal to 
 
257 
 
 that of almost any English paper, except the 
 Times. 
 
 Hemp and flax can be cultivated profitably 
 to an illimitable extent, and thus the materials 
 for the manufacture of linens are within our 
 reach. While the semi-tropical districts in 
 the North must sooner or later be covered 
 with cotton plantations, which will enable us 
 in this hemisphere to vie with the factories of 
 Lancashire. 
 
 True, even after the first shock of the gold 
 discovery shall be got over, labour and capital, 
 extensively as they will have been, intro- 
 duced, will be devoted principally to the 
 production and export of staple articles. But 
 each succeeding year will augment the wealth 
 derived from this production, till it must seek 
 another investment. Each succeeding year 
 will enlarge the class of population, who either 
 cannot find room in the pursuits of pasture 
 and agriculture or who turn with distaste from 
 those pursuits. This surplus capital, this 
 surplus labour, will naturally cling to a domestic 
 investment and employment, rather than turn 
 to foreign countries to seek either, and will 
 seize with avidity the advantages offered to 
 manufacturing enterprise in the colony. 
 
 The more selfish spirit, spirit, the short- 
 sightedness of which no experience can alto- 
 gether repress, and the abstract principle of 
 which is perhaps to some extent correct the 
 spirit of self-dependence ; the desire to provide 
 for all our own wants with our own hands, 
 F 4 
 
258 
 
 will be at work. But once make that spirit 
 active once give life and vigour to enterprise 
 in this direction, and the bounds of home 
 supply will soon be reached ; the limits of 
 home consumption will soon be overstepped. 
 
 The whole domain of the Southern Pacific 
 will become the field which must be supplied 
 from our pastures, our vineyards, our cotton 
 plantations, and manufactories. 
 
 The surrounding colonies, and the settle- 
 ments of Eastern Asia, will first occupy our 
 attention and our enterprise ; but these too in 
 their turn will prove too confined to give our 
 energies full scope ; and at last we, like our 
 fathers before us, shall join in the work of 
 civilization, and provide markets for ourselves 
 by the colonization of the innumerable islands 
 which stud the expanse that divides us from 
 the older world. 
 
PART VII. 
 
 Present state and future prospects of the Colony. 
 
 The object of the series of papers, of which this 
 forms the concluding number, was to afford 
 simple information as to the capabilities of the 
 colony of New Seuth Wales for the mainte- 
 nance of civilized man ; and of the nature and 
 variety of those occupations of industry which 
 were open to, and would repay the labour and 
 skill devoted to them. 
 
 They were written in especial regard to the 
 instruction of intending or newly-arrived immi- 
 grants, and it was believed that, in a collected 
 form, they would form a useful hand-book to 
 direct and guide the inexperienced colonistinthe 
 choice of a vocation, and probably afford him 
 some useful and profitable hints in following 
 out that vocation. Since, however, these papers 
 were commenced, the change which has passed 
 over these colonies has been so vast, that in 
 order to make the work really useful it was 
 thought advisable to defer its completion until 
 the future prospects of the colony, under the in- 
 fluence of the gold discovery, had assumed some 
 palpable distinctness, by which the statements of 
 the previous papers might be measured and 
 weighed. 
 
260 
 
 It is with considerable a itisfaction that the 
 writers find, that, although the relation as to 
 the importance of various pursuits has altered, 
 they have little to correct and nothing to recal 
 in their descriptions of the products, manufac- 
 tures, and commerce of the colony, or as to the 
 profit which each of these great branches of 
 progressive civilization will yield. 
 
 The object, then, of this article will be 
 simply to explain the altered circumstances of 
 the colony, its extraordinary advance in wealth 
 and prosperity since the commencement of 
 these papers, and its consequent fitness or 
 unfitness lor those branches of industry, the 
 details of which have been more minutely 
 examined in previous papers. 
 
 To this it may* be well to add such reflections 
 on the future prospects of the colony as the 
 present aspect of things appears to warrant. 
 
 It is necessary in the first instance that a 
 few statistics should be afforded in order that 
 the progression of the colony may be fully un- 
 derstood. 
 
