.■stt. ■ : " lii--- ^C^W* FETICHISM, A CONTRIBUTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE HISTORY OF RELIGION. BY FRITZ SCHULTZE, Ph. D. TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN, By J. FITZGERALD, M.A. New-York : THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO. No. 28 LAFAYETTE PLACE. 3 CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER I. Introductory : II. The Mind of the Savage in its Intellectual and Moral Aspects 3 1. The Intellect of the Savage 4 2. The Morality 'of the Savage r > 3. Conclusion '4 III. The Relation between the Savage Mind and its Object. 15 1. The Value of Objects 1 5 2. The Anthropopathic Apprehension of Objects i^ s 3. The Causal Connection of Objects 22 IV. Fetichism as a Religion 2 ° 1. The Belief in Fetiches 2. The Range of fetich Influence 3 l _ 3. The Religiosity of Fetich Worshipers J- 4. Worship and Sacrifice -1 2 5. Fetich Priesthoods 45 6. Fetichism among Non-Savages t>i V. The Various Objects of Fetich Worship 64 1 . Stones as Fetiches «4 2. Mountains w Fetiches ' ; 3. Water as Fetich °° 4. Wind and Fire as Fetiches 67 5. Plants as Fetiches 69 6. Animals as Fetiches 7. Men as Fetiches lSj VI. The Highest Grade of Fetichism 1. The New Object \» 2. The Gradual Acquisition of Knowledge 3. The Worship of the Moon 9' 4. The Worship of the Stars 5. Transition to Sun Worship 6. The Worship of the Sun '.'5 7. The Worship of the Heavens 106 VII. The Aim of Fetichism Ion 1 . Retrospect io 9 2. The New Problem no 239880 FETICHISM: CONTRIBUTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE HISTORY OF RELIGION. By FRITZ SCHULTZE, Dr. Phil. TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY J. FITZGERALD, M.A. [Copyright, 1885, by J. Fitzgerald.] CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. David Hume was the first in mod- ern times to reject the transcendental theories of Religion and to seek an explanation for it in the empiric world of man, on psychological prin- ciples. " No passions," says he, " can be supposed to work upon such bar- barians, but the ordinary affections of human life ; the anxious concern for happiness, the dread of future misery, the terror of death, the thirst of revenge, the appetite for food and other necessaries. These are their onlv motives." * To these motives of fear and hope Hume now adds, on the one hand, man's ignorance of Nature and of its phenomena ; and on the other the faculty of imagination, as factors going to make up the notion of God. " We hang in perpetual suspense between life and death, health and sickness, plenty and want, which are distributed among the human spe- cies by secret and unknown causes, * David Hume, Works, Vol. IV. whose operation is oft unexpected and always unaccountable. These unknown causes, then, become the constant object of our hope and fear ; and while the passions are kept in perpetual alarm by an anxious expec- tation of the events, the imagination is equally employed in forming ideas of those powers, on which we have so entire a dependence. Could men anatomize nature, according to the most probable, at least the most in- telligible philosophy, they would find that these causes are nothing but the particular fabric and structure of the minute parts of their own bodies and of external objects ; and that, by a regular and constant machinery, all the events are produced, about which they are so much concerned. But this philosophy exceeds the compre- hension of the ignorant multitude, who can only conceive the unknown causes, in a general and confused manner; though their imagination, perpetually employed on the same subject, must labor to form some particular and distinct idea of them. The more they consider these causes themselves, and the uncertainty of 2 I i 1 H 1I1S.M. their operation, the less satlsfai tion do they meel with in their resean hes ; ami, however unwilling, they must at last have abandoned so arduous an attempt, were it not i"t a propensity in human nature, which leads into a system thai gives them satisfaction. There is a universal tendency among mankind i<> conceive all beings like themselves, ami to transfer to every object those qualities with which they are familiarly acquainted, and of which they are intimately conscious. We find human faces in the moon, armies in the clouds, and by a nat- ural propensity, if not corrected by experience and reflection, ascribe malice or good-wall to everything that hurts or pleases us. Hence the fre- quency and beauty of the prosopopoeia in poetry, where trees, mountains and streams are personified, and the inanimate parts of nature acquire sentiment and passion." "No won- der, then, that mankind, being placed in such an absolute ignorance of causes, and being at the same time so anxious concerning their future fortune, should immediately acknowl- edge a dependence on invisible pow- possessed of sentiment and in- telligence." Such is the account which Hume gives of Polytheism. He does not, it is true, make an application of his theory to Fetichism directly, though much of what he says about the rise of Polytheism will serve equally well to account for fetichism. Benjamin Constant, inasmuch as he looks for the origin of religion in man himself, agrees with Hume ; but inasmuch as he postulates a special faculty, "the religious sentiment," which is not demonstrable, he again quits the empirical standpoint. Mei- ners, in his History of Religions, agrees fully with Hume, whose theory he states, and then makes this appli- cation of it to the subject of feti- chism : " Fetichism," says he, " is not only the most ancient, but it is also the most universal form of religion. It furnishes incontrovertible proof that the lack of correct knowledge was the true and only cause of poly- theism ; and that for the uncultured savage everything is God, or may be ( rod." * kaiser, in his " Biblical Theology," places the origin of re- ligion, not in this or that sentiment, but " subjectively in the entire char- acter of man," and "objectively in Nature, to which man is related." t lie holds that primitive man was without the impress of Spirit, that he was developed out of inferior organ- isms and that his first attempt at a religious belief took the form of fetichism. " The first, or the best piece of wood, or stone he meets, — some animal, some star will be es- teemed a god." " While the intel- lectual faculties are still dormant, and in the absence of knowledge and experience, of invention and culture, whether mental or moral, we are not to be surprised if man regards proxi- mate causes as ultimate, and pays worship to material objects, espe- cially those which arrest his attention by their brightness, their velocity, their great size, etc." " The neces- sities of the case, and history itself prove that fetichism is the primitive religion of man. The base of human culture rests upon the earth, but its summit penetrates the invisible spaces of heaven, and reaches into infinity." This theory of Kaiser's, in so far as it differs from Hume's and agrees with that of Meiners in asserting that fetichism is the primitive relig- ion, is rejected by Theodor Waitz in his " Anthropology of Savage Tribes." He holds with Hume, that " a rude systemless Polytheism " was the prim- itive religion ; and his arguments are identical with those of Hume as al- ready set forth.! According to him, *C. Meiners, Allp. Krit. Gesch. d. Relig- ionen. Hannover. 1S06, Vol. I. S. 143. t Gottl. Phil. Chris!. Kaiser, Die biblische Theologie qder Judaismus u. Christianismus nach der grammatisch-historischen Inierpre- tationsmethode u. nach einer freimiithigen Stellung in die Kritisch-vergleichende Uni- versalgeschichte der Religionen und in die universale Religion. Erlangen, 1S13. Theil, I. S. 2. I Th. Waitz, Anthropologic der Natur- volker. FETICHISM. fetichism springs from polytheism, and here he agrees with Pfieiderer. But whereas according to Prleiderer external causes bring about its devel- opment, Waitz assigns for it causes purely internal and psychological. " The negro," says he, " carries the belief in an animated Nature to its uttermost limits ; but as his mind is too rude to conceive of one uni- versal animated nature, his imagina- tion leads him to regard every tri- fling object around him as endowed with life. In every material thing he sees a spirit, often of great power, and quite disproportionate to the object itself." This object and this spirit make up a whole, the fetich. Waitz, however, does not explain to us the reason why the savage takes this view of material and inanimate things, and yet this is a question of high importance. And precisely this point do I find treated with great clearness by Rein- hard in his valuable " Historical Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Religious Ideas." * From the fact that religion is to be found among men, whatever their condition, he con- cludes that it must have its basis in the human mind itself, and he holds that if we would study the origin of religious ideas we must go back to the ages of barbarism, that is, to primitive times. That religion then was monotheistic cannot be shown : but on the other hand fetichism always characterizes the lowest stage of intellectual development. [The account given by Reinhard of the rise of fetichisirr", being substantially that which is set forth in the present work, need not be given here, as it will be found in full detail in the subsequent chapters ; and as Feuer- bach agrees in essentials with Rein- hard it will be enough to make a general reference to his work upon this subject.!] * Phil. Christ. Reinhard, Abriss einer Ge- schichte der Entstehung der religidsen Ideen. Jena. 1794. t Ludwig Feuerbach, Das Wesen der Re- The true way of arriving at an un- derstanding of fetichism is by observ- ing savage life ; and here, books of travel are of great importance. Among these there is none more in- structive than A. Bastian's "Visit to San Salvador, Capital of the Kingdom of Congo : a Contribution to Mythol- ogy and Psychology." * As the au- thor never transfers to the savage his own thoughts and motives, but views him as he is, from the psy- chological point of view, his work is properly called a contribution to psy- chology, and with equal justice a con- tribution to mythology, since fetichism is the first step in religion. CHAPTER II. THE MIND OF THE SAVAGE IN ITS IN- TELLECTUAL AND MORAL ASPECTS. By fetichism we understand the re- ligious veneration of material objects. If such objects are to be worshiped, they must first of all appear to be worthy of veneration, or, in other words, the worshiper must so con- sider them. The fetich, however, e.g. a piece of metal, still continues to be, in external form and in essential con- stitution, the self-same thing, whether observed by a European or by an African. Hence that which renders it a fetich is nothing intrinsic to the thing itself, but the view which the fetichist takes of it. If therefore we would understand fetichism in its true nature, we must investigate the sav- age's mode of apprehending objects, or in other words, we must study the intellectual status of the fetichist. Fetichism has an historical position in all nations which stand lowest in intellectual development, that is, among savages, so-called. Our first ligion. Vorlesungen iiber das Wesen der Religion. Nebst Zusatzen u. Aumerkungen. Leipzig, 1851. * Afrikanische Reisen von Dr. A. Bastian. Ein Eesuch in San Salvador, der Hauptstadt der Konigreichs Congo. Bremen, 1859. ! I ! It llls.M. task, accordingly, will be to ascertain tin- savage's inu-llfctu.il status. We propose therefore to sketch the savage mind first in its logical, and then in its ethical aspects. i. The Intellect of the Savai The understanding has cognition only of those objects which arc given In it in experience, and its range is consequently restricted by the limits of its experience. But what are the objects lit experience ? Those which are to be found in the man's world: and hence a man's cognitions can never go beyond his world. We say \ /lis world, meaning the universe, as ! far as he knows it. If therefore we ; would fix the intellectual status of any individual, we must first ascertain the number and the nature of his cogni- j tions or objects. As the understanding, then, has no ■ cognitions save those which come to it out of its world, it follows that the number and the nature of one man's cognitions, or objects — in other words, the empiric contents of his mind — will differ from those of another, just as their respective worlds differ. Thus the sum-total of cognitions held by a mountaineer is different from that held by a seafaring man ; and an Eskimo's cognitions are different from those of a Hindu, in propor- tion as their respective worlds differ ; and they mutually resemble each other, in proportion as their worlds are alike. The number of objects nitions) differs in the same way. Thus the savage has but few, while the civilized European has many. From the paucity or the multiplicity of these flow consequences of the highest importance for a just estimate of the respective individuals. The greater the number of objects which a man has, the better equipped and the more cultivated will be his understand- ing, the more alert his thinking facul- tv. and the higher his development as a human being. On the other hand, the fewer his objects, the lower is his {Trade of development. It is univers- ally true that man grows only as he apprehends obj< The most fully developed intellect, therefore, is that which possesses the greatest number of objects. But if I would have many objects, I must dis- criminate and distinguish between them sharply: for unless they be thus defined, they tend to amalgamate, and so the number of objects would be diminished. Hence it is only in pro- portion as the understanding draws distinctions, that its objects are mani- fold and varied; and vice versa, it can make sharp distinctions only where its objects are varied. From this it fol- lows that the faculty of accurate think- ing or of sharply defining depends im- mediately and necessarily upon the number of the objects ; so that, given the number of a man's objects, we might determine the strength or the feebleness of his thinking powers, or of his intellectual faculty. But since the objects are distinct only in so far as the understanding discriminates be- tween them, the number of the ob- jects must depend upon the sharp- ness with which these distinctions are drawn. The status of a people as regards civilization might be determined by the greater or less accuracy with which they discriminate between objects ; and the lowest grade of culture will accordingly be characterized by a lack of the power of discrimination. In the domain of thought that man only will attain eminence who can make- distinctions where others do not. All erroneous and illogical thinking owes its rise to a weakness* of the intellect, which fails to perceive really existent distinctions. The critic is a critic only in so far as he perceives distinc- tions, and consequently disparity, be- tween objects which another takes to be identical. We call a man well-bred, or refined, in the social sense, who in every circumstance of life knows how to adapt his demeanor to the various individuals he meets with : but this he cannot do unless he can appreciate differences of character and of cir- cumstance. The rude and unobser- FETICHISM. vant treat all alike, under all circum- stances, as though no differences ex- isted. A man of refined moral sense is he who, in judging of what is due to each- individual, makes the nicest distinctions : and, on the other hand, the less accurate the distinctions a man makes in moral questions, the more one-sided, prejudiced, and vi- cious he will be. Accordingly, the lowest stage of in- tellect is characterized by a lack of many distinctions which are found in higher stages : or in other words by the absence of many objects possessed by the higher stages. As compared then with a well devel- oped intelligence, one which is unde- veloped has a very contracted sphere of objects. The world it inhabits, its object-world, must be very narrow and restricted. Consider only the grade of intelligence which animals attain, and the number of objects which they have : both stand equally low. The intellect of the child is less developed, logically and ethically, than that of the adult ; and the reason is, that the objects of the former are inferior to those of the latter, whether as regards their number or their value. The child is yet ignorant of those things which are the objects of the adult. Abstract conceptions, such as virtue and vice, are strange and incompre- hensible to him. His conceptions are all of a concrete nature, such as are given him in his world ; and this world is restricted to the nursery, to his home, or to the town in which he lives, all regarded as objects of sense. His world widens by degrees, but it is only -by becoming engrossed with still new objects, that he reaches the stage of culture attained by his times or by his nation. If these objects had not been presented to him, he would have remained a child all his life, as far as intellectual growth is concerned. The child's world is contracted, and so is his intellect : but this world of his lies immediately within the com- pass of a larger world. Betwixt the two there exist most intimate relations, and an uninterrupted commerce, and hence the child's world and intellect are ever expanding. But in the case of the savage there is no such commerce between his little world and the great world around, and hence he fails to advance beyond a certain degree of sensuous apprehen- sion. When our child has made some progress in the formation of sensuous conceptions, he comes in contact with a whole world of abstract and scientif- ic notions, which are instilled into his mind at school. He learns reading and writing, and hears of heaven and earth, and of foreign countries and nations. The results of centuries of laborious study are set before him on the blackboard, as it were. His will also is disciplined and his passions controlled ; he is taught how best to shape his conduct, and hence he is not under the necessity of making a long series of painful experiments. But these intellectual notions and ob- jects are utterly wanting in the world which surrounds the savage. His whole life long he continues in the stage of mere sensuous apprehension ; and even this will fail to furnish him with as many objects as the child possesses : for we can contemplate only that which is within our world. What then does a savage see, an Es- kimo for instance ? Ice and snow, bears and fishes, and — Eskimos. Nothing more- for "the whole ex- panse of Greenland is in great part covered with ice from 2000 to 3000 feet in thickness, as we judge from the height of the fragments of glaciers dropping into the sea." Nature there- fore presents to the contemplation of the Eskimo no objects, save ice : there is no change, but everlasting same- ness ; and man too remains unchanged and undeveloped. With regard to the Eskimos, Captain Parry says that they are not aware that there is any world different from their own, or that Nature may wear an aspect other than that with which they are familiar. The savage's world is narrow, the number of his objects contracted, and therefore is his intellect undeveloped. Hence the broader the world in ill [CHISM. which a man lives, and the more his nor tan it increase, for he never quits various conceptions are multiplied, the his native place am! never sees new better equipped is his brain for th e ci thinking : ami vice versa, the narrower his world, and the truer his eptions, the less practi' ed is his brain in making distinctions, and the less able is he 'to think. It is a truth objei ts. The necessary i onsequi on psychological grounds, is that In' is unable to apprehend or to think like a civilized European. It is for this reason that the instruction con- veyed to savages by the missionaries confirmed by every one's experience is received By them "as meaningless that the thinking faculty, like every words, and quickly absorbed into their other, needs practice to give it dex- fetichism, withoul producing any last- terity ; and that unless it is rigor- ously and continuously exercised. |] still lack expertness, no mat- ter what may be the natural advan- tages. It a man begins to be a student at forty, without any previous acquaintance with books, he sets a task for his intractable brain which it is still as ill-fitted to perform, as a Chinese lady with compressed feet would be to dance like Pepita. For " passe eet Sge, les opinions sont faites ; quant aux fondements, ils ing effect."* Their power of ap- prehending must be exceedingly ble, and they "will not trouble their brains with nice distinctions." f Now we can understand why it is that " thinking is a very laborious exercise for the savage ; " and also why it is thai " when he is questioned as to in- tellectual things, he quickly complains of weariness and headache." $ The thinking faculty of the Bushman is unable to seize the simplest ideas and is characterized by extreme stupidity.? sont batis, maconnes, ine'branlables ; The Abipones. who are more advanced autour d'eux l'habitude, la paresse in culture than the Bushmen, have d'esprit, ks occupations pratiques numbers only as high as three. Four sont comme un ciment que rien ne they express by three-and-one ; five, pent dissoudre." * by the fingers of one hand : ten, by Bearing these principles in mind, I those of both hands; fwenty,by the let us consider the state of some hands and feet : but when the number wretched savage, some native of Tierra exceeds twenty, they express it by del Fuego, for instance. He has taking up in the hand an indefinite never come in contact with civiliza- quantity of sand. |l The Corannas ex- tion, has never heard of abstract terms, j perience difficulty in counting beyond nor knows anything of the outer three;^ a nation in Guinea has num- world, which for him is undiscovered bers as high zsjive** and some Bra- land, as was the New World for zilian aborigines, as high as four: Europeans before Columbus's times, whatever exceeds that number is He knows only the barren deserts of his native home, where there are , ^ g Autnerkung. neither towns nor houses. He has t IbuL M , This does not imply the in- never entered a school ; and his only capacity of a savage's child, when instructed. desire is the "ratification of his hun- to attain a higher degree of intellectual cul- ture. "The negro IS tolerably apt to learn, but his whole development depends on the first instruction he receives. When taken int<> the factories, his brain is a tabula rasa, but ready to receive new impressions." (Bas- tian, 140.) t Burchell, Travels in the Interior of S. Africa, II. p. 307. I Ibid. I. 33S. M. Dobrizhofer, Historia de Abiponibus. Vienna, 1784. ^ Campbell, Travels in South Africa, 71, ger, his lust and his indolence. His conceptions are all sensuous, nor are these numerous, being such only as come to him from the few miles of territory around him — from arid wastes and bare rocks, from birds and fellow-savages. Hence the number of his concrete notions is very small ; * Taine, Les Philosophes Classiques du XIX. Siecleen France. ** Bowdich, Mission to Ashantee, 542. FETICH ISM. many. It is difficult for us to imag- ine ourselves in so lowly an intellect- ! ual status as this : but that such status is possible, we may see in the analo- \ gous case of young children, who are j unable to appreciate a number when it exceeds four or rive. But the Amer- ican Indian, whose -world possesses a greater number of objects, and who is continually engaged in the struggle with wild beasts and other foes, leads a more active life. As he has more objects, so he has a greater number of conceptions, and hence his intel- lectual power is greater. Still his con- ceptions are little better than mere sensuous impressions. Now these impressions he is receiving daily as long as he lives, and it is no wonder if in distinguishing between them he acquires a degree of acuteness which we lack, owing to our being more taken up with abstract notions. Hence the Indian's nice discernment of scarcely perceptible tracks on the prairie, and of scarcely visible signs in the primeval forest. Hence, too, his power of taking in notions that are somewhat abstract : though this power of his must not be exaggerated. " In North America many Indians can count up to a thousand by scoring ; "t but only up to a thousand, observe, and that only by scoring. Some African nations use the numbers five or six as the basis of their numeration, in- stead of ten, so that five-and-two or six- and-one will express seven. % It is plain that these tribes must lack all the advantage derived from numera- tion. They cannot reckon : and vet without reckoning according to the four simple rules of arithmetic, com- merce is impossible. It is impossible mum cuique reddere without some sys- tem of measurement, and this requires numeration and reckoning^ Hence simply for the reason that their nu- * Eschwege, Tournal von Brasilien, I. 16S. + Wuttke, Bd. I. S. 156. \ Th. Winterbottom, Acct. of the Native Africans in the Neighborhood of Sierra Leone. Lond. 1803, p. 230. § Cf. Kuno Fischer, Logik, 2, Aufl. § 94, ff. meration is defective, apart from all other reasons, savages fail duly to ap- preciate the difference between meum and tuum. It needs no words to show that they totally lack all such scientific knowledge as is based on measure- ment. " They are wont to make an inex- act division of time into moons and days, and many of them are ignorant of any division save the diurnal. The day they divide according to the sun*s course into three or four parts of in- definite length." * Chronology they have none, nor indeed is such a thing possible among a people whose mem- ory scarce goes back of yesterday, t The mere narration of historical facts were therefore an impossibility for them, even if they had a history. But as their lives are uneventful, they furnish no material for history. Let us consider what events transpire among them that might be deemed worthy of remembrance. The day opens ; they feel hungry ; they take some game ; they sleep : then they repeat da capo. " Though the Amer- ican Indians resemble the natives of Africa and of the Polar Regions in their distaste for work, they differ from them in this that they love re- pose above all things ; while the oth- ers rather love to give themselves up to sport and enjoyment. The Indian never exerts himself, except where exertion is unavoidable , and when the- hunt is over he enjoys undisturbed repose in his hammock."! Hence the life of the savage is uneventful, mo- notonous, stagnant. The individual may be developed to a certain degree ; but not so the tribe. " The total de- velopment of all the successive gen- erations of a Bushman stock is lit- tle more than the development of the first Bushman." § " Some tribes have legends and ballads recounting sundry warlike exploits of their forefathers, but these records do not refer to * Wuttke, I. S. 156. t Bastian, S. 100. X Wuttke. I. S. 164. § Cf. the Author's work " Die Thierseele." Leipzig, iS5S, Cap. I. § 2. > I ! riCHISM. events df any antiquity. Most sav- are as destitute of historic rec- as though they were the primitive stock of mankind, and just sprung into exist I he ( rreenlanders, who >tand o >iisiderably above the low- savagery, have, ii of I. ■ . nly ,i;i'nc.il"-H^, often times of ten generations." * Simi- lar genealogical lists, but not so long, found among Negroes, Indians am! South Sea Islanders: hut never actual history. In fact, they regard the past as very unimportant: and even those among them whose intel- lect is somewhat developed prefer legend to history. \> the world of such savages is ex- tremely narrow and circumscribed, the number of conceptions formed by them is necessarily very scanty. Their notions are merely of the things of sense, and they think not at all — if by thinking is meant the elaboration of conceptions not immediately refera- ble to sensible objects. He who en- tertains no thoughts is unable to give expression to thoughts. Hence, from the conditions of life amid which sav- ages are placed it flows as a neces- sary consequence, that their language will be as undeveloped and as scanty as their circle of conceptions. t They can have words only for those objects of which they are cognizant. But as these objects are but few; it follows that their vocabulary must be scant. Then, inasmuch as they have no ab- stract notions, they cannot have any words to express objects not directly perceived by the senses. In the next place their language will be very defi- cient in those formulas which simply indicate the mutual relations of ob- jects, as recognized by the human mind, and hence will lack inflexions, conjunctions and prepositions. Ac- cordingly the Negro languages are generally very defective : the Language spoken in Acra and in Kami has Cranzen's Historic von Gronland Barln . i -■ :. I Steinthal, Die Mande-Neger-Spra- chen, psychologisch und phonetisch bctrach- i ■ Berlin,] neither adverbs nor prepositions: neither a comparative degree, nor a passive voice.* From this We may conclude that the people who speak these languages are still ignorant of some of the most elementary distinc- tions between conceptions, and that they remain through life in the same low stage of intellectual development in which children among us arc- found when they are learning to speak. It is stated that the Bushmen of South Africa are not distinguished from one another by separate names.t and Herodotus makes the same state- ment as to a tribe dwelling in the - hara, the Atarantes : " They alone of men, so far .is I can learn, are without names." % Inasmuch as the circle of their conceptions embraces only sensible objects, it is to be expected that on the whole they will discriminate more nicely between such objects than we cm, provided a considerable number of them come under their cognizance. The reason of this is that their senses are constantly exercised, and that they have no abstract notions to di- vert their attention. Hence the North American Indians perceive dis- tinctions, and mark these distinctions with special names, where we use one general term. Thus, for instance, in place of our one verb " to go " they have many words, one signifying " to go in the morning," another " in the evening," another " to go in moc- casins," etc. Everything is viewed as unique and individual, and as though it had no connection, no re- lation with other things. This is owing to the fact that the savage does not compare his conceptions with one another, a process performed not by the senses but by the intellect. Hence it is that the languages of the Indians abound in sesquipedalian word-com- binations to express purely coYi- crete notions. But these combinations 4 Bowdich, p. 470. t Lichtenstein, R. um siidl. Afrika (1S03-6), I. 192, II. 82. I Herodot. IV. 1S1. Cf. Plin. Hist. Xat. v. s. FETICHISM. 9 are as void of intellectual suggestion as they are minute in describing every outward aspect and every minor particular of the object ; and this very minuteness so fatigues and distracts the attention, that the main object is often obscured and hid from view. Awkward story-tellers have the like habit. Instead of going direct to the kernel of the story, they ramble away from it, and go into such long and minute explanations, that at length they do not themselves know what they had intended to communicate. This redundancy of words is really a sign of a weak and uncritical un- derstanding, unable to handle all its material by the principle of unity. Each phenomenon as it appears is taken to be sui generis, and is desig- nated by a special name. Hence such languages, dependent as they are on the slightest external changes of objects, must be themselves ever changing, and the more so, as they are not fixed in writing. " In South African villages, where the children are left by themselves for months at a time, they often are found, when their parents return, to speak a lan- guage unintelligible to the latter, and the missionaries have observed that this language of the children is different for almost every generation of them. Among the Australian tribes, who taboo every word whose sound could remind them of a dead relative, and substitute a new term, this change of language must be of still more frequent occurrence. The savage coins new words as he needs them ; and when the laws of gram- mar will not bend to his purpose, or when he is ignorant of them, he makes laws to suit himself. So long as languages are not consolidated and fixed in writing, they are ever in process of construction : and the elaborate grammars written by the old missionaries with the assistance of their ingenious penitents would be as unintelligible to the latter as the systems of religion attributed to them/' * " The American languages, * Bastian, S. 38, 39, 40. . generally rich in grammatical forms and in compound words, but poor in expression, because the Indians do not think, are such incoherent con- glomerates that when families or tribes break up, a notable divergence , of language among the sundered fragments is the immediate conse- quence." * The reason of this is that each of the fragments finds itself amid conditions differing, if only slightly, from those surrounding the others. As the objects differ, so will the conceptions, and the lan- guages in the same proportion ; for mind and world are dependent on one another. Whenever a savage tribe is not tied down to its native soil by its possessions or by some law of necessity, and wherever its migrations are not checked by the previous occupation of the surrounding country, it readily breaks up into smaller clans, and each one of these will soon have its peculiar dialect. This is the case in America ; and Prince Max von Neu- wied gives specimens of thirty-three different North American languages which he himself had met with.f In what was once Spanish North America there are over twenty, and in all America about 500 languages entirely different from one another.^ 2. The Morality 0/ the Savage. We have seen how narrow and con- tracted is the intellectual sphere, the mental horizon of savage tribes, owing to the circumstances by which they are surrounded. Their mental power is not greater than that of the child. But besides mind, man is also possessed of will, atid it is will that constitutes his moral character. Our present task therefore is to study the operations of the savage's will, his moral character. * Max von Xeuwied, Reise in Brasilien, II. S.213. t //'. II. 445-645. J Humboldt, Essai polit, I. 352 ; Adelung und Vater, Mithrid. Til. 2, 370 ; V. Xeuwied, II.302; Beechey, Voy. to Pacific, II. 139. For Negro languages cf. Bowdich, 454. LO I I IK HISM. Man's will cannot aim at an ab- straction, or at the indefinite, but must always have its determinate In this it resembles the un- derstanding, which must ,ilso have a definite object But if the under- standing has no conceptions, the will can have no objects, tor only that which is the ob the understand- ing can be an object of the will. e the savage can desire only those things which arc found in the world of which he has cognizance. But this world is different for different r.i. es : for one. it will contain many objects; for another, but few. As for the savage, his world is very con- tracted. Let us now consider what must be the effect upon the savage's will of a greater or a less number of objects. That can be an object of will which is perceived by the understanding. The first object which a man is con- scious of, and the one which, as being inseparable from himself, he must always have, is himself,* his own organism, and whatever necessarily has its rise in it. Man is an organ- ism : whatever originates in this or- ganism and becomes an object of consciousness — e. g., the natural in- stincts and appetites (jiunger, lust, desire of repose) — must necessarily be also an object for the will ; and these objects of the will must exist in all men, whatever their culture, simply because man is an organism. Rut to these objects which are common to the whole race, others are appended which vary according to the condi- tions of life in which a man is placed ; and in proportion as the world around him is rich or scant in objects, diver- sified or uniform, his consciousness will take in more or fewer objects. Hence the objects of will may be divided into two classes: first, those which are inseparable from the or- ganism, and which we may call the Instincts; second, those which are found in the world without. Man Schopenhauer, Vierfache Wurzel, 3 Aufl.'§ 22. wills both of these : still it is 1 that, all things else being equal, a man will expend less will-force upon individual objects, in proportion as their number is greater. Further, it is ( lear that in proportion as he exerts his will in one direction, he relaxes it in another. Hence the greater the number of objects found without the organism, and the stronger die energy of will with which they are desired, the more is the will withdrawn from those immediately connected with the organism, that is, from the natural instincts. Con- versely, too, the fewer objects a man has, derived from the outer world, and the less his will is attracted by these, the more will he be controlled by his instincts, and the more time and at- tention will he devote to the gratifica- tion of these. Heine it is no wonder if the so-called civilized man controls his instincts more easily than the sav- age, seeing that his will is directed toward so many objects outside his organism. But on the other hand, we need not be surprised at finding savages, who are controlled by these instincts, committing excesses in the gratification of them, which to us ap- pear to be brutal and shame' The savage has no intellectual ob- jects, and consequently no intellectual occupations. He can occupy him- self only with such objects as are given to him in consciousness ; hence only with such as remain after we shut out all intellectual objects, viz. : hunger, lust, indolence. As objects in the external world he has none, or but few, he cannot occupy himself with them. When he has appeased his hunger, there is nothing more for him to do, so he will play, or sleep, or engage in debauch ; and as this is the only- course open to him, he will go to ex- cess. He must needs act thus, nor can he do otherwise: and surely that is not to be accounted a crime in him, which is the necessary product of his natural condition. The unrestrained gratification of natural instincts is as clearly right in the savage (taking his FETICH ISM. LI world into account) as it would be wrong in us, whose world is very dif- ferent from his. Hence morality, as interpreted by us, has no application to the savage. Our refined distinc- tions in question of morals do not ex- ist for him : his obtuseness of under- standing is such that he cannot grasp them. Our definition of good and evil applies to him as little as to beasts, and it were unjust to measure him by such a standard, or to require him to conform to it. He can recognize no law save that of instinct, so long as his world remains contracted. What- ever his instincts require, that he seeks ; what they reject, that he avoids. As his will is attached to tri- fling objects, they being the only ob- jects he possesses, he must needs es- teem as highly things of no value to us, as we esteem things of high importance to us, though of no account to him. Hence matters perfectly indifferent to us will have for him moral importance (if we may so speak) ; and conversely, what we take to be highly important will be indifferent to him, because his will is not directed toward it. By the aid of these principles we can ex- plain such traits as the following : Certain Bushmen, being asked by a European what they meant by good and what by bad, could not give any reply : but they held fratricide to be perfectly harmless.* The Kamt- chatdales hold that an act is sinful which is unlucky: for instance, to visit hot springs ; to brush snow off the shoes out of doors ; to seize a red-hot coal otherwise than with the fingers, when you would light your pipe , to bring home the first fox you have taken ■, to tread in the tracks of a bear, etc.f The Orangoo Negroes hold it sinful to spit on the earth, % while the natives of Labrador regard noth- ing as sinful save only the murder of an innocent man.§ *Burchell, I. 33S, 340. t G. YV. Steller, Beschreibung von Kamt- schatka. Frankfurt unci Leipzig, 1774, S. 274. \ Bastian, 261. $ Nachrichten aus der Brudergemeinde, 835, No. 5. In the gratification of his indolence, hunger and lust the savage can ac- knowledge no restraint, as he has no outward objects to counterbalance them. But here another point is to be considered, namely, that this un- restraint tends to grow from day to clay. Egoism prompts each individ- ual savage to assert his mastery over all others. Hence the quarrels and competitions of man against man, each striving to surpass the other. But since this competition must regard only those activities which occupy the savage, and as these three instincts fur- nish his chief occupation, it follows that the natural condition of unre- straint will be carried by competition to a truly bestial degree of perfection in indolence, gluttony and lust. The Missouri Indians used to practice promiscuous intercourse as a point of honor.* In like manner, in Tahiti and the adjacent islands, there was the association of the Arreoi, who made it a point of honor to practice unchastity in all its degrees. The Indian never exerts himself ex- cept so far as strict necessity requires. After the hunt, unbroken repose. The women do all the work, as is the universal rule among savages. " An Indian chief once said to a white man, ' Oh, brother, you will never learn what happiness it is to think of noth- ing and to do nothing : this is, next after sleep, the most delightful thing on earth. That was our condition be- fore we were born, and will be our condition after we die.' Then, after expressing his contempt for the rest- less life of the white man, he went on : ' But we live for the present moment. The past is but smoke driven by the wind. As for the future, where is it ? As it has not yet come, we shall never see it perhaps. Let us then enjoy the day that is, for to-morrow it will be gone far from us ! ' " t It is plain that among such people, to whom the past has bequeathed no problems to be *M. v. Neuwied, Nordamerika, II. 131. I Crevecoeur. Voy. dans la haute Pensylva- nie et dans l'etat de New-York. Far. 1801, Vol. I. p. 362. 12 i I I 1 1 lll.s.M. solved, no tasks to be performed, am! win) will themselves bequeath none to futurity, there can be no ad\ am e in knowledge or in morals. "The boy a. 1 1 impanies h i ^ father : it' the latter follows any pursuit — fishing, foi instance — the SOn too learns tin- • But inasmuch as the Negroes the greafer part of their time in doing nothing, tin: education thus obtain- ed is of no importance." * In the South Sea Islands the grandees have the food put in their mouths l>i; by bit.t Iii Tahiti the missionaries, hav- ndeavored to introduce the art of weaving, all the girls who had come to learn quit work after a few days. saying, "Why should we work? Have we not as much bread-fruit and co- coa-nuts as we can eat ? You who need ships and fine clothes must work : but we are content with what we have." t Lust and gluttony are regarded by all savages as the acme of earthly fe- licity. The inhabitants of Northern perform wonderful feats of gor- mandizing. Three Yakuts will de- vour a reindeer at one meal, including the contents of the intestines, and a single Yakut once devoured 28 lbs. of porridge with 3 lbs. of butter.? The baptized Kamtchatdales often saw as they recall the past when they were still heathen: "When do we ever have jovial days now? Time was when we used to bespew the whole floor of the hut three or four times a dav.but now we can do it but rarely even a dav. Formerly we could wade ankle-deep in spew, now the soles of our feet even are not wet ted." || " In all Negro languages the word belly is one of great import."U Politeness re- * Halleur, das Leben der Neger West- ! in Vortrag. Berlin, [85 . S. 11. Mn;um, R. nacfa Guinea, 170S, S. [48. ' t I 206. t Beech .1 537. 11 hrane, Travels on Foot through Sibe- ria, 155; J. Sarytschew, Achtjalhrige Reise im nordostlichen Sibirien, auf dem Eismeere Aus d. Russis- chen ubei s. I 1 ipz. 1805, I. S. 129. Steller, Kamtschatka, S. 286. "ff Bastian, S. 35. quires that one Inquire if all is well with his neighbor's belly. The South Sea Islanders call thoughts, words in tin- belly. The stoma* h of one who - kept as a relir ; and the K.TOO eshold that the Stomach ascends into heaven after death.* As regards the passion of lust, the absolute shamelessness of the savage almost surpasses belief. The Bush- men have only one word to signify girl, maiden and wife; they consult together like cattle, have no real mar- . and the men exchange their wo- men freely. t "Woman is a chattel, to be bought and sold, having no rights of choice or of refusal. Being a mere possession, not the object of love, when by reason of age or for any other cause she can no longer minister to lust, she becomes a de- spised thing, without any rights, often contemned even by her own children, shut out from the ceremonies of re- ligion, oftentimes even forbid to come near the sanctuary as being unclean, and in death she is esteemed unworthy of being lamented."! " In Nucahiva the bride is the property of all the male guests for the space of three days."§ Bushmen and California In- dians make no account of blood-re- lationship, and incest is common among many Indian tribes. || Among the Aleutian Islanders brothers and sisters, children and parents, have sexual commerce with one another, alleging the example of the seal. IT South American savages, the Puris, Botokuds and others, and most of the New Holland tribes, go entirely naked, while among the South Sea Is- landers, at least the men, if not both sexes, wear no bodily covering. Some Indian tribes use clothing to protect them against the weather, but disre- gard the claims of modesty.** Sodo- * //-., S. 207. t Lichtenstein, R. in Afrika, II. 376 ; Camp- bell, 1 -v . Wuttke, I. 177. S Langsdorff, Reise, I. 132. I schwege, fount, v. Brasilien, I. 121; Mat kenzie, Travels through X. America, 108. • I angsdorff, 1 1. ^43. ** Mackenzie, 5471. Cf. Wuttke, I. 182. FETICHISM. IS my is wide-spread in certain tribes.* The South Sea Islanders abandon themselves at a very early age to the most unbridled licentiousness ; and their songs, dances and shows are in- stinct with sensuality.t The Tun- goos have wanton dances which con- clude with the stripping off of all cloth- ing and indulgence in unlimited de- bauchery ;t and immoral dances pre- vail throughout all Northern Asia.§ The Greenlanders and Eskimos are notorious, but the life led by the Kamtchatdales in former times was bestial. All their thoughts and imag- inations were concerned with unchas- tity, and even little children delighted their parents by licentious indulgence. Adultery was universal, and the women used to boast of it. Strangers were required to make return for any ser- vice they received, by ministering to the ruling passion ; and men and wo- men engaged in unnatural and sodom- itic commerce. They were acquaint- ed with syphilis, as they themselves admit, long before the advent of Eu- ropeans. || Where there in no moral family life there can be no family, in our sense of the word, that is, with the members united together in love and friendship. Here the rule of the stronger prevails, and the man is everything. " The idea of the State is nowhere IF devel- oped, and the individual, instead of gaining strength from union with others, imagines himself to be safe from danger only when he oppresses all around him. The father makes slaves of his children, and the hus- band enslaves the wife, in order that he himself may be free : and he is free so long as he does not meet some one mightier than he, for then the domes- tic tyrant falls himself under the con- trol of an inexorable master. His neighbor he regards as his foe. In *Eschwege, I. 132 ; Franklin's First Voy- age, 7273- t Mackenzie, 108. } Ermann, Reise um die Erde II. 36. § Cochrane, 298. II Steller, Kamtschatka, 287, 350, 357. If Among savages. short, nothing can be more foreign to the savage mind and the state of sav- agery than the dogma of Universal Equality."* "The child has no rights, being simply the chattel of his parents, who can do with him as they please, without being bound to him by any obligations. Rarely do they ex- hibit any true parental love for their children, beyond the fondness of ani- mals for their young ; and when a child is born to them inopportunely, or when they take a dislike to it, it is- put to death ; and the fearful crimes of infanticide, foeticide, abortion, abandonment and sale, and even slaughter and eating of children, are so common as to explode all the sen- timental idyllic tirades that have ever been sung about the innocent life of man in the state of nature." f When such are the relations be- tween parent and child, education is. out of the question. The American Indians are pleased when they see the child strike its mother and refuse to obey her. " He will one clay be a brave warrior," say they. Among them obedience and respect for pa- rents are very rare, t Among the Kamtchatdales children never ask their parents for anything, but take it without more ado : and they never manifest joy on seeing their parents after a protracted separation from them.§ Among the Tungoos duels between father and son are frequent, and not seldom terminate fatally. || The Arekuna, as in Guiana, bring up children and monkeys together. The monkeys are members of the family, eat with the other members, are suckled by the women, and have great affection for their human nurses. * Bastian, S. 67, 68. t Wuttke, Gesch. der Heidenthums, I. S. 1S5. t M. v. Neuwied, Nordamerika, II. 129; Mackenzie, 106; Franklin, First Voy. 73; Eschwege, I. 121; Spix u. Martius, Reise, I. S. 380. § Steller, Kamtschatka, S. 353. Cf. Wuttke, I. 187, ff. || Georgi, Beschr. einer Reise durch das Russische Reich im J. 1772, S. 242. Cf. M_ v. Neuwied, R. in Brasilien, I. 141, 146. u FETK HISM. ( Oftentimes a woman is to be seen with a child and .1 monkey .u the breast, the two nurselings quarrelin As the parents < are little for the children, so in turn the children care little for the parents. When the Aim in .in Indians go out on their hunting expeditions they often leave behind in a state of utter destitution the aged and the infirm who are un- able to make the tramp :f and in most of the tribes it is customary for relatives to dispatch the old and the feeble without remonstrance from the victims, t The Bechuanas have less regard for the aged than for cat- tle, and abandon them to their fate without compunction. § Their neigh- bors, the Corannas, expose the old people to wild beasts, they being, as they >>ay, of no account, and only serving to use up the provisions. || Among the Bushmen the daughter often turns her old mother out ol the hut, and leaves her to be devoured by wild beasts. Sons put their fathers to death with impunity. H The Kamt- chatdales often eject the sick from their house and cast them to the dogs ; ** and the Eskimo often bun- alive old sickly widows, and not un- frequently suffer old men to perish of hunger.ft 3. Conclusion. We have now set forth the intel- lectual and moral condition of the Savage SO far as was needful for our present purpose. Our criticism, aid- ed by experimental investigation, un- folds before our eyes a picture very different from what certain enthusi- asts would paint, who hold the present * K. Schomburgk in the " Ausland," No. CSV t Mackenzie, 431 : Franklin, First Voyage, 192 ; Si. ond, 91. J Robertson, History of America, I. 466; Mai kenzie, il>. $ Campbell, Trav. in S. Africa, 49, 245. || //\, Second lournev, 25S. 272. ** Steller, S. 271. tt Cranz, Gronland, 201 ; Hecchev. II. 304 Bastian niakc^ a similar statement as to Ne groes, S. 320. condition of civilized man to be a i ..i ruption, a degeneration from the primitive innocence and purity of man in his natural state. An indo- lent savage, who lias neither objects nor aims nor ambitions to occupy his mind, can never be moral. ( >i course the picture we have painted does not represent with equal fidelity all savages, for there are de- grees of higher and lower even in savagery. We are not called upon here to ascertain the specific differ- ences of these various degrees ; it is sufficient if we have an idea of the average condition of the savage intel- lectually and morally considered. The savage's world is narrow and contracted, presenting but few ob- jects, and hence he has but few con- ceptions. But the fewer his concep- tions the less does he distinguish be- tween them ; i.e., the less he thinks, the less is his faculty of thought ex- ercised, and the greater is his stupid- itv. Then, his will can be directed only upon the objects given him through his understanding. But since external objects there are none to engage it, of course all its energies must be expended upon internal ob- jects, of which he is conscious through his organism. Hence he is as free from restraint as a beast in the grati- fication of his instincts. Such is the savage, and such he must be ; for in- tellect, world and will are insepara- ble; one never stands without the others ; they stand ever together, or they exist not at all. It is needless to inquire which has precedence, for they all three make up the essence of man. His intellect extends as far as his world, and his will extends only so far as his intellect, or his world. Conversely, too, his world ex- tends only so far as his intellect and his will. FETICHISM. 15 CHAPTER III. THE RELATION BETWEEN THE SAVAGE MIND AND ITS OBJECT. In the preceding chapters we have been laying the foundation for a cor- rect understanding of fetichism, and have ascertained the range of the savage intellect. As fetichism is really a mode of intellectual appre- hension, we had first to study that particular phase of the understanding wherein a sensible object obtains sig- nificance as a fetich. It remains for us now in the present chapter to show what is the necessary relation of the savage mind to its object ; for it is this relation which gives rise to the fetichistic apprehension of objects, and which accounts for it. i. The Value of Objects. As things are for us what we appre- hend them to be, so their value for us will be in accordance with our ap- prehension of them. Now the mind has a clearer and more exact appre- hension of objects in proportion as it distinguishes between them more clearly. Therefore the sharper the distinctions we can make with regard to the minutest details of an object, the more exactly can we determine its value. An object is distinctly ap- prehended, only when we can dis- criminate between it and other ob- jects. If therefore I would form a clear understanding and an accurate estimate of a thing, I must also clear- ly understand all other objects re- lated to it ; and so I cannot rightly estimate anything without an ac- quaintance with a number of other ( tilings. My estimate of things will thus vary according to the number of objects of which I take cognizance. | But since all things stand to each other in a causal relation, it follows that a perfectly exact estimate of any single object can only be had when the entire series is known. For the , greater the number of the objects ap- ' prehended, the better do we under- stand the interrelations of them all, | and so the causal value of each. On the contrary, the smaller the number of objects, the less accurate will be our estimate of each. The mind, then, whose object-world is very contracted must of necessity form a very different estimate of things from that formed by a mind which has many objects, nor will its estimate be as exact as that of the latter. From all this it follows that the esti- mate formed of things by children as well as by savages must be very dif- ferent from our estimate, as their world is very contracted and the num- ber of their objects very limited. The untutored intellect which, as having but few objects, is defective in the power of distinction, cannot esti- mate the true value of things. It is liable either to overestimate objects or to undervalue them. It can esti- mate only the objects which it has. As it knows only these and is ignorant of all others, it cannot compare the known with the unknown, and the known must of necessity be esteemed the best and the most precious. The peasant who has never left his native soil, regards his home as the most de- sirable place on earth, though the soil be half bog. Be the objects which the untutored mind contemplates never so lowly, and worthy only of contempt as viewed by a mind which has a wider range, still it will set an exorbitant value on them inasmuch as they are the only objects it contem- plates. On the other hand, as there are many objects which do not occur to the undeveloped mind (v.g. objects of a purely intellectual value) these it will not estimate aright, or in other words, not according to their true worth. It will undervalue them. The peasant values his field of rye . not so the rare varieties of flower;, growing in the neighborhood ; he knows nothing about these. If his mind were stored with as many plant- objects as is that of the botanist ; if he were acquainted with their differ- ent classes and their mutual relations, he would value these rare flowers ; as it is, he plucks them up as weeds and L6 I I 1 l< IIIsM. them away. His undeveloped understanding does not apprehend distinctions between things, and as he cannot distinguish between them, they are all alike to him. For him l< are leaves, and he knows no such dis- tinctions as heart-shaped, lancet- shaped leaves, etc. objects with which he is unacquainted he under- values in proportion to Ids ignorance of them. The fewer and less important the ;s which a man possesses, the more excessive will be his overesti- He will discern valuable treas- ures in trifles which, to a mind of greater range, will appear as very nothings. It a man is worth a million of dollars, a few pence will be a trifle in his eves: but if a 'man has only a few pence, then one penny will have a considerable value for him. If then we would determine what are the ob- jects which a man will regard as val- uable, we must take account of how many objects he has. What then are the objects that a child will prize ? Those which he has. What are these ? Let us consider those which he //as not. He has none of those which lie within the domain of science or of art. He has none of those things which the adult values, steady occupation, its products, its remuneration, etc. He values only those things which he knows and has, and these are the merest trifles, his playthings. Children must of necessity prize these trifles, lor they have no knowl- of the more important objects known and prized by adults. It is worth while to observe how the under- standing is enlarged in proportion to the number of objects to which it ad- dresses itself. As it becomes ac- quainted with new and more important objects, its standard of values changes; o long as these new objects are unknown, it esteems as most impor- tant those objects which it already has. In youth we have a very differ- ent estimate of things from that which we have in old age, for youth does not value those things which are most prized by age. In like manner the child does not value the objects which are of importance to youth. The child values only the objects with which he is ai quainted. But these must be of but little importance, for it is only by slow degrees that the mind < to value objects ol real importance. Inasmuch as every object is a novelty to the child, it is a necessity for him to take the same interest in trifling ob- je< ts which we take in more important ones. The ' liilM. tion with other facts, enable us • irdedas a fetich. Then it will guard us against the cnor of thinking that every object that the savage prizes is foi him a fetich. It is true, any object may be- ,i fetich : still, every object is not necessarily a fetich. We might here retail what A/ara says about the savages of the Rio de la Plata: "When the ecclesiastics saw certain figures engraved or pictured on the pipes, bows, clubs and pottery of the Indians, they at once concluded ihese were idols, and burnt them up. The Indians still employ the same figures, but only to please the fancy, for they are without religion."