!? 1 / UC-NRLF 711 717 PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS BY E.G.MONTGOMERY. M.A UNIVERSITY FARM S&I8S " The first f ai mer was the first man, and all historic nobility rests on possession and use of land." EMERSON. LIPPINCOTT'S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY KARY C. DAVIS, PH.D. (CORNELL) PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS BY E. G. MONTGOMERY, M.A. PROFESSOR OF FARM CROPS, CORNELL UNIVERSITY LiPPiNCOTT's FARM MANUALS Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D., Knapp School of Country Life, Nashville, Tenn. Every effort is made to keep these standard texts up-to-date, and new editions are published and revisions made whenever necessary. PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY By GEORGE E. DAY, B.S.A. Third Edition, Revised PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY 3y HARRY R. LEWIS, M.Agr. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY By CARL W. GAY, D.V.M., B.S.A. Third Edition, Revised PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING By FRED C. SEARS, M.S. Second Edition, Revised PRODUCTIVE VEGETABLE GROWING By JOHN W. LLOYD, M.S.A. Third Edition Revised PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS By F. W. WOLL, Ph.D., Third Edition, Revised COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS By R. A. CRAIG, D.V.M., Third Edition, Revised PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS By E. G. MONTGOMERY, M.A. Third Edition, Revised PRODUCTIVE BEE KEEPING By FRANK C. PELLETT. Second Edition, Revised PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING By R. M. WASHBURN, M.S.A. Second Edition, Revised INJURIOUS INSECTS AND USEFUL BIRDS ByF. L.' WASHBURN, M.A. PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY By WALTER C. COFFEY, M.A. PRODUCTIVE SMALL FRUIT CULTURE By FRED C. SEARS, M.S. PRODUCTIVE SOILS By WILBERT W. WEIR, M.S. LIPPINCOTT'S COLLEGE TEXTS SOIL PHYSICS AND MANAGEMENT By J. G. MOSIER, B.S., A. F. GUSTAFSON, M.S. FARM LIFE TEXT SERIES APPLIED ECONOMIC BOTANY By MELVILLE T. COOK, Ph.D. PRODUCTIVE PLANT HUSBANDRY By KARY C. DAVIS. Second Edition, Revised HORTICULTURE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS By KARY C. DAVIS. Second Edition, Revised PRODUCTIVE SOILS (Abridged Edition) By WILBERT W. WEIR, M.S. VOCATIONAL CHEMISTRY By J. J. WILLAMAN LABORATORY MANUALS AND NOTEBOOKS ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS SOILS, By J. F. EASTMAN and K. C. DAVIS POULTRY, By H. R. LEWIS DAIRYING, By E. L. ANTHONY FEEDING, By F. W. WOLL FARM CROPS, By F. W. LATHROP LiPPiNCOTT's FARM MANUALS EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, PH.D. (CORNELL) PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS BY E. G. MONTGOMERY, M.A. PROFESSOR OF FARM CROPS, CORNELL UNIVERSITY ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT " If vain our toil, We ought to blame the culture, not the soil." POPE Essay on Man THIRD EDITION REVISED PHILADELPHIA & LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY COPYRIGHT, IQl6, IQl8, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A, PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION Considerable revision has been made in this third edition. The first two editions of the book have had a very wide use in the colleges and agricultural schools. However, in the second edition in 1918 it was not possible to bring much statistical data up-to-date, as the war had disturbed the collection of crop statistics in many foreign countries and conditions were generally abnormal. It is possible now to bring the world statistics in most cases up to date. In addition, the Fourteenth Census of the United States has been completed and a new, complete set of charts prepared by the Department of Agriculture, on the distribution of crops, which I am fortunate in being able to include in this new edition. Also the proposed Federal standards for rice, sorghum, and rye have been included, bringing the book up-to-date in practically all its essential details. E. G. MONTGOMERY. WASHINGTON, D. C. September 14, 1922. PREFACE IN the preparation of this book, the author has endeavored to develop the fundamental principles of crop production, as demon- strated by practical experience. In general the principles referred to are supported by experimental evidence. No exhaustive analysis of experimental evidence is attempted, but only sufficient to clearly prove the principles. Involved and debatable problems are generally avoided, as there is sufficient standard and accepted work for the scope of this book. The text is intended for the use of students having some prac- tical knowledge of crop production. It is hoped to meet the needs of students taking a general agricultural course. Being of a prac- tical nature, the book will also be found a handy book for farmers desiring a- reference book covering all agricultural crops. E. G. MONTGOMERY. CORNELL UNIVERSITY, Ithaca, N. Y., December, 1915. CONTENTS CHAPTER I CLASSIFICATION, ORIGIN, AND DISTRIBUTION OP FIELD CROPS 1 Early Culture of Plants Number of Cultivated Plants Classifica- tion by Use Important Botanical Groups The Most Important Crops Factors Affecting the Culture of Crops. CHAPTER II How PLANTS GROW 5 The Parts of a Plant The General Functions Elements Required for Growth Plant Food Sources Relative Composition of Plants How Roots and Leaves Perform Their Functions The Root System Root-hairs Osmosis Evaporation of Plant Water Leaves and Their Functions Leaf Structure Assimilation Distribution of Manufactured Products. CHAPTER III THE PRODUCTION OP SEEDS 13 Function and Use of Seeds Nature of Seeds Preserving the Vital- ity of Seeds Good Seeds How Germination Takes Place When Seeds Sprout Large and Small Seeds Shrunken Seeds Structure of Seeds. CHAPTER IV COMPARATIVE STUDY OP CEREALS 21 Germination Temporary and Permanent Roots Tillers The Stems of Cereals The Ear or Head The Spikelet The Flower Fertilization Cross- and Self-Fertilization Formation of the Seed -r-Composition of the Seed Composition of Cereals Composition of Hard and Soft Grain Effect of Climate on Composition Moisture in Grain. CHAPTER V CROPPING SYSTEMS 31 Productiveness How Rock Minerals Become Soluble Nitrogen Its Fixation by Legumes Importance of Organic Matter Effects of Cropping Single Cropping System Alternating Crops Rota- tion Farming What Rotation Does Rotations Do Not Keep Up Mineral Supply Some Results with Rotation Applying Fertilizers Amount Applied Lime Manure Care of Manure. CHAPTER VI CORN 41 Where Corn is Produced The Corn Belt The Origin of Corn- Classification of Corn Pop-corn Flint Corn Dent Corn Soft Corn Sweet Corn Number of Varieties Growth and Develop- ment of Parts Fertilization Hybridizing. CHAPTER VII CLIMATE AND SOIL REQUIRED FOR CORN 55 Effect of Climate Sunshine Soils for Corn Length of Growing Season Rainfall -Importance of Adaptation. vii yiii CONTENTS CHAPTER VIII CORN CULTURE 58 Selecting a Variety Improvement and Breeding of Corn Varie- ties Ear-to-row Breeding Crossing Selection and Care of Seed Corn Selecting Seed from Crib Field Selection Storing Seed Corn Examining Seed Corn Germination Tests Germination Box Doll Baby Germinator Butt and Tip Kernels for Seed. CHAPTER IX PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CORN 67 Plowing Corn Land Depth of Plowing Fall or Spring Plowing Time of Spring Plowing Preparation After Plowing Planting Corn Hand Planting Drilling Check-row Planting Listing Yield of Hill and Drill Planting Time of Planting Depth of Planting Rate of Planting Relation of Soil and Climate. CHAPTER X TILLAGE FOR CORN 74 Tillage Machinery Weeders Lister Cultivators Reasons for Inter- tillage Loss of Soil Moisture Water Loss in Fields Conserving Moisture in a Corn Field Effect of Weeds The Function of Inter- culture for Corn Depth of Cultivation Frequency of Cultivation. CHAPTER XI HARVESTING AND UTILIZING CORN 80 Methods of Harvesting Pasturing Corn Stalks Cost of Saving Stover Harvesting Corn Fodder Corn Harvesters and Binders Shocking Fodder Hauling and Storing Fodder When to Harvest Fodder Relative Proportion of Parts Husking Ears Storing Ears Shrinkage of Corn in Curing Cost of Producing Corn How Silage is Made Uses of Corn Glucose Cereal Foods Starch Distillery Products. CHAPTER XII CORN INSECTS AND DISEASES 91 Corn Insects Below Ground Insects Above Ground Migratory Insects Birds and Rodents. CHAPTER XIII POP-CORN AND SWEET CORN 93 Pop-corn Varieties Harvesting Marketing Sweet Corn Varie- ties Harvesting. CHAPTER XIV CORN JUDGING 95 Practical Characters Maturity Soundness Fancy Characters Shape of Ear Shape of Kernels Character of Germ The Score Card Corn Judging Explanation of Points Fancy Points Prac- tice Work in Scoring Corn. CHAPTER XV WHEAT 104 Production of Wheat Wheat in the United States Production Not Increasing Spring and Winter Wheat Advantages of Winter Wheat Wheat as a Bread Crop. CONTENTS j x CHAPTER XVI ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF WHEAT TYPES 109 Origin Related Wild Forms Classification Bread Wheats Hard and Soft Wheat Wheat Regions The Durum Wheat Group Drought Resistances-Durum Wheat Types The Spelt Wheat Group How Varieties Originate Varieties by Selection Natural Occur- rence of New Types Examples of Successful Selection Crossing Wheats Winter and Spring Varieties. CHAPTER XVII WHEAT CULTURE 123 Soils for Wheat Soil Types Compared Early Plowing for Winter Wheat The Compact Seed-bed Deep or Shallow Plowing Un- certainty of Rules Fertilizers for Wheat Minerals Used in Early Growth Time of Sowing Winter Wheat Time of Sowing Spring Wheat Rate of Sowing Wheat Broadcast Sowing vs. Drilling Winter-killing Seed Wheat Changing Seed Home-grown Seed at Ontario Cultivation of Wheat Pasturing Wheat Summer Fallow for Wheat The Listing Method. CHAPTER XVIII HARVESTING, MARKETING, AND UTILIZING WHEAT 132 Harvesting Shocking Threshing from Shock or Stack Cost of Producing Wheat Shrinkage in Storage Market Grades. CHAPTER XIX DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES 137 Rust Smut Infection Treatment of Seed Scab Insect Ene- mies Hessian Fly Chinch Bugs The Plant Louse The Wheat Midge. CHAPTER XX OATS 141 Production of Oats Oats in the United States Early History Classification of Oats Color of Grain Distribution of Groups Spring and Winter Oats Early and Late Oats Hulless Oats Description of Oat Plant Tillering or Stooling Description of Oat Spikelet The Oat Grain Factors Affecting Percentage of Hull Value of Hull and Kernel Estimating Value of Oat Grain Weight per Bushel Clipped Oats Quality of Oat Straw Proportion of Grain to Straw. CHAPTER XXI CULTURE OF OATS 157 Climatic R-equirements Importance of Water -Soils Adapted to Oats Fertilizer and Manure for Oats Kind of Fertilizer Prepara- tion of Seed-bed Preparing Seed Oats Treating Oats for Smut Formalin Treatment Time of Seeding Oats Rate of Seeding Method of Sowing Depth of Sowing Oats as a Nurse Crop Sow- ing Oats in Mixtures Cultivation of Oats Spraying for Weeds. CHAPTER XXII HARVESTING AND UTILIZING THE OAT CROP 167 Time of Cutting Methods of Harvesting Shocking Oats Thresh- ing Oats Storing Oats in Barns or Stacks Diseases and Insects Affecting Oats Oat Smut and Rust Spikelet Blight Blade Blight Utilizing the Oat Crop Preparing for Market Market Grades. X CONTENTS CHAPTER XXIII BARLEY 174 Production of Bariey Barley in the United StatesOrigin and Description of Barley TypesClassification of Barleys Structure of the Spike The Hulless Barleys Types of Awn Color of Grain Winter and Spring Barleys Types in Cultivation Distribution of Types Varieties in Use Comparative Qualities Feed Barley. CHAPTER XXIV RYE 189 Rye Production Origin and History Description of the Plant The Rye Grain Classification of Rye Climate for Rye Soils for Rye Rye in Rotations Rye and Vetch Cultural Methods Harvesting Rye Threshing Rye Market for Rye Straw World's Rye Crop and Price of Wheat Insect Enemies and Diseases. CHAPTER XXV BUCKWHEAT 196 Buckwheat Production Origin and History Relationships De- scription of Plant The Flowers The Buckwheat Grain Composi- tion, Classification Common Buckwheat Tartary Buckwheat Climate for Buckwheat Soils for Buckwheat Fertilizers Prepara- tion of Land Time of Seeding Sowing the Seed Harvesting Threshing Uses of Buckwheat Buckwheat as Green Manure. CHAPTER XXVI COTTON 203 World Production of Cotton Production in the United States Pro- duction by States Early History of Cotton History in America Invention of the Cotton Gin Cotton Manufacture in the United States Classification Species Grown in the United States Up- land Cotton Varieties Description of the Cotton Plant Fiber Seed By-products of Cotton. CHAPTER XXVII COTTON CULTURE 218 Climate Soils Fertilizers The Culture of Cotton Disposal of Old Stalks Time of Plowing Method of Plowing Depth of Plowing Disking and Harrowing Importance of Thorough Prepa- ration Planting on Ridges or Beds Planting Level Level Culture vs. Ridge Culture Date of Planting The Process of Planting Thinning or Chopping Cultivation Harvesting Marketing the Crop Insect Enemies of Cotton Diseases of Cotton. CHAPTER XXVIII FLAX 239 Importance of the Crop Culture Harvesting Diseases. CHAPTER XXIX SORGHUMS 244 Where Produced The Acreage Classification Kafir or Kafir Corn Durra The Broom Corn Group Climate for Sorghums Drought resistance Soils for Sorghums Effect of Sorghums on Land Cultural Methods Rate of Seeding Time of Seeding Planting and Cultivation Harvesting Grain Sorghums Yield of Grain Sorghums Feeding Value of Grain Sorghums Sorghum for Forage Rate of Sowing Sorghums for Soiling For Syrup Broorn Corn Culture. CONTENTS Xi CHAPTER XXX IRISH POTATOES 255 Where Grown Origin and History of Potatoes Description of Plant Seeds Tuber Classification Shape of Tuber Color of Skin Sprouts Flowers Principal Groups Importance of Groups In the Northeastern States In Southeastern States North Central States Western States Market Types Depth of and Number of Eyes Structure and Composition Climate and Soils for Potatoes Degeneration Soils for Potatoes Manures and Fer- tilizers Lime Rotations Applying Fertilizer. CHAPTER XXXI CULTURE OF IRISH POTATOES 271 Source of Seed Second Crop Seed Immature Seed Storage of Seed Sprouting Seed Greening Seed Amount of Seed to Plant Whole vs. Cut Seed Time of Planting Depth of Planting Hill vs. Drill Planting Level vs. Ridge Cultivation Tools for Cultivation Harvesting the Crop Storage Changes in Storage Shrinking in Storage Cold Storages-Diseases and Insects Controlling Tuber Diseases Controlling Vine Diseases Insects and Insecticides Im- provement and Breeding Origin of New Varieties Potatoes from Seeds Sports or Mutations Systematic Selections. CHAPTER XXXII SWEET POTATOES 288 The Roots Origin and History Types and Varieties Market Types Where Grown Climate Soil Manure and Fertilizers Applying Fertilizers Preparation of Land Ridging and Level Cul- ture Propagation of Plants Preparation of the Hot-bed Number of Plants Pulling the Plants for Planting Setting the Plants Dis- tance Apart Cultivation Harvesting Tools Storing Construc- tion of Pits Diseases and Insects. CHAPTER XXXIII CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF FORAGE CROPS 301 Classification Acreage Where Grown Dominant Types Tim- othy and Red Clover Region Cow Pea Region Bermuda and Johnson Grass Alfalfa Region Grain Hay Wild Hay Blue-grass White Clover Increasing Production Yield and Prices of Hay. CHAPTER XXXIV CHARACTERISTICS OF ECONOMIC GRASSES AND LEGUMES 307 Number of Cultivated Grasses Some Important Requirements Cheap Seed Palatable, Productive, Persistent Origin of Forage Grasses The Improvement of Grasses Characteristics of Grasses Grass Roots Bunch and Sod Grasses Base of Stems Prostrate Stolons Rhizomes Adaptation of Types Palatability of Grasses Adaptation to Wet or Dry Land Adaptation to Acid or Limestone Soils Life Period of Forage Plants Permanent Grasses. CHAPTER XXXV GRASS MIXTURES SEEDS AND SEEDING 317 For Pastures and Lawns Meadow Mixtures Soil Not Uniform Pasture Mixtures Supplementary Pastures Temporary Pastures Permanent. Pastures Other Grasses Natural PasturesGrass Seeds Inert Matter Sold by Weight Dead Seeds Immature Seeds x ii CONTENTS Hard Seeds Weed Seeds Germination Tests Actual Value of Seed Adulteration of Seeds Buying Grass Seed Where Seeds are Grown Sowing Grass Crops Nurse Crops Sowing Grass Crops Alone Sowing in Cultivated Crops Time of Sowing Amount of Seed to Sow. CHAPTER XXXVI CARE OF GRASS 338 Fertilizers for Grass Kinds and Amounts of Fertilizers Methods of Application Manure for Grass Land Reasons for Fertilization Kind of Meadows to Fertilize Weeds in Meadows. CHAPTER XXXVII THE PRINCIPAL CULTIVATED GRASSES. 343 Timothy Origin and History Climatic Adaptations Its Advan- tages Seed and Seeding Lime and Fertilizers Cutting for Hay Composition and Feeding Value Yield and Life History Diseases and Insects Redtop Origin and History Climatic Adaptations Life History For Pasture and Meadow Seed and Seeding Bent Grasses Orchard-grass Origin and History Climatic and Soil Adaptations Advantages and Disadvantages Seed and Seeding Mixtures of Orchard-grass The Blue-grasses Kentucky Blue- grass Origin and History Soil and Climatic Adaptations Its Characteristics^-Seeds and Seeding Time of Seeding Seed Production Canadian Blue-grass Origin and History Seed and Seeding. CHAPTER XXXVIII THE SECONDARY GRASSES 358 Brome-grass Characteristics Seed and Seeding Tall Meadow Oat-grass Origin and History Climatic Adaptations Character- istics Seed and Seeding Meadow Fescue Origin and History Adaptations Seed and Seeding Characteristics Rye-grasses Per- ennial Rye-grass Origin and History Adaptations and Character- istics Seed and Seeding Italian Rye-grass Origin and History Adaptation and Characteristics Seed and Seeding Bermuda Grass Description Climate and Soils Culture and Yield Mix- tures for Bermuda Grass Johnson Grass Culture Soudan Grass. CHAPTER XXXIX MILLETS. . 369 Distribution Kinds Culture Rate of Sowing Feeding Value Japanese Barnyard Millet Broom-corn Millet Pearl Millet. CHAPTER XL LEGUMES 375 Principal Cultivated Legumes Comparison with Grasses ^Compo- sition of Legumes and Grasses Effect on Fertility of the Soil Time of Harvesting How Legumes Take Nitrogen from the Air Forms for Different Legumes How to Inoculate Need of Inoculation Soils for Legumes Lime Requirements of Legumes. CHAPTER XLI ALFALFA 384 Origin and History Climatic Requirements Classification Blue- flowered Alfalfa Variegated Alfalfas Yellow-flowered Alfalfa Alfalfa Roots Development of Shoots Life Period of Alfalfa Pollination Soils for Alfalfa Lime Manure and Fertilizers CONTENTS x jii Methods of Seeding Amount of Seed Inoculation for Alfalfa Time of Sowing Harvesting Alfalfa The Seed Crop Growing Alfalfa in Rows Cultivation of Alfalfa Pasturing Alfalfa Dis- eases and Insect Enemies. CHAPTER XLII THE CLOVERS 398 Red Clover Origin and History Soils for Red Clover Agricultural Varieties Sowing Clover Rate of Sowing Fertilizers for Clover Clover in Rotation Roots of Clover ^Sterns and Leaves Harvest- ing Red Clover Brown Hay Ensilage Pollination and Seed Production The Seed Crop Harvesting Color of Seed Diseases Inoculation for Clover Alsike Clover Characters Climate and Soil Adaptations Culture White Clover Description Adapta- tions Mixtures y-Sweet Clover Description Seed and Seeding Adaptation -Utilizing the Crop Inoculation Crimson Clover Description Adaptation Seed and Seeding Utilizing the Crop Burr Clover Japan Clover Description Adaptations Culture Utilization Velvet Beans Florida Beggar Weed. CHAPTER XLIII Cow PEAS, SOY BEANS, FIELD PEAS, VETCHES, PEANUTS 420 Cow Peas Origin and History Classification Best Known Varie- ties Adaptations Culture Time of Sowing Harvesting Insects and Diseases Soy Beans Origin and History Varieties Adapta- tions Description Culture for Seed Production Growing Soy Beans for Forage Mixed with Corn Inoculation Utilizing the Crop Field Peas Adaptations Culture Mixtures Utilization Pea Weevil Vetches Common Vetch Adaptations Culture Harvesting Pasture Hairy Vetch Adaptations Culture Har- vesting Other Vetches Vetch-like Plants Peanut Origin and History Where Grown Description Classification of Varieties Composition Climatic Requirements Soils Fertilizers and Ma- nures Preparation of the Land Distance to Plant Time of Plant- ing Method of Cultivation Harvesting Time of Digging Methods of Digging Curing the Peanuts Picking and Storing Preparation for Market Uses of the Peanut Peanuts as a Stock Feed Insects and Diseases. CHAPTER XLIV ROOT CROPS 450 Importance Beets Root, Stem and Crown Shape of Mangels Structure Composition Preparation of Land Manure and Fertil- izers Seeding Thinning Cultivation Harvesting Yields Feeding Value TurnipsComparison of Beets and Turnips Cul- ture Rape Carrots . CHAPTER XLV TOBACCO PRODUCTION 458 Importance in America Where Grown Description Composition Types and Varieties^Soils and Effects of Soil on Type Effect of Crop on Soil Fertilizers for Special Results For the Various Tobacco Regions Forms of Potash to Use Source of Nitrogen Of Phosphoric Acid Stalks and Stems Breeding and Selecting Tobacco The Plant Bed Sowing the Seed Preparing the Field- Distances of Planting Transplanting to the Field Seasons for Setting in Different Regions Care of the Growing Crop Cultiva- Xhr CONTENTS tion Topping-^Suckering Priming Tobacco Rotations in Different Regions Growing Tobacco Under Artificial Shades-Harvesting Curing Air Curing Open Fire Curing Flue-curing Stripping > Sorting and Tying Storing Marketing Yields and Prices Insect Enemies Tobacco Horn Worm Cutworms Wireworms Bud- worms The Splitworm Tobacco Thrips Fungous Diseases Bed- rot or Damping Off Root Rot or Black Root Brown and White Rusts Mosaic Disease or Calico Shed Burn or Pole Rot Stem Rot Wet Butts or Fat Stem Dlr.ck Rot in Sweating White Vein Disease Molds or Rusts. APPENDICES I. LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF SEEDS 482 II. MARKET GRADES OF HAY AND STRAW 484 III. GRADES OF GRAIN 486 WHEAT 486 RYE 491 CORN 495 OATS 498 SORGHUMS 503 RICE 507 INDEX 513 ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE Wheat, the Staff of Life, as Grown in the Great Plains of Nebraska . Frontispiece 1. The Agricultural Regions of the United States la.Diagram Illustrating the Relative Proportion of Dry Matter and Water in a Green Plant 6 2. Root-hairs 8 3. Diagram Illustrating the Assimilation of Food Materials by a Plant . 10 4. Germination in Corn 15 5. Wheat Grain in Three Stages of Germination, on the First, Second, and Third Days after Being Placed in Germinator 16 6. Germinator Made by Inverting a Glass Tumbler on a Glass Plate; Also One Made with Two Plates and Blotting Paper 18 7. A Box Germinator 19 8. Germinating Oats and Barley 21 9. Early Development of Wheat Plant 22 10. Comparative Study of Spikelets 24 11. Diagram of a Wheat Flower 25 12. Ovary of Wheat Grain 25 13. Diagram of a Corn Kernel to Show the Four Principal Parts 26 14. Plowing Under Rye for Green Manure 33 15. Distribution of Corn Production in the United States 42 16. Coyote Corn, a Form Found Growing W T ild in Mexico 44 17. Six Principal Types of Corn 45 18. Kernels of Principal Types of Corn 46 19. Ears of Corn in Full Silk, and Ready to be Fertilized 50 20. Method of Preparing a Laboratory Exercise, and also Showing in Detail the Male and Female Flowers of Corn 51 21. Corn Plant Prepared for Artificial Crossing 52 22. Effect of Crossing and Self-Fertilization on Vigor of Plants 53 23. Stalk of Prolific Corn, Leaves Removed to Show Ears 59 24. Difference in Types of Corn 60 25. Two Types of Learning Corn Developed by Six Years' Selection at the Illinois Experiment Station 61 26. A Box Tester for Seed Corn 63 27. Wheat Plant Illustrating the Principle that Permanent Roots Always Develop at About the Same Depth, Whether the Seed Is Planted Deep or Shallow 70 28. Two-row Cultivator, for Listed Corn, at Work 75 29. Drawing Showing the Distribution of Corn Roots in the Soil 78 29a.Corn Cut for Forage or Fodder 30. Corn Sold or to be Sold 30a. Harvesting Corn by Hand . 81 31. Harvesting Corn with a Corn Binder 82 Sla.Crops Cut for Silage, Acreage 1919 32. An Ideal Ear of Dent Corn of Fancy Type 96 33. Shape of Ear 97 34. Tips of Ears 100 35. Butts of Ears 100 XV XVI ILLUSTRATIONS 36. Shape of Kernels 100 37. Shallow, Medium and Deep Kernels. Large Shank, Medium, and Too Small 101 38. A Well-selected Exhibit of Fancy Ears 101 39. Production of Wheat in the World 105 40. Spring Wheat Production 106 41. Winter WTheat Production 107 42. Bread Wheats 110 43. Durum Wheat Group 112 44. Spelt Wheat Group 1 1;} 45. The Principal W T heat Regions, According to Type of Wheat Grown. 114 46. Distribution of Durum Wheat 115 47. Types of Wheat Grains 117 48. Grains of Spelt Wheat Group 118 49. An Example of Selection 118 50. Drilling W T heat with a Double Disc Drill 128 51. Distribution of Oat Production 142 52. Distribution of Oat Production in the United States 143 53. Loose Type of Side Panicle, Sparrow bill 144 54. Compact side Oats, and Open Type of Semiside Oats. Varieties, Clydsdale and Black Finnish 145 55. Types of Oat Grain 146 56. Three Types of Early Oats, of Open Panicle Type 147 57. Large White Oats, Open Panicle, Variety Big Four, and Chinese Hulless Oats 149 58. Oats Harvest in Nebraska 168 59. Good Shocks of Oats, Well Capped 169 60. Distribution of Barley Production in the World 175 61. Distribution of Barley Production in United States 176 62. Heads of Six-row, Four-row, and Two-row Barley 177 63. Difference Between Zeocriton Type and Distichum Type, Both Six- row and Two-row . '. 178 64. Comparison of Two-row and Six-row Barley Grains 179 65. Kernels of Hulless Barley 179 66. The Hooded or Trifurcate Type and Awned Barley 180 67. Types of Six-row Barley. 182 68. Types of Two-row Barley 183 69. Four Types of Hulless Barley Kernels 184 70. Comparison of Spikelets of Six-row and Two-row Barleys 185 70a.Distribution of Rye Acreage 71. Distribution of Rye Culture in the World 190 72. Rye 191 73. Distribution of Buckwheat in United States 197 74. Types of Buckwheat Grain 199 74a.Distribution of Cotton Acreage and Production in the United States . 75. An American Short-staple, Upland Variety, Culpepper 208 76. An American Long-staple, Upland Variety, Allen's Early 209 77. The Flower of Upland Cotton, Viewed from the Side 211 78. Showing the "Squares" of Cotton the Unopened Buds Enclosed by the Bracts 211 79. Showing the Opening of the Cotton Ball; and the Lock Cotton, or Seed Cotton 212 80. The Fiber of an Upland Short-staple Variety 213 81. The Fiber of an Upland Long-staple Variety 213 82. Showing the Three Classes of Cotton Fibers 214 ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 83. Showing Two Types of Cotton Seed 215 84. A Field of Upland Cotton in September 219 85. Cultivating the Corn Field with a Weeder Before the Crop Has Come Up 230 86. The Use of Two-row Riding Cultivators 231 87. Cotton Cultivation with a Single-row Cultivator 232 88. Production of Flaxseed in the World 240 80. Distribution of Flax Production (Seed) in United States 241 90. Flaxseed Balls 242 90a. Distribution of Sorghums for Grains 91. Sorghums and Sugar Cane Cut for Forage 9 la. Head of Amber Sweet Sorghum 246 92. Plant of Kafir Corn 247 93. Non-saccharine Sorghums 247 94. Sorghum Seeds 248 95. Broom-corn Group of Sorghums 249 96. Field of Selected Brown Kowliang 251 97. Chart Showing Distribution of Potato Production in the World. . 256 98. Chart Showing the Distribution of Potato Acreage in the United States 258 99. Drawing in Diagram of Potato Flower, and Mature Seed Balls . . . 259 100. Illustration of a Potato Plant, Showing Relation of the Above- ground Stem and Under-ground Stem 260 101. Variety, Irish Cobbler, Representing the Early, Round, White- skinned Type 2(5 1 102. Rural New Yorker, Representing the Oval-flattened Type of White- skinned Potatoes with Blue Sprouts 261 103. Early Rose, Representing the Rose Group of Long, Pink or Red- skinned Potatoes with Rather Deep Eyes 202 104. Russet Burbank, Representing the Medium Long Types of the Burbank Group '. 263 105. Illustration Showing the Internal Structure of a Potato Tuber, and Relation to Structure of a Stem 265 106. Intensive Potato Culture on a Long Island Farm, Under the "Skinner System" of Irrigation 269 107. Comparing Tubers Sprouted in Strong Light and in Darkness. . . . 273 108. A Good Type of Cultivator. The Rows Have Already Been Ridged with a Hiller 277 10!). A Large Potato Digger 278 110. A Dozen Plants, in a Good Field, Killed by the Disease Rhizoctonia 280 111. A Power Sprayer That Will Spray Seven Rows at One Time 281 112. Potato Affected with the Rot, Resulting from Late Blight 282 113. A Good Field of Potatoes 283 114. A Single Sweet Potato from the Hot-bed, Showing Many Young Sprouts 288 1 15. Sweet Potato Leaf and Blossom 289 116. Some Commercial Types of Sweet Potatoes 290 117. Map Showing Range of Production of Sweet Potatoes 291 1 1 8. Sweet Potato Plant Ready to Set in Field 294 1 1 9. Transplanting Machine 295 120. Special Plow, Fitted with Two Rolling Coulters for Digging Sweet Potatoes 296 121. Storage Houses 298 122. Sweet Potato Affected with Black Rot, and Plant Affected with Same Disease 299 xviii ILLUSTRATIONS 123. Distribution of Forage Crops in United States 303 123a.Distribution of Timothy and Clover, Mixed 1236.Distribution of Annual Legumes, Cut for Hay 123c.Distribution of Small Grains. Cut for Hay 123d.Distribution of Wild, Salt, and Prairie Grasses 124. Orchard-grass Representing a Typical Bunch Grass 310 125. Plants Used in Mixture for Pasture on Poor Land 321 126. A Student Identifying Clover Seed 330 127. Tripod Lens Used in Identifying Seeds 330 1 28. Crimson Clover , 330 120. Alfalfa 331 130. Yellow Trefoil 331 131. White Clover 331 132. Bokhara Clover 331 133. Alsike Clover 332 134. Red Clover 332 135. Sainfoin 332 136. Sweet Clover 332 137. Japan Clover 333 138. Millet Seeds 333 139. Meadow Foxtail 334 140. Annual Rye Grass 334 141. Tall Meadow Oat Grass 334 142. Sheep Fescue 334 143. Crested Dog's Tail t 335 144. Orchard Grass ' 335 145. Wheat Grass 335 146. Brome-grass 335 147. Perennial Rye Grass 336 148. Sheep Fescue 334 149. Johnson Grass 336 150. Redtop 336 151. Kentucky Blue-grass 336 152. Timothy . 336 153. Experimental Plots Showing Growth of Timothy on Fertilized and Unfertilized Plots 341 154. A Productive Hay Field, the Kind that Usually Responds Well to Fertilizer 342 155. Timothy Head 344 156. Redtop 348 157. Orchard-grass 351 158. Kentucky Blue-grass and Canadian Blue-grass 354 159. Smooth Brome-grass 359 160. Tall Meadow Oat-grass 359 161. Meadow Fescue or English Blue-grass 361 162. English Rye-grass 361 163. Millet Plants 370 164. Commmon Millet 371 165. German Millet 373 166. Japanese Millet 373 167. Effect of Lime on the Growth of Red Clover 382 168. Distribution of Alfalfa in United States 385 169. Alfalfa Plants from Seedings Sown in August, September and October, and Taken up Following April 392 170. Alfalfa Seed and Dodder Seed 394 ILLUSTRATIONS xix 171. Alfalfa Dodder 395 1 72. IJed Clover and White Clover 399 173. Sowing Red Clover in Fall Wheat with Special Grass-seed Drill. . 400 174. Seeds of the Clovers 401 175. Red Clover Seed and Common Weeds Often Found in It 402 176. Alsike Clover 407 177. White Clover 409 178. Sweet Clover 411 179. Seed Pods and Seeds of Burr Clover 416 180. Cow Peas in Rows 421 181. Seeds of Cow Peas and Soy Beans 423 182. Soy Bean Plant 425 183. Soy Beans in Rows, Three Feet Apart, for Seed or Forage 426 1 84. Mixture of Field Peas with Oats 431 185. Hairy Vetch 434 186. Seeds of Common and of Hairy Vetch 436 187. Map of the United States, Showing Area Adapted to the Pro- duction of Peanuts 439 187a. Distribution of Field Beans and Peanuts 188. Three Stages in Development of the Peanut 440 189. The Peanut Plant, Virginia Running Variety 440 190. Two Types of Peanuts 441 191. Method of Shocking Peanut Crop Over a Stake 445 192. Table Beet, Round Form 451 193. Mangel Beets, Long Form 452 193a.Distribution of Sugar Beets, Sorghum, and Sugar Cane 194. Kohl-rabi 454 195. Rutabaga or Swede Turnips 455 195a. Distribution of Tobacco, Rice, Flax, and Hemp 196. Tobacco Plant Developed for Seed Production 460 197. Sterilizing Tobacco Beds by Steam 466 198. Apparatus for Separating Light and Heavy Tobacco Seed 467 199. Cheesecloth Shape for Growing Fine Wrapper Tobacco 471 200. Frame for Hauling Tobacco to the Barn, Wisconsin 472 201. Barn for Curing White Burley Tobacco, Kentucky 473 202. Barn for Curing Dark Tobacco, Tennessee 475 203. The Northern Tobacco Worm or Horn Worm 477 fjillttp] i PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS CHAPTER I CLASSIFICATION, ORIGIN, AND DISTRIBUTION OF FARM CROPS Early Culture of Plants. With the earliest recorded history of man, it appears that people at that time lived very largely upon such food plants as they could find growing wild, and whatever wild ani- mals they could kill, even as some very primitive tribes do to-day. Wild animals were probably domesticated before the extensive cul- ture of plants began. These could be herded on the native grasses, the people moving from place to place, as new pasture or water was required. Primitive man had no adequate tools for destroying the forests, preparing stubborn land, or cultivating crops, hence his first culture of crops began where natural difficulties were least. These conditions seem to have been provided by the great sandy river beds and deltas in the dry regions, as the valley of the Nile or Euphrates. Here irrigation was practised from the earliest times. The culture of plants favored a settled life, rather than a nomadic life, and with settled and permanent communities, came civilization. A high civilization was first developed in these great river valleys. No doubt the first cultivated plants were those the people were accustomed to gather as food in the wild state, as wild barley, wheat, rice, lentils and the grape. These plants have been changed and improved by culture and selection, so the present cultivated forms resemble, only in a general way, the wild prototypes. Specimens of wheat preserved from the Stone Age show the type cultivated then to be much more primitive than that cultivated to-day. Number of Cultivated Plants. According to DeCandolle, 1 there are among cultivated plants to-day some 46 species, out of 248, that he is reasonably sure were cultivated more than 4,000 years ago, 1 DeCandolle, A.: Origin of Cultivated Plants (1882), pp. 436-44G. 1 2 CLASSIFICATION, ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION and some 60 more, over 2,000 years ago. He classifies the species as follows : Old World New World Cultivated for underground parts 26 6 Cultivated for stems and leaves 57 8 Cultivated for the flowers or their envelopes 4 Cultivated for their fruits 53 24 Cultivated for their seeds 58 8 Cryptogam cultivated for whole plant. . 1 198 47 New species are constantly being added to the list of useful plants. Of most species, cultivated extensively., a great many vari- eties have been developed. For example, with cultivated wheat there are more than one thousand known varieties, and of maize or Indian corn, at least five or six hundred varieties. Classification by Use. Crops are very commonly classified according to use, as follows : ( 1 ) Cereal or grain crops, as corn, wheat, oats, barley, or rice. (2) Legumes for seed, as beans, lentils, and peas. (3) Forage crops, as all grasses cut for hay, legumes cut foi forage, sorghum and corn fodder. (4) Eoots, as beets, turnips, and carrots. (5) Fiber crops, as cotton, flax, and hemp. (6) Tubers, as potatoes. (7) Sugar plants, as sugar beets and sugar cane. (8) Stimulants, as tobacco, tea, and coffee. Other crops not commonly classed as field crops would be the fruits, vegetable crops, and timber crops. Important Botanical Groups. The most important botanical group is the grass family (Graminece) to which all cereals except buckwheat belong, and at present perhaps three-fourths of the forage crops harvested are made up of grasses. The two families next in rank are the legumes (Leguminoscc) , so called because the seeds in most cases are borne in a pod or " legume," and the nightshade family (Solanacece) , to which belong the potato and tobacco. The Most Important Crops. The hay and forage crop is the most valuable and extensive crop of the world, but is made up of a great many kinds of plants. The world's most important plants are FACTORS AFFECTING CULTURE OF CROPS 3 given in the following diagram, together with the yield in millions of tons: World's Crops of the Most Important Food Plants. Average for 5 Years, 1906-1910 z Crop Millions of Tons Potatoes 156 Corn 113 Wheat 107 Oats 67 Rice 67 Rye 46 Barley 33 While the world's production of potatoes outranks all others in total yield, the wheat crop has the greatest money value, with pota- toes and corn probably ranking second and third. In the United States, corn is more valuable than any other two crops, as shown by the following diagram : Relative Farm Value of Principal Crops in the United States. Average for 5 Years, 1906-19 10 3 Crop > muc in Millions Corn $1431 Hay 681 Cotton 670 Wheat 590 Oats 367 Potatoes 187 Barley 92 Tobacco 82 Factors Affecting Culture of Crops. While favorable weather and soil are necessary for the culture of a certain crop, yet when both of these conditions are favorable, the crop is often not culti- vated. Market demands, transportation facilities, and competing crops must all be considered. For example, the southern states have a From " Corn Crops," by the author, The Macmillan Company. Ibid. 4 CLASSIFICATION, ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION favorable conditions for producing corn, but there it can not at present compete with cotton as a cash crop. In the vicinity of great cities, as in New York State, it is the perishable and bulky products that are likely to be produced, as milk, vegetables, or bay; while at greater distance, the non-perishable and concentrated products are produced, as butter, grain and meats. Useful References to Literature. Statistical data will be found in the following publications, most of which may be secured free: Annual Year- books of United States Department of Agriculture (secure from Congress- man). Thirteenth Census Report, Census Office, Washington, D. C. (avail- able to School Libraries). Statistical Abstract of the United States, an annual publication, secured from Bureau of Statistics. Agricultural Graphics, Bui. 78, Bureau of Statistics, Washington, D. C. (small charge). Seedtime and Harvest, Bui. 85, Bureau of Statistics (small charge). A circular may be secured from any of the bureaus in Department of Agricul- ture or Government, giving the name and prices of publications. For His- tory of Cultivated Plants see Origin of Cultivated Plants by DeCandolle. QUESTIONS 1. On what kind of land did crop raising begin? Can you give reasons? 2. How did the culture of crops affect the customs of people? 3. How did cultivated plants originate? 4. Name cultivated plants belonging to each of the six groups named on page 2. 5. Can you name some important plants originating in America? 6. Name the eight important groups of cultivated plants classified by use. 7. Why is the grass family so important? 8. What are the most important crops in the world? In the United States? 9. What crops are produced near great markets? Why? 10. What crops are produced at a distance from markets? CHAPTER II HOW PLANTS GROW ONLY a very general statement will be made here, outlining the important features of plant growth. The student is referred to books on botany or plant physiology for detailed information on plant growth, and text-books on soils, for information regarding the rela- tion of soil to plants. The Parts of a Plant. A typical plant may be divided into three parts as follows: (1) The root system; (2) the vegetative part, consisting of stem, branches, and leaves ; and (3) reproductive part, consisting of flowers, fruits, and seeds. The general functions of the roots are to absorb water and plant food from the soil, to feed the plant. The stem and leaves have three general functions, namely : ( 1 ) To take up the solution absorbed by roots and evaporate the water, leaving the minerals in the plant for food; (2) to take in air and extract therefrom carbon for the plant, and (3) to manufacture the elements taken in from soil and air into material for growth of the plant. The reproductive organs perpetuate the plant, producing the seeds or fruits. A large share of the materials manufactured by the leaves is stored in the seeds. In the cereals, the seeds are the most valuable part of the plant. Elements Required for Growth. When a chemist analyzes a plant, he finds that it is composed of thirteen elements. Ten oi these elements are taken from the soil as follows : 1. Nitrogen 4. Potassium 7. Iron 10. Silicon 2. Sulfur 5. Calcium 8. Chlorine 3. Phosphorus 6. Magnesium 9. Sodium Only the first seven of the above soil elements are considered essential, but the last three, chlorine, sodium, and silicon, are always present. From the air comes : 11. Carbon 12. Oxygen 5 6 HOW PLANTS GROW From the water may be taken : 13. Hydrogen. Oxygen may also come from water, and probably both hydrogen and oxygen may be taken up from soil compounds. There are ten essential elements found in all plants. All the ten essential elements must be present or the plant will not grow. This is often tested in laboratories by growing plants in water and pro- viding only nine of the elements, leaving out one. No matter which is left out, no growth will take place. In the case of iron, only the smallest trace is required, per- haps an ounce would be sufficient for an acre of wheat, but the plants will not grow without it. Plant Food Sources. Most of the soil is an inert mass that plants could not live in, but throughout this mass are small quantities of the essential ele- ments in the form of compounds. By natural decay, these com- pounds slowly become soluble in water, just as salt will dissolve, and then in turn, the water is taken up by plant roots, the min- erals thus being carried up to the leaves. Carbon comes entirely from the air in the form of a gas. All burning or decaying materials give up carbon dioxide gas to the air. The plant in turn is able to extract this carbon from the air, to build up new plants. Nitrogen is taken from the soil by most plants, but all nitrogen must first come from the air. Certain bacteria living in the soil can FIG. 1*. Diagram illustrating the relative proportion of dry matter and water in a green plant. OSMOSIS 7 take up nitrogen from air, and as these bacteria die in the soil, they thus constantly leave it richer in nitrogen. Bacteria of this char- acter are associated with legumes, as clover or peas, so that the grow- ing of clover always leaves the land rich in nitrogen. Thus, four of the important elements of plants come from the air oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon and six from the soil. (Nitrogen, however, is first combined in the soil.) Relative Composition of Plants. If 100 pounds of green corn plants or grass be thoroughly dried, about 80 pounds of weight will be lost, and only 20 pounds of dry matter (Fig. 1 G ) remain. Air- dry seeds or hay contain from 10 to 15 per cent water. If the dry matter is now thoroughly burned, there will be left about one pound of ash. The 19 pounds that went up in the fire represent what came from air, while the one pound of ash is all that came from the soil. The ash represents about one per cent of green plants or four per cent of dry matter. HOW ROOTS AND LEAVES PERFORM THEIR FUNCTIONS The Root System. The functions of roots are to secure water and plant food elements from the soil, acting also as an anchor. The root system is usually much more extensive than commonly sup- posed. With wheat or oats, roots penetrate two to four feet deep, being deeper on well- drained, porous soils than on compact or wet soil. The lateral spread is usually greater than the depth, especially with intertilled crops, as corn or potatoes. Corn roots frequently spread four to six feet laterally. New branch roots are constantly produced, so long as the plant is growing. It is only the small new roots that have organs, called root-hairs, for absorbing water directly from the soil. Root-hairs. The root-hairs are very small, single-celled organs, produced in a zone near the tip of the new roots (Fig. 2). They function for only a short time, then die as the root extends, and new root-hairs are produced near the tip. Water is not absorbed by the roots, bnt only by the root-hairs. The root-hairs absorb soil water by a process known as osmosis. Osmosis. The sap of the root-hairs being denser than the soil water, the denser solution absorbs the weaker. This principle can be demonstrated with a slice of potato or apple. Put a tablespoonful B HOW PLANTS GROW of salt in a glass of water, and drop in the slice of potato. In fifteen minutes it will be soft and shrunken, showing that some of its water has been extracted by the denser salt solution. Now place the slice of potato in pure water and it will soon recover its solid quality, due to the absorption of pure water by denser sap of the potato. The piece of potato can not continue to absorb, but with plants, the roots con- tinue to take up water, as it is constantly being evaporated by the leaves. FIG. 2. Root-hairs. On the right is a magnified section showing root-hairs in contact with soil grains. Evaporation of Plant Water. The soil water contains small quantities in solution of all the minerals a plant needs, but the solu- tion is so weak that a barrel of soil water would scarcely contain a spoonful of minerals. Therefore, rapid evaporation of water is Jiecessary, as large quantities of water must be passed through the plant in order that it may obtain sufficient mineral food. The amount of water evaporated varies with climate and soils, but in general it requires from 300 to 500 pounds of water to each IEAF STRUCTURE 9 pound of dry weight produced by the plant. More water is required in a dry climate than in a humid climate. At the Nebraska Experi- ment Station corn was grown in two greenhouses. In one the air was kept very dry, and in the other very humid. In the dry greenhouse it required 340 pounds of water to one pound of dry weight produced, while in the humid house only 191 pounds were required. The amount of water has been determined for several crops at various times with general results about as follows : Amount of Water Lost by Evaporation and Transpiration for Each Pound oj Dry Matter 1 Oats 402-665 pounds Red Clover 249-453 pounds Barley 262-774 pounds Corn 233-400 pounds Wheat 225-650 pounds LEAVES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS The principal function of the leaf is to manufacture the raw food elements taken into the plant from soil and air, into " plant foods " or compounds that can be utilized by the plant in building up tissues. Leaf Structure. Examine a section of leaf under a microscope, and it will be seen to have several rather distinct parts (Fig. 3) : (a) An outer covering, or " skin," called an epidermis. This is practically air- and water-proof, (b) Several layers of cells, a part being rather loosely grouped together, so as to leave air-spaces, and thus provide for the free interpassage of air among them, (c) Stomata, or air-holes, in the epidermis or skin. These stomata allow the free passage of outside air into the interior of the leaf, (d) The veins or circulating system. When the water solution is taken up from the soil, it passes up the stem through small vessels, which ex- tend to all parts of the leaf. When the solution reaches the leaves, the water is quickly evaporated, leaving the plant food elements in the leaf to be manufactured. (e) The chlorophyll bodies are small green bodies scattered through the leaf, and these have the power of absorbing energy from the sunlight. The work of the leaf requires much energy, and this is all derived from the sun. No food a American Society of Agronomy, vol. iii, p. 261 (1911). 10 HOW PLANTS GROW can be manufactured, except in sunlight, though it has been demon- strated that strong artificial light will also produce growth. Assimilation. There are two general classes of products manu- factured in the leaf, known as protein compounds and carbon- hydrogen compounds. Protein compounds are all rich in nitrogen but contain other elements as well. Carbohydrates do not contain either nitrogen or minerals, but are compounds of hydrogen, oxygen, FIG. 3. Diagram illustrating the assimilation of food materials by a plant. The water containing minerals and nitrogen passes upward into the leaves, where it unites with carbon and oxygen. The elaborated plant food then passes to all parts of the plant. The upward movement of water and return flow of plant food are through different channels. B is ar enlarged section of leaf taken at point A. Note the opening for air at S. C is a single plant cell from the leaf. The dark spots are chlorophyll bodies. and carbon, such as starch and sugar (Fig. 3). Fats also contain only hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, but in a more concentrated form. Fats and oils are about 2*/ times as valuable as starch or sugar for feeding stock. Distribution of Manufactured Products. When the protein and carbohydrate compounds have been manufactured, they must be redistributed through all parts of the plant and some must be re- turned back to the roots. The return flow takes place through a set of vessels similar to the system which carried the sap upward. EXERCISES 11 Therefore, we have a continual flow of sap up from the root to leaves, also a continual inflow of air, containing carbon gas, into the leaves, where all is manufactured into plant foods and then returned in a similar way to growing parts of the plant. EXERCISES Testing the Effect of Fertilizers. Materials: Nine 6-inch flower pots; soil; sand; greenhouse or sunny window in warm room; 10 grams bodium nitrate; 10 grams acid phosphate: 5 grams muriate of potash. 1. Select soil that is of good texture but known not to be very productive. Mix the soil with abo t one-half volume of sand. Fill the pots. 2. Now add the fertilizing material to each pot. The fertilizer should be ground up fine and thoroughly mixed into the soil. 3. Fertilize as follows. (1) One gram sodium nitrate. (2) One gram acid phosphate. (3) One half gram muriate 'f potash. (4) One gram sodium nitrate; one gram acid phosphate. (5) e gram sodium nitrate; one-half gram muriate of potash. (G) One gram acid phosphate; one-half gram muriate of potash. (7) One gram s dium nitrate; one gram acid phosphate; one-half gram muriate of potash. (8>) No fertilizers. (9) Ten grams fine barnyard manure. Planting Seeds. If you have a greenhouse or a good window in a warm room, use a cereal, as oats or barley, planting 10 seeds to each pot. If full light is not available use turnips, planting 10 seeds, but thinning to 5 plants. Observations. As long as the plants grow well, make notes twice a week on following points: Size of plants. Color shade of green. Place together all the 4 pots having nitrogen as one element and com- pare with rest for color and size. Rank the 4 containing nitrogen in order of growth and decide which is best. Rank the 4 pots containing potash. Rank the 4 pots containing phosphate. Which element seems to increase growth most? How is color affected? From your readings, which element is best for increasing forage production? Grain production? COMPOSITION OF PLANTS Determination of Water. Take several samples of green or succulent plants, as corn, grass, turnips, and potatoes. Weigh at once, then cut up fine with a knife. Spread on paper and place in dry place for one week Determine loss of water. Then grind up finer and place weighed portion in oven at 110 C. (230 F.) and dry for two hours. Determine second loss of water. What per cent of green material was dry weight? Take some air-dry hay and grain and grind very fine, then determine dry weight. If possible, determine moisture in new corn and old, dry corn. Identifying Starch and Protein. It is sometimes difficult to get a clear understanding of starch and protein. The following exercise will help to an understanding: Starch is identified by the use of iodine, giving a decided blue color. 12 HOW PLANTS GROW Put a little water in a test-tube and add a pinch of cornstarcli. Add a few drops of iodine solution (a 10 per cent solution is strong enough). Shave down a corn grain from the germ side and test for starch by applying iodine with a brush. Do all parts show starch? Test other cereals for starch; also peas, beans, and slices of potato, turnip, beet, and carrot. Protein is identified by nitric acid, giving a bright yellow reaction. Test the same materials as above for protein. Soak a few wheat grains until soft and make very thin slices with a sharp razor. Mount some in iodine solution (five per cent) and others in weak nitric acid. Examine under microscope for structure of cells and location of starch grains and protein. Mount a bit of liour in each solution and examine. Is flour pure starch ? Loss of Water by Plants. Grow a sunflower or castor bean plant in a six-inch pot. When six to ten inches high, prepare for the experiment as follows: Water the plant well. Then cover the pot and soil with a rubber cloth or melted parafiine. This will prevent all water escaping except through the plant leaves. Now weigh the pot, and continue to weigh daily while plant lives. Observe the daily water loss. Does it vary from day to day? If a second plant be prepared in a similar way, and covered with an in- verted glass jar, the water lost by the plant will be collected. Moisture in Corn. When corn is kept under different conditions its moisture content will vary considerably. Take samples that have just been husked, or husked corn remaining in the open, or corn from cribs, or com from a dry seed room. Compare these samples as follows: Grind finely a few ounces of each sample in a coffee mill. Weigh one ounce or one gram of each. Then dry the weighed lots in an oven without burning, and reweigh each. Determine the percentage of moisture by dividing the loss in weight of each sample by its dry weight. Moisture in other grains may be de- termined in the same way (Chapter XXIV). QUESTIONS 1. Name the principal parts of a plant and tell briefly the functions of each. 2. What do you understand by " element "? 3. How many elements in a plant? 4. Where does a plant get them ? 5. How can a plant get elements from the soil? 6. How do plants get carbon? 7. Have you ever seen carbon? 8. What is " dry matter " ? 9. How much dry matter in a bale ( 100 pounds) of hay? 10. If you burn the bale of hay, about how much ash will remain? 11. Where did the ash come from? 12. Where did the rest of the " dry matter " come from? 13. How long are plant roots? 14. What are root-hairs and what do they do? 15. Can you explain osmosis? 16. Wiiy must plants take up so much water from the soil? 17. How does the water escape? 18. What do leaves do? 19. What is the " plant food " made by leaves? 20. How does it get to other parts of the plant? 21. How does protein differ from carbohydrates? CHAPTER III THE PRODUCTION OF SEEDS Function and Use of Seeds. Every plant must be provided in some way with a sure method of reproduction, or its kind would soon pass out of existence. This is especially true in wild nature, where the plant must care for itself, and is subject to all manner of competi- tion from other plants and to adverse conditions. Most of our culti- vated plants are produced from seeds, though a few are from cut- tings, as orchard trees, or new plants are produced by runners, as in the strawberry. The seed or fruit of plants is also the portion which we use principally as food, for both men and animals. The plant stores up energy as food for the young plant, as in the seed of wheat or the tuber of potato. In certain root crops, as the turnip, food is stored for a time in the enlarged root, to be later used in the production of seed. In any case, we have come to rely on this stored food of the plant, either in the seed, tuber, fruit, or root, as our principal source of food for men arid animals. Nature of Seeds. A seed may be regarded as a young plant, in a dormant state, with a large supply of stored energy at hand ready to be used when the time comes for growth. The seed consists essentially of three parts: (.1 ) The young dor- mant plants consisting of a germ. The germ constitutes 5 to 10 per cent of the seed. (2) The stored food, consisting of an endo- sperm in cereals, or cotyledons in legumes. This part of the seed equals about 90 per cent. (13) The seed-coats, a strong protective covering, equal to about 3 or 4 per cent of the seed. In the cereals (wheat), the germ is very rich in protein and minerals, and the endosperm is mostly starchy, while in the legumes (bean) the vhole seed is rich in protein and starch. Preserving the Vitality of Seeds. Preserving the vitality of seeds is a matter of the greatest importance if good crops are to be produced. Dry seeds contain about 10 to 14 per cent moisture. When 14 THE PRODUCTION OF SEEDS dry, most seeds retain vitality for many years, and are not injured by ordinary freezing or even high temperatures up to 140 F. In humid air, such as a damp cellar, or very often sea-coast climates, almost all common seeds will deteriorate, even when kept at average temperature. They lose power to germinate in a few months to one year. Free circulation of air is necessary while seeds are drying, but when they are thoroughly dry this does not seem to be necessary. As there are damp periods of weather now and then, when seeds in storage are quite apt to take up moisture, it is always well to pro- vide free circulation of air in seed houses. Good Seeds. Two things are required of good seeds. First, they must have grown and developed in a normal way, so as to have vigorous germs and a good store of food. Second, the vitality must be retained. All that is necessary to preserve the vitality of seed is to thoroughly air dry the seed, as soon as mature, and keep in dry storage. Duval x took seeds of various kinds, mostly vegetables, and stored them in ordinary paper envelopes and also in corked bottles. These seeds were then placed in storage in several cities, namely: Lake City, Fla. ; Auburn, Ala. ; Mobile, Ala. ; Baton Rouge, La. ; San Juan, P. R. ; Wagoner, Ind. Ter. ; Durham, N. H. ; Ann Arbor, Mich. In each place they were stored in three ways : (1) Trade conditions or ordinary unheated rooms; (2) dry rooms, which were dry inside rooms, artificially heated, at least part of the time, and (3) basements. The average loss of germination after storage for 251 days was as follows : Envelopes Bottles Trade conditions 36.63 3.92 Dry rooms 21.19 8.08 Basements 42.28 4.51 This shows that dry seeds, stored in such a way as to keep them dry, will retain vitality even when stored in basements. However, seeds not thoroughly dry, stored in tight bottles, deteriorate very rapidly. 1 Duval, J. W. T. : Tlw Vitality and Germination of Seeds. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bui. 58. WHEN SEEDS SPROUT 15 How Germination Takes Place. The dry seed is in a dormant state, with all life processes practically arrested. When proper con- ditions are present, all the life processes are started anew and growth begins. Before growth can take place, three conditions are necessary : (1) There must be sufficient moisture, so the seed can secure all it will readily absorb. (2) There must be air present. If the soil is so compact and filled with water that no air can reach it, the seed will rot. Whereas, pure oxygen was given off when the plant developed starch and stored energy, the plant must now take up oxygen by oxidizing or "burning" some of the carbohydrates. (3) There FIG. 4. Germination in corn. On the left is a kernel of corn before germination, while the center shows a similar grain, with the surface shaved off to expose the germ. OP the right is a kernel beginning to germinate. must be sufficient heat. Some seeds, as clover or oats, will grow at rather low temperature (40 to 50 F.) and start growth very early in the spring. Other crops, as corn or beans, require a higher tem- perature for best growth (70 to 80 F. is most favorable), and should not be planted until the ground is warm. When proper con- ditions for germination are present, seeds begin to grow (Fig. 4). Certain active agents in the seed (enzymes) begin to dissolve the stored plant-food, converting starches into sugars, so they can be readily absorbed by the growing plant. When Seeds Sprout. In two to four days after seeds have been placed under favorable conditions, the " sprouts " begin to appear. 16 THE PRODUCTION OF SEEDS The young plant breaks through the seed-coat and grows upward. At about the same time, three or more roots in the grasses break through and grow downward (Fig. 5). For a few days, the young plant and roots depend on the seed for food. When the plant has reached sunlight with its leaves, a new set of true roots have made their appearance just below the soil surface, and the plant is no longer dependent on the seed for maintenance. When the soil condi- tions are good, the plant is quickly established and only a small Fia. 5. Wheat grain in three stages of germination, on the first, second and third days after being placed in germinator (compare with tig. o). proportion of the stored food is actually required. When soil condi- tions are poor, the plant may draw on the seed for a long time. The seed alone will maintain the plant for two weeks. Large plump seed is probably more important when conditions are unfavorable, than when conditions are such that the plant can quickly establish on its own roots. Large and Small Seeds. Examine a handful of wheat or corn, as harvested, and great variation in size of seed will be noted. In some cases, a part of the seeds will be very much shrunken. The comparative merits of large and small seeds for planting are often STRUCTURE OF SEEDS 17 discussed. With corn, the experiment has been tried many times, of planting the large kernels from the middle portion in comparison with the smaller seeds near the ends of the ear. Very little differ- ence in results is secured, as both kinds of kernels from the same ear have the same hereditary qualities. It appears also that large and small kernels from the same plant of wheat carry the same qualities and ability to produce. Seed grain is sometimes run through a set of screens to separate the large seeds from the small. However, if the seed grain is good, sound grain, it is doubtful if it will pay to make such separation. This conclusion is based on experiments re- ported by the Ohio, 2 Kansas, 3 and Nebraska 4 Experiment Stations. Shrunken Seeds. The removal of shrunken seeds may be bene- ficial where the percentage is high, and the soil or climatic conditions unfavorable. However, when sufficient seed is sown, it is doubtful even if the presence of more or less shrunken seed will have much effect. When cereals are sown at customary rates, so many plants come up, that weak or slow plants are crowded out during the early stages of growth. As this natural selection is going on every year in cereal crops, they maintain their natural vigor and productiveness much better than crops planted far apart, as corn or potatoes, and thus relieved from natural competition. Structure of Seeds. All students should have a knowledge of the structure of seeds and the factors that influence growth. TUe Food of Seeds. The seed is a storehouse of food for young plants. Seeds may be divided into two groups, according to the way food is stored : 1. Food stored in cotyledons, or first two leaves. 2. Food stored in endosperm. Seeds of the first class can be known when they germinate in the soil, because the seed divides into halves, which are firmly attached to the young plant. In some cases, the two halves of the seed are pushed above ground, becoming the first two leaves. The young plant, however, draws its first food supply from these leaves. Seeds of the second class remain whole and below ground, as the endosperm is only a storehouse of food. 2 Ohio Bulletin 165. 