 The only authoritative official statistics pub- 
 lished in this colony are the returns furnished 
 annually by the Government, and these unfortu- 
 nately extend only to the termination of the year 
 1851, but as it was in that year these papers 
 were commenced the data they afford will be 
 sufficient for our purpose. 
 
 In that year the total population of the 
 colony amounted to 190,000. 
 
 In 1853, this number, by natural increase 
 
261 
 
 and by immigration, was probably increased by 
 some 20,000 people, whilst the immigration 
 alone for the first quarter of the present year, 
 amounts to upwards of 8000. 
 
 On the score of increased populatio n, then 
 every branch of industrial production must 
 have become more essentially desirable, 
 whether that production be for consumption, 
 as for instance, in the pursuit of agriculture, 
 or for exportation and sale with the view to 
 purchase foreign commodities, as in pastoral 
 pursuits and gold digging. 
 
 And it is to be observed that in a new 
 country like New South Wales, where extreme 
 prosperity and consequent extreme individual 
 wealth prevails, the accumulating amount of 
 labour is by no means equal to the accumu- 
 lating amount of consumption. Consequently 
 up to a limit which it would be idle for us to 
 calculate here, industrial pursuits will, under a 
 healthy state of things, increase in the profit 
 they afford in proportion to the increase of 
 population. This is in accordance with the 
 natural rule of supply and demand, because 
 in this country the individual consumption and 
 individual acquisition of wealth is greater than 
 the individual amount of labour introduced at 
 the ordinary price of such labour, and con- 
 sequently the demand for such labour is greater 
 than the supply 
 
 The reverse of this obtains generally in old 
 and thickly peopled countries, where the 
 maximum of population, and therefore of 
 
262 
 
 labour, rules, and the very lowest rate of con- 
 sumption prevails. 
 
 We find then in the rapid increase of the 
 population of the colony, and the probable 
 maintenance even in a larger ratio of a pro- 
 gressive increase, the surest guarantee that the 
 development of all the industrial resources we 
 have described will be advantageous and pro- 
 fitable, while we have equal assurance from 
 the varied wants of a wealthy community like 
 this, that no one of these resources can be left 
 stagnant, without damage to the interests, the 
 comforts, or the luxuries of the community. 
 
 To explain the position we have assumed, it 
 is only necessary to illustrate it by a few facts. 
 
 In regard to the production of articles of 
 consumption in this colony, these are mainly 
 referable to the pursuit of agriculture in some 
 shape or other. Now, taking the article of 
 grain we believe the production in 1852 will 
 be found to be equal to that of 1851, but the 
 importation of breadstuffs during the former 
 year will exceed that of the latter five-fold, 
 although the increase of population has only 
 been in the ratio of about one-fifth. 
 
 We will now proceed to examine another 
 test of the progression of the colony during 
 the last year. In 1851, the amount of im- 
 ports into the colony from all countries, was 
 1,564,000. The amount of customs duties 
 paid on these imports was about in round num- 
 bers 190,000 ; we give the fullest possible 
 amount. What the amount of imports in 1851, 
 
263 
 
 was, in the absence of official returns we have no 
 opportunity of accurately stating. But we find 
 the duties paid undtr a reduced tariff in the 
 first quarter of 1853, amount to 85,000, or at 
 the rate of 340,000 per annum ; which ac- 
 cording even to the calculations of 1851 would 
 represent an amount of imports exceeding 
 2,630,000, or nearly double the total amount 
 of imports in the year 1851. But even this is 
 not a fair criterion to judge by, for by reference 
 to the chapter on commerce in these papers it 
 will be lound by examination of the new 
 tariff that while by exemption from duty it is 
 probable that a large amount of merchandise 
 has been imported which we did not receive 
 in former years, the duties being levied solely 
 on articles of necessary consumption, the im- 
 portation of duty-paying articles cannot have 
 decreased. 
 
 As a matter of fact it is well known that 
 both in 1852 and 1853, this latter class of im- 
 portations has largely increased. 
 
