fcERKElEY^N 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF I 
 CALIfORNIA J 
 
SOME TOPICS 
 
 IN 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 For the PUPIL, 
 
 The TEACHER, and 
 
 The GENERAL READER, 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 ARTHUR HINDS, 
 
 LATELY TEACHER OF GRAMMAR IN THE WESTFIELD, MASS., STATE 
 NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 NEW YORK : 
 
 BAKER & GODWIN, PRINTERS, 
 
 No. 25 Park Row. 
 
 1881. 
 
Copyright, 1881, 
 By Arthur Hinds. 
 
890 
 HUZ 
 
 PREFACE. som. 
 
 About twenty years ago the instructor in grammar 
 in the Westfield, Mass., State Normal School attempted 
 to teach a class of teacher-pupils the principles of 
 English grammar as inculcated in u the text-books." 
 The attempt was not successful and was never re- 
 newed. The least to be said is that " the text-books ,r 
 are unsatisfactory to intelligent pupils. 
 
 The teacher mentioned found himself driven by 
 necessity to devise a system and to construct defini- 
 tions acceptable to a class of conscientious pupils of 
 ordinary intelligence. The statements of principles 
 and the arrangement of the topics herein presented are 
 in their essential features the product of his endeavor, 
 and issue from the test of twenty years of discussion 
 by the members of the Westfield Normal School. 
 
 Teachers are almost unanimous in condemning the 
 grammars as untruthful, or inconsistent, or complicat- 
 ed, or as combining these faults. Many English gram- 
 mars are untruthful, because they ascribe to the En- 
 glish language characteristics belonging to the Latin, 
 and the Greek, and the Anglo-Saxon, but which our 
 language either has never possessed or has cast off. 
 The inconsistency of some grammars is owing in part 
 to this untruthfulness and in part to the great diffi- 
 culty of framing definitions capable of surviving the 
 
 [3] 
 
 070 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 test of application. The division of words into classes 
 should be made upon some uniform and trustworthy 
 basis. But grammarians have failed to perceive this, 
 and hence inconsistency has been inevitable. 
 
 Some grammars are complicated because they in- 
 termix " language lessons " with grammar. Gram- 
 mar, like zoology, and geology, and chemistry, is, as 
 a science, but a record in a convenient, classified 
 form, of facts. A knowledge of grammar does not 
 insure correct speech. Many a child uses correct 
 language who has never studied grammar, or, perhaps, 
 has never even heard of it; many a teacher is faulty 
 in speech who is thoroughly versed in grammar. To 
 teach correct habits of speech would seem, then, to 
 be not the province of grammar; it is the province of 
 "language lessons." And "language lessons " should 
 form a part of all the child's training, both at school 
 and at home. 
 
 The following are the distinctive features of this 
 work: 
 
 The presentation of the subject is natural. Every 
 principle is illustrated before it is stated. The student 
 is thus led, first, to recognize the principle, and after- 
 wards, to give it formal expression. As a result his 
 attention is directed beyond the text-book and its 
 formal statements, and is fixed upon the English lan- 
 guage and its principles. He is lead to think. The 
 book only guides. 
 
 Traditions have been disregarded. The work is 
 based on the English language. The aim has been to 
 record the facts, and to avoid ascribing to our Ian- 
 
PREFACE. 5 
 
 guage characteristics that it does not possess. To se- 
 cure consistency, the classifications and the definitions 
 have been rested upon uniform and well-tested bases. 
 
 To make the work concise it was necessary to 
 narrow the field. There has been no attempt to make 
 the book " complete." It is of little importance to 
 the average pupil how much the learned know about 
 language. But it is of first importance how much time 
 he shall be made to spend in the study of grammar 
 and how well that time shall be spent. Recognizing 
 this fact, the editor has not hesitated to omit much 
 that heretofore has been deemed essential, but which is 
 really cumbersome in a text-book; and, in his determin- 
 ation to consider the little time pupils have at their dis- 
 posal, and the comparative unimportance of a wide 
 knowledge of technical grammar, he has attempted to 
 select from the great mass of material only those facts 
 of which one can least afford to be ignorant. If the 
 book does not contain all that a teacher could wish 
 her pupils might know, the omissions have been made 
 deliberately and for the pupils' sake, with the purpose 
 of furnishing a book that they can use. It is with 
 this purpose that the book has been divided into 
 Topics and Helps: the one containing only the bare 
 subject-matter, presented in a simple and straight- 
 forward manner, without comment and without su- 
 perfluous illustration; while the other contains all that 
 seems necessary of explanation and illustration. 
 
 The editor wishes to disclaim any intention of 
 promulgating a creed of English grammar. His de- 
 voted wish has been to present the truth and to 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 furnish a trustworthy guide to the grammatical study 
 of his mother, tongue. Should there be any hesitation 
 to accept the principles herein stated, he begs leave to 
 be excused from resting his case upon any one's doc- 
 trine, but to be permitted to appeal to the English 
 language of to-day. 
 
 In preparing this little book the only part of the 
 work that was a task was the determining what not to 
 omit. All teachers are agreed that a hand-book 
 should be brief ; but all are not agreed upon what 
 are essentials and what are not. However, there has 
 been no hesitation in excluding foreign matter, such 
 as belongs to the province of rhetoric and etymology. 
 So with the many subdivisions of the classes of words. 
 It will be seen that the work is not a course of " lan- 
 guage lessons." 
 
 The editor desires criticism upon his system, and 
 most cordially invites suggestions concerning his ma- 
 terial. 
 
 My thanks are due to Mr. J. G. Scott, to whose 
 instructions I owe my acquaintance with this, his 
 system of grammar, and whose counsel has been of 
 great value to me in the preparation of these topics. 
 
 A, H., EDITOR. 
 Hempstead, L. I., N. Y. 
 Aug. 1881. 
 
PLAN. 
 
 [For full Index to Pages see the end of the Book.] 
 
 TOPICS. 
 
 Grammar, def. (=defined.) 
 English Grammar, def. 
 
 Propositions, parts. 
 Subject, def. 
 Predicate, def. 
 
 Attribute, def. 
 
 Copula, def. 
 
 Proposition, def. 
 
 Classes of Words, general divisions. 
 Nouns, def. 
 Pronouns, def. 
 Adjectives, def. 
 
 (To limit, def.) 
 Verbs, def. 
 
 (Object of a Verb, def.) 
 Adverbs, def. 
 Prepositions, def. 
 
 (Object of a Preposition, def.) 
 Conjunctions, def. 
 Participles, def. 
 Infinitives, def. 
 
 Propositions, kinds. ■ 
 Declarative. 
 Imperative. 
 Interrogative. 
 Simple. 
 Compound. 
 Complex. 
 
 Clauses. 
 
 (Phrases.) 
 Uses. 
 
 m 
 
5 PLAN. 
 
 Classes of Words, separately studied. 
 Nouns :. Some kinds. 
 Properties. 
 
 Numbers, def. 
 Genders, def. 
 Cases, def. 
 Rules. 
 Pronouns : Some kinds. 
 Properties. 
 
 Persons, def. 
 
 Genders, Numbers, Cases. 
 Rules. 
 Adjectives : Some kinds. 
 Properties. 
 
 Comparison. 
 Verbs : Some kinds. 
 Properties. 
 
 Persons, Numbers, 
 Tenses, def. 
 
 Tense phrases. 
 Rules. 
 Adverbs : Some kinds. 
 Comparison. 
 Conjunctions : Some kinds. 
 Participles : Imperfect. 
 
 Perfect. 
 Infinitives'. Root. 
 
 In u ing." 
 
 HELPS. 
 
 Hints, Examples, Illustrations, Lists. 
 
TOPICS 
 
 1* 
 
REMARK. 
 
 The Topics contain mainly the bare sub- 
 stance of the various subjects in such form 
 that the student may readily refer to them 
 for the salient facts of grammar. The Helps 
 (see p. 73) contain remarks useful to the stu- 
 dents who need additional assistance, and to 
 teachers who desire hints concerning the pre- 
 sentation of the topics. The teacher should 
 read both farts of this book through before 
 using it in class. 
 
TOPICS. 
 
 DEFINITION OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 THE FIELD OF STUDY LIMITED. 
 
 1, a. Every word is said to express an idea. 
 
 b. Words may be combined in various ways. 
 For example, the words horse and black may be 
 written horse black, or {j,^ 1 ^, or black horse. In the 
 first two cases there is not; any necessary connection 
 of the ideas expressed by horse and black. But in 
 the third case, on account of the arrangement of the 
 two words, we are led to connect the idea expressed 
 by black with the idea expressed by horse. When 
 words are combined as black and horse are in the 
 third example, they are said to be related. Whence 
 it appears that 
 
 C Words are related when they are so com- 
 bined as to lead us to put together the ideas expressed 
 by them. 
 
 d. Just as we say that things which are combined 
 are in a combined state, we may say of the words 
 
 ["I 
 
12 TOPICS. 
 
 Grammar defined. 
 
 black horse j or any other related words, that they are 
 in a related state. To such a state we will give the 
 name relation; hence, 
 
 e. The relation of words is the state words 
 are in when they are related. 
 
 2, a. In the expression, 
 
 h e mended li i s own coat, 
 the word his indicates ownership ; the word he does 
 not. His is related to the other words in one way ; 
 he is related to them in another way. The two 
 words, then, differ in their relations to the expression. 
 The same is true of they and their in 
 
 -they knew their business. 
 
 b. These illustrations show us that words may be 
 used in different relations. 
 
 C. Moreover, he and his, though differently 
 spelled, are practically one and the same word. 
 They differ in form. This is true of they and their 
 also. Hence it appears, too, that a word may have 
 different forms. 
 
 d. Now it would not be proper to use his in the 
 place of he, in the first expression, and he in the 
 place of his, saying, 
 
 his mended he own coat. 
 Nor would it be proper to say 
 
 their knew they business. 
 In short, we may not use different forms of words in- 
 discriminately in different relations. 
 
TOPICS. 13 
 
 Grammar defined. 
 
 e. Words, then, may be used in different rela- 
 tions, and for various relations various forms may be 
 used, but not promiscuously. In studying language 
 we may gain a knowledge of the relations of words 
 and of the forms words take in their various relations. 
 Such knowledge we will call grammar. Therefore, 
 
 f. Grammar is a knowledge of the relations of 
 words and of the forms words take in their various 
 relations. 
 
 g. English grammar is a knowledge of the 
 relations of words in the English language and of 
 the forms the words take in their various relations. 
 
 (For Remarks on the Definition of Grammar, see p. 77.) 
 
14 TOPICS. 
 
 PARTS OF PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 DEFINITION OF THE PROPOSITION. 
 
 3, a. By means of the expression 
 snow is melting, 
 something is said of the substance snow. The sub- 
 stance snow, then, is that of which something is said. 
 
 The word snow is a part of the whole expression ; 
 it is used to represent the substance snow, that is, 
 to represent that of which something is said. Such 
 a part is called the subject of an expression, there- 
 fore, 
 
 b* The Subject of an expression is that part of 
 the expression which is used to represent that of 
 which something is said. 
 
 C. We may say 
 
 the snow is melting, or 
 
 the exposed snow is melting, or 
 
 the slowly falling snow is melting. 
 
 In these examples the snow, and the exposed snow, and 
 the slowly falling snow, are all parts representing that of 
 which something is said. Hence it will be seen that the 
 subject of an expression may be not one word only, but 
 may comprise a number of words. 
 
 d. But in each of these examples the word snow 
 is the only single word in the subject which may be 
 used alone as the subject of the expression. Such a 
 
TOPICS. 15 
 
 Divisions of the proposition. 
 
 single word, when it is one of a number of words 
 forming a subject, is called the bare subject. 
 
 e. The several words, including the bare subject, 
 which together form the whole subject, are called the 
 
 COMPLETE SUBJECT. 
 
 In using the term subject we shall designate the bare sub- 
 ject, except when the context clearly indicates the other mean- 
 ing. 
 
 4, a. Again, in 
 
 snow is melting, 
 is melting is a part by means of which something is 
 
 said concerning the substance snow, that is, concern- 
 ing that which is represented by the subject. Such 
 a part of an expression is called the predicate ; 
 hence, 
 
 b. The Predicate of an expression is that part 
 of the expression by means of which something is 
 said of that represented by the subject. 
 
 C. Predicates, also, may be BARE PREDICATES and 
 complete predicates ; bare and complete applied to 
 predicates having a signification similar to that of bare and 
 complete applied to subjects. 
 
 5, a. Referring to the preceding example, the word 
 melting is a part of the predicate which indicates a 
 condition of the substance snow, that is, a condition 
 of that represented by the subject. In the expression 
 
 snow is white, 
 white is a part of the predicate which indicates a 
 
1 6 TOPICS. 
 
 Divisions of the proposition. 
 
 quality of that represented by the subject. Such a 
 part of an expression, as either melting or white, is 
 called an attribute ; therefore, 
 
 b. The Attribute of an expression is that part 
 of the predicate which is used to indicate a condition 
 or a quality of that represented by the subject. 
 
 Attributes, also, may be bare or complete. 
 
 If the definitions of a predicate and an attribute are rightly 
 interpreted, it will be understood that a predicate asserts, while 
 an attribute merely indicates. 
 
 6, a. In both 
 
 snow i s melting, and 
 snow is white, 
 
 is is used to connect the subject and the attribute, 
 
 and is a part of the predicate. Such a part is called 
 the copula ; consequently, 
 
 b. The Copula of an expression is that part of 
 the predicate which is used to connect the subject 
 and the attribute. 
 
 Observe that the definition does not say that a copula does not 
 assert. The copula is the assertive element in predicates com- 
 posed of a copula and an attribute. 
 
 C. In the examples above, the copula is composed 
 of a single word. Let the expressions, 
 the snow has been melting, and 
 the snow will have been melting, and 
 the snow is just about to be melted, 
 
 illustrate the fact" that a copula may be composed of 
 two or more words. 
 
TOPICS. 1 7 
 
 Divisions of the proposition. 
 
 7, a. Snow is melting*, 
 
 the snow falls, 
 
 the wind has begun to Mow violently, and 
 the beautiful evening star is sinking toward 
 the western horizon, 
 
 are all expressions combining a subject and a predi- 
 cate. Such a combination is called a proposition ; 
 therefore, 
 
 b. A Proposition is a combination of a subject 
 and a predicate. 
 
 It follows that an expression which lacks either a subject or a 
 predicate is not a proposition. 
 
 C. There are various kinds and uses of propositions, the 
 description of some of which involves the use of terms we 
 have not yet defined. The subject will be treated farther 
 on (see p. 29). 
 
 See p. 84 concerning the basis of the divisions of the proposi- 
 tion. 
 
 8. The expression, 
 
 he can write as well as I, 
 contains one complete proposition, he can write. 
 
 But the expression is clearly intended to convey the 
 idea that the person represented by I, also, can write, 
 although I can write is not said in so many words. 
 To completely express the sense of the statement it 
 would be necessary to add the words can write. 
 Any part which, though not actually employed, yet 
 really belongs to a statement, is said to be under- 
 stood. It is always permissible in explaining an ex- 
 pression, to insert any understood part or parts. In- 
 deed, it is not only permissible but necessary. 
 
1 8 TOPICS. 
 
 CLASSES OF WORDS. 
 
 9. Remark. — The combination of letters chip, employed in 
 one connection, may mean a bit of substance, say wood or mar- 
 ble, obtained in a certain way. The same combination of let- 
 ters, chip, employed in another connection, may mean a certain 
 act combining breaking and splitting. Used in the one way 
 £hip will be one word; used in the other way it will be a differ- 
 ent word from the first. In the one case it will belong to a cer- 
 tain class of words ; in the other case it will belong to an entire- 
 ly different class. The same in effect is true of many other 
 words, numerous illustrations of which will present themselves 
 to the student of grammar. It is a principle which should be 
 borne distinctly and constantly in mind, that, in classifying words, 
 dependence must not be placed upon spelling, solely, as a means 
 of distinguishing different words. In what ways the necessary 
 distinctions can be safely made will appear in the topics fol- 
 lowing. (For Exercises on the several classes of words turn to 
 the corresponding sections in Helps.) 
 
 THE CLASSES OF WORDS DEFINED. 
 
 10, a. Anything of which we may think is called 
 
 an OBJECT OF THOUGHT. 
 
 b. In the expression, ' 
 
 the child is father to the man, 
 child names an object of thought and is used as the 
 subject of a proposition. Any word that names an 
 object of thought, and that may be used as a subject, 
 Is a noun; therefore, 
 
TOPICS. 19 
 
 The classes of words defined. 
 
 C. A Noun is a word which names an object of 
 thought, and which may be used as the subject of a 
 proposition. 
 
 So with father and man, above ; each names an object 
 of thought, and each may be used as the subject of a 
 proposition. Father and man are therefore nouns. 
 
 d. It is not enough in defining a noun to say a 
 noun is a name. For every word may be said to be 
 the name of an idea. But not every word is a noun. 
 
 e. There is one exception to every definition of a 
 class of words, viz., a word employed as the name of 
 itself, as when we say, 
 
 "truly" is an adverb. 
 
 Any word so used becomes a noun. 
 
 There is a distinction between may be used and is used which 
 the student should carefully note. (See p. 20, e.) 
 
 11, a. The word h i s , in 
 
 the emperor has met his fate, 
 
 is not a noun, but is used in the stead of emperor, 
 which is a noun. It is a pronoun; hence, 
 
 b. A Pronoun is a word, not a noun, used in- 
 stead of a noun. 
 
 12, a. The word soldiers, when used alone, in- 
 cludes in its application all soldiers. But, by using 
 the word valiant with the word soldiers, the applica- 
 tion of soldiers is made more definite and we are led 
 to apply it to only those soldiers who are valiant. 
 
20 TOPICS. 
 
 The classes of words defined. 
 
 When one word is so used with another word, it is 
 said to limit or restrict that other word; therefore, 
 
 b. A word limits or restricts another word 
 when it is so used with that other word as to lead us 
 to make a more definite application of it. 
 
 c. The valiant soldiers rushed into the jaws of 
 
 death. 
 
 Here valiant is neither a noun nor a pronoun; it is 
 placed directly before a noun, soldiers, and it is used 
 to limit that noun. Any word of which these things 
 are true, and which may be so used, is an adjective; 
 from which it follows that 
 
 d. An Adjective is a word, neither noun nor 
 pronoun, which may be placed directly before a 
 noun to limit it. 
 
 The word else, generally considered an adjective, is an excep- 
 tion to this definition. It cannot properly be placed directly be- 
 fore a noun to limit it. 
 
 e. In 
 
 the grain fields were green but became golden, 
 
 green and golden are neither nouns nor pronouns. 
 They are adjectives although they are not placed di- 
 rectly before a noun to limit it; but they may be so 
 placed and therein lies the distinction. 
 
 f. In the expressions, 
 
 he was a man of means, and 
 
 to be thought honest is creditable, 
 
 a man of means, in the one case, limits he, in the 
 
TOPICS. 21 
 
 The classes of words defined. 
 
 other, to be thought honest, is limited by creditable. 
 
 We learn, then, that not only may one word limit an- 
 other word, but several words may together limit or 
 be limited as if they were a single word. (See p. 34.) 
 
 13, a. Many gases burn, 
 
 some gases are dense. 
 
 Burn, in the first example is used as a predicate ; are, 
 in the second, as a copula. A word which may be 
 made either a predicate or a copula is called a verb ; 
 hence, 
 
 b. A Verb is a word which may be used as the 
 predicate or the copula of a proposition. 
 
 Remark. — Bear in mind that the definition does not 
 say that a verb is a group of words, but that a verb is 
 a word. In the expressions 
 
 the flower looks wilted, 
 the flowe"r seems wilted, 
 the flower became wilted, 
 
 looks, seems, and became, are verbs. But looks 
 wilted, taken together, do not constitute a verb. Nor 
 are seems wilted and became wilted verbs. So, like- 
 wise, is wilted and has wilted are not verbs in 
 
 the flower is wilted, 
 
 the flower has wilted. 
 
 Is and has are the verbs ; wilted belongs to another 
 class of words (see p. 68, a, b). So, again, in 
 
 I will have been gone two hours, 
 will is the verb ; have, been, and gone belong to other 
 
2 2 TOPICS. 
 
 The classes of words defined. 
 
 classes. Concerning the treatment of verb phrases, 
 see p. 117. 
 
 C. If we say 
 
 John struck James, 
 
 we represent John as acting and James as acted upon. 
 That which acts we call the subject of an action. 
 That which is acted upon is the object of an ac- 
 tion. In the above expression the word struck ex- 
 presses the action of which James is said to be the 
 object, and it is a verb ; the word James represents 
 the object of the action expressed by that verb, and 
 is a part of the predicate. Such a part of a predi- 
 cate is called the object of a verb ; therefore, 
 
 d. The Object of a verb is that part of the 
 predicate of a proposition which represents the ob- 
 ject of the action expressed by the verb. 
 
 Like a subject, an object is not necessarily one word. 
 
 e. According to the definition of an object of a 
 verb, a verb, to have an object, must express action. 
 But in the expressions, 
 
 Troy was, 
 
 the king sat upon his throne, 
 
 the mother mourned, 
 
 the verb was does not express action ; the verb sat 
 does express action, but does not take an object, 
 — indeed, this verb rarely takes an object ; and 
 mourned expresses action without taking an object, 
 
TOPICS. 23 
 
 The classes of words defined. 
 
 though the verb mourned is used with an object quite 
 as often as without. 
 
 f. Some verbs, then, do not take objects. Some 
 verbs expressing action do not take objects. And 
 some verbs expressing action take objects, but may- 
 be used without. 
 
 Verbs which may take an object, are often called 
 transitive verbs ; and those which may not, in- 
 transitive verbs. But it is clear, from the exam- 
 ples given, that whether a verb be really transitive or 
 intransitive depends upon the way in which it is used 
 in the given case. It will be sufficient to our purpose 
 to say, when the occasion arises, that a verb is used 
 transitively or intransitively, as the case may 
 be. 
 