* 2. The Anthropopathic Apprehension of Objects. It is plain that in the view of the savage, objects will have a very dif- ferent value from what they have for us. But furthermore, owing to the contracted range of the savage's mind and his consequent deficiency of men- tal power, or, which is the same thing, his defective faculty of distinction, an object, whether living or inani- mate, will have for him a very differ-; ent meaning from what it has for us. The savage differs but little from the mere animal, nor does he himself \ draw the same line of distinction be- j tween the two which we draw. Inas- much as his consciousness, which ex- ' tends only as far as the objects which enter it, is extremely contracted, he is on this ground also' less distinguished than we from the unconscious nature which surrounds him. He has but few objects, and so distinguishes but few; and thus his power of ascertaining sub- stantial differences between things lies all unemployed, uninstructed and fee- ble. Consequently, he does not see things with the same distinctness as 1 >, and hence it is clear that in his view nature must appear more homogeneous than it does to us. But • Azara, Voyage dans t'Amerique Men- dionelle. Paris,' 1S09, T. II. p. J. we must consider this point more ely. \\'< 1 all nature as one and homogeneous, and view all beings as essentially homogeneous, but yet on tenstic grounds very different from those of the savage. After hav- ing traveled in many devious paths, and so far even exaggerated the dis- tinction between Man and Nature. as almost to dissolve the tie which binds them together, and thus established the characteristic differences between the two. we came to recognize the truth that in the last analysis man is not essentially distinct from nature, and we regard nature as homo- geneous in all its parts, though for ns very different from those of the savage. The difference lies in this, that we consider nature in its several parts : that we arrive at the knowledge of its homogeneity through the consideration of its distinctions and differences, and that nature lies be- fore us as a very complex object, which has been investigated in many of its parts. The savage knows nothing of these distinctions and definitions : to him nature is all unknown ; yet he too regards it as homogeneous, but on these grounds : He is unacquainted with the pecu- liar nature of those things he comes ; in contact with, having never investi- gated them : he knows nothing of their inner specific properties and constitu- ! tion. He recognizes a distinction 1 only between their external phenom- ena, as regards their form, color, smell or taste. Then, he has never made his own being a subject of contempla- tion either from a psychological or from a physiological point of view. He is therefore ignorant of the dis- tinction between himself and other be- ings. Accordingly his apprehensions of outward objects will picture them not according to their real nature, which he has never investigated, but in quite different shapes. It is im- possible for him to attribute to objects properties he never yet has appre- hended. He has no conception of the true, specific nature of things, and FETICHISM. 10 consequently his apprehension of them is defective. Whatever object he perceives he invests with those properties of which he has already a notion, and then for him the two things are inseparable and identical. This process is inevitable, and the savage never doubts but that his perception is entirely correct, for he has no sus- picion of having transferred to the object the incongruous impressions of his own mind. And indeed why should he doubt? In order to enter- tain a doubt whether or no his appre- hension corresponds with the reality, the thought must first have arisen in his mind that perhaps the object might be apprehended differently : but this presupposes a mind furnished with a great variety of conceptions, and that has investigated much, so as to be possessed of a number of differ- ent actual and possible notions. Pre- cisely because the cultured mind pos- sesses such an abundance of varied notions, any one of which may appear to represent some new object which attracts its attention, it will not ac- cept its first impression as absolutely correct and final, but will be skeptical for a time, while it sifts and weighs, in order to choose among many concep- tions that which exactly fits the mat- ter in hand. Now the savage has no such store of conceptions. He pos- sesses but few himself, nor has he the slightest suspicion of any others. As the savage of Tierra del Fuego has no notion of Europe, Asia, Africa, etc., and just as he has not the remotest idea of what a magnifying glass is, so he is utterly unable to conceive of any other mode of apprehension but his own, and therefore he can entertain no doubt as to the correctness of his notions. Having no suspicion of the existence of any notions beyond those he himself possesses, he necessarily thinks his are the only ones possible. The adversaries of Columbus saw, ac- cording to the ideas they entertained, that his undertaking was chimeri- cal : they regarded their own notions as the only correct and conceivable ones, and were free from all doubt. j Who could have imagined the possi- 1 bility of traveling by land without the . employment of draught animals, be- ' fore the invention of the steam-engine. , It is impossible for the savage to doubt the correctness of his notions, as there are no others by means of ! which he might set them right. Hav- ing no suspicion of any others he is obliged to see all things in the light of his own understanding alone, and to transfer to everything he meets the impressions already existing in his mind. Hence it is plain that the savage must regard all objects, as far as con- cerns their inner nature, as being en- dowed with those inner properties only, of which he has formed to him- self some notion. Now what are these ? Not the inner properties of the objects themselves, for of these he knows nothing. The only proper- ties of this kind with which he is ac- quainted are those of his own mind. But how far does his knowledge of his own mind extend ? He knows nothing of its psychological laws, nothing of its essential character, so to speak : he is acquainted only with accidental properties : his transient impressions and emotions, his momen- tary humors, and his aimless pursuits. These notions he necessarily transfers to exterior things, as their inner prop- erties ; for on the one hand he has no idea of the real inner nature of the objects, and on the other he is ac- quainted with no inner properties whatever, save those of his own mind. He must necessarily consider all na- ture, and not alone animals but even inanimate things, as living, thinking and willing, even as he himself lives and thinks and wills : that is to say, he takes an anthropopathic view of na- ture. We shall in the sequel find abundant proofs of this position, for it is a fact that has been time and again recognized, admitted and pro- claimed. We have attempted only to assign its psychological grounds. It is the utter ignorance of the savage that directly leads him to view nature in this light, for we must bear in mind L"0 II IK lll>M. ih.u for .1 man in the earliesl development, \i/.. .1 savage, every- thing, however trifling, is .is novel, as unknown and as wonderful .is .1 rattle is for tin- infant. As the man gradu- to one man, to me alone, to this par- ti) ul. u savage 1 reature, with all its putty, personal propensities, is tl, ing of the universe. The distim broad. S< hopenhauer says : The ally advances toward civilization, this Substance ol man is the being of the mode ol viewing nature is given up, Universe. The savage saj yet far more slowly and more grudg- dental properties (which differ for dif- ingly than we might be disposed to ex- ferenl individuals) arc the being pect. For it is with this habit as with the Universe. every system of ideas. It those who went before have adopted it. and their whole life long cherished it. and held i; for true, it becomes implanted in tlnir children into whom it was incul- 1 ated during their earl}- years, and in Thus the intellectual status of the undeveloped man. the savage, necessi- tates .1 mode ol contemplating nature very different from ours. J p to all things essentially the same prop- erties he possesses himself : he cannot them becomes a truth, resting on the avoid considering all things as being authority of their ancestors. The be- ! endowed with the same inner proper- lief -lows stronger day by day. and ties he discerns in himself, for he has finally becomes indisputable dogma no critical power of discriminating. which is not to be set aside even For him, therefore, every object lives, though it be in conflict with facts, wills, is kindly or unfriendly disposed ; Thus the anthropopathic view of ob- ! and thus everything inspires him with jects endures even where men's ac- fear and awe. "so that lie scarce ven- quaintance with nature is no longer in the lowest grade. If we transfer ourselves into the narrow held within which the sa observes nature we shall find this re- sult so inevitable, that any other result hires to touch any object : even the very plant which affords him nourish- ment he plucks from the ground with propitiatory rites."* In America and in Northern Asia all things are sup- posed to be possessed of souis — works will appear to be impossible. Though of nature and of human art alike. I have said that we ourselves, no less These souls they consider as some- than the savage, must regard man and thing dwelling in the object and in- nature as homogeneous, still we must separable from it. which can benefit admit this difference between our 1 or harm mankind." t The more point of view and his: by investigat- these objects resemble man in their ing nature we have come to recognize j general appearance the more readily man as a product of nature. We say, will they be regarded as actually hu- man is as the rest of the universe, man. First, therefore, would come the But the savage knows neither the na- 1 anthropopathic apprehension of ani- ture of other things, nor yet his own ; nials. then of all the phenomena of as regards die latter, he is acquainted motion — the sea, rivers, clouds, the merely with his varying impressions wind, lightning, fire (which some sav- and desires. Therefore he can only ages regard as an animal. t as did the say: Nature is like Man. /.<•.. has the ancient Egyptians, according to llei- same petty, individual and altogether odotus);§ plants would follow next, subjective impressions and desires, and then finally rocks and mountains. When Schopenhauer says, The Uni- This subject we will consider in detail verse is Will, for man in the last anal- farther on. " Natural objects pass ysis is Will, and at the same time for mighty spirits. Thus, for instance, merely a part of the Universe, he as- 1 that the common beinn the contrary, the savage sa\s: The individual being which pertains Psychol. S. 10. Meiners, Hennepin, Lafiteau, Steller, etc. } YVuttkc-. I. 59. § Herod. III. 16. FETICH ISM. 21 among the Australians the rock-crys- tal is esteemed sacred ; the savage attributes special good qualities to stones of bright colors. The blood- stone is supposed by the Indians of South America to be possessed of be- neficent qualities. Even the products of human skill, such as watches, tele- scopes and the like, are inhabited by spirits. An intelligent Bechuana said, on first seeing the sea and a ship, ' This surely is no created thing, it has sprung into existence of itself, and was not made by man.' " * This an- thropopathic view of nature is the very essence of poetry : and hence it is that the view which the savage takes of nature appears to us so poet- ical, though he himself is so accus- tomed to this mode of apprehension that he is utterly unconscious of the poetry. As man can ascribe to objects only those notions and passions which he has himself, the savage attributes to his fetich precisely his own wild, unbridled desires in all their natural unconstraint, and magnified to the highest degree ; his hunger and thirst, his love and hate, his anger and his rage. Still the object con- tinues to be, in the mind of the savage, that which it is in its external form. It is not as if the savage in his anthropopathic apprehension rep- resented to himself a self-existent superior Power, a self-existent soul, which merely assumed for a time the external shape of the fetich. No : the stone remains a stone , the river a river. The water itself, in its proper form and with its native prop- erties is invested with anthropopathic characteristics. This is very differ- ent from a symbolic conception. Here the object as it presents itself in all its external manifestations, is identical with the anthropopathic con- ception. When a thing comes to be regarded as in some way the svmbol of another and a different thing, then the mind has made a very consider- able step in advance. * Wait/. I. 457. The object has therefore a greater value for the savage than for us, both as a commodity and as something anthropopathically regarded as pos- sessing life. " One of the followers of the envoy Isbrand exhibited before a crowd of Ostiaks who wanted to sell fish to the embassy, a Niirnberg watch, fashioned in the shape of a bear. The Ostiaks viewed the arti- cle with great interest. But their joy and astonishment were increased when the watch began to go, and the bear began to strike the hours, and his head and eyes to be in motion. The Ostiaks bestowed on the watch the same honor they paid to their j principal Saitan, and even gave it precedence over all their gods. Thev wanted to purchase it. ' If we had I such a Saitan,' said they, • we would j clothe him with ermine and black j sable.' " * " Father Hennepin, during his stay among the savages, had in j his possession a compass and a large ! kettle in the form of a lion. When- 1 ever he made the needle vibrate, the chief with whom he lodged assured I all that were present that the white j men are spirits and capable of doing extraordinary things. The savages ; had such fear of the kettle that they never would touch it, without having first wrapped it up in beaver pelts. If women happened to be present, the kettle had to be made fast to a tree. Hennepin offered the kettle to several chiefs as a present ; but none of them would accept the gift, for it was thought that an evil spirit dwelt within it, who would slay the new owner." f The same anthropopathic appre- hension of things is to be observed in children. The little girl who in per- fect seriousness regards her doll as a playmate, who strips and clothes it, feeds and chastises it, puts it to bed and hushes it to sleep, calls it by a personal name, etc., never imagines that all her care is expended on a * Isbrand. Voyage de Moscou a la Chine, in Vol. VIII. of Voyages an Nord, p. 38. t Hennepin, in the Voyages au Nord, IX. $32, 533. Cf- Constant, I. a Religion, I. p. 254 II I l< lll.s\l. lifeless thing, she does not make any sin I) reflei tions as these : rhis is .ill merely an illusion thai 1 indulge on purpose; .1 plaj thai I engage in, bul with the distinct understanding that it is only play. She has no thoughl that the doll is .1 lifeless thing; foi hei ii is possessed ot a human life, which is bestowed upon it l>v the child herself. The boy's hobby-horse r him no mere symbol. This anthropopathic view of lifeless ob- is to be seen among people everywhere. Especially do we ob- serve it in the way people vent their n blows and abuse bestowed on inanimate things that have occa- sioned them some hurt. In the heat of passion, reflection and judgment are silenced, and then momentarily the mental range is contracted as it is in the savage permanently. An Indian who in his cups had received a burn expressed his indignation against the fire in the most abusive language, and then mingens cum ex- tinxit* 3. The Causal Connection of Objects. We now proceed to study the oper- ations of the mind in its profoundest depths. The act of consciousness' implies the perception of the princi- ple of causality. Wv.pcrcchc objects by referring to outward phenomena, as to a cause, certain modifications produced in our nerves of sense, and we connect objects themselves with one another by the same causal nexus. In the latter process the mind arranges the objects in a certain orderly series. SO that one shall ap- as accounting for another, or explaining it. Thus one object would be 1 ause, and another, effect. The i mind invariably perceives this rela- tion in all the objects which come un- der its cognizance; and even in the mosl trivial conversation the several conceptions are explanatory, illustra- tive, 1 onfirmatory of one another, and • Vl.iii, Hist A mer. Indians. Lond. 1775, p. 117. so inter-related causally. It is a law of the mind therefore that it shall re- gard its objects as standing to one another in the relation ol < ause and Now it is clear that the mind can discern this relation only between tlios,- objects Of which it has sciousness. But the more restricted its range, the fewer will be its ob- A mind which possesses but lew objects will be liable, owing to this very paucity of objects, to as- sume immediate 1 ausal relations where they do nol exist : in the ab- sence of the true cause, it will take for cause some object within its own range. This is the real ground of all error, and any erroneous appre- hension whatsoever might serve as an example of what we lure assert. In the course of this chapter we shall fall in with many examples, but we cite only the following in this place : The true cause of the so-called rain of blood in Southwestern Europe was long unknown. People accord- ingly connected this unknown and unexplained phenomenon with a con- ception which they already had. and said. " It rains blood." and so believed, until it was discovered that the color of the rain was owing to the 'presence in it of particles of sand from the Sahara.* " When the keel of Portuguese ships first furrowed the waters of the Atlantic, the savages viewed with consternation the white- winged ships driven along their coasts by a power to them incomprehensi- ble." They had never seen a ship. What could this apparition be which was borne along as it were on wings? ( me only conception had they winch could aid them in accounting for the motion, and they said, "They are cloud-birds come down on earth." + It is just because the mind can assign only those objects as causes, which it already possesses, that you hear nun uttering so much nonsense when they discourse about things quite ' M. Perty, Die Natur, p. 2X3. ■ Bastian, S. Salvador, S. 269. FETICIIISM. 23 without their sphere, but which they try to explain by conceptions belong- ing within it. In short, this is the origin of all that science which would I account for phenomena by an a priori theory, as when the motions of the planets were explained on the theories of Ptolemy or of Tycho Brahe. The common people from their stand-point could account for the occurrence of erratic blocks only on the theory that they were fragments of giants' clubs broken in battle, or that they were dropped by giantesses out of their aprons. t The explanations given by Playfair and Venetz lie quite beyond the popular apprehension. So much therefore is clear, that the undeveloped understanding will of necessity connect in causal relation a number of objects which do not in reality stand to each other in the re- lation of cause and effect, reason and consequence. The question for such a mind is, to which of the objects of its consciousness it shall specially attribute causality. The cause, as being the producer, will naturally be regarded as strong, powerful, effective, and so gifted with peculiar attributes . for only that which is possessed of power can pro- duce. Whatever therefore we regard as preeminent in its kind , whatever appears to us as specially notable, peculiar or important, we rate as the cause of other phenomena which we regard as its effects, if only the cir- cumstances of time and space permit such a view. This perception of causality the mind must get from ob- jects within its own range. Xow. as we have already seen, the narrower the mind's range, the higher will be its estimate of objects. Therefore, the more restricted the field of conscious- ness, the more inconsiderable will the objects be which pass for causes — inconsiderable in our view, though of high moment in that of the savage. If we now recall to our minds what has been already observed with re- gard to the savage's anthropopathic apprehension of objects, the following example will be readily understood, while at the same time it will serve to illustrate the preceding remarks. An iron anchor must be regarded by the savage as a very strange and pe- culiar object, for he could neve\ mold such an instrument, nor does he see the like every day. " A Kaffir broke a piece off the anchor of a stranded vessel, and soon after died. Ever after the Kaffirs regarded the anchor as something divine, and did it honor by saluting it as they passed by, with a view to propitiate its wrath." * An anchor is, in the eyes of the savage, something so remarkable and so strange, and he is so utterly ignorant of the use it serves, that there was a concourse from all sides to see it, and all were filled with ad- miration. Their interest was as great as that of an astronomer when he discovers a new planet. That any man should have the hardihood to break off a piece of this singular ob- ject was no less matter of astonish- ment for the Kaffirs than the anchor itself. Well, the man died suddenly. What caused his death ? They could find no natural cause : but there was the anchor, and this man had broken off a piece of it. Here were facts which spoke for themselves. So the anchor, the injury done to it, and the death of the Kaffir were without more ■ ado ranged in the order of cause and effect, and the anchor was advanced in the estimation of the savages. The anchor had been injured and outraged and would have its revenge : here we have a specimen of anthropopathic apprehension of an inanimate thing. It slew the impious wretch : here we have an object that appears to be of some importance viewed as the cause of something else, viz. : the death of the transgressor. Henceforth that anchor is a dread and mighty Thing ; so they greet it as they pass, to keep it in a good humor. * Grimm, Deutsche Mvthologie, I. AufL S. 306-7. * Alberti, die Kaffern, S. Reise, I. 412. Lichtenstein, 24 FETH lll-M. / We find in this example tour fat l rst, thi i onsideration of this strange objet t .is something altogethei peculiar, singular and important, sim- ply because it is strange. Second, the anthropopathic apprehension of this object .is something that lives, feels and wills.* Third, the establishment of the relation oi cause and ., with fetichism, and we purposely omit the considera- tion of the other branch of Natural Religion. We do not assert that the only religion of the Negro, for in- stance, is fetich-worship, though we Study the Negro here only in so far as he is a fetichist. Just as in the higher grades of intelligence one individual will surpass another in mental development, so too will one savage excel another, and attain a higher grade of religious development. however contemptible his very high est grade may appear to be in our es- timation. Thus the savage has al- ready made one step in advance, as soon as he perceives that the object of his worship is not a being pos- sessed of anthropopathic properties. that it cannot of itsell perform those acts wliii h lie formerly attributed to it. oi when he recognizes as inhabiting \ht object, a spiiit separate from the il thing. Fetichism be< omes thus elevated by means oi the belief in spirits, and the fetich is advanced to the higher grade of the tal As the South Sea [slanders are raised above the very lowest stage ol intel- ligence, the taboo is better adapt- ed to them than the fetich. For the same reason, intelligent Negroes re- gard their fetich as taboo. Halleur gives the following as a specimen of Negro intelligence : " I wished to make a Negro understand the folly of offering to the fetich — a tree, for in- stance — footl, drink, lemons. and palm-oil, as he himself must know- that the tree made no use of them. 1 ' Oh,' said the Negro, 'it is not the I tree that is the fetich. The fetich is l a spirit, and invisible, who lives in I the tree. To be sure, he does not ! consume the material food, but he enjoys its spiritual portion, and re- jects the material, which we see.' '* * Here is the fetichist become a taboo- ist, supposing that the description of tabooism heretofore given is correct. CHAPTER IV. FETICHISM AS A RELIGION. i. The Belief in Fetiches. Accidental coincidence determines whether or no an object shall be re- garded as a fetich, as we have seen in the foregoing examples. The savage, however, cannot entertain a doubt as to the power of his fetich, for he has had evidence of this, and with his own eves has seen how such and such an object brought about such and such an event : how the anchor slew the man, how the camel brought the small- pox. It is only after he has found * Halleur, S. 39. FETICHISM. 27 his fetich powerless in a considerable number of instances that he is unde- ceived. But it is a very difficult thing for him, owing to the obtuseness of his intellect, to suspect that the true cause may lie outside of his fetich. Even if his faith is shaken, it is im- paired only so far as regards one special fetich, while it remains firm as to all others. He bases his judgment on the most superficial grounds. Thus, a plague broke out in Mo- lembo soon after the death of a Por- tuguese ; the two things were arranged in the order of cause and effect, and as long as the memory of the plague lasted the people of Molembo were very careful that no European should die within the limits of their country.* When cases occur, wherein the sav- age, according to his way of judging, directly sees the action of his fetich, his belief is confirmed. " In a clear- ing in the woods," writes Bastian, " I observed on the side of the road a fe- tich-house, and wished to examine it more closely, but my black carriers could not be induced to carry me to the spot. As I alighted, to go on foot, they almost resorted to violence to withhold me from executing my pur- pose, and I read in their eyes, when I came back to them, that they regarded me as certain to die very soon. . . . Weary, I reached Quimolenzo toward night, when suddenly my sight failed me, and I felt myself sinking power- less to the ground. A violent fever raged in all my veins, and this contin- ued through the entire night. The following day it was the same, and I was so weak I could not rise from the bed. My people exchanged knowing looks, as much as to say : The spell of the fetich is working ; and they were quite sure they would have to bury me before night." t " In front of the American's house (in Shemba-Shem- ba, West Africa) there was a crowd of people assembled, in the midst of whom a fetich-priest was running up and down with loud cries, jerking * Bastian, S. Salv. t Ibid. S. 50, 53. S. 104. hither and thither a wooden puppet decked with tatters of every color, and beating it with a switch on the face and shoulders. I learned that a knife had been stolen from one of the Negroes, and he had applied for its re- covery to this priest, who was the own- er of a fetich in high repute as a detec- tive of thieves. The unfortunate god appeared to me to have paid dearly for his reputation, seeing that he got a merciless whipping to begin with, to teach him the necessity of attending seriously to his business. The priest having wrought himself up to a high state of prophetic clairvoyance, an- nounced to the spectators, in a tone of perfect assurance, that the next morn- ing they would find the knife along- side the fetich, which he posted in front of the factory. In the morning there lay the knife, for the merchant, dis- liking a continuance of these ceremo- nies for an entire week, chose rather to confirm the infallibility of the fe- tich, than to expose his property to the risk of being plundered, if the people continued to flock around his estab- lishment." * The savage has never a doubt as to the efficiency of his fetich, and his faith is all the stronger because ever since he was a child he has seen every one entertaining the same belief, and so his mental fiber is, so to speak, sat- urated with it. Every one knows the force of early impressions ; how the great mass of mankind never emanci- pate themselves from their influence, and how it is only after many a pain- ful inward conflict that a man escapes from their dominion. But this abso- lute faith of the savage in the power of his fetich, disposes him to view it with dread ; this dread in turn serves to exaggerate the apparent efficiency of the fetich and so to confirm more and more the man's belief in its power. " When a Negro has anything stolen from him he entreats some great fetich to discover the thief. The pomp of ceremony attending the consultation of the fetich oftentimes * Bastian, S. 61. SH II IK 1 1 1 > M . lis the thief with consternation that he surrenders the property." * The thief being also convinced thai the fetich has power t<> hurt him, gives . what he has st< >len, or confi the theft "The rich frequently em- a K. issa potion to make their do- mesl ss their thefts." | I n Bassam they merely lay a feti< h- upon the body of the accused. If he is guilty, he is sure to confess; his fears will extort the admission.} Beneath the threshold of the king of I lahomey's palace is set a charm which causes his wives internal pains when- ever they arc guilty of misconduct, ami so they often find themselves trained to make a voluntary con- m of their guilt. § To this cate- gory ot beliefs belongs the so-called Judgment by the Lizard, which is in le among the inhabitants of Sene- gal A smith beats upon a lizard with his hammer: the fear of incur- ring the evil fortune which is supposed to follow from this performance is ex- pected to bring the thief to a confes- sion, and it usually does.|| Many simi- lai delusions are recorded in books of travel. But especially noteworthy is the Obeah Of the West India Islands. particularly Jamaica, a baneful super- stition for the eradication of which the most stringent enactments of law have proved insufficient. I is influence upon the minds of the Negroes is so great that at one period it notably increased mortality among them ; at another. stirred them up to mutiny, by impress- ing them with a belief that they were invulnerable." Thus fetiches serve for ordeals. which among the Negroes usually con- sist of poisonous potions, or of emetics • Proyart's Geschichte von Loango, Ka- i u. s. w. Aus dem Franzdsischen, Leip- f Bastian, S. Salv. 61. j Eiecquard, Keise an die Kiiste und in mere von Westafrika. Leipzig, if i Dahomey and the Dahomans. Paris, 1851, p. 55. '..iliqucs. Paris, 185.3, P- *° 2 - ' Bryan Edwards, Hist, des Colon. Anglai- ses. p. 266; Waitz,II. 190. and drastic agents.* The fetich has power to punish the guilty: the inno- cent he will not hurt. As the f< ti< h must come into bodily contact with : the ordeal, the is required to drink fetich-water,1 or water in which the bark of the wild manioc, or some other substance has been steeped. According to Halleur, ■• fetich-water is prepared from the bark of the tree odum. It is supposed that, as this tree is always a fetich, when a person accused of crime drinks the water in which its bark has been steeped, the fetich enters into him and thus discovers either his guilt or his innocence. If the accused party vomits, it is a sign that the fetich has discovered his innocence, and is quit- ting, his body : but if the fetich-water is retained, then the fetich has discov- ered his guilt, and will not quit him until he has been punished." t " The accused may. under certain conditions, send a slave to take the questionable potion in his stead. Many, however, of their own accord apply to have the fe- tich-water administered to them, to be purified by the ordeal."?; Very often the accused has the magical potion given to him without his knowledge, so that the savage lives in constant fear lest any one should employ this redoubtable form of fetich against hiniN The power of this spell may be estimated from the fact that the trading- post of Bimbia, between the Calabar and the Cameroons, and opposite to Fernando Po, which was at one time a missionary station, has become al- most entirely depopulated, owing to the employment of the fetich-water during many years bv the notables of the place on every slight occasion. || Nor is the ordeal by tire or that by water unknown in Africa. In Mada- • Winterbottom, p. 172; Knlcr. Eini tizen iiber Bonny. Gottingen, 1848, S. 127 ,/i. Histor. Beschr. der Konigrei- che Congo, et< .. 1694, 94, io.s seqq. : Proyart, S. 141. ; Bastian, San Salvador, S. 84,306. Cf. S. 203. 1 1 illeur, S. 34. ^ Bastian, S. Salvador, S. 85. Ibid. S. 106. FETICHISM. 29 gascar the accused person has to un- ! dergo the ordeal of red-hot iron.* Among the Malay Lapongs the glow- ing iron is applied to the tongue of the accused,t while among the An- taymours the ordeal requires him to swim across a stream inhabited by caymans. If a fetich which first owed its dis- tinction to accident, displays its power again on another occasion, it may eas- ily transcend the rank of being one man's fetich and be adopted by an en- tire family, or even by a larger aggre- gation. For in America, Africa, and Siberia,! each individual has his separate fetich ; each family, and even each tribe, their respective fetiches. The fetich of a tribe is honored with more pious and constant devotion than the inferior fetiches, as having for a longer period shown his effi- ciency^ Thus there are Grand Fetiches, which are regarded with pro- found awe, and which, in the shape of mountains, trees, rocks, etc., protect the chiefs or the territory of the tribe. || The fate of mankind is by the American Indian thought to de- pend upon the belt of wampum. The *Leguevel de Lacombe, Voy. a Madagas- car (1S23-30). Paris, 1840, I.233. t Waitz, Anthrop. V. Abth. I. S. 149. Cf. II. 523- J Charlevoix, p. 344, 346. Lettres edif. Xouv. Ed. VI. 174. De Bry, Descriptio au- rileri Reeni Guineas in Part VI. of India Ori- entalis, VI. 21. Oldendorp, Geschichte der Mission der evangelischen Briider auf den caraibischen Inseln St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. Jean, herausgegeben von J. J. Bas- sonet. Barby, 1777, I. 320 ff. Des Marchais, V< >yage en Guinee, Isles voisines et a Cayenne en 1725-27 parle P. Labat. Amsterdam, 1731, II. 131,152. Georgi, Beschreibung, S. 3S4. §J. B. Miiller, Moeurs et Usages des Os- tiakes, in the Recueil des Voyages au Nord. Anist.- 1731, Tom. viii, 413,414: " Les Os- tiakes ont beaucoup plus de veneration pour leurs idoles publiques, qu'ils ne depouillent pas et n'abandonnent pas comme les autres ; mais ils les estiment au contraire, et les rever- ent comme etant d'ancienne date et d'une au- torite recue et averee. || De Bry, vi. 21. Des Marchais, I. 297: " Les rois et les pais en ontd'autres qu'ils appellent les grands Fetiches, qui conservent le prince ou le pais : telle est quelquefois une grande montagne, un gros rocher, un grand arbree," etc chief of the Muemba is Chiti Muculo, '• the Great Stick, the Great Tree, - ' The center of religious and political life among the YYanikas is the Muansa, in whose honor the tribe celebrate roaring festivals, and which is to be approached only by the chief. This holy of holies is a wooden instrument which emits a peculiar buzzing sound.* The Grand Fetiches have their mysterious influence intensified, by being, as far as possible, withheld from the gaze of the profane. " The Grand Fetich,'' says Bastian, speak- ing of one in Congo, " dwells in the midst of the bush, where no man sees him, or can see him. When he dies, the fetich-priests carefully collect his bones, in order to reanimate them ; and supply them with nourishment, so that the Fetich may anew gain flesh and blood." t Nor do the Negroes regard the Christian religion as anything but the worship of a Grand Fetich.)) Thus San — f- Salvador (called by-sfne natives Congo dia Gunga — the tones of the bells — on account of the great num- ber of its churches and convents) was widely known and feared through- out South Africa, as the home of a powerful fetich. + The negro is so rooted in this mode of apprehending things, that he is ever returning to it, or rather, he never quite gives it up. " It has ever been the study of the missionaries to check the abominable practices of fetichism, and with the aid of the civil power they have suc- ceeded in abolishing the worst fea- tures of this Moloch worship, though not in substituting any other religion in its place, and the Negroes have ad- vanced only so far toward conversion as to use salt." § The only reason however that induced them to go even thus far was, that they thought salt would cause their children to grow fat. But they soon refused salt again, first because the ceremony cost too clearly, and secondly, because, as they * Waitz, Anthrop. III. 190 ; II. 422, 424. f Bastian, S. Salv. S. 82. J Bastian, S. Salv. S. 17 fr § Ibid. S. 96. 30 1 1.1 l« IIIvM. said, the elephant grows Eat though he uses do salt. " In < 'ongo, where the ruins of churches have served to perpetuate the memory ol the Chris- tian religion, the natives account for their ignorance ol Christianity bj say- ing that the Desu ol the Portuguese is too might) .i fetii h for common folk, ami so was reserved for the king alone, while his subjects had more comfort in worshiping fetiches of the time of Chitome, Guardian of the Sa- cred Fire.* A Christian priest is for them only a fetich priest practicing peculiar fetich ceremonies. •"When the slaves, torn from family and friends were put on shipboard in chains, to drag out a miserable exist ence over sea beneath a foreign sky, and in foreign lands, the pious bishop of Loanda sat on the stone seat at the end of the wharf and assured them, with his apostolical benediction, ol a future replete with joys unutterable, with which the brief period of their probation here below durst not be compared. The poor Negroes under- stood nothing of the ceremony but this, that the white man's fetich now deprived them of their last hope of again seeing their native place. Their names however were registered in the account presented to the Pope by the society cle propaganda tide, to be by him duly authenticated and sub- mitted to St. Peter."t As all the savage's thoughts and the whole conduct of his life are governed by fetichism, he regards his fetiches as absolutely necessary to Ins existence. Any rude shock given to this system of ideas and usage, causes emotions in the mind of the savage, as painful as those aroused in men of other beliefs bv the act of sacrilege, and the hatred of the blacks for the whites is largely owing to the disregard of this fact on the part of the latter, and to the daily and hourly insults which they thus to the black man's religion. Bastian wished to take a bath in a river near a certain Negro village. As he was S. 96. Mbid. on his way he was met by the Mafooka, the oldest man in the place, accom- panied by the entire population. " ( >n inquiring what he wanted, I found that he desired nie not to go anv nearer to the water; and he promised that my name should live for all time in the songs of that valley, if 1 would yield to his most humble entreaty. I scarce thought it worth while to pay any attention to the absurd request, which I judged to have been made simply with a view to deprive me of a pleasure I had long coveted, so I told the gabbing old man to betake him to a warmer region than his own country, and ordered my carriers to go on. This however it was impossible for them to do, for screaming children in swarms grasped them by the legs, and threw themselves upon the ground be- fore them, to block up the way. In heart-rending tones of wailing the Ma- fooka, in the mean while, struck up a song of woe, the effect of which was in- creased to the most painful degree by the chorus, in which all joined. The expression of blank despair was vis- ible on every countenance. Poor people ! Small wonder it was so : for the next day, on further inquiry. I learned that had I looked upon the stream, its sources would have been dried up forever, and their only sup- ply of water cut off! Rather than bring upon my soul the guilt of so great a catastrophe, I preferred to re- turn unrefreshed As we came near another village, my carriers halted, and the interpreter said my coming must be announced before- hand. I therefore dispatched him to make the announcement. On his re- turn he informed me that the usages of that country did not permit any one to pass through the village in a hang- ing-mat. To avoid delay, 1 submitted to the regulation : but when he in- sisted on my going through the same formalities at the next village I or- dered the bearers to move on. They hesitated, and only resumed the journev after repeated commands. Scarce had we reached the first hut, when with wild cries the entire oopu- FETICHISM. 31 lation, armed with spears, sticks and I muskets, surrounded my mat-palanquin and began to belabor the carriers. In the mean time I had distributed among my coolies the guns I had with me for presents, and, alighting at the moment of the attack, we soon had an unobstructed passage. I passed through the villages thereafter without difficulty, and so I saved much time which else had been wasted in the ob- servance of ancient customs. Wher- ever I observed that this disregard for ceremony gave very deep offense, I distributed a few gifts among the sen- iors to appease them."* Thus the savage is the abject slave of customs which to us appear ridicu- lous ; and so little doubt has the Ne- gro as to the truth of his fetichistic religion, that many of them ascribe the contempt of Europeans for the fetiches to the natural stupidity of the white man.t Every Negro, even the sternest autocrats and despots, bow in reverence before the fetich. " Every year the Duke and Duchess of Sundi were required to wage a symbolic con- test with the chief fetich priest, by the sacred tree in Gimbo Amburi ; they were always worsted, and obliged to acknowledge the fetich's power." t Even if the Negroes do now and then admit the absurdity of their faith and worship, still they cling to them be- cause tradition vouches for them and they themselves know of nothing better.§ 2. The Range of Fetich Influence. The efficiency of the fetich is, for the savage, beyond all question, and there is no limit assignable for its in- fluence. I do not mean to say that each individual fetich possesses this unlimited power, but that there is nothing which is not subject to one fetich or another. The question for the savage is what kind of objects *Bastian, 60, 108. t Livingstone, Missionary Travs. (Germ. Trans.). Leipzig, 1858, II. 83. t Bastian, 204. § Bosmann, III. 2S1. may be employed as fetiches to meet various contingencies. Not to speak of the daily discovery of fetich power in new objects, there are sundry things which have long been known as fetich for certain defined purposes, and which, as such, are received by all. Now a fetich may be either friendly or hostile toward me. First, he shows himself friendly toward me when he confers a benefit, or when he preserves me from evil. The Cabin- da Negroes always carry their little idols (Manipancha) about with them ; commune with them in a state of high nervous excitement ; counsel with them as to the future ; obtain from them news about home and family, and have firm faith in the revelations which they suppose they receive from their fetiches.* Some American In- dians carry similar figures, carefully wrapped up, in their medicine-bags. On solemn occasions they are taken out and treated with great reverence. f In short, no action of any moment is commenced, whether the chase, or fishing, or war, without first consult- ing the fetiches as to its ultimate suc- cess and as to the best mode of com- mencing it.$ As in the ordeal, the fetich here appears as a Being that knows hidden things : in the ordeal, things past, here things to come. This is the original of the Oracles. On the Gold Coast the most renowned Oracle is at Mankassim.§ But the fetiches confer other benefits, besides revealing the past and the future. They bring " luck ; " and for this pur- pose they are carried on fishing and hunting expeditions and when the tribe goes to war. There are fetiches for river fish and for sea fish ; for favoring winds ; for a cheap market ; for health; for clear sight, etc. || * Bastian, S. 81; Tams, Die portug. Be- sitzungen in S. W. Afrika. Hamb. 1845, S. 89. - t Schoolcraft, Information, etc., '\ . 169. | Cf. Meiners, Allg. Krit. Gesch. d. R. Bd. I, S. 176. § Cruickshank, Eighteen years on Gold Coast (1834), p. 227. || Bastian, S. Salv. S. So ; Des Marchais, II. 130 seqq., 152 seqq. ; Bosmann, 179 ff ; I ! I 1< III^M. "The usual form of a fetich specially! intended for those on .1 journey is a ball of red cloth, within which the fetich priest encloses some powerful medicine, generally the extract of some plant (milongo). Further, the \ i suspends all aboul his person 3 with nii>s! complicated knots. . bullets, and in a word any ob- that strikes his fancy. The Bushman who acted as my guide in Shemba-Shemba had an image three feel long dangling from his belt, which he never would think of remov- ing. In fact, the heavier the load with which von burden a Negro, the greater the number of fetiches he in turn will add, to make things even." * The ordinary fetich is generally a very unpretentious object — often a couple of leaves from a tree.f " The poorer Negroes of the interior are often quite content if they only have a cord to tie around the calf of the leg. Frequently this cord is of matebbe, which, like plumes in the hair, gives invulnerability. The Kroo Negroes almost universally wear this cord around the shank, but more loosely than the Caraibs. The Catholic mis- sionaries were for a while much elated with the thought that they had rooted out this particular form of fetichism, by substituting for the common cord one twisted out of palm-leaves blessed on Palm Sunday."!: Among the Kaffirs the warriors are rendered in- vulnerable by means of a black cross on their foreheads and black stripes on the cheeks, both painted by the [nyanga, or fetich-priest. This con- trivance makes the warrior invisible, while it deprives the enemy of his sight and fills him with terror.*? The • 's faith in his fetich which ren- ders him invulnerable and disables . I ildendorp, I. 324 ; < '■■ lu Nord. VIII. 410-414: Charle- voix, p. 340, 34S ; Lettrcs editiantcs, Nouv. Ed. VI. 1- 1 • Bastian, S. So. t Halleur, [9. Cf. Wait/. II. S. 1S6. ; .in. S. 79. S Donne, Zulu-Kafir Dictionary. Cape T. 1857, p. 303. his enemy's arm is so strong, that he will court danger, suffer arrows to be shot at him. and allow his anus and legs to be hewn lint yet some discretion is to In- used in tin- 1 hoi( I- of the materia] which constitutes the feti< h. and the Savage will very naturally suffer his e to be determined by the value of the object he selei ts. The natives of Siberia prefer metallic fetiches to all others, these being, as they sup- by reason of their great age, ssed of a longer experience atjd a higher wisdom than are possessed by other materials less durable by nature.! In warding off evil the fetich does but exhibit the other side of his benef- icent disposition. There are fetiches against thunder; to extract thorns that have penetrated into the feet . against wild beasts; to save one from missing his path, etc. J By being employed against disease, the fetich becomes medicinal, and thus also the fetich-priest is at the same time nec- essarily a medicine-man. or physician. $ "When on Fernando Po conta, diseases break out among the children the skin of a snake is fastened to a pole in the middle of the market-place, and thither mothers bring their in- fants, to touch this fetich. In the vil- lage of Issapoo the renewal of this snake-skin in the Reossa (market- place) is the occasion of an annual festival, and it is hist touched by the infants born during the preceding year." || The savage, being ignorant of the real cause of disease, attributes it directly to the action of a hostile fetich, and always judges death to * Provart, p. 192; Bowdich, p. 364 seqq.; Koler, s. 1:7. t Voyages au Nord. VIII. 414. "lis out beaucoup tic confiance en elles, surtout quand elles son! d'airain, cela leur donnaut. a ce qu'ils imaginent, une sorte d'immortalite*, parce qu'elles onl resisti a la corruption du temps immemorial, ct qu'elles ont acquis, pendant tant d'annees, beaucoup de lumieres et d'experience. \ Bastian, So. § //W. Si, 138. Bastian, 31S, 319. FETICH ISM. 33 be brought about by witchcraft.* Against such a power naught can avail, save counter charms, to be ob- tained by the priest or magician from their more potent fetiches. It is true, the Mandigoes emplov many wholesome medicinal agents — herbs. potions, infusions — but yet they gen- erally make only external applica- tions of them.t As a lock of hair, or a few drops of blood, may be so enchanted as to throw a spell upon the person from whom they were taken, the Kaffirs, in order to avoid the suspicion of such prac- tices, are always very careful to restore such articles — vermin in- cluded — to the owner, so that he may secretly bury them out of sight, or destroy them, t " In case of sick- ness they call in a male or female conjurer ; and of these there is one specially qualified to deal with each special class of diseases. The con- jurer undertakes to blow counter to the evil wind sent from a distance by some enemy : if, however, he is un- successful in this, nor yet can prevail with the aid of music, then he gives up his patient to the wicked daemon." § '•When a Xegro falls sick," says Halleur, who describes the scene more particularly, " his relatives apply to the fetich-priest. After he has got their offering of rum and cowries (for without these gifts the holy man is quite inaccessible) he inquires of his fetich, who it is that has bewitched the sick man : for they believe that disease is caused only by witchcraft. The priest next fashions out of clay an image of the conjurer named bv the fetich and carries it into the forest." This same course is followed by the medicine-men among the American Indians. They stab the image with knives, or shoot arrows into it, where- * Ibid. 91 ; Halleur, S. 32 ; Waitz, II. 1S8, 5°3- t Park, Voyage dans l'interieur de I'Afrique. Paris, an VIII. II. 27 seqq.; Cord.-Laing, Voyage dans le Timani, le Kouranko et le Soulimana (1S22). Paris, 1826, p. 350. \ Steedman, Wandering and Adventures in the Interior of Africa. London, 1835, I. 266. § Bastian, S7. by the witchcraft is turned against the conjurer himself. It frequently happens that he who is the bewitched actually regards himself as held by a spell, and soon dies of profound mel- ancholy.* '• But," continues Halleur, " if the spell is obstinate, and refuses to give way, then the rum-offering and the ceremonies of disenchantment must be repeated, and the patient treated with remedies prescribed by the fetich, and prepared by the priest. This treatment is followed up till the sick man either recovers, or succumbs to the power of the over-strong spell. The corpse is borne about the entire village previous to its inter- ment in its former home. Oftentimes the bearers, when passing the house of one they dislike, or on meeting such a one on the street, halt sud- denly, pretending that the corpse refuses to go any further. The priest asks of the dead man the reason of this unwillingness to proceed, and gets for answer that the occupant of the house or the passenger in question is the conjurer that bewitched him. The man is at once arrested and held to prove his innocence, after the funeral is over. This proof is made by the administration of the fetich- water. The punishment is death, in case the suspected murderer cannot prove his innocence, or if, when proved guilty, he cannot purchase life for a considerable sum." f " When the draught of fetich water proves fatal to the party accused, the priests search for the seat of the en- chantment in the dead body, and ex- hibit to the people portions of the viscera forcibly torn from their place and now unrecognizable, as corpora delicti^ just as the medicine-men pre- tend to extract a splinter or a stone. % Among the Eambarras, if one of the highest caste of the Kubaris fall *De la Potherie, Hist, de l'Amer. septentr. Paris, 1722, II. 30; Keating, Narr. of an Exped. to the Source of St. Peter's Riv. London, 1825, II. 159. t Halleur, S 32 ff. ; Vignon in X. Ann. des Voy. 1856, IV. 299; Waitz, II. 189. 1 Bastian, 85. I 1II< HISM. the presumptive cause of his disordei is, that someone has, whether purpose!) 01 unawares, touched one of his wives. l*he oftender, who must be discovered, and who is by the greal orai le of the Buri, is either banished or put to death. 4 It may, however, appear to the pnest that the disease was due to the patient's own transgression, in having forsworn, or omitted the cus- tom. uv offering The fetich lias power to heal bodily diseases; a draught of fetich-water can discover in the heart the proofs whether ol guilt or of innocence ; and it is therefore but natural that it shduld have also power to banish moral ills. During the festival of the First Fruits the men of the Creek tribe of American Indians used to; take after a prolonged fast, the war- medicine, being strong emetics and drastic agents,}: while the women bathed and washed themselves. All offenses, with the exception of mur- der, were thus blotted OUt.§ It is be- yond question that the idea of purifi- cation from sin attached to these cer- emonies, but especially to the bath and the drinking of the "black draught " as it was called, an infusion of dried cassine-leaves. The taking of this draught was accompanied with peculiar rites; and it was intended also to '"give courage and cement friendship." The Cherokees used a similar potion, " to wash their sins away," as they said. || "Though the superficial observer might here sus- pect a reminiscence of Christian doc- trine, still if we look at the matter more nearly it will scarcely appear probable that so important and mys- tic- a rite should have had such an or- igin, especially as we seek in vain Efenel, Voy. dans I'Afrique occid. . § Adair. Hist. Ainer. Indians. Lond D. I :. 1 20 ; School I r. V. 2' * Memoirs oi Timberlake. Lond. 17 among these tribes for any evidence Ol their having been ever in contact with the ( Christian religion."* The savage attributes to t< iii h in- fluent e not .done disease and di ath, bin every phenomenon he is unable iunl for, as. foi instant e, storms and the changes ol weather. He is thus furnished with an explanation for everything; and this explanation is entirely satisfactory to him. It is plain that this fact of the savage hav- ing ever ready at hand such unques- tioned '" ultimate reasons " to a< count for everything must check the devel- opment of his mind, or, in other words, must retard his progress tow- ard civilization. For lie knows a priori the cause ot phenomena, and the means by which they are pro- duced : hence it never occurs to him to study their natural causes and con- ditions: consequently he does not rec- ognize the natural relations between things, and fails to discover that the supposed cause is no cause at all. Hls mind accordingly makes no ad- vance, but is ever under the tyranny \ of hallucination. And every a priori principle has the like tendency to I check the mind's development ; For ' here it is all one whether it is the Negro that says: this is the work of the fetich: or whether it is the Mo- hammedan that says: this is Allah's work. A formula explains everything for them both, and by its very expla- nation leaves everything unexplained. Fetiches also ward off evil spirits. When the women in Shemba-Shemba have occasion to quit their fields for a time, they strew them with frag- ments of pottery, for else the malign spirits would trample down the crop.t The Negroes of Whida post fetich images, five or six in< hes in height, I at either end of their fields, at the ' doors of their houses, in their apart- ments, court-yards and cattle-stalls, being fully convinced that else evil- minded spirits or men would do them * Wait/, Anthr. III. 209. among the Kutrirs, II. 414. f Bastian. S. I - Similar rites FETICHISM. 35 injury.* The same custom is fol- ' lowed by the Polynesians of New i Zealand, Hawaii, Nukahiva and other islands.! Burying-places, too, are pro- tected by potsherds and little images. | A low, thin hedge encircles Negro villages, at a distance of about ioo paces from the huts, and this serves I to keep aloof evil spirits. § A line of j twisted bast forms a cordon of de- fense round about a. Boobie village in Fernando Po. Here also the natives employ mussel shells as fetiches. When the devil would come to do them harm, his feet are lacerated by the angular points of the shells. || Seeing that spirits have such fear of the fetiches with what dread thieves must regard them! "Over the door- way of the Negro hut are suspended roots and cast-off rags, and often broken egg-shells, as guardian fe- tiches. Others employ a block of wood with the likeness of a human face cut in it, and this they plant within the doorway of the hut, or in their fields; yet most of them are contented with a rather smoothly- dressed pole, on which they set a snail's shell, as a most potent fetich." " In a village near S. Salvador I saw wooden fetiches with lofty plumes, set up 'as guardians in front of the houses ; in front of the main entrance to another village I saw an empty pot supported on a forked stick." " They have no locks to their doors, nor do they need them, for but rarely is there found a thief so foolhardy as to pass the fetich posted near the threshold." H "The Negro avoids * Des Marchais, II. p. 153. Ce sont pour 1'ordinaire des petits marmousets de terre rouge ou noire de cinq ou six pouces de hauteur; ils les mettent a la tete et a la queue de leurs champs, aux portes de leurs maisons, dans leurs chambres, dans leurs cours, dans leurs pares a cochons, dans leurs pouliers ; . . . ce sont pour eux des gardiens, des sauve-gardes a qui ils se croyent redev- ables du bien qu'ils ont, et d'etre a couvert des malheurs qu'ils craignent. Cf. also Rdmer, Guinea, S. 38. t Gerland, ap. Waitz, Anthr. V. 2, 225. % Bastian, S. Salvador, S. 107, 124. § Halleur, S. 23. || Bastian, S. 316, 348. 1 Cf. Waitz, II. 422, S02. touching them, lest a curse should come upon him." * The following will show how dangerous a thing it is merely to touch a fetich. Captain Rytschkow, having entered a hut in a certain YVotiak village, observed lying on a board that was fastened to the wall something which he took to be dried grass. He approached to ex- amine it, but scarcely had he taken it in hand when the owner of the hut and his wife, with loud cries of dis- tress, ran to where he stood and begged him piteously not to touch their Modor, or household god. They explained to him how the most grievous misfortune would befall them if even one of the family, to say noth- ing of a stranger, were to touch the Modor. This Modor consisted of some sprigs of fir, which a certain aged Wotiak had alone the right to touch and to distribute among the several families. t But the guardian power of fetiches goes farther still : to them indeed the appeal is made, Videant tie respublica del rime ntum capiat. They are the Protectors of the country % and of its laws. " To give due sanction to a law, it is placed under the special protection of a fe- tich, whose duty it then is to punish violators of it, as also the one who, knowing of a violation, does not lodge a complaint against the offender." Furthermore, " when a priest admin- isters an oath, he gives to both par- ties a draught of the bitter water, and this, laden as it is with the fetich's malediction, will slay the one who proves false. "§ The Orang-Benuas in Malacca have similar usages, and indeed they prevail throughout the entire Malay race, being practiced especially when they form alliances. They drink some liquid mixed with blood, in which a dagger or the points * Waitz, 79, iS6, 316,78, 348. The same is related of the Loando Negroes by Proyart, I. 168, 169. t Rytschkow, Tagebuch iiber seine Reise dutch verschiedene Provinzen d. Russ. Rei- ches in. den Jahren, 1769-71, S. 166, 167. % Des Marchais, I. 297. § Bastian, 293,90; Waitz, II. 157 ; Meiners, B.I. 176. 1 I I I« IMsM. . have been dipped ; these will kill the perjurer.* The Burats il worship i<> a lofty rock on the shore ol Lake Baikal. They who lake an oath must ascend this rock, and on its summit perform the usual 1 1 is the firm beliel of the na- that whosoever profanes by per- jury the saricd mount cm ne\ er c< »me down again, and that the mountain .slays him.t Among the Africans, too, as among the Malays, alliances are consecrated and confirmed by being placed under the protection of a fetich. "At the conclusion of the meal, each Macota - and kneels before the \ who puts into the mouth of each a piece of human llcsh reserved from the banquet, so that by partaking in common of the viand they may be all bound together by an indissoluble fetich. In Great Bassam, after the ros have ascertained the portents betokened by the entrails, the heart and liver of the victim sacrificed at the forming of a new village, together with the flesh of a hen, a she-goat and a fish are baked all together in a pot, and the entire community is re- quired to eat of the mess, under pen- alty of dying within the year. J Tlie fetich, by punishing perjurers, maintains the stability of oaths and of alliances. The fidelity of the sav- age depends upon his fear of the fe- tich : and were he to lose this fear, he would be free from every obligation. When therefore he would renounce thes,- obligations, he must deprive the fetich of all power to do him injury, and break its ban if that can be d or in case this is impossible, he must only disregard the obligations, and then depend upon gifts and sacrifice to appease the wrath of the offended deity. And either one or other of these two courses the savage in real- ity adopts. The spell of a mighty * Newbold, Account of the British Settle- nii ntS in the Straits of Malaci .1. I. mid. 1S39, II. JO*. t isbrand, Voy. au N. 'I om. \ III. ; Pallas, . ol. Vblker, I. 218. ■ Bastian, S. 154. fetich maj be broken by that of one mightiei still; and an offended fetich may be appeased by .uiits.