 In the year 1851, the total amount of ex- 
 ports was 1,800,000. Again, from the want of 
 the official returns, we have no means of 
 accurately quoting the aggregate amount of 
 exportsfor 1852, or the firstquarter of 1853, and 
 as we have no export duties we have no guide 
 to a fair calculation. But it may be stated 
 that it was about June 1851 that our gold 
 mines began to be productive, and that the 
 quantity shipped to the 1st January, 1852, was 
 only 467,000, leaving the ordinary exports of 
 
264 
 
 the colony at about 1,300,600. In 1852 the 
 gold export alone was, 2,650,000, being nearly 
 double the total export of the preceding 
 year, while in the first quarter of the present 
 year it has been 910,000, or nearly at the rate 
 of 4,000,000 per annum. It is not improbable 
 that the export of wool and tallow during the two 
 latter periods may have somewhat diminished, 
 owing to the abstraction of labour from pastoral 
 pursuits for the purpose of gold digging, but 
 the diminution, if it be found to exist, will be 
 so small as to deserve no weight in 
 these calculations. In fact inasmuch as 
 there can be no diminution in this 
 class of exportation without some detriment to 
 the colony, it will serve only to show that 
 additional industry can now be more profitably 
 employed n the pursuits from which this 
 production arises. 
 
 As then the increase of population justly 
 affords encouragement to the producer of arti- 
 cles of consumption such as the farmer, the 
 wine grower, and the grazier, so this vast 
 increase in the commerce of the colony can- 
 not fail to enlarge the profits and stimulate the 
 enterprise of the merchant, the shopkeeper, 
 the manufacturer, and all classes engaged in 
 trading pursuits. 
 
 To the cultivation and acquirement then of 
 all the various products which have been de- 
 scribed in these papers, to the prosecution of 
 all those schemes of industrial enterprise, 
 the advantages of which it has been our en- 
 
265 
 
 deavour to point out ; the discovery of gold 
 with its increase of the wealth, commerce, and 
 population of the colony, ought only to lend 
 additional vigour and additional confidence. 
 
 Before entering into a more general comment 
 on the present position of the colony, it is 
 perhaps but right for the information of those 
 who have no local facilities of acquiring such 
 knowledge, to offer a few general statistics, and 
 some passing observations in reference to sub- 
 jects which it has not come strictly under these 
 papers to touch upon. 
 
 And first in respect to education. In the 
 year 1851 there were 423 schools in the colony, 
 with a total of 21,120 scholars. Of this number 
 345 scholars we orphans, maintained and 
 taught in Government schools ; 4,998 belong- 
 ing to Church of England schools; 891 to 
 "Wesl cyan schools ; 3,310 to Roman Catholic 
 schools; 2,861 to the National Schools; and 
 6,721 to private schools. 
 
 The systems of education to which the Go- 
 vernment affords assistance are two-fold. The 
 Denominational System, as it is called, is car- 
 ried on under the superintendence of the clergy 
 of the respective denominations who distribute 
 the funds furnished by the Government ac- 
 cording to their own discretion, subject how- 
 ever of late years to the supervision and inspec- 
 tion of a board appointed by the government. 
 About eight years ago, the National System, 
 or more correctly, what is known as Lord Stan- 
 ley's Irish National System of Schools, was 
 o2 
 
266 
 
 introduced. In these schools pupils of all 
 denominations are indiscriminately received, 
 and except in such general points of morals and 
 belief as are universally agreed upon, Scriptural 
 teaching is excluded ; facilities are however 
 afforded in the schools for religious instruc- 
 tion to the children of their respective sects by 
 their own clergy ; but as the clergy have hither- 
 to very generally set their faces against this 
 system, these facilities have not been taken 
 much advantage of. The system has, however, 
 decidedly worked well, and has progressed 
 rapidly ia popular favour ; and although the 
 excitement of the gold discovery and the mi- 
 gratory habits engendered by it, have disturbed 
 its progress, still it is steadily advancing, and 
 planting its schools throughout the scattered 
 and remote districts of the colony, where its 
 advantages will certainly be best appreciated 
 and are most required. 
 
 Fur all this it must be confessed that educa- 
 tional institutions in the colony are at a very 
 low ebb, but there seems to be a growing spirit 
 abroad which will not rest till this important 
 matter be remedied. 
 
