r MINUTES IN Agriculture and Plantings i^;^^^±^^^^ LI BRARY — •^s UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. ^-- — ^ GIFT OF ^ cO^^C deceived ^-y^Z-t-Tlj^^ , i8gX^ A ccessions No. ,^^f^4^ Shelf No. *. **• Entered at Stationer's Hall. MINUTE IN Agriculture and Planting. I. On the structure aud component principles of vegetables. , II. On the culture and use of Nine of the besc Ar- tificial, and of Eight of the best Natural Grasses; shewing the great advantages that would arise from a more general use of them, by enabling the Grazier to keep one-fourth more Stock, and the Farmer to produce one-fourth more Corn, upon the same Land, than they did before. ■ III. On the construction and use of a -Swart/ Z)r«« . . • • •• •• . . TO His Grace the Duke of Norfolk^ f. r & a.s. AND PRESIDENT OF The Society for the JRncouragement of Arts ^ THE FOLLOWING WOJRK, WITH His GRACE'S PERMISSION, INSCRIBED BY HIS GRACE'S OBLIGED AND MOST OBEDIENT SERVANT, WIJLJLItdM ^MOS. A'^.'\S^ PREFACE, ••»M»M» ..»M»M»4*< «»*• «•• I"*" A HE numerous applications made to me by a variety ot Graziers, for my opinion concerning the best artificial and natural grass seeds, For laying down land to pasture, &c. induced me to undertake the part of this work which relates to grasses. And the loss sustained by Farmers, from the best implements of husbandry in one county being scarcely known in another, induced me to undertake the mechanical part; in which, they are made acquainted with the construction and use of several practical machines, little known in general ; and are thereby enabled to reduce the manual labour and expence attending many of the operations in Husbandry. Perhaps a great part of this work, so far as it relates to Grasses, will be new to many among my readers. But as agriculture cannot be practiced with any tolerable skill and advantage, without some knowledge of botany; I have therefore thought it necessary to give such a condensed account of the structure, propogaticn, dissemination, and VI PREFACE component parts of vegetables^ as coincided with the plan of this work. I have at the same time attended to the cuhure and use of nine of the best artificial^ and eight of ih^ hQsi natural grasses. It is a just matter of wonder in this age of improvement, that so little attention should be paid to the laying down of land with proper grass seeds. The quantity of land annually laid down makes an attention to this branch of rural oeconomy essentially necessary. Every husbandman ought to know how to suit his grain and plants to the quality of his soil, but few are acquainted with the nature and disposition of the best ar- tificial and natural grasses 'that cover our arable and pasture fields. The surface of the earth is cloathed with a pleasing and wonderful variety of grasses. Some delight in a moist soil ; others prefer a dry situation ; and yet so little do we observe this order of nature, that grass seeds of all kinds^ good and bad, are promiscuously sown upon the same soil. Of late there has been much encouragement given to the collecting of grasses by hand. It is here that the botanist becomes useful to the agriculturist. He knows from his kalendar of Flora, what grasses flower together, and what PREFACE VII sort suits different soils, and if a mixture is required, can tell what kind of grass seeds will render that mixture bene- ficial. For this useful purpose some degree of botanical knowledge is necessary. Nature is ever constant and uniform. She points out to us the plants peculiar to every soil, if we could be prevailed upon to trace her along the walks which she delights to tread ; and to welcome the grasses which she scatters over our best feeding pastures. It is not unusual, to see a piece of rich and ill-manag- ed land over-run with the coarsest grasses. In that state, it cannot maintain a stock in proportion to the goodness of the soil. Other lands of a much worse quality, being laid down with a more judicious choice of seeds, are found to be infinitely more productive. This consideration ought to awaken the attention of the agticulturist to a more atten- tive choice of seeds in laying down his land to pasture. At present, the farmer is liable to the imposition of the seedsman. If he purchase the seeds of weeds, he must expect a plentiful crop of them in return for the painful care that he has taken of his land. But I have endeavoured to remove this inconvenience, by giving specimens of eight of the best, and of two of the worst sorts of natural grasses, with descriptions of each ; VIII PREFACE by which the farmer will be enabled, not only to collect his own seeds, but also to determine on the quality of the seeds he may want to buy. The mechanical part of this work is principally direct- . ed to the construction and use of such implements as I have employed in facilitating the destruction of weeds, both on arable and pasture land. For, if the total extirpation of weeds cannot be accom- plished; yet their propagation, at least, ought to be checked. Whether we view mankind in a natural or in a civilized state ; we shall find, that not only the necessaries, but also the far greater part of the elegancies of life, are drawn from the vegetable kingdom. Every endeavour, therefore, to point out the most effectual means of accelerating the destruction of weeds, and of bringing to perfection the cultivation of the soil of Britain, must carry with it its own recommendation. I cannot conclude this Preface, without acknowledging my obligations to several preceding authors, from whose labours I have, in many respects, derived considerable benefit. . I shall not here make any apology for offering this my second essay to the public. The favourable reception given to my first essay (on the Theory and Practice of Drill-Hus- bandry) will excuse me for offering this as a supplement to it. [triflVEESITT] Minutts OF Ac^riciiltiire and Plantings 8^x. DISSERTATION I. On the Structure and component Principles of Vegetables. 1. On the Structure of Vegetables, JL SHALL begin this section by defining a Vegetable, and then give a cursory account of its stnicture. A Vegetable is an organized substance, — reproducible only by a peculiar sort of generation, — augmentable in bulk, not simply by accretion, or by chemi- cal combination, but by an enlargement of its organization,— in which a peculiar vitality co-operateS with chemical, mechanical, and electrical influences, to pro- duce the growth and salutary state of the body, — and which after rising into ex- istence, and passing through a certain series of changes, is naturally deprived of its vitality, and dissolved into its component material elements. The general and most obvious parts of a vegetable are five, viz. the root, the stem, the branches, the leaves, and the flower; but a good microscope disco- vers six organic parts in most plants. A 2 MINUTES OF On the Structure oj Vegetables. 1. The Epidermis, or cuticle, is the first thing that presents itself to our view. It is a thin jiaembrarie, formed of fibres that cross each other in evei-y di- rection, with horizontal perforations. Its texture is sometimes so thin, that the direction of the fibres becomes visible, by holding it against the light. The use ipf^lie epidermis is to defend the cortex, which lies next to it, from the injuries of the air; to keep open, by its callous nature, the pores of the exhaling and in- haling vessels; to modify the impressions of external obje6ls upon the vegetable; to protect the extreme ramifications of the aerial or aqueous vessels; and to cover the cellukr substance, in which the several fluids are elaborated. When the epidermis is destroyed in the living plant, it is regenerated; ad- heres more firmly to the cortex, and forms a kind of cicatrix' or scar. The Epidermis of the Bark, necessarily acts to vegetables, as the Mouth or organ for the selection and introsusception of food. It is exceedingly fine and close in its mechanical texture; for, it is perhaps destined to perform not a che- mical, but a mechanical part; and that mechanism muft, of course, be extremely fine, which shall, in the relative situation of the epidermis of the bark, exclude every matter that might injure the interior organization of the vegetable. 2. The Cortex or outer bark, is situated next to the epidermis, is of a hard texture, and loosely adheres in trees to the next covering or liber; but in tender plants it is soft, and called the cutis, skin, or cellular coating. It is the first recep- tacle and the refervoir of the food taken in by the Epidermis, Its texture consists of vesicles and utricles, so very nutnerous, and so close together, as to form a continued coating. In its vesicles and utricles, which run horizontally, is that food deposited for digestion and nutritive distribution. In them, begins the che- mical process by which the living vegetable digests its food into a proper addition to the substance of its organs. The mechanical relations and poAvers of the organs and of the food, are made to co-operate with those which are chemical. In its passing from the utricles and vesicles of the cellular tissue, tlirough the organs of the cortical coating, — the Sap, the general chi/le or blood of the plant, is com- AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. , 3 On the Structure oj Vegetables. pletely elaborated. By this elaboration, those chemical principles are selected which can alone contribute to.the sustenance of vegetable lijfV. 3. The Libej', oi inner bark, is membranous, flexile, and sometimes wholly separable from the cortex and alburnun:^ These two coats of a tree, namely, th^ cortex and liber, are formed of lamina;, as will appear by macerating them injjra* ter; by which the cellular sUbstarice is destroyed, and the laminkted appearahc« becomes conspicuous. They appear to be parts very essential to the life of the vegetable,, for in them the principal functions of life^ as nutrition, digestion, se- cretion, &c. are performed; as is evinced in those trees whigh are hollow within, and plants which are kept in vigour by the good state of their barks, although rotten internally. Of this kind of hollow tree a remarkable instance remains in Welbeck Park in Nottinghamshire, through the middle of which a coach is said to have been driven. The cortical coverings are easily detached from each other; ■ ■ ■ ( and it is fromlheir gross resemblance to the leaves of a book, that they have beeii called liber. 4 The Alburuum, is the nex^ integument to the liber, situated between it and the wood, composed of a soft whitish substance, not easily discernible in some trees; but in the oak &ndelm it is harder and more apparent. It is, as it were, an imperfect wood ; not having acquired the degree of consistence proper to perfect wood ; it is that state between bark and wood, that the former niust necessarily arrive at, before it can become the latter. The hardness of the alburnum is in proportion to the vigour of the plant. The vessels, which convey the sap-jliice with such amazing force, are situated in or compose the alburnum, or sap-wood, of the trunk or root of trees, nor is it surprising, that some of it when pressed by so high a column should exude into the cells between the alburnum and bark. That the vessels of the alburnum in their living state possess the property of conveying the sap juice, which is pra- pelled upwards in the early spring by the absorbent terminations of the rootfe, 14 ,. visible in decorticated oaks; the absorbent mouths of these sap-vessels open exter- 4 MINUTES OF On the Structure of Vegetables. Jially in the moist earth on the roots of trees, and also into the air on their trunks; and thus mix the aqueous fluids, which they thus imbibe, with the saccharine and mucilaginous materials deposited previously in the alburnum of these roots and trunks. During the heat of a summer's day, the juices are highly rarefied, in those vessels; and, by the attractive power inherent in all capillary tubes, by the mutual attraction between the constituent parts ot vegetables, by the irritability in those vesselsj and by the perspiration constantly going on from the superior parts of those vessels, the juices are raised from the roots and other parts of th-; plant to the extremity of their branches, for its developement and increase, and to serve for the various secretions and depositions; by means of which every part i5 formed by the continued impulse of the formative nisus, or power of vegetation. And it is wonderful that these vessels, which are found in the alburnum, and con- sist of a spiral line, whether they may properly be called absorbent or umbilical vessels, or consist of both, should ever have been supposed to be air-vessels. But there is another insuperable objection to this idea of their use, which is, that these vessels equally exist in the roots of plants as in their trunks; and probably termi- nate, externally only in the roots; and, as they are there not exposed to the atmosphere, they cannot serve the purpose of respiration; air nevertheless in its combined state, or even as dissolved in water, may be absorbed by these \essels; but as the solar heat declines, the juices condense, and fall down in the manner of the spirits of a thermometer. What seems to strengthen the opinion of the sap heing thus moved, is, that nature has made no apparent provision whereby the sap might be prevented from descending, in the very same vessels through which it ascends. In the vessels of animals, Avhose office it is to return a fluid, there is an apparatus called valves, which efiectually prevent the contained fluid from going back. These valves are entirely wanting in the vessels of vegetables. The bark of trees annually becomes alburnum or sap-wood; and that sap-wood gradually loses all vegetable life, and becomes heart-wood, and forms a ligneous ring. 5. Th e Wood, or Lignum, is the compact fibrous substance, disposed into AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. On the' Structure of Vegetables. concentric layers, surrounding the medulla or pith. We may consider wood as being formed of fibres, more or less longitudinal, connected together by a cel- lular tissue, interspersed with vesicles communicating with each other; which diminish gradually towards the center, where they forrn the pith, 6. The Medulla, or pith, or innermost substance of trees, is soft and ves[T, cular, and differs from cellular texture by its snow white colour. In young tlfes it is most copious; but, as the plant grows, it diminishes and at length disappears. Thus it is evident that the medulla is necessary in the beginning of the life of plants, but not for its continuation. Perhaps nature reserves a superfluous nutri- tious humour in the medulla, if from any cause the young plant should become dry; that it then may be absorbed and converted into aliment. The pith thus • appears to be the firfl or most essential rudiment of the new plant, like the brain or spinal marrow, medulla oblongata, which is the fipst visible part of the figure, I believe, of every animal faetus, from the tadpole to mankind. Hence it is obvi- ous that the wood, bark, and all the parts ofJigneous or of gramineous vegetables, are but collections o^ fibre and cellular tissue. But the grasses, fungi, &c. differ from the ligneous vegetables, as contain- ing a smaller proportior/af ligneous fibres. Whatever part of a