 14, a. The night was very dark, 
 
 the maid does her work quickly. 
 
 Very, in the first example, is used to limit dark, an 
 adjective ; quickly, in the second, limits does, a verb ; 
 work, likewise, limits the verb, but quickly, as a limit- 
 ing word, differs from work in not being the object of 
 the verb. Any word which may be used as either 
 very or quickly is used, is an adverb ; therefore, 
 
 b. An Adverb is a word which may be used to 
 limit an adjective, or to limit a verb without being 
 the object of the verb. 
 
 C. He was almost dead, 
 
 I almost fell, 
 my task is almost finished, 
 
24 TOPICS. 
 
 The classes of words defined. 
 
 to almost succeed is not enough, 
 
 she performed her part almost perfectly, 
 
 the sun is almost oyer our heads. 
 
 In neither of the last four of these examples does 
 almost limit either a verb or an adjective. But by 
 consulting the first two examples it will be seen that 
 this word almost, without change of meaning, may be 
 used to limit either an adjective or a verb, without 
 being its object. It is consequently an adverb in all 
 six cases according to the definition (see p 23). 
 
 d. But this reasoning must not be misapplied. It 
 does not follow that because some word spelled so 
 and so is a member of a given class, therefore every 
 word so spelled is a member of that class. For ex- 
 ample, the words form and setting may be a verb and 
 an adjective respectively, as in 
 
 the clouds form a curtain to the setting sun; 
 but they are not a verb and an adjective respectively 
 in 
 
 as the sun was setting his form appeared to 
 change. 
 
 It is quite obvious that form in the first illustration is 
 different, not only in its use but also in its meaning 
 and application, from form in the second. And the 
 first setting differs from the second at least in use 
 and application, and also somewhat in meaning. In 
 fact, form and setting in the one example are differ- 
 ent words from the corresponding words in the other. 
 The same, in substance, may be truly said of many 
 
TOPICS. 25 
 
 The classes of words defined. 
 
 other words spelled alike (see p. 18, 9). These ex- 
 amples may serve to emphasize the principle that the 
 identity of a word is not fixed by its spelling alone. 
 
 It happens that there is no word spelled almost be- 
 longing to a different class from that to which almost 
 in the above example belongs. But when we meet 
 with such words as form and setting, we should deter- 
 mine their meaning, and especially should ascertain 
 what are their characteristic relations in propositions. 
 We can then easily assign them to their respective 
 classes. 
 
 15, a. The word to in 
 
 the meteorite fell to the earth, 
 
 is used to connect the words fell and earth, and is 
 not a copula. It is a preposition: 
 
 b. A Preposition is a word, not a copula, used 
 to connect words. 
 
 C. Of the two words connected by the preposition, 
 the word earth is the one which follows it. In 
 
 that point I will reach beyond, 
 beyond is a preposition connecting reach and point, 
 and point is that one of the two words connected, that 
 would follow the preposition if the words were ar- 
 ranged in their natural order. Earth and point are 
 the objects of the preposition. Hence the defini- 
 tion: 
 
 d. The Object of a preposition is that one of 
 
 the two words connected which follows the preposi- 
 
 2 
 
26 TOPICS. 
 
 The classes of words defined. 
 
 tion when the words are written' in a natural or- 
 der. 
 
 16, a. In the expression 
 
 spring came and the snows disappeared, 
 spring came is one proposition, and the snows disap- 
 peared is a second. The word and is used to connect 
 the two propositions. In 
 
 spring came when the snows had disappeared, 
 there are two propositions connected by when. As a 
 connective, and differs from when in not being a part 
 of either of the propositions connected ; while when, 
 in limiting both came and disappeared, is actually a 
 part of both the propositions it connects. Such a 
 word as and is a conjunction : 
 
 b. A Conjunction is a word used to connect two 
 propositions without forming a part of either. 
 
 C. The word when, used above, is plainly an adverb. 
 In its capacity of a connective it is called a conjunctive 
 adverb. (See pp. 23 and 67.) 
 
 d. A comparison of the uses of prepositions and 
 conjunctions will show that while prepositions con- 
 nect words as such, conjunctions, though they may 
 be said to connect words, do not connect them as 
 such, but only as they represent propositions. For 
 example, 
 
 Mary and Thomas played 
 is a short way of saying 
 
 Mary played and Thomas played, 
 
TOPICS. 27 
 
 The classes of words defined. 
 
 two propositions connected by and. Again, 
 
 apples are as good as pears 
 is a way of saying 
 
 pears are good ; apples are as good. 
 
 17, a. In the proposition 
 
 my watch is losing time, 
 the word losing, having its origin in lose, a verb, may 
 be said to be derived from a verb ; it takes an object, 
 time, and in that respect is like a verb, and may be 
 said to partake of the nature of a verb 5 it is used to 
 limit a noun (watch), a use characteristic of adjec- 
 tives, and may therefore be said to partake of the 
 nature of an adjective- Any such word as losing is a 
 participle ; therefore, 
 
 b. A Participle is a word derived from a verb 
 and partaking of the nature of a verb and of an ad- 
 jective. 
 
 18, a. 
 
 His illness arose from breathing impure air- 
 Here breathing is a word derived from a verb and 
 partaking of the nature of a verb. Moreover, it is the 
 object of a preposition (from), a relation common 
 with nouns, and so partakes of the nature of a noun- 
 Such a word as breathing is an infinitive ; hence, 
 
 b. An Infinitive is a word derived from a verb 
 and partaking of the nature of a verb and of a noun. 
 
 19, Recalling the definitions of a noun, a pronoun, an 
 adjective, &c., &c, it will appear that the division of words 
 
28 TOPICS. 
 
 The classes of words defined. 
 
 into classes is based upon the uses, or relations, of words 
 as such in propositions. It has already been stated that 
 the spelling of a word is not a safe guide in determining its 
 class. (See p. 18.) 
 
 20. In 
 
 I do not know, alas ! what may happen, 
 is it true? pooh! I don't care, 
 this is, oh! so funny, 
 
 alas, pooh, and oh are introduced quite regardless of 
 relation and even of position, and might be given any 
 other position, or be omitted altogether, without im- 
 pairing the completeness of the proposition as such. 
 Their use can perhaps be best described by the col- 
 loquial phrase, "thrown in;" and such words are 
 accordingly called interjections. Since they do 
 not bear grammatical relations to propositions they 
 cannot be classed. 
 
 21. Many words, like 
 
 herself, handful, mill-race, 
 
 pea-green, underline, notwithstanding, 
 double-quick, forever, overflowing, 
 
 are composed of two or more words combined so intimate- 
 ly as to become practically one word. All the classes of 
 words are drawn from in making compound words, and 
 every class of words has compound words among its mem- 
 bers. The class to which a compound word belongs is 
 determined exactly as with other words, by the relations it 
 may hold in propositions, and not by the class membership 
 of the separate words composing it. 
 [Exercises, &c, in the Helps.] 
 
TOPICS. 29 
 
 PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 KINDS OF PROPOSITIONS 
 
 22. Comparing the propositions, 
 
 the work has been finished, 
 
 finish the work, 
 
 have you finished the work? 
 
 it will appear that the first is used to make an asser- 
 tion or declaration ; the second to express a com- 
 mand ; the third to make an inquiry or interrogation. 
 Such a proposition as the first is a declarative 
 proposition. One like the second is an imperative 
 proposition. Any proposition like the third is an 
 interrogative proposition. These terms almost 
 explain themselves. 
 
 23, a. The work has been finished, 
 
 the work has been finished and the laborers 
 have been paid, 
 
 when the work has been finished, the labor- 
 ers shall be paid. 
 
 Comparing these examples, the second and third will 
 be seen to be composed each of two propositions, 
 while the first is composed of only one. In the third 
 example, the work has been finished cannot strictly 
 be said to make an independent assertion. Its as- 
 sertive force is dependent upon its connection, through 
 when, with the laborers shall be paid, which, how- 
 ever, does have a propositional force of its own. The 
 
3<3 TOPICS. 
 
 Kinds of propositions. 
 
 principal part, then, is taken by the proposition, the 
 laborers shall be paid; while the proposition when 
 the work is finished merely limits the other by indi- 
 cating the time or the condition of the payment, and 
 thus takes a subordinate part. So that the one may 
 be called a principal proposition, and the other a 
 
 SUBORDINATE Or DEPENDENT PROPOSITION, terms 
 
 which almost explain themselves. 
 
 b. In the second example neither of the proposi- 
 tions is dependent upon the other ; they may both be 
 
 Called INDEPENDENT PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 24, a. Any proposition, like the first of the exam- 
 ples above, which contains. only one subject and one 
 predicate, is a simple proposition. 
 
 b. A proposition, like the second, composed of two 
 or more independent and simple propositions, is a 
 
 COMPOUND PROPOSITION. 
 
 C. A proposition, like the third, composed of a 
 principal and one or more dependent propositions, is 
 called a complex proposition. 
 
 . Remark. — The terms compound-complex and 
 complex-compound are given to more complicated 
 propositions. According to some grammarians, a 
 simple proposition is one that is composed of only 
 one subject and one predicate ; and all others are 
 compound propositions. 
 
 d. The word Clause is a general term often used 
 
TOPICS. 3 1 
 
 Kinds of propositions. 
 
 to denote any one of the component propositions of 
 a compound or a complex proposition. 
 
 C The term Sentence is very commonly used in a sense 
 practically equivalent to that of the term Proposition as em- 
 ployed in this book, But most of the definitions of a sentence 
 say, in substance, that a sentence is a combination of words to- 
 gether expressing a complete thought. Without assuming to 
 question the accuracy of the definition, we may state that such 
 definitions are based on the meaning of the sentence, not on 
 the relations of the parts composing it, and are, therefore, 
 logical definitions rather than grammatical. Terms employed in 
 a grammar would best be used in a grammatical sense. If the 
 student chooses, for the sake of variety, to use the term sentence 
 with the meaning of the term proposition, no especial objection 
 can be offered, provided he use the term with that meaning in 
 every case. 
 
 THE SIMPLE PROPOSITION. 
 
 25, a. We have learned that a proposition is com- 
 posed of two essential parts, a subject and a predi- 
 cate. It has been seen that the subject of a proposi- 
 tion may be a name of something, or a word used 
 instead of a name. But the expressions, 
 the cow and the calf are dead, 
 to wait is often tedious, 
 it is growing cold, it rains, it hails, 
 
 illustrate other constructions : 
 
 b. The first example illustrates the fact that two or 
 more names (or their equivalents) may be so intimate- 
 ly connected as to form practically one grammatical 
 subject, taking one verb or having one predicate. 
 
32 TOPICS. 
 
 The Simple Proposition. 
 
 C. By the second we are taught that an infinitive 
 may be the subject of a proposition. 
 
 d. The propositions in the third example have for 
 a subject the word it, but used here in the place of 
 no definitely assignable noun or name. It, as here 
 used, is called an impersonal pronoun, and, as a 
 subject, an impersonal subject. 
 
 e. The word there may be used somewhat similarly, as 
 in 
 
 there once lived two princes. 
 
 But in this case there, though occupying the position of a 
 subject, is not really a subject. Two princes is the subject, 
 and there is an expletive. 
 
 26> a,. In the expression, 
 
 they paid him money, 
 the noun money is object of the verb paid. So, also, is the 
 pronoun him. But we may consider money to be more 
 directly connected with paid than him is. That one of the 
 objects of a verb which is most intimately connected with 
 the verb is called the direct object; the other, the 
 INDIRECT object. In this case the expression, without 
 change of meaning, may be made to read, 
 
 they paid money to him. 
 Here the word which was in the other example the indirect 
 object of the verb, is made the object of a preposition, to. 
 The indirect object of a verb is generally susceptible of 
 such a transposition. 
 
 b. Participles and infinitives, as well as verbs, may take 
 a direct and an indirect object. 
 
topics. 33 
 
 Clauses. 
 
 C. Remark. — Some persons hold that a verb never has an 
 indirect object. They affirm that what we have called an INDI- 
 RECT object is always the object of a preposition expressed or 
 understood. 
 
 d. In 
 
 they called him a hero, 
 
 the construction is different from that in 
 they paid him money. 
 In the latter, money represents one object of thought, and 
 him an entirely different object. But, in the former, hero 
 and him represent the same object. It is not customary to 
 apply the terms direct and indirect object to words rep- 
 resenting the same individual. The term attributive 
 object may be applied to a word used as hero is used in 
 this example. 
 
 some: uses of propositions as clauses. 
 
 27, a. In 
 
 how long we shall stay is not decided, 
 how long we shall stay is a proposition, used as the 
 subject. In this respect it is like a noun. Any word, 
 or phrase, or clause, used as a noun, is said to be 
 used substantively. Therefore, how long we shall 
 stay, above, is used substantively. Clauses so used 
 are called substantive clauses. The term noun 
 clause is used in the same sense. 
 
 b. But nouns may be used in other relations than that 
 
 2* 
 
34 topics. 
 
 Phrases. 
 
 of subject. So substantive clauses may be used in various 
 relations. 
 
 28- In the expression, 
 
 the house you painted white is sold, 
 you painted white, equivalent to which you painted 
 white, a dependent proposition, is used to limit adjec- 
 tively the word house, a noun. The common name 
 for a dependent proposition used adjectively is ad- 
 jective clause. 
 
 29. He stood where I could see him. 
 
 Where I could see him limits the verb stood adverbially. 
 The student will readily apply the term adverb 
 clause. 
 
 30. It has been already stated that parts of proposi- 
 tions are often omitted, and the term understood has been 
 applied to such parts. The omission is called an ellipsis. 
 (See p. 17.) 
 
 PHRASES. 
 
 31, a- In the proposition, 
 
 at the last it Mteth like a serpent, 
 the three words at the last are equivalent to at last. 
 Both of these expressions have the force of finally, 
 an adverb, and a single word. We have already seen 
 that in 
 
 he stood where I could see him, 
 where I could see him has an adverbial force, and 
 
topics. 35 
 
 Phrases. 
 
 that it is a proposition. But at the last and at last 
 are not propositions. Such a collection of words as 
 at the last or at last is called a phrase ; therefore, 
 
 b. A Phrase is a collection of words, not form- 
 ing a proposition, which together have the force of 
 a single member of some class of words. 
 
 32- Adverbs, as in the example above, are not the only 
 words represented by phrases. With a little thought the 
 student will be able to construct propositions containing 
 phrases representing nearly all the other classes of words. 
 
36 TOPICS. 
 
 THE CLASSES OF WORDS, 
 
 SEPARATELY STUDIED. 
 
 KINDS, PROPERTIES I RULES. 
 
 33. Remark. — In defining the classes of words we have 
 sought out some particular uses by which the members of a class 
 may be distinguished. Every object, however, possesses quali- 
 ties besides those which serve to distinguish it from objects of 
 other classes. The same is true of words. They have uses and 
 properties not mentioned in a definition, but whose mention is 
 nevertheless necessaiy to a reasonably full description. We 
 shall have to do with some of the most important of these latter, 
 those we can least afford to overlook. We will study separately 
 the several classes of words, following the order marked out in 
 the preceding topics. 
 
 SOUffS. 
 
 SOME KINDS OF NOUNS. 
 (Hints and Exercises in Helps.) 
 
 34. We have seen that a word to be a noun must 
 be a name. The examples, 
 
 boy, street, tune, country, and 
 
 John, Broadway, Greenville, France, 
 
 show us that a word may be the name of an object as 
 one of a class of objects ; or that it may be the name 
 of an individual object distinguished by it from other 
 individuals of the same class. Such names as boy, 
 street, tune, country, coming under the first head, are 
 
topics. 37 
 
 The Noun : Numbers. 
 
 generally called common nouns ; while names like 
 John, Broadway, Greenville, France, the names of indi- 
 vidual objects, are called proper nouns. 
 
 35- Compound nouns. (See p. 28.) 
 
 36- Nouns like 
 
 assemblage, people, throng, herd, 
 family, dozen, pair, 
 
 which in the singular signify a collection of things, are called 
 COLLECTIVE NOUNS or COLLECTIVES. 
 
 NUMBERS. 
 
 (Hints and Exercises in Helps.) 
 
 37, a. In the expression, 
 
 listen to the song of songs, 
 song and songs are forms used respectively to distin- 
 guish one and more than one. Such forms of words 
 are called numbers ; therefore, 
 
 b. Numbers are forms of words used to distin- 
 guish one and more than one. 
 
 C. The form song distinguishes one from more than 
 one ; songs, more than one from one. Such a form 
 as the first is a singular number ; as the second, a 
 plural number. Other examples are hook, hooks ; 
 man, men. Song, hook, man, are nouns ; therefore, 
 
 d. Nouns have Numbers : singular and plu- 
 ral. English nouns have only these two numbers. 
 
38 TOPICS. 
 
 The Noun : Numbers. 
 
 38. In saying that nouns have numbers we apply the 
 term nouns to the class nouns, not to any individual mem- 
 ber of the class. And so with the names of other classes. 
 For while it is true that nouns as a class have numbers, 
 such nouns as sheep* deer, are exceptions. Sheep does 
 not distinguish one from more than one, nor more than one 
 from one. Nor is there any authorized form of the word 
 sheep which serves such a purpose. In fact, the noun 
 sheep has not any number. Likewise the noun deer. 
 
 39* Some words, again, often employ their singular 
 form with a plural meaning, as, 
 
 fish, pike, foot, ton. 
 Such is especially true of collectives. For example, 
 dozen, set, pair, head (of cattle). 
 
 40- Certain abstract objects of thought, such as thoughtful- 
 ness, simplicity, music, can hardly be conceived as existing in 
 numbers, but only as one. Therefore, the names of such will 
 have, as a rule, only one number form, the singular. 
 
 FORMATION OF PliTJRALS OF NOUNS. 
 
 41, a- Plurals may be either spoken or written. 
 By pronouncing the plurals of the singular nouns, 
 hat, bag, watch, it will appear that the spoken plurals 
 of these words are produced respectively by adding 
 the sound of s, z, and £z to the spoken singular. 
 Plurals formed as these are, are regular spoken 
 plurals. Other spoken plurals are irregular. 
 
topics. 39 
 
 The Noun : Numbers. 
 
 b. In the first case the sound of s is added rather than 
 the sound of z, because that sound combines more readily 
 with the last sound of the singular; in the second case, the 
 sound of z combines more readily with the last sound of 
 the singular ; in the third case neither the sound of s nor 
 that of z will combine readily with the last sound of the 
 singular, and therefore the sound of £z is added. 
 
 42- Hats, the written plural of the noun hat, is 
 formed by adding s to the written singular ; bags, the 
 plural of bag, by adding likewise s % watches, plural 
 of watch, by adding es. In these plurals the s repre- 
 sents the sound respectively of s and of z ; and the e§, 
 the sound of £z. Such written plurals are regular 
 written plurals. Other written plurals are ir- 
 regular. 
 
 OF IRREGULAR WRITTEN PLURALS, 
 
 (For Lists of Irregular Plurals see the end of the Helps.) 
 
 43. Beauty, duty, pony, are nouns singular ending 
 in j preceded by a consonant. The plurals of these 
 words are beauties, duties, ponies, formed by substi- 
 tuting i for y and adding es. The plural of other 
 similar nouns is formed in the same way. 
 
 44. Hero, negro, potato, are nouns singular ending in 
 o preceded by a consonant. The plurals of these words are 
 heroes, negroes, potatoes, formed by adding es. The 
 plural of most similar nouns is formed in the same way. 
 
40 TOPICS. 
 
 The Noun : Numbers. 
 
 45. Court-martial, man-of-war, are compound nouns, 
 singular number. Of these the plurals are courts-martial, 
 men-of-war, formed in each case by pluralizing the most 
 important part of the word. Most compound nouns are 
 thus pluralized. 
 
 46. The words five, aitch, plus, are nouns singular; 
 plurals, fives, aitches, pluses. The first singular is gener- 
 ally represented by the figure 5, the second by the letter h, 
 the third by the sign +. When the singulars are thus 
 represented, the plurals are commonly represented by 
 5's, h's, + 's, i. e., by affixing an apostrophe and an s to 
 the sign for the singular. The same is true generally of 
 other figures, letters, and signs; and also of any word 
 used as its own name, as, 
 
 the paragraph contains too many and's. 
 
 47. The nouns minutia and dogma are words taken from 
 foreign languages. For the plural of minutia we employ 
 minutiae, the regular foreign plural of that word. For the 
 plural of dogma we generally use dogmas, formed by plu- 
 ralizing in the English way ; but we may use dogmata, the 
 regular foreign plural of dogma. In general terms, then, 
 we use the regular foreign plural of some foreign words, 
 while of others we may use either the regular foreign plu- 
 ral or a plural formed according to the rule for English 
 nouns. 
 
 If a foreign word is pluralized in both ways, the English 
 plural is preferred in ordinary social conversation ; and the 
 foreign, in scientific. 
 
 There are many other irregular plurals which can be learned 
 best, perhaps, by observation. Lists of irregular plurals will be 
 found on p. 123. 
 
TOPICS. 41 
 
 The Noun : Genders. 
 
 GENDERS. 
 
 (Hints, Exercises, and Lists, in Helps.) 
 
 48, a. In the expression, 
 
 the prince and the princess are fond of 
 society, 
 
 the form prince represents an object as belonging to 
 one sex, and princess an object as belonging to the 
 other sex. Hence we may affirm that they distin- 
 guish objects in regard to sex. Such forms of words 
 are called genders ; therefore, 
 
 b. Genders are forms of words used to distinguish 
 objects in regard to sex. 
 
 C. Such a form as prince is a masculine gender : 
 A MASCULINE gender is that form of a word which 
 represents an object as belonging to the male sex. 
 
 d. Such a form as princess is a feminine gender : 
 
 A feminine gender is that form of a word which 
 represents an object as belonging to the female sex. 
 
 Remark. — When we say, 
 
 the moon sheds her light, 
 we use the form her to represent the moon as belonging to the 
 female sex. The moon does not have sex. 
 
 e. Prince, princess, and likewise count, countess, are 
 
 nouns ; therefore, 
 
 Nouns have G-enders. masculine and femi- 
 nine. 
 