* The piiest undertakes to make the offer- ing a< < eptable to the feti< h, • render him harmless. According to 1 ranga N/i gave release from a sworn obligation, by (.rasing it. as it were, from the tongue, with the fruit of the palm-tree. I i too, a fetich may be deprived of the to hurt, by being imprisoned. t The power of the fetich is gr< great also is the fear which he inspires. Now. just as my fetich can do injury to other men. so may their fetiches in- jure me. The consequence is that I must be in a state of constant anxiety, and ever on my guard, for how can I say but that some one is possessed of a fetich hostile to me. which he may employ against me? "The savage anxiously scans a stranger, as the lat- ter may perchance be the owner of a formidable fetich. He will be in- clined to run away ; or. in case he thinks himself strong enough, he will try to make away with the new- comer."} In this point of view the following occurrence is characteristic. One of Bastian"s suite was attacked and robbed. " 1 sent a force to the Elder of the nearest village ; and on his refusing to come of his own ac- cord, they compelled him to come to me. As the attack took place within his jurisdiction. I held him account- able, and required him either to dis- cover the robbers or himself to make reparation for the outrage. He pro- tested his ignorance of the affair and his inability to comply with my de- mand. As I could not delay, 1 took out my note-book, to make a memo- randum of the name of the place. So soon as I set pencil to paper he fell into a violent convulsive tremor, and prostrate at my feet, entreated me not to undo him with my fetich- *Kosmann, II. 54; Monrad, Gemalde v. d. Kiiste von Guinea (1805-9). Weimar, 1824, t Wait/. Anthr. II. 185. J Bastian, S. 104. FETICH I SM. 37 book, for that he was ready to per- form whatever I should require."* Accordingly there are many tribes which have gained for themselves a ■certain degree of impunity through the terror inspired by their fetiches. f " The ointment magya sambo, in- vented by Tumba Demba II., daughter of Donghi, and which was prepared from the body of an infant brayed in a mortar, made her warriors invulner- able, and so wrought on the fears of her enemies as to make them power- less."* The fortunate possessor of such a "Grand Fetich," which domineers •over the fate and fortunes of others, will prize this more than all his other property. A woman held a fetich of this kind, owned by her, dearer than all her children, and refused the offer of five slaves, which was made to her for it.§ The hostile fetich may be concealed anywhere, and may be carried any- where by an enemy ; so that a man is never secure from danger. If the Negroes would take vengeance of any one, they get a feticero to bewitch a piece of meat or other food ; and this they set in some place likely to be visited by their adversary, who will thus infallibly come by his death. || Accordingly the Negro, ever in dread •of witchcraft, at every turn pronoun- ces a counteracting charm. " The host must always first taste of a dish before it is passed to his guests, so as to 'extract the fetich,' and this cus- tom is universal throughout Africa." U There are also other fetiches to meet this danger. " To guard against fetich-water, the more wealthy provide themselves with cups made of rhinoc- eros horn, which pass here, as also in India, for sure reagents against poison. In Bimbia the natives pro- tect themselves against poison-water by burying in some remote valley of *Ib. 225. Mb. 129. 1 7-5.234. § Cruikshank, 241 seqq. || Rosmann, Guinea, S. 179. IT Bastian, 135. the interior a twig with which they mystically connect the duration of their lives, hoping thus to have placed the latter beyond the power of any fetichman."* Nor are fetiches them- selves secure against one another, and so quite naturally you will see a fetich with a number of other fetiches attached to him, for protection.! 3. The Religiosity of Fetich Wor- shipers. The fetich being possessed of such powers, the bestower of so many benefits, the defense against so many ills, it will be the duty of the savage without delay to choose a fetich for his guardian. Accordingly the life of the new-born babe is immediately placed under such tutelage, and the fetich thus chosen as guardian of the infant watches over him through life. But the fetich will not care for his ward except on condition that he re- ceives service in return. He re- quires of his charge submission, obe- dience ; he exacts a vow,t and im- poses a command, which his protege is expected to perform with all fidelity. So long as he is faithfully served, the fetich preserves his ward from clanger and misfortune ; while, on the other hand, disobedience brings down his wrath, and is surely punish- ed : " In sundry parts of Africa the babe is tattooed on the abdomen immediately after its birth, as a sign of its consecration to some fetich." $ " Within a few days after it is born the child is brought to the Ganga (fetich priest), who imposes on it one or more vows ; and the mother takes care to accustom her child, from its earliest years, to the performance of those vows, and gives it such in- struction as to their obligation as will make it easier in after life to * Ibid. S 5, 306. t OTdendorp, I. 324 ff. % For the Amer. Indians, v. Charlevoix, 349; for the Negr., Moore, Travels into the Inland Parts of Africa, 91 ; for the Siberians, Georgi's Reise, 599 seqq. § Bastian, 77. II I Ii M ISM. dis< harge them. In some tribes, how- I his mystic union with the Mokis- delayed until the critic al period ol youth, that ol puberty, when, in . the boy-colonies, \\ li< > then be- gin tn he visited by the ideal dreams "i youth, retire into the woods, and when the Indian lad climbs his solitary tree. Important occurrences in one's life arc also occasions for acknowledging the power ol the fe- tich."* Among the American Indians a youth's "life-dream" is of high im- ince for his successful transi- tion from boyhood to manhood. During this dream he receives a spe- cial guardian spirit, his " medicine," which he ever after carries about with him, in the shape of some animal's skin. The youth of 14 or 15 years retires into solitude and there abstains from all food for a time, so that he may dream the better. His dream discloses to him his future destiny and his fortunes through life: and the celestial admonitions which are thus conveyed to him direct his course down to the day of his death. f Many curious names owe their origin to these dreams : " Hole in the Sky " was the name of an Indian whose guardian spirit appeared to him in an opening in the heavens. t It is essential that this guardian spirit be seen ; and the fasting and dreaming must he continued until some animal makes its appearance. After the dreamer awakes, he tracks an animal of the same species, kills it, and carefully preserves the skin, or at leasl that part which was specially ob- served in the dream, and this he always carries about with him. To lose it would earn for him the ig- nominious title of " Man without med- i( ine," and bring upon him untold mis- fortunes in later years. § Families and tribes Ol Indians have also their guardian fetich in the shape of some animal, as a bear, a buffalo, a hawk. an otter, etc., and the Algonquins called this fetich the Totem.* The whole species represented in the to- tem was exempt from pursuit. Its name was adopted as that of the clan, and when an individual was ques- tioned as tO his own name, he would generally, with a sort of family pride, give that of the totem. Marriage was not to to be contracted between those of the same totem, just as the Negroes of Aquapim regard two fam- ilies whose fetiches bear one name as related, and so forbidden to inter- marry, t The vows taken in honor of the fetich are of course very simple, and have reference merely to external j acts. As specimens of different vows taken in Loango, Dapper gives -the following, in addition to a series of minute directions as to costume : % Not to eat such or such flesh, birds, fishes ; such or such herbs, fruits, etc. : I or if one ate of them, to do so all alone and afterward to bury the bones. Others bound themselves never to pass over water, even were the same in small quantity, or had fallen in the shape of rain, or had come from any other source. Others again were not to cross a river in a boat with their shoes on, though they might wade or cross on the back of an animal. Some were required to wear the hair of the head unshorn, others might cut off that as well as the beard, while others still were allowed to cut off only the one or the other. Some were not permitted to eat fruits, while I others were required to eat all they I got, and to refuse a share to any one. * Bastian, 254. imples of such dreams in Kohl, Kitchi-Gami, oder Erzahlungen vom obe- reii See. Bremen, 1S59. { School* raft, II. 160. atlin, Letters and Notes on the X. A. Indians, 4th Ed. Loud. 1844; Wait/, Anthr. III. 118; Charlevoix, p. 346; Hist. Buccan- eers of America. Lond. 1741, I. 116; Lettres edifianto. VI. 17 \. • Wait/. Anthr. III. 1 19. t Has. Mi>s. Magazine, 1S52. IV. 327. \ Cf. I >upuy, Journ. of a Re-id. in Ashantee. Lond. 1824, p. 239; Bosmann, II..66 ; I'royart, 195; Bowdich, 362, 524; Tuckey, Narr. of Exped. to explore Riv. Zaire in 1S16. Lond. 1818, 124. 223. FETICHISM. 39 no matter how much they had.* The Yagas (a tribe of warlike African savages) imposed upon themselves, according to Cavazzi,! strenuous practices of abstinence, similar to those found among American In- dians, with a view to render them- selves the worthy champions of the sacred Quixilles; and they thought that they entered the strife in earnest only after the first captive had been put' to death as an atonement for the sins of the tribe. The sanctity of the royal palace was so rigidly maintained among them, that when once a baptized infant was by its mother brought within the enclosure, the chief ordered the palace to be torn down, burnt, and leveled with the ground, for such a profanation necessi- tated the erection of a new one. The flesh of swine, elephants and snakes was forbidden to the Yagas, and they would no more touch it than would the Australian touch the flesh of his kobong. Unfavorable seasons were ascribed to the indignation of the gods on account of the people's sins. Thus these savages, who sucked the brains out of the heads of their liv- ing foes, and who, by public licentious- ness, cannibalism and infanticide, violated every article of the moral code, even they had an ideal which they called Virtue. t When on the Gold Coast the members of a family separate from one another, and they can no longer worship in common the family fetich, then the priest destroys the latter and prepares from it a draught, to be taken by them : and so the fetich enters their bodies. At the same time certain prohibitions as to food are enjoined, the observance of which is a religious duty.§ Thus each savage has his special guardian fetich and his own peculiar vows ; thus, too, each has a religious belief peculiar to himself, and the * Bastian, 253. t lb. 205 ff; Cavazzi, Relat. histor. de l'Ethiop. occid., trad. d. l'ltal. par le P. Labat. Paris, 1732. % Bastian, 205 ff. ; Cavazzi, itbi supra. § Cruikshank, 220. principles governing his conduct in sundry contingencies are the reverse of those held by his neighbors. Con- sequently he must regard his neigh- bor's conduct as smacking of heresy, and his neighbor's person as a thing unclean. " The diversity of Mokissos made it necessary in the great cara- vanserai in the market-place of Lo- ango that each person should bring his own cup from which to drink the palm-wine, so as not to be exposed to the danger of drinking unawares out of a heterodox cup." * " In what manner soever the Mok- isso has been selected, the whole after life of his worshiper is bound up in him. This is the source of all true contentment for the savage, and here he finds the solution of all those anx- ious questions which arise in his mind no less than in that of other men, who would be but ill content, however, with the very simple solution accepted by the Negro. The vow he has undertaken is for him the sum total of religion. So long as things go pleasantly for him, he is happy and contented under the guardianship of his Mokisso ; he feels strong in the assurance of divine approval ; ascribes to the divine com- placency, his days of sunshine ; in- deed his judgment is strictly con- trolled by his wishes and desires. But if unintentionally or involuntarily he breaks his vow, the whole course of providence in his regard is at once and irrevocably altered. Then mis- fortune overtakes him ; he is quickly overwhelmed with calamities, and his only escape lies through death and oblivion ; for him there is no hope, no path leading to reconciliation and de- liverance. The luckless wretch need not. in Africa at least, go far in search of death. The fiends who surround him, in the shape of fellow-men. quickly trample him to death, and with the last breath of the fetich-worshiper expires a System of the Universe, in smallest 12 mo. With the man per- ishes the god he himself made, and both go back into the night of Noth- * Bastian, 25S. 10 I I I I' ll|s\|. ingness. Here, too, is shown the mighi of inexorable Fate. The de- made the Mokisso what it was : hut the Mokisso was bound to avenge the infraction of his commands ; he annihilates his worshiper, and with him annihilates himseli Bui let us suppose thai the s.i\ ago observes his vow. " By studying the Negro when swelling with pride at his good fortune, we can get an insight into many oilier features of this kin i •rship. II is gi >< "I Genius makes him overweening oi himself, and he looks down upon his fellows with dis- dain: but he may attain a still more exalted degree of eminence, when l>y his virtues he attracts to his service still other Mokissos. With this view he assumes new vows, and enters into covenants with one Mokisso after another. His faith increases his courage and audacity, and fortem for- tunes adjuvat. But now his role be- COmes hazardous, as it is difficult to perform the numerous vows he has taken ; " t soon it will he quite im- possible. But if he omits any, he of- fends and enrages the slighted fe- s. and the upshot of the matter will be, that he must follow the course we have already described. The greater the number of the fetit lies to which a savage is devoted, and the greater the number of his vows, the more will his time be oc- cupied in paying them reverence. Thus only freemen, the rich and the i ful can afford to have many fetiches or to bind themselves by many obligations. The slave must bestow all his time and attention in his master's service, and the poor are sufficiently occupied in procuring a livelihood, neither of them have leisure for anything beyond the sim- • devotions. The higher, there- fore, a Negro's rank, the more fe- ti( lies he will possess, the mole VOWS he will have to observe, and the more difficult will it be for him to live without offense. Koiuer fell in with * Bastian, 254, 55. t /A. 256. 1 Negro who owned nearly 20,000 tt'tii hes, man) ol whi< h, however, he kept merely bee ause they had be- d to his .UK estnis.* •• | | lr princes ol Loango rei eive several years' s< hooling in a compli< form oi fetich-worship, assuming new vows toi e.u h degree ol initiation ; and thus only are they qualified to rank among the Eligible Princes, who alone can ascend the throne. When an adult person is to adopt a new Mokisso, the Ganga is not governed by his own private inspira- tion, as he is when he imposes a VOW on the new-born infant; but he puts himself in sympathetic rapport with the postulant, and hearkens to the words spoken by the latter in an ecstasy ; and these words determine his choice."! Nor is this of little importance for the postulant and Ins future happiness. The Ganga might impose on him a vow entirely un< on- genial to his tastes and inclinations. In that case, he would soon trans- gress against his obligations, and incur guilt. But the adult postulant has a well-defined character (if we may so speak of a savage) and the Ganga adapts to this the new fetich and the new vow, thus securim; a good understanding between the fe- tich and the devotee, and insuring the happiness of the latter. Further- more, " in the fact that the Ganga, in selecting a Mokisso for the new- born infant, takes into account the character of its parents' Mokisso, and seeks tO establish between the two a sort of organic connection, we see the earliest effort toward a system nans, ending the individual." t Tin- power of the savage increases in proportion 10 the number of vows lie faithfully performs, and of the fetiches who give him protection and Strength. "Whenever the Ruling I [i mse succei d, by means of their fetiches, in establishing a strict line of separation between themselves and the rest of the tribe, they soon assume * Romer, < ruinea, S. 62. t Bastian, S. 257. } lb. 65. FETICH ISM. 41 die most unlimited prerogatives. A prince of the blood may then at •will enslave and sell an inferior, whenever he is in want of money." * " In the king of Loango, as being the personification of supreme human felicity, resides the most unlimited authority over the Mokissos, which are themselves the very expression of unbounded Might. It is his will that causes the sun to shine ; by his command vegetation proceeds ; a word from him were sufficient to annihilate the universe." t On the White Nile, as also in Benin and in Dahomey, a like opinion prevails.^ For this reason certain exceptionally powerful fetiches, the Sea, for in- stance, are reserved for those who govern. "The king of Quinsembo has his palace, or Banza, some three miles inland, on the bank of the riyer •Quinsembo, back of a line of sand- hills, and he never passes beyond that line of hills seaward, lest' the •sea should come within the range of his vision, and he should see it. Were he to behold the sea, the consequence would be his death, and the destruction of the kingdom, as he is forbidden by the fetich to look upon the sea. Many other kings along the coast are similarly re- stricted, while others will eat only the products of their native soil, and •eschew all foreign articles of luxury in their attire." § The savage puts fetters upon him- self, in proportion to the number of vows he undertakes. Thus, the greater his power, as the owner of many fetiches, the more numerous the restrictions put upon his liberty ; and so the very fact that he holds unlimited power curiously enough proves in the end his destruction. The dignity of kingship, for instance, involves the service of many fetiches and the performance of many vows. * Ibid. 256. t Ibid. 256; Proyart, 120; Brun-Rollet, in Bulletin de la Soc. geogr. 1S52, II. 422. % Palisot-Beauvais apud Labarthe, Voy. a la Cote de Guinee, 1803, p. 137 (tier- man tr.). § Bastian, 33. Should the king prove unfaithful, he brings disaster upon himself and upon his kingdom. In Congo if the king's white fez fell off his head, the accident foreboded evil to the state, just as the Japanese Dairi, should he happen toy a shake of the head to alter in any way the position of his royal crown, would thereby alter the heavenly course of the sun, whose representative he was. Accordingly, all watch with the eyes of Argus, to see that the ruler discharges his vows. Wo to him if he be negligent ! Then those over whom the despot once tyrannized would in turn be- come his tyrants. Of him may be said what Bastian affirms with regard to the entire Negro race : " No mag- istrate can by his prohibitions restrict him in the pursuit of his favorite enjoyments ; but he will voluntarily take upon himself the shackles of his fetich. No tyrannical despot may prescribe a code of laws to govern his conduct. He makes his home wherever he pleases, and does as he likes, provided only he does not transgress the bounds set by tradi- tion, or depart from the customs handed down from his own ancestors. But hie hceret aqua: for these cus- toms surround him like a system of intricate snares, which it is not easy to escape. The slightest offense, when proved against him in a Pa- laver, is sufficient ground for irrevo- cably adjudging himself, his family and all his goods confiscated to the king ; and the latter will have no scruple in selling him as a slave to the first trader that comes that way." ' On the White Nile, when the rain fails, the king is put to death. t Among the Banyars, too, the king, who is also the high-priest — i.e., chief conjurer — is held accountable for national calamities ; yet he does not pay the penalty with his life, escaping with a sound pommeling. t * Bastian, 64. t Proyart: Brun-Rollet, ubi sttpr. t Hecquard, Keise au die Kiiste unci in das Innere von W. Afrika. Leipz. 1S54, S. 78 ; Wait/, Anthr. II. 129. I III* 1 1 ISM. In this slavish obedience of the sav- age i" his fetich we ma) recognize an important educational element. The savage imposes duties on himself — he curbs his passions. Herein h< nounces, to .1 very slight degree, 'tis true, his natural willfulness. I lis mo- tive is no doubt selfishness. With a view to power, he lays upon him- self the burden of obligations. Ye\ it is a selfishness that is under re- straint. 4. Worship and Sacrifice. Such being the power of the fetich, whose good-will brings prosperity, but whose wrath is fatal, the chief study of the savage must be to propitiate him, to gain his favor and to avoid his anger. Now the savage can pay to his fetich only such homage as he is wont to render to those who claim his respect and submission. He shows obedience to his fetich, by per- forming his vow. He resorts to flat- tery, prayers, gifts : in other words, he adores his fetich, and offers to him sacrifice. A man offers prayer and sacrifice, either in order to obtain the blessings of prosperity, or in thanksgiving for benefits received. The desire of a tranquil life is the direct expression of man's natural instinct of self-pres- ervation. This instinct remains un- « hanged, whatever may be his grade- in point of development and whatever may be the means which he chooses for the attainment of tranquillity. All men desire " np6rreiv i if not in this world, at least in the world to come. Knowledge, however, varies and grows. With the advance of knowledge, the objects which in a ruder age wen- worshiped as conferring the vrreiiv are changed for others. Heme the objects of worship in the different degrees of mental develop- ment vary widely : thus we have fe- tiches, the stars, gods, etc.; and yet the expression of the natural desire of prosperity is ever the same, viz., prayer and sacrifice, though in out- ward form there may be wide diver- sity, according to the degree of intel- ial ami moral culture. The savage paysworship to his fe- ti< hes. The Negroes testified their re- for tin' am hor. The < >stiaks do honor to illustrious mountains and trees by shooting an arrow at them as they pass by. The Daurians planted rough posts in the center ol their huts, winding around them the intestines ol animals, and the occupants of the hut never passed by the fetich without a prostration and a prayer.* The Cir- cassians slay a goat at the grave of a dead kinsman, consume the flesh, hang the skin on a stake, and make it an object of worship.! The offerings made to the fetich are often of very trifling value, being proportioned to the wealth of the devotee. Thus the Ne- groes and the early Peruvians, as also other American natives, % and the Siberians § seldom offer anything but potsherds, worthless rags, and worn-out boots and shoes. The ( >s- tiaks clothe in silk their fetiches, which are marie to resemble the hu- man form, and to one side of the head they attach a bunch of hair, to the other adish, into which they every day pour broth, which then flows down either side of the idol.|| As a sign of their gratitude, the natives of Cabende eject from their mouths upon the fe- tich the first morsel of food they take at a meal, having first chewed it : and the idol is left unwashed and in this pitiable state until the meal is at an end. IT Many fetiches have also lo- calities specially assigned to them. where they receive offerings, and we find fetich altars of various descrip- tions. Offerings are made to the fetiches with a view to obtain benefits from them. Thus the Negroes offer to their fetiches empty jugs when they wish • Voy. au Nord. VIII. 103. t lb. X. 447. [sbrand affirms the same as tn the Burats. Voy. au Nord. VIII. 64. JAcosta, Hist, natur. et mor. des Indes. occidentaks. Paris, if>o6, p. 206, 227 ; Char- levoix, vt^- $ Georgi, Kuss. Volk. S. 389. [sbrand, Voy. au Nord. VII. 38. • Itastian, Si. ('/. Halleur, 32. FETICH ISM. 43 for rain ; swords or daggers when they are going to war ; fish-bones when they are bound on a fishing-ex- pedition ; small shears or knives when they desire store of palm-wine.* The savage is most liberal of his homage and of his gifts when he is in straits, but often times the fetich is utterly neglected in time of prosperity, f Finally, offering is made to the fetich, in thanksgiving for benefits received, after a successful fishing-expedition or warlike foray ; after a prosperous chase or harvest ; after the birth of a child ; after recovery from sickness, and escape from danger.! Animals and even human beings § are offered to the fetiches. On per- ilous routes and rivers the American Indians make offerings of birds or of dogs, sometimes binding the legs of the latter together, and leaving them suspended from a tree to meet their fate. || To such fetiches as bears or deer they offer maize ; and to a maize-fetich they offer bears' flesh. H " In Bonny the most beautiful maiden is annually offered to Ihu-Ihu, or Yoo-Yoo** — a name denoting priest, temple, or place of sacrifice, as well as any guardian deity. Probably it here stands for the Sea, to which an offering is ever made on a fixed day. The maid chosen to be offered to the god has her every wish grat- ified, and whatsoever she touches becomes her property. ft The priest who performs the human sacrifices, bites a piece out of the neck of the victim, while life-still remains. When captives are sacrificed, their heads are *G. Lover, Relat. du Voy. du Royaume d'Issiny. Par. 17 14, p. 248. t Charlevoix, 347 : Bosmann, 445. I De Bry, VI. 20 ; Lover, 24S ; Charlevoix, 348; Georgi, 389; Yalentyn, Oud en Nieuw- oost Indien. Amsterdam, 1724,111,10. § Charlevoix, 118 ; Georgi, 338 ; Valentvn, III. 10. || Charlevoix, 118, 34S. Cf. Wait/, II. 207. T Loskiel, Gesch. der Mission der evangel. Briider unter den Indian, in X. Amerika. Barby, 17S9, S. 53. ** Holman, Vovage round the World (1827- 32). Lond. 1834', I. 378. tt J. Smith, Trade and Travels in the Gulf of Guinea. London, 1S51, p. 60, 68. arranged in a row in front of the Yoo-Yoo house, and the remainder of the bodies are cut up, boiled in a cauldron and eaten.* The Kroos also occasionally sacrifice prisoners of war to their fetich-tree. t " They have many festivals whereon sacri- fice is offered to the fetiches. Even (Jays become fetiches for them, some being regarded as lucky, others as unlucky. In Ashantee there are but 150 or 160 lucky days in the whole year, when an enterprise of moment may be commenced with any hope of success. % On the Senegal Tuesday and Sunday are dies atri, but Friday is a still more unlucky day, and hence a certain Bambarra king had all children born to him on a Friday put to death. § As a mark of respect for the fe- tiches their worshipers build houses J to shelter them, temples. The YVoti- : aks || and the Ostiaks IT build for this purpose miserable huts, but the Ab- ipones** and the Negroes affect some small regard for ornament. Bastian gives the following description of an Af- rican fetich-house : " The temple was quadrangular, constructed of straw matting, the entire front being of wooden framework, with three arched doorways. Each of the two side-door- ways was surmounted by a pyramid, while over the middle one rose a cu- pola ; and the door-posts were adorned with figures in black and green. With- in was a simple mound of earth, on which stood three forked sticks painted red and white in alternate stripes."ft The Yoo-Yoo house in Bonny is 40 feet in length and 30 in width. At one end stands an altar 3 feet high, and a small table with a vessel hold- ing tombo, a kind of spirituous drink. • Ibid. p. 82. f Waitz, Anthr. II, 197 seq. \ Bowdich, p. 363 seq.; Dupuy, 213 note. § kaffenel, p. 183 ; Mungo Park, Sec. Journev (in Puttier's translation). Nord- hausen, 1821. S. 315. Cf Wait/, II. 201. Rytschkow, Tagebuch, S. 166. • Voy. au Nord. VIII. 103. ** Dobrizhofer, II. 99. • t Hastian, 50. 1 I.I It HISM. There is abundance of wine and rum thin himself: like his worshiper, the s .Hid flagons, ami on the fetich is a savage, and on occasion is - hang pit represent- i" be I is a mere savage. So, ing the (iu. in. i lizard. The foreigner if despite prayers and gifts he refuses litedon by a priest ; for in Bonny to grant what is asked of him, then he ngers have ready access to the is to be handled roughly till he yield temple, whereas elsewhere he is ex- to force what he denies to entreaty. eluded. The priestly attendant nun- We have already seen how the fetich ins a few unintelligible words, makes is pommeled in order to make him at- a mark with moist clay between the tend seriously to his business.* If visitor's eye-brows, and rings a bell, the Ostiaks are uns il in the \ glass of tombo is then handed to chase or in fishing, they inflict severe the stranger, and thus he is admitted chastisement on their fetiches for hav- the mysteries, and initiated i them away from the game, or These fetich-houses are in many parts for having failed to render assistance. Africa, asylums, especially for run- The punishment over, they become away slaves ; t and in the medicine- reconciled again with the unfortunate huts of the American Indians even an culprits, give them a new suit of enemy's life is safe.} clothes and other gifts, in the hope Having done due honor to his fe- that they will now do better. During tich and made to him such offerings as the prevalence of an epidemic the na- his means allowed, the savage counts fives of KakongO entreated the fe- with certainty on a return. For though tidies for relief ; but as the pestilence he stands in great awe of his fetich, continued, they threw their fetiches still the relation between the two is into the tire.t The same was done not such as to make the devotee in all by a Lapp who had in vain prayed to cases the bounden slave of the object his fetich to perserve his reindeers he worships ; nor is the fetich, when from disease. $ the worst comes, the superior of the | As the savage renounces fetiches which prove of no account, so he man. The savage is too wild and onate to submit to such absolute control : and the moral chai which he attributes to his divinity is not such as to make the latter a para- mount Destiny. A man's apprehen- sion of another being cannot tran- scend the sum total of his actual con- ceptions. He cannot conceive of a a .is possessed of attributes of which he has never formed any no- tion. Consequently tli i's fe- tich will be what the savage is himself. ;he savage is given to falsehood and treachery ; lie is usually cruel, li and wayward. From what he is himself he judges of human nature, and these same data make up his con- ception of the fetich. From a moral point of view the fetich is no better * J. Smith, p. 6o. t Bowdich, p. 361 : Monrad, 44. } Mi < <>y, lli-t. Baptist In, I. Missions. Washington, 1S40, p. 195: Perrin du Lac, in die beiden Louisianen (1601-3). Leipz. 1807, I. 171. strives to get possession of those whose power is known. The fetich thus becomes an article of commerce and barter: and numerous instances might be cited of such articles being sold, exchanged, or even stolen. £ It is chiefly the priests that carry on this traffic : || and both in Africa and in America the price of valuable fetiches is very high ; indeed their owners are rarely willing to part with them at any price. If * The Cingalese have the same custom- nox, I listor. Relation of the 1. 1 ; Ion. Lond. t68i, ]>. 83. Al-<> the Mada- it. I list, de la grande I. de iscar, 1658, p. [81 ; the Easter Island- . the < istiaks, Voy. au X. VIII. 11 v I Proyart, 310. J Hoystrom, S. 319. Cf. YYaitz, Anthr. II. 185. $ Bosmann, S. 99; Atkins, Voy. to Guinea, Brazil and the W. Indies. Lond. 1737, p. 104; Charlevoix, p. 347. Cf. Waitz, ulu supra. •Mowing section. Wait/, III. 214. FETICHISM. 45 5. Fetich Priesthoods. Starting from small beginnings, but gaining strength as it advances, fetich- ism at last extends its influence over the whole life of the savage. We have soon no end of fetiches and fe- tich usages, the knowledge and under- standing (if which requires study, and can be acquired onlv by the initiated and those who devote their lives to this special branch of learning. The mere layman is quite inadequate to treat of so complicated a subject with- out making fatal errors. Onlv wise men are competent to expound so ab- struse a science. The man who knows all the fetiches and the entire ritual, is by this very knowledge distin- guished from the profane and igno- rant multitude he is an eminent and reverend personage, as being master of many recondite arts all unknown to the generality. Thus if we take into account the low intellectual status of the savage, we shall see that those possessed of this mystic science will necessarilv come to be regarded as priests, magicians, medicine-men, etc., or in short fetichmen — for all these terms have that one signification. The fetichman's importance and dignity are the natural corollary of the sys- tem to which he belongs. The feticeros are sages. They un- derstand the entire system, and are familiar with all the fetiches and the mode of preparing them , their re- spective powers and their names. In America it is the Jongleurs* (con- jurers) in Siberia, the Shamans , f in Africa, the Gangas % (different titles for fetichmen) that supply all' the fe- tiches. That the trade in fetiches is remunerative we may judge from the fact that each Indian village has twenty or more fetichmen and women who thence get a living. In Africa, too, this trade yields a fair income. § The fetichmen are also familiar * Charlevoix, p. 346 ; Lettres edif. VI. 174. t Georgi, S. 3S4. \ Des Marchais, I. 296. § Waitz. II. 196, III. 213. with the ceremonies to be used in order that the fetich may be induced to exert his full power. They " know all the potent formulas for blessing the elements."* The safest course to pursue, therefore, is to have the fet- iceros themselves apply the fetich. Hence, the priest's influence is coex- tensive with that of the fetich. In as- signing powerful fetiches for the cure of disease, and in applying these, he acts the part of a physician. When by his fetiches he constrains thieves, the winds, the clouds, spirits, etc., to do his bidding, he becomes a conjur- er, or magician. Finally, inasmuch as he has special control over religious rites and sacrifices, and thus comes into close relations with the fetiches, he is strictly a priest. Yet at bottom all these functions are identical and are all implied in the one title of fe- tichman. The distinction, therefore, sometimes made between the fetich- priest and the conjurer is merelv a relative one, as Bastian has well ob- served. t Hence among some incon- siderable Eskimo tribes a single priest will combine in his own person the various functions of the feticero, being at once physician, conjurer and priest , while under other conditions, a division of labor takes place, deter- mined by chance or bv inclination. Thus in Negro tribes one fetichman devotes himself to the medicine-fe- tiches, and is a physician , another professes the art of rain-making, or some other branch of conjuring ; a third is devoted chiefly to the ceremo- nies of religion. In North America the Jongleurs give counsel as to the manner of appeasing the fetiches or gaining their good-will, but do not offer sacrifice. This function is dis- charged by the chief on behalf of the tribe, and by the father on behalf of the family. % The same is stated as to the Tcheremissians and other Tar- tar tribes. § On the other hand, in * Bastian, 85. t Ibid. {Charlevoix, Journ. Hist. d'un. Voy. de ['Am. Sept. p. 364. § Rytschkow, S. 92, 93. II ll« lll.x.M. sundry tribes of Siberians,* Kirghist ami N tin.' ( onjurers ofifei sa< l'!u- ( '.dim ks > .iiid in.u tribes ret ognize a distim tion between conjurers and priests, while in some African and American tribes " the conjurers assume all the functions of priests, and vice versa. all the feticeros, those who are priests are usually held in the highest [deration. " Among the Vagas the Gangas have precedence of the gilli, or Rain-makers, and it is their duty, when a warlike expedition is to set out, to paint the Grand Yaga red and white, as he awaits the inspira- tion of the Mokisso, and to hand him his battle-ax, after lie has banqueted off the body of an infant slain in sacrifice. When victory is proclaimed the Gan- gas obtain the trophies of the fallen enemy. At the period of the New Moon they offer the five-fold sacri- fice, when, after the sacrificial fire has been sprinkled with the blood, the whole tribe join in a boisterous feast the victims' bones being carefully preserved for magical purposes : as is also the custom among the Tohungas of New Zealand. The Gangas have also to guard from profanation the Quilumbos, into the inner recesses of which no woman is ever admitted , and to expose in the woods the new- born children, as the army, like the corps of Mamelukes, is made up only of young slaves." ** Cavazzi, whose sojourn of 14 years in Angola and Congo gave him the best opportuni- ties for acquiring a knowledge of Ne- gro customs, describes a number of different classes of fetichmen with dis- tinct functions pertaining to each < lass. The 1 hildren of a man killed by lightning applied to the Ganga Amaloco y to ,u r et for themselves protec- tion ajrainst a like visitation. The nelin, Reise durcfa Sibir. i. d. Jahren, 1733-37. <; ""- 1 7 5 ' • "• J59.3 60 - I Pallas, Reisen durch versch. Provinzen d. russ. Reii bes. Petersburg, 1771, 1. 393, 394. ! ( Udendorp, I. 339. § Pallas, I ndoi p. I. 1 \ '■•-•.!. v c. 20, 248 ; Cavazzi, 1. 253 seqq. * • Bastian, 95. Muiinu-a-maya (Lord of Water) di- vined by inc. tns oi a 1 alabash cast into a stream. The Molonga prognostic ( ated the issue of disease from boil- ing water; and tin- Neoni from reve- lations conveyed to him from Ins idol, through the mouth ol the Nzazi. It these prophecies proved false, the priest laid the blame upon his Famil- iar Spirit, and procured another. The Ngodi professed to give speech to die dumb. The Amabttndu could shield from harm seed sown in the ground. The Ganga Mnene could prevent evil spirits from eating up the grain after it had been harvested. The Ganga Embugula could by whist- ling overpower his enemies. The Npungu, the Cabanzo and the Issaen were associated together in the work of shielding the warriors from wounds, and took one another's places when- ever one of themselves happened to be wounded. The Ngurianambua could charm elephants into the toils ; the Abacassu, stampeded cows; and the Npombolo, all kinds of wild animals. J The wealthy brought their deceased relatives to the Nganga Matombola. who by means of ids magical figures I caused them to rise from the bier, to move their limbs and to walk about.* "On the Gold Coast the Wongmen differ from the priests, properly so called. The Wongmen are possessed by the fetich, Wong, and any man may become a wongman provided he has learned to dance to the sound of the drum, to chant the songs which are sung when the oracle is consulted, and to perform the ritual of the med- ical art. There is another class of fetichmen, the Otutu-men, who also profess the art of healing, and who at- tend to the Ordeals. Then there are the Gbalo, or Talkers, who summon the spirits and question them. Finally there are tin- Hongpatchulo, who sell charms to people that wish a curse or an enchantment to befall their enemy. besides priests some tribes have also priestesses. In the northern Xeirro countries, where a ( v. Bastian, 201. FETICHISM. 47 nominal Mohammedanism prevails, there is not to be found such a va- riety of priests and conjuring physi- cians. Here we find the Marabouts, who, in addition to their priestly office, practice divination and drive a trade in Gree-Grees, though among these are many who have nothing to do with such jugglery, and whose study it is to gain a name for piety and benefi- cence. Hence the Joloffs make a wide distinction between the true Marabouts and the Thiedos (Unbe- lievers, Atheists, mercenaries), who believe in nothing save their gree- grees. * Among the Kaffirs, too, the Conjur- ers, Inyanga, are divided into several classes, the highest being that of the Izanuse, or " Smellers," who extract the witchcraft from the sick, by sniff- ing ; while the inferior classes em- brace the cow-doctors, the farriers and the fellers of timber.f The conjurer-doctors, or medicine- men, who are common to Africa, Asia and America, either blow their breath upon that portion of the patient's body where the fetich locates the disorder, or rather the enchantment ; or they resort to suction, friction or pressure on the diseased part, until finally they drive out the spell, which makes its appearance in the shape of hair, splin- ters of wood, thorns, bones, snakes' teeth, and the like.J They prescribe for their patients formidable remedies and regulate their diet. Should the sick man die they throw the blame upon him, as not having exactly carried out their prescriptions. If they see no chance of a patient's re- covery they prescribe a course of treat- ment which he cannot possibly follow, such as violent jumping,, or dancing, *Waitz, II. 199. t Ibid. 412. \ Greenlanders, Cranz, S. 270-74 ; Am. Ind., Charlevoix, 264-268; Hennepin, in Voy. au N. V. 293 ; California Ind. Begert, 142; Natchez, Petit, Relations, etc, in Voy. au N. IX. 26; Caribs, Biet, p. 3S7 ; Gumilla, hist, de l'Orinoque Avigum, 170S, II. 185; Du Tertre, Hist. gen. des Antilles, II. 366 seq. ; Brazilians, Lery, p. 242-47. CJ. supra, Section II. and thus they escape all responsibility for his death.* The Hottentot poison- doctors are famous. No snake can sting them, and not alone can they heal the bites of serpents by their sweat, but they can confer on others the same power.f A priest-physician in Congo had in his establishment five women to treat various diseases. His pharmacopoeia, however, had but few medicaments for any complaint save for the Mai Francez; but abun- dance of magical formulae. % As a matter of course, the fetich- priests are soothsayers, and the mouth- pieces of the oracles. The Lappish and Siberian Shamans divine by means of a ring which they place on the head of a magical drum. They beat a certain number of taps on the instrument and then observe on which one of the figures painted on the drum-head, the ring stands. Each figure has a special significance ; and as this is known only to the priests themselves, the response will be what- ever they choose to make it. Teleu- tian, Sajanian and Abinzian sooth- sayers divine by means of 40 small rods thrown upon the head of a magic drum ;* the Tungoos from the whir of tarrows shot from the bow, or from the vibrations of a tense bowstri'ng.§ The N. American Jongleurs set fire to pulverized cedar charcoal, and divine from the direction in which the fire travels. || In Africa, the Npindi conjured the w r eather at the intersection of road- ways. " The Rain-makers have at all times, and among every people, acted an important part, and many African populations invested their princes with this dignity, which was often as * Charlevoix, p. 368. Des qu'ils voyent un malade tourner a la mort, ils ne man- quent jamais de faire une ordonnance dont 1 'execution est si difficile, qu'ils out a coup sur leur recours sur ce qu'elle n'a pas ete exactement suivie. t Steedman, Thompson, v. Meyer, Reise in S. Afrika (1S40). Hamb. 1843, S. 158-, Kretzschmar, S. Afr. Skizzen. Leipz. 1853, 167 ff. Cf. Waitz, III. 213. % Bastian, 202. § Georgi, Beschreib. S. 395. || Charlevoix, p. 363. I I I I' III^M. full of danger for them ;is was the : over the harvests for the an- cient kings "i Sweden, The Km- • il ( Ihina devolves upon his sub- the r< sponsibility for hi* lack of power in this regard, assigning .is the reason their w i< kedness. The hair and nails are plucked from the body ol the Mani of Jumba, after his death, and preserved as infallible rain-makers. The Makoko ol the Anzikos wished to gel for the like purpose one-half of the beard worn by the missionaries; and would even agree to undergo the i er< mi my of baptism as the price of so potent a charm, just as the despot of Renin ed in pay the same price for a white wife." Bastian thus describes the manner of conjuring the rain; "The sky was overcast and the thun- der rolled above the mountain-tops ; but when I expressed my fears of a storm, my guide assured me that I need have no apprehension, as one of the officials who accompanied me was an accomplished rain-conjurer, and he had promised that he would not permit a single drop to fall. I was fain to accept the assurance, and the so, as I saw my Zeus Aetherius his feet, shake his raven lot ks, extend his hand menacingly toward the clouds, and point with his finger in every direction. My carriers, who looked on devoutly, thought the cere- mony was now at an end, and made off with the tipoja (mat-palanquin): but scarce had we left the tree, be- neath which I had hoped to be shel- tered from the rain, when the Hood- gates of heaven were opened, and in an instant I was drenched to the skin."t Rain-makers are to be found everywhere in Africa, .is, for instance. amongthe BushmenJ and the E£afBrs,§ who at first took the missionaries to be a new kind of rain-makers. •• The wind-maker, too, is an impor- tant personage ever since the Negroes istian, in'. 117, 118. 1 Ibid. I I ,i< htenstein, 1 1. 102. § Campbell, 2nd Journey, 230. 236,238; Thompson, Trav. and Adv. in S. Afr. I. 180. have bei ome a< 1 usti in. d to use 1 pean manufa< ones : as an) delay in the arrival ol the merchanl-vi may occasion suffering to the natives. Inasmuch as they do not themselves tempi the deep, the conjurer 1 find no market among them for Lap pish 1 i< ks : and instead, he re- tires into Ills hut, w Inch smokes and roi ks while he is engaged inside with his redoubtable in< antations. conjur- ing up the favoring breezes which shall conduct to theii shores the fleets of the white men." ' Such is the power which th possesses ovei Nature, over Spirits, men and beasts. t The common people have full faith in this power; and as the priest himself is no less .1 sav- age than the_\-, his faith is the same. Should his incantations fail to pro- duce the desired effect, he accounts for the failure by supposing that counter incantations have been at work, or that the ritual has not been strictly observed, and this explanation satisfies not alone others, but also himself. There are even at this day plenty of people in civilized Europe who tell fortunes, who practice necro- mancy, who profess to cure diseases by the imposition of hands and other similar means: and who are them- selves no less deceived than those who employ them. The records of courts of justice and the reports of asylums for the insane are sufficient evidence of this. " The Cazembe now in highest repute regards himself as immortal by reason of his magic arts, and says that his predecessor's death was due to a want of precaution. lie is possessed of such an excess of magic power that its superabundance would at once annihilate whosoever should come in contact with him ; and there is accordingly a curious ceremo- nial to be observed, in order to avoid such consequences. This ceremonial would almost appear as though plagiarized from the animal-magnet- izers. In their system it is called • H; istian, ub. sitfr. i Wait/, V. 1, 178. FETICHISM. 49 Dorsal Manipulation, and its purpose is to re-isolate the somnambulic sub- ject.''* Undoubtedly the priests are the first to detect the imposture and to discover the impotence of their idols and of their own arts. Still, lest the people should be shocked by the pub- lication of this discovery, the priest will keep it to himself, henceforth act- ing the part of a conscious deceiver, from motives of selfish interest and ambition. With this view he will surround himself with a veil of mys- tery, and resort to all manner of tricks and fraud. '• The only kind of historic record to be found among African tribes is the traditional narrative of important events, and this is handed down from one fetich priest to another as a se- cret of the craft. Accordingly, when application is made to the priests for counsel, the knowledge which they possess of the past history of the various families of the tribe, gains for them the credit of inspiration." f They alone are privileged to hold converse with the great dread fetich who dwells in the recesses of the forest, and to tread the floor of his home, without being torn in pieces.:? They are not men of the common mold , their origin is enveloped in mystery. Among the Dakotas the medicine-men and medicine-women first come into the world in the shape of pinnate seeds, something like the seeds of the thistle. Then they are driven about by the winds and thus come into relations with mighty spirits, whose preternatural science and power they make their own. Next they gain entrance into the womb of a woman, and in due time are born with human bodies ; though after death they return to the society of the gods. After they have four times run their career in human shape they are annihilated. They may like- wise be transformed into wild beasts. § * Bastian, 293. t Ibid. 100. } Lettres edif. IX. 95 ; Dobrizhofer, II. 99, § Waitz, II. 180, 504 i V. 2, 17S. They can also cause ghosts to appear on occasion, to inspire the vulgar with due respect for the fetich and for his retreat in the woods. " The village was situate on the edge of a dense forest, and on learning that in the forest there was a fetich-house, I di- rected my men to advance by a cir- cuitous foot-path leading to it. They stoutly refused, saying that not one of them could come back alive : and it was only by repeated threats that I could induce them to move. But as soon as the villagers were aware of my purpose, they surrounded my mat-palanquin en masse, entreating me not to expose myself to destruc- | tion : and threw themselves before j the feet of my carriers, to prevent their advancing — a very unnecessary thing to do, as the carriers them- selves showed no disposition to go forward. However, as I longed to examine a second fetich-house, I paid no attention to their entreaties, pushed back those that stood close around my palanquin, and repeated my command to move on, with some emphasis. The whole multitude then uttered the most pitiable cries. The women tore their hair, and beat their breasts, and the seniors rolled them- selves in the dust alongside the pal- anquin, invoking the power of heaven and earth to check my progress. I was at length obliged to yield. As we went up the ravine which skirted the forest there went up a fearful bel- lowing, which seemed to issue now from one quarter, again from another, and which imitated all manner of in describable noises. The Negroes, terrified by this outburst of fetich indignation, ran in all speed from the locality, to escape from the wrath of the god • for there great Pan is not yet dead." * The Great Spirit of the Shekani and the Bakele dwells in the bowels of the earth. At times he comes forth, and takes up his dwelling in a great house which has been built for him, and there he utters such frightful bellowings that * Bastian, 193. I l.l [l HISM. women ami children tremble with The piirsts are deeply versed in tin- science of ghostly apparitions. "The Spirit-seers <>i America might get from African professors many prac- tical rules for the converse with Spir- its, which they could readily turn into hard cash. but tiny must make haste, for the COUTtS oi justice at ( 'ape Coast Castle are beginning to shed light upon the mystic cloud <>t secrecy which involves Negro spiritism, and have already condemned more than one unmasked fetichman as an im- postor. As society assumes definite shape in the colony, the more danger- ous fetich practices are more and more brought under the control of the law ; and the peaceable citizens adopt the policy of favoring and strengthening the Mylah ceremonial in opposition to that of the Obeah; thus, m the words of S. Augustine, patronizing theurgy in order to dis- credit goety." t Nor must we omit to take note of the ceremonies performed by the feti- ceros. These are usually conducted in the most fearful style of wild and boisterous frenzy. In proportion as the rational faculty is developed, a man controls more and more the ex- ternal bodily signs of emotion. His power of speech has attained that de- gree of perfectionment, that he can readily convey to others by that means all his sensations : he uses language. But the lower the grade of mental de- velopment, the weaker is the power of expressing in words the sensations and emotions of the mind. Clowns and children speak by means of gest- ure, and their whole body seems to express their emotions. With the savage accordingly, whose language is fragmentary, the lack of verbal ex- pression must be made up by violent gesticulation. When the King of Dahomey would do honor to a foreign guest by chanting a song of praise, he must also give proof at the same * Wilson, Western Africa, etc., p. yji. | Bastian, toi, 85. time of his saltatory skill. When Bastian was entertained 1>\ the king of Shemba-Shemba, that potentate simply kept up a up .\ 1 meni ol 1 li<- feet mer, 57, Bosmann, 260. } Charlevoix, p. 361, 362. § Georgi, S. 329. II Charlevoix, p. 362. IT Georgi, ub. sup. attracted by it.* They therefore keep up a drumming until those be- ings make their appearance; r. *. un- til the drummer himself, by his vio- lent exen ise, has passed into the state of ecstasy. The drum is some- times replaced by a staff hung with bells, or by some other noisv instru- ment.! The Dakotas, besides the drum and the clappers, employ a notched bone, with which they saw upon the edge of a tin dish : and thus they produce shrill. ear-rending sounds. % Isbrand gives the following description of the Shaman's leather conjuring mantle : A sort of long coat (casaque), adorned with pendent figures of iron, representing all kinds of birds, fishes, and wild beasts: ar- rows, saws, hammers, swords, clubs — in a word, every conceivable thing that is calculated to inspire fear.§ A mantle of this description is so heavy that a strong man can scarce lift it with ohe hand ,|| and when the Shaman, clothed in this garment, leaps and jumps about with all his might, there arises such a clangor that you might well imagine you had before you some fiend in chains. H And the remainder of his equipment is perfectly in keeping with his mantle : his headdress, the plumage of the owl and the eagle , the snake-skins and horns suspended here and there for effect , and the gloves, resembling the paws of a bear. African feticeros trick themselves out with the skins of tigers and lions. They daub their faces with white paint, and the rest of their bodies with other colors ; or else they give themselves a true coat of tar and feathers. Then they sus- pend from their persons a number of little bells, animals' heads, wings and claws ; drums, weapons, horns, herbs, roots, etc.** Thus weighted they * Georgi, Beschr. S. 378 and S. 13; Gme- lin, II. 49. t Georgi, S. 13, 37S ; Gmelin, I. 289. J Schoolcraft, Illustrations, PI. 75. § Isbrand, p. 56 ; Georgi, Beschr. S. 377 J Gmelin, I. 397.399; ll - 8 3- || Ibidem. 1 Gmelin, I. 398. ** Ibid. FETICHISM. dance, howl, scream, and foam, as is related of the conjurers of Thibet : saltitant, torquentur in omnes partes, fremunt, furunt, strident, ululant, etc.* These operations they perform in the mystic gloom of some darksome hut, or in total darkness. t These conjurers often perform tricks of common jug- glery. Thus they will perform a trick called " washing with fire," where they dexterously separate the fire from the ashes, suffering only the latter to touch their bodies ; or they will tread bare- foot upon hot coals, pierce their bod- ies with arrows, or knives, etc.t By such artifices as these the power and influence of the feticeros, which were already secured to them in pop- ular estimation by their intimate con- verse with the fetiches, are enhanced enormously. The assistance of the fetich priest is indispensable on all oc- casions, whether public or private, and is always invoked. Hence at Fer- nando Po the Chief Priest, or Botaki- maon, is " a weighty man in the state." Each village has its own Buyeh-rup, who gives counsel in domestic con- cerns. This Buyeh is, however, a far less important personage than the Bot- akimaon, at whose residence the Ne- groes assemble in the season of the Ripe Yams to celebrate the " Custom." It is the Botakimaon who crowns the king. According to Consul Hutchi- son (in his interesting work, Impres- sions of Western Africa), " the Botaki- maon, previous to the ceremony of coronation, retires into a deep cavern, and there, through the intermediary of a Rukaruko (snake-demon) consults the demon Maon. He brings back to the king the message he receives, sprinkles him with a yellow powder called tsheoko, and puts upon his * Cavazzi, II. 183, 196, 251. Same account given of the savage inhabitants of the isth. of Darien, California and Brazil by Wafer, Voy- ages ou l'on trouve une description de Tisthmede Darien [Apud Dampier, Voyages, Tom. IV.) p. 176; Lery, 242, 247, 298; Be- gert, Nachrichten von Californien. Mann- heim, 1712, S. 142, 159, 165. t Alphab. Thibet, p. 24^;, 244. \ Gmelin, II. 87 ; I II. (Yorrede) S. 7 ; III. head the hat his father wore. Hav- ing once ascended the throne, the use of cocco {arum acaule) and of the flesh of the wild boar and the porcupine is interdicted to him." * The priest is also a jurist, giving judgment on cases where the individual comes in con- flict with the laws of the state. " The only concession made in a primitive condition of society to the common weal by the Negro (who in all other respects is absolutely independent), is this, that he accepts the ancient tradi- tions, and acknowledges their bind- ing force : but now, even while he is determined that these shall place the least possible restriction on his liberty, he assigns to .them a weight of au- thority which soon removes them be- yond his control. He studies to keep them as far as possible in the back- ground ; he never meditates upon them, never strives to determine pre- cisely what they are. The conse- quence is, that he is soon caught in the toils, and can extricate himself only by the aid of those who are skilled in legal technicalities, i.e., the priests. He thus is at their mercy, and becomes their slave." f In his capacity as jurist the priest adminis- ters oaths and conducts the ordeals. This latter function is in their hands an engine of boundless mischief. " As every case of death whose cause is in any way obscure, is ascribed to witchcraft, and the kindred of the deceased are obliged to avenge his death ; the priests who conduct the ordeal are invested with formidable powers. The cause of death being obscure, the kinsman of the deceased has no course left, save to follow the directions given by those who are em- inently fitted to be his guides. He accordingly applies to the fetichman and inquires of him what foe has done this deed. The priest ascertains dur. * Cf. Bastian, 318, 319. Tsheoko is a vege- table product, obtained, according to Hutch- ison, by collecting a creamy coat that is found on the waters at the mouth of some small rivers, evaporating the water and forming a chalky mass of the residue. t liastian, 167. • t HIM IIIsM. leep "i in a trance the response to make, and names the offender. the < tord< or the body of the de< i ased, as the bearers halt re his hut ; or the discovery of buried talismans, will put the guilt of the accused beyond question. By de- ■ •! the Palaver he is arrested, bound hand and foot, and hewed to s: for it is a religious duty, in- cumbent on every member of the com- munity, to take part in the execution of the culprit. The tyrants of the Zu- lus availed themselves of this dogma, to further their political aims. On the faith of oracles which accorded with their own desires, they extinguished almost the entire arisi I their nation, and grew rich by confiscating the herds of the condemned." * The priest obtains knowledge of what is to come by inspecting the entrails of victims, or by revelation from the fetich. He may. at his pleasure, predict a favorable or an unfavorable issue for an enterprise ; and thus may put a stop to measures of which he disapproves. It is to him also that the fetich makes known his wishes as to what he would have done ; and then the priest can for- ward what enterprise he will. " It is the will and command of the fetich : " such is the formula in which the priest's own desires find expression ; and thus they become a law for the deluded people. This exaggeration of the fetich priestly power is spe- cially exemplified in the family of the high-priest of Whida, and in the Chi- tome of Congo. The Negro of Whida worships, as I st fetich, the sa- cred serpent, of which we will speak in another place. It is death to re- fuse anything to the priests and priestesses of this fetich. They may carry off for their feticli what- they will — cattle, men. treasure. The high-priest rules supreme, the king being only the chief of his ser- vants. t But this absolute priestly * Bastian, 91. I Bosmann, 45S fif. ; Des Marchais, II. 144. »53- r attains its highest develop- ment in the ( hitonie of Cod-,,. | I ■ IS not honored as the principal min- ister of the gods or fetiches: he is himself a god, a fetich. His person is incomparably more sacred than thai of any king in Africa . his 1 greater, and his house more jealously guarded against profane intrusion. He may commit what crimes he will, but no man can so much as call him to account, far less seize his person or inflict punishment. Without his will and assent the king can undertake no business of importance, and no minister of the king can assume ! office. Newly-appointed governors visit, with a great retinue, the palace of the Chitome, and with all humility beg of him his gracious permission I to enter on their duties. The prayer iis never granted in the first instance, the Chitome obliging them to wait his pleasure until they have backed up their petition with a respectable amount of gifts. At length he comes forth out of his palace, sprinkles the suppliants with water, strews dust upon them, and orders them to lie on their backs upon the ground. He then treads several times on their bodies, to signify that they are his servants ; and exacts from them an oath of implicit and prompt obedience 1 to every command of the Chitome. The humbled governors consider themselves in luck if the high-priest 1 gives them a brand .from the sacred fire, which he keeps ever burning. Such brands he sells for the healing and prevention of disease. A portion of all the products of the field be- longs to the Chitome. It is by his power that the universe is upheld — but here, too, unlimited power has its peculiar disadvantages. For since the universe is upheld only by the Chitome, and, were he to die, would undoubt- edly go to destruction, therefore the Chitome must never die. Accord- ingly, when he falls dangerously sick. his successor forces his way into the palace, provided with a club and a halter ; with the one or the other of which the Chitome is dispatched, as FETICH ISM. 55 he himself may elect. The old Chitome, having been by this act of high-handed violence put out of the way, his assassin is now Chitome, (le roi est mort : vive le roi !) and the universe is safe.