plant we examine, we observe these and no more. The root, its- ascending stalk, and descending fibre, are one, and not three sub- stances. This reduces the entire vegetable to one body, and what appears in the flower to be many parts, are only the extremities or terminations of the six above mentioned. The roots of plants consist of the same parts as the stem, although less conspicuous; they are branches, enlarging the quantity of surface that the plant exposes to the contact of the earth, and constituting, at the same time, its means of mechanical fixation and support. The root imbibes the nutritious juices from the earth, by means of its absorbent pores or oscula, as long as it remaiiut ' B 6 MINUTES OF Oji the Structure of Vegetables. tender; but as soon as it becomes ligneous, it emits radicles on every side, which continue the absorption, and convey it, first to the root, and then to the whole plant. Thus, if a plant, or tree, be transplanted, it succeeds with greater certainty, the more absorbent radicles are preserved with the root. ^uThe branches are new trees implanted on the parent-stem, which serve to enlarge the quantity of surface which the whole plant exposes to the atmosphere. The leaves consist, like the rest, of epidermis, cellular tissue, and^bre. They are every where supplied Avith fibres, which commonly run in every direc- tion, and branching out into innumerable small threads, interwoven with the pa- renchyma, like fine gauze or lace. The surface of the epidermis of a. leaf, like that of an animal, is full of pores, which serve both for respiration and the absorption of air and moisture. The absorbent pores or oscula of the leaves continually take in air and moisture from the atmosphere, which, by a kind of chemical process, imparts to the sap its essential principles, which were destroyed; and the superfluous, noxious, and disengaged parts, are again expired. The parenchyma consists of very minute fibres, disposed in extremely small cells, which are of various sizes in the same leaf. All leaves, of whatever figure, have transverse ribs and a marginal fibre, by which the rest are bounded. The particular shape of this fibre determines the figure of the leaf The use of the leaves js to nourish the plant with the nutritious juice they reserve in their paren- chymatous substance; and to expire and inspire air and water. Hence the leaves of plants are to them, Avhat the lungs are to animals. The seeds and flowers, as to minute, organic structure, resemble the wood and Tiark. The flower is a temporary part of vegetables allotted to generation, termi- natino- the old vegetable, and beginning the new. It consists of seven principal parts, namely, the calyx, corolla, stamina, pistillum, pericarpium, semina, and re- ceptacle; the four first belong properly to the flower, and the three last to the fruit. AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. On the Structure oj regctablex. I. The Ca(y.r, empaleinent or flower-cup, is the termination of the cortex or outer-bark of the plant, which, after accompanying the trunk through all its branches, breaks out in the flower, and is present in the fructification in this new form. Its cliief use is to enclose and protect the other parts of the flower. It re- ceives different appellations according to the circumstances with which it is attended. II. The Coro//a, foliation, or leaves of the flower, is the termination of the ' liber or inner-bark, continued to and accompanying the fructification in this new form of painted leaves. Its use is the same as that of the calyx, serving as an in- ner work of defence, for the parts it encloses ; as the calyx, which is usually of a Stronger texture, does for an outer one. The leaves of which the corolla consists,, are called petals. The corolla receives different names according to the number, form, &c, of the petals. III. The Stamina, threads or chives, are the male part of the flower, design- ed for the preparation of the pollen, and is the termination of the alburnum. Each single stamen consists of three parts, 1. The Filament, or thread, which serves to elevate the antliera or summit, and at the same time connects it with the flower. These vessels prepare a fluid, and convert it into the farina or pollen; which is then propelled through very minute ducts into the anthera. 2. The Anthera, or summit, situated on the top of the filament, which contains within it the pollen, and when come to maturity discharges the same, for the pui-pose of fertilizing by the act of impregnation, the tender and conceal- ed seed. Hence at the age of puberty, the foUoM-ing phenomena take place. The anther^e, when mature, on a sudden break, and explode their pollen into the whole ambit of the flower. Wax is another secretion produced with the fecundating dust on the anthers of flowers, which in wet seasons it preserves from rain, to which it is impenetrable; for the farina, or fecundating dust of plants, is liable to swell if exposed to much moisture, and to burst its shell ; and it either tlien becomes inert 8 MINUTES OF On the Structure of Vegetables. and ineffectual, or is washed away. Whence as wheat, rye, and many of the grasses, and plantain, lift up their anthers on long filaments, and thus expose the enclosed fecundating dust to be washed aAvay by the rains; a scarcity of corn is produced in wet summers; to which the ustilago or smut in wheat, have rationally been ascribed. Hence the necessity of a careful choice of seed-wheat; as that, ti'hich had not received the dust of the anthers, will not grow, though it may ap- pear well to the eye. From these premises, the improvers of agriculture, and even the common practical farmer, may be able to deduce very useful consequences. If the farmer dreads heavy and sudden rains, immediately after he has sown his seed, he may, with equal reason, be afraid of them at the time his corn is in bloom. For, as the wet will injure him in one case by bursting the seed, so it will in the other by washing off the farina, or male dust, whereby an effectual impregnation will be prevented. The fanner will not then be surprized if his grain appears small and pined at the time of threshing, when he can so readily account for the cause iu philosophic terms. 3. The Pollen, farina fa?cundans, or meal, contained within the anthera, is a fine dust secreted therein, and destined for the impregnation of the gcrmen. Each portion of this meal is by a microscope seen to be concealed in a very fine pellicle (which at the time of impregnation bursts) containing the prolific liquor. This very subtile, elastic Vapour, ,contained in the farina or pollen of the anthera, is the principle which fertilizes the plant. IV. The Pist ilium, pistil or pointal, is the female part of the floAver, design- ed for the reception of the pollen, and is the termination of the wood or lignum. It consists of three parts, 1. The Germen, which i$ the rudiment of the fruit, accompanying the flower, but not yet arrived at maturity. It is situated at the bottom of the style, and is generally called germen until the anthera; have discharged their pollen; after which period, it becomes the pericarpium, which contains the tender seeds. AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 9 On the Structure of Vegetables. 2.^ The Style, which is the part that serves to elevate. the stigma from the germen, and which conveys the elastic vapour of the pollen through its cavity in- to the germen, where it fecundates the seeds. 3. The Stigma, or summit of the pistillum. It is mostly covered with a moisture, or melleous juice, for the purpose of retaining and dissolving the poljen^ which it attracts and receives when it is exploded upon it by the rupturing of the anthera, for the reproduction of vegetable life. ' For though the filaments and style, as well as the corolla and nectary or honey-cup, belong to the sexual organs of vegetables ; yet it is the anthers alone of the stamina, and stigmas alone of the pistilla, which possess the power, and I suppose the passion of reproduction. This amatorial attachment between the stigmas and the anthers on the sum- mits of the stamens has attracted the notice of all botanists. In many flowers the anthers or males bend into contact with the stigmas or females, as in kahnia, fritillaria persica, parnassia, cactus and cistus. In the kalmia the ten stamens he round the pistil, like the radii of a wheel, and each anther is concealed in a nich of the corolla, to protect it from cold and moisture; these anthers rise separately from their niches, and approach the stigma of the pistil for a time, and then re- cede to their former situations. In the fritillaria persica the six stamens are of equal lengths, and the anthers lie at a distance from the pistil; of these, three al- ternate ones approach first, and surround the female; and when these decline, the other three approach; and in parnassia the males alternately approach and recede from the female, the coition lasting some days; and lastly in the most beautiful flowers, of cactus grandijlorus, and of cistus labdaniferous, where the males are very numerous, some of them are perpetually bent into contact with the female; and as they recede, others advance. In other flowers the females bend into contact with the males, as in nigella, epilobium, spartium, coUinsonia. In nigella, devil in the bush, the females are very tall compared to the males, and bending down over them in a circle, give c 10 MINUTES OF On the Structure of Vegetables. the flower some resemblance to a regal crown. The female of the epilobium an- gustifoliiim, willow herb, bends down amongst the males for several days, and becomes upright again when impregnated. In the spartium scoparium, common broom, the males or stamens are in two sets, one set rising a quarter of an inch above the other. The itpper set does not arrive at their maturity so soon as the lower; and the stigma, or head of the female, is produced amongst the upper or iinmature set. But as soon as the pistil grows tall enough to burst open the keel- leaf, or liead of the flower, it bends itself round in an instant like a French horn, and inserts its head, or stigma, amongst the lower or mature set of males. The pistil or female then continues to grow in length ; and in a few days the stigma arrives again amongst the upper set, by the time they become mature. This won- derful contrivance is readily seen by opening the keel-leaf of the flowers of broom, before they burst spontaneously. And lastly, in the collinsonia the two males widely diverging from each other, the female bends herself into contact first with one of them ; and after a day or two leaves this, and applies herself to the other; the anther of which was not mature so soon as the former. By what means are the anthers in many flowers, and stigmas in other flowers, directed to find their paramours? Is this curious kind of storge produced by me- chanic attraction, or by the sensation of love? V. The Pericarpium, or seed-vessel, is the germen just described when grown to maturity, and which, when ripe, discharges the seeds it contained. The pericarpium of several vegetables has a considerable quantity of a proper juice, contained in a parenchymatous substance or in vesicles, every where supplied with very minute air and sap vessels. These are called Fruits. VI. The Semina, or seeds, are a deciduous part of the vegetable, each seed including the rudiment of a new one; endowed with a vital principle by the sprinkling of the pollen, which they are capable of retaining for an immense time. The following parts are observed in a seed, 1. The Corculum, or embryon of the new plant, within the seed. It is di- AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 11 On the Structure oj Vegetables. vicled into the plumula and rostel. The plumula is the scaly ascending part, conspicuous when a seed begins to vegetate. The rostel, is the plain part of the corculum and always descends into the earth. ■■ . >■■ ', 2. The Cotyledon, or side of the seed, of a porous and perishable substance. When, by a certain stimulus to the latent vital principle, vegetation commences, innumerable small umbilical vessels may be seen ramifying on thie interior of the cotyledons, which, uniting as they approach the seminal plant, form a small chord to be inserted into the body of the germ, as seen in the garden bean. 3. The Ai^Hus, or exterior covering of the seed, which comes off sponta- neously. 4. The Hilum, or external mark or scar on the seed, where it was fastened to the pericarpium. VII. The Receptacle, is the base which connects the other parts of the flower together, and is the termination of the pith. From this survey of the structure of plants, it is evident that there is an intimate correspondence between all their parts, and that all those parts are the same, only differing in shape. The roots are formed sharp and pointed, to make their passage easier through the earth, and the leaves are rnade broad, to catch the moisture of the air with more readiness, &c. The seed is preferable to all the other parts for the re-production of the vegetable; because it contains these es- sential parts in a natural preparation in which they are the most easily preserved, the most conveniently disseminated, and, in suitable circumstances, the most readily revived to vegetation; because, by means of the seeds, vegetables are uni- versally re-produced, — but of some we know not to accomplish the re-production by other means. k soixT of saccharine fermentation, — if wc may, without impropriety, cm- ploy the term, — is necessary to prepare the seed for the revival of the energies of 12 MINUTES OF On the Structure of Vegetables. veo-etable life, as the germination of barley in making malt. It is probably this saccharine process, which obtains in new hay-stacks too hastily; and which by immediately running into fermentation produces so much heat as to set them on fire; the violent fermentation of which may be partly OAving to the sugar, which ■ is deposited in the joints of grass before the seeds are ripe for their nourishment, and partly to a chemical production of sugar. At the moment when the matter of the seed, or other organized portion, has received the necessary chemical preparation, — the peculiar energies of vegetable life,-^-dre, by what mysterious law of nature we know not, renewed in it. The peculiar energy of vegetable life, consists in its converting into peculiar compounds, distributing in a peculiar mechanical arrangement, and employing for the general enlargement and support of its organic structure, — whatever suitable matters are presented to its proper exterior organs. A SEED, when put into the moist earth, by means of its vital principle, swells ; -the action of the vessels is induced; heat is generated, and it becomes a living plant. After vegetable life or irritability has thus commenced, its first energy is exerted in receiving from the earth, in which the embryon is imbedded, the im- pulse oftvater impregnated with various soluble or suspendible substances; which its exterior organs refine to gas, as they convert it into nourishment. It is neces- sarily from the earth, that the embryon vegetable takes its first nourishment; for, it is imbedded in the soil. The farinaceous matter in the cotyledons of the seed is dissolved by the ab^ sorbed fluid into a nutritious