 49. Most of the feminine genders that are formed from 
 a masculine are made by the addition of ess to the mascu- 
 line, as heiress from heir. The tendency now is (1881) to 
 
42 TOPICS. 
 
 The Noun : Cases. 
 
 discard the feminine forms and to use the masculine form 
 indifferently for either male or female. Thus the editor of 
 a paper may be either a man or a woman. 
 
 50. A form used to represent an object as belonging to 
 no sex, if there is such a form, would be called a neuter 
 
 GENDER. 
 
 In words such as friend, child, parent, there is nothing 
 to distinguish the sex of the object represented ; .and such 
 words as tin, warmth, sensitiveness, never in themselves 
 convey even a suggestion of sex. Such words have no 
 gender. 
 
 English nouns have only the two genders, masculine 
 and feminine, 
 
 5 1 . Genders are little used in the English language, but 
 substitutes for them are employed. For example, in 
 
 the hoy and the girl sing well together, 
 hoy and girl are distinct words. Girl is not a form of hoy, 
 and hoy is not a form of girl. But they are equivalent to 
 genders of each other, one meaning a young male of the 
 human kind, and the other a young female of the same 
 kind. To such words the term GENDER EQUIVALENTS 
 may be conveniently applied. 
 
 52, a. 
 
 That life is long which answers life's 
 great end. 
 
 Here the form life is used in the relation of subject; 
 the form life's, in the relation of a limiting word. 
 
topics. 43 
 
 The Noun : Cases. 
 
 The latter form is not appropriate to the relation in 
 which life is, nor the former to the relation in which 
 life's is. It is on account of the relation of the word 
 in each case that the particular form is used. Such 
 forms are Cases ; therefore, 
 
 b. Cases are forms of words used on account of 
 the relations the words hold to other words. 
 
 C. The first of the forms above is the simple form 
 of the noun, the naming form, and is called a simple 
 
 CASE Or NOMINATIVE CASE. 
 
 d. Forms like the second, which is here used to 
 limit another word in a certain way, are typically and 
 generally used to limit by denoting possession, and 
 are accordingly called possessive cases : 
 
 e. A Possessive Case is a form used to limit, 
 ordinarily by denoting possession. 
 
 f. Life, life's, and John, John's, are nouns ; there- 
 fore, 
 
 Nouns have Cases: simple or nominative and 
 possessive. English nouns have no other cases. 
 
 Formation of the Possessire. 
 
 53, a. 
 This casket India's glowing gems unlocks, 
 words are men's daughters, 
 hy others' faults wise men correct their own. 
 
 In these expressions the words India's, men's, and 
 
44 topics. 
 
 The Noun : Cases. 
 
 others' are possessives ; the first is a singular, the 
 second and third are plurals. The first and second 
 are formed by adding an apostrophe and the letter s to 
 the simple or nominative case. The nominative case 
 of the third is a plural, ending in s : its possessive is 
 formed by adding an apostrophe only. With a few 
 exceptions, the possessives of other nouns are formed 
 in the same way. Whence the rule : 
 
 b. The possessive case of a noun should be 
 formed by adding an apostrophe and the letter s to 
 the nominative case ; unless the noun be a plural 
 ending in $, in which event the apostrophe alone 
 should be added. 
 
 C. When the nominative singular ends in s, the 
 poets sometimes add the apostrophe alone in forming 
 the possessive. The weight of authority favors the 
 employment in prose of the additional s. 
 
 54. The preposition of is frequently used with an ob- 
 ject, the two together forming a phrase equivalent to a pos- 
 sessive noun. Thus, 
 
 the roar of the wares 
 is equivalent to, 
 
 the waves' roar. 
 The simple case with the preposition is generally to be 
 preferred to the possessive case. 
 
topics. 45 
 
 The Noun ; Cases : Rules. 
 
 RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS. 
 
 To CONSTRUCT a noun properly in any given relation 
 is to use the proper form for that relation. 
 
 For Noun as Subject. 
 
 55, a. In 
 
 earth with a thousand voices praises God, 
 earth is a noun used as subject and is in the nomina- 
 tive case. It is agreed that any noun' so used shall be 
 in the nominative case. Hence the rule : 
 
 b. A noun used as the subject of a proposition 
 must be in the nominative case. 
 
 Must be is used in the sense of must be put. 
 
 For Noun as Attribute. 
 
 56, a. In the expression, 
 
 innocence is his shield, 
 shield is a noun used as attribute and is in the nomi- 
 native case. It is agreed that a noun so used shall be 
 in the nominative case. Rule : 
 
 b. A noun used as the attribute of a proposition 
 must be in the nominative case. 
 
 For Noun used as Object. 
 
 57, a. In 
 
 lives there a man who loves his pain? 
 pain is a noun used as the object of a verb. It is in 
 the simple or nominative case. It is agreed that a 
 noun so used shall be in the nominative case. Rule : 
 
46 TOPICS. 
 
 The Noun : Cases : Rules. 
 
 b. A noun used as the object of a verb must be 
 in the nominative case. 
 
 REMARK. — Do not confuse the terms relation and case. 
 A noun used as object is in the objective relation. A noun 
 used as subject is in the subjective relation. In 
 
 he does not love his pain, and 
 
 the pain is severe, 
 pain is used, first, in the objective relation, and secondly, in 
 the subjective relation. Pain in the first example is identi- 
 cal in form with pain in the second. It is the simple form , 
 or, as we have named that form, the nominative case. 
 
 For Noun in other Relations. 
 
 58, a. In the same way, by employing expressions 
 like the following, the students may derive rules for 
 the construction of nouns used respectively as the ob- 
 ject of a Preposition, a Participle, and an Infinitive : 
 
 they struggle for renown, 
 
 the farmer's hoy is ploughing corn, 
 
 he loves to sing his little song, 
 
 b. In 
 
 that is a book of William's, 
 the use of the possessive after a preposition is peculiar. The 
 possessive so used is considered more emphatic than when used 
 in the ordinary way. To explain the expression we read, 
 
 that is a book of William's books, 
 which means practically, 
 
 that is one of William's books. 
 So that the apparent anomaly is really a regular employment of 
 a noun in the possessive to limit another noun (understood). 
 
topics. 47 
 
 The Noun : Cases : Rules. 
 
 For the Possessive. 
 
 59, a. In the proposition, 
 
 my life is my foe's debt, 
 foe's is a noun used to limit the noun debt, which de- 
 notes a different thing from that denoted by foe's* 
 Foe's is a possessive case. It is agreed that a noun 
 used as foe's is used shall be in the possessive case. 
 Rule : 
 
 b. A noun used to limit another noun denoting a 
 different person or thing must be in the possessive 
 case. 
 
 C If the limiting noun actually denotes possession the 
 rule may be stated : A noun used to limit by denoting pos- 
 session must be in the possessive case. 
 
 For Noun in Apposition. 
 
 60, a. 
 
 For the sake of David, my servant. 
 
 Here the word servant is a noun limiting another 
 noun (David) which denotes the same person. The 
 two nouns are practically alike in their relation to the 
 rest of the proposition. A noun used as servant is, 
 in this proposition, is said to be in apposition with 
 the noun it limits ; or the two are in apposition. 
 David and servant are in the same case. Hence the 
 rule : 
 
 b. Nouns in apposition shall be in the same case. 
 
 C. If nouns in the possessive are in apposition it is cus- 
 tomary to use only one possessive sign and to join that to 
 
48 topics. 
 
 The Noun : Cases : Rules. 
 
 the possessive which stands directly before the word which 
 the possessive limits, as in 
 
 for my servant David's sake. 
 In this case the possessive sign, though written in immedi- 
 ate connection with David, is supposed to belong just as 
 much to servant as to David. 
 
 For Noun Independent. 
 
 61, a. 
 
 My friends, I come not here to talk. 
 Friends does not really form a part of a proposition, 
 and is in that respect independent of grammatical re- 
 lations. Words so used are said to be grammati- 
 cally independent. Friends is in the nominative 
 case. It is agreed that a noun grammatically inde- 
 pendent, &c, &c. Rule. 
 
 62. Instead of a separate rule for each construction we 
 may frame general rules to cover similar constructions, re- 
 ducing the number of rules. Thus the rules for construc- 
 tion might read : 
 
 i. A noun used in the relation of object must be in the 
 nominative case ; 
 
 2. A noun used to limit another noun denoting a differ- 
 
 ent person or thing must be in the possessive case ; 
 
 3. Nouns in apposition must be in the same case ; 
 
 4. A noun used in any other relation must be in the 
 
 nominative case. 
 
 (Exercises in Parsing, &c, in the Helps.) 
 
topics. 49 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 SOME KINDS OF PRONOUNS, 
 
 (Exercises, &c., in the Helps.) 
 
 63. The pronouns I, thou, and he, possess a prop- 
 erty called person (see paragraph 66). They are on 
 that account called the personal pronouns. 
 
 64. In 
 
 he is a man who understands his business, 
 the pronoun who, while subject of the proposition, 
 who understands his business, 
 
 also serves to connect that proposition with the propo- 
 sition 
 
 he is a man, 
 to show that the second relates to man, a part of the 
 first. There are several such pronouns. They are 
 called conjunctive pronouns or relative pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 65. The pronoun who may also be used as in 
 
 w h o is here ? 
 
 viz., in putting a question. Who, what, which, and 
 whether, when so used, are called interrogative 
 pronouns. But it is doubtful whether at least what 
 and which, when so used, should not be called adjec- 
 tives, INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 There are other kinds of pronouns, whose names are not so 
 commonly used as the preceding, and are omitted as compara- 
 tively unimportant. 
 3 
 
50 TOPICS. 
 
 The Pronoun: Properties. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 66, a. 
 
 I call, thou callest, h e calls. 
 
 I is used to distinguish a person as the speaker; thou, 
 a person as spoken to ; he, as spoken of. Such a 
 form as either I, thou, or he, is a person. We may, 
 then, state that 
 
 b. Persons are forms of words used to distin- 
 guish a person (or thing) as speaking, or as spoken 
 to, or as spoken of. 
 
 Such a person as I is called a first person* ; as 
 thou, a second person ; as he, a third person. 
 
 C. I, thou, and he, are pronouns; therefore, 
 Pronouns have Persons. 
 
 The three persons mentioned in these examples are not, how- 
 ever, forms of one another. Yet each is probably the remnant 
 of a set of forms of one word. If this is not true, the propriety 
 cf calling these, or any other different words, persons, may be 
 fairly questioned. 
 
 67, a. In 
 
 if thou dost not, they will, 
 
 it is obvious that thou and they are numbers. Thou is 
 a pronoun. So, likewise, is they ; therefore, 
 
 b. Pronouns have Numbers: singular and 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
TOPICS. 51 
 
 The Pronoun : Properties. 
 
 68, a- He and she* his and hers, represent the 
 Genders of Pronouns: masculine and femi- 
 nine. 
 
 b. Whether it is a gender or not depends upon whether 
 it distinguishes an object in regard to sex. As a fact, it is 
 seldom, if ever, used with any even remote purpose of sug- 
 gesting the idea of sex. Those who believe that it is a 
 gender call it a NEUTER GENDER. 
 
 €9, a. In the propositions, 
 who art thou? 
 thy strength is manifest, 
 I love thee, old England, 
 
 thou, thy, and thee, are forms used on account of the 
 respective relations of the pronoun to other words. 
 Such forms we have learned to call cases. It is ob- 
 vious that thou is a nominative case and thy a posses- 
 sive case. The form thee is here used in the objec- 
 tive relation (object of love), and, in fact, is set apart 
 for use in that relation. Any such form is an objec- 
 tive case ; therefore, 
 
 b. An Objective case is that form of a word 
 which is set apart for the objective relation. 
 
 From these several illustrations it will appear that 
 
 c. Pronouns have Cases : nominative, posses- 
 sive, and objective. English pronouns have no other 
 cases. 
 
 d. Let it not be inferred that every pronoun has all three 
 cases. For example, which exists in only the simple form, 
 and it, its, are the only forms of the pronoun it. 
 
52 TOPICS. 
 
 The Pronoun : Rules. 
 
 70. The number of pronouns is comparatively 
 small. Yet, on account of the frequency of the use 
 of pronouns, they constitute an important class. Be- 
 low is a list of the forms of the principal pronouns. 
 
 
 First 
 
 Person. Second 
 
 Person. 
 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 I 
 
 we thou 
 
 you, ye 
 
 Poss. 
 
 my, mine our, ours thy, thine 
 
 your, yours 
 
 Obj. 
 
 me 
 
 us thee 
 
 Third Person. 
 
 (you) 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. Neuter.(?) 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 he 
 
 she it 
 
 they 
 
 Poss. 
 
 his 
 
 her, hers its 
 
 their, theirs 
 
 Obj. 
 
 him 
 
 her(?) (it) 
 
 them 
 
 The pronoun who has three cases : nom. who ; poss. 
 whose ; obj. whom. For the pronoun it, used, imperson- 
 ally, see p. 32, d. Some grammars contain full lists of pro- 
 nouns. The interested student will find it profitable to 
 examine such lists. 
 
 RUL.ES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 For Pronoun A3 Subject. 
 
 71, a. 
 
 He is a prince among* princes. 
 
 He is a pronoun used as a subject and is in the nomi- 
 
topics. 53 
 
 The Pronoun: Rules. 
 
 native case. It is agreed that a pronoun so used shall 
 be in the nominative case. Rule : 
 
 b. A pronoun used as the subject of a proposition 
 must be in the nominative case. 
 
 For Pronoun as Attribute. 
 
 72, a. 
 
 It is I, I am li e , we are they. 
 I, he* and they, are pronouns used . as attributes. 
 They are in the nominative case. It is agreed that a 
 pronoun so used shall be in the nominative case. 
 Rule : 
 
 b. A pronoun used as the attribute of a proposi- 
 tion must be in the nominative case. 
 
 For Pronoun as Object. 
 
 73» a- In the expressions, 
 
 I commend him to you, and 
 the fur which the monarch wears warmed 
 a bear, 
 
 Mm and which are pronouns used in the relation of 
 object. Him is an objective case. Which is a nomina- 
 tive case and is used rather than an objective case, 
 presumably because an objective case of which does 
 not exist. It is agreed, &c, &c. Rule : 
 
 b. A pronoun used in the relation of object must 
 be in the objective case if the pronoun has such a 
 case ; otherwise, in the nominative case. 
 
 This rule applies to the object of a Preposition, the ob- 
 ject of a Participle, and the object of an Infinitive. 
 
54 topics. 
 
 The Pronoun : Rules. 
 
 For the Possessive. 
 
 74. The rule for a pronoun used to limit by de- 
 noting possession is essentially the same as that for a 
 noun similarly used, and may be similarly stated. 
 (See p. 47-) 
 
 For Pronoun in Apposition. 
 
 75, a. In the expression, 
 
 behold the king here, him whom all men 
 praise, 
 
 him is a pronoun in apposition with a noun, king. We 
 have already learned that words in apposition hold 
 essentially the same relation in a proposition. It 
 should follow, then, that a pronoun in apposition 
 with a noun should have the case it would have if 
 used in the position of the noun, i. e., if the noun 
 were omitted and the pronoun substituted for it. 
 This principle is observed in the construction of him, 
 above ; for if we omit the noun king we shall say, 
 
 behold him here, &c, 
 him being the case prescribed by a previous rule for 
 a pronoun used in the objective relation. Hence the 
 rule : 
 
 b. A pronoun used in apposition with a noun 
 must have the case prescribed to it for the relation 
 in which the noun stands. 
 
 C. If nouns and pronouns had the same number of 
 cases and the cases had the same names, the rule might 
 stand: A pronoun in apposition with a noun or with 
 
topics. 55 
 
 The Pronoun: Rules. 
 
 another pronoun must be in the same case with that noun 
 or pronoun. 
 
 For Pronoun and Antecedent. 
 
 76, a. In 
 
 beauty's tears are loyelier than her smile, 
 beauty's is the word for which her stands. The word 
 for which a pronoun stands is the antecedent of 
 the pronoun. 
 
 b. In 
 
 the king abdicated his throne, 
 Doth king and his are of the masculine gender and 
 singular number. When two or more persons hold 
 the same opinion we say they agree in opinion. In 
 like manner, when words have certain common prop- 
 erties, we may say the words agree in whatever they 
 have in common. 
 
 The his already mentioned is a pronoun and king 
 is its antecedent. Because they have in common the 
 masculine gender and singular number we say they 
 agree in gender and number. But in 
 
 he was a king who loved his people, 
 while the antecedent, king, is a masculine gender and 
 singular number, the pronoun who has neither gender 
 nor number, and therefore cannot agree with its ante- 
 cedent. We may, then, derive the rule : 
 
 C. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
 gender and number whenever both have gender and 
 number. 
 
56 TOPICS. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 SOME KINDS OF ADJECTIVES, 
 
 [Exercises, &c, in the Helps.] 
 
 77, Some adjectives, like 
 
 three, fourth, one, first, 
 
 convey an idea of number. Such adjectives are 
 
 Called NUMERAL ADJECTIVES, Or NUMERALS. 
 
 78. The terms interrogative adjectives, pro- 
 nominal ADJECTIVES, and COMPOUND ADJECTIVES 
 
 will explain themselves. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 79? a- In the expressions, 
 
 we thought you honest, 
 we thought h i m honest* 
 we thought the 111 honest, 
 we thought her honest, 
 
 the adjective honest is constructed with words, you, 
 him, them, her, differing, in the several examples, in 
 person, number, gender, and case. But the form of 
 honest remains the same throughout. As a rule, ad- 
 jectives undergo no change of form when used in these 
 several ways. We may affirm, then, that 
 
 b. Adjectives have neither Persons, Num- 
 bers, Genders, nor Cases. 
 
topics. 57 
 
 The Adjective : Comparison. 
 
 C- There are two exceptions : this, which has a plural, 
 these ; and that, plural those. 
 
 COMPARISON. 
 
 80. If we say of several acts that one is noble, 
 another nobler, and a third noblest, we imply that the 
 quality of acts may differ in degree. And we use 
 the forms noble, nobler, noblest, to express such differ- 
 ent degrees of that particular quality. In a similar 
 way we may employ the forms brave, braver, bravest. 
 We have not a good name for such forms. But be- 
 cause by employing them we imply a comparison of 
 the degrees of a quality, we may call them forms of 
 comparison. 
 
 81. To distinguish the first of the forms, noble, 
 nobler, noblest, from the others, we might properly 
 call it the simple form, but the name positive form 
 is more commonly given it. The second is equivalent 
 to more noble, a phrase made by combining the word 
 more with the simple form of the adjective. Such a 
 form is called a comparative form. The third is 
 equivalent to most noble, which combines the word 
 most with the simple form. Such a form is called a 
 
 SUPERLATIVE FORM. 
 
 82. a- Noble and brave (above) are adjectives ; 
 therefore, 
 
 Adjectives have Forms of Comparison : sim- 
 ple or positive, comparative, and superlative. 
 3* 
 
58 TOPICS. 
 
 The Adjective : Comparison. 
 
 b. If one writes or pronounces in succession the 
 positive, the comparative, and the superlative forms 
 of an adjective, he is said to compare the adjective. 
 
 83, From the examples, 
 
 tall, taller, tallest, 
 young, younger, youngest, 
 
 it appears that the comparative form of an adjective may- 
 be made by adding er to the positive ; and the superlative 
 by adding est to the positive. This is the usual or regu- 
 lar way of forming comparatives and superlatives. Other 
 ways may be learned by observation. 
 
 84, a. 
 
 Brilliant light, 
 more brilliant light, 
 most brilliant light. 
 
 The adjective brilliant expresses a quality. But it is not 
 here, nor is it ever varied in form to express different de- 
 grees of the quality. The same is true of many other ad- 
 jectives ; i. e., some adjectives are not compared. 
 
 b. Many adjectives are both compared and combined 
 with more and most to form phrases cf comparison. 
 
 85, The words less and least are also often used with 
 the simple form of adjectives to form, in a certain negative 
 sense, phrases of comparison. 
 
topics. 59 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 SOME KINDS OF VERBS. 
 
 86. The terms transitive and intransitive, as 
 applied to verbs, and also the term compound, have 
 been explained. (See pp. 22, 23, 28.) 
 
 PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 
 
 (Exercises, &c., in the Helps.) 
 
 87, a. 
 
 I am , thou art, he is. 
 The forms am, art, and is, lead us to think of the 
 speaker, the person spoken to, and the person spoken 
 of. Such forms we have learned to call persons. 
 (See definition, p. 50.) 
 
 b. In 
 
 thou lovest, he lores, 
 lovest and loves are likewise persons. These several 
 words are verbs ; therefore, 
 
 Verbs have Persons. 
 88. 
 
 Am, are, loveth, was, walkest, were, 
 
 as verbs, illustrate the fact that 
 Verbs have Numbers. 
 
60 TOPICS. 
 
 The Verb : Tenses. 
 
 89, a. Comparing write with wrote, and 
 with slept, as they occur in 
 
 I write, I wrote, 
 they sleep, they slept, 
 
 we observe that write affirms an act as taking place 
 at the present time, and sleep affirms a condition as a 
 present one ; while the time of that affirmed by wrote 
 and slept is past time. Write and wrote, then, and 
 sleep and slept riiay be described as forms which dis- 
 tinguish the time of that expressed by them. Such 
 forms are tenses. These words are verbs ; there- 
 fore, 
 
 b. Verbs have Tenses: present and past. 
 English verbs have only these two tenses : present 
 tense and past tense, terms which explain them- 
 selves. 
 
 FORMATION OF THE PAST TENSE. 
 
 90, a. In 
 
 I laugh, I laughed, 
 laugh is a present tense ; laughed, a past tense. The 
 latter is formed from the present tense by adding the 
 letters ed. Past tenses made by adding ed to the 
 present tense form are said to be regularly formed. 
 Verbs whose past tense is thus formed are called 
 regular verbs. Other verbs are irregular. 
 
 For lists of irregular verbs see p. 123. 
 
TOPICS. 6 1 
 
 The Verb : Agreement. 
 