 It is painful to call back reminiscences 
 of the past of New South Wales ; but the truth 
 is ofttimes wholesome though unpalatable, and 
 admitting as we gladly do that the 
 emancipated proportion of the population 
 is at present very small, yet the grown up de- 
 scendants of that once numerous class, to a 
 considerable extent, have inherited the lax 
 
267 
 
 morality of their parents, and the children of 
 these, if educational institutions be not provided 
 for them, will be reared in ignorance if not in 
 vice. To avert this " curse of the fathers upon 
 the children" surely ought to be the first 
 object of a wise and paternal government ; and 
 it is most gratifying to find that the present 
 administration of the Government of New 
 South "Wales, has liberally and considerately 
 lent its most favourable countenance to the 
 promotion of education in every shape and 
 way. 
 
 Foremost amongst these educational progres- 
 sions may be ranked the establishment of the 
 Sydney University, an institution founded on 
 the ripest spirit of liberality, and endowed 
 with a glorious and wise munificence. To 
 raise the standard of education in any com- 
 munity there must be lofty summits for the 
 student and the scholar to attain, from which 
 he may look down on all below, satisfied 
 in so far as the machinery of human instruc- 
 tion and learning is concerned with the emi- 
 nence he has attained. Sush a goal to the 
 emulation of the youth of New South Wales, 
 will, we believe, be furnished in the University 
 of Sydney, when in its growth, formation, and 
 expansion, its relief from some errors, and its 
 freedom from many prejudices and misappre- 
 hensions, it shall in its full scope and energy 
 serve the great and noble ends for which it was 
 established. 
 
 This institution, although from some ncces- 
 
268 
 
 sary delay in the preliminary arrangements, 
 it has only been about eight months in prac- 
 tical operation, has already worked much of 
 good to the community. A larger and 
 more thoughtful spirit as to encouraging 
 education of a higher order than has 
 hitherto been afforded in the colony has been 
 inspired ; the suggestion of the eminent pro- 
 fessors who have been induced to emigrate to 
 establish the University, will guide and 
 instruct this spirit ; and with the increased 
 appreciation of the moral, social, and physical 
 blessings which education affords, and which 
 is the distinguishing characteristic of the 
 present age, combined with the abundant 
 means which almost every class in the com- 
 munity possesses of paying amply for the 
 instruction of their children, will, it may fairly 
 be hoped and anticipated, lead shortly to as 
 full and goodly an expansion of intellectual 
 growth in the colony, as there has been of 
 rapid and prosperous material progression. 
 
 In natural conjunction with the subject of 
 educational establishments, arises the considera- 
 tion of the literary institutions of the colony. 
 Of these, again, we regret to say, we can speak 
 in no words of high acclaim. They are few in 
 number, and miserably inadequate to the re- 
 quirements of a large, wealthy, and increasing 
 population, with mental energies perpetually 
 stimulated in the pursuit of material wealth. 
 
 Without the softening and ameliorating 
 influences of literature, such a community 
 
269 
 
 must grow shrewd without discretion, cunning 
 without wisdom, sordid without economy. 
 
 But the absence of literary or scientific 
 institutions, of any note, is rather attributable 
 to the meagerness of the means of education in 
 the colony, than from any undervalue of 
 literary attainment or of literary pleasure. 
 The Government, though in some instances it 
 has assisted literary institutions and contri- 
 buted to the maintenance of some scientific 
 ones, has displa3ed a somewhat niggard and 
 paltry shortsighted economy in this respect. 
 
 "We say this not so much in reference to the 
 present day as the past, for now the colony is 
 or ought to be capable of maintaining these 
 institutions without aid from the Government, 
 and both literature and science thrive more 
 healthily in the vigorous soil of public appro- 
 bation, than in the enervating hot-bed of 
 official patronage. 
 
 Perhaps in the long run it will be of little 
 disadvantage to the colony that such institu- 
 tions as did exist and did linger and languish 
 under this official patronage, have nearly worn 
 themselves out, and that the people of New 
 South Wales have now the opportunity, with 
 a juster apprehension of the great principles 
 and interests involved, to found such societies 
 as may be most suited to their wants and 
 wishes, and best adapted for the exercise and 
 strengthening the natural intellect of the 
 colony . 
 