mucilage, and supplies the umbilical vessels with a fluid, which is conveyed to the embryon for its nourishment. The plant in this manner begins to be developed, and gradually and insensi- bly increases in size. The coverings, unable to resist the pressure, give way, and the radicle having penetrated the small orifice or hylum, the shell at length splits in two. The root then pierces into the earth, and absorbs from thence a more AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 13 O/i the Structure of Vegetables. copious nourishment. The young plant now begiu3 to rise to the surface of the earth; the leaves unfold themselves, and, strengthened by the nourishment the radicles supply, it pierces through the earth, and advances into the air, supplied with every part in miniature; and the gradual increase and extension of those parts, by the same vegetable energies, constitute the growth of plants. Plants that propagate their species by seeds, which, at a proper season, \x- . getate, and produce young plants, are called oviparous. , Plants that send forth buds or radicles to be separated from the parent plant at a proper period, and which then become perfect vegetables, are termed viviparous. The chemical principles which vegetables take in as nourish- ment, as yet known, are caloric or heat, light, electric matter, carbon, hydrogen or inflammable air, oxygen or vital air, azote or mephitic air, and a very small por- tion of phosphorus, sulphur, metals, and an earth. Plants inhale nourishment — only in the forms of aqueous and gazeous solutiofis. The roots take in whatever nourishment they receive — chiefly in water, and in gas mingled with water, and other liquid solutions. The trdiik, branches, flowers, fruits, and leaves take in, also, much aque6us nourishment; but receive a much larger proportioji of that which they inhale, in a gazeous form: It is, in general, salutary for plants, to re- ceive their nourishment, rather in a gazeous than in an aqueous form; because what they take in the former way, is, for the most part, easier to be digested into Avholesoine sap, than that which they imbibe in the latter state. Water unde- composed, hydrogen, carbon, azote, oxygen, are the only sorts of food which plants can take in. All soils, all airs, all situations, in which they grow and thrive, must jafiord these elementary pabnla. Where these are to be obtained, in sufficient quantity; plants take in, overall their surfaces, by the energy exerted in the epi- dermis of the bark, — precisely that due proportion of each element, which is re- quisite to their healthful support, according to the respective nature of every different plant. D 14< MINUTES OF On the Structure oj Vegetables. Equivocal generation is now by all enlightened men exploded from ani- mal and vegetable life; but some of the half enlightened moderns continue to liesitate with respect to vegetable life. It is urged that plants, although fixed to the earth they grow in; are never wanting, where the soil is proper for them ; that, in many soils and situations, the ^tetfrth dug many fathoms deep, will, when exposed to the atmosphere, produce a variety of plants. That islands raisefE character of gum resins is, that tbey render water turbid in which they are boiled. This class is sufficientl}' numerous ; but I shall only treat of the principal species. When the resinous principle is mixed with the gummous, it is called the gummi-resinous principle, of which nature is the gum assa-fcctida which exudes from the ferula assa-foetida; gum galbanum, from the bubon galbanum; also oi- lihanum, moniaeum, scammoiiy, gomboge, euphorbiuni, gutta, myrrh, bdellium, cpnponax, sarcocoUa, and storaj:, which exude from their respective trees. ' - VI. Concerning the Fecula of Vegetables. Feculum exists in all white and brittle parts of vegetables, — particularly in tuberculous roots, and in the grains of gramineous plants. It is a pulverulent, dry, white, insipid, combustible matter. It yields by d.istillation, a large proper- tion of pyro-mucous acid; is soluble in boiling water; forms, viith this liquid, a jelly; is convertible by the nitric acid, into oxalic and malic acid ; forms the basis of the nourishment of animals; and becomes, with sufficient readiness, a principle in the living animal body. All the solid parts of vegetables, are, more or less, capable of affording foeculum. But, some yield it in a greater abundance; and it is, therefore, prepared rather from these for the uses of the arts, as the foecula AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 21 On the component Principles of' Vegetables. oi wheat, potatoe, sago, salop, briony, and cassava. #• VII. Concerning the Vegetable GtUTEN. The glutinous principle, Avhich, on account of its properties resembling those of animal substances, has been called the vegeto -animal substance by some chemists, is more particularly obtained from gramineous vegetables. In grains, it co-exists with foeculum, and saccharine substance. JFIieat appears to con- tain it in a greater proportion than most other grains. It exists in the best flour; in proportion of — from ^ fifth to a third part. Because X)f its contahiing this mat- ter in such a proportion, the flour of wheat is more Avholesome and nutritious, as an article of food, than oats, potatoes, or any other farinaceous substance. VIII. Concerning Sugar, The saccharine principle is detected by the taste in many vegetables, especi- ally in dates, figs, siliquce dulces, cassia in the pod; raisins^ apples, quinces, plums, cherries, mulberries, currants, &c. but the plant in which it exists in the greatest quantity, and from which it is obtained for economical purposes, is the arundo saccharifera, or sugar cane, which is bruised between iron cylinders in the west and east Indies, where it is cultivated; the juice, called Melasses, is then express- ed, and by several operations made into sugar. The trunks of the acer saccha- rifera and fraxinus ornus also affbrd this principle very largely; as is evident from the quantity of manna, which spontaneously flows every season froih their barks. It may likewise be obtained from carrots, parsnips, the roots of dan- delion, ferns, liquorice, &c> Great god of justice and wisdom! grant that this luxury may in thy good time be cultivated by.the hands of Freemen; and may thence give happiness to the labourer, as well tis to the merchant and consumer. IX. Concerning the Vegetable Acids. i - The vegetable acids have been long considered to be weaker than the others ;- and this opinion was adhered to until it was observed that the oxalic acid sei^d 22 MINUTES OF On the component Principles of Vegetables. lime frolTi the sulphuric acid. The principal character which may serve to estab- lish a line of distinction between the vegetable acids and others are-l. Their vplatility; for there are none which do not rise with a moderate heat. 2» Their property of leaving a coaly residue after combustion, and of emitting an em- pyreumatic smell in burning. 3. The nature of their acidifiable base, which is in general oily. The acids produced by vegetable secretion have of late been much subject- ed to chemical inquiry, and have been found to be so numerous, that they have been named from the vegetables, or parts of vegetables, from which they have been extracted; as the citric, malic, ojcalic, tartaric, gallic, and benzoic acids. The citric acid is obtained from the fruit of the citrus medica and aurantium, limonia acidissima, berberis vulgaris, punica granatum, rubus idsus, ribes rubra and grossularia, pinus cerasus, and vaccinum myrtillus. The malic resides in the fruit of the pyrus mains and cydonia, fragaria vesca, rubus chamsemorus, vaccinium myrtillus, and sambucus nigra. The oxalic, in the leaves of the oxalis acetocella and corniculata, geranium robertianum andacetosum; in the root of the rliEeum rhabarbarum, bryoniaalba, andhelleborusniger; the boletus suberosus also exudes an acidulous humour, which, inspissated by the rays of the sun, goes into very pure crystallized oxalic acid. The tartaric is found in the fruit of the tamarindus gallica, and in the root of the rumex acetosa, and others. The gallic acid is detected in all astringent plants, combined with the gummous principle. Lastly, the benzoic acid is obtained from gum benzoe and balsam of Peru, and lies concealed in the balsam of tolu and in storax. Many unripe fruits contain an austere acid, which is gradually converted into sugar by vegetable or chemical processes for the nutriment of their seeds, in other plants it exists in the foot-stalks of the leaves, as in rheum, rhubarb ; or in the leaves themselves, as in oxales, or sorreU AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 23 On the component Principles of Vegetables. X. Concerning Alkalis. The alkaline principle of vegetables is of three kinds, namely, ammoniac, soda, and potash. The former resides in volatile or ethereal oils, and most nas- turcine plants ; for it is obtained during distillation by the addition of tlie car- bonate of potash or fxed alkali. Soda is present in the ashes of all maritime plants; and potash is obtained frorh the ashes of plants not maritime. The neutral salts from the vegetable kingdom, are various. The hyosciamus, borago, nicotiana, helianthus annuus, mesembryanthemum crystallinum, millefoli- um, and fumaria, afford nitrate of potash. The tamarindus gallica, th6 sulphat of soda. The muriate of soda is obtained from the salicornea herbacea, from the leaves of the american tree called cerciba, which abounds so much with it, that one leaf is sufficient to salt a sallad. There- are also plants of this nature grow- ing in the province of Jago, which is far distant from the sea; and what is tv^onderful, not a particle of salt can be obtained from the soil, in which they grow. The cinders' of many vegetables afford the sulphat of potash* XI. Concerning the Colcturing Principles. The object of the art of dying consists in depriving one body of its colour- ing principle, to fix it upon another in a durable manner; and the series of ma- nipulations necessary to produce this effect, constitutes the art itself. This art is one of the most useful and wonderful of any we are acquainted with ; and if there be any one of the arts which is capable of inspiring a noble pride, it is this. It not only affords the means of imitating nature in the riches and bril- liancy of her vegetable colours ; but it appears to have surpassed her, in giving a greater degree of brilliancy, fixity, and solidity to the fugacious and transient colours with which she has clothed the productions around us. All vegetables afford the colouring principle ; it therefore must be very various. The art of dying depends upon the knowledge of tliis principle. If the stalk of the indigofera tinctoria, or indigo plant, be macerated in water, it af- fords, by precipitating the fseculum, a beautiful blue colour, called indjgo. It 24 MINUTES OF On the component Principles of Vegetables. may also be obtained from the isatis tinctoria, or common woad, lichen roccella and parellus, and the croton tinctorius. In the root of the rubia tinctorum, or madder, anchusa tinctoria, or alkanet : and in the wood of the fernambucus or ca3salpinavesicaria, this pHncipleis red. Lastly, the carthamus tinctorius, cro- cus sativus, serratula tinctoria, amomuin curcuma, reseda luteola, trigonella foenum grtecum, genista tinctoria, and bixa arenella, afford, in the same manner, a yeilow fiEeculum. Xir. Co>fCERNiN^G the Pollen, or FEcyNOATiNO Powder of the SrAMiyA of A^'egetables. Modern discoveries and observations have pointed out the sexual parts of pldnts ; and we find nearly the same forms in the organs, the same means in the functions, and the same characters in the prolific humours, as in animals. The prolific humour in the male part is elaborated by the anthera; and as the organs of the plant do not admit of an actual intromission of the male into the female, because vegetables are not capable of loco-motion, nature has be- stowed on the fecundating seed the character of a powder ; which the agitation of the air, and other causes, may carry away and precipitate upon the female. There is a degree of elasticity in the anthera, which causes it to open, and eject the globules. It has even been observed that the />i*^i/ opened at the same time, to receive the pollen, in certain vegetables. The wax of bees is merely the pol- len very little altered. These insects have their femora provided with rugosities to brush the pollen from the antheree, and convey it to their nests. There appears to exist in the very texture of some floweis, which are rich rn fecundating powder, a matter analogous to wax, which may be extracted by aqueous decoction. Such are the male catkins of the betula ahtus, those of the pine, &c. the leaves of rosemary, of officinal sage, the fruits of the mirica cerifera, suffer wax to transude through the pores. It appears that wax and the pollen have for their basis a fat oil, which pas- ses to the state of resin by its combination with oxygen. AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 2^ On the component Principles of' Vegetables. But having described the nature and properties of the pollen, when treating on the fructification of plants, little more is necessary to be said on that head here. XIII. Concerning Honey. , The production of honey is perhaps one of the most important vegetable secretions, except that of the prolific farina from the anthers; and of the favilla, or new embryon, in the axilla of the leaf. The nectary, or honey-cup, is evidently an appendage of the corol, aftd is the reservoir of the honey, which is secreted by an appropriate gland from the blood after its oxygenation in the corol, and is absorbed for nutriment by the sexual parts of the flower. Honey, or the nectar of flowers, is contained chiefly in the base of the pistil, or female organ. It serves as food for most insects which have a proboscis. These animals plunge their proboscis into the pistil, and suck out the nectar. It appears to be a solution of sugar in mucilage: the sugar is sometimes precipitated in crystals, as in the nectar of the flower of balsamina. The nectar undergoes no alteration in the body of the bee, since we can form honey by concentrating the nectar. It retains the odour, and not unfrequently the noxious qualities of the plant which affords it. The secretion of the nectar is made during the season of fecundation. It may be considered as the vehicle and recipient of the fecundating dust, which facilitates the bursting of the globules, filled with this fecundating powder. XIV. Concerning the ligneous part of Vegetables. Chemists have constantly directed their attention to the analysis of veget- able juices; but they appear to have completely neglected the solid part of the vegetable, which in every point of view is entitled to particular attention. The ligneous part, or wood of vegetables, is the universal solid basis of all vegetable organization. In hard vegetables, it is much more copious, than in those which are soft. It is insoluble in water. It affords by distillation, that particular G 26 MINUTES OF On the component Principles of Fegetables. acid whicli is called — the pyroligneous. It appears to be the last product of the elaboration of vegetable organs. Treated with the nitric acid, it is