 "b. Comparing 
 
 I recite, and I recited, 
 
 recited, a past tense, would seem to be formed from the present 
 tense by adding only d. But this is not true historically. The 
 td of recited is strictly the termination added to form the past 
 tense, the e of recite being dropped, or omitted, in accordance 
 with a familiar rule of orthography. The change may be repre- 
 sented by recit\z\ed. The same rule is observed in the formation 
 of salable from sale. 
 
 Agreement. 
 
 91, a. In the expressions, 
 
 I am, thou art, he is, thou lovest, he lores, 
 
 the several verbs agree with their subject in person 
 and number. In 
 
 we are, they are, 
 there is agreement in number only, are having no per^ 
 son. In 
 
 I read, they read, 
 
 there is no agreement in either person or number, be- 
 cause read is neither a person nor a number. The 
 following, then, may be stated for a rule : 
 
 b. A verb and its subject must agree in person 
 and number when both have the requisite person and 
 number. 
 
 92, a.. Verbs seldom have the requisite person and 
 number. The verb commonly called to be has more person 
 and number forms than any other English verb. The 
 " forms " of this verb as used with the various forms of the 
 pronouns are : 
 
62 TOPICS. 
 
 The Verb : Agreement. 
 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 ist P. 
 
 I am, 
 
 we are, 
 
 2d P. 
 
 thou art, 
 
 you are, 
 
 3d P. 
 
 he is, 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 they are. 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 1st P. 
 
 I was, 
 
 we were, 
 
 2d P. 
 
 thou wast, 
 
 you were, 
 
 3d P. 
 
 he was, 
 
 they were. 
 
 It will be seen that this verb has the requisite forms in 
 both tenses for agreement in both numbers (no other verb 
 has). For agreement in all three persons it has the requi- 
 site forms in only the singular of the present tense, having 
 only one person in the singular of the past tense, and none 
 in the plural of either tense. 
 
 b. Let the verb more illustrate the facts concerning 
 other verbs : 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 singular. plural. 
 
 I move, we move, 
 
 thou movest, you move, 
 
 he moves (moveth), they move. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 singular. plural. 
 
 I moved, we moved, 
 
 thou movedst, you moved, 
 
 he moved, they moved. 
 
 The present tense has no persons in the " plural," and only 
 the second and the third persons in the singular; and it has 
 no singular number for the first person and no plural num- 
 ber for either of the persons. Even less is to be said for 
 the past tense. * 
 
 ist P. 
 2d P. 
 3d P. 
 
 1st P. 
 2d P. 
 3d P. 
 
TOPICS. 63 
 
 The Verb: Phrases. 
 
 93, a. II instead of he in he mores (above) we were 
 to use John, saying John moves, we should have a verb in 
 the present tense used with a singular noun. It will be 
 seen that the verb is put in the singular number (according 
 to the rule), and also in the third person, though John, like 
 all other nouns, has no person : 
 
 b. Whenever a verb in the present tense is used 
 with a noun that is singular in form (or in sense), the 
 third person, singular, of the verb must be used. 
 
 SO IH 12 VERB PHRASES. 
 
 (For Discussion of Verb Phrases see Helps, p. 117.) 
 
 94. When we say, 
 
 I shall write, 
 
 you will write, 
 
 I am going to write, 
 
 I am on the point of writing, 
 
 the phrases shall write, will write, am going to write, 
 am on the point of writing, are used to represent the 
 act of writing as to take place in future time. There 
 are no forms of English verbs thus representing an 
 act. If such forms existed they would probably.be 
 called future tenses. The above phrases, equiva- 
 lent to future tenses, may be called future-tense 
 phrases. 
 
64 topics. 
 
 The Verb : Phrases. 
 
 95, a. 
 
 Ihare wri tten, 
 
 thou hast written, 
 
 he has written. 
 
 Hare written, hast written, has written, represent the 
 act of writing as completed at the present time. These 
 phrases are combinations of the verb-forms hare, 
 hast, has, with the perfect participle of write, the verb 
 expressing the action. (See p. 68, b.) Any phrase 
 similarly composed is called a present-perfect- 
 tense PHRASE. 
 
 b. It is agreed that if we wish to represent an action or 
 state as finished or perfected at the present time, we shall 
 do it by combining have, or hast, or has, with the perfect 
 participle of the verb which expresses the act or state. 
 
 Some exceptions to this rule will be observed by the student, 
 and some exceptions to following rules also. 
 
 96. 
 
 We had gone when the message arrived, 
 thou hadst gone when the message arrived. 
 
 The phrases had gone and hadst gone represent an 
 action as completed or perfected at or before a specified 
 past time. These examples teach us that to repre- 
 sent an action or state as completed at or before some 
 specified time in the past, we may use a phrase com- 
 bining had or hadst with the perfect participle of the 
 verb expressing the action or state. Such phrases 
 may be called past-perfect-tense phrases. Some 
 call them pluperfect-tense phrases. 
 
TOPICS. 65 
 
 The Verb : Phrases. 
 
 97. 
 
 I shall hare seen him ere to-morrow, 
 they will have seen us ere to-morrow. 
 
 The phrases shall have seen and will have seen repre- 
 sent an action as to be completed at or before some 
 specified future time. They teach us that in order to 
 represent an action or state as to be completed at or 
 before some specified future time, we may use a 
 phrase made by combining the phrase will hare or 
 shall have with the perfect participle of the verb ex- 
 pressing the action or state. Such phrases are 
 
 FUTURE-PERFECT-TENSE PHRASES. 
 
 Remark. — Verbs, participles, and infinitives combine in 
 many ways to form verb-phrases of various kinds. (See p. 117.) 
 
 98. English verbs do not at present have either 
 moods or VOICES. 
 
66 topics. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 SOITIE KINDS. 
 
 99. Little need be said concerning adverbs. Adverbs 
 may be conjunctive or relative (see p. 26, c), and 
 compound. There are other kinds of adverbs, but less 
 important. 
 
 COMPARISON. 
 
 100, a. In 
 
 I read often, ;, 
 
 you read oftener, 
 
 he reads oftenest, 
 
 it is obvious that often, an adverb, is compared. So 
 with soon, compared soon, sooner, soonest. Hence, 
 
 Adverbs may be Compared. And, like adjec- 
 tives, they may combine with more and most to form 
 phrases of comparison. 
 
 b. Some adverbs are irregularly compared. (See p. 125.) 
 
 Remark. — The "rule" for the use of adverbs is purposely 
 omitted. Likewise the "rule" for prepositions, and that for 
 conjunctions. Some reasons for these omissions will be found 
 stated in the Helps, p. 113. 
 
TOPICS. 67 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 SOME KINDS 
 
 101; el. We have learned that some propositions are 
 independent, and that others are dependent or subor- 
 dinate (pp. 29, 30). Comparing independent propositions 
 with one another, they may be said to be of an equal order. 
 But a dependent proposition is in order or rank subordinate 
 to the principal proposition that it limits. 
 
 b. Conjunctions used to connect independent 
 propositions or propositions of an equal order or 
 rank, are called co-ordinating conjunctions. 
 Those connecting dependent clauses with principal 
 are called subordinating conjunctions. 
 
 102. The term conjunctive adverb was explained 
 in paragraph d, p. 26. The student is cautioned against 
 confounding conjunctions with conjunctive adverbs. He 
 will avoid the difficulty by carefully comparing and apply- 
 ing the two definitions. 
 
 103. The necessity of supplying understood parts of propo- ' 
 sitions is more frequent in explaining the uses of conjunctions, 
 perhaps, than in connection with any other kind of words ex- 
 cepting conjunctive adverbs. (See pp. 23 and 26.) 
 
68 topics. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 (Exercises, &c, in the Helps.) 
 
 104, a. When we say, 
 
 the liquid is fermenting, and 
 the liquid has fermented, 
 
 we use the form fermenting to represent the process 
 of fermentation as still going on or as not perfected 
 at the time indicated by the verb. The form 
 fermented is used to represent the process as completed 
 or to a certain degree perfected at the time indicated 
 by the verb. Fermenting and fermented are partici- 
 ples ; therefore, 
 
 b. Participles have Forms which represent 
 that which they express to be either unperfected or 
 perfected. Such a form as the first we will call an 
 imperfect participle, often called the present 
 participle, or participle in -ing. Such a form as 
 the second is called a perfect participle. 
 
 105. In describing a participle it is customary to 
 refer it to the verb from which it is derived. Thus 
 fermenting would be called the imperfect partici- 
 ple, and fermented the perfect participle of the 
 verb ferment, — the word of being used in a similar, 
 but not identical, way with of in 
 
 the son o f Zebedee. 
 
TOPICS. 69 
 
 The Participle. 
 
 106. It is obvious that the participle in -ing is formed 
 by adding ing to the simple form of the present tense of 
 the verb from which it is derived. 
 
 FORMATION OF PERFECT PARTICIPLES. 
 
 107. 
 
 I have recited, 
 
 I have laughed, 
 
 I have driven, 
 
 I have hidden. 
 
 The perfect participles in these examples are derived 
 respectively from recite, laugh, drive, and hide. They 
 are severally formed by adding ed or en to the simple 
 form of the present tense of the verb, and making the 
 regular changes prescribed by the rules of orthogra- 
 phy (p. 61). Perfect participles so formed are reg- 
 ular perfect participles. Others are irregular. 
 Been is a notable exception to the rule just illustrated. 
 
 108, a.. It is customary to speak of the simple form of 
 the present tense of a verb, the simple form of the past 
 tense, the imperfect participle, and the perfect participle, as 
 the principal parts of the verb. Thus 
 
 write, wrote, writing, written, 
 are called the principal parts of the verb write. 
 
 D. But a participle belongs to a different class of words from 
 verbs. Therefore a participle is not strictly a part of a verb. 
 
yo topics. 
 
 INFINITIVES. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS, 
 
 (Exercises, &c, in the Helps.) 
 
 109. 
 
 I see with the naked eye but you eannot 
 see without glasses. 
 
 It will appear that the infinitive see is in form exactly 
 like the root of the verb see. Such an infinitive is 
 called a root infinitive, or simply an infinitive. 
 
 no. 
 
 He is fond of walking. 
 
 The infinitive walking is formed from the verb walk 
 by adding ing to the simple root form of the verb. 
 Such an infinitive is called an infinitive in -ing. 
 
 HI, It will be seen, then, that infinitives, like partici- 
 ples, are of two kinds. 
 
 For remarks on the sign of the infinitive % see p. 96. 
 
HELPS. 
 
REMARK. 
 
 The preceding Topics contain only so much 
 of explanation and illustration as the editor 
 deems necessary to make them clear to the 
 average mind. The Helps contain hints to 
 the teacher concerning methods ; explana- 
 tions that it was not thought advisable to in- 
 troduce into the Topics; additional illustra- 
 tions for students who need further help ; and 
 examples and lists for reference. In accord- 
 ance with this plan, the Topics may be used 
 as a text-book; the Helps should be used 
 only as a book of reference. 
 
 Every paragraph in the Helps which re- 
 fers to a paragraph in the Topics is num- 
 bered with the number of the paragraph to 
 which it refers. Those marked IT do not 
 refer to other paragraphs. 
 
HELPS 
 
 GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 TO THE TEACHER. 
 
 T" I. It should be strongly impressed upon the 
 minds of all that to study grammar successfully we 
 must study the language itself. Neither the teacher 
 nor the text-book should serve as more than a guide. 
 We must cultivate the habit of observing the facts of 
 language as displayed in the utterances of approved 
 writers and correct speakers. We must acquire 
 facility in thinking, each for himself. 
 
 1F II. In accordance with the most approved theories, the 
 sensible teacher of botany encourages her pupils to go 
 abroad to seek for themselves specimens for study. A 
 similar course is equally incumbent upon the teacher of 
 grammar. And the text-book of grammar should contain 
 only the few illustrations necessary to guide the pupil to 
 the broader field. It should be understood, then, that the 
 illustrations inserted in the Helps are few because they are 
 intended to be only helps to something more, not final sub- 
 jects for the pupil's study. 
 
 4 [73] 
 
74 HELPS. 
 
 To the Teacher. 
 
 1 III. It must not be supposed that because a pupil has 
 mastered a grammar, he will therefore have become a cor- 
 rect speaker. We have said that a person becomes a cor- 
 rect speaker through habit. A knowledge of grammar 
 aids one in preserving the habit ; but the study of technical 
 grammar helps but very little in acquiring it. The habit is 
 to be acquired chiefly through imitation. 
 
 The teacher's part is to use language worthy of the 
 pupil's imitation, to lead the pupil to observe and avoid the 
 errors made by others, and to require him to correct his 
 own. Special exercises should be devoted to such instruc- 
 tion at proper times. But it is far more important that this 
 instruction should accompany that given in every subject, 
 and from the very first. Indeed, from the time the child 
 begins to talk, every occasion for using language of his 
 own should be made an occasion for forming the habit of 
 using correct language. 
 
 IF IV. Recitations and Study. Prepare yourself thor- 
 oughly for each recitation. It is not enough merely to 
 "know the lesson.'' Thorough preparation implies much 
 thought ; and implies readiness in asking questions to test 
 the pupil's knowledge. 
 
 Recitations in grammar are recitations on language ; 
 therefore keep the language clearly before the pupil. To do 
 this, the example recited upon should be written on the 
 board by the pupil himself, and the words to be studied 
 should be underlined. 
 
 At first, for one lesson assign only one topic. Require 
 the pupil to read the topic carefully, again and again, until 
 he understands it. 
 
HELPS. 75 
 
 To the Teacher, 
 
 Require him to furnish for his recitation new examples 
 illustrating the fact to be presented. Have him show by 
 reciting upon his new examples whether he understands 
 the principle they illustrate. Ask questions. 
 
 When the pupil shows himself familiar with the exam- 
 ples found in the book require him to select illustrations 
 from the writings of approved authors. 
 
 Then let him have much practice in composing original 
 examples. 
 
 He thus learns principles through applying them. 
 
 Do not hope that familiarity with a principle is to be 
 acquired through "learning by rote." The final test of a 
 pupil's acquaintance with a principle is not the glibness 
 with which he can repeat the words in the book, but the 
 readiness and the accuracy with which he can apply the 
 principle, as shown by his facility in selecting and origin- 
 ating and explaining illustrations. 
 
 The pupil should give reasons for every conclusion he 
 states. This is imperative. And his statement of rea- 
 sons ought invariably to precede the statement of his con- 
 I elusion. For example, he should not say, speaking of a 
 given word, it is a subject because it represents that of 
 which something is said. But he should say, it represents 
 that of which something is said, and therefore it is a sub- 
 ject. This practice of stating reasons in advance cannot 
 be too strongly insisted upon. 
 
 As a rule, the course we have indicated should be pur- 
 sued with each topic separately. In reviewing a chapter, be 
 careful not only to have the pupil understand each separate 
 
76 HELPS. 
 
 To the Teacher. 
 
 topic, but also to have him perceive the relation of the 
 several topics to one another and to the whole subject 
 treated in the chapter. After reviewing a chapter the pupil 
 should be able to state the plan of it. 
 
 On no account proceed to a new topic until the pupil 
 thoroughly understands the topics already studied. 
 
 Pupils who are not intelligent enough to pursue such a 
 course should not study grammar, no matter what their 
 age may be. 
 
HELPS. 77 
 
 ON THE 
 
 DEFINITION OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 Remark.— The study of the TOPICS should begin with 
 the first chapter. Indeed, the student should not attempt 
 any chapter until he has become familiar with the topics 
 which precede. 
 
 1-2. In studying language we may gain a knowledge of the 
 derivation and history of words and roots of words. Such 
 knowledge is Etymology. Or we may acquire a knowledge of 
 the formation of letters and the spelling of words, a knowledge 
 sometimes called Orthography. Or we may learn the pronunci- 
 ation of words and so know Orthoepy. We may, in studying 
 language, gain a knowledge of the right use of language, by 
 some called Rhetoric. Or we may study language with still 
 other objects in view, and thus acquire knowledge of other 
 branches of the subject. If we would make a scientific study 
 of any one branch of the science of language, we shall need to 
 guard against encroaching upon any other branch. One con- 
 venient way to avoid trespassing upon foreign province in study- 
 ing a given science is to have the ground we wish to cover 
 clearly marked out and its extent limited. In other words, we 
 should define our subject. It is with this object that we begin 
 our study by defining grammar. 
 
 1, e. In defining grammar the term relations is used in 
 the technical sense. The technical terms used in this book 
 should be interpreted technically. 
 
 2, g. This definition of grammar is not the definition 
 commonly given. Yet it will be found to be serviceable 
 
78 HELPS. 
 
 The Subject : Exercises. 
 
 and not inaccurate. According to this definition, the ob- 
 ject of studying grammar is to acquire a classified knowl- 
 edge of the relations of words and of the forms words take 
 in their various relations. This implies, of course, a 
 knowledge of correct expression, and, in fact, of many 
 other things. 
 
 THE SUBJECT. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 14.) 
 
 3 a. Many persons make the mistake of saying that the 
 subject, in grammar, is " that of which something is said." 
 That of which something is said is always an object of 
 thought, and must be distinguished from the word which 
 represents "an object of thought. 
 
 (The paragraphs marked \ do not refer to particular Topics.) 
 
 •f This distinction between words and the objects 
 words represent must be kept in mind, not only in 
 this connection, but throughout the study of gram- 
 mar. 
 
 3, c. The term complement is a convenient one to 
 apply to the word or words which, together with the bare 
 subject, make up the complete subject. The same word, 
 complement, is used to name corresponding parts of predi- 
 cates and attributes. 
 
HELPS. 79 
 
 The Subject : Exercises. 
 
 Exercises. 
 
 IT The editor wishes to repeat that in inserting a few ex- 
 amples under this topic and following topics, his object is to 
 furnish helps. But the pupil's study must not cease here. 
 With the experience acquired in studying the examples 
 found in the book, he will be able to look outside for fur- 
 ther illustrations. 
 
 Examples of the Subject. 
 
 (Exercises on succeeding pages contain many examples of the Subject.) 
 
 % At first point out both the complete and the bare 
 subject. But after a time it will be found more con- 
 venient, in using the term subject, to designate the 
 bare subject. 
 
 1. Ehns grew on the lawn. 
 
 2. Stately elms grew on the lawn. 
 
 3. Tall, stately ehns grew on the lawn. 
 
 4. Many tall, stately elms grew on the lawn. 
 
 5. Many tall, stately elms, graceful in outline and sym- 
 
 metrical inform, grew on the lawn. 
 
 6. Contributions to relieve the sufferers were sent in. 
 
 7. In yonder cot, the village maiden kept her school. 
 
 8. The wind rushes by, its howl is unheard. 
 
 9. Nevertheless, strange stories got abroad. 
 
 10. Early the next morning the battle was begun. 
 
 11. How wonderfully are we made ! 
 
 12. To relieve the poor is our duty. 
 
 13. How the soul is connected with the body is a mys- 
 
 tery. 
 
80 HELPS. 
 
 The Subject : Recitation. 
 
 Examples of a Recitation. 
 
 f This and following examples of recitations are given 
 merely by way of suggestion. There are many ways of 
 conducting recitations from which the teacher will, of 
 course, select those most suited to her class in the different 
 stages of the pupils' progress. The recitations should be 
 quite complete at first, but later, may be much abbreviated. 
 
 Extended Form. 
 
 The y e s s e 1 was flying before the wind. 
 
 I. Something is said by this expression concerning 
 a vessel : the word vessel represents the object vessel, 
 and therefore represents that of which something is 
 said. This word may be described, then, as a part 
 of the expression which represents that of which some- 
 thing is said. According to our definition, such a 
 part of an expression is the subject of the expression. 
 The word vessel is therefore a subject. 
 
 It is not of vessel, merely, that something is said, 
 but of the vessel. We have learned that we may call 
 the several words which together form a subject, a 
 complete subject. The vessel, therefore, is the complete 
 subject of the above expression, and vessel, the bare 
 subject. 
 
 It will be seen that the object of the recitation is to classify 
 a certain part of the expression. The italicized words illustrate 
 a way of applying a definition in such a case. 
 
HELPS. 8 1 
 
 The Subject : Predicate. 
 
 Abbreviated Form. 
 II. Of this expression (above), the word vessel is a 
 part which represents that of which something is 
 said. Such a part of an expression is the subject, 
 according to the definition : The subject of an ex- 
 pression is that part, &c, &c. Vessel, the bare sub- 
 ject, and the together form a complete subject. 
 
 the predicate:. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 15.) 
 
 Examples of the Predicate* 
 
 <The Exercises on the Subject contain examples of the Predicate.) 
 
 1. Time flies. 
 
 2. Time is flying, 
 
 3. Time is swiftly flying. 
 
 4. Time never ceased to fly. 
 
 5. Flowers are peeping out everywhere. 
 
 6. In the evening they went to the concert together, 
 
 7. The duty of government is to protect persons and 
 
 property. 
 
 8. You have heard if I fought bravely. 
 
 9. There the wicked cease from troubling. 
 
 10. They made him laugh. 
 
 1 1 . His misfortune was to be born rich. 
 
 12. Having been a benefactor to his race, this nobly 
 
 generous man died. 
 
 13. What is your reason for doing that? 
 
 14. When does he propose to leave town ? 
 
 15. Boys, come in out of the rain. 
 
 4* 
 
82 HELPS. 
 
 Attribute: Copula. 
 
 ATTRIBUTE : COPULA. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 16.) 
 
 5, b. When the attribute is a noun, as in 
 that metal is gold, 
 
 it may not at first appear to indicate either a condi- 
 tion or a quality. However, a noun names a set of 
 qualities or conditions, and so may fairly become an 
 attribute. 
 
 Examples . 
 