8 Kansas Bulletins 59 and 74. 4 Nebraska Bulletin 104. 2 18 THE PRODUCTION OF SEEDS The two kinds, however, can be told by examination of the seed itself. EXERCISES Study of Seeds and Seedlings. Soak a few seeds of beans and corn. At the same time start seeds of both to germinating; also plant seeds of each 3 inches deep in soil. (a) Take one of the beans and remove the skin and separate the two cotyledons. Make a drawing (5 times enlarged) showing the little plant. Label all parts. Take a germinated seed. Make a drawing and label all parts. Make a third drawing of a plant grown in soil, about two weeks old. Label all parts. Fia. 6. On the left a germinator made by inverting a glass tumbler on a glass plate. The seeds are placed on wet blotting paper. On the right a germinator made with two plates and blotting paper. (6) Take a corn grain, which has been softened by soaking, and shave down on germ side until germ is fully exposed. Make drawing and label all parts. Also make drawings of germinated seed and plant two weeks old. (c) Write up a short statement explaining how the plant lives while developing its root system. What are temporary roots and permanent roots? Germination of Seeds. Germination tests are important, interesting, and easy to make, if properly managed, yet very poor results are often obtained. The main points to observe are to keep the seed moist, and at a tempera- ture ranging from 50 to 80 degrees. In general, it will take only one-half as long to germinate seed at a temperature averaging 70 as compared \vith a temperature of 50 degrees. There are exceptions, however, as a few seeds, such as the clovers and a few grass seeds, germinate well at the lower temperature. EXERCISES 19 Apparatus for Germination. Many homemade germinators have been devised, but those here described are recognized as best. 1. Plate germinators are made by using two dinner plates or pie tins (Fig. 6). Two or three layers of blotting paper or a half inch of sand covered by cloth are placed in the bottom of one. Saturate the absorbent well and place the seeds on top. Then invert the second plate over the first, being careful that the edges fit well. 2. Box germinators of several types have been devised, but the following one has many advantages: FIG. 7. A box germinator. A tin box with two sawdust pads. Can be carried about. Have a tin box made 12 to 15 inches square, with a hinged lid which can be fastened shut with hasps. The box and lid should each be about one inch deep. Make two pads stuffed with sawdust. The pads should be the size of the box and an inch thick, so that when put into the box and lid, and the box closed, they will fill it snugly. For germinating seeds, first saturate the pads, then place the seeds on one, close the box and fasten. The box should be opened a few minutes each day to admit air. This box has many advantages, as it can be easily moved, placed in any position, or carried to and from home or school (Fig. 7) . Jelly Glass Germinators. Take jelly glasses with a loose-fitting tin lid. If the lid is snug, it can be easily spread by reaming with a knife handle or piece of iron. Place a few pieces of wet blotting paper in the lid, scatter 20 THE PRODUCTION OF SEEDS on the seeds, and invert the jelly glass over them. One advantage of thia germinator is that the progress of germination can be observed from day to day. See also the plan shown at left in Fig. 6. For class-room work it is often useful to start one of these germinators each day for a period of 10 days, thus having material ior study in all stages of development. Rag Doll Germinators. This germinator is made by using a strip of flannel, about 10 inches wide. Place the seeds on one-half, fold over the other half, then roll and tie loosely. Soak in water for 12 hours, then put in a box or some place where they will remain damp. Seeds to Use. Have the pupils bring seeds from home, from the sup- plies that are to be planted on the farm. Vegetable seeds, grass, clover, and cereal seeds of all kinds will serve well. Old seeds as well as new should be used. Seeds from local dealers can also be purchased. When the tests are completed the data should be studied and analyzed to see if it can be determined why some seeds are good and some are poor. Comparison of Germinated Seeds. There are several differences in germinated seeds of cereals that few people have observed. For this exercise only good, strong seeds should be used, and special care should be exercised to secure normal, strong germination. Germinate seeds of all the cereals, and also peas and red clover. When well germinated, study 10 seeds in each case. Record results in tabular form. What are the average number of temporary roots in each cereal ? State in each case whether the plumule arises from the germ end, middle, or tip of the seed. Which germinates quickest, slowest, etc.? In a second experiment compare strong seeds with poor seeds, and compare on above points. In a third case compare seeds of hard wheat and soft wheat ; hard and soft grains of barley; and kernels from ears of dent corn having hard, flinty kernels with ears having starchy kernels. Can you explain why the hardness of a seed should affect the rapidity of germination? Should this be considered in making comparative germina- tion tests with different ears of corn or different varieties of wheat? (See also Chapter XXXV.) QUESTIONS 1. Why do plants store food in seeds? 2. What other parts are sometimes stored with food? 3. What part c* nlants do we value most as food? 4. Name the parts of a seed. 5. Give the function of each part. 6. What is the best condition for preserving the vitality of seeds? 7. How would you define " good seeds " ? 8. Why is air important in germination? 9. Do some seeds require warmer temperature for growing? 10. How long must the young plant live on the seed? 11. When may large and small seeds be expected to give similar results? 12. When different results? 13. How are weak plants eliminated in nature? CHAPTER IV COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CEREALS IN the germination of cereals some interesting comparisons are noted. First, the young roots appear, then the plumule or young plant. In corn, wheat, and rye the young plant arises directly from the germ, but in oats and barley the grain is enclosed in a husk and the young plant grows under the husk, emerging at the opposite end of the grain (Fig. 8). FIG. 8. Germinating oats, on left, and barley, on right. Note that oats has three tempo- rary roots and barley six (compare with Fig. 5) . The young roots are usually 3 in number in corn, wheat, and oats, but usually 4 in rye and 5 or 6 in barley. The number of roots on germination is not exact ; for example, in corn the number may vary from 2 to 5, but is usually 3. Temporary and Permanent Roots. The first roots emerging are called temporary roots. They only assist the young plant while it is becoming established, and probably supply water mostly as the young plant at first lives largely on the stored-up food in the seed. 21 22 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CEREALS The young plumule stretches upward and somewhere just below the surface forms the first node. The first node usually forms about the same distance below the surface, and its height above the seed will depend on how deep the seed is planted (Fig. 9). This first node becomes the crown of the plant and here the permanent roots form. At this point a number of short nodes form and from these FIG. 9. (1) Illustrates a young wheat plant forming first permanent roots, near surface of soil. (2) Is an enlarged section with leaves removed to show the "buds" or new tillers forming. (3) Wheat plant about six weeks old with tillers developed. the permanent roots come out. The roots are arranged in a series of rings about the base of the plant. Just above the roots come out the first leaves and first buds to form tillers. This is characteristic of all the cereals, but is most easily seen in a corn plant> because of its large size. Tillers. If a young plant of corn or wheat be examined when about three weeks old it will usually have about a half dozen leaves THE EAR OR HEAD 23 arising from the crown, and if these be carefully removed a small bud will be found at the base of each leaf. These buds develop into branches or " tillers." The number that develop, however, depends on conditions. If the soil is poor or cold, so growth is not vigorous at first, perhaps no tillers will develop, while very favorable condi- tions will stimulate the buds to growth. Hence we find that on cold, clay soils plants seldom tiller so freely as on warm, sandy soils. Crowding the plants by thick planting also suppresses the tillers, while thin planting favors them. Wheat plants placed wide apart, 6 to 8 inches each way, on rich soil will produce 10 to 20 stems from a seed, but under ordinary field planting not more than 2 or 3. The following data, from the Nebraska Experiment Station, 1 shows the effect on tillering of oats with different rates of planting : Tillering of Oats Pecks of seed Stems per Total number of sown per acre 100 plants stems per acre 4 466 1,419,000 8 279 1,732,000 16 140 2,283,000 The Stems of Cereals. The stem of corn is filled with pith, but in wheat, oats, rye, and barley the stem is usually hollow, with solid joints or ziodes. However, in a few wheats, as the spelts, the stem is partly or entirely filled with pith. The number of joints in corn varies from about 8, with short early varieties, to 12 to 14, with tall late varieties. In the small cereals 4 or 5 nodes is the usual number. One leaf arises from each node, the largest leaves coming from about the middle of the plant. In wheat there are usually about three leaves on the stem, and in oats about four. The Ear or Head. In all the small grains (wheat, oats, barley, rye) the ear is borne at the top, but in corn only the tassel or male flower is borne at the top, while the ear is borne on the side. Both the male and the female flowers are borne in one head (called perfect flowers) in the small cereals, but in corn are separated in the tassel and ear. Since all cereals are grasses, the structure of the head and flower is similar in the main features, but varies in details. To un- derstand the structure fully a careful comparative study of details 1 Nebraska Bulletin 127, p. 18. 24 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CEREALS should be made of a typical grass first, and then all the cereals in comparison. The Spikelet. The central part of the wheat head is called a racliis. On the rachis are the spikelets. If the spikelets are attached directly to the rachis, so a compact head is formed, as in wheat, the whole is called a spike. If the spikelets are on long branches, as in oats, the whole is called a panicle. The typical grass spikelet is made up of two empty glumes and one or more fertile flowers above (Fig. 10). i 1 FIG. 10. Comparative study of spikelets. From left to right the spikelets shown are, brome-grass, barley, rye, oats, wheat, corn. Below are shown the two empty glumes in each case. In corn the glumes are much reduced, but a careful study will show analogous parts in all spikelets. The Flower. A grass flower consists of one fertile glume or "flowering glume, and palet enclosing one ovary and three stamens. A careful comparison will show that all the cereals conform to the above description, except in corn, where the stamen flowers and ovary flowers are separated, but are otherwise similar. Fertilization. When the time has arrived for the flower to be fertilized, the glumes open and the stamens come out. The pollen sacs burst, freeing the pollen in the air. At about the same time the stigmas spread out to receive pollen. When a pollen grain drops on a stigma the contents of the pollen grain immediately pass into the CROSS- AND SELF-FERTILIZATION 25 stigma and down into the ovary. This is called fertilization, and causes the ovary to immediately develop into a seed (Figs. 11 and 12). Cross- and Self-Fertilization. When the pollen produced by a plant fertilizes its own ovaries, we call it self-fertilization. When the pollen is carried by the air or by insects to other plants, we call this cross- fertilization. In the cereals we find barley is always self- fertilized ; in fact, the fertilization takes place before the heads emerge from the sheath. Wheat and oats are also considered self-fertilized, but as the head FIG. 11. Diagram of a wheat flower, showing the ovary, with feathery stigmas, and the stamens or pollen sacs dropping pollen. FIG. 12. Ovary of wheat grain. A pollen grain caught on the stigma has germinated and penetrated to the egg-cell. The con- tents of the pollen grain pass to the egg- cell, causing fertilization. The egg at once grows into a wheat kernel. is fully exposed when the fertilization takes place there occasionally happens a natural cross. In barley, wheat, and oats each ovary receives pollen from its own stamens before the flower opens. Eye and corn are cross-fertilized. In rye the pollen in each flower ripens before the stigma is ready and is, therefore, scattered in the air, the stigma receiving pollen from another plant a day or two later. In corn the pollen is in the tassel and is carried away from its own ear by air currents, but in both rye and corn at least a few seeds are usually self-fertilized. By experiment, it has been shown that self-fertilized seeds in corn or rye will not produce as strong 26 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CEREALS plants as crossed seeds, and continued self-fertilization will result in dwarf plants with very low productivity. It is entirely different with barley, wheat, and oats, as they are self-fertilized with no ill effect and apparently are not benefited by crossing. Formation of the Seed. When the contents of the pollen grain pass down into the ovary they unite with the egg-cell in the ovary. Growth in the ovary begins at once. One part of the egg develops into a young plant or embryo, while another portion develops into a storehouse of food for the young plant and is called the endosperm. Fia. 13. Diagram of a corn kernel to show the four principal parts, namely, hull, aleurone layer, endosperm or starchy portion, and germ. The whole is called a seed, as wheat or barley grains. The wheat grain is covered with a seed-coat, which is only the remnant of the old ovary after the young plant and its storehouse have developed inside. In milling, the seed-coat is taken off as bran. Composition of the Seed. The seeds of grasses are said to be starchy, consisting in general of 75 to 85 per cent starch (Fig. 13). The grain, however, can be divided into four parts (1) seed-coat, (2) aleurone layer, (3) endosperm, (4) germ each very different in composition, and the proportion of these parts affects the composi- tion of the whole grain. COMPOSITION OF CEREALS 27 Proportion of Each Part and Composition in Corn* Per , Chemical composition < cent Pro- Carbohy- of tein Oil Ash drates whole per per per per kernel cent cent cent cent Seed-coat, including tip cap. 7.3 4.0 1.1 1.0 93 Aleurone layer 11.2 22.0 5.0 1.4 71 Endosperm 70.3 9.0 0.3 0.3 91 Germ 11.2 20.0 35.0 10.0 35 Whole corn 100.0 11.3 4.0 1.5 82.8 The seed-coat is high in carbohydrates, but this is mostly in the iorm of fiber. The aleurone layer is rich in protein. The endosperm is rich in starch, while the germ contains most of the ash and oil of the kernel and is also rich in protein. While the above composition of parts applies in a way to all cereals, yet there is much variation. For example, wheat, oats, and barley have a smaller germ than corn, usually only 4 to 5 per cent instead of 11* per cent; also they have less seed-coat and more endosperm. Composition of Cereals. While the above table shows the gen- eral composition of a cereal grain it can not be said that there is a constant or definite composition, as no two ears of corn or samples of wheat will analyze alike. The following table gives a general sum- mary of analysis of the cereals, as compiled in United States Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 120, but even this can not be relied on as a final comparison, since other general averages will vary from this. Composition of Cereals (Water Free) Pounds Per 100 Pounds Pro- Crude Carbohy- Grain tein Fat fiber dratea Oats 13.7 4.3 12.2 66.3 Wheat 14.2 2.3 2.8 78.7 Rye 13.4 1.8 2.3 80.2 Barley 13.3 1.8 5.6 76.0 Corn 10.0 4.4 2.2 81.9 Any particular sample may vary widely from the above. For example, different samples of wheat may vary from 9 to 16 per cent protein, and corn may vary from 3 per cent to 7 per cent in fat, and so on, but in general we consider oats and wheat to be richer in * Illinois Bulletin 87. 28 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CEREALS protein than corn and barley, while corn and wheat are richer in starches. Corn and oats are rich in fat. Oats and barley are high in crude fiber, due to the hull. Composition of Hard and Soft Grain. In all the cereals there is a great difference in the hardness of grain in different varieties. We have the " hard wheat " with flinty, hard grains, as the durum wheats and northwestern spring wheats. Then we have the " soft wheats," usually white or light red in color and showing a white, starchy interior. In wheats we find that the hard wheats are high in protein, with 13 to 1G per cent, while the soft wheats have only 8 to 11 per cent. The same is true in barley, ranging from 8 per cent protein in soft barleys to 15 per cent in hard barleys. In corn, however, we have a very different case. Corn is even more variable in hardness than wheat, ranging from the hard pop- corn and flints to the soft flour corns, but there is no corresponding difference in composition. If we take a grain of dent corn, which is made up of both hard and soft endosperm, it has been found that there is a difference in composition, the hard portion being about 2 per cent higher in protein; but between different types of hard and soft corn there is no such general difference as is found in wheat and barley. Effect of Climate on Composition. Again we find with wheat and barley that in a dry climate hard grain is produced high in protein, but in a humid climate, or one with cool summers, the wheat is soft. Hence we find the great " hard wheat " districts in the dry, hot climate vest of the Missouri River, while soft wheat is produced in the East and South. With corn, however, the composition and character of grain is not apparently affected by climate. Little is known about the effect of climate on the composition of rye and oats, but it is believed that rye should be classed with wheat and barley, and oats with corn. Moisture in Grain. In considering the composition of cereal grains we have made no reference to water present, as grain is artifi- cially dried before analysis. However, air-dry grain in a humid climate contains from 12 to 14 per cent water, and in a dry climate less. For example, in the Palouse Valley, Washington State, during the very dry summer of 1914, the wheat generally contained less than S per cent moisture. Grain shipped from a dry to a humid climate EXERCISES FOR FIELD AND LABORATORY 29 will gain in weight, or the reverse may be true when shipped from humid to dry region. EXERCISES FOR FIELD AND LABORATORY Comparative Study of Cereals. All cereals are large grasses. All cereals and grasses are similar in general structure. Every student should have a good knowledge of the anatomy of at least one cereal. Corn, being a large plant, lends itself well to such study. General Structure of Cereals. Before completing the work, read over such parts of Chapters IV and VI as refer to general structure. For material use a well-developed corn plant, including roots. 1. With a sharp knife, split the plant from the lower tip of the stem to the tassel, in such a way that the buds and ear shanks are also split. 2. Make drawing of root section, showing nodes and permanent roots. 3. Find a section (split) showing a tiller. Make drawing, being care- ful to show how tiller is attached. 4. Make drawing of any node showing an ear bud. Indicate leaf by dotted lines. 5. Make drawing of ear, shank and ear (split) with husks. Note whether the number of nodes in the ear corresponds to nodes in stalk, above ear. Do the husks correspond to leaf sheaths? Do you find evidence of the ear stem being a side branch, " telescoped " into the husks? C. Make drawing of whole plant, indicating exact number of nodes both above and below ground. Indicate correctly the outgrowths from nodes, as roots, buds, leaves, and ears. Relation of Tassel and Ear: 7. Sketch tassel. 8. Sketch pair of tassel flowers (x2, i.e., double size). 9. Sketch section of central portion of tassel. 10. Sketch cross-section of ear. 11. Sketch kernel showing chaff at base (x2) . Write up brief report as follows: Describe relation of ear and tassel. Relation of ear branch and a tiller. How many ear buds? Ears? Leaves? Husks on an ear? Comparing the Spikes and Flowers. All spikes of cereals and grasses are similar in structure, though it may not appear so at first. Lay out in a row : 1. Spikes of grasses, as timothy, rye-grass, etc. 2. Spikes of cereals, as wheat, oats, barley and rye. 3. Spikes of corn, as tassel and ear. (a) Determine what a spikelet is, using oats for this study. Draw all the parts of a spikelet and label same (drawing 3 times enlarged) . ( & ) Draw a wheat spikelet. (c) Draw a barley spikelet. (d) Now isolate a spikelet from each of the spikes which you have laid out as above. See if you can identify analogous parts in each case. Write a concise statement defining (1) spike; (2) spikelet; and (3) flower. Compare the central spike of a corn tassel and an ear of corn, and work out the analogous parts. To what does the hull of oats correspond in the wheat flower? How many kernels per spikelet are usually found in wheat, oats, barley, rye, corn, millet, brome-grass, and rye-grass? SO COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CEREALS Further Study of Tillers and Roots. Visit fields of wheat or oats that have been recently sown. Search for plants in all stages of development, from those just coming up to well-developed plants 4 or 5 weeks old. Make sketches showing all stages, especially noting the development of tillers and permanent roots. Does the depth at which roots and tillers develop appear to be affected by depth at which seed is sown? Do plants tiller more in some parts of the field than in other places? Is tillering related to richness of soil? To rate of planting? To time of planting ? QUESTIONS 1. How do germinating wheat and barley grains differ in appearance? 2. Explain about the temporary and permanent roots. 3. How is the "tiller" related to the main stem? 4. How does rate of planting affect the number of tillers ? 5. What is a node? An internode? 6. How do the flowers in corn differ from those of wheat? 7. Name the parts of a wheat head. The parts of a wheat flower. 8. What is fertilization? 9. Define cross- and self-fertilization. 10. Give examples of plants that normally self-fertilize and cross-fertilize. 11. What is the egg cell? 12. What part of the seed is highest in protein? Oil? Ash? Carbohydrates 1 13. Which part do you think would have greatest feeding value? 14. Which of the cereals are highest in protein? Fat? Fiber? 15. Do hard and soft grains of wheat differ in color? Composition? 16. How does climate affect composition of wheat? Barley? Corn? CHAPTER V CROPPING SYSTEMS Where Did Soils Acquire Productiveness? Dig into the earth any place and " bed rock " will be found. Sometimes bed rock is exposed above the surface and sometimes buried under many hun- dred feet of soil. Originally, all the surface was rock, but a portion has been slowly and gradually reduced, by such agencies as glaciers, freezing, and rain water containing carbonic acid. Gradually as this rock was pulverized, it accumulated where other agencies, as plants and bacteria, worked on it further. Pulverized rock might contain all the minerals needed by plants, but our common field crops would not grow in pulverized rock, as may be easily demonstrated. There are two reasons for this : First, the minerals are not soluble in water ; and second, the rock is devoid of nitrogen. How Rock Minerals Become Soluble. Rain water contains some carbon dioxide, which is a weak acid and has a slow solvent effect on certain minerals of the soil. Enough minerals would be leached out to support aquatic vegetation. This aquatic vegetation mixed with soil would decay and produce organic acids, that in turn would break down the insoluble minerals. Certain plants, as lichens, also live on rocks, and excrete acids that liberate enough minerals for their own use. When some or- ganic matter was finally mixed into sterile soils, other agencies, such as bacteria and a variety of plant life, could live, and finally heavy vegetation could flourish. On our forest lands, trees have grown for ages, and the decaying leaves, branches, and roots have added large quantities of organic matter. On the prairies, grasses have grown up, to die on the land each year. In this way the available mineral supply of the soil has been slowly accumulated. Where Nitrogen Came From. While nitrogen was not found in the rock from which soil was made, it is the most important ele- ment of the air, constituting about four-fifths of the atmosphere, or 35,000 tons over each acre of land. Very small quantities of 31 32 CROPPING SYSTEMS nitrogen are brought down by rainfall, while soil bacteria fix rather large quantities of nitrogen taken from air circulating through soil. These bacteria are the principal natural means by which nitrogen is fixed. Some forms of these bacteria are associated with legumes, while others are capable of living in the soil and fix free nitrogen, if organic matter is present. It is not known which kind have been most important in fixing the present supply of nitrogen in the soil. There is some evidence that in certain soils in rather dry regions, soil bacteria not associated with legumes may fix large quantities of nitrogen from the air. 'Nitrogen Fixed by Legumes. The nitrogen is not taken from the air by the legume plants as might be implied, but only by the bacteria found in the nodules formed on legume roots. These bac- teria are short-lived and, as they die, their nitrogen becomes avail- able to plants. Legumes also use any available nitrogen in the soil. A ton of alfalfa hay may contain 50 pounds of nitrogen, yet four tons a season may be removed, and still the soil be richer in nitrogen than before. This would indicate that an alfalfa crop is capable of fixing 200 to 300 pounds of nitrogen from the air in a season, or forty to sixty dollars worth per acre based on the commercial price of nitrogen. Nitrogen in fertilizers costs about twenty cents a pound. In nature, there are great numbers of wild legumes which have been adding their annual deposit of nitrogen to the soil for ages. This is especially true in prairie regions and is one reason for the rich store of nitrogen in these soils. Importance of Organic Matter. A large supply of organic matter is important for the following reasons : (a) By decaying in the soil, it makes available plant food. (b) It is necessary for the life of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. (c) The decayed organic matter itself becomes food for plants. (d) Vegetable matter in the soil helps to keep the soil moist and in good tilth, so it will not become hard and bake. From the above, it would seem that the most important means of keeping a soil productive without the use of fertilizers is to maintain a good supply of vegetable matter, and grow legumes a part of the time to keep up the nitrogen supply (Fig. 14). EFFECTS OF CROPPING 33 Effects of Cropping. When the timber was cleared, or the prairies were broken up, the land was generally productive. After the land has been farmed 40 or 50 years, the productiveness has usually decreased on the average farm, so that not more than one- half the corn or wheat is produced with the same effort. A few farms, that have been well-handled, will still be productive, while, on the other hand, some farms will be so poor that the owners aban don them. FIG. 14. Plowing under rye for green manure. The effect of cropping has just reversed the work of nature. (1) By the constant removal of crops, the humus has been exhausted and none returned. As a result, the soil becomes hard, dries out quickly and there is no longer decaying vegetable matter to free new sup- plies of minerals. (2) Sometimes one or more minerals have been exhausted and none returned. (3) The nitrogen is exhausted and no legume grown to return it. (4) The lime is often leached, out. In most cases, the problem of making this exhausted land pro- ductive again is to change the farm practice, put back what has 3 34 CROPPING SYSTEMS been taken out and adopt a cropping system that will restore the land to its original condition. Some farms will be found that have remained productive under good farm management and other examples may be found, where unproductive land has been restored by good cropping systems. Single Cropping System. When new land has been broken up, the general custom has been at first to grow principally only one or two kinds of exhaustive crops usually the crops that pay best, as corn, wheat, or cotton. In the newer lands of the west (the Dakotas and Canada), we may find the " wheat belt," where wheat has been grown continuously for 20 years. Usually when land has been in one crop for 20 years, it no longer pays and farmers must alternate crops. Alternating Crops. East of the wheat belt, where land has been farmed 40 years, farmers have found it necessary to alternate grain and cultivated crops, as wheat and oats with corn. This al- ternate cropping will maintain yield for a time, but the humus, min- erals and nitrogen slowly exhaust, and it then becomes necessary to restore these to maintain the yield. Rotation Farming. Coming east to still older farming sections, as Illinois and Indiana, all good farmers have for years been adopt- ing rotation systems, that provide for alternating the cultivated crops and grain crops with clover and grass; the clover and grass to oc- cupy the land from one-fourth to one-half the time. In addition, effort is made to return much of the straw removed with the crops, in the form of manure, while in the early days, little or no manure was returned. A good rotation system will not only restore produc- tivity to much unproductive land, but will maintain it for many years. If in addition to a good rotation, the crop is fed to live stock and the manure returned, the land may be kept up almost in- definitely. What the Rotation Does. The rotation of crops (1) main- tains the humus supply; (2) restores nitrogen; (3) alternates crops, having different root systems and habits of growth ; (4) helps control weeds, fungus diseases, and insects. (1) If land is continually sown to grain crops, the humus supply of the soil will decrease. Constant stirring of soil causes the oxida- ROTATIONS DO NOT KEEP UP MINERAL SUPPLY 35 tion or " burning out " of humus. If the same land is sown to grass, the humus supply will be maintained or increased. With manure on grass, the humus may be increased. (2) Experience indicates that where clover is grown once in four years, the nitrogen supply can often be maintained, even when the clover is not plowed under. (3) Plants having quite different root systems, as legumes, root crops which have deep tap roots, and grains having fibrous roots, may live on the same land with less competition than when all have similar root systems. The same is probably true of plants having different habits of growth, as wheat, which grows principally in early summer, and corn, which grows in late summer.' (4) Most weeds that trouble grain crops are destroyed when the land is put to grass. Most weeds are easily controlled under rota- tion. Certain injurious insects may become abundant when the land is in the same or similar crops. For example, corn root worms live only on corn roots, and may accumulate in great numbers when the land has been in corn for several years, but all are destroyed when the land is put in some other crop a few years. In the same way, some plant diseases are controlled by changing crops. Aside from maintaining productivity, rotations help in other ways by distributing the labor, and decreasing chance of total loss of crop in bad crop years. Rotations Do Not Keep Up Mineral Supply. While a well managed rotation, with manure, may keep up the humus and nitrogen, it will not keep up the minerals. In fact, it may exhaust minerals faster than single cropping, since a 30 bushel crop of wheat removes more minerals than a 15 bushel crop, and nothing is done in a mere rotation to return minerals. In most cases, the soil was well exhausted of at least some mineral element before rotation was adopted. Ultimately on most soils, minerals must be supplied in some form. In the oldest farmed sec- tions of the country, namely, the New England States, rotations are no longer sufficient and farmers find it necessary to add some min- erals in the form of commercial fertilizers. The lime is especially low, due to leaching, and must be added to most of these soils for best results. 36 CROPPING SYSTEMS Some Results With Rotations. A good example of the effect of rotation on crop production, in comparison with continuous crop- ping to one crop, is shown in the following data from the Ohio Experiment Station. In the year 1894, two similar fields were laid out in plats. On one field wheat has been grown continuously, a part of the plats with fertilizer and a part without. On the second field, a five-year rotation was laid out, consisting of corn, oats, wheat, clover, and timothy. These plats were repeated, so wheat was har- vested every year. Continuous Vs. Five-Year Rotation WithWheati System Treatment Average annual yield per acre five- Difference first and year periods. Bushels third periods First Second Third Continuous Rotation Continuous Rotation Fertilized Fertilized None None 19.78 20.53 10.8 9.28 21.90 27.46 8.41 8.55 17.41 33.10 6.19 13.66 -2.4 + 12.6 -4.2 +4.4 In the continuous wheat, the fertilizer was applied every year, while in the rotation, fertilizer was only applied to part of the crops. The average annual application was as follows : System Continuous 160 Rotation . 64 100 52 Nitrate of soda, pounds 160 96 Only about half as much fertilizer was used per year with the rotation crops, but wheat was one of the crops fertilized. In both cases, yield of crop decreased under continuous cropping, even when heavy fertilizer was added. Yield has slowly increased under rotation farming, even without fertilizer. Applying Fertilizers. It has been mentioned several times that nitrogen, phosphates, and potash are the three elements that soils are most likely to be deficient in. When a fertilizer contains the above three elements it is called a complete fertilizer. A 2-8-3 fertilizer means that 2 pounds of nitrogen, 8 pounds of available phosphoric Experiment Station Bulletin 231; p. 12, 1911. AMOUNT OF FERTILIZER APPLIED 37 acid, and 3 pounds of potash are carried per 100 pounds of fertilizer. Amount of Fertilizer Applied. No attempt is made to apply enough fertilizer to furnish all the crop needs, as the crop will secure part of its elements from the soil. Nor are the elements applied in the same proportion required by the crop, as the soil is usually most deficient in only one element. Phosphorus is the element most often needed by grain crops. The Indiana Experiment Station rec- ommends a 2-8-4 - fertilizer for wheat, in that state, and the follow- ing table illustrates the relation between the composition of a 20- bushel crop of wheat and 100 pounds of the fertilizer. 3 Fertility Removed Compared With That Supplied Pounds N (nitrogen) Pounds P 2 O 5 (phosphoric acid) Pounds K 2 O (potash) Removed Grain 20.76 11.52 4.20 Straw 10.32 3.12 17.76 Total Supplied by 100 pounds 2-8-4 fer- tilizer 31.08 2.00 14.64 8.00 21.96 400 Deficiency . . . 29.08 6.64 17.96 Most cereals require fertilizers rich in phosphoric acid, while root crops and legumes require a higher proportion of potash, and grass crops require nitrogen mostly. The following proportions are typical examples : Grain crops 2-S-4 to 3-8- 5 Root crops 2-6-6 to 4-8-10 Grass crops . . . 4-6-9 to 9-4- 6 The amount applied varies ordinarily from 100 to 300 pounds per acre. Each farmer must work out the problem by experience on his own land. Ordinarily, a complete fertilizer is used, but often only a single element, as phosphorus or potash, is all that is needed. 2 The formula thus given expresses the fertilizers in percentage in the order given in the above table. 3 Indiana Experiment Station Circular 23, p. 22. 38 CROPPING SYSTEMS Lime. A very large proportion of the land in the eastern half of the United States is benefited by lime. This is especially true of the land originally in heavy timber, outside the distinct limestone regions. Usually, from 1000 to 2000 pounds per acre of burnt lime is applied, or its equivalent in hydrated or ground limestone* The equivalents are : Burnt lime 56 pounds Hydrated lime 74 pounds Ground limestone 100 pounds The lime is best applied with a lime spreader, but is often spread with a shovel. Lime may be applied at any time when there is no crop on the land. When Fertilizers Are Applied. Fertilizers are more com- monly applied to wheat, potatoes and grass than to other common farm crops. Ordinarily, oats, jcorn, and clover do not respond suf- ficiently to fertilizers to pay for direct applications to these crops. Corn, potatoes, and grass make relatively better use of manure than other crops, and the barnyard manure is most profitably applied to these crops. In a typical rotation consisting of corn, oats, wheat, clover, and timothy for one or more years, the common practice is to apply fertilizer to the wheat, and again fertilizer to the grass, after the first year. If manure is available, the best place to put the manure is on the grass, the last year before breaking up. The grass is thus benefited one year, and the corn crop following is benefited about as much as though the manure were applied directly to this crop. On wheat, the fertilizer is usually applied at the time wheat is seeded, by means of a wheat drill with fertilizer attachment. On grass, the fertilizer is applied with the same tool, or a regular fer- tilizer spreader, about two weeks after spring growth starts. BARNYARD MANURE Amount Made by Animals and Value. Professor Eoberts. of Cornell, compiled data showing the amount and value of manure made by various farm animals. He estimated the value by charging the price paid for the nitrogen, phosphate, and potash, in commer- cial fertilizers. However, in addition to the minerals, manure adds CARING FOR MANURE 39 valuable humus to the soil. For convenient comparison, the amount of manure produced is uniformly based on 1000 pounds live weight of the animals. Manure Per 1000 Pounds of Live Weight 4 Excre- ment per year Manure and bedding per year Nitrogen per year Phos- phoric acid per year Potash per year Value per year Value per ton Horse Cow Tons 8.9 13.5 Tons 12.1 14.6 Pounds 153 137 Pounds 81 92 Pounds 150 140 Dollars 42.15 39.00 Dollars 3.48 2.74 Sheep 6.2 9.6 175 88 133 46.05 4.80 Calf 12.4 14.8 150 105 102 40.35 2.72 Pig 15.3 18.2 331 158 130 80.60 4.43 Fowls 4.3 4.3 293 119 72 68.15 15.85 Nitrogen figured at 20 cents and other constituents at 5 cents per pound. In regions where farmers raise high-priced truck crops, and buy large amounts of fertilizers, they sometimes pay as high as $2.50 per ton for manure. Add to this the cost of hauling and they pay close to the above estimated value. When commercial fertilizers alone are used, it is necessary to plow under green crops occasionally to keep up the supply of vegetable matter. With manure alone, the productiveness of land may be kept up indefinitely. When crops are fed to live stock, about seventy-five per cent of the nitrogen and mineral elements is recovered in the manure. Many farmers do not care for the manure properly. If manure is leached by rains, or piled up and allowed to heat, more than half the value is readily lost. Caring for Manure. The best way to handle manure is to spread it on the land as made. If piled up, care must be exercised to prevent heating, and it should be protected from rains. Some farmers mix a little land plaster with the manure as made, which prevents nitrogen from escaping. Farmers having land that is bene- fited by the use of phosphate, find it profitable to mix ground phos- phate rock or acid phosphate with the manure as made. The usual rate is about 30 to 40 pounds of phosphate rock to a ton of manure. This is an excellent way of applying phosphate to land. 4 Warren's Elements of Agriculture, p. 139. 40 CROPPING SYSTEMS QUESTIONS 1. How does rock become productive soil? 2. Where did the organic matter come from? 3. How did soils acquire their nitrogen supply? 4. Why are legumes so important? 5. Why is organic matter so important? 6. What appear to be the direct effects of continuous cropping on a productive soil ? 7. Can deterioration be avoided? 8. Explain what is meant by single cropping; alternate cropping; and rotation cropping. 9. Name some good rotations. 10. What factors in productivity does rotation maintain? 11. What does rotation fail to maintain? 12. State in brief results obtained at Ohio Experiment Station. 13. What is a "complete" fertilizer? 14. Does the chemical composition of a crop indicate the kind of fertilizer to apply ? 15. Give composition of typical fertilizer mixtures. 16. What are the three forms of agricultural lime and how do they differ? 17. Which crops respond best to fertilizer and which to manure? 18. How is the value of manure made by one animal determined? 19. How much of the plant food is recovered in the manure? CHAPTER VI CORN Where Corn is Produced. Almost three-fourths of the world's corn crop is produced in the United States, and more than three- fourths in the North American continent, as shown by the following table: Percentage of World's Corn Crop Produced ly Continents (1900-1013) North America ....................... 74.49 Europe .............................. 15.67 South America ....................... 4.69 Asia ....... .......................... 2.53 Africa ............................... 2.35 Australia ............................ .21 Of the corn produced in North America, less than five per cent of the world's crop is produced in Canada and Mexico, so that the United States, for the period 1909-1913, produced 69.77 per cent of the world's crop. The Corn Belt. Seven adjacent states produce more than one- half or, to be exact, 58 per cent of the corn crop. These states are Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri. Fig. 15 shows the average distribution of corn for the country. The two principal reasons for the high production of this crop in the corn belt, are the favorable climate and soil. Corn requires a sunshiny climate and plenty of rainfall. In this region, rainfall is heaviest during the summer months, while, at the same time, there is a large percentage of bright clear days. The land is also level, well-adapted to corn culture, and suited to the use of machinery. A second reason for so much corn in this region, is that there is no competing crop that farmers cultivate as profitably. In the Gulf States, corn may also be raised at a reasonable cost, but there it must compete with the cotton crop, while in the northeastern states the hay crop is more valuable. 1 Asia produces a small amount of corn, but no available data. ' 41 42 CORN THE ORIGIN OP CORN 43 The Leading Corn States. The ten leading corn States arranged according to rank are as follows : Ten Leading Corn Producing States. Average for Three Years (1919-1921} State Production, bushels Acreage Value, dollars Average yield per acre Average price per bushel Iowa 444,094,000 10,196 000 284,365,000 43.5 99 Illinois 309,647,000 8 886,000 234,367,000 34.8 76 Nebraska Missouri 215,815,000 185,508,000 7,336,000 6,235,000 128,520,000 143,802,000 29.3 29.7 63 81 Indiana 182,086,000 4,811,000 134,715,000 37.8 74 Ohio 166,985,000 3,931,000 129,164,000 42.5 77 Texas Minnesota South Dakota . . Kansas 150,021,000 127,909,000 106,613,000 99,495,000 5,576,000 3,238,000 3,621,000 4,599,000 127,380,000 83,448,000 63,389,000 59,722,000 27.1 39.5 30.2 21.3 85 67 62 72 The Origin of Corn. All cultivated plants have been developed from some wild form. The cultivated plants have been selected and changed, so that in many cases they do not bear a close resemblance to the original wild forms. Certain parts of the plant, however, are apt to remain unchanged, so that botanists can determine its close wild relatives. There are two wild semi-tropical plants similar to corn. These are known as Gama grass (Tripsacum dactyloides) and teosinte (Euclilcena Mexicana). Both are found growing in Mexico and southern United States. The teosinte will cross with corn, which indicates its close relationship (Fig. 16). Gama grass is more slender than corn, but bears a tassel at the top, resembling a corn tassel. The seeds are borne in the tassel, instead of an ear on the stalk. The teosinte is much more like corn, and bears a kind of branched ear. There is good evidence that corn was developed by evolution from teosinte or a near relative, and that this origin probably occurred in Central Mexico. From Mexico, it probably spread to South America and North America. When Columbus came to America, corn was in common cultivation throughout both continents. Columbus and other travelers after him carried corn to Europe, where it was called maize and, later, Indian corn. CORN FIG. 16. Coyote corn, a form found growing wild in Mexico. Has also been produced artificially by crossing teosinte and corn. (U. S. Department of Agricul- ture.) The word corn is used in Europe for all cereals, as wheat and barley, and the name " Indian com " serves to distinguish maize from the other grains. In the United States, the name corn is correct and has attained legal standing. Classification of Corn. There are six principal types of corn. These types are pop-corn,, flint corn, dent corn, soft corn, sweet corn, and pod corn (Figs. 17 and 18). The classification is based principally on the character of the kernel. Pop-corn is very hard and flinty in character'; the flint corn kernel is similar, but larger, and contains some soft starch in the center; the dent corn kernel is about one-half hard and one-half soft starch, while the soft corn is entirely soft starch. Of course, there are intermediate stages between each class, so that practically a perfect series is found, from the hard, flinty pop-corn to the soft, flour corn. Growers, how- ever, have usually selected those named above for the distinct types, so there are not many of the inter- mediate kinds in cultivation. Sweet corn and pod corn may be variations from any of the above four types. Sweet corn is any kind that lacks the factor for converting its sugars to starches, so it stores its kernels with sugar-like compounds. The pod corn may be any of the CLASSIFICATION OF CORN I- 3 CORN .gg - o 1 c a 2 3 SWEET CORN 47 above varieties, with a tendency to develop the small scales at the base of each kernel into large size. The relationship of the six types may be illustrated by the follow- ing: 1. All hard starch pop-corn 5. Sweet corn, any kind that does 2. All hard but center flint corn not develop starch. 3. Crown of soft starch dent corn 6. Pod corn, any kind that develops 4. All soft starch soft corn glumes or " pods." Pop-corn (Zea Mays everta). Very hard corneous endo- sperm ; kernels small. Popping quality due to the explosion of moist- ure on the application of heat. The kernel is so hard that the moisture is retained until it reaches high temperature. There are two types of pop-corn known as rice corn, with pointed kernels, and pearl pop-corn, with round kernels. All common colors and size of ears vary from 2 to 7 inches in length. Rows 8 to 16. Tom Thumb pop-corn is the smallest variety of corn grown. Flint Corn (Zea Mays indurata). Horny outside, and soft starch in center. Kernels usually rounded, though some varieties have short flat grains. Flint corn is adapted to cooler climates and higher altitudes than dent corn and is therefore the principal variety of corn in climates too cool for dent corn. Length of ear varies from 6 to 14 inches ; rows 6 to 14 ; all colors. Dent Corn (Zea Mays indentata). Horny starch on sides and soft starch in center. The soft starch shrinks in drying, thus giving the dent. The plant varies in height from 5 to 18 feet, the ear varies in length from 6 to 12 inches, and has 8 to 24 rows. Practically the only type cultivated in the corn belt. Soft Corn (Zea Mays amylacea). Sometimes called flour corn. Endosperm composed of all soft starch. Kernels shaped like flint corn; all colors, but white and blue most common. Ears are 6 to 10 inches in length and mostly 8- to 12-rowed. Sweet Corn (Zea Mays saccharata). Translucent, horny and wrinkled kernels. Sweet corn develops very little or no starch, ap- parently being any type of corn lacking the factor for converting its sugars into starch. Has sweeter taste than other corns. Other types of corn, but much more rare, are Coyote corn (Zea Mays canina), Zea Mays japonica, a variety with striped leaf; Zea 48 CORN Mays Mrta, leaves and stem covered with hairs ; Zea Mays curagua, a form having a serrate leaf; and Chinese maize, a form having a waxy instead of a starchy endosperm. Number of Varieties. In 1898, Professor E. L. Sturtevant published a description of 507 varieties, though he thought that in many cases the same variety had more than one name, there being 163 synonyms. He classified the varieties into the following natural groups : Dent corns 323 varieties Flint corns 69 varieties Sweet corns 63 varieties Soft corns 27 varieties Pop-corns . 25 varieties Growth and Development of Parts. If a young plant six inches high is taken up and examined, it will be found that all the principal parts of the plant have begun development. Cut the plant in two lengthwise. In the center is a short stem. Note that the stem is divided by nodes very close together. While the stem at this stage may not be more than one or two inches long, some 12 to 20 cross nodes (or the full number when mature) may be made out by careful examination. From the very lowest nodes on the base of the stem, roots have been thrown out. From the upper nodes leaves are developing. The full number of leaves may be counted at this time. At the very tip of the little stem, an embryonic tassel can be seen. Inside each leaf may be seen a very small bud. Note that all parts of the plant, roots, leaves, buds, arise from the nodes. Now as the plant grows, the stem between the nodes (internodes) simply lengthens, stretching out the entire length of the stem like a telescope. At the same time all parts of the plant grow in size, but no new parts are formed. When the plant has attained some size, one or two of the buds near the base of the stem may begin very rapid growth and develop into tillers or suckers. A little later one of the buds from near the middle of the plant will develop into an ear. The stem is divided by nodes. The number of nodes varies with the height of plant. In northern latitudes the number above ground is. about 10 and the height of stalk G feet, while in the south, plants 12 to 15 feet high have 18 to 20 nodes, and a corresponding number of leaves in each case. THE EAR 49 Tillers or suckers come from buds developed at the surface of the soil. If conditions are unfavorable, these buds may simply remain dormant, but if the soil is rich, or planting thin, one or more may develop. Some varieties naturally produce more tillers than others. Sweet corns and flint corns produce more tillers than dent varieties. The Roots. When a seed of corn germinates a few temporary roots are first developed. These do not grow ve,ry large and appear to function only while the young plant is establishing. When the young plant reaches sunlight with its leaves, it begins at about the same time to develop permanent roots. These are thrown out at the base of the stem, which usually forms at about one inch below the soil surface. No matter at what depth the seed was planted the permanent roots develop at about the same depth below the surface. Spread of Roots. Corn roots usually spread out laterally when full grown to a distance of four to six feet on every side of the plant^ and downward to a depth of five feet on friable loam soils ; but on heavy clay or hardpan soils they may penetrate only two feet. Most of the roots are in the upper 12 to 18 inches, this portion of the soil in a corn field being thoroughly filled with roots. The upper roots are usually about three inches below the surface in loose prairie soils, but in a close clay soil they may come within one inch of the surface, necessitating very shallow cultivation. Brace roots are strong roots thrown out just above the soil surface. Above ground they are strong and rigid, but entering the soil they become small and branching, and function like other roots. As the name implies, their principal function is to brace the plant against the effect of strong winds. Tassel and Ear. The corn tassel produces the pollen for fer- tilizing the ears. The tassel branches bear a great number of pollen sacs, each of which is filled with pollen grains. It has been estimated that one tassel bears twenty million pollen grains. When the silks are ready to be fertilized, the pollen sacs begin to open and shed the pollen. Not all the pollen from a tassel is shed in one day, but from day to day for about one week. The pollen grains are easily carried by wind to the corn silks (Fig. 19). The Ear. An ear of corn usually has from 500 to 1000 kernels. The number of rows varies from 8 to 30. The cob and kernels de- 4 50 CORN velop until about one-fourth full size, then each kernel sends out a long silk or style. Those kernels near the butt send out silks first, then silking gradually proceeds toward the tip; the whole process taking from two to three days. As soon as a silk emerges from the husk it is ready to receive pollen. One pollen grain must fall on FIG. 19. Ear of corn in full silk, and ready to be fertilized. There is a silk (pistil) from each kernel, and each must receive a pollen grain. every silk, for if it does not receive pollen, the kernel to which it is attached will not develop. Fertilization. When the pollen grain falls on a silk, soon a small tube is sent out which finds its way down the silk and into the egg cell of the young kernel. Reaching the egg cell, the contents of THE EFFECTS OF HYBRIDIZING 51 the pollen grain unites with the egg cell, and very soon growth begins. Hybridizing. When the pollen comes from another variety or type of corn, the ear produced is then said to be " crossed," or is a hybrid ear. All kinds of corn will cross naturally if planted near enough for pollen to be carried by the wind (Fig. 21). FIG. 20. Method of preparing a laboratory exercise, and also showing in detail the male (from tassel) and female (from ear) flowers of corn. Crossing is often done artificially. The ears and tassels of plants to be crossed are first covered with paper bags (Fig. 21), before the silks have appeared or pollen is shed. In a few days, when the silks have appeared, pollen is taken from another plant and applied to the silks. The Effects of Hybridizing. When two varieties of corn are hybridized or crossed there is some direct effect seen the first year, 52 CORN though most of the effect is seen the next year in the plants grown from the hybrid seed. If a sweet corn ear be fertilized by pollen from a dent corn plant, a large proportion of the sweet corn kernels crossed will be smooth, like a dent corn, though not all the crossed kernels are so affected. The second year, however, if the kernels are planted, the ears produced will be mixed sweet and dent. Plant all the kernels pro- FIQ. 21. Corn plant prepared for artificial crossing. The tassels are covered with sacs to catch pollen, while the ears are protected. duced by this first generation, and in the second generation it will be found that one-fourth of the ears produced are pure sweet corn and will come true afterward with no sign of the dent. One-fourth of the ears will be true dent that will come true afterward, but one-half the ears will again be hybrids. This rule applies to a great many plants and is called Mendel's law, after the man who discovered it. The effect of crossing on the vigor and yield is very marked also (Fig. 22). When the seed has been fertilized by pollen from the THE EFFECTS OF HYBRIDIZING 53 same plant, it usually produces smaller plants and poor ears. The yield is usually reduced about one-half by inbreeding, as it is called. FIG. 22. Effect of crossing and self-fertilization on vigor of plants. (1) cross-fertilized; (2) close-fertilized, i.e., from related plant; (3) self-fertilized, i.e., from own pollen. Theseare typical plants after three years in each case. (From Corn Crops, by Macmillan Pub. Co.) When the pollen comes from an unrelated plant the vigor and yield of the crop from this crossed seed is increased. In nature most of the corn is pollenized by other than its own pollen, but at least some kernels must be self-fertilized on each ear. 54 CORN These self -fertilized kernels probably account for many of the small or barren stalks in fields. It has often been found to increase the yield to cross two varieties, as illustrated by the following data taken from the Illinois Experiment Station. The table gives the yield of the two parent varieties and then the yield of the hybrid of these varieties. Yields from Crossing Variety Bushels per acre of corn Burrs White 64.2 . Cranberry 61.6 Average 62.9 Cross 67.1 Burrs White 64.2 Helm's Improved 79.2 Average 71.7 Cross 73.1 Burrs White 64.2 Edmonds 58.4 Average 61.3 Cross 78.5 Learning 73.6 Golden Beauty 65.1 Average 69.3 Cross 86.2 Champion White Pearl 60.6 Learning 73.6 Average 67.1 Cross 76.2 QUESTIONS 1. Where is the " corn belt " and why is so much corn grown here? 2. Where was corn first grown? 3. Does it have wild relatives? , 4. Name and distinguish the six principal types of corn. 5. What type is most important? 6. What conditions affect the production of tillers? 7. Does depth of planting affect depth of permanent roots? 8. How are roots distributed in the soil? 9. What is pollen? How does it fertilize the ear? 10. What part of the ear silks first? 11. Explain hybridizing. 12. What effects are noted from hybridizing, on the kernels ? On the vigor of plant? CHAPTER VII CLIMATE AND SOIL REQUIRED FOR CORN Effect of Climate. Corn is of tropical origin, but, owing to its ready adaptation, it has been adapted to grow and mature as far north as southern Canada. However, corn has not lost its liking for warm, sunshiny weather. Corn not only requires warm days but comparatively warm nights as well. One effect of cool nights, even when the days are warm, is to delay ripening. This effect is best seen at high elevations where the nights are cool. In the Middle States corn that will mature in 100 days at an elevation of 1000 feet will require 130 to 140 days at elevations of 2000 or 3000 feet. Flint corns will mature in cooler climates than dent corn*,. In Mexico dent corn will mature at elevations of 8000 feet, but in North Carolina only from 2000 to 3000 feet; and as far north as New York, only the very earliest varieties will mature at 1000 feet ele- vation. Flint corns, however, will do well at 1000 feet in New York, and much higher. Consequently, in this State and all New England most of the corn raised is flint, except for silage when it is cut green. Sunshine is also required, and in some places where it is cloudy for half the time, corn does not do well on that account. While hot, sunshiny days are not always the most agreeable, yet this kind of weather is the greatest asset of the corn- and grain-growing belt in the Central States. Soils for Corn. Corn is sometimes called a " coarse feeder," owing to its ability to apparently use coarse manures, and will thrive on new clover sods, in contrast with wheat and oats which are said to be " delicate " feeders, as they require the manure and sod to be thoroughly decayed for best results. Corn does well on land very rich in nitrogen, while small grain would lodge on such a soil. Land can hardly be made too rich for corn. The best natural corn lands are the rich black river bottoms 55 56 CLIMATE AND SOIL REQUIRED FOR CORN of the Mississippi River basin. There is no better place to plant corn than on a heavy clover or alfalfa sod, or after a crop of cow peas has been plowed under. A heavy clay soil, such as would produce good timothy, is not the best soil for corn, and, on the other hand, a sandy potato soil is too light for best results with corn, unless heavily manured. A medium loam, well drained, is considered as ideal land for corn. The land must be comparatively easy to prepare and cultivate for profitable corn culture, as corn is an extensive crop rather than an intensive crop, and culture must be relatively cheap. Length of Growing Season. Corn varies in the time required to ripen from 200 days down to 90 days for the earliest varieties. The length of growing season is defined as the average time between killing frosts from spring to fall. However, as some seasons have very late spring and very early fall frosts, the farmer usually selects a variety of corn that will mature in the shortest season likely to occur. It will take about 150 days to mature the large, most productive types of corn, which is about the season available in the latitude of Central Missouri or the lower Ohio River. North of this the shorter growing season is a limiting factor in the yield of corn. Rainfall. A heavy crop of corn requires a very large amount of water during a comparatively short time. This short period is about six weeks in July and August. From 18 to 20 tons of water are required to pass through the plants to produce one bushel of corn. Also considerable water is lost by runoff when heavy rains come and by evaporation from the soil. It is very important that plenty of rain falls during the growing season of June, July, and August. Records show that the average yield of corn in the corn belt varies from year to year with the aver- age rainfall for these three months. The crop is good with 12 to 14 inches of rain for the period, and poor when the rain amounts to only 8 or 10 inches. Importance of Adaptation. While there is a certain ideal kind of corn climate and soil, yet corn has been adapted to a wide range of conditions, as high elevations, dry climates, humid climates, clay, and sandy soils. QUESTIONS 57 It is reasonable to expect that a corn that has been adapted to a certain set of conditions will do better under those conditions than some variety from a distance. This fact has been demonstrated many times by farmers and experiment stations. For example : In eastern Nebraska the rainfall is about 30 inches, while in the western part of the state it is about eighteen inches, and the elevation is about 2000 feet higher. An experiment was tried for two years in western Nebraska. Farmers grew in the same field a number of rarieties mostly from eastern Nebraska in comparison with varie- ties grown in western Nebraska, with the following results in yield of bushels per acre 1 : Influence, of Adaptation Year 1908 Varieties mostly from eastern Nebraska 24.1 Native western varieties 30.5 Difference in yield 6.4 1909 20.9 25.4 4.5 Average 22.5 27.9 5.4 The importance of using native-grown seed has been demon- strated many times in other states. QUESTIONS 1. What effect do cool nights have on maturing of corn? 2. Do dent and flint corns differ in adaptation to climate? 