* The Chitome is himself a fetich : all other fetich- priests base their authority upon the fetiches they possess, as do those of Whida, for instance, upon the Holy Serpent. Among the Kramantees a priest's successor is always that one of his sons who has the courage to take out of his dying father's mouth cer- tain kernels, and to put them at once into his own. Since the priests, by their conjuring arts, can do what they please, the peo- ple, when want or calamity oppresses them, attribute all their woes to the malice of their spiritual rulers. If they can but make away with the assumed cause, they believe that the effect will cease : and thus the belief in the power of the priest, which be- fore brought him only advantage, now turns to his injury. The princes of the Kaffirs put to death all the con- jurers they can lay hold of, whenever the country is visited by an obstinate and dangerous epidemic.t The Chiquites of Paraguay, having dis- covered that the priests do more mis- chief than good, exterminated them en masse. Still they continued in the belief that all diseases .are brought on by magical arts. Lest, therefore, the people should be deprived in sickness of the assistance which used to be rendered by the conjurers the chiefs now practice the healing art, using the same forms previously used by the priests. X The extraor- dinary power wielded by the priests, makes them very bloodsuckers and tyrants; and the only remedy against their despotism is when the downtrod- * Cavazzi, I. 254. t Sparmann, R. nach dem Vorgebirge der guten Hoffmung im Jahre, 1772 (tr. from the Swedish). S. 198, 199. The Patagonians act- ed in like manner, on the outbreak of the small-pox: Falkner, p. 117 ; Barrere, Beschr. von Guiana. Gotting. Samml. v. Reisen, II. 159. X Lettr. edif. Nouv. Ed. VIII. 339-345. den people break their fetters, and take a fearful revenge. The arrogance of the priests of Whida led them to form a conspiracy against the king. But now the people forgot that a priest's person is sacred: the magnates of the kingdom, with one accord, rose to defend their prince, and a general and bloody persecution of the guilty priesthood was commenced.* But the influence of the priest ex- tends not alone to great affairs but even to the trifling concerns of pri- vate life. A man cannot take pos- session of a hut until it has first been exorcised of the powers of evil by the priest. For this purpose he must dwell in it for a season, purifying it by thurifications, and consecrating it to some guardian fetich. f In Con- go he gives his sanction to marriage by giving to the pair two hens, to be dressed by bride and bridegroom respectively ; that dressed by the bride to be eaten by the groom and vice versa.% When the wife finds herself enceinte she places herself and her unborn child under the pro- tection of a fetich. " In Western Africa she makes an offering to the priest of a flagon of rum, and a certain quantity of cowries, and in return he fastens around her arm a bracelet made of the tail-feathers of a parrot." § "Between the 10th and the 12th year of their age the children are consecrated by the fe- tich-priest. The children to be con- secrated assemble around the fetich- tree of their neighborhood, and then the priest offers to the fetich a white hen, by cutting off its head and suffering the blood to drop on the ground. He then distributes the feathers among the children, who form a circle all round, and lights a fire to prepare the hen for the fetich. The fetich gets a small por- tion and the remainder is taken to the house of the priest. With shouts and songs they then proceed to the * Bosmann, S. 463 seq. t Bastian, 78. X Bastian, 88. Cf. Lover, p. 152. § Halleur, S. 29. I I II' III.s.M. bathing place, where the priest I washes the neophytes and marks each « ith a white siripu. The 1 1 r emony concludes with shouting and singing " " Education, su< h as it is. mtrolled by the priests, ry year the priests assemble the boys who are entering the state of puberty, and take them into the There they settle, and form an independent commonwealth, un- der very strict regulations, however: and every offense against the rules is sternly punished. The wound given in circumcision commonly heals in one week, yet they remain in the woods for a period of six' months, cut off from all intercourse with the outside world, and in the meanwhile each receives separate instruction how- to prepare his med- icine-bag. Forever after each one is mystically united with the fetich who presides over his life. Even their nearest relatives are not allowed to visit the hoys in this retreat; and women are threatened with the sever- est punishment if '.hey be only found in the neighborhood of a forest con- taining such a boy-colony. When the priest declares the season of probation at an end, the boys return home, and are welcomed back with great rejoicings."! The children are subjected completely to the power of the priests, and the latter appear sometimes to give this power a highly mystical expression. Bastian thus recounts what he heard in Quindilu from the lips of an interpreter: " In the country of Ambamba each n must die once, and come to again. Accordingly when a fe- tich-priest shakes his calabash at a village, those men and youths whose hour has come, fall into a state of death-like torpor, from which they ver usually in the course of three days. I!ut if there is any one that the fetich loves, him he takes into the bush and buries in the fetich- house. ( Oftentimes In- remains buried * //: 30. Cf. Waitz, I. 365. t Bastian, 85. s of years. When he comes to life again, lie begins to eat and drink as before, but his reason is -one, and the t < 1 icli man is obliged tin him, and instruct him in the simplest bodily movements, like a little child. At first the stick is the only instrument of education, but gradually his senses come back to him, and he begins to speak. \s soon .is his education is finished the priest restores him to his parents. They seldom recognize their son. but accept the express assurance of the feticero, who also reminds them of events in the past. In Ambamba a man who has not passed through the process of dying and coming to lite again is held in contempt, nor is lie permitted to join in the dam bastian adds that the liatheniers of tin; Sheikh Al-Gebal, in Bamba, are subjected to a similar course of treat- ment. Nor are adults exempt from the power of the priest. When the fetich demands the consecration of persons to his service these may be chosen, as in Loango, in the following man- ner : In that kingdom "annually a stated number of men, women, and children, 12 years of age, are dedi- cated by the chief of the (langas to the fetich Maramba. These then keep a fast for several days in a dark hut, and are then dismissed with the admonition to observe strict silence for eight days. Torture is employed to test their resolution: but if this fails, and they refuse to open their mouths, the Ganga conducts them to the presence of the idol, and there making a crescent-shaped incision on the shoulder, requires them to swear, by the blood which flows from the wound, that they will be ever true to Maramba. He forbids them the use of certain meats, imposes upon them certain vows, and hangs around their necks, as a token of their con- secration, a little case containing relics." t Persons thus devoted to * Bastian, 82. t It. S6. FETICHISM. the fetich are, according to Halleur, inviolable : " They may do what they please, and may take what they wish : it is death to refuse them anything." The only drawback is that every year a few of them are offered in sacri- fice.* The priests are the Sages. Their science expatiates over the entire field of fetichism and gives the rules for the preparation and application of fetiches ; the formulas of incanta- tion ; the methods of performing jug- gling tricks : the doctrine of souls and spirits and the rites of worship. Finallv, their science embraces a knowledge of history and of juris- prudence, as we have seen, — a diffi- cult course of study for the dull brain of the savage, who strives dumb- founded to grasp the profound thoughts, and the lucid definitions of his Master. Thus, e.g. '"the dis- tinctions between Spirit and Soul ; their relations with the body, their pre-existence and their future exist- ence are as nicely defined, as the functions of the three Spiritus famil- iares in Cornelius Agrippa."' t As is ever the case when the mind is constantly occupied in the contem- plation of one object, the priest, who is ever engaged with his fetich, en- larges and develops the primitive conception of the thing. He origi- nates a multitude of new fetiches, and proposes them for the veneration of the common people, who take them up greedily. He elaborates dis- tinctions and definitions, classifica- tions and systems: in his hands the popular belief assumes scientific shape. It cannot be uninteresting to study minutely this dogmatic the- ology of the savage : but we must not expect to find here anything like logical consequence ; for the savage. even though he dogmatize, is still a savage, and consequently his most elaborate system will be simply no system. As was to be expected, the various svstems of Africa and Amer- * Halleur, 32. t Bastian, 83, Aum. ica differ very widely from one an- other. Of course also the adherents of the different schools do not reduce their controversies to a courtly war of words, as is our custom ; they pre- fer to demonstrate their theses by hard knocks. Such debates are not infrequent, and many a skull is cracked in the heat of argument. Thus, during Cavazzi's stay in Con- go, two schools of doctors, the Ma- cusa-Matamba and the Ngulungu- Nbazi, were continually at war, be- cause they adhered to two different systems of medication.* Similar dis- putes divided the doctors of the Abi- pones, as also the piaches (conjurers) of the Caribs.f . The common people, of course, know nothing of fetichistic science. The notions peculiar to that science are as little comprehended by them as the nice points of dogmatic the- ology are understood by the masses here. Hence the very terminology of the savage savant is unintelligible to the savage layman. The feticeros among the Negro tribes, as also the Angekoks of the Greenlanders are said to have a language peculiar to themselves, which is entirely, or in great part, unintelligible to lay folk.t Even our common people do not understand the language of the learn- ed. The Dakota priests use a pe- culiar language ; the words are those of the common language of their nation, but employed in a sense dif- ferent from that commonly given to them. The chiefs also use this es- oteric language, in order to keep the common folk out of their secrets. § In New Zealand, Tahiti, Hawaii and * Cf. Bastian, 202. 1 Dobrizhofer, II. 84; Du Tertre, II. 386: S'il arrive, qu' une personne invite plusieurs Boyez (pioches) et qu'ils fassent venir cha- cun leur dieu, c'est pire que la diablerie de Chaumont car ces diables s'entredispu- tent, et se clisent mille injures, et mime, au dire des Sauvages, s'entrebattent si rude>- ment, etc. X Romer, S. So ft. ; Cranz, 273 ; H. Egede (Bishop of Greenland), Beschr. von Gron- land. S. 122. Cf. Bastian, 153. § Rigg's Grammar and Diet, of the Da- kota lang. Washington, 1S52. Cf Waitz. II IK IllsM. ■ nd also a sa< n d language — th< use this lan- hough the) now understand it only impi i l. ■ propagate the knowledge the priests are •' usu- ally attended by a number of dis- s, who prepare the fetiches, and w ho exp< ■ eed their masters." "Women \\h" have long been barren, or who have lost their children, are wont to dedicate i<> the sen the feti< h tin- unborn fruit of the womb, and to present to the village priest the new-born babe. I le exer- 3 it. at an early age, in those wild dances with deafening drum- impaniment, by means of which he is accustomed to gain the requi- site degree of spiritual exaltation; and in later years he instructs his pupil in the art of understanding, whilst his frame is racked with con- vulsions, the inspirations of the de- mon, and of giving fitting responses to questions proposed."! The Sha- mans, too. have their disciples; and Negro priests receive fees for instruc- tion in their magical arts. J This priestly science, which makes its possessors men of redoubtable power, is kept a secret among them- selves. It is only for the Initiated. I laving thus doctrines in common, and being attached to one system, the priests constitute a society apart, a fraternity ; an order, whose secrets are known only to the initiated, and whose mysterious power inspires the uninitiated with fear and terror. Such secret associations of priests are found in the organized priestly classes of Cabendc and Loango.§ "To the South of Congo, we find a complete h-svstem only in Bamba. The king of Bamba, who was once the generalissimo of the kingdom ol go, now lives in an almost inaccessible 'Thomson, Story of \". Zealand. Lond. I. No; Chamisso, 46 ; Moerenhout, 273 ; Amy. aox iles cln grand ocean. Par. 1837, J 484. d. \\ aitz, \ . z, 226 ff. ' Bastian, 85, 100. . . azzi, 1 1. 220, I. 2^4. £ Bastian, 81. mountain district, entirely isolated from Portuguese influent e, and 1 er- mits no foreigner to entei his banza. 1 fere 19, found one ol those s\stu Tertre, II. 367 seq.; Biet, III. IV. 3S6, 3S7 ; Lafiteau, I. 336-344. I Keating, I. 2S3. FETICHISM. 59 seated on a high throne, arrayed in the feather-ornaments proper to a prince, and holding in its hand the Rilunga. They begged him to name his successor. Amid the din of up- roarious music, the spirit of the de- ceased entered into the representative of the family of the Tendallas, who was lineally descended from the brother of the founder of the kingdom, and. in the ecstasy of wild inspira- tions, guided his hand to select the Chosen One out of the entire assembly. At once all the priests surrounded the Yaga-elect, and carried him off into the gloomy recesses of a distant forest, into which a layman could pen- etrate only at the cost of his'life. In the mean time Magnates attended to the funeral rites of the dead Yaga, and after breaking out a tooth, which was regarded as something holy, they immured the body together with two of the favorite wives of the deceased, in a sepulchre previously drenched with the blood of a boy and a girl. The new Yaga, while receiv- ing instructions in the fearful myster- ies of the Catondos, was obliged to witness dark deeds of murder, so that his heart would not shudder at the contact of death, and was taught the poisonous and medicinal properties of herbs. At the end of one year he entered upon his office. All workmen who understand anything of the build- er's art assemble to erect for him a palace. But before the work can be commenced, blood must be shed, to give firmness to the foundation-stone , and the one who is chosen to be the victim has his eyes and mouth care- fully bandaged, lest a look or a cry should excite the compassion of the Yaga — for the slightest emotion of human feeling would break the spell, and bring down upon his head the wrath of his forefathers. His breast is steeled against pity ; the head, as it is struck off, rolls into the stream, and the Yaga walks four times through the pool of blood which has flowed from the victim, and washes therein his feet and his whole person. He then plants his banner on the spot where his throne is to stand, and work on the palace begins. * When it is completed, the new Yaga shows him- self to the people, who receive him with loud cheering. On the evening of the third day the prince (Yaga) summons the magnates to his resi- dence, and then takes place that ban- quet, of which we have already made mention, where by partaking in com- i mon of human flesh they are bound ' to one another by an inviolable fe- tich."* Among the American Indians the religious mvsteries of the various or- j ders and secret associations of the priests are held in the highest venera- i tion ; but they lay most stress upon I the art of conjuring spirits. School- t craft mentions three such associa- \ tions, the Jossakeed, the Meda (Me- day, Mide ) and the Wabeno : the sec- ond of which is best known. " To the Meday belong individuals of differ- ent tribes and tongues : all are ad- mitted without distinction to the as- sembly (of the Order) provided they are acquainted with the Meday rit~ ual.| The chief festival of the order is the Medawin , which, however, the Sioux keep in a manner slightly dif- ferent from the Chippeways. The songs sung at this festival are pre- served in symbolic pictures which form a secret written language. These - writings can be deciphered only by | the initiated, who are acquainted with the true signification of the pictures and who know the songs by heart, the symbols serving merely to suggest | their general tenor. The right of membership in this association, which j is granted even to young children, is conferred in a hut specially built for : the purpose. On this .occasion a • priest makes an oration upon the I goodness of the Great Spirit ; then follows a procession of the members in a circle, with their medicine-bags, : and the candidate receives in the face a puff of air from out of the bags. The power of the conjuring- * Bastian, 1 50-1 ,4. t Copway, Traditional Hist, of the Ojibway j Nation. Lond. 1850, p. 168. i i.ik n i > m . devil thus prostrates him as though he were dead : l>m another pufl re- him. I le then gets a medicine- : his own ; with it is conferred on him the powei ol a Meday : and he at once puts his power lo the test, touching others with the medicine- which causes them to fall pros- trate. When the candidate is a child he is set before ea< li of the medicine- bags in turn, and he gets a new name in addition to his own. which he ever after bears as a member ol the soi i- ety."« rhe power ol these secret associa- tions is so great that, like the Vehm- - ht, their judgments and their penalties, which arc ever executed with promptness and vigor, affect not ■ their own members, but the people in general. They constitute an invisible police, that with its thou- sand eves beholds every hidden thing, and in the face of which no man con- siders himself secure. The effec- tiveness of the police of Old Calabar, administered by the Kgboords, has sometimes led European police-cap- tains to seek admission into the lower grades; t for all. even slaves, may purchase admission, though the latter can enter only the inferior grades. < )n the great festival of Egbo, masked men go about the streets, armed with whips, drag offenders forth from their hiding-plai es and inflict punishment. ( >n that day women arc not permitted to quit their houses. The power of the order is felt along the Gold Coast and the Slave Coast.} The terror of the Vehmgericht of the Belli-Paaro was spread throughout the old king- dom of Quoja. Now members were ted only every twenty-five years, to keep up the association. Those who were ( ited tO appear before this tribunal appeared thickly veiled, for a fearful death awaited whosoever with unhallowed eves looked on the spirits who surrounded him there. When alter thn of novitiate (con- hoolcraf t, V. 430 seqq. ; Kohl, I. 59, II. 71 ; Wait/, III. 215. t Bastian, \ Holman, I. 392. cerning which the most direful stories 1 urreni among the common people) the new adept was for the first time suffered to quit the gloomy forest and lo see the light of the sun', he made himself known to the M of the Society as a Brother by execut- ing the figures of the belli dance. I b- then took the brotherhood's " oath ol veng We cannot determine whether, or how far, die African I'm ra and Semo assoi re of a religious nature. Wait/ gives this description of tin m : "Among die Mandingoes, especially those in the region of Sherbro. the Wis. the Timmanis and other tribes, die I '111: a association takes a very important part in the administration of justice. The Purra is a secret ( so- ciety, the nature of which is still ob- scure : so much however is known, that it is a kind of secret police, a t tribunal, punishing theft, witch- craft and other secret misdeeds. Its ministers go masked, and surprise and seize culprits by night. Natur- ally this occasions grave abuses, still no man durst make any resistance. The society requires absolute obedi- ence from its members and is made up of warriors divided into sundry classes. If any one by chance conies to a knowledge of their secrets, lie is adopted a member by a terrible cere- monial, and threatened with death, should he divulge anything. Two parallel lines tattooed on the body are the insignia of membership. The Purra has also been described as a common federal tribunal having juris- diction over different nations, and whose judgment is invoked in case of quarrels. The Purra then acts as judge or as mediator, and taking sides witii one or other of the parties, de- 1 ides the quarrel. The Semo among the Susus appears to resemble the Puna, and to have a similar purpose. The Semo has a sacred language pe- culiar to itself. Though Caillie * has written a Ion": account of this associa- te fourn. d'un Vby. a Tcmboctou, 124-28), I. 228. FETICHISM. 61 tion, still we know absolutely nothing of its true nature." * (Waitz, II. 135. 1 6. Fetich >sm among Non- Savages. The human mind, in its various stages of progress, must always exhibit phenomena answering to the degree of development to which it has attained. Even where a higher grade of intelli- gence generally prevails, still the lower grades will not be entirely ex- cluded, for the whole community will not have reached the same degree of development, individuals differing from one another very widely in this respect. Even in civilized countries vou will find those who are essentially no better than Bushmen or Negroes in point of mental culture, albeit in outward seeming they differ as widely from the savage as our world differs from that of the Bushman. The dif- ference between the fetich-worshiper kut ii<>x>]r and the fetich-worshiper as he is found in civilized countries is just this : the former is simply, or at least primarily, a fetichist, but the latter is primarily something different, though secondarily he is a fetichist. He would be as thorough a fetichist as the other, were it not that he is something else besides a fetichist, and so his energies cannot all tend to fetichism. Our next chapter will * Winterbottom, 180 seqq. ; Golberrv, R. durch das W. Afr. ([S03) I. 56; Laing, 88 seqq.; Forbes, Six Months in Sierra Leone (( lei. Tr.) S. 84. Cf. Caesar, B. G. VI. 13, 14 : Fere de omnibus controversiis publicis pri- vatisque constituunt ; et si quod est admis- suni facinus, si caedes facta; si de hereditate, de finibus controversia, iidem concernunt, proemia pcenasque constituunt. . . . Hi certo auni tempore in finibus Carnutum, que regio totius Gallia? media habetur, considunt in loco consecrato: hue omnes undique, qui controversias habent, conveniunt, eorumque decretis judiciisque parent. Si quis aut privatus aut publicus eorum decreto non steterit, sacrificiis interdicunt. Haec poena apud eos est gravissima. . . . Druides a bello abesse consueverunt, neque tributa una cum reliquis pendunt ; militia? vocationum omniumque rerum habent immunitatem. These Druids were also soothsayers, physi- cians, conjurers, etc. Cf. Tacitus Ann. XIV. 30; Hist. IV. 54; Germ. 7, 11 ; Plin. Hist. Natur. XXX. 4. treat of the fetichism which prevailed among our heathen forefathers. Here are a few examples. Suppose a hunter has repeatedly met with ex- traordinary good-luck in the chase when he wore in his hat a conspicu- ously beautiful feather, and that, on a few occasions when the feather was wanting, he had no success at all. He will in the future, for luck, plant such a feather in his hat. Now the hunter will have his faith in the potency of his fetich increased in proportion as his assurance of good luck, which he gets from the sight of the feather and his conviction of its efficacy, increases his confidence in himself, and so adds to his dexterity : possunt, quia posse videntur. Some people take an um- brella with them, so that it ?nay not rain. In short we need but run over the list of our popular superstitions, in order to see how far the fetichistic apprehension of object still endures amongst us. Thus, for instance, on every page of the Appendix to Grimm's " Mythologie " we meet with fetichism displaying all its character- istic features. I select only the fol- lowing instances: Useful fetiches : " If a man finds a horseshoe, or a piece of one, he is in luck.* He who takes in a large sum of money must mix with it a quantity of chalk, and then wicked people can- not take it back. (The fetich as care- taker.f) If a man eats a raw egg on Christmas morning, he will be able to carry heavy loads. Swallows' nests and crickets bring good luck to a house. If one finds a treasure, he must not cover it over with any gar- ment used to cover the body, or he is a dead man : he must cover it with a pocket handkerchief, or with a crust of bread. Chase a hen thrice around a table, and mix with her food frag- ments of wood from three corners of a table, and she will stay at home. Fetich • medicine : Rain water will make children speak at an early age. A pulled tooth is to be driven into a * Grimm, I). M. Anhang. Nr. 129. \ lb. Nr. 5. FETN MI.vM. young tree, and i overed with the bark. 1 1 the tree be cut down, the ache comes Ii you break .1 tw ig off a \\ il- and drive it into the aching tooth . the blood < omes, and then re- al to its place, drawing the bark over it, the toothache goes away. The head of a mouse, bitten • im the body, <>r cut of! with a knife ol gold, assists a child in teeth- ing, when it is hung about his neck. It one is troubled with catarrh, let him drink a glass of water with a three- pronged fork. To cure debility in children: their urine is to be caught in a new pot : into this is to be put the egg of a coal-black hen bought without chaffering: the egg to be pierced with nine holes: the pot, wrapped in a linen cloth, to he buried after sunset, in an ant-hill that has been discovered without search. If any one afterward find the pot, he must not make any use of it, else he will take the complaint that was buried. Maleficent fetiches : It is un- lucky to walk over sweepings. Fetich oracles : the grave-digger's mattock rattles when a new grave is to be dug. Charms and counter-charms : If one goes out of doors unwashed, he is easily bewitched. Never throw into the street hair that has come out in combing, or you will be always in dan- ger from witchcraft. Old women often cut out a sod a foot long that has just been trod by their enemy : this they hang up in the chimney, and so cause their enemy to pine away. The whirlwind is caused by witches : throw a knife into the whirl and you will see them at work. Witches i an produce rain and thunder : they can also raise winds to < any off linen that is bleaching, and hay that is curing in the sun. In the springtime when the cattle are first driven afield, axes, hatchets, saws and other iron imple- ments are placed before the door of the barn; thus the cattle are guarded against witchcraft. When water is bewitched, and will not boil, place un- der the pot three sticks of different kinds of wood. A shirt spun by a girl of five to seven years of age is a sure protection against witchcraft. If your beast has been bewifc hed, go to the stable at midnight, and you will find on its hark a straw : put the straw in a sack, call in the neighbors and give the snL a thrashing: the sack will then be seen tO swell and the witch will utter a shriek. Our ancestors did not compare very favorably with s.i\ ages : their treatment of w itches was more cruel than the ferocity of any savages toward their conjuicis; and the blazing fires of the Christian middle ages, lighted for the torturing of witches, were supposed to be the ministers of a Holy Spirit. Such blasphemy as this cannot be imputed to tin- savage. When we call to mind the rude and undeveloped state of in- tellect in which fetichism takes its rise, what a fearful light is thrown bv these medieval phenomena upon the intellectual status of our forefathers whom it is still, in some quarters, the fashion to praise and to admire! Shall I recount the pitiable absurdi- ties, the gossip of the dairy and of the spinning-room, which were held by judges who pored day and night over their musty folios evidence suf- ficient to justify them in tearing away from the bosom of their families, in torturing and putting to death with every circumstance of cruelty, weak old women, idiots and children ? Need I recite the frantic harangues which called for the kindling of fires in the market-places of universitv- towns, and which occasioned the death of hundreds of thousands of in- nocent victims ? As late as the year 1783 the portentous gleam of these fires was to be seen in Germany." * And who is to assure us of their final extinction ; and that there are not be- neath the ashes concealed fires, still living and full of danger, which may hurst forth in flames afresh, carrying desolation throughout the land ? For we still have mighty fetiches, and these act in Europe precisely as they do in Africa. Plutarch relates that the Dictator * Bastian, 93. FETICHISM. 63 Sulla had no such faith in any god, for people, when a saint withheld his as in a little image of Apollo which he constantly wore upon his breast. Suetonius says that Nero was Relig- ionum usquequaque contemtor, prae- ter unius deae Syriae. Hanc mox ita sprevit, ut urina contaminaret, alia superstitione captus, in qua sola per- tinacissime haesit. Siquidem icuncu- lam puellarem, cum quasi remedium assistance in time of need, to renounce his service, to break his image in pieces, or to cast it into a river or a swamp.* As late as the middle of the 17th century some Portuguese sailors pronounced dire threats against St. Antony of Padua during a calm : they would have bound him hand and foot, were it not that some insidiarum a plebeio quodam et ignoto one came to his assistance. At length muneri accepisset, detecta confestim conjuratione, pro summo Numine trin- isque in die sacrificiis colere perse- veravit : volebatque credi monitione ejus futura praenoscere.* The amulet differs from the fetich in this, that here the sensible object is not regarded as possessed of a power ■of its own (for then it would be a fe- tich), but only as the representative symbol of some higher power, which is the real efficient cause. The amulet therefore points back to a train of ideas which lie behind it : the fetich stands upon its own merits. Thus, for instance, in the Arab's amulet — a they set his image on the tip of the bowsprit and thus addressed it, kneel- ing : U S. Antony, be so good as to stand there ever till you give us a fa- vorable wind, to continue our voyage. "t A Spanish ship's captain fastened a little image of the Virgin to the mast, saying she should remain in that po- sition until he got from her a favora- ble wind. J The Neapolitans once called S. Gennaro vccchio ladrone, bir- bone, scelerato, because he had not checked a stream of lava. They even cudgeled the saint.§ Some Spanish peasants, during a protracted drought, threw the Virgin into a pond, and verse from the Koran on a strip of called her witch, wench, etc. || When parchment — it is not the parchment Russian peasants would do anything and the ink that produce the effect he j unbecoming in the presence of the desires, but the omnipotence of Allah, of which the writing is regarded as the sensible sign. But yet the people, who wear such amulets as a protection against the powers of evil, very read- ily forget this distinction, confound the two things, and regard the sensi- ble object as the efficient cause. Thus the amulet becomes a fetich. The Mohammedans of Senegambia Avrite the potent verse on a tablet, then saints' pictures, they cover the latter with cloths, to prevent their witness- ing the deed.iy A Russian peasant, who had harvested a poorer crop than his neighbor, borrowed from the latter his holy image, and mounted it on his plow, expecting thus to have better luck.** To this day Russian peasants whip saints' images ; to this day im- ages of the Virgin are put in prison by Italian peasants, precisely as the Ne- they wash off the inscription, and j gro does with his fetiches, when he drink the water, f Thus again, so would punish them, or keep them from soon as the working of miracles is as- {harming him. ft sociated with the image of a saint, that image of necessity becomes a fetich ; and will receive from its wor- shipers precisely the same usage, which other fetiches receive at the hands of savage devotees. In medi- aeval times it was no uncommon thing * Suet. Nero, c. 56. t Bastian, 197 ; Waitz, II. 187. * Meiners, I. 1S1. t Delia Valle, Yoy. VII. 409; Meiners ub. supr. \ Frezier, Rel. du Yoy. de la Mer du Sud, p. 248. § Kotzebue, Reise nach Rom. I. 327. II Spanien, Wie es ist. 1797, II. 117. 1J.J. Straussen's Reisen, Amst. 1678, S.84. ** Weber, Verandertes Russland, 1721, II 198. tt Waitz, II. 185. 1 I I 1« ll|s\| CHAPTER V. I 111' VARIOUS l iBJECTS OF 1 I I h II- WORSHIP. A w i hing may become a fel An intelligent Dakota once said that "there is nothing that the Indians do not worship as a God."* For the Negroes ol the Gold Coast, Wongs (objei ts of worship) are, first, the gods dwelling betwixt heaven and earth, who • children, die, and come to lite again. These deities are divided into distini l i lasses, which get their names from the Functions they discharge, and these names are taken from thevo< ab- ulary ol Negro state-craft. But then Wong is also, i, the sea, with all its contents ; 2, rivers, lakes, fountains : 3, certain enclosed areas of land, and all termite-hills ; 4, the otutu (a little heap of earth raised over a buried sacrifice) and the drums belonging to a quarter of a town ; 5, certain trees : 1 tain animals — the crocodile, ape. serpent, etc., while other animals are only sacred to the Wongs; 7, images carved and blessed by the fetichman ; 8, certain combinations of cords, hairs, bones, etc.t 1. Stones as Fetiches. All Nature is endowed with life : the savage mind apprehends even stones anthropopathically. The Lapps trans- fer to stones the domestic relations of Father, Mother and Child : they even fancy that stones roam about at night, after the manner of the " Roving l!ell."t It is not only in Ovid's Meta- morphoses thai men are changed into s; the natives of the Marianne Isles have a belief that the first Man was metamorphosed into a rock, which is still pointed out as an object of veneration. § The worship of * Waitz, III. 191. I Bas, Missionary Magazine, 1856, II. 131 ; Wait/, II. 183. } Requard, Voy. en Lappland, in Voy. au v. VI. p. 321. j l'- Gobien, Hist, des Isles Marianes. Paris, 1700, p. 197. stones is t" be found in all quarters ol the globe : but in Africa it prevails np>s[ among the Gal las.* Men swear by Stones and by rocks: for ins;. the Somali in Atrii a.t not to speak of other nations. The ancient I mans and Cauls, as also tin- i who, ,i, 1 ording to Grimm, stone-worshipers par excellence, did the s. Hue. I Xulius Christianus ad fan a ant ad petras, vel ad fontes, vel m\ arbores luminaria faciat, aut vota reddere praesumat, — such is the exhor- tation given by S. Eloy in a sermon. § The church in the middle ages never tires of condemning the " votum vovere ad lapidem, vel ad quamlibe-t rem." || Offerings were made to stones by anointing them with oil, 1 ir wine." The pagan inhabitants of Canaan worshiped stones in this manner.** j De Brosses, in his work in the Baety- lia shows that all the great nations of antiquity, not excepting the Creeks and Romans, worshiped stones. The inhabitants of Phara; worshiped 30 square stones. Tofrrouj 01 lovaiv oi Qapeig, writes l'ausanias, tK&arov dew vivos ovo/ia )-l'/>)iiV7!C. Tl/ •UllTljUl k(l't Td'ir TTOOIV ' Y,'/'/ ij^i . -n/iir \iti.ir 1)1-1 ayajifl&TUV fl\nr apydi /m,„ .ff In a higher state of intel- lectual development, when the notion of gods gained the ascendency, it was very easy to establish relation between some god and a stone, which previously had been worshiped on its own account. The Sacred Treasure of Jupiter at Tegea was a rough quad- rangular stone. Meteoric stones were a special object of worship, being often regarded as incarnate ravs of * Rochet d'Hericourt, Voy. dans le roy. de Choa. Par. iS.ji, p. 167. 1 Burton, First Footsteps in E. Afr. Lond. 1856, p. I I v } J. ( rrimm, 1 >. M. S. 370. § Vita Eligii by Andoenus Rotomagensis (d. 683 or 689), pub. l>y Achery, Spicileg, t. v. Paris, 1661, p. 215-219; Grimm, I >. M. Anh. S. XXX. Grimm, D. M. Auh. S. XX X I II. XXXIV. XXXV. • Meiners, Gesch. d. R. S. 150; I >e Urosses, Les Pierres Bxtyles, 110. 123. 133, 135. ** Cf. Merx, s. v. Abgotterei, in Scnenkel's Bibellexikon. I I Pausan. VII. 22, VI. =2. FETICHISM. 65 the sun.* Such hyakfiara Suitet^ (Baety- iia, abadii) are the Stone Symbol of Diana, at Ephesus ; of the Sun-God Elagabal, at Emissa, in Syria; of Mars, at Rome, and the Black Stone, the Kaaba, at Mecca. Many savages regard stones as the children of Mother Earth, t for they have also an anthropopathic concep- tion of the earth, and so worship her. According to Dapper, the King of Ale and his grandees used to hold council together, previous to a war, in a pit dug in the midst of the forest. The deliberations at an end, the pit was carefully filled up again, lest it should betray their secrets. The Iro- quois and other Indian tribes believed themselves to be the children of Earth : they would never sit upon the bare ground, but always first covered the spot on which they sat, with a lit- tle grass, or with a branch of a tree4 Nam neque de coelo cecidisse animalia possunt Xec terrestria de salsis exisse lacunis : Linquitur, ut merito maternum nomen adepta Terra sit, e terra quoniam sunt cuncta creata. Lucretius de R. N. v. 793 seqq. 2. Mountains as Fetiches. Mountains are for many reasons objects of fetichistic worship. At one moment their summits are veiled in clouds, the next they are radiant in the fierce blaze of the sun ; out of their caverns the winds issue forth, and down their sides are poured the torrents which fall from the rain-clouds enveloping their heads. All these phenomena are regarded by the un- tutored mind of the savage as pro- duced by the agency of the mountain itself, and he accordinglv pictures to himself the latter as endowed with a human will, and acting from human motives. In this respect he is a poet. He does not imagine any such thing as a Spirit of the mountain, a being merely inhabiting it; no, it is the * Rastian, Die Seele, u. s. \v. S. 9. + Ibidem. % Tanner, Memoires trad, pas E. de Blosse- ville. Paris, 1835, I. 250; Waitz, III. 1.X4. Mountain itself, this tellurian mass that he worships. It is true, the fetichist sees in it something more than a heap of earth and rock. For him the mountain forms the clouds, and sends the storms. But why? From such motives as move men to action : now he is terribly wrathful ; anon he is all smiles. So his wor- shipers will study to appease him, and for this purpose will make offer- ings to him. The worship of mountains is found among several Siberian tribes, among Negroes and American Indians.* The Ural was worshiped by the na- tions dwelling around it. We must distinguish between this fetich wor- ship and that respect paid to mount- ains, on the ground of their having once been the seat of a certain cultus, or the home of some god. In that case it is not the mountain but the god that is worshiped : and of this kind of veneration we do not treat here. As Jacob Grimm did not study fet- ichism in its psychological aspects, he doubted whether men ever could pay adoration to a mountain, and discred- ited all accounts which state that such a worship exists. I extract from his Deutsche Mythologie the passages which have a bearing on this subject, as so many proofs for the reality of Mountain-fetich worship, f " Many were the Sacred Mounts and Hills': but yet they do not appear to have been worshiped directly, but to have been venerated merely on account of the god who inhabited them (Wotan's and Donner's Berge). Though Aga- thias speaks of ''oooi anf J ^dpayyeg (hills and ravines) as being objects of worship, without any mention of any other object, we may suppose that he was an inaccurate observer, and that he failed to notice a worship of water or of fire having its sanctuary on the mountains. We might look for the worship of mountains among *The Yakutes, Sarvtschew, I. 27 ; the Bu- rats, Georgi, 318; Negroes, De Bry, VI. 21. Romer, 65 ; Peruvians, Acosta, 206 ; Mongo- lians, Isbrand, p. til. t Deutsche Mythol. S. 369. FETK III^M. the Goths, in whose language fairguai signifies mountain, 11 the explanation we have a ' given ol this word :. Dietmar oi Merseburg gives -in example ol Sclavic mountain- worship (p. a ita est autem i ivitas, i. e. Nemzi, Nimptsch) in nsi, vocabulo hoc a <.■■■ uairepbaiaSpuvTec.-f'f Herodotus makes a similar statement as to the Persians : • I »euta he Mythol. 1 [6. t I). M. 326-340. \ Clapperton, Tageb. seiner, zweiten K. p. 414. *Allg. Gesch. dcr K. IV. [8oj Wait/, Anthr. 1 1. 177. t Laing, p. 310; Bastian, 59 f. "In [641 Hans < Ihm of Sommerpahl Built a mill over the brook 1 and as the succeeding year proved diss i^tious to the crops, everj body ass as the cause, tin- profanation <>f the sacred brook, which was indignant at having been cheeked in its course. So they attacked the mill, and utterly destroyed it." (.irinim, 1). M. $38. } ( avazzi, I. 363. § ( lharlevoix, p. I . S. 31S ; Steller, S. 21. U !. S. I'/. **\Yuttki, I. 214. ('/. liarrow, Trav. in China. I .mid. 1S04, p. 509. A j ith. 28. 4. FETICH ISM. 67 E$- TTOTafjbv (5f obre tvovpiovat ovte kfiirrvovat, ov x s ip a C EvaTroviZovrat, ovfie a/J.ov ovdeva tce- piopeovoi, a?.?.a oefiovrai Trorafiovc fj.d?jara. * Seneca says of the Romans : Magno- rum fluminum capita veneramur : su- bita et ex abdito vasti amnis eruptio aras habet. Coluntur aquarum calen- tium fontes : et stagna quajdam vel opacitas vel immensa altitudo sacra- vit.f The honor which the Hindus pay to the Ganges does not belong to this category. The Hindu apotheosis of Nature is pantheistic, not fetichistic. " O Mother Earth, Father Air, Friend Fire, Brother Water, I now in all rev- erence and for the last time address my prayers to you : I am about to en- ter into the Supreme Brahman, for ow- ing to the surplus of good works which I have laid up during my intercourse with you, I have attained to immacu- late knowledge and have so cast aside all power of straying from the Truth." t We must however here re- member that in the hands of the com- mon people the amulet easily becomes a fetich. The natives of Sumatra and of the Philippines worship the sea, as well as those of Africa. By the ancient Peruvians, before the time of the In- cas, the sea was regarded as the su- preme deity.§ The Kaffirs make offerings to a stream, of entrails, animals and millet, to secure immunity against disease. || Roman naval commanders offered sacrifice to the sea before setting sail. IT Even in the last century Christian Greeks made offerings to rivers ; and Turks regarded it as perfectly natural to throw overboard Christians and Jews, in a storm, to appease the wrath of the sea.** A tempest having broken * Herod. I. 138. t Senec. Ep. 41 ; Cic. de N. Deor. III. 20. t Otto Bohtlingk, Indische Spriiche, B. II. S. 97 (1 Aufl.). § Bosmann, S. 168 ; Atkins, Voy. to Guinea, Bra/il and the W. Indies. Lond. 1737, p. 1 19 ; Sneligrave, Nouvelle Relation de la Guinee! Amst. 1735, P- 69 ; Marsden, 256, 258. II Alberti, S. 72. IT Cicero, de N. Deor. III. 20. ** Shaw, Travels, or observations relating to sev. parts of Barbary and the Levant. Lond. x 757. P- 3331 Guys, Voy. litteraire de la up the first bridge of boats, Xerxes ordered three hundred lashes to be given to the Hellespont, and chains to be cast into it. Again he pre- sented an offering on a dish of gold, and this, together with a golden goblet, he threw into the waters of the strait. Herodotus is undecided whether this was done in honor of the Sun, or to appease the offended Hel- lespont.* 4. Wind and Fire as Fetiches. "The hurricane (called by the Congo Negroes, 'the Horse of the Boonzie ') is regarded as a ravening, devouring monster — a giant like the Jotunns — whose wrath may be ap- peased by casting meal into the air. I regard this," says Jacob Grimm, "as a primitive superstition." f "In the popular traditions of Russia the four winds are the sons of one mother , and in the ancient Russian song of Igor the Winds are addressed as Lords, and are said to be the grandsons of Stribog, whose divine nature is im- plied in his name. In like manner in Oriental tales and poems the wind is represented as speaking and holding converse." $ Of the Payaguas of S. America Azara § says : " When a storm overturns their huts or casas, they take a brand from the fire, and run against the wind for some dis- tance, threatening it with the brand. Others strike terror into the storm, by pummeling the air soundly." In Asia the Tcheremis used to make of- ferings to the winds. || In ancient times the same custom was in vogue among the Greeks and Romans, as well as other nations.il In every quarter of the globe we meet with the worship of Fire, that "mysterious element, ever restless > Grece. Par. 1776,1. 466; Kleemann, Reisen in die Crimm. II. Wien, 1771,8. 113. * Herod. VII. 34, 35, 54. tD. M.363. Cf. S. 360-368. % D. M. 361. § Azara, II. 137. II Rytschkow, S. 86. •"Herod. VII. 178, 189; Pausan. II. 12; Cic. de. N. Deor. III. 20. I I I 1< HIsM. i i brightly flaming Whenever the fire went out, on re- i oi Nature." "Our Northern kindling it. sacrifice was offered.* student lights his lamp with a mail h. Tl called themselves Poto- spreads out before him the volumes watomie, which means, we make fire, t written in the past, and traces in and, likr the Ojibways and other Hephaestus the root Phtha, <>r com- nations, they kepi up an undyingfire, I ares Vesta, Behram and Agni with as the symbol of their nationality.! one another. As I take it, this is According to Adair the word Cherokee commencing at the end and not at the is derived from Cheera, fire. The beginning. The student does nol Muscogees gave to fire the highest consider that friction-matches are a Indian title ol honor, grandfather,^ very recent invention, and that an- and their priests were called '* Fire- ciently the production ol tire was a makers." The chief ceremony of their very difficult process: as we may still principal festival, "the First Fruits," see in the case of savages who often was the Renewing of the Fire, a per- spend hours in getting fire.* The formance which, among the Mexicans, lucifer which has become for us a was repeated every 52 years. The thing so familiar that we newer stop old fires were then all extinguished, to think about it, was once one of the and it was only after they had most mysterious of wonders, a wonder practiced purificatory rites and fasted which must have all the more forcibly for the space of three days that the impressed men's imaginations, inas- people supposed they had received much as it not alone promoted man's the consecration which was needed comfort, but even made life endurable, j for the kindling of the new Fire.fl especially in cold climates. Hence j With the worship of fire that of we can understand why the Sacred Lightning and Thunder is closely al- Fire alwavs burned in the shrine ; why lied. Perhaps among all the phenom- faithful guardians were appointed to ena of Nature the worship of Thun- care for it, and why this worship of der and Lightning is the most widely Fire was recognized in public legisla- diffused. It is found among the tion, as well as in the concernments rudest populations — the aborigines of of private life.""! " Fire, like water. Brazil, for instance. If The Betchuana is regarded as a thing of life:" land worship the rain as it falls from the by many savage tribes it is held to clouds. As their country is arid and be an animal. ''" "*P &tipiw ty^ov, barren, and their great curse drought, says Herodotus, describing the belief s they hold Rain to be the Giver of all of the Egyptians (III. 16), and good. They begin and end every Cicero has. ignis animal. (De N. solemn discourse with the word Puhla, Deor. 3. 1 \. 1 Among the Damara, one of the rudest of savage tribes. who can scarcely count beyond the number three, and to whom the insti- tution of marriage is unknown, the daughters of the chiefs are charged with the duty of keeping up the Sa- 1 led Fire . for Vestals are to be found in several religious systems, the duty ot keeping up a sacred lire being an easy .me. and best suited for women. When a family separated from the tribe and emigrated they took with them a brand of the sacred fire. •Cf. Grimm, I). M 341 if. t Bastian, 343. } I >. M. S. 340. rain, and they have the greatest ven- eration for their Rain-makers.** In some countries it is not the Rain itself but a Rain-giver that is worshiped; not the Thunder, but a Thunderer, who ranks above all other spirits by reason of the dread power of his voice and the awful, death-deal- ing force of his shaft, the Lightning. * Anderson, Rcise in S. \V. Afrika bis zum Ngami. Leipz. 1S5S, I. 239. I Keating, I. 89. { Schoolcraft, II. 138. §WaitZ, III. 208. il Ibid. 208. "" M. v. Xcuwied, S. 144. ** Thompson, I. 180; Campbell, 2d Journey, 230. FETICHISM. The Damara regard as their supreme deity Omakuru, the Rain-giver, who dwells in the distant North.* Some of the Damara even claim for them- selves descent from the Rain, while others would have only birds, fishes and worms reckoned as Rain's prog- eny, f In the island of Ponapi the supreme Being vents his wrath in the thunder:| and in the northern Sagas Lightning is called God ? s Beard-speech^ for when Thor mutters words behind his red beard, the lightnings flash through the sky. Zeus shakes his ambrosial locks, and the heavens are moved. In the isle of Morileu navi- gators adored the rainbow, or perhaps the spirit of the rainbow. § After the mind has attained some degree of development, the old ob- jects of worship still remain, but they are then subordinated to the new, and pass for the symbols of the latter. As Zeus was thus connected with lightning and thunder, so among the Israelites Jehovah was connected with fire, as his appearance in the Burning Bush, in thunder and light- ning on Sinai, and in the Pillar of Fire, clearly shows. Vulcan came into relation with the sacred fire of Vesta through the column of flame which shot up from Etna. 5. Plants as Fetiches. " Heathendom regarded all Nature as living," savs Jacob Grimm. || This view of Nature is very clearly expressed in the northern myth of Baldr. To ward off from the be- loved God all danger, Frigg exacted an oath from Earth, from stones, water, fire, plants, beasts, birds, * Anderson, I. 237. t Rh. Missionsber, 1852, S. 235; Halm, Grundziige einer Grammatik des Herero. Berl. 1S57, S. 152. J Michelewa y Rojas, Viajes cientificos en todo el Mundo (1S22-42). Madrid. 1843, P- 197. $ V. Kittlitz, Denkwurdigk. auf einer R. n. d. russ. Am., Mikrones. und K.amtsch. (1826 ff). Gotha, 1858, II. 105. II D. M., S. 371. worms, and even from Pestilence, not to injure him. Only the young and and tender Mistletoe was by the god- dess thought so weak and powerless that she did not require of it the oath. But when afterward Hodur, at the prompting of Loke, with this plant compassed the death of Baldr, all creatures wept — plants, beasts and men. If inanimate stones are regarded as living beings, we are not to be sur- prised if plants are also thought to have souls, for their whole process of development, in growing and bloom- ing, in bearing fruit and in withering, has many analogies in human life. This anthropopathic apprehension of plants is very evident in the belief entertained in popular superstition as to the powers of the magical plant Mandrake, which is mentioned under the name fiavdpaydpag by Hippocrates, Xenophon, Plato, Theophrastus and others. It is described as shaped like a man. When it is plucked from the earth it utters a cry, a groan of pain so terrible as to cause the death of the one who plucks it out. But if it be displaced by a special manipulation of the surrounding earth, it must be then washed in red wine, wrapped in white and red ban- dages of silk, bathed every Friday, and vested in a fresh, white garment at each new moon. If questioned it will make known future and hidden things tending to the welfare and prosperity of the questioner, and if a piece of gold lies beside it through the night there will be found in the morning two : but its good-nature must not be imposed upon, however. The water in which it has been washed is to be poured upon the door- sill, or upon the cattle, and so the house and the stock are preserved from ill-luck. If barren women drink of it, they will be blessed with prog- eny. If a man wears the mandrake about his person he will always in suits at law defeat his opponent.* This mandrake is of human origin, * Meiners, II. 600. 70 I I I l< UI>.M. springing from a chaste youth's semen fallen to the ground. Hut on the other hand, men also spring from plants. There is a Micronesian story to the effect that Tangaloa's daughter, while yet the earth was parched ami barren, assuming the I 'tin ol a snipe alighted upon the earth, and made her home on a rock. i the rock a creeping plant Sprung forth, and as this died away it produced at first worms, then men.* Sonic of the 1 tam.ira tell of the de- scent of man and the larger beasts from a sacred tree, which they wor- ship. In the German Song of Alex- ander (Alexanderlied) by Pfaff Lam- fit, "megede rehte vollencom- men " — perfectly beauteous maidens — are spoken of as springing from flowers. " Si gicngen undc lebeten Mcnschen sin si habeten." As they spring from the flowers, with them they perish : " I >ic bid men gare verturben Unde die scdnen now en sturben." Daphne was changed into a bay-tree. In speaking of the worship of plants, trees and woods, I do not give it ( h id's interpretation : Stat vetus ct multos incasduasilva per annos, Creditiilc est Hit numen uicsse locoA On the Coral Islands of Polynesia the Crinum and the dragon's blood are held sacred. The I >avaks of Borneo worship also the dragon's blood, to- gether with the pancratium amboi- nense.% (hue talk-, however, it is large tires that are worshiped, such as the mighty adansonia. In YVhidah the sick apply to the sacred trees, tin the cure of their complaints. § On the Zaire the public and the domestic * Turner, p. z.\ \. I < •■. ill, Amor. III. i. i. } Gerland, in Waitz, V. 2. 10. ji Bosmann, II. 64, 323, III. 153; Dcs Mar- chais, II. 132. council of the prince meet beneath the holy fiats religiosa? .1 tree which plays an important part in die history '•1 religion. In ( longo it is planted in all the market-pla< es, as an ol of worship: its bark has fetich-craft ; and any injury done to the tree is punished as a crime. The Somali worship certain trees. t and the Gal la specially the wan/ey-tree, though in die south of Shoa they regard the wodanaot-tree as their national Palla- dium, their "great Fetich." t This same tree-worship is found in N. America and Northern Asia, for in- stance, among the Ostiaks, Wotiaks and the Tsheremis.^ The savages of Acadie worshiped an ancient tree on the sea-shore. This tree having fallen root and branch into the sea. they continued to worship it as long as any part of it remained visible. || The sacred tree of the Longobardi was the so-called blood-tree, and the an- cient Germans worshiped chiefly the oak, though they had also great rever- ence for the alder : IT nor were the ancient Jews, Arabs** or Persians ft without their fetich-trees. The god- dess Ashera was originally worshiped under the form of a simple stock of wood.lt "The Diana of the isle of Eubcea was a piece of unhewed wood, the Thespian Juno of Cytheron the trunk of a tree, she of Samos a sim- ple slab of wood, as was also the Delian Latona : the Carian Diana was a cylinder of wood, and the Pallas, and the Ceres at Athens were rough stakes, sine effigie rudis palus, et in forme lignum. 7 ' §§ As single trees, so also whole groves, with their green, umbrageous aisles, their mystic gloom, and the tuneful rustling of their leaves would * Tuckev, p. 366. t Waitz,' II. 523. t lb. 51S. § Rytschkow, S. 161. 1 levoix, p. 349. " I .1 iram, I >. M. s. 374. ** Mcrx, in Schenkel's Bibellex. Art. As- chera and A start e. tt Meiners, I. 152. J J Merx, ubi tupr. §£ I >e Rrosses, p. 151. FETICHISM. 71 make a most profound impression on the childlike fancy of the savage. The rustling of the leaves was regarded as the language of the trees : thus it was that the sacred oaks of Dodona spoke, and oracles were published founded on these words of the oaks. Athene, according to Apollodorus, fixed on the prow of the Argo a voice- ful piece of wood from one of the Dodonian oaks (fovijev Qrryov rrjg Audwvidog ;'><"), and the wooden ships of the Phceacians were possessed of souls (riTvoKu/ifrai opsal vf/E(;\* Among the ancient Germans single trees as well as entire forests were held in the greatest reverence.! Such sacred groves were not to be entered by the profane • such sacred trees were not to be stripped of their leaves or branches, or to be hewed clown. Compare sacrum nemus* ne- mus castum, in Tacitus, and Lucus erat longo numquam violatus ab aevo, in Lucan.i Amongst the sacred groves of German lands were the for- est of the Semnones, the nemus of Nerthus, the Sclavic lucus Zutibure and the Prussian grove Romowe. Amongst the Esthonians it was held impious to break off a twig in a sa- cred grove, nor would they even pluck a strawberry within its shadow.§ Long after the introduction of Chris- tianity the violation of trees was sternly punished in Germany. || Of the Esthonians at the present day we have this account ; Only a few years ago, in the parish of Harjel, they made offerings (opferten) under certain trees on the nights of S. George's, S. John's and S. Michael's clay, they killed a black hen. According to the super- stitious belief of the Wends of Lausitz there are forests which annually de- mand a human sacrifice (as do many rivers) ■ and one man must annually yield his life.1T For an account of the * Odyss. VIII. 556. t Cf. Grimm, D. M. 371 ff. J Pharsal. III. 399. § " Ut umbra pertingit." Grimm, R. A. 57, 105. || Grimm, Yveisthumer, III. S. 309, iS, IV. 366, 15,699. If Grimm, D. M. ub. supr. ecclesiastical prohibitions, vota ad arbores facere aut ibi candelam sen quodlibet munus deferre, arborem co- lere, votum persolvere, consult Grimm, D. M. Anhang. XXXIII. XXXIV. 6. Animals as Fetiches. Christianity, that religion which sets the highest value upon the hu- man individual, places a great abyss between man and nature. She iso- lates man and places him infinitely above nature. Christianity therefore regards the animal as in every re- spect far inferior to man. The relig- ions of India regard Nature as only the outward aspect of Brahma ; for them therefore the eternal Being is visible in the beast as well as in man. Consequently in the beast the Hindu recognizes a brother, of equal rights, and of like rank with himself. But the vtew which the savage takes of the animal world is different from both of these. He commonly re- gards the animal not simply as his equal, but as a superior being. Of the Negroes Waitz says : " In their view man has not his definitive place at the summit of Nature, and above the animals, but the latter appear to them as enigmatical beings whose nature is involved in obscurity and mystery, and whom they rank now as above themselves, again as beneath."