capable of passing into three or four different states of acidity. It is, however, insoluble in water and most other menstrua. It should seem, that this ligneous matter con- sists of mucilage united with an extraordinary proportion of oxygen. XV, Concerning Extract. The juices of plants, obtained from them, by mechanical pressure, by the simple infusion of the plant in a liquid, or by its decoction in boiling water; in- spissated ; and at last evaporated to dryness; afford a dry, brown matter, slightly deliquescent in the air, and soluble in water, which is the extract. This matter yields by distillation, an, acid, a small portion of ammoniac, and some oil. It ab- sorbs oxygen from the atmospherCj and becomes gradually insoluble, in conse- quence of this absorption. It has constantly a tendency to take'up more than its first proportion of oxygen. Its component principles are carbon, hydrogen, azote, and o.vygen. The juices oi acacia and hypocitstis, opium, liquorice-juice, the cachou, &c. are extracts. Their preparation is not difficult, and may be managed, either in the great way, for the purposes of extensive commerce, or in smaller trials. All the matters in the composition of vegetables, are reducible to these fif- teen immediate principles. Before new truth and generalization had been intro- duced into chemical science by the discoveries of chemistry, it was not known that these principles were susceptible of analysis into others more simple. But the ultimate resolution of vegetables by chemical analysis, affords only hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, azote, with perhaps, in most cases potash, or soda, as their proper principles, and occasional contaminations of other matters in small proportion. And it is not impossible, but future investigation and discovery may inform us of the existence of other compounds beside those fifteen in which ve- getation unites hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and azote in peculiar modifications. Vegetables appear to be capable of combining the principles of carbon, azote, hydrogen, and oxygen in every possible variety of proportions. AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 27 On Artificial Grasses. Having given such a condensed- view of the structure, propagation, (by sexual generation;) dissemination of seeds, (by a variety of natural agents,) and of the component parts of vegetables, as coincided with the plan of this work; I now pass on to exhibit the culture and use of the best artificial and natural grasses. DISSERTATION- II.; On the culture and use of Nine of the best ArtificiaL and of Eight of the best Natural Grasses, dec, 1. O?! Artificial Grasses. A^NE of the greatest things on which modern husbandry has been made to turn, is the introduction of artifcial grasses; and yet it is lamentable to observe how few districts make them a part of their course of cropping on arable land. The principal plants that are termed artifical grasses, are, lucejine, saint- I'OTN, BURNET, tWO kiuds of RED CLOVER, WHITE CLOVER, TREFOIL, and tWO kinds of TARES. Here it will be unnecessary to enter into a laboured botanical detail of those grasses, as the seeds may very readily be bought at the London seed shopsi-- I shall therefore, only give an appropriate botanical description of each, mention a few common qualities relative to the plants tliemselves, and then proceed to jjoint out their particular culture, and best mode of application. L Medicago Saliva, Purple Lucerne or Medick, Legume compressed, screw-shaped, bending the keel downwards from the standard. Medick with racemose foot-stalks, contorted legumes, and smooth upright stem. Perennial, flowering in June and July. /TtT^IVBRSIT^'i ■^ ^ 28 ^ MINUTES OF > On Artificial Grasses. Root subligneous; stems rather upright, two feet high, branched, angular- cylindric, smooth leaves alternate, footstalked, ternate, with w.edge-oblong leaf- lets serrated at the tip, slightly mucronated, and hairy beneath. Stipules semi- ovate, long-pointed, nervose, rarely subdentated. Racemes footstalked, axillary, many-flowered, upright. Flowers footstalked, Avith a solitary setaceous bracte at the base of the footstalk, violaceous. Calyx hairy, with subulate teeth. Legume spiral, with two, three, or more distant spires, many-seeded, smooth. This plant was discovered in Media, by Darius, during his persian expedi- tion ; from whence it derived its name medica. It is the most productive, and comes into use sooner than any other of the artificial grasses. Horses, beasts, sheep, and pigs are very fond of it when, it is mown and given them green, which is the most useful application of it. It thrives best on rich, dry, loamy soils, which should be made deep, fine, and clean of weeds by culture. About the middle of April, ten pounds of seed should be drilled on an acre, in rows of eighteen inches asunder, and one inch deep, with a row of common red clover between each, then bush harrowed and rolled. Nothing more is necessary to be done till weeds appear, when it should be hand-hoed well, and the weeds in the rows pulled out by the hand. As soon as more weeds appear, it must be hand-hoed and hand-weeded a second time, and even a third time if necessary, when this is done great care should be taken not to tread upon the young lucerne. As soon as it begins to blossom, it should be mown, carried off, and given to the stock green. By this mode of application it will keep more stock than any of the other grasses. It requires three years in coming to perfection; hence the propriety of sow- ing common red clover along with it. After that time it may be mown three, four, or five times in a season. Between every mowing, it should be well hand-hoed, and made quite clean of weeds. AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. Q9 ■ - ' ' 'y <» On Artificial Grasses. ^ Every third year it should have a covering of rotten dung after the rate of eight or ten tons to the acre, about Martinmas. 11. Hedysarum Onobrychis, Cockshead or Saintfoin. Legume with single-seeded joints. Coro/ transversely obtuse. Saintfoin with pinnated leaves, single-seeded aculeated legume% wings of the corol of the length of the calyx, and elongated stem. Pere««/a/, flowering in June and July. - "^ Stems decumbent, two or three feet long, furrowed, branchy. Leaves unequal- ly-pinnate, leaflets numerous, elliptic, rather smooth, equal. Stipules ovate, acu- minate, scariose. Foot-stalks axillary, ascending, very long, spiked, many-flower- ed, hairy. Corol deep rose-coloured, striated. Legume crested, reticulate, hairy, coriaceous, not gaping. Seed kidney-shaped, smooth. These two plants belongs to Class XFIL Diadelphia. Order Decandria. This plant produces the best crops upon dry, light, rich land; but it will thrive upon the thinnest limestone, gravelly and chalky soils with great luxuri- rance; even where these are so poor as to afford a very scanty crop of any of the other sorts of grasses. It thrives best when sown alone, though it is frequently soAvn with barley and oats. But upon what ever soil it is sown, the land should be brought into a very fine and clean tilth by cultuie. About the latter end of March, or beginning of April, the land should be ploughed ; if it is roughish, it should be harrowed- once in a place, then upon every acre sow sixteen pecks of saintfoin seed ; harrow the land well, and'then sow eight pounds of common red clover or trefoil upon every acre, afterwards the land should be bush harrowed and rolled. If weeds appear among the saintfoin, they must be destroyed as they corne up, by hand, K ./• QO MINUTES OF On Artificial Grasses. No stock should be siiffered to graze upon the seeds the first year, and if it were top dressed with one quarter of rape or bone dust to an acre, about old Michaelmas, the plants Avould be greatly invigorated. Upoist such- land as the above, it furnishes a crop of hay in summer of greater consideration, than any other of the artificial grasses. The hay is excel- lent for all kinds of stock, and the after math very good for cattle in autumn, and for sheep in winter, till Candlemass. Hence saintfoin is a most invaluable gKwxon limestone, gravelly, and chalky soils. ■ Saintfoin requires three years in coming to. perfection : hence the propriety of sowing common red clover or trefoil along with it. This grass should be mown before it is in full blossom. III. Sanguisorba Officinalis, .Common Burnet. Ca/. four-cleft Germ, between the calyx and corol. /Sees? single. Perennial, flowering in June and July. Leaves unequally pinnated, leaflets cordate, acutely crenated, smooth. Stem two feet high, upright, rather naked, branchy. Spikes elliptic, obtuse, blackish- red, the upper flowers opening first, Corol outwardly hairy at the base. Germen closely invested by a smooth coat rising from the base of the corol. This plant belongs to Class IV. Tetrandria. Order Monogynia. There are severai varieties of this plant; but the only one worth cultivation in this country, is the above. This plant, though little cultivated, is highly valuable, eitljer green, or in hay for horses, and cattle, and is an excellent winter food for sheep. It delights most in a dry, clean, light, and deep soil, but it will groAV very well on poor, gravelly, and chalky soils, Avhich must be made clean and fine by culture. About the middle or latter end of July, the land should be ploughed for the last time, and harrowed well ; after these operations, four pecks of seed should be sown^broad-cast, upon every acre, and then bush harrowed and rolled. AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 31 # On Artificial Grasses. =__ — . . ♦ «» As the proper season for sowing it is the latter end of July. Hence it becomes _ an excellent succedaneum to turnips, when they Imve been destroyed by the fly. But the most profitable way of cultivating burnet, is by sowing it with other seeds, Avhen the land is to be layed down, viz. Burnet Seed, l Peck. , i» "White Clover, 10 Pounds. Trefoil, • • -t Ditto. Vernal Grass, i Peck. Ray Grass, ••••••• 1 Ditto. Crested Dogstail, , 5- Ditto. Sheeps Fescue, ' • • • ^ Ditto. The above are all the kinds and quantities of seeds which ought to be sown upon an acre with burnet seed, which should be bush harrowed and rolled; and afterwards kept clean of luxuriant weeds. But however much this plant has been extolled, yet it is seldom sown either alone, or with other grass seeds, since the introduction of red and white clover, though its greatest excellence is for winter pasture. It is more common in the western than in the eastern parts of England. IV. 1. Trifolium Pratense, Meadow Trefoil, or Common Red Clover. 2. Trifolium Medium, Middle Trefoil, or Cow Red C lover, 1. Of Meadow Trefoil. Trefoil with dense spikes, ascending stems, unequal corols, four equal ca- lycine teeth, and awned stipules. Perennial, flowering from May to September. Root branchy. Stems ascending, a foot or more in height, somewhat branch- ing, subvillose on the upper part. Leaflets elliptic, generally very' entire, smooth- ish. Upper leaves often opposite. Stipules widely ovate, connate, shortly a\vTted, pale, nerved with purple veins branching to^vards the margin and anastomosing. . Spikes 'terminal, sessile, solitary, ovate, obtuse, dense, many--flowered, swcet- ^ # »' > 52 MINUTES OF $. ■ On Artificial Grasses. smelling. Calyx hairy, ten nerved, with subulate teeth, of which the lowermost is twice the length of the rest, which are equal. Corol purple, one-petaled, with the standard longer than the wings. This is a most invaluable plant, whether it be mown and used green, depas- tured, or made into hay. But notwithstanding its being a perennial, yet it only holds its vigour two or three years. Br its long tap root it resists the effect of excessive drought on the dryest soils, and increases the quantity of vegetable mould in all. It will grow on most soils, but not equally productive, and whether it be mown and used green in the stall, depastured, or made into hay, it generally produces four or five times the quantity of fodder that the same land Avould have done with common grasses! In good rotations, it frequently makes the second crop in lieu of white corn; mown once, and the after grass eatenoff with horses, beasts, or sheep, and the land sown Avith wheat. In that case, two pecks of best ray grass mixed with fourteen pounds of this clover seed should be sown upon an acre, which not only increases the quantity, but also greatly improves the quality of the hay. If the clover is for stall feeding, the ray grass should be omitted. On poor light soils the better way is to take two or three crops of corn, and then to lay the land down to rest, three, four, five, or six years. In this case I would advise the farmer to sow the following seeds on an acre. Burnet, 4 Pounds. Cow Red Clover, 4 Ditto. White Clover, • 8 Ditto. Trefoil, 4 Ditto. Ray Grass; 2 Pecks. Vernal Grass, i Ditto. Sheeps Fescue Grass, ^ Ditto. Crested Dogs-tail Grass, ...... ^ Ditto. AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 33 On Artificial Grasses. .% By this management the soil would acquire a vast increase of vegetable mould, and by the pasture maintaining one-fourth more stock than it did before, it would be greatly charged in manure, by which means the land would be kept in perpetual good condition. And when brought under tillage it Avould produce one-fourth more corn than it did before, 2. Of Middle Trefoil. Trefoil with lax spikes, flexuose branching stems, nearly equal corals, Jtnd subulate- linear stipules. Perennial, flowering in July. Differs from the former in having a more branchy, flexuose stem, longer, linear stipules, the two upper calycine teeth shorter, and laxer spike. Leaflets elliptic, subglaucous beneath, and hairy on the margins. This clover grows naturally in high chalky fields, and in gravelly fields with clay beneath. In the most improved parts of the country, where the land is to rest for some years, this seed is sown along with the white clover, as it con- tinues in the ground much longer than the meadow trefoil, and is nearly as pro- ductive, especially on chalky and poor soils. , If a crop of any of those clovers is taken in lieu of a crop of corn, the grain should be sown first, but less in quantity than if no seeds were sown with it, and after the land has been made fine by harrowing and rolling, then fourteen pounds of clover seed, and two pecks of best ray grass should be sown upon an acre, bush harrowed the length way, and rolled the cross way of the ridges; afterwards the whole must be well gripped or drained. Nothing more is necessary to be done on account of the seeds till the next spring, when the land should be well dressed with the sward-dresser, or harrows drawn with long bushy thorns, the latter end of March or beginning of April, then cleaned, and rolled the qtoss way again. In all these operations the land should be neither too wet, nor too dry, but in a due medium with respect to both. I ?