 There is but one library in the colony deserv- 
 
270 
 
 ing of the name, and that, though of late 
 subjected to some relaxation in the rigidity of 
 its regulations, was in past years of so exclu- 
 sive a constitution as to render it of little 
 public benefit in the diffusion of knowledge 
 and learning. In fact it was, and to a large 
 extent is still, the luxurious literary lounge of 
 the wealthier classes of the colony, and its 
 shelves have contributed far more largely to 
 solace-the intellectual leisure of busy men, than 
 to instruct, either by reading, or the publica- 
 tion of lucubrations arising from it, the Aus- 
 tralian public. It is however a very valuable 
 institution, containing as it does a large number 
 of books of reference not to be found else- 
 where, and to which any well-educated man, 
 for the purpose of reference, can easily find 
 access. On the recommendation of three 
 shareholders any person may now subscribe to 
 this library at the rate of three pounds per 
 annum, and such recommendation is easily 
 procurable by any well conducted and respec- 
 table man. 
 
 There is also an institution in Sydney, known 
 as the Mechanics' School of Arts, but a more 
 miserable misnomer for it could hardly be 
 conceived. Whatever may have been the de- 
 sign of its original founders, the last ten years 
 of. its existence has certainly been objective to 
 no principle of good, while it has been 
 subjective to the admission of many 
 principles of evil. Its library, for the 
 most part, a miserable collection of 
 
271 
 
 tattered novels ; its museum, if its paltry col- 
 lections deserve the name, an uncatalogued 
 collection of unappreciable fossils, incompre- 
 hensible bones, and a few busts and medals, 
 worthy the adornment of an itinerant dealer's 
 stall ; its lectures unconnected, and when deli- 
 vered scarcely attended to, on subjects the most 
 unfit for the instruction of an audience such as 
 ought to attend such an institution ; and from 
 the moutbs of men who were for the most part 
 no authority on the themes on which they 
 treated ; brought into continual public con- 
 tempt by the pitiable personalities which dis- 
 figure its management ; the unseemly squab- 
 bles which under all changes seem to charac- 
 terise its directory ; and most of all by the 
 same unswerving determination or fatuity which 
 leads that directory to make a public institu- 
 tion, receiving public aid, effect the least possi- 
 ble amount of public good ; the sooner this insti- 
 tution or mockery of an institution, which still 
 "lives and languishes, and languishing doth 
 live," gives up the ghost, the better for the lite- 
 rary prospects of the colony at large. It is 
 painful, bitterly painful to have to make these 
 observations of any literary institution in the 
 colony ; but they are the result of some watch- 
 ful observation, uninfluenced by any connec- 
 tion, in any manner, at any time, with the 
 society, during a long series of years. 
 
 Nor do we think we should do full justice 
 to the complete and entire object of these 
 papers, did we not exhibit fairly the state of 
 2 G 
 
272 
 
 such institutions as these. It is by no means 
 degrading to the colony that this state of things 
 should exist ; the institution was founded long 
 years ago on principles in accordance with the 
 spirit, or rather the prejudices of the age, 
 and it worked out its object at first 
 with tolerable success. But it is only since 
 that period that those very principles have 
 been exploded in England, and literary insti- 
 tutions, whether for the poor or the rich, for 
 the educated or ignorant, for the student 
 or the mechanic, for the theoretically 
 artistic and scientific professor or the practi- 
 cally artistic and scientific artizan, have been 
 established on a broader basis, a foundation 
 more consistent with the magnificent structure 
 to be reared upon it ; possessing elements 
 more effective for the instruction, and there- 
 fore more conducive to the happiness of the 
 human race. 
 
 It is therefore with somewhat of subdued 
 satisfaction that we look upon the approach- 
 ing extinction of this institution, confident 
 that upon its ashes will arise another literary 
 and scientific society, worthy of the gigantic 
 grasp which the cultivated intellect of the 
 nineteenth century ought to take on any shore 
 or in any sphere. An institution which shall 
 unfold through its agencies to the thousands 
 and the millions who will resort to this great 
 continent, the boundless resources of its soil 
 and climate ; which shall make the hidden 
 tunnel of the miner, and the dark channel 
 