 1. The work is finished. 
 
 2. His efforts were well rewarded. 
 
 3. To be polite is to be kind in a courteous manner, 
 
 4. He had grown to be quite eloquent. 
 
 5. Man is mortal. 
 
 6. The plant will become stunted. 
 
 7. The sun seems to be rising. 
 
 8. The moon will soon have been obscured one hour. 
 
 9. The air grows damp and feels chilly. 
 
 10. He is every inch a man. 
 
 11. Sweel are the uses of adversity. 
 
 12. Your spirits are too bold for your years. 
 
 13. Your brother is but young and tender. 
 
 14. My master is a man of churlish disposition. 
 
 1 5. The merchant might have become rich. 
 
HELPS. * 83 
 
 Proposition : Exercise. 
 
 Example of a Recitation. 
 The patient will soon have become strong. 
 
 a. Of this expression, the word patient is the sub- 
 ject : will soon haye .become strong is the predicate. 
 The word strong is a part of the predicate, and indi- 
 cates a condition of that represented by the subject. 
 It is therefore an attribute, according to the defini- 
 tion : The attribute of an expression is that part of 
 the predicate which is used to indicate a condition or 
 a quality of that represented by the subject. 
 
 b. The attribute of the expression is connected 
 with the subject by will soon have become, which is a 
 part of the predicate; therefore, will soon haye become 
 
 is a copula, according to the definition : The copula 
 of an expression is that part of the predicate which 
 is used to connect the subject and the attribute. 
 
 The words composing the copula are so closely combined 
 that it is hardly possible to separate them, and say of any 
 one, that it can be used alone as the copula of the expres- 
 sion. So that the distinction of complete and bare predi- 
 cate is not to be made. 
 
 THE PROPOSITION. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 17.) 
 
 Exercise on the Proposition. 
 
 IT I. Point out the subjects, predicates, attributes, copulas, 
 and propositions. Bear in mind that a proposition must 
 
84 HELPS. 
 
 Proposition : Exercise. 
 
 combine both a subject and a predicate. Reasons before 
 conclusions. 
 
 " A boy's first night at school is usually not a time 
 of mirth. The heart of the solitary little lad at 
 Corston sank within him. A melancholy hung about 
 the decayed mansion. It had once known better 
 days. The broken gateways, the summer-houses 
 fallen in ruins, the grass-grown court, the bleakness 
 of the schoolroom, depressed the spirits. Southey's 
 pillow was wet with tears before he fell asleep. The 
 master of the school was at one with his surround- 
 ings ; he, too, was a piece of worthy old humanity now 
 decayed; he, too, was falling in untimely ruins. The 
 work of the school fell into the hands of his son, 
 Charley Flower. Both father and son knew the mys- 
 tery of the flamboyant penmanship, but Southey's 
 handwriting had not yet advanced to the decorative 
 style. His spelling he could look back upon with 
 pride." 
 
 IF II. It will be seen that the division of the proposition 
 into Subject, Predicate, &c, is based upon the uses of 
 those parts. 
 
HELPS. 85 
 
 THE NOUN. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 19.) 
 
 10. The exercises given under the topics Subject, Predicate, 
 and Proposition, contain many examples of the NOUN. 
 
 IF I. In reciting, names are not to be given yet to the 
 kinds of nouns nor to the kinds of words belonging to 
 other classes. We are now making general divisions 
 only. Reasons before conclusions. 
 
 T II. By way of additional practice in identifying 
 nouns the pupil may select any correctly written arti- 
 cle and find all the nouns occurring in it, applying 
 the definition to each one. He should continue this 
 practice until he is able to identify nouns off-hand. 
 It is of great importance that in every instance he 
 should verify his choice. 
 
 Example of a Hecitation* 
 
 1 ' Beneath a bony buttonwood, 
 
 The mill's red door lets forth the din; 
 The whitened miller, dust imbued, 
 Flits past the square of dark within." 
 
 IT III. First divide the propositions into subject and 
 predicate ; do this always. Then : 
 
 Buttonwood is a word which names an object of thought 
 and which may be used as the subject of a proposition. It 
 is therefore a noun, according to the definition : A noun is 
 a word, &c., &c. 
 
86 HELPS. 
 
 The Pronoun : Recitation. 
 
 When the pupil says a certain word may be used as subject, if 
 it does not happen to be so used, as in the case of buttonwood, 
 above, he may compose a proposition in which the noun shall be 
 used as subject. In such cases, moreover, the pupil should 
 state, if possible, what is the relation of the word. In this in- 
 stance he would continue, speaking of buttonwood : 
 
 It is not used either as subject or as attribute. 
 But if the sentence read, 
 
 that bony tree is a buttonwood, 
 
 he would say : 
 
 It, buttonwood, is here used as the attribute of a proposi- 
 tion. 
 
 And so on with milVs, door, din, miller, squat e, dark. 
 
 1 IV. On no account should the pupil proceed to the 
 next class of words until he is skilled in identifying words 
 of the given class : this, if it requires a week, a fortnight, 
 or a month. 
 
 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 19.) 
 
 11. The practice work on pronouns should be similar to 
 that on nouns. It should consist in identifying pronouns 
 and in applying the definition, and also in determining the 
 relation in which any given pronoun is used ; but not yet in 
 distinguishing kinds of pronouns. 
 
 J&cample of a Jtecitation. 
 
 He lifted up his eyes. 
 
 He is a word, not a noun, which is used instead of 
 a noun. It is therefore a pronoun, according to the 
 
HELPS. 87 
 
 The Pronoun : Exercise. 
 
 definition : A pronoun is a word, &c, &c. It is not 
 a noun since it does not name an object of thought. 
 It is used instead of the noun — (the name of the per- 
 son referred to). It is the subject of the proposition 
 of which lifted up liis eyes is predicate. 
 
 It will be observed that these statements are all suggested by 
 the definition of a pronoun. 
 
 IF I. On no account should the student proceed to the 
 next class of words until he is skilled in identifying words 
 of the given class, and of classes previously studied. 
 
 Exercise on the Pronoun. 
 
 Point out both the nouns and the pronouns. The pupil 
 may continue giving full reasons for his selections of words : 
 this, until he is perfectly familiar with the classes of words. 
 No mention (yet) of kinds of nouns or pronouns. 
 
 Mother said she would propose a plan. Her mind 
 had long been made up to take the children on their 
 anticipated trip. They had begged to be taken for a 
 sail up the Hudson. So, after consulting father, 
 mother laid the plan before the children themselves 
 and suggested the following Wednesday for a holiday 
 on the river. The girls danced with delight, and 
 each of the boys thought himself the happiest body 
 in the world. Father said he would arrange his busi- 
 ness so that it should take care of itself for one day, 
 come whatever would. This almost made us cry for 
 joy, because we very seldom have mother and father 
 together to share the pleasure of our merry holidays. 
 I don't know which of the children was most eager. 
 
88 HELPS. 
 
 The Adjective : Limiting words. 
 
 Martha was really quite beside herself. Even Jip 
 knew something unusual was going on, for he was 
 jealous and seemed to say, " You do not take much 
 notice of me." 
 
 On the appointed morning we were all awake by 
 the time the sun showed his face. Mother had said, 
 " Rest yourselves well, and do not get up until seven." 
 But who could lie abed on such a morning ! 
 
 LIMITING WORDS. 
 
 (See Topics, pp. 19, 20,) 
 
 12, a. Words limit one another in many ways. 
 Much practice should be had in applying the defini- 
 tion of " to limit or restrict " before going on with 
 adjectives. 
 
 Exercise. 
 
 " Milton was, like Dante, a statesman and a lover ; and, 
 like Dante, he had been unfortunate in ambition and in 
 love. He had survived his health and his sight, the com* 
 forts of his home, and the prosperity of his party. 
 
 Only several of the limiting words are italicized. The pupil 
 may, in each case, point out the word limited. Of his party 
 illustrates the fact that several words may together limit another 
 word. 
 
 Example of a Recitation. 
 
 When we say, simply, he had survived, we do not 
 make a particularly definite application of survived. 
 
HELPS. 89 
 
 The Adjective : Exercise. 
 
 But by connecting comforts with survived, a survival 
 from some definite loss is indicated, and we are led to 
 ► apply the term survived more definitely. Comforts, 
 then, may be described as a word which is so used 
 with another word as to lead us to make a more 
 definite application of that word. It is therefore a 
 limiting word, according to the definition : A word 
 limits or restricts another word when it is so used, 
 &c, &c. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 20.) 
 
 12, d. Bear in mind that an adjective 
 
 (1) is not a noun; 
 
 (2) is not a pronoun ; 
 
 (3) and may be placed directly before a noun to 
 
 limit it. 
 
 T In reciting, the reasons should be stated why a 
 given adjective is neither a noun nor a pronoun. 
 
 If in a given instance it happens that the adjective is not 
 placed directly before a noun, but follows it, or is used as 
 attribute or to limit a noun understood, the fact should be 
 stated. 
 
 Exercise. 
 
 From my study I see in the lamplight, 
 
 Descending the broad hall stair 
 Grave Alice, and laughing Allegra, 
 
 And Edith with golden hair. 
 
90 HELPS. 
 
 The Verb; Hints. 
 
 A whisper and then a silence : 
 Yet I know by their merry eyes, 
 
 They are plotting and planning together 
 To take me by surprise. 
 
 A sudden rush from the stairway, 
 A sudden raid from the hall ! 
 
 By three doors left unguarded, 
 They enter my castle wall ! 
 
 They climb up into my turret, 
 
 O'er the arms and back of my chair; 
 
 If I try to escape they surround me ; 
 They seem to be everywhere. 
 
 — Longfellow. 
 
 THE VERB, 
 
 (See Topics, p. 21.) 
 
 13, a-b. On no account should the next topic be 
 considered until the pupil is ready in distinguishing 
 verbs. It need hardly be suggested that the exercises 
 should be continued on the classes of words already 
 studied. 
 
 IT At present the work should still consist mainly in learn- 
 ing to identify verbs by applying the definitions. In study- 
 ing verbs, a course may be pursued similar to that suggested 
 for the classes previously studied. The exercises under * 
 preceding topics contain many examples of verbs, with and 
 without objects. Keep clearly in mind the definition of the 
 class of words to be studied. And do not confound verb 
 phrases with verbs. 
 
HELPS. 91 
 
 The Adverb : Examples. 
 
 THE ADVERB. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 23.) 
 
 14, C. The use of the adverb almost in so many ways illus- 
 trates the principle that the class-membership of a word is not 
 determined by means of the number of its possible relations, but 
 by the one or the several characteristic relations in which the 
 word may be used. Adverbs are pre-eminently limiting words, 
 and as such may limit almost all the kinds of words in various 
 ways, so that it would be fatal to a definition of an adverb to 
 include a statement of all those uses, or of any more of them 
 than are really distinguishing uses. A definition is a limitation. 
 A description may be limited or unlimited according to the pur- 
 pose of the describer. Both are useful in study. But defini- 
 tions and descriptions must not be made to do exchange duty. 
 
 1" In those cases in which a given adverb is not used to 
 limit either an adjective or a verb, the pupil should com- 
 pose expressions containing the adverb used in one of those 
 ways. 
 
 Examples of the Adverb, 
 
 (For Examples of Conjunctive Adverbs, see p. 93.) 
 
 i. The horse grew quite thin. 
 
 2. The snowflakes fell slowly to the ground. 
 
 3. The king scowled ominously. 
 
 4. The rain was falling fast. 
 
 5. It is natural to the deer to move gracefully. 
 
 6. He leaped far beyond the mark. 
 
92 HELPS. 
 
 The Preposition: Conjunction. 
 
 THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 25.) 
 
 15. In his practice exercises the pupil now has six kinds 
 of words to talk about. And in his descriptions he will, 
 when occasion requires, now have to mention, besides 
 other relations, the relation of an object of a verb and that 
 of an object of a preposition. 
 
 1 The illustrations, under preceding topics, contain numer- 
 ous examples of the preposition and the object of a preposi- 
 tion. Keep the definition in mind: prepositions connect 
 -words. 
 
 THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 26.) 
 
 16, d. The pupil will discover that it is often necessary to 
 supply understood parts when explaining the uses of con- 
 junctions. 
 
 ^[ In distinguishing between conjunctions and prepositions, and 
 between conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs, it should be kept 
 in mind that the class-membership of words is determined by 
 their relations to the proposition. (See p. 27, par. 19.) 
 
 Examples of the Conjunction. 
 
 1. The sun shone into my room and I was waked by his 
 
 beams. 
 
 2. The winds blew but the house stood firm. 
 
 3. You may come to us or we will go to you. 
 
 4. The vase fell from the mantel yet was not broken. 
 
HELPS. 93 
 
 The Participle : Examples* 
 
 Examples of the Conjunctive Adverb. 
 
 (See also under the Topic Propositions, p. 103.) 
 
 1. They cannot go while I am away. 
 
 2. Never two ladies loved as they do. 
 
 3. The stag at eve had drunk his fill 
 
 Where danced the moon on Monan's rill. 
 
 4. So still he sate as those who wait 
 
 Till judgment speake the doom of fate. 
 
 5. Do you love him because I do ? 
 
 6. He died a patriot's death after he had fought 
 
 bravely for his country. 
 
 THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 27.) 
 
 17. Occasionally pupils find it difficult, in the case of 
 some particular word, to determine whether it is a participle 
 or an adjective. In such cases, carefully recall the two defi- 
 nitions. If a word, though like a participle in other re- 
 spects, may, without change of meaning or sacrifice of sense \ 
 be actually placed, and used, before the noun or pronoun 
 limited, it is included under the definition of an adjective,, 
 and is an adjective. While a word that is really an adjective 
 cannot reasonably be included under the definition of a par- 
 ticiple ; because the definition of a participle would have a 
 word merely " partake of the nature of an adjective.'' (See 
 recitation, p. 94.) 
 
94 HELPS. 
 
 The Participle : Examples. 
 
 Examples of the Participle. 
 
 i . The windows rattling in their frames, 
 The ocean roaring on the beach, 
 The gusty blast, the bickering flames, 
 All mingled vaguely in our speech. 
 
 2. Waste not a sigh on fortune changed. 
 
 3. All nature's children feel the matin spring 
 
 Of life reviving with reviving day. 
 
 4. There is no flock however watched and tended, 
 
 But one dead lamb is there. 
 
 5. Two good friends had Hiawatha, 
 Singled out from all the others, 
 Bound to him in closest union. 
 
 6. There was a stir and a sound in the slumbering 
 
 village of Plymouth ; 
 Clanking and clicking of arms, and the order 
 
 imperative, " Forward ! " 
 Given in tone suppressed. 
 
 Example of a Recitation. 
 They set him free without his ransom paid. 
 
 Paid is a word derived from a verb and partaking of 
 the nature of a verb and of an adjective. It is there- 
 fore a participle, according to the definition: A par- 
 ticiple is a word, &c, &c. It is derived from the 
 verb pay. It is like a verb, because it may be limited 
 adverbially in the way in which a verb is limited; for 
 instance, we might say, 
 
 without his ransom paid in full, 
 
HELPS. 95 
 
 The Infinitive. 
 
 in which case in full limits paid adverbially. Paid 
 partakes of the nature of an adjective in limiting a 
 noun, ransom, a relation characteristic of adjectives. 
 
 1 This example illustrates the difference between a par- 
 ticiple and an adjective. As the expression reads, we are 
 led to understand that a person was given his liberty without 
 the paying of a ransom. But, if the expression should read,. 
 
 he was set free without his paid ransom, 
 
 we might understand that the person paid a ransom, and 
 that it was not returned when he was set free ; or that he 
 had had in his possession a paid ransom, which, however, 
 was taken away from him, and he was sent away without it. 
 We say, then, that paid in the original expression is a 
 participle ; and that it is not an adjective, because it can- 
 not, without change of meaning, be placed before the noun 
 to limit it. 
 
 THE INFINITIVE. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 27.) 
 
 18, a. In this description the infinitive is shown to 
 be like a noun in being used as the object of a prepo- 
 sition. Nouns, however, are used in other common 
 relations besides that of object of a preposition ; for 
 example, as subject, as object of a participle, as 
 object of a verb. So with infinitives : they may be 
 used in all these relations, and, therefore, in all these 
 respects may partake of the nature of a noun. 
 
 IF I. Let the student carefully compare the definition of 
 an infinitive with that of a participle, and carefully consider 
 
96 HELPS. 
 
 The Infinitive. 
 
 the various ways in which nouns and adjectives may be 
 used. He will then be able to distinguish readily between 
 infinitives and participles, and to recognize readily the simi- 
 larity of infinitives to nouns, and of participles to adjec- 
 tives. 
 
 IT II. The following propositions all contain infinitives 
 used as the object of a verb. The student should compose 
 propositions containing infinitives used in the other rela- 
 tions mentioned. 
 
 I will go (meaning practically, I will the act 
 of going), 
 
 do wait (do the act of waiting), 
 
 begin writing, 
 
 let mo. jump, 
 
 make him laugh, 
 
 compel him to laugh, 
 
 they intend starting to-morrow, 
 
 they intend to start, 
 
 he prefers riding, 
 
 he chooses to ride, 
 
 she can sew, 
 
 you should stop. 
 
 % III. Some of these examples illustrate still 
 another important fact. The H word " to, where it oc- 
 curs in these expressions, cannot be assigned any 
 meaning. It has not any meaning. It is therefore 
 not a word at all. It is a mere sign which custom re- 
 quires us to employ with some infinitives and to omit 
 with others, and permits us to employ or omit as we 
 please with still others. 
 
 IT IV. Nevertheless to when it is a word may have an 
 infinitive for an object, as in 
 
HELPS. 97 
 
 The Infinitive : Examples. 
 
 I waited to s e e you. 
 
 Here to actually has a meaning, being equivalent to in 
 order to, and it is a word. It is a preposition. See is its 
 object, and is an infinitive. 
 
 Examples of the Infinitive* 
 
 1. He chose to sit there. 
 
 2. Let me see it. 
 
 3. They must do their duty. 
 
 4. How can theyyfy without wings ? 
 
 5. What would you think of me ? 
 
 6. I enjoy inhaling the crisp air. 
 
 7. The king seems desirous of advancing the interests of his 
 
 country. 
 
 8. She is determined to try the remedy. 
 
 9. They were endeavoring to induce him to arrange a pro- 
 
 gram. 
 
 10. The rattling of musketry is said to cause horses to grow 
 
 restive. 
 
 11. To be independent is with many persons to be unscrupu- 
 
 lous. 
 
 12. Now I do frown on thee with all my heart. 
 
 13. I have more cause to hate him than to love him. 
 
 14. Perchance the maiden smiled to see 
 Yon parting lingerer wave adieu, 
 And stop and turn to wave anew. 
 
 15. Let me remember thee. 
 
 16. I am not taught to make anything. 
 
 17. I did find him still mine enemy. 
 
 18. Let us go thank him and encourage him. 
 
 19. What else may hap to time I will commit. 
 
 20. It shall become thee well to act my woes. 
 
 5 
 
98 HELPS. 
 
 The Infinitive: Recitation. 
 
 Example of a Recitation. 
 We are going to try reading him to sleep* 
 Reading is a word derived from a verb and partaking 
 of the nature of a verb and of a noun. It is there- 
 fore an infinitive, according to the definition : An in- 
 finitive is a word, &c, &c. It is derived from the 
 verb read. It partakes of the nature of a verb in 
 taking an object, him. It is the object of an infinitive 
 (try), and in that respect is like a noun, nouns being 
 often used as object. 
 
 Remark. — The pupil must persevere in applying 
 the definitions and the principles, each one separately, 
 again and again. But the object must not be to be- 
 come glib in repeating definitions and statements of 
 principles. Our aim should be to know the facts 
 Stated in definitions and to know principles ; in short, 
 to know English grammar. 
 
HELPS. 99 
 
 PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 (See Topics, pp. 29-35.) 
 
 23. The process of dividing a proposition into its 
 parts is called analysis. An analysis should gener- 
 ally be accompanied with descriptions of the various 
 parts. The analysis of a proposition may follow 
 some such order as the following : 
 
 1. Declarative? 2. Simple? 
 
 Interrogative? Compound ? 
 
 Imperative? Complex? 
 
 3. If simple : 
 
 Subject ? Predicate ? Phrases ? 
 
 4. If compound: 
 
 Clauses ? Why called independent ? 
 Analyze the clauses : 
 
 Subject ? Predicate ? Phrases ? 
 
 5. If complex : 
 
 Clauses : Why called principal and subordinate ? 
 Analyze the clauses : 
 
 Subject? Predicate? Phrases? 
 
 1 If a clause is used substantively, adjectively, or ad- 
 verbially, the fact should be mentioned. Reasons before 
 conclusions. 
 
IOO HELPS. 
 
 Propositions : Recitation. 
 
 Example of a Recitation* 
 
 This recitation is not complete. It is intended to show espe- 
 cially a way of distinguishing a proposition. 
 
 You now perceive what the trouble is. 
 
 This is a declarative sentence. It contains two proposi- 
 tions, 
 
 you now perceive, and 
 what the trouble is. 
 The latter is used to limit the former by serving as object to 
 the verb of the former. The former, then, is a principal 
 proposition ; the latter, a subordinate ; and the whole ex- 
 pression is a complex proposition, the subject of which is 
 you, and the complete predicate, now perceive what the 
 trouble is. 
 
 The subject of the subordinate proposition is trouble % 
 the predicate (complete), is what. 
 
 We have said that what the trouble is is the object of a 
 verb : in that respect it is like a noun, and is therefore a 
 substantive clause, i 
 
 Examples of the Direct and the Indirect Object. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 32, a.) 
 
 1. We paid the men their wages. 
 
 2. Let me see. 
 
 3. Let us forgive them their debts. 
 
 4. I'll give thy harp heroic theme. 
 
 5. Experience has taught men many severe lessons. 
 
 6. Her mother was engaged that moment in teaching her 
 
 music. 
 
 7. I was asking the gentleman his name. 
 
HELPS. IOI 
 
 Propositions : Exercise. 
 
 Examples of Propositions ^Clauses, and Phrases. 
 
 i . Delays are dangerous. 
 