^ , MINUTES OF i* - On Artificial Grasses. *i. ,TuE time for cutting those two grasses, is when they are in full flower, and rather ohewing evidences of declining. V. 1. Trifolium Repens. Creeping Trefoil, or White Clover, 2. Trifoeium Procumbens. Procumbent, or Hop Trefoil, 1. Of Creeping Trefoil, or JFhite Clover. Trefoil with umbellar heads, four-seed'ed legumes, and creeping stem. Perennial, ilowering from May to September. •^PtooT fibrose, stems prostrate, creeping, widely spread, ramose at the base, leafy, smooth. Leaves on longish foot-stalks; leaflets obcordate, denticulated, smooth, often spotted with brown and white. Foot-stalks ascending or erect, very long, many-flowered, umbellated. Flowers white, sometimes flesh-coloured, up- right, becoming pendulous after flowering. Calyx ten-nerved, smooth. Corol permanent. Legume covered by the corol, oblong, smooth, three or four-seeded. It varies in a more fertile and moist soil in having a suberect and more bran- chy stem, but is always very distinct from the trifolium hybridum of LinnEeus, Triis is the sweetest grass for all sorts qf stock yet known, and makes the closest sward, and is very productive of foliage. Hence it is most peculiarly adapt- ed to laying down land to pasture. It flourishes most upon rich, dry, warm soils; ^ yet it will accommodate itself to most kinds. It is seldom sown alone, unless it be to raise the seed, nor should it ever be mown for hay. In laying down rich soils Avhich are intended to remain in pasture for many years, this seed should pre- dominate. ' '2. Of Procumbent Trefoil. Trefoil with oval imbricated spikes, deflected, permanent, furrowed stan- dards, procumbent stems, and obovate leaflets. -' Perennial, flowering in June and July. Root thickish, short, fibrose. Stems procumbent, widely spread, slightly branched, hairy, ascending at the tips. Leaflets obovate, denticulate, subglauces- cent, smooth. Stipules semiovate, very entire, nervose, ciliate. Spikes axillary, AGIIICULTUHE AND PLANTING. 35 Ok Artijiciat Grasses. solitary, footstalkctl, equalling the leaf, and sometimes exceeding it, oval or elliptic, obtuse, toothed, many-flowered. Foot-stalks principally villose at the tip. Cdycine teeth subulate, unequrd, hairy. Corol gold-coloured. Flowers im- bricated, at length deflected, with the corol permanent, scariose, dusky, and the standard longitudinally furrowed, inflected, dilated, and nearly obcordate. Le- gume elliptic, sharp on both sides, single-seeded^ The flowers, which are yellow, grow from the wings of the stalks, upon long foot-stalks, collected into oval, imbricated heads, having naked empalements, lying over each other like scales, somewhat like the flowers of hops, "from whence this plant took the name of hop clover. This plant is not very productive, and thrives best upon dryish gravelly fields, and pastures. VI. 1. ViciA Sativa. Common, Purple Flowered Summer Vetch, or Tare^ 2. ViciA Lathyroides. Purple Flowered Wild Vetch, or Winter Tare. The most proper soil for these tares, is a barren sandy soil; next to it, are, gravelly, chalky, and limestone soils; but they will thrive in most kinds, except strong moist clayey, or cold moory soils. \. Of the Summer Vetch, or Tare. Vetch with sessile subbinate suberect legumes, lower leaves retuse, toothed stipules marked by a spot, and smooth seeds* Annual, flowering in May and June. Stems various in size, either climbing or prostrate. Plant more or less pu- bescent. Leaves three or many-winged, with an elongated tendril either two or three-cleft, and opposite or alternate leaflets, which are rather sharp-pointed, of- ten retuse, and of various width. Stipules semisagittate, more or less toothed, and marked on the outside by a black or pale impressed spot. Flowers axillary, solita- ry or binate, subsessile, varied with purple. Legume somewhat compressed, brown, rough. Seeds numerous, a litte compressed, very smooth. S6 MINUTES OP On Artificial Grasses. ^ ' The great objects of this tare, are, 1st. summer herbage, either depastured, or mown green, as soiling for horses, &c. 2nd. hay, as a substitute for red clover (on land that has tired of growing it.) Srd. manure, to be buried in by the plough. And 4th. seed. Hence the season for sowing the seed of this tare, will depend upon the use it is intended for. 1st. If for SUMMER herbage, &c. it matters not how early the seed is sown, provided no hard frost ensue. The first sowing may be as early in February as the season and condition of the soil will allow; and to continue the sowing at due in- tervals. through the months of ]\Iarch and April; which will give a good opportu- nity for successions of them, to the great convenience of summer feeding. If for DEPASTURING, it will be prudent to wait till the tares have gained a sufficient increase of haulm, before the stock are turned in upon them. If for SOILING horses, &c. they should be mown before they flower, and in no instance should the haulm be suffered to become rotten near the surface of the ground, which frequently happens, on rich soils, and moist seasons. 2ndi if for hat, as a substitute for red clover, the seed should be sown as early in March as circumstances will allow ; but the time of mowing is more op- tional. Some mow them when the blossoms are fallen, others just before they are quite ripe. But in either case, the same caution is necessary, as in making saint- foin, and clover into hay, and that is, to avoid breaking off the leaves, in which a great part of their virtue resides. Srd. If for manure, the seed should be sown as early in February as the season and condition of the soil will permit, and at the rate of four bushels to the acre. For this use they should be ploughed in before they get too long. But whatever is the intended use in cultivating this tare, the preparation of the land is the same, and it delights most in light sandy soils. In every case there- fore, the land should be ploughed, and harrowed once in a place before the seed is sown, then sow the seed broad-cast, at the rate of three bushels to the acre, for the first and second uses ; harrow the land well afterwards, and then lay it dry. AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 37 On Artificial Grasses. $J Immediately, or as soon as the land will permit, the whole field should t>fe rolled the cross way of the lands ; after this nothing more is necessary to be done till the season of application. , 2. Of the Purple Flowered JVild Vetch, or JVinter Tare. Vetch with sessile, solitary, smooth legumes, subtrijugous leaves, the lower ones being retuse, entire stipules, and tuberculated seeds. Annual, flowering in April and May. Stems procumbent, divaricated. Plant pubescent. Leaves two or three-wing- ed, with a simple tendril which is often very short and almost abortive: leaflets opposite, obcordate, sometimes lanceolate and narrowed towards the top of the stem. Stipules semisagittate, commonly very entire, unspotted. Flowers subses- sile, solitary, small, blueish. Legume upright, very smooth, many-seeded. Seeds cubical, rough-tuberculated. Varies with a white flower. It is distinguished from the former by its smooth legumes and rough-tu- berculated seeds, not to mention that the tendrils are never branched, nor the leaflets more than six in number. These six preceding plants belongs to Class XVII Diadclphia. Order Decandria. The great objects in cultivating this tare, are 1st. spring food and sum- mer herbage for cattle and sheep, especially cmts and lambs. 2nd. hay as a substitute for red clover. 3rd. manure, to be buried in by the plough. And 4th. seep. But whatever is the intended use of this tare, the preparation of the land and time of sowing is the same in all. August and September is the prime season for sowing the seed of this tare. As soon therefore as the ground can be cleared of its crop, the land should be ploughed and harrowed once in a place before the seed is sown. K 38 MINUTES OF m On Artificial Grasses. 1st. If for spuing food only, six pecks of rye, and six pecks of tares may be sown together, and it is not easy to contrive a crop which will pay better, and leave the land in a more favourable condition for fallowing the ensuing summer.- If for SUMMER herbage, three bushels of tares to the acre will be preferable. 2nd. If for hay, the same quantity of seed as for summer herbage will be sufficient. 3rd. If for manure, four bushels of seed to the acre will be necessary. After the land has been ploughed, and harrowed once in a place, sow the above quantities of seed, broadcast, then harrow the land well, and lay it dry by ■H ater furrowing, and gripping or draining. Roll the land in the spring. 4th. When a crop of seed is the object in cultivating any of these tares, the land should be ploughed and harrowed two or three times in a place, previous to drilling the seed, then drill two bushels of seed upon every acre, harrow the land once in a place after drilling, and then lay it dry. As soon in the spring as the land will bear a horse, the field should be rolled the cross way of the lands, afterwards the crop should share the advantages of a pea culture, by horse and hand hoeing it completely. In all these ways, tares are absolutely invaluable, and since their merits have been known such a number of years, common sense is sadly at fault for their frequent neglect. Notwithstanding the foregoing botanical description given of these two kinds of tares, yet many of my readers may be at a loss to distinguish either the seeds or the stems from one another. The seed of the winter tare is smaller, and darker coloured than the summer tare; but the greatest characteristic to those who are not skilled in botany, is, the winter tare vegetates with a seed leaf of a fresh green colour, whereas the summer tare, comes up with a grassy spear of a brown dusky hue. These are all the kinds of artificial grasses that ought to be sown upon land i AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 39 On Natural Grasses, intended either for pasture, hay, stall feeding, &c. by the judicious management of which, the grazier will be enabled to keep one-fourth more stock; and the far- mer will be enabled to produce one-fourth more corn upon the same land than he did before, whereby the return of a scarcity might in a great measure be prevented. Of all the evils with which this country has been lately afflicted, perhaps none carried so threatening an an aspect as that of scaecity. Hence the necessity of a national, and of an individual irtterference to remove the obstacles that oppose the promoting, improving, and extending the agriculture of this kingdom. 1st. Parliament in a national capacity to grant an act for a general inclo- sure of the commons and wastes of the United Kingdom ; to commute or conso- lidate tythes; and to revise and improve the corn laAvs. Agriculture should be the first object of legislatures, and property the leading principle of agriculture. 2nd. Gentlemen of landed property in an individual capacity to grant leases, to increase the number of farms, and cottages, to offer well directed premi- ums, &c. All these alterations and improvements would call forth the energies of the individual cultivator, so as to secure plenty, and introduce a garden-like cul- ture upon most of the land in the Kingdom. 2, On Natural Grasses. JLJLOWEVER highly I have extolled Xlae artificial grasses; yet the natural grasses are of the greatest importance to the grazier, as they nourish most of his domestic animals: hence the necessity of attending to the cultivation of the best sorts. The stems of the grasses are hollow, and consist in general of joint above joint, without lateral branches; each joint of which seems to be a successive plant growing on the preceding one, and generated in the bosom of the leaf, which sur- rounds it; the stem may therefore be esteemed a succession of leaf buds, till at length a flower bud is produced on the summit. 40 MINUTES OF On Natural Grasses. Hence it appears, that a plant of grass consists not only of a tuft of leaves surrounding tie root, but that the three or four lower joints of the stem, as of a wheat-straw, are so many successive leaf-buds, which are generated by the cau- dex of the leaf, which surrounds each joint, and precede the flower-bud at the summit ; and that hence with the design of producing much herbage for cattle, the propagation of new leaves from the root is principally to be attended to; but with tlie design of producing hay, or Avinter fodder, the leaf-buds of the stem aie principally y^^^pe attended tp. For the former of these purposes the stem of grass should be eaten close down as soon as it rises; whence more grass leaves will arise from the root; as is well known to those who eat down the first stem of wheat, when it is too luxuriant. For the second purpose the leaf-buds, which constitute the stems of grass, should be cut down, before the flower-stem at the summit has begun to ripen its seeds; as at that time the sweet juice lodged in the joint below the flower-stem becomes expended in the seed ; and the stem becomes converted into straw rather than into hay. From hence it is readily understood, why those pastures, which are perpetual- ly grazed, are so much thicker or closer crowded with glass roots than those which are mowed annually That some of our meadow and pasture land may be rendered infinitely more valuable than they are at present, by the introduction of some of the best natural grasses, is an opinion which has long prevailed among the more enlightened agriculturists of the present age. And while some of those have endeavoured to excite the husbandman to collect and cultivate seeds of this sort, by writings fraught with the soundest reasoning ; others have attempted to attract him by the offers of well directed premiums. But hitherto, neither the writings of the one, however convincing, nor, the premiums of the other, however alluring, have been productive of the desired effect. The difficulty of distinguishing the grasses from one another, has no doubt AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. On Natural Grasses. proved one grand obstacle; many of those plants are so much alike, that the'most discerning botanists are often at a loss to know some of them apsKt j if so, how easily may the husbandman be deterred from the arduous task. But, perhaps, the chief reason has been, that persons who might be expected to collect the seeds, and to make the improvements, have not had the means fairly put into their hands of making the experiment. In order to remove that difficulty, and to enable every husbandmaii to'expe- riment for himself, I shall here, not only give specimens, of eight sorts of the best natural grasses, but likewise such a brief description of them, as will, enable every husbandman with certainty to collect them separately. He may then sow them singly on separate beds, or plats, and graze them for a considerable time, to determine their different effects in feeding and fatten- ing different kinds of stock; and afterwards join them in different coniG^na- tions and proportions, as the result of his experiments may direct. Whether the method I have adopted on this occasion, may be more suc- cessful, must be determined by my readers. At all events, the time I have employed, the pains I have taken, and the expence I have beeen at, in collecting, and finishing the grasses, must be evident to every one of them. The natural grasses here recommended, will, I am certain, do all that can be wished for, assisted by some of the artificial grasses. They are eight in number, which constitute the bulk of our best pastures; most of them are early, six of them productive, and they are adapted to such soils and situations as are proper for meadows and pastures. The natural order of grasses is so conspicuous, as to have struck all behold- ers ; they constitute nearly a sixth part of the vegetable kingdom, especially in open countries; the leaves are not easily broken by being trampled on, but die in winter, become yellow and dry; but what is wonderful, they revive in the spring, 42 MINUTES OF On Natural Grasses. and become green again, This natural order of plants has been divided into cerealia and g^jbnina, corn and grasses; which however only diifer in respect to the size of the seeds. ^ d AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 43 On Natural Grasses. I. Anthoxanthum Odoratum. Sxveet scented Vej'tial Grass. Cal. glume bivalve, one-flovered. Cor. glHme bivalve, a.