* "The Indians," says the same au- thor, " regard the animals as man's ancestors and kindred and ascribe to them a human understanding and hu- man principles of action, or even sometimes a higher intelligence and superhuman capacities. Those ani- mals, however, which neither inspire them with fear nor display any not- able sagacity they despise." t To understand why the savage views the animal creation thus, we need but know the nature of his intellect and the conditions of life in which he is placed. As the understanding reaches only as far as its objects, it will always be * Anthrop. II. 177. t Anthrop. III. 192. Ill 1 < III.sM I as ihe number of these in- itei a man's intelli- . the wider is the line- of distinc- tion between him and beings pos- d ol none at all, or of a le than himself. Bui so loi the number of his obj< s not • ■! thai |" assessed by animal - .is the) are the same in kind as thos< »( d by tin.- animal, and more numerous, fn other words/ .'./ is that <>l da- an- imal : just so long the intell< the lowest savage will not be distinguishable from that of the beast. The will can be exerted only upon the objects exhibited to it in the un- derstands g. Hence, so long as these ts are no higher than those of the animal, the will of the savage can- not have any higher aims than has the will of the beast. As we have already seen, the sav- age has a very small number of ob- 1 loin the lack of objects ol a higher nature, we have shown that his will must be concentrated on those which are purely material, llence his only stimulus, his only ■ interest is to satisfy his hunger, his lust, or his desire of repose. Thus as regards his intellectual status and the range of his desires, the savage, even where he has made little progress, differs but little from the animal , while at a lower stage he scarcely differs at all. The world of the animal is his world also, and their interests are the same. Hence there is hardly any difference between the savage and a highly-or- ganized animal, but as he differs so little from them, it is impossible for him to regard himself as something quite distinct from them. His pur- suits and those of the animal are identical , their wants, their motives ie same : the animal is the coun- terpart of the man; therefore the savage regards the animal as his equal, as his kindred. llence. for the simple reason that the savage and the animal are dc facto scarcely distinguishable, they, I be apprel nded ..s standing on an equality. And as the sa\ not attribute to the beings around him any internal properties save those oi which he already has ( ons< ious- . he i-, fori eil. as we have seen, to form anlhropopathic apprehen; of objects. The mole closely these beings resemble man in their nature and habits, the sooner will he attrib- ute to them the self-same motives which e\i [te himself. In fact his conduct differs ven little from theirs; not alone does he closely resemble them . he is in many respects perfectly identical with them Hence, as he must have antbropopathic apprehen- sion of a mountain, a river, or a tree. innot help regarding the animal asoi his kindred. In the eastern part of South Africa Monteiro's ass was a novelty to the natives, and they at once commenced to ask the donkey what he thought about things, always regarding the ass's doings as human pel f( finances.* But not only must the savage re- gard all. or at least some animals as his equals, he will even assign them a superior rank. Intellectual qualities he values little, as he knows but little about them : but on the contrary, like all men of uncultured minds, like boys, like the old giants in the heroic legend, he prizes bodily strength above even thing else. The great chief who with a blow can split the skull of his antagonist ; whose power- ful voice can be heard at enormous distances, whose nails are like the claws of a bear, who lays hold of a man and tears' him in twain, who when hot coals fall upon his body in sleep, is not awakened, but t them as gnats . who every day de- vours an entire sheep, and drinks a skin of fermented and distilled milk without being drunk : such is the savage's ideal of true greatness. But nowhere does he find such bodily strength and agility, such fiery cour- md uncurbed fury as he does in wild beasts, the lion, tiger, wolf, bear. 5< In if t f. allg. Erdkunde, VI. 407. FETICH ISM. •elephant, etc. They are the realiza- tion of what he might be himself : they are the ideals, the prototypes whose names he delights to assume, and which he chooses as his Totems, and his guardian spirits. They in- deed are the mighty ones of his coun- try : his weapons are often insuffi- cient to protect him against their at- tack ; he is at their mercy, and lives as it were by their favor. Then the colossal size of some of these beasts, or the majesty of their presence — the demon fascination of their gleaming eyes, must make on the savage a pro- founder impression than upon us, in- asmuch as these are the very proper- ties he is best acquainted with and which he values most highly. Not only does this bodily strength inspire him with respect for the beast, as a being superior to himself ; he at- tributes to him, furthermore, a higher degree of sagacity and circumspection. The unerring instinct of the animal : the cunning of the fox, the dog's acute- ness of sense, the ingenuity of the beaver in constructing his house, of the bird in building its nest, of the bee in forming the comb : all this is in sharp contrast with the poverty and helplessness of man in the savage state. He knows nothing of the price the animals have to pay for the power they possess, nor reflects that they too do learn, and suffer anxiety and pain. Again the service rendered to him by several animals — as the ox, who with all his strengt his still so patient — dis- poses the savage to regard the beast as a being worthy of respect, and by no means as the pattern of stupidity. This exposition of the relations between the savage and the brute which is based on the results of obser- vation, is also confirmed on every side by observation. We find the best il- lustration of this in the Animal Le- gend (Thiersage), as it is found among our Germanic ancestors, " a form of composition which could have its or- igin only when men were in a very primitive state, and men and an- imals consorted together intimately and with a childlike ingenuousness." Vilmar's remarks on this subject are apposite :* " The root of this le- gend " (Reynard the Fox), says he, " lies in the guileless natural simplic- ity of primitive man; in the deep and kindly instincts of a sound and vigor- ous savage race. As they conceive a cordial and even passionate attach- ment for Nature in her varying phases ; exulting with her in the mild- ness of the spring time and in the gen- ial heat of summer, sharing the mel- ancholy of autumn, and in winter giv- ing themselves up to the torpor which reigns all around : as they attribute to these different phases of Nature an individuality like their own, with like emotions, and develop these concep- tions in the form of grand myths, in which the creatures of imagination are represented now as kindly and gra- cious, again as awful and majestic, as they appear respectively in Siegfried and Brunhild : so, very naturally, they form a very close and affectionate at- tachment for the brute creation, their nearer neighbors and their closer kin- dred. Nay, more, they admit them to intimate association with them- selves, as though they were truly and essentia! ly, and not by adoption, or by imaginative fiction, members with themselves of one society. It is the pure, innocent delight which the sav- age takes in contemplating the brute creation — their lithe figure and flash- ing eye, their courage and ferocity, their cunning and agility ; it is his knowledge of their habits derived from the daily experiences of a life lived in common with them that gave rise to these fables of animals, to the animal-epic. But such life-experience can be obtained by man, only when he studies the animal with a calm and affectionate interest ; when he con- templates its inmost nature, its most recondite characteristics ; when he not alone shares himself the nature of the animal, but also in turn gives to the animal a share in his own human faculties of thought and of speech, *Vilmar, Literaturgeschichte, I. 244 ff. 8 Aufl. I I I h iii.sm. .md attributes to the animal's actions the same importance, the same intel- ligent direction, which In- claims for his own. This mutual commen Brute and Man is the absolute condi- tion "i the Thiersage. The brute of the legend is not .1 mere brute, oi nature quite diverse from man's, and having no psychic communion with him: but no more is ii a man dis- guised in the form of a brute. In the formei 1 ase, the bi ute could never be the object of poesy, or at least would not furnish the true mate- rial of poesy, action. In the latter case, su( h legends would be only tedious allegory. The charm of the legend lies precisely in this dark background where the brute and the man have so much in common ; and on this background we must not suf- fer the lights of our belter informed understanding to fall, else the very essence of the legend vanishes." There is no form of poetry, as Meiners thinks, more agreeable to the uncultured mind than the fable ; and in point of fact fables are extremely numerous among savages. Their ul- timate basis is the anthropopathic ap- prehension of the brute creation, the dark background of which Vilmar speaks.* Lessing supposes the ob- ject of the fable is to give palpable shape to a moral truth. Even the Hottentots have a large collection of animal-fables, with the recital of which they amuse one another. The Negroes, too, "when they come to- gether to smoke tobacco, or to quaff tlnir palm-wine, entertain one another by telling fables, and they dress up every passing occurrence in the garb of legend or fable. 'The Spider,' to give one example, ' the Spider would lay out a plantation, and set to work about it vigorously without delay. But he had not got the ground ready, when the seeding-time was gone by : and the same thing occurred year after year. The Termite who would build him a palace, .having noticed this, called together his neighbors, • *Cf. Waitz, II 180. his slaves and his friends, t" give him their aid ; ami lo ! after a short time, the work was finished. Then said the Termite to the Spider : " If you had hut done- as 1 did. your plantation would have been laid out long ago." I once, in talking with a Negi amed Quan, reproached his people with hav- ing killed off all the elephants tor the sake of their ivory, and his answer was this : ' No, u e have done no such thing. The c lephantS knew that the while man wanted the ivory, but thev would not part with it without having something in return : so they went down to the coast, and sold their tusks for brandy. Having drunk the brandy, they were now left without anything — neither tusks nor brandy. So in their drunkenness thev became desperate and all committed suicide, and that is why there are no longer elephants in Aquapin.' " * " Man in his lowest stage of devel- opment considers himself and the brutes as almost alike, the difference between the two being, to his mind, rather external than internal and es- sential. The beast has a soul as well as man, and the soVil of the beast is substantially the same as that of man. Men and animals belong to one race, and are identical with one another in sundry points."! How easy is the transition from man to animal, and vice versa, is shown in ancient German legends. " As in later times, after the grim legends of antiquity have been discredited, men become wolves and wolves are transformed into men, as we see in the belief in the Werewolf ; so in primitive times men became drag- ons." % The ancient ballads tell of Siegfrid's father and of his sister Signe, how they were transformed into wolves, and assumed all the savage in- stincts. This belief in "Marafilnas," the lycanthropi of the ancients, ex- tends through Abyssinia, Senegambia and all eastern Negro lands as far as the Somali. Especially workers in */^. 343- t Wuttke, I. 107. \ Vilmar, I. 121. FETICH ISM. iron are supposed to transform them- selves at night into beasts, and then to feast on human flesh. In Fassokl the Marafilnas are even organized into secret guilds.* The Indians in the interior of Oregon regard beavers as human beings, metamorphosed by the Great Spirit, in punishment of their disobedience. t In Mexican mythology, too, we rind instances of such transformations. Xapan was, for adultery, changed into a black scor- pion, and Tlahuitzin, the woman, into a red scorpion ; and Xaotl was chang- ed into a grasshopper, for having over- stepped the powers given to him by the gods.t Lycaon was by Zeus trans- formed into a wolf. A number of German myths speak of the mutual transformations of men and serpents. § The Centaurs and the Sirens show also how readily man and beast coa- lesce in Grecian mythology. We have already seen from the in- stance cited in Chapter II. (the Are- kunas) that there is nothing to prevent the greatest familiarity between the savage and the wild beast. The Ma- lays of Malacca, and the Orangs con- sider the stronger animals as their own equals — especially the shark, whom they regard as a friend and a brother, he being, like themselves, a pirate. A similar view is taken of the tiger and the crocodile, and this view pre- vails throughout many of the East * Waitz, II. i So, 504. t Cox, Ross, The Columbia River, 3 ed. Lond. 1832, I. 231 ; Dunn, Hist, of Oregon Terr. Lond. 1844, p. 317. J D. Francisco Saverio Clavigero, Hist, antigua de Mejico, 1. vi. p. 240 : Entre otras contaban que habiendo emprendido un hom- bre llamado Japan hacer penitencia en un monte, tentado por una mujer, cometio adul- terio : por lo cual lo decapito immediatemente Jaotl, a quien habian dado los dioses el en- cargo de velar la conducta de Japan. Este fue transformado en escorpion negro. Xo contento Jaotl con aquel castigo, perseguia tambien a su mujer Tlahuitzin, la cual fue transformada en escorpion rubio, v el misnio Jaotl, por haber traspasado los limites de su encargo, quedo convert! do en langosta. A la verguenza de aquel delito atribuven la proprietad del escorpion de huir de la luz y de esconderse entre las piedras. § Grimm, D. M. 394 ff. India, Philippine and South-Sea Is- lands.* In the East India isles it is believed that sometimes women give birth, not alone to boys and girls, but also to crocodiles, and the latter are never killed, but carefully placed in a crocodile pond. Many of the natives have their crocodile relatives, duly ac- knowledged, and these they never in- jure, t Hence the savage does not hold it to be a disgrace to be de- scended from beasts ; on the contrary,. they boast of such descent. The Tlascalans used to say that the men who escaped in the Deluge were trans- formed into apes, but that they by de- grees recovered the use of reasori and speech.! Kadroma, a she-ape, wife of the ape Cenresi, was the ancestress of the whole population of Thibet. The Thibetians are proud of this de- scent, and of their ape-like ugli- ness of feature, which they trace to their ape ancestors. § Some of the Orang-Benua trace their origin back to white apes. || According to the AleutiansH and the Chippeways** all men are descended from the dog, and hence the first men had canine paws. Other N. American Indians say that a woman that lived with a clog was the mother of the human race. ft The Delawares suppose themselves de- scended from the eagle ; Jt the Tonka- way trace their origin to the wolf, §§ others to the raven, ]| || the Osages to * J. Hawkesworth, Account of the voy. undertaken for making Discoveries in the S. Hemisphere by Capt. Byron Wallis, Carteret and Cook, 1773. Lond. III. 758; Marsden, Valentyn. t Hawkesw. III. 756, 757. t Clavigero, VI. p. 225. Cf. Garcia, Origen de los Indios. § Klaproth, Tabl. hist. p. 131. II Borie, in Tydschr. voor indische taal, land en volkenkunde. Batavia, X. 415. IT Sarvtschew. R. in Sibir. II. 164. ** Waitz, III. 191. tt Hearne, Voyage from Fort Prince Wallis to the Xorth Sea (Germ. tr. ), p. 2S1. XX Schoolcraft, V. 6S3. §§ Wrangell, Statist, und ethnograph. Xachrichten fiber die riiss. Besitz. in Am. (in Bar and Helmersen, Beitr. zur Kenntn. des russ. Reichs. Petersb. 1S39) 100, 11 1, 93 ; Holmberg, Ethn. Skizzen lib. d. Volk. des russ. Illl Schoolcraft, IV. 305. II m HISM. .1 serpent transformed into a man, and married t<> the daughter <>f" tin- lien ' the K.i\ use. v Perc» , Walla- Wallas, and some othei trib< s are de- scended, a< i ording to .1 tradition held by them all, from the various mem- ■ >t the beaver : t some S. Amei i< .m aborigines from a lish, others from the toad, still others from the rattlesnake.! Conversely, several animals have a human origin. In Acra monki i "servants ol the fetiches," — are supposed to be men, whose < rea- tion miscarried; while among the olets and on the Island ol Mad- ar they are supposed to be men who were metamorphosed on account of their sins.§ The Manitu of the Iroquois, to reward a man w ho, though sore pressed by hunger, had abstained from human flesh, transformed him into a beaver ; and such is the origin of tlie Beaver totem. A Missouri In- dian was changed into a snake that had the power of speech. || ( >wing to this close relationship beasts under- stand the language of man, and vice versa. In Bornu this mutual under- standing of languages Ceased when a man betrayed a set ret to a woman. IT In our legends and stones, too, ani- mals speak, as did Diomed's steeds. The souls of animals, and even of plants, enjoy the privilege of immor- tality.** The souls of men may pass into the bodies of animals, and ani- mals' souls into men's bodies. Ani- mals which root the bodies of dead men out of their graves thus make the souls of the deceased their own, devouring soul and body at once. This belief is oftentimes the founda- tion ol the s;i\ age's reverence for ani- mals, as is the ease among the Kaffirs, who make an offering to the wild beasts ol the bodies of the dead.tt •Wilkes, IV. 467, apud Waitz, in. 345. t Azai a, Vi.y. 1 1. 138. ! Garcilasso, Commentar. reales, I. 18, 21. § /'' 178. M '. . Neuwied, II. 230. bile, African Native Literature. Lond. 1. 1 54. rgi, Beschr. S. 3S3. tt Wait/, II. 177. 1 the largei beasts the savage often attributes a higher intelligence than he claims for himself, A very intelligent Indian seriously assured Parkman that he held the beaver and the white man to be the most ingen- ious of people.* Espei tally the white beaver, an animal which appears to exist only in fable, is represented as endowed with superhuman powers.f ( m the S< negal, in Kordofan and in Brazil, monkeys are possessed of a hu- man understanding. It is believed by many savages that monkeys can speak. but refuse to do SO, lest they should be forced to work. $ Dogs, too, can speak, and in primitive times did speak: but since the time when the descendants of the god Kutka sailed by them without replying to their in- quiries, they have proudly refused to speak any more. It is only strai that they bark at now. or rather it is only strangers to whom they now ad- dress the question, Who are you ? Where are you going? So say the K.amtchatdales.§ The Kaffirs' say that the chameleon and the salaman- der are messengers sent on important errands to man by the god I'mkulun- kulu.H The Chippeways, like the Atnas, Kenai and Kolush.1T suppose the world was called into existence by a bird. In the beginning there was only a vast waste of water : above this was poised a monstrous bird, the beating of whose wings was as thunder, the Hash of whose eye was as lightning. He swooped down and touched the sea, and at once the earth came to the surface and floated on the water.** Birds passed for be- ings gifted with extraordinary wisdom anion- the ancient ( Germans, Greeks and Romans.tt The American In- • lb. III. 193. [ones, Traditions of the X. Am. Ind., 2 ed. Lond. 1830, III. <»>. J Raffenel, p. 90; Riippel, R. in Xubien, Kordofan, etc. Frankf. 1829, S. 115; Bos- mann, II. 243; Bowdich, p. 195. S Steller. S. 280. ! Wait/, 1 1. 410. • Wait/, III. 179. ** M. v. Neuwied, II. 221. tt Cf. Grimm, I >. M. S. ; V SS ff. FETfCHIS-M. dians credit the owl with greater in- telligence than even the beaver or the rattlesnake, and treat him with the utmost reverence, call him "grand- father," and even incense him with tobacco-smoke — a solemn offering, with which oftentimes the morning sun is greeted. A legend represents the owl as one of the greatest bene- factors of mankind, and he is consid- ered to be the king or chief of the snakes.* In Mexican legend it was a dove that taught the dumb sons of Cojcoj, the Mexican Noah, to speak diverse tongues so that they could not understand one another.! On the mountain Kaf lives the monstrous bird Anka, endowed with reason and speech, known to the Persians under the name of Simorg, and in the Tal- mud called Jukneh. The books of the Zends tell of four sacred birds which are the guardians of the earth and of everything that lives thereon. Japanese mythology represents the "bird Isi Tataki as the cause of the propagation of the human race ; it was from him that the original divine pair got their knowledge of marriage rites. Chaldaic legend speaks of four worshipful beings, half man, half animal, which came out of the sea and made their appearance on the bank of the Euphrates near Babylon to give men instruction. The name of the first was Oannes, and he in- structed them in those things which are pleasing to God, and gave to them religion, laws, science, culture ; while it was the business of the other three to attend to the improvement of mankind by a repetition of the les- sons given by the first. The Turks and the Arabs say that the cat medi- tates upon Mohammed's law, and that she will share with the faith- ful in the joys of Paradise, and they believe that the horse reads the Koran.* From what has been already said not only will the fetichistic veneration of animals be placed in a clear light, but it will also appear that such ven- eration is necessarily incident to sav- age life. And it is the animal itself in propria natura, and without any reference to any divinity he may rep- resent, that is worshiped. " The bear that is worshiped as a god is regarded as^a true bear: the snake that is worshiped as a fetich is no mere passing theophania, but is ever a real snake. "t It is not to be ques- tioned that in the higher stages of development the worship of animals is connected with the cultus of spir- its ; and then the animals are consid- ered as consecrated to the gods, and are on that ground worshiped : but that is beside our purpose. The elephant is in Africa regarded as a superior being. The Kaffirs, out of respect to his understanding, will not eat his flesh. And yet they chase this animal, saying at the same time, "Do not kill us, great chief; do not trample on us, great chief.' 1 % In Dahomey he is the " great fetich " of the nation. Though the Dahomans are allowed to kill the animal, still they must perform a longpurificatory ceremonv after having slain one.§ In Siam the kings used once to ap- pear seated on a white elephant, but that custom was abolished, for the elephant is as great a potentate as the king himself; and in him dwells a kingly soul. He has been even in- vested with imperial dignities. || The lion was worshiped in Arabia, IF the tiger in Xew Calabar ** and in the East India islands. In Sumatra the natives give the tigers warning when- ever Europeans set snares to catch * Arvieux, Mem. mis en ordre par le P. Labat. Par. 1735, III. 223, 252. t YVuttke, I. 82. | Kav, Trav. and Researches in Kaffraria. * Parkman, Hist. Conspir. Pontiac. Loud. 1851, II. 135; Jones, III. 69. t Clavigero, Lib. VI. p. 225: ... . tubi- Lond. 1S33, p. 125, 138. eron muchos hijos, pero mudos, hasta que j § Forbes, p. 9; Kay, p. 341. una paloma les communico los idiomas desde [ Meiners, I. 221. las ramas de un arbol, pero tan diversos, que r \ Ibid. S. 192. no podian entenderse entre si. I ** Holman, I. 371 ; Kolen 61. > 11. lit Hi.sM. them: and we read of Tiger-tities y where thi that* hed with women's hair. In Acra, too, where almost each village adores as its fetich some animal peculiar to itself, the hyena is d as sai red.* A; the * I ■ iod I lope they will not kill the leopard, even though the an- imal devour women ami children. It is thought in Dahomey that those who are lorn to pieces by leopards art- peculiarly blest in the next life.t The principal object of worship of the West Africa negroes is the wolf. \ soldier belonging to a Danish fort, who was not aware of the sailed character of these animals, killed one of them. The indignant natives de- manded of the Fort Commandant a reparation of the offense; and he was compelled to yield to the demand, as the : threatened to quit the district if he refused to comply. If satisfaction were not made the mur- dered wolf would take a fearful re- venue on them and their children. Accordingly the Commandant had the wolfs body wrapped in linen cloths, and provided gunpowder and brandy for the solemn rite of atone- ment. '1 'he natives having, during the grand obsequies, fired off the powder and drunk the brandy, the wolf was propitiated and avenged. $ Some negroes worship goats, sheep and rams.$ In Xew Calabar the horse is worshiped, and in Wadai this animal is the subject of many wonderful stories, and of a multitude of superstitious beliefs. jj Indeed the horse, as also the ox and the cow, have been regarded as sacred the world over. The religious views of many Indian tribes with regard to animal-fetiches are very curious. ''The highest worship is paid to the Onkteri Gods who created the earth and man, and who instituted the medicine-dance. In form they re- semble huge oxen : amongst them * Bowdich, p. 362 ; Monrad, ^. t Fori \ Rom Des Marchais, I. 297. £ Bastian, 82, i Holman, Koler, 11. cc. the spirit of Earth holds the pre-em- inence, and has subject to him the serpents, lizards, frogs, the owl. the eagle, the spirits of the dead. etc. Another 1 lass of gods, sub-divided multifariously, is that of the Wakin- yan, who are ever at war with the Onkteri, and who are principally de- structive war-gods, though they pos- also the creative power. To them the wild rice and a certain kind of grass owe their origin. In form they bear a fantastical resemblance to birds, and their home is on a lofty mountain in the west. The eastern gate of their dwelling is guarded by a butterfly, the western by a bear, the northern by the moose, the southern by the beaver,"* etc. The worship of the beaver is diffused throughout almost the whole of America.! Among birds it is the owl which is most frequently chosen for a fetich, % and even among our Teutonic ances- tors this bird, as well as many others, w as esteemed sacred. $ Many ancient Arab tribes regarded the eagle as their Great Fetich, || and by the Syri- ans the dove was worshiped. If In Africa, especially in Bonny; and in the E. Indian Islands, in Suma- tra, Celebes, Butong, and the Philip- pines the crocodile is the principal object of worship.** In performing this worship, the natives go down to the haunts of the crocodile, to the sound of music vocal and instrumental, and throw food and tobacco to the animals. Nay, even in Celebes and in Butong tamed crocodiles are kept in the houses, tf probably because their presence is deemed lucky ; and for this same reason, the Negro of Africa is glad when he finds these vener- animals dwelling near his hut without fear.it In Madagascar the cayman, the guardian deity of Little * Wait/, III. 190. t //-. III. 193. \ Supra, p. 77. vj ( rmnm, I >. M. 3S6-394. Meiners, I. 192. •" Xenoph. Anab. I. 4. ** Holman, Kbler, 11. cc. tt Hawkesworth, p. 757. j J k< uner, 273 f. FETICHISM. Popo, is supposed to be an enchanted chieftain of old.* When the cayman takes any prey (so say the natives on the Senegal) he calls together his friends and kindred and counsels with them when the holiday is to be kept, for the distribution of the plunder. His most intimate. friend is a bird, a kind of crane, which watches over him as he sleeps : and it is not permitted to kill this bird.f In the E. India Islands,! as in Af- rica also,§ the shark is a mighty fetich along the sea-coast. Eels are worship- ed in Cusaie and in the Marian Isles. || In the Carolines the God Mani is represented as a fish. IT " At Eap there are kept in a pond of fresh water two fishes of extreme age, but yet only a span in length, which always stand in a right line, head to head, without moving. If any man touch them, and they are made to stand at right angles with each other, an earthquake is the result."** Xeno- phon states that the ancient Syrians paid worship to fishes ;tt and whoever ate of a sacred fish, his body was at once covered with ulcers, his bowels shriveled up, and his bones crumbled away 4$ " Mysterious in its whole nature ; amazingly agile though without limbs ; strong and formidable though simple in form ; of no great size and yet a match for the most powerful animals, owing to the instantaneousness of its attack ; gorgeous in its variegated coat ; silently and stealthily lying in wait for its victim, and then in an instant filling him with terror — the * Leguevel, II. 223. t Raffenel, p. 29, 208. I Marsden, Hawkesworth, 11. cc. § Holman, Koler, 11. cc. || bumont d'Urville, Voy. de l'Astrolabe. Par. 1830, V. 121. IT Schirren, Die Wandersagen der Neu- seelander unci der Maurimythus. Riga, 1856, S. 70. ** Gerland, ap. Waitz, V. 2,137; Chamisso, Bemerk. auf einer Enldeckungsreise ( 1 S 1 5— 18). Weimar, 1821, S. 132. tt Anab. F. 4: £~i rdv Xd'/ov —nraiiuv -'/>',/>>,' ^i^tfeur 11 ya/UJV nai -()(ieuv,oi>Q 01 Xvpot -dcnrr iriiiiunr ical aftiKEiv ovk eluv ovde rag irepiarepac. \ } Meiners, I. 193. Serpent is an object of reverence to the savage, and is* by him regarded as a mighty being of a higher order." * In America, Africa and Europe ser- pents have been worshiped, often- times, indeed, as being possessed by the souls of the departed, but often also as actual fetiches. The reverence paid by American Indians to the rattle- snake was the means of saving the life of the Count von Zinzendorf (1742). The Cayugas, with whom he was stay- ing, were about to put him to death, supposing that his presence was pro- ductive of ill-luck to them. The Count was seated one night on a bun- dle of sticks, writing by the light of a small fire. Unknown to him a rattle- snake lay alongside him. When the Indians who were to take his life ap- proached and observed the snake, they withdrew, firmly convinced that the stranger was of divine origin. f In Europe the Lithuanians worshiped ser- pents, kept them in their houses and made offerings to them : yet possibly they may have supposed them pos- sessed by the souls of their departed kinsmen. We find mention of snake- worship as practiced by the Longo- bardi, in the Vita Sancti Barbati in "Acta Sanctorum." | Herodotus speaks of this worship among the Egyp- tians^ The guardian of the Athenian Acropolis was a living serpent. || But Serpent-worship finds its highest de- velopment in Whida, in Africa. IT The Egyptian Apis alone can compare for importance, power and sacredness with the marvelous serpent which once gave to the Negroes of Whida tht* victory over their enemies. This sei- pent, which never dies, is held so sacred that not even the king, but only the High-Priest, durst see him face to face. The sanctity of this one snake confers consecration and immu- nity upon all other snakes of the same species, which are naturally harmless; * Wuttke, I. S2. t Waitz, III. 192. I Grimm, I'). M. 395 ff. §II-74- I! Herod. VIII. 41. • Bosmann, 458 ff. ; Des Marchais, II. 153. - i 1 I l< 1 1 ISM. and it is a high < rime to kill them. While Bosmann was in Whida, a swine killed one of these snakes, and in pun- ishment not alone was the individual transgress* >r put to death, but .1 «ral persecution broke oul against the whole tribe ol swine. Indeed they would have been utterly extermii had not the Serpent granted an ain- nestj . Ea< h time the crown is put upon a new head, the queen-mother and the new king himself make a solemn pilgrimage to the temple 1 il the serpent. In the court of this temple the faithful pronounce their prayers, and offer valuable gifts. Iii case there he m 1 earthquakes 1 ir other great calamities, which would necessi- special offerings to appease the wrath of the dcity.Vhere is annually held a grand festival, when hecatombs arc offered. Still the High-Priest may at any time demand, in the name of the serpent, offerings of valuables, herds, and even human victims: and he must be denied nothing. There d in the service of the temple a numerous h6stt)f priests and priest- The srrake's harem is well stocked with beautiful girls. Every year the priestesses, armed with clubs, go about the country, picking out and ( arrying away girls from 8 to 1 2 years of age. for the service of the god. These children are kindly treated and instructed in songs and dances in majorem gloriam of his Snakeship. In due time they are consecrated by ling on their bodies certain fig- ures, especially those of serpents. The Negroes suppose it is the snake him- sell that marks his elect thus. Having their training and consecra- tion, which are paid for by the parents according to their means, the children n home; and when they attain their majority are espoused to the Serpent. The happy brides, tricked out in festival array, are brought by their parents to the temple. When night comes, they are let down by twos or threes into pits where, as the priestesses aver, the authorized prox- : the snake await them. Mean- while the old priestesses sing and dance around the pits. ( in the mora* ing after the bridal night the girl sent back to their homes ; there these chosen maids have never been known to give birth to serpents, but only to perfectly human infants. During the remainder ol their lives they enjoy eminent privileges, as being the law- ful wives of the god, and receive a portion of all the sac lilii es and gifts offered to him. They are permitted to marry a human spouse, and then their power over their husbands is un- limited. Should the latter presume to set themselves in opposition to the will of their divine helpmeets, they run the risk of being assassinated by the priestesses and by tin- other spouses of the god. Traces of animal-fetichism are to be found even in the more highly-de- veloped forms of religion. The Is- raelii ish worship of the Golden Calf, and of the golden calves set up bv Jeroboam is the product of a rude in- telligence, as yet untitled for the purer worship of Jab ve, which belongs to a higher state of intellectual develop- ment.* The raising up of the Brazen Serpent by Moses, the sight of which healed the people of Israel, would ap- pear to be a relic of ancient serpent- fetichism. (See above, Fernando J'o.) Of the worship of animals among the Egyptians Bastian says :t "At Heliop- olis and at Thebes, good care was taken lest travelers should peep behind the curtain. But when the specious cloak of philosophy, In- means of which the Egyptians imposed on their neighbors, is stripped off. but little is to be seen beyond ;* What we should despise as stupid fetichism in a Negro tribe, was admired as the profoundest wisdom in the world's metropolis. The close connection between' the usages of the ancient Egyptians, and those of the other African races, is too evident to be overlooked." As we have already seen, the sav- age does not view his fetich as a be- ing so exalted that in no case he may * ('/. Merx, Art. Abgottereei, in Schenkel's Bibellexikon. I San S.tlv. S. 300. FETICHISM. 81 withhold from him obedience. His reverence for animals is all the more precarious, inasmuch as he is fre- quently brought into collision with them in the struggle for existence, as when hunger drives him to use their flesh for food, or when he is obliged to defend himself against the attacks of wild beasts. In such cases he kills the animal, how sacred soever it may be. The divine nimbus, however, which surrounds the animal is not thus dissipated, for the savage will pay due reverence to the body of the slaughtered beast, excusing his deed as best he may : having thus appeased the animal's soul, he contentedly feasts off its flesh, and clothes himself in its skin. " Hail, friend from the spirit- land," is the salutation with which the Indian greets the snake he meets ; " we were unfortunate, and our friends yonder knew of it. The Great Spirit knew of it. Take this gift of tobac- co (sprinkling tobacco dust on the snake's head) ; it will comfort you after your long journey." With these words he seizes the snake by the tail, passes his hand dexterously along the back, till he reaches the head, and then crushes the reptile to death. He strips off the skin, which he wears as a trophy.* " Be not angry with us," say the Indians to the bear they have killed, " for having slain you. You have understanding, and know that our children are hungry. They love you, and they want to eat your flesh. Is it not an honor for you to become food for the children of the great chief? "f Sometimes they ap- pease the bear they have killed by placing in its mouth a tobacco-pipe, into the head of which they blow, fill- ing the animal's throat with smoke, and meanwhile asking forgiveness. During a meal, of which the bear himself is the principal dish, they set up his head on an elevated place and chant songs of praise in his honor.! The Ostiaks attach the head of the * YVaitz, III. 192. t Lettr. edif. N. E. VI. 174. ; Charlevoix, p. 117, 300. bear to a tree, and pay it divine honor ; then they utter their laments over its carcass, in doleful tones, inquiring, " Who has deprived you of life ? " and immediately themselves giving the answer, " The Russians ! Who cut off your head ? The ax of the Rus- sians. Who has stripped you of your hide ? Some Russian's knife."* The inhabitants of Northern Europe, from a feeling of reverence, never call the bear by his own name, but only " the old man in the coat of fur." t When the Madagascans kill a whale calf, they make their excuses to its dam, and entreat her to go away,+ just as the Kaffirs do, after they have cap- tured an elephant. § As fetiches generally, in accordance with the principles already explained (Ch. III.), are regarded as the causes of phenomena, which in point of fact stand to them not at all in the rela- tion of effects, so too those animals which are worshiped are by their dev- otees arranged in causal relati on with phenomena, whenever the true cause cannot be found. Hence the Ya- kutes regarded the camel as the cause of the small-pox (p. 24). The Mexi- cans first became acquainted on the one hand with the horse, on the other with ships, when the Spaniards came to their shores. The report and the flash coming from the guns of the latter they took to be thunder and lightning. Who produced these phe- nomena ? Not men ; of that they were quite sure. The horse, however, was something entirely new to them, and therefore they regarded the horse as the producer of the thunder and lightning, and on this ground worship- ed him as a god. " At his departure Cortez left with these friendly people one of his horses that had received an injury in the foot. The Indians conceived a sentiment of reverence * Isbrand, Voy. au Nord. VIII. 411. t Georgi, Beschr. S. 14, 21. % Owen, Narr. of a Voy. to explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia and Madagascar. Lond. 1S33, I. 170. § Moodie, Ten years in S. Africa. Lond. 1835. II- 333- I 1 riCHISM. foi the beast, as being in some way connected with the mysterious power oi the white man. Alter theii visitors had taken their leave, they offered flowers to the horse, and pre] i.. i him, it is said, many savorydishes t.i poultry, such as they were wont to prepare for the sick. The poor beast starved to death with such novel food. The terrified Indians set up his image in stone, in one oi their teocallis, and worshiped it as a god. When, in k<\S, two Franciscans came to this lo ality (which was then as little known to the Spaniards as before Cortez's visit) to preach the gospel there, one ot the most notable things they found was this image of a horse, which was worshiped by the devout Indians as the god of thunder and lightning."* Jacob Grimm cites numerous cases of animal-worship among the ancient Teutons. Thus, whoever kills the haus-otter (a small innoxious snake) will die within the year.t The killing of a swallow i which is a sacred bird) causes rain to fall for four weeks.! The giant eagle Hraesvelgr, in Northern mythol- ogy, causes the winds by beating his wings on the outer verge of the earth.;; The dew of morning is the foam that falls to the earth from the mouth of Hrimfaxi, the black steed of the night. ]| Skoll and Hati, two gigantic wolves, are ever chasing the sun and the moon,H and hence it is that the latter ever speed on — a thing they would not do, were it not that they feared being overtaken by the wolves. Eclipses of sun and moon occur when the wolves overtake their prey, and have commenced to gulp them down: but fortunately the vic- tims have so far been always success- ful in making their escape. In Orien- tal fable the dragon takes the wolf's place. The serpent Jormungandr, which lives in the sea, encloses the * Prescott, Conq. Mix. II. 369. I 1 1. M. Anh. Abcrglaube Nr. 143. \ lb. Nr. $78. § I). M.S. 361. D. M.S. 36S. \ D. M. S. 401. whole earth in his folds. When he drinks there is ebb : but when he water, there is flow oi tide. In the mythology of Japan and China. wlun the dragon Tat quits the sea to saunter through the air, we have the waterspout. 7. Mm (?s Fetiches. A fetii h is an object perceptible by the senses, to which, anthropopath- ically apprehended, man attributes Causal power, and which he worships. Heine objects the most widely di- verse becomes fetiches. Hence too, man himself, if the conditions unite in him, will be a fetich. Both in Af- rica and in America identical views are taken of those individuals who possess any extraordinary deformity, whether of body or of mind — for in- stance, albinos, dwarfs, hunchbacks, fools, etc. In Bornoo albinos are ob- jects of fear, as beings gifted with su- pernatural power;* in Senegambia, if they are slaves, they are given their freedom, are exempted from all labor, and are cheerfully supported at others' expense. t In Congo the king keeps them in his palace, as " fetiches which give him influence over the Europeans." % They are held in such respect that they may take whatever they will ; and he who is deprived of his property by them, esteems himself honored. In Loango they are es- teemed above the Gangas, and their hair is sold at a high price as a holy relic. § Thus may a man become a fetich. This fetichistic worship of man is a totally different thing from the respect which is paid to the man whose ex- traordinary power is due simply to the fact that he is the owner of certain mighty fetiches. This is the case with the ordinary fetich-priest, and with many kings, who by means of their fe- tiches may decree favorable or unfa- * Kolle, p. 401. t Raffenel, Nouv. Voy. dans le pays des s. Par. 1S56, I. 230. I Bastian, 34. § Proyart, 172. FETICHISM. 83 vorable weather, etc., as, for instance, when Ogautan and Mondull in the saga, by shaking their weather-bag (vedhrbelgr) cause wind and tempest ; or when the Swedish king Eirikr, sur- named Weather-hat (vedhrhattr), caused the wind to blow from the point toward which he turned his hat.* But if such power was attributed to the individuals themselves, and not to their fetiches, then they themselves became fetiches. Thus the Chitome of Congo is regarded as a fetich, as also, probably, the king of Usambara, whose power is so unlimited, that one of his subjects, describing the actual relation between ruler and subject, said : " We are all the slaves of the Zumbe (king) and he is our Mulungu (god)." t The Tamol of the western Caroline Islands appears to belong to the same class as the Chitome. t The nobility in those islands have unlim- ited power over the people, but they themselves in turn are subject to a Tamol in each separate island, and he is absolute monarch. Whoever ap- proaches him on business, must come with his head bowed down to the level of his knees. He takes his po- sition in silence, and awaits the Ta- mol's order to speak. The potentate's words pass for those of a god, and his hands and feet are kissed as often as a petition is addressed to him. The idolatrous worship of the princes of Tonga, whose touch suffices to make any object holy, also appears to be fetichistic. But of a different kind was the honor which, for instance, the Mexicans paid to Cortez ; § the Sand- wich Islanders to Captain Cook ; || the Kamtchatdales to the first Rus- sian seen by them ; 1[ the inhabitants of Cassegut to De Brue ;** the Gil- bert Islanders to the Scotchman Wood ; ft the Oatafians to Captain * Grimm, D. M. S. 368. t Krapf, Reisen in O. Afrika (1837-55). Stuttg. 1S58, I. 291, note. t Gerland ap. Waitz, V. 2, 116. § Acosta, p. 204. || Cook's Last Voyage, III. If M tiller, Sammlung russ. gesch. III. 19. **Labat, Vov. V. 172. tt Gerland, V. 141. Hale.* In these cases the motive was different : these white men were considered gods. Hence they were viewed not from the fetichistic stand- point, but from that of polytheism, the origin of which we have already pointed out. On this account the Gilbert Islanders carried Wood about in their arms, and the Oatafians en- tertained Hale (whose ship, as they thought, had come down from heaven) with solemn dances, lest they should offend the deity ; and answered his questions in song. The white men were identified with deceased ances- tors,t being supposed to be the latter either in propriis personis or in their ghosts. Accordingly, here we have no fetichistic worship.! CHAPTER VI. THE HIGHEST GRADE OF FETICHISM. i. The New Object. All the objects which we have so far considered as fetiches, how much soever they may differ among them- selves, have this in common, that they exist in man's immediate environ- ment : that they are within his reach, and almost all tangible. They are all circumscribed by the limits of earth, and mostly confined to the very spot which is the savage's own hab- itat : he necessarily comes in contact with them, nor is there any need of special search to find them out. Furthermore, all the objects which the savage in the lowest stage of in- tellectual development considers use- * Hale, Eth. and Philol. (U. S. Exp.) Phil. 1846, 151 seq. t Cf. Gerland, V. 141. tThis fifth chapter makes no pretension to an exhaustive treatment of its topics. Its object is simply to indicate the principal points of view, from which the various ob- jects of fetich worship are to be regarded, with reference to the matter in hand. To collect and describe all the forms of fetichism in use among the various races of men, will fur- nish matter for as many special investiga- tions as there are peoples and religions. 11 Mi IIIsM. ful oi desirable, belong in like man- ner to the earth ; as .ill his aspira- tions ami all his interests are cerned with earthly things. For what interests lias he? Those ol a spirit- ual nature are unknown to him, and those which he does recognize have reference simply to his physical well- being; his bodily appetites are the only stimuli which excite his will, and engage his whole attention. But how is he to gratify these appetites? The sky with all its stars will not ap- pease his hunger, nor has the firma- ment power to sate his lust. The gratification of these appetites is to be found oid_\- here below. It is the eanh alone that can give him the ob- of his desire, and he has no wish for the things lying beyond. For us these earthly objects are become also objects of higher, more spiritual in- terest, inasmuch as we have made them objects of knowledge ; but they are not at all objects for the savage in this sense. He has no desire of knowledge for knowledge' sake : he desires things only so far as they can gratify his grosser passions. What- soever does not minister to these, is of no interest for him, is no object for him, does not arrest his attention ; just as animals " in the state of fret only have perfectly clear conceptions of the few things which are closely connected with their daily wants and with their daily life, but suffer every- thing else to pass by almost unno- ticed."'* A plant is an object for the savage only in so far as it may supply food : it has no value for him as a botanical specimen, and it is only as an article of food that it can interest j him. These mere bodily interes his are amply secured within the nar- row earthly world with which he is acquainted. So long as he experi- ences none but simply physical inter- ests, he rests content with his con- : traded world, and his mind remains confined within its narrow sphere. If therefore his world is to extend its limits, and his mind to take a broader ■ * Waitz, I. 329. I range, he must experience some high- er interest. But now the will is never without its objei t. never stands by it- self as will simply, but always as will determined^ always as will < 1 i 1 • towards an object: and it ever ex- tends just as far as its obje< ts. If therefore a higher will, a higher in- is to be awakened, a new ob- ject must necessarily be attained, by impelling toward whit h the em of the will we give them a new twinkling stars, its rosy blush at morn and eve, and the deep blue of its mighty arch. By the splendor of its ever-changing and sublime phenomena, it invites the savage to the contemplation of itself, without ministering to his lower na- ture. Thus this new object gives to his will a new direction, a new inter- est — that of contemplation, of thirst for knowledge : an intellectual inter- est. We must go back in imagination to the time when man was without knowledge, when all was ignorance, when there was no school to give in- struction, as instruction is given now. Then every step toward knowledge was an advance into the unknown land, and individual observation was the only schoolmaster. But .observa- tion was limited to those objects which Nature afforded : hence Nature was, after all. the true Teacher. Were it not that there was in the universe an object which irresistibly challenged at- tention, without ministering to man's lower passions, and which thus in some measure diminished the force of the latter, man could never have risen above his animal instincts, nor ever have conceived an intellectual interest. Hence wherever the savage has no1 yel made the heavens the ob- ject of his contemplation, we may be sure that his condition is that of ex- treme barbarism, which latter however diminishes, in proportion as his knowl- of the heavens advances. The firmament is the first object which awakens in him intellectual interest ll is only after he has with some in- litest contemplated this obje< t. that his mind goes out to observe the uni- verse, tor knowledge' sake, and tu Study the Other objects upon tin- earth, as objects of knowledge, which bi were Only Objects Ol desire. This is perfectly consequent, for so soon as one thing is regarded with intellectual interest, all other tilings will b< garded from the like point ol view, since they are all mutually related. Hence, of all the sciences worthy of the name, astronomy is the oldest and the first : and hence too do we find, even in the remotest historic times, and among the most ancient peoples, that the results of astronomy, such as tin' ascertainment of the year's length. and kindred facts, are more correctly apprehended than the results of any other science. The science of the heavens, so soon as there is any de- mand among savages for scientific know ledge, constitutes the first object of scientific instruction. I have said. scientific instruction, to distinguish it from religious, which no doubt pre- cedes astronomical instruction : but this precedence of religious instruc- tion is due simply to the fact that it is based upon a total ignorance of Nature, which of course is prior to knowledge. But the earliest scientific knowledge that man acquires is that of astronomy. Leaving out of view the instruction the savage gains as to the objects in daily use. even the rud- est of savages oftentimes receives re- ligious instruction, but never anything that can lay claim to the title of scien- tific education. If therefore we any- where find scientific instruction given (and the first lessons will be always in astronomy) we may confidently assert that mental development has made considerable progress. This is veri- fied in the case of the South-Sea Is- landers in the Carolines. Canova, in describing the Caroline Islands, says, " In each district there are two places of public instruction, in the one of which the boys, and in the other the girls receive instruction in astronomy, FETICHISM. 87 as far as the natives' knowledge of that science goes. The master in giving his lessons uses a globe, on which the position of the principal stars is indicated with rude art." * Hence, too, astronomy is the first sub- ject-matter of early scientific litera- ture. The bonk.' of the Mexicans had on one page mythological figures, ritual directions, laws and the history of the country, while on the opposite page, out of all the objects of theoret- ical science, they set forth only those of astronomy and chronological calcu- lations. t The " innumerable books" of the people of Yucatan, whose men- tal culture was about parallel with that of the Mexicans, give the con- stellations, chronological calculations, and the fauna and flora, and political history of the country. I Science in antiquity developed similar phe- nomena in its beginnings, and the librarv of a German peasant consists of a hymn book and an almanac. We will suppose the savage, then, beginning to contemplate the heav- enly bodies with some interest. The phenomena which these produce, viz., light and heat, and all the effects of these latter, have so wide an influence, and so intimately concern man him- self , and further, it is so patent that these heavenly bodies are in truth the efficient causes of the phenomena, that man establishes a relation be- tween them and his own life, between them and all Nature. There can be nothing on earth mightier than they, their influence pervading all space- they are supreme, they can account for everything, they are for man Ulti- mate Causes. But these causes do not for him operate through mechan- ical laws • they are not for him inani- mate bodies, being, like all other ob- jects, apprehended by him anthropo- pathically. Hence they have life and will, even as man himself — and thus thev become the supreme fetiches. But their energies are not restricted to the production of storms and tem- *(}erland apud Waitz, V. 2. no. t Waitz, IV 171. t Waitz, IV 311. pests : man sees his own fate as de- pending upon their decrees. The changes which he observes taking place among them he interprets as tokens of their good-will or their en- mity, their favor or their displeasure ; and' hence it is that the early contem- plation of the heavens, as being coupled with anthropopathic appre- hension, is necessarily fetichistic, and that astronomy makes its first appear- ance as astrology ; hence, too, the lat- ter precedes the former chronologic- ally. 2. The Gradual Acquisition of Kfiowl- edge. Time was when the heavenly bod- ies were not yet an object of contem- plation. We do not say that then man did not notice, did not see the sun, moon and stars — even brute beasts have so much cognizance of the heavens: but the time was when man had no definite notion of the heavenly bodies, when he knew noth- ing either of the mode or of the regu- larity of their movements, or of their periods : in short, when his knowledge of them was limited to the general sensuous impression. Later he comes to see in the heavens an object made up of distinct parts. Between the point of departure, nescience, and this term, knowledge, lies the period of gradual acquisition, where, starting from small beginnings, the mind ad- vances step by step to knowledge. Let us form a clear conception of the order in which the heavenly bodies would by degrees come to be known to man, and we shall at the same time understand the order in which they presented themselves to him as objects of fetichistic contemplation. When he begins to observe the sky with its various phenomena, his knowledge is limited to the sensuous impression. But in this case the ob- server is not one who has pushed his investigations deeply into other sub- jects, and now to this new investiga- tion brings a disciplined mind which can keenly analyze the phenomena; 1 1 I l< lll.vM. ■ • inly .in o\ ergri iw n infant, with rs ol thought .ill undeveloped, Sin h an observer will be i hiefly guided by the impression left by the : on hi-, senses. I [em e that heavenly body which appears mosl striking to the eye, which exhibits the greatest number ol varying phases, and which is easiest observ- ed, will first attract and rivet his at- tention. Now such an object is not the Sun, but the Moon: and hence we find that, anion-' savages, the latter is worshiped at a much ear- lier period than the former, and 3 i msidered of higher importance.* This fact, which to us who can more truly estimate the relative importance of the two luminaries, appears at first glance unaccountable, admits of a very easy explication, when we consider on the one hand the exte- rior, sensible aspects of the two, and on the other hand the intellectual status of the savage. In the fust, place the savage has in the day-time little leisure for the contemplation of Nature in general, or of the Sun in particular: he must needs find his daily provision, and this care engrosses all his attention. For the more perfect, the means and the implements, the machinery he employs, the sooner can he supply his bodily wants, and the more leisure he lias for mental development. But the less developed he is, the clumsier are the means at his command for taking his prey, and the more time he consume in gathering to- gether his daily provision , and hen< e a Tierra del Fuegian is his whole life long occupied with this one care, and this is his sole employment, viz., to gain his sustenance. As he nei- ther sous nor plants, and as the des- ert region in which he lives yields him scarcely one natural product, he must needs he restricted to this one pursuit. If perchance he succeeds in finding a sufficiency for the present, the h has weai ied him and he seeks repose in sleep: and when he awakes * Cf. Wuttke, I. 66. the renewed cravings of hunger coin- pel him again to r< sume his sean h. Thus, if he would support life, he must through the day keep his eyes steadily fixed on the earth. then the Sun is no sin h obj< i would through the day very forcibly i laiin the attention ol a man whose mind is void "I thought, and whose only ( are is to still the < ries ol hun- ger. All nature is now bathed in light ; there are no dark shadows, no i i mtrasts ; and contrast it is which enables an object to make a very deep impression. Day with its light is a very common occurrence — it is in- deed a fact of daily experience. But suppose that the man directs his gaze toward the sun: beyond its daily traversing the heavens, no phases are observable which might readily im- press the savage mind. The Sun changes not like the Moon : those changes whirh we observe in the place of its rising, from solstice to solstice, take place so gradually, and require so long a period, that only close ob- servation can detect them at all : and for this the savage has neither the will nor the perseverance. Hence the sun is an object rather of medi- tation than of contemplation ; and to study it requires a rather highly developed understanding. It is very different with the moon. At night the savage has finished his daily toil ; his wants are supplied : hence he is now at leisure. But, most im- portant of all, the effect of contrast is here to be observed. The earth is wrapt in darkness; the supersti- tious savage meanwhile shudders with fear, while every nerve and every sense is on the stretch. Then emer- ges from beneath the horizon the bright orb of the full Moon, round as a wheel, red as tire. Then how man- ifold are its apparitions, the like of which are never to be seen in the Sun, and which are specially fitted to call forth the astonishment of man, and to invite him to reflection. Now she is fiery red, in a moment pale and wan ; at one time a majestic full orb, at another wasted away, and resemb- FETICH ISM. ling a sickle. The dark spots upon her surface lead men to fancy that she has a human face, or give rise to other imaginations: oftentimes she is totally eclipsed. In short, several peculiar and directly visible phenom- ena are observed in the moon, which must attract the attention of man, and cause him thither to direct his gaze. He will also attempt to assign causes for these phenomena, and these attempts, how inept and anthro- popathic soever they may be, still will at least have this effect, that they will connect notions together, i.e., will serve as the first steps in thinking. Thus then we need not be at all surprised if when a rude people first begin to contemplate and to worship as fetiches the heavenly bodies, the Moon has precedence of the Sun.* But after the Moon has become an object of man's contemplation, it is not now the Sun which he next stud- ies, but certain stars which, as they appear in the gloom of night, affect him more sensibly and offer for his contemplation properties stranger and more easily observable than does the Sun. There are five stars and con- stellations f which first attract the no- tice of man, and which we always find recognized by such savages as have even made a beginning in the study of astronomy. The first is Venus, which with its brilliant light attracts attention, particularly by appearing first of all the stars in the evening, and vanishing last of all in the morn- ing — the Morning and the Evening Star, which at first passed for two distinct luminaries, and which Pytha- goras was the first among the Greeks to recognize as one.t Next is the Ursa Major, the Great Bear, or the Wain, which never drops below the horizon in the northern hemisphere ; together with his counterpart, the Ursa Minor, the Little Bear; both of these being noticeable from their pe- * Cf. W. Whewell, Hist. Inductive Sci- ences, Vol. I. t Cf. Grimm, D. M. S. 416. % Whewell, Hist. Induct. Sciences, Vol. I. 106. culiar form. Then that chain of three brilliant stars, known to the Greeks as Orion, which the people in Upper Germany still call the Drei Mader (Three Mowers), because they resem- ble three mowers standing in the meadow one behind the other.