3. Describe a good corn soil. 4. How long should the growing season be for good corn? 5. How much water is required to make a bushel of corn? 6. How much rain is needed for a good crop? 7. Explain the importance of adaptation or acclimated corn. 1 Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 12G, 1912. CHAPTER VIII CORN CULTURE Selecting a Variety. In the Gulf States " prolific varieties " are grown mostly, which means varieties normally producing more than one ear on a stalk (Fig. 23). North of the Ohio River only single-ear varieties are grown. Between the Ohio River and the Gulf States is an intermediate territory where both kinds are grown. The varieties in the corn belt and southward are practically all dent corns, but north of the corn belt and at high elevations flint varieties are grown mostly. Flint corns will mature in cooler climates. Some of the well-known prolific varieties are Mosby, Blount, Cocke's Prolific, Sanders, Albemarle, and Marlboro. The most important large white dent varieties are Boone County White, St. Charles White, Silver Mine; and the most important large yellow varieties are Learning, Riley's Favorite, Reid's Yellow Dent, and Legal Tender. The best known early dent varieties are Pride of the North, White Cap, Minnesota No. 13, Wisconsin No. 7, Early Huron, and Early Calico. Well-known flint varieties are King Philip, Sanford White, Smut Nose, Gold Nugget, Eight-row, and Twelve-row yellow flints. There are probably more than 1000 varieties of corn, but the few varieties named (and varieties derived from them) constitute a very large percentage of the corn raised. Learning and Silver Mine are probably raised most extensively. There are many varieties thoroughly adapted to certain condi- tions, and farmers should always investigate local varieties first (Fig. 24). It has already been pointed out (Chapter VII) that thoroughly adapted corn is better than corn from a distance. The only exception to this rule is in the case of corn grown for fodder or silage north of the corn belt. Since silage is sometimes cut green, the corn need not mature, and a large, late variety will often produce more feed than one that would mature, 58 CROSSING 59 IMPROVEMENT AND BREEDING OF CORN Varieties. Where did all the varieties come from? There are hundreds of varieties. A lit- tle study into the history of any particular variety will generally show that back somewhere a careful grower spent years in selecting and improving the variety. He always had some ideal in mind, and going into his corn field endeavored to find ears representing this ideal. Perhaps he tried to develop a 12-rowed flint instead of an 8-rowed, or desired some different shape of ear or kernel. By careful and patient selection toward his ideal he would finally develop a variety having the desired character. Some man spent 10 to 40 years to fully develop and fix the type. Such a variety is Reid's Yellow Dent. Mr. James Reid began selecting this in 1846, but it was not until 50 years later that it came into general cultivation. Ear-to-row Breeding. About 1895 general attention was first called to the plan of corn im- provement which we now know as " ear-to-row " breeding. It was found that many ears of corn would yield unusually high, but this could not be told by examining the ear. The new plan was to plant each ear to a row, then in the fall select seed only from those rows giving a high average yield. This method is superior to the old method of merely selecting the best looking ears (Fig. 25). Crossing. We have already noted the effect of crossing on corn. New varieties can easily be produced by crossing, and it is sometimes desir- able to cross varieties for this purpose. In fact, many of the variations found in corn fields are due to natural crossing, which is commonly due to the great distance pollen is carried by wind. FlG 23 _ Stalk of Son 8 ? Ex P eriment Sta ~ 50 CORN CULTURE SELECTION AND CARE OF SEED CORN The careful selection of seed corn seems important for two rea- sons: (1) In practically all the region north of the Ohio River it is necessary to see that corn matures well, while at the same time maintaining the size of the ear. (2) Since corn plants are spaced wide apart (as compared with small grain which is sown thickly), the plants are largely relieved from the effects of " natural selection," FIG. 24. Difference in types of corn. Eureka corn, a southern type, compared with sweet corn on right. and so " artificial selection " must be practised to maintain the crop. Natural selection can be secured by very thick planting, and results at the Nebraska Station indicate that a more vigorous type of corn can be developed under thick planting than under thin planting. For several years corn was grown continuously, in one case, with only 1 stalk per hill ; in another case 3 stalks per hill were grown SELECTION AND CARE OF SEED CORN 61 FIG. 25. Two types of Learning corn developed by six years' selection at the Illinois) Experiment Station, the one for low ears and the other for high ears. (From Illinois Experi- ment Station.) 62 CORN CULTURE continuously; and in a third case 5 stalks per hill were grown. In the thick planting only the strongest stalks could produce good ears. The yields produced in 1911, after six years of natural selection, when seed from each case was planted at the normal rate (3 stalks per hill), were as follows 2 : Results from Seed Selected from Thick and Thin Plantings Yield when planted 8 grains Origin of seed per hill. Bushels per acre One plant per hill 39.8 Three plants per hill 43.7 Five plants per hill 48.1 Selecting Seed from Crib. In the past common custom has been to husk the corn crop and crib the ears. The farmer would select his seed while the corn was being cribbed or taken out. Often excellent seed corn can .be secured in this way, but there are at least two disadvantages: (1) The crib is not a good place to preserve the germinating qualities of corn, and often it is difficult to find seed that will grow. (2) It is not known under what conditions the seed corn was grown. There are always very favorable places in the field where it may also happen that the stand of corn is thin. Large ears may grow here, but they are not necessarily adapted to the aver- age conditions of the field. The best seed corn is that grown where the stand is normal and the soil conditions are average. Field Selection. Many good growers now select their seed corn from the standing stalks in the field. Where it is desired to main- tain or increase the earliness of the corn, selection is usually made as soon as the first ears are well matured. In the corn belt this would be about the last of October. The advantages of field selection are : (1) Early maturing ears may be selected. (2) The conditions, as to soil and stand, under which the plant was grown may be known. (3) Character of the plant may be known. It is desirable to select ears of uniform height and growing rather low on the stalk. (4) The seed corn may be carefully dried and stored to preserve germination. Storing Seed Corn. All the factors that cause seed corn to lose germination have not been clearly worked out. Corn when first ripe 2 Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 127, p. 21, 1912, GERMINATION TESTS 63 contains 25 to 30 per cent of water, while good dry corn contains only 10 to 12 per cent of water. If the ear corn does not dry down rapidly (in three or four weeks) it is very apt to lose in germinating quality. Freezing is especially injurious when corn is damp, but H will deteriorate without freezing. When corn is dry (15 per cent moisture) it will endure hard freezing without injury, and retain germination for several years. Therefore, the most important matter to be given attention is to dry the seed corn as soon as ripe. In large seed houses the corn is sometimes kiln-dried by artificial heat, but the farmer will ordinarily dry his seed by hanging on strings, impaling the ears on nails driven into a board, laying them on shelves made from wire netting, or by use of one of the many drying racks on the market. Drying* will take three to four weeks, when the ears may be packed in crates or shelled to be stored in a dry loft. FIG. 26. A box tester for seed corn. Upon muslin cloth squares are drawn and numbered. On each square are laid five kernels from an ear of the same number. When the tester is filled, the sawdust pad shown at the left is placed to keep the grain moist. (Davis's "Productive Farming.") Examining Seed Corn. To determine by examination whether seed corn will grow, first make a careful study of good, bright, sound corn that is known to grow well. Know in particular how a good germ looks when cut open with a sharp knife. Note that the germ is neither brittle nor very soft, but cuts about like solid cheese. Then this rule may be accepted: Any discoloration of either the grain or any part of the germ, or any departure from normal texture, indi- cates weakened vitality. A careful man may discard most poor germinating ears by examination. Germination Tests. There are occasions when enough good, sound ears are found only with difficulty, and it is necessary to take a great many ears of doubtful germinating qualities. First take a random sample of 100 ears and, taking 3 kernels from each, make a general test. If less than 90 per cent of the kernels pro- duce good sprouts, it would then be advisable to test each ear sepa- 64 CORN CUL1URE rately. This can be done by preparing a numbei of large germination boxes. Germination Box.- Make a box of wood or sheet-iron about 30 inches square (Fig. 26). Put 3 inches of sand or sawdust in the bottom. Lay over this a white cotton cloth marked off in 3-inch squares. Number the squares from 1 to 100. Now place the ears of corn in order, on a floor, shelves, or in a rack. Number the ears from 1 to 100. Place six grains from ear number 1 in square num- ber 1, and so on until grains have been taken from each ear. Lay a second cloth over the kernels and place one inch of sawdust on top. Wet down thoroughly and keep in a warm place. In 5 days the top cloth can be rolled off, and examination will readily show which ears will germinate and which will not. There are a number of patented germinators on the market, with means of providing artificial heat, that are satisfactory. Doll Baby Germinator. Another satisfactory method is the doll baby. Lay out the corn ears side by side on a floor. Lay a long strip of Canton flannel 12 inches wide by the row of ears. Place kernels of corn about three inches from one edge of the cloth strip. Then fold over the strip from one side. Roll strip from one end. When rolled up, soak in water for 12 hours, then place roll in a covered receptacle and keep at proper temperature for several days Unroll cloth at end of same ears of corn. At a glance it will be ascertained which ears will grow. Butt and Tip Kernels for Seed, Frequent tests have shown that butt and tip kernels grow and produce fairly well. However, they are smaller, and planters can not be adjusted to plant all sizes of corn evenly. It is advisable to remove the small kernels from butt and tip before shelling seed. EXERCISES Field Study of Maize. This exercise is most valuable if made in two fields, one a good field and the other poorer. 1. First measure the width of rows and figure out how long a row it will take to equal one one-hundredth of an acre. In most fields this will be between 7 and 8 rods. 2. Let each student take a row and secure the following data- How many stalks per row? Per cent of ear-bearing stalks. Per cent of barren stalks. EXERCISES 65 How many stalks per acre? Weigh three ears of dry corn, representing small, medium, and large ears. How many bushels per acre if each stalk produced an ear? Figure for all three sizes ( 70 pounds ears per bushel ) . Use following form to report: Weight of ears Number of ears per acre Bushels per acre Per cent barren plants Reduction in yield due to barren plants ! Selecting Seed Corn. Class select 100 seed ears, and divide into four lots. Store each lot in a different place, selecting at least one good, dry, airy place, and one place where corn will dry poorly, as a tight barrel or box. Later make germination tests to determine effect of storage on yield. If apparatus is available, it will be well to determine moisture present when gathered, and twice a month while drying. Study of Germinating Quality of Corn. The purpose of this exer- cise is to acquaint the student with the characteristic appearance of good and poor kernels of seed corn, with special reference to germinating qualities. Preparing Germination Box. A box 15 inches square and 3 inches deep will germinate 25 ears. 1. Put 2 inches of sawdust in box and tamp down well with a brick. 2. Lay on the sawdust a piece of blotting paper or white cloth which has previously been marked into 3-inch squares. 3. Number 25 ears of corn. 4. Take from each ear G kernels from near the butt, middle, and tip, and place in germinator. Examine two or three more kernels by cutting open with a sharp knife. 5. Mark a piece of note paper into 25 squares and fill out in corre- sponding squares the following data on each ear. This is to give you an opportunity to make a detailed study. A. Grain: 1. Appearance bright; dull? 2. Discolored back; tip? 3. Shape of tip pointed; plump? 4. General texture hard; soft? B. Germs: 5. Covering smooth; blistered? G. Texture soft; medium; dry? 7. Air-space large; small; none? 8. Color normal; yellowish; etc.? 6. On a second sheet state your opinion on germinating quality and also data secured. 1. How do you expect this to germinate good, medium, poor? 2. Number germinated 6 days? 3. Number germinated 10 days? 4. Is germination strong, medium, weak? 5 66 CORN CULTURE 7. Written Conclusions. From results of your test and information from readings and lectures, make a report. 1. Number of ears showing strong, medium, and weak germination. 2. Designate the 5 best ears. 3. How should seed corn be selected and preserved to secure best germinating qualities? The above is the way sheet is ruled for making out reports on ears. QUESTIONS 1. How do varieties differ in the Gulf States, the corn belt, and the northern States? 2. How have varieties of corn originated? 3. Explain ear-to-row breeding. 4. Does corn always mature well? 5. Explain the principle of " natural selection " in growing seed corn. 6. Explain disadvantages of crib selection of seed. 7. Explain advantages of field selection. 8. What are the principal precautions to observe in storing seed corn? 9. Describe the appearance of good seed corn. 10 How do you make germination test in a box? by the rag-doll method? 11. Compare the value of butt and tip kernels for seed. CHAPTER IX PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CORN UNDER the chapters discussing " Soil for Corn " and " Cropping Systems " attempt has been made to show how land can best be maintained in a productive state for corn production. It takes years to " run down " or make unproductive a good piece of land by even the most exhaustive cropping method. It takes even longer to restore production to an exhausted field. The important consider- ation in crop production is maintaining the productivity of the land. Preparation, Secondary. The crop depends not so much on the preparation just preceding planting (provided it is reasonably good) as it does on the treatment the land has had for the previous ten or twenty years. To thoroughly plow, pulverize, and free from weeds is all the preparation good land needs. Plowing Corn Land. Experiments have not shown an exact relationship between depth or time of plowing and yield. This is probably because the temporary effect of deep or shallow plowing may be very small, owing to other more important factors, and also be- cause results appear to vary some with soils and seasons. In the rather loose loam soils of the semi-arid regions at the west edge of the corn belt, in central Kansas and Nebraska, more than one-half of the corn land is not plowed at all. The land may be disk-harrowed in early spring, to preserve moisture, and perhaps again just before planting to kill weeds. The corn is planted with a lister, which is a double mould-board plow that opens up a furrow, planting the corn in the bottom. In the South corn is also planted in a furrow, on the drier sandy lands. The "listing" method then is confined to the loose, drier soils in the West and South. In all other places the land is pre- pared by plowing. The reasen seems to be that practically all heavy land in humid 67 68 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CORN seasons must be plowed thoroughly once a year to keep it in good physical condition, while in cultivated crops. Without good plow- ing the land becomes hard, and increases the labor of planting and cultivating. Depth of Plowing. Nothing definite can be said regarding depth of plowing so far as immediate effect on the corn crop follow- ing. However, common experience is that land can not be kept in a good productive state by constant shallow plowing. The reasons seem to be: (1) The humus and fertilizer applied is then limited to the surface few inches. (2) The benefits to be derived from the humus or fertilizer can not be fully utilized by the plant, as it does not have sufficient roots in the surface three or four inches ; also the surface may be too dry for considerable periods. (3) Constant shallow plowing is apt to give a hardpan subsurface. Fall or Spring Plowing. Where heavy sod lands are to be put into corn or manure is to be turned under, fall plowing is best, as the vegetable matter decays more thoroughly. In other cases where the corn follows corn or grain, fall and spring plowing give about equal results. It is then largely a question of farm management. On most farms it is convenient to do a part or all of the plowing in the fall. On some heavy soils the fall-plowed land becomes too compact by spring, necessitating replowing for the corn. In such cases spring plowing is cheaper and advisable. Time of Spring Plowing. Three advantages have been estab- lished regarding early spring plowing as compared with late spring plowing : (1) The available plant food, especially nitrogen, will be greater with early plowing, due to aeration and greater activity of soil bacteria. (2) More moisture will be conserved, if the spring is dry. (3) As a result the yield of corn is usually better. Preparation After Plowing. The principal objects of prepa- ration after plowing are to pulverize and compact the soil well and destroy weeds. Caution is needed in the case of certain very fine clay soils, which when pulverized too fine are apt to run together in a hard crust after heavy rains. On such soils tools that give a coarse preparation, such LISTING 69 as cultivators or- spring-tooth harrows, should be used rather than the disk harrow. It is all-important to kill weeds hefore planting, as it greatly simplifies the care of the crop. One advantage of early plowing is that weed seeds may be germinated and destroyed before planting. PLANTING CORN As heretofore stated, corn is planted in furrows on light dry soils ; on the level surface generally, and also on ridges in certain wet lands in the southern States. Corn may be drilled, or check-rowed, i.e., in hills rowing both ways. It is dropped by hand, with various kinds of one-horse drills, and with two-horse planters. Hand Planting. In regions where the average planting per farmer is ten acres or less, the planting is quite generally done by hand. Either the prepared land is furrowed out both ways and the seed dropped at the intersecting furrows, or it is planted with a hand jab planter. A man can plant 5 acres a day by hand. The deprecia- tion, repairs, and interest on a $40 machine would amount to five or six dollars per year, so that hand planting on small areas is really cheaper than keeping a two-horse machine. Drilling. Many farmers growing small areas of corn use a one- horse drill, partly because it can be bought much cheaper than a two-horse check-row planter. A grain drill can also be easily adapted to drilling corn by stopping up part of the feed holes. This tool is used very generally throughout the North Atlantic States for drilling silage corn. Drilling has another advantage on hilly land in following the contour of the hills with rows, thus preventing soil washing. Check-row Planting. On level land where large fields are grown, check-row planting is the common method. This is prin- cipally because it is easier to keep free from weeds. Drilling on the surface makes necessary either hand hoeing to keep weeds out of the row, or throwing considerable soil to the corn in cultivating in order to cover the weeds. This latter method develops too much of a ridge. Listing. When corn is planted in a furrow, as with the lister 70 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CORN (p. 67), it is drilled. The soil can all be thrown back to the corn in cultivating, covering weeds and finally leaving the land level. Furrow openers, consisting of a pair of disks, are now put on regular two-row surface planters. These open a shallow furrow, and the corn may be either drilled or checked. FIG. 27. Wheat plants illustrating the principle that permanent roots always develop at about the same depth, whether the seed is planted deep or shallow. Yield of Hill and Drill Planting. At the Illinois Station the two methods of distributing seed were compared in this way : Corn was planted one plant every 12 inches, two plants every 24 inches, three plants every 36 inches, and four plants every 48 inches. No marked difference was found in yield of grain per acre, so long as the number of plants per acre was the same. RATE OF PLANTING 71 Time of Planting. The following table shows the time of planting in the United States l : Time of Planting Corn Region Beginning General Ending Planting period, days Gulf States . March 15 April 5 May 10 55 Central States (Virginia to Kansas) Northern States (New York to Minnesota April 15 May 10 May 1 May 20 May 25 June 1 40 20 The planting period is much longer in the southern States than in the North. Experiments have shown that the very earliest or latest plantings in any particular region do not give as good yields as intermediate plantings. The Illinois Station made a number of plantings from April 28 to June 9. The corn planted in May averaged 73 bushels per acre, while the remaining plantings, one in April and two in June, yielded only 63 bushels per acre. Depth of Planting. There is no object in planting corn deeper than is necessary to insure good germination. Experiments in a number of States with corn planted from one to six inches deep, have seldom shown advantage for the very deep plantings. In heavy, cold or wet soils from one to two inches is best, while in lighter and dry soils two to three inches is best. Some have thought that the corn would root deeper if planted deep. The plant, however, usually forms its first joint about one inch below the surface, no matter what the depth of planting, and the roots are developed from that point (Fig. 27). Rate of Planting. The customary rate of planting varies from 3000 to 4000 plants per acre in the Gulf States to 12,000 to 15,000 in the northern States. The plants are larger in the South and the soil is often poor, but the size of plants decreases to the north and the customary rate of planting correspondingly increases. The fol- lowing table illustrates : 1 U. S. Yearbook, 1910, p. 491. 72 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CORN Customary Rate of Planting Corn Region Distance apart of hills Plants per hill Plants per acre Gulf States 4'x5' 2 4 000 Middle States 3'8" x 3 '8" 2-3 9 000 Northern States . ... 3'6"x3'6" 3-4 12 000 There is a wide range of planting in any region, within which there will be very little effect on yield of grain, although the yield of stover will usually increase with rate of planting. This is due to the adjustment of the plants. With thick planting the ears are smaller > while more plants are barren. The following data show yields at the Nebraska Station for different rates of planting : Results with Planting Corn at Various Rates (1903-1908), Nebraska 2 Plants per hill Yield per acre Average weight of ear Number of ears per 100 plants Per cent barren plants Yield of stover per acre bushels ounces pounds 1 48.3 10.5 161 3.0 2 67.7 10.6 115 4.8 5984 3 75.5 9.4 95 6.9 5972 4 76.7 8.2 82 8.3 6692 5 76.3 7.4 77 10.8 6969 Where corn is grown for grain there is no good reason for plant- ing thicker than is necessary to secure maximum yield, but where grown for fodder or silage the rate may be increased one-fourth to secure the larger yield of stover. Relation of Soil and Climate. The best rate will vary with soils and climate. At the Illinois Station, 3 in a series of experi- ments covering the State, it was found that three kernels gave the best results on land producing more than 50 bushels per acre, and two kernels per hill where the land naturally produced less than 50 bushels per acre. At the Indiana Station 4 corn was planted in drill rows from 1908. 2 Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 112, p. 30, 1909. 8 Illinois Agricultural Experiment S'tation Bulletin 126, pp. 366-377, Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 64, p. 4. QUESTIONS 73 11 to 19% inches apart for a series of years. In seasonable years the best yields were secured with the thickest planting, and in dry years with the thinnest planting. Effect of Season on Yield and Percentage of Grain Seasonable, 1888-1891 Dry, 1893-1894 Stalks, inches apart Bushels Pounds Ears Bushels Pounds Ears corn stalks percentage corn stalks percentage 19 V?, 49,76 3,617 49.1 22.07 3,092 33.3 16 54.05 4,065 48.2 21.27 3,143 32.2 14 57.79 4,158 49.3 19.39 3,762 26.5 15 57.81 4,201 49.6 14.28 5,204 16.1 11 59.14 4,960 45.5 13.80 4,360 18.1 QUESTIONS 1. How important is preparation of land? 2. Why does deep or shallow plowing not show consistent results? 3. Explain different systems for preparing corn land. 4. What are the reasons for believing deep plowing to be good practice ? 5. Compare early vs. late spring plowing. 6. Can land ever be pulverized too fine? 7. When is hand planting practical? 8. Where is drilling general and good practice? Where check-row planting ? 9. Does the method of drill or hill planting affect yield? 10. When does corn planting begin in the South? North? 11. How deep should corn be planted? 12. Explain the principles involved in rate of planting as affected by size of plant; fertility of soil; good and poor seasons. CHAPTER X TILLAGE FOR CORN Tillage Machinery. Up to within comparatively recent times agriculture was practically without tools for intertillage. In fact, most of the crops, as wheat, oats, and barley, did not require inter- tillage. The hoe was the only special tool for this purpose, although the primitive wooden plow was also driven between the rows. The one-horse mould-board plow was quite generally used up to 1850 for corn and potato cultivation, and is still used in some parts of the South. The great intertilled crops are corn, potatoes and cotton. Since 1850 there has been a rapid increase in the number and kinds of intertillage tools. The first tools were the " single shovel " and " double shovel " one-horse cultivators. The principal course of evolution has been to first attach two double shovel gangs to a sulky, so that a row could be cultivated at one time, then four gangs, so that two rows could be cultivated. The principal change in shovels has been to reduce the width and increase the number up to three to five shovels in the place of two. Disk gangs are also used in place of shovels, and do excellent work on level loam soils. Broad shears or blades which shave off a shallow surface are also successful where the ground is free from trash or stones, and the principal object is weed killing. Weeders. A class of tools with very narrow, flexible teeth, called weeders, are very useful in killing small weeds when the soil is in good tilth, but are not effective on compact soil. The weeder is extensively used in cultivating young corn the first three weeks after up, as it will destroy weeds in the hill without injury to the corn plants. Lister Cultivators. There have been devised for listed corn a number of special tools. The first of these tools was essentially a pair of wooden runners, set close together to follow the furrow left by the lister, with knives or shovels to work the ridge on either side 74 LOSS OF SOIL MOISTURE 75 (Fig, 28). Later, metal wheels or disks were substituted as fol- lowers. These tools are used until the ridge has been partly worked down, then the ordinary shovel cultivator. Reasons for Intertillage. Intertillage is so universal for cer- tain crops that we scarcely stop to ask the reason, assuming it neces- sary for growth. The reasons differ somewhat, but the important reasons seem to be (1) to conserve moisture and (2) to destroy weeds. In addition, cultivation probably helps in many cases in freeing some plant food ; also a well cultivated surface will probably take up more water, in FIG. 28. Two-row cultivator for listed corn at work. the case of sudden heavy rainfall, than an uncultivated surface. The first two reasons, namely, conservation of moisture and destruction of weeds, are the points to give most attention. Loss of Soil Moisture. As fast as moisture evaporates from the surface, more water moves up from below. This is called the capil- lary rise of water, since its upward movement against gravity in the very small spaces between soil particles is similar to the rise of a liquid in a capillary tube. When these small "capillary " spaces are oroken up, as by cultivation, the upward movement can not reach the surface, and water loss by evaporation decreases. Hence in a bare soil, without cultivation, water loss is large, and it has been demon- 76 TILLAGE FOR CORN strated on such soils (when undisturbed) that 30 to 60 per cent of the water lost may be saved by cultivation. 1 Water Loss in Fields. In a corn field conditions are quite different from those on a fallow soil. (1) Conditions favoring evaporation from the soil surface are largely removed. (2) The upward movement of soil moisture is intercepted by roots. 1. Set a pan of water on bare ground and another on the ground in a wheat field. The water surface in the open will lose moisture at the rate of one-half inch per day in dry weather, while the water surface in the wheat field will probably not lose as much in a week. A similar pan of water in a corn field will lose more than in a wheat field, being more exposed, but much less than on a bare (fallow) field. 2 2. In a wheat or corn field a mass of roots fills the upper eight to twelve inches of soil, intercepting any upward movement of water. This would be especially true in a dry time, and it is doubt- ful if any appreciable amount of water could pass through this mass of roots to the surface. Conserving Moisture in a Corn Field. From the above we may conclude that in a fallow field moisture can be conserved by cultivation. That in a corn field, up to the time the plants are twelve inches high, the conditions are similar to a fallow field, but from this time on conditions rapidly change as the tops protect the surface and the roots occupy the soil. Cultivation should be effective in conserving moisture during early growth, but not very effective after corn is five or six feet in height. This conclusion has been verified by numerous experiments, which the following will illustrate : Effects of Different Treatments After Corn Is High Place and duration of experiment Weeds only scraped off with hoe Average of cultivation treatments Illinois Experiment Station : Average for 5 years (Bulletin 31, Utah Experiment Station : Average for 8 years (Bulletin 66, 1894) 1900) bu. per acre 68.3 58.8 bu. per acre 68.6 55.8 1 Widstoe, John A. : Dry Farming, p. 155. 2 Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 1911, p. 97. DEPTH OF CULTIVATION 77 Experiments by Gates 3 and Cox, recently reported, verify in general the above conclusions. Effect of Weeds. Weeds not only take up moisture but avail- able plant-food as well. As the available plant-food in a soil is much below the needs of the crop, all taken by weeds directly robs the crop. Where weeds are allowed to grow the yield is almost nothing, while simply scraping the weeds off, as indicated in above experiments, results in yields comparable with thorough cultivation. The follow- ing results for one year show effect of weeds : Reduced Yields Due to Weeds Weeds Weeds Place of experiment allowed scraped Shallow to grow off cultivation New Hampshire Station (Bulletin 71, 1900) 17 ... 80.0 Illinois Station (Bulletin 31, 1894) none 28.7 36.1 The function of interculture for corn then appears to be (1) to conserve moisture and destroy weeds up to the time the plants pro- tect the land, and after that (2) principally to destroy weeds. Broad, flat shovels or shears that merely shave the surface are very effective for killing weeds. The above principles apply to all cultivated crops. The more nearly the field approaches a fallow field the more effective is cultiva- tion for conserving moisture, while, on the other hand, the more the condition approaches that prevailing in a wheat field, the less need there is for conservation of moisture. For example, an onion field is not only exposed but onion roots are very short, and cultivation among onions is very important in conserving moisture. The same is true of many vegetable crops. Depth of Cultivation. There is no real necessity of cultivating deep if the work can be done while the weeds are small. Deep culti- vation with wide shovels will often be necessary to cover up and destroy large weeds. The depth of cultivation should be regulated so as not to destroy corn roots (Fig. 29). In heavy soils and wet seasons roots are often very shallow, from one to two inches below the surface ; in dry seasons with loose porous soils, the upper roots will be three to four inches 3 U. S. Bureau Plant Industry, Bulletin 257. 78 TILLAGE FOR CORN below the surface. These represent the extremes in depth of surface roots, and cultivation should be regulated accordingly. Cultivation deep enough to destroy roots has always decreased yield when com- pared with more shallow tillage. Frequency of Cultivation. Frequency of cultivation depends largely on the weeds to be killed. Rarely have experiments shown a FIG. 29. Drawing showing the distribution of corn roots in the soil. profit for more than four cultivations, or for continued cultivation after corn was in ear, if free from weeds. At the Illinois Station, "ordinary " cultivation (about four times) was compared with fre- quent cultivation. Plats were also cultivated the same number of times, both deep and shallow. 4 Results were as follows : Results of Different Methods of Cultivation Average yield Kind of cultivation for five years Bushels per acre Frequent (4 plats) 68.6 Ordinary (4 plats) 68.5 Shallow (4 plats) 71.5 Deep (4 plats) 65.6 " Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 31, 356. QUESTIONS 79 In a former book the author made the fallowing summarized statement on the object of intertillage for corn 5 : " We may there- fore conclude from the data presented that up to the time when corn shades the ground, and the field is comparatively fallow, cultivation conserves some moisture as in any fallow soil. After the corn crop is thoroughly established and a layer of surface roots intercepts capillary moisture from below, the principal service of cultivation is to destroy weeds." QUESTIONS 1. Describe the evolution of tillage tools. 2. Give the two most important reasons for tillage. 3. Compare the loss of water by evaporation from a bare field and a field in crop. 4. What appears to be the most important reason for cultivation in a corn field ? 5. Name cultivated crops where cultivation would probably be more necessary than in corn. 6. How should depth of cultivation be regulated? 7. How frequently may corn be cultivated with profit? 6 Corn Crops, p. 212. CHAPTER XI HARVESTING AND UTILIZING CORN Methods of Harvesting. The following practices are general in harvesting a part or all of the corn crop. 1. The whole plant harvested for fodder or silage. 2. Ears only harvested, the stalks left in the field. 3. Topping: the tops cut off above the ear while green, so the ear may ripen on the stalk. 4. Stripping : Leaves stripped off while green. In the early history of corn culture in New England, it was the general custom to harvest the entire plant for fodder, and, when well cured, husk out the ears. In the southern States the custom early became general of strip- ping off only the lower leaves and " topping " the upper part ; that is, cutting off the plant above the ear. The ear was then allowed to remain on the stalk until mature, then " snapped " off and stored in the husk to protect from insects. The ears were husked as used. The above customs are at present the common practices in both New England and the South. The acreage is generally small and the entire crop is saved. With the settlement of the present " Corn Belt " States corn culture was extensive from the first. There was no need for coarse forage, so only the ears were harvested. In the Corn Belt only a very small percentage of the stalks is harvested. However, the custom of harvesting a part of the stalks is increasing, especially in dairy regions where corn is used for silage. The shortage of hay has also brought about an increase in the use of corn stover as a substitute. Pasturing Corn Stalks. It is the custom in the Corn Belt, also in the South, to turn in cattle, horses, or sheep, during the winter months, on the stalk fields after the grain has been harvested. There is no good data as to the relative amount of forage furnished by an acre of corn stalks, when cut and cured or when pastured after the grain has been harvested. 80 HARVESTING CORN FODDER 81 In a general way, the feeding value of the stalk fields approxi- mates from one- third to one-half the value of the cured fodder. Cost of Saving Stover. According to experiments by the Minnesota Station * it costs $3.64 an acre more to harvest and shred the stover than to harvest only the ears. Zintheo 2 estimated from data collected that it cost from $1.18 to $1.50 per acre to harvest the fodder, and about 1.6 cents per bushel more to husk the grain from fodder than standing stalks, or a total cost of $2.00 per acre to secure the fodder. With a yield of 1% tons of stover per acre, stover would cost from $1.50 to $2.50 per ton for labor, according to the above figures. Whether it will pay to harvest corn stover at the above prices will depend on the cost of producing other forage, as timothy, clover, or sorghums. In general a ton of good stover is estimated to be worth a little less than one-half a ton of clover or alfalfa and about three- fourths of a ton of timothy. It would not be desirable to replace all the hay ration with corn stover, but when hay is worth $10 or more a ton a part of the hay ration can profitably be substituted by corn fodder. Harvesting Corn Fodder. Corn fodder is commonly har- vested by hand (Fig. 30 a ), where the acreage is small or the land is rough. With ten acres or less to cut it would not pay to own a binder, as the depreciation and interest on the binder (which costs about $125) would increase the cost too much. However, one can often hire a binder to do the cutting, at about the same cost as by hand, with the additional advantage of having the fodder bound. Sled harvesters, costing from $5 to $15, are cheap and satisfac- FIG. 30 a . Harvesting corn by hand. 1 Wilson and Warburton: Field Crops, p. 85. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Station, 173, 46. 82 HARVESTING AND UTILIZING CORN tory. These machines cut one or two rows at a time and are verj satisfactory where the corn is to be shocked and husked in the field. Also the harvesters built on the same principle, but mounted on wheels, are in common use. Corn Harvesters and Binders. The attachment of a binding apparatus to a corn harvester was first successfully applied about 1895. Since then the corn binder, as it is called, has generally replaced other methods (Fig. 31) . This is especially true where the fodder is to be put in silos, as it facilitates handling, a rather laborious task with green loose fodder. Shocking Fodder. Where the fodder is cut by hand with knives it is usu- ally set directly into shocks of about 10 to 14 hills square. This is about as large a shock as can be depended on to cure out prop- erly. Later the ears may be husked and sev- eral shocks set together if the fodder is to re- main in the field. The large shock protects the fodder better, espe- cially if it is intended to leave it in the field for several months. When cut by sled harvesters, or wheel harvesters built on the same principle, the green fodder may be immediately set into shocks, or left in piles on the ground until half dried, then set up into very large shocks and securely tied. The same plan may be followed with bound fodder. Hauling and Storing Fodder. Corn fodder is commonly hauled in on a rather damp day, as leaves are easily broken off when very dry. The fodder may be stacked, but care must be observed that it is well cured and that the stacks are narrow, as it is very apt to develop spontaneous heat to a high temperature, For the same FIG. 31. Harvesting corn with a corn binder. HUSKING EARS 83 reason care must be exercised when storing in barns. Frequently the fodder is hauled and set up in a yard, only one tier in depth. When to Harvest Fodder. It has been clearly shown by many tests that the yield of dry matter increases up to maturity. This is illustrated by the following table, which is taken from results secured by the Michigan Station 3 : Yield per Acre of Green Corn Fodder and Dry Matter Time of cutting Green fodder Dry matter Per cent dry matter Per cent Water August 10 (tasseled) pounds 21,203 pound 3,670 17.3 82 7 August 25 (in milk) 25,493 5,320 20.9 79 1 September 6 (glazing) 25,865 7,110 27.5 725 September 15 (ripe) 23,007 8020 34 8 65 2 While the corn plant was full height August 10, when tasseled out, yet it had developed at that time less than one-half its dry matter. Also note the high water content at the early stages. It has been shown that the dry matter improves in quality as the corn matures. There is an increasing proportion of starch and sugar. Relative Proportion of Parts. In good corn, that will make 50 bushels per acre, about one-half the dry weight is represented by the ears and one-half by the stalk and leaves. This does not represent the relative feeding value, as the ear is more valuable pound for pound than the other portions. Feeding experiments show from 00 to 70 per cent of the digestible nutrients in the ears. With low yields the proportion of ear is much less. For ex- ample, at the Indiana Station 4 records were kept in one series of experiments for a number of years, on the yield of ears and stover. Some years were favorable and the yield was good and other years were adverse. For results, see following page. Therefore fodder or silage from a large crop of corn is more valuable ton for ton than from low-yielding corn. Husking Ears. Ears are commonly husked by hand from the fodder or standing corn. To aid in this a "husking peg" or hook is used on the hand. When, fodder is shredded the husking is com- s U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 97, 12. 4 Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 04. 4. 84 HARVESTING AND UTILIZING CORN monly done by the machine. There is also a machine for husking from the standing stalks, but this is not in general use, as it is only very little cheaper than hand husking. Proportion of Grain Loss With Light Yields Seasonable years, 1888-1891 Dry years, 1893-1894 Yield per acre Percentage of ears Yield per acre Percentage of ears Grain, bushels Stalks, pounds Grain, bushels Stalks, pounds 55.7 4200 48.3 18.6 3912 25.2 Storing Ears. In the central and northern States the ears are commonly stored in ventilated cribs, until thoroughly dried. The corn may then be shelled out and stored in bins. It is not safe to store shelled corn in bins or even ear corn in cribs, if the corn has 18 per cent moisture. When dry (13 per cent moisture) many thou- sand bushels may be safely stored in a tight bin. Shrinkage of Corn in Curing. There are two causes of shrink- age in stored corn, (1) loss of water, (2) loss of dry matter. During the first 12 months after harvest ear corn will lose from 5 to 20 per cent in weight, depending principally on how dry when husked. Air-dry corn one year old will have from 10 to 14 per cent moisture, depending on the climate. After that the degree of moisture will vary with, the degree of moisture in the air. It has been noted that corn shipped from a very dry climate to a more humid one, would actually gain in weight in transit. There is also another loss due to the very slow decomposition or oxidation of dry matter amounting to 1 to 3 per cent in a year. In silos this loss of dry matter is very high, amounting in some cases to as much as 20 per cent. In fodder corn, in addition to some oxidation that may take place, there is always considerable loss of leaves in handling. Ordinarily, the loss in fodder corn before it is fed amounts to 10 to 20 per cent. Cost of Producing Corn. When the Prairie States were first broken up, corn wast produced very cheaply in the corn belt. The yields were large with a minimum of labor. Data taken in the corn THE FERMENTATION OF SILAGE 85 belt from 1885-1895 show an acre cost of $6 to $8 and a bushel cost of about 20 cents. From 1895 to 1905 various records show the acre cost to be $10 to $14, and bushel cost from 24 to 30 cents. In. the eastern States the cost has always been much higher than this, ranging from 40 to 50 cents per bushel. Data collected by the U. S. Department of Agriculture for the year 1909, show an average cost for the United States of 37.9 cents per bushel, while for Illinois and Iowa, the two leading corn States, the bushel cost was 31 and 30 cents, respectively. How Silage is Made. Vegetable matter is caused to decay through the presence of bacteria or molds. Two methods are used to preserve materials, (1) by drying, as moisture is necessary for growth of bacteria or molds, (2) by heating to destroy organisms or some preservative to retard the growth of organisms. The following statement from Iowa Bulletin 168 gives a concise statement regarding the fermentation and preservation of corn silage. " THE FERMENTATION OF SILAGE " Certain other well-known fermentative processes are somewhat similar to silage fermentation. When hay is stored too green it is likely to heat, even to the combustion point. This heat is only the outward evidence of other changes which are taking place in the hay. Grain stored in bins undergoes certain chemical changes, which sometimes develop a noticeable amount of heat. These and similar changes which are undergone by all living plant material when stored in large masses, are in some respects like silage fer- mentation. The fermentation of sauer kraut is also similar in that the preservation of the kraut depends upon the formation of organic acids by bacterial action. The formation of vinegar from cider involves the production of acetic acid, which is one of the acids found in silage. This change takes place necessarily in the presence of air. On the contrary, the changes which are normal to the formation of good silage take place almost entirely in the absence of air. " In silage making the chopped corn forage is tightly packed into an air-tight silo, with plenty of moisture present, and fermentation begins at once. The first evidences of change are a slight rise in temperature and the evolution of carbonic acid gas. The tem- perature of the silage rarely exceeds 85 to 90 Fahrenheit, except 86 HARVESTING AND UTILIZING CORN near the surface, where fermentative processes are greater, owing to the presence of air. Erroneous ideas regarding the importance of the heating in silage fermentation were derived from observa- tions made only on the surface of the silage. The oxygen in the silage is used up early in the process of fermentation or driven out by the carbonic acid gas. From this point tlie presence of air or oxygen is fatal to tli& proper preservation of the silage because air permits the development of molds, which are themselves sometimes poisonous, and which quickly destroy the acids and thus allow the silage to spoil. The importance of air-tight walls and proper pack- ing down of the silage to keep out the air is, therefore, at once apparent. " THE FORMATION OF ACIDS " The next changes noticed during the silage-making process are a change in color, and the development of a more or less pleasant aromatic odor and a sour taste. The color and odor are character- istic of silage and are of considerable value in judging its quality; but the most important change is the formation of acids, which cause the sour taste. The acids formed are chiefly lactic acid, which is the acid found in sour milk, and acetic acid, the acid of vinegar. The total amount of acid formed averages between 1 per cent and 2 per cent of the weight of the silage. This change is important because it indicates that the fermentation is healthful, like the ripen- ing of cream or the formation of vinegar, instead of being a state of unhealthful decay, like the putrefaction or spoiling of meat. In the presence of this acid fermentation it is impossible for the bacteria which cause decay to live and work, unless the presence of air should allow the growth of molds, which in turn destroy the acids, and thus allow the putrefactive bacteria to thrive. This last process is what occurs in the top layer of the silage in the silo, which is spoiled because of the presence of air. The formation of acid is, therefore, one of the most important of the changes which take place in the "fermentation of silage. " Other changes occur in the process which are not appreciable to the senses, and which can generally be detected only by chemical analysis. One of these is the formation of a small amount of alco- hols, chiefly ordinary or grain alcohol. The total amount of alco- hols generally varies between 0.1 per cent and 0.4 per cent of the THE CHANGES COME RAPIDLY 87 weight of the silage, or as much as 0.5 per cent of the juice. The source of the alcohols, as well as of the acids, is the sugar orig- inally present in the plant. Experiments conducted by the writer show that the amount of sugar which disappears is almost exactly equivalent to the amount of alcohol and acid formed. About one- half of the sugar present is ordinary cane sugar. This is first broken up into simpler sugars, such as glucose, and then the simple sugars are changed into alcohol and acid. " Other recent experiments show that the amount of simple sugars in the silage is at first increased by the breaking up of some of the starch; but the total amount of sugar present, after fermentation is over, is much less than in the green plant material. Sometimes practically all the sugar is used up. The amount of sugar in the green plant, and, therefore, the amount of acid in the silage, depend upon the maturity of the plant when harvested. The amount of sugar in the plant decreases as the plant approaches maturity. "Another characteristic change is the breaking down or digestion of protein matter, or the flesh-building constituent of foods. This merely anticipates some of the digestive processes in the alimentary tract of the animal which eats the silage, and therefore does no harm, since little or no nutritive value is- lost. " These various changes take place with the greatest rapidity dur- ing the first five days, and are practically complete at the end of 10 or 12 days. The writer measured the amount of carbonic acid gas produced in several instances, and found that the rate at which this- gas 1 was produced was always greatest during the first 24 hours after the corn was put into the silo. The development of heat at the surface of the silage and some of the changes in the sugar are generally most rapid in the first day or two, while the formation of acid is often more rapid somewhat later, or during the second, third and fourth days. After the fermentative changes which have just been described are finished, or after the first two weeks, there is practically no further change in the silage. Silage has been kept for years in a tight silo without losing either its palatability or its value. " The losses which occur during the fermentation process are ap- 88 HARVESTING AND UTILIZING CORN preciable, but can be greatly reduced by taking proper precautions, especially by making the silo absolutely tight, including the bottom, and by covering the top with well-packed straw, stover, or other materials. These losses are more than made up for by the increased efficiency of the feed. " Ever since silage was first made, there has been doubt about the causes of these important preservative changes in the fermentation of dlage. At first, bacteria were thought to be responsible, as in the case of vinegar. Later, other investigators claimed that the cells of the plant itself carried chemical substances called enzymes, which were the only agents actually concerned. Other writers have taken one side or the other on the subject. " The greater part of the past two years has been spent by the writer in an effort to settle this much discussed question. The results obtained show definitely that neither bacteria alone nor plant enzymes alone are responsible for the fermentation of silage. " It has been found that a plant enzyme digests the starch and gives a preliminary increase in some cases to the sugar content. Another enzyme breaks down cane sugar into simple sugars. The acid-forming bacteria are the agents which form most of the acid from the sugar. This statement is supported by the fact that bac- teriologists have found large numbers of acid-forming bacteria in, silage. Part of the alcohol is- formed by the plant enzymes and more alcohol is formed later by yeasts, which are microscopic one- celled plants like bacteria. Some of the protein is digested by plant enzymes and some by bacteria. Both plant enzymes and bac- teria seem to have a share in the production of the heat which raises the temperature of the silage. The evolution of carbonic acid gas, which is formed in such large quantities at the beginning of the fermentation, seems to be due largely to the plant enzymes, although the bacteria and yeasts doubtless furnish part of it. " Direct evidence has been found of an enzyme called invertase which hydrolyses or breaks down can sugar, and of an enzyme called zymase, which forms alcohol from soigar. Other investi- gators have found enzymes in the corn plant which act on sugar and on proteins. Enzymes of similar nature have been found in USES OF CORN 89 practically all plants as they are the agents which promote plant growth. Additional evidence has been obtained by fermenting silage and even corn juice in the presence of antiseptics showing that plant enzymes are active in silage fermentation, but that they are not the only active agents in the process." USES OF CORN The principal reason corn has such extensive cultivation is due to its great value as stock feed, and that it yields* more grain per acre than any other cereal. The great development of- the fat stock industry in the Middle West is due largely to the supply of corn for feed. Perhaps nine-tenths of the corn crop is fed directly to stock. The other one-tenth is manufactured into a great variety of products, but mostly food products. The three most important uses of corn in the arts is the manufacture of glucose, cereal foods, arid alcohol. Glucose is made by first degerminating the corn, then treating the starchy portion with dilute hydrochloric acid, which converts the starch to glucose. Cereal foods are of two classes, as the (1) corn meal and hominy products, and the (2) cooked and flaked "breakfast" foods. Corn meal is made in two ways. The whole corn may be ground and only the coarse parts, consisting largely of bran, sifted out. This meal contains considerable germ. The germ meal present gives its own flavor, which is rather agreeable but makes the meal more difficult to keep. Degerminated meal is made by cracking and removing the germ. The cracked product, after germ and hull are removed, is called hominy. This coarse hominy may be sold in this way, or ground further into meal. This is commonly called "fancy " meal, and is the kind most commonly on the market. Flaked cereal foods are made by cooking the hominy, then rolling out into thin flakes, and further cooking in a dry oven. Starch is made by first removing germs, grinding fine, and then washing the starch out by water. The germs, removed in the manufacture of glucose, meal, or starch, are usually pressed until all the oil is extracted. This oil is used as a salad oil, in paints, or is vulcanized as a substitute for 90 HARVESTING AND UTILIZING CORN rubber. The residue after oil is extracted is corn oil cake and makes a valuable stock feed, being very high in protein. Distillery products are the residue as a result of distilling alco- holic beverages. These products are practically all used as stock feeds. Pop-corn is either eaten fresh as popped or manufactured into a variety of confectionery products. Sweet corn is commonly eaten green, from the cob, or cut from the cob and canned. Canning corn is an important commercial industry. Importance as Food. In Colonial days corn was an important article of food, and generally used. However, with the development of wheat culture, corn has been almost entirely superseded in all but the southern States. In the South, corn bread is still used extensively. QUESTIONS 1. Explain the customary methods of harvesting corn. 2. Where are the stalks generally harvested and where not harvested ? 3. Under what conditions is it profitable to harvest corn stalks? 4. Describe what you regard as a good method of curing and keeping corn- fodder. 5. How would you determine best time to harvest fodder? 6. Explain change in water content. 7. What proportion by weight in the ears? 8. What proportion of feeding value? 9. How dry should corn be for storage? 10. What shrinkage is expected in storage of ears? Storage of silage? 11. Figure out what it costs to produce corn in your community. 12. Explain the principles of silage making. 13. How is the corn crop utilized? 14. Name some of the important manufactured products. CHAPTEE XII CORN INSECTS AND DISEASES CORN is practically free from the attacks of insects and diseases. There is no disease that does great damage, though occasionally corn smut may do considerable damage. Insects are also easily con- trolled with the exception of the corn weevils in southern States. Corn Insects Below Ground. Insects attacking corn may be grouped in two classes,, as (1) those working below ground and (2) those above ground. The corn rootworm and root-louse are most important of those below ground. Both of these can be easily con- trolled by rotation. Both live over in the soil, and usually do not become very destructive until the land has been in corn three years in succession. A change to any other kind of crop for one to two years is effective in destroying them. Two other insects, the wireworm and the grubworm, are not peculiar to corn, and therefore are not controlled so easily by rota- tion. In fact, both are apt to be more destructive after sod than at any other time. The wireworm does most damage by boring into young plants, soon after they come up. The grubworm lives under the corn plant most of the summer, eating off the roots. The only remedy suggested is to fall plow the land, late in the season, to expose the larvae and worms to winter killing. Cutworms do some damage to young corn, and occasionally may completely destroy a stand. Usually the cutworms pupate in June, so a second planting made, running the rows half way be- tween the first rows, will usually escape with little damage. Insects Above Ground. Earworms and Wl lugs ordinarily do only slight damage. Occasionally the earworm may damage to considerable degree the market value of sweet corn to be sold green on the ear. Migratory insects that occasionally damage corn are chinch lugs, army worms, and grasshoppers. Chinch bugs and army worms, moving on the ground, can be prevented from entering a 91 92 CORN INSECTS AND DISEASES cornfield by plowing a ditch, and maintaining a dust barrier in the ditch by dragging a log or harrow to and fro. Birds and Rodents. Crows pull up green corn to secure the grain as food. They do damage principally in regions where the com area is comparatively small. Scarecrows of various kinds will keep them away, if placed close enough together. Coal tar on the seed is a deterrent, though not a sure preventive. The tar is applied by dipping a wooden paddle in the hot tar and stirring in the seed corn until each grain is coated. It may be necessary to add a little meal,, sand, or sawdust to keep the corn from sticking. QUESTIONS 1. Name the important corn insect enemies working below ground. 2. Can you suggest methods of control ? 3. What important insects work above ground? 4. Can you suggest methods of controlling crows and rodents? CHAPTER XIII POP-CORN AND SWEET CORN THE general information given in regard to the culture of field corn applies to the production of pop- and sweet corn. The culture differs in only a few particulars. POP-CORN Pop-corn is raised wherever field corn is grown, but as a com- mercial crop it is produced in Iowa and Nebraska. The plants being small, it is planted twice as thick as field corn. It is slower in growth and more delicate, requiring greater care and skill in cultivating. Varieties. There are two distinct types of pop-corn. One is known as rice pop-corn and is distinguished by a sharp pointed tip on the kernel. The other is the pearl, the kernels being round and smooth. Market demand is mostly for the rice variety of white color, and this is grown almost exclusively for commerce. In color, there are red, yellow, and blue varieties of both rice and pearl pop-corn. In size, the ordinary ear of white rice is four to five inches in length, but certain strains are larger; while some varieties of pearl pop-corn attain a length of eight inches. Tom Thumb is a dwarf variety of pearl pop-corn with stalks not much more than thirty inches in height, and ears about two inches long. This is the smallest variety of corn known. Care must be taken to grow only varieties that mature well before frost. Harvesting. Pop-corn is usually allowed to ripen and dry out well on the stalk, before harvesting. It is then stored in well-ven- tilated cribs until air dry, when it is shelled and sacked for market. A good yield is 2000 pounds of shelled corn per acre. Marketing. In centers where pop-corn is grown extensively, as Sac County, Iowa, and Loup County, Nebraska, special elevators and storage houses for handling the crop have been built. It is usually sold in car lots, either to wholesale merchants or to confectionery manufacturers. SWEET CORN Sweet corn is grown in the vicinity of large cities as a truck crop, to be sold green on the ear. It is also grown very extensively in 7 93 94 POP-CORN AND SWEET CORN places as a canning crop. New York, Illinois, Maryland, Pennsyl- vania, and Ohio are the principal States in acreage of sweet corn. Varieties. For canning and general crop, large late varieties are generally used, requiring 100 to 110 days to produce roasting ears. However, the market gardener requires early corn for at least a part of the crop, and great effort has been made to develop early varieties. There are many varieties that will produce good ears in C>0 days from time of planting. Harvesting. Green corn is always harvested hy snapping the ear, and selling in the husk. It takes care to tell by feeling whether the ear is just right to harvest, without tearing back the husk. Much corn is marketed too green. For canning, the corn is hauled to the factory in the husk and sold by the ton. Here it is husked and cut from the cob by machin- ery. Yield varies from three to five tons per acre, and price from $6 to $9 per ton. Four tons at $8 is considered satisfactory. EXERCISES Study of Corn Types. Materials. Ears representing the five prin- cipal types of corn; also grains of each that have been prepared by soaking for 24 hours. Make drawings of grains of each of the above types, showing the relative proportion of ( 1 ) hard starch ; ( 2 ) soft starch ; and ( 3 ) germ. I. Use the following system in sketching the parts: Hard starch Parallel lines. Soft starch=Blank. Germ=rSolid penciling. First Drawing. A view of the germ side of the kernel, after shaving with a sharp knife, exposing the germ. II. Make a thin longitudinal section of a dent corn germ, by splitting the kernel crosswise of the dent. Examine under a, microscope. Make a drawing showing the vegetative portion, of the germ imbedded in the scutellum, labeling all parts carefully. Divisions of the embryo are: Scutellum, enclosing vegetative parts. Vegetative parts: Plumule, or plant tip; node, point of attachment; radicle, or root tip. III. Draw a kernel in the first stages of growth. IV. Draw a kernel in advanced stage of germination, showing tem- porary roots, plumule, radicle, and root-hairs. V. From your readings in the text, prepare answers to the following: 1. What is the function of the endosperm, scutellum, plumule, radicle, root-hairs ? 