273 
 
 of the rushing stream, the easy path to 
 boundless wealth. Which shall teach with 
 classic taste the innate genius of the humble 
 artizan to form the precious metal, or the 
 tr m-parent marble, into shapes and imagi- 
 native combinations, which, infusing the 
 artist's intellect into the dull stone or duller 
 ore, shall enhance its value ten-fold. "Which 
 shall give to the comprehension of the humble 
 mechanic the fullest knowledge of the opera- 
 tions in which he has engaged, and enable him 
 more skilfully and more successfully to con- 
 duct them ; and which shall withal, doing all 
 this, instructing, ennobling, and enriching all, 
 comfort moreover, and wipe off with a soothing 
 hand, which none dull to literary sympathies 
 wot of, that " sweat of the face," in which 
 every man must " eat bread." 
 
 In some of the country towns, Parramatta, 
 and Brisbane, in the Moreton Bay district, 
 similar societies to that we have just been de- 
 scribing have been recently originated, 
 and we hope they will carefully avoid the 
 shcals on which the elder institution has 
 foundered. Let them carefully consider their 
 future course, and a bright future is before 
 them, and while they will form one of the 
 brightest and best attractions to this wonderful 
 land, they also will lend a most effective aid 
 to the development of its productive and 
 industrial resources. 
 
 There are several passive national scientific 
 institutions in the colony, but they do not 
 2a2 
 
274 
 
 flourish, simply for the want of that interest in 
 them which the more active societies for the 
 cultivation of literature and science can alone 
 inspire. We have a museum, which is capable 
 of exhibiting an unlimited collection of curiosi- 
 ties, but it is the miserable policy of the 
 Government and the legislature to cut off this 
 institution from being instructive or even 
 amusing. Rich in specimens, the treasures 
 are laid up to corrupt and rust in chests, in- 
 stead of being exhibited in the halls of the 
 building, erected at a very considerable 
 national expense. Its officer, for strange as it 
 may sound, there is but one, unless he be a 
 doorkeeper, is dut miserably paid ; although 
 the industry and talent he has displayed 
 entitle him to all praise, and it is evident a 
 higher and better spirit must exist through 
 the community oefore the full benefit of this 
 institution can be made apparent. 
 
 The same remarks will hold good with regard 
 to the Botanic Gardens of Sydney. Surpassing 
 in natural picturesque beauty almost any- 
 thing of the kind in the world, with an aspect 
 and a capability by the adaptation of soils to 
 the growth of almost every plant, any attempt 
 to render them a really scientific institution, 
 to confer benefit on the community, is nullified 
 by the wretched parsimony with which they 
 are treated by the legislature of the country. 
 Casting out of all consideration the original 
 objects of the gardens as conveyed in their 
 title "the preamble" we suppose to their act 
 
275 
 
 of incorporation for the public good, we do not 
 remember one shilling to have been voted for 
 the botanic enrichment of these gardens. The 
 salaries of the director, the superintendent, and 
 the wages of the labourers are reluctantly and 
 grudgingly paid, and a debate ensues whether 
 40 shall be voted for the construction of a 
 drain, or the erection of a fence, but a proposi- 
 tion to have a thousand pounds a year to pro- 
 perly classify the plants to send to foreign 
 countries or neighbouring islands to fill up the 
 intervals which occur in such classification, 
 would be shuddered at and negatived by a con- 
 vulsive shake of the head. 
 
 But until these things are properly remedied 
 the colony of New South Wales will have no 
 really useful Botanic Gardens. Beauitful as a 
 lounge for the public they undoubtedly are ; 
 useful for the student in botany they are not, 
 and consequently are comparatively useless as 
 a means whereby the industrial enterprise of 
 the colony may be assisted. 
 
 The only other literary institution which is 
 worthy of mention, is the highest that exists, 
 " the Press." 
 
 New South Wales is by no means deficient 
 in her men of education, of reflection, of study 
 and observation, nay, even of considerable 
 depth of erudition. 
 