\fxi^^eed single. Anthoxantii with ovate oblong spike, and subpedunculated flosculeslon- ger than the awns. I* Perennial, flowering in May. Root fibrose, subpubescent. Stems a foot high, simple, slender, furrowed, « smooth, here and there jointed, naked at the upper part. Leaves shorf, flat, • sharp-pointed, bright-green ; stem-leaves very short, spreading, with extremely long and slightly ventrjcose sheath, which is furrowed and bristled at the open- ing. Stipule lanceolate, ierect, sharp, many -flowered. Flowers brae teolated. Ca- fSf lycine glumes sheathing, scariose, sharp, sometimes hairy, with a green rough keel; the interior twice as long, and three nerved. Petals subequal, ferruginous, bristly, shorter than calyx, awned on the back towards the base, with unequal awns, of which the longest is jointed. Nectary twice as short as the petals, two- leaved, smooth, and ovate. Anthers linear. Styles white, and at length ex- serted. Stigmas thread shaped, villose. The spikes, after impregnation, grow yellow. The smell of the dried plant approaches to that of sweet Woodruflfe, and is liffhter than that of holcus odoratus. r Though this grass is not so productive as some, yet it is valuable as an early grass, and for its readiness to grow in all kinds of soils and situations. Cattle and sheep appear to be very fond of it. This plant belongs to Class II. Diandria. Order Monogynia, IL Alopecurus Pratensis. Meadow Fox-tail Grass, Fox-TAiL with upright smooth stem, sublobate spike, and calyciiie glumesr villose and cpnnate at the base. Perennial flowering in May. Root fibrose. Stem two feet high, leafy, smooth. Leaves smoothish, glauces- cent, with a short, subpubescent stipule. Spike simplish, scarcely panicled, dense, upright, biuncial, soft, many-flowered. Glumes all nearly equal, lanceolate, com-. ■■*-^ 44 MINUTEST OF. Oil Natural Grasses. =?7 V. pressed, AVhite, marked on each side by two greeniongitudinal lines: the calycine gUimel} especiaJl^n the keel, silky-villose, mutic. Corol-glume solitary, smooth, "e^^jept at the tip of tiie keel, awned at the base; thq awn jointetl, twice as long as the flower, nakied, % Jxiis is^an early grass, and very productive. It grows in fields and meadows every where, especially such as are rather moist ; and it is an agreeable grass to cattle. III. PoA Pratensis. Smooth Stalked Meadow Grass. PoA with diffuse panicle, four-flowered spikelets, lanceolate, five-nerved glumes connected by a villus, and obtuse, abbreviated stipule. Perennial, flowering in May and June. Root fibrose, with creeping shoots. Stems several, erect, a foot or foot and Jialf high, simple, round, minutely striated, smooth, leafy. Leaves spreading, slight- ly obtKise,- keeled, smooth, a little glaucous. Sheaths of the length of the leaves, striated, smooth. Stipule short, obtuse. Panicle, elongated, upright, very much branched, spreading, smooth. Spikelets ovate, four-flowered, often five-flowered, green, a little inclining to purple. Calycine glumes sharp, rough on the back, ve- ry unequal, three nerved, Floscules rather obtuse, sharply five-nerved, scariose at the tip, rough on the back, connected at the base by innumerous, complicated, very long villi : the interior valves subpubescent oij the margin. Variety is distinguished by the very narroAV and stiffish lower leaves, 'smaller panicle, roughish, lower sheaths; and abbreviated or blunt stipule, as at a Fig. |t: " The] foliage of this most noble grass is early, very abundant and abiding; and it rather affects a dry than a moist situation. This is a very sweet grass, and when»close fed down is very acceptable to sheep, cattle, and horses. fe .^: 1 Anthoxanthum odoraium. Sweet fcented Vernal Grafs. \ Jllohc itsufl' Mea.:ow Fox-tail Grafs, Poa Pratenfts. Smooth ftalked Meadow Grafs. ^^^ICIFOIC AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 45 On Naiural Grasses. IV. Pqa Trivialis. Rough Stalked Meadow Grass^ PoA with diffuse panicle, three-flowered spikelets, lanceolate five-nerved glumes connected at the base by a villus, and elongated stipule. Perennial, flowering from June to September. Root fibrose. Stems decumbent and rogting at the base, then upright, a foot and half high, simple, round, striated, roughish, leafy, often purplish, LeaveSTa- ther upright, flaccid, "'slightly acute, keeled, rough chiefly beneath and oa the margins. Sheaths nearly the length of the leaves, subcompressed, striated, ratiier rough. Stipule elongated, lanceolate, sharp, by which mark, according to Curtis, this species is best distinguished from Poa Pratensis. Panicle elongated, upright, very much branched, spreading, rough, with alternately decomposed ferarches spreading horizontally at the time of flowering. Spikelets ovate, often thi-ee^flow-' ered, purplish-green. Calycine glumes rough on the back, and of equal length: the exterior lioear-lanceolate, acuminate; the interior dilated on the marg^p^fiSnd three-nerved. Floscules rather obtuse, sharply fife-nerved, scariose at th^lip, slightly silky on the edges and back; connected at the iase by numerous conir plicated villi: interior valves thickened on the edges, which are green "and scarcely pubescent. Variett. has t^he lower leaves involute-setaceous, but with sheaths or the proper width; nor can it be referred to Poa Pratensis, on account of its sharp, hin- ceolate stipule, as at a Fig. 2. This is a good grass, both for pasture, and hay; yet very inferior to the Poa Pratensis, as it is coarser, and apt to go off after mowing. It is very productive, and loves a moist and rather shady situation. V. Festuca Ovin'a. Sheep's Fescue Grass. ' Calyx bivalve. Spikelet oblong, roundish, distichous, with §harp-pointed glumes. Fescue with one-sided straitened panicle, roundish flowers smooth at their base, tetragonal stem, and rough setaceous leaves. MINUTES OF <^^ On Natural Grasses. i\re«?«V//, flowciing in June. Root fibrose, turfy, with smootl^ black, capillary fibres. Stems a^anhigh, iglit, simple, slender, stiffish, smooth, leafy at the base, and iQtragonal chief- ly towards the tip.^ Lekves various both in length and direction, very narrow, tpgiilar-setacfeous, sharp, rough, often glaucescent. Sheaths striated, smooth. i.j^nilc very short. Panicle lanceolate, branching, with the midrib and footstalks ui gular, bubflexuous, and rough. Spikelets upright, ovate-lancgplate, smooth. Calycine glumes unequal, linear-lanceolate, sharp-pointed, keeled, cornered, sii^ooth, Floscules four or five, rather remote, roundish, a little compressed, scarcely keeled, without nerves, smooth, very smodth at the base, but towards thc'tij} roughened by minute tubercles, often mutic, sometimes, (as in the Linnean : . i)a^upi) awned with rough awns which are upright and of various lengths, ■ r valve mutic, rather sharp, concave, with perfectly smooth sub re volute A^iETY. diifers only in the purple color of the panicle. In the flowers arc -;■: but the leaves upright, and subflaccid, dr slightly stiff and incurved, arc ciliated. Floscules vary from three to eight in number. This grass, as a weed, is well known to be one of the greatest enemies which the farmer has to encounter. It is very bad herbage, and it makes the coarsest hay. X. IIoLcus Lanatus. JVooly Holciis, or Meadow soft Grass. Cat. bivalve, two-flowered, with the alternate flower male. Cor. bivalve, the exterior valve awned. Ho LOUS with villose glumes, hermaphrodite flower mutic, the male furpished with an arcuato-recurvate awn. Perennial, flowering in June and July. Root fibrose, turfy. Culms several, erect, striated, leafy, backwardly. villose, smooth at the tip. Leaves flat, pale, soft, more villose beneatli. Stipule truncated, short, denticulated. Panicle erect, spread out, soft, pruple-whitish, at length growing paler; branchlets semiverticillate, very much branched, capillary, vil- lose. Calycine glumes of equal length, sharp-pointed, villose, now and then tuberculated, coloured ; the interior broader, three-nerved. Floscules inserted on a common footstalk, but the male above the hermaphrodite, shorter than calyx, naked at the base, with strong, smooth, glossy glumes, the exterior widest. From the exterior glume of the male flower rises an awn, which is presently ar- cuate-recurved, included by the calyx. Anthers the length of corol. The abortive pistil detected by Curtis, I have seen in some male flowers, but not in all. This grass, like the former, is very bad herbage,-afid it makes the coarsest of all hay. The last nine grasses belong to Class III. Triandria. Order Digynia. N i So MINUTES OF On Natural Grasses. PLAN.'i'AGO Lanceolata. jR/Aifor^ Plantain. This plant (stri(*tly speaking) does not rank amongst the class of natural grasses; but as it appears in so great quantity in most of our meadows and pas- tul-es, not to mention iVhere might be deemed an unpardonable omission. Horses, cattle, and sheep are very fond of it, but it is not ver}^ productive. The seeds of this plant may very readily be bought at the London seed shops. Thi.s plant is perennial, and flowers in June and July. The first eight sorts oi Natural Grasses, are all that the husbandman ought to sow in laying land down to pasture, and according to the nature of the soil, the seed of that grass most suitable to it should predominate; but two grasses No. 9 and ]0, should be held in utter abhorrence. And if it had not been to make them so well known, that they might be en- tirely rejected, I should not have troubled my readers with either a view or a detail of them. And sorry am I to see the Holcus Lanatus, recommended in some of the prize essays communicated to the Board df Agriculture in 1801. Having given specimens and descriptions of eight of the best natural gras- ses; I shall next point out their mode of culture, application, and the great ad- vantages that would arise from a more general use of them in laying land down to pasture. . The first thing to be done in laying land down to pasture, is to bring it into a very fine clean tilth by fallowing it completely, and to allow eight or ten tons of duns: to an acre. The next thing to be done is to plough the land into ridges of a width proportioned to the degree of moisture in the soil, and tlien to sow it with cole, or turnip seed at the proper season. But whatever is the fallow crop, as potatoes, cabbages, &c. early in the April following, the land should be ploughed and har- rowed well the length way, then rolled and harrowed alternately the cross way of the ridges, two, three, or four times, uutil you get the ridges into the form and £',l ^T'f I' Li Hum Perenne. Darnel or Rye Grafs. €yvrjurus Crijlatu ( refted Dogs-tail Grafs. flatiatus- Wheat cfr Couch Grafs, Mead. OF THI'^. 5^ i[TJHIVBESIT7J * AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 51 On Natural Grasses. condition wished, for the reception of the seeds. In preparing land for laying down with grass seeds, it should be harrowed and rolled well, both length and cross ways, so that the soil may be equally con- solidated in every part. ^ .^ Upon good rich soils which are intended to remain in pasture for many years, the proper kinds and quantities of seeds to be sown upon an acre, are as follows. Of Artificial Grass Seeds. IV. No. 2. Cow Clover, 4 Pounds. V. No. 1. White Clover, .-IS Ditto. 2. Trefoil, 4 Ditto. Of Natural Grass Seeds. No. 1. Vernal Grass, j Peck. S. Smooth stalked Meadow Grass, 1 Ditto. 5. Sheep's Fescue, i Ditto. 6. Meadow Fescue, i Ditto. 7. Ray Grass, 1 Ditto. Rib Grass, i Ditto. Mix the whole well together, and then let them be sown by a good seeds- man, in a calm day, then harrow them the length Avay of the ridges. If the land is rather moist, it should be water furrowed with a narrow double mould board plough, and then rolled the cross way of the ridges. Afterwards open drains should be cut, where wanted, in the form of a segment of a circle ; as laying moist land dry, is the first step to. improvement. No stock should be suffered to graze upon the young seeds until they have got proper hold of the ground ; when that happens, ewes and lambs, and yearling beasts are the most proper stock for them the first year. On moist soils and situations the most proper kinds and quantities of seeds to be sown upon an acre, are as follows. S2 MINUTES OF On Natural Grasses. Of Artificial Grass Seeds. IV. No. 2. Cow Clover, 8 Pounds. ~ V. No. 1. White Clover, 12 Ditto. 2. 'ftEpo I L, • • ' 4- Ditto, Of Natural Grass Seeds. No. 1. Vernal Grass, f l^eck. 2. Meadow Fox-tatl, 1 Ditto. 4. Rough STALKED Meadow Grass,- •• • 1 Ditto. 6. Meadow Fescue, j Ditto. 7. Ray Grass, • 2 Ditto. • Rib Grass, 4: Ditto. On liglit, dry, warm soils, the most suitable kind sand quantities of seeds to be sown upon an acre, are as follows. Of Artificial Grass Seeds. ITT. Burnet, 4 Pounds. IV. No. 2. Cow Clover, 4 Ditto. V. No 1. White Clover, 14 Ditto. 2. Tk e Fo 1 1., 4 Ditto. Rib Grass, 5^ Ditto. Of Natural Grass Seeds. No. 1. Vfrnal Grass, • • • ^ Peck. 3. Smooth stalked Meadow Grass, •• |- Ditto. 5. Sheep's Fescue, *•• 4 Ditto.. 6. Meadow FescOe, |- Ditto. 7. Ray Grass, 2 Ditto. 8. Crested DoG*s-iAiL, •• • 5: Ditto. Dxanchum odcratum, . »EeiiceatedlVfma3 Grals . JUipaufus Meadow r.i SmootkftalkedMMeackwrGrais . m .A •V .^ ^^^za:^ OF THB TjSIVERSITT «« L ^^5^- Poa MfrwuiUr. Rough Italked H Meadow Graft. ^Micci?7U7i arlru ^uiAej Cyrwsurus Creslatus. Crested D ogs-tail Gr afs . .l.V. ^^5. Meadow yefcueGra£s. V"<7. AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING, 53 On Natural Grasses. Here follows a table, shewing at one view, the different kinds and quantities of grass seeds the most appropriate to be sown on an acre of land, for laying ten different kinds of soil down to pasture. No. Names. Cltycy. Marly. Stiff Loamy Loamy. Light Loamy Sandy. Gravelly Chalky. Pecks. Lime Stone. Fc k9 Hcatliy or Moory. Pecks. Eccks. Pecks. Peck. Pccki. Pecki. Pecki. Pecks. 1 Red Clover, i 4 I . .