 2. The gentle rain refreshes the thirsty flowers. 
 
 3. A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. 
 
 4. These are suggestions of a mind at ease. 
 
 5. My master is of churlish disposition. 
 
 6. A great cause of the night is lack of the sun. 
 
 7. It was the deep midnoon. 
 
 8. I thank thee for thy love to me. 
 
 9. Spinning tops is a favorite amusement with boys. 
 
 10. To preach is not to practice. 
 
 1 1 . Havoc and spoil and ruin are my gain. 
 
 12. His father left him well off. 
 
 13. From peak to peak the rattling crags among 
 Leaps the live thunder. 
 
 14. Now I do frown on thee with all my heart. 
 
 1.5. He is said to have been a very ingenious youth. 
 
 16. Men have died from time to time. 
 
 17. They danced themselves out of breath. 
 
 18. I have enough money for the present. 
 
 19. Disgusted by his discreditable acts, nearly all the man's 
 
 friends deserted him. 
 -20. You have done very well on the whole. 
 21. Having collected his army, Hannibal began his march. 
 ,22. Wilt take thy chance with me ? 
 23. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 
 
 1. Now came still evening in, and twilight gray 
 Had in her silver livery all things clad. 
 
 2. Revenge is an act of passion ; vengeance, of justice. 
 
 3. Puss is still living and has just completed his ninth year. 
 
102 HELPS. 
 
 Propositions: Exercise. 
 
 4. O'er rough and smooth she trips along and never looks 
 
 behind. 
 
 5. The day is cold and dark and dreary ; 
 It rains and the wind is never weary. 
 
 6. The sea hath its pearls, the heaven hath its stars, but 
 
 my heart hath its love. 
 
 7. The familiar seems trivial, and only the distant and 
 
 unknown completely fill and satisfy the mind. 
 
 8. Either you or he must go. 
 
 9. You have the power to command, nevertheless I will 
 
 not come. 
 10. In the process of ordinary distillation, the liquid to be 
 distilled is heated and converted into vapor in one 
 vessel, and chilled and re-converted into liquor in 
 another. 
 
 1. Though the deep between us rolls, 
 Friendship shall unite our souls. 
 
 2. His praise is lost who waits till all commend. 
 
 3. There have been holy men who hid themselves 
 Deep in the woody wilderness, and gave 
 Their lives to thought and prayer. 
 
 4. Come, sir, here's the place. 
 
 5. My heart leaps up when I behold 
 A rainbow in the sky. 
 
 6. The bubbling brook doth leap when I come by, 
 Because my feet find measure with its call. 
 
 7. I'm a careless potato and care not a pin 
 How into existence I came. 
 
 8. As night to stars, woe lustre gives to man. 
 
 9. Whate'er the motive, pleasure is the mark. 
 
 10. Up guards ! and at them ! 
 
 11. I ask you: are you innocent or guilty? 
 
HELPS. 103 
 
 General Exercises. 
 
 12. If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 
 
 13. The good that men do lives after them. 
 
 14. All that I dread is leaving you behind. 
 
 15. Those that think must govern those that toil. 
 
 16. They never fail who die in a just cause. 
 
 17. He did what was required of him. 
 
 18. Thou see'st I am calm. 
 
 19. When icicles hang' by the wall, 
 
 And Dick the shepherd blows his nail, 
 And Tom bears logs into the hall, 
 
 And milk comes frozen home in pail ; 
 When blood is nipp'd, and ways be foul, 
 Then nightly sings the staring owl, 
 To-who. 
 
 Exercises in Distinguishing Propositions^ 
 Clauses, Phrases, and Words. 
 
 I. 
 Once, when the weather was very dry, a thirsty 
 crow searched everywhere for water, but she could 
 not find a drop. While she was croaking for sorrow, 
 she spied a jug. Down she flew at once, and eagerly 
 pushed in her bill ; but it was of no use. There was 
 plenty of water in the jug, but she could not reach it, 
 because the neck of the vessel was too narrow. After 
 she had tried in vain for half an hour to reach the 
 water, she next attempted to tip the jug over ; but it 
 was too heavy for her, and she could not stir it. Just 
 when she was on the point of giving up in despair, a 
 
104 HELPS. 
 
 General Exercises. 
 
 new thought struck her. "If," said she, "I drop 
 some stones into the jug, the water will rise higher, 
 and in time it will rise up to my bill." Immediately, 
 though she was nearly fainting with thirst, she brave- 
 ly set to work. As each stone fell, the water rose ; 
 and before half an hour had passed, the clever crow 
 had quite quenched her thirst. 
 
 II. 
 
 The poetry of Milton differs from that of Dante, as 
 the hieroglyphics of Egypt differed from the picture- 
 writing of Mexico. The images which Dante em- 
 ploys speak for themselves: — they stand simply for 
 what they are. Those of Milton have a signification 
 which is often discernible only to the initiated. Their 
 value depends less on what they directly represent, 
 than on what they remotely suggest. However 
 strange, however grotesque, may be the appearance 
 which Dante undertakes to describe, he never shrinks 
 from describing it. He gives us the shape, the color, 
 the sound, the smell, the taste; he counts the num- 
 bers; he measures the size. His similes are the illus- 
 trations of a traveller. Unlike those of other poets, 
 and especially of Milton, they are introduced in a 
 plain, business-like manner; not for the sake of any 
 beauty in the objects from which they are drawn, not 
 for the sake of any ornament which they may impart 
 to the poem, but simply in order to make the mean- 
 ing of the writer as clear to the reader as it is to 
 himself. 
 
HELPS. I05 
 
 THE CLASSES SEPARATELY STUDIED. 
 
 NOUNS: PROPERTIES. 
 
 (See Topics, pp. 36-48.) 
 
 Remark. — Up to this point, our work in connection with 
 nouns, and with the other classes, has consisted merely in iden- 
 tifying words as members of classes. Now, the classes of words 
 are to be studied separately, and we are to learn of the kinds 
 and properties of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, &c, and of the 
 rules governing the use of the various forms of words. 
 
 37. As each new fact is learned concerning nouns or any 
 other class of words, the pupil in reciting should enlarge 
 his descriptions accordingly. In describing a noun, he will 
 now have to mention, besides other things, the number of 
 the noun. 
 
 41-47. One can best learn by observation concerning the 
 formation of plurals. Much information on the subject of 
 irregular plurals and kindred subjects is to be obtained in 
 the dictionaries, and in the encyclopedias of grammar. As 
 occasions present, reviews upon irregular forms will be 
 found practicable. (See the Lists, pp. 1 21-31.) 
 
 48. For exercises in genders and gender equivalents, the 
 lists at the end of the book may be used. 
 
 ON THE DEFINITION OF CASES. 
 
 Every word when used at all in a proposition, is used in some re- 
 lation. So with every form of any word. Hence there arises the 
 danger of misapplying the definition of cases, and assuming that 
 5* 
 
I06; HELPS. 
 
 Nouns : Parsing. 
 
 every word and every form of a word is a case. This danger 
 may be easily avoided by keeping in mind the distinction be- 
 tween using a word in a certain relation, and using a form on 
 account of a certain relation. Thus, in 
 
 the hero saved the heroine s life, 
 the nominative hero and the possessive heroine's are employed on 
 account of the relation in which they are used respectively. It 
 would be obviously incorrect to use the possessive form of hero 
 in the relation in which the word hero is used, and the nomina- 
 tive heroine for the relation of heroine's, saying, 
 the hero's saved the heroine life. 
 
 But it would not be grammatically incorrect to interchange 
 hero and heroine as genders, saying, 
 
 the heroine saved the hero's life ; 
 for a gender indicates a sex as a mere fact, and genders are not 
 used on account 0/" grammatical relations. 
 
 In like manner, comparing cases with numbers, tenses, and 
 other forms, it may be shown that only cases are used on account 
 of certain grammatical relations. 
 
 on the: parsing of words. 
 
 If h Analysis, we have seen (p. 99), consists in 
 dividing a proposition into its parts and describing 
 those parts as such. But we may describe words as 
 members of classes. To describe a word in this way 
 is to parse it. 
 
 IF II. It is presumed that the pupil has had practice in 
 applying each new principle at the time it was taught. So 
 that in giving a full description of a noun he will have a 
 number of facts to observe and mention. 
 
HELPS. I07 
 
 Nouns : Parsing. 
 
 Tf III. The following list and example of parsing are given 
 t>y way of suggestion merely. It will be observed that the first 
 few lines repeat in substance a recitation given under the defini- 
 tion of a noun. The repetition is made simply for the sake of 
 completeness. 
 
 On the Parsing of Nouns. 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 1. Distinguishing qualities. 
 
 2. Definition. 
 
 3. Number. 
 
 4. Gender. 
 
 5. The noun's relation : 
 
 6. Case. 
 
 7. Rule for construction. 
 
 8. Remarks. 
 
 Example : 
 
 There lives more faith in honest doubt, 
 Believe me, than in half the creeds. 
 
 First, more or less extended analysis. Then: 
 
 Creeds is a word which names an object of thought 
 and which may be used as the subject of a proposi- 
 tion. It is therefore a noun, according to the defini- 
 tion : A noun is a word which names an object of 
 thought and which may be used as the subject of a 
 proposition. It is a plural number and has no gen- 
 der. It is the object of the preposition of under- 
 stood, and is in the nominative case, according to the 
 rule : A noun used as the object of a preposition 
 must be in the nominative case. 
 
108 HELPS. 
 
 Pronouns: Parsing. 
 
 (Remark.) We may consider the words half the creeds 
 
 intimately enough connected to compose a phrase, and to 
 be as such the object of the preposition in. 
 
 IF IV. The pupil, for a time, should state his reasons for 
 saying a word is of one gender or another, or of a certain 
 number or case. He should never make a statement he 
 does not understand and cannot verify. 
 
 f V. When the pupil has become familiar with the 
 principles taught, it will not be necessary for him to make 
 the parsing so complete. In fact, he should then abbrevi- 
 ate, so that his time and attention may be more fully occu- 
 pied with new subjects. 
 
 The following is an abbreviated form of the foregoing exam- 
 ple of parsing : 
 
 Creeds is a noun of the plural number, in the 
 nominative case, and is the object of a preposition. 
 With half and the it forms a phrase, half the creeds, 
 which is object of the preposition in. 
 
 pronouns: properties. 
 
 (See Topics, pp. 50-55.) 
 
 66, C. Because we say that pronouns have persons, num- 
 bers, genders, and cases, it must not be inferred that every 
 pronoun has all of these properties. A little thought will 
 lead to the opposite conclusion. The term pronouns is 
 applied to the class pronouns. (See Topics, par. 38.) 
 
HELPS. IO9 
 
 Pronouns : Parsing. 
 
 On the Parsing of Pronouns. 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 1. Distinguishing qualities. 
 
 2. Definition. 
 
 3. Person. 4. Number. 5. Gender. 
 
 6. The pronoun's relation: 
 
 7. Case. 8. Rule for construction. 
 
 9. Antecedent. 10. Rule for agreement. 
 11. Remarks. 
 
 Example : 
 
 Huntsman, rest ! thy chase is done. 
 
 First, more or less complete analysis. Then : 
 
 Thy is a word, not a noun, used instead of a noun. 
 It is therefore a pronoun, according to the definition: 
 A pronoun is a word, &c, &c. It is of the second 
 person, singular number ; it has no gender. It is 
 used to denote possession (in a certain sense) and is 
 in the possessive case, according to the rule : A pro- 
 noun used to limit by denoting possession, &c, &c. 
 
 The antecedent of thy is huntsman, with which it 
 agrees in number. Rule : A pronoun must agree 
 with its antecedent, &c, &c. 
 
 (Remarks.) Thy here limits the noun chase. Hunts- 
 man has gender, but thy has not ; hence these words can 
 not agree in gender. Thy is a possessive pronoun for 
 which thine is sometimes used as an equivalent. 
 
no HELPS. 
 
 Adjectives : Parsing. 
 
 ADJECTIVES: PARSING. 
 
 (See Topics, pp. 56-58.) 
 
 81. It is not proper in speaking of the forms of an adjec- 
 tive, say noble, nobler, noblest, to call one a positive 
 degree, another a comparative degree, and the third a super- 
 lative degree. 
 
 On the Parsing of Adjectives* 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 1. Distinguishing qualities. 
 
 2. Definition. 
 
 3. Number (when the adjective has number). 
 
 4. Comparison. 
 
 5. Relation. 
 
 6. Remarks. 
 
 Example : 
 
 Affliction, when I know it, is but this : 
 A deep alloy whereby man tougher is. 
 
 First, more or less complete analysis. Then : 
 
 Tougher is a word, neither noun nor pronoun, 
 which may be placed directly before a noun to limit 
 it. It is therefore an adjective, according to the 
 definition : An adjective is a word, &c, &c. Tougher 
 is the comparative form (not comparative degree) of 
 the adjective tough, the superlative form of which is. 
 toughest. It is used here as the attribute of the 
 proposition, 
 
 * * man is tougher, 
 and limits the noun man. We may say it limits some 
 
HELPS. Ill- 
 
 Verbs: Parsing. 
 
 noun as person, or body, understood. That noun 
 would then be attribute of the proposition, and 
 tougher merely a limiting word. (Remark.) It is 
 proper to say more tough and most tough. 
 
 T At the proper time the pupil may abbreviate j for 
 example : 
 
 Abbreviated Form. 
 Tougher (above) is an adjective of the comparative 
 form. The positive form is tough ; superlative, tough- 
 est. This adjective is used as attribute of the propo- 
 sition, 
 
 * * man is tougher. 
 
 Or we may describe it as limiting a noun understood, 
 as person, which would in that case be the attribute. . 
 
 VERBS : PARSING. 
 
 (See Topics, pp. 59-65.) 
 
 90« For lists of irregular verbs see the end of the book. 
 For remarks on the disposition of verb phrases, see pp. 117- 
 20. 
 
 On the Parsing of Verbs, 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 1. Distinguishing qualities. 
 
 2. Definition. 
 
 3. Person. 4. Number. 5. Tense. 
 6. Subject : 7. Agreement (Rule). 
 
 8 Use — I trans -( ? )> ob J ect - 
 ( intrans. 
 
 9. Remarks. 
 
112 HELPS. 
 
 Adverbs: Parsing. 
 
 JExample : 
 
 High in his pathway hung the sun. 
 
 First, more or less complete analysis. Then : 
 
 Hung is a word used as the predicate of a proposi- 
 tion. It is therefore a verb, according to the defini- 
 tion : A verb is a word, &c, &c. Hung is not a per- 
 son nor a number. It is of the past tense. Its subject 
 is sun. But, not having either a person or a number, 
 hung does not agree with sun. The verb is here used 
 intransitively and consequently does not have an ob- 
 ject. The simple form of the present tense of this 
 verb is hang. 
 
 1" In those cases in which the verb is combined 
 with a number of other words to form a verb phrase, 
 the pupil should make mention of the fact. (See 
 pp. ir7-2o.) 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 66.) 
 
 On the Parsing of Adverbs. 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 1. Distinguishing qualities. 
 
 2. Definition. 
 
 3. Comparison. 
 
 4. Actual relation. 
 
 5. Kind of adverb (why ?). If conjunctive : prop- 
 
 ositions connected. 
 
 6. Remarks. 
 
 Some of the irregularly compared adverbs will be found on 
 p. 125. 
 
HELPS. 113 
 
 Prepositions : Conjunctions. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 25.) 
 
 On the Parsing of Prepositions* 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 1. Distinguishing qualities. 
 
 2. Definition. 
 
 3. Words connected. 
 
 4. Object of preposition. 
 
 5. Remarks. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 67.) 
 
 On the Parsing of Conjunctions. 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 1. Distinguishing qualities. 
 
 2. Definition. 
 
 3. Propositions connected. 
 
 4. Kind of conjunction. 
 
 5. Remarks. 
 
 Tf It was stated in the Topics, under adverbs, that the " rules " 
 for the use of adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions were pur- 
 posely omitted. We will select the " rules " for these classes of 
 words as given in one of the grammars, and will use them in 
 justifying their omission from this book : 
 
 An Adverb modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, 
 
 or another adverb. 
 A Preposition shows the relation of an object (object?) to 
 some other (other ?) word on which the adjunct depends. 
 A Conjunction connects words, phrases, clauses, or sen- 
 tences. 
 
114 HELPS. 
 
 Participles: Parsing. 
 
 In the first place, these statements are not rules. The rules 
 to be found in this work are imperative statements of a pre- 
 scribed course to be observed in using certain words and cer- 
 tain forms. A rule should affirm that so and so must be or 
 should he, &c, &c. 
 
 Again, we have learned that adverbs may limit other words 
 than verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The "rule," then, is mis- 
 leading. 
 
 Further, it is true that prepositions indicate the relations of 
 the objects denoted by the words connected. But the relations 
 of objects to one another are not grammatical relations and need 
 not be mentioned in a grammar. We may say with propriety 
 that prepositions indicate the relations to each other of the words 
 they connect, but the statement of the fact is not a rule, and is 
 not of first importance. 
 
 Lastly, in our definition we say that conjunctions connect 
 propositions; so that there is no need of any "rule" to call 
 attention to that fact. 
 
 PARTICIPLES: PARSING. 
 
 (See Topics, pp. 68, 69.) 
 
 On the Parsing of Participles, 
 
 Since pupils find participles and infinitives more difficult 
 to understand than other kinds of words, the work upon 
 these subjects should be made very thorough. 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 ideriv. from verb, 
 nat. of a verb, 
 nat. of an adj. 
 
 2. Definition. 
 
 3. Verb from which derived. 
 
HELPS. 115 
 
 Participles: Parsing. 
 
 4. Respect in which similar to a verb. 
 
 5. Respect in which similar to an adjective. 
 
 6. Principal parts of corresponding verb. 
 
 7. Remarks. 
 
 Example • 
 
 From the steep promontory gazed 
 The stranger, raptured and amazed. 
 
 First, more or less complete analysis. Then : 
 
 Raptured is a word derived from a verb and par- 
 taking of the nature of a verb and of an adjective. 
 It is therefore a participle, according to the defi- 
 nition: A participle is a word, &c, &c. It is de- 
 rived from the verb rapture. It partakes of the na- 
 ture of a verb because it may be limited by an adverb 
 as a verb is limited. It partakes of the nature of an 
 adjective in limiting adjectively stranger, a noun. It 
 is a regular perfect participle. The principal parts of 
 the corresponding verb are rapture, and raptured. 
 
 Remark. — It may be said, also, that the relation of rap- 
 tured to stranger is similar to that of a noun in apposition 
 with another noun. It may therefore be said to limit 
 stranger appositively. That relation of the participle is not 
 inconsistent with the definition, which declares the partici- 
 ple to be like an adjective ; because the relation of apposi- 
 tion, though common with nouns, is really not a substan- 
 tive relation, but adjectival. 
 
 IT When the participle is part of a phrase the fact should 
 be noted. 
 
Il6 HELPS. 
 
 Infinitives: Parsing. 
 
 INFINITIVES : PARSING. 
 
 (See Topics, p. 70.) 
 
 On the Parsing of Infinitives* 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 ( deriv. from verb. 
 
 1. Distinguishing qualities -< nat. of a verb. 
 
 ( nat. of a noun. 
 
 2. Definition. 
 
 3. Verb from which derived. 
 
 4. Respect in which similar to a verb. 
 
 5. Respect in which similar to a noun. 
 
 6. Principal parts of corresponding verb. 
 
 7. Remarks. 
 
 Example: 
 
 He can do little that can't do this. 
 
 First, more or less complete analysis. Then : 
 
 Do is a word derived from a verb and partaking of 
 the nature of a verb and of a noun. It is therefore 
 an infinitive, according to the definition: An infinitive 
 is a word, &c., &c. It is derived from the verb do. 
 It is like a verb in that it may take an object (unless 
 we consider little to be a noun, in which case do does 
 take an object). It partakes of the nature of a noun 
 in being the object of a verb, can. The correspond- 
 ing perfect participle is done. The principal parts of 
 the corresponding verb are do and did. 
 
 IT Exercises in analysis and parsing can be varied in 
 many ways. Some teachers may deem it necessary to sup- 
 plement the exercises with more or less work of various 
 kinds. Some may choose to abridge. It should be remem- 
 bered that grammar is not the most important of studies, 
 and in assigning work to pupils the teacher should consider 
 lime and the comparative importance of the subject. 
 
HELPS. 117 
 
 VERB PHRASES. 
 
 ON the: disposition of phrases. 
 
 % I. In disposing of verb phrases containing, besides the 
 verb, both participles and infinitives, there is seldom any difficul- 
 ty in distinguishing the verb. Whenever there is any difficulty, 
 it is generally occasioned by the participles and the infinitives. 
 Therefore it has seemed best to introduce the discussion of this 
 subject after the topics, Participles, and Infinitives. 
 
 Example of a Recitation* 
 
 He must have been injured. 
 
 Must hare been injured is a verb phrase form- 
 ing the predicate of the proposition. Injured is a 
 perfect participle limiting he, the subject, and is the 
 attribute of the proposition. Must is a verb having 
 no tense, no person, and no number. Have is an in- 
 finitive, the object of must. Been is a perfect partici- 
 ple joined with must have to form a copula connect- 
 ing the attribute injured with the subject. The words 
 together form a phrase representing an act as certain- 
 ly performed at some past time not specified. 
 
 1 II. It will be noticed that have was not said to take an 
 object, though it is ordinarily transitive ; and that been, a 
 perfect participle, was not called an attribute. To explain 
 this, a long statement is necessary. The explanation is 
 logical rather than grammatical ; 
 
Il8 HELPS. 
 
 Verb Phrases discussed. 
 
 IF III. The expression, 
 
 I will go, 
 
 one of the examples given under the topic Infinitive (p. 
 96), was said to mean, practically, I will the act of going. 
 So 
 
 I ought (to) go 
 
 means practically I owe the act of going. In the first 
 example will is a verb and go is an infinitive, object of will } 
 in the second, ought is a verb and go is an infinitive, object 
 of ought. And in 
 
 I shall go, 
 I may go, 
 I can go, 
 I must go, 
 
 go is an infinitive, object respectively of shall, may, can, and 
 must. 
 Again in 
 
 I shall be, 
 
 I may be, 
 
 I can be, 
 
 I must be, 
 
 be is an infinitive, and, like go in the preceding examples, it 
 is the object of a verb in each instance. But these expres- 
 sions sound incomplete. Let us add the word walking, so 
 that the expressions shall read, 
 
 I shall be walking, 
 I may be walking, 
 I can be walking, 
 I must be walking. 
 