 She has had her historians, her explorers, 
 
 her fiction writers, and her poets, but perhaps 
 
 taking all things into consideration, the less 
 
 said of the works of these literary artists the 
 
 2o3 
 
276 
 
 better ; not that they are by any means con- 
 temptible in themselves, but that as viewed 
 in comparison with the writings of the authors 
 of tt e old world, associated as they are with 
 all the recollections of past pomp and 
 pageantry, the rude history or poetic de- 
 scriptions of a semi-barbarous land would at- 
 tract but little attention. Twenty years hence, 
 when New South Wales is growing into a 
 great nation, we well believe she will possess 
 in full proportion to her other attributes the 
 power of literary and scientific eminence. It 
 is written in the character of the people that 
 what they want, they will have ; and in the 
 better classes of society nothing is mere longed 
 for than literary and scientific distinction. 
 
 With regard to its newspaper press, New 
 South Wales may fairly challenge competition 
 with any colony in the world. It possesses at 
 present two daily newspapers, which on the 
 whole, with considerable ability and strict im- 
 partiality, review the leading topics of the day. 
 
 There are besides several weekly papers, but 
 at the present moment they can scarcely be 
 said to fulfil their vocation as collators of 
 news, as they are devoted almost exclusively to 
 party purposes. Numbers of successfully 
 established newspapers have gone down in 
 New South Wales, not for the want of a certain 
 sort of erratic talent which marked their con- 
 duct, but from the absence of that steady 
 business-like management which is essential 
 to the stability of the periodical press. 
 
277 
 
 We have now concluded those remarks 
 which we thought it necessary to make in re- 
 ference to certain topics not under the general 
 scope of these papers. We might have taken 
 in many other subjects, such as its Govern- 
 mental Constitution, its jurisprudence, and 
 its municipal regulations. We find, however, 
 these would not only lead us too far a- field 
 but would distract the attention of ttie reader 
 from the original design of these papers, the 
 physical capabilities of the colony, under the 
 influence of the industrial operations of man. 
 We therefore abstain from further comment, 
 and pause, ere we conclude, for a moment, 
 to view calmly the position in which 
 the colony of New South Wales at present 
 stands. 
 
 First of all the colonies of Great Britain in 
 the attention at present bestowed upon her 
 first in all the permanent and intrinsic advan- 
 tages which can fit her to take the leading 
 place among England's colonies ; what are her 
 pretensions, and what are her destinies ? 
 
 To the former question we point to her 
 thousands of cultivated acres rich with the 
 crops of almost unskilled cultivation. To her 
 boundless plains studded with millions of sheep 
 and cattle to her mines worked only with 
 vigour and energy when ONE METAL, and that 
 the most precious is found nearly on the sur- 
 face to her extending trade, her prodigious 
 wealth, and more, far more than all, to what we 
 believe to be the indomitable energies of the 
 
278 
 
 present inhabitants, for subduing the land and 
 replenishing it. 
 
 To the latter we would answer that 
 looking at all that has been done, from 
 north to south and from east to west, there is 
 still ample room and verge enough to multiply 
 that doing a hundred times over ; rich in the 
 possession of political rights she never held 
 before, and which, if not all she is entitled to 
 by birthright as a daughter of Britain, are 
 good and sufficient security of her possessing 
 her own in their fulness hereafter ; rich in 
 material prosperity ; rich in the inexhaustible 
 energies of a great, thriving, and enterprising 
 population, demanding from her parent not 
 that which that parent craves, but which it is 
 but too willing to cast off, - its redundant 
 labour ; the community of New South .Wales 
 may at this present period regard themselves in 
 respect to their material prosperity, their 
 social and moral security, as the most nourish- 
 ing community on the face of the earth. 
 
 But in the contemplation of this material 
 prosperity, this social and moral security, the 
 future must be taken into consideration, 
 and, even viewed by the most philosophic 
 eye, this future must be regarded as more 
 bright, more pregnant with greatness than the 
 present. How magnificent the vista of future 
 greatness through which the eye of Australian 
 prophecy pierces ! 
 