* Fi- nally, the space so thickly gemmed with stars, situate between the shoul- ders of Taurus, and of which chiefly seven (more exactly six) are easily discernible — the Seven Pleiades, which are distinguished as being in the center of the glorious system of the Milky Way, and which gain all the higher eminence from the fact that the space all around them, to the extent of six of their diameters, is rel- atively poor in stars; and from this, that for many regions of the South these stars never set. These five are the first to be recognized : they are popular stars the world over. It is toward these that Odysseus directed his eyes when, quitting Calypso's isle, he takes his homeward course over sea : Aiirap 6 TzrjSa^JG) I&vveto rexvr/evrcjr "Hjuevoc- ov6e 01 virvog knl filetiapoioiv iirnrrev YiV.rjia.5oq t' iaopuvTi nai o^e dvovra Bourr/v "ApuTov #', i]i> K(u ajia^av £~iiikjjOiv icateuvoiv, "H r* avTov OTpiQerai nai r' 'Qpiuva Sokevei, "Oct/ 6'ap.p.opog egti Aosrpcjv 'QuEavnio. Od. V. 270 seqq. These Hephaestos represented on Achilles' shield (II. xviii. 487 seqq.). Of these it is said : " Canst thou check the sweet influence of Chima (Pleiades) or loose the band of Kesil (Orion) ? Canst thou order Mazzaroth (Sirius) in his period ? or canst thou lead Aish (Arcturus) with his sons ? " (Tob. xxxviii. 31.) "Who made Arcturus and Orion and the Pleiades and the chambers of the South? " (Tob. ix. 9.) These were the favorite stars of the Ancient Germans, the Sclavs and the Finns. f That the Moon was the first among the heavenly bodies to be distinctly studied by man, and that the stars and the Sun followed after, is clearly * Grimm, D. M. 417. t D. M. 416. I I Til lll>M. ed by the different modes of ming time al \ ai i< >us periods and in vai ions nations. The m< • reckoning by Moons is the primitive one. We meet with it in the earliest histoi i< mm ords of all civilized na- tions, and hence we also find it wher- ever .1 nation is in the lower stages ol development. 1 [ere we meet with i<( konings by Moons, and by the ments of certain stars: but never by the sun's periods. Nations in this stage of development arc raised very derably above the condition of the rudest barbarism. Last comes the reckoning by the Sun. and this in- dicates an intellectual status which leaves far behind it the barbarism ol savage tribes. Not to speak of the civilized na- tions of Europe and Asia, who in early historic times reckoned by moons, this mode of reckoning time is to this day followed throughout Africa* by most of the Negro tribes, as also in America, by the aborigines. The In- dians of the latter continent generally on thus, and their months bear the names of various objects in Na- ture, especially animals and the prod- ucts of the earth. t "Like most of the other tribes, the Dakota Indians reckon twelve months, five each for Summer and Winter, and one each for Spring and Autumn, and add an intercalary month every second year. According to Carver (216) and Heck- ler this intercalation of a so-called "lost month" without a name, oc- curred every 30th month : but accord- ing to Kohl (I. 1071, every year. S( hoolcraft (V. 419) says that the Al- gonquins reckon only eleven months, whi( h aic brothers, and take to wife, in succession, one woman, the Moon. The Algonquins do nol appear to find any difficulty in the fact that between winter and winter there are now 12 now [3 months. | The next step in astronomy is to reckon time by the moon and the stars her. excluding the sun, except for noting the boms of the day; and this m< tde oi rei k< ming is i. mnd among some of the more advanced of the American tribes. The [roquois and the < >jibbeways had spe< 1.1I n. lines for a number ol Stars ; and the latter de- fined with precision the hours of the night by the rising and settii these. The Osages, too, marked the progress of night by the stars, and smized Venus, the three stars in < Mion's belt, the Pleiades, and even the Polar Star and the apparent rev- olution of the neighboring stars around it.* But it is among the na- tives of the Marian and the Caro- line Islands that we find this mode ol reckoning time best developed. The ( Caroline islanders not alone define the periods of the night by the stars, but even divide the year into seasons ac- cording to the ascent of certain stars at fixed times: and into months, each having a fixed number of days, accord- ing to the moon's several phases. [ Not alone has each clay, but also each division of the day, a distinct name.f ("According to Freycinct (2. 105) the number of their months was ten. and of these, five I from June to November) constituted the season of winds and rains, and the other five the temperate season. But that writer himself doubts whether they had not two modes of reckoning the year, the one founded on climatic reasons, the other on luna- tions, and giving a greater number of months than the former." Among the natives of the Marian Islands there were two parties, one of them counting twelve, and the other thirteen lunations to the year ; and their dis- putes once even led to a war. The Caroline men. besides traversing the sea all round their own group of isl- ands for business or pleasure, \isit also, whether singly or in squadrons, the Marian Islands. In making this voyage they direct their course ac- cording to the starry heavens, which the] divide into twelve regions. Can- tova makes mention of these twelve • \\ .Ml/. II. 224. t Waitz, III. 224. } Wait/, III. 224. •Nuttall, Journal of Travels into '.he Ar kansas Territory. Phila. 1S21, 172 seqq. 1 r< rland . Wait/, V. 2S6. FETICH ISM. 91 regions and of the twelve winds named by the Caroline men. But they had also another division of the heavens into twenty-four regions, which took their names from the stars which rose and set in them. They guide their course at sea by these regions, as also by the sun, stars and constellations, whose rising and setting they can ob- serve, and to which they give special names."* Of the astronomical instruc- tion in vogue amongst them we have already spoken. The reckoning of time by the sun is therefore of more recent origin than the reckoning by the moon and stars. Among the Mexicans, who reckoned solar years, many regarded the planet Venus to be more ancient than the sun.f The discovery of the solar year presupposes an extended and la- borious observation of the sun, and so a high degree of spiritual interest. Hence we might a priori assert (and experience will confirm the assertion) that wherever the solar year is accept- ed as a measure of time, culture has gone far beyond its barbarous stages. We may go farther (and here too expe- rience will come to our support) and assert that the worship of the sun is only possible where the mind has reached a degree of development far higher than that required for the wor- ship of the moon and stars. The na- tions which have brought the worship of the sun to its highest perfection are civilized — the Persians, for instance, the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Mexi- cans and Peruvians. 3. The Worship of the Moon. The first and lowest stage of the worship of the heavenly bodies is that where the Moon is worshiped and regarded as of more importance than the Sun. The Kamtchatdales have not yet reached this stage, worshiping, ac- cording to Steller, neither Sun nor Moon.t The Payaguas, of S. Amer- ica, on perceiving the New Moon beat * Ibid. 85. t Waitz, IV. 146. I Steller, Kamtschatka, S. 2S1. the air with their fists, to give expres- sion, as they say, to their gladness. Azara, who relates this fact, further says : " Ce qui a donne lieu a. quel- ques persounes de croire qu'ils l'ado- raient ; mais le fait positif est, qu'ils ne rendent ni culte ni adoration a rien au monde et qu'ils n'ont aucune religion."* This joy of the savage on beholding the luminous heavenly bodies leads him to contemplate them, and he soon begins to regard them as the causes of occurrences which in no wise depend upon them. The Botokuds think the moon is the cause of most of the phenomena of Nature. f In the Pelew Islands pre- dictions are made from the appear- ance of the Moon.t Hence the Moon soon passes for a mighty fetich, and so is held in greater consideration than the Sun ; and accordingly the Moon would be naturally regarded as a Man, the Sun as a Woman. Bleek says, with respect to the Hottentots, " In the lowest stage of culture to be met with among nations having sex- ual language, the worship of the heavenly bodies acts a very unimpor- tant part, for the reason that the knowledge possessed by savages of the motions of these bodies is too slight to give a basis for reverential contem- plation. And yet we find even here the rudiments of the mythologic (i.e. y anthropopathic) conception. . . . For first the phases of the Moon will ex- cite attention. Her gradual waxing and waning gives to the savage the notion of a Being which grows for a while, and then decays, and he readily personifies it. Hence it is not im- probable that Moon-worship was the earliest phase of the worship of heavenly bodies. The Hottentots, as we are assured by Kolb, a competent witness, pay divine honor to the Moon. In their language ||khap§ * Azara, II. 137. f Pi. M. v. Neuwied, R. n. Brasil, II. 5S f. \ Hockin, Supplem. to the Account of the Pelew Islands. Lond. 1803, p. 15. § || expresses the lateral clicking sound; Kh is a guttural consonant, and - marks the nasal tone. II riCHISM. n) is, as in ancient Teutonic edasaman. Our Teutonic ancestors masculine, and the Sun feminine." had the same opinion :" Audio The Namaquas, an offshoot <>f the eres Germanos Lunum quoque deum rd i he- Sun as a lump coluisse et appellasse Hermon, i themselves In- enchantment (Gesner, Afithridates, Tur. 1555,0. during the night, and then spurn 28.) Hulderic. Eyben (De titulo no- morning lias come, and they bilis. Fiemst. 1677, 4, p. 1361 says: have no further need of it. The " Qua etiam ratione in vetere idolola- n, on the other hand, they regard trico luna non domina, dominus appel- as a more important personage than latur: even their own chief Spirit u-Tixo. He (the Moon) once commissioned Sj?!S!!S!SS^i"!Il^!^ r herr ' the Hare to inform mankind that even as the Moon always recovers again his fullness after he has lost it, so they may come to life again, after death. The hare mistook the mes- and told men that they must die away, even as the moon does. This was the origin of death. Old Nama- quas never eat hare-flesh, probably because this animal is regarded as a M.uh mii meines (. M. 400. I Ibid. \ Muir's Sanskrit Texts, vol. v. p. 76, "In A.p. Waitz, [V. 250. ■ Hist, gea de las [ndias, in Historiad. prim, de Ind. Madr. 1.852, |). 202. FETICH ISM. 93 ship Sun and Moon, while Piedrahita * expressly affirms that they worship the Moon only. But these conflict- ing statements may perhaps be recon ciled if we recollect that Piedrahita's account is of earlier date than Go- mara's : thus Gomara's narrative would exhibit the progress to the wor- ship of both Sun and Moon from sim- ple Moon-worship. The difference between Bagert and Picolo admits of a similar explanation. With regard to the Kaffirs, too, we have accounts on the one hand asserting that they do not regard Sun or Moon as objects of worship, though they hold them to be animate beings ; and on the other hand accounts affirming explicitly that they hold festival and conduct relig- ious dances at the time of the New Moon.f The Maravi celebrate the return of the New Moon.J Traces of the old German moon-worship, in addition to those already mentioned, are found in the following passage from Nicolaus de Gawe's work de Superstitionibus : " Insuper hodie in- veniuntur homines tarn layci quam clerici, literati quam illiterati, et quod plus dolendum est, valde magni, qui cum nouilunium primo viderint flexis genibus adorant: vel deposito capucio vel pileo inclinato capite honorant allo- quendo et suscipiendo. Ymmo eciam plures ieiunant ipso die novilunii, sive sit dies dominica in qua secundum ordinacionem ecclesias non est ieiun- andum propter resurrectionis leticiam siue quacunque alia die, eciamsi esset dies dominice nativitatis. Quae omnia habent speciem ydolatrie, ab ydolatris relicte." § The Moon being an animated thing and regarded with such veneration, it cannot surprise us to find the liveliest sympathy excited in her favor, espe- cially whenever she appeared in dan- ger of perishing, **. e., when she is * Hist, de las conq. del nuevo reyno de Granada, I. parte. Amberes, 1688, V. 1. t Waitz, II. 411 f. \ Monteiro in the Ztschr. f. Allg. Erdkunde, VI. 260 ff. Ausland, 1858, p. 260; Waitz, II. 419. § Grimm, D. M. Anhang. S. XLIV. eclipsed. We have already seen that several tribes of savages account for this phenomenon by attributing it to the attack cf a wolf on the Moon. Hence they hasten to render her as- sistance by making a fearful noise,. with a view to frighten the monster away.* " Nullus, si quando luna obscuratur, vociferare prassumat," says Eligius in a sermon. " Vince Luna." was the cry of the Romans, prompted by a similar belief : and we meet with the same usage in other nations, for instance, among the Christians of Abyssinia. f The Mbocovies, as we have seen, supposed that a dog was tearing out the entrails of the Man- Moon. Similar beliefs are enter- tained by American Indians, and this circumstance will explain their cus- tom of beating their dogs, during an eclipse of the Moon, as the Hurons did, according to Charlevoix, and also the Peruvians. The Potowatomies, who are Sun-worshipers and who re- gard the moon as a maleficent deity, as compared with the Sun, suppose that in the Moon there dwells an old woman who weaves a basket, on the completion of which the world will come to an end : but the basket is al- ways torn in pieces by a dog, before it is finished. Whenever the woman struggles with the dog there is a lunar eclipse. % Many of the South Sea Isl- anders explain this phenomenon dif- ferently^ accounting for it in accord- ance with the dogmas of Soul-wor- ship, which appears to overmaster their fetichism, and to force it into the background. According to them the Moon is the food of departed spirits, and by feasting off it, they make it smaller; just as the Dakota In- dians say that the waning of the Moon is caused by the gnawing of a num- ber of little mice (Mice-souls ?). But it ever waxes again. When therefore the Moon is eclipsed, these islanders. * Cf. Grimm, D. M. 401. 1 Waitz, II. 503. J De Smet, Missions de l'Oregon et Voy- ages aux. Montagnes rocheuses (1845). Gand. 1848, p. 298. § Turner, p. 529 seqq. ") ii ri( iii^m. are alarmed, lest the souls should go without sustenance. To preveni so a i alamity they make a greal oa-nuts. On the island ,i I ap* it is a wizard thai i auses the to wane, by his enchantments. We need not be surprised if we find a well-deve\pped worship of spirits among people who pay no worship to the stars. The conception and wor- ship of ghosts and spirits belong to the lowest grades of human develop- ment, and arc parallel with those phases of fetichism which have all their objects upon the earth itself. More recent than either of these is Star-worship; and to the highest grade <>l this, which is the climax ol fetichism, answers polytheism, the cli- max of spirit-worship. Where the two intersect, monotheism results. But of course we can only state these points here as theses susceptible of proof. 4. The J I',' fillip of the Stars. The Hottentots, who are Moon- worshipers, and who take the Sun to be a lump of fat, have names for sev- eral stars, yet do not worship them.f The ancient religion of the Moxos differed for each village. They wor- shiped severally the Sun, the Moon and the Stars, as well as spirits and lies of every description. Their principal objects t>f worship were the evil spirit Choquigua and the jaguar : yet they kept a festival at the time of the New Moon, and Carasco is in- clined to consider Star-worship as their primitive religion.} The Abi- pones of S. America worshiped a- fetii hes the Pleiades, which for them never set. They regarded this con- stellation as the founder of their race, and gave to it the same name which gave to their 1 onjuring doctors, K' • bet.§ The Pawnee Indians used to offer human sat rifii e annually to the "great star" which they worship- ed, viz., Venus; and the same planet had a < hapel dedicated in its honor among the M< ril an-, who held it to he more ancient than the Sun. The last sacrifice offered to the "Great St. u ■" l)\- the Pawnees was offered in Then a Sioux girl was the victim, and she. after having been carefully tended and well fed, with- out any intimation of her fate being given her. was hound fast upon a fu- neral pile and shot to death with ar- rows. Whilst yet she lived, they carved pieces of flesh off her body, and suffered her blood to flow over the young shoots of corn.* 5. The Transition to Sun- Worship. Wherever the Moon and the Stars are objects of worship, the Sun's claims to adoration will soon be rec- ognized, and then the Sun and the Moon will at first receive equal ven- eration, to the prejudice of the stars, which will hold but a subordinate position, but when once attention has been directed to the Sun, it will quickly be seen that, as compared with the Moon, he is the superior Being, and then their mutual rela- tions will be reversed, the Sun coming prominently into the. foreground. Hence in the worship of Sun and Moon, we recognize two stages : in the one these two luminaries jointly receive equal worship; in the other they are both worshiped indeed, but still the Sun far outranks the Moon, and the religious halo surrounding the latter is as pale as her beams. For all these stages we can find rep- resentatives, and of the latter it is to be observed that their intellectual advancement will correspond with the progress they have made in the worship of the heavenly bodies. The Comanche Indians t worship the Sun and Moon ex aquo. They call the Sun the Cod oi Day, the Moon the Cod of Night, and the Earth, the Common Mother of all. ind apud Waitz, V. j, 147. t Campbell, First voyage. } Wait/, lit ^ Dobrizhofer, II, 80,87 seqq. 317. * De Smet ; J. Irving, Indian sketches. Lond. 1835; Schoolcraft, IV. 50, V. 77. t Wait/, IV. J 1 3, ff. FETICHISM. 95 In their view the Sun and the Moon are both men : they stand on terms of equality, not of subordination, which latter would not be the case -were they regarded as Man and Woman. The savage considers wo- man to be immeasurably the inferior of man, and in the earlier stages of the worship of Sun and Moon the latter would be male, the former female. In that stage which the Comanches have reached they are both male : and it is only later that the Sun is held to be a man, the Moon a woman. As for the intel- lectual culture of these savages, it may be estimated from the following circumstances. On journeys they di- rect their course by the Polar Star. They do not follow agriculture, living solely by the chase. Their clothing is of tanned deer-skin. Their weap- ons are bows and arrows, the lasso and the shield ; and now muskets. Each individual is allowed unre- stricted freedom of action, but vet offenses are punished by decree of .3. council summoned annually by the chief. Debauchery is common, and polygamy prevails amongst them. They have no word meaning virgin, and it is simple politeness to offer to the stranger a female companion. On the stage next above this, both Sun and Moon are also worshiped, b>ut the Sun has precedence of the Moon, the latter being female, the former male. The Muzos say the Sun is their Father, the Moon their Mother. The natives of Cumana, one of the Caribees, used to worship Sun and Moon as man and wife.* The Sun goes on increasing in im- portance : thus the Potowatomies t hold the Moon to be an evil female •deity (supra, p. 93) ; the Sun-worship- ing Winnebagoes % do not believe that the Moon has any power over mankind , while the Osages regard the Sun as the Great Spirit, ruling * Gomara, 208 ; Herrera, Descripcion de las Indias occidentals. Madrid, 1730, III. .4. 10 seq. tKeating, I. 216. X Schoolcraft, IV. 240. over Moon and Earth.* Here we reach that stage in the worship of the heavenly bodies, where the Sun assumes the unchallenged pre-emi- nence. 6. The Worship of the Sun. Almost all the tribes of American Indians worship the Sun as the Su- preme Deity. In North America, according to Waitz (III. 180) this is true as regards all the tribes as far west as the Crows and the Blackfeet, and as far north as the Ottawas. In Florida the worship of the Sun reigned, and it extended thence to the Apache country. Sun-worship, however, reached its highest stage of development in Middle and South America, among the Mexicans and the Peruvians. The Indians of Florida prayed to the Sun, whom they held to be a man, for victory in battle, and sang hymns of praise in his honor.f The chief offering made to the Sun by the Indi- ans is tobacco-smoke from the pipe, and thus smoking is among them a religious rite. The Hurons, Man- dans, Menitarees and other tribes held the tobacco-pipe, whose high importance as the pipe of peace is well known, to be the gift of the Sun : and they, as well as many tribes lying fur- ther south, offer this incense to the Sun, to the four cardinal points of the heavens, and to Mother Earth. $ The chiefs of the Hudson's Bay Indi- ans used to direct three puffs of smoke toward the rising Sun, and greet him with a reverential salutation. § In the Council, the pipe is always passed around, following thus the Sun's course, as they say. || In Vir- ginia, the aborigines used to crouch at sunrise and sunset, and direct their * Morse, Rep. to Sec. of War, on Ind. Affairs. New Haven; 1S22, Appendix, 229. t Landonniere, Histoire notable de la Floride (1562-67). Par. 1853,8, 99 ; Herrera, VII. 1, 15, 2, 6; Buschmann ap. Abhandl. d. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berl. 1S54, S. 300. J Lafitau, II. 134 seqq. ; Lettr. edif. I. 763; Nuttall, 274; Keating, I. 408 et alibi. § De la Potherie, I. 121, 131, II. 106. II Perrin du Lac, I. 179. I I I M HI>M. .mil their hands toward that luminal ' I he < Usages t each morn ing pronounce .1 prayei to the Sun. and in the chants ol the Algonquin pro- phets i the Sun is honored as supreme I nitv. The Potowatomies § used iionally to get upon the roofs ol their lints at the rising ol the Sun and en bended knees make an offering to him gruel. The Spokans call themselvi of the Sun." We 1 an estimate the inirllcctu.il status of these Indians from the grade ol religious development which they have reached ; and the notable re- hes made by Waitz show that the former is on the whole consider- ably higher than has been commonly supposed. 'The nearer we approach • Mexico, the higher is the develop- ment Of Sun-worship, and the higher the intellectual status of the al>< irigines. the natives of the lower Colo- rado country, I who were Sun-worship- did not practice polygamy, jeal- ously watched over the chastity of the young women previous to marriage, and were of mild manners, though warlike. The Pueblos,1 dwelling in the N. E. part of New Mexico, whose chief god is the Sun, are very indus- trious farmers with well-constructed implements of husbandry: weave- woolen and cotton fabrics ; arc well '. d. and build houses of stone and adobes, three or four stories in height. As well in geographical position as in culture and worship the Mexicans had for neighbors the Natchez of I. tisiana, together with the kindred people of Texas, whose principal tribe was that of the Assinais.** Waitz ♦Strachcv. Hist, of Trav. into Virginia Britannia. ' Lond. 1S49, P- 93- t Nuttall, I Schoolcraft, I. 399. S Journal Stranger, 1762. Mai p. 7. < 7 A Waitz, III. [82. I astafieda, Relation du Voy. de Cibola (1540), ed. Ternaux Par. [838, p. 299 seqq.; Hen-era, VI. 9, 14. ivera, Diario y Derrotero de la Visita :.il de los Presidios de N. Espafia. Gua- temala, 1736; Villa-Sefior, Teatro Americano, gen.de los Reynosy Provinc de la \ I ^pniia. Mex. 1746. ('/'. Waitz, IV. 227. ** Waitz, III. 219 ff. says that among these is to be found "the trues) and most definite expres sion ol Sun-worship, in conjun< with a theocratic form ol government." The Nati he/ lived under an absolute monarchy, and the royal family, de- scendants ol the Sun, si 1 high above mnion people, like the family of the I in as ol Peru. American Sun-worship found its highest development among the Mex- icans and Peruvians. These rai i the period of their coming in contact with Europeans were no longer sav- but civilized nations in the strict sense of the word, and capable of still further native development. This civilization would have produced the fairest fruit had it not been ruth- lessly interrupted by the fanatic zeal of a Cortez and a Pizarro, and later purposely, persistently and violently stamped out by the barbarities of Christian tyrants. Although polytheism was fully de- veloped among the M< ' still ! the Sun was their Supreme Deity, especially among the Toltecs, who were the authors of all Mexican cult- ure. It has occasioned surprise to many to find polytheism and Sun- worship co-existent, as in the religion of Mexico One explanation ac- counts- for this by supposing that this religion had its origin among several diverse nations who coalesced into one, each importing its own religious ideas. But this supposition cannot be established on historical grounds, nor is it at all necessary. We have already more than once remarked that the worship of spirits and the worship of material objects are de- veloped simultaneously and side-by- side. The one never arises alone, and unaccompanied by the other. The development of spirit-worship advances pari passu with that of mat- ter-worship. Wherever the latter as- * Cf. Prescott, Conq. Mex. I. ; Waitz, IV. S. i-'iSo; Wuttke, C.esch. d. Heidenth. S. 251-299; I>. Fr. Saverio Clavigero, Hist Antig. de Megico, sacada de los mejores his- toriadores espaRolesy de los manuscritos y I de las pinturas indias, etc Londres, 1826. FETICHISM. 97 sumes the form of Sun-worship, the [ former becomes a complex polythe- ism ; hence we find in the religion of Mexico not two incongruous elements, but rather the regular combination of two lines of objects of worship which constitute the inception of religious development in the mind of man. We have no need, therefore, of sup- posing that the Mexican religion came from different peoples : its two : phases are rather the genuine prod- ucts of the Mexican understanding it- self. The Sun's preeminence over the other gods is shown in the Mexican myth which traced the origin of the Sun, as also in the fact that the Mex- icans called themselves " the Sun's children." This myth is given in full by Clavigero,* but we need here re- fer only to that portion which speaks of the heroes or demigods (heroes o semidioses), who, prior to the appear- ance of the Sun, ruled over men, and opposed that god when he began to run his course ; but seeing that they could not make head against him, such of them as had not already been slain by the Sun made away with themselves, leaving him sole master. Quetzalcoatl, a sort of Mexican Christ,t is said to have been created by the breath of Tonacateotl, the Sun 4 Whereas offerings were made to the other gods only four times a day, in the morning, at noon, in the evening and at midnight, there were nine daily offerings to the sun, four by day and five through the night, of copal or other fragrant gum, such as chapopotli § (called by Clavigero be- tun judaico, asphaltum). They of- fered also quails to the Sun at his rising, and solemnly greeted his ap- pearance with music. || That their conception of the Sun was anthro- popathic though a most exalted one we see from all their myths. At the solemn naming of the new-born in- fant, when ceremonies were used hav- ing a strange resemblance to those accompanying the baptismal rite in Christian churches — as, for instance, their sprinkling the babe with water and then entreating the deity " that he would cause these holy drops of water to wash away the sin which be- came the infant's heritage before the creation of the world, to the end that the babe might be born anew "* — the mother thus addressed the Sun and the Earth : "Thou Sun, Father of all that live, and thou Earth, our Mother, take ye this child and guard it as your son." t They often employed this solemn form of asseveration, " By the life of the Sun and of our Lady, the Earth." The Mexicans, who thus paid su- preme honor to the Sun, and made him the object of constant observation, gained an astonishing degree of ac- curacy in their knowledge of his- course. All who have studied the matter are agreed t that the Mexi- cans, who used sun-dials, calculated the length of the solar year with the utmost possible exactitude. First, their year consisted of 18 months having 20 days each — 360 days. To the last month they added 5 days, which they called nemontemi, unem- ployed, as they did nothing on those days but pay visits. § " But what is most wonderful in their reckonings, and what will appear scarce credible to those who are unacquainted with Mexican antiquities, is this," says Clavigero, || "that the difference of some hours between the civil and the solar years was noted by them, and that they resorted to intercalation to equalize them. There was, however, * Lib. VI. p. 228, Apoteosis del Sol y de la Luna. t Cf. Waitz, IV. 141 f. t Kingsborough, Antiq. of Mex. Lond., 1831, V. 135, 1S4. § Clavigero, VI. 251 : Al sol incensaban nueve veces, cuatro de dia y cinco de noctoe. II lb., p. 260. * Vide Prescott, I. t Clavigero, p. 290: Tu, sol, decia la par- tera, padre de todos los vivientes, y tu, tierra, nuestra madre, acoged a este nino y prote- gedlo como a hijo vuestro. \ Cf Prescott, I. ; Waitz, IV. 174. § Gama, Descripcion Historica y Crono- logica de los Dos Piedras. Mejico, 1832, II . in seqq. || Libro, VI. p. 269. <..s 11/11' HISM. en theit mode of intercalation and that of Julius Csesai which is adopted for the Roman Calendar, this difference, that instead ol intercalating one day every fourth year, they added ry fifty-second year. '• The) waited," says Presi ott, " till the expiration of 5a years, when they interposed 13 days, or rather 12 days and a half, this being the number that hail fallen in arreai. Had they in- serted 13, it would have been too much, since the annual excess over 365 is about 11 minutes less than 6 hours, but as their calendar, at the time of the Conquest, was found to correspond with the European (mak- ing allowance for the subsequent Gregorian reform), they would seem to have adopted the shorter period of 12 days and a half, which brought them within an almost inappreciable fraction, to the exact length of the solar year, as established by the most accurate observations. {Cf. La Place; Exposition, p. 350.) Indeed, the intercalation of 25 days in every 104 years, shows a nicer adjustment of civil to solar time than is presented by any European calendar; since more than 5 centuries must elapse, before the loss of an entire day.* Such was the astonishing precision displayed by the Aztecs, or, perhaps, by their more polished Toltec prede- cessors, in these computations, so diffi- cult as to have baffled, till a compara- tivelv recent period, the most enlight- ened' nations of Christendom ! " In addition to their solar year they had also a sacerdotal, or, so to speak, an ecclesiastical year of 20 times [3 days, and this year was called the Metzlapohualli (Lunar Reckoning). as distinguished from the civil year Tonalpohualli (Solar Reckoning).! This religious computation of time, which served to regulate the festivals, as also the circumstance that one word, Metzli, served to express both month and moon, are evidences oi an earlier computation by Moons, which in fact Echevarria asserts to have be. n their more ancient mode of reckon- But even as the Moon lost impor- tance for computing time, so too did her worship decline. Sh< 1 ame to be regarded as the wife of the Sun, .is 5 ars were his sisters.! As tor her eJipses. the true cau.se of which they very probably recognized,} they were not regarded with the same emotions as by savages. § Amid the countless temples and < hapels of Mex- ico two were specially famous, the great temple of the Sun, and the smaller temple of the Moon at Teoti- huacan, and around each of these stood a cluster of minor temples, probably dedicated to the worship of the Stais. || The planet Venus had a temple called Ilhuicatitlan. c The Stars were ob- jects especially of astrological obser- vation, and were consulted with re- gard to the most trifling domestic affairs as well as the weightiest con- cerns of the State;** even the kings were attentive observers of the stars, and one of them. Nezahualcoiotl, built for his own use an observatory. The Mexican State was a carefully articulated organism, down even to its minutest subdivisions. The affairs of the army, the revenues, the courts of justice, the police, etc., were thoroughly organized. The king, vicegerent of God on earth, was possessed of powers limited only by divine authority and the prescription of religion. The prayers addressed by him to the deity. to obtain strength and light for the discharge of his important duties, sound like some of David's Psalms. * Gama, parte i, p. 23. El corto exceso de 4 hor. 3S min. 40 scr., que hay de mas de los 25 dias en el penodo de 104 afn>s, qo puedc componer un dia entero, hasta que pasenmas de cinco de estos periodos niaxi- mos 6 53S afios. I Cf. Waits, IV. 174. * IJC Echevarria y Veitia, Hist, del < irigen de las ('.elites que poblaron la X. Espana (Ap. Kingsborough, VIII.) I. 4. t Cf. Wail/, tV. 1 54. t Humboldt, Vues des Cordilleres, 2S2 ; itt, [. S Kingsborough, V. 156. Clavigero, I. 247 seq. • < llavigero, p. 244. ** //'it/. I. 209 seqq. 271, 291, etc. FETICH ISM. 99 No Jewish prophet could use more impressive language than this, ad- dressed to a Mexican King: * "Gra- ciously and meekly receive all who come to you in anguish and distress ; neither speak nor act from passion. Calmly and patiently listen lo the complaints and reports that are brought to you. Silence not the speaker, for you are God's image, and his repre- sentative : he dwells in you, using you as the organ (flute) through which he speaks ; and he hears through your ears. Punish no man without cause, for the right of inflicting punishment, which you hold, is of God : — it is as it were the talons and the teeth of God, to execute justice. Be just, and let who will be offended ; for such is God's decree. Be it your care that in the tribunals all things be done ac- cording to order, and without precipi- tancy, and nothing in passion. Let it never enter your heart, to say, I am Master, and will do as I please ; for that would tend to destroy your power, lower you in men's esteem, and impair your royal majesty. Suffer not your power and dignity to be to you the occasion of pride and arrogance, but let them rather remind you of the low- liness from which you have been raised, without any merit of yours. Be not given to sleep, nor to indolence and sensuality, nor to reveling. Squander not the sweat and the toil of your subjects. The favor which God has shown you, abuse not for profane and senseless purposes. Our Lord and King ! God has his eye upon the rulers of States, and when they commit a fault, he laughs in scorn, but is silent : for he is God, and does what he will, and derides whom he will : for he holds us in his hand, tosses us from side to side, laughing at us when we totter and fall." The material progress of the Mexi- can nation may be judged by the number and size of the cities. The city of Mexico had from fifty to sixty thousand families, or houses, as some authors suppose ; Tezcuco was of equal magnitude ; Tzimpantzinco had 20,000; Cholula, Huexocinco and Tepeaca, each 40,000; Xochimilco 80,000 ; According to Cortez himself Tlascala was in every respect a more opulent place than Granada in Spain. These cities all possessed buildings of considerable magnificence, and there were besides a number of smaller cities.* The earnestness of their moral sen- timents is evinced by the rigid disci- pline enforced as well in their domes- tic education as in that of their schools and seminaries, and by the exhorta- tions, the prayers and the proverbs ' which were learned by rote. " Noth- ing," says Padre Acosta, "astonished me more or appeared to me more praiseworthy and notable, than the system followed by the Mexicans in the education of their children." " In truth it were difficult to find a nation," adds Clavigero, " that be- stows more diligent care than they upon a matter which so nearly con- cerns the well-being of the state. Doubtless," he continues, "they dis- figured their teaching with supersti- tions ; but still the zeal they showed for education might well put to shame many a father of a family in Europe : and many of the instructions which they gave to the pupils would make profitable reading for our own young people." f As a specimen of these I give the ex- hortation addressed by a Mexican to his son, which is admitted. to be gen- uine by all the critics : % " My son, you came forth out of your mothers * Sahagun, a/. Waltz, IV. 6S. * Cf. Waitz, IV. 93. t Clavigero, I. 299. \ I translate it from Clavigero's work (ubi supra). He says it came to his hands from those of Motolinia, Olmos and Sahagun, missionaries in Mexico, perfect mastei - s "t the language, and zealous students of Mexi- can manners, etc. Besides this address of the father to his son, Clavigero. gives a similar address of the mother to her daughter, to be found in Trescott (Append. II.), and which is even a more charming composition than the address given in the text. (See the latter also in Waitz, IV. 125, who takes it from Saha- gun, Hist, de N. Espana, VI. 18.) 100 11.1 I • lll.vM. womb as the chick from the egg, and .is you grow \' 'U are like the chi< k preparing for your flight over the earth, nor is it given us to know how long Heaven will insure to us the jewel whit li we possess in you. I [owever that may be, be it your rare to lead a coiic, i life, praying urn ingly to God for Ins support. It was he that < reated you, and he is your owner. He is your Father, and loves you more than I. Turn your thoughts Cod ward, and let your aspirations! rise to him by day and by night. Honor and greet those who are older than yourself, and never give them tokens of contempt. Be not deaf for' the poor and the unfortunate, but rather make haste to console them with kindly words. Pay respect to all men, especially your parents, to whom you owe obedience, reverence and dutiful service. Have a care never to follow the examples of those wayward boys, who are like wild beasts void of reason, and who do not respect those who have given them their being, nor heed their ad- monitions, nor submit to correction : for whoso walks his own ways will come to a disastrous end, dying in blank despair: he will either be hurled down a precipice, or will fall under the claws of wild beasts. Make nol merry, my son, over the aged, nor over those who have any bodily de- fect. Mock not those who happen to make a misstep, nor reproach them therewith ; on the contrary be hum- ble, and fear lest what offends you in others become your own. Go not whither you are not invited, nor med- dle in affairs which are none of yours. In all that you say, and in all that you do, be it your study to show your good breeding. When you converse with any one, do not annoy him with your hands (mit den Handen belas- tigen) nor be too voluble : do not in- terrupt or disturb others with your re- marks. If perchance you hear a man speaking foolishly, and it is not your business to correct him, hold your peace : but if it is your business, then consider first what you will say, and speak not .n n gantly, that your ns maj avail the more. When any man addresses you, listen to him attentively and with proper demeanor, neither shuffling your feet, not munch- ing your mantle, nor spitting out, nor jumping up every moment if you are seated : for SUi h I ondui t shows levity and bid breeding. When you are 1 at table, eat not ravenously, nor betray signs ot displeasure, it any dish fails to please yon. If anyone COmes in while yon are at share with him what you have, and when one sits at your board, fix not your gaze upon him. When you go out, keep your eyes directed forward lest you hustle against those you meet. When any one approaches you, walk- ing on the same path, give place a lit- tle that he may have room to pass. Never walk in advance of your supe- riors, except when necessity requires that you should, or they command it. When you eat in company with them, serve them with whatever they wish, and so you will gain their favor. If a man make you a gift, receive it with tokens of gratitude: if the gift is of great value, be not vain of it : if it is trifling, do not. despise it, nor grow angry, nor anger the man who does you a friendly act. If you are rich, be not supercilious toward the poor and the needy : for the gods who re- fused riches to others in order to be- stow them on you, disgusted at your arrogance, may strip you of them, and give them to others. Live by the fruits of your labor, and then your bread will taste sweet. Hitherto, my son, I have supported you with the sweat of my brow and I have (lis charged all the duties of a father ; I have given you the necessaries of life, without wronging any man. Do you the same. Never tell a lie, for lying is a grievous sin. Whenever you recount to another what you yourself have heard, then tell the simple truth with- out adding anything. Speak not evil of any man. Conceal the misconduct of others, unless it be your duty to mend it. Avoid gossiping, sow not the seeds of discord. If you are the FETICHISM. 101 bearer of a message to any one, and he grows angry, and he vituperates the sender of the message, do not take back that reply, but strive rather to deprive it of its harshness, and if possible say not a word of what you have heard so that there may not be dissensions and disagreements, which you could only regret. Tarry not in the market-place longer than is need- ful, for such places afford frequent temptations to debauchery. If an of- fice is tendered you, regard the offer as made with a view to test you : therefore do not accept at once, even though you know you are more capa- ble than others ; but excuse yourself, until they oblige you to accept : thus you will be all the more esteemed. Keep your passions in check, else the gods will be angered with you and cover you with disgrace. Repress your sensual desires, my son, for you are still young; and patiently await the time when the maid, whom the gods have chosen for your wife, shall have reached the required age. Leave such concerns to the care of the gods ; they will do what is best for you. When the time comes for you to marry take no step without your parents' consent, else you will meet with an evil end. Steal not, rob not, if you would not disgrace your parents : it is your duty rather to re- flect honor upon them and to show that they brought you up properly. That is all, my son ; I have discharged my duty as father. It was my pur- pose to confirm you in good disposi- tions by this instruction. Do not de- spise my words : for your happiness through life depends upon your fidel- ity." Prescott gives a number of Mexi- can proverbs,* which, according to him, may compare with any found in the moral codes of antiquity. He discovers in the following admonition " a most striking resemblance to Holy Writ " : " Regard not curiously the walk and demeanor of the great, nor of women, especially married wo- *Vol. I. men, for the old proverb says : Whoso regards a woman with curiosity, com- mits adultery with his eyes." * Mon- ogamy was the rule amongst the Mexicans, and in this respect they came up to that moral standard of marriage with which we are familiar. Nor was the idea they had of their gods unworthy of their moral code, and Clavigero, who compares Grecian and Roman Mythology with that of Mexico, thus expresses himself : "There is not to be found anywhere in Mexican Mythology a trace of those immoralities with which other nations have disgraced their gods. The Mexicans paid homage to virtue rather than to vice, in the ob- jects of their religious veneration : in Huitzilapochli they honored valor; in Centeotl and others, benevolence; in Quetzalcoatl, chastity, justice and prudence. Though their gods were of both sexes, still they did not marry them to one another, nor did they attribute to them that love of obscenity with which the Greeks and Romans credited their gods. They represented them as averse to all kind of vicious indulgence and hence their worship was intended merely to appease the wrath of the gods, excited by the sins of mankind, and to secure their protection by repent- ance and religious service." It is no wonder if so enlightened a re'ligious system as this surprised the Christian priests ; and the latter would no doubt have preferred to find it of a lower type. The language of Mex- ico, rich in metaphysical and moral expressions, opposed no obstacle to the teaching of the Christian Doc- trine, and Clavigero gives specimens of the writings of 84 European and Creole authors " who treated of Christian Doctrine and morals in the languages of Anahuac," as also a list of 49 Autores de Gramaticas y * Sahagun, VI. 22. Tampoco mires con curiosidad el gesto y disposicion de la gente principal, mayormente de las mugeres, y sobre todo de las casadas, porque dice el refran, que el que curiosamente mira a la muger adultera con la vista. 1 1 12 FETII HISM. I >i narios de las lenguas de v ahu K;' \ tl endeavored away with the human sa< rifices which were so frequent in M but without success, and the attempt only served to show him how difficult it is to convince the people of the falsity of ancient religious notions which have taken root in their tions. We may justly reproach the cans with their religious fanati- as displayed in these sacrifices : hut we must not charge them with inhuman cruelty. In fact no a is/ Wait/. IV. 447. • i;.,i. ilasso, I. c XV. XVI. FETICHISM. 103'. the benefits derived from all these sources, prepare the products of the soil for food : in a word, their mission was to teach the people how to live like men, rather than like wild beasts. It having pleased the Sun, our Father, to give his children such commands as these, he let them down upon the earth in the neighborhood of Lake Titicaca, bidding them to go whithersoever they would. They were however instructed to drive into the earth a golden staff wherever they thought of establishing their residence in any particular spot : if the staff on the first blow sank into the earth, it was the will of the Sun, our Father, that they should settle there. On coming to the spot where Cuzco was afterwards founded, the sign which had been foretold was given to them. The savages soon be- gan to flock around them, gazing with wonder on the pair, who were arrayed in the precious apparel of the Sun, and who. no less by their speech than by the majesty of their countenance, gave evidence that they were the children of the Sun. Then the Inca instructed the men in all needful arts, such as house-building and agriculture ; while his sister and spouse gave instruction to the women in all kinds of feminine work, such as needlework, and the weaving of cotton and woolen cloth, the making of garments, etc. Further- more, they both taught the natives the worship of the Sun, their Father." Thus the Sun was worshiped, and we have now to ascertain in what light they regarded this object of re- ligious veneration. Man can attribute to any object only those notions which he already possesses. The higher then his development, in an intel- lectual and in a moral sense, the nobler will be the conception he has of the object which he takes for his supreme ideal. The Peruvian will regard the Sun as combining all those virtues and properties which he has himself. They were an industrious and an ingenious people. Agriculture formed the basis of the commonwealth, and was pursued with the greatest dili- gence and skill. No spot of ground was untilled, maize and potatoes be- ing the chief products of the soil.* Even the stony sides of the mount- ains were turned into blooming gar- dens, by means of terracing, artificial irrigation and the use of guano as manure. They produced excellent cotton and woolen fabrics, and their metal manufactures, in gold, silver, copper and tin (they had no iron) bore the stamp of skillful workmanship. Every part of the country was con- nected with Cuzco, the capital, by means of excellent highways, some paved, others macadamized,! having well-constructed bridges, a service of posts and a sort of telegraphic system. The latter enabled them to send dis- patches a distance of 900 miles in three or four hours.! Cuzco had a population of 200,000 souls, exclusive of an equal number dwelling in its suburbs. The other cities were small- er, and yet had a considerable popu- lation. § By means of a division of the population into decads the most exemplary order was maintained. || The entire population formed one family, the Inca being its head. All labored and earned for the good of all. The state, not the individual, was an owner of property. Hence none were rich, but also none were poor. The contrast between proprietors and non-proprietors was done away, and all enjoyed prosperity. There were neither beggars nor drones. IT The citizen's obligation to labor was cor- relative with that of the state, which owned his labor and its total product, to reward him for his toil. Under the guardian rule of the Incas, whose du- ties were prescribed to them by the Sun their Father, and who but rarely, as history attests, failed to exercise a paternal care for the commonwealth, the people lived in peace and happi- ness. Each conquered nation were * Prescott, I. t Waitz, IV. 429. t Garcilasso, VI. c. 7 ; Wuttke, I. 334. § Cf. Waitz, IV. 424. II Prescott, I. IT lb. I. 104 I I I I« IUSM. inim- illowed to share the 5 and prh ileges oi theii conquer- il was the desire • tend civilization that led them to un- dertake wars of COnqU< It is evident that su< I) a constitu- tion "t tlie- empire must have had many defects, and that it hindered individual development, as well as favored the abuse oi power by a ty- rannic al Inca. It was for the interest of the [ncas to keep the people in subjection, and hence they cut them o jealously from all intelli culture, the possession of which they reserved for themselves alone. A state organized on such princi- ple cannot subsist without a morality quite free from selfishness, that root of j all evil. Their family-life was chaste and pure; their women were not chattels, as among savages, but per- sons who, as represented in the vir- gins of the Sun, held a high position in the ceremonies of religion. Intel- lectual culture, in the sense of erudi- tion, was restricted to the Inca caste ; still the education of the people was a function of the state. The picture- writing of the Mexicans was here re- d by that curious contrivance, the quipu,t which was employed by many scholars, and also, but in a less de- . by the people generally. Gar- 5SO speaks of maps of the whole country and of particular districts and ol i harts of < ities. The learned class did not, as in Mexico, belong exclus- ively to the priesthood, and they were gers, physicians, bot- anists, ports, designers, painters. etC.J The Quechua, like the Mexican lan- mtained a number ol very terms, such as spirit, thought, eternal, etc., which will enable us to form some notion of the degree of mental development attained by this le.§ As to the Peruvian mode of reckon- ing time we have not the same a< < U- *//.. I. Wait/, IV. 470. 173- S Tb. rate information as we have with re- gard to that of the Mexicans. Hum- boldt • says that the year was made upoi i-' lunar months, giving a total . - in. ; and a< ( ordil [ Rivero and Tschudi,t n intercalary days were added at the end ot ea< ii year, but according to Herrera X there were 12 intercalary days, one 1 added at the end oi each month. I n the n 'i:i- I >■ sjardins ? maintains that the Peruvian computa- tion was more exact than the Mexi- can, and Montesinos || speaks of very se inten alations, and of 1 y< les of 10. of 100 and 1000 years. But Waitz has strong d< ubts as to these statements. Prescott ranks the Peruvians above the Mexicans for skillful workman- ship in house-building, tillage, and the construction of roads and canals. Their inferiority to the Mexicans in intellectual culture — for instance, in astronomy — he strives to explain by showing that the Mexicans owed their intellectual advancement, not to their own native qualities, but to that mysterious Toltec stock, which the ■ f history fails to discern, and which Prescott supposes to have been equaled by the Peruvians in all other departments of culture.1I Among a 1 eople. who have reached so high a degree of moral and intel- lectual development, the ideal object of worship must exhibit these moral characteristics in the highest degree. And such is here the case, for the Peruvians regarded tin- Sen "on the one hand, according to his p< in Nature, as the great Power of the universe which upholds all things (a mere heavenly body): but on the other hand (anthropopathically) as a spiritual 1 lower, having mind and will. Not that there was supposed to be any spiritual object whose symbol * Vues des < !ordilleres, 129. I kiv. v Tschudi, Antig. 1'eruanas. Viena, 1851, p. 127. I Hem 1.1. V, t. 5. $ 1 1 a avant la Conq. Espagn. Par. 1858, p. 122. Waitz, IV. 474. * Pr< si ott, Peru, I. FETICIIISM. 105 was the Sun {i.e., the object of wor- ship was not a spirit inhabiting the Sun) ; but the bright luminary itself (in his own proper form and shape) was truly and really the deity, though not as a simple, soulless sphere, but as a divine and animated body, im- parting to all things around him light and life." * When once a monk ex- pounded the Christian doctrine to the Inca Atahuallpa, and asked him to renounce his faith, the eyes of the prince flashed fire, and he exclaimed : " I will' never change my faith. Your God was, as you say, put to death by the men he himself had created. But my God," said he, pointing to the Sun which was then setting in full splendor behind the mountains, " my God lives in the heavens, and looks down upon his children." f When the Sun sent his children down upon the earth he thus addressed them : " My children, when you have subjected these people to our obedience, it must be your study to hold them by the laws of reason, of piety, of mercy and of justice, doing for them all that a father is wont to do for the children whom he has begotten and whom he tenderly loves. Herein you will fol- low my example, for, as you know, I never cease to do good to all mor- tals. I illumine them with my light, to the end they may see and go about their affairs : when they are cold, I warm them ; I make their fields and their meadows productive, bring forth fruit on their trees, increase their herds and send them rain and fair weather as need may be. Further, I journey around the world daily, to see what the earth needs,' and to re- store all things to order, for the com- fort of its inhabitants. Therefore it is my will that ye follow my example, as most dear children, whom I send on earth for the welfare and the in- struction of these poor men, who live like beasts. Hence I give you the title of kings, and I desire that your kingdom be extended over all the * Wuttke, I. 306 seq. . t Prescott, I. 3. nations whom ye shall instruct in right principles and good morals, es- pecially by your example and mild rule." * Through reverence for the Sun, even the Inca durst not look upon its face.f The offerings made to the Sun con- sisted, besides the morning prayer, at his rising, of a libation (as among the Persians); then of fruits, herbs, flowers and animals, llamas especially. t Gar- cilasso expressly denies that they of- fered human sacrifices, and often mentions the laws which forbade the sacrifice of captives : still other ac- counts render it tolerably certain that on high festivals they sacrificed a child or a beautiful maiden. Where Sun-worship is so highly developed, the worship of the other heavenly bodies holds a very subordi- nate position. They worshiped the Moon as the Sun's sister and spouse, and the stars (among which Venus and the Pleiades were specially ob- served) § were considered as their suite.\\ The most famous temple in Peru was that of the Sun, at Cuzco, which, on account of its fabulously rich endowments, was called Cori- cancha — Place of Gold ;1[ and the temple next in renown was that of Pachacamac, also at Cuzco. The Temple of the Sun included a chapel plated all over with silver, and dedi- cated to the Moon, as also three other chapels, richly plated with gold and silver, and sacred to the Stars, to Thunder and Lightning, and to the Rainbow. With the Peruvians we may class, from the religious point of view, first the Araucanians,** who dwell to the south, in Chile, and who reckoned a solar year of 12 months, each month having 30 days, and five days being intercalated through the year. They were able to determine the time of * Garcilasso, I. lib. I. c. XV. t lb. IX. c. \. % lb. II. c. VI [I. § Cf. Waitz, IV. 475. || Prescott, I. IT lb. ** Cf. Waitz, III. 515 ft. 106 II I K 1I1SM. from the length of shad- Then i .mil- .1 \ i-i \ ad\ am ed ! higher culture than the \ nians, viz., the i !hib< has,* their kinsmen, living in New Granada, intry whose antiquities bespeak s inhabitants a relatively high • culture in very early times. Among tin- Chibchas the Sun held the same important position as among the Peruvians. There is no evidence to show that they imported from Peru their religion and their intellectual culture, but rather everything tends to prove that their development was of native growth. 7. The Worship of the Heavens. In the view taken of the heavens by all men on the basis of the exter- nal appearances, the heavenly bodies pass for bright points fixed in the blue vault of the sky, rather than for spheres free-poised in infinite space. Sun, moon and stars are only parts cf i the celestial vault. Hence, howso- ! ever they may differ from one anoth- ' er, still essentially they are of equal value, being all celestial. The suprem- acy therefore does not belong to this or to that one body, but to the entire firmament. It is therefore really no new standpoint, but rather the sum of the data already obtained, if now the religious consciousness considers no r the sun. the moon, or the stars, but the sum-total of them all, the ce- lestial vault, the sky itself, as the su- preme fetich, the supreme god. And here too, as in all the objects of fe- tich-worship, it is the vault of heaven, as such, anthropopathically appre- hended, and not any god supposed to be symbolized by it. that receives religious honors. But this worship of the entire heavens docs by no means interfere with the worship of the in- dividual heavenly bodies, but rather, on the contrary, favors it. Sun, moon and stars may each receive its peculiar worship and sacrifice ; but no one of them has the absolute ascendency. * lb. IV. 532 ff. That the people who stand on this stage of Fetichism are, from a mental and moral point of view, very ad- \ .in. ed, follows from what has been al- ready said. As i, presentatives of this stage we might ( ite the 1'eisians. as des, ribed by I [erodotus ; also the Chi- nese. " To ere< t statues of the gods, al- tars and temples," says Herodotus, '• is not the custom of the Persians, and indeed they reproach those who do so with folly, and this, as it ap] to me, for the reason that they do not believe, as do the Greeks, that the gods are anthropomorphic. On the contrary, they are wont to sacrifice to Zeus on the summits of high mount- ains, and to invoke the entire celestial vault as Zeus. They also sacrifice to the sun and the moon : to the earth, to fire and to the winds The Persians have no holocausts, no liba- tions, no meat-offering, no flutes, no garlands, no barley cakes : but who- ever would sacrifice to one of these gods puts a crown of myrtle around his tiara, conducts the animal to some place free from pollution, and there prays to the god to whom he is about to make the offering. Still he prays not for himself alone, but prays rather that it may be well with all Persians and with the king. Then the animal is slain, cut up, seethed, and afterward spread upon the green sweet grass . the Magi then chaunt a song of con- secration, standing by the side of the one who makes the offering, and the latter finally takes the flesh home, to make such use of it as he may wish. . . . . The Persians believe that the gods desire only the soul of the beasl as a sacrifice, disdaining the flesh ; hence they do not burn the flesh, lest they should pollute the fire, which is sacred to the gods : nay, even one durst not even blow on the fire, to quicken it, for that is an offense that is punished with death. As they make offerings to fire, so too do they to wa- ter, betaking themselves to some lake, or river, or fountain, and digging a trench in the vicinity, lest the blood should defile the water. There they FETICHISM. 