2. Where do the temporary roots develop? Where the permanent roots? QUESTIONS 1. Compare field corn and pop-corn culture. 2. Describe the two principal types of pop-corn. 3. Where is pop-corn grown extensively? 4. Name the regions where sweet corn is grown. 5 What is a fair yield of sweet corn ? CHAPTER XIV CORN JUDGING CORN judging is the art of selecting an ear or exhibit of ears, ac- cording to a standard of perfection. With well-established breeds of live stock, recognized types are accepted for each breed. In judging corn, the attempt was made to establish a standard for each variety to be judged. This plan has not succeeded with corn so well as with live stock, due to the influence of soil and climate on the type. In fact, it was soon recognized that some change in type was desir- able if the variety was to have a wide adaptation. However, certain type characters should be permanent, such as color, and within rea- sonable limits other characters, such as shape of grain or indentation, should be fairly constant. While judges do not pay strict attention to variety standards, yet certain characters have come to be recognized as essential in all good samples of corn. These characters may be classed in two groups, as those pertain- ing to soundness and maturity, and those pertaining to fancy points. Maturity and soundness have to do with the selection of all seed corn, but the fancy points do not necessarily have to do with seed selection. PRACTICAL CHARACTERS Maturity. It is important that corn should fully mature before frost comes. Immature corn does not keep well, and quickly loses its germinating qualities. The immature ears are usually loose, so the ear may be twisted. The kernels are also likely to be shrunken, especially toward the tip. Soundness. This quality has to do with any injury that may have occurred to the corn, through the action of fungus diseases, decomposition, or loss of germination. Loss of germination is most important, as it has such an important bearing on yield. The in- spection of corn for germination has been discussed heretofore (p. 63). 95 96 CORN JUDGING Fro. 32 An ideal ear of dent corn of fancy type. FANCY CHARACTERS Under fancy characters are included all those considerations that have to do with the symmetry and uniformity of the ears. This includes shape of ears and kernels, straightness of rows, and filling over butt and tip (Fig. 32). These points have some practical value, as they indicate the care and skill with which the corn has been selected and grown, but do not always have a direct bearing on ability to yield, and hence are of sec- ondary importance. In general, the standards which have been adopted for dent corn are described as follows : Shape of Ear. The shape should be, in general, cylindrical, with a cir- cumference about three-fourths of the length. There are less irregularities in a cylindrical ear than in a tapering. An ear is tapering from two causes, (1) extra rows in the butt end, or (2) the kernels become shorter toward the tip. Butts of Ear. Eegular, with as few misshapen kernels as possible. The butt should not be enlarged or tapering, but almost the same circum- ference as the middle. A large, coarse shank increases the difficulty of husk- ing. If the shank is too small the ear is apt to drop off. Tips of Ears. The full length of kernel without much change in size should be carried up to near the tip. The rows should be regular and carried well over the tip, so not more than a small tip of cob is exposed. SHAPE OF KERNELS 97 Shape of Kernels.In dent corns, the proportion of length to width varies. In some early varieties the kernel is as broad as long, while in most of the very large, late dents the kernel is only oiie-hal? as broad as long. Some allowance must be made for variety, but, in FIG. 33.-Shape of ear. On left a cylindrical ear; center, tapering ear; right, tapering butt.' general, the kernels should be much longer than broad, and so shaped that they fit very neatly, at tip and crown, with no wide spaces be- tween. Space between the kernels at the cob usually indicates poor growth or immaturity. 98 CORN JUDGING Character of Germ. Generally a large germ will give a more vigorous plantlet than a smaller germ. The germ should be of both good color and texture. Any discoloration is likely to mean poor germination. The texture and color are determined by cutting with a knife. Color. In some cases, there is a recognized shade of white or yellow, which should be considered. In all cases, the kernel should be bright and with a good luster when shelled. Mixed or off-colored grains indicate hybrids and are, therefore, undesirable in fancy corn, though they may not injure yield. A uniform bright color of cob is also desired. The Score Card. To facilitate judging, score cards have been prepared. Score cards differ in the number of points considered and the relative value assigned, depending pomp what on local Conditions. Expert judges seldom use the score card except for very close com- parison, as they learn by practice to value the ears readily at a glance. Terms for Describing Corn. In describing plants or animals it is first necessary to come to a common understanding as to the exact meaning of technical terms. For example, in describing corn the terms " rounded kernels " or " keystone kernels " should convey an exact meaning. Following are the descriptive terms generally used : A. Ear Arrangement: Shape (Fig. 33) : Paired Cylindrical Single Tapering Number Conical Proportions: C. Kernels Long, cir.=% length Shape broad view (Fig. 36): Medium, cirJ=% length. Round Short, cir.=to length Square Tips (Fig. 34): Keystone Covered Pointed Exposed Shoepeg Butts (Fig. 35) : Shape edges: Enlarged Parallel Symmetrical Pointed Contracted Crown : Pointed B. Rows Smooth Spacing: Dimple Wide Deep dent Close Pinch dent CORN JUDGING 99 Depth (Fig. 37) : Shallow, less than 6/16" Medium, 6/16" to 8/16" Deep, more than 8/16" Shank size : Large, equal to cob Medium Small, one-half size of cob Practice Work. Describe a few ears,, all of one variety, then ears of the several species of corn, as pop-, flint, etc. Outline for Describing Corn . .Date.. Number of ear Ear: Shape . Proportions Tips. Butt Rows : Spacing Arrangement Number Kernels: Shape, broad Shape, edge. . :::::::: Crown Depth Shank: Size CORN JUDGING Corn judging is largely based on certain artificial standards of perfection. Judging consists in determining how closely a certain ear or set of ears conforms to the ideal standard. The practice is use- ful in developing powers of observation and critical examination. In order to insure that all characters of the exhibit are examined in a comparative way, each character is considered separately and a value given the character in accordance with its importance. The characters may be classed into two groups, namely, practical points and fancy points. Practical points deal with those characters that have to do with the seed value, as germinating quality. Fancy points deal with those characters that have to do with symmetry and trueness to type, as shape of ear or shape of kernel. The score card is use4,000 110,576,000 83,419,000 74,351,000 63,557,000 Per cent of crop of United States 15.4 11.3 8.9 6.7 6. 5.1 Total 664,927,000 All others 582,089,000 53.4 46.6 United States 1,247,016,000 100.0 While oats as a crop appear to reach their highest development in quality and yield somewhat north of the Corn Belt, yet they are 146 OATS extensively raised in the Corn Belt as a crop to rotate with corn. The actual value of oats per acre is not so great as winter wheat, but oats are much more convenient as a crop to follow corn, and the grain and straw are both much needed by the farmers as stock feed. Early History. While wheat and barley appear to have had a very ancient origin, and were cultivated from earliest times, little is apparently known of oats until about the Christian era. It seems to have originated as a cultivated plant in eastern Europe, and its culture remained principally in temperate Europe until the dis- covery of America. Pliny, in the first century, wrote that the Ger- FIG. 55. Types of oat grain. From left to right: short, thick grain of black oats; large white oats, variety Big Four; long grain early oats, variety Burt; small grain early oats, variety Kherson. mans lived on oatmeal, and it has always been of some importance for human food in Europe, though for many centuries it has been recog- nized as the best of all cereals for horses. Classification of Oats. There are at least 400 to 500 varieties of cultivated oats and they may be classed into several natural groups (Figs. 53 to 57). Shape of Head. In the spreading type of panicle the head is usually upright and the branches equally distributed on all sides. In side oats or " horsemane " oats the head is usually drooping and the branches on one side (Fig. 53). There may be found all intermedi- ate types between the extreme shapes. COLOR OF GRAIN 147 In the compact panicle the branches are usually shorter and clustered near the central stem, while in the open form the branches are usually longer and more flexible (Fig. 54). FIG. 56. Three types of early oats, of open panicle type. Left to right, Sixty Day, Burt and Texas Red. Color of Grain. There are five principal colors which may, for convenience, be grouped in the following manner: Group Characteristics f Grains usually rather large and plump. Well adapted to north temperate climates,' as Canada, but not suited to I south temperate climates, as the Gulf States. . Grains long in shape, reddish, brown, yellow, or grayish in color. Adapted to southern climates. . .While doing well in the temperate climates, they are much better adapted to south temperate climates than the black and white oats. Gray oats Several winter varieties in this group. White oats. Black oats . Red oats . . . Yellow oats. 148 OATS Distribution of Groups. White oats are the most commonly cultivated oats north of 45 latitude in Canada and the northern tier of states in the United States. The varieties of white oats are prac- tically all medium to late in maturing. Hardly a variety of early oats may be strictly classed as white oats. Black oats varieties are generally similar to white oats except in color. The varieties of red and yellow oats are undoubtedly better adapted than white or black oats to south temperate climates, as the region south of the Ohio Kiver. Several varieties are adapted to fall or winter sowing in the South, and are known as winter oats. Between the two regions just described lies a large territory (the Corn Belt) where it is something of a question just which group will give best results. White oats are generally grown, though they only occasionally attain the good quality of the white grown farther north. The great limiting factor in this region is the coming of dry summer weather before the oats mature. This gives the early maturing varieties a distinct advantage, and throughout the Corn Belt the early yellowish varieties, as Kherson, Sixty Day, or Burt, are rapidly gaining in favor. Spring and Winter Oats. All the oat crop north of the Cotton Belt is spring sown. It is also sown in spring in the Cotton Belt, but does not yield so well as fall-sown oats. The fall-sown varieties are mostly not strictly winter types, as the same varieties are sown as spring oats farther north. They are hardy enough to withstand the mild winter and continue growth slowly. They ripen much earlier than spring-sown oats, thus avoiding in a degree the severe summer rust. The red varieties are often called " rust proof " oats. Virginia Grey or Turf oats are true winter oats, requiring a long latent period after sowing, and will not produce a crop when sown in spring. Early and Late Oats. In general, varieties of oats will vary from 95 to 120 days to mature from time of sowing. The term " early " as applied to oats does not mean that they are sown at an earlier date in the spring, but only that they mature in less time when sown on the same date. Where the summer climatic condi- tions are favorable for the growth of late oats, they not only outyield early oats but the common varieties are better in color and quality. DESCRIPTION OF OAT PLANT 149 However, early oats have an advantage in dry regions or where sum- mer drought is apt to come. Hulless Oats. There is one kind of oats known as " Chinese hulless " oats, in which the kernel threshes out free from the hull. It does not yield well, but is sometimes grown as a novelty (Fig. 57). PIG. 57. On left, large white oats, open panicle, variety Big Four. On right, Chinese hulless oats. Description of Oat Plant. A typical field of early oats will average about three feet high, while late oats will usually average from six to twelve inches taller. A very large growth of oats will 150 OATS sometimes average five feet. The stem is hollow with four to five nodes and as many leaves. Leaves ordinarily are about one-half mch in width, but there are certain robust late varieties with leaves one inch wide. As compared with wheat the oat plant bears an average of at least one more leaf per plant, and the leaves average larger in size. The stem of oats will " straighten up " well after being blown down by severe storms, if it is not too mature. This is accomplished by bending at the lower joints. Tillering or Stooling. The number of stems from a seed will vary with (a) soil conditions and (b) rate of planting. The tillers come from latent buds at the base of the stem. If single oat plants be planted one foot apart in a rich garden soil and given good care, from ten to fifteen buds may be stimulated to develop into as many stems. However, if the plants be crowded, as under field conditions, one plant to every one or two square inches, very few tillers develop. This is well illustrated by some data secured at the Nebraska Experi- ment Station where oats were sown for two years at rates varying from 4 to 16 pecks per acre. The following table shows the number of stems to 100 plants. 2 Rate of Seeding and Tittering Year Rate of sowing per acre 4 pecks 8 peeks 14 pecks in 1907 16 pecks in 1908 1907 . . 280 466 289 279 106 139 1908 Average 373 284 122 Here we see that for the thick planting only 22 plants in 100 had more than one stem, while in the 4-peck rate of seeding each plant had from 2 to 3 tillers. In cold clay soils oats seldom tiller much even when sown thin. For example, in Scotland six bushels of seed are sown per acre, as the plants tiller very little even if sown thinly, due to the cold wet soil. Description of Oat Spikelet. The various types of oat panicle have already been described. The oat spikelet normally bears 8 Nebraska Experiment Station Bulletin, 113, p. 10, 1910. THE OAT GRAIN 151 two flowers. They are usually self-fertilized, though natural crossing occasionally occurs. Varieties vary in respect to the development of the second flower into a grain. In some cases there is a strong tendency for only the lower grain to develop, while, on the other hand, there are varieties that show a strong tendency to develop both grains equally. A few varieties develop three grains normally. Between these are all intermediate stages. In general, the second grain is about two-thirds the size of the lower grain. The Oat Grain. Except in the case of " hulless " oats the oat kernel is always tightly enclosed in the flowering glume, called the hull. The kernel and hull combined are called a " grain " (Fig. 55) . The proportion of kernel in good oats will usually average about 70 per cent and hull 30 per cent. Oats are quite variable in this re- . spect, however, the usual range being from 25 to 35 per cent hull, with occasional extreme variations as low as 20 per cent and as high as 45 per cent. A good example may be cited from the Ohio Experi- ment Station, where 36 varieties showed a variation in one season of from 23.9 per cent to 36.7 per cent hull. 3 As these data illustrate several common variations in oat varieties, a list of 10 selected varieties with accompanying data is given : Characteristics of Ten Common Varieties of Oats i* Number kernels per ounce Per cent of Average weight per bushel Stiffness of straw Number days to mature 5 year average a 1 0> M L . Describe the difference beirween a six-row, four-row, and two-row barley. 7. Describe (1) hulled and hulless barleys; (2) kinds of awns; (3) color of grain. 8. How does the range of winter barleys compare with that of winter wheat ; winter oats ; winter rye ? 9. What types of barley are commonly cultivated? 10. Give the distribution of six-row, two-row, and hulless barleys. 11. What is the difference in appearance of grain in two- and six-row ba^eys? 12. Name the qualities of a good malting barley. 13. Compare per cent of hull in barley and oats. 14. How is thick hull told by appearance? CHAPTER XXIV RYE EYE is the fifth cereal in importance in the world and in the United States. It is exceeded in the world by corn, wheat, oats, and rice, and in the United States the rice is replaced by barley. Rye is cultivated in much the same way as wheat and is used for similar purposes, and in many places may be considered to be a competing crop with wheat. It will grow on poorer soils than wheat and in colder climates, and so has a distinct advantage in many countries. Rye Production. About nine-tenths of the rye crop is pro- duced in Europe (Fig. 71). Rye is only a minor crop in other parts of the world. Production of Rye Production, 5-year average, Continent 1909-1913, bushels Europe 1,692,554,000 North America 37,082,000 Asia 24,663,000 South America 1,094,000 Australasia 205,000 Total 1,755^598,000 While the rye crop of the world is only one-third that of wheat, yet in Europe the two crops are almost of equal importance, and in at least two countries, Russia and Germany, rye far outranks wheat. Production of Rye and Wheat in Russia and Germany, Average 1909-1913 Rye, bushels Wheat, bushels Russia 791 ,333,000 522,794,000 Germany 445,222,000 152,119,000 Rye Production in Six States of the United States for 1920 State Bushels Michigan 9,702,000 North Dakota 9,340,000 Minnesota 8,160,000 Wisconsin 7,728,000 Indiana 4,340,000 South Dakota 4,320,000 Total 43,590,000 Total United States 69,318,000 Origin and History. While the cultivated species of rye are annuals, it is thought to have originated from a wild perennial form found growing in South Europe to Central Asia. The fact that pasturing off rye closely for a season may cause it to live over a second winter, shows it to have a tendency toward a perennial form. No other cereals appear to show such a tendency. 188 CLASSIFICATION OF RYE 191 Rye was probably not cultivated by ancient peoples previous to the Christian era, as wheat and barley were. It appears to have come into cultivation in the north half of Europe, somewhat previous to the Christian era, and its culture since then has remained in that region. Description of the Plant. The rye plant is similar in general appearance to wheat, but will average ten to fifteen inches taller. The head (Fig. 72) is longer and more slender, with generally two flowers to a spikelet, giving a quite uniform four-ranked head instead of six-ranked. Rye appears to be quite generally cross fertilized instead of self- fertilized as wheat and barley. Rye straw is much tougher and more flexible than other straws, thus adapting itself to many uses in the arts, such as packing or weaving into matting. The Rye Grain. The structure and composition of the rye grain is similar to wheat, although the flour made from rye is more starchy than from wheat. The rye grain contains gluten, and is therefore adapted to the making of light bread, a quality also of wheat but not found in any other cereal. Classification of Rye. The varie- ties of rye are very few compared with other cultivated cereals. The heads are practically all of one type, though the color of grain varies somewhat. Ryes are often designated as black, white, or yellow, according to color of grain. No rye has black grains, but rather dark brown or purplish, and makes a dark flour, the bread FIQ. 72. Rye. 192 RYE from which is often called Hack bread in contrast with the white bread of wheat. So-called white rye is only lighter, but does not make so white a bread as wheat. There are several varieties of winter rye (sown in the fall) and corresponding varieties of spring rye. Spring rye is grown some in Europe, but only rarely in the United States. Climate for Rye. Winter rye is much hardier than wheat, and can be cultivated in regions having colder winters or drier and more unfavorable winter weather. While it will grow throughout the temperate zone, it seems naturally adapted to northern climates. Soils for Rye. While it responds to good soils, yet rye is such a vigorous plant that it will produce a crop on poorer soils, or with less preparation of the soil than other cereals. It is also well adapted to light or sandy soils, and on such soils is often grown to plow under as a green manure crop. Rye in Rotations. Owing to its adaptation to poor or sandy soils, rye becomes a very important crop in the building up of such soils. If sown in the fall, it makes a quick growth the following spring and may be plowed under in May in time to plant some other crop, as corn, potatoes, or buckwheat. It is used in this way on the sandy potato and truck soils of the Atlantic Coast. A crop of pota- toes or buckwheat can be harvested each year and a crop of rye can be plowed under for manure. When rye follows corn it is often sown in the standing corn at the last cultivation, or is drilled in later with a narrow drill. When rye follows potatoes it may be sown while the potatoes are being dug, and the soil leveled afterward, or the land is prepared after digging and the rye is drilled in. The winter rye prevents erosion, and also prevents the leaching of any soluble fertilizer or plant-food in the soil. When rye and buckwheat are alternated, the rye may be sown with the buckwheat about July first, sowing the buckwheat rather thin (two or three pecks per acre). The buckwheat is harvested for grain, while the young rye is allowed to grow and is plowed down the following summer. This may be repeated year after year, gradually improving the soil by the large addition of organic matter. THRESHING RYE 193 Rye and Vetch. Winter or hairy vetch is often grown with rye. The vetch is a legume, adding nitrogen to the soil, and is well adapted to sandy land. The mixture may be plowed under as a green manure or, if allowed to ripen, harvested together. After threshing, the rye and vetch seeds are separated by machines espe- cially adapted for this purpose. This is also a good way of growing vetch for seed. Cultural Methods. While rye responds to good preparation, as other crops, yet it is so hardy and vigorous that a stand and crop may be secured under quite unfavorable conditions. The rate of sowing varies from one to three bushels per acre: the less amount when conditions are favorable and long coarse straw is desired, but more seed is used with less favorable conditions and when the rye is to be used as a green manure crop. The time of sowing ry'e may extend over a period of three months. About September fifteenth would be most favorable in the corn belt, but it may be sown early in August and pastured off, if the growth is too rank. Eye is often sown in July in standing corn at the last cultivation, in which case it makes only a light growth until the corn is ripe or harvested. In some cases rye is purposely sown so late that it will only barely sprout before freezing weather, in which case it should be sown rather thickly. Harvesting Rye. When rye is grown for grain it is allowed to become quite ripe, but, in some regions, rye is grown quite as much for the straw as for the grain. When the rye straw is to be used in the padding of horse collars or for the manufacture of matting, it is usually cut while quite green, bound in small bundles and carefully cured. As soon as dry in the shock the bundles should be stacked in the barn, or under a shed, where it will go through the " sweat " or natural heating process. This leaves the straw with a good color and tougher. Threshing Rye. When the straw is to be sold it is usually kept straight. To do this, only the heads are thrust into the threshing machine, and the bundle withdrawn and thrown aside. There are also special machines for threshing rye, in which the bundle is fed in sideways, but only the heads are threshed, the straw passing 194 through the machine sideways and bound again in bundles at Oil rear end. Market for Rye Straw. In the large cities there is a large de- mand for straight rye straw. Its most extensive use is in the livery stables to be used as bedding. The tough nature of the straw permits it to be dried and used several times. In the New York market straight rye straw is usually quoted about as high as No. 2 timothy hay. For illustration, the following are New York quotations at different times : Rye Straw Compared with Timothy Jan. 11, 1913 Dec. 6, 1913 Dollars Dollars Timothy No. 1 21.00 @ 22.00 20.50 @ 21.50 Timothy No. 2 ... 17.00 @ 19.00 18.00 @ 19.00 Timothy No. 3 ... 15.00 @ 16.00 15.00 @ 17.00 Rye straw 1-8.50 @ 18.50 15.00 @ 18.00 The price of rye straw is one reason why a large acreage of rye is raised in New York State and Pennsylvania, as the straw is worth about as much as the grain, making it a comparatively profitable grain crop. Eye straw is also used wherever a coarse straw packing is needed and in upholstering. Coarse matting is also made, but where rye straw is used in the making of fine matting, as straw hats, the straw is especially grown, cut very green, cured with great care, and bleached. World's Rye Crop and Price of Wheat. While the rye crop in the United States is small, yet the price of American wheat is con- siderably influenced by the world's rye crop. As mentioned hereto- fore, rye is almost as important as wheat in Europe as a bread crop. As Europe is our principal market for wheat, a large European rye crop will cut down the demand for our wheat. In estimating the probable European demand for wheat, the rye crop is always counted in with the wheat. Insect Enemies and Diseases. Eye is less affected by diseases and insects than the other small grain crops. There are no im- portant insect enemies peculiar to the rye crop, although all the wheat insects attack rye also, but are usually less injurious. Eye is injured by rust perhaps as much as oats or wheat, but is QUESTIONS 195 aever injured by smut. It has one peculiar disease known as ergot. The affected grains grow to three or four times normal size and turn black, being filled with black spores. It only rarely does serious injury. Ergot has a medicinal value, but it is dangerous to feed rye containing ergot to farm animals. EXERCISE Moisture in Grain. Samples of rye and other grains kept under dif- ferent conditions should be studied for moisture content as described in the exercise at the close of Chapter II. Secure samples from open bins, closed bins, newly threshed from stacks or shocks. What does the exercise demonstrate as to best conditions of storage? QUESTIONS 1. Where is rye cultivated? 2. Where is it more important than wheat? 3. Where cultivated in the United States? 4. Name the distinguishing characters of the rye plant. 5. Why can light bread be made from rye or wheat? 6. Give the types of rye. 7. What are the best climate and soil for rye? 8. Describe some rotations where rye is found useful. 9. Why are rye and vetch good crops for green manure? 10. Name the season when rye may be sown. 11. Explain curing of rye straw. 12. Why is rye straw so* valuable? 13 How important is 7ye as a bread cnr** CHAPTER XXV BUCKWHEAT BUCKWHEAT is a crop comparatively small in acreage and pro- duction in the United States,, occupying less than one million acres annually. Less than four farmers out of every 100 report buck- wheat as grown, while 50 farmers report wheat, and 80 farmers report corn. About four acres of buckwheat are grown on each farm reporting, while twenty-five acres of common wheat and twenty acres of corn is the average. Buckwheat Production. There is no available information regarding the world's crop of buckwheat, but it is cultivated in Japan, North Asia, and North Europe. In the United States buck- wheat production reached its height in the sixties, then rapidly declined in the seventies, but has again gradually increased since, though it has not reached the production of 1866. While the production of all other cereals has very largely shifted from the eastern States to the Middle West since 1850, buckwheat is the one cereal that has remained principally in the East (Fig. 73). For 50 years New York has been the leading buckwheat State, with Pennsylvania a close second. These two states produce about two- thirds of the buckwheat crop. West Virginia, Michigan, and Ohio follow in the order named. Buckwheat Production, Average 1919-1921 Average yield Production per acre, Bushels Bushels United States 13,873,000 20.1 Pennsylvania 4,773,000 20.8 New York 4,415,000 21.2 West Virginia 652,000 20.8 Michigan 590,000 14.8 Ohio 572,000 23. Wisconsin 505,000 15.7 Average price per bushel is about 118.5 cents. Origin and History. Buckwheat appears to have originated from certain wild forms found in Central Asia. It was not culti- DESCRIPTION OF PLANT 197 vated in ancient times, and has come into cultivation mostly since the beginning of the Christian era. Its present distribution is prin- cipally in the northern half of Asia and Europe, and northeastern United States. Canada also grows a small acreage. It is grown principally for human food. Relationships. Buckwheat belongs to a botanical family char- acterized by angular three-sided seeds, including the common sorrels, sour docks, and smartweed. Most of this group will nourish on wet or sour soils, better than most vegetation. The buckwheat seed is Fia. 73. Distribution of buckwheat in United States. (U. S. Census, 1910.) three angled like a beech nut, and the German name, luchweizen, and the Latin name, Fagopyrum, both mean "beech wheat/' The German name has come to be " buckwheat " in English. Description of Plant. Buckwheat, perhaps, should not be called a true cereal, since it is not a grass (p. 2), but quite a dif- ferent type of plant. Instead of a mass of fine fibrous roots, as in grasses, buckwheat has a strong central tap-root, with rather few branches. Neither does buckwheat produce tillers from the base, but strong lateral branches are thrown out at each node. When planted thin the lower branches are partly prostrate, but under ordinary field conditions the branching is much reduced and the plants stand quite 198 BUCKWHEAT erect. The leaves are triangular and two or three inches broad, The stem varies in color from green to purple. The flowers on ordinary buckwheat are small, but borne in com- pact masses at the end of small branches. However, in one species, the so-called India-wheat, the flower clusters are small and more scattered at the nodes along the principal stems. The flowers are of two types, one with long stamens and short styles, and the other with short stamens and long styles. Each plant produces only one type, but when the seed from either kind of plant is sown, hoth forms are produced in about equal numbers. This peculiar arrangement may assist in cross-fertilization. The Buckwheat Grain. The grain varies in color from silver- grey to brown or black. The outer cover or hull corresponds to the outer bran of wheat or corn, but differs in being much thicker and free from the starchy endosperm. The hull readily .splits along the edges, and some care must be observed in threshing dry buckwheat not to thus hull too many of the grains. Old seed in dry storage will sometimes hull more or less. The endosperm is soft rather than hard, as in corn or wheat. The legal weight of buckwheat is ordinarily 48 pounds per bushel, though in different States it varies from 40 to 56 pounds. In composition, the buckwheat endosperm is more starchy than wheat or corn, and is also low in fat content. In milling, the flour produced is very low in protein (six to seven per cent) and fat, but the middlings, which contain the germ, are distinguished by ex- tremely high protein and fat content. The middlings are highly valued as stock feed. The following data compiled by Hunt give average com- position * : Essential Ingredients of Buckwheat and Its Products Grain Flour Middlings Hulls Water 12.6 14.6 12 7 10 1 Ash . 2.0 1.0 5.1 2.0 Protein . 10.0 6.9 28.1 4 6 Crude fiber . 8.7 0.3 4.2 44.7 Nitrogen-free extract , Fat 64.5 2 2 75.8 1 4 42.2 7 7 37.T 09 * Hunt, T. F. : Cereals in America, p. 402. COMMON BUCKWHEAT 199 Classification. There are three species of buckwheat in cultiva- tion (Fig. 74) : 1. Common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculen turn). 2. Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum Tartaricum). 3. Notch-seeded buckwheat (Fagopyrum emarginatum) . The three types are easily distinguished by the shape of grain. In the common buckwheat the grains are about as broad as long and smooth. The Tartary seed is longer than broad in shape, the edges wavy and seed slightly corrugated. The notch-seeded buckwheat has extended wings on the margins, giving the seed the appearance of being larger than the two above, though in reality it is not. FIG. 74. Types of buckwheat grain. From left, Tartary, Silver Hull, Gray and Japanese buckwheats. Common Buckwheat. Common buckwheat may be divided into three varieties, known as Silver Hull, Gray, and Japanese. Sil- ver Hull seed is lightest in color while the plant and seed are smallest in size. The Japanese seed is brown to black in color, and both seed and plant largest in size. The Gray is intermediate in characters. Ordinarily Silver Hull is plumper, smoother, and heavier in weight per bushel than the other two. In yield per acre, the Japanese usually exceeds the Silver Hull or Gray, and at present is most extensively grown. It is not un- common for growers to mix the Silver Hull and Japanese, as it is thought, in case of hot, dry weather, the taller Japanese will protect the blossoms of the smaller variety and insure against blasting of the flowers. 200 BUCKWHEAT Tartary Buckwheat. This is commonly called India wheat. It is adapted to high and cool latitudes, especially mountainous dis- tricts. It is cultivated some in Maine, eastern Canada, and the mountain districts of New York. Notch-seeded buckwheat is not cultivated in North America, but is said to be cultivated some in North India. Climate for Buckwheat. While buckwheat will grow a large crop of straw on good soil, in any temperate climate, yet it will sel- dom set seed well under hot or dry conditions. The flowers are said to be blasted; that is, after blooming freely the flowers die but no seed appears. Comparatively cool summer weather and sufficient rain to keep in healthy growth, favor a good set of seed. Such climatic conditions are most common in northeastern United States, especially in the rather high and hilly portions. It will be noted that buckwheat culture follows, in a general way, the hilly and mountainous region extending from New York through Pennsyl- vania and the Virginias. Being a very quick-growing crop it can be sown in mid-summer, thus bringing the blossoming into the more favorable fall weather. Buckwheat also has another advantage over other cereals in wide adaptation to climate. It will continue to blossom for several weeks, so that a period of favorable weather occurring at any time during this period may result in a good set of seed. Soils for Buckwheat. Buckwheat has long been noted as one of the crops that will do fairly well on poor soils, if the climate is favorable. It will also do better than most crops on soils lacking in lime and drainage. This is one reason for its extensive culture in the hill lands of the eastern States. While buckwheat will do well on productive soil, it is there brought into competition with other crops, as wheat or corn, and would ordinarily not be as profitable. Competing crops are always an important consideration in determining whether a crop will be grown or not. Fertilizers. Buckwheat responds readily to applications of fer- tilizer or manure. Usually manure is reserved on the farm for some other crop, but a moderate use of fertilizer on buckwheat is quite as common as for other crops. About 100 to 200 pounds per acre of a 4-8-5 grain fertilizer is considered profitable, but on the USES OF BUCKWHEAT 201 land where buckwheat is generally raised it would not be considered wise to fertilize heavily. Preparation of Land. Often buckwheat land is poorly pre- pared, as it is sown late and other crops are cared for first. Late plowing is common, yet no crop responds better to early plowing and thorough preparation even though sown late. Time of Seeding. As buckwheat will mature in 60 to 70 days from sowing, it may be sown just late enough to mature before frost. The fall season is usually more favorable than the summer season for maturing the seed crop. The average time of sowing in New York and Pennsylvania is July 1, though it extends from June 15 to July 15. Harvesting is generally in the third week of September. Sowing the Seed. The ordinary rate of seeding is three to four pecks per acre, though it varies from two to five pecks. The seed grows easily, and since the plants grow rapidly, branching out to occupy all the land, there is little difficulty in securing a good stand. The seed is commonly sown broadcast and harrowed in, though if the weather is dry and the land weedy, drilling is much better. Harvesting. As buckwheat continues to blossom and set seed until frost, it is usually cut when the largest yield of ripe seed can be secured. Ordinarily this is 60 to 80 days after sowing, but, in general, the crop is cut just before killing frost. In dry weather the grain shatters off easily, so it is good practice to cut on a damp day or early in the morning. It is not usually bound as other grain, but cut with a self-drop reaper, which leaves the straw in loose gavels. As the straw is green and cures slowly, it may be left in gavels for several days. It is then set up without binding, but a handful of straw is twisted about the top, and two or three bunches set together. Threshing. Buckwheat is seldom stacked or put in a barn, as the straw does not readily dry enough to stack without great danger of heating. It threshes very easily and may be threshed when slightly damp. As the seeds are likely to crack, and the straw break up, the concave teeth are often removed from the threshing machine and boards or smooth concave plates inserted. Uses of Buckwheat. Buckwheat has been used from earliest times as human food. In America its principal use as human food 14 202 BUCKWHEAT is in the form of griddle cakes, very common in country districts. A considerable portion of the crop was formerly fed to stock, and is used thus at present when the price is low. When buckwheat is ground about 50 to 60 per cent is recovered as flour, about 25 per cent middlings, and a somewhat less percentage of hulls. The middlings are highly prized as stock feed, but the hulls have little value. Buckwheat is considered to have special merit as a poultry feed. Beekeepers have long recognized it as producing an abundant and superior grade of honey. Buckwheat straw has little feeding value, but is considered valuable as a mulch. It rots down so quickly that an old stack of buckwheat straw is often hauled directly on the land as manure. Buckwheat as Green Manure. Owing to its growth on poor land, buckwheat is often recommended as a green manure crop. It may be sown after a rye crop is plowed down, and either harvested or turned under. Rye and buckwheat may be sown together in July, the buckwheat harvested and the rye allowed to grow and be plowed down as green manure the following June. This may be repeated year after year on the same land, gradually increasing the humus supply of the soil, and meai-.time paying expenses with the buckwheat crop. In Virginia crimson clover is sown with buckwheat in the same way. QUESTIONS 1. How important is the buckwheat crop? Where grown? 2. What wild plants is buckwheat related to? 3. Compare the plant with other cereals. 4. Describe the flowers. 5. Describe the grain. 6. How does it compare with wheat in composition? 7. Nam and describe the three principal types. 8. Of the common buckwheat what are the three principal varieties! How distinguished? 9. Where is Tartar buckwheat grown? 10. Describe the climate favorable to buckwheat. 11. What advantages does a short-growing period and a long-blossoming period give to buckwheat? 12. Why is buckwheat grown on poor soils as a general rule rather than on good soils ? 13. Does it respond to fertilizer? 14. Compare time of sowing with other cereals. 15. Describe method of harvesting. 16. Give the principal uses of buckwheat. 17. What is its value as a green manure crop? CHAPTER XXVI COTTON 1 COTTON is the greatest of all fiber crops. It provides the prin- cipal articles of clothing for mankind. Of the four great staples from which clothes are made cotton, silk, wool, and flax cotton is rapidly superseding the others. It is easy to grow, easy to manu- facture, and its finished product is cheap. And from no other crop are df rived so many useful by-products. Cotton is the leading cash crop of our country. Its imperishable nature renders it proof against depreciation in storage and it is the only important crop, with the exception of tobacco, which is con- verted directly and entirely into money. World Production of Cotton. The production of cotton is confined to warm countries. Previous to the first quarter of the nineteenth century, India was the leading cotton-producing country and a considerable part of the world's crop was also grown in Egypt. Since 1830, however, the production of cotton has centered in the southern part of the United States. At the present time the south- ern States produce three-fourths of the total cotton crop of the world. This is shown by the following table, which includes in round numbers the average for the crops of 1918-1920 : Average Production of Cotton, 19JS-1920 Country Bales United States 11,414,000 India 3,133,000 Egypt 1,137,000 China 928,000 All other countries 1,689,000 Total 18,301,000 Cotton Production in the United States. Although climatic conditions restrict the commercial production of cotton to a group of States constituting less than one-fourth of the total area of the coun- try, yet in value the annual cotton crop is exceeded only by corn and hay. Since the hay crop is composed of many different grasses and legumes, corn may be considered the only plant from which a crop is 1 Prepared by Dr. W. C. Etheridge, Florida Agricultural College. 203 204 COTTON produced that exceeds the cotton crop in value. Among the eight leading crops of the United States, the cotton crop ranks much higher in percentage of total value than in percentage of total acre- age. This is shown by the following table drawn from the average acreage and value of each of these crops for the years 19191921: Value, Acreage, Average Value and Average Acreage of Crops for 1919-1921 Crop Corn .... Hay Per cent < Value total valu $2,411,199,000 28.8 1,628,950,000 19.4 1,425,003,000 17. 1,338,129,000 15.9 614,591,000 7.4 453,941,000 5.4 376,766,000 4.5 125,650,000 1.6 )f e Crop Corn Per cent of Acreage total acreage 100,960,000 30.6 74,050.000 22.4 66.415.000 20.1 42,558,000 12.9 33,623,000 10.2 7,186,000 2.2 3,671,000 1.1 1,794,000 1.1 Hay Wheat Oats Cotton ... Wheat ... Oats Cotton Barley Potatoes . . . Tobacco .... Potatoes . Tobacco . . Barley . . . Total . . $8,374,229,000 100.0 Total .... 330,257,000 100.0 Cotton Production by States. The American cotton crop is produced almost entirely by ten States. These are the following, arranged in order according to their average crop of 1919-1921 : Per Cent of American Crop, Average 1919-1921 State Bales Per rent Texas 3,215,000 30.0 Georgia 1,305.000 11.8 South Carolina 1,270,000 11.5 Arkansas 986.000 8.9 Oklahoma 960,000 8.6 Mississippi 909.000 8.2 North Carolina 852,000 7.7 Louisiana 327,000 3.0 Tennessee 325,000 2.9 Missouri 73,000 .7 Total 10,322,000 93.3 All others _ 74 ^. ? 6.7 United States . . 1 1~067VOOO T0076 Other southern States combined produce only 6.7 per cent of the total crop. Thus it is seen that the American cotton crop is fairly dis- tributed within the territory lying south of a line running west from the southeast corner of Virginia to the northwest corner of Oklahoma and thence south along the western border of Texas. In certain States of this territory the production of the possible amount of cotton is not reached by reason of the interposition of other crops. Thus, in North Carolina and Tennessee tobacco super- sedes cotton to a considerable extent. HISTORY IN AMERICA , 205 Early History of Cotton. Cotton is a tropical plant, which is adapted also to the semitropic and mild temperate regions. The history of the plant, both as to its origin and as to its first use, is obscure. For ages, we know, it has been a native of the tropical parts of both hemispheres. India, it appears, as early as 1500 B.C. was the center of an important cotton industry. Many centuries before the Christian Era, the Egyptians, Greeks and Phoenicians had reached an advanced stage in the artistic spinning and weaving of cotton fiber. Although a knowledge of the cotton plant and its usefulness spread gradually to China, Japan, and Southern Europe, the culture of the plant and the manufacture of cotton cloth seem not to have been practised in early times by the people of these countries. Silk, linen, and wool were preferred, and cotton cloth was used only when brought from India. Even in the Middle Ages the countries of Southern Europe had not engaged in the production and manufac- ture of cotton. Spain and Turkey were the first to enter this in- dustry. In the fourteenth century Granada, Spain, was noted for its cotton cloth. From Spain and Turkey the use of cotton spread to other countries of Southern Europe and advanced gradually north- ward. By the middle of the eighteenth century England had de- veloped an important trade in cotton and was beginning to import the raw material from America. History in America. Columbus found the cotton plant growing in the West Indies. Other explorers in the early part of the six- teenth century found cotton in Mexico, Peru, and Brazil. In these countries the fiber cotton provided the chief articles of clothing. In a word, cotton was known and used in what are now the Latin American countries at the time of the settlement in North America by the English. But, strangely, the aborigines of the section now comprising the cotton belt of the United States seem not to have known or used cotton. It is, therefore, doubtful that the plant is indigenous to any part of the United States. The early colonists of Virginia, bringing seed from Europe, soon began the culture of cotton and there is evidence that in the lattei half of the seventeenth century they made cotton cloth. Cotton is 206 COTTON mentioned among the products of Carolina in 1666, and by 1708 it is said to have become one of the principal commodities of that colony. By about the middle of the eighteenth century the culture and use of cotton had extended to Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mis- sissippi, and Louisiana, the seed being brought from all quarters of the globe. In 1786, Thomas Jefferson in a letter said : " The four southernmost states make a great deal of cotton. Their poor are almost entirely clothed with it in winter and in summer/' Invention of the Cotton Gin. The export movement of cotton began in the middle of the eighteenth century and in 1793, the year before Eli Whitney patented his saw gin, about 2000 bales were sent abroad. In the same year 22,222 bales were produced. In 1796, a year after Whitney had improved his machine, about 45,000 bales were grown and one-half of this amount exported. The invention by Eichard Arkwright in England, 1796, of a machine for spinning cotton had created a great demand for the raw fiber, and Whitney's gin, which separated the fiber from the seeds, made possible a greater supply. Thus we see the stimulus of a great industry in the inven- tion of the two machines. Within one hundred years, from 1790 to 1890, the production of cotton in the United States increased from 5000 bales to over 10,000,000 bales, and cotton became the great southern crop. Cotton Manufacture in the United States. The development of cotton manufacturing as a great national industry began with the first cotton mill, built in Massachusetts in 1788. This was soon fol- lowed by others in various parts of the eastern border of the country. In them carding and spinning was done by machinery, but weaving was by hand-looms until 1815, when a power-loom was built, also in Massachusetts. The manufacture of cotton rapidly increased until, in 1860, there were more than one thousand mills capitalized at about one hundred million dollars, using each year more than four hun- dred million pounds of raw material, and turning out annually a finished product valued at nearly one hundred and sixteen million dollars. During the great " cotton famine " caused by the Civil War the production and manufacture of cotton in the United States practically ceased, and it was not until 1868 'rat the cotton industry VARIETIES 207 regained its position of 1860. To-day the manufacture of cotton in the United States is by far the greatest industry related to American agriculture. Classification. The cotton plant belongs to the genus Gossypium, a member of the Mallow family. The number of its botanical species is variously stated as from four to eighty-eight. However, all authorities agree that the cotton of commerce is the product of only a few species. Parlatore names seven species, as follows : 1. Gossypium Barladense, the long-stapled Barbadoes, Sea Island, Egyptian, and Peruvian varieties. 2. Gossypium herbaceum, the varieties of India, Siam, China, and Italy. 3. Gossypium hirsutum, the American upland varieties. 4. Gossypium arboreum, found in Ceylon, Arabia, South America, etc. 5. Gossypium Peruvianum, .the native varieties of Peru and Brazil. 6. Gossypium Taliitense, found chiefly in Tahiti and the Society Islands. 7. Gossypium Sandwichense, found in the Sandwich and ad- jacent islands. Species Grown in the United States. In the United States G. hirsutum and G. Barbadense, embracing, respectively, the upland and Sea Island varieties, are the only species cultivated com- mercially. Upland Cotton. Although it is probable that American upland cotton is derived from the blending of several species, the present predominating type resembles more closely G. hirsutum than any other species. Hence, G. hirsutum, a native species of Mexico, is commonly thought to include both the short-staple and long-staple upland cotton of the United States. Varieties. American upland varieties are of two principal classes, namely, short-staple and long-staple (Figs. 75 and 76). There is another class, transitional with either of the foregoing classes, called " Benders " or " Rivers " the names signifying any common type grown on rich, moist bottom lands and hence pro- 208 COTTON ducing an unusually long staple. This latter class is merely a commercial grade. The short-staple and long-staple classes may be distinguished by the longer lint, the more slender and sharper pointed bolls and the later maturing period of the latter class. Number of Varieties. There are very many varieties of upland cotton, most of them differing but slightly and being only tem- FIG. 75. An American short-staple upland variety, Culpepper. porarily modified by environment. Many others are the result of crossing, both natural and artificial, and the segregation of indi- vidual types. Very often a group of so-called varieties are merely a single type represented by different names. At the Alabama Experi- ment Station most of the upland varieties were collected and classi- fied, and while many of them were found to be identical there were VARIETIES 209 probably not less than one hundred which differed by one or more characteristics. Classification of Varieties. The classification of the upland groups, by Duggar, is here given, with slight modifications in de- scription : 1. Cluster Type. Plants slender with long basal limbs and extremely short middle and upper fruiting limbs; bolls small and tending to grow in clusters; seeds small to medium and thickly covered with fuzz. The plant has a special tendency to drop its fruit. Example : Jackson. 2. Semicluster Type. Plants with general appear- ance of the cluster type, but with somewhat longer fruit- ing limbs; bolls of various sizes, borne close together but not in clusters; .seeds of various sizes. Example: Hawkins. 3. Rio Grande Type. Plants with slender, long- jointed limbs; leaves un- usually small with narrow, sharp-pointed lobes ; bolls small to medium; seeds small, dark, smoky-brown, and almost without the short fuzz common to other varieties ; pro- portion of lint to seed unusually high 35 to 40 per cent of the weight of the lock-cotton. Example : Peterkin. 4. Early Type. Plants small, with long, slender, usually crooked fruiting limbs ; basal limbs short or wanting; leaves similar to those of the Rio Grande type ; bolls small ; seeds small and covered with fuzz of different shades; fiber short; blossoms usually marked with FIG. 76. An American Ion ety, Allen's taple, upland vari- "y. 210 COTTON a purple-red spot near the inner base of each petal ; seed-cotton falls easily from the fully opened pods. Example : King. 5. Big-boll Type. This type is characterized by its extremely large bolls sixty-eight or fewer mature bolls yielding one pound of seed-cotton. It may be divided into the following transitional sub- types : (a) Storm-proof,, big-boll varieties. Example : Triumph. (b) Big-boll varieties of the shape which characterizes the semi- cluster type. Example : Truitt. (c) Big-boll varieties having neither marked storm resistance nor semicluster shape of plant. Example : Russell. 6. Long-limb Type. Plants extremely large, with long, woody limbs, which have long internodes. No productive variety is in- cluded in this class and the type is disappearing. 7. Intermediate Type. In this class may be placed varieties the group relationship of which is uncertain. 8. Long-staple Upland Type. Plants tall and usually of a semi- cluster type; bolls rather slender and usually especially susceptible to injury from boll-rot (anthracnose) ; seeds densely covered with white fuzz ; fiber long, but weak, and in small proportion by weight to the seed. Example : Griffin. The foregoing upland types produce all of the cotton crop of the United States except the small amount of Sea Island cotton grown near the South Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. The staple of upland varieties is used in the manufacture of the coarser cotton fabrics. Sea Island Cotton. The Sea Island cotton (G. Barbadense) is grown on or near the coast of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. The plant is characterized by its extreme height, and long, slender, smooth branches; by its yellow blooms with their red spots near the base of each petal; by its rather small, slender bolls; and by its long, fine fiber and naked black seeds. The fiber of Sea Island cotton is longer than that of the upland varieties. It is fine and silky and is spun in the finest yarns and used largely for the manu- facture of threads, laces, cambrics, and fine hosiery. Description of the Cotton Plant. All the common species of cotton are perennial in frostless climates, but in cultivation they are DESCRIPTION OF THE COTTON PLANT 211 usually treated as annuals. The plants are tap-rooted, erect, shrub- like and rather woody. The branches are in pairs, spreading and strongly jointed ; and the stems and branches are in most species covered with delicate, whitish hairs. The leaves are three to five lobed. In upland varieties the flowers are white, turning red on the Fia. 77. Fia. 78. FIG. 77. The flower of upland cotton, viewed from the side, showing the bracts, calyx, and petals (after Cook). FIG. 78. Showing the "squares" of cotton the unopened buds enclosed by the bracts (after Cook). second day of blooming, but Sea Island cotton has yellow flowers with a purple-red spot at the base of each petal. The flowers are surrounded by three to five deeply fringed bracts (Fig. 77) the number corresponding to the number of cells in the bolls. Previous to the opening of the blossom, the enclosing bracts form the so-called "squares" (Fig. 78). The bolls are irregularly oblong or oval in shape and are somewhat pointed. They have three to five cells and 212 COTTON at maturity they burst open and the locks of fiber, attached to the seeds, are easily gathered (Fig. 79) . Since the fiber and seeds constitute the cotton crop, it is impor- tant to consider them separately and in greater detail. Fiber. The fiber constitutes about 10 per cent, by weight, of ABC D FIG. 79. Showing the opening of the cotton boll; and the lock-cotton, or seed-cotton; .4, the unopened boll; B, the boll partly opened; C, the boll fully opened, and the locks of fiber; D, the empty pod after the lock-cotton has been gathered. the mature plant. It is poor in fertilizing constituents, a bale of lint (500 pounds) containing only: Nitrogen 1.7 pounds Phosphoric acid 0.6 pound Potash 2.3 pounds Lime 1.6 pounds Proportion of Fiber to Seed. The proportion of fibers to seeds in lock-cotton is usually 33 to 35 per cent of the total weight, although extreme proportions of 30 to 40 per cent are often found. The pro- duction of a large proportion of fiber is a very desirable varietal characteristic. Dimensions and Strength of the Fiber. Each cotton fiber is a tubular, hair-like cell 0.001 to 0.025 inch in diameter. Its length varies among different species and varieties. The average length of the fiber of American upland short-staple varieties is from 0.80 to 0.95 inch, while in long-staple varieties it is from 0.90 to 1.50 inches (Figs. 80 and 81). The fiber of Sea Island cotton is FIBER 213 usually from 1.50 to 2.00 inches in length. The tensile strength of the fiber is estimated by the weight required to break a single strand. This is usually 6 to 8 grams, but extreme breaking weights of 4 to 14 grams have been found. A fiber of cotton is about three times as strong as a strand of wool in proportion to size. FIG. 80. The fiber of an upland short-staple variety. FIG. 81. The fiber of an upland long-staple variety. Classification of Fibers. In every lot of cotton there are three classes of fibers (Fig. 82) (1) unripe, (2) half-ripe, (3) ripe. These may readily be distinguished by observing with a microscope the extent to which they are twisted. The unripe fiber is cylindrical and tubular in form for most of its length. It is transparent, some- what turgid and shows little or no twist. As the fiber ripens its tubular form collapses and contracts until finally it is much like a twisted ribbon with somewhat thickened and corrugated edges. 