 A land under industrial enterprise, flowing 
 with milk and honey ; rich with the vine, the 
 
279 
 
 pomegranate, and the fig; with flocks and 
 herds, with teeming cities, with fertile plains 
 and mountains, whose ravines and streamlets 
 are but the index to inexhaustible wealth. 
 Upon the highest pinnacle of the mountain 
 citadels of this land the Australian seer might 
 stand, and surveying all before and below 
 him, exclaim in the language of Scripture, 
 " Behold ! it is very good." He might from 
 his eminence, gifted with the eye of prescience, 
 behold the wild luxuriant plains, the 
 lofty hills, the torrent torn but dried up 
 water-courses, assuming before the giant step of 
 colonization the aspect and the form of civilised 
 society. He might too see with far foreseeing 
 eye, and hear with long expectant ear, the 
 triumphal train, and the rattling of the chariots 
 along the iron roads which wil 1 , ere many years 
 be past, intersect every district of this colony. 
 He might, too, unloosing his vision from the 
 almost boundless expanse of the material 
 world before him, cast forth his glance into the 
 dim mysteries of the coming time, and proclaim 
 that Australia must not only be a people, but 
 the " mother of many nations." 
 
 Girded round by resources absolutely un- 
 known, and unappreciated by the older coun- 
 tries of the world at their origin, what destiny 
 is too high for her to fulfil ? Every innate and 
 outward intelligence that inspire us the re- 
 cords of history, the predictions of prophecy, 
 the aspirations of ambition, the deductions of 
 philosophy, the dictates of reason, and the 
 
280 
 
 common instincts of our race, all alike proclaim 
 that colonization is the divine mission of 
 nations. 
 
 On these shores, the remotest from those 
 we most reverentially remember, should we 
 forget this truth ? Should we, the primest and 
 the fairest offspring of that proud parent 
 land, whose venerable smile beams with be- 
 nignant dignity upon a world, forget the high 
 vocation to which we are likewise called. 
 
 Shortly, very shortly, we shall be called on 
 to exercise for ourselves the prerogative of 
 self-government ; for in the history of " the 
 nations as they pass away," centuries can only 
 be reckoned as moments. 
 
 The oldest, the most regal daughter of Great 
 Britain in the southern world, disciplined in 
 affliction and humiliation in her earlier 
 years, will not forget the heritage 
 intrusted to her ; and when in the 
 fulfilment of her time she shall wield the 
 sceptre of her own dominion under the benign 
 and approving eye of that venerable parent, 
 let her not forget her mission ; may she re- 
 member in the immensity of her own regenera- 
 tion how much may be done in the work of 
 civilization, and let her not forget that to keep 
 the Nations, children that she will yet beget, in 
 degradation and subserviency, is but to renew 
 the sackcloth and ashes, beneath which the 
 springtide of her own youth has bowed. 
 
 Thankful amongst other blessings may New 
 South Wales be, for that she is appointed as 
 
281 
 
 the apparent centre, the chief point, from 
 which the colonization of the beautiful isles of 
 the Pacific will spring ; carefully should she 
 once a stray waif in the world, but now 
 the proudest scion of the British family use 
 her growing greatness to protect and keep 
 these islands from lawless rapine until the 
 day arrives when they will become 
 especially her own. By example, by an 
 arduous and steady cultivation of the arts of 
 peace, in despite of some physical difficulties, 
 in despite of her remoteness from the Western 
 civilization ; few, none who reflect well and 
 deeply, can doubt that the Australia s are 
 destined to become a great nation. 
 
 Let them become so in that genuinely pro- 
 gressive spirit, which, seeking only in its 
 worldly politics to ameliorate and improve the 
 condition of humanity, shall leave to the 
 pure and simple Christianity which is the 
 sole beautifier and perfector of all human in- 
 stitutions, that regeneration of our race which 
 is promised and foretold. 
 
NOTES. 
 
 Whaling Statistics, p. 115. At the time this was 
 written it was proposed to add a statistical appendix, but 
 the idea was subsequently abandoned. The information 
 will be found in the chapter on Commerce. 
 
 Minerals, p. 138. Rock Salt and Emery, both existing 
 in abundance, have been omitted here. 
 
 School of Arts, p. 270. We are desirous that our re- 
 marks upon this institution should be understood as 
 having reference to its whole course of management, and 
 not, as some have interpreted them, to the present 
 Directory. We admit that, for some time past, not only 
 have strenuous efforts been made to render the institu- 
 tion really efficient, but that many improvements have 
 been effected. But we are convinced that these exer- 
 tions, praiseworthy as they are, can be productive of no 
 tangible and permanent advantage unless the institution 
 be wholly remodelled. 
 
M180076 
 
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