■ 2 Cow. Clover, I 2 I 2 1 4, I 4 i I 4 1 I I I 3 fFhite Clover, 3 4- 3 4 1 1 1 1 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 4 Burnet, I 4 I 4 I 4 I 4 • • 5 Saintfoin, •• • • 16 16 6 ■ Sweet scented 7 I Fernal Grass, j X 2 i. 2 I 2 2 i 2 I I 2 I z 7 J Meadow Fox- i t tail Grass, • • \ 1 1 I 2 I * I * f i I z 8 J Smooth stalked i I Meadow Grass \ I 4 I 2 1 3 4 I 2 I 4 1 9 c Rough stalked 7 I Meadow Grass \ 1 I 2 I 4 • « 1 10 c Meadow Fes- 1 I cue Grass, ■ • J I 2 I 2 2 I 2 I 2 I 2 I I 4 I 4 ~ 1 11 r Sheep's Fescue 7 I Grass, i' • • X 4 I i 4 I 4 1 i 4 I '4 12 J Crested Dofs- 1 I tail Grass- • • • i ... I I 4 I 4 I 4 I 4 I I 4 IS Ray Grass, 2 2 H I Ji 2 2 2 2 2 14 I I 4 4 1 I I 1 4 I 4 I 5 I 4 1 15 Rihgrass, I 4 ■ I 4 I 4 I A- I 4 1^ I 4 • ♦ 54 MINUTES OF On Nalaral Grasses. If saintfoin is the principal grass intended for laying land down to pasture, all the other seeds should be omitted, except the red clover, or trefoil. An d the saintfoin should be omitted when the other grasss seeds are sown. Wheke grasses are-sown for the purpose of consuming the first foliage, as lucern, red clover, or saintfoin, the seed should be sown thicker, than where the plant is grown for the purpose of producing seeds, as in wheat or peas; because the quantity of the first foliage will be greater in respect to number; and the central parts of the t;ussocks, as is often seen in wheat and peas, when sown too thick, will rise two or three inches higher in their contest for light and air, like the trees of thick planted woods; and will hence produce a forwarder pasture as well as a more copious one. Poor land, or even land of a middling quality, when newly laid down with good seeds as above, will keep more than double the stock that it did before, or will do in six or eight years after; because the seeds degenerates, and the pasture returns to its original state. Hence the necessity of taking up to plough, and of laying down such land with seeds alternately; viz. light and poor soils every third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, or eighth year, &c. and clayey soils every ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, or fourteenth year. Or to restore the sward by dunging, scarifying, seeding, dressing, and rolling it, &c. But gentlemen of landed property are so afraid of the plough, that they suffer their pasture land to be managed with a great disadvantage to themselves, their tenants, and the nation. It is the abuse, and not the use of the plough that they ought to be afraid of. When a piece of land is to be improved. What is the means ? The plough. Let no man then be afraid of this most useful of all instruments. Pasture land managed as above, will maintain one-fourth more stock upon an average than it did before, (which surplus would make the produce equal the consumption of butcher's meat, and keep the price within the ability of the poor to purchase it.) And if the grass is kept in a young succulent state by feeding it AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 55 On Natural Grasses. close down, &c. the grazier will be enabled to receive every benefit, by eating all the produce of his pastures, and likewise be enabled to prevent the stems of some of the grasses from running into seed, an evil which crested dog's-tail jsmd ray-grass are very subject to. Having pointed out the best methods of laying down land to pasture, I shall just glance at the best method of restoring degenerated sward, without the assistance of the plough. When the sward is degenerated, mossy, or thin, the first thing to be done is to cover it with rotten dung, at the rate of eight or ten tons to an acre, some- time in March; those manures, which are designed to be spread on the surface of grass land, which is called a top-dressing, are best applied in the early spring; and should be dispersed over the soil almost in a state of powder, or in lumps of very loose cohesion; as at this time the vernal showers wash them into the soil, and they are applied to the roots of the grass, before their essential parts are di- minished by winter rains or by summer exhalation, then to scatify it both leno th and cross ways, either with my Sxcard-dresser, or with common harrows, or to ' roll it with a spiky roller. Clean the sward of every kind of rubbish, then sow upon every acre, of Cow Clover, 4 Pounds. White Clover, 8 Ditto. Trefoil, 4 Ditto. Busii-HARROw the sward well, and then roll it across the ridges with a heavy roller. Clear the pasture of all kinds of stock for three or four weeks, when the young seeds will have got sufficient hold of the ground to admit some ewes and lambs, or other sheep, and as the seeds advance other kinds of stock may be added. If any thistles or other weeds should get up so as to injure the young seeds, they must be mown by hand, or by the Thistle Cutter, once, twice, or thrice, in the course of the summer, which will make the pasture so clean, as to put on the 56 MINUTES OF On Natural Grasses. ' appearance of a perpetual spring, when close fed tlownl By the ahove management the land will be able to keep one-fourth more stock when grazed, and it will produpe one-fourth more grain. when converted into tillage than it did before. How great are the advantages which such ma- nagement holds out to the landlord, the tenant, and the nation ! But agriculture can never arrive at that pitch of perfection of which it is capable, until leases are granted, tythes commuted, &c. and the ingenuity of the agriculturists unshackled from the restraints imposed upon them by land- tasters, &c. Millstones have been called the artificial teeth of mankind, by grinding/ farinaceous seeds into powder, which facilitates their decomposition; and renders them more nutritious. So millstones and the chaff-cutter may be called the teeth of our most useful domestic animals. Hence the necessity of crushing their corn, and of cutting their hay and straw, which facilitates their decomposition and renders them more nutritious. But besides the ten grasses M'hich I have particularly described, there are above a hundred more; and perhaps it may be gratifying to many of my readers, to present them here with an enumeration of all the British natural grasses. Class II. Diandria. Order Digynia, 1. Anthoxanthum Odoratum. Sweet scented Vernal Grflw.-- Already described. Class III. Triandria. Order Digynia. 2. Phalaris ^anariensis. Manured Canary Grass, Sown frequently for bird's-seed. Annual, flowering in June— August. 3. Phalaris Arenaria. Sea Canary Grass, This is an insignificant grass of ten weeks duration only. It grows ori sandy beaches, and affords plenty of seed for finches. Annual, flowering in June. 4. Phalaris Phleoides. Cat's-fail Canary Grass. In some parts of Norfolk and Cambridgeshire. Perennial, flowering in June. AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 57 On Natural Grasses. 5. Panicum Verticlllatam. Rough Panic Grass. Between Putney and Roehampton, near Chelsea, and in Battersea fields, &c. Annual, flowering in June and July. 6. Panicum Viride. Green panic Grass. Near Guilford, in Battersea field, and about Norwich. Annual, flowering in July. 7. Panicum Crus Galli. Loose Panic Grass, Near Guilford about Battersea and Putney, in moist places. Annual, flowering in July. 8. Panicum Sanguinale, Cock's-foot Panic Grass. In various parts in the. south of England. Annual, flowering in July. 9. Panicum Dactylon. Creeping Panic Grass. About Pensance and Marketjew. Perennial, flowering in July, and August,. NoNE of the English panics are worth cultivating, unless for birds; the hard billed tribe of which are fond of the seeds. > 10. Phleum pratense. Common Cafs-tail grass. Timothy grass. A VERY coarse grass and common in all our meadows. -4fP^ Perennial, flowering in June — October. 11. Phleum Alpinum. Alpine Cat' s-tail grass. On mountains near Garway moor. Perennial, flowering in July. 12 Phleum Paniculatum. Panicled Cafs'tail grass. Near Bristol, Bourn bridge, and about Newmarket. Annual, flowering in July. x 13. Phleum Crinitum. Bearded Cafs-tail grass. Near Portsmouth, in ditches on the Essex coast, and near Cley in Norfolk. j^«?mfl/, flowering in July and August. 14. Alopecurus Pratensis. Meadow Fox-tail g7'ass.—Alrea.dy described. 15. Alopecurus Agrestis. Slender Foxtail grass, V 5S MINUTES OF On Natural Grasses. Annual, floMeiing in July. 16, Alopecurus Bulbosus. Bulbous Fox-tail grass. Ix the salt marshes near Yarmouth, Cardiff marshes Glamorganshire, and near the Aust passage. Perennial, flowering in July. 17, Alopecurus Geniculatus. Floating Fox-tail grass. In stagnant water frequently, and between the new and old passages at Aust. Perewwifl/, flowering in July. 18. Milium efFusum. Millet grass. In shady woods frequent. Annual, flowering in June and July. 19. Milium Lendigerum. Panic Millet grass. In the isle of Sheppey, corn fields at We} mouth, and at Gillingham, Norfolk, Annual, flowering in August. 20. Agrostis Spica Venti. Silky bent gras». Annual, flowering in June and July. 21, Agrostis Canina. Brown bent grass. Perennial, flowering in July» 22, Agrostis Litoralis. Sea- side bent grass. In salt marshes near Cley, Norfolk. Ptremiiul, flowering in August, 23, Agrostis Setacea. Bristly bent grass. In the west of England frequent, and the sea coast near Weymouth. Perennial, flowering in July and August. 24. Agrostis Vulgaris. Fine bent grass.-'-Perennial, flowering in July, 25. Agrostis Stolonifc ra, Creeping bent grass. Perennial, flowering in July and August. 26. Agrostis Alba. Marsh, or zvfiite bent grass.-Pcrennial, flowering in July. 27. Agrostis Minima. Smallest bent grass. In Wales, frequent in sandy pastures on the south-west coast of Anglesea. Annual, flowering in March and April. 28, Aira Cristata. Crested hair grass.— Pere^mial, ^Owcrmgrn IvXy a.\\A Augnst. 29. Aira Aquatica. JFater hair grass.—Perennial, flowering in May and June, AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 59 On Natural Grasses. 50. Aira Cffspitosa. Ti/rfy hair grass.— Perennial, flowering in June and July. 51. Aira Flexuosa. Waved mountain hair grass.— Perennial, flowering in July. 32. Aira Canescens. Grey hair grass. 0» the coast of Norfolk and ^\\?io\k.— Perennial, flowering in July. S3. Aira Precox. Early hair grass.— Annual, flowering in May and June, 34. Aira Caryophyllea. Silver hair grass.- -Annual, flowering in July. 35. Holcus Lanatus. . Meadow soft ^ra**.— Already described. 36. Holcus Mollis. Couchy, or creeping soft grass. At Hampstead, and Highgate Common. ferennial, flowering in July and August. 37. Holcus Avenaceus. Oat-like soft grass, perennial, flowering in June and July, 88. Melica Uniflora. ffood melic grass.— Perennial, flowering in May and June. . 39. Melica Nutans. Mountain melic grass. Near Kendal, and Helks-wood by Ingleton, Yorkshire. Perennial, flowering, in June and July. 40.' Melica Caerulea. Purple melic grass.— Perennial, flowering in August. 41. Sesleria Ceerulea. Blue moor grass. In calcareous, rocky soils, in various parts of England. Perennial, flowering in April. ^ 42. Poa Aquatica. Reed meadow grass. Common in fenny \s.\\(\.— Perennial, flowering in July. 43. Poa Fluitans. Flole meadow grass. P^rewwi^z/, flowering in March — November. - . . 44. Poa Distans. Refexed meadow grass. In various parts of England.— /'ercnn/fl/, flowering in July. 45. Poa Maritima. Creeping sea meadow grass.— Perennial, flowering in July. 46 Poa Procumbens. Procumbent fta meadow grafs. .(^nnie fed down. By the above management, and by grazing as much stock as will keep the grass in a young succulent state, and bobbing or mowing all the tufts and weeds ij!,; - three times in the course of the summer, the grazier will be enabled to receive every benefit from his land, and likewise prevent the stems of several grasses from- running into seed. DISSERTATION IV. On the Construction of a Thistle-Cutter, Plate II. Jl LATE II. Fig. 1. is a geometrical plan of the whole machine complete. Fig. 1. ^ V I ' A. the leading share made of cast steel in the form of an isosceles triangle, whose equal sides are fourteen inches long, and its base twelve inches, about one- eighth of an inch thick in the middle, tapering to a very fine edge on the outsidcs. B B B B. four pieces of ash wood three inches square, and two feet four in- ches long, to which the scythes are fixed as per figure, and are called the scythe handles. C C C C. four scythes three feet long from point to point, four inches broad at the widest part, made of cast steel, and manufactured by Messrs. Hunt and Co. at their cast steel manufactory, Bradts, Birmingham. D D D D. four other pieces of ash wood, three inches square, and two feet five inches long, for throwing the two hindmost scythes to their proper distance. KfU^lM/adp AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. €9 On the Construction of a Thistle-Cutter. These pieces are braced two and two together by the four bars E E E E^ which Plate II; Fig. 1, are one by two inches square, and eighteen and a quarter inches long. v— -^ .^ F. a main piece of ash, wood three by four inches square, and five and a half feet long; to which all the other pieces are fixed by hooks and eye bolts, as per figure, by which the scythe-handles acting as it were upon hinges, the scythes are thereby made to form the same parallel line with the surface of the land, whe- ther it is concave, convex, or level. For this purpose it might be useful to make a joint in the middle of this piece, where the land is uneven. In the fore part of this piece a sawgate is made, three quarter^ of an inch from the under side, at the hind part of, the share, and one inch from the under side at the front of the wood (which gives an elevation to the point of the share) to receive the share where it is fixed as per figure. G G G G. four iron braces, one end of which is fixed in the scythe handles B B B B, and the other ends to the under side of the scythes by a screw. a. the staple to M'hich the chain and swinging tree is fixed, by which the machine is drawn. b b. two mortice holes which receives the tenons of two upright studs, to which pullies are fixed for lifting the scythes off the ground, when there is any thing to obstruct them. Fig. 2. A. represents one of the studs, (which are both alike) one and a half by four inches square, and three feet long. ^ • Fig. 2. B B. two small pullies fixed on each side of the upright studs. Through the pullies of the foremost stud, a small rope passes (one end of which is fixed to the outsides of the fore iron braces) and likewise through the pullies of the hindmost - stud, and then the two ropes unite at about two or three feet behind the whole machine. Through the pullies of the hindmost stud pass two other small ropes, 70 MINUTES OF On the Use of thii Thistk-Cut icr. Fig. 3. Plate TI, (one end of each being fixed to the outsides of the hindmost iron braces,) and Viz 2. ' _ then the four ropes unite together, where the manager holds them as a coachman does the reins of four horses. By these ropes the scythes may be lifted to any degree of elevation, by which means any unevenness of the ground, or other ob- structions on its surface, such as stones, roots, ant-hills, &c. may be easily avoided. Fig. 3. A. represents the swinging tree, thirty-three inches long. B. represents the chain, thirty inches long, which hooks into the staple a of Fig. 1. for drawing the machine. -Fig. 4. represents one of the scythes by itself. A. the scythe. B. the part by which it is fixed to the scythe handle, three quarters of an inch from the under side, where a savvgate is made to receive it, so that the whole of the scythe projects beyond the wood, and cuts the thistles three quarters of an inch above the surface. The whole being so plain, a further description of this machine seems quite unnecessary. When the scythes want sharpening, they may be either reared perpendiculai^ or taken off entirely, at the same time the horses should be ungeared. On the Use of the Thistle-Cutter, T, HE use of this machine is of considerable importance on pasture land that is subject to thistles and other weeds ; as it can with one man and a horse, cut twenty acres in a day, Thehe are no plants over which the oeconomical farmer ought to keep a more 'watchful eye than the thistle tribes as they are not only useless, but they PLATE ll r, > ' > ; \ , ^ ■ t ■■ ' ■ _ ■ \ V \ , - \ \ ..,._,,,..,. 