214 COTTON Only the ripe, twisted fibers are fit for perfect spinning and dyeing. The flattened and twisted form of the cotton fiber makes it par- ticularly useful for the manufacture of cloth. ISTo other vegetable fibers are like cotton in this respect. As compared with wool, the cotton fiber is smooth and twisted, while a strand of wool is straight and its edges are scaly. FIG. 82. Showing the three classes of cotton fibers: Bowman). A, unripe; B, httlf-ripe; C, ripe (after Desirable Qualities of the Fiber. The value of cotton fiber is determined by its color, length, tensile strength, ripeness, fineness, and uniformity. The lint which grades highest in these respects is spun into the finer and more expensive cotton fabrics. Seed. About 20 per cent of the weight of the dried, mature plant is in the seeds. The average number of seeds in the usual four- celled boll is from thirty-five to forty ; but there is considerable vari- ation, depending upon the number of cells in the boll and the vigor BY-PRODUCTS OF COTTON 215 of the plant. The proportion of seeds in lock-cotton is usually about two-thirds of the total weight. Fertilizing Constituents in the Seed. The seeds of cotton, un- like the fiber, are rich in fertilizing constituents. In 1000 pounds of seeds, which is approximately the complement of 500 pounds of lint, there are the following amounts of plant food elements : Nitrogen 31 pounds Phosphoric acid 13 pounds Potaah 12 pounds Lime 2.5 pounds Covering of the Seed. Beneath the long fibers, the seeds (Fig. 83) of most upland varieties are densely covered with a short fuzz, which may, according to the variety, be gray, green, or brown. However, there are a few varieties the seeds of which are almost free from this cover- ing. The Peterkin variety, which has naked brown or black seeds, is a notable example of this type. In Sea Island cotton, also, the seeds are nearly or quite naked after the long fibers are T FIG. 83. Showing two types of cotton lOVeil. seed: A, seeds with a short, fuzzy cover- Weight Per Bushel The legal weight of a bushel of seeds is usually either 33 or 33% pounds, although naked seeds, that is, those lacking the fuzzy covering, are several pounds heavier. The naked, smooth, Sea Island seeds usually weigh about forty-four pounds per bushel. Structure of the Seed. The general structure of a cotton seed is very simple. There are only two main parts the rough outer hull, or seed-coat, and the kernel. The kernel is somewhat shrunken and is easily removed from the hull. It consists mainly of two fleshy seed leaves folded around the embryo, or young plant. From the seeds are derived the valuable by-products of the cotton crop feeds, fertilizer, and oil. By-products of Cotton. The products of the cotton plant do 15 216 COTTON not consist wholly of clothing made from the fiber. Fertilizer, oil, and feeds for animals are derived as by-products from the seeds and represent a large part of the total value of the crop. Production of Oil and Cake. The seeds are composed of about equal proportions by weight of hulls and kernels. After they have been separated from the hulls, the kernels are heated and pressed. Cottonseed oil and cottonseed cake are the products. A ton of cotton seed will usually yield about 300 pounds of oil, 750 pounds of cake and 800 pounds of hulls, the remaining 150 pounds representing evaporation and waste materials. Cottonseed Meal. The cottonseed cake is usually ground into cottonseed meal, although it may be used as feed without being ground. Cottonseed meal is very valuable, either as feed or fertilizer. Constituents of Cottonseed Meal. The following table will show the richness of cottonseed meal in the principal feed and fertilizing constituents : Average percentage contained Principal feed constituents in cottonseed meal Protein 44 Nitrogen-free extract 21 Fat 14 Fiber 5 Principal fertilizing constituents Nitrogen 7 Phosphoric acid 3 Potash 2 Use of Cottonseed Meal as Feed. Cottonseed meal is an excellent concentrate with which to supplement the roughage fed to sheep and dairy cattle, but it is little used as a feed for horses. It has a specific toxic effect on hogs and when fed in quantity will cause their death within periods of from five to seven weeks. Cottonseed meal is probably injurious to most other young animals, particularly to calves. Use of Cottonseed Meal as Fertilizer. The great value of cotton- seed meal as a feed for dairy cattle has in recent years caused the price of this material rapidly to advance. At present prices cotton- seed meal, although an excellent nitrogenous fertilizer, will give BY-PRODUCTS OF COTTON 217 larger returns in money when fed to dairy cattle or to fattening steers than when applied to the soil. Cottonseed Oil. Cottonseed oil is almost identical in composi- tion with olive oil. Its various grades are used as salad oils and cooking oils, as a lubricant, and in the manufacture of oleomargarine, soaps, and paints. Cottonseed Hulls. Cottonseed hulls are tough, woody material and are used in the manufacture of paper and fiber-board from which are made trunks, gear-wheels and many other useful articles. They are often used as a feed for dairy cattle, but they are poor in fats and protein and are usually supplemented with cottonseed meal. Their ash, however, is rich in fertilizing constituents potash, phos- phoric acid and lime and is a valuable fertilizer, although little used. CHAPTER XXVII COTTON CULTURE Climate. Cotton is a delicate, sun-loving plant. It requires for its development a long, warm growing season of six or seven months, during which the rainfall is evenly distributed. Length of Growing Season. One of the most important features of a climate suited to the growth of cotton is the probable date of the last killing frost in spring and of the earliest frost in autumn. Unless there is a frostless period between these dates of at least 180 days the fullest development of the plant in all of its functions will not be attained, for while the harvesting of cotton often extends far into winter, the first killing frost of autumn checks the active growth of the plant, and the blossoms and the bolls formed at this time will not develop mature fiber (Fig. 84). Amount and Distribution of Rainfall. The amount and distri- bution of rainfall has a very important bearing on the success of the crop. The cotton plant thrives best during a season marked by light, frequent showers, preferably at night, so that there may be the maximum daily amount of sunshine. Heavy, frequent rains during that period in the life of the plant from the thinning or " chopping out " process to the formation of the first bolls will cause a too rapid development of the vegetative parts to the detriment of a normal formation of the flowers and fruit. If rains are too frequent during the latter part of this period, the unopened flowers, or " squares," drop from the plant in great numbers and its yield is consequently decreased. Also, boll-rot (anthracnose) is more prevalent in rainy seasons than in others. During the picking season, if heavy rains occur, a considerable amount of the lint is discolored, or even beaten from the open pods and lost. Temperature. The temperature of the growing season should be high and its daily range uniform during the early life of the plant. Either a great and sudden rise in temperature or a pro- longed coolness during this period is liable to check the vegetative 218 CLIMATE 219 growth and hasten an undesirable premature ripening. After the first part of August, however, when the plant has attained its full vegetative growth, a lower and more varied temperature is desirable. Cool nights at this period favor the production of a maximum crop, for the lower temperature checks the vegetative growth and hastens the maturation of the seeds and fiber. liegion Suited to Cotton. The cotton belt of the United States is the area between 37 latitude and Gulf Coast and east of the west- ern border of Texas. The heavy frosts of this section have generally FIG. 84. A field of upland cotton in September. ended by the middle of April, and if cotton is planted in time to show above ground by the first of May there is little danger of it being frost-killed. The frosts of autumn generally do not come before the middle of October or the first of November, and the plant has six to seven months of warm, frostless weather in which to pro- duce its crop. The average mean temperature of the cotton belt, from April to October, inclusive, ranges from 71 F. in the northern area to 74 F. in the southern area. During the same period there are, on the average, in each 100 days about 56 which are clear and sunny, and 32 which are likely to produce rain. The climatic re- 220 COTTON CULTURE quirements of the cotton plant are by these conditions ideally fulfilled. Soils. The upland cotton does not require a particular type of soil. It readily grows on all types if the conditions of climate are favorable. The cotton crop is produced with success on sandy soils, on loams, on the various types of clay soils, and on silty bottom-lands. However, the appearance of the plant is slightly modified and its yield is varied by the influence of different soils. On sandy uplands, the plant is small and inclined toward abundant fruitage, although its total yield is light. On heavy clay soils and on bottom-lands, the plant, in wet seasons, grows large and woody, fruiting lightly in proportion to its size but producing a greater total yield than when grown on light, sandy soils. Most Favorable Soils for Cotton. The soils which most often produce successful crops of cotton are medium grades of loam, con- taining 25 or 30 per cent of clay and about 40 per cent of silt. Such soils are porous, easily drained, and early warmed in the spring. They also are retentive of moisture, maintaining on the average 10 or 12 per cent of moisture throughout a growing season of a normal climatic tendency. The loams sometimes do not pro- duce as large yields as do bottom-lands and the heavier clay soils, but their productiveness is more certain ; they have a tendency to produce on the average a good crop under a wide variation in sea- sons, while the productiveness of other soils is more dependent upon seasonal fitness. It is not unusual, in wet seasons, for a cotton crop grown on a heavy clay or rich bottom soil to be so badly injured by the ravages of diseases and insects as to be accounted a failure, or to make such a rank vegetative growth that the fiber will not mature before the frosts of autumn. Fertility of Cotton Soils. In certain parts of the cotton belt, the cotton plant does not require for its most successful development an extremely fertile soil, such as is needed for the highest production of corn. A soil of medium fertility which will not cause the plant to make an excessive vegetative growth, and thus delay its maturity, is best for the production of cotton in the northern and central areas. Here, in the relatively short growing season, the timely maturation of the plant has a very important relation to a successful crop, and FERTILIZERS 221 larger total yields will usually result from soils which are sufficiently fertile to produce a well-matured crop but which are not rich enough to prolong past a normal maturing period the active growth of the plant. In the northern area of the cotton belt it is sometimes better even to balance a deficiency in soil fertility by the addition of com- mercial fertilizer than to choose a rich, moist bottom-land which will produce a heavy vegetative growth at the expense of a matured fruitage. In the southern area,, however, the most fertile soils are prefer- able, for here the growing season is of a sufficient length to allow the maturation of a larger proportion of the fruit than is usually pos- sible in the shorter season of the more northerly area. With the advantage of a longer growing season, during which most of the fruit set by the plant is matured, the total yield is somewhat pro- portional to the degree of soil fertility. Soils for Sea Island Cotton. The Sea Island cotton, unlike the upland variety, is not adapted to widely different soils. It is best suited by light, fine, sandy soils, which contain but small propor- tions of clay and silt. Soils of this character retain little moisture, and in that respect they are quite different from the best type of soils adapted to the upland cotton. In respect to its need of soil fertility, however, Sea Island cotton is like the upland variety. It is best adapted to soils of medium fertility which tend to produce a well-matured crop rather than to stimulate an extremely large vegetative growth. Fertilizers. The enormous increase since 1865 in .the produc- tion of cotton in the United States is due chiefly to the use of com- mercial fertilizers. With the aid of fertilizers a large area of de- pleted soils in the cotton belt has been returned to a state of profitable productiveness. Effect of Fertilizers. When used for the production of cotton, the effect of fertilizers is twofold (1) they increase the growth of the plant, and (2) they stimulate the plant to an early ma- turity. By the influence of fertilizers in shortening the period of active growth of the plant, the northern limit of the area in which cotton 222 COTTON CULTURE is profitably cultivated has been considerably extended. It is in the northern section of the cotton belt that the use of fertilizers is relatively greatest. Need of Fertilizer for the Cotton Plant. The cotton plant makes only a slight draft on the fertility of the soil. It is a delicate feeder, being in this respect much like wheat. The production of a bale of cotton weighing 500 pounds removes from the soil only about as much plant food as is contained in the grain alone of a 40 bushel crop of corn or of a 60 bushel crop of oats. Accordingly, a given amount of plant food, when transmuted into cotton, produces a crop twice or three times as valuable as when transmuted into corn or oats. But while the cotton plant uses only a small amount of plant food, it requires this in a readily available form. It has not an extensive and vigorous root system like that of corn or of oats, and hence it has not like these plants the power to draw heavily from the soil. A part of its food must, therefore, be artificially supplied in an easily soluble form. The Use of Commercial Fertilizers. The cotton plant responds promptly to fertilization and, except on extremely poor sandy soils or very rich bottom lands, a judicious use of commercial fertilizer is usually profitable. Indeed, on upland soils of average fertility a crop of cotton grown without the aid of fertilizer, received either as a direct application or as a residue from an application to some other crop, will not usually give a profitable return for the time and money expended in its production. Previous Treatment of the Land. As with most other crops, the profit resulting from the fertilization of cotton is increased if the soil has previously been brought to a good condition of tilth and con- tains a store of organic matter left by the growth of leguminous or other green manuring plants. Phosphoric Add. Extensive investigations by southern Ex- periment Stations have shown conclusively that phosphoric acid in some form should be used liberally in the production of cotton. It causes a larger increase in yield and it returns a greater profit from the money invested than any other element of plant food. An FERTILIZERS 223 application of phosphoric acid is generally more profitable when the material is ill a readily available form, hence as a cotton fertilizer acid phosphate is preferable to the less soluble rock phosphate, or the Thomas phosphate, although the availability of the latter ma- terials is increased by mixing or composting them with rotting organic matter., such as stable manure. Nitrogen. Although nitrogen usually causes an increase in the yield of cotton, it is the most expensive element of commercial fer- tilizer and its use is not always profitable. Nitrogenous fertilizers must therefore be used judiciously or their actual cost may not be returned in the increased yield which they produce. Generally speaking, the soils to which nitrogen is applied with profit are those of a medium natural fertility. An application of nitrogen to ex- tremely poor sandy soils is wasteful, for the reason that fertilizer alone is not sufficient to raise the productivity of such soils to a profitable standard. On the other hand, the rich bottom-lands are so fertile that nitrogen is not needed, and its addition will usually not result in a profitable increase of the crop. Sources of Nitrogen. The organic forms of nitrogen, such as dried blood and cottonseed meal, supply nitrogen more cheaply than do the inorganic forms nitrate of soda and ammonium sulfate. But by far the most inexpensive and profitable source of nitrogen for the cotton crop is the organic matter added to the soil by the growth of leguminous crops cow peas, soy beans, velvet beans, clovers, and vetches. Indeed, the only rational system of cotton farming is one which includes the frequent production of a leguminous crop in its scheme of crop rotation, for this system not only adds in an inexpensive form nitrogen to the soil, but it also tends to conserve the soil's natural store of nitrogen. Potash. The southern soils are well supplied with potash and the cotton crop requires but small additional amounts of this ele- ment. Potash is profitable only when combined with nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and then only in small amounts. It has at times been found useful in counteracting or preventing black rust, a disease of cotton. Sources of Potash. The commercial fertilizers used as sources 224 COTTON CULTURE of potash are kainit, muriate and sulfate of potash. Muriate of potash will usually furnish the potash element more cheaply than it can be purchased in either sulfate of potash or kainit. Lime. Lime, when used alone, has little or no effect on the growth of cotton, unless the soil is in a very poor physical condition and has a specific need for this material. However, when it is applied with a complete fertilizer the action of lime in rendering more available the other constituents may at times make profitable its use. Combination of Fertilizers. The cotton plant requires a bal- anced food. Hence the fertilizing elements are more efficient when combined in a complete fertilizer ; that is, one containing balanced proportions of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. Of these elements, phosphoric acid is the most important and controls the effectiveness of the others. Proportions of the Fertilizing Elements. In the total amount of fertilizer the relative proportions which should be used of phos- phoric acid, nitrogen, and potash, vary according to the needs of the soil. However, the usual proportions of these elements, in a com- plete fertilizer for cotton, are approximately, phosphoric acid %y 2 , nitrogen 1, potash y 2 . Amount of Fertilizer. The amount of fertilizer which may profitably be applied to cotton depends chiefly upon the character and previous treatment of the soil, and to some extent upon the season. On soils of an average fertility, 400 to 600 pounds of a complete fertilizer is usually the most profitable amount, but to include soils of all classes the limits of the application may at times range from 200 to 1000 pounds. Method of Applying Fertilizer. The general results of experi- ments in the methods of applying fertilizers to cotton show clearly that drilling is far more efficient than broadcasting, especially if small amounts of fertilizer are used. Fertilizers are drilled either by hand, using for the purpose a long funnel or "guano horn," or by a fertilizer distributor, which drills and covers the material in a single operation. They are usually distributed at a depth of 3 to 4 inches below the surface of the soil. TIME OF PLOWING 225 Time of Applying Fertilizer. The usual time of application is at planting, although for light, sandy soils, from which the fertilizer may partly leach during heavy, protracted rains, a portion may be reserved for a second application at about the time the plant begins to set its fruit. The Culture of Cotton. The cultural methods for cotton, like those for any crop, are based on the fundamental principles of adaptation and conservation. In so far as the methods of culture can modify the soil, they must be aimed to adapt it to the needs of the plant ; the soil must be so managed as to fulfil the cultural requirements of the particular crop to be grown. At the same time the welfare of the soil itself must not be neglected. Soil management in the culture of any crop must include the principle of conserving the natural resources of the land and of leaving it in a good physical condition for the growth of succeeding crops. Disposal of Old Stalks. If cotton has been the preceding crop, and has made a rank, heavy growth, the first step in the preparation of the field is in so disposing of the old stalks that they may be plowed into the soil. They may be cut down by a specially designed stalk-cutter, a triangular frame which has cutting edges on two sides and is drawn between the rows of stalks ; or they may be broken or flattened by dragging across them with a heavy drag, or by beating them with sticks. This may be done at any time during the winter months. Cotton stalks should never be burned or otherwise removed from the soil, unless as a means of checking the spread of insects or dis- eases. They soon decay and add to the soil much valuable organic matter, which is a principal element of soil fertility. Time of Plowing. Land for the growth of cotton is usually plowed in February or in March, depending upon its climatic loca- tion. Within the limits of the season, the time of plowing is regu- lated somewhat by a consideration for the growth of the cover crop, if such be on the land, and by the amount of water in the soil. A properly drained soil can be plowed much earlier than one 226 COTTON CULTURE which retains a considerable amount of free water from the rains of winter. Method of Plowing. The best method of preparing the soil for cotton is first to plow or break the land level ; that is, to turn all the farrow slices in the same direction. Although it is a common custom in many sections to at once ridge or bed the land for planting by throwing together for each ridge usually four furrow-slices, a much better condition of the soil is reached if this operation is sub- sequent to that of a thorough level plowing. The efficiency of the first plowing is much increased if the furrow- slices are cut narrow and even and are thrown well together. Depth of Plowing. The depth to which cotton lands should be plowed depends somewhat upon the character of the soil and the amount of vegetable matter which is to be turned under. Heavy clay or bottom-land soils should be broken to a depth of at least 8 inches. If the soil is very stiff and in poor physical condition., plow- ing to a depth of 10 inches will insure a better preparation. On sandy and loamy soils a more shallow plowing of 6 or 8 inches in depth is usually sufficient. These types of soils are usually in a better plrysical condition and are more readily brought to a state of good tilth than are soils of a marked clayey or silty character. The depth of the soil regulates to a considerable extent the quan- tity of moisture which will be retained after a season of rains. It is therefore of great importance that the land be deeply and thor- oughly broken by the preparatory process. Disking and Harrowing.. It is often best after plowing to thoroughly disk and to harrow the land, thereby cutting and break- ing the larger clods left by the plow. The heavier clay soils may require both of these additional treatments before they are in a satisfactory condition, but for the sandy and loamy soils the single process of harrowing is usually sufficient. Importance of Thorough Preparation. A land well plowed is the foundation for a good crop of cotton. The surface vegetable matter is more thoroughly incorporated with the soil, and its decay and consequently its addition to soil fertility is therebv hastened ; the soil is made mellow and fit for planting; the moisture retentiveness LEVEL CULTURE VS. RIDGE CULTURE 227 of the soil is increased ; and, finally, by thoroughly breaking and pul- verizing the soil in its early preparation, all subsequent tillage of the cotton crop is made easier. Planting on Ridges or Beds. It is the custom in most cotton- growing sections to plant the cotton crop on ridges or beds, which are usually three to four feet wide and several inches high. Each ridge is formed by throwing together four to six furrow-slices, the first two forming the " list " and the succeeding furrows completing the ridge or bed. If commercial fertilizer is to be used, a furrow is first run to contain the fertilizer over which the ridge is later formed. Planting may be done on the list formed by the first two furrows, thus leaving on each side an unplowed strip or middle later to be thrown or ft bursted " toward the list ; or the ridge may be completed at the first operation, thus leaving a clean middle. Planting Level. A more simple method of planting is one which omits ridging and places the seed in furrows which are run level with the adjacent surface by a single trip of a shallow plow of either the mould-board or bull-tongue type. Level Culture vs. Ridge Culture. The chief advantages and disadvantages of the level furrow and ridge methods of culture may briefly be summarized: Ridge culture. Advantages : (1) On wet lands, ridges provide somewhat a system of drainage. (2) On lands subject to washings, ridges, if run cross- wise to the slope of the land, check the removal of soil. Disadvantages : (1) Ridges cause a greater evaporation of soil moisture than do the level furrows, since they expose a larger surface. (2) They require more labor in their formation than do level furrows. (3) They are less convenient than level furrows to cultivate. Although in most sections of the cotton belt the ridge-culture 228 COTTON CULTURE method is the one most commonly used, the level-furrow method is rapidly growing in favor. Date of Planting. In order to insure the longest possible growing period for the crop, cotton should be planted as early as the climatic restrictions of the locality will permit. The general rule is to begin planting within two or three weeks after the average date of the last killing frost. The following table by Shepperson gives the approximate dates when cotton planting begins and ends in the southern States: Usual date to begin Usual date to finish States planting planting North Carolina April 15 May 10 South Carolina April 15 May 7 Georgia April 10 May 1 Florida April 1 May 1 Alabama April 5 May 10 Mississippi April 5 May 10 Louisiana April 1 May 10 Texas March 15 May 10 Arkansas April 15 May 15 Tennessee April 15 May 15 The Process of Planting. Cotton planting on a large or even a moderate scale is done by a specially designed implement, the cotton- planter, which opens the furrow, drops and covers the seed, all at one trip. The ordinary planter seeds but a single row at once, but there are other types which seed two rows, and still others, which having an attachment for drilling fertilizers, perform at one operation the processes of fertilizing and seeding. Quantity bf Seed. Cotton is usually planted at the rate of 4 to 8 pecks of seed per acre, but of this amount only a relatively small number actually develop into mature plants. If each cotton seed of a bushel containing approximately 140,000 seeds were to become a mature plant, there would be a sufficient number of plants to pro- vide a stand for 15 or 16 acres. However, in order to secure a good stand of the crop it is necessary to plant an excessive amount of seed. Many of the seeds fail to germinate and a large number of those which actually germinate do not survive, although there is still left for the thinning process a far greater number of vigorous young plants than are needed for a stand. Thinning or Chopping. The crop is thinned or " chopped " to CULTIVATION 229 the desired stand when the plants are three to four weeks old, or just after the third or fourth leaf has appeared. The thinning is done with hand-hoes, cutting away the superfluous plants and at the same time clearing the rows of grass and weeds. Spacing of the Plants. Cotton rows are spaced at from 3 to 5 feet, and in the row the plants are usually left 12 to 20 inches apart. In thinning the plants to a stand it is best to leave at least two plants in each hill in order to provide against further loss. The area provided for the growth of each plant is regulated ac- cording to the fertility of the soil and the type of the plant. Cotton, unlike corn, is crowded on poor land and spaced farther apart on rich land. The reason for this is that cotton is a wide-branching plant and on rich land requires much space for the lateral growth of its branches. By reason of their shorter branches the cluster types of cotton require less space in which to fully develop than do the wider branching types. Cultivation. The cotton plant is the least vigorous of all the important field plants and throughout its active growing period the cleanest and most careful cultivation is necessary to insure a suc- cessful crop. From the appearance of the third or fourth leaf to the formation of the bolls, the crop should frequently be cultivated. Principles of Cultivation. The main underlying principle in cultivating cotton is the removal of competitive plants, and hence the destruction of grass and weeds is the chief purpose of each tillage operation. While by cultivation it is important also to conserve the soil moisture and to cause a fine mechanical separation of the soil particles, these desirable conditions are incidentally fulfilled by thorough cultivation throughout the season for the destruction of grass and weeds. Methods of Cultivation. There is no fixed method of cultivating cotton. It varies according to the method of planting and to some extent upon the character of the soil. A cotton crop planted on ridges is cultivated somewhat differently from one planted in level furrows. Ridge-culture requires a greater use of shallow turn- plows and scrapes, or " sweeps," the latter implement being par- ticularly effective on light soils. However, under both methods of 230 COTTON CULTURE planting most of the cultivating is usually done with the ordinary frame cultivator, such as is used for cultivating corn and other crops. There is also often required throughout the season consider- able weeding with hand-hoes, but the necessity for this is greatly lessened by the timely use of horse-implements. Frequency of Cultivation. The number of cultivations required to keep the crop clean throughout its growing period depends upon the character of the season and of the soil, and upon the timeliness and thoroughness of each tillage operation. Usually, a cultivation at each 10 day period, or soon after each rain, will be sufficient to FIG. 85. Cultivating the corn field with a weeder before the crop has come up. A similar implement is very useful for the early cultivation of cotton. keep the crop free of grass and weeds and to preserve a well-mulched soil surface. However, if the rainfall is excessive, and the land extremely fertile, giving rise to abundant growths of weeds and grass, more frequent cultivation will be necessary. Depth of Cultivation. Usually, the depth of cultivation is 1 or 2 inches, although if a heavy crust is allowed to form a deeper tillage is required to break and mulch the surface. Economy in Cultivation. The most economical method of culti- vating cotton is one which includes the use of the weeder, a light, long-toothed harrow, such as is sometimes used for the cultivation of corn (Fig. 85), and the use of two-row riding cultivators (Fig. 86). HARVESTING 231 When the plants are only a few inches high, the weeder may be run across the rows, breaking the soil to a shallow depth and thereby checking the early growth of grass and weeds. At the same time the soil surface is prevented from baking and cracking, with a consequent loss of moisture by evaporation. One or more cultivations with the weeder before the crop is thinned to a stand will greatly lessen the future growth of grass and weeds, and will therefore reduce the amount of hoe-chopping necessary at the time of thinning. After Courtesy Planet Jr. Company Fio. 86. The use of two-row riding cultivators the most economical method of cultivat- ing large fields of cotton. thinning, the most economical cultivation is by two-row riding culti- vators, if the area of the crop is large enough to justify their use ; otherwise, the use of single-row cultivators or sweeps is more economical (Fig. 87). By the early use of the weeder, and by timely and thorough subsequent tillage with a two-row riding cultivator, the frequency of cultivation and the cost of each operation may be much reduced. Harvesting. From the field to the market the cotton crop passes through three processes picking, ginning, baling. Picking. Cotton picking is the most expensive operation con- 16 232 COTTON CULTURE nected with the production of the crop. It begins late in August or early in September and sometimes extends far into the winter, although the bulk of the crop is usually gathered by the middle of November. The cost of picking varies from 50 to 75 cents per 100 pounds of seed-cotton; this being equivalent to about 1% to 4*4 cents per pound of lint. The amount of seed-cotton which one per- Courtesy Planet Jr. Company Fia. 87. Cotton cultivation with a single-row cultivator which may be equipped with both sweeps and hoes. son can pick in a day varies usually from 100 to 500 pounds, depend- ing on the skill of the laborer and the yield of the plants. Cotton must be gathered by hand, as no mechanical cotton-picker has yet been invented which gives satisfactory practical results. Ginning and Baling. A complete ginning outfit consists of an elevator, usually of the suction type, for removing the seed-cotton from the wagon to the gin, of one or more gins for tearing the lint from the seeds, and of a baling-press where the ginned lint is packed MARKETING THE CROP 233 into bales ana covered with a coarse bagging. The cost of the ginning and baling processes is usually a dollar to a dollar and a half per bale. The bales of lint each usually weigh about 500 pounds. When to be shipped long distances, particularly trans- atlantic shipment, the bales are recompressed into smaller bulk. Marketing the Crop. The largest part of the cotton crop is sold to local buyers, usually storekeepers. However, the larger farmers may at times consign their crop directly to cotton mer- chants in the larger cotton markets. Commercial Grades of Cotton. The selling price of cotton varies within narrow limits according to the grade or quality of the lint. Cotton when sold by farmers is usually graded by the buyer, although in all later transactions between business firms both parties to the sale decide on the quality of the staple. The points observed in grading cotton are the following: (1) Amount of sand and trash. (*) Color of the fibres. (3) Quality of ginning. The points observed in classing cotton are as follows : (4) Percentage of immature fibres. (5) Length and strength of fibres. (6) Dampness of the fibres. On the basis of these points, the relative values of which are somewhat variable in different markets, the nine full grades of American cotton are as follows : (1) Middling fair. (5) Middling. (2) Strict good middling. (6) Strict low middling. (3) Good middling. (7) Low middling. '(4) Strict middling. (8) Strict good ordinary. (9) Good ordinary. This range of grades covers practically all the white cotton grown in an average season. Under the terms of the United States cotton futures Act, each of the above standards is recognized as a full grade. Middling, as the name indicates, is the middle or basic grade, and is the grade upon which the market quotations are based. All grades above middling should bring higher prices, and all below Middling lower prices than that quoted for Middling, the amount above or below 234 COTTON CULTURE varying according to the commercial differences in use where the cotton is marketed. Other names are used to describe the different classes of colored cotton. The grades of white cotton, however, are the foundation of all these other classes. When the cotton is not white its nature or class is customarily indicated by adding to the grade the words "off color," "spotted," "yellow tinged," or "yellow" or "blue stained," as the case may be. In other words, at some markets there may be several classes of the same grade of cotton; e.g., Middling off color, Middling spotted, Middling yellow tinged, or Middling yellow or blue stained. Destination of the Crop. Most of the cotton crop of the United States ultimately reaches the mills of New England, Canada, and Europe. The larger cotton houses in the American trade have direct foreign connections. On the other hand, they have buyers at many of the small towns and railroad stations of their district, and thus the transfer of the crop from the farmer to the foreign market is completed. Although about one-half of the American cotton goods is manufactured in the Carolinas and adjacent States, by far the largest part of the crop is shipped as raw material out of the section in which it is produced. Insect Enemies of Cotton. Among the insects which damage the cotton crop the most important are the Mexican boll-weevil and the boll-worm. Others are the nematode worm, the cutworm, the cowpea pod-weevil, the red spiders, plant lice and caterpillars. The Mexican Boll-weevil (Anthonomus grandis). The boll- weevil is the most destructive of all insects to American cotton. In the southwest portion of the cotton belt, this insect at times reduces the crop by at least 50 per cent. The weevil is small, usually not more than % of an inch in length, and dark brown or black. Its attacks are confined almost entirely to the squares and bolls, which are eaten from without by the mature weevil and from within by the larvaB. Preventive Measures. The most effective practical measures of combating the boll-weevil are the following : (1) Burning the old cotton stalks and other litter which harbor the insects through the winter. (2) Forcing the crop to an early maturity, thus producing a large number of bolls before the weevils can attack. DISEASES OF COTTON 235 (3) Rotating crops, by which means the insect is deprived of its food, since it eats no other widely grown plant but cotton. (4) Fumigating the seed in order to prevent the introduction of the pest at planting. (5) Poisoning by use of calcium arsenate, applied with a dust- gun, when the air is calm and the plants are moist, usually at night. (Details of this method can be secured from the United States Department of Agriculture). The Pink Boll-worm (Pectinophora gossypiella). This dan- gerous insect is a native of India, but apparently does little damage to native cotton. It was apparently introduced into Egypt about 1906 and into Brazil and Mexico about 1911. An infection was discovered in Texas in 1917, but so far has been kept under control. The pink boll-worm is very destructive in Mexico and is considered a very dangerous insect. The Boll-worm (Heliothis obsoleta). The boll-worm is more widely distributed than the boll-weevil, although it is less de- structive. It is a small, blue-green worm, with spots and black stripes on its back. It is hatched from the eggs of a moth. Like the boll-weevil, the boll-worm attacks chiefly the squares and tender young bolls. Preventive Measures. A trap-crop is the most widely used means of checking the attacks of the boll-worm upon cotton. Such a crop is one upon which the moths prefer to deposit their eggs. Their favorite depository is the fresh silks of corn, and hence corn, planted in strips at intervals among the rows of cotton, is the crop generally used as a trap. The corn should be planted late in order that it may be in silk at about the time the cotton plant sets its fruit. The worms may be killed when young by spraying or dusting the plants with arsenical poisons. This is an effective killing method, but its use on an extensive scale is not practicable. Diseases of Cotton. The most serious diseases of cotton are boll-rot (anthracnose) , cotton wilt, or black rot, and cotton rust, or black rust. Others are root-rot, root-knot, angular leaf-spot, leaf-blight, sore shin, and mildew. Boll-rot. This disease appears as grayish or pinkish spots on the immature bolls. Eventually the entire contents of the bolls may be rotted out. Boll-rot is most virulent during wet seasons and at such times it may seriously damage the crop. It makes little progress in dry 236 COTTON CULTURE weather, and therefore an unfavorable condition for its development is created by spacing the plants widely, so that the maximum amount of sunshine will be admitted to the bolls. Certain varieties of cotton are partially resistant to boll-rot and such may be used to advantage in sections where the disease is widely prevalent. The selection of the seed of uninfected plants is also recommended as a means of checking fhe spread of this disease. Cotton Wilt. Cotton wilt comes from the soil. It is a thread- like fungus growth, which enters the plant through the roots and interferes with the upward passage of water to the stems. It may attack the plant at any time after the leafing-out stage, but the height of its virulence is reached after the bolls have formed. The disease is indicated by a sudden wilting of the plants or by their dwarfed appearance. In either case the plants may shed their leaves and die, or may live in an unthrifty condition. Wilt can only be controlled by burning infested plants, and by a rotation of crops through which cotton is kept from the land for three or four years. Cotton Rust. The black rust of cotton is perhaps the most destructive and widely distributed disease of the plant. It is a fungous disease which causes the leaves to become yellow or black- ened and to fall from the branches. The development and maturing of the bolls is thus prevented and the crop is often seriously damaged. On light sandy soils, the use of 80 to 100 pounds of kainit, which may be applied with other fertilizers, has been found a remedy for black rust. Under this treatment the plant retains its foliage until the bolls have matured. LABORATORY EXERCISES ( 1 ) Remove the bracts and petals of a cotton flower and make a draw- ing showing the stamens and stigmas. Why do cotton flowers so readily cross-pollinate ? (2) Compare the bolls of a short-staple variety with those of a long- staple variety. Make an outline drawing of a boll from each variety, showing the difference in their form. Compare the number of bracts with the number of cells, or compartments, in the boll. Are they equal? (3) Straighten from the seed the liber of a short-staple and of a long- staple variety (see Figs. 80 and 81). Compare the length of the two classes of fiber. Pull a few fibers of each class; twist those of each class into a string and note their comparative breaking strength. (4) If microscopes are at hand, observe the three classes of fibers unripe, half-ripe and ripe (see Fig. 82). Note the flattened twisted form of the ripe fibers. Separate a few fibers of each class; twist each lot into a string and compare their breaking strength. What are the desirable qualities of the fiber? QUESTIONS 237 (5) Split a cotton seed and observe its simple structure. What are the general parts of a cotton seed ? (6) Compare, as to the proportion of opened bolls, a plant of an early maturing variety with one of a late maturing variety. Observe, as to structure and outline, the general difference between the two plants. Why is an early maturing variety of cotton especially desirable? The following practices are suggested to accompany this chapter. A part or all of them may be included, according to convenience. (1) Field observations of such cultural operations of the cotton crop as may be in progress. Written descriptions of the operation may be made, with particular reference to the following points: (a) Efficiency of the operation. ( 6 ) Amount of the operation performed by one man and team ( single or double ) in one day. (c) Cost per acre of the operation. (2) A visit to an operating ginnery, by which the students should gather a general knowledge of the ginning and baling processes. A brief report may be made of the operations. (3) Instruction by an expert at one or more special periods in sam- pling and grading cotton. (4) A study of the appearance of plants attacked by the principal diseases mentioned in this chapter. A brief, descriptive report should be given. QUESTIONS 1. How long a period between frosts required by cotton? 2. How is production affected by rainfall? By temperature? 3. Describe the climate of the cotton region. 4. How is the appearance of the cotton plant affected by different soils? 5. Describe the best cotton soils. 6. Compare value of rich soils in north and south portion of the cotton region. 7. Compare soil adaptation of upland and Sea Island cotton. 8. State the effect of fertilizers on cotton. 9. Compare the value of fertilizers on cotton and corn. 10. State the importance of phosphate. What form is preferred? 11. State the effect of nitrogen. Where used to best advantage? 12. How is nitrogen best supplied? 13. How important is potash? 14. How important is lime? 15. In a complete fertilizer what proportion of the elements is recommended? 16. What amount of fertilizer used? How is fertilizer best applied? 17. Describe the preparation of land for cotton as to (1) disposal of old stalks ; ( 2 ) time of plowing ; ( 3 ) method of plowing ; ( 4 ) depth of plowing; (5) disking and harrowing. 18. Compare planting on ridges or beds, and planting on level land. 19. How important is early planting? How is planting usually accom- plished ? 20. What is best amount of seed to use? 21. How should the spacing of cotton plants be regulated on good and poor soils? 22. Describe the best methods of cotton cultivation? 23. How is the weeder used in cotton culture? 24. Describe a ginning outfit. 25. State points in grading cotton, 26. What are the grades? 238 COTTON CULTURE 27. Where is cotton mostly sold abroad? Where in the United States? 28. Describe the cotton boll-weevil and measures of control. 29. Describe the boll-worm and measures of control. 30. Describe the following diseases and measures of control: (1) Boll-rot, (2) cotton wilt, (3) cotton rust. 31. Principal uses of cotton. 32. Name the principal cotton country in last century. At present. 33. How does cotton rank in importance with other crops in the United States ? 34. Name the most important cotton states. 35. Give the early history and origin of cotton. 36. Relate the history of cotton culture in the United States. 37. Was native cotton found in America? 38. W T hat influence did the invention of Whitney and Arkwright have on the development of cotton culture? 39. When did cotton manufacture begin in the United States? 40. Give history of manufacture of cotton after introduction of the power loom. 41. How many species of cotton and where is each grown? 42. What species is grown in the United States? 43. Name the types of upland cotton. 44. Name and describe the principal types of short-staple cotton. 45. Where is Sea Island cotton grown, and how does it differ from upland cotton ? 46. Describe the parts of a cotton plant in the following order: Appear- ance of plant ; branches ; leaves ; flowers ; squares ; bolls. 47. What proportion by weight is fiber? Proportion of fiber to seeds? 48. Describe cotton fiber. 49. How can you distinguish between ripe and unripe cotton fibers? 50. Compare cotton and wool fibers. 51. Name the more important factors in judging the value of cotton. 52. What proportion of seed in lock-cotton ? 53. State composition of seeds. 54. Are seeds smooth or fuzzy? 55. What products are derived from seeds ? 56. How are oil and oil cake made? 57. Name the principal food and fertilizing constituents in cottonseed meal. 58. State value of cottonseed meal for feed ; for fertilizer. 59. What use is made of cottonseed oil and hulls 'i CHAPTER XXVIII FLAX FLAX is one of the oldest cultivated crops, since its value as a fiber plant was discovered very early by mankind. The great use of flaxseed as a source of oil is largely a modern development, while the use of flax fiber has declined since the development of cotton culture. Importance of the Crop. At present most of the world's flax crop (Fig. 88) is grown for oil rather than fiber. Average Production of Flaxseed 1919-1921 Country Flaxseed bushels Flax fiber pounds Argentina 30,800.000 India 15,586,000 United States 10,466,000 Canada 6,508,000 Total 63,360,000 (Excluding Russia) Grand total seed and fiber (1918-1920) . 66,637,000 206,223,000 (Excluding Russia) Russia 1 19,772,000 1,022,484,000 In North America flax culture has largely followed the breaking up of new prairie lands, being especially adapted to grow on new sod lands. The three leading States are : Production in the United States, 1919-1921 State Bushels North Dakota 3,186,000 Minnesota 2,690,000 South Dakota 1,575,000 Montana 888,000 Total 8,339,000 Total United States ... 8,714,000 These States produce about 90 per cent of the United States flax crop (Fig. 89). Flax culture is also developing rapidly in the new territory of Canada. Description. The Latin name of flax is Linum, from which we get our words line, linen, lint, and linseed. Botanists recognize 135 species of plants belonging to the flax family, but only one of these has been brought under cultivation as a farm crop, though several are cultivated as ornamentals. The common flax has bright blue flowers, but there is also, a white flowered sort, sometimes called Dutch flax. Flax is a slender branching plant, eighteen to thirty-six inches high, terminated by numerous "seed balls" (Fig. 90), each normally containing ten seeds. figures are for 1909-1913. 239 DESCRIPTION 241 Flaxseed is very rich in both protein and oil. After the oil is extracted a by-product is left known as oil cake, very rich in protein. Oil cake is highly prized as a rich stock feed. The following table shows an average analysis of flaxseed and oil cake, compared with a starchy grain like wheat : Flaxseed and Linseed Cake Compared with Wheat Flaxseed, Linseed cake, Wheat grain, per cent per cent Water 9.1 10.1 Ash 4.3 5.8 Protein 22.6 33.2 Crude fiber 7.1 9.5 Nitrogen free extract . . . 23.2 38.4 Fat (oil) 33.7 3.0 per cent 10.5 1.8 11.9 1.8 71.9 2.1 Fia. 89. Distribution of flax production (seed) in United States. (From U. S. Census Report, 1910.) The oil is extracted by grinding fine, heating to 160 F. and extracting by pressure (old process), or treating the meal in vats with naphtha (new process). The fiber of flax comes from the stem. The stem is made up of three distinct parts : The outer, called bark ; inside this a woody layer made up of bast fiber, and the inner part or pith. The useful fiber comes from the bast layer. From twelve to fifteen per cent of the flax straw is recovered as pure fiber. 242 FLAX Culture. Flax wili grow well in both dry and humid climates, but in general rather dry climates produce the best seed crops, while best fiber is gi-own in rather cool and humid climates, where condi- tions are favorable for a long growing season. Flax requires rather rich productive soils, especially for fiber production. Flax is least adapted of all the cereal crops to compete with weeds, as it is a slow growing, fine stemmed plant, with fine leaves, and shades the ground very little. This is one reason why it is grown 1 FIG. 90. Flaxseed balls. on newly broken prairie soils, as they are usually quite free from weeds the first year or two. Flax also does relatively better on raw new land than other crops, and its culture in general has followed the breaking up of the prairie lands. On old soils the principal con- sideration in preparing the land for flax is to free the soil from weeds. Flax is sensitive to frost and should be sown when all danger is over. It is generally sown rather late, from the first to middle of June. For seed growing, flax is sown rather thin, or at the rate of QUESTIONS 243 two to three pecks per acre. When sown thin it branches freely, the seed balls being mostly borne at the ends of little terminal branches. For fiber it should be sown so thickly that all branching is pre- vented, producing only long straight stems. From five to ten pecks per acre are sown for fiber. Harvesting. Flax seldom all ripens uniformly and judgment must be used to harvest, when the highest percentage of seed balls are ripe at one time. Flax may be cut with a self-binder, but it is still common practice to leave it unbound in loose gavels. When cured it is threshed directly from the field or stacked. For fiber the flax is pulled by hand for best grade of white fiber, as the cut ends are apt to become discolored. For extracting the fiber the straw is first allowed to rot, by lying in the field for several weeks or actually placing under water. This process is called " ret- ting." The fiber, however, is not affected by the retting, and can be separated by breaking, beating, and combing out the decomposed material. Diseases. The most destructive disease of the flax plant is wilt. This is a parasitic disease attacking the stems, cutting off the natural water supply of the plant and causing it to wilt. The dis- ease is carried over in old stems, seeds, and will also live in the soil for five or six years. Where wilt is prevalent flax should not be grown on the same ground oftener than once in six years. The seed should be carefully fanned to remove diseased seeds, and treated with formalin solution to kill adhering spores. One pound formalin to forty gallons of water is the recommended strength. QUESTIONS 1. What are the principal uses of flax? 2. Where most extensively grown (a) for seed; (&) for fiber? 3. Name the leading States in flax production. 4. Describe a cultivated flax plant. 5. In composition compare with wheat. 6. How is the oil extracted? 7. What is the oil cake used for? 8. Describe structure of a flax stem. 9. What per cent is pure fiber? 10. Give the best conditions for growing seed ; fiber. 11. Why is flax often grown on new prairie land? 12. Compare the culture of flax for seed purposes and when grown for fiber. 13. Describe harvesting flax for seed; for fiber. 14. How is fiber separated? 15. How is flax wilt controlled? CHAPTER XXIX SORGHUMS SORGHUM,, like the corn plant, is of tropical origin, its original home apparently being central or northern Africa. There is also some evidence that some types may also have had an independent origin in India. From these tropical regions its culture has spread into temperate zones, until we find it cultivated extensively in Man- churia in a latitude of 40 north and in the south temperate zone in the very southern part of Africa. Where Sorghums Are Produced, We have very little pub- lished data on sorghum as a world crop, but it is known to be ex- tensively cultivated through all North Africa, where it probably ranks as the leading grain 'crop. It is also grown extensively as a grain crop in South Africa. In India sorghum is also a very im- portant grain crop, and is stated by some authors as the principal grain food of the poor. Sorghum probably ranks next to rice as a grain crop in India. Jt is cultivated to some extent throughout China, and in certain parts of North China and Manchuria is a.n important grain crop. Its culture is not important in Europe. In the United States sorghum is grown for syrup making, as a forage plant, and as a grain crop. It will be noted that in Africa and Asia sorghum is grown principally as a grain crop. As a syrup crop sorghum is grown largely in the East Central States, or rather the belt of States from Missouri to North Carolina and south of the Ohio River. Tennessee is the leading State in syrup production. As a grain and forage crop sorghum is grown principally in the belt of States lying east of the Rocky Mountains, and from the Nebraska-Dakota line south through Texas. As a grain crop sorghum is grown principally in the western part of these States, while it is grown for forage through the whole area. Broom corn is also a sorghum. About two-thirds of the broom corn is grown in Illinois, and about all the rest in Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. 244 CLASSIFICATION OF SORGHUMS 245 The Acreage. The acreage, as nearly as can be estimated from the Census of 1909 and 1919 is as follows: Acreage of Sorghums 1919 1909 Increase per cent Grain sorghums * 5,031,000 1,635,000 207.7 Sorghums for forage (includ- ing both grain and sweet sorghums) 2 4,747,000 1,900,000 3 149.8 Sorghums for syrup 1 487,000 370,000 31.6 Broom corn x 352,000 326,000 7.9 Three-fourths of all the sorghum for grain and forage is grown in the three States of Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, in the order named. The approximate acreage for grain and forage in the three States is as follows : Acreage of Sorghums in Three Leading States State Texas . . . Grain sorghum acreage 1919 1 906 000 Forage sorghum acreage 1919 1 497 000 Oklahoma 1 350 000 1 036 000 Kansas . . 1.194.000 827.000 Classification of Sorghums. Sorghums are generally classed into two groups : 1. Saccharine sorghums or sweet sorghums (Fig. 91). These sorghums all have sweet, juicy stems and are grown for syrup making or for forage. 2. Non-saccharine sorghums (Figs. 92 and 93). This group has a rather dry pith and very little sugar in the juice. These sorghums are sometimes called the grain sorghums, and are some- times divided into three types as follows : (a) Kafir: Heads compact, erect. (&) Durra: Heads compact, pendent. (c) Broom corn type: Heads loose, spreading (Fig. 94). 1 Figures from Department of Agriculture Year-book. 2 Figures from Summary of Agricultural United States census, 1919-20. 3 Estimated from 1909 Census. Separate figures are not given, as sor- ghum is classed with " coarse forage," which class also includes corn fodder. However, statistics from the Kansas State Board of Agriculture show 631,000 acres of sorghum forage out of a total of 653,000 acres of coarse forage. In the five States growing sorghum as coarse forage (Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico) there is about 2,000,000 acres of coarse forage, and estimating 95 per cent to be sorghum gives above figures. 17 246 SORGHUMS Kafir or Kafir Corn. The Kafir corns were introduced into the United States mostly from South Africa, where they have long been FIG. 91 a Head of amber sweet sorghum. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) cultivated. They grow to an average height of five or six feet and have an erect, very compact head. The three principal varieties are DURRA 247 distinguished by the color of seeds, and are known as White, Red, and Biackhull Kafir corns (Fig. 94). Of the three varieties the Blackhull is most popular and the Eed Kafir is next. The White varieties have never been cultivated extensively, as the heads do not always come out of the leaf sheath and are likely to rot. One fault of the Eed Kafir is the astringent taste of the seed-coat, a quality found in all colored sorghum seeds, but not found in white seeds. FIG. 92. FIG. 03. FIG. 92. Plant of Kafir corn. FIG. 93. Non-saccharine sorghums, corn, (3) Brown Durra corn. (1) Milo maize, (2) Blackhull White Kafir Durra. The heads of this group of sorghums are generally bent over or " goosenecked," and the seeds are large and flat. The Durra corns were apparently introduced from North Africa, where they are the prevailing types as the Kafirs are in South Africa. The principal types of Durra are the White (Fig. 94, 5), Brown, and Blackhull; also Yellow Milo or "Milo Maize." Feterita is a type with erect heads, white seeds, and black hulls. Other names for Durras are " Jerusalem corn," and "Egyptian rice corn." Of the above types, Yellow Milo is by far the most popular. 248 SORGHUMS Being earlier it is grown farther north than other Kafirs or Durras. Certain dwarf strains have been developed which are not only very early but, as a grain crop, are easier handled in harvesting. Feterita, a recent introduction, promises to be equal or superior to Milo, and is rapidly gaining in favor. The Durras, as a class, are better grain producers than the Kafirs, but are not so good as forage crops. Broom Corn Group. This group includes rather tall-growing sorghums (six to ten feet) with branching heads (Fig. 95). They * * * * * e FIG. 94. Sorghum seeds: A, Milo; B, White Durra; C, Blackhull Kafir: D, Red Kafir; E, Brown Kowliang; F, Shallu. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) have been introduced from Asia : the Shallu from India and the Kowliang from China and Manchuria. The two above-mentioned varieties are grown as grain sorghums, but their introduction is recent and they have not yet come into extensive cultivation. They are said to be very drought resistant, and the Kowliang is adapted to culture farther north than most grain sorghums. Broom corn, from which brooms are manufactured, is a form of this sorghum, with very long branching heads. Climate for Sorghums. Sorghums, being of tropical origin, flourish in hot, sunshiny climates. One of the most striking char- CLIMATE FOR SORGHUMS" 249 FIG. 95. Broom corn group of sorghuma. (1) broom corn, (2) Kowliang, (3) Shallu. acteristics of sorghums is their great drought resistance and resist- ance to other climatic conditions that generally prevail in semi-arid 250 SORGHUMS regions, as intense sunshine, dry air., and hot winds. Certain varie- ties, especially the sweet sorghums, flourish in regions of heavy rain- fall, but even these are quite drought resistant. The Kafirs and Durras, however, probably reach their best development under only moderate rainfall (ten to twelve inches for the growing season) and are very resistant to dry, hot climates. How Sorghums Resist Drought. Actual test has shown sorghums to require less water than many other crops. This is de- termined by growing plants in large cans and keeping a record of the water used. The water used is generally expressed in the num- ber of pounds required to produce one pound of dry weight. With some of the common crops, the following data have been secured by Briggs and Shantz at Akron, Colorado. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 284.) Water Requirements of Grains Pounds of water to Percentage produce one pound compared Crop of dry weight with wheat Oats 614 122 Barley 539 100 Wheat 507 100 Corn 369 73 Sorghum 306 60 Millet 275 54 While sorghum requires less water than the small grains, it is not very different from corn. Yet sorghum is more drought re- sistant than corn, which leads to the conclusion that it must also have other qualities to consider. It appears to be helped by its ability to remain alive, but without growing, through long periods of drought, apparently without injury, and at once recover and grow rapidly when rains come. If sorghum, at any stage of growth, is subjected to long, severe drought, the outer leaves roll up about the plant, protecting the younger leaves and growing top. It may re- main in this state for weeks, with little or no growth, and quickly recover and continue growth when rains come. On the other hand, corn, if submitted to such a drought, would in a short time be killed or, at least, be severely injured. In fact, it is said that any check to the corn plant during its growth will cause permanent injury. This is generally true of all crops, but sorghums suffer least of all. CULTURAL METHODS 251 Soils for Sorghums. Sorghums do well on any productive soil (Fig. 96). They are also more alkali resistant than the grain crops and are regarded as a crop that can be grown in soils comparatively high in alkali salts. Sorghums are vigorous growers, and often a profitable crop, especially for forage, can be raised on land too ex- hausted for good crops of small grain or corn. Effect of Sorghums on Land. Farmers usually regard sor- ghum as " hard on the land." This is probably due to the thorough search the sorghum roots make for available plant-food, leaving the soil more thoroughly exhausted. However, the total plant-food re- FIG. 96. Field of selected Brown Kowliang. moved is no larger than in the case of an equal tonnage of other crops, and usually the second year after sorghum, no injurious ef- fect is noticed. Cultural Methods. Sorghum is grown for four purposes : (1) grain; (2) forage; (3) syrup; (4) broom brush. For grain, syrup, and broom brush it is always grown in rows about like field corn, except that two to three times as many plants are grown per acre. The rows are about the same distance apart (forty to forty-four inches) as corn, but the plants four to ten inches in the row instead of twelve to twenty inches. 252 SORGHUMS For forage, sorghum is either grown in wide rows, as mentioned, with the plants very thickly in the row, or it is sown broadcast or is drilled thickly with a grain drill. Rate of Seeding. Four to six pounds of seed per acre is suf- ficient to give a good stand in rows forty-two inches apart. Or- dinarily the plants are spaced about four to six inches in the row, but in very dry regions ten inches apart is often preferred. The amount of seed is also regulated by size, as the seeds of the Durra group are about twice the size of sweet sorghum or broom corn. Time of Seeding. Sorghum is more tender than corn and is usually planted after corn-planting. Planting is often deferred, however, until quite late, just so it has time to mature before frost. However, in the southern States an insect known as the sorghum midge attacks late-sown sorghum, destroying the seed, and very early planting is desirable whenever the midge is present. Planting and Cultivation. The same tools are used in planting and cultivating as for corn. Special plates for sorghum seed are used in the planter. In cultivation, more care is required the first time over as the plants are small and slow in growth for the first few weeks. Harvesting Grain Sorghums. Grain sorghums are harvested in three ways: (1) with the corn binder; (2) when dwarf varieties are grown, the grain binder may be used ; (3) the heads may be cut off by hand. In the latter case the heads from several rows may be thrown together on the ground to cure, or a wagon may be driven alongside and the heads thrown as cut directly into the wagon- box. When the heads are well cured the sorghum is threshed in an ordinary grain thresher. Yield of Grain Sorghums.' The average yield of grain sorghums varies from twelve to twenty bushels per acre. Forty bushels per acre is considered a good crop, while crops of seventy bushels are occasionally reported. As compared with Indian corn, grain sorghum will not yield as well in regions having twenty-five to thirty inches annual rainfall, but in drier regions grain sorghum will make a fair crop when corn is a complete failure. The region of grain sorghum culture there- fore lies just outside of the corn belt. SORGHUM FOR SYRUP 253 Feeding Value of Grain Sorghums. Kafir and Milo grain are somewhat more starchy than other cereals, and require more protein feed to balance them. Also they have a higher per cent of hull and are a little less digestible. Ordinarily for stock feed it is estimated that 100 pounds of sorghum grain equals about 80 to 90 pounds of corn. For poultry feed, however, sorghum grain is considered superior to corn, and is often used in large proportion in poultry feeds. Owing to the heavy hull, sorghum seeoT should be ground for live stock, but may be fed whole to poultry. Sorghum for Forage. For forage the sweet sorghums are pre- ferred. The stems contain considerable sugar and cattle will usually eat the stems as well as the leaves. The stems of grain sorghum are not only more pithy and tougher, but the plant is less leafy. How- ever, grain sorghums are used extensively as fodder, when the heavier grain crop is considered to offset the less valuable fodder. For forage, the sorghum is either ( 1 ) sown thickly in rows three to four feet apart and cut with the corn binder or (2) sown broad- cast by hand or with the grain drill, to be cut with a mower and cured as hay. Rate of Sowing. Sorghum is sown broadcast at the rate of one to three bushels per acre. It should be sown thick enough to keep the stems down to small size. On poor soils or in. dry regions the thinner seeding is practised, while on rich soils in humid regions two to three bushels per acre are sown. Sorghum for Soiling. There is no crop better for cutting green for feeding live stock. It is good feed from the time it is four feet high until frost comes. A second crop immediately sprouts up from the stubble, thus giving two crops in the South. Sorghum also makes excellent silage. Sorghum for Syrup. Sweet sorghum was first grown in America for syrup making. It was introduced from France about 1853 under the name " Chinese sorgo," but the variety was what we now know as Amber sorghum. For syrup, sorghum is grown in rows. When the seed is in the dough stage the leaves are stripped off. The canes are then topped and cut. The juice is extracted on roller presses, clarified and evaporated. Sorghum varies greatly in quality, but usually a ton 254 SORGHUMS of canes will yield from ten to thirty gallons of syrup. Three tons of canes per acre is a fair yield. Broom Corn Culture. Broom corn grows eight to ten feet tall, has a dry pithy stem, and very long branching heads of " brush.' 