107 slay the victim, and spread the pieces on 'sprigs of bay or myrtle ; the magi, who are present, make libations of oil, milk or honey, and chaunt a sacred song; and the sacrificant takes away the flesh of the victim." This con- ception of sacrifice, where only the soul of the victim is accepted by the gods, {gods as defined by Herodotus him- self) shows that the Persians no longer viewed their gods from the gross ma- terialistic point of view, and subordi- nated the material to the spiritual. Their praying for all Persians and not for themselves individually is evidence that they stood high above the egotism of the savage, who cares only for him- self. As objects of religious contempla- tion, the sky is regarded as the Father, the Earth the Mother of all things by the Chinese, the religious views of the masses being but little affected by the more philosophical and abstract speculations of their later teachers.* Yang, the Sky, is procreative, strong, masculine ; Yu, the Earth, is concep- tive, weakly, feminine. f All things are the products of these two. " So soon as Yu and Yang unite, an actual existence results, and this is the work of Heaven and Earth." % That this Sky-worship is most intimately con- nected with Sun-worship, nay, even that it derives its origin from Sun- worship, appears to be beyond ques- tion. The V-King, for instance, says that Yang makes his most perfect ap- parition in the Sun.§ The movement of Yang, again says the Y-King, is in a circle, being accelerated from the beginning of spring until the solstice, and then retarded. He consists of an extremely subtle matter, invisible to our eyes, but yet most real, and has a fixed and never ceasing circular motion ; and his form is spherical. * CJ. Wuttke, Gesch. des H. Bd. IT. S. i- 208; Bluntschli, Altasiatische Gottes-u. Weltideen S. 135-164; le Chou-King par Confucius, trad, par P. Gaubil, revu par M. de Guignes. Par. 1770, p. 8S-150. t V-King, ex Interpr. Regis. Ed. Mohl, 1834, I. p. 165-169, II. p. 381. \Ib. II. 547. § /*. II. 406. whereas that of the earth is angular, and therefore less capable of motion.* In the Spring and Summer, when the quickening power of the heavens is greatest, Yang bears sway , but in Au- tumn and Winter, when the quiescent earth predominates, Yu assumes rule. Yang is lord of the day, culminating at noon, and then gradually yielding to Yu, who rules the night. | All these functions of Yang belong more properly to the Sun than to the Sky. •■Wherever,'' says Wuttke,! "in accordance with our habits of thought, we expect to find mention of God in Chinese writings, it is always the Sky that we find named, sometimes Sky and Earth, but more commonly the Sky alone. And the Sky which is meant is the visible heavens, whose apparent revolution around the earth is held to be the cause of all life and movement. Sun, Moon and Stars are set in this blue Sky, which is the man- ifestation of deity." Uninfluenced by the nice distinctions which the philos- ophers of China have made as to the essence of the Heavens the popular mind takes the anthropopathic view, which, however, as was to have been expected of a people so advanced in moral culture as the Chinese, attrib- utes to the Sky only the noblest and sublimest characteristics. They give to the Heavens the name Shang-to, " Sublime Ruler, Supreme Lord." § He is almighty and omnipresent. His all-embracing love is shown in the say- ing : " The Sublime Ruler of the Uni- verse is to be feared and reverenced : he hates none. Who durst say that He hates any man?"|| His justice is not to be bribed, and is as immuta- ble as his celestial movement ; great is his wrath against the unjust ; IF from * lb. II. 385 seq. ; I. 203. t lb. I. 196, 214; Tschu-hi, iibersetzt von Neumann, in Illgen's Zeitschr. 1S37, Bd. I. 56, 74, 82. t II. S. 25. § Chou-King, p. 13, Note 7 ; V-King, II. p. 216. || Confucii Chi-King, s. Liber Carminum, ex Lat. P. Lacharme Interpr. Ed. Jul. Mohl. Stuttg. 1S30, II. 4. 8. IT lb. II. 4,8; II. 5, 1. 106 I I.IK lll.s.M. his omniscence naught is hidden.* And these things are all predii ol th<- blue vault above oui heads, v^ ■■ i l blue Sky. look down with si orn upon the proud, and have pity on the unfortunate," is a Chinese prayer.f The Sky so considered is man's moral itype, which he must reproduce in Ids own life. " His four properties irth the ideal of a prince : he is that he encompasse things : so mighty that he- i things : so orderly that he adapt things to their ends; so persistent that he never stands still, never ceases to be.'" % The Sky is the supreme lord. He requires of man perfect righteous- and sin' Being omni- scient he knows when a man is guilty of sin. His wrath is enkindled against all injustice, and he manifests it on occasion by celestial phenom- ena and by the convulsions of Nature, which are thus brought into relations with the moral life of man. Eclipses of Sun and Moon, earthquakes, thun- der and lightning and the other grave phenomena of Nature are warnings sent from Heaven to man.-J I fail on account of the sins of the peo- ple or of their rulers. " When virtue Teign-. - . - ECitse in the 12th century "the rain falls betimes; when the sovereign rules justly, there is fair weather, etc.; when sin reigns, the rain falls incessantly, or else there is a drought," etc. || The guilty are oftentimes punished directly by the Heavens. An emperor of the second dynasty having defiantly shot arrows at the sky, and erected idols was slain by the lightning.11 For the space of three days did the Heavens envelop the earth in dark clouds, be- another emperor had committed * 1 1 G la < 'hinc. trad. , }47; ( hi-King, p. 291, II. 5, 6,S; De Mailla, < h. m-King, p. 1-:. • De Mailla, I. 227. We might cite a multitude iilar instances ; f but as our pur- pose hen- is only to define the position ot China with regard to religious de- velopment, we refrain from any fur- ther illustration of this p However just the claim (tf the skv to the undivided worship of man, and howsoever strictly philosophico- religious speculation may show it to be the one obje< ; that deserves to be worshiped, still the popular mind will not renounce its own nature as a fe- cund principle, and so it fashions lor itself notions of spirits and gods on purely empiric grounds. Hence in China, besides sky-worship there is a complex system of Spirit-worship and polytheism.! In addition to the An- cestral Spirits, which are the principal objects of veneration, there are the Celestial Spirits, which dwell in the heavenly bodies, in the Sun, the Moon, the S:ars. the Earth ; on moun- tains, in rivers ; in the thunder and in the winds. There are the guar- dian Spirits of families, of houses, of communities, of cities, of provinces, of agriculture, etc., and we find men- tion of these even in remote times: yet they rank so far beneath the Sky that by an ancient law it was forbid- den to make offerings to them such as were made to the Sky, and it was allowed only to make them gifts of food, and to show them a limited amount of reverence. § In Africa, too, among the more ad- vanced nations, we find traces of a growing Sun and Skv worship. In Dahomey, a country ruled with bar- barous rigor, but yet possessing a well-organized monarchical govern- ment, the Sun is held to be the high- est of all beings but yet is not wor- shiped. || The Duallas call the Sun and th<- Great Spirit by one name/, * Chou-King, p. 91. t Cf. Wuttke. II. 55 ff. i //'. 11. 16 it. ^ De Mai , Hisl en. I. y. Omboni, Viaggi nell' Africa Occidentals. Milano, 1845, p. • Allen and Thomson, Narr. of the Exped. to the K. Niger in 1S41. I. mid. 1x4s, II. ; note. FETICHISM. 105> In Acra Romer discovered a sort of J worship paid to the Sun.* The Ne- groes of the Gold Coast, at least ! their devotees and fetichmen, call | Njongmo (the Sky), which is omni- present and ab cevo, the Supreme God, and the Maker of the world.f " You may every day see," said a fetichman, "how the rain and sun- shine sent by him cause the grass and grain and trees to grow : he» must therefore be the Creator." Every morning they go clown to the stream, wash themselves, dash a handful of water or sand on their heads, and with eyes turned to the sky, utter this prayer : " O God, give me this day rice and yams, gold and agries : give me slaves, wealth and health, and grant that I be quick and swift." The same belief, substantially, pre- vails in Akwapim, the Supreme Deity being the firmament, and the Earth, the Universal Mother, holding the second rank, while in the third rank stands Bosumbra, the head Fetich. Before embarking in any new enter- prise the people of Akwapim offer a libation to these three, saying: "Cre- ator, come, drink ; Earth, come, drink ; Bosumbra, come, drink." X CHAPTER VII. THE AIM OF FETICHISM. Having traced the development of religious ideas from their earliest ori- gin to their more advanced stages, jve would now gather the results of our analyses in order to show the ulterior aim to which the system is directed. i. Retrospect. The understanding has cognizance only of its own conceptions, and these conceptions are its objects. Hence its range is limited to the conceptions and objects it has, and hence too it * Romer, S. 84. t Waitz, II. 170. % Ibidem. grows as the number of its objects is increased. If we would appreciate a man's intellectual status, we must know what are his conceptions, his objects. In his lowest condition man has but few objects : but as these are multiplied the more, the more does he advance in every respect. It is a law of our mind that we shall range our conceptions in the order of cause and effect. But we can so range such conceptions as we possess. Cause, as being the efficient, the productive principle we can con- ceive of only as something possessed of power, of special efficiency. Ac- cordingly that object or that concep- tion will pass for causal and efficient, which appears to be the stronger, the more excellent. We have seen how, as the number of objects was greater or less, their values differed propor- tionally, and how the mind with few objects must set as high a value on trifles (as viewed from a higher stand- point) as a superior understanding sets upon its more important objects : for a relatively trifling object as- sumes importance when its surround- ings are more trifling still than itself. Hence we have seen that because he has but few objects, and a very nar- row world, the fetichist takes to be causal an object which for him is mo- mentous, though insignificant for us. We have seen that as he increases the number of his conceptions, the num- ber of assignable causes is increased in proportion ; and then we consid- ered the various objects regarded as fetiches : stocks, stones, mountains, plants, etc. All these lay in man's own sphere, and he was attached to them by bodily interest. A new and spiritual interest could be awakened only by an entirely new object, and this he found in the heavenly bodies, by the worship of which man stepped beyond simply material interests and entered a spiritual sphere. In proportion as the spiritual in- terest increases the more is the will detached from the simply corporeal. Animal passions are repressed in pro- portion as objects of spiritual interest no II 1 !• III.vM. attract the will to themselves. Bui in order to devote himself to spiritual » sts ni.iii h.ul need i if repose, tranquility and bodilj security. The higher this spiritual interest rises, the more is fierce and destructive egotism repressed. Life is more tranquil, more orderly. Man builds up com- monwealths, and his thoughts are now no longer concerned about him- self alone, but about the common- wealth also. But in proportion as he abandons egotism, the more docs he acknowledge moral i mtrol. In the higher stages of the worship of heavenly bodies we therefore found a high degree of development, not onl) intellectually but also morally. For morality being will-stimulus, or will-direction, and the will being ele- vated only by gaining higher and /•wr higher objects, therefore morality is elevated in proportion to the ele- vation of the objects. 2. 71u- New Problem. Sky-worship, including Star and Sun-worship, is the highest grade of fetichism, not only because its objects arc the most exalted, but also because it contains the nucleus of something altogether new. So far, man has been tracing causes from object to object, and in the pursuit of the final cause at length passed from earth to sky. But even there his final cause was found to belong to the order of sensu- ous things. His eyes discern his effi- cient causes; he sees them producing all phenomena, all objects. But the law of the mind is that lie shall still h tor a cause, and when once the mind lias begun to question, it will never cease to question. What is the \ ? it asks : and the answer i^. B. But further it will ask. What then of B? and an answer it must have. Now so far it has taken the Stars, the Sun, the Sky for its ulti- mate cause: but the greater man's reverence for this < ause, and the more he contemplates it, the more he learns as to its true nature. Soon all man- ner of thoughts will spring up, and he will observe contradictions between its actual, empirical phenomena and his own conception thereof, and of the mode in which it must operate. 1 low- is this? he will inquire. And when SUCh and such efle< ts are produced by the Sun, the question will come up, Hut what produced the Sun itself, with its phenomena? And in fact wherever this worship of heavenly bodies attains its highest Stage, as anion- the Mexicans, Peruvians and Persians, this question did actually arise. The Persians not alone put this question, but they found the an- swer to it, and the result was a new religion, that of Zoroaster. Hut the Mexicans and the Peruvians had their development interrupted by the fanat- icism of a Cortez and a l'i/arro, and hence they could not reach a solution of the problem, though it was explic- itly stated by some eminent minds among them, and the nation was in a fair way soon to enter on a new relig- ious epoch. But let us see how the problem must be solved by a people in their stage of development. As long as the objects of sense afforded the grounds for considering them as causes, so long did man ascend the series. But when the last link in that chain is reached, the senses fail ; and the eye cannot penetrate beyond the blue vault of the heavens. Hence when he comes to inquire as to tin- cause of the sky itself, he cannot as- sign any sensible object, there being none that is greater than this. If therefore he would still pursue his search after a cause, he must needs go beyond the domain of sense, and assign causes not apprehensible to the senses, pretersensual or super- sensual. But now he could not as- sign anything super-sensual as a cause, if he had no conception of the " super- sensual." Put his gods and spirits have furnished him with such a no- tion, and he has often held them to be the causes of sundry phenomena in the world of sense. All his con- ceptions are empirical, and his con- ception of gods also had an empirical FETICHISM. lit origin. It is not our business here to account for the idea of gods and spirits : it suffices if we know that it exists. When therefore an ultimate cause is to be assigned for the ulti- mate of sensible causes, it will be a God. But just as when he looked for the ultimate Cause among sensible ob- jects, that passed for ultimate which was unique, supreme, and above all things else in power and dominion : so too must this God be unique, su- preme, exclusive. Here then is the point where, by the crossing of the two series of conceptions (referred to already at p. 26) — viz. : on the one hand sensible objects, and on the other spirits or gods, both in their highest state of development (Sun and Sky-worship, and Polytheism) — Monotheism is evolved. The proofs of this proposition are not in place in an essay on fetichism : it will be sufficient if we show from history that the questio?i we have spoken of does actually arise where man has reached the highest stage of fetichism, and that it is answered precisely as we have said. Of the famous Inca, Tupac Jupan- qui,* Garcilasso states that " he was' wont to say : Many hold that the sun is endowed with life, and that he is the creator of all things. But who- ever creates a thing must be present when he creates it : but now sundry things are produced in the absence of the Sun : therefore the Sun is not the creator of all things. Furthermore, his never tiring is proof that he is not a living thing. If he had life, he would weary even as we : and were he free, he would visit other regions of heaven besides those in which his daily course now lies. He is, as it were, an object that is restricted in its movements, and which ever describes the self-same course ; or like the arrow which flies in the direction in which it is shot, and which cannot choose its own course." Another Inca was once, upon the feast of Raymi. at- tentively contemplating the Sun * Garcilasso, VIII. 8. A priest having twice reminded him that the reverence clue to that lumi- nary forbade such conduct, the mon- arch replied: "I will put you two questions. I am your king and lord. Would any of you venture to order me to rise from my throne and set out on a long journey ? And would any of my vassals be so bold as to refuse obedience, were I to com- mand him forthwith to hasten off to Chile ? " The priest having an- swered both questions in the nega- tive, the monarch thus continued : " My word for it, there must be over the Sun, our Father, a master greater and mightier still, who requires him to perform his daily course : for were the Sun himself the Supreme Lord, he would not pursue forever the same daily path : he would rest when it pleased him, even though he had no need of rest.''* One of the most eminent of the Mexican kings, " an intellectual hero of the New World," was Nezahual- coyotl. " His enlightened mind, and the love he had for his subjects, largely contributed to make his court famous, and it was ever after regarded as the home of the arts and the center of re- fined culture. At Tezcuco, his capital, the Mexican language was spoken with the greatest puritv and correct- ness ; and there were always to be found the best artists, and a vast as- semblage of poets, orators and histo- rians. Not alone the Mexicans them- selves, but many other nations re- ceived laws from Tezcuco, and hence we might say that Nezahualcoyotl was the Solon, and his capital the Athens of Anahuac."t Well-versed in the poetry of his native land, the king was himself a poet of some distinction, and as late as the 16th century sixty hymns composed bv him in honor of the Cre- ator of the heavens were held in high esteem even by the Spaniards. " But nothing possessed so deep an interest for Nezahualcoyotl as the study of Nature. He acquired a considerable * Acosta, Balboa, 59; apud Waitz, IV. 449. t Clavigero, I. p. 175 seq. 112 II in HISM. amounl of astronomical knowledge from t In* numerous observations « hi< li he directed to be made ol the courses oi the stars. He also devoted much time to the study <>t botany and zool- ind those spe( imens which, ^ requiring a different climate, could not live at thf capital, he had painted in the natural size on the walls ol his He studied attentively the causes of the phenomena of Nature, ntul this study hit him to recognize the worth- lessness of idolatry. He told his sons, in confidence, that whilst they paid exterior reverence to the idols, in deference to public sentiment, they should in their hearts abhor this contemptible worship of inanimate things. As for himself, he acknowl- edged no god save the Creator ol the Heavens, but he did not forbid idola- try, much as he wished to do so, lest any man should charge him with set- ting himself in opposition to the teach- ings oi his forefathers. He prohibited human sacrifices, but succeeded only so far as to limit them to the offering of prisoners of war." * To his " Un- seen God," " the Unknown God, the Cause of Causes, 7 ' f he dedicated a * Clavigero, I. p. 175 seq. t "Al Dios no conocido, Causa de las of nine stoiies, with rool painted blue, and studded with golden sta At stated hours certain offi< ials ap- pointed tor the purpose sum k a son- orous metallic plate in the tower, at which signal the king knelt and re- cited a prayer. From the ornamenta- tion of this tower, as well as from his poems, t it is plain that, as Prescott says, '" he ( ombined star-worship with wmship of the Almighty ; " or rather, by combining star-worship with Poly- theism, In- rea< hed Monotheism. This is clear from what 1 jtliljoi bit] says of him, viz., that although he "invoked the Almighty, by whose grace we live, and who hath in him- self all things," still lie also - acknowl- edged the sun to be his father and the earth his mother."! Causas." M. S. de Ijtliljochitl apud Pres- cott, I. 155. * " Su Boveda estaba pintada de azul." I I.e. 1 'ero, I. i - ''. t " I. t-t us strive heavenward, for there all is everlasting and incorruptible." Aspin al cieh), que alii todo es eterno v nadasecor- rompe. "The horrors of the grave are but the Sun's cradle ; and the sombre shadows only brilliant lights for the stars."' El horror del sepulcro es lisongera cufia para el, y las funestas sombras brillantes luces para los as- tros. \ Apud Prescott, I. THE Humboldt Library of M$m is the only publication of its kind, — the only one containing popular scientific works at low prices. For the most part it contains only works of acknowledged excellence, by authors of the first rank in the world of science. Such works are landmarks destined to stand forever in the history of Mind. Here, in truth, is " strong meat for them that are of full age." 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LIGHT SCIENCE FOR LEISURE HOURS.-A Series of Familiar Essays on Scientific Subjects, Natural Phenomena, f Judging I V\ — The Physical View. VI. — The Biological View, er VTL — The Psychological View, i u t vill — Thi Sociological View. « Chapter Chapter IX- Chapter X.- Chapter XL- er XII.- Chapter XIII- Chapter XIV - Chapter XV.- Chapter XVI.- -mi< and Explanations. -Tho Relativity of Pains and Pleas- -Egoism oertus Altruism, lures. - Altruism versus Egoism. -Trial and Compromise. • < Sonciliation. ■ Absolute Ethics and Relative Eth- ■ The Scope of Ethics. lies. Published semi-monthly.— $3 a year.— Single numbers. 15 cents. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. No. 10. THE THEORY OF SOUND IN ITS RELATION TO MUSIC.-By Professor Pietro Blaserxa, of the Royal University of Rome.— With numerous woodcuts. C N TEXT S. Chapter I. — Periodic Movements: Vibration. — S,onorous Vibration. — Vibration of a Bell. — Vibra- tion of a Tuning-fork. — Vibration of a String. — Of Plates and Membranes. — Vibration of Air in a Sounding -pipe. — Method of the Monometrie Flame. — Conclusion. Chapter II. — Transmission of Sound. — Propaga- tion in Air. — In Water and Other Bodies. — \e- locity of Sound in Air.- In Water and Other Bodies. Reflection of Sound. — Echo. Chapter III. — Characteristics of Sound, and Dif- ference between Musical Sound and Noise. — Loud- ness of Sound, and the Various Causes on which it depends. — Principle of the Superposition of Sounds. — Sounding-boards and Resonators. Chapter IV. — Measure of the Number of Vibra- tions. — Pitch of Sounds: Limit of Audible Sounds, of Musical Sounds, and of the Human Voice. — The "Normal Pitch." — Laws of the Vibrations of a String, and of Harmonics. Chapter V. — Musical Sounds. — Law of Simple Ratio. — Unison: interference. — Beats: their ex- planation. — Resultant Notes. — Octaves, and other Harmonics. — Consonant Chords and their limits. — The Major fifth, fourth, sixth, and third: the Minor third and sixth. — The Seventh Harmonic. Chapter VI.— Helmholtz's Double Siren. — Appli- cation of the Law of Simple Ratio to three or more notes.— Perfect Major and Minor Chords: their nature. — Their inversion. Chapter VII.— Discords.— The Nature of Music and Musical Scales. — Ancient Music — Greek Scale. — Scale of Pythagoras. — Its decay. — Ambro- sian and Gregorian Chants. — Polyphonic Music: Harmony — The Protestant Reformation.— Pales- trina. — Change of the Musical Scale. — The Tonic or Fundamental Chord. — The Major Scale.— Mu- sical Intervals.— The Minor Scale. —Key and Trans- position. — Sharps and Flats. — The ' Temperate Scale: its inaccuracy. — The Desirability of aban- doning it. Chapter VIII.— Quality or timbre of Musical Sounds. — Forms assumed by the Vibrations. — Laws of Harmonies. — Quality or timbre of Strings and of Instruments. — General Laws of Chords. — Noises accompanying Musical Sounds. — Quality or timbre of Vocal Musical Sounds. Chapter FX. — Difference between Science and Art. — Italian and German Music. — Separation of the two Schools. — Influence of Paris. — Conclusion. Nos. 11 and 12. Double number. 30 cents. THE NATURALIST ON THE RIVER AMAZONS.-A Record of Adventures, Habits of Animals, Sketches of Brazilian and Indian Life, and Aspects of Nature under the Equator, during eleven years of travel. — By Henry Walter Bates, F.L.S., Assistant Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society of England. CONTEXTS. (In Chapter I. — Arrival at Para — Aspect of the country — First walk in the suburbs of Para — Birds, lizards, and insects — Leaf-carrying ant — Sketch of the climate. hist ory. and present condition of Para. Chapter n. — The swampy forest of Para — A Por- tuguese landed proprietor — Life of a Naturalist under the Equator — The dryer virgin forests — Re- tired creeks — Aborigines. Chapter HI. — The Tocautins River and Cameta — Sketeh of the River — Grove of fan-leaved palms — Native life on the Tocantins. Chapter V. — Caripi and the Bay of Maraj6 — Negro observance of Christmas — A German family — Bats — Ant-eaters — Hummingbirds — Domestic life of the inhabitants — Hunting excursion with Indians — White ants. Chapter VI. — The Lower Amazons — Modes of traveling on the Amazons — Historical sketeh of the early explorations of the river — First sight of the great river — Flat-topped mountains. Chapter VII. — Ville Nova, its inhabitants. forest, and animals — A rustic festival — River Madeira. — Mura Indians — Yellow Fever. Chapter VIII. — Santarem — Manners and customs part.) of the inhabitants — Sketches of Natural History- palms, wildfruit-trees, mining- wasps, mason- wasps, bees. and sloths. Chapter FX. — Voyage up the Tapajos— Modes of obtaining fish — White Cebus.and habits and dispo- sitions of Cebi monkeys — Adventure with anaconda — Smoke-dried monkey — Boa-constrictor — Hya- cinthine macaw — Descent of river to Santarem." Chapter X. — The Upper Amazons — Desolate ap- pearance of river in the flood season — Mental con- dition of Indians — Floating pumice-stones from the Andes — Falling banks — Ega and its inhabitants — The four seasons of the Upper Amazons. Chapter XI. — Excursions in the neighborhood of Ega — Character and customs of the Passe Indians — Hunting rambles with natives in the forest. Chapter XII. — Animals of the neighborhood of Ega-Searlet-faeed monkeys-Owlfaced night-apes — Marmosets — Bats — Birds — Insects — Pendulous cocoons — Foraging ants — Blind ants. Chapter XIII.— Excursions beyond Ega — Steam- boat traveling on the Amazons — Various tribes of Indians — Descent to Para — Great changes at Para — Departure for England. ^% This is one of the most charming books of travel ever written, and is both interesting and in- structive. It is a graphic description of "a country of perpetual summer. — where trees yield flower and fruit all the year round," — "a region where the animals and plants have been fashioned in Nature's choicest moulds." THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place, New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY -. MIND AND BODY: The Theories of their Relation. BjAuoakdbb Bain, LL.D., Professor of Logic in the University of Aberdeen. NT E N TS. Chapter L— Question SI r Q.— Connection of Mind and Body. Ill —The Connection Viewed as. Oorre- ' oncomltant Variation. chapter [V.— Oenenl Law* <>f Allian t Mind and Body.— The Reeling! and the V Chapter V.— The [ntellect Chapter VL— How are Mind and Body m Chapter VII — Hiatorj of 1 THE WONDERS OF THE HEAVENS.- ''-y Camillb Flammabion.- Translated from the Prenoh by Mrs. Norman I .< ><-Kvr.n. — With thirty-two A.ol inoglypb [Uustrations. CO NT B N T >. BOOK FIRST. Chapter I.— Night r [I.— The Heavens. Chapter in.— Infinite B] [verse. •■ill Arrangement of the I'ni- . t V.— Clusters and Nebulas. Chapter VI.— The Milky Way. BOOK SECOND. chapter I.— The Bldereal World. Chapter II.— The Northern Constellations. Chapter III.— The Zodiac. ter IV.— Southern Constellations. !• V.— The Number of the Stars.— hist: ter VL— Variable Stars.— Temporary Stars. Stars suddenly visible or Lnvisd ter VTI.— Distant Universes.— Double, Mul- tiple, and Colored Suns. BOOK THIRD. I.— The Planetary Svstem. II.— The Sun. Chapter III. — Tie 5 < Ihapter IV. — Mercury. V. — Venus. Chapter VI.— M Chapter Vli . — lupiter. Chapter VIII. — Saturn. Chapter IX. — Uranus. Chapter X. — Neptune. Chapter XI — O01 Chapter XII. — Comets BOOK FOURTH. Chapter I.— The Terrestrial I Chapter II. — Proofs that the Earth is round. — That it turns on an axis, and revolves round the Sun. Chapter III.— The Moon. Chapter IV. — The Moon (continued). Chapter V.— Eclipses. BOOK FIFTH. Chapter I.— The Plurality of Inhabited V chapter II— The Contemplation of the H S LONGEVITY: THE MEANS OF PROLONGING LIFE AFTER MIDDLE AGE.— fi y JoHN Gardner, M-D. What i- the Natural Duration of Human Life I Duration of Life in any degree within our pi 'V, ral Considerations respecting Ad- I Age. ,1th. ble ' Physiology of Advanced \:_'e. Heredity. The Means of Ameliorating and Retarding the Age Recuperative Power.— What is Life? Water: its bearing on Health and Disease. Stimulants — Spirituous and Malt Liquors Wine. Its Effects on Longevity. itions from Health In Aged Persona— (a). Faulty Nutrition— General At- 1 . ' Failure of Nutrition.— Puin - of Narcotics.— (a). Dolor-Senills.— (6). Narcotics.— (0). Sai rilla and other ft medial Agi «iout— Ni es for. Rheumatism. — Lum Limit ' D • ion. ver. r. N t s. The Kidneys and Urine.— Simple Overflow.— Al- buminous Urine. — Bright's Disease.- -Muddy Urine, Gravel stone. — Irritable Bladder. — 1 liabetes. The Lower Bowels. The Throat. — Air-passages. — Lungs. — Bronc The Heart The Brain— Mind, Motive Power, Sleep, Paralysis. Established Pacts respecting Loi . Fatal after sixty. Summary.— An Experiment Proposed. Appendix. — Causes of Premature Death. Lateral Tonics. — 11). Loi _• of the Patriarchs and in Ancient Times.— (6). Plourens on Longevity. — (c). Popular Errors : Longevity. — (d). Wast.- of Human Life.— (< I. Mural ai d eta of Longevity. — (/). Importan< t Early Treat meni of Disorders.— to). The Bones of Old People Brittle. — (A). Condition of very Old People.— (i). One Hundred and Fit treme Limit of Human Life. — (j). A Case of Recuperation. — (*). « >n the Water used in Country Towns.— (I). Pure Aerated Water.— — (m). Anticipations. — (n.) Adulteration of Po< d &i Bffi :• '" Human I .it.-. — (o). Life.— (p). Appli: \_-ed Persons for Immediate Kelief Suffering. Published semi-monthly.— $3 a year.— Single numbers. 15 cents. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. No. 16. ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES; or, The Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature. — -A- Course of Six Lectures. — By Thomas H. Huxley, F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in the Jermyn Street School of Mines, London. CONT Chapter I. — The Present Condition of Organic Mature. [tnre. Chapter II.— The Past Condition of Organic Na- Chapter III.— The Method by which the Causes of the Present and Past Conditions of Organic Nature are to be discovered.— The Origination of Living Beings. Chapter IV.— The Perpetuation of Living Beings. Hereditary Transmission and Variation. E N T S. Chapter V. — The Conditions of Existence as af- fecting the Perpetuation of Living Beings. Chapter VI. — A Critical Examination of the Po- sition of Mr. Darwin's work on "The Origin of Species." in relation to the Complete The- ory of the Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature. Appendix. — Criticisms on Darwin's "Origin of Species." No. 17. PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE- With other Disquisitions, viz., The Physiology of Laughter. — Origin and Function of Music. — The Social Organism. — Use and Beauty. — The Use of Anthropomorphism. — By Herbert Spencer. No. 18. LESSONS IN ELECTRICITY. To which is added an Elementary Lecture on Magnetism.— By John Tyndall, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pro- fessor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution of Great Britain.— With Sixtv Illustrations. CONTEXTS. Introduction. Historic Notes. The Art of Experiment. Electric Attractions. Discovery of Conduction and Insulation. The Electroscope. Electrics and Non-Electrics. Electric Repulsions. Fundamental Law of Electric Action. Double or "Polar" Character of the Electric Force. ■What is Electricity ? Electric Induction. The Electrophorus. Action of Points and Flames. The Electrical Machine. The Leyden Jar. Franklin's Cascade Battery. Leyden Jars of the Simplest Form. Ignition by the Electric Spark. Duration of the Electric Spark. Electric Light in Vacuo. Lichtenberg's Figures. Sui-face Compared with Mass. Physiological Effects of the Electrical Discharge. Atmospheric Electricity. The Returning Stroke. The Leyden Battery. Appendix. — An Elementary Lecture on Mag- netism. No. 19. FAMILIAR ESSAYS ON SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS, viz., Oxygen in the Sun. — Sun-spot, Storm, and Famine.— New Ways of Measuring the Sun's Distance. — Drifting Light-waves. — The New Star which faded into Star-mist. — Star-grouping, Star-drift, and Star-mist. — By RICHARD A. Proctor. No. 20. THE ROMANCE OF ASTRONOMY.-By R. Kalley Miller, M.A., Fel- low and Assistant Tutor of St. Peter's College, Cambridge, England. — With an Appendix by Richard A. Proctor. The Planets. Astrology. The Moon. The Sun. CONTENTS. The Comets. Laplace's Nebular Hypothesis. The Stars. The Nebulae. The Past History of our Moon. Ancient Babylonian Astrogony. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place, New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY I ON THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF LIFE. The Scientific Aspects of Positivism, logical Contemporaneity. A Liberal 11 1- xi i j . P.B.8., F.L.8. With Other Essays, viz., A Piece of Chalk. Geo- Education.— '•>• Thom h. SEEING AND THINKING.- By William Kingdom Cuttord, F.R.8., Pro- lessor of Applied Mathematics and Ifeehaniea in University College, London, if Trinity Co ■ g» . Cambridge. CONTENTS. Bye aixl the Brain. The Eye and Seeing. The Brain and Thinking. Of Boundaries in « I ■ SCIENTIFIC SOPHISMS. A Review of Current Theories con- cerning Atoms, Apes, and Men.— By Samuel Wainwright, D.D. author of "Christian Certainty," "The Modem Avernus," &c. CONTENTS. Chapter I.— The Right of Search. Chapter II. — Evolution. pter III.— "A Puerile Hypothesis." r [V.— " Scientific Levity." Chapter V. — A House of Cards. Chapter VI. — Sophisms. . • r VII.— Protoplasm. Chapter VIII.— The Three Beginnings. Chapter IX.— The Three Bar Chapter X. — Atoms. Chapter XI. — Apes. Chapter XII— Men. Chapter XIII. — Animi Mundi. No. 24. POPULAR SCIENTIFIC LECTURES, viz., On the Relation of Optics to Painting.— On the Origin of the Planetary System.— On Thought in Medicine.— On Academic Freedom in German Uni- versities. - By H. Helmholtz, Professor of Physics in the University of Berlin. No. 25. THE ORIGIN OF NATIONS.- In two parts.-On Early Civiliza- tions.— On Ethnic Affinities, Ac— By George Rawltnson, ma.. Camden Professor of Ancient History, Oxford. i > N T E N T S. PART I— EARLY CIVILIZATION'S. ■ r I. — Introduction. • r II. — < »n the Antiquity of Civilization in Egypt. Chapter III— On the Antiquity of Civilisation :.t Babylon. • r IV. — < m the Date ;in. I\' Butterfly-Hunting Begin! Red Campl vi The Hedgehog! Bole. tie. VIII \ Big Fossil Bone. \l I'll.- Heron's Haont CO N T i; N T8. Ml .- \ Bed of Nettles. \in. I. 'atrife nnd Pimpernel. XIV.— The Carp \v \ Welsh Roadside. \\l Seaside W XVII a Mountain Tarn. Will.— Wild Thyme. XIX.— Tin' Donkey*! Ancestors. XX.— Beside the Cromlech, x\i -The Kail of the Leaf. XXII - The Fall of ti,,- Y.-ar. THE PHILOSOPHY OF STYLE.— By Herbert Spencer, author of "] Principles of Philosophy," "Social Statics," "Elements of Psychology," "E ta of Biology," " Education," &e. CONT E N TS. I. — Causes of Force in Language which depend upon Economy of Hu M i'.ni rgit 8. I. — The Principle of Economy applied to Words. II. — The Effect of Figurative Language Ex- plained. UL— Arrangement of Minor Images in Build- in<_' up a Thought. I\'. — The Superiority of Poetry to Prose Explained. Part II. — Causes of Force in Language which depend 11,11m Economy of the '•/ 8( risibilities. TO WHICH IS ADDED THE MOTHER TONGUE.- By Alexander Bain, LL.D., Professor of Logic in the Universil y of Aberdeen. Co XT 1: N T B. Conditions of Language Acquisition Generallv. The Mother Tongue. Teaching Grammar. T!ic Ak>' for Commencing Grammar. The Higher Composition. English Literature. ORIENTAL RELIGIONS.— By John Caird, S.T.D., President of the Univer. Bity of Glasgow, and other authors. India. < ' CON T i; X T — Brahmanism. Buddhism. By John Caied 8.T.D Religion of China. — Confucianism. By Kc\ . GBOBOI Mat - Religion of Persia.— Zoroaster and the Zend Avesta. By Rev. Johs Milne. M.a LECTURES ON EVOLUTION.- With an Appendix on The Study of Biology. By Thomas II. Huxley. c o x- T e x T s. I. — THBXI LXOTUBia "N BV0LTJT10». Lecture I. — The Three Hypotheses respecting History "t Nature. Lecture IL— The Hypothesis of Evolution. — The Neutral and the Favorable Bvidei • III. — The Demonstrative Evidence of Evolution. II.— a Lecture ox the Studs of Biologi SIX LECTURES ON LIGHT.— By Prof. John- Tyxdall. F.R.S. I -Introductoi L n. — Origin of Physical Theories. EEL— Relation "t Ti rlea i<> Experience. Lecture IV. — Chromatic Phenomena produced by 1 Irystals on Polarized Light. I fcure Range of Vision Incommensurate with Range of Radiation. b VI. — Principles of Spectrum Analysis. — Solar Chemistry. — Summary and Conclusions. Published semi-montlily.— $3 a year.— Single numbers, 15 cents. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. No. 38 and No. 39. [15 cents each number. GEOLOGICAL SKETCHES AT HOME AND ABROAD -By arch- ibald Geikie. LL.]>.. F.R.S., Director-General of the Geological Surveys of Givat Britaiu and Ireland. — In Two Parts, each complete in itself. COST Part I.— No. 38. I. — My First Geological Excursion. II.— -the Old Man of Hoy." III. — The Baron's Stone of Killochan. IV. — The Colliers of Carrick. V. — Among the Volcanoes of Central France. VI. — The Old Glaciers of Norway and Scotland. VII. — Rock-Weathering Measured by the Decay of Tombstones. ENTS. Part II.— No. 39. I. — A Fragment of Primeval Europe. II. — In Wyoming. III. — The Geysers of the Yellowstone. rV — The Lava Fields of Northwestern Europe. V. — The Scottish School of Geology. VT. — Geographical Evolution. VII. — The Geological Influences which have affect- ed the Course of British History. No. 40. THE SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION.-By George J. Romanes, M.A., LL.D., F.ii.S., Zoological Secretary of the Linnean Society. London. I. — Introduction. n. — The Argument from Classification. [are. in. — The Argument from Morphology or Struct- IV. — The Argument from Geologv. CONTENTS. V. — The Argument from Geographical Distribu- VI. — The Argument from Embryology. [tion. VII.— Arguments drawn from. Certain General Considerations. TO WHICH IS ADDED PALEONTOLOGY AND THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION.-By Prof. Thomas H. Huxley. NATURAL SELECTION AND NATURAL THEOLOGY.-By Eustace R. CONDER. P.P. No. 41. CURRENT DISCUSSIONS IN SCIENCE.-By W. Mattieu Williams. F.R.A.S., F.C.S.. author of "The Fuel of the Sun," "Through Norway with a Knapsack," "A Simple Treatise on Heat," &c. contents. I. — Meteoric Astronomv. IX.- II.— Dr. Siemens's Theofv of the Sun. X.- m.— Another World Down Here. XI.- IV. — The Origin of Volcanoes. XTT.- V. — Note on the Direct Effect of Sun-Spots on Terrestrial Climates. XIII.- VI. — The Philosophy of the Radiometer and its XIV.- Cosmical Revelations. XV- VII. — The Solidity of the Earth. XVI.- VIII. — Meteoric Astronomv. ■Aerial Exploration of the Arctic Regions. •"'Baily's Beads." ■ World-smashing. •On the so-called "Crater-Necks" and "Volcanic Bombs" of Ireland. - Travertine. -Mnrchison and Babbage. -The "Consumption of Smoke." -The Air of Stove-heated Rooms. X 42. OF THE SCIENCE OF POLITICS.- By Frederick HISTORY Pollock. C O N T E Chapter I. — Introductory. — Place of the Theory of Politics in Human Knowledge. Chapter II. — The Classic Period: Pericles — Soc- rates — Plato — Aristotle. — The Greek Ideal of the State. Chapter ni.— Tiie Mediaeval Period: The Papaey and the Empire. — Thomas Aquinas — Dante — Bracton — Marsilio of Padua. Chapter IV. — The Modern Period: Machiavelli — Jean Bodin — Sir Thomas Smith — Hobbes. NTS. Chapter V. — The Modern Period (continued): Hooker — Locke — Rousseau — Blackstone. Chapter VI. — The Modern Period (continued): Hume — Montesquieu — Burke. Chapter VII.— The Present Century: Political Sovereignty — Limits of State Intervention — Bentham — Austin — Maine — Bagehot — Kant — Ahrens — Savigny — Cornewall Lewis — John Stuart Mill — Herbert Spencer — Laboulaye. No. 43. DARWIN AND HUMBOLDT.-Their Lives and Work.- By Prof. Huxley and others. CONTENTS. CHARLES DARWIN. I.— Introductory Notice.— By Th. H. Huxley. II.— Lite and Character.— By Gko. J. Romanes. in.— Work iu Geology. — By Archibald Geikie. IV. — Work in Botanyi-ByW.T.THisELTON" Dyer. V.— Work in Zoology.— By Geo. J. Romanes. VI. — Work in Psvchology. — By ItKo. J. Romanes ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. I. — An Address delivered by LOUIS AGASSIZ at the < lentennial Anniversary ot' the birth of ALEX- ANDER von Humboldt, under the auspices of the Boston Society of Natural History, Sept. 14. 1869. II.— Remarks by Prof. Frederic H. Hedge, of Harvard University. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place. New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY 44 and THE DAWN OF HISTORY. An Study* - Edited by C. P. Kkart, M.A. Parts, each i 1 .*.■•. ■ Introduction to Prehistoric I tritisfa Museum. — In Two COSTEXT B. Past I — v - chapter I.— The Earliest TraoM of Man. Chapter II.— The Second Btona Age, ni. — The Growth of Lang rV. — Families of Language. -, r V.— The Nations ol the Old World. .■}<■ Social I Chapter VII.— The Village Community. Part II.— No. 45. Chapter Vm.— Religion. Chapter IX. — Aryan R Chapter X.— The Other World. Chapter XL— Mythologies and Folk-Ta . XII. — Picture-writing. Chapter XI II.— Phonetic Writ inc. Chapter XIV.— Oonclnaion. — Notea and Author- THE DISEASES OF MEMORY. By Th. Ribot, author of "Heredity,' 1 jliah Psychology," &c. — Translated from the French by J. Fitzgerald, A.M. contents. Chapter L— Memory as a Biol ical Pact. Memory essentially a biological fact, Incident- ally a psychic fact.— Organic memory.— Mod- ifleatlona of nerve-elements ; dynamic associa- j between these elements. — Conscious mem- ory. — Conditions of consciousness: Intensity; duration. — Unconscious cerebration.— Nerve- on is the fundamental condition of memory; Lousness Is only an accessory. — Localiza- tion in the past, or recollection. — Mechanism of tiii< operation. — It i>- not a simple and Instan- taneous act; it consists ol the addition of see- ondary states ol consciousness to the principal insciousness — Memory is a vision in — Localization, theoretical anf re-educa- tion. — Blow and Budden recoveries. — ( !ase of pro- visional memory. — Periodical or intermittent amnesia. — Formation of two memories, totally or partially distinct. — Cases nf hypnotism re- eled by Macnish.Azam, and Dufay. — Progress- ive amnesia. — Its Importance. — Reveals the law which governs the destruction of memory. — Law of regression : enunciation of this law. — In what order memory fails. —Counter-proof : it Is i BtitUted in inverse order. — Confirmatory facts.— < kmgenita] amnesia. — Extraordinary memory of some idiots. Chnpter III.— Partial Amne-ia. Reduction of memory to memories. — Anatomical and physiological reasons for partial men — Amnesia of numbers, names, figures forms, && — Amnesia of signs. — Its nature: a h>v- ,,f motor- memory.— Examination of this point. — I'r ■_ ive amnesia of signs verifies completely the lnw of regression. — Order of dissolution: proper names: common nouns: verba and adjectives; interjections, and language of the emotions: gestures. — Relation between this dissolution and the evolution of the Indo-European languages. — Counter-proof: return of signs in inverse order. Chapter IV. — Exaltation OF MXMORT, OR HYPEHMNESfA. General excitation. — Partial excitation. — Return of lost memories. — Return of forgotten lan- guages. — Reduction of this fad to the law of re- gression. — Case Of false memory. — Examples, anil a BUggeSted explanation. i ihapter v.— < Ionclusion. Relations between the retention of perceptions and nutrition, between the reproduction of rec- ollections and the genera] and local circulation. — Influence of the quantity and quality of the blood — Examples. — The law of regri ssion con- nected with a physiological principle and n psy- chological principle. — Recapitulation. No. 47 THE CHILDHOOD OF RELIGIONS.-Embracing a Simple Account of the Birth and Growth of Myths and Legends.— % Edward CLODD, F.R.A.S., author of "The Childhood of the World," "The Story of COR TEX TS. ■ r I.— Introductory. ' [ends of the Past about the Crea- r in —Creation as told by 8ci< , r i\ — Legends ol the Pasl aboul Mankind ter V.— Early Races of Mankind. [dona. Chapte r VI. — The Aryan, or Indo-European na- ChapterVII. — The Ancient and Modern Hindu Religions. Chapter Vm.—Zoroastrianism, the Ancient Re- ligion of Persia. Chapter EX.— Buddhism. Chapter X.— The Religions of China. Chapter XI.— The Semitic Nations. Chapter XII —Mohammedanism, or Islam. Chapter XIII. — On the Study of the Bible. Published semi-monthly.— $3 a year.— Single numbers. 15 cents. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. No. 48. LIFE IN NATURE.— B . v James Hixtox. author of Place," •"The Mystery of Pain." &e. Man and his Dwelling- cox texts. Chapter I.— Of Function; or. How We Act. Chapter II. — Of Nutrition; or, Why We Grow. Chapter III.— Of Nutrition; The Vital Force. Chapter IV. — Of Living Forms : or. Morphology. Chapter V.— Living Forms.— The Law of Form. ter VI.— Is Life Universal.' Chapter Vn.— The Living World. Chapter VIII. — Nature and Man. Chapter IX. — The Phenomenal and the True. Chapter X. — Force. Chanter XI. — The Organic and the Inorganic. I lapter XII. — The Lite of Man. Chapter XIII. — Conclusion. No. 49. THE SUN: Its Constitution; Its Phenomena; Its Condition.— By NATHAN T. Caur, LL.D.. Judge of the Ninth Judicial Circuit of Indiana. With an Appendix by Richard A. Proctor and M. W. Williams. Section L— Purpose of this Essay.— Difficulties of the Subject. Distance from the Earth to the Sun. The Diameter of the Sun. The Form of the Sun. Rotary Motion of the Sun. Perturbating Movement. The Sun's Orbital Movement. The Sun's Attractive Force. — Den- sity of the Solar Mass. The Sun's Atmosphere. The Chromosphere. Corona. Prominences, and Faculos. The Photosphere. The Sun's Heat. Condition of the Interior. Effects of Heat on Matter. Section H. Section Ill Section IV. Section V. Seetion VI. Section VII. Section VIII. Section IX. Section X. Section XI Section XII Section XIII Section XIV Section XV E X T S. Section XVI- Se<_-tion XVII.- Seetion XVIII.- Seetion XIX- Section XX - Section XXI.- Section XXII- Seetion XXIII.- Section XXIV - Section XXV- Sectiou XXVI- Seetion XXVII.- Section XXVni -The Expansive Power of Heat. -The Sun's Crust. -The Gaseous Theory. -The Vapor Theorv. -The "Cloud-like"" Theory. -Supposed Supports of the Fore- going Theories. -The Crust in a Fluid Condition. -Production of the Sun-Spots. -The Area of Sun-Spots Limited. - Periodicity of the Spots. -The Snots are Cavities in the Sun. - How the Heat of the Sun reaches the Earth. - The Question of the Extinction of the Sun. Appendix.— First.— The .Sun's Corona and his Spots.— By Richard A. Proctor. Second.— The Fuel of the Sun.— Bv Richard A. Proctor. Third.— The Fuel of the Sun.— A Reply, by W. M. Williams. No. 50 and No. 51. I 15 cents Pnf ' h number. MONEY AND THE MECHANISM OF EXCHANGE.- By w. Stanley Jevons, M.A.. F.R.S., Professor of Logic and Political Economy in the Owens College, Manchester, England.— In Two Parts. Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter VII. Chapter VIII. Chapter LX. Chapter X. Chapter XL- Chapter XII. Chapter XIII. Chapter XIV — COXT Barter. Exchange. The Functions of Money. Early History of Money. Qualities of the Material of Money The Metals as Money. Coins. The Principles of Circulation. Systems of Metallic Money. The English System of Metallic Currency. Fractional Currency. The Battle of the Standards. Technical Matters relating to Coinage. International Monev. E X T S. Chapter Chapter Chapter XV. XVI. XVII. Chapter XVIIL- Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter XTX.- XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. Chapter Chapter XXV. XXVI. -The Mechanism of Exchange. -Representative Money. -The Nature and Varieties of Promissory Notes. -Methods of Regulating a Paper Currency. -Credit Documents. [System. -Book Credit and the Banking -The Clearing-House Svstem. -The Check Bank. -Foreign Bills of Exchange. -The Bank of England and the Money Market. -A Tabular Standard of Value. -The Quantity of Money needed bv a Nation. THE DISEASES OF eases of Memorv." &e.- THE WILL.— By Th. Ribot. author of "The Dis- - Translated from the French bv J. Fitzgerald, A.M. C " X T E X T S Chapter I.— Introduction. -The Question Stated. Chapter n.— Impairment of the Will.— Lack of Impulsion. Chapter in.— Impairment of the Will.— Excess of Impulsion. Chapter IV— Impairment of VoluntaryAttention. Chapter V.— The Realm of Caprice. Chapter VI. — Extinction of the Will. Chapter VII. — Conclusion. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place. New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY ANIMAL AUTOMATISM, AND OTHER ESSAYS.- By Thomai ;i •■ : i \. LL.D.. P.E.8. L— On the Hypothesis tlmt Animals, ere • iiit.i. anil its History. II.— Science ami Culture. III.— < Mi Elementary Instruction in Phyiiolog] 00 NT E N T s. IV ■ On tli" Border Territory between tin Animal and the Vegetable Kingdom*. V.— Universities: Aetna] and [deal. I THE BIRTH AND GROWTH OF MYTHS.- By Bdwaed Clodd, F.K.A.s.. author of ••The Childhood of the World." "The Childhood of Re- ligions, H "The story of Creation," fto. I. — Nature as Viewed by Primitive (fan. II. — Penonifleation of the Powers of Nature. III. — The Sun and Moon In Mythology. IV. — The Theories of Certain Comparative Mythologiste. ' V.— Aryan Mythology. VI. — The Primitive Nature-Myth Transformed. VII.— The 8targ in Mythology. VIII. — Myths "f the Destructive Forces of Suture. EX.— The Hiti. In Bun-and-Cloud Myth. X. — Demonology. B M T s. XI. — Metempsychosis and Transformation. X1L — Transformation in the Middle Agi XIII. The Belief in Transformation Universal XIV.— Beast-Fables, XV. — Totemism. XVI — Heraldry: Ancestor-worship. [tives. WII. — Survival of Myth in Historical Narra- XVTH.— Myths 'it Kin^r Arthur anil Llewellyn. XIX — Semitic Myths and In -•• XX. — Conclusion. Appendix.— An American Indian Myth. No. r>5. THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF MORALS, AND OTHER ESSAYS. By William KINGDOM CLIFFORD, F.li.S. I. — On tho Scientific Basis of Morals. II. — Bight and Wrong: th<> Scientific Ground of their Distinction. CONTENTS. III.— The Ethics of Belief. IV.— The Ethics of Religion. and No. 57. [15 cents each number. ILLUSIONS: A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY.- By James silly, author of "Sensation and Intuition." "Pessimism,* 1 &c. — In Two Parts. C O N T E N T S. Chapter L- Chapter ll Chapter III - Chapter IV.- Chapter V.- ■ • r VI.- ■ • i- V 1 1 ■The Study of Illusion •The Classification of Illusions. ■Illusions of Perception: General. -Illusions "f Perception [continued). - Illusions of Perception (continued). ■ Illusions of Perception (continued). • Dreams. Chapter Vm. — Illusions of Introspection. Chapter IX. — Other Quasi-Presentative Illu- sions: Errors of Insight. Chapter X. — Illusions of Memory. Chapter XI.— Illusions of Belief. Chapter SOL— Results. - and N" 58. Two double numbers, 30 cents each. THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY MEANS OF NATURAL SELEC- TION, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. — 1 ; > Charles Darwin, M.a.. F.R.S. — New edition, from the sixth and latest English edition, with additions and corrections. — Two double numbers. -■ :• L — Variation under Domestication. •r II— Variation under Nature. Chapter III. — Struggle for Existence. Chapter IV. — Natural Selection; or, the Sur- vival ot the Fittest. Chapter V.— Laws of Variation. - VL— Difficulties of the Theory. Chapter VII. — Miscellaneous Objections to tho . i.l Natural Selection. Chapter vni .— Instinct. Chapter IX. — Hybridism. CONT KN TS. Chapter X. Chapter XI. Chapter XII. Chapter XIII. Chapter XIV. Chapter XV.- tndex. — Gloss ■ On the Imperfection of the Geo- logical Record. -On the Geological Succession oi Organic Beings. - Geological I >istrribntion. -Geological Distribution (eontin'd). .Mutual Affinities oi Organic Be- bags: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary < hrgans. Recapitulation and Conclusion. rj of Scientific Terms. Published semi-monthly.— $3 a year.— Single numbers, 15 cents. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. No. 60. THE CHILDHOOD OF THE WORLD.-A Simple Account of Man in Early Times.— By Edward Clodd, F.R.A.S., author of ''The Childhood of Religions," ''The Story of Creation, " &e. I.- el- dx- IV.- v.. VI.- vn, VIII.. IX.- X.- XI.- xn.- XIII.- xrv.- xv. XVI.- XVII.- XVIII.- CONTEXTS. Part I. xrx.- Introductorv. XX.- Mau's First Wants. XXI.- Alan's First Tools. xxn.- Fire. xxin. Cooking and Pottery. xxrv. Dwellings. XXV. Use of Metals. XXVI. Man's Great Age on the Earth. XXVII. Mankind as Shepherds, Farmers and XXVIII. Traders. Language. Writing. Counting. XXIX. Man's Wanderings from his first Home. XXX. Man's Progress in all things. XXXI. Decay of Peoples. YTXTT. XXXTTT Part II. xxxrv. Introductorv. XXXV. Man's First Questions. Myths. XXXVI. XXXVII. -Myths about Sun and Moon. -Myths about Eclipses. -Myths about Stars. -Myths about the Earth and Man. -Man's Ideas about the Soul. -Belief in Magic and Witchcraft. -Man's Awe of the Unknown. - Fetish -Worship. -Idolatry. - Xature -Worship. 1. Water -Worship. 2. Tree-Wo'-ship. 3. Animal -Worship. -Polytheism, or Belief in Many Gods. -Dualism, or Belief in Two Gods. - Prayer. - Sacrifice. -Monotheism, or Belief in One God. -Three Stories About Abraham. -Man's Belief in a Future Life. - Sacred Books. -Conclusion. Xo. 61. MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS. — By Richard A. Proctor, B.A. author of "The Sun," ''Other Worlds than Ours," "Saturn," &c. F.R.A.S.. CONTEXTS. I. — Strange Coincidences. II. — Coincidences and Superstitions. TTT. — Gambling Superstitions. IV. — Learning Languages. V. — Strange Sea Creatures. VI. — The Origin of Whales. VII. — Praver and Weather. Xo. 62. [Double number. '.'.O cents. THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD, including Egypt, Assyria and Babylonia, Persia, India, Phoenicia, Etruria, Greece, Rome. — By George Rawlixsox, M.A., Camden Professor of Ancient History, Oxford, and Canon of Canterbury. — Author of "The Origin of Nations," "The Five Great Monarchies," &c. Chapter I. — The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians. Chapter II. — The Religion of the Assyrians and Babylonians. Chapter m. — The Religion of the Ancient Iranians. Chapter IV. — The Religion of the Early Sanskritic Indians. C O X T E X T S. Chapter V. — The Religion of the Phoenicians and Carthaginians. Chapter VI. — The Religion "of the Etruscans. Chanter VII. — The Religion of the Ancient Greeks. Chapter VIII. — The Religion of the Ancient Romans. Concluding Remarks. Xo. 63. PROGRESSIVE MORALITY.-An Essay in Ethics- By Thomas Fowler, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A., President of Corpus Christi College, Wykeham Professor of Logic in the University of Oxford. c o x t e x t s. Chapter I. — Introduction. — The Sanctions of Conduct. Chapter II. — The Moral Sanction or Moral Sentiment. — Its Functions, and the Justification of its Claims to Superiority. Chapter III. — Analysis and Formation of the Moral Sentiment.— Its Education and Improvement. Chanter IV. — The MoralTest and its Justification. Chapter V. — The Practical Application of the Moral Test to Existing Morality. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place, New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY THE DISTRIBUTION OF LIFE, Animal and Vegetable, in Space and Time. I: > Alfred Pallaci and W. T. Thiselton Dybb. CON T E N T s. v > •■ n L— DISTRIBUTION Of Amm.ii.v a] Distribution of Land Anlm tribntton of Animals. ,.t Disperse] of Animal-. • w . ■> spread and Local G-ronps. D. — Barriers which Limit the Distribution i K — '/'.• eions. The P :. idon • thioplan Region. r \i-tr;ili:iii Region. Tin' Neotropical Region. The I . {ion. button of the EUgher Animals during the Tertiary Period. A.— Tertiary Fauna- and their Geographical Rela- tion ins. rthplace and Migrations 01 some Mamma- lian Families and Genera. ition of Marine Animals. Foramlnlfera. Cirrhipedla, Spougida. Mollusca. Acttnosoa. Fishes. Polj Marine Turtles. lodermata. t'.-tacea. Crustacea. General Relal Marine with Ten Zodli Distribution "t Animals In 'l '. 8KCTI0M II. — DlsTKinfTl'iX OrVlOITABL] Tiif. (fOBTHXBM FLORA The Arctic-Alpine Flora. The Intermediate or Temperate Flora. The Mediterraneo-Cauoasian Flora. The 80CTHKRN Flora. The Antarctic-Alpine l'l^ra. The Australian I lura. The Andine Flora. The Mexico-Califomian Flora. The South-African Flora. Thk Tropical Flora. The I mi. . Malayan Tropical Flora. The American Tropical Flora. The African Tropical Flora. CONDITIONS OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT, and Other Essays. By William Kingdon Clifford, P.R.S., late Professor of Applied Mathematics in University College, London. CO N T K N T s. I. — <)n some of the Conditions "f Mental Development. II. — On the Aims and Instruments of Scientific Thought III —A Lecture on Atoms. IV. — The First and the Last Catastrophe. — Aerit- iciam nn some recent speculations about the duration of the universe. So. GC. TECHNICAL EDUCATION, AND OTHER ESSAYS.-By Thomas Henry Huxley. F.R.iS. 1.— T«-i hnical Education II. — Tin- Connection of the Biological S with Medicine. III. — Toseph Priestly. ('((XT l: N T S. IV.— (tn Sensation and the Unity of Structure of Sensiferoua < Organs. V. — On Certain Errors respecting the Structure of the Heart attributed to Aristotle. THE BLACK DEATH: An Account of the Deadly Pestilence of the Fourteenth Century.— By J. F. C. HECKER, M.D.. Professor in the Frederick William University, Berlin; Member of various learned societies in London, Lyons, New York, Philadelphia, &c. — Translated for the Sydenham Society, of London, by B. <;. Babington, M.D., K.R.S. 1 — ( L '-- ■• ■• r II. — The l '■-• - — Spread. C IV— Mortality - ter V.— M01 VI.— Phj ridana. .' B N T S. Appendix, I. — The Ancient Song of the Flagellants. II. — Examination of the Jews accused of Poisoning the Wells. Published semi-monthly. $3 a year.— Single numbers, 15 cents. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. No. 68. Special number, 10 cents. LAWS IN GENERAL, AND THE ORDER OF THEIR DISCOVERY. THE ORIGIN OF ANIMAL WORSHIP.- POLITICAL FETICHISM. Three Essays by Herbert Spencer. No. 69. [Double number, 30 cents. FETICHISM.— A Contribution to Anthropology and the History of Religion.— B . v Fritz Schultze, Dr. Phil.— Translated from the German by J. Fitzgerald, M.A. contents. Chapter I. — Introductory. Chapter II. — The Mind of the Savage in its In- tellectual and Moral Aspects. 1. The Intellect of the Savage. 2. The Morality of the Savage. 3. Conclusion. Chapter III. — The Relation between the Savage Mind and its Object. 1. The Value of Objects. [iects. 2. The Anthropathic Apprehension of Ob- 3. The Causal Connection of Objects. Chapter IT. — Fetichism as a Religion. 1. The Belief in Fetiches. 2. The Range of Fetich Influence. 3. The Religiosity of Fetich Worshipers. 4. Worship and Sacrifice. 5. Fetich Priesthoods. 6. Fetichism among Non-Savages. Chapter V. — The Various Ob j ects of Fetich Wor- 1. Stones as Fetiches. [ship. 2. Mountains as Fetiches. 3. Water as a Fetich. 4. Wind and Fire as Fetiches. 5. Plants as Fetiches. 6. Animals as Fetiches. 7. Men as Fetiches. Chapter VI.— The Highest Grade of Fetichism. 1. The New Object. 2. The Gradual Acquisition of Knowledge. 3. The Worship of the Moon. 4. The Worship of the Stars. 5. The Transition to Sun -Worship. 6. The Worship of the Sun. 7. The Worship of the Heavens. Chapter VH.— The Aim of Fetichism. 1. Retrospect.— 2. The New Problem. No. 70. ESSAYS, SPECULATIVE AND PRACTICAL.— By Herbert Spencer. I. — Specialized Administration. IT. — "The Collective Wisdom." III. — Morals and Moral Sentiments. CONTENTS. IV.— Reasons for Dissenting from the Philosophy of Comte. V.— What is Electricity? ANTHROPOLOGY.— By Daniel Wilson, LL.D., author of "Prehistoric Man." CONTENTS. Chapter I. — Scope of the Science. Chapter II. — Man's Place in Nature. Chapter HI. — Origin of Man. Chapter rV— Races of Mankind. Chapter V.