 The word walking in each case limits the subject, I, and 
 is an attribute. It is connected with the subject by shall 
 
HELPS. Iig 
 
 Verb Phrases discussed- 
 
 be, may be, and so on, which are therefore copulas. Yet 
 shall, may, can, and must are still verbs. And be is still 
 an infinitive in each example, just as it was in the preceding 
 examples: 
 
 Again, let us substitute have for be in I shall be, 
 forming 
 
 I shall have. 
 
 Hare, like be, is an infinitive, and is the object of shall* 
 I shall have, however, does not sound complete. We may 
 add the book, saying, 
 
 I shall have the book, 
 
 have signifying possess. And if we wish to describe the 
 condition of the book which is to be possessed we may add 
 the word bound, saying, 
 
 I shall have the book bound, 
 
 have still meaning possess. As before, shall is a verb, and 
 have is its object. But now have, also, has an object, book, 
 which is limited by bound, a perfect participle. 
 
 Furthermore, if we choose to put the perfect participle 
 nearer to the verb phrase, we may by transposing obtain 
 
 I shall have bound the book. 
 
 By this transposition the meaning of the expression is . 
 greatly changed. Whereas before, the expression only in- 
 dicated the time at which possession of the book was to be 
 obtained, without reference to the time of the binding, it 
 now declares particularly that the binding is to be com- 
 pleted at some future time. Indeed, shall have bound is a 
 perfect tense phrase. But in producing it, have has lost its 
 meaning of possess, and no longer takes an object. It has 
 lost individuality in becoming part of a phrase having a pe- 
 
120 HELPS. 
 
 Verb Phrases discussed. 
 
 culiar meaning. It cannot, therefore, be parsed as fully as 
 when possessed of an individual force. Such is the case 
 generally with words that go to make up phrases. This is 
 shown further in 
 
 they have gone. 
 
 Here, though a present tense, have is joined with a per- 
 fect participle to form a phrase representing an act per- 
 formed during /dtf/ time. And in 
 
 they may have gone, 
 
 the infinitive have serves a similar purpose. If we divide 
 these phrases, have gone and may have gone, and attempt 
 to ascribe to each word the force it would have if used 
 alone, we shall destroy the peculiar force of the phrase. The 
 same is true of must have been injured in 
 
 he must have been injured, 
 
 the example used in the recitation introducing this topic ; 
 also of such expressions as 
 
 he was to have been made secretary, and 
 the king having been dethroned, the prince was 
 crowned. 
 
 We may say, then, in general terms : Whenever several 
 words, composing part of a proposition, are so intimately 
 combined in a phrase as to lose individual force, the nicer 
 analysis may be waived, and the words may be described as 
 phrase members. This is true of adverb phrases and 
 phrases of other kinds, as well as of verb phrases. 
 
HELPS. 
 
 121 
 
 LISTS OF WORDS 
 
 FOR 
 
 EXERCISES ON IRREGULAR FORMS, &c. 
 
 Remark. — These lists are not intended to be complete 
 vocabularies of irregular words, but merely to furnish ma- 
 terial for exercises on the more familiar words. 
 
 Genders and Gender Equivalents. 
 
 T 
 
 MASC. 
 
 FEM. 
 
 MASC. 
 
 FBM. 
 
 bachelor 
 
 maid 
 
 gentleman 
 
 lady 
 
 
 spinster 
 
 hart 
 
 roe 
 
 beau 
 
 belle 
 
 he 
 
 she 
 
 boar 
 
 sow- 
 
 horse 
 
 mare 
 
 boy 
 
 girl 
 
 husband 
 
 wife 
 
 bridegroom 
 
 bride 
 
 king 
 
 queen 
 
 brother 
 
 sister 
 
 lad 
 
 lass 
 
 buck 
 
 doe 
 
 lord 
 
 lady 
 
 
 ewe 
 
 male 
 
 female 
 
 bull 
 
 cow 
 
 man 
 
 woman 
 
 bullock 
 
 heifer 
 
 master 
 
 mistress 
 
 colt 
 
 filly 
 
 
 miss 
 
 drake 
 
 duck 
 
 Mr. 
 
 Mrs. 
 
 earl 
 
 countess 
 
 mister 
 
 mistress 
 
 father 
 
 mother 
 
 monk 
 
 nun 
 
 friar 
 
 nun 
 
 monsieur 
 
 madame 
 
 gander 
 
 goose 
 
 
 mademoiselle 
 
122 HELPS. 
 
 Irregular words : Genders. 
 
 MASC. 
 
 FEM. 
 
 MASC. 
 
 FEM. 
 
 nephew 
 
 niece 
 
 stag 
 
 hind 
 
 ox 
 
 cow 
 
 steer 
 
 heifer 
 
 papa 
 
 mamma 
 
 swain 
 
 nymph 
 
 ram 
 
 ewe 
 
 uncle * 
 
 aunt 
 
 rooster 
 
 hen 
 
 wizard 
 
 witch 
 
 sir 
 
 madam 
 
 youth 
 
 maiden 
 
 sire {horse) 
 
 dam 
 
 
 damsel 
 
 son 
 
 daughter 
 
 II. 
 
 
 abbott 
 
 abbess 
 
 Infant 
 
 Infanta 
 
 administrator 
 
 administratrix Jesse 
 
 Jessie 
 
 anchorite 
 
 anchoress 
 
 John 
 
 Johanna 
 
 Augustus 
 
 Augusta 
 
 Joseph 
 
 Josephine 
 
 Cornelius 
 
 Cornelia 
 
 Julius 
 
 Julia 
 
 czar 
 
 czarina 
 
 
 Juliet 
 
 don 
 
 donna 
 
 landgrave 
 
 landgravine 
 
 duke 
 
 duchess 
 
 marquis 
 
 marchioness 
 
 emperor 
 
 empress 
 
 negro 
 
 negress 
 
 executor 
 
 executrix 
 
 Paul 
 
 Pauline 
 
 Francis 
 
 Frances 
 
 signor 
 
 signora 
 
 Frank 
 
 Frances 
 
 sultan 
 
 sultana 
 
 goodman 
 
 goody 
 
 testator 
 
 testatrix 
 
 Henry 
 
 Henrietta 
 
 votary 
 
 votaress 
 
 hero 
 
 heroine 
 
 widower 
 
 widow. 
 
 III. 
 
 archduke 
 
 he-bear 
 
 cock-sparrow 
 
 he-goat 
 
 grandfather 
 
 landlord 
 
 archduchess 
 
 she-bear 
 
 hen-sparrow 
 
 she-goat 
 
 grandmother 
 
 landlady 
 
 milkman 
 
 peacock 
 
 buck-rabbit 
 
 stepson 
 
 stepfather 
 
 milkmaid 
 
 peahen 
 
 doe-rabbit 
 
 stepdaughter 
 
 stepmother 
 
HELPS. 1 23 
 
 Irregular words: Plurals. 
 
 
 IRREGULAR PLURALS 
 
 • 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 1. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 beef 
 
 beeves 
 
 mouse 
 
 mice 
 
 brother 
 
 brothers 
 
 ox 
 
 oxen 
 
 
 brethren 
 
 pea 
 
 peas 
 
 calf 
 
 calves 
 
 
 pease 
 
 child 
 
 children 
 
 penny 
 
 pennies 
 
 cow 
 
 cows 
 
 
 pence 
 
 
 kine 
 
 self 
 
 selves 
 
 die 
 
 dies 
 
 she 
 
 they 
 
 
 dice 
 
 sheaf 
 
 sheaves 
 
 elf 
 
 elves 
 
 shelf 
 
 shelves 
 
 foot 
 
 feet 
 
 sow 
 
 sows 
 
 genius 
 
 geniuses 
 
 
 swine 
 
 
 genii 
 
 staff 
 
 staffs 
 
 goose 
 
 geese 
 
 
 staves 
 
 half 
 
 halves 
 
 that 
 
 those 
 
 he 
 
 they 
 
 thief 
 
 thieves 
 
 I 
 
 we 
 
 this 
 
 these 
 
 index 
 
 indexes 
 
 thou 
 
 ye 
 
 
 indices 
 
 
 you 
 
 it 
 
 they 
 
 tooth 
 
 teeth 
 
 knife 
 
 knives 
 
 wharf 
 
 wharfs 
 
 leaf 
 
 leaves 
 
 
 wharves 
 
 life 
 
 lives 
 
 wife 
 
 wives 
 
 loaf 
 
 loaves 
 
 wolf 
 
 wolves 
 
 louse 
 
 lice 
 
 woman 
 
 women 
 
 man 
 
 men 
 
 
 
 II. 
 
 FOREIGN WORDS. 
 Words marked R. form also the regular English plural, 
 analysis analyses axis axes 
 
 alumna alumnae bandit, R. banditti 
 
 alumnus alumni basis bases 
 
124 HELPS. 
 
 Irregular words : Adjectives. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 beau, R. 
 
 beaux 
 
 monsieur 
 
 messieurs 
 
 crisis 
 
 crises 
 
 Mr. 
 
 Messrs. 
 
 criterion, R. 
 
 criteria 
 
 nebula 
 
 nebulae 
 
 calyx, R. 
 
 calyces. 
 
 nucleus, R. 
 
 nuclei 
 
 cherub, R. 
 
 cherubim 
 
 oasis 
 
 oases 
 
 datum 
 
 data 
 
 parenthesis 
 
 parentheses 
 
 dilettante 
 
 dilettanti 
 
 phenomenon 
 
 phenomena 
 
 erratum 
 
 errata 
 
 radius, R. 
 
 radii 
 
 ellipsis 
 
 ellipses 
 
 rostrum, R. 
 
 rostra 
 
 focus, R. 
 
 foci 
 
 seraph, R. 
 
 seraphim 
 
 formula, R. 
 
 formulae 
 
 spectrum, R. 
 
 spectra 
 
 fungus, R. 
 
 fun^i 
 
 stamen, R. 
 
 stamina 
 
 fulcrum, R. 
 
 fulcra 
 
 stimulus 
 
 stimuli 
 
 genus 
 
 genera 
 
 stratum, R. 
 
 strata 
 
 hypothesis 
 
 hypotheses 
 
 synopsis 
 
 synopses 
 
 lamina 
 
 laminae 
 
 synthesis 
 
 syntheses 
 
 larva 
 
 larvae 
 
 terminus 
 
 termini 
 
 medium, R. 
 
 media 
 
 thesis 
 
 theses 
 
 memorandum, R. memoranda 
 
 tumulus 
 
 tumuli 
 
 metamorphosis metamorphoses vertebra 
 
 vertebrae 
 
 minutia 
 
 minutiae 
 
 vertex, R. 
 
 vertices 
 
 madam 
 
 mesdames 
 
 
 
 
 IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 
 
 POSITIVE. 
 
 COM PAR. 
 
 SUPERL. 
 
 bad 
 
 worse 
 
 worst 
 
 
 evil 
 
 worse 
 
 worst 
 
 
 far 
 
 farther 
 
 farthest 
 
 fore 
 
 former 
 
 foremost 
 
 good 
 
 better 
 
 best 
 
 
 hind 
 
 hinder 
 
 hindmost 
 
 ill 
 
 worse 
 
 worst 
 
 
 (in) 
 
 inner 
 
 innermost 
 inmost 
 
posmva. 
 little 
 
 late 
 
 many 
 much 
 
 (out) 
 
 old 
 
 (up) 
 well 
 
 HELPS. 125 
 
 Irregular words : Adverbs, 
 
 COMPAR. 
 
 SUPERL. 
 
 less 
 
 least 
 
 lesser 
 
 
 later 
 
 latest 
 
 latter 
 
 last 
 
 more 
 
 most 
 
 more 
 
 most 
 
 nearer 
 
 nearest 
 
 
 next 
 
 outer 
 
 outmost 
 
 (utter) 
 
 utmost 
 
 
 uttermost 
 
 older 
 
 oldest 
 
 elder 
 
 eldest 
 
 (upper) 
 
 uppermost 
 
 better 
 
 best 
 
 IRREGULAR ADVERBS. 
 
 badly 
 
 worse 
 
 worst 
 
 early 
 
 earlier 
 
 earliest 
 
 far 
 
 farther 
 
 farthest 
 
 forth 
 
 further 
 
 furthest 
 
 little 
 
 less 
 
 least 
 
 near 
 
 nearer 
 
 nearest 
 next 
 
 much 
 
 more 
 
 most 
 
 well 
 
 better 
 
 best 
 
 oft, often 
 
 oftener 
 
 oftenest 
 
126 
 
 HELPS. 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 It will be observed that in many cases either the past tense, 
 or the perfect participle, or both have the regular form. The 
 italicized forms are either obsolete or not so often used as the 
 accompanying forms. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 abide 
 
 abode 
 
 abode 
 
 arise 
 
 arose 
 
 arisen 
 
 awake 
 
 awoke, awaked 
 
 awaked 
 
 be or am 
 
 was 
 
 been 
 
 bear {bring forth) 
 
 bore, bare 
 
 born 
 
 bear {carry) 
 
 bore, bare 
 
 borne 
 
 beat 
 
 beat 
 
 beaten, beat 
 
 begin 
 
 began 
 
 begun 
 
 behold 
 
 beheld 
 
 beheld 
 
 belay 
 
 belaid, belayed 
 
 belaid, belayed 
 
 bend 
 
 bent, bended 
 
 bent, bended 
 
 bet 
 
 bet, betted 
 
 bet, betted 
 
 bereave 
 
 bereft 
 
 bereft, bereaved 
 
 beseech 
 
 besought 
 
 besought 
 
 bid 
 
 bid, bade 
 
 bidden, bid 
 
 bind 
 
 bound 
 
 bound 
 
 bite 
 
 bit 
 
 bitten, bit 
 
 bleed 
 
 bled 
 
 bled 
 
 blend 
 
 blended, blent 
 
 blended, blent 
 
 bless 
 
 blessed, blest 
 
 blessed, blest 
 
 blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 break 
 
 broke, brake 
 
 broken, broke 
 
 breed 
 
 bred 
 
 bred 
 
 bring 
 
 brought 
 
 brought 
 
 build 
 
 built, builded 
 
 built, builded 
 
 burn 
 
 burned, burnt 
 
 burned, burnt 
 

 HELPS. 
 
 127 
 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Irregular Verbs. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 buy 
 
 bought 
 
 bought 
 
 cast 
 
 cast 
 
 cast 
 
 catch 
 
 caught 
 
 caught 
 
 chide 
 
 chid, chode 
 
 chidden, chid 
 
 choose 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 cleave {adhere) 
 
 cleaved, clave 
 
 cleaved 
 
 cleave [split) 
 
 clove, cleft, clave 
 
 cleft, cloven 
 
 climb 
 
 climbed, clomb 
 
 climbed 
 
 cling 
 
 clung 
 
 clung 
 
 clothe 
 
 clothed, clad 
 
 clothed, clad 
 
 come 
 
 came 
 
 come 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 creep 
 
 crept 
 
 crept 
 
 crow 
 
 crowed, crew 
 
 crowed 
 
 cut 
 
 cut 
 
 cut 
 
 dare {venture) 
 
 dared, durst 
 
 dared 
 
 deal 
 
 dealt, dealed 
 
 dealt, dealed 
 
 dig 
 
 dug, digged 
 
 dug, digged 
 
 do 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 dream 
 
 dreamed, dreamt 
 
 dreamed, dreamt 
 
 dress 
 
 dressed, drest 
 
 dressed, drest 
 
 drink 
 
 drank, drunk 
 
 drunk, drunken 
 
 drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 dwell 
 
 dwelt, dwelled 
 
 dwelt, dwelled 
 
 eat 
 
 ate, eat 
 
 eaten, eat 
 
 fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen 
 
 feed 
 
 fed 
 
 fed 
 
 feel 
 
 felt • 
 
 felt 
 
 fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought 
 
 find 
 
 found 
 
 found 
 
 flee 
 
 fled 
 
 fled 
 
 fling 
 
 flung 
 
 flung 
 
 fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
128 
 
 HELPS. 
 
 
 Irregular Verbs. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 forbear 
 
 forbore 
 
 forborne 
 
 forget 
 
 forgot 
 
 forgotten, forgot 
 
 forsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken 
 
 freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 get 
 
 got 
 
 got, gotten 
 
 gild 
 
 gilt, gilded 
 
 gilt, gilded 
 
 gird 
 
 girt, girded 
 
 girt, girded 
 
 give 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 go 
 
 went 
 
 gone 
 
 grave 
 
 graved 
 
 graven, graved 
 
 grind 
 
 ground 
 
 ground 
 
 grow 
 
 grew 
 
 grown 
 
 hang (suspend) 
 
 hung 
 
 hung 
 
 have 
 
 had 
 
 had 
 
 hear 
 
 heard 
 
 heard 
 
 heave 
 
 heaved, hove 
 
 heaved, hoven 
 
 hew 
 
 hewed 
 
 hewn, hewed 
 
 hide 
 
 hid 
 
 hidden, hid 
 
 hit 
 
 hit 
 
 hit 
 
 hold 
 
 held 
 
 held, holden 
 
 hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 keep 
 
 kept 
 
 kept 
 
 kneel 
 
 knelt, kneeled 
 
 knelt, kneeled 
 
 knit 
 
 knit, knitted 
 
 knit, knitted 
 
 know 
 
 knew 
 
 known 
 
 lade 
 
 laded 
 
 laded, laden 
 
 lay 
 
 laid 
 
 laid 
 
 lead 
 
 led 
 
 led 
 
 leap 
 
 leaped, leapt 
 
 leaped, leapt 
 
 learn 
 
 learned, learnt 
 
 learned, learnt 
 
 leave 
 
 left 
 
 left 
 
 lend 
 
 lent 
 
 lent 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 lie (recline) 
 
 lay 
 
 lain 
 
 light 
 
 lighted, lit 
 
 lighted, lit 
 

 H 
 
 ELPS. 
 
 129 
 
 
 PAST. 
 
 
 Irregular Verbs. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 lose 
 
 lost 
 
 
 lost 
 
 make 
 
 made 
 
 
 made 
 
 mean 
 
 meant 
 
 
 meant 
 
 meet 
 
 met 
 
 
 met 
 
 mow 
 
 mowed 
 
 
 mowed, mown 
 
 pass 
 
 passed, past 
 
 passed, past 
 
 pay 
 
 paid 
 
 
 paid 
 
 pen {enclose) 
 
 penned, pent 
 
 penned, pent 
 
 prove 
 
 proved 
 
 
 proved, proven 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 
 put 
 
 quit 
 
 quit, qui 
 
 tted 
 
 quitted, quit 
 
 rap 
 
 rapped, 
 
 rapt 
 
 rapped, rapt 
 
 read 
 
 read 
 
 
 read 
 
 rend 
 
 rent 
 
 
 rent 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 
 rid 
 
 ride 
 
 rode, rid 
 
 ridden, rid 
 
 ring 
 
 rang, rung 
 
 rung 
 
 rise 
 
 rose 
 
 
 risen 
 
 rive 
 
 rived 
 
 
 riven, rived 
 
 run 
 
 ran, run 
 
 
 run 
 
 saw 
 
 sawed 
 
 
 sawed, sawn 
 
 say 
 
 said 
 
 
 said 
 
 see 
 
 saw 
 
 
 seen 
 
 seek 
 
 sought 
 
 
 sought 
 
 seethe 
 
 seethed, 
 
 sod 
 
 sodden, seethed 
 
 sell 
 
 sold 
 
 
 sold 
 
 send 
 
 sent 
 
 
 sent 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 
 set 
 
 shake 
 
 shook 
 
 
 shaken 
 
 shape 
 
 shaped 
 
 
 shaped, shapen 
 
 shave 
 
 shaved 
 
 
 shaven, shaved 
 
 shear 
 
 sheared, 
 
 shore 
 
 shorn, sheared 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 
 shed 
 
 shine 
 
 shone 
 
 
 shone 
 
 6* 
 
130 
 
 HELPS. 
 
 
 Irregular Verbs. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 shoe 
 
 shod 
 
 shod 
 
 shoot 
 
 shot 
 
 shot 
 
 show 
 
 showed 
 
 shown, showed 
 
 shred 
 
 shred 
 
 shred 
 
 shrink 
 
 shrank, shrunk 
 
 shrunk, shrunken 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 sing 
 
 sang, sung 
 
 sung 
 
 sink 
 
 sank, sunk 
 
 sunk 
 
 sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 slay 
 
 slew 
 
 slain 
 
 sleep 
 
 slept 
 
 slept 
 
 slide 
 
 slid 
 
 slidden, slid 
 
 sling 
 
 slung, slang 
 
 slung 
 
 slink 
 
 slunk, slank 
 
 slunk 
 
 slit 
 
 slit, slitted 
 
 slit, slitted 
 
 smell 
 
 smelled, smelt 
 
 smelled, smelt 
 
 smite 
 
 smote 
 
 smitten, smit 
 
 sow 
 
 sowed 
 
 sown, sowed 
 
 speak 
 
 spoke, spake 
 
 spoken 
 
 speed 
 
 sped, speeded 
 
 sped, speeded 
 
 spell 
 
 spelled, spelt 
 
 spelt, spelled 
 
 spend 
 
 spent 
 
 spent 
 
 spill 
 
 spilled, spilt 
 
 spilled, spilt 
 
 spin 
 
 spun, span 
 
 spun 
 
 spit 
 
 spit, spat 
 
 spit 
 
 split 
 
 split 
 
 split, splitted 
 
 spoil 
 
 spoiled, spoilt 
 
 spoiled, spoilt 
 
 spread 
 
 spread 
 
 spread 
 
 spring 
 
 sprang, sprung 
 
 sprung 
 
 stand 
 
 stood 
 
 stood 
 
 stave 
 
 staved, stove 
 
 staved, stove 
 
 stay 
 
 staid, stayed 
 
 staid, stayed 
 
 steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stolen 
 
 stick 
 
 stuck 
 
 stuck 
 
 sting 
 
 stung 
 
 stung 
 

 HELPS. 
 
 131 
 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Irregular Verbs, 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT PARTICIPLE, 
 
 stride 
 
 strode, strid 
 
 stridden 
 
 strike 
 
 struck 
 
 struck, stricken 
 
 string 
 
 strung 
 
 strung 
 
 strive 
 
 strove 
 
 striven 
 
 strow, strew 
 
 strowed, strewed 
 
 strown, strewn 
 
 swear 
 
 swore, szvare 
 
 sworn 
 
 sweat 
 
 sweat, sweated 
 
 sweat, sweated 
 
 sweep 
 
 swept 
 
 swept 
 
 swell 
 
 swelled 
 
 swollen, swelled 
 
 swim 
 
 swam, szvum 
 
 . swum 
 
 swing 
 
 swung 
 
 swung 
 
 take 
 
 took 
 
 taken 
 
 teach 
 
 taught 
 
 taught 
 
 tear 
 
 tore, tare 
 
 torn 
 
 tell 
 
 told 
 
 told 
 
 think 
 
 thought 
 
 thought 
 
 thrive 
 
 thrived, throve 
 
 thrived, thriven 
 
 throw 
 
 threw 
 
 thrown 
 
 thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 tread 
 
 trod 
 
 trodden, trod 
 
 wake 
 
 waked, woke 
 
 waked, woke 
 
 wax 
 
 waxed 
 
 waxed, waxen 
 
 wear 
 
 wore 
 
 worn 
 
 weave 
 
 wove 
 
 woven 
 
 wed 
 
 wedded, wed 
 
 wedded, wed 
 
 weep 
 
 wept 
 
 wept 
 
 wet 
 
 wet, wetted 
 
 wet, wetted 
 
 whet 
 
 whet, whetted 
 
 whet, whetted 
 
 win 
 
 won 
 
 won 
 
 wind 
 
 wound, winded 
 
 wound 
 
 work 
 
 worked, wrought 
 
 worked, wrought 
 
 wring 
 
 wrung 
 
 wrung 
 
 write 
 
 wrote, writ 
 
 written 
 
INDEX, 
 
 The references are to pages* 
 
 Abbreviate, 108 (V). 
 
 abbreviated form of recitation : adjective, in ; noun, 108 ; 
 
 subject, 81. 
 abstract names, number, 38. 
 action : object of, 22 (c) ; subject of, 22 (c). 
 adjective : def., 20 ; clause, 34. 
 adjectival nature of participle, 27 (a), 
 adjectives : 
 
 abbreviated recitation, in. 
 
 cases (?), 56 ; comparison, 57-8 ; compound, 56. 
 
 exercises, 89-90. 
 
 genders (?), 56. 
 
 interrogative, 56 ; irregular, 124-5, 
 
 numbers, 56-7 ; numeral, 56. 
 
 parsing: abbrev., in ; example of, no; order, no. 
 
 persons (?), 56 ; pronominal, 56. 
 
 recitation, no ; remarks, 89. 
 adverb : def., 23 ; clause, 34; remark on def., 91. 
 abverbs: comparison, 66; compound, 66; conjunct., see letter c, 
 
 exercises, 91. 
 
 parsing, order, 112. 
 
 "rule," 66 (remark), 113-14; relative, 66. 
 agreement : mean'g, 55 ; verb and subject, 61-3, 63 (b). 
 analysis : meaning, 99 ; order of, 99-100. 
 antecedent : mean'g, 55; agree't, 55. 
 apposition : mean'g, 47 ; nouns, 47 ; pronouns, 54. 
 attribute, def., 16. 
 
 bare, complete, 16 ; exercises, 82 ; recitation, 83 (a), 
 attributive object, 33 (d). 
 
 [133} 
 
134 INDEX. 
 
 Bare: subject, predicate, &c, 15 ; attribute, 16; copula, 16, 
 
 Cases: def., 43 ; as opposed to other forms, 105-6 ; as opposed 
 to relations, 46. 
 nominative : nouns, 43 ; pronouns, 51. 
 nouns, 42-48 ; pronouns, 51-3. 
 objective, of pronouns, 51. 
 
 possessive : nouns, 43 ; pronouns, 51 ; formation, 43-4. 
 rules, see letter r. 
 class membership: how determined, 18 (remark); 23-4; 27(par.ig); 
 
 91 (c). 
 classes of words: defined, 18-28 ; in forming compounds, 28 ; 
 
 separately studied (chapter), 36-70 ; remarks, 105. 
 classification of words, basis : 27 (par. 19), 18 (remark), 24 (d), 
 
 qi (par. 14 c). 
 clauses : mean'g, 30(d); adject., 34; adverb, 34; noun, substan- 
 tive, 33 (a) ; exercises, 102-3, 10 3-5« 
 combined : words, 11 (b); subj. and pred. in prop., 17. 
 collectives, 37 ; number of, 38. 
 compare, to, 58 ; comparative form, 57. 
 comparison : adjectives, 57-8, 124-5 ; adverbs, 66, 125. 
 complement, 78 (3, c). 
 
 complete: subject, predicate, 15 ; attribute, copula, 16. 
 complex proposition: mean'g, 30 (c) ; analysis, 99 (par. 5); exer- 
 cises, 102-3; recitation, 100. 
 compound : adjectives, 56 ; adverbs, 66 ; verbs, 59. 
 propositions : mean'g, 30 ; exercises, 101-2, 103. 
 words, 28. 
 condition: in def. of attribute, 15; indicated by attribute, 16(b), 82. 
 conjunction, def., 26. 
 
 conjunctions : disting. from prepositions, 26 (d), 92 (d) ; co- 
 ordinating, 67; exercises, 92, 101-2, 103; remarks, 92; subor- 
 dinating, 67. 
 conjunctive: adverbs, 26(c), 66; disting. from conjunctions, 
 
 . 92 (d) ; exercises, 93, 102-3; pronouns, 49. 
 connectives: copulas, 16; conjunctions, 26; conjunctive ad- 
 verbs, 26 (c) ; conjunct, pronouns, 49 ; conjunctions, 26 ; prep- 
 ositions, 25 ; phrases, 16 (c), 35. 
 construct, to, def., 45. 
 construction, see rules, letter r. 
 co-ordinating conjunctions, 67. 
 
 copula : def., 16 ; in def. of preposition, 25 ; in def. of verb, 21; 
 phrase, 16 (c) ; exercises, 82; recitation, 83 (b). 
 
INDEX. I35. 
 
 Declarative proposition (clause), 29. 
 
 deer 5 not a number, 38. 
 
 degrees, disting. from forms, no. 
 
 dependent proposition (clause), 29 (a). 
 
 derived, in definition of participle, infinitive, 27. 
 
 direct object, 32 (a) ; exercises, 100. 
 
 Ellipsis, 34. 
 
 else^ exception to definition of adjective, 20(d). 
 
 English grammar, def., 13. 
 
 equivalents : gender, 42; phrases of comparison, 58(a,b); 66(a). 
 
 etymology, 77. 
 
 expletive, 32 (e) ; there, 32 (e). 
 
 Feminine gender : def., 41 ; formation of (nouns), 41 (par. 49). 
 
 first person : pronouns, 50; verbs, 59. 
 
 foreign nouns : plurals of, 40 (par. 47); list, 123. 
 
 formation of genders, numbers, tenses, &c, see letters g, n, t, &c. 
 
 forms : in definition of grammar, 12-13 I disting. from degrees, 
 
 no; from relations \ 46; of nouns, pronouns, &c, see letters 
 
 n, p, &c. 
 future-tense phrase, 63. 
 future-perfect-tense phrase, 65. 
 
 Genders : def., 41 ; of nouns, 41-2 ; of pronouns, 51 ; equiva- 
 lents, 42 ; feminine, def., 41 ; formation of feminine, 41 (par. 
 49) ; irregular genders and equivalents, 121-2 ; neuter of 
 nouns, 42 ; neuter of pronouns, 51. 
 
 grammar: def., 11-13 ; English grammar, def., 13; object of 
 studying, 77 (g); remarks on definit., 77-8. 
 
 grammatically independent, 48 (a) ; rule for nouns, 48. 
 
 Helps, 70 + . 
 
 hints, to teachers (unclassified): abbreviating recitations, 108 (IV), 
 in (1") ; applying definitions and principles, 73-7, 80 (I), 
 86 (II), 88 (a), 98 (remark); assigning lesson, 74 (IV). 
 book as guide, 73 (I). 
 
 cases : definition, disting. from other forms, 105-6. 
 complement, 78. 
 course of study, 77 (remark), 
 conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, 92. 
 
136 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 hints — continued. 
 
 definition: of adjective, 89 (1) ; of adverb, 91; of attribute, 8a; 
 
 of cases, 105-6 ; of conjunction, 92 ; of grammar, 77-8 ; of 
 
 subject, 78 ; of the several classes, 95 (I), 
 distinctions: degrees-forms, no; definition-description, 91; 
 
 words-objects, 78 ; may be used — is used, 86 (top of p.). 
 division of words into classes, 85 (I), 
 formation of plurals, 105. 
 habit of speaking correctly: the teacher's part in inculcating, 
 
 95-8 ; in preface, 
 infinitive, 95-8. 
 learning by rote, 75. 
 limiting words, 88, 89 (^), 91, 95 (^). 
 
 new examples for recitations, 75 ; object of examples, 80 (T). 
 nouns, 85-5, 105-8. 
 parsing, 106, 107 (III), 108 (V). 
 
 paruciples, 93 ; prepositions, 92 ; pronouns (properties), 108. 
 plan of subjects studied, 76. 
 preparation for class, 74 (IV). 
 progress, 76, 86 (IV), 87 (I), 
 reasons for conclusions, 75 ; omitted, 108. 
 recitations and study, 74-6 ; on definitions, 85 (a), 
 relations, jj\ as basis cf classification, 91. 
 reviewing, 75-6. 
 
 '* rules" for adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, 113-14. 
 selections from authors for recitations, 75. 
 study of nouns, 85-5 ; of pronouns, 86-7. 
 teacher a guide, 73 (I), 
 test of knowledge of principles, &c, 75. 
 using the book, 10, 72; illustrations, 73 (II), 79. 
 verb phrases, 112 (f ), 117-20. 
 who should study grammar (?), 76. 
 
 Ideas, words express, 11 (a). 
 
 imperative propositions, 29. 
 
 independent: grammatically, 48 (a); proposition, 30 (b, i)„ 
 
 indirect object, 32 (a); examples, 100. 
 
 infinitive, def., 27. 
 
 infinitives: disting. from participles, 95 (^f#f); from nouns, 96 
 (^ II) ; direct, and indirect object of, 32 (b), 100 ; exercises, 96, 
 97 ; in -lug, 70 ; as object of verb, 96 ; parsing, order, ex- 
 ample of, n6 ; recitation on definition, 98 ; root, 70 ; as subject 
 of proposition, 32 (c). 
 
 -ing*: infinitive in, 70; participle in, 68 (b). 
 
 interjection, meaning, 28. 
 
INDEX. 137 
 
 interrogative: adjectives, 49, 56; pronouns, 49; propositions, 29. 
 
 intransitive verbs, 23 (f). 
 
 irregular: adjectives, 124-5; adverbs, 125; genders, 121-2; past 
 tenses, 60, 126-31 ; perf. participles, 69, 126-31 ; plurals, 38, 
 39-40, (lists) 123-4, (foreign) 123 ; verbs, 60, (lists) 126-31 ; words, 
 remark, 105, (lists) 121-31. 
 
 it* impersonal, 32 (d). 
 
 Language lessons, preface; 74 (^f III). 
 language, study of, 77. 
 
 less, least, 58. 
 
 limit or restrict, to: def., 20; exercises on limiting words, reci- 
 % tation, remarks, 88, 89 ; in def. of adjective, 2 o (c, d) ; phrases 
 
 20(f). 
 lists, of irregular words, 121-31 (see under irregular). 
 
 Masculine gender, def . , 41; of nouns, 41; of pronouns, 51. 
 may be used, disting. from is used, 19 (e), 20 (e), 23 (c), 86, 89 
 
 (U 9* (c, 1). 
 moods (?), 65. 
 more, most, in adjective phrases, 58 (a, b) ; in adverb 
 
 phrases, 66. 
 
 Name: in def. of noun, 19; noun as name of itself, 19 (e); noun 
 
 as name of abstract objects, 38 (par. 40). 
 neuter gender: nouns (?), 42 ; pronouns, 51. 
 nominative case: nouns: — 43(c); of subject, attribute, object, 45; 
 object of preposition, participle, infinitive, 46 (a) ; in indepen- 
 dent relation, 48 ; pronouns: — 51 (a) ; as subj., attrib., object, 
 52-3- 
 noun: def., 19; in def. of adjective, 20; of adverb, 23; of infini- 
 tive, 27 ; clause, 33 (a) ; as name, 19 (d) ; as name of itself, 
 19 (e), 40 (par. 46) ; as name of abstract object, 38 (par. 40). 
 nouns: chapter, 36-48; cases, genders, numbers, rules, see let- 
 ters c, g, n, r. 
 appositive, 47 ; attribute, 45, 82. 
 common, proper, compound, collective, 36-7. 
 obj. of infinitive, preposition, participle, verb, 45-0. 
 possessive of, 43-4, 47. 
 
 parsing: order, example of, 107 ; abbreviated, 108 ; remarks, 108: 
 recitation on the definition, 85 ; remarks, 85, 86 
 as substantive, 33 (a). 
 
I38 INDEX. 
 
 numbers: def., 37; adj., 57(c); nouns, 37-40; pronouns, 50; 
 verbs, 59. 
 singular, plural (meaning), 37 (c). 
 
 plurals : formation of, 38-40 ; irregular (meaning), 38 (a) ; forma- 
 tion of, 39-40; lists of irregular, 123-4 ; spoken, written, 38-9. 
 numeral adjectives, 56. 
 
 Object: of action, 22 (c) ; attributive, 33 ^d) ; direct and in- 
 direct, 32 (a) — examples, 100 ; of infinitive, 46 (a), 96; of partici- 
 ple, 46 (a) ; of preposition, 25, 46 (a); of a verb, 22 (c, d, e, f)— 
 not an adverb, 23 (a, b). 
 
 objective case, 51. 
 
 orthography, 77. 
 
 orthoepy, 77. 
 
 Parse, to, meaning, 106. 
 parsing, order, example of : 
 
 abbreviated, 108, 109 ; adjectives, no — abbrev. form, in ; adverbs 
 (order only), 112. 
 
 conjunctions (order, not example of), 113. 
 
 infinitives, 116. 
 
 nouns, 107; abbrev., 108. 
 
 participles, 114 ; prepositions (order only), 113 ; pronouns, 109. 
 
 verbs, m-112. 
 participle, def., 27 ; recitation on def., 94. 
 
 participles: direct, and indirect object, 32 (b) ; disting. from ad- 
 jectives, 93, 95 (1") ; from infinitives, 95 (T 1). 
 
 exercises, 94. 
 
 forms, 68 ; formation of perf. part., 69. 
 
 imperfect, 68 (a, b). 
 
 in phrases, 117-20. 
 
 parsing, order, example of, 1 14-15. 
 parts, principal, of verbs, 69 (a), 
 past-perfect-tense phrase, 64. 
 
 past tense : meaning, 60 ; format, of, 60-1 ; irregular, 60, (lists) 
 126-31. 
 
 perfect participle, 68 ; formation of, 69. 
 
 personal pronouns, 49. 
 
 persons: def., 50; of pronouns, 50; of verbs, 59 (a, b). 
 
 phrase, def., 34-5. 
 
 phrases: exercises, 101-3, 103-5 ; fut. -perf. -tense phr., 65; fut.- 
 tense phr., 63 ; present-perfect-tense phr., 64; past-perf. -tense 
 phr., 64 ; of comparison, 58 ; verb phrases, discussed, 117-20. 
 
INDEX. 139 
 
 plan, 7-8. 
 
 pluperfect-tense phrase, 64. 
 
 plural number, see (index) under numbers. 
 
 plurals, irregular, lists, 1 23-4. 
 
 positive form, 57. 
 
 possessive case, def., 43 ; see also (index) under cases. 
 
 possessive nouns in apposition, 47 (c, 2d). 
 
 predicate: def., 15 ; bare, and complete, 15 (c) ; exercises, 81 ; 
 
 in def. of verb, 21 ; with two or more subjects, 31 (b). 
 preposition: def., 25 ; object of, 25 (c); remarks on definit., 92. 
 prepositions: compared with conjunctions, 26(d); parsing, order, 
 
 113; "rule," 113-14. 
 present participle, 68 (a, b). 
 present-perfect-tense phrase, 64. 
 
 principal: parts of verbs, 69 (a) ; propositions, 29 (a). 
 pronominal adjectives, 56. 
 pronoun, def., 19. 
 pronouns : cases, genders, numbers, persons, 50-I. 
 
 conjunctive, interrog., relative, personal, 49. 
 
 impersonal, 32 (d). 
 
 parsing, order, example of, 109. 
 
 properties (remarks), 108. 
 
 rules, see (index) under rules, 
 proper nouns, 37. 
 proposition: def., 17; chapter on definition, 14-17; compared 
 
 with sentence, 31 (e) ; exercises on the def., 83-4. 
 propositions : analysis of, order, 99 ; chapter on kinds, 29-35 ; 
 connected by conjunctions, 26 (a, b, c, d), 67. 
 
 clauses, see (index) clauses. 
 
 compound, complex, simple, 30. 
 
 declarative, imperative, interrogative, principal, subordinate, 29. 
 
 dependent, independent, 29, 30. 
 
 exercises, 101-2-3-4-5 ; recitation on disting'g, propositions, too. 
 
 uses, as clauses, 33-4. 
 
 Quality: in def. of attribute, 16; degrees of (comparison), 56. 
 
 Recitations : attribute, 83 (a); copula, 83 (b); subject, 80-1. 
 analysis: of proposition, 100; verb phrases, 117. 
 definition: of noun, 85; pronoun, 86; limit, to, 88 ; participle, 94; 
 infinitive, 98. 
 
I4O INDEX. 
 
 recitations — continued. 
 
 in parsing: nouns, 107— abbrev., 108 ; pronouns, 109 \ adjectives, 
 no — abbrev. ,iu;verbs,ii2; participles, 115; infinitives,n6. 
 regular: plurals, 38 ; perf. participles, 69 ; verbs, 60. 
 related words, II (a, c). 
 relation : of words, def., 12 (e); II— 12; state of, 11 (d); disting. 
 
 from cas?, 46 ; words in different relations, 12 (a, b). 
 relations, as basis of classification, 27 (par. 19), 91 (c), 92 (^[), 93, 
 95(18 a, I). 
 independent of grammatical relations, 28. 
 relative pronouns, 49. 
 restrict, see (index) under limit, 
 rhetoric, 77. 
 root infinitive, 70. 
 rule, meaning, 113, 114 (%) 
 
 rules : adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, (?), 1 13-14. 
 construction : nouns : 
 
 subject, attribute, object of verb, 45. 
 object of preposition, part., infin., 46 (a). 
 possessive, apposition, 47. 
 four rules, 48. % 
 
 grammatically independent, 48. 
 construction : pronouns : 
 
 subj , attrib., obj. of verb, prep., part., inf., 53. 
 possessive, apposition, 54. 
 agreement with antecedent, 55. 
 construction : verbs : agree't with subj., 61 (b, 2d) ; in 3d 
 person, singular, 63 (b). 
 
 Sentence, mean, of, 31 (e). 
 
 Sheep* not a number, 38, 
 
 sign of infinitive, to, 96 (III). 
 
 simple proposition, 30 (a). 
 
 singular number, see (index) under numbers. 
 
 spelling, not basis of classification, 18 (remark), 24 (d). 
 
 subject : def., 14; agreement, 61 (b,2d),63 (b); bare, complete, 15; 
 
 of action, 22 (c); composed of several words, 14(b), 31 (b); 
 
 disting. from logical subject, 78 (3, a) ; exercises, recitation, 
 
 79-80; impersonal, 32 (d) ; as noun, 18 (b) ; as infinitive, 95 (a); 
 
 used to designate bare subject, 15 (e). 
 subjective relation, 46 (remark), 
 subordinate: proposition, 29 (a) ; conjunctions, 67. 
 
INDEX. 141 
 
 substance, disting. from word, 14 (a). 
 
 substantive: clauses, 33 (a) ; nature of infinitive, 27 (a, 2d). 
 
 suggestions, to the teacher, 73-6. 
 
 superlative form, 57. 
 
 Teacher to: hints, see (index) under hints; general suggestions, 
 
 73-6. 
 tense: present, past, 60; phrases, see (index) under phrases, 
 tenses: meaning, 60 (a); of verbs, 60 (b). 
 there, expletive, 32 (e). 
 to ? sign of infinitive, 96 (III). 
 u to De," forms, 62, 
 transitive verbs, 23 (f). 
 
 Understood, meaning of, 17. 
 
 Verb: def., 21; direct and indirect object of, 32, b; not group of 
 words, 21 (remark) ; remark on definition, 90. 
 
 verbs: exercises (remark), 90 (^[); irregular, meaning, 60 (90 a), 
 lists, 126-31 ; number, persons, 59 ; phrases, see (index) under 
 phrases ; parsing, order, example, m-12 ; tenses, 60-3 ; rule r 
 agree' t, see (index) under rules. 
 
 verbal nature of participles, infinitives, 27. 
 
 Words: disting. from substance, 14 (a); from group of words, 
 21 (remark) ; as name of itself, 19 (e), 40 (par. 46). 
 
 words: basis of classification, 27 (par. 19); classes of def., 18-28; 
 combined, n (b) ; compound, 28 ; different forms, 12,- in differ- 
 ent relations, 12 ; on the parsing of, 106 , related, 11 (b) ; spell- 
 ing not basis of classification, 18 (remark). 
 

 
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