7 It has been cultivated in Europe for at least 300 years, and in America since 1800. Where Cultivated. Oklahoma produces about two-thirds of the broom-corn crop, and the rest is grown principally in Missouri, Kansas, and Illinois. Varieties. There are two general types: (1) standard, growing ten to twelve feet high, with a brush eighteen to twenty-four inches long; (2) dwarf broom corn, growing four to six feet high, with a brush twelve to eighteen inches long. Culture. Any good corn land will grow broom corn, but it is considered important to have the land quite uniform in order to produce a crop that will ripen at the same time and will be of uniform quality. It is grown in rows three to three and one-half feet apart, with the plants two to three inches apart in the row. When just past full bloom, the heads are harvested and cured. Considerable skill is required in harvesting and curing to secure a good quality. QUESTIONS 1. Where did sorghum originate? 2. How important a crop is sorghum in the Old World? 3. What are the principal uses for the sorghum crop? 4. Where in the United States is it grown for syrup; grain forage; broom corn? 5. Give the relative importance of these crops. 6. Name the principal groups and types of sorghum. 7. Distinguish between Kafir and Durra. 8. What is the principal use of the saccharine sorghums? The non- saccharine sorghums? 9. Define the climatic requirements of sorghum. 10. What explanations for the great drought resistance of sorghums? 11. Discuss the range of soil conditions that will grow sorghum. 12. Is sorghum " hard on land"? 13. Describe the method of growing sorghums in rows. 14. How are grain sorghums harvested? 15. Give the yield of grain sorghums compared with corn. 16. Define the feeding value of sorghum grain. 17. What kind of sorghum is preferred for forage? 18. Describe method of culture. 19. How much syrup can be made from an acre of sorghum? 20. Describe the culture of broom corn. CHAPTER XXX IRISH POTATOES As human food in the world, wheat undoubtedly ranks first, but potatoes probably rank second. In Europe among the poorer classes they rank first. This is due to their easy and cheap production and nutritious property. Where Potatoes Are Grown. The relative ranking of potatoes and other crops in the world and the United States for the years 1910-1915 is shown by the following tables: World's crops in millions of tons, Relative value of crops in United States in 1910-1915 millions of dollars, 1910-1915 Potatoes 161 Corn 1,601 Wheat 113 Hay 829 Corn 109 Cotton 728 Oats 68 Wheat 682 Rice 54 Oats 462 Rye 48 Potatoes 215 Barley 35 Barley 112 Tobacco 102 Over ninety per cent of the world's potato crop is grown in Europe (Fig. 97), where they are the chief food of poor people, and are also used for stock feed, and in the arts. Yield of Potatoes ly Continents (1909-1913) Continent Millions of bushels Per cent of crop Europe 4,905.4 89.6 North America 437.5 8.0 Asia 57.9 1.1 South America 48.2 .9 Australasia 20.1 .3 Africa 5.1 .1 Total 5,474.2 100.0 Germany and Russia produce more than one-half the world's potato crop. The production and yield per acre of principal coun- tries are as follows : Production and Yield Per Acre of Principal Countries Millions of bushels, Average yield per acre Country 1909-1913 1910-1915 Germany 1,682 205.7 Russia 863 107.9 France 489 116.3 United States 357 97.6 United Kingdom 254 222.8 265 THE POTATO TUBER 257 In the United States, New York has led in potato production for the past quarter century (Fig. 98). The leading States and yield per acre are as follows : Leading States and Yield Per Acre ^Production in millions Yield per acre, State of bushels, 1919-1921 1919-1921 New York 36.1 112 Michigan 30.1 92 Minnesota 29.3 87 Maine 28.1 232 Wisconsin 27.7 90 Pennsylvania 24.4 100 In the last few years Michigan, Wisconsin, Maine, and Minnesota have been rapidly gaining in production and are now all close rivals of New York. Origin and History of Potatoes. Several wild varieties of potatoes are found growing throughout the Andes Mountains in South America, and continuing northward through the mountains of Mexico and into southwest Colorado. South American natives have apparently cultivated the potato for many hundreds of years. Early explorers took potatoes back to Europe, but they did not become an important food plant there until about the year 1750. Its extensive culture developed first in Ireland, from which it got the name " Irish Potato," where it was introduced about 1584, probably from seed sent back by Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition to America. Description of the Plant. Potatoes are closely related botani- cally to several other important plants, as tobacco, the tomato, and egg-plant. Wild potatoes bear only small tubers of poor quality, but these have been improved by selection and cultivation. Potato Seeds. While potatoes frequently blossom under culti- vation, they seldom bear seeds. This appears to be due to the pollen having lost its ability to fertilize under cultivation. The seed balls are borne on the tips of vines and resemble small green tomatoes, each containing about 300 seeds (Fig. 99). If the seeds are planted, they produce small tuber-bearing plants. If the tubers are planted, a second year a plant of normal size is grown. While most of the varieties grown from seed are of little value, yet occasionally varieties of great value are originated in this way. The Potato Tuber. The potato tuber is not a root, but corre* COLOR OF SKIN 259 spends to an underground branch of the stem that has become thickened (Fig. 100). The eyes of the potato correspond to latent buds on the stem, while the inner portion corresponds to the structural parts of the stem. The sweet potato differs from the Irish potato in being an enlarged root, not a stem. Classification of Potatoes. At least 400 to 500 varieties of potatoes are known in America, while the total in the world is of course much larger. New varie- ties are each year put on the market. However, many varie- ties are so similar that for all practical purposes there is no difference, and in many cases old established varieties have simply been given new names. The classification of Ameri- can potatoes has been studied by Mr. William Stuart, of the United States Department of Agriculture. He divides them into eleven natural groups which can be fairly easily distinguished. The principal features he uses in FIG. 99. Drawing in diagram of potato Classifying are the Shape and flower, and mature seed balls (flower enlarged). * t They are almost identical with the flowers Color of tuber the Color Of anf ^ fruits of the tomato, showing the close relation of the two plants. sprouts, and color of flowers. Shape of Tuber. Many descriptive terms are necessary to de- scribe potato tubers, as they are so variable. Round, oblong, and long refer to relative length. Any of the types may be flattened or round. Flat types are also described as broad or narrow. Spindle shape refers to tubers tapering at one end, as contrasted with uniform. Color of Skin. Color of tuber is described as white, cream- white, flesh color, pink, rose, red and bluish, mottled, and russet brown. 260 IRISH POTATOES The skin may also be smooth, marked with russet dots, or russet. There are also degrees of smoothness, some varieties being glistening smooth, while others are dull. The degree of russeting also varies. Sprouts. The color of sprouts is very important in determining the main groups of varieties. The color is determined by germinat- ing the potatoes in the dark, and as soon as the sprouts appear, FIG. 100. Illustration of a potato plant showing relation of the above-ground stem and underground stem. The end of the underground stem is enlarged into a tuber. The eyes correspond to buds, and are arranged in a spiral about the tuber. Below is a peach twig to illustrate farther the relation of tuber and a stem. examining for color, usually with a magnifying glass. The sprout is tipped with minute scales or leaflets, which may be either colored or white. Also base of sprouts may be either colored or white. The usual colors are white, cream white, pink, rose, rose-lilac, magenta, lilac, violet, deep violet. Flowers. Colors are white, rose, rote-lilac, rose-purple, purple and violet. THE PRINCIPAL GROUPS The Principal Groups. Stuart * divides potatoes into the fol- lowing principal groups : 1. Cobbler: Roundish; creamy white (Fig. 101). 2. Triumph : Roundish ; creamy white to red. 3. Early Michigan : Oblong or long-flattened ; white or creamy white. 4. Rose: Roundish, elongated-flattened or spindle-shape; flesh- colored or pink (Fig. 103). Fio. 101. 102, Fio. 101. Variety, Irish cobbler, representing the early, round, white-skinned type. FIG. 102. Rural New Yorker, representing the oval-flattened type, of white-skinned potatoes with blue sprouts. Above specimen is ideal market shape (K natural size) . 5. Early Ohio: Round, oblong or ovoid; flesh-colored to light pink, with russet dots. 6. Hebron: Elongated, sometimes flattened; creamy white, often mottled with pink. 7. Burbank: Long; white, or creamy; also both smooth and russet varieties. 8. Green Mountain : Oblong, broad, flattened ; dull creamy or light russet. 1 Stuart, William: United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 176. 18 262 IRISH POTATOES 9. Rural: Round-flattened to short oblong; creamy white or deep russet (Fig. 102). 10. Pearl: Round-flattened; dull white, russet or bluish. 11. Peachblow: Round or round-flattened; creamy white splashed with pink, or pink. The first six groups are largely early varieties, while the last five groups are mostly late varieties. Importance of the Groups. The Rose group probably contains the largest number of varieties, and is one of the oldest (Fig. 103). They are not, however, cultivated so extensively as several other FIQ. 103. Early Rose, representing the Rose group of long, pink or red-skinned potatoes with rather deep eyes. groups. They are mostly very early and pink colored, and are popular in the South Atlantic region where this type is grown, to ship as " new potatoes " for the northern market. In the Northeastern States, Irish Cobbler (Fig. 101) is the most important early potato along the Atlantic Coast, where most of the early crop is grown. They are very productive for early potatoes. For early garden crop the Triumph group of varieties are preferred as to quality, but are less productive. For late or main crop the Rural group leads (Fig. 102), with the Green Mountain type as second. In general the Green Mountain group requires a cooler summer, and sandier soil than the Rural MARKET TYPES 263 group of potatoes, and is therefore grown toward the North, at higher elevations and along the Atlantic Coast, while Rurals are grown on the heavier clay lands and at lower elevations, as Western New York. In Southeastern States. Here early varieties are most ex- tensively grown for Northern markets. For shipping green, the col- ored potatoes are usually preferred to white, and here varieties of the Rose group are extensively used, also both Triumph and Cobbler. North Central States. In the northern part of this region, the FIG. 104. Russet Burbank, representing the medium long types of the Burbank group. Most Burbanks have a smooth skin, but this is a russet type (34 natural siz) . Rural and Burbank (Fig. 104) groups both give good results, but through the corn belt, early Ohio type is most important, though many varieties are grown to some extent. Western States. In Colorado the Rural, Pearl, and Burbanks are the principal groups, while the same three groups are also most important in the inter-mountain basin and on the Pacific Coast, though locally, one variety or another usually leads. Market Types. It will be noted that the principal commercial potatoes are either roundish, as in the Irish Cobbler, or oval-flattened, as Rural or Green Mountain ; oblong, as in Rose group, or long, as 264 IRISH POTATOES in the Burbank group. The general market preference now is for the oval-flat, Rural type, and medium in size. Depth of and Number of Eyes. This is also important, as deep eyes cause waste in peeling and injure the appearance. Both Green Mountain and Rurals have few eyes, and very shallow, which is one reason for their great popularity as market potatoes. Color of skin adds more to appearance than quality. White or cream-white is preferred. For shipping green, the red or pink col- ored potatoes show the effects of bruising less, and are often grown in the South wher^ " green " potatoes are shipped a long distance. Structure and Composition. The potato tuber may be di- vided into four principal parts (Fig. 105), namely: Skin 2.5 per cent Cortical layer 8.5 per cent Outer medullary ) g t Inner medullary \ The cortical layer and the outer medullary are both rich in starch and constitute 80 to 90 per cent of the potato. The inner medul- lary, sometimes called the core, is quite watery, and spreads irregu- larly from the center. It is generally considered a mark of poor quality if the inner medullary is large and conspicuous. In composition potatoes contain from 75 to 80 per cent of water, from 16 to 20 per cent starch, 2 to 3 per cent of protein and 1 per cent ash and a trace of fat and fiber. The dry matter of potatoes is very similar in composition to the dry matter of wheat. In peeling potatoes, from 10 to 30 per cent is removed in the peeling, depending on the size of the potato and depth of the eyes. The loss is least with large, smooth potatoes. CLIMATE AND SOILS FOR POTATOES Climate. Potatoes require a moist and cool climate. Climate is probably a much greater factor in potato production than soils, as they appear to grow well on any productive soils in a favorable climate. It is well known that the cold summer climate of Scotland is almost ideal for potatoes. Crops of 300 to 500 bushels per acre are C ortical Medullary -"Pvth E^eCbud) SKin Cortica.1 -- -Medullary G eduU&ryC FIQ. 105. Illustration showing the internal structure of a potato tuber, and relation to structure of a stem. Note that the inner medullary, corresponding to the pith in a stem, is connected with the eyes of the tuber. The outer portion is riches tin starch and the inner portion poorest in starch. 266 IRISH POTATOES easily grown in Scotland. The warmer climate of England is less favorable. In Europe great potato crops are grown in the cool summers of North Germany, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia, while the pro- duction is much less in South Europe or the hot summer climates of the interior of Hungaria or Russia. In the United States the most favorable summer climate is found in the northern tier of States, especially Maine, which is noted for its large acre yield. High elevation has the same effect as northern climate, and we find ideal summer climate in Colorado, and north through the Rocky Mountains, and in the northwestern Pacific States. Farther south or in regions with hot, dry summers, it is necessary to handle the crop so as to avoid the summer heat. This is accomplished in the South by planting in midwinter, so the crop is made before dry summer heat. Sometimes they are also planted in midsummer, but make their principal growth in the cooler weather of fall. Degeneration. It has long been known that potatoes continu- ously grown in regions of hot summers will rapidly degenerate and become unproductive. In the South they find it necessary to buy seed potatoes from the North every year. Maine has long been a great seed-growing center, because of the favorable climate. Also New York State, Michigan, Wisconsin, and the Red River Valley produce good quality of seed. Good seed is also produced at high elevations farther south. At the Nebraska Experiment Station 2 a very interesting experi- ment was tried. By mulching the potato ground with six inches of straw it was possible to not only keep the soil moist, but several de- grees cooler than under ordinary culture. Above the straw, however, the tops were exposed to even greater heat than ordinary. It was found that the potatoes grown under straw retained their productive- ness for years, while the same potatoes under ordinary culture rapidly degenerated. Even degenerate potatoes could be restored to strong vitality and productiveness by growing under straw for one year. This experiment is believed to demonstrate the im- portance of a cool, moist soil for growing seed potatoes. 1 Annual Report, 1912. KINDS OF FERTILIZER USED 267 Soils for Potatoes. While potatoes are often grown successfully on heavy soils, it is generally recognized that loose, gravelly or sandy soils are best. Advantages claimed for loose soils are that (1) the crop is easier to plant, cultivate and dig; (2) the potatoes are smoother and of better quality; (3) fertilizer and manure are more effective; (4) potatoes are less affected by diseases; (5) crop is quicker in maturing. New soils are also recognized as excellent, not only because rich in organic matter, but also free from diseases that affect potatoes. A rich clover sod is ideal, and it is generally arranged, where pota- toes are grown in rotation, to put them on the sod land. Manures and Fertilizers. Fertilizer and manure is used in larger quantity on the potato crop than any other farm crop in the eastern States, as they are an intensive crop and give larger returns. In the gravelly potato soils of Maine, and the sandy soils of Long Island and the Atlantic Coast, potatoes are a leading crop, and com- mercial fertilizer is customarily applied at the rate of 1000 to 2000 pounds per acre each year. In general the soils in these districts are low in organic matter, not much barnyard manure is available and it is not the general practice to rotate with clover or grass to restore organic matter. The land is in potatoes at least one-half the time. Farther back from the coast in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and New York, where potatoes are grown on the land only once in 4 or 5 years in rotation with other crops, the use of fertilizer is much less. On most of these farms, farmyard manure is available and it is cus- tomary to apply it on sod land to be broken for potatoes. Many such farms do not use fertilizer or only in light dressings of 300 to 800 pounds applied at time of planting. Surveys show that about one- half the farmers of this region use fertilizers and then seldom above 800 pounds per acre. In the Middle and Western States, fertilizers are used in the more intensive potato growing districts, but most of the crop in these States is still grown on new land or in rotation, where little fertilizer is required. Kinds of Fertilizer Used. As pointed out heretofore in the text, grasses require fertilizers rich in nitrogen to stimulate vegeta- 268 IRISH POTATOES tive growth, grains usually responding best to phosphatic fertilizers, while potatoes, in common with root crops, respond well to potash. In general, potato fertilizers are low in nitrogen and high in phosphate and potash, the relative proportion usually being about 3810 for the different elements. This is a typical fertilizer exten- sively used on the sandy soils of the Atlantic Coast, sandy soils being very deficient in potash. It is generally believed now, however, that the proportion of potash is higher than necessary. In the interior where potatoes are generally grown on heavier soils and in rotation, the standard fertilizer, as above, is generally used in smaller quantity, though experiments indicate that phosphate is most important. Clay soils are usually well supplied with potash which is made available by decaying organic matter. If clover is grown in the rotation or farmyard manure is used for the potato crop, there is not much need of adding nitrogen except to help early spring growth. For such conditions, a fertilizer containing the elements in the proportion of 3-10-6 will probably be about right. However, experimenting is needed on each soil to determine the most profitable fertilizer to use. Lime. Much of the land where potatoes are grown is quite deficient in lime. On such soils lime will frequently give very much increased yields. On the other hand, lime also makes favor- able conditions for certain diseases of the tuber, especially potato scab. Where potatoes are grown continuously, as on the Atlantic Coast, the scab soon becomes so bad on limed soils as to cause great injury. For this reason few of the growers are willing to use lime. In fact, it is due to the acid soils of the Atlantic Coast that such smooth, clean potatoes, free from disease, can be produced year after year. Where potatoes are grown in rotation not oftener than once in four years, there is not much danger from scab if clean seed is planted. It is often necessary to use lime in order to grow clover and grass and there is little danger of undue potato scab if the lime is applied only once in four years and then at least two or three years before the potato crop. Rotations. Where potatoes are grown as a regular farm crop, it is customary to grow the potatoes after sod. No place is better QUESTIONS 269 than a good clover sod, as clover not only leaves a good supply of nitrogen, but is also supposed to bring considerable from the sub- soil by means of its deep roots. A short rotation sometimes used is wheat, clover, potatoes. A longer rotation quite common in the East is oats, mixed clover, grass, potatoes. A third rotation on hill lands too acid to grow clover is oats, grass, grass, grass, potatoes, the grass not cut the third year but plowed under to furnish organic matter. FIG. 106. Intensive potato culture on a Long Island farm, under the "Skinner system" of irrigation. Applying Fertilizer. When fertilizer is applied the plant- ing is usually done by machinery. In this case the fertilizer is dis- tributed in the row, either above or below the seed, but not in direct contact. However, it is not considered best to apply more than 1000 pounds per acre in the row, but if more than this is used, to spread a part broadcast, either just before or just after planting. QUESTIONS 1. Give the relative rank of potatoes and other crops in the world. In the United States. 2. Give the relative production of potatoes in the continents. 3. Compare potatoes and wheat as food crops. 4. Give the principal potato growing States, and yield per acre. 270 IRISH POTATOES 5. Compare with yields in foreign countries. 6. Where are wild potatoes found ? When first cultivated in Europe ? 7. Describe a potato seed ball; a potato tuber. 8. Name the principal characters used in classifying potatoes 9. How is color of sprouts determined? 10. Name the principal groups of potatoes. 11. Which are generally early varieties? 12. Name the principal groups grown in different regions of the United States. 13. Describe a good market type of potato. 14. Describe the structure and composition of a potato tuber. 15. Describe favorable climatic conditions for potatoes. Where are such conditions found in the United States? 16. Describe effect of hot weather on degeneration of the potato. 17. State advantages generally credited to light soils for potatoes. 18. State the present practice in regard to the use of fertilizers with fertilizer for grass or grain crops. 19. Why is less fertilizer used where potatoes are grown in rotation? 20. State value of lime for potatoes and precautions in using it. 21. Where are the potatoes generally grown in the rotation? CHAPTER XXXI CULTURE OF IRISH POTATOES CULTURAL methods differ so widely for local reasons that it would not be practical to describe in detail the various methods in practice. Only the most general principles of wide application can be considered. Source of Seed. The degeneration of potatoes under hot sum- mer climate has been pointed out. Wild potatoes grow in high mountains where the summer temperature is cool, and cultivated potatoes require the same conditions. In England, where the summer season is warm, it has long been recognized that seed from Scotland was much more productive and numerous experiments have proven this. The Vermont Station 1 in 1905 imported 13 varieties from England and Scotland and grew them in Vermont for six years in succession. The results in yield per acre were as follows : 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 English seed 27.5 54.9 88.4 86.9 103.5 169.5 Scotch seed 82.3 128.3 236.7 159.2 143.1 170.5 Per cent of differ- ence 199.3 133.7 167.8 83.2 38.3 .6 The first three years the difference was very great, but as they were continually grown under one climate, the difference became less until they yielded practically the same the sixth year. A very interesting demonstration of the principle was made at the Ottawa Experiment Station in Canada. The climate here is usually very favorable, and four varieties which were grown at the station for sixteen years, 1890-1905, steadily increased in yield, as shown by following data : Early Rose 1890-93, bushels 257 Field per acr 1902-05, bushels 317 Gain in bushels 60 State of Maine 325 361 36 301 338 37 296 352 56 1 Vermont Bulletin 172. 271 272 CULTURE OF IRISH POTATOES 'Then followed three dry years, in which yield was reduced to one- half, and the potatoes lost vitality and ability to yield. This was demonstrated by importing new seed from Nappan, Nova Scotia, in 1909, and growing beside home-grown seed. Results in 1909 were as follows : Rose Carmen Vick's extra early Nappan seed 215 198 171 Home-grown seed 44 83 74 In 1910 seed of eleven varieties from Indian Head was brought in for comparison : Source Average yield per acre, bushels Indian Head seed 368 Home-grown seed 96 Other data could be cited, but the above is sufficient to show the injurious effect of dry, hot weather on vitality of seed. In general, in the northern tier of States, potatoes retain vitality very well, but further south good seed can only be produced as a regular practice at the higher elevations, in the mountainous districts. Second Crop Seed. In the South the difficulty is sometimes overcome by growing what is known as " second crop " potatoes. These are planted about August, and develop tubers during the cooler fall weather. They are killed by frost and harvested green. These potatoes have good vitality, the only objection being that they are rather slow and irregular in germinating when planted the following spring. Immature Seed. In Europe it has long been held by many that seed potatoes, harvested green, had greater vigor and productive- ness than mature seed. For this reason many growers plant their seed stock late, so the vines are killed by frost before the crop is mature, and use this for seed rather than seed that has normally matured. Storage of Seed. Seed stock should be stored in a cool place, and kept solid and perfectly dormant until planting time. This requires a temperature of 30 to 40 F. All potatoes are very dormant when first mature, but they slowly ripen in storage, and, GREENING SEED 273 after two or three months, will sprout readily if temperature is high enough. Potatoes will also shrink if the temperature is too high, and this is also considered injurious. If long sprouts develop in the dark, they are broken off in handling and the second sprouts are not as good as the first. Sprouting Seed. Where seed has been held dormant it is good practice to move the seed out into the light in a warm place about ten days before planting (Fig. 107). This will start the eyes into FIG. 107. Comparing tubers sprouted in strong light and in darkness. Both tubers were taken from same lot and germinated for 30 days. The one on left in greenhouse in strong light, the one on right in dark chamber. Note long, weak sprouts, and shrunken tuber due to germinating in dark. Strong light "greens" the tuber and prevents shrinkage to a large degree, growth, but the sprouts should not become long enough to become injured in handling. Advantages claimed for this method: (1) any dormant seed can be detected and discarded; (2) the potatoes come up quicker and give a more uniform stand ; (3) seed not likely to rot if soil is cold. Greening Seed. If potatoes are placed in the light, they turn a greenish color. While the sprouts start, they remain short and stout. Potatoes may be held in the light for two months and remain sound, with short, stubby sprouts. In the light only the strongest 274 CULTURE OF IRISH POTATOES terminal buds start, and the seed is usually planted whole. This method is used where a very early crop is desired, especially when the planting is done in a cold, wet soil, where seed is likely to rot. Frequent experiments in comparing sprouted or greened seed with dormant seed have usually shown a decided increase in favor of the former. This is especially true with early planting in cold, wet soils. Amount of Seed to Plant. In order to give an idea about how much seed is required to plant an acre, the following table is given. The rows are assumed to be three feet apart : Bushels of Seed Required Per Acre Siie of seed piece Ounces Hills 12 inches apart Hills 18 inches apart Hills 24 inches apart 1 ib 12 8 2 32 24 16 4 64 48 32 8 128 96 64 In general, growers in the United States use from 12 to 15 bushels of seed per acre, while in Europe they frequently plant 30 to 40 bushels of seed. Many experiments have shown that the total yield will increase with rate of planting up to 30 to 40 bushels of seed per acre. How- ever, the percentage of small potatoes also increases with rate of planting under average conditions, and only the most favorable climate and soil justify the heavier planting. Under average conditions from 15 to 20 bushels of seed per acre will give the maximum yield of marketable potatoes, and as condi- tions are improved above the average, the planting should be in- creased. This is illustrated by the following experiment (Ohio Bui. 218) : Relation Between Amount of Seed and Yield of Large and Small Potatoes Yield per acre Seed, bushels Marketable Small Net marketable Siae of seed per acre bushels bushels above seed planted, bushels One eye 10 164 25 154 Two eyes 15 204 31 189 One-half tuber .... 25 217 35 192 Whole tuber 40 223 51 183 It was also shown at the Ohio Station that certain varieties develop more sprouts from the same sized seed piece than others and consequently require less seed. For example, the maximum yield DEPTH OF PLANTING 275 of Bovee was attained with 15 bushels of seed per acre, while Carmen No. 3 required 25 bushels for maximum yield. We may then sum up the main factors affecting rate of plant- ing as : (1) Fertility of the soil. (2) Favorableness of climate for potatoes. (3) Variety used. (4) Time of planting. Whole vs. Cut Seed. Small whole seed is frequently used for planting, as they are culls from the marketable potatoes and much cheaper. Several experiments comparing whole and cut seed of equal size have usually shown an advantage for the whole seed, though results are variable and the advantage is usually not large under ordinary favorable conditions. The greatest advantage for whole seed is found in the South, where the early crop is planted in midwinter in cold ground where cut seed is likely to rot. With whole seed only the most vigorous buds at the seed end grow, which is also an advantage under unfavor- able conditions. For these reasons large quantities of cull potatoes from Northern crop are used as seed in the West Indies and South Atlantic States for winter planting. In this case the cull seed was grown from large potatoes each year and is quite different from the continuous use of culls year after year from the same crop, as this results in slow degeneration of the stock. Some growers, however, make a regular practice of growing small whole seed by planting large potatoes very thick. Such seed is very desirable and is preferred for early crop to cut seed. For the main crop in the North, planted at a favorable time, cut seed from large tubers is to be preferred. Time of Planting. In the Corn Belt and southward, planting is early in order to get as much growth as possible before the heat of midsummer. In the North, planting is late to utilize the cool fall weather. For example, in the Corn Belt, planting is general in March and early April, while in New York, the main crop is planted about June first. Depth of Planting. The principal considerations are the 276 CULTURE OP IRISH POTATOES effect on quality and yield of crop, and expense of planting and digging. Deep planted potatoes are considered of best quality, as they are smoother, none are sunburned, and they are more uniform. Yield is usually improved with planting 4 to 5 inches below the level surface, rather than shallower. As pointed out heretofore, new tubers arise from underground stems that are produced at the nodes. It is claimed that deep planting, by increasing the number of underground nodes, favors larger yields. This theory, however, has not been well substantiated. Deep planting is a disadvantage in cold, wet soil, when quick germination and an early crop is desired. Tor this reason early potatoes should be planted shallow though they may be covered deeper after germination. In practice, potatoes are commonly planted shallower than four inches, in some regions only two inches below the level. Where shal- low planting is practised, the soil is ridged up about the plants in cultivating in order to provide plenty of room for the tubers, and prevent sunburn. The principal reason for shallow planting is ease in harvesting, especially where hand digging is practised. Hill vs. Drill Planting. Where machines are used, drill plant- ing is the general practice, and, while there is little experimental evi- dence, probably gives better yields, especially where large quantities of fertilizer are used, as the roots have a more uniform distribution in the soil. Hand planting is practised where the area grown is small, or where hills are too steep for machines. In some regions, as northern ISTew York, the vines are so heavy that hand-digging is necessary. Where machinery can not be used, hill planting has several advan- tages: ( 1 ) easier to plant ; (2) takes less seed; (3) easier to culti- vate; (4) easier to dig. Level vs. Ridge Cultivation. It is the general custom to throw up a rather high ridge around the potato rows or hills. It is easier to kill weeds by high ridging, and also makes digging much easier. While deeper planting and level culture usually give some- what greater yield, the labor cost is greater and generally believed to offset the prospect of higher yield. The ridging, however, can HARVESTING THE CROP 277 be too high, injuring some roots between rows, and the best growers say that a moderate ridge, 4 to 5 inches, is best. Tools for Cultivation. The harrow or weeder is often used first, even before the potatoes are up if weeds appear or the ground is crusted by rains. The use of the harrow and weeder may be con- tinued until the crop is six inches high. This is followed by culti- vators (Fig. 108), usually with narrow blades, to give a fine, even surface. If weeds start in the row, considerable earth is ridged up to cover them. FIG. 108. A good type of cultivator. The rows have already been ridged with a hiller. One light hoeing is usually necessary to kill all weeds. Cultiva- tion is usually continued until the vines cover the ground. In many places a sweep plow is used the last going over, to ridge up and make sure that no tubers will be exposed to the sun. This practice is most common on shallow, gravelly soils, where the potatoes normally develop very near the surface. In deep loam soils the sweep is seldom used. Harvesting the Crop. Special harvesting tools have evolved from the older farm tools (Fig. 109). The spade has developed into the potato fork, the hoe into the potato hook, while in the plow the mould-board has been replaced with iron rods in the simplest form 19 278 CULTURE OF IRISH POTATOES of horse-digger, while elevators and sorters have been added in the larger diggers. About one-half or more of the potato crop is dug by hand. The hook is used mostly on sandy or gravelly soils where the tubers are shallow, and the ridge method of culture is practised. The potato fork is used more in the Western States on deep loam soils, where more level culture is practised and the tubers are deeper. The horse-diggers are generally used where acreage is large and the land level, except in some northern regions like northern New York, where the vines are very heavy and usually green at digging time. FIG. 109. A large potato digger. Storage. Potatoes are usually stored in cellars, field pits, or cold storage warehouses. The principle of good storage is to keep them cool, dry, and with good ventilation to carry off moisture as the potatoes dry. Changes in Storage. In storage, potatoes undergo certain changes. Potatoes when first ripe, will usually not germinate, but they undergo a slow process of maturing under storage, and will usually germinate freely in two to three months. This is known as the dormant period. The cooking quality also changes, the potatoes becoming more mealy when cooked, as they mature under storage. DISEASES AND INSECTS 279 Shrinking in Storage. Potatoes always lose weight in storage. The loss is slow at first, usually amounting to 6 or 8 per cent in good storage during the first six months. After that the loss is much faster and will sometimes amount to 4 or 5 per cent a month in the spring under ordinary cellar conditions where the temperature can not be kept down. The loss is due to two causes: (1) Loss of water, and (2) loss by respiration. Loss by respiration is due to the slow conversion of starch into sugar and finally breaking up and passing off as carbon dioxide gas. Experiments have shown that about 75 per cent of the loss is due to water loss and about one-fourth due to respiration. Cold Storage. The loss by respiration also goes on in cold storage, but at temperatures below 32 F., the sugar developed does not undergo further change but remains, giving the potato a sweetish taste. This is the reason cold storage potatoes or slightly frozen potatoes are sometimes sweet. For table stock potatoes should be held at 40 to 50 F., while seed stock is held at from 32 to 40 F. Diseases and Insects. The potato plant is subject to a large 'number of diseases. Many of these do little injury, but at least a dozen are severe in some part of the world where potatoes are grown. No potato disease is universally injurious, but is limited to certain regions. All of the diseases are influenced by climate or soil, and hence vary in their injury from year to year. For example, the late blight is perhaps the most injurious disease, yet there are large regions, as the Southwest, where it is seldom seen. Even in the eastern States, where it is very common, there are considerable areas in which late blight is seldom found. Other dis- eases are not considered as serious in northern clima'tes, as the State of Maine, but southward are very injurious. A brief summary of the principal diseases is given below : A. Affecting the foliage only: 1. Early blight, caused by Alternaria solani. 2. Leaf blotch, caused by Cercospora concors. B. Affecting chiefly the stems : 3. Brown rot, caused by Bacillus solanacearum. 4. Black leg, caused by Bacillus phytophthorus. 280 CULTURE OF IRISH POTATOES 5. Stem blight, caused by Oorticium vagum. 6. Fusarium wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum. 7. Verticillium, caused by Verticillium albo atrum. C. Affecting the tubers chiefly : 8. Common scab, caused by Streptothrix scabies. 9. Powdery scab, caused by Spongospora subterranea. 10. Wart disease, caused by Chrysophlycetes endobiotica. 11. Dry rots, caused by several species of Fusarium. Fia. 110. In the foreground is a spot where a dozen plants, in a good field, have been killed by the disease rhizoctonia. 12. Bacterial soft rots, caused by Bacillus solanacearum and B. phytophthorus, and other bacteria. 13. Leak, caused by Rhizopus nigricans. D. Affecting all parts of plants : 14. Late blight, caused by PJiytophthorus infestans. Unfavorable climate, usually hot, dry weather, causes sun scald and tip burn. Arsenical poisoning sometimes results from spraying. Of the above diseases; the common scab is most abundant, but not very injurious. Late blight is the most destructive disease, and probably black leg is next. CONTROLLING VINE DISEASES 281 Controlling Tuber Diseases. The diseases transmitted on the exterior of the tuber are treated by soaking in. some disinfectant that will destroy the disease, but not the eyes of the potato. Common scab and rhizoctonia (Fig. 110) are the most common diseases transmitted on the tuber. The common treatment for scab is to soak tubers in formalin solution (one pint to 30 gallons of water) for two hours. This, however, will not kill rhizoctonia. Black leg is killed by corrosive sublimate solution one ounce to seven gallons of water, soaking the seed for ten minutes. FIG. 111. A power sprayer, that will spray seven rows at one time. As the latter treatment will also kill scab, it is advisable to use the corrosive sublimate treatment, thus treating against both diseases at once. Controlling Vine Diseases. Late blight is the principal vine disease to be contended with. This is controlled by the use of Bordeaux spray mixture (Fig. 111). Late blight (Fig. 112) is a fungous disease, growing on the outside of the leaves, and is killed by a very weak solution of copper sulfate, which, however, does not injure the leaf if properly neutralized by lime. The strength of the Bordeaux mixture is expressed as 3-3-50 or 282 CULTURE OF IRISH POTATOES 5-5-50, meaning in the latter case, that it is made with 5 pounds of copper sulfate, 5 pounds quicklime and 50 gallons of water. Bordeaux is made as follows : Stock solutions are first prepared. Slack quicklime by slowly adding water until in a fine powder, then make up into a thin paste. Copper sulfate solution is made by suspending in a coarse sack in the top of water, as the solution is heavier than water and it will not dissolve in the bottom of a vessel. One gallon of water will dissolve three pounds of copper sulfate. This is called a concentrated stock solution. A barrel of each stock solution can be made at one time, as it will keep a long while. FIG. 112. Potato affected with the rot, resulting from late blight. Mixing Bordeaux. To mix, place two barrels on a platform somewhat higher than the spraying mixture. To make a 3-3-50 solution, take one gallon of copper sulfate solution and mix with 25 gallons of water in one barrel ; in the other barrel mix enough lime paste to equal 3 pounds with 25 gallons of water; then allow both solutions to run at one time into the sprayer tank. The strength of spray used varies from 3-3-50 to 5-5-50, using the stronger mixture when the disease is giving trouble or there is trouble from rains washing off the mixture. Testing the Mixture. When the mixture is made, take out a CONTROLLING VINE DISEASES 283 sample and test with a few drops of potassium ferrocyanide solution. If the solution turns brown, there is not enough lime, but there will be no change if there is enough lime. There should be some excess of lime to be sure the copper is neutralized, but not too much, as the lime will clog the nozzles. Lime is used to neutralize the copper so it will not burn the foliage, and also to make the solution more adhesive. Time of Spraying. No rule can be given as to the time to begin, spraying, except it should be done before the blight has opportunity Fia. 113. A good field of potatoes. Sprayer at work in the distance. to attack the crop. The blight may make its first appearance any time from midsummer to the very end of the season, or not appear at all. In hot, dry weather there is less danger than in wet or humid weather, and conditions must be watched closely. Generally, it is best to give the first spraying when the plants are less than a foot high, in order to cover all the lower leaves. Apply other sprayings according to the weather or rapidity of growth (Fig. 113). The number of sprayings given in practice varies from 3 to 10. If the disease is present, and weather damp, it is generally agreed 284 CULTURE OF IRISH POTATOES that one spraying a week should be given. It is best to spray just after a rainy period rather than before, in order to cover the new growth. Stimulating Effect of Bordeaux. Bordeaux mixture has a de- cided stimulating effect on potato foliage, and it has been frequently observed to increase yield even when no disease appeared. The in- creased yield usually pays the cost of spraying, even without blight. Insects and Insecticides. For the potato beetle and leaf-eating insects it is customary to use an arsenic poison, either as Paris green or lead arsenate. When spraying -with Bordeaux for blight, the poison may be added to the Bordeaux mixture at the rate of one- half to one pound of Paris green per 50 gallons, or 3 to 5 pounds of arsenate of lead. As Paris green is sometimes injurious to foliage, being slightly soluble in water, it is generally preferred to use arsen- ate of lead, which is absolutely insoluble. For spraying poison without Bordeaux, it is mixed at the same rate with water. Potato Improvement and Breeding. Very few varieties of potatoes popular 30 to 40 years ago are in use to-day. Old varieties are constantly replaced with new and more vigorous sorts, or im- proved strains of the old. Origin of New Varieties. New varieties originate in three ways : (1) by growing new plants from seed balls; (2) by sports or mutations, thus at once producing a new variety by bud variation ; (3) by systematic selection, taking advantage of small variations. Potatoes from Seeds. Seed balls may be produced naturally, or may be the result of cross fertilization, thus producing hybrids. However, many cultivated varieties rarely produce seed balls. If the seed is planted, rather small plants are grown the first year. Each plant will, on the average, produce two or three small tubers, usually not larger than marbles, but occasionally full sized tubers. The first crop from seed is usually quite variable and permits of considerable selection, and many new varieties have been produced in this way. The second or third year the tubers reach full size and usually remain quite true to type. Sports or Mutations. Sports, now called mutations, are new SYSTEMATIC SELECTIONS 285 forms appearing suddenly from an old established form for ex- ample, a wliite potato in a hill of red variety, or a long potato in a hill of round variety. Such sudden appearances of new types are recorded and have been preserved, giving us new varieties. Systematic Selections. Plant breeding is simply a systematic way of finding the small variations, either for better or worse, that are constantly taking place. For example, if 100 potato tubers be selected and each planted in a separate hill, it will be found at harvest time that certain tubers have produced two or three times the yield of others. The difference is to a large degree hereditary, so if the highest yielding hills are saved for seed, a more productive stock is at once secured. This practice of planting a certain number of tubers separately and selecting only the best producing hills may be con- tinued from year to year with gradual improvement. It is best to use rather large tubers and cut each into four parts, as four hills from each will give surer results than to have only one hill from each. Outline for Describing Potatoes Variety : 1. Early, medium, late. Shape: 2. Oblong, round, oblong-flat, oval-round, oval-flat. 3. Regular, irregular. Size: 4. Large, medium, small. 5. Uniform, not uniform. Eyes: 6. Deep, medium, shallow. 7. Oval, narrow, elongated. 8. Large, small (as compared with size of tuber), 9. Numerous, medium, few. 10. Uniformly distributed, mainly at bud end. 11. Ridge prominent, ridge not prominent. Sprouts : 12. Color yellowish-white, pink, blue, purple. Skin: 13. Smooth, rough, netted, lenticelled. 14. Color yellowish-white, light russet, dark russet, red, pink, blue. General Characteristics: 15. Sample, clean, dirty. 16. Cracked, not cracked. 17. Disease present, disease absent; if present, scab, dry rot or blight; rhizoctonia, sunburn, grub, or wilt. 18. Bruised or not bruised. 19. Mature, immature. Flesh: 20. White, yellowish, pink. 286 CULTURE OF IRISH POTATOES Structure Cortical Layer: 21. Thick, thin. External Medullary Area: 22. Proportion large, small. Internal Medullary Area: 23. Large, small. 24. Branched much, branched little. 25. Light, dark. Estimated Cooking Quality: 26. Mealy, medium, soggy. LABORATORY EXERCISES STUDY OF POTATO TYPES Directions for Report. Describe each of the 11 samples of potatoes exhibited, using the accompanying descriptive key and blank outline. The samples here sftown and described represent approximately the character- istics of each of the main variety groups. Draw natural size the long broadside view of a tuber of each of the above groups, paying special attention to size and shape of tuber, size, shape and distribution of eyes. Draw natural size the transverse section of a tuber of each of these groups, paying special attention to relative proportion of cortex, internal and external medullary areas. Label all parts carefully in right hand margin. From your knowledge of descriptive characteristics of each of the main groups, list the extra varieties exhibited under the proper group, i.e., Irish Cobbler, Triumph, Rural, Early Michigan, Rose, Hebron, Burbank, Early Ohio, Green Mountain, Pearl and Peachblow. MORPHOLOGY AND COMPOSITION OF THE POTATO TUBEB The potato tuber as a part of the system of lateral underground stems, corresponds largely in its morphology to aerial stems. It serves as a storage part to the underground stem and enables the plant to live over from one year to another. Note (a) stem end; (&) bud end; (c) eye buds; (d) eyebrows; (e) arrangement of eyes with reference to stem and bud end. Draw a tuber natural size showing correct arrangement of eyes and labelling stem end, bud end, eyes and eyebrows. Indicate on your drawing by dotted lines how the tuber should be cut for seed purposes. By a dash line indicate the phyllotaxy of the tuber. Make with a sharp knife, a thin longitudinal and a thin transverse sec- tion of a tuber, cutting through one or more eyes in each case. Rinse in water and examine carefully. Observe and draio natural size in both longitudinal and transverse sec- tion a tuber showing in proper proportion (a) internal medullary area; (6) external medullary area; (c) cortex; (d) epidermis. Treat a thin longitudinal section with iodine (5 per cent solution), rinse in water and observe the portion of greatest starch concentration. Indicate by labelling in your drawing. Answer the following subsequent to reading Farmers' Bulletin No. 295, pp. 5-13, and Cornell Bulletin No. 230, pp. 508-512. 1. What differences in composition of the external and internal medul- lary areas? QUESTIONS 287 2. What mainly is the composition of the cortex? Of the epidermis? 3. What relation between internal medullary area and eyes? 4. (a) What constitutes texture in a tuber? (6) What indicates fine texture in a tuber? (c) What indicates coarse texture in a tuber? QUESTIONS 1. Describe the experiments conducted at Vermont and Ontario, Canada, on the source of seed. 2. What merits are claimed for " second crop " seed? For immature seed? 3. Why is low storage temperature required? 4. Will potatoes sprout better after storage? 5. What advantages claimed for sprouting seed? 6. How much seed required to plant an acre ? 7. Does yield vary with rate of planting? 8. Under what conditions is whole seed used rather than cut seed? 9. How is time of planting regulated? 10. Compare the merits of deep and shallow planting. Of hill and drill planting. Of level and ridge cultivation. 11. Give the ordinary practice in cultivating a potato crop. 12. What tools are used in harvesting? 13. What changes take place in storage? 14. Give temperature for storing seed stock. Table stock. 15. What are most destructive diseases? 16. What is the nature of a " disease "1 17. Name several diseases. 18. Give treatment for scab and rhizoctonia. 19. How is late blight controlled? 20. Tell how to make and test Bordeaux mixture. 21. When is the spray applied? 22. Does Bordeaux have any other effect beside killing the diseases? 23. Give treatment for potato bugs. 24. How are new varieties originated from seed balls? 25. What are sports? 26. Describe method of potato breeding by hill selection. CHAPTER XXXII SWEET POTATOES THE sweet potato belongs to the Morning- Glory family. It is of tropical origin, probably coming from the West Indies or South America. The plant is a perennial and seldom blossoms or produces seed in the United States. The blossom is very much like that of a large morning-glory and is of a purple color (Fig. 115). In the North sweet potatoes are treated as an annual, and not as a perennial. The Roots. The sweet potato differs from the Irish potato in Fia. 114. A single sweet potato from the hot-bed, showing many young sprouts. Note the difference in the size of young plants. ^Experiment Station, New Jersey.) being a true root. The Irish potato is an enlarged underground stem, its various parts being analogous to the stems above ground. The sweet potato, however, is an enlarged root. Origin and History. Very little is known about the early his- tory of the sweet potato, except that it was in general cultivation by the natives of South America when first visited by white men. The wild form has never been discovered. The sweet potato has at- tained considerable culture in foreign countries, especially in China and islands in the Pacific Ocean. Its culture has had a slow de- velopment in the southern States, but within the last two decades the 288 MARKET TYPES 289 use of the sweet potato as a truck crop has had a rapid development. It is now the most important vegetable next to Irish potatoes. Types and Varieties. While there are many varieties of sweet potato, no very satisfactory classification has ever been worked out. They are sometimes placed in two groups, called vine and vineless potatoes, the term " vineless " applied to the varieties having a short, upright vine. It has also been attempted to subdivide the groups on the shape of the leaf, as certain types have deeply-lobed cut leaves, and others regular leaves with uniform edges ; but this is not a satis- factory character to use. They may also be grouped as dry and moist or syrupy types. The dry types are usually grown in the North and are represented by the Jersey Yellow variety. In the southern States the varieties with soft flesh, sometimes called watery or syr- upy, are usually preferred. Most of the varieties of so-called "yams" in the South belong to this group. They may also be grouped accord- ing to color of root, as wiiite, yellow, or pink. Probably a hun- dred varieties of sweet potatoes are cultivated, but not more than a dozen of these are very exten- sively grown FlQ ' 115< Sweet P tato left f an : ST ~ ' "* * Fro. 194. Kohl-rabi, belonging to cabbage family, but in this case the stem is enlarged, not the root as in turnips. TURNIPS On the west and south coast of England and continental Europe is found a wild broad-leaved plant somewhat resembling a loose cabbage plant without a head, and known to botanists as Brassica oleracece. This plant under cultivation has shown remarkable vari- ation, giving rise to a large number of cultivated plants. All parts of the plant have been modified, the leaves in cabbage, the flowers in cauliflower, the axillary buds in brussels sprouts, the stem in kohl- rabi (Fig. 194), and the root in rutabagas (Fig. 195) and turnips. CULTURE 455 Brassica oleracece. Cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, kohl-rabi, kale, brussels sprouts. Brassica napus. Rape. Brassica campestris. Rutabaga or Swede turnips. Brassica rapa. Common turnips. There are also a number of hybrids between turnips and ruta- bagas, known as hybrid turnips. Cabbage, kale, rape, rutabagas, and turnips are all grown for stock feed. Comparison of Beets and Turnips. Beets in general thrive aga or Swede turnips. under rather high summer temperatures, while the cabbage-turnip group require rather cool weather. Beets are sensitive to frost, while turnips all endure heavy frost, and some members of the grouu, as kale and collards, endure light freezing. Beets contain more sugar than turnips. Turnips are harder in texture, and keep longer in storage. Turnips in general do relatively better on light or poor soils than beets. Culture. Rutabagas and large turnips are sown in early sum- mer, but the early flat turnips may be sown as late as August first, in the northern States. Turnips make their best growth during the 456 ROOT CROPS cool weather of fall and continue until freezing weather kills the tops. Early seedings should be drilled in rows, twenty to thirty inches apart, afterward thinned and given clean culture until late summer. Two to three pounds of seed per acre are required. Early flat turnips sown in late summer are usually broadcasted on well-prepared land, and given no culture. Eutabagas usually yield about as well as mangels, in northern climates, but where the summers are hot the mangles have an advan- tage. Flat turnips yield only half or two-thirds as much, but are quick growing and may often be sown as a catch crop late in the season. RAPE Eape is a large, broad-leaved plant from two to four feet high, and is well suited for temporary pasturage or soiling. The form grown for forage is a biennial living over winter in mild climates, as the Pacific Coast. The principal cultivated variety is Dwarf Essex. Eape is best adapted to a region of cool summers, and will endure heavy frost in the fall. Eape makes an excellent pasture for sheep or hogs, and for this purpose is best sown in drills twenty inches apart. The animals will walk between the drill rows and not tramp it out as when broadcast. Eape is frequently sown with small grain at the rate of three pounds per acre and harrowed in, but preferably after the grain is well started, as it will sometimes grow too fast for the grain. After harvest the rape makes a rapid growth and will furnish excellent fall pasture. CARROTS Carrots are about as productive as beets or turnips, but, being slower starting and smaller, require more care in early growth. They may be classed according to color as red, orange, yellow, or white, while the roots vary from slender to short and thick, and may be either tapering or cylindrical. Carrots grow on any productive soil. The cultural methods are about the same as for beets or turnips. QUESTIONS 457 QUESTIONS 1. Compare importance of root crops in America and Europe. 2. Why are they more important in Canada than in the United States? 3. Name the principal types of beet. 4. Define the root, stem and crown of beets. 5. Mention the principal shapes of the mangel. 6. Give structure and color of the beet root. 7. Give the composition of sugar beets; mangels: per cent of dry matter. 8. Give the soil requirements and preparation for beets; manure and fertilizers used. 9. Describe the character of the seeds. 10. Describe the planting, thinning and harvesting of beets. 11. Give the yield per acre. 12. Tell of their feeding value. 13. What other plants are closely related to turnipa. 14. Compare beets and turnips in composition. 15. In climatic and soil adaptations. 16. Describe the culture for rape. CHAPTER XLV TOBACCO PRODUCTION (By L. R. Neel, Editor Southern Agriculturist, Nashville, Tern Importance in America. Tobacco, like Indian corn and the white or Irish potato, is a native of America. It was cultivated by the Indians at the time of the discovery and exploration of the country by the different European nations. It belongs to the night- shade family and has the generic name of " Nicotiana." Tobacco is one of the great money crops of America. It is of much less importance than cotton, but the gross income to the farmer for the country per annum exceeds a hundred millions of dollars. In 1913, when conditions were normal, the crop was valued at $121,481,000 on the farms. Where Tobacco is Grown. Tobacco culture in a commercial way is confined to the humid part of the United States and largely to the eastern portion of this region. It is grown commercially all the way from Vermont and New Hampshire into Florida. Ken- tucky leads in the production of tobacco, North Carolina comes second, Virginia third, Ohio fourth, Tennessee fifth, Wisconsin sixth, Pennsylvania seventh, South Carolina eighth, and Connecti- cut ninth. Other States produce tobacco commercially, but in considerably smaller quantities. The cigar types are grown in New England, New York, Pennsyl- vania, the Miami Valley of Ohio, Wisconsin, Georgia, and Florida. Chewing, smoking, snuff, and export types are grown in Kentucky, portions of southern Indiana and Illinois and eastern Ohio, part of Missouri, Tennessee, Maryland, the Virginias, and the Carolinas. Small acreages of tobacco mainly belonging to the latter type are grown in Alabama, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas. Description of the Tobacco Plant. Most of the tobacco in cultivation is derived from Nicotiana tabacum, the Virginia tobacco. It is a coarse, rank-growing annual. It has a simple, cylindrical stem that attains a height of from three to six feet or more in cultivation The stem terminates in a panicle of pink or rose-colored flowers 458 TYPES AND VARIETIES 459 with long corolla tubes. The leaves are simple and alternate. They are from a foot to two feet in length. The seeds are very small, a single plant often producing as many as 1,000,000. The whole of the green part of the plant is covered with long, soft hairs that exude a viscid juice and give the surface a moist, glutinous feeling. Composition of the Tobacco Plant. The tobacco plant is very rich in the plant food elements liable to be deficient in the soil. A crop yielding 1000 pounds of leaf per acre removes from the soil in stalk and leaf about sixty-seven pounds of nitrogen, eighty-five pounds of potash and nine pounds of phosphoric acid. Tobacco stalks are so rich in plant food that they make a valuable manure. They contain three to four per cent of nitrogen, four to five per cent of potash, and a fractional part of a per cent of phosphoric acid. The stems of the leaf contain from two to three per cent of nitrogen, six to ten per cent of potash and a fractional part of one per cent of phosphoric acid. The following table is taken from Bulletin 180 of the Connecticut Experiment Station : Analysis of Fermented and Unfermented Tobacco Leaves A Upper Leaves B Short Seconds C First Wrappers Unfer- mented i! a Unfer- mented o 6 3 a fS OJ -S II Water 23.50 14.89 2.50 1.89 .67 12.19 7.90 3.20 29.39 3.87 23.40 15.27 1.79 1.97 .71 13.31 8.78 3.36 27.99 3.42 27.40 22.85 .77 2.39 .16 6.69 7.89 2.62 26.28 2.95 21.10 25.25 .50 2.82 .16 6.81 8.95 3.01 28.36 3.04 27.50 15.84 1.26 2.59 .33 11.31 9.92 2.89 25.52 2.84 24.90 16.22 1.14 2.35 .47 11.62 10.42 3.08 26.88 2.92 Ash Nicotine Nitric acid (NoO 6 ) Ammonia (NHa) Other nitrogenous matters . Fiber Starch Other nitrogen-free extract Ether extract, . 