— Antiquity of Man. Chapter VI. — Language. Chapter VH — Development of Civilization. TO WHICH IS ADDED ARCHAEOLOGY. — By E. B. Ttlor, F.R.S., author of "The Early History of Mankind," "Primitive Culture," &c. , No. 72. THE DANCING MANIA OF THE MIDDLE AGES- By J. F. c. Hecker, M.D., Professor in the Frederick William University, Berlin; author of "The Black Death."— Translated by B. G. Babington, M.D., F.R.S. CONTENTS. Chapter I. — The Dancing Mania in Germany and the Netherlands. Sect. 1. — St. John's Dance. Sect. 2. — St. Vitus's Dance. Sect. 3. — Causes. Sect. 4. — More Ancient Dancing Plagnes. Sect. 5. — Physicians. Sect. 6. — Decline and Termination of the Dancing Plague. Chapter n.— The Dancing Mania in Italy. Sect. 1. — Tarantism. Sect. 2. — Most Ancient Traces. — Causes. Sect. 3. — Increase. Sect. 4. — Idiosyncracies. — Music. Sect. 5. — Hysteria. Sect. 6. — Decrease. Chapter III. — The Dancing Mania in Abyssinia. Sect. 1. — Tigretier. Chapter IV. — Sympathy. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place, New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY EVOLUTION IN HISTORY, LANGUAGE, AND SCIENCE. Poor addressee deliyered at the London CrystsJ Palace Behool of Art, Be inn! Literature. Past and Present in the East. A Parallelism demonstrating the principle ■ i ausal Evolution, and the necessity of the study of General History. — By G. G. Zkrffi, D.Ph., Fellow of ti"' Royal Bistorieal Boeiety of London. A Plea for a More Scientific Study of Geography.— By Rev. W. A. B, MA . formerly Exhibitioner of Cains College, Cambridge. ill. Hereditary Tendencies as Exhibited in History,— By Hskry Elliot Mai.im-.n. M.A.. F.k.ll.s.. Trinity Sail, Cambridge. IV. Vicissitudes of the English Language.- J 'y Bev. Eobihsoh Thorntoh, D.D., F.R.H.S., formerly Fellow of Bt. John's College, Oxford. tt (double Dumber). THE DESCENT OF TO SEX.-By Chari vised and Augmented. MAN, AND SELECTION IN RELATION sa Darwin. — With Illustrations. — New Edition, Re- Part I. The Descent OB OBlom Or Man. Cliapter I.— Tin' Evidence of the Descent of Man from some Lower Form. Chapter II. — < in the Manner of Development of Man from some Lower Porm. Chapter III. — Comparison of the Mental Powers of Man and the Lower Animals. ■ c [V. — Comparison of the Mental Powers nf Man ami the Lower Animals i ued). ■ c V.— On the Development of the Intel- lectual and Moral Faculties dur- ing Primeval ami Civilised Times Chapter VI. — < >n the Affinities and Genealogy of Man. Chapter VII— On the Races of Man. CO NT KN TS. Chapter X. — Secondary Sexnal Characters oi insects. XI. — Insects (continued) — Order Lepi- dopteraCbntterfliesand moths) XIL — Secondary Sexual Characl Pishes, Amphibians, and Rep- tiles. XIII.— Secondary Sexual Characters of Birds. " XIV. — Birds (continued). XV. — Birds (continued). XVI. — Birds {concluded). Chapter XVII. — Secondary Sexual Characters of Mammals. Chapter XVIII. — Secondary Sexnal characters of Mammals Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Part III. SSXUAL SxiiXCTTOH IN RELATION TO Man. AMD CONCIiUBIOXr. Chapter XIX. — Secondary Sexual Characters of Man. Cliapter JUL.— Secondary Sexual Characters of Man (continued). [sion. Chapter XXI. — General Summary and Concln- Past II. Sr.xr.u, SKLKCnOlT. Chapter v ill — Principles of Sexnal Selection. • r IX.— Secondary Sexual Character in the Lower classes of the An- imal Kingdom. Numbers 74. 75, 76, are single numbers (15 cents each) ; Number 77 is a double number (30 cents) Price of the entire work 75 cents. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAND IN ENGLAND, with Suggestions for some Improvement in the law. By William Lloyd Birkbeck, M.A.. Master of Downing College, and Downing Professor of the Laws of England in the University of Cambridge. C O X T E Pakt I I. — Anglo-Saxon Agriculture. — Gem ( ieburs. — Villain. EL— Agriculture after the Conquest.— "V I opyholders. — Continental Serfs. III. — < »riL'in "t Large Properties.— Estates of Saxon Nol.Uity. — Evidence of I »omi IV. — The Soke.— Socage Tenure. V. — Agricultural Communities. VI — Mr. Seebohm. 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THE THE MYSTERY OF MATTER: and PHILOSOPHY OF IGNORANCE. •By J. Allanson Picton. ILLUSIONS OF THE SENSES: AND OTHER ESSAYS.-By Richard A. Proctor. I. — Illusions of the Senses. II. — Animals of the Present and the Past. III.— Life in Other Worlds. rV. — Earthquakes. CONTENTS. V. — Our Dual Brain. VI.— A New Star in a Star-Cloud. VII. — Monster Sea-Serpents. VIII.— The Origin of Comets. No. 83. PROFIT-SHARING BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR.-Six Essays. By Sedley Taylor, M.A., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Eng. CONTENTS. Essay I. — Profit-Sharing in the Maison Leclaire. Essay II. — Profit-Sharing in Industry. Essay III. — Profit-Sharing in Industry (continued). Essay IV. — Profit-Sharing in the Paris and Orleans Railway Company. Essay V. — Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. Appendix to Essay V. — Mr. Vande- leur's Irish Experiment. Essay VI. — Profit-Sharing in Distributive Enter- prise. No. 84. STUDIES OF ANIMATED NATURE.- Four Essays, viz., I. Bats.— By W. S. Dallas, F.L.S. II. Dragon- Flies. — By W. S. Dallas, F.L.S. Ill 5 The Glow-worm and other Phosphorescent Animals.— By G. G. Chis- holm, M.A., B.Sc. IV. Minute Organisms. — By Frederick P. Balkwill. tfo. 85. THE ESSENTIAL NATURE OF R ELIG ION.- By j. Allanson Picton, author of "The Mystery of Matter." &e. CONTEXTS I.— Religion and Freedom of Thought. II. — The Evolution of Religion. — Fetichism. III. — Nature -Worship. IV. — Prophetic Religions. V.— Religious Dogma. — The Future of Religion. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place, New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY ■. THE UNSEEN UNIVERSE. - By William Kingdom Clifford, F.B.8 •i .> M iip M i~ ADDSD THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE PURE SCIENCES. By William Kino- dom Clifford, P.B.S. < > N T E N T B . I 9l .- .iii.nt ol ■ II. — k III.— 'I'll.' Postulates <-i the Science "t Space. IV.— The Universal Statementa ••! Arithmetic. THE MORPHINE HABIT I MORPHINOMANIA.-Thn, Lectures by ProfeBsor B. Ball, M.D., <>i' the Paris Faculty of Medicine. N TENTS. I. — Morphinomanla, — General Description, — Effects of the Abase of Morphine. II. — Morphinomania. — Effects ol Abstinence from Morphine. III. — Morphlnomania. — Diagnosis, Prognoi To which is appended four other lectures, viz., I— The Border-Land of Insanity. II.— Cerebral Dualism. m. IV.- Prolonged Dreams. Insanity in Twins. SCIENCE AND CRIME, AND OTHER ESSAYS.- By Andrew Wilson, F.B.S.E. C UN'TEKT S. T. — Tn.- Earliest Known Life-Relic. II. — About Kangai III.— Du (iiants. IV._ Tlie Polity ef a Pond. V. — Skates and Kays. VI. — Leaves. No. 89. THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE. -By Herbert Spencer. TO WHICH IS ADDED THE COMING OF AGE OF "THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES."-By Professor Thomas Henry Huxley, F.R.S. NOTES ON EARTHQUAKES: with Thirteen Miscellaneous Essays. Bv Richard a. Proctor. contents. T. — Notes "ii Earthquakes. II. — Photographing Fifteen Milliou Stars, ill. — The Story of the Moon. IV.— The Earth's Past. V.— The Story of the Karth. VI —The Falls of Niagara. VI! -The Unknowable. VIII.— Sun -Worship. IX. — Herbert Spencer on Priesthoods. X. — The Star of Bethlehem and a Hible Comet. XI. — An Historical Puzzle. XII. — Galileo, Darwin, and the Pope. XIII — Science and Polities. XTV. — Parents and children. N'.. Dl. Double number, 30 cents. THE RISE OF UNIVERSITIES.— By S. 8. Laurie, LL.IX, Professor of the institutes and History of Education in the University of Edinburgh. CONTENTS T —The Romano-Hellenic Schools and their I >. ' - i J 1 1 » - - II.— [nflaence of Christianity on Education. and Rise of Christian Schools. HI.— Charlemagne and the Ninth Century. IV — InnerWork of christian Schools (460-j 100). V. — Tenth and Eleventh Centuries. VI— The Rise of Universities (A I> 11 VII. — Tn • First Universities.— The Schola Baler- nitana and the University of Naples. Till.— The L'uiv.tmh of Polo^na. IX \ XI- XII- XIII- XIV- XV- The University of T'mis. The Constitution of Universities, — The t .rin- "Studium G-enerale" and "Uni- versitas." its their Numbers and Discipline. — Privileges of Universities. — Faculties. Graduation. Oxford and Cambridge. The University ol Prague. University Studies and the Conditions of ( iraduation. Published semi-montlily.— $3 a year. — Single numbers. 15 cents. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. No. 92. Double number. 30 cents. THE FORMATION OF VEGETABLE MOULD THROUGH THE Action of Earthworms, with Observations on their Habits.— By Charles Darwin, LL.D., F.R.S. contents. Chapter I. — Habits of Worms. Chapter II. — Habits of Worms (continued). Chapter III. — The Amount of Fine Earth brought up by Worms to the surface. Chapter TV. — The Part which Worms have played in the Burial of Ancient Build- Chapter V. — The Action of Worms in the Demi dation of the Land. Chapter VI. — The Denudation of the Laud (con- tinued). Chapter VU. — Conclusion. No. 93. SCIENTIFIC METHODS Mount Bleyer, II. D. I. — General Review of the Subject. II. — Death by Hanging. III.— Death by Electricity. IV. — Death by Morphine Injection. Special number, 10 cents. OF CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.-By j. CONTENTS. V. — Death by Chloroform. VI. — Death by Prussic Acid. VII. — Objections Considered. TO WHICH IS ADDED INFLICTION OF THE DEATH PENALTY.-By Park Benjamin. No. 94. THE FACTORS OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION.-By Herbert Spencer. No. 95. THE DISEASES OF PERSONALITY.-By Th. Ribot.— Translated from the French by J. Fitzgerald, M.A. Chapter I. — Introduction. Chapter II. — Organic Disturbance. Chapter III. — Affective Disturbance. CONTENTS. Chapter IV. — Intellective Disturbance. Chapter V. — Dissolution of Personality. Chapter VI. — Conclusion. No. 96. A HALF-CENTURY OF SCIENCE— By Thomas Henry Huxley, F.R.S. TO WHICH IS ADDED THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE from 1836 to I886.-By Grant Allen. THE PLEASURES OF LIFE.— By Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D. Part First. Chapter I. — The Duty of Happiness. Chapter II. — The Happiness of Duty. Chapter III. — A Song of Books. Chapter IV.— The Choice of Books. Chapter V. — The Blessing of Friends. CONTENTS. Chapter VI.— The Value of Time. Chapter VII.— The Pleasures of Travel. Chapter VIII.— The Pleasures of Home. Chapter IX. — Science. Chapter X. — Education. *% Part Second.— For the contents of Part Second see No. Ill of this Catalogue. No. 98. [Special number, 10 cents. COSMIC EMOTION. -Also, THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE.- By William Kingdon Clifford, F.R.S. No. 99] ~ — " NATURE-STUDIES. — Four Essays by various authors, viz., I — Flame.— By Prof. F. R. Eaton Lowe. II* — Birds of Passage.— By Dr. Robert Brown. F.L.S. III — Snow. — By George G. Chisholm. F.R.G.S. IV — Caves.— By James Dallas. F.L.S. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO.. 28 Lafayette Place. New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY SCIENCE AND POETRY, AND OTHER ESSAYS.-By Andrew Wilson, P.B.8.E. I. — Science and Poetry. - A Valedictory Address t<» a Literary Society. H— The Place, Method, and Advantages of Biology in Ordi- nary Education. III.— Science -Culture for the Masses. — An Opening Lecture at a "People's Collegi ." IV— The Law of Likeness, and its Working. No. 101. AESTHETICS. -By James Bully, M.a. COKTKXTs. (A). — Metaphysical Problems. (B).— Scientific Problems. (0).— BDstory of Systems. DREAMS.— By James Sully, M.a. II— (irrm.'in Writers on -Esthetics. IIL— French Writers on -Esthetics. IV. — Italian and I»uteh Writers on Esthetics. V. — English Writers on JSetheties. Tlie Dream us Immediate Objective Experience. The Dream aa a Oommnnication from a Super- natural Keing. Modern Theory of Dreams. CO NTENT8. The Sources of Dream-Materials. The Order of Dream-Corubin.v The Objective Reality and Intensity of Dream- Imaginations. Til WHICH IS ADDED ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS.— Ky p >°f- George Croom Robertson. No. 102. ULTIMATE FINANCE.- A True Theory ot Co-operation.- By William Nelson Black. Part First. •r I. — The Origin of Social Discontent. er II. — Definition of Capital. Chapter 111. — Men not Capitalists beeause not i hreatOTS of Capital. I -r IV. — Soda! Results Considered. I r V. — The Evolution of Finance. Chapter VI. — Every Man his own Householder. C O X T E X T S. Chapter VII— Illustrations from Real Life. Chapter Vm.— Effects of Material Growth. Chapter IX — Objections Answered. Chapter X. — Some Political Reflections. Appendix.— An Act for the Incorporation of Bond Insurant'!- Companies. •. PabT SkOOHD.— For the contents of Part Second see No. 107 of this Catalogue K 1- The Coming Slavery.- - The Sins of Legislators.— :; The Great Political Superstition.— Three Essays by Herbert Spencer. TROPICAL AFRICA.— By Henry Drummond, LL.D., P.E.S.E., L.G.S. COM T ENTS. I. — The Watea the lb-art of Africa. — The Rivers Zambesi and Shire. r II. — The Easl African I.;iko Country. — Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa. er UJ. — The Asj I of the Heart of Africa. ■ ountry and Its People Chapter IV. — Th<- Africa.— Its Pat! Cure. ■ r V.— Wanderings on the Nyassa T yika Plateau. — A Traveler's I >i.'irv. Cliapter VI.— The White Ant.— A Theory. i hapter VII. — Mimicry. — The Ways of African i osects. Chapter VIII— A Geological Sketch. Chapter IX. — A Political Warning. Chapter X— A Meteorological Note. Published semi-monthly. — $3 a year.-- Single numbers. 15 cents. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. No. 105. FREEDOM IN SCIENCE AND TEACHING.- By Ernst Haeckel, Professor in the University of Jena. — With a Prefatory Note by Professor Thomas Henry Huxley, F.R.S. CONTENTS. Chapter I. — Development and Creation. Chapter II.— Certain Proofs of the Doctrine of Descent. Chapter in.— The Sknll Theory and the Ape Theorv. Chapter IV.— The Cell-Soul and the Cellular Psychology. The Genetic and the Dogmatic Methods of Teaching. Chapter V.- Chapter VI. Chapter VII. — Ignorabimus et Restringamur. The Doctrine of Descent and Social Democracy. FORCE AND ENERGY.-A Theory of Dynamics.- By Grant Allen. CONTENTS. Part I. — Abstract or Analytic. Chapter I.— Power. Chapter II.— Force. Chapter III.— Energy. Chapter IV.— The Species of Force. Chapter V.— The Species of Energy. Chapter VI.— The Modes of Energy. Chapter VII. — The Kinds of Kinesis. Chapter VIII.— The Persistence of Force. Chapter IX.— The Conservation of Energy. Chapter Chapter Chapter X.— The Indestructibility of Power. XI.— The Mutual Interference of Forces. XII.— The Suppression of Energies. Chapter XIII. — Liberating Energies. Chapter XIV.— Miscellaneous Illustrations. Chapter XV. — The Dissipation of Energy. Chapter XVI.— The Nature of Energy. Chapter XVII.— The Nature of Motion. Part n.— Concrete or Stnthetic. Chapter I.— Dvnainical Formula of the LTni- Chapter II.— The Sidereal System. [verse. Chapter III.— The Solar System. Chapter rV— The Earth. Chapter V. — Organic Life. Chapter VI.— The Vegetal Organism. Chapter VII.— The Animal Organism. [gies. Chapter VIII.— General View of Mundane Ener- No. 107. ULTIMATE FINANCE.- A True Theory William Nelson Black. Part Second, contents. of Wealth.- By Chapter I.— The Origin of Property. Chapter II.— The Evolution of Wealth. Chapter III.— Banking, and its Relation to Accu- mulation. Chapter IV. — The Relation of Insurance to Accu- mulation. Chapter V.— The Creative and Benevolent Feat- ures of Fortune-Hunting. Chapter VI.— Wealth an Enforced Contributor to the Public Welfare. Chapter VII— The Impairment and Destruction of Property. Part First.— For the contents of Part First see No. 102 of this Catalogue. No. 108 and No. 109. No. 108 is a double number, 30 cents. ENGLISH: PAST AND PRESENT— A Series of Eight Lectures by Richard Chenevix Trench, D.D., Archbishop of Dublin. Lecture I.— The English Vocabulary. Lecture II.— English as it might have been. Lecture III.— Gains of the English Language. Lecture IV.— Gains of the English Language (continued). Lecture V.— Diminutions of the English Lan- guage. CONTENTS. Lecture VI.— Diminutions of the English Lan- guage (continued). Lecture VII.— Changes in the Meaning of English Words. Lecture Vm.— Changes in the Spelling of English Words. Index of Subjects.— Index of Words and Phrases. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place, New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY □umber THE STORY OF CREATION. A Plain Account of Evolution. Bj Edward Clodd, author ol I uildhood of the World," "The I • : Religions," "The Birth and Growth of Myths," Ac, — Eighty Jlluslt c < » N T Chapter 1 --Thk QmvsBSB: 1TB CONTZi •iit. ii. Pone. j Power. b. Bni UBtmoa or Mattbb di Sl'M K. Chapter HI. -Thi Bum ani> I'i.ankts. . ral Peatui t IV .— Thk Past Libb-Histoby o» thi Kakth. Character and Contents of Bocks of i. Primary Epoch. Tertiary Epoch. ndary Epoch. 4. Quaternary Epoch, V.— 1'UKSKNT LlBB-FOBMS. ' mstituents and Unity. A. ' Plants. • rless. '.'. Flowering, nimals. 1, Proti I. Annulosa. . I i lenterata. 5. Mollusca. :;. Echlnodermata. Vertebrata. r VI.— Thk Untvxbsb: Modi ob its Becoming and Gbowth. i [norganic Evolution. .'!. Evolution of tlie 2. Evolution of thi Earth, lax 83 Chapter VII.— Thk Origin of Life. Time. — Place.— Mode. Chapter VIII— Thk < iuh.in Priority of Plant or Animal. Cell-Structure and Development. Chapter IX— Thk Obigik OF 8FBCIB8. Argument : 1. No two individuals of the same spei Bach tends to vary. '.'. Variations are transmitted and th in become permanent. :i. Man takes advantage of these transmitted on- likenesses t" produce new variel Les ■ >) plants Bad animals. 4. More organisms are born than survive. 5. The result Is obvious: a ceaseless struggle for place and food. •j. Natural selection tends to maintain the balance between living things and their surround- ings. These surroundings change ; tl living things must adapt themselves thereto, or perish. Chapter X.— Pboofb 0» thk DERIVATION of 1. Embryology. t. Succession in Time. '_'. Morphology. 5. Distribution i - . : :;. Classification, nuns. Chapter XI.— Social Evolution. 1, Evolution of Mind. 4. Evolution ol Morals. 2. Evolution of Society. 5. Evolution of '.',. Evolution of Language, ogy. Arts, and Science. Summary. No. 111. THE PLEASURES F.B.S., D.C.L., LL.D. ■ r I.— Ambition, ter EL— Wealth. ■ r III- Health. Chapter IV. — Love. Chapter V.— Art. ■ t vi. — Poetry. Chapter VII— Music. OF LIFE.— By sir John Lubbock, Bart.. M.P. Part Second. coxtexts. Chapter Vlil. — The Beauties of Nature. Chapter IX. -The Troubles of Life. • lhapter X. — Labor and K> st Chapter XI. — Religion. Chapter XII— The Hope of Progress. Chapter XIII.— The Destiny of Man. .", Part First. — For the contents of Part First see No. 97 of this Catalogue. No. 11-. PSYCHOLOGY OF ATTENTION.— By Th. Rlbot.— Translated from the French by J. Fitzgerald, M.a. CONTENTS. L— Purpose of this treatise; Btudy of the mechanism of Attention. — Attention defined, r EL— Spontaneous or Natural Attention, its cause always affective states. lis physical manifestations. — Attention simply the subjective side of the manifestations that express it. — origin of Sponta- neous Attention. bi III. — Voluntary >ir Artificial Attention. Bow it is produced, — The three principal periods of Its genesis: < liaj»ter IV Chapter V action of simple feelings, complex feelings, and habits.— Mi of Voluntary Attention. — Atten- tion arts only upon the muscles and through the muscles. — The feeling of effort ,— Morbid States of Attention.— Dis- traction.— 'Hypertrophy of Atten- tion.— Atrophy of Attention. — Attention in idiots. - -Conclusion.— Attention dependent on Affective states. — Physical Condition of Attention Published semi-monthly.- $3 a year.— Single numbers, 15 cents. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. No. 113. Double number, 30 cents. HYPNOTISM: ITS HISTORY AND PRESENT DEVELOPMENT. By Fredrik Bjornstrom, M.D., Head Physician of the Stockholm Hospital, Professor of Psychiatry, late Royal Swedish Medical Councillor. — Authorized Translation from the Second Swedish Edition, by Baron Nils Posse, M.G-., Director of the Boston School of Gymnastics. CONTEXTS. I. — Historical Retrospect. II. — Definition of Hypnotism. — Susceptibility to Hypnotism, ni. — Means" or Methods of Hypnotizing. IV. — Stages or Degrees of Hypnotism. V. — Unilateral Hypnotism. VI. — Physical Effects of Hypnotism. VII.— Psychical Effects of Hypnotism. VIII. — Suggestion. IX. — Hypnotism as a Remedial Agent. X. — Hypnotism as a Means of Education, oi as a Moral Remedy. XL — Hypnotism and the Law. XII. — Misuses and Dangers of Hypnotism. Bibliography of Hypnotism." No. 114. Double number, 30 cents. CHRISTIANITY AND AGNOSTICISM.-A Controversy -Consisting of papers contributed to The Nineteenth Century by Henry Wage, D.D.. Prof. Thomas H. Huxley, The Bishop of Peterborough, W. H. Mallock. Mrs. Humphry Ward. contents. I. — On Agnosticism. — Bv Henry Wace, D.D.. Prebendary of "St. Paul's Cathe- dral : Principal of" King's College. London. II. — Agnosticism — By Professor Thomas H. Hcxley. III.— Agnosticism — a Replv to Prof. Huxley. By Henry Wace, D.'D. IV— Agnosticism By W. C. Magee, D.D., Bishop of Peterborough. V.— Agnosticism — A Rejoinder. — By Prof. Thomas H. Hcxley. VT. — Christianity and Agnosticism. — Bv Heney Wace, D.D. vn. VIII.. IX.- X. XI. -An Explanation to Prof. Hiixlev. — By W. C. Magee. D.D., Bishop of Peter- borough. -The Value of Witness to the Mirac- ulous.— By. Prof. Thomas H. Hcxley. -Agnosticism and Christianity. — By Prof. Thomas H. Huxley. -"Cowardly Agnosticism." — A Word with Prof. Huxley. -By W.H. Mallock. -The New Reformation. — Bv Mrs. Humphry Ward. No. 115 and No. 116. Two double numbers. 30 cents each- DARWINISM: AN EXPOSITION OF THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION, with some of its applications. — By Alfred Russel Wallace, LL.D., P.L.S., &c— With Portrait of the Author, Colored Map, and numerous illustrations. CONTENTS. Chapter I. — What are "Species," and what is meant bv their " Origin." Chapter H.— The Struggle for Existence. Chapter HI.— The Variability of Species in a State of Nature. Chapter IV. — Variation of Domesticated Animals and Cultivated Plants. Chapter V.— Natural Selection by Variation and Survival of the "Fittest. Chamer VT.— Difficulties and Objections. Chapter VII.— On the Infertility of Crosses be- tween Distinct Species, and the usual Sterility of their Hybrid Offspring. Chapter VOL— The Origin and Uses of Color in Animals. Chapter LX. — Warning Coloration and Mimicry. Chapter X. — Colors and Ornaments character- istic of Sex. Chapter XL— The Special Colors of Plants.— Their Origin and Purpose. Chapter XII.— The Geographical Distribution of Organisms. Chapter XIIL— The Geological Evidences of Evo- lution. Chapter XIV.— Fundamental Problems in Rela- tion to Variation and Heredity. Chapter XV. — Darwinism applied to Man. A * ^'v PJf 8611 ^ ^ork treats the problem of the Origin of Species on the same general lines as were adopted I >y Darwin: but from the standpoint reached after nearly thirty years ol discussion with an abundance of new facts and the advocacy of many new or old theories. While not attempting to deal, even in outline, with the vast subject of evolution in general, an endeavor has been made to give such an account of the theory of Natural Selection as may enato intelligent reader to obtain a clear conception of Darwin's work, and to understand something of the power and range of his great principle— Extract from the Preface. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place, New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY S'.. ii7. 'i kmbla Dumber, :t<> MODERN SCIENCE AND MODERN THOUGHT. A Clear and Concise View of the Principal Results of Modern Science, and of the Revolution which they have effected in Modern Thought. By B. Laiko. Part I. MODERN BCIENCB. O N T I : I rotes L— Space leM Nnturnl StninUriU-Dlmrnsloiia of the Earth— Of Son and 8olar System— Distanci • rrdi r mi, I Sir.- Nebula mi,l Other I'nin I the lniinii.lv Great The Microscope and the Uniformity of Leu Lew of Gravity Acta tbrougl I Meteors— 11m Chapter II— Time. Gcologi Btrattficatlon Denudation Btrata - iperpoeition I ■ . - l ■ Dglca B I ■hown b) l pturned Btrata General Beault— Pslaeosoii and Primer] Seconder) rertiarj rime required t'oal Formation 'hulk Elevations and Depreadona of Land i ol the Knrth Earthquake! »n.l Volcanoes >a and Flora— Aatronomlcal Time— Tides and the Moo Bun - Radiation Barth't Cooling— Geology and Bearing! on Modern Thought Chapter III.— Matter. r i,n,i Seal Matter and its Elements Bpectroacope Uniformity of Matter throughout the Universe Force nmi Motion Conservation triclty, Magnetism, nnii Chemical Action— Dissipation . i He al Birth and Death of Worlds. Chapter IV.— lite. Ess. : mplest form. Protoplasm — Monem and Animal and vegetable Lif< Spontaneous Genera tinn — Dei ol Species from Primitive Cella Super- natural Theory Zoological Province! Separate Creations Law or Miracle Darwinian Theor] Btruggle for Life Bui rival of thi I -mi. I Dei , it and Design Hie Hand Proof required to eatabllah Darwin's Theory an h Law Bpei i 1 1 Hybrids Mansubject to Lau NTS. Chapter V. — Antiqnlty of Man. ■ - . r..\. riea ' kmfirmi .1 b) It. stw Cure of In i .its. s< rapi r«. and Flakea Human *—>'■" In Bivi Great Antiquity Implements from Drill al Bonn i Bone.f Modern Thought exemplified by Carlyle, Kenan, mnl George BUol as universal Attitude of Orthodox writers— Cause nnknowahh — New Philosophies Herbert Bpencer ami Agnosticism Comte i Ism M.-rnionism — Spiritualism — Dreams and Visions— Soiiinamhiiham — Mesmerism Great Thinkers — Carlyle— Hero-worship, ( ihaptex V 1 1 1 . — M i nicies. Origin of Belief in the Supernatural- Thunder Belief In Mirarl'f fi rn i rlj Universal Bt Paul's Testimony Now In- ractes Apparent Miracles -Beal Mir- aVl.n— Worthy Miracles The Resurrection and Ascension Nature ol Bvldeno required Ins,, l he Gospi Is Wnal is Rn. .. I ill.' Synoptii Gospels Bes lances i ces— Their Origin Papis '• itthi a Mark, ami Luki ired with one i ther ami with Bt John Hopelei acle of the Ascension Silenci of Mark— Probable Earl) Dab Bui not In their SUPPLEMENTAL Ohaptxb. -Gladstone's "Dawn of Creation" and "Proem to Genesis."— Drum- Natural Law iii the Spiritual VVorld." Publisliecl semi-montlily.— $3 a year.— Single numbers, 15 cents. Chapter X.— Practical Life. Conscience Eight is Bight Self-reverence i oarage — Beapectablllty— Influence ,.f Press Respect for wo Self-respect of Nations— Democracy ami [mperiausn knowledge Conceit— Lnck — Speculation Hone] mal Practical Alms of Life Self-control Conflict ol Bes Instinct Temper Manners il Is in Youth— Suc- cess in Practical Life— Education— Stoicism— Conclusion. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. THE ELECTRIC LIGHT.- How the Electric Current is Produced. How the Electric Current is made to yield the Electric Light. By Gerald Molloy, D.D., D.Sc, Fellow of the Royal University.— With numerous illustrations. CONTENTS. I.— How the Electric Current is Produced. First Discovery of Induced Currents— Faraday's Exper- iments described and repeated— First machines lounded on Faraday's discovery — Pixii. Saxton. Clarke — New torm ot Armature invented by Siemens— Machines of the Alliance Company in France and of Holmes in England — Wilde's machine— A new principle discovered — Ladd's machine— The machines of Gramme and Siemena— Ideal ske eton of liramme's machine— The principle of its action explained— Details of construction— The Volta Prize awarded to Gramme for his invention— The machine of Siemens, how it differs from that of Gramme— Most other machines constructed on one or other of these two types— The dynamo does not create energy, but converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. II.— How the Electric Current is made to yield the Electric Light. Simplest form of Electric Light— Principle of the Electric Liglit— Sir Humphry Davy's experiment— 1 wo types of Elec- tric Light— The Arc Liglit— Duboscq's Lamp— New forma of ArcLamp— The. Jabloehkort Candle— The Incandescent Liglit —Platinum Spiral— Why Carbon is preferred to Platinum - A perfect vacuum— Elements of Incandescent Lamp— Prep- aration of the filament— Edison's process— Swan's process- Carbonization of the filament— Exhaustion of the glass glooe — Light without heat— The Arc Light and the Incandescent Light compared— Comparison with other kinds of light— How far the Electric Light is now available for use— Transforma- tions of Energy illustrated by the Electric Light. THE STORING Progress and same author. TO WHICH IS ADDED OF ELECTRICAL Development of the With numerous illustrations. ENERGY.-The Recent Storage Battery— By the CONTENTS. A "marvelous box of electricity"— What is meant by the storing of energy— Examples of energy stored up— A sus- pended weight— A watchspring wound up— A stretched cross- bow—A flywheel— Energy stored up in clouds and rivers- Energy stored up in a coal-mine— Energy stored up in sep- arated gases— Storing of electrical energy not a new idea— Energy stored up in a Leyden jar— In a thunder-cloud— In a voltaic battery— Principle of the storage battery— Experiment showing production of secondary current— Gradual develop- ment of the principle— Eitter's secondary pile— Grove's gas- battery— Experiments of Gaston Plante— The Plante second- ary cell— Faure's improvement— What a storage battery can do — Practical illustrations— Convenience of the storage bat- tery for the production of the electric light— The storage bat- tery as a motive power— Application of the storage battery to tram-cars and private carriages— The storage battery on its triaL RECENT PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE STORAGE BATTERY. Unexpected difficulties— Modifications of the Faure cell- Internal resistance diminished— New mode of preparing the plates— An alloy substituted for pure lead— The paste of lead oxide— Improved method of maintaining insulation of the plates— Newest form of cell— Buckling of the plates— The available energy of a cell— Kate at which the energy can be drawn off— Application to tram-cars and to electric lighting. THE MODERN THEORY OF HEAT, as Illustrated by the Phe- nomena of the Latent Heat of Liquids and of Vapors.— By Gerald Molloy, D.D., D.Sc., Fellow of the lioyal University.— With nu- merous illustrations. CONTENTS I. — The Latent Heat of Liquids. Modern theory of heat— Heat a form of Energy— Familiar illustrations — Count Kuraford's experiment — Argument founded on the experiment— Heat produced by expenditure of Electrical Energy— Latent Heat— Black's experiments- Heat disappears when ice is melted— Explanation of this fact according to the old theory— Explanation offered by tie- him] erntheorv — Latent Heat varies for different liquids— Freezing mixtures— Heat developed when a liquid becomes solid- Water heated in freezing— Experiment with solution of sul- phate of soda— Latent Heat in the economy of Nature. II.— The Latent Heat of Vapors. neat expended when water is boiled— This fact considered hi the light of the modern theory— Method of measuring the quantity of heat so expended— Heat developed when steam is condensed -Experimental illustration— Heating of buildings by steam— Heat expended in evaporation— Various illustra- tions— Cold produced by evaporation of ether— Water frozen by evaporation— Leslie's" experiment— Cri ire's apparatus— Pro- duction of solid carbonic acid— Freezing of mercury— Latent Heat of clouds— Effect in the economy of Nature— Summary. TO WHICH IS ADDED THE SUN AS A STOREHOUSE OF ENERGY.- Immensity of the Sun's Energy- Source of the Sun's Energy- By the same author. — With numerous illustrations. CO NT I.— Immensity of the Sun's Energy. Nearly all the energy available to man is derived from the sun —Water-power— "vt ind-power — Steam-power — Muscular power— Electrical power— Tidal power an exception— Energy of the tides derived from rotation of the earth on its axis- Only a small fraction of the energy which the earth derives from the sun is used by man — And the energy which the earth receives is only a small fraction of what the sun sends forth— Measurement of energy sent ont by the sun— Exper- iments of I'ouillet and Herschel — Apparatus employed — Metl I' adjustment— Observations made— Corrections- Practical estimate of the energy sent out by the sun— What a wonderful storehouse of energy the sun must be— How is this storehouse supplied' ENTS. II.— Source of the Sun's Energy. The sun is not a great fire -Such a fire would be choked by the products of combustion— And besides it would be burned .nit in coarse of time— Difference between incandescence and combustion— Practical illustrations— How the sun is main- tained in a state "t" Incandescence— Theory of Sir William Thomson— Meteors or Falling Stars- Heat develop such bodies lull into the sun- Illustration from a bullet strik ing a target— This theory now abandoned— Theory of Helm- holtz— Heat of the sun produced bj compression of his mass Beat lost by radiation is restored bj further compression— This theory probable and sufficient- I Nebular Hypothesis'— The past energy of the sun— Summary. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place. New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY UTILITARIANISM. S '-| Mill, author of "A System ■ "Principles ol Political Economy," "On Liberty," &c. I I. N T ; ■■ r I! .- What Utilitarianism • r ill.— Of i tion of the I'm. iity. Chapter IV.— Of what sorl of I uciple of i tility la raaeepl I Chapter V.— Of the Connection bet* and Utility. • No. 122 It able Dumb 30 UPON THE ORIGIN OF ALPINE AND ITALIAN LAKES; AND UPON GLACIAL EROSION. By Sir A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S., Pre« gical Society.- John Ball, M.B.I.A., F.L.S.,&c— Sir Roderick I. Murchtson, F.R.S., D.C.L., President of the Royal Geographical Society.— Prof. B. Sttjder, of Berne.— Prof. A. Favre, of Geneva. — Edward Why.-: With an Introduction and Notes upon the i hrigis and History of the On North America, by Prof. J. W. Spencer, State Geologist of Georgia. CO NT E N T s. introduction, wil on the Origin and History of the ■ • North America. — Ph.D F.G.8 31 logist irgia I. — On the < ; 1 ; i ■ - i .• 1 1 Origin oi Certain Lakes in erland the Black Forest, Great Britain, . North America and Elsewhere. — By Sir A C. Ramsay, F.K.s.. Presidenl of the Geological - II.— <>n the Fori Upine Valleys and Lakes. — By John Ball, M. R.I. A., - &c. III. — Glaciers "i' the Himalayan Mountains and | /• aland compared with those of Europe.— On the Powers of Glaciers in Modifying tliu Sur- face of the Earth, and In the ngency of F Icebergs. — By sir RODERICK I. Muai K < Mi. [m|.. y R g., Sec IV.— (in the Origin of the Swiss Lakes.— By Prof. Ii. Studkr, of Berne. V. — i>ii the Origin ,,(• the Alpine Laki Valleys, a letter addressed to sir Sodxrii k I. Murchison, K C.B l' i ' L. &c, by M. Alphonsk Favre, Professor of Geology in the Academy of Geneva, author of the Geological Map of Savoy. VI. — The Ancient Glaciers of Aosta. — By ED- W ARD WhYMPSR. VII. — Glacial Erosion in Norway and in High Latitudes.— By Professor J. W. Spe* F.G.S State I h oli -•:-• oi Gh "rtda. No. 124. THE QUINTESSENCE OF SOCIALISM- By Dr. A. ScBA^OTJS.-Trans- lated from the eighth German edition under the supervision of Bernard Bosan- qxjet. M.A., formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. CONTENTS. ter I.— First Outlines or mas Funda- mental Idea or Socialism. Chanter II. — The MEANS OF AGITATION. The Socialistic criticism of capital. — Pn 'appropriation of surplus value." — Property as • Interpretations "f these allegations —Ultimate buying-out of the modern ats. UX— Proposed Transformation of thk several Fundamental [nstitutionb or Modern National Economy. rminationof demand.— Freedom of demand i hrganization of labor and capital Into a system of collective production.— False interpretations re- futed. — The doctrine of value as depending on abor-cosl useless for a practical organiza- tion of labor and capital. Chapter rv.— Transformation or Institu- tions (continued). Abolition of nil loan-capital, of credit of lease, and of ih" exchange. • r V. — Transformation or Institv- tiiins (continued). Abolition of 1 market for them, and of the system of advertise- menl and of display of wares. Chapter VI. — Transformation of Institu- tions [continued.) Abolition of metallic money as the mt-ilhmi of exchange, and its replacement as "standard of value" by units of "social labor-timi money"). The value-estimate of tb - Stale compared with the present market-price. Chapter VIL — Transformation or Institu- tions [continued.) The Socialistic determination of value in ex- change, and freedom of labor in the Socialistic State. • banter VTU. — TRANSFORMATION <>V INSTITU- TIONS !'•' ntinued). Income, anil the use ol income in the formation of property, and In consumption — Private prop- erty and the law affecting it. — Family lit',- and marriage. — Savings-hanks and Insurance - Expenditure on charitable, humanitarian, religious, and other ideal pun i hapter l.\— < Ionclusion. Summary of cri1 Published semi-montnly. $3 a year.— Single numbers. 15 cents. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. No. 125. DARWINISM AND POLITICS.— By David G. Ritchie, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Jesus College, Oxford. CONTENTS. Huxley and Strauss. — Ambiguity of Conscious "Variations." Nature."— "The Struggle for Existence "in Malthus and Darwin. — How the idea is applied to politics. — Is the struggle "beneficent"? The Evolution Theory as applied to Human So- ciety by Darwin, Strauss, Spencer, Maine, Clodd. Ambiguity of the phrase •Survival of the Fit- test." — Complexity of Social Evolution. Does the Doctrine of Heredity support Aristoc- racy ? Does the Evolution Theory justify Laissez faire ? Struggle between ideas for survival. — Conscious- ness as a factor in Evolution. — Testimony of Prof. TO WHICH IS ADDED ADMINISTRATIVE NIHILISM.-By Prof. Thomas Henry Huxley, F.R.S. Why fix ideas in institutions? — Custom: its use and abuse. — Institutions and "the social factor" generally are neglected in the popular acceptation of the doctrine of Heredity. — Mr. Galton's views considered. — Darwin's own opinion. Are the Biological Formula? adequate to express Social Evolution ? Applications— (1) The Labor Question. — (2) The Position of Women. — (3) The Population Question. No. 126 and No. 127. [Two double numbers, 30 cents each. PHYSIOGNOMY AND EXPRESSION -By Paolo Mantegazza, Senator; Director of the National Museum of Anthropology, Florence ; President of the Italian Society of Anthropology. Part I.- contents. •The Human Countenance. Chapter I. — Historical Sketch of the Science of Physiognomy and of Human Expression. Chapter II. — The Human Face. Chapter III. — The Features of the Human Face. Chapter IV.— The Hair and the Beard. Wrinkles. •Moles. Chapter V. — Comparative Morphology of the Human Face. Part II.— The Expression op Emotions. Chapter VI. — The Alphabet of Expression. Chapter VII. — The Darwinian Laws of Expression Chapter VIII. — Classification of Expressions. — General View of all Phenomena of Expression. Chapter IX. — The Expression of Pleasure. Chapter X. — The Expression of Pain. Chapter XI. — Expression of Love and of Benev- olence. Chapter XII. — Expression of Devotiou. of Ven- eration, and of Religious Feeling. Chapter XIII. — Expression of Hatred, of Cruelty, and of Passion. Chapter XIV. — The Expression of Pride, Vanity, Haughtiness, Modesty, and Hu- miliation. Chapter XV. — Expression of Personal Feelings. Fear, Distrust. — Desci'iptinn of Timidity, according to the old Physiognomists. Chapter XVI.— The Expression of Thought. Chapter XVII. — General Expressions. — Repose and Action, Disquietude. Im- patience, Expectation, Desire. Chapter XVIII.— Racial and Professional Ex- pression. Chapter XIX. — The Moderators and Disturbers of Expression. Chapter XX. — Criteria for the Determination of the Strength of an Emotion by the degree of the Expression Chapter XXI. — The Five Verdicts on the Human Face. Chapter XXII. — Criteria forjudging the Moral Worth of a Physiognomy. Chapter XXIII. — Criteria for Judging the Intel- lectual Value of a Face. Chapter XXTV. — The Physiognomy of Gestures and the Expression of Clothes. Appendix.— The Eyes, Hair, and Beard, in the Italian Races. This work, by Professor Mantegazza, a brilliant and versatile author, and the leading Italian anthro- pologist, has already been translated into several European languages. Professor Mantegazza, whose name is well known to readers of Darwin, has cooperated in the present English edition of his work by writing a new chapter specially for it. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place, New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY .1 \. Two double num ■ 80 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY IN ENGLAND. PopnUr Addresses, Notes, and other Frag- By the late Arnold Toykbu, Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. — Together with s Bhort memoir by B. Jowstt, Master of Balliol I izford. OONT EM T s. Ricabdo and tiik Old Political Economy. The change thai bu come over Political Econ- omy.— EUcardo responsible for the form of thai la great Inflaence.— The ■sumptions of his treatise. — EUcardo i.t of tin- nature of bla own method. — Malthus's protest. — Limitations of EUcardo Trine recognised by Mill and Senior.— Observation iraged by the Deductive Method.— The effect Labor Movement on Economies. — afodiflca- t the Sdei byrecenl writers.— The new i of < nomic investigation. II. The philosophic aesumptions of Ricardo.— They nr<. derived from Adam smith. — The worship of individual liberty. — It involves fre e dom of com petition and removal of Industrial restrict! The flaw in tins theory. — It is confirmed by the doctru f the Identity of individual and social ts.— Criticism of this doctrine.— The idea nt" Invariable law. — True nature of eco nom ic laws. Laws and Precepts.— The great charge brought against Political Economy, — Its truth and its falsehood. Tiik [NDUBTRIAL RXVOLI TIOK. L— Introductory. LL— England In 1760.- HL— England in 1760.- rv.— England In, 1760.- V. — England in 1760.- Yeomanry. VI. — England in 1760.— The Condition of the Wage-earners. -Population. •Agriculture. [Trade. -Manufactures and -The Decay of the VII. — The Mercantile System and Adam Smith. VIII. — The Chief Features «,f the Revolution. IX. — The Growth of Pauperism, X. — Malthus and the Law of Population. XL— The Wage- fund Theory. XII. — Ricardo and the Growth of Rent. XIII. — Two Theories oi Economic Progi XIV. — The Future of the Working Classes. Popular Addresses. 1. Wage8 and Natural Law. 2. Industry and Democracy. .':. Are Radicals Socialist The Education of Co-operators. The Ideal Relation of Church and Si Notes and Jottings. No. 130 and Xn. 131. [Two double numbers, :*0 cents each. THE ORIGIN OF THE ARYANS.--^ A ant of the Prehistoric Ethnology and Civilization of Europe.— By Isaac Taylor, M.A., Litt. D., Bon. LL.D. — Illustrated. CONTENTS. i.ter I. — The Aryan Controversy. Chapter II. — The Prehistoric Races of Europe. Neolithic Age i. The Celts. Methods of An- 5. The Iberians, thropology. 6. The Scandinavians. Britain. 7. The Ligurians. pter III. — The Neolithic Culture. 1. The Continuity of De- 7. Dress. )-. Hal. nations. Q. The Boat :. Weapons. 10. The Ox-Wagon. 1. Catl 11. Trades. 5, Husbandry. 12, Soda] Life, ,; . Pood. 13. Relative Progress. Chapter IV. — The Aryan Ri 1. The Permaneni i Ri 2, The Mutability of Language. :'.. The Finnie Hypothi 4. The Basques. 5. The Northern Races. Chapter V.— The Evolution of Aryan Speech. l. The Aryan Languages. -. Dialect and Lang .;. The Lost Aryan Lang i •I. The Wave-Theory. 5. Language and Race. Aryan Speech. ' ipter VI.— The Aryan Mythology. The la~t ten years have seen a revolution in the opinion of scholars as to the region in which the Aryan race originated, and theories which not long ago were universally accepted as the well- established conclusions of science now hardly find a defender. The theory of migration from Asia '. by a new- theory of origin in Northern Europe In Germany several works have ; to the subject; but this is the first English work which has yet appeared embodying the itly arrived at by philologists, archaeologists, and anthropologists. This volume affords a fresh and lug of the present state ol speculation on a highly interest!] g subject. Published semi-monthly.— $3 a year.— Single numbers, 15 cents. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. \"o 13° and \"o 133. [Two double numbers, 30 cents ea«h. THE EVOLUTION OF SEX.— By Prof - Patrick Geddes and J. Arthur Thomson.— With 104 illustrations. Chapter Chanter CONTEXTS. Book I.— Male and Female. I.— The Sexes and Sexual Selection II. -The Sexes, and Criticism of Sexual Selection. Chapter III.— The Determination of Sex (Hy- potheses and Observations. Chapter IV.— The Determination of Sex (Con- structive Treatment). Book II.— Analysis op Sex.— Organs, Tissues. Cells. Chapter VIII.— The Egg-cell or Ovum. Chapter IX.— The Male-cell or Sperm. Chapter X.— Theory of Sex: Its Nature and Origin. Chapter V.— Sexual Organs and Tissues. Chapter VI. — Hermaphroditism. Chapter VII.— The Sex-elements (General and Historical. Book III Chapter XI.— Sexual Reproduction. Chapter XII.— Theory of Fertilization. Chapter XIII.— Degenerate Sexual Reproduction or Parthenogenesis. Processes op Reproduction. Chapter XIV.— Asexual Reproduction. Chapter XV.— Alternation of Generations. Book IV.— Theory op Reproduction. Chapter XVI.— Growth and Reproduction. Chapter XVII.— Theory of Reproduction {con- tinued). Chapter XYIIL— Special Physiology of Sex and Reproduction. Chapter XLX.— Psychological and Ethical As- pects. Chapter XX.— Laws of Multiplication. Chapter XXL— The Reproductive Factor in Evolution. A. work which for range and grace, masters- of material, originality, and incisiveness of style and treatment, is not readily to be matched in the "long list of books designed more or less to popularize science. — Scottish Leader. A model of scientific exposition.— Scotsman. __ y j^ [Double number. 30 cents. THE LAW OF PRIVATE Rl GHT.- By George h. Smith, author of "Elements of Right, and of the Law.*' and of Essays on "The Certainty of the Law, and the Uncertainty of Judicial Decisions." "The True Method of Legal Education." &c, &c. contents. Introduction. I.— Explanation of the Design and Scope of the Work. EI.— Of the Definition of the Law. III.— Of the Division of the Law. Part I. Of the Nature of the Law of Private Right. Chapter I. Analytical Outline of the Law of Private Right. Chapter II. Of the Nature of Right, and of the Law of Private Right, and their "Relation to Each Other. Part II. Of the Law of Private Right as Histor- ically Developed. Chapter I. Of the Historical Development of Jurisdiction. Chapter II. Historical Development of the Law (as opposed to Equitv). Chapter HI. Historical Development of Equity. Part III. Of the Nature and of the Method and Principles of Right. Chapter I. Definition of Rights. Chapter II. The Same Subject Continued, and herein, of the Standard of Right and Wrong. Chapter HI. Of the Method and First Principles of Right. Chapter IV. Of the Limit to the Liberty of the Individual. Imposed by the Rights of the State. Chapter V. Natural Rights Demonstrated from the Above Principles. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO.. 28 Lafayette Place. New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY CAPITAL: A Critical Analysis of Capitalist Production.- By K ai;i. Marx.— Translated from t J » « - third German edition bj Savuxl Moore an. I Edward Avslxng, and edited l>y Fbbdsbicb Bnoelb. — Ttu Edition. — Carefully i>< vis< -/. Part I. COMMODITIES \M» MONET. ! — t lommodlt Elementary • .; Form • •; • rota] or Expanded Form ..t \ i m of Value Money Porm. II.— ExcJ Chapter ill -Money, or the Circulation ol modifies. l. 'I of Values. 2 'I'll.- Medium of < Irculation :;. Money: hoarding, meant of payment, uni- renal money. Part II. iiii i i: \\>i 'OEM \ I K»n OF MONEY INTO CAPITA!.. Chapter IV.— The Genera] Formula for OapitaL • r v.— i kmtradlctiona in the General Form- ula of Capital. Chapter VI— The Buying and .Selling of Labor- power. Part III. THE PRODUCTION <>K ABSOLUTE SlKl'I.I S VAI.I E. r VII. — The Labor-procesa and the Process of Producing Surplus Value. Chapter v 111 Constant Capital and Variable ( lapitaL Chapter EX.— The Kate of Surplus Value. Chapter X— Th>- Working Day Chapter XI. — Rate and Mass of Surplus Value. Part IV. THE PRODUCTION* OP RELATIVE SURPLUS V.M.I E. r XII.— The Concept of Relative Surplus Value. r XIII. — Cooperation. Chapter XIV.— Division of Labor and Manufac- ture. Chapter XV.— Machinery and Modern Industry. Part V. THE PRODUCTION* OF ABSOLUTE AND OF RELATIVE SURPLUS VALUE. Chapter XVIII— Various Formula? for the Rate <*hapter XVI. — Absolute and Relative Surplus Value. Chapter X.V 11.— Changes <>f Magnitude in the price of Labor-power and in Surplus Value. of Surplus Value. Pakt VI. WAGES. I bapter XIX— The Transformation of the Value (and respectively the Price) of Labor- power into Wages. Chapter XX— Time-wages. Chapter XXI. — Piece-wages. Chapter XXII.— National Differences of Wages. Part VII. THE ACCUMULATION OF CAPITAL. iter XXIII — Simple Reproduction. •r X-XJ.V.— Conversion of Surplus Value into < lapitaL Chapter XXV.— The General Law of Capitalist Accumulation. Pakt VIII. Till: ><>-< AI.I.I.I) PRIMITIVE ACCUMULATION*. chapter XX VI.— The Secret of Primitive Accn- m nlatjqn r XXVn.— Expropriation of the Agricul- tural Population from the Land r XXVIII.— Bloody Legislation against the -. print.-. 1 from the End Of the l"ih iry. Forcing down of Waget by Acta of Paruan t XXIX — Genesis oi the Capitalist Farmer. Chapter XXX.— Reaction of the Agricultural Revolution on Industry. Creation of the Horn,- Market for Industrial Capital Chapter XXXI.— Genesis of the Industrial Cap- italist. ter XXXII. — Historical Tendency of Cap- it:ili• thk [NQCTBT. ^i-t jiCl LB) AMD ABGUM I ' i • • miituMi of the Jaws. Diminished Biting Muscles <.t Lapdogs. led Teeth. Blind Cave < frabs. i oncomltant Variation from Oonoomitanl I '!-■ The Giraffe, and Necessity for Oonoomitanl Variation. Alleged Ruinoui Natural Si-l.wtic.ii. . • -e < Jase of Neuter Insects, ties. Lack of Evidence. Inherited Epilepsy in Guinea-pigs. Inherited insanity and Nervous Disorders. individual and Transmissible Type not Mod- ified Alike. llAKWIN s BXAMPLSS. Reduced Wings of Birds of Oceanic Islands. Drooping Ban and Deteriorated instincts. Win;;- ami Legs of Pucks ami Fowl-. Pigeon's Wings. Shortened Breastbone in Pigeons. Shortened Peel in Pigeons. Shortened Legs of Babbits. Blind Cave-Animals. Inherited Habits. Tamenesa of Rabbits. [tion. Modifications < >ln lously Attributable to Relec- Similar Effects oi Natural Selecti< i ie Inheritance, inferiority of Senses in Euro] Short-slghi in Watchmakei Larger Hands in Laborers' Infants. Thickened Sole in in! \ Source ol Mental Oonfu Weaki e Inheritance. '•.in Kill D 1 viriilKS. [nherited Mutilations. The Motmol i Tali Other Inherited Injuries Mentioned by Di Quasi-Inheritance. MlBCXLIiAKIOOS COKSTOKBATIi True Relation of Parents ami Offspring. ■ rse [nheritanoe. >• Origin of the Ova, Marked Effects of Use and Disuse on the individual. [ancel Would Natural Selection Pavor Cse-Inherit- Use-Inheritance an EviL Varied Effects of Use and Disuse. Use-Inheritance Implies Pangenesis. Pangenesis Improbable. Spencer's Kxi>lanation of Use-Inheritance. CONCLUSIONS. Use-Inheritance Discredited as Unnecesi Unproven, and Improbable. Modern Reliance on Use-Inheritance Mis- placed. 142 and No. 143. Two double numbers, 30 cents each. A VINDICATION OF THE RlGHTS OF WOMAN— With Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects. — By Mart Wollstonecbapt. — New Edition, with mi Introduction by Mrs. Henry Pawcett. O N T E N T Chapter I. — The Rights and Involved Imties of Mankind Considered. Chapter H. — The Prevailing Opinion of a Sexual Character Discussed. Chapter HI.— The Same Subject Continued. Chapter IV.— Observations on the State of I>eg radation to which Woman is Reduced by Va rimi- ( Ian • Chapter V. — Anlmadverslona on Some of the Writers who have Rendered Women Objects of Pity, bordering on Contempt. Chapter VL— The Effect which an Early Asso elation of Ideas has upon the Character. Chapter VII.— Modesty. — Comprehensively Con- red, and not as n Sexual Virtue. I banter Vm. — Morality Undermined by > Notions of the Importance of a I union. Chapter TX. — Of the Pernicious Effects which arise from the Unnatural Distinct 1 In Society. Chapter X. — Parental Affection Chapter XI. — Duty to Parents. Chapter XII. — On National Edncal Chapter XI II. — Some Instances of the Folly which the Ignorance of Women generates; with 1 eluding Reflections on the Moral Improv< that a Revolution in Female Mai I naturally be expected to produce. This edition is a reprinl of the firs! edition, which appeared nearly one hundred years ago. Women at the I "i-« ■ -« 1 1 1 lime ami Women a llim.li.d Year- A-n. ■!,:,■ 1),, conditions ' ' to confront m those old timet; out ih- degradation was very real, and the protest against it woe aery much needed, Mre. Fat introduet found highly Interesting and helpful.- New York Tribune. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place, New York LIST OF BOUND BOOKS THE HUMBOLDT ^LIBRARY SERIES. The prices here given include postage, or expros charges, to any country in the Postal Union. Complete sets of The Humboldt Library, from No. 1 to No. 139, can be obtained uniform in size, style of binding, &e. 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A CATALOGUE RAISONNE, Containing all the works in THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY, up to and including No. 138, CROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR SUBJECT-MATTER, for the convenience of those who desire to become familiar with the results of scientific inquiry in any of the following departments:— ASTRONOMY. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. 14.— THE WONDERS OF THE HEAVENS. 20.— THE ROMANCE OF ASTRONOMY. . 49.— THE SUN: ITS CONSTITUTION; PHENOMENA; CONDITION Essays on astronomical subjects are also contained in 1.— LIGHT SCIENCE FOR LEISURE HOURS — FAMILIAR ESSAYS ON SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS. . POPULAR SCIENTIFIC LECTURES CURRENT DISCUSSIONS IN SCIENCE ILLUSIONS OF THE SENSES, AND OTHER ESSAYS. ■NOTES ON EARTHQUAKES, ETC 120.— THE MODERN THEORY OF HEAT. Flammarion. Miller, Carr. Proctor. Proctor. . Helmholtz. Williams. Proctor. Proctor. MOLLOY. BIOGRAPHY— HISTORY OF SCIENCE. No. 43. — DARWIN AND HUMBOLDT No. 80.— CHARLES DARWIN: HIS LIFE AND WORK. No. 89.— THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE A HALF-CENTURY OF SCIENCE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE FROM 1836 to 1886. . ( A h; No. 96.? ( THE AliASSIZ, ETC. Grant Allen. Spencer. Huxley. Grant Allen. BIOLOGY.— ZOOLOCY— BOTANY. and 12.— THE NATURALIST ON THE RIVER AMAZONS. . Bates. -THE EVOLUTIONIST AT LARGE ALLEN. -FACTS AND FICTIONS OF ZOOLOGY Wilson. -VIGNETTES FROM NATURE Allen. -LIFE IN NATURE Hinton. -THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. . . Wallace, Dyer - STUDIES OF ANIMATED NATURE Dallas. -THE FORMATION OF VEGETABLE 3IOULD Darwin. See also under the head "Evolution." HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place, New York. Nos. 11 No. 26.- No. 29.- No. 33.- No. 48.- No. 64.- No. 84.- No. 92- THE THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY EARLY HISTORY OF MAN. I II I IHill.lN OF N ITION8. i ii i D v\\ n ui BISTORT. iiii < 1 1 1 1 i > ii < m > i » or rm: WORLD. LNTHROPOLOGY.- tBCHJBOLOGY. . ud 181 THE <>i:m. in <>i Tin: ARYANS. EDUCATION. LANGUAGE. No. - i DUOATION: ENTBLLEGT1 ai„ MORAL, and ruvs TDK BTUDT OP LANGUAGES > and :il.-THK BTUDT OF WORDS (THK PHILOSOPHY OF STYLE. . NO. /tiik MOTHER TONGUE.. .... TECHNICAL EDUCATION. No. 9L— THE RISE OF UNIVERSITIES THE TEACHING of SCIENCE >.-,,. LOO.— SCIENCE AND POETRY So. 105.— FREEDOM I>" SCIENCE AND TEACHING. N"..s. 108 and 109.— ENGLISH, PAST AND PRESENT. . No. 21.— THE PHTSICAL BASIS OF I. III.. AND OTHER No. 53.— ANIMAL AUTOMATISM, AND OTHER ESSAYS. No. 61.— MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS No. 86.— TECHNICAL EDUCATION No. 73.— EVOLUTION IN HISTORY, LANGUAGE, &c. . K.w. . Keaky. . I . Wilson Tayloh KSSAYS - Tbkki b BPBKI KB. Hrxi }.•, Laubie. Cldtobd Wilson. Haickel Tbknch, HtJXLKT. Httzlbi PBOCTOB HlXLEV. Various authors. ETHICS.— MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. No. B.— THE DATA OF ETHICS I tSHION in DEFORMITY No. 55.— THE SCIENTIFIC BA8IS OF MORALS. No. 68.— PROGRESSIVE MORALITY No. 88 SCIENCE and CRIME Spkncbb. Flowib Cltttobd. Fowler. . WlLS( N. No. 98.— CAPITAL PUNISHMENT Blevek. 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LECTURES on LIGHT - nun i: \ni> i ni RG1 in I : iiiti BIC LIGHT. — Till: MODERN THEORY OF HEAT. and 118.— MODERN SCIENC1 \nd MODERN THOUGHT '1 i BALrOl Ii Bm ITION 1 o HUSIC. !■'. WKNA. TVNl'Al.I,. TVM'AI.!.. KANT ALLEN. Mi Laimo. POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND FINANCIAL SCIENCE. -PHYSICS \ni> POLITICS i. LNDHOLDING in inc. land 1'i-iuii. N".. 42.— HISTORY OK THE SCIENCE OF POLITICS P< ■: 50 and 51.— MONEY AND Tin: MECHANISM OF EXCHANGE. Stanley J I II i DISTRIBUTION OF LAND IN ENGLAND -PROFIT-SHARING Bbdlb* Taylob. Nos. 102 and 107.— ULTIMATE FINANCE Black. 03.— THE COMING SLAVERY Spencbb. No. 121.— UTILITARIANISM J. S. Mill No. 12f— THE QUINTESSENCE OF SOCIALISM Schaffls. 15.— DARWINISM AND POLITICS Ritchie. Nos. 128 and 129.— THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION TOTKBEE. 14.— THE LAW OK PRIVATE RIGHT Smith. Nos. 135, 136, 187.— CAPITA! Karl Marx. ... No. 68, Essays by Berberl Spencer.— No. 70, Essays by Spencer.— No. 90 Essays bj Proctor. PSYCHOLOGY.— PHYSIOGNOMY. -mind and BODY Bats. No. 22.— SEEING and THINKING Cltffobd No. 46.— THE Dig] \-i> OF MEMORY Ribot. No. '..'—Tin: DI81 LSI B or THE WILI Ribot. Nos. 56 and 57.— ILLUSIONS: \ PSYCHOLOGICAL BTUDY Sully. No. 82.— ILLUSIONS OF Tin: SENSES Pboctob No. 87. -THE MORPHINE MAltiT Ball. Published semi-monthly. $3 a year. Single numbers. 15 cents. OF POPULAR SCIENCE. PSYCHOLOGY— PHYSIOGNOMY. No. 95.— DISEASES OF PERSONALITY Ribot. No. 101.— DREAMS ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS Sully and Robertson. No. 112- THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ATTENTION. . Ribot. No. 113— HYPNOTISM: ITS HISTORY AND PRESENT DEVELOPMENT. BJOBNSTEOM. Nos. 127 and 128.— PHYSIOGNOMY AND EXPRESSION Mantegazza. See, also. No. 32— HEREDITARY TRAITS, AND OTHER ESSAYS PROCTOR. No. 53.— ANIMAL AUTOMATISM, AND OTHER ESSAYS HTOLET. No. 65.— CONDITIONS OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT CLIFFORD. RELIGION— MYTHOLOGY. No. 35.— ORIENTAL RELIGIONS Caird. No. 47— THE CHILDHOOD OF RELIGIONS Clodd. No. 54— THE BIRTH AND GROWTH OF MYTH Clodd. No. 62— THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD RAWLINSON. 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No. 125. ) „*, Most of tlie Essays under this head are named in other divisions of this classified Catalog-ue ; but they form a class by themselves. THE HUMBOLDT PUBLISHING CO., 28 Lafayette Place, New York. THE HUMBOLDT LIBRARY MISCELLANEOUS. I H. il l miimi I OR I I IS! Kl Hoi k>. . PROGRESS: I i S LAW ami CAUSE. ... i \ m 1 1 i \ i: i -- w B on -( 1 1 s i ii i< SUBJECTS. . No. 21 I 11 1 PHYSICAL BASIS Ol LIFE, \M> OTHEB ttSS CUBBENT DISCUSSIONS in miin OTHEB ESSAYS. No. 61.— MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS i-^\%^. PBACTICAL AND SPECULATIVE.. Ml Kl I I. Hrxi.i \ AYlLLIAMs. HlNTwN. lii'XLEY. SPl N( l i;. So. 7a EVOLUTION IN BTI8TOBY, LANGUAGE, AND BCEENCE. Various authors. SCIENTIFIC ASPECT8 <>i SOME FAMILIAR THINGS. . WILLIAMS. No. 82.— HXU8ION8 OF THE SENSES, AND OTHEB ESSAYS. Pi; No. 80.— UNSEEN CNTVEB8E PH1XOSOPHY «>i PUBE SCIENCES. , I liffokh. ■'. and HI.— THE PLEA8UBE8 OF LIFE Lui No. 98.- COSMIC EVOLUTION — TEACHINGS <>i SCIENCE. . Cltjtobd. No. 98.— n.yti RE-STUDIES Various authors. 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[From Thf 'Evening Mercury, St John's, Newfoundland.] Among the numerous issues of books at once good and cheap, those of The Humboldt Library hold a foremost place. One volume is published monthly, and the aeries now numbers over one hundred volumes. The paper and type are excellent, — all that could be desired, — and the price is a perfect marvel even in these days 6f n literature. ' * • On the score of mere cheapness — the quality of paper and type and the quantity <>f matter being taken into account — The Humboldt Library es off the palm. In many instances the price is about one tenth that charged by other publishers for the same book, in cloth binding. Books, however, like other articles, maybe at once "cheap and nasty." Not bo with the issues of Tin Humboldt Library. Nearly every volume is one of acknowledged excellence. All trashy productions are excluded, and only those of writer,- who belong to the front rank in their several departments find admission into Tht Humboldt. Nearly all the volumes belong to the scientific and philosophical class of books, dally such as are popular in style and adapted to educated taste-. The order of novel-readers will find no f 1 to suit them in The Humboldt; hut the thoughtful and intelligent — those who wish to make themselves acquainted with the foremost writers in the domains of science, in philosophic speculation, in morals, in political economy, in the science of politics, in the history of religions, in physiology and medicine, in general evolution of humanity, will find in Tht Humboldt the productions of the master minds of the age, — the great leaders of modern thought. FEB 11' W RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW ■ ''•' ! ■ ■•:>}:, i U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES CD0SSlfllfl3 239880