1 2 1 \ 4. I r 6 Ull^wUt/.^. ^^ZaI^ OP •rarp. OTIVBESITT) ^IJT^t AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 71 Oh the Use of the Thistle-Cutter. occupy much ground, and being furnished with downy seeds, are capable of be- ing multiplied and carried almost to any distance. Hence the necessity of being acquainted with the qualities of each kind, in order to enable us to judge with certainty how far and by what means their de- struction may be effected. The English thistles meriting notice, ^s more or less noxious, are, 1. Cavlbuus luANCEOhArvs. Spear, or bull thistle. 2. Carduus Nutans. Musk thistle. S. Carduus Palustris. Marsh thistle. 4. Carduus Marian us. Milk thistle. 5. Cakvvvs Ac AJiTHOiT)j.s. fVelted, or curled thistle. 6. Onopordum Acanthium. Cotton thistle. 7. So^CHVS Olkr AC r.vs. Cotnmott sow thistle. 8. SoNCHUs Arvensis. Corn sow thistle. 9. Carduus Arvensis. Common, or Jield thistle. 1. The spear thistle,is a large strong biennial plant, about three or four feet high, the extremity of each leaf running out into a long sharp point, remarkably prickly; hence in some places it is called by the name of the bull thistle. Its heads of floM-ers are large, and it grows commonly by the sides of roads, near dunghills, and not unfrequently in fields and pastures. It flowers in June— September. 2. The musk thistle is an annual plant, and grows to the height of two or three feet, the heads hang down, and the flowers smell somewhat like musk, it is often found occupying whole fields, particularly on chalky or barren land. It flowers in July and August. * 3. The marsh thistle is a biennial plant, and grows very tall and prickly; its heads of flowers are numerous, small, and of a red colour ; it grows abundant- ly in wet meadows, and in woods. It flowers in July and August. 4, The viilk thistle is an annual plant; and is found plentiful in Avaste places, 72 MINUTES OF On the Use of the Thistle-Cutter. and upon old banks It is known almost to every one by its large beautiful leaves, which are variegated with white spots and veins, as if they had been sprinkled, with milk. It flowers in August. 5. The welted, or curled thistle is an annual plant. This thistle frequently appears on banks, and by road sides, but seldom intrudes into fields or pastures. This thistle flowers in June and July. 6. The cotton thistle is a biennial plant, and is to be found plentifully in tmcultivated places in many parts of England. The root is long and fibrous, and sends forth several oblong, sharp-pointed, whitish green, sinuated leaves,' covered with a cottony down, and set with spines on their edges. In the midst of these shoots up a stalk, to the height of five or six feet, divided towards the top into diverse branches, set with leaves at their joints, and having jagged, leafy borders running along them, edged with spines, as has the main stalk also. Each branch terminates with a scaly head of reddish purple, hermaphrodite florets, having narrow tubes, and cut at their brim into five teeth. Thcy contain five hairy sta- mina and one style,, and are succeeded by small oblong seeds, crowned with down. This thistle flowers in July. 7. The common sow thistle. This is an annual plant, and a very troublesome weed in fields and gardens. In some situations the whole plant is smooth, but in others it is rough, prickly on the margins and midribs of the leaves, and also on the peduncles and calyces of the flowers. The stalks are copiously stored with a lactescent juice. 8. Th£ corn soto thistle is a perennial plant, and like the other is a very troublesome weed in arable land. This thistle flowers in July and August. 9. The common or Jleld thistle, is a perennial plant, and has different pro- vincial names in different places, as the horse thistle, the cursed thistle, &c. and AGRICULTURE AND PLANTIN©. 73 O/i the Use of the Thistle-Cutter. surely if any plant deserves to have a mark set upon it, is certainly this. This thistle is more general in its growth than any of the others, being found not only by the sides of roads, but also in arable and pasture lands. t. It is remarkably prickly, grows from two to three feet high, its heads of' flowers are small and of a purplish colour, and sometimes white. But this thistle is too well known to require a particular description. It flowers in July. Of these thistles, all, except the two last, are either annual or biennial; that is, remain in the ground not more than one or two years, unless renewed by seed. The last two having perennial roots, continues in the earth, increasing and throwing out new shoots or stems every year. Hence it will appear obvious, that if the fi^rst seven species of thistles arc cut down, and rolled before they perfect their seed, the ground will entirely be cleared of them in two years. But the two last mentioned can no otherwise be destroyed, than by rooting them out on arable land by deep ploughing and fre- quent harrowings. On- pasture land, the corn sow thistle seldom makes its appearance, but in the hedge rows ; the last thistle is an inveterate plague to it. No plaits are more easily destroyed, than the first seven species of thistles; or with more difficulty, than the last two. Fallowing and laying the land down to pasture is the only method of de- stroying the corn sow thistle. But the only method of destroying the common thistle, is by cutting them in the bleeding season. For which purpose I have invented this machine, which greatly reduces the - cxpence, arid cuts the thistles nearer the ground than the common scythe. As soon as the thistles are in full flower, the machine must be set to work the length way of the ridges; and if the scythes are kept very sharp, it willmake T . 74 , MINUTES OF On the Construction of a Compound Roller. excellent work, and do a great deal of it. After the thistles are cut, they should lie a day or two, to perish by the loss of sap juice, the ground must then be cleared and the close or field rolled the cross way of the ridges with a very heavy roller, which so crushes the hollo>V stumps, and renders them so pervio.us to water, that their roots soon rot and die. In order to expedite the opperation of the machine, and the destruction of the weeds; the land should be cleaned of all kinds of rubbish, the latter end of March or beginning of April, dressed with the sward-dresser, and then rolled the cross way of the lands or ridges. Docks and nettles must be grubbed up by the root. DISSERTATION V. On the Construction of a Compound Roller, JL HIS machine is composed of a plain and spike roller in one frame, and is one of the most useful implements of husbandry, especially upon strong clay soils j Fig. 1. ' it may be used together or separately, and its weight may be accommoda- ted to the nature of every kind of soil. Plate III. Fig. 1. Is a perspective view of the whole machine. A. is the spike roller, made of a piece of oak wood, seven feet long, and fif- teen and a quarter inches diameter, hooped with iron at each end. Divide the circumference of this roller into twelve equal parts, from which draw parallel lines, one division oblique, the whole length of the roller. On the first of these lines set off tAvo inches at each end, and divide the re- mainder into twenty equal parts of four inches each. On the second line set off four inches at each end, and divide the remainder AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING. 75 On the CoTistrucfion of a Compound Roller. into nineteen equal parts, -and so of all the other lines alternately. In every divi- sion fix an iron spike, so that there will be twenty spikes in one row, and nine- teen in the other, throughout the whole circumference, making in all two hundred and thirty-four spikes. That part of the spike which projects out of the wood is four inches long, one inch square at the circumference of the roller, and three quarters of an inch square at the point. The tong- which goes into the wood is four inches long, seven-eights of an inch square at the circumference of the roller, and tapers to a point at the end. B. is the plain roller, made of a piece of oak wood, seven feet long, and eighteen inches diameter. In the centre of each end of both rollers are fixed iron bushes of two inches diameter. C. the bow part of the left hand side of the frame, made of iron, four inches broad, half an inch thick, and is a segment of a circle twenty-seven and a half inches radius ; fixed as per figure, for turning the rollers upside down. D. is the string part of the bow, five feet two inches long, and eight by three inches square, made of oak" wood. In these pieces are fixed gudgeons of two in- ches diameter as at a a, on which the rollers move, and are four feet one and a half inches asunder. E E E E. the four shafts, eleven feet long, six by three and a half inches square at the hinder ends, through which the center bolt passes. F F F F. four bars, four by one and a half inches square, and three and a half feet long, for bracing the shafts together. G G. two bars, eight feet long, and three by eight inches square, with dou- ble tenons at each end for bracing the outside frames together. In the outer ends of these tenons are linchpins, for the convenience of taking the machine to pieces, byt these are omitted in the plate. H. the centre bolt made of hammered iron, two and a quarter inches diame- ter ; at one end is a round and head, at the other a linchpin, as per figure. 76 MINUTES OF On the Use of the Compound Roller. The principal use of this bolt is to give the uppermost roller an inclination forwards when working, and the degree of inclination is governed by the breadth of, and the distance between the two braces G G, which rest upon the shafts when the roller is at; work, so as to make the horses carry a little on their backs, otherwise it would be in danger of endeavouring to fall backwards. The distance between G G, is twelve inches, or six inches from the centre of the bolt H. Two neighbouring farmers joined and got one of these compound rollers made by this new plau, and they now let it out at half-a-guinea per day. On the Use of the Compound Roller, JL HE principal use of this instrument is to reduce strong stubborn soils to a fme tilth; for which purpose its powers are wonderful in pulverizing such land. It gives the farmer a command over dry seasons, and enables him to sow his spring and fallow crops in proper time. It also enables him to clean his arable land of Aveeds, whether they arc propagated by the root or by the seed. By passing this roller over the land once, twice, or thrice, and drag harroAV- ing it between every rolling, it will be sufficiently fine for any purpose wanted. When the clods are reduced so small that the spike roller can make very little more impression upon them, the plain roller and drag harrow may be used to advantage. Th IS roller is likewise of very great use in restoring degenerated sward. Early in March, when the sward will admit the spikes of the roller, but not the horses feet ; cover it fust with rotten dung, or compost, at the rate of eight Plate in '!iim;;Li.!i[i!iiiiii.:i:ir, .u I 1 1 n.i. 1 1 M I IlililililUllllllPi'^ BMowft^i j:iir 90 MINUTES OF On the Construction oj a Couch Grass Rake. staples, as per figure. These handles are three feet four inches long, and three by- two inches square. H. is a profile of the forked iron bar, by which the rake head is fixed to the axletree by two bolts. I. an iron bolt or hook, hooked like an L, on which the forked iron bar H. hangs. Fig. 2. Fig 2. Is a horizontal view of the machine. A A. the land wheels. B. the axletree, four feet long. C C. the shafts. D. the rake head, six feet six inches long, in which are fixed seventeen teeth at four inches distance from centre to centre, as per figure. F F. the regulating wheels, fixed in the outer mortises in the rake head, and made fast by a screw at the ends of it, which presses upon the shank of the wheel. G G. the handles by which the rake is lifted up jand cleaned. H II. the forked iron bars which hang on the hooks 1 1, and fixed in the rake head, as per figure. I I. iron hooks fixed in the axletree, as per figure. K. a wooden bar, four feet long, and four by two inches square, for bracing the shafts together. L. tAvo iron arms for bracing the shafts more completely, and made fast to the axletree and shafts with iron bolts, as per figure. M M. two pins for fixing the wheels at any depth. When the machine is travelling from one place to another, the rake head is reared upright and made fast to the brace K, ^.HowUirjtsjJIfi. AGRICULTURE AND PLANTI:j^^C$i !.J:-*Oi^M!Pl On the Use of the Couch Grass Rake. On the Use of the Couch Grass Rake, a 'OUCH grass is one of the worst of weeds among corn, and one of the most difficult to extirpate in arable laud; as every joint of the root throws out a num- ber of stems. The usual method of destroying couch grass, is by fallowing the land, har- rowing and rolling it well, and then gathering the couch grass by hand, into heaps, and burning it ; which is not only very tedious but expensive. But by the use of this machine and the couch grass drag, the labouf^j^ expense is.very much reduced. Between the second and third ploughings, is the most proper time to be- gin the operations of cleaning the land of couch grass. The first thing to be done is, to make the land fine by rolling and harrow- ing, then to leave the land under the impression of the roller, in order to level the surface, and to press down the clods out of the way of the rake. The next thing to be done, is to rake the land the cross way of the ridges, and when the rake has gathered as much of the couch grass as it can hold with- out losing any of it, the man must lift up the handles so high as to permit the couch grass to fall off from the rake teeth; the horse then going forward, he dropa the rake just beyond the row thus gathered together. This he repeats as often as the rake is full, till he reaches the side of the field. He then turns, and, coming back by the side of the part raked, empties the rake adjoining to the first row. By this means the couch grass lies in streight rows the length way of the lands. When the field is finished this way, or before, the roAvs must then be collected into heaps, forked over to lighten the couch grass, and then burnt. 9^ MINUTES OF Oti the Use of the Couch Grass Rake. If the land is still full of couch grass within the surface, it must be first drag harrowed, then harrowed twice or thrice, rolled and raked a second time. Plough the land the third time, and after it has laid two or three weeks to ameliorate; then harrow, roll, and rake the third time. If any more couch grass remains, the land must be dragged, harrowed, roll- ed, raked, forked a fourth time as before, and the couch grass burnt. These ope- rations "must be repeated until the couch grass is either got clean out of the land, or is killed by the drought. This rake may also be advantageously employed in raking the hay upon mea,- dow ground, into windrows, to be ready for putting into cock. FINIS. J DAY AND TO SI nn \, ^® '"^ THE FOURTu OVEROUE. "^^ °'' THE SEVENTH dIy I'D21-96m-7,'37 YF 00079