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Types and Varieties. There are three general classes of tobacco. They are: (1) Cigar tobaccos, (2) export tobaccos, and (3) manufacturing tobaccos. By manufacturing tobaccos are meant 460 TOBACCO PRODUCTION all kinds of tobaccos not used in cigars. The last two classes have so much in common that they are usually considered together. In the cigar class are the three general types of wrapper leaf, binder leaf, and filler leaf. In the manufacturing and export tobacco are such kinds as dark fire-cured, Virginia sun-cured, flue-cured, and white Burley. Three important varieties or groups of varieties are used in growing cigar leaf tobacco in this country. They are the broad-leaf or seed-leaf group; the Cuban group, and the Havana seed group. There is an important group of so-called Spanish varieties that are prac- tically like the Havana, if not identical with them. The Zim- mer Spanish grown in the Miami Valley for a filler and the Comstock Spanish grown in Wisconsin for binder leaf be- long to this group. The principal varieties used in producing dark fire-cured tobacco are the Pryors, the Yellow Mammoth, and the Orinocos. These varieties and selections from them are used in producing the Virginia sun- cured tobacco. Such strains of these two varieties as Little Orinoco, Big Orinoco, Warne, Gooch, Adcock, Yellow Pryor, and Flannagan are used in producing flue-cured tobacco. White Burley is the variety used in producing the air-cured tobacco of the blue-grass region of Kentucky, Tennessee (to a limited extent), and in southern Ohio. Fid. 196. Tobacco plant developed for seed production. (Maryland Bulletin 188.) EFFECT OF THE CROP ON THE SOIL 46! Tobacco Soils and Effect of Soil on Type. In few if any crops does the soil have a greater influence on the quality of the product than tobacco. Tobacco of fine texture and mild flavor is produced on light, well-drained soils not too rich in organic matter, while the large yields of heavy and stronger tobacco are grown on the heavier and richer soils. The cigar wrapper tobacco is grown on the fine sands and sandy loam soils of the Connecticut Yalley and Florida. In these soils the percentage of clay is low in both top and subsoil and they are not retentive of moisture. The binder-leaf soils of Wisconsin are sandy loams, light clay loams, and prairie soils which are dark rich loams. The cigar filler soil of the Lancaster district, Pennsylvania, is chiefly a limestone soil of the Hagerstown loam. It is a strong and moderately heavy soil. On the sandy loam soil of this district excellent wrapper leaf has been produced under shelter, showing how great is the influence of soil on type. Most of the tobacco grown in the Miami district is of the filler type, and the soil is designated as the Miami clay loam and the Miami black clay loam. The typical soils used in growing flue-cured tobacco of Virginia and the Carolinas are light sands and sandy loams with yellow or red subsoils containing small proportions of clay. The white Burley tobacco reaches its highest development on the limestone blue-grass soils of central Kentucky. White oak, beech, walnut, maple, and hickory clearings are famous for the production of this tobacco. Blue-grass sod that has lain in pasture for ten or twenty years or more and on which stock have been fed to some extent produces good quality of Burley tobacco and gives good yields. The dark-tobacco soil of Tennessee and Kentucky is a heavy soil. A typical soil is derived from the St. Louis limestone and it is a silt loam. The soil is only moderately supplied with vegetable matter and is under- lain by a very stiff and retentive clay. The Maryland tobacco, which resembles the cigar-leaf and the white Burley, is grown in southern Maryland on a silty or sandy soil gray or yellowish in color and usually deficient in vegetable matter. Effect of the Crop on the Soil. -As suggested before, tobacco is very rich in plant food, and this means that it draws heavily on the 162 TOBACCO PRODUCTION soil. It is not the most exhaustive crop, but is above the average. Where tobacco land is allowed to lie bare in winter the loss by leaching is likely to be greater than by the removal of plant food in the crop. Fertilizers for Special Results. The methods of fertilizing tobacco vary greatly with sections. A very considerable part of this difference is due to peculiar soil requirements, while more is due to special results required in the types. For some kinds of heavy tobacco the best grades are grown on the richest soils of the sections, as for instance the white Burley. In other grades, such as the lighter flue-cured tobacco of Virginia and the Carolinas, the best grades are produced on the lighter soils not too rich in vegetable matter. What is true of soils is also true of fertilizers. There is danger of using too high a percentage of nitrogen where a light, fine-textured tobacco is grown, while this element can be used very liberally in producing the heavy tobaccos adapted to the highly fertile soils. Fertilizers for the Various Tobacco Regions. In growing the Connecticut Havana seed tobacco on the typical sandy soil low in vegetable matter and under very expensive cultural methods, it is necessary to supply the soil abundantly with plant food. In the fall from ten to twenty tons of good stable manure should be plowed into the land, and in the spring it should be plowed again and the fertilizer applied broadcast. A ton per acre of a mixture containing about five per cent of nitrogen, five per cent of phosphoric acid and six per cent of potash is used. If the manure is not used the nitrogen content may be six per cent. The same fertilization is suitable for the Connecticut broad-leaf, but a somewhat heavier application can be made. In Wisconsin, where the Comstock Spanish is grown for binder leaf, fertilizing with commercial fertilizer has not been so well worked out. Stable manure is used with good profit. In the Lancaster, Pennsylvania, district, where the broad-leaf is grown as a filler, good rotation is practised and barnyard manure is used liberally, but the use of commercial fertilizer is not universally adopted and formula? are not very definitely worked out. Commercial fertilizer pays well in the Miami Valley of Ohio, FERTILIZERS FOR THE VARIOUS TOBACCO REGIONS 463 where the Zimmer Spanish variety is grown for filler. Good results are obtained in using as much as 1000 pounds per acre of a mixture analyzing nine per cent phosphoric acid, four per cent nitrogen and eight per cent potash. Stable manure gives good results, too. The Cuban variety, which is grown mainly in southern Georgia and Florida for filler leaf, is fertilized heavily. The land should have fifteen to twenty loads of stable manure applied in the fall and should be plowed. A good fertilizer mixture to apply broadcast in the spring before setting the plants is 600 to 800 pounds of cotton- seed meal, 400 pounds of acid phosphate, and 200 pounds of sulfate of potash per acre. This should be harrowed in the soil before marking off the rows. White Burley tobacco is grown on the best land of the farm, as a rule, and is not fertilized. For this reason fertilizer formulae are not well worked out. In the dark tobacco district of Kentucky and Tennessee fertilizer is used rather generally, but in comparatively light applications. Frequently from 75 to 125 pounds per acre are dropped in the hills and this is all that is used. This may be a high-grade mixture, analyzing something like eight per cent of phosphoric acid, three or four per cent of nitrogen and six or eight per cent of potash. A mixture that has given very profitable results in the Clarksville district consists of 300 pounds high-grade acid phosphate, 400 pounds cottonseed meal and 50 pounds sulfate of potash. This is a good application per acre. It should all be spread broadcast and worked into the soil before marking off the rows. However, seventy-five pounds per acre in the hill are permissible and may be an advantage in starting the plants. Stable manure gives good results. Four to six tons per acre may be applied in the winter or early spring and plowed under as the land is being prepared. Liberal applications of commercial fertilizer are used in produc- ing the flue-cured tobacco of the Carolinas and Virginia. Where the soil is light and only moderately fertile a good formula is 500 pounds each of cottonseed meal and acid phosphate and 120 pounds of sulfate of potash. The Maryland type is produced with light applications of com- mercial fertilizers. Stable manure gives good results. 464 TOBACCO PRODUCTION Form of Potash to Use. Sulfate of potash is generally used in tobacco fertilizers because the chlorine of muriate of potash has an injurious effect on the quality of the leaf. A good deal of muriate of potash is used in some sections, but recent results in Pennsylvania confirm the conviction that its use is hazardous, especially where fine quality is being produced. Source of Nitrogen. The growers of white Burley tobacco supply the nitrogen by clearing up new land or plowing up pastures that have never been broken or that have lain in white clover and blue-grass for many years, and by plowing under red clover sod. The legumes are used to take nitrogen from the air. This is the cheapest way, and as vegetable matter is also thus applied it is generally the best way. An exception might be in growing one of the light tobaccos that does best on soils low in vegetable matter. In the South cottonseed meal is used extensively as a source of nitrogen. Nitrate of soda is used more or less wherever fertilization is gen- erally practised with tobacco. It is usually applied after the plants are set and have started to grow. A light application may be made before setting the plants to help start them off. Blood meal is usad in many of the mixtures and tankage is employed in some sections in the tobacco fertilizer. Source of Phosphoric Acid. Acid phosphate is the common source of phosphoric acid for tobacco fertilizers. When tankage or bone meal is used to supply nitrogen it furnishes at least a part of the phosphoric acid. Stalks and Stems. Tobacco stalks and leaf stems are very rich manures. An application of one ton to two tons per acre makes a pretty liberal fertilization. A good way to apply where the season is long enough is in the fall on a crimson clover or rye and vetch crop that is to be plowed under for the tobacco the following year. As plant food is set free from the stalks the growing crop makes use of it and stores it for the tobacco. This should be plowed under some weeks before time to set the plants. Breeding and Selecting Tobacco. Some work has been done and is being done at crossing and hybridizing tobacco for improve- ment. This work, of course, belongs to the plant breeders and not the farmers. THE PLANT BED 465 The selection of seed plants for the production of seed for plant- ing is a very important operation. It is simple and can be done by any intelligent farmer who is willing to take a little pains. An excess of plants should be selected during the season and marked by tying a rag or a tag on them. They should come up to the ideal for stalk, leaf, and texture so far as this can be told in the growing season. A dozen plants may be enough on the small farm. About the time the flowers begin to open a twelve-pound paper bag should be tied over the flower head of the Lest plants ; some of the inferior ones can be rejected. If any flowers have opened they should be cut off, because they have probably been cross- pollinated with an inferior plant. Every few days the bag should be raised to accommodate the lengthening stalk and the dead flowers should be removed to prevent mold. Insects that injure seed should be watched for. When the plants are mature they should be cut and housed, allowing the bags to remain on them. The leaves must be kept separate and compared so that the best seed plants can be selected. This method, kept up every year by a careful man, will result in a great improvement of the variety of tobacco. The Plant Bed. Tobacco plants are started in beds under favorable conditions from six to twelve weeks or even longer before time to set in the field. A sunny exposure is chosen and the soil should be well drained and warm. In some sections only new land is used for plant beds and no extra fertilization is given. In other sections very fertile blue-grass sod is plowed in the early fall to decay and make a seed bed the following spring. When old land has to be used manures and fertilizers are generally employed. Stable manure (it should be well rotted) is used at the rate of ten to twenty tons per acre, and rich commercial fertilizers are used at the rate of one to two tons per acre. The fertilizer is usually very rich in nitrogen. The Pennsylvania Station got best results in a test with forty-eight pounds of manure, four pounds cottonseed meal, one pound of acid phosphate, and one-half pound of sulfate of potash to 108 square feet of bed. To kill weed seed and disease germs the plant bed is usually burned. This may be done by heaping wood on it and firing it, by 466 TOBACCO PRODUCTION using a furnace or steam. The furnace used is on wheels and is placed on the bed. It is about 9 by 3 feet and has a pan that will hold dirt off that much space of ground to a depth of about two inches. Dirt is baked in it for an hour and then is returned where it came from. More dirt is taken up on the other side of the furnace. After this has baked an hour the machine is wheeled on, as the dirt underneath will have been sufficiently heated. In treat- ing with steam an engine and a metal box are necessary (Fig. 197). Steam is forced in the box that is turned upside down on the bed Fio. 197. Sterilizing tobacco beds by steam. (Pennsylvania Bulletin 130.) until the soil is heated to a temperature of 175 F. to a depth of four inches. This temperature should be maintained an hour. This form of treating tobacco beds has been most satisfactory. Sometimes logs are laid around the plant bed, which is usually six or eight feet wide, and in other cases boards are set up. A ditch should be opened around it and one should lead from this to afford good drainage. Cross-drains are sometimes needed. After burning, the soil is worked up with a plow or hand tools. Sowing the Seed. The rate of seeding varies greatly with the section. In some cases a teaspoonful of seed is sown to 100 square PREPARING THE FIELD 467 feet, and in others that amount is sown on 200 or 300 square feet of bed. Sifted wood ashes, land plaster or some other diluent is mixed with the seed to aid in getting even distribution. It is then better to go over the land two or three times. Before sowing, the light seeds should be separated out and discarded by the use of a blower (Fig. 198). The seed are covered by tramping the land or going over with a roller. After sowing the seed the bed should be covered with cheesecloth. In some of the more northern districts glass is sometimes used and the plants may even be grown in hot-beds. The beds are watered fre- quently in dry weather, but not excessively, as this encourages fungous diseases-. Sometimes to stimulate the growth of the plants nitrate of soda is used at the rate of one-quarter pound to ten gallons of water. The plants are sprinkled with this. It is a good idea to use clear water before and after using the solution to avoid any possible injury. If the stand is too SEfflW! thick, it may be necessary to thin, and if the bed was not burned or was not well burned, it will be necessary to Aveed. A week or ten days before time for taking the plants up, the cheesecloth or glass should be kept off some to harden them. Preparing the Field. If the danger of washing will not be in- creased, fall or winter plowing of tobacco land is frequently advisable. At any rate, early plowing should usually be practised to give vegetable matter time to decay and become available as plant food and to aid in the destruction of some of the insect pests. Where 468 TOBACCO PRODUCTION cover crops are grown or even where clover is to be plowed under it may be best to let this stand until within a month or less oti planting time to make more vegetable matter. However, when this is done the crop should be thoroughly disked before plowing, to hasten the decay of the green crop. The land should be thor- oughly harrowed, disked, and rolled to make a fine and firm seedbed. Distances of Planting. The spacing of plants varies with the type of tobacco and the character of soil. The Connecticut Havana seed tobacco is grown in rows about three feet three inches or three feet six inches apart and fourteen to twenty inches in the row. The Connecticut broad-leaf is spaced twenty to twenty-four inches in rows somewhat wider than the Havana seed. The Wisconsin tobacco is grown in rows thirty-four to thirty-eight inches apart and is spaced in the rows eighteen to twenty-four inches. The Cuban variety is grown in rows three to three and one-half feet apart and is spaced fourteen inches in the row. The Pennsylvania broad-leaf is grown in rows three to four feet apart and is spaced in the rows eighteen to thirty inches. The Miami Valley tobacco is grown in rows thirty-four to thirty-six inches apart and is spaced twenty-two to twenty-eight inches in the row. The dark tobacco is usually grown in checks, the plants being about three and one-half feet apart each way. White Burley is grown in rows three and one-half feet apart and is spaced in the rows eighteen to twenty-four inches. Flue- cured tobacco is grown in rows three and one-half to four feet apart and is spaced in the row two to three feet apart. Maryland tobacco is grown in checks thirty-two to thirty-six inches apart each way. Transplanting to the Field. Machine planting is becoming more common. When the acreage justifies, the machine proves a good investment. It takes a driver and two persons to set the plants. It automatically waters and the skilled setter places the plant so as to get most benefit from this. When hand setting is employed the rows are marked off, and then the places are usually marked in some way for the plants. A buggy wheel with the rim removed and the spoke spaces right may be run down the row to mark places for plants. When the tobacco is placed in checks, cross-rows have to be marked to indicate where the TOPPING 469 plants go. An opening is made with a peg or dibble and the plant is inserted and the dirt firmed. If the soil is not moist enough, Fome water will have to be poured in each hole. It is better to set in cloudy weather and late in the day when this is practicable. Seasons for Setting in Different Regions, Tobacco is trans- planted when the season gets warm so the plants will grow well with- out being stunted. In Florida this would be in March, in Georgia in April. In South Carolina planting begins in April, and runs through May and into early June in North Carolina and Virginia. In Tennessee and Kentucky planting begins in the latter part of May and should end in the first half of June. In Ohio transplant- ing is done in the first three weeks of June. In Pennsylvania and Wisconsin transplanting is done in June, the best time being not far from the middle of the month. In the Connecticut Valley the tobacco is set the last of May or early in June. CARE OF THE GROWING CROP Cultivation. The cultivation of tobacco should begin soon after the plants are set, at least by the time they take root, and should be continued at frequent intervals so long as the growth of the plants will permit. It is often an advantage to cultivate rather deep early to let air down into the soil and warm it. In a droughty year this would be of doubtful value. After this the aim in culti- vation should be to preserve a dust mulch and to prevent the growth of weeds. The hoe should be used just enough to keep the weeds down. Topping. The aim of the grower is to develop all good mature leaves as nearly as possible. To this end he removes the flower heads of the plants when enough leaves have formed. Another important reason for topping is that blooming and forming seed is exhausting to the plant and damages the quality of leaf. Only the plants that are to produce seed are allowed to bloom. Others are topped when enough leaves have formed, when the button of the bloom appears or when the plants begin to bloom. The practice varies with the section. However, it is pretty certain that nothing is gained in quality by allowing a plant to open its flowers before topping. The number of leaves varies with the purpose for which the tobacco is grown, the variety and the soil. Ten or twelve leaves 470 TOBACCO PRODUCTION are as many as are ordinarily left to the plant in some regions, while in others as many as twenty may be left. Suckering. After the plant is topped it sends out suckers in the axils of the leaves. If these are allowed to grow they damage the quality of the leaf. Ordinarily these are removed soon after they form or when two to four inches long. Others appear after this and must be removed in time or they will injure the tobacco. It is customary to sucker only once in Wisconsin and that just before harvesting. This practice is not usual. Priming. Priming is the term applied to the removing of the lower leaves of the plant that are practically ruined by dragging in the soil and becoming dirty and frayed. Sometimes the priming is done at the time of topping. Bottom leaves are removed until those left are above danger of injury from the ground, and then the plant is topped until as many are left as it is desired to mature. In other cases the priming is done before or about the time of ripening. Tobacco Rotations in Different Regions. Strict rotation is followed no more closely with tobacco than with other farm crops. The crop often follows itself, and in other cases is just fitted in where it is handy or where it is thought a crop can be grown. The Virginia Experiment Station has done some valuable work in work- ing out rotation for tobacco that keeps up the fertility of the land and at the same time produces good quality of leaf. One recom- mended for the sun-cured district is: First year, tobacco; second year, wheat; third and fourth year, grass; fifth year, corn with crimson clover cover crop; sixth year, cow peas; seventh year, red clover. The following year tobacco would be grown again. If wire worms and cut worms are bad the clover would be omitted and the tobacco would follow the peas. The Virginia Station recommends the following rotation for dark and flue-cured tobaccos: First year, tobacco; second year, wheat; third, fourth, and probably fifth year, grass. Herd's grass seems to be one of the best crops to precede flue-cured tobacco. In Pennsylvania some very good rotations are followed. A three year rotation is: (1) Wheat, (2) grass, (3) tobacco. This is made a four-year rotation by inserting corn between grass and tobacco. GROWING TOBACCO UNDER ARTIFICIAL SHADE 471 A rotation that is followed in the dark tobacco district of Ten- nessee and Kentucky when clover will succeed is: (1) Tobacco, (2) wheat, (3) red clover. In the White Burley district of Ken- tucky, as already stated, the tobacco is put on new land, in a pasture that has never been broken or in one that has lain in sod for from ten to twenty years. When a good piece of land is put in tobacco it may be sown to rye to turn under in the spring, and tobacco may be planted a second time. After this wheat or rye is usually sown and the land is put back in grass. Other growers raise one crop of tobacco on blue-grass sod and then sow rye and blue-grasses and let the land run in sod then for a term of years. Rotation is not followed systematically in Wisconsin. The sta- Pia. 199. Cheesecloth shade for growing fine wrapper tobacco. (Davis's "Productive Farming."; tion recommends that tobacco be grown three years in succession on a field and then that it be run in corn, barley, and clover for three years and then go back to tobacco. Another recommendation is that it run in tobacco four years and then run in corn, barley, clover, clover and grass, and then back in tobacco. A rather common rotation where rotation is practised in Ohio is: Tobacco, wheat, grass. This is sometimes made a four-year rotation by following grass with corn and corn with tobacco. Growing Tobacco Under Artificial Shade. Some cigar wrap- per tobacco is grown under artificial shade in Connecticut, Massachu- setts, and Florida. Tents of cheesecloth are erected over the land on which the tobacco is grown (Fig. 199) . Leaf of the finest quality 472 TOBACCO PRODUCTION is thus produced, and it brings a price that makes the very expensive method of raising profitable. HARVESTING THE CROP Ripeness is indicated by the leaves taking on a yellowish, tinge. It is noticeable on the bottom leaves first. The thickening leaf also has a leathery feel. Another test for some types is to turn up the under side of the leaf and fold between the fingers. If ripe it will snap or crack and retain the crease. In some regions the ripening of the leaves is uneven enough so that they are gathered separately as they ripen. Generally, however, the entire plant is harvested when the majority of the plants are at the best stage. Fi:o. 200. Frame for hauling tobacco to the barn, Wisconsin. (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station.) In some regions shears are used for cutting the stalks, in others a hatchet is used, some use corn cutters and others knives of different kinds. The plants are usually thrown with the butt end next to the sun. After wilting the tobacco is hung on sticks by spearing the stalks or by splitting them from the top to within six inches of the butt, and then placed on scaffolds and let stay outdoors for a few days or are taken directly to the barn. Worms and suckers are carefully removed as the crop is harvested (Fig. 200). CURING THE CROP Air Curing. After the tobacco has wilted and probably yellowed somewhat on the scaffold it is taken to the barn and the sticks are hung on tier poles which are far enough apart horizontally to acconv OPEN FIRE CURING 473 modate the stick and are far enough apart vertically so the tiers will not crowd each other. Air is admitted freely through side ventilators. Top ventilators are provided for the part of the crop put there. In dry weather the ventilators i*re kept open day and night, but on damp nights they are closed (Fig. 201). In very dry weather it may be necessary to close the ventilators during the day and open at night to keep the tobacco from curing too fast. In damp, drizzly weather it may be better to keep the ventilators closed day and night until the tobacco begins to sweat, when ventilators had better be opened. If the trying weather FIG. 201. Barn for curing white Burley tobacco, Kentucky. continues it may be necessary to make a fire under the tobacco of coke or charcoal. Open Fire Curing. In the dark tobacco districts the tobacco is hauled to the house after wilting or possibly after being placed on the scaffold to yellow to some extent and crowded closer together than in air curing. Very little regard is paid to ventilation in the barn. About five days after housing the yellowing process is com- pleted and firing is begun. If indications of heating and consequent house burn occurs, firing should be started earlier. The fire is built on the ground directly under the tobacco. Slow fires are kept up for the first two or three days to continue the yellowing process. Hotter 474 TOBACCO PRODUCTION fires are then kept up until the curing is practically completed. There is danger in curing too quickly. Some of the more careful growers fire for ten days. Sometimes, after about a week's firing, the tobacco is allowed to feweat, when slow fires are added for a few days. Hickory and oak wood are preferable. Flue-curing. Yellow tobacco is cured at a higher temperature than the types mentioned. The barn has close walls. If they are of log the cracks are chinked and daubed or stopped with cement. A ventilator is provided at the top. Furnaces are built on one side and pipes lead from these across the house and then back and pass through the wall a few feet higher than the level at which they left the furnace. A vertical pipe carries the smoke off. The tobacco is allowed to wilt to the right stage and is then hung in the house. The first tier of poles is pretty high off the ground, nine feet being a common height. The barn should be filled in one day and a thermometer hung about the center of the barn on the lower tier. A moderate fire is started and maintained until the leaf is thoroughly yellowed, which usually takes twenty-four to thirty- six hours. During this process the barn is kept tight. A tempera- ture of from 80 to 120 F. is maintained, beginning at the lower temperature and running up to the higher. The next thing to do is to remove moisture, which is the most critical part of the curing. A temperature of from 130 to 140 F. is' maintained until the leaf is dry. Close attention has to be paid to the ventilation to keep the moisture just right. After the moisture is gone the ventilators are closed down and the temperature is run up to 165 to 170 F. at the rate of about five degrees an hour. This temperature is maintained until all stems are dry (Fig. 202). Stripping, Sorting, and Tying. After tobacco is cured it is let hang until the conditions get right for the absorption of moisture, when the leaves become pliable and may be handled without break- ing. Some growers have a damping cellar where some of the tobacco can be hung to come in the right order for handling. During cold weather tobacco may be bulked down and covered after it gets in the proper condition for handling and kept that way for some time. During bulking tobacco may improve in quality. MARKETING 475 Tobacco must be handled only while in a pliable condition or it will crumble and ruin. It is stripped, unless it was stripped in harvesting, and graded. The number of grades varies with the kinds of tobacco. Length o^ leaf, freedom from injuries, texture, curing, and other points determine the grade. Practical experience only will enable one to learn to grade tobacco. As tobacco is stripped and sorted it is tied into hanks. A hank Fio. 202. Barn for curing dark tobacco, Tennessee. is a bunch of several leaves. The tie is made at the butts of the leaves with a leaf. Storing. The stripping and tying may take place so late in the season that the tobacco may be taken to market almost immediately afterwards. In some instances it is put into cases, tied into bales or prized into hogsheads, while still a larger part is marketed loose in the hanks. While in storage it usually ferments and the quality is thus improved if conditions are favorable. Marketing. Tobacco is mainly marketed individually. Some 476 TOBACCO PRODUCTION co-operative associations have been formed and sell the tobacco oi members, but this affects only a small part of the crop. The tobacco of Virginia and the Carolinas is sold by the auction sales system. Large loose-leaf warehouses are provided in centers. Here the farmers bring the crop. It is placed in charge of the ware- house, is weighed and tagged with owner's name and is piled on the floor. Buyers can inspect freely as the auction goes on. As piles are sold, the owners are credited with the amount due and the buyers' wagons remove the tobacco. The State requires that the scales be standardized and that weighings and all transactions be honestly conducted. In the Baltimore market the State guarantees samples and has State inspection. The samples of the farmers' tobacco are taken in charge by commission men and they and the buyer trade. Some- times the farmer fixes a minimum price. Lexington, Kentucky, has loose-leaf auction sales and handles an immense amount of tobacco. In some other markets auction sales are conducted, but the buying is done by sample. Only these are exhibited in the salesroom. In other markets, like Clarksville, Tennessee, and Hopkinsville, Kentucky, most of the tobacco is sold from the wagon by the farmer. The buyers may bid on it, but this is done privately. If a co-opera- tive association handles the tobacco, its salesman takes samples of each farmer's tobacco and sets the price at which it shall sell. Yields and Prices. For the ten-year period, 1900-1909, the average yields and prices were as follows : State Pounds per acre Cents per pound Connecticut , 1657 16.4 Pennsylvania 1331 8.6 Maryland 634 6.5 Virginia 717 7.8 North Carolina 622 8.8 Florida 722 31.4 Ohio 875 8.6 Wisconsin 1278 8.6 Kentucky 833 7.5 Tennessee 734 7.3 INSECT ENEMIES Tobacco Horn Worm. The tobacco horn worm is the worst insect pest of the crop. If left alone it will usually completely ruin the tobacco. A combination of hand-picking and arsenic poisons is the practical means of control (Fig. 203). When the infestation CUTWORMS 477 is light hand-picking may be the most practical. It is usually advisable to begin early, before the worms become abundant. It is often necessary, too, late in the season, after spraying is stopped. Arsenate of lead paste used at the rate of four pounds to fifty gallons of water makes an effective spray. However, it is more practical to use the powdered arsenate of lead in a dust form. Mr. A. C. Morgan, of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology, finds that this can be FIG. 203. The Northern Tobacco Worm or Horn Worm, (a) moth; (6) larva; (c) pupa (after Howard). The tobacco worms appear in large numbers during certain years. Several methods may be practised to control the pests. (Wisconsin Bulletin 237.) applied best when mixed with equal part of sifted wood ashes. This must be applied with a powerful dust gun and when it is calm. Three and a half to five pounds of arsenate of lead per acre are thus used. The arsenate of lead sticks better than Paris green and does not injure the tobacco, while Paris green is liable to do so. Fall plowing helps in the control of the horn worm. Cutworms. The cutworm often makes it hard to get a stand 478 TOBACCO PRODUCTION . of tobacco. When the land is badly infested with this insect late planting, preceded by over a month of absolutely clean culture to keep all vegetation down, is often advisable. It may be necessary to poison some clover by wetting it with Paris green at the rate of one ounce to six gallons of water and scattering this clover at intervals of six to eight feet late in the evening so that the worms will get it during the night while fresh. Wireworms. The eggs of wireworms are deposited by the parent moth in weedy fields in July and August and the larvae that hatch remain in the ground over winter. Clean culture to prevent the growth of the weeds practically eliminates the wireworm the fol- lowing year. Cow peas or soy beans grown in rows and culti- vated the summer before tobacco is planted practically insure no damage from tobacco wireworms. Budworms. The budworm is combated by applying Paris green mixed with corn meal at the rate of a tablespoonful to a peck of meal. This mixture is applied in the bud during the time of attack two or three times a week. The Splitworm. This worm is the larva of a very small moth. The worm acts as a leaf miner and does considerable damage to the crop where numerous. It is not generally serious yet. As a re- medial measure it is suggested that the crop be put out as early as practicable ; if the early infestation is serious, take off infested leaves and destroy. When the crop is removed plow the land and clean up as thoroughly as possible to get rid of the wintering insects. Do not follow potatoes with tobacco, and remove the potato field as far from tobacco as possible. Tobacco Thrips. This minute insect feeds on the surface of tobacco leaves and thus causes a lighter color that may reduce the selling price at least fifty per cent. As it is particularly injurious to shade tobacco, the loss is very great. The adult appears to pass the winter in the tobacco field. For this reason rotation of crops and fall plowing of tobacco land and cleaning up rubbish would offer some relief. The practice of locating the plant bed in the field is bad. As the pest breeds in oats, this crop should not be near the tobacco. Kerosene emulsion is effective against thrips. It should be used first when the plants are in the plant bed. After they are removed to the field two sprayings a week are advisable. Spraying may be needed for as long as ten weeks. MOSAIC DISEASE OR CALICO 479 FUNGOUS DISEASES Bed-rot or Damping Off. The rotting of young plants in the plant bed is usually spoken of as damping off. It starts at or near the surface of the ground. Planting in new soil may avoid the trouble, and the various methods of treating the plant bed to kill weed seed also destroy the fungus. Steaming is especially valuable for killing fungous diseases, but roasting or surface firing should be effective, too. Spraying with formalin, 1 to 50, will kill the fungous spores if done before planting the seed. After the disease is started the only way to stop it is to take off cheesecloth and thus lower the temperature, and to limit the water so conditions will be unfavorable to its development. Thinning the plants to admit air will also help. Root Rot or Black Root. This disease attacks roots of the plants both in the bed and in the field, causing them to turn brown or black. It can be controlled in the plant bed by the means sug- gested for damping off, but the only practical remedy in the field is to rotate and have clean soil to set the clean plants in. Brown and White Rusts. This disease is characterized by the death of small spots in the leaves. These may run together and cause a considerable part of the leaf to shrivel up. It seems to be due to a number of conditions. Excess of water, of certain fertiliz- ing material or of manure, deep cultivation, insufficient moisture at certain stages, moist weather succeeded by hot weather, drops of dew acting as a lens focusing the sun's rays may cause the brown or white rusts. No practical method of control can be suggested. However, tobacco should not be planted in fields known to produce the disease. Mosaic Disease or Calico. This disease is characterized by the mottled appearance of the leaf due to the presence of the light green and dark green areas. In pronounced cases the leaf may be wrinkled or corrugated. No parasite has thus far been found associated with the disease, but it seems to be able to perpetuate itself. Plant beds should not be placed where the disease has been bad before. When only a few diseased plants occur they should be taken up and destroyed. When the disease is likely to occur planting on poorly drained soil should be avoided. The disease may be transmitted from one plant to another in suckering and topping. For this reason the healthy plants should not be topped by the same person at the same time as the diseased plants. 480 TOBACCO PRODUCTION Shed Burn or Pole Rot. Shed burn or pole rot occurs in the house. Sometimes it never develops beyond small dark spots on the curing leaf, and in other cases it may involve the entire leaf and may in extreme cases destroy the house of tobacco. It is controlled by the proper regulation of temperature and humidity of the air. It does not develop below 60 F. nor in air where the humidity is below 8 ! 5 F. As the temperature is raised the humidity must be kept at the proper stage or loss will follow. This is often difficult in air curing. Stem Rot. Stem rot is a fungous disease that attacks the stem in the house. It is controlled by regulating heat and moisture. Wet Butts or Fat Stern. This disease is characterized by wet, discolored and soggy condition of the stem during curing. It may extend to the leaf veins. Late tobacco is more likely to be attacked. Open fires to dry the air will usually check the trou'ble. Black Rot in Sweating. Black rot in sweating is recognized by dark brown or black color instead of the normal color of the cured leaf. It loses texture and develops its own peculiar odor that is detected by any tobacco man. It grows best in a temperature of about 100. To avoid trouble the tobacco should be cured out before freezing weather. Forced sweating that raises the temperature to 113 will prevent black rot. If the moisture is low enough the disease will not develop. White Vein Disease. In this disease the veins assume a whitened appearance. It occurs in drying weather. It may be pre- vented by sprinkling water on the floor to keep up the humidity of the air. Molds or Rusts. White molds or mustiness occurs to some extent on fermenting tobacco. It may be controlled by the methods suggested under black rot in sweating. LABORATORY EXERCISES 1. Examine tobacco soils in laboratory. 2. Separate large and small tobacco seed. 3. Study types of cured leaf. 4. Examine and use spraying machines. 5. Make a mixture of arsenate of lead and ashes for poisoning horn worms. FIELD STUDIES 1. Study tobacco soils in neighborhood. 2. Study growing tobacco plants. 3. Visit tobacco plant beds. QUESTIONS 481 4. Compare methods of sterilizing beds. 5. Learn rate of seeding. 0. Investigate distances of planting crop. 7. Study methods of transplanting. 8. Study local practice as to topping, suckering, priming and control- ling insect pests. 9. Study local rotations. 10. Study houses and housing. 11. Study local method of curing. 12. Study method of stripping, grading, tying, storing and marketing, 13. Investigate yields and prices in the neighborhood. 14. Study insect pests and fungous diseases. QUESTIONS 1. Name the important tobacco States in order of production. 2. Give botanical name of tobacco. 3. Name three general classes of tobacco. 4. Name three types of cigar tobacco. 5. Name three variety groups of cigar leaf tobacco. 6. Name principal variety groups used in producing dark and flue-cured tobaccos. 7. Name variety of tobacco produced in the blue-grass section of Kentucky. 8. On what kinds of soil are the leading types of tobacco produced? 9. Give fertilizer formulae or analyses for the different districts. 10. Give form of potash to use. 11. Name some sources of nitrogen for the tobaccp crop. 12. Name some sources of phosphoric acid. 13. Give a method of using tobacco stalks on tobacco land. 14. Give location of plant bed, fertilization, methods of sterilizing and preparing for planting. 15. Give method of sowing tobacco seed, and rate of seeding. 16. Give after-care of bed. 17. Give preparation of field for tobacco. 18. Give distances of planting in different sections. 19. Give methods of transplanting to field. 20. Give seasons for transplanting in different sections. 21. Give cultivation of crop. 22. Why is topping important and how and when done? 23. When is suckering done and why is it important? 24. What is priming and when is it done? 25. Give rotations for different sections. 26. In what States is tobacco grown under shade? 27. How is ripeness of the crop indicated? 28. How is the crop harvested ? 29. Give method of air-curing. 30. Give method of flue-curing. 31. Give method of open-fire curing. 32. Discuss stripping, sorting, tying and storing. 33. Give methods of marketing tobacco in different sections. 34. Give some yields per acre and prices per pound. 35. Name important insect enemies and give methods of control. 36. Name important fungous diseases and give methods of control. APPENDIX I Legal Weights Per Bushel of Seeds l State or territory >> 1 5, a 8 | S3 a> J3 ft or beans h L in ear Si | rt !" 1 o 1 ** gg 1 "ft 3 a" o 09 i j3 3 rC K 2 S ft 03 03 D PQ 3 5 2 n i PQ 03 u O G 6 a* 3 "o^ U 49 "o O S 3& W x 03 E H O B Alabama 47 60 70 75 ^6 32 45 a60 54 Arkansas 48 660 14 48 5^ 60 70 74 56 331 56 50 40 52 48 60 14 52 60 70 56 44 Connecticut 48 60 48 60 56 44 30 55 56 Florida 48 60 48 70 56 46 32 47 660 14 52 60 70 56 30 56 44 Idaho 48 48 660 14 42 59 46 60 60 70 56 56 56 56 44 Indiana Iowa Kansas 48 48 48 60 60 60 14 14 14 30 50 52 50 46 46 46 60 60 60 c70 70 70 56 56 56 22 56 56 44 44 44 Kentucky 47 660 14 56 45 60 d7Q 56 14 56 44 }9 56 Maine Maryland .... 48 62 48 56 4S 60 48 60 56 11 30 55 Michigan 48 48 60 60 14 14 57 48 50 46 60 60 70 70 56 56 56 44 50 Mississippi 48 48 660 60 14 14 48 52 46 46 60 60 72 70 56 56 32 33 56 56 44 44 Montana 48 60 14 5"> 60 70 56 56 44 Nebraska New Hampshire New Jersey 48 48 660 62 60 14 52 50 46 60 64 70 56 56 56 56 55 44 New York 48 60 48 60 56 44 30 55 48 50 60 56 30 55 North Dakota 48 60 SO 42 60 70 56 56 Ohio 48 60 50 60 68 56 56 44 Oklahoma 48 60 SO <\ f > 60 70 56 56 46 42 60 56 47 48 60 56 Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota 48 48 60 60 SO 48 d 9 46 60 60 70 . 70 56 56 44 42 30 30 56 56 44 Tennessee Texas 48 48 60 660 14 42 50 4 9 46 60 60 70 70 74 72 56 56 28 32 56 56 44 44 48 62 48 60 56 Virginia 48 48 660 14 52 49 60 60 70 56 56 32 60 56 56 44 West Virginia 48 60 52 60 56 5fi 48 60 50 60 56 44 30 56 44 i Experiment Station Work, Vol. II, No. 15. Compiled from Bulletin 51, United States De- partment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, a Small white beans 60 pounds, other beans 55. 6 White beans. c From harvest to December 1, 70 pounds; after December 1, 68 pounds. d From November 1 to May 1, 70 pounds; from May 1 to November 1, 68 pounds. 482 APPENDIX I Legal Weights Per Bushel of Seeds (Continued) 483 State or territory Herd's grass Hungarian grass > il 1 ** j S 00 C3 Orchard-grass Osage orange Peanuts 1 ! P5 | "I g K g tf Sorghum 00 9 j 1 Timothy Velvet beans, in hull V Alabama 3?! 60 56 60 3? 56 60 50 3? 14 60 14 56 50 60 60 California 3? 54 60 3?1 56 45 60 Connecticut 4ft 3?, 60 45 56 45 60 60 Florida 50 32 3? 22 60 43 56 56 56 45 78 60 60 Idaho 36 56 60 Illinois Indiana 50 50 50 32 32 3? 14 33 32 56 56 56 30 45 45 45 60 60 60 Kansas Kentucky Louisiana <1*i 50 50 50 50 32 32 32 3? 14 60 60 56 56 32 56 45 45 60 60 60 60 Maryland ?ft Massachusetts.. . . Michigan 45 50 50 32 3? 14 33 60 60 14 45 56 56 58 45 45 60 60 Minnesota Mississippi 48 50 48 48 50 50 32 32 3? 14 14 ?6 60 60 60 50 14 M 56 56 56 57 42 4? 45 45 45 60 60 60 Montana 50 3?l 60 56 45 60 Nebraska . . . 50 50 3? 3? 60 56 30 4,5 60 New Hampshire . . New Jersey . . 32 ?0 60 60 56 56 60 60 New York North Carolina . . . North Dakota. . . . Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina. . . South Dakota .... Tennessee 45 50 50 48 ?o 50 50 50 50 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 3?, 14 33 ?3 6C 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 14 45 44 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 50 45 42 45 42 45 42 45 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 Texas Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin 45 48 48 48 50 50 50 32 32 30 32 32 32 14 34 22 60 60 50 12 45 56 56 56 56 56 56 45 45 45 45 45 60 60 60 60 60 60 Weights of miscellaneous seeds not included in the table: Amber cane, New Jersey, 57 pounds per bushel; beggar weed, Florida, 62 pounds; canary seed, Tennessee, 60 pounds; hickory nuts, Tennessee, 50 pounds; Indian wheat, Vermont, 46 pounds; Japanese barnyard millet, Massachu- setts, 35 pounds; Johnson grass, Arkansas, 28 pounds; Kaffir corn, Kansas, 56 pounds; pop-corn in ear, Indiana, 70 pounds; Ohio, 42 pounds; Tennessee, 70 pounds; pop-corn, shelled, Kansas, 56 pounds; spelt, North Dakota, 48 pounds; velvet grass, Tennessee, 7 pounds; walnuts, Tennessee, 50 pounds. APPENDIX II II. MARKET GRADES OF HAY AND STRAW HAY No. i Timothy Hay. Shall be timothy, with not more than one- eighth (i/ 8 ) mixed with clover or other tame grasses, may contain some brown blades, properly cured, good color, sound and well baled. No. 2 Timothy Hay. Shall be timothy, not good enough for No. 1, not over one-fourth ( 14 ) mixed with clover or other tame grasses, fair color, sound and well baled. No. 3 Timothy Hay. Shall include all timothy not good enough for other grades, sound and reasonably well baled. Light Clover Mixed Hay. Shall be timothy mixed with clover. The clover mixture not over one-third (y 3 ), properly cured, sound, good color and well baled. No. i Clover Mixed Hay. Shall be timothy and clover mixed, with at least one-half ( ^ ) timothy, good color, sound and well baled. No. 2 Clover Mixed Hay. Shall be timothy and clover mixed, with at least one-fourth (%) timothy, reasonably sound and well baled. No. i Clover Hay. Shall be medium clover, not over one-twentieth (^ ) other grasses, properly cured, sound and well baled. No. 2 Clover Hay. Shall be clover, sound and reasonably well baled, not good enough for No. 1. Sample Hay. Shall be sound, reasonably well baled, mixed, grassy, threshed or hay not covered by other grades. No Grade Hay. Shall include all hay, musty, or in any way unsound. Choice Prairie Hay. Shall be upland hay of bright, natural color, well cured, sweet, sound, and may contain 3 per cent weeds. No,, i Prairie Hay. Shall be upland and may contain one-quarter midland, both of good color, well cured, sweet, sound, and may contain 8 per cent weeds. No. 2 Prairie Hay. Shall be upland, of fair color, and may contain one-half midland, both of good color, well cured, sweet, sound, and may contain 12^ per cent weeds. No. 3 Prairie Hay. Shall include hay not good enough for other grades and not caked. No. i Midland Hay. Shall be midland hay of good color, well cured, sweet, sound, and may contain 3 per cent weeds. No. 2 Midland Hay. Shall be of fair color, or slough hay of good color, and may contain 12 ^ per cent of weeds. Packing Hay. Shall include all wild hay not good enough for other grades and not caked. Sample Prairie Hay. Shall include all hay not good enough for other grades. ALFALFA Choice Alfalfa. Shall be reasonably fine leafy alfalfa of bright green color, properly cured, sound, sweet, and well baled. No. i Alfalfa. Shall be reasonably coarse alfalfa, of a bright green color, or reasonably fine leafy alfalfa of a good color and may contain 2 per cent of foreign grasses, 5 per cent of air bleached hay on outside of bale allowed, but must be sound and well baled. 484 APPENDIX II 485 Standard Alfalfa. May be of green color, of coarse or medium texture, and may contain 5 per cent foreign matter; or it may be of green color, of coarse or medium texture, 20 per cent bleached and 2 per cent foreign matter; or it may be of greenish cast, of fine stem and clinging foliage, and may contain 5 per cent foreign matter. All to be sound, sweet and well baled. No. 2 Alfalfa. Shall be any sound, sweet and well-baled alfalfa, not good enougli for standard, and may contain 10 per cent foreign matter. No. 3 Alfalfa. May contain 25 per cent stack spotted hay, but must be dry and not contain more than 8 per cent of foreign matter; or it may be of green color and may contain 50 per cent of foreign matter; or it may be set alfalfa and may contain 5 per cent foreign matter. All to be reasonably well baled. No Grade Alfalfa. Shall include all alfalfa not good enough for No. 3. STRAW Baled straw is abundantly sold in the large markets. No. i Straight Rye-Straw. Shall be in large bales, clean, bright, long rye-straw, pressed in bundles, sound and well baled. No. 2 Straight Rye-Straw. Shall be in large bales, long rye-straw, pressed in bundles, sound and well baled, not good enougli for No. 1. No. i Tangled Rye-Straw. Shall be reasonably clean rye-straw, good color, sound and well baled. No. 2 Tangled Rye-Straw. Shall be reasonably clean, may be some stained, but not good enough for No. 1. No. i Wheat-Straw. Shall be reasonably clean wheat-straw, sound and well baled. No. 2 Wheat-Straw. Shall be reasonably clean; may be some stained, but not good enough for No. 1. No. i Oat-Straw. Shall be reasonably clean oat-straw, sound and well baled. No. 2 Oat-Straw. Shall be reasonably clean; may be some stained, but not good enough for No. 1. APPENDIX III GRADES OF GRAIN Here are given grades of grain adopted by the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Markets, to go into effect July 15, 1918. Official grades so far adopted only cover wheat, shelled corn, and oats. ORDER ESTABLISHING OFFICIAL GRAIN STANDARDS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR WHEAT. Pursuant to the authority vested in the Secretary of Agriculture by the United States grain standards Act, approved August 11, 1916 (39 U. S. Statutes at Large, page 482), I, David F. Houston, Secretary of Agri- culture, do hereby fix, .establish, promulgate, and give public notice of, standards of quality and condition for wheat, as hereinafter described, which shall become effective on the fifteenth day of July, nineteen hundred and eighteen, and shall thereupon supersede the official grain standards of the United States for wheat as promulgated by me under said Act on the thirty-first day of March, nineteen hundred and seventeen: OFFICIAL GRAIN STANDARDS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR WHEAT. For the purposes of the official grain standards of the United States for wheat : Section i Wheat. Airy grain which, when free from dockage, con- tains more than ten per centum of grain of a kind or kinds other than wheat shall not be classified as wheat. The term "wheat'' in these standards shall not include emmer, spelt, and einkorn. Sec. 2 Basis of Determinations Each determination of dockage, moisture, temperature, odor, onions, garlic, and live weevils or other in- sects injurious to stored grain shall be upon the basis of the grain including dockage. All other determinations shall be upon the basis of the grain when free from dockage. Sec. 3 Percentages. Percentages, except in the case of moisture, shall be percentages ascertained by weight. Sec. 4 Percentage of Moisture. Percentage of moisture in wheat shall be that ascertained by the moisture tester and the method of use thereof described in Circular No. 72, and supplement thereto, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, or ascertained by any device and method giving equivalent results. Sec. 5 Test Weight Per Bushel .Test weight per bushel shall be the weight per Winchester bushel as determined by the testing apparatus and the method of use thereof described in Bulletin No. 472, dated October 30, 1916, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, or as de- termined by any device and method giving equivalent results. Sec. 6 Dockage.- Dockage includes sand, dirt, weed seeds, weed stems, chaff, straw, grain other than wheat, and any other foreign ma- terial, which can be removed readily from the wheat by the use of ap- propriate sieves, cleaning devices, or other practical means suited to separate the foreign material present ; also undeveloped, shriveled, and small pieces of wheat kernels removed in properly separating the foreign 486 APPENDIX III 487 material, and which cannot be recovered by properly rescreening or recleaning. The quantity of dockage shall be calculated in terms of per- centage based on the total weight of the grain including the dockage. The percentage of dockage so calculated, when equal to one per centum or more, shall be stated in terms of whole per centum; and when less than one per centum shall not be stated. A fraction of a per centum shall be disregarded. The percentage of dockage, so determined, and stated, shall be added to the grade designation. Sec. 7 Foreign Material Other Than Dockage. Foreign material other than dockage shall include all matiter other than wheat which is not separated from the wheat in the proper determination of dockage, except as provided in the case of smutty wheat. Sec. 8 Cereal Grains. Cereal grains shall include rye, barley, emrner, spelt, einkorn, corn, grain, sorghums, oats and rice only, and shall not include buckwheat, flaxseed, and wild oats. Sec. 9 Heat-damaged Kernels. Heat-damaged kernels shall be kernels and pieces of kernels of wheat which have been distinctly dis- colored by external heat or as a result of heating caused by fermentation. Sec. 10 Treated Wheat Treated wheat shall be wheat of which more than ten per centum has been scoured, limed, washed, or treated in any similar manner. Sec. ii Garlicky Wheat Garlicky wheat shall be all wheat which has an unmistakable odor of garlic or wild onions, or which contains garlic or wild onion bulblets in a quantity equal to one or more bulblets in one thousand grams of wheat. Sec. 12 Smutty Wheat Smutty wheat shall be all wheat which has an unmistakable odor of smut, or which contains spores, balls, or portions of balls, of smut, in excess of a quantity equal to two balls of average size in fifty grams of wheat. CLASSES AND SUBCLASSES OF WHEAT. Sec. 13 Classes and Subclasses Wheat shall be divided into classes and subclasses as follows: CLASS 1. HARD RED SPRING. This class shall include all varieties of hard red spring wheat, and may include not more than ten per centum of other wheat or wheats. This class shall be divided into three subclasses as follows: Dark Northern Spring. This subclass shall include wheat of the class Hard Red Spring consisting of seventy-five per centum or more of dark, hard, and vitreous kernels! This subclass shall not include more than ten per centum of wheat of the variety Humpback. Northern Spring. Tli is subclass shall include wheat of the class Hard Red Spring con- sisting of less than seventy-five per centum and more than twenty-five per centum of dark, hard, and vitreous kernels. This sulx-lass sliall not in- clude moru than ten per centum of wheat of the variety Humpback. 48$ APPENDIX ill Red Spring. This subclass shall include wheat of the class Hard Red Spring con- sisting of not more than twenty-five per centum of dark, hard and vitre- ous kernels. This subclass shall also include wheat of the class Hard Red Spring consisting of more than ten percentum of the variety Hump- back. CLASS II. DURUM. This class shall include all varieties of durum wheat, and may in- clude not more than ten per centum of other wheat or wheats. This class shall be divided into three subclasses as follows: Amber Durum. This subclass shall include wheat of the class Durum consisting of seventy-five percentum or more of hard and vitreous kernels of amber color. This subclass shall not include more than ten per centum of wheat of the variety Red Durum. Durum. This subclass shall include wheat of the class Durum, consisting of less than seventy-five per centum of hard and vitreous kernels of amber color. This subclass shall not include more than ten per centum of wheat of the variety Red Durum. Red Durum. This subclass shall include wheat of the class Durum consisting of more than ten per centum of the variety Red Durum. CLASS III. HARD RED WINTER. This class shall include all varieties of hard red winter wheat, and may include not more than ten per centum of other wheat or wheats. This class shall be divided into three subclasses as follows: Dark Hard Winter. This subclass shall include wheat of the class Hard Red Winter consisting of eighty per centum or more of dark, hard, and vitreous kernels. Hard Winter. Tli is subclass shall include wheat of the class Hard Red Winter consisting of less than eighty per centum and more than twenty-five per centum of dark, hard, and vitreous kernels. Yellow Hard Winter. This subclass shall include wheat of the class Hard Red Winter consisting of not more than twenty-five per centum of dark, hard, and vitreous kernels. APPENDIX III 489 CLASS IV. SOFT BED WINTER. This class shall include all varieties of soft red winter wheat, also red club and red hybrid wheats of the Pacific Northwest, and may in- clude not more than ten per centum of other wheat or wheats. This class shall be divided into two subclasses as follows: Red Winter. This subclass shall include wheat of the class Soft Red Winter con- sisting of both, light and dark colored kern-els. This subclass shall not include more than ten per centum, either singly or in any combination, of Red Russian, red clubs, red hybrids, and other soft red winter wheats possessing the characteristics of those varieties as grown west of the Great Plains area of the United States. Western Red. This subclass shall include wheat of the class Soft Red Winter con- sisting of more than ten per centum, either singly or in any combination, of Red Russian, red clubs, red hybrids, and other soft red winter wheats possessing the characteristics of those varieties as grown west of th Great Plains area of the United States. CLASS V. WHITE. This class shall include all varieties of common white wheat, whether winter or spring grown, and may include not more than ten per centum of other wheat or wheats. This class shall be divided into two subclasses as follows: Hard White. This subclass shall include wheat of the class Common White con- sisting of seventy-five per centum or more of hard (not soft and chalky) kernels. Soft White. This subclass shall includ-e wheat of the class Common White con- sisting of less than* seventy- five per centum of hard (not soft and chalky ) kernels. WESTERN WHITE. This class shall include all varieties and hybrids of white club wheat, and the common white wheat known as Sonora, and may include not more than ten per centum of other wheat or wheats. MIXED WHEAT. Sec. 14 Mixed Wheat Mixed wheat shall be any mixture of wheat not provided for in the classes from I. to VI., inclusive, defined in section 13. 490 Ai*ENDlX 111 ||l 3 -'^oooo ^< 4> * S-sl H a; ^^^^ : I**. 3 ' |ll| tsiopppo .' II! ~c J M g J | ,^j o T-J c"a co to ^fe'S C^jS o Ci""* CJ PH o ^I-H (M CO to b- 1 p H ft, ; I'll "5 * a "5 g a,' ti-H >-2 ' i! o, -"S .5 ' . ^ Jc p^ felH 3^ S gs H ^ ^-o"S^ * Da's "*S S lO S '" H ' 1-S O> M 1 OQ S^-^JO c8^ **^ |S53 j | i* a gos^ ^85 ^ I rt * I ^"2^3 a 1 ^ *-2 -2^^'C J^ to to tO to u5 ^J'E ||| M H 3 ^ "S4 a 1 ^ c S ^ O ! ' * g iO~.S ^ 03 e - c . i i 02 > "o to J- ' - * ^-^ o .3 -.52 APPENDIX III 4 91 ( 1 ) The wheat in grades Nos. 1 to 4, inclusive, shall be cool and sweet. (2) The wheat in grade No. 5 shall be cool, but may be musty or slightly sour. (3) The wheat in grade No. 1 Dark Northern Spring and grade No. 1 Northern Spring may contain not more than 5 per centum of the hard red spring wheat variety Humpback. (4) The wheat in grade No. 1 Amber Durum and grade No. 1 Durum may contain not more than 5 per centum of the durum wheat variety Red Durum. ( 5 ) For each of the subclasses of the class Durum, grade No. 1 and grade No. 2, may contain not more than 2 per centum, and 5 per centum, respect- ively, of soft red winter, common white, and white club wheat, either singly or in any combination. ( 6 ) For each of the subclasses of the classes Hard Red Spring and Hard Red Winter, grade No. 1 and grade No. 2, may contain not more than 2 per centum, and 5 per centum, respectively, of common white, white club, and durum wheat, either singly or in any combination. (7) For each of the subclasses of the classes Soft Red Winter and White, grade No. 1 and grade No. 2, may contain not more than 2 per centum, and 3 per centum, respectively, of durum wheat. NOTE. For grades for Mixed wheat, Treated wheat, Garlicky wheat, and Smutty wheat see sections Nos. 21, 22, 23, and 24, respectively, of the official grain standards of the United States for wheat. The above tabulation does not constitute in whole the official grain standards of the United States for wheat. UNITED STATES GRADES FOR RYE. For the purposes of the United States grades for rye: (NOTE. At this date, August 1, 1922, the grades of rye are being officially recommemnded by the United States Department of Agriculture, but have not been adopted or enforced). Section i Rye. Rye shall be made any grain which consists of 50 per cent or more of rye, and when free from dockage contains not more than 10 per cent of cereal grain of a kind or kinds other than rye. Sec. 2 Basis of Determinations. Each determination of dockage, moisture, temperature, odor, onions, garlic, and live weevils or other insects injurious to stored grain shall be upon the basis of the grain, including dockage. All other determinations shall be upon the basis of the grain when free from dockage. Sec. 3 Percentages. Percentages, except in the case of moisture, shall be percentages ascertained by weight. Sec. 4 Percentage of Moisture. Percentage of moisture in rye shall be that ascertained by the moisture tester and the method of use thereof described in Circular No. 72, and supplement thereto, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, or as deter- mined by any device and method giving equivalent results. Sec. 5 Test Weight Per Bushel. Test weight per bushel shall be the weight per Winchester bushel as determined by the testing apparatus and the method of use thereof described in Bulletin No. 472, dated October 30, 1916, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, or as determined by any device and method giving equivalent results. Sec. 6 Damaged Kernels. Shall be all grains and pieces of grains of rye which are " heat damaged," sprouted, frosted, badly ground damaged badly weather damaged, or otherwise distinctly damaged. Sec. 7 Heat Damaged Kernels. Heat damaged kernels shall be 492 APPENDIX III and pieces of kernels of rye and other grains which have distinctly dis- colored by external heat or as a result of heating caused by fermentation. Sec. 8 Dockage. Dockage includes sand, dirt, weed seeds, weed stems, chaff, straw, grain other than rye, and any foreign material, which can be removed readily from the rye by the use of appropriate sieves, cleaning devices, or other practical means suited to separate the foreign material present; also undeveloped, shriveled, and small pieces of rye, kernels removed in properly separating the foreign material, and which can not be recovered by properly rescreening or recleaning. The quantity of dockage shall be calculated in terms of percentage based on the total weight of the grain, including the dockage. The percentage of dockage so calculated, when equal to one per centum or more, shall be stated in terms of whole per centum, and when less than one per centum shall not be stated. A fraction of a per centum shall be disregarded. The percentage of dockage, so determined and stated, shall be added to the grade designation. , (NOTE. The dockage determination is made in the same manner and with the same sieves and apparatus used for determining dockage in wheat ) . Sec. 9 Foreign Material Other Than Dockage. Foreign material other than dockage shall include all matter other than rye, which is not separated from the rye in the proper determination of dockage. Sec. 10 Garlicky Rye Garlicky rye shall be all rye which has an unmistakable odor of garlic or wild onions or which contains garlic or wild onion bulblets in a quantity equal to one or more bulblets in 1,000 grams of rye. Garlicky rye shall be graded and designated according to the grade requirements of the grades applicable to such rye if it were not garlicky, and there shall be added to, and made a part of, the grade designation the word " garlicky." Sec. ii Weevilly Rye. Weevilly rye shall be all rye which is infested with live weevils or'other insects injurious to stored grain. Weevilly rye shall be graded and designated according to the grade requirements of the grades applicable to such rye if it were not weevilly, and there shall be added to, and made a part of, the grade designation the word " weevilly." Sec. 12 Ergoty Rye. Ergoty rye shall be all rye, which, after the removal of dockage, contains ergot in excess of 0.3 per cent. Ergoty rye shall be graded and designated according to the grade requirements of the grades applicable to such rye if it were not ergoty, and there shall be added to, and made a part of, the grade designation the word " ergoty." Sec. 13 Smutty Rye. Smutty rye shall be any rye which has an unmistakable odor of smut, or which contains spores, balls or portion of balls of smut, in excess of a quantity equal to two balls of average size in 50 grams of rye. Smutty rye shall be graded and designated according to the grade requirements of the grades applicable to such rye if it were not smutty and there shall be added to, and made a part of, the grade designation the word " smutty." Sec. 14 Grades. All rye shall be graded and designated No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, or Sample Grade, as the case may be, according to the respective requirements thereof as specified in these grades. No. 1. (a) shall be cool and of natural odor; (6) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least fifty-six pounds; APPENDIX III 493 (c) may contain not more than thirteen and one-half per centum of moisture; (d) may contain not more than two per centum of damaged kernels ; which two per centum may include not more than one-tenth of one per centum of heat-damaged grains; and (e) may contain not more than three per centum of foreign material other than dockage, which three per centum may include not more than one per centum of foreign matter other than wheat. No. 2. (a) shall be cool and of natural odor; (6) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least fifty-four pounds; (c) may contain not more than fourteen and one-half per centum of moisture; (d) may contain not more than four per centum of damaged kernels, which four per centum may include not more than two-tenths of one per centum of heat-damaged rye and other grains; and ( ( ) may contain not more than five per centum of foreign material other than dockage, which five per centum may include not more than three per centum of matter other than wheat. No. 3. (a) shall be cool and of natural odor; (&) shall have test weighi per bushel of at least fifty-two pounds; (c) may contain not more than fifteen and one half per centum of moisture; (d) may contain not more than seven per centum of damaged kernels, which seven per centum may include not more than five-tenths of one per centum of heat-damaged rye and other grains; and (e) may contain not more than ten per centum of foreign material other than dockage, which ten per centum may include not more than five per centum of matter other than wheat. No. 4. (a) shall be cool and may be musty or sour; (6) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least forty-nine pounds; (c) may contain not more than sixteen and one-half per centum of moisture; (d) may contain not more than fifteen per centum of damaged kernels, which fifteen per centum may include not more than three per centum of heat-damaged rye and other grains; and (e) may contain not more than ten per centum of foreign material other than dockage, which ten per centum may include not more than seven per centum of matter other than wheat. SAMPLE GRADE. Sample Grade rye shall be all rye which does not come within any of the grades from Nos. 1 to 4, inclusive, or which has any commercially objectionable foreign odor except of smut, garlic, or wild onions, or is heating, hot, or otherwise of distinctly low quality, or contains small, inseparable stones or cinders. Sec. 15 Food and Drugs Act. Nothing herein shall be construed as authorizing the adulteration of rye by the addition of water, by the admixture of clippings or hulls, decomposed salvage rye, other grains, or any other foreign material, or otherwise, in violation of the Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906. 494 APPENDIX III I ili ii 10 10 1O CO S^-3 III O O >0 i -: 03 n S* 1-1 I? c o >> WI'S IfS ^5 >>c c o 03 o APPENDIX III 495 ORDER ESTABLISHING OFFICIAL GRAIN STANDARDS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR SHELLED CORN Pursuant to the authority vested in the Secretary of Agriculture by the United States grain standards Act, approved August 11, 1916 (39 U. S. Statutes at Large, page 482), I, David F. Houston, Secretary of Agricul- ture, do hereby fix, establish, promulgate, and give public notice of, stand- ards of quality and condition for shelled corn, as hereinafter described, which shall become effective on the fifteenth day of July, nineteen hundred and eighteen, and shall thereupon supersede the official grain standards of the United States for shelled corn as promulgated by me under said Act on the first day of September, nineteen hundred and sixteen. OFFICIAL GRAIN STANDARDS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR SHELLED CORN. For the purposes of the official grain standards of the United States for shelled corn (maize) : Section i Corn. Corn shall be shell corn of the flint or dent varieties. Sec. 2 Basis of Determinations. Each determination of color, dam- age, and heat damage shall be upon the basis of the grain after the removal of foreign material and cracked corn as provided in section 6. All other determinations shall be upon the basis of the grain including such foreign material and cracked corn. Sec. 3 Percentages. Percentages, except in the case of moisture, shall be percentages ascertained by weight. Sec. 4 Percentage of Moisture. Percentage of moisture in corn shall be that ascertained by the moisture tester and he method of use thereot described in Circular No. 72, and supplement thereto, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, or ascertained by any device and .method giving equivalent results. Sec. 5 Test Weight per Bushel. Test weight per bushel shall be the weight per Winchester bushel as determined by the testing apparatus and the method of use thereof described in Bulletin No. 472, dated October 30, 1916, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, or as de- termined by any device and method giving equivalent results. Sec. 6 Foreign Material and Cracked Corn. Foreign material and cracked corn shall be kernels and pieces of kernels of corn, and all matter other than corn, which will pass through a metal sieve perforated with round holes twelve sixty-fourths of an inch in diameter, and all matter other than corn remaining on such sieve after screening. Sec. 7 Heat Damaged Kernels. Heat damaged kernels shall be kernels and pieces of kernels of corn which have been distinctly discolored by external heat or as a result of heating caused by fermentation. CLASSES OF SHELLED CORN. Sec. 8 Classes. Shelled corn shall be divided into three classes as follows : WHITE CORX. This class shall consist of corn of which at least ninety-eight per centum by weight of the kernels are white. A slight tinge of light straw color or of pink on kernels of corn otherwise white shall not affect their classi- fication as white corn. 496 APPENDIX III YELLOW CORN. This class shall consist of corn of which at least ninety-five per centum by weight of the kernels are yellow. A slight tinge of red on kernels of corn otherwise yellow shall not affect their classification as yellow corn. MIXED CORN. This class shall consist of corn of various colors not coming within the limits for color as provided in the definitions of white corn and yellow corn. White capped yellow kernels shall be classified as mixed corn. GRADE REQUIREMENTS Sec. 9 Grades for White, Yellow and Mixed Corn. The classes White corn, Yellow corn, and Mixed corn shall be divided into seven grades for each class, the designations and requirements of which, respectively, shall be as specified in this section. No. 1 W T HITE, No. 1 YELLOW, and No. 1 MIXED, each, (a) shall be cool and sweet, (6) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least fifty-five pounds, (c) may contain not more than fourteen per centum of moisture, (d) may contain not more than two per centum of foreign material and cracked corn, and (e) may contain not more than two per centum of damaged corn, and no heat-damaged kernels. No. 2 WHITE, No. 2 YELLOW, and' No. 2 MIXED, each, (a) shall be cool and sweet, (&) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least fifty-three pounds, (c) may contain not more than fifteen and one-half per centum of moisture, (d) may contain not more than three per centum of foreign material and cracked corn, and (e) may contain not more than four per centum of damaged corn, which may include not more than one-tenth of one per centum of heat-damaged kernels. No. 3 WHITE, No. 3 YELLOW, and No. 3 MIXED, each, (a) shall be cool and sweet, (6) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least fifty-one pounds, (c) may contain not more than seventeen and one-half per centum of moisture, (d} may contain not more than four per centum of foreign material and cracked corn, and APPENDIX III 497 (e) may contain not more than six per centum of damaged corn, which may include not more than five-tenths of one per centum of heat-damaged kernels. No. 4 WHITE, No. 4 YELLOW, and No. 4 MIXED, each, (a) shall be cool and sweet, ( l> ) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least forty-seven pounds, (c) may contain not more than nineteen and one-half per centum of moisture, (d) may contain not more than five per centum of foreign material and cracked corn, and (e) may contain not more than eight per centum of damaged corn, which may include not more than five-tenths of one per centum of heat-damaged kernels. No. 5 WHITE, No. 5 YELLOW, and No. 5 MIXED, each, (a) shall be cool and sweet, (I) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least forty-seven pounds, (c) may contain not more than twenty-one and one-half per centum of moisture, (d) may contain not more than six per centum of foreign material and cracked corn, and (e) may contain not more than ten per centum of damaged corn, which may include not more than one per centum of heat- damaged kernels. NO. 6 W r HITE, No. 6 YELLOW, and No. 6 MIXED, each, (a) shall be cool, but may be musty or sour, (6) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least forty-four pounds, (c) may contain not more than twenty-three per centum of moisture, (d) may contain not more than seven per centum of foreign material and cracked corn, and (e) may contain not more than fifteen per centum of damaged corn, which may include not more than three per centum of heat-damaged kernels. SAMPLE GRADE WHITE, SAMPLE GRADE YELLOW, and SAMPLE GRADE MIXED, each, shall be White corn, or Yellow corn, or Mixed corn, re- spectively, which does not come within the requirements of any of the grades from No. 1 to No. 6, inclusive, or which has any commercially objectionable foreign odor, or is heat- ing, hot, infected with live weevils or other insects injurious to stored grain, or otherwise of distinctly low quality. 498 APPENDIX III APPENDIX B. Section 9 of the official grain standards of the United States for shelled corn, tabulated and abridged. (See Note.} Maximum limits of Grade No. Minimum test weight per bushel. Moisture. Foreign material and Damage* 1 kernels. cracked corn. Total. Heat damage. 1 Pounds. 55 Per cent. 14.0 Per cent. 2 Per cent. 2 Per cent. 00 2 53 15.5 3 4 1 3 51 17.5 4 6 03 4 . ... 49 19.5 5 8 05 5. 47 21.5 6 10 1 6 44 23.0 7 15 30 Sample * Sample Grade* Shall be White corn, or Yellow corn, or Mixed corn, respectively, which does not come within the requirements of any of the grades from No. 1 to No. 6, inclusive, or which has any commercially objectionable foreign odor, or is heating, hot, infested with live weevils or other insects injurious to stored grain, or is otherwise of distinctly low quality. ( 1 ) The corn in grades Nos. 1 to 5, inclusive, shall be cool and sweet. (2) The corn in grade No. 6 shall be cool but may be musty or sour. (3) White corn shall be at least 98 per cent, white. (4) Yellow corn shall be at least 98 per cent, yellow. NOTE. The above tabulation does not constitute in whole the official grain standards of the United States for shelled corn. OFFICIAL GRAIN STANDARDS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR OATS 3 For the purposes of the official grain standards of the United States for oats: Section i Oats. Oats shall be any grain which consists of cultivated oats and not more than twenty-five per centum of foreign material, other grains, and wild oats, either singly or in any combination. Sec. 2 Basis of Determinations. All determinations shall be upon the basis of the lot of grain as a whole, including foreign material, other grains, and wild oats. Sec. 3 Percentages. Percentages, except in the case of moisture, shall be percentages ascertained by weight. Sec. 4 Percentage of Moisture. Percentage of moisture in oats shall be ascertained by the moisture tester and the method of use thereof de- scribed in Circular No. 72, and supplement thereto, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, except that the graduated measuring cylinder used shall be that described in Depart- ment of Agriculture Bulletin No. 56 ; or such percentage shall be ascertained by any device and method giving equivalent results. Sec. 5 Test Weight per Bushel. Test weight per bushel shall be the test weight per Winchester bushel as determined by the testing apparatus and the method of use thereof described in Bulletin No. 472, dated October APPENDIX III 499 30, 1916, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, or as determined by any device and method giving equivalent results. Note. Under rules and regulations pursuant to the United States grain standards Act, licensed inspectors will be required to state hi all certificates issued by them for oats the test weight per bushel in terms of whole and half pounds. For this purpose a fraction of a pound when equal to or greater than a half will be treated as a half, and when less than a half will be disregarded. Sec. 6 Foreign Material. Foreign material shall be all matter other than grains and pieces of grains of cultivated oats, except other grains and wild oats, and shall include oat clippings. Sec. 7 Other Grains. Other grains shall include wheat, corn, rye, barley, emmer, spelt, einkorn, grain sorghums, rice, cultivated buckwheat, and flaxseed, only. Sec. 8 Sound Cultivated Oats. Sound cultivated oats shall be all grains and pieces of grains of cultivated oats which are not heat damaged, sprouted, frosted, badly ground damaged, badly weather damaged, or other- wise distinctly damaged. Sec. 9 Heat Damaged Grains. Heat damaged grains shall be grains and pieces of grains of cultivated oats, other grains, or wild oats, which have been distinctly discolored or damaged by external heat or as a result of heating caused by fermentation. Sec. 10 Bleached Oats. Bleached oats shall be oats which in whole or in part have been treated by the use of sulphurous acid or other bleaching chemicals. Bleached oats shall be graded and designated according to the grade requirements of the standards applicable to such oats if they were not bleached, and there shall be added to, and made part of, such grade designation the word " bleached." Sec. ii Clipped Oats. Clipped oats shall be oats which have the gen- eral appearance of having had the ends removed by an oat clipper. Clipped oats shall be graded and designated according to the grade requirements of the standards applicable to such oats if they were not clipped, and there shall be added to, and made a part of, such grade designation the word " clipped." Sec. 12 Color Classification. All oats shall be designated in accord- ance with section 13 hereof as white, red, gray, black, or mixed, according to the color of the oats, as the case may be. For the purposes of this section white oats include yellow oats. Oats shall be white, red, gray, or black, respectively, when they consist of oats of such color, and not more than ten per centum of other colors of cultivated wild oats, either singly or in any combination. Mixed oats shall be all other oats. Sec. 13 Grades. All oats shall be graded and designated as No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, or Sample Grade, white, red, gray, black, or mixed, as the case may be, according to the respective requirements thereof as specified in this section, except that in the case of mixed oats the require- ments as to the maximum percentages of other colors shall be disregarded. No. 1. (a) shall be cool and sweet and of good color, except in the case of No. 1 white shall be of good white or creamy white color ; '(6) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least thirty-two pounds; (c) shall contain not less than ninety-eight per centum of sound culti vated oats; (d) may contain not more than two per centum of matter other than Effective on the sixteenth day of June, nineteen hundred and nineteen. 500 APPENDIX III sound cultivated oats, which two per centum may include not more than one-tenth of one per centum of heat damaged grains; (e) may contain not more than four per centum of other colors of cultivated and wild oats, either singly or in any combination, except in the case of No. 1 white which may contain not more than two per centum; and (/) shall not contain more than fourteen and one-half per centum of moisture. No. 2. (a) shall be cool and sweet, and may be slightly stained; ( 6 ) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least twenty-nine pounds ; (c) shall contain not less than ninety-five per centum of sound culti- vated oats; (d) may contain not more than five per centum of matter other than sound cultivated oats, which five per centum may include not more than three-tenths of one per centum of heat damaged grains, not more than two per centum of foreign material, or not more than three per centum of wild oats; (e) in the case of No. 2 white may contain not more than five per centum of other colors of cultivated and wild oats, either singly or in any combination; and (/) shall not contain more than fourteen and one-half per centum of moisture. No. 3. (a) shall be cool and sweet and may be stained or slightly weathered; ( b ) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least twenty-six pounds ; (c) shall contain not less than ninety per centum of sound culti- vated oats; (d) may contain not more than ten per centum of matter other than sound cultivated oats, which ten per centum may include not more than one per centum of heat damaged grains, not more than three per centum of foreign material, or not more than five per centum of wild oats; and (e) shall not contain more than fourteen and one-half per centum of moisture. No. 4. (a) shall be cool, and may be musty, weathered, or badly stained; ( b ) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least twenty-three pounds ; (c) shall contain not less than eighty per centum of sound culti- vated oats; (d) may contain not more than twenty per centum of matter other than sound cultivated oats, which twenty per centum may include not more than six per centum of heat damaged grains, not more than five per centum of foreign material, or not more than ten per centum of wild oats; and (e) shall not contain more than sixteen per centum of moisture. SAMPLE GRADE. shall be oats which do not come within the requirements of any of the grades from No. 1 to No. 4, inclusive, or which have any commercially objectionable foreign odor, or are sour, heating, hot, infested with live weevils or other insects injurious to stored grain, or are otherwise of dis- tinctly low quality. Sec. 14 Food and Drugs Act. Nothing herein shall be construed as authorizing the adulteration of oats by the addition of water, by the admix- ture of clippings or hulls, decomposed salvage oats, other grains, or any other foreign material, or otherwise, in violation of the Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906. APPENDIX III 501 APPENDIX C. Tabulation of grade requirements for white, red, gray, black, mixed, bleached, and clipped oats. [Section 13 tabulated and abridged.] Heat Other Grade. Condition and general appearance. 1 Mini- mum test weight per Sound culti- vated oats not less dam- aged (oats or other grains) . Foreign material Wild oats. colors, culti- vated and wild oats. bushel. Not to exceed Pounds. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 2 1 Shall be cool and sweet, and of good color. . . 32 93 0.1 2 2 3 2 2 Shall be cool and sweet, and may be slightly stained 29 95 .3 2 3 4 5 3 Shall be cool and sweet, and may be stained or slightly weathered 26 90 1 3 5 10 4 Shall be cool, and may be musty, weathered, or badly stained .... 23 80 6 5 10 10 Sample Shall be white, red, gray, black, mixe d. blea ched, 01 clippe< i oats. grade. respectively, which do not come within the requirements of any of the grades from No. 1 to No. 4, inclusive, or which have any commercially objectionable foreign odor, or are heating, hot, sour, infested with live weevils or other insects injurious to stored grain, or are otherwise of distinctly low quality. 1 The percentage of moisture in grades Nos. 1, 2, and 3 shall not exceed 14^, and in grade No. 4 shall not exceed 16. 3 In the case of white oata, No. 1 shall be cool and sweet and of good white or creamy white color. 5 4 per cent, of other colors allowed in No. 1 red, gray, or black oats. This column does not apply to mixed oats. * 10 per cent, of other colors allowed in No. 2 red, gray, or black oats. NOTE. It will be noted thai? no limits are specifically stated for damage other than heat and for other grains. These are taken care of by the min- imum requirement for "sound cultivated oats " in each grade. The following examples illustrate the application of the tabulation : a. Aside from other requirements, such as condition and general appear- ance and weight per bushel, a lot of oata, to grade No. 1, must contain !)S per cent. " sound cultivated oats." The remaining 2 per cent, may he damaged grains, foreign material, other grains or wild oats, either singly or in any combination. The only limitation on this remaining 2 per cent, i's that not more than one-tenth of 1 per cent, may be heat damaged. b. Aside from other requirements, such as condition and general appear- ance ami weight per bushel, a lot of oats, to grade No. 3, must contain 1)0 per cent. " sound cultivated oats." The remaining 10 per cent, may be 502 APPENDIX III damaged grains, foreign material, other grains or wild oats, either singly or in any combination of these factors, except that there must not be over 1 per cent, heat damaged, 3 per cent, foreign material or 5 per cent, wild oats. c. Aside from other requirements, such as condition and general appear- ance and weight per bushel, a lot of oats, to grade No. 4, must contain 80 per cent, "sound cultivated oats/' The remaining 20 per cent, may be damaged grains, foreign material, other grains or wild oats, either singly or in any combination of these factors, except that there must not be over 6 per cent, heat damaged grains, 5 per cent, foreign material or 10 per cent, wild oats. The amount of these factors present can not be added so as to permit 21 per cent., since grade No. 4 musit contain at least 80 per cent. " sound cultivated oats." APPENDIX III 503 TENTATIVE UNITED STATES STANDARDS FOR GRAIN SORGHUMS. (Adopted by the trade, but not enforced under the United States Grain Standards Act, August 1, 1922). For the purpose of the United States grades for grain sorghums: GRAIN SORGHUMS. Grain sorghums shall be any grain which consists of kafir, milo, durra, feterita, darso, freed sorgo, kaoliang, schrock kafir, and shallu, and any hybrids between these classes, ^.nd not more than 35 per cent of non-grain sorghums, other cereal grains, and " foreign material and cracked kernels,'' as defined in these standards, either singly or in any combination. CLASSIFICATION. Grain sorghums shall be divided into classes and subclasses as follows: CLASS I. KAFIR. This class shall include all varieties of kafir, and hegari, except shrock kafir, and may include not more than ten per centum of other grain sorghums. This class shall be divided into two subclasses, as follows: Subclass White Kafir. This subclass shall include all kafir, and hegari, except shrock kafir, consisting of 90 per cent or more of white kernels, including other classes and non-grain sorghums. Red spots or other natural coloring upon kernels otherwise white shall not affect their classification as white kafir. Subclass Kafir. This subclass shall include all kafir, and hegari, except shrock kafir, not coming within the classification for white kafir. CLASS II. MILO. This class shall include all varieties of milo, knd may include not more than ten per centum of other grain sorghums. This class shall be divided into two subclasses, as follows: Subclass Yellow Milo. This subclass shall include all milo consisting of 90 per cent or more of yellow kernels, including other classes and non-grain sorghums. Subclass Milo. This subclass shall include all milo not coming within the classification for yellow milo. CLASS III. DURRA. This class shall include all varieties of durra, and may include not more than ten per centum of other grain sorghums. This class shall be divided into two subclasses, as follows : Subclass White Durra. This subclass shall include all durra consisting of 90 per cent or more of white kernels, including other classes and non-grain sorghums. Red spots or natural coloring upon kernels otherwise white shall not affect their classification as white durra. Subclass Durra. This subclass shall include all durra not coming within the classification for white durra. 504 APPENDIX III CLASS IV. FETERITA. This class shall include all varieties of white feterita, and may include not more than ten per centum of other grain sorghums. Red spots or natural coloring upon kernels otherwise white shall not affect their classi- fication as white feterita. CLASS V. . DAKSO. This class shall include all varieties of darso, and may include not more than ten per centum of other grain sorghums. CLASS VI. FREED SORGO. This class shall include all varieties of free sorgo, and may include not more than ten per centum of other grain sorghums. CLASS VII. BROWN KAOLIANG. This class shall include all varieties of brown kaoliang, and may include not more than ten per centum of other grain sorghums. CLASS VIII. SCHROCK KAFIR. This class shall include all varieties of schrock kafir, and may include not more than ten per centum of other grain sorghums. CLASS IX. SHALLU. This class shall include all varieties of shallu, and may include not more than ten per centum of other grain sorghums. NOTE. Any other grain sorghum or any grain sorghum hybrid shall be included in the class which it most nearly resembles. CLASS X. MIXED. Mixed grain sorghums shall be any mixture of grain sorghums not provided for in the classes from I to IX, inclusive. Weevily Grain Sorghums. Weevily grain sorghums shall be all grain sorghums which are infested with live weevils or other insects injurious to stored grain. Weevily grain sorghums should be graded and designated according to the grade requirements of the grade applicable to such grain sorghums if they were not weevily, and there shall be added to, and made a part of, the grade designation the word " weevily." Smutty Grain Sorghums. Smutty grain sorghums shall be all grain sorghums which have an unmistakable odor of smut, or which contain smut masses. Smutty grain sorghums shall be graded and designated according to the grade requirements of the grade applicable to such grain sorghums if they were smutty, and there shall be added to, and made a part of, the grade designation the word " smutty." Grades. All grain sorghums shall be graded and designated as No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, or Sample Grade, White Kafir, Kafir, Yellow Milo, APPENDIX III 505 Milo, White Durrn. Durra, Feterita, Darso, Freed Sorgo, Brown Kaoliang, Schroek Kafir, Shallu, or ]\Iixed, as the case may be, according to the respective requirements thereof as specified in these grades, except that in the case of Mixed the requirements as to the maximum percentage of other grain sorghums shall be disregarded. Grades for Mixed Grain Sorghums. Mixed grain sorghums shall be graded according to each of the grade requirements common to the class of the grain sorghums which predominates over each other class in the mixture. The grade designation of " Mixed Grain Sorghums " shall include, successively, the number of the grade or the words " Sample Grade," the word " Mixed " and, in the order of its predominance, the name and approximate percentage of each of at least two classes. Basis of Determinations. Each determination of general appearance, temperature, odor, smut, moisture, test weight per bushel, "foreign mate- rial and cracked kernels," " sand, dirt, and finely broken kernels," and insects injurious to stored grain shall be upon the basis of the lot of grain as a whole, and all other determinations shall be on the basis of the grain when free from foreign material and cracked kernels. Percentages. Percentages, except in the case of moisture, shall be percentages ascertained by weight. Percentage of Moisture. Percentage of moisture in grain sorghums shall be that ascertained by the moisture tester and the method of use therefore for kafir, as described in Circular No. 72, and supplement thereto, issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, or ascertained by any device and method giving equivalent results. Test Weight Per Bushel. The test weight per bushel shall be the test weight per Winchester bushel, as determined by the testing apparatus and the method of use thereof as described in Bulletin No. 472, dated October 30, 1916, issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, or as determined by any device and method giving equivalent results. Other Grains. Other grains shall include wheat, non-grain sorghums, corn, oats, barley, rye, emmer, spelt, einkorn, rice, cultivated buckwheat, and flaxseed, only. Non-Grain Sorghums. Non-grain sorghums, which include the grain or sorgo (commonly called "cane seed"), broomcorn, Sudan grass, and Johnson grass, and hybrids between any combination of the groups of the non-grain sorghums. Foreign Material and Cracked Kernels. Foreign material and cracked kernels shall be grains and pieces of grains of grain sorghums, and all matter other than grain sorghums which will pass through a No. 8 sieve, and all foreign material, except other grains, remaining on such sieve after screening. Sand, Dirt, and Finely Broken Kernels. Sand, dirt, and finely broken kernels shall be finely broken kernels, sand, and all other material which will pass through a No. 2y 2 sieve, and all inert matter remaining on either the No. 2% or No. S sieve after screening. No. 2^ Sieve. A metal sieve perforated with round holes 2% sixty- fourths inch in diameter. No. 8 Sieve. A metal sieve perforated with triangular perforations 8 sixty-fourths inch long on each side of perforation. Damaged Kernels. Damaged kernels shall be all grains and pieces of grain sorghums which are heat damaged, sprouted, frosted, badly ground damaged, mouldy, or otherwise distinctly damaged. Heat-Damaged Kernels. Heat-damaged kernels shall be grains and pieces of grains of grain sorghums or other grains which have been dis- 506 APPENDIX III tinctly discolored or damaged by external heat or as a result of heating caused by fermentation. Food and Drugs Act. Nothing herein shall be construed as authorizing the adulteration of grain sorghums by the addition of water, by the admixture of clippings or hulls, decomposed salvage of grain sorghums, other grains, or any other foreign material, or otherwise, in violation of the Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906. Grade Requirements for Grain Sorghums Maximum limits of Mini- Damaged Kernels Other Grains Foreign Material and Cracked Kernels Grade. No. Condition and general appearance. test weight per Mois- ture Heat dam- Sand, bushel. con- tent. Total. aged (grain sor- Total. Non- grain Total. (No. 8 dirt, and finely broken ghums or sor- ghums. sieve) kernels (No. zy 2 other seive.) grains. Lbs. % % % % % % % 1* Shall be cool and 55 14 2 .2 3 1 3 .5 of natural odor, and good color. 2 Shall be cool and 53 15 5 .5 5 3 6 1.0 of natural odor, and may be slightly dis- colored. 3 Shall be cool and 51 16 10 1.0 7 5 10 2.0 of natural odor, and may be dis- colored. 4 Shall be cool and 49 18 15 3.0 10 10 15 3.0 may be musty, sour, or badly discolored. Sample Grade: Shall be White Kafir, Kafir, Yellow Milo, Milo, White Durra, Durra, Feteria, Darso, Freed Sorgo, Brown Kaoliang Schrock Kafir, Shallu, or Mixed, respectively, which does not come within the requirements of any of the grades from No. 1 to No. 4, inclusive, or which has any commercially objectionable foreign odor, or is heating, hot, or otherwise of distinctly low quality. *Grade No. 1 for White Katir and White Durra shall consist of 95% or more of white kernels, including other classes and non-grain sorghums. *Grade No. 1 for Yellow Milo shall consist of 95% or more of yellow kernels, including other classes and non-grain sorghums. APPENDIX III 507 UNITED STATES GRADES FOR MILLED RICE. Recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture. 1 (August 1, 1922, adopted but not enforced under United States Grade Standards Act ) . The following grades for the grading and marketing of milled rice are recommended by the Bureau of Markets of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. The classification in the standards is based on the length of whole kernels for classes I, II, III, and IV, and on size of broken kernels for classes V, VI, and VII. For the purposes of a general classification the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, has heretofore referred ,to the different varieties as long-grain, medium- grain, and short-grain, and has used these terms in its publications dealing with rice culture and production. At the hearings mentioned above, the trade objected to the class name Medium as applied to the translucent type of the variety known commercially as Early Prolific and the varieties known commercially as Blue Rose and Louisiana Pearl, and to the class name Medium-opaque as applied to the opaque type of the variety known commercially as Early Prolific, for the reason that the word " medium " is now used in commercial terminology as a grade name and denotes an inferior grade of rice. It was suggested by the trade that the class name Short be used to apply to the varieties known commercially as Blue Rose, Louisiana Pearl, and Early Prolific, and that the class name Round be used to apply to the varieties known commercially as Japan or Japanese, and it is felt that they more nearly conform to commercial needs and should be adopted. % These grades are not fixed and established under the United States grain standards Act at this time, but it is hoped that they will be adopted by all agencies engaged in the handling of milled rice. It is believed that with the voluntary and general support of all interested parties these standards will assist very materially in the marketing of milled rice. (August 1, 1922). UNITED STATES GRADES FOB MILLED RICE. For the purposes of the United States grades for milled rice: Section i Milled Rice. Milled rice shall be whole or broken kernels of rice grown in continental United States, from which the hulls, germs, and practically all of the bran layers have been removed, which may be either coated or uncoated, and which shall contain not more than ten per centum of seeds, paddy grains, other cereal grains, and other foreign material, either singly or in any combination. Sec. 2 Basis of Determinations. Each determination of paddy grains, other cereal grains, seeds, other foreign material, heat-damaged kernels, temperature, odor, live weevils or other insects injurious to stored rice, color, coating, and moisture shall be made on the basis of the grain including foreign material. All other determinations shall be made on the basis of the grain when free from foreign material. Sec. 3 Percentages. Percentages, except in the case of moisture, shall be percentages ascertained by weight. Sec. 4 Percentage of Moisture. Percentage of moisture shall be that ascertained by the moisture tester and the method of use thereof described 1 These standards embody the recommendations of the United States Department of Agriculture, but are not fixed and established at this time under the United States grain standards Act because of a lack of funds for their proper enforcement ae compulsory standards. 3843 20 508 APPENDIX III in Circular No. 72, and supplement thereto, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, except that the flask to be used shall be the double-walled flask described in the United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 56, or that ascertained by any device and method giving equivalent results. Sec. 5 (a) No. 5*^ Sieve. A metal sieve perforated with round holes 5^/2 sixty-fourths inch in diameter. (&) No. 6 Sieve. A metal sieve perforated with round holes 6 sixty-fourths inch in diameter. (c) No. 6^2 Sieve. A metal sieve perforated with round holes 6y 2 sixty-fourths inch in diameter. Sec. 6 Coated Rice. Coated rice shall be rice which has been coated with glucose and talc or any other substance. Coated rice shall be graded and designated according to the grade requirements of the standards applicable to such rice if it were not coated, and there shall be added to and made a part of such grade designation the word " coated." Sec. 7 Damaged Kernels. Damaged kernels shall be kernels and pieces of kernels of milled rice which have been distinctly damaged by water, insects, or by any other means. Sound double and sound broken kernels shall not be considered damaged kernels. Sec. 8 Heat-Damaged Kernels. Heat-damaged kernels shall be kernels and pieces of kernels of milled rice which have been distinctly discolored by external heat or as a result of heating caused by fermentation. Sec. 9 Foreign Material. Foreign material shall be paddy grains and any matter other than rice. Sec. 10 Cereal Grains. Cereal grains shall be paddy grains (rough rice), rye, barley, emmer, spelt, einkorn, corn, grain sorghums, oats, and wheat only, and shall not include buckwheat, flaxseed, and wild oats. Sec. ii Paddy Grains. Paddy grains shall be grains of rice from which the hulls have not been removed. Sec. 12 Seeds. Seeds shall be grains, kernels, or seeds, either whole or broken, of any plant other than rice or other cereal grains. Sec. 13 Red Rice. Red rice shall be kernels or pieces of kernels of milled rice which are distinctly red in color or have any red bran thereon. Sec. 14 Whole Kernels. Whole kernels shall include perfect kernels of milled rice and pieces of kernels of milled rice which are not split and which in length are equal to or greater than three-fourths of the length of the perfect kernel. Sec. 15 Broken Kernels. Broken kernels shall be split kernels of milled rice, and pieces of kernels which are less than three-fourths of the length of the perfect kernel. Sec. 16 Chalky Kernels. Chalky kernels shall be kernels and pieces of kernels of milled rice, one-half or more of which is chalky. CLASSES OF MILLED RICE. Sec. 17. Milled rice shall be divided into classes as follows: CLASS I. LONG. This class shall include all long-grain rices, such as those known com- mercially as Honduras, Carolina Gold, Carolina White, and Edith, which contain more than twenty-five per centum of whole kernels and not more than four per centum of whole kernels of rice of the classes Short and Round, either singly or combined. CLASS II. SHORT. This class shall include all short-grain rices, such as those known com- mercially as Blue Rose, Louisiana Pearl, and Early Prolific, which contain more than twenty-five per centum of whole kernels and not more than APPENDIX III 509 four per centum of whole kernels of the classes Long and Round, either singly or combined. CLASS III. ROUND. This class shall include all round-grain rices, such as those known commercialy as Japan or Japanese, including Wataribune, Shinriki, " 1564 " (Butte), 1 " 1600" (Colusa), 1 and Onsen, which contain more than twenty- five per centum of whole kernels and not more than four per centum of whole kernels of rice of the classes Long and Short, either singly or whole kernels of rice of the classes Long and Short, either singly or combined. CLASS IV. MIXED. This class shall be a mixture of any two or more of classes I, II, and III, but which does not meet the requirements of any one of such classes. CLASS V. SECOND HEAD. This class shall consist of milled rice which contains not more than twenty-five per centum of whole kernels, not more than forty per centum of broken kernels which will pass readily through a No. 6y 2 sieve, and not more than ten per centum of broken kernels which will pass readily through a No. 6 sieve. CLASS VI. SCREENINGS. This class shall consist of milled rice which contains not more than twenty-five per centum of whole kernels, which does not meet the require- ments of size separations specified for the class Second Head, and which contains not more than fifteen per centum of broken kernels which will pass readily through a No. 5% sieve. CLASS VII. BREWERS. This class shall consist of milled rice which contains not more than twenty-five per centum of whole kernels and contains more than fifteen per centum of broken kernels which will pass readily through a No. S 1 /^ sieve. GRADE REQUIREMENTS. LONG MILLED RICE. Sec. 18 Grades for Long Milled Rice. The class Long shall be divided into five grades, the designations and requirements of which shall be as specified in this section. EXTRA FANCY (U. S. No. 1) LONG. (a) shall be well milled, (6) shall be white or creamy, (c) may contain not more than five-tenths of one per centum of chalky kernels, (d) shall contain ninety per centum or more of whole kernels, but may contain not more than five-tenths of one per centum of broken kernels which will pass readily through a No. 6 sieve. (e) may contain a total of not more than three paddy grains, other cereal grains, seeds, and heat-damaged kernels in five hundred grams, which total of three may include not more than either one heat-damaged kernel or one seed, (/) may contain not more than five-tenths of one per centum of damaged kernels and red rice, either singly or combined, (g) may contain not more than one per centum of whole kernels of rice of the classes Short and Round, either singly or combined, 1 The varieties C. I. 1564 and C. I. 1(500 were named Butte and Colusa, respectively, by the Office of Cereal Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, May, 1920. 510 APPENDIX III (h) may contain not more than one- tenth of one per centum of foreign material excepting paddy grains, other cereal grains, and seeds, and (i) may contain not more than fourteen and one-half per centum of moisture. FANCY (U. S. No. 2) LONG. (a) shall be well milled, ( & ) shall be white, creamy, or grayish, (c) may contain not more than one and five-tenths per centum of chalky kernels, (d) shall contain eighty-five per centum or more of whole kernels, but may contain not more than one per centum of broken kernels which will pass readily through a No. 6 sieve, (e) may contain a total of not more than eight paddy grains, other cereal grains, seeds, and heat-damaged kernels in five hundred grams, which total of eight may include not more than four heat-damaged kernels and seeds, either singly or combined, (/) may contain not more than one and five-tenths per centum of damaged kernels and red rice, either singly or combined, (g) may contain not more than two per centum of whole kernels of rice of the classes Short and Round, either singly or combined, (h) may contain not more than one-tenth of one per centum of foreign material excepting paddy grains, other cereal grains, and seeds, and (i) may contain not more than fourteen and one-half per centum of moisture. CHOICE (U. S. No. 3) LONG. (a) shall be reasonably well milled, (&) shall be white, creamy, or grayish, and may be slightly rosy, (c) may contain not more than three per centum of chalky kernels, (d) shall contain seventy-five per centum or more of whole kernels, but may contain not more than one and five-tenths per centum of broken kernels which will pass readily through a No. 6 sieve, (e) may contain a total of not more than eighteen paddy grains, other cereal grains, seeds, and heat-damaged kernels in five hundred grams, which total of eighteen may include not more than ten heat-damaged kernels and seeds, either singly or combined, (/) may contain not more than two and five-tenths per centum of damaged kernels and red rice, either singly or combined, (g) may contain not more than four per centum of whole kernels of rice of the classes Short and Round, either singly or combined, (h) may contain not more than one-tenth of one per centum of foreign material excepting paddy grains, other cereal grains, and seeds, and (i) may contain not more than fourteen and one-half per centum of moisture. MEDIUM (U. S. No. 4) LONG. (a) may be any color except of badly damaged or extremely red, (&) may contain not more than six per centum of chalky kernels, (c) shall contain sixty-five per centum or more of whole kernels, but may contain not more than three per centum of broken kernels which will pass readily through a No. 6 sieve. (d) may contain a total of not more than forty paddy grains, other cereal grains, seeds, and heat-damaged kernels in five hundred grams, which total of forty may include not more than twenty- four heat-damaged kernels and seeds, either singly or combined, APPENDIX III 511 (e) may contain not more than five per centum of damaged kernels and red rice, either singly or combined, (/) may contain not more than four per centum of whole kernels of rice of the classes Short and Round, either singly or combined, (g) may contain not more than one-tenth of one per centum of foreign material excepting paddy grains, other cereal grains, and seeds, and (h) may contain not more than fourteen and one-half per centum of moisture. SAMPLE GRADE LONG. shall be milled rice of the class Long which does not come within the requirements of any of the grades from Extra Fancy (U. S. No. 1 ) to Medium ( U. S. No. 4 ) , inclusive, or which has any commercially objectionable foreign odor, or is musty, or sour, or is heating, hot, infested with weevils or other insects injurious to stored rice, or is otherwise of distinctly low quality. SHORT MILLED RICE. Sec. 19 Grades for Short Milled Rice. The class Short shall be divided into five grades, the designations and requirements of which shall be specified in this section. EXTRA FANCY (U. S. No. 1) SHORT. FANCY (U. S. No. 2) SHORT. CHOICE (U. S. No. 3) SHORT. MEDIUM (U. S. No. '4) SHORT. SAMPLE GRADE SHORT. ROUND MILLED RICE/ Sec. 20 Grades for Round Milled Rice. The class Round shall be divided into five grades, the designations and requirements of which shall be as specified in this section. EXTRA FANCY (U. S. No. 1) ROUND. FANCY (U. S. No. 2) ROUND. CHOICE (U. S. No. 3) ROUND. MEDIUM (U. S. No. 4) ROUND. SAMPLE GRADE ROUND. MIXED MILLED RICE. Sec. 21 Grades for Mixed Milled Rice. Mixed milled rice shall be graded according to the grade requirements of the class of milled rice which predominates over each other class in the mixture; the grade designa- tions of such rice shall include successively in the order named, the name of the grade or the number thereof, the word " Mixed," and, in the order of its predominance, the name and approximate percentage of the whole kernels of each class of rice in the mixture. SECOND HEAD MILLED RICE. Sec. 22 Grades for Second Head Milled Rice. The class Second Head shall be divided into three grades, the designations and requirements of which shall be specified in this section. FANCY (U. S. No. 1) SECOND HEAD. CHOICE (U. S. No. 2) SECOND HEAD. SAMPLE GRADE SECOND HEAD. SCREENINGS MILLED RICE. Sec. 23 Grades for Screenings Milled Rice. The class Screenings shall be divided into three grades, the designations and requirements of which shall be as specified in this section. FANCY (U. S. No. 1) SCREENINGS. 512 APPENDIX III CHOICE (U. S. No. 2) SCREENINGS. SAMPLE GRADE SCREENINGS. BREWERS MILLED RICE. Sec. 24 Grades for Brewers Milled Rice. The class Brewers shall be divided into three grades, the designations and requirements of which shall be as specified in this section. FANCY (U. S. No. 1) BREWERS. CHOICE (U. S. No. 2) BREWERS. SAMPLE GRADE BREWERS. FOOD AND DRUGS ACT. Nothing herein shall be construed as authorizing the adulteration of milled rice by the addition of water, by the admixture of hulls or straw, decomposed or damaged kernels of rice, other grains, or any other foreign material, or otherwise, in violation of the Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906, nor as authorizing the coating of rice or the labeling thereof in violation of that act. INDEX Acclimatization of potatoes, 271 Acreage of forage crops, 302 Adaptation of corn, 50 of wheat 129 of forage plants, 311 Alfalfa, 375, 384 classification, 38G climatic requirements, 385 diseases and enemies, 395 harvesting, 392 hay market grades, 484 inoculation of, 390 insects affecting, 390 life period, 388 lime for, 389 methods of seeding, 390 origin and history, 384 pasturing alfalfa, 394 pollination, 389 roots of, 387 seed crop, 393 Alsike clover, 400 climate and soils for, 407 culture, 408 classification, 178 hulless, 179 market grades, 492 production, 3, 174 quality in, 184 six-row, 181 two-row, 182 winter and spring, 180 Barley, 174 classification of, 178 comparative quality, 183 culture, 180 diseases of, 186 types, 187 Barnyard manure, 38 millet, 372 Beets, 450 classification, 450 composition, 452 fertilizers for, 453 harvesting, 454 mangels, 451 Bent grasses, 350 Bermuda grass, 364 Blue-grasses, 353 Canada, 356 Blue-grasses, Kentucky, 353 Bordeaux mixture, 282 Bread wheats, 111 Breeding corn, 59 potatoes, 285 tobacco, 464 Brome-grass, 358 Broom corn, 248, 254 millet, 372 Buckwheat, as green manure, 202 classification, 199 climate for, 200 composition of, 198 culture, 201 description of plant, 197 fertilizers for, 200 harvesting, 201 production, 196 relationships, 197 Carrots, 456 Cereals,* comparative study of, 21, 29 composition of, 27 foods, 89 general structure of, 29 Classification of alfalfa, 386 barley, 178 buckwheat, 199 corn, 44 cotton, 207 cotton fibers, 213 cow peas, 420 forage crops, 301 legumes, 375 oats, 146 peanuts, 440 potatoes, 259 red clover, 400 rye, 191 sorghum, 245 wheat, 109 Climate for alfalfa, 385 corn, 55, 72 cotton, 218 oats, 148 potatoes, 264 redtop, 349 sorghums, 248 sweet potatoes, 291 timothy, 343 (513) 514 INDEX Clover hay market grades, 484 Clovers, 375, 398 alsike, 400 burr, 415 crimson, 414 Japan, 417 red, 398 sweet, 410 white, 408 Composition of buckwheat, 198 cereals, 27 effect of climate, 28 flax, 241 peanuts, 441 plants, 7 potatoes, 204 tobacco, 459 wheat plants, 125, 120 Corn, 41 adaptation of, 50 belt, 41 classification, 44 cost of producing, 84 crossing, 59 crows in, 92 depth of cultivation, 77 distribution of ( map ) , 42 effect of climate, 55 rainfall, 50 weeds, 77 germination tests, 03 growth of, 48 harvesting, 80 hybridizing, 51 improvement of, 59 judging, 05 length of growing season, 50 market grades of, 495 origin of, 43 outline for describing, 99 planting, 09 preparation of land, 07 production of, 41 proportion of parts, 83 roots, 49 score card, 102 selection of seed, GO shrinkage of, 84 soils for, 55 study of types, 94 tassel and ear, 49 tillage, 74 tillers, 49 uses of, 89 varieties to grow, 58 Corn, varieties to grow, number of, 48 yield of, 73 Cost of producing corn, 84 wheat, 133 Cotton, by-products, 215 classification, 207 climate for, 218 cultivation, 229 culture, 218, 225 diseases, 235 early history, 205 fertilizers for, 221 fiber, 212 gin, 200 harvesting, 231 insect enemies, 234 marketing tlie crop, 233 planting on ridges vs. beds, 227 production, 203 region suited to, 219 seed, 214 soils for, 220 Cow peas, 370, 420 adaptations, 422 classifications, 420 culture, 422 harvesting, 423 insects and diseases, 424 Crimson clover, 414 Cropping systems, effects of, 33 rotations, 34 Crops, classification, origin and dis- tribution, 1 most important, 3 number cultivated, 2 Degeneration of potatoes, 200 Dent corn, 47 Diseases of alfalfa, 395 corn, 88 cotton, 235 flax, 243 oats, 170 potatoes, 279 sweet potatoes, 299 timothy, 347 tobacco, 479 Distribution of forage crops, 303 Dodder on alfalfa, 395 Durra corn, 247 Elements required for plant-growth,.^ Euchlaena Mexicana, 43 INDEX 51 5 Fertilization of alfalfa, 389 of corn, 50 cross- and self-, 25 Fertilizers for buckwheat, 200 cotton, 221 grass, 338 oats, 158 potatoes, 267 sweet potatoes, 292 timothy, 346 tobacco, 462 wheat, 125 Fertilizers, applying, 36, 340 testing ellect of, 11 when applied, 38 Fiber of cotton, 212 Field peas, 376, 430 culture, 431 pea weevil, 432 Flax culture, 242 description, 239 diseases, 243 harvesting, 243 production, 239 Flint corn, 47 Florida beggar weed, 376, 418 Forage crops, acreage, 302 classification and distribu- tion, 301 production of hay, 305 types, 304 Formalin treatment for smut, 161 Foxtail millet, 369 German millet, 370 Germination of barley, 184 seeds, 15 tests, 18 corn, 63 grass seeds, 324, 328 Grasses, adaptation of types, 311 bunch and sod, 310 care of, 338 characteristics of, 307 fertilizers for, 338 important characters, 307 improvement of, 309 life period, 314 manure for, 340 mixtures, 317 for meadows, 317 for pastures, 318 permanent pastures, 320 temporary pastures, 319 Grasses, number cultivated, 307 palatability of, 312 permanent, 315 roots of, 309 wet or dry land, 313 Grass seeds, adulteration of, 325 amount to sow, 327 germination of, 324, 328 identification of, 330 sowing, 326 where produced, 325 Hard seeds, 323 Harvesting, alfalfa, 392 buckwheat, 201 corn, 80 cotton, 231 flax, 243 oats, 167 potatoes, 277 rye, 193 sorghums, 252 sweet potatoes, 296 wheat, 132 Hay, time to cut timothy, 346 production and value, 301, 305 Hessian fly, 139 Horse bean, 437 Hot-bed for sweet potatoes, 294 Hungarian millet, 370 Hybridizing corn, 59 Inoculation of, alfalfa, 390 legumes, 381 Insects enemies of alfalfa, 396 corn, 91 cotton, 234 cow peas, 424 oats, 170 peanuts, 447 potato, 279 rye, 194 tobacco, 476 wheat, 139 Intertillage, function of, 77 reasons for, 75 Italian rye-grass, 363 Japan clover, 376, 417 Japanese barnyard millet, 372 Johnson grassj 365 Kafir corn, 246 market grades of, 491 Kentucky blue-grass, 363 516 INDEX Leaf structure, 9 Legumes, 375 assimilation of nitrogen, 379 bacterial inoculation, 381 characteristics, 307 composition of, 377 desmodium or Florida beggar weed, 376 effect on soil fertility, 378 lespedeza or Japan clover, 376 life of forage plants, 314 lime requirement, 383 lupinus or lupines, 376 medicago or alfalfa group, 375 melilotus or sweet clover, 376 phaseolus or bean group, 376 pisum or pea group, 376 roots of, 377 soils for, 382 soja or soy bean, 376 stizo lobium or velvet bean, 376 time of harvesting, 379 trifolium or clover group, 375 vica or vetches, 376 Lime, 38 for potatoes, 268 Listing corn, 69 wheat, 130 Manure, amount made by animals, 38 caring for, 39 for grass, 340 value of, 399 Market grades, 484 cotton, 233 hay and straw, 484 oats, 171 wheat, 133 Market types of potatoes, 263 sweet potatoes, 289 Marketing tobacco, 475 Meadow fescue, 360 mixtures, 317 Meadows, fertilizers for, 341 Millets, 369 broom-corn, 372 culture of, 371 distribution of, 369 feeding value, 372 foxtail, 369 German, 370 Hungarian, 370 Japanese barnyard, 372 kinds of, 369 Milo maize, 247 Nitrogen, fixed by legumes, 32 for cotton, 223 source of, 31 Nurse crops, 326 Oats, as a nurse crop, 164 classification, 146 cultivation of, 165 culture of, 157 description of plant, 149 diseases and insects, 170 distribution of groups, 148 fertilizer for, 158 grain, 151 harvesting, 167 hulless, 149 market grades, 171, 498 method of sowing, 165 percentage of hull, 152 production, 3, 141 proportion of grain to straw 154 score card for, 172 soils for, 158 time of seeding, 161 treatment for smut, 160 weight per bushel, 153 Oat-grass, 360 Orchard-grass, 350 Organic matter, 32 Osmosis, 7 Palatability of grasses, 312 Pasture mixtures, 318 permanent, 320 temporary, 319 Pasturing alfalfa, 394 Pea weevil, 432 Peanuts, 438 classification, 440 composition, 441 fertilizers for, 442 harvesting, 444 insects and diseases, 447 production, 439 Pearl millet, 372 Peas, field, 430 Perennial rye-grass, 362 Permanent grasses, 315 Plants, assimilation, 10 botanical groups, 2 classification by use, 2 composition of, 7 early culture, 1 elements required for growth, S INDEX 517 Plants, evaporation of water, 8 food sources, 6 number cultivated, 1 root system, 7 Plowing, fall or spring, 68 for cotton, 226 for wheat, 124 Pop-corn, 47, 90 Potatoes, classification, 259 characteristics of tubers, skin, flowers, etc., 259 climate and soils for, 264 composition, 264 culture, 271 degeneration, 266 description of plant, 257 diseases and insects, 279 fertilizers for, 267 harvesting, 277 improvement in breeding, 284 insects, 284 level or ridge cultivation, 276 lime for, 268 market types, 263 mixing Bordeaux, 282 principal groups, 261 production, 255 rate of planting, 274 rotations for, 268 source of seed, 271 storage, 278 Prairie hay market grades, 484 Production, barley, 3, 174 buckwheat, 196 corn, 3, 41 cotton, 3, 203 flax, 239 grass seeds, 325 hay, 3, 301 oats, 3, 141 peanuts, 439 potatoes, 3, 255 rice, 3 rye, 3, 189 sorghum, 244 sweet potatoes, 290 tobacco, 3, 458 wheat, 3, 104 Rape, 456 Red clover, 398 fertilizers for, 402 inoculation, 406 seed production, 404 varieties, 400 Redtop, 348 Root crops, 450 beets, 450 carrots, 456 turnips, 454 Roots, alfalfa, 387 corn, 49 general functions, 5 grasses, 309 study of, 30 temporary and permanent, 21 Rotation farming, 34 Rotations for tobacco, 470 Rust of wheat, 137 Rye, classification, 191 culture, 193 harvesting, 193 market grades of, 491 production of, 3, 189 straw, 194 Rye-grass, 362 Score card for corn, 96, 102 oats, 172 wheat, 135 Seeds, alfalfa, 393 brome-grass, 358 Canada blue-grass, 356 composition of, 26 formation of, 26 function of, 13 germination of grass, 324 tests, 15, 19 good, 14 grass, 317 production of, 325 hard, 323 Kentucky blue-grass, 354 laboratory exercise, 330 large and small seeds, 16, 160 legal weight per bushel, 482 orchard-grass, 350 preserving vitality, 13 production of grass, 325 red clover, 404 redtop, 348 structure of seeds, 17 sweet clover, 410 timothy, 344 weight per bushel, 323, 482 Shrinkage of corn, 84 potatoes, 279 wheat, 133 Siberian millet, 370 Silage, 85 518 INDEX Smut of oats, 160, 170 formalin treatment for, 161 wheat, 137 Soft corn, 47 Soils, for buckwheat, 200 corn, 55 cotton, 220 oats, 158 potatoes, 267 productiveness, 31 rye, 192 sweet potatoes, 291 tobacco, 461 wheat, 123 Sorghums, broom corn, 248 classification, 245 climate for, 248 culture, 251 durra, 247 drought resistance, 250 for forage, 253 for syrup, 253 kafir corn, 246 market grades, 503 production, 244 yield of grain, 252 Soudan grass, 366 Soy beans, 376, 424 Spelt wheat group, 116 Spikelet, structure of, 24 Spraying potatoes, 281 for weeds, 166 Spring and winter barleys, 180 oats, 148 Starch, identification of, 11 Storing potatoes, 278 sweet potatoes, 297 Straw, market grades, 485 Sweet clover, 376, 410 Sweet corn, 47, 93 Sweet potatoes, climate for, 291 culture of, 293 diseases and insects, 299 harvesting, 296 market types, 289 manure and fertilizer for, 292 propagation of plants, 293 storing, 297 types and varieties, 288 Tall meadow oat-grass, 360 Tangier pea, 438 Temporary pastures, 319 Tillering of oats, 150 I Tillers, 22 study of, 30 Timothy, advantages of, 344 fertilizer for, 346 market grades, 484 Tobacco, 458 breeding, 464 care of the crop, 469 composition of, 459 culture, 455 curing, 472 fertilizers for, 462 fungous diseases, 479 harvesting, 472 insects, 477 marketing, 475 production, 458 rotations, 470 soils for, 461 stripping, sorting, etc., 474 types and varieties, 459 yield and prices, 476 Varieties of barley, 181 corn, 58 cotton, 207 pop-corn 93 potatoes, 262 sweet corn, 94 sweet potatoes, 288 wheat, 117 Velvet beans, 376, 418 Vetches, 376, 433 bitter, 438 common, 433 hairy, 435 Narbonne, 437 purple, 438 Vitality of seeds, 13 Water, conservation of, 76 determination of, 11 evaporation of, 8 in grain, 28 loss from soil, 75 requirements of cereals, 250 requirements of oats, 157 Weeds, spraying for, 166 Wheat, as a bread crop, 108 broadcast vs. drilling, 127 classification, 109 cost of producing, 133 diseases and insect enemies, 137 durum, 114 fertilizers for, 125 INDEX 519 Wheat, hard and soft, 111 harvesting and marketing, 132 insect enemies, 139 market grades, 133, 486 origin of varieties, 117 pasturing, 130 production of, 3, 104, 105 soils for, 123 spelt group, 116 Wheat, score cards for, 135 seed, 128 regions, 114 spring and winter, 107, 119 study of types, 120 winter-killing, 128 White clover, 408 Zea mays, species of. 47 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BRANCH OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW NOV 2 8 ' NOV l 9 196? JCD LIBRARY '0 JAN 5 1970 DEC 22 5m-8/26 SB 1 8? UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY r