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 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
LONDON : PRINTED BY 
 
 SPOTTIS\VOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE 
 AND PARLIAMENT STREET 
 
THE PUBLIC SCHOOL 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND PRIVATE STUDENTS. 
 
 BY 
 
 BENJAMIN HALL KENNEDY, D.D. 
 
 REGIUS PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE, 
 AND CANON OF ELY. 
 
 Nihil ex grammatica nocuerit nisi quod super-vacuum e:~t ; neque enim 
 chstant hae disciplinae per illas euntibus, sed circa illas haerentibus. 
 
 QUINTIL. Inst. Orat. lib. i. cap. iv 
 
 LONDON : 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 
 
 1879. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE FIFTH EDITION. 
 
 i. BY AN AGREEMENT between the Proprietors and Mr. John 
 Peile, Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge, it is 
 arranged that the ' Public School Latin Grammar/ with the books 
 akin to it, shall hereafter be revised by Mr. Peile as joint and, 
 in due time, sole Editor. Mr. Peile's merits as a classical and 
 Sanskrit scholar, and as an able teacher, are widely known. 
 Those who have the advantage of nearer acquaintance with 
 him will be assured that the maintenance and improvement of 
 these books, as means of public instruction, could not be 
 placed in safer keeping. 
 
 2. The First Edition of this Grammar, published in 
 January 1871, was introduced by the following Preface : 
 
 1 The " Public School Latin Grammar " is simply a develop- 
 ment of the Primer, in conformity with the design of those, 
 who, after accepting the latter book, entrusted to the same 
 Editor the preparation of the former. The difference between 
 the elementary compendium and the higher work is such as 
 might be justly expected. Whilst the general principles and 
 many of the paradigms are in both the same, in the Grammar 
 the subject-matter is arranged more systematically, the body 
 of examples very much increased, the illustration wider, and a 
 large amount of information is added, which in the Primer does 
 not appear at all. 
 
 342455 
 
vi Preface. 
 
 i Yet a Grammar of this size does not profess to be an exhaus- 
 tive treatise on its subject. Competent and careful students, 
 who combine its use with the reading of authors and the prac- 
 tice of composition, so as to master its contents, ought indeed 
 to become Latin scholars of considerable width and power; 
 but they will still find much to learn in the field of Latin, 
 which must be gathered from special monographies by eminent 
 scholars, some of whom are occasionally cited in the following 
 pages. 
 
 'At the present time, when the science of Comparative 
 Philology has made such advance, that good living scholars 
 know far more of the history and organism of the Latin lan- 
 guage than was known to Quintilian and the old grammarians, 
 the publication of a Higher Latin Grammar, without reference 
 to the facts and principles of that science, would be a retro- 
 gressive and senseless act. It must, however, be remembered 
 that the chief end and aim of a Classical Latin Grammar is, 
 to impress upon the minds of students the forms and construc- 
 tions found in classical authors. Its office, therefore, is to use 
 Comparative Philology as a guide and auxiliary in teaching 
 Latin, not to teach Comparative Philology itself through the 
 medium of Latin. This principle has been kept in view by the 
 Editor throughout his work. The just mean is always hard to 
 observe j but he may venture to say that he has not strayed 
 from it wilfully. In the Appendix, indeed, and in a few other 
 places, he has thought it not inexpedient to cite some of the 
 most important affinities between Latin and other Aryan 
 languages and dialects ; but only with a view to point the path 
 of future study, not to furnish the student with a sufficient 
 knowledge of the several subjects there noticed/ 
 
 3. The following passages are taken from the Preface to 
 the Second Edition, published in 1874 : 
 
 * Competent and candid critics are aware that a book of 
 this size, in spite of its title, is not meant for school use in the 
 same sense as the Primer and other lesson- books of a similar 
 kind. As a school-book (for there is no limit to its use by any 
 students who are capable of good private reading) masters can 
 use it in two ways : (i) by enforcing general or occasional 
 reference to its principles and rules in reading Latin authors ; 
 
Preface. vii 
 
 (2) by requiring definite portions to be prepared for periodical 
 examinations conducted on paper as well as orally. 
 
 1 The present opportunity has been used to enlarge and 
 improve several departments of the Grammar, especially those 
 of Soundlore and Derivation. To discuss the physiology of 
 articulate sound has never entered into my plan. Were I 
 competent to undertake this, which is not the case, I should 
 hardly deem it suited to a book applying specially to Latin, 
 but rather appropriate to a more general work treating of the 
 Prolegomena to. Grammar. 
 
 t On the other hand, I have striven to bring out somewhat 
 more prominently than before the leading facts of Comparative 
 Philology, soxfar as they concern three kindred languages 
 Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. The Sanskrit words in this Edition 
 are generally cited in their modern form. The term Primitive 
 Root is, however, used; in what sense, and by what right, ap- 
 pears in a Supplementary Note at the close of the Appendix. 
 
 ' As I am now, by the kindness of those whom I was 
 bound to consult, authorised to attach my name to this Pre- 
 face, I think it right to notice the chief objections made to the 
 books on Latin Grammar with which I have been occupied. 
 
 ' When the Primer was published, seven years ago, it was 
 right that it should be criticised, and certain that it would be 
 impugned ; nor could we expect that all criticism would be 
 equally candid and intelligent, or that every assailant would 
 choose his weapons from the armories of truth and reason 
 only. 
 
 ' The chief objection urged against the Primer was this : 
 that it was too abstract and difficult for the use of children 
 beginning Latin. There would have been some weight in this 
 argument, if the purpose of the book had been rightly de- 
 scribed. But it was really designed as a class-book, not for 
 Elementary Schools and First Forms, but for all Forms in 
 Public Schools below the grade of those boys who could pass 
 with advantage to the use of a fuller Grammar. Other com- 
 panion books were in preparation for the instruction of children 
 at home or under private care ; and these have since been 
 published. 
 
 ' It was, secondly, stated as a charge against the Primer, and 
 subsequently against this Grammar (in which the teaching of 
 the Primer is contained), that they " bristle with new, hard, and . 
 
viii Preface. 
 
 uninviting terms." This charge, urged as it has been with much 
 persistence, and little concern for truth, must now be met by 
 some remarks on the terminology of Grammar, together with a 
 statement of my own feelings and practice in regard to it. 
 
 4. c Every science must have its own terminology. Grammar 
 is a science; and in Latin Grammar, as one of its departments, 
 there exist, I believe, more than three hundred technical terms. 
 Most of these are either actually Greek words, as Syntax^ 
 Prosody, &c., or translated from Greek into Latin, as the names 
 of the Cases and Parts of Speech. Others are purely Latin, as 
 Gerund, Supine, Active, Passive Voice. Of these various terms, 
 whatever the original unfitness of some, the larger number have 
 struck their roots in literature so deeply and widely that any 
 attempt to extirpate them would be quixotic. Many, indeed, 
 are in themselves unmeaning or inadequate (as Gerund, Supine, 
 Deponent, Accusative, Genitive, Ablative); but the learner by 
 gradual experience is enabled to use them practically, which is 
 after all the end we wish to reach, though the road to it might 
 at several points have been improved. A few terms, which 
 are not only vicious, but really confusing, and at the same time 
 unessential, I have exchanged for better substitutes. Among 
 those so rejected are Neuter Verb, Neutropassiva, Neutralia 
 Passiva, Substantive Verb. Again, we find a considerable 
 number of cumbersome Greek terms (Heteroclita, Heterogenea, 
 Aptota, Diptota, Triptota, Tetraptota, with many of the names 
 given to what are called Figures of Speech), which are of little 
 use to learners. These may either be omitted, or, at least, 
 dismissed to some unconspicuous corner. 
 
 'This statement affords ample proof that no disposition 
 existed to place in the student's hands a Grammar, " bristling 
 with hard and uninviting terms/' though it is not unnatural 
 to ask what those " inviting" terms are which, like the 
 "crustula" of the "blandi doctores " in Horace's time, have 
 magic power enough to attract young learners, " elementa 
 velint ut discere prima." 
 
 6 But there is one important truth which many would-be 
 critics either ignore or forget. Grammar is not only a science, 
 but a science capable of constant improvement; and improve- 
 ment in science usually brings with it some change in termino- 
 logy, or some addition to it. Now, in every division of 
 Grammar, Soundlore, Wordlore, Syntax, and Prosody, vast 
 
Preface. ix 
 
 strides have been made in this century through the fruitful 
 labours of scholars, chiefly German, some English ; whom I 
 would gladly recount here, were I not afraid of omitting some 
 name or names from so large a list. Accordingly it will be 
 found by those who study the works to which I allude, that the 
 terminology in each division has been more or less modified, 
 more or less enriched. 
 
 5. ( As respects my own contributions to Latin Grammar, in 
 the treatment of Soundlore and Wordlore I claim little origi- 
 nality. If I have compiled judiciously and correctly from the 
 works of great comparative philologers, so as to explain and 
 illustrate usefully the received facts of Latin word-formation, I 
 shall be amply satisfied with such credit. Again, in the Prosody 
 of this Grammar I have no share beyond the Table of Metres 
 and one of the Notes on Metre, containing little more than 
 tabular enumeration. The rest I owe to the kindness of my 
 friend Mr. Munro, whose recognised eminence as a scholar 
 needs no praise from me to enhance it. 
 
 ' But the Analysis of Sentences (Simple and Compound) 
 which constitutes the Syntax of this book, has been, to a great 
 extent, the fruit of personal study, personal thought, personal 
 labour. Sketched out in the Syntax of my " Elementary Latin 
 Grammar," it is filled in, though far from reaching the fullness 
 of perfection, in the present Grammar. 
 
 6 1 speak from long personal experience when I say that any 
 capable mind, which has fully mastered the principles of those 
 pages (348-500, especially 348-359 and 434-500), will be able, 
 in reading any part. of Horace, Cicero, Livy, or Tacitus, to move 
 through their longest periods with a firm intellectual step, 
 realising, and, if need be, stating the raison cT&re of every 
 constructed word, especially (for this is the most crucial test) 
 the raison d'etre of mood and tense in every Subjunctive Verb. 
 The same mind, so prepared, and applying itself to write Latin, 
 will be free from the risk of using any wrong construction. Not 
 that the mastery of a grammatical Syntax alone will give the 
 student stylistic power and skill in composition. These belong 
 to the vis divinior, to inspiration drawn by a gifted nature from 
 the study of the best Latin authors themselves. To such study, 
 combined with practice, no scholar will hesitate to assign by far 
 the largest share in the formation of a good style whether of 
 prose or of poetry. But, in the course of reading, the student 
 
x Preface. 
 
 cannot afford to neglect any valuable help ; and of all appli- 
 ances none is so valuable, none so indispensable, as a sound, 
 well-arranged, and lucid Grammar. 
 
 6. ' The study of any language with its grammar contains 
 more or less, according to the character of the language chosen, 
 the study of every language and its grammar, the study of language 
 in general and its grammar. The Greek and Latin languages 
 (illustrated by their sister, the Sanskrit) are best adapted for 
 this purpose, because their forms and constructions, themselves 
 grand, are fixed in two grand literatures. One who studies 
 these languages and their grammars cannot help studying to a 
 great extent, coordinately with them, his or her own native 
 language and its grammar. And the best mode and course of 
 study will be that which is so conducted as to make such co- 
 ordination as effectual and as widely instructive as possible. 
 The principal reason why translation into Greek and Latin 
 Verse as well as Prose deserves to be retained in the practice 
 of classical instruction I hold to be this, that it is a valu- 
 able exercise in the acquirement not only of those two dead 
 languages, but of the learner's native living language at the 
 same time. 
 
 7. ' A book like the " Public School^ Latin Grammar " does 
 not pretend to exhaust the subjects of which it treats subjects 
 on which many large volumes may be, and have been, written 
 but it carries the student very far on his road, and points and 
 smooths the path of future acquirement. 
 
 8. ' I return to speak of my Latin Syntax, by which alone, so 
 far as I know, my works on Grammar have obtained the favour 
 and confidence of eminent scholars engaged in public instruction. 
 
 ' The treatment of Latin Syntax has in the present century 
 passed through a revolution scarcely less considerable than the 
 treatment of Etymology. 
 
 * The means by which this revolution has been wrought are : 
 (i) the application to the whole doctrine of Syntax of the cor- 
 relative logical terms Subject- Predicate and Subject- Object, 
 with the principles they imply ; (2) the distinction between the 
 Simple and Compound Sentence, and between the several 
 kinds of each, with the consecution of tenses in them ; (3) 
 the distinction between Oratio Recta and Oratio Obliqua, with 
 the various affections which clauses subordinate to Oratio 
 Obliqua receive. 
 
Preface. xi 
 
 'We owe to the perspicacity and learned labours of 
 various writers, chiefly German, the reforms made in Latin 
 Syntax. I cannot assign to each his due share. The Grote- 
 fends. Kriiger, Zumpt, O. Schulz, Ram shorn, Kiihner, Madvig, 
 Key, have each their special merits. Of these I place Raphael 
 Kiihner in the first rank ; and I am much indebted to Grieben's 
 " Lateinische Satzverbindungen." In our own country the 
 scholastic study of this part of Grammar was usefully promoted 
 by the Exercise-books of T. Kerchever Arnold. 
 
 6 These reforms brought into the teaching of Latin Syntax, 
 besides the terms already named, a certain number more, per- 
 haps from forty to fifty, including the names given to the seve- 
 ral varieties of the Simple and Compound Sentence, with their 
 subdivisions ; including also the terms Protasis and Apodosis 
 in sentences which, like the Conditional, take these parts. 
 
 9. ' As regards the new terms which my own improvements 
 have suggested, three alone have frequent and important prac- 
 tical use ; the value of which I insist on as very great. These 
 are, (i) Prolative (Infinitive) ; (2) Copulative Verbs, introduced 
 first in my " Elementary Grammar"; (3) Suboblique (clause 
 or verb), a convenient abridgment of the necessary phrase 
 " Subordinate to Oratio Obliqua." 
 
 ' Further, it appeared that the doctrine of copulative predi- 
 cation in Grammar required, for its clear statement, the use of 
 some terminology from which the term predicate itself should 
 be excluded ; and this was at length found in the term used by 
 Mr. C. P. Mason, (predicative) Complement. 
 
 ' I say then, generally, that a new term proposed in Grammar 
 is not to be condemned because it is new; but, if at all, for 
 one of three reasons : that it is superfluous ; or that it is in- 
 adequate > or because a better term is suggested. As respects 
 myself, I repeat that I have not the least disposition to use 
 hard terms ; and I say that those which I have introduced are 
 unjustly so described. But I cannot adopt the poor pedantry 
 which refuses to facilitate and abridge discourse by the use of 
 suitable terms ; to write, for instance (after due explanation) 
 " Collective Subject" rather than "Nominative Singular of a 
 Substantive which implies a multitude of persons or things " : 
 and " Composite Subject " rather than " two or more singular 
 Nominatives agreeing with one plural Verb." 
 
xii Preface. 
 
 10. 'My "Elementary Latin Grammar," first published in 
 1843, obtained, after twenty years, approval so wide, that its circu- 
 lation approached 8,000 copies annually : and, during those years, 
 not a single complaint affecting its terminology was heard either 
 from the public press or from the eminent teachers who used it 
 in their schools. Such attacks broke out when it was adopted 
 as the groundwork of a new school grammar; and their 
 justice may be tested both by this fact, and by comparing 
 the imaginary difficulty imputed to a few new terms in the 
 Primer, with the many and great obstacles existing in its chief 
 predecessor, Lilly's Grammar.' 
 
 11. In the Preface to the Third and Fourth Editions certain 
 portions of Syntax were discussed. Those discussions, being 
 of signal importance to the right appreciation of Latin Com- 
 pound Construction, will here be repeated generally: but with 
 partial suppression of some topics and enlargement of others. 
 
 I. The Doctrine of Predication. 
 
 12. This Doctrine is treated ( 100-106) in agreement with 
 the principles now received in air Continental Latin Grammars, 
 and in most Grammars of the English language, but with some 
 slight variations in the mode of treatment. Logic and 
 Grammar are akin to one another ; but their spheres are 
 different. Logic is the Grammar of reasoning : it develops 
 6 the laws of thought/ Grammar is the Logic of language : it 
 displays the rules and idioms of discourse. The Correlation 
 and the Terms Subject- Predicate are necessary to both sciences. 
 But the scope of these terms is not the same in both. 
 
 If we take a Simple Sentence, such as ' beneficium male 
 collocatum nocet (noxium est) hominum societati/ we see that 
 the Logical Subject of this proposition is ' beneficium male 
 collocatum/ but the Grammatical Subject of the sentence is 
 ' beneficium,' of which 'male collocatum' is an adjunct. 
 Again, the Logical Predicate is 'noxium/ the Grammatical 
 Predicate ' nocet ' or ' noxium est/ of which ' hominum socie- 
 tati ' is an adjunct. Hence appears the propriety and necessity 
 (if confusion is a thing proper and necessary to be avoided) of 
 distinguishing the terms Subject and Predicate in Grammar 
 by the epithet 'Grammatical.' As for the terms Subject- 
 
Preface. xiii 
 
 Predicate themselves, they have now so firm a footing in the 
 science of Grammar that they cannot be excluded from it, if 
 their exclusion were desirable. See * Predicate ' in Index I. 
 
 The Subject is 'id quod Praedicato subjectum est' : the 
 Predicate is ' id quod de Subjecto praedicatum est.' The com- 
 bination of the two (as Kiihner says : f Ausfuhrliche Grammatik 
 der Lat. Spr.,' Part iii. i) is rightly called the Predicative 
 Relation, because the Predicate (or Verbal notion) is the kernel 
 of speech, to which the Substantival notion stands in subjection, 
 and is therefore called Subject ; often indeed expressed by the 
 endings of the Verb (am-o, ama-s, &c.). 
 
 When I was preparing my ( Elementary Latin Grammar ' 
 forty years ago, being in some dread of interference with Logic, 
 I took for my type of simple predication, 'homo est mortalis.' 
 But, when the Primer was compiled in 1866, the four Oxford 
 scholars engaged in that work unanimously held that (in 
 Grammar) Subject and Finite Verb are the true norm (homo 
 moritur), and that Incomplete Predication (of the form 
 homo est mortalis) should be taken afterwards as the large 
 exception. This settled the question then, in accordance (as 
 before noticed) with the practice of all continental writers : and 
 a verdict thus authoritatively and generally pronounced is 
 surely entitled to acceptance. 
 
 II. Complement (of Predication). 
 
 13. This suitable and useful term was first suggested by 
 Mr. C. P. Mason in his ' English Grammar,' to designate that 
 which completes the sense of a Simple Sentence when the verb is 
 one * of incomplete Predication ' (called ' Copulative ' in this 
 Grammar, p. 351). 
 
 In sentences such as ' homo moritur (est mortalis),' we 
 have seen above that the Grammatical Predicate is (not 
 4 mortalis,' but) ' moritur ' or ' est mortalis.' Donaldson's 
 expedient, of using the terms ' primary, secondary, tertiary ' 
 predicate, I cannot approve. It confounds confusion, invades 
 the domain of Logic gratuitously, and carries into the rules of 
 Grammar the use of a word (predicate), which, however 
 necessary to the preamble of Syntax, as the correlative of 
 Subject, may be replaced afterwards by the term Finite Verb 
 (or Verb of the Sentence) with great advantage. All confusion 
 is happily avoided by the term f Complement,' which is wide 
 
xiv Preface. 
 
 enough to include every word or phrase capable of completing 
 the construction of a Copulative Verb, whether finite or 
 infinitive. See the Examples on p. 352. 
 
 III. Relations in the Simple Sentence. 
 
 14. Mr. Mason, in his ' English Grammar/ following Becker's 
 ' Organism der Sprache/ treats of the Relations of Words in 
 the Simple Sentence. The ' Public School Latin Grammar ' 
 does the same. One of our critics regards these Relations as 
 ' spurious children of Logic and Grammar/ But he has failed 
 to interpret the procedure rightly. It is as purely grammatical 
 as any procedure can be, which admits (what no grammarian 
 can now exclude) the correlations Subject- Predicate and 
 Subject-Object. 
 
 Two of Mr. Mason's c Relations/ the Predicative (I.) and 
 the Objective (III.)? are tn e same, in title and extent, as those 
 of this Grammar. His ' Attributive ' Relation contains the 
 Qualitative (II. ), but is more extensive: his * Adverbial' 
 Relation contains the Circumstantive (V.), but is more 
 extensive. 
 
 Mr. Mason was dealing with English, a language of rare 
 inflexions, using Prepositions in their stead. I deal with 
 Latin, a largely inflected language. But even in English the 
 Genitive should not be merged in the Attributive Relation, and 
 the Dative Case in the Adverbial (Circumstantive): much less 
 in Latin. For, true as it is that numerous instances of the 
 Genitive are attributive in character, and that many Datives 
 might be replaced by Preposition with case (i.e. adverbially) ; 
 still there remain very many examples of each case which 
 cannot be so represented, and this fact, combined with that 
 signal distinction between forms of construction, which merits 
 distinct treatment in Grammar, leads to the conclusion that 
 the Dative and Genitive Cases ought to rank as separate 
 Relations. The Dative is therefore classed here under the 
 6 Receptive ' (IV.), and the Genitive under the * Proprietive ' 
 Relation (VI.). 
 
 Relation VI L, that of ' the Prolative Infinitive/ appeared 
 for the first time in the ' Public School Latin Primer.' It com- 
 prises all the instances in which the Infinitive extends (profert) 
 the construction of words capable of being followed in de- 
 pendence by a Copulative Infinitive with Nominative Com- 
 
Preface. xv 
 
 plement. See 180. In the 'Elementary Latin Grammar 7 
 the Infinitive with some of these Verbs (soleo, possum, &c.) 
 was called Objective ; with others (videor, dicor, &c.) Predi- 
 cative (i.e. complemental). But these shifts never satisfied : for 
 if, in * soleo errare,' the Infinitive is Object of ' soleo,' it is an 
 unique Object : and if, in ( videor errare,' the Infinitive is predi- 
 catively complemental (which in some sense it is), its character 
 as a ' Complement' is widely distinct from that of an Adjective 
 or Substantive (which qualify the Subject), and from every other 
 instance in p. 352. And how, on the same principle, can we 
 analyse without the most unpleasant confusion such sentences 
 as these? 
 
 Marcus putatur velle fieri philosophus. Sapientis est velle 
 fieri doctiorem. 
 
 At length a conviction was reached, that this usage of 
 Grammar (common to all Aryan languages at least) deserves 
 separate classification as a specialty of the Infinitive Verb-noun. 
 
 Madvig's mode of treating this construction is not essentially 
 different in principle. Under one head ( 180) this Grammar 
 gives what he sets forth in three places ( 389, 393, 400). He 
 treats in one and the same chapter of the Infinitive in Oratio 
 Recta and Oratio Obliqua. Deeming it right and important to 
 keep Simple and Compound Construction apart, we consider in 
 Chapter III. the Infinitive of Oratio Recta, in Chapter IV. 
 that of Oratio Obliqua. But when Madvig speaks of the 
 Infinitive as joined to these (extensible) Verbs 'urn den 
 Begriff zu erganzen und die Handlung zu ergeben ' (to complete 
 the idea and supply the action), this is exactly what is meant by 
 the Prolative Relation of the Infinitive : and it is very much 
 the same as the use of the Infinitive, in German and English, 
 with those Verbs which some grammarians have very inade- 
 quately called ' auxiliary' (ich will, soil, kann, muss, &c. 
 kommen : I will shall can must, &c. come) . The con- 
 struction belongs also to French, a Romance (latinistic) 
 language. For though French inflects (with Latin) / will 
 come, I would come, by 'je viendrai, je viendrais,' it falls in 
 with Latin, German, English, in saying je peux je veux je 
 de'sire j'ose, &c. venir. It is unquestionably true that after 
 many of these Verbs the Infinitive may be called an Object by 
 anybody who wishes to do so, as in 'vincere scis, tu sais 
 vaincre,' * cupis abire, tu de'sires partir,' &c. The use of the 
 
xvi Preface. 
 
 Verb-noun as an Object is recognised in 179. But the 
 reasons in favour of accepting a distinct Relation wherever the 
 test of ( esse/ &c. with Nominative will apply are decidedly 
 preponderant. If an example be adduced like this in Horace, 
 C. i. 2: 
 
 hie magnos potius triumphos 
 hie ames did pater atque princeps, 
 
 and if it be asked whether, as triumphos is Object of ames, 
 did does not also stand in the same construction, the reply is 
 that Latin writers, especially poets, often construct one Verb 
 with dependence of two kinds : so Verg. Aen. iii. 234 : 
 
 sociis tune arma capessant 
 edico et dira bellum cum gente gerendum. 
 
 1 Ames/ in the lines of Horace, first takes an Accus. Object 
 triumphos, and then a Prolative Infin. did, with its comple- 
 ments. The example belongs to that kind of construction 
 which grammarians have called Zeugma. See 61. 
 
 Our last Relation, the Annexive (VIII.), is in kind dif- 
 ferent from the other seven. It is really no more than a com- 
 pendious method, by which a word B is noted as assignable to 
 the same Relation with a preceding word A. It is a con- 
 venient substitute for those cumbersome and yet incomplete 
 rules which in the old School Grammars were meant to account 
 for the cases, moods, &c. of words linked to others by various 
 conjunctions. See Supplementary Note II. p. 579. 
 
 15. There are two great facts in Grammar which the 
 student of language should always bear in mind : 
 
 (1) Few Definitions are free from examples which occa- 
 sionally stray beyond the precincts there laid down, to enter 
 those of another Definition. For instance : a Substantive may 
 sometimes become an Adjective (rex, regina, raptor, victor, 
 victrix, &c.) : an Adjective or Participle often becomes a 
 Substantive (sapiens, utile, utilia, adulescens, sponsus, dictum, 
 &c.) : a Verb contains a Noun among its forms : a Noun 
 sometimes takes the functions of a Verb : an Adverb becomes 
 a Preposition, a Preposition an Adverb : Declensions encroach 
 upon one another ; and so on. 
 
 (2) A Norm or Rule may be liable to numerous exceptions: 
 
Preface. xvii 
 
 and yet, even if the excepted instances could be shewn to equal 
 or even exceed in number the instances which obey the rule, 
 the Norm ought to remain paramount, and not to be extended 
 in order to recognise such instances as normal. See 101. 
 
 Thus, referring to (i), all Annexed Words belong to some 
 one or more of the other Relations also. Every Complement, 
 belonging, as such, to I. will fall under some other Relation 
 also. Of those which occur in the examples, p. 354, the first 
 six fall under II., the seventh and eighth under VI., the tenth 
 under IV., the ninth and eleventh under V. Most examples 
 of Relation VI. and some of IV. V. are akin to II., being 
 attributive in sense, but excluded from II. because they appear 
 as caseforms, and not in attributive concord. 
 
 1 6. The foregoing observations shew that, in the mode of 
 treating these Relations, there is no spurious intrusion of 
 Logic into Grammar. The Dative is not merged in the 
 category of Circumstance, nor the Genitive in that of Attri- 
 bution (Qualitative). Each case has its own sphere : the Nomi- 
 native (as Subject-case) and the First Concord are in I., the 
 Accusative as Case of nearer Object is in III., the Dative as 
 remoter Object-case in IV., the Ablative (with the Accusative 
 depending on Prepositions) in V., the Genitive in VI. The 
 Concords 2, 3, 4, come under II.; the peculiar use of the 
 Infinitive under VII., the linking by Conjunctions under VIII. 
 Afterwards, the Vocative and all Interjectional usages lying 
 out of the Sentence are separately treated, and then the theory 
 of the Relative. Grammar is followed, Grammar kept in view, 
 throughout. 
 
 Experience proves that such a synopsis of the Simple 
 Sentence does materially help many students to read with more 
 profitable appreciation the rules that follow, and, reviewed 
 again at the close, will map the subject in their minds more 
 lucidly and more enduringly. 
 
 IV. Ellipse of the Finite Forms of 'Sum.' 
 
 17. This topic is considered in the note on p. 428 : see also 
 99, Munro on Lucr. ii. i, with the authorities there cited. 
 The ellipse occasionally creates misinterpretation, participles 
 finitely used being sometimes mistaken for mere participles 
 (Hor. C. i. 37. 25; ii. 9. 15), and again mere participles 
 having been regarded as finite : thus in Verg. B. ii. 40 : 
 
xviii Preface. 
 
 praeterea duo nee tuta mihi valle reperti 
 capreoli, sparsis etiam nunc pellibus albo, 
 bina die siccant ovis ubera; quos tibi servo. 
 
 Wagner and Ribbeck have a semicolon after ' albo/ thus 
 apparently making 'reperti' finite: but the tenour of the 
 passage indicates that ' capreoli siccant 7 is the principal predi- 
 cation, and ' reperti ' a mere participle. 
 
 The ellipse of ' esse ' in oblique construction, when the par- 
 ticiples perfect, future, or gerundive occur as accusatives in 
 dependence, is familiar to every reader of Latin authors in 
 prose and poetry. But the Prolative construction, by which 
 the Nominatives of these Participles are used as Infinitives 
 without ' esse/ is not by any means so generally and so well 
 understood by young scholars. They are therefore advised to 
 study with care the note on 180 in this Grammar, and to 
 collect other examples of this construction (the Participles in 
 the Nominative as Infinitives without ' esse '), which are not 
 duly recognised in Madvig's Grammar. It may perhaps be 
 more clearly exhibited by setting side by side the Accusative 
 (Oblique) and the Nominative (Prolative) constructions in a 
 few examples. 
 
 a. T. Manlium locutum ferunt, 
 T. Manlius locutus fertur, Liv. 
 
 b. Ferunt Promethea coactum . . . 
 Fertur Prometheus coactus . . . Hor. 
 
 c. Delectum habendum putant, 
 Delectus habendus putatur. 
 
 d. Omnes secuturos verisimile est, 
 Omnes secuturi videntur. 
 
 e. Graeciam collisam narrant, 
 Graecia collisa narratur, Hor. 
 
 f. Memorant quendam solitum . . . 
 Memoratur quidam solitus, . . . Hor. 
 
 g. Credimus Athon velificatum, 
 Creditur Athos velificatus, luv. 
 
 h. Ferunt genetricem adfatam lovem, 
 
 Fertur genetrix adfata lovem, Verg. ix. 82. 
 
 In every one of these examples ' esse ' is to be mentally 
 supplied its construction being Oblique ( 194) in each 
 former Prolative ( 180) in each latter line. 
 
Preface. xix 
 
 V. 1 8. Some nice points of Syntax have been either over- 
 looked or inadequately treated. Such are the Substantival 
 constructions with ut and quod, in place of an Infinitive 
 Clause. See 195-6. Still more unfortunate has been the 
 treatment of constructions ranked in this Grammar under the 
 title Petitio Obliqua, 197. A disposition is shewn by some 
 writers to make these mere varieties of the Adverbial (Final) 
 Clause with ut, ne, although their prominence and importance 
 in Narratio Obliqua ( 230) prove their just rank as one of the 
 three varieties of dependent Substantival Clauses, which con- 
 stitute Oratio Obliqua. The Statement (Accusative and In- 
 finitive) and the Question assert themselves, as it were, and 
 cannot be ignored : but the Dependent Petition has to wage 
 a sort of rivalry with other constructions of ut, ne, in order to 
 obtain its just place in Grammar, as representing an Oblique 
 1 permission, command, or request. 7 The examples which 
 Madvig cites in 403-4, shewing the juxtaposition in Narratio 
 Obliqua of indirect statements, commands, and questions, 
 might have shewn him the true order in which the three ought 
 to be treated. 
 
 ' Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn 
 part em ituros atque Vsifuturos Helvetia s, ubi eos Caesar con- 
 stituisset atque esse voluisset : sin bello persequi perseveraret, 
 reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Romani et .pristinae 
 virtutis Helvetiorum . . . quare ne committeret ut is locus, ubi 
 constitissent, ex calamitate populi Romani . . . nomen caperet. ; 
 Caes. B. G. i. 13. 
 
 * Cum vellet, congrederetur ; intellecturum quid invicti 
 Germani .... virtute possent.' Caes. B. G. i. 38. 
 
 ' Duces pronuntiare iusserunt : " ne quis ab loco discederet ; 
 illorum esse praedam atque illis reservari quaecumque Romani 
 reliquissent : proinde omnia in victoria posita existimarent? ' 
 Caes. B. G. v. 34. 
 
 6 Cicero respondit : " non esse consuetudinem populi Romani 
 accipere ab hoste armato condicionem : si ab armis discedere 
 velint, se adiutore utantur legatosque ad Caesarem mittant ; 
 sperare, pro eius iustitia quae petierint impetraturos." ' Caes. 
 B. G. v. 42. 
 
 ' Nuntia Romanis : " caelestes ita velle ut mea Roma caput 
 orbis terrarum sit : proinde rem militarem colant; sciantque 
 
 a 2 
 
xx Preface. 
 
 et ita posteris tradant, nullas opes humanas armis Romanis 
 resistere posse."' Liv. i. 16. 
 
 'Exprobrant multitudini : " saginare plebem populares suos, 
 ut iugulentur. hoccine patiendum fuisse, si ad nutum dictatoris 
 non respondent vir consularis ? fingerent mentitum ante, atque 
 ideo non habuisse quod turn responderet : cui servo umquam 
 mendacii poenam vincula fuisse ? " ' Liv. vi. 1 7. 
 
 ' Blaesus multa dicendi arte, " non per seditionem et turbas 
 desideria militum ad Caesarem/mw/tf," ait ; " neque veteres ab 
 imperatoribus priscis neque ipsos ab divo Augusto tarn nova 
 petivisse\ et pariim in tempore incipientes principis curas 
 onerari : si tamen tenderent in pace temptare quae ne civilium 
 quidem bellorum victores expostulaverint, cur contra morem 
 obsequii, contra fas disciplinae vim meditenturl decemerent 
 legates seque coram mandata darent" ' Tac. Ann. i. 19. 
 
 ' Eo in metu arguere Germanicum omnes, quod non ad supe- 
 riorem exercitum fcrgeret, ubi obsequia et contra rebellis auxi- 
 lium: "Satis superque missione et pecunia et mollibus consultis 
 pcccatum ; vel si vilis ipsi salus, cur filium parvulum, cur gravi- 
 dam coniugem inter furentes et omnis human! iuris violatores 
 haberett illos saltern avo et reipublicae redder et."' Tac. Ann. 
 i. 40. See do. do. ii. 15. 
 
 ' post paulo scribit sibi milia quinque 
 esse domi chlamydum ; partem vel tolleret omnes. 7 
 
 Hor. Epist. i. 6. 43. 
 Compare Verg. Aen. iv. 683 : 
 
 date volnera lymphis Abluam, <S:c. 
 Aen. vi. 884 : 
 
 manibus date lilia plenis Purpureos spargam Mores, c. 
 
 The true construction, 'date abluam,' grant me to wash 
 away, ' date spargam/ grant me to scatter, &c, has in each place 
 been recognised fully by no commentator except Ladewig. 
 If commentators who have fallen into error respecting them 
 had been familiar with the principles of ' Petitio Obliqua,' they 
 would have seen that the Subjunctives depend as Objects on 
 * date/ like * colamus ' in the following lines of an Inscription 
 to Silvanus found at Aime in France : 
 
 tu me meosque reduces Roman sistito 
 
 Itala rura te colamus praeside. Coll. Orell. 1613. 
 

 Preface. xxi 
 
 Had t sinite ' been written instead of ' date ' (and there is no 
 real difference) the mistake would not have been made. 
 
 VI. 19. Chapter VI. of Part I., Division ii. ( 61-99), on 
 the Uses of Words, though subjoined to Wordlore, may be read 
 by those who have already studied Latin Syntax to some extent 
 in a shorter Grammar with suitable practice. It unavoidably 
 contains many topics (as, Ellipsis and Zeugma, Prepositions, 
 Correlation, Mood), which belong in principle to the construc- 
 tion of Sentences, and which many grammarians, as Madvig, 
 intermingle with the rules of Syntax, thereby, we think, sadly 
 breaking the continuity, and obscuring the doctrine of these 
 latter, as intended to develop the construction of Sentences, 
 Simple and Compound. 
 
 To those who study this Grammar we strongly recommend 
 the adoption of the following order, in studying the laavs of 
 Words constructed in Sentences; i.e. Syntax. 
 
 (1) Wordlore, Division ii., Chapter VI., Sections i.-viii. 
 ( 61-89). 
 
 (2) Wordlore, Division ii., Chapter II., Section x. (Numerals, 
 
 32-34). 
 
 (3) Syntax, Chapters I., II., III., IV., Section i. ( 100-189). 
 
 (4) Uses of the Verb (Wordlore, 90-99). 
 
 (5) Syntax continued ( 190-250). 
 
 The whole Chapter on the Uses of Words may be reperused 
 with advantage at the close of such a course. 
 
 VII. 20. The systematic order in which the Doctrine of 
 Sentences is drawn out is the chief characteristic feature of this 
 ^Grammar. 
 
 Chapter I. of Part II. ( 100) sets forth : 
 
 (1) The distinction of Sentences as Simple or Compound. 
 
 (2) The three forms of the Simple Sentence : 
 Statement (enuntiatio) : Will-speech (petitio) : Question 
 
 ; (mterrogatio). 
 
 (3) The forms which these three severally take when, being 
 subordinated in compound construction, they become Substan- 
 tival Clauses : 
 
 Oblique Statement : Oblique Will- speech : Oblique Question. 
 
 Chapter II. ( 101-106) contains : 
 
 The Analysis of the Simple Sentence, and the eight Rela- 
 
xxii Preface. 
 
 tions comprised in it : adding to these the Interjectional use 
 of the Vocative and other Cases similarly interposed. 
 
 Chapter III. ( 107-188) contains : 
 
 Rules and Examples of construction in the Simple Sentence 
 (Agreement : Cases : Infinitive with Gerunds and Supines). 
 
 Chapter IV. ( 189-240) treats of: 
 
 The Compound Sentence, in five Sections. 
 
 Section I. takes up the topic begun in Chapter I., and shews : 
 
 (1) Subordinate Clauses, of three kinds ; 
 Substantival ( 100) : Adverbial : Adjectival : 
 
 (2) Adverbial Clauses, of seven kinds : 
 
 (3) Adjectival Clauses, being in some kinds substitutes for 
 Adverbial (see 204). 
 
 Section II. states the laws of Mood in subordination to 
 Oratio Obliqua, actual and virtual, with examples. 
 
 Section III. contains : 
 
 Rules and Examples of the construction of the three 
 varieties of Substantival Clauses : 
 
 (1) Oblique or Indirect Statement (enuntiatio obliqua). 
 
 (2) Oblique or Indirect Will-speech (petitio obliqua). 
 
 (3) Oblique or Indirect Question (interrogatio obliqua). 
 
 Section IV. contains : 
 
 Rules and Examples of Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses 
 treated in connexion with one another. 
 
 Section V. forms a Supplement, treating of: 
 
 (1) Consecution of Tenses : 
 
 (2) Narratio Obliqua : 
 
 (3) Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses : 
 
 (4) Participial Construction. 
 
 VIII. 21. The scheme of Latin construction thus shewn 
 forms an edifice of its doctrine, from which no stone can be 
 taken away or displaced without damage to the whole fabric. 1 
 
 1 Let me here state my meaning more distinctly. 
 
 i. I consider it desirable that the Uses of Words and the Rules of 
 Construction should be kept generally distinct : but I deem it essential 
 that the Uses of the Verb and the Doctrine of Moods should be learnt 
 before the Laws of Compound Construction. This opinion is illustrated ia 
 Appendix II. to the ' Public School Latin Primer ' (years 1878 c.). 
 
Preface. xxiii 
 
 Nor can a single fact or principle laid down in it be denied 
 by any one who is able to recognise facts in language, and to 
 deduce principles from them correctly. 
 
 (1) The Simple Sentence has three Varieties : 
 i. Vales: 2. Vale: 3. Valesne? 
 
 Can this be denied ? 
 
 (2) Each Variety can be subjoined (with some formal 
 change) to a principal Predication ; such junction being a 
 1 Compound Sentence/ the subordinate or dependent member 
 in which we term ' the Clause.' 
 
 1. Audio (constat) te valere. 
 
 2. Opto (optandum est) ut valeas. 
 
 3. Quaero (quaeritur) (die) valeasne. 
 Can this be denied ? 
 
 (3) Each of these Clauses is related as Object or Subject to 
 the Verb on which it depends. 
 
 1. I hear (it is evident) What? That you are well. 
 
 2. I wish (my wish must be) What ? That you be well. 
 
 3. I ask (it is asked) (say) W r hat ? Whether you are well. 
 Can this be denied? (See it even in Madvig, 2o8b, 398a.) 
 
 2. It is essential that Syntax should take for its starting-point the 
 three forms of a simple sentence and their transformation into clauses 
 when they become subordinate. 
 
 3. It is essential that the study of Simple and that of Compound 
 Sentences should be treated in distinct parts of the Grammar, and that the 
 rules for the Simple Infinitive, with Gerunds and Supines, should be in- 
 cluded under the Simple Sentence, leaving the Infinitive Clause (though 
 it may be cursorily mentioned) to take its proper place at the head of 
 Compound Construction. 
 
 4. It is essential that the Doctrine of Compound Construction should 
 take for its starting-point the threefold distinction of Substantival, 
 Adverbial, and Adjectival Clauses, shewing the intimate relation of the 
 two latter classes. 
 
 5. It is essential that the Substantival Ut-clause and the Substan- 
 tival Quod-clause should be shewn in their true place as succursal to. the 
 Infinitive Clause, with due notice of the relation which they severally 
 imply to Consecutive and Causal Construction. 
 
 6. It is highly important that (while the term Conjunctive is given 
 to the Mood generally) the term Subjunctive should be confined to its 
 subordinate use. 
 
 7. The distinction of Compound and Complex Sentences, which some 
 English grammarians use, is superfluous in Latin. That of Coordinate 
 and Subordinate Clauses ( 100) answers the purpose adequately. 
 
xxiv Preface. 
 
 (4) Therefore each of these Clauses has the property of a 
 Substantive, and is justly termed < Substantival/ 
 
 Can this be denied ? 
 
 (5) Of other Subordinate Clauses, those which answer the 
 adverbial questions how, for what purpose, why, when, on 
 what condition, &c. are justly termed Adverbial Clauses (Con- 
 secutive, Final, &c.). See 189 B. 
 
 There can be no just reason to deny this. 
 
 [All Relative Clauses formed by qui or a particle expli- 
 cable by a case of qui, as quo, unde, cur, &c., may be called 
 Adjectival, having the attributive nature of Adjectives. But in 
 this Grammar ( 189 C, 204, &c.) the term is applied only to 
 those Relative Clauses which determine Mood to be Subjunc- 
 tive : such as: Quis est tarn impius qui parentem feriat? = 
 ut feriat ? Missi sunt qui specularentur = ut specularentur : 
 Miseret me tui qui tantum desipias = quum . . . desipias : and 
 the like. The larger power of the term Adjectival, as belonging 
 to any Relative Clause, should not be forgotten, though its use 
 is needed here alone to complete the analogy.] 
 
 This classification of Clauses, as Substantival, Adverbial, 
 and Adjectival, is recognised by the soundest German gram- 
 marians, Kriiger, Kiihner, Feldbausch, Grieben, and many 
 others. Its omission is among the chief faults of Madvig's 
 Syntax. 
 
 (6) Returning to Substantival Clauses (2), we observe that 
 each of the Clauses is indirect, i.e. dependent on a Verb, which 
 is itself direct, i.e. independent. This indirect speech is called 
 by general consent of grammarians * Oratio Obliqua,' and that 
 on which it depends is called ' Oratio Recta ; (direct speech). 
 Thus it appears, that all three forms of the Substantival Clause 
 constitute Oratio Obliqua. This is allowed, though haltingly 
 and inadequately, by Madvig, 403, Obs. i. The chief 
 reason why oblique statement (te valere) has been ' specially 
 called ' Oratio Obliqua is this : that ordinary discourse in prose 
 consists mainly of. statements. Another reason is, that the 
 indirect expression of the Imperative (bidding-speech or will- 
 speech) is not so manifestly distinguishable from other forms as 
 the Infinitive Clause (te valere), about which there can be no 
 mistake. See what is said above of Petitio Obliqua. The 
 student is strongly advised to keep this larger sense of the 
 term Oratio Obliqua always in mind, and to fortify it by careful 
 
Preface. xxv 
 
 study of Oblique Narration, as used by Livy, Sallust, and 
 Tacitus. He may also consult with advantage the Syntaxis 
 Vergiliana in our edition of Virgil, pp. 664, &c. 
 
 (7) The limits of Oratio Obliqua being thus established as 
 coincident with Substantival Clauses, we pass to the Mood of 
 Verbs in subsequent Clauses depending on them, which we 
 therefore call 'Suboblique,' that is, 'Subordinate to Oratio 
 Obliqua.' The rules on this subject are given in 190-193, 
 because the constructions resulting from them occur in many 
 of the examples cited in the sections following. 
 
 The Conjunctive is, by its nature, the Thought-mood or mood 
 of conception. Hence, when a finite verb in secondary depen- 
 dence forms part of the same conception as the Oratio Obliqua 
 in primary dependence, it is put in the Subjunctive (dependent 
 Conjunctive). See Example in 190 I. So also : 
 
 Apud Hypanim fluvium Aristoteles ait bestiolas quasdam 
 nasci, quae unum diem vivant, Cic. T. D. i. 39. Perspicuum 
 est, non esse utilia, quae sint turpia, Cic. Off. iii. 
 
 With the other examples on p. 437 of this Grammar, and 
 those in ' Public School Latin Primer,' p. 167. This doctrine 
 is laid down in all Latin grammars. 
 
 IX. 22. So also Rule 193, which states that a subjunc- 
 tive is used in dependence on another Verb in the Conjunc- 
 tive Mood, is in the nature of a corollary to Rule 190, and is 
 not disputed. Rule 191 relates to implied or virtual Oratio 
 Obliqua. The doctrine on this subject I have somewhere 
 seen described as a mystery, too abstruse for anybody to 
 understand or study. Now the differential calculus, or loga- 
 rithms, or even decimal fractions, remain a mystery to those 
 who have not taken the trouble to learn them. But Grammars 
 are written for those who are willing to learn, and who 
 wish to know well what they profess to know at all. It seems, 
 therefore, that a few words here may not be wasted in the 
 endeavour to clear up a subject which, after all, has nothing 
 in it mysterious. For this purpose, it is best to begin with 
 the simplest obvious examples. Compare, then, the two fol- 
 lowing places in Cicero's Treatise * De Officiis ' : 
 
 (1) Cyrenaici . . . virtutem censuerunt esse lau- 
 dandam, quod efficiens esset volupfatis, iii. 33. 
 
 (2) Laudat Africanum Panaetius, quod fuerit abstinens, 
 ii. 22. 
 
xxvi Preface. 
 
 We say that ' virtutem esse laudandam ' (actually) is Oratio 
 Obliqua, on which ( quod esset ' depends, and is therefore 
 Subjunctive, being suboblique.' We say that ' laudat ' (virtually) 
 contains Oratio Obliqua, and that 4 quod fuerit,' depending on 
 it, is ' virtually suboblique.' 
 
 Such is our proposition. Let us consider it. 
 
 First, as to ' quod esset' in sentence (i). 
 
 ' Virtutem esse laudandam ' is Oratio Obliqua in its principal 
 form of Accus. with Infin, (Infinitive Clause), and a Finite 
 Verb really depending on such a form will be Subjunctive 
 because the reason given for virtue being praiseworthy as well 
 as the fact itself is referred to the mind of the Cyrenaics, and 
 for this purpose the Thought-mood (Conjunctive) is employed. 
 Such is the rationale of a Subjunctive ' actually subordinate to 
 Oratio Obliqua,' or (for brevity's sake) 'suboblique.' 
 
 Secondly, as to ' quod fuerit/ in Sentence (2), 
 
 Do we utter ' a mystery ' when we say, that a person who 
 is said to praise another, is said to think and to express some- 
 thing ; that ' laudat ' necessarily contains the meaning ' putat 
 esse laudandum ' with the meaning ' ait esse laudandum ' ? 
 Enough that it contains the latter. Laudat then contains 
 ' virtual (i.e. implied) Oratio Obliqua ' : and the Finite Verb 
 depending on it (quod fuerit), being really subordinate to a 
 virtual Oratio Obliqua, or (for brevity's sake) ' virtually 
 suboblique/ is referred to the mind of Panaetius by becoming 
 Subjunctive. He gives the reason why he praises. 
 
 Such is one of the simplest instances of ' virtual Oratio 
 Obliqua/ 
 
 X. 23. Here it will be right to deal with a plausible objec- 
 tion, which may lead some not unintelligent minds to question 
 the merit of the terminology used. Why, they may perhaps 
 say, is a term which itself needs explanation, and which suggests 
 a merely formal cause, interposed between the learner's 
 understanding and the true logical reason of the Thought- 
 mood, viz. that it refers the proposition to the mind of the 
 Subject? 
 
 The answer to this objection has already been suggested in 
 another part of this Preface. Every science is taught and 
 learnt through the medium of terms. It is the teacher's busi- 
 ness to see that his pupils do learndo know the meaning 
 
Preface. xxvii 
 
 and force of such terms. It is a learner's business to acquire 
 their meaning and force, either from his teacher (if he has one) 
 or from his books (if he studies privately). If he uses terms, of 
 which he has not learnt the true meaning, he walks in the dark, 
 and the results can only be ignorance and error. A good 
 teacher will be always on his guard against this danger. If he 
 asks a question, and is answered by a correct term, which he is 
 sure the learner understands, he may say i quite right/ and pass 
 on. If he doubts this, he should cross-examine. For instance, 
 
 As to passage (i) : 
 
 Q. Why is ' esset ' Subjunctive ? 
 
 A. It is suboblique. 
 
 Q. How so ? 
 
 A. It is subordinate to the Oratio Obliqua 'virtutem esse 
 laudandam.' 
 
 Q. And this Oratio Obliqua itself? 
 
 A. It is subordinate to the principal sentence 'Cyrenaici 
 censuerunt.' 
 
 Q. To what then is the Clause ' quod efficiens esset volup- 
 tatis' referred? 
 
 A. To the mind of the Subject 'Cyrenaici/ 
 
 As to passage (2) : 
 Q. Why is 'fuerit' Subjunctive? 
 A. It is virtually suboblique. 
 Q. How so ? 
 
 A. It is subordinate to an Oratio Obliqua implied in ' laudat.' 
 Q. How would you express this Oratio Obliqua ? 
 A. Ait esse laudandum (or some equivalent). 
 Q. To what then is the Clause * quod fuerit abstinens ' 
 referred ? 
 
 A. To the mind of the Subject Panaetius. 
 
 If the question were in class, and the catechumen failed to 
 answer, the teacher would probably explain publicly, and re- 
 examine privately, till he was sure the matter was understood. 
 
 If our imaginary disputant, returning to the charge, says : 
 May not this cross-examination be cut short ? is not all con- 
 tained in the last question and answer ? No, we reply : for we 
 are not teaching Logic only, but also Latin : Latin construction, 
 
xxviii Preface. 
 
 Latin procedure, with its rationale. The attempt to teach the 
 rationale without the forms which lead to it would be a double 
 failure : grammar would manifestly be sacrificed, and Logic (we 
 believe) would gain nothing by the sacrifice. 
 
 XI. 24. Some persons imagine they have solved all ' the 
 mystery' of such constructions as (2) by saying that ' The Sub- 
 junctive is used in Causal and Relative Sentences to denote an 
 alleged reason or act.' These words we quote from one such 
 writer. J 
 
 1 Causal and Relative Sentences ' certainly do (for obvious 
 reasons) supply the most numerous instances of l virtually 
 
 1 It may be instructive to cite this writer's ' ipsissima verba, ' as an in- 
 stance of error growing out of the attempt to defend error. He says : 
 
 ' The Subjunctive is also used in Causal and Relative Sentences to de- 
 note an alleged reason or act, as ' ' Laudat Panaetius Africanum, quod 
 fuerit abstinens," " Panaetius praises Africanus, because he says that he was 
 self- restraining." Fuit for fuerit would mean "because he actually was 
 self-restraining," without implying that Panaetius said so. So " iniuria 
 quae tibi facta est," "the injury which has been done you" ; but " iniuria 
 quae tibi facta sit," "the injury which you say has been done you." Cic. 
 in Caec. 58.' 
 
 (1) The translation here marked in italic type I would rather leave to 
 the judgment of scholars than characterise it myself. The correct version 
 is l alleging that he was ' or (better still) * on the ground that he vuasS 
 
 (2) ' Fuit ' for ' fuerit ' would not have been joined by Cicero to such 
 a context as ' laudat quod,' that is to say, where the principal verb is one 
 which by its own nature (as laudo, queror, accuso, &c.) contains Oratio 
 Obliqua, and is used in any person but the first. If the verb has no such 
 nature, as in the well-known passage * Themistocles noctu ambulabat, 
 quod somnum capere non posset,' T. D. iv. 19, Cicero could have written 
 'poterat,' if he had wished to refer the clause to his own statement. 
 
 (3) Any good scholar, on reading this writer's next citation (from Cic. 
 in Caec. 58) would perceive at once that it is fallacious ; that the context, 
 when supplied, must account for the use of ' quae sit facta.' And such is 
 the case. Cicero writes : ' Hie tu, si laesum te a Verre esse dices, patiar 
 et concedam : si iniuriam tibi factam quereris, defendam et negabo. 
 Deinde de iniuria, quae tibi facta sit, neminem nostrum graviorem vin- 
 dicem esse oportet quam te ipsum, cui facta dicitur.' Then, a few sen- 
 tences later : ' Quid si ne iniuriae quidem, quae tibi ab illo facta sit, causa 
 reman et ? ' 
 
 It would be quite enough to say that for ' si iniuriam tibi factam quereris ' 
 Cicero might have used the not less frequent ' quereris quod iniuria tibi 
 facta sit,' and that * de iniuria quae tibi facta sit ' is a mere abridgement of 
 

 Preface. xxix 
 
 suboblique ' construction : and I suppose this writer has been 
 misled by Madvig, who, in his very faulty treatment of Mood, 
 mentions such examples only. But the principle is general, 
 and applies also to Temporal, Conditional, and Concessive 
 Clauses : as witness the following examples : 
 
 Darius ejus pontis, dum ipse abesset, custodes reliquit, Nep. 
 Milt. 3. At memoria minuitur. Credo, nisi earn exerceas, aut 
 si sis natura tardior, Cic. C. M. 7. Utilitas efflorescit ex 
 amicitia, etiamsi tu earn minus secutus sis, Cic. LaeL 27. 
 
 This last example is gnomic in its nature. See xv. 
 
 Moreover, it is not true that the Subjunctive, by its own 
 independent right, ' denotes an alleged reason or act/ If this 
 were so, then the compound sentence * Laudat Africanum 
 Panaetius, nam fuerit abstinens J would be good Latin, and 
 might express ' Panaetius praises Africanus, for he was self- 
 denying ' : quod absurdum est, as geometricians say. 
 
 The truth (overlooked by the writer in question) is that this 
 power belongs to the Mood in subordination only, when it is 
 truly Subjunctive ; and it belongs to it only in its relation to the 
 previous predication, which is never to be left out of question. 
 If such predication is itself subordinate, that is, conveys the 
 thought of another subject going before it, as in (i), then the 
 Subjunctive also shares that thought. If the Subjunctive, as in 
 (2), depends on a principal Indicative (and is not Consecutive, 
 or otherwise controlled), its presence denotes that in that 
 principal predication the idea of Oratio Obliqua is implied. In 
 other words, it is not the dependent mood alone which is then 
 to be considered, but the principal predication together with its 
 dependence. In the sentence cited in the note, ' posset ' con- 
 veys to ' ambulabat ' the accessary notion of a reason given for 
 the act by Themistocles : ' poterat ' would confine ' ambulabat ' 
 to the statement of Cicero. 
 
 XII. 25. I proceed to support my explanation of this 
 doctrine by citing a large number of examples, which will be 
 more instructive if divided into three classes : 
 
 ' de iniuria, de qua quereris quod tibi facta sit. ' But also ' de iniuria, quae 
 tibi facta sit ' is really subordinate to the Oratio Obliqua ' neminem . . . 
 vindicem esse ' : and, when * facta sit ' is afterwards used, Cicero merely 
 cites his own phrase, the import of which is known from the previous con- 
 text. See Example 57, below. 
 
xxx Preface. 
 
 First : Examples in which the text does not exhibit formal 
 ' oratio obliqua ' ; but a slight addition or a slight change of 
 form at once exhibits it without any difference of sense. 
 
 Secondly : Examples where ' oratio obliqua ' is implied in 
 the meaning of the principal construction as one of expressed 
 feeling : praise, blame, complaint, accusation, reproach, boasting, 
 giving thanks, promising, indignation, anger, menace, regret, &c. 
 
 Thirdly : Examples in which no such connexion exists be- 
 tween the principal Sentence and the Clause as to exhibit a 
 manifest ' Oratio Obliqua ' ; but we say, on the ground of 
 analogy, that an accessory meaning is conveyed to the principal 
 construction from the fact of its relation to the Clause. 
 
 CLASS I. 
 
 T. Ne iustitiam quidem recte quis dixerit per se optabilem, 
 sed quia iucunditatis vel plurimum offer at. Cic. d. Fin. 
 i. 1 6. (Dixerit only wants the dropped esse to make 
 this an example of actual oratio obliqua.) 
 
 2. Te felicem dicis amasque 
 
 Quod nusquam tibi sit potandura Hor. S. ii. 7, 31. 
 (Esse te felicem. ) 
 
 3. Recte est igitur surgetque ? n e g a b i t r 
 
 Quod latus aut renes morbo temptentur acuto. Hor. S. 
 ii. 3, 162. (Negabit recte esse. ) 
 
 4. Hanc reperiebat causam, quod apud Germanos ea 
 
 consuetude esset ut &c. Caes. B. G. i. 50. (Causam 
 esse.) 
 
 5. Cum contemplor anhno, reperio quattuor causas, cur 
 
 senectus misera videatur : unam, quod avocet a rebus 
 gerendis ; alter am, quod corpus faciat infirmius ; 
 tertiam, quod privet omnibus fere voluptatibus ; quar- 
 tam, quod haud procul absit a morte. Cic. C. M. 5. 
 (Esse being supplied with ' causas/ * unam ' &c., oratio 
 obliqua exists throughout.) 
 
 6. Ille laborem 
 Excusare Philippo et mercennaria vincla 
 Quod non mane domum venisstt, denique quod non 
 Providisset eum, Hor. Ep. i. 7, 66. (Excusare =< 
 
 in causa esse.) 
 
Preface. xxxi 
 
 7. Bene maiores nostri accubitionem epularem amicorum, 
 
 quia vitae coniunctionem haberet, convivium nomi- 
 narunt. Cic. C. M. 13. (Nominarunt==wv? dixerunt.) 
 
 8. Caesar sua senatusque in Ariovistum beneficia comme- 
 
 moravit, quod rex appellatus esset a senatu, quod 
 amicus, &c. Caes. B. G. i. 43. (Commemoravit= 
 multa esse dixit.} 
 
 9. Huic me, quaecumque fuisset, 
 
 Addixi. Verg. Aen. iii. 652. (Addixi me=^/m me ad- 
 haesurum.) 
 
 10. Videor mihi gratum fecisse Siculis, quod eorum iniurias 
 meo labore, inimicitiis, periculo sim persecutes. Cic. 
 Verr. ii. 6. (Videor mihi=puf0 me.) 
 
 n. Commodissimum visum est C. Valerium Procillum 
 . . . quod in eo peccandi Germanis causa non esset , ad 
 eum mittere. Cses. B. G. i. 47. (Visum zste^putavit 
 esse.) 
 
 12. Mirabile videtur quod non rideat haruspex cum haru- 
 
 spicem viderit ; hoc rnirabilius quod vos inter vos 
 risum tenere possitis. Cic. N. D. i. 26. (Mirabile M\- 
 detur=mirandum esse put ant 1) 
 
 13. Thucydides libros suos turn scripsisse dicitur, cum a 
 
 republica remotus atque in exilium pulsus esset. Cic. d. 
 Or. ii. 15. (Th. scripsisse &\c\t\]it=Thiicydidem scrip- 
 sisse dicunt.) 
 
 14. Quidquid peperisset decreverunt toll ere. Ter. And. 
 
 ii. i , 6. (Tollere = ut toller ent. ) 
 
 15. Helvetii constituerunt ea quae ad proficiscendum per- 
 
 tinerent comparare. Caes. B. G. i. 3. (Comparare= 
 ut compararent.} 
 
 CLASS IL 
 
 1 6. Nemo e x t u 1 i t eum v e r b i s, qui ita dixisset, ut qui adessent 
 
 intellegerent quid diceret. Cic. d. Or. i. 14. (Extulit 
 v&foislaudandum esse dixit^) 
 
 17. Athenienses Lacedaemoniorum victorias suae culpae 
 
 tribuebant, quod Alcibiadem e civitate expulissent. 
 Nep. Ale. 6. 
 
 1 8. Caesar temeritatem cupiditatemque militum reprehendit, 
 
 quod s\bi ipsi iudicavissent quo procedendum aut quid 
 agendum videretur. Caes. B. G. vii. 52. 
 
xxxii Preface. 
 
 19. Nee vero quisquam potest hire reprehendere, guod msue 
 
 non transierim. Cic. Att. viii. 12, 3. 
 
 20. Haedui questum veniebant, quod Harudes, qui nuper in 
 
 Galliam transportati essent, fines eorum popular entur. 
 Caes. B. G. i. 37. 
 
 21. Saepe illi deplorare solebant, turn quod voluptatibus 
 
 carerent . . . turn quod spernerentur ab eis, a quibus 
 essent coli soliti. Cic. 
 
 22. Hospitem inclamavit, ^z/0tf sese absente mihi fidem habere 
 
 noluisset. Plaut. Asm. 583. 
 
 23. Graviter Haeduos a ecu sat quod . . . non sublevetur ; 
 
 . . . quod sit destitutus, queritur. Caes. B. G. i. 16. 
 
 24. Theophrastus moriens accusasse naturam dicitur, quod 
 
 hominibus tam exiguam vitam dedisset. Cic. T. D. iii. 
 28. 
 
 25. Vercingetorix proditionis insimulatus est quod castra 
 
 propius Romanes movisset, quod cum omni equitatu 
 discessisset, quod sine imperio tantas copias reliquisset, 
 quod eius discessu Romani tanta opportunitate et cele- 
 ritate venissent. Caes. B. G. vii. 20. 
 
 26. Caesar centuriones incusavit, quod aut quam in partem 
 
 aut quo consilio ducerentur, sibi quaerendum aut cogi- 
 tandum putarent. Caes. B. G. i. 40. 
 
 27. Themistocles graviter castigavit Lacedaemonios, quod 
 
 non virtute sed imbecillitate sociorum potentiam quae- 
 rerent. lust. ii. 15. 
 
 28. Cato obiecit ut probrum M. Nobiliori, quod is in pro- 
 
 vinciam poetas duccisset. Cic. T. D. i. 2. 
 
 29. Litterae ipsae videntur quasi exprobrare quod in ea 
 
 vita maneam, in qua nihil in sit, nisi propagatio miserrimi 
 temporis. Cic. Fam. vi. 15. 
 
 30. Non tam exitu bellorum, quod vincatis, quam principiis, 
 
 quodixm sine causa suscipiatis, gloriamini. Liv. xlv. 
 
 22. 
 
 31. Caesari decima legio per tribunos militum gratias egit, 
 
 quod de se optimum indicium ferisset. Caes. B. G. i. 41. 
 
 32. Themistocles domino navis quis sit aperit, multa polli- 
 
 cens si se conservasset. Nep. Them. 8. 
 
 33. Xerxes ei praemium proposuit, qui invenisset novam 
 
 voluptatem. Cic. T. D. v. 7. 
 
Preface. xxxiii 
 
 34. Beroen digressa reliqui 
 
 Aegram, indignantem, tali quod sola careret 
 Munere, nee meritos Anchisae inferret honores. Verg. 
 A en. v. 65 o. 
 
 35. Augebatiras, quod soli ludaei non cessissent. Tac. H. 
 
 v. 10. 
 
 36. Atqui voltus erat multa et praeclara m in ant is, 
 
 Si vacuum tepido cepisset villula tecto. Hor. S. ii. 3, 9. 
 
 37. Aeneas . . . minatur 
 
 Exitium, si quisquam adeat. Verg. Aen. xii. 760. See 
 viii. 649. 
 
 38. An paenitet vos, quod salvum atque incolumem exer- 
 
 citum traduxerim% Caes. B. G. ii. 32. 
 
 CLASS III. 
 
 39. Nee fluminibus aggesta terra semper laudabilis, quando 
 
 senescant sata quaedam aqua. Plin. N. H. xvii. 4. 
 (Laudabilis =ea quae laudari debeat.) 
 
 40. Eo id laudabilius erat, ^w^animum eius tanta acer- 
 
 bitas patria nihil a pietate avertisset. Liv. vii. 5. (Eo 
 laudabilius erat=? magis laudandum esse plebs putavit.} 
 
 41. Lycurgus populo creandi quos vellet magistratus potestatem 
 
 permisit lust, iii. 3. (Permisit=dforz" iussit.} 
 
 42. Conon a colloquio Artaxerxis prohibitus est, quod e&m 
 
 more Persarum adorare nollet. lust. vi. 2. (Conon 
 prohibitus z$t=edictum est ut Conon prohiberetur.} 
 
 43. Unus ex eis domum abiit, quod fallaci reditu in castra 
 
 iureiurando se exsolvisset. Liv. xxii. 61. ( Abiit abire 
 licitum esse putavit. ) 
 
 44. Augebat Tyriis animos Didonis exemplum, quae Car- 
 
 thagine condita tertiam partem orbis quaesisset. lust, 
 xi. 10. (Augebat . . . exemplum animari se dicebanf 
 Didonis exemplo.} 
 
 45. Si quis erat dignus describi ^//^malus aut fur . . . foret 
 
 . . . notabant. Hor. S. i. 4, 3. (Describi =^&/ descri- 
 beretur. ) 
 
 46. Mercatique solum, facti de nomine Byrsam, 
 Taurino quantum pos sent circumdare tergo. Verg. Aen. 
 
 ^367. (i.e. mercati sunt, pacti tantumfore quantum y 
 b 
 
xxxiv Preface. 
 
 &c. < Poterant' might have been written, if the 
 mere fact, not the thought of the purchasers were 
 to be expressed.) 
 
 47. Pascentes illae tantum pro dire volando 
 Quantum zcizpossent oculi servare sequentum. Verg. 
 
 A en. vi. 199. (Prodire=/ra#r<?.5v? volebant. Again 
 6 poterant ' might have been used of the mere fact. ) 
 
 48. Perdiccas rex Macedoniae moriens filio monstravit locum 
 
 quo condi vellet. Just. vii. 2. (Monstravit implies the 
 addition eum esse dtcens.) 
 
 49. Sapiens non d u b i t a t, si ita melius sit, m i g r a r e de vita. 
 
 Cic. Fin. i. 19. (Non dubitat rmgraxQ-=migrandum 
 sibi esse decernit.} 
 
 50. Tribunes omnes patricios creavit populus contentus eo, 
 
 quod ratio plebeiorum habita esset. Liv. iv. 6. (Conten- 
 tu<s eo= satis esse put ans.} 
 
 5c. Consulem cura anceps agitare : nolle deserere socios, 
 nolle minuere exercitum, quod aut moram sibi ad 
 dimicandum aut in dimicando periculum afferre posset. 
 Liv. xxxiv. 12. (Oratio obliqua is evidently latent 
 here: most simply we may say ' deserere '='se deserere/ 
 ' minuere '=' se minuere.') 
 
 52. Ille nescio qui, qui in scholis nominari solet, mille et 
 
 octoginta stadia quod abesset vide bat. Cic. Ac. Pr. ii. 
 25. (i.e. videre dicebatur a nominantibus.) 
 
 53. Quoniam Miltiades ipse pro se dicere non posset, verba 
 
 pro eo fecit frater eius Tisagoras. Nep. Milt. 7. 
 (Fecit=faaenda a se putavit ; but the example is a daring 
 one.) 
 
 5 4. Re nuntiata ad suos, quae imperarentur facer.e dixerunt. 
 
 Caes. B. G. ii. 32. (This sentence is remarkably con- 
 densed. At full it is : 'the envoys of the Aduatuci, after 
 reporting the matter to their constituents, came back and 
 said they would do what was ordered them. 3 ' Facere ' is, 
 in fact, oratio obliqua, * suos ' being understood as sub- 
 ject.) 
 
 55. Brutus terram osculo con tig it, scilicet quod ea coni- 
 
 munis mater omnium' mortalium*ttv?/. Liv. i.*56. (Con- 
 \igk=.contingcndam esse putavit. ) 
 
Preface. xxxv 
 
 56. Alter 
 
 S u b 1 e g i t quodcumque iaceret inutile, quodque 
 Posset cenantes offendere. Hor. S. ii. 8, n. (Sublegit 
 contains the notion, that the slave l sublegendum esse 
 
 57. Ex his, qui arma ferre possent ad milia xcii. Caes. B. G. 
 
 i. 29. (In the previous sentence we read : 'in tabulis 
 nominatim ratio confecta erat, qui numerus domo 
 exisset eorum, qui arma ferre possent? This reference 
 to a construction preceding in the text, illustrates 
 our general subject here a Latin author's habit of 
 adapting mood to a construction existing in his mind, 
 but only implied in his text. See note at page xxix. 
 
 58. Numa Camenis eum lucum sacravit, quod earum ibi 
 
 concilia cum coniuge sua Egeria essent. Liv. i. 21. 
 (Sacra v\t= sacrum esse voluit.) 
 
 59. Non equidem extimui Danaum quod factor et Areas, 
 Quodque 2i stirpe./tfm geminis coniunctus Atridis. Verg. 
 
 Aen. viii. 130. (Non extimui =non extimescendum 
 esse putavz.) 
 
 60. Foetus omnes libros, quos frater suus reliquissef, mini 
 
 donavit. Cic. Att. ii. i. (\3QKZN\t-=-donare sedixit. His 
 words would be: dono tibi libros, quos frater meus re- 
 liquit. ) 
 
 XIII. 26. Looking at Example 60, we observe that the re- 
 ference to the mind of the subject Foetus is indicated not only 
 by the subjunctive ' reliquisset,' but also by the subjective or re- 
 flexive pronoun 'suus.' Cicero might have written, 'quos 
 frater eius reliquerat/ if he had been satisfied with making the 
 statement his ov/n, as in the sentence ' Themistocles ambula- 
 bat/ &c., he might have written ' poterat ' for < posset/ if he 
 had not wished to refer the act to the mind of Themistocles. 
 See also Examples 47, 48, 56. As to suus see 231 B. and 
 Ex. 31, 32, 43, 51, 54. We venture to cite in illustration of it 
 a modern version of the two famous epigrams respecting 
 George I., who, on coming to the English throne, sent cavalry 
 to Oxford, and gave a library to Cambridge. 
 
 Diver sis Diver sa, i. 
 
 Dum populi spectat mores, et mente gemellas 
 Mox academias invigilante notat, 
 b2 
 
xxxvi Preface. 
 
 Cur equitum mittit tibi rex, Oxonia, turmam? 
 
 Quod tu, docta licet, sis male fida sibi. 
 Idem, Granta, libros mittit tibi, praemia iusta, 
 
 Quod tu fida sibi sts, male docta tamen. 
 
 Diver sis Diver sa, 2. 
 
 Cur equitum mittit tibi rex, Oxonia, turmam ? 
 
 Quod vis regicolis pro ratione valet. 
 Cur mittat tibi, Granta, libros hinc collige, quod vis 
 
 Unica poplicolis in ratione sita est. 1 
 
 In the first epigram the reasons are subjectively stated, 
 being referred to the mind of the king. In the second they 
 are stated as the writer's own observations. 
 
 XIV. 27. Looking at Example 59, we observe that the vir- 
 tually suboblique clause is rarely found after a principal Verb 
 in the First Person. Thus Cic. Rose. Am. 47, quod viris forti- 
 bus, quorum opera eximia in rebus gerendis exstitit, honos 
 habitus est, laudo. On this account it seldom occurs after 
 Verbs of joy, because they usually appear in that Person : 
 gaudeo (gratulor) quod salvum te recepisti. But, if the writer 
 speaks of a feeling entertained by himself in a past time, the 
 Subjunctive may follow, as 'quod fores' in 59. It must also be 
 remembered that the Exceptions (noticed 193, and further 
 exemplified on p. 437) of Indicative Clauses apparently, but 
 not really, depending on Oratio Obliqua, are very numerous, 
 especially in Caesar. Thus too the Clause with ' quod ' depend- 
 ing on Verbs of feeling may be Indicative, if the fact in the 
 Clause is more strongly emphasised than the expression of 
 feeling which it arouses : as in Liv. iv. 3, quod spiratis, quod 
 
 1 The English originals are : 
 
 JACOBITE EPIGRAM. 
 The king, observing with judicious eyes 
 The state of both his universities, 
 To Oxford sent a troop of horse : for why ? 
 That learned body wanted loyalty. 
 To Cambridge books he sent, as well discerning 
 How much that loyal body wanted learning. 
 
 HANOVERIAN REPLY. 
 The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse ; 
 For Tories own no argument but force. 
 On the other hand to Cambridge books he sent, 
 For Whigs allow no force but argument. 
 
Preface. xxxvii 
 
 vocem mittitis, quod formas hominum habetis, indignantur. 
 So Cic. Verr. i. 47. Utrum reprehend! s, %& liberttts patro- 
 num iuvabat eum, qui turn in miseriis erat, an quod alterius 
 patroni mortui voluntatem conservabat, a quo summum benefi- 
 cium acceperat? 
 
 To the examples in XII. may be added those which appear on 
 pp. 437 II., 459 (f ot )> where ' suboblique ' should be 'virtually 
 suboblique ; ; also the examples in the ' Public School Latin 
 Primer/ p. 168. 
 
 The construction of Subjunctives in dependence on formal 
 Oratio Obliqua and on other Subjunctives is not controverted, 
 .and need not therefore be here specially exemplified. It 
 appears indeed in almost every page of great Latin prose 
 writers, and is noted by italics in the examples of Compound 
 Construction ( 194, &c.) in this Grammar. 
 
 XV. 28. Madvig, whose great merit is the nice observation 
 of particular idioms, notices ( 370), that the Second Person of 
 the Conjunctive is used (like 'man 7 in German, 'on' in 
 French) to express an undefined subject (some one, any one). 
 Thus often in principal construction : Quern neque gloria nee 
 pericula excitant, nequiquam hortere, Sail. Cat. 58. Canes 
 venaticos diceres, Cic. Verr. iv. 13. It appears also in Clauses 
 dependent on some general statement, which we call Gnomic. 
 Cum animum ab istis imaginibus ad veritatem traduxeris, nihil 
 relinquitur, Cic. T. D. v. 5. Bonus segnior fit, ubineglegas, 
 Sail. lug. 31. Cum aetas extrema advenit, turn illud quod 
 praeteriit effluxit ; tantum remanet, quod virtute et recte factis 
 consecutus sis, Cic. d. Or. iii. 52. Mens, quoque et animus, nisi 
 tamquam lumini oleum instilles, extinguuntur senectute, Cic. 
 C. M. ii. Virtu tern necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, 
 consequitur, Cic. T. D. i. 38. Gerundive and other Imper- 
 sonal Verbs have a gnomic character, and are sometimes used 
 with Subjunctive clauses dependent on them. Suae cuique 
 utilitati, quod sine alterius iniuria fiat, serviendum est. 
 Cic. Tibi ipsi dicendumerit aliquid quod non sentias aut fa c i- 
 e n d u m quod non probes, Cic. Fam. iv. 9. Est enim s a p i e n- 
 tis, quidquid homini accidere possit, id praemeditari ferendum 
 modice esse, si evenerit. Maioris omnino est consilii pro- 
 videre, nequid tale accidat ; animi non minoris fortiter 
 ferre, si evenerit, Cic. Phil. xi. 3. Dicere fortasse quae sentias, 
 non licet ; tacere plane licet, Cic. Fam. iv. 9. 
 
xxxviii Preface. 
 
 XVI. 29. In quitting the topic of Virtual Oratio Obliqua, 
 on which I have dwelt longer than I expected, I have to say 
 that this is one of the few terms for which I am responsible. 
 I should have been equally content to call it ' contained ' or 
 ' implied,' or ' informal' Oratio Obliqua : all which mean one 
 and the same thing. 
 
 The point at issue is this : 
 
 Are they right, who like Madvig ( 357, 368-9, 404) put 
 forward first the usage 
 
 (a) Principal Sentence (Indie.) -f Clause (Subjunct.) 
 and follow this up with 
 
 (ft) Princ. Sent. (Indie.) + O. Obliqua + Clause (Subjunct) 
 thus making (ft) a corollary or special case of (a) ? 
 
 Or are they right, who give the converse order, and make 
 (a) a corollary or special case of (/3) ? 
 
 Having had this question in view for half a century or 
 more, I have never for a moment doubted that the just gram- 
 matical order is that which appears in this book ( 190-191), 
 from (ft) to (a), not from (a) to (/3) ; that this is the order in 
 which teachers and students ought to pursue the doctrine of 
 Oblique Construction in Latin ; taking the Infinitive Clause 
 (Accus. and Infin.) as its first most representative mbst nor- 
 mal form ( 100, 190, 194). 
 
 XVII. 30. Yet, although Madvig has failed to treat the 
 doctrine in this order, I shall now cite incidental passages from 
 his book, which indicate an inadequately developed conscious- 
 ness of that order being the true one. 
 
 (1) When treating of the Accusative ( 322) Madvig says : 
 'In the indefinite infinitive expression, when the connexion 
 between the subject and predicate is not of itself asserted, the 
 subject and the predicative noun stand in the accusative, e.g. 
 hominem currere, that a man runs ; esse dominum, to be lord' 
 This just view, properly followed up, ought to have led him to 
 place the Accus. and Infin. in the front of Compound Construc- 
 tion. But he lost sight of its true importance in his Second 
 Part. 
 
 (2) In his Chapter on the Conjunctive, where most of his 
 paragraphs are useful, as isolated remarks, but uninstructive, 
 in so far as they are out of place and unsystematic he says 
 (348, Obs. 3): 'The same holds' to our mind the connexion 
 
Preface. xxxix 
 
 he suggests has no real existence 'of other conditional 
 propositions, which do not contain a condition applying to 
 the leading proposition, but complete an idea contained in it, 
 which has the force of an infinitive or otherwise dependent pro- 
 position, so that the conditional clause belongs to the " oratio 
 obliqua" e.g. Metellus Centuripinis, nisi statuas Veneris restituis- 
 sent, graviter minatur (Cic. Verr. ii. 67 minatur se iis malum 
 daturum nisi Minatur is stated absolutely without any condi- 
 tion), lugurtha iram senatus timebat, ni paruisset legatis (Sail. 
 fug. 25 ne senatus irasceretur). Nulla maior occurrebat res 
 quam si optimarum artium vias traderem meis civibus (Cic. 
 de Div. ii. i, e.g. Nullam rem putabam maiorem esse.)' 
 
 Need I say that in this passage occurring before he has 
 introduced those rules and examples on the Subjunctive 
 clause before referred to Madvig does, in point of fact, though 
 but partially, teach the very doctrine which is drawn out in this 
 Grammar, and which in this part of the Preface I have been 
 maintaining and exemplifying, the doctrine of Virtual Oratio 
 Obliqua, exhibited in his three cited examples ? He has, un- 
 happily, failed to recognise its wide scope and great im- 
 portance, and so to give it due prominence afterwards. 
 
 The late Professor Key, a learned and ingenious scholar, 
 in his Latin Grammar (1201-1204) states first the doctrine of 
 Oratio Obliqua (too narrowly, because he has not based it on 
 the triple form of simple sentences and dependent Substantival 
 clauses) and then adds (1205): * Without a formal use of the 
 " Oratio Obliqua," a verb in a dependent clause may be in the 
 Subjunctive Mood, when it expresses the thoughts or words or 
 alleged reasons of another/ He then cites the example, Cic. T. D. 
 v. 36 (given by us, p. 459) Aristides, &c. and the two following : 
 Fabio dicta dies est, quod legatus in Gallos fugnasset, 
 Liv. vi. i. Aedem lovi vovit, si eo die hostes/z^/m^/, Liv. 
 xxxi. 21 : (in which obviously : Fabio dicta dies ts\.=Fabius 
 accusatus est, and vovit contains se dedicaturum). 
 
 Thus, by saying ' without a formal use of the Obliqua 
 Oratio/ Key recognises an informal (or virtual) use of it, as 
 I do ; and postpones this rightly to the formal use. I could 
 cite German grammarians, were it worth while, whose treat- 
 ment implies the same principles : for instance, Middendorf 
 and Griiter, Frei, Billroth, Ellendt, &c. But the term (Virtual 
 O. O.) was, I repeat, introduced by me thirty-six years ago. 
 
x 1 Preface. 
 
 It rests upon its own fitness : I can but deprecate, if it exist 
 anywhere, the spirit complained of by Horace, when he says : 
 
 Indignor quicquam reprehendi, non quia crasse 
 Compositum illepideve putetur, sed quia nuper. 
 
 Ep. ii. i, 76. 
 
 XVIII. 31. The question, whether the (independent) 
 Thought-mood should be called Subjunctive or Conjunctive, 
 stands as follows: 
 
 The Greek grammarians of Alexandria used the term 
 lyK\iaiq vTToroKTiKri, modus subjunctivus. Why? Because in 
 Greek there are two forms of the Thought-mood, one of which 
 they called EVKTLK^ Optative, the other {/Trorcu-rt^, Subjunctive. 
 Neither of these terms corresponds exactly to the uses of the 
 respective forms. The term Optative expresses only one use of 
 the first: that of praying or wishing, e'Xflot, may it come: but it 
 has also a dependent use, on t\6oi, that it was come, and by 
 the convenient accession of the modal particle ai> it gains an in- 
 dependent or enuntiative power e\6oi av, like the Latin ' veni- 
 ret,' // would come. The second form I \9y was called (/Trora/c- 
 TWYI because it never did acquire enuntiative power; the modal 
 av was not extended to it, but only the conjunction av, if, 
 the conjunctional relative OQ av &c., whosoever, &c., in dependent 
 construction. It has, however, an independent power as suc- 
 cursal to the imperative, in hortative sense ist pers. plur., 
 eXdwpev, let us come ; and as interrogative, in dubitative sense, 
 T'I 0o>, what can I say? In spite of these two exceptional uses, 
 it is manifest that the term i/Trora/v-rt/o/, subjunctive, is, for the 
 Greek mood, fully defensible, because its principal and (so to 
 say) normal use is dependence. German grammarians, however, 
 call it Conjunctive ; wisely we think, for the maintenance of 
 analogy 
 
 But for calling the Latin Thought-mood, generally, Sub- 
 junctive, there seems to be, from a right point of view, no reason- 
 able defence. Key, indeed, has taken a point of view, which, 
 if it were right, would supply one. His words are (Gr. 
 427-8): 
 
 'The Subjunctive Mood, as its name implies, is used in 
 secondary sentences subjoined to the main verb. In some 
 sentences it is not uncommon to omit the main verb, and then 
 the Subjunctive Mood seems to signify power, permission, duty, 
 
Preface. xll 
 
 wish, purpose, result, allegation, hypothesis ; whereas in fact 
 these notions belong to the verb which is not expressed. Thus 
 the phrase " quid faciam " is translated by what should I do or 
 what am I to do ? but the full phrase is " quid vis faciam ? " 
 what do you wish me to do ? (!) ; 
 
 This theory Key, perhaps, borrowed from Hermann, who 
 applies it (De emendanda ratione Grammaticae Graecae) to 
 explain the two exceptional uses before noticed of the Greek 
 Subjunctive: supposing tw/ie^ = aye 'Ictfier, and TL (f)w=cri]fj.r]ror 
 or OVK olc)a TL (j)ti. This farfetched caprice of an ellipsis is bad 
 enough as used by Hermann: but when applied to all the 
 independent usages of the Latin Thought-mood it has not, I 
 think, been accepted by any grammarian but Key himself. I 
 therefore consider the adoption of the term Subjunctive, as a 
 name for that mood generally, to be an unwise and unjustifiable 
 violation of propriety in the choice of terms. Such no doubt 
 is the opinion of that multitude of grammatical writers who 
 take the term Conjunctive in its stead, though, unhappily, 
 they neglect to assign a distinct name to that dependent 
 use, which is really Subjunctive. To this neglect is due, in 
 great measure, their vague and unsatisfactory method of 
 treating Compound Construction in Latin; a method pro- 
 pagated, through Madvig, to some English scholars. 
 
 See Uses of the Verb, 90-99 of this Grammar, Ap- 
 pendix ii. to the ' Public School Latin Primer/ and the Preface 
 to my Second Edition of Virgil. 
 
 XIX. 32. The small number of terms for which this 
 Grammar is specially responsible will be seen in its Index. Care 
 has been taken to make them etymologically appropriate, and 
 useful for their several purposes. On such points I have 
 always invited expression of opinion by correspondence. It 
 has been justly urged, that the term Factitive (adopted from 
 German writers for that class of verbs which join a complement 
 to their object, 106, 131) is bad in etymology. I have there- 
 fore now written Factive : but I feel inclined to prefer the term 
 * Appositive Verbs': i.e. such as append to their object a 
 complement resembling an apposition: populus Numam regem 
 creavit : puto tefelicem (philosophum). The point merits further 
 consideration. 
 
xlii Preface. 
 
 XX. 33. Among the numerous books which in the 
 course of my grammatical labours have been consulted with 
 profit, I desire specially to mention the various writings of Mr. 
 Thring, of Uppingham. His ' Elements of Grammar taught in 
 English ' is an admirable companion book to the 'Public School 
 Primer ' for early instruction in Latin. 1 
 
 B. H. KENNEDY. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE : Oct. 5, 1879. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 [Numerals following represent the marginal numeration. Numerals without 
 represent the pages. The matter printed in Italics belongs to the 
 Footnotes.] 
 
 1-5, p. I INTRODUCTION. 
 
 i. Divisions of Grammar ; the Latin Language ; Families of 
 Language ; the Semitic Family ; the Aryan Family and its branches. 
 2. The Italic Branch ; its Dialects ; Latin ; Languages derived from 
 Latin ; English ; its formation ; Influence of Greek on Latin. 3. 
 Sketch of Latin Literature ; Table of Classical Authors. 4. Abbre- 
 viations in this Grammar. 
 
 6-99, P- S- ... PART I. ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 6, p. 5. Divisions of Etymology ; Primitive Sounds and Roots. 
 
 7-12, p. 5. . DIVISION i. PHONOLOGY OR SOUNDLORE. 
 
 5. i. Alphabet ; Capital and Small Letters ; Vowels ; Consonants. 
 6. Divisions of the Consonants ; ii. Quantity, short, long, doubtful ; 
 iii. Syllabation. 7. iv. Accentuation ; Middle Tone. 8. v. Punctua- 
 tion ; vi. Relations of the Letters ; Scheme of Vowels ; Scheme of 
 Consonants. 9. vii. Memoranda from the History of the Alphabet ; 
 the Letters c, g, k, q, h, f, v, z, y, x ; the Aspirate sounds ch, th, ph, 
 rh ; the three Letters of the Emperor Claudius, viii. the Semiconso- 
 nants i-j and v-u. 10. i-consonans and i-vocalis ; v-consonans and 
 v-vocalis. ix. Sound and quality of the Vowels ; three primitive Vowels 
 a, i, u. ii. a the standard Vowel ; introduction of e, o ; compara- 
 tive strength of Vowels ; lengthening of Vowels ; Final short and 
 long Vowels, x. phonetic Decay in old Italian Language ; Classical 
 Latin -a reaction. 12. xi. Vowel-change ; strengthening or weaken- 
 ing, xii. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs; Guna and Vridclhi ; 
 full list of Diphthongs ; ui, yi. Ai (ae) and its changes. 13. Oi (oe) 
 and its changes ; ei and its changes ; au, eu, ou. 14-17. xiii. Vowel- 
 strengthening in Root-syllables, Suffixes and Endings. 18. xiv. 
 Vowel-strengthening in Disyllabic Perfects ; xv. Compensation. 19. 
 xvi. Nasalization ; xvii. Vowel-weakening ; Euphony ; Selection ; e 
 as final. 20. xviii. The Vowel a and its weakenings, A) in Root- 
 and Stem-syllables ; B) in Suffixes ; C) in Cases 'and Personal End- 
 ings. 21. xix. Weakening into o as influenced by Selection. 21-24. 
 
xliv Contents. 
 
 xx. Weakening into u as influenced by Selection. 22. Dialectic use 
 of o and u in final syllables. Formidulosus, &c. 23. Gerundive forms 
 oirdus, &c. 24-28. xxi. Change into e as influenced by Selection. 
 29-31. xxii. Selection of I. 30. Vincular \. Note. 32. Recapitulation. 
 32-35. xxiii. Vowel-change by Assimilation and Dissimilation of 
 Vowels to each other. 35-39. xxiv. Vowel-weakening in the second 
 Member of Compounds ; 35. Loose and Fast Compounds ; Some Com- 
 pounds unweakened. 36. In others, a weakened into u ; a into e ; 37. 
 a into i ; 38. e into i ; 39. e into u ; a e into I ; o e into \ ; o e into u ; 
 a u into o ; a u into u ; a u into o e. 40. xxv. Reduplication. 41-44. 
 xxvi. Changes of concurrent Consonants. 41. Complete Assimilation 
 of Consonants ; Regressive. 42. Progressive. Partial Assimilation of 
 Consonants. Formation of Comparatives and Superlatives. 43. Dis- 
 similation of Consonants. 44. xxvii. Loss of Initial letters. 45. xxviii. 
 Loss of Final Letters. 47-50. xxix. Loss of Inner Consonants by 
 Concurrence with other Consonants. 50-52. xxx. Loss of Inner Vowels 
 before Consonants. 52-55. xxxi. Hiatus, Elision, Contraction and 
 Coalition of Vowels. 54. xxxii. Loss of Inner Vowels with Consonants. 
 55-56. xxxiii. The Shortening of Vowels in Latin. 56-58. xxxiv. Ex- 
 clusion of Consonants followed by Contraction of Vowels. Peculiar 
 Contractions in Verbs. 59-68. xxxv. Relations of the Consonants in 
 Latin and kindred Languages. 58-60. The Guttural Surds c (k) q. 
 59. Labialism and Dentalism. 60. Sound of 'ce, ci. 61. The Guttural 
 Sonant g. 61-62. The Aspirates h, f. 63. The Labial Mutes p, b ; 
 the Dentals t, d. 64-66. The Nasals n, m ; the Liquids 1, r, and the 
 Sibilant s. 66. The Soft Labial Spirant v. 67. Sound of V-consonans ; 
 I-consonans. 68. The Double Consonant x. ^Words which have lost 
 an initial letter. 
 
 I 3~99 P' 69. . DIVISION ii. MORPHOLOGY or WORDLORE. 
 
 13, p. 69 SUBDIVISIONS. 
 
 14-16, p. 69. CHAPTER I. WORDS AND THEIR FLEXION. 
 
 69. i. Stem-flexion : Word ; Stem ; Root ; Suffix. 70. Prefix ; 
 Character ; Flexion ; Definition of Stem ; of Root. 70-73. ii. Classi- 
 fication of Words. 70. I. Nouns ; Noun Substantive. 71. Noun 
 Adjective ; Attribution ; Pronoun ; Apposition ; Names, Abstract and 
 Concrete. Common Names. Collective Nouns. Adjectives for Sub- 
 stantives. Numerals. 72. Declension ; Accidents of Nouns ; II. Verb 
 Finite and Infinite; Conjugation, Accidents of Verb ; III. Particles; 
 Adverb ; Preposition. 73. Conjunction ; Interjection ; Parts of Speech ; 
 Absence of Articles. 
 
 17-34, p. 73- ... CHAPTER //.NOUNS. 
 
 17-21, p. 73 SECTION i. 
 
 73. i. Number in Nouns. 73-79. ii. Gender of Nouns. 74. Distinct 
 Generic Names ; Mobilia. 75. Verbals of double Gender ; Patrony- 
 mics. 75-77. Words Common of two Genders. 75. Appellatives. 76. 
 Names of Animals. 77. Epicoena. 77-79. Gender shown by meaning. 
 80. iii. The Cases ; Declension ; Case in ancient and modern lan- 
 guage. Order of the Cases. 81. iv. The Five Declensions. 82-84. v - 
 Formation of the Cases. 85. vi. Endings of the Five Declensions. 
 
Contents. xlv 
 
 22, p. 86. . SECTION ii. i. FIRST DECLENSION ; A-NOUNS. 
 
 86. Nouns contained in First Decl. ii. Table, iii. Cases in First 
 Decl. 87-89. iv. Greek Nouns in First Decl. 
 
 23, p. 89. SECTION in. i. SECOND DECLENSION ; O-NOUNS. 
 
 89. Nouns contained in Second Decl. ii. Table. 90. iii. Cases, 
 91. iv. Clipt Nouns in er. 92. v. Greek Nouns in Second Decl. vi. 
 Gender. 93. vii. Table of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I. 
 
 24, p. 94. . SECTION iv. i. THIRD DECLENSION, CONSONANT AND 
 
 I-NOUNS. 
 
 94. The two Divisions ; their occasional confusion ; its cause ; ii. 
 Nominative Endings in the Consonant Declension. 95. Vowel of True 
 Stem. 95-103. iii. Syllabus of Cons. Stems, with Genders, 95-96. 
 A. Mute Guttural Stems. 96-99. B. Mute Dental Stems. 99. C. 
 Mute Labial Stems. 99-101. D. Nasal Stems. 101-103. E. Liquid and 
 Sibilant Stems. 103. F. u- and v-stems. G. Greek e- o- and y-stems. 
 104. iv. I-stems: Imparisyllaba and Parisyllaba. v. Grouping of I-nouns 
 with Gender. 104-106. A] Parisyllable I-nouns in Xs (er). 104-106. 
 Nature of i. B} Parisyllable I-nouns Fern, in es (is). 106-107. C) 
 Neuter I-nouns in 8, al, ar. 107-108. D] Clipt I-nouns Imparisyllable. 
 108-109. vi. Notes on the Cases. 109. Gen. PI. varying with form 
 of Noun. Summary of Gender in Third Decl. 110-112. vii. Table of 
 Third Decl. 112-115. vn i- Greek Nouns in Third Decl. 114-115. 
 Greek Table. 115-119. ix. Adjectives in Third Decl. 115. Con- 
 sonant Adjectives; Table. 116-119. Adjectives not purely Consonantal. 
 Four Groups. 118-119. Table of these Adjectives. 
 
 25, p. 119. . SECTION v. i. FOURTH DECLENSION ; U-NOUNS. 
 
 119. ii. Table. 120. iii. Confusion of U- and O-nouns. 121. iii. 
 Cases in Fourth Decl. 121. iv. Gender in Fourth Decl. 
 
 26, p. 121. SECTION vi. i. FIFTH DECLENSION. E-NOUNS, FEM. 
 ii. Table. 122. iii. Cases in Fifth Decl. iv. Gender of dies. 
 
 27-28, p. 123. . . SECTION vn. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 
 
 123. i. Irregularity ; Abundance ; Defect. 123-125. ii. Abundance 
 in Substantives; of Declension ; of Case-forms. 125-130. iii. Defect in 
 Substantives. 125. A. Defect of Number. I) Substantives Singular 
 only. 126-128. II) Plural only. 128-129. Ill) Substantives which 
 change their meaning in Plural. 129-130. B. Defect of Case. 
 Substantives Defective in Case. 131. iv. Irregularity in Adjectives ; 
 Abundance ; Defect. 
 
 29-30, p. 131. . . SECTION vni. COMPARISON. 
 
 131-132. i. Comparison of Adjectives; 132. Degrees of Comparison ; 
 ii. Examples ; iii. Notes on Comparison. 133. iv. Irregular Compa- 
 rison. 133-135. v. Defective Comparison. 135. vi. Comparison of 
 Adverbs. 136. vii. Irregular Comparison in Adverbs. 
 
xlvi Contents. 
 
 31, p. 136. .... SECTION ix. PRONOUNS. 
 
 136. i. Pronouns Substantive or Adjective ; their Persons. 136- 
 137. ii. Classification of Pronouns : A. Substantival : i. Personal ; 2. 
 Reflexive ; B. 3. Possessive ; C. 4. Demonstrative ; 5. Definitive ; 
 6. Relative ; a. Interrogative ; b. Indefinite ; c. Compound Pro- 
 nouns ; 7. Pronominalia ; 138-142. iii. Tables of Declension. 142- 
 143. Observations on certain Pronouns. 143-145. Ancient Case forms 
 of Pronouns. 144-146. iv. Correlation of Pronouns. 
 
 32-34, p. 147. . . . SECTION x. NUMERALS. 
 
 147. i. Numeralia ; ii. Symbols of Number : Note on these ; iii. The 
 Four Chief Numeral Series Cardinal, Ordinal, Distributive Numerals, 
 Quotientive Adverbs. 148-149. iv. Minor Numeral Series. 150-151. v. 
 Declension of Numerals. 150-153. Numeral Table ; Numeral Roots. 
 153-155. vi. Use of the Numerals. 156-157. Compound Numeration. 
 I 57~ I 5 8 - viii. Expression of Fractions ; the As and its parts ; Calcu- 
 lation of Inheritance. 
 
 35-53. P- i5- - ' - CHAPTER ///.THE VERB. 
 
 35-4 ' P- X 5 8 - SECTION i. i. THE VERB FINITE AND INFINITE. 
 
 ii. The Voices. 159. iii. Deponent Verbs, iv. Verbs Transitive 
 and Intransitive ; Impersonal and Reflexive uses of the Verb. 160. 
 v. Verbs Quasi-Passive and Semi-Deponent ; Passive Participles from 
 Active Verbs. 160-161. The Moods Indicative, Conjunctive, Im- 
 perative. 161-164. vii- The Tenses. 161-163. Tense-forms Inflected 
 or Combinate. 163. Table of Tense-forms. Conjunctive Tenses. 
 164. Combinate or Periphrastic Forms ; Tenses Primary and Historic, 
 viii. Number and Person. 164-166. ix. The Verb Infinite ; Infinitive ; 
 Gerunds ; Gerundive ; Supines ; Participles. 
 
 41-50, p. 166. . . . SECTION ii. THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 
 
 166. i. The three Stems in Verbs ; Parts derived from them seve- 
 rally. 167. ii. The Verb of Being 'sum' (esse) ; Forms of sum t esse. 
 160. Its Table. 169-182. iii. The Four Conjugations of Regular 
 Verbs ; Weak and Strong Conjugations ; the Stems in each. 169. 
 Quantity of the Vowel Char acters . 170-171. Mode of Conjugating Verbs 
 Active, Passive, and Deponent. 171. Verbs in io of Conj. 3. 172- 
 182. Tables of the Four Conjugations Active, Passive, and Depo- 
 nent. 180. Of lo-Verbs in Conj. 3. 180-182. iv. Combinate or Peri- 
 phrastic Conjugation. 181-183. Correspondence of the Latin Verb. 
 183-189. v. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 184. Possum. 184-185. 
 Fero. 186. Fio. 187. Volo, nolo, malo. 188. Eo, queo, nequeo. 
 189. Edo. 189-191. Conjugation of Defective Verbs. 189. Praeteri- 
 tiva, coepi, odi, memini. Capio, &c. 190. Novi, aio. 191, 
 Inquam, ovare, quaeso. 192-194. Impersonal Verbs. 192. Im- 
 personal Verbs Active. 193. Impersonal Verbs Passive. 194. Imper- 
 sonals Gerundive. 
 
Contents. xlvii 
 
 5*1 P- X 94- SECTION iv. THE FORMS OF THE THREE STEMS IN VERBS. 
 
 194-196. i. The Present Stem and its Affections. 196. Inceptive 
 or Inchoative Verbs in sco. 196-199. ii. The Perfect Stem and its 
 varieties of formation. 199-202. iii. The Supine Stem and its va- 
 rieties of formation. 
 
 52, p. 202. . . . SECTION v. COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 
 
 202-203. i. Prepositions compounded with Verbs, separable and 
 inseparable ; their Euphonic Mutations ; Examples. 202. Sus, subs. 
 203. The form obs. 204. Scheme of Vowel-changes in the three 
 Stems of Compound Verbs. 205. ii. Verbs compounded with Ad- 
 verbs ; with Nominal or Verbal Elements. 
 
 53, p. 205. SECTION vi. SYLLABUS OF STEM-FORMATION IN VERBS. 
 
 205. A] The First Conjugation ; Imitative Verbs ; Frequentative 
 Verbs ; Deminutive Verbs ; B] Second Conjugation ; C) Fourth Con- 
 jugation. 206. Desiderative Verbs ; D) Third Conjugation. 206-208. 
 Stem-table of A- verbs; Compounds ; Deponent A-verbs. 209-214. Stem 1 
 table of E-verbs, Compounds. 214-216. Stem-table of I-verbs, Com* 
 founds. 216-227. Stem-table of Consonant and U-verbs, Compounds. 
 216-217. Cons. Verbs with reduplicated Perfect-stem. 217-218. With 
 strengthened Perf. stem. 219-221. With agglutinated Perf. Stem in 
 ui, vi. 221-224. With agglutinated s in Perf. stem. 221-223. Gut- 
 tural Stems. 223. Dental Stems. 224. Labial, Nasal, and Liquid 
 Stems. 224-225. U-verbs. 225-227. Deponent Verbs in Third Con- 
 jugation. 226-227. Inchoative Verbs. 227. Homonymous Verb-forms. 
 
 54-58, p. 228. . CHAPTER IV. PARTICLES. 
 
 228. Four Classes of Particles; their intimate connexion. 
 
 55, p. 228 SECTION i. ADVERBS. 
 
 228-232. Interrogative Adverbs referring to Place, Time, Number, 
 Manner, Degree, Cause, Quality, &c. Table of Adverbs corresponding 
 to these severally. 
 
 56, p. 232. . . . SECTION ii. PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 232. Relations expressed by Prepositions. i) Prepositions which 
 take Accusative Case. 233. 2) Prepositions which take Ablative 
 Case. 3) Prepositions which take either case. 
 
 57 P- 2 33- SECTION in. CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 233. Conjunctions, Coordinative or Subordinative ; Conjunctions 
 with both uses. A. List of Coordinative Conjunctions. 234. B. List 
 of Subordinative Conjunctions. 
 
 58, p. 234 SECTION iv. INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 234. Interjections expressing various Emotions. 235. Interjectional 
 Nouns ; Verbs ; Adverbs ; Phrases. Cases found with Interjections. 
 
xlviii Contents. 
 
 59. P- 235-253- CHAPTER V. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF 
 
 WORDS. 
 
 p. 235 . . . SECTION i. DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 236. i. Staminal Suffix, ii. Root or Rudiment, iii. Suffixes. 
 237. iv. Rudimental Words. 237-248. v. Syllabus of Suffixes ; Ex- 
 amples. 247. Formation ofDeminutives ; Examples, vi. Patronymics. 
 249. vii. Names of ^Countries. 249-251. viii. Nominative Endings of 
 derived Words according to their meanings ; Examples. 252. Ad- 
 jectives derived from Particles ; Examples. 252-253. Adjectives 
 derived from Proper Names : Personal ; Gentile ; Roman Names. 
 
 p. 254. . SECTION ii. DERIVATION OF VERBS. 
 
 254. Verbs derived from Verbs ; Verbs derived from Nouns. 
 
 p. 255-259. SECTION in. DERIVATION OF PARTICLES. 
 
 255. i. Primitive Particles, ii. Particles derived from Nouns ; from 
 Pronouns ; from other Particles. Particles compounded with other 
 Particles. 256-257. iii. Denominative Adverbs in the form of Cases. 
 257-258. Denominative Adverbs with Adverbial Endings. 258. v. 
 Derivation of Pronominal Particles. 259. vi. Other Particles. Note 
 on some of them. 
 
 60, p. 259-266. SECTION iv. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 260. i. Parts of a Compound, Fundamental and Determinative ; 
 Parathetic and Synthetic Composition, ii. Varieties of Composition, 
 Constructive, Attributive, Adverbial, and Possessive. 260-263. Syn- 
 thetically compounded Substantives, Adjectives and Verbs. 263. De- 
 composita. 263-266. Verbs compounded with Prepositions ; their 
 various senses, &c. 
 
 61-99, p. 267. . CHAPTER VI. USES OF WORDS. 
 
 6l, p. 267. SECTION I. i. FlGURATE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 267-269. ii. Ellipsis ; Zeugma ; Pleonasm ; Examples ; Attraction ; 
 Synesis. 269-270. iii. Other Variations. 270. iv. Metaphor; 
 Metonymy. 
 
 62, p. 270. . SECTION II. USES OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 270. i. Singular Appellatives used collectively for Plurals. 271. ii. 
 Plural words used with Singular collective sense in prose and poetry, 
 iii. ^ Plural used to express a 'genus,' when individuals are implied, 
 iv. "Plural of Proper Names expressing typical characters, v. Ab- 
 stract Substantives used in Plural. 272. vi. Abstract Substantives for 
 Concrete. 272-273. vii. Idioms of Substantives. 274-275. viii. El- 
 lipse of Substantives. 
 
 6 3 P- 2 75- SECTION III. USES OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 275-278. i. Adjectives used as Substantives. 278. ii. Adjectives used 
 adverbially in Predicative Construction, iii. Partitive Attributes. 
 
Contents. xlix 
 
 iv. Multiplication of Attributes. 279. v. Possessive Attributes, vi. 
 Idioms of the Superlative. 280. vii. Intensive Phrases. 281. viii. 
 Adjectives used in Passive and Active Sense. 
 
 64-69, p. 28l. . SECTION IV. USES OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 281. i. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. 282-285. ii. Demonstra- 
 tive Pronouns h i c, i 1 1 e, i s t e, is, idem. 285-287. iii. The Reflexive 
 Pronouns se, suus. 287-289. iv. The Definitive Pronoun ipse. 
 289-291. v. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, qui, aliquis,.aliqui, 
 quispiam, quisquam, quidam, quivis; the Pronoun 
 quisque. 291. vi. The Universal Relatives quisquis, quicum- 
 que, &c. 292. vii. Pronominalia ; alter, uter, &c. ; alius, &c. 
 
 70-72, p. 293. . SECTION V. USES OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 293-299. Examples of Prepositions taking an Accusative Case. 
 299-304. Examples of Prepositions taking an Ablative Case. 304- 
 306. Examples of Prepositions taking Accusative and Ablative. 306. 
 Prepositions used as Adverbs. 307. Notes on Prepositions. 
 
 73-7 6 ' P- 307- SECTION vi. CORRELATIVE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 307-310. i. Pronominal Correlation, ii. 310-312. Correlations of 
 Manner with ut, &c. 312-313. iii. Correlations of Likeness and Un- 
 likeness with atque, ac., &c. 314-315. iv. Correlations of Degree 
 with quam. 314. Quam with Positive and Superlative Adjectives, 
 &c. Quam after Adverbs. 315. Idioms of Comparative. 
 
 77-82, p. 316. . . SECTION vii. COORDINATION. 
 
 316-320. i. Coordination by Conjunctions. 316. Annexive Conjunc- 
 tions. 317. Distributive Association ; Ordinative Particles. 318. 
 Disjunctive Particles ; Adversative. 320. Causal ; Illative. 320-322. 
 ii. Coordination by the Relative and its Particles. 321-322. Idioms 
 of quod. 
 
 83-85, p. 323. . SECTION viii. NEGATIVE WORDS. 
 
 323-324. i. Ne and its Compounds. 324. ii. Doubled Negatives. 
 325-326. iii. Ne . . . quidem, nedum, nonmodo, &c. 
 
 86-89, p. 326. . SECTION ix. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 
 
 I. Questions Single or Disjunctive. 326-327. i. Single Interrogation 
 without Particle ; ii. with,; Particle ; uses of an, nescio an, &c. 328- 
 329. iii. Disjunctive Interrogation with utrum, &c. 329. II. An- 
 swers, i. Affirmative Answers. 330. ii. Negative Answers. 
 
 9-99 P 330- SECTION x. USES OF THE VERB. 
 
 331. i. The Indicative Mood and its Tenses ; Use of Mood ; Rela- 
 tions of Tenses. 332-333. Uses of the Present. 333. Uses of the 
 Perfect. 334. Uses of the Imperfect and Pluperfect. Tenses in 
 Roman Letter-writing. 335. Uses of the Simple Future and Future 
 Perfect ; of the Future Periphrastic Conjugation. 336. Idioms of the 
 
Contents. 
 
 Indicative Past Tenses in Predications of duty, necessity, &c. 337. ii. 
 The Imperative Mood and its Tenses. 338. iii. The Conjunctive 
 Mood and its Tenses. 338-341. iv. Uses of the Pure Conjunctive ; 
 Potential. 339. Dubitative, Concessive, Optative, Hortative uses. 340. 
 Permissive and exhorting use of 2nd Pers. Conjunctive ; Prohibitive 
 use. 341. v. Examples of Pure Conjunctive. 342-343. vi. The Sub- 
 junctive ; Subordinate Subjunctive Clauses. 343-344. vii. Particles 
 and Pronouns which introduce Clauses. 344-346. viii. Consecution 
 of Tenses with Examples. 346-347. ix. Ellipses of the Verb. 
 
 100-250, p. 348. . . PART II. SYNTAX. 
 
 100, p. 348. CHAPTER /. THE DOCTRINE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 348. Sentences Affirmative or Negative ; Simple or Compound. In 
 a Compound Sentence, Principal Sentence and Clauses ; Coordinate 
 and Subordinate Clauses. Three Forms of a Simple Sentence 
 Enuntiation, Petition, Interrogation. 349. Oratio Recta and Obliqua. 
 Substantival Clauses ; their Three Kinds Enuntiatio Obliqua, Pe- 
 titio Obliqua, Interrogatio Obliqua. 
 
 101-106, p. 349. CHAPTER II. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 
 
 349. i. Members of a Simple Sentence, Grammatical Subject and 
 Grammatical Predicate. 350. What the Subject may be. What the 
 Predicate. Examples of Predication with Subject and Verb. Omis- 
 sion of Pronoun Subject, ii. Incomplete Predication ; Verbs which 
 do not predicate completely. Sum, esse (complete only when 
 implying absolute existence), usually requires a Complement, 351. 
 Examples. Incomplete Verbs called Copulative. List of Copulative 
 and Factive Verbs. 350-351. Incomplete Predication and its Terms. 
 352. What the Complement may be. Examples of Copulative Predica- 
 tion. Phrase, Enthesis, Clause. 353. iii. Relations in the Simple 
 Sentence. Note on these. I. Predicative Relation ; Subject and Pre- 
 dicate. II. Qualitative Relation Attribute, Apposite. Adjuncts of 
 Substantives. 354. Four Varieties of Qualitative Relation Epithetic, 
 Enthetic, Adverbial, Complemental. III. Objective Relation ; Ob- 
 ject, Accusative governed by Transitive Verbs ; Verbs with two 
 Objects, Person and Thing; Verbs with two Accusatives, one 
 Oblique Complement of the other. IV. Receptive Relation ; Dative of 
 Recipient. 355. Predicative Dative or Dative of Purpose. Tra- 
 jective Words. V. Circumstantive Relation ; Adverbs ; Ablative 
 Case, &c. 356. VI. Proprietive Relation ; Genitive Case. VII. Pro- 
 lative Relation ; Predication extended by Infinitive. VIII. Annexive 
 Relation ; Conjunctions. 357. iv. Ecthesisby Interjections and Vocative 
 Case. v. Notice of the Relative Pronoun. 358. vi. Conversion of 
 Active Sentences into Passive form. 
 
 107-188, p. 359. CHAPTER ///.CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE SIMPLE 
 SENTENCE. 
 
 107. I. AGREEMENT. II. CASE-CONSTRUCTION. III. VERB-CONSTRUC- 
 TION. 
 
 108-114, p. 359. . . . SECTION i. AGREEMENT. 
 
 359. Agreement what. i. The Four Concords : I. Verb with Subject ; 
 Examples. II. Adjective with Substantive; III. Substantive with 
 

 Contents. H 
 
 Substantive. 360. Examples of II. III. 361. IV. Relative with Ante- 
 cedent ; Examples, ii. Ellipsis of Subject. 361-362. iii. Attraction 
 of Verb. 362. iv. Synesis in first and second Concords ; of Gender ; 
 of Number; Collective Nouns. 363. v. Composite Subject. 364- 
 367. vi. Idioms of Attribution and Apposition. 364. Adjective 
 agreeing with Verb-Noun. 365. Adjectival Pronoun substantively 
 used as Subject. Adverbial Attribution and Apposition. Neuter 
 Adjectives Substantival. 366. Number and Gender of Apposites. 
 Peculiar forms of Apposition. 367. Attribute with more than one 
 Noun. Noun with more than one Attribute or Apposite. 367. vii. 
 Synesis and Ellipsis in Relative Construction. 368. Attraction in 
 Relative Construction, viii. Construction of Qualis ; Quantus ; Quot. 
 369. Abnormal Constructions. 369-370. Examples of the? Rules of 
 Agreement. 
 
 115-176, p. 370. . . SECTION ii. CASE-CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 115-117, p. 370. . . A. THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 
 
 370. i. The Nominative as Subject : ii. As Complement. 371. iii. 
 With Interjections. 
 
 118-119, p. 371. . . . B. THE VOCATIVE CASE. 
 
 371. i. Vocative without or with Interjection : ii. The Nominative 
 for the Vocative. 
 
 120-132, p. 372. . . . C. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 
 
 372. i. The Accusative the Case of the Contained or Attained Nearer 
 Object : Agent and Object : Obj ective Propositions, ii. Accusative of 
 the Nearer or Attained Object of Transitive Verbs. Examples. 373- 
 374. iii. Contained Object (Cognate Accusative) : its various instances. 
 374. Part Affected (Respect), iv. Medial Object in Poetry. 375. v. 
 Accusatives of Time, Space, Measure, vi. Accus. of Place Whither. 
 376. vii. Transitive Verbs used Intransitively. 376-378. Intransitive 
 Verbs used Transitively. 376. Verbs expressing State. 377. Com- 
 pounds of Intransitive Verbs become Transitive ; Test of Active Trans- 
 itive Verb its power of becoming. Passive, viii. Personal and Im- 
 personal Passives. 378. Preposition of Compound Verb repeated 
 with Accusative. Compounds with two Accusatives. 278. ix. Idio- 
 matic uses. Verbals with Accusative. Unconstructed Accusative. 
 
 379. x. Exclamatory Accusative with or without Interjection. 379- 
 
 380. xi. Accusatives of two Objects with Verbs of asking, teaching, 
 &c. 380-381. xii. Oblique double Accusative. 381-383. Examples 
 of Accusative. 
 
 132-142, p. 382. . . . D. THE DATIVE CASE. 
 
 382-383. i. Three chief uses of Dative I. As Remoter Object. II. As 
 Recipient or Acquisitive. III. As expressing Purpose. 384-386. ii. 
 Dative of Remoter Object. Words which govern it. 386-388. Verbs 
 which vary Construction with Meaning. 388-389. Adjectives with 
 Dative Object. 389-390. iii. Recipient or Acquisitive Dative (Corn- 
 modi et Incommodi). 390-391. iv. Predicative Dative. 391-394. 
 Examples of Dative. 
 
lii Contents. 
 
 143-161, p. 392. . . . E. THE ABLATIVE CASE. 
 
 392. i. Uses of Ablative I. Instrumental ; II. Locative ; III. 
 Ablative Proper. 393. ii. Instrumental Ablative. 393-394. Ablative 
 of Cause. 395. Of Instrument : of Personal Agent. 395. Of Price. 
 396-398. Of Matter. 398-402. iii. Locative Ablative. 398. Abla- 
 tive of Respect : of Measure. 399. Of Manner : of Condition: of 
 Quality. 400-401. Of Time. 401-402. Of Place Where. 402. Of 
 Direction. 403-405. iv. Ablative Proper. 403. Ablative of Place 
 Whence : of Separation. 403-404. Of Origin. 404-405. Of the 
 Thing Compared. 405-406. v. Ablative Absolute. 406-411. Examples 
 of Ablative. 
 
 162-176, p. 407 . . . F. THE GENITIVE CASE. 
 
 407-408. i. Main Function of Genitive, ii. Its twofold Use : Sub- 
 jective and Objective. 408. Both these dependent on one Noun. 
 409. iii. A] Subjective Genitive ; Possessive ; Descriptive ; Partitive. 
 Phrases for Genitive. 410. Attributive Nature of Subjective Genitive. 
 411-413. Genetivus Auctoris et Possessoris. 413-415. Genetivus 
 Descriptionis. 414. Genitive of the Fact charged. 415. Genetivus 
 Qualitatis. 416-417. Genitive of Value and Price. 416. Construc- 
 tions with interest, refert. 417-418. Genetivus Rei Distributae, or 
 Partitive. 418-420. Genetivus Rei Demensae or of Quantity. 420. 
 Genitive of Plenty and Want. 421-423. iv. B) Objective Genitive 
 dependent, 421. on Substantives ; 421-422. on Adjectives ; 422-423. 
 on Verbs. 423. Genitive of Cause. 423-427. Examples of Genitive. 
 
 177-188, p. 424. . . SECTION III. VERB-CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 424-425. i. The Infinitive. 426. ii. The Infinitive Present and Past 
 as Subject. 427. iii. As Object. 427-428. iv. Prolative Infinitive : 
 extends Construction of Verbs. Construction of Copulative Infini- 
 tives. 428. Use of co ep it &c. with Impersonal Infinitives. Prolative 
 Infinitive extending Adjectives. 428-429. Cases of the Infinitive, 
 Gerunds, and Supines. 428. v. Gerundial Construction : the Gerunds. 
 429. Their Case-construction ; Gerundial Attraction ; their Depend- 
 ence, vi. Impers. Gerundive Construction, vii. Personal Gerundive 
 Construction. 430-431. viii. Notes on Gerundial Construction. 431. 
 The two Supines Accusative Supine ; Ablative Supine. 432. Note 
 on the Annexive Relation. 431-434. Examples of Infinitive, Gerunds, 
 and Supines. 
 
 189-240, p. 434. . CHAPTER /F. COMPOUND CONSTRUCTION. 
 189, p. 434. . . SECTION I. SUBORDINATION OF CLAUSES. 
 
 434. Clauses of three Kinds Substantival, Adverbial, Adjectival 
 or Relative. 
 
 190-193, p. 435. . . SCTION II. SUBOBLIQUE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 435. i. Oratio Obliqua. ii. In a Clause dependent on it (i.e. Sub- 
 oblique), the Verb is Subjunctive, iii. Virtual Oratio Obliqua. In a 
 Clause dependent o it (i.e. virtually Suboblique), the Verb is Sub- 
 junctive. 486. iv. A Verb dependent on Conjunctive is generally Sub. 
 junctive. v. Exceptions to the Law of Mood in dependence. 437- 
 Examples of Suboblique Construction. 
 
Contents. \{{i 
 
 194-203, p. 437. . SECTION in. SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES. 
 
 437. I) Enuntiatio Obliqua : has three Forms Infinitive Clause ; 
 Ut-clause ; Quod-clause. 437-440. i. Infinitive Clause. 440-441. ii. 
 Ut-clause. 441-442. Quod-clause. 442. II. Petitio Obliqua: Verbs 
 which introduce it. 443. Quominus; Quin; Construction with 
 Predications of Fear and Caution. 444-447. III. Interrogatio Obli- 
 qua. 44 8 -449- Dependent Constructions with various Verbs. 444-451. 
 Examples of Substantival Clauses. 
 
 304-227, p. 452. . . . SECTION iv. ADVERBIAL AND ADJECTIVAL 
 
 CLAUSES. 
 
 452. Why taken in connexion, i. Relative Clauses, why called 
 Adjectival ; Particles equivalent to Pronouns ; Mood in Relative 
 Clauses, ii. Consecutive Clauses: why so called ; with ut, ut non, 
 &c., after Demonstratives or without them. 452-453. Adverbial Con- 
 secutive Clauses. 453. Use of Perfect Subjunctive in Historic Con- 
 secution ; Idioms of Adverbial Consecution :Tantumabesseut... 
 454-457. Adjectival Consecutive Clauses ; when they occur ; after what 
 Predications, &c. 456. Use of quin for qui non. 457. Limitative use 
 of qui ; Occasional Definiteness of Relative with Indicative. 454-456. 
 Examples of Consecutive Clauses. 457. iii. Final Clauses : what 
 they express ; Adverbial Final Clauses with ut, ne, &c. 458. 
 Demonstratives used with them ; Adjectival Final Clauses. 457-458. 
 Examples of Final Clauses. 458-461. iv. Causal Clauses ; Adverbial 
 Causal Clauses: of admitted Cause, quoniam, &c. with Indicative 
 usually. 459. Of alleged Cause, quod, qui a, with Indicative, if 
 not Suboblique ; Of conceived Cause, cum, with Subjunctive. 459- 
 
 460. v. Idioms of Causal construction; non quod, &c. ; non quin. 
 
 461. Adjectival Causal Clauses. 459-461. Examples of Causal 
 Clauses. 461-467. vi. Temporal Clauses ; four Groups of Temporal 
 Conjunctions. 462-463. When Subjunctive is required in Temporal 
 Clauses. 463. Iterative Subjunctive. 461-464. Examples of Temporal 
 Clauses. 465-467. Uses of the Conjunction cum, when. 465-466. 
 Examples of cum with Indicative and with Subjunctive. 467-479, 
 vi. Conditional Sentences. 467. Conditional Conjunctions ; Normal 
 Forms of the Conditional Sentence. 468-469. Class Alpha, 
 Sumptio Dati ; Examples. Class Beta, Sumptio Dandi. Class 
 Gamma, Sumptio Ficti. 469-470. Various Forms of Gamma. 467- 
 468. Examples of the three Classes, Distinctions. 470-472. Conjunc- 
 tive Protasis with Indicative Apodosis : Four Idioms with Examples. 
 472. Indicative Protasis with Conjunctive Apodosis. 473. Abnormal 
 Relation of Tenses ; Protasis without si. 473-474. Si in various 
 senses. 474. Si combined with Pronouns and Particles. 474-475. 
 Idiomatic uses of Si. 475. Sive, seu. 475-477. Negative con- 
 dition; Nisi, ni, si non. 477-478. Examples. 477-478. Conditional 
 Sentences in Oratio Obliqua; Examples. 479. Modo, dum, dum. 
 mo do, Conditional; Examples. 479. vii. Concessive Sentences; 
 Concessive Conjunctions of several Classes. 480-482. Mood in Con- 
 cessive Clauses. 480-482. Idioms of Concessive Conjunctions. 481- 
 482. Examples of Concessive Sentences. 482-483. viii. Comparative 
 Sentences ; Conjunctions that introduce these. 483. Comparative 
 Idioms. 482-483. Examples of Comparative Sentences. 
 
liv Contents. 
 
 229-240, p. 483. . . . SECTION v. SUPPLEMENT TO COMPOUND CON- 
 STRUCTION. 
 
 I. 483-486. Consecution of Tenses. 483. Consecution of Present 
 Past. 484. Of Historic Present ; of Future with Future ; three 
 varieties. 485. Of Future after Primary and Historic Tenses ; of 
 Subordinated Conditional Sentences. 486. Of might have, ought, 
 must have ; Consecution when Infinitive, &c. , intervene. 
 
 II. 487-489. Narratio Obliqua, how used by Historians ; Examples. 
 487-488. Idioms. 488-489. Examples of the Conversion cf Oratio 
 Recta into Oratio Obliqua. 
 
 III. 489-495. i. The Reflexive Pronouns se, suus, in Clauses. 489. 
 Ipse supplies them ; se, suus are Subjective ; is, ille, &c. Objective. 
 Pronominal reference to be interpreted by 'the Reason of the Thing.' 
 490. Se, suu s connected with the use of Subjunctive : with the mind of 
 the Subject, ii. Their use in various Clauses. 490-492. In Substan- 
 tival Clauses : Ordinary Instances. 491. Reference when a Clause 
 has a new Subject capable of being referred to Subjectively; Vari- 
 ation of Reference in Clauses of Prayer, Exhortation, &c. 492. 
 Se, suus, when referred to a Case governed by a Passive Verb. 492- 
 494. Pronominal Reference in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses : in 
 Final ; Consecutive ; Causal ; Conditional ; Relative Clauses. 494. iii. 
 When Oratio Obliqua intervenes, iv. When in Clauses more than one 
 Subject is referred to. 494-495. Ipse assisting the use of Reflexive 
 Pronouns in two ways. 495. Its Appositive use ; Inter ipsos; Inter se. 
 
 IV. 495-501. Participial Construction. 495-496. Nature of Parti- 
 ciple ; want of Participles ; how supplied. 496. Uses of Participles ; 
 Participle as an abbreviated Clause ; Attributive or Absolute. 497. 
 Construction of Abl. Absolute ; Participial Construction abbreviates, 
 i) Relative Clauses ; 2) Adverbial Clauses ; Consecutive ; Transla- 
 tion of English ' without ' and Verb. 498. Final, t>y Fut. Participle ; 
 Causal; Temporal; Conditional. 499. Concessive; with nisi, etsi, 
 &c. ; Comparative with quasi, tamquam, &c. 499-501. Notes on 
 Participial Construction. 
 
 241-250, p. 501. . . CHAPTER V. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND 
 STRUCTURE AND CONNEXION OF SENTENCES. 
 
 501-502. Order of Words ; Parts of Sentence. 503-504. Notes on 
 the Order of Words. 504-505. Connexion of Sentences. 505-510. 
 The PERIOD in Latin, Simple or Complex. 506-510. Its Style and 
 Rhythm. 508. Subject and Object in Periods. 510. Narrative Style ; 
 Qualities of Style. 510-511. Distinctions of Prose Style. Styles of 
 Various Authors. 
 
 251-269, p. 511. . . PART III. LA TIN PROSODY. 
 
 511. Prosody ; Quantity and Rhythm. 512-513. Quantity of 
 Syllables; Position. 512. Syllables long by nature or position. 
 513-516. Quantity of Inner Syllables. 516-520. Quantity of Final 
 Syllables. 520-521. Quantity of Words in Composition. 521-522. 
 Elision. 523-524. Exceptions to the Law of Elision ; Hiatus. 524-525. 
 Metre ; Verse ; Foot ; Arsis and Thesis ; Principal Feet. 525-527. 
 Verses : Dactylic Hexameter. List of Feet. 527-531. Caesura: 
 Synaphea. 527-528. Technical Terms. 531-532. The Elegiac 
 Distich ; its Rhythm. 533-546. Lyric Metres. 533. Catullus, 
 Horace. 533-534. Iambics of Horace and Catullus ; Scazon ; Epodes 
 of Horace. 534-535. Minor Horatian Metres ; Three Lyric Types ; 
 
Contents. ^ \ v 
 
 Asclepiad Metres: 536-537. Glyconics of Catullus ; Sapphic Stanza in 
 Horace and Catullus. 537-538. The Hendecasyllable of Catullus. 
 The Alcaic Stanza in Horace. 538. The Galliambus of Catullus. 
 539-541. Table of Metres : I. Single Verses ; Dactylic Rhythms ; 
 Trochaic Rhythms ; Iambic Rhythms. 539-540. Ionic Rhythms. 541- 
 
 543. Mixed Rhythms; Logaoedic. 543. Asynartete. Anapaestic 
 Rhythm : Saturnian Verse. II. Strophic Metres ; Dicola Disticha. 
 
 544. Dicola Tetrasticha. 545. Tricola Tetrasticha. 546. Metres of 
 the Comic Poets. 
 
 p. 547. APPENDIX. 
 
 547-5S 1 A* Latin Orthography. 551-553. B. Latin Pronunciation. 
 554-555. C. Affinities in the Aryan Family. 555. Grimm's Law. 
 556-563. D. Ancient Dialects of Italy. 556-559. (A) The Umbrian 
 Dialect. 559-561. (B) The Oscan Dialect. 561-563. (C) Specimens 
 of Ancient Latin. 563-564. E. Poetic Forms and Idioms. 565. F. 
 Supplement to Figurate Construction ( 61). 566-572. G. Money ; 
 Weight ; Measure. 572-575. Computation of Time ; Roman Calen- 
 dar. 575-576. Siglarium Romanum (Abbreviations). 577-582. Sup- 
 plementary Notes : I. On Sanskrit Roots. II. On Relations in the 
 Simple Sentence. 
 
 p. 583 INDICES. 
 
 I. INDEX OF SUBJECTS 583 
 
 II. LATIN INDEX 591 
 
THE 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 I 
 
 GRAMMAR has two chief divisions : Divi- 
 
 sions of 
 
 (1) ETYMOLOGY (ervfjLo\oyia, true wordformation), ^ram. 
 the doctrine of Letters and Words. 
 
 (2) SYNTAX (avvragis, construction), the doctrine of 
 Sentences and Discourse. 
 
 PROSODY (7rpo<rS/a), which treats of Quantity, Rhythm, and 
 Metre, is not a necessary part of Grammar, but is usually appended 
 to it. 
 
 The Latin Language, so called from the Latini, or The 
 
 people of Latium, in Italy, who used it, was the pre- Lan? 
 
 valent scion of the Italic branch of the great Indo- su&ge - 
 European or Aryan family. 
 
 i. Various languages were formed by various races of mankind 
 in 'their several habitations. When migrating bodies sought new 
 seats, they carried with them their native language, which, amidst 
 the changes wrought by time, always retained traces, more or less 
 strong, of kinship to other branches of the primitive stock. Such 
 kindred languages constitute a Family. Among the families of 
 human speech, two have been most operative in the work of civili- 
 sation the Semitic and the Indo-European or Aryan. 
 
 The Semitic family (to which we owe the origin of alphabetic 
 writing) occupied south-western Asia; comprising the Aramaic 
 (Syriac and Chaldee), Hebrew, Phoenician, and Arabic branches. 
 
 The Aryan race was seated in central Asia ; whence, by a long 
 series of migrations, it sent forth language to most parts of Europe, 
 and to various regions of the Asiatic continent. The European 
 branches of this family are : (i) the Keltic; (2) the Teutonic or 
 German ; (3) the Sclavonic ; (4; the Lithuanian ; (5) the Italic 
 (Latin) ; (6) the Hellenic (Greek). The Asiatic branches are : (i) 
 the Indie or Sanskrit, in India ; (2) the Iranian (of which the 
 Zand is the chief scion) or speech of Persia, Bactria and adjoining 
 districts. 
 
 B 
 
 
2 Introduction. 3-4. 
 
 2. The Italic branch, like the Hellenic, was from early times 
 divided into various dialects. The principal of these were the Um- 
 brian in the 'lorth-eas* of It?ly, the Sabellian and the Oscan in the 
 central districts,, and the Latin in Latium. Umbrian, Sabellian, 
 Oscan, and others were destined to fade away, leaving a few scat- 
 tered monuments of their former existence. Latin survived to be 
 the parent of learning and language in Western Europe. Rome, 
 founded on the Tiber by Latins, according to tradition, B.C. 754, 
 became, on the fall of Alba, the head of the Latin race and name 
 (nomen Latinum) ; and the clannish pride of the Romans led them 
 to call their language, and afterwards their literature, Latin rather 
 than Roman. 
 
 3. By Roman conquest and dominion the Latin speech was ex- 
 tended, with dialectic varieties, to all Italy and to other neighbour- 
 ing countries. From this source are derived the following modern 
 languages : Italian, French (in both its divisions, Oc and <9z7), 
 Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian, and the Romansch of the Swiss 
 Grisons. They bear the common title of Romanic or Romance 
 languages. All are more or less alloyed with the Teutonic dialects 
 which barbarian conquest carried into Western and Southern 
 Europe in the fifth and following centuries. 
 
 English. English is the single instance of a Teutonic language largely 
 alloyed, without being disorganised, by the speech of Romanic con- 
 querors. When the Romans quitted Britain in the fifth century, 
 the island, after a brief interval, was overrun by Teutonic hordes 
 (Saxons, Angles, and Jutes), who formed no fusion with the Keltic 
 natives, but either extirpated them gradually, or drove them (as 
 Walsche, Welsh, or foreigners) into mountainous and barren dis- 
 tricts. The rest of the country south of the Tweed came to be 
 called England (Angle-land), and its speech (Anglo-Saxon) was the 
 parent of the later English. The conversion of the Saxons to the 
 Christian faith brought into England some knowledge of Latin, and 
 incorporated many Latin words with the English tongue. By the 
 Norman conquest, A.D. 1066, a dominant race came in, who, though 
 comparatively few in number, filled most places of rank, power, 
 and influence. Hence their speech Norman- French, a Romanic 
 dialect became that of courtly society and of law; Latin, its 
 mother-tongue, became the vehicle of religious service and learned 
 intercourse \ whilst English continued to be spoken by the great 
 bulk of the population. In the fusion of these varieties, by which 
 modern English was gradually formed, the usage of the yeomanry 
 and peasantry prevailed over that of the nobles, the law, and the 
 church. English is structurally a Teutonic language, and the 
 number of Teutonic words holds to those of Latin origin a propor- 
 tion of about two to one. This shews that, without a knowledge of 
 Latin, it is impossible to gain a thorough knowledge of English. 
 It must also be remembered that the Teutonic element in English 
 has itself a distant kinship to Latin. 
 
 Influ- The influence of Greek civilisation upon Latin was immense. 
 
 ence of Besides their original affinity the Greek race came into influential 
 
 contact with the Latin at two distinct eras. The first of these was 
 
Introduction. 
 
 when the Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy became active in com- 
 merce and literature. This activity may be dated as beginning 
 about 550 B.C. The Aeolic city of Cumae in Campania appears to 
 have been the chief medium of communication between Rome and 
 the Greek colonies, and to the influence then exercised may perhaps 
 be ascribed those facts of language which led grammarians to 
 derive Latin from the Aeolic Greek Dialect. Hence too the Romans 
 probably drew the peculiarities which characterise the Latin Alpha- 
 bet, as the letter Q and the V consonant, which the Aeolic Greeks 
 had kept in the Dorian alphabet at Cumae. 
 
 Again, when literary activity began at Rome in the third 
 century B.C., Grecian literature supplied most of the forms and 
 much of the matter. Rome had no models to furnish. Inscriptions, 
 laws, crude annals, with fragments of ritual songs and coarse 
 farces, are all it has to shew within its first five centuries. The 
 credit of authorship is ascribed first to Livius Andronicus, who 
 wrote dramas for the stage B.C. 240. He was succeeded by a 
 crowd of authors, among whom may be mentioned Naevius, En- 
 nius, the father of epic poetry at Rome, and Lucilius, whose subject 
 and reputed invention, satire, is the most original product in Latin 
 literature. But of these writers mere fragments remain. The 
 comedies of Plautus (Plaut.) 1 and Terentius (Ter.), founded on 
 those of the later Attic stage, with the remnant De Re Rustica of 
 the elder Cato, are the only literary works extant in Latin before 85 
 B.C., the date of Cicero's earliest writings. From this time to A.D. 
 14 extends what is usually called the Golden Age of Latin. Its most 
 eminent authors are : 
 
 Sketch 
 
 Prose. 
 
 Cicero C. (or Cic.) 
 
 Caesar Caes. 
 
 Cornelius Nepos... N. (or Nep.) 
 
 Sallustius Sail. 
 
 Livius L. (or Liv.) 
 
 Varro Varr. 
 
 Vitruvius Vitr. 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 Lucretius Lucr. 
 
 Catullus Cat. 
 
 Vergilius V. (or Verg.) 
 
 Horatius H. (or Hor.) 
 
 Tibullus Tib. 
 
 Propertius Prop. 
 
 Ovidius Ov. 
 
 The so-called Silver Age, to A.D. 
 
 Prose. 
 
 Seneca Sen. 
 
 Quintilianus Qu. 
 
 Pliniusthe elder... PL N. H. 
 Plinius the younger Plin. 
 Valerius Maximus V. Max. 
 Velleius Paterculus Veil. 
 
 Tacitus Tac. 
 
 Suetonius Suet. 
 
 Florus? Fl. 
 
 Q. Curtius? Curt. 
 
 117, contains among others : 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 Manilius Man. 
 
 Phaedrus Phaed. 
 
 Seneca Sen. Tr. 
 
 Lucanus Lucan. 
 
 Persius Pers. 
 
 Silius Italicus S. It. 
 
 Valerius Flaccus V. Fl. 
 
 Statius St. 
 
 luvenalis luv. 
 
 Martialis Mart. 
 
 1 The letters following the names shew the abbreviations used for them in this Grammar. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 Introduction. 5. 
 
 The next period, extending to the fall of the Western Empire, 
 A.D. 476, has been termed the Brazen Age. The writers who come 
 nearest to the classic style during this period, are : 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 Ausonius Aus. 
 
 Claudianus Claud. 
 
 Prose. 
 
 A. Gellius Cell. 
 
 lustinus lust. 
 
 Appuleius App. 
 
 Eutropius Eutr. 
 
 Macrobius Macr. 
 
 In the Iron Age, which succeeded, Boethius may be named as 
 the most successful imitator of classic purity. 1 
 
 1 Other abbreviations used in this Grammar : 
 Pr. Primitive (Sound or Root). 
 
 Sk. Sanskrit. 
 Gr. Greek. 
 
 E. L. Early Latin (before 186 B.C.). 
 
 R. L. Republican Latin (from 186 to 30 
 
 B.C.) 
 
 I. L. Latin of Imperial Age (from 30 B.C. 
 
 to 170 A.D.). 
 C. L. Classical Latin. 
 L. L. Later Latin. 
 
 U. Umbrian. 
 
 O. Oscan. 
 
 S. SabelHan. 
 
 F. Faliscan. 
 
 V. Volscian. 
 
 M. Lucr. Munro on Lucretius. 
 
 C. Corssen (Aussprache). 
 
 Curt. G. Curtius (Gr. Etymologic). 
 
 Three dots (...) following a word imply that other derived or kindred words are to be 
 included. 
 
 In Sanskrit words : 
 
 c? represents the palatal sound ck (as in 'church '): ric' is sounded 'rich.' G. Cur- 
 tius represents it by k'. 
 
 s f represents the slightly aspirated sibilant, which often corresponds to Greek ic and 
 Latin c, q. Sk. das! an, Gr. 5e'/ca, L. decem. Sk. disf, Gr. Set*-, L. doc-eo, &c, 
 G. Curtius represents it by c. 
 
 ri is a Sanskrit vowel, which may be written ar. See p. 578. 
 
 j is the Sanskrit letter = English j (Curtius ') 
 
 y English y-consonant (Curtius j). 
 
 Ex. yuj, to yoke (Curt. jug 1 ). 
 
PART /. 
 LATIN ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY comprises : Etymo- 
 
 logy 
 
 I. PHONOLOGY or SOUNDLORE, the doctrine of l > 
 
 Sounds. 
 
 II. MORPHOLOGY or WORDLORE, the doctrine of 
 
 Words. 1 
 
 By a Primitive Sound or Root is meant one which careful in- 
 duction assigns to that ancient, though no longer extant, Aryan 
 language from which the Sanskrit is derived. Such induction is 
 obtained by comparison of the Sanskrit with all other kindred 
 languages, especially with Zand, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Lithu- 
 anian. See Supplementary Notes following Appendix. 
 
 DIVISION I. 
 
 PHONOLOGY OR SOUNDLORE. 
 
 i. Soundlore treats of the sounds and relations of Sound. 
 Letters and Syllables. 
 
 1. The Latin Alphabet now in use contains the Latin 
 same Letters as the English, omitting W. bet? 1 *" 
 
 The Letters have two forms : 
 
 1) The Capital, Uncial, or ancient form. 
 
 2) The Small, or later form, which came into common 
 use in the eighth or ninth century: after which the 
 Capitals were chiefly used for inscriptions, and as initial 
 letters of sentences and proper names. 
 
 1) ABCDEFGHI(J) KLMNOPQRST 
 
 2) abcdefghi(j)klmnopqrst 
 
 (U) V X Y Z. 
 (v) u x y z. 
 
 2. Six of the Letters are VOCALES, Vowels (self-sound- 
 ing), a, e, i, o, u, y : the rest are CONSONANTS^ Con- 
 sonants, which are sounded only with a vowel. 
 
 ' The terms Phonology and Morphology are taken from Schleicher's Vergleichende 
 Grammatik der Indogermaniscfifn Sprockets 
 
6 Latin Soundlore. 8-9. 
 
 3. Consonants are divided into Mutes, Nasals, Liquids,. 
 Spirants, and Double Consonants. 1 
 
 The Nasals are n, m ; Liquids, r, 1 ; Spirants, f, h, j r 
 s, v ; Double Consonants, x, z : the rest are Mutes. 
 
 Note i. y and z are only used in words borrowed from the 
 Greek. 
 
 Note 2. i+j and u+v are two pairs ; each pair constituting one 
 ancient letter in double form. See 12. viii. 
 
 Syiia- 4. A SYLLABLE (<rv\\a^YJ) consists of one or more 
 Diph- letters pronounced in a single breath ; i-lex. 
 
 thongs. 
 
 5. A DIPHTHONG (SfyOoyyos) is the combined sound 
 of two vowels meeting in the same syllable ; au-lae. 
 
 There are in Latin three usual diphthongs, ae (or se), 
 oe (or oe), au ; and three seldom used, ei, eu, ui. 
 
 8 
 
 guan- ii. QUANTITY is the time of uttering a Syllable. 
 
 tity. 
 
 I. Every Syllable is considered Short (J) or Long (-) in 
 Quantity, according as its vowel is short or long ; that is, accord- 
 ing as it is uttered with a single or double time (mora) : 
 
 (Short by nature . . a 6 in . . amor. 
 Long by nature . . e u in . . esu. 
 Short by position before 
 
 A Vowel may be \ another vowel . . \ in . . . pios. 
 | Long by position before 
 two consonants or a 
 double consonant . e 6 in . . pern5x. 
 
 Diphthongs are long .... au, ae in . caudae. 
 
 2. A Vowel is called Short or Long by Nature, when the reason 
 of its quantity is other than position. 
 
 3. A Syllable is ^called Doubtful (-) when its Vowel may be 
 short or long : Sidonius. 
 
 4. A Vowel, naturally short, may be made long in poetry, if it 
 stands ^before cr, gr, tr, dr, pr, br, fr, cl, pi, or fl : tenebrae, 
 quadruplex. Such a Vowel is called Doubtful by position. Jn 
 prose the syllable is pronounced short, tenebrae. 
 
 Syiiaba- lit SvLLABATiON is subject to the following; 
 tion - rules: 
 
 i. Every syllable must contain a vowel. 
 2 A word may begin with any vowel but y. 
 3. A word may end with any vowel, and with any of the con- 
 sonants, l, m, n, r, s, t, x. A few words end in b, c, d. 
 
 1 Checks are another term for Mutes; Trills for Liquids; Fricatives (as gene- 
 rated by the friction of the breath) for Spirants (See Max Miiller's Lectures on Language). 
 Mutes have also been called Momentaneous or Explosive Consonants, as distin- 
 guished from Nasals, Liquids, and Spirants, which are Continuous. 
 
I0t Accentuation. 7 
 
 4. Priscian's rule is that inner syllables end with a vowel, if a 
 single consonant follows : cla-ma-tur ; or if two or more conso- 
 nants follow, which can begin a word : lu-di-crus, e-sca, ma-gnus, 
 scri-ptus, scri-psi, a-stra. Custom extends this rule to such in- 
 stances as so-mnus, A-bdera, rhy-thmus, etc. But, if the conso- 
 nants cannot begin a word, they are divided between the syllables : 
 gal-lus, punc-tum, of-fen-do, am-plis-simus, ex-per-tus. 
 
 5. In compound words a syllable ends with the end of one part : 
 ab-igo, res-publica. 
 
 6. The last syllable is called Ultima, the last but one Penul- 
 tima or Penult, the last but two Antepenultimaor Antepenult. 
 An inner syllable is called open if it ends with a vowel, close if it 
 ends with a consonant. A word of one syllable is called Mono- 
 syllable; a word of two syllables, Disyllabic, etc. 
 
 IO 
 
 vi, ACCENTUATION has the following laws: 1 Accent 
 
 uation. 
 
 1. The tone of a syllable is called ACCENT. There are two 
 strong accents, the Acute (') or sharp quick stress, and the Cir- 
 cumflex ( A ) or deep lengthened stress. Syllables without either 
 are sometimes called Baryton (Grave in tone), sometimes Atonic. 
 
 2. Monosyllables, with vowel short by nature, have the Acute 
 Accent : 6s, vir, dux; those with Vowel long by nature have the 
 Circumflex : 6s, mo s, lex. 
 
 3. Words of several syllables are not accented on the Ultima, 
 but on one of the two preceding syllables. Only, when a word loses 
 a final vowel, if the Penult had an accent, that accent remains on 
 the same syllable : illinc for illimce, audin for audisne. 
 
 4. Disyllables have the Acute on the Penult, when either both 
 syllables are short by nature, as bdna, or the first is long by posi- 
 tion, or the last long by nature or position, as inter, mores, amant. 
 
 5. Disyllables have the Circumflex on the Penult, when the 
 Penult is long by nature, and the last short by nature and not 
 lengthened by position : mater, musa. 
 
 6. Words of more than two syllables have the Acute on the 
 Antepenult, when the Penult is short, as homines, amplissimos. 
 But the accent remains on the Penult in unweakened compounds 
 of facio, as benefacis, and in contracted genitives : ingeni. 
 
 7. Words of more than two syllables have their Accent on the 
 Penult when long ; namely, the Acute when the Penult is long by 
 position only, clamantur; or when the last syllable also is long, 
 amarant; the Circumflex, when the Penult is long by nature, and 
 the last short by nature, and not lengthened by position : clamare. 
 
 8. ENCLITICS, que, ne, ve, etc. bring forward the accent of 
 the word to which they are subjoined : homines, homines que; 
 prdna, prondque. Prepositions are PROCLITIC, that is, with- 
 out an accent of their own before their cases . circa monia; 
 but, moenia circa. 
 
 Note. The Accents are not marked on words, but understood. 2 
 
 1 Latin Accentuation Is a subject too large, intricate and unsettled to be fully discussed 
 in a book like the present. Students who wish to pursue it more minutely are referred 
 to the works of Ritschl and Corssen, and to the Latin Grammars of Kruger and Kiihner. 
 Only a few general rules are given here. 
 
 2 Corssen allows a second accent, which he calls a Middle Tone (i.e. semiacute), to 
 
8 
 
 Latin Soundlore. 
 
 11-12. 
 
 Punctu- 
 ation. 
 
 Schemes 
 of the 
 Letters. 
 
 v. PUNCTA, the Signs of Punctuation, or Stops. 
 
 These are the same in Latin as in English : Comma (,) ; Semi- 
 colon (;) ; Colon (:) ; Full Stop (.) ; Note of Interrogation (?) ; 
 Note of Admiration (!). The mark ( ) is placed over e or i when 
 it does not coalesce with a preceding vowel : aer, Tei'us. But 
 none of these were used anciently except the Full Stop (punctum). 
 
 vi. The Relations of the Letters may be thus 
 
 shewn : 
 
 I. VOWELS. 
 
 Standard vowel 
 
 a 
 
 Sharp medial e o Flat medial 
 
 Sharp semiconsonant i |- u Flat semiconsonant 
 
 Medial (see vii. n). 
 
 II. CONSONANTS. 
 
 
 MUTES 
 
 NASALS 
 
 LIQUIDS 
 
 SPIRANTS 
 
 
 
 (Momentan- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Note. Tenuesand Mediae 
 
 eous) 
 
 (Continuous) 
 
 
 are by some called severally 
 
 i 
 
 . 
 
 S 
 
 Surds and Sonants. 
 
 f ^ 
 
 
 J3 
 
 Guttural mutes are also called 
 
 
 
 
 i i 
 
 
 X 
 
 k-sounds, Dental mutes t- 
 sounds, Labial mutes p- 
 
 
 .33 
 
 
 
 
 Si 
 
 1 
 
 
 sounds. 
 
 
 "I?* 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 H o 
 
 *$ o 
 
 
 3 
 
 | 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 i W 
 
 
 en 
 
 
 GUTTURAL, or Throat- \ 
 
 C 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sounds . . . > 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 X 
 
 DENTAL, or Teeth- \ 
 sounds . . . i" 
 
 t 
 
 d 
 
 n 
 
 ;. 
 
 s 
 
 
 j 
 
 z 
 
 LABIAL, or Lip-sounds 
 
 p 
 
 b 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 v 
 
 
 N is guttural when it precedes e, c, or q. 
 sounded as in English, are labiodental. 1 
 
 The Spirants f, v, if 
 
 certain words of more than three syllables, when there is an interval between the ac- 
 cented syllables. Such words are 
 
 1) Plurisy liable Compounds, in which the Middle Tone will fall generally on the first 
 syllable, as in versipellis, misericordia, undeviginti, effrenatus, sublevare, etc. ; sometimes 
 on the second, as in superbiloquentia, repandirostrum : 
 
 2) Plurisyllables, in which, by Derivation or Flexion, the accent of the primitive 
 word has been shifted to a suffix. Such a Middle Tone will generally be on the first 
 syllable ; as in Idngitudo, pdpulabundus, servitutem. This theory implies, in rare 
 instances, the possibility of two Middle Tones, as in cdnfidentiloquius. See Corssen, 
 ii. 824. 
 
 1 Sanskrit has two more classes of Consonants : (a) Palatal, a modification of the 
 Gutturals ; (b) Cerebral or Lingual, a modification of the Dentals. Thus, in Sanskrit J 
 is Palatal. 
 
12. Semiconsonants. g 
 
 vii. Memoranda from the History of the Al- History 
 , i , of Ai- 
 
 pna bet. phabet. 
 
 1. The Romans modified the form of the third Greek letter from 
 r to C, and gave it the sound K, instead of G. The sound and 
 letter G were afterwards introduced about 250 B.C. C. was kept as 
 the abbreviation of Gaius ; Cn. of Gnaeus. 
 
 2. The use of C as sharp made K superfluous, and the Romans 
 almost ceased to use it ; but it was kept in a few abbreviations : K. 
 for Kaeso; Kal. for Calendae and Calumnia : also Kar. for 
 Kartago. 
 
 3. The other Phoenician guttural surd Koph or Koppa (which the 
 Dorian Alphabet of Cumae possessed) was kept by the Romans as 
 Q, and ultimately confined to words in which parasitic u or v 
 follows the guttural. 
 
 4. The Rough Breathing was raised to the rank of a letter, ob- 
 taining the form and position of the Greek Eta, H. 
 
 5. The letter f was purely Italian, its ancient sound being not 
 exactly that (which it now has) of Phi (ph), nor that (which its 
 form suggests) of the Greek Digamma (w). In the Etruscan Al- 
 phabet it has the form 8 ; but the Romans gave it that of the Di- 
 gamma, (F) F. 
 
 6. Vau (V nearly = English w) was adopted by the Romans as 
 a semi-vowel, and took the position held by Upsilon next to T. 
 
 7. There is some evidence that the ancient Romans used z (zeta), 
 but afterwards supplied it by s or ss : so that y, z were added at 
 the end of the Alphabet in Cicero's age to represent the Greek v, , 
 and are only used in latinized Greek words : lyra = \vpa 9 zona 
 
 = (,(i)VTf]. 
 
 8. The history of x is obscure. It appears in a few early in- 
 scriptions : but, though in power equal to Greek (cs), it took the 
 place and form of Chi : when and why, are doubtful points. See 
 Corssen (Ausspr. I. 6). 
 
 9. The long vowels Eta and Omega were omitted as unnecessary. 
 
 10. The Aspirate sounds x? fy 0? as foreign to Italian utterance, 
 were left out ; but the study of Greek in Cicero's age led to the use 
 of eli, th, pb, which represent those letters in latinized Greek words : 
 parochus, thesaurus, philosophus ; also of rli : rhetor. 
 
 1 1. The Emperor Claudius invented and introduced three letters : 
 (i) J to represent u-consonant; (2) p (antisigma) to represent 
 vp (ps) ; (3) h to represent a vowel having a middle tone between 1 
 and u, as in libet lubet, gradibus gradubus, maximus 
 maxumus. They did not remain in use; but the first and last 
 appear in inscriptions. 
 
 viii. The Semiconsonants i (j) and u (v). 
 
 i. The consonantal character of i (j) is shewn by the two facts, J (J). 
 that, when it begins Latin words before a vowel it makes position 
 in verse after words ending with a consonant, and that it makes no 
 hiatus after words ending with a vowel or with m. Thus in 
 
 Sub loue iam ius est 
 
 sub, iam are long by position, and -e, -am are not elided before I. 
 
io Latin Soundlore. 
 
 12. 
 
 1) I is a vowel (i-vocalis) when it ends a syllable ; ni-ti ; or when 
 it stands in a syllable before a consonant, in-it, sic-cis; or when 
 it is a syllable ; ab-i-to. 
 
 I is a consonant (i-consonans) when it begins a syllable before a 
 vowel ; i e-i u-n o ; its sound being that of English y-consonant 
 ( = German j), a faint protraction of w the vowel-sound i. 
 
 2) In Greek words, however, 161 e, Iambus, and in a few 
 Latin words, i-ens, leram, i-vocalis remains open before a 
 vowel. 
 
 3) The sign J was introduced in a late age, to represent i-con- 
 sonans, and most editors do not use it. Its English and French 
 sibilant sounds (John, Jean) are not classical, but crept in before 
 the Middle Ages. 
 
 4) I-consonans is omitted before i by the compounds of lacio, 
 ab-icio con-icio pro-icio re-icio, etc. ; though the long quan- 
 tity of the first syllable is kept ; i being =j i. See Munro on Lucr. 
 i. 34, ii. 951. In Lucr. Verg. 8ce, reice. But re-icere, Plaut. 
 
 5) Poets sometimes harden i-vocalis into i-consonans : ab-ie-te, 
 ar-ie-te, p ar-ie-te, for ab-i-ete, etc. Sound ab-yete, ar-yete, 
 etc., trisyll. So Horace has consil-ium ( = consll-yum), Virgil 
 has fluv-iorum ( = fluv-yorum), trisyll. M. Lucr. ii. 991. 
 
 V (U). 2. The sign V was employed by the Romans as vowel and con- 
 sonant. In a latter age u became the vowel sign, v the consonant 
 sign. Ifuva ( = oowa) be sounded, it appears that u-consonans 
 ( = w) is only a faint protraction of the labial vowel u ; whence the 
 modern name Double-u. 
 
 1) V-consonans is vocalized in cautum for cavitum, fautum 
 for favitum, lautum for lav i turn, and in auceps for aviceps, 
 nauta for navita, naufragus for navifragus. 
 
 2) Poets sometimes vocalize u-consonans before a vowel: sil-u- 
 ae : sometimes they harden u-vocalis into u-consonans : gen-ua 
 for ge-nu-a, ten-ui-a for te-nu-ia. M. Lucr. iv. 1157. 
 
 3) Parasitic u follows q, ng, and s : sequor; lingua; suavis. 
 This usage is derived from ancient groups kv, grv, sv : but as the 
 sign u so used neither forms a syllable nor creates position, it must 
 be regarded, not as a proper letter, but as a kind of link between 
 the guttural (or sibilant) and labial sounds. 1 
 
 ix. SOUND and QUALITY of the Vowels. 
 
 Sound I. Vowels have not one short and one long sound only ; but 
 ^aiit various shades of these, in close or open syllables, 
 of a ' (Thus the sound of u varies in the following words : credulus, 
 
 Vowels, btisy,fiill, use, June, and in the French words, commtin, commune!) 
 
 2. The old sounds of the Latin vowels probably differed little 
 from those of the vowels in modern Italian. Proceeding from the 
 thinnest and sharpest sound i, to the thickest and flattest u, the 
 following words may represent their general distinction : the first 
 four being pronounced as in French, the fifth as in Italian, Zuloo. 
 
 Qumlne, demesne, papa, promote, Zulu. 
 
 3. The three primitive vowels are a, i, u. Sanskrit has e and o 
 only as diphthongs arising from ai, au. 
 
 1 In many modern editions of Latin authors, V alone is used as the Capital form of con- 
 sonant and vowel, and u alone as the Cursive form of both. In this grammar v is 
 retained as a cursive. 
 
I2< Phonetic Decay. 1 1 
 
 1) The standard vowel is a, issuing from the throat through the 
 opened mouth : 1 is the thin sharp palatal, sounded between the 
 tongue and the lower palate ; u is the thick flat labial, sounded by 
 a low interior whistle through the protruded lips. Each has its long 
 and short sound, with shades of these. 
 
 2) The want of intervening sounds to represent the strengthen- 
 ing of i and ii, and the primary weakenings of a, called into use 
 two subsidiary vowels ; e medial between a and i, and 6 medial 
 between a and ii. Both these are narrower gutturals than a ; e 
 sounding along the upper palate and tending to the sharpness of 
 i ; and o sounding from the lower throat with a fullness which its 
 form marks, but tending to the labialism and flatness of u. 1 
 
 3) The strongest short vowel is a, into which none other passes. 
 
 4) The weakest is X : for which reason it often stands as a vin- 
 cular vowel before suffixes : reg-^-to, flag-z'-to, leg-z'-bus : but 
 sometimes e or u takes its place; soci-/-tas, teg-#-mentum. 
 
 5) That 6 is stronger than e may be seen by comparing pondus 
 with pendere, toga with tegere, volo with, velim, velle. 
 
 6) Though u has various shades of strengh, as in put o, sumus, 
 augur, augiirium, declining almost to the weakness of i, as in 
 optumus (optimus, vii. n), yet on the average it is not seen to 
 be weaker than e. Such examples as pignus, pigneris, pignoris 
 etc., might seem to shew ii stronger than e, 6 : but it must be re- 
 membered that this ii corresponds not to Greek v, but to Greek o : 
 that iis is really a weak syllable, and u, like i, gives a facility to the 
 rejection of s in old Latin poetry, which e does not afford. 
 
 7) When a vowel from being short becomes long, it is doubled 
 in time and strength ; 11 = I, ee = e, etc. 
 
 8) As final short vowels, a and e predominate ; i, 6 are rarely 
 final ; ii never, except by the rejection of s in old Latin poetry. 
 
 As final long vowels, i and 5 pred ominate : e and a are less 
 frequent ; and u least frequent of all. 
 
 x. Phonetic Decay in old Italian language. PH ? - 
 
 (See Corssen, I. 347.) netic 
 
 Decay 
 
 1. Phonetic Decay tends to lighten diphthongs, to shorten and 
 weaken vowels, to silence or throw out light vowels, to cast off or 
 assimilate consonants. 
 
 2. This tendency is especially shewn in Umbrian and its cognate 
 dialects ; also in the old Latin, of which our knowledge is derived 
 chiefly from inscriptions, partly from the testimonies of gramma- 
 rians, and from the most ancient manuscripts. 
 
 3. Classical Latin (see 5) may be regarded as in some measure 
 'a reaction, by which, during a long literary period, the process of 
 Phonetic Decay in Latin was arrested. After the age of Sueto- 
 nius, about A.D. 120, decay recommenced and continued for nearly 
 1000 years, till the modern Romanic languages gradually emerged 
 from the darkness of those centuries. 
 
 Vowels are here spoken of as sounded with consonants : ad, da. All vowels issue 
 from one primary vowel, a faint sigh in the depths of the throat. Its first scarce distin- 
 guishable strengthenings may be compared thus : max-z-mos, max--mos, max-/-mos, 
 max-<?-mos, max-a-mos. 
 
12 Latin Sound lore. 12. 
 
 Vowel- Xi. VOWELCHANGE. 
 
 1. Vowels are liable to change in the Flexion, Derivation, and 
 Composition of words. 
 
 2. Syllables may be either strengthened or weakened by 
 Vowelchange. 
 
 3. The general tendency of Italian dialects was to weaken vowel 
 sounds. But sometimes a syllable is strengthened by assuming a 
 stronger for a weaker vowel. Thus the tonic syllable in toga is 
 stronger than in t ego. 
 
 Diph- xii. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs. 
 
 thongs. 
 
 1. Diphthongs and long Vowels in Sanskrit arise from the intro- 
 duction of a vowel to strengthen a short sound. Thus a by 
 strengthening i produces e ; a by strengthening ii produces o ; and 
 this process is called Guna (distinction). If a strengthens (ai, an), 
 the process is called Vriddhi (augmentation). 
 
 2. In Latin (as in Greek) e and 6 are themselves capable of 
 strengthening i and u. Thus the full list of diphthongs proper is 
 
 ai ei oi 
 
 an eu on 
 
 3. Ui is an improper diphthong, only found in the words cui, 
 huic, hui, phui. 
 
 4. Yi in Greek words for vt is very rare : as Ilithyia (ElXeidvIa). 
 
 5. The six diphthongs proper existed in ancient Latin, as shewn 
 by inscriptions : but before the classic age all except au had de- 
 cayed into other long sounds, namely : 
 
 ai into ae, rarely passing into e (ei) I 
 oi oe, often u (ei) I 
 ei e or I 
 eu u 
 ou u 
 
 Note. Corssen observes (I. 674), that the history of ai, oi, ei, has 
 peculiar interest, because, as these diphthongs often sprang from 
 the addition of a suffix which begins with a vowel to a stem which 
 ends with a vowel, they illustrate the laws of flexion as well as the 
 progress of phonetic decay. 1 
 
 6. The diphthong ai prevailed in old Latin: aidilis, Romai, 
 filial, &c. ; and is found even in the imperial age. But about B.C. 
 200 ae came into use, and gradually became the classical form. 
 For this, as a rustic variety, in the age of Lucilius, is found e : edus, 
 pretor, Cecil ius, &c.; which became more prevalent in later 
 Latin, and in modern language has superseded ae : secular, 
 premium. 
 
 i) Examples occur of eis for Dat. and Abl. Plur. Ending ais, 
 which in classical Latin became Is : tabuleis publiceis = tabulis 
 publicis. 
 
 1 This history is gained from the careful comparison of Latin Inscriptions extending 
 for about 400 }'ears from B.C. 260 to A.D. 150. In the present chapter and in 20 such 
 results alone are generally mentioned as suffice to explain the varieties of form which 
 appear in classical authors. 
 
12. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs. 13 
 
 a) Old poets, as Lucretius, often use the Gen. in a-i, dividing it 
 into two syllables, materia-I. Virgil rarely : aula-I, Aen. iii. 
 354. 
 
 b) The vowels are divided in Ga-I-us, Ga-I, and in the Greek 
 words Agla-I-a, La-i-iis. In others, as Achaia, Aiax, Graius, 
 Maia, and in aio, maior, i is i-cons. (Acha-ya, a-yo, ma- 
 yor,...). 
 
 7. The diphthong oi (oe) is of much rarer use than ai (ae). 
 Oi is found as late as the first century B.C. in stem-syllables. But 
 it passed into oe early, as ai into ae, by strengthening I. Also, 
 by weakening o, it passed into (ui, ue = ) u. Thus we find moi- 
 nera, moenera, munera; loidos, loedus, ludus; Troirrj, 
 poena, punire; coirare, coerare, curare (also courare) ; 
 oitier, oetier, uti. M. Lucr. ii. 829. 
 
 1) In the Imperial age oe began to be corrupted into (ee) e : 
 pomerium, federatus. This, as in ae, grew more and more 
 usual, and prevails in modern language : penal, federal, &c. 
 
 2) In Case-endings, oi from old times was liable to pass into ei 
 andi: puer-oi, puer-ei, puer-i; puer-ois, puer-eis, puer-is. 
 
 a) In proln, prolnde, the vowels coalesce : in Tro-i-iis they 
 remain separate (Hiatus). In Troia i is i-cons. (Tro-ya). 
 
 8. Ei is either a diphthong, as in a few old words, dei va, deicere, 
 leiber; in the old Italian Dative ending ei, virtutei ; in Dat. 
 Abl. PL endings eis for ois ; and in Nom. PL ending ei for oi of 
 Decl. 2 : or it is a middle sound between e and i, as when the form 
 eis represents a compromise between the Ace. Plur. endings Is, es, 
 of I-nouns : urbis, urbes, urbeis. 
 
 i) Ei is found as diphthong or middle sound in inscriptions of all 
 ages ; e sometimes taking its place, but i prevailing over both. 
 
 a) In the words dein, deinde, deinceps, e-i may coalesce in 
 poetry, or, as some think, e is elided. 
 
 b) In names "in -eius, i is i-cons. ; Pompeius = Pompe-yus. 
 
 c) Greek et appears in Latin generally as i: Tydides for 
 TvScffirjs ; but often as e before a vowel ; Alexandria or Alex- 
 andria, Dareus or Darius, Thalea or Thalia. 
 
 d) In some Greek words e is open before i (Hiatus) : Terns, 
 Plei'as, Nereides. 
 
 9. Aii was retained in all ages of Latin. But it often passed 
 (by the process ou, oo) into 5 : codex, plo strum, Clodius, 
 Plotius, &c., and (in Italian) oro, toro, tesoro, &c. ; sometimes (by 
 the process ou, uu) into u : cludo. M. Lucr. ii. 829. 
 
 10. EU in Latin words is very rare. Heu, eheu, alas, are 
 imitative words. In neu, seu, ceu, u is a vocalised v (neve, seve, 
 ceve). On neuter, neutiquam, see Prosody. 
 
 a) In Greek words eu remains : Euripides, Eurus. 
 Note. Greek au and eu before a vowel are written with vowel 
 or consonant : Agaue or Agave ; Euander or Evander. 
 
 n. Ou occurs on old Inscrr. : doucere, iousit, Louceria\ but had 
 decayed into u before the classical age. 
 
 (On the pronunciation of Diphthongs, see Appendix B.} 
 
Latin Soundlore. 
 
 12. 
 
 xiii. VOWELSTRENGTHENING in Root-syllabi es, 
 Suffixes, and Endings. 
 
 A) Root-syllables (see Supplemental Notes after Appendix). 
 
 a) Primitive or Italian u, strengthened by a (6, e) in the 
 manner of Guna, or by a, (a, e) in the manner of Vriddhi, 
 subsides from a diphthongal sound into u or a ; the series 
 of possible change being ii, au, ou, eu, u (o). 
 
 jug, to yoke 
 kru, hear . 
 kru, be raw 
 lu, wash . 
 
 (pu-s, nur- 
 ture, thrive) 
 
 pu, cleanse 
 
 pu, stink . 
 ru, bray 
 rudh, be red 
 
 ruk, give 
 light 
 
 sku, AzVfe . 
 
 su, sew 
 
 (ii) iu(n)g-ere ... iug-u-m, iug-are .... (eu) evy- 
 (u) iug-i-s, iug-er-a, iu-mentu-m. 
 
 (u) clu-ere. (au) lau-s, laud-are .... (u, 6), lu- 
 s-cin-ia, glo-r-ia 
 
 (u) ru-di-s. (au) rau-du-s, rau-du-s-culu-m. (u) 
 cru-du-s ... cru-d-eli-s ... cru-s-tu-m, cru-s-ta. 
 
 (u) lu-ere ... lu-tu-m .... (au) lav-ere with v- 
 cons. ... lautus. (ou) \ov-ftr, di-luv-iu-m ... 
 with v-cons. for v-voc. (u, 6), 16-tu-s ... 
 pol-lu-tu-s ... lu-s-tru-m, lu-s-tr-are 
 
 (u) plu-it. (ou) pluv-ia ... for E. L. plov-ia ... 
 (u, 5), plu-vi . . . plo-r-are .... 
 
 (ii) pu-er ... pu-ella ... pu-s-illu-s ... disci-pu-lu-s, 
 pu-m-ilu-s, pu-tu-s. (au) Trcue for Trd-vg. 
 (u) pu-su-s, pu-s-io, pu-pu-s, pu-pa, pu-p- 
 ula, pu-p-illu-s, pu-m-ilio, pu-ber, pu-bes. 
 
 (ii) pu-tu-s, pu-t-are ... am-pu-t-are. (au) pa-eni- 
 t-et for pav-ine-t-et. (ou) po-ena for pov- 
 ina. (u) pu-ru-s . . . pu-n-ire 
 
 (u) pu-ter pu-tris (au) pa-e-d-or impav-i-d-or. 
 (u) pu-s pu-r- ... pu-t-ere .... 
 
 (ii) ru-d-ere ... ru-d-en-s. (au) rav-u-s ... rau- 
 cu-s .... (u) ru-m-or. 
 
 (u) rub-er, rub-ere ... ru-tilu-s ... epvQ-pog. (eu) 
 ipev6-w. (u, o) rub-ig-o or rob-ig-o, ruf- 
 u-s .... 
 
 (ii) luc-er-na, XVK-. (ou) E. L. Louc-ina. (eu) 
 XtvKog. (u) lux luc- ... luc-ere ... Luc-ina, 
 di-luc-ulu-m .... 
 
 (u) scu-tu-la ... cu-ti-s. (au) cav-ere, cau-tu-s ... 
 cau-s-sa or cau-sa. (ou) E. L. coit-r-arc 
 or coi-r-are for cov-%-r-are. (eu) KEv-Ow. 
 (u) cu-ra, cu-r-are ... E. L. co-r-are, cu- 
 s-t-o-s, scu-tu-m, ob-scu-ru-s. See C. I. 356. 
 
 (u) su-ere. (diphthongal in Sk. Goth, and Lith.). 
 (u)su-t-or, su-bula. 
 
12. 
 
 Vowelstrengthcning. 
 
 tu, swell 
 
 (u) tu-m-ere, tu-m-idu-s, tu-mu-lu-s. (au in Sk.), 
 tae-d-et for tav-i-d-et. So ta-e-ter. O. 
 tau-ta. (ou) O. tou-to. (u, 6) to-tu-s, tu- 
 ber. U. tu-ta, to-ta. These old Italian 
 words mean ' a community '/ a people? 
 
 (ii) dux due- ... educ-are .... (ou) E. L. douc- 
 > ere. (u) duc-ere .... 
 
 (ii) flu-ere ... con-flu-g-es. (ou) fluv-idu-s, fluv- 
 iu-s (from flou-v-). (u) flu-men, flu-t-are. 
 
 (ii) nu-ere. (eu) veva). (u) nu-tu-s, nu-t-are ... 
 mi-men. 
 
 Add the prim, root dyu, shine ( = div), whence (6 for ii) io-cu-s. 
 {ou), O. Diouv-ei, whence the weakened words, E. L. Diov-is, 
 U. Juv-e, I6v-is, iuv-at, .... (u) lu-p-piter, lu-n-o, iu-c-undu-s.... 
 b) Primitive or Italian i, strengthened by a (6, e), or by a 
 (o, e), subsides from a diphthongal sound into I or S ; the 
 series being X, ai, oi, ei, I (e). 
 
 diic- ; lead . 
 
 nu-, nod 
 
 dik ; shew, 
 
 div, shine 
 
 T, that 
 
 k^, lie down 
 
 stt, smear . 
 
 spic( = 
 spy 
 
 :spak), 
 
 trf, three . 
 fid, to trust 
 
 lib, to choose 
 
 (X) dtc-are ... dic-io, con-dic-io, die-is, caussi- 
 dic-u-s ... iu-dex, iu-dic- ... di-dtc-i, dtg- 
 i-tu-s, dig-nu-s ... pro-dlg-iu-m ; ... tK-r/ .... 
 (ei) fie IK- E. L. deic-ere. (i) dlc-ere, dlx-i ... 
 
 (i) re-div-ivu-s, di-u, inter-di-u-s, nu-di-u-s, dT-es, 
 di-ur-nu-s, ho-dl-er-nu-s, di-es-piter, nun-di- 
 na-e. (e = ai) Sk. dev-a-s, a god. (ei) 0?oc, 
 E. L. deivos, deiv-a. (i) div-us, di-us (weak- 
 ened form de-us), Dl-a-na, I-anus for Di- 
 amis. In bl-du-um, trl-du-um, &c., du is a 
 weakened form of div. 
 
 (i) i-t-er, ad-i-tu-s, &c., in-I-t-iu-m. ... (5 = at) 
 Sk. e-mi. (oi) ol-jji-o-g. (ei) d-p-t, E. L. ei-re. 
 (i) I-re, I-bo, I-vi. ... 
 
 (X) ?-s, i-b-i, I-dem.... (ei) E. L. ei-eis. (i) i-dem. 
 
 (i) quT-es, quT-e-sc-ere, qul-e-tus .... (ei) ce7/m<, 
 E. L. cei-vi-s. (i) cl-vi-s. 
 
 (i) li-n-ere (-ire), li-tu-s, H-tu-ra. (ei) E. L. lei- 
 t-er-a. (i) li-mu-s ... ll-m-ax, ll-n-ea, ll-t- 
 er-a or li-tt-er-a. (G. schleim, Engl. slime?) 
 
 (X) -sptc-ere -spec-ere ... (ei) E. L. peic-u-s. (i) 
 plc-u-s, su-spic-io ? (G. specht. Engl. wood- 
 pecker ; pi'e.} 
 
 (X) tri-bu-s, tn-dens ... ter, tre-centi. (ei) rpelg. 
 (i) trl-s, trl-ni, trl-du-um. 
 
 00 fld-es, fid-eli-s, per-fid-u-s .... (oi) E. L. 
 foid-u-s, foedus, foed-er-a-tu-s, TreVot^a. (ei) 
 7r/0w, E. *L.feidus. (i) fld-ere, fld-us .... 
 
 (X) Hb-et. (oi) E. L. loeb-er. (ei) E. L. leib-*r. 
 (i) llb-er .... 
 
16 
 
 Latin Soundlore. 
 
 12. 
 
 c] Primitive or Italian a, sometimes represented by e, i, 6, or 
 fi, is strengthened into a, which sometimes sinks to e or 5. 
 
 (i) a (e, i, 6, u). (2) a. (3) e. (4) o. 
 
 ak, sharpen 
 ag, drive . 
 
 bha \throw 
 bha-s flight 
 
 bhrag, break 
 
 kar, want . 
 gan, beget . 
 
 gna, know 
 
 kal. hide . 
 
 lab, j/# . 
 ma, measure 
 
 pak, fasten 
 
 rag, 
 
 sna, float, 
 bathe 
 
 (l) a ic- ac-u-s, ac-u-ere. (2) ac-er. (4) af 
 
 (i) ay-ag-ere...ag-i-li-s.... (2) amb-ag-es, ac-tu-s. 
 (3) eg-i, ffrparryydc .... (4) paedagog-u-s. 
 
 (i) fe-n-es-tra, fa-t-eri, fa-t-uu-s, infi-ti-a-s, fax 
 fac-, fac-ere ... f ac-ie-s, fa-ber, 0d-oc, <j)a-rai. 
 (i) fa-s, fa-s-ti, fa-ri, fa-bula, fa-ma, fa-c- 
 und-us ... fa-tu-m, fa-nu-m. (3) fe-t-i-ali-s r 
 fe-s-ia-e = fe-r-ia-e, fe-s-tu-s, ^?ftt, <f>tfpi. 
 
 (i) fra(n)g-ere ... frag-ili-s, frag-or, nau-frag-us, 
 .... (2) refrag-ari, suf-frag-iu-m ...fr ac-tu-s. 
 (3) freg-i, fprjy- .... (4) ippuya. 
 
 (i) car-ere. (2) car-us. 
 
 (i) gen-us ... gen-ui, ycv- yov- gen-er, pro-gen- 
 ie-s, gen-iu-s, in-gen-iu-m, indi-gen-a, gen-i- 
 tor, yvvi]. (2) gna-tu-s, na-tu-s ... na-t-io, 
 natura, gna-vu-s, i-gna-vu-s .... (3) yr//crtoc. 
 
 (i) no-t-a, no-t-are, co-gni-t-us .... (2) gna-ru-s, 
 i-gna-ru-s, na-r-r-are. (4) no-tu-s, i-gno-tu-s, 
 igno-r-are ... no-r-ma ... no-bili-s ... no- 
 men, a-gno-men, i-gno-min-ia ... cyvwi:a. 
 
 (i) cle-p-ere (cll-p-eu-s), eel-la, oc-cul-ere, cu-cul- 
 lu-s, -cil-iu-m, c-la-m, K\OTT^. (2) cal-ig-o. 
 
 (3) eel-are. (4) K\u\l/. 
 
 (i) lab-are, lab-e-facere. (2) lab-i ... lab-es. 
 
 (i) ma-nu-s, jucrpelv, me-tru-m, me-d-imnu-s, me- 
 t-ere, mo-diu-s, mo-d-u-s, mo-d-er-ari. mod- 
 es-tu-s .... (2) ma-ne, im-ma-ni-s, ma-tu- 
 ru-s, Ma-tu-ta. (3) me-ta, me-t-Iri ... me-n- 
 sa, me-n-sura, me-n-si-s, se-me-s-tri-b .... 
 
 (4) mo-s mor-, mor-osu-s. 
 
 (i) pac-i-sc-^ pa(n)g-ere, pe-pig-i, Trdy-. (2) pax 
 pac-, pac-are, re-pag-ulu-m, pag-u-s, pag-ina, 
 com-pag-es, pro-pag-o. (3) -pegi, 7rr/y-. 
 
 (i) reg-ere, reg-io, -rigere, rog-u-s. (2) Sk. raj an. 
 
 (3) rex reg- ... reg-ula (From regere 
 
 perhaps rig-ere, rig-i-du-s ... .) 
 
 (i) sa-tu-s, sa-t-io (se-rere) .... (2) Sa-t-ur-nu-s. 
 (3) se-vi, se-men .... 
 
 (i) na-t-are. (2) na-re ... na-r-i-s, na-s-u-s, nSs- 
 turt-iu-m (nasum torquens), (3) 
 
i2. VowelstrengtJicning in Root-syllables, etc. 
 
 sta, stand 
 
 17 
 
 star, strew, 
 
 (i) sta-tor, sta-ti-m (but E. L. sta-ti-m), sta-ti-o, 
 sta-tu-s, sta-tu-ere, sta-tu-a, sta-bulu-m, sta- 
 bili-s : ste-t-i, super-sti-t- .... (2) sta-turu-s, 
 sta-tura, sta-men, and in Conjug. sta-re, 
 sta-bam .... (3) 
 
 (i) ster-(n)ere ("-op-), (2) stra-vi, stra-tu-s^stra- 
 men ... stla-ta, stla-t-ariu-s, (4) 
 
 Pr. har, seize 
 kar, create 
 
 d] The following are strengthened from (i) a (e or i) to (3) e (I). 
 
 (i) (h)er-us, (h)er-a, (h)er-c-i-sc-ere, hir-und-o, hir- 
 ud-o, E. L. hir (x P~) 0) (h)er-es, (h)er-ed- 
 
 (i) Cer-es, cre-are, cre-sc-ere ..., (3) cre-vi, in-cre- 
 mentu-m .... 
 
 (i) sed-ere ... as-sid-uu-s, (3) sed-es, sed-i, sed- 
 
 ulu-s, sld-ere... . 
 (i) ser-ere ... ser-ie-s, ser-a, ser-tu-m, (3) ser-ia, 
 
 ser-u-s, ser-iu-s. 
 
 (0 cer-(/*)ere ... cer-tu-s, ... sere-are, (3) cre-vi, 
 dis-cre-tu-s ..., ex-cre-mentu-m, crl-bru-m, 
 crl-men, dis-crl-men .... xpirw. 
 
 (i) oreyw, TE y-oc, teg-ere, teg-es, (3) teg-ula, tex-i. 
 
 (i) val-lu-m, ver-eri, vel-le, val-ere, val-idu-s, (3) 
 vel-u-m, vel-are ... : ver-us, ver-ax .... 
 
 From another root val, implying motion, come 
 
 (i) vol-are, (3)vel-ox, vel-es, vel-it-ari. 
 
 e) The following are strengthened from (i) Pr. a (6) to (4) o. 
 
 skar, sever 
 
 stag, cover 
 
 var ) cover 
 val 'choose 
 
 
 Pr. sar, be whole 
 svan, sound 
 
 (i) sal-us sal-u-t-, sal-u-ber, sal- vu-s..., (4) sol-ari, 
 sol-a-c-iu-m. 
 
 (i) son-u-s, son-are ... (4) per-son-a. 
 
 
 svap, sleep (i) sop-or ... som-nu-s, (4) sop-ire. 
 
 svar, sun (i) ser-enu-s, a\-ac, ffe\-rjvri, Setp-ioc, (4) sol 
 (Sk. sur-a-s). 
 
 vak, call . (i) voc-are, (4) vox voc-, voc-ali-s (con-vlc-iu-m ?). 
 
 /) C. cites also many examples of i (e) rising to I and of u 
 rising to u in Latin without diphthongal accretion. Such are 
 (a) liqu-ere ... liqu-or, (/i3) llqu-i, llqu-or. 
 (o) sec-are ... (ft) sic-a, sic-ar-iu-s. 
 (a) stil-u-s, stim-ulu-s ... (j(3) instig-are. 
 (a) i/y-po-c, (/3) u-v-ere, u-m-or ... . x 
 
 1 The examples in pp. 14-17 are selected from a large number in Corssen's great work, 
 I. 348-550. The instances cited are the most important of those in which the short as 
 well as the long vowel occurs in words of classical use. Forms from old Italian dialects 
 and from other languages are here given only so far as they illustrate diphthongal 
 strengthening. Other roots of great interest will be found in Corssen's pages : as 
 
 Par, pur, fill*, whence plere, plus, plenus, populus, plebs. 
 
 Mar, glitter : whence mare, marmor, Mars, Mamers. 
 
 yia.r,fade : whence marcere, mors, mori. 
 
 Bhu, be bom : whence fu-, fore, fe-, fetus, femina, fecundus, fenus. 
 C 
 
jg Latin Soundlorc. 12. 
 
 B) Vowelstrengthening in Suffixes, Case-endings, and Personal- 
 endings, will appear in the Sections which treat of Declension, Con- 
 jugation, and Derivation : 
 
 hon-6s honor-is, Cer-es, puly-is, nub-es, lig-6n-is, matri-mon- 
 ium, matr-6n-a ; mens-ar-um, de-6r-um ; am-as, am-a- 
 mus, am-a-ris, fu-e-runt, fu-I. 
 
 Disyi- xiv. Vowelstrengthening in Perfects. 
 
 Per- C i) Most Verbs with vowel character a, i, o, and some with e, 
 
 fects - formed the Perf. in vi, and lengthened the character : 
 
 na-vi, ne-vi, no-vi, ll-vi. 
 
 2) Of u- verbs, C. says that their Present-stem anciently received 
 the strengthenings ou, u, before it was weakened into ii ; and that 
 the Perf. passed through the forms -uvi, ui before it was weakened 
 into ui. Thus plouo, pluo became pluo : and pluvi, plui be- 
 came plui. The only exceptions are batuo, -gruo, metuo, ruo, 
 which seem never to have lengthened u before a vowel : and fuo, 
 which in the Perf. became foul (poet, f o vi), fui, and ultimately fui. 
 
 3) As to the formations 
 caveo cavi 
 
 faveo favi 
 
 paveo pavi 
 
 foveo fovi 
 
 moveo movi 
 voveo vovi 
 
 C. thinks that (to avoid the concurrence -vui) ii was thrown out, 
 and the root- vowel then strengthened : cavui, cav-i, cavi. 
 4) As to the following three 
 
 sedeo sedi ; video vldi (E.L. veidi) ; venio veni 
 he assumes the existence of old forms sed-ere, vtd-ere, ven-ere, 
 which in the Perfect were strengthened as the following Consonant 
 Verbs : 
 
 fac- feci 
 iac- ieci 
 ll(;z)qu- llqui 
 \\(n)c- vlci 
 ag- egi 
 
 fr()g- fregi 
 
 leg- legi (lexi) 
 
 ed- edi 
 
 fod- fodi 
 
 cap- cepi 
 
 ru(^)p- rupi 
 
 scab- scabi 
 
 em- emi 
 
 fu(;z)d- fudi 
 
 He brings reasons against the common assumption that in such 
 Perfects the long vowel compensates for a lost reduplication. And, 
 in fact, the practice of Vowelstrengthening in Italian Soundlore is 
 so well established, that no such assumption is necessary to explain 
 the quantity. Yet fefici (Q.fefdd] is known as an older form than 
 feci, while pegi from pango and tudi from tundo appear as 
 secondary forms for pepigi and tutudi. We may also compare 
 Greek forms, as ayrjyov or r/yayov with egi, icwdfj with edi, 
 oloa with vldi or veidei, and be led to doubt whether, in some 
 instances at least, a loss of reduplication may not have caused the 
 root-vowel to be strengthened in Latin. 
 
 Com- xv. COMPENSATION. 
 
 tk>n? a ~ Compensation is usually said to happen when a naturally short 
 vowel is lengthened in order to maintain the quantity of a syllable 
 after the loss of a consonant: vid-sum, vlsum. But such com- 
 pensation is not always made: seget-s, seges. 
 
i2. Nasalisation. Vowelweakening. 19 
 
 xvi. Strengthening of the Present Stem in 
 Verbs by Insertion of a Nasal. 
 
 Some Verb-stems have the short vowel of their Present-stem 
 strengthened by NASA LISA TION ; that is, by adding n to the Stem- 
 trowel before a Guttural or Dental, m before a Labial character : 
 
 frag- frango 
 
 iug- iungo 
 
 Kg- ling- 
 
 liqu- linquo 
 
 mig- mingo 
 
 nigu- ninguo 
 
 pag- pango 
 
 pfg- pmgo 
 
 pug- pungo 
 
 strig- stringo 
 
 tag- tango 
 
 vie- vinco 
 
 fid- findo 
 
 fud- fundo 
 
 scid- scindo 
 
 tud- tundo 
 
 pis- pinso 
 
 cub- cumbo 
 
 lab- lambo 
 
 rup- rumpo 
 
 As the Nasal for the most part disappears in Derivation, it was 
 evidently not so strongly sounded as in modern utterance. 
 Guttural n is called by grammarians nadulterinum. 
 (On the strengthening of the Present-Stem by Suffixes, see 52.) 
 
 xvii. Vowelweakening. vowel 
 
 1. Pr. roots are formed with each of the Pr. vowels, a, i, ii : ening - 
 but those with a are by far the most numerous. 
 
 2. The standard vowel a is weakened into i and ii in all Aryan 
 languages : but in those which have e and 6 the weakening of a 
 into i passes through e, and the weakening of a into ii passes 
 through 6 : 
 
 Pr. sama E.L. semo-1 C.L. simu-1 
 
 3. Italian dialects shew such weakening largely ; in Root- syllables, 
 in Suffixes, and in Endings of Case and Person. 
 
 4. The general object of all such changes is Euphony (fi/^wi^/a), 
 the more easy and convenient utterance of the sounds of speech. 
 
 5. In pursuit of this object certain principles are applied ; among 
 them Assimilation and Dissimilation, hereafter noticed ; also 
 Selection, which occurs when a certain vowel is chosen as the 
 most suitable before a particular consonant. Thus, v has a prefer- 
 ence for o ; 1 and the labials chiefly for u ; r for e ; n and t for i. 
 Grouped consonants often prefer e : 
 
 luvis becomes lovis 
 volt vult 
 
 epopa upupa 
 
 pepiri peperi 
 
 Menerva becomes Minerva 
 
 aletem alitem 
 
 voile velle 
 
 faciundus faciendus 
 
 Note. E is the easiest and smoothest Latin vowel, being neither 
 so sharp and thin as i, nor so flat and thick as 6 and ii. Hence 
 it prevails as a final vowel, and in several instances is so used 
 when final consonants are cast off : venere for venerunt ; utare 
 forutaris; dictatore for dictatore-d or dictatori-d. Also for 
 i final in Neuter Nouns : mare for mari-. 
 
 But when Masculine or Feminine Nouns drop final n, the 
 stronger vowel o becomes final in Nom. Sing. : homo (homon-, 
 homin-), virgo (virgon-, virgin-). 
 
 c2 
 
2O Latin Soundlore. I2 , 
 
 Weak- xviii. The Vowel a and its Weakenings. 
 
 of a. A) In Root and Stem syllables. 
 
 1) Corssen (II. 6) cites about 270 Latin words which have 
 
 kept Pr. a in the syllable of the root or stem : 
 acus, aqua, traho, daps, labor, pateo, madeo, maneo, ango, 
 pando, amo, sal, valeo, palleo, malus, careo, carmen, hasta, 
 aveo, gravis. 
 
 2) He cites about 215 words which have weakened Pr. a to e 
 
 in the syllable of the root or stem : 
 
 decem, neco, equos, sequor, tego, tepeo, febris, peto, edo, 
 senex, fremo, mel, queror, tero, vespa, severus. 
 
 And others which have passed from a through e to i : 
 digitus, ignis, quinque, pinguis. 
 
 3) He cites about 190 words which have weakened Pr. a into 
 
 o in the syllable of the root or stem : 
 
 voco, mox, loquor, rogo, opus, 6b, nota, fodio, tono, vomo, 
 mola, orior, voro, post, novem. 
 
 And others which have passed from a through o to u : 
 nummus, unguis, fungus, multus, culmen, vulnus. 
 
 a) Pr. a is weakened to e and 6 in some roots : 
 nex, neco, noceo ; tego, toga, 
 bene, bonus ; mens, moneo ; pendo, pondus. 
 fero, fors, fortis ; verto, vorto ; volo, velle, volt (vult). 
 preces..., procus, posco; cello, collis, columen. 
 
 H) Pr. a, kept in Latin, also becomes e in 
 
 fatisco, fessus ; gradior, gressus. 
 
 c] Pr. a, kept in Latin, also becomes 6 in 
 
 apiscor, opus ; scabo, scobs ; pars, portio ; faveo, foveo. 
 
 d) Pr. long a becomes 5 in some words and many suffixes : 
 
 donum, vox, mos : 
 
 -tor, -6s, -dp, -mdn, -on, and Imperative -to. 
 
 B) In Suffixes. 
 
 It may be stated as a general rule that Latin suffixes with the 
 vowels e, X, 6, ii, are weakened from Pr. suffixes with a. 
 Exceptions are very few : 
 
 tX- in such words as menti- parti- poti-. 
 
 nt- in such words as igni- pani-. 
 
 vi- in words likeovi- avK 
 
 tu- (su-) in Supines and Nouns, as statu-, dictu-, casu-. 
 
 All which are in Pr. form. 
 
 C) In Cases and Personal Endings. 
 
 Cases (except the Locative Singular) and Personal Endings, with 
 vowels e, i, o, u, are for the most part weakened from Pr. forms 
 with a. See 20, 39, and Schleicher, Vergleich. Gramm. der 
 Indogerm. Spr., 205. 
 
1 12 Vowehveakening with Selection. 21 
 
 xix. Weakening into o as influenced by Se- Seiec- 
 lection. 
 
 1. v following has determined Pr. & to become 6 in 
 
 novem, novus, lovis, ovis. 
 
 2. V preceding has probably done this in voco : while in voloj 
 
 volvo, volnus (vulnus) andvomo, the consonants which, 
 follow may also have had influence. 
 
 E. L. has voco for vaco, voto for veto, vorto, voltur. M. 
 Lucr. i. 20. 
 
 3. Pr. sva is changed to so in 
 
 soror (for svasar, ' sister'), sopor, socer, sonus, sol, 
 
 sodalis; 
 and has passed to sii in su-sur-rus. See p. 17. C. II. 64. 
 
 4. I* shews a preference for o before it in many words : 
 
 dolus, solum, solium, tollo, &c. 
 but especially in E. L. suffixes : 
 
 poc-dl-om, tab-ol-a, Pseitd-dfais, po-pol-iis. 
 which afterwards changed 6 into u. 
 
 5. Inner r often prefers 6 to u : fore, for em from fu-o; so 
 
 ancora from Gr. ayfcupa (but generally Greek v was kept 
 before r: pur-pur-a): 
 
 especially in the Suffix of Neut. Substantives with Nom. 
 S. iis or iir : corp-us corp-6r-, eb-ur eb-6r-. 
 
 Some keep iir-: fulg-ur-, gutt-ur-, murm-ur-, sulf- 
 ur- ; and the Masc. words aug-ur-, turt-ur-, vult-ur-. 
 (But most Neuters in us are inflected by er-. See p. 25.) 
 
 ' 6. The Comparative Suffix was anciently os 5r-, then or or-, 
 for all genders : finally, and in C. L., it became 
 M.F. meli-6r meli-or-, N. meli-us meli-or-. Note 
 p. 42. 
 
 xx. Weakening into u as influenced by Se- Seiec- 
 lection. , 
 
 i. C. says : ' In Latin root- syllables, suffixes, and flexional end- 
 ings, ii has arisen generally from 6.' 
 
 a) before s and m final : 
 
 deus (faos), genus (ylvoc), bellum (bellom), filium (filiom). 
 
 &) before inner l, or a labial : 
 
 popttlus, upupa, columen, Hecuba. 
 
 c) before grouped consonants, the first of which is a Liquid, 
 Nasal or Sibilant : 
 
 pulsus, palumbes, fungus, rursum, luscus. 
 
 t 230 B.C. the 6 of case-endings generally p 
 kept in some instances : 
 
 a) hoc, tot, quod, quot, always. So com- con-. 
 
 2. About 230 B.C. the 6 of case-endings generally passed into ii : 
 but 6 was kept in some instances : 
 
22 Latin Soundlore. 
 
 12. 
 
 /3) after u, v, as late as the Augustan age : 
 
 equos, equom, servos, servom, aevom. So quom. 
 
 The Emperor Claudius seems to have promoted the use of the 
 combinations uu, vu, which in Republican times were generally 
 avoided. See C. II. 97-101. 
 
 3. Rustic dialects kept o frequently : hence it returned into user 
 in L. L., and reappears in modern Italian : popolo, secoloJ* 
 
 4. Selection of u appears 
 A} before Labials and l : 
 
 i) in place of o : 
 
 humanus 
 
 utrubi 
 
 consul 
 
 umerus 
 
 bublle 
 
 adulescens 
 
 nummus 
 
 bubulcus 
 
 epistula 
 
 volumus 
 
 bubus 
 
 exsul 
 
 quaesumus 
 
 rubigo 
 
 titulus 
 
 sumus 
 
 upilio 
 
 singuli 
 
 Bovile is another form for bubile. 
 
 2) in place of Gr. a, e : 
 
 humus (yvL\ia.i) scopulus (<rfco7re\oe) 
 
 pessulus (Trao-o-aXoe) Siculus (Si*eXoc) 
 
 3) in place of a, e : 
 
 & : occiipo, aucupor, contubernium ; e : quincuplex. 
 
 4) as middle sound, approaching to * : 
 
 clupeus or clipeus : lacrtima or lacrima. See xxi. 
 
 Note I. When X or e came before the suffix 616- 61-, 6 was not 
 
 changed into u : 
 
 (1) fili-olu-s, basi-olu-m, Cori-ol-i, vi-ol-entus. 
 
 (2) alve-61u-s, lacte-61u-s, laure-ola, Pute-61-i. 2 
 
 Note 2. When v came before 61, 6 was kept as late as the Au- 
 gustan age, after which it often became u : 
 
 parv-olu-s, parv-iilu-s : serv-olu-s, serv-ulu-s. 
 But friv-olu-s was never changed. 
 
 1 As to the dialectic use of O and U in final syllables, C. says : 
 
 1) Lat. and F. received O as the pure Gr. o. 
 
 O. and S. as O inclining to U. 
 
 U. as a middle tone, or U inclining to O. 
 
 2) Lat. changed O to U about 300 . . . 200 B.C. 
 
 F. still earlier. 
 
 O. about 300 B.C., but before in not till 130 B.C. 
 
 S. before 200 B.C. 
 
 V. never. 
 
 New U. returned from U to O between 300 and 130 B.C. 
 
 a MSS. shew formid-ul-osus and formid-ol-osus, sanguin-ul-entus and sanguin-ol-entus, 
 vin-ul-entus and vin-ol-entus ; the forms with ul- having the advantage. Somn-ul-entus is 
 decidedly better than somn-ol-entus. 
 
12. Vo^Lvelweakening with Selection. 23 
 
 B) Before grouped consonants, of which the first is a Liquid, 
 Nasal, or Sibilant : 
 
 i. In place of o. 
 
 1) pullus, cucullus, and the Deminutives ampulla, homullus, 
 
 Catullus, Marullus, &c. 
 
 But before 11, e is more frequent than u. See xxi. D. 6. 
 fulcio ... , hiulcus, pulcher ..., sulcus .,., Vulcanus ; 
 fulgeo ..., mulgeo..., vulgus .... 
 culpa . . . , bulbus. 
 adultus ..., cultus ..., multa ..., pul(t)s, ultra ... vultur, 
 
 vultus, vult : vulsi. 
 culm en, fulmen, ulmus ; ulna. 
 Fulvius, pulvis, vulva, ulva. 
 
 Here too ol after v held its ground long : 
 
 Volcanus, volgus, voltur, voltus, volt, volsus. 
 
 2) amurca, furca, urceus, murmur, furnus, eburnus, purpura, 
 
 Surrentum, ursus, rursus. 
 
 3) umbo, nummus, aerumna, alumnus, autumnus, columna, 
 
 Clitumnus, Vertumnus. 
 
 4) uncia, uncus, hunc, Aurunci ; fungus, unguis .... 
 
 The Demin. suffix -unculo- : ranunculus, virguncula. 
 
 5) Promunturium ; nuntio (noventio). Corss. I. 51 ; nundinae. 
 The Personal Ending -unt was anciently onti- ont, as 
 
 ecfociont for effugiunt on the Columna Rostrata, con- 
 sentiont, dederont, &c., on old inscriptions. The classical 
 form of 3d Pers. PL Perfect -runt for -ront first appears 
 in the Senatusconsult. de Bacc. B.C. 186, consoluerunt j 
 the weakened form in -re somewhat earlier, fee ere. 
 When u or v came before -ont, o was kept to a later 
 time. Thus in the MSS. of Plautus appear ruont, per- 
 pluont, vivont; and in Lucretius loquontur, disso- 
 luont, vivont. 
 
 The inner suffix -unt- (OVT-) appears in a few words : sc 
 euntem ... , chironomunta (Juv.) ; Acherunta (Plaut. 
 Lucr.). 
 
 The suffix -un-do- (for -on-do-) appears in 
 
 har-undo, hir-undo, sec-undus, ori-undus, rot-undus, fa-c- 
 undus, fe-c-undus, vere-c-undus, furi-b-undus, trenrf-b- 
 undus, vaga-b-undus ; 
 and in Gerundive Participles. 1 
 
 1 Of the Gerundive forms -ondu-s, -undu-s, -end-us, C. (I. 1 80) shews that 
 
 (1) No existing E. L. Inscrr. contain -ond-us ; but, as it was the tendency of L. L. to 
 resume the o of E. L., and in L. L. appear such forms as secondus, verecondus, while 
 Italian also has secondo, rotondo, it may justly be assumed that -on-do- was the first 
 weakening of Pr. -an-d-ya. 
 
 (2) The forms -undus -endus appear side by side in E. L. and R. L. to the Christian 
 era. So in Plaut. Ter. Lucr. ; in the Senatuscons. de Bacc., the Lex lulia. 
 
 (3) The form -endus prevails in prose : but Sallust likes -undus. Cicero, Caesar, Livy, 
 use it often, chiefly in io-verbs of the 3rd as well as 4th Conj. : moriundum, partiundus, 
 &c. It prevails especially in legal and statistic phrases : rerum repetundarum, iure 
 dicundo, belli gerundi, agris dividundis. 
 
24 Latin Soundlore. i 2 . 
 
 Rarer forms are frundes for frondes, frunte for fronte, 
 dupundius for dupondius. 
 
 Later language resumed o : 
 
 It. fronde, fronte, pondo, mondo. 
 
 6) The Demin. forms arbuscula, corpusculum, rumus- 
 culus. 
 
 aplustre, indu-stria (endo) : 
 also arbustum, onustus, robustus, venustus; 
 
 which C. would derive from weakened forms arbus, onus, 
 robus, venus. 
 
 2. The words in which u appears to represent e are few : as 
 mulsum (jue'\<) ; sepultus from sepel-ire ; urgeo (tjoyeo) .... 
 
 Note. Long u for Pr. a or its substitute 6 appears in various 
 suffixes : -turo-, -tura, -suro-, -sura, -uno-, -una, -ueo-, -uca, 
 -ueeo-, -ucio- : 
 
 i-turus, prae-tura, pas-surus, men-sura, Nept-unus, fort-una, 
 
 cad-ucus, fest-uca, pann-uceus, Vin-ucius. 
 compared with 
 prae-tor (anc.), patr-onus, fer-ax, fer-6x, mer-acus, clo-aca, 
 
 gallin-aceus. 
 
 Seiec- xxi. Change into e as influenced by Selec- 
 tionofs ' tion. 
 
 It has been shewn that 
 A) e has affinity with r. 
 
 B} e is a convenient vowel for the close of words and for final 
 syllables. 
 
 Also it must be noted that 
 
 C] e has affinity with the combinations st, &s, 11. 
 
 D] e is a convenient letter for the syllable of Reduplication. 
 
 These causes determine a great number of instances in which e 
 appears for other vowels in suffixes and endings. 
 
 A) e chosen with r. 
 
 i) In Decl. i and 2, before the suffix ro- ra-, e takes the place 
 of Pr. a or of o, sometimes of u : Examples are 
 
 Words which retain vowel and suffix throughout : 
 
 numeru-s, umeru-s, uteru-s ; camera, littera, tessera ; 
 and the Fern. Adjectives, 
 
 lacera, libera, misera, tenera, altera. 
 
 Words which drop the vowel of the suffix in Nom. and Voc. 
 Sing. Masc. : 
 
 gener, puer, socer (CKV/OOC), vesper, 
 lacer, liber, miser, tener, alter. 
 
12. Vowelweakening with Selection. 25 
 
 Words which drop the vowel of the suffix in Nom. and Voc. 
 Sing. Masc., and drop e in all their other forms : 
 
 ager, aper, faber, magister ; 
 Afer, ruber, niger, uter. 
 
 In some of these (as magister and uter) e represents 
 Pr. &, while in others it is perhaps a transposed repre- 
 sentant of the dropt 6. 
 
 In some words with suffix ro- ra- Greek a was kept before r : 
 cantharus, cithara. 
 
 2) Similarly, in Decl. 3, e comes before r in many forms : 
 Words in er er-, which keep e throughout : 
 
 career, cadaver, piper, papaver, tuber : 
 celer, degener, pauper, uber. 
 
 Words in ter, cer, ber ; which keep e ( = Pr. a) only in Nom. 
 and Voc. Sing. Masc., dropping it in the other cases ; 
 
 frater, mater, pater, venter, imber ; 
 acer, alacer, saluber, puter, Silvester. 
 
 Numerous words of Decl. 3, which take Nom. S. us ( = 6s), 
 have in the Oblique Cases the suffix er- : 
 
 fun-er-is, gen-er-is, op-er-is, Ven-er-is ; vet-er-is. 
 
 but some keep 6-r- : 
 
 corp-or-is, frig-or-is ; pect-6r-is, 
 
 a few use e r- and 6 r- : 
 
 pign-us, pign-er-is and pign-or-is : fenus, fen-er-is and fen-or-is ; 
 temperi for tempori : whence tempero, temperies. 
 
 Vomer orvomis, Gen. vom-er-is, points to an original form 
 in es, which sometimes weakens the consonant and be- 
 comes er, sometimes weakens the vowel and becomes is : 
 see xxii. 2. and compare the forms 
 
 Ceres Cerer-, cinis ciner-, pulvTs pulver-. 
 
 3) Verbs having er in their root do not weaken e into i m 
 
 compounds : 
 
 affero, congero, desero, puerpera. 
 for the same reason 
 
 peperi not (pepiri) ; repperi not (reppiri). 
 
 similarly the compounds of iuro become de-iero, pe-iero, 
 
 weakening u into e. 
 
 When the Perfect receives suffixes which begin with r, I is 
 changed into e or e : 
 
 (E . L. dedi-sont dede-ronf} dederuntordedere. 
 (E. L. dedi-so\ dede-ro. 
 
2 6 Latin Soundlore. 12. 
 
 B) E has a tendency to take the place of other vowels in final 
 syllables before weak consonants, n, m, s, t. 
 
 1) In Decl. 3, the Norn. S. -en (for Pr. -an) becomes -in- in 
 
 the Oblique Cases : 
 
 pecten, agmen, crimen, oscen, tubicen. 
 Gen. pectin-is, agmm-is, crimm-is, oscin-is, tubicin-is. 
 
 2) a. Septem (Sk.safitan, Gr. 7rra) ; novem (Sk. navan, Gr. 
 
 tVyca), dec em (Sk. das' an, Gr. ^KQ). 
 (3. In Decl. 3 -em is the Accus. S. Ending of Cons. Nouns : 
 
 reg-em, virgin-em, passer-em, 
 it prevails in I-nouns against -im : 
 
 civ-em, font-em, serpent-em, 
 but -im is retained by some : 
 
 bur-im, sit-im, tuss-im, vim. 
 while others use both forms. See 24, 5. 
 
 febr-im febr-em, messim messem. 
 
 Tim is kept by the numerous Adverbs having that form : 
 as ad fatim, partim. But saltern or saltim. 
 
 M as a final letter faded in L.L. as it had faded in U., and passed 
 out of use in modern Italian, leaving e final generally : sette, nove> 
 &c. ; but undeci, dodeci, ... from undecim, duodecim, ... 
 
 3) On such forms as nub-es, sed-es, see 2O, 24. 
 Some I-nouns have two forms of Nom. S., -Is and es : 
 
 fel-is fel-es, vall-Is vall-es, verr-is verres; 
 
 but s, like m, disappeared in L.L. and Italian, leaving e final : 
 nube, valley &c. 
 
 4) In old Italian dialects, except O., also in E. L., final t in 
 
 Verbal forms was weak and sometimes disappeared. Before 
 it the Perfect character I was sometimes changed into e : 
 at a later time to the middle sound ei : finally in classical 
 times settling into T. Thus are found the various forms : 
 (dede, dedit, dedet, dedeit\ dedit. 
 
 In L. L. and in Italian, this t, like m and s, disappeared 
 again, leaving final e ; disse,fece. 
 
 C] E has a tendency to become itself a final letter in the place of 
 other* vowels. 
 
 1) In the Voc. S. of O-nouns it supersedes 6 : 
 
 doming, lupe, Romule. 
 
 2) In the Neut. S. Nom. Accus. of I-nouns it supersedes * : 
 
 mare, rete ; triste, necesse. 
 
 3) When final consonants are cast off : 
 
 quinque(Sk.panc'a, Gr. irivre). 
 
i2. Voweliveakening with Selection. 27 
 
 ille, iste, ipse (illus, istus, ipsus). 
 
 Abl. S. of Decl. 3 : quaestore (quaestorid or quaestored). 
 
 -re for runt in Perf. dedere (dederunt). 
 
 re for -rls in 2nd Pers. S. Pass. : loquare for loquaris. 
 
 -ve for vis in neve, sive. 
 
 mage for magi s; pote for potfs. 
 
 In L. L. instances occur even of a Gen. S. in e for is. 
 
 By this gradual rejection of final consonants the classical system 
 of case-inflexion was broken down and the uniform declension in- 
 troduced which prevails in modern Italian. 
 
 D] E has a tendency to take the place of other vowels before 
 grouped and double consonants. 
 
 1) E appears before z ( = cs, gs) in the final syllable of Nouns 
 
 of Decl. 3 which are inflected with the suffixes ic- i&- ( = 
 ico- *o-, as explained by Corssen) : 
 
 codex, cortex, imbrex, remex ; simplex, supplex. 
 Gen. codfcis, corticis, remlgis ; simplfcis, supplfcis. 
 
 2) E appears before ps, bs in the final syllable of Nouns of 
 
 Decl. 3, which are inflected with the suffixes ip- (up-) ib- : 
 such are 
 
 municeps, auceps, caelebs, particeps. 
 
 Gen. municipis, aucupis, caelibis, particfpis. 
 
 Compounds of caput, with Nom. -ceps for -cipit-s, have Gen, 
 -cipltis ; 
 
 praeceps, Gen. praecTpitjs. 
 
 3) When a Noun with that suffix ti- (which appears in 
 
 hos-ti-s, tes-ti-s) would have the accent on an ante- 
 penult syllable (ala-ti-, equo-ti-), the vowel of the penult is 
 weakened usually into i (aliti-, equiti-), sometimes into e 
 (abieti- segeti-). The i of the suffix being dropt, the forms 
 then become (alit- equit- seget- abiet-) : and when the Nom. 
 S. is formed by the addition of -s, they become (alit-s 
 equit-s seget-s abiet- s) : but, e being preferred to i in a 
 final suffix, (alit-s equit-s) become (alet-s equet-s). After 
 which, by the rule of euphony, the dental falls out before s, 
 and the Nominatives then become 
 
 ales, eques ; Gen. alit-is, equtt-is; 
 seges, Gen. seget-is; teges, Gen. teget-is. 
 but abies, aries, paries, Gen. abietis, arietis, pa- 
 rietis, on account of i preceding. 
 
 Note. In this class, the vowels e, i generally represent Pr. or 
 Latin a (see above), but in a few X is the root- vowel : 
 comes, comit- (root if, to go). 
 
28 Latin Soundlore. I2 . 
 
 In pedes pedit-, probably also in seges, teges, the vowel is adopted 
 by analogy, forming a suffix i-t- or e-t-. See Footnote, p. 30. 
 
 4) The same principle applies to a few words derived from 
 
 sed- sid-, tosit(Pr. sad) : 
 
 (obsed-s) obses obsld-; (praesed-s) praeses, praesid-; 
 
 (desed-s) deses desid- ; (resed-s) reses resid-. 
 
 5) E before nt appears in the suffix mento- : 
 
 ar-mentu-m, la-mentu-m, monu-mentu-m. 
 
 and for Greek a in 
 
 talentum, Agrigentum, Tarentum. 
 
 6) E is frequent before 11 : 
 
 cello, pello, vello, velle, 
 
 and the Demin. forms : puella: 
 but in these i is also used : sigillum. 
 
 In other groups with 1 the vowel u prevails, see xix. : but 
 e is not excluded : celsus, excelsus. 
 
 7) Equester, pedester, for (equet-ter, pedet-ter). 
 
 8) (fat-) fessus ; (grad-) gressus. 
 
 9) The Neuter suffix (os) us weakens its vowel into e before 
 
 another suffix beginning with t : 
 
 fun-us fun-es-tus ; scel-us, scel-es-tus, 
 temp-us temp-es-tas ; intemp-es-tus. 
 
 The existence of an old Neuter Noun modus is shown by 
 mod-es-tus ; mod-er-ari : 
 
 so the Masc. Noun honos forms 
 
 hon-es-tus, hon-es-tas : 
 
 but o becomes u in 
 
 ang-us-tus, aug-us-tus, on-us-tus, rob-us-tus, ven-ua-tus. 
 maius, mai-es-tas, is like temp-us, temp-es-tas. 
 
 C. forms pot(i)os, pot-es-tas : others 
 
 poten(t)s (potent- tas) pot-es-tas : 
 
 he cites Praern-este as Superl. from a supposed (prae- 
 no-), meaning * the town on the highest prominence? 
 
 10) The comparative forms mag-is-ter, min-is-ter, sin-is- 
 ter, in L. L. appear with es for is ; whence Italian maestro. 
 In some other words also, as antes tes, L. L. writes est- 
 for ist-. 
 
 Modern Italian is not uniform in the choice between e and i. 
 We find 
 
 fermo, selva, segno, trenti ; but 
 principe, sinistra, vittoria, carissimo. 
 
 E) On the use of e for a, o, ii in the reduplicated syllable of Per- 
 fects see xxv. 
 
i2. Vowelweakening with Selection. 29 
 
 xxii. The Selection of i. 
 
 A) The thinnest and sharpest vowel i has a strong affinity with 
 dental consonants ; chiefly with n and s, but also with t and d. 
 
 B) Hence it is largely used as a vincular vowel, linking stem 
 with suffix and suffix with suffix. 
 
 C) The existence of a middle sound between i and ii caused the 
 orthography of many words to fluctuate. 
 
 A) I. Affinity of i with n. 
 
 I represents Greek a before n in 
 
 balmeum, bucina, fascmo, machlna, patina, trutma. 
 v It represents Greek t before n in 
 
 adamantinus, coccmus, coc emeus, crystallmus. 
 It stands before the suffix no- in numerous Latin words : * 
 fiscma, fuscma, pagfna, sarcma, pampmus, sucinum, fagmus, 
 fagineus, geminus, myrrhinus. 
 
 In mino- (Pr. mana) and tino- (Pr. tana) : 
 
 terminus, femina ; fruimino, amaminor. 
 crastmus, diutinus, pristinus. 
 
 In the suffix In- (Pr. an L. en, en) before vowels : 
 pect-in-is, sangu-Tn-is, osc-in-is. 
 
 In the suffix in- (Pr. an L. on, on) before vowels : 
 hom-in-is, marg-m-is, ord-m-is, virg-in-is, Apoll-m-is. 
 
 In the suffix mXn- (Pr. man L. men) before vowels : 
 flu-min-is, no-mm-is, nu-mm-is. 
 
 A striking instance of the affinity of X with n appears in the 
 fact that it was inserted in the Greek word pm, which so 
 became mina. Similar insertions occur in Daph-i-ne^ 
 luc-i-nus or lych-I-nus (M. Lucr. p. 211), gum-i- 
 nasium probably in Catullus. 
 
 So the affinity of ii with m is shewn in the occasional 
 forms drac-u-ma for fymxp/, Alc-u-mena, Tec-u-messa, 
 &c., and with i in Aesc-u-lapius, Herc-ii-les. 
 
 Minerva, anciently Menerva. 
 
 Though e prevails before grouped consonants, yet there are 
 many instances of it being sharpened into i before n with 
 another consonant : 
 
 intus, inter, indu- ... quinque ... tingo ... vindico ... 
 so when n follows another consonant : 
 
 ignis, pignus, signum, tignum. 
 2. Affinity of i with s is shewn 
 
 In the forms cinis (ciner), cucumis (cucumer), pulvis 
 (pul-ver), vomis (vomer), pubis (puber) : also aci- 
 pensis (acipenser). See C. II. 278. 
 
 1 In fact the suffix no- takes, in true Latin words, no short vowel but i before it. Such 
 words as balanus, cottana, platanus, raphanus, Rhodanus are not native of Italy. 
 
30 Latin Sound lore. I2 . 
 
 In the Gen. ending -is (Pr. as). 
 
 In the occasional use of i-sc- for e-sc- in Inceptive Verbs : 
 lucisco for luces co. 
 
 3. Affinity of i with t is shewn 
 
 In the adoption of i before many Verb and Noun suffixes 
 
 beginning with t : 
 ag-i-to, ag-t-te, ag-i-tis, gen-i-tus, gem-t-tus, domi-tum, meri- 
 
 tum, veti-turus, doli-turus, fru-i-turus, gen-i-tor (but gene- 
 
 trix), habi-tare, strepi-tare : laeti-tia, plani-ties, verl-tas, 
 
 alti-tudo, pem-tus, largi-ter, sempi-ternus. 
 
 4. Affinity of i with d is shewn 
 
 In the adoption of i before the suffix do- : 
 candi-dus, torp-i-dus, flu-i-dus, viv-i-dus. 
 herbi-dus, gravi-dus, morbi-dus, geli-dus. 
 
 Note. When an E-verb forms a Substantive with suffix d-on- 
 d-in-, the vowel before that suffix is e : 
 
 albe-do, dulce-do, grave-do : 
 but lib!- do, by assimilation. 
 
 B) Use of i as a linking Vowel. 1 
 
 i. The large use of i before suffixes beginning with n, t, d, and 
 its own aptitude for this purpose, led to its adoption before many 
 other suffixes as a link-vowel in the place of others : as before co-, 
 c-un-do-, eulo-, cro- ; b-un-do-, bulo-, bill-, men, men-to-, monia. 
 
 (Verbalia) ali-ca, velli-co, medl-cus, rubi-cundus, cubi-culum, 
 ridi-culus, veh-T-culum, pudi-bundus, fur-i-bundus, pati-bulum, 
 cred-i-bilis, terri-bilis, flexi-bilis, spec-!-men, al-i-mentum, quer- 
 T-monia. 
 
 (Denominativa) auli-cus, belli-cus, annt-culus, ludi-cer, curri- 
 culus, am-cula, aegrT-monia, caen-monia. 
 But Verbal a is kept : 
 
 ira-cundus, caena-culum, vaga-bundus, ama-bilis, grava-men, 
 
 sacra-mentum. 
 Sometimes e : vere-cunduSj fle-bilis. 
 
 1 Corssen is right in principle, when he considers this i to be a weakening of the final 
 vowel of Stems with vowel-character ; as in auli-cus from aula; belli-cus from bello- ; 
 ridi-culus from ride- ; am-cula from anu-. But he seems to go back too far when (II. 314 
 and elsewhere) he speaks, for instance, of the T in regimen as weakened 'from the 
 original final a of the 3rd Conjugation.' He might surely have applied here and in other 
 Derivatives of Consonant Nouns as well as Verbs the principle which he admits, for ex- 
 ample, in ped-es, ped-it- from the root ped- (Pr. pad, Gr. rro5-), and in the use of the 
 suffix i-co- (II. 211. 205) ; namely, that the usage of vowel-stems, which adopt! so gene- 
 rally as a light link-vowel, has thus created a uniform stiffix (einheitliches Suffix) applied, 
 by linguistic analogy (Sprachbewusstsein), to Consonant stems also. This is, in fact, all 
 that is meant when the use of vowels (!, u, e) is cited in this Grammar as ' vincular : ' 
 and in this sense the term will be still kept as convenient. 
 
 The same convenience recommends the term ' Clipt Stem ' to express a vowel-stem 
 without its vowel character. But ' mord ' is in fact the root of mord-ere. Hence, to 
 say that momord-i, morsum, come from a theoretic verb mord-ere, as C. does, and to 
 say that they are formed from the Root of the extant Verb, are but two ways of saying 
 one and the same thing ; and the latter is the shorter way. 
 
12. 
 
 Vowelweakening with Selection. 
 
 2. A similar adoption of i is frequent in Compound Words at 
 the close of the prior element. 
 
 (i) terrf-gena, silvi-cola, auri-fex, signf-fer, fatT-dicus ; corni-ger, 
 arcT-tenens, lucti-ficus ; mum-ceps, sorti-legus ; parri-cida, 
 luc-I-fer, rur-i-cola ; (2) horri-sonus, terri-ficus ; miseri-cors ; 
 (3) undi-que, indl-dem, sici-ne ... hidf-ne ... . 
 
 Ante, bene, male vary : 
 
 anti-cipo, anti-stes; but ante-cedo, ante-venio ... 
 beni-gnus, beni-volus ; but also bene-volus ... 
 mali-gnus, mali-ficus ; but also male-ficus .... 
 
 E-verbs compounded with die ere, fa cere keep e or weaken it 
 tog : 
 
 valedicere, arefactus, tepefactus. 
 
 3. The Suffixes lo-, ro-, cro-, bro-, bulo-, tro-, tilo-, &c., often 
 change their vowel into i before the Nom. ending s ; thus causing 
 Adjectives in us, a, um to pass into the I -declension. 
 
 gracil-us, gracil-t-s ; hilar-u-s, hilar-i-s. 
 steril-u-s, steril-i-s ; indecor-u-s, indecor-if-s. 
 seques-ter -tra -trum ; seques-ter -tris -tre. 
 
 On this preference of i the Adjectival forms in li-s, ri-s, cri-s, 
 bri-s, bili-s, tri-s are founded. 
 
 By the passing also of 6- ii-s into i- i-s arises a double form of 
 numerous Adjectives : 
 
 imberb-u-s, imberb-i-s ; unanim-u-s, unanim-T-s 
 decliv-u-s, decliv-i-s ; efifren-u-s, effren-I-s. 
 In bicorm-s, u of the stern passes into i. See 28. 
 
 4. Before the Ending -bus of Dat. Abl. PL we have 
 
 i for o^in quT-bus, hl-bus (Plaut.), and other old forms. 
 \ in I-nouns, as navi-bus (nave-bos on the Duellian Column). 
 i vincular in Cons. Nouns, as reg-i-bus, virgin-1-bus. 
 i for u generally in U-nouns, ascanti-bus, corni-bus; except 
 those in -cu-s, and artus, partus, tribus; which keep u. 
 
 C) The last-cited examples point to that middle sound between 
 i and u, which the Emperor Claudius wished to mark by a distinct 
 sign. See p. 9. This exists almost exclusively before labials, affect- 
 ing chiefly such words as the following : 
 
 (1) imo- or umo- : 
 
 lacrima 
 
 aestimo 
 
 legitimus 
 
 maximus 
 
 mommentum 
 
 (2) Xp- or iip-, ib- or ub- : 
 
 mancipium mancupium 
 libet lubet 
 
 (3) if- or iif- 
 
 aurifex auriifex 
 
 mamfestus manufestus 
 
 lacruma 
 aestumo 
 legitumus 
 maxiimus 
 monumentum 
 
 victfma 
 existimo 
 maritimus 
 decimus 
 testimonium 
 
 victuma 
 existumo 
 maritumus 
 decumus 
 testumonium. 
 
 recipero 
 ritibus 
 
 pontifex 
 sacrifico 
 
 recupero 
 ritubus. 
 
 pontufex 
 sacrufico 
 
32 Latin Soundlore. 
 
 Also capital! s or caputalis and a few more words. 
 
 Inscriptions shew that the forms with u prevailed in E. L. and 
 R. L., those with i in and after the Augustan age, for which the 
 Monument of Ancyra, as edited by Mommsen, is the best authority. 
 
 Recapitulation. The principles thus laid down respecting the ad- 
 aptation of certain vowels to certain consonants in Latin are sup- 
 ported by the usage of other Italian dialects so far as known. See 
 Corssen, II. 60-225. 
 
 These principles affect short vowels much more than long; suffix 
 vowels more than root vowels ; grave much more than accented 
 vowels. 
 
 The general results are : 
 
 A, the strongest vowel, into which none other is changed, is not 
 itself appropriate to any particular consonant, though its natural 
 kinship is to gutturals first, and least to labials. 
 
 O is appropriate (i) to v, (2) to l, r. 
 
 u is appropriate to l and the Labials. 
 
 E is appropriate to r. 
 
 X is appropriate to the Dentals n, t, d, s. 
 
 Again : 
 
 and u are appropriate to grouped consonants. 
 
 is convenient for final syllables and the end of words. 
 
 E is a convenient letter for the syllable of Reduplication in Verbs. 
 
 Z is adapted, by its lightness, to link stems with suffixes, and 
 suffixes with each other. IT, e, sometimes take its place. 
 
 All these appropriations arise from euphonic assimilation, in- 
 tended to make utterance less troublesome. 
 
 Again : 
 
 The extensive weakening of Pr. a through o to u and*through e 
 to i, is characteristic of Italian language. In L. L. a reaction 
 occurred, by which o and e recovered much of their lost ground, 
 and in modern Italian o very often appears where u stood anciently : 
 often e where Latin had i : 
 
 molto, mosca, polvere, sepolcro, fondere, romp ere, sono (sum), 
 &c., bevere (bib ere), disse (dixit), senza (sine), verde 
 (viridis). 
 
 Assimi- xxiii. Vowelchange by Assimilation and Dis- 
 Lndjois- similation of Vowels to each other. 
 t!on. a By Assimilation a letter is changed so as to become the same 
 as another, or so as to become more suitable to it. 
 
 When a letter is changed so as to become unlike another, this 
 change is called Dissimilation. 
 
 Every such change has euphony for its object. 
 
 Assimilation may affect adjoining or disjoined letters. 
 
 It may be Regressive, when the following letter operates to change 
 the preceding : or Progressive, when the former letter operates to 
 change one which follows. 
 
, 
 
 i2. Assimilation and Dissimilation of Vowels. 33 
 
 I. Assimilation of Vowels. Assimi- 
 
 lation of 
 
 A) Assimilation of adjoining Vowels. Vowels. 
 
 (An adjoining vowel is never assimilated so as to be the same 
 as its neighbour ; but only so as to be suitable to it.) 
 
 a. Regressive. 
 
 i) In the conjugation of the Verb-roots I, go, qu!, can, and 
 their compounds, X before a, o, u is changed into e : 
 
 earn ... eo, eunt ; queam ... queo, queunt. 
 
 Z before e in their Participles is used rarely : as Nom. S. iens, 
 quiens, but in the Oblique Cases usually ie becomes eii : 
 
 euntis ... queuntis ... 
 So iendum ... usually passes into eundum ... . 
 
 As ie is an admissible combination, it is probable that the order 
 of change was i-ont- i-ond-, then e-unt-, e-und-, which remained 
 in this old verb after ent- end- had come in generally. 
 
 Ambio, one of the compounds of eo, is conjugated like audio. 
 
 2) The Pronoun-root I (Is), and its strengthened compound 
 idem, in the same manner change X to e before a, o, u: 
 hence we get 
 
 ea, earn, eum, eo, eos ; 
 
 eadem, eandem, eundem, eodem, eosdem, easdem. 
 
 3) Deus, dea (for div-us, a, from Pr. div), is an assimilation 
 
 of the same nature. In Nom. P. di (dei) are used; in 
 D. Abl. dis (deis) ; but not dii, diis. 
 
 But Diana is classical : Dean a L. L. 
 
 4) Teate, Teanum, for Tiati- Tiano- O. 
 nausea (ravaia) ; cochlea (/coxXt'ag). 
 
 but X remains in pius ... via (veha). 
 
 b. Progressive. 
 
 1) By the influence of e or of \ preceding it, o is prevented 
 
 from passing into u in the suffix 6lo- ; see p. 22. 
 
 2) Substantives in -ia, Decl. i., pass into -ies, Decl. 5 : 
 
 avarit-ia avarit-ies ; mater-ia mater-ies. 1 
 
 3) In Numeral Adverbs, from Pr. i-yans, comes -iens (-ies) : 
 
 quot-iens (quot-ies) ; dec-iens (dec-ies). 
 
 4) In Verbs the Mood-suffix ia becomes ie : 
 
 (es-ia-m) = siem = sim ; 
 
 (ama-S'ia-m = ama-ie-m = ama-im) amem. 
 
 1 The Fifth Declension is a mere offshoot of the First. The ending a, Decl. i., was 
 originally long, as aquila in old Latin poetry. Hence came ie by assimilation from Ia, 
 and, with addition of Nom. S. Ending S, ies : luxuria, luxurie-s. 
 
 D 
 
34 Latin Soundlore. 12. 
 
 B) Assimilation of disjoined Vowels. 
 
 (Regressive and complete always in Classical Latin.) 
 l) u is often assimilated to a subsequent i : 
 
 Aemilius 
 consilium 
 -cflium 
 simnis 
 manlbiae 
 
 (aemulus) 
 (consulo) 
 (-culere) 
 (simul) 
 (manubiae) 
 
 Esquiliae 
 exilium 
 facllis 
 Qufris 
 
 (aesculus) 
 (exulo) 
 (facul) 
 (Cures) 
 
 2) O is assimilated to a subsequent i in 
 
 inquilinus (incolo) | upilio (OIOTTO\OC) 
 
 3) E is assimilated to a subsequent * in 
 
 Duilius (Duel-1-ius, Bellius), Brundisium (Brundesium) , 
 mini (mehi), tibi (tebi), sibi (sebi) ; 
 
 nihil (nehil), nftnius (ne-mi-u-s), unmeasured. See C. II. 366' 
 familia (O./amel, whence famul, famulus). 1 
 
 TT is assimilated to o in 
 
 so boles, when written for sii boles. 
 
 is assimilated to e in 
 
 bene (bono-) 
 E is assimilated to u in 
 
 tugurium (tegere). 
 And long e to 6 in 
 
 socors (secors). 
 
 Dissimi- II. Dissimilation of Vowels. 
 
 Vowels^ i) It has been shewn that in E. L. and R. L. u, v were avoided 
 before u, whence such forms as vivont, avos, servom, &c., 
 antiquom, suom, &c., continued in use to the Augustan age. TTv 
 was not so much avoided. We find indeed floviom, conflovont in 
 E. L., but also in R. L., Cluvius, luventius. 
 
 2) The concurrence ii was avoided in E. L. and R. L. by writing 
 i-ei ; as fili-ei ' sons ; ' peti-ei, &c., ieis and eeis ; also adi-e^e in 
 Senatuscons. de Bacc., but in I. L. this repugnance faded; and we 
 find iis consiliis, &c. on the Monument of Ancyra. 
 In C. L. ii is avoided by writing e for i in 
 
 anxi-etas, ebri-etas, pi-etas, sati-etas, soci-etas, vari-etas, abi-etis 
 ...,ari-etis ..., pari-etis ... vari-egare, li-en, Ani-en, ali-enus, 
 lani-ena, 
 and in many Proper Namesj 
 
 Cati-enus, Labi-enus. 
 
 1 Few words have been more debated, as to their derivation and consequent orthography, 
 thansusplcio(suspitio)andconvlcium(convltium). Each'form has good documen- 
 tary evidence in its favour, and perhaps the strongest argument for t is that, while ci often 
 appears in I. L. and L. L. for ti, converse examples are hardly to be found. Yet Corssen 
 is strongly in favour of s u s p I c i o, as an assimilation of a strengthened form suspecio, and 
 of c o n v I c i u m, as an assimilated form from convocium. Fleckeisen on the other side 
 assumes suspltiofrom suspicitio, and convltiumfrom convocitium. Subiudice 
 Iis est. There are strong arguments against each view ; but for the present Corssen's 
 seems the less objectionable. 
 
f 12. Vowelweakening in Compound Words. 35 
 
 It is avoided in the compounds of iacio by casting out one i, 
 and allowing to the other the power of ji. See pp. 10, 38. 
 
 Peior is perhaps by dissimilation for pid-ior (compare /% 
 * injure ') 
 
 In the Pronouns is, Idem, the forms n, lis were avoided by writ- 
 ing ei, eis : but li, h's were tolerated in Imperial times. 
 
 3) o-o was tolerated in I. L. 
 
 But co-opia becomes copia ; and 
 
 coptato is in the Lex lulia for co-opt ato. M. Lucr. v. 342. 
 
 xxiv. Vowelweakening in the Second Member vowei. 
 
 of Compound Words. e jt en - 
 
 Com- 
 Composition of words forms either loose or fast Compounds. pounds. 
 If the two members are so joined that, although the first is pro- 
 clitically connected with the second, nevertheless they can be se- 
 parated, the compound is loose. Thus Mdrs-pater is a loose 
 compound ; but becoming Mdspiter, it is fast; because the parts 
 are inseparable. In old language compounds are often found in a 
 state of separation : M. Lucr. i. 452. 
 
 ob vos sacro (Festus) obsecro vos 
 
 sub vos placo supplico vos 
 
 facit are (Lucr.) arefacit 
 
 per mihi gratum est pergratum est mihi 
 
 per mihi placet mihi perplacet 
 
 Such compounds as satisfacere, circumdare, c., may be 
 considered loose ; while proficere, tradere, &c. are fast. 
 
 The fast Compounds hitherto cited, Maspiter, proficere, tra- 
 dere, weaken the root- vowel of the .second member. But this 
 weakening, though of frequent occurrence, is not universal in fast 
 Compounds. Thus attraho, though a fast Compound, is not 
 weakened. 
 
 We have now to see what compound words do weaken the second 
 member of the composition. 
 
 i. a) Numerous words keep their root-vowel a unweakened in 
 the second member of their compounds ; such are most 
 Verbs of Conj. i. : 
 
 agitare, amare, gravare, vagari; 
 
 many of Conj. 2. : 
 
 ardere, iacere, manere, pallere, patere, pavere, 
 valere ; 
 
 many Nouns : 
 
 animus, avus, faber, palma, par. 
 
 Some words, as will be seen, weaken a part of their compounds, 
 but not all: from mandare, commendo, but demando. 
 
 Likewise some compounds are not weakened in earlier Latin 
 which are weakened later : M. Lucr. ii. 951, 1135. 
 
 aspargere, dispargere (Lucr.) ; 
 
 afterwards aspergere, dispergere. 
 
 D 2 
 
36 Latin Soundlore. 12, 
 
 &) A is weakened (through o) into u in the second member of 
 some compounds : 
 
 . before 1 : 
 
 calcare . . con-culco : in- pro-culco. 
 
 salsus . . insulsus. 
 
 saltare . . ex-sulto : de- in-sulto. 
 
 saltum . . de-sultum : as- dis- ex- in- prae- pro- sub-sultum.. 
 
 Note. Satire anciently was weakened by u, dissuluit (Lucr.); 
 but later it took i by assimilation : de-silio. 
 /3. Before Labials : 
 
 cap- . . . occupare : nunciipare : aucup- : mancup-. 
 
 taberna . contubernium. 
 
 lavere . . diluvies, al- col- il-luv-ies, -ium. 
 
 y. After qu, by assimilation : 
 
 quatere. . concutio, de- dis- in- per- suc-cutio -cussi ... 
 quare . . cur (for quor). 
 
 c. Before ss : 
 
 as, assis . decussis : nonussis : centussis. 
 Note. O (from Pr. a) is weakened into u in 
 
 consul, exsul, praesul, insula, consulo. 
 Long a is weakened into u in the suffix -ugro (-aro) : 
 aerugo, albugo, ferrugo, lanugo. 
 
 c] A. is weakened into e in the second member of many com- 
 pounds : 
 
 tarn . . autem, item. 
 
 -dam . . idem, itidem ... quidem, tandem .... 
 
 apisci . . indepisci. 
 
 canere . . oscen, cornicen, fidtcen ... accentus .... 
 
 bacillus. . imbecillus ... 
 
 gradi . . aggredior ... con- de- di- e- in- prae- pro- trans- 
 
 re-gredior : aggressus 
 
 lacere . . illecebrae, illectus, paelex. 
 
 pacisci . . depecisci (or depac-) : but compacisci. 
 
 pad . . . perpetior, perpessus. 
 
 fatigare. . defetigo (or defat-). 
 
 fatisci . . defetisci, defessus. 
 
 dare . . . addere, de- e- pro- red- tra-dere .... 
 
 (Sk. dha) . abdere, con- abscon- in- sub- ere- ven-dere. 
 
 parare . . (impero ...; pauper ..., propero, aequipero, vitu- 
 
 pero ...?) but appa.ro, com- prae- re- se-paro. 
 pario . . comperio, reperio: (aperio, operio ?) puerpera, 
 
 vipera .... 
 
 ager . . . peregre (i), peregrinus ; but peragrare. 
 
 arma . . inermis. 
 
 arcere . . coerceo, exerceo .... 
 
 ars . . . iners, sellers, quinquertium. 
 
 agere . . remex. 
 
 annus . . biennis, biennium, tri- dec-ennis -ennium ..... 
 
 aptus . . ineptus ; adeptus. 
 
i2. Vowelweakening in Compound Words. 37 
 
 as, assis . tressis, bessis, bicessis .... 
 
 barba . . imberbis. 
 
 candere . accendo, incendo ... succendo .... 
 
 cantus . . accentus, concentus. 
 
 capere . . particeps, princeps ... auceps, manceps .... 
 
 captus . . acceptus, con- de- ex- in- prae- re- sus-ceptus.... 
 
 caput . . anceps, biceps, triceps, centiceps, praeceps .... 
 
 carpere . . discerpere, con- de- ex-cerpere. 
 
 castus . . incestus. 
 
 damnare . condemnare ; indemnatus, indemnis. 
 
 facere . . artifex, opifex, carnifex. 
 
 factus . . affectus ... con- de- ef- in- prae- re- suf-fectus : 
 
 but labefactus . . . with many more, 
 
 fallere . . refello. 
 
 fassus . . confessus, dif- pro-fessus. 
 
 farcire . . confercio, confertus, infercio, refercio, refertus. 
 
 iacere . . obex (for ob-iex). 
 
 iactus . . adiectus, con- de- dis- in- ob- re- sub-iectus 
 
 lactare . . delecto, oblecto. 
 
 mandare . commendo, but demando. 
 
 pandere . dispendo, dispessus (but expando). 
 
 parcere. . comperco, compesco, dispesco (but com-parsit). 
 
 pars . . . expers, impertio, dispertio, bi- tri-pertitus (-par- 
 
 titus). 
 
 partus . . compertus, repertus (apertus, opertus). 
 
 passus . . perpessus. 
 
 patrare . . impetro, perpetro. 
 
 raptus . . abreptus, cor- di- sur-reptus. , 
 
 sacrare . . consecro, ob- ex- re-secro (consacro, Mon. Anc.). 
 
 scandere . ascendo, conscendo, de- ex-scendo. 
 
 spargere . aspergo, con- di- in- re-spergo. See p. 35. 
 
 stare . . antistes, superstes (-stit-). 
 
 tractare . contrecto, de- ob-trecto ; but retracto (con- 
 
 tracto, Lucr.). 
 
 Note. O (Pr. a) is weakened into e in 
 
 potis . . hospes, sospes (pit-) ... but compos, impos. 
 
 Long a is weakened into e in 
 
 halare . . anhelo (redhalo, Lucr. vi. 523). 
 
 .d) A, is weakened (through e) to i in the second member of 
 many compounds : 
 
 agere . . adigo, ab- ex- red- sub-igo (but circumago, perago, 
 
 satago), nav-ig-o. Part. P. -actus. 
 apisci . . adipiscor, indipiscor. 
 amicus . . immicus 
 cadere . . accido, con- de- ex- in- oc- re-cido ... deciduus, 
 
 occiduus, ... stilicidium. 
 - canere . . accmo,concino, prae- pro- re- suc-cino,vaticinium, 
 
 luscinia 
 
 caput . . occiput, sinciput, ancipit- praecipit- 
 capere . . accipio, con- de- ex- in- per- prae- re- sus-cipio, 
 
 ... praecipuus, principium ... . 
 datus . . additus ... de- prae- pro- red- tra-ditus. 
 
38 
 
 Latin S 02m d lore. 
 
 12. 
 
 Pr. dha . . abditus, con- e- sub- ere- ven-ditus. 
 
 facere . . afficio, con- de- ef- in- of- prae- pro- re- suf-f fcio ; 
 
 cpp. with -ficus -ficium, beneficus ... beneficium 
 
 ...,but benefacio, calefacio, and all similar cpp. 
 facilis . . difficilis. 
 fades . . superficies, 
 facetus . . inficetus. 
 
 fateri . . confiteor, dif- pro-fiteor, infitiae, infitior. 
 habere . . adhibeo, co- ex- in- per- pro- red-Mbeo; but 
 
 post-habeo. 
 iacere . . adfcio, ab- con- e- pro- re- in- ob- sub-icio. On 
 
 forms in MSS. with e, and on dissice, see M. 
 
 Lucr. ii. 951. 
 
 Iacere . . allicio, e- il- pel-licio. 
 latere . . delitesco. 
 manus . . commmus, emmus. 
 nam . . . enim, etenim. 
 pater . . luppiter, Diespfter, Maspiter. 
 placere . . displiceo : but perplaceo. 
 
 rapere . . abripio, arripio, cor- de- di- e- prae- pro- sur-ripio. 
 ratus . . irritus. 
 
 salire . . adsilio, de- ex- in- pro- re- sub-sllio. 
 sapere . . desipio, insipiens ; resipisco. 
 stare . . institor, iustitium, solstitium. 
 statuere . constituo, de- in- prae- pro- re- sub-stituo. 
 (stan-) . . destmo, obstmo, praestmo, obstmatus. 
 frangere . effringo, in- con- per- re-fringo. Part. P. -fractus.. 
 ^angere . compingo, impingo. Part. P. -pactus. 
 tangere . . attingo, con- per-tingo. Part. P. -tactus. 
 fascinare . praefiscme (i). 
 as, assis . semis, semisses. 
 
 Note, o (Pr. a) is weakened to i in 
 
 potis. . . hosplta, sospita, hospltium ... . 
 Long a is weakened into I in the suffix -Ig-o (-agro) : 
 fuligo, robigo, uligo, &c. 
 
 2. a) E is kept in the second member of many compounds : 
 
 edo, fremo, gemo, meto, peto, seco, sequor, tremo, tego,. 
 veho, venio, gen-, ped- ; 
 
 and those with er, 
 
 fero, gero, sero, tero. 
 
 b] E is weakened into i in the second member of several com- 
 pounds : 
 
 egere . . indigeo, indigus. 
 
 emere . . adimo, extmo, per- red-imo, (but coemo). 
 
 legere . . colligo, de- di- e- se-ligo. But intellego, neglego, 
 
 sublego. Also perlego, prae- re-lego from legere, 
 
 to read. 
 
 medius . . dimidius. 
 
 premere . comprimo, de- im- op- re- sup-primo. 
 regere . . arrigo, cor- de- e-rigo. 
 sedere . . assideo, con- de- dis- in- ob- prae- re- sub-sideo ' y 
 
 asslduus, praesidium, subsidium. 
 
12. Vowelweakening in Compound Words. 39 
 
 tenere . . abstmeo, attmeo, con- de- dis- ob- re- per-tmeo ; 
 
 contmuus, pertinax, protinus, protmam. 
 dedi . . . addldi, &c. 
 steti . . . adstiti, &c. 
 
 In close syllables compounds resume e : 
 
 ademptus, collectus, compressus, directus, consessus, 
 retentus. 
 
 Long e is weakened into I in 
 lenire . . delmio (also delenio). 
 tela . . . subtllis. 
 
 f) E is changed to ii in 
 temnere . contumelia (contumax ?) 
 
 3. O is kept in the second member of compounds generally: 
 convoco, abrodo. But 
 
 locus . . ilico. 
 
 gnotus . . agnitus, cognitus. 
 
 4. IT is kept in the second member of compounds : ac- inciibo, 
 eluceo ; except that u is weakened into e in 
 
 iurare . . de-iero, pe-iero. 
 
 5. The diphthong ae is often kept, as exaest'uo, obaeratus | 
 but melts into I in 
 
 aequus . . inlquus. 
 
 aestumare . existimo. 
 
 caedere . . abscido, accldo, con- de- in- oc- prae- sue- re-cldo, 
 
 homicldium, parriclda .... 
 laedere . . allldo, col- il-lldo. 
 quaerere . acquire, anqulro, con- dis- in- per- re-qulro, inqui- 
 
 sitio .... 
 
 6. The diphthong oe (ol) sinks to X in 
 coenum 1 . inquinare, coinqumare. 
 
 In E. L. it sank to u in ludere, iiti, munus, munio, punio, 
 . etc., and their compounds. See xii. 
 
 7. The diphthong au is generally kept : inauro, adaugao: but 
 it sinks to 5 in 
 
 faux . . . suffocare ; 
 
 plaudere . explodo, supplodo (but applaudo) ; 
 
 to u in 
 
 causa . . accuso, mcuso, recuso ; 
 
 fraus . . (frustra, frustrare) defrudare : see M. Lucr. vi. 187. 
 
 claudere . conclude, dis- ex- in- oc- prae- re-cludo ; 
 and to oe in 
 
 audire . . oboedire. 
 
 Note. The other Italian dialects exhibit the same general laws 
 of Vowelchange as the Latin. 
 
 1 O b s c e n u s (o b s c o e n u s) is usually derived from coenum. This, however, Is by 
 no means certain. 
 
4O Latin Soundlore. 12. 
 
 xxv. REDUPLICATION. 
 
 Reduplication in language is a practice as old as language itself. 
 The infant from instinct or imitation forms words by repeating 
 the syllables : pa-pa, ma-ma, ta-ta ; often unconsciously weakening 
 the first : pu-pa, me-ma, ti-ta : and the mother or nurse amuses 
 or lulls the infant by similar repetitions : ding-dong, by-bye, c. 
 Various emotions express themselves in the same manner : aha J 
 oho ! &c. See Pott (Die Doppelung]. 
 
 Thus arose the habit of modifying words 
 
 A) By doubling a root merely: 
 
 B) By prefixing to it its first consonant and vowel. 
 
 After which it came to pass, that the reduplicative syllable 
 might be either strengthened or weakened, and the root 
 itself weakened (rarely strengthened) after reduplication, in 
 consequence of accentual change. 
 
 A] Reduplication by doubling the Root merely : 
 
 a) bar-bar-us (bulbul Pers.), cu-cu-lus, la-la-re, Mar-mar, cin- 
 cin-nus, tin-tin-nare, ul-ul-are, cur-cul-io, gur-gul-io, fur- 
 fur, mur-mur, tur-tur. So quisquis, utut, ubiubi, &c. 
 
 fr) The Root is weakened in 
 
 car-cer, mar-mor. 
 
 B) Reduplication by prefixing the first two letters of the Root. 
 (This is specially important in Greek and Latin on account of 
 
 its use in forming the Perfect Tense of Verbs.) 
 
 a) Without vowelchange : 
 
 cu-cul-lu-s, (po-pol-u-s}, su-sur-ru-s, and the following Per- 
 fects ; cu-curr-i, di-dic-i, mo-mord-i, pe-pend-i, po-posc-i, 
 pu-pug-i (pu--go), scl-cid-i (sci--do), spo-pond-i (spon- 
 deo), te-tend-i, to-tond-i, tu-tud-i. 
 
 &) Redupl. weakened, Root unchanged ; in occasional forms 
 ce-curr-i, me-mord-i, pe-posc-i, pe-pug-i, spe-pond-i. 
 
 c) Redupl. unchanged ; Root strengthened. 
 
 pa-pa- ver, tu-tud-i (rare). 
 
 d) Redupl. strengthened ; Root weakened. 
 
 Ma-mers, Ma-mer-cus, Ma-mur-iu-s, pa-pil-io, po-pul-us 
 (poplar), pu-bl-icu-s. 
 
 e) Redupl. unchanged ; Root weakened, 
 
 po-pul-us (people). 
 
 f) Redupl. and Root weakened. 
 
 ci-cind-ela (candela), cT-con-ia ; ti-tu-lu-s ; bi-be-re (po Pr. 
 pa, drink^ gi-gn-ere (Pr. gdn, gen, engender}, si-ste-re 
 (sta-), se-re-re (for se-se-re, Root so). 
 
 The reduplicative syllable is weakened in many Perfects by 
 changing its vowel to e (see xxi.) : 
 
12. Assimilation of Consonants. 41 
 
 de-d-i (da-), ste-t-i (sta-) : fe-fell-i (fallo), pe-per-i (pario), 
 pe-perc-i (parco) : te-tul-i (tol-l-o, Pr. tal) : ce-cid-i 
 (cado), ce-cin-i (cano), pe-pig-i (pa-;z-go), te-tig-i (ta-;z- 
 go) : ce-cld-i (caedo). 
 
 Obs. A consonant is lost in si-ste-re (for sti-ste-re), sci-cid-i, 
 usually scid-i (for sci-scfd-i), spo-pond-i or spe-pond-i (for spo- 
 spond-i or spe-spond-i), po-pul-are (for spo-spul-are from spolium). 
 
 A vowel is lost in de-d-i (for de-de-i) : gi-gn-o (for gi-gen-o). 
 
 A vowel and consonant are lost in ste-t-i (for ste-ste-i). 
 
 xxvi. Changes of Concurrent Consonants. Assimi- 
 lation of 
 (The sign x is used to express ~ e becomes.') Conson- 
 
 I. Complete Assimilation of Consonants. 
 A) Regressive Assimilation : 
 
 (q) 
 
 x cq 
 
 (adquiro) acquire 
 
 (bm) 
 
 X 
 
 mm 
 
 (submoveo) summoveo 
 
 77 
 
 ? ?> 
 
 (quidque) quicque 
 
 77 
 
 5? 
 
 77 
 
 (sub-mus) summus 
 
 () 
 
 x 11 
 
 (adludo) alludo 
 
 (m) 
 
 J7 
 
 77 
 
 (flagma) flamma 
 
 11 
 
 ? ?? 
 
 (sed-^-la) sella 
 
 (nm; 
 
 77 
 
 57 
 
 (inmotus) immotus 
 
 (nl) 
 
 } ?> 
 
 (conloco) colloco 
 
 (br) 
 
 X 
 
 rr 
 
 (subripio) surripio 
 
 7? 
 
 7 ?? 
 
 (coron-w-la) corolla 
 
 (") 
 
 77 
 
 7? 
 
 (inrideo) irrideo 
 
 77 
 
 > J? 
 
 (un-w-lus) ullus 
 
 
 
 
 
 (1) 
 
 ) 75 
 
 (perlicio) pellicio 
 
 (as) 
 
 X 
 
 ss 
 
 (fod-sa) fossa 
 
 77 
 
 ? 75 
 
 (ager-/^-lus) agellus 
 
 77 
 
 57 
 
 77 
 
 (adsurgo) assurgo 
 
 (tn) 
 
 < nn 
 
 (pet-na) penna 
 
 7? 
 
 55 
 
 77 
 
 (cedsi) cessi 
 
 (dn) 
 
 57 77 
 
 (adnuo) annuo 
 
 (ts) 
 
 77 
 
 77 
 
 (concutsi) concussi 
 
 (merced-narius) mercennarius. 
 
 The following Assimilations also occur in the Composition of 
 Particles with Verbs : 
 
 (be) x cc (obcurro) occurro (bp) x pp (obpono) oppono 
 (dc) (adcedo) accedo (dp) (adpeto) appeto 
 (br) x && (obgero) oggero (bf ) x ff (obfero) offero 
 
 (dgr) (adgravo) aggravo ( cf ) (ecfugio) efTugio 
 (dt) x tt (adtendo) attendo (df ) (adficio) afficio 
 
 (sf ) (disfiteor) diffiteor 
 
 a) (nd) x nn occurs in Plautus : 
 
 dispennite for dispendite ; distennite for distendite. 
 So in Oscan ; <?^.ra#;ztf;;z = operand am. 
 
 j8) mn, though stable in C. L. ? often yields to assimilation in 
 modern language : 
 
 L. column a, It. colonna, Fr. colonne. 
 
 7) That final m of a proclitic word assimilated itself in utter- 
 ance to a following n, is testified by Cic. Or. 45 and Quint. 
 viii. 3. 45. Thus etiam nunc was sounded etian-nunc. 1 
 
 , * The sharpening of an inner syllable by doubling a consonant (relligio, relliquiae, 
 millia, querella, bracchium, luppiter, littera) must not be confounded with 
 Assimilation. See Appendix A. : also C. I. 227. II. 466. 
 
42 Latin Soundlore. 12, 
 
 B) Progressive Assimilation : 
 
 (ferse) ferre ; (farsis) farris ; (rvpffig) turris. 
 
 So C. forms (miser-timus x miser-simus) miserrimus. 
 
 (is) x 11 ; (vol-se) velle ; (mel-tis x mel-sis) mellis, &c. (facil-timus 
 x facil-simus) facillimus (C.). 
 
 (st) x ss : (duris-timus) durissimus : where duris is contracted 
 from durius (C.). 1 
 
 (This assimilation occurs in some Supines, according to C.'s 
 view: fissum, fossum, passum, &c. See xxxi.) 
 
 Adapta- II. Partial Assimilation of Consonants (Adaptation), 
 i. The Sonant gr becomes c, and the Sonant b becomes p, before 
 s or t : ( re g_ s i) x rexi ( = rec-si) (scrib-si) x scripsi 
 
 (reg-tum) x rectum (scrib-tum) x scriptum 
 
 a) But ab, sub, ob, may remain in composition : 
 
 absens, subter, obtineo (but also apsens, optineo) 
 
 And bs final may be kept in Nouns : 
 
 caelebs, plebs, trabs, urbs (but also pleps, urps, &c.). 
 
 Obs. X = cs = any Guttural with s : any Guttural except c being 
 supposed to become c before s, and so to form x : 
 
 (dlc-si) x dixi (sug-si x suc-si) x suxi 
 
 (fac-s) x fax (leg-s x lec-s) x lex 
 
 (coqu-si x coc-si) x coxi (ungu-si x unc-si) x unxi 
 
 The following Verbs deserve special attention : 
 
 trah-ere Perf. (trah-si trac-si) traxi (from a lost Pr. tragh ?) 
 veh-ere (veh-si vec-si) vexi : Sk. vah (a lost Pr. vagh ?). 
 
 1 The formation of Latin Comparatives and Superlatives may be briefly stated here. 
 I. Comparatives. 
 
 1) (Sk. ydns, yas) Lat. (-ios)x -ior -ius is added to the Clipt Stem : 
 
 (dur-i5s) dur-ior, dur-ius ; (ingent-ios) i n g e n t - i o r, ingent-ius. 
 (mag-iSs, mag-ior, &c.), ma-ior, ma-ius : mag is for mag-ius. 
 (root min- ; min-ior, &c.), min-or, minus, 
 (root pie- = Sk./rz : ple-ior, ple-ius, plo-ius, pious), plus, plur-. 
 
 2) (Sk. tara) Lat. tero- is added to Roots and Stems : 
 
 al-ter, u-ter, dex-ter, sinis-ter, in-ter : pari-ter, ali-ter, &c. 
 
 3) Both Suffixes are used in 
 
 mag-is-ter, min-is-ter : dex-ter-ior, in-ter-ior, c. 
 II. Superlatives. 
 
 i) (Sk. to) to-, inquar-tu-s, quin-tu-s, quo-tu-s,- &c. 
 
 a) (Sk. ma) mo-, in sum-mu-s, i-mu-s, pri-mus, mini-mu-s, pluri-mu-s; (ex- 
 ter-mu-s)xextre-mu-s;(pos-ter-mu-s)xpostre-mu-s;(super-mu-s) 
 xsupre-mu-s. 
 3) (Sk. tama) timo- in ci-timu-s, ul-timu-s, op-iimu-s, in-timu-s, ex. 
 
 timu-s, pos-tumu-s, dex-timu-s, sinis-timu-s. 
 passes into simo- in (pe-d-timo-) pessi-mu-s, (mag-timo-) maxim-us, 
 
 proximu-s. 
 
 passes into (simo-) limo- in facillimu-s, &c. 
 (simo-) rimo- in miserrimu-s, &c. 
 
 In most Adjectives timo- is added to the contracted comparative is (i-5s) and as- 
 similated : 
 
 (dur-is-timo-)xdurissimu-s. So tristissimus, felicissimus, &c 
 
i2. Dissimilation of Consonants. 43 
 
 viv-ere Perf. (vigv-si vic-si) vixi : Sk. jiv (Pr. gvigv-}. 
 
 flu-ere (flugv-si, flue-si) fluxi (from a lost formjffug-vere). 
 
 stru-ere (stru-ic-si) struxi (probably from aformstru-u-ere). 
 
 Add the nasalized ninguere with its Noun nix, s-now (Pr. 
 snighy Sk. snih, ' to stick 7 ). Nix (ningv-s) drops v in Nom. Sing, 
 and ngr in the other cases, forming Gen. niv-is, &c. 
 
 2. Liquids and Nasals * take Sonants before them in preference 
 to Surds : 
 
 (po-pl-icus) x pu-bl-icus (ili-cn-us) x ili-gn-us 
 
 (qua-tr-a) x qua-dr-a (cy-cn-us) x cy-gn-us 
 
 (ne-cl-ego) x ne-gl-ego (se-cm-entum) x se-gm-entum 
 
 Through some feeling of euphony (nec-otium) becomes neg- 
 otium. 
 
 3. w becomes m before the Labials p, b, m ; but remains be- 
 fore f, v : 
 
 impleo, imbuo, immitto ; but infero, inveho. 
 
 4. A Labial Mute becomes m before n : 
 
 (sop-nus) x somnus ; (Sab-nium) x Samnium. 
 
 5. IK often becomes n within words before a Guttural or Dental ; 
 and, if kept, is sounded as n : 
 
 clan-culum prin-ceps eun-dem 
 
 clan-destinus quen-dam ean-dem. 
 
 So quon-iam for quom-iam. 
 
 But in some instances m must be kept : quemque, quemquam, 
 unumquemque, namque, numquis. 
 
 In others m is better than n : quamquam, tamquam, cumque, 
 umquam, numquam. 
 
 6. When Dental Mutes meet, the former often becomes^ : 
 
 (edit, ed-t) x est (claud-trum) x claustrum 
 
 (rod-trum) x rostrum (plod-trum) x plostrum. 
 
 In Supines and Superlatives sometimes both become s : 
 (fod-tum) fossum ; (pat-turn) passum ; (duris-timus) durissimus. 
 
 III. Dissimilation of Consonants. Dissimi- 
 
 lation of 
 
 The recurring sound of the same Consonant in succeeding ^nts. son ~ 
 syllables is sometimes avoided by changing it in one place. 
 
 a) caeluleus, caelulus are changed into caeruleus, cae- 
 rulus. 
 
 b) Paliliais sometimes written Parilia : Remuria x Lemuria. 
 
 1 The assimilation of Sonant to Nasal explains the sound of g"n in French -g~ne final, 
 ; cygne. Its sound in French and Italian before interior vowels=n-y : thus, agneau, 
 gnello (=an-yo, an-yello). 
 
 ascyg 
 ag 
 
44 
 
 Latin Sonndlore. 
 
 Trans- 
 posi- 
 tion. 
 
 Eu- m 
 
 ?honic 
 nser- 
 
 c) The suffixes all- eli- ill- uli- are chosen for Adjectives de- 
 rived from Nouns, if the root contains r : and the suffix -ari is 
 chosen if the root contains 1 : 
 
 austr-ali-s 
 
 cardin-ali-s 
 
 liber-ali-s 
 
 reg-ali-s 
 
 crud-eli-s 
 
 puer-ili-s 
 
 cur-uli-s 
 
 Obs. But in the suffix -ario, r is not changed : 
 ordin-ariu-s, temer-ariu-s. 
 
 Note i. Consonants are sometimes transposed within a word for 
 the sake of euphony : 
 
 pristis for (pistfis) 
 extremus (extermus) 
 
 Note 2. When m is followed by i 
 to strengthen the syllable : 
 
 hiem-p-s, em-p-tor, sum-p-si, sum-p-tum. 1 
 
 The change temptare for ten tare, though supported by inscrip- 
 tions and good MSS., is censured by Corssen as an etymological 
 blunder : the formation of the Verb being Pr. tan, L. ten, whence 
 ten-d-ere, ten-tu-s, ten-t-are. 
 
 s seems to be euphonically inserted in mon-s-trum, mon-s-tro, 
 &c. (from mon-eo). 
 
 (On the euphonic insertion of a Vowel in m-i-na, drac-u-ma, 
 &c., see xxii. On the insertion of e in ag-e-r, nig-e-r, &c., see 
 xxi.) 
 
 al-ari-s 
 
 capill-ari-s 
 
 coll-ari-s 
 
 sol-ari-s 
 
 stell-ari-s 
 
 tutel-ari-s 
 
 vulg-ari-s 
 
 colurnus for (corulnus) 
 
 8 or t, p is euphonically inseried 
 
 * * 
 * 
 
 The Loss of Letters will next be considered. 
 
 'LOSS xxvii. Loss of Initial Letters ('A6aips<ris\ 
 
 
 of Initial 
 
 
 Letters. 
 
 lost by 
 
 shewn in 
 
 
 C 
 
 lamentum... 
 
 c-lamare 
 
 
 
 laus ; luscinia ... 
 
 c-luere 
 
 
 
 vapor ... 
 
 K-airvoq. 
 
 
 g 
 
 nasci, natus ... 
 
 g-nasci g-natus : Sk. jan Gr. 
 
 /ev- 
 
 
 noscere, notus ... 
 
 g-noscere, i-gnotus : Sk.jnd 
 
 Gr. 
 
 
 
 yro- 2 
 
 
 
 narrare 
 
 (g-narigare) from g-narus 
 
 
 
 lac 
 
 Gr. y a- \ctK-r- 
 
 
 1 The euphonic insertion of b between m and 1 or r, and that of d between n and r, 
 occur in Greek (as /jieV-jS-Awxa, yani-j3-pos, af-5-po's), but not in classical Latin, except in 
 hi-b-ernus for (hiem-rinus, Gr. x et ^ e P tl/0 0- But they came in later, and exist in 
 numerous modern words: as number, humble, remember, cinder, tender, &c. 
 
 3 Cicero, though a Greek scholar, was unacquainted with the forms gnasci, gnoscere^ 
 and knew so little of etymology, that he treats the ginignotus, ignavus, ignarus as 
 a mere euphonic substitute. See Or. 47. He would naturally do the same in agnatus, 
 cognatus, prognatus, agnomen, cognomen, &c. 
 
12. 
 
 Loss of Initial and Final Letters. 
 
 45 
 
 st 
 
 lost by 
 vivere 
 lanx ; latus 
 viginti 
 
 luppiter: lanus 
 rosa (radix, rigo) 
 lupus 
 lis, locus 
 
 torus 
 fallere 
 tegere 
 taurus 
 
 cutis, cavus, caelum, casa, 
 cavere, causa, cauda, &c. 
 
 shewn in 
 
 Sk. j-tv (Pr. gviv). See p. 43. 
 Gr. TT-Xcu-, 7r-Xarvc. 
 for dvi-ginti. In d-vis, d-vellum, 
 
 d-vonus, d-v becomes b; bis, 
 
 bellum, bonus. See Cic. 0^.45. 
 
 But duellum in Latin poetry : 
 
 Eng. duel. M. Lucr. ii. 662. 
 
 See p. 1 5. 
 
 Gr. /-p6So*/, Aeol. fipoftov. 
 
 Sk. v-arka-s, Gr. \VKOS. 
 
 for st-lis (G. streit, Eng. strife) ; 
 st-lo-cus (Sk. stha-la). 
 
 Gr. cr-rop-, Sk. s-tar, ' to strew! 
 
 Gr. o-caXXeii>, Sk. s-phal. 
 
 Sk. s-thag, Gr. oreyeti'. 
 
 Sk. s-tMras, ' strong ' : Eng. steer. 
 
 Sk. s-ku, to hide. 
 
 for other instances, see Corssen I.: also pp. 14-17. 
 
 a) Tuli, fidi, scfdi, cast off the syllable of reduplication. 
 
 /3) Sum, sum us, sim...cast off the initial vowel e. 
 
 y) When the Verb-form est follows a word ending with a vowel 
 or m or with s after a vowel, it often loses e, and attaches itself 
 enclitically to the preceding word. This occurs chiefly in the Comic 
 poets, but also in later writers both of prose and poetry, and on 
 Inscriptions: itast, ibist, quomst, quidemst, temulentast, 
 nactust for nactus est, culest for qualis est (Plaut.). 
 
 The Second Person, es, is subject to the same change, but not 
 after m: homos for homo es, meritus for meritus es. 
 
 xxviii. Loss of Final Letters 
 
 A) Final e is dropt : 
 
 a) By enclitic ne : 
 
 men for mene, tun for tune, dixtin for dixtine : quln 
 (qui-ne), sin (sl-ne). 
 
 Sometimes the word before ne loses s : 
 
 am for aisne, viden for videsne, satin for satisne : 
 
 b) In ceu, neu, seu (ce-ve, ne-ve, se-ve or sive). 
 
 c) In the Imperatives 
 
 die, due, fac, fer (dice, &c.) 
 So, in poetry, + conger for congere ; inger for ingere. 
 
 d) NeuterfSubstantives in ale (all-), are (ar-l) drop g (l) and 
 
 shorteii a : 
 
 toral for torale; calcar for calcare. 
 But they resume a in the increasing Cases : toralis, calcaris. 
 
 Loss of 
 
 Final 
 
 Letters, 
 
46 Latin Sound lore. I2 - 
 
 e) Many other I-nouns clip i in Nom. Sing., some without 
 taking s: (par-i-) x par ; others before they take the s: 
 (stirpi-) x stirp-s, (arci-) x arx. 
 
 f) Facul for facile. 
 
 g) Acforatque; necforneque: mage for magi s. 
 
 h] The Pronoun hie, with the Adverbs hie, illic, istic, hinc, 
 illinc, &c., have dropt e. Thus illinc is for illimce. 
 
 Note. Ab (a:ro), sub (VTTO) have lost a final vowel. 
 
 E) Final Consonants are sometimes lost : 
 a) Substantives with final on drop n in the Nom. Sing., 
 resuming it in the Oblique Cases : 
 
 ratio, virgo; Gen. ration-is, virgin-is. 
 
 V) A final Consonant has been dropt in Ace. and Nom. S. by 
 the following Neuter Substantives : 
 cor (cord-) Gen. cordis (Gr. icap&'a) 
 far (fars-) farr-is (for fars-is) 
 fel (felt-) fellis (Gr. x*oc) 
 lac (lact-) lactis (Gr. ya-Xa/jr-) 
 mel (melt-) - mellis (for meltis, Gr. /xe 
 os (ost-) ossis (for ostis, Gr. oareov) 
 
 c) The Latin Ablative S. cast off final d : 
 
 (praeda-d) x praeda : (Gnaivo-d) x Griaeo 
 (dictatore-d) x dictatore : (mari-d) x mari 
 (senatu-d) x senatu 
 
 Also Adverbs in e and some Prepositions : 
 
 (facilume-d) x facillime ; (exstra-d) x extra. 
 
 d) On -re for -runt and for -rXs in Verbs, see xxi. 
 
 vene-re for vene-runt ; uta-re for uta-ris. 
 
 e) Particles often drop final letters in composition : 
 
 amb- am- for ambi ; co- for com- ; di- for dis- ; pro- 
 
 for prod- ; re- for red- ; se- for sed- ; tra- for trans. 
 So hau for haud or haut : hau-scio for haud scio (Plaut). 
 
 Pos- (pos-t) drops s in pomoerium, pomeridianus. 
 The Prepositions a for ab, e for ex, are long by Compensation. 
 
 C) Consonant and Vowel, or Vowel and Consonant, are dropt. 
 dein, exin, proin for deinde, exinde, proinde, Cic. Or. 45. 
 nihil for nihilum : n on for (noenum ne-unum) ; sat for satis. 
 
 O-nouns with Nom. er have dropt os (us) : 
 magister for magister-os. 
 famul (O.famef) for famulus, Lucr. iii. 1048. 
 Note. The three consonants oftenest final are m, s, t. All these 
 fell off frequently in E. L. (Roscio for Roscius and for Ros- 
 cium), again in L. L., and ultimately in modern Italian. See p. 26. 
 
i2- Loss of Inner Consonants. 47 
 
 Final m, with its vowel, was so weak that poets took no note of 
 it metrically before a word beginning with a Vowel. Thus in 
 Virgil's verse 
 
 monstra/ft ^orrendz/;;z informs ingens cui lumen ademptum 
 
 the letters printed in italics do not count in the metre, and the 
 verse runs thus : 
 
 monstr orrend inform ingens cui lumen ademptum. 
 
 Final s, on the other hand, after a short vowel, was neglected by 
 poets as late as Lucretius before words beginning with a consonant, 
 as testified by Cicero in the following passage : < Ita enim loqueban- 
 tur : Qui est omnibu' princeps, non, omnibus princeps : et, Vita ilia 
 dignu' locoque, non, dignus, Or. 48. He also testifies that this 
 weakness of s had existed in common parlance even when the 
 vowel before it was long : i Sine vocalibus saepe brevitatis causa 
 contrahebant, ut ita dicerent, multi' modis ; vas' argenteis ; palmi' 
 et crinibus ; tecti' fractis/ Or. 45. 
 
 Final t also was often dropt in ancient Verb-forms : dede for 
 dedit. See p. 26, and C. I. 188. 
 
 xxix. Loss of Inner Consonants by concurrence LOSS of 
 with other Consonants. 1 CoTso- 
 
 nants. 
 
 When this loss occurs for euphonic reasons, if a syllable pre- 
 viously long by position alone is left short by the removal of one 
 consonant, compensation is often made by lengthening the vowel : 
 (pic-nus) x plnus : but not always ; (lac-nius) x lanius. 
 
 The sign of length (-) will here shew the compensated syllables. 
 
 A) Exclusion of Guttural Mutes. 
 
 i. A Guttural Mute is excluded in Verbal formations when it 
 occurs between a Liquid and one of the letters s, t, in, 
 
 (fare-si) xfarsi x fulsi 
 
 (differc-tum) x differtum (fulc-tum) x fultum 
 
 (sparg-si) x sparsi (indulg-si) x indulsi 
 
 (torqu-tum) x tortum (indulg-tum) x indultum 
 
 (torqu-mentum) x tormentum (fulg-men) x fulmen 
 
 2. Occasional instances of Gutturals excluded : 
 c between n and a Dental Mute : 
 
 quintus (quinc-tus) quindecim (quinc-decim) 
 
 But quinctus may be kept, as tinctus, sanctus. 
 c before m : lama (lac-) ; temo (rex-) ; lumen (luc-). 
 
 c n : aranea (dpa^-vrj) ; lana (lac-) ; planus_ (TT\CLK-) 
 rana (rac-) ; vanus (vac-) ; deni (dec-) ; luna (luc-) ; 
 qulni (quinc-), in which n before c is also cast out. 
 
 1 Many combinations are troublesome to utter: guttural with labial mute, or labial 
 mute with guttural ; surd with its sonant, or sonant with its surd, and so on. When the 
 addition of a suffix in derivation produces such combinations, they are usually avoided 
 by excluding the first consonant : scalprum for scalp-brum, ful-crum for fulc-crum, &c. 
 
48 Latin Soundlore. 12. 
 
 c before s : ursus (Sk. arksfas, Gr. a/>/cro<;). 
 
 g j : aio (ag-io) ; maior (mag-ior) ; Maius (Mag-ius) ; 
 puleium (puleg-ium). 
 
 g 1 : moles (/-toy-) but molestus ; plla, pillar, pier (pig- ? 
 comp. pepigi). 
 
 e m : contaminare (tag-) ; examen (ag-) ; flamen (flag-) ; 
 rlma (rig-, riwgi); iumentum (iug-, iu;/gere); sumen 
 (sug-). 
 
 g v : mavis, mavult (mag-e-) ; levis (leg-vis) ; brevis (breg- 
 vis). 
 
 x d : sedecim (sex-decim). 
 x n : seni (sex-ni). 
 x v : seviri or sexviri. 
 
 (tex-).' 
 
 The same principle applies in ala (ax-); mala (max-) ; palus, pala,. 
 (pax-) ; talus (tax-). See Cic. Or. 45. 
 
 B] Exclusion of Dental Mutes, 
 i. Dental Mutes often fall out before s. 
 i) In the Flexion of Nouns. 
 
 Dental Mute Stems, including Pres. Participles in n(t)s, 
 are by far the most numerous class in the 3rd Declension : 
 and as all but a few take the Nom. S. ending s, they drop 
 the dental t or d before the sibilant : 
 
 (virtut-s) x virtu-s; (comft-s) x come-s 
 
 (custod-s) x custo-s ; (vad-s) x vas 
 
 (part-i part-s) x pars ; (dent-i- dent-s) x dens. 
 
 The rule of quantity here is, that long stems remain long, 
 short remain short, in the Nom. S. : excepting 
 (ped-s) pes with its compounds, (vad-s,) vas, 
 
 abies, aries, paries for (abiet-s, &c.) 
 with a few Greek words which drop n as well as t ; 
 elephas (elephant-s) ; Simois (Simoent-s) 
 
 See 24. Syllabus. 
 
 1 Since x=cs or gs, the changes from x to s in Sestius (Sextius), sescenti (sexcentiX 
 mistus (mixtus), are really instances of the loss of a guttural mute before s ; of c in the 
 first two examples, of g in the third (/nty-). Again 
 
 discere (dic-sc-ere), miscere (mig-sc-erej 
 
 are similar omissions before sc. 
 This seems to justify the assumption that when x falls out before 1, the c departs first, 
 
 then the s : 
 
 tex-la, tes-la, tela 
 
 and so in the other instances. 
 
 That s would fall out before 1 is shewn in qualus (quas-), plla, mortar (pins-), and in 
 Fr. Bale (Basle). Corssen however (I. 64) confines himself to saying of these instances 
 that x falls out before 1, m, and that c does not fall out before 1. The alternative above 
 stated he does not notice. 
 
i2. Loss of Inner Consonants. 49 
 
 2) In the Flexion of Verbs. 
 
 a) A certain number of Verbs throw out d, a few t, before the 
 Perfect Suffix s-i : 
 
 ardere (ard-si) arsi ludere (lud-si) lusi 
 
 ridere (rid-si) risi radere (rad-si) rasi 
 
 sentlre (sent-si) sensi flectere (fleet-si) flexi 
 
 Assimilation occurs in 
 cedere (ced-si) cessi and its compounds, 
 de cut ere (decut-si) d ecus si, with other compouA Is of quatio. 
 
 Compensation occurs in none but 
 
 dividere (divid-si) divlsi- ; mittere (mitt-si) misi. 
 
 U) In the Supine formation also the Dental is often lost. When- 
 ever t or d is brought before the suffix turn, that suffix 
 is changed to sum. But whether stem or suffix parts 
 with its dental first, is a disputed point. Corssen's order is 
 t-tum (or d-tum), -s-tum, -sum. 
 
 However this be, t-tum (or d-tum) usually becomes -sum, 
 losing the Dental : 
 
 (vert-tum) versum ; (cud-turn) cusum ; 
 (sent-tum) sensum ; (rad-tum) rasum. 
 
 But -ssum by Assimilation in a few Verbs : 
 
 sed-ere sessum ced-ere cessum fod-ere fossum 
 fat-eri fassum fi(;z)d-ere fissum pat-i passum 
 
 met-ere messum sci(;z)d-ere scissum grad-i gressum 
 
 Also mitt- ere, missum, which drops t between two Dentals. 
 
 Compensation occurs in a few Verbs with their Compounds, 
 vid-ere vlsum ed-ere esum 6d-ere osum 
 
 cad-ere casum fu(^)d-ere fusum (also gavlsum from 
 divid-ere divisum tu(^)d-ere tusum gaudere = ga-vid-ere) 
 
 Obs. i. Observe also that -turn of the Supine becomes -sum after 
 these combinations, 11, rr, re, rgr : 
 
 fall-ere falsum ; curr-ere cursum ; 
 parc-ere parsum ; sparg-ere sparsum. 
 
 Obs. 2. The euphonic rule for Dentals before the suffix -turn in 
 Supines applies equally to Dentals before Noun-suffixes beginning 
 with t in Derivation : 
 
 (tond-tor) tonsor ; (vert-tura) versura ; (offend-tio) offensio ; 
 (cad-tus) casus. 
 
 2. Occasional Exclusion of Dental Mutes. 
 
 d before c : (hod-ce) x hoc ; (quod-circa) x quocirca. 
 
 grn : a-gnoscere, a-gnatus, &c. 
 
 m : cae-mentum (caed-) ; ra-mentum (rad-). 
 _ _ n : fi-nis (fid-). 
 
 v : sua-vis (suad-). 
 
 E 
 
5<D Latin Soundlore. 12. 
 
 C) Exclusion of n. 
 
 n before c : When the Suffix -cin is added to Nasal stems : 
 latro-cinium, sermo-cinari. 
 
 gn : i-gnoscere, i-gnavus, &c. co-gnoscere, &c. 
 
 s : -es for -ens in Numeral Adverbs ; quoties, de- 
 
 cies, milies, c., for quotiens, &c. after the 
 Augustan age : before which time -ens was used, 
 (semen-stris) x semestris; mostellaria from 
 monstrum ; (formonsus, formossus) x formosus ; 
 (sanguin-suga) x sanguisuga ; l (quam si, quan-si) 
 x quasi. 
 
 Note, iff before s was very weak in E. L. and R. L. Inscrr. give 
 the forms co-sol, ce-sor, castre-sis, &c. ; even as, es for the endings 
 ans, ens : infas, doles. So Ital. mese (mensis) ; Fr. peser (pensare). 
 
 nt before n : This omission is seen in Numerals when -cent is 
 
 written for -centni : viceni. 
 s : -cesimus -gesimus for -cent-simus,-gent-simus r 
 
 vice-simus, trige-simus, &c. 
 nd - i : scala (scand-la). 
 
 Note. The exclusion of p seems doubtful. Corssen cites a-men- 
 tum, a-mes, as derived from ap-. (Ribbeck has ammentum.) 
 
 D) Exclusion of p : 
 
 p before b fune-bris (funer-) ; mulie-bris (mulier). In fe-bris 
 
 (ferv-) PV fall out. 
 j (per-iuro) x pe-iero. 
 s pro-sa for prorsa ; pe-stis for per(d)-stis. 
 
 t sempi-ternus (semper-). 
 
 E) Exclusion of s : 
 
 s before d iu-dex (ius-dicere) ; (is-dem) x Idem. 
 
 l corpu-lentus (corpus) ; viru-lentus (virus) ; qua-lus 
 
 (quas-). 
 
 m 6-men (os-) ; re-mus (res-, Iper-) ; du-mus (dus-) ; 
 Ca-mena (cas-) ; multi-modis. 
 
 n ce-na (ces-) ; ahe-neus (ahes-) ; pone (pos-ne) : 
 
 audin, vin, potin, satin, &c. for audisne, &c. 
 
 lessor xxx. Loss of Inner Vowels before Consonants 
 
 Inner 
 Vowels. 
 
 a : pal-ma (rraXd/xr?, pal-u-ma) ; cup-ressus (wrrapHTaoc;, cup- 
 e-rissus) ; nomenc-lator (c-a-lare, c-u-lare). 
 
 : p-te for pote : meopte : 
 
 suffix tnno- for (-tonno -terlno) : doct-rina, pist-rinum. 
 
 u: i) (man-u-ceps) x man-ceps ; (quat-u-or) x quat-er ; (man-u- 
 suesco) x mansuesco. 
 
 1 Probably an I-noun sangui-s (shewn in exsanguis) was a byform of sanguis 
 (sanguen) sanguin-. So anguis, snake, probably had a byform anguis anguin- 
 shewn in the Demin. a n g u i 1 1 a. 
 
;j 12. Loss of Inner Vowels before Consonants. 51 
 
 2) The suffix -culo-, culeo- may exclude u : 
 
 orac-lum poet, for oraculum ; vinc-lum for vinculum ; 
 
 nuc-leus for nuculeus : so fig-linus for fic-u-linus. 
 The suffix pulo- loses u in some words : 
 
 discip-lina, temp-lum, extemp-lo ; 
 so amp-lus, dup-lus, &c. 
 
 3) All Deminutive words ending in -llus -Ha -Hum have ex- 
 
 cluded u before the second l : and then formed the as- 
 similation u : 
 
 whether Primary Deminutives : 
 
 agellus (ager-u-lus), olla (aul-u-la)'; villum (vin-u-lum) ; 
 ullus (un-u-lus) ; Stella (ster-u-la) ; hilla (hir-u-la) ; 
 
 or Secondary : 
 
 porcellus (porcul-u-lus) ; cistella (cistul-u-la) ; 
 quantillus (quantul-u-lus) ; tantillus (tantul-u-lus). 
 
 4) The Verbal suffixes -bam, -bas, -bo, -bis, c., have lost 
 
 u : being for fu-am, fu-as, fu-o, fu-is, &c. 
 
 ' : i) The Suffixes bero- beri- cero- ceri- tero- teri often ex- 
 clude e in flexion and derivation : 
 creb-ro, celeb-ris, mac-rum, ac-riter, dext-ra, put-re. 
 
 Hence Nouns with suffixes bro- cro- tro- form Deminu- 
 tives regularly in e-llo- : 
 
 flab-rum, flabellum ; dolab-ra, Dolabella ; luc-rum 
 lucellum ; plaust-rum, plostellum ; cast-rum castel- 
 lum : (for flaber-u-lum, Dolaber-u-la, &c.). 
 
 2) e is often excluded when d, f, gr, p, come before er : 
 
 Evand-rus, vaf-re, nig-resco, Ap-rilis ? inf-ra. 
 
 Hence the regular formation of such Deminutives as 
 flagellum from flag-rum (flager-u-lum) 
 capella - cap-ra (caper-u-la). 
 
 3) In salictum for salic-etum, carectum for cario 
 
 etum, e has been shortened and excluded. 
 
 .4) The Suffix greno- excludes e in many words : 
 
 benig-nus, mali-g-nus, privig-nus : so g-nascoR 
 
 5) E-verbs compounded with face re sometimes exclude e : 
 
 cal-facere, ol-facere. 
 
 Note. Ferris, 2nd Pers. Pres. Pass, of fero, ferre Infin. (for 
 fer-se), velle (for vol-se) from volo, and es-se (for ed-se), from 
 edo, if formed as classical Verbs in general, would be (fer-e-ris, 
 fer-e-re, vol-e-re, ed-e-re). It cannot be said, however, that they 
 have lost e, but that, like esse, posse (from sum), they never 
 took it. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 Latin Soundlore. 12, 
 
 i: i) The words nau-ta, nau-fragus, c., au-ceps, au- 
 spex, &c., also cau-tum, fau-tum, &c. have excluded i 
 But navt-ta, navi-fragus are used in poetry : and cav- 
 I-tum, fav-I-tum, &c., are found in old Latin. 
 
 2) Fero forms fers, fertur, &c. not (fer-i-s, fer-i-tur, &c.). 
 
 3) Edo forms es for ed-i-s, est for ed-i-t, estur for 
 
 ed-I-tur. 
 
 4) Volo forms volt, vult (vol-it), voltis, vultis (vol-i-tis) 
 
 The formation of vis is supposed to be 
 (volis, vol-s, vil-s) vis. 
 
 5) The vowel i is lost by 
 
 purgare (pur-ig-are), iurgari (iur-ig-ari) ; 
 audere (av-id-ere) ; gaudere (gav-id-ere) : 
 
 also in the suffix mno- mna for (meno-) mino- xnina : 
 alum-nus, Vertum-nus, colum-na, &c. 
 
 6) Corssen derives 
 
 iuxta from (iug-ista, in nearest junction}. 
 exta (ex-ista, the most outward entrails}. 
 praesto (prae-isto, in most forwardness}. 
 
 7) (ced-i-te) x cette ; (opi-ficina) x officina 
 (bidiv-um, tridiv-um, &c.) x biduum, triduum, &c. : 
 (posi-v-i) x posui : 
 
 (semi-caput, sim-ciput) x sinciput : 
 (mater-itera, second mother} x matertera : 
 (nasi-torqu-t-iu-m) x nasturtium : see M. Lucr. ii. 401. 
 (nep-i-tis weakened from nep-otis) x neptis. 
 
 8) Puer-tia is poetic for puerftia : misertus for mis- 
 
 erltus : -postus in compounds for -positus. 
 Rarer poetic omissions of i are 
 lam-na, cal-dus, sol-dus, strig-libus, &c. for lamma, &c. 
 
 Balneum is more usual than balineum; audacter 
 than audaciter: valide and valde are used, but 
 with some difference of meaning. 
 
 xxxi. Elision, Contraction and Coalition of 
 Vowels. 
 
 Hiatus. Hiatus (the open concurrence of Vowels) is avoided within 
 words in three ways. 
 
 Elision. i) First : Hiatus is avoided by Elision (SwaXot^//), the cutting 
 off of the former vowel : 
 
 (ne-ullus) x nullus (ante-ea) x antea 
 
 (ne-unquam) x nunquam (quinque-unc-s) x quincunx 
 
 (ne-usquam) x nusquam (semi-uncia) x semuncia 
 
 In semianimis the i of semi becomes a consonant. 
 
12. Elision, Contraction, etc. of Vowels. 53 
 
 a) Elision includes the cutting off of m with its vowel within 
 
 a word as well as at the end of a word in metre, 
 (venum-eo) x veneo ; (animum adverto) x animadverto ; (septem- 
 unc-s) x septunx. So sept-ennis, dec-ennis, dec-ussis, &c. 
 
 &) The Preposition com (cum) in composition elides m only 
 before a vowel, leaving the vowel open : 
 
 co-emo co-eo co-haereo 
 
 But com-edo. 
 
 Circum does this before i : as circu-it, circu-itus ; 
 but keeps m before other vowels : 
 
 circumago circumerro 
 
 2) Secondly : Hiatus is avoided by Contraction (2vratpe<rtc, Contrac- 
 Kpdcric) : by which two concurring vowels unite into one long tion> 
 -vowel, rarely into a diphthong. 
 
 a) If the concurring vowels are the same, the same vowel 
 
 lengthened results from their contraction : 
 (co-opis) x copis (tibi-i-cen) x tiblcen 
 
 (pro-oles) x proles de-eram x deram 
 
 (dii) x dl de-ero x dero 
 
 filii x fill (Gen. S.) de-esse x desse 
 
 ^) If the vowels differ, the former usually absorbs the latter. 
 
 co-alescere x colescere (semi-as) x semis 
 
 (pro-emo) x promo, (de-igo) x dego fili-e x fill 
 
 victu-i x victu si-em x sim 
 
 (indu-itiae) x indutiae (ama-im, ame-im) x amem 
 
 In some instances, the latter absorbs the former : 
 
 (ama-o) x amo diei x dn as well as die 
 
 (fu-io) x flo (glacie-alis) x glacialis. 
 
 ) Remarkable contraction of a with parasitic u appears in 
 cur for (quor) quare ; and culest (Plaut.) for qualis est. 1 
 
 (On Contraction after exclusion of Spirants, see xxxiv.) 
 
 3) Thirdly : Hiatus is avoided in poetry by Coalition ; which Coali- 
 grammarians called 2vj'ii?<rtc? ' settling together/ or Sui/e^wv^o-tc, tloru 
 
 ' uttering together ; ' when, without written contraction, vowels were 
 scanned and uttered as forming one syllable : dein, prom, aurea, 
 
 omnia, Peleo, pituita, antehac. See Prosody. 
 
 Note. Deero, deeram, deesse, are sometimes ranked here. 
 
 1 Still more remarkable are the instances (cited by C. ) where 1, before a vowel, re- 
 presents an old I contracted from Ui (like flo ; compare fieri). These are : (i) c liens 
 (clulens) ; (2) industrius (endostru-Tus) ; and (3) the word noticed by Festus, in c lens, 
 'propinqua partui ' (incu-iens ; compare /cueii/, eyKvos) ; whence Fr. enceinte. This shews 
 the usually received derivation of the latter word, incincta, incinta (given inDucange's 
 Olossarium in voce) to be quite erroneous. 
 
54 Latin Soundlore. 12. 
 
 Lossof xxxii. Loss of Inner Vowels with Consonants.. 
 
 Vowels 
 
 1. (homi-ni-clda) x homiclda ; (lapi-di-cidma) x lapi-cidina 
 ants. (sti-pi-pendium) x stipendium ; (pau-ci-per) x pauper 
 
 (tru-ci-cldare) x trucldare ; (tri-num-nundinum) x trinundinum 
 (no-men-cupo) x nuncupo ; (prae-vo-co) x praeco 
 (ae-vi-tas) x aetas ; (manu-hi-biae) x manibiae. 
 (vene-ni-ficium) x veneficium ; patro-no-cinium x patrocinium. 
 
 2. (consue-ti-tudo) x consuetude ; (mansue-ti-tudo) x mansuetudo; 
 
 (hebe-ti-tudo) x hebetude ; (calamit-at-osus) x calamitosus. 
 
 3. (bicipit-s, bicip-e-s) x biceps ; (praecipit-s praecipe-s) x prae- 
 
 ceps, c. ; (locu-lo-ples) x locuples. 
 
 4. (unus-decem) x undecim ; (quinque-decem) x quindecim. 
 
 5. The second syllable of semi, half, and the first syllable of 
 dec em, ten, are often lost in the formation of numeral words: 
 se-squi- for semisque, selibra for semilibra : viginti for dvi-de-centi, 
 triginta for tria-de-centa, c. : bi-c-essis for bi-dec-essis, c. 
 
 6. (per-ri-gere) x pergere ; (sus-ri-gere) x surgere ; 
 
 sur-pui poet, for sur-ri-pui. 
 
 7. possum = potis (pote) sum; potes = potis (pote) es, &c. 
 malo, c. for (mage-volo, c.). 
 
 vendere for venumdare 1 : narrare (narare) for (g-nar-ig-are). 
 
 (re-ce-cidi) x recctdi or recfdi ; (re-pe-peri) x repperi ; 
 (re-pe-puli) x reppuli ; (re-te-tuli) x rettuli. 
 
 Compounds of reduplicated Verbs drop the syllable of reduplica- 
 tion : 
 
 dif-f idi, in-cidi, ob-tigi, pro-tendi. 
 
 Except those of disco, posco, and some of curro : 
 dedidici, expoposci, praecucurri. 
 
 8. The syllable si is cast out by Syncope from Perfect-stem 
 forms of Verbs, chiefly in Comic poetry, but also in that of the best 
 age i 1 
 
 a) Perf. Act. 2nd Pers. Sing, and Plur. 
 
 dixti for (dic-si-sti) ; duxti for (duc-si-sti) 
 mis ti for (mi-si-sti) ; scripsti for (scrip-si-sti) 
 accestis for (acces-si-stis). 
 
 &) Pluperfect Conj. : 
 
 exstinxemfor (exting-si-sem) 
 vixet for (vic-si-set) 
 erepsemus for (erep-si-semus). 
 
 1 A large number of examples of this omission, chiefly from the old Scenic poets, but 
 many Augustan, are given by Corssen, ii. 553. .. . 
 
i2. Shortening of Vowels. 55 
 
 c) Infin. Perf. : 
 
 surrexe for (surreg-si-se) ; traxe for (trac-si-se) 
 divisse for (divi-si-se) ; iusse for (ius-si-se). 
 
 d} Besides the Verbs which classically form a Perfect-stem with 
 the character s, some other Verbs did this in old Latin : cap-ere, 
 fac-ere, rap-ere, tan-gere, aud-ere. As the old formation of 
 the Perf. Conj. and Fut. Perf. with character s was si-sim, si-so, 
 such Verbs, by dropping si, formed these tenses in sim, so : 
 faxim for (fac-si-sim) ; faxo for (fac-si-so) 
 clepsit for (clep-si-sit) ; ausint for (au-si-sint). 
 
 e) A-verbs in old Latin formed these two Tenses sometimes by 
 casting out a syllable and then doubling s : 
 
 negassim for (nega-vi-sim) : rogassit for (roga-vi-sit) 
 servasso for (serva-vi-so) : locassintfor (loca-vi-sint). 
 
 A few such forms are found from E- verbs and I -verbs : 
 prohibessit = prohibuerit ; ambissint = anibiverint. 
 
 Note. This Future in asso, mistaken, it would seem, for a Present, 
 gave birth to Infinitives an assere, used by Plautus : 
 
 impetrassere, oppugnassere, reconciliassere. 
 Sometimes even to Passive forms : 
 
 turbassitur, Cic. ; compare faxitur, Liv. 
 
 xxxiii, The Shortening of Vowels in Latin. shorten- 
 
 ing of 
 
 i. Between the First Punic War (B.C. 260) and the Augustan age 
 (B.C. 30) the Quantity of Vowels underwent a generally shortening 
 process, especially in final syllables. This is shewn by comparing 
 
 The extant specimens of old Saturnian Verse. 
 
 The fragmentary remains of the old Dactylic and Iambic poets 
 (Ennius, &c.). 
 
 The Comedies of Plautus and Terence. 
 
 The poetic remains of Lucilius and Cicero. 
 
 The poetry of Lucretius and Catullus. 
 
 The Augustan poetry (Virgil, Horace, Ovid, &c.). 
 
 2. The Comedies of Plautus (B.C. 180) are a most important stage 
 in this enquiry : because, though they contain a large number of 
 long syllables afterwards shortened, they also exhibit numerous 
 examples of the shortening process always going on : and among 
 these some which are repudiated by the taste of Augustan poets. 
 
 Such Plautine shortenings mark the direction in which the cur- 
 rent of popular parlance was setting, whilst in Augustan literature 
 these corruptive tendencies are suppressed for a while by the study 
 of Greek models and a fine sense of what was really good in 
 Roman antiquity. 
 
Latin Soundlore. 
 
 12. 
 
 3. Examples of Final Syllables with Quantity varying in Early 
 Latin, in Plautus, and in the Augustan age. 
 
 Exclu- 
 sion of 
 Conso- 
 nants 
 with 
 Contrac- 
 tion. 
 
 
 E. L. 
 
 Plaut. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 i. a Nom. Fern 
 
 a 
 
 a a 
 
 a 
 
 2. a Neut. PI 
 
 a 
 
 a a 
 
 a 
 
 3. e Abl. Decl. 3. ... 
 
 e 
 
 e e 
 
 e 
 
 
 e 
 
 (e) e 
 
 i 
 
 5. at) 
 
 
 \*v 
 a 9 
 
 a 
 
 ethrd Pers. S 
 
 e 
 
 e e 
 
 e 
 
 it] 
 
 I 
 
 I i 
 
 i 
 
 
 \ 
 
 I i 
 
 5 
 
 7. ris 2nd Pers. S. Conj. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 8. bus Dat. Abl. PI 
 
 u 
 
 u ii 
 
 u 
 
 
 U, 
 
 u u 
 
 ii 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 ii. ar in Verbs 
 
 a 
 
 a a 
 
 a 
 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 13. or in Verbs . . ... 
 
 
 
 5 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 Yet Augustan poetry, especially the Hexameter, supplies many 
 instances in which the antiquarian long quantity of a word was 
 adopted to suit metrical convenience: gr avia (Verg.) arat (Hor.) 
 videt (Verg.) veil t (Hor.) tondebat (Verg.) ignis (Hor.) pec- 
 tor ibus (Verg.) negabamus (Ov.) t rah or (Tibull.), &c. 
 
 4. The words which Plautus shortens by the license of common 
 parlance are mostly Iambic words, which he thus slurs into 
 pyrrhichs, we might almost say into monosyllables. Such are 
 
 loci, meri, dolt, bono, domo, viro, dorm, fores, pedes, heri, 
 probe, ama, roga, puta, cave, mane, tace, vale, abi, adi, 
 bibl, dedi, steti, dan, loquT. 
 
 Augustan poetry preserves the traces of this popular usage 
 (which generally it rejected) in such words as bene, mod o, nisi, 
 quasi, mihi, tibi, sib!, ibi, ubi, puta, cave, vale, &c. : and to 
 its influence we may perhaps refer such abnormal quantities as 
 palus, polypus in those writings of Horace which he himself 
 calls ' sermoni propiora.' x 
 
 xxxiv. Exclusion of Consonants followed by 
 Contraction of Vowels. 
 
 s : dextans for (de-s-extans) =| of the as :"nl for ni-s-i. 
 
 i-consonans : blgae for bi-i-ugae ; quadrigae for quadri-i-iigae : 
 cuncti for co-i-uncti : aes for (Pr. ay as). 
 
 li : cors for co-h-ors ; vemens for ve-h-emens; prendo for 
 pre-h-endo; praeda for (prae-h-eda) ; nemo for (ne-h-emo for 
 ne-homo) ; nilum for ne-hilum; nil for_ni-h-il; mi for 
 mi-h-i; Imus for (T-h-imus for in-f-imus) ; debeo for de-h-ibeo ; 
 p r a e b e o for prae-h-ibeo. 
 
 1 On this subject, besides Corssen, the student should especially consult Ritschl's 
 Plautus and Opuscula ; C. W. Miiller's Plautinische Prosodie ; and Munro's Lucretius : 
 also the Prosody in this Grammar by the last-named scholar. 
 
12. Exclusion of Consonants with Contraction. 57 
 
 q : dodrans (for dequadrans), f of the as, is formed by the 
 following process, according to Corssen (dequa x dequo x do quo 
 xdocu- x doc- x do-). 1 
 
 v : There are two modes of suppressing v with contraction : and 
 in some words each mode would lead to the same result. 
 
 1. The short vowel after v may be excluded, v vocalised (be- 
 coming u), and then contracted with the preceding vowel. 
 
 2. v may be excluded and contraction ensue. 
 
 1. First Mode. 
 
 This is shewn where the diphthong au results : 
 auceps (av-i-ceps); auspex (av-i-spex) 
 nauta for nav-i-ta; naufragus for nav-i-fragus 
 cautumfor cav-i-tum; fautum for fav-i-tum 
 audeo (av-I-deo); gaudeo (gav-i-deo) 
 
 and may be inferred (as shewn by 16 turn, lu turn for lautum) in 
 most instances where 6, u result (for ov = ou or for uv = uu) : 
 
 f 6 turn (fov-i-tum) ; f 6 men turn (fov-i-mentum) 
 
 mo turn (mov-i-tum) ; momentum (mov-i-mentum) 
 
 i u t u m j[iuv-I-tum) ; i u m e n t u m (iuv-i-mentum) 
 
 upilio, opilio (6v--pilio) ; prudens for prov-i-dens 
 
 curia (co-vfria); de curia (decu-vlria) 
 
 lupiter (Iov-t-piter) ; bobus or bubus (bov-i-bus) 
 
 bruma (brev-i-ma, breuma) 
 
 nunc (nov-um-ce) ; nuper (nov-i-per) 
 
 iunior (iuv-e-nior) ; udus (uv-i-dus). 
 
 In nundinae (nov-endinae, noundinae), nuntio (nov-entio, noun- 
 tio), and contio (co-ventio, countio), the vocalization of v seems 
 to take place before the exclusion of the vowel. 
 
 2. Second Mode. 
 
 a) (dls, Ter. once) for di-v-es; dltior for dl-v-itior; 
 
 dltissimus for dl-v-itissimus : oblltus (obli-v-itus) : 
 
 hornus (ho-v-ernus) : 
 praes (prae-v-T-des, prae-i-des, praeds) : 
 Cloelius (Clo-v-i-lius, Cloilius) : 
 malo, malle, &c. for ma-v-olo, ma-v-elle, &c. 
 nolo, nolle, &c., (ne-v-olo, ne-v-olle, &c.) : 
 sis for si vis; sultis, for si vultis, elides iv. 
 
 b) Many Adverbs are formed by the contraction of a Pronoun 
 
 or Particle with the Participle vorsus, vorsum : 
 
 horsum (ho-vorsum) ; prors-us -um (provors-us 
 -um) ; hence prosa for prorsa (pro-vorsa) ; alior- 
 sum (alio-vorsum); rurs-us -um (revors-us -um) ; 
 s u r s u m (sus-vorsum) ; intrors-us-umfor (intro-vors- 
 us -um) : rusum, susum, introsum. M. Lucr. iii. 45. 
 
 1 Bes, or bessis, bes-ses (dvi-esses), two thirds of the as, is another curious ab- 
 breviation ; representing bis trientes, twice one third. 
 
58 Latin Soimdlore. 12. 
 
 Contrac- c ) This form of Contraction prevails especially in the Perfect- 
 
 ion in stem Tenses of Pure Verbs. 
 
 Perf. 
 Stem. 
 
 or. When the Perfect-stem ends in av, ev, ov, the v may be ex- 
 cluded before is or er (but not before ere), contraction ensuing : 
 
 amasti for amav-isti; implessem for implev-is- 
 
 sem ; nosse for nov-isse. 
 amaram for amav-eram; implero for implev-ero; 
 
 norunt for nov-erunt. 
 
 And in Lucr. at for avit : inritat, i. 70. 
 
 These contractions are not used in the forms of lavi, cavi, favi, 
 pavi, fovi, vovi : but in those of movi and iuvi they sometimes 
 occur in poetry : 
 
 adiuris for adiuveris ; mostis for movistis ; admo- 
 runt for admoverunt; summosses for submo- 
 v i s s e s. 
 
 /3. When the Perfect-stem ends in iv, the v is often excluded, 
 and contraction usually follows before is : 
 
 audi-eram for audiveram; audf-ero for audiv-ero, audis- 
 sem for audivissem. 
 
 So, in eo and its compounds : 
 
 leram, lero ; issem, isse, &c. 
 Sir is is used for slveris from sftiere, sivi. 
 
 The contraction of -iit into -it occurs ; obit for obi it. 
 Anciently the Perfect ending it was itself long, being often ex- 
 hibited as eit in E. L. 1 See M. Lucr. iii. 1042. 
 
 1 Peculiar contractions are seen in the formation of the Tenses of Verbs. 
 
 A) Forms of (esum) sum, compounded with other Verbs : 
 
 Indie. Mood. Fut. i. (eso) ero : Imperf. (esa-m) eram. 
 
 Conj. Mood. (Mood-vowel ia=ie). Pres. (es-ia-m, es-ie-m) siem, sim. Imperf. 
 (esa-ia-m, esa-ie-m, es-ai-m, es-e-m) essem. Infin. es-se. 
 
 Forms of fuo (shewn in fore=fure, fuisse, &c.), compounded with other Verbs. 
 Indie. Mood. Imperf. (fuam). Perf. fu-i, whence fu-ero, fu-eram, &c. 
 
 B) Tenses of a m o (ama-o) : 
 
 Ind. M. Fut. i. (ama-fuo) amabo. Imp. (ama-fuam) amabam. Perf. (ama-fui) 
 amavi. Fut. 2. (amav-eso) amavero. Plup. (amav-esam) amaveram. 
 
 Conj. M. Pres. (ama-ia-m, am-ai-m) am em. Imp. (ama-esem) a mar em. Perf. 
 (amav-esim) a m a v e r i m. Plup. (amav-esem) amavissem. 
 
 Infin. (ama-se) am are : (amav-ese) amavisse. 
 
 C) Passive Present-stem forms are derived generally from the Active by adding se 
 (self), and making euphonic change : 
 
 Pres. Ind. (amo-se) amor; (amas-se) amar-is ; (amat-se) amat-ur, &c. 
 
 D) Inf. Pass, (amase-se) amari-er, amari; (regese-se) regi-er, regi. 
 
 The Conj. Pres. endings am, as, at, &c. of the Third Conjugation (regam, regas, &c.) 
 represent the Primitive Conjunctive in a ; and Fut. forms in es, et, &c. (reges, reget, 
 &c.)are contracted from a-ia-s, &c., as in (esa-ia-s) eses. See C. II. 729. 
 
12. Relations of Consonants, etc. 59 
 
 xxxv. Relations of the Consonants in Latin 
 and kindred Languages. 
 
 I. The Guttural Surds c, q. 
 
 1) c corresponds to Sk. j', k, <f\ to Gr. K or ?r : 
 
 L. Sk. Gr. 
 
 centum s'ata 
 
 decem das'an 
 
 canis s'van KVWV (KVV-) 
 
 iecur yakart rj-rrap 
 
 voco vac* FCTTW. 
 
 2) Qu sometimes corresponds to Sk. s f v^ Gr. ?r (K) r : 
 
 L. Sk. Gr. 
 
 equos as' vets /Woe 
 
 IM;O (for t 
 More frequently qu corresponds to Sk. c', k, Gr. TT, r 
 
 L. Sk. Gr. 
 
 quattuor datvaras rcrrapfi; (for 
 
 TTfVvpec (O. petord) 
 
 linquo rzV XITT- 
 
 sequor J^' ITT- for O-ETT 
 
 que ># KCU re 
 
 quis to Tt'c (U.flis). 
 
 Some think that ^ should always be assumed as the primitive 
 of qu ; but Corssen maintains that c (k) could develop u after it in 
 Italian language as a transition-step to the labial p : and he thinks 
 that even in Indie kv is developed from k. 
 
 3) The Labialism by which TT and p represent Pr. , prevailed in 
 Umbrian and Oscan. U. ^/^^//r^z/5-^quadrupedibus ; O. 
 ///^z/ = quidquid. Hence (from O. petora, four) come the names 
 Petreius, Petronius: and (from O./d?;;/-/-w = quinque) Pon- 
 tius (=Quinctius), Pompeius, Pompeii, Pomponius, Pom- 
 pilius. 1 
 
 4) Jn two instances c, qv seem to correspond to Sk. p, Gr. TT : 
 
 L. Sk. Gr. 
 
 coquo pac' TreV-ro; 
 
 quinque pane' a irei'Tt, irlpTTE. 
 
 Here some think the primitive roots were kak or kvak; kanka 
 or kvankva. Fick, however, supposes coquo to be for (poquo), 
 quinque for (pinque), by assimilation. 
 
 5) In proof that qu could be developed from c, Corssen cites 
 huiusque for huiusce ; inquilinus from incolo ; inquinare 
 
 from coenum ; quom = cum; querquetum for quercetum ; Qui- 
 rites from Cures; sterquilinium from stercus. 
 
 1 Perhaps other instances of Labialism (p for k) in Latin are dialectic (Sabine) : as 
 lupus (Sk. var-kas\ Gr. Av'/co?) ; popina for coquina ; palumbes = columba : Epona 
 (forEquona) ; spolium (Gr. <TKvAoi') : and one or two more doubtful, as pavo(Gr. raws). 
 
 Of Dentalism in Latin (t for k) the traces are few and dubious : as talpa (for s-talpa, 
 s-calpa) ; stercus(Gr. <ncwp) ; studeo, studium(Gr. o-rrevSw, o-TrovSiJ). 
 
60 Latin Soundlore. 
 
 12. 
 
 6) Q is found in E. L. for qu, chiefly before u, as pequnia, 
 
 qum, qur, quius : rarely before other letters : as neqidem, qe. 
 
 7) To avoid quu, before the Aug. age cu was often used : 
 
 ecus, cocus, anticus, execuntur, secundus. 
 
 So locutus, secutus. 
 
 Ne-cubi, si-cubi, ali-cubi, &c. ? take the place of ne-quubi, &c. 
 
 8) Qu becomes in Greek /cou, uv, K, sometimes KO : 
 TopKOvaTog, KoutjOtJ'oe, TapKvvtoQ, Tpay/cvXXof, KOLVTOQ. 
 
 9) Qu was uttered as in English : c as k. 1 Their sounds appear 
 in ( come quicker? 
 
 The assibilation or soft sound of ci, ce did not prevail in Latin 
 before the 7th century of our era. 
 
 1 I. The following facts shew that the assibilated sound of ce, ci, was not used in C. L. 
 
 1. Greek represented c by k before e, 17, i : as 
 
 KevTupta, nuccprc?, K7ji/<ros, <>JKIT, Kwcepwv. 
 
 2. Latin represented Greek K by c before e, i, y : as 
 
 Cecrops, cerasus, Cilix, Cimon, cithara, Cybele. 
 
 3. Gothic represents c by k before these vowels : as 
 
 kerker, keller, kirsche. 
 
 4. Quintilian cites chenturiones as away of spelling centuriones. 
 An Inscription A. D. 326 gives 
 
 schenicos for scenicos, and also scenicorum. 
 Another, A.D. 408, has pache for pace. 
 
 5. Qu could not represent an assibilated c ; therefore such forms on Inscrr. in L. L. as 
 {on the one hand) 
 
 huiusque for huiusce ; requiesquet for requiescit 
 
 and (on the other) 
 
 sic is for siquis ; cintus for quintus 
 
 shew that up to their date ce, ci kept the hard guttural sound. 
 
 6. In the imitative verbs crocio, glocio, c must have had the hard sound. 
 
 7. Finally, no grammarian has told us that c was uttered in one way before e, i, in 
 another before the remaining vowels. This silence goes to prove that no such difference 
 existed in C. L. 
 
 In the Umbrian and Volscian dialects there had existed a soft 5, as U. fafia, V. 
 fasia, for facial. 
 
 And in the late Imperial times such tendency dawns in a few words on Inscrr. : 
 provinsia for provincia ; Luziae for Luciae ; Felissiosa for Feliciosa. 
 
 But it was not until the yth century A.D. that popular utterance so far relaxed its 
 energy as to adapt generally the guttural consonant to the palatal vowel, and propagate 
 that sibilant sound of ce, ci which, for instance, transmutes the classical Kikero into 
 
 It. G. Fr. Eng. 
 
 Chichero Shishero Sisero. 
 
 II. The assibilation of inner ti before: a vowel began earlier. It had existed in dialects : 
 
 that etiam was p 
 
 mat etiam was pronounced eziam. in me next century we meet witn a/erio lor actio, 
 Constanzo for Constantio : soon after with iustiria, milizia, preparing the way for modern 
 Italian, which writes Firenze (Florentia), Piacenza (Placentia), palazzo (palatium). 
 
I2 . Relations of Consonants, etc. 6l 
 
 II. The Guttural Sonant G. 
 
 1) G usually corresponds to Sk. j or gr, Gr. 7 : G. 
 
 L. Sk. Gr. 
 
 gen- jati yer- yov- 
 
 ag-o #/ dy- 
 
 teg-o sthag orc'y-w 
 
 Sometimes to Sk. /, Gr. K : 
 
 viginti vins'ati FeiKovi. 
 
 Sometimes to Sk. kh, h, Gr. x> y ' 
 
 unguis nakhas ow\- 
 
 li(n)go lih Xa'xw 
 
 ego aham cyu> 
 
 2) Parasitic u follows gr in anguis, sanguis, unguis, lingua, 
 linquo, stinguo, tinguo, unguo, urgueo. In pinguis (?ra- 
 X^c) u is a suffix. 
 
 In all these, except urgueo, the guttural n adulterinum 
 strengthens gr, giving it a nasal twang : as in the Verbs cited p. 19. 
 
 3) G was guttural in C. L. ; as in Eng. go, gave, give, get, beget, 
 begin. Its palatal assibilations before e, i, whether hard, as in 
 Eng. gentle, giant, rage, It. gentil, Ginevra, gioia, ragione, or soft, 
 as in Fr. gentil, geant, gtte, rage, began towards the 5th century 
 with the use, as in Italian, of gi ( = Eng. j) before another vowel : 
 Giove, Giulia, giallo. 
 
 II L The Aspirates : h, f. 
 
 It belongs not Only to Indie language but also to Greek to 
 aspirate the medial mutes gr, d, b, as well as the tenues k, t, p. 
 Thus arise the medial aspirates gh, dh, bh ; to which the partially 
 corresponding sounds in Greek are x> #> </>> severally. Latin has 
 neither class of aspirates : the letters which it uses for the purpose 
 of correspondence are principally h, f, and the medial b. 
 
 i. H, when sounded at all, was sounded as the Greek Rough H. 
 Breathing, but corresponds to it only in words borrowed from the 
 Greek : Hebe, Homerus, hora, &c. 
 
 a) In some words h corresponds to Sk. h, Gr. % ' as 
 
 L. 
 
 Sk. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 hiemps 
 
 himam 
 
 X^ct 
 
 heri 
 
 hyas 
 
 X^'e 
 
 veho (via) 
 
 vah 
 
 o X ew 
 
 ans-er (for 
 h-ans-er) 
 
 hansa 
 
 x ?, goose 
 Oxcu'0--) 1 
 
 1 The Teutonic names of this bird, goose, gander, gos (Anglo- Sax.), gans (Germ.), com- 
 pared with the Greek x^"> seem to shew that ghans is the Prim. form. There can be no 
 doubt that Greek x indicates a Prim, gk in all these words : and this is also shewn in 
 the Latin Perf. of veho : vexi for vegh-si. 
 
62 Latin Soundlore. 5 12. 
 
 b] H represents dialectic fin some words, as haedus, hario* 
 
 lus, hircus, hordeum, horreum, hostis, also in mihi. 
 So in Spanish, ^?y^? = filius ; 7/rt/rtr = fabulari. 
 
 c) H has no position in Latin metre ; and a tendency to get 
 
 rid of this aspirate, as a troublesome sound, is manifest 
 in the history of Latin. Hence the fluctuation in the 
 orthography of many words in MSS. and Inscrr. : harena, 
 arena; harundo, arundo; haruspex, aruspex ; 
 have,ave; haedus (aedus) ; hariolus (ariolus) ; Ha- 
 dria (Adrici)\ heres (eres); herus, hera, and erus, 
 era; hedera (edera) ; holus (olus) ; Hammon (Ammon) ; 
 Hister(Ister). But the forms humerus, humor, &c. for 
 umerus (O>/AOS), umor (from uvere), are not good. 
 
 c) The loss of h, was propagated in L. L. Hence in modern 
 Italian it is not sounded, and has generally disappeared as 
 an initial letter. 
 
 F. 2. The Italian Labiodental Aspirate f is described by Quintilian 
 
 as a very strong rough sound : 'Ilia quae est sexta nostrarum paene 
 non humana voce vel omnino non voce potius inter discrimina den- 
 tium efflanda est,' xii. 10. This description does not seem to imply 
 that the ancient pronunciation of f was materially different from 
 our own : but it does imply what is probable on other grounds, 
 that (f> was different from our f, not, like this, labio-dental, but a 
 pure labial aspirated. 
 
 F is seldom the inner letter of a root. As an initial it 
 corresponds to Sk. bh, Gr. <, chiefly : Sk. dh, Gr. 9, some- 
 times; Sk.g/i, Gr. x, rarely. 
 
 L. Sk. Gr. 
 
 i) fero bhar >a> 
 
 fui (fe-, &c.) bhti 
 
 flag- (fulg-) bhrdj 
 
 frigo bhrajj 
 
 fugio bhuj 
 
 frater bhrdtar 
 
 See bha, p. 16. To Pr. bh, C. also refers the f in many words : 
 fovere, favilla; favere ...; famulus ... (O. faama^ 
 'house'); fervere ... furere ... ; fidere .. ; fiber; 
 forare; furvus; fundus ... ; frequens: compare also 
 fagus (</>?yoc); folium ($V\\QV)\ frango 
 frigus (f 
 
 2} foris dvdr Ovpa 
 
 fumus dhumas QVOQ 
 
 rufus (rudti) epvdpog 
 
 firmus dhar (Oa\- Oe\-) 1 
 
 From this last root C. deduces a large number of words : fere, 
 ferme, frenum, forum, furca, fulcio, &c. 
 
 1 Lat. -fendo, Gr. 0eu'u> are referred to Sk. han. Probably on this account Prof. 
 Monier Williams, in his Lexicon, refers han to a Prim. dhan t though so many of its forms 
 indicate an original ghan. 
 
12. Relations of Consonants, etc. 63 
 
 The Preposition af which appears in Latin Inscrr. is by Cors- 
 sen distinguished from ab,and derived from Sk. adhi. 
 
 L. Sk. Gr. 
 
 3) fel (comp. bilis) (hart, ' greenish yellow ') ^0X77 
 fu()do (ghuf) xefo> 
 
 To Pr. gli C. refers fulvus (helvus), host is (fostis), hario- 
 lus ('inspector of the hira or entrail'), haedus (faedus), 
 hordeum (fordeum), fames, far, frio, furfur. 
 
 IV. The Labial Mutes p, b. Labials 
 
 P, B. 
 These were sounded anciently as in modern language. 
 
 P corresponds generally to Pr. p, Gr. TT. But see I. 
 
 B corresponds often to Pr. b, Gr. ; but, as already shewn 
 (I. and III.), it has several other special relations. 
 
 Thus it is developed not only from dv (as in bis, bellum, bo- 
 nus, see p. 45), but also from gv : 
 
 L. Sk. ,Gr. 
 
 bos, bov- gaus povs 
 
 faba (bhas, ' eat ') <ay- 
 (for fag-va) 
 
 As an inner Consonant b represents Sk. bh regularly, dh rarely. 
 
 L. Sk. Gr. 
 
 nubes nabhas veffros 
 
 uber udhar ovOap 
 
 So b = $ (bh) in ambo (a/i<o>), ambi- (afi<i), glaber 
 6s), nubo (vvfjL<pr}), scribo (ypa0a>), sorbeo (po<ea>), umbilicus 
 (o/uf^aXos-) : in the suffixes -bus (-</H)> -bam, -bo, -bro, -bra, -bulo, 
 -bill, -bi (tibi, sibi, ubi, &c.), -bis (nobis, vobis). 
 
 Again b = (dh) in ruber (Ipvd-), plebs (77X^09), and in abies, 
 arbor, urbs, verbena, verbum, barba, &c. 
 
 V. The Dental Mutes t, d, retain their ancient sounds, corre- Dentals 
 spending to Sk. /, d (or dh), Gr. r, 8 (or 6). 
 
 a) The sonant mute stands regularly for the aspirate in medius 
 (Sk. madhyas, Gr. ^a-o-os for /xeS-yos), vidua (Sk. vidhavd), -dere 
 (Sk. dhd, Gr. Be-). In latere (\adelv), pati (Tra6tlv), t seems to re- 
 present Pr. dh ; but this is very exceptional. 
 
 b) Final d in C. L. is only used in a few particles (apud, ad, 
 haud, sed), and pronouns (id, illud, aliud, quod, quid, quid- 
 quid, &c.). Some of these are occasionally found in MSS. and 
 Inscrr. with t for d, as aput, haut, set, aliut. This shews that 
 final d had a hard sound. On final t, see p. 26. 
 
 c) The assibilation of inner di, as of ti, before a vowel, began 
 in the Imperial age, and is represented in Italian by zz, as mezzo 
 for medio. 
 
64 Latin Soundlore. I2 , 
 
 Nasals VI. The Nasals n, m, correspond in sound to Pr. n and m f 
 N, M. Gr. v and p.. 
 
 a) W has in Latin a twofold use : 
 
 1) As a Dental ; initial, final, and before a vowel : 
 
 2) As a Guttural (adulterinum) ; before g, c, qu. It is weak 
 
 and slightly uttered before s and ts, especially when these 
 are final. See p. 50. 
 
 Z>) In Latin the Labial Nasal m often takes the place which 
 belongs to v in Greek as a final suffixed Consonant : 
 (jjLovffav) x musam ; (currjv) x aberam. 
 (^ovtnS-wv) x musarum ; (Sopwv) x domorum. 
 
 In the First Pers. Plur. of Act. Verbs s corresponds to v \ 
 
 (eloper) x vidimus. 
 In the Third Pers. Plur. nt : 
 
 (a?rf/<rai/) x aberant. 
 
 Liquids VII. The Liquids and the Sibilant. 
 L,R. 
 
 1) Though r (littera canina, the growling letter) is one of 
 the roughest sounds, and i one of the softest, they are intimately 
 related to each other, 1 is a lisped r : compare bar bar us with 
 balbus, and KopaZ with *6Xa (Aristoph.) 
 
 Accordingly the interchange of these letters is frequent in Indie, 
 Greek and Latin. Some roots have 1 in all three : lagh, Ugh, 
 lu ; many have r in all : bhar, mar, sarp, star, hard, &c. 
 
 2) The derivation in L. and Gr. of l from Pr. r is exemplified in 
 
 L. Sk. Gr. 
 
 linquo ric* \ 7r . 
 
 luceo rue* \ VKm 
 
 cluo s*ru K-AJui 
 
 volo var /3ouX- 
 
 ulna aratni 
 
 sal sara <5\e 
 
 levis raghus 
 
 See the derivatives of svar, p. 1 7. 
 
 Lat. r from Sk. /is shewn in rump o from lup (old form rup\ 
 
 3) Comparing Latin and Greek, we find, on the one hand, 
 lacer (paws), lilium (\tipwv): so luscinia (Fr. rossignol) : 
 on the other, 
 
 grando (\a\aa), hirundo (x^Xt^wr), arx (aX^-), vermis 
 (eX/ug), strigilis (orXeyy/c) : 
 
 with a great number of words in which the letters correspond, 
 especially those with l : as 
 
 leo (XcW), levis (Xt7oe), oleum (e'Xcuoj/), silva (vX^y), &c. 
 
 but also some with r : as 
 
 aranea (aV"X V7 ?)> rivus (pooe), taurus (rai/pos), &c. 
 

 i2. Relations of Consonants, etc. 65 
 
 4) In Latin words the order Mute- Vowel- Li quid often appears 
 where the corresponding Greek forms have Mute-Liquid-Vowel : 
 
 bardus ((Bpadvs), caro (/c/aeas-), cerno (KpiVa>), dulcis (yXv/cvs-), pulmo 
 (7rAev/ia>z/), sorbeo (pocea>), torqueo (rpe'7ra>). So tri and ter, 
 trinus and ternus, porro for (protro), &c. 
 
 5) Frequent interchange is found between the Liquids and the 
 Dental d : 
 
 d and 1 : 
 
 lacrima (SaKpv, tear), lingua (E.L. dingua^ 'tongue'), levir (Sk. 
 devar, Gr. Scuyp), olere (oSoo&z, odor), Ulixes ('oSucra-evs), adeps 
 Meditor (jueXeraoo) is not so certain. 
 
 d and r : 
 
 meridies for (medi-dies) ; and ar- for ad in old compounds: 
 arbiter (ad-bitere), arcesso for (ad-ci-esso). 
 
 6) As to the sound of l, we learn from Priscian the opinion of 
 the elder Pliny : < ! triplicem, ut Plinio videtur, sonum habet : 
 exilem, quando geminatur secundo loco posita, ut ille, Metellus; 
 plenum quando finit nomina vel syllabas, et quando aliquam habet 
 ante se eadem syllaba consonantem, ut sol, silva, rlavus, clarus; 
 medium in aliis, ut lee turn, lee tus/ I. 7. 38. 
 
 7) The lightness of inner 1 caused it to be often sharpened by 
 doubling : 
 
 loquella, querella, &c. 
 
 8) On its affinity to u, see xx. In French this goes so far that 
 u often takes the place of l, forming diphthongs au, eau, eu, ou : 
 
 (ad illu) x au ; (ad illos) x aux ; (alter) x autre. 
 (cheval-s) x chevaux (chevel-s) x cheveiix. 
 (bel) x beau ; (castellum) x chateau ; (fol, mol. sol) xfo2t, mou, soil. 
 
 a) No relation is more important in Latin Wordlore than that R and 
 which arose between the letters r and s, changing the sibilant s - 
 between vowels into the canine liquid. Varro mentions it : ( In 
 multis verbis in quibus antiqui dicebant s postea dictum r, ut in 
 carmine Saliarium sunt haec : ... foedesum, plusima, meliosem, 
 asenam/ vii. 26. In the Carmen Arvale the Lares are called 
 Lases. Cicero says (Fam. ix. 21) that L. Papirius Crassus was the 
 first to call himself Papirius (B.C. 336) : before which all his clan 
 were called Papisii. So the Auselli became Aurelii, the Fusii 
 Furii, the Numisii Numerii, the Pinasii Pinarii, the Spusii 
 Spurii, the Volesi Valerii, the Vetusii Veturii. Thus we have 
 Halesus, Falisci, and Falerii ; Etrusci, Tusci, and Etruria. 
 
 Hence in roots these changes appear : 
 
 (asa) x ara; (asena, fasena) x harena; (fesiae) xferiae ; (nases) 
 x nares, comp. nasus ; (geso) x gero ; (hausio) x haurio ; (seso) 
 x sero; (uso) x uro ; (hesi) x heri, comp. \Qig y hesternus. 
 
 So spes andspero; quaero and quaeso ; vis, vires; glis, 
 gliris ; flos, floris, &c. ; nefarius from nefas, &c. 
 
 F 
 
66 Latin Soundlore. . I2 . 
 
 Hence almost all the Noun-flexions in r-, as er- or- dr- fir- from 
 Nominatives in es, is, iis, 5s (or), us, belong to stems which are 
 really not r-stems, but s-stems : the old forms, many of which are 
 found in old Inscrr., being, for instance (aesis, foedesis, pignosis 
 or pignesis, arbosem, floses, plusima, maioses), &c. 
 
 The Case-endings -arum -oruzn were (-asum, -osmri). 
 
 The Verb-forms -eraxn -ero were (-esam -eso\ -ris -re -ri were 
 (-sis -se -si). In the Passive endings -or -ur, &c., r represents 
 the pronoun se. 
 
 Dir-imo is for dis-emo, dir-ibeo for dis-hibeo. 
 
 ) The r for s between vowels very often corresponds to the loss of 
 Greek a between vowels : 
 
 (ausosa) x aurora (av-we, Sk. ushas); (ausis) x auris (ov 
 (visus) x virus (f/-oc, SL-mto); (nusus) x nurus (rvoc, Sk. snushd 
 (sosor) x soror (a-ap, Sk. s'vasar, ' sister'); (genesis) x generis 
 (yeVe-oe) ; (musis) x mu-ris (^uv-oc) ; (deasum) x dearum (flca-wy) ; 
 (esam) x eram (e-TJjv), &c. 
 
 c) H is for s before a consonant in Minerva(Sk. manas^ 'mind ') ; 
 verna (Sk. vas, ' dwell') ; veternus from vetus, diurnus, hodi- 
 ernus from dies : 
 
 And as final in the ending or for os : color, honor, labor, &c., 
 for colos, honos, labos, &c. 
 
 S. ad) The Greeks, who avoided sibilation as much as possible, sub- 
 
 stituted generally the rough breathing for primitive s at the begin- 
 ning of words. Not so the Italians. Hence Latin initial s before 
 a vowel corresponds often to Sk. s, Gr. aspirate : 
 
 salix (fXtV-rj), sex (e), sedes (e^oc), semi- (??/"-), serpo fa), si- 
 mul (/*> o/zov), sollus (o\oe), silva (v/Vr;), se (e), suus (cfos), suavis 
 ' (f/c^c), sub (v^-o), super (v:rep), sudor (^pwc), sus (vg), &c. 
 Sometimes initial s corresponds to Greek ' spiritus lenis : J 
 si (a)> sero (eip w )> serum (opdc). 
 
 bb) Sc, sp, st initial generally correspond in Greek and Latin, 
 unless s is dropt, as in t ego (oreyw). See p. 45. 
 
 cc) S initial was probably sounded more sharply than as an inner 
 letter : hence caussa as well as causa appears in MSS. and 
 Inscrr., and other occasional doublings of s are found. 
 
 dd) S falls out in Cerealis for (Ceresalis) ; in ver (e'-ap for 
 FfVap) ; in vi-m, v-i ; in the cases of spe-s for (spe-r-es = spe-s-es), 
 in those of dies, diei for (die-s-i), &c., and in other forms. 
 
 Jhe VIII. The soft Labial Spirant V. 
 
 Spirant 
 
 a) v-consonans has the same relation to f that b has to p : it 
 corresponds to Pr. v, Gr. digamma, like which it was sounded : 
 and this sound was probably that of Eng. w. 1 Corssen thinks its 
 
 1 That Latin v-consonans had the sound of English w always, is probable for the 
 following reasons : 
 
 i) By a slight change in the position of the speech organs the vowel i passes into 
 y-cons. By a precisely parallel change the vowel u becomes, not Eng. v, but Eng. w. 
 
i2. Relations of Consonants, etc. 67 
 
 initial sound was that of Eng. v, its inner sound that^of Eng. w. 
 
 L. Sk. Gr. 
 
 vomo vain fe/ic'w 
 
 VOlvO VCil F\V(M) 
 
 voco vac' Fe7T(jj 
 
 video vid (' know ') p t3- 
 
 vestis vasts 
 
 novus navas 
 
 ovis avis 6Fig 
 
 So vis (Fie), viola (Piov), vinum (Folvog), bos bov- (fiofg fiovg), 
 navis (yafe, yavg), ver (f*/p), vespera (Fevirepa, effTrlpa), Vesta 
 (FeffTta, lorm), radix (Fpia, p/a, /3p/a), &c. 
 
 ) As the Greeks lost the use of /, they represented initial v 
 sometimes by ov, sometimes by /3, 
 
 Varro (Ovappcov or Bdppav). 
 
 On the vocalization of v see p. 10 ; on its omission, see pp. 57, 58. 
 IX. l-consonans (J). The 
 
 On the sound and uses of i-consonans (j), see viii. i, and xii. 6. j pirant 
 It corresponds to Sk. y, sometimes to Gr. f, as iugum (Sk. yuj, 
 Gr. vy6v). 
 
 a) A form of i taller than the adjoining letters (I), appears in 
 late Republican and Augustan Inscrr. to express 
 
 1) long I-voc. : * 
 
 DlVO, El, STIPENDlS. 
 
 2) i-cons. ; both between vowels and initially : 
 
 MAlOR, CVlVS, ElVS ; IVS, IVLIA. 
 
 A more corrupt form il is also found : 
 cvilvs, coilvci. 
 
 d) That which is merely a general fact, has been wrongly set 
 down as a rule of sound : namely, that a vowel before i-cons. is 
 long. Corssen has shewn that in all words which can be traced 
 (for ieiunus is obscure) where a vowel is long before i-cons., it is 
 so by its own nature : 
 
 a-io, Ga-ius, Ma-ius, pe-ior, pe-iero, &c. 
 
 2) Greek ou (as in OueAe'a for Velia in Dion. Hal.) expresses Gr. digamma and Lat. v; 
 and this sound cannot be interpreted as Eng. v, but as w. The occasional substitution of 
 ft, by Plutarch chiefly, proves nothing to the contrary : but only means that, ov being a 
 clumsy representation of f and v, /3 was taken as the nearest labial instead. 
 
 3) A. Gellius cites a grammarian, who says that Deus Vaticanus presided over infancy, 
 and that the two first letters of his name (Va) are that sound which the infant first utters. 
 The sound then is Eng. wa not va, which the infant, having no teeth, cannot utter. 
 
 Corssen's opinion is that Latin initial v may have had that middle sound between w 
 and v, which German w has in some localities ; the upper teeth being brought near to 
 the lower lip, but not pressed upon it. This view we cannot accept. 
 
 1 It was shewn (p. 33) that ei was long used to express I with a leaning to e. Lucilius 
 tried to mark long vowels by writing them twice, as Maarcus for Marcus. This appears 
 on some Inscrr. but did not last long. It was followed in Cicero's time by the Apex or 
 mark over a long vowel, like (') or ('), which frequently appears on a, e, o, u ; not on i. 
 
 2 
 
68 Latin Soundlore. I2 
 
 Inbi-iugus, quadri-iugus, tri-iuges, &c., i, being naturally 
 short, remains so. 
 
 c) Progressive assimilation has changed i-cons. to 1 in cello, 
 fallo, pello for (cel-yo, fal-yo, pel-yo), as a\Xoc in Greek for 
 (a'A-yoc), (T(j)a\\(i) for (<7rt>a/\-ya>). 
 
 d) On luppiter, luno, I anus, &c. for D-iupiter, &c., see 
 p. 1 5. This passage from dj to j shews distinctly how the assibi- 
 lation arose by which i-cons., afterv\ r ards taking the sign J, became 
 a compound palatal sibilant in English and (with gi for Eng. j) in 
 Italian ; while in French it becomes purely palatal. So, from Latin 
 diurnus we get 
 
 Eng. It. Fr. 
 
 journey giorno journte 
 
 X. The Double Consonant x. 
 
 X ( = cs) corresponds to Gr. . See vii. 8. 
 Republican as well as L. L. Inscrr. shew zs : 
 
 deixserit) duxserit, vixsit. 
 
 In L. L. z passed into ss or s, and appears as ss in Italian ; so 
 disse for dixit. 1 
 
 A more ample list is here added of Latin words which have lost initial letters. 
 
 i. C. : vapor, vapidus, vappa (Jruaf) ; vermis ; verrere 
 
 ludere (krftf)', libum ; raudus (c-rudus, ' raw ') ; nidor (icvl<T<ra). 
 
 G. : lac (yaAaKT-) ; nasci . . . ; narrare . . . ; noscere . . ; Naevius ; niti ; vivere. 
 P. : lanx ; latus ; later ; laetus ; livere ; linter. 
 
 D. : ruere ; runa ; racemus ; bellum . . . bis . . . bonus viginti . . . ; iuvare . . . 
 luppiter, luno, lanus . . . ; iuvenis ; iam ; iacere. 
 S. : cavus, caula, cavea, caulis, causa, cauda, casa, castrum, cassis, cutis ; cernere . . . 
 
 cortex ; culter ; carpere ; cilium ; caedere ; clavis, claud 
 parcere ; pannus ; picus ; pituita ; penuria ; pellere ; puls 
 pulex ; palea ; pandere ; populare ; fallere ; fides ; fungus 
 tundere ; tonare ; taurus ; tueri ; tergere ; torpere ; turdus 
 cus ; talpa ;. turgere ; trux, trucidare ; macula ; mordere 
 mittere ; ninguere ; nex ; nare, nares, nasus ; nurus, nutrix 
 
 lamentum, laus, luscinia ; 
 
 cena ; gradi ; -gruere 
 palpare ; palpebra ; parra 
 
 torus ; temetum ; tegere 
 turba, turbo, turma ; trun- 
 
 memor . . . ; minis . . . 
 limus, linere, linea, littera, 
 
 limax, lubricus ; rivus, Roma, Reate. 
 
 St. : lis, latus, locus. 
 
 V. : laqueus ; lacer, lacerare ; lupus. 
 
 2. Observe, on xxix., that derivatives sometimes lose radical consonants belonging to 
 the words from which they are derived : currus, curulis ; mamma, mamilla ; offa ofella ; 
 quattuor, quater ; villa, vllicus ; in-loco, ilico ; stilla, stilicidium ; mille, mllia (but millia 
 on the Ancyra monument). See M. Lucr. i. 313, and, on religio, i. 63. 
 
13-14- Flexion of Words. 69 
 
 DIVISION II. 
 
 MORPHOLOGY. 
 
 MORPHOLOGY or WORDLORE treats of Words. Y ord - 
 
 Lore. 
 
 It is subdivided as follows : 
 
 CHAP. I. Words : their Parts, Kinds, and Flexion in general. 
 II. Nouns : their Parts, Kinds, and Declension. 
 III. Verbs : their Parts, Kinds, and Conjugation. 
 
 IV. Particles : their Kinds. 
 
 V. Derivation and Composition of Words. 
 
 VI. Supplement on the Uses of Words. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 WORDS AND THEIR FLEXION, 
 i. Stem-flexion. 
 
 1. WORDS are called in Grammar the PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 Words are either Simple, as flagrare, flam ma, or Compound, as 
 con-flagrare, flamm-i-fer. 
 
 Every Word has Meaning and Form. Form helps to determine 
 Meaning. 
 
 2. Every Word has STEM and ROOT. 
 
 Word, Stem and Root may be (but seldom are) the same : as tu, 
 thou\ aqua, water. 
 
 Word and Stem may be (but usually are not) the same, while Root 
 differs : flamrna,y^z^^: Root, flag-, blaze. 
 
 Root and Stem are often the same : ag-ere, to act. Such words 
 are called Radical or Primitive : all others are Derivatives. 
 
 A Compound Word has only one Stem, but as many Roots as it 
 lias composing parts. Thus the Stem of conflagrare is con- 
 flagra-, the two Roots, cum and flag-. 
 
 3. Every true element in a word following the Root, is called a 
 SUFFIX: thus in flam ma (for flag-ma) -ma is a Suffix; in flag- 
 rare -r, -a, -re are Suffixes. 
 
 Suffixes may need a connecting Link or Vincular, which is not 
 elemental : reg-i-bus, quer-i-monia. The final Suffix, which 
 converts a Stem into a Word, is called an Ending, as -re in flag- 
 r-a-re. But the Suffix -ma in flam -ma is not called an Ending, 
 because flam ma is itself a Word. When it forms flamma-s, s is 
 .an Ending, and, specially, a Case-ending. 
 
7O Latin Wordlore. ^ 
 
 4. A syllable placed before a Word to modify its meaning, no? 
 being a root- word, is called a PREFIX. Thus inte-tend-i, cin- 
 cinnus, -te and cin- are Prefixes. But Particles in composition,, 
 as de- se- re-, are not called Prefixes, being themselves roots. 
 
 5. The last letter of a Root, as gr in flag-, is the Root-character. 
 The last letter of a Stem, as a in flagra- and fl a mm a, is the Stem- 
 character : and this (being of chief importance in Grammar) is called 
 the CHARACTER of the Word. 
 
 6. FLEXION, or Stem-flexion, is the method of inflecting a Stem,, 
 that is, of making such changes in its form as may indicate changes 
 in its meaning and use. This is usually done by suffixing a 
 Flexional Ending to the Stem : flagra -re, flam ma -rum. Such 
 suffixed Endings sometimes need a Vincular, asXinreg-i-bus; 
 sometimes they cause a mutilation of the Stem, as flamm-is for 
 flamma-is (which is for flamma-bus). Sometimes change in a 
 letter of the Stem itself is an inflexion : as flamma from flamma. 
 Sometimes both Letter-change and Ending are used; ag-, eg-i. 
 Sometimes Prefix, Letter-change, and Ending : can-, ce-cin-i. 
 
 7. How then is a Stem defined ? 
 
 A Stem is that part of a Word which is virtually contained in 
 every change of form, though the character is often liable to be 
 hidden through the operation of the laws which determine Letter- 
 change. So the character of flamma is hidden in the form flam- 
 m-is; the character of virgin- is hidden in the form virgo : the 
 character of dirig- in the form direxi. 
 
 8. And how is a Root defined ? 
 
 A Root is the primitive element in any word ; that part which the 
 word has in common with all other kindred words. Thus, in agito, 
 the Stem is agita-, but the Root is agr-, which it has in common with 
 ag-o, ag-men and many other kindred words. The Root-cha- 
 racter and Root-vowel are more liable to be hidden through Letter- 
 change than even the Stem-character. Thus the Root ag;- is con- 
 tained in the words actio, examen, redigo, but obscured in each 
 word by some mutation. 
 
 cuSes & Classification of Words. 
 Words. Words are of three kinds : 
 
 I. Nouns. II. The Verb. III. Particles. 
 
 Nouns. I. A NOUN (Nomen) is the name of something per- 
 ceived or conceived. 
 
 Nouns are of three kinds: Substantives; Adjectives; 
 Pronouns. 
 
 i. A Noun SUBSTANTIVE (Nomen Substantivum) is 
 a name simply denoting something perceived or con- 
 ceived : psittacus, the parrot '; nix, snow ; virtus, 
 valour y virtue-, Caesar, Caesar. 
 
15. Classification of Words. 7 1 
 
 2. A Noun ADJECTIVE (Nomen Adjectivum) is a 
 name indicating a quality perceived or conceived as in- 
 herent in something denoted by a Substantive. Accom- 
 panying the Substantive, it is said to be an Attribute, 
 or in Attribution to it : psittacus loquax, the talka- 
 tive parrot \ nix alt a, the deep snow ; vera virtus, 
 true valour ; Caesar inclutus, the renowned Caesar. 
 In such examples it is also called an Epithet. 
 
 3. A PRONOUN (Pronomen) is a relational Substantive 
 or Adjective which abbreviates discourse by avoiding the 
 repetition of Names. Thus a speaker avoids his own 
 name by using the Pronoun ego, /. He addresses an- 
 other as tu, thou or you. A person once mentioned he 
 afterwards names as is or ille, he. He speaks of his 
 own horse as meus equus, my horse ; of his companion's 
 dog as canis tuus,y0ur dog. 
 
 1) One Substantive may qualify another, and is then said to be 
 an Apposite, or in Apposition, to it: psittacus avis loquax, 
 the parrot, a talkative bird, where avis, bird, is an Apposite, or in 
 Apposition, to psittacus, the parrot \ 
 
 2) Names given to the qualities of things are called Abstract 
 (Abstracta) : candor, whiteness, virtus, valour. In contradis- 
 tinction to these, Names of things to which such qualities belong 
 are called Concrete (Concreta) : nix, snow ; vir, a man. 
 
 3) Concrete Names Individual or Proper (Nomina Propria), 
 are such as can only be applied to single persons, places, or objects : 
 Caesar, Roma, Bucephalus, Cerberus. 
 
 4) Names are called Appellative (Appellativa) when they be- 
 long in common to a number of individuals which thus constitute a 
 class : vir, a man, urbs, a city, ager, afield, canis, a dog, arbor, 
 a tree. 
 
 5) Names expressing in the Singular Number a plurality of things, 
 are called Collective Nouns or Nouns of Multitude: turba, 
 crowd, populus,#e0foe, gens, clan, exercitus, army. 
 
 6) A quality, without a substantive name, may sometimes suffice 
 to describe an object That is, Adjectives may stand as Substan- 
 tives. In Natural History, the Adjective words Mineral, Vegetable, 
 Annual, Mammal, express sufficiently the things meant. So in 
 Latin: sapiens, a wise man (vir) ; calida, warm water (aqua) ; 
 natal is, a birthday (dies) ; utile, the useful, convey their meaning 
 without Substantives. 
 
 7) NUMERALS (Numeralia) are a class of Adjectives expressing 
 Number: unus, one; duo, two, &c., centum, a hundred, mille, a 
 thousand, &c. These, like other Adjectives, can appear as Sub- 
 stantives : mili a mult a, many thousands. The ancients marked 
 them as Pronouns. 
 
72 Latin Word lore. 15. 
 
 8) A Substantive, or any word put for a Substantive, is called a 
 Noun-term. 
 
 9) Nouns have a Flexion called DECLENSION ; and four Acci- 
 dents (Accidentia) : Number, Gender, Person, and Case. A 
 Noun inflected through all its Cases is said to be Declined. 
 
 The II. The VERB (Verbum) is the Word which makes 
 
 Verb< Predication, that is, which declares or states something 
 about a Subject, and so forms a Sentence : ago, I do ; 
 dicimus, we say: consul triumpavit, the consul tri- 
 umphed. 
 
 1. The Verb has two parts : 
 
 1) The Verb Finite (Verbum Finitum), which is personal; 
 
 2) The Verb Infinite (Verbum Infinitum), consisting of Verbal 
 
 Nouns : principally the Infinitive (Infinitivum), which 
 is a kind of Substantive; and Participles (Participia), 
 which are a kind of Adjectives. 
 
 2. The Verb has a Flexion called CONJUGA TION. It has five 
 Accidents : Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. A 
 Verb inflected through certain forms is said to be Conjugated. 
 
 Parti- III. PARTICLES (Particulae) are the uninflected help- 
 words of discourse ; antl are of four kinds : Adverb, 
 Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. 
 
 1. An ADVERB (Adverbium) is a particle which helps 
 to determine the force of a Verb or Adjective, sometimes 
 of a Substantive, sometimes of another Adverb : Quam 
 turpiter interfectus est Socrates, tarn bonus civis et 
 v e r e philosophus ; how sham efu lly was Socrates put to 
 death, so good a citizen and truly a philosopher. 
 
 1) Adverbs which ask and answer the questions, ' when, where, 
 whence, whither/ &c., are Pronominal Adverbs : 
 
 quando ? ubi ? quo ? nunc hie illuc 
 
 2) Adverbs which ask and answer the question 'how often,' are 
 Numeral Adverbs : 
 
 quotiens? semel bis ter quater quinquiens 
 
 2. A PREPOSITION (Praepositio) is a particle which, 
 used with a Noun-case, helps to define its relation to 
 some other Noun : Ego sto ad fores, tu in conclavi, 
 / stand a t the door, you in the apartment. 
 
 1) Many Prepositions can be used as Adverbs : such are, 
 ante, before ; circum, around ; intra, within. 
 
 2) The Cases used with Prepositions are the Accusative and the 
 Ablative. 
 
i6 
 
 1 6- 1 8. Nouns. Number. Gender. 73 
 
 3. A CONJUNCTION (Coniunctio) is a particle which 
 helps to shew the connection of words, clauses, and sen- 
 tences : Oves et aves, sheep and birds ; edimus ut 
 vivamus, we eat that we may live. 
 
 4. An INTERJECTION (Interiectio) is an exclamatory 
 particle used to express feeling or call attention : 
 
 O, O / heu, eheu, alas! en, ecce, lo / 
 
 The Parts of Speech, recounted, appear to be 
 
 1. Substantive 5. Adverb Speech. 
 
 2. Adjective 6. Preposition 
 
 3. Pronoun 7. Conjunction 
 4- Verb 8. Interjection 
 
 which are inflected. which are uninflected. 
 
 Note. Latin has no Articles : and, when a Latin Substantive is 
 to be rendered in English, the context and collocation alone shew 
 what English Article, if any, must be supplied. Thus : lux may 
 mean < a light/ or < the light/ or < light ' in general, according to the 
 place in which it stands. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 NOUNS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 i. NUMBER in Nouns. Nu JJ. 
 
 The Substantive is declined by Number and Case ; the ber * 
 Adjective by Number, Gender, and Case, agreeing in 
 these with the Substantive which it qualifies. 
 
 The Numbers (Numeri) are two: 1. Singular (Singu- 
 laris): mensa, table \ 2. Plural (Pluralis): mensae, 
 tables. 
 
 Sanskrit, Greek, and Sclavonic have a Dual Number ; of which 
 in Latin the only traces are the words duo, two, am bo, both. 
 
 18 
 
 ii. GENDER of Nouns. Gender. 
 
 The Genders (Genera) are two : I. Masculine (Mas- 
 culinum) ; 2. Feminine '(Femininum). A Substantive 
 which is neither Masc. nor Fern, is said to be Neuter 
 (Neutrum), i.e. Neither of the two. 
 
 A Substantive which may be Masc. or Fern, is called 
 Common (Commune) of both Genders. 
 
74 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 18, 
 
 Distinct 
 Generic 
 names. 
 
 (The lively imagination of the East ascribed sex to inanimate 
 objects, the sun, moon, stars, trees, &c. Hence the distinctions of 
 Gender in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin : which are found not only 
 in the Romanic languages, but also in German and other Teutonic 
 dialects, English alone excepted.) 
 
 A. The Gender of words which imply sex is expressed in Latin 
 in four ways. 
 
 I . First : Distinct words are used, as in English, for many of the 
 most familiar relations : 
 
 homo 
 mas 
 
 man 
 male 
 
 maritus \ 
 vir 
 pater 
 frater 
 vitricus 
 gener 
 
 husband 
 
 father 
 brother 
 stepfather 
 son-in-law 
 
 patruus 
 
 uncle 1 
 
 avunculus 
 
 uncle { on s 
 
 senex 
 verna 
 taurus 
 
 old man 
 house slave 
 bull 
 
 aries 
 vervex 
 catus 
 
 ram \ 
 wether > 
 he-cat 
 
 verres \ 
 maialis ) 
 haedus 
 
 boar 
 kid 
 
 mulier 
 
 woman 
 
 femina 
 
 female 
 
 uxor } 
 femina > 
 
 wife 
 
 mater 
 
 mother 
 
 soror 
 
 sister 
 
 noverca 
 
 stepmother 
 
 nurus 
 
 daughter-in-law 
 
 amita 
 
 aunt 
 
 matertera 
 
 aunt 
 
 anus 
 
 old woman 
 
 ancilla 
 
 maid-servant 
 
 vacca 
 
 cow 
 
 ovis 
 
 ewe 
 
 fel-es(is) 
 
 she- cat 
 
 scrofa 
 
 sow 
 
 capella 
 
 
 Homo (human being), though never used with a feminine epithet, 
 may comprehend woman as well as man. 
 
 Mulier is the Roman law-term for woman, especially for a mar- 
 ried woman, distinct from virgo. 
 
 F emin.a.,femate (// fyvovaa, genetrix), is applied to all animals. 
 
 Maritus and uxor are the law-terms for husband and wife. 
 
 Vir is constantly used for maritus, as Mann in German. 
 
 Senex (with its comparative senior) is the only word corre- 
 sponding to Fem. anus. It occurs rarely as a Fern. Adjective. 
 
 Sub- II. Secondly : Many words, called Substantiva Mobilia, have 
 
 Mobiiia a M ascu n ne and a Feminine form, as in English, lion, lioness, &a 
 Such are 
 
 i) avus, 2. 
 nepos, 3. 
 puer, 2. 
 socer, 2. 
 
 grandsire 
 grandson 
 boy 
 father-in-law 
 
 avia, i. 
 neptis, 3. 
 puella, I. 
 socrus, 4. 
 
 grandmother 
 granddaughter 
 girl 
 mother-in-law 
 
 So, poeta poet, poetria; cliens client, clienta; rex king 9 
 regina; caupo vintner, cop a; fidicen, lute-singer, fidlclna; 
 
i8. 
 
 Gender. 
 
 75 
 
 tibicen flute-player, tiblcina; leo lion, lea, leaena ; gallus 
 cock) gallma ; Cres Cretan, Cressa; Threx Thracian, Thre- 
 issa; Libys Libyan, Libyssa; Cilix Cilician, Cilissa; 
 Phoenix, Phoenician, Phoenissa; Laco Laconian, Lacaena; 
 Tros Trojan, Troas : and others. 
 
 2) Many Masculines of the Second Declension in -us -er have 
 Feminines of the First Declension in -a -ra : 
 
 a, de-us a 
 
 domin-us a 
 
 cerv-us a 
 
 urs-us a 
 
 div-us a 
 
 er-us a 
 
 equ-us a 
 
 vitul-us a 
 
 fili-us a 
 
 serv-us a 
 
 iuvenc-us a 
 
 y. arbit-erra 
 
 nat-us a 
 
 libert-us a 
 
 lup-us a 
 
 magist-er ra 
 
 marit-us a 
 
 patron-us a 
 
 mul-us a 
 
 minist-er ra 
 
 spons-us a 
 
 (3. agn-us a 
 
 porc-us a 
 
 cap-er ra 
 
 privign-us a 
 
 asin-us a 
 
 simi-us a 
 
 colub-er ra 
 
 3) Verbals of the Third Declension in -tor -sor often have 
 Feminines in -trix, as vie- tor, vic-trix. So 
 
 adiu-tor -trix moni-tor -trix expul-sor expul-trix 
 
 crea-tor -trix fau-tor -trix ton-sor ton-strix, &c. 
 
 Patronymic Ending 
 Fern. 
 
 4) Patronymica, or Names formed from those of parents or 
 ancestors, have the following Endings : 
 
 Ending of 
 Parent Name 
 
 -us, 2. and some of Decl. 3. . 
 -eus (five) .... 
 -ius, 2. and some of Decl. 3. . 
 -as, i. and some of Decl. 3. . 
 
 Masc. 
 
 -ides 
 -Ides 
 -iades 
 -ades 
 
 -is 
 
 -g& 
 
 -ias 
 
 Examples : 
 
 Tantal-ides 
 son 
 
 Tantal-is 
 daughter 
 
 Thest-iades 
 son 
 
 Thest-ias 
 daughter 
 
 ^/"Tantalus. 
 
 Thes-ides Thes-eis 
 
 son daughter 
 
 0/"Thestius. 
 
 Anchis-iades, son ^/Anchis-es. 
 Aene-ades, son ^/"Aeneas. 
 
 of Theseus. 
 
 Other Female Patronymic Endings are -Ine, one : 
 
 Neptunine, daughter of Neptunus, Acrisione, daughter of 
 Acrisius. 
 
 III. Thirdly: Substantiva Communia, Words Common of Sub- 
 both Genders, are of two classes. Com- iva 
 
 i. Appellatives used of both sexes. Such in English are the mmua * 
 words parent, child, infant, cousin, companion, guide, guardian, 
 hostage, witness, &c. 
 
 These include names of animals, found Masc. or Fern., without 
 change of form : gender being shown either by the epithets applied 
 to them, or by their apposition to other words : bos, s us, &c. 
 
76 Latin Wordlore. 18. 
 
 2. Words having no relation of sex, but varying their gender 
 according to sense or usage : dies, day, callis, path. 
 
 i. Appellativa Communia. 
 
 i) Appellatives of Common Gender should not be grouped in- 
 discriminately : community of gender being in some the rule, in 
 others an exception. When the sexes are included in the Plurals, 
 the gender is Masculine by the rule which gives priority to that 
 sex: 'sacerdotescasti/ chaste priests, in Virgil, including both 
 sexes. 
 
 Coniunx, wife, is usual ; coniunx, husband, poetic. 
 
 The following words are freely used of either sex : 
 
 auctor 
 
 author 
 
 municeps 
 
 burgess 
 
 civis 
 
 citizen 
 
 nemo 
 
 nobody 
 
 comes 
 
 companion 
 
 parens 
 
 parent 
 
 custos 
 
 guardian 
 
 sacerdos 
 
 priest (priestess) 
 
 dux 
 exul 
 
 guide, leader 
 banished one 
 
 satelles 
 vates 
 
 body-guard 
 seer 
 
 The following are usually Masculine, but occasionally Feminine : 
 
 adulescens young person hostis enemy 
 
 antistes president infans infant 
 
 hospes host (hostess) iuvenis yoimg person 
 
 Yet the Feminine forms ant is tit a, ho spit a, are also found. 
 The following, usually Masculine, rarely take Feminine epithets, 1 
 
 affinis akin 
 artifex artist 
 augur augiir 
 contubernalis tent-mate 
 heres heir 
 incola inhabitant 
 index informer 
 
 iudex 
 interpres 
 miles 
 patruelis 
 testis 
 vindex 
 
 judge 
 interpreter 
 soldier 
 cousin 
 witness 
 avenger 
 
 The following, usually Masculine, are found in apposition to 
 females, but not with Feminine epithets : 
 
 accola dweller-near obses hostage 
 
 advena new-comer opifex worker 
 
 aurlga charioteer praeses president 
 
 auspex omen-taker transfuga deserter 
 
 homo human being 
 
 Add to these successor, rector, sponsor. 
 
 2) Nomina Animantium. 
 
 d} animans, Masc., a rational being ; Fern, or Neuter, an 
 
 animal. 
 quadrupes (properly Adjective) is usually Fern., but in 
 
 several places Masc., rarely Neuter. 
 ales, bird (properly Adjective), is generally Fern., yet 
 
 often Masc. 
 
X 8. Gender. 77 
 
 U) The following are of both genders, preferring that subjoined : 
 
 anguis 
 anser 
 bos 
 camelus 
 canis 
 damma 
 
 snake (m.) 
 goose (m.) 
 ox or cow (m.) 
 camel 
 dog 
 deer 
 
 grus^ 
 perdix 
 serpens 
 sus 
 tigris 
 
 crane (f.) 
 partridge 
 serpent (f.) 
 swine (f.) 
 tiger or tigress (f.) 
 
 c] accipiter, hawk, Masc., is once Fern, in Lucretius. 
 bubo, owl, Masc., is once Fern, in Virgil. 
 elephantus, Masc., is once Fern, in Plautus. 
 lynx, Fern., is once Masc. in Horace. 
 talpa, mole, Fern., is once Masc. in Virgil. 
 
 2. For Common Nouns of the second kind see the Declensions, 
 
 IV. Fourthly : Names of Animals only found in one gender, which Epicoe- 
 necessarily comprises both sexes, are called Epicoena (eiriKoiva, na * 
 common to both}. 
 
 Among Masculine Epicoena are : 
 
 crabro hornet pavo peacock 
 
 cycnus, olor swan piscis fish 
 
 glis dormouse stelio lizard 
 
 mugil, mullus mullet vermis worm 
 
 mus mouse vespertilio bat 
 
 papilio butterfly vultur vufaire 
 
 with all not before specified in -us, -ex, -er: corvus, rook, 
 milvus, kite, turdus, thrush, culex, gnat, passer, sparrow. 
 
 The reading ' fecundae leporis/ Hor. S. ii. 4. 44 cannot be relied 
 on. Lepus, hare, is therefore a Masculine Epicene. 
 
 Among Feminine : 
 
 avis bird apis bee 
 
 anas duck vulpes (is) fox 
 
 with all not before specified in -a, -ix, -do : aquila, eagle, 
 comix, raven, coturnix, quail, hirundo, swallow, &c. 
 
 If the sex must be expressed, this is done by using the words 
 femina, mas (mascula): 'femina piscis/ Ovid.: 'vulpis 
 mascula/ Plin. So in English, he-goat, she-goat, cock-sparrow, 
 hen-sparrow, &c. 
 
 B. The Gender of Latin substantives which do not imply sex is Gender 
 often shewn by the meaning or the form of the word. shewn 
 
 by 
 
 i. The general correspondence of Gender with Meaning is as fol- Mean- 
 lows : iwg- 
 
 (i) Masculine (2) Feminine (3) Neuter 
 
 Males Females Indeclinable words. 
 
 Months (mensis m.) Plants (planta f.) 
 
 Winds (ventus m.) Countries (terra f.) 
 
 Mountains (mons m.) Islands (insula f.) 
 
 Rivers (fluvius m.) Cities (urbs f.) 
 
 People (populus m.) 
 
78 Latin Wordlore. ^ 
 
 Examples 
 
 Masc. : lulius, Aprilis, Notus, Haemus, Liris, Achivi. 
 Fern. : Andromache, laurus, Germania, Cyprus, Athenae. 
 Neut. : fas, instar, alpha, vivere. 
 
 Exceptions to the Rules of Gender as shewn by Meaning: 
 A) Mountains : 
 Fern. : 
 
 Decl. i. Aetna ; Hybla ; Ida ; Oeta ; Calpe ; Cyllene ; 
 
 Pholoe ; Pyrene; Rhodope. 
 Decl. 3. Alpis (usually Plur.) ; Carambis. 
 
 Neut. : 
 
 Decl. 2. Pelion ; and Plurals implying mountain ranges 
 (iuga) : Gargara; Ismara jMaenala ;Taygeta ;and 
 others. 
 Decl. 3. Soracte. 
 
 &) Rivers : 
 Fern. : 
 Decl. i. Allia ; Albula; Druentia ; Duria (the Dora} ; Ma- 
 
 trona ; Lethe. 
 Decl. 3. Styx. 
 
 A A) Plants : 
 Masc. : 
 
 Decl. 2. acanthus ; amaracus ; asparagus ; boletus ; ca- 
 lamus ; carduus ; hyacinthus ; intubus ; iuncus ; mus- 
 cus ; narcissus ; oleaster. 
 
 Neut. : 
 
 Decl. 2. Nouns in um : apium;ligustrum;lilium;thymum. 
 
 Decl. 3. acef ; cicer ; papaver ; piper ; robur ; siler ; 
 
 siser ; suber ; tus. 
 Common : 
 
 Decl. 2. balanus ; cytisus ; lotus; rubus; spinus. 
 
 Decl. 3. larix ; rumex. 
 
 BH) Countries : 
 Masc. : 
 Decl. 2. Pontus. 
 
 Neut. : 
 
 Decl. 2. Nouns in um : 
 
 Illyricum ; Latium ; Noricum ; Samnium. 
 
 CC) Cities : 
 Masc. : 
 
 Decl. 2. All .Plurals in i : 
 
 Corioli ; Delphi ; Gabii; Puteoli ; Veii ; Argi (for Argos). 
 Also,Canopus; Orchomenus; Stymphalus. 
 

 ; 1 8. Gender. 79 
 
 Decl. 3. Nouns in as ant- : Acragas; Taras ; es, et : 
 Tunes; several in o on- : Frusino ; Hippo; Narbo 
 (Martius);Sulmo;Vesontio; some in dn- : Brauron; 
 us unt- : Hydrus;Pessinus. 
 
 But of this last class most are Fern.: Amathus ; Opus; 
 
 Myus; Rhamnus, &c. Selinus is common. 
 Martial has ' Narbo pulcherrima/ of another Narbo. 
 Croto (also Croton, and Crotona f.), Marathon are 
 
 common. 
 
 Neut. : 
 
 Decl. 2. Nouns in um, on, a (PI.) : 
 
 Tarentum ; Tusculum ; Ilion ; Arbela ; Leuctra ; Susa. 
 
 Decl. 3. Most in e, ur, os : 
 
 Caere ; Bibracte ; Reate ; Tergeste ; Tibur ; Argos. 
 
 Also Praeneste, which Virgil and Juvenal have Fern, in 
 Abl. by Synesis. Anxur is Masc. in Mart, with reference 
 to the hill, ' candidus Anxur;' Neut. in Hor. with re- 
 ference to the town; 'impositum saxis late can- 
 dentibus Anxur. 7 
 
 Amphipolis, Trapezus are Neut. in Pliny with re- 
 ference to ' oppidum.' 
 
 Some have double form and gender : Sagunt-usf.-um, n. 
 
 Note i. Names of precious stones are, some Fern, in reference 
 to gemma, others Masc. in reference to lapis. 
 
 Fern. : 
 
 amethystus; sapphirus : iaspis; onyx; sardonyx (usually). 
 
 Masc. : 
 
 beryllus : adamas. 
 Common : 
 
 chrysolithus ; smaragdus, emerald. 
 
 Note 2. Synesis (agreement with meaning, not with form) some- 
 times gives to a Noun an attribute of a different Gender : 
 
 'Eunuchus acta est' (i.e. fabula Eunuchus), Ter. ( Cen- 
 tauro magna' (i.e. nave Centauro), Verg. /Alta cre- 
 mata est Ilion/ Ov. Met. xiv. 466. 
 
 So, Female names in um of Decl. 2 are Fern.: <Mea Glycerium/ 
 Ter. ( Mea Silenium,' Plaut. 
 
 Note 3. Some Fern, and Neut. words imply men without changing 
 their gender : 
 
 o p e r a e, workmen ; e x c u b i a e, night sentinels ; v i g i 1 i a e, 
 watchmen-, auxilia, auxiliaries-, so mancipium n. 
 means a slave, considered as a piece of goods. 
 
 Similarly, prostibulum, seortum are Neuter words contemp- 
 tuously applied to profligate women. 
 
 2. Correspondence of Gender with Form appears in the De- 
 clensions. 
 
8o Latin Wordlore. ^ 
 
 x 9 iii. CASE in Nouns. 
 
 Case. 
 
 i. The Cases (Casus) in each Number are six: 
 Nominativus, Vocativus, Accusativus, Genetivus, Dati- 
 vus, Ablativus. (On the Locative Case see below, and 
 20.) 
 
 Answers the question Example : 
 
 1) NOMINATIVE . Who or What? Quisdedit? . . iVir, 
 
 Who gave? . . I A man. 
 
 2) VOCATIVE (Case of one addressed) | ^ vir > 
 
 3) ACCUSATIVE . Whom or what ? Ouem video ? . , Virum, 
 
 Whom do I see ? I A man. 
 
 4) GENITIVE . Whose or where- Cuius donum ? ^ Viri, 
 
 of? Whose gift? . \ A man's. 
 
 5) DATIVE . . . To or for whom Cui datum ? . * Viro, 
 
 or what ? To whom given f I To a man. 
 
 6) ABLATIVE . . "By, with, &c., A quo datum ? } A viro, 
 
 whom or what ? By whom given? \ By a man. 
 
 2. Case (Gr. TrTaxrtg) is the form given to a Noun or Pronoun to 
 shew the relation in which it stands to some other word. Gram- 
 marians represented that form which a Noun takes when it is the 
 Subject of a sentence, by an upright line, and likened the other 
 forms to lines falling away from the perpendicular. These they 
 called Casts (cado) : and their series, the declension, or sloping 
 down, of the word. Afterwards, the Nominative was called Casus 
 Rectus, the Upright Case, and the others (except the Vocative) 
 Casus Obliqui, Oblique Cases-, whereas the Stem is more pro- 
 perly the upright line, and the several Cases, including the Nomi- 
 native and Vocative, are deflections from it. So, from the Stem 
 nuc- (walnut-tree] the Cases are : Nom. V. nuc-s ( = nux), Ace. 
 nuc-exn, G. nuc-is, D. nuc-i, Ab. nuc-e. N 
 
 3. The Relations which Cases fail to express are supplied by 
 Prepositions ; and in the languages of modern Europe the use of 
 Prepositions prevails, and Declension is comparatively rare. Thus 
 the Romanic languages have only one Case-form in each Number 
 for Nouns ; English, two ; but the Possessive in English is of very 
 limited use. Sanskrit has the six Latin Cases and two more, the 
 Instrumental and the Locative. Greek has only five ; but it pre- 
 serves traces of the Instrumental and the Locative. Latin retains 
 many fragments of the Locative Case. 1 
 
 1 The order in which the cases were ranked by ancient Grammarians, imitated, as it 
 has been, by modern writers, is vicious and misleading. The Vocative has been separated 
 from the Nominative, with which it is almost identical, and has thus assumed an im- 
 portance which ought not to be given to it. The Accusative, so often concurring with 
 both, has been separated from both. The Dative and Ablative, so often identical in 
 form, have been thrown apart. The only motive for this misarrangement was the desire 
 to place the Genitive next to the Nominative, because its variations indicate those of 
 Declension. But this is better done by giving the Stem and Character, which appear in 
 the Genitive Plural of Nouns: thus homo, homin-, shewn in homiN-um. 
 
20. The Five Declensions. 8 1 
 
 iv. The Five Declensions. Th ^ 
 
 Five 
 
 There are Five Declensions of Latin Nouns, which ^ecie 
 shew the Character of their Stems by the letter before 
 -rum or -um in the Genitive Plural. 
 
 1. A-stems have Character . A . . mensA-rum. 
 II. O-stems . . dominO-rum. 
 
 III. Consonant-) ~ . ..- 
 
 \ a Consonant ] virgiN-um. 
 
 I-stems I . . ovl-um. 
 
 IV. U-stems IT . . gradU-um. 
 V. E- stems E . . diE-rum. 
 
 a) The Declensions fall into two groups : namely 
 
 (I) The A- E- and O-declensions (i. 5. 2.) 
 
 (II) The Consonant and Semiconsonant (I, U) declensions (3. 4.) 
 
 (I) The primary vowel a is appropriate to Fem. words (Decl. i) ; 
 weakened to e, it forms another more limited Fem. Decl. (5) ; 
 weakened to o (which in a later age partly became u), it forms a 
 Masc. Decl. (2) in o-s (u-s), including also Neuters in o-m (u-m). 
 
 (II) In Consonant Nouns the stem and suffix are often linked by 
 the vowel i: duc-X-bus. Sometimes this happens in the Nom. 
 Sing. : can-i-s, iuven-i-s, which thus appear like I-nouns. On the 
 other hand, I-nouns often drop that light vowel in the Nom. Sing, 
 and so wear the appearance of Consonant Nouns : stirp-s, par-s. 
 These causes made it so hard for grammarians to draw the line of 
 distinction accurately between these two classes that they included 
 them in one Decl. (3). 
 
 U-nouns (4), which contract some cases, escape this confusion, 
 but are liable to another ; for the affinity of u and o has caused 
 some of their case-forms to be often mixed up with those of the 
 O-Decl. (2). 
 
 Obs. Pronouns are peculiar and irregularly declined Nouns, 
 which are with most convenience treated separately. 
 
 U) i. In Neuter Nouns, the Nominative, Vocative, and Accusa- 
 tive are the same in each Number severally ; and in the Plural 
 they end in a. The A- and E-declensions have no Neuters : the 
 U -declension has very few. 
 
 2. The Vocative in words no* Greek is the same as the Nomina- 
 tive, except in the Singular of Nouns in -us of Decl. 2, which have 
 Vocative-ending e: domin-e, fili (for fili-e). 
 
 3. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike. 
 
 1 The Consonant before -um is the Character in Consonant-nouns. This may be any 
 Mute (except k, q), Nasal, or Liquid ; or the Sibilant represented by r. 
 
 G 
 
82 Latin Wordlore. 20! 
 
 Forma- v. Formation of the Cases. 
 
 The Cases are generally formed by suffixing an Ending to the 
 Cabes. Stem;. a vincular i is sometimes required in Consonant-nouns; 
 while in many instances Letter-change occurs in the formation. 
 See Biicheler (Lat. Declension}. 
 
 NOMINATIVE SINGULAR : Primitive ending s. 
 
 Decl. i. A-nouns, except Greek Masc. names, do not take s : 
 jnensa: but Gr. Borea-s, alipte-s. 
 
 Decl. 2. O-nouns, not Neuter, take s: dominu-s for domi- 
 no-s. 
 
 But some stems in -ero- drop o, rejecting s : 
 
 puer for puero-s, tener for tenero-s. 
 
 And nouns, in which -ro follows a mute or f, drop o, reject s, and 
 insert e before r : 
 
 magist-e-r for magistr-o-s, nig-e-r for nigr-6-s. 
 
 Decl. 3. Mute Consonant-nouns take s : 
 
 iudex for iudic-s; pes forped-s; princep-s. 
 
 Liquid and Nasal nouns do not take s : consul, passer, virgo 
 (virgin-). Hiem-p-s alone takes s, inserting p. 
 
 In numerous words with Nom. in s, inflected in r-, or-, 6r-,ur, s 
 belongs to the stem and is not a Case-ending ; its place in flexion 
 being taken by r : flos floris for (flosis), aes aeris for (aesis). 
 
 I-nouns take s if the vowel is not dropt : 
 
 avi-s, nube-s 1 for (nubi-s), gravi-s : 
 
 also when the vowel is dropt (which happens in many stems) if the 
 Consonant before the Character is a Mute : 
 
 audax for (audaci-s), serpen-s for (serpenti-s). 
 If the stem ends in ri- after a Mute, i is dropped, and e inserted 
 before r: imb-e-r for (imbri-s), ac-e-r for acri-s: but the forms 
 in ris are also used by Adjectives. 
 
 Decl. 4. U- nouns take s : gradu-s. 
 Decl. 5. E-noans take s: die-s. 
 
 ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR : Primitive Ending m, Greek v or a. 
 
 All Declensions take the Ending m for Masc. and Fern. Nouns, 
 o passing into u, and i generally into e : Cons.-stems insert e : 
 
 1. mensa-m 3. virgin-e-m 4. gradu-m 
 
 2. dominu-m for domi- tussi-m 5. die-m 
 
 no-m nube-m 
 
 orbe-m 
 
 1 Corssen, referring to the Noun pub-es -is, with its byform puber -eris, also to 
 such Nouns as Cer-es -eris, pulv-is -eris, &c., contends that I-nouns in -es, like 
 nubes, sedes, were originally S-stems. 
 
I 20. Formation of the Cases. 83 
 
 Obs. In all Neuter Nouns, the Nominative and Accusative have 
 the same form. See iv. b. This, in O-nouns, is o-m un> ^ 
 bellum for bell-om. 
 
 In Cons-, I-, and U-nouns it is the Noun-stem : 
 
 3. sis er, m armor, sinapi; 4. cornu; 
 
 often with vowel-change : genus for (genes), frigus for (frigos) 
 melius for (melios), mare for (mari-) : or dropping I : animal for 
 (animali-), calcar for (calcari-). 
 
 GENITIVE SINGULAR : Primitive Ending generally as. 
 
 As the Greek, so the old Latin language weakened as into 6s ; 
 which was further weakened into is This ending is taken by 
 Consonant-, I-, and U-nouns : 
 
 3. virgin-is, tuss-is for tussi- 4. gradus for gradu-is. 
 
 That A-nouns anciently had it, argued from familia-s in 
 paterfamilias, &c., and similar forms found in E. L. That it 
 was used in E -nouns is shewn by the form Diespiter,and rabies 
 (Gen.) in Lucr. iv. 1079. But the endings (a-i) ae, (o-i) i, and e-i 
 were afterwards taken by A-, O-, and E-nouns severally. 
 
 A-i remained long in use, and abounds in Lucretius, as vita-i, 
 and is used in a few words by Virgil, (o-i) is not found in use ; it 
 passed into i at an early time, and is also found as (ei) in R. L. till 
 near the Augustan age. Lucilius proposed to reject Gen. S. (ei) and 
 write Nom. PI. (ei) ; but his distinction was not observed. 
 
 In E-nouns e-i remains. Hence 
 
 i. mens-ae. 2. domin-i. 5. die-i. 
 
 DATIVE SINGULAR : Primitive ending ai. 
 
 This Ending is only taken by A-, O-, and E-nouns : 
 
 i. mensae (anc. mensai) for (mensa-ai) ; 2. domino (anciently 
 dominoi) for (domino-oi) ; 5. diei for (die-ei). 
 
 In the rest the Locative i has superseded the Dative Ending : 
 
 3. virgin-i tuss-i for (tussi-i) 4. gradu-i 
 
 LOCATIVE : Primitive Ending i. 
 
 The Locative Singular remains in Latin in such forms as 
 
 militiae, belli, domi, humi, vesperi, ruri, Tiburi, luci; 
 
 the Adverbial forms ubi, ibi, &c. 
 
 and in the names of towns, &c., of the A- and O-declensions : 
 
 Romae for Roma-i, Tarent-i, Milet-i, &c. 
 
 The Loc. Plur. is confounded with Dat. and Abl. in is or bus. 
 The Sing. Loc. in Cons.-nouns often passes into the Abl. e ; Car- 
 thagine for CarthaginI, Lacedaemone for Lacedaemoni. 
 
 Vespere also is used for vesper!. 
 
 ABLATIVE SINGULAR : Primitive ending t. 
 In Oscan and old Latin this ending became d : 
 i. sententia-d 2. poplico-d 3. conventioni-d mari-d 4. senatu-d 
 
84 Latin Wordlore. 2 <x 
 
 This d (often noticeable in Plautus) was dropped after B.C. 186, and 
 the Ablative became the Stem of the word, lengthened in the 
 Vowel-Declensions (though I is often weakened into e : urb-e), and 
 in the Consonant-Declension ending in e : contion-e. 
 
 NOMINATIVE PLURAL : Primitive ending as. 
 
 This became -es in the Consonant-, U-, and E-declensions : 
 
 3. virgin -es 4. gradus for (gradu-es) 
 
 orb-es for (orbi-es) 5. di-es for (die-es) 
 
 Instances of es in the O-Decl. occur in E. L. 
 But in the A- and O-declensions, by dropping a and contracting 
 vowels, as in the Gen. Sing., the endings ae, i, were obtained : 
 
 i. mensae for (mensa-es). 2. do mini for (domino-es). 
 The form (ei) for I occurs in Latin as late as the age of Caesar. 
 
 ACCUSATIVE PLURAL : Primitive ending s, added to the Accu- 
 sative Singular in Masc. and Fem. Nouns. 
 
 The change of zn into n before s makes the Latin forms ans, 
 ons, (e)ns, Ins, uns, ens. Hence, by excluding the weak nasal, 
 with compensation, are obtained as, 6s, es, Is, us, es : 
 
 1. mens-as 3. virgin-es 4. gradus 
 
 2. domin-os orb-Is 5. dies 
 
 This shews why the Accus. Plural of I-nouns is correctly written 
 -Is, though the analogy of the Nom. has led to the use of es (eis). 
 
 The Primitive ending of Accus. Nom. and Voc. Plural in Neuter 
 Nouns was a, which was weakened into a in Greek and Latin : 
 
 2. bell-a. 3. nomin-a, reti-a. 4. cornu-a. 
 
 GENITIVE PLURAL : Primitive endings am, sam. 
 
 The former of these became -um in Consonant-, I-, and U-nouns : 
 
 3. virgin-um orbi-um 4. gradu>um 
 
 The latter, as -sum, was adopted in A- O- and E-nouns : 
 
 1. m ens a- rum for (mensa-sum) 5. die -rum for (die-sum) 
 
 2. domino-rum for (domino-sum) 
 
 DATIVE AND ABLATIVE PLURAL : Primitive ending bhyas. 
 
 This, corrupted into bus (for b-ios), became the ending of these 
 Cases in Consonant- I- U- and E-nouns : 
 
 3. virgin-i-bus orbi-bus 4. arcu-bus 5. die-bus 
 
 and occasionally in the A-nouns : 
 
 6. dea-bus, filia-bus, &c. 
 
 But in most A-nouns, it became (ais)is : I. men sis. 
 In O-nouns, (oes, ois)ls, usually (eis) before Augustus, after 
 whose time is prevailed ; 2. dominis ; belli s. 
 
 We find ii contracted : pecunis (Cic.), provincis (Inscr.). 
 
Endings of the Declensions. 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 fc 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 & 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ,S 'I i 'S 'S . 'S 
 
 ^ 
 
 , H i! 
 
 
 >3 
 
 * 
 5 
 
 I So 
 
 .0 il 
 
 (A 
 
 IV 
 
 >C3 
 
 IH 10 10 I 
 
 1^ 
 
 *< r 
 
 O S 
 
 
 
 x en 
 
 S 
 
 <L> g 
 
 .Sizi 
 
 OH 
 O 
 
 11 
 
 O CtJ 
 
 N t/T 
 
 HH' bJO 
 
86 
 
 Latin Word lore. 
 
 First 
 Declen- 
 sion, 
 
 SECTION II. 
 i. First Declension: A-Nouns. 
 
 The First Declension contains Latin and latinized 
 words with the Nominative Singular in a. These are 
 Feminine: Musa, muse, mensa, table \ excepting Male 
 Names and Appellatives: Messalla, Belga, Belgian, 
 s crib a, secretary, p o e t a, poet ; also Had ri a, Adriatic- 
 gulf', which are Masculine. 
 
 It also contains Greek Appellatives and Names, 
 Proper and Patronymic, in es, as, Masculine : aliptes, 
 a trainer, Aeneas, At rides; in e, a, a, Feminine: 
 crambe, Agave, Nemea, Iphigenia. 
 
 [In Tables of Declension and Conjugation byforms of equal 
 authority are placed beside others : an am ; byforms compara- 
 tively rare are added between brackets : en (am).] 
 
 ii. Table. 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 
 i. table, f. 
 
 2. secretary, m. 3. goddess, f. 4, 
 
 , son of Atreus, m. 
 
 Nom. mens-a 
 
 scrib-a 
 
 de-a 
 
 Atrld-es (a) 
 
 Voc. mens-a 
 
 scrib-a 
 
 de-a 
 
 Atrid-e a (a) 
 
 Ace. mens-am 
 
 scrib-am 
 
 de-am 
 
 Atrid-en 
 
 Gen. mens-ae 
 
 scrib-ae 
 
 de-ae 
 
 Atrid-ae 
 
 Dat. mens-ae 
 
 scrib-ae 
 
 de-ae 
 
 Atrid-ae 
 
 Abl, mens-a 
 
 scrib-a 
 
 de-a 
 
 Atrid-e a 
 
 /-:=... _ , 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 Nom. mens-ae 
 
 scrib-ae 
 
 de-ae 
 
 Atrid-ae 
 
 Voc. mens-ae 
 
 scrib-ae 
 
 de-ae 
 
 Atrid-ae 
 
 Ace. mens-as 
 
 scrib-as 
 
 de-as 
 
 Atrid-as 
 
 Gen. mens-Arum 
 
 scrib-Arum 
 
 de-Arum 
 
 Atrid-um 
 
 Dat. mens-is 
 
 scrib-is 
 
 dc-abus 
 
 Atrid-is 
 
 Abl. mens-is 
 
 scrib-is 
 
 de-alms 
 
 Atrid-is 
 
 Fern. Adjectives in 
 
 a, as bona, tenera, nigra", 
 
 are declined as 
 
 mensa. 
 
 
 
 
 iii. Cases in the First Declension. 
 
 a] The old Gen. S. in as remains in the phrases paterfamilias, 
 materfamilias, filiusfamilias, found in good writers from. 
 Terence to Suetonius : and in the Plur. patres (matres, filii) 
 familias. Familiae is also used with pater, &c., by Livy always : 
 and familiarum is written with patres, &C. 1 
 
 b} The old Gen. S. in ai appears in Inscrr. It is used as a di- 
 syllabic ai by Ennius, Plaut. Lucr. Verg. (aulal, aural, aquai, pictal).. 
 
 1 Alcximena-s(Gen.) is cited from Plautus. The Gen. form in a-CS, found chiefly in. 
 late Inscrr. of I. I., or later R. L., may be an imitation of Gr. n?. 
 
22. 
 
 The First Declension. 
 
 c] The Gen. Plur. is formed in -um rather than -arum (which 
 can however be used), by the following : 
 
 1) Patronymic Names in -des, 
 
 Aenea-des, Aenea-dum. 
 
 2) Many Names of Tribes, People, c., 
 
 Lapith-ae, Lapith-um. 
 
 3) Compounds of col- gen- (in poetry), 
 
 caelicol-a, caelicol-um ; terrigen-a, terrigen-um. 
 
 4) Amphor-um from amphor-a, drachm-um from drach- 
 
 m-a, when used with Numerals : 
 
 terna milia amphorum, 3,000 amphors; milledrach- 
 mum, 1,000 drachms. 
 
 d] The form in abus of Dat. Abl. PI. might serve to distinguish 
 the Fern, from the Masc. not only in dea, but in many other Sub- 
 stantiva Mobilia. For this purpose it is ascribed by grammarians 
 to numerous words : 
 
 filia, nata, liberta, conserva, domina, era, mima, nympha, 
 asina, equa, mula, anima : 
 
 and in some of these, especially fili a, nata, liberta, it often occurs 
 in Inscrr. and legal forms. But, generally, there is little authority 
 for the use of this Case-ending by classical authors, in any words 
 but deabus, duabus, ambabus. 
 
 e] The Locative Case in ae (for a-i) is formed in the Sing, by 
 militia, and Names of Towns : 
 
 militiae, at the wars 3 Romae, at Rome. 
 
 in is by Plural Names of towns : 
 
 Athenis, at Athens. 
 
 iv. Grreek JNouns in rirst Declension. Greek 
 
 Nouns 
 
 SINGULAR. in 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Gen. | Dat. 
 
 Abl. DecL x 
 
 M. alipt-es .... 
 
 e a 
 
 en (am) 
 
 ae 
 
 ae 
 
 e(a) 
 
 Pers-es a ... 
 
 e a 
 
 en am 
 
 ae 
 
 ae 
 
 e a 
 
 Aeet-es a ... 
 
 e a 
 
 en (am) 
 
 ae 
 
 ae 
 
 e(a) 
 
 Aene-as .... 
 
 a 
 
 an am 
 
 ae 
 
 ae 
 
 a 
 
 Marsy-as (a) . . 
 
 a a 
 
 am an 
 
 ae 
 
 ae 
 
 a 
 
 F. music-a (e) . . . 
 
 ft (6) 
 
 am (en) 
 
 ae (es) 
 
 ae 
 
 a(e) 
 
 cramb-e .... 
 
 e 
 
 en 
 
 es 
 
 ae 
 
 e 
 
 Helen-e (a) ... 
 
 e a 
 
 en am 
 
 es ae 
 
 ae 
 
 e a 
 
 Agav-e .... 
 
 e 
 
 en 
 
 es 
 
 ae 
 
 e 
 
 Neme-a .... 
 
 a 
 
 an (am) 
 
 ae 
 
 ae 
 
 a 
 
 Iphigenl-a . . . 
 
 a 
 
 an am 
 
 ae i ae 
 
 a 
 
 Electr-a .... 
 
 a 
 
 an am 
 
 ae 
 
 ae 
 
 a 
 
 The Plural of Appellatives follows that of mensa. 
 
 a) Many Greek Nouns of this Decl. were latinized early, and 
 seem to have soon exchanged the Greek endings rye, c, TJ, d, first 
 
88 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 for a, then, as shortening came into vogue, for a, following the prac- 
 tice of the Aeolic dialect : 
 
 Masc. pirata (7ra/oar?/c) Fern, aura (ai/pa) 
 
 poeta (Trotijrfo) epistula (eTrioToX?;) 
 
 Such words are : 
 Masc., like s crib a : 
 
 athleta, bibliopola, citharista, nauta, &c. 
 Fern., like mensa : 
 
 ancora, apotheca, aula, bibliotheca, comoedia, tragoedia, 
 scaena, &c. 
 
 b) Words introduced later have much variety, fluctuating between 
 the Greek and Latin form ; and poetic usage in these often differs 
 from that of prose. 1 Thus we find : 
 
 A) Masc. Greek Nouns : 
 
 1) Patronymics, like Atrid-es a : 
 
 Aeneades, Pelides, Tydides, &c. (a being rare). 
 
 2) Appellatives, like aliptes : 
 
 anagnostes, geometres, Olympionices, sophistes. 
 
 3) Gentile Names, like Pers-es a : 
 
 Scyth-es a, Sauromat-es, Sarmat-a ; 
 with many in Ites Ita, otes ota : 
 
 Abderlt-es a, Epirot-es a. 
 
 These sometimes pass to Decl. 3. with Accus. S. em, en. 
 
 4) Like Aeet-esa : 
 
 Anchis-es a, Lycamb-es a, Orest-es a, Thyest-es, a. 
 
 5) Like Aeneas : 
 
 Anaxagoras, Diagoras, Lysias, Boreas, &c. 
 
 6) Like Marsy-as a : 
 
 Cinyr-as a, Dam-as a, Damoet-as a, larb-as a, Leo- 
 nid-as a, Mid-as a. 
 
 S) Fern. Greek Nouns : 
 
 1) Like music-a e : 
 
 dialectic-a e, grammatic-a e, physic-a e, rhetoric-a e. 
 
 2) Ltke crambe : 
 
 aloe, epitome, hyperbole, &c. 
 
 3) Like Helen-ea : 
 
 Alcumen-a, Erigon-a, Hecat-a, Led-a, Nymph-a, 
 Semel-a; which also take e : Circ-e, Cybel-e, Dirc-e, 
 Europ-e, Eurydic-e, Penelop-e; which also take a. 
 
 1 Cicero, as a rule, prefers Latin forms to Greel^, and sometimes introduces the latter 
 with acknowledgment of their origin ('quae hyperbole dicitur'), or with an apology, as 
 Epp. adAtt. vii. 3 : ' Reprehendendus sum quod homo Romanus Piraeea scripsi, non 
 Piraeeum ; sic enim omnes nostri locuti sunt ' 
 
23- The Second Declension. 89 
 
 Also local names, Aetn-a, Cret-a, Id-a, Ithac-a, Liby-a, 
 may take e for a in poetry. 
 
 4) Like Agave : 
 
 Calliope, Danae, Euterpe, Hebe, Lethe, Melpomene, Oenone, 
 Persephone, Procne, &c. 
 
 5) Like Nemea : 
 
 Malea, Midea. 
 
 6) Like Iphigenia : 
 
 Medea; and the local Names Aegina, Lerna, Ossa. 
 
 7) Like Electra: 
 
 Cassandra. 
 
 Note. Many Nouns in es, which in Greek belong to the First 
 Decl., having the form of Patronymics without really being such, 
 pass over to the Third Decl. in Latin, forming Gen. -is : 
 
 Alcibiades, Euclides, Euripides, Miltiades, Simonides. 
 
 Yet these and many other names, Greek and barbarian, which 
 take Gen. is, fluctuate between the First and Third Declension in 
 the ending of the Accus. S. (en, em). Such are : 
 
 Achilles, Aristoteles, Archimedes, Artaxerxes, Cleanthes, 
 Datames, Diogenes, Diomedes, Euphrates, Mithridates, 
 Phrahates, Polynices, Polycrates, Socrates, Tiridates, Xer- 
 xes, &c. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 i. Second Declension: 0-Nouns. Second 
 
 Declen- 
 
 The Second Declension contains 
 
 1) Latin and latinised Nouns in ils (for 6s) chiefly 
 Masculine : d o m i n u s, lord ; 
 
 2) Clipt Masculine Nouns in gr (for er-6s, r-6s ; see 
 p. 82): puer, boy, magister, master] to which add vir 
 (for vir-os), man ; 
 
 3) Neuter Nouns in urn: bellum, war. 
 
 4) Greek Nouns in 6s, Masc. and Fern. ; in 6s, Masc. ," 
 in on, Neuter ; used chiefly by the poets. 
 
 ii. Table: 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 lord, m. 
 
 boy, m. 
 
 master, m. 
 
 war, n. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 domin-us 
 
 puer 
 
 magister 
 
 bell-um 
 
 Voc. 
 
 domin-e 
 
 puer 
 
 magister 
 
 bell-urn 
 
 Ace. 
 
 domin-um 
 
 puer-um 
 
 magistr-um 
 
 bell-um 
 
 Gen. 
 
 domin-i 
 
 puer-i 
 
 magistr-i 
 
 bell-i 
 
 Dat. 
 
 domin-o 
 
 puer-o 
 
 magistr-o 
 
 bell-o 
 
 Abl. 
 
 domin-o 
 
 puer-o 
 
 magistr-o 
 
 bell-o 
 
Latin Wordlore. 
 
 23. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Irregu- 
 lar 
 Decl. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 domin-i 
 
 puer-i 
 
 magistr-i 
 
 bell-a 
 
 Voc. 
 
 domin-i 
 
 puer-i 
 
 magistr-i 
 
 bell-a 
 
 Ace. 
 
 domin-os 
 
 puer-os 
 
 magistr-os 
 
 bell-a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 domin-Orum 
 
 puer-Orum 
 
 magistr-Orum 
 
 bell-Orum 
 
 Dat. 
 
 domin-is 
 
 puer-is 
 
 magistr-is 
 
 bell-is 
 
 Abl. 
 
 domin-is 
 
 puer-is 
 
 magistr-is 
 
 bell-is 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 son, m. 
 
 bitshel, m. 
 
 God, m. 
 
 command, n. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 fili-us 
 
 medimn-us 
 
 de-us 
 
 imperi-um 
 
 Voc. 
 
 fil-i 
 
 medimn-e 
 
 de-us 
 
 imperi-um 
 
 Ace. 
 
 fili-um 
 
 medimn-uin 
 
 de-uxn 
 
 imperi-um 
 
 Gen. 
 
 fil-i (ii) 
 
 medimn-i 
 
 de-i 
 
 imper-i (ii) 
 
 Dat. 
 
 fili-o 
 
 medimn-o 
 
 de-o 
 
 imperi-o 
 
 Abl. 
 
 fili-o 
 
 medimn-o 
 
 de-o 
 
 imperi-o 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 fili-i 
 
 medimn-i 
 
 di (de-i) * 
 
 imperi-a 
 
 Voc. 
 
 fili-i 
 
 medimn-i 
 
 di (de-i) 
 
 imperi-a 
 
 Ace. 
 
 fili-os 
 
 medimn-os 
 
 de-os 
 
 imperi-a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 fili-Orum 
 
 medimn-um 
 
 de-Orum, de-um 
 
 imperi-Orum 
 
 Dat. 
 
 fili-is 
 
 medimn-is 
 
 dis (de-is) 
 
 imperi-is 
 
 Abl. 
 
 fili-is 
 
 medimn-is 
 
 dis (de-is) l 
 
 imperi-is 
 
 Vir, a man ; Ace. S. vfrum, &c. ; Gen. PL virorum or virum. 
 And its Compounds, semivir, decemvir, triumvir, &c. 
 
 SINGULAR (no Plural). 
 
 sea, n. 
 
 N.V.Ac, pelag-us 
 Gen. pelag-i 
 D. Abl. pelag-o 
 
 venom, n. common-people, n. (m.) 
 
 vlr-us vulg-us 
 
 vlr-i (rare) vulg-i 
 vlr-o vulg-o 
 
 Pelag-e, seas, occurs in Lucr. ; vulgus has an Accus. vulg-um, m, 
 Pelagus (TTfAayoc, PI. TrfXay-ca, 77) is a Greek Neuter Noun. 
 
 iii. Cases in the Second Declension. 
 
 1) The endings os, om were used even to the Augustan age, after 
 v, u, qu, as shewn by Inscrr. and MSS. Thus were written av-os, 
 av-om, div-om, mortu-os, mortu-om, aequ-om, &c. 
 
 2) The Vocative in e is a weakening of 6 (Pr. a), and resembles 
 English forms in ie, y (Willie, Johnny, &c.). 
 
 Male names in ius contract this case into l: Claud i, Mercuri, 
 Demetri, Vergil i. Pom pel (from Pompeius) is further con- 
 tracted by Horace into Pomp ei. SoVulteljfromVulteius. Filius, 
 sou, is the only Appellative which forms this contraction. Others 
 are regular : fluvie, O river-, and Adjectives : Cynthie, O Cyn- 
 thian (Apollo). But me us (for mius), Voc. mi for mie. 
 
 Dii, diis are sometimes written, but pronounced as di, dis. 
 
23. The Second Declension. cjX 
 
 3) The Gen. Sing, of Substantives with Nom. ius, ium, was 
 contracted into i (by prose-writers as well as poets) till the Au- 
 gustan age, and is so written by Virgil and Horace. Propertius 
 and Ovid are the first who wrote it, which then became the usual 
 form ; but the poets Manilius, Persius, and Martial prefer i. 
 
 4) Humus, ground, bellum, war, vesper, evening, and Sin 
 gular Names of towns, form the Locative Case in i : 
 
 humi, on the ground Ephesi, at Ephesus 
 
 belli, at the wars Mileti, at Miletus 
 
 vesperi (vespere), at evening Tarenti, at Tarentum 
 
 Plural names of towns form the Locative in is : Gabiis, at Gabii \ 
 Veiis, at Veii. 
 
 5) The Genitive Plural Ending um is preferred to orum : 
 
 a) by words signifying coins, sums, weights, and measures : 
 
 Gen. PL from Nom. Sing. 
 
 nummum . . . nummus, a coin 
 
 denarium . . . denarius, ten-as-piece 
 
 sestertium . . . sestertius, sesterce 
 
 talentum .... talentum, a talent (a sum and weight) 
 
 stadium .... stadium, fiirlong 
 
 modium .... modius, /<:/ 
 
 medimnum . . . medimnus (also um, n.), bushel 
 
 b) by many names of people: Argivum, Danaum, Pelas- 
 
 gum, &c. from Argivus, &c. 
 
 c) as a licence, chiefly in poetry, by a great number of words, 
 
 such as deus and its compounds, divus, vir and its com- 
 pounds, faber, engineer, socius, ally, liber i, children, 
 &c. : also by numeral and compound Adjectives : ( denum 
 talentum'; 'magnanimum Rutulum'; 'omnige- 
 numque deum monstra.' Verg. 
 
 iv. Clipt Nouns in er. 
 
 i) The Clipt-nouns from Stems in ero-, like puer, are 
 gener, son-in-law vesper, evening 
 
 soczr, father-in-law Liber, Bacchus 
 
 adulter, paramour (lascivious, Adj.) 
 
 and Adjectives, 
 
 asper, rough (rarely aspr-) miser, wretched 
 
 lacer, torn prosper, prosperous 
 
 liber, free (whence liberi, children of tener, tender 
 
 freemen) 
 
 with the many compounds of fero, gero ; frugiter,^*#&/, cor- 
 niger, horned. Add satur, satura, saturum, /////, satiated. 
 Iber (Hiber), Celtiber, Spaniard, form their cases in er-o- : 
 Iberum, Celtiberum, c. 
 
92 Latin Wordlore. 23. 
 
 2) Clipt-nouns from Stems in ro- after a mute or f, like ma- 
 gister : 
 
 ager, field cancer, crab faber, architect 
 
 aper, wild boar caper, he-goat liber, book 
 
 arbiter, umpire coluber, snake minister, attendant 
 
 auster, south-wind culter, knife 
 
 With Proper Names, as Ister or Hister, the Danube, Alex- 
 ander, Euander, Teucer, &c. ; and these Adjectives : 
 
 aeger, sick macer, lean sacer, sacred 
 
 Afer, African niger, black scaber, rough 
 
 ater, jet-black pige r > slow sinister, on left hand 
 
 Calaber, Calabrian impiger, active taeter, foul 
 
 creber, frequent integer, entire vafer, cunning 
 
 glaber, smooth pulcher, beautiful noster, our 
 
 ludicer, sportive niber, red vester, your 
 
 ) Mulciber, Vulcan, and dexter, on the right hand, are de- 
 clined with and without e in the other forms : 
 
 Mulciber-i or Mulcibri (also Mulciberis, Mulcibris 3.) ; 
 dexter, dextera or dextra, dexterum or dextrum. 
 
 /3) Some Substantives use the form in us as well as that in er : 
 Euander or Euandrus (whence Voc. Euandre) in Virgil; 
 Maeander or Maeandrus: puerus (anc.). 
 
 Greek v. Greek Nouns in the Second Declension. 
 
 Nouns 
 
 in SINGULAR. 
 
 Deci. 2. Nom< Del-6s, f. Ath-6s, m. Androge-6s (iis), m. Peli-Sn, n. 
 
 Voc. Del-e Ath-6s Androge-os Peli-6n 
 
 Ace. Del-6n um Ath-5n (o) Androge-o on (ona) Peli-on 
 
 Gen. Del-l Ath-6 Androge-6 (i) Peli-i 
 
 D.Abl. Del-o Ath-6 (one) Androge-o Peli-o 
 
 o) The Greek Nom. and Accus. forms of Personal and Local 
 Names, with a few Appellatives, in 6s, on, Masc. Fern., and on, 
 Neut, are frequently used in Latin poetry, but rare in prose : 
 
 Meleagros ; scorpios ; Cnidos ; Troilon ; Samon ; Ilion, &c. 
 
 Virgil has Athon (as from Athos) : Chaos n. 3., Abl. Cha5 : 
 and Panthu, Voc. of Panthus. 
 On Nouns in eus see 24. 
 
 /3) The Greek Genitive Plural in on ( W j/) is found in Latin. 
 Sallust has ( colonia Theraeon/ ^Philaenon arae/ for The- 
 raeorum, Philaenorum. So Georgicon for Georgicorum, 
 from Georgica, the Ge orgies. 
 
 Gender vi. Gender in the Second Declension. 
 
 Deci. 2. Besides the Nouns of which the meaning determines the Gender, 
 as stated in is. ii., only four genuine Latin words in this Deci. 
 are Fem. They are : 
 
23- 
 
 Adjectives in Decl. II. and I. 
 
 93 
 
 alvus, paunch humus, ground 
 
 colus, distaff "(See Decl. 4.) vannus, winnowing-fan 
 
 The following Greek words are Fern. : 
 arctus, the bear-constellation dialectus, dialect 
 atomus, atom, C. Fin. i. 6. pharus, lighthouse, Stat. S. v. 101. 
 
 carbasus, linen curtain or sail 
 
 and many others are cited by grammarians, but without good 
 classical authority for their use. 
 Barbitos, lute, is common. 
 
 vii. Table of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I. Tabieof 
 
 Adjec- 
 
 Adjectives of three Endings, in -us -a -um, -er -era -erum, tivesin 
 and -er -ra -rum, follow the Second and First Declensions. com? 6 
 
 and 
 
 MASC. 
 
 FEM. 
 
 NEUT. 
 
 
 First 
 Declen 
 sions. 
 
 like 
 
 like m e n s a 
 
 like bellum 
 
 
 dominus . bonus 
 
 bona 
 
 bonum 
 
 good 
 
 
 puer . . . tener 
 
 tenera 
 
 tenerum 
 
 tender 
 
 
 magister . niger 
 
 nigra 
 
 nigrum 
 
 black 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 i) N. 
 
 bon-us 
 
 bon-a 
 
 bon-um 
 
 V. 
 
 bon-e 
 
 bon-a 
 
 bon-um 
 
 Ace. 
 
 bon-um 
 
 bon-am 
 
 bon-um 
 
 G. 
 
 bon-i 
 
 bon-ae 
 
 bon-i 
 
 D. 
 
 bon-o 
 
 bon-ae 
 
 bon-o 
 
 Abl. 
 
 bon-o 
 
 bon-a 
 
 bon-o 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 bon-i 
 
 bon-ae 
 
 bon-a 
 
 V. 
 
 bon-i 
 
 bon-ae 
 
 bon-a 
 
 Ace. 
 
 bon-os 
 
 bon-as 
 
 bon-a 
 
 G. 
 
 bon-orum 
 
 bon-arum 
 
 bon-orum 
 
 D. 
 
 bon-is 
 
 bon-is 
 
 bon-is 
 
 Abl. 
 
 bon-is 
 
 bon-is 
 
 bon-is 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 2) N. tener 
 
 tener-a 
 
 tener-um 
 
 V. tener 
 
 tener-a 
 
 tener-um 
 
 Ace. tener-um 
 
 tener-am 
 
 tener-um 
 
 G. tener-i 
 
 tener-ae 
 
 tener-i 
 
 D. tener-o 
 
 tener-ae 
 
 tener-o 
 
 Abl. tener-o 
 
 tener-a 
 
 tener-o 
 
94 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 24. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 N. 
 
 tener-i 
 
 tener-ae 
 
 tener-a 
 
 V. 
 
 tener-i 
 
 tener-ae 
 
 tener-a 
 
 Ace. 
 
 tener-os 
 
 tener-as 
 
 tener-a 
 
 G. 
 
 tener-orum 
 
 tener-arum 
 
 tener-orum 
 
 D. 
 
 tener-is 
 
 tener-is 
 
 tener-is 
 
 Abl. 
 
 tener-is 
 
 tener-is 
 
 tener-is 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 niger 
 
 nigr-a 
 
 nigr-um 
 
 V. 
 
 niger 
 
 nigr-a 
 
 nigr-um 
 
 Ace. 
 
 nigr-um 
 
 nigr-am 
 
 nigr-um 
 
 G. 
 
 nigr-i 
 
 nigr-ae 
 
 nigr-i 
 
 D. 
 
 nigr-o 
 
 nigr-ae 
 
 nigr-o 
 
 Abl. 
 
 nigr-o 
 
 nigr-a 
 
 nigr-o 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 nigr-i 
 
 nigr-ae 
 
 nigr-a 
 
 V. 
 
 nigr-i 
 
 nigr-ae 
 
 nigr-a 
 
 Ace. 
 
 nigr-os 
 
 nigr-as 
 
 nigr-a 
 
 G. 
 
 nigr-orum 
 
 nigr-arum 
 
 nigr-orum 
 
 D. 
 
 nigr-is 
 
 nigr-is 
 
 nigr-is 
 
 Abl. 
 
 nigr-is 
 
 nigr-is 
 
 nigr-is 
 
 24 
 
 The 
 Third 
 Declen- 
 sion. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 i. Third Declension: CONSONANT- and I-Nouns. 
 
 The Third Declension has two chief Divisions : 
 
 I. Nouns with Character a Consonant, either 
 
 Mute, Nasal, Liquid, or Sibilant. 
 II. Nouns with Character I-vocalis. 
 
 A few Consonant-nouns, as canis, iuvenis, vates, seem as if 
 they were I-nouns ; many I-nouns, as parens, cohors, seem 
 as if they were Consonant-nouns ; and many appear to fluctuate 
 between the two divisions, as ci vitas, servitus. The cause of 
 this uncertainty lies in the unstable nature of i-vocalis ; which, 
 being sometimes staminal, sometimes vincular, easily changed into 
 e, easily lost, does not always furnish a sure criterion of the class 
 to which the Noun belongs, by its presence or absence. 
 
 I. CONSONANT STEMS. 
 
 ii. Nominative Endings in the Cons. Declen- 
 sion. 
 
 i) In this Declension the Nominative-endings are numerous ; 
 the chief being s, n, i, r (Sibilant, Nasal, and Liquids), of which s, 
 including r (cs), is the prevalent ending. 
 
2 4 . 
 
 The Third Declension. 
 
 95 
 
 2) Nominatives which end in o have dropt n. 
 
 Those in c, t, a, e, are Neuter words without final suffix. 
 
 3) The vowel of the true Stem is often shewn both in the Noun- 
 stem and the Nominative : dux due-, fax fac-, &c. Sometimes 
 the Noun-stem, and not the Nominative, shews the root-vowel: 
 iudex iudic- (true form die-), comes com it- (true form it-), 
 Sometimes the Nominative, and not the Noun-stem, shews it; 
 auspex auspic- (true form spec-) ; obses obsid- (true form sed-). 
 Sometimes neither of the two: remex remig- (true form is ag-, of 
 which the a is weakened into i in the open syllable, to e in the 
 close). So auceps aucup-, princeps princip- (true form in each 
 cap-), no men nomin- (Primitive ndmari). 
 
 iii. Syllabus. syllabus 
 
 of Cons. 
 
 In the following Syllabus the chief stems are given, with Stems> 
 Nom. endings, and distinctions of Gender (M. F. N. C.). Greek 
 stems which include no true Latin words, are kept separate : but 
 where the same stem comprises words in both languages, Greek 
 are added to Latin words, and marked with an asterisk. This 
 stands before the Gender when all of that Gender are Greek words. 
 
 A. Mute Guttural Stems. 
 
 To form the Nom. S., the stem adds s, with which the guttural 
 melts into x, i being generally changed into e. 
 
 i) Latin Guttural Stems, with a few Greek marked *. 
 
 Stem. Nom. S. 
 
 ac- 
 ac- 
 
 ec- 
 
 ec- 
 Ic- 
 
 -ax 
 -ax 
 
 -ex (-ec) 
 
 -ex 
 
 F. fax, torch : *M. Corax. 
 
 F. paxjfaace: fornax, furnace ; M. Aiax; Climax, 
 snail. 
 
 *M. Thrax, Thracian Phaeax, Phaeacian, thorax, 
 breastplate. 
 
 F. nex, death (prec-),/rtfy^r,has no Nom. G. Sing. 
 Adj. faenisex, hay cutter. 
 
 (Variant C. ; senex, old person, inflected sen- for 
 senec-. Demin. senec-io.) 
 
 M. vervex, wether. N. halec, fish-pickle (also F. 
 halex). 
 
 M. apex, peak ; caudex or codex, trunk, writing- 
 book, &c. ; clmex, biig culex, gnat ; extispex, 
 entr ail-mew er ; frutex, shrub ; latex, liquid-, mu- 
 xex., purple-shell, purple-, podex; pollex, thumb ; 
 pontifex,^<?;//^~; pulex,J^^; pumex, /#*#&?; ra- 
 mex, bloodvessel ; saurex or sorex, shrew-mouse ; 
 vertex or vortex, summit, eddy. 
 
 F. carex, sedge ; Ilex, scarlet oak : paelex, concu- 
 bine ; vltex (a shrub). 
 
 C. cortex, bark ; forfex, shears ; illex, decoyer ; 
 imbrex, tile -, riimex, sorrel ; sriex, basalt ; with 
 words applicable to either sex ; artifex, auspex, 
 carnifex, index, iudex, opifex, vindex. See p. 76. 
 
9 6 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 24. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Ic- 
 
 Nom. S. 
 -ix 
 
 10 
 
 -Ix 
 
 OC- 
 
 iic- 
 
 -ox 
 
 -ux 
 
 1g- 
 
 6g- 
 Og- 
 ug- 
 
 -ex 
 -ex 
 
 -ix 
 
 -ex 
 -ox 
 -unx 
 -ux 
 
 M. calix, cup ; fornix, arch ; *Cilix, Cilidan. 
 
 F. appendix ; coxendix, hip ; filix, fern ; fulix, 
 gull ; natrix, water-snake ; ^vz, pitch ; salix, wil- 
 low ; struix, heap ; (vfc-is), change (no Nom. S.) ; 
 *hy strix, porcupine. 
 
 C. larix, larch ; varix, swoln vein. 
 
 F. cervix, ?/^y^ ; cicatrix, scar ; cornix, raven \ 
 coturnix, quail \ lodix, blanket ; meretrix ; nu- 
 trix, nurse ; radix, root ; vibix, weal ; and many 
 more. 
 
 *M. Phoenix, Phoenician (also a name) ; phoenix 
 (a fabulous bird). 
 
 F. vox, voice. 
 
 F. crux, cross ; nux, walnut-tree. M. tradux, /^y/^r 
 (of vine) : C. dux, leader, guide. 
 
 F. lux, light. M. Pollux. 
 
 M. grex, herd; Lelex (one of the Leleges). 
 M. rex, king ; F. lex, law. 
 
 Adj. exlex (Ace. exlegem), outlawed. 
 F. strix, screech-owl '; M. Ambiorix, Dumnorix, 
 
 Biturix, &c. (Keltic names). 
 M. remex, rower. 
 
 M. Allobrox, Allobrogian (Keltic tribe). 
 C. coniunx or coiux, wife ; husband, p. 76. 
 F. (i\^-\ fruit ^produce : no Nom. S. 
 
 2) Greek Guttural Stems. 
 
 6c- 
 
 yc- 
 
 yc- 
 
 ych- 
 
 nc- 
 
 yg- 
 
 ng- 
 
 -ox 
 -yx 
 -yx 
 -yx 
 
 -nx 
 -yx 
 
 -nx 
 
 M. Cappadox, Cappadocian. 
 
 M. calyx, bud, husk ; Eryx. 
 
 M. bombyx, silkworm ; Ceyx. 
 
 F. onyx ; sardonyx ; (both precious stones). 
 
 F. lynx (M. in Hor.). 
 
 M. lapyx (a wind) ; Phryx, Phrygian. 
 
 F. Styx (river in hell). 
 
 F. phalanx ; syrinx ; Sphinx. 
 
 B. Mute Dental Stems. 
 
 The Stem adds s in Nom. S., before which the Dental is ex- 
 cluded : aetas for (aetat-s), n ox for (noct-s). 
 
 Sometimes n is excluded with t: elephas for (elephant-s). 
 Short i may become e : miles for (milit-s). 
 i) Latin, with Greek words.* 
 Stem. Nom. S. 
 
 at- 
 at- 
 
 -as 
 
 -as 
 
 F. anas, duck (Cic. N. D. ii. 48, anatum ova : var. r. 
 anitum). 
 
 F. aetas, time, age ; aestas, summer ; calamitas, 
 calamity ; civitas, citizenship, body of citizens, 
 city ; cupiditas, desire ; pietas, piety ; tempestas, 
 
24- 
 
 Stem. Norn. S. 
 
 6t- 
 6t- 
 
 ft- 
 
 It- 
 et- 
 
 it- 
 
 6t- 
 
 ot- 
 ut- 
 
 ut- 
 ct- 
 nt- rt- 
 
 -es 
 -6s 
 
 -6s 
 
 -Is 
 -es 
 
 -lit 
 
 -OS 
 
 -OS 
 
 -us 
 
 -us 
 
 -C -X 
 
 -ns -rs 
 
 ad- | -as 
 6d- -es 
 
 ed- 
 
 aed- 
 id- 
 
 -aes 
 -es 
 
 The Third Declension. 
 
 season, weather ; storm ; voluptas, pleasure ; with 
 
 many other Derivatives. See p. 108. 
 
 M. Maecenas. 
 
 M. aries, ram ; paries, house-wall. F. abies^r/m?,, 
 M. (indiges), native (no Nom. S.). 
 F. seges, corn-crop ; teges, mat. 
 C. interpres, interpreter. 
 
 M. ames, pole ; caespes, turf-, codes, one-eyed 
 person ; caeles, celestial ; eques, horseman, on 
 
 horseback ; pedes, foot-soldier, on foot ; fomes, 
 y^^/ ; gurges, whirlpool ; limes, boundary ; 
 
 Tp&sx&s^ne-tendril \ poples, ^^; stipes, trunk ; 
 
 termes, ^^^ (cut off) ; trames, cross-path ; veles, 
 
 skirmisher. 
 F. merges, j//^^ 
 C. antistes ; comes ; hospes ; miles ; satelles. See 
 
 p. 76. 
 
 Adj. ales, winged (Abl. S. I, e), used as Subst. 
 
 bird, (Gen. PI. in poetry alituum for alitum); 
 
 dives, rich ; praepes, fast-flying ; sospes, safe ; 
 
 superstes, surviving. Also Caeres, <?/" Caere. 
 M. Dis, P//^?. 
 F. quies, rest ; inquies, restlessness (only Nom. S.) ; 
 
 requies, repose (also declined as an E-noun, Ace. 
 
 requiem, Abl. requie). Adj. inquies, restless. 
 *M. lebes, chaldron ; magnes, magnet ; Cres, 
 
 Cretan-, also Names of men which have a second 
 
 form in es, is : Chremes, Dare's, Thales. 
 
 Adj. locuples, wealthy. 
 
 N. caput, head; with its compounds occiput, sin- 
 ciput. See p. 109. 5. 
 
 Adj. Compounds of caput in -ceps for -cipes 
 
 (-cipit-s), cipit- : biceps, triceps, praeceps, c. 
 M. nepos, grandson ; *Eros ; ^Aegoceros ; *rhi- 
 
 noceros. 
 F. dos, dowry. C. sacerdos, .priest ox priestess. 
 
 Adj. compos, possessing ; impos, without power. 
 F. iuventus, youth ; senectus, old age ; salus, weal, 
 
 safety '; servitus, slavery \ virtus, virtue, valour. 
 
 Servitus admits Gen. PL servitutium. 
 
 Adj. intercus, under the skin. 
 N. lac, milk. See p. 107. M. Astyanax. 
 M. Arruns ; Acheruns, Plaut. ; Ufens ; Mars, 
 
 Mavors. 
 
 M. vas, personal surety. 
 
 M. pes,y00/. F. Its compound (compes), fetter, is 
 
 Fern, (with reference to catena). C. quadrupes 
 
 (also N.). Adj. bipes, tripes, alipes. 
 F. merces, hire, pay. C. heres, heir. 
 
 Adj. exheres, disinherited. 
 M. praes, bondsman (in money). 
 C. obses, hostage-, praeses, president. 
 
 Adj. deses, lazy ; reses, reposing. 
 
9 8 
 
 Latin VVordlore. 
 
 24. 
 
 Stem. Nom. S. 
 
 id- 
 
 -1S 
 
 od- 
 
 -6s 
 
 ud- 
 
 -us 
 
 ud- 
 
 -us 
 
 aud- 
 
 -aus 
 
 rd- 
 
 -r 
 
 M. lapis, stone. F. cassis, "helmet; cuspis, point \ 
 
 promulsis, antepast. Adj. tricuspfe. 
 
 (On Greek words in is, id-, see below.) 
 C. custos, guardian. 
 F. pecus, head of cattle, beast. 
 F. incus, anvil ; palus, marsh, pool (Livy has Gen. 
 
 PI. paludium). 
 
 F. fraus, deceit ; laus, praise. 
 N. cor, heart. Adj. compounds concors, discors, 
 
 excors, misericors, socors, vecors, are I-nouns. 
 Note. C. vat-es, seer, has the form of an I- 
 
 noun ; but its root is vat-, Gen. PL vat-um. 
 
 2) Greek Dental Stems. 
 
 at- 
 
 It- 
 
 eth- 
 ant- 
 
 ent- 
 ont- 
 
 unt- 
 
 nth- 
 ad- 
 
 Id- 
 
 -a 
 
 -is 
 -es 
 -as 
 
 -is 
 -on) 
 -6 > 
 
 -ns 
 -as 
 
 -is 
 
 N. aenigma, riddle ; emblema, mosaic ; epigramma, 
 epigram ; poema, poem ; toreuma, embossed-work, 
 &c. Such words are irregularly declined in 
 the Plural : having G. PL -t-orum or -t-um, D. 
 Abl. -t-is (sometimes -t-ibus), as G. PL emble- 
 mat-orum, D. PL emblemat-is. Martial has the 
 Greek Gen PL epigrammaton. 
 
 F. Charts, a Grace. 
 
 M. Parnes, (a mountain). 
 
 M. adamas, adamant-, elephas, elephant. The 
 Names Atlas, Calchas, Pallas (son of Mezentiusin 
 the Aeneid), &c. have Voc. a ; Atla, Calcha, 
 Palla. Corybas, Corybantes (PL), (the priests of 
 Cybele). Ace. S. -antem or -antd. Ace. PL -an- 
 tes or -antds. 
 
 M. Simols, (river of, Troy in the Iliad). 
 
 M. chamaeleon ; Anacreon, Charon, Creon, Phae- 
 thon, Xenophon. Attempts were made (Plaut. 
 Ter. Cic.) to latinize this form by writing o for 
 on ; Xenopho, Creo, Antipho, Ctesipho, De- 
 mipho. Terence inflects the three last in 6ni-. 
 
 Names of towns : F. Opus, Trapezus, &c. M. 
 Pessinus. C, Selinus. Sometimes latinized 
 into 2. n. -untum, -ontuzn : Hydruntum (Hy- 
 drus), Liv., Sipontum (Sipus), Cic. 
 
 F. Tiryns. 
 
 F. lampas, torch (PL Nom. lampades, Ov.) ; Pallas, 
 Dryas, Maenas, Naias, &c. Ace. S. d (em), 
 Dat. t in poetry. D. Abl. PI. -dst, -asm in 
 poetry, as Troasin, Ov. 
 
 M. Areas, Arcadian. PL Nom. Arcades, Verg. 
 Ace. Arcadas, Cic. 
 
 This form comprises numerous words. Some are 
 Appellatives ; F. aegis, amystis, aspis, pyramis, 
 tyrannis, &c. The rest are Names : 
 
 1) Local : (a) towns : F. Aulis, Chalcis, &c. ; (b) 
 countries : F. Doris, Locris, Persis, &c. (really 
 Adjectives) ; (c) rivers : M. Phasis, Thybris, &c. 
 
 2) Personal : (a) F. Patronymic : Briseis, Chry- 
 
24. 
 
 Stem. Nom. S. 
 
 The Third Declension. 
 
 99 
 
 od- 
 
 -US 
 
 seis, Colchis, Mincus, Nereis, Titanis. () F. 
 Amaryllis, Bacchis, Chrysis, Lycoris, Phyllis, 
 Semiramis, Thais, Thetis. Classes (a\ (b) take 
 Ace. So -idem or -ida generally : but some also 
 take -in, im : Alcestin, Ism, Trim, (c) M. Adonis, 
 Alexis, Anubis,Busiris,Daphnis, Osiris, Phalaris, 
 Paris, Thyrsis, Zeuxis. Ace. S. Im m or idem 
 idd. 
 
 The Voc. S. of all these stems is in 1 : Colchi, 
 Phylli, Alex!, Osiri. 
 
 Many fluctuate between the Cons, and I-declen- 
 sion : tigris, tigri- or tigrid- ; Thybris Thybri- 
 or Thybrid-. 
 
 M. tripus (rpiirovg), tripod ; Melampus ; Oedipus. 
 The last name is variously declined : (i) as an 
 O-noun, Voc. Ace. Oedipe, Oedipum. (2) as an 
 A-noun, Oedipod-es, Ace. -en, Abl. -e. (3) as 
 here ; Oedip-us, Ace. Gen. -odem or odd, -6dis c 
 
 F. chlamys, mantle ; pelamys, tunny-fish. 
 
 M. lapys, PL lapydes (an Illyrian race). 
 
 C. Mute Labial Stems. 
 
 The Stem takes s in Nom. S. 
 
 i) Latin Labial Stems (Greek marked *). 
 
 F. (daps), banquet (no Nom. S.). M. *Laelaps 
 
 (name of a dog in Ovid). 
 C. adeps (also adips),y#/; and the compounds 
 
 from capio ; forceps, tongs ; municeps ; parti- 
 
 ceps ; princeps. See p. 76. 
 F. (stips), a small coin, dole. 
 M. auceps, fowler ; manceps (both from capio). 
 F. (ops), help (no Nom. S.). 
 *M. Pelops ; *Aethiops, Ethiopian. 
 
 Adj. inops, resource less, Abl. S. inopi. 
 
 2) Greek Stems. 
 
 <>p- -ops M. hydrops, dropsy ; Cyclops : (Ace. S. em, a, PL 
 **). 
 
 M. gryps, griffin. 
 
 Stem. Nom. S. 
 
 ap- 
 
 -aps 
 
 Ip- 
 
 -eps 
 
 tp- 
 
 -ips 
 
 up- 
 
 -eps 
 
 op- 
 
 -ops 
 
 yp- 
 
 ab- 
 yb- 
 
 -yps 
 
 -abs-aps 
 
 -ybs 
 
 M. Arabs (Araps). 
 M. Chalybs. 
 
 D. Nasal Stems. 
 
 There is only one m-stem, hiem-p-s; which takes s in Nom. S., 
 inserting euphonic p, according to the best authorities, w takes 
 s in one Latin word only, sangui-s for sanguin-s : it remains 
 the Nom. Ending in all Neuter, and many Masc. words : in all 
 Fern, and some Masc. words n is dropt, and the Nom. Ending 
 becomes o ; but in Neuter and some Masc. Nouns *n- becomes en. 
 
100 
 
 Latin Word lore. 
 
 24. 
 
 i) Latin Nasal Stems. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 em- 
 m- 
 
 fti- 
 
 fci- 
 
 Nom. S. 
 
 -m-p-s 
 -en 
 
 on- 
 
 F. hiemps, winter. 
 
 M. flamen, priest (of some deity) ; pecten, comb, 
 and the compounds of canere, fidicen, lutist \ 
 tibicen, flute-player; liticen, clarion-player ; 
 tubicen, trumpeter ; oscen, ominous (bird). 
 
 N. gluten, glue, and numerous Verbal Substan- 
 tives : agmen, carmen, culmen, nomen, nurnen, 
 regimen, semen, stamen, tegmen, volumen, &c. 
 
 M. sanguis, blood-, (pollis) mill^ist, powder. Other 
 forms are sanguen, pollen : and probably I- 
 stems, sangui- polli-, existed anciently. 
 
 M. homo, human being (homon- hemon- are old 
 forms) : turbo, whirlwind, top ; Apollo. 
 
 C. nemo*, nobody. 
 
 F. Many in -do, -go : grando, hail ; harundo, 
 reed; hirundo, swallow, hirudo, leech, testudo, 
 tortoise ; indago, net; origo, origin ; robigo,7//- 
 dew ; virgo, virgin ; Carthago, &c. : and nume- 
 rous abstracts : cupido, libido, fortitude, mag- 
 nitude, vicissitude, &c. 
 
 Caro, flesh ; earn- (for carin- or caron-), be- 
 coming an I -noun, Gen. PL carnium. 
 
 M. cardo, hinge ; ordo, order ; Cupido, the deity 
 Cupid\ C. margo, margin. 
 
 M. Concretes in o on- : agaso, groom ; baro, 
 simpleton ; bibo, toper; bufo, toad; carbo, coal; 
 crabro, hornet ; epulo, banquetter ; latro, robber ; 
 leo, lion ; ligo, spade ; mucro, point (of dagger) ; 
 upilio or opilio, shepherd ; papilio, butterfly ; 
 praedo, pirate ; pugio, poniard; sermo, discourse; 
 stelio, lizard ; tiro, recruit ; vespertilio, bat ; also 
 unio, pearl ; ternio, tre, senio, sice, &c., in dice- 
 play : Names; Capito, Cicero, Naso, Pollio, 
 &c., but F. luno. 
 
 F. Abstracts in io ion : (a) from Adjectives : com- 
 munio, perduellio, treason, rebellio ; (b) from 
 Pres. Stem, of Verbs : legio, regio, &c. ; (c) from 
 Supine Stem, a very large class : actio, dictio, 
 lectio, positio, &c. Some take concrete mean- 
 ing : natio, a nation ; oratio, a speech, &c. 
 
 Note. C. Can-is, dog, iuven-is, young person? 
 are really Nasal Stems (Pr. kvan, yuvan] : but 
 take i in Nom. S. Their Gen. PI. is in -urn. 
 
 2) Greek Nasal Stems, 
 
 Stem. Nom. S. 
 
 an- 
 
 en- 
 
 -an 
 
 M. Acarnan, Acarnanian; Pan; Paean (name of 
 
 Apollo : hymn to Apollo) ; Titan. 
 M. ren-es, PL kidneys, reins, loins (Gen. PL um, 
 
 or ium) ; splen, spleen, milt (for which lien is r. 
 
 Latin form) : attagen (a bird). The river Anio 
 
 is inflected Anien- from a byform Anien. 
 F. Siren. 
 
24. 
 
 The Third Declension:. 
 
 101 
 
 Stem. Nom. 
 
 s. 
 
 en- 
 
 -en 
 
 
 In- 
 
 -In 
 
 -Is 
 
 on- 
 
 -on 
 
 
 n- 
 
 -on 
 
 
 M. Hymen ; Philopoemen. 
 
 M. delphln, dolphin (also delphin-us, 2.) 
 
 F. Eleusis, Salamls. 
 
 M. Solon, Telamon, Triton, &c. Cithaeron, Heli- 
 con. Names of men were generally latinised by 
 taking Nom. S. o : Hiero, Milo, Plato, Zeno, 
 &c. . But Alcon, Cimon, &c. keep n. 
 
 F. Babylon ; Calydon ; Marathon, &c. 
 
 M. Arion; Amphion ; lason; Ixion ; Memnon, 
 &c. 
 
 F. Amazon ; Gorgon ; s'mddn,jine linen. 
 
 Rarely latinised with Nom. S. in o : M. Macedo, 
 Macedonian. 
 
 Note. Greek Nasal 'Nouns have Ace. S. a or 
 em (Pan always Pana) ; PL as generally. 
 
 E. Liquid and Sibilant Stems. 
 
 1* and r proper do not take s in Nom. S. : as consul, aequor. 
 Sibilant Stems are numerous, many of them retaining their s in 
 Nom. S. and changing it to r in the inflected cases: Venus, 
 Veneris ; flos, floris, &c. Others change s to r in the Nom. S. 
 also : lar, laris ; melior, melioris. Vowel-change often occurs 
 in Nom. S. : ebur for ebor. 
 
 i) Latin Stems (Greek*). 
 
 Stem. 
 
 al- 
 il- 
 
 61- 
 iil- 
 
 ell- 
 .ar- 
 
 arr- 
 cr- 
 
 Nom. S. 
 
 -al 
 -il 
 
 -61 
 -ul 
 
 -el 
 -ar 
 
 -ar 
 -er 
 
 M. sal, salt (rarely N.) ; Hannibal, Hiempsal, &c. 
 
 M. pugil, boxer\ vigil, watchman ; mugll (also 
 mugili-s), mullet. 
 Adj. vigil, wakeful, Abl. S. f. 
 
 M. sol, the sun. 
 
 M. consul; praesul, president ; C. exul, banished 
 one. 
 
 N. fel, gall] mel, honey , &c. 
 
 M. Caesar ; lar, household-god (anc. PL Lases). 
 
 N. par,^zzr; baccar (a plant) ; iubar, sun-beam ; 
 instar, likeness (only Nom. Ace. S.) : * nectar, 
 nectar. (Adj. par, with compounds, is an I-stem.) 
 
 N. far,yfo;/r. 
 
 M. acipens-er oracipensis, stiirgeo<>,\ agger, mound; 
 anser, goose ; asser, pole ; career, prison (PL 
 starting place) later, brick ; passer, sparrow ; 
 with the Plurals Celeres, the knightly body- 
 guards ; proceres, nobles \ see p. 127. 
 
 F. mulier, woman. C. tuber (a fruit tree). 
 
 N. acer, maple ; cadaver, carcase ; clcer, chickpea ; . 
 papaver, poppy ; piper, pepper ; siler, withy ; 
 siser, skirret ; suber, cork ; tuber, a hump, a 
 truffle ; uber, a teat; also Tter or (itmer),/0#r- 
 ney, Gen. itineris ; PL iugera, acres ; (verber), 
 stripe, Abl. S. verbere, with full PL 
 
IO2 
 
 Stem.; 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 24. 
 
 er- 
 6r- 
 
 or- 
 
 6r- 
 ur- 
 
 ur- 
 as- 
 
 aer- 
 er- 
 
 er- 
 er- 
 
 -er 
 -or 
 
 -or 
 (anc. 
 
 -6r) 
 
 -ur 
 
 -ur 
 -as 
 
 -ses 
 
 -es 
 
 -is 
 
 -us 
 
 The M. form vesper-e, i, seems to be of this Decl., 
 but its other cases (vesper, &c.) are of the 2nd. 
 Plautus uses vesperi (and luci, temperi, mani) 
 with Prep. : ' de vesperi suo,' &c. And Corssen 
 does not consider them to be Locative but true 
 AbL Cases. Virgil has vespere Abl. : ' vespere 
 ab atro/ Aen. v. 19. 
 Adj. degener, degenerate ; pauper, poor. 
 
 N. ver, spring. 
 
 N. aequor, level surf ace, sea ; marmor, marble, sea ; 
 ador, spelt (whence F. adorea, i.e. donatio, a 
 dole of spelt given to victorious soldiers : hence 
 4 victory] 'glory '), has only Nom. Ace. S. 
 
 M. Archaic words, as Marcipor (Marci puer), slave 
 of Marcus : Lucipor, slave of Lucius, c. 
 
 M. olor, swan : with a large number of Verbal 
 Substantives, some formed from root or Pres. 
 stem : amor, love ; ardor, heat ; calor, 'warmth ; 
 dolor, grief, pain, &c. ; others, very numerous, 
 from Supine stem : cultor, tiller, worshipper ; 
 domitor, tamer ; victor, coriqtieror, c. 
 
 F. soror, sister ; uxor, wife. 
 Adj. Acc.S. primorem, PI. primores, chief per sons. 
 ebur, ivory ; femur, thigh ; iecur, liver (also 
 iecinor- iocinor- iociner-) ; robur, hardwood, oak 
 (old form probably robus, whence robustus). 
 
 M. furfur, bran ; (lemur) goblin (chiefly Plur.) ; 
 vultur, vulture ; turtur, ^turtle-dove ; *Ligur or 
 Ligus, Ligurian ; C. augur. 
 
 N. guttur, throat ; fulgur, lightning murmur; sul- 
 fur, sulphur. Adj. cicur, tame. 
 M. fur, thief. 
 
 N. vas, vessel (PL vasa, vasorum, vasis) ; fas, 
 (divine) right ; nefas, wrong, impiety : (both 
 words have only Nom. Ace. S. ; but V. uses 
 fandi, nefandi, as their Gen.). 
 
 N. aes, copper, brass, bronze. 
 
 F. Ceres (goddess of corn). 
 
 Adj. pubes (puberis), of ripe age: impubes (im- 
 puberis), imder age. See p. 115. 
 
 M. cucumis, cucumber (also cucumi-) ; vomis (vo- 
 mer), ploughshare : acip^ensis. 
 
 C. cinis, ash, cinder ; pulvis, dust. 
 
 F. Venus. 
 
 N. foedus, treaty ; funus, funeral ; genus, race, 
 kind ; glomus, ball (of thread, &c.) ; holus (olus), 
 green stuff-, latus, side ; Ts\mms,gift, 'office (Nom. 
 Ace. PI. munera or munia) : onus, burden ; pon- 
 dus, weight ; raudus (rudus), bit (of brass, &c.) ; 
 scelus, crime, wickedness ; sidus, constellation ; 
 vellus,faece ; (viscus, rarely Sing.), bowel \ ulcus, 
 sore ; vulnus, wound. Secus, sex (only Nom. 
 Ace. S.). This us is for anc. os. 
 
24. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 or- 
 
 The Third Declension. 
 
 103 
 
 Sr- 
 6r- 
 
 or- 
 
 fir- 
 tr- 
 
 Nom. S. 
 -US 
 
 -os -or 
 -6s -or 
 (anc. or) 
 
 -ter 
 
 M. lepus, hare. 
 
 N. corpus, body ; decus, grace, dedecus, disgrace ; 
 facinus, deed, crime ; fenus, usury, interest (also 
 er-) ; frigus, cold ; lltus, shore ; nemus, forest, 
 grove ; pectus, breast ; pignus, pledge (also 
 er-) ; stercus, dung ; tempus, time; temple (of 
 head) ; tergus (also tergum 2.), back. This us 
 was anc. os. 
 
 F. arbos or arbor, tree. 
 
 M. colos, usually color, colour, complexion ; honos 
 or honor, honour, office ; labos or labor, toil ; lepos 
 or lepor, wit, good humour. So odor, scent} 
 pavor, alarm ; rumor, report (rarely odos, &c.). 
 See p. 102. 
 
 M. flos, flower ; mos, custom ; ros, dew. 
 
 N. 6s, mouth, face. 
 
 On comparatives melior, melius (anc. melios), 
 see pp. 21, 42. 
 
 F. tellus, land, earth. 
 
 N. crus, leg\ ius, right \ ius, gravy, broth ; pus, 
 yw/ matter rus, country ; tus, frankincense. 
 
 M. pater, father ; frater, brother ; accipiter, hawk. 
 
 F. mater, mother. 
 
 2) Greek R-Stems. 
 
 er- 
 
 er- 
 6r- 
 
 -er 
 -or 
 
 M. aer, atmosphere (Ace. S. aera or aerem) : 
 
 aether, ^^y (Ace. S. aethera). 
 M. crater, mixing-bowl. (Ace. S. <#, PI. as.) 
 M. rhetor, Castor, Hector, Nestor, &c. (Ace. S. a 
 
 or em, PL as). This or is latinized from Gr. 
 
 wp- 
 
 F. IT- and v-Stems. 
 
 u- 
 6v- 
 
 -us 
 
 C. grus, crane ; sus, swine (Dat. Abl. PI. subus or 
 
 suibus). 
 
 M. luppiter lov-, lupiter. 
 C. bos bov-, ox or cow (Gen. PL bourn ; Dat. 
 
 Abl. bobus or bubus). 
 
 G. Greek B- O- and Y-S terns. 
 
 e- 
 
 -6s 
 
 N. epos, epic poem ; melos, lyric (Gen. S. -eos 9 
 Nom. Ace. PL rpele, contracted from melea). So 
 cete, whales pelage, seas ; Tempe, (a vale in 
 Thessaly). Chaos belongs here : but Virgil 
 has Abl. Chao, 2. 
 
 M. heros hero-, hero (Ace. S. heroa, Nom. PL 
 heroes, Ace. heroas). 
 
 F. echo (Gen. echus for echo-os ; the other cases 
 in o ; so lo, Ino. Dido, Sappho, also form on-). 
 
 M. Cotys Coty-; Phorcys Phorcy- ; Tiph^s 
 Tiphy- ; F. Erinys Eriny-, Ace. S. -a. PL -as. 
 
 (A few Adjective and other I-stems are included in the foregoing 
 tables, on account of their connexion with other words.) 
 
 -os 
 
 -o 
 
 y- 
 
1O4 Latin Wordlore. 24 . 
 
 i v . I -stems. 
 
 Nouns of the Third Declension are either (i) Imparisyllaba 
 (unequal in the number of their syllables), having more syllables 
 in the Gen. Sing, than in the Nom. : or (2) Parisyllaba, having 
 the same number of syllables in those Cases. 
 
 Of Imparisyllabic Substantives, the greater number are Con- 
 sonant Nouns : but many are Clipt I-nouns : especially those 
 which have a Labial, Nasal, or Liquid before s in the Nom. Sing, 
 as urbs, bidens, cohors, pars. Of Parisyllabic Substantives, 
 all are I-nouns but a very few, already cited : canis, iuvenis, 
 senex, vates : pater, mater, frater, accipiter, &c. 
 
 Adjectives of both kinds in this Decl. are I-nouns except a few, 1 
 
 v. Grouping of I-nouns. 
 T-nouns come under four chief Heads : 
 
 A) Parisyllabic I-nouns, with Nom. Sing. X-s (a few r for 
 
 -ri-) : Fern. Masc. or Common. 
 
 B) Parisyllabic I-nouns in e-s (i-s) perhaps from original 
 
 sibilant-stems : chiefly Fern. 
 
 C) Neuter I-nouns of Adjectival nature, Parisyll. in e, Im- 
 
 parisyll. in al, ar. 
 
 Z>) Clipt I-nouns Imparisyllabic : Fern. Masc. or Common. 
 
 A) I-nouns under the first Head are grouped according as they 
 form the Accus. Sing, in im or em, and the Abl. Sing, in i or e. 
 
 I. Ace. S. im : Abl. i. 
 
 i) F. *cannabifs, hemp (Abl. e" in Persius) ; tussis, cough ; 
 sitis, thirst (S. only) ; buris, ploughtail (only Ace. S.) j 
 ravis, hoarseness (only Ace. S.) ; * tigris, tiger (also as a 
 Consonant Noun, tigrid-). 
 
 Names of Towns: Hispalis, Seville ; Neapolis, 
 Naples-, Amphipolis; Memphis. 
 
 Vis, force (an S-stem), Ace. S. vim, Abl.vi, casting out s 
 (Gen. Dat. wanting) ; PI. vires, &c., changing s into r. 
 
 * Greek I-nouns: poesis, poetry ; mathesis, science ; 
 Charybdis: Voc. S. z, Ace. in or im ; poeei, poes-in 
 (im). 
 
 The Greek Gen. in eos is rare : poeseos : and Gen. PL 
 eon: metamorphoseon. 
 
 1 Many Latin I-nouns correspond to Pr. I-nouns: anguis, ignis, ovis. ars, dos, 
 gens, m ens, and others. In some i represents Pr. a: axis, foris,imbris, nube* 
 panis, pellis, penis, unguis. In others i is a Latin suffix to a Pr. root: can-i-s 
 iuven-i-s, lov-i-s, vat-i'-s; mitis, turpis, brevis, gravis, l?vis, pinguis, 
 suavis, tenuis. In mensis(Gr. fx^v), Si is suffixal. In a few, as arx, daps, there 
 is a Pr. root with Nom. suffix S. In some of these forms i, not belonging to the original 
 Nom., has been developed in the other Cases ; but in most of the Imparisyllabic I-nouns 
 it has been dropt in Nom. Very many Latin I-nouns, especially the great bulk, of 
 Adjectives, have been formed in accordance with prevalent analogies. 
 
24. The Third Declension. 105 
 
 Observe the adverbial phrases ad amussim, examus- 
 sim, by rule, accurately; ad fatim, affatim, abun- 
 dantly ; from disused nouns amussis, fatis. Hence it 
 is probable that adverbs in tim, sim, parti m, sen sim, 
 &c., are similarly cases of lost I-nouns. 
 
 2) M. : cucumis, cucumber (also inflected as a Cons.-noun 
 cucumer-, like Ceres, pulvis, cinis). 
 
 Names of Rivers: Alb is, the Elbe; Tiber is, Tiber; Liris, 
 Phasis, &c. 
 
 2. Ace. S. im or em. Abl. I or e. 
 
 This group is wholly Feminine : 
 
 F. puppis,/00/; febris, fever ; turris, tower : im (em) ; e, I. 
 
 securis, hatchet ; im (em) ; I 
 messis, harvest ; em (im) ; e 
 sementrs, seed-time; em (im) ; 
 I, e 
 
 3. Acc. S. em ; Abl. e or I. 
 
 restis, rope ; im (em) ; e 
 clavis, key ; em (im) ; I e 
 navis, ship ; im, em ; I, g 
 pelvis, pan ; im, em ; e I 
 
 M. axis, axle; e (i) ignis, fire; I, e 
 
 fustis, cudgel; e, i unguis, claw; e (i) 
 
 F. bilis, bile ; classis,y7^/; avis, bird; e (i) 
 strigilis, scraper ; I (e) 
 
 Supellectilis (res), furniture, properly an Adj., is dipt 
 in Nom. S. into supellex. In Abl. S. it has I or e. 
 
 C. amnis, river ; e (i) civis, citizen ; 1 (e) 
 
 finis, end ; e (\) anguis, snake ; e (i) 
 
 Finis, originally Fern., is so used only in the Sing., and rarely. 
 
 a) M. imber imbri- m. shower, Abl. I, e. 
 
 The Month-names September, October, November, 
 December ; Abl. i : are used adjectively. 
 
 b) Many Adjectives have Substantival use : 
 
 M. aedilis, edile, e (i) ; aequalis, contemporary, I ; annalis, I 
 (chiefly Plur. annals) ; aqualis, water-can, I ; natalis, birth- 
 day, i (e) ; rivalis, rival, e (i) ; familiaris, intimate friend, 
 I (e); molaris, grinder, \ (chiefly Plur.). 
 
 F. bipennis, double axe, e I ; novalis, fallowed field, e I ; trire- 
 mis, trireme, I e ; volucris, bird, e. 
 
 C. amnis, kinsperson, e I ; iuvenis, young person, e ; contu- 
 bernalis, tentmate, e I ; patruelis, cousin on father's side, 
 e, I ; sodalis, companion, 1 e ; canalis, canal, channel, i. 
 
 c) Any such Adjectives, if they become Proper Names, have 
 
 Abl. Sing, in e: luvenale, Latiare, Maluginense, 
 Martiale. 
 
io6 Latin Word lore. 
 
 24. 
 
 d) In this group must be ranked the Masc. and Fern, forms 
 of Adjectives in is, is, e, and in er, is, e : as tristis, Is, 
 e; acer, acris, acre. But the Neuter forms triste', 
 acre, belong to Head C). All have Abl. S. i, very rarely e. 
 
 4. Ace. em : Abl. e. 
 
 M. orbis, circle, world] fastis, bundle ; piscis,yf^ ; caulis, 
 stalk ; collis, hill ; follis, bellows : vermis, worm ; clunis, 
 hind-leg; crinis, hair; panis, loaf; torris, brand; ensis, 
 sword ; mensis, month ; postis, door-post ; vectis, lever ; 
 uter, leathern bottle ; venter, belly ; with the Plural words 
 casses, nets ; antes, front vine-rows ; manes. 
 
 F. scobis (or scobs), saw-dust ; rudis,y2>z7; sudis (no Nom. 
 S.), stake ; trudis, pike ; ninguis, snow (Lucr.) ; con- 
 vallis, hollow vale; pellis, hide; Alpis, Alp ; apis, bee; 
 auris, ear ; irauris, earring ; naris, nostril ; cutis, cuticle ; 
 neptis, granddaughter; pestis, plague ; rails, raft; vestis, 
 garment ; vitis, vine ; ovis, ewe : with the Plur. words 
 fores, door ; grates, thanks ; nates ; fides, lutestrings (has 
 Abl. S. fide). 
 
 C. corbis, basket ; chilis, path ; funis, rope, cable ; torquis 
 (es), collar ; hostis, enemy ; pedis, crawler ; scrobis (or 
 scrobs), ditch ; testis, witness ; linter or lunter, boat ; also 
 sentis, thorn ; vepris, bramble}- 
 
 >B) Nom. S. es, Ace. em, Abl. e. 
 
 All Latin words of this form are F. except M. verres, boar-pig. 
 
 F. aedes, temple (PI. house) ; caedes, lopping, bloodshed; 
 cautes, rock ; clades, defeat ; compages, structure ; fames, 
 hunger (Abl. e); feles, cat; indoles, native disposition; 
 labes, fall, mischief; lues, pest ; meles, badger ; moles, 
 pile; nubes, cloud; palumbes, pigeon; plebes, the com- 
 mons (also plebs : see Decl. 5) ; proles, offspring (Gen. 
 PL um) ; pubes, young population ; rupes, crag ; saepes, 
 hedge ; sedes, seat ; soboles or suboles, offspring ; sordes, 
 dirt (PL meanness] ; strages, slaughter ; strues, heap ; 
 tabes, taint, consumption (no PL) ; valles, vale ; vulpes, 
 fox; and the Plural words \a.ctes,*small entrails ; ambages, 
 evasive lang^lage or conduct (has Abl. S. e, Gen. PL um). 
 
 Several of these have a byform in is : aedis, caedis, felis, 
 melis, vallis, vulpis, and some more. 
 
 The older words are supposed to be S-stems converted into 
 I-stems by exclusion of staminal s (as puber-is pubes). 
 
 C) Neuter Nouns : Nom. S. e (for i-) ; al (for ali-) ; &r (for 
 ari-). Abl. I. Neut. PL ia. 
 
 1 Isolated variations of Case occur in some. See M. Lucr. i. 978. mi. Varro says 
 that ovi as well as o ve was used in his time. Nepti is found in Tac. 
 
24. The Third Declension. 107 
 
 1) N. mare, sea ; rete, net; aplustre, _/%?-; conclave, apartment; 
 
 insigne, ensign ; praesepe, stall, crib ; anclle, small shield; 
 bubile, ox-stall; caprlle, goat-ho^lse; cublle, bedchamber, 
 couch ; equile, stable ; hastlle, spear ; mantlle, napkin ; 
 monlle, necklace; ovlle, sheepfold; focale, neckwrapper; 
 no vale, fallow ; penetrale, inner shrine; cochleare, spoon ; 
 altaria (PL), high altar; talaria (PL), ankle-rings. Also 
 . caepe, onion (takes Plur. from byform caepa, f. i). 
 Lac, milk, is for lac-te, like rete. 
 
 Retis c. is a rare form for rete; praesepis, f. for praesepe. 
 Some local names ending in te take Abl. e usually: Bibracte, 
 Reate, Soracte. 
 Abl. mare for mar! is in Lucr. Ov. Abl. rete is frequent. 
 
 2) N. animal ; cervical, bolster ; minutal, minced meat ; toral, 
 
 sofa-cover; tribunal; vectigal, toll, revenue. See Bac ca- 
 nal, bidental, capital, Lupercal, Minerval, puteal 
 in Dictionary. 
 
 3) N. calcar, spur ; exemplar, pattern ; lacunar, laquear, 
 
 ceiling; lupanar ; pulvlnar, cushioned seat ; torcular, wine- 
 press. 
 
 Observe par, pari-, pair. 
 
 Note. Almost all words in C) except mare, rete, are evidently 
 Neuter Adjectives, derived from Substantives. Those in 2) 3) have 
 dropt e : toral for torale, exemplar for exemplare. This 
 makes it probable that mare, rete are likewise adjectival. 
 
 D) Clipt I-nouns : Gen. PL i-um. 
 
 The vagueness of the distinction between Clipt I-nouns and 
 Cons.-nouns has been noticed already, see p. 94. One test of an I- 
 noun, i before urn in Gen. Plur., may fail, if an I -noun loses i (as 
 in apum, volucrum), if a Cons. -noun takes i (as in civitatium, 
 paludium), or if no Gen. Plur. is found, as in many words, chiefly 
 monosyllabic in Nom. Another test, Is ( = es, eis) in Ace. PL m. 
 f. or ia n., may not occur in MSS. or Inscrr. The safest course, 
 therefore, is to rank Imparisyllaba with Cons.-nouns (as pax, lux, 
 sol, &c.), where no test of an I -noun is ascertained : unless some 
 strong analogy points to an exception. 
 
 Guttural before i : 
 
 F. faex faeci-, lees ; (faux) fauci-, jaw ; calx calci-, heel ; 
 falx falci-, pruning-hook, scythe ; lanx lanci-, dish ; arx 
 arci-, citadel ; merx merci-, merchandise. Add nix nivl-, 
 snow. 
 
 M. Deunx deunci-, quincunx quincunci-, &c., (parts 
 of as). 
 
 Labial before i : 
 
 F. stirps stirpi- (also stirpes and stirpis), rarely M., trunk ; 
 trabs (or trab-es) trabi-, f. beam ; urbs (or urps) urbt-, f. city. 
 
 Nasal before i : 
 F. caro carni- (for carfni-), yfofifc. See Cons.-Nouns. 
 
io8 Latin Wordlore. 24. 
 
 R (for s) or s before i : 
 M. glis gliri-, dormouse ; mus muri-, mouse ; and, by probable 
 
 analogy, mas man-, male ; as assi-, 
 F. vis viri-, force : see p. 104. 
 N. os ossi-, bone (but Nom. PL ossa for oss-ia). 
 
 Dental before i : 
 These are the most numerous : many being Adjectival. 
 
 a) M. Gentile words in as ati-, is iti- (dipt from ati-s, Itis) : 
 Aquinas, man of Aquinum; Arpinas, man of Arpinum ; 
 Ouiris, (man of Cures) Roman ; Samnis, Samnite, &c. ; 
 (optimas, primas, summas, used in Plur.) ; Penat-es (Plur.), 
 household gods. 
 
 Adj. nostras, of our country ; vestras, of your country ; 
 cuias, of what country. 
 
 b} F. lis lit!-, strife. 
 
 c) Nouns in ans anti-, ens enti-, mostly participial. 
 
 M. amans, lover ; dextans, dodrans, quadrans, sextans, triens 
 (parts of as) ; cliens, client ; dens, toothy and compounds, 
 (but F. bidens, sheep) ; oriens (sol), east ; occidens (sol), 
 west\ rudens,.oz/i; torrens,. torrent. 
 
 F. gens, clan, nation ; lens, lentil ; mens, mind, intellect. 
 
 C. animans ; infans ; parens ; serpens. See p. 76. 
 
 All words in d) c) not being monosyllabic in Nom. S., can drop i 
 in Gen. PL ; as optimatum for optimatium, infantum for in- 
 fantium, parentum for parentium. 
 
 d) Nouns in ons onti- : 
 
 M. tons, fountain] mons, mountain ; pons, bridge. 
 
 F. froT&y forehead; (spons),free choice (only Abl. sponte). 
 
 e) Nouns in Is HX-, rs rti-, cs (x) ctX- : Fern. 
 
 F. puls, pulse-, ars, art; pars, part] cohors, cors, cohort, 
 court; fors (S.), chance; mors, death; sors, lot; nox, 
 night. 
 
 f] Nouns in ns ndi- : Fern. 
 F. frons, leaf; glans, acorn; iuglans, walnut. 
 
 Notes yi. Notes on the Cases. 
 
 on the 
 Cases. 
 
 i. Instances occur of a Gen. PL in ium from Cons. Nouns in 
 as at-, us ut-, us ud- : more rarely from those in x, ps : civita- 
 tium (always in Livy, sometimes in Cicero), aetatium, simultat- 
 ium, &c., servitutium, virtut-ium, palud-ium, fornac-ium, 
 forcip-ium. Alituum for alit-um in Virgil is a bold license 
 for the sake of metre. 1 
 
 1 Old poets often dropt, metrically, the s of Gen. S. : as 
 
 Quid dubitas quin omni' sit haec rationi ' potestas ? Lucr. ii. 53. 
 On the dropping of final m in Ace. S. anciently, see pp. 28, 46. 
 
24. TJie Third Declension. 109 
 
 No Gen. Plur. is found of the following words : bes (bessis), 
 cor, cos, fel, fors, glos, lac, lux, mel, nex, os (or-), pax, pi x, 
 praes, pus, ros, rus, sal, sol, tus, vas (vadis), ver, (vix). Canis, 
 iuvenis, strues, vates, have Gen. PL um: also panis, in the 
 opinion of some grammarians : apis, volucris have Gen. PI. um, 
 sometimes ium. Sedum occurs from sedes; mensum (rarely 
 mensuum) from men sis j 1 but also ium. 
 
 Some Plural words in alia, ilia, aria, especially names of 
 festivals, follow Decl. 2. in their Gen. Plur. : as Compitali-orum; 
 vectigali-orum, Suet; ancili-orum, Hor. ; lacunari-orum, 
 Vitr. 
 
 Vas vas- forms its Plural as Decl. 2. vasa, vasorum, vasis. 
 
 2. The Accus. Plur. in is ( = es, eis) is proper to I-nouns, as 
 civls, parentls, and is found side by side with es, eis till the 
 Aug. age, after which es prevailed. So tris or tres. 
 
 A Nom. PL in Is or eis occurs sometimes in the MSS. of Plautus 
 and Lucretius; aedis, aurls, fami-liarls, c. ; and in old Inscrr. 
 A Gen. S. in us and es is archaic only, as (patms, Apolones}. 
 
 3. The Dat. Sing, had an old form in e, retained in some classical 
 phrases : ( triumviri auro argento aere flando feriundo.' See Cic 
 Fam. vii. 13. 'lure Romae dicundo/ L. xlii. 28. Virgil has ore 
 for ori, G. i. 430. Another old form is ei. So urbei, uxorei, c. 
 On the tomb of Scipio Barbatus is ' forma virtutei parisuma.' 
 
 4. On the Locative case in I, see 2O. Instances are luci, ruri, 
 temperi, Carthagini, Tiburi (also Tibure, Abl.), PL Gadibus. 
 
 $. Forms of dipt I-nouns with Abl. S. I are found ; sorti fre- 
 quently (Nom. sortis, Plaut.) ; parti, Plaut. Ter. : some even of 
 Cons.-nouns, capiti (Catull. Tib.), occipiti (Pers.) ; and others. 2 
 
 * It is notable that of Nouns which have Gen. S. of the form ^ w (duels) the great 
 majority take um in Gen. PI. : facum, ducum, crucian, nucuni, precum, gregum, pedum, 
 apum, opum, canum, senum, patrum, Larum, bourn, gruum, suum, struum. But of 
 
 those which have Gen. S. of the form - ^, the great majority take ium in the Gen. PI. : 
 falcium, litium, artium, &c. : exceptions are vocum, legum, regum, and a few others. So 
 
 Gen. S. \j vy or \j \^ ^ gives Gen. PL in um : suppltcum, principum, vigTlum. 
 (Compes) compedium is an exception. But a trisyllabic or plurisyllabic Gen. S. with 
 Ions: penult, gives in most Adjectives Gen. PL in ium : ferae -ium, felic-ium, &c. : 
 and in Substantives often leads to the fluctuation noticed above, (i a). Comparatives are 
 an exception, because io-r-ium would be a bad combination. The same is true of io-n-ium. 
 Hence mel-io-rum, act-io-num, &c. 
 
 3 Gender is shewn in the lists. The general results are (not including those settled by 
 meaning) : 
 
 F. Mute Latin Cons, stems, and dipt I-stems with mute before i. 
 
 N-stems in do ; go ; io (abstr.) ; with caro. Also merges ; hiemps ; tellus ; arbor. 
 Parisyll. I-nouns in Ts, es ; pp. 105, 106. See Exceptions below and in lists. 
 M. Most in ex, ic- ; es it- ; ns ; all in unx ; Concreta in o : Nouns in 1 ; er er- ; Is er- ; 
 is Tri- ; ter tri- ; or or- ; os or- ; ur : Greek Appellatives, except those in as, Ts, ys 
 (F.): a, os, e (N.). Also calix, fornix, grex, paries, pes, lapis, sangufs, turbo, 
 cardo, ordo, pecten, furfur, turtur, vultur, lepus, mus, as : with the parisyll. I-nouns 
 marked M. in pp. 105, 106. 
 
 N. Nouns in en in- ; e ; ar ; al all- ; or or- ; ur or- ; iir ur- ; us er- ; us or- ; us ur-. Also 
 halec, caput, lac, cor, mel, fel, ver, her, cadaver, uber, verber, papaver, acer r 
 cicer, piper, &c. (see p. 101), aes, far, os (oris), os (ossis), vas (vasis). 
 C. These will be found in the lists : and many on p. 76. 
 
no 
 
 Latin Word lore. 
 
 24. 
 
 vii Table: 
 
 I. CONSONANT-NOUNS, 
 i. MASCULINE AND FEMININE. 
 
 j) MUTE GUTTURAL STEMS. 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 judge, c. 
 
 root y f. voice, f. 
 
 king, m. 
 
 N.V. 
 
 iudex 
 
 radix vox 
 
 rex 
 
 i 
 
 Ace. 
 
 iudic- 
 
 radic- voc- 
 
 reg- 
 
 em 
 
 Gen.. 
 
 iudic- 
 
 radic- ' voc- 
 
 reg- 
 
 is 
 
 Dat. 
 
 iudic- 
 
 radic- voc- 
 
 reg- 
 
 I 
 
 Abl. 
 
 iudic- 
 
 radic- voc- 
 
 reg- 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 N.V.A. 
 
 iudic- 
 
 radic- voc- 
 
 reg- 
 
 es 
 
 Gen. 
 
 iudiC- 
 
 radiC- voC- 
 
 reG- 
 
 11 m 
 
 D.Abl. 
 
 iudic- 
 
 radic- voc- 
 
 reg- 
 
 ibus 
 
 
 
 2) MUTE DENTAL STEMS. 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 
 summer, f. 
 
 companion, c. -virtue, f. 
 
 foot, m. 
 
 N.V. 
 
 aestas 
 
 comes virtus 
 
 pes 
 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 aestat- 
 
 comtt- virtut- 
 
 ped- 
 
 em 
 
 Gen. 
 
 aestat- 
 
 comit- virtut- 
 
 ped- 
 
 is 
 
 Dat. 
 
 aestat- 
 
 comit- virtut- 
 
 ped- 
 
 j 
 
 Abl. 
 
 aestat- 
 
 comit- virtut- 
 
 ped- 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 N.V.A. 
 
 aestat- 
 
 comit- virtut- 
 
 ped- 
 
 es 
 
 Gen. 
 
 aestaT- 
 
 comiT- virtuT- 
 
 peD- 
 
 11 m 
 
 D.Abl. 
 
 aestat- 
 
 comit- virtut- 
 
 ped- 
 
 ibus 
 
 3) LABIAL-MUTE, NASAL, AND U- STEMS. 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 
 chief, c. 
 
 beam, f. lion, m. virgin, f. 
 
 crane, c. 
 
 N.V. 
 
 princepb 
 
 trabs leo virgo 
 
 grus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 princlp- 
 
 trab- leon- virgin- 
 
 gru- 
 
 em 
 
 Gen. 
 
 princip- 
 
 trab- leon- virgin- 
 
 gru- 
 
 is 
 
 Dat. 
 
 princip- 
 
 trab- leon- virgin- 
 
 gru- 
 
 I 
 
 Abl. 
 
 princip- 
 
 trab- leon- virgin- 
 
 gru- e 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 N.V.A. 
 
 princip- 
 
 trab- leon- virgin- 
 
 gru- 
 
 es 
 
 Gen. 
 
 princiP- 
 
 traB- leoN- virgiN- 
 
 grU- 
 
 um 
 
 D.Abl. 
 
 princip- 
 
 trab- leon- virgin- 
 
 gru- 
 
 ibus 
 
 1 For Worn. S. Endings, see 20 and p. 94. 
 
24. 
 
 The Third Declension. 
 
 in 
 
 4) LIQUID AND SIBILANT STEMS. 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 love, m. 
 
 deiv t m. 
 
 woman, f. 
 
 cinder, c. father, m. 
 
 N.V. 
 
 amor 
 
 ros 
 
 mulier 
 
 cinis 
 
 pater 
 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 amor- 
 
 ror- 
 
 mulier- 
 
 ciner- 
 
 patr- 
 
 em 
 
 Gen. 
 
 amor- 
 
 ror- 
 
 mulier- 
 
 ciner- 
 
 patr- 
 
 is 
 
 Dat. 
 
 amor- 
 
 ror- 
 
 mulier- 
 
 ciner- 
 
 patr- 
 
 I 
 
 Abl. 
 
 amor- 
 
 ror- 
 
 mulier- 
 
 ciner- 
 
 patr- 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 
 N.V.A. 
 
 amor- 
 
 ror- 
 
 mulier- 
 
 ciner- 
 
 patr- 
 
 es 
 
 Gen. 
 
 amoR- 
 
 roR- 
 
 mulieR- 
 
 cineR- 
 
 patR- 
 
 um 
 
 D.Abl. 
 
 amor- 
 
 ror- 
 
 mulier- 
 
 ciner- 
 
 patr- 
 
 ibus 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 . NEUTER. 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 head 
 
 name 
 
 right 
 
 work 
 
 body 
 
 
 N.V.A 
 
 caput 
 
 nomen 
 
 ius 
 
 opus 
 
 corpus 
 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 capit- 
 
 nomin- 
 
 iur- 
 
 oper- 
 
 corpor- 
 
 is 
 
 Dat. 
 
 capit- 
 
 nomin- 
 
 iur- 
 
 oper- 
 
 corpor- 
 
 I 
 
 Abl. 
 
 capit- 
 
 nomin- 
 
 iur- 
 
 oper- 
 
 corpor- 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 
 N.V.A 
 
 capit- 
 
 nomin- 
 
 iur- 
 
 oper- 
 
 corpor- 
 
 a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 capiT- 
 
 nomiN- iuR- 
 
 opeR- 
 
 corpoR- 
 
 um 
 
 D.Abl. 
 
 capit- 
 
 nomin- 
 
 lur- 
 
 oper- 
 
 corpor- 
 
 ibiis 
 
 
 
 II. 
 
 I-NOUNS. 
 
 
 
 
 i. MASCULINE AND FEMININE. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 cough, f. 
 
 ship, f. 
 
 harvest, f. 
 
 jftre, m. 
 
 skower, m. 
 
 N.V. 
 
 tuss-is 
 
 nav-is 
 
 mess-is 
 
 ign-is 
 
 imb-eF 
 
 Ace. 
 
 tuss-im 
 
 nav-im em mess-em (im) ign-em imbr-em 
 
 Gen. 
 
 tuss-is 
 
 nav-is 
 
 mess-is 
 
 ign-is 
 
 imbr-is 
 
 Dat. 
 
 tuss-i 
 
 nav-i 
 
 mess-i 
 
 ign-i 
 
 imbr-i 
 
 Abl. 
 
 tuss-i 
 
 nav-i e 
 
 mess-e 
 
 ign-l e imbr-I (e) 
 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 
 N.V. 
 
 tuss-es 
 
 nav-es 
 
 mess-es 
 
 ign-es 
 
 imbr-es 
 
 Ace. 
 
 tuss-es Is 
 
 nav-es Is 
 
 mess-es Is 
 
 ign-es 
 
 Is imbr-es Is 
 
 Gen. 
 
 tuss-Ium 
 
 nav-Ium 
 
 mess-Ium 
 
 ign-lum imbr-Ium 
 
 D.AbLtuss-ibus 
 
 nav-itous 
 
 mess-ibus 
 
 ign-ibus imbr-ibus 
 
112 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 24. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 ewe. f. 
 
 clond, f. 
 
 tooth, m. 
 
 city, f. 
 
 mouse, m. 
 
 N. V. 
 
 ovis 
 
 nubes 
 
 dens 
 
 urbs 
 
 mus 
 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ov- 
 
 nub- 
 
 dent- 
 
 urb- 
 
 mur- 
 
 em 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ov- 
 
 nub- 
 
 dent- 
 
 urb- 
 
 mur- 
 
 is 
 
 Dat. 
 
 ov- 
 
 nub- 
 
 dent- 
 
 urb- 
 
 mur- 
 
 I 
 
 Abl. 
 
 ov- 
 
 nub- 
 
 dent- 
 
 urb- * 
 
 mur*- 
 
 e 
 
 N. V. ov- nub- 
 Ace, ov- nub- 
 Gen, ov- nub- 
 D. Abl. ov- nub- 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 dent- urb- 
 
 dent- urb- 
 
 dent- urb- 
 
 dent- urb- 
 
 mur- 
 mur- 
 mur- 
 mur- 
 
 es 
 
 es Is 
 lum 
 ibiis 
 
 The ending of the Accusative Plural of I-nouns fluctuates in 
 MSS. between Is and es, the form is prevailing. 
 
 2. NEUTER. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 net 
 
 sofa-cover 
 
 spur 
 
 bone 
 
 N. V. A. 
 
 ret-e 
 
 toral 
 
 calcar 
 
 OS 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ret-is 
 
 toral-is 
 
 calcar-is 
 
 oss-is 
 
 Dat. 
 
 ret-I 
 
 toral-i 
 
 calcar-t 
 
 oss-i 
 
 Abl. 
 
 ret-i (e) 
 
 toral-i 
 
 calcar-i 
 
 oss-e 
 
 N. V. A. ret-ia 
 Gen. ret-lum 
 
 D. Abl. ret-ibus 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 toral-ia 
 
 toral-lum 
 
 toral-ibus 
 
 calcar-ia 
 
 calcar-Xum 
 
 calcar-ibus 
 
 oss-a 
 
 oss-Ium 
 
 oss-ibus 
 
 Greek 
 Nouns. 
 
 viii. Greek Nouns in Decl. 3. 
 
 Nominative Sing. 
 
 The tendency to latinise Greek names is shewn by dropping 
 the v in such words as Plato, Macedo, Antipho, and in 
 Apollo Apollin- (Gr. 'ATroXXw*'-), draco dracon- (Gr. SpaKovr-) : 
 but Nepos retains n in Cimon, Conon, Dion, Timoleon, &c. : 
 and it is usually kept in local names: Babylon, Lacedaemon. 
 Gr. top becomes or: Hector, rhetor ; Gr. eig becomes is : Simols 
 Simoent- ; Sardis (Plur.). Other endings are kept. 
 
 Vocative Sing. 
 
 The Nominatives is, ys, as, ens, es give 
 
 Vocatives i, y, a, eu, e (es) 
 
 Par!, DaphnT, ThybrT, Phylli ; Coty, Tiphy ; Atla, Palla ; 
 Peleu, Theseu ; Chreme 1 (es), Pericle (es), Hercules. 
 
24. The Third Declension. i 1 3 
 
 Accusative Singular (Greek a, v). 
 
 Prose writers, rarely poets, latinise this Case by using the Latin 
 ending m : lampadem, tyrannidem, Phrygem, Paridem, 
 Osirim. But the Greek a is used in some words by both : aethera 
 (always), a era (rarely -em). Cicero writes Pana, hebdomada: 
 and in poetry names of persons and places in a abound: Aga- 
 memnona, Hectora, Pallada, Phyllida, Babylona, Sala- 
 mina, &c. ; likewise appellatives: heroa, Cyclopa, lampada, 
 tyrannida, aegida, &c. 
 
 Names in is fluctuate between the formations im m and idem 
 idd. Patronymics: Briseis, Nais, Nereis, Aeneis, &c., and 
 many Female names, Amaryllis, Phyllis, &c. have ida : but 
 exceptions occur; Alcestin, Mart.; Isin, Ov. ; Irim, Verg., &c. 
 On Nouns in is im (m) see p. 104. 
 
 Names in es eti- (or es, i-) also fluctuate. From Dares Daren, 
 Dareta (Verg.), Daretem : Chremes, Chremem (en) and 
 Chremetem (a) ; Thales, Thalen and Thaletem (a). 
 
 Similarly Gen. Sing, etis and is. 
 
 Many names in es have Ace. S. em (en) : Socratem (en) ; 
 Xerxem (en) : others em only : Aristotelem, Cic. 
 
 Names in cles have em or ea, rarely en : Pericles, Periclem 
 or Periclea : rarely Periclen. 
 
 Of Names in eus see the Decl. below. 
 
 See also the Syllabus of Cons. Nouns. 
 
 Genitive Singular. 
 
 Poets often use Gr. -os for *s : Pallados, Thetidos, Peleos. 
 A Gen. in i is taken by many Names in eus, es. 
 See Table of Declension. 
 
 Dative Singular. 
 
 The short t is sometimes found in poetry : Daphnidi, Palladi. 
 
 Nominative Plural. 
 
 Poets sometimes use the Greek es : Arcades, Phryges^ 
 Naiades, Erinyes (Verg.). 
 
 The Neuter Plural words Tempe, cete, mele, pelage (e for 
 ea) are occasionally found. 
 
 Accusative Plural. 
 
 Prose writers sometimes have as: Arcadas, Cyclopas, Cic. ; 
 Senonas, &c., Caes. ; Macedonas, Liv. Poets often: as he- 
 roas, lampadas, lyncas, Naiadas, Nereidas, Erinyas. 
 
 Genitive Plural. 
 
 Catullus has Chalybon for Chalybum; Curtius Malieon 
 for Maliensium; Martial epigrammaton for epigramma- 
 tum : but Cic. has poematorum, transferring the word to Decl. 2. 
 
 Dat.Abl. Plural. 
 
 The Greek ending si (sin) is very rarely used by poets : Troasin P 
 Dryasin, Charisin, Lemniasin, Ov. 
 
 Nouns in ma are declined in the Plural after Decl. 2 : Cic. uses 
 poematis, aenigmatls, emblematls, &c. 
 
 I 
 
114 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 Greek ix. Greek Table. (Greek Endings italic.) 
 
 Table, 
 
 I) Consonant Stems. See Syllabus. 
 
 Sing. Norn. V. ; Ace. em (a) ; Gen. is (os) ; D. I (X); Abl. e. 
 Plur. Nom. V. es ; Ace. as (es) ; Gen. um; D. Abl.^ibus (.tfrare). 
 
 Examples : 
 M. Phryx Phrjfg-, lebes lebet-, gigas gigant-, aer aer-, heros 
 
 hero-. So Atlas Atlant-, but with Voc. S. a. See p. 98. 
 F. chlamys chlamyd-, lampas lampad-. 
 C. lynx lync-. 
 
 On Neuters in ma mat-, as poema, see p. 98. 
 On Neuter E-stems and Fern. O- and Y-stems, see p. 103. 
 
 II) I-stems. See p. 104. 
 
 Sing. Nom. is ; Voc. i ; Ace. im in ; Gen. is (eos) ; D. Abl. I. 
 Plur. Nom. V. es ; Ace. Is es ; Gen. ium (eon) ; D. Abl. itous. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 F. basis, poesis, Charybdis, Nemesis, Lachesis, Syrtis. 
 M. Anubis, Albis, Athesis. 
 
 Ac in aces, m. scimitar, is declined as nubes : but Names in 
 es are subject to flexional variations. 
 
 III) Heteroclite or Fluctuating Declension. 
 
 i) Third Decl. mixed with First and Second. 
 
 a) Nom. S. es ; Voc. e\ Ace. em (en} ; Gen. is, i ; D. i ; Abl. e. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 M. Aristoteles ; Archimedes; Demosthenes ; Euripides; Thucy- 
 dides ; Xerxes. 
 
 Hercules has Voc. es and Abl. e (Hor.). 
 
 ft) Nom. S. cles ; Voc. cles cle ; Ace. clem (clen\ cled \ Gen. 
 
 clis, cli ; Dat. cli ; Abl. cle. 
 Examples : 
 M. Callicles, Damocles, Pericles, Sophocles, Themistocles. 
 
 c) Nom. S. eus ; Voc. eu ; Ace. eum, ea ; Gen. ei, ei, I (eos) ; D. 
 
 eo, eb, ei ; Abl. eo, eb. 
 Examples : 
 
 M. Nereus ; Orpheus ; Peleus ; Perseus ; Theseus ; Tydeus. 
 Ace., ea, eh occur in poetry : Idomenea, Orphea (Verg.). 
 The Greek Gen, eos is confined to poets after the Aug. age. 
 With this Decl. of Perseus compare Perses, p. 87. Livy 
 
 uses the former for the last Macedonian king : Cicero the 
 
 latter. 
 
 ct) The two Masculine names Achilles, Ulixes, have a 
 
 peculiar flexion : 
 Nom. S. es ; Voc. e ; Ace. em,^, ea\ Gen. is, eos, el, I; D. et, 
 
 I; Abl. e e,I. 
 
Adjectives in the Third Declension. 115 
 
 2) Consonant Declension mixed with I -declension : 
 
 a) Nom. S. es ; Voc. e ; Ace. em (en), etem, eta ; Gen. is, 
 
 etis ; D. i, etl ; Abl. e, etc. 
 Examples : M. Chremes, Dares, Laches, Thales. 
 
 ) Nom. S. is ; Voc. i\ Ace. im, tn\ idem, ida\ Gen. idis 
 (tdos}\ D. idi; Abl. idS. 
 
 Plur. Nom. V. es, ides ; Ace. es, Is, idas ; Gen. ium, idum; D. 
 Abl. ibus, idibus (si rare). 
 
 Examples : tigris ; Paris, &c. See p. 98. 
 
 Fern, names, especially Patronymics, follow chiefly the Cons.- 
 forms : but with much variance. See Neue (Formenlehre, I. 300, 
 &c.). 
 
 x. Adjectives in the Third Declension. 
 
 J 
 
 i. The Declension of Adjectives is distinguished from that of 
 Substantives only by having Case-endings which represent different 
 Genders. Therefore Consonant Adjectives which have no distinct 
 .generic Case-forms are merely declined like corresponding Sub- 
 stantives. They are a very small class, of which the principal are 
 
 Adjec- 
 tives in 
 
 (caeles) caelit- 
 dives divit- 
 sospes sospit- 
 
 heavenly 
 
 rich 
 
 safe 
 
 superstes superstit- surviving 
 
 deses desid- 
 reses resid- 
 compos compot- 
 impos impot- 
 
 slothful 
 reposing 
 possessing 
 unpossessing 
 
 particeps particip- sharing 
 princeps princip- chief 
 caelebs caelib- m. unmarried 
 pauper pauper- poor 
 
 Cons. 
 
 An I -noun impubis (is, e) is more frequently used. 
 
 Sospes is once Neuter in luv.: 'Nee umquam depositum tibi 
 sospes erit/ xiii. 177. 
 
 Dis (Ter.) contracted from dives, becomes an I-noun, Abl. diti; 
 Newt. PI. ditia ; Gen. PI. ditium. 
 
 Table : 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 N. V. dives 
 
 Ace. divit- 
 
 Gen. divit- 
 
 Dat divit- 
 
 Abl. divit- 
 
 pauper 
 pauper- 
 pauper- 
 pauper- 
 pauper- 
 
 em 
 is 
 
 I 
 e 
 
 N. A. V. divit- 
 Gen. divit- 
 D. Abl. divit- 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 pauper- 
 pauper- 
 pauper- 
 
 es 
 
 ibus 
 
 I 2 
 
Latin Word lore. 
 
 24. 
 
 u r 
 
 l-npun . 2. Adjectives and Participles, not purely Consonantal, may be 
 <ives. C ~ classed in four groups, shewn in the following Table : 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 Norn. Voc. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ! 
 Gen. | Da 
 
 t. Abl. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 I. I. is e 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 em e 
 
 is I 
 
 I 
 
 2. er P-IS r-e 
 
 r-em r-e 
 
 r-is r- 
 
 I r-I 
 
 II. s(xns ...) 
 
 em s(x ns ...) 
 
 is 1 
 
 !(*) 
 
 III. OP us 
 
 em iis 
 
 is I 
 
 g 
 
 IV. r,l,s... 
 
 em 
 
 is I 
 
 I 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Norn. Voc. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. Abl. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 I. es la 
 
 ' M. F. N. 
 
 es is ia 
 
 ium 
 
 ibus 
 
 II. es ia 
 
 es Is ia 
 
 ium 
 
 ibus 
 
 III. es a 
 
 es Is a 
 
 urn 
 
 ibus 
 
 IV. es 
 
 esis 
 
 um 
 
 ibus 
 
 The Ending of Accusative Plural fluctuates between is (for 
 eis) and es, as in Substantival l-stems. Even Compara- 
 tives have both forms, though with Abl. S. e : Neut. PI. a. 
 
 I) The first group contains 
 
 1) A large number of Adjectives declined as I-nouns with Norn. 
 
 is m. f., e n. : dulcis, sweet; pinguis, fat; mitis, mild; 
 tristis, sad; grandis, great; viridis, green; turpis, base ; 
 segnis, lazy ; sublimis, lofty ; agilis, active ; nobilis, noble ; 
 aequalis, equal ; fidelis, faithful ; servilis, slavish ; vul- 
 garis, common ; levis, light ; levis, smooth, &c. 
 
 Instances of Ablative in e are very rare in this class : ' nobile 
 viro,' Cic. ; ' caeleste, bimestre, perenne,' Ov. 
 
 2) A small number in er, -ris, -re : as acer, acris, acre, keen. 
 Celer, celeris, celere, swift, is the only Adjective of this kind 
 
. 24. Adjectives in the Third Declension. 117 
 
 which retains e before r through all the Cases. Its Gen. PL ends 
 in ium when it is merely adjectival, but in um when it signifies the 
 ancient body-guard at Rome, called Celeres. 
 
 The Adjectives which, besides acer (acris), cast out e before r 
 in the Cases, are 
 
 cele-ber -bris -lore famous eques-ter -tris -tre on horse 
 
 salu-ber -bris -bre healthy pedes-ter -tris -tre on foot 
 
 ala-cer -cris -ere brisk palus-ter -tris -tre marshy 
 
 volu-cer -cris -ere swift, winged pu-ter -tris -tre putrid 
 
 campes-ter -tris -tre of the plain terres-ter -tris -tre of land, 
 
 silves-ter -tris -tre woody of earth. 
 
 The forms in -bris, -cris, -tris, may be Masc. ; but -ber, -cer, 
 
 -ter are usual in prose. These latter forms were also of Common 
 Gender anciently. 
 
 September, October, November, December, are like celeber, but 
 have no Neuter Cases. 
 
 The Masc. and Fern, forms of this group are like ignis, imber 
 (Abl. i) ; the Neuter like rete. 
 
 II) This group comprises many Adjectives : 
 
 1) Adjectives in ax aci- ; ox 5ci- ; ix lei- : 
 
 audax, bold, terzx, fruitful, c. ; ferox, haughty, velox, swift, &c. ; 
 felix, happy, permx,jieet : including words in ix, Fern, in Sing, 
 but taking also Neuter endings in Plur. : victrix, PI. vic- 
 trices, victricia. So ultrix, corruptrix. 
 
 Adjectives under i) rarely take Abl. S. . 
 
 Like these are declined : 
 
 a) Compounds of caput : anceps, double \ ; biceps, two-headed-, 
 praeceps, headlong, &c. (for -cipes) -cipiti-. 
 
 ty Compounds of cor: concors, agreeing-, discors, dis- 
 agreeing; misericors, merciful ; socors or secors, 
 stupid-, vecors, insane : -cordi-. 
 
 >-c) par par!-, equal; hebes hebeti-, dull (no Gen. PL); 
 teres tereti- (no Gen. PL), smooth-rounded; praepes 
 ^z.z^z\.\-, fast-flying; trux truci-, cruel. 
 
 But the compounds of par, dispar, unlike, impar, unequal,, 
 take Abl. S. e or l, Gen. PL um. 
 
 2) Adjectives and Participles used adjectively in ns nti- rs r- : 
 
 ingens, huge ; prudens, sage ; praesens, present; absens, absent; 
 recens, fresh; sapiens, wise; praestans, excellent; insons, in- 
 nocent ; iners, inactive ; expers, void, &c. In these the Abl. 
 in e, though less frequent than I, is often found. 
 
 a) So those in as ati- : nostras, vestras. ciiias, &c. See 
 p. 1 08. 
 
Ii8 Latin Wordlore. 24. 
 
 b) Numerals in plex plici- : simplex, duplex, multiplex, 
 
 &c. 
 
 c) Derivatives of dens: tridens trident i-, three-pronged \ 
 
 these have no Neut. PI. 
 
 d) Locuples locupleti-, wealthy ; Abl. S. e (i) ; Gen. PL um or 
 
 turn. 
 
 Note. Present Participles, when they keep their Verbal force, 
 take e in Abl. S. : for instance, when used absolutely : regnante 
 Romulo, imperante Augusto : if used as mere Adjectives they 
 usually take Abl. S. I. 
 
 But rare instances occur of Participles with Abl. I used verbally,, 
 and of Participles with Abl. e used adjectively. 
 
 Obs. The Gen. PI. in nti-um, rti-um, ati-um, eti-um is liable 
 to an occasional loss of i : recentum, sapientum, locupletum, 
 amantum, nostratum, &c. 
 
 III) This group contains Comparative Adjectives in or or- m.f. 
 us or- n. : melior, praestantior, sapientior, &c. 
 
 Abl. S. e as a rule, rarely I. 
 
 Vetus veter-, ancient, has the same endings : Abl. e (rarely I) - y 
 Neut. PL a, Gen. PL um. 
 
 IV) Group IV. has no Neut. Plur. Abl. S. I, Gen. PL um. 
 
 a) Compounds of pes : alipes, Abl. S. alipedi. As a Neuter 
 
 Subst. quadrupes has PL quadrupedia. 
 
 b) Compounds of color : concolor concolor-, of the same 
 
 colour ; discolor discolor-, tf/" different colour. Neut. 
 PL ia (rare). 
 
 c) ales alit-, winged (Ovid has alite). 
 
 degener degener-, degenerate uber vi^f-^ fruitful 
 
 inops inop-, destitute vigil vigil-, wakeful 
 
 memor memor-, mindful 
 immemor, unmindful 
 
 d} redux reduc-, returned I AUI q - 
 supplex supplic-, suppliant > ' 1? e< 
 
 Obs. The Neuter Comparative plus plur- has Abl. S. plure,, 
 Neut. N. V. A. plura, Gen. PL plurium. 
 Its compound complures has complura or compluria. 
 
 Table of Adjectives not purely consonantal : 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 M. F. N. M. F. N. 
 
 N.V. trist-is trist-e felix 
 
 Ace. trist-em trist-e felic-em felix 
 
 Gen. trist-is felic-is 
 
 Dat. trist-i 
 
 Abl. trist-i 
 
 felic-l 
 felic-l 
 
 M. F. 
 
 ingens 
 
 ingent-em ingens. 
 ingent-is 
 ingent-l 
 ingent-l (e) 
 
25- 
 
 The Fourth Declension. 
 
 119 
 
 N.V. trist-es trist-ia 
 Ace. trist-es is trist-ia 
 Gen. trist-iuna 
 
 D.Abl. trist-ibus 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 felic-es felic-ia 
 felic-es is felic-ia 
 felic-ium 
 felic-ibus 
 
 ingent-es ingent-ia 
 ingent-es Is ingent-ia 
 ingent-ium 
 ingent-ibus 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 M. 
 
 acer 
 
 N.V. celer celer-is celer-e 
 
 Other cases of Sing., and the Plural, as tristis. 
 
 F. 
 
 acr-is 
 
 acr-e 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 N.V. meli-6r meli-iis 
 
 Ace. melior-em meli-iis 
 Gen. melior-is 
 
 Dat. melior-i 
 
 Abl. melior-e (i) 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 N.V. inops 
 Ace. inop-em inops 
 Gen. inop-is 
 D. Abl. inop-l 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 melior-es melior-a 
 
 melior-es (is) melior-a 
 
 melior-um 
 
 melior-ibus 
 
 melior-ibus 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 M. F. 
 
 inop-es 
 inop-es Is 
 inop-um 
 inop-ibus 
 
 SECTION V. 
 I The Fourth Declension: U-Nouns. 
 
 U-Nouns add s to the Stem in the Nominative Sing, of Masc. 
 (Fern.) words, gradu-s ; but not in that of Neuter words, which 
 are three only : cornu, horn ; genu, knee ; veru, spit. The endings 
 of the other Cases, uncontracted, appear in the declension of grus, 
 p. no ; but the forms, contracted as in the following Table, are 
 used by all U-nouns except grus, sus. 
 
 Fourth 
 Declen- 
 
 ii. Table. 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 step, m. 
 N.V. grad-iis 
 Ace. grad-um 
 Gen. grad-us 
 Dat. grad-ui u 
 Abl. grad-u 
 
 tribe, f. 
 
 trib-iis 
 trib-um 
 trib-us 
 trib-ui u 
 trib-u 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 N.V. A. grad-us 
 Gen. grad-TTum 
 D.Abl. grad-*bus 
 
 trib-us 
 trib-imm 
 trib-ubus 
 
 %nee, n. 
 
 gen-u 
 
 gen-u 
 
 gen-us 
 
 gen-u 
 
 gen-u 
 
 gen-ua 
 
 gen-Vum 
 
 gen-Xbus 
 
I2O Latin Wordlore. 25. 
 
 iii. Confusion of 0- and U-nouns. 
 
 a) On account of the near relation of the flat vowels o, u, the 
 U-declension is invaded by many forms of the O-declension, 2. 
 
 Thus senati, tumult i, occur in Sallust ; and in poets from the 
 earliest time down to Lucretius many such forms are found : ad- 
 venti, aesti, fructi, geli, gemiti, ornati, piscati, quaesti 
 (frequent), sumpti, victi, &c. 
 
 b] Ficus, f. fig-tree, an O-noun of Decl. 2., fluctuates in 
 
 Gen. S. I or us, Abl. S. o or u. 
 Nom. PL I or us, Ace. PL os or us. 
 
 Laurus, f. bay-tree, cupressus, cypress-tree, are similarly declined : 
 also pinus, pine, but with Abl. S. in u only : and cornus, cornel, 
 but with Gen. S. in i only. 
 
 Myrtus, f. myrtle, an O-noun, has Nom. PL I or us ; Ace. PL 
 os or us. 
 
 Quercus, f. oak, is a U-noun, but Gen. PL quercorum, Cic. 
 
 Coins, 2. f. distaff, Gen. S. I or us, D. o, Abl. o or u. Nom. PL 
 us, Ace. us or os. 
 
 So domus, f. house, fluctuates between Decl. 4 and Decl. 2. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 N. V. domus domus 
 
 Ace. domum domos (us) 
 
 Gen. domus domuum, domorum 
 
 Dat. dom-ui, o domibus 
 
 Abl. dom-o u domibus 
 
 Domi (or domui), at home, is the Locative. It can be used with, 
 an Attribute : domi meae, at my house ; domi Caesaris, at Caesar's 
 house. Also domui alienae, at another's house. 
 
 Pecu, 4. n. is a disused Nom. ( = pecus, pecoris), cases of which 
 are found : Dat. S. pecui. Abl. pecu. PL Nom. Ace. pecua (Dat. 
 Abl. pecubus ?). 
 
 Gelus, 4. m. frost, is a disused Nom., Gen. S. geli. Abl. gelu. 
 Gelum, 2. n. is also extant. 
 
 Tonitrus, 4. m. Abl. S. tonitru. Nom. Ace. PL tonitrus (also 
 tonitrua from abyform tonitruum2. n.). Dat. Abl. tonitribus. 
 (Ossua, ossuum, from a disused ossu, 4. n. = os bone, are only found 
 in old Inscrr.) Sub diu for sub divo, Lucr. v. 211. 
 
 iv. Cases in the Fourth Declension. 
 
 i) The Gen. Sing, of Neuter Nouns is now shewn to be like 
 that of others, in us, though old grammarians held it to be in u. 
 
26. The Fifth Declension. 121 
 
 2) The Dat. ui is generally contracted into u : usu for usui : 
 'parce metu ;' ' victu invigilant/ Verg. It is much used with esse, 
 habere, &c., ' usui esse/ to be useful ; ' derisui habere/ c. 
 
 3) In the Dat. Abl. PL ubus is generally weakened into ibus. 
 The only Nouns which exclude ibus, are acus, arc us, and 
 tribus : iibus is however usual in artus (PL), limbs ; lacus; partus, 
 birth \ portus, harbour ; specus, cave] veru : and found in genu, 
 tonitrus, Quinquatrus. Other nouns have ibus alone. 
 
 v. Gender in the Fourth Declension. 
 
 The Feminine Nouns of the U-declension (besides those deter- 
 mined by meaning as females or plants) are : acus, needle, point ; 
 domus, house; manus, hand\ porticus, porch ; tribus, tribe \ Idus 
 (PL), the Ides (of the month) ; Quinquatrus (PL), a byform of 
 Quinquatria, the feast of Minerva. 
 
 Specus, m. is rarely f. (PL specua is found in E. L.). 
 
 Obs. Most Nouns of this Decl. are Derivatives ; either from 
 Substantives: consul-atus, magistr-atus, sen-atus, &c., signi- 
 fying office : or from the Supine Stem of Verbs, with abstract mean- 
 ing : actus, auditus, eventus, visus, &c. To these latter often 
 correspond forms rather less abstract in -io 3. f., actio, auditio, 
 visio, &c. ; and others concrete in um 2. n. : (actum), eventum, 
 visum, &c. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 i. The Fifth Declension: E-Nouns. 
 
 26 
 E-nouns add s to the Stem in the Nominative : in the other Fifth 
 
 cases closely corresponding with dea in the First Declension. Declen- 
 
 sion. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Decl. i. dea dea-m dea-i 
 Decl. 5. die-s die-m die-i 
 
 deae dea-rum dea-bus 
 die-s die-rum die-bus 
 
 ii. Table. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 day, c. thing, f. faith, f. 
 
 N. V. di-es r-es fid-es 
 
 Ace. di-em r-em fid-em 
 
 Gen. di-ei r-ei . fid-el 
 
 Dat. di-ei r-ei fid-ei 
 
 Abl. di-e r-e fid-e 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 N. Ac. V. di-es r-es none 
 
 Gen. di-erum r-eruxn 
 
 Dat. Abl. di-ebus r-ebus 
 
122 Latin Wordlore. 26, 
 
 iii. Cases in the Fifth Declension. 
 
 i) Dies and res are the only nouns fully declined. Acies, 
 edge^army, fades, face, effigies, image, glacies, ice (Verg.), series, 
 species, form, spes, hope, have the first three Plural Cases. 1 All 
 others are Singular only : being in sense either abstract or col- 
 lective. Many are byforms of A-nouns : 
 
 materia, i., materies, 5., mother-stuff, matter 
 mollitia, i., mollities, 5., softness, effeminacy. 
 
 So amaritia, es ; avaritia, es ; barbaria, es ; duritia, es ; luxuria, 
 es ; segnitia, es, c. 
 
 Other words are caesaries, (clipf) hair ; caries, rot (in wood) ; 
 congeries, mass ; esuries, hunger ; macies, wasting disease ; pau- 
 peries, poverty ; pernicies (or permities), bane, ruin ; progenies, 
 offspring-, rabies, fury, madness; sanies, corrupt matter, gore ; 
 scabies, the scab, mange, or rot ; superficies, surface ; temperies, 
 climate, temper, moderation ; intemperies, immoderation (PL in- 
 temperiae of the ist. Decl.). 
 
 2) A few Nouns of Decl. 3. confuse some cases with Decl. 5. 
 Thus fames, hunger, has Abl. fame; tabes, Abl. tabe, in 
 Lucr. Requies, rest, has Ace. requiem and requietem, Gen. 
 requietis, Dat. requieti, Abl. requie. Plebes or plebs has 
 Gen. plebis, plebei, plebi, Dat. plebi or plebei. 
 
 3) An example of the old Gen. Sing, in es survives in Lucr. iv, 
 1083 : ( Quodcumque est rabies unde illaec germina surgunt.' 
 
 4) The e of Gen. Dat. ei is long after 1 : diei, progeniei ; 
 Jut short, classically, after a Consonant : fid-ei, rei (spei ?). But 
 in old Latin it was long in these also : * plenu' fidei/ Enn., Lucr. ; 
 rei (or reii). Plautus and Terence make ei in rei, spei coalesce 
 by synizesis. 
 
 5) Ei was also contracted into e, anciently into I, diei, die, dH ; 
 plebei, plebi. ' Constantis iuvenem fide ;' ' commissa fide/ Hor. 
 ' Munera laetitiamque dii/ Verg. A. Gellius cites from old Latin 
 authors such instances as acii, fami, luxurii, pernicii, progenii, c. 
 
 6) the phrases 'die crastini/ 'die proximi,' 'die septimi/ are 
 examples of the Locative Case in this Decl. So cotidie, postridie. 2 
 
 iv. Gender in the Fifth Declension. 
 
 All E-nouns are Fern, except dies, which, when it means a day, 
 is usually, and in the Plur. always, Masc. So its compound meri- 
 dies, noon, is Masc. classically. But, if it means time, dies is 
 Fern. : ' Longa dies illi quid profuit ? ' luv. x. 
 
 1 Some other forms appear anciently or in post-classical writings, as speres for spesi 
 facierum ; specierum, speciebus. 
 * No Adjectives belong to the 4th and 5th Declensions. 
 
27. Irregular Nouns. 123 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 i. Irregular Nouns. Irreeju- 
 
 lar 
 
 1) Irregularity (dvwpaXia) is said to exist in a word if it de- 
 parts in any respect from the normal constitution of its class. 
 
 2) A Substantive is normally constituted when it has two Num- 
 bers, with six Cases in each, all of the same gender, following one 
 pattern of Declension. A Substantive is said to be irregular, so far 
 as it departs from this constitution. 
 
 3) Irregularity may consist in Abundance (more forms than 
 usual) or Defect (fewer forms than usual). 
 
 A word may be Abundant in one respect and Defective in an- 
 other. Thus, vulgus, 2, is Abundant in having two Genders and 
 two forms of Accusative : Defective in having no Plural. 
 
 ii. Abundance in Substantives. Abun- 
 
 dance- 
 Abundance is shewn in 
 
 i) Substantives which, with the same Clipt-stem and meaning, 
 are formed after more than one Declension. See 25. 6. 
 
 a) With difference of Gender : 
 Decl. i. f. and 2. n. 
 
 alimoni-a um, nurture ; cingul-a um (us, m.), belt ; essed-a 
 um, chaise ; margarit-a um, pearl ; mend-a um, fault\ 
 mulctr-a um, milking-pail. 
 
 Note ostrea, oyster, f. ; PL ostrea, oysters, n. 
 
 Decl. i. f. and 2. m. 
 vesper-a, vesper, evening ; acin-a, us, berry. 
 
 Decl. i. f. and 3. m. 
 cratera, crater, mixing-bawl. 
 
 Decl. i. f., 2. n., and 3. n. 
 gausap-a, um, e, frieze cloth or coat. 
 
 Decl. i. f. and 3. n. 
 caepa, caepe, onion (PI. from caepa). 
 
 Decl. 2. n. and 5. f. 
 
 diluvi-um, es, deluge. 
 Decl. 2. n. and 3. f. 
 
 consorti-um, o, companionship ; contagi-um, o, contagion. 
 
 Decl. 2. n., 3. n., and 3. f. 
 praesepium, praesepe, praesepis, crib y stall (PI. 3. n.). 
 
 Decl. 2. n., 3. n., and 3. m. 
 tapetum, tapete, tapes, carpet. 
 
124 Latin Wordlore. 27. 
 
 Decl. 2. n. and 3. n. 
 tergum, tergus (or-), back (rarely 2 m.) 
 
 Decl. 2. n. and 4. m. 
 
 angiport-um,us, lane', conat-um, us, endeavour ; event-um,us, 
 issue ; event (p. 121, Obs.}-, incest-urn, us, incest ; suggest- 
 um,us,//^#. Fretum, frith, has an ancient form fretus, 4. 
 
 0&y. The old root pen-, interior (whence penes, penitus, penetrare, 
 penetrale, penates), has a Substantive exhibited in several forms, all 
 classical : penu-s, 4. f., penu-s, 2. m., penu-m, 2. n., and penus 
 penor-, 3. n., provision, store of food \ as, 'magna penus/ Lucil. ; 
 6 penus annuus,' Plaut. ; ' penum erile/ Afran. ; ' frumenta penus- 
 que/ Hor. 
 
 b) With the same Gender : 
 Decl. i. and 3. f. 
 
 cassida, cassis, helmet ; fulica, Mix, coot; iuvent-a, us,youth ; 
 senect-a, us, old age. 
 
 Decl. 2. and 3. m. 
 
 delphinus, delphin ; elephantus, elephas ; Mulciber (beri, bri, 
 and beris,bris) ; Oedipus (i and odis) ; scorpius, scorpio. 
 
 Decl. 3. and 5. f. 
 
 colluvio, colluvies, conflux ; paupertas, pauperies, poverty. 
 
 Decl. 2. and 3. n. 
 
 iugerum (iuger), acre; nihilum, nihil, nothing. Necessus, 
 necessum, necesse, necessity. See Corssen, ii. 238. 
 
 Decl. i. and 5. (see 26). 
 
 On Greek names of two Declensions, see 24. ix. 
 
 Obs. Names of trees have Nom. us, f., their fruits um, n. usually, 
 cerasus cherry-tree cerasum cherry 
 
 prunus plum-tree prunum plum 
 
 So malus, apple-tree, malum, apple ; pirus, pear-tree, pirum, pear : 
 but amygdala, almond-tree, amygdalum, almond. 
 
 2) Substantives, chiefly of Decl. 2, which vary their Gender, and 
 with it their Case-forms, in the Plural. 
 
 a) locus, place, m. . . . loci, m loca, n. 
 
 (loci often means topics, places in books, but not exclusively) 
 
 iocus,/*?/, m. ... ioci, m ioca, n. 
 
 sibilus, hiss, m. . . . sibili, m sibila, n. 
 
 carbasus, canvas, f. . . (carbasi) .... carbasa, n. 
 Tartarus, hell, m Tartara, n. 
 
 Like Tartarus are formed many names of mountains, referred in 
 Sing, to mons, m., in PI. to iuga, n. : 
 
 Ismar-us, PI. -a ; Maenal-us, PI. -a ; Tayget-us, PL -a. 
 
27. Irregular Nouns. 125 
 
 b] rastrum, harrow, n. . . rastri, m. . . rastra, n. 
 
 frenum, bit, n. ... freni, m. . . frena, n. 
 
 caelum, heaven, n. . . caeli, m. (Lucr.) 
 
 porrum, leek, n. . . . porri, m. 
 
 6-) In Decl. 3 : 
 
 siser, skirret, n. . . . siseres, m. 
 
 Many examples of words in one Decl. which borrow cases from 
 another are given in 21 . . . 26 : plebes, fames, requies, domus, 
 fraus, &c. See especially 25. 
 
 Note. The compounds respublica, commonwealth, iusiurandum, 
 oath, decline both elements : rempublicam, reipublicae, republica, 
 &c. ; iurisiurandi, iureiurando, 
 
 iii. Defect in Substantives. r> e fec- 
 
 tiva Nu- 
 
 Defect is of Number or Case. mero - 
 
 A. DEFECTIVA NUMERO are : 
 
 I) Nouns which have no Plural Number (Singular only). Singular 
 
 only. 
 
 i. Words which seem, by their nature, to need no Plural, are 
 Nomina Propria, Abstracta, Collectiva, and Materialia. 
 
 Yet Proper Names may take a Plural, when several of one name 
 are mentioned, duodecim Caesares, the twelve Caesars ; Cn. et L. 
 Scipiones, the Scipios Gnaeiis and Luciiis ; also if, as types of a 
 class, they become Appellatives : ' Non omnes possumus esse 
 Cicerones/ we cannot all be Ciceros. ' Sint Maecenates, non 
 derunt, Flacce, Marones/ Mart. 
 
 Abstracta take a Plural, when various instances of their occur- 
 rence are implied : odia, hatreds, amicitiae, friendships, invidiae, 
 envies, impietates, &c. 
 
 So Collectiva may take a Plural, if several instances are implied : 
 popuLi, peoples, senatus, senates, mundi, worlds, &c. 
 
 Materialia may take a Plural, when more than one kind is im- 
 plied : vina, wines. Also when objects made of the material are 
 meant : cerae, waxen tablets or waxen busts ; sera, bronzes ; mar- 
 mora, works in marble. Other metals, as aurum, gold, argentum, 
 silver, are not used in the Plural, because objects of show were not 
 usually made in them. Argentum, Sing., is used for the collective 
 silver plate of an owner. 
 
 As we sayyfofc, meat, lamb, cheese, c., so the Romans expressed 
 objects of ordinary consumption in the Singular : ' Villa mea 
 abundat porco, haedo, agno, gallina, caseo, melle,' C. Faba, 
 Sing., is used for beans, rosa for roses, glans for acorns, &C. 1 
 Similarly, miles for milites, eques for equites : gemma, 
 jewelled clips, tegula, tiles. 
 
 On the other hand, poets use in the Plural many words which 
 might appear to confine their meaning to the Singular : mella, 
 tura, farra, hordea, nives, grandines, rores, soles, rura, corda, colla, 
 pectora, ora, silentia, crepuscula, ligna, c. So they pluralize local 
 
 1 The wordfea in English is a modern corruption of the true form 'peas? L. pis-urn, 
 Fr. pois. In Shakespere we find ' a peas or a bean.' The plural \spease <yc peasen. 
 
126 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 127. 
 
 names : Esquiliae, the Esquiline hill \ Capitolia, the Capitol, 
 Palatia, the Palatine, &c. 
 
 2. Generally, in Latin, the Plural has a large and liberal use. 
 Yet the following words may be mentioned as Singular only, no 
 good authority or analogy sanctioning a Plural form : 
 
 acetum 
 
 vinegar 
 
 lac 
 
 milk 
 
 ador 
 
 spelt 
 
 letum 
 
 death 
 
 aether 
 
 sky 
 
 limus 
 
 mud 
 
 argentum 
 
 stiver 
 
 meridies 
 
 noon 
 
 aurum 
 
 gold 
 
 merum i 
 
 
 fames 
 
 hunger 
 
 nectar > 
 
 wine 
 
 ferrum 
 
 iron 
 
 oleum 
 
 oil 
 
 garum 
 
 pickle 
 
 plumbum 
 
 lead 
 
 humus 
 
 ground 
 
 pontus 
 
 sea 
 
 pus 
 
 salus 
 
 sanguis 
 
 supellex 
 
 venia 
 
 ver 
 
 vesper 
 
 virus 
 
 vulgus 
 
 matter 
 safety 
 blood 
 furniture 
 pardon 
 spring 
 evening 
 venom 
 populace 
 
 It is unsafe to say of Abstracts, like pietas, infantia, pueritia, ex- 
 perientia, sapientia, that they are Singular only ; because, if any 
 such words are not found Plural in classical authors, so many Plurals 
 are found resembling them that the possibility of their Plural use 
 cannot be confidently denied. 
 
 Abstracts of the Fifth Declension are not, however, used in the 
 Plural, but their corresponding forms of the First Declension. 
 
 Plural II) Nouns never, or rarely found Singular (Plural only). These 
 only. are numerous j n Latin. 
 
 1) Names of People or Tribes, individuals of which are seldom 
 mentioned : Aborigines; and the three original tribes of Rome, 
 Ramnes, Tities, Luceres. But most of such names may occur 
 as Singular : Arpinas, Samnis, Callus, Saxo ; thus Hor. ' infi- 
 delis Allobrox ;' * Marsus et Appulus ;' * Dacus et Aethiops.' 
 
 2) Mountain, Island, &c. groups : Alpes (Alpis rare) : Acrocer- 
 aunia (iuga) : Aegates, Baleares, Cyclades (insulae). So the 
 street Carinae (the Keels) at Rome; Tempe, (vale in Thessaly). 
 
 3) Many names of Cities and Towns are Plural, as consisting of 
 parts: I. Athenae, Baiae, Cumae, Mycenae, Syracusae, 
 Thebae; 1 2. Argi, Delphi, Gabii, Philippi, Pompeii, Veii : 
 Ecbatana, Leuctra, Susa; 3. Cures, Gades, Sardis; or from 
 the name of the people, asLeontini: 2 or from a Plural Appellative, 
 as Aquae Sextiae, Fundi, Ostia, Centumcellae. 
 
 4) Names of recurring Calendar days : Calendae or Kalen- 
 dae; Nonae; Idus, 4. And of Holidays, Festivals, Games, tc. : 
 as Latinae, Sementivae (feriae), Quinquatrus; nundinae 
 (feriae), market day \ Circenses (ludi) ; Feralia, Floralia, Libe- 
 ralia, Megalesia, Dionysia, Nemea, Olympia, Pythia, Sa- 
 turnalia (festa). To this class belong nuptiae (epulae), wedding ; 
 repotia (festa), feast after a wedding ; sponsalia (sacra or 
 
 1 Cicero writes Cyrenae, Mytilenae for the Greek forms in e. 
 
 2 Most of the considerable towns in and around France take their names from the old 
 Gallic tribes of which they were the capitals: Paris (Lutetia Parisiorum) ; Amiens 
 (Ambiani) ; Limoges (Lemovices) ; Bourges (Bituriges) ; Orleans (Aureliani) ; Tours 
 ( Turones) ; Rouen (Rotomagi) ; Soissons (Suessiones) ; Langres 
 
 (Senones) ; Nantes (NannetesJ ; Treves (Augusta Treverorum), &c. 
 
 Langres (Lingones) ; Sens 
 
27. Irregular Nouns. 127 
 
 festa), betrothal ; iusta (sacra), funeral rites; parent alia (festa), 
 funeral banquet ; infer iae (epulae), offering to the dead. 
 
 5) Neuter Greek names for treatises or poems : ethica, ethics ; 
 metaphysica, metaphysics ; Georgica, the Georgics, c. (scripta). 
 
 6) Masculine Collective Names of persons seldom or never so 
 named individually : Decl. 2. gemini, twins ; liberi, the children of a 
 free Roman; one being unus (una) e liberisor liberorum : inferi, 
 dwellers below ; superi, gods above ; posteri, posterity ; Decl. 3. 
 maiores, ancestors ; minores, descendants; caelites, heavenly deities ; 
 lemures, goblins ; penates, household-gods ; optimates, primores, 
 proceres, chiefs, nobles (the last six rarely S. : < Agnosco procerem/ 
 luv.) ; manes, ^ ghost m ghosts. 
 
 7) Parts of the human body, subsisting plurally, and seldom or 
 never separately mentioned : cani (capilli), grey hairs ; cervices 3. 
 neck (also cervix) ; lactes 3. small guts ; exta 2. (outermost) en- 
 trails ; intestina 2. viscera 3. entrails (viscus used) : ilia 3. groin, 
 bowels ; praecordia 2. midriff, heart ; pantices 3. paunch. The 
 words genae, cheeks ; tempora 3. temples ; fauces 3. jaws ; renes 3. 
 kidneys, imply that the Sing, may be used, if necessary. Hence 
 gena (Suet.), tempus (Verg.) : Abl. fauce often in poetry (Hor. 
 Ov. &c.) : ren is not found in classical Latin ; but can be used 
 technically. 
 
 Artus 4. the limbs ; Sing, once in Lucan. 
 
 8) Many other words, which may be generally distinguished 
 thus : 
 
 a) Plural Nouns implying individuals, which are not cited in the 
 Singular except in rare instances marked (s.) : 
 
 Decl. i. antae, pilasters ; clitellae, packsaddle\ dirae, curses, 
 furies (s.); gerrae, (wattled twigs) nonsense; habenae, reins 
 (s. in Hor.) ; plagae, nets ; scalae, stairs ; thermae, warm 
 baths; valvae, folding doors . 
 
 Decl. 2. fori, hatches (of a ship) ; acta, transactions; arma, arms ; 
 bellaria, dessert ; crepundia, (rattling) toys ; cibaria, food ; 
 munia, duties ; pascua, pastures ; sata, cornfields ; scruta, 
 second-hand wares ; tesqua, wilds. 
 
 Decl. 3. antes, m. front vine rows; casses, m. nets (s.) ; com- 
 pedes, f. fetters (s.) ; fides, f. lute-strings (s.) ; obices, c. 
 bars (s.) ; sentes, c. thorns (s.) ; vepres, c. brambles (s.) ; 
 magalia, mapalia, n. huts, village. 
 
 V) Plural Nouns implying parts not similar and separable. 
 
 Decl. i. balneae, bath-house (balnea, baths); bigae, chariot and 
 pair; cunae, cradle; divitiae, riches; epulae, banquet; ex- 
 sequiae, burial; exuviae, spoils (stript from the dead); 
 induviae, clothes ; lapicidinae, slonequarry ; manubiae 
 
 1 The word Manes belongs to Italian, probably to Etruscan, religion. Departed spirits 
 were dteified under the title ofdi manes or manes; and the word is sometimes used, as 
 a true Plural, of all such spirits ; sometimes as a Singular-Plural, of the spirit or ghost of an 
 individual. Thus, ' Quae vis deorum est manium,' Hor. ; ' Sunt aliquid manes,' Prop. '. 
 ' Callimachi manes,' Prop. ; 'Verginiae manes,' Liv. 
 
128 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 or manibiae, prize money (in war) : phalerae, trappings \ 
 parietinae, ruins ; quadrigae, chariot and four (s.) ; quis- 
 quiliae, rubbish ; reliquiae, remnant,} salinae, saltwork ; 
 scopae, besom, broom. . 
 
 Decl. 2. cancelli, railing (in court) ; clathri, grating ; codicilli, 
 ledger \ adversaria, notebook compita, cross-road or roads 
 (s.) : cunabula, cradle ; donaria, treasury ; multicia, yf;^ 
 raiment*, serta, wreath, garland. 
 
 shoals \ moenia, town-walls. 
 
 c) Plural Nouns implying repetition or continuation. 
 
 Decl. i. angustiae, straits (s.) ; argutiae, subtleties, acuteness ; 
 blanditiae, flattery (s.) ; decimae, ///#$ ; deliciae (s.), *&- 
 light, darling ; excubiae, nightwatch ; facetiae, pleasantry 
 (s.) ; feriae, holidays ; ineptiae, follies (s.) ; inimicitiae, 
 enmity (s.) ; insidiae, ambush, treachery ; minae, threats ; 
 nugae, /rz)fcr ; praestigiae, jugglery ; primitiae, yfr^/- 
 fruits ; tricae, tricks ; tenebrae, darkness ; vindiciae, claim. 
 
 Decl. 2. fasti, annals; flabra, blasts (also flamina); lamenta, 
 lamentations ; oblivia, forgetfulness. 
 
 Decl. 3. grates, f. thanks ; verbera, stripes (s.) ; tormina, 
 
 Varia- 
 
 111; INOUI 
 
 is wiiiuii vary 
 
 LllClI IllCd.ll 
 
 mg in me jriuicu. 
 
 tion of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mean- 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 ing in 
 Plural. 
 
 aedes 
 
 temple 
 
 aedes 
 
 house 
 
 
 aqua 
 
 water 
 
 aquae 
 
 mineral springs 
 
 
 auxilium 
 
 help 
 
 auxilia 
 
 auxiliary forces 
 
 
 bonum 
 
 good (abstr.) 
 
 bona 
 
 goods, property 
 
 
 career 
 
 prison 
 
 carceres 
 
 starting-place (s) 
 
 
 castrum ) 
 castellum > 
 
 fort 
 
 castra 
 
 camp 
 
 
 cera 
 
 wax 
 
 cerae 
 
 waxen tablets or busts 
 
 
 comitium 
 
 A ssembly-placc 
 
 comitia 
 
 the Assembly at Rome 
 
 
 copia 
 
 plenty 
 
 copiae 
 
 forces, resources 
 
 
 facultas 
 
 faculty 
 
 facultates 
 
 means 
 
 
 finis 
 
 an end 
 
 fines 
 
 boundaries 
 
 
 fortuna 
 
 fortune 
 
 fortunae 
 
 gifts of fortune 
 
 
 gratia 
 
 favour 
 
 gratiae 
 
 thanks (s) 
 
 
 hortus 
 
 garden 
 
 horti 
 
 pleasure-grounds 
 
 
 impedimentum 
 litter a 
 
 hindrance 
 a letter 
 
 impedimenta 
 litterae 
 
 baggage 
 epistle, literature 
 
 
 loculus 
 
 , box 
 
 loculi 
 
 money-case 
 
 
 ludus 
 
 play 
 
 ludi 
 
 public games 
 
 
 lustrum 
 
 five years 
 
 lustra 
 
 lairs, dens 
 
 
 natalis 
 
 birth-day 
 
 natales 
 
 origin 
 
 
 opera 
 
 exertion 
 
 operae 
 
 workpeople (s) 
 
 
 opis (Gen.) 
 
 help 
 
 opes 
 
 power, wealth [faction 
 
 
 pars 
 
 a portion 
 
 partes 
 
 part in a play ; side or 
 
2 ;. Irregular Nouns. 129 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 rostrum 
 
 beak 
 
 rostra 
 
 the Roman pulpit 
 
 sal 
 
 salt 
 
 sales 
 
 wit (s) 
 
 tabula 
 
 board 
 
 tabulae 
 
 writing tablets 
 
 torus 
 
 couch 
 
 tori 
 
 muscles 
 
 balneum, 2. 
 
 bath 
 
 balneae, i. 
 
 bath-house 
 
 epulum. 2. 
 
 sacred feast 
 
 epulae, i. 
 
 banquet 
 
 B. DEFECTIVA CASIBUS. Defec- 
 
 In many Nouns the exigencies of language have called into use sibus. 
 a portion only of the ordinary Case-forms. 1 
 
 A) The following Nouns have the full Plural ; but in the Singu- 
 lar they have only 
 
 a) 
 
 Four Cases : 
 
 N.V. vis, Ace. 
 
 vim, 
 
 Abl. 
 
 vi 
 
 ; force, 3. 
 
 f. 
 
 PL vir-es ium, &c. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 
 
 
 (dap-) 
 (frug-) 
 
 em 
 em 
 
 is 
 is 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 e 
 e 
 
 banquet, 
 fruit, 3. 
 
 3-f. 
 
 | PL es um, &c. 
 
 Three Cases : 
 
 (op-) 
 
 (prec-) 
 
 em 
 
 em 
 
 is 
 i 
 
 e 
 e 
 
 help, 3. f. 
 prayer, 3. 
 
 f. 
 
 }FL 
 
 es 
 
 um, &c. 
 
 (sord-) 
 
 em 
 
 is 
 
 e 
 
 dirt, 3. f. 
 
 
 PL 
 
 es, 
 
 ium, &C, 
 
 (vie-) 
 
 em 
 
 is 
 
 e 
 
 change, 3. 
 
 f. 
 
 PL 
 
 es 
 
 - &c. 
 
 
 visc-us 
 
 eris 
 
 ere 
 
 entrail, 3. 
 
 n. 
 
 PL 
 
 a 
 
 um, &c. 
 
 c) Two Cases : 
 
 (verber-) is e stripe, 3. n. PI. a um, &c. 
 
 d) One Case : being Ablatives of Decl. 3 : 
 
 ambage, f. | casse, m. | fauce, f. | obice, c. | compede, f. | iugere, n. 
 
 J5} Many Nouns with full Singular have only N. V. Ace. Plural. 
 Such are farra, mella, murmura, rura, tura, &c., 3. n. ; metus, situs, 
 &c., 4. m. ; acies, effigies, facies, species, spes, 5. f. 
 
 Astus, cunning, 4. m., has Nom. Abl. Sing, and Nom. Ace. 
 Plur. 
 
 C) The following Nouns, without Plural, have in the Singular 
 a) Four Cases: 
 
 Nom. V. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. 
 
 (dicio on-) . em is i e power, 3. f. 
 
 lu-es . . em e wasting disease, 3. f. 
 
 man-e . . e e (!) morning, 3. n. 
 
 1 Words having one Case only in either number were called by the old grammarians 
 MONOPTOTA ; those with two, DIPTOTA ; those with three, TRIPTOTA ; those with 
 four, TETRAPTOTA : (from TTTWO-I?, case, and the several numerals). 
 
 K 
 
130 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 U) Three Cases : T 
 
 Norn. V. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. 
 
 fors ... fort-e chance, 3. f. 
 
 fas ... fas right (by divine law), 3. n. 
 
 nefas . . nefas wrong (by divine law), 3.11. 
 
 c) Two Cases : 
 
 Nom. 
 
 instar . . instar likeness, 3. n. 
 
 nihil, nil . nihil, nil nothing, 3. n. 
 
 opus . . opus need, 3. n. 
 
 impetis impete farce, 3. m. 
 
 venum veno sale, 2. n. 
 
 d) Nouns using only one Case are numerous : 
 
 Nom. glos, 3. f. sister-in-law ; inquies, 5. f. restlessness. 
 
 Ace. secus, 3. n. sex, with epithet virile or muliebre, 
 
 pessum, to the bad (for ped-sum), 4. m. in connexion with 
 Verbs (pessum dare, pessum ire, &c.). 
 
 Gen. die is (causa), 3. for form's sake : non nauci, 2. not 
 worth a nutshell, worthless. 
 
 Dat. despicatui, frustratui, ludificatui habere, to de- 
 spise, baffle, ridicule; indutui gerere, to wear-, ob- 
 tentui esse, to be a show, &c., 4. 
 
 Abl. sponte (mea, sua, &c.), 3. f. by choice, spontaneously. 
 
 accitu, admonitu, iussu, iniussu, coactu, concessu, ductu, 
 hortatu, mandatu, permissu, rogatu, &c. 4. 
 
 noctu, by night; diu, lucu, by daylight, 4. 
 
 in promptu esse, in procinctu stare, to be in readi- 
 ness, 4. 
 
 natu maior, elder; natu minor, younger, 4. 
 
 pondo, 2. by weight, understands librarum, and is used 
 with any Numeral : corona ducentum pondo, a crown 
 of IQQ pounds' weight. 
 
 D) The following Nouns, without Singular, have in Plural 
 
 a) Two Cases : 
 
 N. Ace. suppetiae, -as, succour ; grates, thanks (gratibus, Tac.). 
 Gen. repetundarum, Abl. repetundis, i. f. extortion (under- 
 stand rerum, rebus). 
 Ace. foras, out of doors, Abl. foris, abroad, i. f. 
 
 b) One Case : 
 
 Ace. ad incitas redigere, to drive to extremities, i. f. 
 
 infitias ire, to deny, I. f. 
 Abl. (gratiis) gratis, freely ; ingratiis, against will, I. f. 
 
 E) Indeclinable, with one form for any Case, are 
 
 Names of letters ; alpha, beta, &c. 
 Various words from other languages : Adam. 
 Infinitives : am a re, vivere. 
 
 1 Necesse 3. n. (Nom. Ace.), necessity, Gen. necessis (Lucr.) ; Plautus has necessum, 
 necessus. See p. 1^4, and M. Lucr. ii. 710, vi. 815. 
 
28-29. Comparison. 131 
 
 iv. Irregularity in Adjectives. 
 
 I) Some Adjectives have two forms, one like bonus, the other AV* 
 like tristis or ingens : tiva 
 
 acclivis (us) steep imbecillus is weak d^S* 
 
 biiugis (us) two-yoked imberbis (us) beardless 
 
 effrenus (is) unbridled inermus is unarmed 
 
 unanimus is of one mind opulentus (opulens) wealthy 
 
 hilaris (us) cheerful violentus (violens) violent 
 
 So exanim-us, is ; semianim-us, is ; sublim-is, us ; and others. 
 The Adverb luculenter implies an old form luculens. 
 
 II) a. Some are Defective in Number : Defec , 
 
 p2LUci,/e?v, is rarely Sing. (Hor. ad Pis. 203). 
 plerique, most, is found Sing, with Collective words : 
 < pleraque nobilitas 7 (for plerique nobiles), Sail. 
 
 b. Some are Defective in Case and Number : 
 
 a) Two Cases : 
 
 Nom. S. pern ox, Abl. pernocte, all night. 
 
 b) One Case; 
 
 Nom. S. damnas, condemned, for damnat(u)s, with esto : but 
 
 used also idiomatically as Nom. PL with sunto ; 
 exspes, hopeless ; pot is, pote, able, possible. 
 
 c. Of some the Nominatives are not found, but other Cases only: 
 (sons), guilty ; sontes ; the guilty : but insons, innocent, has full 
 Cases. 
 
 Macte, Voc. S., macti, Voc. PL, are used with esto, este, be 
 blessed, be lucky, &c. : ' Macte (macti) virtute esto (este),' good luck 
 to y OIL for your valoiir, Liv. See M. Lucr. v. 1339. 
 
 d. The dat. S. frugi (for good) is used as an indeclinable Adjec- 
 tive of all Cases : frugi servus, a good honest slave. Opposed to 
 this is the indeclinable Adjective nequam, good for nothing-, pro- 
 bably for ne quam frugem (habet), no good. See pp. 129, 133. 
 These idioms are drawn from the colloquial language of Italian 
 farmers in early times. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 29 
 
 i. Comparison of Adjectives. Compa- 
 
 rison of 
 
 The same quality may be perceived in several ob- tives! c " 
 jects. If three be taken, the quality may be perceived 
 in the second more than in the first, and in the third 
 most of all. These relations are expressed by the 
 flexion called COMPARISON in Adjectives and Adverbs. 
 
 K2 
 
132 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 29* 
 
 The Degrees of Comparison are therefore three : 
 
 I. The POSITIVE Degree shews quality absolutely 
 perceived: vir procerus, a tall man ; or 
 equally in two: vir tarn procerus quam 
 Lucius, a man as tall as Lucius. 
 
 II. The COMPARATIVE Degree shews quality per- 
 ceived more in one of two than in the other : 
 vir procerior quam Lucius, a man taller 
 than Lucius. 
 
 III. The SUPERLATIVE Degree shews quality per- 
 ceived most in one of several : vir omnium 
 procerissimus, the tallest man of all. 
 
 The formation of the Comparative and Superlative is explained 
 in p. 42, Note. 
 
 Com- 
 
 i . 
 
 
 parison p 
 of Ad- 
 
 Compar. 
 
 Superl. 
 
 Actives, dur-us hard 
 
 dur-lor harder 
 
 dur-issimus hardest 
 
 trist-is sad 
 
 trist-ior sadder 
 
 trist-issimus saddest 
 
 fel-ix happy 
 
 felic-ior happier 
 
 felic-issimus happiest 
 
 lib-er free 
 
 lib-er-ior more free 
 
 lib-er-rimus most free 
 
 nig-er black 
 
 nig-r-ior blacker 
 
 nig-er-rimus blackest 
 
 salub-er healthy 
 
 salub-r-ior healthier 
 
 salub-er-rimus healthiest 
 
 simil-is like 
 
 simil-ior more like 
 
 simil-limus most like 
 
 Like simiiis are formed facilis; gracilis; humilis; dim- 
 cilis ; dissimilis. But utilis and others have Sup. -issimus. 
 Maturus, early, has Sup. maturrimus or matur issimus. 
 
 iii. Notes on Comparison, 
 
 a) The Comparative may imply a degree too high (excess) : 
 durior (i.e. durior aequo), too harsh. 
 
 b) The Superlative may express not only the highest, but a very 
 high degree (Elative sense) : ' vir doctissimus/ a very learned man 
 (i.e. in the highest grade of learning). 
 
 c) The Superlative form before the Augustan age was generally 
 -iimus, after which -imus prevailed : maxumus, maximus ; optu- 
 mus, optimus. See p. 31, C. 
 
 d) Participles Present and Past often have Comparative Flexion 
 like other Adjectives : 
 
 amans amantior amantissimus 
 
 paratus paratior paratissimus 
 
29- 
 
 Comparison. 
 
 *33 
 
 optimus 
 pessimus 
 minimus 
 plurimus 
 
 best 
 worst 
 least 
 most 
 
 iv. Irregular Comparison. 
 
 1) Forms from various Roots. 
 
 bonus good melior better 
 
 malus bad peior worse 
 
 parvus small minor less 
 
 multus 'much (plus, n.) more 
 
 The Comparative of multus has no M. F. form in the Sing., but 
 full Plural : plur-es a, plur-ium, plur-ibus. 
 Lucr. has parvissima, i. 615. See M. 
 
 2) Variant Stem-forms. 
 
 mag-nus, great maior, greater ; maximus, greatest 
 frugi, honest ; frugalior, frugalissimus. 
 nequam, worthless ; nequior, nequissimus. 
 dives ) . T divitior divitissimus 
 
 (dis) I ditior ditissimus 
 
 Adjectives compounded with -dicus -ficus -volus (from dico, 
 facio, volo) form their comparison in -entior -entissimus, as if 
 from Participles in -ens. 
 
 maledicus slanderous maledicentior 
 magnificus splendid magnificentior 
 benevolus benevolent benevolentior 
 
 maledicentissimus 
 
 magnificentissimus 
 
 benevolentissimus 
 
 Similarly ; 
 
 egenus, 
 providus, 
 
 needy, 
 foreseeing. 
 
 egentior, 
 providentior, 
 
 egentissimus 
 providentissimus. 
 
 v. Defective Comparison. 
 
 i) Comparison without Positive Form : 
 
 a) The Comparison of Position springs from Prepositions, and 
 is not fully represented by Positive Adjectives : 
 
 Preposition. Positive Adj. Comparative. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 e, ex out of 
 
 (exter) exterior 
 
 extremus 
 
 intra within 
 
 (inter) interior 
 
 intimus 
 
 supra above 
 
 (super) superior 
 
 supremus, summus 
 
 infra below 
 
 (infer) inferior 
 
 infimus, imus 
 
 (prae) before 
 
 prior 
 
 primus 
 
 post after 
 
 (poster) posterior 
 
 postremus (postumus) 
 
 cis on near side 
 
 (citer) citerior 
 
 citimus 
 
 ultra beyond 
 
 (ulter) ulterior 
 
 ultimus 
 
 prope near 
 
 propior 
 
 proximtis 
 
 de down from 
 
 (deter) deterior 
 
 deterrimus worst 
 
 ad} Of the Positive forms, (inter, citer, ulter, deter) are not 
 
 used. 
 
 Super(us), infer(us) are used in Neut. Sing, with mare 
 (mare superum, mare inferum) ; and in Plur. 
 
134 Latin Wordlore. 29. 
 
 Exter(us) is rare in Sing., but not infrequent in Plur. 
 
 Poster(us) is used (but not in Nom. Sing. Masc.) : pos- 
 tera aetas ; postero die: and Plur. posteri. See 
 p. 127. 
 
 Prior, primus are from a lost form pri-s. Some derive 
 them from Trpo : (pro-ior) = prior ; (pro-imus) = primus. 
 
 bb) Of the Comparatives, deterior means worse (than some- 
 thing good, i.e. fallen off) peior worse (than something 
 bad). 
 
 cc) Of the Superlatives, summus has the sense 'highest',' 
 or supremus, poet. On the other hand, supremus is used 
 for < last? and summus, poet. : 'venit summa dies,' Verg. 
 
 Postremus, hindmost (last) : postumus, coming after, last born, 
 born after the father's death. 
 
 Four Superlatives can express the notion < last : ' ultimus (yon- 
 dermost, farthest), extremus (outermost) ; which are most 
 usual: also postremus and supremus. 
 
 To these Comparisons may be added : 
 
 dexter, on the right, dexterior, dexterrimus or dextimus. 
 sinister, on the left, sinisterior, (sinistimus). 
 
 b) - ocior swifter, ocissimus swiftest. 
 
 Tpo\.\K preferable, potissimus. 
 
 In the Greek w/cuc (ocis), swift, and the Defective Adj. potis, 
 pote, are shewn the original Positives of these forms. 
 
 2) Comparison without Comparative Form. 
 
 The Adjectives bellus, consultus, di versus, falsus, in- 
 clitus, invictus, invitus, meritus, novus, par, persuasus, 
 sacer, are found with Superl., but without Comparative. 
 
 Vetus, Sup. veterrimus (veterior, Plaut. ; but vetustior is 
 usual). 
 
 3) Comparison without Superlative Form. 
 
 a) senex old senior 
 
 iuvenis young iunior (for iuvenior) 
 Senior has a kind of Pos. force : ' one who has become old' 
 Elder is expressed by natu maior, or maior: eldest by 
 natu maximus, or maximus. So younger is natu 
 minor, or minor; youngest, natu minimus, or mini- 
 mus. 
 
 b) Adjectives in btlis have Comparative without Superl. : 
 
 except a few : amabilis, mobilis, nobilis : amabilissimus, 
 &c. 
 
 c) Also the following : 
 
 adolescens, aequalis, agrestis, alacer, arcanus, astutus, ater, 
 caecus, capitalis, civilis, crispus, declivis, diuturnus, deses, 
 exilis, longinquus, opimus, popularis, proclivis, pronus, 
 propinquus, regalis, rusticus, salutaris, satur, segnis, serus, 
 supinus, surdus, taciturnus, teres, vicinus, &c. 
 
 Note, (satior) satius, better, Jitter, is a Comparative from the Ad- 
 verbial word satis, enough. 
 
30- 
 
 Comparison. 
 
 135 
 
 4) Absence of Comparative Flexion. 
 
 A great number of Adjectives have no Comparative Flexion : 
 some being incapable of it by their meaning (Incomparabilia) : 
 merus, vernus ; some unsuited to it by their form : memor, tre- 
 mulus ; while for others no reason can be assigned but usage. 1 
 
 Among Adjectives excluded from Comparison by their form are 
 most of those in eus, ius, uus : idoneus, anxius, arduus ; (but 
 not those in quus : antiquus, antiquior, antiquissimus). 
 
 Rare instances occur of Comparative Flexion by such Adjectives : 
 assiduissimus, Cic. ; strenuissimus, Tac. And luvenal has ' Egre- 
 gius cenat meliusque miserrimus horum/ xi. 12. 
 
 Any Adjectives, not Incomparabilia, can be modified Compara- 
 tively by the addition of the Adverb mag is : ' Quid mag is est 
 durum saxo, quid mollius unda/ Ov. ; and Superlatively by the 
 Adverbs maxime, summe, also admodum, perquam, valde, 
 and others. 
 
 vi. Comparison of Adverbs. 
 
 30 
 
 Com- 
 parison 
 of Ad- 
 
 i) ADVERBS in e, 6, e, ter, derived from Adjectives, verbs" 
 often follow their Comparison, with Comparative End- 
 ing fts, Superlative e (6, urn) : 
 
 Adj. 
 
 Adv. 
 
 
 
 
 
 dignus 
 
 digne 
 
 worthily 
 
 dignius- 
 
 dignissime 
 
 Exam- 
 
 vafer 
 
 vafre 
 
 cunningly 
 
 vafrius 
 
 vaferrime 
 
 ples. 
 
 tutus 
 
 tuto 
 
 safely 
 
 tutius 
 
 tutissime (6) 
 
 
 facilis 
 
 facile 
 
 easily 
 
 facilius 
 
 facillime 
 
 
 fortis 
 
 fortiter 
 
 bravely 
 
 fortius 
 
 fortissime 
 
 
 constans 
 
 constanter 
 
 firmly 
 
 constantius 
 
 constantissime 
 
 
 audax 
 
 audacter 
 
 boldly 
 
 audacius 
 
 audacissime 
 
 
 But 
 
 meritus 
 uber 
 
 merito deservedly meritissimo (e) 
 
 (ubertim) abundantly uberius uberrime 
 
 1 Adjectiva Incomparabilia are too numerous to be set down at full, and are indeed best 
 learnt by reading and practice. Among them may be mentioned : (i) those which express 
 colour, matter, time, place, nationality, descent : a 1 b u s (but v i r id i s has Compar. 
 flexion), aureus, aestivus, campester, Romanus, paternus, &c. (2) De- 
 minutives, paryulus, vetulus, &c. (3) Compounds of e, per, sub, ve: egeli- 
 dus, per facilis, subobscurus, vesanus, &c. (many compounds of p r a e are 
 comparable, as praeclarior). (4) Compounds of a n i m u s, arma, color, genus, 
 gradus, inguen, lex, modus, sonus, somnus (but the compounds of ars, 
 cor, m e n s are comparable : inertior, misericordior, dementior). (5) Com- 
 pounds of fero, gero: sign if er, belliger, &c. (6) Most adjectives in -icus, 
 -Tmus, -Tnus, -In us, -or us, -Ivus, -bundus, -aris, -alis, -ilis; exceptions are, 
 divinus, familiaris, hospitalis, liberalis, civilis, and a few more. 
 (7) Also the following with many more : almus, canus, caducus, calvus, claudus, compos, 
 impos, cicur, dispar, impar, ferus, fessus, gnarus, gnavus, ieiunus, lacer, lassus, 
 mancus, mediocris, merus, minis, mutilus, mutus, nefastus, rudis, sospes, trepidus, 
 trux, vagus, vivus, volucer, volgaris, &c. 
 
 Comic poets invent jocular forms of Comparison : exclusissimus, ipsissimus, oculissi- 
 mus, patruissimus, ridiculissimus. 
 
136 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 Adj. ' 
 
 Adv. 
 
 
 Compar. 
 
 
 bonus 
 
 bene 
 
 well 
 
 melius 
 
 better 
 
 malus 
 
 male 
 
 ill 
 
 peius 
 
 worse 
 
 magnus 
 
 magnope 
 
 \&greatly 
 
 magis 
 
 more 
 
 parvus { 
 
 paulum 
 parum 
 
 "StL 
 
 J minus 
 
 less 
 
 multus 
 
 multum 
 
 much 
 
 plus 
 
 more 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ocius 
 
 quickt. 
 
 pnus 
 
 2) Irregular Comparison is in most forms represented adver- 
 bially : 
 
 Superl. 
 
 optima best 
 
 pessime worst 
 
 maxime most 
 
 ( minime very little 
 
 t minimum least 
 
 plurimum very much 
 
 " ocissime very quickly 
 
 \ primum first 
 
 1 primo at first 
 potissimum preferably 
 
 deterrime very badly 
 intime 
 postremo 
 proxime 
 
 saepissime 
 diutissime 
 penitissime 
 
 nupernme 
 
 Magis means 'more in degree-,' plus, < more in quantity. 1 
 6 Lucio magis carus sum : ' ' Lucius me plus diligit.' 
 
 
 
 
 
 potius rather 
 
 
 
 
 
 deterius worse 
 
 intus 
 
 within 
 
 interius 
 
 post 
 
 after 
 
 posterius 
 
 prope 
 
 nearly 
 
 propius 
 
 Also : 
 
 
 
 saepe 
 
 often 
 
 saepius 
 
 diu 
 
 long 
 
 diutius 
 
 penitus 
 
 deeply 
 
 penitius 
 
 satis 
 
 enough 
 
 satius 
 
 secus 
 
 otherwise setius 
 
 temperi ' 
 
 betimes 
 
 temperius 
 
 nuper 
 
 lately 
 
 
 
 3* 
 
 Pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 i. Pronouns (Pronomina). 
 
 1. A Pronoun, being a substitute for a Noun, may be 
 
 (i) Substantive: (2) Adjective: (3) Capable of being, both. 
 
 2. A Pronoun may be 
 
 (a) ist Person : (b) 2nd Person : (c) 3rd Person : (d) Of all 
 Persons. 
 
 ii, Classification of Pronouns. 
 
 A. The Pronouns purely Substantival are: 
 
 1. The PERSONAL Pronouns ego, /, nos, we, of the 
 First Person ; and tu, thou, vos, jj/<?, of the Second. 
 
 2. The REFLEXIVE Pronoun, se, himself ] herself, or 
 themselves, which has no Nominative, and is always re- 
 ferred to a Subject of the Third Person, Singular or 
 Plural. 
 
31. Pronouns. 137 
 
 B. The Pronouns Proper purely Adjectival are: 
 
 The POSSESSIVE Pronouns, which correspond to the 
 Personal and Relative Pronouns : 
 
 meus, my y mine corresponding to ... ego 
 
 noster, our nos 
 
 tuus, thy, thine tu 
 
 vester, your vos 
 
 suus, his, her, or their own se 
 
 cuius, whose qui 
 
 with the Gentilia, nostras, of our country, vestras, of your 
 country ; cuias, of what country ? 
 
 Suus, like se, is referred to a Subject of the Third 
 Person. 
 
 C. The remaining Pronouns are Adjectival, but often 
 used as Relational Substantives. These are : 
 
 1. The DEMONSTRATIVE Pronouns (of the Third 
 Person) : 
 
 is, ea, id, that^ (or he, she, it) 
 
 hie, haec, hoc, this (near me) 
 
 iste, ista, istud, ttiat (near you) 
 
 ille, ilia, illud, that, yon (aloof from us). 
 
 2. The DEFINITIVE Pronouns (of all Persons) : 
 
 ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self 
 Idem, eadem, idem, same. 
 
 3. The RELATIVE Pronoun (of all Persons) : 
 
 qui, quae, quod, who or which. 
 
 Akin to this are : 
 
 a. The INTERROGATIVE Pronouns : 
 
 quis, quid ? qui, quae, quod ? who or what ? 
 uter ? whether of two ? 
 
 b. The INDEFINITE Pronouns : 
 
 quis, qua (quae), quid ; qui, quae, quod, any. 
 uter, either of two. 
 
 c. The various COMPOUNDS of quis, qui, uter. 
 
 4. PRONOMINALIA, or Adjectives of a Pronominal 
 nature: as alius, alter, &c., talis, tantus, &c, qualis, 
 quantus, &c., aliquantus, &c. See v. 
 
138 Latin Wordlore. 3 
 
 Tables iii. Tables of Declension of Pronouns. 
 
 of De- 
 
 clension. Af PERSONAL (OF EITHER GENDER). 
 
 FIRST PERSON. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. ego, / nos, we 
 
 Ace. me, me nos, us 
 
 Gen. mei, of me nostri, or nostrum, of^ts 
 
 Dat. mihi, to or for me nobis, to or for us 
 
 Abl. me, from or with me nob\s,from or with us 
 
 SECOND PERSON. 
 
 N. V. tu, thou vos, ye 
 
 Ace. te, thee vos, you 
 
 Gen. tui, of thee vestri, or vestrum, of you 
 
 Dat. tibi, to or for thee vobis, to or for you 
 
 Abl. te/from or with thee vobis, from or with you 
 
 REFLEXIVE. 
 
 SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. (none). 
 
 Ace. se, or sese, himself, herself, itself, or themselves, 
 
 Gen. sui, of himself, &c. 
 
 Dat. sibi, to himself, &c. 
 
 Abl. se, or sese, &.c.,from himself, &c. 
 
 B. POSSESSIVE. 
 
 i) declined in Gender, Number, and Case, like bonus : 
 meus, mea, meum, my, mine 
 
 tuus, tua. tuum, thy, thine 
 
 , , 
 , thy, thin 
 
 suus, sua, suum, his, &c., their, own\ 
 cuius, cuia, cuium, whose. 
 meus has Vocative Masc. ml. 1 
 
 2) declined in Gender, Number, and Case, like niger : 
 noster, nostra, nostrum, our ; | vester, vestra, vestrum, your. 
 
 The Demonstratives have no Possessives corresponding to them ; 
 but their Genitives supply the want : eius vacca, his (her) cow. 
 
 3) Gentilia (of 3rd Decl.) : 
 
 nostr-as -ati- ; vestr-as -ati- ; cui-as -ati- ? 
 
 The affix met (self) may be appended to all the cases of ego, 
 tu (except the Plural Genitives and the form tu itself), also to se, 
 sibi : egomet, nosmet, temet, vobismet, semet, sibimet : 
 often with a case of ipse added : nobismetipsis, semetipsum. 
 Tu takes affix te, -tute ; also tut erne t. The affix met is 
 appended to the cases of suus, after which a case of ipse often 
 follows: ' Intra suamet ipsum moenia compulere/ they drove 
 him within his own walls, L. vi. 36. Also meamet : Sail, Plaut. 
 
 The affix pte is appended to the Ablatives Sing, of the Pos- 
 sessives: 'Meopte ingenio/ Plaut 'Suapte manu/ with his 
 own hand, Cic. See M. Lucr. vL 755. _ 
 
 1 The only Pronouns capable of haviijg a Vocative are tu, vos ; and meus, noster. 
 
Pronouns. 
 
 139 
 
 
 C. 
 
 i. DEMONSTRATIVE 
 a. UNEMPHATIC. 
 Is, that, or he, she, it. 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 N. is 
 
 ea 
 
 id 
 
 ei (ii) 
 
 eae 
 
 ea 
 
 Ac. eum 
 
 earn 
 
 id 
 
 eos 
 
 eas 
 
 ea 
 
 G. 
 
 eius 
 
 
 eorum 
 
 earum 
 
 eorum 
 
 D. 
 
 ei 
 
 
 
 eis (iis) 
 
 
 Ab. eo 
 
 ea 
 
 eo 
 
 eis (iis) 
 
 
 
 
 b. EMPHATIC. 
 
 
 
 
 Hie, 
 
 this (near me), or he, she, 
 
 it. 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 N. hie 
 
 haec 
 
 hoc 
 
 hi 
 
 hae 
 
 haec 
 
 Ac. hunc 
 
 hanc 
 
 hoc 
 
 hos 
 
 has 
 
 haec 
 
 G. 
 
 huius 
 
 
 horum 
 
 harum 
 
 horum 
 
 D. 
 
 huic 
 
 
 
 his 
 
 
 Ab. hoc 
 
 hac 
 
 hoc 
 
 
 his 
 
 
 Iste, that (near y ou\ or he, she, it. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 N. iste ista istud 
 
 Ac. istum istam istud 
 G. istlus 
 
 D. isti 
 
 Ab. isto ista isto 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 isti istae ista 
 
 istos istas ista 
 
 istorum istarum istorum 
 
 istis 
 
 istis 
 
 I lie, that (yonder), or he, she, it. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 N. iUe ilia illud 
 Ac. ilium illam illud 
 G. illlus 
 D. illi 
 Ab. illo ilia illo 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 illi illae ilia 
 illos illas ilia 
 illorum illarum illorum 
 illis 
 illis 
 
 2. DEFINITIVE. 
 i) Idem, same. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. Idem eadem idem 
 
 Ace. eundem eandem idem 
 
 Gen. eiusdem 
 
 Dat. eidem 
 
 Abl. eodem eadem eodem 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 iidem eaedem eadem 
 eosdem easdem eadem 
 eorundem earundem eorundem 
 isdem or eisdem 
 isdem or eisdem 
 
140 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 31- 
 
 2) Ipse, self. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi 
 Ace. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsos 
 Gen. ipslus ipsorum 
 
 Dat. ipsi 
 
 Abl. ipso ipsa ipso 
 
 Plautus has the forms eumpse, eampse, eapse, &c. 
 in reality r , for re ipsa. 
 
 a) The affix -c (for ce) is added to iste and ille, making a 
 pronominal declension as follows : 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 ipsae ipsa 
 
 ipsas * ipsa 
 ipsarum ipsorum 
 
 ipsis 
 
 ipsis 
 
 Also reapse, 
 
 N. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 IStlC 
 
 istunc 
 istoc 
 
 istaec 
 istanc 
 istac 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 istoc or istuc 
 istoc or istuc 
 istoc 
 
 illic 
 
 illunc 
 
 illoc 
 
 illaec 
 illanc 
 iliac 
 
 illoc or illuc 
 illoc or illuc 
 illoc 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 N. Ace. 
 
 istaec 
 
 illaec 
 
 Ce sometimes appears at full : istiusce, illosce, &c. 
 
 So from hie, hunce, huiusce, hosce, &c. : and hicine? hocine? &c. 
 
 b) The Interjection ecce, lo ! coalesces in comic poetry with 
 cases of is, ille, iste : ecca, eccum, eccam, &c. ; eccilla, eccillum, 
 &c. ; eccistam, &c. En, lo J also coalesces with ille into the 
 Accusative forms, ellum, ellam, ellos, ellas. 
 
 3. RELATIVE. 
 Qui, who or 'which. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. qui quae quod 
 Ace. quern quam quod 
 Gen. cuius 
 
 Dat. cui 
 
 Abl. quo qua quo 
 
 a) INTERROGATIVE. 
 Quis ? qui ? who or which ? 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. 
 Ace. 
 
 Gen. 
 Dat. 
 Abl. 
 
 quis 
 qui 
 quern 
 quern 
 
 quo 
 
 quae 
 quam 
 quam 
 cuius 
 cui 
 qua 
 
 quid ) 
 quodf 
 quid > 
 quod' 
 
 quo 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 qui quae quae 
 
 quos quas quae 
 
 quorum quarum quorum 
 
 quibus or quls 
 
 quibus or qtiis 
 
 b) INDEFINITE. 
 Quis, qui, anyone. 
 SINGULAR, 
 (qua) quid > 
 
 quae (qua) quod > 
 
 quis 
 qui 
 quern 
 quern 
 
 quo 
 
 quam 
 quam 
 
 cuius 
 
 cui 
 qua 
 
 quid i 
 quod I 
 
 quo 
 
 In the Plural like the Relative. 
 
 Indefinite PL Nom. Qui, quae, qua or quae. 
 
 The forms Quis, quid, are Substantival ; Qui, quod v Adjectival. 
 
3 i. Pronouns. 
 
 a} Add to these Uter? whether of the two? 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. uter utra utrum 
 Ace. utrum utram utrum 
 Gen. utrms 
 
 Dat. utri 
 
 Ab. utro utra utro 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 utri utrae utra 
 
 utros utras utra 
 utrorum utrarum utrorum 
 utris 
 
 utris 
 
 Uter is also Indefinite : either of two. 
 Neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither of the two, is declined as uter. 
 
 c) COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. a) quisnam, quidnam : quinam, quaenam, quodnam, who T 
 
 what f 
 b) uternam, utranam, utrumnam, whether of the two? 
 
 2. ecquis, ecqua, ecquid : ecqui, ecquae, ecquod, anyone ? 
 So numquis, siquis, ne quis. &c. 
 
 3. a) aliquis, aliqua, aliquid : aliqui, aliqua, aliquod, some one. 
 b) alteruter, one or other; Gen. alterutrius or alterius utrius, &c. 
 
 4. quispiam, quaepiam, quippiam (quodpiam), anyone (positively). 
 
 5. quisquam, quicquam, anyone at all (with non, haud, vix, &c.). 
 
 6. quidam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam), a certain one. 
 
 7. a) quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whosoever, what- 
 
 soever. 1 
 b) utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whichever of two. 
 
 8. quisquis, whosoever, quidquid, whatsoever ; Ace. (quemquem), 
 
 quidquid;(G. cuicuimodi); Abl. (quoquo, quaqua, quo- 
 quo), &c. ; PL D. Abl. (quibusquibus). Some of these 
 forms are rare. 
 
 9. a] quivis, quaevis, quidvis (quodvis), any y oil will. 
 
 b) utervis, utravis, utrumvis, whether of the two you will. 
 
 10. d) quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet (quodlibet), any you please. 
 
 b) uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, whether of the two you please. 
 
 11. a) quisque, quaeque, quicque (quodque), each. 
 
 b) unusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquicque (-quodque), each 
 
 one : Ace. unumquemque, unamquamque, &c. Gen. 
 uniuscuiusque, &c. 
 
 c) uterque, utraque, utrumque, both, each of two. 
 
 Obs. These Compounds are declined as the Simple forms, the un- 
 declined affix or prefix accompanying each Case : Gen. cuiusnam, 
 alicuius, cuiuscumque, utriusvis, c. &c. 
 
 1 Poets often disjoin the affix cumque from the Relative : Quae te cumque domat 
 Venus, Hor. 
 
142 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 31- 
 
 4. PRONOMINALIA. 
 
 Alius, another. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Norn, alius alia aliud 
 
 Ace. alium aliam aliud 
 
 Gen. alms 
 
 Dat. alii_ 
 
 Ab. alio alia alio 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 alii aliae alia 
 
 alios alias alia 
 aliorum aliarum aliorum 
 
 aliis 
 
 all is 
 
 Nom. alter 
 Ace. alterum alteram 
 Gen. alterius 
 
 Dat. alteri_ 
 
 Ab. altero altera 
 
 Alter, one of two (the one, the other). 
 
 altera alterum j alteri alterae altera 
 alterum alteros alteras altera 
 
 alterorum alterarum alterorum 
 alteris 
 alteris 
 
 altero 
 
 Solus, alone. 
 
 
 
 solum 
 
 soli 
 
 solae 
 
 sola 
 
 solum 
 
 soli 
 
 solae 
 
 sola 
 
 solum 
 
 solos 
 
 solas 
 
 sola 
 
 
 solorum 
 
 solarum 
 
 solorum 
 
 
 
 solis 
 
 
 solo 
 
 
 solis 
 
 
 Nom. solus sola 
 
 Voc. sole sola 
 
 Ace. solum solam 
 Gen. solius 
 
 Dat. soli 
 
 Ab. solo sola 
 
 Totus, whole, is declined like solus : also, unus, one, ullus, any at 
 all, nullus, none. See Numeralia. 
 
 Nihll, nothing (N. Ace.) is undeclined. 
 
 Nemo, nobody, Ace. neminem ; G. nulllus ; D. nemini ; Abl. 
 nullo. Plural, nulli, &c. 
 
 The Plural word plerlque, most ; from an E. L. Adj. plerus. 
 
 Nom. plerique pleraeque pleraque 
 
 Ace. plerosque plerasque pleraque 
 
 D. Abl. plerisque 
 
 The Gen. in use is plurim-orum, arum, orum. 
 
 The phrase plerique omnes = paene omnes, almost all. 
 
 Also the following words, with their compounds : 
 
 qualis, of what kind"* talis, such (like tristis). 
 
 q u a n t u s, how great ? tantusw great (like bonus). 
 
 quot, how many) tot, so many (undeclined). 
 
 iv. Observations on certain Pronouns. 
 
 i. The Interrogative forms quis? qui? (Indefinite quis, qui) 
 differ in this respect : quis is substantival, asking usually the nature, 
 name, &c. ; qui adjectival, asking quality. Quis is also Fern, in 
 the comic poets, and grammarians refer the Fern, quae to the form 
 qui. Quid always has a substantival, quod an adjectival use : 
 quod vinum ? but quid vini ? what wine? 
 
Pronouns. 
 
 143 
 
 2. Quis, qui, Indefinite, is rarely found except as Enclitic after 
 a particle, as ecquis, siquis, numquis, c.; or with a second 
 case of its own : ' siquis quern fraudavit.' It enters into com- 
 position with the prefix all- one or other (aliquis), the indefinite 
 affixes -piam -quam (quispiam, quisquam), and the distributive 
 -que (quisque) ; qui takes the definitive -dam (qui-dam). 
 
 3. The Interrogative quis, qui becomes Universal (-soever] by 
 self-duplication (quis quis), and by taking the affix -cumque or 
 -cunque (quicumque, quicunque). It is also modified by the 
 appended Verb-forms, vis, you will, libet, it pleases (quivis, qui- 
 libet). It becomes Emphatic by adding the precative affix -nam 
 (quisnam ? quinam ?). Some of these affixes are likewise taken by 
 the Interrogative Pronominals qualis, quantus, quot, and the Inter- 
 rogative Adverbs ubi, quo, quando, quotiens, &c. See v. 
 
 4. Uter (for cuter = Korepoe), whether of two, with its compounds, 
 forms a dual series parallel to quis, &c. But the Relative qui is 
 used in correlation to it. It takes many of the same affixes as qui. 1 
 
 1 The following note treats chiefly of the cognate and ancient Case-forms of the Latin 
 Pronouns. 
 
 I. The Personal Pronouns and the Reflexive. 
 
 1. Nominative Singular. 
 
 The Prim, roots of the two Personal Pronouns and the Reflexive are severally ma, tu 
 
 (or tva), sva. 
 How the root via connects itself with the Nom. Sing. Sk. aham, Gr. eyw, L. ego, is 
 
 a doubtful question. 
 Pr. tu (Sk. tvam) becomes Gr. TU (<ru), L. tu. 
 
 2. Accusative Singular. 
 
 Sk. mam or md, Gr. /ae (ejue), L. me. 
 Sk. tvam or tva, Gr. (TC for rfe) ere, L. te. 
 
 Gr. e (for crfe), L. se, point to a Pr. svam. But Sanskrit has only an undeclined 
 form svayam, which may be joined to cases of Personal Pronouns. 
 
 3. Dative Singular. 
 
 Sk. ma-hyam (for Pr. ma-bhyaut) becomes L. mihi (U. mehe, E. L. nrihe, mihei). 
 
 Sk. tu-bhyam becomes L. tibi (U. tefe, E. L. tibe, tibei). 
 Hence sib! (E. L. sibe, sibci) points to a Pr. but not extant (sva-bhyani). 
 
 4. Ablative Singular. 
 
 Sk. and Pr. ma-t, tva-t and by analogy (Pr. sva-t) become in E. L. me-d, te-d, se~d\ 
 
 afterwards me, te, se. 
 These forms in -d were also used for the Accus. Sing, in E. L. 
 
 5. Nominative and Accusative Plural. 
 
 Unaccented Accus. forms in Sk. nas (for mast) and vas (for tvas), appear to be the 
 originals of the Latin cases nos, vos. See Schleicher, 266. In the Carmen 
 Arvale euos appears for Ace. nos. 
 
 6. Dative and Ablative Plural, 
 
 Schleicher explains the suffix foiS (-bei-s) in nobis, vobls, as the Plural of bi (bei), 
 attached to the stems nos- vos- (see above), which become no- vo-. Festus cites 
 a form (nis). 
 
 7. Genitive Singular and Plural. 
 
 The Sk. Gen. S. is (i) mama, (2) ta~ja. But Pr. forms mas, tvas, (svas) are trace* 
 
 able in very ancient L. forms mis, tis. 
 The forms classically used for these cases are nothing more than the Neuter Geni- 
 
 tives of the Possessive Pronouns : mei, tui, sui ; nostri, vestri ; nostrum (for 
 
 nostrorum), vestrum (for vestrorum). Thus ' vive memor mei (nostri) ' is lit. live 
 
 mindful cfiuk&t c's mine (purs) ; i.e. of me (its). 
 
144 Latin Wordlore. 31. 
 
 v. Correlation of Pronominal Words. 
 
 A) Certain Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives and Adverbs, are 
 correlated to one another in several classes : namely 
 
 II. The Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 These are derived from the Personal Roots. 
 
 Tuus, suus correspond severally to Gr. TCOS (for rfeos or ref o's), eos (for <rf eos or cref 09). 
 E. L. forms are tovos, sovos. The scenic poets use the cases as monosyllables. 
 
 Noster, vester are formed with the Comparative Suffix ter (like dexter, sinister), as are 
 Gr. i7/xe-Tep-os, v/me-rep-o?. 
 
 III. The Demonstrative, Relative, &c. Pronouns. 
 
 The Flexion of these Pronouns has many features in common. 
 
 1 . (i) Nominative Singular Masc. 
 
 a. The stem I-, as an I-noun, takes the ending S, forming the Nom. Is. It corresponds. 
 
 to Sk. sa, Gr. 6. In E. L. we find (ets). It has an O-stem (to-) for most cases. 
 Its comp. Idem has E. L. forms (pisdem, isdem, eident). 
 Is-te, another compound (stem isto-), has in Plautus the form is-tus. 
 I-pse, also a compound (for is-pse), is found as i-ps-us. 
 Ille is for oll-us (stem olio- or illo-), from an Italian root. 
 The stem ho- or hi- takes in most cases the affix -ce (c), becoming in Nom. S. Masc. 
 
 hie (for hi-ce or his-ce). An E. L. form is (hec). 
 
 b. Qui qui-s Interrog. and Indef. (stem qui- or quo-) corresponds to Sk. Interrog. 
 
 ka, ka-s ; Gr. TI'S, O. pis. 
 
 Qui, as the Relative, is peculiar to Latin. E. L. forms are (que, quei). Quei con- 
 tinued in use to the time of Caesar. Qiieique is an old form of quisque. Quir- 
 quir is cited by Varro for quisquis. 
 
 c. Alius has an old I-form alts, altd. 
 
 Uter (for cuter) corresponds to Pr. katara> Gr. Korepos : quot, tot, to Sk. kati, tati. 
 
 (2) Nom. S. Fern. 
 
 Ea is by assimilation for ia from stem (io-) : the same change from i to e is made 
 in most cases of is, idem. 
 
 An old form (sapsa) for ea ipsa is cited from Pacuvius. 
 
 Ista, ipsa, ilia are regularly formed from the O-stems, but quae (O. pai, E. L. qnai), haec 
 (E. L. hai-ce) are irregular flexions in which the forms ha qua are strengthened by the 
 vowel i. The analogy of these is followed by istaec, illaec (for ista-ce, illa-ce). Qua is 
 kept usually in the Indef. Pronoun and its compounds : siqua, numqua, ecqua, aliqua. 
 
 (3) Nom. Accus. S. Neuter. 
 
 The following Pronouns weaken the Prim. Neuter suffix t into d : id ; idem (for id-dem) ; 
 qui-d ; quo-d ; and illud, istud, aliud (anc. alid) : in these three O is also weakened into 
 U. Hoc is for (ho-d-ce). The rest take um ; ipsum, utrum, alterum, &c. 
 
 2. Accusative Singular. 
 
 E. L. forms of is (em, im from the I-stem ; sum, sain from the Pr. sa) are cited from 
 the old poets for eum, earn, severally. 
 
 Also eumpse, eampse occur for eum ipsum, earn ipsam. 
 
 Hunc is for (hom-ce, hone) ; hanc for (liam-ce). Quern belongs to the I-stem qui : 
 quam and quod to the O-stem quo-. 
 
 3. Genitive Singular. 
 
 The flexion of this case in all these Pronouns is a variation of Sk. asya. They 
 strengthen the stem with i and then take US for the Case-ending. Thus are obtained 
 (ii-ns) by dissimilation eius (in E. L. ei-tus, elus). 
 (tlloi-us, illei-us) illlus or illms. So ipsius, istius, unius, nullius, totius ; utrlus ; 
 
 alms ; alterius ; sollus : (alterius, solius occur rarely). 
 (Jwi-us) huius ; (guoi-us) cuius. 
 
 In the scenic poets quoius is used as one syllable, suppressing u : hence the forms quoi- 
 modi for (quoismodi), and cuicuimodi for (cuiscuismodi). 
 
3 i. Pronouns. 145 
 
 (i) Interrogative; (2) Demonstrative; (3) Definitive; (4) Inde- 
 finite ; (5) Relative. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 (i) quis? qui?w/^, whatt (2) is, he, that, &c. (3) ipse, self\ 
 idem, the same ; alius, another ; (4) quis, qui, any ; quis- 
 piam, anyone ; aliquis, some or other ; quisquam, any at 
 all (used only with non, haud, si, num, &c.); quidam, a 
 certain one\ (5) qui, who. 
 
 (i) uter? whether of two? (2) is; (3) alter, one of two, the 
 other ; (4) alteruter, one or the other ; (5) qui. 
 
 (i) qualis ? of what kind? (2) talis, such ; (3) ; (4) ; 
 (5) qualis, as. 
 
 (i) quantus ? how great? (2) tantus, so great ; (3) tantusdem ; 
 (4) aliquantus, of some size ; (5) quantus, as (great). 
 
 4. Dative Singular. 
 
 The Locative ending i appears to have been generally used instead of the Dative 
 ending ei in all these Pronouns ; but the ending ei occurs in old forms. 
 
 The forms in use are : i) e-i (also anc. eiei eei) ; illi (for illo-i), &c., huic (for hoi-ce) : 
 2) cui (for quo-i, or quo-ei, which is found in E. L.). 
 
 The O-noun forms of the Gen. and Dat. Sing, of some Pronominals occur rarely : as 
 nulli consili, Ter. ; aliae pecudis, Cic. ; loquitur alterae, Ter. ; toto orbi, Prop. : also 
 Gen. illi, illae, isti, ipsi, &c. in Plaut. and Lucr. 
 
 5. Ablative Singular. 
 
 This case follows the O-stem. But qui is used adverbially (how) \ also when the Pre- 
 position cum follows it : quicum for quocum : quique for quoque in Lucr. 
 
 6. Nominative Plural. 
 
 a) From is, E. L. forms before Plautus are (eeis, ieis, els) : afterwards in R. L. ie\, ei : 
 in the scenic poets el (i). In I. L. ii (pronounced i) was allowed. 
 
 From idem the forms eisdem > Isdem, fidem are found as Nominatives Plural before 
 Caesar. Once in Plautus eidem. lidem was admitted in I. L. 
 
 From hie the forms (heis, heisce, hisce) appear in E. L. ; hei in R. L. to the Aug. age : 
 then hi ; which, like the irregular Fern, form hae (for hat), rejects c (ce) to avoid con- 
 fusion. But the forms (haec, illaec, istaec) are found in E. L. as Fern. Nominative Plural. 
 
 The Neut. PL haec is strengthened with i, being, as well as the Fern. S^ for (ha-i-ce). 
 
 b) An old PL ques from quis is found in Senatus-consultum de Bacchanal ibus, &c., 
 Pacuvius, and Cato : but quei in R. L. is PL of quis and qui ; also qui, which became 
 general : and Fern, quae (for q^^a^). The Neut. quae, like haec, is a strengthened form : 
 qua remains often in the Indef., and always in aliqua. 
 
 Grammarians tell us that in plebeian speech the initial vowel was often cast off in such 
 forms as istae, istuc, &c., which were sounded stae, stuc, &c. 
 
 7. Accusative Plural. 
 
 These forms are regular from O- and A-stems Except the Neuter forms haec, quae. 
 See 6. 
 
 8. Genitive Plural. 
 
 This Case is formed in all as from O-nouns. Horumce, harumce appear in the scenic 
 poets as horunc, harunc ; once in Plaut. quoium seems to be Gen. PL from qui ; and also 
 in two ancient laws. 
 
 Dative Ablative Plural. 
 
 a) From ' is ' the forms are various. Thus, from I-stem, I bus, Plaut. i ibus, Lucr. ; and 
 Fern, eabus, Cat. From O-stem, (E. L. eieis, eeis) ; ieis in R. L. to Aug. ; els or Is in the 
 scenic poets and Lucr. ; once in Plaut eis. Under Aug. we find Is for iis (ieis) pro- 
 nounced as one syllable. 
 
 So, from idem, eisdem or Tsdem, once in Juv. eisdem : iisdem (disyll.) is found. 
 
 From hie, hlbus is cited once from Plaut. : usually his (E. L. heisce). 
 
 From ille (E. L. oloes, m. olaes, f.) illis (plleis, illeis). Old forms in ibus are cited. 
 
 b) From qui, quis, the only forms are qutbus (from I-stem) and quis (from O-stem) in 
 all Genders. 
 
 L 
 
146 Latin Wordlore. 31. 
 
 (i) quot? how many? (2) tot, so many ; (3) totidem, just 
 so many ; (4) aliquot, some ; (5) quot, as (many). 
 
 Derived from this are : 
 
 quotus, one of how many! (Demonstr. totus, Lucr. v. 652.) 
 
 quotusquisque = how few ? Demonstr. pauci,y^w. 
 
 quotiens, how often ! Demonstr. totiens, so often ; IndeE ali- 
 
 quotiens, several times : Rel. quotiens, as (often}. 
 (i) ubi, where! (2) ibi, there ; hie, here, &c. ; (3) ibidem, in 
 
 the very place \ alias, elsewhere ; (4) ubi, in any place ; 
 
 alicubi, in some place ; (5) ubi, where. 
 (i) unde, whence ? (2) inde, thence ; hinc, hence, &c. ; (3) 
 
 indidem,yr<?w the same side ; aliunde; (4) unde, yh?; fl;zy 
 
 quarter ; alicunde, ^/r^w jw# quarter ; (5) unde, whence. 
 (i) quo, whither! (2) eo, thither ; hue, hither, &c. ; (3) 
 
 eodem, /0 /$ .y#;;z //<2^ ; alio, /0 another place ; (4) quo, 
 
 anywhither ; aliquo, somewhither ; (5) quo, whither. 
 So qua^ z>z Te/^tf/ direction ! ea, / //to */. ; hac, z>z /^/J ?., &c. 
 (i) quam, ^^w? (2) tarn, ita, so ; (3) itidem, in the same way\ 
 
 aliter, otherwise ; (4) aliquam ; (5) quam, as. 
 With other series, as quando, when ? turn, then^ &c. 
 
 ^) The Universal Pronouns (6) also are severally correlated to 
 the above, and to other forms which imply (7) Choice ; (8) Distribu- 
 tion ; (9) Exclusion ; (10) Inclusion. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 (6) quisquis, quicumque, whosoever, whatsoever-, (7) quivis, 
 
 quilibet, any you will ; (8) quisque, each ; (9) nemo, 
 
 nobody ; nullus ; (10) omnes, all. 
 (6) utercumque, whichever of two ; (7) utervis, uterlibet, which 
 
 of two you will (8) uterque, each of two ; (9) neuter, 
 
 neither i) (10) ambo, both. 
 
 (6) qualisqualis, qualiscumque, of whatever kind. 
 (6) quantusquantus, quantuscumque, how great soever', (7) 
 
 quantusvis, quantuslibet, as great as you will. 
 (6) quotquot, quotcumque, as many as, however many (7) 
 
 quotlibet (rare) ; (8) unusquisque, singuli, each one ; (9) 
 
 nulli, none ; (10) universi, the entire number. 
 (6) ubiubi, ubicumque, wheresoever \ (7) ubivis, ubilibet, 
 
 where you will ; (8) ubique, everywhere ; (9) nusquam, 
 
 nowhere. 
 (6) undeunde, undecumque, whencesoever ; (7) undevis, un- 
 
 delibet, whence you will ; (8) undique, from every side 
 
 (utrimque, from both sides]. 
 (6) quoquo, quocumque, withersoever ; (7) quovis, quolibet, 
 
 whither you will. (So quaqua, quacumque ; quavis, qua- 
 
 libet : usquequaque, &c.) 
 (6) quamquam, quamcumque, howsoever-, (7) quamvis, quam- 
 
 libet, how you will] (8) ; (9) neutiquam, in no way ; 
 
 (10) omnino, in every way. 
 (6) quandocumque, whensoever; (7) quandolibet; (8) quando- 
 
 que; (9) numquam, never-, (10) semper always. 
 
.| 32 _ 33> Numerals. 147 
 
 SECTION X. 
 i. Numeralia. 
 
 3 2 
 
 NUMERALS (Numeralia) are Nouns and Adverbs used Nume- 
 :in the expression of Number. 
 
 ii. Latin symbols of Number: 1 
 
 Sym- 
 
 I V X L C IDorD CIOorM bols 
 i 5 10 50 100 500 1000 
 
 By these symbols the Romans exhibited any required Number. 
 
 A smaller symbol before a larger is subtracted : IV = 5 I* 
 
 A smaller after a larger is added : VI = 5 + i. 
 
 Equal symbols are added together : II = I + i ; XX = 10 + 10. 
 
 But a smaller symbol before M multiplies M : IIM = 2000. 
 Usually such a number was expressed by words, not by symbols : 
 duo milia or bis mille. 
 
 The symbol ID is multiplied by ten as often as D is subjoined. 
 Thus, 
 
 133 = 10 x 500= 5,000 
 I3DD = IOX 5,ooo = 50,000. 
 
 As often as the symbol C is prefixed to I, equalling the number 
 >of suffixed D, the total is doubled. Thus, 
 
 CID = twice 500= 1,000 
 CCIDO= twice 5,000= 10,000 
 CCCIDDD = twice 50,000= 100,000 &c. 
 
 iii. The four chief Numeral Series: Nu ^ e . 
 
 I. CARDINAL Numerals (Cardinalia), which are Series - 
 Adjectives answering the question Quot, 
 how many? 
 
 II. ORDINAL Numerals (Ordinalia), which are Ad- 
 jectives answering the question Quotus, 
 which in order of number ? 
 
 1 The Numeral symbols were not originally letters, except, perhaps, M, the initial of 
 mille. The sign of unity was a perpendicular line, afterwards I. The sign of 10 was 
 cruciform, and became X, of which the half (5) passed into V. These three signs are 
 found in Etruscan inscriptions. Then, to represent 50, 100, and 1000, the Romans took 
 three Greek letters, which they did not use in their alphabet, Chi, Theta, and Phi. An 
 old figure of Chi, in the shape of a right angle, became L, 50. was corrupted into C, 
 the initial of centum, 100. <&, which stood for 1000, was broken into the form ClO ; and 
 half of this, 13, was taken for 500, sometimes closing up into the form D. (See Momm- 
 sen, Unteritalische Dialekten, pp. 19, 33, and Ritschl, Rhein. Museum, 1869, p. 12, &c.) 
 Ritschl also considers M to be modified from the symbol CIO- It is generally admitted 
 that the words decem (Sk. das' an, Gr. Se'/ca) and digitus (SducruAos) are cognate : and 
 Curtius adds to these d extera (Sk. dakskina, Gr. fiesta), referring to the verb 5e'xo/u,ai, 
 to receive ; but Pott, more speciously, to the verb of shewing or teaching, doceo (Sk. 
 did, Gr. Sei*f-). This points to the fact that numeration began with counting the fingers, 
 and indicates the origin of the decimal system. It is therefore not unlikely that the unit 
 sign I represented the outstretched forefinger, and X the hands or forefingers crossed. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 Latin Wordlore. 33. 
 
 III. DISTRIBUTIVE Numerals (Distributiva), which 
 are Adjectives answering the question Quo- 
 teni, how many each or each time ? 
 
 IV. Numeral ADVERBS (Quotientiva), answering 
 the question Quotiens, how often ? 
 
 iv. Numeral Series of minor extent: 
 
 1. MULTIPLICATIVA, compounded with a root of number and the 
 suffix plio. They answer the question quotuplex, how many fold f 
 and only nine are classically known : though many more might be 
 formed by analogy : 
 
 simplex simple triplex quincuplex decemplex 
 
 duplex double quadruplex septemplex centuplex 
 Also sescuplex or sesquiplex. 
 
 2. PROPORTION ALT A, formed from a root of number and the 
 suffix pnl-o=plo- (more), answer the question quotuplus, how many 
 more f The words in this series classically used are : 
 
 simplus triplus quincuplus octuplus 
 
 duplus quadruplus septuplus 
 
 Also sescuplus, as miich and half as much more, from sesqui (for 
 sinsemisque, ij). 
 
 Sesquialter has the same meaning as sescuplus. 
 
 3. From the Ordinals come 
 
 Adjectives in anus, which often imply a soldier of the legion 
 designated by the Numeral: primanus . . . decumanus 
 . . vicesimanus, unaetvicesimanus, &C. 1 a soldier of the 
 ist, io//z, 2oth, 2 ist, &*c. legion. 
 
 But note also : tertiana, quartana febris, a tertian, quartan 
 ague or fever : decumanus ager, tithepaying land ; decu- 
 manus, a tithe farmer-, decumanus fluctus, the tenth (i.e. 
 largest) 'wave : hence decumana porta in a Roman camp, 
 the largest gate (at the back, remote from the enemy). 
 Adjectives in arius, implying class or rank : primarius, secun- 
 
 darius, &c. 
 
 Obs. Miliarius lapis, a milestone ; because the Roman 'mile' 
 measured f mille passus/ 1000 paces = 5000 feet. 
 
 4. From the Distributives come 
 
 Adjectives in arius, which mean ' containing or consisting of 
 so many each : ' binarius, ternarius, &c. Numerus binarius, 
 the number 2. Versus senarius, septenarius, octonarius, a 
 verse of 6, 7, 8 feet : nummus quinarius, denarius, a coin 
 of 5, 10 asses. In Plautus, lex quina vicenaria is used 
 to express the law which made debts irrecoverable if con- 
 tracted by youths under 25 years of age. 
 Singularis, from singuli, means unparalleled, remarkable. 
 
 5. Substantives and Adjectives compounded with the Numeral 
 roots exist in great number : 
 
 1 It is remarkable that una ofunaetvicensima (legio) and analogous Fern, forms 
 remain in these Adjectives. 
 
~33- Numeral Series. 3-49 
 
 blmus, two years old-, trlmus, three . . . quadrimus, four . . . ; 
 from him- winter, with bi- tri- &c. 
 
 bimenstris, trimenstris, semenstris, ' of 2, 3, 6 months (also 
 written bimestris, &c.), from mensis and bi- tri- &c. 
 
 biennis, triennis, quadriennis, quinquennis . . . decennis, ' of 
 2, 3, 4, 5 ... 10 years} from annus with bi- tri- &c. $ 
 but quinquennalis, ' happening once in 5 years. 9 
 
 biennium, triennium, quinquennium . . , decennium . . . 2. rx 
 ' a term 0/2, 3, 4, 5 . . . 10 years. 1 
 
 biduum, triduum, quatriduum . . . 'a term of 2, 3, 4 ... 
 
 dfcz>tf (for bidium, &c.), from dies with bi- tri- &c. 
 binoctium, trinoctium, &c. are rare. 
 
 bivium, triviuin, quadrivium, ' a place where 2, 3, 4 roads 
 (viae) meet. 9 
 
 Compounds of as, assis are tressis (of 3 asses), quinquessis, 
 octussis, nonussis, decussis, centussis, &c. 
 
 The official terms duumvir, triumvir, &c., one of a commission 
 of two, three, &c., are used in both numbers : but may 
 also be written in Plur., duoviri, tresviri, &c. 
 
 To these may be added a very large list of Adjectives simi- 
 larly compounded : 
 
 biceps, triceps . . . biformis, triformis . . . bilinguis, trilinguis . . . 
 bicolor, tricolor . . . bifidus, trifidus . . . bipes, tripes . . . 
 bicorpor, tricorpor . . . biiugis, triiugis . . . biremis, triremis . . . 
 bidens, tridens . . . bilibris, trilibris . . . bisulcus, trisulcus . . . 
 
 The word ' balance ' is derived from bilanx (double-dish). 
 
 6. The Verbs fari, partiri with the Quotientiva form two series 
 of Adverbs implying partition : 
 
 bifariam, trifariam, quadrifariam, &c. \ 
 
 bipartite, tripartite, quadripartite, &c. I 
 
 Obs. The words unio (whence Engl. onion), binio, ternio, qua- 
 ternio, senio, are post-classical. But senio is used for the sice- 
 throw (called also Venus) in dice-play. 
 
 7. The Ordinals form two series" of Numeral Adverbs implying 
 sequence : 
 
 primum . . . tertium quartum . . . 
 primo . . . tertio quarto . . . 
 
 Primum may mean ( in the first place} or 'for the first time. 9 
 
 When it means 'in the first place/ it is usually followed by 
 deinde, in the second place ; then by other adverbs, turn, deinceps, 
 leading up to postremo, lastly, or denique, in fine. 
 
 When it means * 'for the first time} its sequence is : iterum, for the 
 second time, tertium, quartum . . . postremum. 
 
 Some of these words are used with titles of office to express the 
 second, third, &c. time of a man's holding it : * L. Corn. Scipio 
 consul iterum . . . tertium consul/ &c. 
 
 Primo usually means ' at the beginning,' at the first, and may be 
 followed by dein, next, post, postea, &c. But primo is sometimes 
 ased like primum, in the first place, followed by dein, tertio, quarto, 
 &c. 
 
Latin Wordlore. 
 
 33- 
 
 v. Declension of the Numerals. 1 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 
 i) Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 un-us 
 
 a 
 
 um one. 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 Voc. 
 
 un-e 
 
 a 
 
 um 
 
 as 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 un-um 
 
 am 
 
 um 
 
 bonus. 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 un-lus 
 
 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 
 un-i 
 
 
 
 
 Abl. 
 
 un-o 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 Like unus : ullus (for unulus), any ; nullus (for ne unulus), none. 
 The Ordinalia and Distributiva are declined as bonus. 
 
 NUMERAL 
 
 ARABIC 
 
 ROMAN SYMBOLS 
 
 CARDINALIA 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 unus, a, um 
 
 a 
 
 II 
 
 duo, ae, o 
 
 3 
 
 III 
 
 tres, tria 
 
 4 
 
 IV 
 
 quattuor 
 
 i 
 
 V 
 VI 
 
 quinque 
 sex 
 
 7 
 
 VII 
 
 septem 
 
 8 
 
 VIII 
 
 octo 
 
 9 
 
 vim *r ix 
 
 novem 
 
 10 
 
 X 
 
 decem 
 
 ii 
 
 XI 
 
 undecim 
 
 12 
 
 XII 
 
 duodecim 
 
 13 
 
 XIII 
 
 tredecim ; decem et tres ; tres et decem 
 
 14 
 
 XIV 
 
 quattuordecim ; decem ct quattuor 
 
 15 
 
 XV 
 
 quindecim 
 
 16 
 
 XVI 
 
 sedecim ; sexdecim ; decem et sex 
 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 
 XVII 
 
 XVIII 
 XVIIIIorXIX 
 
 decem et septem ; s. et d. ; septemdecim 
 duodeviginti (decem et octo) 
 undeviginti (decem et novem) 
 
 20 
 
 XX 
 
 viginti 
 
 21 
 22 
 
 XXI 
 XXII 
 
 unus et viginti ; viginti unus 
 duo et viginti ; viginti duo 
 
 28 
 29 
 
 XXVIII 
 XXIX 
 
 duodetriginta (octo et viginti) 
 undetrigmta (novem et viginti) 
 
 30 
 
 XXX 
 
 triginta 
 
 40 
 
 XL 
 
 quadraginta 
 
 50 
 
 L 
 
 quinquaginta 
 
 60 
 
 LX 
 
 sexaginta 
 
 70 
 
 LXX 
 
 septuaginta 
 
 80 
 
 LXXX 
 
 octoginta 
 
 90 
 
 xc 
 
 nonaginta 
 
 98 
 
 IIC 
 
 nonaginta octo ; octo et nonaginta 
 
 99 
 
 1C 
 
 nonaginta novem ; undecentum 
 
 100 
 
 c 
 
 centum 
 
 IOI 
 
 CI 
 
 centum et unus ; centum unus 
 
 136 
 
 CXXXVI 
 
 centum et triginta sex ; c. tr. s. 
 
 200 
 
 cc 
 
 ducenti, ae, a 
 
 300 
 
 ccc 
 
 trecenti . . . 
 
 400 
 
 cccc 
 
 quadringenti . . . 
 
 500 
 
 I3 or D 
 
 quingenti . . . 
 
 600 
 
 IDC or DC 
 
 sescenti . . . 
 
 700 
 800 
 
 lOCC or DCC 
 lOCCCorDCCC 
 
 septingenti . . . 
 octingenti . . . 
 
 900 
 
 lOCCCC or DCCCC 
 
 nongenti . . . 
 
 1,000 
 2,000 
 
 CIO or M 
 CIoCIO or MM 
 
 mille 
 duo milia (bis mille) 
 
 5,000 
 
 lOO I quinque milia 
 
 T0,000 
 
 CClOO ! decem milia 
 
 50,000 
 
 1003 quinquaginta milia 
 
 100,000 
 
 CCCIOOD centum milia ; centena milia 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 CCCCIOO3D 
 
 deciens centum milia ; deciens 
 
 1 See note on page 152. 
 
i33- 
 
 Declension of Numerals. 
 
 2) Plur. Nom. 
 Ace. 
 Gen. 
 D. Abl. 
 
 M. 
 
 duo 
 duos (duo) 
 duorum 
 duobus 
 
 F. 
 
 duae 
 duas 
 duarum 
 duabus 
 
 N. 
 
 duo two. 
 duo 
 duorum 
 duobus 
 
 3) Plur. N. tres, tria ; Ace. tris (tres), tria ; G. trium ; D. Abl. 
 tribus. 
 
 4) Plur. Nom. Ace. milia; G. milium ; D. Abl. milibus. 
 
 Duo for duos is classical. Duum is a form of Gen. much used 
 with weights, measures, numbers ; as duum nummum ; duum am- 
 phorum ; duum milium. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 ORDINALIA 
 
 DlSTRIBUTIVA. 
 
 QUOTIENTIVA 
 
 -us, -a, -um 
 
 -i, -ae, -a 
 
 (-iens or -ies) 
 
 primus 
 
 singuli 
 
 semel. 
 
 secundus (or alter) 
 
 bini 
 
 bis. 
 
 tertius 
 
 terni or trini 
 
 ter. 
 
 quartus 
 
 quaterni 
 
 quater. 
 
 quintus 
 
 quini 
 
 quinquiens or quinquies. 
 
 sextus 
 
 seni 
 
 sexiens. 
 
 septimus 
 
 septeni 
 
 septiens. 
 
 octavus 
 
 octoni 
 
 octiens. 
 
 nonus 
 
 noveni 
 
 noviens. 
 
 decimus 
 
 deni 
 
 deciens. 
 
 undecimus 
 
 undeni 
 
 undeciens. 
 
 duodecimus 
 
 duodeni 
 
 duodeciens. 
 
 tertius decimus (decimus et tertius) 
 
 terni deni 
 
 terdeciens or tredeciens. 
 
 quartus decimus (decimus et quartus) 
 quintus decimus 
 sextus decimus 
 
 quaterni deni 
 quini deni 
 seni deni 
 
 quattuordeciens or quater d. 
 quindeciens or quinquiens d. 
 sedeciens or sexiens deciens. 
 
 septimus decimus 
 
 septeni deni 
 
 septiensdeciens. 
 
 duodeyicensimus (octavus decimus) 
 
 duodeviceni 
 
 duodeviciens or octiens d. 
 
 undevicensimus (nonus decimus) 
 
 undeviceni 
 
 undeviciens or noviens d. 
 
 vicensimus (vigensimus) or vicesimus 
 unus et vicensimus (primus et vie, ; vie. pr.) 
 alter et vicensimus (v. a. ; duo et vie.) 
 
 viceni 
 viceni singuli 
 viceni bini 
 
 viciens. 
 semel et viciens or v. s. 
 bis et viciens or v. b. 
 
 undetricensimus (nonus et vicensimus) 
 
 undetriceni 
 
 noviens et viciens. 
 
 tricensimus (trigensimus) or tricesimus 
 
 triceni 
 
 triciens. 
 
 quadragensimus 
 
 quadrageni 
 
 quadragiens. 
 
 quinquagensimus 
 
 quinquageni 
 
 quinquagiens. 
 
 sexagensimus 
 
 sexageni 
 
 sexagiens. 
 
 septuagansimus 
 
 septuageni 
 
 septuagiens. 
 
 octogensimus 
 
 octogeni 
 
 octogiens. 
 
 nonagensimus 
 
 nonageni 
 
 nonagiens. 
 
 nonagensimus octavus - 
 undecentensimus 
 
 nonageni octoni 
 undecenteni 
 
 nonagiens octiens. 
 undecentiens? 
 
 centensimus or centesimus 
 
 centeni 
 
 centiens. 
 
 centensimus primus 
 
 centeni singuli 
 
 centiens semel. 
 
 centensimus trincensimus sextus 
 
 centeni triceni seni 
 
 centiens triciens sexiens. 
 
 duocentensimus 
 
 duceni 
 
 ducentiens. 
 
 trecentensimus 
 
 treceni 
 
 trecentiens. 
 
 quadringentensimus 
 
 quadringeni 
 
 quadringentiens. 
 
 quingentensimus 
 
 quingeni 
 
 quingentiens. 
 
 sexcentensimus ; sesc. 
 
 seceni 
 
 sescentiens. 
 
 septingentensimus 
 octingentensimus 
 
 septingeni 
 octingeni 
 
 septingentiens. 
 octingentiens. 
 
 nongentensimus 
 
 nongeni 
 
 nongentiens. 
 
 millensimus ^rmillesimus 
 
 singula milia 
 
 miliens. 
 
 bis millensimus 
 
 bina milia 
 
 bis_ miliens. 
 
 quinquiens millensimus 
 deciens millensimus 
 
 quina milia 
 dena milia 
 
 quinquiens miliens. 
 deciens miliens. 
 
 quinquagiens millensimus 
 centiens millensimus 
 
 quinquagena milia 
 centena milia 
 
 quinquagiens miliens. 
 centiens miliens. 
 
 quingentiens millensimus 
 jniliens millensimus 
 
 quingena milia 
 decies centena milia 
 
 quingentiens miliens. 
 deciens centiens miliens. 
 
152 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 33- 
 
 Ambo, both, is declined as duo : but without contraction. 
 Mi lie, thousand, is undeclined. 
 
 1 The whole Numeral system contains only 14 roots : those of the ten first Cardinal 
 Numbers(unus . . . decem) ; mille; semel; and those of primus, secundus. All 
 other Numerals come from these. 
 
 Formation of Numerals. 
 
 A) Cardinalia. 
 
 Unity is expressed in Latin by two forms: (i) u-'nu-s; (2) sim-, which appears in 
 singuli, simplex, semel. 
 
 - i) Unus(E.L. oinus) seems to be the Demonstr. Pronoun i gunized (becoming ai, 
 oi=u) and taking the suffix no-, so as to imply 'consisting of that,' 'that 
 and no other=one. The Sk. word for one is ekas, the same pronoun compounded 
 with the interrogative Pron. ka, ' who or what,' meaning ' that whatsoever.' In 
 Zand the form is aiva or aeva, corresponding to Gr. olos, oifos, ' alone.' 
 
 2) Sim- represents Sk. sa-ma, which is the Superl. of the Demonstr. Pron. sa, thus 
 expressing ' that especially.' Singulus(for sim-culus), a deminutive expressing 
 ' that particular* ( that small unit,' is used as Plural ; very rarely Singular. It 
 would seem as if singulus and unus had changed places in usage : for although 
 singulus is well suited to the Cardinal series, it belongs to the Distributive, 
 which, having in every other instance the suffix no- (bini, terni, &c.), might claim 
 u n u s as its proper head. This however only occurs when Pluralia-tantum are 
 numbered: as una (bina, trina, &c.) castra; unae (binae, trinae, &c.) lit- 
 terae, aedes, &c. 
 
 From sim- comes sem-e-1; also sim-u-1, sim-ili-s: sama is contained also in Gr. 
 els (eV-s), fu'a, tV, in which the Masc. sam-s, becoming san-s and so kvs, passes into et?, 
 and the Fern, sam-ya becomes sm-ya, m-ya, and so JLUCU 
 
 For the names of the Cardinalia from 2 to 10 see Table. 
 
 The Cardinalia from n to 17 are additive Compounds of the first nine with decem, 10 : 
 un-decim, duo-decim, &c. 
 
 The principal forms for 18, 19 are Subtractive : duodeviginti (2 off 20); undevi- 
 ginti(i off 20) ; and these forms reappear in 28, 29 ; 38, 39, &c. to 99, undecentum: 
 98 only being excepted. 
 
 The Cardinalia, which are multiples of 10, are multiplicative Compounds of the Nume- 
 rals 2 ... 10 with decent! or degenta (10): 20 (d-videcenti 2X 10=) viginti ; 30 
 (triadecenta 3X io)=triginta ; 40 (quatora'decenta 4X 10=) qujadraginta, &c. ; but in 
 70, septuaginta, a byform septuo isusedfor septem ; and in 90, nonaginta, nona- 
 seems to be contracted from no vena. It must be observed that all these forms in a are 
 probably Neuters Plur. which classically retain the ancient long a. Centum alone is 
 Neut. Sing, and stands for (decen- decentiun 10 x 10), dropping the first three syllables, as 
 in English the word ivig has dropt the two first syllables of periwig. The Sk./form is 
 data (=-kata), Gr. enajov, perhaps for (8ea- SeKarov). 
 
 The Multiples of centum from 200 to 900 are Compounds of the first nine Numerals 
 with the form - c e n t i, among which quadr-z-gentiis strangely formed on the analogy 
 of quingenti, &c. ; oc t ing enti goes back to the Pr. form (aktau) ; andnongenti is 
 for (novingenti). 
 
 The form expressing 1000 is different in the several branches of the Aryan family : Ind. 
 sahasra : Gr. ^lAtot ; L. mille ; Goth, thusund, &c. 
 
 The root of mille is questionable. Some refer it to Sk. mil, Gr. 6-^iA-, to associate, 
 assemble. 
 
 ) Ordinalia : 
 
 Primus (Sk. prathamas, Gr. Trpwros) is Superl. of prae, pro (Sk. pra t Gr. irpo. 
 Compare irptv). 
 
 Secundus is Present Participle of sequor (Sk. sac, Gr. CTT-). 
 
 The next four assume the Superl. suffix (to) to-, euphonized in tert-i-u-s(for ter-tu-s, 
 TptVos), by inserting i. Octa-v-us (oySofos) seems to be the Adj. of Sk. ashtau : and 
 the retention of av (rather than ov) is a remarkable instance of dissimilation. Nonus is a 
 contraction of novenus, a Distributive form in this instance appearing among the Ordi- 
 nals, as unus (see above) among the Cardinal numerals. 
 
Use of the Numerals. 153 
 
 vi. Use of the Numerals. TT 34 r 
 
 Use of 
 .. _ , . , . the Nu- 
 
 A) Cardinaha. merais. 
 
 a) Since the Singular itself implies unity, unus without other 
 Numerals always has emphasis : 'Amicitiae vis est in eo ut unus 
 quasi animus fiat ex pluribus,' the essence of friendship is that one 
 soul as it were is formed of several, C. Lael. 25. But, f Matronae 
 annum, ut parentem, Brutum luxerunt/ the matrons mourned 
 Brutus for one year, as a father, L. ii. 7. 
 
 b) Unus may take a Superlative force, or emphasise Superla- 
 tives : ' Demosthenes unus eminet inter omnes oratores/ Demos- 
 thenes stands unrivalled among orators, C. Or. 29. ' P. Nigidius, 
 unus omnium doctissimus,' Publius Nigidius, the most learned of 
 men, C. Fam. iv. 13. It is likewise used emphatically with some 
 Pronouns and Pronominals : ' Hoc non quivis unus ex populo 
 poterat agnoscere/ it was not any individual from among the 
 people that could recognise this, C. Br. 93. 'Nemo unus erat vir 
 quo magis innisa res Roman a staret/ there was no one man on 
 whom the Roman commonwealth more leaned for its snpport, L. ix. 
 1 6. On the Plural use of unus see p. 155. The Voc. Sing, une is 
 used by Catullus, xxxvii. 17. 
 
 c) Mille is used (i) as an undeclined Substantive; rarely with 
 Sing. Verb: 'Amplius mille hominum cecidit/ more than one 
 
 In the Ordinals of 20, 30 .... to 90 the Superl. ending -simu-s -sumu-s is taken, form- 
 ing -ent-simus (or ent-sumus), -en-simus (or -en-sumus), before the Aug. age, after- 
 wards -esimus: as vicensimus (or vicensumus), vicesimus, &c. 
 
 This form is adopted, by mere analogy, in cent-ensimus and its Compounds, 
 ducent ensimus, &c., and in mill-ensimus. 
 
 C) Numeral Adverbs. 
 
 Semel: see A): bis for (d-vis) ; ter by transp. for tri: quater (for quat-v-or). 
 All others are formed with the final suffix -iens : qu inqu iens, &c. In the multiples 
 of 10, -iens takes the place of -inta : viciens, triciens, quadragiens, &c. In 
 100 and its multiples it follows nt : centiens, ducentiens . . . From mille, 
 mi liens. 
 
 After the 'Aug. age n usually fell out, and the forms became quinquies. . . . 
 mi lies. So to ties, quoties: in R. L. tot iens, quotiens. 
 
 D) Distributiva. 
 
 Singuli : see A) : bi-ni (for d-vi-ni), ter-ni or trl-ni:quater-ni:qui-ni (for 
 quinc-ni), s e - n i ; septe-ni, octo-ni, nove-ni, d e - n i (for dece-ni), &c. 
 
 Afterwards the suffix -eni is taken by all Distributiva below 1,000. 
 
 The form mi 11 eni is not used, but instead of it milia is multiplied by the previous 
 Distributives: singula milia, bina milia, &c. See Numeral Table. 
 
 Ningulus, an E.L. word (for ne-singulus),=nullus. 
 
 The following table shews the resemblance of the Numerals in seven Indo-European 
 languages : Latin, Sanskrit, Greek, Lithuanian, Welsh (Cymraeg), Gothic, and German. 
 Lat. Sk. Gr. Lith. W. Goth. Germ, 
 
 unus ekas ets vena un aina eins 
 
 duo dvi 6vo dva dau twai zwei 
 
 tri- tri rpi- tri tri thrija drei 
 
 quattuor c'atvaras reVfape? keturi pedwar fidvor vier 
 
 quinque pane 'an Trei/re (TreyC-wre) penki pump fimf fiinf 
 
 sex shash e szeszi chwech saihs sechs 
 
 septem saptan en-rot septyni saith sibun sieben 
 
 octo ashtau OKTW asztuni wyth ahtau acht 
 
 novem navan ei/i/efa devyni naw niun neun 
 
 decem das'an 5e'/ca deszinti deg taihun 2ehn 
 
 centum s'ata CKO-TO* szimta cant hund hundert 
 
154 Latin Wordlore. 34 . 
 
 thousand men fell, Nep. Dat. 8 : frequently with Plural verb : 
 'Mille passuum erant inter urbem castraque/ there was an 
 interval of a mile between the city and the camp, L. xxi. 61. So 
 mille nummum. (2) As undeclined Adjective constantly: 'Mille 
 rates, 7 a thousand ships, Ov. Met. xii. 7. 
 
 The Plural milia (or millia) is only a Substantive, followed 
 usually by a Genitive: 'Quattuor milia hominum et quingenti 
 Capitolium occupavere, four thoiisand five hundred men seized the 
 Capitol, L. iii. 15. If smaller Numerals intervene between milia 
 and the Substantive, the latter may agree with the smaller : ' Tria 
 milia et septingenti pedites ierunt/ there marched 3,700 
 infantry, L. xxxv. 40. 
 
 ' Mille as Abl. is peculiarly used in the following place : 
 'Cum octo milibus peditum, mille equitum/ L. xxi. 61. 
 
 d) The Numerals sescenti and mille are idiomatically used 
 by Latin authors to express indefinitely large numbers : ' Ses- 
 centas uno tempore epistolas accepi/ / received 600 letters at once, 
 C. Att. vii. 2. 'Aiaxmilies oppetere mortem quam ilia perpeti 
 maluisset/ Ajax would rather have died 1,000 times than have en- 
 dured that treatment, C. Off. i. 31. ( Mille pro uno Kaesones 
 exstitisse plebs querebatur/ the plebeians were grumbling that for 
 one Kaeso there were now 1,000, L. iii. 14. 
 
 Poets use centum for this purpose. 'Non, mihi si linguae 
 centum sint oraque centum/ not if I had a hundred tongues and 
 a hundred mouths, Verg. G. ii. 44. ' Caecuba servata centum cla- 
 vibus/ the Caecuban wine guarded by a hundred keys, Hor. C. ii. 
 14. 26. 
 
 Tres stands for a few in Plautus. 'Te tribus verbis volo. Vel 
 trecentis/ I want three words with you. Three hundred if you will, 
 Trin. iv. 2. 
 
 JB) Ordinalia. 
 
 a) Alter may be used for second : * Alter ab undecimo turn me 
 iam ceperat annus/ my twelfth year (lit. next from the eleventh] had 
 then commenced, Verg. B. viii. 39. * Unus et alter/ one or two. 
 
 Secundus expresses no more than the numerical order : alter 
 implies that the second is in kind the same as the first. So, ' De- 
 nique haec (Pelopidas) fuit alt era persona Thebis, sed tamen 
 secundaita, ut proxima esset Epaminondae/ in short, Pelopidas 
 was the second personage in Thebes, but holding the second rank so 
 as to be very near Epaminondas, Nep. Pel. 4. See Hor. C. i. 12. 18. 
 
 b) Ordinals are used in computing time : 'Anno post urbem 
 conditam septingentensimo quinquagensimo quarto natus 
 est Christus/ Christ was born 754 years after the foundation of 
 Rome. 'Ab illo tempore annum iam tertium et quinquagen- 
 simum regnat/yr0;# that time he has now been reigning 53 years, 
 C.p L. Man. 3. Hora quota est ? what o'clock is it ? Hora prima, 
 secunda, tertia, &c., 7, 8, 9. <2rv. o'clock. Hora nona, at 3 o'clock. 
 
 c} The Ordinals are used with quisque : ' tertio quoque anno/ 
 every third year, &c. But ' alternis diebus/ every other day. 
 
 C) Distributiva. 
 
 a) These apply the Number they express to each of several 
 persons or things or times : 'Data ex praeda militibus aeris 
 
34- Use of the Niimerals. 155 
 
 octogeni bini sagaque et tunicae/ the soldiers received from the 
 spoil eighty -two asses each, with cloak and tunic, L. x. 30 (i.e. mili- 
 tibus singulis). ' Germani singulis uxoribus content! sunt/ the 
 Germans are satisfied with one wife each, Tac. G. 18 (i.e. Germani 
 singuli). ' Ursae pariimt plurimum quinos/ bears bring forth at 
 most five cubs at a birth, PL N. H. (i.e. ursae singulae). 
 
 b) When the Distributive singuli is expressed in Latin with one 
 Noun, the Cardinal can be used with the other : * Singulis censo- 
 rious denarii trecenti ad statuam praetoris imperati sunt/ each 
 censor had 300 denars imposed on him for the statue of the praetor, 
 C. Verr. ii. 55. But the Distributive is much more usual in this 
 position: 'Verberibus mulcant sexageni singulos/ they punish 
 with stripes, 60 soldiers each centurion, Tac. Ann. i. 32. ' Antonius 
 quingenos denarios singulis militibus dat/ Antonius gave each 
 soldier 500 denars, C. Fam. x. 31. 
 
 Singuii incedunt, they advance one by one. Singulis diebus 
 eadem fiunt, the same happens every day. 
 
 Quotannis may be used for singulis annis, every year-, 
 cotidie for singulis diebus ; and viritim, man by man, for any 
 Masc. case of singuli. 
 
 Plautus has ' singulum vestigium/ Cist. iv. 2. 
 
 c] The Distributives are often multiplied by the Adverbs : * Bis 
 bin a quot sunt?' how many are twice two? Cic. ' Decrevere 
 pontifices ut virgines ter novenae per urbem euntes carmen 
 canerent/ the pontiffs decreed that three choirs of maidens, nine in 
 each, should sing in procession through the city, L. xxvii. 37. 
 
 d} Uni (not singuli), trini (not terni), and the Distributives 
 bini, quaterni, quini, &c., are used with Substantives of Singular 
 sense and Plural form : 'Una castra iam facta ex binis videban- 
 tur/ one camp seemed now to have been formed out of two, Caes. 
 B. C. i. 24 : ' trinis castris/ Caes. B. G. vii. 66. So, 'unae nuptiae/ 
 unae litterae, &c. ; but, ' tres liberi/ three- children. On this principle 
 the following expressions are legitimate: 'uni Ubii/ the Ubii 
 alone, Caes. : 'unos sex dies/ six days only, Plaut. ' Lacedae- 
 monii iam septingentos annos unis moribus vivunt/ the Lacedae- 
 monians have now been living 700 years with one set of habits, C.p. 
 Place. 26. 
 
 e) Bini is used to express a pair : ' Pamphilus binos habebat 
 scyphos sigillatos/ Pamphilus had a pair of embossed cups, C. Verr. 
 iv. 14. 'Bina manu crispans hastilia/ brandishing a couple of 
 spears, Verg. A en. i. 317. 
 
 f) Poets sometimes use the Distributives in a multiplicative 
 sense : ' Septeno gurgite/ with sevenfold torrent, Lucan. viii. 444. 
 Frequently for the Cardinals : ' centenas manus/ a hundred hands, 
 Verg. 
 
 But when Virgil writes Per duodena regit mundum sol aureus 
 astra, the golden sun through 12 signs guides the world, the Dis- 
 tributive is correct, because each year is implied, G. i. 231. 
 
 g) The Gen. PI. of Cardinals and Distributives is usually con- 
 tracted into um : ' quingentum iugerum ; ' ' senum septentimve 
 annorum.' 
 
156 Latin Wordlore. 34. 
 
 c^n. vii. Compound Numeration. 
 
 pound 
 
 Nume- a) In the Table of Numerals the most approved forms are set 
 rals ' down ; those less usual but not inadmissible are bracketed. 
 
 a In Compound Numbers above 20, either the smaller number 
 et precedes the larger, or the larger without et pre- 
 cedes the smaller: * Romulus septem et triginta regnavit 
 annos/ Romuhis reigned 37 years, C. Rep. ii. 10. ' Macedo Alex- 
 ander tertio et tricensimo anno mortem obiit/ Alexander of 
 Macedonia died in his thirty -third year, C. Ph. v. 17. * Septuaginta 
 et tres amissi/ 73 were lost, L. xxxv. I. ' Plinius sCripsit sub 
 Nerone naturae historiarum libros triginta septem/ Plinius in 
 the reign of Nero wrote 37 books of natural history, Plin. Ep. iii. 5. 
 * Dentes triceni bini viris attribuuntur/ thirty -two teeth are as- 
 signed to a man, PL N. H. vii. 16. But 'et' occurs after the larger 
 Numeral : * viginti et duos annos/ C. Cat. M. 9. Also the smaller 
 occurs before the larger without et : 'Quattuor quadraginta 
 illi debentur minae/ 44 minas are due to him f Plaut. Most. iii. I. 
 'Septimo quinquagensimo die rem confeci/ I finished the affair 
 in 57 days, C. Fam. xv. 4. Unus, when it occurs with viginti, &c., 
 generally stan<^ first, and the Noun last : unus et viginti ho- 
 mines ; unum et triginta millia. But exceptions occur: ' Vi- 
 ginti unus tribuni/ L. xxii. 49. ' Viginti unam muscas/ 21 
 flies, P1.N. H. xxx. 10. ' Diebus viginti uno/ PI. N. H. xxix. 6. 
 
 c] In Compound Numbers above 100, the larger with or without 
 et generally precedes the smaller: 'Leontinus Gorgias cen- 
 tumet septem complevit annos/ Gorgias of Leontini completed 
 107 years, C. Cat. M. 5. ( Annum magnum esse voluerunt omnibus 
 planetis in eundem recurrentibus locum, quod fit post duodecim 
 milia nongentos quinquaginta quattuor annos/ they would 
 have a great year to be when all the planets come back into the same 
 place, which happens after 12,954 years, Cic. 'Sescentensimum 
 et quadragensimum annum urbs Roma agebat, cum primum 
 Cimbrorum audita sunt arma/ Rome was in its 640/7^ year when 
 the arms of the Cimbri were first heard, Tac. G. 37. ' Olympiade 
 centensima quartadecima Ly sippus fuit/ Lysippus lived in the 
 ntfk Olympiad, PL N. H. xxxiv. 8. ' Aristidis arbitrio quadrin- 
 gena et sexagena talenta quotannis Delum sunt collata/ 
 under the control of Aristides 460 talents were annually contributed 
 to the treasury at Delos, Nep. Ar. 3. 
 
 d] The multiples of 1,000 are expressed by the Cardinals (or 
 Distributives) multiplying milia : duo, tria, &c., ; decem, vi- 
 ginti, &c. ; centum, ducenta, &c. milia ; (or bina, terna, c.), 
 milia. 
 
 Poets and some prose writers of the silver age use bis, ter, &c. 
 with mille : 'bis mille equos/ Hor. ; 'quinquiens mille quad- 
 ringenta stadia/ PL N. H. And so with smaller Numerals : ' Hie 
 (Caesar) deciens senos tercentum et quinque diebus addidit/ 
 Caesar added 60 days to 305, Ov. F. iii. 163. 
 
 e] The multiples of 100,000 are expressed by the Numeral Ad- 
 verbs joined to centum milia or centena milia, as stated in the 
 following passage: 'Non erat apud antiques numerus ultra centum, 
 
34- Numeral Expression of Fractions. 157 
 
 milia; itaque et hodie multiplicantur haec, ut deciens centena 
 milia aut saepius dicantur/ the ancients had no number beyond 
 100,000 ; wherefore to the present day these figures are multiplied, 
 so as to use the form ' ten times a hundred thousand, and the like 
 in progression, PI. N. H. xxxiii. 10. 
 
 Thus we find : ' viciens centum milia passuum/ 2,000,000 = miles, 
 Caes. : f bis ettriciens centum milia passuum/ 3,200,000 miles, Suet, 
 'quinquiens miliens centum milia/ 500,000,000, PL; < octagiens 
 quihquiens centena sexaginta octo milia/ 8,568,000 PI. In cipher 
 the thousands were written with a line above them, and the hundred 
 thousands with side lines also. Thus 999,999 in writing is : noviens 
 centena nonaginta novem milia nongenti nonaginta novem; in 
 cipher: | ix | xcix loccccxcix. 
 
 aa. Unus is often used in Compound Numbers for the Ordinal 
 primus: ' Plato uno et octogensimo anno scribens mortuus est/ 
 Plato died while writing in his Sist year, C. Cat. M. So unetvicen- 
 simus, unaetvicensima or unetvicensima. Duoetvicensimus is rare. 
 
 viii. Numeral Expression of Fractions. 
 The Romans expressed fractions in the following ways : J 
 
 1) If the numerator is i, it is not expressed : as dimidia pars = |, 
 tertia pars = \, &c. 
 
 2) If the numerator is greater than i, and less than the denomi- 
 nator by more than i, it is expressed as in English, suppressing 
 ' partes : ' duae quintae = f ; tres septimae = f , &c. 
 
 3) If the numerator is less than the denominator by I only, the 
 latter may be suppressed, f partes ' being expressed : duae partes 
 = | ; tres partes = f ; quinque partes = f , c. 
 
 4) A fraction may be expressed by the multiplication of two 
 fractions : dimidia tertia = f x | = f ; quarta septima = J x i = - 1 -, 
 &c. 
 
 5) A fraction may be expressed by the addition of two fractions : 
 as pars dimidia et tertia = | + f = f ; pars quarta et septima = f + f 
 
 = 28' 
 
 6) The Roman unit of weight, length, or measure was called as. 
 
 The ' as' (unit) of weight, called libra, pound 
 
 of length pes, foot 
 
 of area iugerum, acre 
 
 was in each case divided into 12 parts, called unciae. 2 
 
 Hence fractions of 12 were named, according to the number of 
 unciae they contained, as follows :- 
 
 Frac- 
 tions. 
 
 1 Dimidio maior means ' half as much larger,' altero tanto maior, as large again, i.e. 
 twice as large. The following passage from PL N. H. vi. (cited by F. Schultz) may be 
 a useful exercise in fractional computation, while it shews the great ignorance of geography 
 which existed in Pliny's time : 
 
 ' Apparet Europam paulo minus dimidia Asiae parte maiorem esse quam Asiam ; ean- 
 dem altero tanto et sexta parte Africae ampliorem quam Africam. Quod si misceantur 
 omnes summae, liquido patebit Europam totius terrae tertiam esse partem et octavam 
 paulo amplius, Asiam vero quartam et quartamdecimam, Africam autem quiritam et in- 
 super sexagensimam. * 
 
 2 Hence inch as. well as ounce is derived from uncia. 
 
158 Latin Wordlore. 35-36. 
 
 uncia = i unc. ~ of the unit 
 sextans =2 | 
 quadrans =3 \ 
 
 tnens =4 
 
 septunx = 7 unc . of the unit, 
 bes = 8 - | 
 dodrans = 9 f 
 dextans = 10 | 
 deunx =11 \\ 
 
 quincunx =5 
 semissis =6 f 
 
 By this notation inheritance was calculated : ' heres ex asse,' 
 universal heir : ( heres ex semisse/ heir to half the estate ; ( heres 
 ex dimidia et quadrante,' heir to three-fourths, &c. 
 
 The Uncia was also subdivided, viz. : 
 
 scripulum = 2\ unc. = ^ of unit 
 =1 
 
 .sextula =1 _ =L semuncia 
 
 sicilicus = f unc. = of unit. 
 
 Sescuncia or Sescunx (uncia semisque) = i| uncia = ^ of unit 
 Sesquialtera ratio = i| : i = 3 : 2. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 THE VERB. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 Verb 5 i- The Verb Finite and Infinite. See page 72. 
 
 Finite 
 
 ^ te ln - I. The Verb Finite is so called, because its forms 
 are limited by Mood and Person, as well as Tense. 
 
 II. The forms of the Verb Infinite are not limited 
 by Mood and Person. 
 
 Note. Any Finite form is called a PERSONAL VERB, because it 
 agrees with a Nominative in the ist, 2nd, or 3rd Person. 
 
 36 
 Voices. ii. The Voices of the Verb. 
 
 There are in Verbs two classes of form, which gram- 
 marians have called VOICES (Voces, Genera) : 
 
 1) The Active Voice (Vox Activa), from agere, to do. 
 
 2) The Passive Voice (Vox Passiva), from pati, 
 
 to suffer. 
 
 i) The Active Voice indicates that a Subject is or 
 does something : 
 
 sum, 7 am amo, / love 
 
 valeo, / am well moneo, I advise 
 
-g 36. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 159 
 
 2) The Passive Voice indicates generally tbat a Sub- 
 ject suffers something (has something done to it) : 
 amor, I am loved moneor, / am advised 
 
 iii. Deponent Verbs. 
 
 Many Verbs, though Passive in most of their forms, 
 have an Active meaning : 
 
 venor, / hunt vereor, I fear 
 
 These are called by grammarians, DEPONENT VERBS 
 (Deponent ia). 1 
 
 iv. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. Transi- 
 
 tive and 
 
 1) In order that it may be fully conjugated (like amo and sitive 11 " 
 moneo), in both Voices, a Verb must be Transitive. Verbs. 
 
 Intransitive Verbs are fully conjugated in one Voice only. 
 
 2) A Verb is called TRANSITIVE when its action passes on (tran- 
 sit) to an Object in the Accusative (Objective) Case : moneo 
 Lucium, / advise Lucius \ Lucius me audit, Lucius hears me. 
 A Deponent Verb may be Transitive, though conjugated in the 
 Passive Voice only : venamur lepores, we hunt hares ; lepores nos 
 verentur, hares fear us. 
 
 3) An INTRANSITIVE Verb, Active or Deponent, requires no 
 Object : surgo, / rise ; proficiscor, I go. 
 
 Those.which express state or condition are called Static Verbs : 
 aegroto, I am sick ; sto, I stand \ irascor, I am angry. 
 
 An Accusative Object, called Cognate or Contained, may be 
 joined to an Intransitive Verb, if it expresses the function contained 
 in the Verb itself : ludere ludum insolentem, to play a haughty 
 game ; aegrotare mirum morbum, to be sick of a strange disease. 
 See Syntax (Accusative). 
 
 The construction called IMPERSONAL allows Intransitive Verbs 
 to be used in the Third Persons Singular and in the Infinitive of 
 the Passive Voice : surgltur (a nobis or ab illis being understood), 
 we (they) rise (literally, there is rising by us or by them). See 50. 
 
 4) The Subject of a Transitive Verb may become its Object : 
 (ego) verto me, / turn myself ' (tu) vertis te, you turn yourself; 
 (is) vertit se, he tiirns himself. This Pronoun Object is sometimes 
 omitted, as in English, and the Verb is thus used intransitively : 
 iam verterat fortune fortune had now turned, Liv. 
 
 On the other hand, the Passive, like the Greek Middle Voice, has 
 often a reflexive use : vertor, / turn myself \ lavor, / wash myself. 
 Probably this was the primary sense of the Passive. 
 
 Some Deponents originate thus : glorior, / boast (myself") ; 
 vescor, I feed (myself}. Others grow out of Passive Verbs : gravor, 
 1 'grudge ', am loth (lit. am grieved). 
 
 1 The term ' Deponent ' is bad, though inveterate in Latin grammar. Medial (Media) 
 would be a better name for these Verbs. 
 
160 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 137- 
 
 v. Quasi-Passive and Semi-Deponent Verbs. 
 
 1) A few Verbs, of Active form, are used in Passive sense, and 
 are called QUASI-PASSIVE Verbs : 
 
 exsulo, i. I am banished. 
 
 vapulo, i. I am beaten 
 
 fio, / become or am made. Passive of facio, / make. 
 
 pereo, / am lost or destroyed perdo, / lose or destroy. 
 
 veneo, I am on sale vendo, / sell. 
 
 liceo, 2. / am put to auction (but liceor, / bid at an auction). 
 
 The Participles perditus and perdendus, venditus and 
 vendendus, are in use. Verbero, I beat, has a Passive verberor, 
 but vapulo often took its place in popular speech. 
 
 2) Some Verbs, otherwise Active, take a Passive form with Active 
 meaning in their Perfect Participle and the Tenses derived from it : 
 
 audeo, 2. I dare ausus sum, I dared 
 
 gaudeo, 2. / rejoice gavisus sum, / rejoiced 
 
 soleo, 2. / am wont solitus sum, / was wont 
 
 fido, 3. / trust fisus sum, / trusted 
 
 fio, / become factus sum, / became 
 
 These are called SEMI-DEPONENT Verbs. 
 
 3) Some Verbs have an Active Perfect, with a Passive Perfect 
 Participle, active in sense : 
 
 ceno, cenavi, I supped cenatus, having supped 
 
 iuro, iuravi, / swore iuratus, having sworn 
 
 prandeo, prandi, / dined pransus, having dined 
 
 nubo, nupsi, / was wedded nupta, wedded 
 
 Other Passive Participles from Active Verbs are : 
 adultus, grown up, from adolesco, adolevi 
 cretus, sprung cresco, crevi 
 
 suetus, accustomed suesco, suevi (with compounds) 
 obsoletus, out of date obsolesco, obsolevi 
 placitus, pleasing placeo, placui. 
 
 potus, having drunk, from an old stem po- 
 perosus, hating, from perodi ; exosus, hating or hated utterly 
 pertaesus, tired, from pertaedet. 
 Also coalitus (coalesco), deflagratus, exoletus, initus, inveteratus,. 
 
 propensus. See M. Lucr. ii. 383 ; iii. 772. 
 
 Mook vi. The Moods of the Verb. 
 
 MOODS (Modi) express the manner of action in a 
 Finite Verb. 
 
 There are three Moods of the Verb Finite : 
 
 i) The INDICATIVE Mood declares a fact or condition 
 as real or absolute : 
 gaudeo quod (si) abest, I am glad that (if) he is absent. 
 
38. The Tenses of the Verb. 161 
 
 2) The CONJUNCTIVE Mood states a fact or condi- 
 tion as conceived or contingent : 
 
 gaudeam si absit, I shall be glad if he be absent ; 
 velim absit, / would wish he were absent : 
 vellem abesset, I could wish he had been absent. 
 
 This Mood, in principal construction, we call the PURE Conjunc- 
 tive, gaudeam, velim, vellem. When it depends on another 
 Verb, it is called SUBJUNCTIVE, absit, abesset. 
 
 The English version of the Conjunctive generally requires the 
 use of an auxiliary Verb, may, might, would, should, shall, &c. 
 
 The Subjunctive is often rendered by the English Indicative : 
 nescio quid velis, I know not what you wish; tam stulti sunt ut 
 nihil intellegant, they are so foolish that they understand 
 nothing-, also by the English Subjunctive : dubito num in tell e- 
 gat, I doitbtif he understand-, but often it must be expressed by 
 an auxiliary verb may, might : edimus ut vivamus, we eat that 
 we may live. 
 
 The right rendering of this Mood is not learnt from tables, but 
 by exemplification, reading,' and practice. 
 
 3) The IMPERATIVE Mood is for command and en- 
 treaty : hue curre, run hither ; memento venias, you 
 must remember to come. See p. 163. 
 
 3 8 
 vii. The Tenses of the Verb. Tense* 
 
 TENSES (Tempora) are forms which indicate the time 
 of action or state in Verbs. 
 
 1. Tense -forms are either INFLECTED or COMBINATE. 
 
 An Inflected Tense-form is a distinct word obtained by modi- 
 fying the Stem of the Verb : ama-bo, ama-v-eram. 
 
 A Combinate Tense-form is obtained by connecting a Par- 
 ticiple of the Verb with a Tense-form of an auxiliary Verb. The 
 only auxiliary Verb ordinarily used for this purpose in classical 
 Latin is the Verb of Being, sum, esse, to be, which, combined 
 with the Participles in us, supplies various Tenses, especially the 
 Perfect Tenses in the Passive Voice : amatus sum, fui, &c. 
 
 2. The English language has very few inflected Tenses ; as 
 
 Pres. love, lovest, loves ; 
 Past loved, lovedst : 
 
 but its Verb is enlarged by combining with Infinitive and Parti- 
 cipial forms nine auxiliary Verbs and several Prepositions : namely, 
 
 a. be (am, was, &c.) have (had) must 
 
 do (did) let shall (should) 
 
 can (could) may (might) will (would) 
 
 /3. to ; about to ; by ; in. 
 
 M 
 
162 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 38. 
 
 Hence English is richer in its power of expressing Time than 
 Latin ; and most Latin forms admit various English equivalents. As 
 grammatical tables cannot supply all the English equivalents for 
 each Verb-form, a thorough knowledge of the Latin Verb is gained 
 only by the practical work of reading and intertranslating. 
 
 3. Time is Present, Past, or Future. 
 
 Action or .state may be simply present, past, or future. 
 
 For each simple time Latin has an inflected Indicative Tense- 
 form in the Active Voice ; and, in the Passive, inflected forms for 
 the Present and Future, and a combinate form for the Simple Past. 
 Thus, in the Indicative Mood, 
 
 SIMPLE PRESENT. SIMPLE PAST. SIMPLE FUTURE. 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 amo, / love amavi, loved amabo, shall love 
 
 PASSIVE. 
 amor, / am loved amatus sum, was loved amabor, shall be loved 
 
 4. But it is often necessary to describe action and state with 
 more complex relations of time; and this the English language, 
 by its numerous auxiliary verbs, can do more ftilly than Latin. 
 Such relations are (in the Indicative Mood) : 
 
 ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
 
 I. Present in 
 
 C Present am loving* am being-loved* 
 
 J Past was loving was being-loved 
 
 (Future shall-be loving* shall-be (being) loved* 
 
 II. Past in 
 
 / Present have loved* have-been loved* 
 
 j Past had loved had-been lovedf 
 
 ( Future shall-have loved shall-have-been lovedf 
 
 III. Future in 
 
 / Present am about-to-lovef am about-to-be-lovedj 
 
 J Past was about-to-lovef was about-to-be-lovedj 
 
 (Future shall-be about-to-lovef shall-be about-to-be-lovedj 
 
 Latin has inflected Tense-forms for three only of these relations 
 in the Active ; and for one only in the Passive : 
 
 Indie. Act. amabam, / was loving 
 
 amaveram, I had loved 
 
 amavero, I shall have loved 
 
 Pass, amabar, / was being loved 
 
 To express the English marked *, the Simple Tense-forms are 
 used : amo, amor ; amabo, amabor ; amavi, amatus sum (fui). 
 
 To express that marked f, Combinate forms are needed : amatus 
 eram (fueram) ; amatus ero (fuero) ; amaturus sum, fui, ero (fuero). 
 
The Tenses of the Verb. 
 
 163 
 
 For the English marked J, and other temporal relations still more 
 complex, the help of particles is required in Latin : 
 
 the woman is about to be killed 
 
 in eo est mulier ut trucidetur : 
 
 the woman was about to be killed 
 
 in eo erat mulier ut trucidaretur. 
 
 If this be thrown into oblique statement (/ think, I thought that, 
 &c.), the Passive Infin. iri with Supine maybe used; or futurum 
 (fore) ut with Subjunctive : 
 
 puto (putavi) mulierem trucidatum iri 
 puto futurum ut mulier trucidetur 
 putavi fore ut mulier trucidaretur. 
 
 5. Action is either Incomplete (Infecta) or Complete (Perfecta). 
 The names of the Finite Tenses are : 
 
 1) Of Incomplete Action : 
 
 Present ; Future Simple ; Imperfect. 
 
 2) Of Complete Action : 
 
 Perfect ; Future Perfect ; Pluperfect. 
 
 The subjoined Table shews their form in the three Moods of 
 each Voice. (See Scheme.) 
 
 
 1 
 ACTIVE 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Con junc. * 
 
 Imper. 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Conjunc. 
 
 Imper. 
 
 i) Present 
 
 amo 
 
 amem 
 
 ama 
 
 amor 
 
 amer 
 
 am are 
 
 Fut. S. . 
 
 amabo 
 
 
 amato 
 
 amabor 
 
 
 amator 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 amabam 
 
 amarem 
 
 
 amabar 
 
 amarer 
 
 
 2) Perfect 
 
 amavi 
 
 amavenm 
 
 
 amatus 
 
 amatus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sum 
 
 sim 
 
 
 Fut. P. . 
 
 amavero 
 
 
 
 amatus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ero 
 
 
 
 Pluperf. 
 
 amaveram 
 
 amavissem 
 
 
 amatus 
 
 amatus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 eram 
 
 essem 
 
 
 The Imperative /0-forms are generally regarded as strengthen- 
 ing varieties, implying must. Some (as Madvig, Ferd. Schultz, 
 &c.) treat them in this sense as = Future forms. We do the same, 
 but merely for the sake of convenience. 
 
 1 Gossrau (Latein. Sprachl* 146) rightly says that the Conjunctive Tenses are not 
 temporal in the same sense as those of the Indicative ; the Pluperfect being the only one 
 which never loses its proper expression of time. But his mode of escape from this 
 difficulty is so far from commendable, that to discuss it would be lost time. The distinction 
 used in this grammar, of Pure Conjunctive in a principal sentence, and Subjunctive in a 
 dependent clause, seems to be the simplest and easiest as far as it goes. But the difficulty 
 still remains of having to call the Conjunctive (or Subjunctive) forms Dy the names of the 
 Indicative Tenses, from which some of them diverge in use so widely. The only way of 
 
 M 2 
 
164 Latin Wordlore. 39-40.. 
 
 Obs. The defects of this Tense-system are in part supplied by 
 the Combinate or Periphrastic Conjugation of sum with the Parti- 
 ciples in -rus, -dus (see 47) : 
 
 amaturus sum ero eram fui, &c. sim essem fuerim, &c. 
 amandus sum ero eram fui, &c. sim essem fuerim, &c. 
 
 6. Tenses are Primary or Historic. 
 
 The Primary Tenses are tfie Present and the Futures : the 
 Historic are the Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Simple Past (/ loved). 
 When Present-Past (/ have loved), the Perfect is Primary. 
 
 It is a great advantage of Greek, as compared with Latin, that it 
 has inflected forms for both these relations : 
 
 Simple Past (Aorist) . . c^/Xiyo-a, / loved 
 Present Past (Perfect) . Tre^iXrjKa, I have loved 
 
 39 
 
 Number viiL Number and Person in the Verb. 
 
 and 
 
 The Tenses of the Finite Verb have two NUMBERS, 
 Singular and Plural ; with three PERSONS in each 
 Number, distinguished by Pronominal endings. 
 
 The First Person expresses one or more speaking ; 
 The Second spoken to ; 
 
 The Third spoken of: 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 ego am-o, / love nos ama-mus, we love 
 
 tu ama-s, thou 1 lovest vos ama-tis, ye 1 love 
 is ama-t, he loves ii ama-nt, they love 
 
 The oin amo represents a Primitive form d-mi. Hence the cha- 
 racters of the three Persons are severally m, s, t. Pronoun Nomi- 
 natives, being understood in the Personal endings, are commonly 
 omitted : am-o, / love ; ama-s, you love ; ama-t, he loves , &c. 
 
 In the Imperative Mood there is no First Person ; and in its 
 Present Tense the Second Person only is used. 
 
 40 
 The ix. The Verb Infinite contains: 
 
 Verb 
 
 1. Infinitive, Gerunds, and Supines ; which are Sub- 
 
 stantival ; 
 
 2. Participles, which are Adjectival. 
 
 avoiding it seems to be, to use for the Conjunctive forms, when cited in Syntax, a 
 
 numeral notation easy to be remembered : 
 
 amem ; moneam ; regam ; audiam : d or S t 
 
 amaverim ; monuerim ; rexerim ; audierim : C 2 or S 2 
 
 amarem ; monerem ; regerem ; audirem : C 3 or S 3 
 
 amavissem ; monuissem ; rexissem ; audissem : C* or S 4 . 
 1 English usage has adopted you for the Second Person of both Numbers instead of 
 
 tliou and ye, which are now used only in prayer or by poets. 
 
40. 
 
 The Verb Infinite. 
 
 i6 5 
 
 i. A) The INFINITIVE (Infinitivum) describes action 
 or state in a general manner, without personal relation. 
 
 It has Tense-forms : 
 
 1) For Incomplete Action (Present and Imperfect) : 
 
 Act. ama-re, to love, be loving, have been loving 
 Pass, ama-ri, to be loved. 
 
 2) For Complete Action (Perfect and Pluperfect) : 
 
 Act. amav-isse, to have loved 
 
 Pass, amat-us, a, um, esse, to have been loved. 
 
 3) For Future in Present Action : 
 
 Act. amat-urus, a, um, esse, to be about to love 
 Pass, amat-um iri, to be about to be loved (where amatum, 
 being Supine, is invariable). 
 
 4) For Future in Past Action : 
 
 Act. amat-urus, a, urn, fuisse, to have been about to love. 
 
 B) The GERUNDS (Gerundia) are cases of a Verbal 
 Substantive with suffix -ndo-, Decl. 2. n. 
 
 The GERUNDIVE (Gerundivum) is a Participle or 
 Verbal Adjective with the same suffix : 
 
 GERUNDIVE. 
 
 Nom. S. ama-ndus, a, uxn (meet) 
 to be loved 
 
 declined as bonus. 
 
 GERUNDS. 
 
 Ace. ama-ndum, loving 
 Gen. ama-ndi, of loving 
 Dat. ama-ndOjjfrr loving 
 Abl. ama-ndo, by or in loving 
 
 The Gerundive is used to express meetness or necessity, either 
 impersonally, as eundum est, one must go ; or personally : vita 
 tuenda est, life should be protected. If a Case of the Person is 
 added, that Case is usually the Dative : eundurn est mini, I must 
 go ; vita nob is tuenda est, life should be protected by us. 
 
 C) SUPINES (Supina) are Accusative and Ablative of supines 
 a Verb-noun of Decl. 4, with suffix -tu (su) or -to (so) : 
 
 ama-t-um, to love ama-t-u, in loving 
 
 2. PARTICIPLES (Participia) are so called because they Panicu 
 take part of the properties of Verbs, and part of the p 
 properties of Adjectives. Besides the Gerundive, three 
 other Participles are found in Verbs : 
 
 Active Pres. and Imperf. ama.-ns,l0ving .... as ingens 
 
 Future . . . . aina-t-urus, about to love ) h onus 
 Passive Perfect . , , . ama.-t-iSLB, having been loved) 
 
1 66 Latin Wordlore. 41. 
 
 a) The three Participles wanting may be thus supplied : 
 
 Act. Part. Perf. having loved, cum amavisset (or by Abl. Absolute) 
 Pass. Pres. being loved, qui amatur, or dum amatur 
 Fut. about to be loved, qui amabitur. 
 
 b) Some Verbs form Participials in -bundus or -cundus, express- 
 ing ' fulness/ as vagabundus, wandering, iracundus, wrathful; 
 
 in -bilis, expressing ' possibility/ parabilis, procurable 
 in -ills, expressing ' capacity,' docilis, teachable ; 
 in -ax, expressing ' inclination/ loquax, talkative ; 
 in -idus. expressing ( active force/ rapidus, hurrying, cupidus, 
 desirous. 
 
 c) Deponent Verbs, though of Passive form, have the Active Par- 
 ticiples in -ns, urus, and also use their Perfect Participle in an 
 Active sense : 
 
 Pres. vena-ns, hunting 
 
 Fut. vena-t-urus, about to hunt 
 
 Perf. vena-t-us, having hunted 
 
 But many Deponents use their Perfect Participle passively as 
 ' 
 
 well as actively, as ^Q\\\^'\\.\\?>, promised or having promised, from 
 polliceor, I promise. Others of this kind are abominatus, auspicatus, 
 adeptus, comitatus, commentus, conatus, confessus, dignatus, di- 
 mensus, effatus, emensus, expertus, exsecratus, fabricatus, frus- 
 tratus, imitatus, impertltus, machinatus, meditatus, mentitus, meri- 
 tus, moderatus, modulatus, nactus, oblltus, opinatus, orsus, exorsus, 
 pactus, partitus, populatus, professus, ratus, sortltus, testatus, testi- 
 ficatus, ultus, velificatus, veneratus, &c. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 Th^ 1 i. The Conjugation of Verbs. 
 
 stems in i) In order to conjugate a Verb of Active form, three 
 elements must be known : 
 
 1. The PRESENT STEM. . . ama- 
 
 2. The PERFECT STEM . . . amav- 
 
 3. The SUPINE STEM . . . amat- 
 
 / 
 
 2) To conjugate a Verb of Passive form (which has no 
 Perfect Stem) the Present Stem and Supine Stem must 
 be known : 
 
 1. Pres. Stem . . . vena- 
 
 2. Sup. Stem . . . venat- 
 
 The last letter in each Stem (a, v, t) is its Character. 
 
 o) From the Present Stem are derived : 
 
 Present, Future Simple, Imperfect, Imperative, Infinitive 
 
 Present, in each Voice ; 
 Gerunds, Gerundive, and Participle Present in the Active 
 
 Voice. 
 
4 2. The Conjugation of Verbs. 167 
 
 /3) From the Perfect Stem are derived : 
 
 Perfect, Future Perfect, Pluperfect, Infinitive Perfect, in 
 the Active Voice. 
 
 y) From the Supine Stem are derived : 
 
 Supines, Future Participle in the Active Voice ; 
 Perfect Participle Passive ; and therefore all the Combi- 
 nate Tenses in the Passive Voice. 
 
 ii. The Verb of Being, sum, 1 esse. The 
 
 Before other Verbs, it is convenient to shew the con- ess 
 jugation of the irregular VERB OF BEING, sum, esse, 
 fui, to be, which enters into their Combinate Tenses as 
 an auxiliary Verb. 
 
 This Verb is formed from two roots : 
 
 es- (Sk. as) to be ; 
 
 fu- (Sk. bhif) to be or become. 
 
 The forms of the Present Stem (except forem, fore) 
 belong to the first of these ; the Perfect, Future Par- 
 ticiple, and Future Infinitive, with forem, fore, to the 
 second ; the other Tenses are compounded of both. 
 
 1 The Root of Being, Sk. as Gr. etr- L. es-, is found in all branches of the Aryan 
 family, variously modified. 
 
 i) The root 'es- ' forms 
 Present Indie. 
 
 L. s-w-m es (for es-s) est sumus es-tis sunt 
 
 Sk. as-mi as-i as-fi s-mas s-tha s-anti 
 
 Gr. ei/xi (eoyu) et (e<r-(n) eort ea/xeV (eoyxe's) core' ec(Ti (eim) 
 
 Fut. Indie. L. ero (for es-io), Gr- e<ro-|w,ai. 
 
 Imperf. L. eram (for es-am), Sk. (simple Aor. in am), Gr. e'rjv (for e<r-iji>). 
 
 Pres. Conjunc. L. (siem) sim (for es-iem), Sk. s-yam, Gr. -iijp (for etr-tiji/). 
 
 The forms siem, sies, siet are occasionally found. 
 Imperf. Conjunc. L. essem. See p. 58. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 S. PL 
 
 L. es este 
 
 Sk. e-dhH$m as-dhi) s-ta 
 
 Gr. i<r-0t core 
 
 Future 
 
 S. PL 
 
 esto estote sunto 
 
 astu s-antu 
 
 The Infinitive es-se is, as that of every Active Verb, the Dative (or Loc.) Case of a 
 Verb-noun. 
 
 2) The Root fu-, Sk. M, Gr. <f>v- forms 
 Imperf. Conjunc. forem (for/-^w) : Infin. fore (for/-.?4 
 Fut. Partic. fut-urus. 
 
 It also forms the Perfect Stem fu- (for fuv-), and its derived Tenses, by agglutinating the 
 tenses of sum. See p. 58. 
 The English forms 'am,' 'art,' 'is,' 'are,' belong to the root as : 'be' to the root 
 
1 68 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 42. 
 
 s.s 
 
 > 
 w V 
 
 8 1 
 
 8 I 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 11 
 
 all-g 
 
 >1 | 
 
 
 as' 
 I'i 
 
 en +3 
 
 S "g ^1^ 
 
 Ji; %> eu Q> <u -^ 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 U en 
 
 H S 
 
 SI ' 
 
 Pn ^. 
 
 a * 
 
 5 g 
 
 2 5 
 
 1 P, 
 CO 
 
 i O 
 
 ^ 
 
 c r 1 
 
 1 
 
 .0 
 
 
 
 s ts 
 
 ^ 
 
 .S.O tn 
 
 "S|8 
 | 
 
 tn . 
 
 8 | 
 1 1' 
 
 II 
 
 
 q 
 o 
 o 
 
 h| Mb ioT , ~ '-M I 
 
 5 to "cTicT 10 ' 
 
 e * i i'i i 
 
 S^^co 
 
 M en , . 
 
43. Conjugation of the Verb. 169 
 
 iii. Latin Verbs are customarily divided into four canf 
 Classes, called CONJUGATIONS, according to their Pre- gatio 
 sent Character, that is, the last letter of their Present- 
 Stem. 
 
 a) One of these Conjugations, having for its Present-Character 
 either a Consonant or the Semiconsonant u, is called the Strong 
 Conjugation, because it keeps that Character in all Present- Stem 
 forms, without suffering contraction : 
 
 reg-^-re indu-/-re. 
 
 Consonant Verbs, which, with a few exceptions, are the oldest in 
 Latin, ought, strictly, to be the First Conjugation ; but from ancient 
 times they have been named and ranked as the 3rd, which title 
 they cannot now lose without great inconvenience, on account of 
 the large number of Dictionaries and other books of reference in 
 which they, like the Declensions, are cited numerically. 
 
 b) The other three Conjugations are called Pure, because their 
 Character is a Vowel (a, e, i). They are also called Weak, or Con- 
 tracted, because in some Present- Stem Forms the Vowel Character 
 unites by Contraction with a following Vowel: ama-o, amo; 
 ama-im, aniem, &c. So 
 
 ama-/-re, amare ; mone--re, monere ; audi-/-re, audire. 1 
 
 c) A- verbs are called the ist Conjugation. 
 E-verbs 2nd 
 
 I -verbs 4th 
 
 Consonant and U-verbs being the 3rd Conjugation. See a). 
 
 d) The Character of the Verb is therefore the letter which stands 
 before re of the Infinitive in the Weak Conjugations, or before -re 
 in the Strong Conjugation : 
 
 Conj. i. amA-re, love Ton* ^ jreG-/re, rule 
 
 2. monE-re, advise ' I indu-/re, put on 
 
 4. audi-re, hear 
 
 e) In Conjugation 3 are included some Verbs which exhibit i in 
 many Present-Stem forms : cap-/- o, pax- /-or; this i not being, 
 however, the Character of the Verb. 
 
 1 Although the assumption of a Vincular absorbed by contraction would account for 
 most of the forms in which the Characters a, e, i are long before a Consonant, it cannot 
 safely be affirmed that this is the true principle of formation. It is perhaps more correct 
 to say that these Characters are generally strengthened in this position. The practical 
 rules are : 
 
 1) The Characters e, i are short before a Vowel : mon earn, au dies. But & with a 
 
 following Vowel forms Contraction : ama-o, am-o, ama-im, amem. 
 
 2) The Characters, a, e, i are long when final: ama, mone, audi ; or before a 
 
 Consonant: amas, amamus; mones, monemus; audls, audlmus (an- 
 ciently amamus, &c.). Exceptions are : (i) before t final, though originally long 
 (amat, monet, audit), these Characters become short in Latin usage: amat, 
 monet, audit; (2) the Verb da-, give, keeps a short before a Consonant : 
 dare, dabo, dabam, dato, but da. 
 
 3) The Mood-vowels, a, e, i, follow generally the same law as the Characters: 
 
 audias, audiamus; ames, amaremus; veils, vellmus; but audiSt 
 amare t, velit (anciently audiat, amaret, vellt). 
 
170 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 43- 
 
 /) The three Stems in each Conjugation are as follows :- 
 
 
 ACTIVE VERBS. 
 
 
 DEPONENT VERBS. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Supine. 
 
 Pres. Sup. 
 
 I. amA- 
 
 amav- 
 
 amax- 
 
 venA- venaT- 
 
 2. monE- monu- 
 
 moniT- 
 
 verE- veriT- 
 
 3. rec- 
 
 rex- (for reGs) 
 
 recT- 
 
 UT- US- 
 
 4. audi- 
 
 audiv- 
 
 audlT- 
 
 parti- partiT- 
 
 Method 
 of Con- 
 juga- 
 ting. 
 
 The Present Stem of a Pure Verb, without its Character, is 
 called a Clipt Stem : am-, mon-, aud-, ven-, ver-, part-. 
 
 g) A Latin Verb is sufficiently described by naming 
 
 (1) the Present Indie, ist Person; 
 
 (2) the Infinitive Pres. ; 
 
 (3) the Perfect Indie, ist Person ; 
 
 (4) the Supine in um : 
 
 amo, amare, amavi, amatum ; 
 but it is useful, in conjugating, to mention some other forms. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 ist Conj. 
 
 2nd Conj. 
 
 3rd Conj. 
 
 4th Conj. 
 
 I Pers. Ind. Pr. . 
 
 am-o 
 
 mon-eo 
 
 reg-o 
 
 aud-io 
 
 2 Pers. Ind. Pr. . 
 
 am-as 
 
 mon-es 
 
 reg-is 
 
 aud-Is 
 
 Infinitive . . . 
 
 am-are 
 
 mon-ere 
 
 reg-ere 
 
 aud-Ire 
 
 Perfect .... 
 
 am-avi 
 
 mon-ui 
 
 rex-i 
 
 aud-Ivi 
 
 Gerund in dum . 
 
 am-andum 
 
 mon-endum 
 
 reg-endum 
 
 aud-iendum 
 
 di . . 
 
 am-andi 
 
 mon-endi 
 
 reg-endi 
 
 aud-iendi 
 
 do. . 
 
 am-ando 
 
 mon-endo 
 
 reg-endo 
 
 aud-iendo 
 
 Supine in um 
 
 am-atum 
 
 mon-Ttum 
 
 rect-um 
 
 aud-Itum 
 
 u . 
 
 am-atu 
 
 mon-ftu 
 
 rect-u 
 
 aud-ftu 
 
 Partic. Present . 
 
 am-ans 
 
 mon-ens 
 
 reg-ens 
 
 aud-iens 
 
 Future . 
 
 am-aturus 
 
 mon-iturus 
 
 rect-urus 
 
 aud-iturus 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 ist Conj. and Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj. 
 
 1 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-or mon-eor reg-or aud-ior 
 
 2 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-aris mon-eris reg-eris aud-Iris 
 Infinitive . . . am-ari mon-eri reg-i aud-Iri 
 Perfect .... am-atus sum mon-ftus sum rect-us sum aud-itus sum 
 Partic. Perfect . am-atus mon-itus rect-us aud-itus 
 Gerundive . . am-andus mon-endus reg-endus aud-iendus 1 
 
 Deponent Verbs have Passive Conjugation, but Active meaning, 
 Gerunds, Supines, and Participles Active. As Intransitive Verbs 
 have no personal Passive, so Intransitive Deponents, as vagor, i. 
 wander, have no Gerundive Adjective. 
 
 1 The Gerundive is ranked under the Passive Voice because none but Transitive Verbs 
 can use it adjectively. But we agree with Pott, that it may be ascribed to both voices. If 
 a horse is ' ferox ante domandum,' wild before being broken in, his rider is ' cautus ante 
 domandum,' cautious before breaking him in. To the bees is ascribed ' amor habendi : ' of 
 their wax may be said what Virgil says of rich soil, 'ad digitos lentescit habendo/ it yields 
 tff tJie fingers in being handled. 
 
43- 
 
 Conjugation of the Verb. 
 
 171 
 
 1 Pers. Pres. Ind. 
 
 2 Pers. Pres. Ind. 
 Infinitive Pres, . 
 Perfect . . . . 
 Gerund in dura . 
 
 di 
 do . 
 
 Gerundive . . . 
 
 Supine in um. . 
 u . 
 
 Partic. Pres. . . 
 
 Perf. . . 
 
 Fut. . . 
 
 CONJUGATION OF DEPONENTS. 
 hunt fear 
 
 ven-or ver-eor 
 
 ven-aris ver-eris 
 
 ven-ari ver-eri 
 ven-atus sum ver-itus sum 
 
 ven-andum ver-endum 
 
 ven-andi ver-endi 
 
 ven-ando ver-endo 
 
 ven-andus ver-endus 
 
 ven-atum ver-ftum 
 
 ven-atu ver-ftu 
 
 ven-ans ver-ens 
 
 ven-atus ver-itus 
 
 ven-aturus ver-iturus 
 
 use 
 
 divide 
 
 ut-or 
 
 part-ior 
 
 ut-eris 
 
 part-Iris 
 
 ut-i 
 
 part-Iri 
 
 us-us sum 
 
 part-itus sum 
 
 ut-endum 
 
 part-iendum 
 
 ut-endi 
 
 part-iendi 
 
 ut-endo 
 
 part-iendo 
 
 ut-endus 
 
 part-iendus 
 
 us-um 
 
 part-Itum 
 
 us-u 
 
 part-itu 
 
 ut-ens 
 
 part-iens 
 
 US-US 
 
 part-itus 
 
 us-urus 
 
 part-Iturus 
 
 Verbs in z-o of the Third Conjugation, in their Present-Stem 
 forms, retain this i generally ; but not before 1, final e, and short 
 er. These are the following Verbs, with their compounds : 
 Fugzb, faczb, and iaczb, 
 Compounds of speczb and laczb, 
 Parzb, fodzb, and quatzb, 
 Cupzb, capzb, rapzb, sapzb ; 
 (Deponents) gradzbr, patzbr, morzbr, 
 And, in some tenses, potzbr, orzbr. 
 
 Their form of Conjugation is : 
 
 i Pers. Pres. Ind. 
 2 Pers. Pres. Ind. 
 Infinitive Pres. . 
 Perfect . . . . 
 
 Active. 
 
 . . cap-z-o 
 . . cap-is 
 . . cap-ere 
 . . cep-i 
 
 Passive. 
 
 cap-z-or 
 cap-eris 
 cap-i 
 capt-us sum 
 
 Deponent. 
 
 pat-z-or 
 pat-eris 
 pat-i 
 pass-us sum 
 
 Gerund in dum . 
 di . . 
 do . . 
 
 Gerundive . 
 
 . . cap-z-endum 
 . . cap-z-endi 
 . . cap-z-endo 
 
 cap-z*-endus 
 
 pat-z-endum 
 pat-z-endi 
 pat-z-endo 
 pat-z-endus 
 
 Supine in um 
 u . . 
 
 Partic. Pres. . . 
 Perf. . . 
 
 . . capt-um 
 . . capt-u 
 . . cap-z-ens 
 
 capt-us 
 
 pass-um 
 pass-u 
 pat-z-ens 
 pass-us 
 
 Fut. . . 
 
 . . capt-urus 
 
 
 pass-urus 
 
 Note i. In the Scheme, Latin forms are given at full, with the 
 corresponding English of one Verb. English must be supplied, on 
 the same principle, to the other Verbs. 
 
 Note 2. The Masculine Participles amatus, amati, &c.,^are 
 set down alone to avoid confusion ; but the Gender of a Participle 
 follows that of the Noun with which it agrees : 
 
 is auditus est, 
 he was heard, 
 
 And so in all Persons and Cases of both Numbers. 
 
 ea audita est, 
 she was heard, 
 
 id auditum est, 
 it was heard. 
 
Latin Wordlore. 44. 
 
 SCHEME OF THE 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 MOOD 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. v 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 
 i. 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 
 i. 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 
 
 a 
 
 I thou 
 love lovest 
 
 he, &c. 
 loves 
 
 we 
 love 
 
 ye 
 love 
 
 they 
 love 
 
 
 & 
 
 am -(a)o 
 mon -eo 
 
 -as 
 -es 
 
 -at 
 -et 
 
 -amus 
 -emus 
 
 -atis 
 -etis 
 
 -ant 
 -ent 
 
 
 
 reg -o 
 aud -io 
 
 -is 
 
 -Is 
 
 -ft 
 
 -it 
 
 -imus 
 
 -ztis 
 -Itis 
 
 -unt 
 -iunt 
 
 
 
 shall 
 
 wilt 
 
 will 
 
 shall 
 
 will 
 
 will love, &c. 
 
 c/5 
 
 ama -bo 
 mone -bo 
 
 } -bis 
 
 -bit 
 
 -bimus 
 
 -bitis 
 
 -bunt 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 reg -am 
 audi -am 
 
 }-es 
 
 -et 
 
 -emus 
 
 -etis 
 
 -ent 
 
 
 i 
 
 was 
 ama -bam 
 
 wast 
 \ 
 
 was 
 
 were 
 
 were 
 
 were loving, Sec. 
 
 j 
 
 mone -bam 
 rege -bam 
 audie -bam 
 
 I -bas 
 
 -bat 
 
 -bamus 
 
 -batis 
 
 -bant 
 
 
 
 loved 
 or have 
 
 lovedst loves 
 hast has 
 
 loved 
 have 
 
 loved 
 have 
 
 loved, &c. 
 7*rt7/ loved, c. 
 
 o 
 
 amav -i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PH 
 
 monu -I 
 rex -I 
 
 -istl 
 
 -it 
 
 -imus 
 
 -istis 
 
 -erunt 
 ^r -ere 
 
 
 
 audlv -I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 shall 
 amav -ero 
 monu -ero 
 rex -ero 
 
 wilt 
 [ -ens 
 
 will 
 -erft 
 
 shall 
 -erimus 
 
 will 
 -erTtfs 
 
 will have loved, &c. 
 -erint 
 
 h 
 
 audlv -ero 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 had 
 
 hods 
 
 / had 
 
 had 
 
 had 
 
 had loved 
 
 1 
 
 Pi 
 
 amav -eram 
 monu -eram 
 rex -eram 
 
 L -eras 
 
 -erat 
 
 -eramus 
 
 -gratis 
 
 -erant 
 
 
 
 audlv -eram 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. Examples of Indicative and Imperative Moods. 
 
 A) (Pres. and Fut. Active) : lego, / read : quid agis? what are you doing? lego, / am 
 reading: lege sis, ready if you please : lego, / do read: iamdiu lego, / have been reading 1 
 long: quid fades? what will you do? legam, / shall read: leges Iliadem, you will read the 
 Iliad y I hope : legam, / will read it : cum legero semel, when I shall have read it once ; 
 relege sodes, read it again, pray : relegito, you must read it again : de manibus non depo- 
 sueris antequam relege ris, yo^l will not put it out of your hands till you have read it again. 
 
 B) (Past Tenses Active) : quid agebas heri? what were yoic doing yesterday ? legebam, / 
 was reading: quid agebas ruri? what did you do in thecottntry? legebam, I used to read : 
 legebam dum lux erat, / read while it was light: legere te iusseram, / told you to read: 
 legebam, I did read: legeres Iliadem, you were to read the Iliad: leg! heri, / read it yes- 
 terday : legistine Iliadem? have you read the Iliad? legi, I have read it : legere debuisti, 
 you ought to have read it : legi, 7 did read it: legeram pridie, / had read it the day before. 
 
44- 
 
 Conjugation of the Verb. 
 
 173 
 
 FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 I. 2. 3. i. 2. 3. 
 
 / thou he, &c. we ye they 
 am art is are are are loved, &c. 
 am -or -arts -atur -amur -aminl -antur 
 mon -eor -erfs -etur -emur -emml -entur 
 reg -or -ens -ztur -zmur -zrnfrri -untur 
 aud -ior -Iris -Itur -Imiir -Imim -izmtur 
 
 shall iuilt will 
 mTna Si -** ( g ) -W* 
 audi ~-tr * - 6r - Is - tflr 
 
 shall will will be loved, &c. 
 -bimur -brmrnl -buntur 
 
 -emur -emM -entur 
 
 was wast was 
 ama -bar \ 
 
 S?.:ffi ^s (e) -b,tur 
 audie -bar) 
 
 were were were being loved 
 -bamur -bammi -bantur 
 
 was wast was 
 have hast has 
 
 amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus 
 
 <, j 
 
 were were were loved 
 have have have been loved 
 amati, momti, rectl, audltl 
 
 V J 
 
 sum es est 
 (fui) (fuisti (fuit) 
 
 sumus estis sunt 
 (Mmiis) (fuistts) (fuerunt, e) 
 
 shall will will 
 amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus 
 
 V J 
 
 shall will will have been 
 amati, monfti, rectl, audltl [loved 
 
 ero ens erit 
 (fuero) (fueris) (fuerit) 
 
 erimus eritis ^ erunt 
 (fuerimus) (fuentis) (fuerint) 
 
 had hadst had 
 amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus 
 
 V. . J 
 
 had had had been loved 
 
 amati, moniti, rectl, audltl 
 
 <. j 
 
 eram eras erat 
 (fueram) (fueras) (fuerat) 
 
 eramus eratis erant 
 (fueramus) (fueratis) (fuerant) 
 
 Note'\. In the Second Pers. Pres. Ind. Passive it is not so usual to write re for ns, on 
 account of the confusion with Infin. Act. and Imperat. Pass. Cicero has very few instances, 
 chiefly Deponent forms, though in the other tenses he decidedly prefers the forms in -re. 
 
 2. Poets sometimes write the Simple Futures of I-verbs, Act. -Ibo, -This, &c., Pass. 
 -Ibor, -Iberis(e), &c. ; and the Imperfects, Act. -ibam, -Tbas, &c., Pass. -Ibar, -Ibaris (e), 
 &c. ; as audlbo, audibor; audibam, audlbar. These were the antient forms. M. Lucr. v. 934. 
 
 3. The Perf. Partic. used with sum expresses that something was and is complete : 
 with f u i, that something was complete at some past time : ' leges quae latae sunt . . . quae 
 promulgatae fuerunt,' C. /. Sest. 25. See Madvig, Opusc. ii. p. 218. 
 
 4. On the exclusion of V, followed by contraction, from Perfect Stem s in av-, ev-, 
 5v-, uv-, TV-, see p. 58. The forms in -ii, -ieram, -iero, -issem, -isse, are used in prose as 
 well as poetry. lit, from eo, is found : but most disyllabic forms keep V : as qulvi, sIvL 
 
174 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 44. 
 
 SCHEME OF THE 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 MOOD. 
 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 S. 2. PI. 2. 
 
 S. 2. 
 
 8.3. 
 
 PL 2. PI. 3. eg 
 
 
 
 /0W />&0& J/tf 
 
 thou 
 
 &?,.&c. 
 
 ye they, &c. ^ 
 
 
 
 am -a -ate 
 
 am -ato 
 
 -ato 
 
 -atote -anto 
 
 
 
 mon -e -ete 
 
 mon -eto 
 
 -eto 
 
 -etote -ento ^ 
 
 
 
 reg -e -zte 
 
 reg -zto 
 
 -rto 
 
 -ztote -^nto 
 
 
 
 aud -I -Ite 
 
 aud -Ito 
 
 -ita 
 
 -Itote -i?/nto S 
 
 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE 
 
 MOOD. 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 I. ' 2. 
 
 3- 
 
 i. 
 
 2. 3 . 
 
 
 J 
 
 am -em -es 
 
 -et 
 
 -emus 
 
 -etis -ent 
 
 
 
 
 mone -am -as 
 
 -at 
 
 -amus 
 
 -atis -ant 
 
 
 p t 
 
 reg -am -as 
 
 -at 
 
 -amus 
 
 -atis -ant 
 
 
 
 audi -am -as 
 
 -at 
 
 -amus 
 
 -atis -ant 
 
 
 
 ama -rem \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 mone -rem 
 
 -ret 
 
 -remus 
 
 -retis -rent 
 
 
 S. 
 
 rege -rem 
 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 audi -rem J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 amav -erimx 
 
 
 
 
 
 ti 
 S 
 
 4) 
 
 monu -erim 1 
 rex -erimf 
 
 -erit 
 
 -erimus 
 
 -erftfs -erint 
 
 
 
 audiv -erim ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 iissem ' -isses -isset 
 
 -issemus 
 
 -issetis -issent 
 
 
 1 
 
 audiv- J 
 
 
 
 
 
 II. Pure Conjunctive. 
 
 A) (Potential and Conditional use): minim fortasse videatur, perhaps it may seem 
 wonderful: ita amicos pares, thiis you may gain friends : quaerat quispiam, some one 
 may ask : dixerit aliquis, somebody may (might) say : pace tua dixerim, / 'wo^tld say 
 with your leave : pro certo amrmaverim, I can aver for a fact '. crederes victos, you 
 would have supposed tJiem vanquished: velim esse tecum, / -would like to be with you : 
 nolim te abire, / should not like you to go away : nollem id factum, I could -wish it had 
 not been done : mallem aliud factum, / would rather something else had been done. 
 
 B) (Dubitative use) : quid faciam? what must (can, shall) I do ? quid facerem? what 
 should (could) I have done ? faveas tu hosti ? must (should) you favour an enemy ? 
 
 C) (Concessive use) : naturam expellas, you may drive out nature : fuerit sapiens, sup. 
 pose he were wise : ne fuerit sapiens, suppose he were not wise : fuisset anceps fortuna, 
 fortune might have been doubtful. 
 
 D) (Optative use) : vivas, may you live : valeant cives mei, may my countrymen 
 flourish: di bene vertant, heaven prosper it: moriar (ne vivam) si mentior : may I die if 
 
 I speak falsely : ita vivam ut te amo, so may I live as I love you upon my life I love 
 you. 
 
 E) (Hortative use) : imitemur bonos, let us imitate the good : desinant furere, let them 
 (or they should) cease to rave : rem tuam curares, 'you should have been minding your 
 own business : mortem pugnans oppetisset, he should have died fighting. 
 
44- 
 
 Conjugation of the Verb. 
 
 175 
 
 FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 I M PER AT 
 
 Present. 
 
 S. 2. PI. 2. 
 
 be thou ye loved, &c. 
 ama -re -mini 
 mone -re -mini 
 reg -/re -rniini 
 audi -re -mini 
 
 :IVE MOOD. 
 
 Future. 
 S. 2. S. 3. PI. 3. 
 
 thou he they o 
 ama -tor -tor -ntor ^ 
 mone -tor -tor -ntor ^ ^ 
 reg -ftor -^tor -^ntor 
 audi -tor -tor * -zmtor ^ 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 I. 2. 3. I. 2. 3. 
 
 am -er -er-is(e) -etur -emur -eminl -entur 
 mone -ar -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -amini -antur 
 reg -ar -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -amini -antur 
 audi -ar -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -amini -antiir 
 
 ama -rer \ 
 
 ^ :-** ** 
 
 audi -rerJ 
 
 -remur -reminl -rentur 
 
 amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus amatl, moniti, rectl, audit! 
 
 V J \. 1 
 
 sim sis sit 
 (fuerim) (fueris) (fuerit) 
 
 simus sltis sint 
 (fuenmus) (fuentis) (fuerint) 
 
 amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus amatl, moniti, rectl, audit! 
 
 V J V , 
 
 essem esses esset essemus essetis essent 
 (fuissem) (fuisses) (fuisset) (fuissemus) (fuissetis) (fuissent) 
 
 III, Subjunctive. 
 
 Fit ut aegrotem, it happens that I am sick : evenit utaegrotarem, it fell out that 
 I was sick: necesse est eas (necesse erit eas), you must go : opus est ut eas (oportet 
 eas), it behoves you to go : opus erat ut ires (oportuit ires), it behoved you to go : metuo 
 nee as, I fear you will go : metuebam ne ires, I feared you would go : metuo ut eas, 
 I fear you are not going: metuebam ut ires, I feared you were not going : cura ut 
 eas (fac eas), mind you go: sine eamus, suffer -us to go : oro ut eas, / beg that you go : 
 oravi ut ires, I begged you would go : utinam eas ! O that you may go ! utinam ires ! O 
 that you had been going ! utinam ne i s s e s ! O that you had not gone ! scio cur v e n i a t, 
 7 know why he comes: scio cur venerit, / know why he came : sciebam cur veniret, 
 / knew why he came : sciebam curvenisset, 7 knew why he had come: non tarn 
 amens est ut eat, he is not so mad as to go : non tarn amens fuit ut iret, he was 
 not so mad as to go: edo ut vivam, 7 eat that I may live : vivebant ut ederent, 
 they lived that they might eat: laudant me quod earn, they praise me because 
 I go : laudant me quod i e r i m, they praise me becaTtse I went : laudabant me quod 
 i r e m, they praised me because I went : laudabant me quod i s s e m, they praised me 
 because I had gone : quae cum ita sint, ibo, since this is the case, I will go : quae cum 
 ita essent,, ivi, since this was the case, I went : aegrotabam cum irem, 7 was ill when I 
 went: convalui cum issem, 7 got well when I had gone : exspecta dum redeam, 
 wait till I return : nusquam ibo antequam re d e at, 7 will go nowhere before he retTtrns : 
 
Latin Wordlore. 44. 
 
 SCHEME OF THE 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 VERB 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Pr. Impf. Perf. Plup. Future. 
 
 to love, &c. to have loved, &c. to be about to love, c. 
 ama -re amav -isse amat -urus \ 
 
 mone -re monu -isse monit -urus I 
 
 reg/ -re rex -isse rect -urus f 
 
 audi -re audiv -isse audit -urus J 
 
 Gerunds. Supines. Partic. Pres. Partic. Fut. 
 
 loving, of, by, to love, in loving, loving, about to love, &c. 
 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 amand -um -I -6 amat -um -u ama -ns amatur -us -a -urn 
 
 monend -um -I -6 monft -um -u mone -ns monitur -us -a -um 
 
 regend -um -I -6 rect -um -u reg-e -ns rectur -us -a -um 
 
 audiend -um -I -6 audit -um -u audi- -ns auditur -us -a -um 
 
 ut pec caver it, carus est tamen, tJwughhe has sinned ', yet he is dear: quamvispec- 
 casset, carus fuit, though Jte had sinned, he was dear : clamas tanquam surdus s im, you 
 baivl, as though I were deaf : clamabas quasi surdus essem, you were bawling, as if I 
 had been deaf : emo libros quos legam, / buy books to read : emi libros quos legerem, 
 J bmight books to read : non is sum qui te deseram, 7 am not one to forsake you : non 
 is fuit qui me desereret, he was not one to forsake me : quis est quin fleat aliquando? 
 who is there that weeps not sometimes ? nemo fuit quin fl e r e t, there was no one but 
 
 titus est ne iret, he was forbidden to go: dubito an verum sit, / doubt it may be true : 
 nescio an verum sit, I rather think it is true : felicem esse puto qui rei nullius indigeat, 
 / consider him to be Jiappy who wants nothing : ais te cum r ed earn adfuturum, you say 
 you will be present when I return : ait se cum redierim adfuturum, he says he will be 
 present when I have returned: aiebant se cum red i is s em adfore, they said they would 
 be present when I had returned : nego quicquam esse utile, quod non s i t honestum, / 
 say that nothing is expedient which is not morally right: aedes quas emisset ex- 
 ornari iussit, he ordered the house which he had bought to be decorated : exprobratur mihi 
 quod Iliadem nondum legerim, I am reproached with not having yet read the Iliad: 
 exprobratum est mihi quod Iliadem nondum 1 egi s se m, 7 was reproached withhaving not 
 yet read tJie Iliad : Themistocles noctu ambulabat, quod somnum capere non posset, 
 Themistocles used to walk by night, because (he said) he could not sleep. 
 
 IV. Pure Conjunctive and Subjunctive in Combination. 
 
 Velim rescribas, 7 should wish you to write back : vellem adesses, 7 could wish you 
 were here : nollem accidisset, 7 could wish it had not happened : mallem quidvis faceres, 
 I would rather you did anything : mallem aliter fecisset, 7 would ratJter he had done 
 otherwise : quidvis potius paterer, quam mentirer, 7 would suffer anything rather than 
 tell a falsehood : praestes quod receperis, you should perform what you have under- 
 taken : praestaret quod recepisset, he should perform what he had undertaken : eant 
 quo velint, they may go where they will : irent quo vellent, they might go where tliey 
 would : quis miretur quod homines liberi servire nolint ? who can say he wonders that 
 free men do not wish to be slaves ? earn si iubeas, earn si iusseris, ierim si iusseris, 7 shall 
 go if you bid me : irem si iuberes, 7 would go if you bade me : issem si iussisses, 7 would 
 have gone, had you told me : non iturus essem, nisi tu iussisses, I should not have been 
 about to go, unless you had bidden me. 
 
 (Examples of this kind, noted and imitated, teach the right rendering of the Conjunc- 
 tive Mood, in its various uses, better than English given in Tables.) 
 
44- 
 
 Conjugation of the Verb. 
 
 177 
 
 FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 INFINITE. 
 
 Pr. Impf. Perf. Plup. Future. 
 
 to be loved, &c. to have been loved, &c. to be abo^lt to be loved, &c. 
 ama -rl amat -us\ amat -um\ 
 mone -rl monit -us 1 v monit -um 1 _ . 
 reg -I rect -usf rect -umf ] 
 audir -I audit -us; audit -urn) 
 
 Gerundive. Partic. Perf. Plup. 
 
 (meet} to be loved, &c. 
 
 loved or having been loved, &c. 
 
 amand -us -a -um 
 
 amat -us -a -um 
 
 monend -us -a -um 
 
 monit -us -a -um 
 
 regend -us -a -um 
 
 rect -us -a -um 
 
 audiend -us -a -um 
 
 audit -us -a -um 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 legere utile est 
 to read is useful 
 librum legere coepi 
 / have begrtn to read the book 
 memini me legere 
 7 remember that I read 
 aio me legisse 
 / say that I have read 
 memineram me legisse 
 / remembered that I had read 
 videor mihi lecturus esse 
 / think I am going to read 
 aiomelecturum esse 
 / say that I will read 
 
 aiebam me le cturum esse 
 / said that I would read 
 aiebam me lecturum fuisse 
 / said that I wo^^ld have read 
 
 The Verb Infinite. 
 
 PASSIVE. 
 
 legi libros utile est 
 it is useful that books be read 
 liber legi coepit 
 the book has begun to be read 
 memini librum legi 
 / remember the book being read 
 aio librum lectum esse 
 I say that the book has been read 
 memineram librum lectumesse 
 7 remembered the book had been react 
 dicitur liber lectus esse 
 the book is said to have been read 
 aio libros lectum iri ) 
 
 aio futurum ut libri legantur J 
 7 say the books are going to be read 
 aiebam fore ut libri legerentur 
 7 said that the books would be read 
 aio futurum fuisse ut legerentur 
 7 say they would have been read 
 
 putor lecturus fuisse 
 
 it is supposed I should have read 
 
 legend um est nobis 
 
 we must read 
 
 consuetude legendi 
 
 the habit of reading 
 
 cupidus sum legendi 
 
 7 am desirous of reading 
 
 aptus est legendo (ad legendum) 
 
 he is Jit for reading 
 
 inter legendum 
 
 in the course of reading 
 
 oblector legendo 
 
 I amuse myself with reading 
 
 in legendo versor 
 
 7 am engaged in reading 
 
 eo lectum Iliadem 
 
 7 am going to read the Iliad 
 
 lecturus sum Iliadem 
 
 7 am about to read the Iliad 
 
 Iliadem 1 e g e n s oblector 
 
 / am charmed with reading the Iliad 
 
 legeridus est liber 
 
 the book must be read 
 
 cupido librorum legendorum 
 
 the desire of reading books 
 
 cupidus sum libri legendi 
 
 7 am desirous of reading the book 
 
 aptus est libris legendis \ 
 
 aptus est ad libros legendos J 
 
 he is fitted for reading books 
 
 oblector libris legendis 
 
 7 amuse myself with reading books 
 
 in libris legendis versor 
 
 7 am engaged in reading books 
 
 librum unicuique legendum 
 
 a book to be read by everybody 
 
 librum utilem lectu 
 
 a book useful to read 
 
 Iliadelectagaudeo 
 
 7 rejoice in having read the Iliad 
 
Latin Wordlore. 
 
 45- 
 
 . 
 
 SCHEME OF THE 
 
 DEPONENT 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 I. 2. 
 
 3- i. 2. 3.- 
 
 / you he, &c. we ye they 
 
 g ven -or -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -amim -antur \ d 
 
 $ ver -eor -er-is(e) -etur -emur -emini -entur * 
 
 ut -or -^r-is(e) -itur -imur -miini -wntur j "$ 
 
 part -ior -Ir-is(e) -Itur -Imur -Imini -i/mtur J 4 
 
 1 
 
 vena "P^l-b6r-is(e) -bitur -bimur -bimini -buntur <# 
 
 C/2 
 
 . w 
 
 1 "N **^ 
 
 3 
 
 . " l-er-is(e) 
 
 etur -emur -emini -entur ^ | 
 
 to 
 
 parti 
 
 > ^^ 
 
 . 
 
 vena -bar\ 
 
 Y *^ o 
 
 $ 
 
 ute -bar [ " 
 
 -batur -bamur -bamini -bantur - "^ ^ 
 
 3 
 
 partie-barJ 
 
 ) l -s 
 
 1 
 
 venatiis, verftus, usus, 
 
 partitus venati, veriti, usi, partiti ^^ 
 
 Pk 
 
 sum es 
 
 est sumus estis sunt ^ 
 
 
 (fui, &c.) 
 
 ) ^ 
 
 | 
 
 venatus, veritus, usus 
 
 V. 
 
 partitus venati, veriti, usi, partiti 1 "s 
 
 1 
 
 ero eris 
 
 f v 4 1 ^: 
 erlt erimus eritis erunt I ^ 
 
 
 (fuero, &c.) 
 
 ; ^^ 
 
 1 
 
 venatus, veritus, usus, 
 
 partitus venati, veriti, usi, partiti, % ^* 
 
 
 eram eras 
 
 erat eramus eratis erant | ^ 5 
 
 S 
 
 (fueram, &c.) 
 
 / ^ 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Future. 
 
 S. 2. PL 2. 
 
 S. 2. S. 3. PL 3. 
 
 ^#/, &c. /^ ye 
 
 thou he they 
 
 \ A 
 
 vena -re -mini 
 
 vena -tor -tor -ntor ^^ 
 
 vere -re -mini 
 
 vere -tor -tor -ntor \ ^ 
 
 ut/ -re -z'-mini 
 
 ut^ -tor -tor -//ntor S s 
 
 parti -re -mini 
 
 parti -tor -tor -zmtor ' ^ 
 
 Note. Some Deponents have an Active form also, as comitari or comitare. 
 
I 45. Conjugation of the Verb. 
 
 FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 179 
 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 I. 2. 
 
 3- 
 
 I. 2. 
 
 3- 
 
 V) 
 
 ven -er -er-is(e) 
 
 -etur 
 
 -emur -emini 
 
 entur 
 
 u 
 
 vere -ar -ar-is(e) 
 
 -atur 
 
 -amur -ammi 
 
 antur 
 
 
 ut -ar -ar-is(e) 
 
 -atur 
 
 -amur -ammi 
 
 antur 
 
 
 parti -ar -ar-is(e) 
 
 -atur 
 
 -amur -ammi 
 
 antur 
 
 
 vena-rer\ 
 
 
 
 
 t, 
 
 C/2 
 
 j 
 
 vere-rer i() 
 ut/ -rerf 
 
 -retur 
 
 -remur. -remini 
 
 -rentur 
 
 
 partl-rerJ 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 venatus, veritus, usus, partitus 
 
 v ...... J 
 
 venati, veriti, usi, partiti 
 
 U 
 
 sim sis 
 
 sit 
 
 slmus sitis 
 
 sint 
 
 
 (fuerim, &c.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 venatus, veritus, usus, partitus 
 
 
 
 venati, veriti, usi 
 
 , partiti 
 
 CO 
 
 ^J 
 
 essem esses 
 
 esset 
 
 essemus essetis 
 
 essent 
 
 
 (fuissem, c.) 
 
 
 
 
 VERB INFINITE. 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Pres. Impf. 
 
 Perf. Phip. 
 
 Future. 
 
 vena -ri | # venat-us esse 
 
 vere -ri [ <> verit -us esse 
 
 ut -i [ I us -us esse 
 
 parti -ri j ^ partlt-us esse 
 
 % venat-urus esse 
 
 -^ verit -urus esse 
 
 us -urus esse 
 
 partlt-urus esse 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Pr. 
 
 Impf. Gerundive. Perf. Plup. 
 
 vena -ns 
 
 d 
 
 venand -us 
 
 ^ <# venat 
 
 -41 
 
 vere -ns ' 
 
 _ ^ verend -us t^ ^ ver it 
 
 -us 14 
 
 ut-tf -ns j 
 
 "^ 
 
 utend -us 
 
 ^ us 
 
 -usf 
 
 parti-^ -ns j 
 
 
 partiend-us 
 
 | | partlt 
 
 -us -| 
 
 Future. 
 
 \ 1 
 
 venat-urus j 
 verit -urus I ^ 
 us -urus N 
 partlt-urus i 
 
 GERUNDS. 
 
 verend -um -i -o 
 utend -um -i -o 
 partiend -um -i -o 
 
 SUPINES. 
 
 venat-um -u 
 verit-um -u 
 iis-um -u I" 
 partit-um -u ^ 
 
 N 2 
 
i So 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 46-47- 
 
 46 
 
 Verbs in 
 
 2-0. 
 
 VERB in i-o OF CONJUG. III. 
 
 (Present-Stem Forms.) 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 Indie. Pres. cap/-o, cap-?s, -It, -imus, -ids, capz-unt. 
 
 Fut. capz-am, -es, -et, -emus, -etis, -ent. 
 
 Imperf. capz-ebam, -ebas, -ebat, -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant, 
 Conj. Pres. capz-am, -as, -at, -amus, -atis, -ant. 
 
 Imperf. cap-erem, -eres, -eret, -eremus, -eretis, -erent. 
 Imper. Pres. cap-e, -fte. 
 
 Fut. cap-ito, -itote, -/-unto. 
 Infin. Pres. cap-ere. 
 
 Gerund. capz-endum, -endl, -endo. 
 
 Part. Pres. capz-ens. 
 
 DEPONENT. 
 
 Indie. Pres. patz-or, pat-eris, -itur, -Imur, -imml, -z-untur. 
 Fut. patz-ar, -er-is(e), -etur, -emur, -emini, -entur. 
 
 Imperf. patz-ebar, -ebar-Is(e), -ebatur, -ebamur, -ebamini, 
 
 -ebantur. 
 Conj. Pres. patz-ar, -ar-is(e), -atur, -amur, -amini, -antur. 
 
 - Imperf. pat-erer, -erer-Ts(e), -eretur, -eremur, -eremini, -eren- 
 
 tur. 
 Imper. Pres. pat-ere, -Imini. 
 
 Fut. pat-Itor, -z-untor. 
 Infin. Pres. pat-I. 
 
 Gerund. patz-endum, -endi, -endo. 
 
 Gerundive. patz-endus. 
 Part. Pres. patz-ens. 
 
 The Passive of capz'-o is similar, omitting Gerund and Part. 
 
 a) Potior follows the Fourth Conjugation, but in some forms 
 wavers between the Third and Fourth : potltur or potltur, 
 potimur or potlmur, poterer or potirer. 
 
 b) In orior the forms oriri and orirer (rarely orerer) are classi- 
 cal ; but others (oreris, oritur, &c.) follow the Third Conjugation. 
 
 *:) Gradior, morior were originally I-verbs ; and exhibit various 
 i-forms in older Latin (as -grediri -gredirer, moriri). In classical 
 Latin they became Consonant -Verbs wholly. Morior, orior, have 
 Future Participles moriturus, orituru?. 
 
 47 
 
 Peri- 
 phrastic 
 Conju- 
 gation. 
 
 iv. Combinate or Periphrastic Conjugation. 
 
 The Participles in -urns, -dus, may be combined with 
 all the Tenses of the Verb sum. These forms are 
 called, i) 'Coniugatio Periphrastica Futuri';2) 'Con- 
 iugatio Periphrastica Gerundivi : ' L as 
 
 1 So also the Passive Combinate Tenses (amatussum, eram, &c.) might be called 
 'Coniugatio Periphrastica Praeleriti.' 
 
47- 
 
 Periphrastic Conjugation. 
 
 181 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 i) C. P. F. 
 
 amaturus, a, um, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 2) C. P. G. 
 
 amandus, a, um, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 
 Pres. sum es 
 S. Fut. ero eris 
 Imp. eram eras 
 Perf. fu-i -isti 
 Fut. P. fu-ero -eris 
 Plupf. fu-eram -eras 
 
 est 
 erit 
 erat 
 -it 
 -erit 
 -erat 
 
 sim sis 
 
 essem esses 
 fu-erim -eris 
 
 fu-issem -isses 
 
 v^_ 
 
 sit 
 
 esset 
 -erit 
 
 -isset 
 ^i 
 
 Indie. M. 
 
 amaturi, ae, a, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Conj. M. 
 
 amandi, ae, a, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 
 Pres. sumus estis 
 S. Fut. erimus eritis 
 Imp. eramus eratis 
 Perf. fu-imus -istis 
 Fut. P. fu-erimus -eritis 
 Plupf. fu-eramus -eratis 
 
 sunt 
 erunt 
 erant 
 -erunt 
 -erint 
 -erant 
 
 simus sitis 
 
 essemus essetis 
 fu-erimus -eritis 
 
 fu-issemus -issetis 
 
 V. 
 
 sint 
 
 essent 
 -erint 
 
 -issent 
 
 j 
 
 Indie. M. 
 
 
 Conj. M. 
 
 
 INFINITE FORMS. 
 
 amaturus, a, um, &c. 
 amaturi, ae, a, &c. 
 
 amandus, a, um, &c. 
 amandi, ae, a, &c. 
 
 Pres. Imp. esse 
 Perf. Plup. fuisse. 
 
 1 A) Correspondence of the Latin Verb. 
 
 The Latin Verb corresponds in many points with the Sanskrit and the Greek : but there 
 -are also some in which it shews Italian peculiarities. 
 The points of agreement are chiefly 
 
 1) The Active Personal Endings. 
 
 2) The use of Mood Vowels generally. 
 
 3) The use of Reduplication, though more limited in Latin. 
 
 4) The form of the Present Participle Active. 
 
 5) The correspondence of many Roots. 
 
 Bbt Latin Conjugation departs from Sanskrit and Greek in the following respects : 
 i) It has only two Voices and two Numbers. 
 
 a) It has lost the Augment, the distinction of Perfect and Aorist Tense, and that of 
 Optative and Conjunctive Mood. 
 
 3) Its Passive Personal Endings are formed by agglutinating ' SC.' 
 
 4) Most of its Tenses are formed by Verbal agglutination. 
 
 5) Most of its Infinitive and Participial forms are peculiar to it. 
 J3) Personal Endings. 
 
 a) The Personal Endings of the two principal Active Moods generally correspond 
 thus : 
 
 I. 
 
 L. m, o ; 
 Sk. mi, m \ 
 Gr. fxi, v, a) ; 
 
 3- 
 t 
 
 ti, t 
 <ri, Tt 
 
 I. 
 
 mus 
 
 mas, ma 
 /act/, Ccs) 
 
 PLURAL. 
 2. 
 
 tis 
 than, ta 
 
 3- 
 nt 
 nti 
 
 VTl 
 
l$2 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 In translating, it is only required to construe each part of the 
 Verb sum with each Participle : as amaturus sum, / am about to 
 love ; amandus sum, / am meet to be loved (or, / am to be loved). 
 So futurus sum, / am about to be ; futurus sim, eram, essem, c. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 Nos scripturi sumus (erimus) ea quae agenda sunt (erunt). 
 Vos dicturi eratis (fuistis) ea quae agenda erant (fuere). 
 Dux deliberaturus est (erit) quid agendum sit. 
 Dux deliberaturus erat (fuit) quid agendum esset. 
 Illud puto statuendum esse, quid nos acturi simus. 
 Illud putavi statuendum esse, quid vos acturi essetis. 
 
 These do not include the peculiar endings of the Latin Perfect Indicative, which are 
 noticed later. 
 
 b) The Endings of the Imperative Active also coincide : 
 
 L. a, &c. te 
 
 Sk. a to. 
 
 Gr. e Te 
 
 to tote nto 
 
 tu ntn 
 
 TW vrtav 
 
 The Ending to was in E.L. tod; in Oscan tud; inUmbrian tu. 
 The Passive Personal Endings formed by agglutinating se are noticed p. 58. 
 c) The Imperative Passive Endings are so formed : 
 
 amatorforamato-se amantorforamanto-se 
 
 Similar agglutination of Passive forms appears in the Umbrian and Oscan dialects ; also 
 in the Sclavonic and Lithuanian languages. 
 
 The Second Persons Plural in mini are to be regarded as Participles (like Gr. -/xei/oi) 
 with which the Verb of Being est is, este, is to be understood: xnino is an old ending 
 of the Imper. Fut. Pass. 2nd Person, as arbitramino, Plaut. Epid. v. 2., where -minor 
 is called by Ritschl a traditional fiction. 
 
 C) Formation of the Tenses. 
 
 a) Present Tense Active. 
 
 The Present Stem is prefixed to the Personal Endings ; but 
 the A-verb contracts ao into O in (amao) amo ; 
 the I-verb takes vincular u in 3. Plur., audi-?*-nL 
 
 the Consonant Verb takes a vincular in all persons but i. Sing. ; i in ^. 3. 
 Sing, and i. 2. Plur. ; ?<in 3. Plur. : reg-I-s, reg-J-t, reg-J-mus, reg-z-tis, 
 reg-7*-nt. 
 On the quantities, see p. 169, Note. 
 
 b) Future Simple Active. 
 
 Here is found variety of formation. 
 
 The A- and E-verbs form this tense by agglutinating -DO, which represents the 
 Pres. verb fuio. The personal inflexion is like that of the Cons.-Verbin Present 
 Tense: ama-bo, mone-bo, -bis, -bit, &c. 
 
 The Cons, and I-verbs take between Stem and Ending in the ist Pers. S. the Con- 
 junctive mood-vowel a (Sk. A) : as veham (Sk. va/idni), audiam : intheother 
 Persons they take the Optative mood-vowel e (Sk. e) : vehes, vehet (anc. vehet), 
 vehemus, vehetis, vehent. So audies, &c. 
 
 But I-verbs in E. L. took the forms -bo, -bis, &c. :asaudfbo, audlbor, &c. t 
 and these are sometimes found in poetry. Even such forms as regebo, &c., 
 appear on old Inscrr. ; and Quintilian says that dicem,faciem were written by the 
 elder Cato for dicam, faciam. 
 
 c) Imperfect Indie. Active. 
 
 This Tense in all Conjugations takes the form -bam -bas, &c., representing fuam, 
 fuas, &c., the old Imperf. of fuo. In A- and E-verbs this is at once aggluti- 
 nated to the Present-stem a ma -bam, mone-bam ; but in the Cons, and I-verbs 
 6 connects them : reg-e-bam, audi-e-bam: a formation which seems due to 
 mere analogy. Here too the form it) am for 1C bam occurs in old Latin and 
 in poetry. 
 
48. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 183 
 
 4 s 
 v. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. ^ 
 
 Certain Verbs are called Irregular (Anomala) : 
 
 1) Some because they take tenses from more than one stem : 
 sum, possum, fero, fio ; 
 
 2) Others because some of their forms are subject to peculiar 
 changes : volo, nolo, malo, ; eo, queo, nequeo ; edo. 
 
 <f) Present (and Fut.) Conjunctive. 
 
 The E- I- and Cons. -Verbs take the old Sk. Conjunctive vowel 4, adding am, as, 
 &c. to the Present Stem : moneam, moneas, &c. ; audiam, audias, &c. ; 
 regam, regas, &c. 
 But as a ma -am, &c., would be inadmissible, -am in A-Verbs seems to have been 
 
 weakened into -im ; whence ama-im, amem, &c. 
 
 The a of the Stem is also found in old Latin to be weakened into 11 in duim (Cic.), 
 for dem (da-im). Thus, in Plautus, perduim, creduim (also crcduam). The 
 ending im, which appears in sim, velim, is also found in old and poetic forms of 
 other verbs : edim, Hor. ; com,edim, Cic. ; carint ; effodint ; temperint (Plaut.). 
 e) Imperfect Conjunctive. 
 Esem (=erem) is agglutinated to the Present-stem : forming (ama-esem) a m a r e m ; 
 
 (mone-esem) monerem; (reg-esem) regerem; (audi-esem) audlrem. 
 /) Perfect Indicative. 
 
 Perfect-stem with i, isti, &c. On these end-forms much has been written, and their 
 origin is still disputed. Curtius (with Schleicher), Corssen, Lubbert, and Herzog 
 have taken different views, which may be compared in the work of the last- 
 named scholar ( Untersuchungen uber die Bildungsgeschichte der Griech. und 
 Latein, Sprache). In so doubtful a matter it may be allowable to surmise that 
 this tense, like the rest of its Class, is formed by agglutination, the Present forms 
 of the Verb e s- (sum) being added to the Perfect-stem of each Verb, and synco-' 
 pation ensuing in most Persons. This theory would give : 
 amav-es-m-i passing into amav-i 
 amav-es-s-i amav-is-t-i 
 
 amav-es-t (amav-Is-t) amav-It, amav-it 
 
 amav-es-mus amav-i-mus 
 amav-es-tis amav-istis 
 
 amav-es-unt amav-erunt, -erunt, -ere 
 
 Forms in & for I, elt for It, belong to E.L. and R.L. Poets use -erunt : steterunt, 
 
 Verg. ; verte-runt, Hor., &c. 
 g) The other Perfect-stem Tenses are formed by agglutinating es-im, es-o (ero) 
 
 and es(s)em severally to the Perfect-stem : 
 
 Perf. Conj. amav-erim; Fut. Perf. amav-ero; Plup. Conj. amav-issem 
 (sharpened from -esem). 
 
 Z>) The Verb Infinite. 
 
 The Infinitive Pres. Act. a m a - r e (for ama-se), Perf. amav-is-se (for amav-i-se), , 
 are Verb-nouns formed by adding the Dative or Locative element -se to the Pre- 
 sent and Perfect Stems severally. 
 
 The Present Active Participle in US (nt-S) corresponds to the Greek Participle m 
 VT-, Sk. t (nt when nasalized ; Norn. S. ). 
 
 The Supines and Passive Participle in tU- to- (tUS) correspond to the Sk. Parti- 
 cipial in ta. 
 
 The Future Participle in -turus corresponds to the Sk. agentive ending tar (tor) : 
 amaturus (amator). 
 
 The Gerundive in -ndo (ndus) seems to have a double suffix : (i) Pres. Partic. in 
 ' nt, (2) do-. The vincular e which connects these with the Present-Stem of Cons. 
 and I-verbs was anciently u ; which remained in legal documents to the Aug. 
 age : reg^ndus, regwndus ; feri<?ndus, feriwndus : but orizmdus always. 
 
 On the old Passive Infinitive form ier (which passed into i), see p. 58. Gossrau 
 says that Lange has collected 336 instances of its use in inscriptions, laws, old 
 writers, and poets : of the latter, 187 are in Plautus, 46 in Lucretius, and 6 in 
 Virgil. Pure Verbs are those which shew it oftenest. 
 
 On the archaic and poetic forms which omit si, see p. 54. 
 
1 84 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 Possum. 
 
 Fcro. 
 
 I. Possum, / can, is assimilated from pot-sum 
 sum, I am able: Perf. potui for pote-fui. See p. 168. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 48. 
 
 potis (or pote) 
 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Conjunc. 
 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Conjunc. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 S. possum 
 potes 
 potest 
 P. possumus 
 potestis 
 possunt 
 
 possim 
 possis 
 possit 
 posslmus 
 possitis 
 possint 
 
 1 
 
 potui 
 potuisti 
 potuit 
 potuimus 
 potuistis [-e 
 potuer-unt 
 
 potuerim 
 potueris 
 potuerit 
 potuerimus 
 potuentis 
 potuerint 
 
 w 
 
 3 
 
 fe 
 
 S. potero 
 poteris 
 poterit 
 P. poterimus 
 poteritis 
 poterunt 
 
 as Pres. 
 
 04 
 
 3 
 
 h 
 
 potuero 
 potueris 
 potuerit 
 potuerimus 
 potuentis 
 potuerint 
 
 as Perf. 
 
 A 
 
 S. poteram 
 poteras 
 poterat 
 poteramus 
 poteratis 
 poterant 
 
 possem 
 posses 
 posset 
 possemus 
 possetis 
 possent 
 
 d 
 
 1 
 
 potueram 
 potueras 
 potuerat 
 potueramus 
 potueratis 
 potuerant 
 
 potuissem 
 potuisses 
 potuisset 
 potuissemus 
 potuissetis 
 potuissent 
 
 Infin. Pr. Impf. posse (for pot-es-se) ; Perf. Plup. potuisse. 
 Potens is an Adjective rather than a Participle, ' powerful, able. 1 
 
 Some archaic forms are found in the elder poets : as poterint, 
 potessem, potesse, possiem, possies, &c. The Impersonal Passive 
 potestur is in Lucr. and Plaut. This, and the Passive forms of 
 queo, nequeo, coepi, desino, are only used before an Infinitive 
 Passive. See Munro on Lucr. i. 1045. Potis sum, es, est, &c. are 
 found in poetry. 1 
 
 II. Fero (Sk. bhar, Gr. 0ep-), bring, bear. 
 The peculiarities of this Verb are : 
 
 1) In the Present-stem forms it casts out vincular * before % 
 
 and t : as fers, fert, fertur, &c. : also e between r and r : 
 as ferrem, ferrer, ferre. The Imperative fer rejects 
 final e. 
 
 2) It takes its Perfect-stem tul- from the root tol-, and the 
 
 Supine-stem lat- (for t-lat-) from another form of the 
 same root (tal- or tla-}. For Cpp. see p. 217. 
 
 1 Potis, pote (originally Adjectives) are also used adverbially. Their origin is Sk. pati, 
 * lord,' whence Gr. Trdcris, rrorvia (lord and lady). 
 
Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 
 SCHEME. 
 
 I8 S 
 
 PRESENT-STEM TENSES ACTIVE. 
 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Conjunc. 
 
 Imper. 
 
 Infin. 
 
 Part. 
 
 Present. 
 
 S.fero 
 fers 
 fert 
 P. ferimus 
 fertis 
 ferunt 
 
 feram 
 feras 
 ferat 
 feramus 
 feratis 
 ferant 
 
 fer 
 ferte 
 
 ferre 
 
 ferens 
 
 c/5 
 
 1 
 
 S. feram 
 feres 
 &c. 
 
 as Present 
 
 ferto 
 &c. 
 
 laturus 
 esse 
 
 laturus, a, 
 um 
 
 I 
 
 Qi 
 
 S. ferebam 
 ferebas 
 &c. 
 
 ferrem 
 ferres 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 PRESENT-STEM TENSES PASSIVE. 
 
 j 
 
 S. feror 
 ferris 
 fertitr 
 P. ferlmur 
 ferimini 
 feruntur 
 
 ferar 
 ferar-is (e) 
 feratur 
 feramur 
 feramini 
 ferantur 
 
 ferre 
 ferimini 
 
 ferri 
 
 latus, a, um 
 
 [um 
 ferendus, a, 
 
 en 
 
 1 
 
 S. ferar 
 ferer-is (e) 
 &c. 
 
 as Present 
 
 fertor 
 &c. 
 
 latumiri 
 
 
 1 
 
 S. ferebar 
 ferebar-is 
 (e) &c. 
 
 ferrer 
 ferrer-is (e) 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 PERFECT- STEM TENSES (ACTIVE). 
 
 tiil-i, tul-ero, tul-eram, tul-issem, &c. ; tulisse : regularly, as 
 rex-i, &c. 
 
 SUPINE-STEM TENSES (PASSIVE). 
 
 latus . . sum (fui, &c.), ero, eram, sim, essem, &c. : regularly, 
 as rect-us sum (fui), &c. 
 
 III. Fio (Sk. bM, Gr. <v-), am made, become. Fio. 
 
 The Quasi-passive fio is used as the Passive of facio in the 
 Present-Stem Tenses. 
 
 The Supine-Stem Tenses are formed by factus regularly. 
 
186 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Conjunc. ; Imper. 
 
 Infin. 
 
 Part. 
 
 
 S. fio 
 
 flam 
 
 fl 
 
 fieri 
 
 factus, a., um 
 
 
 fis 
 
 fias 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 fit 
 
 flat 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 P. (fimus) 
 
 flamus 
 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 (fitis) 
 fmnt 
 
 flatis 
 flant 
 
 (fite) 
 
 
 [um 
 faciendus, a, 
 
 
 S. flam 
 
 
 
 futurus esse 
 
 futurus, a, 
 
 J 
 
 fles 
 
 as Present 
 
 (fito) 
 
 fore 
 
 um 
 
 1 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 S. f lebam 
 
 fierem 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 flebas 
 
 fieres 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 M 
 
 c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 S. factus 
 
 factus sim 
 
 
 factus esse 
 
 factus, a, um 
 
 2 
 
 sum &c. &c. 
 
 
 
 
 The bracketed forms are hardly found. 
 
 Fio (fu-i-o) is only a strengthened form of fu-. Hence fore and 
 futurus may be assigned to this Verb as well as to sum, by which 
 they are borrowed. This appears from the constant usage of Latin 
 authors : 'Neque ego ea, quae fa eta sun t, fore quum dicebam, 
 divinabam futura,' C. Fam. vi. i. 5 ; f Quid fiat, fact um, futur- 
 umve sit/ C. d. Or. ii. 26. 113. 
 
 The i is long except before er, and in Ht. Comic poets often 
 lengthen i in fierem, fieri. 
 
 Fio, being the Passive of facio, appears as such in many Com- 
 
 Eounds : liquefio, calefio, satisfio; with Prepositions only in a 
 jw instances, as in some forms of confieri, defieri, interfieri, 
 effieri, superfieri. Also infit, begins (to speak], Verg. 
 
 IV. V. VI. Volo, nolo, malo. 
 
 Volo, / wish, I will (Sk. var, Gr. /3oX- /3ovX-), has the following- 
 peculiarities : 
 
 1) Its stem- vowel fluctuates between o, u, e. 
 
 2) It rejects i in three Persons of Pres. Indie. (2. 3 S. 2 PL), and' 
 e in Impf. Conj. and Infin. Pres. 
 
 3) It rejects a consonant in Pres. Indie. 2nd Pers. vis. (Corssen says 
 that this cons, is not l but the prim. r. See Krit. Nachtrdge, 287.) 
 
 4) It assimilates s to preceding l in vellem, c. for vel-sem, &c. 
 and in vel-le for vel-se. 
 
 5) The Pres. Conj. takes the ending im, is, c. instead of am. 
 
 Nolo is compounded of ne (non) with volo : Malo of magis or 
 mage and volo. 
 
Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 
 
 Mavelim, mavelle, &c., also nevis, nevelle, appear in E. L. 
 Volt, voltis were used before Augustus. 
 Noli is formed from nolis, 2nd Pers. Conj. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Conjunctive. 
 
 $ 
 
 S. volo nolo malo 
 vis nonvis mavis 
 vult nonvult mavult 
 P. volumus nolumus malumus 
 vultis nonvultis mavultis 
 volunt nolunt malunt 
 
 velim nolim malim 
 velis nolis malis 
 velit nolit malit 
 velimus nolimus mallmus 
 velitis nolltis malitis 
 velint nolint malint 
 
 co 
 
 s 
 
 S. volam 
 voles noles males 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 as Present 
 
 & 
 
 S. volebam nolebam malebam 
 volebas nolebas malebas 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 vellem nollem mallem 
 velles nolles malles 
 &c. &c. c. 
 
 I 
 
 S. volui nolui malui 
 voluisti noluisti maluisti 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 voluerim noluerim maluerim 
 volueris nolueris malueris 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 1 
 
 S. voluero noluero maluero 
 volueris nolueris malueris 
 &c. c. &c. 
 
 as Perfect 
 
 S 
 
 S. volueram nolueram malueram 
 volueras nolueras malueras 
 &c. c. c. 
 
 voluissem noluissem maluissem 
 voluisses noluisses maluisses 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 (volo and malo, none) 
 s. 2 3. P. 2. 
 
 Pres. noil nolite 
 
 Fut. nolito nolito nolitote 
 
 Pres Impf. 
 Perf. Plup. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 velle nolle 
 
 voluisse noluisse 
 
 nolunto 
 
 malle 
 maluisse 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Pres. volens nolens (rare) 
 
 Gerunds are hardly found. 
 
 a) Pervolo, wish much, has pervelim, pervellem, pervelle. 
 &) Vin is used for visne, will you? sis for si vis ; sultis for si 
 vultis, if you please \ cap sis for cape si vis. 
 
188 
 
 Latin Wordlore, 
 
 4 8. 
 
 Eo. 
 
 Queo, 
 nequeo. 
 
 VII. Eo(for][o),^. 
 
 The root is i- (Sk. Gr.), to go, which becomes e before a, o, u. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Conjunc. 
 
 Imper. 
 
 Verb Infinite. 
 
 
 S. ft? 
 
 earn 
 
 
 I 
 
 INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. 
 
 +: 
 
 IS 
 ft 
 
 eas 
 eat 
 
 I 
 
 (Pr. Impf.) 
 
 (Pres. Impf.) 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 ire 
 
 lens 
 
 
 
 P. firms 
 Itis 
 eunt 
 
 eamus 
 eatis 
 eant 
 
 ite 
 
 (Perf. Plup.) 
 ivisse 
 or isse 
 
 euntem 
 &c. 
 
 
 S. ibo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ibis 
 
 
 Ito 
 
 
 
 c/5 
 
 3 
 
 Ibit 
 P. Ibimus 
 
 as Present 
 
 Ito 
 
 (Future) 
 fturus esse 
 
 (Future) 
 iturus 
 
 fe 
 
 Ibitis 
 
 
 Itote 
 
 
 
 
 Ibunt 
 
 
 eunto 
 
 
 
 ,. 
 
 S. ibam 
 
 irem 
 
 
 GERUND. 
 
 SUPINES. 
 
 I 
 
 Ibas 
 
 Ires 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 &c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. Ivi or ft 
 
 ferim 
 
 
 eundum 
 
 i . lt-um 
 
 *c 
 
 0> 
 
 Ivisti, isti 
 
 icris 
 
 
 eundi 
 
 2. ItU 
 
 A 
 
 &c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 eundo 
 
 
 The remaining Tenses are formed as in a u d - i v i. The v is usually 
 dropt by ivi and its Compounds: ii, iisti or isti, ieram, issem, 
 &c. ; redii, rediero, redistis, redisse, &c. 
 
 The Impersonal Passive itur, Uum est, Iri, &c., is often usecb 
 Iri with Supine supplies a Future Passive to Verbs. Also the 
 Active eo forms a periphrasis with Supine, 
 iniurias istas ultum eunt 
 they are going to avenge those wrongs 
 aiunt iniurias istas ultum iri 
 
 they say that those wrongs are going to be avenged 
 (literally : there is attending to avenge those wrongs). 
 Ambio, go round, canvass, follows the Conjugation of audio. 
 
 VIII. IX. Queo; nequeo. 
 
 Queo, can (Stem qui-), nequeo, cannot, are like eo, so far as 
 their forms extend ; but have no Imperative and no Gerunds, 
 queo quls quivi quire .... quitum quiens (queuntis) 
 nequeo nequis nequivi nequlre . nequitum nequiens (nequeuntis) 
 
 The Indicative and Conjunctive forms are like those of eo. 
 
 Queor, nequeor, are found in old writers with an Infin. Pass. : 
 subpleri queatur, Lucr. i. 1045; 'quita est,' Ter. Hec. iv. I. 59; 
 ' n e q u 1 1 u r,' Plaut. Rud. i v. 
 
Conjugation of Defective Verbs. 
 
 189 
 
 X. do (Sk. ad, Gr. e'3-), eat. 
 
 This Verb is anomalous only by the occasional mutation of 
 forms, which omit the Vincular, and either assimilate or omit d. 
 
 2nd Pers. S. Pres. Act. es for ed-i-s (ed-s). 
 3rd est for ed-i-t (ed-t). 
 
 2nd Pers. PI. estis for ed-if-tis (ed-tis). 
 Imperf. Conj. essem for ed-e-rem (ed-sem), c. 
 
 Imperat Pres. este for ed-I-te (ed-te) 
 
 Fut. esto, estate for edito, edftote 
 
 Inf. Pres. . esse for ed-e-re (ed-se) 
 
 3rd Pers. S. Pres. Pass, 'estur for ed-I-tur (ed-tur) 
 
 The other forms of this Verb are regular; except that e dim, 
 edis, &c., are sometimes found for edas, edat, &c. 
 
 vi. Conjugation of Defective Verbs. 
 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS are without 'some of the usual 
 parts of a Verb. In this strict sense a great number of 
 Verbs are Defective; but those commonly so called 
 by grammarians are the following : 
 
 I. Praeteritiva: Verbs which, having no Present- Stem forms 
 in use, express these by Perfect forms. 
 
 1) coepi, 1 (have begun = ) begin, from co-ap-z'-o (Obsolete) 
 
 2) odi, (have hated = ) hate, from od-z'-o (Obsolete) 
 
 3) memmi, (have minded- ) remember, from men- (Obs.) 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 49 
 
 Defec- 
 tive 
 Verbs. 
 
 Coepi, 
 
 odi, 
 
 memini 
 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Conjunc. 
 
 Imper. 
 
 Infin. 
 
 
 coepi 
 
 coeperim 
 
 
 coepisse 
 
 
 coepisti 
 
 coeperis 
 
 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 *; 
 
 odi 
 
 oderim 
 
 
 odisse 
 
 1 
 
 odisti 
 
 oderis 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 &c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 memtni 
 
 memmenm 
 
 
 memmisse 
 
 
 meministi 
 
 meminens 
 
 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 coepero 
 
 
 
 coepturus esse 
 
 & 
 
 odero 
 
 
 
 osurus esse 
 
 - 
 
 memmero 
 
 
 memento 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 coeperam 
 oderam 
 
 coepissem 
 odissem 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 memmeram 
 
 memmissem 
 
 
 
 1 The obsolete Verb apio, get, acquire, of which coepi o, coepi, is a compound, ap- 
 pears in the forms a p i s c o r, aptus, adipiscor, adeptus, and probably also in apis, 
 
190 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 49- 
 
 Novi. 
 
 Aio. 
 
 a) A Participle coeptus forms Perfect coeptus sum : as 
 'comitia haberi coepta sunt/ Cic. Coepturusis used by Pliny, 
 Quintilian, &c. 
 
 The Pres. Stem coepio itself is used in older Latin (Plaut. Ter.). 
 C6-epit is in Lucretius (iv. 619), where see Munro. 
 
 b) The obsolete Verb 6d/o, ode re, probably meant to repel. 
 Osus sum is a rarer form of odi. Osurus is used. 
 Exosus, perosus, hating greatly, have Passive sense in L.L. 
 
 c) Memini has a Compound commemini. It is the Perf. of 
 an obs. verb meno (mano) = Sk. man, 'think, 7 which appears in 
 comminiscor commentus ; mens; mentio; mentior, and 
 numerous Greek and other forms. 
 
 4) Novi (have come to Know), Perfect of no s co, know, is used as 
 a Praeteritive (/ know], like Gr. oiSa. Hence n over am, noram, 
 knew, novero, shall know ; novisse, nosse, to know, &c. 
 
 II. Ai-o, I say, affirm (Sk. ah, for Pr. qgh). 
 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Conjunc. 
 
 Imper. 
 
 
 ai-o 
 
 
 
 a-i (rare) 
 
 
 a-is 
 
 ai-as 
 
 
 c 
 
 a-it 
 
 ai-at 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ai-unt 
 
 ai-ant 
 
 
 j" 
 
 ai-ebam 
 
 
 
 eu 
 
 ai-ebas 
 
 
 
 B 
 ( i 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 The Participle ai-ens is very rare ('negantia sunt contraria ai- 
 entibus,' Cic.). 
 
 Aibam, found in some MSS. of Plautus, is of doubtful validity. 
 A in' tu? do you say so ? was a familiar expression. 
 
 Inquam. III. Inquam, say I (inquit, saith he, &c.) , for i n q u i o. 
 
 opis, opus, opera, &c., opto. Its Sk. root is &p (Pr. af). The kinship of apio, 
 coepio, and capio (cepi), cannot but be recognised, when we observe the similarity of 
 meaning as well as form : for not only is the sense of acquiring in capio, accipio, per- 
 cipio, &c., but also that of beginnings incipio (incepi) and occipio (occepi, some- 
 times written occoepi). Hence it seems probable that capio is only the adoption in 
 Italian speech, as a simple form, of the compound co-ap- {get together, and so take), 
 bearing the same relation to a p - that comprehendodoestoprehendo. The old word 
 remained, in the sense of beginning, at first in all forms (as shewn in Plautus, &c.), after- 
 wards in the Perfect only ; which sense the new Verb recognised in its own compounds 
 incipio, incepi, occipio, occepi ; as well as in its derivative occupo : 'interdum ra- 
 pere occupat,' now and then she is the first to snatch them, Hor. The passage of com- 
 pound Verbs to Simple is shewn in promo, sumo, surgo, and other instances. 
 
49- 
 
 Conjugation of Defective Verbs. 
 SCHEME. 
 
 191 
 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Conjunc. 
 
 Imper. 
 
 1 
 
 inquam 
 inquis 
 inquit 
 inqumius 
 
 inquiunt 
 
 inquiat ? 
 
 
 c/5 
 
 inquies 
 inquiet 
 
 
 inquito 
 
 vt 
 
 inquiebat 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 inquisti 
 inquiit? 
 
 
 
 Fari. 
 
 Inquam and sum are the only two Verbs which retain m (Sk. 
 mi, Gr. pi) in the Pres. Indie. 
 
 Inquam is not placed in construction, but interposed between 
 parts of construction, as quoth in English. 
 
 Its etymology is doubtful (R. Sk. khydmi, ' I say'). 
 
 IV. Fari, to speak, has these forms : 
 Indie. Pres. . . fatur, speaks 
 Fut fabor, fabitur 
 
 Perf., &c. . . fatus, sum, eram, &c. 
 
 Imperat. . . . fare 
 
 Infin fari 
 
 Gerund . . . fandi, fando. Gerundive, fandus 
 
 Supine . . . fatu 
 
 Part. Pres. . . fantem, fantis, &c. Part. Perf. fatus 
 Its Compounds affari, effari, (inter prae pro)- fari, can use the 
 same forms and a few more : affamur/ O v. ; ' affamini/ Curt. ; 
 4 affabar,' Verg. ; ' effabere/ Lucan ; < effabimur/ Cic. ; ' praefantes/ 
 Catull. ; praefarer, praefamino, &c. 
 
 V. Ova re, to rejoice, triumph, has some Third Persons Sing. Ovare. 
 (ovat, ovet, ovaret), and the Partic. Pres. ovans. Persius has ovatus. 
 
 VI. Quaeso, I beg; ist P. PL quaesumus. Quaeso. 
 
 VII. Verb-forms used in the Imperative and Infinitive : Impera- 
 
 hail ! hail / farewell! come! be off ! Forms. 
 
 Imperative . S. salve have (or ave) vale 
 
 . PL salvete havete valete 
 
 . S. salveto haveto valeto 
 
 Fut. S. . . salvebis valebis 
 
 Infin. . . . salvere havere valere 
 
 age 
 agite 
 
 apage 
 
 Add S. cedo, PL cedite, cette,/ny/ tell me, give me, c. 
 
Latin Wordlore. 
 
 50. 
 
 50 
 
 Imper- 
 sonal 
 Verbs. 
 
 VIII. Impersonal (or Unipersonal) Verbs. 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS are conjugated in the Third Persons Sin- 
 gular of the Finite Verb, and in the Infinitive. 
 
 A. Active Impersonals have no Passive Voice. 
 
 i) The principal of these are of the Second Conjugation : 
 
 it behoves, disgusts ; moves pity 
 
 it irks, shames, repents 
 
 it beseems, misbeseems 
 
 it pleases, is lawful, is clear 
 
 it relates, belongs. 
 
 Infin. 
 
 -eat 
 
 -ere 
 
 Pres. 
 
 S. Fut. 
 
 -erec Imperf. 
 
 oportet, taedet, miseret, 
 piget, pudet, paenitet, 
 decet atque dedecet, 
 libet, licet, et liquet, 
 attinet et pertinet, 
 
 Table of Impersonal Verbs (Second Conj.) : 
 
 Indie. Conj. 
 
 1. oport 
 
 2. taed 
 
 3. miser 
 
 4- pig 
 
 5. pud 
 
 6. paehit 
 
 7. dec 
 
 8. dedec 
 
 / 9- lib 
 
 I 10. lie 
 
 II. attin 
 
 { 12. pertin 
 
 The following Perfects are also used: 2. pertaesum est; 3. 
 miseritum est ; 4. pigitum est; 5. puditum est; 9. libitum 
 est ; 10. licitum est. 
 
 Miserescit is used; sometimes miseretur. 
 
 Gerundives pigendus, pudendus, paenitendus : Participles 
 miseritus, pertaesus, attinens, pertinens, are used. Paeni- 
 tens, decens, libens, licitus, are used as Adjectives. 
 
 The Persons are expressed by the Case : as 
 
 me, te, eum, 
 nos, vos, eos 
 
 mihi, &c. . 
 ad me, &c. 
 
 -et 
 
 -ebit 
 
 -ebat 
 
 -uit -uerit -uisse . Perf. 
 
 -uerit Fut. Perf. 
 
 -uerat -uisset .... Pluperf. 
 
 Sing, oportet me ire l it behoves me 
 oportet te ire 
 oportet eum ire 
 
 PL oportet nos ire 
 oportet vos ire 
 oportet eos ire 
 
 Sing, licet mihi ire 
 licet tibi ire 
 licet ei ire 
 
 PL licet nobis ire 
 licet vobis ire 
 licet iis ire 
 And so in the other Tenses. 
 
 you 
 him 
 
 yOU 
 
 them 
 
 it is allowed me "1 
 
 you 
 
 him 
 
 you 
 them 
 
 to go - 
 
 '/ 
 
 
 you 
 
 
 he 
 
 ought 
 
 we 
 
 ' tO gO 
 
 ye 
 
 
 Jhey ^ 
 
 
 'I v 
 
 you 
 he 
 
 
 we 
 
 -may go 
 
 ye 
 they] 
 
 
 1 C. derives oportet (op-portet) from Gr. wop-, 'it is the part ;' pudet, paenitet, 
 from Sk. pu ; taedet, from Sk. tu (see pp. 14, 15); decet from Sk. ditf. Libet or 
 lubet: Sk. lubh, 'desire.' Licet: Sk. ric' t Gr. AITT- L. liquere, leave. The same 
 relation exists between * to leave ' and the noun leave in English. ' I give you leave' ' I 
 leave it to you;' ' I have leave '=' it is left to me.' Piget is unexplained. 
 
5- 
 
 Impersonal Verbs. 
 
 2) Some Personal Verbs are used impersonally with special 
 
 meaning : 
 
 
 
 accidit it happens 
 
 
 delectat 
 
 it charms \ 
 
 conducit it profits 
 
 
 iuvat 
 
 it delights (me, te, 
 
 contingitz/ befalls 
 
 mihi 
 
 fallit 
 
 it eludes [ eum, &c. 
 
 evenit it turns out 
 
 tibi 
 
 fugit 
 
 it escapes } 
 
 convenit it suits 
 
 ei 
 
 interest 
 
 it concerns \ mea, tua, 
 
 expedit it is expedient 
 
 "nobis 
 
 refert 
 
 it imports 1 eius, &c. 
 
 placet it pleases 
 
 vobis 
 
 est 
 
 it is a fact 
 
 restat it remains 
 
 iis, c. 
 
 fit 
 
 it comes to pass 
 
 succurrit 'it occurs 
 vacat there is leisure > 
 
 
 constat 
 praestat 
 
 it is acknowledged 
 it is best 
 
 So usu venit, in mentem venit, 
 
 c. 
 
 
 3) Some Impersonals express changes of season and weather : 
 such are 
 
 fulgurat // lightens ningit it snows lucescit it dawns 
 
 tonat it thunders pluit it rains illucescit it gets light 
 
 grandinat it hails rorat there falls dew vesperascit it gets late 
 
 Impersonals of Class 3) may be explained by regarding the cog- 
 nate Noun as Subject: nix jiingit, snow snows nix est, snow 
 occurs. This may be sometimes said in Class i) : pudet me facti = 
 pudor facti me pudet = pudor facti me habet. All of Class 2) and 
 most of Class i) have for their Subject either an Infinitive Verb- 
 noun or a dependent Clause. 
 
 B. i) Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the 
 Passive Voice : luditur, from ludo, I play. 
 
 Infin. 
 
 ludi 
 lusum iri 
 
 lusum esse 
 lusum fuisse 
 
 The Persons may be expressed by an Ablative Case with the 
 Preposition a or ab following the Verb : 
 
 Present Indicative. 
 
 Sing, luditur a me there is playing by me -I play 
 
 luditur ate thee = thou play est 
 
 luditur ab eo him = he plays 
 
 PI. luditur a nobis us = we play 
 
 luditur a vobis you ye play 
 
 luditur ab iis them = they play 
 And so in the other Tenses. 
 
 The Case is generally understood, and the Verb is rendered 
 usually as expressing the First or Third Person Plural ; we play, or 
 they play : sometimes, one plays ; as the French, on joue. 
 
 o 
 
 Present . . 
 Simple Fut. . 
 Imperf. . . 
 Perfect . . 
 Fut. Perf. . 
 Pluperf. . . 
 
 Ind. 
 
 luditur 
 ludetur 
 ludebatur 
 lusum est 
 lusum erit 
 lusum erat 
 
 Conj. 
 
 ludatur 
 
 luderetur 
 lusum sit 
 
 lusum esset 
 
194 Latin Wordlore. 5I> 
 
 2) The Neuter Gerundive is similarly used to express duty or 
 necessity, with a Dative or Ablative of the Person : 
 
 Present Indicative. 
 
 Sing, ludendum est mihi there must be playing by me -I 
 
 ludendum est tibi thee thou 
 
 ludendum est ei Him = he 
 
 PL ludendum est nobis us = we 
 
 ludendum est vobis you =ye 
 
 ludendum est iis them = they 
 And so in the other Tenses. 
 
 In this construction the case often occurs ; but here too it may 
 be absent, and ive, they, or one supplied, as in the former instance. 
 So French, on doit jouer. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 51 
 
 The Forms of the three Stems in Verbs. 
 
 Stems. 
 
 Present * The P TCS C H t~S tem. 
 
 1. The only Verb-roots which have Indicative Present- Stem 
 forms unchanged immediately before Personal endings are : 
 
 The root es (sum, es-mi] in the forms es-t, es-tis, es-te, 
 
 es-to (es-se). 
 
 The root vol in the forms vol-t, vol-tis. 
 The root fer in the forms fer-s, fer-t, fer-tis, fer, fer-te, 
 
 fer-to, (fer-re). 
 The root da, give, in the forms da-t, da-mus, da-tis, 
 
 da-nt, da-te, da-to, (da-re). But in Sk. and Gr. this 
 
 root is reduplicated. 
 
 2. The only Verb-roots which, with Vowel character, have Pre- 
 sent-stem forms merely strengthening that character before Per- 
 sonal endings are : 
 
 The root sta, stand, station, in the forms sta-s, sta-t (classi- 
 callysta-t), sta-mus, sta-tis, sta-nt, sta, sta-te,sta-to, 
 (sta-re). In Sk. and Gr. it is reduplicated. 
 The roots fle, weep, ne, spin, ple,y//, in the same forms, fle-s, 
 ne-s, -pies-, &c. 
 
 The root i, go, in the forms I-s, I-t (classically ft), I-mus, 
 I-tis, \, I-te, I- to (i-re). In eo, earn, &c., i is strengthened, 
 but the endings also contain a strengthening suffix. 
 The root qui, can (with its compound nequi), the forms of 
 
 which resemble those of i. 
 
 (Note, fl-, being contracted and so properly long, is not an 
 example here.) 
 
 3. In all other A- E- and I-Verbs (Conj. i. 2. 4.) the Vowel 
 character is itself a first suffix, attached to what we call the Clipt- 
 Stem * (am-, mon-, aud-), and preceding all flexional suffixes. This 
 
 1 On the Term Clipt-Stem and the reason of its use, see Note, p. 30. 
 
, 5i. The Present- Stem. 195 
 
 is true of U-Verbs also ; but these, unlike the rest, are not strength- 
 ened in the Present-stem: indu-is, indu-e, indu-ere: but 
 audi-s, audl, aud!-re. 
 
 4. With respect to Consonant Verbs (Conj. 3), 
 
 Some scholars think that every root-vowel was primitively short. 
 Such was certainly the case with some roots which in Latin Verbs 
 have the long vowel : die ere (E. L. deicere), ducere (E. L. doucere), 
 fldere (E. L. f eider e\ compared with veridicus, dux due is, 
 fides. 
 
 These, however, like Latin Verbs in general, follow the Scheme of 
 Conjugation before given ; in which the formative suffix of Indie. 
 Pres. ist P. Sing. 6 contains a conjugative element (Sk. d-mi). 
 
 Certain other affections of the Present Stem in Verbs of the 3rd 
 (Cons.) Conjugation, distinguishing it from the True Stem, come 
 into notice here. 
 
 A) Strengthening by the insertion of a nasal before the Cha- 
 racter (Nasalisation). See 12. xvi. 
 
 To the-examples there given many may be added, which, though 
 keeping the nasal in the Perfect-Stem, lose it in derived or kindred 
 forms: fi-;z-g- (fictum); fre-w-d- (fressum), -he-;/-d- (x a <>-> 
 -hedera) ; iu-^-g- (iugum) ; la-m-b- (labium) ; \\-n-g- (ligurrio); 
 ma-;/-d- (mala); mi-;*-g- (mictum); mu-^-g- (mucus); ni--g- 
 (nix); pa-;z-d- (passus) ; pi-w-s- (pistor); sa-;z-cire (sacer) ; 
 .sca-w-d- (scala) ; sti-w-g- (<m') ; a-^-g- (a'yw^). 
 
 J7) Suffix n (Sk. no) joined to a Vowel or Liquid Stem : 
 
 Strengthened Stem True Stem Shewn in Perf. 
 
 \\-n- li- or le- li-vi or le-vi 
 
 si-;z- si- sl-vi 
 
 posI-- | . (posl-vi) pos-ui > 
 
 pon- J posi-tum (Sup.) I 
 
 cer-;z- cer- (ere-) cre-vi 
 
 sper-w- < sper- (spre) spre-vi 
 
 ster-//- star- (stra) stra-vi 
 
 tem-- tern- tem-si 
 
 In E. L. are found such forms as da-#-unt fordant, soli-^-unt 
 for solent, nequi--unt for nequeunt, obi-^-unt for obeunt. 
 
 C) The Suffix sc, added to the True Stem, makes the Verb In- 
 ceptive or Inchoative (i) when the True Stem ends in a Vowel 
 Thus : from pa-, pa-.r<;-ere; from fati-, fati-j^-ere; from ira-, 
 ira-j^-i; from na-, na-^-i ; from ere-, cre-jr-ere; from quie-, 
 quie-^r-ere; from no-, no-sc-ere ; from hi-, hi-j^-ere. 
 
 (2) When the True Stem ends with a Cons.-, vincular i is re- 
 quired : from ap-, a.p-t-sc-i ; from men-, men-z'-jr-i ; from obliv-, 
 obliv-t-sc-i ; frompac-, pac-z'- sc-i; from profic- profic-^-j^-i ; 
 from ulc-, ulc-i-sc-i ; from nac- (also nasalised), na-#-c-s"-.$r-i ; 
 from experrig- (also syncopated), experg-/-^^-i. 
 
 C is excluded by di-^-ere for dic-^^-ere ; d by ve-j<:-i for 
 
196 Latin Wordlore. 51. 
 
 Obs. The foregoing examples are mostly from stems which are 
 not in use as actual words : but Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs 
 derived from existing Verbs or Nouns are a very large class, all of 
 the 3rd Conjugation, and express the beginning of action. 
 
 Those derived from Verbs add sc- or -i-sc- to the Present-stem : 
 
 laba-^vr-ere from laba-re, i. 
 
 palle-jr-ere palle-re, 2. 
 
 trem-z-jr-ere trem-ere, 3. 
 
 obdorml-jr-ere obdormi-re, 4. 
 
 Those derived from Nouns add e-sc- (rarely a-sc-) to the Clipt 
 Stem : 
 
 dur-^jr-ere from durus 
 
 mit-.5v:-ere mitis 
 
 macr-^r-ere macer 
 
 plum-^r-ere pluma 
 
 vesper-tfj^-ere vespera 
 For a fuller list see Syllabus. 
 
 D) A few Present-stems are reduplicated. On Reduplication see 
 12. xiv. Thus 
 
 /-be-re for pi-pe-re (Stem pa, po) 
 
 ^/-gn-ere gi-gen-ere (Stem gen, Sk. Jan) 
 
 .yz-ste-re sti-ste-re (Stem sta) 
 
 ^-re-re si-se-re (Stem so) 
 
 E) The Liquid 1 is doubled in the Present-stem of 
 
 eel/ere, fal/ere, pel/ere, tol/ere. 
 
 F) T is added to the True Stem in 
 
 flec/ere, nec/ere, pec/ere, plec/ere. 
 
 G) A few Present Stems are written with g or gu indifferently : 
 nin^ere or nin-ere, tin^ere or tin^//ere, un^ere or un^//ere. So 
 
 in Conj. 2. ur^-ere 
 
 //) The appearance of P- in certain Verbs of Conj. 3. (capzb, 
 patz'or, &c.), as an extension of the Present-Stem, has been noticed. 
 
 (Peculiarities of special Consonant Verbs will be found in the Syl- 
 labus.) 
 
 ii. The Perfect-Stem. 
 
 F orma- 
 
 Perfect The Perfect Stem of Latin Verbs is formed in various ways. 
 
 A) By reduplicating the Present-Stem without or with vowel- 
 change of Stem : the reduplicative syllable being in some instances 
 dropt. 
 
 B) By lengthening the vowel of the Present- Stem, without or 
 with vowel-change. _ 
 
 1 This i represents a Conjugative suffix yd in Sanskrit, of which the a falls away in 
 Latin: so that cap-i-o, pat-i-or, &c., may be represented as= cap-yo, pat-yor, &c. 
 See Schleicher, p. 577. v. 
 
5I . The Perfect- Stem. 197 
 
 C) By adopting the Present-stem as Perfect-stem. 
 
 D) By suffixing to the Present-stem v or u, representing fu-. 
 
 E) By suffixing to the Present-stem s, representing es-. 
 
 A) Perfect-stem formed by Reduplication. 
 
 a) The Reduplicative syllable consists of the first two letters 
 
 of the Stem : in which case there is no vowel- change of 
 
 the Stem. 
 In E-verbs the Clipt-stem is thus sometimes reduplicated : 
 
 m6-mord-i frommord-e-; pe-pend-i from pend-e-; 
 
 spo-pond-i (for spo-spond-i) from spond-e-; totond-i 
 
 from tond-e-. 
 In Consonant Verbs the True Stem : cu-curr-i from 
 
 curr- ; di-dic-i from di-sc- (for dic-sc-) ; pe-pend-i 
 
 from pend-; po-posc-i from pose-; pu-pug-i from 
 
 pu--g-; te-tend-ifromtend-; tu-tud-i from tu-^-d-. 
 
 Fid-i is for (/;f^^-z)fromfi-;z-d-; sctd-ifor(scf-scd-t) 
 
 from sci-;-d-. 
 
 ff) The Reduplicative syllable is the first consonant with e ; in 
 which case some weakening of the stem-vowel also takes 
 place, unless this vowel be e in a close syllable, as 
 above in pependi, tetendi. 
 
 The only instances in A- verbs are de-d-i from da-; ste-t-i 
 from sta- : which seem to cast out the stem-vowel. But 
 they probably are for dedei, stestei, and so have weak- 
 ened a into e, 
 
 In Consonant Verbs the instances are : 
 
 pe-perc-i from pare-; pe-pig-i from pa-^-g-; te-tig-i 
 
 from ta-^-g-; ce-cid-i from cad-; ce-cid-i from caed- ; 
 
 ce-cin-i from can-; me-min-i from men-; pe-per-i 
 
 from par-f-; fe-fell-i from fall- ; pe-pul-i from pel-/-. 
 Tuli from tol-/- is for te-tul-i, which is found ift old Latin. 
 Ce-cul-i is from eel-/- ; but both are obsolete : the Cp. 
 
 percell- forms perculi. 
 Other forms of E. L. zxefefici from fac-, tetini from ten-. 
 
 B) Perfect-stem formed by lengthening the vowel of the Present- 
 stem. See 12. xiv. p. 18. 
 
 a) The Vowel of the Clipt Stem is lengthened without other 
 
 change in these Pure Verbs : 
 
 iuv-i from iuva- ; lav-i from lava- ; sed-i from sede- ; vld-i from 
 vide- ; cav-i from cave- ; fav-i from fave- ; pav-i from 
 pave- ; fov-i from fove- mov-i from move- ; vov-i from 
 vove-. 
 
 U) The Vowel of the True Stem is lengthened without other 
 
 change in these Consonant Verbs : 
 
 vic-i from vi--c- ; liqu-i from li-w-qu- ; fug-i from fug-/- ; leg-i 
 from leg- ; ed-i from ed- ; fod-i from fod-/- ; fud-i from 
 fu-^-d- ; rup-i from ru-;;z -p- ; scab-i from scab- ; em-i 
 from em-. 
 
igS Latin Word lore. 51^ 
 
 c) The Present-stem vowel is changed and lengthened in the 
 
 following Consonant Verbs : 
 
 fec-i from fac-z ; iec-i from iac-z- ; eg-i from ag- ; freg-i 
 from fra-;/-g- ; cep-i from cap-/- ; and in -peg-i from some 
 compounds of pa-;z-g-. 
 C) Perfect-stem formed by adopting the Present-Stem. 
 
 a) The Clipt Present-stem becomes Perfect-stem in these E- 
 
 verbs : 
 
 prande- prand-i ; stride- strld-i ; ferve- ferv-i (also ferbui). 
 and in the I -verbs : 
 
 comperi- comper-i ; reperi- repper-i ; 
 unless rep peri is syncopated from repeperi. 
 
 b) The Present-stem becomes Perfect-stem in these Consonant 
 
 forms : 
 
 bib-i ; cud-i ; Ic-i ; -fend-i ; lamb-i ; mand-i ; prehend-i ; 
 pand-i ; psall-i ; scand-i ; solv-i ; verr-i ; vell-i ; vert-i ; 
 vls-i ; volv-i ; -cand-i (-cend-i in Comp.). 
 Likewise in U-verbs classically: ru-i, metu-i. 
 But on these see 12. xiv. p. 18. 
 
 D] a. Perfect-stem formed by suffixing v ( = fu-) to a strengthened 
 Vowel character. 
 
 This is done by most A- and I -verbs : 
 
 ama-v-i audl-v-i 
 
 and by some E -verbs : 
 
 dele-v-i fle-v-i 
 
 Also by the Verbs which have suffixed a Consonant to a True 
 Vowel stem. See p. 195. 
 
 cre-v-i ; sl-v-i ; le-v-i or ll-v-i ; no-v-i ; spre-v-i ; stra-v-i ; 
 pa-v-i ; quie-v-i ; se-v-i. 
 
 Likewise a few Verbs in Conj. 3. assume the Perf. and Supine 
 forms of Conj. 4. : 
 
 cup-/- cup-iv-i ; pet- pet-Iv-i ; ter- ter-Iv-i or trlvi ; quaer- for 
 quaes- quaes-iv-i ; arcess- arcess-Iv-i; and 'so capess- 
 facess- lacess-. 
 
 b. Perfect-stem formed by ^suffixing u ( = fu-) to the Present 
 Stem. 
 
 a) To a Clipt Stem : 
 In a few A- verbs : 
 
 crepa- crep-u-i ; cuba- cub-u-i : and so from doma-, sona-,, 
 veta-, seca-, mica-, tona-, frica- ; neca-, plica-. 
 
 But some of these also take a-v-i. See Syllabus. 
 
 In most E- verbs : 
 
 mone- mon-u-i 
 
 In the I -verbs aperi- aper-u-i ; operi- oper-u-i ; sali- sal-u-i. 
 Note. Inceptive Verbs, derived from Verbs, follow the forma- 
 tion of their Primitive Verb : but those in esc- isc- derived from 
 Nouns, if they have a Perfect, form it in u-i: obduresc- obdur- 
 u-i. 
 
5i. The Supine- Stem. 
 
 b) To a True Consonant Stem : 
 in most Verbs with character 1, m : 
 
 al- al-u-i ; gem- gem-u-i ; c. 
 also in 
 
 elic-z elic-u-i; rap-/ rap-u-i ; strep- strep-u-i ; frend- frend-u-i ; 
 stert- stert-u-i ; cu;/zb- cub-u-i ; pon- pos-u-i ; pins-pins-u-i; 
 SQi-jjoin, ser-u-i ; compesc- compesc-u-i ; gign- ( = gen-) 
 gen-u-i ; tex- tex-u-i. 
 
 E) Perfect-stem formed by suffixing s ( = es) to the Present- 
 stem. 
 
 This may be called the Aorist formation, resembling as it does 
 the Greek Aorist form in era. 
 
 As this formation brings s into concurrence with other conso- 
 nants, the laws of euphony must be applied as set forth in 12. xxvi. 
 and 12. xxix : where it is shewn that 
 
 a guttural with s produces x: dixi, rexi ; b before s be- 
 comes p : scrip si ; dentals are cast out, Compensation or 
 Assimilation often ensuing: risi, sensi ; and gutturals 
 are cast out after r, l : mersi, fulsi. Also p is inserted 
 between m and s : sum/si. 
 
 a) S is suffixed to the Clipt-stem of many E-verbs and some 
 I -verbs : 
 
 auge- auxi ; luce- luxi, arde- arsi ; &c. 
 farci- farsi ; vinci- vinxi ; sanci- sanxi, &c. 
 Iniube- iussi the assimilation is peculiar ;mane-mansi 
 is an unusual formation : in haere- haesi and hauri- 
 hausir ( = s) has fallen out before s. 
 
 b} S is suffixed to most Consonant Stems with a Mute cha- 
 racter, and to some with m, r, (s) : due- duxi ; teg- texi ; 
 sparg- sparsi ; ced- cessi ; nub- nupsi ; com- compsi ; 
 ur- ussi, &c. See Syllabus. 
 
 iii. The Supine-Stem. Forma- 
 
 tion of 
 
 This has the suffix t, which is added to the True or Clipt Stem, |gj 
 without or with i before the ending -um. A Vowel Character 
 (a, e, i) is, with some exceptions, lengthened. 
 
 I. T is suffixed to the Stem without mutation of Consonants, but 
 with lengthening of a Vowel Character 
 
 i) In those Pure Verbs which add v to the True Stem in the 
 Perfect : 
 
 ama-t-um fle-t-um audl-t-um 
 
 including some which strengthen the Pres. Stem with a suffix : p. 95 : 
 cre-t-um quie-t-um na-t-um 
 
 spre-t-um ira-t-um no-t-um 
 
 stra-t-um 
 
 But in the following Supines the Stem vowel is not lengthened : 
 li-t-um (lino) s!-t-um (smo) 
 
 i-t-um (eo) sa-t-um (sero) 
 
 Pa-s-t-um (pasco, pavi, from root pa) keeps s irregularly. 
 
2OO Latin Wordlore. 51. 
 
 2) In Verbs of Conj. 3., which adopt in the Perfect the Character 
 i of Conj. 4.: cupi-tum ; petl-tum; quaesl-tum; trt-tum \ arces- 
 si-t-um ; capessl-t-um ; facessi-t-um ; lacessl-tum. 
 
 3) In U-verbs : indu-t-um (indu-ere). 
 
 Except ru-t-um or ru-i-t-um (ru-ere) : lu-?-t-um (lu-ere) ; fru-i-tum 
 (fru-i). 
 
 4) In Consonant Verbs with the Characters c (after a Vowel) x 
 p, n, m (with euphonic p), r, l (after a, u) : die-turn, due-turn, nac- 
 tum, tex-tum, ap-tum, comp-tum, par-turn, al-tum, consul-turn, c. 
 
 Also stru-c-t-um (from stru-ere for stru-ic-ere). 
 For Exceptions see III. 
 
 On the Vowel-change which occurs in the close syllable of many 
 Supines : affec-tum (afficere), cul-tum (colere). See 12. xxiv. 
 
 5) In sta-t-um (sta-re), sometimes sta-t-um. 
 But da- t-um (da-re) keeps a short. 
 
 II. T is added to the Stem with mutation of Consonants. 
 
 1) The Guttural Characters gr, gv, qv, h, in Conj. 3. become c 
 when t follows (see 12. xxvi. II.) : a-c-t-um (ag-ere) ; fra-c-t-um 
 (fra;zg-ere) ; un-c-t-um (ungu-ere) ; co-c-t-um (coqu-ere) ; -li-c- 
 t-um (li^qu-ere) ; tra-c-t-um (trah-ere) ; ve-c-t-um (veh-ere). Also 
 vi-c-t-um (viy-ere) ; experre-c-t-um (experg-isci) ; pis-t-um (pins- 
 ere). See Syllabus. 
 
 2) qv is vocalized into -cu in 
 
 lo-cu-t-um (loqu-i) se-cu-t-um (sequ-i) 
 
 3) The Labial character b becomes p : 
 
 nu-p-t-um (nub-ere) scri-p-t-um (scrib-ere) 
 
 4) V is vocalized into u in 
 
 sol-u-t-um (solv-ere) vol-u-t-um (volv-ere) 
 
 5) R (primitively s) becomes s again : 
 
 ge-s-t-um (ger-ere) u-s-t-um (ur-ere) 
 
 que-s-t-um (quer-i) 
 
 6) Exclusion of the preceding Character occurs in 
 
 ul-t-um (ulc-isci) obli-t-um (obliv-isci) 
 
 III. T is joined to the Stem by i, in the following Verbs of Conj. 
 3. with Nasal Character : frem-z-t-um, gem-^-t-um, gen-^-t-um, 
 vom-z'-t-uni. 
 
 Also in elic-z'-t-um, fug-z'-t-um, bib-z'-t-um, cub-f-t-um, strep-z 7 - 
 t-um, mol-z'-t-um, coal-z-t-um (coalesc-ere), pos-z'-t-um, lu-z'-t-um, 
 ru-/-t-um, fru-z'-t-um. 
 
 IV. T is added to the Clipt Stem without mutation of Consonants 
 in the following : 
 
 A- verbs : seca- sec-t-um; frica- fric-t-um; eneca- enec-t-um. 
 
 E-verbs : doce- doc-t-um; tene- ten-t-um; misere- miser-/- t-um 
 (or miser- t-um). 
 
 I-verbs : amici- amic-t-um ; sanci- sanc-t-um (or sanc-I-tum) ; 
 vinci- vine- t-um; saepi- saep-t-um ; aperi- aper-t-um; comperi- 
 
51. Supine- Stem* 201 
 
 comper-t-um ; experi- exper-t-um ; opperi- opper-t-um ; ori- 
 or-t-um ; reperi- reper-t>um; sail- sal-t-um; sepeli- sepul-t-um 
 (with vowel-change) ; veni- ven-t-um. 
 
 The Participle mor-t-u-us from mori-or is an irregular formation, 
 in the nature of an Adjective, from mor-s, mor-ti-, death. 
 
 V. T is joined to the Clipt Stem with mutation of Consonants : 
 
 1) A- andE-verbs in v-a-, v-e-, vocalise v, and form contractions 
 u-u x u ; a-u x au or o ; o-u x o : 
 
 A-verbs : iuva- iu-t-um ; lava- lau-t-um, 16-t-um. 
 E-verbs: cave- cau-t-um; fave- fau-t-um; fove- fo-t-um ; move- 
 mo-t-um ; vove- vo-t-um. 
 
 2) The Consonant is changed by Assimilation in the following : 
 E-verbs : auge- auc-t-um ; torre- tos-t-um ; sorbe- sorp-t-um. 
 I-verb : hauri- haus-t-um (hau-sum). 
 
 3) The Consonant is excluded in the following : 
 
 E-verbs : indulge- indul-t-um ; misce- mis-t-um (mix-turn) ; tor- 
 que- tor-t-um. 
 
 I-verbs : farci- far-t-um ; fulci- ful-t-um ; sarci- sar-t-um. 
 
 VI. T is joined to the Clipt Stem by i : 
 
 1 ) In the A-verbs crepa- crep-z'-t-um; cuba- cub-z-t-um ; 
 plica- plic-z'-t-um (or-atum); doma- dom-z'-t-um; sona- son-z'-t-um; 
 tona- ton-z'-t-um ; veta- vet-z'-t-um. 
 
 2) In most E-verbs : mone- mon-z-t-um. 
 
 VII. T joined to the True Stem becomes s : 
 
 1) In Dental Verbs of Conj. 3. : 
 
 a) The Dental is excluded : cs becomes x, and a short Vowel is 
 lengthened by Compensation : 
 
 fleet- flexum ; nect- nexum ; amplect- amplexum ; ut- usum ; vert- 
 versum ; pend- pensum ; fu-/z-d- fusum ; cad- casum ; caed- 
 caesum ; divld- divlsum. 
 
 So clau-sum, cu-sum, -fen-sum, fi-sum, prehen-sum, scan-sum, , 
 &c. But tend- ten-sum or ten-turn; tu-^-d- tun-sum or 
 tu-sum; nit- nl-sum or nixum. 
 
 b) The Dental becomes assimilated to s : 
 
 ced- cessum ; fi-^-d- fissum ; sci-;z-d- scissum ; met- messum ; 
 fre-tf-d fressum; fod-z- fossum ; pat-z- passum ; quat-z- quassum. 
 
 Add to these mitt- missum ; pand- passum (or pansum), 
 and, with vowel-change, fat-z-sc- fessum ; grad-z- gressum. 
 
 2) In Guttural Verbs, the Guttural falling out between r and s : 
 pare- parsum ; sparg- sparsum ; merg- mersum ; terg- tersum. 
 
 3) In Verbs with Character rr or 11, dropping one Liquid : 
 
 curr- cursum ; verr- versum ; fall- falsum ; cell- celsum. 
 
 And, with Vowel- change, 
 
 pell- pulsum ; percell- perculsum ; veil- vulsum. 
 
 4) The folio wing are special instances : 
 
 fig- fixum ; flu- (flugv-)fluxum ; lab- lapsum ; prem- pressum. 
 
 
2O2 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 252. 
 
 VI 1 1. T joined to the Clipt Stem becomes s : 
 
 1) After Dentals : 
 
 a) The Dental being excluded, &c. 
 
 E-verbs : arde- arsum; morde- morsum ; pende- pensum ; 
 prande- pransum ; ride- risum ; suade- suasum ; sponde- spon- 
 sum ; tonde- tonsum ; vide- vlsum ; aude- ausum. 
 
 But gaude- (for gav-id-e-), gavisum. 
 
 In I -verbs : senti-sensum; assenti- assensum ; ordi- orsum. 
 
 ) The Dental being assimilated to s : 
 
 sede- sessum ; fate- fassum. 
 
 2) After Gutturals following r or 1 : 
 
 mulce- mulge- mulsum ; terge- tersum. 
 
 3) In special instances : 
 
 iube- iussum ; cense- censum ; haere- haesum ; mane- mansum ; 
 
 meti- mensum (mentior may have been the original Present). 
 
 Note. The importance of the Supine-Stem lies in the Participles 
 derived from it, not in the Supines themselves, which are com- 
 paratively little used by Latin authors. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Composition of Verbs. 
 I- The Prepositions compounded with Verbs are : 
 
 A) Separable : 
 
 ab \ | ante 
 abs t circum 
 a J 
 
 cum 
 
 ad de 
 
 e ) ' inter 
 
 e 
 in 
 
 ex j- ob 
 per 
 post 
 
 prae 
 praeter 
 pro 
 sub 
 
 subter 
 
 super 
 
 trans 
 
 B) Inseparable : 
 
 ambi- (amb-), around, about ; S ed- se, apart. 
 
 dis-, di-, in different parts or ways ; sus, 1 up (susque deque), 
 red-, re-, back, again ; 
 
 To which some add por ( = Gr. Trport), an or in ( = dva). 
 Prepositions in Composition are subject to various mutations. 
 A) i) A, ab, abs, are written 
 
 a before m, v : amitto, avoco. 
 
 abs before c, t : abscedo, abscondo, absterreo. 
 
 as before p : asporto. 
 
 au before f : aufero, aufugio. But afui, afore. 
 
 ab before other letters : abeo, abdo, abigo, abiungo, abludo, 
 
 abnuo, abrado, absisto, abundo. 
 2) Ad remains before b, d, b, 1, m, v, and vowels : 
 
 adbibo, addo, adhibeo, adiungo, admitto, advoco, adeo, 
 
 adoro. 
 Becomes a- before gn, sc, sp : 
 
 agnosco, ascendo, aspicio (but ad may remain). 
 
 1 On sus, see Corssen ii. 580. He derives it from sup-us (= supinus), related to Greek 
 a, a locative form, out of which grew sup-s-i, sup-s, sus. 
 
52. Composition of Verbs. 203 
 
 Is assimilated before other letters : 
 
 accendo, affero, alludo, annuo, appono, acquire, arrideo, 
 assisto, attendo. But adfero, adnuo, c., are also used. 
 
 3) Cum, in-, are written com-, im-, before p, b, xn : 
 
 comparo, combibo, committo ; impello, immergo. 
 
 Assimilated before 1, r : colludo, corrodo, illido, irruo. 
 
 Cum becomes co- before vowels, h, and sn : 
 
 Coeo, cohaereo, cognosco. So ignosco. Note comedo. 
 
 Con-, in-, before other consonants, in- before vowels and li : 
 concurro, condo, confero, coniungo, connecto, conquiro, 
 construe, contingo, convoco, incumbo, induce, ineo, inhio, 
 infringo, ingero, iniungo, innuo, inquiro, insisto, intono, 
 invado. Con-, in-, may remain before p, l : conpono, inludo, 
 
 4) EC, ex, e, are assimilated before f : effero, efficio. 
 E x before vowels, h ? c, q, p, s, t : 
 
 exeo, exhibeo, excedo, exquiro, expello, extruo, extraho. 
 E before others : educo, eludo, emitto, erumpo, evoco. 
 
 5) Ob, 1 sub, are assimilated before c, gr, p, f : occurro, oggan- 
 
 nio, oppono, offero, succedo, suppono, suggero, sufficio. 
 
 They remain before other letters : 
 
 obdo, obeo, obicio, oblino, obruo, obsisto, obtineo, obvenio, 
 subduco, subiungo, subrideo, subside, subtraho. 
 
 Note omit to, operio, ostendo, surripio, summoveo, summitto. 
 
 6) Per is changed only in the Verbs pellicio, pelluceo, peiero. 
 
 7) Trans becomes tra before d, n, and i-consonans : 
 
 trado, trano, traicio. 
 Tran- before s : transcribo. 
 Remains before others : transfero, transeo, transmitto. 
 
 8) Ante de post prae super 
 circum inter praeter pro subter 
 
 remain in composition with Verbs : except 
 
 intel-lego prod-eo prod-igo prod-esse, &c. 
 Pro, usually long, is shortened in a few compounds : 
 profari, profiteri, proficisor. 
 
 B) i) Amb- (ap/>i) becomes am- before p : amputo, amplector. 
 
 2) D is- is assimilated before f: differo. 
 
 Remains before gutturals, labials, t, i-consonans, and s with 
 
 vowel : discerpo, dispello, distraho, disicio, dissero. But 
 
 diiudico. 
 Di- before s with consonant, and before other consonants : 
 
 diruo, distringo, divello. 
 Observe dlfr-ibeo for dis-hibeo, dir-imo for dis-imo. 
 
 1 The form obs wants authority. Such words as obtineo, obtuli, &c. compared 
 with abstineo, abstuli, shew that it has no euphonic use. Obsolesco, often cited as a 
 compound of olesco, is really (with exolesco, insolesco) a compound of soleo 
 (solesco) ; ob-stinare is a strengthened form of ob-stare; oscenis from os, for ob 
 would makeitoccen; ostendo is, we believe, for ob-os-tendo, stretch before the 
 face shew : obtendois itself a distinct compound. And, if in the two places of Plautus, 
 where (instead of the usual obtrudo) obstrudo is given, the reading is correct, here 
 too ob-os-trudo may be the real compound : as in each place it is used of putting 
 food into the mouth. We cannot, therefore, accept Corssen's view, i. 121. 
 
204 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 52. 
 
 3) Red- stands in redamo, redargue, reddo, redeo, redhibeo, 
 
 redimo, redigo, redoleo, redundo. 
 Re- in other compounds, as remit to. 
 
 4) Sed- appears only in seditio and its derivatives : se- in Verbs, 
 
 secubo, seduco, seiungo, sepono, sevoco. 
 
 5) Sus- is used before ci, p, t : 
 
 suscipio, suscito, suspendo, sustineo, sustuli. 
 su- before sp : suspicio, suspiro. 
 
 6) For- is noted in porricio, porrigo, portendo, polliceor, pol- 
 
 lingo, polluceo, polluo, possideo. 
 
 7) An- (according to Key) in anhelo, anquiro, intumesco, &c. 
 
 Note. The following scheme shews the Vowel-changes in the 
 three Stems of Compound Verbs with vowels, a, e. See 12. xxiv. 
 
 Simple 
 Verb 
 
 Comp. 
 Present 
 
 Comp. 
 Perfect 
 
 Comp. 
 Supine. 
 
 Simple Verbs in question. 
 
 I. a 
 
 i 
 
 e 
 
 a 
 
 ago, frango, pango. 
 
 2. a 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 tango, cado. 
 
 3- ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 z 
 
 e 
 
 rapio, cano. 
 
 4. a 
 
 I 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 facio, iacio, lacio, capio. 
 
 5. a 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 u 
 
 salio. 
 
 6. a 
 
 i 
 
 \ e 
 
 fateor. 
 
 7. e 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 e 
 
 teneo. 
 
 8. e 
 
 i 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 sedeo, specio, lego, rego, emo, premo. 
 
 9. e 
 
 i 
 
 t 
 
 
 egeo. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 
 
 
 i) ago 
 
 subigo subegi 
 
 subactum 
 
 subdue. 
 
 frango 
 
 effringo effregi 
 
 effractum 
 
 break open. 
 
 pango 
 
 compingo compegi 
 
 compactum 
 
 fasten together. 
 
 2) tango 
 
 attingo attigi 
 
 attactum 
 
 reach. 
 
 cado 
 
 occido occidi 
 
 occasum 
 
 die. 
 
 3) rapio 
 
 surripio surripui 
 
 surreptum 
 
 steal. 
 
 cano concino concinui concentum 
 
 sing in tmison* 
 
 4) facio 
 
 reficio refeci r 
 
 refectum 
 
 repair. 
 
 iacio 
 
 deicio deieci 
 
 deiectum 
 
 throw down. 
 
 lacio 
 
 illicio illexi 
 
 illectum 
 
 entice. 
 
 capio 
 
 accipio accepi 
 
 acceptum 
 
 receive 
 
 5) salio 
 
 prosilio prosilui 
 
 prosultum 
 
 spring forth. 
 
 6) fateor 
 
 confiteor 
 
 confessus 
 
 confess. 
 
 7) t/neo 
 
 sustineo sustinui 
 
 sustentum 
 
 sustain. 
 
 8) s^deo 
 
 obsideo obsedi 
 
 obsessum 
 
 besiege. 
 
 sp^cio 
 
 perspicio perspexi 
 
 perspectum 
 
 look through. 
 
 lego 
 
 diligo dilexi 
 
 dilectum 
 
 love. 
 
 rcgo 
 
 dirigo direxi 
 
 directum 
 
 direct. 
 
 emo 
 
 eximo exemi 
 
 exemptum 
 
 take out. 
 
 premo 
 
 reprimo repressi 
 
 repressum 
 
 repress 
 
 9) /geo 
 
 indigeo indigui 
 
 
 
 need. 
 
 Exceptions 
 
 appear in the Notes to 
 
 the Syllabus. 
 
 
53. Syllabus of Stem- Formation in Verbs. 205 
 
 II. A few Verbs are compounded with Adverbs, with Nominal, 
 or with Verbal elements : benefacio, malefacio, satisfacio, satisfio, 
 satisdo; venumdo, vendo, veneo, pessumdo, valedico, calefacio, 
 calefio, with a large number of other compounds of facio, fio. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 S3 
 
 Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. Syllabus 
 
 of Stem- 
 
 A) The FIRST or A-CONJUGATION contains many JuT*" 
 Verbs, Active and Deponent. Most of the Active are 
 Transitive ; most of the Deponents Intransitive. 
 
 [Many A-verbs are derived from Nouns ; many from Verbs. J e ta ~ 
 
 Among the former are Imitative Verbs in -isso : attic-isso, verbs. 
 graec-isso, com-issor. Among the latter 
 
 1) Frequentative Verbs, which express repeated or intense Re- 
 action, formed either in -to, -so, from Supine-stems: canto, sing ^e llta 
 much (cano, cantum), cur so, run often (curro, cursum) ; so Verbs. 
 adiuto; apto ; capto ; dicto ; iacto ; gesto; lacto; nuto; occulto; 
 rapto ; tento ; tracto ; vecto ; voluto ; cesso ; merso ; penso ; prenso ; 
 presso ; pulso ; quasso ; verso ; grassor ; or by adding i-to, i-tor 
 
 to the Clipt Stem: rog-z-to, ask often (rog-o), min-z-tor, threaten 
 much (min-or) : (so agito, cogito, mussito, strepito, visito) : some- 
 times to the Supine Stem: haes-z-to, lus-z-to. Frequentatives 
 may be formed from Frequentatives : cant-z'-to ; curs-z-to ; dict-z*-to. 
 
 2) Deminutive Verbs in -mo, from Present-stems: conscrib- Demi- 
 illo, scribble-, sorb-illo, sup up.\ ^jjgj 
 
 Perf. I Sup. 
 
 A-verbs form -avi atum 
 
 Variant Verbs are cited in the Syllabus ; Deponents in the Notes. 
 
 B) The SECOND or E-CONJUGATION contains fewer 
 Verbs than the First, and very few Deponents. Its 
 Verbs are principally Intransitive. Several have by- 
 forms in -ere, 3. used by poets : ferv-ere, frig-ere, 
 fulg-ere, strid-ere, turg-ere. A large number pass 
 into the Inceptive or Inchoative form in -sco, 3. 
 
 Many Verbs of this Conjugation are without Supine ; some with- 
 out Perfect also. Inchoatives in Perfect and Supine follow the for- 
 mation of the Verb from which they spring. 
 
 E-verbs should regularly form -evi, etum ; but they usually have 
 -iii, -itum. Most of them are cited in the Syllabus. 
 
 C) The FOURTH or I-CONJUGATION has not a large 
 number of Active Verbs, and few Deponents. Most 
 are Transitive. 
 
206 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 53- 
 
 Beside- [Desiderative Verbs are of this Conjugation, formed from 
 ** d X e Supine Stems with Suffix -ur-io : 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 es-ur-io, desire to eat, am hungry. 
 script-ur-io, desire to write.] 
 
 Perf. Sup. 
 
 I -verbs form -Ivi | -Ituxn 
 
 Only Variant and Deponent I -Verbs are cited in the Syllabus. 
 
 D) The THIRD CONJUGATION contains Consonant 
 Verbs and U-verbs : Consonant Verbs in each class are 
 placed in the order of their character : Guttural (c, g, 
 qu, h, &c.) ; Dental (t, d) ; Labial (p, b) ; Nasal (m, n) ; 
 Liquid (1, r, s). 
 
 Nearly all Simple Verbs of this Conjugation are cited. 
 
 (Most Compounds of all Verbs cited are mentioned at the foot. . 
 
 The formation of Perfect and Supine is the same in the Com- 
 pounds as in the Simple Verb, unless otherwise stated. 
 
 S. means Stem : L. S. lengthened Stem, as in mov-i : Cp. Com- 
 pound : Cpp. Compounds.) 
 
 A-verbs. A) First Conjugation : A-verbs : ! 
 
 (am-are am-avi am-atum) 
 
 Redupl. | -atum : 
 
 i. dare 
 2. stare 
 
 dedi 
 steti 
 
 datum 
 statum 
 
 . giw* Put 
 stand 
 
 L.S. | -turn : 
 
 
 
 
 3. iuv-are 
 4. lav-are 
 
 iuvi 
 lavi 
 
 iutum 
 lotum 
 
 help, please 
 wash 
 
 1 A- Verbs. 
 
 1. Dare is the only Verb which keeps short a (except in da). 
 
 The Cpp. circumdare, set round, pessumdare, ruin y venumdare, set for sale, satis- 
 dare, give security, keep a, and form dedi, datum. All its other Cpp. pass over 
 to the Cons. Decl. -do -dls -dere, &c., with meanings of several, which (as in 
 circumdare) do not represent 'giving,' but 'placing'' or 'setting. 1 Hence it 
 seems clear that this Verb, whether as dare or -dere, contains within its forms 
 two Verbs, which in Sanskrit and Greek are distinct : namely, Sk. da (dadami), 
 Gr. (So) Si'SujfAt, give, and Sk. aha (dadhdmi), Gr. (0e) Tiflrj^u, set, prtt. Some 
 of the Cpp. must be ascribed to the latter Verb: circumdo, abdo, condo, 
 indo, obdo, &c. : while others, dedo, redd o, trad o, &c. may be more easily 
 assigned to the former. See M. Lucr. iv. 41. 
 
 2. Cpp. (ad con ex in ob per prae re)-sto -stiti. See sisto 3. (Ante circum)-sto 
 
 -steti. Disto, super-sto, have no Perf. or Sup. The Sup. statum has a short in 
 'stata tempora/ also stator, status, statura, statim. But in Cpp. 
 long quantity prevails : constaturus, exstaturus. Praestitum, L. xliii. 
 18: praestiturus has some authority. R. Pr. sta, Sk. stha, Gr. crra. 
 
 3. luvaturus, Sail. Cp. adiuvo. R. Sk. dtt', 'shine.' 
 
 4. Lavavi, Ter. lavatum: lautum : whence Adi. lautus, sumptuous. Older 
 
 form lave re, Verg. Hor. : still older lucre (distinct from lu- loose). See this 
 and its Cpp. R. Gr. Au-. See Curt. Gr. Et. p. 371. 
 
 5. Simple necare, -avi -atum: necui, Phaedr. : from nex, violent death Gr. ye/cus, 
 
 corpse. R. Sk. ruts', ' perish.' 
 
53- $J* 
 
 abus of o 
 
 tem-rormatioK 
 
 \ in Verbs. 
 
 207 
 
 -ui | -turn : 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. enec-are 
 
 enecui 
 
 enectum 
 
 kill 
 
 
 6. frioare 
 
 fricui 
 
 frictum 
 
 rub 
 
 
 7. sec-are 
 
 secui 
 
 sectum 
 
 cut 
 
 
 -ui | -itum : 
 
 
 
 
 
 8. crep-are 
 
 crepui 
 
 crepitum 
 
 creak) prattle 
 
 9. cub-are 
 
 cubui 
 
 cubitum 
 
 lie down 
 
 
 10. dom-are 
 
 domui 
 
 domitum 
 
 tame 
 
 
 ii. son-are 
 
 sonui 
 
 sonitum 
 
 sound 
 
 
 12. ton-are 
 
 tonui 
 
 tonitum 
 
 thunder 
 
 
 13. vet-are 
 
 vetui 
 
 vetitum 
 
 forbid 
 
 
 6. Cp. perfrico. A Supine fricatum is used by frico and Cpp. effrico, refrico. R. 
 
 Sk. ghar. Gr. xP<-~- See Curt. Gr. Etym. p. 203. 
 
 7. S e cat urus is found. Cpp. (dis ex re sub)-seco. 
 
 8. Cpp. discrepo, differ ; increpo, chide ; (con per) crepo. Rarely -avi -atum. 
 
 9. Cpp. accubo, occubo ; (ex in re se)-cubo. Rarely -avi -atum. Cumbere 3. is a 
 
 nasalised byform. R. Sk. s't t ' lie down,' Gr. /eei-. 
 
 10. Cpp. (e per) domo. R. Sk. dam, Gr. Sap-, tame. 
 
 11. Sonaturus, Hor. Cpp. (in per re) -sono. R. Sk. svan, 'to sound.' 
 
 12. Cp. intono -ui -atum. Adj. attonitus, R. Sk. tan, Gr. TCI/-, to stretch. Tonere, 
 
 sonere 3. are old and poetic forms. 
 
 13. Vetavit, Pers. ; but some read notavit. 
 
 14 Simple Verb has plicavi; plicui is rare : plicitum and plicatum. Cpp. 
 applico, complico, explico, implico, take both forms of Perf. and Sup. The Verbs 
 duplico, multiplico, supplico are not Cpp. andhave-avi -atum. Gr. nXizu. 
 See plecto 3. 
 
 15. Cpp. dimico, combat, dimicavi ('dimicui,' Ov.), dimicatum ; emico, emicui. 
 a) The Inchoative Verbs formed from A- verbs are : 
 From gelare : congel-ascere -avi -alum, freeze. 
 
 labare : lab-ascere (no Perf. or Sup. ), begin to waver. 
 
 hiare : hiscere . . (no Perf. or Sup.), gape, whisper; M. Lucr. iv. 66. 
 
 .... dehiscere ,, ,, 
 
 <5) Deponent A- verbs (all conjugated regularly in -ari, -atUS). 
 
 Those marked * have also an Active form in -O, -are, in general peculiar to old 
 Latin ; but an original Active may be ascribed to all. 
 
 abomin-ari, abhor *augur-ari, ) soo thsay convici-ari, revile 
 
 *adminicul-ari, prop, sup- *auspic-ari, J ' *conviv-ari,_/<z.y/ 
 
 port auxili-ari, aid cornic-ari, chatter 
 
 advers-ari, oppose *bacch-ari, revel (as a Bac- *crimin-ari, accuse 
 
 *adul-ari,y?rtta?r chanal) (de) *cunct-ari, delay 
 
 aemul-ari, rival *bell-ari, make war *depecul-ari, pillage 
 
 alucin-ari, dote *bubulcit-ari, tend kine despic-ari, despise 
 
 *alterc-ari, wrangle * achinn-ari, laugh loud devers-ari, lodge 
 
 amplex-ari, embrace alumni-ari, cavil, chicane digladi-ari, combat 
 
 ampull-ari, talk big avill-ari, banter *dign-ari, deem worthy 
 
 ancill-ari, act as handmaid aupon-ari, sell by retail dedign-ari, disdain 
 
 apric-ari, sun oneself aus-ari, allege *domin-ari, mle 
 
 aqu-ari, fetch water omiss-ari, revel elucubr-ari, work out, com- 
 
 *arbitr-ari, think, deem *comit-ari, accompany pose 
 
 architect-ari, build *comment-ari, remark epul-ari,/^^/ 
 
 argument-ari, prove " :; communic-ari, impart *exsecr-ari, curse 
 
 *argut-ari, quibble contion-ari, harangue *fabric-a.r\, fashion 
 
 ^aspern-ari, despise conflict-ari, contend *fabul-ari, talk (con-) 
 
 assent-ari, comply, flatter con-ari, endeavour famul-ari, serve 
 
 adstipul-ari, support consili-ari, counsel f-ari, speak (af- ef- prae- pro-) 
 
 auction-ari, hold an a^tction consol-ari, comfort *fener-ari, lend on interest 
 
 *aucup-ari, catch *conspic-ari, behold feri-ari, keep holiday 
 
 avers-ari, dislike *contempl-ari, view *fluctu-ari, fluctuate 
 
208 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 -avi (ui) ! -ituxn or -atum : 
 
 14. plic-are plicavi (-ui) 
 -ui or -avi | -atum. 
 
 15. mic-are micui (-avi) 
 
 53- 
 
 plicitum (-atum) fold 
 -micatum glitter 
 
 frument-ari, lay in corn 
 *frustr-ari, baffle 
 *frutic-ari, sprout 
 
 fur-ari, steal 
 
 gesticul-ari, make gestures 
 
 glori-ari, boast 
 
 graec-ari, live sumptuously 
 (like Greeks) 
 
 grass-ari, advance, attack 
 
 grat-ari, | congra\ 
 
 gratul-ari, \ (con) 
 
 gratific-ari, do a kindness 
 
 grav-ari, grudge 
 
 hariol-ari, divine 
 
 helu-ari, eat gluttonortsly 
 
 hort-ari, exhort (ad- ex-) 
 
 hospit-ari, lodge 
 *iacul-ari, dart (e-) 
 
 imagin-ari, imagine 
 
 imit-ari, imitate 
 
 indign-ari, disdain 
 
 infiti-ari, deny 
 
 insidi-ari, plot 
 
 interpret-ari, explain 
 *ioc-ari, jest 
 *laet-ari, rejoice 
 *lacrim-ari, iveep 
 
 lament-ari, lament 
 
 latrocin-ari, rob 
 
 lenocin-ari, pander 
 
 licit-ari, bid (in auction) 
 
 lign-ari, collect timber 
 
 lucr-ari, make gain 
 *luct-ari, struggle (col- ob- 
 
 re-) 
 
 *ludific-ari, make mock 
 *luxuri-ari, wanton 
 
 machin-ari, contrive 
 
 materi-ari,_/W/ timber 
 *medic-ari, heal 
 *mendic-ari, beg 
 
 medit-ari, con, plan (prae) 
 
 merc-ari, buy 
 *meridi-ari, take-siesta 
 *met-ari, measure 
 *min-ari, ) threaten 
 *minit-ari j (com-) 
 
 mir-ari, -wonder (ad- de-) 
 *miser-ari, pity (com-) 
 
 *moder-ari, rule, restrain *proeli-ari, fight a battle (de-) 
 modul-ari, tune ratiocin-ari, reason 
 
 *moriger-ari, comply record-ari, remember 
 
 *mor-ari, delay (com- de- im- refrag-ari, vote against, op- 
 
 re-) 
 
 muner-ari, reward (re-) 
 
 'mutu-ari, borrow 
 
 negoti-ari, do business 
 
 'nict-ari, wink 
 
 congratulate nidul-ari, make nest 
 *nundin-ari, market 
 
 nug-ari, trifle 
 *nutric-ari, nurture 
 
 obvers-ari, be present (to 
 sight or mind) 
 
 odor-ari, scent out 
 *orci\\\-a.r\, forebode 
 
 oper-ari, work 
 *opin-ari, think 
 *opitul-ari, help 
 *opson-ari, buy meat 
 *oscit-ari, yawn 
 *oscul-ari, kiss 
 
 oti-ari, be at leisure 
 
 pabul-ari, forage 
 *pacific-ari, make peace 
 *pal-ari, wander 
 *palp-ari, stroke, flatter 
 
 pandicul-ari, stretch oneself 
 
 parasit-ari, play the buffoon 
 
 patrocin-ari, patronise 
 
 percont-ari, - \ { ire 
 
 percunct-an, 
 
 peregrin-ari, dwell as a 
 stranger 
 
 periclit-ari, venture, be in 
 peril 
 
 philosoph-ari, philosophize 
 *pigner-ari, take-pledge 
 
 pigr-ari, be lazy 
 
 pisc-ari, fish (ex-) 
 
 pollicit-ari, promise 
 *popul-ari, lay waste (de) 
 
 praed-ari, plunder 
 
 praestol-ari, wait for 
 
 pose 
 *rim-ari, rake out, search 
 
 rix-ari, wrangle 
 
 rustic-ari, live in the coun- 
 try 
 *savi-ari, kiss 
 
 scit-ari, ^ \ in ire 
 *sciscit-ari, ) 
 
 scrut-ari, search out (per-) 
 
 scurr-ari, play the buffoon 
 *sect-ari, follow (as- con- 
 in-) 
 
 sermocin-ari, discourse 
 
 sol-ari, comfort 
 
 spati-ari, walk (ex-) 
 
 specul-ari, look out 
 *stabul-ari, be in a stall 
 *stipul-ari, bargain (ad- re-) 
 
 stomach-ari, be angry 
 
 suffrag-ari, vote with 
 
 suspic-ari, suspect 
 
 tergivers-ari, shttffle 
 
 test-ari, ( catt to *>***** 
 
 testific^ hr witness (&- 
 
 I con- de- ob- pro- 
 
 v testari) 
 
 tric-ari, make difficulties 
 trist-ari, be sad 
 trutin-ari, poise in the 
 
 scales 
 
 *tumultu-ari, make an up- 
 roar 
 
 *tut-ari, defend 
 urin-ari, dive 
 vad-ari, hold to bail 
 *vag-ari, wander (di- e- per-) 
 vaticin-ari, prophesy 
 ^velific-ari, sail 
 velit-ari, skirmish 
 *vener-ari, venerate (de) 
 ven-ari, hunt 
 
 praevaric-ari, walk crooked, verecund-ari, be shy 
 play the rogue vers-ari, be engaged, dwell 
 
 prec-ari, pray (com- de- (con- de- di-) 
 
 im-) *vocifer-ari, cry cut 
 
 Most of these Verbs are derived from Nouns, a few from Verbs. Adulare (i) may 
 be the same word as adorare, but applied to meaner subjects (dog, flatterer, &c.) ; on 
 aemulor, imitor, see Corss. Kr. B. 253: cunctor, R. Sk. s'ank, 'hesitate:' con- 
 templari is primarily an augural word, to observe the heavens (templa caeli) : populare 
 probably for spo-spulare, from spolium, Gr. <TKV\OV. 
 
53* Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 209 
 
 B) Second Conjugation : E-verbs : * 
 
 (Verbs which have also an Inchoative form of Conj. 3. are printed 
 in italics.) 
 
 E-verbs. 
 
 Redupl. | -sum : 
 
 1. mord-ere momordi 
 
 2. pend-ere pependi 
 
 3. spond-ere spopondi 
 
 4. tond-ere totondi 
 
 L. S. | turn 
 
 
 5. cav-ere 
 
 cavi 
 
 6. fav-ere 
 
 favi 
 
 7. fov-ere 
 
 fovi 
 
 8. mov-ere 
 
 movi 
 
 9. vov-ere 
 
 vovi 
 
 10. pav-ere 
 
 pavi 
 
 L. S. | sum : 
 
 
 Ti. sed-ere 
 
 sedi 
 
 12. vld-ere 
 
 vldi 
 
 t I sum : 
 
 13. prand-ere prandi 
 
 i | no Sup. 
 
 14. comv-ere conivi 
 
 15. strid-ere stridi 
 
 1 6. ferv-ere ferbui 
 
 morsum 
 pensum 
 sponsum 
 tonsum 
 
 cautum 
 
 fautum 
 
 fotum 
 
 motum 
 
 votum 
 
 sessum 
 visum 
 
 pransum 
 
 bite 
 hang 
 contract 
 shear 
 
 beware 
 
 favour 
 
 cherish 
 
 move 
 
 vow 
 
 quake 
 
 sit 
 see 
 
 dine 
 
 blink 
 creak 
 boil 
 
 1 E-verbs. 
 
 1. Memordi is used. Cpp. (ad prae re)-mordeo -mordi -morsum. See Corss. 
 
 Krit. B. 430. R. Sk. mard. 
 
 2. Pendere is the Intrans. Verb corresponding to the Trans. pendre 3. hang : whence 
 
 pondus, weight^ and Frequent, pensare, ponder. Cpp. appendeo, impendeo, 
 (de pro)-pendeo -pendi -pensum. 
 
 3. Spopondi, euphonic for spo-spondi ; Spepondi is found. Cpp. despondeo, betroth, 
 
 respondeo, answer, -spondi -sponsum. See Corss. Krit. N. 112. The Verb 
 means ' to give a legal contract,' ' sponsionem facere.' 
 
 4. Also tetondi. Cpp. attondeo, detondeo -tondi -tonsum. The Verbs 1-4 shew that 
 
 Compounds drop the reduplicative syllable. R. r/x?(i>, Curt. Gr. Et. p. 221. 
 
 5. Cp. praecaveo. R. Sk. sku, 'hide.' 
 
 6. 7. See Corss. Krit. B. 56, 57. 
 
 8. Cpp. (a ad com de di e pro re se sum)-moveo. See Curt. Gr. Et. 324. 
 
 9. Cp. devoveo. 
 
 10. Inchoative expavesco, expavi, become terrified. 
 
 n. Cpp. (circum super)-sedeo. But assldeo, possldeo, and (con de dis in ob prae re 
 sub)-sideo -sedi -sessum. R. Sk. sad, Gr. eS-. 
 
 12. Cpp. (in per prae pro)-video. R. Sk. vid, Gr. /<?-. 
 
 13. Prandeo is ' to eat the prandium ' (pri-, dies- ?) or earlier meal (answering to the 
 
 present English 'luncheon,' French 'dejeuner a la fourchette '), distinguished 
 from cena, which answers to the present English 'dinner/ formerly 'supper/ 
 
 14. Also conixi. The form nlv- is corrupted from gnigv-, g twice falling out ; R. 
 
 Sk.jdnu, y6w, genu, knee. See C. Krit. B. 56. 
 
 15. By form stridere. 
 
 16. Byform fervere, whence another Perf. fervi. Ferbui is euphonic for fervtu, 
 
 R. Sk. ghar, Gr. 0ep-. See C. Krit. B. 165. 203. Inch, defervesco, deferbui : 
 effervesco, efferbui. 
 
2IO 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 53- 
 
 -evi { -etum 
 
 
 
 
 17. del-ere 
 
 delevi 
 
 deletum 
 
 blot out 
 
 18. fl-ere 
 
 flevi 
 
 fletum 
 
 weep 
 
 19. n-ere 
 
 nevi 
 
 netum 
 
 spin 
 
 20. -plere 
 
 plevi 
 
 pletum 
 
 JM 
 
 21. vi-ere 
 
 (vievi) 
 
 vietum 
 
 bind with twigs 
 
 22. ci-ere 
 
 
 
 
 
 stir up 
 
 23. -olere 
 
 -olevi 
 
 (olitum) 
 
 grow, &c. 
 
 24. su-ere 
 
 suevi 
 
 suetum 
 
 be wont 
 
 -ui | -itum : 
 
 
 
 
 25. arc-ere 
 
 arcui 
 
 (-artum) 
 
 ward off 
 
 26. coerc-ere 
 
 coercui 
 
 coercftum 
 
 restrain 
 
 27. exerc-ere 
 
 exercui 
 
 exercftum 
 
 exercise 
 
 28. car-ere 
 
 carui 
 
 caritum 
 
 be without, be in 
 
 
 
 
 want of 
 
 29. deb-ere 
 
 debui 
 
 debitum 
 
 owe 
 
 30. dol-ere 
 
 dolui 
 
 dolftum 
 
 grieve 
 
 31. hab-ere 
 
 habui 
 
 habitum 
 
 have 
 
 32. iac-ere 
 
 iacui 
 
 iacitum 
 
 lie 
 
 33. lic-ere 
 
 licui 
 
 licttum 
 
 be bid for 
 
 34. mer-ere 
 
 merui 
 
 meritum 
 
 serve, earn 
 
 35. mon-ere 
 
 monui 
 
 monttum 
 
 advise 
 
 36. noc-ere 
 
 nocui 
 
 nocitum 
 
 hurt 
 
 37. par-ere 
 38. plac-ere 
 
 parui 
 placui 
 
 paritum 
 placltum 
 
 appear, obey 
 please 
 
 39. praeb-ere 
 
 praebui 
 
 praebltum 
 
 afford 
 
 40. terr-ere 
 
 terrui 
 
 terrltum 
 
 affright 
 
 17. Some make this Verb de-olere, comparing abolere. More probably it is a Cp. of 
 
 le-, smear, True Stem of lino. 
 
 18. Cpp. affleo, defleo. Compare Gr. <Ae- <f>Av-, L. flu-. See Curt. 302. 
 
 19. Gr. ye-. Eng. needle, G. nadel. 
 
 20. Cpp. compleo, impleo, oppleo, suppleo, (ex re)-pleo, R. Sk. prt, Gr. TrAe-. 
 
 21. Hence vitis, vimen. 
 
 22. R. Sk. sfi, 'sharpen.' The Perf. and Sup. are formed from cire 4. 
 
 23. The root of growth, o\-(=Sk.nr, L. al- ar- or-), is distinct from the root of smell, 
 
 ol (=od). Olesco has the Cpp. adolesco, grow -up, adolevi, adultum : inolesco 
 -evi, grow in : whence ind-oles ; and subolesco, whence suboles. The Transi- 
 tive Verbs adoleo, inflame sacrificially, aboleo, abolish, with their Inchoatives 
 (adolesco, abolesco), have a distinct sense, and may possibly be derived from the 
 word oleum, implying an old practice of using oil to make the sacrifices burn 
 speedily : Verg. iv. 244 : Pingue super oleum infundens ardentibus extis. 
 
 24. Sucre is found in Lucr., but suesco is the Verb in classical use. Cpp. assuesco, 
 
 (con de in)-suesco, suevi, suetum. Also mansuesco -suevi -suetum, grow mild, 
 tame. See Curt. 251 ; M. Lucr. i. 60, iv. 1282. 
 
 25. 26. 27. R. Gr. aAx-, apK-. 
 
 30. Inchoatives : (con in)-dolesco -dolui. 
 
 31. Cpp. debeo (dehibeo); praebeo ; (prae-hibeo) ; (ad co ex in per pro red)*htbeo 
 
 -hibui -hibitum. But posthabeo. 
 
 32. Cpp. (ad circum sub)-iaceo. The intransitive Verb corresponding to iacio, cast, 
 
 See this in Conj. 3. 
 
 33. See Curt. 456 ; and p. 192 of this Gr. 
 
 34. See Curt. 332. 
 
 35. Cpp. (ad con prae)-moneo. R. Sk. man. 
 
 37. Cpp. appareo, compareo, appear. 
 
 38. Cpp. displiceo -plicui -plicitum ; (com per)-placeo. Sk. pri. 
 40. Cpp. absterreo ; (con de ex per)-terreo. R. Sk. tras, Gr. rpe-. 
 
53- 
 
 4i. ttic-ere 
 .42. vdl-ere 
 
 -ui | -turn : 
 
 43. doc-ere 
 
 44. misoere 
 
 45. ten-ere 
 
 46. torr-ere 
 
 -ui I -sum : 
 
 47. cens-ere 
 
 -ui | no Sup. 
 
 48. eg-ere 
 
 49. mm-ere 
 
 50. 61-ere 
 sorb-ere 
 stud-ere 
 ac-ere 
 ar-ere 
 
 55. cdl-ere 
 
 56. call-ere 
 
 57. cand-ere 
 
 58. clar-ere 
 
 59. flor-ere 
 
 60. frond-ere 
 
 6 1. horr-ere 
 
 62. langu-ere 
 
 63. /#-*ir* 
 
 Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 
 
 52. 
 53- 
 .54- 
 
 tacui 
 valui 
 
 docui 
 
 tenui 
 torrui 
 
 censui 
 
 egui 
 
 -minui 
 
 olui 
 
 sorbui 
 
 studui 
 
 acui 
 
 arui 
 
 calui 
 
 callui 
 
 candui 
 
 clarui 
 
 florui 
 
 frondui 
 
 horrui 
 
 langui 
 
 latui 
 
 taciturn 
 valitum 
 
 doctum 
 
 tentum 
 tostum 
 
 censum 
 
 211 
 
 fo strong^ be well 
 
 scorch^ roast 
 value, vote 
 
 want 
 jut 
 smell 
 suck lip 
 study 
 fo sour 
 
 be hot 
 
 ^ hard-skinned 
 glow white 
 &? bright, illustrious 
 bloom 
 be in leaf 
 shudder, be rough 
 be faint 
 lie hid 
 
 41. Cpp. (con ob re)-ticeo, ticui: no Sup. : usually -ticesco, -ticui. 
 
 42. Cp. praevaleo : others form Inch, (con e in re)-valesco -valui -valitum. 
 
 43. Cpp. (ad de e)-doceo. R. Sk. dis 1 , Gr. Set*-. 
 
 44. For mic-sc-eo, Cpp. commisceo, immisceo, (ad inter per re)-misceo, R. Sk. inis'r, 
 
 Gr. juty. 
 
 45. Cpp. attineo (con de dis ob per re sus)-tineo -tinui -tentum, R. Sk. tan, 
 
 Gr. rev-. 
 
 46. R. Pr. tarsh, 'be dry/ Gr. repa-. Inch, torresco, Lucr. iii. 890. 
 
 47. Cpp. accenseo, recenseo, succenseo. Censitus occurs on Inscrr. : hence recensitus. 
 
 48. Cp. indig-eo -ui, Gr. a.\-f\v. 
 
 49. Cpp. emin-eo -ui : immineo, no Perf. ; promineo. 
 
 50. Cpp. (red sub)-oleo. Subst. odor. R. Gr. 6o>, 65w5a. 
 
 51. Cpp. (ab ex ob re)-sorbeo. Gr. po<J>e-. 
 
 52. Gr. o-TrevSw. 
 
 53. Inch, acesco -acui. Cp. coacesco. R. Gr. o/c-, sharpen. 
 
 54. Inch, aresco. Cp. exar-esco -ui. 
 
 55. Inch, cal-esco -ui. Cpp. (con per)-cal-esco -ui, grow hot. 
 
 56. Inch. Cpp. occall-esco, percall-esco -ui. 
 
 57. Inch. Cpp. (ex in)-cand-esco -ui. Cando 3. (used in Cpp. only in the Trans. 
 
 form. See Corss. K. B. HI.) 
 
 58. Inch, claresco, Cp. inclar-esco -ui, become bright, ilhistrioiis. 
 
 59. Inch, floresco, Cp efflor-esco -ui, bloom. 
 
 60. Inch, frond-esco, Cp. refrond-esco -ui, come into leaf again. 
 
 61. Cpp. (ab ex in)-horreo, Inch, horresco.. Cpp. cohorresco, (ex in per)-horr-esco -ui, 
 
 shudder. R. Pr. harsh, 'to bristle,' Gr. <prcr. 
 
 62. Inch, languesco, Cpp. (e ob re)-langu-esco -ui, grow f ami. R. Gr. Aay-. 
 
 63. Inch, lat-esco, Cp. delit-esco -ui. Frequent, latito i. See C. Kr. B. 79. 
 
 P 2 
 
212 
 
 65. mdd-ere 
 
 66. marc-ere 
 
 67. nit-ere 
 
 68. pall-ere v 
 
 69. pdt-ere 
 
 70. put-ere 
 
 71. putr-ere 
 
 72. rtg-ere 
 
 73. riib-ere 
 
 74. ^7-^>r 
 
 75. sord-ere 
 
 76. splend-ere 
 
 77. sq^^al-ere 
 
 78. stiip-ere 
 
 79. tab-ere 
 
 80. tep-ere 
 8 1. tim-ere 
 
 82. torp-ere 
 
 83. tiim-ere 
 
 84. vtg-ere 
 
 85. vtr-ere 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 licui 
 
 madui 
 
 marcui 
 
 nitui 
 
 pallui 
 
 patui 
 
 putui 
 
 putrui 
 
 rigui 
 
 rubui 
 
 silui 
 
 sordui 
 
 splendui 
 
 squalui 
 
 stupui 
 
 tabui 
 
 tepui 
 
 timui 
 
 torpui 
 
 tumui 
 
 vigui 
 
 virui 
 
 53- 
 
 melt 
 be wet 
 fade 
 shine 
 be pale 
 be open 
 smell rank 
 be rotten 
 be stiff 
 be red 
 be silent 
 be dirty 
 glitter 
 befilthy 
 be amazed 
 pine 
 
 be lukewarm 
 fear 
 be torpid 
 swell 
 
 be vigorous 
 be green 
 
 No Perf. | No Sup. : 
 
 86. av-ere 
 
 long 
 
 93- pigr-ere 
 
 be sluggish 
 
 87. claud-ere 
 
 limp 
 
 94. poll-ere 
 
 be powerful 
 
 88. clu-ere 
 
 be called 
 
 95. veg-ere 
 
 excite 
 
 89. dens-ere 
 
 thicken 
 
 96. aegr-ere 
 
 be sick 
 
 90. foet-ere 
 
 befetid 
 
 97. alb-ere 
 
 be white 
 
 91. frend-ere 
 
 gnash teeth 
 
 98. calv-ere 
 
 be bald 
 
 92. maer-ere 
 
 mourn 
 
 99. can-ere 
 
 be grey 
 
 64. Inch, liquesco ; Cp. deliqu-esco, delicui, begin to melt. 
 
 65. Inch, mad-esco -ui, become moist. Gr. /ua5-. 
 
 66. Inch. marcesco,./fr*fe, R. Pr. mar, Gr. jxop-. 
 
 67. Cp. eniteo. Inch, nitesco, enitesco -ui, shine forth. 
 
 68. Inch, pallesco, Cpp. (ex im)-pall-esco -\\\, grow pale. R. Gr. ?reA- 
 
 69. Inch, pat-esco -ui. R. Gr. n-era-. 
 
 70. Inch, putesco -ui, become foul } R gk . f Gr< ^.^ 
 
 71. Inch, putr-esco -ui, become rotten ) 
 
 72. Inch, rig-esco -ui. Cpp. (di ob)-rig-esco -ui, grow stiff. 
 
 73. Inch, rub-esco, Cp. erub-esco -ui, blush. R. Pr. rud/i, Gr. epv0-. 
 
 74. Inch, sil-esco -ui, become silent. 
 
 75. Inch, sord-esco -ui, become mean, worthless. 
 
 76. Cp. resplendeo. Inch, splend-esco, exsplend-esco -ui, shine out. 
 
 78. Inch, stup-esco, obstup-esco -ui, stand amazed. See Curt. 218. 
 
 79. Inch, tabesco ; Cpp. (ex in)-tab-esco -ui, begin to pine. See Curt. 238. 
 
 80. Inch, tep-esco -ui. R. Sk. tap. 
 
 81. Cpp. (prae sub)-timeo. Inch. Cpp. (ex per)-tim-esco -ui. 
 
 82. Inch, torp-esco, Cp. obtorp-esco -ui, grow torpid. See Corss. K. B. 438. 
 
 83. Inch, tum-esco, Cp. intum-esco -ui, begin to swell. R. Sk. tu. 
 
 84. Inch, vig-esco -ui. R. Sk. itksh, 'grow strong/ Gr. i<y-. But see Curt. 186. 
 
 85. Inch, vir-esco, Cp. revir-esco -ui, become green again. 
 
 86. See Curt. 309. 
 
 88. R. Sk. s'rtt, Gr. icAv. 
 
 96. Inch, aegresco, become sick. 
 
 97. Inch, albesco, exalbesco, become white. 
 
53- Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 213 
 
 100. flacc-ere 
 101. flav-ere 
 102. heb-ere 
 
 be flabby 
 be yellow 
 be dull 
 
 1 06. remd-ere 
 107. scat-ere 
 1 08. sen-ere 
 
 smile 
 bubble up 
 be old 
 
 103. lact-ere 
 
 be milky 
 
 109. um-ere 
 
 be moist 
 
 104. liv-ere 
 
 be livid 
 
 no. uv-ere 
 
 be dank 
 
 105. milc-ere 
 
 be mouldy 
 
 
 
 -si | -turn: 
 
 
 
 
 in. polluc-ere 
 
 polluxi 
 
 polluctum 
 
 make a feast 
 
 112. aug-ere 
 
 auxi 
 
 auctum 
 
 increase 
 
 113. indulg-ere 
 
 indulsi 
 
 indultum 
 
 indulge 
 
 114. mulg-ere 
 
 mulsi 
 
 mulctum 
 
 milk 
 
 115. torqu-ere 
 
 torsi 
 
 tortum 
 
 twist 
 
 1 1 6. lug-ere 
 
 luxi 
 
 
 
 mourn 
 
 -si | sum : 
 
 
 
 
 117. mulc-ere 
 
 mulsi 
 
 mulsum 
 
 soothe 
 
 1 1 8. terg-ere 
 119. ard-ere 
 
 tersi 
 arsi 
 
 -tersum 
 arsum 
 
 wipe 
 take fire 
 
 1 20. rid-ere 
 
 risi 
 
 risum 
 
 laugh 
 
 121. suad-ere 
 
 suasi 
 
 suasum 
 
 persuade 
 
 122. iub-ere 
 
 iussi 
 
 iussum 
 
 command 
 
 123. man-ere 
 
 mansi 
 
 mansum 
 
 remain 
 
 124. haer-ere 
 
 haesi 
 
 haesum 
 
 stick 
 
 si | no Sup. : 
 
 
 
 
 125. alg-ere 
 
 alsi 
 
 
 
 be cold 
 
 1 26. fulg-ere 
 
 fulsi 
 
 
 
 glitter 
 
 127. turg-ere 
 
 tursi 
 
 
 
 swell 
 
 128. urg-ere 
 
 ursi 
 
 
 
 urge 
 
 129. frig-ere 
 
 -frixi 
 
 
 
 be cold 
 
 130. lilc-ere 
 
 luxi 
 
 
 
 shine 
 
 oo. See Corss. Kr. B. 28. Byform scatere, 3. Lucr. v. 40. 
 08. Inchoative, sen-esco, consen-esco -ui, grow old. 
 
 (The other Verbs from 96 to in form Inchoatives, which denote beginning of state : 
 but are without Perf. and Sup. except incanesco, which has Perf. incanui.) 
 
 12. Cpp. (ad ex)-augeo. Inch, augesco. R. Sk. uksh. 
 
 13. See Corss. K. Beitr. 382. This derivation from dA.e'yo> is very doubtful. 
 
 14. Cp. immulgeo. R. Sk. marj, Gr. i-ju.eAy-. 
 
 15. Cpp. (con de dis ex in re)-torqueo. R. rpen--. 
 
 16. See Curt. 182. The Subst. luctus points to a Sup. of that form. 
 
 17. Cpp. (de per)-mulceo. See Curt. 327. 
 
 18. Cpp. (abs de)-tergeo. See Corss. K. B. 437. 
 
 19. Inch, ard-esco, exard-esco -arsi. Corss. derives from aridus, K. B, in. 
 
 20. Cpp. arrideo, irrideo, (de sub)-rideo. R. Sk. krtd, 'play.' 
 
 21. Cpp. (dis per)-suadeo. R. Sk. svad, 'sweeten/ Gr. dS-. 
 
 22. From ius- hibere. 
 
 23. Cpp. (per re)-maneo. R. Gr. /uei/-. 
 
 24. Cpp. cohaereo, (ad in)-haereo. Inch, haere-sco, haesi and Cpp. 
 
 26. Cpp. affulgeo, effulgeo, refulgeo. Inch, fulg-esco, fulsi. Byform fulgere, 3. R. 
 Sk. bhraj, Gr. <\ y-. 
 
 28. Cp. adurgeo. R. P r . varj, ' to press,' Gr. fetpy-. 
 
 29. Inch, frigesco, Cp. refrigesco -frixi. R. Gr. piy-. 
 
 30. Cpp. colluceo (e re sub)-luceo. Inch, lucesco. Cp. illucesco -luxi, dawn. 
 
 R. Sk. rue 1 , Gr. AVK-. 
 
214 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 53- 
 
 I-verbs. 
 
 Semideponent : 
 
 
 
 131. aud-ere ausus sum 
 
 
 
 dare 
 
 132. gaud-ere gavlsus sum 
 
 
 
 rejoice 
 
 133. sol-ere solitus sum 
 
 
 
 be went 
 
 Deponent : 
 
 
 
 134. lic-eri licitus 
 
 
 
 bid for 
 
 135. mer-eri meritus 
 
 
 
 deserve 
 
 136. miser-eri miseritus 
 
 
 
 pity 
 
 137. tu-eri tuitus 
 
 
 
 mew, protect 
 
 138. ver-eri veritus 
 
 
 
 fear, respect 
 
 139. r-eri ratus 
 
 
 
 think 
 
 140. fat-eri fassus 
 
 
 
 confess 
 
 141. med-eri 
 
 
 
 heal 
 
 C) Fourth Conjugation : 
 
 I-verbs : l 
 
 
 (aud-ire, aud-Ivi (ii), aud-Itum.) 
 
 Variant: 
 
 
 
 -Ivi (ii) | -turn : 
 
 
 
 I. sepel-Ire sepelivi 
 
 sepultum 
 
 bury 
 
 2. Ire (eo) ivi 
 
 itum 
 
 g 
 
 3. quire quivi 
 
 qultum 
 
 be able 
 
 -ui | -tmn : 
 
 
 
 4. sal-Ire salui 
 
 (saltum) 
 
 leap, dance 
 
 5. aper-ire aperui 
 
 apertum 
 
 open 
 
 6. oper-Ire operui 
 
 opertum 
 
 cover 
 
 -i | turn : 
 
 
 
 7. comper-Ire comperi 
 
 compertum 
 
 find 
 
 8. reper-Ire repperi 
 
 repertum 
 
 discover 
 
 (C. S.-) -turn : 
 
 
 
 9. ven-Ire veni 
 
 ventum 
 
 come 
 
 131. Corss. derives from avid-us. 
 
 132. Corss. derives from a form gavidus. R. Gr. yaf-. 
 
 133. Probably connected with the forms Sk. sarva-s, E.L. sollus, Gr. oAos, &c. Cp. 
 
 assoleo. An Inch, form solesco must be assumed whence in-solesco, ex-solesco, 
 ob-solesco -evi (insolens, exoletus, obsoletus). 
 
 134. Cp. polliceor, promise. See 33. 
 135- Cpp. commereor, (de pro)-mereor. 
 
 137. Cpp. (con in)-tueor. See Corss. K. B. 437. 
 
 138. Cpp. (re sub)-vereor. R. Pr. var, 'cover/ 
 
 140. Cpp. diffiteor, diffessus ; (con pro)-fiteor -fessus. R. Gr. 0a-. 
 
 141. Medicatusis used as Partic. of medeor. 
 
 1 I-Verbs. 
 
 2. Cpp. (ab ad ante circum co ex in inter ob per prae praeter prod red sub trans)-eo. 
 Also ven-eo, ven-Ire (venum ire), to be sold, quasi-passive of vendere (venum- 
 dare), to sell', has no Sup. : Pass. Partic. venditus, vendendus. Ambio, as audio. 
 
 3. Cp. nequeo. See p. 188. 
 
 4. Salii is used. Cpp. (ad de ex in pro re sub)-silio -silui or -silii, -sultum. R. Pr. 
 
 sar, Gr. aAA.-. 
 5-8. These Verbs with experior, opperior, peritus, periculum, belong to a lost verb 
 
 perire, try. R. Pr. par, 'accomplish.' Comperior is used by Sallust. 
 9. Cpp. (ad circum con de e in inter ob per prae pro re super sub)-venio. R. Sk. 
 
 gam. See Corss. Kr. B. 58. 
 
53- 
 
 Syllabus of Stem- Formation in Verbs. 215 
 
 -si | -turn : 
 
 
 10. amlc-Ire 
 
 amixi 
 
 ii. fare-Ire 
 
 farsi 
 
 12. fulc-ire 
 
 fulsi 
 
 13. sane-Ire 
 
 sanxi 
 
 14. sarc-Ire 
 
 sarsi 
 
 15. vine-Ire 
 
 vinxi 
 
 1 6. saep-Ire 
 
 saepsi 
 
 17. haur-Ire 
 
 hausi 
 
 1 8. rauc-Ire 
 
 rausi 
 
 -si | -sum : 
 
 
 19. sent-Ire 
 
 sensi 
 
 amictum 
 
 fartum 
 
 fultum 
 
 sanctum 
 
 sartum 
 
 vinctum 
 
 saeptum 
 
 haustum 
 
 sensum 
 
 clothe 
 
 stuff 
 
 prop 
 
 consecrate 
 
 mend 
 
 bind 
 
 hedge in 
 
 drain 
 
 be hoarse 
 
 feel 
 
 No Perf. | No Supine : 
 
 20. caecut-ire 
 
 be blind 
 
 27. 
 
 gloc-Ire cluck 
 
 21. croc-Ire 
 
 croak 
 
 28. 
 
 grunn-Ire grimt 
 
 22. dement-Ire 
 
 be distracted 
 
 29. 
 
 hinn-Ire neigh 
 
 23. fer-Ire 
 
 strike 
 
 So- 
 
 inept-Ire be silly 
 
 24. feroc-Ire 
 
 be wild 
 
 3*- 
 
 prur-ire itch 
 
 25. gest-Ire 
 
 be eager 
 
 32. 
 
 singult-Ire sob 
 
 26. gann-ire 
 
 yelp. 
 
 
 
 Deponent ; 
 
 
 
 
 -itus : 
 
 
 
 
 33. bland-Iri 
 
 blanditus 
 
 
 fawn, flatter 
 
 34.*larg-iri 
 
 largltus 
 
 
 bestow 
 
 35.*ment-iri 
 
 mentltus 
 
 
 speak falsely 
 
 36.*mol-iri 
 
 molltus 
 
 
 plan 
 
 37.*part-iri 
 
 partltus 
 
 
 divide 
 
 38. pot-iri 
 
 potltus 
 
 
 get possession of 
 
 39.*pun-iri 
 
 punltus 
 
 
 punish 
 
 4O.*sort-iri 
 
 sortltus 
 
 
 allot, take by lot 
 
 -tus (from C. S.) : 
 
 4i.*exper-iri expertus experience 
 
 42. opper-iri oppertus wait for 
 
 43. or-iri ortus arise 
 
 TO. Also amicui. 
 
 11. Cpp. differcio (con in re)-fercio -fersi -fertum. 
 
 12. Cpp. effulcio, suffulcio. Derived from furca, prop, C. 
 
 13. a-w-c-io is nasalised, as sa-c-er shews. R. Gr. aa-o?. 
 
 14. Cp. resarcio. 
 
 15. Cp. devincio. 
 
 16. Gr. onjK09. Saepes, praesaepe, saepire, shew the same labialism as lupus. &c., p. 59, 
 
 17. Also hausum. Cp. exhaurio. 
 19. Cpp. (con per)-sentio. 
 
 21. It is evident that the C in the verbs crocire, croak, glocire, chick, must have 
 
 had the hard k-sound. 
 33-40. These are derived from Nouns. Cpp. subblandior : (di e)-largior : emen- 
 
 tior : (e re)-molior : (im dis)-pertior. 
 43. Orior, Gr. op- has Cpp. (ad co ex ob)-orior -ortus. 
 
2i6 Latin Wordlore. 53. 
 
 -sus (from C. S.) : 
 
 44.*assent-Iri assensus agree 
 
 45. met-iri mensus measure 
 
 46. ord-iri orsus begin 
 
 cons. D) Third Conjugation : Consonant * and U-verbs : 
 
 and 
 
 U-verbs. L Consonant Verbs. 
 
 i) Verbs with Reduplicated Perfect- Stem. (Compounds drop 
 Reduplication; except those of disco, posco, sisto, -dere, and 
 sometimes of curro.) 
 
 Redupl. | -turn : 
 
 i. di^c-ere 
 
 didfci 
 
 
 
 learn 
 
 2. posc-ere 
 
 poposci 
 
 
 
 demand 
 
 3. pa-^-g-ere 
 
 pepigi 
 
 pactum 
 
 fasten 
 
 4. pu-;*-g-ere 
 
 pupugi 
 
 punctum 
 
 prick 
 
 5. ta-/z-g-ere 
 
 tetigi 
 
 tactum 
 
 touch 
 
 6. sist-ere 
 
 -stiti 
 
 (-stitum) 
 
 stop 
 
 7. -d-ere 
 
 -didi 
 
 -ditum 
 
 put, give 
 
 8. tend-ere 
 
 tetendi 
 
 tentum 
 
 stretch 
 
 9. can-ere 
 
 cecmi 
 
 can turn 
 
 sing 
 
 44-46. Assentior from sentire : metior, Sk. ma, Suff. -ti : Cpp. (de di e)-metior -men- 
 sus. This Participle is difficult. Perhaps the Pres. also was nasalised, but dropt 
 n to avoid confusion with mention Cp. of ordior, exordior -orsus. R. or- with 
 suff. d-i. Virgil uses nutriri as Depon. : ' nutritor olivam/ G. ii. 425. 
 Inchoative from Verbs of Conj. 4. 
 dormi- 
 
 edormi-sco 
 
 edormivi 
 
 edormitum 
 
 sleep out 
 
 obdormi-sco 
 
 obdormivi 
 
 obdormitum 
 
 fall asleep 
 
 sci-sco 
 
 scivi 
 
 scitum 
 
 ratify 
 
 consci-sco 
 
 conscivi 
 
 conscitum 
 
 resolve 
 
 desci-sco 
 
 descivi 
 
 descitum 
 
 revolt 
 
 resci-sco 
 
 rescivi 
 
 rescitum 
 
 leant 
 
 1 Consonant Verbs. 
 
 1. Cpp. (ad con de e per prae)-disco. For dic-sc-o. See p. 195. 
 
 2. Cpp. (de ex re)-posco. For porc-sc-o. R. Sk. prac'h, 'ask, pray.' Hence, 
 
 prec-ari, procus. 
 
 3. Cpp. compingo, impingo -pegi -pactum ; oppango, oppegi. (De re)-pango. 
 
 R. Sk. pas', Gr. tray-, whence also pac-i-sc-or, pax, pignus, &c. 
 
 4. Cpp. (com dis ex inter)-pungo. On the probable common origin of pungere, 
 
 pingere, pix, &c., and Gr. Treu^rj, wi/cpos, TTOIKI'AOS, from a Pr. R. pik t puk t to 
 prick, dot, &c., see Curt Gr. Et. I. 133, 4. Compare Engl /*?/, pike, pick, 
 peck, poke, pock. (Can Sk. pis' be cited here ?) 
 
 5 Cpp. attingo, attlgi, attactum ; (con ob)-tingo -tTgi -tactum. The root-form tag-o 
 is used by Plautus : also attlgo (Gr. ray- : compare tingere). See Curt. 217. 
 
 6. Sisto, redupl. of sto, is trans, orintrans., but its Cpp. are intrans. (ab ad con de ex 
 
 in ob per re sub)-sisto -stiti. Sup. (-stitum, -statum) is very rare. 
 
 7. Cpp. of -do -dere (for dare) are (ab ad con de e in ob per pro red sub tra)-do 
 
 -didi -ditum. Also credo (Sk. Jrad-dadhami, ' put trust, believe '), -didi, -ditum, 
 trust, and vendo -didi -ditum, sell. See dare. The Partic. praeditus, endued, 
 is a relic of praedere, not otherwise occurring. 
 
 8. Cpp. attendo (con dis in ob prae sub)-tendo -tendi -tentum : (de ex os pro re) 
 
 -tendo -tendi -tentum, sometimes -tensum. R. Sk. tan, Gr. TO.V- rei/-, with suf- 
 fix d. 
 
 9. Cpp. occino, succlno -cinui -centum ; so (con prae)-cino. Intercino, recino, no 
 
 Perf. or Sup. Occecini is found. 
 
53- Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 217 
 
 10. par-gre peperi partum bring forth 
 
 11. toll-ere sustuli sublatum take up 
 
 Redupl. | -sum : 
 
 12. parc-ere 
 13. cad-ere 
 
 peperci 
 cecidi 
 
 parsum 
 casum 
 
 spare 
 fall 
 
 14. caed-ere 
 
 cecldi 
 
 caesum 
 
 cut, beat, kill 
 
 15. pend-ere 
 
 pependi 
 
 pensum 
 
 weigh 
 
 1 6. tu-^-d-ere 
 
 (tutudi) 
 
 tusum 
 
 thump, pound 
 
 17. curr-ere 
 
 cucurri 
 
 cursum 
 
 run 
 
 1 8. fall-ere 
 
 fefelli 
 
 falsum 
 
 deceive 
 
 19. pell-ere 
 
 pepuli 
 
 pulsum 
 
 drive 
 
 20. (-cell-ere) 
 
 (ceculi) 
 
 (-culsum) 
 
 push 
 
 2) Verbs with Present-stem strengthened in Perfect. 
 
 (S-) | -turn : 
 
 
 
 
 21. fac-ere (/-o) 
 
 feci 
 
 factum 
 
 make, do 
 
 22. iac-ere (/-o) 
 
 ieci 
 
 iactum 
 
 throw 
 
 23. li-^-qu-ere 
 
 llqui 
 
 -lictum 
 
 leave 
 
 10. Fut. Part, pariturus. 
 
 11. The old Perfect tetuli is used by Plaut. and Lucr. Tuli, with dropt reduplication, 
 
 is used as the Perfect of fero. See Irregular Verbs, p. 184. Latum, used as Sup. 
 of fero, is for t-latum from Sk. tut, Gr. rXa-, L. tol-, lift, endure. The Cpp. 
 of fero are : (ante circum de per prae pro re trans)-fero -tuli -latum ; afifero 
 attuli allatum ; aufero abstuli ablatum ; confero contuli collatum ; differo 
 distuli dilatum ; effero extuli elatum ; infero intuli illatum ; offero obtuli obla- 
 tum ; suffero sustuli sublatum (which two forms are borrowed by tollo). 
 
 12. Cp. comparco -parsi -parsum : or with e ; comperco, &c. Curtius compares Gr. 
 
 <r-rrapi>oy. 
 
 13. Cpp. accfdo, occido, succido -cldi. So (con de ex in inter pro re)-cido : occasum 
 
 is the only Sup. Recidi for rececidi. 
 
 14. Cpp. accido, occido, succido -cldi -clsum. So (con de ex in prae re)-cldo. 
 
 15. Cpp. appendo, impendo -pendi -pensum. So (dis ex per re sus)-pendo. 
 
 1 6. Cpp. (con ob re)-tundo -tudi -tusum or tunsum. R. Sk. tud, 'to strike, push, 
 
 bruise.' 
 
 17. Cpp. (ante circum in inter pro re super)-curro -curri. So succurro. Accurro, 
 
 occurro and (con de dis per trans)-curro have -curri or cucurri : ad (ex prae) 
 -curro prefer -cucurri. All have -cursum. Probable R. Pr. karsh, ' draw. ' 
 Cecurri is found. 
 
 18. Cp. refello, refelli; no Sup. R. Sk. sphal, Gr. o--<faAAw (sphal-yo), make to 
 
 fall. 
 
 19. Cpp. (com de dis ex per pro re)-pello -puli -pulsum. So appello, impello. As- 
 
 pello, no Perf. or Sup. Reppuli for repepuli. 
 
 20. (Cello ceculi) are not used. Cp. percello, perculi, perculsum, to thrill. R. Sk. 
 
 kal, 'to push/ 
 
 21. Cpp. (con de in inter per prae pro re)-f!cio -feci -fectum ; so afficio, officio, suf- 
 
 ficio : but (satis bene male)-facio -feci -factum. Facio is compounded with 
 many verbal elements : (are assue cale collabe commone labe lique made 
 mansue pate putre stupe obstupe tabe tepe treme tume)-facio -feci -factum, 
 together with many more ; the passive forms of which are similar com- 
 pounds of fio. 
 
 22. Cpp. (ab ad con de dis e in ob pro re sub tra)-icio -ieci -iectum. See Munro on 
 
 Lucr. ii. 951 ; Curt. 403. 
 
 S3. The Supine is only found in the Cpp. (re dere>linquo -liqui -lictum. R. Sk. nV, 
 Gr. AITT-. 
 
 
218 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 53- 
 
 24. vi-;z-cere 
 
 vici 
 
 victum 
 
 conquer 
 
 25. ag-ere 
 
 egi 
 
 actum 
 
 do 
 
 26. fra-^-g-ere 
 
 fregi 
 
 fractum 
 
 break 
 
 27. leg-ere 
 
 legi (lexi) 
 
 lectum 
 
 read, choose 
 
 28. cap-ere (2-0) 
 
 cepi 
 
 captum 
 
 take 
 
 29. ru-7/z-p-ere 
 
 rupi 
 
 ruptum 
 
 break 
 
 30. em-ere 
 
 emi 
 
 emptum 
 
 buy, take 
 
 31. scab-ere 
 
 scabi 
 
 
 
 scratch 
 
 (S-) | -sum : 
 
 
 
 
 32. ed-ere 
 
 edi 
 
 esum 
 
 eat 
 
 33. fbd-ere (o) 
 
 fodi 
 
 fossum 
 
 dig 
 
 34. fu-^-d-ere 
 
 ffidi 
 
 fusum 
 
 pour 
 
 Exceptions : 
 
 
 
 
 (S-) | 1-tum : 
 
 
 
 
 35. fug-ere (o) 
 
 fugl 
 
 fugitum 
 
 fly 
 
 (S) | -1-tum : 
 
 
 
 
 36. bib-ere 
 
 bibi 
 
 bibitum 
 
 drink 
 
 (S) | -turn : 
 
 
 
 
 37. Icere 
 
 (Tci) 
 
 ictum 
 
 strike 
 
 Lost Redupl. | - 
 
 sum : 
 
 
 
 38. fi-;/-d-ere 
 
 ftdi 
 
 fissum 
 
 cleave 
 
 39. sci-;/-d-ere 
 
 soldi 
 
 scissum 
 
 cut 
 
 (S.) | -sum : 
 
 
 
 
 40. vert-ere 
 
 verti 
 
 versum 
 
 turn 
 
 41. -cend-ere 
 
 -cendi 
 
 -censum 
 
 set alight 
 
 34. Cpp. (con de e per re)-vinco. 
 
 25. Cpp. (circum per)-ago -egi -actum ; (ab ad ex red sub trans transad)-igo -egi 
 
 -actum ; coigo=cogo, coegi, coactum ; deigo=dego degi, prodigo prodegi, no 
 Sup. ; ambigo, no Perf. or Sup. ; satago sategi, no Sup. R. Sk. aj, Gr. ay-. 
 
 26. Cpp. confringo, effringo ; (de in per prae re)-fringo -fregi -fractum. Gr. fpay-. 
 
 27. Lego, read, Cpp. (per prae re)-lego -legi -lectum. Lego, choose : sub-lego -legi 
 
 -lectum, (col de e se)-ligo -legi -lectum ; intellego, neg-lego, -lexi -lectum ; and 
 di-Kgo -lexi -lectum. Gr. Ae-y-. 
 
 28. Cpp. (con de ex in inter per prae re sus)-cipio -cepi -qeptum. So accipio. 
 
 But antecapio. See p. jgo. Note. 
 
 29. Cpp. corrumpo, irrumpo ; (di e inter per pro)-rumpo. R. Sk. lup, ' to tear.' 
 
 30. Cpp. (ad dir ex red)-imo -emi -emptum ; coemo, (inter per)-emo. The rest (como, 
 
 demo, promo, sumo) form -psi -ptum. Emo seems, in some of its uses, to be the 
 
 Causal of eo. Compare intereo with interemo ; pereo with peremo. 
 32. Cpp. (ad com ex per)-edo -edi -esum. See IRREGULAR VERBS, p. 189. 
 33- Cpp. (con de in per)-fodio. Also effodio. 
 34. Cpp. (con de in per pro re)-fundo. Also affundo, effundo, offundo, suffundo ; Gr. 
 
 ^v-, with nasalised suff. d : pointing to a lost root ghu. 
 35- Cpp. aufugio, diffugio, effugio : (con per pro re trans)-fugio. R. Sk. bhuj, Gr. 
 
 ivy-. 
 36. Cpp. combibo, ebibo, imbibo. R. Sk. pa, Gr. TTO-, Present-stem redupl. ; thfr 
 
 p being softened to to. 
 
 38. Cp. dif-findo. 
 
 39. Cpp. (ab di ex re>scindo. R. Sk. c'hid. 
 
 40. Cpp. (a ad con de di e in ob per prae re sub)-verto. R. Pr. vart. 
 
 41. Cpp. accendo, incendo, succendo -cendi -censum. 
 
53- 
 
 Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 
 
 42. cud-ere 
 
 cudi 
 
 ciisum 
 
 hammer 
 
 43. -fend-ere 
 
 -fendi 
 
 -fensum 
 
 strike 
 
 44. mand-ere 
 
 mandi 
 
 mansum 
 
 chew 
 
 45. pand-ere 
 46. prehend-ere 
 
 pandi 
 prehendi 
 
 pansum 
 prehensum 
 
 spread 
 take, grasp 
 
 47. scand-ere 
 
 scandi 
 
 scansum 
 
 climb 
 
 48. sid-ere 
 
 sldi 
 
 
 
 settle 
 
 49. lamb-ere 
 
 Iambi 
 
 
 
 lick 
 
 50. verr-ere 
 
 verri 
 
 versum 
 
 sweep 
 
 51. vell-ere ' 
 
 jvelli > 
 1 vulsi > 
 
 vulsum 
 
 rend, pluck 
 
 52. psall-ere 
 
 psalli 
 
 
 
 play (chords} 
 
 53. vls-ere 
 
 vlsi 
 
 visum 
 
 msit 
 
 54. f idere 
 
 fisus sum 
 
 
 
 trust 
 
 3) Verbs with agglutinated Perfect- stem in -ul or -vi. 
 a. -ui I -turn : 
 
 55. compesc-ere 
 
 56. rap-ere (z'-o) 
 
 57. dl-ere 
 
 58. col-ere 
 
 59. consul-ere 
 
 60. occul-ere 
 
 61. ser-ere 
 
 62. pins-ere 
 
 compescui 
 
 rapui 
 
 alui 
 
 colui 
 
 consului 
 
 occului 
 
 serui 
 
 pinsui 
 
 raptum 
 
 altum 
 
 cultum 
 
 consultum 
 
 occultum 
 
 sertum 
 
 pistum 
 
 restrain 
 
 seize 
 
 nourish 
 
 till 
 
 constilt 
 
 hide 
 
 set in row 
 
 pound 
 
 42. 
 
 43- 
 
 49. 
 
 SO- 
 
 51- 
 
 53- 
 54- 
 
 55- 
 56. 
 
 57- 
 
 58. 
 59- 
 
 60. 
 
 61. 
 62. 
 
 Cpp. (ex in pro)-cudo -cudi -cusum. Hence incus incud-, anvil. 
 
 Cpp. (de of)-fendo. Hence infensus, infestus, manifestus (for -fendtus). Sk. 
 han (Pr. dhan?), Gr. 0ev-. 
 
 Cpp. (dis ex prae)-pando -pandi -pansum or passum. 
 
 Also prend-ere, prendi, prensum. Cpp. apprehendo (com de re)-prehendo or 
 -prendo, &c. Gr. x a ^- x av $ LV(0 ' 
 
 Cpp. (ad con de in tran)-scendo -scendi -scensum. R. Sk. skand. 
 
 See sed-ere, of which sidere is a variant form. Cpp. (ad con in re sub)-sido 
 -sidi. 
 
 Latin root lab-. 
 
 Cp, everro. See Corss. Kr. B. 403. 
 
 Cpp. (con di per re)-velli -vulsum : (a e)-velli er -vulsi -vulsum. See Corss. 
 Kr. B. 325. 
 
 From Sup. of video. Cpp. (in re)-viso. 
 
 Cpp. (con dif)-fido, of which the Perfects (con dif )-fldi are in use as well as (con- 
 dif)-fisus sum. 
 
 For comperc-sc-ere. 
 
 Cpp. (ab de di e)-ripio -ripui -reptum. So arripio, corripio, surripio. Pott and 
 Corssen take rap to be the original form of Sk. hip, ' to tear/ also shewn in 
 ru-m-pere. 
 
 Al, ol, is the root of growth=Pr. ar: shewn in al-ere al-tus, olescere, and nume- 
 rous words. Inch, co-al-esco -ui -itum, -unite, curdle. See Curt. 359. 
 
 Cpp. (ex in re)-colo. See accolo. R. Pr. kar y 'make.' , 
 
 Corssen (Nachtr. 280) agrees with Mommsen in adopting Pr. sar, 'move/ L. sal-, 
 as the root of con-sul-ere, exsul, praesul, &c. He gives consulere a sense = con- 
 venire, and makes consul (for consul-us) its derivative. 
 
 Occulo, celare, cella, clam, and Gr. KaAuTTTw (/CPUTTTW) KaAt'a, are evidently cog- 
 nate and point to a common Pr. kal, ' hide/ which appears in Sk. as ML 
 Curtius compares also clepere and color. 
 
 Cpp. (con de dis ex in)-sero. So assero. Gr. etpw. See Curt. 355. 
 
 Sometimes pisere, pisi. R. Sk. pish, 'crush.' 
 
220 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 53- 
 
 63. tcx-ere 
 
 64. deps-ere 
 
 -ui I i-tum : 
 
 texui 
 depsui 
 
 textum 
 
 65. elic-ere (z-o) 
 
 elicui 
 
 elicitum 
 
 66. stert-ere 
 
 stertui 
 
 
 
 67. strep-ere 
 
 strepui 
 
 strepitum 
 
 68. cu;b-ere 
 
 cubui 
 
 cubitum 
 
 69. frem-ere 
 
 fremui 
 
 fremitum 
 
 70. gem-ere 
 
 gemui 
 
 gemitum 
 
 71. trem-ere 
 
 tremui 
 
 
 
 72. vom-ere 
 
 vomui 
 
 vomitum 
 
 73- gign-ere 
 
 genui 
 
 genitum 
 
 74. pon-ere 
 
 posui 
 
 positum 
 
 75. mol-ere 
 
 molui 
 
 molitum 
 
 76. velle (volo) 
 
 volui 
 
 
 
 77. nolle (nolo) 
 
 nolui 
 
 
 
 78. malle (malo) 
 
 malui 
 
 
 
 -ui | -sum : 
 
 
 
 79. met-ere 
 
 messui 
 
 messum 
 
 80. frewd-ere 
 
 fre^dui 
 
 fressum 
 
 81. (-cell-ere) 
 
 (-cellui) 
 
 (-celsum) 
 
 weave 
 kneadj tan 
 
 tice forth 
 
 snore 
 
 rattle 
 
 lie down 
 
 roar 
 
 groan 
 
 tremble 
 
 vomit 
 
 place 
 grind 
 wish 
 wish not 
 wish rather 
 
 mow, reap 
 gnash, bruise 
 push 
 
 b. -vi | -tuna : 
 
 These include the Verbs, before noticed, in which the Present 
 Stem is so modified as to become consonantal : while the True 
 Stem, which is pure, is shown in the Perfect and Supine forms. 
 
 a. 82. Ite-ere 
 
 83. ste-ere 
 
 84. cerw-ere 
 
 levi 
 slvi 
 crevi 
 
 Iftum 
 sftum 
 cretum 
 
 smear 
 allow 
 sift 
 
 63. Cpp. (con in ob per prae re sub)-texo. R. Sk. taksh (for Pr. tak), ' fashion.' Gr. 
 
 TCUX-- 
 
 64. Gr. 6e'<o). 
 
 65. See lacere. 
 
 67. Cpp. (ob per)-strepo. 
 
 68. Cpp. (con de dis in pro re)-cumbo. See cubare. 
 
 69. Cp. infremo. R. Sk. bhram, Gr. /3pe/x-o>. 
 
 70. Cpp. (con in)-gemo. Inchoative : gemisca Cpp. (con in)-gemisco, gemui. 
 
 71. Inchoative tremisco. Cpp. (con in)-tremisco, tremui. R. Sk. tras, Gr. rpe-. 
 
 Suff. m. 
 
 72. Cpp. (e re)-vomo. R. Sk. vam, Gr. f e/x-e-. 
 
 73- Cp. progigno. Redupl. of gen-. Sk. fan, Gr. yei/-. Geno is found in old 
 Latin. 
 
 74. Cpp. (ante com de dis ex inter post prae pro re se trans)-pono. See p. 195. 
 
 75. Cp. permolo. Gr. /muA-, L. mola, a mill. Hence malt ? 
 76-78. See Irregular Verbs, p. 186. 
 
 79. Cp. demeto. (Sk. ma, 'measure'?)' 
 
 80. The Sup. shews the nasalisation of Pres. St. See frendere. 
 
 81. Cpp. (ante ex prae)-cello cellui. Hence the Adjectives celsus, excelsus, praecel- 
 
 sus. R. Sk. kal, 'push/ shewn also in procul, procella, culter, celer, /ce'AAw, 
 /3ov<coAos, and others. See 20. 
 
 82. Cpp. (per ob sub)-lino -levi -Htum. Also collmo, illmo. Another form is linire. 
 
 R. Sk. It. 
 
 83. Cp. desino, (desivi) desii, also desitus sum. 
 
 84. Cpp. (de dis ex se>cerno. R. Gr. *pt-. Hence L. cribrum, sieve. 
 
53- 
 
 Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 
 
 221 
 
 85. sper;2-ere 
 
 sprevi 
 
 spretum 
 
 spurn 
 
 86. stera-ere 
 
 stravi 
 
 stratum 
 
 strew 
 
 87. ser-ere 
 
 sevi 
 
 satum 
 
 sow 
 
 88. cre^-ere 
 
 crevi 
 
 cretum 
 
 grow 
 
 89. quieyr-ere 
 
 quievi 
 
 quietum 
 
 rest 
 
 90. suejr-ere 
 
 suevi 
 
 suetum 
 
 be wont 
 
 91. (g)no^-ere 
 
 (g)novi 
 
 (g)notum 
 
 know 
 
 92. pasr-ere 
 
 pavi 
 
 pastum 
 
 feed 
 
 /3. 93. cup-ere (z-o) 
 
 cuplvi 
 
 cupltum 
 
 desire 
 
 94. pet-ere 
 
 petivi 
 
 petltum 
 
 demand 
 
 95. quaer-ere 
 
 quaeslvi 
 
 quaesltum 
 
 seek 
 
 96. rud-ere 
 
 rudlvi 
 
 rudltum 
 
 bray 
 
 97. sap-ere (2-0) 
 
 saplvi 
 
 
 
 savour 
 
 98. ter-ere 
 
 trivi 
 
 tritum 
 
 rub, bruise 
 
 y. 99. arcess-ere 
 
 arcessivi 
 
 arcessitum 
 
 fetch 
 
 100. incess-ere 
 
 incessivi 
 
 incessltum 
 
 attack 
 
 101. capess-ere 
 
 capessivi 
 
 capessltum 
 
 take in hand 
 
 102. facess-ere 
 
 facessivi 
 
 facessitum 
 
 cause 
 
 103. lacess-ere 
 
 lacesslvi 
 
 lacessltum 
 
 provoke 
 
 4) Verbs forming Perfect- Stem with agglutinated -s (for es-). 
 a. Guttural Stems : 
 
 -si | -turn : 
 
 
 
 
 104. dlc-ere 
 105. duc-ere 
 1 06. -lac-ere (z-o) 
 
 dixi 
 
 duxi 
 -lexi 
 
 dictum 
 ductum 
 -lectum 
 
 say 
 lead 
 entice 
 
 85. Spernere, properly * to kick.' Curt. 289. 
 
 86. Cpp. (in pro)-sterno. R. Pr. star, Gr. <rrop-. 
 
 87. Cpp. (con in)-sero -sevi -situm. 
 
 88. Cpp. (con de ex in)-cresco. Also accresco, succresco. Cresco is Inchoative of 
 
 creo, Sk. fa-t, 'make.' 
 
 89. Cpp. acquiesce, (con re)-quiesco. Sk. s'i, Gr. icet-. 
 
 90. Cpp. assuesco, (con de in)-suesco. Sk. svadh&, 'self-will.' R. sva, 'self.' 
 
 91. Nosco has dropt g" which reappears in agnosco, agnovi, agmtum ; cognosce, cog- 
 
 novi, cogmtum ; ignosco, ignovi : Adj. ignotus. Dignosco, internosco have no 
 Sup. This Verb, with potum, potus, are the only remnants of a Latin O-verb. 
 Sk. jnd, Gr. yvo-. 
 
 92. Cp. depasco. 
 
 93. Cupiret, Lucr. 
 
 94. Cpp. (com ex re)-peto. So appeto, oppeto. Curtius refers to Sk. pat, Gr. TTCT-, 
 
 fly. 
 
 95. For quaesere or quaesire. Cpp. (con dis ex in per re)-quiro -qulsivi -quisltum. 
 
 So perquiro, conquiro. 
 
 96. Sk. ru, rud ; Gr. wpvco. Persius has rudere : but rudens, cable. 
 
 97. Or sapui. Cp. desipio -ui. Inchoative resipisco -sipui, grow wise again. This 
 
 word, compared with sucus, shews labialisrn, as lupus, popina, &c. 
 
 98. Cpp. (de con pro)-tero -trivi -tritum. Also attero. Perf. terivi and terui are 
 
 found. Connected with Gr. retpw, repiji'. L. tener. 
 
 99-103. These Verbs are formed with a suffix ess- which expresses eager action. 
 Arcess- is for acci-ess-, and is sometimes written accers- : incess- for inci-ess- : 
 both from root ci, rouse : capess- from cap- : facess- from fac- : lacess- from lac- 
 Perfect and Supine shew that the Present-Stem was originally -io. Perfects 
 incessi, facessi, lacessi, are cited. 
 
 104. Cpp. (ad bene contra e in inter male prae vale)-dico. R. Sk. dis', Gr. SeiK-. 
 
 105. Cpp. (ab ad circum con de di e in intro ob per pro re se sub tra)-duco. 
 
 106. Cpp. al-licio, il-licio, pel-licio, pro-licio -lexi -lectum ; but elicio, elicui, elicitum. 
 
222 
 
 Latin Word lore. 
 
 153- 
 
 107. -spec-ere (z-o) 
 
 -spexi 
 
 -spectum 
 
 espy 
 
 1 08. coqu-ere 
 
 coxi 
 
 coctum 
 
 cook 
 
 109. cing-ere 
 
 cinxi 
 
 cinctum 
 
 surround 
 
 no. fi;/g-ere 
 
 fi;/xi 
 
 fictum 
 
 fashion 
 
 in. -fllg-ere 
 
 -flixi 
 
 -flictum 
 
 smite 
 
 112. frig-ere 
 
 frixi 
 
 frictum 
 
 roast, fry 
 
 113. iung-ere 
 
 iunxi 
 
 iunctum 
 
 join 
 
 114. ling-ere 
 
 -linxi 
 
 -linctum 
 
 lick 
 
 115. mung-ere 
 
 -munxi 
 
 -munctum 
 
 wipe 
 
 1 1 6. pi#g-ere 
 
 pi/zxi 
 
 pictum 
 
 paint 
 
 117. plang-ere 
 
 planxi 
 
 planctum 
 
 beat 
 
 1 1 8. reg-ere 
 
 rexi 
 
 rectum 
 
 ride 
 
 119. stri;/g-ere 
 
 striwxi 
 
 strictum 
 
 bind 
 
 120. sug-ere 
 
 suxi 
 
 suctum 
 
 suck 
 
 121. teg-ere 
 
 texi 
 
 tectum 
 
 cover 
 
 122. -stingu-ere 
 
 -stinxi 
 
 -stinctum 
 
 
 
 123. tingu-ere 
 
 tinxi 
 
 tinctum 
 
 stain 
 
 124. ungu-ere 
 
 unxi 
 
 unctum 
 
 anoint 
 
 125. ningu-ere 
 
 ninxi 
 
 
 
 snow 
 
 126. ang-ere 
 
 (anxi) 
 
 
 
 squeeze 
 
 127. clang-ere 
 
 
 
 
 
 rattle 
 
 128. trah-ere 
 
 traxi 
 
 tractum 
 
 draw 
 
 129. veh-ere 
 
 vexi 
 
 vectum 
 
 carry 
 
 130. vlv-ere 
 
 vixi 
 
 victum 
 
 live 
 
 131. stru-ere 
 
 struxi 
 
 structum 
 
 pile 
 
 107. Cpp. (circum con de di in per pro re)-spicio -spexi -spectum. So aspicio, suspicio. 
 
 R. Sk. spas', Gr. a*-. 
 
 108. Cpp. (con de in per)-coquo. R. Sk. pac,' , Gr. weir-. See p. 59. 
 
 109. Cpp. (dis prae re)-cingo. So accingo, succingo. 
 no. Cpp. affingo, effingo, re-fingo, Gr. 0iy-. 
 
 in. Cpp. (con in)-fligo, affligo. Profligare, rout, is of Conj. i. 
 
 112. R. Sk. bhrajj, Gr. <fpvy-. 
 
 113. Cpp. (ad con dis in se sub)-iungo. R. Sk. yuj, Gr. vy-. 
 
 114. Cp. pol-lingo, anoint (a corpse), pollinxi, pollinctum. Sk. rib QIC lih t Gr. Aet*-. 
 
 115. Cp. emungo, wipe the nose, clean out. R. Sk. JHUC'. 
 
 116. Cpp. appingo, depingo. See pungere. R. Sk. pinj. 
 
 117. Gr. TrArj-y-. L. plaga. 
 
 118. Cpp. amgo, conTgo, dingo ; (e por)-rigo -rexi -rectum. Also pergo, perrexi, per- 
 
 rectum ; surgo, rise, surrexi, surrectum, with its compounds : (as con ex in 
 re)-surgo -surrexi -surrectum. R. Gr. opey-. 
 
 119. Cpp. astringo, (con de di ob per prae re sub)-stringo. From praestringere comes 
 
 praestigiae, juggleries (for praestrigiae). Gr. orpayy-. 
 
 120. Cp. exsugo. 
 
 121. Cpp. (con de ob pro re)-tego. Latin has dropt s. R. Sk. stliag, Gr. arey-. 
 
 122. Stinguo has the sense of pricking and also of quenching. Cpp. : (i) (di in)- 
 
 stinguo ; (2) (ex re)-stinguo. Gr. (TTI^W. 
 
 123. Gr. reyyo). 
 
 124. Cpp. (in per)-unguo. Tinguo, unguo maybe written tingo, ungo. 
 
 125. A primitive s-nih- must be assumed, from which, by casting off s and nasalizing, 
 
 comes the fbrm ningu-, and again nix, nivis, &c. Gr. vfyto. Hence Germ, 
 schnee, Eng. snow. R. Sk. snu. 
 
 126. R. Sk. anj, Gr. ay^-. 
 
 128. Cpp. attraho ; (con de dis ex per pro re sub)-traho. 
 
 129. Cpp. (a ad circum con de e in praeter re sub)-veho. R. Sk. -vah, Gr. f o\e-. 
 
 130. Prim, gviv, Sk. j'tzf, whence vigv-, the True Stem of vivo, which drops the second 
 
 V in Perf. and Sup. Corssen, B. 72. Inchoative : reviv-isc-o, revixi, re- 
 victum. 
 
 131. See Corssen, B. 72. Cpp. (ad con de ex in ob sub)-struo -struxi -structum. 
 
53- 
 
 Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 223 
 
 -si j -sum : 
 
 
 
 
 a. 132. flg-ere 
 
 fixi 
 
 fixum 
 
 fa 
 
 133. flu-ere 
 
 fluxi 
 
 fluxum 
 
 flow 
 
 .& 134. merg-ere 
 
 mersi 
 
 mersum 
 
 drown 
 
 135. sparg-ere 
 
 sparsi 
 
 sparsum 
 
 sprinkle 
 
 136. terg-ere 
 
 tersi 
 
 tersum 
 
 wipe 
 
 Tx Dental Stems : 
 
 
 
 
 -si | -sum : 
 
 
 
 
 137. flect-ere 
 
 flexi 
 
 flexum 
 
 bend 
 
 138. nect-ere 
 
 | nexi .l 
 < nexui > 
 
 nexum 
 
 twine 
 
 139. pect-ere 
 
 pexi 
 
 pexum 
 
 comb 
 
 140. plect-ere 
 
 
 
 -plexum 
 
 (plait 
 \ smite 
 
 141. mitt-ere 
 
 misi 
 
 missum 
 
 send 
 
 142. quat-ere (2-0) 
 
 
 
 quassum 
 
 shake 
 
 143. ced-ere 
 
 cessi 
 
 cessum 
 
 yield 
 
 144. claud-ere 
 
 clausi 
 
 clausum 
 
 shut 
 
 145. divid-ere 
 
 divlsi 
 
 divisum 
 
 divide 
 
 146. laed-ere 
 
 laesi 
 
 laesum 
 
 hurt 
 
 147. lud-ere 
 
 lusi 
 
 lusum 
 
 play 
 
 148. plaud-ere 
 
 plausi 
 
 plausum 
 
 clap hands 
 
 149. rad-ere 
 
 rasi 
 
 rasum 
 
 shave 
 
 150. rod-ere 
 
 rosi 
 
 rosum 
 
 gnaw 
 
 151. trud-ere 
 
 trusi 
 
 trusum 
 
 thrust 
 
 152. vad-ere 
 
 -vasi 
 
 -vasum 
 
 go 
 
 132. Cpp. affigo, suffigo ; con- de- in- prae- re- trans-figo. 
 
 133. Enlarged forms flug- and flugv- account for the Perfect fluxi and for flu-v-ius. 
 
 Cpp. (circum con de dif ef in per prae praeter pro re)-fluo -fluxi -fluxum. Also 
 affluo, diffluo, effluo. The noun fluctus points to an older Sup. in -turn. 
 
 134. Cpp. immergo ; (de e sub)-mergo. 
 
 135. Cpp. conspergo, dispergo ; (ad in re)-spergo -spersi -spersum. In old L. these 
 
 keep a. 
 
 136. For stergere. So C. and Meyer. Compare s-trigilis, flesh-scraper. See ter- 
 
 gere. 
 
 137. This and the next three are Guttural Verbs, strengthened by a suffix t : but, as 
 
 t falls out before S, and also influences the Supine, they may be treated 
 as Dental Verbs. Cpp. (circum de in re)-flecto. 
 
 138. Cpp. (ad con in sub)-necto -nexui -nexum. See meto. 
 
 139. Cp. depecto depexi depexum. 
 
 140. Gr. n-Ae/c-. 
 
 141. Cpp. dimitto, immitto, omitto ; (a ad com de e inter per prae praeter pro re sub 
 
 trans)-mitto -misi -missum. 
 
 142. Cpp. (con dis ex in per)-cutio -cussi -cussum. So repercutio. 
 
 143. Cpp. (abs ante con de dis ex in inter prae pro re se)-cedo. So accedo, succedo. 
 
 144. Cpp. (con dis ex in inter prae re se)-clu<lo -clusi -clusum. So occludo, Gr. 
 
 K\L<0. 
 
 146. Cpp. allldo, collide, elTdo, il-lldo -lisi -lisum. 
 
 147. Cpp. alludo, colludo, illudo, (de e) -ludo -lusi -lusum. 
 
 ,148. Cpp. applaudo -plausi - plausum, (ex sup)-plodo -plosi -plosum. 
 
 149. Cpp. (ab e)-rado. So corrado. R. Sk. rad. 
 
 150. Cpp. (de prae>rodo. So arrodo, corrodo. Sk. rad. 
 
 151. Cpp. (abs de ex in ob pro)-trudo. 
 
 152. Cpp. (e in per)-vado. 
 
224 
 
 Latin 
 
 Wordlore. 
 
 ISS 
 
 c. Labial Stems : 
 
 
 
 
 -si | -turn : 
 
 
 
 
 153. carp-ere 
 
 carpsi 
 
 carp turn 
 
 pluck 
 
 154. clep-ere 
 
 clepsi 
 
 cleptum 
 
 steal 
 
 ,rep-ere 
 
 repsi 
 
 reptum 
 
 creep 
 
 " Iserp-ere 
 
 serpsi 
 
 
 
 crawl 
 
 f- ( scalp-ere 
 I5 ' Isculp-e're 
 
 scalpsi 
 sculpsi 
 
 scalptum 
 sculptum 
 
 scratch 
 grave 
 
 157. glub-ere 
 
 glupsi 
 
 gluptum 
 
 peel 
 
 158. nub-ere 
 
 nupsi 
 
 nuptum 
 
 wed 
 
 159. scrlb-ere 
 
 scripsi 
 
 scriptum 
 
 write 
 
 d. Nasal Stems : 
 
 
 
 
 -si | -turn : 
 
 
 
 
 1 60. com-ere 
 
 compsi 
 
 comptum 
 
 dress hair 
 
 1 6 1. dem-ere 
 
 dempsi 
 
 demptum 
 
 take away 
 
 162. prom-ere 
 
 prompsi 
 
 promptum 
 
 take forth 
 
 163. sum-ere 
 
 sumpsi 
 
 sumptum 
 
 take up 
 
 164. temn-ere 
 
 tempsi 
 
 temptum 
 
 despise 
 
 -si | -sum : 
 
 
 
 
 165. prem-ere 
 
 pressi 
 
 pressum 
 
 press 
 
 e. Liquid (Sibilant) 
 
 Stems : 
 
 
 
 -si | -turn : 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 1 66. ger-ere 
 
 gessi 
 
 gestum 
 
 carry on 
 
 167. ur-ere 
 
 ussi 
 
 ustum 
 
 burn 
 
 II. U-verbs : 
 
 
 
 
 -ui | -utum : 
 
 
 
 
 1 68. acu-ere 
 
 acui 
 
 acutum 
 
 sharpen 
 
 169. argu-ere 
 
 argui 
 
 argutum 
 
 prove 
 
 153- Cpp. (con de dis ex)-cerpo -cerpsi -cerptum. 
 
 154. Gr. KAe7rra>. 
 
 155. Cpp. (ad ob per sub)-repo. Correpo, irrepo. Serpsi is not found in Classical 
 
 Latin. R. Pr. sarp. 
 
 156. Cpp. (ex in)-sculpo. 
 
 157. Gr. y\v<fn0. 
 
 158. Nubo is classically applied to the woman only, except in a" jocular sense : as 
 
 Martial viii. 12 : 'uxori nubere nolo meae.' It has Perf. nupta sum as well as 
 nupsi. That the verb is originally transitive, meaning to veil or cover, is shewn 
 by various passages and by the Compound obnubo. Hence the bride who covers 
 herself with the flammeum is said nubere (se). 
 
 159. Cpp. (ad circum con de ex in per prae pro re sub tran)-scribo. 
 
 160-163 are Cpp. of emo, take, but differing from it in the Perfect. Cpp. of promo : 
 (de ex>promo -prompsi -promptum. Cpp. of sumo : (ab as con de in re)- 
 sumo -sumpsi -sumptum. 
 
 164. Cp. contemno contempsi contemptum. 
 
 165. Cpp. imprlmo, supprimo ; (com de ex op re)-primo -pressi -pressum. 
 
 166. Cpp. (con di e in)-gero. So aggero, suggero. 
 
 167. Cpp. (ad ex in per)-uro. Corssen (Kr. Nachtrdge, 117) derives amburo r 
 
 com-buro -bussi -bustum, together with the Noun bustum, from Sk. prush, 
 plush, ' to burn. ' 
 
 1 68. Cp. exacuo, exacui. On the original long quantity of U in U-verbs, see p. 18. 
 
 169. Cp. redargue. Sk. arjuna-s, clear, Gr. apyds. 
 
53- Syllabus of Stem- Formation in Verbs. 225 
 
 170. exu-ere exui 
 
 exutum 
 
 put off 
 
 171. indu-ere indui 
 
 indutum 
 
 put on 
 
 172. imbu-ere imbui 
 
 imbutum 
 
 tinge 
 
 173. lu-ere lui 
 
 lutum 
 
 wash, atone 
 
 174. minu-ere minui 
 
 minutum 
 
 lessen 
 
 175. nu-ere nui 
 
 nutum 
 
 nod 
 
 176. spu-ere spui 
 
 sputum 
 
 spit 
 
 177. statu-ere statui 
 
 statutum 
 
 set up 
 
 178. sternu-ere sternui sternutum 
 
 sneeze 
 
 179. su-ere sui 
 
 sutum 
 
 sew 
 
 1 80. tribu-ere tribui 
 
 tributum 
 
 assign, pay 
 
 181. solv-ere solvi 
 
 solutum 
 
 loose, pay 
 
 182. volv-ere volvi 
 
 volutum 
 
 roll 
 
 -ul | -iitum : 
 
 
 
 183. ru-ere rui 
 
 rutum (ruftum) 
 
 184. batu-ere batui 
 
 
 
 beat 
 
 185. -gru-ere -grui 
 
 
 
 
 1 86. metu-ere metui 
 
 
 
 fear 
 
 187. plu-ere plui 
 
 
 
 rain 
 
 Deponent Verbs in Conj. 
 
 3: 
 
 
 o. 1 88. fung-i 
 
 functus 
 
 perform 
 
 189. mt-i 
 
 nisus (nixus) 
 
 strive 
 
 190. plect-i 
 
 -plexus 
 
 twine 
 
 191. pat-i (/-or) 
 
 passus 
 
 suffer 
 
 192. uti 
 
 usus 
 
 use 
 
 193. grad-i (/-or) 
 
 gressus 
 
 step 
 
 170-1. Latin -uo in these Verbs corresponds to Gr. Svw. Curt. 621. But see Corss. 
 
 Beitr. 496. Hence ind-uviae, ex-uviae. 
 
 172. Corssen considers bu in imbuo a weakened form of pa po- t ' to drink.' 
 273. Cpp. (ab di e per pol pro sub)-luo -lui -lutum. Fut. Part, luiturus. Luo is the 
 
 weak form which appears strengthened in Gr. Aov'o- and L. lav-ere, lavare 
 
 (see A-verbs). Curt. 370. See solvere. 
 
 174. Cpp. (com de di im)-minuo. R. Sk. mi, Gr. JAI-V-. 
 
 175. Cpp. (ab an in re)-nuo. Gr. vevw. 
 
 176. Cpp. (con de ex re)-spuo -spui. Gr. TTTV'W, hence p-i-tulta for s-pitulta. 
 
 177. From status. Cpp. (con de in pro re subVstituo -stitui -stitutum. 
 
 179. Cpp. (as con dis rc)-suo. R. Sk. siv. 
 
 180. From tribus, tribe : Root tri, three. Applied first to the state-payments of the 
 
 three original Tribes at Rome. Cpp. (con dis re)-tribuo. So attribuo. 
 
 181. Cpp. (ab dis ex per re)-solvo. For se-luere, from a verb lu-, I00se=Sk. Id, Gr. 
 
 Av-, but not otherwise shewn in L. 
 
 182. Cpp. (ad circum con de e in ob per pro re)-volvo. Gr. f eAv'a>. 
 
 183. Cpp. (di e ob pro sub)-ruo -rui -rutum. So corruo, irruo. Fut. Part, rui- 
 
 turus. 
 
 185. Cpp. (con in)-gruo. 
 
 186. Metutum appears in Lucr. v. 1139. 
 
 187. Cp. depluo. 
 
 (The word delibutus, steeled, belongs to a disused Verb delibuo.) 
 
 188. Cpp. (de per)-fungor. 
 
 189. Cpp. (ad con e in ob re sub)-nitor -nixus. For g-nitor. R. Sk, jdnu, Gr. yovv, 
 
 knee. 
 
 190. See pie ct ere. Cpp. amplector, complector, embrace. 
 
 191. Cp. perpetior, perpessus. 
 
 192. In old Latin the form oitier appears. Cp. abutor abusus. 
 
 193. Cpp. aggredior (con de di e in prae pro re trans)-gredior -gressus. 
 
226 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 53- 
 
 194. lab-i 
 
 lapsus 
 
 glide, fall 
 
 195. mor-i (/-or) 
 
 mortuus 
 
 die 
 
 196. quer-i 
 
 questus 
 
 complain 
 
 197. fru-i 
 
 fruitus 
 
 enjoy 
 
 198. 16qu-i 
 
 locutus 
 
 speak 
 
 199. sequ-i 
 
 secutus 
 
 follow 
 
 (3. 200. apisc-i 
 
 aptus 
 
 obtain 
 
 201. -menisc-i 
 
 -mentus 
 
 have in mind 
 
 202. expergisc-i 
 203. fatisc-i 
 
 experrectus 
 fessus 
 
 wake lip 
 be weary 
 
 204. (g)nasc-i 
 
 (g)natus 
 
 be born 
 
 205. irasc-i 
 
 iratus 
 
 be angry 
 
 206. nancisc-i 
 
 nactus 
 
 find 
 
 207. oblivisc-i 
 
 oblltus 
 
 forget 
 
 208. pacisc-i 
 
 pactus 
 
 bargain 
 
 209. proficisc-i 
 
 profectus 
 
 set out 
 
 194. Cpp. (de di e praeter pro sub re)-labor -lapsus. So allabor, collabor, illabor. 
 
 195. Cpp. (de e>morior -mortuus. Fut. Part, moriturus. So immorior. R. Sk, 
 
 mar. Mortuus is an Adj. used participially. 
 
 196. Cp. conqueror conquestus. 
 
 197. For frugv-i, henee fructus ; but Fut. Part, fruiturus. Cp. perfruor perfruitus. 
 
 198. Cpp. (e ob pro)-loquor -locutus. So alloquor, colloquor. 
 
 199. Cpp. (con ex in ob per pro sub)-sequor -secutus. R. Sk. sac*, Gr. en--. 
 
 200. Cpp. (ad ind)-ipiscor -eptus. R. Sk. dp. 
 
 201. Cpp. comminiscor commentus ; reminiscor, no Part. R. Sk. man. 
 
 202. The Cp. expergisci experrectus is evidently weakened from exporgisci expor^ 
 
 rectus : from exporrigi, to stretch oneself out (on awakening). See rego. 
 
 203. Cp. defetiscor defessus. 
 
 204. Cp. (con e in)-nascor -natus, Fut Part, nasciturus. Observe cognatus, prog- 
 
 natus. See gignere, 73. 
 
 206. Nanctus is also used : and nanciam is cited as an old form. 
 
 207. From liv-ere, to be of a dark colour ; hence oblivisci, to become darkened, tff 
 
 forget. So Corssen, Nachtr., 34. 
 
 ao8. See pan go. Cpp. (com de)-paciscor or -peciscor. R. Sk. pas 1 . 
 209. From pro fac- (make forward). 
 
 (Inchoative Verbs derived from other Verbs have been mentioned in the Notes to the 
 Syllabus.) 
 
 A) Inchoatives derived from Nouns are very numerous : examples are 
 i) Having a Perfect, but no Supine. 
 From resper 
 
 creber 
 
 crudus 
 
 durus 
 
 macer 
 
 maturms 
 
 mutus 
 
 niger 
 
 notus 
 
 surdus 
 
 vanus 
 
 - vii* 
 
 vesperasco 
 advesperasco 
 
 vesperavi 
 advesperavi 
 
 \grow towards 
 \ evening 
 
 invesperasco 
 
 invesperavi 
 
 
 crebresco 
 
 crebui 
 
 \ 
 
 increbresco 
 
 incrcbui 
 
 \ become frequent 
 
 percrebresco 
 
 percrebui 
 
 ) 
 
 recrudesco 
 
 recrudui 
 
 become sore again 
 
 duresco \ 
 
 durui 
 
 1 
 
 induresco f 
 
 indurui 
 
 r grow hard 
 
 obduresco ' 
 
 obdurui 
 
 ) 
 
 macresco 
 
 macrui 
 
 grow lean 
 
 maturesco 
 
 maturui 
 
 become npe 
 
 obmutesco 
 
 obmutui 
 
 become mute 
 
 nigresco 
 
 nigrui 
 
 become black 
 
 innotesco 
 
 innotui 
 
 become known 
 
 obsurdesco 
 
 obsurdui 
 
 become deaf 
 
 vanesco 
 evanesco 
 
 vanui 
 evanui 
 
 \ vanish away 
 
 vilesco 
 evilesco 
 
 vilui 
 evilui 
 
 \ become cheap 
 
53- 
 
 Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 227 
 
 210. ulcisc-i 
 
 ultus 
 
 avenge 
 
 211. vesc-i 
 
 
 
 feed 
 
 y. 212. llqu-i 
 
 
 
 melt 
 
 213. ring-i 
 
 
 
 grin 
 
 2) Without Perfect or Supine : 
 
 puerasco (re) 
 
 ignesco 
 
 integrasco 
 
 arboresco 
 
 ditesco 
 
 dulcesco 
 
 grandesco 
 
 puer 
 
 ignis 
 
 integer 
 
 arbor 
 
 dives 
 
 dulcis 
 
 grandis 
 
 gravis 
 
 niger 
 
 gravesco (in) 
 nigresco 
 
 curvus 
 
 iuvenis 
 
 tnitis 
 
 mollis 
 
 pinguis 
 
 pluma 
 
 sterilis 
 
 tener 
 
 lentus 
 
 incurvesco 
 
 iuvenesco (re) 
 
 mitesco 
 
 mollesco 
 
 pingueseo 
 
 plumesco 
 
 sterilesco 
 
 tener-esco -asco (in) 
 
 lentesco 
 
 fatisco(Gr. \a-\f all open, &c. 
 
 3) Some are of uncertain origin : 
 glisco, increase 
 Conquinisco, conquexi, stoop, is an old and remarkable Inchoative Verb. 
 
 Obs. Other Verbs of Conj. 3. without Perfect and Supine are : 
 
 ambigo, doubt ; clango ; furo, rage ; plecto, strike. 
 
 B) Homonymous words are such as are written alike, though differing in sense and 
 generally in origin. 
 
 i) Verbs having the same First Person Present Ind. in different Conjugations. 
 
 Conj. i. 
 
 Conj. 3. 
 
 Conj. i. 
 
 Conj. 
 
 3- 
 
 appello 
 
 call 
 
 appello 
 
 land 
 
 fundo 
 
 found 
 
 fundo 
 
 Pour 
 
 compello 
 
 address 
 
 compello 
 
 compel 
 
 mando 
 
 entrust 
 
 mando 
 
 chew 
 
 colligo 
 
 bind 
 
 colligo 
 
 collect 
 
 obsero 
 
 bolt 
 
 obsero 
 
 sow over 
 
 consterno 
 
 alarm 
 
 consterno 
 
 strew 
 
 volo 
 
 fly 
 
 volo 
 
 wish 
 
 effero 
 
 make wild 
 
 effero 
 
 bear out 
 
 
 
 
 
 With difference of Quantity : 
 
 Conj. i. Conj. 3. Conj. i. Conj. 3. 
 
 colo strain colo till educo train educo lead out 
 
 dlco dedicate dico say lego bequeath lego read, &c. 
 
 indico point out indlco proclaim with Compounds, 
 
 praedtco declare praedico foretell 
 
 2) The same form of Perfect : 
 
 acesco, 3. 
 cerno, 3. 
 frigeo, 2. 
 fulgeo, 2. 
 luceo, 2. 
 mulceo, 2. 
 paveo, 2. 
 
 3) The same form of Supine : 
 
 cerno, 3. 
 pando, 3. 
 pango, 3. 
 teneo, 2. 
 verro, 3. 
 video, 2. 
 vivo, 3. 
 
 sift 
 spread 
 fasten 
 hold 
 sweep 
 see 
 live 
 
 cresco, 3. 
 patior, 3. 
 paciscor, 3. 
 tendo, 3. 
 verto, 3. 
 viso, 3. 
 vinco, 3. 
 
 grow 
 
 suffer 
 
 bargain 
 
 stretch 
 
 turn 
 
 visit 
 
 conquer 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 grow sour 
 
 acuo, 3. 
 
 sharpen 
 
 acui 
 
 sift 
 
 cresoo, 3. 
 
 grow 
 
 crevi 
 
 am cold 
 
 frigo, 3. 
 
 roast 
 
 frixi 
 
 glitter 
 
 fulcio, 4. 
 
 prop 
 
 fulsi 
 
 shine 
 
 lugeo, 2. 
 
 mourn 
 
 luxi 
 
 soothe 
 
 mulgeo, 2. 
 
 milk 
 
 mulsi 
 
 dread 
 
 pasco, 3. 
 
 feed 
 
 pavi 
 
 Supine^ 
 
 cretum 
 
 passum 
 
 pactum 
 
 tentum 
 
 versum 
 
 visum 
 
 victum 
 
228 Latin Wordlore. 54-55. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 PARTICLES. 
 
 tides. There is a close intimacy between the four classes of 
 Particles. Prepositions are Adverbs used with Noun- 
 cases, and many can be used without case, as mere Ad- 
 verbs. On the other hand, some Adverbs (as procul, 
 simul) can take cases. Many Pronominal Particles are 
 Adverbs when interrogative, but Conjunctions when re- 
 lative. Interjections are Adverbs hanging loose on the 
 sentence : and some resemble Prepositions by taking a 
 Noun-case. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 Ad 55 Adverbs. 1 
 
 i. The relations expressed by A DVERBS are Place; Time; 
 Number ; Order ; Manner ; Degree ; Cause ; Quality. Some Ad- 
 verbs (which maybe called Logical) are used for questioning, deny- 
 ing, affirming, or otherwise modifying the form of discourse. 
 
 ii. Interrogative Adverbs refer to 
 I. Place : 
 
 1. ubi ? where ? 4. qua ? by which way ? 
 
 2. quo? whither f quatenus? how far? 
 
 3. quorsum ? whitherward f 
 
 (* The following List contains most of the Pronominal and Primitive Adverbs, with 
 samples of the large classes derived from Nouns and Verbs. 
 The Dual Adverbs derived from uter have an asterisk.) 
 
 I. Adverbs of Place : 
 
 1. Adverbs corresponding to the questions Ubi? ubinam? Where ? *Utrubi? In 'which 
 /KV (of two) ? 
 
 ibi, illic, istic, there ; hie, here ; hie illic, here and there ; inibi, therein ; ibidem, 
 in the same place ; alibi, elsewhere ; alicubi, somewhere ; -ubi, uspiam, any- 
 where ; usquam, anywhere at all \ ubiubi, ubicumque, wheresoever ; ubivis, 
 ubilibet, where you will', *utrulibet, in eitJter place ; *utrubique, in both. places ; 
 *neutrubi, in neither place ; ubique, usquequaque, everywhere:, nusquam, no- 
 where ; prope, near ; procul, aloof, afar ; ante, prae, in front ; post, pone, be- 
 hind ; circa, circum, aroiind ; cis, citra, on this side ; ultra, beyond ; contra, over 
 against ; iuxta, iuxtim, adjoining ; intra, within ; extra, without ; super, above ; 
 subter, beneath ; supra, above ; infra, below ; superne, above ; inferne, below ; pas- 
 sim, here and there, everywhere ; foris, abroad ; peregre, in foreign parts ; 
 praesto, at hand ; ruri, in the country ; domi, at home ; humi, on the ground ; 
 belli, militiae, at the wars ; comminus, close at hand ; eminus, at a distance. 
 
 2. Adverbs corresponding to the question Unde ? Whence ? 
 
 inde, illim, illinc, istim, istinc, thence ; hinc, hence ; hinc inde, hinc illinc, from this 
 side and that ; indidem,./Vw;z same place ; aliunde,y>w another place ; alicunde, 
 front some place ; -unde,/>w any place ; undeunde, undecumque, from whatever 
 place ; undevis, undelibet, whence you will; undique,/r<wz all sides; *utriinque, 
 from both sides ; domo, from home ; rure, from the country ; intus, intrinsecus, 
 from within, within ; extrinsecus, wit/tout ; altrinsecus,y>vz one or other side : 
 
55. Adverbs. 229 
 
 II. Time : 
 
 1. quando ? when ? 3. quousque ? to what limit ? 
 
 2. quamdiu ? how long ? quoad ? until when ? 
 
 Also quam dudum ? quam pridem ? how long ago ? 
 
 desuper, from above ; subtus, from beneath ; caelitus, from heaven. ; divinitus, 
 from the deity ; penitus, from far within ; funditus, from the base ; radicitus, 
 stirpitus,./r*wz the roots. (These last four words may mean utterly.) 
 
 3. Adverbs corresponding to the questions Quo? quonam? Whither 9 . *Utro? To -which 
 place (of two)? 
 
 eo, illuc, illo, istuc, isto, thither; hue, hither; hue illuc, hither and thitJier ; 
 eodem, to the same place ; alio, to another place ; aliquo, somewhither; -quo, quo- 
 piam, anywhither ; quoquam, anywhither at all ; nequoquam, nowhither ; quo* 
 quo, quocumque, whithersoever; quovis, quolibet, whither you will; *utrovis, to 
 which place yort, wz7/(of two) ; ^utroque, to both places ; *neutro, to neither place ; 
 citro, to this side; ultro, to yon side, farther ; ultro citroque, to and fro ; intro, to 
 within ; porro, forward; retro, backward; domum, home ; rus, into the wintry ; 
 foras, out of doors. 
 
 Ultro (root ul-s) properly means to yon side : idiomatically it gains these senses : 
 going farther, yet farther, without instigation, of free motion. 
 
 The questions quoad ? quousque? how far ? are answered by usque, all the way ; eo 
 usque, that far ; hue, adhuc, hue usque, thitsfar. 
 
 4. Adverbs corresponding to the question Quors-um(us) ? Whitherward 1 * 
 
 illorsum, istorsum, thitherward ; horsum, hitherward ; aliorsum, to another quar- 
 ter; aliquors-um(-us), to some quarter; quoquo versus, to whatever quarter; 
 *utroque versum, to both quarters ; intrors-um(-us), inwards ; sursum, upwards ; 
 deors-um, downwards ; sursum deorsum, susque deque, up and down ; prors-um 
 (-us), straightforwards ; rursum prorsum, backwards and forwards ; retrors-um 
 (-us), rursum(-us), rursum vorsum, backwards ; seors-um(-us), apart ; exadvers-us 
 (-um), over against ; dextrorsum, to the right ; sinistrors-um, to the left ; pessum, 
 to ruin ; incassum, to no purpose. 
 
 5. Adverbs corresponding to the question Qua? quanam? By which way? in which 
 direction ? 
 
 ea, ilia, iliac, that way ; hac, this way ; eadem, the same way ; alia, another way ; 
 aliqua, some 'way ; -qua, any way ; quaquam, any way at all ; quadam, a certain 
 "Way ; quaque, every way ; quaqua, quacumque, whatever way ; quavis, qualibet, 
 any way you will ; *utravis, *utralibet, either way ; haudquaquam, nequaquam, by 
 no means ; recta, straight on ; dextra, by the right road ; sinistra, by the left road. 
 
 The question Quatenus ? How far ? is answered by 
 eatenus, that far, so far ; hactenus, thus far ; aliquatenus, to some extent ; qua- 
 
 damtenus, to a certain extent ; usquequaque, to the fullest extent. 
 ^ Ob's. The distinctions between the Particles ibi, illic, istic, hie ; inde, illhic, istinc, 
 hinc ; eo, illuc, istuc, hue, &c. , correspond to the distinctions between their Pronouns is, 
 ille, iste, hie. In the series of time, nunc corresponds to hie, tune to is. 
 
 The Indefinites -ubi -unde -quo -qua -quando belong to the Indefinite Pronoun quis, 
 qui, being chiefly used with Particles, as si-c-ubi, si-c-unde, siquo, &c., ne-c-ubi, ne-c- 
 unde, nequando, &c., where ubi, unde, resume the c of the Relative. 
 
 Uspiam, quopiam, &c., are used, like quispiam, in affirmative clauses; usquam, quo- 
 quam, &c., like quisquam, in negative or dubitative clauses. 
 
 II. Adverbs of Time : 
 
 i. Adverbs answering the question Quando? ecquando? When? 
 turn, tune, ibi, ibi turn, then ; etiamtum, even then ; nunc, now ; etiamnunc or etiamnum, 
 even now ; inde, deinde, exinde, dein, exin, thereafter, next ; hinc, abhinc, dehinc, 
 henceforth, from this time ; alias, at another time ; -quando, at any time ; ali- 
 quando, at some time ; umquam, ever ; numquam, never ; nonnumquam, sometimes; 
 numquam non, always ; quandocumque, quandoque, at whatever time ; quondam, 
 olim, some time or other (formerly or hereafter). lam, now, already ; iam 
 turn, even then; iamnunc, nunciam, iamiam, et iam, even now; diu, long; 
 
230 Latin Wordlore. 55. 
 
 III. Number : 
 
 quotiens? how many times ? how often f 
 
 IV. Manner : (how f) 
 
 quomodo? quemadmodum ? (qui? ut?) 
 
 dudum (for diudum), a -while ago ; pridem, at a former time ; iamdiu, iamdu- 
 dum, iampridem, long ago \ baud dudum, haud pridem, not long ago ; interdum, 
 now and then ; nondum, hauddum, not yet ; vixdum, hardly yet ; tandem, at 
 length ; demum, at last ; mox, by and by, soon ; propediem, presently \ protenus, 
 protinam, forthwith ; interim, interea, meanwhile ; ante, antea, prius, before ; 
 antehac, antidhac, heretofore ; post, postea, (postidea), after, afterwards ; post- 
 hac, hereafter; postilla, after that time; postmodo, soon after. Modo, now t 
 lately, soon ; nuper, newly, lately ; recens, freshly, lately ; denuo, afresh, again \ 
 commodum, just now \ antiquitus, of old ; primitus, from the first \ simul, 
 at the same time ; semper, usque, usquequaque, always \ perpetuo, continu- 
 ally ', sero, late ; cito, speedily ; actutum, briskly ; confestim, in a trice ; con- 
 tinuo, without stop ; extemplo, on the moment ; ilico (in loco), on the spot \ 
 ilicet, straightway ; statim, instantly \ repente, derepente, subito, suddenly ; 
 quam primum, as soon as possible ; obiter, by the way. Hodie, to-day ; heri, 
 here, yesterday ; eras, to-morrow ; pridie, the day before ; postridie, the day 
 after ; perendie, the next day but one ; nudius tertius, the third day back, &c. ; 
 mane (mani), in the morning \ diluculo, at dawn ; meridie, at noon ; vesperi, 
 vespere, at ei>en ; interdiu, luci, lucu, in the daytime ; nocti, noctu, in the night- 
 time. The Abl. brevi, also perbrevi, means either in a short time or in a few 
 words (brevi dictione). 
 
 a) The questions quam dudum ? quam pridem ? how long ago ? are answered by diu ; 
 dudum ; pridem ; iamdiu ; iamdudum ; iampridem ; haud dudum ; haud pridem ; haud 
 ita pridem. 
 
 2. Adverbs answering the question, Quamdiu ? How long ? 
 
 diu, long; percliu, very long; tamdiu, so long; aliquamdiu, some length of time ; 
 tantisper, so long ; aliquantisper, for some time ; parumper, paulisper, for a 
 little time ; adhuc, so far, hitherto ; semper, always ; in perpetuum, for ever ; 
 amplius, longer ; non amplius, haud amplius, non iam, no longer. 
 The questions quousque, quoad, to what limit of time ? are answered by usque, usque- 
 quaque, continually ; adhuc, hitherto ; eo usque, so long, &c. 
 
 III. Adverbs of Number : 
 
 Answering the question, Quotiens? How often? 
 
 totiens, so often ; aliquotiens, pluriens, several times ; identidem, repeatedly ; inter- 
 dum, subinde, now and then ; iterum, a second time ; saepe, saepius, often, ; per- 
 saepe, saepissime, very often ; plerumque, generally ; crebro, frequently ; raro, 
 seldom. ; cotidie, indies, daily ; quotannis, annually ; semel, once ; bis, twice ; 
 ter, thrice, &c. &c. See NUMERALIA. 
 
 a) Ordinal Adverbs answering the question Quo ordine ? 
 
 primum, first ; primo, in the first place; deinde, in the next place ; turn, then, 
 afterwards ; denique, finally ; postremo, in the last place ; deinceps, next in 
 order ; secundo, in the second place ; tertio, in the third place, &c. ; pono, 
 farther ; insuper, moreover ; necnon, also ; praeterea, besides ; quin, further- 
 more. 
 
 IV. Adverbs of Manner : 
 
 Answering the question Quomodo? quomodonam? quemadmodum? qui? ut? How? 
 adeo, ita, sic, so ; aeque, adaeque, equally, as much ; item, itidem, pariter, perinde, 
 proinde, similiter, iuxta, in like manner; contra, contrariwise; aliter, secus, 
 otherwise. 
 
55. Adverbs. 231 
 
 V. Degree: 
 
 i. quam? how? 2. quantum? how much? 
 
 VI. Cause : (why ? wherefore ?} 
 
 quare ? cur ? quamobrem ? 
 
 VII. Quality : 
 
 qualiter ? in what kind of way f 
 
 V. Adverbs of Degree : 
 i. Adverbs answering to the question Quam? How? 
 
 tarn, so ', omniho, prorsus, altogether ; admodum, oppido, penitus, plane, perquam, 
 sane, sanequam, valde, valdequam, very, quite ; vementer, exceedingly ; longe, 
 far ; magis, more ; maxime, most, very ; minus, less ; minime, least, not at all ', 
 potius, rather; potissimum, chiefly \ in primis, apprime, praecipue, praesertim, 
 especially ; etiam, vel, even ; fere, almost, generally ; ferme, paene, almost ', 
 prope, propemodo, propemodum, nearly, almost ; aegre, vix, scarcely, hardly ; 
 dumtaxat, merely ; modo, only ; saltern, at least ; solum, solummodo, tantum, 
 tantummodo, only ; utique, in fact, at all events. 
 
 2. Adverbs answering to the question Quantum ? How much ? 
 
 tantum, so much \ aliquantum, considerably ; multum, much ; permultum, plurimum, 
 very much ; plus, more ; satis, sat, enough ; abunde, affatim, plentifully ; nimis, 
 nimium, too much ; paulum, little ; paululum, very little ; parum, little, too 
 httle ; minus, less ', minimum, least, very little ; quantulum, quantillum, how 
 little ; tantulum, tantillum, so little. 
 
 a] The question Quanto ? By how much ? is answered bytanto, eo, by so much; ali- 
 quanto, by a good deal; multo, nimio, by a great deal ; paulo, by a little ; nihilo, &c. 
 
 b) The question Quanto opere, How greatly ?\>y tan to opere, so greatly; magnoopere, 
 greatly ; maximo opere, very greatly. 
 
 VI. Adverbs of Cause : 
 
 Answering the question Quare ? cur ? quamobrem ? Why ? wherefore ? 
 
 eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea, on that account ; ergo, igitur, itaque, therefore ; proin, 
 proinde, accordingly. 
 
 VII. Adverbs of Quality (chiefly formed from Adjectives : but also many 
 
 from Substantives, Verbs, and Particles). 
 
 Answering the question Qualiter ? In what kind of way ? Examples are : 
 
 bene, well ; male, ill ; rite, duly ; iucunde, pleasantly ; gravate, grudgingly ; recte, 
 rightly ; pulchre,Jlnety ; late, widely ; longe lateque,./r and wide ; publice,/#- 
 licly ; misere, wretchedly ; splendide, nobly, &c. &c. &c. ; audacter, boldly ; feliciter, 
 happily ; fortiter, bravely ; amanter, lovingly ; decenter, becomingly ; sapienter, 
 wisely, &c. &c. &c. ; privatim, privately ; raptim, hurriedly ; sensim, gradTially ; 
 furtim, stealthily ; paulatim, pedetentim, little by little ; nominatim, by name ; 
 singulatim, sigillatim, individually ; viritim, matt by man ; tributim, tribe by tribe ; 
 vicissim, by turns ; seorsim, apart, &c. &c. &c. ; falso, falsely ; consulto, delibe- 
 rately ; tuto, safely ; falso, falsely ; fortuito, casually ; gratuito, without fee ; im- 
 pxoviso, inopinato, necopinato, unexpectedly ; liquido, clearly ; merito, deservedly, 
 &c. ; clam, clanculum, secretly ; palam, openly ; una, simul, together ; bifariam, bi- 
 partite, in two parts ; trifariam, tripartito, &c. ; temere, at hazard ; forte, by chance ; 
 sponte, by choice ; rite, duly ; temperi, seasonably ; frustra, in vain ; perperam, 
 badly; gratiis, gratis, freely ; ingratiis, unwelcomely; coram, face to face ; alio- 
 qui(-n), ceteroqui(-n), in other respects ; nequiquam, to no purpose ; incassum, 
 fruitlessly ; praefiscine, without offence. This adverb is derived from prae, 
 fascino, barring the evil eye, under favour. * Praefiscine dixerim,' Plaut. 
 A sin. ii. 4. 84. 
 
 For Comparison of Adverbs see 3O. 
 
232 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 56. 
 
 56 
 
 Prepo- 
 sitions. 
 
 Table of 
 Prepo- 
 sitions. 
 
 VIII. The Logical Interrogative Adverbs, which expect affirma- 
 tive or negative answers, are : 
 
 -ne (enclitic) ? an ? anne ? num ? numne ? utrum ? utrumne ? 
 nonne? annon? 
 
 SECTION II. 
 Prepositions. 
 
 A PREPOSITION is an exponent of relation between 
 one Noun and another. 
 
 i. The primary relations are those of Place, Time, Number. From 
 these spring many others, which are figurative or logical. 
 
 The relation of Place includes that of Person or Thing, when 
 Person or Thing represents Place : apud re gem, at the king's 
 court ; an t e m e, in front of me ; a d b e 1 1 u m, to, the war. 
 
 The relation of Time includes that of Person or Thing, when 
 Person or Thing represents Time : post Romulum, after the 
 time of Romulus ; ante tubas ferrumque, before the invention 
 of trumpets and^ steel. 
 
 Some Prepositions are used with Verbs of Motion, some with 
 Verbs of Rest ; many with both. 
 
 Several Prepositions are so used with a Case, as to form Adverbial 
 Phrases, which are to all intents true Adverbs : admodum, in- 
 vicem, obviam, ab integro, de novo, ex tempore, &c. 
 
 ii. Twenty-nine Prepositions take the Accusative Case, twelve the 
 Ablative, and four the Accusative or the Ablative. 
 
 i) The following Prepositions take the Accusative Case : 
 ad to, at) &c. ob over against, on 
 
 advers-us(um) against, toward account of 
 
 ante 
 
 before 
 
 penes 
 
 in the power of 
 
 apud 
 
 near, at, with 
 
 per 
 
 through 
 
 circum 
 
 around 
 
 pone 
 
 behind 
 
 circa 
 
 around, about 
 
 post 
 
 after, behind 
 
 circiter 
 
 aboiit 
 
 praeter 
 
 beside 
 
 cis, citra 
 
 on this side of 
 
 prope, near, 
 
 propius, proxime 
 
 contra 
 
 against 
 
 propter 
 
 on account of, nigh 
 
 erga 
 
 towards 
 
 secundum 
 
 next, according to 
 
 extra 
 
 outside of 
 
 supra 
 
 above 
 
 infra 
 
 below 
 
 trans 
 
 across 
 
 inter 
 
 between, among 
 
 ultra 
 
 beyond 
 
 intra 
 
 within 
 
 versus, versum towards 
 
 iuxta 
 
 next to 
 
 
 
 Logical Adverbs, used to modify Discourse, are 
 
 (i) nempe, scilicet, videlicet, namely, of a sooth ; nimirum, to be sure ; (2) quidem, 
 equidem, indeed ; certe, certainly, at least ; tamen, attamen, yet, nevertheless ; 
 nihilominus, nevertheless ; (3) fors, forsan, forsitan, fortasse, fortassis, perhaps ; 
 (4) immo, nay but, nay rather ; (5) certo, assuredly ; ita, etiam, yes, even so ; ne 
 (often spelt nae), yea, verily ; plane, evidently ; profecto, doubtless ; sane, quite 
 so ; utique, in sooth ; vero, truly, yes indeed; quippe, to be sure ; (6) non, net, no ; 
 haud (haut), not, no (the reverse) ; minime, by no means ; ne, not, lest ; nedum, 
 not to say, much less ; ne . . . quidem, not even. 
 
57. Conjunctions. 233 
 
 Versus follows its Case; as, Urbem versus, towards the city,. 
 Other Prepositions occasionally follow their Case. 
 
 2) The following take the Ablative Case : 
 
 a, ab, abs by or from ex, e out of, from 
 
 absque without palam in sight of 
 
 clam unknown to prae before, owing to 
 
 coram in the presence of pro before, for 
 
 cum with sine without 
 
 de from, concerning tenus as far as 
 
 Ab stands before vowels and li ; a and often ab before consonants ; 
 abs sometimes before q, rarely before c, t ; but abs te is usual. 
 
 Ex stands before vowels and li ; ex and e before consonants. 
 
 Clam is used with Accusative by the Comic poets. 
 
 Cum is attached to the Personal and Reflexive Pronouns, some- 
 times to the Relative : as mecum, nobiscum, tecum, vobis- 
 cum, secum, quocum, or quicum, quibuscum. 
 
 3) The following take the Accusative or the Ablative : 
 
 in into, against (Ace.), in (Abl.) super over, upon 
 
 sub up to, under (Ace.), under (Abl.) subter under 
 
 In and sub with Accusative imply motion; with Ablative, rest. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 Conjunctions. 
 
 ST 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS are of two Classes : con- 
 
 juno 
 
 A. Coordinative, or those which link words and sen- * 
 tences without affection of Mood. 
 
 B. Subordinative, or those which link sentences, with 
 affection of Mood. 
 
 The following are used in Coordination as well as Subordination : 
 quippe, si, seu, sive, nisi, etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, quamquam, quanv 
 f is, quasi, tanquam, sicut, velut, ceu. 
 
 A. Coordinative Conjunctions are: 
 
 Annexive : et, -que, 1 and, both, also, &c. ; atque, ac, and; 
 neque, nee, nor, neither \ and the adverbial words item, 
 also, etiam, quoque, 3 also, even ; necnon, moreover. 
 
 Disjunctive : aut, vel, -ve, 1 or, either*; sive, seu, either, or. 
 
 Adversative: sed, at (ast), verum, but; autem, 2 but, now; 
 ceterum, but ; atqui, but yet ; vero, 2 triily, bitt ; tamen, yet, 
 nevertheless; attamen, verumtamen, however, biit yet. 
 
 Causal : nam, namque, enim, 2 etenim, for ; enimvero, for in 
 truth. 
 
 1 -que -ve are enclitics, always attached to the word which they affect, or to some other 
 in the same clause. 
 
 a Quoque, autem, vero, enim (and the adverb quidem) never stand first in a clause, 
 but usually after one or more words : autem, vero, enim, after the first word usually ; 
 quoque, quidem, after the word which they affect. 
 
234 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 Illative : ergo, itaque, igitur, therefore. 
 
 Conclusive : quare, quamobrem, quapropter, quocirca, wherefore. 
 
 Comparative : ut, uti ; velut, veluti ; sicut, sicuti ; ceu ; quem- 
 
 admodum ; quomodo, all rendered as ; atque, ac, as ; 
 
 quam, than, as ; quasi, tamquam, as, as it were ; utpote, as 
 
 being. 
 
 B. Subordinative Conjunctions are : 
 
 Consecutive : ut, so that ; (ut non) ; quin, but that, that not. 
 
 Final : ut, in order that ; ut ne, ne (for ut ne), in order that 
 
 not ; utinam, O that ; utinam ne, &c. ; quo, in order that ; 
 
 quominus, in order that not. 
 
 Causal : quod, quia, because ; quoniam, quando, quandoquidem, 
 
 since ; siquidem, inasmuch as ; quom or cum, since. 
 Temporal : quom or cum, when ; ubi, quando, when ; ut, 
 when, from the time that ; dum, donee, while, whilst ; 
 dum, donee, until \ quoad, whilst ; quoad, until \ ante- 
 quam, priusquam, before that; postquam, after that '; simul 
 ac, simul (omitting ac), as soon as ; quotiens, as often as ; 
 and others. 
 
 Conditional : si, if; sin (for si-ne), but if ; sive, seu, or if, whe- 
 ther-, nisi, unless ; ni, unless-, si modo, si tantum, if 'only ', 
 or modo, tantum (omitting si); dum, dummodo, provided 
 that, or modo (omitting dum). 
 
 Concessive : etsi, etiamsi ; tametsi, tamen etsi, although, even 
 if; quamquam, utut, however ; quamvis, although, lit. 
 how you will ; cum, ut, licet, although. 
 
 Comparative : quasi, as if (for quam si) ; ut si, ac si, velut si, 
 as if; or velut (dropping s i) ; tamquam, as though (for 
 tamquam si) ; ceu, as */ (dropping si). 
 
 Obs. In Subordinative Conjunctions must be included 
 
 All Interrogative Pronouns and Particles used obliquely : 
 
 The Relative Pronoun with its Particles ubi, unde, quo, qua, &c., 
 
 inasmuch as both these classes link sentences with affection of 
 
 Mood. 
 
 58 SECTION IV. 
 
 Inter- I nt Cfj 6 Ct lOnS. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS strictly so called (interiecta, inserted 
 in the sentence without affecting its form) express : 
 
 Invocation : O, heus, oho or ohe, eia or heia; pro (proh), 
 cho, ehodum, hark, halloa, c. 
 
 Designation : en, ecce, lo ! behold! 
 
 Surprise : O, hem, em, ehem, babae, and the comic words au; 
 hui; va(vah); eia; bombax; at at or at tat; attate; attattatae. 
 
 Disgust: (comic) p hui, aha, faugh; ^y,pooh! 
 
 Satiety : o h e, o i e i, enough ! 
 
 Laughter : (comic) aha (ha ha), hahahae. 
 
 Joy : O, io, eia, euge, evoe, eupoe, papae, huzza! joy ! &c., 
 and the comic words euax, eugepae ( 
 
59- Derivation of Nouns. 235 
 
 Praise : eu, euge, eia, bravo ! well done ! &c. 
 
 Pain and Sorrow: heu, eheu, hei or ei, vae, ah or a, alas! 
 woe / i 1 i c e t, all's up ! 
 
 Deprecation: pro (proh), forbid it! 
 
 Call to Silence : st, hush! 
 
 Several Nouns, Verbs, and Adverbs are used in exclamation or 
 invocation, like Interjections. Such are : 
 
 1) Nouns : pax, hush! malum, plague ! nefas, infandum, mon- 
 strous! indignum, horrendum, miserum, miserabile, turpe. 
 
 The Vocative macte, Plur. macti, is used with an Ablative or 
 Genitive : as macte esto virtute, go on and prosper. It is 
 perhaps the Participle of a lost Verb mace" re. M. Lucr. v. 1339. 
 
 2) Verbs : quaeso, prithee! precor, oro, obsecro, pray; 
 amabo, do, please ; sis (si vis), sultis (si vultis), please : sodes 
 (si audies?), if you'll be so good \ agesis, agedum, agitedum, 
 come now; cedo (PL cette),rz/ me; a page, away, avaunt. 
 
 3) Adverbs : profecto, really; nae (or ne), truly, used with the 
 Nominative of a Pronoun: nae ego velim. . . nae illi errant, &c. 
 
 (a) The following expressions are elliptical : 
 mehercule 1 = me, Hercule, iuves, so help me, Hercules. 
 
 mecastor, ecastor = me, Castor, iuves, so help me, Castor. 
 edepol, pol = me, dee Pollux, iuves, so help me, Pollux. 
 
 medius fidius = me, deus Fidius, iuves, so help me, God of 
 
 faith (Zsvg ILVnoc). 
 
 pro luppiter = prohibeas, 2 luppiter, Jove forbid. 
 
 pro di immortales = prohibeatis, di immortales : heaven for ef end ! 
 
 (&) O, a, heu, eheu, hem, eia, en, ecce, pro are found with 
 Accusative ; hem, hei, vae, with Dative ; O, a, heu, he us, eho, 
 and others are often accompanied by a Vocative. The Vocative 
 itself is in the nature of an Interjection, lying out of the construction 
 of the sentence. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Derivation of Nouns. 
 
 i. The Suffixes used in the Flexion of Stems are suffixes 
 shewn in the preceding Chapters. We have next vL?onT 
 to shew those by which a Stem is derived from a Root, 
 or one Stem from another. 
 
 1 Mehercle, hercle, are abridged forms. 
 
 3 The etymology of pro (proh) here given is not disproved by the phrase ' pro deum 
 atque hominum fidem/ which may represent another ellipsis, 'prohibeatur deum atque 
 hominum fidem violari/ 
 
236 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 That Suffix in a derived Stem, which contains the Stem-charac- 
 ter, is the staminal Suffix. Thus in the word crudelitas, Stem 
 cru-d-eli-tat-, tat is the staminal Suffix. 
 
 It commonly happens that a word comes immediately from an- 
 other, which is itself derived from a third, and so on, till a root or 
 rudimental form is reached. Every word (including the root) is the 
 Theme of such as are immediately derived from it. Thus, 
 
 Theme of crudelitas : Adj. crudelis; Stem crudeli-. 
 
 Theme of crudelis : Adj. crudus; Stem crudo- for cru-ido-. 
 
 Theme of crudus : Root cru-, Sk. kravi, Gr. icpcf-, raw flesh, 
 
 Beginning from the Root, the order is : 
 
 cru-, cru-ido- ( = cru-du-s), cru-id-ett- ( = cru-d-eli-s), cru-id-eli-tat- 
 ( = cru-d-eli-ta-s). 
 
 Here the suffixes are Xdo (*d-), eH, tat ; to each of which the 
 ending s is joined to form the Nominative Case. 
 
 The words of such a series may form branch-lines of derivation 
 by other suffixes. 
 
 Thus from cru- come crii-or, gore, cru-entu-s, gory ; from 
 this the Verb cru-ent-a-re : from crudus come cru-d-i-ta-s 
 and cru-d-esc-ere: from crudelis the Adv. cru-d-eli-ter ; 
 crudelitas merely forms its own Cases. 
 
 ii. Root or Rudiment. 
 
 The determination of Roots, though greatly assisted by Com- 
 parative Philology, is a work of vast labour and difficulty, demand- 
 ing the nicest conjectural criticism, and often baffling all conjecture. 
 Very many roots are indeed determined beyond question ; es, I, to 
 go, I, that) da, sta, ag, ap, &c. : others are open to doubt ; cap (see 
 p. 190) : while in f ac, which heads, perhaps, the largest group of Latin 
 words, c is now held to be a suffix, added to the root fa = Sk. bhd, 
 Gr. 0a-, to give light, under which stand new groups, including 
 fax, facies, fate or, fari, fas, &c., with their derivatives. Hence 
 it is often safer, in deriving words, to call their ultimate form a rudi- 
 ment rather than a root. 
 
 iii. Suffix. 
 
 The derivation and distribution of Latin Suffixes, with their 
 meaning, when they have ;one, are a special topic too wide to be 
 fully treated here. The Syllabus which follows, with the subjoined 
 examples, will supply considerable information. It adopts Diintzer's 
 method (Lat. Wortbildung und Composition], though not his order ; 
 corrected throughout by reference to the views of Schleicher (Com- 
 pend.\% 215-231) and Corssen (Ausspr. I. 566, &c.). Bopp, Leo 
 Meyer, and Fick's Lexicon have also been consulted. 
 
 Suffixes are simple or compound : but the parts of a compound 
 suffix often cohere so regularly in a class of words, that, having 
 been once shewn as compound, it may be cited without inconveni- 
 ence as if it were simple. Such are tudon. mento, cundo, bun do, 
 &C. 
 
I 50; Derivation of Nouns. 237 
 
 iv. Rudimental Words. 
 
 Rudimental words are such as append their Case-endings to the 
 real or seeming Root, unstrengthened or strengthened. Such are 
 
 a) gru-s, su-s; re-s; bov- (bos), lov-; crux, dux, nex, nux, 
 pix, prec-, die-, grex, pes, vas (vad-), adips, caelebs, dap-, 
 op-, stip-, with many compound words, auspex, haruspex, obex, 
 index, iudex, artifex, tradux, coiux, manceps, princeps, 
 praeses, praepes, crassipes, &c. b) lux, pax, vox, lex, rex, 
 &c. c] sal, sol, lar, par, ver, ius, crus, tus, rus, spes, mos, 
 ros, flos, os (or-) : also farr- (far), fell- (fel), melt- (mel), ost- 
 (os, bone), cord- (cor). 
 
 v. Syllabus of Suffixes (with examples at the foot). 
 
 In the List of Suffixes and their Examples the abbreviations 
 used are : 
 
 S. Substantive. V. Verbalia (words derived from Verbs). 
 A. Adjective. D. Denominativa (words derived from Nouns). 
 
 Unc. (uncertain) implies that root or roots are unknown. 
 
 &c. 1 placed after Examples cited, indicate that many 
 
 &c. &c. others exist of the same class, and that in 
 
 &c. &c. &c. J some instances the number is very large. 
 
 Every Suffix ending in 6 must be taken as including the forms 
 iis, a, um; that is, A-nouns as well as O-nouns. 
 
 I. Vowels and V. 1 
 
 Of Vowel Suffixes (besides the characters a, 6, i, ii, e), the most 
 important is 16, including, as it does, a large class of Abstract Sub- 
 stantives in fa, rum, and of Possessive Adjectives in ius. 
 
 S. a) a (3) o y) e, le d) u e) i I) ed 
 rj) i* 9) iio, vo, ivo, vi. 
 
 3 I. Vowels and V. 
 Substantives. 
 
 a) Masc. V. scrib-a, adven-a, incol-a, terrigen-a, &c. 
 
 /3) V. merg-us, cormorant ; tor-us, couch ; fug-a, flight ; talp-a, mole ; pronub-a, 
 bridesmaid ; iug-um, yoke, &c. &c. D, nimb-us, cloud ; nerv-us ; taur-us ; lup-us ; 
 6r-a, coast ; sal-urn, brine, &c. 
 
 y) V. f id-es, effig-ies, spec-ies, &c. D. pauper-ies . . . 
 
 8) V. ac-us, D. nur-us. 
 
 t) V. arx, falx, nix, ap-is, rup-es, &c. D. nox, nub-es, mar-e, &c. 
 
 ^) Mostly D. calc-eus, shoe ; trab-ea, striped robe ; flamm-eum, bridal veil, &c. V. 
 ol-ea, olive. 
 
 TTJ) A few Masc. V. lud-ius, player . . . D. sim-ius, ape. A large number of Fern. 
 D. av-ia, grandmother ; and abstracts of Quality : audac-ia, boldness ; ignav-ia, 
 sloth ; victor-ia, -victory ; absent-ia, absence, &c. &c. &c. A large number are 
 Neut. most V. denoting ' the Effect : ' benefic-ium, benefit ; conub-ium, mar- 
 riage ; gaud-ium, joy, &c. &c. &c. : some D. minister-ium, service ; sen-ium, old 
 age ; sav-ium, kiss, &c. &c. Words like arbitr-ium, augur-ium, &c., should be 
 ranked as V. 
 
 6) iio : D. patr-uus, uncle on father's side ; ian-ua, ho^tse-door ; VO : V. D. cer-vus ; 
 ri-vus ; lar-va, mask, spectre ; ar-\\\m, plough-land ; IVO : ol-iva, an olive; sal- 
 iva, spittle ; VI : V. ci-vis. 
 
238 Latin Wordlore. 59. 
 
 A. a) 6 ) i 7) eo 8) *o *) u6, vd, ivd, tivd, vi. 
 
 II. C. 
 
 C is a stable suffix, denoting Individuality in Substantives : 
 Permanent Condition or Relation in Adjectives. Often, however, 
 the individuality or condition denoted is of a disparaging kind : 
 as in senex, senec-io, cimex, culex, pulex ; caecus, flaccus, 
 luscus, mancus, truncus, &c. So in c-ulo c is deminutive, but 
 in c-undo it denotes permanent activity. 
 
 S. a) ci ic /3) co cid ico tied 7) ac oc 5) Ic led 
 
 ) ucd. 
 
 A. a) co ico tied lied 0) aci oci 7) aco aceo 
 
 Adjectives : 
 
 ) d: V. fid-us, faithful ; viv-us, alive . . . with Cpp. naufrag-us, shipwrecked; 
 profag-ViS, fugitive . . . D. re-us, accused; nov-us, new ; me-us, tu-us, su-us . . . 
 
 /3) i : i-s ; qui-s ; qui ; iug-is . . . Cpp. bimar-is . . . 
 
 y) e6 : D. implying * Formed of;' aur-eus, golden ; argent-eus, of silver; 'Exhibit- 
 ing? lut-eus, miiddy ; lut-eus, of deep yellow ; ' Belonging- to : ' virgin-eus, 
 maiden, maidenlike, &c. 
 
 Note, ed represents Gr. 6105, Pythagor-eus, El-eus, of Elis. 
 
 6) id : D. imply generally ' Having the quality ' of, or ' Belonging to : ' mart-ius, patr- 
 ius, reg-ius, pluv-ius, &c. &c. ; some Cpp. egreg-ius, exim-ius. Aer-ius, aether-ius 
 are Greek, having the sense of L. eus. Alius, Gr. aAAos=al-yus ; medius, Gr. 
 /u.V<ros=med-yus ; 1 being i-consonans. Add plebe-ius=plebe-yus. 
 
 UO : V. with some in vd, Ivd, chiefly V., may imply 'Active quality : ' contig-uus, 
 adjoining; contin-uus, &c. ; gna-vus, knowing; proter-vus, frolicsome ; sae-vus, 
 raging, &c. ; noc-uus or noc-ivus, hurtful, &c. : or may have Passive use : 
 divid-uus, parted ; ingen-uus, freebom ; mut-uus, exchanged (between two per- 
 sons or parties), -mutual ; relic-uus, left ; rig-uus, irrig-uus, watered ; vid-uus, 
 widowed ; ca-vus, hollow ; sal-vus safe ; adopt -ivus, chosen, adoptive ; especially 
 those in t-Ivd, having the Supine or participial suffix t : captivus, captured ; fes- 
 tivus, festive ; fugi-tivus, na-tivus, praeroga-tivus, vo-tivus, &c. &c. Aes-tivus, 
 of summer, supposes a verb aedere (Gr. ai#-), to heat ; tempes-tivus, season- 
 able, is abnormal ; mor-tuus (=mor-tivus), dead; ann-uusis a rare Denom. ; mens- 
 tr-uus seems to be for mens-trius from mensis, month, vi : brevis, Gr. /Spaxv? ; 
 gravis, Sk. gurus, Gr. /3apu? ; le-vis, Sk. laghus, Gr. eAaxv's, light ; le-vis, 
 Gr. Aeifos, smooth ; sua-vis, Sk. svadus, Gr. ^5u'?. 
 II. C. 
 
 Substantives. 
 
 a) Ci : lanx, merx (faeci- fauci- . . .) : ic (ix). V. appendix : ic (ex), V. vert-ex, 
 vort-ex, D. ram-ex. See pp. 95-6 (most unc.). 
 
 /3) Cd : V. fo-cus, hearth ; fu-cus, drone ; es-ca, food, D. Tuven-cus -ca ; Cld-, V. 
 sola-cium ; Z>. un-cia (from unus); icdl D. vil-Icus, steward; vil-ica, 
 steward's wife ; man-Tea, handcuff; ped-Tca, fetter, springe, &c. ; tied, V. 
 can-ticum : D. viaticum, provision for journey. 
 
 y) D. forn-ax, furnace ; lim-ax, snail ; eel-ox, yacht. 
 
 ) 1C, p. 96 (most unc. rad-ix, &c.) : but V. in trie- trix, Fern, as mere-trix, vic- 
 trix, &c. (see XI); ico : V. D. mend-Icus, -lea, beggar; lect-Ica, litter, and 
 others. 
 
 <) lact-uca, lettuce (some unc.). 
 
 Adjectives. 
 a) CO: V. D. par-cus, pau-cus, pris-cus, rau-cus, sic-cus, &c. (some unc.): icd : 
 
 most D. imply ' Pertaining to : ' bell-icus, publ-Tcus, &c. : some V. med-Tcus, of 
 
 Jtealing (as Subst. physician). Many Gentilia ; ScythTcus, &c. tiCO : D. 
 
 nis-tTcus, aqua-tlcus, &c. V. vena-ticus ; lico : D. fame-lTcus. 
 /3) aci : V. imply ' Inclined to,' ' Capable of; ' aud-ax, daring ; ed-ax, devouring ; 
 
 tet^xx., fruitful, &c. &c. ; OCi : V. ' Inclined to : ' fer-ox, haughty ; vel-ox, swift. 
 v) acd: mer-acus, pure (op-acus, shady, unc.); Subst. clo-aca, sewer (clu=lu), 
 
 aceo : D. ' Consisting of ':' fair- aceus, of flour, and some others. 
 
59. Derivation of Nouns. 239 
 
 5) Ico Icio ticio e) ic* f) uco uceo 17) *aco. 
 
 III. G. 
 
 In many words which have gr before the final vowel or case-end- 
 ing, this cons, is known to be a root-character : as in lex, rex, strix, 
 frug-, coniux, angu-is, compag-es, contag-es, merg-us, 
 rog-us, fug-a, plag-a, plag-a, tog-a, iug-um, and others. 
 (Pinguis, as compared with Sk. pi 9 Gr. KL-, seems to shew a suffix 
 gr, but not if compared with Gr. Tra^vc- See Curt. Gr. Et. 276.) 
 This suggests the probability that in uncertain words, as vag-us, 
 alg-a, and others, & is radical rather than suffixal. On the other 
 hand, it is probable that the root dg is suffixal (!g, ag, Ig, ug) in 
 various words. Its presence in remex (remum agere), aurlga 
 (aureas agere), prodigus, and ambages, is obvious : in con- 
 fluges, coagulum, strages, stragulus, it may be conjectured : 
 also in nugae, for nov-ig-ae, novelties = trifles as opposed to seria 
 (from serus), long- considered matter : l hae nugae seria ducunt in 
 mala. 7 Valgus, volgus are deduced by some from Sk. roots. (May 
 not the latter be referred to the former word ?) Finally, the root ag 
 may be supposed in agon, egron, ugon : see iff. Compare the Greek 
 odiyyoc, xopjyyoc, &c. 
 
 On fastig-ium, vestig-ium, see C. Ausspr. II. 427, Kr. B. 197, 361. 
 
 IV. T. 
 
 This is the most efficient suffixal letter in Aryan language. If 
 we include its representation by s and d, it enters into the forma- 
 tion of all Participles and Participial Adjectives, and into that of 
 all Verbal Substantives with Participial theme : by the suffixes to 
 (s6, do), tft (sii), tX (si), tion (sXon), nti, &c. Besides which it 
 forms important groups of Denominative Substantives ; concrete by 
 the suffixes It et, abstract by the suffixes tat tut, and others. 
 
 (For the suffixes into which n enters, see w : for do, di see B. 
 
 The suffixes so, sii, si are included here.) 
 
 S. o) ta ita j8) to (so) ito y) tu (sii) itii atii Itii ultu 
 
 5) led : V. am-Tcus, friendly (Subst. friend) ; pud-icus, modest ; apr-Icus, sunny ; 
 from Particles ; ant-iquus, ancient ; post-Icus t hinder ; icio : D. imply ' Consist- 
 ing of \ ' later-Tcius : ' of 'brick ,' &c. 'Pertaining to ;' natal-icius, belonging to a 
 birthday, &c. but nov-Icius, newly arrived (novice), Juv. : ticio (slcio) : 
 V. (Sup. St.) Participial: advec-ticius, imported; conduc-ticius, hired', trala- 
 ticius, transferred, &c. The quantity of ti, si is probably variable. 
 
 e) (fel-ix, pern-ix, both unc.) 
 
 ^) uco : V. only cad-ucus, falling; uceo : D. only pann-uceus, ragged. 
 
 i\) Greek D. card-iacus, dyspeptic : Aegypt-iacus. &c. 
 
 IV. T. 
 
 Substantives. 
 
 a) D. nau-ta, nav-ita. 
 
 /3) V. numerous : lec-tus, bed ; sec-ta, sect ; fa-tum, fate ; cau-sa, cause ; pen-sum, 
 
 task ; mer-itum, desert ; ius-sum, command, &c. &c. D. : liber-tus, freedman ; 
 
 iuven-ta, youth ; salic-tum, willow-bed ; carec-tum, sedge-bed ; virgul-tum, thicket, 
 
 &c. The last three have turn for etum. See 5) below. 
 y) til (su), Ytu : V. (Sup. St.) fle-tus, weeping', mo-tus, motion-, ic-tus, stroke; 
 
 crucia-tus, torture ; mugl-tus, bellowing ; hab-itus, habit ; strep-itus, noise ; 
 
 nex-us, connexion ; vi-sus, sight, &c. &c. (Pr. st.) hal-itus, spir-itus, breath ; tum- 
 
 ultus, uproar. But D. in atii denote Office, Position, Corporate Body, &c. : 
 
 consul-atus, consulship ; sen-atus, senate ; re-atus, state of accusation ; equit- 
 
 atus, cavalry, &c. 
 
240 Latin Wordlore. $ 9 > 
 
 t) eto ti (si) L) et let it 7y) tat itat etat estat 
 6) tut itut /) tid (sio) itio itie K-) ato uto ltd X) ot 
 /*) ted. 
 
 A. a) to (so) ito 0) at& 7) eto 5) ito e) dto 
 
 uto f) ati Iti T}) ti eti it. 
 
 V. D. 
 
 This cons, is a principal element in several important compound 
 Suffixes, Verbal and Denominative, which appear under ar. Be- 
 sides those, its leading use is in the Participial Adjective suffix ido. 
 
 S. a) do ido /3) di 7) ed 6d d) ud. 
 
 A. a) do idd 8) di. 
 
 VI. P. 
 
 It is doubtful whether any true suffix can be shewn with p, except 
 piild, in which the root pur, pul, pie-, to Jill, is probably contained: 
 mani-pul-us, po-pul-us, cra-pula, du-plus, &c. : du-pl-ex, 
 &c. in which pi- ex (not from plico) is a compound suffix pul-ic(s). 
 
 5) ace-turn, vinegar; with many neuter D. denoting 'Place of growth ;' myrt-etum, 
 
 myrtle-grove ; oliv-etum, olive-yard, &c. 
 
 e) V. gens, mens, sors, &c. ; vec-tis, ves-tis, vi-tis, mes-sis. D. men-sis, nep-tis. 
 
 ) V. seg-es, ar-ies (see C. Nachtr. 268-270) : and D. in es it-, al-es, equ-es, ped-es, 
 &c. p. 97. 
 
 ij) Numerous Abstract D. liber-tas, auctor-itas, car-itas, pi-etas, soci-etas (e by dis- 
 similation after i), &c. &c. &c. On hon-estas, &c., see R : pot-estas, eg-estas 
 may be for -ent-tas. 
 
 0) Abstract D. iuven-tus, senec-tus, vir-tus, serv-itus. 
 
 1) D. nun-tius, nun-tia, trist-itia, serv-itium, calv-ities, amar-ities, iust-itia, &c. &C. 
 ir) pal-atum, palate ; Mat-uta, goddess of Morn ; pitu-ita, phlegm. 
 
 A) dos, dowry ; nepos, grandson. 
 
 JA) lin-teum, towel. 
 Adjectives. 
 
 a) D. numerous: ius-tus,/?As; mul-tus, muck', sex-tus, sixth, &c. &c. V. tac-itus, 
 silent; sal-sus, salted; with all Perf. Participles of Conj. 3., most of 2. and 
 others ; tac-tus, doc-tus, admon-itus, atton-itus, ius-sus, pressus, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 /3) D. numerous : barb-atus, bearded ; ferr-atus, iron-clad, &c. &c. V. most Parti- 
 ciples of Conj. i. am-atus, arm-atus, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 y) V. fac-etus : and many Participles, defl-etus, decr-etus, &c. 
 
 6) D. crin-itus, rich-haired ; mell-Ttus, honied, &c. V. most Participles of Conj. 4. 
 
 and others, aud-itus, per-itus, tr-itus, &c. &c. &c. 
 e) D. aegr-otus, sick ; nas-utus, sharp-nosed, &c. V. Participles of Verbs in UO, 
 
 ac-utus, arg-utus, &c. 
 
 ) D. nostras, Arpinas, &c. Quiris, Samnis, &c. p. 108. 
 17) for-tis, hebes, dives, p. 116, &c. 
 
 V. D. 
 
 Substantives. 
 
 a) V. mo-dus ; cau-da ; cica-da ; tae-da ; crep-ida. 
 /3) V. laus, cla-des. 
 y) V. her-es, merc-es, (cust-os?) 
 8) D. pec-us ud-. 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 a) D. absur-dus, cru-dus ; fum-idus, smoky ; gel-idus, chilly, frosty ; herb-idus, 
 grassy ; morb-idus, diseased ; sol-idus ; suc-idus, juicy, and others : V. many 
 from Verbs (chiefly, but not solely, of Conj. 2.) : ac-idus, alg-idus, ar-idus, av-idus, 
 call-idus, ferv-idus, pall-idus, tab-idus, tim-idus, torr-idus, val-idus, um-idus, 
 &c. &c. ; cup-idus, flu-idus, grav-idus, rab-idus, rap-idus, vlv-idus. 
 |8) D. gran-dis ; viri-dis. 
 
59. Derivation of Nouns. 241 
 
 VII. s. 
 
 S. a) b5. /3) bl. 
 A. bo. 
 
 on bundo see N ; on bill ber*, &c., see Xi, R. 
 
 VIII. M. 
 
 This Nasal has an important place in Latin Wordlore. It ter- 
 minates, as in Sk., the Accus. Sing, of all Masc. and Fern. Nouns, 
 and the first three cases of Neut. O-nouns. The Suffix mo enters 
 into the Superl. form of the Adj. M*n (men), mento have con- 
 crete use, implying Instrument : monio implies Permanent State : 
 S. a) mo imo timo j3) min (men) imin (imen) umin 
 
 (amen) y) mento i mento umento amen to /) 
 
 xnon umdn e) monio imdnio I) umno. 
 A. ) mo /8) imo (umo) timo (tum5) simo (sumo) rimo 
 (rumo) limb (lumo) issimo (issiimo) esimo (esumd). 
 
 VII. B. 
 
 Substantives. 
 
 a) mor-bus, tu-ba, tur-ba, ver-bum. 
 
 /3) plebs, pu-bes. 
 Adjectives : 
 
 pro-bus (7rpo-$vT?s)> super- 
 
 VIII. X*. 
 
 Substantives. 
 
 o) V. ar-mus, shoulder-joint ; fu-mus, smoke ; ra-mus, bough ; an-Tmus, mind ; 
 an-Tma, breath ; fst-ma.,fame ; flam-ma, flame ; spu-ma,foam; vic-tima, victim ; 
 ar-ma, arms, &c. D. bru-ma, mid-winter (brevi-ma). 
 
 ]3) V. Neut. (numerous) : imply ' Means, Instmment or Concrete Effect : ' (i) when 
 the theme has active force : flu-men, stream ; lu-men, light ; lenl-men, leva-men, 
 assuagement ; nu-men, nod, deity ; nutrl-men, nutriment ; reg-imen, govern' 
 ment', sola-men, comfort; teg-men, covering'. (2) when the theme has a pas- 
 sive sense : ag-men, a marching body (quod agitur) ; n5-men, name (quod nos- 
 citur) ; stra-men, straw (quod sternitur) ; se-men, seed(quod seritur) ; exa-men, 
 swarm of bees (quod exigitur, which is driven out) or tongiie of balance (quod 
 exigitur, whichis adjusted). So crlmen, a charge ; doc-umen, lesson, &c. &c. &c. 
 Some suppose Verbs not in use : albu-men, gra-men, grass (ger-ere or gen-ere ? 
 Compare ger-men, sprout). (Many unc. abdo-men, bitu-men, ll-men and others. 
 Flamen, priest, Masc. from flag- <f>A.ey-, lighter of sacrificial fire.) 
 
 y) This Suffix is an enlargement of the last, and has the same general meanings and 
 varieties: V. (i) Act. argu-mentum, proof; ar-mentum, plough-cattle; comple- 
 mentum, what fills up ; fo-mentum, poultice (quod fovet), fer-mentum (quod 
 fervet) ; nutri-mentum, orna-mentum, al-imentum, teg-umentum. (2) Pass, cae- 
 mentum, hewn stone (quod caeditur) ; frag-mentum ; ra-mentum, shaving (quod 
 raditur), testa-mentum, will, &c. &c. &c. From non-extant Verbs : calcea-men- 
 tum, shoe ; rudi-mentum, first training, rudiment (compare erudire) ; palud- 
 amentum, military cloak. 
 
 6) ser-mo, discourse : (Lucu-mo, prince, priest, in Etruria). 
 
 e) D. acr-imonia, sharpness ; aegr-imonia, melancholy ; parc-imonia (rather than 
 pars-imonia), thrift ; matr-imonium, marriage, &c. V. quer-imonia, complaint : 
 al-imonium, nourishment, &c. 
 
 ^) V. al-umnus, nursling ; col-umna, column. 
 
 Adjectives. 
 a) V. al-mus, genial '; fir-mus, firm. D. On Superl. suffix mS see p. 42. So the 
 
 Ordinal Numerals Septimus, decimus, &c. p. 152. 
 
 /3) D. plur-Imus, ci-timus, pes-simus, acer-rimus, humil-limus, dur-issimus, quin- 
 quag-ensimus, cent-ensimus (umus), &c. &c. See pp. 42, 153. 
 R 
 
242 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 y) itimo (itiimd) d) Imo t) mi. 
 
 IX. x. 
 
 The Nasodental n is not less important than the Dentals t, d in 
 forming Latin Suffixes. Three uses may be distinguished : (i) when 
 n is followed by a vowel in a staminal suffix (na, no, ino, ano, md, 
 &c.) or by two vowels (neo, ineo, &c.) : (2) when it is itself, in Sub- 
 stantives, the Stem-character (en, in, en, 6n, on) ; here it does not, 
 like t, d, fall out before a Nom.-Ending s, but rejects s, remaining 
 itself in the form en or en (pec ten, teg men, lien), but rejected by 
 the stems on on, which become 6 in Nom. Sing, (homo, natio, 
 Plato) : (3) when it stands chiefly in Adjectives before t, d or s 
 (ento, enti, endo, ensi, &c.), rarely before g (quadringenti): 
 being sometimes the final letter of a preceding suffix (men-to), 
 sometimes, perhaps, the strengthening Nasal (nti, nsi). 
 
 S. (i) a) na ,o) no ino y) and ono uno end ileno 
 c) ino i) ni 
 
 (2) ) en (in) men (min) i } ) on (in) 0) gon agon 
 Igon ugron (gin) t) don edon idon udon (din) 
 tudon itudon (din) K) on ion cion tion sidn 
 
 (3) A) enti anti n) undon (din). 
 See men to under Itt. 
 
 y) D. leg-itTmus, mar-itTmus (-umus). 
 
 5) D. matr-Imus, having mother alive ; patr-Imus : (op-Imus, having- -wealth, rich). 
 e) co-mis, subllmis (seen from underneath ' limis oculis ? ' i.e. lofty. Compare obli- 
 
 quus). 
 
 IX. X. 
 
 Substantives. 
 
 a) V. ver-na, houseslave. 
 
 /3) V. som-nus, dom-inus, pen-na, pag-ina, reg-num. . . . D. pi-nus, pine-tree. 
 
 y) and : D. Silv-anus, god of forests ; membr-ana, parchment ; (gra-num, a 
 grain} ; ond : V. col-onus, farm : tenant. D. patr-onus, patron ; matr-ona, 
 matron ; uno : D. trib-unus, tribune ; fort-una, fortune ; end : V. hab-ena, 
 rein ; D. lani-ena, butcher s shop ; (ven-enum, poison) ; le-aena, lioness, &c. ; 
 ileno : V. cant-ilena, ditty. 
 
 6) in6 : V. inquil-inus, lodger ; ru-ina,y2z//, ruin ; rap-in*, plunder ; cu-lina, kitchen ; 
 
 D. gall-ina, hen ; medic-ina, medical art ; discipl-ina, teaching, school, &c. 
 
 e) V. fi-nis, end ; cri-nis, parted hair. 
 
 g) V. pect-en, comb. For the suffix men (mm), &c. see HI. 
 
 7}) D. hom-o, man ; turb-o, whirlwind, top. 
 
 &) g*dn : J9.vir-go, virgin ; agon : V. vor-ago, gulph ; D. farr-ago, mess of flour; 
 (im-ago, image ?) ; Igdn : V. or-igo, origin ; vert-igo, twirl ; Ugon : D. aer-ugo, 
 copper-rust ; lan-ugo, down, &c. (Genitives ginis.) 
 
 t) ddn : or-do, order ? edon : V. dulc-edo, sweetness : torp-edo, numbness ; 
 Iddn : V. cup-ido, desire ; udon : D. test-udo, tortoise, penthouse ; itudon : 
 D. alt-itudo, fort-itudo, lat-itudo, long-itudo, viciss-itudo ; vale-tudo (for valent- 
 udo?), &c. c. (Genitives dinis.) 
 
 K) on : m. D. commilit-o, fellow-soldier ; epul-o, banqiieter, &c. &c. : V. bib-o, 
 toper ; erro, vagabond ; ion, many masc. D. lud-io, player ; sen-io, sice, &c. 
 V. pug-io, poniard. Fern. V. (Pres. St.) : condlc-io, leg-io, opln-io, suspic-io, 
 &c. Some D. commun-io, communion ; consortio, rebellio, &c. ; cion : homun- 
 cio ; tion, sion : Fern. V. (Sup. St.), a very numerous class of words : aestima- 
 tio, admom-tio, sortl-tio, ac-tio, na-tio, ora-tio, posses-sio, ul-tio, vi-sio, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 A) V. adulesc-ens, serp-ens, torr-ens, anim-ans, inf-ans, &c. D. tri-ens, quad-rans, &c. 
 
 AC) hir-undo, swallow;, har-undo, reed. 
 
4*59- Derivation of Nouns. 24.3 
 
 A. (i) a) no Xno ne6 gmo gno tino ft) ana aneo 
 
 taneo 7) end ieno oeno uno d) Ino, tino *) ni 
 
 (3) ) ento ulento olento ilento (ginto cento gento) 
 
 //) anti enti ilenti iilenti 0) ensi lens* ensili 
 
 i) undo endo ando K ) cundo A) bundo. 
 
 X. s. 
 
 The Sibilant in a large class of words, chiefly V., represents the 
 Dental t (so, si, sion,sdr, sorio, surd). When s is a Stem-character, 
 .in many words, especially in the older, it remains in Norn. Sing, flos, 
 ros,opus,nemus, Venus, pul vis, &c.,butoftener becomes r in the 
 suffix os or : pudor, auctor, c. : while in some words both forms 
 were used : honos or honor, labos or labor, lepos or lepor : so 
 -amos, colos occur. In the Oblique Cases s becomes r : floris, 
 roris, operis, Veneris, honoris, &c. But if in derivation such 
 words come before a Mute, then s is resumed : flos-culus, opus- 
 culum, venus-tus, hones-tus : hes-ternus (from heri for hes-i, 
 Gr. V0&): not before a vowel : flor-eus, pulver-ulentus; see R. 
 On the falling out of n before s in various words (quotiens, sem- 
 enstris, formonsus, vicensumus, &c.), see p. 50. 
 
 S. ) sa /3) so si sio esio ison 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 o-) -D. mag-nus, sa-nus, va-nus, ver-nus, no-nus, u-nus, octo-nus, ter-nus ; acer-nus, 
 of maple ; colur-nus (for corulinus), of hazel ; adamant-mus; ahe-neus, of brass ; 
 ebur-neus, of ivory ; (ido-neus,^f/) ; olea-ginus, of olive ; beni-gnus, kind, boun- 
 tiful; cras-tmus, of t lie morrow ; pris-tmus, of olden time. 
 
 /3) Z>. arc-anus, secret ; font-anus, of a fountain ; quart-anus ; cbtidi-anus, daily ; 
 suburb-anus, near the city ; subterr-aneus, underground; V. supervac-aneus ; 
 collec-taneus, gathered together ; consen-taneus, adapted, &c. 
 
 ?) V. eg-enus, needy : D. ali-enus, foreign ; terr-enus, earthly ; (ser-enus) ; op- 
 port-unus, at hand ; (amoenus, agreeable). 
 
 5) D- can-Tnus, of a dog ; div-inus, of a deity, divine ; mar-inus, of the sea, &c. &c. ; 
 libert-inus, offreedman-class ; matut-inus, of morn ; vesper- \\nus, of evening, &c. 
 
 e) seg-nis, lazy. 
 
 ) D. cru-entus, bloody ; vi-olentus, violent ; lut-ulentus, muddy ; mac-ilentus, wasted ; 
 (corp-uleatus for corpor-ulentus). For the forms vi-ginti, tri-ginta, &c. du-centi, 
 quin-genti, &c., see Numeralia. 
 
 37) V. Adjectives and Participles in ens, ans, denoting 'Present activity : ' abs-ens, 
 eleg-ans, impud-ens, prud-ens, am-ans, praest-ans, cand-ens, dilig-ens, negleg-ens, 
 audi-ens, &c. &c. &c., (petul-ans). D. pest-ilens. 
 
 ff) D. for-ensis, of tlie forum ; Athen-iensis, of Athens; ut-ensilis,y27r use ; observe 
 di nov-ensiles, the meaning of which term is questionable. 
 
 *) V. Gerundive Participles in undus (anc.), endus, andus ; reg-undue, audi-endus, 
 am-andus, &c. &c. &c. They denote 'Present activity.' See Syntax. 
 
 K) V. cundo is a suffix compounded of the suffixes CO and ndo, and denotes 
 ' Permanent action' or l Present activity:' fa-cundus, eloquent; iu-cundus, 
 pleasant ; vere-cundus, bashful, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 A) V. bundo is compounded of "bo and ndd, and denotes ' Production of Present 
 activity : ' popula-bundus, engaged in. laying waste ; vaga-bundus, given to wan- 
 der ; mori-bundus, on the point of dying, &c. It is found with an Object : ' vita- 
 bundus castra hostium,' striving to avoid the enemy's camp, Liv. 
 
 x. s. 
 
 Substantives. 
 
 a) V. lixa, sutler (lic-ere ?). 
 
 ) V. na-sus, nose ; noxa, harm, &c. (see T) ; mes-sis, harvest ; ama-sius, sweet- 
 heart ; Megal-esia,/m.tf of Cybele ; equ-iso, groom. 
 R2 
 
244 Latin Wordlore. $9. 
 
 y) isco isto estro astro <*) es (&, its) = er 
 
 f) os (Us) = or ) os (fir) = or 7;) used usto 
 
 A. a) so sio (3) oso idso coso culoso &C. 7) stri 
 
 estri astro istro c) esti estico c) usco 2) esto 
 
 usto ?) ids (z0V) = ior. 
 
 XL R. 
 
 This Liquid occurs in many Suffixes, sometimes without a second 
 Consonant in the same Suffix (ro, ari, arid, &c.), often in sequence 
 of one of the mutes, c, t, b (ero, tro, bro, &c.). On its relations to 1 
 and to s see pp. 64. 65, and s above. 
 
 S. a) ro j8) ero iiro 7) cero (cro) S) bero (bro) 
 
 t) tero (tro) ) rii ij) ri Q) er erco erto 
 
 y) lent-iscus, lentisk ; ar-ista, ear of com ; fen-estra, window ; D. in -aster, -astrum 
 are of a deminutive nature : ole-aster, wild olive ; api-astrum, wild parsley , 
 mint; parasit-aster, a would-be parasite. 
 
 8 e ) Nouns increasing in er- from Nominatives in Is, us, in or- from us, and in or- 
 from os, will be found at pp. 25, 102. 
 
 )?) moll-usca : (loc-usta). 
 Adjectives. 
 
 a) V. las-sus, anxius, &c. &c. See T. 
 
 /3) 5s8 (for onso or ontid, as ovo-ia for ovrla), numerous ; D. anim-osus, form-osus, 
 &c. &c. &c. ; capt-iosus, cur-iosus, &c. ; belli-cosus, siti-culosus, monstr-uosus, &c. 
 
 y) V. illu-stris ; D. palu-stris, silv-estris : sin-ister. 
 
 fi) Z>. agr-estis, cael-estis, dom-esticus. 
 
 ^) D. cor-uscus, glittering. 
 
 j} D. funestus from funus, er- ; scelestus from scelus, en-.; honestus from honos, 6r- 
 (so tempestas from tempus, or-) ; but onustus from onus, er- ; venustus from Venus, 
 er- ; vetustus from vetus, er- ; modestus points to a lost Neut. modus. Augustus 
 from augur, and robustus from robur, shew that, even in Subst. with Norn, ur, 
 the original ending was us. 
 
 >j) This is the Suffix of Comparatives : mel-Tor (anc. melior, melios). See p. 21. 
 
 XL R. 
 
 Substantives. 
 
 a) V. cu-ra, care ; ser-ra, saw ; lab-rum, lip ; (aurora, morning, p. 66). 
 
 /3) F. num-erus, number', arbit-er, umpire ; gen-er, son-in-law, op-era, aid; iug- 
 erum, acre. D. um-erus, shoulder; sat-ura, satire. 
 
 Y) V. Neuter words implying ' That which effects action : ' simula-crum, likeness ; 
 sepul-crum, a grave; lu-crum, gain; ful-crum (for fulc-crum), prop, &c. &c. 
 Culo (Cld) is another form : cena-culum, dining-room. See Ii. The suffix 
 comes from the root Sk. kar, L. cre-o, to make. 
 
 6) V. ' That which effects action ; ' fa-ber, engineer ; dola-bra, hatchet ; late-bra, 
 hiding-place ; cri-brum, sieve ; scalprum (for scalp-brum, chisel). D. candela- 
 brum, candlestick. Root Sk. bhar, Gr. <J>ep-. Bulo is another form : turi-bulum, 
 censer. 
 
 e) The Suffix t6r (tro) has two uses in Latin, both from one root, Sk. tar, Gr. 
 rop- (shewn in ripua, terminus, trames, trans, in-tra-re, pene-tra-re, &c.), go 
 beyond, penetrate, attain, (i) It corresponds to the comparative suffix Sk. 
 tara, Gr. repo-, used to express a relation between two : shewn in the Gr. Corn- 
 par, -repos, L. ter : magis-ter, minis-ter, mater-tera, &c. &c. and in Adverbs. 
 (2) Like cro and bro, it denotes in V. ' That which effects the action ; ' cul-ter, 
 knife; mulc-tra, milkpail; ara-trum, plough ; claus-trum, barrier ; ros-trum, beak 
 (rod-) ; ras-trum, harrow (rad-) : in mon-s-trum, prodigy, s is euphonically in- 
 serted. 
 
 ) V. cur-rus, chariot. 
 
 t\) V. au-ris, ear; na-ris, nostril. 
 
 &) D. ans-er (for h-anser ; Sk. hansa', Gr. xn v )> gander ; pass-er, sparrow ; muli-er, 
 woman ; nov-erca, stepmother ; V. it-er, journey ; cad-av-er, corpse. 
 
j 59- Derivation of Nouns. 245 
 
 .*) beri bri K) teri (tri) X) ter tr /*) iner inor v) bar 
 ) oriir o) ari TT) ario p) or = or a) tor = tor (sor) 
 trie- T) torio (sorio) v) uro uri urio <J>) turo (suro). 
 
 A. ) ro /3) ero iiro 7) cero (cro) 2) bero (bro) 
 
 tero (tro) t) esteri (estri) ) aro oro er6 q) ceri (erf) 
 
 0) beri (bri) i) teri (tri) K) ari X) arid /i) torio 
 
 (sorio) v) turo (surd). 
 
 i) V. fe-bris, fever. 
 K) (lin-ter or lunter, boatf) 
 
 A) See above e). This suffix corresponds to the Sk. tara, denoting chiefly relation- 
 ships : pa-ter, ma-ter, fra-ter. Observe (Sk. svasar, Gr. oap, L. soror for sosor). 
 /u) (itiner), journey ; (iociner), liver : (facinor-) facinus, deed, exploit, crime. 
 v) iu-bar, sunbeam. 
 ^) D. aequ-or, level surface, sea ; (unc. iecur, ebur, robur, Gen. -oris). V. fulg-ur, 
 
 ligtning', Gen. -uris. (Unc. augur, turtur, vultur.) 
 o) D. mol-aris (lapis), grindstone : many Neut. from Adjectives : alve-are, hive ; 
 
 calc-ar, sptir, &c. &c. 
 TT) Properly Adj. libr-arius, copyer of books ; den-arius, aten-aspiece ; Aulul-aria (name 
 
 of a Comedy of Plautus) ; tabul-arium, record-office ; pom-arium, orchard, &G.&C. 
 p) V. or from prim, rudiment : am-or, love ; cru-or, blood ; clam-or, outcry ; trem-or, 
 
 trembling ; um-or, moisture ; (ux-or, -wife ?), Gen. oris, &c. &c. &c. Many had 
 
 character S originally : umos, lepos, &c. See S. 
 tr) V. a numerous class, denoting ' an Agent : ' ara-tor, ora-tor, pisca-tor, moni-tor 
 
 ac-tor, vic-tor, spon-sor, mes-sor, Gen. oris, &c. &c. &c. The Fern, form is 
 
 trie trix : moni-trix, vic-trix, tons-trix, &c. &c. 
 D. gladia-tor, via-tor, fund-i-tor, iam-tor, and some others. 
 T) From Verbal Adjectives Neut. : denote chiefly locality : audi-torium, lecture-room ; 
 
 dever-sorium, hostel, &c. See below /A). 
 
 T>) V. ffg-ura, shape ; sec-uris, axe ; D. pen-uria, penury ; promunt-urium, promon- 
 tory. 
 <j>) V. (Sup. St.) na-tura, nature ; sepul-tura, burial', men-sura, meastire ; cae-sura, 
 
 cutting, &c. : official terms : dicta-tura, dictatorship ; quaes-tura, quaestorship ; 
 
 cen-sura, censorship. Others imply ' the "work of an Agent (tor, sor) : ' pic-tura, 
 
 painting ; ton-sura, shaving, &c. 
 Adjectives. 
 
 a) V. cla-rus, gna-rus. 
 
 /3) V. glab-er, smooth ; integ-er, lac-er, sac-er, scab-er, rough : D. satur. 
 
 y) V. ludi-cer. 
 
 5) V. cre-her, frequent. 
 
 ) D. The Derivatives have the Compar. suffix tara : al-ter, u-ter, dex-ter, sinis-ter, 
 
 nos-ter, ves-ter, ex-ter, in-ter, &c. (So in Adverbs ali-ter, pari-ter, &c.) See 
 
 above e). 
 <) V. av-arus, covetous ; can-orus, od-orus, son-orus (unc. aust-erus ; sev-erus ; 
 
 sin-cerus, pro-cerus?). 
 17) V. volu-cer, medio-cris (acer, alacer ?). 
 #) V. cele-ber ; lugu-bris ; salu-ber ; D. fene-bris, fune-bris, mulie-bris (drops r). This 
 
 suffix is from Sk. R. bhar, Gr. <ep-. 
 *) D. i. eques-ter, pedes-ter, palus-ter, seques-ter (secus), semes-tris (for semens- 
 
 tris) : 2. camp-estris, silv-estris, terr-ester (tris). 
 K) D. in art are a large class and imply 'Belonging to;' they are used for forms ^in 
 
 all if 1 is before in the word : consul-aris ; famili-aris ; milit-aris ; sol-aris ; 
 
 vulg-aris, &c. &c. &c. They form Substantives in ar an. See above o). 
 -A) The suffix arid is an enlargement of ari. The Adjectives derived from 
 Nouns and Particles imply character, quality, class, &c. : agr-arius, of land; 
 
 greg-arius, of a herd ; numm-arius, of coin ; necess-arius ; prec-arius ; volunt- 
 
 arius, &c. &c. &c. Hence Substt. See above TT). 
 <fO These are chiefly formed from Verbal Nouns of the Agent in tor (sor) and imply 
 
 ' Belonging to : ' ama-torius, ora-torius, cen-sorius, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 j>) This is theFut. Participle Act. of Verbs, denoting * Intended activity :' ama-turus, 
 da-turus, placi-turus, i-turus, fu-turus, lu-surus, mis-surus, &c. &c. &c. 
 
246 Latin Wordlorc. 59. 
 
 XII. XK 
 
 This soft Liquid is chiefly used in Deminutive Suffixes of D. 
 (ulo, 616, ello, &c.) : and it often denotes weakness, lightness > &c. 
 in Suffixes of Verbalia (iilo, ili, tili). But after a long Vowel it 
 has the same firmness as r, to which it is often equivalent. Thus 
 the Suffixes ali ari are virtually the same : but the former is always 
 preferred unless 1 occurs in the Stem (hiem-alis but lun-aris) : 
 but ario is never changed into alio (agr-arius). The Suffix bulo 
 is a softened form of bero (bro) ; bili of beri (bri), both from 
 root bhar, <f> ep- ; ciilo (as distinguished from the double Demin. 
 c-ulo) is a softened form of cero (cro) from root kar. 
 
 (i) Not formally Deminutive. 
 
 S. a) a /3) 16 iilo iileo 7) ciilo (do) d) bulo 
 
 t) elo r) ilo iilo T?) li ili 0) ali Hi eli. 
 
 A. a) iilo iileo /3) ilo 
 
 XII. X. 
 
 d) 
 
 Substantives. 
 
 a) V. assec-la, masc. follower. 
 
 /3) D. vio-la, violet (Gr. lov) ; pi-lum, pestle ; neb-ula, cloud. V. cuc-ulus, cuckoo ; 
 ang-ulus, corner ; fig-ulus, potter ; oc-ulus, eye ; cop-ula, link ; spec-ula, watch 
 tower ; exem-p-lum (for exim-ulum), tem-p-lum (for tem-ulum), &c. &c. In these 
 and others some deminutive influence may be surmised, and in many unc. 
 (cat-ulus, cum-ulus, fam-ulus, scop-ulus, Gr. ovroTreAos, stim-ulus, vit-ulus, fist-ula, 
 ins-ula, mer-ula, &c.). See 3). On reg-ula, rule ; teg-ula, tile, see pp. 16, 17. 
 Po-pul-us, e-pul-ae, probably contain the root Jar (pri] put pie. See P. 
 
 y) V. (Pres. St.) numerous : implying ' Instrument, means of action, y are Neut. : gu- 
 berna-culum, Jiclm ; ora-culum (-clum), oracle ; specta-culum, sight ; vehi-culum, 
 I'cliicle ; peri-culum, trial, peril, &c. &c. &c. In vinculum (vinclum), chain ; 
 torculum, press, C (qu) has fallen out after C : and it is not improbable that the 
 same occurs in ia-culum, javelin ; spe-culum, mirror. Unc. are (graculus, 
 jackdaw; surculus, sJwot ; baculum, "walking-stick, Gr. /3a-? saeculum, an age, 
 generation, &c.). See cero (cro) in Xt. 
 
 8) I r . (same meaning) : fa-bula, story ; su-bula, awl ; lati-bulum, hiding-place ; pa- 
 bulum, fodder ; voca-bulum, word, name, &c. D. turi-bulum, censer. 
 
 e) V. (Pres. St.) cand-ela, candle; (redupl.) cicind-ela, glowworm; suad-ela,/^r- 
 suasion : (with 11) loqu-ella, saying; quer-ella, complaint ; (Sup. St.) corrupt-ela, 
 corrjtption ; tut-ela, guardianship or (concrete) guardian, ward. D. client-ela, 
 clientage. 
 
 ) (unc. aqu-ila); D. cap-illus, hair; anc-illa, maidservant ; arg-illa, clay ; scint-illa, 
 spark ; V. pist-illum, pestle ; vex-illum, banner, &c. (probably deminutive of lost 
 forms, or formed by analogy). 
 
 7)) V. cau-lis, stalk ; col-lis, hill ; strig-Tlis, flesh-brush. 
 
 0) D. Adjectival words formed into Subst. ali, Masc. : nat-alis, birthday ; riv-alis, 
 rival (unc. can-alls, canal ; feti-alis, sacred envoy ; sod-alis, comrade), &c. 
 Neut. foe-ale, neckwrapper ; penetr-ale, inner shrine ; anim-al, &c. p. 107, with 
 Plur. names of Feasts : Consu-alia, Luperc-alia, Termin-alia, &c. &c. p. 126. 
 ili, Masc. aed-ilis, edile ; Apr-ilis, April, &c. Neut. cub-ile, hast-ile, ov-ile, 
 sed-ile, &c. p. 107. Plur. Par-ilia, feast of Pales; Suovetaur-ilia, Feast with 
 sacrifice of swine, sheep, and steer, eli : patru-elis, cousin on father's side. 
 
 Adjectives.f 
 
 a) D. buV)-ulus, \f>fan ox ; caer-ulus, caer-uleus, sky-blue ; edent-ulus, toothless. V- 
 (PreslSt.) denoting ' Tendency : ' bib-ulus, cred-ulus, garr-ulus, pat-ulus, quer-ulus^ 
 strid-ulus, sed-ulus, trem-ulus, &c. , all with demin. character : (unc. aem-ulus). 
 /J) D. nub41us, cloudy ; rut-ilus, reddish. 
 
59. Derivation of Nouns. 247 
 
 y) m ) bin *bm t) tm (sin) 
 
 attli r}) all Hi uli eli. 
 
 (2) Deminutive. 
 S. and A. 
 I. a) iilo (anc. 515, which remains after e, I). 
 
 b) ello, illo, ullo, primarily deminutive, are not purely suffixal, 
 but contain the Stem-character i, n or r assimilated to 1 of the 
 Suffix : in some words they are perhaps used by analogy. 
 
 c) ello, 1116, secondary Deminutives for iil-uld. 
 
 d) elliilo, illiild, secondary Deminutives, when derived from b\ 
 tertiary, when derived from c). 
 
 y) V. (Pres. St.) denoting Tendency or capacity : ag-ilis, nimble ; hab-ilis, apt ; 
 
 deb-ilis, weak ; fac-ilis, easy ; diffic-ilis, difficult ; nub-ilis, marriageable ; ut-ilis, 
 
 useful, &c. D. hum-ilis, lowly ; sim-ilis, like ; ster-ilis, barren : (unc. grac-ilis, 
 
 slender). 
 8) V. (Pres. St.) denoting chiefly 'Passive capability : ' mira-bilis, wonderfd ; muta- 
 
 bilis, changeable ; fle-bilis, mournful ; prob-a-bilis, approvable ; credi-bilis, 
 
 credible; no-bilis, noble, &c. &c. &c. Terri-bilis, terrible, has Active force. 
 
 (Sup. St.) ftex.-\\)i\is, flexible ; plaus-ibilis, commendable ; sens-ibilis, perceivable. 
 
 Add poss-ibilis, possible (of the Silver age). 
 
 e) V. (Sup. St.) Some denote only 'Passive quality, 1 differing little from the Perf. 
 
 Part. : a\-\.\\\s, fattened ; coc-tilis, baked; fic-tilis, fashioned; fis-silis, cleft; mis- 
 silis, sent ; nex-ilis, twined ; tor-tilis, twisted ; versa-tilis, made to revolve, &c. : 
 others denote ' Passive capacity : ' flex-ilis, flexible ; diffu-silis, expansive ; tac- 
 tilis, that may be touched; others ' A ctive quality ;' pen-silis hanging", ses-silis, 
 squab ; vol-atilis,^)/z^, &c. Abnormal : fer-tilis, fruitful, indicating an old word 
 fert-us (fut-tilis, futile T). 
 
 f) D. aqu-atilis, fluvi-atilis, river-dwelling, &c. 
 
 i\) all : D. (numerous) denote 'Belonging to,' Sac. : aequ-alis, dot-alis, fat-alis,furi-alls, 
 liber-alis, marti-alis, mort-alis, reg-alis, triumph-alis, &c. ; vit-alis, voc-alis, &c. &c. 
 &c. I1X : D. civ-ilis, er-ilis, host-ilis, puer-ilis, scurr-ilis, sen-ilis, serv-ilis, vir-ilis, 
 &c. SubtT-lis for sub-telis, of the woof, fine, sribtle. ulTf : Z>. cur-ulis, like a chariot 
 (applied to the ' sella ' of certain magistrates, which had that shape) ; trib-ulis, 
 of the tribe. The Adj. ed-ulis, eatable, is abnormal, eli : D. crud-elis, cruel; 
 f id-elis, infid-elis. See above 6). 
 
 (2) Deminutive Nouns. 
 
 I. a) O and A-nouns form Deminutives by joining ulus (a, um) to the dipt Stem un- 
 less e, i, 1, n, or r precede the ending : 
 
 riv-us, riv-ulus ; frigid-us, frigid-ulus ; cist-a, cist-ula ; scut-um, scut-ulum. 
 
 After e, 1, olus (a, um) is used : 
 
 alve-us, alve-olus : aure-us, aure-olus ; line-a, line-ola ; horre-um, horre-olum ; fili-us, 
 fili-olus ; glori-a, glori-ola ; savi-um, savi-olum. 
 
 Guttural and Dental Nouns add ulus (a, um) to the True Stem : 
 
 rex, reg-ulus ; comix, cornlc-ula ; adolescens, adolescent-ulus, adolescent-ula ; 
 
 caput, capit-ulum : lapid-u-lus becomes lapillus. 
 V) ulus (a), mus (a), Tnus (a), enus (a), become ellus (a) : 
 
 populus, popellus ; fabula, fabella ; aslnus, asellus ; geminus, gemellus ; patina, 
 patella ; catlnus, catellus ; catena, catella. 
 
 er (ra or era, rum) become ellus (a,um) : 
 
 liber, libellus ; miser, misellus ; capra, capella ; opera, opella ; labrum, labellum. 
 G-nus, g-num, and ulum usually form illus, ilium : 
 
 pug-nus, pug-illus ; signum, sigillum ; pOculum, pocillum ; (but scamnum, scabel- 
 lum). 
 
248 Latin Wordlore. 59. 
 
 e) Substantival Deminutives olio, alo (for axiild), iileo, and Ad- 
 jectival aulo (aulio), aululo (aulliilo), are rare. 
 
 II. ) The double Deminutive c-ulo. 
 /:>) cXon is a rare Suffix : as homun-cio. 
 
 y) unculo in a few words is joined by analogy to Stems not 
 Nasal : av-unculus, fur-unculus, ran-unculus. 
 
 Note i. Care must be taken not to class among Deminutives 
 words which are not such : as Verbals in culum : iaculum, 
 poculum, &c. It is probable that umbra -culum and taberna- 
 culum should be ranked with these rather than with Deminutives. 
 
 2. Sometimes the meaning of a Deminutive differs altogether 
 from that of its theme : avunculus, uncle (on mother's side), from 
 avus, grandfather ; osculum, kiss, from os, mouth. 
 
 3. Deminutives sometimes express endearment, sometimes scorn : 
 usually smallness only. They keep the Gender of their Primitives. 
 
 4. Latin Deminutives have importance in the Romance languages, 
 which form many words from them : as L. luscini-ola, It. 
 usignuolo, Fr. rossignol, nightingale-, L. api-cula, Fr. ab- 
 eille,&tf ; L. agn-ellus, Fr. agneau, lamb; \j. gem-ellus, Fr. 
 jumeau, twin. 
 
 vi. Patronymica, Names derived from Parents 
 or Ancestors, are noticed at p. 75. 
 
 c) Porcellus from porculus, cistella from cistula, codic-illus from codic-ulus (codex), 
 pauxillus from pauculus, are secondary Deminutives. 
 
 d) Porcellulus from porcellus, cistellula from cistella, pauxillulus from pauxillus, are ter- 
 tiary Deminutives. 
 
 e) Coron-ula, corolla ; palus for (pajuilus) paxillus ; equ-us, equ-uleus or equ-ulus ; 
 pauc-ulus, paullus ; whence paullulus. 
 
 II. a) Other Consonant Nouns add culus (a, um) to the Stem : 
 frater, frater-culus ; pauper, pauper-culus ; animal, animal-culum ; flos, flos-culus ; 
 
 mus, mus-culus ; opus, opus-culum ; cor-culum for cord-culum. 
 And from Comparative Adjectives : 
 
 grandius-culus, rather older', melius-culus, a little better; plus-culum, somewhat 
 
 more. 
 On becomes un : 
 
 homo, homun-culus ; virgo, virgun-cula ; ratio, ratiun-cula. 
 OS becomes US in arbos, rumor : 
 
 arbus-cula, rumus-culus. 
 
 Bos (bovis) forms bucula, heifer, for bovi-cula. 
 I-nouns take culus (a, um), and usually shorten i : 
 piscis, pisci-culus ; levis, levl-culus ; pars, part-Tcula ; rete, reti-culum ; venter, ventrl- 
 
 culus. In a few Deminutives i is long, as canlcub, cutlcula, febricula. 
 From anguis, snake, comes anguilla, eel. 
 U-nouns join i-culus (a, um) to the Clipt Stem : 
 
 versus, vers-Tculus ; anus, an-icula ; cornu, corn-iculum. Lacus-culus, domun-cula, 
 are abnormal exceptions. 
 
 E-nouns add cula to the Stem ; 
 
 die-cula, re-cula. 
 Nube-cula, plebe-cula, vulpe-cula, from Nouns of Decl. 3., are formed as though from 
 
 E-nouns. 
 
59. Derivation of Nouns. 249 
 
 vii. Names of Countries are usually formed 
 from the name of the people with ending ia. 
 
 Ital-i, Ital-ia ; Graec-i, Graecia ; Gall-i, Gallia ; Arab-es, Arab-ia ; 
 Arcad-es, Arcad-ia, &c. 
 
 Some with the ending is : 
 Pers-ae, Pers-is; Colch-i, Colch-is; Aeol-es, Aeol-is, &c. 
 
 Exceptions : Africa, ludaea, Illyricum, and some others. 
 
 viii. Nominative Endings of Derived Words, 
 according to their several meanings. 1 
 
 I. Substantives : * 
 
 (I.) Abstract : 
 
 1) Action; Faculty. 
 
 V. tio, sio ; tus, sus 4 ; io (fern.) ; tura, sura. 
 
 2) State; Habit; Effect: 
 
 V. or or- ; us or-, us er- ; ies, ium ; ma ; monia ; monium ; 
 ela (ella) ; tela ; Ido, edo ; Igo. 
 
 3) Quality ; Qualified Condition ; Function : 
 
 D. ia, ies, ium ; itia, ities, itium ; ntia ; tas ; tus ; tudo; ela ; 
 Ina ; io (fern.) ; monia ; monium ; edo ; ago, ugo ; atus 
 4 ; tura, sura. 
 
 (II.) Concrete : 
 
 1) Personal Agent ; Individual: 
 
 V. tor, sor (masc.), trix (fern.) ; atus 2 ; o on- (masc.) ; 
 D. tor (masc.), trix (fern.) ; atus 2 ; arius 2 ; es, it- ; o, io 
 (masc.). 
 
 2) Efficient Thing (Means, Instrument} . 
 
 V. en; men; mentum; (ulum) culum, crum ; bulum, brum, 
 bra; trum. 
 
 D. bulum, brum (in a few instances). 
 
 1 Examples : 
 I. (I) i) actio, visio ; actus, visus ; oblivio ; sepultura, versura. 
 
 2) furor ; decus ; pondus ; congeries, colloquium ; ruina ; querimonia ; alimonium ; 
 
 suadela ; corruptela ; libido, torpedo ; vertigo. 
 
 3) concordia, pauperies, consortium ; saevitia, mollities, calvitium ; ignorantia, in- 
 
 tellegentia ; celeritas, aedilitas, libertas ; senectus ; latitude, mansuetudo ; clien- 
 tela ; disciplina ; communio ; castimonia ; matrimonium ; pinguedo ; farrago, 
 lanugo ; consulatus, comitatus ; pictura, censura. 
 {II) i) V. doctor, cursor, adiutrix ; legatus ; comedo : D. viator, funditor, ianitrix ; 
 
 candidatus ; sicarius ; eques, miles ; naso, centurio. 
 
 2) V. unguen ; lenimen ; lenimentum ; speculum ; operculum, lavacrum ; vocabulum, 
 delubrum, latebra ; aratrum, feretrum : D. acetabulum (umbraculum, taberna- 
 culum may perhaps be taken as Verbalia). 
 
250 Latin Wordlore. $$ 
 
 3) Thing effected : 
 
 V. turn, sum. 
 
 4) Locality : 
 
 D. etum ; ctum ; Itum ; stum ; arium ; torium ; trina, tri- 
 num ; In a. 
 
 5) Object: 
 
 V. ex, Tc- ; D. ale, al ; are, r, lie. 
 
 Deminutives appear above, p. 247, and are not repeated here. 
 
 Obs. Under other Endings, us 2 ; ius 2 ; a ; urn ; is 3 ; es 3, 
 c., are comprised Derivatives various in meaning and origin, but 
 almost all concrete. 
 
 II. Adjectives : 
 (I.) Verbalia : 
 
 1) With Active sense : 
 
 ns (Pres. Part.) ; urus (Fut. Part.) ; cundus : bundus ; ax ; 
 idus ; Icus, ucus ; uus, Ivus ; ulus ; tilis (a few) ; ber, bris;^ 
 cer, cris ; aneus. 
 
 2) With Passive sense : 
 
 tus, sus (Perf. Part.) : life ; biflis ; tilis, sflis ; uus ; tivus ; 
 ticius ; taneus. 
 
 3) With sense Active or Passive . 
 
 ndus (Gerundive). 
 
 (II.) Denominativa : with the meanings 
 
 1) ' Belonging to : : 
 
 ius ; Icus ; ticus ; anus ; ianus ; aneus ; enus, eneus ; ensis, 
 iensis ; alis, aris, arms ; Ilis, elis, ulis ; atilis ; Inus ; Ivus; 
 ster, stris, stis ; timus ; nus. 
 
 2) 'Made ' or ' consisting of: ' 
 
 eus ; Inus ; nus, neus ; icius ; aceus ; uceus. 
 
 3) meritum, visum. (V'i.sio, the seeing; visus 4, the faculty of sight, or the fact of 
 
 sight : visum, the thing seen.) 
 
 4) quercetum ; salictum : virgultum ; arbustum ; viridarium ; praetorium ; tonstrina, 
 
 pistrinum ; officina. 
 
 5) vortex ; torale, puteal ; laqueare, calcar ; bublle ; but V. sedile. 
 
 II. (I) i) constans, fulgens ; dicturus, mansurus ; iracundus, verecundus ; errabundus ; 
 tenax ; timidus ; pudicus ; caducus ; nocuus, nocivus ; garrulus ; volatilis ; 
 saluber, lugubris ; volucer ; consentaneus, succedaneus. 
 
 2) notus, fessus ; docilis ; amabilis (terribilis, Act.) ; sutilis, fossilis; mutuus; vo- 
 
 tivus ; conducticius ; collectaneus. 
 
 3) notandus, delendus, gerundus. 
 
 (II) it regius, oratorius ; bellicus ; fanaticus, rusticus ; montanus, decumanus ; Caesa- 
 rianus ; spontaneus ; terrenus ; aeneus ; castrensis, Carthaginiensis ; hiemalis, 
 Solaris, gregarius. senarius ; erilis, crudelis, tribulis ; aquatilis ; marinus, 
 libertinus ; aestivtis ; pedester ; caelestis ; maritinaus, legitimus ; pater-nus. (Ob- 
 serve colurnus by transposition for corul-nus, from corulus, hazel,) 
 2) ferreus ; faginus, fagineus ; quenjus ; latericius ; hordeaceus ; pannuceus. 
 
59. Derivation of Nouns. 251 
 
 3) ' Fitll of? ( abounding in : ' 
 
 . osus ; olentus, ulentus, olens ; idus. 
 
 4) ' Endued with J (analogous to Perf. Part.). 
 
 atus, Itus, utus. 
 
 5) ' Having the nature of:' 
 
 stiis ; gnus. 
 
 6) Adjectives of Time have the endings tinus, tmus ; ernus, 
 urnus. 
 
 ix. Adjectives are also derived from Particles;, 
 some from Adverbs, some from Prepositions. 1 
 
 3) frondosus; fraudulentus, violentus, violens ; herbidus. The ending osus often 
 
 implies faultiness : glori-osus, full of (\&\\\)-glory , boastful ; fam-osus, (full of 
 fame, but) ill-famed', mor-osus, (full of moralities, but) peevish, morose. Ul- 
 entus, ul-ens probably combine the root of growth, ol, 111, with ent- the par- 
 ticipial suffix. Cru-entus, bloody, omits Ol. 
 
 4) auratus, togatus, auritus (from auris), astutus. 
 
 5) honestus, funestus, scelestus, robustus, venustus ; abiegnus, benignus, malignus. 
 
 6) annotinus ; hornotlnus ; serotinus ; matutlnus, vespertmus ; aet-ernus, hib-ernus, 
 
 di-urnus, noct-urnus. 
 Adverbs with their Derivative Adjectives : 
 
 diu ; diutlnus hodie ; hodiernus perendie ; perendmus 
 
 diuturnus nimis ; nimius repente ; repeiitlnus 
 
 eras ; crastlnus nuper ; nuperus simul ; similis 
 
 heri ; hesternus peregre ; peregrinus temere ; temerarius 
 
 Also semp-i-ternus from semper. 
 
 Prepositions with corresponding Adverbs and Adjectives are derived from various rudi- 
 ments : 
 
 an- an-te (for old Abl. anted or antid). 
 
 (anter-us) anter-ior : antlquus. 
 jos- pos-t (for pos-te=old Abl. postid). See M. Lucr. iv. 1186. 
 
 poster-us, poster-ior, postre-mus : post-Icus. 
 cl- ci-s ; ci-tra ; ci-tro : 
 
 (citer) citer-ior, citi-mus. 
 ul- ultra ; ultro : 
 
 (ulter-us) ulter-ior, ulti-mus : ultroneus. 
 com contra ; contro- : 
 
 (conter-us) : contr-arius. 
 ec- ex, e ; extra ; (extris) extrin-secus : 
 
 exter-us, exter-ior, extre-mus : externus ; extraneus ; extrarius. 
 in in-tus ; inter ; intra ; intro, (intris) intrin-secus : 
 
 (inter-us) inter-ior, inti-mus : intestinus : internus, inferus, infer-ior, infi- 
 
 mus, imus : infernus. 
 pri- prae ; praeter: 
 
 prior, primus ; priscus ; pristinus. 
 pro pro-pe ; propter : 
 
 propior, proximus : propinquus : probus : pronus. 
 sup- sub sus- ; super, supra ; subter : 
 
 super-us, super-ior, supre-mus : supinus. See Footnote, p. 202. 
 de (di-s) : 
 
 (deter-us), deter-ior, deterrimus. 
 re- retro. 
 
 Key derives reci-procus from re, pro, with suffix CO appended to each, 
 se- sine, 
 
 clam: 
 
 clandestinus (lost form clan-dus). 
 tar- : appears in tran-s, -ter, -tra. 
 
252 Latin Wordlore. 59. 
 
 x. Adjectives derived from Proper Names. 
 
 A} From Personal Names i 1 
 
 1) Suffix ius : 
 
 This is the ending of Roman Nomina Gentilia (clan names) : 
 Cornelius, Fabius, lunius, lulius, Tullius. As such, it is usedsub- 
 stantively. But it is used adjectively to describe a law brought in, 
 a road or public edifice made, by a member of any gens, as lex 
 Roscia, via Appia, aqua lulia, theatrum Pompeium, &c. A 
 law brought in by two colleagues bore the twofold name, as lex 
 Papia Poppaea de maritandis ordinibus. 
 
 2) Suffixes anus, ianus, Inus, imply ' belonging to ' the person : 
 Caesar-z-anus, Cinn-anus, Sull-anus, August-anus (or August- 
 ianus), c. ; Plaut-inus, Verr-inus, &c., and ' oratio Metell-ina/ C. 
 Att. i. 13. 
 
 3) Suffix -eus is poetical : Caesar-eus, Hercul-eus, Romul-eus, 
 &c. Horace has Romula gens. Augustus is used adjectively, as 
 domus Augusta; historia Augusta ; socolumna Traiana, 
 portus Traianus. 
 
 4) Suffixes eus ius, for Gr. -aoe, and icus for Gr. -i^oe, are used 
 in personal Adjectives from the Greek : Pythagoreus, Aristotellus, 
 Socrat-icus, &c. 
 
 B) Gentilia : from Names of People, Cities, Towns, &c. 
 These are properly Adjectives ; but often used Substantively. 
 
 1) Suffix anus, chiefly from Places in a or ae : Alba-nus, 
 Roma-nus, Theba-nus ; but also from some Places in um or i : as 
 Tuscul-anus, Puteol-anus. 
 
 2) Suffix Inus, from Places in ia, ium : Amer-inus (Ameria), 
 Aric-inus (Aricia), Clus-inus (Clusium). Observe also Praenest-inus 
 (Praeneste), Reat-inus (Reate), Tarent-inus (Tarentum). 
 
 1 Roman Names. A Roman of distinction had at least three names : the Praenomen, 
 individual name ; the Nomen, name shewing the Gens or clan ; the Cognomen, sur- 
 name, shewing the Familia or family. Thus, L. lunius Brutus expressed Lucius of the 
 Gens lunia and Familia Brutorum. To these were often added Agnomina, titles either 
 of honour (Africanus, Asiaticus, Coriolanus, Creticus, Isauricus, Macedonicus, Numi- 
 dicus, Magnus, Maximus, &c.), or expressing that a person had been adopted from an- 
 other Gens : Aemilianus, (adopted from the Gens Aemilia), Domitianus, Licinianus, 
 Mucianus, Octavianus, Salvianus, Seianus, Terentianus, Titianus, and many more. The 
 full name of Augustus (originally an Octavius) when adopted by his uncle's will and 
 adorned by the Senate with a title, was Gaius lulius Caesar Octavianus Augustus. 
 
 The Roman Gentes were either patrician (Cornelia, lulia, &c.) or plebeian (Licinia, 
 Memmia, Coruncania, &c.) : or there might be a patrician and plebeian gens of the same 
 race, as of the Claudii. Theoretically they are referred to ancestors, whose Nomina 
 give them their titles ; being themselves due to various circumstances. Some Gentes 
 are derived from Numerals : Quinctia, Quinctilia (Pompeia, Pompilia, Pomponia, Pontia), 
 Sestia, Septimia, Octavia, Nonia, Decia : soPostumia. Some from Coloztrs : Albia, Caesia, 
 Flavia, Fulvia, Helvia, Livia, Rubria, Rutilia. Some from Animals : Aquillia, Asinia, Ap- 
 ronia, Caninia, Canuleia, Ovidia, Porcia, Verria. Many from Personal peculiarities : 
 Caecilia, Calidia, Catia, Claudia, Cordia, Curtia, Digitia, Genucia, Hirtia, luventia, Lici- 
 nia, Naevia, Opimia, Pedia, Plancia, Plautia, Silia, Spuria, Stertinia, Turpilia, Varia, Val- 
 gia, Vegetia, Vitellia, &c. Others are derived from Office, biisiness, station, birthplace, 
 
59, Derivation of A djectives, 253, 
 
 3) Suffix as from. Places in na nae num no : Fiden-as (Fidenae),, 
 Arpin-as (Arpinum), Aquin-as (Aquin-um), Capen-as (Capena),. 
 Frusin-as (Frusino). Also Anti-as (Antium), Arde-as (Ardea). 
 These are declined in at-, like nostras, vestras, optimates, Pe- 
 nates. 
 
 4) Suffix ensis from Places in o, and from some in a ae urn : 
 Narbon-ensis, Cann-ensis, Mediolan-ensis. Some take i-e 
 Athen-i-ensis, Carthagin-i-ensis. 
 
 The same Suffix may represent Gr. euc, as Chalcid-ensis 
 eve). But eus is also kept : Demetrius Phalereus, Zeno Citieus 
 or Citiensis. We find Zeuxis Heracleotes for Heracleensis. 
 
 5) Peculiar Latin Adjectives of Place are : 
 
 Caer-es (it-) from Caere : Gamers, from Camerinum : Veiens, 
 from Veii ; Tiburs from Tibur : but, when things are qualified, the 
 usual forms are Caeret-anus, Camert-inus, Veient-anus, Tiburt- 
 inus. 
 
 6) The Suffixes Xus (cor), aeus (cuoc)> enus (rjvog) belong to Ad- 
 jectives derived from the Names of Greek Places : Corinthius, 
 Rhodius, Lacedaemonius, Larissaeus, Smyrnaeus, Cyzicenus. 
 
 7) The Greek Suffixes ates Ites otes are rare in Latin : Spar- 
 tiates, Tegeates (but the Adjective forms are Spartanus, Tegeaeus) ; 
 Abderites (but also Abderitanus) ; Epirotes, Heracleotes. 
 
 8) Feminine Gentile Names are in a is as : Cressa, Cretan, 
 Ausonis, Ausonian, Troas, Trojan woman. 
 
 C) Names of People are either derived from Names of Countries 
 and of Cities : Latinus (Latium), Romanus (Roma), Siceliotes 
 (Sicilia), or they are Primitive : Afer, Gallus, Syrus, Thrax, Cres 
 (Cretan}. Such Names form Adjectives in icus ius aeus ensis, 
 &c. : Africus, Gallicus, Syrius, Thracius, Cretaeus, Cretensis, Cre- 
 ticus, &c. 
 
 With Personal Names the primitive is often used adjectively, as 
 poeta Hispanus, miles Gallus, &c. Poets use it with Appel- 
 latives : Marsus aper, venena Colcha, flumen Rhenum, flu- 
 men Medum, Hor. ; and so Fern. Adjectives: Ausonis ora, 
 Cressa pharetra, Verg. 
 
 or residence, &c. : Antistia, Aurelia, Cluentia, Coelia, Coponia, Cornificia, Curia, Duilia or 
 Duillia,Falcidia, Flaminia, Fonteia, Furnia, Gabinia, Hortensia, Maria, Nautia, Scribonia, 
 Servia, Silvia, &c. The Gens lulia is traced back to lulus ; Titia to Titus ; Tullia toTullus, 
 &c. 
 
 The Cognomina are similarly distinguishable: in the oldest times the birthplace or 
 residence often gave a Cognomen; which sometimes descended to the Family, Came- 
 rinus, Sabinus, but usually not, as Auruncus, Caeliomontanus, Fidenas, Privernas, Siculus, 
 Soranus, Tuscus, &c. 
 
 Colaurs give rise to Cognomina: Albus, Flavus, Niger, Pullus, Rufus, Rutilus^ 
 Animals: Asina, Bestia, Buteo, Canina, Catulus, Catullus, Corvus, Cossus, Galba, 
 Gallus, Lupus, Merula, Mus, Noctua, Porcina, Pulex, Taurus, Verres, Vitulus. Vege- 
 tables'. Caepio, Cicero, Piso ; Lactucinus. Parts oftlieBody. Arvina, Axilla, Barbula, 
 Cms, Denter, Nerva, Sura, Sulla (for Surula), Scapula : and with Suffix on (o) indi- 
 cating size or prominence of the feature : Capito (big-head), Fronto (big-brow), Labeo, 
 (thick lips), Mento (chinny), Naso( big nose : but Nasica, sharp nose), Pedo (splay foot\ 
 &c. Implements : Caligula, Carbo, Caudex, Dolabella, Fusus, Malleolus, Marculus, Mar- 
 cellus, Pera, Pulvillus, Scipio, Stolo, Spinther, &c. Office, station, b^lsiness, ability, &c. : 
 Albinus, Bubuicus, Camillus, Cursor, Cornicen, Cunctator, Figulus, Hortator, Metellus, 
 
254 Latin Wordlore. 59. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 tioTof Derivation of Verbs. 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 A) Verba Verbalia. 
 
 Inchoativa (Inceptiva) in sco 3, 53, p. 209, c. 
 Imitativa in isso i. \ 
 
 Frequentativa in so, ito i. U 53, p. 205. 
 
 Deminutiva in illo i. j 
 
 Desiderativa in urio 4. 53, p. 206. 
 
 E) Verba Denominativa. 
 
 Most Verbs in Conj. i and 4 are from Substantives or Adjectives : 
 the greater number being Transitive. 
 
 laud- are I. 
 
 praise 
 
 dit-are i. 
 
 enrich 
 
 milit-are i. 
 
 serve in war 
 
 liber-are i. 
 
 set free 
 
 nomin-are I 
 
 name 
 
 sollicit-are i. 
 
 make anxious 
 
 fin-ire 4.. 
 
 end 
 
 insan-ire 4. 
 
 be mad 
 
 vest-ire 4. 
 
 clothe 
 
 moll-ire 4. 
 
 soften 
 
 pisc-ari I. 
 
 fish 
 
 laet-ari i. 
 
 rejoice 
 
 mol-iri 4. 
 
 contrive 
 
 larg-iri 4. 
 
 bestow 
 
 Suffixes ul ol cin it ig- ( = ag-) ic- occur in Conj. i : 
 grat-ul-ari congratulate nav-ig-are sail 
 
 vi-ol-are do violence mit-ig-are soften 
 
 sermo-cin-ari discourse claud-ic-are limp 
 
 debil-it-are weaken commun-ic-are impart 
 
 So iur-g-are for iur-ig-are, pur-g-are for pur-ig-are. 
 Most in Conj. 2 are from Substantives ; a few from Adjectives : 
 the greater number being Intransitive : 
 
 call-ere, luc-ere, flor-ere, flav-ere. 
 A few U -verbs 3 are Denominativa : 
 
 acu-ere, metu-ere, minu-ere, tribu-ere. 
 
 Obs. Some Roots have a Trans, and an Intrans. Verb correspond- 
 ing to each other: fugare, to put to flight ; fugere, to fly. So cae- 
 dere, cadere ; iacere, iacere ; liquare, liquere ; pendere, pendere ; 
 placare, placere ; sedare, sedere and sldere. 
 
 Natta, Paterculus, Rex, Regulus, Salinator, Vespillo. Personal peculiarities, characteristics 
 or accidents : Ahenobarbus, Ambustus, Balbus, Barbatus, Brutus, Caecus, Caesar, Cato, 
 Celer, Celsus, Cerco, Cinna, Cincinnatus, Claudus, Cornutus, Crispus, Crassus, Curvus, 
 Dentatus, Felix, Festus, Flaccus, Flamma, Frugi, Geminus, Glabrio, Gurges, Lana- 
 tus, Lentulus, Lepidus, Longus, Nepos, Nobilior, Paetus, Pansa, Pilatus, Paullus, 
 Pollio, Potitus, Plancus, Plautus, Poplicola, Postumus, Priscus, Proculus, Pulcher, Scaeva, 
 Scaevola, Strabo, Torquatus, Tremulus, Trigeminus, Tubero, Varro, Varus, Verrucosus, 
 Vetus, Vulso. 
 
 Many Cognomina in anus inus were originally Adjectives derived from an earlier 
 Cognomen : Augurinus, Censorinus, Mamercinus, Paetanus, Rufinus, Silanus, &c. 
 
 An Agnomen of honour sometimes became a Cognomen of the family. Thus in the 
 Valerian clan (which had also the Agnomina Poplicola and Maximus) we find a family be- 
 coming Corvini from Valerius Corvus, and another branch Mcssallae from the capture of 
 Messana. Of many Cognomina as well as Nomina the origin cannot be traced. 
 
59- Derivation of Particles. 255 
 
 SECTION III. 
 Derivation of Particles. J? o fj 
 
 Par- 
 
 i. Primitive Particles in Latin are few. Of these most tides. 
 belong also to kindred language. Such are 
 
 ab ; ante ; ambi- ; di- dis- ; ex ; in, indu- in- ; pro ; pri- prae ; 
 per per- (irapa and irepi) ', ob (ini ?) sub ; cum co- (avv ?, 
 KOLVOQ) ; et, at ; aut (?) ; que ; ne ; an ; si ; semi- ; sem- 
 or sim- ; heri. 
 
 A few cannot be traced with certainty beyond Italian language. 
 Such are 
 
 ad ; de ; re- ; se- ; sine ; cis ; uls ; hand ; eras ; sat. 
 
 ii. Most Latin Particles are either derived or 
 compounded. 
 
 1) Derived Particles are either 
 
 a) Denominative (from Substantives, Adjectives, or Parti- 
 
 ciples) ; or 
 
 b) Pronominal (from Pronouns). 
 
 c) A few only are from other Particles. 
 
 Derived Adverbs in general are either Cases of their themes, or 
 formed from them with peculiar Endings, in the manner of Cases. 
 
 The Cases which chiefly form Particles are the Accusative, the 
 Ablative, the Locative. 
 
 2) Particles may be compounded of the same or various Parts of 
 Speech. 1 
 
 1 From the List in pp. 228, &c. the student will be able to select examples of com- 
 pounded Particles. 
 
 I. Relative: 
 
 1) with its own Particles and Elements : quamquam, quoquo, ubiubi, utut, &c. : qua- 
 cumque, undecumque, utcumque, quotiescumque, &c. : quoque, ubique, undique, 
 utique, usque, usquequaque, umquam, uspiam, usquam : quippe : quousque : (with uter) 
 utrubi, utrimque, utroque, &c. 
 
 2) with Prefix ne : neque ; nee ; nequaquam, nequiquam, neutiquam ; numquam, nus- 
 piam, nusquam, neutrubi, necubi. 
 
 3) with Prefix all- \ aliquo, aliquam, aliquantum, alicubi, aliquoties ; with other De- 
 monstrative Prefixes: tamquam, sicuti, sicut,.namque, nempe, atque ; with Prepositions: 
 antequam, perquam, postquam, praequam, praeterquam, praeut, prout ; with Conjunc- 
 tions : at-qui, nun-cubi, si-cubi, si-cunde, &c. : with Adjectives : alioqui, ceteroqui, prius- 
 quam. 
 
 4) with Demonstrative Suffixes : quonam, quanam, ubinam, utinam, &c. ; with suffixed 
 Prepositions : quoad, quapropter, quocirca, quatenus, aliquatenus, &c. ; with Conjunc- 
 tions : quasi, quin, &c. ; with Verbs : quamvis, quovis, quolibet, ubivis, &c. ; with Nouns : 
 quomodo ; quare, cur ; quemadmodum, quamobrem, quominus, utpotc, &c. 
 
 II. Demonstratives : 
 
 Compounded with each other: hi-c, illi-c, &c. : hin-c, illin-c, &c. ; hu-c, illu-c, &c., 
 alibi, aliu-ta, i-ta (for ita-d), i-tem, si-c, e-nim, etenim ; ast (at-set C. ?), au-tem, tamen 
 (tarn in?) ideo : With Prepositions: adeo, adhuc, dein, exin, proin, abhinc, dehinc, 
 inibi, interibi, postibi ; interim ; antea, antidea, antehac, antidhac, postea, postidea, 
 posthac, postilla, interea, praeterea, praeterhac, hacpropter (compare quapropter) ; 
 hactenus, eatenus ; horsum (hovorsum), illorsum, &c. From dein is formed dein-ceps 
 (capio). 
 
 Igitur is of obscure derivation. 
 
256 Latin Wordlore. 59, 
 
 iii. Denominative Adverbs in the form of 
 Cases. 
 
 A) In the form of Accusative : 
 a) From Substantives : 
 
 1) Uncompounded : (perhaps) part im, partly ; foras (pi. \ out 
 of doors \ and (rarely) vie em, in the stead \ diu, a long time (for 
 dium). 
 
 2) Compounded with Particles, admodum, affatim, comminus,, 
 eminus, invicem, incassum, obiter, obviam, propediem, propemo- 
 dum, postmodum. 
 
 Clam, coram, palam, perperam, saltern or saltimare of question- 
 able origin. 
 
 b} From Adjectives : 
 
 1) in am : bifariam, &c. p. 149 : multifariam, plurifariam, 
 in many parts ; promiscam, protinam (Plaut): in as : alias. 
 
 2) in um : ceterum, circum, clanculum, commodum, demum,. 
 nimium, solum, verum : multum, paullum, parum, tantum, quan- 
 tum, &cy primum, secundum, iterum, &c., plerumque ; with many 
 Superl. minimum, plurimum, potissimum, postremum, summum, 
 ultimum, &c. (Non, not, anc. noen-um for ne-unum). 
 
 3) in e (from real or supposed Adj. in is) : abunde, facile, ap- 
 prime, impune, prope, paene, saepe, &c. On procliv-i, -e, see Madv. 
 C. Fin. 14 ; M. Lucr. ii. 455. 
 
 4) in iis, Xs (Comparative) : plus, minus, melius, potius, saepius, 
 magis (nimis?), &c. &c. &c. Also secus, tenus, protenus. 
 
 5) Re c ens for recent er is a special instance. 
 
 Obs. i. Add to these the Compounds with vorsum (versum), 
 as aliorsum, prorsum, rursum, &c. Some of these often use 
 the Nom. form : prorsus, rursus, &c. 
 
 Obs. 2. Poets freely use Neuter Adjectives Sing, (sometimes 
 Plur.) adverbially : ' perfidum ridens Venus/ Hor. ; ' crassum ridet 
 Vulfenius/ Pers. ; ' dulce loquentem Lalagen/ Hor. ; ' suave locus 
 resonat/ Hor. ; * sedet aeternumque sedebit/ Verg. ; ' sera coman- 
 tem narcissum/ Verg. See p. 374. 
 
 B) In the form of Ablative : 
 a) From Substantives : 
 
 i) in o : mod6 (o being shortened) ; ergo, numero ; and the 
 Compounds, extemplo, profecto, postmodo, saepenumero ; mag- 
 nopere or magno qpere, &c., ilico (in loco), oppido (ri irlty ?). 
 
 [The peculiar words antea (for ante ea), antehac (for ante haec), &c., have been variously 
 explained. Some scholars, as Bucheler, take the Pronouns to be Ablatives, datin? from 
 a time when the Prepositions ante, post, inter, praeter, &c., may have been constructed 
 
 _ , _ , ^"s HucinLiLy, H.IIU e 
 
 ea hac, to be Accus also the d growing out of a temporary confusion of Accus. and 
 Abl. forms at an era when the Abl. was losing its>ld final d. This view se 
 
 r seems right.] 
 
59 Denominative A dverbs. 
 
 257 
 
 2) in e : forte, iure, rite, sponte. 
 
 3) in is (pi.) : gratis or gratiis ; ingratis or ingratiis ; foris. M. 
 Lucr. iii. 935. 
 
 b) From Adjectives and Participles : 
 
 1) in a (orig. Abl. ad, underst. parte or via) : dextra, laeva, 
 sinistra : the Pronouns ea, hac, alia, &c. 
 
 To this formation belong all the Prepositions in a, which are 
 really Ablatives Fem. (circa, citra, ultra, contra, c.). 
 
 2) in 6 orig. 6d (but cito) : certo, composite, continue, consulto, 
 falso, merito, raro, subito, tuto, vero, &c. &c., bipartite, c., inopi- 
 nato, necopinato; primo, secundo, &c. : immo : Superl. meritissimo, 
 postremo, supremo, ultimo, praesto : omnino, from a lost omninus : 
 Cp. denuo (de novo). 
 
 To this formation belong the Prepositional Adverbs citro, ultro, 
 intro, porro, retro, contro- from Adjectives in -ter (from tara, 
 comparative suffix). 
 
 3) in I : brevi, perbrevi (dicto or tempore). 
 
 4) in is : alternis (vicibus) ; paucis (verbis) ; imprimis or in 
 primis ; cum primis. 
 
 C) In the form of Locative (Place or Time) ; heri ; domi ; humi ; 
 ruri ; temperi ; vesperi or vespere ; mane (mani) ; diu, by day ; 
 noctu or nocti ; ho-die ; pri-die ; postri-die ; peren-die (Trtjoar), 
 the day after to-morrow ; cotidie. PI. quot-annis. 
 
 (The forms diu, long, perdiu and perdius, all day, interdius, 
 interdiu, in the daytime, are by C. considered to be Accusative.) 
 
 iv. Denominative Adverbs with Adverbial 
 Endings. 
 
 These Endings are principally 
 
 e (e) ; ter (er), iter ; tim, sim ; tus ; iens or ies. 
 
 1) Adverbs in e are derived from Adjectives and Participles of 
 the O-declension : 
 
 alt-e, caut-e, miser-e, pulchr-e, &c. &c. c. 
 Bene, male were shortened early, like mo do. 
 Obs. e appears to be an anc. Abl. for e-d. See p. 46. 
 
 2) Adverbs with the Compar. ending ter, iter are derived chiefly 
 from Adjj. of the Cons, and I -declensions : 
 
 audac-ter (audac-iter), difficul-ter, felic-iter, fortT-ter, moltf-ter, 
 pari-ter, &c. &c. Ti falls out : decen-ter for decenti-ter, &c. 
 Ali-ter is from the old form alis. % 
 
 Some O-Adjj. form Advv. in ter as well as in e : 
 
 dur-e and dur-iter : human-e and human-ifter ; luculent-e and 
 luculen-ter, &c. 
 
 3) Adverbs in tim, sim are derived 
 a) from Perf. Participles : 
 
 S 
 
258 Latin Wordlore. 59 . 
 
 coniunotim, minu-tim, praeser-tim, rap-tim ; pede-tentim, 
 step by step (pedem tendere) ; sta-tim, immediately ; cur- 
 sim, pas-sim, sen-sim, seor-sim, &c. c. 
 
 b) from Substantives or Adjectives : 
 
 fur-tim, uber-tim ; vicis-sim ; singul-tim, &c. 
 Obs. Some form e as well as ixn : 
 
 gravat-e or -im ; separat-e or im, &c. 
 
 4) Adverbs in tus are from (i) Substantives : cael-i-tus; fund-T- 
 tus ; radic-i-tus ; pen-f-tus : (2) Adjectives : divin-I-tus : (3) Pre- 
 positions : in-tus ; sub- tus. Mord-Icus, with the teeth, is peculiar. 
 
 5) On the Numeral Adverbs in lens (is) see 33. 
 
 v. Derivation of Pronominal Particles. 
 
 Pronominal Stems give birth to various Case-form Particles 
 (Conjunctions and Adverbs), and again to various inseparable 
 Elements, which enter into the composition of other Particles. 
 
 1) The Interrogative and Relative Stem quo, quX (Prim, ka] : 
 whence the Case-form Particles 
 
 quom or cum, quam, quod ; qu5, qui, qua ; and the Ele- 
 ments u- urn- us- (whence u-bi, un-de, us-que, umquam, 
 &c.) * ~que (-pe ?) -cumque. 
 
 The Demonstrative Stems 
 
 2) *, *6 : whence the Particles ea, eo, and (with Suff.) i-bi : 
 and the Element im which with -de forms the Particle inde. 
 
 3) tfc, ta : whence the Particles tarn, turn, and (with Suff. 6 
 for ce) tun-c : also the Elements -tern -td -ft, -tti. 
 
 By composition of 1 with to is formed the Pronoun iste (for 
 istus), whence the Particles isti-c, istu-c, istim, istin-c, &c. Also 
 I-ta, ita-que, i-tem, f-ti-dem, &c. 
 
 4) no, na : whence the Particles nam, num, and (with Suff. c) 
 nun-c ; ne : and the Elements -nam, -num, -ne. 
 
 5) ho, hi (anc. so, si) : whence (with c) the Particles hi-c, hu-c, 
 ha-c, si-c : and the Elements ho-, him- : whence the Particle hin-c. 
 
 6) ol, ul, il } forms the Pronoun ille (for ol-us), and gives birth to 
 its Particles, illi-c, illu-c, ill-im, illin-c, illa-c, and olim. 
 
 7) al, all : compounded with i, 16 gives rise to the Pronominals 
 alius (al-is) al-ter, and forms or enters into numerous Particles, alio, 
 alia, al-ibi, ali-ter, &c. 
 
 8) c* forms the Prep, ci-s and the Element ce (c), which becomes 
 a Suffix to so many Pronouns and Particles. 
 
 Note. Other Particles formed by Pronom. Stems in Composi- 
 tion with each other, with their own Elements, and with various 
 Prefixes and Suffixes, are shewn in the Footnote, p. 255. 
 
 1 Corssen formerly (Kr. B. i.) adopted the common view, that u-bi, un-de, u-ti (ut), 
 u-ter and Cpp. are from the Rel. quo-, dropping the guttural. But in Kr. N. 26, he 
 subscribes to the opinion of H. Weber, that their root is a Demonstr. Pron. U, which as- 
 sumes also Interrog. and Rel. power : and that -c-u-bi, -c-un-de, -c-u-ter are distinct Rel. 
 formations. The question must be regarded as still ' sub iudice.' 
 
6o. The Composition of Words. 259 
 
 Obs. I. The Dual Pronoun u-ter (Gr. Trorcpoc or Korepog) forms 
 Particles of its own and in composition with many above named. 
 
 Obs. 2. Corssen forms e-t, a-t, au-t, au-tem, by composition of 
 the Prim. Pronom. Stem a with the Stem to. This may also be 
 the strengthening element e in e-nim, e-quidem, ec-ce (for e-ce). 
 
 Obs. 3. The Particles dum, iam, with the Elements -dam, -dem, 
 -do, -de, -dtcm, also -iam, have been usually assigned to a Prono- 
 minal Stem; but Corssen (Kr. Beitr. p. 197, &c.) derives all these 
 forms (with diu, dius) from the Sanskrit Root div, to shine, 
 whence dyus = dies. Compare propediem. 1 
 
 The Elements -pe and -iam form the compound Element -piam. 
 
 vi> Some other Particles. 
 
 With the suffix per are formed aliquant-is-per, paul-is-per, 
 tant-is-per, 2 parum-per, nuper (novi-per) and sem-per, once for all, 
 always, from root sama, as sem-el, singuli, simplex, &c. 
 
 As a prefix, per is intensive : per-multum, per-iucunde, &c. &c. 
 
 C. derives de-mu-m, de-ni-que from Adjectives formed by de: 
 immo from an Adjective in-mus. 
 
 Mox (/zoy-tc; ?), vix, saepe, procul, haud or hau, are obscure. On 
 the last see C. Ausspr. i. 205. 
 
 The Conj. licet is a Verb : its compounds ilicet (ire licet), 
 scilicet (scire licet), videlicet (videre licet), are sentences. 
 
 Dumtaxat (dum taxat), 'while one estimates ' = merely, is a 
 clause. 
 
 Vel, ve is from velle, to choose. Nimirum, no doubt ^TNnwm. 
 est ni. 
 
 Fors is a Subst. used adverbially, (it is) a chance, perchance : and 
 in forsit, forsitan, perhaps (for fors sit, for sit an). Fortassis- 
 forte an si vis, for which is used fortasse, perhaps. 
 
 Prepositions are compounded together in de-super, in-super. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 The Composition of Words. 
 
 60 
 
 i. Composition takes place when two words are so compo- 
 joined as to form one word. woTds f 
 
 1 The Particles formed by this class of enclitics are : 
 
 a) quon-dam ; /3) quT-dem, ibl-dem, utrobl-dem, indT-dem, itl-dem, indentl-dem, prl-dem 
 and Cpp. tan-dem, tanti-dem, tantun-dem : -y) un-de and Cpp., in-de, ali-un-de, quam-de ; 
 6) quan-do and Cpp. aliquan-do, &c. : ) du-dum (for diu-dum), ne-dum, non-dum, nec- 
 dum, haud-dum, nihil-dum, vix-dum, primum-dum, etiam-dum, inter-dum : also with the 
 Imperatives age-dum, mane-dum, stay a bit, fac-dum, do just, ades-dum, &c.). ) 
 iamiam, et-iam, nunc-iam, quon-iam, us-p-iam, nus-p-iam. C. forms qui-a from qui-iam. 
 On iamiam, see M. Lncr. Hi. 894. 
 
 Donee is for do-ni-que, do-ni- being an Adjectival form from the root diu-s. M. Lucr. 
 v. 997. Donicum in Plautus=donec cum. 
 
 Other compounds of diu-s are tamdiu, quamdiu, aliquamdiu, perdiu, interdiu and 
 interdius, nudius. 
 
 a The suffix *is(=ius)' is used in Comparison of Degree (mag-is), Time (paul-is-) or 
 Place (sin-is-ter). It is found also as us (minus, secus, &c.). 
 
 S 2 
 
260 Latin Wordlore. 60. 
 
 (Only Nouns and Verbs are here considered: the 
 Composition of Particles being shewn in Section III.) 
 
 The latter word in Composition is Fundamental, the former 
 Determinative. 
 
 Sometimes the words are so joined that one actually agrjes with 
 
 the other i 1 
 
 res-publica ; ius-iurandum ; tres-vin : 
 
 or that the second actually governs the first : 
 
 senatus-consultum ; veri-similis. 
 
 Such compounds can be severed : 
 
 resque publica ; senatusve consulta. 
 
 But generally one part or both lose the form of words : 
 magnanimus; Troiugena ; artifex. 
 
 ii. Composition of Words maybe (i) constructive, when 
 one of the parts in a Noun or a Verb has the nature of 
 a Case governed by the other part : (2) attributive, 
 when the first part in a Substantive attributively qualifies 
 the second : (3) adverbial, when the first part adverbially 
 modifies the second : (4) possessive, when Adjectives are 
 so compounded as to imply 'having* the fundamental 
 part in some qualified manner, or ' not having ' it. 2 
 
 A} Substantives are compounded 
 
 i) constructively ; when the parts are 
 S. x V. : agri-cola (qui agrum colit) : 
 
 1 Parathetic Compounds, in which either the parts actually agree, or the first is governed 
 by the second, are very few : as (i) iusiurandum, oath ; (2) agricultura ; aurifodinae, 
 gold-mine; iurisconsultus, civil lawyer , ludimagister, schoolmaster-, pater- mater- 
 filius-fanrilias ; plebi-scitum ; (3) verisirailis , (4) lucrifacere, pessumdare, venumdare, 
 vilipendere. 
 
 In Pronouns we find such forms as alteruter, quotusquisque, quisquis, &c. ; and in 
 Numerals additive Compounds : as duo-decim, tertius-decimus, &c. ; subtracting ; as un- 
 de-viginti, duo-de-triginta, &c. ; multiplicative : as ducenti, treceni, &c. 
 
 2 Examples of Synthetic Composition. 
 A) Substantives: 
 
 S. x V. The Verb-roots which form constructive Compounds with determinative 
 Substantives are principally these : ag- caed- capi- can- col- faci- (f Tc-) die- leg- 
 speci- : as remex, remigium, navigium ; homi-cida, parri-cida (-cidium) ; auceps, 
 aucupium, manceps (-cipium), municeps (-cipium), particeps (-cipium) ; bucina, 
 f idi-cen (-cTna), tlbi-cen (-cina), tubi-cen, galli-cinium, cock-crowing ; caelicola, 
 ruricola ; aedificium, arti-fex (-ficium), carnifex, opifex, pontifex ; sacrificium ; 
 veneficium ; causs-idicus, pleader ; iudex, iudicium ; florilegium, sortilegus, sorti- 
 legium, spicilegium ; auspex, auspicium, exti-spex (-spicium), haruspex. Other 
 examples are : funambulus, rope-dancer \ nomenclator, namecaller(ca\^r&) ; nau- 
 fragium, shipwreck ; caprimulgus, goat-milker ; puer-pera (-perium) from parere, 
 also vi-pera (for vivi-para) : stipendium (for stipi-pendium), libripens ; faenisex ; 
 iustitium, stoppage of law-courts (ius sistere), solstitium ; lectisternium ; nas- 
 turtium ; aedituus (aedem tuens), &c. 
 
6o. The Composition of Words. 261 
 
 S. x S. : viti-sator (vitium sator). 
 
 2) attributively ; when the parts are 
 
 A. x S. or N. (Numeral) x S. : pleni-lunium : tri-ennium. 
 
 3) adverbially ; when the parts are 
 
 N. x V. or P. x V. : prin-ceps ; in-edia. 
 
 Note. P. x S. may be (i) constmctive : inter-montium ; or (2) ad- 
 verbial : com-mercium ; nihil (ne-hilum, ni-hilum, Lucr. iv. 516). 
 
 B) Adjectives are compounded 
 
 1) constructively ; when the parts are 
 S. x V. : armi-ger ; melli-fluus. 
 
 P. x S., when S. is in the nature of a governed Case : exspes. 
 
 2) adverbially, when the parts are 
 
 A. x V. : N. x V. : P. x V. : omni-potens ; bi-fidus ; bene- 
 volus. 
 
 JV.xA.: P.xA.: semi-vivus, septem-geminus ; immemor. 
 
 Sx S. Substantives of this form are few : caprificus, wild fig ; iuglans (lovis glans) ; 
 manupretium ; rupicapra, chamois. 
 
 AxS. Substt. few: latifundium ; privilegium ; viviradix ; medi-astlnus. 
 
 N. x S. numerous : see 33 with bi- tri- &c. : as ilibra, biduum, biennium, &c. ; 
 decempeda, ten-foot pole ; teruncius, three-ounce coin ; also with semi- sesqui- : 
 sembella (for semi-libella), selibra (for semilibra), semideus, semihomo, semihora, - 
 semivir ; semuncia, sescuncia, sesquihora, sesquimensis, &c. 
 
 N. x V. : P. x V. : rare : for such words as accola, incola, advena, convena, ambages, 
 coiux, conviva, dedecus, incus, mdigenr,ingenium, indoles, proles, suboles, obiex 
 or obex, obses, perfuga, transfuga, praefica, praeses, &c. may be treated as de- 
 rivatives of the Compound Verbs accolo, incolo, advenio, &c., or, at least, as coor- 
 dinate with these. 
 
 P. xS. (i) constriictive : adverbium, ambarvalia, amburbium, conclave, ingluvies, 
 interlunium, internecio, internundinum, intervallum, pomoerium, postliminium, 
 proconsul, promunturium, pronomen, propraetor, subsellium, supellex, super- 
 cilium. (2) adverbial : abavus, abnepos, abneptis, administer, adminiculum, ad- 
 nepos, agnomen, cognomen, coheres, coinmilito, compes, condiscipulus, con- 
 servus, consobrinus, contubernium, convallis ; deunx, dodrans ; ignominia, im- 
 pluvium, incuria, intemperies, internuntms, interpres, interrex, interregnum ; 
 nefas, negotium, nemo, persona, praenomen, praesaepe, proavus, progener, pro- 
 mulsis, pronepos, proneptis, remora, subcenturio, subpromus, superficies. 
 
 I?) Adjectives. 
 
 S. X V. chiefly poetic : from the following and other Verb-roots : cm- die- fer- f Ic- fr5g- 
 flu- fug- gen- ger- leg- son- vaga- vom- : faticmus, fatidicus, aurifer, munif Icus, 
 naufragus ; mellifluus, lucifugus, nubigenus, belliger, morigerus, florilegus, fluc- 
 tisonus, nemorivagus, flammivomus. Add arcitenens, velivolus, &c. ; armipotens, 
 caelipotens, &c. See Examples of P. x S. in next page. 
 
 A.xV.i N.y.V~: P.X.V.: from the following and other Verb-roots : die- f Ic- fid- 
 flu- loqu- sci- son- vaga- vola- : veridicus, mirificus, multifidus, largifluus, vani- 
 loquus, dulcisonus, solivagus, altisonus ; quadrifidus, septemfluus ; conscius, in- 
 scius, nescius, praescius, benef Icus, malevolus, necopinus, innuba, &c. Horri- 
 sonus, terrificus, &c. take their determinative part from the rudiment of the Verbs 
 horrere, terrere. Words like invidus, providus, profiigus, &c., maybe regarded as 
 derivatives of the Verbs invideo, provideo, profugio, &c. 
 
 .N.X.A. : chiefly determined by semi-, a few by sesqui- and other numerals: semi- 
 barbarus, semihians, seminudus, sesquioctavus, trigeminus, &c. 
 
262 Latin Wordlore. 60. 
 
 3) possessively ; when the parts are 
 A. x S. : N. x S. : magn-animus ; centi-ceps. 
 S. x S. : ali-pes ; igni-comus. 
 P. x S. : when S. is not in the nature of a governed Case : 
 
 con-cors, in-numerus, prae-ceps. 
 C) Verbs are compounded 
 
 i) constructively ; when the parts are 
 S. x V. : belli-gerare ( = bellum gerere). 
 
 P.xA.: 
 
 com- implies union : compar, compos, consimilis, &c. 
 
 ex- intensifies : edurus, efferus, &c. 
 
 ob- implies ' coming in face :' oblongus. 
 
 per- ' throughout, in a high degree : ' pervigij ; perdifficilis. 
 
 prae- (i) 'excess:' praelongus, praecelsus; (2) 'priority:' praecanus, prema* 
 
 turely grey;' praeposterus, last first ', inverse; (3) l extremity : ' praeustus,. 
 
 burnt at the tip. 
 
 pro- forward : procurvus, propatulus. 
 re- red- back : recurvus ; again, redivivus. 
 
 sub- diminishes : subobscurus, rather dark, subtristis, somewhat sad. 
 ve-=male : vesanus, w#^=malesanus. 
 ne- is privative : nefandus, nefastus, impious. 
 in- (inseparable negative = Greek av-) forms numerous Cp. Adjectives : impar, 
 
 impotens, impius, ingratus, insanus, infidelis, inutilis, ignarus, ignavus, ignotus, 
 
 ignobilis, illotus, irritus, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 A.XS. : N.xS. : S.xS. : unanim-is (us), l having" 1 one mind, longi-manus, ' having* 
 long hands : tripes, ' having' three feet : anguicomus, snake-haired. So aequa- 
 cvus, longaevus, multiformis, misericors ; sellers ; biennis, bifrons, triceps, tri* 
 linguis, &c. &c. ; cornipes, sonipes, &c. 
 P. x 6". (i) When P. is of adverbial nature : 
 anceps (ambi-ceps), double-headed, doubtful. 
 coaevus, concurring- in time : cognominis, communis, conco^r, confinis, consan^ 
 
 guineus, consonus, consors, conterminus, &c. &c. 
 discolor, divided (differing) in colour ; discors, dissonus, &C. 
 imbellis, unwarlike ; imberbis, beardless ; immanis, implumis, importunus, inanim- 
 
 is (us), inerm-is (us), iners, infamis, informis, infrenis, illimis, illunis, inglorius r 
 
 iniurius, insomnis, invius (but insignis from in in t on), &c. &c. &c. 
 obscenus, obscurus, obvius. 
 pervius. 
 
 praeceps, praesignis, praevius, &c. 
 proclivis, profundus, &c. 
 vecors. 
 
 (2) When P. has a prepositional nature : see p. 261. i). 
 abnormis, amens, avius, &c. 
 acclivis, affinis, &c. 
 
 antelucanus, antemeridianus, antesignanus, &c. 
 circumforaneus. 
 
 cisalpinus, cisrhenanus, cispadanus, &c. 
 commodus. 
 
 declivis, decolor, deformis, degener, delirus, demens, devius, &c. 
 effrenus, effrons, egregius, elinguis, enervis, enodis, enormis, exanimis, excors, 
 
 exheres, exlex, exsanguis, exsomnis, exsors, extorris, &c. 
 obnoxius, opportunus. 
 
 perduellis, perennis, perfidus, periurus, pernox, &c. 
 pomeridianus. 
 
 profanus, profestus, prosperus. 
 securus, sedulus, &c. 
 subdialis, subdolus, sublucanus, subsignanus, subsolanus, subterraneus, suburbanus, 
 
 &c. 
 
 transalpinus, transmarinus, &c. 
 C) Verbs. 
 5". X V. : aedificare, significare ; litigare ; vociferari, morigerari. 
 
6o. The Composition of Words. 263 
 
 A. x V. : aequi-parare (=aequum parare). 
 
 V. x V, : cale-facere ( = calere facere), cale-fieri. 
 
 2) adverbially ; when the parts are 
 
 P. x V. : bene-dicere ; ne-quire ; ab-ducere, and all Verbs 
 similarly compounded. 
 
 P.xS.orP.xA.: ef-feminare : e-rudire. 1 
 
 Note. Words which have two Determinative parts are called 
 Decomposita : im-per-turbatus. On Compound Words in Latin 
 seeM. Lucr. p. 312-313. 
 
 A. x V. : amplificare, gratificari, &c. 
 
 V. x V. : These are the Compp. of Verb-roots with facio, fie. See p. 217, and on the 
 quantity of e see Prosody. 
 
 1 The student may usefully test the force of Verbs compounded with Prepositions by Compo- 
 
 comparing, with the help of a good Dictionary, the meanings and uses of the Compounds sition of 
 
 of the oldest and most obvious Simple Verbs : such as ago, cado, caedo, cano, capio, cedo, Verbs 
 
 curro, dico, do (dha), duco, emo, eo, facio, fero, habeo, iacio, lego, mitto, moveo, nosco, ^l 1 Pre " 
 
 pleo, pono, porto, quaero, rego, rogo, sedeo, sto, sisto, sum, teneo, tendo, veho, venio, P - OS1 " 
 verto, video, voco. 
 
 When compounded with Verbs : 
 
 1. Ab, a, abs {from, away) always denotes 'separation ; ' absum, am away ; abeo, go 
 away ; aufero, take away ; abstineo, refrain from, &c. Note abdicd (me magistratu), 
 resign office ; abrogo (legem, &c.), repeal. Abundo,./?0w over, aboimd; abutor, use tip, 
 abuse, contain the notion of excess. 
 
 2. Ad (to, at, near) generally denotes, (i) ' approach, presence at or near ; ' adsum, am 
 Present ; adeo, go to ; advenio, come to ; assideo, sit by ; adsto, stand by, &c. : hence, 
 (2) * application to : ' adhibeo, apply ; admoneo, admonish ; afficio, affect ; alloquor, ad' 
 dress, &c. : (3) 'acquisition,' as accipio, receive; adipiscor, gain; arrogo, claim, &c. : 
 (4) ' addition' as addo, add; adnumero, reckon with ; addisco, learn besides : (5) 'action 
 to the full:' admiror, admire; adedo, eat up ; afficio, affect ; agnosco, recognise; atton- 
 deo, shear close, &c. : (6) ' response, favour, sympathy : ' acclamo, cheer ; adfleo, weep 
 with ; arrideo, smile on ; annuo, assent : so affulgeo, shine on, &c. The Verb adimo, 
 take away (quis te mihi casus ademit? Verg.), cannot be a true form. It is probably a 
 vocal corruption of abemo, an ancient word cited by Festus, the sound of which would not 
 be agreeable. Ar- was an old form of ad-, as arcesso, arbiter, arvorsum. 
 
 3. Cum, com-, con-, co- (with, together) implies, (i) 'union, coming, bringing, or acting 
 together : ' coeo, unite ; concurro, run together ; colligo, collect ; confero, bring togetJier \ 
 convenio, meet ; convoco, call together, &c. For various purposes : (a) ' comparison : ' 
 compare, compono, confero, compare, &c. : (/3) ' constraint : ' cohibeo, restrain ; cogo, 
 compel, &c. : (y) 'friendly action : ' colloquor, talk with ; concede, allow ; confido, trust ; 
 confiteor, confess ; consolor, console ; corrigo, correct : (8) ' hostile action : ' confligo, battle 
 with ; colluctor, struggle with ; so coarguo, convinco, confute. (2) In some words it im- 
 plies ' combined thought, reflection : ' concipio, conceive ; conicio, guess ; compute, reckon 
 up- (3) As implying a concurrence of parts or powers in action, this particle gives to 
 many verbs the sense of completeness or intensity : cognosce, leam ; confide, complete ; 
 commoveo, disturb ; compleo,^?// up ; corrvLO.fall in ; consume, waste ; contendo, strive ; 
 converto, turn round : cohorresco, contremisco, shiidder all over ; convalesce, get well, 
 &C. So consterno, bestrew ; collino, besmear. 
 
 4. De (down, down from, from) implies, (i) 'action downward :' decide, fall down, ; 
 deicio, throw down; depono, lay down: (2) 'absence, departure, removal, prevention,' 
 &c. : decedo, depart ; detineo, detain ; demo, take away ; dehortor, dissuade ; deterreo, 
 deter; deprecor, pray against ; desum, am wanting; deficio, revolt, fail, &c. ; derogo, 
 abate (a privilege by law ; see word in dictionary), &c. : (3) ' diminution, subtraction : * 
 depleo, empty ; deperdo, lose a part. In the last word and others, as deerro, stray ; de- 
 cipio, deceive ; deludo, delude ; detero, rub off; detraho, detract, &c., the preposition 
 carries a bad sense (deterioration). Debeo (dehibeo), owe, i.e. have a debt or minus 
 quantity, to be subtracted : (4) ' negation or retractation : ' dedeceo, misbeseem ; dedisco, 
 
264 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 60. 
 
 unlearn ; dedoceo, unteach ; despero, despair. (5) In numerous words it implies ' in- 
 tensity or completeness ' (compare the phrase *de haut en has ') : deambulo, walk up and 
 down ; deamo, love exceedingly ; defleo, weep intensely ; decerno, decree ; debello, finish 
 a war', defungor, discharge ; deleo, blot out, destroy ; deprendo, catch ; devenio, arrive ; 
 devinco, vanquish, &c. (6) Such words as dedlco, dedicate ; defero, offer, imply hri- 
 mility in the agent. Decurro means variously run down, complete a course, or have re- 
 course. 
 
 5. Ex, e (put of) implies, (i) ' action out or from : ' exeo, go out ; eicio, cast out ; ex- 
 tendo, stretch out ; eximo, take out, take away : (2) ' manifest action : ' edico, proclaim ; 
 exhibeo, exhibit ; exhorresco, shudder visibly ; exsisto, stand forth, exist : (3) 'achieve- 
 ment of action : ' edisco, learn by heart ; efficio, effect ; elaboro, work out ; enumero, 
 count up ; evenio, happen ; evinco, prove ; existimo, form opinion, think : so effero, i. 
 drive wild ; effemino, make womanish. Note exaudio, hear from far. 
 
 6. In (in, into, against, upon) implies, (i) ' action in, being in : ' insum, am in ; inam- 
 bulo, walk in ; incolo, inhabit ; inerro, wander in : (2) ' action into : ' ineo, ingredior, 
 enter ; immitto, send into, &c. : (3) ' action onward : ' incedo, move on ; impello, urge on, 
 &c. : (4) 'effective action,' in many Transitive verbs : imminuo, lessen, break; impetro, 
 obtain by prayer ; impleo, fill ; incendo, set on fire ; inficio, infeci ; instituo, informo, 
 instruct ; instruo, furnish ; irrigo, water, &c. : (5) 'action upon, over, against,' &c., in 
 many Trajective Verbs : illido, dash upon ; impono, place on ; impertior, impart ; in- 
 cumbo, lean on ;immineo, impendeo, overhang ; insurgo, rise against, &c. : (6) ' intensive 
 action,' especially in Inceptive Verbs : illucesco, dawn ; incalesco, grow hot ; ingravesco, 
 grow worse ; intumesco, swell up, &c. Remark incipio, begin ; invenio, find (come 
 upon) ; invideo, envy (look on with evil eye). An ancient form of in was endo, iftdu 
 (evSov), which in old Latin appears in composition with a few words : endogredi or indu- 
 gredi=ingredi ; endoperator or induperator=imperator. So ind-igeo ; ind-oles. 
 
 The negative particle in- appears in the compounds ignosco, excuse, pardon, and im- 
 probo, disapprove. 
 
 7. Inter (between, among) denotes, (i) ' action between : ' intercido, fall between ; inter- 
 pono, place between ; hence, (2) interruption : interpello, i. address abruptly ; interrogo, 
 question; intervenio, intervene : (2) ' hindrance, stoppage \' intercede, forbid (by veto) ; 
 intercludo, $ hut off; interdico, prohibit, exclude : (3) 'concernment in : ' intersum, am en- 
 gaged in, am present at ; interest, it concerns. Inter has a peculiar use in the words 
 intermorior, intereo, die ; interemo, interficio, kill. See Per. Also intellego, perceive, 
 understand. Prof. Key (Philolog. Trans.) says that the notion of ' through ' is often con- 
 veyed to Compounds by inter in Lucretius : interfodio, interfugio. See M. Lucr. 
 iv. 716. 
 
 8. Ob (=eiri) seems to denote ' occupation of space in front : ' as, obeo, go to encounter, 
 Perform, die, &c. ; obicio, cast in the way ; occurro, meet ; oflfero, offer, present. This 
 is sometimes hostile : as, obsideo, besiege ; obsto, oppose ; obsum, harm ; obruo, opprimo, 
 overwhelm ; oppugno, attack ; obloquor, speak against ; sometimes friendly : as, oboedio, 
 obsequor, obtempero, obey. 'Persistence' is often implied by this particle: obstupesco, 
 stand amazed ; obdormisco, slumber ; obsolesco, become obsolete. The use of obs is 
 doubtful : obs-trudo in some MSS. of Plautus seems the only authority. Ostendo, show, 
 may perhaps be a corruption of the old phrase ob os tendo, since obtendo, stretch toward, 
 is an existing . compound. Omitto, leave off, omit, cease, if for ob-mitto or om-mitto 
 (which is phonetically possible), must be referred to the meaning of 'persistence' Operio, 
 cover, is not (as a Latin verb) compounded with ob, but may contain its root. 
 
 Obs. Note the Adjj. obliquus, athwart; obscurus, dark (having oneta, Prim, skit, in 
 front). 
 
 9. Per has the general meaning, through ; percurro, run through : hence, thoroughly ; 
 perdisco, learn thoroughly. Its use (see inter) is peculiar in pereo, perish, am undone 
 (pessum eo) ; peremo, kill; perdo, ruin, destroy, lose, for which in older Latin appears 
 pessum do. These uses of per, inter, may perhaps grow out of some now forgotten cus- 
 tom or superstition. 
 
 10. Prae (before) expresses, (i) 'priority of place or rank ; ' as, praeeo, go before ; prae- 
 ficio, place in command ; praesum, am in command ; praepono, prefer ; praeluceo, out- 
 
 praetexo, skirt, border. 
 
6o. The Composition of Words. 265 
 
 11. Pro prod- (forth, forward, before, for) expresses, (i) ' motion or action forth, pttb- 
 licity : ' prodeo, go forth \ prodo, give forth, surrender, betray ; promo, take forth ; pro- 
 fero, bring forth ; provoco, call forth, challenge ; proclamo, proclaim, &c. : (2) ' motion or 
 action forward : ' procedo, go forward ; procumbo, fall forward ; promoveo, promote ; 
 propello, drive forward, &c. : (3) 'action in front : ' prohibeo, hold aloof , forbid ; pro- 
 ^>\\<g(\Q, fight for; protego, protect ; protero, trample down (a) with the notion of advan- 
 tage ; as, procure, care for ; proficio, prosum, profit ; provenio, come on, prosper, &c. : 
 {b) of prominence ; as, promineo, jut out ; propendeo, hang forward ; promereo, deserve 
 ininently ; (4) 'priority ' (rare) : proludo, prelude ; propino, pledge a health ; provideo, 
 look out, foresee. The most noticeable verbs compounded with pro are, (a) promitto, lit. 
 send forth ; which obtains the meanings let grow (hair, beard, &c.), predict, and hence 
 its derived but most usual sense, promise : (b) prorogo, put off(io> a forward time) by 
 legal act ; prorogue, 
 
 12. Sub sus- (under) may imply, (i) * being under : ' subsum, am under, am at hand ; 
 subiaceo, lie under', submerge, dip under; subscribo, write under; subsisto, stand 
 under; succumbo, sink under; suffulcio, prop ; sustineo, sus fain : (2) ' motion under'.' 
 subdo, subicio, submitto, suppono, put under ; subeo, go under, undergo ; subigo, bring- 
 under, subdue ; suffundo, pour under : (3) ' motion from under : ' subduco, subtraho, 
 subveho, withdraw ; submoveo, remove (from below) ; subverto, overthrow ; (upward") ; 
 sublevo, raise up ; suscito, rouse up ; suspendo, hang up ; suspicio, look up, look up to, 
 suspect ; suspiro, sigh : (4) ' motion in close sequence : ' subsequor,yi?//0w close ; succedo, 
 ome after, succeed, also means go under, be s^lccessful ) &c. : (with a view to help or sup- 
 ply) subvenio, succurro, succour ; sufficio, suppeto, suppleo, siipply ; subrogo, supply 
 (a legal successor). Sometimes sub implies * secrecy : ' succenseo, am angry (in the heart) : 
 surripio, steal; sometimes slight action; subblandior, fawn a little; subirascor, am 
 father angry, 
 
 13. Dis- di- (6ia) (apart, asunder) implies 'division, severance, difference, distinction? 
 &c. : diduco, sever; disto, stand apart, am distant; dido, spread; diffindo, cleave; 
 dignosco, distinguo, distinguish ; differo, sunder or differ ; dimitto, dismiss , discedo, 
 depart ; diribeo, dirimo, divide, divide ; disrumpo, pull in pieces ; discumbo, recline apart 
 (of guests at table), &c. It is particularly used to express difference in argument, opinion, 
 action : discepto, dispute, dissero, argue, dispute, discuss ; discrepo, dissentio, dissideo, 
 differ in sentiment, disagree; digladior, dimico, contend in combat; hence, diiudico, 
 judge between contending sides. In some words dis- gives a negative sense : displiceo, 
 displease ; diffiteor, deny ; diffido, distrust : in some it is intensive : disperdo, ruin 
 utterly; dispereo, am utterly ruined; discrucio, torture painfully. The verb diligo, 
 love, implies a choice between different persons. 
 
 14. The inseparable particle red- re- (back, again) conveys the two general meanings : 
 I. 'reciprocated action : ' II. 'repeated action :' but the shades of meaning are nume- 
 rous, and will repay minute analysis with the aid of the dictionary. 
 
 I. If AB be a straight line, with motion from A to B, then red- or re- implies 
 
 1) ' recurrence from B to A :' redeo, return ; recurro, run back ; reduce, lead back ; 
 relabor, slide back ; remitto, send back; redhibeo, repono, replace; refero, reporto, bring 
 back ; revoco, call back ; reddo, give back, restore ; redimo, buy back, redeem, ransom ; 
 renuntio, tell back, bring tidings ; restituo, restore. Here rank compounds which ex- 
 press reflected light, echoed or replying sound : respondeo, answer ; reluceo, shine back ; 
 reboo, remugio, rebellow; tidal reflux : refluo, redundo, fi ow back, &c. ; but in actions 
 vrhich by their nature imply recurrence, the particle loses emphasis : respiro, breathe : 
 refulgeo, resplendeo, shine, glitter. Recaleo, become warm from being cold. 
 
 2) ' recurrence ' from B towards A : i.e. backward action : recumbo, lean back, recline ; 
 resideo, sit back, sit down ; refringo, break open ; repello, drive back ; remaneo, stay 
 back, remain ; remoror, retardo, retard ; relinquo, leave behind ; respicio, look back ; re- 
 tineo, hold back, &c. In some verbs, re- (ba.ck)=aTvay : relego, send away ; removeo, 
 move away, remove with implied care : recondo, hide away, stow : or force ; revello, 
 pluck away. To this head belongs the group of words in which the particle (against) 
 implies resistance ; rebello, war against, rebel ; reclamo, cry against ; redargue, refello, 
 refute ; reluctor, struggle against ; (recuso), renuo, refuse ; repugno, resisto, resist. 
 
 II. * Repeated action' (again, anew); recognosco, examine anew; recalesco, grow 
 warm again ; revalesco, reviresco : so, reparo, repair ; reficio (make again), repair, 
 
 renew, refresh ; renovo, renew; relevo, raise again, relieve. In refercio, cram, repleo, 
 fill full, &c., the notion is that of repeating to excess. In recludo, retego, revelo, 
 uncover, open, disclose ; refigo, take down. ; resigno, unseal, re- has a force like that 
 of de (removal). In revereor, reverence ; reticeo, keep silence, it implies bashful-ness : 
 
266 Latin Wordlorc. 
 
 in redoleo, smell of, the idea is that of giving back to one who requires, as in renuntio. 
 In some compounds re- gives various senses, as recipio : for which see dictionary. 
 
 15. Other Compounded Particles keep their proper force, and need but short notice : 
 (a) ante (before) : anteire, to go before : (/3) circum (around) : circumdo, place round I 
 (y) post (after, behind) : posthabeo, postpone, place behind : (5) praeter (beside, beyond) : 
 praeterlabor, glide by ; praetereo, pass beyond, pass ; praetermitto, pass over, omit : 
 (e) subter (beneath) : subterlabor, glide under : in subterfugio, escape, secrecy or slyness is 
 implied (subterfuge) : () super (over, above) : superiacio, throw over : sometimes implies 
 excess ; superfluo, flow over, overflow. Note supersum, survive, superstes, surviving 
 (living over). Supersedeo (sit above) has the peculiar meaning, disregard, dispense with : 
 see Ablative Case. (TJ) trans (across, through) is properly used of crossing a river, moun- 
 tain, road, region, &c., hence tropically, of going or carrying over : transeo, cross, pass 
 beyond: transfero, carry across, transfer ; transigo, carry through, pierce, complete, trans- 
 act, &c. : (0) se- sed- (apart front) : seduco, draw aside : seiungo, separate ; seligo, select ', 
 &c. t (i) amb- am- an- (around, about, aM</>0 : ambio, go round, canvass ; ambigo, doubt,, 
 question ; anquiro, question, search. () the adverbs bene, male, satis, intro, retro, in a 
 few verbs : benedico, bless ; benefacio, do kindness ; maledico, revile ; malefacio, da 
 harm ; satisdo, satisfacio, satisfy ; introeo, go in ; retrogredior, retreat. 
 
 Obs. i. Many Verbs, of which the first element is a Preposition, are not Compounds in 
 the same sense as those hitherto named, but belong to one or other of the three follow- 
 ing classes : 
 
 1) Derivatives of Compound Adjectives or Substantives : concinno T. arrange (con- 
 cinnus) ; concordo i. agree (concors) ; discordo i. disagree (discors) ; indignor i. am in- 
 dignant (indignus) ; infesto i. make dangerous (infestus) ; effero i. drive wild (efferus) ; 
 obliquo i. slant (obliquus) ; deliro i. am mad (delirus) ; commodo i. lend (commodus) ; 
 incommodo i. inconvenience (incommodus) ; praecipito i. fling headlong (praeceps) ; per- 
 nocto i. pass the night (pernox) ; insanio 4. am mad (insanus) ; consulo 3. consult 
 (consul) ; concilio i. conciliate (concilium). 
 
 2) Verbs compounded of Particle and a Noun which has no derived simple verb : 
 recorder i. recollect (re, cor) ; defaeco i. drain (de, faex) ; infamo i. defame (in, fama) ; 
 
 so diffamo i. ; effemino i. make womanish (ex, femina) ; suffoco i. choke (sub, faux) ; 
 digladior \.fight with sword (di-, gladius) ; illaqueo i. ensnare (in, laqueus) ; enervo i. 
 'weaken (e, nervus) ; enucleo i. take out kernel (e, nucleus) ; impedio 4. hinder, entangle 
 (in, pes) ; expedio 4. disentangle (ex, pes) ; irretio 4. ensnare (in, rete) ; derivo i. draw 
 off, derive (de, rivus) ; erudio 4. instruct (e, rudis) ; exstirpo i. root out (ex, stirps) ; ex- 
 surdo i. deafen (ex, surdus) ; contemplor i. gaze at, observe (cum, templum augural 
 division of sky) ; praevaricor i. act dishonestly, deceive (prae, varus) ; convaso i. pack 
 tip (cum, vas) ; exubero i. abound '(ex, uber). 
 
 3) Compounds of lost or obsolete Verb-stems : 
 
 ad-7?/-or i. flatter (or- ?) ; amb-///-o i. walk ; \rc\.-bu-o 3. dye, steep ; CQm.-bur-o 3. burn *, 
 \n-coh-o i. begin ; oc-cul-o 3. hide ; m-du-o -$.put on ; ex-u-o (for ex-duo) 3. put off; de- 
 fend-Q 3. ; of-fend-o 3. ; rz-frdg-or i. oppose by vote ; suf-frdg-or i. vote for ; con-^rw-o 3. 
 agree ; \n-gru-o 3. ; m-vit-o i. invite ; ir-rtf-o i. provoke ; pro-mufe-o i. publish ; dis- 
 sip-o i. scatter. The verbs oc-cup-Q i. anti-cz^-o i. anticipate, re-/*-er-o, re-c?<^-er-o i. 
 recover, are forms modified from cap-, take. De-j//-o, destine, ob-stin-o, keep firm, 
 are weakened from stan-, the root sta- strengthened with suffix n, like da-n-o from da-, 
 and Gr. $9d-v-i from $60.. 
 
 Obs. 2. a) The primitive root of Growth is ar, al, which appears in Latin as ar, al, OP, 
 Ol : sometimes, perhaps, as OP, el, ul. It appears, (i) in alo and its derived words, 
 aZtus, co-/-esco, &c. : (2) in or\or and its forms : (3) in -oko, -<?/esco and their com- 
 pounds adtf/esco, alWesco, kWesco, &c., proles (proWes), sub0/es, ind<?/es. Probably to 
 this root may belong many names of common quick -growing, or tall, plants ; as ar-bor, 
 ar-ista,(h)ar-undo, al-ga, al-nus, al-lium, (h)ol-us, ol-ea (ol-eum), ol-iva (ol-ivum), or-nus, 
 er-vum, epi/os, il-ex, ul-va, ul-mus : perhaps, also, ar-duus, ar-dea, Al-pis, op-os, el-ephas, 
 and other words. 
 
 It must be observed that the root of Smell, olere, has no connection with that of 
 Growth. In the former 1 represents d, as shewn in odor (Gr. oSwSa), while in the latter 
 l=r. 
 
 i>) The root of Solidity appears in Latin chiefly as sol- (=Gr. 6A-), shewn in the words 
 softus (oAos), j^/um, salidus, solfers, W/-i.citus, ^/eo, with its compounds ob-j^/esco, 
 ex<7/esco, in.y<7/esco, in.7/ens. Obsolesco and exolesco have often been taken fcr com- 
 pounds of olesco, the verb of growth ; but this is a mere error of grammarians. 
 
The Uses of Words. 267 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 THE USES OF WORDS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 i. Figurate Construction. 
 
 (In this place it is convenient to describe certain variations of struc* 
 Constructio'n.) tiou - 
 
 ii. Ellipsis and Zeugma: Pleonasm: Attrac- 
 tion : Synesis. 
 
 A] Ellipsis (eXXa^te) is the omission of one or more words which 
 would be used if complete fullness of expression were necessary. 
 This may be 
 
 1) When what is omitted appears from the context : ' Metuo 
 
 tuam iram et patris' (iram\ I dread your anger and 
 my father's. ' Ego amo te et tu me' (a?nas), I love you 
 and y oil me. 
 
 2) When usage or the exigence of meaning makes the omitted 
 
 word evident : Falernum (i.e. vinum), Falernian wine ; 
 gelida (i.e. aqua), cold water : turn ego (i.e. inquam), 
 then said I. 
 
 a) Zeugma, or the construction CITTO KOO/OV, is the connexion 
 of one word with two words or with two clauses, to both of 
 which it does not equally apply : so that for one of them, 
 another word (to be gathered from the sense of the pass- 
 age) must be mentally supplied. Zeugma is therefore a 
 species of Ellipsis : ' Ex spoliis et torquem et cogno- 
 men induit/ C. ' Querimoniae conventusque h abe ban- 
 tu r/ C. 
 
 The agreement of a Verb or Adjective with one only of several 
 Nouns forming one Subject, is also called Zeugma. 1 
 
 1 Ellipsis and Zeugma are brachylogical constructions ; that is, they abbreviate dis- 
 course. (In the following Examples words bracketed in italic type are explanatory merely. ) 
 
 a) Where the words to be supplied are forms of another word in the sentence, the con- 
 struction is Ellipsis of the first kind : 'Abi rus ergo hinc ; ibi ego te (feravi), tu me feres,' 
 Ter. Haiti, iv. 2. 4. 'In Hyrcania plebs publicos alit canes, optimates domesticos* 
 (alunt), C. T. D. i. 45. ' Paene ille timore (co-mat), ego risu corrui/ C. Qu. Fr. ii. 10. 
 ' Caper tibi salvus et haedi' (salvi), Verg. B. vii. 9. 'Hie illius arma (fnere), hie currus 
 fuit/ Verg. Ae. i. 16. ' Hos tibi dant calamos, en accipe, Musae, Ascraeo quos ante 
 seni ' (dedere), Verg. B. vi. 69. ' Nisi f a c i e n t quae ilios aequum est ' (facere), Ter. 
 Ad. iii. 4. 8. 
 
 /3) When the sense requires a different word, Ellipsis becomes Zeugma : ' Hoc tempus 
 praecavere mihi me (iitbet), non te ulcisci sin it,' Ter. And. iii. 5. 18. ' Fortuna qua illi 
 florentissima (usi V identur), nos duriore conflictati videmur,' C. Att. x. 4. 'Aliinau- 
 fragio (periisse), alii a servulis ipsius inter fectum eum, scriptum reliquerunt,' Nep. 
 Hann. viii. 'Quod arduum sibi (sumpsit\ cetera legatis permisit,' Tac. A. ii. 20. 
 ' Ne tenues'pluviae (corruiHjxint) rapidive potentia solis Acrior aut Boreae penetrabile 
 
268 Latin Wordlore. 61. 
 
 B) Pleonasm (TrXfoi/ao-juo'c) is the use of more words than seem 
 necessary to the expression of a thought : 'Suo sibi gladio hunc 
 iugulo/ I slay this fellow with his own proper sword, Ter. Ad. v. 8. 
 So such phrases as plerique omnes; nemo unus ; nihil 
 quicquam; deinde postea; ubique gentium; praesensit 
 prius. 
 
 C) Attraction occurs when a word, by the influence of another, 
 
 frigus adurat,' Verg. G. i. 93. ' Saepe velut qui, Currebat, fugiens hostem, per- 
 saepe velut qui lunonis sacra ferret/ Hor. S. i. 3. 9 (i.e. saepe currebat velut qui fugiens 
 hostem curreret, persaepe tardus incedebat velut incederet is qui lunonis sacra ferret). 
 
 y) An affirmative verb is understood from a negative : ' Ille quidem baud negat. 
 Jmmo edepol negat profecto ; neque se has aedis Philolachi vendidisse ' (elicit), Plaut. 
 Most. v. i. 3. 'Stoici negant bonum quicquam esse nisi honestum : virtutem autem 
 nixam hoc honesto, nullam requirere voluptatem' (dicunt), C. Fin. i. 18. ' Nolo exist i- 
 mes me adiutorem huic venisse, sed auditorem et quidem aequum' (volo existiuies), C. 
 N. D. . 7. Nostri Graece fere nesciunt, nee Graeci Latine (sciunt\ C. T. D. v. 40. 
 Qui fit, Maecenas, ut nemo quam sibi sortem Seu ratio dederit seu fors obiecerit ilia 
 Contentus vivat, laudet {sed ut quisque laudet) diversa sequentis,' Hor. S. i. i. i. Com- 
 pare Hor. Epod. v. 87. 
 
 5) Justin has ' Provolutae deinde genibus Alexandri, non mortem, sed, dum Darii 
 corpus sepeliant, dilationem mortis deprecantur,' vi. 9. 14 (i.e. non mortem depre- 
 cantur sed .... precantur). And ' Et caedem patris (vindicavit), et se ab insidiis 
 vindicavit,' iii. i. 9 (the same verb meaning avenged in the former clause, freed in 
 the latter). But such licenses of a late age are not to be imitated. 
 
 Zeugma of the second kind requires a notice of the class of constructions called <rvA- 
 Aij^t?, when a Verb, Attribute, Apposite, Relative, &c. stands in relation to several Sub- 
 stantives or Pronouns which are often of different Numbers, Genders, Persons, &c. 
 The rules belong to the Syntax of Agreement (see this) : but examples are : 
 'Pater mihi et mater mortui,' Ter. Eun. iii. 3. ' Cerere nati sunt Liber et 
 Libera/ C. N. D. ii. 24. 'Attoniti . . . concipiunt Baucisque preces timi- 
 dusque Philemon/ Ov. Met. viii. 681. 'Ptolemaeus et Cleopatra, reges 
 Aegypti, L. xxxvii. 3. ' Sustulimus manus et ego et Balbus/ C. Fam. vii. 5. 
 'Err.^ s t i s, Rulle, vehementer et tuet collegae tui/ C. in Rull. i. ' Ipse d u x c u m 
 urbe et exercitu deleti/ Sail. * Fregellis murus et porta de caelo tacta 
 erant/ L. xxxii. 'Arbitrum habebimus Civilem et Veledam, apud quos 
 pacta sancientur/ Tac. H. iv. 65. * Favent pietati fideique di, per quae P. R. ad 
 tantum fastigii venit/ L. xliv. 2. 
 
 In these examples the related words are all Plural ; and Gender and Person are deter- 
 mined by consideration of all the Nouns. Zeugma occurs when the construction agrees 
 with one of the Nouns only, whether in Number, Gender, Person, or all these : an 
 Ellipsis being supposed of the other agreeing words. ' Filia (capta) atque unus e filiis 
 captusest/ Caes. B. G. i. 26. ' C o n v i c t a e s t Messalina et Silius ' (convictus), Tac. A . 
 xii. 65. 'Utinam aut hie surdus (factus), aut haec muta fact a sit/ Ter. And. iii. 4, 5. 
 ' Et genus (vilius) et virtus, nisi cum re, vilior alga est/ Hor. S. ii. 5. 8. ' Pop\i\i(liberati) 
 provinciaeque liberatae sunt/ C. Phil. v. 4. ' Et tu (sets) et omnes homines sciunt/ 
 C. Fam. xiii. 8. i. ' Et ego (flagito) et Cicero meus flagitabit/ C. Att. iv. 17. 3. 
 In such examples agreement is with the nearer Noun ; and thus it is a kind of Attraction. 
 Rarer instances occur of Zeugma, in which agreement is with the more distant word : 
 * Ego populusque Romanus populis priscorum Latinorum bellum indlco facioque/ 
 L. i. 32. ' Quibus ipse meique ante Larem proprium v esc or/ Hor. S. ii. 6. 65. 
 
 ) Pleonasm, which expands discourse, belongs to the domain of rhetoric more than to 
 that of grammar, and needs not to be dwelt on at length here. Periodic style, such as that 
 of the Ciceronian speeches and treatises, is necessarily, to some extent, pleonastic : and the 
 rounded fullness of Cicero's diction exposed him, even in his own times, to the charge of 
 tumid Asiatic luxuriance. Two or three sentences will illustrate this tendency. 
 
 'Si fructibus et emolu mentis etutilitatibus amicitias colemus, dubium est 
 quin fundos et insulas amicis anteponamus ? ' Fin. ii. 26. 'Dicendi facultas non 
 debet esse ieiuna atque nuda, sed aspersa atquc distincta multarum rerum 
 iucunda quadam varietate/ Or. i. 50. ' Quinctius orat atque obsecrat ut 
 Jnultis iniuriis iactatam atque agitatam aequitatem in hoc tandem loco con- 
 sist er e et confirmari patiamini/ /. Quinc. 2. 
 Examples of Attraction, Synesis, &c. will be found in various parts of the Syntax. 
 
6i. Figurate Construction. 269 
 
 is diverted from the usual construction to a less usual one : 
 6 Hie est quern quaero hominem/ this is the man I seek ; where 
 the Subst. would usually be Norn., but, attracted by quern, 
 becomes Accus. 'Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est/ L. for 
 'Thebae, quae Boeotiae caput sunt;' the Complement caput 
 (Neut. Sing.) attracting the Relative from its usual agreement in 
 Gender and Number with the Antecedent (Thebae). 
 
 U) Synesis is when words are constructed in accordance with 
 meaning (avvtaiq), not with form: 'Subeunt Tegeea iuventus 
 auxilib tardi/ the youth of Tegea come slow to the succoiir, Stat. 
 Th. vii. 605 : where iuventus (a Collective Noun Feminine and 
 Singular) has the meaning of the Concrete iuvenes, young men 
 (Masc. Plur.), with which meaning the Verb subeunt (Plur.) and 
 the Adjective tardi (Masc. Plur.) agree in construction. 
 
 iii. Other Variations. 
 
 a) When a Verb or Adjective agrees with several Substantives 
 (o-t/XXrji^e, see last Foot-note) : ' Pater, mater et filia capti sunt.' 
 
 b) When words are dislodged from the normal order (i/Trtp- 
 fiarov) : < Tu illas abi et traduce/ 
 
 An interposed clause is called TrapeVfleo-te if not in construction 
 with the rest : ' At tu nam divum servat tutela poetas 
 Praemoneo, vati parce, puella, sacro/ Tibull. ii. 5. 113. 
 
 c} When a Preposition follows its Case (avacrrpotyri) : Spemque 
 metumque inter dubii, Verg. 
 
 d] When compound words are separated into their parts 
 (jfjirifno) : 'Quae me cumque vocant terrae/ Verg. for quaecum- 
 que ; disque supatis for dissipatis ; ordia prima, Lucr. for primordia. 
 
 e) When one Part of Speech, Number, Case, Tense, &c., is used 
 for another (graXXay?/) : ' Vivere nostrum 7 for vita nostra; 'Samnis' 
 for Samnites, ' nos' for ego : 'populus' for popule; 'expectate 7 for 
 expectatus ; ' mox navigo ' for navigabo, &c. 
 
 f) Interchange of Cases (vTrctXXay//) : < Dare classibus Austros/ 
 Verg. for < dare classes Austris.' Or attribution of an Adjective to 
 another than its natural Noun: t Fontium gelidae perennitates/ 
 C. for gelidorum : 'Tyrrhena regum progenies/ Hor. for Tyrr- 
 henorum. 
 
 g) Expression of a complex notion by two Substantives, instead 
 of Subst. and Adj. (evdia$vo~u') : 'Pateris libamus et auro/ Verg. 
 ii. G. 192, for pateris aureis. 
 
 //) That kind of Ellipsis which omits Annexive Conjunctions 
 is called davvltrov : <Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit/ C. Cat. i. I. 
 HoXvtrvvStTov is a kind of Pleonasm, which multiplies Conjunc- 
 tions in poetry : * Una Eurusque Notusque ruunt creberque pro- 
 cellis Africus/ Verg. Ae. i. 85. 
 
 i) Archaism is a form, phrase, or idiom borrowed from old 
 writers (a/o^alot) : < animai ; in cassum magnum,' Lucr. 
 
270 Latin Wordlore. 62. 
 
 k) Graecism (tXXijVKTjiDc) is a phrase or idiom borrowed from. 
 Greek : ' Amplexi habent/ Lucr., for amplexi sunt : ' Metuo fratrem 
 ne intus sit,' Ter., for ' ne frater intus sit.' 
 
 The foregoing Variations (which grammarians call < Figures ') 
 belong chiefly to Syntax. 
 
 iv. Metaphor and Metonymy. 
 (These are Figures of Rhetoric.) 
 
 I. Metaphor (/utra^opa, translatio) occurs when a term proper 
 to one matter is transferred by analogy to another: volnus, 
 wound, for damnum, loss; portus, harbour, for refugium, refuge; 
 sentina reipublicae, sink of the commonwealth, for turpissimi cives, 
 vilest citizens ; ardeo, / burn, for amo, / love, &c. 
 
 A metaphor may be qualified by such expressions as quasi, 
 tamquam, quidam, ut ita dicam, &c. : ( In una philosophia 
 quasi tabernaculum vitae suae collocarunt,' they have pitched as 
 it were the tent of their life in philosophy alone, C. d. Or. iii. 20. 
 * Caria et Phrygia asciverunt aptum suis auribus opimum quod- 
 dam et tamquam adipatae dictionis genus/ the Carians and 
 Phrygians chose a certain rich and as it were greasy style of diction 
 suited to their peculiar taste, C. Or. 8. ' Scopas, utitadicam, 
 mihi videntur dissolvere,' they seem to me to be untying, so to say, 
 besoms, C. Or. 71. 
 
 II. Metonymy (/zerwi'i/juia) puts a related word for a proper 
 one : (i) Cause for effect ; Mars for bellum ; Ceres for segetes ; 
 'Bacchus' for vinum; 'lanus' for lani vicus or for lani 
 templum. (2) Material for work: 'argentum' for vasa ar- 
 gentea. (3) Abstract for concrete: 'civitas' for cives, 'cor 
 Enni' for cordatus Ennius, the sensible Ennius. (4) Concrete 
 for abstract : ' Cedant arma togae,' for f cedat bellum pad.' (5) 
 Country for inhabitants : * Graecia' for Graeci : or the converse : 
 'In Persas ire,' for in Persidem, Nep. (6) The part is put for 
 the whole (<rvi'eK$oxfy : ' caput ' for homo ; ' tec turn ' for domus. 
 (7) Sometimes the whole for the part: 'Sal sextante erat,' for 
 ' modius salis,' ' salt was at two unciae the peck] L. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 62 
 Usesof Uses of the Substantive. 
 
 .the Sub- 
 
 (On certain classes of Singular and Plural Substantives 
 see 2i7. iii.) 
 
 i. Singular Appellatives used collectively for 
 Plural. 
 
 Such Appellatives are, (i) Material Objects. (2) Bodies civil or 
 military. (3) People : occasional in Cato, Cic., Caes. : frequent in 
 Liv., Tac., Curt, and poets. 
 

 62. Uses of tlie Substantive. 271 
 
 Ex. rosa = rosae : pedes = pedites : Samnis = Samnites. 
 
 The Singular annexed to Plural is not earlier than Livy. He and 
 Tacitus often use it : * Hispani milites et funditor Baliaris/ L. 
 xxvii. 2. ( Samnis Paelignusque et Marsi/ Tac. H. iii. 59. 
 
 ii. Plural words used with Singular collective 
 sense in prose. 
 
 Ex. aquae, ardores, calores, frigora, frumenta, glacies, gran- 
 dines, ignes, pecuniae, pluviae, praedae, pruinae, rores ; all in C. 
 
 ^ In poetry this use of the Plural of Concretes is abundant : aco- 
 nita, mella, colla, corda, currus, altaria, numina, litora, capitolia 
 tecta, &c. 
 
 It either heightens the image, or, still oftener, assists the metre. 
 
 iii. Plural of Appellatives expressing a 
 'genus' when individuals are implied. 
 
 Occasional in prose : ' Legati P. R.' (where Triarius alone is 
 meant), C. p. L. Man. : frequent in poetry : ' Quas mulieres, 
 quos tu parasites loquere ? ; Plaut. Men. ii. 2 ; ' Barbaras re gum 
 est ulta libidines' (meaning Tereus), Hor. C. iv. 12. 
 
 iv. Plural of Proper Names used to express 
 typical characters. 
 
 This is frequent in prose, occasional in poetry : ( Pauli, Catones, 
 Galli, Scipiones, Phili/ C. Lael. 6. ' Decii Marii magnique Ca- 
 milli, 3 Verg. G. ii. 169. 
 
 v. Abstract Substantives, 1 Verbal and Deno- 
 minative, used in Plural. 
 
 This is frequent in prose, occasional in poetry. 
 
 1) When several kinds are implied: 'Tres constantiae,' C. 
 T. D. iv. 6 ; ' Alia exitia/ C. d. Fin. v. 10 ; ' Sapiens nostras am- 
 bitiones levitatesque contemnit,' the wise man despises our 
 ambitious and shallow pursuits, C. T. D. v. 36. 
 
 2) Several occurrences : ' Domesticae fortitudines/ C. Off. i. 22. 
 So offices in L. and Tac. : * Tribunatus et praeturae et consulatus/ 
 Tac. D. 7. 
 
 a) A material (aes, cera, &c.) may express in the Plural orna- 
 mental objects manufactured from it : ' Ephyreia aera/ 
 Corinthian bronzes, Verg. G. ii. 463. ' Veteres cerae,' old 
 waxen busts, luv. viii. 19. But aurum, argentum remain 
 Singular always. 
 
 * Draeger states that there are in Latin 3,814 abstract Substantives ; of which 2,889 are 
 used in the Singular only, 925 in the Plural also. Of these latter 58 only are before Cicero, 
 including 36 in Plautus, 6 in Terence : 383 are in Cicero ; a few only, 19, in Caesar, Sal- 
 lust, Varro, and Auctor ad Herennium. The rest, 484, are distributed in Livy and sub- 
 sequent prose writers, and in classical and later poetry. See his Historische Syntax, 
 der Lat. Spr., Part i. p. 9, where a full list of these Abstract Plurals is given. 
 
272 Latin Word lore. 62. 
 
 3) When the abstract is related to Plural concretes : < Conscientiae 
 maleficiorum/ C. Par. 2. 
 
 4) When it is annexed to other Plurals : 'Tot artes, tantae scien- 
 tiae, tot inventa/ C. Cat. M. 78. 
 
 i 
 
 vi. Abstract Substantives for Concrete in 
 prose and poetry : 
 
 This may be in any of three ways : 
 
 1) Sing. Abstr. for Sing. Concr. ) .., ,,, 
 Plur. Abstr. for Plur. Concr. I either or both ' 
 
 Ex. ' corruptela' =corruptor, Ter. Ad. v. 3. 7 ; < desiderium^res 
 desiderata, Hor. C. i. 14. 18 ; ' servitia ' = servi, C. p. Flac. 38; 
 i imperia ' = imperatores, Caes. B. C. iii. 32 ; ' matrimonia ' = uxores r 
 L. x. 23. <Mea festivitas/ my delight, App. ii. 10; so 'scelus ; = dr 
 wicked wretch, '&&&&&J scoundrels; <vigiliae' = vigiles; <excubiae' = 
 excubitores. 
 
 2) Plur. Abstr. for Sing. Concr. : ' amores ' = amatus or amata r 
 'Pompeius nostri amores,' C.Att. ii. 19. 'Acmen . . suos amores/ 
 Catull. xlv. i. So 'deliciae :' ' Amores et deliciae tuae Roscius/ 
 C Div. i. 36. 
 
 3) Sing. Abstr. for Plur. Concr. freq. in prose and poetry r 
 ^amicitia' = amici,Tac.^.27i ; 'barbaria' = barbari; <civitas' = cives; 
 * coniuratio ' = coniurati ; ' iuventus ; = iuvenes; ' nobilitas ; = nobiles ; 
 'societas ' = socii ; ' statio ' or ' custodia ' = custodes ; ( remigium ' = re- 
 miges. So ' Canes arnica vis pastoribus/ Hor. Epod. 6. 6. ( In hac 
 tanta immanitate versari/ C. = inter tarn immanis homines. ' Cum 
 vestra aetate,' C. = cum vobis adulescentibus. 
 
 Obs. From the Plural use of Substantives we can hardly discon- 
 nect the ' Pluralis Modestiae,' which includes also Verbs and Pro- 
 nouns, when a person speaks of himself in the Plural Number : 
 'Imperatores appellati sumus,' C. Att.v. 20. 'Poscimur, si 
 quid vacui sub umbra lu si mus/ Hor. C. i. 32. Sometimes Plur. and 
 Sing, occur together : ' Ardeo incredibili cupiditate ut nomen nos- 
 trum scriptis illustretur tuis/ C. Fam. v. 12 ; 'Et flesti et nostros 
 vidisti flentis ocellos/ Ov. H. v. 45. 1 
 
 vii. Idioms of the Substantive chiefly Cice- 
 ronian : 
 
 i) Cicero describes state or action by a Verbal Abstract : ' Ora- 
 toris est languentis populi incitatio et effrenati moderatio/ an 
 orator 's function is to rouse a languid, and restrain an infuriated^ 
 populace, C. d. Or. ii. 9. 
 
 1 The Plural of Majesty (we, our), used in the proclamations of modern princes and 
 potentates, was unknown to classical Latin ; but it probably grew out of the use of the 
 * modest ' Plural by Roman Emperors in such phrases as * nostra mansuetudo,' ' nostra- 
 jnaiestas/ ' nostra excellentia,' &c. 
 
I 62. Uses of the Substantive. 273 
 
 2) A Denominative Abstract with Genitive is used for a Noun with 
 Epithet. 'Vis flammae aquae multitudineopprimitur' ( = flam- 
 ma violenta plurima aqua opprimitur), C. Cat. M. 19. ' In con- 
 .suetudinesermonis 7 ( = in consueto sermone), in ordinary con- 
 versation, C. Inv. ii. 40. 
 
 3) A Noun takes a Genitive of another, to which it might be 
 Apposite, if the other were constructed as Subject or Object. ' Est 
 etiam deformitatis et corporis vitiorum satis bella materies 
 ad iocandum/ deformity also and bodily defects are a fine field for 
 banter, C. d. Or. ii. 59. 
 
 4) A Noun of quality or condition is used as Subject or Object 
 with Genitive of the real Subject or Object, or with a Possessive 
 Pronoun. ' Pupilli aetatem et solitudinem defendere praetor 
 debuit/ the praetor ought to have protected a young and orphan 
 ward, C. Verr. i. 58. ' Potest mihi denegare occupatio tua/ 
 
 your preoccupation ( = you being preoccupied) may refuse me this, 
 C. Fam. v. 12. 8. 
 
 5) Cicero affects ornate periphrases and metaphors : * Occa- 
 sionis tarditas ; ' ' Etesiarum flatus ; ' ' naufragia fortunae ; ' ' summa 
 luctus acerbitas : ; ' mentis oculi; ; ' philosophiae portus;' 'gloriae 
 stimuli ; ; ' eius sceleri virtus M. Bruti obstitit.' 
 
 6) Stages of life and seasons of office are often expressed by the 
 concrete words puer, adule sc ens, &c., consul, praetor, &c., rather 
 than by the abstracts pueritia, consulatus, &c. ' D octus a puero/ 
 .learned from boyhood, C. 'Ab pa.rvu.lis,' from their infancy, Caes. 
 ' Philosophiae multum adulescens temporis tribui/ I gave much 
 time to philosophy in my youth, C. Off.\\. 4. ' Ante (post) me con- 
 sul em/ before (after) my consulship : ' consule Planco/zV/ the consul- 
 ship of Plancus, Hor. But the abstracts can be used. 
 
 7) Some Concrete Substantives, especially Verbals in-tor-trix, 
 are used Adjectively. < Ennius equi fortis et victoris senectuti 
 comparat suam/ Ennius compares his old age to that of a strong 
 and victorious horse, C. Cat. M. 5. ' Art if ex stilus/ an artistic 
 .style,C. This idiom is especially poetic. 'Victrix causa deis 
 placuit, sed victa Catoni/ the conquering cause pleased the gods, but 
 the conquered cause Cato, Lucan. i. 128. ' Populum late regem/ 
 a far-ruling people, Verg. Aen. v. 25. 
 
 8) Certain phrases assume the nature of single words : 'nomen 
 Latinum' ( = Latini), 'res Romanae' ( = Roma). So 'res 
 xepetundae' (extortion), respublica, iusiurandum, &c. 
 
 9) In comparisons, by a peculiar brachylogy, names of Persons 
 and Places stand for their works or properties : ' Percipietis volup- 
 tatem, si cum Graecorum Lycurgo et Dracone et Solone nos- 
 tras leges conferre volueritis/^?^ will find pleasure in comparing 
 #ur laws with (those of) the Lycurgus and Draco and Solon of the 
 Greeks, C. d. Or. i. 44. 
 
 10) Verbal Substantives occasionally govern the same cases as 
 their Verbs : Cicero has ' domum itio ; ' ( Narbone reditus ; ; ' ob- 
 temperatio legibus.' Constructions such as ' receptio virum meum/ 
 * curatio hanc rem/ are used by Plautus, but not subsequently. 
 
 T 
 
274 Latin Wordlore. 62. 
 
 viii. Ellipse of the Substantive: 
 
 Omitted Substantives are indicated 
 
 i) By Adjectives which are their Epithets : 
 ager : in Tiburti, C. 
 aqua : frigida, Quint. ; gelida, Hor. ; calida, Varr. ; decocta, 
 
 Plin., luv. 
 
 ars : dialectica, &c. C. musica. 
 capilli : cani, C. and poets. 
 caro : agnina, lamb ; anatina, duck ; aprugna, wild-boar ; bu- 
 
 *bula, beef\ ferina, venison ; suilla, ^0ry ; vitulina, veal, 
 castra : aestiva ; hiberna ; stativa : C.," Caes., L., Tac. &c. 
 dies : natalis ; and in phrases postero, in posterum, &c. 
 fabula : togata, comedy with Roman characters ; p alii at a, with 
 
 Greek ; praetexta, trabeata, plays in which cha- 
 racters with these dresses appeared. 
 
 familiaris : ' complexus inde Coriolanus suos dimittit/ L. ii. 40, 
 febris : quartana, quartan ague, luv. 
 feriae : Latinae, the Latin holidays, 
 fodina : arenaria, argentaria, &c. C., L. 
 fratres : gemini ; trigemini. 
 funis : cereus, a waxen torch, 
 hora : quarta, 10 o'clock ; octava, 2 o'clock, luv. 
 lapis : molaris, millstone, Verg. ; ad quartum, at the fourth 
 
 milestone, Tac. &c. 
 liber : 'in T. Livii primo,' Quint. ;. 'in tertio de Oratore,' do. ; <ne 
 
 in pontificiis quidem nostris,' C. N. D. i. 30. 
 ludi : Circenses, luv. 
 manus : dextra, laeva, sinistra. 
 mare : Aegaeum; Ionium; altum; profundum, &c. 
 navis : triremis ; quinqueremis ; oneraria, C., L. ; Liburna, 
 
 Hor., &c. 
 
 nummus : aureus ; aereus ; denarius ; sestertius, c. 
 officina : coquina ; picaria ; figlina, &c. C., Plin. 
 ordines : quattuordecim, the fourteen rows of the equites in 
 
 the Roman theatre, Suet. 
 ovis : bidens. 
 paries : decumae, tithes : primae, secundae, &c., the first, 
 
 second, &c. parts in a drama, C., Hor. &c. 
 pecuniae : repetundarum, repetundis; frequent: Cicero 
 
 usually adds pecuniarum, pecuniis. 
 porta : Coelimontana, Esquilina, Capena, &c., C., &c. 
 praedium : Albanum, Antias, Tusculanum, &c., C. 
 res : argentaria, pecuaria, topiaria, &c., C. 
 sella : curulis, Tac. 
 sol : occidens ; oriens. 
 spolia : opima, Sen. Tr. 
 telum : missile, L., Verg. 
 tempus : brevi ; horno, Plaut. 
 toga : praetexta, Hor. and later. 
 tribus : Q. Verres Romilia, C. &c. 
 usurae ; centesimae ; quincunces, besses, deunces, &c. 
 vas : aenum ; fictile T Cat., Ov. &c. 
 
63. Uses of the Adjective. 275 
 
 ventus : Africus, lapyx. 
 
 verba : multa, phira, &c. 
 
 versus, senarius, 
 
 via : Appia, Flaminia, Latina, &c. 
 
 vicibus : alternis, Lucr., Verg. 
 
 mnum : Caecubum, Falernum, Massicum, Sabinum, Surren- 
 
 tina (vina), &c. Hor. &c. 
 
 Also menstruum (frumenfum), L. ; nullas (epistulaf), C. ; molaris 
 (dens), luv. ; Papia Poppaea (lex), Tac. Dialia, Liberalia, &c. (festd). 
 2) By Substantives which depend on those omitted : 
 
 aedes or templum : ' ad Apollinis ; ' l ad Opis ; ' ' ad lovis Sta- 
 
 toris ; ' ' ad Vestae ; ' ' prope Cloacinae ' (aedem), C., L. &c. 
 
 actor : <Q. Arrius fuit M. Crassi quasi secundarum/ C. Brut. 
 
 69. 
 
 iter : 6 castra aberant bidui/ C. Att. v. 16. 
 filius, filia : ' Faustus Sullae ; ; ' Caecilia Metelli ; ' ' Hannibal 
 
 Gisgonis.' 
 
 uxor : Terentia Ciceronis ; Apicata Seiani, Tac. 
 homines : 'pergere ad Treveros etexternaefidei/ Tac. 
 poculum : *da noctis mediae/ &c. Hor. C. iii. 19. 
 servus : frequent in phrases : 'a manu 7 or 4 ad manum/ amanu- 
 ensis : ' ab epistulis/ letter-writer ; * a potione/ cup-bearer ; 
 ( a bibliotheca/ librarian, &c. 
 
 3) By Verbs, of which the omitted word is object or subject. See 
 109, 126. 
 
 Object omitted : mittere (nuntium) ; agere (vitam) ; obire (mor- 
 tem) ; merere (stipendia} ; movere (castra) ; ducere (exerdtum) ; 
 appellere, conscendere (navem, classem), and others. 
 
 Besides Pronoun Subjects, the Nom. homines is constantly 
 omitted in the phrases aiunt, tradunt, n arrant, &c. 
 
 ix. Substantives are used with different kinds 
 of meaning (active or passive). 
 
 alumn-us -a (usually qui alitur ; sometimes qui alit) : clientela 
 (clientship ; clients ; patronage] : gloria (glory ; boasting, vanity) : 
 hospes (host; guesf) : fuga (flight ; exile) : invidia (envy; odium) : 
 nuntius (messenger ; news) : odium (hatred as feeling : hated ob- 
 ject) : opinio (opinion ; credit) : ruina (ruin suffered or inflicted) : 
 spes (hope as feeling; as object) : tristitia (sadness ; gloom inspiring 
 sadness) : tutela (guardianship, guardian ; that which is guarded, 
 ward) : vector (qui vehit, shipmaster ; qui vehitur, passenger), &c. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Uses of the Adjective. Use S 3 f 
 
 i. Adjectives used as Substantives. See 15. b). jective. 
 A) Masculine (and Feminine) Adjectives with personal meaning. 
 I. Singular : 
 
 a) in arius, icus, anus, Inus, &c., including Gentile words : 
 adversarius ; consiliarius ; librarius ; ostiarius : sicarius ; statuarius ; 
 
276 Latin Wordlore. 63. 
 
 tabellarius ; vicarius, &c. ; criticus, rusticus, vilictis, &c. ; hortu- 
 lanus ; paganus ; publicanus ; libertinus ; vicinus, &c. ; Romanus, 
 Sabinus, Atheniensis, &c. Also the terms for legionary soldiers : 
 primanus, secundanus, &c. 
 
 b) Words of Kinship and Relation : 
 
 amicus, inimicus ; aequalis ; amnis ; agnatus, cognatus ; con- 
 sanguineus ; contubernalis ; familiaris ; gentilis ; maritus ; necessa- 
 rius ; propinquus ; sodalis, socius. 
 
 c) Various ; 
 
 aemulus ; conscius ; consularis ; luvenis ; insipiens ; stultus, &c. 
 Cicero has, ' Meos partim inimicos partim invidos,'^. Plane. 
 1 Nonnulli nostri iniqui,' do. 23. ' Omnibus iniquissimis meis/ 
 Verr. v. 69. 
 
 d) Participles : 
 
 a) Present : adulescens ; amans ; sapiens. 
 /3) Perfect Pass. : candidatus ; doctus ; praefectus ; nat-us (a) ; 
 spons-us (a). 
 
 e) Generally, l man ' may be omitted when any epithet implying 
 it is used (Ellipsis) : 'lacet corpus dormientis ut mortui,' the 
 body of a sleeper lies like that of a dead man, C. Div. i. 30. ' Non de 
 improbo, sed de callidoimprobo quaerimus/ we are enquiring' 
 not about a knave, but about a cunning knave, C. Fin. ii. 17. ' Ne- 
 glegere quid de se quisque sentiat, non solum arrogantis est, sed 
 omnino dissoluti,' to be careless of what others think about him, 
 indicates a man not arrogant only, but quite unprincipled, C. Off. i. 28. 
 
 II. Plural: 
 
 Plural Adjectives and Participles still oftener express men ; 
 chiefly, but not exclusively, in the Nom. and Accus., because in 
 these the Masc. is distinguished from the Neut. So 
 
 boni, divites, inferiores, infirm, iuniores, magni, maiores, minores, 
 multi, mortales, nulli, optimi, omnes, pauci, plerique, poster!, 
 proximi, summi, tenues, urbani ; nostri, sui, &c. &c. ; adstantes, dis- 
 centes, legentes, spectantes, &c. ; docti, indocti, imperiti, mortui, &c. 
 
 Participles are also used, especially in poetry, to describe, by some 
 property, classes in natural history : balantes = oves ; natantes = 
 pisces ; volantes = aves ; laniger = aries ; squamigeri = pisces. 
 
 Cicero has ( errantes ' for * planetae.' 
 
 E) Neuter Adjectives and Participles : 
 
 I. Singular : 
 
 ^ a) It has been shewn in Ch. V. that a great number of Substan- 
 tives in arium, torlum, sorium, turn, sum, ale, ile, are, &c., were 
 originally Adjectival : as cib arium, deversorium, dictum, respon- 
 sum, navale, ovile, talare, &c. 
 
 &) The Greek Article enables that language to convert any Neut. 
 Adjective into an Abstract Noun (TO ayatiov, TO /caXoy). Latin 
 authors, without this advantage, use a certain number of Neuter 
 Adjectives Singular in this way : such aare 
 
63. Uses of the Adjective. 277 
 
 a) Moral Abstracts : 
 
 aequum, bonum, commodum, decorum, falsum, honestum, 
 
 iustum, malum, nimium, pravum, rectum, ridiculum, utile, 
 
 verum, &c. 
 
 /3) Physical Abstracts : 
 
 album, aridum, calidum, canorum, umidum, igneum, inane, 
 
 pingue, planum, serum, sudum, tranquillum, vacuum, &c. 
 y) Ordinal Numerals : 
 primum, secundum, &c. extremum, medium, &c. 
 
 c) The most extensive Substantival use of Neuter Sing. Adjec- 
 tives and Participles is with Prepositions ; forming phrases of an 
 adverbial character. 
 
 Among the most usual phrases of this kind are : 
 
 ex adverse ; ex aequo ; ex ambiguo ; e contrario ; ex confesso ; ex 
 imo ; ex obliquo ; ex occulto ; ex permisso ; ex propinquo ; e^ 
 transverse ; ex tuto ; ex vano ; ex vero : in abdito ; in alto ; in 
 ambiguo ; in ancipiti ; in aperto ; in arduo ; in dubio ; in edito ; 
 in incerto ; in integro ; in lubrico ; in medio ; in obscuro ; in piano ; 
 in praecipiti ; in praesenti ; in propatulo ; in publico ; in sereno ; 
 in secreto ; in sicco ; in solido ; in sublimi ; in tranquillo ; in tur- 
 bido ; in tuto : ab imo ad summum : pro certo ; pro com- 
 perto ; pro indigno : de alieno ; de cetero ; de communi ; de 
 medio ; de publico ; de suo ; de vivo ; in adversum ; in arduum ; 
 in artum ; in commune ; in deterius ; in dubium ; in immensum ; 
 in incertum ; in maius ; in medium ; in melius ; in obliquum ; in 
 praeceps ; in plenum ; in sublime ; in tranquillum ; in transversum : 
 and the temporal phrases, in aeternum; in futurum ; in longum ; 
 in posterum ; in perpetuum ; in praesens ; in serum : ad certum, 
 ad constitutum, ad immensum ; ad liquidum ; ad irritum, ad vanum ; 
 ad vivum ; ad unum ; and the temporal phrases, ad extremum, 
 ad (in) multum diei, ad ultimum. 1 
 
 II. Plural : 
 
 Neuter Plural Adjectives are freely used in Latin as Abstract 
 Nouns, signifying ' things? 
 
 bona, mala ; vera, falsa ; utilia, inutilia ; &c. &c. ; multa, plu- 
 rima, omnia, &c. ; ea, ista, haec, nostra, etc. 
 
 Some in local sense : 
 
 avia, devia, invia ; summa, infima, proxima, extrema, angusta j 
 aperta, secreta ; maritima, mediterranea, c. &c. : often with a de- 
 scriptive Genitive in history and poetry : secreta silvarum ; avia 
 montium ; strata viarum ; deserta locorum, abdita vallium, &c. 
 
 1 Draeger cites other instances : 
 
 Ex : abdito, alto, affluent!, antique, aperto, arido, communi, composite, conducto et 
 locato, diverse, facili, patenti, praeparato, proximo, publico, solido, toto, &c. 
 
 In (Abl.) : aequo, angusto, arto, communi, conspicuo, excelso, expedite, extreme, facili, 
 difficili, levi, occulto, pacato, private, profane, promiscuo, summo, &c. 
 
 In (A ecus.) : ambiguum, altum, angustum, cassum, contrarium, publicum, sublime, 
 unum, &c. 
 
278 Latin Wordlore. 63. 
 
 ii. Adjectives used adverbially. 
 
 (1) ' Senatus frequens convenit/ the senate met in force, C. So 
 'invitus (or libens) veni ; ? 'imprudens (or sciens) fed/ &c. 
 Especially Adjectives of time, order, &c. : serus, citus, matutinus, 
 nocturnus, vespertinus, prior, primus, princeps, proximus, ultimus, 
 postremus, supremus, unus, multus, solus, totus, omnis, nullus, &c. 
 
 * Lupus gregibus nocturnus obambulat/ the wolf prowls about 
 the flocks at night, Verg. G. iii. 538. ' Sulla multus aderat/ Sulla 
 shewed himself much, Sail. lug. 9. 'Philotimus nullus venit/ 
 Philotimus came not at all, C. Fam. xi. 22. 
 
 (2) Virgil has ' tarda volventia plaustra ' (for tarde), ' sublimem 
 expulsum ' (for sublime), ' inexpletus lacrimans ' (for inexpletum) ; 
 and similar examples abound in poetry. 
 
 iii. Partitive Attributes. 
 
 Primus, ultimus, summus, infimus, imus, intimus, extremus, pos- 
 tremus, novissimus, medius, reliquus, ceterus, are often used to 
 designate one part of that to which they are attributed. 
 
 ( Prim a luce summus mons a Labieno tenebatur/ at break of 
 day the top of the mountain was occupied by Labienus, Caes. B. G. 
 i. 22. ' Maximum bellum Cn. Pompeius extrema hieme appa- 
 ravit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit/ Gnaeus 
 Pompeius prepared a mighty war at the close of winter, commenced 
 it at the beginning of spring, completed it in the middle of summer, 
 C.p. L. Man. 12. See M. Lucr. iii. 250. 
 
 iv. Proleptic Attributes. 
 
 An attribute is said to be proleptic when it indicates a quality not 
 existing yet, but about to result from the action contained in the 
 sentence : ' Ingentes tollent animos 7 (i.e. ut ingentes fiant), Virg. 
 G. iii. 207. This is an idiom of very frequent use in poetry. 
 
 v. Multiplication of Attributes. 
 
 1) Two or more Adjectives are not usually joined as Attributes 
 to the same Substantive without an intervening Conjunction, unless 
 one or more with the Substantive form one complex idea : 
 
 'Propter Ennam est spelunca quaedam ubi Syracusani festos 
 dies anniversaries agunt/ close to Enna is a certain cavern, 
 where the people of Syracuse hold annual holidays, C. Verr. iv. 52. 
 'Columna aurea solida sacrata est/ a pillar of solid gold was 
 dedicated, L. xxiv. 3. 'Veni apud Mamertinos privata navis 
 oneraria maxima publice est aedificata/ a private yacht of very 
 heavy tonnage was built for Verres in the Mamertine city at public 
 cost, C. Verr. iv. 52. Here 'festos dies/ 'columna aurea/ 'navis 
 oneraria maxima/ severally constitute one idea. See M. Lucr. v. 
 13 : ( Divina antiqua reperta;' and iv. 394-3 'suo corpore claro.' 
 
 2) But any number of Adjectives may follow one Substantive, 
 when each expresses a different kind of that Substantive : 
 
 ' Auribus indicantur vocis genera permulta, candidum, fuscum, 
 lene, asperum, grave, acutum, flexibile, lene/ C. N. D. ii. 
 Or when intervening Conjunctions are supposed, not expressed : 
 
63 Uses of tlie Adjective. 279 
 
 6 Animal hoc providum, sagax, multiplex, acutum, plenum 
 rationis et consili, quern vocamus Hominem/ C. Leg. i. 7. ' Mon 
 strum horrendum informe ingens/ Verg. Aen. iii. 658. 
 
 vi. Possessive Attributes. 
 
 The Latin language uses Denominative Epithets very largely, 
 instead of Genitive Nouns, to express Origin, Possession, &c. : 
 Anacreon Tei'us, Anacreon of Teos ; Hercules Xenophonteus, 
 Hercules in Xenophon ; erilis films, my master's son ; fraternus 
 sanguis, a brother's blood ; cursus maritimus, a sea voyage bellum 
 sociale, a war with allies ; aliena vitia, thefaidts of other s^ &c. 
 
 vii Idioms of the Superlative. 
 
 For those of the Comparative see Correlation (quam), and the 
 Syntax of the Ablative. 
 
 1) The following example shews that the Superlative indicates 
 any very high degree, though not the highest: ' Ego sum mise- 
 rior quam tu quae es miserrima/ I am more wretched than you, 
 *who are very wretched, C. Fam. xiv. 3. 
 
 2) The force of the Superlative is increased by 
 
 a) The Adverbs longe, multo, quam, vel : 'Ex Britannis 
 
 omnibus longe humanissimi sunt, qui Cantium inco- 
 lunt/ of all the Britons, the most civilised by far are 
 those who inhabit Kent, Caes. B. G. v. 14. ' Alcibiades 
 fuit omnium aetatis suae multo formosissimus/ Alci- 
 biades was much the handsomest man of his day, Nep. 
 Ale. i. 'Definitio quid sit id, de quo agitur, ostendit 
 quam brevissime/ definition shews as briefly as may be, 
 what it is that is treated of, C. Or. 33. Hence, quam 
 primum (as soon as .possible]-. c Huic mandat, ut quam 
 primum ad se revertatur/ this man he directs to return 
 to him as soon as possible, Caes. B. G. iv. 21. ' In 
 fidibus musicorum aures vel minima sentiunt/ in lute- 
 playing the ears of musicians perceive the very slightest 
 errors, C. Off. i. 41. 
 
 b) The elliptical expressions, tarn quam qui, tantum 
 
 quantum qui, ut qui, qui qui, ut cum, cum: 
 'Tarn sum mitis quam qui lenissimus/ / am as mild 
 as the very gentlest, C. p. Sull. 31. ' Commendationi 
 meae tantum tribue, quantum cui plurimum/ assign 
 to my recommendation the greatest weight you would to 
 any, C. Fam. xiii. 22. ' Grata ea res, ut quae maxime 
 senatui unquam, fuit/ that circumstance pleased the senate 
 . as much as anything had ever pleased them, L. v. 25. 
 'Domus celebratur ita ut cum maxime,' the house is 
 thronged to its very utmost, C. Qu. F. ii. 6. 
 
 c) Quam, quantus, ut, with the verb possum : Aves quam 
 
 possunt mollissime nidos substernunt, ut quam 
 
280 Latin Wordlore. 63. 
 
 facillime ova serventur/ birds line their nests as softly 
 as they can, that the eggs may be preserved with the~ 
 greatest ease, C. N. D. ii. 52. ( Hannibal quantam maxi- 
 mam potest vastitatem ostendit/ Hannibal exhibits the 
 utmost desolation in his power, L. xxii. 3. Utpotuibre- 
 vissime dixi, / spoke as briefly as I could. 
 
 On unus as Superlative, and with Superlatives, see p. 153. 
 
 3) The Pronoun quisque (each], attached to the Superlative, 
 imparts a universal notion: 'Epicureos doctissimus quisque 
 contemnit/ all the most learned men despise the Epicureans, C. T'.D. 
 i. 31. Another Superlative is often added to increase the force : 
 'Maximae cuique fortunae mini me credendum est/ all the 
 greatest fortunes are least to be trusted, L. xxx. 30. 
 
 a) Ut quisque is used with one Superlative, it a following 
 with another: ' Hoc maxime officii est, ut quisque maxi- 
 me opis indigeat, ita ei potissimum opitulari/ this is 
 a special duty, according as men most need assistance, so 
 by preference to assist them, C. Off. i. 15. In other words, 
 Indigentissimo cuique potissimum opitulandum est. 
 
 ft) Quisque may likewise distribute the Comparative : 'Quo 
 
 quisque est sollertior et ingeniosior, hoc docet ira- 
 
 cundius et laboriosius/ the greater a maris skill and 
 
 geniiis, the more fervour and pains he throws into his 
 
 teaching, C. p. Q. Rose. n. 
 
 c} Quisque also distributes Ordinal numbers : Primus quisque, 
 decimus quisque, &c. : ' Quinto quoque anno Sicilia 
 tota censetur/ a census of all Sicily is taken every flfth 
 year, C. Verr. ii. 56. 
 
 viii. Other Intensive Phrases. 
 
 i) Remark the attractions (imitated from Greek), mirum quan- 
 tum, nimium quantum, immane quantum, &c. (surprisingly, 
 exceedingly, &c.) : 'Id mirum quantum profuit ad concordiam 
 civitatis/ this was marvellously conducive to the harmony of the 
 citizens, L. xi. i. 'Vino et lucernis Medus acinaces immane 
 quantum discrepat/ between the lamp-lit carouse and the Median 
 scimitar,, vast is the difference, Hor. C. i. 27. 5. 
 
 2)^Praecipue, summe, valde, vementer, admodum, apprime, in- 
 primis, sane, sanequam, perquam, egregie, oppido, enixe, perfecte, 
 and similar Adverbs, give a Superlative force to a Positive Adjec- 
 tive or Adverb: 'Praecipue sanus/ eminently healthy, Hor. 
 ( luvenis admodum/ quite young, Tac. (See p. 135, and QUAM.) 
 
 3) Some Positive Adjectives contain often an emphatic sense, 
 like that given by the adverb nimis: 'Atnelongum fiat videte/ 
 mind it be not too long (i.e. tedious), C. Leg. ii. 10. < Nihil arduura 
 fatis/ nothing is too hard for desti?iy, Tac. H. ii. 82. 
 
64. Uses of Pronouns. 281 
 
 ix. Some Adjectives are used both in Pas- 
 sive and Active sense. Such are 
 
 ambiguus (doubted ; doubting] ; angustus (narrow ; narrowing); 
 anxius (disturbed; disturbing}-, caecus (dark; blind}; credulus, 
 incredulus ; docilis ; dubius ; flebilis ; formidolosus ; gnarus, ig- 
 narus ; gratus, ingratus ; gratiosus ; incautus ; infestus ; inno- 
 cuus, innoxius ; inultus ; laboriosus ; memor ; nescius ; notus, 
 ignotus ; odiosus ; operosus ; riguus, irriguus ; somniculosus ; 
 surdus ; suspiciosus ; tristis, and others. See these in Dictionary. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 Uses of Pronouns. 6 4 
 
 i. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. and Pos- 
 
 sessive 
 
 1) Pronouns and Verbs of the First Person Plural are often Pro- 
 used by a single person speaking of himself. 'Norisnos: docti nouns< 
 sumus/ you should know me, I am a man of learning, Hor. S. i. 9. 
 
 See p. 272 Obs. 
 
 2) The Personal Pronouns are used with the Prepositions ad, 
 apud, ab, to signify ' house} ' abode :' * Septimo Idus veni ad 
 me in Sinuessanum/ on the Jth of the Ides I came to my villa at 
 Sinuessa, C. Att. xvi. 10. 'Scaurum ruri apud se esse audio// 
 hear that Scaurus is at his coimtry seat, C. de Or. i. 49. ' Quisnam 
 a no bis egreditur foras ? ' who is coming out of our house? Ter. 
 Haut. iii. 2. 50. 
 
 3) Pronouns of ist and 2nd Persons are sometimes hidden in an 
 Apposite Noun; < Hannibal peto pacem/ I, Hannibal, sue for 
 peace, L. xxx. 30. 'Omnes boni semper nobilitati favemus/ all 
 we conservatives ever regard noble birth with favour, C. p. Sest. 9. 
 'Soli Tusculani vera arma invenistis/ only you men of Tus- 
 culum have discovered genuine warfare, L. vi. 26. 
 
 4) Latin uses Possessive Pronouns sparingly ; thus, for c I see 
 my father] the Latin is < Patrem video/ omitting the Possessive 
 unless required for perspicuity or emphasis : 'Quid vos uxor mea 
 violarat?' what wrong had my wife done you? C. p. Dom. 25. 
 Yet the Possessive is sometimes introduced without obvious 
 necessity : ' Cum ita animum induxti tuum/ as you have prevailed 
 on yourself, Ter. An. i. 2. 12. Pleonasm of other Pronouns occurs 
 in poetry : 'Nee dulcis amores sperne puer, neque tu choreas/ 
 despise in boyhood neither sweet loves nor yet dances, Hor. C. i. 9. 
 15. 'Sic oculos, sic ille manus, sic ora ferebat/ thus he used to 
 carry his eyes, his hands, his countenance, V. Ae. iii. 490. For the 
 pleonastic use of ille by Virgil in comparisons see Ae. x. 707, xi. 
 809, xii. 5, and notes there. 
 
 5) The Possessive Pronouns are used by poets in the sense 
 propitious : ' Sedmihi tamfacilis unde meosque deos?' but whence 
 can I obtain gods so easy and propitious ? Ov. Her. xii. 84. 'Vends 
 iturus non suis/ about to sail with unpropitious winds, Hor. Epod. 
 ix. 30. ' Haud numine nostro/ V. Ae. ii. 396. 
 
282 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 6) On the use of the Possessive Pronouns for the Personal, see 
 Syntax of Genitive. Thus, ' Neque neglegentia tua neque odio 
 id fecit tuo/ this he did neither from disregard nor from hatred 
 of you, Ter. Ph. v. 9. 
 
 65 
 Demon- u. Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 
 strative 
 
 nouns. Of Demonstrative Pronouns, hie refers to what is near to the 
 speaker's person, place, time, habits, &c. : i lie to what is remote 
 from these : iste to what is in near relation to those addressed. 
 
 Hie. 
 
 i. 2. 38. 'Chrysis vicina haec moritur/ my neighbour Chrysis 
 here died, Ter. An. i. I. 78. ' Hoc a te peto, ut subvenias huic 
 meae sollicitudini ethuic meae laudi studium dices/ what 1 ask 
 of you is to relieve my anxiety and study to support my honour in 
 this matter, C. Fam. ii. 6. ' His duobus mensibus/ within the last 
 two months, C. Fam. vii. i. 'Hie dies/ to-day. * Licentia haec/ 
 this modern licence, L. xxv. 40. 
 
 2) <Si illos, Labiene, quos iamvidere non possumus, neglegis, 
 ne his quidem, quos vides, consuli putas oportere ?' if you disre- 
 gard those, Labienus, whom we can see no longer, do you think no 
 care should be taken even for these, whom you do see ? C. p. Rab. 1 1. 
 ( Q. Catulus non antique illo more, sed hoc nostro, fuit eruditus/ 
 Quintus Catuhts was learned not in that ancient manner, but in 
 this later one of our own, C. Brut. 35. 
 
 a) I lie may refer to what was erewhile, or what will be here- 
 
 after (hence its locative olim has both meanings) : ' I llam 
 veterem iudiciorum vim/ C. ' Sapiens non pendet ex 
 futuris, sed exspectat ilia, fruitur praesentibus/ a wise 
 man hangs not on future things, but looks for them, 
 while he enjoys the present, C. Fin. i. 19. 
 
 b) When special stress is laid on a proposition or fact, it is 
 
 introduced by illud : 'Illud animorum corporumque 
 dissimile, quod animi valentes morbo temptari non possunt, 
 corpora possunt/ there is this striking difference between 
 minds and bodies, that healthy minds cannot be assailed 
 by disease, bodies can, C. T. D. iv. 14. 
 
 c) Ille is used to express fame or dignity : ' Medea ilia/ the 
 
 celebrated Medea, C. p. L. Man. 9. 'Veneramini ilium 
 lovem, custodem huius urbis/ adore that great Jupiter, 
 guardian of this city, C. Cat. ii. 12. So with an attribute : 
 6 An censes omnium rerumpublicarum nostram veterem 
 illam fuisse optimam ? ; do you think that of all common- 
 wealths that old one of ours was the best? C. Leg. ii. 10. 
 Or with other pronouns : ' Instat hie nunc ille annus 
 egregius/ there is coming on now this fine, famous year, 
 C. Att. \. 18. 'Ille ego liber, Ille ferox, tacui/ /, that 
 free, that haughty one, was mute, Ov. Met. i. 757. 
 
65. Uses of Pronouns 283 
 
 d) Ille, the other (of two named) : ' Themistocles domino navis 
 qui sit aperit : at ille procul ab insula navem tenuit in 
 ancoris/ Themistocles disclosed to the ship's captain who 
 he was: whereiipon the other kept the vessel at anchor 
 some way from the island, Nep. Them. 8. I Hi, the other 
 side, the other party : 6 Illorum qui dissentiunt,' C. p. L. 
 Man. 23. 
 
 3) When hie and ille refer to two things, hie designates either Hie 
 what is last mentioned, or what is nearer to the speaker's mind : }jj th 
 ille, either what is first mentioned, or what is farther from the 
 speaker's mind: 'Idem et docenti et discenti propositum esse 
 debet, ut ille prodesse velit, hie proficere,' the teacher and learner 
 ought to have the same object; the former should desire to confer 
 advantage, the latter to obtain ii, Sen. Ep. 108. l Scitum est illud 
 Catonis, melius de quibusdam acerbos inimicos mereri quam eos 
 amicos qui dulces videantur : illos saepe verum dicere, hos num- 
 quam/ it is a shrewd saying of Cato, that keen-tongued enemies de- 
 serve better of some men, than those friends who seem sweet-spoken : 
 
 the former often tell the truth, the latter never, C. Lael. 24. ' Me- 
 lior est certa pax quam sperata victoria; haec in tua, ilia in deorum 
 manu est/ better is sure peace than hoped-for victory ; the one is in 
 your own power, the other in the power of the gods, L. xxx. 30. 
 
 The two Pronouns are also used for distribution : hoc et illud, 
 this and that. So ille aut ille, ille et ille, this and that man, C. p. 
 Rose. A. 21. 
 
 4) Iste has the same relation to tu(vos) that hie has to ego iste. 
 (nos). ' Quae est ista praetura?' what sort of praetorship is 
 that of yours? C. Verr. ii. 2. 18. 'De istis rebus exspecto tuas 
 litteras,' / await a letter from you about affairs in your parts, C. 
 Att. ii. 5. ' Adventu tuo ista subsellia vacuefacta sunt,' as soon 
 
 as you arrived those benches (next you) were cleared, C. Cat. i. 7. In 
 Cicero's speeches iste often means 'the defendant,' or the person 
 attacked. 
 
 Contempt is not contained in the meaning of the Pronoun iste, 
 but it is implied sometimes, inasmuch as the speaker seems to repel 
 what he names from himself to some one else. 'Quidsibi isti 
 miseri volunt ? ' what do those wretches want ? C. ' Errare malo 
 cum Platone quam cum istis vera sentire,' I had rather be wrong 
 with Plato than hold true doctrine with that crew, C. T. D. i. 1 7. 
 
 5) Is, the unemphatic Determinative Pronoun, is used 
 
 a) In reference to a Noun before mentioned: 'Veientes 
 regem creavere. Offendit ea res populorum Etruriae 
 animos, odio ipsius regis. Gravis iam is antea genti 
 fuerat,' the people of Veii elected a king: that act dis- 
 pleased the population of Etruria, from their hatred of 
 the king himself: (for} he had already been oppressive to 
 the nation^ at a former time, L. v. i. ' Maximum orna- 
 mentum amicitiae tollit qui ex ea tollit verecundiam/ he 
 takes away the chief grace of friendship, who takes from it 
 respectfulness, C. Lael. 22. 
 
284 Latin Word lore. ' 65, 
 
 Its oblique cases are often left to be understood : ' Eadem 
 secreto ex aliis quaerit; repent esse vera/ he asks the 
 same questions privately of others, and finds all true, Caes- 
 
 B. G. i. 18. 
 
 /3) In correlation to a Relative, which it usually precedes, but 
 often, for the sake of emphasis, follows : Is qui hoc fecit r 
 he who did this. c Magna sunt ea quae sunt optimis 
 proxima/ great are those things which are next to the best, 
 
 C. Or. 2. '. Bestiae, in quo loco natae sunt, ex eo se 
 non commovent/ beasts do not move from the place they 
 were born in, C. Fin. v. 15. It may be omitted: 'Qui 
 e nuce nucleum esse vult, frangit nucem,' he who wishes 
 to eat the kernel out of the walnut, breaks the walnut, 
 Plaut. Cure. i. i. 55. ' Semper in proelio maximum est 
 periculum qui maxime timent/ ever in battle their peril is 
 most whose fear is greatest, Sail. Cat. 58. < Quidquid 
 non licet, nefas putare debemus/ whatever is unlawful w& 
 ought to think impious, C. Par. 3. 
 
 y) In the sense of ' one of a kind? ' such : ' in which sense it 
 may relate to any person, and be followed by qui with 
 Indie, or (more usually) Subjunctive, or by ut with Subj. : 
 ' Atque haec omnia is feci, qui sodalis et familiarissimus 
 Dolabellae eram/ and I who did all this was one, who 
 stood in the most intimate arid familiar relations to Dola- 
 bella, C. Fam. xii. 14. ' Neque enim tu is es qui quid sis 
 nescias/y*?r j<?// are not the man to be ignorant of your own 
 powers, C. Fam. v. 12. ' Matris est ea stultitia, ut earn 
 nemo hominem, ea vis, ut nemo feminam, ea crudelitas, 
 ut nemo matrem appellare possit/ such is that mother's 
 folly that none can call her a human being ; such her vio- 
 lence that none can term her a woman ; such her cruelty 
 that none can speak of her as a mother, C. p. Clu. 70. 
 Obs. In such sentences as, ' The features of the mind are fairer 
 than those of the body] where the Demonstrative (those] is used in 
 English, the Latin idiom omits it : as ' Animi lineamenta pulchriora 
 sunt quam corporis, 7 C. Fin. iii. 25. The use of an emphatic pro- 
 noun (hie or ille) is no real exception to this rule : ' Nullam virtus 
 aliam mercedem laborum periculorumque desiderat, praeter hanc 
 laudis et gloriae/ virtue wants no other reward of its perils and 
 toils, but this of praise and glory, C. p. Arch. n. So, ' Those 
 dwelling at Rome ' is in Latin not, Ei Romae habitantes ; but either 
 Romae habitantes, or Ei qui Romae habitant. 
 
 Idem. 6) The Definitive Pronoun idem (is-dem), l the same} is often 
 aptly rendered 'also :' < Quidquid honestum, idem est utile/ what- 
 ever is morally right is also advantageous, C. Off. ii. 3. ' Non 
 omnes, qui Attice, eidem bene; sed omnes, qui bene, eidemetiam 
 Attice loquuntur/ not all who speak in the Attic manner also speak 
 well; but all who speak well speak also in the Attic manner. C 
 Brut. 84. 
 
 Sometimes it implies a contrast (' but yet ^ : 'Inventi multi sunt, 
 qui vitam profundere pro patria parati essent, eidem gloriae iac- 
 turam ne minimam quidem facere vellent/ many have been founds 
 
Uses of Pronouns. 285 
 
 who were prepared to yield up life for their countrv,yet would not 
 choose to make the smallest sacrifice of glory, C. Off. i. 24. 
 
 It is placed, like ipse, in apposition to other Pronouns: 'Tu 
 idem dixisti/ you also said, C. p. L. Man. 17. So haeceadem, qui 
 idem, &c. 
 
 Note i. Et is, isque, atque is, et is quidem, et hie quidem, 
 et idem, idemque, atque idem (and that too), nee is (and that 
 too not], &c., are used to lay stress on some quality of a word 
 before mentioned : ( Homo habet memoriam, et earn infinitam 
 rerum innumerabilium/ man has memory, and an infinite one too, of 
 countless things, C. T. D. i. 24. ' Apollonium cognovi optimis 
 studiis deditum idque a puero/ / have known Apollonius to be 
 devoted to sound learning, and that from boyhood, C. Fam. xiii. 16. 
 
 Note 2. The Adverb quidem is elegantly joined to Personal 
 and Demonstrative Pronouns, especially to ille, when a concession 
 is made, but immediately qualified by an adversative clause (sed) ; 
 answering to the English 'certainly . . . but:' 'Ignosco e qui- 
 dem (ego quidem) tibi, sed tu quoque velim mihi ignoscas/ I par- 
 don you certainly, but I would have you too pardon me, C. Q. Fr. 
 iii. i, 3. 'Tuus dolor humanus is quidem, sed tamen magnopere 
 moderandus/ yours is a grief natural to man, I admit, but one 
 which should be considerably modified, C. Att. xii. 10. 'Ludo et 
 ioco utiillo quidem licet, sed turn, cum seriis rebus satisfeceris/ 
 you may indulge in sport and amusement, I grant, but not till you 
 have fulfilled serious engagements, C. Off. i. 29. The adversative 
 /clause is omitted in C. Off. ii. 9 : 'Quae sordidissima est ilia qui- 
 dem ratio/ &c., aprinciple which is, I admit, of the meanest kind. 
 See 64 (4). 
 
 Note 3. Redundance of Demonstrative Pronouns occurs : ' Par- 
 menides, Xenophanes minus bonis quamquam versibus sed tamen 
 illis versibus increpant eorum arrogantiam/ Parmenides and Xeno- 
 phanes reprove their arrogance in verses, which, though not very 
 .good, are verses nevertheless, C. Ac. ii. 23. ' Ista animi tranquil- 
 litas ea ipsa est beata vita/ that tranquillity of mind is itself hap- 
 piness, C. Fin. v. 8. 
 
 This peculiar redundance is especially remarkable in Relative 
 clauses : ' Plato Titanum e genere statuit eos, qui, ut illi caelestibus, 
 sic hi adversentur magistratibus/ Plato assigns to the Titan race 
 those men who oppose magistrates, as the Titans opposed the gods, 
 C. Leg. iii. 2. * Est istius furor repellendus qui quae maiores volu- 
 erunt, ea iste labefactavit/ we should put away from us his mad- 
 ness, who has shaken those institutions, which our ancestors thought 
 proper to establish, C. p. Dom. 42. 
 
 iii. The Reflexive Pronouns se, suus. TheRe 
 
 flexive 
 
 Personal and Possessive Pronouns of the First and Second Per- Pr - 
 sons may be used reflexively : that is, they may be referred to a se^us 
 Subject of their own Person. But se and suus differ from the rest, 
 inasmuch as they cannot be used unless there be a Noun of their 
 own (the Third) Person, expressed or understood, to which they are 
 referred. Although we can say, amat me, he loves me; amat te, 
 Jie loves thee ; we cannot say, amo se, amas se, but amo eum, / love 
 
2&6 Latin Word I ore. 
 
 66. 
 
 him ; amas eum,jK<?# love him\ not culpo suumfactum, but culpo 
 ei us factum, / blame his deed. 
 
 The general rules for the use of se, suus are these : 
 
 1) First : they may be referred to a Subject Nominative of the 
 Third Person in their own Clause. ' Fur telo se defendit/ /#* thief 
 defends himself with a weapon, C. p. Mil. 3. 'Atticus incitabat 
 omnis studio suo/ Atticus inspired all with his own zeal \ Nep. 
 Att. i. * Sentit animus se vi sua moveri/ the soul feels that it is 
 moved by its own force, C. T. D. i. 23. The Pronoun quisque is 
 a frequent Subject of se, suus : ' Ipse se quisque diligit, quod per 
 sesibi quisque carus est/ everyone loves himself, because every- 
 one by the law of his own nature is precious to himself, C. LaeL 
 
 21. 
 
 2) Secondly : they may be referred to an Object (which usually 
 precedes) when this reference causes no ambiguity. ' Scipionem 
 impellit ostentatio sui/ ostentation of self sways Scipio, Caes. B. 
 C i. 4. 'Caesaremsua natura mitiorem facit/ Caesar's own cha- 
 racter makes him milder, C. Fam. vi. 13. ' Ei nunc alia ducendast 
 domum, sua cognata/ he has now to marry another, his own kins- 
 woman, Plaut. Cist. i. i. 'Multa sunt civibus inter se com- 
 munia/ many things are common to fellow-citizens, C. Off. i. 17. 
 ' Scipio s u a s res Syracusanis restituit/ Scipio restored to the 
 Syracusans their property, L. xxix. i. 'Apibus fructum restituo 
 suum/ I restore to the bees their produce, Phaed. iii. 13. 
 
 3) Thirdly, they may be referred to an Indefinite Object Case 
 (alicui, aliquern) understood : ' Habenda ratio non sua solum, sed 
 etiam aliorum/ men must take account not of themselves alone, but 
 also of others. Especially in conjunction with an Infinitive : ( De- 
 forme est de se ipsum praedicare/ it is unseemly to vaunt of one- 
 self, C. Off. i. 38. ' Bellum est sua vitia nosse/ // is ajine thing to 
 know one's own faults, C. Att. ii. i/. 1 
 
 1 The principles stated above hold good when se, suus, occur in Participial, Gerundial 
 and other dependence. 'Multa mea in se collata, etiam sua in me proferebat officia,' 
 he brought forward many services done by me to him, and also those done by himself to 
 me, C. /. S-ull. 6. 'Constituit igitur ut ludi, absente se, fierentsuo nomine,' he 
 therefore arranged that in his absence the games shoidd be held in his name, C. Att. 
 xv. u. 'Tanto gratior populo fu it quanto doctior maioribus suis,' he was more Popular 
 in proportion as he "was more learned than his ancestors, lust. xvii. 3. ' Si nulla 
 caritas erit quae faciat amicitiam ipsam sua sponte, vi sua, ex se et propter 
 se expetendam/ if there is no love to make friendship desirable on the first offer, by its 
 (nun force, from itself , and for itself, C. Fin. ii. 20. 'Itaque redimendi se captivif 
 copiam fecere,' accordingly they gave the prisoners the opportunity of ransoming them 
 selves, L. xxii. 58. ' Mithridatem Tigranes excepit diffidentemque rebus suis con- 
 firmavit,' Tigranes received and encouraged Mithridates, who was despairing of his 
 own resources, C. /. L. Man. 9. From such bold constructions as those of the thr^e 
 latter examples, in which the Reflexive is referred to the Object Case by virtue of aa 
 intervening Verb Infinite (expetendam, redimendi, diffidentem), has arisen one yet 
 bolder, in which the Preposition cum is eqxiivalent to a Relative Clause : 'Dicaear- 
 chum cum Aristoxeno, aequali et condiscipulo suo, omittamus,' let us pass over 
 Dicaearchus, and Aristoxenushis contemporary and fellow-pupil, C. T. D. i. 18, where 
 cum &c. =quocum coniungimus Aristoxenum . . suum. A similar idiom is extended to 
 places where the Preposition in (more rarely ad, ab, intra) follows such Verbs as remittere, 
 retinere, reverti, iubere, cogere, removere, &c. the formula of command being adopted by 
 the writer from the speaker's mouth. Thus, 'Caesar Fabium cum legione sua remittit 
 in hiberna,' Caesar sends back Fabius and his legion to their winter encampment, CaeSt 
 B. G. v. 53, is equivalent to ' Caesar imperat, Fabius cum legione sua in hiberna rever- 
 
67. Uses of Pronouns. 287 
 
 a) The Cases of is (sometimes those of ipse) are used when 
 
 se, suus, would be wrong : ' Chilius te rogat, et ego eius 
 rogatu/ Chilius asks yoii, and I at his request, C. Att. i. 9. 
 'Aranti Quinctio nuntiatum est eum dictatorem esse 
 factum/ news came to Quinctius while ploughing, that he 
 was appointed dictator, C. Cat. M. 1 6. 
 
 b) The Reflexive when referred to the Pronoun qu i s qu e (either 
 
 Subject or Object) generally stands immediately before 
 it : ' Mors sua quemque manet/ his death awaits every 
 man. 'Suus quoique mos/ every one has his own 
 fashion,1et. Ph. ii. 4. But sometimes after it : 'Quisque 
 suos patimur Manis/ Verg. Aen. vi. 743. So, <Ut quis- 
 que sibi maxime confidit/ C. Lael. 30. 
 
 c) The use of the Adjectival phrase suusquisque (though not 
 
 noticed in Madvig's grammar) is explained and illustrated 
 by him on C. Fin. v. 17 : 'Quia cuiusque partis naturae et 
 in corpore et in animo suaquaequevis sit,' because every 
 part of nature both in body and soul has its own particitlar 
 power. So ( suo quoque anno ; on an Inscription. See 
 M. Lucr. ii. 372. 
 
 d) The Plural Masculine sui is used for amici, familiares or 
 
 milites so idiomatically, that it sometimes appears to 
 transgress the laws of Pronominal reference : f Is annus 
 Crassi omnem spem atque omnia vitae consilia morte 
 pervertit ; fuit hoc luctuosum suis/ that year overthrew 
 by death all the hope and all the life-plans of Crassus : it 
 was an event full of sorrow to his friends, C. d. Or. iii. 2. 
 ' lam perventum ad suos est ' ( = iam pervenerant ad suos), 
 L. xxxiii. 4. 
 
 On these Pronouns in Dependent Clauses see 231 236. 
 
 67 
 iv. The Definitive Pronoun ipse. ipse. 
 
 i) This is of any person, and strengthens any Noun-term, 
 especially a Personal or Demonstrative Pronoun, with which it 
 is placed in attributive apposition : f Ipse Pater dextra molitur 
 fulmina,' the Sire himself wields the lightnings with his right hand, 
 
 tantur.' So: ' Carthaginienses Magonem cum classe sua copiisque in Italiam mit- 
 tunt,' the Carthaginians send Mago 'with his fleet and forces into Italy, L. xxiii. 32. 
 'Corbulo, ut Armenios ad sua defendenda cogeret, exscindere parat castella,' 
 Corbulo, in order to compel the A rmenians to defend their possessions, prepares to de- 
 stroy their forts, Tac. Ann. xiii. 39, where Corbulo may be supposed to say, 'Armenios 
 ad sua defendenda cogam.' In such instances, if the Subject of the sentence is of the 
 Third Person, the word or words to which the Reflexive suus is referred will be found 
 immediately before the Reflexive. If the Subject is not of the Third Person, or if re- 
 ference to it would be absurd, this is unnecessary. 'In sua terra cogam pugnare eum,' 
 / will compel him to fight in his own land, L. xxviii. 44. ' Suis flammis delete Fide- 
 n&s,' destroy Fidenae 'with its own flames, L. iv. 33. 'Desinant insidiari domi suae 
 consuli,' they should cease to lay snares for the consril at his own house, C. Cat. i. 13. 
 In constructions, however, like some of those cited in this note, it is optional to use the 
 Demonstr. instead of the Refl. ; and the following passages (cited by Madvig, Gr. 490) 
 shew that ancient writers often did so: ' Omitto Isocratem discipulosque eius 
 Ephorum et Naucratem/ C. Or. 51. 'Pisonem nostrum merito eius amo plurimum/ 
 C. Fam. xiv. 2. 'Deum agnoscis ex operibus eius,' C. T. >. i. 28. 
 
288 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 Verg. G. i. 329. 'Tarde nosmet ipsos cognoscimus/ we gain 
 knowledge of ourselves slowly ', C. Fin. v. 15. 'Ego ipse cum 
 eodem ipso non invitus erraverim/ / myself would be wrong with- 
 out reluctance in that very same maris company, C. T. D. i. i 7. 
 
 2) Ipse implies that the notion, which it thus accentuates, is op- 
 posed to some other, expressed or understood. Cicero writes, 
 ' Nemo est qui ipse se oderit/ there is no one who hates himself, C. 
 Fin. v. 10. If he had written Nemo est qui se ipsum oderit, the 
 English would still be, there is no one who hates himself. Yet there 
 is a difference between the two Latin sentences, for, in the former, 
 ipse indicates the following contrast, 'utcumque alii eum oderint/ 
 however others may hate him ; in the latter the following : 'utcumque 
 alios oderit/ however he may hate others. So, ' Non egeo medicina : 
 me ipse consolor/ I want no medicine, I comfort myself, C. p. 
 Cael. 3, where ipse with the subject implies, ' I and no other/ but 
 * me ipsum consolor ' would mean ( I comfort myself but nobody 
 else.' 
 
 1) The Pronoun, which ipse emphasises, may be understood : 
 'Quaeram ex ipsa/ I will inquire of herself ( = ex ea ipsa), C. p. 
 Cael. 14. 
 
 2) When ipse strengthens the Subject, and a Reflexive Pronoun is 
 Object, that Pronoun usually stands before ipse : ' Artaxerxes s e ipse 
 reprehendit/ Artaxerxes blamed himself, Nep. Dat. 5. 'Artes se 
 ipsae per se tuentur singulae/ the several arts maintain themselves 
 on their own grounds, C. de Or. ii. 2. But after qui, qui dam, &c., 
 or for stronger emphasis, ipse may precede the Pronoun Object : 
 'Non sunt composita mea verba : ipsa se virtus satis ostendit/ 
 mine is no set speech : virtue of itself is conspicuous enough, Sail. 
 lug. 85. ' Qui ipse sibi sapiens prodesse non quit, nequiquam 
 sapit/ the wise man who cannot benefit himself is wise in vain, C. 
 Fam. v. 6. 
 
 3) Ipse strengthens the Object usually, when something in the 
 context is opposed to that Object. Thus, in the phrase killed him- 
 self, though ipse generally stands with the Subject (' lulius Priscus 
 se ipse interfecit/ Tac. H. iv. n), yet it may sometimes distinguish 
 the Object : * Pompeianus miles fratrem suum, dein cognito faci- 
 nore se ipsum interfecit/ a soldier of Pompeius slew his brother, 
 and then, discovering his crime, killed himself, Tac. H. iii. 51. 
 Cicero writes, ' Sunt qui dicant, foedus quoddam esse sapientum 
 ne minus ami cos quam se ipsos diligant/ some say there is a 
 kind of covenant among the wise to love their friends not less than 
 themselves, Fin. i. 20. Yet it is a peculiarity of his to connect ipse 
 with the Subject, and so heighten its force, even when the opposi- 
 tion lies between the Pronoun and something else : ' Iste sic erat 
 humilis atque demissus, ut non modo populo Romano, sed 
 etiam sibi ipse condemnatus videretur/ the man was so lowly 
 and downcast, that not only to the Roman people but even to him- 
 self he seemed already condemned, C. Verr. Act. i. 6. ( Non ita 
 abundo ingenio, ut te consoler, cum ipse me non possim/ I have 
 not such excess of ability as to comfort you when I cannot comfort 
 myself, C. Fam. iv. 8. 
 
Uses of Pronouns. 289 
 
 4) Ipse is also used 
 
 a] For ultro, of one's own accord: 'Ipsae lacte domum re- 
 ferent distenta capellae ubera/ the she-goats of their own 
 accord will bring home their milk-swollen udders, Verg. 
 B. iv. 21. 
 
 8) To define time exactly : 'Cum Athenis decem ipsos dies 
 fuissem/ when I had been at Athens exactly ten days, C. 
 Fam. ii. 8. So, 'mine ipsum/ at this very moment, C. 
 Att. xii. 1 6. ' Tune ipsum/ at that exact time, C. de Fin. 
 ii. 20. On the other hand aliquis is used to state time 
 inexactly : 'Aliquos viginti dies/ some twenty days, 
 Plaut. Men. v. 5. 47. 
 
 c) To express the chief person : ' Pythagorei respondere sole- 
 bant, Ipse dixit/ the Pythagoreans itsed to reply, He 
 himself said so (i.e. Pythagoras), C. N. D. i. 5. Hence 
 slaves used to call their master and mistress, ipse, ipsa : 
 and Catullus uses ipsa for era : 'Suamque norat Ipsam 
 tarn bene quam catella matrem/ and knew its mistress as 
 well as a kitten knows its mother, iii. 6. 
 
 v. The Indefinite Pronouns. 
 
 68 
 
 i) The Indefinite Pronouns, quis, qui, 1 being Enclitic, cannot inde- 
 begin a sentence. They usually follow some particle (si, nisi, ne_, | nite 
 an, num, ut, &c.) or a Relative. 'Si quis est sensus in morte/ nouns, 
 if there is any feeling in death, C. Phil. ix. 6. 'Si qui etiam 
 inferis sensus est/ if even the shades below have any feeling, C. Quis, 
 Fam. iv. 5. ' Oppida coeperunt munire et ponere leges, ne quis <i ui - 
 fur esset, neu latro, neu quis adulter/ they began to build towns 
 and establish laws, that none should be a thief or bandit or adidterer, 
 Hor. S. i. 3. So numquis, ecquis, &c. The Particles are simi- 
 larly combined, siqua, siquando, sicubi, necubi, ecquando, &c. 
 
 a) Quis Indef. is often connected with a case of its own: 'Si 
 mala condiderit in quern quis carmina, ius est/ if one 
 man has composed libellous verses on another, there is a 
 remedy at law, Hor. S. ii. i. 82. Or with Indef. Particle : 
 'si quando quis faceret/ &c., L. 
 
 1 It has been stated (p. 140) that the Interrogative and Indefinite forms quis, quid, are 
 substantival, qui, quod, adjectival ; and the truth of this assertion is shown by the two 
 facts, that quis in old Latin is of both genders, and that quid and quod always retained 
 their distinct characters as Substantive and Adjective. But it is also true that quis 
 (quae) is often used adjectively, as quis campus, puer quis in Horace, sensus aliquis in 
 Cicero ; the reply to which is that other Substantives are also used adjectively, as rex, 
 regina, incola, indigena, raptor, &c. 
 
 Another difficulty is the distinction of the Feminine Singular and Neuter Plural forms 
 qua, quae, of quis (qui) Indefinite. Some suppose that qua belongs to quis, quae 
 to qui ; butf this is mere conjecture without proof. Both forms are used adjectively, 
 and both (less often) substantively ; but adjectives may become substantives, and occa- 
 sionally substantives take the place of adjectives. The question thus remains undecided. 
 Cicero writes : 'ecquae ci vitas? ecqua religio? si quae pars ; si qua natio ; si quae prava 
 sint ; ne quadiscidia fiant ; aliqua significatio virtutis ;' but not 'aliquae,' which occurs in 
 Lucretius. Upon the whole it may be stated that the form qua (Indef. S. and PI.) is 
 more usual than quae, but that quae is also classical. 
 
 U 
 
290 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 b) Si quis, si qui, stand for the Relative with a shade of un- 
 
 certainty : ( Errant si qui in bello omnis secundos rerum 
 proventus expectant/ they are wrong who in war expect 
 all issues to be prosperous, Caes. B. G. vii. 29. 
 
 c) Quis and. qui indefinite are sometimes used without a Par- 
 
 ticle, but only when the context expresses uncertainty: 
 'Potest quis errare aliquando/ a person may err now and 
 then, C. Div. i. 32. 'Etiam quisforsitan hostis haesura 
 in nostro tela gerit latere/ and already perhaps some foe 
 carries darts that will fasten in my side, Tib. i. 10. 13. Here 
 forsitan favours the use of quis. 
 
 Nescio 2) ' Nescio quis, nescio qui (I know not who or what = ) some or 
 q uis >. other] are used as Indefinite Pronouns : 'Fortasse non ieiunum hoc 
 qui 010 nescio quid quod ego gessi et contemnendum \\&&>\\.vxj perhaps 
 this something which I have done will seem not barren and despic- 
 able, C. Fam. xv. 17. Particles correspond in use, nescio quo, 
 nescio quando, &c. 
 
 Aliquis, 3) Aliquis, aliqui, some, are somewhat less indefinite than quis, 
 aliqui. q u i, and imply a person or thing assumed to exist somewhere. 
 They do not need a Particle : ' Semper aliqui anquirendi sunt quos 
 diligamus/ we must always seek some persons to love, C. Lael. 27. 
 ( Sensus morienti aliquis esse potest,' one who is dying may have 
 some sensation, C. Cat. M. 20. But they can follow a Particle : 
 'Si est aliqui sensus in morte,' if there is any kind of feeling 
 in death, C. p. Ses. 62. Aliquando, aliqua, alicubi, &c., correspond 
 in use to aliquis. 
 
 a) Occasionally aliquis signifies 'a person of importance :' 
 'Sese ali quern credens/ considering himself somebody (of 
 importance), Pers. i. 129. 
 
 b} Aliquis itself (with its particles) has always positive force : 
 but may stand in a Negative sentence or clause : ' Cum 
 scias . . . sceleri ac furori tuo non mentemaliquam aut 
 timorem tuum, sed fortunam populi Romani obstitisse,' 
 knowing as you do that your wicked madness was not 
 baulked by any right feeling or fear on your part, but by 
 the good fortune of the Roman people, C. in Cat. i. 6. 
 
 Draeger (Histor. Synt. p. 23) exemplifies at great length the 
 use of this Pronoun and its Particles. 
 
 Quis- 4) Quispiam is used with more emphasis than quis, and rather 
 
 piam" less than aliquis: ( Forsitan aliquis aliquando eiusmodi 
 
 q uam q u i d p i a m fecerit/ perchance somebody or other at some time or other 
 
 &c am ' may have done a thing of the kind, C. Verr. ii. 32. Ouispiam 
 
 is used chiefly in positive sentences : quisquam chiefly in negative 
 
 and dubitative sentences : nonnullus only in a positive, ullus 
 
 only in a negative or dubitative construction. ' Dicat (dixerit) 
 
 quispiam/ someone may say, C. ' Hereditas est pecunia, quae 
 
 morte alicuius ad quempiam pervenit iure/ an inheritance is 
 
 money which by somebody's death has come to any one by right, C. 
 
 Top. 6. 'Zeuxis tabulas pinxit, quarum nonnulla pars usque ad 
 
6S. Uses of Pronouns. 291 
 
 nostram memoriam mansit/ Zeuxis painted pictures, some of which 
 have remained to our time, C. Inv. ii. I. l Nihil attinet quicquam 
 sequi, qirod assequi non queas/ it avails not to pursue anything 
 which you cannot attain, C. Off. i. 31. ( Heu, cadit in quemquam 
 tantum scelus ? ' alas, occurs there to any one such great wickedness f 
 Verg. B. ix. 17. ' Nihil est quod Deus efficere non possit, et qui- 
 <lem sinelabore ullo/ there is nothing which God cannot effect, 
 and indeed without any toil, C. N. D. iii. 39. ' Indignor quic- 
 quam reprehendi non quia crasse compositum illepideve putetur, 
 .sed quia nuper/ / am indignant that any work should be censured, 
 not because it is supposed to be of coarse or tasteless, but of modern, 
 -composition, Hor. Ep. ii. i. 76. See M.Lucr. i. 1077. 
 
 Uspiam corresponds in use to quispiam ; usquam, umquam to 
 <[uisquam and ullus ; nusquam, numquam, to non quisquam, non 
 ullus. Nemo = non quisquam ; nullus = non ullus. Nemo quisquam 
 is used : also homo quisquam. 
 
 Rare instances occur of quispiam with negatives, of quisquam 
 in positive sense, and of qui, aliqui where ullus would be usual. 
 
 5) Quidam, a certain one,zs opposed to aliqui s, implies that the Quidam, 
 subject is definitely known, though indefinitely described : thus we <jx\*> 
 should say, ' Ouodam tempore natus sum : aliquo moriar/ I was 
 
 born at a certain time ; I shall die some time or other. ( Accurrit 
 quidam notus mihi nomine tantum/ a certain man runs up to me, 
 whom I only knew by name, Hor. S. i. 9. 3. It is joined with epi- 
 thets, like the English word ' certain :' 'Erat spinosa quaedam et 
 exilis oratio/ his was a certain prickly and lean style, C. Or. i. 18. 
 It occasionally means 'some] as opposed to l the whole' or ( others :' 
 *Nullis piscibus supra quaternas pinnae sunt, quibusdam 
 binae, aliquibus nullae/ no fakes have more than four Jins, some 
 two, a few none at all, PL N. H. ix. 20. Hence it is used to qualify 
 an expression not meant to be taken strictly : 'In ideis Plato quid- 
 dam divinum esse dicebat/ Plato used to say that in ideas there 
 is something divine, C. Ac. i. 9. 
 
 Quidam also stands in contrast to quivis, quilibet, any you will. 
 ( Ut saltatori motus non quivis sed certus quidam est datus, 
 sic vita agenda est certo genere quodam non quolibet/ as to a 
 dancer is assigned not any optional movement, bu a certain de- 
 Jinite one, so must life be passed in a certain definite way, not in any 
 we please, C. Brut. 50. 
 
 6) Quisque, quaeque, quicque, each of any number. Plautus Quis- 
 uses quisque = quisquis : ' Quemque offendero/ whomsoever I find] f i ue - 
 Capt. iv. 2. For its other uses, see pp. 280, 287. On quern quisque, 
 &c., see M. Lucr. i. 966. 
 
 7) The Universal Relatives, whether compounded with -cumque Univer- 
 or of the duplicated form (quisquis, &c.), have no special idioms J t \^ 
 distinguishing them from other Relatives : 'Quoscumque de te 
 queri audivi, quacumque ratione potui placavi/ / appeased in 
 whatever way I could all whom I heard complaining of you, C. Q. 
 
 Fr. i. 2. ' Quidquid erit tibi erit/ whatever there is shall be for 
 you,C.Fam. ii. 10. < Q'uantiquanti bene emitur quod necesse 
 est/ what is necessary is well purchased at any price, ^C. Att. xii. 
 24. On quicquid for quicque, each thing, see M. Lucr. i. 289. 
 
 u 2 
 
292 Latin Word lore. 69. 
 
 vi. Pronominalia. 
 
 69 
 
 Alter, i ) Alter is one of two : the forms in -ter (as -repOQ in Greek) 
 
 uter, implying comparison of two. 'Agesilaus claudus fuit altero pede/ 
 Agesilaiis was lame of one foot, Nep. Ag. i. ' Epaminondas habuit 
 collegas duos, quorum alter erat Pelopidas/ Epaminondas had 
 two colleagues, one of whom was Pelopidas, Nep. Ep. 8. Thus it 
 answers the question u-ter, which of two ? al-ter qui . . . the one 
 who, alter qui . . . the other who. ' Consules inter se agitabant 
 uti alter Samnites hostis, alter Etruscos deligeret, et uter ad 
 utrum bellum dux idoneus magis esset/ the consuls were discuss- 
 ing, how that one of the two should choose the Samnites for enemy, 
 the other the Etruscans ; and which commander was more suitable 
 for which war, L. x. 14. So, 'quidquid negat alter et alter/ 
 whatever one denies, the other denies also, Hor. Epist. i. 10. 4. 
 
 a) Two cases of alter (as of alius) may stand in the same 
 clause, distributing ambo, uterque, &c. ( Uterque horum 
 medium quiddam volebat sequi : sed ita cadebat ut alter 
 ex alterius laude par tern, uterque autem suam totam 
 haberet/ both these men wished to attain a mean ; but it so 
 fell out that one had a share of the other's credit, while each 
 possessed his own entire, C. Brut. 20. Uterque (each of 
 two} ; alteruter (one or the other of two) : ' Non est tuae 
 dignitatis atque fidei ut contra alterutrum, cum sis 
 utrique coniunctissimus, arma feras/ it squares not with 
 your dignity and honour, to bear arms against one or the 
 other, being nearly allied to both, C. Att. ix. 10. Alter 
 alterum amant, they love one another-, also expressed, 
 ' amant se invicem/ ' mutuo amant/ ' amant inter se/ 
 Alteri . . . alteri, one party . . . the other party. 
 ) Alter means 6 a second] ' another] besides one named or 
 implied : ' Solus aut cum altero/ alone or with another y 
 C. Att. xi. 15. 'Me ipsum accuse, deinde te, quasi me 
 alterum/ / reproach myself, and then you, a sort of 
 second self, C. Att. iii. 15. ' Alter erit turn Tiphys/ then 
 will there be a second Tiphys, Verg. B. iv. 34. ' Alter ab 
 illo/ next to him, Verg. B. v. 49. Alterum t ant um, as- 
 imtch again. 
 
 2) Alius repeated in successive clauses signifies one . . . another, 
 & c ms ' &c., without limit of number. 'Aliud equo est e natura, aliud 
 bovi, al iud homini/ one tiling is natural to a horse, another to an 
 ox, another to a man, C. Fin. v. 9. Contrast is similarly effected 
 by the adverbs of alius ; aliter, alias, alibi, alio, &c. Alias con- 
 tentius, alias remissius, at one time more vigorously, at another 
 more slackly. Here too the repetition of alius in the same clause, 
 or its juxtaposition with one of its adverbs, or two of these adverbs 
 in the same clause, will denote a difference of the predicate for 
 different subjects. 'Duodeinceps reges alius alia via civitatem 
 auxerunt/ two successive kings increased the civic body in different 
 ways, L. i. 21. ' Illi alias aliud isdem de rebus iudicant/ those 
 men judge one thing at one time, another at another, on the same 
 questions, C. de Or. ii. 30. 'Eadem aliter alibi nuncupantur/ 
 the same things are differently named in different places, PL N. H* 
 xxv. 4. Aliud ex alio, one thing after another. 
 
$ 70. Uses of Prepositions. 293 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 70 
 Uses of Prepositions. Useof 
 
 Prepo- 
 
 i. Prepositions with an ACCUSATIVE Case. 
 
 I. Ad (to, at, &c.). 
 
 Usque ad is often used : usque ad Numantiam. Hor. has 
 <c adusque supremum tempus/ even to his last hour. Also the Adv. 
 usque, omitting ad. ' Usque Puteolos/ as far as Pozzuoli, C. ' Tar- 
 sum usque/ C. <Ab ovo usque ad mala/ from the eggs to the 
 apples, Hor., i.e. from the beginning to the end of dinner. 
 
 1) Local Use. 
 
 a) Ad, to, takes a Case of Place or Person, after a Verb ex- 
 pressing or implying motion : as ire, adire, accedere, du- 
 cere, adducere ad urbem, &c. ; mittere, scribere ad ali- 
 quem, &c. For simple Dat. : ' Dulce rideat ad patrem/ 
 Catull. See M. Lucr. i. 750. 
 
 ^) Ad, at, takes a Case after a Verb not expressing motion : 
 esse ad urbem : ad pedes iacere : ad quartum lapidem ; 
 victoria ad Cannas ; Curio fuit ad me, at my house ; ad 
 iudices, before the judges ; ad vinum, over wine-, ad Opis, 
 at the temple of Ops, C. 
 
 2) Temporal Use. 
 
 a) Limit of Time (to) : ad summam senectutem, to extreme old 
 <age; ad hosce dies, to modern times ; ad ultimum, to the very 
 ^ast ; a mani usque ad vesperum, from morning to evening ; ad 
 multam noctem, till late in the night. 
 
 b) Point of Time : ad lucem, at daybreak ; ad postremum, at 
 last ; ad summum, in fine. Time fixed beforehand : exspecto te ad 
 Kal. Febr., / look for you by the ist of February ; dies praestituta 
 *est quam ad solveres, a day was appointed you for paying. 
 
 c) Time within which : ad tempus, for a time, or at the right 
 time ; ad breve tempus, for a short time ; ad decem annos, ten 
 
 years hence. 
 
 3) Ad marks the limit of Number and Degree : ad octingentos ; 
 or adverbially, ad octingenti caesi, about 800 were slain, L. So, 
 ad unum omnes, te a man; ad assem, to the last farthing-, ad 
 summam, on the whole ; ad summam impudentiam, to the most 
 shameless height. 
 
 4) The derived uses are : 
 
 a) Addition : ad haec vulnera ; ad hoc, moreover. 
 
 b} Standard : ad fistulam canere, to sing to the pipe ; ad 
 verbum ediscere, to learn word for word ; ad eum modum, 
 of that kind-, ad unguem, to a nicety ; ad amussim, accti- 
 rately. 
 
 t) Comparison : nihil est ad Persium, he is nothing to Persius. 
 
294 Latin Wordlore. 70^. 
 
 d) Respect : Insignis ad laudem, honourably distinguished*, 
 
 Ad speciem ; ad pondus. See M. Liter, iii. 214. 
 
 e) Occasion : Ad famam obsidionis, on report of the siege. Ad 
 
 ictum, after the blow. See M. Lucr. i. 185. 
 
 f) Reply : Ad ilia respondeo, to this I reply. 
 
 g) Purpose : Ad earn rem.,for that purpose : ad praedam,y0r 
 
 plunder : especially with Gerund and Gerundive : ad ves- 
 c&h&um, for food-, ad agros CQlzndiOS, for agriculture. So- 
 servus ad remum, rower, Liv., ad manum, amanuensis \. 
 Lygdamus ad cyathos, the cup-bearer Lygdamus, Prop. ; 
 ad limina custos, a doorkeeper, Verg. And with a Case of 
 that against which precaution or remedy is used : ad 
 morsus bestiarum,y0r bites, ad morbos, against diseases. 
 
 II. Adversus, adversum (advorsus, advorsum) express 
 
 1) Place (over against, opposite) : Adversus Pydnam, opposite- 
 
 to Pydna. Quis haec est quae me advorsum incedit ? 
 who is this woman coming face to face with me ? Plaut_ 
 Ire advorsum alicui, to go to meet some one = obviam ire. 
 Exadversus is found : exadversus Athenas, opposite Athens. 
 
 2) Relation (towards, against}. Amor adversus parentes, love- 
 
 towards parents. Adversus solem ne loquitor, you must 
 not speak against the sun. 
 
 III. A pud expresses near neighbourhood, generally to Persons^ 
 rarely to Place : Apud oppidum, near the town. 
 
 1) With Persons it is used in various senses : Apud Lycome- 
 
 dem, in the house of Lycomedes ; apud me, at my house. 
 Apud populum orationemhabuit, he spoke before the people ; 
 apud iudices eosdem reus factus est, he was arraigned' 
 before the same judges. Apud priscos Romanos hie mos 
 erat, this was the custom among the old Romans. Apud 
 Ciceronem, in the writings of Cicero ; apud Homerum. 
 (but in Iliade Homerl, in Ciceronis Libro de Officiis). 
 
 2) In phrases : Apud animum cogito, / am considering in my 
 
 mind. Haec apud me valent, these things have weight' 
 with me. Fac apud te sis, keep your wits about you. 
 
 IV. Ante (before] is applied to 
 
 1) Place : Hannibal ante portas est. 
 
 2) Time : Ante lucem, before daybreak. Ante urbem conditam, 
 
 before the foundation of the city. Ante tris annos, three- 
 years ago (also tribus ante annis or tertio anno ante). 
 Multo ante, long before. Paulo ante, a short time before* 
 Ante domandum, before taming, Verg. 
 
 3) Order and Preference : Hunc ante me diligo, 7 love him 
 
 above myself. Ante alios carissimus (or carior). Ante 
 omnia placent silvae, woods please above everything. 
 
 V. Pone (pos-ne) (behind) : Pone castra pabulatum ibant, they 
 went behind the camp to forage. Ante et pone, before and behind. 
 
70i Uses of Prepositions. 295 
 
 VI. Post (pos-te : see ante) describes 
 
 1) Place (behind] : Hostis post montem se occultabat, the 
 
 enemy was hiding behind the mountain. Manus eius post 
 tergum religatae sunt, his hands were tied behind his back. 
 
 2) Time (after ; since] : Post cenam, after stopper. Post urbem 
 
 conditam, after the foundation of the city. Post Christum 
 natum, after the birth of Christ. Post hominum memo- 
 riam, since the memory of man. Post paucos dies (or 
 paucis post cliebus), a few days after. Paulo post, soon 
 after. Longo post tempore, V. 
 
 3) Of Order and Dignity (after, behind] : ' Neque erit Lydia 
 
 post Chloen/ nor shall Lydia be after Chloe, Hor. 
 
 VII. Cis, citra (c it era parte), (on' this side of, within}, is 
 applied to 
 
 1 ) Place : Cis Alpis, cis Padum, citra Euphraten, citra mare. 
 
 2) Time (very rarely) : Cis paucos dies hostis aderit, the enemy 
 
 will be here within a few days. Citra Kalendas Octobris, 
 before the 1st of October. 
 
 Note. Hence citra is used of measure in the sense of without 
 (i.e. without reaching], short of: Citra controversiam, 
 without dispute. Citra ebrietatem, short of intoxication. 
 
 VIII. Ultra, from the root il = ol = ul (ultera parte, on yonder 
 side, beyond) describes 
 
 1) Place : Ultra Aethiopiam, beyond Ethiopia. Ultra Gara- 
 
 mantas et Indos, beyond the Garamantes and Indians. 
 
 2) Measure : Ne sutor ultra crepidam (progrediatur), the cobbler 
 
 must not go beyond his last. Ultra puerilis annos est, he 
 is past childhood. Ultra feminam ferox, fierce beyond the 
 nature of woman. So, ultra fas ; ultra fidem. 
 
 IX. Trans (across , beyond} is applied to seas, rivers, hills, &c. : 
 Naves trans mare currunt, ships glide across the sea. Trans Eu- 
 phraten, beyond the Euphrates. Trans Alpis. Trans caput, V. 
 
 X. i. Circum (round, about] of Place: Terra circum axem 
 vertitur, the earth turns about its axis. Circurn haec loca com- 
 moror, / am staying about these spots. Turba circum regem, a 
 crowd around the king. 
 
 2. Circa (not used before Livy), describes 
 
 1) Place (round] : Urbes circa Capuam occupavit, he seized 
 
 the cities around Capua. Multos circa se habebat, he 
 kept many about him. Circa vias discurritur, there is a 
 sktirry about the streets. Circa pectus, round the bosom. 
 
 2) Time and Number (about) : Circa Calendas Februarias, 
 
 about the \st of February. Circa quingentos capti sunt, 
 about five hundred were taken. 
 
 3) Respect (about, concerning) in Post-Augustan Latinity : 
 
 Varia circa haec opinio est, there is variety of opinion on 
 this subject. 
 
296 Latin Wordlore. 70. 
 
 3. Circiter (about] denotes extension round, and is used of 
 Time and Number : Circiter meridiem advenimus, we came about 
 noon. Decem circiter milia passuum abest, he is about ten miles 
 away. 
 
 XI. Contra (contera parte) denotes a tendency of two things to 
 come together, and describes 
 
 1) Place (over against) : Carthago Italiam contra, Carthage 
 
 over against Italy. Aspicedum contra me, look me in the 
 face. 
 
 2) Relation (against) : Contra naturam, against nature. Contra 
 
 legem, against law. Hoc contra ius fasque est, this is 
 against law arid religion. Quod contra fit a plerisque, 
 most people do just the contrary. Non caru'st auro contra, 
 hJs worth his weight in gold. 
 
 XII. Erga (towards) is used of Relation : Tuam erga me bene- 
 volentiam agnosco, / acknowledge your goodwill towards me. 
 Scio quomodo erga me affectus sis, I know how you feel towards 
 me. Erga is once used of place by Plautus ( = facing}. 
 
 XIII. Extra (extera parte) describes 
 
 1) Place (outside of, without) : Extra urbem, outside the city. 
 
 Extra teli iactum, out of range of darts. 
 
 2) Relation (without, beyond, clear of) : Extra culpam, peri- 
 
 culum, iocum, ordinem, modum, causam, &c. 
 
 3) Exception (except) : Nemo extra eum, nobody except him. 
 
 XIV. Intra (intera parte) (within) describes 
 
 1) Place : Intra urbem factum est, it happened within the city. 
 
 Intra montem Taurum, within Mount Taiirus (for cis). 
 
 2) Time : Intra triginta dies, within thirty days. 
 
 3) Extent : Hortensii scripta intra famam sunt, the writings 
 
 of Hortensius are short of their reputation. Intra modum, 
 intra legem epulari, to feast within measure, within law. 
 The Adv. intus (within} is also used with Accus. Intus 
 domum, Plaut. Intus cellam, L. 
 
 XV. Inter signifies extension inside, and is used of 
 
 1) Place (between) : Inter urbem et fluvium, between the city 
 
 and river. 
 
 2) Time (between, during) : Inter horam tertiam et quartam, 
 
 between nine and ten o'clock. Inter prandendum (or inter 
 cenam) curis vaco, at dinner (or at supper} I am free from 
 cares. Inter tot annos, during so many years. Inter 
 vias, on the road. 
 
 3) Relation (between, among} : Inter hominem et beluam 
 
 multum interest, there is much difference between a man 
 and a brute. Constat inter omnis, all are agreed. Inter 
 arma silent leges, amidst arms laws are silent. Inter 
 cetera et illud dixit, among other things he said this too. 
 
yo. Uses of Prepositions. 297 
 
 And of mutual relation with se ; as Inter se amant, they 
 love one another. Inter haec = interea, meanwhile. 
 
 XVI. Infra (infera parte) (beneath) describes 
 
 1) Place : Infra lunam nihil est non mortale, beneath the moon 
 
 there is nothing not mortal. 
 
 2) Time : Homerus non infra Lycurgum fuit, Homer was not 
 
 after Lyciirgus. 
 
 3) Number : Non infra novena, not less than nine at a time. 
 
 4) Measure : Uri magnitudine sunt paulo infra elephantos, 
 
 buffaloes are of a size rather under elephants. 
 
 5) Worth : Infra dignitatem meam, beneath my dignity. 
 
 XVII. Supra (supera parte) (above, over) describes 
 
 1) Place : Caelum supra terram est, heaven is above earth. 
 
 Saltu supra venabula fertur, he bounds over the hunting 
 spears. Supra caput. Supra me erat Atticus, infra Ver- 
 rius, Atticus sat above me, Verrius below. 
 
 2) Time : Supra hanc memoriam vixit, he lived before these 
 
 times. Ut supra dixi, as I said above. 
 
 3) Number : Caesa sunt supra millia viginti, more than twenty 
 
 thousand were slain. Supra belli Sabini metum, over and 
 above the dread of a Sabine war. 
 
 4) Measure : Supra humanam formam altior, taller than 
 
 human form. Supra modum, above measure. 
 
 XVIII. luxta (iugista parte, Corss.) describes 
 
 1) Place (adjoining] : Hortus meus iuxta viam est, my garden 
 
 adjoins the road. 
 
 2) Order (next to, as well as, akin to) : Iuxta deos in tua 
 
 manu positum est, next to the gods it lies in your hands. 
 Inermes iuxta armatos trucidati sunt, unarmed as well as 
 armed men were slaughtered. Celeritas iuxta formidinem 
 est, speed is akin to fear. Iuxta seditionem ventum est, 
 things almost came to mutiny. Solo caeloque iuxta gravi, 
 soil and climate being equally unhealthy. 
 
 XIX. Ob describes 
 
 1) Place (before] : Ob oculos mihi mors versata est, death was 
 
 before my eyes. Follem sibi obstringit ob gulam, he ties a 
 bladder on his throat. Ob os trudere, to thrust in one's 
 face. 
 
 2) Cause (for, on account of, with a view to] : Poenas ob stul- 
 
 titiam do, / suffer punishment for my folly. Pecuniam 
 ob absolvendum accepit, he received money to acquit. Ar- 
 gentum ob asinos, money to pay for the donkeys. Ager 
 oppositu'st pigneri ob decem minas, the estate is mortgaged 
 for ten minas. Frustra an ob rem, ineffectually, or to 
 some purpose. Ob industriam, studiously. Ob earn cau- 
 sam, on that account. 
 
 XX. Penes (in the power of, resting with} : Penes imperatorem 
 est summum imperium, supreme power rests with the commander- 
 
298 Latin Wordlore. 70. 
 
 in-chief. Deum penes est custodia mundi, the guardianship of 
 the 'world rests 'with God. Servi penes accusatorem sunt, the slaves 
 are in the prosecutor's power. Culpa te est penes, the fault lies 
 with you. Penes te es ? are you in your senses ? 
 
 XXI. Praeter means extension in front of, and has the uses 
 
 1) Along, beside, before : Praeter ripam, along the bank. Prae- 
 
 ter oculos, before their eyes. Via una praeter hostis erat, 
 the only road was along the enemy's flank. 
 
 2) Besides, except : Praeter se neminem amat, he loves none 
 
 besides himself. Quod crimen dicis, praeter amasse, 
 meum ? what crime do you call mine, except having loved? 
 
 3) Beyond : Praeter modum, beyond measure. Praeter ceteros 
 
 clams, renowned beyond others. 
 
 4) Contrary to : Hoc praeter opinionem accidit, this happened 
 
 contrary to expectation. So, praeter spem. 
 
 XXII. Prope (near, nigh to) : Prope viam aedificat, he builds 
 near the road. Prope Kalendas Sextilis, near the flrst of August. 
 Prope abesse ab aliquo, to be near to some person or place. Prope 
 secessionem plebis res venit, 7natters almost came to a secession of 
 the commons. 
 
 The Comparative propius, and Superlative proxime, also take an 
 Accusative : Propius urbem, nearer the city. Proxime montem, 
 very near the mountain. 
 
 XXIII. Propter (prope-ter) means 'extension near/ and de- 
 scribes 
 
 1) Place (near, alongside of) : Volcanus tenuit insulas propter 
 
 Siciliam, Vulcan held the isles near Sicily. Propter aquam 
 ambulavimus, we walked beside the water. Propter te 
 sedet, he sits beside you. Cubantes propter, sleeping near. 
 
 2) Cause or Object (on account of} : Sapiens non propter 
 
 metum legibus paret, the wise man obeys not the laws on 
 account of fear. Ilia propter se expetenda sunt, those 
 things are desirable on their own account. 
 
 XXIV. Secundum, from sequor, denotes following, and de- 
 scribes 
 
 1) Place (next behind] : I secundum me, go next to me. Se- 
 
 cundum aurem vulnus accepit, he received a wound behind 
 his ear. (Along) : Secundum litus, along the shore. 
 
 2) Time (after) : Secundum Idus lanuarias veniam, I will 
 
 come after the \^th of January. 
 
 3) Rank (next after) : Secundum te nemo mihi amicior, after 
 
 you no man is more friendly to me. Secundum vocem 
 vultus valet, countenance tells next after voice. 
 
 4) Agreement (according to, in favour of} : Secundum natu- 
 
 ram vive, live according to nature. Secundum Stoicos 
 omnia vitia paria sunt. according to the Stoics all faults 
 are equal. Pontifices secundum me decreverunt, the 
 priests decreed in my favour. 
 
j 71. Uses of Prepositions. 299 
 
 XXV. Per (through) signifies Passage from one end to another, 
 or in all directions, and describes 
 
 1) Place : Per Macedonian!, through Macedonia. Sanguis 
 
 per venas in omne corpus diffunditur, blood is diffused 
 through the veins into the whole body. 
 
 2) Duration of Time (throiighout, during] : Per tris annos, 
 
 for three years. Per noctem cernuntur sidera, the stars 
 are seen all night. Per somnum, during sleep. 
 
 3) Agency (by, through] : Per procuratorem non per se ipsum 
 
 agit, he acts by an agent, not personally. 
 
 4) Manner or Means (by) : Eos per vim eiecit, he turned them 
 
 out by force. Per simulationem amicitiae me perdidit, he 
 ruined me on pretence of friendship. Per litteras certiorem 
 te faciam, I will acquaint you by letter. So, per vices, by 
 turns, per silentium, in silence, per ioc\im,j0cu/arfy. 
 
 5) Motive or Cause : Per avaritiam id fecit, he did that through 
 
 avarice. Amicitia per se expetenda est, friendship should 
 be sought for its own sake. Per me licet hoc agas, you 
 may do this with my free will. Per leges non licet civem 
 verberare, the laws do not allow beating a citizen. Per te 
 stetit quominus ego discederem, you were the ca^ise of my 
 not departing. 
 
 6) Per is used in Prayers and Adjurations (by) : Per deos te 
 
 oro, I pray you by the gods. 
 
 Note. Per is sometimes disjoined from the word with which it 
 is compounded : as, Per mihi gratum est, it is very agree- 
 able to me. Per ovilia turbans, V. Or from its case : Per 
 ego te deos oro, I pray you by the gods. 
 
 XXVI. Versus, versum (anc. versus, vorsum) (towards), 
 always follow their Case : Hannibal Romam versus contendit, 
 Hannibal marched towards Rome. The best writers subjoin it to 
 a case governed by ad or in : Ad meridiem versus ibimus, we will 
 go towards the south. In Italiam versus se convertit, he turned 
 towards Italy. 
 
 ii. Prepositions governing an ABL. Case. 
 
 I. A, ab, abs, express a ' proceeding from/ and describe 
 
 i) Place : (a) Motion from : Sidera ab ortu ad occasum corn- 
 meant, the stars move from east to west. Ab nobis domo'st, 
 it comes from our house. 
 
 b) Distance from : Mille passuum sex a Caesaris castris sub- 
 
 sedit, he halted six miles from Caesar's camp. See 
 Prope. Amilibus passuum esse, to be a mile off. See 
 M. Lucr. i. 554. 
 
 c) Position in regard to (on, on the side of) : A fronte, in- 
 
 front. A tergo, in the rear. A sinistro cornu, on the 
 left wing. A Platone facio, lam on the side of Plato. 
 Zeno et ab eo qui sunt, Zeno and his disciples. Hoc a 
 me est, this is in my favour. A senatu stetit, he took 
 the senate's side. See M. Lucr. i. 693, 935 ; v. 754, 1332 ; 
 vi. 968. 
 
3OO Latin Wordlore. 71. 
 
 Obs. Procul ab is used : Procul a patria, Verg. And procul 
 without ab. Haud procul seditione, L. Usque ab. Ab usque, V. 
 Lucr. has ore foras, out from the mouth, iv. 554. 
 
 2) Time (from) : Ab antiquissimis temporibus hie mos in- 
 
 valuit, this custom prevailed from the earliest times. So, 
 ab initio, a puero, a pueritia, ab incunabulis, a prima 
 aetate, &c. A primo,from the first or from the beginning. 
 
 3) Rank (after) : Proximus a rege, next after the king. Alter 
 
 ab ilio. Alter ab undecimo, the 12th. Ab hoc sermone 
 profectus est, after this discourse he set out. Ab exequiis. 
 Ab igni, after (in consequence oi)Jire. M. Lucr. vi. 968. 
 
 4) Separation (from) : A poena liberi sumus, ive are free from 
 
 punishment. Defende te a periculo, defend yourself from 
 danger. Non ab re fuerit ea narrare, it will not be irre- 
 levant to relate these things. Abhorrere ab aliqua re, to 
 shrink from anything ; to dislike. 
 
 5) Origin in general (front) : Pecuniam a me accepit, he re- 
 
 ceived the money from me. Ab Egnatio solvet, he will 
 pay through Egnatius. A te mihi salutem dixit, he greeted 
 me from you. A superstitione animi vates adhibuit, he 
 called in seers from mental superstition. M. Lucr. ii. 51. 
 
 6) Agent after Verbs Passive and Intransitive (by) : A cane 
 
 non magno saepe tenetur aper, a wild boar is often held 
 by a small dog. Oculi a sole dolent, my eyes are pained 
 by the sun. Ab hoste venire, to be sold by an enemy. 
 
 7) Respect (/, in point of, on the side of} : Ab animo aeger 
 
 fui, / was sick in mind. Firmus est ab equitatu, he is 
 strong in cavalry. A doctrina instructus est, he is well 
 furnished in point of learning. A patre nobilis erat, he 
 was noble on the father's side. 
 
 To this use belong the phrases for the offices of slaves and 
 freedmen at Rome, and the modern phrases for the posts 
 in a royal household, &c. Thus, (servus) ab epistulis 
 meant a letter-carrier or estafette ; (servus or libertus) a 
 manu, an amanuensis ; a bibliotheca, a librarian ; a pedi- 
 bus, a footman a potione, a butler or cupbearer, &c. So, 
 Regi a secretis consiliis, a privy counsellor of the king. 
 Reginae a sacris, queen's chaplain. 
 
 II. De expresses 
 
 1) Place (down from, from) : De rostris descendit, he came 
 
 down from the rostra. De manibus hostium effugit, he 
 escaped from the enemy's hands. Susque deque, up an& 
 down. 
 
 2) Time (ere the close of, at) : De prima luce, at daybreak. De 
 
 die, in daytime.' 1 De nocte, in the night. De multa nocte, 
 in the dead of night. De prandio, after luncheon. Diem 
 de die exspecto, / am waiting from day to day. 
 
 1 Cicero's jeu de mots (Phil, ii 34), 'non solum de die sed in diem vivere,' links two 
 common phrases, 'de die (potare),' to caro-use by daylight, and ' in diem vivere/ to live 
 for the day, so as to suggest that Antonius drank from before the evening of one day to 
 the dawn of the next (de die in diem). 
 
7i. Uses of Prepositions. 301 
 
 3) Origin : De summo loco, of highest rank. De scripto 
 
 dixit, he spoke from a written paper. De facie eum novi, 
 / know him by sight. Emi domum de Crasso, / bought a 
 house of Crassus. Hoc audivi de patre, this I heard from 
 my father. De marmore signum, a bust of marble. Fies 
 de rhetore consul, from a rhetorician you will become 
 consul. 
 
 4) Partition (of) : Una de multis, one of many maidens. Ac- 
 
 cusator de plebe, a plebeian proseciitor. De tuo illud 
 addis, you add of your own suggestion. De meo, at my 
 expense. 
 
 5) Respect (concerning, of, c.) : Multa de eo scripta sunt, 
 
 much was written about him. Legati de pace, envoys to 
 treat for peace. De captivis commutandis, concerning an 
 exchange of prisoners. De nihilo irasci, to be angry about 
 nothing. Quid de me fiet? what will become of me? 
 De Gallis triumphavit, he triumphed over the Gauls. 
 
 6) Cause (for, from, &c.) : Multis et gravibus de causis, for 
 
 many important reasons. Hoc de communi sententia fac- 
 turn est, this was done by common vote. De via langue- 
 bam, / was ill from the joitrney. 
 
 7) Manner (according to, on) in many phrases : De more, ac- 
 
 cording to custom. De industria, on purpose. De im- 
 proviso, unexpectedly. De novo, anew. Deintegro, afresh, 
 &c. De gradu conari, to combat on foot, de genu, on the 
 knees. 
 
 III. E, ex, describe 
 
 1) Place (out of, from, \ on, c.) : Ex urbe venio. Ex Italia 
 
 discessit. Ex arbore pendet, it hangs on a tree. Ex 
 equis pugnant, they fight on horseback. E longinquo,. 
 from far. Ex propinquo, near. Ex obliquo, athwart. E 
 regione, in a direct line with. See M. Lucr. vi. 344. 
 
 2) Time (from, since) : Ex illo die numquam eum vidi, since 
 
 that day I never set eyes on him. Ex Metello consule, 
 from the consulship of Metellus. Ex itinere, on arrival. 
 
 3) Origin (from, of) : Ex eo audivi. Ex me quaesivit. Ex 
 
 Ppmpeio sciam. Statua e marmore facta. Homo ex 
 animo constat et corpore, man consists of soiil and body. 
 
 4) Transition (from, after} : Ex oratore arator factus est. So, 
 
 aliud ex alio, one thing after another : diem ex die, from 
 day to day. Pallidum e viridi folium, a palish green leaf. 
 
 5) Partition (of) : Unus ex amicis meis, one of my friends. 
 
 6) Cause (from, for, by, &c.) : Ex quo manifestum est, whence 
 
 it is clear. Ex lassitudine dormio, / fall asleep from 
 weariness. E vino vacillat, he staggers from the effects of 
 wine. Ex vulneribus mortuus est, he died of his wounds. 
 Vir ex doctrina nobilis, a man renowned for his learning. 
 Ex pedibus laborat, he has gout in his feet. Illud ex sena- 
 tus consulto factum est, that was done by vote of the senate. 
 Hoc mihi ex sententia evenit, this happened to my heart's 
 
3<D2 Latin Wordlore. 7!. 
 
 content. Ex animi sententia loqui, to speak with sincerity. 
 So, ex ordine, ex composite, by arrangement, e re mea, 
 for my interest, e republica, for the good of the state, with 
 other phrases. See p. 277. 
 
 7) Manner, in many phrases : Ex occulto, secretly, ex impro- 
 viso, ex insperato, unexpectedly, ex parte, in part. Heres 
 ex asse, heir to the 'whole property by will; heres ex 
 deunce, heres ex semi'sse, c. 
 
 IV. Cum (with] expresses 
 
 1) Company : Cum patre proficiscor, / go with my father. 
 
 As a Sociative Particle : Romulus cum fratre Remo, JRo- 
 mulus and his brother Remus. 
 
 a) The Adv. simul is used with Abl. for simul cum. Simul 
 his, together with these, Hor. Ore simul cervix, Ov. 
 
 2) Coincidence of Time : Pariter cum ortu solis, exactly at 
 
 sunrise. 
 
 3) Community: Nihil mihi cum illo est, I have nothing to do 
 
 with him. Bellum gessit cum Helvetiis, he waged war 
 with the Helvetii. Tecum loquar, / will speak with you. 
 Conferre, comparare cum, to compare with. 
 
 4) Coincident Circumstances : Homines cum gladiis adsunt, 
 
 men with swords are present. Esse cum imperio, to be in 
 chief command. Magno cum dolore loquor, / speak with 
 great pain. Illud cum causa fecit, he acted thus with 
 reason. Cum pernicie reipublicae, to the ruin of the state. 
 Cum clamore. Cum silentio. Cum lacrimis. Madida 
 cum veste, in wet clothes, ' as simple Abl. 7 See M. Lucr. 
 i- 755- 
 Note the phrase : cum eo ut . . . on condition that . . . Liv. 
 
 V. Absque (without) is chiefly found in the Comic poets : 
 Absque te esset, were it not for you ; sometimes in Cicero. Litterae 
 absque argumento, a letter devoid of matter. 
 
 VI. Sine (without} : Vana est sine viribus ira, anger without 
 strength is fruitless. Sine dubio, sine ulla dubitatione, without 
 any doubt. 
 
 Lucr. uses seorsum (apart from] with Abl. : seorsum corpore. 
 
 VII. Pal am (in view of) : Palam populo, in the people's sight. 
 
 VIII. Clam, clanculum (without the knowledge of) : Clam 
 patre, without his father's knowledge. In Comedy with Accusative : 
 Clam uxorem ; clanculum patrem. 
 
 IX. Cor am (in the presence of) : Coram populo dixit, he spoke 
 before the people. Coram loqui cum aliquo, to speak with another 
 
 face to face. 
 
 X. Prae describes 
 
 i) Place (before) : I prae, sequar, go forward, I will follow ; 
 but generally before a Pronoun, and after the Verbs ago, 
 
yi. Uses of Prepositions. 303 
 
 fero, gero : as Pastores prae se agant gregem, let shep- 
 herds drive the flock before them. Pugionem prae se fert, 
 he displays a dagger. Also metaphorically : Speciem 
 boni viri prae te fers, you exhibit the appearance of a good 
 man. 
 
 2) Comparison (compared with, before) : Prae nobis beatus es, 
 
 you are happy compared with us. Prae se neminem putat, 
 he thinks none his superior. Utilitatis species prae hones- 
 tate recte contemnitur, the show of advantage is properly 
 despised in comparison with moral rectitude. 
 
 3) Cause (owing to, for) : Prae lacrimis scribere non possum, 
 
 / cannot write for tears. Prae multitudine sagittarum 
 solem non videbitis, you will not see the sun for the number 
 of arrows. Prae laetitia lacrimae prosiliunt mihi, tears 
 start into my eyes for joy, Plaut. 
 
 XI. Pro expresses 
 
 1) Place (before] : Pro foribus, before the door. Stabat pro 
 
 litore classis, the fleet was lying off the coast. Pro rostris 
 dicebat, he was speaking from the rostra. Pro contione 
 laudatus est, he was thanked in full assembly. 
 
 2) Defence (in behalf of, for) : Hoc non modo non pro me, 
 
 sed etiam contra me est, this is not only not for me, but 
 is even against me. Pro Ligario dixit, he spoke for Liga- 
 rius. Pro patria mori, to die for country. 
 
 3) Substitution (instead of, equivalent to, &c.) : Mihi pro 
 
 parente fuit, he was as a father to me. Vultus saepe pro 
 omnibus verbis est, countenance is often equivalent to any 
 words. Pro praetore fuit, he was propraetor. 
 
 4) Retribution (for, in requital of} : Pro istis factis te ulcis- 
 
 car, P II punish you for that conduct. 
 
 5) Resemblance and Respect (in the light of} : Illam educavi 
 
 pro mea, / brought her up as my daughter. Pro cive se 
 gerit, he comports himself as a citizen. Pro certo hoc 
 habui, / held this as certain. Pro comperto illud afferunt, 
 they inform me as an assured fact. 
 
 6) Proportion (according to] : Pro tua temperantia vales, your 
 
 good health 'accords with your temperance. Pro viribus 
 contendam, / will try my best. Pro re nata me geram, / 
 will conduct myself as present circumstances dictate. Pro 
 re et tempore consilium capere, to take counsel according 
 to existing circumstances. Pro multitudine hominum an- 
 gustos habent finis, their extent is small compared with 
 their population. Proelium atrocius quam pro numero 
 pugnantium fuit, the battle was more furious than might 
 have been expected from the number of the combatants. 
 
 XII. Tenus (as far as), from root tan, ten, ' stretch] follows its 
 Case, and governs Abl. Sing, (rarely Plur.) and Plural Genitive : 
 Capulo tenus abdidit ensem, he buried his sword to the hilt. Nu- 
 
304 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 tricum terms, as far as the breast. Crurum tenus. Observe verbo 
 terms (as far as words go) ; quadam tenus (a certain way, to some 
 extent} ; eatenus, hactenus, quatenus, understanding parte. The 
 Abl. PL ' Pectoribus tenus J is found in Ovid : the Ace. S. ' Tanain 
 tenus ; in Valerius Flaccus. 
 
 72 iii. Prepositions governing an ACCUSATIVE 
 or ABLATIVE Case. 
 
 I. .(a) In with ACCUSATIVE signifies motion to, and describes 
 
 1) Place (into, to, upon, against ) : In carcerem coniectus est, 
 
 he was thrown into prison. In aram confugit, he fled for 
 refuge to the altar. In equum conscendit, he got on horse- 
 back. Ad urbem, vel potius in urbem, exercitum adduxit, 
 he led an army up to the city, or rather, into the city. 
 
 By a Constructio praegnans (one Verb having the force of 
 two) in with Accusative sometimes follows a Verb of 
 Rest : Vitruvium in carcerem asservari iussit, he ordered 
 Vitruvius to be kept in prison. Adesse in senatum iussit, 
 he bade him attend the senate. Portus in praedonum po- 
 testatem fuere, the harbours were in the power of pirates. 
 
 2) Time (for) : In crastinum diem me invitavit, he invited me 
 
 for the morrow. Comitia constituta sunt in Kalendas 
 lanuarias, the elections were fixed for the \st of January* 
 In perpetuum (for ever), in praesens (for the present), in 
 posterum,y2?r the future, &c. 
 
 3) Transition (into) : Mutatur in lapidem. In sollicitudinem 
 
 versa fiducia est, confidence turned to anxiety. 
 
 4) Dimension (to) : In altitudinem pedum sedecim murum 
 
 perducit, he carries the wall to the height of sixteen feet. 
 
 5) Distribution : Censores bini in singulas civitates descripti 
 
 sunt, two censors were appointed for each state. Ad dena- 
 rios quinquaginta in singulos modios, at fifty denars the 
 bushel. Mutatur in dies et in horas, he changes daily and 
 hourly. In aestatem, every summer. M. Lucr. vi. 712. 
 
 6) Relation (towards, against, &c.) : Liberalis in milites, liberal 
 
 towards the troops. Merita in rempublicam, services to the 
 state. Cicero in Verrem dixit, Cicero spoke against Verres. 
 Viri in uxores potestatem habent, husbands have power 
 over their wives. In te oculi omnium defiguntur, all eyes 
 are fixed on you. 
 
 7) Manner (in, after) : In hunc modum locutus est, he spoke 
 
 after this fashion. In verba imperatoris iuraverunt, they 
 swore allegiance to the general. So, in universum, in 
 commune, in vicem (in turn), in numerum, in measured 
 time. M. Liter, ii. 631. 
 
 8) Purpose (for) : Gladiatores in ludos locavit, he engaged 
 
 gladiators for the games. Sontes in poenam dediti sunt, 
 the guilty were delivered for punishment. Omnia in maius 
 
7 2 . Uses of Prepositions. 305 
 
 celebravit, he exaggerated everything. Dabo tibi pecuniam 
 in rem familiarem, / will give you money for your house- 
 hold expenses. Quae in rem tuam sunt, what is for your 
 interest. 
 
 (b) In with an ABLATIVE signifies rest in, and describes 
 
 1) Place (in) : In Italia. In urbe. In sole. In ore omnium 
 
 versaris, you are in everybody's mouth. In Miltiade erat 
 summa humanitas, in Miltiades there was the greatest 
 courtesy. In conspectu est exercitus. In manibus est 
 Vergilius. So, in aprico est res, the affair is all smooth. 
 In incerto. In difficili. In medio relictum est, it has 
 been left unsettled. In luctu et squalore sum, / am in 
 sorrow and mourning. In manu, in hand. 
 
 (On) : Agesilaus in ora consedit, Agesilaus halted on the 
 brink. Nix est in summo monte, snow is on the summit of 
 the mountain. Pons in flumine factus est, a bridge was 
 formed on the river. In equo sedens, on horseback. Ponere 
 curam, cogitationem, &c., in aliqua re, to employ the mind 
 on some object. 
 
 (Among) : In magnis viris numeratur. Haec in bonis sunt 
 habenda, these must be counted among blessings. 
 
 2) Time (during, in) : Ter in anno rus imus, / go into the 
 
 country thrice a year. In praesenti nihil opus est, there 
 is no need at present. In annonae caritate civitati sub- 
 venit, when corn was dear he helped the city. In tempore 
 veni. Impraesentiarum, under present circumstances, is a 
 corruption of 'in praesentia harum rerum/ chiefly used by 
 elder and late authors, also by Nepos. 
 
 3) Circumstance (amidst, in) : In tanta perfidia veterum ami- 
 
 corum nihil supererat spei, amidst such treachery of old 
 friends no hope remained. Etiam in summa bonorum 
 civium copia timemus, even amidst an abundance of good 
 citizens I am alarmed. In vino diserti sumus, we are 
 eloquent over wine. In dicendo, in agendo. In honore, 
 in pretio. Horridus in iaculis et pelle ursae. V. 
 (In the case of) : In hoc homine non accipio accusationem, in 
 this man } s case I admit no charge. Idem in bono servo 
 dici solet, the same is said of a good slave. 
 
 4) Cause (on the score of) : In ea re gratias Deo agebamus, 
 
 for that we thanked God. Pausanias in eo est reprehensus, 
 Pausanias was blamed on that score. 
 
 II. (a) Sub with an ACCUSATIVE describes 
 
 i) Place (under) literally and metaphorically, when motion is 
 implied : Armentum sub tecta referto, take the herd back 
 to shelter. Sub ictum venire, to come under fire. Sub 
 aciem primam succedere, to come up with the van. Sub 
 iugum Romani missi sunt, the Romans were made to pass'" 
 under the yoke. Sub oculos mihi venit, he came under my 
 view. Sub iudicium cades, you will be subject to trial. 
 Sub sensus subiecta, within reach of the senses. 
 x 
 
306 Latin Word lore. 72. 
 
 2) Time (immediately after or before, about, against] : Sub eas 
 litteras recitatae sunt tuae, next after that letter yours was 
 read. Sub ortum lucis signa contulit, at daybreak he en- 
 gaged. Cenam parat uxor sub adventum viri, the wife 
 prepares supper against her husband's arrival. Sub lacri- 
 mosa Troiae funera, just before Troy's sad destruction. 
 
 (b) Sub with an ABLATIVE is applied to 
 
 1) Place (under), rest being implied : Talpae sub terra habi- 
 
 tant, moles dwell under the ground. ludaea sub procura- 
 tore erat, Judea was under a procurator. Sub hac con- 
 dicione rediit, under this condition he returned. Sub 
 oculis, in mew. 
 
 2) Time (about, at} : Sub exitu anni, about the end of the year. 
 
 Sub eodem tempore. See M. Lucr. iv. 545-7^5 ; vi. 413, 416. 
 
 III. (a) Super with an ACCUSATIVE expresses 
 
 1) Place (over, above, beyond} : Alii super vallum praecipitan- 
 
 tur, others fling themselves over the entrenchment. Super 
 navem turris exstructa est, a tower was reared on the ship. 
 Super Sunium navigavit, he sailed beyond Sunium. Super 
 ipsum, above the host at table. 
 
 2) Number (besides] : Super bellum annona premit, besides 
 
 war, dearth causes distress. Super haec. Super omnia, 
 over and above all else. Super tris modios accepi, / re- 
 ceived above three bushels. Alii super alios. Savia super 
 savia, kisses upon kisses. 
 
 3) Comparison (beyond} : Res super vota fluunt, matters pro- 
 
 ceed beyond our wishes. Super, principally, V. 
 
 4) Time (during) : Super cenam collocuti sumus, during supper 
 
 we conversed. 
 
 Lucan uses desuper (over] with Accus. Desuper Alpis nubi- 
 ferae collis, &c. i. 688. 
 
 (b} Super with an ABLATIVE expresses 
 
 1) Place (over, upon) : Ensis super cervice pendet, a sword 
 
 hangs over his neck. Fronde super viridi requiescimus, 
 we rest on green foliage. 
 
 2) Time (during, at} : Nocte super media, at midnight. 
 
 3) Subject Matter (about} : Multa super Priamo rogitans, 
 
 super Hectore multa, asking much about Priam, much 
 about Hector, Verg. 
 
 IV. Subter (under, below}, signifying extension under, gene- 
 rally governs an ACCUSATIVE, but sometimes in poetry an ABLA- 
 TIVE : Amnes saepe subter terram vias occultas agunt, rivers often 
 pursue secret courses under ground. Virtus omnia subter se habet, 
 virtue holds everything subject to itself. Subter densa testudine, 
 under a compact pent-house. 
 
 Note i. The following Prepositions are also used as Adverbs : 
 ante,citra, circum, circa, circiter, contra, iuxta, infra, intra, pone, post, 
 prae (rare), prope, subter, super, supra, ultra, coram, clam, palam. 
 
73. Correlation. 307 
 
 Note 2. Comminus ire, ' to close with] is used by Propertius 
 with Dat. and Accus. 'Haemonio comminus isse viro/ iii. i. 
 * Agrestis comminus ire sues/ ii. 19. So Ov. F. v. 176. 
 
 Note 3. Of the Prepositions the following are opposed in mean- 
 ing : 
 
 ante to post (pone) infra to supra sub to super 
 ad ab cis (trans) prope procul 
 
 in ex citra ultra clam palam 
 
 Note 4. Prepositions may sometimes stand in good prose 
 
 1) Between Pronoun and Noun : qua in re; hanc ob causam ; 
 
 magno cum metu, &c. 
 
 2) After the Pronouns qui, hie, without Noun; quern contra 
 
 dicit ; quos inter, hunc ad versus, &c. Not so found are, 
 ab, cis, sub, pro, prae ; seldom, ad, de, ex, in. 
 
 3) With one or more words interposed between Preposition 
 
 and Case : ' in bella gerentibus ; ' f in suum cuique tri- 
 buendo ; ' ' post autem Alexandri Magni mortem/ &c. 
 Poets often place Prepositions after their Cases, and sometimes 
 aloof from them: 'Vitiis nemo sine nascitur/ Hor. S. i. 3, 68. See 
 M. Lucr. i. 841 ; iii. 140. 
 (On Prepositions in composition, see 52, 59.) 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 Correlative Construction. corre- 
 
 lation. 
 
 i. Pronominal Correlation. 
 
 The pronominal Root qui- quo- is the most influential word in 
 Latin ; for from it spring (i) Almost all Interrogative words ; (2) all 
 Relative words ; (3) most Subordinative Conjunctions. 
 
 A) i) Every Interrogative word may question 
 Directly or Obliquely. 
 
 Direct. Oblique. 
 
 quae estmulier? rogo quae sit mulier 
 
 unde estmulier? die unde sit mulier 
 
 verumne est illud ? quaero verumne sit illud 
 
 Every Oblique Interrogative is Conjunctional, introducing a 
 Subordinate Sentence. 
 
 2) Every Pronominal Interrogative has corresponding to it at 
 least one Demonstrative Pronoun or Particle ; and a Relative Pro- 
 noun or Particle. 
 
 Interr. Dem. Rel. 
 
 quis ? is qui 
 
 ubi ? ibi ubi 
 
 Interr. Dem. Rel. 
 
 quare ? ideo quod 
 quando? turn quum (cum) 
 
 Every Relative Pronoun or Particle is Conjunctional, introducing 
 a Subordinate sentence. 
 
 X 2 
 
308 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 73- 
 
 B) Hence the following Correlations : the first four of which are 
 Adjectival, that is, they involve agreement with Substantives. The 
 rest are Adverbial, but capable of being changed into Adjectival 
 form : thus ubi = quo in loco ? ubi . . . ibi = in eo loco ... in quo. 
 
 i) Correlation of Person or Thing. 
 
 Direct Interrog. Oblique Interrog. 
 
 <*) 
 
 (est?) 
 who (is he ?) 
 
 b) quid (est ?) 
 what (is it?) 
 
 Demonstr. 
 
 is, &c. 
 he 
 
 Rel. 
 
 !} <*> 
 
 who (he is) 
 
 quid (sit) id, &c. 
 
 what (it is) that 
 
 (The forms ecquis, ecqui, ecquae, ecquid, ecquod are also used 
 interrogatively.) 
 
 qui 
 who 
 quod 
 which 
 
 qui 
 which 
 
 c) uter (est ?) uter (sit) is (alter) 
 
 which of two (is which of two that one 
 he?) (he is) 
 
 2) Correlation of Quality. 
 
 qualis (est ?) qualis (sit) talis qualis 
 
 of what kind (is of what kind suck as 
 
 he?} (he is) 
 
 3) Correlation of Quantity. 
 
 quantus (est ?) quantus (sit) tantus 
 
 how great (is 
 he?) 
 
 how great (he 
 is) 
 
 so great 
 
 quantus 
 as 
 
 4) 
 
 quot 
 as 
 
 quot (sunt) quot (sint) tot 
 
 how many (are how many so many 
 
 they ?) they are) 
 
 (This includes quotiens ? how many times? totiens . . . quotiens.) 
 5) Correlation of Place. 
 
 a) ubi (est ?) 
 
 ubi (sit) 
 
 ibi 
 
 ubi 
 
 where (is he ?) 
 
 where (he is) 
 
 there 
 
 where 
 
 b) unde (est?) 
 
 unde (sit) 
 
 inde 
 
 unde 
 
 whence (is he ?) 
 
 whence (he is) 
 
 thence 
 
 whence 
 
 c) quo (it ?) 
 
 quo (eat) 
 
 eo 
 
 quo 
 
 whither (goes 
 
 whither (he 
 
 thither 
 
 whither 
 
 he?) 
 
 goes) 
 
 
 
 d) qua (it ?) 
 
 qua (eat) 
 
 ea 
 
 qua 
 
 by which way 
 
 by which way 
 
 by that 
 
 by which 
 
 (goes he ?) 
 
 (he goes) 
 
 way 
 
 
 (These include quorsum, whitherward, c., quousque ? quoad ? 
 quatenus ? how far, c. ; compounded with quo, qua.) 
 
 6) Correlation of Manner. 
 
 ut (flet ?) ut (fleat) ita ut 
 
 how (weeps he ?) how (he weeps) so as 
 
 (Similarly quomodo ? ita quomodo 
 
 quemadmodum ? ita quemadmodunO 
 
73. Correlation. 309 
 
 7) Correlation of Degree. 
 
 Direct Interrog. Oblique Interrog. Demonstr. Rel. 
 
 quam (celer est ?) quam (c. sit) tam quam 
 how (swift is he f) how s. (he is) so as 
 
 (For tam . . . quam may be used aeque . . . atque (ac) and 
 many other Demonstratives with atque (ac). In the Correlation of 
 Inequality quam follows Comparatives and some other words which 
 contain the idea of comparison.) 
 
 8) Correlation of Cause. 
 
 <l uare t (venit?) ^ uare l (veniat) ideo 1 ( l uod l 
 cur J v ' cur 'proptereaf quia I 
 
 why (comes he f) why (he comes) therefore because 
 
 9) Correlation of Time. 
 
 a) quando (it ?) quando (eat) turn quum 
 
 when (goes he f) when (he goes) then when 
 
 ft) quamdiu (ma- quamdiu (ma- tamdiu quam 
 
 net ?) neat) 
 
 how long (stays how long (he so long as 
 
 he?) stays) 
 
 So quousque, quoad, quatenus, are answered demonstratively and 
 relatively by several forms : as, eousque . . . dum (donee, quoad) ; 
 usque . . . dum (donee, quoad) ; eatenus . . . dum (donee) ; 
 tamdiu . . . quam, &c. 
 
 C) Examples of Direct Pronominal Interrogation. 
 
 1) ( Quis fuit horrendos primus qui protulit enses?' who was it 
 that first produced dreadful swords? Tib. i. 10. i. 'Qui cantus 
 moderata orationis pronuntiatione dulcior inveniri potest ? quod 
 -carmen artificiosa verborum conclusione aptius ? ' what song can we 
 find sweeter than a well-uttered speech ? what poetry neater than a 
 .skilful period ? C. d. Or. ii. 8. 'Ecqui pudor est, ecqua religio, 
 Verres ? ecqui metus ?' have you any shame, Verres? any scruple? 
 any fear ? C. Verr. iv. 8. ' Ubi aut qualis est tuamens?' where or 
 af what nature is your soul? C. T. D. i. 27. f Ut valet Put me- 
 minit nostri?' how is his health? how does he keep me in mind } ? 
 Hor. Epist. i. 3. (In exclamation :) < Quam non est facilis virtus, 
 quam vero difficilis eius diuturna simulatio ! ' how far from easy is 
 virtue, how difficult in truth the long-continued pretence of it / C. 
 Att. vii. i. ' Quam timeo quorsum evadas ! ' how I dread what 
 you re coming to! Ter. An. i. I. 100. 'Gnaeus aut em noster ut 
 
 totus iacet ! ' how totally pro sir ate is our friend Gnaeus ! C. Att. vii. 
 ^9. Quanti est sapere, how valuable is wisdom! Ter. Eun. iv. 7. 
 
 2) Several Interrogatives in one Sentence : 
 
 'Considera, Piso, quis quern fraudasse dicatur/ consider, Piso, 
 <who is said to have defrauded whom, C. p. Q. Rose. 7. 'Uterutri 
 insidias fecit ? ; which plotted against which ? C. p. Mil. 9. 
 
 3) Quotus quisque literally is, c eacft (unit) of what total number' 
 = ' one in how many] and might be answered: centensimus quisque, 
 
 .one in a hundred-, vicensimus quisque, one in twenty, decimus quis- 
 
310 Latin Wordlore. 74. 
 
 que, one in ten, &c. Hence it came to mean, how small a propor- 
 tion? how few? 'Quotus enim quisque formosus est?' how 
 few men are handsome ? C. N. D. i. 28. 
 
 4) Quid is used in abrupt Interrogation with ellipse of a Verb : 
 Quid ? well? how ? &c. quid multa ? why be prolix? quid quaeris ? 
 what would you have more ? Quid tandem? why pray ? So, quid 
 enim ? quid ergo ? quid turn ? quid quod . . . ? need I add that? 
 
 5) Quin for qui non? 'Quin quod est ferendum fers?' won't 
 you bear what must be borne ? Ter. Ph. ii. 3. 82. Quidni possim ? 
 why can 1 not? ( to be sure I canj, C T. D. v. 5. Quippini ? why 
 not? to be sure, Plaut. On quin with Indie., see M. Liter, i. 588. 
 
 D) Correlation between Demonstrative and Relative : 
 
 1) ( Fere libenter homines i d quod volunt credunt, 7 men gene- 
 rally believe with readiness what they wish, Caes. B. G. iii. 18. 
 'Quam quisque norit artem in hac se exerceat/ let every one 
 practise the profession he knows. ' Non sunt tanti ulla merita 
 quanta insolentia hominis quantumque fastidium/ none of the 
 man's deserts are on a par with the greatness of his insolence and 
 pride, C. d. Or. ii. 52. ' Ubi bene, ibi patria/ country is where we 
 are well off, Inc. * Ibit eo quo vis qui zonam perdidit,'^? who has 
 lost his purse will go where you please, Hor. Epist. ii. 2.40. ' Quam 
 audax est ad conandum tarn est obscurus in agendo/ he is as 
 secret in action as he is bold in enterprise, C. Verr. ii. 2. <Ut 
 magistratibus leges ita populo praesunt magistratus/ as laws 
 govern magistrates, so do magistrates the people, C. Leg. iii. i. 
 ' Quid egeris tune apparebit cum animam ages/ what you have 
 done will appear when you are at your last gasp, Sen. Ep. 26. 
 
 2) Demonstrative with a Relative of different Correlation : ' I n 
 ea urbe es ubi ( = in qua) nata et alta est ratio ac moderatio 
 vitae,'jww are in that city wherein regulation and government of 
 life were born and reared, C. Fam. vi. i. ' Ibi imperiumeritunde 
 victoria fuerit/ empire will be on the side of victory, L. i. 24. 
 
 3) Demonstrative understood : ' Donum redde unde accepisti, 
 render back the gift to the donor, Ter. Eun. i. 2. 34. This is the 
 most frequent form. 
 
 4) The Correlation of cum and turn, originally of Time, is em- 
 ployed to distribute two notions, the one (with cum) general, the 
 other (with turn) special, to which attention is thus invited. ' Mul- 
 tum cum in omnibus rebus turn in re militari potest fortuna/ 
 fortune can do much in all things, especially in war, Caes. B. G. 
 vi. 30. ' Exspecta hospitem cum minime edacem turn inimicum 
 cenis sumptuosis/ look for a guest who is not only a small eater, but 
 also no friend to expensive dinners, C. Fam. ix. 23. 
 
 ii. Correlations of Manner. 
 
 Ut (uti) is a Relative Particle (orig. = quod). Its uses are : 
 As Interrogative (how ?). 
 As a Subordinative Conjunction (that, c.). 
 As a Coordinative Conjunction of Comparison (as). 
 
 The Interrogative and Subordinative uses are elsewhere noticed. 
 
74 . Correlation. 3 1 1 
 
 1) As Coordinative, ut, as well as quomodo, quemadmodum 
 (as), is found in correlation usually with the Demonstratives it a, 
 sic, also with it idem, item, &c., eodemmodo, ad eundemmodum, 
 isto modo, &c. pro eo : and compounded : sicut (sicuti) ; velut 
 (veluti). Or they may be used without a Demonstrative. 
 
 A) Correlation of ut, &c. with Demonstrative. (M. Lucr. ii. 901.) 
 'Ut optasti ita est/ it is as you wished, C. Fam. ii. 10. 'Ut 
 male posuimus initia, s i c cetera sequentur/ according to our bad 
 beginning, the rest will follow, C. Att. x. 20. ' Ut vir doctissimus 
 fecit Plato item mihi credo esse faciendum/ / think I should act 
 as the learned Plato did, C. p. Clu. 24. ( Non ille ut plerique, sed 
 isto modo ut tu, distincte graviter ornate dicebat/ he did not speak 
 as most do, but in that manner of yours, with clearness, power, and 
 elegance, C. N. D. i. 21. 'Quemadmodum soles de ceteris rebus, 
 sic de amicitia disputa/ argue concerning friendship, as you are 
 wont to do on other subjects, C. Lael. 4. ' Necesse est, quo tu me 
 modo esse voles, ita esse, mater/ I must be as you wish me, 
 mother, Plaut. Cist. i. I. 48. 'Ita ut fit,' in the ordinary way. 
 
 a) Ita . . . ut in asseverations : 'Ita me di ament ut ego 
 tarn meapte causa laetor quam illius/ so may the gods 
 love me as I rejoice on my own account as much as his, 
 Ter. Haut. i. 3. 8. Also ita or sic without ut, parentheti- 
 cally: 'Sollicitat, ita vivam, me tua valetudo/ your 
 health, ^tpon my life, makes me anxious, C. Fam. xvi. 20. 
 See Hor. C. i. 3. i. 
 
 U) Ut is used with concessive meaning in one clause, sic or ita 
 following with adversative force in another : ' U t errare, 
 mi Plance, potuisti, sicdecipi te non potuisse quis non 
 videt ?' err indeed you might, dear Plancits, but deceived 
 you could not have been^ C. Fam. x. 20. 
 
 H] Without Demonstrative : 
 
 ' Praesertim ut nunc sunt mores/ especially as fashions now are, 
 Ter. P%. i. 2. 5. Ut res dant sese, in the present state of affairs. 
 These Conjunctions are constantly used in parenthesis = id quod : 
 as, ut aiunt, as they say ; ut opinor, as I think ; ut videtur, as you 
 please; quemadmodum spero ; quomodo mihi persuades, &c. 
 Also, ut nunc est, ut nunc quidem est (tinder present circumstances], 
 ut potest, ut potui, ut potero, (as far as possible]. 
 
 2) Ut, sicut, in comparisons, usually express a more real like- 
 ness than quasi, tamquam : 'Sicut unus paterfamilias his de 
 rebus loquor/ / speak on these siibjects like any other head of a 
 family, C. d. Or. i. 29. ' Inspicere tamquam in speculum in 
 
 vitas hominum/ to look into men's lives, as into a mirror, Ter. Ad. 
 iii. 3.61. 
 
 3) Ut is used 
 
 a) To introduce a modifying expression, ' considered as being] 
 'for,' without a Verb : ' Clisthenes multum, ut tempori- 
 bus ill is, valuit dicendo/ Clisthenes had great powers of 
 speaking for those times, C. Briit. 7. 
 
 P) Also with a Causal force (as being] : ' Apud me, ut 
 bonum iudicem, argumenta plus quam testes valent/ 
 
312 Latin Wordlore. 75. 
 
 with me, as a discreet judge, circumstantial proofs have 
 more weight than witnesses, C. d. Or. i. 38. 
 
 y) Hence, with a Verb, to imply that some one fact is in 
 conformity with some other: l Aiunt hominem, ut erat 
 f ur i o s u s, respondisse/ they say the man, raging as he was, 
 replied, C. p. Rose. Am. 12. 'Horum auctoritate finitumi 
 adducti, ut sunt Gallorum subita et repentina consilia, 
 Trebium retinent,' the neighbouring tribes, led on by these 
 men's influence, with the precipitation usual in the mea- 
 sures of the Gauls, detain Trebius, Caes. B. G. iii. 8. This 
 sense may also be conveyed by the Relative qui ( = quia 
 talis) or by the Preposition pro. Thus it is the same 
 thing to use any of these phrases : 
 
 (utesprudens } YQU 
 
 T I qua es prudentia I b with your usual prudence 
 
 quae tua est prudentia T \ we re silent 
 
 \ pro tua prudentia / 
 
 75 iii. Correlations of Likeness and Unlike- 
 ness. 
 
 Atque, ac (not used before vowels), in the Correlation of Like- 
 ness follow the Adjectives and Pronouns, aequus, par, similis, talis, 
 idem, totidem; and the Adverbs, aeque, item, itidem, iuxta, pariter, 
 perinde, proinde, similiter, simul : in the Correlation of Unlikeness 
 they follow the Adjectives ali us, contrarius, dissimilis, dispar, di- 
 versus ; and the Adverbs aliter, &c. contra, secus. 
 
 Ut is also found in the Correlation of Likeness after several of 
 the words cited : que after iuxta : et in both kinds : quam in the 
 Correlation of Unlikeness alone in the best age, but iuxta quam in 
 Livy, aeque, perinde quam in post- Augustan writers. 
 
 i) Correlation of Likeness : 'Modo ne in aequo hostes vestri 
 nostrique apud vos sint ac nos socii/ provided our common enemies 
 be not on the same footing in your esteem as we your allies, L. xxxix. 
 37. ' Animus te erga idem est a c fuit/ the feeling towards you is 
 the same as it was, Ter. Haut. ii. i. * Pari eum at que illos imperio 
 esse iussit/ he ordered him to be equal in command with the others, 
 Nep. Dat. 3. ' Aliquid ab illo simile atquea ceteris est factum,' 
 he did something like what others did, C. Phil. i. 4. ' Faxo eum 
 tali mactatum at que hie est infortunio/ / will make him suffer 
 such a misfortune as this man has suffered, Ter. Ph. v. 9. ( Pa- 
 riter me nunc opera adiuvas ac re -dudum opitulata es,' you assist 
 me now with your zeal jtist as you helped me some time ago with 
 your money, Ter. Ph. v. 3. 3. 'Hi quidem coluntur aeque atque 
 illi,' these are worshipped equally with the former, C. N. D. iii. 10. 
 ' Simul atque natum animal est, gaudet voluptate/ as soon as an 
 animal is born, it delights in pleasure, C. Fin. ii. 10. ' Desiderium 
 absentium nihil perinde ac vicinitas acuit/ nothing sharpens re- 
 gret for the absent like neighbourhood, PI. Ep. vi. i. * Ostendant 
 milites se iuxta hieme atque aestate bella gerere posse/ let the 
 troops shew they can ivage war in winter as well as in summer, 
 
, 75 . Correlation. 3 1 3 
 
 L. v. 6. * Omnia in Themistocle fuerunt paria et Coriolano/ all the 
 facts in the case of Themistocles were like those in the case of Corio- 
 lanus, C. Br. ii. 'Ad Luceriam iuxta obsidentis obsessosque 
 inopia vexavit/ scarcity distressed the besiegers at Luceria as much 
 as the besieged, L. ix. 13. 'Miltiades totidem navibus atque erat 
 profectus Athenas rediit/ Miltiades returned to Athens with as 
 many ships as he had gone out with, Nep. Milt. 7. So, 'Hand 
 centensimam partem dixi' atque possim exprimere/ / have not 
 said a hundredth part of what I could utter, Plaut. M. Gl. iii. i. 
 Horace has plus ac, more than, Catullus non minus ac. 
 
 a) Idem, iuxta, are used with Prep, cum and its Case : f Eo- 
 dem mecum patre genitus est/ he has the same father 
 as myself, Tac. A. xv. 2. 'Quo in loco res nostrae sint 
 iuxtamecum omnes intellegitis,' the state of our affairs 
 you all understand as well as I do, Sail. C. 58. 
 Horace uses idem with a Dative : ' Invitum qui servat iderr\ 
 facit occidenti/ one who rescues a man against his will 
 does the same as one who kills, ad Pis. 467. 
 
 U) Pro eo (in proportion) goes before ac, ut, quantum (as). 
 ' Pro eo ac debui/ as I was bound, C. Fam. iv. 5. ' Pro 
 eo ac mereor/ according to my desert, C. in Cat. iv. 2. 
 4 Pro eo ut temporis difficultas tulit,' as far as the existing 
 difficulties allowed, C. Verr. iii. 54. ' Pro eo quanti te 
 facio/ in proportion to my esteem for you, C. Fam. iii. 31. 
 
 c) Prout (according as). ' Prout ipse amabat litteras/ in ac- 
 
 cordance with his own love of learning, Nep. Att. I. 
 
 d) Praeut (compared with), praequam (compared with) are 
 
 Comic : ' Praeut futurumst,' compared with what is to be, 
 Plaut. Bacch. iv. 9. 5. ' Praequam quod molestumst/ com- 
 pared with the trouble, Plaut. Amph. ii. 2. 3. 
 
 e) Proquam is Lucretian, ii. 1137. 
 
 2) Correlation of Unlikeness : 
 
 c Illi sunt alio ingenio atque tu/ they are of different temper 
 from you, C. Leg. ii. 7. 'Stoici multa falsa esse dicunt longeque 
 aliter se habere ac sensibus videantur/ the Stoics say many things 
 are delusive and very different from what they seem to the senses, C. 
 Ac. ii. 31. ' Eadem sunt membra in utriusque disputatione, sed 
 paulo secus a me atque ab illo distributa,' there are the same 
 members in the argument of each, but laid out by me somewhat 
 differently from his method, C. d. Or. iii. 30. ' Vides omnia fere 
 contra ac dicta sint evenisse/_y0^ see that almost everything has 
 turned out contrary to what was foretold, C. Div. ii. 24. ' Brutus 
 iuvenis erat longe alius ingenio quam cuius simulationem indu- 
 erat,' Brutus was a youth of very different character from that he 
 had assumed, L. i. 56. 'Multiplex quam pro numero damnum 
 est/ the loss is out of all proportion to the number, L. vii. 8. 'Eruca 
 diversaeestquam lactuca naturae/ colewort is of a different cha- 
 racter from lettuce, PL N. H xix. 8. 
 
 a) Alius is used by Horace with Ablative : 6 Neve putes alium 
 sapiente bonoque beatum/ and you will deem none 
 other happy than the wise and good man, Epist. i. 16. 20. 
 
314 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 b) Contrast is also expressed by repeating alius, or any de- 
 rivative of alius : 'Aliud ratio est, aliud o ratio/ reason 
 is one thing, speech another = aliud est ratio atque (et) 
 oratio. See p. 317. 
 
 76 
 Quam. iv. Correlations of Degree with quam. 
 
 The uses of quam differ from those of quomodo and quem- 
 admodum. 
 
 As an Interrogative particle (how), it intensifies Adjectives, Ad- 
 verbs, and a few Verbs of feeling. See pp. 279-80. 
 
 Correlative to tarn expressed or understood (as), it compares the 
 qualities of things in equal ratio. See p. 309. 
 
 Following Comparative words, quam (than) compares things in 
 a ratio of inequality. 
 
 Following ante, prius, post, pridie, &c., quam forms Conjunctions 
 represented by the English Conjunctions before, after. See SYNTAX 
 (Compound Sentences of Time). 
 
 Quamdiu (correlative to tamdiu), as long as, is also used as a 
 Conjunction of Time ; but quam dudum, quam pridem, how long 
 ago, are Interrogative only. 
 
 Com- A) Comparison of Equality with quam (as). 
 
 of Equa- i) The idioms in which quam (as, how] is attracted to other Ad- 
 Kty- verbs and to Adjectives are remarkable and of frequent use. Thus, 
 it intensifies Positive words of quality ( very) ; where the full ex- 
 pression might be tarn quam potest. ' Ab eius summo, sicut palmae, 
 rami quam late diffunduntur/ the boughs spread very widely from 
 its summit, like those of the palm-tree, Caes. B. G. vi. 26. ' Cenam 
 afferri quam opimam imperavit/^ ordered a very splendid repast 
 to be broiight in, Caes. B. H. 33. ' Sunt vestrum, iudices, quam 
 multi, qui Pisonem cognoverunt/ there are very many of you, 
 gentlemen, who knew Piso, C. Verr. iv. 25. 
 
 2) With a Verb quam = tarn (tantum) quam : as in the Conjunc- 
 tions quam-vis, quam-libet, how you will, as much as you will ; 
 'quam vis multos/ as many as you will, C. p. Rose. A. 16. So, 
 'Quamvelitsit pot ens/ be she as influential as she will, C. p. CaeL 
 26. 'Quam volent in conviviis faced sint/ be they as witty as 
 they please at dinner parties, C. p. Gael. 28. Quam potest, as muck 
 as possible. 
 
 3) The Adjective or Adverb with quam is raised to the Superla- 
 tive, in order to express the utmost intensity : ' Relinquebatur ut 
 quam plurimos collis occuparet et quam latissimas regiones 
 praesidiis teneret/ it remained for him to occupy as many hills and 
 hold by garrisons as large an extent of country as he could, Caes. 
 B. C. iii. 44. See p. 279. 
 
 4) Tarn . . . quam with Superlative and Comparative words is 
 an archaic construction. 'Magis quam id reputo tam magis 
 uror/ the more I think of it, the more I am annoyed, Plaut. Bac. v. 
 i. 5, ' Quam pessime quisque fecit, tam maxime tutus est,' the 
 worse any man has acted, the safer he is, Sail. lug. 31. 
 
 5) Quam by a peculiar attraction (also frequent in Greek) follows 
 a certain number of Positive Adverbs expressing intensity, espe- 
 
Correlation. 315 
 
 daily mi re, and, more rarely, admodum, nimis, oppido, per, sane, 
 valde: Perquam doctus, very learned'. 'Mire quam illius loci 
 cogitatio delectat/ / am wonderfully pleased with the very thought 
 of the place, C. Att. i. n. 'Sane quam sum gavisus/ / rejoiced 
 exceedingly. ' Suos valde quam paucos habet/ C. Fam. xi. 13. 
 
 B) The Comparison of Inequality with quam (than) is used after com- 
 Comparative words unless an Ablative supplies its place. panson 
 
 1) Plus, amplius, magis, minus, potius, non plus, non magis, non e( i ualll y 
 minus, &c., are used in this comparison, as tarn in that of equality : 
 
 ( Prodest plus imperator quam orator/ a general is of more service 
 than an orator, C.Br. 73. Plus is used in quantitative comparison, 
 magis in intensive, minus in both these ; amplius in comparison 
 of extension, potius in that of preference. Non amplius, haud 
 amplius, are used ; but amplius haud is quite inadmissible. 
 
 2) If two qualities of the same subject are to be compared, magis 
 quam may connect the Adjectives. ' Celer tuus disertus magis 
 est quam s^iw.*] your friend Celer is fluent rather than wise, C. 
 Att. xi. 10. Or, more elegantly, both are Comparative. 'Pauli 
 Aemilii contio fuit verier quam gratior populo,' the harangue 
 of Paulus Aemilius was more truthful than popular, L. xxii. 38. 
 * Romani bella quaedam fortius quam felicius gesserunt/ the 
 Romans waged some wars with more valour than success, L. v. 43. 
 Tacitus has 'vementius quam caute,'^r. 4. 
 
 3) Often the Comparative implies some excess of the Positive 
 quality: ' Senectus est natura loquacior/ old age is nattirally 
 somewhat talkative (or rather too talkative), C. Cat. M. 16. <The- 
 mistocles liberius vivebat/ Themistocles lived too freely, Nep. 
 Them. i. So plures (i.e. uno) means several. ( In columba sentio 
 pluris videri colores, nee esse plus uno,' in the dove I notice a 
 semblance of several colours, but not more than one actually, C. Ac. 
 ii. 25. In old Latinity, plures means the departed, the dead. 
 
 4) A Comparative and quam may be followed by Particles and 
 Pronouns: ' Siculis plus frumenti imperabatur quam quantum 
 exararant/ the Sicilians were ordered to pay more corn than they had 
 harvested, C. Verr. iii. 23. See pro (PREPOSITIONS). 
 
 5) Quam may follow the verbs praestare, malle: 'Accipere 
 quam facere praestat iniuriam,' C. T. D. v. 19. 
 
 6) In Plautus it follows a Positive : 'Tacita bona est mulier 
 semper quam loquens/ a woman is always better silent than 
 speaking, Rud. iv. 470. 
 
 7) An ellipse of quam is frequent after plus, amplius: plus 
 annum, more than a year ; amplius sex menses ; amplius triennium, 
 C. ' Plus quingentos colaphos infregit mihi/ he inflicted on me more 
 than five hundred blows, Ter. Ad. ii. i. 46. 
 
 Obs. In Correlation, a Nom. in the second member without verb 
 expressed may answer to an Accus. in the first : Docui an imam 
 . . . minoribus esse principiis factam quam liquidus umor aquai 
 aut nebula aut fumus, Lucr. iii. 426. See M. Lucr. iii. 456. 
 
316 Latin Wordlore. 77. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 Coordination. 
 Coord! *' Coordination by Conjunctions. 
 
 Coordinate Sentences are introduced by the Coordinate Con- 
 junctions enumerated 57, or by the Relative and its Particles. 
 
 Annex- -^) Annexive Conjunctions. 
 
 Con- *) The First Class contains, (i) et, que, atque or (before con- 
 
 junc- sonants only) ac; (2) neque or nee, neve or neu. 
 
 tions. j?t associates things of equal importance. 
 
 Que appends a usual adjunct; being attached, as enclitic, to the 
 word, or to the first word of the clause, which it annexes. 1 
 
 Atque (ac) =ad-que, adds something important, as it were by 
 afterthought. 
 
 Neque (nee), nor, and not, associates negative propositions; 
 neve (neu) associates prohibitions. 
 
 2) The Second Class is Intensive, and associates emphati- 
 cally. Such are etiam = et iam, also, even, for which et itself is 
 often used; quo que, also, even, an emphatic que; item = eo 
 modo, likewise ; necnon, also, moreover. On etiam quoque, 
 quoque etiam, c., see M. Lucr. iii. 208. 
 
 3) The Annexive Conjunctions et, que, neque, neve, are fre- 
 quently doubled in Distributive Correlation. The chief forms are : 
 et . . . et, neque . . . neque, neve . . . neve : 'Et monere et 
 moneri proprium est verae amicitiae,' both advising and being 
 advised is the property of true friendship, C. Lael. 25. ' Illud 
 neque taceri ullo modo neque dici pro dignitate potest/ that 
 matter can neither by any means be omitted from my speech, nor 
 yet be spoken as it deserves, C. Verr. ii. i. 34. f Carthaginiensibus 
 condicionespacisdictae, bellum neve in Africa neve extra Africam 
 iniussu populi Romani facerent/ the terms of peace dictated to the 
 Carthaginians were that they should wage no war in or out of 
 Africa, without authority from the Roman people, L. xxx. 37. 
 
 Que . . . que, et . . . que, que . . . et, are poetic, but rare in 
 prose. On et or que in protasis without conjunction in apodosis, 
 see V. A en. xi. 171. 
 
 4) Affirmative and Negative Propositions are associated by et . . . 
 neque, neque . .. et, nee . . . que: ' Intellegitis Pompeio et 
 animum praesto fuisse nee consilium defuisse/ you perceive that 
 Pompeius had both courage for the occasion, and no lack of counsel, 
 C. Phil. xiii. 6. ' Vitia erunt donee homines; sed neque haec 
 <:ontinua, et meliorum interventu pensantur/ vices will exist as long 
 as men; but as, on the one hand, their operation is not perpetual, so 
 also they find a counterpoise in the occasional action of better prin- 
 ciples, Tac. H. iv. 74. See M. Lucr. i. 280. 
 
 1 -que sometimes stands after the second word, if the first is a Preposition or other 
 small particle : in eoque ; a meque ; tarn variisque, &c. And later still in poetry, to 
 assist metre : multus ut in terras deplueretque lapis, Tib. ii. 5. 71. 
 
77. Coordination. 3 1 7 
 
 5) Distributive association is likewise effected by the sequences, 
 cum . . . turn; turn . . . turn; qua . . . qua; modo . . . 
 modo; nunc . . . nunc; modo . . . nunc ; simul . . . 
 simul ; partim . . . partim ; pars . . . pars. 
 
 Also by alter . . . alter; alius . . . alius ; and its particles, 
 aliter . . . aliter; alias . . . alias; alibi . . . alibi; &c. 
 
 Examples : e Agesilaus cum a ceteris scriptoribus, turn a 
 Xenophonte collaudatus est,' Agesilaus has been extolled both by 
 other writers, and especially by Xenophon, Nep. Ag. i. * Hae stellae 
 turn occultantur turn rursus aperiuntur/ these stars are at one time 
 hidden, at another again displayed, C. N. D. ii. 51. 'Socrates non 
 turn hoc, turn illud, sed idem dicebat semper/ Socrates did not 
 say one thing at one time, another at another ; biit the same thing 
 always, C. LaeL 4. 'Scripsisti epistulam ad me plenam consili 
 summaeque turn benevolentiae turn etiam prudentiae/j<5># have 
 written me a letter full of good advice, and of great kindness as 
 well as prudence, C. Att. ix. 5. ' Omnium Fabiorum, qua plebis, 
 qua patrum, eximia virtus fuit/ all the Fabii, both plebeians and 
 senators, were men of eminent merit, L. ii. 45. ' Animalia cibum 
 partim oris hiatu et dentibus ipsis capessunt, partim unguium 
 tenacitate arripiunt, partim aduncitate rostrorum ; alia sugunt, 
 alia carpunt, alia vorant, alia mandunt/ some animals take their 
 food by opening the mouth and applying the teeth, some seize it by 
 their grasping claws, some by their crooked beaks, some suck, others 
 peck, others swallow down, others chew, C. N. D. ii. 47. ' Natura 
 alterum alterius indigere voluit, quoniam quod alter! deest 
 praesto plerumque est alteri/ Nature would have one man stand 
 in need of another, since what one lacks another generally has, Colum. 
 Pr. 6. c Aliter cum tyranno, aliter cum amico vivitur/ we live 
 in one way with a tyrant, in another with a friend, C. LaeL 10. 
 
 6) The Particles used to distribute thought in regular series (Or- Ordi- 
 dinative) are, primum (in the first place], deinde (in the next place}, p|^_ ve 
 variously followed by one or more of the words, turn, postea, mox, tides. 
 praeterea, porro, insuper : and often wound up with denique, in 
 short, finally, or postremo (urn), in the last place. 
 
 ' Primum latine Apollo nunquam locutus est; deinde ista 
 sors inaudita Graecis est; praeterea Pyrrhi temporibus jam Apollo 
 versus facere desierat; postremo Pyrrhus hanc amphiboliam versus 
 intellegere potuisset nihilo magis in se quam in Romanos valere/ in 
 the first place Apollo never spoke in Latin ; in the next the Greeks 
 never heard of that oracle ; moreover, inthe times of Pyrrhus, Apollo 
 had already ceased to make verses ; in fine, Pyrrhus would have 
 been able to perceive that the ambiguity in this verse told no more 
 in his favour than in favour of the Romans, C. Div. ii. 56. 
 
 Sometimes turn precedes deinde ; and denique is followed by 
 postremo. In Cic. Fin. v. 23 (where see Madvig), we find primum 
 . . . turn .... deinde . . . post . . . turn . . . deinde, without 
 denique or postremo. See also M. Lucr. iii. 529. 
 
 In these sequences primum is used; seldom primo, which means 
 originally, at first, but sometimes in the first place, deinde fol- 
 lowing. 
 
3i8 Latin Wordlore. 78-79. 
 
 a) On Asyndeton and Polysyndeton see p. 269 ft). 
 
 b) ANAPHORA is the construction which, instead of using An- 
 
 nexive Conjunctions, repeats in each clause one or more 
 words : c Promisit, sed difficulter, sed subductis superciliis, 
 sed malignis verbis,' he promised, but hardly, with knitted 
 brows, and in spiteful language, Sen. Ben. i. i. ' Si recte 
 Cato iudicavit, non recte frumentarius ille, non recte 
 aedium pestilentium venditor tacuit,' if Cato judged rightly, 
 then the corn-factor I cited was not rightly silent ; nor yet 
 the vendor of an unwholesome house, C. Off. iii. 16. 
 78 
 
 j3isjunc- ^) Disjunctive or Alternative Conjunctions. 
 
 Con- i) These are aut ; vel, -ve; sive, seu. 
 
 .Sons. Aut distinguishes notions, and opposes them to one another. 
 
 Vel (ancient Imperative of volo) and its enclitic -ve make 
 optional distinction (or, if you please). 
 
 Sive (seu) sometimes means or if\ but, as here cited, it implies 
 a distinction of name rather than of fact. 
 
 ( Audendum est aliquid universis, aut omnia singulis patienda/ 
 we must dare something as a body, or individually endure all things, 
 L. vi. 1 6. ' Sequimur vel antecedimus/ Curt. ' loco seriove,' in jest 
 or earnest,^. 'Discessus sive potius fuga,' departure or rather 
 flight, C. 
 
 2) Disjunctive Particles are doubled for the purpose of Distribu- 
 tion : 'Aut nemo aut, si quisquam, Cato sapiens fun:,' either no 
 man or, if any, Cato was wise, C. Lael. 2. * Vel vi, vel clam, vel 
 precario,' either by force or by stealth, or by petition, C. p. Lig. 3. 
 
 3) Vel may mean 'even.' ' Per me vel stertas Meet,' you may 
 even snore if you will for me, C. Ac. ii. 29. And 'for instance.' 
 ( Amoris tui vestigia vel de Tigellio perspexi/ C. Fam. vii. 24. 
 
 Vel certe, or at least : vel etiam, or perhaps. See p. 279. 
 
 79 
 
 C) Adversative Conjunctions. 
 
 P>n- The Adversative Conjunctions are autem, sed; verum, vero; 
 
 lions. tamen ; at (ast), atqui ; ceterum. 
 
 1) Autem (akin to aut), the weakest of these, does not oppose 
 strongly, but corrects slightly, adds, or continues, with the English 
 but, now, or and. It is postpositive, following the first word or (after 
 est, sunt) the second word in its clause : 'Magnes lapis est, qui 
 ferrum ad se trahit : rationem autem, cur id fiat, afferre non pos- 
 sumus/ the magnet is a stone which attracts iron ; but a reason 
 
 for this effect we cannot assign, C. Div. i. 86. ' Bonum est autem 
 
 recta praecipere,' Lact. 
 
 a] Autem (followed by immo vero) is used with a word re- 
 peated interrogatively, with a view to correction. ' Ferendus 
 tibi in hoc meus error : ferendus autem? immo vero 
 etiam adiuvandus/ you must endure my mistake here: 
 endure, do Isay? you must even abet it, C. Att. xii. 42. 
 
 2) Sed, a form of se- (separate}, distinguishes with more or less 
 of opposition. After a negative, it supplies an adverse or differing 
 notion: * Oti fructus est non contentio animi sed relaxatio/ the 
 advantage of leisure is not mental exertion, but relaxation, C. d. 
 
; 79- Coordination. 319 
 
 Or. ii. 5. Otherwise it is corrective : ' Contemno magnitudinem 
 doloris. S e d si est tantus dolor quantus Philoctetae/ &c. / despise 
 greatness of pain. But suppose it as great as that of Philoctetes, &c. 
 C. T. D. ii. 19. Or it is used in passing on to new points or topics : 
 ' Ego sane a Quinto nostro dissentio : s e d ea quae restant audia- 
 ;mus/ I quite differ from our friend Quintus. But let us hear what 
 remains to be said, C. N. D. ii. i. 
 
 3) Verum (but truly) resembles sed in use, but is stronger ; 
 6 Non quid nobis utile, verum quid oratori necessarium sit, quae- 
 rimus/ we are not inquiring what is profitable to us, biit rather 
 what is necessary for an orator, C. d. Or. i. 60. 
 
 Sed and verum are praepositive, standing first in their clause. 
 
 4) Vero (but in truth] when used as a Conjunction is postposi- 
 tive, and generally corrects by heightening the previous notion : 
 ' Quidquid est quod bonum sit, id expetendum est ; quod autem ex- 
 petendum, id certe approbandum ; quod vero approbaris, idgratum 
 acceptumque habendum/ whatever is good, is desirable ; what is 
 desirable, is surely to be approved ; again what you approve must 
 be deemed agreeable and acceptable, C. T. D. v. 25. 
 
 5) Tamen (yet, however, nevertheless) detracts from the force of 
 ,a concession, either expressed by etsi, quamvis, &c., or implied in 
 the context. It stands in any part of the sentence where it may be 
 most emphatic. See SYNTAX (Concessive Sentences). 
 
 Sed tamen, attamen, verumtamen, et tamen (but yet), are used. 
 
 6) At (anciently ast) is strongly adversative : and is used in ob- 
 jection, exclamation, interrogation, imprecation, &c. 
 
 6 Non placet M. Antonio consulatus meus ; at placuit P. Servilio/ 
 &c. my consulship is not liked by Marcus Antonius, but it was 
 liked by Publius Servilius, &c. C. Phil. ii. 12. 'At te di deaeque 
 perduint/ may the gods and goddesses destroy thee ! Ter. Hec. i. 2. 
 59. 'Aeschines in Demosthenem invehitur : at quam rhetorice, 
 quam copiose! 7 Aeschines upbraids Demosthenes: aye, and how 
 skilfully, how copiously, C. T. D. iii. 26. 
 
 a) At = at tamen : ' Si se ipsos illi nostri liberatores e con- 
 spectu nostro abstulerunt, at exemplum reliquerunt/ if 
 those champions of our freedom have removed themselves 
 from our view, yet they have left us their example, C. Phil. 
 ii. 44. 
 
 ft) At en im, at vero, as well as at alone, are used, like aXXa 
 ?') A /a in Greek, to introduce an objection which must be 
 answered. 'At enim ad Verrem pecunia ista non per- 
 venit. Quae est ista defensio ? ' &c. but that money, it is 
 urged, never reached Verres. What a lame defence is 
 here? &c., C. Verr. ii. 10. ' At vero malum est liberos 
 amittere. Malum, nisi hoc peius sit, haec sufferre et per- 
 peti,' C. Fam. iv. 5. 'At ego, inquit, vobis rationem osten- 
 dam, qua tanta mala ista effugiatis/ Sail. Cat. 40. 
 c) Atqui {yes but, but indeed} adds an objection which needs 
 to be considered. ' O rem, inquis, difficilem atque inex- 
 plicabilem ! Atqui explicanda est/ O what a difficult 
 and inexplicable matter, you say ? Yes, but it must be ex- 
 plained, C. Att. viii. 3. See M.Lncr. i. 755. 
 
320 Latin Wordlore. 80-82. 
 
 7) Ceterum (but for the rest, but) is used by historians. ' Qui 
 Romanoram amicitiam colunt, multum laborem suscipiunt : cete- 
 8o rum ex omnibus maxime tuti sunt/ Sail. lug. 14. So ceteroqui(n). 
 Causal D) Causal Conjunctions. 
 
 j? n n c- i) Nam (for, for instance, to be sure) introduces a cause as ex- 
 
 tions. planatory ; enim (which follows the first or, after est, the second 
 
 word of a clause) introduces a proof. Namque is a strengthened 
 
 form of nam, etenim of enim : they are usually, in prose, the first 
 
 words in their clause. 
 
 a) N am is used in urgent Interrogations, either appended to 
 
 the Interrogative (quisnam, curnam, &c.), or, in old Latin 
 chiefly, preceding it. 'Nam quid ego nunc dicam de patre?' 
 why what can I now say of my father? Ter. An. i. 5, 17. 
 
 b) Enim is linked with other Particles : etenim, for, neque 
 
 enim, sed enim, at enim, verum enim, enimvero, 
 verum enimvero. All these may begin a sentence. 
 ' Enimvero, Dave, nihil loci'st segnitiae/ why really, 
 Davus, there is no room for laziness, Ter. An. i. 3. I. 
 
 c) Enim may be emphatic (yes). ' Id enim est, inquies, 
 
 ostentum,' C. Div. ii. 26. 'Tibi enim, tibi, maxima luno/ 
 V. Aen. viii. 84. 
 
 81 
 
 Illative E) Illative Conjunctions. 
 
 junc~- J ) I gi tur > er g> therefore, itaque, proinde (proin). 
 
 tions. Igitur expresses a reasonable inference : ergo a necessary infer- 
 
 ence ; itaque (and so) an inference arising from the antecedence ; 
 
 proinde (so then) an inference proportioned to the antecedence. 
 
 2) Ideo, idcirco, propterea (on that account), point to a ground of 
 fact (quod). Hoc, on this ground. M. Lucr. iii. 531. 
 
 3) The Relative words quare, quamobrem, quapropter, quocirca, 
 have a Conclusive sense : (wherefore, on which account}.* 
 
 Coordi- ii. Coordination by the Relative and its Par- 
 
 byRela- 
 
 i) The Relative itself may be equal to a Personal or Demon- 
 strative Pronoun with a Particle (et, autem, enim, igitur, &c.). 
 
 ' Res loquitur ipsa: quae( = et ea) semper valet plurimum/ the 
 fact itself speaks; and this always has most weight, C. p. Mil. 20. 
 ' Sunt igitur firmi et constantes eligendi : cuius ( = eius autem) 
 generis est magna penuria/ firm and steady friends imist be 
 chosen: but of this class there is a great dearth, C. LaeL 17. * Mul- 
 tas ad res perutiles Xenophontis libri sunt, quos ( = eos igitur) legite 
 studiose/ the works of Xenophon are useful for many purposes : 
 read them then, I beg, with care, C. Cat. M. 17. 
 
 Note. A Particle which appears with a Relative, belongs really 
 to a Demonstrative understood (or expressed in another clause). 
 'Quod est bonum omne laudabile est; quod autem laudabile 
 
 1 The uses of Latin Adverbs and Conjunctions are a very extensive subject, which can- 
 not be fully treated in a Grammar of moderate size. Hand's unfinished edition of Tursel- 
 linus de Particulis extends only to the letter P, and fills four large octavo volumes. 
 
82. Coordination. 321 
 
 est, omne est honcstum; bonum igitur quod est, honestum est/ C. 
 Fin. iii. 8, where autem and igitur belong to id understood. 
 
 2) The attraction of the Antecedent to the Relative Clause is a 
 frequent idiom. Hence a peculiar use of the Relative arises. 
 * Moriar ni, quae tua gloria est, puto te malle a Caesare con- 
 suli quam inaurari/ upon my life I think, such is your vanity, you 
 'would rather be consulted by Caesar than plated with gold, C. Fam. 
 vii. 13. ' Quanta potuit adhiberi festinatio/ L. xlv. i. 
 
 3) When a Noun has an Attribute, especially a Superlative, and 
 a Relative Clause further explaining it, the Attribute is often at- 
 tracted to the Clause : 'Themistocles noctu de servis suis, quern 
 habuit fi delis si mum, ad Xerxem misit/ Themistocles sent to 
 Xerxes by night the most faithful slave he had, Nep. Them. 4. 
 
 4) When the Relative Clause has another subordinate to it, the 
 Relative may be constructed not with its own, but with its subordi- 
 nate Clause : 'Aberat omnis dolor, qui si adesset (for quern si 
 is adesset) non molliter ferret/ all pain was absent, but had any been 
 present, he would have borne it without weakness, C. Fin. ii. 20. 
 
 5) A Relative may be connected with a Participial construction. 
 ' Non sunt ea bona dicenda nee habenda, quibus abundantem 
 licet esse miserrimum/ those things ought not to be called or held 
 good, amidst the overflow of which one may be utterly wretched, C. 
 
 T. D. v. 15. 
 
 With an Infinitive Clause. 'In eos, quos speramus nobis 
 profuturos, non dubitamus beneficia conferre, 7 we do not hesitate 
 to confer benefits on those from whom we hope to derive advantage, 
 C. Of I 15. 
 
 With an Interrogation. 'Magnus orator fuit Demosthenes : 
 quern quis umquam dicendo superavit?' Demosthenes was a great 
 orator : for who ever surpassed him in speaking ? C. 
 
 6) The Relative not only connects Clauses with Principal Sen- 
 tences, but it is used, especially by Cicero, in the beginning of Prin- 
 cipal Sentences, to shew their logical connexion withsomethingwhich 
 has gone before. Such are the phrases quo facto, qua re cog- 
 nita, quae cum ita sint, qua de causa, &c. 
 
 Also quod (now, but, in fact, &c.) stands before Conjunctions, 
 si, nisi, etsi, quoniam, quia, quum, ubi, utinam, &c. : ( Fit 
 protinus hac re audita ex castris Gallorum fuga : quod nisi cre- 
 bris subsidiis ac totius diei labore milites fuissent defessi, omnes 
 hostium copiae deleri potuissent/ on this intelligence the Gauls 
 forsook their camp : in fact, if our troops had not been worn out 
 by frequent skirmishes and a whole day's fatigite, the entire forces 
 of the enemy might have been destroyed, Caes. B. G. vii. 88. See C. 
 Off. i. 14, Div. ii. 62, Fin* i. 20 ; Liv. xxix. 34, xxxvi. 2. 
 
 7) Quod is also used (M. Lucr. ii. 248.) 
 
 a) as quantum : <Tu, quod poteris, nos consiliis iuvabis/ 
 you will help me with your advice as far as you can, C. 
 Att. x. 2. ' Epicurus se unus, quod sciam, sapientem pro- 
 fiteri est ausus/ Epicurus is the only man, so far as I 
 know, who ventured to profess wisdom, C. Fin. ii. 3. 
 
 Y 
 
322 Latin Wordlore. 82. 
 
 b) opening a sentence in relation to something about to be 
 
 stated (as to] : see M. Lucr. iv. 855 : 'Quod s crib is te 
 velle scire qui sit reipublicae status, summa dissensio est/ 
 as to the wish you express in your letter to know the con- 
 dition of public affairs, all is discord, C. Fam. i. 7. 
 
 c) as quare : 'Est quod te visam/ there is something I must 
 
 see you for, Plaut. ' Credo ego vos mirari quid sit quod 
 ego surrexerim/ / imagine you are wondering for what 
 reason I have stood up, C. 
 
 d) occasionally for ex quo (since) : ' Dies tertius est quod 
 
 audivi recitantem Augurinum/ // is now three days since I 
 heard Auguriims read, PL Ep. iv. 27. 
 So cum : ' Multi anni sunt cum ille in aere meo est/ it is 
 
 many years that he is in my good books, C. Fam. xv. 14. 
 And tantum quod for vix ubi, vixdum : 'Qui tantum 
 quod ad hostis pervenerat, Datames signa inferri iubet/ 
 he had but just reached the enemy when Datames ordered 
 the standards to advance, Nep. Dat. 6. 'Tantumquod 
 ex Arpinati veneram, cum mihi litterae a te redditae sunt/ 
 I had just arrived from my house at Arpinum, when a 
 letter from you was delivered to me, C. Fam. vii. 23. 
 
 Note i. The transition by which the Relative quod (which} be- 
 comes the Conjunction of Fact quod (that) and the Causal Con- 
 junction quod (because) is apparent from such examples. An an- 
 alogous transition appears in the English that, and the Greek on. 
 
 Concede quod postulas, I grant (the thing) that you ask. 
 
 Rectum est quod postulas, (the thing) that you ask is right. 
 
 Nefas est quod postulas, (the thing) that you ask is a sin. 
 
 Gaudeo quod venisti, I am glad that you are come. 
 
 Gratum est quod venisti, // is a pleasure that you are come. 
 
 Consolatio est quod venisti, it is a comfort that you are come. 
 
 Hoc consolatur quod venisti, this comforts, that you are come. 
 
 Fugit idcirco quod timet, he flies because that he fears. 
 
 Venit ideo quod pactus est, he came because that he agreed. 
 
 Felix est quod sapiens est, he is happy in that he is wise. 
 
 Note 2. On change of construction after ReL, see M. Lucr. i. 
 720, and Verg. Aen. vi. 284. 
 
 8) The place of the Relative can be taken by its Particles, ubi, 
 unde, quo, qua, &c. 
 
 Ubi may stand for in quo, in qua, in quibus, of place, 
 person, or thing : 'Porticus haec ipsa, ubi ( = in qua) inambulamus/ 
 this very colonnade in which we are walking, C. d. Or. ii. 5. 
 
 Unde stands for ex quo, qua, quibus, a quo, qua, quibus, 
 &c., and is also referred to place, person, or thing : ( Fontes 
 unde (ex quibus) hauriretis/ sources from which you might 
 draw, C. d. Or. i. 46. 'Eloquentia, unde ( = a qua) longe 
 absum/ eloquence, from which I am far removed, C. Brut. 92. 
 
 Quo for ad quern, quam, quod, quos, quae, c. < Dignus 
 Roma locus quo ( = ad quern) deus omnis eat/ Rome is a place 
 worthy to be visited by every deity, Ov. F. iv. 270. 
 
 Such Particles are connected with mood according to the same 
 rules as the Relative Pronoun. 
 
tive 
 
 $ 83. Negative Words. 323 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 Negative Words. 
 i. Ne and its Compounds. words. 
 
 1) From the Negative Root na come the Particles ne, ne. 
 
 N e, the lighter form, is used as an enclitic Interrogative. Ne. 
 
 It enters into the composition of many words : ne-que (nee), 
 ne-uter, ne-utiquam, non, nisi (for ne-si), nihil (for ne-hil), nemo 
 (for ne-homo), nullus (ne-ullus), numquam (ne-umquam), nusquam 
 (ne-usquam) : ne-queo, ne-scio, nolo (ne-volo), ne-fas and its deri- 
 vatives: as nee, of nec-dum, nec-non, nec-opinus, ne^-otium, 
 ne^-lego. On nee for non, see M. Lucr. ii. 23. 
 
 N e, the strengthened form, is used in prohibitive and final con- 
 struction, and in the phrases ne . . . quidem, nedum, &c. 
 
 It enters into the composition of words : ne-ve (neu), ne-cubi, 
 &c. ; ne-quaquam, ne-quiquam, ne-quam ; in old Latin more 
 largely, as funera ne-funera in Catullus. 
 
 On ni, nei, as old forms of ne, see M. Lucr. ii. 734. 
 
 2) Non, haud (anc. haut), not, deny Predication or Attribution. 
 Non simply denies : haud somewhat more strongly. 
 
 Cicero rarely uses haud with a Verb, except in the phrase ' haud 
 scio an' (often in MSS. hauscio an). But ( Haud equidem assen- 
 tior/ Leg. iii. n. See also Cat. M. xxiii. 82, Div. ii. 39. 
 
 The ordinary use of haud is with Adjectives and Adverbs. Thus 
 in C. haud deter i or, haud mediocris, haud sane, haud paulo, haud 
 facile, haud fere quisquam, haud umquam. Comic poets use haud 
 with Verbs, especially with possum: Virgil rarely with finite 
 Verbs. Horace has ' haud mini dero.' 
 
 3) Nihil (nil) maybe used as a Particle (m no wise) : nihil opus 
 est, nihil moror, nihil me fallis. Rarely with Adjectives and Par- 
 ticiples : l Nihil similis,' L. ' Senatus nihil sane ihtentus/ Sail. 
 Cat. 17. ' Animos nil magnae laudis egentis,' Virg. Ae. v. 751. 
 
 4) So quicquam : ' Ne hoc quidem ipso quicquam opus fuit 
 iudicio/ even of this judgment there was no need, C. d. Inv. ii. 27. 
 
 5) Nullus is used with the force of non. 'Sextus ab armis nul- 
 lus discedit,' Sextus does not lay down his arms, C. Att. xv. 22. 
 
 6) The Substantive nemo (ne-homo) is used for nullus : as 
 *Nemo pictor,' no painter, C. ' Nemo fere adulescens/ hardly any 
 young man ; even ' hominem neminem/ C. Fam. xiii. 55. ' Nemo 
 unus,' not one person, L. iii. 12. So quisquam, though Substan- 
 tival, is found with homo, civis, &c. 
 
 On the other hand, Gen. nullius, Abl. nullo, are used as Cases of 
 nemo, rarely of nihil. 'Si iniuste neminem laesit, si nullius 
 aures voluntatemve violavit, si nemini, ut levissime dicam, odionec 
 domi nee militiae fuit/ if he has harmed no one unjustly, if he has 
 done violence to no man, by word or act, if, to say the least, he has 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 Latin Wordlore. 84. 
 
 been disagreeable to none at home or abroad, &c., C. p. Mur. 40. 
 ' Ut quisque sic munitus est ut nullo egeat,' according as each man 
 is so provided as to want nobody 's help, C. LaeL 9. 
 
 a) Non ita, baud ita, are used as modified Negatives : non 
 
 ita pridem, haud ita pridem, (not very long ago). 
 Neutiquam (not at all) is chiefly found in Comedy : also in a 
 
 few places of Cicero and Livy. L. has neutique. 
 Nequiquam, (to no purpose]. Nequaquam, haudquaquam, (by 
 
 no means). 
 
 b) Vix, scarcely, hardly, is a modified Negative. 
 
 c) Minus is used as nearly = non. * Nonnumquam ea, quae 
 
 praedicta sunt, minus eveniunt,' sometimes predictions fail 
 to turn out true, C. Div. i. 14. Especially quominus ( = ut 
 eo minus), and sin minus, but if not. 
 Minime (least of all not at all) is a strong Negative. 
 
 d) The enclitic dum (awhile, ye f) is compounded with all the 
 
 Negatives except nemo ; also with vix ; nondum, haud' 
 dum, nullusdum, nihildum, vixdum. 
 
 ii. Succeeding Negatives. 
 
 1) A Negative precedes the word which it affects ; and if another 
 Negative follows within the same predication, the negation is an- 
 nulled, and the predication becomes Affirmative. 
 
 Hence arise new Pronominal forms ; some Indefinite : 
 nonnullus nearly = aliqui 
 nonnemo = aliquis 
 
 nonnihil = aliquid 
 
 nonnumquam = aliquando 
 
 some Universal : as, 
 
 nullus non nearly = omnis 
 
 nemo non = omnes or unusquisque 
 
 nihil non = omnia 
 
 numquam non = semper 
 
 nusquam non = ubique 
 
 So, neque . . . non is nearly = etiam (also). 
 
 2) Non followed by non forms a strong affirmative : thus, non 
 possum non = necesse est mihi. 'Non potui non dare litteras 
 ad Caesarem/ I could not but write to Caesar, C. A tt. viii. 2. 
 
 So, nemo . . . non : nihil . . . non, &c. 'Tuum consilium nemo 
 potest non maxime laudare,' nobody can help praising your de- 
 sign highly, C. Fam. ir. 7. 
 
 Non modo, non tantum, not only ; modo non, tantum non, only 
 not all but : 'Modo non mentis auri pollicens,' promising all 
 but mountains of gold, Ter. Ph. i. 2. 18. 
 
 3) If a negative proposition branches into two clauses with 
 neque . . . neque, the proposition remains negative: ' Caesar 
 numquam neque fecit neque fecisset ea quae nunc ex falsis 
 eius commentariis proferuntur,' Caesar never did nor would have 
 done the things which are produced from his spurious manuscripts, 
 C. Fam. xiv. 13. 
 
85. Negative Words. 325 
 
 a) As the English ' and not' is usually expressed by neque; 
 
 and by * et non ' only when the negative belongs emphati- 
 cally to the following word ; so * and none,' ' and no- 
 thing] ' and nobody] ' and never] &c., are expressed by 
 1 neque ullus/ < neque quicquam, 7 'nee quisquam/ <nec 
 umquam/ &c. ; not by et nullus, et nihil, et nemo, et num- 
 quam, &c. : but if the negative is emphasised, the latter 
 forms must be used: 'Domus temere et nullo consilio 
 administrator/ the household is conducted in a confused 
 way, and without any plan, C. d. Inv. i. 34. 
 
 b) Neque is used with vero, tamen, enim, rarely autem, to con- 
 
 nect Adversative and Causal Sentences negatively. 
 
 85 
 iii. Ne . . . quid em, nedum, non mo do, &c. Ne... 
 
 quidem. 
 
 1) Ne . . . quidem = #0/ even, takes the emphatic words be- 
 tween the particles. < Ne ad Catonem quidem provocabo/ / 
 will not appeal even to Cato, C. Att. iv. i. Another negative 
 may go before, with the predicative word: 4 Non fugio ne hos 
 quidem mores/ I do not shun even these morals, C. Verr. iii. 90. 
 
 Nee is rarely used for ne . . . quidem. 'Esse aliquid manis 
 et subterranea regna nee pueri credunt/ that ghosts and subter- 
 ranean realms have any existence not even boys believe, luv. ii. 152. 
 
 2) Nedum indicates that a predication is out of the question. Nedum. 
 Hence with previous negative, it means ' much less ; ' with affirm- 
 ative (usually) 'not to say' ' Satrapa si siet amator, numquam 
 sufferre eius sumptus queat, nedum tu possis/ if a satrap were 
 
 her lover, he could not support her expenses, much less can you, 
 Ter. Haut. iii. i. 43. 'Nulla simulacra urbibus, nedum templis, 
 sinunt/ they allow no images to their cities, much less to their 
 temples, Tac. H. v. 5. ( Tu quoniam quartana cares et nedum 
 morbum removisti sed etiam gravedinem, te vegetum nobis in 
 Graecia siste/ since you are free from quartan fever, and rid not to 
 say of disease but even of languor, present yourself to us in Greece 
 flourishing, C. Att. x. 16. 
 
 Sometimes, but not in Cicero, nedum after an affirmative 
 means < much more not' f Et consules bellicosos creates, qui vel 
 in pace bellum excitare possent, nedum in bello respirare civitatem 
 forent passuri/ warlike consuls had been elected, who could stir up 
 war even in peace, much more in war would not suffer the state to 
 take breath, L. xlv. 29. See also Hor. ad Pis. 69. 
 
 3) When the principal sentence contains not only, an Adversa- 
 tive clause (but) succeeds. Hence non modo, non solum, are* 
 followed by sed, verum, sed etiam, verum etiam, &c. : *Non 
 solum verbis arte positis moventur omnes, verum etiam numeris 
 ac vocibus,' all men are affected not only by words skilfully ar- 
 ranged, but also by measures and sounds, C. d. Or. iii. 50. 
 
 a) Also, non modo non, non solum non are followed by 
 sed, sed etiam, &c., or by sed ne . . . quidem, sed 
 neque, &c. : * Hoc non modo non pro me, sed contra 
 me est potius/ this is not only not for me, but even against 
 me, C. d. Or. iii. 20. 'Ego non modo tibi non irascor, 
 
326 Latin Wordlore. 86. 
 
 sed ne 
 
 not angry with you, but do not even blame your deed, C. 
 
 p. Sull. 1 8. 
 
 b) When both sentences have a common verb, non mo do 
 
 may be elliptically placed in the former, for non mo do 
 non: 'Tails vir non modo facere, sed ne cogitare 
 quid em quicquam audebit, quod non honestum sit* 
 ( = sed etiam cogitare non audebit), such a man will not 
 venture, not merely to do, but even to conceive anything 
 which is not morally right, C. Off. iii. 19. 'Nihil eis 
 Verres non modo de fructu, sed ne de bonis qui- 
 dem suis reliqui fecit/ Verres left them nothing, I do not 
 say of their produce, but even of their property, C. Verr. 
 iii. 48. 
 
 c] The sentences are sometimes inverted, so that non modo = 
 
 much less: 'Ne sues quidem id velint, non modo ipse/ 
 not even swine would desire that, much less himself* 
 C. T: D. i. 38. 
 
 d ) Non tarn, not so much, is followed by sed or sed magis. See 
 M. Lucr. iii. 823. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 86 Questions and Answers. 
 
 Qnes- 
 
 SS S I. Questions (direct or oblique : see 73). 
 
 An- 
 
 swers. 
 
 Interrogation may be Single or Disjunctive. 
 
 into!. 6 i- Single Interrogation without a Particle. 
 
 Son!" An Interrogation in English is indicated by the Verb at the 
 
 beginning, ' Will you go?' But in Latin the sense or tone shews 
 the distinction. ' C e r t e patrem tuum non occidisti?' assuredly 
 you did not kill your father f Suet. Aug. 33, which suggests the 
 reply, Certe non occidi. ' Infelix est Fabricius quod rus suum 
 fodit?' is Fabricius unhappy in having to dig his groimd ? Sen. 
 Prov. 3. Answer, Non est. Sometimes the question is remon- 
 strative, and equivalent to a strong exhortation : 'Non pudet ad 
 morem discincti vivere Nattae ? ' are you not ashamed of living 
 in the fashion of dissolute Natta? Pers. iii. 31. Or attention is 
 awakened: as 'Cernis odoratis ut luceat ignibus aether?' seest 
 thou with scented fires how shines the sky ? Ov. F. i. 75. ( Viden 
 tu hunc?' Plaut. Capt. iii. 4. 25. Videtisne ut, &c. 
 
 ii. Single Interrogation with a Particle. 
 
 i) Num expects a negative answer ; nonne, an affirmative ; 
 ne asks indifferently : ' Num formidulosus, obsecro, es, mi homo ? 
 Egone formidulosus ? nemo'st hominum, qui vivat, minus/ are 
 you in a fright, pray, my good fellow ? / in a fright? no man 
 alive is less so, Ter. Eun. iv. 6. 19. ' Nonne miseri sumus?' 
 
86. Questions and Answers. 327 
 
 a) Numne, numnam, are used : also ecquis, numquis : ' Deum 
 ipsum numne vidisti ?' have you seen God Himself ? (no), 
 C. N. D. i. 31. ' N umnam ego peril ? ' am I a lost man f 
 (I hope not), Ter. Eun. v. 4. 25. 'Ecquis me vivit 
 hodie fortunatior?' lives there any this day more lucky 
 than I? Ter. Eun. v. 8. i. ' Numquis hie est ? nemo 
 est : numquis hinc me sequitur?' is there any one 
 here? nobody: is any one following me out? Ter. Eun. 
 iii. j. i. 
 
 2) An properly signifies *orj and introduces the second and fol- 
 lowing members of double, triple, &c. questions. When it seems to 
 introduce a single interrogation, it really refers to a previous ques- 
 tion conceived in the mind (' is this admitted or' &c.). Hence it 
 confirms a statement by exhibiting the inadmissibility of the op- 
 posite notion : ' Oratorem irasci minime decet, simulare non de- 
 decet. An tibi irasci turn videmur cum quid in causis acrius et 
 vehementius dicimus ? ' anger is unbecoming in an orator, the sem- 
 blance of anger is not unbecoming. (Do you allow this ?) or do you 
 suppose we are really angry when we speak with more than usual 
 vehemence f C. T. D. iv. 25 meaning : ' we are not really angry 
 when we so speak ; the semblance therefore affords no argument 
 against the maxim that anger is unbecoming in an orator/ 
 
 Sometimes an refers to aliudne understood : 'Quid dices? an 
 Siciliam virtute tua liberatam ? ' what will you say ? that by your 
 valour Sicily was freed? C. Verr. v. 2. 5. (Will you say anything 
 else, or, &c. = will you not probably say that, &c.) See 87, Foot-note. 
 
 a) An has a peculiar use after Verbs expressing uncertainty, as 
 nescio, haud scio, dubito. When in English we say, ' I 
 know not whether he is coming} we imply a probability 
 that ' he will not come : ' but in Latin, nescio an veniat 
 usually means existimo eum venire. So, ' Nescio an 
 modum excesserint/ I am inclined to think they have over- 
 stepped the limit, lust. xiii. 2. Hence it is used almost 
 adverbially: ' Sapientissimus et haud scio an omnium 
 praestantissimus/ the wisest and perhaps the most excellent 
 of all, C. N. D. ii. 4. 
 
 ff) The doubled Conjunction may mark uncertainty : ' Hanc 
 orationem in Origines suas rettulit paucis antequam mor- 
 tuus est an diebus an mensibus, 7 this speech he entered in 
 his Origines a few days (must we say) or months before 
 he died, C. Brut. 23. This idiom is frequent in Tacitus. 
 
 e) If it were wished to express the meanings ''probably not, 1 
 6 1 am inclined to think not,' &c., a Negative was intro- 
 duced in the subordination : Nescio an non veniat, / 
 think he is not coming. ' Quaere rationem cur ita vide- 
 atur : quam ut maxime inveneris, quod haud scio an 
 non possis, non tu ostenderis/ &c., seek a ground for this 
 opinion ; biit though you be ever so successful injinding 
 one, which I rather think yoi4 cannot do, you will not have 
 shewn, &c., C. Ac. ii. 25. ' Contigit tibi, quod haud scio 
 an n e m i n i,' there has happened to you what I rather think 
 has befallen no one else, C. Qu. Fr. i. i. It is questioned 
 
328 Latin Wordlore. 8 7 . 
 
 whether the same sense is obtained by using, instead of 
 Negatives, those Pronouns and Adverbs which are only 
 found in negative or hypothetical sentences, quisquam, 
 ullus, unquam, &c. ; but, as the reading in all the places 
 cited is doubtful, it is safer to use the Negatives for this 
 purpose. 
 
 d) Writers of the Silver age sometimes give nescio an the 
 negative force, * 7 think not' 
 
 Disjunc- iii. Disjunctive Interrogation has four varie- 
 
 tiveln- 
 terroga- 
 tion. 
 
 In First Member. 
 
 i) utrum (utrumne) . 
 2) ne 
 3) No Particle 
 
 In Second Member. 
 
 an 
 an 
 
 4) No Particle 
 
 .... ne. 1 
 
 1) ' Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est ?' is that your fault or 
 ours ? C. Ac. iv. 29. ' Quod nescire malum est agitamus, utrumne 
 divitiis homines an sint virtute bead/ we discuss, what it is an 
 evil to be ignorant of, whether men are happy by riches or virtue, 
 Hor. S. ii. 6. 73. 
 
 2) 'Quod si dies notandus fuit, eumne potius notaret, quo natus, 
 an eum, quo sapiens factus est ?' now, if a day was to be marked, 
 should he have marked that rather, on which he was born, or that on 
 which he became wise? C. 'Quaeritur virtus suamne propter 
 dignitatem an propter fructus aliquos expetatur,' it is a question 
 whether virtue be sought for its own worth or for some profits ac- 
 cruing, C. d. Or. iii. 29. 
 
 3) * Recto itinere duxisti exercitum ad hostis an super omnes an- 
 fractus viarum ? ' did you march your army straight to the enemy, 
 or by every winding road? L. xxxviii. 45. ' Refert oratorem qui 
 audiant, senatus an populus an judices, frequentes an pauci an 
 singuli,' // is of moment who an orator's audience are, the senate or 
 people or bench of judges ; a crowd or a few persons or an indi- 
 vidual, C. d. Or. iii. 55. 
 
 4) 'Albus aterne fueris ignorans,' not knowing whether you 
 were white or black, C. Phil. ii. 16. 'Tarquinius Superbus Prisci 
 Tarquinii filius neposne fuerit, parum liquet/ whether Tarqui'n 
 the Proud was son or grandson of Tarquin the elder, is not certain, 
 L. i. 41. This form is only used in Oblique Interrogation. 
 
 a) An ... an, ne . . . ne, are poetic, but rare in prose : 
 'Distat an maturitas uvarum in torcularibus fiat an in 
 ramis,' it makes a difference whether the grapes become 
 ripe in the press-rooms or on the boughs, Plin. N. H. xv. I. 
 'Quiteneant . . . hominesne feraene Quaerere consti- 
 
 1 Madvig (Opusc. 230), with whom Hand concurs (Turs. iv. 321), denies that the form 
 num ... an can be classed with the other Disjunctive forms, in which one alternative 
 must be affirmed. As num always points to a negative answer, an, when annexed to 
 it, becomes almost=annon. 'Numfuris? an prudens ludis me obscura canendo?' are 
 you going mad? or do you purposely deceive me with dark oracles? Hor. 6". ii. 5. 59, im- 
 plying that the latter is the fact. 
 
Questions and A nswers. 329 
 
 tuit/ he resolves to inquire who inhabit it . . . whether 
 men or wild beasts, Verg. A en. i. 308. 
 
 b) If in the Second Member there is a Negation of the former, 
 necne or annon is used, generally without, sometimes 
 with, the Verb repeated : 'Fiat necne fiat id quaeritur/ the 
 question is whether it does happen or not, C. Fam. i. 39. ( Di 
 utrum sint necne sint quaeritur/ it is in question whether 
 gods exist or not, C. N. D. iii. 7. ' Num tabulas habet 
 annon ? ' has he the accounts or not? C. p. Qu. Necne is 
 not used after num ; and only in Oblique Interrogation. 
 
 II. Answers. 
 
 i. Affirmative Answers in Latin are given in 
 three ways. 
 
 1) By repeating the emphatic word of the question in the required 
 person or case : ' Abiit Clitipho. Solus ? Solus/ Clitipho is gone. 
 Alone f Alone, Ter. Haut. v. i. 31. 'Virtutes narro. Meas? 
 Tuas.' I talk of virtues. What, mine? Yours, Ter. Ad. iv. i. 
 19. 'Tunenegas? Nego hercle vero/ do you deny it? Yes, 
 upon my word, I do, Plaut. Men. iv. 2. 67. 
 
 2) By some expression equivalent to a repetition of the emphatic 
 word: 'Die, Chaerea tuam vestem detraxit tibi ? Factum/ say, 
 did Chaerea strip your coat off? He did, Ter. Eun. iv. 4-39. Or 
 increasing the emphasis : ' Pater est ? Ipsust/ is it my father? 
 Himself, Ter. 'An voluptas in bonis habenda est? Atque in 
 maximis quidem/ is pleasure to be reckoned among goods ? Ay, 
 and among the greatest, C. 
 
 3) By Affirmative Particles, either alone, or joined to the em- 
 phatic word. Such are, ita, sane, etiam, verum, utique, vero, 
 certe, ita plane, ita enimvero, ita prorsus, omnino, admodum, recte, 
 profecto. 'Numquidvis? Etiam/ do you want anything ? Yes, 
 Ter. ' Visne potiora tantum interrogem ? S an e/ would you have 
 me ask only the principal matters ? Exactly so, C. ( Fuisti saepe, 
 credo, cum Athenis esses, in scholis philosophorum ? Vero, ac 
 libenter quidem/ jy0# were often, I suppose, when you- were at Athens, 
 in the schools of the philosophers ? Yes, and with pleasure, C. T. 
 D. ii. ii. 
 
 a) Nimirum, nempe, quippe, videlicet, scilicet (obviously, 
 to be sure, why), express irony : ' Quern hunc appellas, 
 Zeno? Beatum, inquit. Etiam beatissimum ? Quippe, 
 inquiet/ what call you this man, Zeno ? Happy, says he. 
 Supremely happy, too ? Why yes, he will say, C. Fin. v. 
 28. 'Tibi ego possem irasci ? Scilicet/ could I have been 
 angry with you ? Very likely ! C. Qu. Fr. i. 3. 
 
 b} Certo always affirms positively (for certain) : certe some- 
 times affirms positively, sometimes restrictively (at all 
 events, at least}. Vero affirms positively (of a truth}, or it 
 may be used as an Adversative Particle. Vere means 
 verily, really, truly. 
 
330 Latin Wordlore. 89-90. 
 
 8 9 
 Nga- ii. Negative Answers are also given in three 
 
 tive An- 
 swers, ways. 
 
 1) By repeating the emphatic word with a Negative Particle : 
 'Estne frater intus? Non est/ is my brother in? No, Ter. Ad. 
 iv. 2. 30. 
 
 2) By Negative Particles alone, such as non, non vero, non ita, 
 minime, minime vero, nihil sane, nihil vero minus, nequaquam, ne 
 id quidem, &c. ' Cognitorem adscribit Sthenio. Quern? Cogna- 
 tum aliquem aut propinquum ? Non. Thermitanum aliquem, 
 honestum hominem ac nobilem? Ne id quidem. At Siculum, 
 in quo aliquis splendor dignitasque esset? Minime/ he assigns to 
 Sthenius a defender. Whom ? Was it some blood-relation or kins- 
 man ? No. Some inhabitant of Thermae, a man of honour and 
 rank ? Not even that. Well, but a Sicilian, possessing some emi- 
 nence and dignity f Far from it, C. Verr. ii. 43. ' Non opus est ? 
 Non her cle vero/ is there no occasion? None, I assure you, Ter. 
 Haut. iii. 3. 50. 
 
 3) By immo (nay rather ' = the Greek \iiv ovv), when the answer 
 is not simply Negative, but at the same time corrective of the 
 opinion implied in the question : ' Ubi fuit Sulla, num Romae ? 
 Immo longe a fuit,' where was Sulla? was he at Rome? Nay, 
 he was at a great distance from it, C. p. Sull. 19. ' Visne adesse me 
 una? Immo longe abi/ would you like me to attend with you f 
 No, keep at a distance, Ter. ' Sicine hunc decipis ? Immoenim- 
 vero hie me decipit/ is it thus you deceive him? Nay, to tell the 
 truth, he is deceiving^ me, Ter. Ph. iii. 2. 43. Immo is also used 
 when the answer admits the fact, but adds some heightening circum- 
 stance : as ' Hie tamen vivit. Vivit ? Immo etiam in senatum 
 venit/ yet this man lives. Lives ? Yea, even comes into the senate, 
 C. Cat. i. 'Tenaxneest? I m m o pertinax/ is he tenacious ! Ves 9 
 and pertinacious, Plaut. Capt. ii. 2. 39. 
 
 a) Recte, optime, are used not only affirmatively, but also as 
 polite Negatives : ( Rogo numquid velit. Recte, inquit,' 
 / ask if he wants anything. All right, says he^ 
 Ter. Eun. ii. 3. 4. So, benigne (yotfre very kind} is 
 used as a polite mode of declining : as in French, je vous 
 remercie. See Hor. Epist. ii. 7. 16. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 Thf Uses of the Verb. 1 
 
 Verb - (In Ch. III. Sections I. III., Verbal uses have, to some extent, 
 
 been explained along with the forms of the Verb. Throughout 
 Syntax they again appear as affecting construction generally. The 
 matter of the present Section is therefore limited to a few points.) 
 
 1 Every finite Verb is a predicative word, having Number, Person, Mood and Tense. 
 In regard of Number and Person, it is determined by its Subject : in regard of manner 
 of action (Mood) and Time (Tense), it is determined by its relations to the speaker or 
 narrator. 
 
 Thus when Dido in Virgil says, ' Veniet mihi fama,' the report will come to me 9 
 
9 i. Indicative Tenses. 331 
 
 i. The Indicative or Fact-Mood and its 9* 
 Tenses. Indica - 
 
 tive 
 
 A. Mood. See 37. Mood * 
 
 The Indicative is the Fact-Mood, used to declare (state categor- 
 ically) : scribo, / write ; scribam, / will write t &c. 
 Such declaration may be 
 
 1) Independent, in a principal sentence. 
 
 Scribo ad filium, / write to my son : non scripsi ad Lucium ; and 
 (in the form of Interrogation), scribesne ad patrem ? 
 
 2) Subordinate, if the clause in which it stands is purely objective 
 (independent of mental conception). 
 
 Thus the Indicative may be used in clauses of fact (quod), cause 
 (quod, quia, &c.), condition (si, nisi), concession (etsi, quamquam, 
 &c.), time (cum, quando, ubi, antequam, postquam, dum, donee, 
 c.) : and in clauses introduced by the Relative Pronoun or a 
 Relative Particle ; whenever such clauses are free from those forms 
 of thought which require (as hereafter shewn) the Subjunctive. 
 
 Examples : Gratum est quod venis (venies, venisti, c.). 
 Gaudeo quod (cum, si, &c.) venis, &c. Gaudebo si (cum) venies 
 (veneris). Non gaudebo nisi venis (venies, veneris). Gaude- 
 bam cum (quia) veniebas (veneras). Mane dum redeo. Eo 
 quamquam aeger sum. Ibo etsi tu noles (nolueris). 
 
 B. Tenses. 
 
 The relations of the Indicative Tenses Active (shewn 38) may indie, 
 be thus re-stated. Tenses. 
 
 Writing, as an action, is to me 
 
 I. a. simply present : scribo, / write. 
 
 b. past : scripsi, / wrote. 
 
 c. future : scribam, / shall write. 
 
 II. I. a. now present : scribo, / am writing. 
 
 b. past : scripsi, / have written. 
 
 c. future : scripturus sum, / am about to write. 
 
 2. a. formerly present : scribebam, / was writing. 
 $ t past : scripseram, / had written. 
 c. future : scripturus eram, / was about to write. 
 
 'veniet'is determined in Number (Sing.) and Person ford) by its Subject 'fama:' its 
 Mood is Indicative and its Tense Future, because Dido declares what will happen 
 to her. See 37. 
 
 Had she said, ' Veniat mihi fama,' 'may the report come to me, ' veniat' would be re- 
 lated in the same respects to 'fama : ' but its Mood (Conjunctive in Optative Sense) and 
 Tense (Ci) would be determined by the fact that Dido states a conceived wish that some- 
 thing may happen to her in time coming. 
 
 If we suppose the expression to be, ' optabat Dido veniret sibi fama,' * Dido wished tht 
 report might come to her? ' veniret ' again follows the Number and Person of ' fama ; ' and 
 is again Conjunctive in Optative Sense because a conceived wish is expressed ; but its 
 Tense becomes C 3 because (instead of coming directly from the speaker's mouth as 
 'veniat' did) it depends on the narrator's statement, 'optabat/ which, being Past, re- 
 quires (as hereinafter shewn) the Historic Consecution : and what is stated is, that Dido 
 in time past conceived a wish that something might happen in time then future to her. 
 
332 
 
 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 3. a. hereafter present : (scribam, / shall be writing). 
 
 b. past : scripsero, / shall have written. 
 
 c. future : scripturus ero, / shall be about to 
 
 write. 
 
 Forms under I. are the Simple or Aorist (indefinite) Tenses. 
 
 Forms under II. are the Relative Tenses. 
 
 The Passive Tenses correspond similarly. 
 
 Note. i. The form II. i. a. (Present with Present relation) is seldom 
 needed except when there is a clause with dum : < Dum tu sectaris 
 apros, ego retia servo/ while you are chasing boars, I am watching 
 nets, Verg. B. iii. 74. { Dum aes exigitur, dum mula ligatur, tota 
 abit hora/ while the fare is being taken, and the mule harnessed, a 
 whole hour passes, Hor. S. i. 5. 13. 
 
 The form 3. a. (Future with Present relation) is rarely needed. 
 
 A) The Present Tense expresses 
 
 1) Momentary Present action. 'Procumbit humi bos/ the bull 
 falls prostrate, Verg. Aen. v. 481. < Momento turbinis exit Marcus 
 Dama/ as soon as twirled he comes forth Marcus Dama, Pers. v. 
 77- 
 
 2) Action or state occasionally, habitually, or permanently pre- 
 sent. 'Domesticus otior/ / lounge at home, Hor. S. i. 6. 127.. 
 ' Honos alit artis/ honour nurtures the arts, C. T. D. i. 3. ( Deus 
 est, qui sentit, qui regit et moderatur, et est aeternus/ there 
 is a god, who perceives, who rules and governs, and is eternal, C. 
 Rep. vi. 24. 
 
 3) The opinion or statement of an author, who is cited as if still 
 living and speaking: 'Laudat Africanum Panaetius/ &c., C. 
 'Scribit Cato/ C. &c. 
 
 Peculiar uses of the Present are : 
 
 a) The Anticipative Present, sometimes found as an emphatic 
 
 substitute for the Future : i Ni propere fit quod impero, 
 vinciri vos iam iubeo/ if what I command is not done 
 with speed, I order you to be put in chains this moment, 
 L. xxxvi. 28. 'Abeo an maneo?' shall I go or stay ? Ter. 
 Ph. v. i. * Imusne sessum ? ' shall we go and sit down? C. 
 
 d. Or. iii. 5. 
 
 b) The Historic Present, used for the Past in animated and 
 
 picturesque narrative, whether in history, oratory, or 
 poetry: * Dimisso senatu, decemviri prodeunt in con- 
 tionem, abdicantque se magistratu, ingenti hominum 
 laetitia/ when the senate broke iip, the decemvirs go forth 
 to the assembled people, and resign office, to the great delight 
 of the public, L. iii. 54. 
 
 Note 2. Here may be noticed the idiom of the Historic Infinitive 
 (Pres. Imperf.) used predicatively for a Finite Verb ; a construction 
 analogous to the omission of the verb sum, inasmuch as it leaves 
 out, like this, the expression of time, number, and person. Both 
 constructions are found occurring together : < Ceterum facies totius 
 negotii varia incerta foeda atque miserabilis; dispersi a 
 suis pars cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines 
 
91. Indicative Tenses. 333 
 
 observare; ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac 
 propulsare; arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes, cives permixti ; nihil 
 consilio neque imperio agi ; fors omnia regere/ now the aspect of 
 the whole affair was confused, indecisive, shocking and pitiable ; 
 parties scattered from their comrades were some retiring, others 
 advancing ; observing neither standards nor ranks ; where peril 
 encountered each man, there was he resisting and repelling : arms, 
 darts, steeds, men, foes, countrymen were intermingled, nothing was 
 proceeding by counsel or command : chance directed alL Sail. lug. 
 51. This construction, in which the Infinitive maybe considered 
 Imperfect, is frequently used by poets as well as historians. 
 
 c) The Historic Present is commonly used in a Temporal 
 
 clause with dum, even when the Principal Sentence is 
 Past or Future : 'Dum obsequor adolescentibus, me 
 senem esse sum oblitus/ in complying with young men, I 
 have forgotten that I am old, C. d. Or. ii. 4. 
 
 d) The Present obtains a Past sense also when joined with 
 
 iam, iam diu (dudum, pridem) : ' Annum iam audis Cratip- 
 pum,' you have now for a year been attending the lectures 
 of Cratippus] C. Off. i. I. ' lamdudum video/ / have 
 seen it this long time, Hor. Sat. i. 9. 15. ' Iam pridem 
 cupio Alexandriam visere/ / have been long desirous to 
 visit Alexandria, C. Att. ii. 5. 
 
 e) Poets use the Historic Present with great license for the 
 
 Perfect : * Quantum mutatus ab illo Hectore, qui redit 
 exuvias indutus Achillis/ how changed from that Hector 
 who returned clad in the spoils of Achilles, Verg. A en. ii. 
 275. 
 
 B) The Perfect Tense expresses 
 
 1) As Aorist, the simple statement of a past fact : 'Veni, vidi, 
 vici/ / came, I saw, I conquered, Caes. 
 
 2) As Present with Past relation, the statement of a fact com- 
 plete at the present moment. 'Dixi/ I have spoken, Cic. ' Venit 
 summa dies/ the last day is come, Verg. Aen. ii. 324. 
 
 It is idiomatically used to express: 
 
 d) The rapid completion of action (poetic) : 'Fugere ferae/ 
 beasts have fled, Verg. G. i. 330. 
 
 b) Cessation of existence (poetic) : l Fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium/ 
 
 we Trojans have been, Troy has been (i.e. exists no longer), 
 Verg. A en. ii. 325. 
 
 c) General habit: ' (Rege) amisso rupere fidem constructaque 
 
 mella diripuere/ if the queen-bee is lost they break faith 
 and pull down their honey stores, Verg. G. iv. 213. 
 Prose writers use this idiom in clauses with cum, si, &c. 
 6 Cum for tuna reflavit affligimur/ when fortune blows 
 contrary, we are flung down, C. Off. ii. 6. 
 
 d) Anticipation, for the Future Perfect : < Brutus si conser- 
 
 vatus erit, vicimus/ if Brutus shall have been saved, we 
 have won the day, C. Fam. xii. 6. 
 
334 Latin Wordlore. 9I . 
 
 C) The Imperfect expresses 
 
 1) Action going on in time past along with other action (Past 
 with Present relation) : 'I bam forte Via Sacra . . . accurrit qui- 
 dam/ &c., / was walking by chance along the Sacred Road (when) 
 a certain man ran up to me, &c., Hor. Sat. i. 9. I. 
 
 2) Action repeated or habitual in time past : ' Dicebat melius 
 quam scripsit Hortensius/ Hortensius used to speak better than he 
 has written, C. Or. 38. 'Noctes vigilabat ad ipsum mane, diem 
 totum stertebat/ he vised to lie awake whole nights till daybreak, 
 and snore all day long, Hor. S. i. 3. 17. 
 
 3) Action in time past, intended or begun, but not completed : 
 * Aeneas . . . lenibat dictis animum/ Aeneas was trying to soften 
 her mind with his words, Verg. Aen. vi. 468. ' Num dubitas id me 
 imperante facere, quod iam tua sponte faciebas ?' do you hesitate 
 to do at my command what you were already on the point of doing 
 'voluntarily? C. Cat. i. 5. * Huius deditionis ipse, qui dedebatur, 
 suasor et auctor fuit/ of this surrender the very man who was to be. 
 surrendered was the mover and adviser, C. Off. iii. 30. 
 
 D) The Pluperfect expresses action past in a time itself past, 
 and often stands in connection with other Tenses : ' Cum esset De- 
 mosthenes, multi oratores magni et clari fuerunt, et antea fuerant, 
 nee postea defecerunt,' in the time of Demosthenes there were many 
 great and renowned orators, and there had been such before, nor did 
 they fail afterwards, C. Or. 2. ' Postquam lux certior erat, et 
 Romani, qui caedibus superfuerant, in arcem confugerant, 
 conticescebatque tumultus, turn Tarentinos convocari iubet/ 
 when the light became stronger, and the Romans, who had survived 
 the massacre, had escaped into the citadel, and the uproar was getting 
 quiet, he then orders the Tarentines to be convoked, L. xxv. 10. 
 
 a) As Clauses expressing habit are in the Perfect with cum, 
 si, ubi, simul ac, when the principal Verb is Present 
 (see above B c.}, so they are in the Pluperfect with the 
 same Conjunctions, when the principal Verb is Imperfect, 
 ' Gyges, cum palam eius anuli ad palmam converterat, 
 a Rullo videbatur, ipse autem omnia videbat; idem 
 rursus videbatur cum in locum anulum inverterat,' as 
 often as Gyges turned the bezel of that ring towards his 
 palm, he was visible to none, while he saw everything 
 himself: moreover he came into sight again, as often as hi 
 turned the ring back to its place, C. Off. iii. 9. ' Si hostis 
 deterrere nequiverant, disiectos ab tergo circumveni- 
 ebant, 7 if they could not deter the enemy, they surrounded 
 their divisions in the rear, Sail. lug. 50. 
 (The relations of the Past Indicative Tenses, also of the Historic 
 
 Present and Infinitive, are well exemplified in C. Verr. iv. 27; 
 
 Sail. lug. 50-51.) 
 
 Tenses N* e 3- A Roman, writing a letter, arranged the Tenses with re- 
 in letter- ference to the time when the letter would be received. Hence many 
 writing, facts, which to the writer were Present, are stated as Past in regard 
 to the receiver. And other facts, which to the writer were Past, are 
 
9i. Indicative Tenses. 335 
 
 stated in the Pluperfect, for the same reason. The English practice 
 being different, a Roman letter must be translated not literally, 
 but into our idiom : ( Pridie Idus haec scrip si ante lucem. Eo die 
 apud Pomponium in eius nuptiis eram cenaturus/ / have writ- 
 ten this before daybreak on the day before the Ides. I am going 
 to dine with Pomponius to-day at his wedding, C. Q. F. ii. 3. 
 'Nihil habebam quod scriberem: neque enim novi quicquam 
 audieram, et ad tuas omnis rescripseram pridie/ I have no- 
 thing to write about : for I have heard no news, and I replied to 
 all your letters yesterday, C. Att. ix. 10. But matters which will 
 remain present to the receiver, are stated in the Present : ' Ego hie 
 cogito commorari, quoad me reficiam/ / think of remaining 
 here whilst I am recruiting my health, C. Fam. vii. 26. 
 
 E) The Simple Future expresses what its name implies, simple 
 action in the Future: ' Ut voles me esse, ita ero,' / will be as 
 you shall wish me to be, Plaut. Pseud, i. 3 
 
 a) It is often used as a polite Imperative : ' Quod superest, 
 puerum Ciceronem curabis et amabis,' for the rest, 
 please to treat young Cicero with care and affection, C. 
 Att. iv. 7. See Hor. Epist. i. 18. 37-40. 
 
 F) The Future Perfect expresses action to be fulfilled in Future 
 time: <Qui Antonium oppresserit, is bellum confecerit/ he, 
 who shall have crushed Antonius, will have finished the war, C. 
 Fam. x. 20. 
 
 a) It may be connected with the Simple Future, or used for 
 the Simple Future, with a view to Emphasis : ' Ut semen- 
 tem feceris, ita metes/ as you shall have sown, so 
 will you reap, C. d. Or. ii. 65. ' Si quid ac cider it novi, 
 facies ut sciam/ should anything new happen, please to 
 let me know, C. Fam. xiv. 8. 'Quid inventum sit, paulo 
 post videro,' what has been discovered, I shall very soon 
 see, C. Ac. ii. 24. 'A, si pergis, abiero,' nay, if you go 
 on, I shall be off, Ter. Ad. i. 2. 47. * Sitne malum dolor 
 necne Stoici viderint/ whether pain is an evil or not, 
 the Stoics will have to see, C. T. D. ii. 18. 
 
 G) In the Future Periphrastic Conjugation (-urus sum, 
 eram, fui, fueram, ero, fuero, &c.) the Indicative Tenses are called 
 Present, Perfect, &c., according to the forms of sum : and the general 
 distinctions above stated apply to them, but not the idiomatic uses. 
 
 This Conjugation expresses 
 
 1 ) ' Being about to ; ' ' being on the point of: ' ' Apes evolaturae 
 sunt/ the bees are about to swarm, Varr. R. R. iii. 16. 4 Vos cum 
 Mandonio arma consociaturi fuistis/ you were on the point of 
 allying your arms with Mandonius, L. xxviii. 28. 
 
 2) f Being likely to ;' ''being sure to :' ' Haec sine doctrina cre- 
 dituri fuerunt,' this they were sure to believe without learning, 
 C. T. D. i. 21 ( = 'they would have believed.' See the use of this 
 form, and of the Inf. -urum fuisse, in the Apodosis of Condi- 
 tional Sentences). 
 
336 Latin Word! ore. 9i_ 
 
 3) 'Being destined to ' (am to, are to, &c.) : ' Si una inter! turus 
 est animus cum corpora/ &c., if the soul is to perish with the body, 
 &c., C. Cat. M. 22. 'Quidquid ex Agricola amavimus manet 
 mansurumque est in animis hominum/ all that we have loved 
 of Agricola abides and is destined to abide in the memory ' of men r 
 Tac. Agr. 46. 'Me ipsum ames oportet, si veri amici futuri 
 sum us/ you must love me myself, if we are" to be true friends, C. 
 Fin. ii. 26. See Conditional Sentences : and Consecution of Tenses. 
 
 (On the Gerundive Conjugation -ndus sum, -ndum est, &c., see 
 Syntax of < the Verb Infinite/) 
 
 Note 4 . Latin writers often use Verbs and phrases expressing duty^ 
 necessity, propriety, possibility, &c., in the Past Indicative Tenses 
 instead of the Conjunctive, to indicate that it was proper or possible 
 at that time to do something which however was not done. 
 
 1 ) Past Tenses ofdebere; decere; oportere ; aequum (aequius r 
 melius, par, utilius, &c.) esse; posse; malle ; licere, &c. ' Omnibus 
 eum contumeliis onerasti, quern patris loco cole re debebas/ you 
 have loaded with every insult one whom you ought to have revered 
 as a father, C. Phil. ii. 38. *Ad mortem duci te iam pridem 
 oportebat/_y0# ought long ago to have been dragged to death, C. 
 in Cat. i. I. 4 leci fundamenta reipublicae serius quam decuit/ 
 I laid the foundations of the commonwealth at a later time than I 
 should have done, C. Phil. v. n. ' Haec tecumcoram malueram/ 
 I would rather have discussed these things with you face to face, C. 
 Fam. vii. 3. ' Quanto melius fuerat promissum patris non esse 
 servatum/ how much better had it been that the father 's promise had 
 not been kept, C. Off. iii. 25. *Hic tamen hanc mecum pot eras 
 requiescere noctem/ yet you might have rested here with me this 
 night, Verg. B. i. 80. 
 
 2) Periphrastic Past Tenses, Future and Gerundive : ' Roman! 
 Poenos depoposcerunt, qui Saguntum oppugnassent : deditos ultimis 
 cruciatibus affecturi fuerunt/ the Romans demanded those Car- 
 thaginians who had besieged Saguntum; they would have exe- 
 cuted them, if surrendered, with the uttermost tortures, L. xxi. 44. 
 ' Non Asiae nomen obiciendum Murenae fuit/ Murena should 
 not have been reproached with the mention of Asia, C. p. Mur. 5. 
 
 a) Analogous idioms are the Indicatives possum, longum est, 
 infinitum est, &c., where English idiom would write '/ 
 could, 1 ' it were tedious] &c. * Possum persequi multa 
 oblectamenta rerum rusticarum : sed ea ipsa quae dixi 
 fuisse sentio longiora/ / could detail the many delights of 
 farming operations ; but even what I have said I feel to 
 have been rather tedious, C. Cat. M. 16. 'Longum est 
 mulorum persequi utilitates et asinorum/ it were tedious to 
 detail the advantages of mules and asses, C. N. D. ii. 64. 
 See M. Lucr. i. 400. 
 
 (On the Indicative in the Apodosis of Conditional Sumptio Ficti, 
 see Syntax of Conditional Sentences.) 
 
9 2. The Imperative. 337 
 
 ii. The Imperative or Will-Mood. 37. impera- 
 
 tive. 
 
 1) The Imperative Present commands or entreats. * Quae cum 
 ita sint, Catilina, perge quo coepisti ; egredere aliquando ex 
 urbe ; patent portae : proficiscere/ siich being the case, Catilina, 
 proceed on your chosen path ; quit the city at some time; the gates are 
 open: go forth, C. in Cat. i. 5. 'Pergite, adulescentes, atque in 
 id studium, in quo estis, incumbite/^ on, young men, and devote 
 yourselves to that study, on which yoii are engaged, C. d. Or. i. 8. 
 
 2) The Imperative forms in -to -tote may entreat or command : 
 but they oftener command ; being used in legal forms : f Cum 
 faciam vitula pro frugibus, ipse venito/ when I shall be sacrificing 
 a calf for the crops, you must come yourself, Verg. B. iii. 77. 
 'Divis omnibus pontifices, singulis flamines sunto; virginesque 
 Vestales in urbe custodiunto ignem foci publici sempiternum/ 
 all gods in common must have pontifices, each particular god a 
 flamenj and the Vestal virgins in the city must guard for ever 
 
 the fire of the public hearth, C. Leg. ii. 20. ' Regio imperio duo 
 sunto iique consules app el Ian tor/ /Am? shall be two magistrates 
 with royal power, and they shall be called consuls, C. Leg. iii. 3. See 
 Plaut. Pseud, iii. 2. 66, &c. 
 
 3) Ne with Imperative Present (ne crede, ne credite, Verg.) be- 
 longs to poetry : but is rare in prose. L. has 'ne timete.' (See 
 Conjunctive Mood.) With Imperative Future it is used in legal 
 forms, 'Hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepelito neve urito/ thou 
 shalt not bury or burn a corpse in the city, C. Leg. ii. 58, 
 
 4) A Periphrasis of the exhorting Imperative is made by fac, 
 fac ut, cur a ut, velim, with Subjunctive, and in poetry by me- 
 mento with Subjunctive or Infinitive; and a Periphrasis of the 
 forbidding Imperative by fac ne, cave, noli m, with Subjunctive ; 
 
 or by noli, and (poetically) parce, mitte, omitte, absiste, fuge, &c., 
 with Infinitive. 
 
 6 Magnum fac animum habeas/ mind you have a lofty spirit, 
 C. Qu. Fr. i. 2. 5. ' Cura ut vale as/ take care of your health, C. 
 'Aequam memento rebus in arduis servare mentem/^ must 
 remember tv keep an even mind in difficult circumstances, Hor. C. 
 ii. 3. i. 'Cave facias/ beware of doing it, C. Att. xiii. 33. 'Hoc 
 nolim me iocari putes/ I would not have you think I say this in 
 jest, C. Fam. ix. 15. 'Nolite id velle, quod fieri non potest* 
 do not wish what cannot be, C. Phil. vii. 9. ( Mitte sectari rosa 
 quo locorum sera moretur/ search not in what spot the rose lingers 
 late, Hor. C. i. 38. 3. 'Vos timere absistite/ cease ye to fear, 
 Phaedr. iii. 2. 18. ( Fuge suspicari/ do not siispect, Hor. 
 
 5) Imperative forms are modified by the polite phrases sis, suit is, 
 sodes, amabo, &c., please, pray (see p. 235). Sis is frequent in 
 comedy (once in Cic.); sultis often in Plautus. Sodes, C. (once?); 
 frequent in comic and other poets. Amabo, amabo te ( = si me 
 amas) in comedy often : and in Cic. So, Cave sis, vide sis, &c. 
 ' Refer te sis ad veritatem/ C. 'Hoc agite sultis/ Plaut. ' Scin' 
 quid te amabo ut facias?' shall I tell you, please, what to dof 
 Plaut. ' Id agite, amabo/ C. 
 
 z 
 
333 Latin Wordlore. 
 
 93-94- 
 
 Con- 3 iii. The Conjunctive or Thought-Mood. 
 
 junc- 
 
 (On the Conjunctive as the mood of mental conception generally, 
 and on its twofold use, (i) as Piire or independent Conjunctive ; 
 (2) as Subjunctive or dependent, see 37. 2.) 
 
 P J? e 4 iv. The Thought-mood is properly termed Conjunctive by all 
 Con- German scholars, seeing that its use is to join with both the other 
 jum> Moods, and assist their power of expressing speech. It joins with 
 the Indicative so as to state and question in a tone either contingent 
 on a condition, or modified by mental reserve in the nature of a 
 condition. It joins with the Imperative, so as to supply its deficient 
 forms, and also to express the various shades of will-speech in 
 modified tone. The Conjunctive Mood has four Tenses, called 
 Present, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect, the powers and uses of 
 which are best learnt from reading and practice, See p. 163. 
 Though the Futures are wanting, all the Tenses are capable of 
 referring to Future time, when required. 
 
 I. Pure Conjunctive of contingent or modified Statement (nega- 
 tion takes non, or haud). 
 
 A) When a condition is formally expressed, Earn si moneas 
 (monueris), / will go, if you advise-, irem (issem) si moneres 
 (monuisses), / would have gone, if you had advised : non earn 
 nisi tu moneas (monueris), / will not go unless you advise; non 
 irem (issem) nisi tu moneres (monuisses), / should not have been 
 going (should not have gone} if you had not advised. ( Tu, si hie sis, 
 aliter sentias.' * Improbe feceris nisi monueris,' Cic. 'Si 
 luxuriae temperaret, avaritiam non ti meres/ had he curbed luxury, 
 you would not have dreaded avarice in him, Tac. ( Si redisset 
 films, pater ei veniam daret (dedisset)/ had the son come back, 
 his father would have forgiven him. ' Si non des, optet/ Hor. 
 Si non dares (dedisses) optaret (optasset). 
 
 B) When a condition is informally expressed : see 217, 3. 
 Earn (irem, issem) te monente, if you advise (advised), or a te 
 monitus, if advised by you : non earn (irem issem) te invito, 
 against your will, or prohibitus a te, if forbidden by you. 'Optanti 
 tibi divum promittere nemo auderet/ no god would have ventured 
 to promise had you expressed the wish, V. 'Non illi quisquam se 
 impune tulisset obvius armato/ no man would have en- 
 countered him, armed for battle, with impunity, V. ' S i n e D e o non 
 e s s e t mundus/ Cic. ' 1 1 a laudem invenias et amicos pares/ Ter. 
 
 C) When a condition is implied, especially with Verb in 2nd 
 Person. 'Migrantes cernas/ you may see them on the move, V. 
 'Marte videres fervere Leucaten/ you might have seen Leucate 
 boiling with war (i.e. had you been present). 'Pelago c red as 
 innare revulsas Cycladas/ V. 'Nee quisquam . . . putet/ &c. V. 
 A en. viii. 704. 'Crederes victos/ L. 
 
 Z>) When modified to avoid positiveness or blufmess. 'D ubitem 
 haud equidem/ V. V e 1 i m, n o 1 i m, v e 1 1 e m, n o 1 1 e m are frequently 
 used on this ground. 'Nollem accidisset/ / wish it had not 
 happened, C. Fam. iii. 30. 'Vellemadesse posset Panaetius/ / 
 
94- The Conjunctive. 339 
 
 wish Panaetius cotild have been present, C. T. D. i. 33. Also with 
 forsitan or fortasse : forsitan quaeratis ; roges fortasse; 
 'forsitan et Priami fuerint quae fata requiras,' V. Aen. ii. 506. 
 4 Vix verisimile fortasse videatur,' Cic. Especially C 2 is used to 
 convey assertion or opinion moderately. Crediderim, / am in- 
 clined to believe-, vix crediderim, I can scarcely believe. 'Non 
 te transierim/ V. 'Ausim vel tenui vitem committere sulco,' 
 V. G. ii. 289. And with forsitan. 
 
 This and the next use are sometimes called Potential. 
 
 II. E) Pure Conjunctive of the modified Question (Negation has 
 non). 
 
 a} A direct question of inquiry or of feeling implies more of 
 mental dubitation when used in the Conjunctive. As in 
 the Indicative, it may be of single or disjunctive form. 
 
 Quid hoc homine faciatis ? what are you to do with this man f 
 'Quis Troiae nesciat urbem?' V. ' Quid d em, quid non d em/ 
 Hor. 'Quid faciam? roger anne rogem?' Ov. 'Eloquar an 
 sileam?' V. 'Tibi ego irascerer, mi frater? tibi ego possem 
 irasci?' Cic. Quid facerem ? quo fugerem? Iremusne annon? 
 quare non iremus? issemne nisi voluissem? 
 
 III. Pure Conjunctive, of modified Will-speech (Negation has 
 
 ne). 
 
 F) Concessive use : allowing, granting, &c. 
 
 'Luant peccata,' let them (they may] pay the penalty of their 
 sins, V. 'Vendat aedes vir bonus/ suppose a good man 
 has a house on sale. Haec sint falsa sane, granting 
 this to be quite untrue. 'Fuerit mains civis,' suppose he 
 was a bad citizen. 'Ne sit summum malum dolor, 
 malum certe est/ allowing pain not to be the greatest evil, 
 an evil it is at all events, Cic. 'Verum anceps pugnae 
 fuerat fortuna: fuisset; quern metui moritura?' but the 
 chance of war had been doubtful; suppose it were : whom 
 could I fear with death in view ? V. Aen. iv. 
 
 4) Ut is used in concession. 'Ut desint vires, tamen est 
 laudanda voluntas/ though strength be lacking, yet will- 
 ingness is praiseworthy, Ov. Ep. P. iii. 4. 
 
 G) Optative and Precative Uses. 
 
 i) The Optative use conveys a wish, and (when in direct con- 
 struction without ( utinam J ) by C r (Negation has ne.) 
 
 Sis felix, may you be happy. ' Valeant ci ves mei, sint florentes, 
 sint beati/ Cic. ' Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor/ 
 V. Aen. iv. 
 
 It is frequently used in imprecation. 'Ne sim salvus si 
 aliter loquor ac sentio,' may I never be saved if I speak 
 other, than I think, Cic. 'Moriar nisi vera loquor.' 
 With ita (sic) . . . ut. ' Ita vivam ut te amo maxime.' 
 And without ut. 'Ita culmo surgeret alto,' Hor. S. ii. 
 * Ita me di ament/ Cic. 
 z 2 
 
34-O Latin Wordlore. 95. 
 
 a) Utinam, utinamne (rarely non) are used with the Optative. 
 With Cj it expresses a possible wish : Utinam possim, 
 I wish 1 may be able ; utinam ne adsit, / wish he may 
 not be present. With C 3 an impracticable one : utinam 
 possem, / wish I could (but I cannot); utinam ne 
 adesset, / wish he were not present (but he is or was). 
 With C 4 a bygone possibility : utinam potuissem, / 
 wish I had been able (but I was not) : utinam non adfuisset, 
 / wish he had not been present (but he was). 
 
 fr) Ut for utinam is sometimes found : U t ilium di deaeque 
 perduint, may the gods and goddesses destroy him, Ter. 
 
 c] O si (rarely si alone) with Opt. is poetic. ' O mihi prae- 
 teritos refer at si luppiter annos/ O if Jove would bring 
 back to me the past years, V. Aen. viii. 560. See vi. 187. 
 O utinam may be used. 
 
 2) The Precative use is chiefly in the Second Person, when 
 a sacred being or a superior is addressed : < S i s bonus 
 o felixque tuis,' V. Aen. v. 65. 'Ads is o placidusque 
 iuves et sidera caelo dextra feras/ V. Aen. iv. 578. 
 
 H) Hortative and Jussive Uses : exhorting, commanding, c. 
 Negative has ne. 
 
 The principal Hortative use is in the First Person Plural. 
 The Jussive use in the Third Persons conveys a com- 
 mand more or less stringent. Thus ' naviget ' (V. Aen. 
 iv. 287) is a strong mandate : the instructions in the 
 Georgics given in the Third Persons Conjunctive are 
 precepts rightly called jussive. See G. iii. 300, 329. 
 
 1) ' Surgamus,' V. E. x. 'Eamus omnes,' Hor. Ep. 'Mori- 
 
 amur et in media arma ruamus,' V. Aen. ii. 'Aegri- 
 tudinem depellamus,' Cic. 
 
 2) 'Ecferant quae secum hue attulerunt/ Ter. 'Vincat 
 
 utilitas reipublicae.' ' S i t sermo lenis, i n s i t in eo lepos/ Cic. 
 'Vilicus ne sit ambulator, sobrius sit semper, ad cenam 
 ne quo eat,familiam exerceat, ne plus censeat sapere 
 se quam dominum, parasitum ne quern habeat.' Cato. 
 'Donis impii ne placare audeant deos, 3 Cic.,Z^. ii. 16. 
 
 The most remarkable examples are those which convey this use 
 of the Will-speech Conjunctive into past time by C 3 , C 4 . 'Prae- 
 diceres/j0w should have told me beforehand, Plaut. 'Rem tuam 
 curares,'^?/ sho^lld have been minding your own business, Ter. 
 ' Dictis, Albane maneres] you should have remained true to your 
 word, O Alb an, V. c Ne poposcisses] you ought not to have de- 
 manded, Cic. This usage is not confined to the Second Person ; 
 'Animam ipse dedissem, atque haec pompa domum me, non 
 Pallanta, referret,' V. Aen. xi. 162 ; see x. 854. 
 
 a] Permissive and exhorting Use of Second Person Conjunctive. 
 
 ItrsSn Tne Second Person of C x is often supposed to be Pure 
 
 Con- where it is really Subjunctive, depending on a Verb. 
 
 Reddas, Hor. C. i. 3. 7; dones, i. 31. 18, depend on 
 
 precor. Captes, Hor. S. ii. 5. 23, on dico. ' Sis . . . 
 
. 95- The Pure Conjunctive. 341 
 
 sequare . . . cures/ C. Fain. x. 1 6, carry on the construc- 
 tion after ' hoc animo esse ut : ' and the punctuation 
 should shew this. f Sis ... scias/ L. xxvi. 50, de- 
 pend on paciscor. < Ne pigrere/ C. Att. xiv. i, on 
 quaeso. 
 
 b] Prohibitive use of Second Person Conjunctive. 
 
 Terence has 'Si certum est facere, facias ; verum ne post 
 culpam confer as in me/ if you are bent on doing it, you 
 may ; but please not afterwards to throw the blame on me, 
 JELun. ii. 3. 97. In classical Latin this form (ne with 
 Second Person of C x ) is not used as an independent pro- 
 hibition, but ne with Second Person of C 2 is so used fre- 
 quently. ' Quod dubitas ne feceris/ what you doubt, do 
 not perform, Plin. Ep. i. 18. f Ilium iocum ne sis as- 
 pernatus/ do not contemn that jest, C. Qu. F. ii. 12. ' Tu 
 ne quaesieris/ &c. Hor. C. i. n. i. 
 
 When Horace writes, ' Ne forte credas/ &c., he means lest 
 perchance you should believe, C. iv. 9. i. And so often. 
 
 On Periphrastic forms of exhortation and prohibition, see p. 337. 
 
 v. Examples of Pure Conjunctive: 
 
 A) See Examples under 213 /3, y, p. 408. 
 
 B) See 217, 3, p. 473. 
 
 C) 'Pecuniae an famae minus parceret baud facile discerneres/ Sail. Cat. 25. 
 ' Quo postquam venerunt, mirandum in modum, canes venaticos dice res, ita odora- 
 bantur omnia et pervestigabant/ C. Verr. iv. 13. ' Ilium indignanti similem similemque 
 minanti aspiceres,' V. Aen. viii. 650. 
 
 JD) 'Tu velim sic existimes tibique persuadeas, omne perfugium bonorum in te esse 
 positum, si, quod nolim, adversi quid evenerit/ C. Fam xii. 6. 'Malim mihi Crassi 
 unam pro Curio dictionem, quam castellanos triumphos duos/ C. Br. 73. ' Ego me 
 Phidiam esse mallem quam vel optimum fabrum tignarium,' C. Br. 73. 'Vellem te 
 ad Stoicos inclinavisses,' C. Fin. iii. 3. ' Hie quaerat quispiam, cuiusnam causa tanta 
 molitio facta sit/ C. N. D. ii. 53. 'Primum ego me illorum, dederim quibus esse 
 poetas, excerpam numero ; neque enim concludere versum dixeris esse satis/ Hor. 
 S. i. 4. 39. 'Forsitan quispiam dixerit ; nonne sapiens, si fame ipse conficiatur, 
 abstulerit cibum alteri ? ' C. Off. iii. 6. 
 
 E) ' Quid nunc te, asine, litteras d o c e a m ? ' C. Pis. 30. ' Quid videatur ei 
 magnum in rebus humanis, cui aeternitas omnis totiusque mundi nota sit magnitude ? * 
 C. T. D. iv. 17. 'Quid enumerem artium multitudinem, sine quibus vita omnino 
 nulla esse potuisset?' C. Off. ii. 4. ' F a v e a s tu hosti ? bonorum spem virtutemque 
 debilites? et te consularem aut senatorem aut denique civem p u t e s ? ' C. Phil. vii. 
 20. ' Apud exercitum mihi fueris tot annos? forum non attigeris? afueris tarn 
 diu? et, cum longo intervallo veneris, cum iis, qui in foro habitarunt, de dignitate 
 contendas?' C. Mur. g. 'Ego mihi putarem in patria non futurum locum?' C. 
 Mil. 34. 'Putaresne unquam accidere posse ut mihi verba deessent?' C. Fam. ii. 
 ii. 'Corinthiis bellum indicamus annon?' Cic. 
 
 F) 'At tamen dicat sine. Age die at, sino/ Ter. An. v. 3. 24. 'Fuerint 
 cupidi, f u e r i n t irati, f u e r i n t pertinaces : sceleris vero crimine, furoris, parricidi, 
 liceatCn. Pompeio mortuo, lie eat multis aliis carere/ C. Lig. 6. 'Nemo is, inquies, 
 timquam fuit. N e f u e r i t/ Cic. 
 
 G. i) ' Quod bonum faustum felixque sit populo Romano/ L. i. 28. ' Filiam despondi 
 ego ; di bene vert ant !' Plaut. A^tl. ii. 3. 'Tecum esse, ita mihi omnia quae opto 
 contingant ut vehementer velim/ C. Fam. v. 21. ' Sollicitat, ita vivam, mi Tiro, 
 me tua valetudo/ C. Fam. xvi. 20. ' N e v i v a m, si tibi concedo, ut eius rei tu cupidior 
 sis quam ego sum/ C. Fam. vii. 23. 'Ne istuc luppiter optimus maximus sir it/ L. 
 ;xxviii. 28. ' U t i n a m tibi istam mentem dii immortales d u i n t ? ' C. Cat. i. 9. 
 * U t i n a m, Quirites, virorum fortium atque innocentium copiam tantam h a b e r e t i s, ut 
 
34 2 Latin Word lore. 96. 
 
 9 6 v. The Subjunctive. 
 
 junc- The Subjunctive is always a Mood of dependence, and, in most 
 
 tive> instances, of mental conception : but some of its functions in Latin 
 
 are not of the latter description, especially its Consecutive use. 
 A Subjunctive Clause 1 sometimes has no link connecting it 
 
 with the prior Verb : 'Sine te ex or em/ let me prevail on you. 
 
 <Vellem adfuisses,' I wish you had been present. But usually it 
 
 is introduced by a Conjunction or Relative. 
 
 I) A Finite Subordinate Clause, by classical usage, is always 
 Subjunctive, when it contains . 
 
 a) A dependent Consequence (so that, such that). 
 
 Such a clause may be introduced by ut, quin ; or by the 
 Relative qui consecutive. See Consecutive Clauses, and 
 Ut-clause Enuntiative. 
 
 b) A dependent Purpose (in order that, lest, c.). 
 
 Such a Clause may be introduced by ut, ne, quo, quomi- 
 nus ; or by the Relative qui final : sometimes by a Particle 
 of Time or Condition] antequam, dum, &c. See Final 
 Clauses, and Petitio Obliqua. 
 
 c) A dependence on a Verb of Fear, introduced by ne, lest,. 
 
 or ut, lest not. See Petitio Obliqua. 
 
 d) A dependent Question, introduced by any Interrogative 
 
 Pronoun or Particle. See Interrogatio Obliqua. 
 
 II) A Finite Subordinate Clause is Subjunctive, when 'it contains 
 a mental conception 
 
 haec vobis deliberatio difficilis esset ! ' C. L. Man. 10. * Illud u t i n a m ne vere 
 scriberem!' C. Fam. v. 17. 'Quod utinam ne Phormioni id suadere in mentem 
 incidisset/ Ter. Ph. \. 3. 5. 'Utinam minus vitae cupidt f u i s s e m u s,' C. Fam. 
 v. 17. 'Haec ad te die natali meo scrips! : quo utinam susceptus non essem, aut 
 ne quid ex eadem matre postea natum esset!' C. Att. xi. 9. 
 
 2) * Nihil ignoveris; nihil gratiae causa fe c e r i s ; misericordia commotus ne 
 sis,' C. Mur. 31. 'Ne fueris hie tu/ Hor. Epist. i. 6. 40. 'Cum te bene con- 
 firmaveris, ad nos venias,' C. Fam. xvi. 13. So teneas, L. xxii. 53. Affkias, xxvi. 
 50. Hor. S. ii. 3. 826 (j>lease to, pray*. 
 
 H. i) 'M eminerimus, etiam ad versus infimos iustitiam esse servandam,' C. Off. 
 i. 13. ' I m i t e m u r nostros Brutos, Camillos, Decios ; a m e m u s patriam, pareamus 
 senatui, consulamus bonis, id esse optimum put emus, quod erit rectissimum/ 
 C. Sest. 68. 
 
 2) 'Orator vide at in primis, quibus de rebus loquatur; si seriis, severitatem 
 adhibeat ; si iocosis, leporem/ C. Off. i. 37. 'Sumatur nobis quidam praestans vir 
 optimis artibus, isque animo parumper et cogitatione f i n g a t u r/ C. T. D. v. 24. ' Fortasse 
 pater Cliniae aliquanto iniquior erat. Pateretur; nam quern ferret, si parentem non 
 ferret suum ? ' Ter. Haut. \. 2. 28. ' Forsitan non nemo vir fortis et acris animi 
 magnique dixerit : Restitisses, repugnasses, mortem pugnans oppetisses/ 
 C. Sest. 20. ' Ne quis tamquam parva f a s t i d i a t grammatices elementa/ Qu. i. 4. 
 'Neu desint epulis rosae,' Hor. C. i. 36. 15 ' Tu ista ne asciveris neve 
 f ueris commenticiis rebus assensus,' C. Ac. ii. 40. 
 
 1 The term Clause is used to signify ' any member of a Compound Sentence ' which is 
 not the 'Principal Sentence.' The 'Infinitive Clause' means what is often called 
 'Accusative and Infinitive.' See Enuntiatio Obliqua. Distinguished from this is 'a 
 Finite Clause ; ' that is, one of which the Verb is Finite. 
 
97 . The Subjunctive. 343 
 
 a) Of Cause : introduced by cum, since, by qui causal (usu- 
 
 ally) ; by n on quod, n on qui a, &c. See Causal Clauses. 
 
 b) Of Condition : after dum, mo do ; or when si, nisi are re- 
 
 lated to a conceptive Apodosis : <si possim velim ; ' 
 ( si possem vellem/ &c. See Conditional Sentences. 
 
 c) Of Concession : introduced by ut, licet, and (usually) cum, 
 
 quamvis, although. Also when etsi, etiamsi, tametsi 
 are related to a conceptive Apodosis. 'Etsi possem, 
 nollem.' See Concessive Sentences. 
 
 d) Of Comparison : introduced by quasi, ut si, &c., velut, 
 
 tamquam, &c. See Comparative Sentences. 
 
 Ill) A Finite Subordinate Clause is Subjunctive when it is really 
 dependent on 
 
 a) An Infinitive Clause (oratio obliqua). 
 'Audio te abesse quod aegrotes.' 
 
 . d) An assertion or opinion of some other than the writer or 
 speaker, implied but not formally expressed in the prin- 
 cipal or prior Verb (virtual oratio obliqua). 
 c Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens/ Cic. 
 { Accusatus est Socrates quod corrumperet iuventu- 
 
 tem,' Qu. See p. 345. 
 
 Obs. The Subjunctives a and b we call Suboblique. They 
 may be introduced by any Conjunction, or by a Relative 
 Pronoun or Particle. 
 
 c) A Conjunctive Verb or prior Subjunctive (oratio obliqua). 
 'Omnia dixisses quae in animo haberes.' < Vellem omnia 
 
 dixisses quae in animo haberes.' 
 Note. The following are Idiomatic Uses : 
 
 a) A Subjunctive with cum, when (rarely with other Temporal 
 Conjunctions) of a past action antecedent to another 
 past action (quasi- causal). 
 
 'In Cumano cum essem, venit ad me Hortensius,' when I 
 was at my house in Cumae, Hortensius came to see me, Cic. 
 6 Decessit Agesilaus cum in portum venisset/ Agesilaus 
 died after coming into harbour, N ep. Ag. 
 
 /3) A Subjunctive of repeated action (Iterative) with a Particle 
 or Relative. This construction is most frequent in past 
 time, historically, the principal verb being generally Im- 
 perfect : but it is very reasonably extended to time present 
 in philosophical statements by M. Lucr. iii. 736. 
 
 y) A Subjunctive, generally of the Second Pers. Sing., in 
 dependence on a sentence containing a maxim (yvupri). 
 See Madv. Gr. 370; M. Lucr. i. 327, ii. 36, 41. 
 'Bonus segnior. fit ubi neglegas/ a good person becomes 
 slacker, when you neglect him, Sail. lug. 31. 
 
 vi. Classification of the Particles and Pro- 97 
 nouns which intr6duce Subordinate Clauses, 
 according to the Mood introduced. 
 
344 Latin Wordlore. 9 8. 
 
 A) Pronouns and Particles which always, in classical Latin prose, 
 introduce a Subjunctive. 
 
 a) Conjunctions : 
 
 1) Consecutive: ut; quin. 
 
 2) Final : ut ; ne ; quo ; quominus. 
 
 3) Causal : cum, since. 
 
 4) Conditional : dum ; modo, dummodo ; provided that. 
 
 5) Concessive : licet, ut ; cum, quamvis (usually). 
 
 6) Comparative : quasi ; ut si ; ac si ; velut, tamquam, ceu, &c. 
 
 b] The Relative qui, or a Relative Particle, when used 
 
 i) Consecutively ( = talis ut) ; 2) Finally (in order that) 
 3) Causally ( = cum, since] ; 4) Concessively (although]. 
 
 c] Interrogative Words, obliquely constructed : such are 
 
 1) Pronouns : quis ; qui ; uter ; qualis ; quantus ; quot ; quotus. 
 
 2) Particles : quam, quemadmodum, quomodo, ut, how, quare. 
 
 cur, quamobrem, quapropter ; quotiens ; quando ; ubi ; 
 unde ; quo, quousque, quorsum ; utrum, an, -ne, num. 
 
 d) Any Particle or Relative, when the Clause itself is in sense 
 
 dependent on Oratio Obliqua, actual or virtual ; or on a 
 Conjunctive Mood. 
 See also the Iterative and Gnomic uses above, Note (3. y. 
 
 B) Pronouns and Particles which always (except in the circum* 
 stances above named) introduce an Indicative. 
 
 a) Conjunctions : 
 
 1) Causal: quod; quia ; quoniam ; quando; quandoquidem ; 
 
 siquidem. 
 
 2) Temporal : quando ; ubi ; ut (when, &c.) ; quotiens ; simul 
 
 ac ; simul ; postquam ; dum, donee, quoad, whilst. Also 
 cum, when : but see its idiom, Note, p. 343. a. 
 
 3) Concessive : quamquam ; utut. 
 
 &) The Relative qui, and Relative Particles. 
 
 C) Particles which introduce an Indicative or a Subjunctive, 
 according as the notion conveyed is one of fact or contingency. 
 
 1) Temporal: dum, donee, quoad, until \ antequam, prius- 
 
 quam, which are used with Subjunctive when purpose is 
 contained, or doubtfulness conveyed. 
 
 2) Conditional and Concessive : si, nisi ; etsi, etiamsi, 
 
 tametsi. 
 
 Obs. The reason of mood is independent of Conjunctions ; but 
 Conjunctions distinguish the relations of Clauses more clearly, as 
 Prepositions distinguish the relations of Nouns. 
 
 ., 98 vii. Consecution of Tenses in Subjunctive 
 
 Conse- ^ . ^ * 
 
 cution Construction. See & 229. 
 
 of X ? 
 
 Tenses. The General Rule is that * 
 
 Primary Tenses (S x S ) follow Primary (Present ; Future). 
 Historic (S 3 S 4 ) Historic (Past Tenses). 
 
Consecution of Tenses. 
 
 345 
 
 i) quereris 
 you complain 
 
 querar-is (e) 
 
 you may complain 
 
 querer-is (e) 
 
 you will complain 
 
 questus eris ) 
 questus fueris j 
 you will have complained 
 
 questus sis 
 
 questus fueris 
 
 you may have complained 
 
 questurus es (sis, &c.) 
 you are (may be^ &c.) about 
 to complain 
 
 EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING THE CONSECUTION OF TENSES. 
 
 I. 
 
 quod te deseram 
 that I forsake you 
 
 quod te deseruerim 
 that I have forsaken you 
 
 quod te deserturus sim 
 
 that I am about to forsake you 
 
 quod tui memor non sim 
 that I am not mindful of you 
 
 quod tui memor non fuerim 
 that I have not been mindful of 
 you 
 
 quod tui memor non futurus sim 
 that I shall not be mindful of 
 you 
 
 quod tibi non succurram 
 that I do not succour you 
 
 quod tibi non succurrerim 
 that I have not succoured you 
 
 quod tibi non succursurus sim 
 that I am not about to succour 
 \ you 
 
 I quod te desererem 
 that I was forsaking you 
 
 quod te deseruissem 
 that I had forsaken you 
 
 quod te deserturus for em 
 that I was about to forsake you 
 
 quod tui memor non ess em 
 that I was not mindful of you 
 
 quod tui memor non fuissem 
 that I had not been mindful of 
 you 
 
 quod tui memor non futurus 
 essem 
 
 that I was not going to be mind- 
 ful of you 
 
 quod tibi non succurrerem 
 that I did not succour you 
 
 quod tibi non succurrissem 
 that I had not succoured you 
 
 quod tibi non succursurus fo- 
 rem 
 
 that I did not mean to succour 
 you 
 
 2) querebar-is (e) 
 
 you were complaining 
 
 questus es 
 you complained 
 
 questus eras 
 
 you had complained 
 
 quererer-is (e) 
 you would complain 
 
 questus esses 
 
 you would have complained 
 
 questurus eras 
 
 you were about to complain 
 
346 Latin Wordlore. 99. 
 
 II. 
 
 1) orant ; orent ( ne se deseram 
 orabunt ; oraturi sunt | ut sui memor sim 
 oraverint ; oranto t ut sibi sue cur ram 
 
 2) orabant ; orarent f nesedesererem 
 oraverunt ; oraturi erant i ut sui memor e s s e m 
 oraverant; oravissent ( ut sibi succurrerem 
 
 Note. On the Verb Infinite see 15 and 40. Its further uses 
 are most conveniently shewn in Syntax, Ch. I. II. III. 
 
 99 
 
 Ellipsis viii. Ellipsis of the Verb. 
 
 ofVerb. 
 
 1) Est, sunt, esse, are often suppressed: sometimes other 
 forms of the Verb of Being. 
 
 ' Summum ius summa iniuria/ C. Off. i. 10 (s. est). t Habenda 
 ratio valetudinis, u tend urn modicis exercitationibus/ C. Cat. M. 
 ii (s. est). ' Omnia praeclara rara/ C. Lael. 21 (s. sunt). ' lucundi 
 acti labores/ C. Fin. ii. 32 (s.sunt). ' Aurum vestibus inlitum mi- 
 rat a/ Hor. C. iv. 9. 15 (for mirata est). ' Sed haec vetera (sujit): 
 illud recens (est), Caesarem meo consilio inter fectum' (esse), but 
 these are old stories : here is a new one, that Caesar was slain by 
 my advice, C. Phil. ii. n. ' Ludi Romani biduum instaurati' 
 (sunt), L. xxix. 38. ' Potest incidere comparatio, de duobus honestis 
 utrum honestius' (sit), C. Off. i. 43. 
 
 a) The Participle Perfect (Passive or Deponent) is often used 
 in the Nom. Case with an Ellipsis of esse, being really a 
 Prolative Infinitive dependent on fertur, dicitur, me- 
 moratur, narratur, &c. 'Sic miser instantis affatus 
 dicitur undas/ Mart. d. Spect. 25. 5 (for affatus esse). 
 'Fertur Prometheus addere principi limo coactus par- 
 ticulam undique desectam/ Hor. C. i. 16. 13 (for coactus 
 esse). ' Quidam memoratur Athenis . . . populi con- 
 temnere voces sic soli tus/ Hor. S. i. i. 64 (for solitus esse). 
 'Fabulaqua Paridis propter narratur amorem Graecia 
 barbariae lento collisa duello/ Hor. Epist. i. 2. 6 (for 
 collisa esse). And often in prose : ' Q. Fabius Maximus 
 sic eum proficiscentem allocutus fertur/ L. xxii. 38 (for 
 allocutus esse). ( Capta eo proelio tria milia peditum et 
 equites trecenti dicuntur/ L. xxii. 50. See Note at p. 428. 
 
 2) Inquit, inquam, c. are omitted. ' At ille' . . . 'turn Brutus' 
 . . . f turn ego/ &c. 
 
 3) Forms of dicere, facere, fieri, &c. 'Scite Chrysippus' 
 (dicit), C. ' Cave turpe quicquam ' (facias), C. ' Ne quid crudeliter ' 
 (fiat), C. ' Cicero Attico salutem ' (dicit), C. ' Crassus verbum 
 nullum contra gratiam ' ( dixit),^ C. ' Expecto quid ad ista ' 
 (dicturus sis), C. ' Quas tu mihi intercessiones ' (narras) ? C. 
 * Finem ille ' (fecit),~C. ' Clamor inde concursusque ' (factus est), L. 
 
 Forms of dicere are suppressed in the phrases, ' Quid multa ? ' 
 ' Quid plura ? ' ' Ne multis/ c. And forms of fieri in^uch phrases 
 as ( Quid turn ? ' ' Quid postea ? ' &c. 
 
99. Ellipsis of the Verb. 347 
 
 Livy often uses the phrases, ' nihil aliud quam/ 'quid aliud quam/ 
 in which forms of the verb facere may be supplied. f Per bid- 
 uum nihil aliud quam steterunt parati ad pugnandum/ for two 
 days they did nothing but stand in readiness for battle, L. xxvi. 20. 
 The phrase becomes adverbial = merely, only. 'Nihil aliud quam 
 perfusis vano timore Romanis/ the Romans being merely panic- 
 struck^ L. ii. 63. ' Si nihil aliud/ if nothing else comes of it. ( Vin- 
 cam silentium et, si nihil aliud (faciam), certe graviter inter- 
 pellabo/ Curt. iv. 28. 
 
 4) Other Verbs are suppressed, which the mind can easily supply. 
 < Sed haec coram 7 (tractabimus), C. ' Litterarum aliquid interea' 
 (dabis), C. ' A Chrysippo pedem nunquam 7 (movet), C. ( Sed ad 
 ista alias 7 (respondebd], C. ' Sed non necesse est nunc omnia' 
 (commemorare\ C. * Di meliora ' (denf}. ' A me C. Caesar pecu- 
 niam ' (postulaf) ? C. ' Ad Tamum cogitabam ' (ire), C. ' Unde 
 mihi lapidem 7 (petam)t Hor. ' Nihil ad rem; ? *Quid ad me' 
 (attinet) ? With many more instances. 
 
 5) In the phrases, * Quo mihi ? ' 'quo tibi ?' ' usui' is to be supplied, 
 quo being an old form of cui. ' Quo tibi, Pasiphae, pretiosas 
 sumere vestis ?' Ov. ( = * cui usui est tibi ? '). But there is a further 
 ellipse of habere or consequi: 'Quo mihi fortunam, si non 
 conceditur uti ?' Hor. ( = cui usui est mihi habere fortunam ?). 
 
 6) Proverbs, being generally known and understood, are often 
 cited elliptically : ' Fortuna fords' (adiiwaf). c Minima de mahV 
 (eligendasunf]. 'Sus Minervam ' (docere milt}. 'Cuneus cuneum' 
 (trudif}. 'Manusmanum' (lavaf). ' Bis ad eundem ' (lapidem 
 offender e). 'Nee sibi nee alteri' (prodcst). 'Cornici oculum' 
 (cotifigere). 'Bene tibi 7 (dico), &c. 'Bene Messallam 7 (valere 
 iubeo\ Tib. 
 
TOO 
 
 en- 
 tences. 
 
 PART IL 
 LATIN SYNTAX. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF SENTENCES. 
 SPEECH in a connected series forms DISCOURSE. 
 
 Sen- As Words are the Parts of Speech, so the Parts of 
 
 Discourse are SENTENCES. 
 
 1. Sentences are either AFFIRMATIVE or NEGATIVE. 
 
 Psittacus loquitur, Psittacus non loquitur, 
 
 the parrot speaks. the parrot does not speak. 
 
 2. Sentences are either SIMPLE or COMPOUND. 
 
 1) A SIMPLE SENTENCE is the expression of a single thought, 
 and contains one Finite Verb : 
 
 Psittacus loquitur, Psittacus non loquitur, 
 
 the parrot speaks. the parrot does not speak. 
 
 2) A COMPOUND SENTENCE consists of two or more Simple 
 Sentences forming one sentence. Of such Simple Sentences, one 
 is the Principal Sentence, the others are Clauses. 
 
 d) Psittacus hominem imitatur, itaque loquitur, 
 the parrot imitates man, and so it speaks. 
 
 b) Psittacus, quamvis hominem imitetur, non loquitur, 
 the parrot does not speak, although it imitates man. 
 
 In (a) ' Psittacus hominem imitatur 7 is the Principal Sentence ; 
 ' Itaq\ie loquitur 'a Coordinate Clause; that is, connected but 
 not constructively dependent. In (b} ' Psittacus non loquitur' is 
 the Principal Sentence ; 'Quamvis hominem imitetur' a Subor- 
 dinate Clause; that is, constructively dependent. 
 
 3. Every SIMPLE SENTENCE is in one of three forms : 
 
 I. ENUNTIA no (statement) : 
 
 Psittacus loquitur, the parrot speaks. 
 
 II. PETITIO (will-speech) : 
 
 Loquere, psittace, speak, parrot. 
 Loquatur psittacus, let the parrot speak. 
 
 III. INTERROGATE (question) : 
 
 Quid loquitur psittacus ? what does the parrot speak? 
 
I0 i. Simple Sentence. 349 
 
 4. Each of these forms, in the Principal construction of a Com- Oratio 
 pound Sentence, is said to be Recta (direct). Obif a u a! 
 
 If it is subordinated so as to become Subject or Object of the 
 Principal Verb, it is called Obliqua (oblique or indirect). 
 
 I. ENUNTIATIO OBLIQUA (Indirect Statement) is mostly con- 
 structed as < Accusative and Infinitive :' 
 (Constat) \ 
 
 (it is a fact} psittacum loqui, 
 
 (S cimu s) that the parrot speaks, 
 
 (we know) ) 
 
 II. PETITIO OBLIQUA (Indirect Will-speech) is mostly con- 
 structed as < Subjunctive with ut or ne :' 
 
 (Poscitur) \ 
 
 (it is required) I ut psittacus loquatur, 
 (Rogamus) that the parrot speak, 
 
 (we ask) ) 
 
 III. INTERROGATE OBLIQUA (Indirect Question) is constructed 
 as * Subjunctive after an Interrogative Pronoun or Particle :' 
 
 (Incertum est) \ 
 
 (it is doubtful) I quid psittacus loquatur, 
 
 (Narra) what the parrot speaks. 
 
 (declare) 
 
 Obs. Clauses of these three kinds are called Substantival, 
 because they stand, like Substantives, in the relation of Subject or 
 Object, or in Apposition. 
 
 Note. As Discourse chiefly consists of Enunciations, Syntax 
 chiefly considers Simple Sentences of this form. But its funda- 
 mental rules are equally applicable to the other two forms. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 
 
 i. The Simple Sentence has two essential The 
 members: f] 
 
 tenc 
 
 1) The grammatical SUBJECT] that of which the 
 
 action or state is predicated or declared ; 
 
 2) The grammatical 1 PREDICATE ; that by which the 
 
 action or state of the Subject is declared. 
 
 Subject. Predicate. 
 
 Psittacus loquitur, 
 
 the parrot speaks. 
 
 1 'Grammatical' in contradistinction to 'logical.' A Predicate in formal logic is always 
 a Nominal term Y : every X (some X, no X) is Y. 
 
 IOI 
 
3 SO Latin Syntax. 102. 
 
 1) The SUBJECT must be 
 
 (1) a Substantive, or that which takes the power of a Sub- 
 stantive ; as 
 
 (2) a Pronoun \ 
 
 (3) an Adjective I used Substantively. 
 
 (4) an Adverb j 
 
 (5) a Verb-Noun Infinitive. 
 
 (6) a Vocable, or term cited as word or phrase merely. 
 
 (7) a Substantival Clause. See Ch. I. Obs. 
 
 2) As the Verb is the Part of Speech by which action or state 
 is declared, the PREDICATE must be a Verb ; and, as action and 
 state are predicated in Time, it must be a Finite Verb. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 Subject. Predicate. 
 
 (1) Deus regnat, 
 God rules. 
 
 (2) Nos paremus, 
 we obey. 
 
 (3) Omnia florent, 
 all things bloom. 
 
 (4) Satis temporis datur, 
 enough time is given. 
 
 (5) Navigare delectat, 
 sailing gives delight. 
 
 (6) 'Instant' \ 
 
 they come | clamatur, 
 
 ' Ad arma ' [ is shouted. 
 to arms ) 
 
 (7) Ouae sit natura lucis ambigitur, 
 what is the nature of light is disputed. 
 
 Such is the true Norm of Predication : that the Simple Sen- 
 tence contains or implies a Subject and a Finite Verb. 
 
 This general truth is not overthrown by the following frequent 
 exceptions : 
 
 I. Predication is made without a Subject expressed : 
 
 1) when Pronoun Subjects are implied in the Verb. See 39. 
 
 2) in some of the constructions called Impersonal. See 50. 
 
 II. Predication is made without a Verb expressed when the 
 mind can be trusted to supply one. See 99. 
 
 III. Predication is made by a Verb not Finite : 
 
 1) in the construction called the Historic Infinitive. See 
 P. 332. 
 
 2) when a Participle stands for a Finite Verb, as often in 
 poetry, and in Livy and Tacitus. See 99, i. 
 
 Examples of such Exceptions : 
 
 I. i. Nee veni, V. Venisti tandem, V. 
 
 2. Pudet pigetque facti. Quid agitur ? Statur, Ter. 
 
 II. Hie tibi certa domus, V. Quidam curiosior, Simonide, 
 tu ex opibus nil sumis tuis ? Phaed. 
 
 III. i. Turn sic affari et curas his demere dictis, V. 
 2. Fusi hostes, L. Extemplo turbati animi, V. 
 
I02 . Copulative Verbs. 351 
 
 ii. Incomplete Predication. 
 
 Some Verbs do not make a complete predication. Of these the 
 chief is the Verb of Being, sum, esse, which is completely predi- 
 cative only when it denotes mere existence. Seges est ubi Troia 
 fuit, corn is where Troy was, Ov. 
 
 Usually it is a COPULA, coupling the Subject with another term, 
 called the COMPLEMENT^ which qualifies the Subject : the Predi- 
 cate being then Copula with Complement. 
 
 Predicate. 
 Subject. Copula. Complement. 
 
 Seges est matura, 
 
 the corn is ripe. 
 
 Troia fuit urbs munitissima, ^ 
 
 Troy was a strongly fortified city. 
 
 Verbs which so couple a Subject and Complement are called 
 COPULATIVE VERBS. 
 
 Many other Verbs are (or may be) incompletely Predicative, if 
 their predication is extended (or EXTENSIBLE) by an Infinitive 
 (vii.). A few of these are also Copulative. 
 
 Verbs of incomplete Predication are, therefore 
 
 1) Copulative, but not Extensible : (a) sum, forem, fio ; and 
 (sometimes) appareo, existo, evado, maneo, nascor ; also (poetic) 
 audio, be called ; (ft) many passive verbs of being called or named ; 
 appellor, vocor, nominor, nuncupor, usurper, scribor, inscribor: 
 being chosen or declared '; creor, legor, eligor, sufficior, declarer, 
 prodor, renuntior : being known, deemed, counted^ found ; cogno- 
 scor, iudicor, habeor, numeror, deprehendor, invenior, reperior. 
 
 2) Copulative and Extensible: videor (seem), dicor, memoror, 
 censeor, credor, existimor, putor, perhibeor, arguor. 
 
 3) Extensible, but not Copulative : possum, nequeo, debeo ; 
 volo, malo, nolo, audeo ; soleo, consuesco ; coepi, incipio, meditor ; 
 desino ; pergo : conor, laboro ; with many more : a few passive 
 verbs, as feror, narror, nuntior, trador. See vii. and 180, where 
 it is said that, if the Infinitive extending any Verb is Copulative, a 
 nominal Complement following will agree with the Subject. 
 
 a. The Complement of a Copulative Verb may be 
 
 (1) An Adjective agreeing with the Subject as its Attribute. 
 
 (2) A Substantive agreeing with the Subject as its Apposite. 
 
 (3) A Phrase : sometimes an Adverb. 
 
 Examples of Copula with Complement. 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Subject. Copul. Verb. Complement. 
 
 (i) Homo est mortalis 
 
 man is mortal 
 
 Puer net doctus 
 
 the boy will become learned 
 
 Vos habemini prudentes 
 
 ye are held prudent 
 
352 Latin Syntax. 102, 
 
 Examples of Copula with Complement (continued). 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 t ' \ 
 
 Subject. Copul. Verb. Complement. 1 
 
 (2) Homines sunt animalia 
 men are animals 
 Mulier evadit victrix 
 the woman comes out conqiieress 
 Isti appellantur philosophi 
 those men are called philosophers 
 
 (3) Bona sunt viri 
 
 the goods are the husband's 
 
 Facundia censetur magni 
 
 eloquence is counted of great value 
 
 Divitiae numerantur in bonis 
 
 riches are reckoned * among goods 
 
 Navigare est voluptati 
 
 sailing is a pleasure 
 
 Conatus fuerunt frustra 
 
 endeavours were in vain 
 
 b. Examples of Nominative Complement after Infinitive. 
 
 Socrates par ens philosophiae dici potest, C. Fin. ii. i. 
 Aelius Stoicus esse voluit, C. Brut. 56. Cato esse quam 
 videri bonus malebat, Sail. Cat. 54. Xanthippe, Socratis uxor, 
 morosa admodum fuisse fertur et iurgiosa, Cell. i. 17. Ora- 
 cula evanuerunt postquam homines minus creduli esse coepe- 
 runt,C.Z#z/.ii. 57. Brevis esse laboro; obscurusfiOjH.^.P.25. 
 Animus hominis d i v e s, non area, appellari solet, C. Par. vi. i. 
 Tyndaridae fratres victoriae nuntiifuisseperhibentur, C. Tusc. 
 i. 12. Piso minor haberi est coeptus postea, C. Brut. 69. Fis 
 anus, et tamen vis formosa videri, H. C. iv. 13. L. Papirius 
 Crassus primus Papisius est vocari desitus, C. Fam. ix. 21. 
 Cum floret, existimari potest alba viola, PI. iv. n ; vi. 22. 
 Atilius prudens esse in iure civili putabatur, C. Att. vi. I. 3 
 
 Add to these the important examples of Participle Perf. (passive 
 or deponent) used as Prolative Infinitive, esse being understood : 
 QQa, and p. 428, Note. 
 
 1 The term Complement must be understood to mean ' Predicative Complement,' that 
 is, the word or phrase which completes predication, when the Verb is Copulative. French 
 writers employ this term to denote the Cases which complete the construction of various 
 Verbs : but, as these are sufficiently described by other names (Object ; Recipient, &c.)> 
 it is better to reserve the word Complement for that which has no other appropriate 
 name : as the term Predicate (in its logical sense) is applicable only in a few instances. 
 Some German writers use the term ' Nominalpradikat.' 
 
 3 In Oblique Oration, when the Verb becomes Infinitive, its Accusative Subject is called 
 an Oblique Subject ; and if that Verb is Copulative, its Accus. Complement is called an 
 Oblique Complement. Thus in ' Puto psittacum loqui ; ' ' puto psittacum (esse) loquacem ; ' 
 psittacum is Oblique Subject, loquacem Oblique Complement. See 108, p. 360. 
 
 (Note on 103.) A Phrase means a few words (sometimes a single word idiomatically 
 used) expressing a distinct notion, but not containing predication, formal or virtual. Thus 
 in the sentences, Vir est magni ingeni: Caesar cum Balbo venit ; hoc nob is 
 de d e c o r i est ; we call ' magni ingeni,' ' cum Balbo,' and ' dedecori,' Phrases. 
 
 An Enthesis means a group of words not containing a formal predication, but con- 
 vertible by a slight change of form into a Clause ; ' ab exilio regressus ; ' * philosophus 
 nobilis :' 'me absente.' See II. 2) p. 354. 
 
 A Claitse has been explained to mean a coordinate or subordinate Simple Sentence. 
 
103. Relations in the Simple Sentence. 353 
 
 Hi. Relations in the Simple Sentence. 
 
 The Simple Sentence receives expansion from Words, 
 Phrases, and Entheses used as Adjuncts, and standing 
 in the various Relations which words in a Simple Sen- 
 tence bear to one another. These Relations are : 
 
 I. Predicative. V. Circumstantive. 
 
 II. Qualitative. VI. Proprietive. 
 
 III. Objective. VII. Prolative. 
 
 IV. Receptive. VIII. Annexive. 1 
 I. The PREDICATIVE RELATION. 
 
 This subsists between the Finite Verb and the Subject. The Sub- 
 ject is (or is taken to be) a Nominative Case ; and its Verb is so 
 related as to agree with it in Number and Person. 
 
 a) A Subject Singular in form but Plural in sense is called a 
 Collective Subject, and its Predication may agree with the 
 sense and not with the form : < Pars militum occisi sunt/ 
 part of the soldiers were slain. See p. 269 D). 
 
 &) A Subject consisting of several Nouns in Annexive Rela- 
 tion is called a Composite Subject, and usually takes a 
 Plural Predicate : 'Rex, regina, et regia classis profecti 
 sunt/ the king, queen and royal fleet set out. 
 
 c) Impersonal Construction is a peculiar Predication, in which 
 either an expressed Predicate implies an unexpressed 
 Subject :. pudet ( = pudor pudet) ; curritur ( = cursus curri- 
 tur) ; or a Verb-form (Gerundive) becomes a Subject ; 
 parendum est. See 50. 
 
 II. The QUALITATIVE RELATION. 
 
 (i.) Between an Attribute and the Noun to which it is in 
 Attribution : 'magnae divitiae/ great riches ; 'docti 
 viri/ learned men ; 'iste psittacus/ that parrot. 
 (2.) Between a Noun Apposite and the Noun to which it 
 stands in Apposition: 'Cicero consul/ Cicero the 
 consul; 'rex Croesus/ king Croesus. 
 
 The qualifying word will agree with its Noun as far as possible. 
 See 107. Verb-Nouns and Clauses are considered Neuter. 
 See Examples on p. 36o. 2 
 
 1 In the classifications of Language, each class does not exclude all the members of 
 every other class. We find the same words ranked as Substantive and Adjective, as 
 Noun and Verb, as Adverb and Preposition, &c. So the classification here given is not 
 invalidated by the fact that some words, phrases, cases, &c., may be referred to more 
 than one of these Relations : that the Complement, for instance, is both Predicative and 
 Qualitative, the Genitive sometimes Qualitative, sometimes Objective, &c. 
 
 a Substantives receive as Adjuncts not only Attributes and Apposites, but many other 
 qualifying expressions : Genitives Possessive, Qualitative, and Objective : Ablatives of 
 Quality and Manner : frequently Prepositions with Cases : sometimes Adverbs. 
 
 Examples : Sullae exercitus ; vir magni ingeni ; senex promissa barba ; philosophus 
 nomine non re ; obtemperatio legibus ; domum reditio ; mansio Formiis ; interims ferro, 
 fame, frigore, pestilentia ; excessus e vita ; litterae a Caesare ; liber de Ofiiciis : collo- 
 quium cum Balbo ; omnia ante bella : tua semper lenitas, &c. 
 
 A A 
 
354 Latin Syntax. 103. 
 
 This relation appears in four varieties : 
 
 1 ) Attribute or Apposite as Epithet: 'docti viri;' <rex 
 
 Croesus/ 
 
 2) Attribute or Apposite as Enthesis : ' Cicero, ab exilio tan- 
 
 dem regressus, in senatum venit,' Cicero, having at 
 length returned from exile, came into the senate (regressus 
 = ubi regressus erat). Socrates, philosophusin primis 
 nobilis, veneno interiit/ Socrates, an eminently renowned 
 philosopher, died by poison (philosophus = qui philosophus 
 fuit). 
 
 3) Attribute or Apposite, agreeing with the Noun, but in close 
 
 union with the Verb, in the manner of an adverb : ( Cicero 
 primus in senatum venit,' Cicero came first into the 
 senate. ' Caesar aedem Fortunae consul vovit,' Caesar 
 when consul vowed a temple to Fortune. 
 
 4) Attribute or Apposite as Complement, already described 
 
 and exemplified, p. 352. 
 
 III. The OBJECTIVE RELATION. 
 
 When the Predicate is a Transitive Verb, the predication is often 
 without meaning until a word is added expressing that on which 
 the Verb acts. This is called the Object, and its relation to the 
 Verb and Subject is the Objective Relation. 
 
 Thus, < Romulus interfecit/ Romulus slew, is deficient in sense 
 until we add ' Re mum/ Remus. 
 
 'Remum' is in the Accusative Case, as Object of the Verb 
 interfecit, and in Objective Relation to that Verb and to its 
 Subject Romulus. See Syntax of Accusative. . 
 
 a) Anything which may be the Subject of a sentence may also 
 
 be the Object: and when a Verb-noun, a Vocable, a 
 Clause, or an Adverb, is used as Object, it is taken to be 
 in the Accusative Case. 
 
 b) Verbs of asking, teaching, concealing, take two Objects, one 
 
 of the Person, the other of the Thing : ' Doceo te litter as/ 
 I teach you letters. See 130. 
 
 c) Factive Verbs take a second Accusative in attribution or 
 
 apposition as complement to the first : c Socratem sapien- 
 tissimum puto/ / deem Socrates very wise. 'Caesar 
 Octavium scripsit heredem/ Caesar left Octavius his 
 heir. See 102, 131. 
 
 Such an Attribute or Apposite is called an Oblique Com- 
 plement. See Note, p. 352. 
 
 IV. The RECEPTIVE RELATION. 
 
 The Dative is the Case of the Recipient, that is, of tne person 
 or thing interested in an action or state ; for, to, upon, or against 
 which the action or state occurs : <Non nobis sed reipublicae 
 nati sumus/ we are born not for ourselves, but for the common- 
 wealth. 'Do .tibi librum/ / give a book to you. 'Pax grata 
 civibus/ a peace welcome to the citizens. c Poeni bellum inferunt 
 Rom an is/ the Carthaginians wage war against the Romans. 
 
103- Relations in the Simple Sentence. 355 
 
 The Relation of such a Dative to the Verb or Adjective govern- 
 ing it, and to their Nouns, is the Receptive Relation. 1 
 
 a) The Dative of some Nouns is used as a Complement (Pre- 
 dicative Dative or Dative of the Purpose) : See 142. 
 
 ( Haec mihi voluptati sunt/ these things are a pleasure to 
 me. ' Habet nos derisui/ he holds us in derision. 
 
 V. The ClRCUMSTANTIVE RELATION. 
 
 This limits the Verb and Adjective principally, also the Substan- 
 tive and Adverb, by Adjuncts, which may be : 
 
 (i) Adverbs; (2) Noun-cases or Phrases; (3) Entheses. 
 
 The chief Case of Circumstance is the Ablative; but also the 
 Accusative, sometimes the Genitive, may express limiting cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 Limiting Phrases are especially Prepositions with their Cases. 
 
 A frequent limiting Construction is the Ablative Absolute ; that 
 is, a Noun with Participle (or with a second Noun) in the Ablative 
 Case. 
 
 The Circumstances expressed in this relation are numerous : as, 
 
 Cause ; Instrument ; Agent ; Price ; Matter : Respect ; Mea- 
 sure ; Manner ; Condition ; Quality ; Time ; Place Where : 
 Place Whence ; Separation ; Origin ; Comparison, &c. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 1) ' O dea certe/ O surely a goddess. ' Vir longe optimus/ 
 
 a man by far the best. ' Vixi ho die,' / have lived to-day. 
 
 2) 'Gladiis certant/ they contend with swords. 'Vir pro- 
 
 cero cor pore/ a man of tall frame. ' Fraude non vi 
 periit/ he died by fraud, not by force. 'Centum annos 
 vixit/ he lived a hundred years. 'Hie rus in urbe est, 
 here is country in the city. 'Remus a Romulo occisus 
 est/ Remus was killed by Romulus. 'Vir rtatus ad glori- 
 am,' a man born for glory. 
 
 3)'Occiso Gaio, Claudius imperavit/ Gaius being slain, 
 Claudius became emperor. 'Solecadente dormitant aves/ 
 when the sun sets, birds sleep. 'Torquato consule 
 natus est Horatius/ Horace was born in the consulship of 
 Torquatus. See 161, 238, 239, 
 
 1 Verbs or Adjectives which take a Dative for their appropriate case, as pare ere, to 
 spare; placere, to please; iu cundus, pleasant ; odiosus, hateful, &c., are called TRA- 
 JECTIVE words. 
 
 If the Verb, as dare, to gi we, takes an Accusative also, it is a Trajective Verb 
 Transitive. 
 Verbs may be classed according to the Cases they take : 
 
 Transitive Verbs . . . taking Accusative . . as Quid-Verbs. 
 Trajective Verbs ... Dative ... Cui- Verbs. 
 Trajective Verbs Transitive Ace. and Dative Cui-Quid- Verbs. 
 Transitive Verbs taking Double Accusative . . ,, Quern-Quid- Verbs. 
 Factive Verbs Quid-Quale-Verbs. 
 
 The Accusative is often called the Case of the Nearer Object ; and the Dative the Case 
 of the Remoter Object. 
 
356 Latin Syntax. ^3. 
 
 VI. The PROPRIETIVE RELATION. 
 
 When the Genitive Case of a Noun depends on another Noun 
 which it has for a possession, a part, or, generally, as a notion 
 which it qualifies or determines. See 162-176. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 ' Templum Minervae/ the temple of Minerva. ' Multi mili- 
 t u m/ many of the soldiers. ' Vir m a g n i i n g ejn i/ a man 
 of great genius. ' Cupido pecuniae/ the desire of money. 
 
 a) The Proprietive Relation is, in some examples, a special 
 instance of the Qualitative: thus, Vir magni ingeni 
 = vir ingeniosissimus; in others it is a special in- 
 stance of the Objective Relation; thus * Cupido pe- 
 cuniae' is nearly the same as ' cupere pecuniam.' 
 
 VII. The PROLATIVE RELATION. 
 
 When Predication is extended (profertur) by an Infinitive ad- 
 joined to certain extensible Verbs and Participles or Adjectives. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 'Noli contende re/ do not contend. t Ego videor v i d e r e 
 res futuras, 1 / seem to see future things. * lussus con- 
 fundere foedus,' ordered to break the treaty. 'Ludere 
 pertinax/ persisting to play. 
 
 That such an Infinitive is not an Objective Verb-Noun appears 
 from the fact that Infinitives of Copulative Verbs, so constructed^ 
 keep the Complement in the same Case with the Subject : 
 
 'Puervult fieri doctus,' the boy wishes to become learned. 
 'Non omnes possumus esse philosophi,' we cannot a/I 
 be philosophers. 'Homerus caecus fuisse creditur/ 
 Homer is believed to have been blind. 
 See i So. 
 
 a) Other uses of the Infinitive in the Simple Sentence fall 
 
 under the Predicative or Objective Relation : Supines under 
 the Circumstantive Relation; the Gerund is ranked ac- 
 cording to its Case; Participles follow the rules of 
 Adjectives. 
 
 b) Cases of Nouns depend on the Infinite as well as on the 
 
 Finite Verb. 
 
 VIII. The ANNEXIVE RELATION. 
 
 When a word is annexed to the construction of a similar word 
 preceding, either by a Conjunction, or the Conjunction being omitted. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 ' Pulvis e t u m b r a sumus,' we are dust and shade. i Non nobis 
 nati sumus, sed patriae/ we are not born for ourselves > 
 but for our country. i Patriae nati sumus, non nobis,' we 
 are born for our country ', not for ourselves. ' Arma vi- 
 
104-5- The Relative Pronoun. 357 
 
 rumque cano/ arms and the man I sing. * Pater et 
 mater mortui sunt/ my father and mother are dead. 
 6 Pater, mater, fratres peri ere, 7 father, mother, brothers 
 have perished. 'Me amat ut fratrem suum/ he loves 
 me as his own brother. 
 
 a) One Finite Verb annexed to another makes, strictly speak- 
 ing, a new sentence: but is often conveniently ranked 
 under this Relation: 
 
 * Odi profanum volgus et arceo/ / hate and keep aloof the 
 profane mob. ' Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit,' he has de- 
 parted, gone forth, escaped, burst out. 
 
 iv. Interjections and Vocative. I<H 
 
 ^ i) To the forms constructed in a Simple Sentence, under the 
 eight Relations heretofore mentioned, must be added INTERJECTIONS 
 and Interjectional utterances, especially the Case (of the person or 
 thing addressed) called the VOCATIVE, which, with or without an 
 Interjection, is attached to the Sentence, but not constructed with 
 it; thus, with its adjuncts, forming an appendage, which may be 
 called a Vocative Ecthesis. Thus Horace (Carm. i. i. i) begins 
 with a Vocative Ecthesis of two lines : 
 
 Maecenas, atavis edite regibus, 
 O et praesidium et dulce decus meurn, 
 Sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum 
 Collegisse iuvat, &c. 
 
 2) Ecthesis appears also in the Accusative Case, with or without 
 Interjection; in the Nominative Case, usually with Interjection; in 
 the Dative, never without Interjection. 
 
 v. Notice of the Relative Pronoun. 105 
 
 The consideration of the RELATIVE belongs properly to the head 
 of Compound Sentences ; but it is introduced here so far as to 
 establish its agreement in Gender, Number, and Person with its 
 Antecedent, that is, with the Term in the Prior Sentence to which 
 it stands related. To this extent the Relative Pronoun is Qualita- 
 tive; but, as respects Case, it may (in its own clause) be Subject 
 Nominative or fall under any of the following Relations : Objective, 
 Receptive, Circumstantive, or Proprietive. 
 
 It corresponds to any Person. See 108, 114, 204. 
 
 Note. The Relative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, may be explained 
 as standing between two Noun-terms, with the former of which it 
 agrees in Gender, Number, and Person; with the latter in Case. 
 
 1) Sometimes both Noun- terms are expressed: 'Erant itinera 
 duo, quibus itineribus exire possent/ there were two roads by 
 which they might go forth, L. 
 
 2) Usually the latter is omitted: 'Animum rege, qui, nisi 
 paret, imperat,' rule the temper, which, unless it obeys, commands 
 (i e. qui animus), Hor. 
 
3 $8 Latin Syntax. 106. 
 
 3) Sometimes the former is omitted in poetry : ' Sic tibi dent 
 nymphae quae levet unda sitim/ so may the nymphs give the e what 
 water may assuage thirst (i.e. undam quae unda), Ov. 
 
 4) Sometimes both : < Sunt quibus in satira videor nimis acer/ 
 there are some to whom I seem too keen in satire (i. e. homines 
 quibus hominibus), Hor. 
 
 b) The following scheme illustrates this principle. 
 
 1) Vir quern virum vides rex est (full form). 
 
 2) Vir quern .... vides rex est (usual form). 
 
 3) ... quern virum vides rex est. 
 
 4) ... quern .... vides rex est. 
 
 c) Any Noun-term may be the Antecedent to a Relative. 
 
 X0 6 vi. Rules for the Conversion of an Active 
 into a Passive Sentence. 
 
 i) The Nominative of an Agent becomes Ablative (if expressed) 
 with the Preposition a, ab : 
 
 Act. Noscurrimus, i 
 Pass. Anobiscurritur,' ' 
 
 Or the Person may be suppressed : 
 lie 
 
 Obs. The Ablative of the Agent may also be used with the Quasi* 
 Passive Verbs fio, vapulo, veneo : 
 
 Haec a legionibus fiebant, 
 
 these things were being done by the legions. 
 
 Testis a reo vapulavit, 
 
 the witness was beaten by the defendant. 
 
 Nolim ab hoste venire, 
 
 / would not be sold by an enemy. 
 
 2) The Nominative of an Instrument becomes Ablative without 
 Preposition : 
 
 3) The Object of a Transitive Verb becomes the Subject : 
 
 Act. Deus mundum creayit, i (M ^ ^ ^ 
 
 Pass. ADeomundus creatus est, 
 
 4) If there are two Objects (Person and Thing) the Accusative of 
 the Thing remains : 
 
 Act. Rogas me sententiam, j k .. 
 
 Pass. Rogor a te sententiam, ' * 
 
 5) Factive construction becomes Copulative : 
 
 A. Clodium plebs tribunumcreavit, \the plebeians elected 
 P. Clodius a plebe creatus est tribunus, > Clodius tribune. 
 
107-8. Agreement, 359 
 
 6) Other Cases remain, and Intransitive Verbs become Imper- 
 sonal. 
 
 Act. Pater librum filio dat, \ the father gives a book to his 
 Pass. A patre liber fili o datur, I son. 
 
 Act. Medi.cinae indigemus. ) , ,. . 
 
 Pass. Medicinaeanobisindietur \ ^ need medtane. 
 
 Pass. Medicinaeanobisindigetur, 
 
 Act. Mihi isti nocere non'possunt. 
 Pass. Mihi abistis noceri non pot 
 
 Note. On the Construction of Impersonal Verbs see 50. 
 
 Act. Mihi isti nocere non'possunt. \ , 7 , 7 
 
 Pass. Mihi abistis noceri non potest, W cann ot hurt me. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 
 These fall into three Sections. 107 
 
 I. Agreement. 
 II. Case-construction. 
 
 III. Verb-construction, so far as concerns the Simple 
 Sentence. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 AGREEMENT. 
 
 108 
 
 AGREEMENT, in Syntax, is the assimilation of the Agree- 
 form of one word to that of another. 
 
 i. The Four Concords. 
 
 There are four Rules of Agreement, called CON- 
 CORDS : namely, 
 
 Concord I. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject- 
 Nominative in Number and Person. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 'Ego doceo; nos docemus.' ' Tu disces; vos discetis.' 
 ' Magister hortetur; magistri hortentur.' 'Vivere est cogi- 
 tare.' ' Omnia sunt recte.' l Quod venisti gratum est. 7 
 
 Concord II. An Adjective agrees in Gender, 
 Number, and Case with that to which it is in Attribu- 
 tion. 
 
 Concord III. A Substantive agrees in Case with 
 that to which it is in Apposition. 
 
 Obs. Concords II. and III. are true for every various position 
 of the Attribute or Apposite whether they are Epithets, as in the 
 
360 Latin Syntax. I0 8. 
 
 examples marked (i) of the two lists which follow: Entheses, as in 
 those marked (2) ; Adverbial, as in those marked (3) ; or Com- 
 plements, as in those marked (4) and (5). 
 
 . Examples. 
 
 II. (i) Vir bonus ille bonam hanc uxorem habet, that good 
 
 man has this good wife. 
 
 (2) hirundo pullis suis orbata queritur, the swallow 
 
 bereft of its young complains. 
 
 (3) quis vita male act a felix moritur ? who, after a life ill- 
 
 spent^ dies happy ? 
 
 (4) cari sunt parentes ; caraest patria, dear are parents ; 
 
 dear is country. 
 
 (5) pueri discendo fiunt docti, boys by learning become 
 
 learned. 
 
 (6) haec est nobilis ilia ad Trasimenum pugna, this is 
 
 that renowned battle at Lake Trasimenus. 
 
 (7) quid sit futurum eras incertum est, what will 
 
 happen to-morrow is uncertain. 
 
 (8) malim pueros esse quam videri bonos, I would rather 
 
 boys should be, than seem, good. 
 
 (9) tacere aliquando utile putamus, to be silent at times we 
 
 deem expedient. 
 (10) sciretuum nihil est, your knowledge is nothing. 
 
 Obs. In (7) 'incer turn' agrees with the Clause ' quid sit futurum 
 eras. 7 In (8) 'bonos' (Oblique Complement) agrees with ' pueros/ 
 which is Oblique Subject of each Infinitive. Hence it is seen that 
 Copulative Verbs, Finite or Infinite, have the same case of agreeing 
 words after as before them. Example .(9) is of the same kind, 
 for esse might be supplied to utile. See III. (6). 
 
 III. (i) Nos pueri patrem Lollium imitabimur, we boys will 
 
 imitate our father Lollius. 
 
 (2) effodiuntur opes, irritamenta malorum, riches are dug 
 
 out, incentives of evil. 
 
 (3) Cicero legem Maniliam praetor suasit, Cicero recom- 
 
 mended the Manilian law when praetor. 
 
 (4) spes est expectatio boni, hope is the expectation of 
 
 good. 
 
 (5) syllaba longa brevi subiecta vocatur iambus, a long 
 
 syllable following a short one is called iambus. 
 
 (6) Athenas omnium doctrinarum inventrices esse cre- 
 
 dimus, we believe Athens to be the inventress of all 
 sciences. 
 
 (7) cogita oratorem institui, rem arduam, reflect that 
 
 an orator is being formed, a difficult business. 
 
 (8) Tungri sunt Galliae ci vitas, the Tungri are a state of 
 
 Gaul. 
 
 Obs. In (7) rem is in Apposition to the Clause * oratorem 
 institui.' 
 
109-110. Agreement. 361 
 
 Concord IV. The Relative Pronoun Qui, quae, 
 quod, agrees with its Antecedent in Gender, Number, 
 and Person ; but in Case it follows the construction of 
 its own clause. See 105. 
 
 1. Tu, filia, quae nos amas, oboedies nobis, qui te 
 
 a mam us, you, daughter, 'who love us, will obey us, 
 who love you. 
 
 2. Deum veneramur, qui nos creavit, we worship God 
 
 who created us. 
 
 3. adsum quern quaeritis, / am present whom ye seek. 
 
 4. habeo quibuscum colloquar, I have some to talk with. 
 
 5. in tempore ad earn veni, quod rerum omnium est 
 
 primum, / came to her at the right moment, which is 
 the most important thing of all. 
 
 6. nos, id quod debent, virtutes delectant, virtues delight 
 
 us, as they ought. 
 
 Obs. In 3, the Antecedent is ego, in 4, aliquos, understood ; in 
 5, the Principal sentence is the Antecedent : in 6. id is in apposi- 
 tion to the sentence ' nos virtutes delectant.' (Id quod = ut.) 
 
 ii. Ellipsis of the Subject. 
 
 1) Pronoun Subjects (ego, nos, tu, vos, is, ei) are omitted, unless 
 required for emphasis : 4 Si vales bene est, ego valeo/ if you are 
 well, I rejoice ; I am well, C. Fam. xiii. 6. ' Odi profanum volgus 
 et arceo/ / hate and keep aloof the profane vulgar, Hor. C. iii. 
 I. I. ' Poscimur/ we are required, Hon C. i. 32. I. 
 
 2) When a Subject of the Third Person is omitted, it is generally 
 known from the context. 
 
 On the omission of homines (Fr. on, Germ, man) before aiunt, 
 ferunt, &c., see p. 275. 'Teque ferunt irae paenituisse tuae/ and 
 they say you have repented of your anger, Ov. A. A. ii. 592. The 
 adverb volgo sometimes accompanies this ellipsis: 'Volgo ex 
 oppidis gratulabantur Pompeio/ they came in crowds from the 
 towns to congratulate Pompeius, C. T. D. i. 35. 
 
 3) Impersonal Verbs have no Substantive or Pronoun expressed 
 as Subject. But many have a Verb-noun Infinitive: * Ire iuvat; 
 fugere dedecet/ &c. Many have a Clausular Subject : ' Oportet 
 haec fieri: 7 'interest ut te videam,' &c. The Subject of others is 
 implied in the Verb itself : ' Pudet facti ; taedet vitae ; miseret 
 hominis,' &c. : also in Pluit, tonat x grandinat, &c., and in 
 Passive Impersonate, Itur, statur, vivitur, &c. See 50. 
 
 On Ellipsis, see pp. 267, 274, 346. 
 
 iii. Attraction of the Verb. IIO 
 
 i) A Copulative Verb sometimes agrees with the Complement. 
 'Amantium irae amoris integratio est,' lovers' quarrels are the 
 renewal of love, Ter. An. iii. 3. 28. ( Quas geritis vestis sordida 
 lana fuit/ the clothes which ye wear were dirty wool, Ov. A. A. 
 iii. 222. 
 
362 Latin Syntax. iii. 
 
 2) This Attraction may affect Gender. ' Non omnis error stul- 
 titia est dicenda/ not every error must be called folly, C. Div. 
 ii. 43. ' Gens universa Veneti appellati/ the entire race were- 
 called Veneti, L. i. i. 
 
 3) A Verb sometimes agrees with the Apposite rather than with 
 the true Subject. ' Tungri Galliae civitas fontem habet insig- 
 nem/ Tongres, a city of Gaul, has a remarkable fountain, PI. N. H* 
 xxxi. 2. 
 
 iv. Synesis in the first and second Concords. 
 See p. 269. 
 
 1) Feminine or Neuter words implying males are found with 
 Masculine agreement: ' Ilia furia qui . . . &c. impunitatem est 
 assecutus, 3 the fury who (namely Clodius) c., obtained impunity, 
 C. Fam. i. 9. < Mill a triginta capitum dicunturcapti/ thirty thou- 
 sand prisoners are said to have been taken, L. xxvii. 16. ' Ubi 
 i Hi c est seel us, qui . . . / where is that villain who . . . f Ten. 
 An. iii. 5. Analogous to this is Liyy's practice of mentioning 
 the name of a town, and then continuing the construction as if he 
 had mentioned the inhabitants: 'Saguntum civitas longe op- 
 ulentissima ultra Iberum fuit. Oriundi a Zacyntho insula dicun- 
 tur mixtique/ &c., the city of Saguntum was by far the wealthiest 
 beyond the Ebro : they (cives) are said to have originated from the- 
 isle of Zante, and to have been mingled, &c., L. xxi. 7. 
 
 2) Singular Collective Nouns, pars, multitudo, volgus, turba> 
 vis, iuventus, nobilitas, plebs, &c., are used by Livy, Sallust, and 
 the poets, with Plural Predicates, and agreement of Gender KTCI 
 trvvtaiv. ' Locros omnis multitudo abeunt/ the whole number 
 remove to Locri, L. xxiv. 3. 'Pars perexigua, duce amisso, Ro- 
 mam inermes delatisunt/tf very small portion, having lost their 
 leader, were brought unarmed to Rome, L. ii. 14. This construc- 
 tion is rare in Caesar, not used by Cicero. 
 
 3) The Distributive words and phrases quisque, uterque r 
 pars, alius . . . alinm, alter. . . alterum, vir . . . virum, &c., 
 are apparently used as Subjects to Plural Predicates, but may be 
 explained as apposite to Plural Subjects understood : 'Uterque: 
 eorum exercitum e castris educunt/ they both lead out an army 
 from the camp, Caes. B. G. iii. 30. *At nostri, repentino metu 
 perculsi, sibi quisque pro moribus consulunt; alii fugere, alii 
 arma capere : magna pars volnerati aut occisi/ but our men, 
 seized with a sudden panic, provided for themselves according to 
 their several habits ; some fled, others took arms: a great portion 
 were wounded or slain, Sail. lug. 57. 'Alius alii subsidium fe- 
 runt/ they bring support one to another, Caes. B. G. ii. 26. 'Vir 
 virum legebant/ each man picked another, L. x. 38. 
 
 4) The Adverb partim is plurally constructed by Cicero, with 
 Gender Kara avvtaiv : ' Eorum partim in pompa partim in acie 
 illustres esse voluerunt/ some of them chose to be brilliant in pro- 
 cession^ some on the battle-field, C. d. Or. ii. 94. ( Partim e nobis. 
 
ii2. Composite Subject. 363 
 
 timidi sun t, parti m a republica aver si/ the one part of us are 
 cowards, the other unfriendly to the state, C. Phil. viii. 32. 
 
 5. Mi lie is generally Plural, sometimes Singular. See 34. 
 v. Composite Subject ( 
 
 Two or more Subjects united in one Predication are called a 
 Composite Subject. See p. 268. 
 
 A. i) If the Subjects so united form an evidently Plural notion, 
 the Predicate will be Plural: 'Pompeius, Lentulus, Scipio 
 foede perierunt/ C. Fam. ix. 18. 'Castor et Pollux ex equis 
 pugnare visi sunt,' C. N. D. ii. 2. ' lus et iniuria natura 
 diiudicantur/ right and wrong are naturally distinguished, C. 
 Leg.i. 16. 'Aetas, metus, magister, prohibebant/ age, ti- 
 midity, and a tutor forbade, Ter. An. i. i. 27. Sometimes, when the 
 Prep, cum unites the Subjects: <Ipse dux cum aliquot princi pi bus 
 capiuntur/ the commander himself with some leading men were 
 captured] L. xxi. 60. 'IliacumLausode Numitore sati,' Ov. F. 
 iv. 55. But Cicero prefers the Singular in this last construction, 
 <Tu cum Sexto scire velim quid cogites/ / should like to know 
 what you and Sextus think, Att. vii. 14. 
 
 2) If their union forms one complex Singular notion, the Verb 
 maybe Singular. 'Tempus necessitasque postulat/ C. Off.i. 23. 
 'Religio et fides anteponatur amicitiae,' C. Off. iii. 10. So 
 ( Senatus populusque Romanus ' forms one complex notion, and 
 usually, but not always, takes a Singular Predicate. 
 
 3) If one of the Subjects is ist Pers. Sing, (ego), the Predicate 
 may be ist Pers. Plur. 
 
 If one of the Subjects is 2nd Pers. Sing, (tu) and none ist Pers., 
 the Predicate may be 2nd Pers. Plur. 
 
 6 Si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valetis, ego et suavissimus Cicero 
 valemus/ If you and my darling Tullia are well, I and our sweet 
 boy are in good health, C. Fam. xiv. 5. 
 
 4) If the Subjects are sentient beings and of the same Gender, 
 the Attributes follow that Gender ; if of different Genders, the At- 
 tributes are Plural Masculine. 
 
 1 Non mihi venistis Semele Ledeve docendae,' ye are not 
 come a Semele or a Leda to be taught by me, Ov. A. A. iii. 251. 
 ' Pater mihi et mater mortui sunt,' my father and mother are 
 dead, Ter. Eun. iii. 3. n. 
 
 5) If they are non-sentient things and of the same Gender, that 
 Gender may be kept by the Attributes, or these may be Neuter : if 
 of different Genders, the Attributes are usually Neuter Plural. 
 
 * Grammatice quondam ac musice iunctae fuere/ grammar 
 and music were formerly combined, Ou. i. 10. 17. 'Ira et avar- 
 itia imperio potentiora erant,' anger and avarice were more 
 powerful than authority, L. xxxvi. 32. 'Fregellis murus et porta de 
 caelo tacta erant,' at Fregellae a wall and gate had been struck by 
 lightning, L. xxxii. 29. See M. Lucr. iii. 136. 
 
 6) If sentient beings and non-sentient things are combined, the 
 former will sometimes regulate the Gender: 'Rex regiaque 
 
364 Latin Syntax. II3 . 
 
 classis una profecti,' the king and the royal fleet set out to- 
 gether, L. xxi. 50. But Neuter Attributes are more usual : * Ro- 
 mani regem regnumque Macedoniae sua futura sciunt/ the 
 Romans know that the king and kingdom of Macedonia will be theirs, 
 L. xl. 10. 
 
 B. i) Often, however, the Verb and Attributes are constructed 
 with only one of the Subjects, and mentally supplied with the rest 
 (zeugma). That one will be nearest to the Predication, and gene- 
 rally the most important. ' Nunc mihi nihil libri, nihil litterae, ni- 
 hil doctrinaprodest/ now neither books nor literature nor learn- 
 ing avail me aught, C. Att.x. 10. 'Homer us fuit et Hesiodus 
 ante Romam conditam/ Homer and Hesiod were before the founda- 
 tion of Rome, C. T. D. i. I. 'Dicebat idem Cotta, Curio/ Cotta 
 said the same, and Curio, C. Off. ii. 1 7. f Cum quaesturam nos, 
 consulatum Cotta, aedilitatem peteret Hortensius/^e/^w I stood 
 for the quaestorship, Cotta for the consulship, Hortensius for the 
 edileship, C. Brut. 92. So, 'Et tu et omnes homines sciunt/ 
 you and all mankind know, C. Fam. xiii. 8. 
 
 2) The agreement of Gender with a nearer word appears in this 
 Example : ' Visae nocturno tempore faces ardorque caeli/ meteors 
 were seen in the night and a fiery sky, C. in Cat. iii. 8. 
 
 3) Singular agreement with the more distant Noun is rare : 
 'Lucus quidem ille et haec Arpinatium quercus agnoscitur, saepe 
 a me lectus in Mario/ I recognise yonder grove, and this oak of 
 the Arpinates, which I have often read of in the Marius, C. Leg* 
 i. i. 
 
 4) 'Unus et alter' takes a Singular Verb: 'Unus et alter 
 assuitur pannus/ one or two patches are stitched on, Hor. ad Pis. 
 IS- 
 
 5) When the Subjects are connected by aut, the Predicates 
 sometimes appear as Singular, sometimes as Plural : ' Si Aeacus 
 aut Minos diceret/ C. Off. i. 28. * Si quid Socrates aut Aris- 
 tippus . . . fecerint locutive sint,' C. Off. i. 41. But with aut 
 . . . aut, the Singular alone is used. Et . . . et, neque . . . neque, 
 usually lead to a Singular Predicate, but sometimes to a Plural. 
 
 In short, the construction of a Composite Subject exhibits every 
 variety of usage. 
 
 6) Such instances as the following belong to Attraction : * Ei 
 cariora semper omni a quamdecus et pudicitia i\\\\.J everything 
 was at all times dearer to him than decency and modesty, Sail. Cat. 
 25- 
 
 vi. Idioms of Attribution and Apposition. 
 
 i) As Complement, the Adjective may be attributed to any 
 Noun-term; as Epithet, chiefly to a Substantive : but sometimes to 
 an Infinitive: 'Velle suum cuique est/ every one has his own 
 inclination. 'Totum hoc displicet p h i 1 o s o p h a r i/ all this phi- 
 losophising they dislike, Cic. Fin. i. i. 'Me hoc ipsum nihil 
 age re delectat/ this 'far niente* itself is to me delightful, C. d> 
 Or. ii. 6. 
 
j II3 Attribution and Apposition. 365 
 
 2) Sometimes, in Copulative construction, an Adjectival Pro- 
 noun seems to take the place of Subject, and the Substantive, to 
 which it refers, that of Complement. So placed, the Adjectival 
 word usually agrees with the Substantive : * H ae sunt fere de animis 
 sententiae/ these are pretty nearly the (current} opinions on the 
 sou/, Cic. * Hie murus aheneus esto, nil conscire sibi/ let this be a 
 wall of brass, to be conscious of nothing (wrong), Hor. Epist. i. i. 
 61. But sometimes the Pronoun is substantially Neuter: ' Quod 
 ego fui ad Trasimenum, ad Cannas, id tu hodie es/ what I was at 
 Trasimenus, at Cannae, you are now, L. xxx. 30. * Nunc scio quid 
 sit amor/ now know I what love is, Verg. B. viii. 43. 
 
 3) The Adverbial and Proleptic uses of the Attribute and Appo- 
 site are important idioms, noticed p. 278. 
 
 a) Attribute : 'Turn tu insiste audax muris/ then do thou 
 
 advance on the walls boldly, L. iii. 26. 'Castris se pavi- 
 dus tenebat/ he kept himself within the camp timidly, L. 
 'Vespertinus pete tectum/ seek the roof at eventide, 
 Hor. Epist. i. 6. 20. * Aeneas sematutinus agebat/ 
 Aeneas set himself in motion at morn, Verg. Aen. viii. 465. 
 ' Domesticus otior/ / lounge at home, Hor. S. i. 6. 127. 
 'Hostes rari se ostendere coeperunt/ the enemy began to 
 show themselves in small parties, Caes. B. G. v. 17. 
 ' Memini, tametsi nullus moneas/ I remember, without 
 any suggestion from you, Ter. Eun. ii. i. 10. ' Hannibal 
 princepsin proelium ibat, ultimus conserto proelio ex- 
 cedebat/ Hannibal used to be the first to go to battle, and 
 after the engagement the last to quit the field, L. xxi. 4. 
 * Omnem crede diem tibi diluxisse supremum/ believe 
 that every day that has dawned on you is your last, Hor. 
 Epist. i. 4. Thus, where the English generally uses a 
 Relative Pronoun : He was the first (last or only one) who 
 came, the Latin more concisely says Primus (ultimus ? 
 solus) venit. 
 
 b) Adverbial Apposition limits the agency of the Subject in re- 
 
 spect of time, age, office, capacity, &c. : ' Furius, noster 
 familiaris, puer didicit quod discendum fuit/ my intimate 
 friend Furius learnt in boyhood what he had to learn, C. 
 d. Or. iii. 23. ' Cato senex scribere historiam instituit/ 
 Cato began to write history in old age, Suet. Ner. 31. ' C. 
 lunius aedem Salutis, quam con s u 1 voverat, censor loca- 
 verat, dictator dedicavit/ Gams Junius dedicated in his 
 dictatorship the temple of Salus, which he had vowed in 
 his consulship, and given a contract for in his censorship, 
 L. x. i. Under this head may be placed such phrases as, 
 Ante me consulem (before my consulship), post me quaes- 
 tor em (after my quaestor ship). See p. 273. 
 
 4) If Neuter Adjectives are so constructed as to qualify Mas- 
 culine or Feminine Nouns, they must be regarded as words which 
 have acquired the nature of Substantives, and as standing in ap- 
 position : 'Turpe senex miles, turpe senilis amor/ unseemly is 
 an aged soldier, unseemly an old man's love, Ov. Am. i. 9. ' Mors 
 
366 Latin Syntax. II3 . 
 
 omnium rerum extremum est, death is the final close of all things , 
 C. Fam. vi. 21. ' Turpitude peius est quam dolor/ dishonour is 
 worse than pain, C. T. D. ii. 13. ' Patres et plebem, in valid a et 
 inermia, ludificatur/ he deludes the Senate and Commons, weak 
 and defenceless bodies, Tac. Ann. i. 46. 
 
 5) The Apposite usually agrees in Number with its Noun, but 
 not necessarily: ' Tulliola, deliciolae nostrae, ' Tullia, my little 
 darling, C. Att. i. 8. Substantiva Mobilia, having two forms, Mas- 
 culine and Feminine, will agree, as far as possible, in Gender with 
 their Noun: Usus magister egregius/ experience, an excellent 
 teacher, Plin. Epist. i. 20. 'Vita rustica parcimoniae magistra 
 est/ a country life is the teacher of thrift, C. p. S. Rose. 27. Such 
 words are also used as epithets, chiefly by poets : * Re gin a pe- 
 cunia/ queen Money, Hor. Epist. i. 6. 36. An Apposite may seem 
 to take a different case from its noun : ( Archias natus est Anti- 
 ochiae, celebri quondam urbe/ Archias was born at Antioch, a 
 once populous city, C. p. Arch. 3. 
 
 6) Peculiar forms of Apposition : 
 
 a] Apposition to a Pronoun Subject understood : 
 
 'Hannibal peto pacem/ /, Hannibal, sue for peace, L. xxx. 
 30. ' Qualis artifex pereo!' what an artist dies in me 
 (lit. I die)\ Suet. Ner. 49. 
 
 &) Apposition of the Part to the Whole : 
 
 * Galli Ruscinonem, aliquot populi, conveniunt/ the Gauls, 
 a few tribes, meet at Ruscino, L. xxi. 24. 'Duae filiae 
 harum, alt era occisa, alter a capta est/ the two daughters 
 of these women, one was slain, the other captured, Caes. B. 
 G. i. 53. 'Cetera multitude sorte decimus quisque ad 
 supplicium lecti sunt/ the remaining crowd were picked, 
 every^ tenth man, for execution, L. ii. 59. ' Vos sibi quisque 
 consilium capitis/j^ consult each for himself , Sail. C. 52. 
 
 c) Apposition of the Proper Names of one Person : 
 
 P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus. See p. 193. 
 
 d) Apposition annexed by Conjunctions, such as ut, velut, 
 
 quasi, ceu, tamquam, quamvis : 
 
 'Aegyptii canem et felem ut deos colunt/ the Egyptians 
 worship the dog and cat as deities, C. Leg. i. 1 1. l Herodotus 
 quasi sedatus amnis fluit/ Herodotus flows as a calm 
 river, C. Or. 12. ' Ficta omnia celeriter, tamquam flos- 
 culi, decidunt/ all unreal things quickly droop like flowers, 
 C. Off.\\. 12. ( Manlius filium suum, quamvis victorem, 
 occidit/ Manlius slew his son, though conqueror, Flor. i. 
 
 ) Apposition which requires a Noun answering a question to 
 
 be in the same case as the Noun which it answers : 
 'Quone malo mentem concussa? Timor e deorum/ by what 
 malady disturbed in mind? By fear of the gods, Hor. S. 
 ii. 3. 293. But here, too, the cases may seem to differ: 
 4 Quanti emptum ? P a r v o. Quanti ergo ? O c t u s s i b u s/ 
 Hor. S. ii. 3. 155. 
 
. II4 . Agreement of Relative. 367 
 
 7) A single Adjective is seldom referred to more than one Noun 
 except as Complement. When it is otherwise referred to more 
 than one, and the Genders differ, it usually agrees with the nearest: 
 '* Romanis cunctamaria terraeque patebant/ all seas and lands 
 were open to the Romans, Sail. C. 10. 
 
 Sometimes it is Neuter Plural, like a Complement : 
 
 'Gallorum genti natura corpora animosque magna magis 
 
 quam fir ma dedit/ nature has given to the Gauls great rather than 
 
 strong bodies and minds, L. v. 44. 
 
 8) A Noun subdivided by more than one Singular Attribute is 
 sometimes found Singular, sometimes Plural : 
 
 ' Legio Martia quartaque rempublicam defendunt,' the Martian 
 legion and the fourth defend the commonwealth, C. Phil. v. 17. ' In 
 rabiem tractae prima ac vicesima legiones/ the first and twentieth 
 legions were drawn into the mad revolt, Tac. Ann. i. 31. 
 
 A Noun in apposition to several others will be Plural in the same 
 Case with them : 
 
 4 Eupolis atque Cratinus Aristophanesque poetae/ the poets 
 Eupolis and Cratinus and Aristophanes, Hor. S. i. 4. i. 
 
 Sometimes the Nomen or Cognomen is in apposition to the 
 Praenomina of two or more persons : 
 
 ( M. et Q. Cicerones/ the Ciceros, Marcus and Quintus\ C C. et 
 L. Memmii/ the Memmii, Gaius and Lucius. 
 
 vii. Synesis, Ellipsis and Attraction in Re- 
 lative Construction. 
 
 I. a] The agreement of the Relative may follow meaning : 
 'Multitude, qui convenerant . . .* 
 
 b) The agreement of a Relative with a Composite Subject is 
 
 in principle the same as that of an Adjective. 
 'Pater et mater qui mortui sunt' . . . ( Fortuna, decus, 
 honos, quae fortuita sunt. . . .' 
 
 c) A Personal Pronoun as Antecedent may be implied in a 
 
 Possessive : 
 
 ' Omnes laudare fortunas me as, qui gnatum haberem tali 
 ingenio praeditum/ all were extolling my good fortune 
 in having a son of such a character, Ter. An. i. i. 97. 
 
 :2. a) Ellipsis of the Antecedent is frequent. See Concord iv. 
 Ex. 3. 4. But that of the word or words which govern 
 the Relative (when they are to be supplied from the ante- 
 cedence) is less so : 
 
 ' Nos imitamur quos cuique visum est (i.e. eos quos cuique 
 visum est imitari)/ we imitate those, whom we severally 
 think proper to imitate, C. Off. i. 30. This idiom some- 
 times resembles Attraction : Si aliquid agis eorum quo- 
 rum consuesti, gaudeo (i.e. eorum quorum aliquid agere 
 consuesti)/ if you are pursuing any of your wonted occu- 
 pations, I am glad, C. Fam. v, 14. 
 
368 Latin Syntax. 114. 
 
 &) When the Relative has been used in one Case, another Case 
 
 of it is sometimes suppressed : 
 
 4 Bocchus cum peditibus, quos films eius adduxerat, neque 
 in priore pugna adfuerant, postremam Romanorum 
 aciem invadunt/ Bocchus and the infantry, which his son 
 had brought up, and which had not been present in the 
 former battle, attack the rear of the Romans, Sail. /. 101. 
 
 3. #) The Relative may agree with an Apposite, or not : 
 
 'Flumen Scaldis quod . . .' 'Flumen Rhodanus qui. . .' 
 
 b) The Relative may agree with the Complement of its own 
 
 Clause, rather than with its Antecedent : 
 
 ' Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est/ L. 
 
 Madvig's rule is (Gr. 319) that, if the Antec. is defined without 
 the aid of the clause, the Rel. agrees with its Compl. ; if not, with 
 the Antec. But many exceptions occur. 
 
 c) The Antecedent is drawn into the same Clause and Case as 
 
 the Relative :'Quamartem novi, exerceo/ Or the Ante- 
 cedent may remain in its own sentence, and be repeated 
 in the Relative Clause : ' Dies instat, quo die . . .' 
 
 Sometimes the attracted Antecedent precedes the Relative : 
 * Urbem quam statuo vestra est/ V. Aen. i. 573. 
 
 Horace has a daring Attraction : < Quis non malarum quas 
 amor curas habet Haec inter obliviscitur ? ' Epod. ii. 
 
 d) An Attribute, especially unus, pauci and Superlatives, may 
 
 be attracted to the Relative Case and Clause ( 82. 3.) : 
 'Tempestivis conviviis delector cum aequalibus, qui pauci 
 admodum restant/ / enjoy early dinners with contempora- 
 ries, very few of whom remain, C. Cat. M. 14. * Consiliis pare, 
 quae nunc pulcherrima Nautes dat senior,' V. Aen. v. 
 
 e) Attraction of the Relative to the Case of the Antecedent is 
 
 rare : ' ludice quo nosti populo/ in the judgment of that 
 public with which you are acquainted, Hor. S. i. 6. 15. 
 This is sometimes complicated with Ellipsis of the Ante- 
 cedent or of the governing word, or of both : ' Haec cadere 
 possunt in quos nolis (i.e. in eos in quos nolis ea cadere)/ 
 C. d. Or. ii. 6c. 
 
 viii. Qualis, quantus, quot. 
 
 Qualis (such as), quantus (as great as), follow the same rule 
 as qui only when they are placed between two Cases (expressed 
 or understood) of the same person or thing: <Non sum qualis 
 eram/ I am not what I was, Hor. C. iv. i. 'Crocodilus parit ova 
 quanta anseres,' the crocodile lays eggs as big as geese lay, PL 
 N. H. xviii. 25. But if they are used to compare two different 
 Nouns, they agree in Gender, Number, and Case with the latter; 
 while their Demonstratives (talis, tantus) agree with the former : 
 'Talis est, qualem te esse video, he is such as I see you are, C. 
 p. Mur. 14. 'Dixi tanta contentione quantum forum est/ / 
 spoke with exertion of voice as great as the forum is, C. Fam. xii. 7* 
 So tot ... quot, which are undeclined. 
 
H4. Agreement of Relative. 369 
 
 Abnormal constructions are: 'Animae qualis neque can- 
 didiores terra tulit, neque quis me sit devinctior alter/ 
 Hor. S. i. 5. 41. 'Nardo perunctum quale non perfectius 
 meae laborarint manus/ Hor. Epod. v. 57. 1 
 
 Examples of the Rules of Agreement, for practice. 
 
 A. (Subject: Predicate: Complement: Attribution,') 'Mens pecc at, non corpus,* 
 L. i. 58. 'Nos consules desumus,' C. Cat. i. i. ' N i t i m u r in vetitum semper c u p i- 
 musque negata,' Ov. Am. iii. 2. ' Natura tu illi pater es, consiliis ego/ Ter. Ad. 
 i. 2. 'Haruspicum munus erat exta inspicere/ Val. M. i. i. 'Quid sit optimum 
 neminem fugit,' Qu. xi. 2. 'Vivitur parvo bene/ Hor. C. ii. 16. 13. 'lusta omnia 
 decora sunt: iniusta contra, ut turpia, sic indecora,' C. Off. i. 94. 'Catilinae inerat 
 satis eloquentiae, sapientiae par um/ Sail. C. 5. 'Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis,' 
 C. Att. xiii. 28. 'Dulce satis umor,' Verg. B. iii. 13. 'Omnis ars imitatio est 
 naturae,' Sen. Ep. 65. 'Terra altrix nostra diei noctisque effectrix eademque 
 custos est,' C. Univ. 10. 'Servus, cum manu mittitur, fit libertinus/ Qu. vii. 3. 
 'De Ami citiaeo lib ro dictum est, qui inscribitur Laelius,' C. Off. ii. 9. 'Athenis 
 tenue caelum, ex quo acutiores etiam putantur Attici/ C. Fat. 4. ' Poste- 
 riores cogitationes, ut aiunt, sapientiores esse solent/ C. Phil. xii. 2. 'Omnia 
 orta occidunt et aucta senescunt,' Sail. lug. i. ' Romam serae avaritia atque luxuria 
 immigraverunt,' L. Praef. ' Scythae perpetuo intacti aut invicti mansere,' lust. ii. 3. 
 'Marius, septimum consul, domi suae senex est mortuus,' C. N. D. iii. 32. Apud 
 matrem recte &si t 'CAtt. i. 7. 'Sum Dyrrachii hoc tempore, et sum tuto,'C. 
 Fam. xiv. 3. 'Nihil est tamangusti animi tamque parvi quam amare divitias/ 
 C. Off. i. 20. ' Libertas et anima nostra in dubio est,' Sail. C. 52. 'Ne Pericles 
 quidem dixit Attice, cui primae sine controversia deferebantur,' C. Or. g. 
 
 B. (Synesis.) 'Pars in crucem acti, pars bestiis obiecti sunt,' Sail. lug. 14. 
 ' Volgus Macedonum Demetrium cum ingenti favore conspiciebant,' L. xxxix. 55. 
 ' Samnitium caesi tria millia ducenti, capti quattuor milia ducenti/ L. x. 34. 
 ' Optimus quisque iussis paruere/ Tac. H. iv. 25. 'Dux uterque pari culpa 
 meritus adversa prosperis defuere,' Tac. H. iv. 34. 'Hie uterque me intuebatur, 
 seseque ad audiendum significabant paratos,' C. Fin. ii. i. (Cicero never has a Plural 
 Verb with uterque : see Madvig ad 1. c.) 
 
 C. (Composite Subject.) 'Dant veniam genitor coniunxque,' Ov. F. ii, 889. 
 ' Spectantur in chartis tenuitas, candor, laevor,' PL N. H xiv. 12. ' Per inter- 
 regem consules creati sunt Valerius et Horatius,' L. iii. 35. ' Ego ac tu 
 simplicissime inter nos hodie loquimur/ Tac. H. i. 15. ' Haec neque ego neque 
 tu fecimus,' Ter. Ad. \. 2. 23. 'Ex eo die ego et leo in eodem specu viximus, 
 Cell. v. 14. 'Quid est quod tu aut ilia cum fortuna hoc nomine queri possitis,' C. 
 Fam. iv. 5. 'Nee senatus gloriari nee princeps poteran t,' Plin. Ep. 75. ' Effigiem 
 nullam Vesta nee ignis habent,' Ov. F. vi. 298. 'Demosthenes cum ceteris 
 populiscito in exsilium .erant expulsi,' Nep. Phoc. 2. 'Dea luventus Termi- 
 nusque deus id non sunt passi,' L. v. 54. 'Serpens, sitis, ardor, harenae, 
 dulcia virtuti/ Lucan. ix. 402. ' Societas hominum et aequalitas et iustitia 
 per se expetenda sunt,' C. Leg. \. 18. 'Omnibus in rebus temeritas ignora- 
 tioque vitiosa est,' C. Fin. iii. 21. 'Mens et animus et consilium et sententia 
 civitatis posita est in legibus,' C. p. Clu. 53. ' Bene de republica mere ri, laudari, 
 coli, diligi, gloriosum est/ C. Phil. i. 14. 'Mihi magnae curaeestut tu ipse 
 tuique omnes scire possint me tibi esse amicissimum/ L. xxix. 17. 'Tarquinius 
 cum prole fugit/ Ov. F. ii. 851. ' lane, face aeternos pacem pacisque minis- 
 tros/ Ov. F. i. 287. 'O noctes cenaeque deum, quibus ipse meique ante lares pro- 
 prios vescor/ Hor. S. ii. 6. 65. 
 
 D. (Apposition.) 'Alexander, victor tot regum atque populorum, irae succubuit/ 
 Sen. Ep. 113. ' Quid dicam de thesauro omnium rerum memoria?' C. d. Or. i. 5. 
 'Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montis pertinet/ Caes. B. G. i. i 
 'Oppidum Genabum pons fluminis Ligeris continet/ Caes. B. G. vii. ii.* 
 'Hostis hostem occidere volui/ L. ii. 12. 'Duo exercitus Aventinum inse- 
 distis/ L. ix. 34. 'Duo consules eius anni alter ferro alter morbo perierant/ 
 L. xli. 18. 'Civilis omnium coniuges parvosque liberos consistere a tergo iubet, 
 hortamenta victoriae vel pulsis pudorem/ Tac. H. iv. 61. ' Batavi machinas 
 etiam, insolitum sibi, ausi/ Tac. H. iv. 23. 'Numquam ingenium ad res diversissimas, 
 
 B B 
 
370 Latin Syntax. 115-16. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 CASE-CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 A. The Nominative Case. 
 
 Nomt i. The NOMINATIVE is the Case of the Subject 
 SIT of a Finite Verb and of those words which 
 agree in Case with the Subject. See Concords L 
 II. III. 
 
 216 ii Thus the Nominative stands as Comple- 
 ment 
 
 1) Of Finite Copulative Verbs. 
 
 2) Of Copulative Verbs Infinite, prolatively used. 
 
 i) 'Galba medius inter Neronem et Othonem imperator ex- 
 stitit/ Galba was the emperor intervening between Nero and Otho, 
 Suet. G. 6. < Subtilis veterum iudex et callidus audis,' .yitt 
 are called a nice and shrewd critic of ancient authors, Hor. S. ii. 7. 
 
 parendum atque imperandum, habilius fuit,' L. xxi. 4. 'Corioli oppidum 
 captum est a Marcio,' L. ii. 23. ' Ludi Taurilia per biduum facti,' L xxix. 22. 
 'Oculi tamquam speculatores altissimum locum obtinent,' C. N. D. ii. 140. 
 ' Dies quo ceperat imperium Gaius Palilia vocatus est, velut argumentum 
 rursus conditae urbis,' Suet, Cat. 16. ' Caelius historiam, ut homo neque doctus neque 
 maxime aptus ad dicendum, ut potuit dolavit,' C. d. Or. ii. 54. 'CottamcumTiturio 
 legatos amisimus,' Flor. iii. 10. ' Duae urbes potentissimae Carthago atque 
 Numantia ab eodem Scipione sunt deletae,' C. p. L. Man. 60. ' Soceri tibi 
 Marsque Venusque contigerunt,' Ov. M. iii. 130. 'Duo fulmina Romani imperi 
 subito in Hispania Cn. et P. Scipiones exstincti sunt/ C. p. Balb. 15. 'Acerrime 
 deliciae meae Dicaearchus contra immortalitatem disseruit,' C. T. D. i. 77. 
 'Pompeius nostri amores ipse se afflixit,' C. Att. ii. 19. 'Cetera turba, nos, 
 inquam, cenamus avis,' Hor. S. ii. 8. 26. 'Hoc dedimus nos tibi nomen eques (for 
 equites),' Ov. F. ii. 128. 'Nee multo post diem obiit utroque liberorum superstite, 
 Tiberio Drusoque Neronibus/ Suet. Tib. 4. 'Corinthi Achaiae urbe Vespa- 
 sianus certos nuntios accepit de interitu Galbae,' Tac. H. ii. i. 5. ' Quid meritu's ? 
 Crucem,' Ter. An. iii. 5. 15. 'Cuiuses? Amphitruonis/ Plaut. Amph. v. 3. 222. 
 'Quanti emit? Vili,' Plaut. Ep. i. i. 49. 
 
 E. {Relative and Antecedent.) a. 'Pax ita convenerat ut Etruscis Latinisque fluvius 
 Albula, quam nunc Tiberim vocant, finis esset,' L. i. 8. 'Est locus in carcere, quod 
 Tullianum appellatur, circiter duodecim pedes humi depressus,' Sail. Cat. 55. ' Veiens 
 bellum exortum, quibus Sabini arma coniunxeranU' L. ii. 53. ' Habebam inimicum non 
 C. Marium, sed duo importuna prodigia, quos egestas, quos aeris alieni magnitude, 
 quos levitas, quos improbitas tribuno plebis constrictos addixerat,' C. p. Ses. 16. 
 'Ad quadraginta milia mihtum, quod roboris in Samnio erat, convenerant,' L. x. 38. 
 'Illud, mi Tiro, te rogo, ne sumptui parcas ulla in re quod ad valetudinem opus sit,' 
 C. Fant. xvi. 4. 'luniores, id maxime quod Kaesonis sodalium fuit, auxere iras in 
 plebem,' L. iii. 14. 'Fa vent pietati fideique di, per quae populus Romanus ad 
 tantum fastigi venit/ L. xliv. 2. 'Minime miror qui insanire occipiunt ex iniuria,' Ter. 
 Ad. ii. i. 43. 'En dextra fidesque quern secum patrios aiunt portare penatis/ Verg. 
 Aen. iv. 598. 'Dividebat agros quibus volebat/ C. Off. i. n. ' Lacedaemonii Agin 
 regem, quod numquam antea apud eos acciderat, necavettint/ C. Off. ii. 23. 'Raptim 
 quibus quisque poterat elatis iam continens agmen migrantium impleverat vias/ L. i. 
 29. ' Pomptinus a te tractatus est praestanti ac singular! fide, cuius tuibeneficii sum 
 ego testis/ C. Fain. iii. 10. ' Accusator non ferendus est is, qui quod in altero vitium 
 rcprehendit in eo ipso deprehenditur/ C. Verr. iii. 2. ' Nullo modo animus audientis 
 
117-19. Vocative Case. 371 
 
 loi. 'Princeps in senatu tertium lectus est P. Scipio Afri- 
 canus/ Publius Scipio Africanus was for the third time chosen > 
 prince of the Senate, L. xxxviii. 28. 'Amicitia virtutum adiu- 
 trix a natura data est, non vitiorum comes/ C. Lael. 22. 
 
 2) 'Aristaeus inventor olei esse dicitur/ Aristaeus is said 
 to be the discoverer of oil, C. Verr. iv. 57. ' Cato esse quam videri 
 bonus malebat/ Cato preferred being to seeming good, Sail. C. 54. 
 6 Socrates par ens philosophiae iure dici potest/ Socrates may 
 justly be called the father of philosophy, C. Fin. ii. i. ' Ad auream 
 arietis pellem profecti dicuntur Argonautae/ the Argonauts are 
 said to have gone after the golden fleece, Varr. R. jR. ii. i (esse 
 .being omitted). 
 
 iii. The Nominative may stand with the Inter- II7 
 jections en, ecce, o, and others. 
 
 'En dextra fidesque!' lo the right hand and the pledged 
 faith.' Verg. Aen. iv. 597. ' Sed ecce nuntii, ecce litterae, 
 Caesarem ad Corfinium/ but lo coitriers and letters stating that 
 Caesar is at Corfinium, C. Att. viii. 3. ' O vir fortis atque 
 amicus !' O the brave and friendly man! Ten Ph. ii. 2. 10. 
 
 B. The Vocative Case. 
 
 i. The VOCATIVE is used without or with an vocative 
 Interjection: fili, Pompei, luppiter: O fili, O Case< 
 Pompei; pro luppiter. 
 
 ii. The Nominative takes the place of the II9 
 Vocative : 
 
 1 ) When the Noun is Collective: * I, pete virginea, populus, 
 suffimen ab ara/ go, people, seek incense from the virgin's altar, Ov. 
 F. iv. 731. * O Pompilius sanguis/ Hor. ad Pis. 292. 
 
 2) When the word is an Attribute or Apposite enthetically or 
 adverbially used: <Tu quoque Cydon Dardania stratus dextra/ 
 Verg. Aen. x. 320. 'Nudus iaciture sepulcro/ St. Th. vii. 777. 
 
 3) Yet poets sometimes keep the Vocative in such circum- 
 stances : ' Sic venias ho di erne/ so mayst thou come to-day, Tib. i. 
 7. 53. 'Rufe mihi frustra ac nequiquam credite amice/ O 
 
 aut incitari aut teneri potest, qui modus a me non tentatus sit/ C. Or. 38. ' Haec 
 est quam Scipio laudat in libris et quam maxime probat temperationem reipublicae,' 
 C. Leg. iii. 5. ' Poeta id sibi negoti credidit solum dari populo ut placerent quas fecisset 
 fabulas/ Ter. An. Pr. 3. 'Tullia, qui illius in te amor fuit, hoc certe te facere non 
 vult,' C. Fam. iv.-5. 'Cuius lenitatis est Galba, iam fortasse promisit/ Tac. H. 
 i- 37- 'Qua es prudentia, nihil te fugiet,' C. Fain. xi. 13. (See p. 312.) ' Sarmatis 
 neque conti neque gladii, quos praelongos utraque manu regunt, usui erant,' Tac. 
 H. i. 79. 'Consul, qui unus supererat, moritur,' L. iii. 7. 
 
 b. 'Talis est quaecumque respublica qualis eius aut natura aut voluntas qui illam 
 regit,' C. Rep. \. 31. 'Hoc bellum est, quale bellum nulla barbaria gessit/ C. in Cat. 
 ii. i. 'Videre mihi videor t ant am dimicationem quanta numquam fuit,' C. Att. 
 vii. i. 
 
 B B 2 
 
tive 
 
 37 2 Latin Syntax. 120-1. 
 
 Rufus vainly and to no purpose believed my friend, Catull. 75, 
 ' Quibus Hector ab oris exspectate venis?' from what shores, 
 Hector, comest thou expected? Verg. Aen. ii. 282. See Pers. iii. 28^ 
 Ausonius has ' lane, veni, novus anne, veni/ Id. viii. i. 
 
 C. The Accusative Case. 
 
 i. The ACCUSATIVE is the Case of the Attained 
 else. Nearer Object: also of the Contained Object. 
 
 Any Agent may become an Object : a striker may be struck, &c. 
 But not every Object can be an Agent in a proper sense. There- 
 fore it is that in Neuter Nouns (as bellum, regnum ; mel, far, &c.)> 
 the Accusative is the primary, the Nominative only a secondary, 
 form. Therefore also, when a Proposition (as, * the parrot speaks ') 
 quits the form of statement, and passes into an abstract notion 
 (' the parrot's speaking '), while the Finite Verb becomes Infinitive 
 (loqui), the Nominative becomes Accusative (psittacum) ; that is, 
 the Subject of an Infinitive is an Accusative in Latin. Such a 
 notion, 'psittacum loqui,' is essentially Objective, but, like the 
 Nominative of a Neuter word, it can, by a secondary use, become 
 the Subject of a Proposition ; { psittacum loqui credibile est/ the 
 parrofs speaking (that the parrot speaks) is credible. 
 
 Genemi ii. Transitive Verbs of any class take an 
 Accusative of the Attained Nearer Object. 
 
 1. mater alit pullos, 
 
 the mother nourishes the young ones. 
 
 2. in primis venerare Deum, 
 
 in the first place worship God. 
 
 3. pudet me stultitiae, 
 
 I am ashamed (lit. 'it shames me') of my folly. 
 
 The First Example, in Passive form, becomes 
 pulli a matre aluntur. 
 
 The Second (where the Verb is Deponent) and the Third (where 
 it is Impersonal) cannot assume the Passive form. 
 
 This is the standard Rule, because Transitive Verbs are so large 
 a class. But to draw the line which divides Intransitive from 
 Transitive Verbs is not easy. Intransitive Verbs are often used 
 with Transitive force: ardere, flere, pallere, sitire, &c. Tran- 
 sitive Verbs may drop their Object and seem to be Intransitive : 
 amare, durare, obtinere, &c. 
 
 The following considerations may throw light on this subject. 
 
 1 By the Attained Object is meant that which follows Transitive Verbs ; by the Con- 
 tained Object that which follows Intransitive Verbs. 
 
,j 122. Accusative Case. 373 
 
 iii. The Contained Object or Cognate Accu- c? n ~ 
 
 tamed 
 
 sative. object. 
 
 1) Every Verb has at least one Object, its own Activity, repre- 
 sented by its most abstract Verbal Noun in (ion-) -io: agere 
 .actionem, stare stationem, ire itionem, narrare narra- 
 tionem, &c. 
 
 This purest abstract form is not, however, used by Latin authors 
 in connection with Verbs. But other Substantives, more concrete, 
 are so used with the Verbs to which they belong : the construction 
 being that called < the Cognate Accusative/ or l Accusative of the 
 Verbal Operation/ or ' Contained Accusative/ Such instances 
 are : 
 
 Canere cantilenam, Ter. ; cenare cenam, Plaut. ; furere furorem, 
 Verg. ; gaudere gaudium, C. ; iurare iusiurandum, C. ; insanire 
 insaniam, Sen. ; ludere ludum, Hor. ; nocere noxam, L. ; rid ere 
 risum, C. ; servire servitutem, C. ; somniare somnium, Plaut. ; 
 vivere vitam, Plaut. ; moveri motus, Lucr. 
 
 When such expressions occur, the Substantive usually has an 
 epithet: Ludum insolentem ludere, Hor. 
 
 2) Instead of the purely Cognate Accusative, Intransitive Verbs 
 oftener take a Contained Accusative expressing some more limited 
 -operation of the Verb : 
 
 Agere (to pass) aetatem ; agere (to act) partis ; cantare melos ; 
 coronari Olympia (to be crowned as an Olympian victor = vincere 
 Olympia) ; currere stadium ; degere vitam, &c. ; dormire noctem ; 
 errare litora ; ire viam, &c. ; iurare numen, &c. ; praelucere spem ; 
 ludere aleam ; ludere carmina ; militare bellum ; mentiri auspicia ; 
 natare aquas, &c. ; navigare aequor, &c, ; w prandere holus ; pugnare 
 proelia ; quadrare acervum ; respondere ius ; resonare Amaryllida 
 (alcyonen) ; saltare (moveri) Satyrum (Cyclopa) ; sonare vitium 
 (hominem), &c. ; triumphare hostem ; vagari terras ; vehi maria ; 
 vivere aetatem (Bacchanalia, Nestora), &c. ; vigilare noctem ; 
 vincere causam (iudicium), &c. 
 
 Especially Verbs which express 
 
 .a) Odour or flavour : olere crocos (pastilles, lampadem, anti- 
 quitatem, &c.), redolere flores ; spirare odorem ; exhalare 
 mephitim ; sapere mella (aprum, mare, plebeium, &c.). 
 
 b) Visible emanation: manare mella; depluere lacrimas; 
 spirare flammas ; stillare rorem ; sudare electra ; erum- 
 pere liquores, &c. 
 
 Such constructions are chiefly poetic : but many of them occur 
 in prose. 
 
 3) Other Intransitive Verbs take a Contained Accusative only or 
 chiefly of Neuter Pronouns and Pronominal words : 
 
 Quod, quid, aliquid, quicquam, nescio quid, nihil, hoc, id, 
 idem, illud, istud, utrumque : quae, omnia, cuncta, eadem, multa, 
 pauca, &c. See M. Lucr. vi. 404. 
 
 Among such Verbs are: cog ere, dolere, dubitare, disserere, 
 
374 Latin Syntax. 
 
 gaudere, gloriari, laborare, laetari, obsequi, peccare, stomachari, 
 succensere, c. 
 
 And the expressions : animum advertere, auctor sum (I advise]. 
 
 4) Out of this usage have grown a large number of Accusative 
 phrases, which have an Adverbial use : 
 
 Cetera (alia, pleraque), multum, plus, plurimum, summum, aeter- 
 num, &c. ; suam vicem ; quod genus ; id genus, omne genus ; 
 magnam partem ; istuc (illud, id) aetatis ; hoc noctis ; id temporis, 
 id auctoritatis, &c. 
 
 All these belong to prose style. 
 
 5) A Contained Accusative of the Neuter Adjective, Singular or 
 Plural, is used by poets freely in an adverbial manner, especially 
 with Verbs which express sensitive or sensible action : 
 
 Dulce ridere (loqui) ; immane spirare (sonare) ; suave re- 
 sonare ; perfidum ridere ; turbidum laetari ; lugubre rubere ; im- 
 mensum attolli (crescere) ; altum dormire ; lene virere ; suave 
 olere ; lucidum fulgere ; falsum renidere ; acerba tueri ; sera 
 comare ; vana tumere ; rauca gemere ; crebra ferire ; plura mo- 
 rari ; insueta rudere ; sollemnia insanire, with many more. 
 
 6) A form of the Contained Accusative, largely used by poets, 
 sometimes by Livy and prose writers of the silver age, is 'the 
 Accusative of Respect/ also called 'Accusativus Partis/ 
 because it defines more nearly the part affected of the Object. 
 Often an Ablative appears with it, sometimes a Dative. 
 
 This construction is taken by some Intransitive Verbs : tremere 
 artus (ossa), torpere nervos, tumere colla, dolere caput (oculos), &c. 
 
 Oftener by Passive Verbs : suffundi or a rubore ; expleri men- 
 tern ; molliri ingenium ; diduci animum; pingi alvum notis ; 
 * Capita Phrygio velamur amictu/ V. Aen. iii. 
 
 Most frequently by Passive Participles and Adjectives : 
 
 Tectus caligine vultum; ornatus crinis apio ; mutata men- 
 tem ; labefactus animum ; laniata genas, &c. ; madidus unguento 
 comam; os umerosque deosimilis; crura thymo plenae; nudae 
 bracchia et pedes. 
 
 Sometimes by Substantives : 
 
 Ora puer pulcherque habitum; cetera fossor. 
 
 iv. Medial Object. 
 
 Different from the Accusative of the Part, and having more the 
 nature of an Attained Accusative, is that which poets often give to 
 Passive Verbs and their Participles, used Reflexively, like the Greek 
 Middle Verb. Thus cingi ( = cingere se), indui ( = induere se), 
 exui ( = exuere se), pasci ( = pascere se), colligi ( = colligere se), 
 suspendi ( = suspendere se), &c., take (as it were) a Second Object 
 of the thing girt on, put on, put off, fed on, gathered up, hung on, 
 &c. In prose this is rare, but sometimes found. 
 
 * Exuitur cornua/ she puts off her horns, Ov. M. ix. 52. ' Inutile 
 ferrum cingi tur/ he girds himself with useless steel, Verg. Ae. iu 
 
124-5- Accusative Case. 375 
 
 510. ' Pascuntur silvas,' they graze on the forests, Verg. G. iii. 314. 
 6 Laevo suspensi loculos tabulamque lacerto/ having their 
 satchel and slate hung on their left arm, Hor. S. i. 6. 74. So- x 
 ' chlamydem circumdata/ having t a mantle thrown round her, Verg. 
 A en. iv. 13. 7; 'saturata dolorem/ having her resentment glutted, 
 Verg. Aen. v. 608. 
 
 v. The Accusative of Limiting Circum- 
 stances (Time, Space, Measure), 103, V. 
 
 1) The Accusative of Duration of Time : 
 
 'Annum iam audis Cratippum/ you have been a scholar of 
 Cratippus for a year, C. Off. i. i. ' Pericles quadraginta annos 
 praefuit Athenis/ Pericles was prime minister of Athens forty 
 years, C. d. Or. iii. 34. 
 
 And after natus, expressing age : 
 
 * Dionysius quinque et viginti natus annos dominatum 
 occupavit/ Dionysius seized the government at the age of twenty- 
 five years, C. T. D. v. 20. 
 
 This last Accusative sometimes continues even when the Com- 
 parative (maior, minor) is introduced : 
 
 'Dionysius maior annos sexaginta decessit/ Dionysius died 
 when more than sixty years old, Nep. E^tm. 2. 
 
 2) The Accusative of Distance of Time past with abhinc : 
 
 ' Pater abhinc duo et viginti annos est mortuus/ the father 
 died twenty-two years ago, C. Verr. ii. 9. 
 
 3) The Accusative of Space traversed and of Distance : 
 
 ' Milia turn pransi tria repimus,' then after luncheon we crawl 
 three miles, Hor. S. i. 5. 25. ' Hadrumetum abest a Zama circiter 
 milia passuum trecenta/ Hadrumetum is about 300 miles from 
 Zama, Nep. Hann. 6. 
 
 4) The Accusative of Measure of Length, Breadth, Height, 
 Depth, with the Adjectives longus, latus, altus : also of Weight 
 with the word p o n d o : 
 
 Longum (latum, altum) ducentos pedes . . . quaterna cubita, 
 &c., digitos sex, &c. So, libram pondo, a pound weight. 
 
 (The Ablative and Genitive are used in Constructions of Time, 
 Space, and Measure: also Prepositions; per, ad, in tra, supra, 
 in, &c.) 
 
 vi. Accusative of Place Whither. 125 
 
 The Accusative of Place whither is chiefly used when the Place 
 is a town or small island (sometimes, as by poets, more exten- 
 sively) ; also when it is expressed by domum (home], rus (into the 
 country). 
 
 4 Legati Athenas missi sunt/ L. iii. 31. 'Caesar Narbonem 
 profectus est, 7 Caes. B. G. iii. 7. ' Ibimus Afros/ Verg. B. i. 
 64. ' Veni consulis Antoni domum/ C. Fam. xi. 28. ' Ego rus 
 ibo/ Ter. Eun.\\. i. 10. So % domum itio, reditio, reditus. The 
 
376 Latin Syntax. 126-27. 
 
 phrases 'ire infitias,' to deny, 'ire exsequias/ to attend a 
 funeral, are constructed on this model. The Prepositions ad, in, 
 usque, are also much used in expressing Motion to a Place. See 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 1 
 
 126 vii. Transitive Verbs used Intransitively. 
 
 The Subject of a Transitive Verb may be made its Object : 
 Moveo me, moves te, mo vet se, &c. ; and some Transitive Verbs 
 may omit this Pronoun, and so become Intransitive. Such are, 
 
 Aequo, ago, abstineo, augeo, deflecto, duro, habeo, inclino, 
 insinuo, lavo, minuo, moveo, muto, pasco, pono, praecipito, remitto, 
 turbo, urgeo, verto, averto, vibro, volvo, and others. See M. Lucr. 
 iii. 502 ; v. 931, 
 
 Ex. 'Abstineto irarum,' abstain from angry feelings, Hor. C. 
 iii. 27. 69. 'A veritate deflect it,' he swerves from truth, C. p. 
 Caec. 51. ' Bene habet/ it is well, luv. < Nilus praecipitat ex 
 altissimis montibus/ the Nile dashes from very high mountains, C. 
 S. Sc. 13. ' Ubi nos laverimus lavato/ when we have bathed, 
 bathe, Ter. Eun. iii. 5. 48. ' Minuente aestu/ the heat moderating, 
 Caes. B. G. iii. 12. 'Res humanae semper in adversa mutant/ 
 human affairs always change to adversity, Sail. lug. 104. ( Re- 
 miser ant dolores pedum/ the pains of the feet had abated, C. Br. 
 34. ' lam verterat fortuna/ fortune had now changed, L. v. 49. 
 ' Venti posuere/ the winds have dropped, Verg. Ae. vii. 27. 
 
 Conversely, many Passive forms are used reflexively : 
 Congregor, delector, effundor, exerceor, fallor, feror, lavor, moveor, 
 mutor, oblector, pascor, versor, vertor, avertor, volvor, &c. See iv. 
 
 127 viii. Intransitive Verbs used Transitively. 
 
 The tendency of Intransitive Verbs to become Transitive is 
 variously shewn. 
 
 i) Many Static Verbs take the cause or motive of the state as 
 an Object, and so become Transitive. Such are 
 
 Doleo, lugeo, maereo, grieve, grieve for; tremo, tremble, 
 tremble at; erubesco, blush, blush for; ardeo, burn, burn for; 
 esurio, himger, hunger for ; sitio, thirst, thirst for ; lateo, lie hid, 
 lie hid from ; maneo, remain, await ; miror, wonder, wonder at \ 
 pereo, depereo, die or waste away, die or waste for love of; queror, 
 complain, complain of; sileo, taceo, am silent, am silent of; audeo, 
 dare ; calleo, am enured, am familiar with ; fastidio, loathe ; 
 horreo, horresco, shudder; paveo, pavesco, quake ; palleo, pallesco, 
 turn pale, &c. 
 
 Ex. ' Doleo casum tuum/ I grieve for your misfortune, C. ' Pon- 
 tum palluit/ she turned pale at the sea, Hor. C. iii. 27, 26. ' E ru- 
 bes cit soloecismum, 7 he blushes for his solecism, Sen. Ep. 95. 
 ' Nutum divitis ho r ret/ he shudders at the rich marts nod, Hor. 
 Epist. i. 1 8. II. 
 
 1 The Accusatives of Time, Space, Measure and Place, are in the nature of the 
 Contained Accusative. Thus ' ire Romam' = 'ire iter Romae.' 
 
127. Accusative Case. 377 
 
 2) Verbs of Intransitive action take as Object that which excites 
 the action : latro, bark, bark at ; sibilo, hiss ; rideo, laugh, laugh 
 at; fleo, weep, weep for ; gemo, gemisco, groan, groan for. 
 
 'Populus me sibilat,' the populace hiss me, Hor. S. i. i. 66. 
 *Fletnecem fill/ she weeps for her sorts death, Tac. 
 
 Note. Most in these classes have no personal Passive: ardeo, 
 audeo, calleo, lateo, pereo, paveo, palleo, &c. A few are found 
 Passive: ' Quo plus sunt potae plus sitiuntur aquae/ water is 
 thirsted for more, the more it has been drunk, Ov. F. i. 216. 
 
 3) Various Verbs, usually Intransitive, take a Transitive force in 
 certain senses : 
 
 Annuere, grant ; adsuescere, consuescere, insuescere, accustom ; 
 desinere, leave off; censere, enroll ; cunctari, delay ; deproperare, 
 festinare, maturare, properare, speed; iaculari, shoot; laborare, 
 elaborare, work out ; fugere, escape from ; migrare, transgress ; 
 morari, delay; pergere, continue; plaudere, pat; putare, reckon, 
 prune ; sufficere, supply ; ruere, proruere, overthrow, rake up ; 
 surgere, rouse up ; vergere, incline, &c. 
 
 On the other hand, some Verbs, usually Transitive, have also a 
 peculiar Intransitive use : such are, 
 
 Audire, (hear) be called; differre, (sunder} disagree ; debere, (owe) 
 be bound (ought] ; superare, (surpass) survive, remain. Credere, 
 (entrust) believe, takes Dat. or Ace. of thing, Dat. of person. 
 Sortiri, allot, or take by lot, is Transitive in each sense. 
 
 4) Many Compounds of Intransitive Verbs, especially verbs of 
 Motion, obtain a Transitive or Semitransitive force, chiefly when 
 compounded with Prepositions governing an Accusative, ad, ante, 
 circum, in, inter, ob, per, praeter, sub, trans: 
 
 Adire, aggredi, allabi, adsilire, anteire, antecedere, antecurrere, 
 antegredi, antevenire, circumire, circumnavigare, circumvenire, 
 inire, ingredi, illabi, innare, innatare, insilire, insultare, invadere, 
 invehi, obire, obambulare, obequitare, perambulare, percurrere, 
 permeare, praeterire, subire, transcurrere, transire, tranare, trans- 
 gredi, transilire, transvolare, &c. 
 
 Some which do not contain motion : 
 
 Adiacere, accumbere, adstare, adsidere, alloqui, circumsonare, 
 circumsedere, circumstare, impugnare, inclamare, incubare, insi- 
 dere, instare, inundare, oppugnare, obsidere, occumbere, &c. 
 
 Many of these may take a Dative instead of an Accusative : 
 Allabi, illabi, innare, succedere, subrepere, incubare, instare, &c. 
 
 Some Verbs of motion, compounded with Prepositions which 
 govern an Ablative, cum, e, prae, can be used as Transitive : 
 
 Coire, convenire, egredi, elabi, erumpere, evadere, excedere, 
 exire, praecedere, praecurrere, praefluere, praegredi, praevenire : 
 
 And some not of motion : 
 
 Abnuere, aversari, edormire, expugnare, &c. 
 
 Most of these also vary their construction. 
 
 Note i. We call those Verbs Semitransitive which, though they 
 take an Attained Object, are not used Passively : 
 
 Adiacere, adsidere, and others in the preceding lists. 
 
37$ Latin Syntax. 128^ 
 
 The test of an Active Transitive Verb is Personal use as Passive : 
 
 'Tamesis uno loco pedibus transiri potest/ the Thames can be 
 
 forded in one spot, Caes. . G. v. 18. 'Circumsedemur copiis 
 
 omnibus/ we are beset by all the forces , C. Att. xv. 9. Therefore 
 
 transeo and circumsedeo are used as Transitive Verbs. 
 
 So, 'Quidam oratores si arriderentur, esset id ipsum Attlco- 
 rum/ if certain orators were smiled on, this would be a true sample 
 of Attic fashion, C. Opt. G. O. 4. 
 
 Note 2. Intransitive Verbs which take a Contained Object are 
 often used transitively in the third Persons Passive : 
 
 'Tota mihi dormitur hiemps/ / sleep the whole winter, Mart, 
 xiii. 59. ' Noctes vigilantur amarae/ there are bitter night- 
 watches, Ov. H. xii. 169. 'Tertia vivitur aetas/ a third age of 
 life is passing, Ov. M. xii. 187. ' Multo pisce natantur aquae/ the 
 waters are swum by many a fish, Ov. A. A. i. 48. 
 
 Rare instances of Trajective Verbs personally Passive are found : 
 invideor in Horace; imperor both in Horace and Cicero. But 
 Impersonal Passive Construction is regular in such Verbs. 
 
 5) Sometimes the Preposition is repeated after Compound Verbs, 
 or another introduced : 
 
 'Sestius ad urbem advolavit/ Sestius flew to the city, C. p. 
 Ses. 4. ' Orator peragrat per animos hominum/ an orator 
 travels through the minds of men, C. d. Or. i. 51. * Pittacus acce- 
 dere quemquam vetat in funus aliorum/ Pittacus forbids anyont 
 to approach the funeral of other people, C. Leg. ii. 26. 
 
 This happens also with Prepositions governing the Ablative : 
 ' Excedere ex urbe/ ' eripere ab aliquo pecuniam/ &c. 
 
 Hence some Compound Verbs, the Primitives of which are Tran- 
 sitive, have two Accusatives ; one of which is the Object of the 
 Simple Verb, the other depends on the Preposition. The Preposi- 
 tions admitting this construction are trans, ad, circum, praeter: 
 'Petreius iusiurandum adigit Afranium/ Petreius makes 
 Afranius (take) an oath, Caes. B. C. i. 70. * Postquam id animum 
 ad vert it/ when he turned his mind to this, Caes. B. G. v. 18. 
 ' Allobroges Pompeius suapraesidia circumduxit,* Pompeius 
 led the Allobroges round his posts, Caes. B. C. iii. 61. 
 
 The Passive construction retains the Accusative governed by the 
 Preposition: 'Scopulos praetervecta videtur oratio mea/ my 
 speech seems to have cleared the rocks, C. p. Coel. 21. 
 
 128 ix. Idiomatic Uses. 
 
 1) The Abstract Verbal Noun itself appears in the Comic poets- 
 with an Accusative: < Quid tibi hanc curatio est rem?' what 
 concern have you with this affair? Plaut. Amph. i. 3. 21. 
 
 2) The Participial in -bundus is sometimes used with an Accu- 
 sative : ( Populabundus agros/ laying waste the lands, Cell. xi. 15. 
 Livy uses perosus, hating, with Accusative. Exosus and pertaesus. 
 are so used by writers of the silver age. 
 
129-13- Accusative Case. 379 
 
 3) Comic poetry shews that it was an idiom of Roman conversa- 
 tion to begin a sentence with an unconstructed Accusative, ante- 
 cedent to a Relative also in the Accusative : 
 
 'Naucratem quern convenire volui, in navi non erat,' Naucrates 
 'whom I wished to meet was not on board, Plaut. Amph. iv. i. i. 
 'Eunuchum quern dedisti nobis quas turbas dedit ! ' that eunuch 
 whom you gave us, what trouble he has given ! Ter. Eun. iv. 
 3. ii. 
 
 a) The Greek idiom was also used, by which the true Subject 
 of a Relative Clause is made the Object of the principal 
 sentence : 
 
 ' Scin'me in quibus sim gaudiis ?' do you know how over joyed 
 I am ? Plaut. Sac. iv. 6. 28. * Servum meum Strobilum 
 miror ubi sit/ / wonder where is my slave Strobilus, Plaut. 
 Aul. iv. 7. 1 6. 
 
 Note. Many Verbs take a great variety of Objects, thus forming 
 an extensive phraseology, which may be studied in good dictionaries 
 with advantage. Such Verbs are: ago, capio, do, facio, fero, 
 habeo, volo and their compounds. 
 
 129 
 
 x. The Exclamatory Accusative. Accusa- 
 
 tive in 
 
 1) Th Accusative may stand with one of the Interjections O, sis. 
 heu, eheu, pro, en, ecce, c., or without an Interjection : 
 
 'O fallacem hominum spem fragilemque fortunam,' O the 
 deceitful hope of men and frail fortune, C. d. Or. iii. 2. 7. l En 
 quattuor aras ! Ecce duas tibi Daphni, duas altaria Phoebo/ 
 lo, four altars ! behold two for thee, Daphnis, and two of higher 
 elevation for Phoebus, Verg. B. v. 65. ' Pro deorum atque homi- 
 num fidem/ C. T. D. v. 16. 'Heu stirpem invisam!' Verg. 
 Aen. vii. 293. * Me miserum !' C. Fam. xiv. I. 'Operam tuam 
 mult am, qui et haec cures et mea expedias/ how much trouble 
 you take in both minding these affairs and expediting mine, C. Att. 
 xiii. 6. 
 
 2) This Accusative may take the form of an Interrogation : 
 'Huncine hominem? hancine impudentiam, iudices, han- 
 
 cine audaciam?' what a man is this? what shamelessness, gen- 
 tlemen, what audacity ? C. Verr. v. 25. 
 
 (On the Government of the Accusative by Prepositions, see 70.) 
 
 xi. Accusative of two Objects. Double 
 
 Accusa- 
 
 i) Certain Verbs of teaching, asking, concealing, sometimes tive. 
 take two Accusatives, one Contained, of the Matter, the other 
 Attained, of the Person. 
 
 * Quis musicam docuit Epaminondam?' who taught 
 Epaminondas music? Nep. Praef. 'Numquam divitias deos 
 rogavi/ I never asked the gods for riches, Mart. iv. 77. i. c Anti- 
 gonus iter quod habebat omnis celat/ Antigonus concealed 
 from all the road he was taking, Nep. Eum. 8. 
 
380 Latin Syntax. 13!. 
 
 Such Verbs are : 
 
 Doceo (and its compounds, edoceo, dedoceo), erudio (in poetry), 
 rogo, interrogo, oro, exoro, posco, reposco, flagito, percenter, 
 postulo, celo ; and (in Horace) lacesso, veneror. Consul o with 
 double Accusative is rare. 
 
 2) Moneo and its compounds, cogo, and some other Verbs, 
 may have this construction when the Accusative of the Matter is a 
 Neuter Pronoun or Pronominal : 
 
 'Illud me praeclare admones/ you remind me of that fact 
 excellently, C. Att. ix. 9. 2. < Mult a extis admonemur/ we are 
 admonished of many things by entrails, C. N. D. ii. 66. And this 
 is the most common Accusative after Verbs of asking. 
 
 3) Verbs of informing, warning, enquiring, concealing, may take 
 an Ablative of the Matter with de : 
 
 'De paratis incendiis senatum edocet/^ informs the Senate 
 of the intended conflagrations, Sail. C. 48. * Non est profecto de 
 illo veneno celata mater/ certainly his mother was not kept in 
 ignorance of that poison, C. p. Clu. 66. 
 
 4) Pet o, contend o, take an Ablative of the Person with a, ab : 
 which may also follow rogo, oro, exoro,posco,postulo, flagito: 
 
 < Hoc a te peto/ this I ask of you, C. 
 
 5) Quaero, scitor, sciscitor, percontor, exigo, take an 
 Ablative of the Person with ab, ex: 'Zeuxis quaesivit ab iis 
 quasnam virgines formosas haberent/ Zeuxis enquired of them 
 what beautiful maidens they had, C. d. Inv. ii. i. 
 
 6) The Contained Accusative of the Matter may remain in the 
 Passive : 
 
 ' In primis cultum agrorum doc en da est vita/ life must first 
 be taught agriculture, PI. N. H. xv. i. ' Livius est primus ro- 
 gatus sententiam/ Liviiis was first asked his opinion, L. 
 xxxvii. 14. 
 
 J3 i xii. Oblique Double Accusative with Verbs 
 of making, thinking &c. (Factive). 
 
 i) A simple Copulative Sentence, of which the Verb is sum, may 
 become an Oblique Clause (Accusative with Infinitive), and (the 
 Infinitive being omitted) the Clause may be made to depend on a 
 principal sentence with one of these Verbs. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 Numa est rex ; Numam esse regem; Numam regem : 
 'Populus Romanus Numam regem creavit/ 
 the Roman people elected Numa king. 
 
 Tu es doctus et prudens; te esse doctum et prudentem; te 
 doctum et prudentem : 
 'Puto te doctum et prudentem/ 
 I count you learned and prudent. 
 
I3 i. Accusative Case. 381 
 
 Eumenes est sepeliendus ; Eumenem esse sepeliendum ; Eu- 
 menem sepeliendum : 
 
 'Antigonus Eumenem sepeliendum tradidit.' 
 Antigomis gave Eumenes to be buried. 
 
 Numam, te, Eumenem, are Oblique Subjects (becoming Objects). 
 Regem, doctum, prudentem, sepeliendum, are Oblique Comple- 
 ments. This use of the Gerundive is very frequent. 
 
 2) The Verbs which form this construction are : 
 
 a] The Active forms of the Copulative Verbs enumerated 
 
 on p. 351. 
 
 U) Also many other Verbs : 
 Adiungo, adscisco, arbitror, constituo, do, facio, impertior, 
 
 monstro, peto, pono, praebeo, praesto (exhibit, make), 
 
 reddo, sumo, tribuo, &c. 
 
 3) Instead of an Apposite or Attribute, the Complement in 
 any such form of Construction may sometimes be one of the Pre- 
 positions pro, in, with an Ablative Case, inter with Accusative, or 
 loco, numero, &c., with a Genitive. 
 
 Thus the English sentence, ' I Hold Gaius my friend] may be 
 rendered in many ways : 
 
 Gaium amicum habeo. 
 Gaius a me amicus habetur. 
 
 I pro amico. 
 in amicis. 
 inter amicos. 
 in amicorum numero. 
 
 Examples of Accusative. 
 
 ii. (Attained Ace.) 'Ea, quae leviter s e n s u m voluptate movent, facillime fugi- 
 unt satietatem/ C. d. Or. iii. 25. * Nulla ars imitari sollertiam naturae potest,' 
 C. N. D. i. 33. 'Solet Dionysium, cum aliquid furiose fecit, paenitere/ C. Att. 
 viii. 5. 
 
 iii. (Contained Ace.) 'Dentatus triumph^vit triumphos novem, Cell. ii. n. 
 ' Magna voce iuravi verissimum pulchcrrimumque iusiurandum, quod 
 populus idem magna voce me vere iurasse iuravit/ C. Fam. v. 2. ' Aquillius iuravit 
 morbum,' C. Att. i. i. 'Quomodo tibi placebit lovem lapidem iurare, cum scias, 
 lovem iratum esse nemini posse?' C. Fam. vii. 12. 'Claudius ale am studiosissime 
 lu sit/ Suet. Claud. 33. ' Curios simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt,' luv ii. 2. 'Qui 
 stadium currit, eniti et contendere debet ut vincat,' C. Off. iii. 10. 'Tigellius 
 noctes vigilabat ad ipsum mane,' Hor. S. i. 3. 17. 'Si Xerxes, cum tantis 
 classibus tantisque copiis mare ambulavisset, terram navigasset, mel se auferre 
 ex Hymetto voluisse diceret, certe sine causa videretur tanta conatus/ C. Fin. ii. 34. 
 'Nero sub exitu vitae palam voverat saltaturum se Vergilii Turnum/ Suet. Ner. 54. 
 'Inter alia -prodigia carnem pluit,' L. iii. 10. ' Magis laudatur unguentum, quod 
 ceram, quam quod crocum olere videtur,' C. d. Or. iii. 25. 'Definitio genere ipso 
 doctrinam redolet/C. d. Or. ii. 25. 'In Hispania multa in spartariis mella her bam 
 earn sapiunt,' Plin. N. H. xi. 8. ' Haud tibi voltus mortalis, nee vox hominem 
 sonat,' Verg. Aen. i. 3*8. 'Utrumque laetor, et sine dolore corporis te fuisse et 
 animo valuisse,' C. Fam. vii. i. 'De Q. Fratre nihil ego te accusavi,' C. Fam. xiv. r. 
 ' Cetera assentior Crasso,' C. d. Or. i. 9. ' Q. Fabius Maximus moritur, exactae 
 aetatis; si quidem verum est, augurem dous et sexaginta annos fuisse, quod quidam 
 auctores sunt,'L. xxx. 26. 'Stupentis tribunes et suam iam vicem anxios libe- 
 ravit onere consensus populi Romani,' L. viii. 35. 'Suevi non multum frumento, sed 
 maximam partem lacte atque pecore vivunt,' Caes. B. G. iv. i. ' Scis me orationes 
 aut aliquid id genus solitum scribere,' C. Att. xiii. 12. 'Si apud te plus auctoritas 
 
382 Latin Syntax. 132. 
 
 D. The Dative Case. 
 
 Dative i. The DATIVE is the Case of that which is 
 interested in an action or state. It has three 
 principal uses in Latin: 
 
 I. As Remoter Object, it completes the construction of many 
 Verbs, Transitive and Intransitive ; of many Adjectives, sometimes 
 of Adverbs, rarely of Substantives : 
 
 Dare librum (alicui); coronam capiti imponere ; placere, 
 irasci (alicui) ; vicinus, carus, odiosus (alicui) : convenienter 
 naturae : utiliter patriae : obtemperatio legibus. 
 
 mea valuisset, nihil sane esset quod nos paeniteret,' C. ad Q. Fr. i. 2. Id nobis oneris, 
 hominibus id aetatis, imponitur/ C. d. Or. i. 47. ' Roman orum nemo id auctori- 
 tatis aderat,' Tac. Ann. xii. 18. 'Cometae sanguinei lugubre rubent,' Verg. Aen. x. 
 273. ' Artabanus, ubi data fides a legatis reddendae domination! venisse, adlevatur 
 an i mum/ Tac. Ann. vi. 43. 'Arminius impetu equi pervasit oblitus faciem suo 
 cruore ne nosceretur,' Tac. Ann. ii. 17. ' Hannibal, dum murum Sagunti incautius 
 subit, adversum femur tragula graviter ictus cecidit,' L. xxi. 7. 'Non ilia colo 
 calathisve Minervae femineas adsueta man us, 'Verg. Aen. vii. 805. 
 
 iv. (Medial Obj.) 'Die quibus in terris inscripti nomina regum nascantur flores/ 
 Verg. B. iii. 106. ' Septem et viginti virgines, longam indutae vest em, carmen in 
 lunonem reginam canentes ibant,' L. xxvii. 37. ' Domitianus sacellum lovi conserva- 
 tori aramque posuit casus suosin marmore expressam,' Tac. H. iii. 74. 
 
 v. (Accus. of Time, Space, Measure.) 'Multa saeculasic viguit Pythagoreoruni 
 nomen, ut nulli alii" docti viderentur,' C. T. D. i. 16. ' Duodequadraginta annos 
 tyrannus Syracusanorum fuit Dionysius, cum quinque et viginti annos natus 
 dominatum occupavisset/ C. T. D. v. 20. 'Abhinc triennium commigravit hue 
 viciniae,' Ter. An. i. i. 43. ' A recta conscientia transversum unguem non oportet 
 discedere,' C. Att. xiii. 20. 'Zama quinque dierum iter ab Karthagine abest,' L. 
 xxx. 29. 'Milites aggerem, latum pedes trecentos, altum pedes octoginta 
 exstruxerunt/ Caes. B. G. vii. 24. 
 
 vi. Accus. of Place.) 'Athenienses bello Persico sua omnia, quae moveri poterant, 
 partim Salaminem, partim Troezenem asportarunt,' Nep. Them. 2. ' Hannibal in 
 hiberna Capuam concessit,' L. xxiii. 18. 'Galli quondam longe ab suis sedibus 
 Delphos usque ad oraculum orbis terrae spoliandum profecti sunt,' C. p. Font. 10. 
 'Pompeius Africam exploravit ; inde Sardinian! cum classe venit,' C. p. L. Man. 12. 
 ' Aristoteles, Theophrastus, Zeno, innumerabiles alii philosophi numquam domum 
 revertere,' C. T. D. v. 37. 'Scipio rus ex urbe, tanquam e vinculis, evolabat,' C. d. Or. 
 ii. 6. 'Helvetii oppida sua omnia incendunt, ut, domum reditionis spe sublata, 
 paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda essent,' Caes. B. G. i. 5. 'Magni domum con- 
 cursus ad Afranium fiebant/ Caes. B. C. i. 53. 'Hoc nemo eat infitias, Thebas, 
 quamdiu Epaminondas praefuerit reipublicae, caput fuissetotius Graeciae,' Nep. Ep. 10. 
 ' Exequias Chremeti, quibus est commodum, ire tempus est,' Ter. Ph. v. 8. 37. 
 
 vii. 'Terra dies duodequadraginta movit,' L. xxxv. 40. 'Aermovetur nobiscum/ 
 C. N. D. ii. 33. ' Suevi lavantur in fluminibus/ Caes. B. G. iv. i. 
 
 viii. 'Nemo tarn ferus fuit quin Alcibiadis casum lacrimarit/ Nep. Ale. 6. 'Vel 
 magistri equitum virgas ac securis dictatoris t r e m e r e atque horrere solent/ L. xxii. 
 27. 'Nee honores sitio, nee desidero gloriam/ C. Q. Fr. iii. 5. ' Commissa 
 tacere qui nequit, hie niger est/ Hor. 6". i. 4. 84. ' Ea quae disputavi disserere 
 malui quam iudicare/ C. N. D. iii. 40. 'Risi nivem atram/ C. Q. Fr. ii. 13. 
 'Vigila illud, quod facile est, ne quid mihi temporis prorogetur/ C. Fam. ii. 10. 
 'Quisudo deproperare apio coronas.curatve myrto ?' Hor.'C. ii. 7. 23. ' Quam expedita 
 tua consilia, quam evigilata tuis cogitationibus ! ' C. Att. ix. 12. ' De natura deorum 
 Cotta sic disputat, ut hominum nondeleat religionem, credo, ne communia iuramigrare 
 videatur/ C. Div. i. 5. 'Matutine pater, seu lane libentius audis,' Hor. S. ii. 6. 20. 'Me 
 miseram ! quid iam credas aut cui credas?' Ter. Ad. iii. 2. 'Insepulta membra 
 different lupi/ Hor. Epod. v. 99. 'Haec cogitatione inter se difFerunt, re quidem 
 
132. Dative Case, 383 
 
 II. As Recipient or Acquisitive (Dativus Commodi et Incom- 
 modi) it is added to any Predication to express that for whom or 
 
 Jor which something is, or is done : 
 
 Legere virgines Vestae : esse patrem urbi. 
 (The Datives I. II. oftener express persons than things.) 
 
 III. Idiomatically, the Latin Dative is used to express a Pur- 
 pose in constructions which generally complete the construction 
 of sum, do, habeo, fio, verto, venio, and other verbs. 
 
 Esse cordi, bono, usui, odio, honori, &c. ; vitio, culpae, crimini 
 dare ; contemptui, derisui, habere ; auxilio, subsidio, venire, &c. 
 
 copulata sunt,' C. T. D. iv. n. 'Aequalege necessitas s o r t i t u r insignis et imos,' 
 Hor. C. iii. i. 15. 'Gens Claudia regnum in plebem sortita,' L. iii. 58. ' Hie tibi 
 rostra Cato advolat,' C. Att. i. 14. 'Te nunc alloquor, Africane,' Ad Herenn. iv. 
 15. 'Appellitur navis Syracusas,' C. Verr. v. 25. 'Dictator triumphans u r b e m 
 invehitur,' L. ii. 31. 'Creati consules Kalendis Sextilibus, ut tune principium anni 
 agebatur, consulatum ineunt,' L. iii. 6. 'Achaeos Aetoli, navibus per fretum, 
 quod Naupactum et Patras interfluit, exercitu traiecto, depopulati erant, ' L. 
 xxvii. 29. 'Pythagoras multas regiones barbarorum pedibus obiit,' C. Fin. v. 
 29. 'Quaeritur, sitne honestum, gloriae causa mortemobire?' C. d. Or. iii. 29. 
 ' Diligentissime semper ilium diem et illud munus solitus es obire,' C. LaeL ii. 'Ad 
 Antonium mittuntur qui nuntient ne Mutinamobsideat/C. Phil. vi. 2. ' Euphrates 
 JBabyloniam mediam per meat,' Plin. H. N. v. 26. ' Non orat Roscius ut earn 
 noctem pervigilet/ C. /. S. Rose. 35. ' Populus solet nonnumquam dignosprae- 
 terire/C. /. Plane. 3. 'Crassus Euphratem nulla belli causa trans ire voluit,' 
 C. Fin. iii. 22. 'Hannibal cum reliquis copiis Pyrenaeum transgreditur,' L. 
 xxi. 24. 'Haec Fetialis, quum finis suprascandit, haec portam ingrediens 
 peragit,' L. i. 32. ' German i intra annos quattuordecim tec turn non su bier ant,' 
 Caes. B. G. 1.36. 'Equites Pompeiani a c i e m Caesaris a latere aperto circumire 
 coeperunt,' Caes. B.. G. iii. 93. 'Angustias Themistocles quaerebat ne multitudine 
 circumiretur/ Nep. Them. 3. ' Eumenes extreme tempore circumventus est,' 
 Nep. Bum. 5. 'Themistocles adire ad magi stratum noluit,' Nep. 7/fc. 7. 'Ubii 
 orabant ut Caesar exercitum modo Rhenum tra nsportaret,' Caes. B. G. iv. 
 19. 'Transadigit costas et cratis pectoris ensem/ Verg. Aen. xii. 508. 
 'Hannibal nonaginta milia peditum duodecim milia equitum Iberum tra- 
 duxit,' L. xxi. 23. 'Scipio colloquium haud abnuit/ L. xxx. 29. 'Verginius 
 orabat ne se, ut parricidam liberum, aversarentur,' L. ii. 50. 'Utinam, Cn. Pompei, 
 cum C. Caesare societatem aut numquam coisses, aut numquam diremisses ! ' C. 
 Phil. ii. 10. 'Non eos solum convenire aveo, quos ipse cognovi, sed illos etiam, de 
 quibus audivi et legi/ C. Cat. M. 23. 'Urbem unam mihi amicissimam de clinavi,' 
 C. p. Plane. 41. ' Struthiocameli a 1 1 i t u d i n e m equitis insidentis equo exc edunt/ 
 PI. N. H. x. i. ' Edormi crapulam,' C. Phil. ii. 12. ' Historia non debet egredi 
 veritatem,' Plin. Ep. vii. 33. ' Decius M. Livium pontificem praeire iussit verba, 
 quibus se legionesque hostium pro exercitu populi Romani Quiritium devoveret,' L. x. 28. 
 
 x. 'En miserum hominem!' C. Fin. ii. 30. 'O hominem fortunatum,' C. p. 
 Quinc. 25. 'Me caecum, qui haec ante non viderim/ C. Att. x. 10. 'Divostram 
 fidem ! ' 
 
 xi. (Double Object.} Eloquentia efficit ut ea quae scimus alios docere possimus,' 
 C. N. D. ii. 57. Achaei quoque auxilia Philippum regem orabant,' L. xxviii. 5. 
 'Orationes me duas postulas,' C. Att. ii. 7. 'Pauca milites pro tempore hor- 
 tatur,' Sail. lug. 49. 'Rascilius de privatis me primum sententiam rogavit,'C. 
 Q. Fr. ii. i. ' Verres parentespretium pro sepultura liberum poscebat,' C. Verr. 
 i. 3. ' Ibo et consulam hanc rem amicos, quid faciundum censeant,' Plaut. Men. 
 iv. 3. 26. ' Non te celavi sermonem Ampii/ C. Fant. ii. 16. ' Scito, me non esse 
 rogatum sententiam,' C. Att. i. 13. ' Hoc n os ce latos non oportuit,' Ter. Hec. 
 iv. 4. 23. ' Non audimus ea quae a natura monemur,' C. Lael. 24. 
 
 xii. (F active Construction?) 'Neminem pecunia divitem fecit,' Sen. Ep. 120. 
 'Interrex creatur M. Furius Camillus, qui P. Cornelium Scipionem inter- 
 regemprodidit,' L. v. 31. 'Ciceronem universa civitas consul em declaravit,' 
 C. in Pis. i. ' Ubi illi tot di, si n u m e r a m u s etiam c a e 1 u m d e u m? ' C. N. D. \. 13. 
 
384 Latin Syntax. 133^. 
 
 *33 ii. (I) The Dative of the Remoter Object. 
 
 The Words which govern this Dative are Verbs or Adjectives 
 containing the general notions of 
 
 1) Proximity and Remoteness. 
 
 2) Demonstration and Obscurity. 
 
 3) Gratification and Disfavour. 
 
 4) Rule and Subservience. 
 
 But many words, having these meanings, either take some other 
 Case, 1 or, while they take a Dative, admit other constructions also. 
 On this account it is desirable to name first those Verbs which 
 take a Dative only, and then to add lists of Verbs with other 
 varieties of Construction : and so in the Adjectives. 
 
 334 A ) i . Verbs with which a R e m o t e r O b j e c t, if expressed at all> 
 is always a Dative, are chiefly the following : 
 
 The Impersonal Verbs : accidit, conducit, contingit, con- 
 
 venit, expedit, libet, licet, liquet, placet, praestat, restat, 
 
 usuvenit, vacat : (fas est, necesse est, opus est, usus 
 
 est), &c.' 
 Verbs of affirming, relating, shewing, proving, &c. affirmo, 
 
 confirmo, dico, exhibeo, indfco, monstro, demonstro, narro,. 
 
 ostendo, patefacio, praecipio, probo, suadeo, persuadeo, 
 
 dissuadeo, auctor sum, c. (Trans.) 
 Appearing, being known, being near, &c. appareo, innotesco, 
 
 pateo, videor, obviam eo, praesto sum, &c. (Intrans.) 
 Giving, lending, paying, owing, entrusting, &c. commodo, 
 
 concede, credo, divide, do, fero, and their compounds, 
 
 mando, ministro, praebeo, praesto, pendo, redhibeo, re- 
 
 linquo, solvo, suppedito, trado, tribuo, debeo, committo, 
 
 fido, confido, cedo, &c. (Trans.) 
 Promising, refusing, grudging polliceor, promitto, recipio, 
 
 spondeo, despondeo ; nego, recuso, renuo, invideo, &c. 
 
 (Trans.) 
 Congratulating, thanking; threatening : gratulor, grator, 
 
 gratias (gratiam) ago, (refero, habeo) ; minor, minitor, 
 
 &c. 
 Dedicating, consecrating, sacrificing, vowing dico, dedico, 
 
 sacro, consecro, operor, immolo, sacrifico, voveo, devoveo, 
 
 &c. (Trans.) 
 
 Assisting, favouring, benefiting, satisfying : injuring, op- 
 posing : auxilior, benefacio, faveo, gratificor, medeor, 
 
 opitulor, parco, patrocinor, prosum, satisdo, satisfacio, 
 
 nisi ei, quern ndelem putat, C. /. o. JR*tc. 39. L-aelium Decimum co?np- 
 vimus virum bonum et non illitteratum/ C. d. Or. ii. 6. 'Lentulus attribuit 
 nos trucidandos Cethego, ceteros civis interficiendos Gabinio, urbem inflam- 
 m an dam Cassio, totam Italiam vastandam diripiendamque Catilinae,' C. in Cat. 
 iv. 6. 
 
 1 Thus delecto, iuvo, rego, though resembling in sense some of the Verbs hereafter 
 recounted, are always Transitive, taking no Case but the Accusative. 
 
135. Dative Case. 385 
 
 studeo, subvenio, succurro : adversor, incommodo, in- 
 sidior, malefacio, noceo, obsto, obsum, officio, repugn o, 
 resisto, &c. (Intrans.) 
 
 Believing, flattering, assenting, pleasing : distrusting, dis- 
 pleasing, upbraiding, reviling, being angry, &c. credo, 
 fido, confido, beruedico, blandior,assentor, assentior, ignosco, 
 indulgeo, placeo, morigeror, morem gero, convicior, diffido, 
 obtrecto, displiceo, exprobro, irascor, maledico, stom- 
 achor, succensco, &c. (Chiefly Intrans.) 
 
 Ruling, commanding, obeying, serving dominor, impero, 
 regno : ancillor, cedo, famulor, oboedio, pareo, servio, 
 inservio, subservio, suffragor, supplico, &c. (Intrans.) 
 Observe the expression, dicto audiens sum, / obey. 
 
 On nubo, vaco, see iii. 
 
 To these must be added numerous Verbs compounded with the 
 particles : 
 
 Ad, ante, ab, con, de, e, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, re, 
 sub, super, bene, male, satis : 
 
 Addo, addico, affulgeo, desum, indormio, impendeo, oppono, 
 posthabeo, praefero, subiungo, satisfacio, &c. 
 
 Among such Compounds, however, some admit an Accusative 
 where a Dative might stand : many repeat their Preposition with 
 its Case, or admit another Preposition and Case, where a Dative 
 might stand. Generally the Dative prevails in poetry, Prepositions 
 in prose. But this is not true of all such Verbs : and as no Grammar 
 can exhaust the combinations of Verbs and Cases, the student 
 should observe these in reading, with the aid of a good Dictionary. 
 
 2. a) Verbs used with Dative or Accusative : 
 
 Adiaceo, adno, adstrepo, adsulto, adulor, aemulor, allatro, 135 
 antecedo, anteeo, antevenio, assideo, ausculto, comitor, 
 decet, deficio, inhio, innato, inno, insto, intervenio, lateo, 
 medicor, moderor, obambulo, obequito, obstrepo, obtrecto, 
 obumbro, occumbo, plaudo, praecedo, praecello, praecurro, 
 praemineo, praesideo, praestolor, supersto, supervenio. 
 
 Observe mitto, nuntio, scribo, alicui or ad aliquem. 
 b) Verbs implying agreement, communion, comparison, &c., 
 take either a Dative or, oftener in prose, the Preposition 
 cum with its Case, or the phrase inter se. Such are 
 
 Coeo, cohaereo, communico, comparo, compono, concilio, 
 confero, congrego ; also, apto, haereo, iungo, misceo, 
 necto, socio, and their compounds with cum. 
 
 This applies also to Verbs of contention, certo, contendo, 
 pugno, &c. 
 
 c) Verbs which imply disagreement, disunion, difference, dis- 
 tance, &c., take either a Dative or, often in prose, a 
 Preposition with Case, usually ab, sometimes inter. 
 Such are, 
 
 Absum, differo, discrepo, dissentio, dissideo, disto, &c. 
 cc 
 
386 Latin Syntax. 136. 
 
 d} Verbs which imply taking away, defending, protecting 
 from, &c., take either a Dative of the Remoter Object or, 
 oftener in prose, a Preposition with Ablative. Such are, 
 Abstraho, adimo, aufero, detraho, eripio, eximo; arceo, 
 defendo, depello, propulso, &c. 
 
 g) Verbs which may take either a Dative of the Object with 
 an Accusative of the Thing, or an Accusative Object with 
 an Ablative of the Thing. Such are, 
 
 Adspergere, inspergere, circumdare, circumfundere, donare, 
 munerare (i), exuere, induere, intercludere, impertire : 
 Dono tibi munus ; dono te munere. 
 
 f) Interdico is best known in the phrase, 'interdicere alicui 
 
 aqua et igni,' to banish by the form of exclusion from fire 
 and water; but 'interdicere rem alicui' is a good 
 Latin construction; also 'interdicere alicui de re. 7 
 
 g) Verbs which may take Dative alone or Accusative of Thing 
 
 with Dative of Person : 
 
 Condonare (remit, forgive); ignoscere (excuse, pardon} ; 
 credere (believe, lend} ; gratulari (congratulate) ; imperare 
 (command} ; indulgere (grant, indulge} ; minari, minitari 
 (threaten} ; probare (prove, make good} ; suadere (recom- 
 mend} ; persuadere (persuade, convince} ; invidere (envy y 
 grudge}. Also fidere, confidere (trust}. 
 
 Persuadere alteri ut, &c., to persuade one to, &c. 
 
 Persuasit hoc mihi, he convinced me of this. Persuasum 
 habeo ; mihi persuasum est, / am convinced : hoc mihi 
 persuasum est. 
 
 Invidere (to grudge} alteri re aliqua is a construction some- 
 times used. 
 
 Such Verbs cannot be so used in the Passive as to make that 
 which was the Dative their Subject, though Horace has imperor; 
 invideor: Lucr. officiuntur, ii. 156, where see Munro. Regularly, 
 the Dative remains in the Passive : and, if there was an Accus., 
 this becomes the Subject; if none, the Verb is Impersonal : ( Id 
 mihi probatur : ' ' Invidetur mihi/ 
 
 3. Examples of Verbs which vary construction with meaning : 
 
 Accedere (to approach} muris ; muros, poet. ; ad muros ; in 
 senatum. Accedere (to join, concur with] alicui. Acce- 
 dere (to be added} : aliquid accedit (accessit) alicui. 
 
 Aequare (to level} agrum. Aequare, aequiparare (to make 
 eqitaT} hunc illi ; hanc rem illi. So adaequare, exaequare. 
 
 Aequare, aequiparare (to be equal to} aliquem. 
 
 Cavere (to take caution for} securitati ; agris; alicui. Cavere 
 (to beware of} canem. Cavere a veneno. 
 
 Cedere (to retire} patria. Cedere (to yield} fortunae. Cedere 
 (to give up} aliquid de iure suo alicui, &c. 
 
 Constare sibi (to be consistent}. Constat (it is an established 
 fact}. Constare parvo, magno, &c., to cost little, much, &c. 
 
 Consulere : Si me consulis, ego tibi consulam, if you con- 
 sult me, I will consult for your interest. 
 
1136. Dative Case. 387 
 
 Convenire (to suit) alicui, in aliquem. Convenire (to meet) 
 aliquem. Convenit mihi tecum, you and I are agreed. 
 Inter se convenit ursis, bears agree together. Convemt, it 
 suits, it is agreed. 
 
 Cupere (to desire) aliquid. Cupere (to wish) alicui (in some- 
 body's interest). 
 
 Deficere (to fail) aliquem; alicui. Deficere ab aliquo, to 
 revolt from. 
 
 Dare litteras alicui (to give a letter for delivery), rarely 
 (write to). Dare litteras ad aliquem, to post a letter to 
 some one. 
 
 Dolet mihi (I grieve) : doleo rem. 
 
 Excusare, purgare (to excuse, clear) se alteri ; se apud alte- 
 rum. Excusare morbum, to plead the excuse of illness. 
 
 Imponere (to lay on) rem alteri ; rem rei ; aliquid in ali- 
 quid; aliquid in aliquo. Imponere alicui, to cheat any 
 one. 
 
 Incumbere (to lean on) rei. Incumbere (to devote oneself} 
 ad rem, in rem. 
 
 Interest inter (there is a difference between) hoc et illud. 
 Interest omnium, nostra, &c., it is the interest of all, of us, 
 &c. Interesse (to be present at) rei, in re. 
 
 Mactare (to slaughter) deo victimam, (to sacrifice) victima. 
 Mactare aliquem honoribus, to grace with honours. Mac- 
 tare suppliciis, to visit with punishment. 
 
 Manere (to remain) alicui. Manere (to await) aliquem. 
 
 Metuere, timere, &c. (to fear) aliquem; aliquid; alicui (for 
 
 somebody). 
 
 Moderari, temperare (to curb) rei. Moderari, temperare (to 
 govern) rem. Temperare (to refrain) a re. Temperare 
 (to spare) alteri. 
 
 Parcere (to spare) alteri. Parcere (to forbear) are. Parcere 
 (to spare) aliquid sibi, aliquid alteri. 
 
 Petere, precari (to beg) aliquid sibi ; aliquid alteri. Petere 
 (to sue for) consulatum, &c. Petere (to entreaf) aliquid ab 
 altero. Petere (to seek) locum. 
 
 Praeire (to go before) alicui. Praeire (to recite) verba alteri 
 (words for another to repeat). 
 
 Praestare (to excel} alteri aliqua re. Praestare (to assure, to 
 warrant) aliquid alicui. Praestare (to prove, exhibit) se 
 talem. 
 
 Praevertere (to prefer) aliquid alicui rei. Praevertere (to 
 anticipate) aliquid or aliquem. Praeverti (to despatch 
 first) re' 
 
 Prospicere, providere (to provide for the good of) alicui. 
 Prospicere, providere (to foresee) rem, de re. 
 
 Recipere (to give assurance) alicui. Recipere (to receive) 
 c c 2 
 
388 Latin Syntax. 137-8. 
 
 aliquem. Recipere (to betake) se aliquo. Recipere (to 
 retake, recover) res, urbem, &c. 
 
 Renuntiare (to announce] alicui aliquid (de aliqua re). Re- 
 nuntiare (to proclaim] aliquem consulem, &c. Renuntiare 
 (to renounce) alicui rei. 
 
 Solvere (to pay) alicui pecuniary &c. Solvere (to release) 
 aliquem re. 
 
 Succedere (to succeed} alteri, alicui rei ; in locum alicuius. 
 Succedere (to come up to) portas, muris, &c. 
 
 Sufficere (to suffice) alicui ; alicui rei. Sufficere (to supply) 
 aliquem ; aliquid. 
 
 Supersedere (to sit upon) rei; rem. Sfcpersedere (to dis- 
 pense with) re ; rarely rei. 
 
 Velle aliquem, to want somebody. Bene velle alicui, to wish 
 well to somebody. Nolle alicui, to wish ill to. 
 
 *37 ) The principal Adjectives used with a Dative Object are : 
 
 Cognatus, contiguus, conterminus, finitimus," praesens, pro- 
 pinquus, propior, proximus, vicinus, &c., assuetus, con- 
 suetus, &c., acclinis, aptus, accommodatus, commodus, 
 congruens, consentaneus, conveniens, decorus, habilis, ho- 
 nestus, idoneus, natus, necesse, necessarius, opportunus, 
 promptus, proclivis, &c., aequalis, aemulus, idem, concors, 
 censors, &c., concolor, &c. : par, compar, similis, assi- 
 milis, contrarius, diversus, insuetus, &c., incommodus, 
 indecorus, inopportunus, turpis, &c., dispar, impar, inae- 
 qualis, discors, dissimilis, dissonus, discolor, &c. 
 
 Apertus, certus, cognatus, compertus, conspicuus, evidens, 
 liquidus, manifestus, notus, patens : ambiguus, caecus, 
 dubius, incertus, obscurus, &c. 
 
 Aequus, amicus, acceptus, benignus, benevolus, blandus, 
 bonus, carus, clemens, dexter, dulcis, familiaris, fructuosus, 
 gratus, iucundus, lenis, mitis, propitius, prosper, saluber. 
 salutaris, secundus, suavis, utilis ; expeditus, 'facilis, levis, 
 obvius, pervius : calamitosus, damnosus, exitialis,funestus, 
 inutilis, malus, noxius, periculosus, pestifer ; adversus, 
 amarus, asper, crudelis, fatalis, hostilis, infensus, infestus, 
 inimicus, iniquus, iratus, laevus, letalis, sinister, saevus ; 
 tristis, ingratus, invisus, molestus, odiosus, terribilis ; in- 
 credulus, infidus, infidelis ; contumax, rebellis ; arduus, 
 difficilis, durus, gravis, invius, laboriosus, &c. 
 
 Imperiosus : dicto-audiens, obnoxius, obsequiosus, sum- 
 missus, supplex, &c. 
 
 i 3 8 a) Adjectives which take Dative or Genitive are : 
 
 Aequalis, affinis, alienus, communis, conscius, par, dispar, 
 
 proprius, similis, dissimilis, superstes. 
 The following also may be treated as Substantives, and so 
 
 take a Genitive : 
 
139-41- Dative Case. 389 
 
 Aemulus, amicus, inimicus, cognatus, necessarius, propin- 
 
 quus, socius, supplex, vicinus. 
 
 All en us also takes an Ablative with or without ab. 
 Propriusis used by Cicero with Genitive only. 
 Propior, proximus are found with Accusative; also with ab and 
 its case. 
 
 (3) Adjectives of fitness, aptus, commodus, idoneus, natus, pro- 
 
 clivis, promptus, &c., may take ad (rem). 
 y) Many Adjectives which express feeling or behaviour may 
 
 take in, erga (aliquem) : 
 
 Acer, acerbus, crudelis, durus, iniquus, iniuriosus, saevus, 
 severus, &c. ; benignus, comis, liberalis, mitis, pius, im- 
 pius, gratus, ingratus, c. 
 
 C) Adverbs derived from Adjectives are sometimes used with a 139 
 Dative : 
 
 Constanter sibi, convenienter naturae, utiliter patriae. 
 
 D) Verbal Substantives governing Dative rarely occur : 140 
 
 Obtemperatio legibus ; remedia morbis, &c. 
 But such words as host is, legatus, &c., being of an Adjectival 
 nature, are followed by a Dative ; and others are so used when the 
 Dative is Acquisitive. 
 
 iii. (II) The Recipient or Acquisitive Dative. HI 
 {Dat. Commodi et Incommodi.) 
 
 'Pisistratus sibi non patriae Megarensis vicit/ Pisistratus 
 conquered the M egarians for himself, not for his country, lust. ii. 8. 
 'Neque mihi ex cuiusquam amplitudine aut praesidia periculis 
 aut adiumenta honoribus quaero/ C. p. L. Man. 24. 'Filius 
 Blaesi militibus missionem petebat/ Tac. Ann. I. 19. ' Cato . . . 
 urbi pater est urbique maritus/ Lucan. i. 
 
 1) Here may be ranked the Datives with vac are, to be at 
 
 leisure (alicui rei), nub ere, to wed, properly l to take the 
 veil for* (viro), and those with Verbs of care, caution, 
 
 fear : consulere, studere, cupere, cavere, prospicere, 
 providere, metuere, timere, &c. (alicui), to consult, look out, 
 
 fear (for somebody or something). 
 
 2) Est, sunt, &c., with a Dative, express ' having:' Suus 
 
 cuique mos est/ every one has his own custom, Ter. 
 6 Sex filii nob is, duae filiae sunt/ we have six sons and 
 two daughters, L. xlii. 34. 
 
 3) Facio, fio are used with a Dative : 
 
 1 Quid facies huicF'C. 'Quid mihi futurum est ?' C. 
 Also in the same sense, with de and Ablative : 
 
 Quid de me fiet ? what will become of me ? And with AbL 
 alone : Quid me net ? Quid te futurum'st? Ter. 
 
 4) The Dative of a Pronoun, loosely added, and expressing 
 
 general reference to a person, is called Dativus Ethicus : 
 
39 Latin Syntax. 142. 
 
 1 Quid mihi Celsus agit?' how does my Celsus get on? Hor. 
 Epist. i. 3. 15. 'Quid ait nob is Sannio?' what says our 
 Sannio ? 
 
 5) Similar to this is the Dative with the Interjections hem, 
 
 ecce: Hem Davum tibi, see, here's Davus\ Ecce tibi 
 Antonius, &c. 
 
 6) Hei, vae take a Dative : 
 
 'Hei misero mihi/ alas for wretched me, Ter. Vae victis, 
 woe to the conquered, L. 
 
 7) A Recipient Dative, instead of an Ablative of the Agent, 
 
 may be joined to Passive Participles, especially to Gerun- 
 dives ; also to Parti cipials in -bilis : 
 
 ' Formidatus O t h o n i,' dreaded of Otho, luv. ' Bella m a t r i- 
 bus detestata/ wars abhorred by mothers, Hor. 'Proe- 
 lia coniugibus loquenda/ battles for wives to talk of,, 
 Hor. ' Non ulli affabilis/ Verg. 
 
 Poets extend this idiom to Personal Passive Verbs : ' NOR 
 intellegor ulli/ Ov. ' Carmina quae scribuntur aquae 
 potoribus/ Hor. Epist. i. 19. 3. 
 
 In prose it is rare. ' Dissimillimis bestiis communiter cibus, 
 quaeritur/ C. N. D. ii. 48. 
 
 8) To such predications as ' Cui (huic) nomen est, quibus 
 
 (his) nomen datur, damus/ &c., the Name itself is some- 
 times joined as an attracted Dative : 
 
 ' Volitans, cui nomen asilo Romanum est/ an insect whose 
 Roman name is asilus, Verg. G. iii. 147. ' In campis, 
 quibus nomen erat Raudiis, decertavere/ they fought 
 in plains called the Raudian, Veil. ii. 2. 
 
 (But a Nominative or Genitive of the Name is found: <Ei 
 morbo nomen est avaritia/ C. ' Nomen Mercuri est 
 mihi/ Plaut. Am. Prol. 19.) 
 
 9) Analogous to this are the attractions : ' Hoc mihi volenti 
 
 est/ Sail. ' Quibus bellum volentibus erat/ who' 
 wished for war, Tac. 
 
 10) When a Copulative Infinitive (esse, fieri, &c.) depends on 
 a Verb with Dative Object, the Complement is generally 
 Dative : ' Mihi non licet esse neglegenti/ C. Att. i. 17* 
 'Da mihi fallere, da iusto sanctoque videri/ Hor. 
 Epist. i. 1 6. 6 1. But it may be Accusative : ' Primum ego 
 me illorum, dederim quibus esse poet as excerpam 
 numero/ Hor. S. iv. 39 (where Orelli reads poetis without 
 authority or necessity). 
 
 Note. The Dative of Place Whither is poetic : ' It clamor caelo/ 
 a shout reaches the sky, Verg. Ae. v. 451. 
 
 142 iv. (Ill) The Predicative Dative of Purpose. 
 
 This is usually found with a Second Dative of the Recipient : 
 Odio esse (cordi esse) alteri, to be an object of hate (liking) to 
 another ; vitio vertere alteri, to impute as a fault to another. So, 
 commodo, dedecori, delectationi, emolumento, honori, voluptati, 
 &c.j esse alicui, crimini dare alteri ; auxilio, subsidio venire alteri. 
 
H2. Dative Case. 391 
 
 But a second Dative is not always used : Habere aliquem con- 
 temptui, derisui, ludibrio ; habere rempublicam quaestui ; ponere 
 (opponere) aliquid pigneri, to pawn, mortgage ; canere receptui, to 
 sound a retreat. 
 
 (Akin to this construction is that of the Dative Gerund and 
 Gerundive : solvendo esse, to be solvent ; tresviri reipublicae con- 
 stituendae, three commissioners for settling the government.) 
 
 In Personal Passive construction both Datives remain ; Liber a 
 patre filio dono datus est. 1 
 
 Examples of the Dative Case. 
 
 I. (Dative of Remoter Object.) 'Zenoni placuit, bonum esse solum, quod ho- 
 nestum esset,* C. T. D. v. n. 'Omnibus bonis expedit salvam esse rempublicam,' 
 C. Phil. xiii. 8. 'Non vacat exiguis rebus adesse lovi,' Ov. Tr. ii. 216. 'Cicero 
 meus salutem tibi dicit,' C. Att. v. 9. * Diem mihi dixerat, multam irrogarat,' C. 
 j>. Mil. 37. ' Qui sibi semitam non sapiunt, alteri monstrant viam,' Enn. 
 'Anguis Sullae apparuit immolanti,' C. Div. ii. 30. 'Tironem Dolabellae 
 obviam misi,' C. Att. xii. 5. 'Dionysius nobis praesto fuit,' C. Att. iv. 12. 
 ' Pompeio et Senatui pacis auctor fui,' C. Att. ix. ii. 'Quantum consuetudini 
 fama-eque dandum sit, id curent vivi,' C. T. D. i. 45. 'Is denique honos mihi 
 videri solet, qui non propter spem futuri beneficii, sed propter magna merita claris 
 viris defertur et datur,' C. Fam. x. 10. 'lam non ago tibi gratias; cui enkn 
 re vix referre possum, huic verbis non patitur res satisfieri,' C. ad Brut. ii. i. 
 'Attici neptem Caesar Tiberio Claudio Neroni privigno suo despondit,' Nep. 
 Att. 19. * Dissociatis animis civium, alii Sullanis, alii Cinnanis partibus favebant,* 
 N. Att. 2. 'Omnino irasci amicis non temere soleo, ne si merentur quidem,' C. 
 Phil. viii. 5. ' Tirones iureiurando accepto nihil iis nocituros hostis se Otacilio 
 dediderunt,' Caes. B. C. iii. 28. ' ludicis est innocentiae subvenire,' C./. Clu. 
 i. 'Antiochus si parere voluisset consiliis Hannibalis, propius Tiberi quam 
 Thermopylis de summa imperi dimicasset,' Nep. Hann. 8. ' Imperat aut servit 
 eollecta pecunia cuique,' Hor. Epist. i. 10. 47. ' Cur succumbis cedisque for- 
 tunae?' C. T. D. iii. 17. 'Non Caesari solum, sed etiam amicis eius omnibus 
 pro Ligario exsule Cicero sup plica vit,' C. Fam. vi. 14. ' Cui Gellius benedixit 
 unquam bono ? ' C. /. Sext. 52. 'Tu verbis solves numquamquod miremalefeceris/ 
 Ter. Ad. ii. i. 10. 'Pelopidas omnibus periculis adfuit,' Nep. Pel. 4. 'Erat 
 fcupta soror Attici Q. Tullio Ciceroni,' Nep. Att. 5. 'Venus nupsit Vulcano ; 
 Astarten Adonidi nupsisse proditum est,' C. N. D. iii. 23. 'Brutus collegae suo 
 imperium abrogavit,' C. Br. 14. 'Sthenius est is, qui nobis assidet,' C. Verr. ii. 34. 
 ' Leges omnium salutem singulorum saluti anteponunt,'C. Fin. iii. 19. 'Dionysius 
 aureum lovi Olympio detraxit amiculum, eique laneum pallium iniecit, cum id 
 esse ad omne anni tempus diceret,' C. N. D. iii. 34. ' Est viri et ducis, non deesse 
 fortunae praebenti se, et oblata casu flectere ad consilium,' L. xxviii. 44. 'Praetor 
 interdixit de vi hominibus armatis,' C. p. Caec. 8. ' Hortensius veritus est ne 
 Fufius tribunus plebis ei legi intercederet, quae ex senatus consulto ferebatur,' C. 
 Att. \. 1 6. 'Ut Thucydidis concisis sententiis officit Theopompus elatione atque 
 altitudine orationis suae, quod idem Lysiae Demosthenes, sic Catonis lu mini bus 
 obstruxit posteriorum quasi exaggerata altius oratio,' C. Br. 17. 'Hannibal Ale x- 
 andro Magno non postponendus est,' lust. xxx. 4. 'Certis rebus certa signa 
 praecurrunt,' C. Div. i. 52. 'Deus animum, ut dominum atque imperantem, 
 oboedienti praefecit corpori/ C. Univ. 7. 'Nihil semper floret: aetas succedit 
 aetati,' C. Phil. xi. 15. 'Numquam Atticus potenti adulatus est Antonio,' N. 
 Att. 8. 'Non ita adulatus sum fortunam alterius, ut me meae paeniteret, C. Div. 
 ii. 2. 'Lictores praetoribus anteeunt cum fascibus duobus,' C. d. L. Agr. \\. 34. 
 'Te semper anteit torva Necessitas,' Hor. C. i. 35. 17. 'Iis aemulamur, qui ea 
 habent quae nos habere cupimus,' C. T. D. i. 19. 'Quod me Agamemnonem 
 aemulari putas, falleris,' Nep. Ep. 5. 'Cui nullum probrum die ere pote rat, eius 
 obtrectare laudes voluit,' L. xlv. 37. ' Non id laboro, ut, si qui mihi obtrecfcent, 
 a te refutentur/ C. Fam. ix. n. 'Mihi ausculta; vide ne tibi desis,' C. p. S. 
 Rose. 36. 'Homines auscultant crimina,' Plaut. Pseud, i. 5. 12. 'In Formiano 
 tibi praestolor,' C. Att. ii. 15. ' Curionis adventum L. Caesar filius ad Clupeam 
 
 1 The saying ' Cui bono fuit ? ' whose interest was it ? deserves special notice, because 
 it is often erroneously cited in a different sense. See C./. Mil. 12 ; Phil. ii. 14. 
 
392 Latin Syntax. i 43 . 
 
 E. The Ablative Case. 
 
 Ablative j j^e ABLATIVE is the Modal Case, or Case of 
 Circumstances which modify the predication adverbially. 
 Besides its proper Ablative functions (taken in Greek by 
 the Genitive), it comprises those of the Primitive Instru- 
 mental (partly taken in Greek by the Dative) and most 
 functions of the Locative Case. 
 
 Its uses may be conveniently taken in the following order : 
 
 I. Instrumental Ablative : comprising Cause ; Instrument ; 
 
 Agent; Price; Matter. 
 
 II. Locative Ablative: comprising Respect; 1 Difference; 
 Manner ; Condition ; Quality ; Time When ; Place 
 Where and by Which. 
 
 III. Ablative Proper : comprising Place Whence ; Separation; 
 Origin ; Thing Compared. 
 
 praestolabatur,' Caes. B. C. ii. 23. 'Aucta fama cladis ingens terror Patres 
 invasit, dictatoremque dici placebat,' L. ix. 38. 'In Galliam Antonius invasit, in 
 Asiam Dolabella,' C. Phil, xi. 2. ' Equidem ut veni ad urbem, minis invaserat 
 furor non solum improbis sed etiam his qui boni habentur ut pugnare cuperent,' C. 
 Fam. xvi. 12. ' Est mihi magnae curae, ut ita erudiatur Lucullus, ut patri re- 
 spondeat/ C. Fin. iii. 2. ' Respondebisne ad haec?' C. Phil. ii. 43. 'Si 
 inest in oratione mixta modestiae gra vitas, nihil admirabilius fieri potest,' C. Off. 
 ii. 14. ' Inerant lunaria fronti cornua,' Ov. M. ix. 687. ' Caritati ipsius soli 
 longo tempore assuescitur/ L. ii. i. 'Assuetae sanguine et praeda aves,' Flor. 
 i. T. ' In omnia familiaria iura assuetus,' L. xxiv. 5. ' Natura vi rationis hominem 
 conciliat homini,' C. Off. i. 4. 'Ratio et oratio conciliat inter se homines,' C. 
 Off. \. 16. ' Ennius equi fortis et victoris senectuti comparat suam,' C. Cat. M. 5. 
 'Quaeso, pontifices, et hominem cum homine, et tempus cum tempore, et rem cum 
 re comparate,' C. /. Dom. 50. ' Longe mea discrepat istis et vox et ratio,' Hor. 
 S 1 . L 6. 92. ' Id a tuis litteris discrepabat,' C. Aft. ii. T. 'Duae leges inter se dis- 
 crepant,' C. d. Inv. 2. 'Conexum sit principium consequent! orationi/ C. d. Or. 
 ii. 80. ' Amicitia cum voluptate conectitur/ C. Fin. i. 20. ' Mamertini honorem 
 debitum detraxerunt non homini, sed ordini/ C. Verr. iv. ii. 'Sacerdotem ab 
 ipsis avis detraxisti,' C. d. Har. 13. ' Ille non cessat de nobis detrahere,' C. 
 Att. xi. ii. 'Orationi adspergentur etiam sales, qui in dicendo nimium quantum 
 valent,' C. Or. 26. ' Pythagoras ne Apollini quidem Delio hostiam immolare voluit, 
 ne aram sanguine adspergeret/ C. N. D. 36. ' Dionysius fossam latam cubiculari 
 lecto circumdedit,' C. T. D. v. 20. ' Deus animum circumdedit corpore/ C. 
 Univ. 6. ' Equites Hannoni se circumfudere,' L. xxix. 34. 'Agesilaum amici, 
 quod mel non habebant, cera circumfuderunt,' Nep. Ag. 3. 'Atticus Atheniensis 
 universes frumento donavit,' Nep. Att. 2. 'Ciceroni populus Romanus aeter- 
 nitatem immortalitatemque donavit,' C. in Pis. 3. 'In deversorio erant ea 
 composita, quibus rex te munerare constituerat,' C. /. Deiot. 6. ' Di earn potestatem 
 dabunt, ut beneficium benemerenti muneres,' Plaut. Capt. v. i. 15. Doctrinis 
 aetas puerilis impertiri debet,' Nep. Att. T. ' Terentia impertit tibi multam 
 salutem,' C. Att. ii. 12. 'Sto expectans si quid mihi imperent,' Ter. Eun. iii. 5. 46. 
 ' Conon ad mare missus est, ut maritimis civitatibus navis longas imperaret/ Nep. 
 Ag. 4. 'Matronis Medea persuasit ne sibi vitio verterent quod abesset a patria,* 
 C. Fam. vii. 6. 'Hoc mihi non modo confirmavit, sed etiam persuasit,' C. Att. 
 xvi. 5. ' Nihil facile persuadetur invitis,' Qu. iv. 3. 'Cato iis solis non invi- 
 debat, quibus nihil ad dignitatem posset accedere,'C. Att. vii. 3. ' Aliorum laudi 
 atque gloriae maxime invideri solet,' C. d. Or. ii. 51. 'Africae solo oleum et 
 
 1 Respect, Difference, Manner, Condition, Quality, Time, may be considered Loca- 
 tive, as logically limiting the position of that which they modify. In many examples it 
 is not easy to say whether the Ablative should be referred to Cause, Instrument, Matter, 
 or Manner. 
 
144. Ablative Case. 393 
 
 ii. (I) Instrumental Ablative. 144 
 
 A) The Ablative of Cause answers the question Owing to 
 'what? 
 
 i) It chiefly limits state; and is therefore joined to Verbs 
 Intransitive or Passive, to their Participles, and to 
 Adjectives. 
 
 vinum natura invidet,' PL N. H. xv. 2. 'Invidet igne rogi miseris,' Lucan. 
 vii. 798. ' Manus extrema non accessit operibus,' C. Br. 33. ' Nondum ad rem- 
 publicam access!,' C. /. S. Rose. i. 'Dolor accessit bonis viris : virtus non 
 est imminuta,' C. Att. i. 16. 'Rumore adventus nostri Cassio animus accessit,' C. 
 Att. v. 20. 'Accedam in plerisque Ciceroni/ Qu. ix. 4. 2. 'Athenienses consu- 
 luerunt Apollinem Pythium, quas potissimum religiones tenerent/ C. Leg. ii. 16. 
 ' Di consulunt rebus humanis,' C. Div. \. 51. ' Prudentia numquaui deficit ora- 
 tor em,' C. Br. 24. 'Cum iam amplius horis sex continenter pugnaretur, non solum 
 vires, sed etiam tela nostris deficiebant,' Caes. B. G. in. 5. 'Indulge valetudini 
 tuae, cui quidem tu adhuc, dum mihi deservis, servisti non satis,' C. Fam.. xvi. 18. 
 ' Indulsit ornamenta consularia procuratoribus,' Suet. Claud. 24. ' Praestat 
 honestas incolumitati,' C. Inv. ii. 58. ' Atheniensium civitas antiquitate, humanitate, 
 doctrina praestabat omnis,' Nep. Att. 3. ' Ser. Sulpicius honorem debitum patri 
 praestitit,' C. Phil. ix. 5. ' Trebatium obiurgavi, quod parum valetudini par- 
 ceret,' C. Fam. xi. 27. ' Precantur ut et a caedibus et ab incendiis parceretur,* 
 L. xxv. 25. 'Libros oratorios in manibus habeo, quos, ut spero, valde tibi probabo,' 
 C. Att. iv. 14. ' Atticae meae velim me ita excuses, ut omnem culpam in te trans- 
 feras,' C. Att. xv. 28. 'Quod te mihi de Sempronio purgas, accipio excusationem,' 
 C. Fam. xii. 25. 'Antonius leges civitati per vim ;imposuit,' C. Phil. vii. 5. 
 ' Metellum multi filii in rogum imppsuerunt,' C. T. D. 1.35. ' Imposuistis in 
 cervicibus nostris sempiternum dominum,' C. N. D. i. 20. 'Non recuso quin, si cui- 
 quam Verresulla in re umquam temperaverit, vos quoqueei temperetis,'C. Verr. 
 ii. 6. 'Quis talia fando tempereta lacrimis?' Verg. Ae. ii. 8. 'Nobilitas Ser. 
 Sulpicii hominibus litteratis et historicis erat notior, populo vero obscurior,' C. 
 p. Mur. 7. 'Voluptatibus maximis fastidium finitimum est,'C. d. Or. iii. 15. 'Audivi 
 te esse Caesari familiarem,' C. Fam. vii. 14. 'Omnis voluptas honestati est 
 contraria,' C. Off. iii. 33. ' Fidelissimi ante omnia homini sunt canis atque 
 equus,' PL N. H. viiL 40. 'Nee fertilis ilia iuvencis, nee pecori opportuna 
 seges nee commoda Baccho,' Verg. G. iv. 128. 'Romulus multitudini gratior 
 fuit, quam Patribus; longe ante alios acceptissimus militum animis,' L. i. 15. 
 ' Ilia expugnatio fani antiquissimi lunonis Samiae, quam luctuosa Samiis fuit, quam 
 acerba toti Asiae !' C. Verr. i. 19. ' Ea virtus est praestantis viri, quae est 
 fructuosa aliis, ipsi autem laboriosa, periculosa, aut certe gratuita,' C. d. 
 Or. ii. 85. ' Sollertia pestifera mult is admodum paucis salutaris est,' C. N. D. iii. 
 27. ' Falernum mihi semper idoneum visum est deversorio,' C. Fam. vi. 19. 
 'Verba innocent! reperire facile est; modum verborum misero tenere difficile,' 
 Curt. vi. 10. 'Senatori necessarium est nosse rem publicam/ C. Leg. iii. 18. 
 ' Epaminondas velut gratulabundus patriae exspiravit,' lust. vi. 8. ' Syracusani 
 nobis dicto audientes sunt,' C. Verr. v. 32. 'Apud Germanos probrosum est 
 superstitem principi suo ex acie recessisse,' Tac. G. 14. 'Socrates nee patronum 
 quaesivit ad iudicium capitis nee iudicibus supplex fuit,' C. T. D. i. 29. 'Ennio 
 aequalis fuit Livius, qui primus fabulam dedit,' C. Br. 18. 'Aequalis temporum 
 illorum,' C. Div. i. 20. ' Vetilius id dicit quod illi causae maxime est alienum,' C. 
 p. Caec. 9. ' Ea scripsi ad te quae non aliena esse ducerem a dignitate,' C. Fam. iv. 
 7. 'Alienum dignitatis,' C. Fin. i. 4. ' Nihil est a me commissum, quod esset alienum 
 nostra amicitia,' C. Fam. xi. 27. 'Omni aetati mrs est communis,' C. Cat. M. 
 19. ' Haec ita iustitiae propria sunt ut sint virtutum reliquarum communia,' 
 C. Fin. v. 23. 'Studium conservandi hominis commune mihi vobiscum esse 
 debebit,' C. p. Rab. i. ' Natus abdomini suo non laudi atque gloriae,' C. in 
 Pis. 17. 'Ad laudem et ad decus nati sumus,' C. Fin. v. 22. 'Thracibus est 
 ferrum et promptus libertati aut ad mortem animus,' Tac. Ann. iv. 46. ' T. 
 Manlius perindulgens est in patrem, acerbe severus in filium,' C. Off. iii. 31. 
 < lugurtha propior montem pedites collocat,' Sail. lug. 49. ' Treviri proximi 
 Rheno flumini sunt,' Caes. B. G. iii. ii, ' Ubii proximi Rhenum incolunt,' Caes. 
 B. G. i. 54. ' Summum bonum a Stoicis dicitur, convenienternaturae vivere,' C. Fin. 
 
394 Latin Syntax. 144. 
 
 Plecti neglegentia ; mori senectute ; pallescere culpa ; impe- 
 ditus morbo ; pallidus ira ; ardens amore ; fessus inedia 
 et fluctibus, &c. 
 
 It may limit Transitive Verbs, especially when it expresses 
 
 feeling or motive : 
 Hac mente, hoc consilio, laetitia, odio, &c., facere, dicere 
 
 aliquid, &c. 
 
 2) It includes the phrases : causa, gratia, ergo, nomine, 
 for the sake of. < Quaestus causa, 'jfor the sake of gain ; but 
 mea, tua, &c. causa. ' Turpitudinis effugiendae gratia/ for 
 the sake of avoiding disgrace. l Virtutis ergo (nomine)/ on 
 the score of merit. 
 
 iii. 7. ' Ex quibusdam stirpibus et herbis remedia morbis et vulneribus eligimus/ 
 C. N. D. ii. 64. 
 
 II. (Dativus Comntodi et Incommodi.) ' Non solum nobis divites esse volumus, 
 sed liberis, propinquis, amicis, maximeque reipublicae,' C. Off. iii. 15. ' Si 
 domus pulchra est, intellegimus earn dominis aedificatam esse, non muribus,' C. in 
 CaeciL 3. 'Tibi aras, tibi occas, tibi seris, tibi eidem metis,' Plaut. Merc. i. i. 71. 
 'Caesar reperiebat favere Dumnorigem et cupere Helvetiis propter affinitatem/ 
 Caes. B. G. i. 18. 'Tibi favemus ; tibi optamus earn rempublicam, in qua tuorum 
 renovare memoriam atque augere possis,' C. Br. 97. ' Pro deum fidem, quid vobis 
 vultis?' L. iii. 67. 'Atheniensis Clisthenes lunoni Samiae, cum rebus timeret suis, 
 filiarum dotes credidit,' C. Leg. ii. 16. ' Germani ab parvulis labori ac duritiae 
 student,' Caes. B. G. vi. 21. ' Scabiem pecori et iumentis caveto,' Cato, R. R. 5. 
 ' Bene mi hi, bene vobis, bene omnibus nobis !' Plaut. Ptrs. v. i. 20. ' Consulite 
 vobis, prospicite patriae,' C. in Cat. iv. 2. ' Numa virgines Vestae legit, Salios 
 item Marti Gradivo,' L. i. 20. 'Improbo et stulto et inerti nemini bene esse 
 potest,' C. Par. 2. 'Tibi bene ex animo volo,' Ter. Haut. v. 2. 6. ' Multis de causis 
 ego huic causae patronus exstiti,' C. p. S. Rose. 2. ' Semper in civitate, quibus 
 opes nullae sunt, bonis invident/ Sail. Cat. 37. 'An nescis longas regibus esse 
 xnanus?' Ov. Her. xvii. 166. 'Filius meus si quid peccat, mihi peccat,' Ter. Ad. i. 
 a - 35- 'Quid mihi L. Pauli nepos quaerit, quo modo duo soles visi sint?' C. Rep. 
 i. 19. 'Ecce tibi, qui rex populi Romani dominusque omnium gentium esse concu- 
 pierit, idque perfecerit ! ' C. Off. iii. 21. ' Audita est Brenni, reguli Gallorum, intole- 
 randa Romanis vox; Vae victis esse,' L. v. 48. 'Cui non sunt auditae Demos- 
 thenis vigiliae?' C. T. D. iv. 19. 'Mihi consilium captum iam diu est,' C. Fam. 
 v. 19. ' Ut esse possem orator, magno studio mihi a pueritia est elaboratum,' C. 
 in CaeciL 12. ' Legendus mihi saepius est Cato Maior,' C. Att. xiv. 21. ' Restat 
 Chremes qui mihi exorandus est,' Ter. An. i. i. 130. 'Hie tibi sit potius quam 
 tu mirabilis illi,' Hor. Epist. i. 6. 23. ' Vix audior ulli,' Ov. Ep. ex P. iii. 9. 
 ' Duo sunt Roscii, quorum alteri Capitoni cognomen est,' C. /. S. Rose. 6. ' Attus 
 Clausus, cui postea Appio Claudio fuit Romae nomen, ab Regillo magna clientium 
 comitatus manu Romam transfugit,' L. ii. 16. ' Illis timidis et ignavis licet esse ; 
 vobis necesse est fortibus viris esse,' L. xxi. 44. 'Medios esse (nos) iam non 
 licebit,' C. Att. x. 8. 
 
 III. (Predicative Dative.) ' Vitam rusticam tuprobroetcrimini putas esse?' C. 
 J. S. Rose. 17. 'Otho quidquid epistularum erat, necui periculo aut noxae apud 
 victorem forent, concremavit,' Suet. Oth. 10. ' Spero homines intellecturos, quanto 
 sit omnibus odio crudelitas, et quanto amori probitas et dementia,' C. Fam. 
 xv. 19. ' Ampla domus dedecori domino saepe fit, si est in ea solitudo,' C. Off. 
 i- 39. 'Vitio mihi dant quod mortem hominis necessarii graviter fero,' C. Fam. 
 xi. 28. ' Pergite, ut facitis, adulescentes, atque in id studium, in quo estis, incumbite, 
 ut et vobis honori, et amicis utilitati, et reipublicae emolument esse 
 
 publicam turpe 
 accipitur,' Sail lug. 85 
 
145-47- Ablative Case. 395 
 
 3) Also the phrases iussu, iniussu, monitu, mandatu, per* 
 
 missu, rogatu, &c., ope, opera, beneficio, dolo, &c. 
 
 4) Cause may be expressed by the Prepositions ab, de, ex, 
 
 per, prae. 
 
 Ab animi levitate ; per aetatem ; multis de causis ; prae 
 gaudio. 
 
 B) The Ablative of the Instrument answers the question 145 
 By what means ? 
 
 1) It limits Verbs Active or Passive, and their Participles. 
 
 Pugnare gladiis ; defendere se cornibus ; lapide ictus ; 
 veneno exstingui, &c. 
 
 2) The Ablative of an Abstract Noun may be Instrumental : 
 
 ' Forma et moribus conciliare aliquem/ 
 
 3) The Preposition cum with its Case is sometimes used as 
 
 equivalent to a Participle with Instrumental Ablative : 
 
 f Homines cum gladiis ' = homines gladiis armati. 
 
 C) The Ablative of the Personal Agent with the Preposi- 146 
 tion ab, by, answers the question By whom ? 
 
 1) It is joined to Verbs Passive or Quasi-passive and their 
 
 Participles : 
 
 ' Mundus a Deo administratur ; ' ab hoste venire ; ab improbis 
 expulsus, &c. 
 
 2) The Preposition per is used to express both Instrument 
 
 and Agent : Per dolum, per insidias capi ; per bonos 
 restitui, c. 
 
 3) Abstract terms, though in general Instrumentally used in 
 
 the Ablative, are sometimes treated as Agents : 
 'Piget dicere ut vobis animus ab ignavia atque socordia 
 corruptus sit/ it is sad to state how your mind has been 
 corrupted by idleness and sloth, Sail. lug. 31 ; M. Lucr. 
 i. 813. 
 
 D) The Ablative of Price answers the questions For how i 47 
 much f At what cost ? 
 
 i) It accompanies Verbs of purchase, sale, barter, hiring, 
 letting, bidding, costing, &c., or any other with which Cost 
 or Value can be connected. Such are 
 
 Emexe and its compounds, mercari, opsonari, vendere, 
 venire ; conducere, locare, collocare ; licere, liceri, licitari, 
 &c., constare, stare, valere, esse, &c., aestimare, &c. 
 
 Also Adjectives implying cost, dearness, cheapness : 
 Venalis, vendibilis, parabilis, carus, vilis, &c. 
 
 Emere, c., venalis esse, &c., pretio, grandi pecunia, centum 
 nummis, viginti denariis, centum milibus, mille drachmis 
 (minis, talentis), &c. 
 
396 Latin Syntax. I4 8. 
 
 2) The following Ablatives of Cost are used with such words, 
 
 the Noun pretio being understood : 
 Magno, parvo, minimo, paululo, plurimo, nimio, dimidio, 
 
 duplo, vili, &c. 
 
 Tanto, quanto may be used; but Price is more usually 
 expressed by their Genitives tanti, quanti, also by the 
 Genitives pluris, minoris, maximi, which Adjectives 
 are not used in the Ablative of Price without pretio. 
 
 a) Valuation is usually expressed by the Genitives magni, 
 
 parvi, &c. (pretii), and others. See GENITIVE. 
 
 b) The Verbs mutare, commutare, permutare, vertere(/0 
 
 exchange), take either an Accusative of the thing parted with, 
 and an Ablative of the thing taken : ' Mutare pacem bello/ 
 to exchange peace for war, i.e. to go to war-, or (especially 
 in poetry) an Accusative of the thing taken, and an Abla- 
 tive of the thing parted with : ' Permutare otio divitias,' to 
 take wealth in exchange for ease. 
 
 I48 E) The Ablative of Matter answers the questions Where- 
 with ? (in a material sense ;) Whereof? 
 
 It accompanies a great number of* Verbs and Adjectives : 
 
 1) Transitive Verbs of sacrificing; adorning, enduing, arming; 
 
 dignifying, afflicting, punishing; nourishing, supporting, 
 delighting ; fashioning, instructing, furnishing ; binding, 
 &c.: 
 
 Facere, immolare, litare, libare, c. victima, hostia, agno, 
 &c. vino, lacte, &c. : ornare, induere, armare, &c. veste, 
 corona, ense, &c. : afficere, mactare, &c. beneficio, 
 honore, iniuria, poena, &c. : afficere admiratione ; affici 
 morbo, &c. : alere, pascere, iuvare, delectare, oblectare, 
 &c. opibus, sermonibus, &c. : formare, informare, insti- 
 tuere, munire, &c. doctrina, bonis artibus, subsidiis, 
 &c . : obligare, devincire, obstringere, tenere, &c. iure- 
 jurando, religione, &c. 
 
 2) Intransitive Verbs of consisting, being made ; being accus- 
 
 tomed ; depending; being strong, being distressed ; flour- 
 ishing, languishing ; rejoicing, boasting, grieving; rely- 
 ing, distrusting ; &c. : 
 
 Constare, conflari, contineri, fieri ; suescere, assuescere; pen- 
 dere ; pollere, valere, vigere, lascivire, laborare ; florere, lan- 
 guescere ; gaudere, laetari, exsultare, triumphare, gloriari ; 
 dolere, maerere ; fidere, confidere, niti ; (macte esto) ; dif- 
 fidere, &c. 
 
 Constare also takes ex. ( Omnis ex re atque verbis con- 
 st at oratio/ all speech consists of matter and words, C. d. 
 Or. iii. 5. 
 
 3) Adjectives and Participles in meaning akin to some of these 
 
 Verbs : 
 
 Compositus, conflatus, concretus, factus; praeditus (en- 
 dued\ beatus, felix, contentus, fretus (relying}; laetus, 
 superbus ; fisus, diffisus, coniunctus, assuetus, assuefactus, 
 insuetus, &c. 
 The last six also take a Dative. 
 
148. Ablative Case. 397 
 
 4) Dignus (worthy], in di gnus (unworthy) : 
 Sometimes also with Genitive. 
 
 They are applied either to person or to thing : 
 
 Vir dignus est laude : vox indigna est responsione. 
 Dignari, to deem worthy, or to be deemed worthy (honore, 
 &c.), is always used passively by Cicero; by poets and 
 later prose writers actively also. 
 
 5) Opus est, there is need, opus habere, to have need (consilio, 
 
 prudentia, duce, &c.) 
 
 Generally used with Ablative, or with Genitive by poets. 
 Opus may also stand as Complement : ' Dux nobis et auctor 
 
 opus est/ we need a leader and adviser, C. Fam. ii. 6. 
 
 Usus est, there is occasion, is sometimes found : 
 1 Nunc viribus usus/ now there is occasion for strength, Verg. 
 Ae. viii. 441. 
 
 Opus is used with Passive Participial words : 
 
 'Ita dictu opus est/ so must we needs say, Ter. Haut. v. 
 
 i. 68. * Priusquam incipias, consulto opus est/ ere 
 
 you begin, there is need of consultation, Sail. Cat. I. 
 
 'Opus fuit Hirtio convento/ there was occasion for 
 
 an interview with Hirtius, C. Att. x. 14. 
 
 6) Fungi, to perform, fulfil, with compounds defungi, per- 
 
 fungi ; frui, to enjoy, with perfrui ; uti, to use, with 
 abuti; vesci, to feed on, eat; potiri, to acquire, gain pos- 
 session of. 
 
 The Ablative with these Verbs (which is properly instru- 
 mental) is construed like an Object. They were originally 
 Reflexive, and are used with Accusative in E. L., hence 
 they retain the Gerundive : ' Vita data est utenda.' ' Spes 
 potiundorum castrorum/ Caes. See M. Lucr. iii. 956. 
 
 Utor is found in the sense oi possessing : 
 
 'Valetudine utor non bona/ I have poor health, C. Fam. 
 
 xiv. 5. 
 Being intimate with: 'Utebatur intime Q. Hortensio/ 
 
 he was intimate with Hortensius, N. Att. v. 4. 
 
 Potior also takes a Genitive : sometimes an Accusative. 
 
 7) Transitive Verbs of endowing, enriching, filling, increasing, 
 
 loading, sating, &c., depriving, despoiling, emptying, strip- 
 ping, releasing, &c. : 
 
 Donare, munerare, dotare, ditare, locupletare, opulentare, 
 complere, explere, implere, opplere, replere, augere, cumu- 
 lare, onerare, farcire, confercire, refercire, satiare, exsa- 
 tiare, saturare, exsaturare, &c., destituere, fraudare, pri- 
 vare, orbare, viduare, spoliare, despoliare, vacuare, nudare, 
 levare, exonerare, laxare, liberare, solvere, exsolvere, expe- 
 dire, exhaurire, emungere, exuere, &c. (re aliqua aliquem). 
 
 Intransitive Verbs of abounding, overflowing, &c., wanting, 
 being void being destitute, c. 
 
398 Latin Syntax. 149-50. 
 
 Abundare, fluere, affluere, circumfluere, diffluere, exuberare, 
 exundare, redundare, manare, stillare, pluere, scatere, &c., 
 carere, egere, indigere, vacare (re aliqua). 
 
 Verbs of this class often take a Genitive in poetry; egere, 
 indigere, prefer a Genitive in prose also. 
 
 Some are followed by the Preposition ab ; levare, libe- 
 rare, vacare (a re). 
 
 8) Adjectives of abundance and want : 
 
 Abundans, beatus, compos, dives, felix, ferax, fertilis, fecun- 
 dus, fetus, frequens, gravis, gravidus, laetus, largus, lo- 
 cuples, nimius, onustus, opulentiis, plenus, refertus, satur, 
 tumidus, uber, &c., cassus, egenus, expers, immunis, ina- 
 nis, inops, liber, mancus, nudus, orbus, pauper, purus, 
 solutus, sterilis, truncus, vacuus, viduus, &c. (re aliqua). 
 
 Many of these may take a Genitive : compos, plenus, fe- 
 cundus; expers, inops, and some others; especially in 
 poetry. 
 
 Some may take the Preposition ab : immunis, liber, purus, 
 solutus, vacuus (a re); the case after such words being a 
 true Ablative of Separation. 
 
 iii. (II) Locative Ablative. 
 
 X49 A) The Ablative of Respect answers the question In regard 
 of what? 
 
 It is joined to any predication, especially to Substantives and 
 Adjectives, denoting that particular in respect of which the pre- 
 dication is made : 
 
 'Nomine grammaticus, re barbarus/ in name a gram- 
 marian, in fact a barbarian ; * claudus altero pede,' 
 lame of one foot; ' virtute et doctrina excellere;' 
 'contremere tota mente et omnibus artubus:' <hae 
 domo Carthaginienses sunt.' So, natu maior, elder 
 (minor, maximus, minimus) ; grandis natu, elderly, &c. 
 
 550 B) The Ablative of Measure answers the question By what 
 measure ? 
 
 1) It limits Measurement or Comparison : 
 
 'Sol multis partibus maior est quam terra/ the sun is 
 many times greater than the earth, C. N. D. \\. 36. 
 
 2) It includes the Ablative of Space and Distance : 
 'Trium miliumspatio (or tribus milibus passuum) dis- 
 
 tare/ &c., to be three miles off, &c. Ab may be used with 
 this Ablative of Distance : 
 
 'Naves ab milibus passuum octo vento tenebantur/ 
 the ships were kept by a wind eight miles off, Caes. B. G. 
 
 iv. 22. 
 
I 151-53. Ablative Case. 399 
 
 3) The following Ablatives are used with Comparative and 
 
 other words implying Comparison : 
 
 Hoc, eo, quo, tanto, quanto, aliquanto, multo, paulo, dimidio, 
 nihilo, nimio, altero, &c. ' Eo gravior dolor quo culpa 
 maior/ the pain is heavier in proportion as the fault is 
 greater. Multo optimus; multo praestare; multo malle, 
 &c., multo ante (post) ; paulo ante (post) ; tanto ante 
 (post), &c. Multo aliter, secus, &c. See p. 279. 
 
 <) The Ablative of Manner answers the question How f *s* 
 
 1) It is eminently adverbial, appearing in many phrases as a 
 
 single word : 
 
 Ordine, ratione, via et ratione (systematically], dolo, fraude, 
 vi, iure, iniuria, vitio (faultily), equo (on horseback], pedi- 
 bus (on foot), &c. (Per might be used with some of these 
 words in the same sense : per dolum, per vim.) 
 
 2) In some instances an unqualified Ablative may be used with 
 
 or without cum: 
 Clam ore, cum clamore ; silentio, cum silentio. 
 
 But cum is generally used with an unqualified Ablative of 
 Manner : 
 Cum dolore ; cum gaudio ; cum fide ; cum cura. 
 
 3) Certain Ablatives, more, modo, ritu, take a Genitive if they 
 
 have no epithet. 
 
 ' More SophochV or 'more Sophocleo/ in the manner of 
 Sophocles ; ' Herculis ritu/ in the fashion of Hercules, Hor. 
 
 4) With an Epithet the Ablative of Manner often stands with- 
 
 out a Preposition , in some phrases always : 
 Hoc (eo) modo, nullo modo, nullo pacto, nullo ordine, nullo 
 
 negotio, &c. 
 The Preposition seems to be used or omitted at discretion 
 
 (on its frequency see M. Lucr. i. 755). 
 ' Magno studio' or 'cum magno studio ;' ' magno gaudio' 
 
 or 'cum magno gaudio;' 'adesse omnibus copiis' or 
 
 'cum omnibus copiis,' &c. 
 
 D) The Ablative of Condition answers the question On I$a 
 what terms ? 
 
 It is one form of the Ablativus Modi : 
 
 Pace tua, by your leave, bona tua venia, with your in- 
 dulgence, meo iure, by my own right, mea sententia, in 
 my opinion, &c. 
 
 E) The Ablative of Quality answers the question Of what *** 
 description ? 
 
 It always has an Epithet and defines a Substantive, to which 
 it stands either as an Enthesis or as a Complement: 
 
 Murena, vir mediocri ingenio, &c. or'Murena medi- 
 ocri ingenio finV See GENITIVE OF QUALITY. 
 
4 Latin Syntax. 154. 
 
 *54 F) The Ablative of Time answers the questions When? 
 Within what time? Hieme, vere, aestate, primo vere, diluculo 
 (at dawn), prima luce, hora quarta, tertia vigilia, 1 Kalendis lanu- 
 ariis, anno septimo, &c., centum annis, biennio, biduo, paucis 
 diebus, &c. 
 
 j) Recurring solemnities may express Time when : 
 
 Ludis, at the games ; gladiatoribus, at the gladiators' show ; 
 comitiis, at the comitia\ Liberalibus, at the feast of 
 
 T *L O J J 
 
 Liber, &c. 
 
 Rarer idioms are, Sereno, in a calm ; austro, in a south 
 wind, &c. 
 
 Interdiu, noctu, mane (mani), luci, vesperi, heri, pridie, 
 postridie, crastini die, are expressions of Time represent- 
 ing old Locatives. 
 
 2) The Preposition used to define Time when, is chiefly de 
 
 (beginning from, ere the close of, during)-, de nocte, de 
 
 multa nocte (long before night ended) \ de media nocte, de 
 
 die, de mense Decembri. 
 I n is used to express time within which : and often when 
 
 the Ablative has another Numeral, Distributive or Quo- 
 
 tientive, connected with it : 
 'Sol binas in singulis annis reversiones facit/ the sun 
 
 makes two turns annually, C. N. D. ii. 40. ' Ouidam 
 
 oves in anno bis tondent/ some shear sheep twice a 
 
 year, Varro. See also intra, sub. 
 
 3) The Pronouns hie, ille sometimes emphatically define the 
 
 Ablative of Time within which. 
 
 H i s annis quadringentis, within these last 400 years ; hoc 
 triennio, within the next (or last} three years ; hoc biduo, 
 within the next (or last) two days the Tense determining 
 whether hie refers to Future or Past Time. 
 
 4) Post is also used in answering the question How soon? 
 
 paucis post diebus or paucos post dies, or post 
 paucos dies, within the next few days. 
 
 5) Howlongago is expressed by ante: paucis ante diebus, 
 
 or paucos ante dies, or ante paucos dies. Also by 
 abhine with Accusative or Ablative of the Time: ' Ab- 
 hinc triennium (or triennio) hue commigravit/ she came 
 here three years ago, Ter. An.\. i. 
 
 6) The occurrence of one of two facts before or after the other 
 
 is variously expressed. 
 
 Thus the English, I saw him three days before he died, may 
 be rendered by any of the following sentences : 
 Vidi eum tribus diebus (or triduo) antequam mortuus 
 
 est. 
 
 Vidi eum tertio die antequam mortuus est. 
 Vidi eum ante tres dies (or ante triduum) quam mor- 
 tuus est. 
 Vidi eum ante tertium diem quam mortuus est. 
 
 1 The Romans divided the day (from 6 A.M. to 6 P.M.) into 12 hours, of whicn 7 A.M. 
 was the first (prima hora). Noon was called meridies or sexta bora. The night (from 
 6 P.M. to 6 A.M.) they divided into four watches (vigiliae) of three hours each. 
 
155. Ablative Case. 401 
 
 Pridie quam mortuus est, the day before he died ( = ante diem 
 
 quam). 
 
 Likewise, he died six years after I saw him, may be rendered 
 by any of the following : 
 
 Mortuus est sex annis (or sexennio) postquam eum 
 
 videram. 
 
 Mortuus est sexto anno postquam eum videram. 
 Mortuus est sexto anno quam eum videram. 
 Mortuus est post sex annos (or post sexennium) quam 
 
 eum videram. 
 
 Mortuus est post sextum annum quam eum videram. 
 Postridie quam eum vidi, the day after I saw him ( = post 
 
 diem quam). 
 Cum, quo, quibus, are used for postquam : 
 
 ' Bi duo quo (or cum) haec gesta sunt, two days after these 
 
 things were done, Caes. 
 On multo, paulo, c., with ante, post, see 150. 
 
 7) The Accusative of Duration shews the space of time through 
 which an action extends ; the Ablative, that within which 
 it is contained. 
 
 G) The Ablative of Place Where generally takes 'in :' 155 
 
 f In portu navigo,' / am sailing in harbour, Sen. 
 
 1) In is omitted in many instances : loco, multis locis, plu- . 
 
 ribus locis, &c. ; hoc libro, alio libro, c. ; terra, mari ; 
 tota Asia, throughout Asia ; dextra (parte), on the right 
 hand ; laeva, sinistra, on the left hand; media urbe, in the 
 middle of the city ; medio aedium, in the middle of the 
 house ; eodem statu (or in eodem statu). 
 Also with 'se tenere/ f continere:' 'Pompeius se oppido 
 tenet/ Pompeius keeps in the town, C. A it. ix. n. 2. 
 
 2) Poets are more free in the omission : ' Silvisque agrisque 
 
 viisque corpora foeda iacent,' in forests and fields and 
 roads lie revolting corpses, Ov. Met. vii. 647. But this 
 licence needs discrimination. 
 
 3) When a work is quoted, in is used : in Iliade Homeri ; in 
 
 Andria Terentii ; in Gorgia Platonis. 
 
 But when the author only is cited, apud : apud Homerum; 
 apud Terentium ; apud Platonem. 
 
 4) If the Place is a town or small island, the question, Where ? 
 
 is answered by a Case in -ae, -i, Singular, -is Plural, 
 when the Noun is of Decl. I. or II. : Romae, at Rome, 
 Cypri, at Cyprus, Athenis, at Athens, Delphis, at Delphi", 
 but by a Case in -e or -i, Singular, -ibus, Plural, when the 
 Noun is of Decl. III. : Babylone, at Babylon, Neapoli, at 
 Naples, Gadibus, at Cadiz. 
 
 5) The Case of Place in -ae, -i is taken by the words militia, 
 
 bellum, humus, domus, rus: 
 
 Militiae, belli, at the wars, humi, on the ground, domi, at 
 home, ruri (or rure), in the country. Terrae, on the earth 9 
 ; is used by poets : ' Procubuit terrae,' Ov. 
 
 D D 
 
402 Latin Syntax. 156. 
 
 6) That the Case in -ae, -i is not really a Genitive, was known 
 
 even to the ancient grammarians, who call it an Adverb. 
 But as it ends in i (Romai = Romae, militiai==militiae, 
 domi, ruri, &c.), comparing the older forms of Place in 
 Decl. III., Anxuri, Carthagini, Lacedaemoni, Tiburi, we 
 cannot doubt the original existence of a Locative Case 
 ending in 1 Sing, s Plur., in Latin as in Sanskrit. 
 
 Compare Die septimi, Plaut. ; die crastini, Cell, (so die 
 pristini, proximi) ; heri vesperi, C. 
 
 Some refer here the Case of the Part Affected : animi 
 pendeo; maturus aevi, c. Some that of Price. 
 
 7) A Gentile Adjective is sometimes found with the name of a 
 
 town locatively constructed : 
 
 *Teani Apuli/ at Teanum of Apulia, C. 'Curjbus Sabinis,' 
 L. Other epithets are used in poetry : * D octas iam nunc 
 eat, inquit, Athenas,' let him forthwith go (says one) to 
 learned Athens, Ov. Her. ii. 83. 
 
 8) Apposition to a town without Attribute is generally with in: 
 
 6 In urbe Antiochia.' 
 
 But when an Attribute is added, the name of the town usually 
 precedes : 'Antiochiae, celebri quondam et copiosa urbe/ 
 at Antioch, a once populous and wealthy city, C. Arch. 3. 
 'Neap oli in celeberrimo oppido,' at Naples, a very 
 populous town. So, 'Syracusas in urbem florentissi- 
 mam,' to Syracuse, a very flourishing city, C. 
 
 9) Domi, domum, admit the epithets meus, tuus, suus, 
 
 alienus, also a Genitive of the Possessor: 
 
 ' Nonne mavis sine periculo domi tuae esse quam cum 
 periculo alienae?' would you not rather be at your own 
 house without peril than with peril at another's? C. Fam. 
 iv. 7. ' Clodius deprehensus est domi Caesar is,' Clodius 
 was caught at Caesar's house, C. Att. i. 12. < Alius alium 
 domos suas invitant,' they invite each other to their 
 houses, Sail. lug. 66. 
 
 10) Prepositions are much used with names of towns : 
 
 In Epheso est ; in Ephesum abii ; ' has litteras a Brun- 
 disio dedi, J C. So ad, apud. 
 
 And with humus, domus, rus: l Alcibiades educatus est 
 in domo Periclis,' Alcibiades was brought up in the house 
 of Pericles, Nep. Ale. 2. 
 
 Usque is joined to names of places with or without Prepo- 
 sitions : * Ab Aethiopia est usque haec,' she is as far as 
 from Ethiopia, Ter. 'Usque Ennam profecti sunt/ 
 they went as far as Enna, C. 
 
 H] The Ablative of Direction of Motion has no Preposition: 
 'Ire Via Sacra,' to walk on the Sacred Road, Hor.; 'ingredi 
 urbem portaEsquilina,'/*? enter the city by the Esquiline gate, L. 
 
1 5 7-59- Ablative Case. 403 
 
 iv. (Ill) Ablative Proper. J 57 
 
 AHative 
 
 A) The Ablative of Place Whence, if a town or small island, f P*- 
 or domus, rus, humus, militia, is used without Preposition: 
 
 Redire Roma, Athenis, Epheso, Delphis, Tibure, Gadibus, militia, 
 
 domo, rure, &c., to return from Rome, Athens, &c. 
 But Prepositions (ab, de, ex) may be employed. 
 
 1) The Ablative of Place Whence is used in dating letters : 
 
 ' Litteras dederam Epheso pridie/ 7 wrote yesterday from 
 Ephesus, C. 'Ego unas Capua litteras dedi,' / have, 
 written once from Capua, C. 
 
 2) Native place is sometimes expressed by this Ablative : 
 
 Cn. Magius Cremona, Gnaeus Magius of Cremona, Caes. 
 B. C. i. 24 ; but more usually by an Adjective (Cremon- 
 ensis) ; sometimes by ab: 'Turnus Herdonius ab Aricia/ 
 L. i. 50. < Pastor ab Amphryso/ V. G. iii. 2. 
 
 3) The name of the tribe is thus appended in inscriptions to 
 
 that of a Roman citizen : 
 
 'Ser. Sulpicius Q. F. Lemonia Rufus/ Servius Sulpicius 
 Rufus, son of Quintus, of the Lemonian tribe. 
 
 B) The Ablative of that From which Separation occurs 158 
 depends on many Words either without or with a Preposition. 
 
 1) The usage of such Words must be carefully distinguished. 
 
 Some either omit or take the Preposition in Prose : 
 Arcere, cedere, exsulare, movere, pellere, prohibere, sol- 
 vere, summovere, removere : procul, alienus, &c. 
 
 Others prefer a Preposition (chiefly ab) in prose, but may 
 omit it in poetry : 
 
 Alienare, discedere, disiungere, dispellere, distare, divellere, 
 repellere, secernere, segregare, separare, &c. Horace 
 writes ' alium sapiente bonoque/ Epist. i. 16. 20. On 
 discrepo, differo, &c., see 135. 
 
 2) Verbs compounded with ab, de, ex, can take an Abl. by 
 
 means of the Preposition : 
 
 'Detrudit navis scopulo/ Verg. 
 But most of them, in prose, repeat their Preposition or add 
 
 another : 
 Excedere ex urbe ; a Roma abesse ; ex equo desilire ; a loco 
 
 deicere. 
 
 3) Abstinere, to abstain, varies its construction thus: 
 Abstinere vino, &c., abstinere se vino, &c., abstinere a vino, 
 
 &c. 
 
 4) Observe the legal phrases : Abdicare se magistratu, to resign 
 
 office, movere senatu, tribu, &c., to expel from the senate, 
 the tribe, &c. (an act of the Censor) ; ( interdicere aqua et 
 igni/ to banish by excluding from fire and water. 
 Supersedere, to dispense with, generally takes an Ablative. 
 
 C) The Ablative of Origin is only a special instance of the 159 
 Ablative of Separation. 
 
404 Latin Syntax. i6 . 
 
 1) It is joined to Verbs and Participles expressing or implying 
 
 descent, origination, &c. Such are 
 
 Nasci, oriri, gigni, with their compounds : and the Parti- 
 ciples, edit us, creatus, cretus, genitus, natus, prognatus r 
 oriundus, ortus, satus (porn, sprung, descended) : 
 
 Nasci familia nobili ; Claris maioribus ortus ; patre genitus 
 illustri ; sate sanguine divum, &c. 
 
 2) The usage of these words must be noted : 
 
 Most admit Prepositions (ab, de, ex), and some prefer this 
 
 construction even in poetry : 
 'Prisco natus ab Inacho/ Hor. C. ii. 3. 21. ' Ilia cum 
 
 LausodeNumitore sati/ Ov. F. iv. 54. 'Edita demagno 
 
 flu mine nympha fui/ Ov. Her. v. 10. 
 
 ,60 D) The Ablative of the Thing Compared may be referred 
 to the idea of Origin (or, as some think, to that of Respect). 
 
 1) It is attached to Comparative Adjectives or Adverbs in place 
 
 of qua m (than) with the Nominative or Accusative. 
 
 ' Nihil est amabilius virtu te/ nothing is more amiable 
 than virtue, C. 'Lacrima nihil citius arescit/ no- 
 thing dries sooner than a tear, C. Inv. i. 55. 
 
 * Puto mortem dedecore leviorem/ I think death easier 
 than disgrace. 
 
 2) In comparing the other Cases quam must be used : 
 
 ' Nulli flebilior quam tibi, Vergili/ to none more a cause 
 of weeping than to thee, Vergilius, Hor. C. i. 24. 10. 
 'Flagiti magis nos pudet quam erroris/ ive are more 
 ashamed of the crime than of the blunder, C. 
 
 And often for perspicuity : < Segnius homines bona quam 
 mala sentiunt/ men feel goods less keenly than evils, L. xxx. 
 21. ' Brutum non minus amo quam tu, paene dixi quam 
 te/ / love Brutus not less than thou, I had almost said, 
 than thee, C. Att. v. 20. But poets do not always attend to 
 this: 'Cur olivum sanguine viperino cautius vitat?' 
 Why does he shun oil more cautiously than viper's blood ? 
 Hor. C. i. 8. 9. 'Ego possideo plus Pallante et Lici- 
 nis/ luv. i. 1 08. 
 
 3) If the Comparative itself is in the Genitive or Dative, quam 
 
 with a clause generally follows : 
 
 ' Haec sunt verba Varronis doctioris quam fuit Claudius/ 
 these are the words of Varro, a more learned man than 
 Claudius was, Cell. x. i. 
 
 4) The Ablatives aequo, iusto, dicto, solito, spe, opinione, 
 
 necessario, follow Comparatives: 
 
 'Flagrantior aequo non debet dolor esse viri, J a man's 
 grief ought not to be more violent than is right, luv. xiiL 
 ii. 'Caesar opinione omnium celerius venturus est/ 
 Caesar will arrive sooner than is generally expected, C. 
 Fam. xiv. 23. 
 
i6i. Ablative Case. 405 
 
 This Ablative elegantly falls out : 
 
 ' Liberius vivebat (i.e. iusto), 7 he lived too freely ', Nep. Th. 2. 
 ' So, ' Res graviores ' (i.e. solito), matters of unusual im- 
 portance. 
 On quam after Comparatives, see 76. 
 
 5) Inferior takes Ablative, and, in the Silver age, Dative: 
 Sapientia omnia inferioravirtute ducit,' wisdom deems 
 
 all things inferior to virtue, C. T. D. iv. 26. ' Padus est 
 nu Hi amnium claritate inferior/ the Po is inferior to no 
 river in clearness, PI. N. H. iii. 16. 
 
 6) The Prepositions ante, praeter, supra, prae, are used in 
 
 Comparison : 
 
 'Pygmalion scelere ante alios immanior omnis/ Pyg- 
 malion more monstrotis in wickedness than (lit. before] all 
 others, Verg. A en. i. 347. ' Crux praeter ceteras 
 altior/ a cross higher than (lit. beyond) the rest, Suet. 
 Galb. 9. 
 
 Obs. On several Ablatives with one Verb, see M. Lucr. i. 183. 
 Madvig cites C. Brut. 91 : ' Menippus meo iudicio tota Asia 
 illis temporibus disertissimus erat.' 
 
 161 
 
 v. Ablative Absolute. lativ 
 
 Abso- 
 
 1) The construction called Ablative Absolute (Ablativus lute * 
 Convenientiae) occurs when the Ablative of a Substantive or Pro- 
 noun takes for its adjunct another Ablative, which is either a Parti- 
 ciple or an Adjective or a Substantive or (rarely) a Pronoun. Such 
 
 an expression is equivalent to a Clause, often of Time : 
 
 Imperante Augusto, when Augustus was emperor-, Caesare 
 occiso, when Caesar had been slain ; vivo patre, while my 
 father is (was) alive ; Camillo duce, when Camillus is (was) 
 commander ; Caninio consule, in the consulship of Cam- 
 nius ; hac iuventute, when &ur young men are of this 
 character. 
 
 But the clause may express a condition, a concession, a cause, 
 &c., according to the context. Thus te invito may mean, 
 in various places, if you are unwilling; though you are 
 unwilling ; since you are unwilling- ; without your consent. 
 
 2) The Absolute Participle is often equivalent to the Gerund or 
 Ablative of Manner : 
 
 ' Tarquinius Turnum oblato falso crimine oppressit/ Tar- 
 quinius crushed Turnus by imputing a false charge, L. i. 
 51. ' Aruns Tarquinius et Tullia minor iunguntur nuptiis, 
 magis non prohibente Servio quam approbante/ 
 Aruns Tarquinius and Tullia the younger marry rather 
 without the opposition than with the approbation of Ser- 
 vius, L. i. 56. 
 
 3) An Impersonal Participle is sometimes absolute: 
 
 Mihi, errato, nulla venia ; recte facto, exigua laus proponi- 
 tur/ to me, if I blunder, no indulgence ; if I succeed, small 
 credit is offered, C d. L. Agr. ii. 2. Errato = si erratum 
 erit a me: recte facto = si recte factum erit a me. 
 
406 Latin Syntax. 161. 
 
 Sometimes a Clause is absolute with a Participle : 
 
 'Excepto quod non simul esses, cetera laetus/ cheerful 
 in all respects, save that you are not with me, Hor. Epist. 
 i. 10. 50. 
 See 237-240. 
 
 I. (Instr.Abl.) A) (Causal.) ' Lollius, aetateetmorboimpeditus, ad testimonium 
 dicendum venire non potuit,' C. Verr. iii. 25. * Noli putare, pigritia me facere quod 
 non mea manu scribam,' C. Att. xvi. 15. ' Consul dictatorem comitiorum causa T. 
 Manlium Torquatum ex auctoritate senatus dixit,' L. vii. 26. ' Has familias honestatis 
 amplitudinisque gratia nomino/ C. /. S. Rose. 6. ' Demosthenes corona aurea 
 donatus est virtutis ergo,' C. O. G. Or. 7. ' Senatus supplicationes consulum 
 nomine decrevit,' L. iii. 63. 'Vestra magis hoc causa volebam quam mea,' C. 
 d. Or. i. 35. 'Ad eum ipsius rogatu accersituque veneram,' C. Lael. 4. 
 
 B) C) (Instr< Agent.') ' Cornibus tauri, apri dentibus, morsu leones se tutantur/ 
 C. N. D. ii. 50. * Etesiarum flatu nimii temperantur calores,' C. N. D. ii. 53. ' Illud 
 tibi affirmo, fore ut absens a mult is, cum redieris ab omnibus collaudere,' C. Fain. 
 i. 7. 'Nisi iam factum est aliquid per Flaccum, fiet a me,' C. Fain. iii. n. 
 ' Ingenium placida mollimur ab arte,' Ov. A. A. iii. 545. 
 
 Z>) (Price. ) ' Plinius commentarios suos v e n d e r e poterat quadringentis mil- 
 ibus nummum,' Plin. Ep. iii. 5. ' Dareus mille talentis percussorem Alexandri 
 emere voluit,' Curt. iv. i. 'Aurea nunc vere sunt saecula ; plurimus auro venit 
 honos,' Prop. iii. 12. 'Mercatur tris libros nihilo minore pretio quam quod erat 
 petitum pro omnibus,' Cell. i. 19. ' Seius in caritate annonae asse modium populo 
 dedit,' C. Off. ii. 58. ' Vix drachmis opsonatum est decem,' Ter. An. ii. 6. 
 ' Sextante sal et Romae et per totam Italiam erat,' L. xxix. 37. ' Cum esset fru- 
 mentum sestertiis binis aut trinis, quibusvis locis provinciae duodenos sestertios 
 exegisti,' C. Verr. ii. 3. 84. 'Aristidis, Thebani pictoris, unam tabulam centum 
 talentis rex Attalus licitatus est,' PL N. H. vii. 37. ' Multo sanguine ac vulne- 
 ribus ea Poenis victoria stetit,' L. xxiii. 30. ' Denis in diem assibus anima et corpus 
 aestimantur,' Tac. An. i. 17. ' Notavit aliquos, quod pecunias levioribus usuris 
 mutuatas graviori fenore collocassent,' Suet. Aug. 33. 'Triginta milibus 
 Coelius habitat,' C. /. Coel. 7. ' Parvo fames constat, magno fastidium,' Sen. Ep. 
 17. ' Ei mandasti negotium, cui expediret, illud venire quam plurimo,' C. Fain. 
 vii. 2. ' Ambulatiuncula dimidio pluris constabit,' C. Att. xiii. 29. ' Ego quaero, 
 cur civis optimi bona tantulo venierint,' C. /. S. ^.45. ' Quanti emi potest? 
 Minimo,' Plaut. ' Istuc verbum vile est viginti minis,' Plaut. Most. i. 3. 139. 
 ' Clodii insula venalis est decem milibus,' C. /. Coel. 7. 'Quod non opus est 
 asse carum est,' Sen. Ep. 94. ' Nefas duco victrice patria victam mutare/ 
 L. v. 30. ' Tellus Chaoniam pingui glandem mutavit arista,' Verg. G. i. 18. 
 'Tauro mutatus membra rebello,' Ov. M. ix. 81. ' Fortuna praesens superbos 
 vertere funeribus triumphos,' Hor. Od. \. 35. 4. 
 
 cladibus,' Suet. Caes. 25. ' Summa difficultate rei frumentariae afficiebatur 
 Caesaris exercitus, tenuitate Boiorum, indiligentia Aeduorum, incendiis aedificiorum, 
 Caes. B. G. vii. 17. 'Virgo inficitur teneras tota rubore genas,' Tibull. iii. 4. 31. 
 
 velint vendere, non fuerint, quid pecunia fiet?' C. d. L. Agr. ii. 27. 'Delicto 
 dolere, correctione gaudere oportet,' C. Lael. 24. ' Ut adulescentibus bona 
 indole praeditissapientes senes delectantur, sic adulescentes senum praeceptis 
 gaudent, quibus ad virtutum studia ducuntur,' C. Cat. M. 8. ' Duobus vitiis, ava- 
 
162-63. Genitive Case. 407 
 
 jp. The Genitive Case. 
 
 - *62 
 i. The GENITIVE in Latin has for its main function Geni- 
 
 to define or qualify a Noun on which it depends : Sse. 
 
 Pater pueri, the father of the boy \ amor virtutis, 
 love of virtue ; pars m i 1 i t u m, part of the troops. 
 
 ii. The uses of the Genitive maybe considered l6s 
 as twofold : 
 
 A) SUBJECTIVE, when a predication is implied of which the 
 Genitive word is Subject : hominum timor, men's fear (homines 
 timent aliquid). 
 
 ritia et luxuria, Romana civitas laborabat/ L. xxxiv. 4. 'Nemo potest aut corporis 
 firmitate aut fortunae stabilitate confidere,' C. T. D. v. 5. 14. ' Meis consiliis, 
 monitis, studiis, auctionibus nituntur,' C. Fam. v. 8. ' Parvo est natura 
 contenta/ C. Fin. ii. 28. 'Varus est homo summa religione et summa auctori- 
 tate praeditus,' C. p. Clu. 19. * Non segetibus solum et pratis et vineis et 
 arbustis res rusticae laetae sunt, sed etiam hortis etpomariis; turn pecudum 
 pastu, apium examinibus, florum omnium varietate/ C. Cat. M. 15. * Cimon 
 Thasios, opulentia fretos, suo adventu fregit/ Nep. dm. 2. 'I, decus Ausoniae, 
 quo fas est ire superbas virtute et factis ar.imas/ Sil. x. 573. * Exclusus ab 
 Antiochia Dolabella, nulla alia confisus urbe, Laodiceam se contulit,' C. Fam. xii. 
 15. * Curionis patrio fuit institute puro sermone assuefacta domus,' C. Brut. 59. 
 ' Excellentium civium virtus imitatione, non invidia, digna est/ C. Phil. xiv. 6. 
 ' Quam multi indigni luce sunt, et tamen dies oritur,' Sen. Ben. i. i. ' Descendam 
 magnorum haud umquam indignus avorum,' Verg. Aen. xii. 649. * Haud equidem 
 tali me dignor honore/ Verg. Aen. i. 535. ' Hi apud maiores nostros tali honore 
 dignati sunt/ C. Inv. ii. 39. ' Nihil opus est simulatione et fallaciis/C. d. 
 Or. ii. 47. 'Auctoritate tua nobis opus est et consilio et etiam gratia/ C. 
 Fam. ix. 25. 'Viginti iam usus est filio argenti minis/ Plaut. Asm. i. i. 'An 
 cuiquam est homini usus se ut cruciet/ Ter. Haut. i. i. ' Ubi summus imperator 
 non adest, citius quod non facto est usus fit quam quod facto est opus/ Plaut. 
 Am. i. 3. ' Si quid, quod opus fuerit, Appio facies, ponito me in gratia/ C. Fam. 
 viii. 6. 'Verres mult a sibi opus esse aiebat, multa canibus suis, quos circa se 
 haberet/ C. Verr. i. 48. ' Magna Helotarum multitude agros Lacedaemoniorum colit, 
 servorumque munere fungi tur/ Nep. Pans. 3. ' Crassus, cum cognomine dives 
 turn copiis, functus est aedilicio maximo munere/ C. Off. ii. 16. 'Hannibal 
 Sosilo Lacedaemonio litterarum Graecarum usus est doctore/ N. xxiii. 13. 'Cum 
 Phalerico portu neque magno neque bono Athenienses uterentur, Themistoclis 
 consilio triplex Piraeei portus constitutus est/ Nep. Them. 6. ' Id est cuiusque pro- 
 prium, quo quisque fruitur atque utitur/ C. Fam. vii. 30. 'Orgetorix Helvetiis 
 persuasit, perfacile esse, cum virtute omnibus praestarent, totius Galliae imperio 
 potiri/ Caes. B. G. i. 2. ' Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina carne vesce- 
 bantur/ Sal. Ing. 89. ' Ad agrum fruendum etiam invitat senectus/ C. Cat. M. 16. 
 ' Operam abutitur/ Ter. An. Prol. 5. 
 
 ' Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum/ C. Univ. 3. ' Crotoniatae quondam 
 templum lunonis egregiis picturis locupletare voluerunt/ C. Inv. ii. i. 'Satiate 
 sanguine quern sitiisti/ lust. i. 8. ' Te autem quibus mendaciis homines levissimi 
 onerarunt/ C. Fam. iii. 10. ' Abundarunt semper auro regna Asiae/ L. xxxv. 46. 
 * Met all is plumbi, ferri, aeris, argenti, auri tota ferme Hispania scatet/ PI. N. H. 
 iii. 3. ' Democritus dicitur oculis se privasse/ C. Fin. v. 29. ' Gravius est spo- 
 liari fortunis quam non augeri dignitate/ C. p. Plane. 22. ' Murus defenso- 
 ribus nudatus est/ Caes. B. G. ii. 6. ' Non ante abscessum est quam castris 
 exuerunt hostem/ L. xxix. 2. ' Omnium rerum natura cognita, levamur supersti- 
 tione, liberamur mortis metu/ C. Fin. \. 19. ' Cotidie nos ipsa natura admonet, 
 quam paucis, quam parvis rebus egeat, quam vilibus/ C. T. D. v. 35. ' Carere hoc 
 significat, egere eo quod habere velis. Regno carebat Tarquinius, cum regno 
 esset expulsus/ C. T. D. i. 36. ' Animi, quo maior est in eis praestantia, eo maiore 
 indigent diligentia/ C. T. D. iv. 27. ' Virtus plurimae exercitationis indiget/ 
 
408 Latin Syntax. i^ f 
 
 B) OBJECTIVE; when a predication is implied ot which the 
 Genitive word is Object : timor hominum, fear of men (aliquis 
 timet homines). 
 
 a) One word may have both Genitives dependent on it : 
 
 Hominum timor mortis, merfs fear of death ; Ciceronis 
 defensio Gabinii, Cicero's defence of Gabinius. 
 
 Among words capable of taking this double Genitive are : 
 Amor, desiderium, iniuria, miseratio, obsequium, odium, stu- 
 dium, &c. 
 
 &) One Genitive may depend on another : 
 
 Africani sororis films, Africanus>s sister's son. 
 
 C. Fin. iii. 15. ' Gravitas morbi facit ut medicinae egeamus,' C. Fam. ix. 3. 
 ' Plinius plenus annis, plenus honoribus obiit,' Plin. Ep. ii. i. 'Habes epis- 
 tulam plenam festinationis et pulveris,' C. Att. v. 14. 'Amor et me lie 
 et felle est fecundissimus,' Plaut. Cist. i. i. * Dives agris, dives positis in 
 fenore nummis,' Hor. in Pis. 42. ' Sum dives pecoris, nivei sum lactis abun- 
 dans,' Verg. B. ii. 20. ' Consules praeda ingenti compotem exercitum reducunt,' 
 L. iii. 70. ' Numquam animus cogitatione et motu vacuus esse potest/ C. Div. 
 ii. 128. ' Mamertini soli vacui, expertes, soluti ac liberi fuerunt ab omni 
 sumptu, molestia, munere,' C. Verr. ii. 4. 10. ' Plerique patria, sed omnes 
 fama atque fortunis expertes sumus,' Sail. Cat. 33. ' Caesari tradita urbs est 
 nuda praesidio, referta copiis,' C. Att. vii. 13. 'Decius, Macti virtute, in- 
 quit, milites Romani, este,' L. vii. 36. ' Nunc cassum lumine lugent,' V. Aen. ii. 85. 
 
 II. {Locative Abl.) A) (Respect.) 'Agesilaus nomine non potestate fuit rex, 1 
 Nep. Ag. i. ' Cn. Pompeius fuit forma excellens, innocentia eximius, sancti- 
 tate praecipuus, eloquentia medius,' Veil, ii. 29. ' Uri sunt magnitudine paulo 
 infra elephantos, specie et colore et figura tauri/ Caes. B. G. vi. 28. ' Q. Maxi- 
 mum Cato adulescens colere coepit non admodum grandem natu, sed tamen iam act ate 
 provectum,' C. Cat. M. 4. ' Persae mille numero navium classem ad Delum appu- 
 lerunt,' C. Verr. i. 18. ' Cum illius temporis mihi venit in mentem, quo die mihi dicen- 
 dum sit, non solum commoveor animo, sed etiam toto corpore perhorresco,' C. in 
 Caecil. 13. 'Medius Polluce et Castore ponar,' Ov. Am. ii. 16. 13. ' Verres 
 pretio, non aequitate iura describebat,' C. Verr. v. ii. 
 
 B) (Measure.) ' Messalla consul est egregius ; ille alter uno vitio minus vitiosus/ 
 C. Att. i. 14. ' Aesculapi templum quinque milibuspassuumab Epidauro distat,' 
 L. xxv. 28. ' Belgae ad castra Caesaris omnibus copiis contenderunt, et ab milibus 
 passuum minus duobus castra posuerunt,' Caes. B. G. ii. 7. ' Surculos demittito 
 ita ut sex digitis de arbore exstent,' Columella, xxvi. 4. ' Numa PompiUus annTs 
 permultis ante fuit quam Pythagoras,' C. d. Or. ii. 37. ' Tribunus anno post fuit 
 Crassus,' C. Br. 60. ' Tan to Pompeius superiores duces vicerat gloria quanto 
 Caesar omnibus praestitit,' C. p. Deiot. 4. ' Meo iudicio multo stare malo quam 
 omnium reliquorum,' C. Att. xii. 2. ' Hibernia dimidio minor est quam Britannia/ 
 Caes. B. G. v. 13. ' Nimio plus quam velim nostrorum ingenia sunt mobilia,' L. ii. 37. 
 'Quinquiens tan to amplius Verres quam quantum in cellam sumere licitum erat 
 civitatibus imperavit/ C. Verr. iii. 97. ' Alcibiades fuit omnium aetatis suae multo 
 formosissimus,' Nep. Ale. i. 
 
 C) (Manner.) 'Iniuria fit duobus modis, aut vi aut fraude,' C. Off. i. 13. 
 ' Pace advenio, et pacem ad vos affero,' Plaut. Am. Prol. 32. ' Quod exemplo fit, 
 id etiam iure fieri putant,' C. Fam. iv. 3. ' Arminius equo conlustrans cuncta, ut 
 quosque advectus erat, reciperatam libertatem ostentabat/ Tac. Ann. ii. 45. 'Galli 
 urbem cum clamore et impetu invadunt ; patentis passim domos adeunt/ Fl. i. 13. 
 ' Cur Pythagoras tantas regiones barbarorum pedibus obiit?' Cic. Fin. v. 29. ' Quan- 
 topere movemur, cum pie, cum amice, cum magno animo aliquid factum cognos- 
 cimus,' C. Fin. v. 22. ' Cultus deorum est optimus, ut eos semper pura integra 
 incorrupta et menteetvoce veneremur,' C. N. D. ii. 28. ' Parthi Euphratem 
 transierunt cunctis fere copiis,' C. Att. v. 18. ' Scipio profectus in Sicilian! est 
 triginta navibus longis,' L. xxviii. 46. ' Mihi litterae redditae sunt, Pacorum cum 
 permagno equitatu Parthico transisse Euphraten,' C. Fam. xv. i. ' Magna 
 
164. Genitive Case. 409 
 
 iii. A) SUBJECTIVE GENITIVE (Possessive; De- 
 scriptive ; Partitive). 
 
 I. Genitivus Auctoris et Possessoris. 
 II. Genitivus Descriptionis. 
 
 III. Genitivus Qualitatis. 
 
 IV. Genitivus Rei Distributae et Demensae; with other 
 
 Partitive Constructions. 
 
 Note i. As Latin has an Ablative, its Genitive is more restricted 
 than the Greek ; but poets imitate the freedom of the Greek Gen. 
 In some instances the Abl. and Gen. concur (as in constructions 
 of Quality, Price, Matter); and Prepositional phrases are substituted 
 
 cum cura atque diligentia scripsit,' C. Inv. i. 39. ' Erit turn consul Hortensius 
 cum summo imperio et potestate,' C. Verr. i. 13. ' In summo apud Graecos 
 honore geometria fuit/ C. T. D. i. 2. ' Plancus in earn urbem rediit arm is, e qua 
 excesserat legibus/ C. Phil. xiii. 12. 
 
 D) (Condition.) Optimo iure sunt ea praedia, quae optima condicione sunt/ 
 C. d. L. Agr. iii. 2. 'Auspicia nunc a Romania auguribus ignorantur ; bona hoc 
 tua venia dixerim; a Cilicibus tenentur,' C. Div. i. 15. ' Isocratis gloriam nemo, 
 meo quidem iudicio, est postea consecutus/ C. Br. 8. ' Meo iure te hoc beneficium 
 rogo ; nihil enim non tua causa feci,' C. Att. xiv, 13. 'lam mater rure rediit? 
 Responde mihi. Sua quidem salute ac familiae maxuma,' Plaut. Merc. iv. 5. 9. 
 
 E) (Quality) ' Fuit quidam summo ingenio vir, Zeno, cuius inventorum aemuli 
 Stoici nominantur,' C. /. Mur. 29. ' Iphicrates fuit et animo magno et corpora, 
 imperatoriaque forma/ Nep. Iph. 3. 'Erat apud Heium sacrarium, in quo signa 
 pulcherrima quattuor, summo artificio, summa nobilitate/ C. Very. iv. 2. 
 
 * Magno timore sum; sed bene speramus/ C. Att. v. 14. 
 
 F) {Time.) ' Nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit/ PL N. H. vii. 40. ' Excur- 
 femus mense Septembri, ut lanuario revertamur,' C. Att. i. i. ' Hannibal, im 
 perator factus, proximo triennio omnis gentes Hispaniae subegit,' Nep. Han. 3. 
 ' Abeunt hirundines hibernis mensibus,' PL H. N. 24. 'Septimo ferme anno 
 Caesar morabatur in Galliis, cum lulia, uxor Pompeii Magni, decessit,' Veil. ii. 47. 
 ' Erat consuetude, ut quern ordinem interrogandi sententias consul Kalendis 
 lanuariis instituisset, euni toto anno conservaret, Suet. Caes. 21. 'Claudius 
 neminem ultra mensem, quo obiit, consulem designavit,' Suet. Clatid. 46. ' Brutus 
 consul collegam sibi comitiis centuriatis creavit P. Valerium,' L. ii. 2. ' Urbes 
 Africae post M. Atilium Regulum annis prope quinquaginta nullum Romanum 
 exercitum viderant/ L. xxix. 28. ' Nuntius hie decem horis nocturnis sex et quin- 
 quaginta milia passuum cisiis pervolavit,' C. p. S. Rose. 7. ' Ecce autem repente, his 
 diebus paucis, eadem ilia vetera consilia pecunia maiore repetuntur/ C. Verr. i. 6. 
 
 * Epistulam d e nocte daturus eram, sicut dedi ; nam earn vesperi scripseram,' C. 
 Att. viii. 6. ' Lysander Atheniensis in Peloponnesios sexto et vicesimo anno 
 bellum gerentis confecit,' N. Lys. i. ' Caesar compluris equitum turmas eo de media 
 nocte misit/ Caes. B. G. vii. 45. ' Fac ut naviges de mense Decembri (before the 
 end of),' C. Qu. Fr. ii. i. ' De tertia vigilia castra movit/ Caes. B. G. i. 63. 
 ' Artes in omni aetate cultae mirificos efferunt fructus/ C. Cat. M. 3. ' Nummos 
 tibi reponam in hoc triduo/ Plaut. Pers. i. i. 33. ' Fere in diebus paucis quibus 
 haec acta sunt Chrysis vicina haec moritur/ Ter. An. \. i. ' Ego si semper haberem cui 
 darem litteras, vel ternas in hora darem,' C. Fam. xv. 16. ' Testamentum August! 
 ante annum et quattuor mensis quam decesserat factum est,' Suet. Aug. 101. 
 ' Livius docuit anno ipso ante quam natus est Ennius,' C. Brut. 18. ' Aristides 
 decessit fere post annum quartum quam Themistocles Athenis erat expulsus,' N. 
 Ar. 3. * Aristides sexto fere anno postquam erat expulsus, in patriam restitutus 
 est,' N. Ar. i. 'Undecimo die postquam a te discesseram, hoc litterularum 
 exaravi,' C. Att. xii. i. 'Dictator die octavo quam creatus erat, magistratu se 
 abdicavit,' L. iv. 47. 'Anno trecentesimo altero quam condita Roma erat, 
 iterum mutatur forma civitatis,' L. iii. 33. ' Andricus postridie ad me venit quam 
 exspectaram,' C. Fam. xvi. 14. ' Collegam triduo cum has dabam litteras exspecta- 
 
Latin Syntax. 164. 
 
 for the Gen. : thus, una de multis, una e multis, una multa- 
 rum, are equivalent. 
 
 Hence in French ' de' is used as a Gen. and Abl. Preposition; 
 in Italian, < di j is the Gen., 'da* the Abl. Preposition. 
 
 Note 2. This Genitive is in the nature of an Attribute. Thus it 
 is the same thing to say, 'Sullanus exercitus' or 'Sullae ex- 
 crcitus/ 'flamen Martialis 7 or 'flamen Martis.' 
 
 (Even for the Objective Gen. Adjectives are used : ' Timor ex- 
 ternus ' for ' timor exterorum.' And Possessive Pronouns : ' Tua 
 fiducia,' in reliance on you, C. Verr. v. 58. * Habenda ratio non 
 sua solum, sed etiam aliorum/ a man should take account not of 
 himself alone but also of others, C. Off. i. 39.) 
 
 'Native of a place' is usually expressed by an Adjective derived 
 from the place : as, ' Dionysius Halicarnasseus,' for Dionysius 
 Halicarnassi natus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus. 
 
 bam,' C. Fam. x. 23. ' Ipse, ut spero, octo diebus quibus has litteras dabam, 
 cum Lepidi copiis me coniungam/ C. Fam. x. 18. 
 
 G) (Place Where.) ' Conon plurimum Cypn vixit, Iphicrates in Thracia, Timo- 
 theus Lesbi, Chares in Sigeo,' Nep. Chab. L 3. ' Castra Gallorum opportunis 
 locis erant posita/ Caes. B. G. vii. 69. ' Hi vagantur laeti atque erecti passim toto 
 foro/ C. p. Font. n. ' Ab Anco Marcio career ad terrorem increscentis audaciae 
 media urbe imminens foro aedificatur,' L. i. 33. ' Ut Romae consules, sic Kartha- 
 gine quotannis annui bini reges creabantur/ Nep. Hann. 7. 'Per eosdem dies quibus 
 haec illi consultabant, consilium de iis Carthagini erat,' L. xxviii. 26. 'Dionysius, 
 cum fanum Proserpinae Locris expilavisset, navigabat Syracusas,' C. N. D. iii. 34. 
 ' Fuit Arganthonius quidam Gadibus qui octoginta regnavit annos,' C. Cat. M. 69. 
 ' Scipio, L. Marcio Tarracone, M. Silano Karthagine Nova ad praesidium His- 
 paniae relictis, in Africam traiecit/ L. xxviii. 17. ' Neapoli in celeberrimo oppido 
 etiam senatores cum mitella saepe vidimus/ C. p. Rab. 10. ' A Romanis nihil belli 
 domique nisi auspicate gerebatur,' L. i. 36. ' Manlius Titum filium ruri habitare 
 iussit/ L. vii. 5. ' Manlius rure iuventam egit,' PI. N. H. viii. 46. ' Nihil domi, 
 nihil militiae per magistratus geritur sine augurum auctoritate/ C. Leg. ii. 12. 
 ' Cadmus spargit h u m i iussos, mortalia semina, dentis, O. Met. iii. 105. ' Antonius 
 intimus erat Clodio, cuius etiam domi quiddam molitus est,' C. Phil. ii. 19. 
 
 H) (Place by Which.) Demonstrabo iter ; Aurelia via profectus est/ C. Cat. ii. 4. 
 ' Cur non sancitis, ne vicinus patricio sit plebeius nee eodem itinere eat, ne idem con- 
 vivium ineat, ne in foro eodem consistat?' L. iv. 4. ' lam consul via Lavicana ad 
 fanum Quietis erat/ L. iv. 41. ' Lupus Esqu iii n a portaingressus cum in forum decu- 
 currisset, Tusco vico atque inde Germalo per portam Capenam prope intactus evasit/ 
 L. xxxiii. 26. ' Legiones victrices Penninis Cottianisque Alpibus, pars monte 
 Graio, traducuntur/ Tac. H. iv. 68. 
 
 III. (Abl. Proper.) A) (Place Whence.) 'Roma acceperam litteras, Milonem 
 queri per litteras iniuriam meam/ C. Att. v. 8. 'Auximo Caesar progressus omnem 
 agrum Picenum percurrit/ Caes. B. G. i. 15. ' Maiores nostri Capua magistratus, 
 senatum, omnia denique insignia rei publicae sustulerunt, neque aliud quicquam nisi 
 inane nomen Capuae reliquerunt/ C. d. L. Agr. \. 6. ' Dionysius Platonem Athenis 
 arcessivit/ N. Di. 3. ' Caesaris milites cogebantur Corcyra atque Acarnania 
 pabulum supportare/ Caes. B. C. iii. 58. ' Princeps Academiae Philo cum Atheniensium 
 optimatibus Mithridatico bello domo profugit, Romamque venit/ C. Brut. 89. 
 'Video rure redeuntem senem/ Ter. Eun. v. 5. ' Vix oculos attollit humo/ Ov. 
 Met. iii. 448. 
 
 B) (Separation.) ' Censores omnis, quos senatu moverunt quibusque equos 
 ademerunt, aerarios fecerunt et tribu moverunt/ L. xlii. 10. ' Hostis Antonius 
 iudicatus Italia cesserat/ N. Att. g. ' Apud Germanos quemcunque mortalium 
 arcere tecto nefas habetur/ Tac. G. 21. ' Adolescentia a libidinibus arcenda 
 est/ C. O& i. 34. ' Avocat a rebus gerendis senectus/ C. Cat. M. 5. ' Di, talem 
 terris avertite pestem/ Verg. Aen. iii. 620. ' Nisi is Antonium ab urbe aver- 
 tisset, perissent omnia/ C. ad. Br. 3. 'Romano bello Fortuna Alexandrum 
 abstinuit/ Liv. viii. 24. 'Tiberius et Augustus publico abstinuere, inferius 
 
165. Genitive Case. 411 
 
 165 
 
 I. i) The Possessive Genitive expresses that which stands Gene- 
 in the relation of Author, Origin, or Proprietor to the Noun Auctori 
 on which it depends : 
 
 Oratio Ciceronis, leges civitatis, fortitudo militum, rex Ponti, 
 domus Periclis, &c. It may be rendered in English by 
 the Possessive Case in 's, or by the Preposition of : 
 Philippi films, Philip 's son, or son of Philip. 
 
 2) The Dativus Commodi is often substituted for it : 
 
 6 In Palatio prima urbi fundamenta ieci/ / laid the first 
 foundations of (for) my city on the Palatine hill, L. i. 12. 
 'Natura tu illi pater es, consiliis z<gvj you are his sire by 
 nature, I by counsels, Ter. Ad. i. 2. 46. 
 
 So advocatus, praefectus, legatus (properly Participles) 
 sometimes govern Gen., sometimes Dat. Likewise afHnis, 
 
 maiestate sua rati,' Tac. Ann. iii. 3. ' Quale beneficium est, quod te abstinueris a 
 nefario scelere?' C. Phil. ii. 3. ' Alexander, cum interemisset Clitum, vix a se manus 
 abstinuit; tanta vis fuit poenitendi,' C. T. D. iv. 37. 'Abhorrent moribus 
 nostris/ Curt. vii. 8. ' Nostra aetas abhorret a castris, praesertim civilibus,' C. 
 Att. xiv. 19. ' Virtus numquam ulla vi labefactari potest, numquam demoveri loco,' 
 C. Phil. iv. 5. ' Miserum est exturbari fortunis omnibus,' C. p. Quinct. 31. 
 'Augur potest decernere ut magistratu se abdicent consules,' C. Leg. ii. 12. 
 * Hominis natura a reliquis animantibus differt,' C. Off. i. 27. ' Quindecim 
 milibus passuum Arabicus sinus distat ab Aegyptio man",' PI. H. N. ii. 68. 'Exculta 
 hominum vita distat a cultu et victu bestiarum,' C. Off. ii. 4. ' Temeritas a 
 sapientia dissidet plurimum,' C. Off. ii. 2. 'Alienum est magno viro, quod 
 alteri praeceperit, id ipsum facere non posse,' C. ad. Br. 9. 
 
 C) (Origin.') ' Nati sunt Carthagine, sed oriundi a Syracusis,' L. xxiv. 6. 'Ex 
 me is natus est,' Ter. Haut. v. 4. ' A parentibus, id quod necesse eral, parvus 
 sum creatus; a vobis natus sum consularis,' C. post Red. 2. 'E principio 
 oriuntur omnia : ipsum autem nulla ex re alia nasci potest/ C. T. D. i. 23. 
 ' Qualis ille tibi videtur Tantalo prognatus Pelope natus?' C. T. D. iii. 12. 
 ' Quidam parentibus nati sunt humilibus/ C. Lael. 19. ' Me equestri ortum 
 loco consulem videtis,' C. Rep. ii. 7. 
 
 Z>) (Thing Compared.} 'Deus maior est ac potentior cunctis,' Sen. Ep. 58. 
 'Lux sonitu velocior est,' PL H. N. ii. 54. 'Vilius argentum est auro, virtu- 
 tibus aurum,' Hor. Epist. i. i. 52. ' Quid est melius aut quid praestantius 
 bonitate et beneficentia?' C. N. D. 12. ' Demosthene nee gravior exstitit 
 quisquam nee callidior nee temperatior,' C. d. Or. 48. ' Recte auguraris de me, 
 nihil a me abesse longius crudelitate,' C. Att. ix. 16. ' Herodotum cur vera- 
 ciorem ducam Ennio?' C. Div. ii. 56. ' Neminem Lycurgo aut maiorem aut 
 utiliorem virum Lacedaemon genuit,' Val. Max. v. 13. ' Res aliquanto expecta- 
 
 -E) (Ablative Abs.) ' Crastino die oriente sole redite in pugnam/ L. iii. 2. ' Solon 
 et Pisistratus Servio Tullio regnante viguerunt/ C. Br. 10. ' Caesare venture, 
 Phosphore, redde diem/ Mart. viii. 21. ' Caesar inita hieme in Illyricum profectus 
 est/ Caes. B. G. iii. 7. ' Romani, Hannibale vivo, numquam se sine insidiis futures 
 existimabant/ Nep. ffaun. 12. 'Caninio consule scito neminem prandisse ; nihil 
 tamen eo consule mali factum est/ C. Fam. vii. 30. ' Nil desperandum est Teucro 
 duce et auspice Teucro/ Hor. C. i. 7. 27. ' Plebs Romana, Sicinio quodam 
 auctore, in Sacrum montem secessit/ L. ii. 32. 'Romana respublica, Cannensi 
 calamitate accepta, maiores animos habuit, quam umquam rebus secundis/C. 
 Off. iii. ii. ' Germani pellibus utuntur, magna corporis parte nuda/ Caes. B. G. 
 vi. 21. ' Alia causa est eius, qui calamitate premitur, et eius, qui res meliores quaerit 
 nullis suis rebus adversis/ C. Off. ii. 18. ' Proxime, recenti adventu meo, 
 rem aliter kistitutam ofFendi ac mihi placuisset, si affuissem/ C. Fam. v. 17. 
 
412 Latin Syntax. 165. 
 
 ami c us, comes, censors, familiaris, hostis, inimicus, par, 
 vicinus, &c., aequalis, communis, proprius, sacer, similis, 
 dissimilis, &c. 
 
 3) This Genitive may depend on Neuter Adjectives and Pro- 
 
 nouns used Substantively : 
 
 Amicorum omnia, C. ; aliorum non me digna, C; prae- 
 clarum hoc Thrasybuli quod, &c., N. Xerxi maxime 
 est illustre quod, c., the most famous feat of Xerzes is 
 that, &c., N. 
 
 4) The Noun is in some instances omitted : 
 
 1 Huius video Burriam/ / see this man's (slave) Burria, Ter. 
 An. iii. 2. See p. 275. 2). 
 
 Cicero has an ellipse of fundus, estate : 
 
 'Tu nequeper Locustae neque per Varronis viamducere 
 voluisti,' you would not carry a road through either 
 Locustds or Varrd's property ', Qu. F. iii. i. 
 
 5) Another Ellipse of the governing Noun before the Gen. is, 
 
 when that Noun occurs in a previous part of the sentence, 
 whether in the same or in a different case : 
 
 Meo iudicio etare malo, quam omnium reliquorum,' 1 
 would rather abide by my own judgment than by that of all 
 beside, C. Att. xii. 21. ' Quis est qui possit conferre vitam 
 Trebonii cum Dolabellae?' who can compare the life oj 
 Trebonius with that of Dolabella ? C. Phil. xi. 4. 
 
 This takes place when two kinds of the same thing are 
 spoken of, or where the Noun is first used specifically, then 
 generally : but if first used generally, then specifically, 
 the Noun is repeated, or an emphatic Pronoun put for it : 
 
 'Nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate con- 
 tendere/ there is no speed to vie with that of the mind, C. 
 T. D. \. 9. ' Cum omnis arrogantia odiosa est, turn ilia 
 ingen'i atque eloquentiae multo molestissima,' while 
 all assumption is odious, that (suggested) of genitts and 
 eloquence is by far the most displeasing, C. in Caec. u. 
 
 6) The Pronouns meus, tuus, suus, noster, &c. must be 
 
 used Possessively instead of the Genitives, mei, &c. ; but 
 with them may stand Pronominal or Participial Genitives 
 agreeing with the Gen. which the Possessives virtually 
 contain. Such are, ipsius, ipsorum, unius, solius. am- 
 borum, duorum, &c., besides Participles : 
 Respublica mea unius opera salva erat,' the common- 
 wealth was saved by my single exertion, C. in Pis. 3. 
 'Aves fetus adultos suae ipsorum fiduciae permittunt,' 
 birds entrust their grown young ones to their own self- 
 reliance, Qu. ii. 6. ' Nostros vidisti flentis ocellos,'jw# 
 saw the eyes of me weeping, Ov. Her. v. 45. 
 
 7) The Possessive Genitive, being of Attributive nature, may 
 
 be used in Copulative or Factitive construction : 
 ' Omnia, quae mulieris fuerunt, viri fiunt dotis nomine/ 
 all things that were the woman's become the husband's 
 
166. Genitive Case. 413 
 
 imderthe title of dowry, C. Top. 4. * Is Hercules dicebatur 
 esse Myronis/ C. Verr. iv. 3. ' lam me Pompeii totum 
 e s s e scis/ you know I am now Pompeii's thorough partisan, 
 
 C. Fam. ii. 13. < Popillius clavis portarum suaepotest- 
 atis f e c i t, J Popillius took possession of the keys of the 
 
 gates, L. xliii. 22. 
 
 8) Especially when the Subject of the Sentence is an Infin. and 
 
 the Gen. may be supposed to depend on a suppressed 
 notion, such as indicium, token, indoles, nature, munus, 
 of&cium, function, duty, part, &c., proprium, property : 
 ' Cuiusvis hominis est errare/ C. Phil. xii. 2. ' Honoris 
 amplissimi esse puto miseros defendere/ I deem it a 
 function of highest office to defend the unfo^mate, C. in- 
 Caec. 21. ' Adulescentis est maiores natu vereri/ C. 
 Off. i. 34. 'Tempori cedere semper sapientisest habi- 
 tum/ C. Fam. iv. 9. 
 
 9) All these words are found before the Gen. : 
 
 ' Id viri est officium/ C. T. D. ii. 21. ' Principum munus 
 est resistere levitati multitudinis,' C. p. Mil. 8. ' Sapientis 
 est proprium, nihil quod paenitere possit facere/ C. T. 
 
 D. v. 28. 
 
 Pars itself is so used: as, 'Plura de extremis loqui pars 
 ignaviae est/ to dwell at length on the closing scene of life 
 is a coward's part, Tac. H. ii. 47. 
 
 10) For this Gen. are used Possessive Pronouns or other Adjec- 
 tives indicating personal character : 
 
 ( Nostrum est ferre modice populi voluntates/ C. p. Plane. 
 4. *Et agere et pati fortia Romanum est/ L. ii. 12. 
 <Non est mentiri meum/ Ter. Haut. iii. 2. 38. 
 
 n) The Genitives moris, consuetudinis, arbitrii, iuris, 
 tutelae, when Complements, may be explained by reference 
 to proprium : 
 
 'Negavit moris esse Graecorum ut in convivio virorum 
 accumberent mulieres/ he said it was not a fashion of the 
 Greeks for women to sit at table in a party of men, C. Verr. 
 i.26. 'Est hoc Gallicae consuetudinis/ Caes. B. G. 
 iv. 5. ' Victos tutelae nostrae duximus/ L. xxi. 41. 
 
 166 
 
 II. i) The Descriptive Genitive expresses the specific class to Geneti- 
 which its governing Noun belongs, being often nearly vus De- 
 equivalent to an Apposite, sometimes to an Epithet : oSsf 1 " 
 f Nomen regis ; vox voluptatis ; virtus continentiae ; vitium 
 ignorantiae ; flos rosae ; arbor fici ; lauri nemus ; montes 
 auri ; poena legis ; oppidum Antiochiae ; promunturium 
 Miseni, &c. See Cic. Off. ii. 5. t Ceteris causis enume- 
 ratis, eluvionis, pestilentiae/ &c. 
 
 a) This Gen. may be equivalent to a Preposition with Case : 
 Pyrrhi bellum = bellum cum Pyrrho or contra Pyrrhum ; 
 
 odium inimicitiarum = odium ob inimicitias, &c. 
 &) A Possessive and a Descriptive Gen. may depend on one 
 
 and the same word : 
 
414 Latin Syntax. 167. 
 
 ' Exhaurietur ex urbe tuorum comitum magna et perni- 
 ciosa sentina reipublicae/ that great and mischievous 
 sink of the commonwealth consisting of your companions 
 shall be drained from the city, C. p. S. Rose. 5. 
 
 2) The Gen. with causa, gratia, ergo, nomine, more, modo 
 
 ritu, has been noticed. Observe that with instar. 
 Instar (image} is a Substantive used to express likeness, 
 
 equivalence ', &c., either as Apposite, Complement, or after 
 
 nab ere, obtinere, c. : 
 'Instar mentis equum, 7 Verg. Ae. ii. 15. ' Ille dies mihi 
 
 immortalitatis instar fuit/ that day was to me as good 
 
 as immortality, C. in Pis. 22. ' Unus is innumeri militis 
 
 instar h abet/ he alone is worth countless troops, Ov. 
 
 Her. xvi. 368. Ad instar is found in later Latin. 
 
 3) Here may be classed the Genitive of the Fact after Verbs, 
 
 Geneti- ' T* i i A j ^ 
 
 vus Fa- Participles and Adjectives expressing accusation ; convic- 
 
 cinoris. tion; condemnation or acquittal; criminality or innocence; 
 
 since it may be regarded as dependent on a suppressed 
 
 Ablative such as crimine, nomine, causa, lege, iudi- 
 
 cio; which often appear. 
 
 a) Such Verbs are : 
 
 Accuse, ago, arguo, coarguo, appello, anquiro, arcesso, capto, 
 
 cito, compello, defero, incuso, insimulo, interrogo, postulo, 
 
 reum ago, reum facio, c. 
 Alligo, adstringo, convinco, obligo. obstringo, prehendo, 
 
 deprehendo, teneo, c. 
 Damno, condemno, ihfamo, noto, &c. 
 Absolve, libero, purgo ; also iudico, plecto, &c. 
 . . . (aliquem rei ; crimine rei ; nomine rei alicuius, &c.) 
 
 ff) The Adjectives are : 
 
 Affinis, reus, suspectus ; compertus, manifestus, noxius ; in- 
 nocens, innoxius, insons. 
 
 c) The principal Genitives, expressing legal offences, which 
 
 accompany such Verbs and Adjectives, are : 
 Ambitus (bribery], caedis, homicidi (murder), furti (theft), 
 latrocinii (robbery), iniuriarum (wrongs), maiestatis, prodi- 
 tionis (treason), parricidii (parricide), repetundarum (extor- 
 tion), sacrilegii (sacrilege), veneficii, veneni (poisoning], 
 rei capitalis, rerum capitalium, &c. 
 
 The following forms have a Preposition : de vi (violence, 
 assault, &c.), inter sicarios (assassination). 
 
 d) Such cases may be used with the legal terms above : reum 
 
 esse, c., furti, de vi, &c., furti nomine, crimine, &c. 
 
 e) Other phrases are : damnare capitis or capite, to condemn 
 
 capitally, i.e. to death or disfranchisement : capitis minor, 
 a disfranchised person. 
 
 Damnari voti, to be condemned to pay what was vowed, be- 
 cause the prayer has been granted. 
 
J68. Genitive Case. 415 
 
 Damnare quindecim millibus, to condemn to a fine of 15,000 
 sesterces ; damnare octupli, to condemn to a fine of eight 
 times the amount, &c. Also with Dat, or with ad : damnare 
 morti ; damnare ad bestias. 
 
 f) Anquirere capitis, capite, pecunia, &c., implies prose- 
 
 cution by the Tribunes, who specified the penalty before- 
 hand. 
 
 g) Arguo, insimulo may be used in common parlance : 
 
 ' Meque timoris argue tu, Drance, 7 and do you, Drances, 
 undertake to convict me of cowardice, Verg. Ae. xi. 383. 
 
 h) Damni infecti promittere, repromittere, stipulari, satisdare, 
 &c., are legal phrases : ' to give security against damage? 
 
 168 
 
 III. A. i) The Genitive of Quality is also Descriptive ; but Gene- 
 it takes the place, not of an Apposite, but of a strengthened Jg._ 
 Attribute. tatis. 
 
 Vir excellentis ingeni = vir peringeniosus ; Lucius est excel- 
 lentis ingeni = Lucius est peringeniosus. 
 
 2) The Gen., then, like the Abl., of Quality, is a construction 
 
 by which one Substantive (in Latin always with Epithet) 
 is joined to another, for the purpose of describing it in 
 some particular : 
 
 Vir magni animi, corporis ingentis, spectatae virtutis, trium 
 litterarum (i.e. fur) ; adulescens bonae indolis, bonae spei, 
 summae audaciae ; auctor sublestae fidei, an author of 
 slight credit ; codex optimae notae, a manuscript of the 
 best authority. 
 
 3) This form of description may extend to Number, Measure, 
 
 Weight, Age, Time, Value, &c. : 
 
 Classis septuaginta navium ; colossus triginta trium pedum ; 
 lapis decem librarum pondo ; puer quindecim annorum ; 
 tempus viginti sex horarum ; gemma maximi pretii. 
 
 4) In such examples the Noun which the Gen. qualifies is an 
 
 Appellative or Common Noun ; and such it will be when 
 the Gen. of Quality is used as an Epithet merely ; but if a 
 Finite Copulative Verb is joined (vir est, fuit, habetur, 
 habitus est, &c., magni animi, &c.), the Subject of such 
 sentence may be a Proper* Name : 
 
 Lucius est (fuit, &c.) bonae indolis : Claudius erat somni 
 brevissimi ; Sicilia est magnae fertilitatis, c. 
 
 5) Rare instances occur, in which the Gen. of Quality accom- 
 
 panies a Proper Name enthetically : 
 
 'Turn T. Manlius Torquatus, priscae ac nimis durae 
 severitatis, ita locutus fertur/ then Titus Manlius 
 Torquatus, a man of antique and over-rugged strictness, is 
 reported to have spoken thus, L. xxii. 60. 
 
 6) A Possessive Gen. and a Gen. of Quality or Description may 
 
 depend on one Noun : 
 
 'Superiorum dierum Sabini cunctatio,' Sabinus's de- 
 lay of the preceding days, Caes. B. G. iii. 10. 
 
41 6 Latin Syntax. 169-70. 
 
 7) Modi, compounded with Pronouns, is a Gen, of Quality : 
 Huiusmodi, eiusmodi, istiusmodi, cuiusmodi, cuicuimodi, c., 
 
 of this, that, which, whatever kind, c. 
 
 (It is hardly possible to discriminate nicely the uses of the 
 Gen. and Abl. of Quality ; the usage of writers differing, 
 and some phrases being by custom assigned to the one, 
 some to the other. Upon the whole it seems true that the 
 Gen. oftener describes essential and permanent, the Abl. 
 accessory and occasional circumstances. But many ex- 
 ceptions occur.) 
 
 Geneti- B. i) The Genitive of Value and Price requires notice, 
 
 TV 15 F"" 6 - because, though this is a particular instance of the Gen. 
 
 of Quality, pretii is usually suppressed. 
 
 2) Price may be described after words which mean or imply 
 
 buying, selling, hiring, letting, costing, &c., by the Geni- 
 tives tanti, quant i, and their compounds, and' by the 
 Comparative Genitives pluris, minoris (rarely maioris) ; 
 but other Positive and the Superlative Adjectives (mag no, 
 &c., plurimo, c.) describe Price in the Abl. : 
 'Quanti emptum ? Parvo,' Hor. S. ii. 3. 156. Tanti est, 
 it is worth while. Non tanti est, it is not worth the trouble. 
 
 3) Valuation, after ducere, habere, facere, pendere, putare, 
 
 taxare, esse, &c., is described by the Gen. of all the Adjec- 
 tives above named : aestimare takes Gen. or Abl. 
 Parvi pendere aliquid; magni (magno) aestimare. See 
 Madvig on C. Fin. iii. 3. n. 
 
 4) Instead of nullius pretii, of no value, the Romans in com- 
 
 mon parlance (besides nihili) often, like ourselves, used 
 such phrases with a Negative as, as sis (unius assis), a 
 penny (a single penny) ; teruncii, a farthing ; nauci, pili, 
 flocci, answering to the English phrases, not a fig, not a 
 rush, &c. The phrase huius seems to imply a gesture, 
 like snapping the fingers. Non huius facio, / do not care 
 THAT for it. 
 
 5) To the Genitive of Value belong the phrases : 
 
 Lucri facere, to make prize of; aequi boni facere, to 
 
 take in good part \ boni consulere, to make the best of. 
 A Verre omnem illam* pecuniam lucri fa eta m videtis/ 
 you see that all that money has been embezzled by Verres, 
 C. Verr. iii. 75. 'Animus meus totum istuc aequi boni 
 facit,' my temper takes all that in good part, C. Att. vii. 7. 
 'Hoc munus rogo, qualecumque est, boni consulas/ / 
 beg you will make the best of this present y whatever its 
 value, Sen. Ben. i. 8. 
 
 Intarat, C- *) Tne Constructions of the Impersonal Verbs, 
 
 refert. interest, it imports, concerns, refert, it concerns, are re- 
 
 markable. 
 
 Interest may take a Genitive of the Person or Thing con- 
 cerned : interest omnium, interest reipublicae, &c. 
 Refert does so less frequently; never in Cicero. 'Refert 
 ipsorum/ L. xxxiv. 27. 
 
171. Genitive Case. 4.17 
 
 The ground of concernment is expressed, if at all, either by 
 an Infinitive, or by an Infinitive Clause or its equivalent, 
 or by an Oblique Interrogation : 
 
 'Interest omnium recte facere/ C. Fin. ii. 22. 'Sa- 
 lutis communis interest, duos consules in re- 
 publica esse/ C. p. Mur. 2. 'Plurimum refert com- 
 positionis, quae quibus anteponas/ it matters muck 
 to periodic constmction, what words you place before what, 
 Qu. ix. 4. 
 
 2) But if what is concerned is in the First or Second Person, 
 
 or to be expressed reflexively or relatively, then the Pos- 
 sessive forms mea, tua, nostra, vestra, sua, cuia, are 
 used with these Verbs instead of a Genitive : 
 ' Et mea et tua maxime interest te valere/ C. Fam. xvi. 
 4. 'Quid nostra id refert victum esse Antonium?' 
 what matters it to us that Antonius is conquered? C. ad 
 Br. 17. 
 
 3) These Verbs may be qualified by the Genitives of Value, 
 
 magni, parvi, pluris, tanti, quanti : 
 
 6 Utriusque nostrum magni interest utte videam/ C. Att. 
 xi. 22. 'Hoc non pluris refert quam si imbrem in cri- 
 brum geras/ this matters no more than if yoti carry water 
 to a sieve, Plaut. Pseud, i. i. no. 
 
 Also by nihil, multum, tantum, quantum, quid, parum, 
 c., and by Adverbs: valde, magnopere, maxime, 
 minime, vementer, &c. The Verbs may be used perso- 
 nally, as in the last example, with a Pronoun. 
 
 4) Interest and refert are constructed sometimes with ad, 
 
 sometimes with a Dative: 'Magni ad honorem nos- 
 trum interest quam primum ad urbem me venire/ C. 
 Fam. xvi. i. ' Die quid refer at intra Naturae finis 
 viventi iugera centum an mille aret/ Hor. S. i. I. 14. 
 Refert is often without Case: as, 'Neque enim numero 
 comprendere refert,' nor indeed is it important to count 
 them, Verg. G. ii. IO4. 1 
 
 171 
 
 'IV. A. i) The Plural Genitive of the Thing Distributed Geneti- 
 is a divisible Whole, and depends on Partitive Words Sfciii" 
 indicating that one or more Parts (or no Part) of such butae. 
 Whole are taken : 
 
 'Virtutum in alia alius mavult excellere/ one prefers to 
 excel in one virtue, another in another, C. Off. \. 32. 
 'Neque stultorum quisquam beatus neque sapi- 
 entium non beatus/ C. Fin. i. 18. 'Nunc iuvenum 
 princeps deinde future senum/ Ov. 'Roma regionum 
 Italiae media est/ L. v. 54. 
 
 2) The Partitive Words are : 
 
 a) Substantives which express Partition: pars, portio, nu- 
 
 1 Interest is perhaps originally corrupted from in re est ; and refert (not from refero) 
 is from res and fert ; with this Ablative re the Pronouns mea, &c., agree. Some sup- 
 pose interest to be for inter rem est, refert for rem fert, and mea, &c., to be 
 corruptions of m e a m, &c. 
 
 E E 
 
41 8 Latin Syntax. 172. 
 
 merus, multitude, nemo, nihil, &c., and the Adverb 
 partim. 
 
 /3) Pronominals: alius, alter, uter and its compounds, 
 ullus, nullus, plerique, multi, pauci, reliqui, ceteri, solus; 
 qui, quis, and their compounds : tot, quo t, and theif 
 derivatives. 
 
 y) Numerals both Cardinal and Ordinal: also princeps, 
 medius. 
 
 I) Comparative and Superlative Adjectives ; the former dis- 
 tributing two things: ' Mai or Neronum;' or one class 
 into two parts: 'Avium lo qua ci ores/ the noisier sort 
 of birds, PL N. H. Also Superlative Adverbs : ' Mi- 
 nime omnium. 7 
 
 ) Any Noun which can imply distribution : ' Sancte de- 
 orum ;' ( lecti iuvenum ;' 'piscium feminae.' 
 
 3) A Partitive Adjective, agreeing with that which is Part of a 
 
 Whole, naturally follows the Gender of the Whole : 
 
 Beluarum nulla = beluarum nulla belua ; 
 yet it is sometimes attracted to the Gender of the Subject 
 
 'Indus est omnium fluminum maximus/ C. N. D. Or 
 to that of the Person implied, by Synesis : ' Dulcissime 
 rerum/ my dearest friend, Hor. S. i. 9. 4. 
 
 4) Partitives sometimes take the Gen. of a Collective Noun : 
 'Plato totius Graeciae doctissimus fuit/ C. p. Rab. 23 
 
 (Graeciae = Graecorum). 
 
 5) This Genitive is found in the place of a Complement : 
 Ties nobilium tu quoque fontium/ Hor. C. iii. 13. 13. 
 Obs. 'Neque ille Sepositi ciceris nee longae invidit 
 
 avenae/ Hor. S. ii. 6. 84, is a Graecism (iriveiv rov oivov). 
 
 6) English idiom uses the Preposition of after Numeral words, 
 
 when no part is taken, but the whole implied : as, 'there 
 are two of us :' but in Latin this would be, <Nos duo 
 sumus.' So, 'three hundred of them conspired* is, f llli 
 trecenti coniuraverunt ; ' ' kinsmen of whom I have few,' 
 'Cognati quos paucos habeo.' 
 
 7) Distribution is also expressed by Prepositions : 
 
 ' Nihil ex his, quae videmus, manet/ Sen. Ep, 58. ' Thales 
 sapientissimus in septem fuit/C. Leg. ii. 12. ' Inter 
 Scythiae amnes amoenissimus Borysthenes/ Mela, 12. 
 'Ante omnis Turnus pulcherrimus/ Verg. Ae. vii. 65. 
 'Una de mult is/ Hor. C. iii. n. 33. 
 172 
 
 Geneti- B. i) The Genitive of the Thing Measured depends on 
 
 S'e 5 - 116 Quantitative Words, which imply that so much of a Whole 
 
 mensae. is taken, not so many. 
 
 2) Such Quantitative Words are : 
 ) Substantives implying measurement of Quantity : 
 
i72. Genitive Case. 419 
 
 Amphora, cask; medimnus (um), bushel ; modius, peck 
 (frumenti, of corn) ; libra, pound (casei, of cheese), &c. ; 
 acervus, copia, numerus, pondus (auri), vis, &c. 
 
 (3) Quantitative Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns : 
 
 Multum, plus, plurimum, amplius, minus, minimum, 
 tantum, quantum, aliquantum, nimium, dimidium, nihil, 
 aliud, id, &c., quod, quid, &c. 
 
 y) Quantitative Adverbs : 
 
 Abunde, affatim, nimis, parum, partim, satis. 
 
 d) The Adjectives and Adverbs are usually rendered in 
 
 English as in agreement with the thing measured : 
 'Tantum vini/ so much wine; ' minus splendoris/ less 
 brilliance ; ' satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum/ elo- 
 quence enough, little wisdom, Sail. ; ' nimium pecuniae/ 
 too much momy ; ' nihil mali/ no evil. 
 
 3) The Genitive may depend on a Demonstrative Pronoun 
 
 understood from a following Relative. 
 
 'Medico mercedis quantum poscet promitti iubeto/ you 
 must order that as high a fee as he shall ask be promised 
 to the physician, C. Fam. xvi. 14. ' Vastatur agri quod 
 inter urbem ac Fidenas est/ all the land that is between the 
 city and Fidenae is laid waste ^ L. i. 14; M. Lucr. iv. 372. 
 
 4) Classes (3 and y may also be constructed with the Genitive 
 
 of a Neuter Adjective of the Second Declension ; but an 
 Adjective of the Third is commonly (but not always) put 
 in the same case with the word of Quantity : 
 
 ' Prima est historiae lex ut ne quid falsi dicere audeat, ne 
 ^quid veri non audeat/ C. d. Or. ii. 62. 'Si quicquam 
 in vobis, non dico civil is, sed humani esset/ L. v. 3. 
 'Nee viget quicquam simile aut secundum/ and 
 nothing exists like or in second rank, Hor. C. i. 12. 18. 
 
 Note the Ciceronian phrase, 'Quod eius facere poteris/ as 
 far as you can (but quoad for quod in some MSS.). 
 'Nihil reliqui facere/ to leave nothing undone; 'nihil pensi 
 habere/ to have no regard. 
 
 5) The Genitive Pronouns nostrum, vest rum, are used with 
 
 Partitive words ; but, if an individual or human nature 
 itself is quantitatively divided, mei, tui, sui, nostri, 
 vestri may be used: 'Multa pars mei/ Hor. C. iii. 30. 
 6. 'Plus nostri superest rogo/ Sen. Tr. 
 
 6) The Genitives loci, locorum, gentium, terrarum, are used 
 
 with Adverbs of Place, ubi, quo, unde, hue, eo, aliquo, 
 usquam, nusquam, &c. : 
 
 'Ubi terrarum sumus/ where on earth are we? C.p. Rab. 
 37. 'An quisquam usquam gentium est aeque miser?' 
 is there anywhere in the world one so miserable? Ter. Hec. 
 iii. i. ' Res eodem est loci ubi reliquisti/ the affair is in 
 the same position you left it in, C. Att.\. 13. 
 
 E 2 
 
420 Latin Syntax. 173. 
 
 Genitives not local are found with them, but not in Cicero : 
 
 <Eo deliciarum pervenimus lit nisi gemmas calcare noli- 
 mus/ we have reached that pitch of luxury, that we will 
 not tread except on jewels, Sen. Ep. 88. Turn (tune) tem- 
 poris occurs in Justin : interea loci (meanwhile) in the 
 Comic poets ; minime gentium (least in the world, by no 
 means], postea loci, in Livy ; inde loci, M. Lucr. v. 791. 
 
 'Pridie eius diei' (the day before), 'postridie eius diei' (the 
 day after), &c. Pridie, postridie also take Accus. 
 
 7) The Verb satago (I am busy) (sat and ago) takes a Gen. : 
 'Clinia rerum suarum satagit/ Clinia has enough of his 
 
 own business, let. Haiti, iii. i. 13. ' Nunc agitas sat 
 tute tuarum rerum/ you have now affairs enough ofyoul 
 own in hand, Plaut. Bac. iv. 3. 23. 
 
 8) Neuter Adjectives of either Number, put abstractly for Sub- 
 
 stantives, sometimes govern a Genitive : 
 'Adulescens in lubrico aetatis est/ a young man is at a 
 slippery time of life, Plin. Epist. iii. 6. Somediumdiei, 
 serum diei. (On id temporis, id locorum, hoc aetatis, 
 c., see ACCUSATIVE.) 
 
 Constructions like ' Incerta casuum/ c occulta saltuum,' 
 ' opaca locorum/ ' angusta viarum,' ' amara curarum/ are 
 not usual in Cicero ; but they occur in Livy, abound in 
 Tacitus, and in poetry they are frequent. See p. 278. 
 
 Geneti- C. i) The Genitive of Abundance and Want is Parti- 
 
 s Iae tive. See ABLATIVE, p. 397. 
 
 etlno- 2) Verbs: egeo, indigeo prefer the Genitive in prose: com- 
 
 pke- pleo, expleo, impleo, take it occasionally : abundo, parti- 
 
 cipo, saturo, scateo : abstineo, careo, desino, desisto, levo, 
 
 libero, solvo, dissolve, and others, chiefly in poetry. 
 1 Indigere medicinae;' 'impleri veteris Bacchi : ? * abstinere 
 
 irarum ; ' 4 desine querellarum/ &c. 
 Potior has a Genitive both in prose and poetry: apiscor, 
 
 adipiscor, in Tacitus ; regno once in Horace. 
 
 3) Adjectives: fertilis, ferax, largus, plenus, refertus : in- 
 anis, indigus, inops, ieiunus : often have Gen. in prose and 
 poetry; compos, particeps, exheres, expers, exsors, 
 almost always : potens, impos, impotens, no other Case : 
 benignus, dives, fecundus, locuples, prosper: pauper, 
 solutus, truncus, exsul, vacuus, &c., dignus, indignus, 
 are found in poetry with Genitive. 
 
 'Vita plena metus et insidiarum; 7 ' terra frugum fertilis ;' 
 ' compos mentis ;' ' voti compos ;' < Musa potens lyrae ; ' 
 ' rationis expers ; ' ' dives opum ; J ' exsul patriae ; ' c pauper 
 aquae Daunus/ &c. 
 
 D. Of a Partitive nature also are the Genitive of Respect 
 and that of the Part affected, which, in imitation of 
 Greek construction, is very freely used by poets and also 
 by prose writers of the silver age. Such phrases are : 
 
174 Genitive Case. 421 
 
 'Consili certus;' 'militiae impiger, strenuus;' 'vetus 
 sermonis;' all in Tac. : ' integer vitae,' Hor. ; 'integer 
 aevi/ Verg. ; ' sen studiorum/ Hor. &c. Especially animi : 
 < Excruciari animi ; ' ' angi animi ; ' ' pendere animi/ C. : 
 'animi falli/ Lucr., Plaut. (desipere mentis, Plaut.) : 'Animi 
 anxius, aeger, audax, caecus, ferox, ingens, immodicus, 
 infelix, laetus, promptus, turbidus, validus/ &c. 
 
 iv. B) OBJECTIVE GENITIVE. 
 
 This Genitive principally depends on Words which contain the 
 Transitive force of Verbs from which they are derived. Such are : 
 
 1) Substantives: amor patriae; cultus agrorum; scientia 
 
 iuris ; ignorantia recti ; cura peculi ; studium lucri ; 
 victor hostium. 
 
 Note i. The Genitives nostrum, vestrum (in old Latin nos- 
 trorum, vestrorum) are used in Partitive Construction: 
 mei, tui, &c., nostri, vestri, Quantitatively or Objectively. 
 But the phrases ' omnium nostrum/ 'omnium vestrum' 
 are also used as Possessive Genitives: sometimes nos- 
 trum, vestrum alone. And mei, tui are sometimes 
 found where the Possessive might have been expected : 
 ' Fruitur fama sui/ Tac. Ann. ii. 13. Also the Possessives 
 meus, tuus are sometimes used Objectively. See p. 410. 
 
 Note 2. An Objective Genitive (with Substantives derived from 
 Transitive Verbs) must often be rendered in English by 
 some other Preposition than of: 'Coelibis obsequ- 
 ium/ attention to an unmarried man, Hor. 'Praestantia 
 an i ma rum reliquarum/\y/^m^r//x over other souls, Cic. 
 'Remedium irae/ remedy against anger, Cic. ' Miseri- 
 cordia pauperum/ pity for the poor. ' Ouies laborum/ rest 
 from toils. 
 
 2) Adjectives : 
 
 a) Verbal Adjectives in ax : cap ax, edax, ferax, fugax, 
 pertinax, rapax, sagax, tenax, vorax, &c. 
 
 j3) Present Participles used Adjectively: abundans, 
 amans, appetens, contemnens, colens, cupiens, despi- 
 ciens, diligens, efficiens, egens, experiens, fugiens, ^in- 
 tell^gens, metuens, neglegens, observans, patiens, im- 
 patiens, proferens, sciens, sitiens, timens, tolerans, bene- 
 gerens, servantissimus, &c. 
 
 7) Adjectives of knowledge and ignorance-, assuetus, cal- 
 lidus, certus, certior, conscius, consultus, docilis, doctus, 
 expertus, gnarus, memor, peritus, praescius, praesagus, 
 providus, prudens, scitus, sellers ; alienus, ambiguus, 
 dubius, inscius, incertus, inexpertus, ignarus, immemor, 
 imperitus, improvidus, imprudens, indoctus, insolens, 
 insuetus, nescius, oblitus, rudis. 
 
 Here remark the phrase, 'Certioremfacere' (to inform}: 
 'Pompeius me certiorem sui consili fecit/ Pompeius 
 
 informed me of his plan, Cic. Att. ix. 2. 
 
422 Latin Syntax. 175. 
 
 S) Care and carelessness : aemulus, anxius, curiosus, certus, 
 formidulosus, parcus, pavidus, sollicitus, timidus, tre- 
 pidus, impavidus, incuriosus, incautus, intrepidus, inter- 
 ritus ; profusus, prodigus, securus, socors. 
 
 t) Desire and dislike : avarus, avidus, cupidus, studiosus ; 
 fastidiosus. 
 
 ) Add superstes, supplex. 
 
 Obs. i. Most of these are rendered with the sign of\ except as- 
 suetus (accustomed to); insuetus, insolens (unaccustomed to) ; cal- 
 lidus, consultus, doctus, peritus, &c. (sktllediri) ; indoctus, imperitus, 
 &c. (iinskilled in) ; scitus, prudens, expertus, c. (acquainted with) ; 
 imprudens, rudis, c. (unacquainted with), and others. 
 
 Obs. 2. Many such Adjectives also take Prepositions : ' Callidus 
 ad fraudem/ C. f Prudens in iure/ C. ' Securus de bello Romano/ 
 L. ' Certiorem fieri de re aliqua.' Some take other Cases : ' Peritus 
 bello/ Veil. ' Dulcis docta modos/'Hor. 
 
 Obs. 3. A list of other Adjectives found with a Genitive is given 
 in Stallbaum's Ruddiman, Pars II. p. 73. None are from Cicero 
 but 'invidus laudis;' a few from Livy ; many from Tacitus. 
 Virgil has { fessus rerum ; ' ' fidissima tui regina ; ' ' vanus veri/ &c. 
 Lucr. has 'aversa viai/ i. 1081, see M. ; Horace: 'lassus maris ; 
 divina avis imbrium ; exsul patriae/ &c. ; but most examples are 
 from later poets, Statius, Silius, Claudian, &c. The student must 
 distinguish prosaic from poetic usage, which admits Gen. freely. 
 
 3) A Genitive of the Matter, sometimes an Accusative^ 
 depends on Verbs of remembering, forgetting, reminding : memini 
 (Gen. or Accus.), reminiscor (Gen. or Accus.), recorder (Accus., 
 rarely Gen.), obliviscor (Gen. or Accus.); moneo, admoneo, com- 
 moneo, commonefacio (Accus. of person, Gen. of thing); men- 
 tionem facio (Gen.). (See memor, immemor, &c. above.) 
 
 'Vivorum memini, nee tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci/ / 
 remember the living, nor yet may I forget Epicurus, C. Fin. v. i. 
 * Res adversae admonent nos religionum/ adversity reminds 
 us of religious duties, L. v. 51. < Dulcis moriens reminiscitur 
 Argos/ Verg. Ae. x. 782. 
 
 a) Verbs of Remembering sometimes take de: 'De Clodio 
 ne meminisse quidem volo/ C. Fam. v. 3. 
 
 b} The phrase 'venit in mentem' is used impersonally, 
 either with Genitive, or with Preposition: 'Venit mihi 
 in mentem tempo ris illius, quo fuimus una/ C. Fam. 
 vii. 3. ' Astute venit ei in mentem de speculo/ he 
 craftily remembered the mirror, Plaut. Most. i. 3. Or per- 
 sonally : ' Non venit in mentem pugna apud Regillum 
 lacum ?' do you not remember the battle at lake Regillus f 
 L. viii. 5. 
 
 4) A Genitive depends on the Verbs misereor 2. miseresco 3. 
 (feel pity) ; but an Accusative in the best authors on miseror I. 
 commiseror i. (express pity, bewail}. 
 
176. Genitive Case. 423 
 
 ' Nil nostri miserere/ Verg. B. ii. 7. < Arcadii miserescite regis/ 
 Verg. Ae. viii. 573. 'Sortem miseratus iniquam/ Verg. ^*. 
 vi. 332. 
 
 5) The Impersonal Verbs miseret (miserescit, miseretur), 
 piget, pudet (veretur), paenitet, taedet, take an Accusative 
 of the Nearer, with a Genitive of the Remoter, Object : 
 
 'Me tuarum miseritum est fortunarum/ I pitied your for- 
 times, Ter. Haut. iii. i. 'Me civitatis morum piget taedetque/ 
 / am weary and sick of the manners of the state, Sail. lug. 4. 
 'Pudet me stultitiae//^;^ ashamed of my folly, C. 'Me tui, mi 
 pater, pudet/ I am ashamed to face you, father, Ter. Ad. iv. 5. 49. 
 See C. Att. vii. 4 (veritus); Fin. ii. 13. 
 
 6) The Genitive of Cause in poetry is a Greek idiom: 176 
 ' lustitiaene prius mirer belline laborum?' Verg. Ae. xi. 126. 
 
 ' Notus in fratres animi paterni/ Hor. C. ii. 2. 6. ( Felix, Bolane, 
 cerebri/ Hor. S. i. 9. n. ' Laudabat leti iuvenem/ Sil. iv. 160. 
 f O mihi nuntii beati/ Catull. ix. 5. 'Foederis heu taciti/ Prop, 
 iv. 7- 13- 
 
 Examples of the Genitive Case. 
 
 A) (Subjective.) I. (Possessive.) 'Amore patriae nostrorum maiorum inventa 
 nosse debemus, C. d. Or. i. 58. ' Sullae et Caesaris pecuniarum translatio a 
 iustis dominis ad alienos non debet liberalis videri/ C. Off. i. 14. ' Nihil est quod 
 multorum naufragia fortunae colligas,' C. Verr. v. 40. ' Consul es designates, 
 optima aetate, summa eloquentia, maxima orbitate reipublicae virorum talium/ 
 C. Fam. x. 3. ' Egerius fratris filius erat regis/ L. i. 38. ' Polycleti signa 
 plane perfecta sunt,' C. Br. 18. 'Singulorum facultates et copiae divitiae 
 sunt civitatis,' C. Off. iii. 15. 'Pacis est comes otique socia, et iam bene con- 
 stitutae civitatis quasi alumna quaedam, eloquentia/ C. Br. 12. 'Omnium est 
 communis inimicus, qui fuit hostis suorum/ C. Verr. i. 15. ' In primis hominis 
 est propria veri inquisitio/ C. Off. i. n. ' Ilia insula eorum deorum sacra 
 putatur,' C. Verr. ii. 18. ' Phoebi Triviaeque sacerdos Deiphobe Glauci/Verg. 
 Ae. vi. 35. 'Dinomaches ego sum,' Pers. iv. 30. 'Paterae aureae^ad Cereris 
 positae,' L. x. 23. ' Quae in nostris rebus non satis honeste, in amicorum fiunt 
 honestissime/ CX Lael. 16. * Petulantia magis est adulescentium, quam senum; 
 nee tamen omnium adulescentium, sed non proborum,' C. Cat. M. n. 'Id 
 maxime quemque decet, quod est cuiusque maxime suum,' C. Off. i. 31. ' Nolae 
 senatus Ro manor um, plebs Hannibalis erat,' L. xxiii. 39. ' Solon capite sanxit, 
 si qui in seditione non alterius utrius partis fuisset,' C. Att. x. i. 'Hannibal 
 quod inter Alpis Apenninumque agri est suae dicionis fecit/ L. xxi. 53. 'Tardi 
 ingeni est rivulos consectari, fontis rerum non videre/ C. d. Or. ii. 27. ' Qualis 
 oratorisetquanti hominis in dicendo putas esse historiam scribere?' C. d. Or. 
 ii. 12. ' Est proprium munus magistratus, intellegere, se gerere personam 
 civitatis/ C. Off. i. 34. ' Quae est animo natura? propria, puto, et sua/ C. T. D. 
 i. 29. ' Nulla mora est operae; vestrum dare, vincere nostrum est,' Ov. F. iv. 
 889. 'Tuum hominis simplicis pectus vidimus/ C. Phil. ii. 43. 'Noster duorum 
 eventus ostendet utra gens bello sit melior, L. i. 7. ' S olius meum peccatum corrigi non 
 potest/ C. Att. xi. 15. 'Die mihi, Damoeta, cuium pecus, an Meliboei?' Verg. B. 
 iii. i. 
 
 II. (Descriptive) i) 'Stella Veneris Lucifer dicitur, cum antegreditur solem, 
 cum subsequitur autem, Hesperus/ C. N. D. ii. 20. ' Non faciendo id, quod non 
 decet, impudentiae nomen effugere debemus/ C. d. Or. \. 26. ' Duae sunt huius 
 obscuritatis causae, una pudoris, altera sceleris/C. d. L. Agr. ii. 24. ' Ea bona 
 sunt generis, pecuniae, propinquorum, amicorum, opum, valetudinis, 
 formae, ingeni/ C. d. Or. ii. u. 
 
 2) ' Persuadent mathematici, terram ad universi caeli complexum quasi puncti in star 
 obtinere/ C. T. D. i. 40. ' Quidam Romani habebant domos ins tar urbium/ Sen. 
 Efi. 90- 
 
424 Latin Syntax. 177. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 VERB-CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 (On Moods and Tenses see 91-99. On Verb Infinite, 40.) 
 
 i. I) The Infinitive. 
 
 The Infinitive is at once a Verb and a Neuter Substantive. 
 As a Verb, it governs Cases. As a Substantive it has Cases ; on 
 which see 181 : and on its Tense- forms, 40. 
 
 3) 'Labeo arguebatur male administratae provinciae aliorumque cri- 
 minum,' Tac. Ann. vi. 27. 'Cum capitis anquisivissent, duo milia aeris 
 damnato multam edixerunt,' L. ii. 52. 'Caesar Dolabellam repetundarum postu- 
 lavit/ Suet. Caes. 4. ' Defertur impietatis in Principem,' Tac. Ann. vi. 19. 
 ' Legibus ambitus interrogati dederunt poenas,' Sail. Cat. 18. ' Alcibiades, post- 
 quam se capitis damnatum audivit, Lacedaemonem demigravit/ N. Ale. 4. 
 * Miltiades, capitis absolutus, pecunia multatus est,' N. Milt. 7. ' Recte con- 
 demnamus haruspices aut stultitiae aut vanitatis,' C. Div. \. 36. ' Coelius 
 iudex absolvit iniuriarum eum, qui Lucilium poetam nominatim laeserat/ Auct. ad 
 Her. ii. 19. 'Nomine sceleris coniurationisque damnati sunt multi/ C. Verr. v. 
 ii. 'Miltiades crimine Pario est accusatus,' Nep. Milt. ' Silanus saevitiae 
 captarumque pecuriiarum tenebatur reus,' Tac. Ann. iii. 27. ' De mani- 
 festis rerum capitalium more maiorum supplicium sumendum est,' Sail. Cat. 52. 
 Q. Sergius senator inter sicarios damnatus est,' C. p. Clu. 7. ' Furius damnatus 
 voti quum victor Romam revertisset, dictatura se abdicavit/ L. vii. 28. 
 
 III. (Quality.) a. 'Tune trium litterarum homo me vituperas?' Plaut. Aid. 
 ii. 4. 46. ' Sp. Servilius, fervidi animi vir, periculum audacia discussit,' L. ii. 52. 
 ' Themistocles persuasit populo ut classis centum navium aedificaretur,' N. Th. 2. 
 ' Latini cor on am auream in Capitolium tulere parvi ponderis,' L. iii. 57. ' Spes 
 unica imperi populi Romani L. Quinctius trans Tiberim quattuor iugerum colebat 
 agrum,' L. iii. 26. ' Caesar a fronte castrorum pedum quindecim fossam fieri 
 iussit/ Caes. B. C. i. 41. ' Hamilcar in Hispaniam secum duxit filium Hannibalem 
 annorum novem/N. Hann. 8. ' C. lulius Caesar annum ad solis cursum accommo- 
 davit ut trecentorum sexaginta quinque dierum esset/ Suet. Caes. 40. ' Ser- 
 vius Tullius iuvenis evasit vere indolis regiae,' L. i. 39. ' Magni iudicii, 
 summae etiam facultatis esse debet orator,' C. Or. 21. ' Nos in castra propera- 
 bamus, quae aberant bidui,' C. Att. v. 16. 'Agesilaus octoginta annorum in 
 Aegyptum profectus est,' N. Ag. 8. ' Admittenda est hominum cuiusquemodi 
 multitude,' C. Off. i. 39. 'Eorum dierum consuetudo itineris nostri exer- 
 citus perspecta est,' Caes. B. G. ii. 17. 
 
 b. 'Ego a meis magni pendi postulo,' Ter. Ad. v. 4, 'Est hominis sapientis 
 maximi aestimare conscientiam mentis suae/ C. p. Clu. 58. ' Patrem tuum plurimi 
 feci, meque ille mirifice coluit,' C. Att. xvi. 19. 'Vendo meum frumentum non 
 pluris quam ceteri, fortasse etiam minor is, cum maior est copia,' C. Off. iii. 12. 
 ' Nulla pestis humano generi pluris stetit quam ira,' Sen. Ir. i. 2. ' Mercatores non 
 tantidem vendunt quanti emerunt,' C. Verr. iii. 192. ' Noli spectare quanti 
 homo sit ; parvi enim pretii est qui iam nihili sit,' C. Qu. Fr. i, 2. ' Non quantum 
 quisque prosit, sed quanti quisque sit, pondera,' C. Br. 257. 'Quanti quisque 
 amicos facit, tanti fit ab amicis,' C. Lael. 16. 'Qui homo timidus erit in rebus 
 dubiis, nauci non erit,' Plaut. Most. v. i. i. ' Sapiens dolorem nihili facit,' C. 
 Fin. ii. 13. 'Ego, quae tu loquere, flocci non facio/ Plaut. Rud. iii. 5. ' Neque 
 fas neque fidem pensi habet/ Tac. Ann. xiii. 15. ' Te huius non faciam/Ter. 
 Ad. ii. i. 'Video quanta tempestas invidiae mihi immineat ; sed est mihi tanti,' C. 
 Cat. i. 9. ' Si vos non movet periculum ne serpat latius contagio eius mali, no 
 
i77. The Infinitive. 425 
 
 Livy (not C. or Caes.) uses a Past for a Present Infin. with such 
 predications as satis est, melius est, satis habeo, contentus sum: 
 also with possum, volo and some Impers. Verbs. 'Quiesse 
 melius erit/ L. i. Poets take this license freely: ' Magnum si 
 pectore possit excussisse deum/ Verg. Ae. vi. 78. ' Effugisse 
 volunt longe longeque remosse,' Lucr. iii. 69. See M. 
 
 aequi bonique facimus/L. xxxiv. 22. * Haec, quaeso, consule missa boni/Ov. 
 Ep. ex Pont. iii. 8. 
 
 c. ' Caesar dicere solebat, non tarn sua quam reipublicae interesse, uti salvus 
 esset/ Suet. Caes. 86. ' Epistulis certiores facimus absentis, si quid est quod eos 
 scire aut nostra aut ipsorum intersit/ C. Fam. ii. 4. ' Quid refert mea, cui 
 serviam?' Phaedr. 1.35. ' Civitatum hoc multarum interfuit, antiquum vocum 
 servare modum/ C. Leg. ii. 38. 'Semper Milo, quantum interesset Clodii, se 
 perire, cogitabat/ C. p. Mil. 56. ' Quid, Chreme, tua, malum, id refert? Magni, 
 Demipho,' Ter. Ph. iv. 4. ' Quid id nostra? Nihil (i.e. refert)/ Ter. Ph. v. 7. 
 
 IV. (Partitive.) a. (Thing Distributed.') 'Nihil tarn absurde dici potest quod non dicatur 
 ab aliquo philosophorum,' C. Div. ii. 119. ' Incertum est, quam longa nostrum 
 cuiusque vita futura sit,'C. Verr. \. 153. 'Equittim centum quinquaginta in- 
 terfecti/ Curt. iii. n. ' Erant Phocionis tempore duae factiones, quarum una populi 
 causam agebat, altera optimatum/ N. Phoc. 19. ' Tarquinius Superbus septi- 
 mus atque ultimus regum Romanorum fuit/ Eutr. i. 8. ' Rationem defectus 
 solis apud Graecos investigavit primus omnium Thales Milesius/ PI. N. H. ii. 12. 
 
 * Alexander seniores militum in patriam remisit/ Curt. x. 2. 'Quadrupedum 
 talpis visus non est,' PI. N. H. xi. 37. ' Canum degeneres caudam sub alvum 
 reflectunt/ do. xi. 50. ' Lanarum nigrae nullum colorem bibunt/ do. viii. 
 48. ' Mardonius erat in primis omnium Persarum manu fortis/ N. Ar. i. 
 ' Sulpicius Gallus maxime omnium nobilium Graecis litteris studuit,' C. Br. 20. 
 ' Trevirorum civitas longe plurimumtotiusGalliae equitatu valet/ Caes. B. G. ii. 3. 
 'Aliqui e nostris aliter existimant, quos quidem video esse multos sed imperitos/ 
 C. Fin. i. 55, 'Quaeritur, quot sint species rerum publicarum, quas tris accepimus, 
 quae populi, quae paucorum, quae unius potestate regerentur/ Qu. v. 10. ' De vera et per- 
 fecta amicitia loquor, qualis eorum, qui pauci nominantur, fuit/ C. Lael. 22. ' Numerate 
 quot ipsi sitis/ L. vi. 18. 'Trecenti coniuravimus principes iuventutis Romanae/ 
 L. ii. 12. ' Ex quinquaginta milibus Graecorum supersumus pauci/ Curt. v. 
 
 /3. (Thing Measured.) 'Voluisti magnum agri modum censeri/ C. p. Fl. 32. 
 
 * In iugere Leontini agri medimnum fere tritici seritur/ C. Verr. iii. 47. ' Maxi- 
 mus vini numerus fuit, permagnum optimi pondus argenti/ C. Phil. ii. 27. 
 "Tantum quisque se in republica posse postulat, quantum habet virium/ C. ad Brut. 
 i. 10. ' Rogo, ut de his rebus, quas tecum colloqui volo, annum mihi temporis des/ 
 N. Them. 9. ' Romani castrorum oppugnatione, quia serum erat diei, abstinuere/ 
 L. vii. 8. 'Ate nihildum c e r t i exquiro, sed quid videatur/ C. Att. vii. 12. 'Prae- 
 missus Caecina, ut occulta saltuum scrutaretur pontisque et aggeres humido 
 paludum et fallacibus campis imponeret/ Tac. Ann. i. 61. 'Quid mulieris uxorem 
 habes ? ' Ter. Hec. iv. 4. ' Velim, ut, quod eius fieri possit, praesentiae tuae desi- 
 -derium meo labore minuatur/ C. Fain. v. 8. 'Ut adulescentem, in quo senile aliquid, 
 sic senem, in quo est adulescentis aliquid, probamus/ C. Cat. M. n. 'Ambula- 
 tionem postmeridianam confecimus in Academia, maxime quod is locus ab omni turba i d 
 temporis vacuus esset/ C. Fin. v. i. 'Dedi satis superque poenarum tibi/ Hor. 
 Epod. 17. 'Armorum affatim erat Carthagine captorum/ L. xxvii. 17. 'Pa- 
 .rentes abunde habemus, amicorum numquam satis/ Sail. lug. 102. ' Multis in 
 -locis parum firmamenti et parum virium veritas habet/ C. p. Clu. 2. 'Ubi 
 terrarum esses ne suspicabar quidem/ C. Att. v. 10. 'Qui virtutem adeptus erit, 
 ubicumque erit gentium, a nobis diligetur/ C. N. D. i. 121. ' Rhodum aut aliquo 
 terrarum migrandum est/ C. Fam. xi. i. ' Mulier quaedam commigravit hue vici- 
 niae/ Ter. An. i. i. ' Populus Romanus eo magnitudinis crevit, ut viribus suis 
 conficeretur/ Flor. iii. 12. 'Postridie eius diei Ariovistus praeter castra Caesaris 
 suas copias transduxit et milibus passuum duobus ultra eum castra fecit/ Caes. 
 . G. i. 48. 
 
 y. (Plenty and Want,&c.) ' Celeriter adulescentem suae temeritatis implet/ L. i. 
 4. 'Me omnium laborum levas/ Plaut. St. i. 4. 'Helvetii totius Galliae se potiti 
 
426 Latin Syntax. 178. 
 
 178 ii. The Infinitive Present and Past as Subject: 
 
 < Invidere non cadit in sapientem/ C. T. D. iii. 10. ' Inge- 
 nuas didicisse fideliter artes em oil it mores/ Ov. Ep. ex P* 
 ii. 9. 
 
 Especially 
 
 1) Of an Impersonal Verb : 
 
 ' Libet semper disc ere/ C. d. Or. iii. 23 
 
 2) Of a Copulative Verb with Adj. or Adv. Complement : 
 'Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori/ Hor. C. iii. 2. 13. 
 
 3) Of a Copul. Verb, when the Complement is a Subst. (either 
 Nom., or Possessive Gen., or Dat. of Purpose) : 
 
 'Tempus est maiora conari/ L. vi. 18. ' Tempori cedere 
 semper sapientis est habitum/ C. Div. ii. 60. ' Laudi 
 erit certasse.' 
 
 Obs. i. If the Infin. is Copulative, and the principal Verb has an 
 Accus. Object, the Complement will be Accus. : 
 
 'Dedecet hominem esse mendacem.' 
 If the Object is Dative, the Compl. may be Dat. or Accus. : 
 
 ' Licuit esse otioso Themistocli, licuit Epaminondae/ C. T. 
 D. i. 1 5. * C i v i Romano licet esse G a d i t an u m/ C. p. Balb. 12^ 
 
 Obs. 2. An Infin. is rarely found as Complement : 
 'Docto homini et erudito vivere est cogitare/ C. Fam. vi. i. 
 
 posse sperabant,' Caes. B. G. i. 3. ' Regio aeris ac plumbi uberrima,' lust. xliv. 
 3. 'Plena errorum sunt omnia,' C. T. D. i. 5. ' Gallia adeo frugum homi- 
 numque fertilis fuit, ut abundans multitudo vix regi posse videretur,' L. v. 34. 
 'Roma externae opis indiga fuit,' Tac. ff. ii. 48. 'Vis consili expers mole 
 ruit sua,' Hor. C. iii. 9. ' Certe omnes virtutis compotes beati sunt,' C. T. D. v. 
 39. ' Postquam Pompeius et consules ex Italia exierunt, non sum, mihi crede, mentis 
 compos,' C. Att. ix. 6. 'Eripite isti gladium, qui sui est impos animi,' Plaut. 
 Cos. iii. 5. ' Ira, ut insania, impotens sui est,' Sen. Jr. L i. 'Descendant! magnorum 
 haud umquam indignus avorum,' Verg. Ae. xii. 649. 'Pacis eras mediusque 
 belli,' Hor. C. ii. 19. 28. 'Aevi maturus Acestes,' Verg. Aen. v. 73. 'Damnatus- 
 longi Sisyphus Aeolides laboris,' Hor. C. ii. 14. 19. 'Fortunate animi,' St. Th. i. 
 638. 'Antipho me excruciat animi,' Ter. Ph. ii. 2. 10. 
 
 B) (Objective.} ' Iram bene Ennius initium dixit insaniae,' C. T. D. iv. 23. 'Me 
 tuae dignitatis non modo fautorem, sed etiam amplificatorem cognosces,' C. 
 Fam. x. 12. 'Epaminondas philosophiae praeceptorem habuit Lysim Tarenti- 
 num, Pythagoreum,' N. Ep. 2. 'Adhibenda est quaedam reverentia adversus 
 homines, et optimi cuiusque et reliquorum,' C. Off. i. 28. 'Patria est com- 
 munis omnium nostrum parens,' C. in Cat. i. 7. 'Ais, Habe mei rationem : habe 
 tu nostrum (i.e. Romanorum : nostri would = mei),' C. Att. vii. 9. ' Habetis ducem 
 memorem vestri, oblitum sui,' C. in. Cat. iv. 9. 'Nostri nosmet paenitet/ 
 Ter. Ph. i. 3. ' Nihil malo quam et me mei simile m esse, et illos sui,' C. Att. ix. 16. 
 ' Magna mei sub terras ibit imago,' Verg. Ae. iv. 654. ' Divi quorum est potestas 
 nostrorum hostiumque,' L. viii. 9. 'Cogor vestram omnium vicem unus con- 
 sulere,' L. xxv. 38. ' Neque neglegentia tua neque odio id fecit tuo,' Ter. Ph. 
 v. 8. 'Galba omnium consensu visus est capax imperi, nisi imperasset,' Tac. H. i. 
 49. 'Natura tenacissimi sumus eorum quae rudibus annis percepimus,' Qu. i. i. 
 'Tu me sitientem virtutis tuae deseruisti,' C. /. Plane. 5. 'Epaminondas adeo 
 fuit veritatis diligens ut ne ioco quidem mentiretur/ Nep. Ep. 3. 'Cum com- 
 mode navigare poteris, ad nos amantisslmos tui veni,'C. Fam. xvi. 7. 'Roman! 
 semper appetentes gloriae praeter ceteras gentis atque avidi laud is fuerunt/ 
 C. p. L. Man. 3. ' Catilinae corpus erat patiens inediae, vigiliae, algoris,' SalL 
 Cat. 9. ' Themistocles peritissimos belli navalis fecit Atheniensis,' N. Them. 2^ 
 
i79-8- The Infinitive. 4 2 7 
 
 iii. Infinitive as Object. 
 
 'Adimam cantare severis/ Hor. Epist. i. 19. 9. 'Mori 
 
 sapiens miserum dux it/ C. Fam. vi. 3. 
 
 Infin. with Attribute : 
 
 ' H oc ridere meum, tarn nil, nulla tibi vendo Iliade/ Pers. i. 122. 
 
 With Preposition : 
 
 'Multum interest inter dare et accipere/ Sen. Ben. v. 2. 
 
 On the Historic Infinitive see p. 332 ; Infin. Clause, 194. 
 
 iv. P relative Infinitive. (See 102, 103.) is 
 
 (i) The 'Extensible' Verbs which take this Infinitive imply: 
 ability ', learning, knowledge; duty; desire, dislike ; daring, dread, 
 hesitation; custom; endeavour, purpose, resolve; omission, negltct; 
 beginning, continuing, ceasing ; hastening, delaying ; deserving. 
 
 Also Passive Verbs of seeming, being deemed, said, found, &c. : 
 with doceor, moneor, cogor, iubeor, vetor, prohibeor, impedior : 
 
 Possum (queo, debeo, volo, nolo, audeo, soleo, meditor, certo, 
 coepi, desino, cogito, propero, moror, animum induce, vide or, 
 putor, dicor, reperior, doceor, iubeor, &c.) currere, legere, &c. 
 
 If the Infinitive depending on any such Verb is Copulative, the 
 Complement will agree with the Subject : 
 
 Possum (debeo, volo, &c. ; videor, putor, &c. ; cogor, iubeor, 
 vetor, &c.) esse tranquillus, esse doctus, esse philosophus, &c. 
 
 Obs. i. Verbs of Desire, and oportet, take a Perf. Participle as 
 Passive Infin. : ' Patriae consultum volo/ / wish my country's 
 good to be regarded. ' Mansum oportuit/ we ought to have re- 
 mained. See 203. 
 
 ' In omnibus rebus est aliquid optimum, etiamsi latet, idque ab eo potest, qui e i u s rei 
 g n a r u s est, iudicari/ C. d. Or. ii. 2. ' Orator nephysicorum quidem sit i g n a r u s/ 
 C. Or. 34. 'Evander vir erat venerabilis miraculo litterarum, rei novae inter r u d i s 
 artium homines,' L. i. 7. 'Pecoris cupidissimi sunt barbari,' Caes. B. G. vi. 34. 
 ' Urbanae militiae Proculus impiger fuit, bellorum insolens,' Tac. If. i. 87. 
 *Galli homines insueti laboris,' Caes. B. G. vii. 30. 'Uti iam te, frater, non solum 
 vitae sed etiam dignitatis meae superstitem reliquissem,' C. Qu. F. i. 3. 'Mihi 
 quidem stultius nihil videtur, quam existimare eumstudiosum tui, quern non noris,* 
 C. d. Pr. C. 7. 'Caveant intemperantiam, meminerint ver ecundiae,' C. Off. i. 34. 
 ' Plancii mer iti in me recorder,' C./. Plane. 28. ' Proprium est stultitiae, aliorum vitia 
 cernere, suorum oblivisci,' C. T. D. iii. 73. 'Neque omnino huius rei meminit 
 usquampoeta,'Qu. xi. 2. 'Admonitus sum huius aeris alien i,'C. Top. 1.5. 'Gram- 
 maticos officii sui common emus/Qu. 1.5. 'VenitmihiPlatonisin mentem/C. 
 Fin. v. i. 'Beneficia debet m e m i n i s s e is, in quern collata sunt, non commemorare, 
 qui contulit,' C. Lael. 20. ' Est operae pretium diligentiam maiorum recordari/C. 
 d. L. Agr. ii. 73. ' O b 1 i v i s c o r i n i u r i a s, depono memoriam doloris mei,' C. /. Coel. 50. 
 'Ea potius reminiscere, quae digna tua persona sunt,' C. Fam. iv. 5. 'Viveme- 
 mor leti,' Pers. v. 153. 'Omnes immemore m beneficii oderunt.' C. Off. ii. 63. 
 ' Qui misereri mei debent, non desinunt invidere/ C. Att. iv. 5. 'Tui me miseret, 
 mei piget,' C. Div. i. 66. ' Numquam in re bona mali pudebit auctoris,' Sen. 
 Tranq. IT. 'Numquam primi consili Deum paenitet,' Sen. Ben. 23. ' Me non 
 solum piget stultitiae meae, sed etiam pudet,' C. p. Dom. 29. * Prorsus vitae 
 taedet; ita sunt omnia miseriarum plenissima,' C. Att. ii. 24. ' Postquam Alexander 
 Clitum trucidaverat, p i g e r e eum f a c t i coepit, ' lust. xii. 6. 'Decemvirorum Ro- 
 manospertaesum est,' L. iii. 67. 
 
428 Latin Syntax. 181. 
 
 Obs. 2. Habeo, do, idiomatically take Infin.: 'Tantum habeo 
 polliceri,' C.Fam.i. 'Dare bibere,' L. Similarly, ' Dederat 
 comam diffundere ventis, V. (for ad diffundendum). 
 
 Obs. 3. Coepit, incipit, desinit, debet, potest, solet, are 
 impersonal with impers. Infinitives: 'Paenitere eumfacti coepit,' 
 'Perveniri ad summa nisi ex principiis non potest/ Ou. x. i. 
 
 <Coeptumest/ desitum est are so used with Pass. Infin. 
 
 (Coeptus sum, desitus sum are used personally with Pass. Infin.) 1 
 
 Obs. 4. The construction of Infin. with Verbs of motion is found 
 in poets : * Ego hue missa sum ludere,' Plaut. 
 
 (2) The Infinitive extends also the construction of Adjectives in 
 poetry, and in the prose of the Silver Age, especially in Tacitus. 
 A few Adjectives are thus used by Cicero, Livy, &c., but the 
 greatest number appear in poetry, especially in Horace : 
 
 'Audax omnia perpeti ; ; ' impiger hostium vexare turmas.' 
 Other Adjectives so used are : aptus,blandus, bonus, callidus,catus, 
 cautus, celer, doctus, durus, efficax, facilis, fortis, idoneus, impotens, 
 largus, lenis, natus, neglegens, par, pernix, pertinax, potens, piger, 
 praesens, prudens, segnis, sellers, timidus, &c. 
 181 
 
 Con- II) Cases of the Infinitive (Gerunds and Supines), 
 
 tion. v. Gerundial Construction. 
 
 The base of the Latin Gerundial Construction (as of the partially 
 corresponding Greek) is a Participial Adjective the Gerundive in 
 dusj which, as Pott says, is neither Active nor Passive exclusively : 
 bibendus, proper for drinking. This serves three uses : 
 
 (i) By its Oblique Cases (called Gerunds) it completes (with the 
 Supines) the Active Infinitive Verb-noun : 
 
 Sing. N. bibere, Ace. bibere (ad bibendum, bibitum), Gen. bi- 
 bendi, Dat. bibendo, Abl. bibendo (in &c. bibendo), bibitu. 
 
 1 Copulative Verbs Passive are oftener used personally with an Infinitive than with 
 the Infin. Clause. Videtur errasse Cicero, not, videtur errasse Ciceronem. But nuntior, 
 dicor, trader, credor can take the Clause. ' Nuntiatum est adesse Scipionem,' Caes. 
 And Cic. once uses ' videtur mihi ' with Clause : T. D. v. 5. 
 
 A Periphrastic or Combinate Infin. (-us esse, -urus esse, -ndus esse) frequently follows 
 such Verbs; and esse as often as not is suppressed. 'Titus Manlius locutus 
 fertur,' L. 'Affatus dicitur tmdas,' Mart. 'Creditur olim velificatus 
 Athos, ' I u v. ' S e c u t u r i vindicem libertatis videbantur, 'L. 'Delectus haben- 
 dus putatur.' This idiom has not been adequately noticed by grammarians and 
 commentators: and hence words have been taken as Participles which are true Infini- 
 tives. Such in Horace are 'solitus,' S. i. i. 66 ; 'collisa,' Ep. i. 2. 7, and perhaps 
 *adfatus,' C. i. 7. 24: especially 'coactus,' C. i. 16. 14, where the construction (undis- 
 cerned till lately) is, 'Prometheus fertur coactus . . . etapposuisse . . . ,' Pro- 
 metheus is reported to have been compelled, &c. , and to have attached, c. This ex- 
 planation having been questioned by some on account of the coupling of Act. and Pass. 
 Infin., the following instances (supplied by Mr. Munro) remove that objection. 'Aut 
 tenui percussum verbere Circes et cum remigibus grunnisse Elpenora porcis/ 
 luv. xv. 21. ' Bustis exisse feruntur et tacitae q u e s t i tempore noctis avi,' Ov. F. 
 ii. 551. 'Emersisse iam e vadis et scopulos praetervecta videtur oratio mea, 
 C. p. Cael. 21. ' Ne aut velificatus alicui dicaris, aut aliquid, quod referret 
 scire, reticuisse,' Cael. ap. C. Fam. viii. 10. Also L. i. n ; Tac. Ann. i. 65 : Sen. 
 OetL 768 ; Caes. ap. C. Att. x. 3 ; Cic. Att. ix. n. So the omission of the finite est 
 from Perfects Pass, and Dep., frequent as it is, has sometimes caused these to be mis- 
 taken for mere Participles: 'mirata,' Hor. C. iv. 9. 15 ; 'ausa,' Hor. C. i. 37. 25. See 99. 
 
1 82. Gerunds. 429 
 
 (Its Adjectival origin appears in Gerundial Attraction.) 
 
 (2) Its Neuter Nom. with est becomes a Verb Impersonal, signify- 
 ing necessity, duty, meetness : ' Nunc est bibendum.' 
 
 (3) As a Participle, it still signifies necessity, duty, meetness t but 
 has the Adjectival Construction of Attribute or Complement : 
 
 Aqua bibenda : aqua est bibenda. 
 
 vi. The Gerunds. 
 
 (i) In the Gerunds, two things are to be considered : 
 
 A) The cases which depend on them as Verbs. 
 
 B) Their own dependence as Oblique Cases of Nouns. 
 
 A) A Gerund may govern the same Case as its Verb : 
 
 Spes satisfaciendi reipublicae. 
 
 A Transitive Gerund, in classic authors, does not generally take 
 anAccus., except of Pronouns or Neuter Plural Adjectives : aliquid, 
 multa, omnia, c. But it may do so when rhythm or perspicuity 
 recommends : 
 
 ' Salutem hominibus dando.' 
 
 The usual construction of a Transitive Gerund is that called 
 Gerundial Attraction, by which the Gerund assumes the Gen- 
 der and Number of its Object, and the Object assumes the Case 
 of the Gerund : 
 
 For ' tuendi urbem' is written 'tuendae urbis.' 
 ' liberandi cives' ( liberandorum civium.' 
 
 B) Dependence of the four Gerunds : 
 
 a) The Accus. Gerund depends on Prepositions : ad, inter, 
 ob ; rarely ante, circa, post. Ad discendum; ad 
 agros colendos ; inter ludendum ; ob rem iudicandam. 
 
 ft The Gen. Gerund depends, as Subjective, Descriptive, or 
 
 Objective, on numerous Substantives: amor, ars, causa 
 
 (also causa, for the sake], &c. 
 As Objective, it depends on many Adjectives which govern 
 
 a Genitive: cap ax, cupidus, ignarus, peritus, &c. 
 Ars canendi ; studium dicendi ; scientia civitatis regendae ; 
 
 cupidus audiendi ; conscius delendae tyrannidis ; dux 
 
 bene vivendi, &c. 
 
 y) The Dat. Gerund as Dativus Commodi depends on 
 
 Verbs and Adjectives of ability, attention* and adaptation: 
 praeesse, operam dare, sufficere, esse, &c. ; aptus, utilis, &c. 
 Substantives : locus, materia, sedes, &c. 
 (Generally) on any predication implying purpose : 
 f Operam dedi pingendo ; ' ' Aqua utilis (inutilis) bibendo/ 
 4 Studium aptum ingeniis acuendis/ &c. : solvendo non 
 esse (to be insolvent). 
 
 The purpose of an office is stated in this form : 
 'Tiberius Gracchus triumvir dividendis agris creatus 
 est/ Tiberius Gracchus was elected one of three commis- 
 sioners to divide the lands, Flor. 
 
43 Latin Syntax. 183-85. 
 
 ) The Abl. Gerund is of cause, instrument, or manner ; and 
 
 with the Prepositions d e, ex, in ; rarely pro. 
 Mens alitur discendo, audiendis philosophis : in iubendo ; a 
 scribendo ; de captivis commutandis, &c. 
 
 183 vii. Impersonal Gerundive Construction. 
 
 (2) This is not used transitively, but may be without Case : 
 
 ' Bibendum est,' we must drink, Ace. bibendum esse : 
 or it may govern any Case but the Accusative : 
 
 'Serviendum est legibus -. 'utendum est aetate.' 
 In old Latin the Accus. was used : 
 ' Aeternas quoniam poenas in morte timendum/ Lucr. 
 
 18 4 viii. Attributive Gerundive Construction. 
 
 (3) This is used by Transitive Verbs only : 
 
 ' Aqua bibendaest,' water should be drunk. 
 
 Obs. The Gerundive may be an Epithet : 
 
 ' Ridenda poemata/ ridiculous poems, luv. x. 
 but oftener takes a Dative Case (see p. 390) : 
 
 ' Proelia coniugibus loquenda,' battles for wives to talk of, Hor. 
 
 For this Dative an Ablative of the Agent with ab may be used 
 if required for perspicuity. 
 
 185 ixf'Notes on Gerund and Gerundive. 
 
 1) The Verbs fungor, fruor, utor, vescor, potior, may 
 be used in Gerundive Construction, both attractional and attri- 
 butive, because they were anciently Transitive : 
 
 ' Officii fungendi causa.' 'Vita non fruenda sed utenda est.' 
 
 2) The Genitive Gerund is found with dependent Gen. : * 
 
 ( Nobis fuit exemplorum eligendi potestas/ we had the 
 power of choosing examples, C. d. Inv. ii. 2. 
 
 3) It appears in historians as causal : 
 
 ' Regium imperium conservandae libertatis fuerat/ the 
 royal power had existed for the preservation of freedom, Sail. 
 Cat. 6. 
 
 A strange idiom is used by Tacitus : ' Vologesi vetus et penitus 
 infixum erat arma Romana vitandi/ Vologeses had an old and 
 deeply rooted practice of shunning the Roman arms, xv. 5. 
 
 4) The Attracted Abl. is found after a Comparative : 
 'Nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est/ 
 
 no duty is more necessary than gratitude, C. Off. i. 1 5. 
 
 1 Madvig (on Cic. Fin. p. 112) says that this Gen. is always Plural. But this is. 
 disproved by Munro (on Lucr. v. 1225), and Wagner (on Ter. Haut., Note 29)^ 
 
186-87. Supines. 431 
 
 5) The Gerundive is used as Oblique Complement with do, trado, 
 conduco, loco, propono, euro, &c., to express purpose : 
 
 'Scriba quidam Cn. Flavius ediscendos fastos populo pro- 
 posuit/ one Flavius, a clerk, published the calendar for the 
 people to learn by heart, C. p. Mur. n. t Conon muros 
 Athenarum reficiendos cur at/ N. Con. 5. See 131. 
 
 (So Pass. : i Vita data est utenda/ life was given to be used.) 
 Poets use an Infin. for this Gerundive : 
 
 ' Tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare Creticum 
 port are ventis/ sadness and terror I will deliver to the 
 boisterous winds to carry into the Cretan Sea, Hor. C. i. 26. 1. 
 
 x. The Two Supines. Supines. 
 
 These are Cases of Verb-nouns of the U-declension. 
 
 (1) The First or Accus. Supine (-um) implies Purpose after a Verb 
 of actual or implied motion : 
 
 'Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego/ Hor. S. i. 5. 48. 
 
 a) It may take a Case : 
 
 ' Hannibal defensum patriam revocatus est/ N. Han. 6. 
 
 b) Sometimes motion is rather implied than expressed : 
 'Coctum ego, non vapulatum conductus sum/ / was 
 
 hired to cook, not to be beaten, Plaut. Aul. iii. 3. 3. ' Augus- 
 tus filiam luliam primum Marcello, mox Agrippae nuptum 
 dedit/ Suet. Aug. 63. 
 
 c) ' Ire 7 with this Supine means to set about doing a thing \ 
 
 Perditum ire, raptum ire, ultum ire, &c. 
 
 Hence the use of the Impers. Infin. iri with the Supine to supply 
 a Passive form for Infin. Fut. 
 
 ' Audierat non datum iri filio uxorem suo/ Ter. An. i. 2. 6. 
 
 d) Other constructions oftener express the purpose of motion : 
 
 ' Eunt consultum Apollinem. 7 For ' consul turn 7 might be used, 
 *ut consulerent/ 'qui consulerent' 'ad consulen- 
 dum/ ' consulendi causa : 7 less usually, * consulturi. 7 
 Livy uses this Supine most largely. 
 
 (2) The Second or Abl. Supine (-u) limits the undeclined Substan- 187 
 tives fas, nefas, opus, and Adjectives which signify good or evil, 
 pleasantness or unpleasantness, fitness or unfitness, &c. 
 
 ' Nefas visu/ horrible to behold. ' Turpe dictu/ shameful to say. 
 
 a) After some words, ad with the Gerund is more elegant : 
 .' Cibus facillimus ad concoquendum/ C. Fin. ii. 20. 
 
 ^) In poetry the Infinitive may be used : 
 
 * Cereus in vitium flecti/ waxlike in being moulded to vice, 
 Hor. Pis. 161. 
 
432 Latin Syntax. 188. 
 
 c) The Supine in -u is rare after Verbs : ' Pudet dictu/ Tac. 
 
 d) Anciently it appears as an Ablative of Origin : 
 
 'Primus cubitu surgat vilicus, postremus cub i turn eat/ the 
 bailiff should be the first to get up, the last to go to bed, Cato. 
 
 188 Note on the Annexive Relation. 
 
 A Word is said to be in Annexive Relation to another, when it is 
 so joined to it by a Conjunction (expressed or understood) as to 
 take the same construction on the same grounds: ' Dis homini- 
 b usque visum est ;' 'non mihi loquitur sed tibi;' 'Brutumnon 
 minus amo quam tu, paene dixi, quam te :' where tu, by being 
 Nominative, shows that it is annexed to ego understood: te, by 
 being Accusative, shows that it is annexed to Brutum. 
 
 Examples of Infinitive. 
 
 'Non attinet quicquam sequi quod assequi non queas,' C. Off. i. 31. 'Quo 
 mihi fortunam. si non conceditur uti?' Hor. Epist. i. 5. 12. ' Flaccum numquam pro- 
 spexisse vestrae saluti paenitebit,' C./. Fl. 41. ' Bene sentire recteque facere satis 
 e s t ad bene beateque vivendum/ C. Fain. vi. i. ' D e c e t verecundum e s s e adulescentem,* 
 Plaut. As. v. i. 'Consulem fieri valde utile Mario videbatur/ C. Off. iii. 20. ' lovis 
 esse nepoti contigit baud uni,' Ov. Met. xi. 219. 'Mihi iurato dicere fas fuit/ 
 C./. Mur. 37. ' Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis,' C Att. xiii. 28. ' Id primum videamus, 
 beate vivere vestrum quale sit/ C. Fin. ii. 27. 'Neque mihi praestabilius quicquam. 
 videtur quam posse dicendo hominum voluntates impellere quo velit, unde 
 autem velit; deducere,'C. d. Or. i. 8. ' Honeste atque inhoneste venderemos erat, 
 Sail. Cat. 30. ' Fas est et ab hoste doceri,' Ov. M. iv. 428. 
 
 'Aristo et Pyrrho inter optime vale re et gravissime aegrotare nihil prorsus 
 dicebant interesse,' C. Fin. ii. 13. 
 
 ' Nondum fuga certa, nondum victoria erat ; tegi magis Romanus, quam pugnare ; 
 Volscus inferre signa, urge re aciem, plus caedis hostium videre quam fugae/ L. 
 iv. 37. See Sail. B. Iitg. 50. 51. 75. 
 
 ' Certos mihi finis terminosque constituam, extra quos egredi non possim, si maxime 
 velim,' C. p. Quinct. 10. 'Perge reliqua ; gestio enim scire omnia,' C. Att. iv. n. 
 'Aelius Stoicus esse voluit, orator autem nee studuit umquam nee fuit,' C. Br. 56. 
 'Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat,' Sail. Cat. 54. 'Tu animum poteris in- 
 ducere contra haec dicere?' C. Div. i. 13. ' Thrace s, navibus committere se non 
 ausi, domos dilapsi sunt,' L. xliv. 45. ' Miltiades Chersonesi manere decrevit,' Nep. 
 Milt. 2. ' Desiderio Romuli populus Romanus regem fl a git are non destitit/ C. Rep. 
 ii. 12. ' Spartae pueri rapere discunt,' C. Rep. iv. 5. ' Vos sociis prospicere labo- 
 ratis,' C. Verr.'\\\. 55. ' Sestii mortem ulcisceremini, si liberi esse cogitaretis,' 
 C. /. Sest. 38. ' Datames Aegyptum proficisci parabat,' N. Dat. 4. 'Fortes et 
 sapientes viri non tarn praemia sequi solent recte factorum quam ipsa recte facta,' 
 C. P. Mil. 35. 'Verus patriae diceris esse pater,' Mart. Sp. iii. ii. 'Amens 
 mihi fuisse videor a principio,' C. Att. ix. 10. 'Barbara narratur venisse vene- 
 fica tecum,' Ov. H. vi. 19. ' In Graecia primum humanitas, litterae, etiam fruges in- 
 ventae esse creduntur,' Plin. Ep. viii. 24. 'Existimatur Caelius Catilinae 
 nimium familiar is fuisse,' C. /. Cael. 4. 'Prometheus affix us Caucaso trade- 
 batur,' C. T. D. v. 3. 'Commisisse cavet quae mox mutare laboret,' Hor. in 
 Pis. 168. ' Romani pepercisse volunt/ L. xxxii. 21. ' Content i sumus illud 
 unum dixisse, quanti ille fuerit/ Veil. ii. 108. 'Si potuit meruisse necem, me- 
 ruisse putetur,' Ov. H. xi. 109. ' Haec fere dicere habui de natura deorum,' C. 
 N. D. iii. 39. 'Gallinis meridie bibere dato,' Cat. 89. 'Legati Celtiberorum nihil 
 prius petierunt a praetore quam ut bibere sibi iuberet dari/ L. xl. 47. ' Lucere 
 coepit/C. Div. i. 23. 'Non desiit paenitere me suscepti adversus Romanes belli/ 
 L. xxiii. 13. 'Solet eum, cum aliquid furiose fecit, paenitere/ C. Att. viii. 5. 
 'Armis disceptari coeptum est de iure publico/ C. Fam. iv. 4. 'lampridem contra 
 eos desitum est disputari/ C. Fin. ii. 13. ' Comitia nostra haberi coepta sunt/ 
 C. Verr. i. 9. 'Papirius Crassus primus Papisius est vocaridesitus/C. Fam. ix. 21. 
 
1 88. Gerunds and Supines. 433 
 
 ' Glebae coepere moveri/ Ov. M. iii. 106. ' Is est maxima docilis qui attentissime est 
 paratus audire/ C. Inv. i. 16. ' Reficit rates quassas, indocil is pauperiem pat!,' 
 Hor. C. i. i. ' Maesta civitas fuit, vinci insueta/ L. iv. 31. 
 
 Examples of Gerunds and Gerundive. 
 
 I. (Gerunds and Gerundial Attraction.) * Fuerunt apud Romanes qui assentando 
 multitudini grassarentur,' L. xlv. 23. * Diogenes dicebat, artem se tradere bene dis- 
 serendi et vera ac falsa diiudicandi,' C. d. Or. ii. 38. ' Ita nati factique 
 sumus, ut et agendi aliquid et diligendi aliquos, et libertatis, et referendae 
 gratiae principia in nobis contineremus,' C. Fin. v. 15. * Nulla causa iusta cuiquam 
 esse potest contra patriam arma capiendi,'C. Phil. ii. 22. 'Legem doctissimi viri 
 Graeco putant nomine a suum cuique tribu endo appellatam/ C. Leg. i. 16. ' Cernitur 
 in delectu bonorum et malorum iustitia, et in suo cuique tribu endo/ C. Fin. v. 23. 
 'Non solum ad discendum propensi sumus, verum etiam ad docendum/ C. Fin- 
 iii. 20. 'Oculus conturbatus non est probe affectus ad suum munus fungendum/ 
 C. T. D. iii. 7. ' Mores puerorum se inter ludendum simplicius detegunt,' Qu. i. 3. 
 12. ' Flagitiosum est, eum, a quo pecuniam ob absolvendum acceperis, condem- 
 nare,' C. Verr. ii. 32. 'Homo magna habt instrumenta ad obtinendam adipi- 
 scendamque sapientiam/ C. Leg. i. 22. 'Eadem precor a dis immortalibus ob 
 L. Murenae consulatum una cum salute obtinendum/ C. /. Mur. i. ' Nihil Xeno- 
 phonti tarn regale videtur quam studium agri colendi,' C. Cat. N. 17. 'Veni 
 consulis Antoni domum saepe salutandi causa/ C. Fam. xi. 28. * Reliqua, ita mihi 
 salus aliqua detur potestasque in patria moriendi, ut me lacrimae non sinunt scri- 
 bere,' C. Q. Fr. i. 3. 'lustitiaefruendae causa videntur olim bene morati reges 
 constituti,' C. Off. ii. 12. ' Py thagoreorum more exercendae memoriae gratia 
 quid quoque die dixerim, audierim, egerim, commemoro vesperi/ C. Cat. M. ii. 
 ' EpaminondaS; studiosus erat audiendi,' Nep. Ep. 3. 'Demosthenes Platonis 
 studiosus audiendi fuit,' C. d. Or. i. 20. ' Homines be llandi cupidi magno 
 dolore afficiebantur,' Caes. B. G. i. 2. 'Multi propter gloriae cupiditatem cupidi 
 sunt bellorum gerendorum/ C. Off. i. 22. 'Multae res oratorem ab imperito 
 dicendi ignaroque distinguunt,' C. d. Or. iii. 44. 'Mons pecori bonus alendo 
 erat,' L. xxix. 31. ' Ver tamquam adulescentiam significat ostenditque fructus futuros ; 
 reliqua temporademetendis fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt,'C. 
 Cat. M. 19. 'Tu, Eruci, praeesse agro colendo flagitium putas?' C. /. 6*. Rose. 18. 
 'Consul placandis dis dat operam,' L. xxii. 2. 'Galli Transalpini haud procul 
 inde, ubi nunc Aquileia est, locum oppido condendo ceperunt,' L. xxxix. 22. 
 ' Multarum civitatum principes ad me detulerunt, sumptus decerni legatis nimis magnos, 
 cum solvendo 'civitates non essent,' C. Fam. iii. 8. 'Tributo plebes liberataest, 
 ut divites conferrent, quioneri ferendo essent,' L. ii. 9. 'Decemviros legibus 
 scribendis intra hos decem annos et creavimus et e republica sustulimus,' L. iv. 4. 
 'Valerius consul comitia collegae subrogando habuit,' L. ii. 8. 'Hominis niens 
 di seen do alitur ct cogitando,' C. Off. i. 30. ' Omnis loquendi elegantia augetur 
 legendis oratoribus et poetis/ C. d. Or. iii. 10. 'Aristotelem non deterruit a 
 scribendo Platonis amplitude,' C. d. Or. i. ' Multa de bene beateque vivendo a 
 Platone disputata sunt,' C. Fin. i. 2. 'Exprovidendo appellata est prudentia,' C. Leg. 
 i. 23. 'Saepe plus in metuendo mali est, quam in illo ipso, quod timetur,' C. Fam. 
 vi. 4. 'In voluptate spernenda virtus vel maxime cernitur,' C. Leg. i. 19. 
 'Reliquorum siderum quae causa collocandi fuerit, quaeque eorum sit collocatio, 
 in alium sermonem differendum est,' C. Tim. 9. 'Agitur, utrum M. Antonio facultas 
 detur opprimendae rei publicae, caedis faciendae bonorum, diripiendae 
 urbis, agrorum suis condonandi,' C. Phil. v. 3. 'Aedui legatos ad Caesarem 
 sui purgandi gratia mittunt/ Caes. B. G. vii. 43. 'Haec .prodendi imperi 
 Romani, tradendae Hannibali victoriae sunt/ L. xxvil 9. 
 
 II. (Impers. andAttrib. Gerundive.) 'Hie vobis vincendum aut moriendum 
 est, milites/ L. xxi. 43. ' Orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano/ luv. x. 
 356. 'Noncorpori soli subveniendum est, sed menti atque animo multo magis, 
 C. Cat. M. ii. 'Suum cuique incommodum ferendum est potius, quam de alterius 
 commodis detrahendum/ C. Off. iii. 6. 'Apud Pythagoram discipulis quinque 
 annis tacendum erat/ Sen. Ep. 52. 'Tria videnda sunt oratori : quid dicat, et 
 quo quicque loco, et quomodo/ C. Or. 14. 'Semper ita vivamus ut rationem redden- 
 da.m nobis arbitremur/ C. Verr. ii. ii. 'Pietati summa tribuenda laus est/ C. 
 d. Or. ii. 40. ' Quaeritur, praeponendane sit divitiis gloria/ C. Top. 22. 'Suo 
 cuique iudicio est utendum/ C. N. D. iii. i. 'Sentio moderandum mihi esse 
 
 F F 
 
434 Latin Syntax. 189. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 SUBORDINATION OF CLAUSES. 
 
 (See Chapter I. 100.) 
 189 
 Subor- Subordinate Clauses are of three kinds : 
 
 dinate 
 
 Clauses. ^ Substantival ; B) Adverbial ; C) Adjectival or Relative. 
 A) On Substantival Clauses see 100, p. 349. 
 
 H) An Adverbial Clause qualifies the Principal Sentence 
 like an Adverb, answering the questions how, why, 
 when, &c. 
 
 Such Clauses are of seven kinds : 
 
 Consecutive (so that) Conditional (if, unless, &c.) 
 
 Final (in order that) Concessive (although, &c.) 
 
 Causal (because, since, c.) Comparative (as if, &c.) 
 
 Temporal (when, whilst, &c.) 
 
 Q An A d j e c t i v a 1 or Relative Clause is formed by the Relative 
 qui or one of its Particles. When this contains some 
 Adverbial sense (so that, in order that, since, if, although)^ 
 it generally exhibits the Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 iam orationi meae/ C. Verr.\\\. $$. ' Intellegite quibus credendumeta quibtts 
 cavendum sit/ L. xxxiv. 39. * Aguntur bona multorum civium, quibus est a vobis 
 et ipsorum et reipublicae causa con sulendum,' C. p. L. Man. 2. ( Spectandus in 
 certamine Martio/ Hor. C. iv. 14. "Thrasybulus legem oblivionis jion tantum 
 ferendam curavit, sed etiam ut valeret effecit,' Nep. Thras. 3. 'Pueris sen- 
 tentias ediscendas damus,' Sen. Ep. 33. 'Redemptor columnam lovis con- 
 duxerat faciendam/ C. Div. ii. 21. 
 
 Examples of Supines. 
 
 (First Supine.) ' Coriolanus in Volscos exsulatum abiit/ L. ii. 35. 'Legati at 
 
 flagitiis dedecoravere turpissimi viri, bonorum praemia ereptum eunt,' Sail. Jug. 85. 
 *In earn spem erecta civitas erat, in Africa eo anno debellatum iri/ L. xxix. 14. 
 ' Dumnorix propinquas suas nuptum in alias civitates collocavit,' Caes. B. G. i. 18. 
 
 (Second Supine.) ' Narratio brevis erit, si non longius, quam quod scitu opus 
 est, in narrando procedetur,' C. Inv. i. 20. ' Humanus animus cum alio nullo, nisi cum 
 ipso deo, si hoc fas est dictu, comparari potest,' C. T. D.\. 13. 'Quid est tarn 
 iucundum cognitu atque auditu quam sapientibus sententiis gravibusque verbis 
 ornata oratio?' C. d. Or. i. 8. 'Quod optimum factu videbitur, facies,' C. Att. vii. 
 22. ' Ad imitandum tarn milii propositum exemplar illud_est quam tibL' C. +Mur. 31. 
 
190-91. Suboblique Construction. 435 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 SUBOBLIQUE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 i. Oratio Obliqua. Or *^ 
 
 1) Oratio Obliqua (in distinction from Oratio Recta, direct 
 oration} is a term especially applied to Substantival Clauses, and, 
 above all, to the Infinitive Clause and its substitutes. 
 
 2) A subordinate or dependent Clause may have another depend- 
 ing on it ; and in a long Compound Sentence, or Period, there may 
 thus be a primary, secondary, c., dependence of clauses. 
 
 If the Verb (whether Infin. or Finite) of a primary dependence 
 forms Oratio Obliqua, the Verb of a following dependence is ' Sub- 
 ordinate to Oratio Obliqua/ or (in one word) Suboblique. 
 
 ii. The first important Rule of dependent Construction is this : 
 
 I) A Suboblique Finite Verb is in the Subjunctive 
 Mood. 
 
 This is seen by comparison of the two following passages : 
 
 Oratio Recta : 'Ars earum rerum est quae sciuntur ; oratoris 
 autem omnis actio opinionibus, non scientia, continetur: 
 nam et apud eos dicimus, qui nesciunt, et ea dici- 
 mus, quae nescimus ipsi/ C. d. Or. ii. 7. 
 Oratio Obliqua: (Antonius apud Ciceronem docet:) Artem 
 earum rerum esse, quae sciantur: oratoris autem omnem 
 actionem opinione, non scientia, contineri; quia et 
 apud eos dicat, qui nesciant, et ipse dicat quod nesciat. 
 
 Here 'artem esse/ 'actionem contineri/ form Oratio Obliqua, 
 and the Finite Verbs in subsequent dependence (sciantur, dicat, 
 nesciant, nesciat) are therefore Subjunctive. 
 
 iii. But, secondly, a principal Verb often contains more than is virtual 
 expressed by the mere form ; not merely the writer's or speaker's Oratio 
 declaration, but an implied opinion or assertion of some other ; Obll ^ ua - 
 upon which the Verb of the primary clause may depend. Such a 
 principal predication has been called by some writers ' Cogitatio 
 Obliqua/ but a more convenient term is 'Virtual Oratio 
 Obliqua:' from which it follows that the dependent Verb is 
 Virtually Suboblique. 
 
 Hence results the second Rule of dependent Construction : 
 namely, 
 
 II) A Finite Verb virtually Suboblique is in the Sub- 
 junctive Mood. 
 
 Laud at Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens. 
 {' Laudat' implies 'ait esse laudandum.') 
 
 Caesar Aeduos frumentum, quod polliciti essent, flagitabat, 
 (Flagitabat implies that Caesar reminded the Aedui of their 
 promise. Hence the Mood of polliciti essent.) 
 
 F F2 
 
436 Latin Syntax. 192-93. 
 
 A mere change in the Mood of the dependent Verb may cause 
 a change of reference to, or from, the writer or speaker : 
 
 'Themistocles noctu ambulabat in publico, quod somnura 
 capere non posset.' 
 
 Here the mood of posset (and this alone) refers the clause to- 
 the mind of Themistocles, who alleged inability to sleep as the 
 reason why he was in the habit of walking by night. Had poterat 
 been written, the sentence would still be good Latin, but the cause 
 would then rest on the assertion of the writer (Cicero). 
 
 iv. The principle of Rules II. and III. is, that dependence $n a 
 conception must itself be conceptive ; and, as the Conjunctive is the 
 Mood of Conception, this leads to the third important rule : 
 192 
 
 Depen- III) A Verb really dependent on a Conjunctive Verb 
 
 Con C - e n is generally Subjunctive: 
 
 jj^ c ~ 'Equidem illud molior, ut mihi Caesar concedat ut absim, cum 
 
 aliquid in senatu contra Gnaeum agatur,' C. Att. ix. 6. 'Quaerimus 
 qualis in bello praedonum praedo ipse fuerit Verres, qui in foro> 
 populi Romani pirata nefarius reperiatur ?' C. Verr. i. 59. ' Erat 
 in Hortensio memoria tanta ut, quae secum commentatus 
 esset, ea sine scripto verbis eisdem redderet, quibus cogita- 
 visset/ C. JBr. 88. 
 
 Agatur is Subjunctive, being dependent on absim; reperi- 
 atur, on qualis fuerit; commentatus esset and cogitavisset, 
 on redderet. 
 
 193 
 Excep- v. Exceptions to the Law of Mood in Dependence. 
 
 tions. 
 
 1) A Clause which seems, by its position, to depend on Oratio 
 Obliqua, may be independent ; that is, it may contain a fact in- 
 troduced by the author : in which case the Mood will be Indie. : 
 
 'Caesari nuntiatum est, Sulmonensis, quod oppidum a Cor- 
 finio septem milium intervallo abest, cupere ea facere, quae 
 vellet, sed a Q. Lucretio senatore et Attio Paeligno prohiberi, 
 qui id oppidum septem cohortium praesidio tenebant,' Caes. B. C 
 i. 18. 
 
 The Clauses quod . . . abest and qui . . . tenebant con- 
 tain facts stated by the historian, and are not part of the message 
 received by Caesar. But quae vellet is dependent. 
 
 2) A short Relative Clause, especially when it immediately fol- 
 lows a Demonstrative, is often constructed independently of Oratio* 
 Obliqua, being regarded as a mere epithet : 
 
 'Eloquendi vis efficit ut eaquae ignoramus discere, et ea 
 quae scimus alios docere possimus,' C. N. D. ii. 59. 
 
 3) Dum (whilst} is sometimes constructed with Present Indie., 
 even when subordinate to Oratio Obliqua : 
 
 ' Quanto laudabilius periturum Pisonem, dum amplecti- 
 tur rempublicam, dum auxilia libertati invocat!' Tac. Ann. 
 xv. 59. 
 
 (Other reasons may occur, inducing an author to exempt a 
 Clause from the general law and to keep the 'Indie. Mood.) 
 
J94 Substantival Clauses. 437 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES. 
 
 I) Indirect Statement (Enuntiatio Obliqua). XQ4 
 
 This has three forms : (i) first and principally the Infinitive t ive m " 
 Clause : (2) the Ut-clause : (3) the Quod-clause. Clause. 
 
 A. The Infinitive Clause, or Accusative with 
 Infinitive. 
 
 1) This is introduced 
 
 As Object, by 'Verba Declarandi et Sentiendi/ Verbs which 
 state or imply a fact, feeling, or opinion. 
 
 Such are: a) aio, dico, fateor, nego, scribo, &c., auctor sum; 
 certiorem facio : b) audio, credo, disco, puto, scio, spero, &c., 
 gaudeo, gratulor, &c. 
 
 As Subject, by the Passives of such Verbs; by Impersonal 
 Verbs of those meanings: apparet, cohstat, interest, patet, 
 placet, &c. ; byest with many Adjectives, cert um est, credibile 
 (perspicuum, falsum, probabile, verum t verisimile, utile, &c.) est. 
 
 As Apposite, by Substantives and Pronouns : fama (mos, rumor, 
 spes, fas, &c.) est ; iliud certum est, illud nego, and the like. 
 
 2) The Tense of the Infinitive Verb will be such as sense and 
 consecution require. 
 
 Dico (dicam, dixero) 
 
 eum venire, that he is coming ; eum venisse, that he has come ; 
 eum venturum esse, that he will come. 
 
 Examples of Suboblique Construction. 
 
 I) 'Cato mirari se aiebat quod non rideret haruspex, haruspicem cum vi- 
 disset/ C. Div. ii. 24. 'Scito me, postquam in urbem venerim, redisse cum 
 libris in gratiam,' C. Fant. ix. i. 'Fateor me oratorem, si modo sim, ex Academiae 
 spatiis exstitisse,' C. Fin. v. 5. i. ' Sapientissimum esse dicunt eum, cui, quod 
 opus sit, ipsi veniat in mentem ; propius accedere ilium, qui alterius bene in- 
 ventis obtemperet/ C. p. Clu. 31. 
 
 II) 'Quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem,' Mart. xii. 28. 'Alium rogantes 
 regem misere ad lovem, inutilis quoniam esset qui fuerat datus,' Phaed. i. 2. 
 'Darius eius pontis, dum ipse abesset, custodes reliquit,' N. Milt. 3. 'In Hispania 
 prorogatum veteribus imperatoribus est imperiutn cum exercitibus quos haberent,' L. 
 xl. 18. f Cum abessem, quotienscunque patria in mentem veniret, haec omnia 
 occurrebant, colles campique et .Tiberis et hoc caelum sub quo natus e ducat usque 
 essem,' L. v. 54. 
 
 III) 'Dici non potest quin ii, qui nihil metuant, nihil angantur, nihil con- 
 cup is cant, bead sint,' C. T. D. v. 17. 'Hirri necessarii fidem implorarunt Pompeii ; 
 praestaret quod proficiscenti recepisset,' Caes. B. C. iii. 8. 'Miraretur qui 
 cerneret,' L. xxxiv. 9. 'Isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requiras,' 
 C. Cat. M. 10. 
 
 (Exceptions.') ' Themistocles Xerxem certiorem fecit id agi ut pons, quern in Helles- 
 ponto fecerat, dissolveretur/ N. Th. 9. 'Placet Stoicis eos anhelitus terrae, qui 
 frigidi sunt, cum fluere coeperint, ventos esse,' C. Div. ii. 19. 'Die, hospes, Spartae 
 nos te hie vidisse iacentis, dum sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur,' ap. Cic. 
 T. D. i. 42. 
 
43 8 Latin Syntax. 194. 
 
 Copias mitti, that forces are being sent ; copias missas esse, that 
 forces have been sent ; copias missum iri, that forces will be sent. 
 
 Dicebam (dixi, dixeram) 
 
 eum venire, that he was coming ; eum venisse, that he had 
 come ; eum venturum (esse), that he would come. 
 
 Copias mitti, that forces were being sent ; copias missas esse, that 
 forces had been sent ; copias missum iri (or missas fore), that forces 
 would be sent. 
 
 For copias missum iri may also be used : 
 
 ' Futurum (or fore) ut copiae mittantur (will) . . . mitterentur 
 (would}.' 
 
 If the Clause is to express that something would have happened 
 or not, this is done by using, 
 
 For Active sense, the Future Participle with fuisse : 
 Dico (dixi) . . . eum venturum fuisse, I say (said} that he would 
 have come (lit. was about to come}. 
 
 For Passive sense, futurum fuisse ut with Passive Subjunctive : 
 Dico (dixi) futurum fuisse ut copiae mitterentur, / say (said) 
 
 that forces would have been sent (lit. it was about to happen that 
 
 forces would be sent). 
 
 3) Verbs, which by their meaning imply that the dependent 
 action is Future, usually take a Future Infinitive Clause. 
 
 Such are Verbs of promising, vowing , threatening, hoping : 
 Polliceor, promitto, recipio, spondeo, voveo ; minor, minitor ; 
 spero, despero, spes est : 
 
 Pollicentur, minantur se ita facturos. 
 Speramus, spes est eum venturum esse. 
 
 a) Such Verbs are also found with a Present Clause : 
 
 'Modo sum pollicitus ducere/ I just now promised to marry 
 her, Ter. An. iii. 5. 7. ' Haec scripsi ut sperares te assequi 
 id quod optasses/ C. Fam. ii. 10. See M. Lucr. i. 722. 
 
 And when spero implies belief \ 
 
 ' Spero nostram amicitiam non egere testibus/ C. Fam. ii. 2. 
 
 b) Posse after a Verb of hoping gives a Future character to the 
 Clause : 
 
 'Velme licet existimes desperare ista posse perdiscere/ you 
 may deem that even I have no hope that I can learn those- 
 things thoroughly, C. d. Or. i. 36. 
 
 4) An Infinitive Clause, used Interrogatively without a principal 
 Verb, expresses Indignation : 
 
 ' Mene incepto desistere victam ?' what, I be vanquished, and 
 abandon my design f Verg. Ae. i. 37. ' O praeclarum imperatorem ! 
 tantumne vidisse in metu periculoque provinciae?' C. Verr. 
 v. 5. ' Ita comparatam essehominum naturam !' Ter. H. iii. i. 
 
 Ut with a Subjunctive may be used for the same purpose : 
 'Te ut ulla res f ran gat?' the idea that anything will humble 
 you, C. Cat. i. i. ' Tibi ego ut credam, furcifer?' Ter. An. iii. 5. 
 
I I94 . Substantival Clauses. 439 
 
 5) In the Infin. Clause the following ellipses occur : 
 a) An Indefinite Subject understood in the Subjective Con- 
 struction : 
 
 'Conveniet in dandojnunificum esse (aliquem)/ C. Off. 
 ii. 1 8. 
 
 ft) A Reflexive Pronoun omitted : 
 
 'Ferre non posse clamabit/ C. T. D. ii. 17. 'Id nescire 
 Mago dixit/ L. xxiii. 63. 
 
 Most frequently with the Fut. Infin. : 
 
 6 L. Caecilius agrariae legi intercessorem fore professus 
 est/ Caecilius declared that he would interpose to forbid 
 the agrarian law, C. p. Sull. 1 3. 
 
 E s s e is at the same time often omitted : 
 
 < Brutus populum iureiurando adegit, neminem Romae pas- 
 suros regnare/ Brutus made the people swear they would 
 allow no one to be king at Rome, L. ii. i. 
 
 (Poets sometimes use the Greek idiom, by which the Nom. 
 
 of the principal Verb becomes also the Subject of the 
 
 Infin. 
 'Phaselus ille . . . ait fuisse navium celerrimus/ Ca- 
 
 tull. iv. i. 'Sensit medios delapsus in hostis/ Verg. 
 
 Ae. ii. 377. <Vir bonus et sapiens dignis ait esse pa- 
 
 ratus/ Hor. Epist. i. 7. 23., 'Rettulit Aiax esse lovis 
 
 pronepos/ Ov. M. xiii. 141. 
 
 A far bolder instance is : 
 
 * Acceptum refero versibus, essenocens,' Ov. Tr. ii. 10. 
 Compare Hor. C. i. 37. 31. iii. 16. 32.) 
 
 c) A Demonstr. Pronoun omitted if there is no ambiguity : 
 
 ' Valerius dictatura se abdicavit. Apparuit causa plebi, suam 
 vicem indignantem magistratu abisse/ Valerius resigned 
 the dictatorship : the motive was clear to the plebeians, 
 that he quitted office from indignation on their account, 
 L. ii. 31. 
 
 d) A Verb omitted in a Correlative Clause, subordinate to In- 
 
 finitive, its Noun being attracted to the Accusative : 
 ( TQ suspicor eisdem rebus, quibus me ipsum, interdum 
 gravius commoveri/ / suspect you are sometimes stirred 
 too deeply by the same things which stir me, C. C. M. i. 
 Quibus me ipsum is for quibus ipse commoveor. 
 
 6) The ambiguous construction of two Accusatives, Subject and 
 Object (as in the famous oracle, 'Aio te, Aeacida, Romanes vin- 
 cere posse '), may be evaded by using the Passive Construction. 
 Thus render, ' / believe that Marcus loves yoitj (not, ' Credo 
 Marcum te amare/ but) ' Credo te a Marco amari.' 
 
 7) The English, *it is said of Homer that he was blind/ or ' they 
 say of Homer that he was blind/ or ' Homer, they^ tell us (it is said), 
 was blind/ is rendered by one of the constructions, ' tradunt (tra- 
 
44 Latin Syntax. 
 
 195- 
 
 ditur) Homerum caecum fuisse/ or ' traditur Homerus caecus 
 fuisse.' But the use of de is not inadmissible : 
 
 ' De Tirone, video tibi curae esse/ C. 
 
 8) On the Personal Construction of Passive Copulative Verbs, 
 see Note, p. 427. 
 
 9) ' Memini me videre ' or ' memini videre/ / remember seeing. 
 ' Memini me vidisse/ / remember that I saw (at a specific time). 
 ' Memineram me vidisse/ / remembered that I had seen. 
 
 195 
 ut- B. Ut-clause for Infinitive Clause. 
 
 Clause. 
 
 U t (that], with Subjunctive, for the Infin. Clause, is used as Sub- 
 ject, to express consecutiveness. It depends on 
 
 1) Impersonal Verbs: est, esto, abest, accedit, accidit, con- 
 
 tingit, evenit, fit, interest, refert, relinquitur, restat, sequi- 
 tur, superest, usu venit, &c. See M. Lucr. i. 442. 
 
 2) Est, with an Adj. or Adv. complement: aequum, consen- 
 
 taneum, consequens, extremum, iniquum, insitum, inte- 
 grum, par, rarum, rectum, reliquum, tritum, usitatum, 
 utile, verisimile, verum, c. : prope, satis est, &c. 
 
 3) Est, with a Subst. : consuetudo, mos, vitium, and others. 
 This Ut-clause is often in apposition to a Noun or Pronoun. 
 
 Examples: 'Est ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta sulcis/ 
 Hor. C. ii. i. 'Ad Appii Claudii senectutem accedebat etiam 
 ut caecus esset/C. Cat. M. 6. 'Est hoc commune vitium . . . 
 ut invidia gloriae comes sit/ C. Verr. ii. 65. 
 
 Obs. i. Owing to the nature of this clause, it seldom contains a 
 negative ; but if it does, the negatives are non, nihil, nullus, c. 
 
 'Fuit hoc in Crasso, ut non tarn existimari vellet non didi- 
 cisse, quam . . . nostrorum hominum prudentiam Graecis ante- 
 ferre/ C.d. Or.u. i. 'Soli hoc contingit sapienti u t n i h i 1 faciat 
 invitus, nihil dolens, nihil coactus/ C. Par. v. i. 'Est ut ple- 
 rique philosophi null a trad ant praecepta dicendi, et habeant 
 paratum tamen, quid de quaque re dicant/ C. d. Or. ii. 36. 
 
 Obs. 2. On the other hand, ut, implying purpose (as in Petitio 
 Obliqua), takes n.e, nequis, c., in negation. See Examples, p. 446. 
 
 Certain predications may sometimes imply consequence only (in- 
 troducing an Oblique Enunciation), sometimes purpose (intro- 
 ducing Oblique Petition). Such are facer e, fieri, efficere, &c. ; 
 expedit, interest, refert, placet, prodest, utile est, &c. ; condicio 
 (consilium, ius, munus) est ; and others. 
 
 The following passage shews Obi. Petition and Obi. Enuntiation 
 dependent on the same word: ' Ex hoc efficitur non ut voluptas 
 ne sit voluptas, sed ut voluptas non sit summum bonum/ the 
 result of this is not that pleasure will cease to be pleasure, but that 
 pleasure is not the chief good, C. Fin. ii. 8. The first result is pur- 
 posed (ut ne sit), the second consecutive (ut non sit). 
 
 See the use of ' ita ne 7 in Consecutive Clauses. 
 
 Obs. 3. Ut Consecutive with predications of affirming, thinking, 
 or perceiving, is confined to one or two expressions : 
 
I9 6. Substantival Quod-clause. 441 
 
 ' Qui probari potest ut sibi animus mederi non possit ?' how 
 can we be satisfied that the mind is unable to heal itself? C. T. D. 
 iii. 3. Hence it rarely forms Objective Clauses. See V. Aen^ 
 xi. 153. 
 
 Care must therefore be taken not to confound it with the Interrog. 
 Particle ut (how), which often forms such clauses : 'Videmus 
 ut luna solis lumen accipiat/ C. d. Or. iii. 5. See 202. 
 
 Obs. 4. Licet, oportet, necesse est, when they take the Sub- 
 junctive, usually omit ut : ' Licet pauca degustes/ you may taste 
 a few samples, C. Att. xvi. 8. 'Me ipsum ames oportet/ C. 
 Fin. ii. 28. ' Oratio, si res non subest, aut nulla sit necesse est 
 aut omnium irrisione ludatur/ a speech without matter must be 
 either not delivered or laughed at by everybody, C. d. Or. i. 12. 
 
 196 
 
 C. Quod-clause for Infin. Clause, 9 uod - 
 
 clause. 
 
 Quod, that, with Indie, (but, if Suboblique, with Subjunctive) 
 stands for the Infin. Clause, either to mark distinctly that a fact 
 is expressed, or to shew that the Oratio Recta finds its Cause in a 
 faot. 
 
 1) For the former purpose it appears 
 
 As Subject, with ace edit, accidit, apparet, evenit, fit, interest, 
 nocet, obest, occurrit, parum est, prodest, &c. ; or with est and a 
 Substantive : causaest, consolatio est, vitium est, &c. 
 
 As Object, with ad do, adicio, animadverto, excuso, facio, mitto, 
 nihil moror, non dico, omitto, praetereo, praetermitto, &c. 
 
 And in Apposition to Pronouns. 
 
 2) For the latter purpose it is joined to Verbs of Emotion, ex- 
 pressing joy, sorrow, surprise, praise, blame, indignation, &c. 
 
 As Subject, to do let, iuvat, gratum (indignum, mirum, per- 
 gratum) est, &c. 
 
 As Object, to accuse, admiror, aegre (graviter, indigne, mo- 
 leste) fero, angor, bene facio, delector, doleo, gaudeo, glorior, gra- 
 tulor, ignosco, indignor, laetor, laudo, miror, obicio, queror, repre- 
 hendo, &c. 
 
 Examples: ' Ace edit hue quod postridie ille venit/ C. Fam. 
 viii. 2. 'Addequod pubes tibi crescit omnis/ Hor. C. ii. 8. t Mag- 
 num beneficium est naturae quod necesse est mori/ Sen. Ep. 
 103. ' Inter causas malorum nostrorum est, quod vivimus ad 
 exempla, 7 C. N. D. ii. 53. ' Habet hoc optimum in se generosus 
 animus, quod concitaturad honesta/ a noble mind has this chief 
 merit, that its impulse is to virtue, Sen. Ep. 39. 'Benefacis 
 quod me adiuvas/ C. Fin. iii. 15. ' Gratum est quod patriae 
 civem populoque dedisti, 7 luv. xiv. 70. ' Dolebam quod socium 
 et consortem gloriosi laboris amiseram/ C. Br. i. 'Quod spi- 
 ratis, quod vocem mittitis, indignantur/ L. iv. 3. 'Caesar ad 
 me scripsit gratissimum sibi esse quod quieverim/ C. Fam. 
 viii. ii. 
 
 *Obs. i. After predications of Emotion in the ist Pers., the Clause 
 is often Indie., because the speaker states the ground of his own 
 feeling. But after 2nd or 3rd Pers., often Subjunctive, when the 
 writer or speaker ascribes the ground to the mind of another: 
 
44 2 Latin Syntax. J97 . 
 
 ' Quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem/ Mart. xii. 28. ' Nemo 
 umquam est oratorem, quod Latine loqueretur, admiratus/ C, 
 'd. Or. iii. 14. 
 
 Obs. 2. Predications of Emotion are connected with the Infinitive 
 Clause, or with quod, for which cum sometimes occurs : 
 
 doletmihi fteaegrotare | 
 
 angor animo ^ uod g>tas I/ ** sorry you are ill. , v 
 I cum aegrotas j 9JP 
 
 , I te convaluisse ^ 
 
 fratulor 1 ^ uod convaluis ti \ I am glad you are recovered. 
 (cum convaluisti ) 
 
 Obs. 3. On the use of quod in connecting sentences, see 82. 
 * Quod scire vis qua quisque in te fide sit et voluntate, difficile 
 dictu est de singulis/ C. Fam. i. 7. 
 
 Obs. 4. Quod, that, after a Verb of thinking or declaring (except 
 in Apposition to a Pronoun) is hardly classical ; but, in later Latin, 
 it became a common barbarism. 1 
 
 Peg-o II) Indirect Will-speech (Petitio Obliqua). 
 
 Obliqua. 
 
 1) This Clause is the Oblique form of an Imperative Sentence. 
 It may be introduced by ut final, ut ne, ne (ne quis, &c.) with 
 
 Subjunctive ; depending (as Subject, Object, or Apposite) on pre- 
 dications expressing : 
 
 Concession, permission, demand, entreaty, exhortation; advice, 
 persuasion, impulsion, compact (paciscor, rarely spondeo, 
 debeo) ; command, direction, will, or any forms which may imply 
 these (dico, mitto, monstro, nuntio, respondeo, scribo) ; also, care, 
 provision, endeavour ; achieving, effecting, conducing, &c. These 
 include such phrases as condicio (ius, lex, munus, regula, &c.) 
 est.* 
 
 2) Most of these predications can omit ut before the Subjunc- 
 tive ; but some always keep it : 
 
 Cogis (mones, scribis, auctor es, id agis, impetras, &c.) ut earn. 
 Oravi (suasi, hortatus sum, mandavi, &c.) utadesses; adesses. 
 
 3) Such predications point to the attainment of an end. When 
 they take n e, prevention is implied ; and most can take n e, except 
 iubeo, nolo, and a few more. 
 
 Rogas (imperas, operam das, efftcis, &c.) utne (ne) quis eat. 
 Suasisti (pactus es, misisti, voluisti, &c.) ut ne (ne) abessem. 
 
 1 A few words (accidit, evenit, interest, &c.) admit all three Enuntiative Clauses, while 
 many are used with two of them. Care must be taken to note these uses, and to dis- 
 criminate them where this is possible. But between some there seems little or no differ- 
 ence. We may write, ' Rectum est maiori parere minorem/ or ' Rectum est ut maiori 
 minor pareat : ' ' Gaudeo te salvum redisse/ or ' Gaudeo quod (cum) salvus redisti.' 
 
 a (Verbs on which Petitio Obliqua defends) : concede, do, patior, permitto, sino ; oro, 
 rogo, peto, postulo, contendo, precor, obsecro ; hortor ; cogo, impello, incito, indttco, 
 moneo, moveo, persuadeo, suadeo, auctor sum ; censeo, decerno, edico, iubeo, impero, 
 mando, praecipio ; placet ; caveo, euro, facio, id ago, nitor, enitor, operam do, prospicio, 
 studeo, video, provideo ; adipiscor, assequor, consequor, committo, efficio, perficio, im- 
 petro, evinco, pervinco ; opto, volo, nolo, malo., &c. Blandior in L. and Lucr. ii. 173. 
 
198-201. Petitio Obliqua. 
 
 4) Another Class of Verbs points to the prevention of an end. 
 Of these caveo, when it means beware, takes or omits ne: 
 
 * Cave ne titubes ' or ' cave titubes.' 
 
 Veto, forbid, takes ne, and very rarely omits it (in poetry). 
 
 Prohibeo, forbid, takes ne and quominus ; also deprecor, 
 deterreo, dissuadeo, impedio, intercede, interdico, invideo, obsto, 
 officio, pugno, repugno, recuso, resisto, tempero, teneo, contineo, 
 terreo, veto, and others of like import. Some of these admit quin. 
 
 5) Quominus. QUO- 
 
 Quominus ( = ut eo minus) with Subjunctive depends on predi- 
 cations implying hindrance. Such predication is often negative or 
 interrogative ; but it may be positive. 
 
 To the Verbs above cited which take quominus, may be added 
 abstlneo, arceo, cohibeo, defendo, moror, mora est, religio est, 
 impedimentum est, &c. ; fieri, stare per aliquem. 
 
 Nulla religio est quominus adsim, / have no scruple about 
 coming. 
 
 Per te stetit quominus adessem, you stood in the way of my 
 coming. I99 
 
 6) Quin : see M. Lucr. i. 588. Quin. 
 
 The Consecutive Conjunction quin, but thai (qui-ne = ut non, cur 
 non), with Subjunctive depends on predications which deny (or go 
 near to deny) a preventing cause. Such predications are always 
 either negative (non, haud, nihil, &c.), quasi-negative (vix, aegre, 
 minimum, paulum), or interrogative (quid? num? &c.). 
 
 Verbs and Phrases so constructed are numerous : a) (Non) 
 dubito, dubium est, &c. /3) (Non) contineor ; retineor ; resisto ; 
 tempero ; possum ; facere possum ; fieri potest ; abest ; procul 
 est, &c. : (nulla) causa (controversia) est, &c. y) Numquam, 
 with almost any Verb. 
 
 a) ' Non dubito . . . haud dubium est ... nullus dubito . . . 
 quis dubitet ? quin fuerint ante Homerum poetae/ no doubt there 
 were poets before Homer, C. 
 
 (3) Aegre retentus sum . . . paulum afiiit . . . temperare mihi 
 vix potui quinflerem, I could hardly refrain from weeping. 
 
 7) Numquam discedis aliquo quin te omnes desiderent,j0# 
 never go away but that all regret you. 
 
 7) Predications of Fear. Fear. 
 Metuo, timeo, vereor, pavidus sum, timor est, periculum est, &c., 
 
 take ne with Subjunctive of that which it is feared will happen; 
 ut, ne non, of that which it is feared will not happen. 
 
 Metuo (timeo, vereor, &c.) nepereas, I fear you will perish. 
 
 Metui ut (ne non) effugeres, I feared you would not escape. 
 
 This ut is the Oblique Interrog. how, used idiomatically to avoid 
 the harshness of a negative form. 
 
 8) Predications of Caution, caveo, video, cogito, considero, Caution 
 have some resemblance to those of Fear, so far as they introduce 
 
 ne (which caveo can omit); but when ut follows them, they have 
 the sense of euro, take care, provide that. See Examples. 
 
 9) Periphrastic phrases : non commit t ere ut (to act so that), id 
 agere, animum inducere, facere, efficere, fieri, fore, c. ut (ut ne), 
 ne. See M. Lucr. vi. 412-415. 
 
444 Latin Syntax. 202. 
 
 HI) Indirect Question (Interrogatio Obli- 
 qua). 
 
 1) If a Question, formed by an Interrogative Pronoun or Particle 
 (quis es ?), becomes dependent upon another predication, its Verb 
 becomes Subjunctive (quis sis). Such Interrogatives are : quis, 
 qualis, quantus, quot, uter, quotus, unde, ubi, quando, quomodo, 
 cur, quare, quamobrem, quam, num, ne, ut, an, utrum. 
 
 2) Predications on which such a Clause may depend are those 
 of inquiring, stating, hearing, knowing, perceiving, remembering, 
 doubting, caring^ considering, determining, concerning, &c. 
 
 Quaero, die, scio, &c., quid facias, feceris, facturus sis : 
 Quaesivi, &c., quid faceres, fecisses, facturus esses. 
 
 Examples of Substantival Clauses. 
 
 (Verbs which illustrate the rules of Oratio Obliqua are printed in Italics.) 
 
 I) Enuntiatio Obliqua. 
 
 (i) Infinitive Clause. 
 
 ' F a.c (sujjose) animos non remanere postmortem; vides nos, si ita sit, privari 
 spe beatioris vitae,' C. T. D. \. 33. ' Sic decet, te mea curare, tua me,' C. Att. xv. 
 2. 'Aequum est ci vis embus parcere,' N. Th. 2. ' Meum gnatum rumor est 
 amare,' Ter. An. i. 2. 
 
 'Solon furere se simulavit,' C. Off. i. 30. ' Metellum memini puer bonis 
 esse viribus extreme tempore aetatis,' C. Cat. M. 9. 
 
 ' Meministis, me ita initio distribuise causam,' C./. S. Rose. 42. 'Thucydides 
 non negat fuisse famam Themistoclem venenum sua sponte sumpsisse,' N. 
 Th. TO. 'Hunc censes primis, ut dicitur, labris gustasse physiologiam, qui quic* 
 quam, quod ortum sit, putet aeternum esse posse? C- N. D. i. 8. 
 
 (See C. Qu. F. i. 8. 'Ac mihi quidem videtur . . . humanitatis. ') 
 
 'Memineram, C. Marium, cum vim arnorum profugisset, senile corpus paludibus 
 occultasse,' C. p. Sest. 22. 
 
 'Plato turn demum beatum terrarum orbem futurum praedicavit, cum aut 
 sapientes regnare aut reges sapere coepissent? VaL Max. vii. 2. 'Exaudita vox est, 
 futurum esse ut Roma caperetur,' C. Div. i. 45. 'Nisi nuntii de Caesaris victoria 
 essent allati, existimabant plerique futurum fuisse ut oppidum amitteretur,' 
 Caes. B. C. iii. 101. 
 
 'Lentulus consul senatui reique publicae se non de futurum pollicetur/ Caes. 
 
 B. C. i. i. 'Si quando parvis ludentes minamur praecipitaturos alicunde, exti- 
 mescunt/ C. Fin. v. n. 'Ad matrem virginis venit, iurans se illam ducturum 
 domum.' Ter. Ad. iii. 4. ' Magna in spe sum nihil mihi temporis prorogatum iri,' 
 C Att. vi. 2. ' Spes dabatur, puerps mergi posse,' I,, i. 4. 'Iniecta mihi spe s 
 est velle mecum Sulpicium colloqui, C. Att. x. 7. 'Video te velle in caelum 
 nwgrare, et spero fore ut contingat id nobis,' C. T. D. i. 82. 
 
 'Verminae responsvim a legatis est : Si quid ad pacis leges add i, demi, muta- 
 rive velle t, rursus a senatu ei postulandum fore,' L. xxxi. ii. ' Semper ita vivamus 
 utrationem reddendam nobis arbitremur/ C. Verr. ii. n. 
 
 ' Me non cum bonis esse?' C. Att. ix. 6. 'Hasne tibi gratis, haec praemia 
 digna rependi?' Stat. Th. viii. 50. 'Egone ut te interpellem?' C. 71 D. ii. 18. 
 'Utne tegam spurco Damae latus ? ' Hor. S. ii. 5. 18. 
 
 'Confitere hue ea spe venisse,' C. p. S. Rose. 22. 'Dissimulare etiam sperasti, 
 perfide, tantum posse nefas?' Verg. Aen. iv. 305. 
 
 'Par est, primum ipsum esse virum bonum, turn alterum similem sui quaerere,' C. 
 Lael. 22. 'Prima sequentem honestum est in secundis tertiisque consistere,' 
 
 C. Or. i. 
 
 'Tu fac, quod facis, ut me ames teque amari a me scias,'C. Fam. xiii. 47. 
 
 'De Antonio tibi scripsi, non esse eum a me conventum,' C. Att. xv. i. 
 
 ' Platonem ferunt idem sensisse quod Pythagoram,' C. T. D. i. 27. 
 
 'Pons in Ibero prope effectus nuntiabatur,' Caes. B. C. i. 62. 'Nuntiatur 
 Afranio, magnos comitatusad flumen constitisse,' Caes. B. C. i. 51. ' Si Veios mi- 
 grabimus, non reliquisse victores, sed amisisse victi patriam videbimur,' L. v. 
 53. 'Non mihi videtur ad beate vivendum satis p o s s e virtutem,' C. 71 D. v. 5. 
 
202. Interrogatio Obliqua. 445 
 
 3) An Oblique Interrogation must be carefully distinguished 
 from an Adjectival (Relative) Clause. 
 
 The former depends on the principal Verb, and requires the- 
 Subjunctive: Intellego quae mihi narres, / understand what 
 things you are telling me \ where quae is from the Interrog. qui. 
 
 The latter is referred to a Demonstrative, expressed or under- 
 stood, and does not require a Subjunctive: Intellego (ea) quae 
 mihi narras, / understand those things which you tell me, where 
 quae is from the Relative qui. 
 
 (Cp. d. Or. ii. 74. 299 ; 7 1 . D. v. 8, in which there is an irregular transition from the 
 Personal construction to the Clause.) 
 
 (2) The Enuntiative Ut-clause. 
 
 'Quando fuit ut, quod licet, non liceret?' C. p. Gael. 20. 'Absit a nobis ut 
 ex incommode alieno nostram occasionem petamus,' L. iv. 58. 'Reliquum est ut 
 certemus officiis inter nos,' C. Fain. vii. 21. 'Rarum est ut satis se quisque vere- 
 atur,* C. p. Fl. 27. 'Fit fere ut cogitationes sermonesque nostri pariant aliquid! in 
 somno,' C. Somn. i. * Fieri potest ut recte quis sentiat et id, quod sentit, polite 
 eloqui non possit,' C. T. D. i. 3. 'Valde optanti utrique nostrum cecidit ut in 
 istum sermonem delaberemini,' C. d. Or. i. 21. 'Mos est hominum ut nolint 
 eundem pluribus rebus excellere/ C. Br. 21. 'Quam habet aequitatem, ut agrum 
 multis annis aut etiam saeculis ante possessum qui nullum habuit habeat, qui autem 
 habuit amittat?' C. Off. ii. C2. 'Ut colloquicum Orpheo, Musaeo, Romero, Hesiodo 
 liceat, quanti tandem aestimatis?' C. T. D. i. 41. 
 
 (Inf. Clause or ut.) 'Si haec enuntiatio vera non est, sequitur ut falsa sit,' C. 
 Fat. 12. ' Si, quod honestum est, id solum est bonum, sequitur vitam beatam 
 virtute confici,' C. T. D. v. 8. 'Restat ut doceam, omnia, quae sint in hoc 
 mundo, hominum causa facta esse/ C. N. D. ii. 61. 'Restat Bactra novis, restat 
 Babylona tributis frenari,' Stat. S. i. 40. 'Omnibus bonis expedit, salvam 
 esse rempublicam,' C. Phil. xiii. 8. 'Expedit omnibus ut singulae civitates sua 
 iura et suas leges habeant,' L. xxxiv. i. 'Puero opus est cibum ut habeat,* 
 Plaut. True. v. i. 'Nunc opus est te animo vale re, ut corpore possis,' C. Fam. 
 xvi. 14. 'Tris convenit res habere narrationem, ut brevis, ut dilucida, ut 
 verisimilis sit,' ad Her. i. 9. 'Verisimile est, cum optimus quisque maxime poste- 
 ritati serviat, esse aliquid, cuius is post mortem sensum sit habiturus,' C. T. D. i. 
 15. 'An verisimile est ut civis Romanus aut homo liber cum gladio in forum 
 descenderit antelucem?' C. /. Sest. 36. 'Potest illud esse falsum, ut circum- 
 ligatus fuerit angui/ C. Div. ii. 31. 'Haud falsa sum nos odiosas haberi,' 
 Ter. Eun. ii. 2. 
 
 (So credibile, aequum, rectum, verum est, and other adjective predications, can take 
 either Clause. ) 
 
 (3)" The Enuntiative Quod-clause. 
 
 'Eumeni multum detraxit inter Macedones viventi quod alienae erat civitatis,' 
 N. Eun. i. 'Aristoteles laudandus est in eo quod omnia quae moventur aut natura 
 moveri censuit aut vi aut voluntate,' C. N. D. ii. 16. 'Ex tola laude Reguli unum 
 illud est admiratione dignum, quod captives retinendos censuit,' C. Off. iii. 31. 
 'Quanta ilia benign itas naturae, quod tarn multa ad vescendum tarn varia tamquc 
 iucunda gignit/ C. N. D. ii. 53. 'Mitto quod invidiam, quod omnis meas tem- 
 pestates subieris,' C. (mitto=dicendum non puto). 
 
 (Quod, cum, -with. Verbs of Emotion.) 'Sane gaudeo quod te interpellavi,' C. 
 Leg. iii. i. 'Dolet mihi quod tu nunc stomacharis/ C. ad Br. 17. 'Gratulor 
 tibi quod salvum te ad tuos recepisti/ C. Fam. xiii. 73. 'Laudo te cum isto 
 animo es,' C. fi. Mil. 36. 'Haec urbs laetari videtur quod tantam pest em evo~ 
 muerit,' C. Cat. ii. i. 'Memini gloriari solitum esse Q. Hortensium quod 
 nunquam bello civili interfuisset,' C. Fam. ii. 16. 
 
 (Inf. Clause with Verbs of Emotion.} 'Gaudeo, id te mihi suadere, quod ego 
 mea spontzfeceram,' C. Att. xv. 27. 'Utrumque laetor, et sine dolore corporis te 
 fuisse et animo valuisse,' C. Fam. vii i. 'Lentulus se alterum fore! Sullam 
 inter suos gloriatur,' Caes. B. C. i. 4. 'Gratulor Oechaliam titulis accedere 
 nostris/ Ov. Her. ix. i. ' Inferiores non dolere debent, se a suis superari/ C. 
 L.ael. 20. 
 
446 Latin Syntax. 202. 
 
 4) Some examples, which at first sight seem to shew Indie, in 
 Oblique Interr., really belong either to Interr. Recta : 
 
 ' Quin tu uno verbo die, quid est quod me velis ?' now tell 
 me in one word, what do you want with me f Ter. An. i. 1. 18. 
 
 Or to Adjectival (Relative) construction : 
 
 * Nihil est admirabilius quam quomodo ille fill mortem tulit/ 
 nothing is more admirable than the manner in which he bore his 
 son's death, C. Cat. M. 4. 
 
 But the Comic poets use the Indie, in Oblique Interr. as an idiom 
 of parlance ; and some examples occur in later poets, but not in 
 good Latin prose ; for examples cited from Cicero are either corrupt 
 readings or direct Interrogations. 
 
 (Cur_/i?r quod. ) 'Primum illud reprehendo et accuse cur in re tarn veteri tarn 
 usitata quicquam novi feceris/ C. Verr. iii. 7. 'Repeto me correptum ab avunculo 
 cur ambularem: Poteras, inquit, has horas non perdere,' Plin. Ep. iii. 5. 'Mir or 
 cur philosophiae prope bellum indixeris/ C. d. Or. ii. 37. 
 
 (Ut and quod.) 'Ace edit ut eo facilius animus evadat ex hoc acre, quod nihil est 
 animo velocius,' C. T. D. i. 19. 'Accedit quod Caesar ingeniis excellentibus del ec- 
 tatur,' C. Fam. vi. 6. 'Accidit ut Athenienses Chersonesum colonosvellent mittere,' 
 N. Milt. i. 'Accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti,' C. A it, i. 17. 
 'Evenit inquirant vitia ut tua rursus et illi,' Hor. JT. i. 3. 28. 'Magna me spes 
 tenet, bene mihi evenire quod mittar ad mortem,' C. T. D. L 41. 'Invitus facio 
 ut recorder ruinas reipublicae,' C. in, Vatin. 8. 'Noli putare pigritia me facer e 
 quod non mea manu scribam,' C. Att. xvi. 15. 
 
 (Interest, refert take all three clauses, besides other constructions. See 203.) 
 
 II) Petitio Obliqua. 
 
 'Petes a Crasso ut earn copiam in lucem proferat/ C. d. Or. i. 35. 'Ate id, 
 quod suesti, peto, me absentem diligas et defendas,'C. Fam. xv. 8. 'Nonpeto 
 ut decernatur aliquid novi, sed ut ne quid novi decernatur,' C. Fam. u. 7. 
 ' Magnum documentum ne patriam rem perdere quis velit/ Hor. 6". i. 4. in. 'Ex- 
 ercitus Alexandrum lacrimis deprecatur, finem tandem belli faceret,' lust. xii. 8. 
 'Alcibiades lacrimans supplex erat Socrati, ut sibi virtutem traderet turpitudi- 
 nemque depelleret,' C. T. D. iii. 32. 'Id te rogo, ut valetudini tuae diligentissime 
 servias/C. Qu. Fr. i. i. 'Cum magnum aliquod munus susceperis, hoc te rogo, ne 
 demittas animum, neve te obrui tamquam fluctu, sic magnitudine negoti sin as,' C. 
 Qu. Fr. i. i. 'Decrevit quondam senatus, ut L. Opiraius consul videret nequid 
 res publica detrimenti caperet,' C. Cat. i. 2. 'Gabinius egerat aliud nihii nisi ut 
 urbes depopularetur,' C. in Pis. 17. 'Qui stadium currit, eniti et contendere 
 debet ut vincat,' C. Off. iii. 10. 'Coeperunt ponere leges ne quis fur esset neu 
 latro/ Hor. S. i. 3. 105. 'Vetus est lex ilia iustae veraeque amicitiae, ut idem amici 
 semper velint/ C. p. Plane, i. 'Ariovistus reipondit ius esse belli ut qui 
 vicissent iis quos vicissent, quemadmpdum vellent, imperarent. Factum est 
 senatus-consultum, ut duo viros aedilis ex Patribus dictator populum rogaret,' 
 L. vi. 42. 'Bene maiores nostri hoc comparaverunt, ut neminem regem, quem 
 armis cepissent, vita privarent,' ad Her. iv. 16. 
 
 'Nuntia Patribus, urbem muni ant, et Fabio, Aemilium et vixisse et adhuc mori/ 
 L. xxii. 49. 'Dicam tuis ut librum tuum describant ad teque mittant,' C. Fam. 
 xiii. 17. 'Die ad cenam veniat,' Hor. 'Dicebam tibi ne matri consuleres male, 
 Plaut. As. v. 2. 'Rogo ergo scribas tuis, ut liberto villa, ut domus pateat, 
 Plin. Ep. v. 19. 'Caesar ad Lamiam scripsi*t, ut ad ludos omnia pararet,' C. Att. 
 xiii. 45. 
 
 (Auctor sum, I advise, takes ut, ne ; auctor sum, I assure, takes Infin. Clause.) 
 
 (Quominus.) 'Quid obstat quominus Deus sit beatus?' C. N. D. i. 34. 
 'Isocrati, quominus haberetur summus orator, non offecit quod infirmitate 
 vocis ne in publico diceret impediebatur/ Plin. Ep. vi. 29. 'Nihil ne ego 
 quidem moror quominus decemviratu abeam,' L. iii. 54. 'Praetor Samnitibus 
 respondit : Nee quominus perpetua cum eis amicitia esset, per populum Roma- 
 Hum stetisse; nee contradici, quin amicitia de integro reconcilietur; quod 
 
202. Interrogatio Obliqua. 447 
 
 5) Nescio quis (qui), &c., followed by Indicative, is a special 
 exception, being regarded as Pronominal = aliqu is, aliqui. So 
 mirum quantum, immane quantum, &c. 
 
 See 86-97. 
 
 6) By Greek attraction the Subject of the Clause sometimes be- 
 comes Object of the Principal Verb : (See 128, 3.) 
 
 'Sanguinem, bilem, pituitam, ossa videor posse dicere 
 unde concreta sint/ I think I can state what blood, bile, phlegm, 
 and bones are formed from, C. T. D. i. 24. < R e m frumentariam 
 ut satis commode supportari posset timere se dicebant/ they said 
 they were afraid the supply of corn could not be furnished easily, 
 Caes. B. G. i. 39. 
 
 ad Sidicinos attineat, nihil intercedi, quominus Samniti populo pacis bellique 
 liberum arbitrium sit/ L. viii. 2. 'Qui domum meam, quominus ruat, fulcit, 
 praestat mihi beneficium ; ipsa enim domus sine sensu est/ Sen. Ben. v. 19. * Saepe 
 accidit in mari, ut naves teneantur quominus in portum pervenire possint/ Caes. 
 
 B. G. iv. 22. 
 
 (Quominus, being a Final Particle, may also be represented by ne, with prohibeo, im- 
 pedio, deterreo, deprecor, and many other Verbs.) 
 
 (Quin.) ,'Npnest dub ium quin beneficium sit etiam invito prodesse/ Sen. *.#*. v. 
 19. 'Numquam mihi dubium fuit quin ate. diligerer,' C. Att. xvi. 19. 'Non 
 dubito'quin'probaturus sim vobis defensionem meam,' C. p. Mil, 2. 'Quis du- 
 bitet quin in virtute divitiae positae sint?' C. Par. 6. 'Nolite dubitare 
 quin (do not hesitate to) Pompeio uni credatis omnia/ C. p. L. M. 20. 'Tempe- 
 rare non potuit quin facti reminisceretur,' Suet. Claud. 4. ' Nihil abest 
 quin sim miserrimus/ C. Att. ii. 15. 'Hand procul erat quin castra turbarentur,' 
 L. v. 12. * 'Vergilii et Livii scripta paulum afuit quin ex omnibus bibliothecis amo- 
 veret Caligula,' Suet. Cal. 34. 'Nihil praetermisi, quantum facere potui, quin 
 Pompeium a Caesaris coniunctione avocarem/ C. Phil. ii. 2. 'Equidem numquam 
 domum misi unam epistulam, quin esset ad te altera,'C. Fam. ii. 10: 
 
 (On 'non quin,' see Causal Clauses.) 
 
 (Dubito also takes a Prol. Inf. or Inf. Clause, or Interr. Obi.) 'Nondubitaviida 
 te per litteras pet ere/ C. Fam. ii. 6. 'Pompeius non dubitat, ea, quae de re- 
 publica nunc sentiat, mihi valde proba.ri/ C. Att. vii. i. (See Interr. Obi.) 
 
 (Fear.) 'Metuo neid consiliceper imus, quod non satis expliczre^osstmus,' C. Fam. 
 xiv. 12. 'Timor Romae grandis fuit, ne iterum Galli Romam redirent/ Eutr. v. i. 
 *Pavor ceperat milites, ne mortiferum esset vulnus Scipionis/ L. xxiv. 42. 'Non 
 vereor ne mea vitae modestia parum valitura sit contra falsos rumores/ C. Fam. 
 xi. 28. 'Omnis labores te excipere video; timeo ut sustineas/ C. Fam. xiv. 2 
 ' Hoc quia vos foedus non iusseritis, veretur Hiempsal ut satis firmum sit et ratum/ 
 
 C. d. L. Agr. ii. at. ' Veremur ne forte non aliorum utilitatibus, sed propriae laudi 
 servisse videamur/ Plin. Ep. i. 8. 'Nese penuria victus opprimeret metuebat/ 
 Hor. S. i. i. 98. 'Extimui [ne vos ageret vesania discors/ Hor. S. ii. 3. 174. 
 
 (Caution.) ' Si vita in exsilio tibi commodior esse videatur, cogitandum tamen est 
 ne tutior non sit/ C. Fam. iv. 9. ' Videamus ne beata vita ex sui similibus partibus 
 effici debeat/ C. T. D. v. 15. 'Credere omnia vide ne non sit necesse/ C. Div. 
 ii. 13. 'Ad rempublicam gerendamqui accedit, caveat ne id modo consideret, quam 
 ilia res honesta sit, sed etiam, ut (=ne non) ha beat efficiendi facultatem/ C. Off. i. 21. 
 (where considero is constructed like vereor). ' Haec mea cur a est, ne quidtu perdas 
 neu sis iocus/ Hor. S. ii. 4. 36. (See Hor. Epist. i. 5. 21-28.) 
 
 (Caveo, take care, is used with ut : caveo, beware, -with ne, or suppressing ne.) 
 'Caveamus ut ea, quae pertinent ad liberalem speciem et dignitatem, moderata sint/ 
 C. Off. i. 39. ' Lege Cincia cavetur ne quis ob causam orandam pecuniam donumve 
 accipiat/ Tac. Ann. xi. 5. 'Cave festines aut committas ut aut aeger aut 
 hieme naviges/ C. Fam. xvi. 12. 
 
 (Verbs which form periphrases.) 'Non committam ut in scribendo neglegens 
 fuisse videar/ C. Fam. v. 9. 'Numquam omnino periculi fuga committendum est 
 ut imbelles timidique videamur,' C. Off. i. 24. 'Omne animal id agit ut se con,- 
 
448 Latin Syntax. 
 
 03 
 
 Verbs Note. Many of the Verbs included in II. III. of this Section ad- 
 
 ousl" m ^ a var i e ty f dependent constructions. 
 
 struc- Tne range of such variety is : 
 
 ted. !. Ut. 2. Omission of ut. 3. Ne. 4. Infin. Clause. 4^. That 
 
 form of Clause in which the Infin. is Perf. Pass., suppressing esse 
 (nollem datum). 5. Object-case and Infin.; or Infin., suppressing 
 Object-case (hortamur fari). 6. Prolative Infin., the Finite Verb 
 being Active (vult ire). 7. Prolative Infin., the Fin. Verb being 
 Passive. 8. Oblique Interrogation. 9. Quominus. ga. Quin. 
 
 servet/C. Fin. v. 9. 'Potuit animum inducere ut se patrem esse oblivisceretur/ 
 C. /. S, Rose. 15. 'Faciam (will cause) ex tragoedia comoedia ut sit,' Plaut. Am. 
 Prol. 54. 'Invitus feci ut Flaminium e senatu eicerem(=invitus eieci),' C. Cat. M. 12. 
 'Omnes concedant oportet, numquam facturum (allow himself) virum bonum u t men- 
 dacium dicat/ Qu. xii. 15. Fac (suppose), quaeso, quiego^'w, esse te,' C. Fam. vii. 23. 
 'Facut valeas/C. 'Fac intellegam, tu quid sentias,'C. N.D. 'Quid a me fieri potuit 
 aut elegantius aut iustius, quam ut sumptus egentissimarum civitatum minuerem?'C. 
 Fam. iii. 8. 'Faciendum mihi putavi ut litteris tuis breviter responderem,' do. ' M. 
 Crassi consilio factum est ne fugitivi ad Messanam transire possent,'C. Verr.v. 2. 
 ' Clamabant fore ut ipsi sese di ulciscerentur/ C. Verr. iv. 40. ' Quibus oculis animi 
 intueri potuit vester Plato fabricam illam tanti operis, qua construia deo atque aedi- 
 ficari mundum facit (proves)^ C. N, D. i. 8. ' Polyphemum Homerus cum immanem 
 ferumque finxisset, cum ariete etiam colloquentem facit (makes), eiusque laudare 
 fortunas, quod qua vellet ingredi Basset et quae vellet attingere/ C. T. D. v. 39. ' Nati 
 me coram cernere letum feeisti (caused),' Verg. Ae. ii. 538. 'Quae est Socratis 
 oratio, qua facit (makes) eum Plato usum apud iudices iam morte multatum?' C. 
 T. D. i. 40. ' Dolabella plus fecit (made out) Verrem accepisse, quam iste in suis 
 tabulis habuit, ' C. Verr. i. 39. ' E ffi c i t u r (it results) igiturfato fieri quaecumque 
 fiant? C. Fat. 10. ' Fides ut habeatur duabus rebus effici (be achieved) potest, si 
 existimabimur adepti coniunctam cum iustitia prudentiam,' C. Off, ii. 9. 'Sol efficit 
 (causes) ut omnia floreant et in suo quaeque genere pu be scant,' C. N. D. ii. 15. 
 'Vos effici (be brought about) negatis sine diviua posse sollertia ut innumerabilis 
 natura mundos effectura sit, efficiat, effecerit,' C. N. D. L 20. 'Potestis e me ere 
 ut male moriar ; ne moriar, non potestis/ Plin. Ep. iii. 16. 
 
 Ill) Interrogatio Obliqua. 
 
 ' Istud non est beneficium, sed fenus, circumspicere, non ubi optime ponas, sed 
 ubi quaestuosissime habeas, unde facillime tollas,' Sen. Ben. iv. 3. 'Solon Pisis- 
 trato tyranno, quaerenti, qua tandem spe fretus sibi tarn audaciter obsisteret, re- 
 spondisse dicitur : Senectute,' C. Cat. M. 20. 'Sapiens videbit, ubi victurus sit, 
 cum quibus, quomodo, quid acturus : cogitat semper, qualis vita, non quanta 
 sit/ Sen. Ep. 70. ' Si vis gratus esse adversus Deum, recordare, quam multa sis 
 consecutus; cum adspexeris, quot te antecedant, cogita, quot sequantur, 
 cogita, quam multos antecesseris,' Sen. Ep. 15. 'Videsutalta stet nive can- 
 didum Soracte,' Hor. C. i. 9. i. ' Matri denarrat ut ingens belua cognatos eliserit,' 
 Hor. S. ii. 3. 315 (see Hor. Epist. i. 8). 'A me consilium petis, quid tibi sim 
 auctor, in Siciliane subsidas an ad reliquias Asiaticae negotiationis proficis- 
 care?' C. Fam. vi. 8. 'Apud Germanos ea consuetudo erat ut matres familiae eorum 
 sortibus et vaticinationibus declararent, utrum proelium committi ex usu esset 
 necne/Caes. B. G. i. 50. 'Non id quaeritur, sintne aliqui, qui deos esse/z^w/: 
 di utrum sint, necne sint, quaeritur,' C. N. D. iii. 7. 'Antigonus nondum sta- 
 tuerat, conservaret Eumenem necne/ N. Eum. u. 'Di immortales, sit Latium 
 deinde annon, in vestra manu posuerunt/ L. viii. 13. 'Metellus transfugas et alios 
 opportunos, lugurtha ubi gentium, aut quid age ret, cum paucisne esset an ex- 
 ercitum haberet, exploratum misit/ Sail. lug. 54. 'Quae parare et quaerere 
 arduum fuit, nescio an tueri dimcilius sit/ L. xxxvii. 54. 'Haud scio an quae 
 dixit sint vera omnia/ Ter. An. iii. 2. 45. 'Si per se virtus sine fortuna ponderanda 
 sit, dubito an Thrasybulum primum omnium ponam/ N. Thr. i. (See Hor. Epist. 
 i. 12. 16-20; i. 18. 96-103 ; ad Pis. 114-118. 307-315.) 
 
 (Impersonal Verbs : Interest, refert.) ' Illud mea magnl interest, te ut videam,' 
 C. Att. xi. 22. ' Illud permagni referre arbitror, ut ne scienteHi sentiat te id sibi 
 dare/ Ter. Haut. iil i. 58. ' Epistulae inventae sunt, ut certiores faceremus absentis, si 
 
203. Various Constructions of Verbs. 449 
 
 Constructions within this range taken by certain Verbs. 
 a) Impersonal Verbs i 
 
 Interest and refert: 1.2.3.4.5.8. Licet and necesse 
 est: (i) 2. 4. 5. 6. Oportet: 2. 4. 40. 5. 
 
 ) Verbs of Desire : 
 
 Volo : i. 2. 3. 4. 4tf. 5. 6. Malo : i. 2. 4. 5. 6. Nolo : i. 2. 
 4. 4/7. 6. Opto : i. 2. 3. 4. 6. 7. Studeo : I. 3. 4. 40. 6. 
 Cupio : 4. 4#. 6. 
 
 *) Various i 
 
 lubeo : i. 2. 4. $ t 7, Cogo : i. 4. 5. 7. Patior : i. 4. 6. 
 Sino : I. 2. 4. 5. 7. Concede : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. Permitto : 
 i. 2. 4. 5. 8. Impero : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. Mando : i. 2. 
 3. 4. Praecipio : i. 2. 3. 5.. 8. Veto : 3. 5. 7. 9. Pro- 
 hibeo : i. 3. 4. 5. 7. 9. 90. Impedio : 3. 5. 9. Hortor 
 and oro : i. 2. 3. 5. Postulo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Suadeo 
 and persuadeo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. Doceo^ i. 4. 5. 7. 8. Mo- 
 neo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. Censeo : I. 2. 3. 4. 5. Video : i. 
 3. 4. 7. 8. Curo : i. 2. 3. 4. (espec. Gerundive) 5. 8. 
 Statuo : i. 3. 4. 6. 8. Dico : i. 2. 3. 4. 7. 8. 
 
 quid esset, quod eos scireaut nostra aut ipsorum interesset' C. Fain. ii. 4. 'Parvi 
 refert, vos publicanis amissis vectigalia postea victoria recuperare,' C. /. L. Man. 7. 
 'Theodori nihil interest humine an sublime putrescat/ C. T. D. i. 43. 'Aves 
 pascantur necne quid refert?' C. Div. ii. 35. 
 
 (Necesse est, oportet, licet.) ' Qui se metui volent, a quibus metuent^^r, eosdem 
 metuant ipsi necesse est,' C. Off. ii. 7. 'Animus oportet tuus te iudicet divitem, 
 non hominum sermo, neque possessiones tuae/ C. Par. vi. i. "Tollas licet/ Hor. Ep. 
 
 1. 16. 76. 'A Deo mundum necesse est regi,' C. N. D. ii. 30. ' Narrationem 
 oportet tris habere res, ut brevis, ut aperta, utprobabilissit/C. Inv. i. 20. 'Neque 
 nos lepore tuo, neque te, si quis est in me, meofrui licet propter molestissimas oc- 
 cupationes meas,' C. Fam. vli. i. ' Non dubitabit, quid me sentire conveniat, cum, 
 quid mihi sentire necesse sit, cogitarit,' C. d. Pr. C. i. 'Impetrabis a Caesare, 
 ut tibi abesse liceat et esse otioso/ C. Att. ix. 2. ' Is erat annus, quo per leges 
 ei consulem fieri liceret/ Caes. B. C. iii- i. ' Adulescenti morem gestumopor- 
 tuit/Ter. Ad. ii. 2. 6. 
 
 {Verbs of Desire.) ' Maiores voluerunt, qui testimonium diceret, ut arbitrari se 
 diceret, etiam quod ipse vidisset; quaeque iurati iudices cognovissent, ea non ut esse 
 facta, sed ut videri pronuntiarent/ C. Ac. ii. 47. 'Nolo mentiare,' Ter. Eun. v. 
 
 2. 'Tu ad me de rebus omnibus scribas velim,' C. Fam. viii. 13. 'Vellem equidem 
 aut ipse Epicurus doctrinis fuisset instructior aut ne deterruisset alios a studiis/ 
 C. Fin. i. 7. 'Malo te sapiens hostis metuat quam stulti cives laudent,' L. xxii. 
 39- 'Caesar stude bat maxime ut partem oppidi a reliqua parte urbis excluderet/ 
 Hirt. B. A. i. 'Optandum est ut ii, qui pra.esunt reipublicae, legum similes sint, 
 quae ad puniendum non iracundia sed aequitate d-ncuntur,' C. Off. i. 25. 'Optavi 
 pete res caelestia sidera tarde,' Ov. Trist. ii. 57. ' Videmini intenta mala, quasi fulmen, 
 optare, se quisque ne attingant,' Sail. Fr. 
 
 'Ego me Phidiamesse mallem quam vel optimum fabrum tignarium/ C. Br. 73. 
 'Cupio, me esse clementem ; cupio, in tantis rei publicae periculis me non disso- 
 lutum videri,' C. Cat. \. 2. 'Quam multa passus est Ulixes in illo errore diuturno, 
 cum et mulieribus inserviret et in omni sermone omnibus aflfabilem et iucundum 
 esse se vellet,' C. Off. i. 31. 'Homo tenuis gratum se videri studet,'C. Off. ii. 20. 
 'Te mihi ipsum Jam dudum op tar am dari,'Ter. H. iv. 5. 
 
 ' Domestica cura te levatum volo,' C. Qu. F. iii. 9. ' Patres ordinem publicanorum 
 in tali teinpore offensum nolebant,' L. xxv. 3. 'Nollem factum, I'm sorry for it, 
 C. Off.'\. n. 'Duabus de causis a te potissimum petere constitui quod impetratum 
 maxime cupio/ Plin. Ep. ii. 13. 
 
 'Volo is esse quern tu me esse voluisti/ C. Fam. i. 7. 'Nolo esse laudator ne 
 
 G G 
 
4So Latin Syntax. 203. 
 
 videar adulator/ ad Her. iv. 21. ' Cato esse quamvideri bonus male bat,' Sail. Cat. 
 54. 'Hunc videre optabamus diem,' Ter. Hec. iv. 4. 26. 'Scire studeo quid egeris, 
 C. Att. xiii. 20. ' Cupio te consulem videre,' C. Fain. xv. 13.- 
 
 (lubeo.) 'L. Quinctius iussit ut, quae ex sua classe venissent naves, Euboeam pete- 
 rent,'L. xxxii. n. 'Velitis iubeatis Quirites, uti L. Valerius L. Titio iure legeque 
 films siet,' Gell. v. 19. ' lube mihi denuo respondeat,' Ter. Eun. iv. 4. 24. 'Dio- 
 genes proici se iussit inhumatum,' C. T. D. i. 43. 'lubeo gaudere te,' C. fain. 
 vii. 2. ' lussi ei dari bibere,' Ter. An. iii. 2. 4. 'Transire in Epirum est iussus/ 
 L. xxxv. 24. 
 
 (Cogo.) 'Quid Paris? ut salvus regnet vivatque beatus cogi posse negat,' Hor. 
 Epist. i. 2. 10. 'Nonne di ipsi cogent ab his virtutibus tanta vitia superari,' C. in 
 Cat. ii. ii. ' Innumerabilia sunt ex quibus cogi (be necessarily inferred) possitnihil 
 esse, quod sensum habeat, quin id intereat,' C. N. D. iii. 13. 'Num te emere 
 coegit, qui ne hortatus quidem est,' C. Off. iii. 13. 'Neque cogi pugnare poterat 
 rex,' L. xlv. 41. 
 
 (Patior.) 'Nein turpi quidem reo patiendum estut quicquam adversarii se minis 
 proficere arbitrentur,' C. p. Font. 12. 'Consilium meum a te probari facile 
 patior,' C. Att. xv. 2. 'Patior vel inconsultus haberi,' Hor. Epist. ii. v. 15. 
 
 (Sino.) 'Sivi animum ut expleret suum,' Ter. An. \. 2. 27. 'Sine tehocexo* 
 rem,' Ter. An. v. 3. 30. ' Germani vinum ad se importari non sinunt,' Caes. 
 B. G. iv. 2. 'Sineres tu ilium tecum facere haec?' Ter. Ad. iii. 3. 42. 
 ' Accusare eum moderate a quo nefarie accusatur, non est situs,' C. /. Sest. 44. 
 
 (Concedo.) 'Concede sit dives,' Catull. cxii. 5. 'Non concedam ut Attico 
 nostro iucundiores tuae litterae fuerint quam mihi,' C. Fain. xiii. 18. 'Concede, 
 nihil esse bonum, nisi quod honestum sit : concedendum est, in virtute sola posi- 
 tam esse beatam vitam,' C. Fin. v. 28. 'Concedunt plangere matri,' Stat. Th. 
 v. 134. 'Quo mihi fortunam, si non conceditur uti,' Hor. Epist. ii. 5. 12. 
 
 (Permitto.) ' Quis Antonio permisit ut partis faceret?' C. d. Or. ii. 90. 
 'Permissum ipsi erat faceret quod e republica duceret esse,' L. xxxiii. 45. ' Ille 
 meas errare boves, ut cernis, et ipsum ludere quae vellem calamo permisit 
 agresti,' Verg. B. i. 9. 'Rex Cononi permisit quern vellet eligere,' N. Con. 4. 
 'Tibi permitto, responderene mihi malis, an universam orationem audire meam,' C. 
 N. D. iii. i. 
 
 (Impero.) 'Senatus imperavit decemviris ut libros Sibyllinos inspicerent,' L. 
 vii. 27. ' Leto det imperat Argum,' Ov. M. i. 670. ' Mihi ne abscedam imperat, 
 Ter. Eun. iii. 5. 30. 'Pro serapionis libro tibi praesentem pecuniam solvi impe- 
 ravi,' C. Att. ii. 4. 'Imperavi egomet mihi omnia assentari,' Ter. Eun. ii. 2. 21. 
 ' Animo nunc iam otioso esse impero,' Ter. An. v. 2. i. 'Haec ego procurare et 
 idoneus imperor et non invitus,' Hor. Epist. i. 5. 21. ' In lautumias Syracusanas de- 
 duci imperantur,' C. Verr. v. 27. 'Imperabat coram quid opus facto esset,' Ter. 
 Ph. i. 4. 
 
 (Praecipio.) ' Atheniensibus praecepit, ut Miltiadem sibi imperatorem sumerent; 
 id si fecissent, incepta prospera futura,' Nep. Milt. i. 'His praecipit omnis 
 mortalis pecunia aggrediantur,' Sail. hig. 30. 'Haec praecipienda videntur 
 historiarum lectoribus, ne alienos mores ad suos re fe rant, neve ea, quae ipsis leviora 
 sunt, pari modo apud ceteros fuisse arbitrentur,' Nep. Ep. i. 'Sunt qui praeci- 
 piant herbas satureia nocentis sumere,' Ov. A. A. ii. 415. ' Huic indici quid fieri 
 vellent praeceperunt,' N. Pans. 4. 
 
 (Veto.) 'Pontus erat vetitus ne mergeret aequore terram,' Man. iv. 645. 
 'Vetabo qui Cereris sacrum vulgarit arcanae sub isdem sit trabibus,' Hor. C. iii. 2. 
 'Non ego, avarum cum veto te fieri, vappam iubeo aut nebulonem,' Hor. Sat. i. i. 
 108. ' Desperatis etiam Hippocrates vetat adhibere medicinam,' C. Att. xvi. 15. 
 'Nolani muros portasque adire vetiti sunt,' L. xxxiii. 16. ' Sapientia nulla re q u o- 
 minus se exerceat vetari potest,' Sen. Ep. 9. 
 
 (Prohibeo.) 'Id potuisti prohibere ne fieret,' C. in Caec. 10. (One example of 
 prohibere ut: 'Di prohibeant ut hoc . . . praesidium sectorum existimetur,' C. 
 /. 9. Rose. 52.) 'Ignis fieri in castris prohibet,' Caes. B. G. v. 29. ' Peregrines 
 urbibus uti prohibent,' C. Off. iii. n. 'Alii diurnum victum prohibit! quae- 
 rere,' Suet. Ner. 36. ' Hiemem credo adhuc prohibuisse quominus de te certum 
 haberemus,' C. Fain. xii. 5. 'Neque me luppiter neque di omnes id prohibebunt 
 quin sic faciam uti constitui,' Plaut. An. v. 3. 17. 
 
 (Impedio.) ' Isocrates infirmitate vocis ne in publico diceret impediebatur/ Plin. 
 
, 203. Various Constructions of Verbs. 45 1 
 
 Ep. v. 29. 'Cur iudices reipublicae munere impediantur quo s e t i u s suis rebus et 
 commodis servire possint?' C. Inv. ii. 45. 'Aetas non impedit quominirs^\ 
 litterarum studia teneamus usque ad ultimum tempus senectutis,' C. Cat. M. 17. 
 {Impedire quin is rare and not good). ' Quid est quod me impediatea quae mini pro- 
 babilia videantur sequi?' C. Off. ii. 2. 
 
 (Postulo.) 'Tribuni plebis postulant ut sacrosancti habeantur,' L. Hi. 19. 
 ' Postulo, Appi, etiam atque etiam consideres quo progrediare,' L. iii. 45. 'Legates 
 ad Bocchum mittit postulatum ne sine causa hostis populo Romano fieret,' Sail. lug. 
 83. 'Postulant non ut ne cogantur statuere. Quid igitur? ut ipsis ne liceat/ 
 C. Verr. ii. 60. 'Hie postulat se Romae absolvi,' C. Verr. iv. 60. 'Incertahaec 
 si tu postules ratione certa facer e, nihilo plus agas quam si des operam ut cum 
 ratione insanias,' Ter. Eun. i. i. 16. 'Postulat deus credi/ Curt. vi. 43. (Flagito 
 lias the same construction.) 
 
 (Suadeo. Persuadeo.) ' Caesar mini ut sibi essem legatus non solum suasit, verum 
 etiam rogavit,' C. d. Pr. C. 17. 'Dolabellae quod scripsi suadeo videas,' C. Fain. 
 ii. 15. 'Pelopidas persuasit Thebanis, ut subsidio Thessaliae proficiscerentur, 
 tyrannosque eius expellerent,' N. Pel. 5. ' Huic Albinus persuadet regnum Numi- 
 diae ab senatu petat/ Sail. lug. 39. 'Duo tempora inciderunt quibus aliquid contra 
 Caesarem Pompeio suaserim ; unum ne quinquennii imperium Caesari prorogaret ; 
 alterum ne pateretur ferri ut absentis eius ratio haberetur: quorum si utrumvis per- 
 suasissem, in has miser ias nunquam incidissemus,' C. Phil. ii. 19. 'Mihiab adoles- 
 centia suasi nihil esse in vita magnopere expetendum nisi laudem atque hones- 
 tatem,' C. /. Arch. 6. ' Mihi numquam persuaderi potuit animos, dum in corporibus 
 essent mortalibus, vivere, cum existftttcx. iis, emori/ C. Cat. M. 22. 'Nobisper- 
 suasum est, fore aliquando, ut omnis hie mundus ardore deflagret/ C. Ac. iv. 37. 
 *Saepes . . . somnum suadebit inire/ Verg. B. i. 56. 'Persuasum est facere 
 cuius nunc me facti pudet,' Plaut. Bacc. iv. 9. 93. ' Dionysio persuasit Plato tyrannidis 
 facere finem,' N. Dion. 3 (rare). See Verg. Aen. xii. 814. 
 
 (Doceo.) ' Philosophia nos cum ceteras res, turn quod est dimcillimum, docuit, ut 
 nosmet ipsos nosceremus,' C. Leg. i. 58. 'Orpheum poetam docet Aristoteles nun- 
 quam fuisse,' C. N. D. i. 28. 'Declamare doces/ luv. vii. 150. 'Graece loqui 
 docendus sum,' C. Fin. ii. 3. 'Invideo magistro tuo, qui te tanta mercede nihil 
 sapere docuit/ C. Phil. ii. 4. 'Ne litteras quidem ullas accepi, quae me docerent 
 <iuid ageres,' C. Fain. iii. 6. 
 
 (Moneo.) ' Hanc habet vim praeceptum Apollinis, quo monet, ut se quisque noscat ; 
 non enim, credo, id praecipit, ut membra nostra, aut staturam figuramve noscamus,' 
 C. T. D. i. 22. ' Caesar legates monuit ad nutum et ad tempus omnes res ab iis ad- 
 ministrarentur,' Caes. B. G. iv. 28. 'Caesar cum a summo haruspice moneretur 
 ne in Africam transmitteret, nihilominus transmisit,' C. Div. ii. 24. ' Caecos in- 
 stare tumultus sol monet,' Verg. G. i. 464. 'Ratio ipsa monet amicitias com- 
 parare,' C. Fin. i. 20. ' Soror alma monet succedere Lauso Turnum,' Verg. Aen. 
 x. 439. 'Moneo quid facto opus sit,' Ter. Ad. iii. 5. 65. 
 
 (Censeo, judge, vote.) 'Plerique censebant ut noctu iter faceret,' Caes. B. G. \. 
 57. 'Arcessas censeo omnis navalis terrestrisque copias,' L. xxxvi. 7. 'Stolida 
 impudensque postulatio visa est, censere ne in Italiam transmittant Galli bellum/ 
 L. xxi. 20. 'Aristoteles omnia aut natura moveri censet (judges) aut vi aut volun- 
 tate,' C. N. D. ii. 16. (The two next examples are idiomatic. 'Quid censes hunc 
 ipsum Roscium, quo studio esse in rusticis rebus ?' C. /. S. Rose. 17. 'Quid cen- 
 semus superiorem ilium Dionysium, quo cruciatu timoris angi solitum?' C- 
 Off. ii. 7.) ' Bona regis reddi censuerunt,' L. ii. 5. 'Regulus captives in senatu 
 reddendos non censuit,' C. Off. \. 13. 'Antenor censet belli praecidere causas,' 
 Hor. Epist. i. 2. 9. 
 
 (Video.) 'Nos id videamus ut, quidquid acciderit, fortiter et sapienter feramvus/ 
 C.Att. xiv. 13. 'Videne,' &c.; see Caution. 'Volucris videmus fingere et con- 
 st ru ere nidos,' C. d. Or. ii. 6. 'Carneadem videre video r,' C. Fin. v. 2. 'Amens 
 mihi fuisse videor a principio,' C. Att. ix. 10. 'Videamus primum deorumne 
 providentia mundus regatur, deinde consulantne rebus humanis/ C. N. D. iii. 25. 
 
 (Curo, i. 2. 3. 4. 5.) 'Cura ut valeas,' C. Fain. xiv. 5. 'Ante senectutem curavi 
 ut bene viverem; in senectute ut bene moriar,' Sen. Ep. 61. 'lam curabo sentiat 
 quos attentarit,' Phaed. v. 2. 6. 'Cura ne quid mihi ad hoc negoti aut oneris accedat 
 aut temporis/ C. Fam. iii. 8. ' Non verbum verbo curabis reddere,' Hor. in Pis. 133. 
 ' Tu recte vivis, si curas esse quod audis,' Hor. Epist. i. 16. 17. ' Ex eo auro buculam 
 curavit faciendam,' C. Div. i. 24. 'Nee hercle magno opcre nunc euro quid Aetoli 
 c en scant,' L. xxxvL 28. 
 
 G G 2 
 
45 2 Latin Syntax. 204-5. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 ADVERBIAL AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES. 
 
 (These are properly considered in connexion, on account of the 
 Adverbial character often taken by Adjectival Clauses.) 
 
 Relative 1. Relative or Adjectival Clauses. 
 
 Clauses. 
 
 1) A Relative Clause is called Adjectival, because it qualifies, 
 like an Attribute, the Sentence on which it depends : 
 
 Deus est, qui regit mundum, qui creavit omnia, quern 
 veneramur, = Deus est, mundum regens, creator omnium, 
 veneratus a nobis. 
 
 2) A Clause may be introduced by a Relative Particle, equiva- 
 lent to Pronoun with Preposition : 
 
 Roma est, ubi habito, quo proficiscor, unde venio, &c. =in 
 qua habito, ad quam proficiscor, ex qua venio, &c. 
 
 3) The Mood in a Relative Clause will be Indie., when no reason 
 exists for another Mood. But the Subjunctive will be required, 
 (i) if the Clause is actually or virtually Suboblique ; (2) if it is 
 Gnomic, or, sometimes, Iterative ; (3) if the Clause contains a Con- 
 sequence (such that, so that], a Purpose (in order that] ; often 
 when it contains a conceived Cause (since), a Condition (if\ or a 
 Concession (although). 
 
 4) In the latter cases (3), as an Adjective may have Adverbial 
 force (serus venit = sero venit), so an Adjectival Clause may become 
 Adverbial : as when qui = ut ego, ut tu, ut is, &c. : quo = ut eo or 
 eo quod : ubi = ut ibi, &c. 
 
 Hence, in considering Adverbial Clauses, it is proper, in each 
 kind, to include those Relative (Adjectival) Clauses which contain 
 Adverbial force, and always or usually require a Subjunctive. 
 
 Con- 5 ii. Consecutive Clauses. 
 
 Secutive 
 
 Clauses. Consecutive Clauses are so called because they express conse- 
 quence or result. 
 
 A) An Adverbial Consecutive Clause is formed by the Conjunc- 
 tion ut, that, with Subjunctive ; often following some Demonstrative 
 word, but sometimes without Demonstr. ( so that). 
 
 i) Such Demonstratives are : 
 
 Adverbs : it a, tarn, adeo, sic ; tantum, tantopere, totiens; eo> 
 hue, illuc. 
 
 Pronouns and Pronominals : is, hie, talis, tantus ; tot, toti- 
 dem ; eiusmodi ; huiusmodi. 
 
 Ut also follows the Adjectives dignus, indignus, idoneus, 
 aptus. 
 
 Ut may follow a Comparative with quam (than} : and some- 
 times ut falls out after quam, the Verb being still Sub- 
 junctive. 
 
S 205. Consecutive Clauses. 453 
 
 2) If Negation is required, the Negative words used are : 
 
 Non, nee, nihil, nemo, nullus, numquam, nusquam. 
 
 3) Ita miseri sunt ut fleant, fleverint (have wept], fleturi sint. 
 Ita miseri erant ut flerent, fleturi essent. 
 
 Ita miseri fuere ut fleverint (they wept). 
 
 Quis tamdurus est ut numquam fleat, fleverit, fleturussit? 
 
 Quis tarn durus erat ut non fleret, fleturus esset? 
 
 Quis tarn durus fuit ut non fleverit? 
 
 [In Historic Consecution, if the fact is to be brought out, S 2 
 (fleverint) is used instead of S 3 (flerent). The following examples 
 unite both constructions : ' Sicilia et classis Marcello evenit. 
 Quae sors, velut iterum captis Syracusis, ita exanimavit Siculos, ut 
 comploratio eorum flebilesque voces et extemplo oculos hominum 
 converterent et postmodo sermones praebuerint/ L. xxvi. 29. 
 * Usque eo ut compluris dies milites frumento caruerint, et . . . 
 xtremam famem sustinerent/ Caes. B. G. vii. 17. S 2 will be 
 .necessary r , when the consequence can only be referred to the time of 
 the writer or speaker : 'Hortensius ardebat cupiditate dicendi sic 
 ut in nullo unquam flagrantius studium viderim (have seen)] C. 
 r. 88.] 
 
 4) Idioms of Adverbial Consecution: 
 
 .a) The phrase 'tantum abesse/ with an Enuntiative Ut- 
 clause, may take also a Consecutive Clause, the meaning 
 being so far from . . . that : 
 
 ''Tantum abest ut enervetur oratio compositione ver- 
 borum ut aliter in ea nee impetus ullus nee vis esse 
 p o s s it/ so far is a speech from being weakened by periodic 
 arrangement, that otherwise there can be no movement or 
 force in it, C. Or. 68. 
 
 The Adverbial Clause after tantum abest is sometimes 
 
 changed for a Principal Sentence : 
 6 Tantum afuit ut inflammares nostros animos, somnum 
 
 isto loco vix tenebamus.' 
 
 The phrase 'in eo esse ut' means to be on the point of: 
 'lam in eo erat ut in muros evaderet miles/ L. ii. 17. 
 
 5) Ita ut is used with various shades of meaning: (in stick 
 
 circumstances; on condition; with the understanding; 
 with the feeling ; with the exception] that ; &c. : 'Clodius 
 Roma ita profectus est ut contionem turbulentam 
 relinqueret/ C.p.Mil. 10. ' Huius ingenium ita laudo 
 ut non pertimescam/ C. in Caes. 13. ( Caligula in 
 adulescentia ita patiens laborum erat ut tamen non- 
 numquam subita defectione ingredi vix posset/ Suet. 
 Cal. 48. 
 
 6) When ita or sic implies design, the Clause is rather Final 
 
 than Consecutive, and, if Negative, takes ne: 'Hoc est 
 ita utile ut ne plane illudamur/ this is useful with a 
 view to our being not altogether made a mock of, C. p. S. 
 Rose. 10. Here ita is equivalent to idcirco. 
 
454 Latin Syntax. 206, 
 
 7) Is ... ut (of the kind that) is often used, though not 
 so often as is . . . qui in the same sense: l Non is sum 
 ut mea me maxime delectent,' C. ad. Brut. 15. 
 
 B) An Adjectival Consecutive Clause with a Subjunctive occurs 
 when qui or its Particle expresses (not the individual which, but) 
 the kind which ( = talis ut, ita ut, &c.). 
 
 Examples of Consecutive Clauses. 
 
 A) (Adverbial.) ' Galli dies natalis et mensium et annorum initia sic observant, ut 
 noctem dies subsequatur (succeeds to),' Caes. B. G. vi. 18. 'Socratis response sic 
 indices exarserunt ut capitis hominem innocentissimum condemnarent,' C. d. Or. 
 i. 54. 'Talis est ordo actionum adhibendus ut in vita omnia sint (may be) apta inter 
 se et convenientia,' C. Off. i. 40. ' Quis est tarn demens ut sua voluntate maereat 
 (as to mourn)?' C. T. D iii. 29. 'Decori vis ea est ut ab honesto non queat 
 (cannot) separari,' C. Off. i. 27. 'Non ita adulatus sum fortunam alterius ut me 
 meae paeniteret (as to regret),' C. Div. ii. 2. 'Dolores, si qui incurrunt, numquam 
 vim tan tarn habent, ut non plus habeat (will not have) sapiens, quod gaudeat, quam 
 quod angatur,' C. Fin. i. 19. 'Hannibal petens Etrunam adeo gravi morbo adfici- 
 tur oculorum, ut postea numquam dextro aeque bene usus sit,' Nep. Hann. 4. 
 ' Iphicrates Atheniensis fuit talis dux, ut non solum aetatis suae cum primis com- 
 pararetur sed ne de maioribus natu quidem quisquam anteponeretur. Multum. 
 vero in bello est versatus, saepe exercitibus praefuit, nusquam culpa sua male rem gessit; 
 semper consilio vicit, tantumque eo valuit, ut multa in re militari partim nova at tu- 
 lerit, partim meliora fecerit,' Nep. Iph. i. 'Quanta ilia Scipionis fuit gravitas, 
 quanta in oratione maiestas, ut (so that) facile ducem Romani populi di ceres,' C. Lael. 
 25. 'Arboribus consita Italia est, ut tota pomarium videatur (seems),' Varro, i. 
 'Cuius aures clausae veritati sunt, ut ab amico verum audire nequeat, huius salus 
 desperanda est,' C. Lael. 24. 'In virtute multi sunt ascensus, ut is maxime gloria 
 cxcellat (excels) qui virtute plurimum praestet' C. /. Plane. 25. ' Data merces est 
 erroris mei magna, ut me non solum pigeat stultitiae meae, sed etiam pudeat, qui 
 non intellexerim, quibus, ut amicis, crederem,' C. p. Dom. n. 'Maior sum quam 
 ut mancipium sim (too great to be) mei corporis,' Sen. Ep. 65. ' Hoc videtur esse 
 altiusquam ut nos humi strati suspicere possimus (too high for us to be able),' C. 
 d. Or. iii. 6. ' Galba parcior fuit quam conveniret principi,' Suet. Galb. 
 'Dignus es ut possis (to be able) totum servare clientem/ Mart. x. 34. 'In- 
 digni ut a vobis redimeremur (to .be ransomed) visi sum us,' L. xxii. 59. 'Tan- 
 turn afuit ut Rhodiorum praesidio nostram firmaremus classem ut etiam a Rhodiis 
 commeatu prohiberentur milites nostri,' C. Fam. xii. 15. 'Tantum abest ut 
 nostra miremur ut usque eo difficiles ac morosi simus ut nobis non satisfaciat 
 ipse Demosthenes,' C. Or. 29. 'Tantum abes a perfectione maximorum operum ut 
 fundamenta nondum ieceris,' C. p. Marc. 8. 'Is, qui occultus et tectus dicitur, tan- 
 turn abest ut se indicet, perficiet etiam ut dolere alterius improbe facto videatur/ 
 C. Fin* ii. 17. 'Ita (with this exception) probanda est mansuetudo atque dementia ut 
 adhibeatur reipublicae causa severitas,' C. Off. i. 25. 'Pythagoras et Plato mortem 
 ita (ivitk this proviso) laudant ut fugere vitam vet en t/ C. /. Scaur. 2. ' Aristoteles 
 ita non sola virtute finem bonorum contineri putat ut rebus tamen omnibus virtutem 
 anteponat,' C. Fin.'\\. 18. 'Ego tibi onus impofiam, ita (with the understanding) 
 tamen ut tibi nolim molestus esse,' C. Fam. xiii. 56. 'Ego a patre ita eram 
 deductus ad Scaevolam ut a senis latere numquam discederem,'C. Lael. i. ' Potest 
 esse bellum, u t tumultus non sit (without insurrection), tumultus esse sine bello non 
 potest,' C. Phil. viii. i. 'Ita vobiscum amicitiam institui par est ne qua (provided* 
 that no) vetustior amicitia ac societas violetur,' L. vii. 31. 'Minucius sciebat ita se 
 in provincia rem augere oportere ut ne quid de libertate deperderet,' C. Verr. ii. 30. 
 'Ea (such) invasit homines habendi cupido ut possideri magis quam possidere vi- 
 de ant ur,' Plin. Ep. ix. 30. ' Ea natura rerum est ut, qui sensum verae gloriae ceperit, 
 nihil cum hac gloria comparandum putet,' C. Phil. v. 18. 'Non is (the kind of man) 
 es, Catilina, ut te aut pudor a turpitudine aut metus a periculo aut ratio a furore revo- 
 carit,' C. Cat. i. 9. 
 
 B) (Adjectival.) 'Ea est Romana gens quae victa quiescere nesciat,' L. ix. 3. 
 'Non is sum qui, quidquid videtur, tale dicam esse quale videatur,'' C. Ac. ii. 7. 
 'Innocentia est affectio talis animi quae noceat nemini,' C. T. D. iii. 8. 'Est 
 aliquid quod non oporteat, etiamsi licet,' C. P. Balb. 3. ' Quotusquisque est 
 
206. Consecutive Clauses. 455 
 
 i) This may happen : 
 
 After the Demonstratives is, eiusmodi, huiusmodi, talis^ 
 tantus, tarn, &c. : 
 
 'Habetis eum (eiusmodi, talem, tarn bonum) consulem qui 
 parere vestris decretis non dubitet/ you have such a 
 consul, as will not hesitate to obey your decrees, C. Cat. iv. 
 II. < Nihil t ant i fuit quo venderemus fidem nostram 
 et libertatem/ nothing was so valuable that we should 
 barter for it our honour and freedom, C. ad. Br. 16. 
 
 Wherever the Predication on which the Relative Clause 
 depends might be explained bytalisortam: for instance, 
 when it contains 
 
 a) Indefinite, Interrogative, Negative, and other Pronominal 
 words : aliquis, quidam, &c., quis, quot, quotusquisque, 
 &c., nemo, nihil, nullus ; unus, solus, primus, ultimus, 
 &c. ; nonnulli, multi, pauci, &c. 
 
 b) Dignus, indignus, idoneus, aptus, &c. 
 
 c) A Comparative with quam. 
 
 d) A Verb, the Subject or Object of which (being the Antece- 
 dent) is not expressed, but left Indefinite. Such expres- 
 sions are : est qui, sunt qui, reperitur qui, habeo, 
 invenio, reperio qui, &c. : and many like phrases. 
 
 Even if the Antec. is expressed, the Rel. will take Subjunctive 
 when it defines the class or kind. 
 
 qui voluptatem neget esse bonum?' C. Div. ii. 39. 'Nullum est animal praeter homi- 
 nem, quod habeat notitiam aliquam Dei/ C. Leg. i. 8. 'Nihil est quod tana 
 miseros facial quam impietas et scelus,' C. Fin. iv. 24. 'Multae hodie sunt gentes 
 quae tantum facie n over in t caelum, quae nondum sciant cur luna deficiat/ Sen. N". 
 Qu. vi. 25. 'Sapientia est una quae maestitiam pellat ex animis, quae nos exhor- 
 rescere metu non sinat,' C. Fin. i. 13. 'Sola est in qua merito culpetur Vespasi- 
 anus pecuniae cupiditas/ Suet. Vesp. 16. 'Est quod differat inter iustitiam et 
 verecundiam/ C. Off. i. 28. 'Sunt qui discessum animi a corpore putent esse 
 mortem,' C. T. D. i. 9. 'Est quatenus amicitiae dari venia possit,' C. LaeL 17. 
 'Fuere qui crederent M. Licinium Crassum non ignarum Catilinae consili fuisse/ 
 Sail. Cat. 17. 'Fuit cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer/ 
 C. d. Or. i. i. 'Quid est cur virtus ipsa per se non efficiat beatos?' C. T. D. v. 6. 
 'Livianae fabulae non satis dignae sunt quae iterum legantur,' C. Br. 18. 'Men- 
 tern solam censebant idoneam cui crederetur/ C. Ac. i. 8. ' Campani maiora 
 deliquerant quam quibus ignosci posset/ L. xxv. 12. 'Quid dulcius quam habere 
 quicum omnia audeas sic loqui ut tecum?' C. LaeL 6. 'Non facile est invenire 
 qui, quod sciat ipse, non tradat alteri/ C. Fin. iii. 20. ' Nihil difficilius quam re- 
 perire quod sit omni ex parte in suo genere perfectum/ C. LaeL 21. 'Nihil habeo 
 quod incusem senectutem/ C. Cat. M. 5. 'Quid est quod tti cum fortuna queri 
 possis?' C. Fain. iv. 5. 'Non est causa cur Epicurus fatum ex time scat/ C. Fat. 
 9. 'Antonius quo se verteret non habebat/ C. Phil. ii. 25. ' Ne qui infans 
 quidem est adsuescat sermoni qui dediscendus sit/ Qu. i. i. 'Augusto prompta ac 
 profluens, quae deceret principem, eloquentia fuit/Tac. Ann. xiii. 3. 'Pad, quae 
 nihil habitura sit insidiarum, semper est consulendum/ C. Off. i. ii. 'Quis est qu in 
 cernat quanta vis sit in sensibus?' C. Ac. ii. 7. 'Cleanthes negat ullum esse cibum 
 tarn gravem quin is die et nocte concoquatur/ C. N. D. ii. 9. 'Nemo tarn ferus 
 fuit quin Alcibiadis casum lacrimarit/ N. Ale. 6. 'Totas noctes dormimus, neque 
 ulla est fere qua non somniemus/C. Div. ii. 59. 'Nihil est tarn sanctum quod 
 non aliquando violet audacia,' C. /. S. Rose. 70. 'Nulla tarn detestabilis pestis est 
 quae non homini ab homine nascatur/ C. Off. ii. 5. 'Non possunt una in civi- 
 tate multi rem atque fortunas amittere, ut non pluris secum in eandera. trahant cala- 
 
456 Latin Syntax. 206. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 Aliquis (quis ? quotusquisque ? nemo, uims, &c.) est qui 
 sciat, there is somebody (who is there ? how many are 
 there? there is nobody, there is one] who knows. 
 
 Dignus (indignus, idoneus) est qui imperet, he is worthy 
 (unworthy, fit} to rule. 
 
 f Maior fuit quam cui resist! posset/ he was too great to be 
 resisted. 
 
 Sunt (reperiuntur, existunt, &c.) qui velint, there are (are 
 found, exist) those who will be willing. Habui puerum 
 quern mittere possem, I had such a boy as I could send. 
 ' Satis est causae cur timeamus.' 
 
 2) If a Relative Clause, depending on a Negative or Interro- 
 gative Predication, requires Negation itseif, qui non 
 (numquam, nusquam) may be used, or quin for qui 
 non : 
 
 Quis est (nemo est) quin (qui non) sues habeat? who is 
 there (there is nobody) that does not keep swine ? 
 
 'Nihil est (quid est?) quin (quod non) male narrando 
 possit depravari,' there is nothing (what is there?} that 
 cannot be spoilt by telling it badly] Ter. Ph. iv. 4. 
 
 'Nullum intermisi diem quin ( = quo non) scriberem/ 
 / let no day pass without writing, C. 
 
 a} Quin rarely contains any Case of the Relative except 
 Nom. or Abl. ; but a few exceptional instances are 
 found : 
 
 * Nego in Sicilia tota ullam picturam fuisse quin Verres 
 conquisierit ( = quam non)/ C. Verr. iv. I. 
 
 V) Quin must be resolved into qui non whenever the Nega- 
 tive has a distinctive application to a part of the Clause, 
 requiring special emphasis. 
 
 c] If another Relative Clause intervenes, quin =ut non, and 
 
 a Demonstrative Pronoun follows : 
 
 'Nihil est, quod sensum habeat, quin id intereat, 
 there is nothing that has feeling but it perishes, C. N. D. 
 iii. 13. 
 
 d) In some instances quin consecutive will be resolved into 
 
 mitatem,' C. /. L. Man. 7. ' Quod litteris exstet, Pherecydes Syrius primus dixit 
 animos esse hominum sempiternos,' C. T. D. i. 16. ' Suae cuique utilitati, quod sine 
 alterius iniuria fiat, serviendum est,' C. Off. iii. 10. ' Refertae sunt Catonis orationes 
 amplius centum quinquaginta, quasquidem adhuc invenerim et legerim, et verbis 
 et rebus illustribus,' C. Br. 17. 
 
 {Exceptions ivith Indie.} 'Tuesis qui me tuis sententiis saepissime ornasti/ C. 
 Fam. xv. 4. 'Sunt bestiae quaedam, in quibus inest aliquid simile virtutis, ut in 
 leonibus, ut in canibus,' C. Fin. v. 14. ' Interdum volgus rectum videt : est ubi 
 peccat,' Hor. Epist. ii. i. 63. ' Gemmas . . . argentum . . . sunt qui non ha- 
 beant, est qui non curat habere,' Hor. Epist. ii. 2. 180 (where est qui implies the 
 poet himself). 'Sunt quibus e ramo frondea facta casa est,' Ov. F. iii. 527. 'Sunt 
 nonnullae diciplinae, quae officium omne pervertunt,' C. Off. i. 2. 'Sunt 
 multi, qui eripiunt aliis, quod aliis largiantur,' C. Off. i. 14. 'Duae sunt artes, 
 quae possunt locare homines in amplissimo gradu dignitatis, una imperatoris, altera 
 oratoris boni,' C. p. M^lr. 14. 
 
1 207. Final Clauses. 457 
 
 ut non; if purpose is implied, ne takes its place; if 
 cause is implied, cur non, quare non, &c. : 
 'Quid fuit causae cur in Africam Caesarem non seque- 
 rere/ what was the reason for your not following Caesar 
 into Africa ? C. Phil. ii. 29. 
 
 3) Qui with the Subjunctive is used parenthetically with a 
 sense of limitation : 'quod sciam/ so far as I know : in 
 which use ,the Relative is often modified by quid em : 
 
 6 Antiquissimi fere sunt, quorum quidem scripta con- 
 stent, Pericles et Alcibiades/ Pericles and Alcibiades are 
 about the most ancient orators of those at least whose 
 writings are known, C. Or. 2. ' Omnium oratorum, 
 quos equidem cognoverim, acutissimum iudico Q. 
 Sertorium/ C. Br. 48. 
 
 Exceptions. The Demonstr. before a Relative may be so definite, 
 that the Relative, having no consecutive force, takes an Indicative. 
 Thus 'is est qui' may mean ( he is \htperson who' (fecit, did if]. 
 Even talis qui, eiusmodi qui are sometimes used with that definite- 
 ness which allows an Indie. : ' Mihi causa talis oblata est in qua 
 oratio deesse nemini pot est/ the case I speak for is of a sort in 
 which no man can be at a loss for words, C. p. L. Man. i. 
 
 Sunt qui, sunt multi qui, sunt quidam qui, &c., are not always 
 indefinite : 'Sunt qui appellantur alces/ Caes. B. G. vi. 27. 
 'Sunt quidam qui molestas amicitias faciunt/ C. Lael. 20. 
 * Multa sunt quae dici possunt' ( = ea quae dici possunt, sunt 
 multa). So est qui and sunt qui are constructed with Indie, 
 in poetry, in imitation of Greek idiom : 'Sunt quos curriculo pul- 
 verem Olympicum collegisse iuvat/ some there are who delight 
 with the chariot to raise clouds of Olympian dust] Hor. C.\. i. 3. 
 
 iii, Final Clauses. 1 
 
 207 
 
 A FINAL CLAUSE expresses an End or Purpose, and its Verb is Final 
 Subjunctive. Clause * 
 
 A) An Adverbial Final Clause is introduced by the Conjunction 
 ut (in order that\ but if Negative by ne (lest, t hat-not), ut ne, ne 
 quis, necubi, nequando, &c. : 
 
 Venio ut videam ; veni ut viderem ; abito ne pereas, ut ne pe- 
 reas, nequando pereas ; abiit ne periret, &c. 
 
 1 Examples of Final Clauses ( 207-8). 
 
 A) {Adverbial.') 'Sessum it praetor : quid ut iudicetur ?' C. N. D. iii. 30. 'Quid mereas 
 {what would you take) ut Epicureus esse desinas?' C. N. D. i. 24. ' Condiunt Aegyptii 
 mortuos ut quam maxime permaneant diuturna corpora/ C. T. D. i. 45. 'Platonem 
 ferunt, ut Pythagoreos cognosceret, in Italiam venisse,' C. T. D. i. 17. 'Inventa 
 sunt specula, ut homo se ipse nose ere t/ Sen. N. Qu. i. 17. 'Dionysiu?, ne tonsori 
 collum committeret, tondere filias suas docuit/ C. T- D. v. 20. ' Hunc librum lege 
 convivis tuis, si me amas, hilaris et bene acceptis, ne in me stomachum erumpant, 
 cum sint tibi irati,' C. Att. xvi. 3. * Caesar cum Pompeio Crassoque iniit societatem, ne 
 quid ageretur in republica, quod displicidsset ulli e tribus,' Suet. Caes. 19. 'Tu 
 'quam plurimis de rebus ad me velim scribas, ut prorsus ne quid ignorem/ C. Att. iii. 
 jo. ' Silanus signa quam maxime ad laevam iubebat ferri, necunde ab stationibus 
 
458 Latin Syntax. 208-9, 
 
 1) Such Clauses may follow Demonstrative words or phrases : 
 Eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea, ob earn rem, ob earn causam, eo 
 consilio. Idcirco fugit, ut salvus sit. Ob earn rem 
 fugerat, ne periret. 
 
 2) A Final Clause with ut or ne often stands parenthetically 
 
 in such phrases as the following : 
 
 Ut ita dicam, so to say, ne dicam, not to say ; ne longus sim, 
 not to be tedious ne te detineam, not to detain you, &c. 
 
 3) The construction of nedum with a Subjunctive is a pe- 
 
 culiar instance of a Final Clause. See 85. 
 (The idea of Purpose is often contained in certain Temporal 
 Conjunctions, donee, dum, antequam, c. See TEM- 
 PORAL CLAUSES.) 
 
 208 H) An Adjectival Final Clause is formed by a Relative or Rela- 
 tive Particle containing the notion of Purpose, and taking the 
 Subjunctive : 
 
 'Clusini legates Romam qui auxilium a senatu peterent 
 misere,' L. v. 35. ' Ne illi sit cera, ubi facere possit litteras/ let 
 him have no wax to write upon, Plaut. As. iv. i. 22. 
 
 i) Quo is thus used, especially with a Comparative word : 
 ' Medico puto aliquid dandum quo sit studiosior, / 
 think the physician should have something given to him 
 that he may be more zealous, C. Fam. xvi. 4. 
 
 CauSi i y ' Causal Clauses. 
 
 Clauses. 
 
 A) ADVERBIAL CAUSAL CLAUSES are introduced by Conjunc- 
 tions of three classes : 
 
 i) Quoniam, quando, quandoquidem, quandoque (since), siqui- 
 dem, quatenus (inasmuch as, seeing 1 that), of admitted 
 Cause. The Verb is Indicative, if not Suboblique. 
 
 Punicis conspicerentur,'L. xxviii. i. 'Haec eo scrips! ut potius relevares me,' C. 
 Att. iii. 10. 'Eo perperam olim dixi ne vos forte imprudentes foris effutiretis,' Ter. 
 Ph. v. i. 18. 'Hanc ideo rationem subiecimus, ut hoc causae genus ipsum, de quo 
 agimus, cognosceretur,' C. Inv. ii. 23. ' Suscipienda bella sunt ob earn causam 
 ut sine iniuria in pace vivatur,' C. Off. i. n. 'Legibus idcirco omnes servimus ut 
 liberi esse possimus,' C. P. Cln. 53. 'Quid stultius est quam cetera parare, amicos 
 non parare, optimam et pulcherrimam vitae, ut ita dicam, supellectilem? ' C. Lael. 
 15. 'A te peto ut huic meae laudi vel, ut verius dicam, prope saluti, tuum stu- 
 dium dices,' C. Fam. ii. 6. 'Moleste ferebam tantum ingenium in tarn levis, ne dicam 
 ineptas, sententias incidisse,' C. N. D. i. 21. 'Ne te morer, audi quo rem deducam,' 
 Hor. S. i. i. 14. See Hor. 6". i. 3. 137 ; C. iv. 9. i. ' Vix in ipsis tectis et oppidis frigus 
 hiemale infirma valetudine vitatur, nedum in man et via sit facile abesse ab iniuria 
 temporis,' C. Fain. xvi. 8. 
 
 B) (Adjectival.} 'Homini natura addidit rationem qua regerentur animi appe- 
 titus,' C. N. D. ii. 12. 'Hannibal tripartite Iberum copias traiecit, praemissis, qui 
 Gallorum animos, qua traducendus exercitus erat, donis conciliarent, Alpium transitus 
 specularentur,' L. xxi. 23. ' Subacto mihi ingenio opus est, ut agro non semel arato, 
 sed novato et iterate, quo meliores fetus possit et grandiores edere,' C. d. Or. ii. 
 30. ' In funeribus Atheniensium sublata erat celebritas virorum ac mulierum, quo lamen* ' 
 tatio minueretur,'C. Leg. ii. 26. (Horace has quo ne,' 6". ii. i. 37.) 
 
209. 
 
 Causal Clauses. 459 
 
 2) Quod, quia (because], ascribe a Cause ; with Indie, normally. 
 But Causal Clauses are often Suboblique with quod, some- 
 
 times with quia : 
 
 6 Mater irata est quia non redierim/ Plaut. Cist. i. i. 105. 
 
 Quod, quia, maybe strengthened by the same Demonstra- 
 tive words or phrases as Final Conjunctions : eo, ideo y 
 propterea, &c. 
 
 3) Cum (since) expresses, usually, conceived Cause, with Sub- 
 
 junctive. 
 
 a) While quod and quia (= Greek ortjdiort, and French 
 parceque) state a Cause ascripli'vely^ cum ( = Greek CTTC/, 
 and French puisque) states it coneeptivefy y hence taking 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Hence too, when cum, after emotional expressions of joy, 
 grief } surprise, praise, congratulation, &c., assigns a fact 
 as cause, it takes an Indicative. See 196. 
 (On cum in correlation with turn, see Temporal Clauses.) 
 
 V) The Subjunctive of a Verb of thinking is also used with 
 quod where the author doubtfully suggests the motive of 
 an action : 
 
 Helvetii, seu quod timore perterritos Romanos discedere 
 a se existimarent, sive eo quod re frumentaria inter- 
 cludi posse confiderent, nostros insequi ac lacessere 
 coeperunt/ Caes. B. G. i. 23. 
 
 c) And, by a very remarkable idiom, a Verb of assertion fol- 
 lowing quod is made Subjunctive, when the cause itself 
 (which is the really Suboblique notion) is contained in 
 the Infin. Clause dependent on that Verb. 
 
 Examples of Causal Clauses ( 209-10). 
 
 A) Adverbial. 
 
 {Admitted Cause.) 'Geramus, dis bene iuvantibus, quando ita videtur, 
 bellum/ L. xlii. 51. 'Dicite, quandoquidem in molli consedimus herba/ Verg. 
 B. iii. 55. 'Quandoque hice homines iniussu populi Romani Quiritium foedus 
 ictum iri spoponderunt, atque ob earn rem noxam nocuerunt, ob earn rem quo 
 populus Romanus scelere impio sit solutus, hosce homines vobis dedo,' L. ix. TO. ' Vos, 
 Quirites, quoniam iam nox est, in vestra tecta discedite/ C. Cat. iii. 12. ' Ea divi- 
 nationum ratio ne in barbaris quidem gentibus neglecta est, si quid em et in Gallia 
 Druidae sunt,' C. Div. i. 41. 'Audeat refrenare licentiam, clarus postgenitis, quate- 
 nus virtutem incolumem odimus/&c. Hor. C. iii. 24. 28. 
 
 (Alleged Cause.) ' Codrus se in medios immisit hostis veste famulari, ne posset 
 agnosci, si esset ornatu regio ; quod oraculum erat datum, si rex interfectus esset, 
 victricis Athenas fore/ C. T. D. i. 48. ' Hae sordes susceptae sunt propter unum me, 
 quia meum casum luctumque doluerunt/ C. p. Sest. 69. 'Quia natura mutari non, 
 potest, idcirco verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt/ C. LaeL 9. * Feci e servo ut esses 
 libertusmihi propterea quod serviebas liberaliter/ Ter. An. i. i. 10. 
 
 (Suboblique.') ' Comitiorum i 1 1 i habendorum, quando minimus natu sit, munus con- 
 sensu iniungunt/ L. iii. 35. ' Principes Trevirorum de suis privatis rebus petere coepe- 
 runt, quoniam civitati consulere non possent/ Caes. B. G. v. 3. 'lugurthae 
 bellum illatum est, quod Adherbalem et Hiempsalem, Micipsae filios, intere- 
 misset/ Eutr. iv. n. 'Nemo ipsam voluptatem, quia voluptas sit, aspernatur/ C. 
 Fin. i. 10. 'Nee quia sit honesta atque pulcherrima rerum eloquentia, petitur ipsa, 
 sed ad vilem usum et sordidum lucrum accingimur/ Qu. i. 12. * Falso queritur de 
 natura genus humanum quod imbecilla atque aevi brevis forte potius quam virtute 
 regatur/ Sail. lug. i. ' Aristides nonne ob earn causam expulsus est patria, quod 
 praeter modum iustus esset?' C. T. D. v. 36. 'Plato escam malorum voluptatem 
 appellat, quod ea videlicet homines capiantur t ut hamo pisces/ C. Cat. M. 44. 
 
460 Latin Synlax. 209. 
 
 { Ab Atheniensibus locum sepulturae intra urbem ut darent, 
 impetrare non potui, quodreligione se impediri di cerent/ 
 C. Fam. iv. 1 2. ' Qui e Gallia veniunt, superbiam tuam 
 accusant, quod negent te percunctantibus respondere/ 
 C. Fam. vii. 16. 
 
 d) The ground of a writer's or speaker's present opinion will be 
 
 Indie., but that of his former opinion may take the Sub- 
 junctive, as if he were speaking of another person. See C. 
 T. D. ii. 3. cited by Madvig. 
 
 e) Non quod, non quia, non quo (less often non quoniam), 
 
 are used with the Subjunctive when the reason denied is 
 conceivable, but not real ; s e d generally following with the 
 true reason : 
 
 ' Non idcirco librorum usum dimiseram, quod iis suc- 
 censerem; sed quod eorum me suppudebat,' / had 
 not abandoned the intimacy of my books because I was 
 angry with them ; but because I was a little ashamed of 
 my behaviour to them, C. Fam. ix. I. 'Numquam mihi 
 defuturam orationem, qua exercitum meum alloquerer, 
 credidi; non quo verba umquam potius quam res exer- 
 cuerim, sed quia assueram militaribus ingeniis,' I never 
 supposed I should lack language to address my army ; not 
 that I have ever practised words rather than deeds ; but 
 because I had been accustomed to the tempers of soldiers, 
 L. xxviii. 27. 
 
 f) If the cause denied is one which is not conceivable, non 
 
 quod, non quia take the Indicative : 
 'Ad urbem Scipioni majore resistitur vi ; non quia plus 
 
 (Conceived Cause,) 'Cum sin t in nobis consilium, ratio, prudentia, necesse est deos 
 haec ipsa habere maiora,' C. N. D. ii. 31. 'Cum in communibus suggestis consistere 
 non auderet Dionysius, contionari ex turri alta solebat/ C. T. D. v. 20. ' Cum Athenas 
 tamquam ad mercaturam bonarum artium sis profectus, inanem redire turpissimum 
 est,' C. Off. iii. 2. 
 
 (Non quod, &*c.) ' Mihi apud vos de meis maioribus dicendi facultas non datur ; 
 non quod non tales fuerint, qualis nos, illorum sanguine procreates, videtis, sed 
 quod laude populari atque honoris vestri luce caruerunt,' C. d. L. Agr. ii. i. 'Stu- 
 dium sapientiae mihi Latinis literis illustrandum putavi, non quia philosophia Graecis 
 litteris percipi non posset, sed meum semper iudicium fuit, omnia nostros accepta a 
 Graecis fecisse meliora,' C. T. D. i. i. ' Saepe soleo audire Roscium, cum ita dicat, se 
 adhuc reperire discipulum, quern quidem probaret, potuisse neminem ; non quo non 
 essent quidam probabiles, sed quia, si aliquid modo esset vitii, id ferre ipse non 
 posset, C. d. Or. i. 28. ' Crasso commendationem non sum pollicitus, non quin earn 
 valituram apud te arbitrarer, sed mihi egere commendatione non videbatur,' C. 
 Fam. xiii. 16. 'Ego me ducem in civili bello negavi esse, non quin rectum esset, sed 
 quia, quod multo rectius fuit, id mihi fraudem tulit,' C. Att. vii. 26. 
 
 B) Adjectival. 
 
 'Alexander cum in Sigeo ad Achillis tumulum adstitisset, O fortunate, inquit, ado- 
 lescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris,' C. /. Arch. 10. 'Cum 
 Dion non desisteret obsecrare Dionysium, ut Platonem Athenis arcesseret et eius consiliis 
 uteretur, ille, qui in aliqua re vellet patrem imitari, morem ei gessit,' N. Di. 3. 'O 
 magna vis veritatis, quae contra hominum calliditatem facile se per se ipsam defendat,' 
 C./. Cael. 16. 'Numquam laudari satis digne philosophia poterit, cui qui pareat omne 
 tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere,' C. Cat. M. i. 'Habeo senectuti magnam 
 gratiam, quae mihi sermonis aviditatem auxit, potionis et cibi sus tulit,' C. Cat. M. 
 13. 'Virtus est una altissimis defixa radicibus, quae numquam ulla vi labefactari 
 p ot est, numquam demoveri loco,' C. Phil. iv. 5. ' Callidus adulator non facile cognos- 
 
210-11. Temporal Claiises. 46 1 
 
 animi victis est, sed melius muri quam vallum armatos 
 arcent,' L. x. 41. See Hor. S. ii. 2. 89. 
 
 g) Non quin is used for non quo non or non quia non: 
 'Consilium tuum reprehendere non audeo, non quin ab 
 eo dissentiam, sed/ &c., / dare not blame your plan, not 
 that I do not differ from it, but, &c., C. Fam. iv. 7. 
 
 B) An ADJECTIVAL CAUSAL CLAUSE is formed by the Relative 
 qui, or one of its Particles. 
 
 Qui causal usually contains conceived Cause, with Subjunctive. 
 Sometimes it contains quia, and takes Indie. 
 
 Quippe strengthens qui, cum, sometimes quod; the Mood 
 being usually Subjunctive ; but quippe qui is found with Indie. 
 Ut qui, utpote qui, are rare, but found with each Mood : utpote 
 cum with Subjunctive only. 
 
 v. Temporal Clauses. 
 
 i) Temporal Conjunctions may be placed in four groups: 
 
 A) Ubi, when, ubi primum, simul ac, simul ut, simul, as soon 
 as ; ut, when ; from the time when ; ut primum, cum 
 primum, &c., since; as soon as; quotiens, as often as; 
 postquam, after that, since. 
 
 B) i, Dum, donee, quoad, whilst, as long as; quamdiu, as 
 
 long as. 
 
 2. Dum, donee, quoad, until. 
 
 C) Antequam, priusquam, before that. 
 
 D) Cum. 
 
 With most of these Conjunctions various Demonstrative Adverbs 
 may be correlated, which are noticed in the Examples. 
 
 citur, quippe qui etiam adversando saepe assentetur,' C. Lael. 26. 'Animus 
 fortuna non eget ; quippe quae probitatem, industriam aliasque artis bonas neque 
 dare neque eripere cuiquam potest,' Sail. lug. i. 'Sed de hoc tu videbis, quippe cum 
 de me ipso ac de meis te considerare velim,' C. Att. vi. 13. ' Multa de mea sententia 
 questus est Caesar, quippe quod etiam Crassum ante vidisset/ C. Fam. i. 9. ' Me 
 incommoda valetudo, qua iam emerseram, utpote cum sine febri laborassem, tene- 
 bat Brundisii,' C. Att. v. 3. 'Nero inusitatae luxuriae fuit, ut qui retibus aureis 
 piscaretur,' Eutr. vii. 9. 
 
 Examples of Temporal Clauses ( 211-12). 
 
 A) Ubi, &c., with Demonstratives, turn, tune, turn demum, turn denique, ibi, iam, 
 continue, extemplo, ilico, ilicet, semel, statim, quamprimum, repente, &c. 
 
 (Ubi, when, ubi primum, as soon as, &c.) a. ' Miserum est opus fodere, ubi sitis fauces 
 tenet,' Plaut. Most. ii. i. ' Haec ubi aperuit ostium, continue hie se coniecit 
 intro,'Ter. Haut. ii. 2. 35. (Ubi nuntiata sunt, statim,' &c. C. Verr. v. 47. 'Ubi 
 . . . decessit, ilicet,' &c., Sail. lug. 41.) 'Ubi Syracusanorum dolorem cognovi, 
 turn eos hortatus sum,' &c., C. Verr. vi. 63. ' Ubi primum est licitum, ilico pro- 
 peravi abire de foro,' Plaut. Men. iv. 2. 34. 'Taleae ubi trimae sunt, turn denique 
 maturae sunt,' Cato, R. R. 45. /3. Divico ita cum Caesare agit : Si pacem populus 
 Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn partem ituros atque ibi futuros Helvetios, ubi 
 eos Caesar constituisset,' Caes. B. G. \. 13.7. 'Tdfetialis ubi dixisset, hastam in 
 finis eorum mittebat,' L. i. 32. 'Ubi pretio non aequitate iura descripserat,. 
 Veneri iam et Libero reliquum tempus deberi arbitrabatur,' C. Verr. vii. ii. 
 
462 Latin Syntax. 211. 
 
 2) Tense and Mood vary much in Temporal Clauses. 
 Variation of Tense is naturally due to the various combinations 
 of Time in Clause and Sentence. 
 
 As to Mood, there is no Conjunction of Time which does not 
 
 normally take the Indicative. But the Subjunctive often is required : 
 
 a) In Suboblique, Gnomic, and (in some styles) Iterative 
 
 Construction. 
 
 &) When the notion of Time is complicated with that of Con- 
 sequence, Purpose, Cause, or Concession. Thus, cum is 
 constructed so as to express Consequence (Time of such 
 a&Wthat), Cause (since), Concession (although, whereas} ; 
 sometimes even Condition. Dum, donee, quoad (until), 
 antequam, priusquam, &c. may imply Purpose. 
 
 The two latter sometimes take a Subjunctive which has no 
 such internal reason ; and which may perhaps be explained 
 by the Consec. use of quam. See 205. 
 
 (The two last examples shew the difference of Iterative Pluperfect construction in Livy 
 and Cicero : Subjunctive in the former, Indicative in the latter.) 
 
 (Quando, w/k? = quo tempore.) 'Ubi satur sum, intestina nulla crepitant ; quando 
 esurio, turn crepant,' Plaut. Men. v. 5. 27. 'Utinam tune essem natus quando 
 Romani dona accipere coepissent/ C. Off. ii. 27. 
 
 (Quotiens, as often, as.) ' Heraclitus quotiensprodieratet tantum circa se male 
 viventium, immo male pereuntium, viderat, flebat,' Sen. Ir. ii. 10. 'Quotiens 
 patriam videret, totiens se beneficium meum videre dice bat/ C. d. Or. ii. 30. 
 
 (Ut, when, as soon as; ut primum, cum, cum primum.) 'Varro ut advenit, ex- 
 templo Hostilius legionem unam signa in urbem ferre iussit/ L. xxvii. 24. 'Ut Hostus 
 cecidit, confestim Romana inclinatur acies,' L. i. 12. 'Cum primum sapere 
 coepit, acerbissimos dolores percepit,' C. Fam. xiv. i. 'Pompeius ut me primum 
 vidit, complexus est,' C. Fam. x. 13. 'Ut vidi, ut perii/ Verg. B. viii. 41. 'Ut quis- 
 que me viderat narrabat/ &c. C. Verr. ii. 
 
 (Ut, since, from the time ivhen=ex quo.) 'Ut tetigi Pontum, vexant insomnia/ 
 Ov. Tr. iii. 8. 27. 'Ut sumus in Ponto, ter frigore constitit Ister/ Ov. Tr. v. 10. i. 
 See Hor. C. iv. 4. 42. 'Ut Athenas veneram, expectabam ibi iam quartum diem 
 Pomptinum,' C. Att. v. 10. 
 
 (Simul, simul ac, simul ut, statim ut, as soon as.) 'Simul ac duraverit aetas 
 membra animumque tuum, nabis sine cortice/ Hor. 6". i. 4. 119. 'Ego statim habebo 
 quod sentiam, simul ut videro Curionem,' C. Att. x. 4. ' Simul inflavit tibicen, 
 carmen agnoscitur/ Caes. B. G. iv. 27. 'Statim ut ille praetor est factus . . . 
 mira contentio est consecuta,' C. Fam. i. 9. 5. 'Simul ac annuisset, numeraturum 
 se dicebat,' C. /. Quinc. 3. 
 
 (Postquam, posteaquam, after that, since, when.) ' Relegatus mihi videor postea- 
 quam in Formiano sum,' C. Att. ii. ii. 'Postquam nee ab Romanis vobis ulla spes 
 est, nee vestra iam arma vos defendunt, pacem affero necessariam/ L. xxi. 13. 'Quae 
 postquam sunt audita et undique primores patrum consules increparent . . . turn 
 T. Quinctius consules immerito increpari ait,' L. iv. 13. (In this place suat audita simply 
 marks time as stated by Livy, increparent adds the circumstance which caused Quinctius 
 to feel and speak.) ' Hannibal anno tertio postquam domo profugerat, in Africam 
 Yenit/ N. Hann. 8. 'Hoc scribis post diem quartum quam ab urbe discessimus,' C. 
 Att. ix. 12. ' Scriptum a Posidonio est triginta annis vixisse Panaetium posteaquam 
 illos libros edidisset/ C. Off. iii. 2. (In C. Fam. ii. 19, p. L. Man. 4, instead of 
 posteaquam, postea cum is the right reading.) 
 
 B) i. Dum, donee, quoad (whilst, as long as), often with Demonstratives, tamdiu, 
 interea, interim, tantisper. 
 
 'Aegroto dum anima est, spes esse dicitur,' C. Att. ix. 10. ' Lacedaemoniorum 
 gens fords fuit, dum Lycurgi \ leges vigebant,' C. T. D. i. 42. 'Tiberius Gracchus 
 tamdiu laudabitur, dum memoria rerum Romanarum mane bit/ C. Off. ii. 12. 
 
2ii. Temporal Clauses. 463 
 
 c) By Latin usage (cum historic), when, in narrative, an 
 
 event is stated in the Perfect or Historic Present, a con- 
 temporary fact is expressed by cum with Imperfect Sub- 
 junctive ; a preceding fact by cum with Pluperfect 
 Subjunctive : 
 
 Cum videret, ingemuit ; cum vidisset, ingemuit. 
 
 d) The Iterative Subjunctive is used in Temporal, Relative, 
 
 and Conditional Clauses, chiefly by historians. It occurs 
 when an action indefinitely repeated in past time is ex- 
 pressed by the Clause, the Principal Verb being then 
 generally in the Imperfect. 
 
 'Cum cohortes ex acie pro cucurris sent, Numidae im- 
 petum nostrorum effugiebant/ Caes. B. C.ii. 41. 4 Ignoti, 
 faciem Agesilai cum intuerentur, contemnebant,' 
 Nep. Ag. 8. ( Quemcumque lictor iussu consults pre- 
 hendisset, tribunus mitti iubebat/ L. iii. u. *<Nec 
 quisquam Pyrrhum, qua tulisset impetum, sustinere 
 valuit/ lust. xxv. 4. *Ut quisque maxime laboraret 
 locus, aut ipse occurrebat, aut aliquos mittebat/ L. 
 xxxiv. 38. 
 
 And after si 
 
 ' Ubi his ordinibus exercitus instructus esset, hastati omnium 
 primipugnam inibant. Si hastati profligare hostem non 
 possent, pede presso eos retrocedentis in intervalla ordi- 
 num principes recipiebant. Turn principum pugna erat. 
 S i apud principes quoque haud satis prospere esset pug- 
 natum, a prima acie ad triarios sensim referebantur/ 
 L. viii. 8. 
 
 'Dum ad Antium haec geruntur, interim Aequi arcem Tusculanam capiunt/ L. 
 iii. 23. 'Dum is in aliis rebus erat occupatus, erant inter ea qui suis vulneribus 
 mederentur,' C. /. 6". Rose, 32. 'Ego te meum esse dici tantisper volo dum quod te 
 dignumst facies,' Ter. Haiit. i. i. 54. 'Sic se quisque hostem ferire, conspici, dum 
 tale facinus faceret, properabat,' Sail. Cat. 7. 'Donee eris felix, multos numerabis 
 amicos,' Ov. Tr. i. 8. ' Volgus trucidatum, donee ira et dies per man sit/ Tac. Ann. 
 i. 68. ' Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit,' Nep. Att. 2. ' Minucius praefectus 
 annonae, quoad res posceret, in incertum creatus/ L. iv. 13. 
 
 (Dum with Historic Present.) 'Dum haec in colloquio geruntur, Caesari nun- 
 tiatum est equites Ariovisti propius tumulum accedere,' Caes. B. G. i. 46. 'Quidam 
 tradunt, dum ad palum deligatur, quia parum inter strepitus audiri fossent quae 
 vociferabatur, silentium fieri Flaccum iussisse,' L. xxvi. 16. 
 
 (Suboblique.) 'Dum in aestivis nos essemus, ilium pueris locum esse bellissi- 
 mum duximus/ C. Att. v. 17. 'Nihil trepidabant elephanti, donee continenti velut 
 ponte agerentur/ L. xxi. 28. 
 
 (Purpose.) 'Die insequenti quievere, dum praefectus iuventutem Apolloniatium 
 inspiceret,' L. xxiv. 40. ' Multa quoque et bello passus dum conderet urbem 
 inferretque deos Latio/ Verg. Ae. i. 5. 
 
 (Quamdiu.) 'Tarndiu requiesco quamdiu aut ad te scribo aut tuas litteras 
 lego,'C. Att. ix. 3. ' Deum atque hominum fidem implorabis, circumveniri Verrem, 
 quod accusator nolit tamdiu quamdiu liceat loqui/ C. Verr. ii. i. 9. 
 
 2. Dum, donee, quoad, until. Demonstratives are eo usque, usque eo, tamdiu, 
 tantisper. 
 
 a. ' Retine Phormionem, dum hue ego servos evoco,' Ter. Ph. v. 7. 'Delibera hoc, 
 dum ego redeo/ Ter. An. ii. i. ' Ea mansit in condicione usque ad eum finem 
 dum iudices reiecti sunt,' C. Verr. i. 6. 'Caesar exanimis aliquamdiu iacuit, donee 
 lecticae impositum tres servuli domum rettulerunt,' Suet Caes. 82. 'Tarquinii tam- 
 diu dimicaverunt donee Aruntem filium regis manu sua Brutus interfecit,' Flor. i. 
 
464 Latin Syntax. 212, 
 
 e) The Indicative is so used, by Cicero generally, in the Plu- 
 perfect. But an Imperfect Subjunctive Clause in Itera- 
 tive Sense is not unusual in Cicero: 'Zenonem, cum 
 Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter/ / used often to 
 attend Zend's lectures , when I was at Athens (where he 
 was more than once)/ C. N. D. i. 2. This may happen 
 even when turn precedes cum : ' Nos turn, cum maxime 
 consilio nostro subvenire communi saluti oporteret, in 
 senatum non vocabamur/ C. Phil. v. i. 
 
 212 
 
 Cum. 3) Other uses of the Conjunction Cum: 
 
 a) Cum, when, is the most extensively used Temporal Con- 
 junction, correlative to the Demonstrative turn, as dum 
 to interea; and signifying a point of Time, as dum 
 signifies extension of Time. 
 
 I) When the relation between the principal Sentence and the 
 Clause is merely Temporal, cum takes an Indicative in 
 the Present, Future (Simple or Exact), or Perfect Tense, 
 according to the time required : 
 
 Cum venio, video ; cum veniam (venero) videbo ; cum veni, 
 vidi (videbam, videram). 
 
 c) The time is more strongly defined by means of a Demon- 
 
 strative (turn, eo tempore, nunc, iam, &c.). 
 4 Vos turn paruistis cum paruit nemo/ C. /. Lig. 7. 
 
 d) Cum may take an Imperf. Indie., if an Imperf. is in the 
 
 principal Sentence : 
 
 Cum veniebam, videbam : 
 
 Or, sometimes, if the point of time is to be strongly marked, 
 the principal Verb may be Perfect : 
 
 10. ' Epaminondas ferrum usque eo in corpore retinuit quoad renuntiatum est 
 vicisse Boeotios,' Nep. Ep. 9. 
 
 /3. ' Expectandum putabant dum se res ipsa ape ri ret,' Nep. Paus. 3. ' Iratis 
 subtrahend! sunt ii, in quos impetum conantur facere, d u m se rpsi colligant,' C. T. 
 D. iv. 18. 'Augustus rectorem solitus est apponere regibus aetate parvis ac mente 
 lapsis, donee adolescerent aut resipiscerent/ Suet. Aug. 48. ' Thessalonicae esse 
 statueram, quoad aliquid ad me scriberes/C. A it. iii. 13. 'T. Quinctio consuli pro- 
 rogatum in Macedonia imperium, donee successor ei venisset/ L. xxxii. 28. 
 
 C) (Antequam, priusquam.) a. 'Antequam de incommodis Siciliae dico, pauca mihi 
 videntur esse de provinciae dignitate dicenda,' C. Verr. ii. 2. 'Priusquam de ceteris 
 rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca dicam/ C. Phil. ii. 3. 'Membris utimur pri- 
 usquam didicimus cuius ea utilitatis causa habeamus,' C. Fin. iii. 66. 'Non ante 
 finitum est proelium quam tribunus militum interfectus est/L. xli. 2. ' Dociliora 
 sunt ingenia priusquam obduruerunt/ Qu. ii. ii. 'Non defatigabor antequam 
 illorum ancipites vias rationesque p creeper o,' C. d. Or. iii. 36. 
 
 /3. 'Tempestas minatur antequam surgat,' Sen. Ep. 103. 'Tragoedi cotidie, ante- 
 quam pronuntient, vocem cubantes sensim excitant,' C. d. Or. i. 59. 'Saepe 
 magna indoles virtutis, priusquam reipublicae prodesse potuisset, exstincta fuit,' 
 C. Phil. v. 17. ' Numidae, priusquam ex castris subveniretur, in proximos coll is 
 discedunt,' Sail. lug. 54. 'Appiusnon ante continuando abstitit magistratu quam 
 obruerent eum male parta, male gesta, male retenta imperia,' L. ix. 34. ' Providentia 
 est, per quam aliquid videtur, antequam factum sit,' C. Inv. ii. 53. ' Nescire, quid 
 anteaquam natus sis acciderit, id est semper esse puerum,' C. d. Or. 34. 'In 
 omnibus negotiis, priusquam aggrediare, adhibenda est praeparatio diligens,' C. 
 Off. i. 21. 'Priusquam incipias, consulto, et, ubi consulueris, mature facto 
 opus est,' Sail. Cat. i. (The three last Examples are Gnomic.) 
 
212. Temporal Clauses. 465 
 
 1 Nuper, cum te iam adventare arbitrabamur, re- 
 pente abs te in mensem Quintilem reiecti sumus,' 
 lately ', at the very moment we thought you were coming, 
 we were thrown over by you suddenly to the month of 
 July, C. Att. i. 3. See Verg. Aen. xii. 736. 
 
 e) Cum may take Pluperf. Indie., when a Demonstrative 
 
 marks the time : 
 
 ( Turn cumin Asia res magnas permulti amiserant, scimus 
 Romae fidem concidisse/ at the very time when numerous 
 persons had lost great properties in Asia we know that 
 credit sank at Rome, C. p. L. Man. 7. 
 
 f) Cum iterative ( = quotiens) takes Plup. Indie, in Cicero, an 
 
 Imperf. being in the principal Sentence, when repeated 
 action is expressed : in which sense Livy has Subjunctive : 
 6 Cum ad aliquod oppidum venerat, eadem lectica usque ad 
 cubiculum deferebatur/ as often as he came to any town, 
 he was conveyed to his bed-chamber in the same sedan, C. 
 Verr. v. n. 
 
 D. i.) Examples of cum with Indicative. (212.) 
 
 (Cum=quo tempore.) 'De te, Catilina, cum quiescunt, probant ; cum patiuntur, 
 decernunt ; cum tacent, clamant/ C. Cat. i. 8. ' Lituo Romulus regiones direxit turn 
 cum urbem condidit,' C. Div. i. 17. 'O praeclarum diem, cum in illud amicorum con- 
 cilium coetumque proficiscar/ C. Cat. M. 23. 'Sedplura, cum ista cognoro,' C. Att. 
 xv. 9. ' Regulus, turn cum vigilando necabatur, eratin meliore causa, quam si domi 
 senex capfivus, periurus consularis, remansisset,' C. Off. iii. 27. ' Cum Caesar in Galliam 
 venit, alterius factionis principes Grant Aedui, alterius Sequani,' Caes. B. G. vi. 12. 
 'Credo, turn cum Sicilia florebat opibus et copiis, magna artificia fuisse in ea insula,' 
 C. Verr. iv. 21. 'Gum Collatino collegae Brutus imperium abrogabat, poterat 
 videri facere injuste,' C. Off. iii. 10. 'Aliud est dolere, aliud laborare : cum varices 
 secabantur C. Mario, dolebat, cum aestu magno ducebat agmen, laborabat/ 
 C. T. D. ii. 15. 
 
 (Cum=quotiens, with Plup. Indie.") 'Cum palam eius anuli ad palmam converterat, 
 a nullo videbatur/ C. Off. iii. 9. See Ac. ii. 47. Cum ver esse coeperat (cuius 
 initium iste non a Favonio neqtie ab aliquo astro notabat, sed cum rosam vide rat, 
 turn incipere ver arbitrabatur), dabat se labori atque itineribus,' C. Verr. 
 v. 10. 
 
 (Cum put inversely?) ' Piso ultimas Hadriani maris oras petivit, cum interim 
 Dyrrachii milites domum, in qua eum esse arbitrabantur, obsidere coeperunt,' C. in 
 Pis. 38. 'Evolaratiame conspectu fere fugiens quadriremis, cumetiamtum ceterae 
 naves uno in loco moliebantur/ C. Verr. v. 34. ' Hannibal iam scalis subibat muros 
 Locrorum, cnm repente patefacta porta Romani erumpunt,' L. xxix. 7. 'Commo- 
 dum discesscrat Hilarus cum venit tabellarius,' C. Att. xiii. 19. 'P. Sestius, fretus 
 sanctitate tribunatus, venit in templum Castoris, obnuntiavit consuli : cumsubito 
 manus ilia Clodiana, in caede civium saepe iam victrix, exclamat, incitatur, in- 
 vadit/ C. p. Sest. 37. ' Iam dies consumptus erat, cum tamen barbari nihil remit- 
 tere, atque, noctem pro se rati, acrius in stare,' Sail. lug. 98. 
 
 (Cum=ex quo tempore.) Permulti anni iam erant cum inter patricios magistratus 
 tribunosque nulla certamina fuerant,' L. ix. 33. ' Nondum sex menses sunt cum hue 
 commigravit,' Plaut. Pers. i. 3. 
 
 2) Examples of cum with Subjunctive. ( 2 1 1.) 
 
 (Iterative cum with Subjunctive.') 'Saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vesti- 
 tum, suum amiculum dedit,' N. Ctm. 4. 'Cum in ius duci debitorem vidissent, 
 tindique convolabant/ L. ii. 27. (Especially with cum dicer et, cum die at, following 
 audio; an idiom which resembles the Consecutive use.) ' Ipsius Sulpicii nulla oratio 
 est; saepe ex eo audiebam, cum se scribere neque consuesse neque posse diceret/ 
 Cic. Br. 56. 'Saepe soleo audire Roscium, cum ita dicat, se adhuc reperire dis- 
 cipulum, quern quidem probaret, potuisse neminem,' C. d. Or. i. 28. 
 
 H H 
 
466 Latin Syntax. $212. 
 
 g) The Inverse Construction with cum occurs in Narrative 
 when the Clause seems to change places with the Prin- 
 cipal Sentence, indicating that one action is interrupted, 
 or quickly succeeded by another. 
 
 In this case, cum is often accompanied by such Adverbs as 
 repente, subito, interim, interea, iam, &c., and the 
 Verb is frequently Present Historic, now and then His- 
 toric Infinitive. 
 
 ' Parata sententia consularis, cum repente ei affertur 
 nuntius,' the consul's opinion was jtcst ready, when a 
 sudden message reaches him, C. Phil. xiii. 9. * Id modo 
 plebs agitabat, cum interim comitiorum mentio nulla 
 fieri/ that was what the commons were debating, while 
 meantime no mention was being made of comitia, L. 
 i". 37- 
 
 (Cum Suboblique.) 'Totiensne me litteras dedisse Romam, cum ad te nullas 
 darem,' C. Att. v. n. 'Quippe ius Laodiceae me die ere, cum Romae Aulus Plotius 
 dicat,' C. Att. v. 15. 'Mihi non videbatur quisquam esse beatus posse, cum in 
 malis esset,' C. T. D. v. 8. 
 
 (Consecutive cum = quali tempore.) * Erit illud profecto tern pus, cum tu unius 
 post homines natos fortissimi viri magnitudinem animi desideres,' C. p. Mil. 26. 
 'Fuit quidem cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer/ C. 
 Or. i. i. 'Ingressus est urbem cum dextra sinistra minaretur dominis, notaret 
 domos/ C. Phil. xiii. 9. ( But Indie, if cum =quo tempore.) 'Fuit quoddam tem- 
 pus, cum in agris homines passim bestiarum more vagabantur et sibi victu fero 
 vitam propagabant,' C. Inv. i. 2. 
 
 (Cum causal.') ' Quae cum ita sint, quid est quod de eius civitate dubitetis, 
 praesertim cum aliis quoque in civitatibus fuerit adscriptus?' C. p. Arch. 5. (See 
 Causal Clauses.) 
 
 (Cum concessive.") 'Atticus cum esset pecuniosus,' nemo illo minus fuit emax, 
 minus aedificator, ' N. Att. 13. 'Cum multa sint in philosophia gravia et utilia, 
 latissime patere videntur ea, quae de officiis tradita sunt,' C. Off. i. 2. 'His, cum 
 facere non possent, tamen loqui licebat,' C. p. Gael. 17. (Specially frequent, when 
 turn follows) : 'Cole iustitiam quae, cum sit magna in parentibus et propinquis, turn 
 in patria maxima est,' C. d. Rep. vi. 15. 'Cum plurimas et maximas commoditates 
 amicitia contineat, turn ilia nimirum praestat omnibus, quod debilitari animos non 
 patitur,' Cic. Lael. 7. ' Haec urbs cum manu munitissima esset, turn loci natura terra 
 ac mari claudebatur,' C. Verr. ii. 2. 
 
 (Cum conditional is rare): 'Haec ncque cum ego dicer em, neque cum tu negnres, 
 magni momenti nostra esset oratio. Quo tempore igitur auris iudex erigeret ani- 
 mumque attenderet? Cum Dio ipse prodiret, cum reperiretur pecunias sum- 
 psisse mutuas, cum tabulae virorum bonorum proferrentur/ C. Verr. i. 10. 
 
 (Cum historic?) 'Agesilaus, cum adversaries intra moenia compulisset, et ut 
 Corinthum oppugnaret multi hortarentur, negavit id suae virtuti convenire,' N. Ag. 
 5. 'Socrates, cum paene in manu iam mortiferum illud teneret poculum, locutus ita 
 est, ut non ad mortem trudi, verum in caelum videretur ascendere,' C. T. D. i. 19. 
 'Cimon Cyprum cum ducentis navibus imperator missus, cum eius maiorem partem 
 insulae devicisset, in morbum implicitus, in oppido Citio est mortuus/ N. dm. 5. 
 
 (Cum historic is found even after turn, where the Indicative might have been used.) 
 * Neque enim, si tibi turn, cum peteres consulatum, adfui, idcirco nunc, cum Mure- 
 nam ipsum pet is, adiutor eodem pacto esse debeo,' C. /. Mur. 3. 
 
 (In the following passage, the two Moods are used in succession ;haberent being purely 
 historic, erant appealing to later experience, shewn by perspexeratis): ' Unum hoc 
 certe videor mihi verissime posse dicere : turn cum haberet haec res publica Luscinos, 
 Calatinos, Acidinos, homines non solum honoribus populi rebusque gestis, verum etiam 
 patientia paupertatis ornatos ; et turn cum erant Catones, Phili, Laelii, quorum sapien- 
 tiam temperantiamque in emnibus rebus perspexeratis, tamen huiuscemodi res com- 
 missa nemini est, ut idem iudicaret et venderet,' C. d. L. Agr> 2 4- 
 
213. Conditional Sentences. 467 
 
 h) Cum for ' ex quo tempore' takes the Indicative. 
 
 ' Nondum centum et decem anni sunt cum de pecuniis' 
 repetundis a L. Pisone lata lex est, 7 it is not yet 1 10 years 
 since Lucius Piso brought in a law concerning extortion. 
 C. Off.il 21. 
 
 vi. Conditional Sentences. Condi- 
 
 tional 
 
 1) The Conditional (Hypothetical) Conjunctions are : si, if (si Sen - 
 non, if not)-, nisi, ni, unless, if not. 
 
 2) In the Compound CONDITIONAL SENTENCE, the Clause 
 which contains the Condition is called Protasis (quae praetendi- 
 tur) ; the Principal Sentence is called Apodo sis (quae redditur), 
 the Conclusion. 
 
 These terms imply the logical assumption that the condition 
 comes first, and that the conclusion is in the nature of a reply to 
 the question, What then ? But it is equally possible to regard the 
 Protasis as an adverbial clause limiting a principal sentence : ' Maxi- 
 mas virtutes iacere omnes necesse estvoluptate dominant e/C. 
 si voluptas dominetur. 
 
 I. Normal Forms of the Conditional Sentence. 
 
 Protasis. Apodosis. 
 
 a. si das negat 
 
 if you offer he refuses 
 
 si dabis negabit 
 
 if you shall offer he will refuse 
 
 Normal Examples of Conditional Sentences. ( 213.) 
 
 a. (Sumptio Dati.) 'Si amitti beata vita potest, beata esse non potest,' C. Fin. 
 ii. 27. 'Parvisunt foris arma nisi est consilium domi,' C. Off. i. 22. 'Si noles 
 sanus, curres hydropicus, et ni posces ante diem librum cum lumine, si non in- 
 tendes animum studiis et rebus honestis, invidia vel amore vigil torquebere,' Hor. 
 Epist. i. 2. 34. 'Si bellum omittimus, face numquam fruemur,' C. Phil. v. i. 6. 
 'Non si is, qui accepit, bene utitur, idcirco is qui dedit, amice dedit/ C. N. D. 
 iii. 28. 'Si feceris id quod ostendis, magnam habebo gratiam ; si non feceris, 
 ignoscam,' C. Fam.\. 19. 'Nemo poterit esse omni laude cumulatus orator, nisi 
 erit omnium artium scientiam consecutus,' C. d. Or. i. 6. 'Si in omnibus innocens 
 fuero, quid mihi inimicitiae nocebunt?' C. Verr. iii. 69. ' Malevolentiae hominum 
 in me, si poteris, occurres; si non potueris, hoc consolabere, quod me de 
 statu meo nullis contumeliis deterrere possunt,' C. Fam. xi. u. 'Telo si primam 
 aciem praefregeris, reliquo ferro vim nocendi sustuleris,' lust. vi. 8. 'Haud ergo, 
 ut opinor, erravero, si a Zenone disputationis principium duxero/ C. N. D. ii. 21. 
 ' Apud maiores magistratum non gerebat is qui ceperat, si patres auctores non erant 
 facti,' C. p. Plane. 3. 'Cesseram, si alienam a me ptebern fuisse vultis, quae non 
 fuit, invidiae : si commoveri omnia videbantur, tempori ; si vis suberat, armis,' C. 
 p. Sest. 30. ' Si licuit, patris pecuniam recte abstulit filius,' C. p. Place. 25. 
 
 ' Si me amas, paulum hie ades,' Hor. Sat. i. 9. 38. 'Si vis amari, ama,' Sen. Ep. 
 9. Si quid novisti rectius istis, candidus imperti ; si non/ his utere mecum/ 
 Hor. Epist. i. 6. 67. 'Si quid in te peccavi, ignosce,' C. Att. iii. 15. ' Causam 
 investigate, si poteris,' C. Div. ii. 28. 
 
 'Mirer, inquit, si vana vestra ad plebem auctoritas est,' L. iii. 2. ' Etenim, si 
 Lentulus putavit suum nomen fatale fore, cur ego non laeter?' C. Cat. iv. i. 'Si 
 sciens fallo, turn me, luppiter optime maxime, pessimo leto afficias,'L. xxii. 53. 
 'Si qui voluptatibus ducuntur, missos faciant henores, ne attingant rempubli- 
 cam/ C. p. Sest. 66. 'Quod si meis incommodis laetabantur, urbis tamen periculo 
 commoverentfur' (they should have been touched Hortative Past), C. /. Sest. *. 
 
 H H 2 
 
468 Latin Syntax. 213. 
 
 (3. si des (dederis) neget (negaverit) 
 
 if you were to offer he would refuse 
 
 7. i. si dares negaret 
 
 (lit.) if you had been he would have been refusing 
 
 offering 
 (often = if you offered he would refuse) 
 
 2. si dedisses negasset 
 
 if you had offered he would have refused 
 
 3. si dedisses negaret 
 
 if you had offered he would have kept refusing 
 
 P. (Sumptio Dandi.) * Thucydidis orationes ego laudare soleo ; imitari neque pos- 
 sim, si velim, nee velim fortasse, si possim,' C. Br, 83. 'Si exsistat hodie ab 
 inferis Lycurgus, gaud eat murorum Spartae minis, et nunc se patriam et Spartam. 
 antiquam agnoscere dicat/ L. xxxix. 37. 'Si gladium quis apud te sana mente de- 
 posuerit, repetat insaniens : reddere peccatum sit, officium non reddere,' C Off. iiL 
 25. 'Si scieris aspidem occulte latere uspiam, improbe feceris nisi monueris 
 alterum ne assideat/ C. Fin. ii. 18. 'Nonne sapiens, si fame ipse conficiatur, 
 abstulerit cibum alteri homini adnullam rem utili? Minime vero,' C. Off. iii. 6. See 
 Hor. Epod. ii. 39, &c. ; Epist. ii. 2. 1-17. 
 
 y. (Sumptio Fictt.) i. 'Si semper optima tenere possemus, haud sane consiKo- 
 multum egeremus,' C. Part. 25. 'Si universi videre optimum et in eo consentire pos- 
 sent, nemo delectos principes quaer ere t,' C. Resp. i. 34. ' Si plane sic verterem 
 Platonem aut Aristotelem, ut verterunt nostri poetae fabulas, male, credo, mererer de 
 meis civibus, si ad eorum cognitionem divina ilia ingenia transferrem,' C. Fin. i. 3. 
 
 2. 'Antiochus si tarn in agendo bello parere voluisset consiliis Hannibalis, quam in 
 Buscipiendo instituerat, propius Tiberi quam Thermopylis de summa imperii dimi- 
 casset/ N. Hann. 8. ' Glebam commosset in agro decumano Siciliae nemo, si 
 Metellus hanc epistulam non misisset,'C. Verr. iii. 18. 
 
 3. 'Nam si quam Rubrius iniuriam suo nomine ac non impulsu tuo et tua cupiditate 
 fecisset, de tui comitis iniuria questum ad te potius quam te oppugnatum venire nt,' 
 C. Verr. i. 31. ' Esset Antonio certe statim serviendum, si Caesar ab eo regni insigne 
 accipere voluisset,' C. Phil. iii. 5. ' Ulla si iuris tibi peierati poena, Barine, 
 nocuisset unquara, dente si nigro fieres vel uno turpior ungui, crederem/ Hon 
 C. ii. 8. i. 
 
 4. ' Consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum consilium 
 maiores nostri appellassent senatum,' C. Cat. M. 6. 'Mortuis tarn religiosa iura 
 maiores nostri tribuerunt, quod non fecissent profecto, si nihil ad eos pertinere arbi- 
 trarentur,' C. Lael. 4. 
 
 The^ following passages also strikingly illustrate the distinction between constructions 
 /3. and 7. i. 
 
 (a.) 'Si vir bonus habeat hanc vim ut, si digitis concrepuerit, possit in locu- 
 pletium testamenta irrepere, hac vi non utatur, ne si exploratum quidem habeat, 
 id omnino neminem unquam suspicaturum. At dares hanc vim M. Crasso, ut digi- 
 torum percussione posset heres scriptus esse qui re vera non esset heres, in foro, 
 mihi crede, saltaret,' C. Off. iii. 19. Here the first sentence (0) suggests a case 
 which (though imaginary and really impossible) Cicero, by a fabulist's license, is 
 entitled to represent as possible. The second falls into Construction y. i., because 
 Crassus was dead at the time, and the condition, therefore, is a bygone possibility. 
 Why then is not the Construction of the double Pluperfect Conj. used? Is it that 
 the floating period of Crassus's public life is contemplated ; or that Cicero, taking 
 Crassus as a mere type of unscrupulous greed, uses a form which includes an imaginary 
 Future as well as an imagined Past ? Compare Hor. C. iv. 8. 20 : ' Neque, si chartae 
 sileant quod bene feceris, mercedem tuleris: quid foret Iliae Mavortisque puer, si 
 taciturnitas obstaret meritis invida Romuli?' 
 
 (.) * Cur igitur Camillus doleret, si haec post trecentos et quinguaginta fere annos 
 eventura putaret; et ego doleam, si ad decem millia annorum gentem aliquam urbe 
 nostra portturam putem?' C. T. D. i. 37. Here, as the first hypothesis respecting 
 Camillus belongs to a floating past time, it rightly takes the form y. T, while the second, 
 relating to the present and future of Cicero, takes /3. 
 
213- Conditional Sentences. 469 
 
 4. si civis esses non negasset 
 
 if you had been a citizen he woiild not have refused 
 
 1) Class Alpha contains those Sentences with Indie. Protasis, i 
 which it may be assumed that both Condition and Conclusion are 
 real, because no suggestion is implied to the contrary. Hence it is 
 called Sumptio Dati, the Condition of Reality. 
 
 The Apodosis is usually either Indicative or Imperative ; but it 
 may be pure Conjunctive (C x or C 2 ) if it conveys a modest assertion, 
 a wish, an exhortation, or prohibition. 
 
 The combinations of Tense in Class . may be as large as the 
 logic of language allows. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 si vis, do (dabo) nisi vis, non do (dabo) 
 
 si voles, dabo (dedero) nisi voles, non dabo (dedero) 
 
 si volueris, dedero (dabo) nisi volueris, non dedero (dabo) 
 .si volebas, dabam nisi volebas, non dabam 
 
 si voluisti, dedi nisi voluisti, non dedi 
 
 si dedisti, gaudeo si non dedisti, doleo 
 
 si voluerat, dederat (dabat) nisi voluerat, non dederat (dabat) 
 si vis (voles, volueris, voluisti), da (dato) 
 nisi (si non) vis (voles, &c.), ne dato (ne dederis) 
 
 mirer si non vincimus (vincemus, vicerimus) 
 
 si potes (poteris), velim adsis 
 
 ne vivam nisi te amo 
 
 si fas est (erit, fuerit), eamus. 
 
 2) In Classes (3. and y. the Condition and Conclusion are more 
 or less unreal ; but of this unreality there are two kinds : one which 
 implies a possibility (more or less probable) of immediate or future 
 realisation ; the other, from which such possibility is excluded. 
 
 3) In Class (3. Protasis and Apodosis may be Cj or C 2 , and the 
 variation can make no difference in the English rendering. This 
 Class is called Sumptio Dandi, the condition of Possibility. 
 
 4) In Class y. the Protasis often expresses a Condition which 
 might possibly have occurred, but did not occur, in time past. It 
 is therefore purely imaginary; hence such a Sentence is called 
 Sumptio Ficti. The Mood of both Verbs is (normally) Con- 
 junctive ; the Tense of each may be Imperfect or Pluperfect, or 
 one may be Imperfect, the other Pluperfect : the relations of time 
 beirig what these Tenses express, as shewn in the examples. 
 
 5) It is, however, proper to observe that in the double Imperfect 
 form of Sumptio Ficti (y. i), the reference to past time is often 
 faint, and the distinction between this form and Sumptio Dandi 
 discernible only in the greater liveliness of the latter : which brings 
 a Condition before the mind, as the Historic Present brings an 
 Action, more vividly and picturesquely. Hence Sumptio Dandi is 
 a favourite construction of the terse and vivacious Horace. 1 
 
 1 Such a relation of these two constructions is well shewn in a passage of Cicero 
 {d. Or. i. 48, 49) which treats of the definition of the Orator. He begins by saying, 
 'Si forte quaereretur quae esset ars imperatoris, constituendum putarem,' &c. 
 then: 'Sin autem quaereremus quis esset is qui ad rempublicam . . . studium 
 
47 Latin Syntax. 214. 
 
 6) Thus the Construction of the double Imperfect (y. i.) exhibits 
 a Condition as Present in Time Past ; but such exhibition may 
 take either of two shapes : 
 
 a) The Condition may belong only to the Past : 
 
 1 Si mehercule ex omni copia conventus Syracusani faceres 
 potestatem aratori non modo reiciendi sed etiam sumendi 
 recuperatores, tamen hoc novum genus iniuriae nemo ferre 
 posset/ if from your whole court at Syracuse you had 
 allowed the farmer not merely to challenge but even to 
 choose commissioners, yet could none have borne this novel 
 kind of wrong^ C. Verr. iii. 13 (said of any time during the 
 now past government of Verres). 
 
 b) The Condition may not only exist in Time Past, but con- 
 
 tinue, and be still valid, in Time Present. 
 'An possem vivere nisi in litteris viverem,' could I have 
 been living at all, if I lived not in literary studies ? C. 
 Fam. ix. 26. Here Cic. refers not only to a portion of his 
 life past, but also to his present circumstances and feelings. 
 
 II. Conjunctive Protasis with Indie. Apodosis. 
 
 i) An Indie. Past Tense is used in Apodosis to express an 
 action begun, but hindered by another action which appears in a 
 Conjunctive Protasis with nisi, ni, or si. Such an Apodosis gene- 
 rally stands before its Protasis. 1 
 
 Examples of Idiom I. ( 214.) 
 
 'Au 
 
 collis evasisset,' L. ii. 50. 'lam fames quam pestilentia tristior erat, ni annonae 
 foret subventum,' L. iv. 52. 'Atrox certamen ad erat, ni Fabius consilio neutri 
 parti acerbo rem expedisset,' L. iii. i. ' Germanicus ferrum a latere diripuit elatum- 
 que deferebat in pectus, ni proximi pressam dextram vi attinuissent,' Tac. Ann. 
 i. 35. Si in Cic. Verr. v. 49. 'Si per Metellum licitumesset, matres illorum sorores- 
 que veniebant.' (In the two following places an Indie, of being is understood in the 
 Apodosis): ' Mitis legatio, n i praeferocis legatos habuisset,' L. v. 36. 'Suavisres, 
 si non causas narraret earum et naturas dominus/ Hor. S. ii. 8. 92. 
 
 (Perf. Apod., usually "with paene or prope.) 'Pons Sublicius iter paene hostibus 
 dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Codes,' L. ii. TO. 'Prope oneratum est sinis- 
 trum Romanis cornu, n i referentibus iam gradum consul pudore metum excussisset, 
 L. ii. 65. 'Paene imprudentia admissum facinus miserabile, ni utrimque praemissi 
 equites rem exploravissent,' Sail. B. i. 53. ' Eadem nave paene Aethiopia tenus 
 Aegyptum penetravit nisi exercitus sequi recusasset,' Suet. Caes. 52. Virgil has: 
 'Nee veni, nisi fata locum sedemque dedissent,'^4^. xi. 112. 
 
 (Pluperfect Apodosis.) 'Praeclare viceramus, nisi spoliatum, inermem, fugientem 
 Lepidus recepisset Antonium,' C. Fam. xii. 10. ' Qui ante Latinos ne pro se quidem 
 ipsis attingere arma passi sumus, nunc nisi Latini sua sponte arma sumpsissent, 
 capti et deleti eramus, L. iii. 19. ' Me truncus illapsus cerebro sustulerat, nisi 
 Faunus ictum dextra levasset,' Hor. C. iii. 17. 28. See iii. 6. 3. 'Perierat imperium, 
 quod iam in extremo stabat, si Fabius tantum ausus esset quantum ira suadebat/ 
 Sen. Ir. i. n. 
 
 suum contulisset, definirem hoc modo,' &c. ; then, 'Sin autem quaereretur quis- 
 nam iurisconsultus vere nominaretur, eum dicerem,' &c., but next, 'Atque ... si 
 musicus, si grammaticus, si poeta quaeratur, possim similiter explicare,' &c. 
 Here evidently the transition from Sumptio Ficti to Sumptio Dandi is not caused by any 
 essential distinction in the nature of the hypotheses ; though probably the use of examples 
 to establish the first three led Cicero to choose the Imperf. form as most suitable for the 
 purpose. 
 
214. Conditional Sentences. 471 
 
 2) An Indie. Pres. Verb of ability or duty (possum, debeo), also 
 est with longum, immensum, infinitum, or with Gerundive, 
 may stand in Apodosis with Pres. Conjunctive Protasis. 
 
 3) The idiom by which Past Indie. Tenses of Verbs of ability, ditty, 
 necessity, fitness, &c. (including esse with Gerundive and other com- 
 plements), can be used instead of Conjunctive forms, is noticed in 
 p. 336. Such Verbs (except convenire, licere) retain the same 
 idiom in the Apodosis of a Conditional Sentence with Conjunctive 
 Protasis, so far as regards the Imperf. and Perf. Tenses (but the 
 
 (Verb conditioned a dependent or stippressed Verb.) 'Admonebat me res ut hoc 
 quoque loco interitum eloquentiae deplorarem, ni vererer ne de me ipso ahquid viderer 
 queri ' (admonebat res ut deplorarem = re admonente deplorabam), C. Off. ii. 19. 'Ob- 
 sistere ac retinere conatisuntni strictis gladiis viri fortissimi inertes submovissent' 
 (et retinuissent mentally supplied), L. xxii. 60. ' Volsci comparaverant auxilia 
 quae mitterent Latinis, ni maturatum ab dictatore Romano esset '(supply 'etmisis- 
 sent '), L. ii. 22. 
 
 (Analogous idiom.') ' Numeros memini si verba tenerem ' (the mind supplies 'et 
 canerem '), Verg. B. ix. 44. 
 
 Examples of Idiom 2 : 
 
 ' Hi te homines neque d e b e n t adiuvare si possint, neque possunt si velint,' C. 
 Verr. iv. 9. ' N on potest iucunde vivi nisi cum virtute vivatur/ C. Off. ' Immensum. 
 est si velim singula referre/ Sen. Ep. 68. 'Dequo iudicio si velim dicere omnia, 
 multi appellandi laedendique sunt/ C. Verr. i. 60. 
 
 (Similarly) ' S i plus tibi promissa noceant quam illi pro sin t cui promiseris, non 
 contra officium est (i.e. potest) maius anteponi minori/ C. Off. i. 10. 
 
 (Of like nature are the Gnomic constructions) : 
 
 'Si valeant homines, ars tua, Phoebe, iacet (=iaceat necesse est),' Ov. Tr. iv. 3. i. 
 'Ista discuntur facile, si et tantum sumas quantum opus sit, et habeas qui docere 
 fideliter possit, etscias etiam ipse discere (discuntur= disci possunt),' C. d. Or. iii. 23. 
 'Si ridere concessum sit, vituperatur tamen cachinnatio,'C. T. D. iv. 31. 
 
 (Pres. ofPeriphr.Fut. in Apod, with Conj. Protasis.) 'Quid, si hostes ad urbem 
 veniant, facturi estis? quid si plebs mox armata veniat?' L. iii. 52. 
 
 Examples of Idiom 3 : 
 
 (Imperfect.) 'Omnibus eum contumeliis onerasti, quern patris loco, si ulla in te 
 pietas esset, colere debebas ' (implies 'et nunc debes),' C. Phil. ii. 38. 'Si mihi 
 
 Aemilius fuerit, si ex alia re nulla aestimari posset, vel hoc satis erat,'L. xlv. 37. 
 (With concessive meaning of si, although.) 'Quod si lie eret, tamen non debebas,' 
 C. Fam. vii. 27. 'Si Romae Pompeius privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen ad tantum 
 bellum is erat deligendus atque mittendus,' C./. L. M. 17. Nihil est necesse, 
 et si quid esset, id necesse tamen non erat confiteri/ C. Or. 69. 
 
 (Cicero generally prefers the Conjunctive Apodosis when the Protasis is concessive.) 
 'Quae si maxime meminissem, tamen illius temporis similitudinem iam sequi de- 
 berem/ Att. ix. 13. (Especially when the Apodosis is posse.) 'Si tibi nemo respon- 
 surus esset, tamen ipsam causam demonstrare non posses,' in Cael. 13. 
 
 (Perfect.) 'Ne domi quidem, si sui iuris finibus matronas contineret pudor, quae 
 leges hie rogarentur abrogarenturve curare decuit,' L. xxxiv. 2. 'Si ita esset, hac 
 lege lunium accusatum oportuit, qua accusatur Avitus/ C. /. Clu. 33. 'Ergo si 
 viri illi arma habuissent, capi Roma me consule potuit?'L. iii. 67. 'An una fieri 
 potuerunt, si una tribus non tulissent/ C. /. Plane. 22. ' Hanc urbem vos non 
 hostium ducitis, ubi, si unum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus fuit,' 
 L. ii. 38. 
 
 (With concessive force of si.) 'Debuisti, Vatini, etiam si falso venisses in sus- 
 picionem P. Sestii, tamen mihi ignoscere,' C. in Vat. i. 
 
472 Latin Syntax. 215. 
 
 Pluperf. in poetry only: ' Si di mihi parcere vellent, perdere de- 
 buerant,' Ov.). The Indie, lays stress on the duty, &c., as existing 
 (Imperf.), or having existed (Perf.), independent of the Condition. 
 Otherwise the Apodosis will be Conjunctive. 
 
 4) Especially, the Past Indie. Tenses of the Periphr. Fut. Con- 
 jugation are thus used in Apodosis. 
 
 sis III. Indicative Protasis with Conjunctive Apodosis. 
 
 1) Generally if the Protasis is Indicative and the Apodosis Con- 
 junctive, this implies that if the former is, the latter may be. 
 
 Such are the instances, already given (p. 469), of modest assertions 
 (dixerim, &c.), wishes (moriar, peream, ne vivam, &c.), exhortations, 
 prohibitions, &c., in Apodosis with Indie. Protasis. 
 
 2) Some passages occur, in which, though the Verb in the Pro- 
 tasis is Indie., the true logical Protasis is a Conjunctive Verb im- 
 plied in some adjunct, or to be otherwise mentally supplied. 
 
 'SiCaesaris causa in provinciam veniebatis, ad eum pro- 
 fecto exclusi provincia venissetis: venistis ad Pompeium,' if 
 you were coming into the province in Caesar's interest, no doubt 
 when you were shut out of the province you would have come to 
 him: you came to Pompey, C. p. Lig. 8. Here veniebatis con- 
 tains a fact : ' You were actually intending to come ; ' but the 
 logical Protasis lies in the phrase, ' Caesaris causa,' ' had it been in 
 Caesar's interest that you were intending to come.' 
 
 ' Nisi Deiotarus revertisset, in eo conclavi ei cubandum fuisset, 
 quod proxima nocte corruit. At id neque, si fa turn fuerat, effu- 
 
 fisset, nee, si non fuerat, in eum casum incidisset,' C. Div. \\. 
 . Here the true Protases of the Conjunctive Verbs must be men- 
 tally supplied : ' had it been so destined, he would not have escaped, 
 even if he had turned back : had it not been destined, he would not 
 have met with that calamity, even if he had not turned back? 
 
 Examples of Idiom 4. 
 
 (Imperf. Indie, of Periphr. Fut. in. Apod.) ' Conclave illud, ubi mansuruserat, si 
 ire perrexisset, proxima nocte corruit/ C. Div. i. 15. ' Illi ipsi aratores, qui remanse- 
 rant, relicturi agros omnes erant, nisi ad eos Metellus Roma litteras misisset,' C. 
 Verr. iii. 52. 'Quid? si ego morerer, mecumexspiraturarespublica, mecum casurura 
 imperium populi Romani erat?' L. xxviii. 28. ' Gravior ultor caedis, si superesset, 
 rex futurus erat,' L. i. 40. 
 
 (Perf. Indie, of Periphr. Fut. in Apod.) 'Si P. Sestius occisus esset, fuistisne 
 ad arma ituri? fuistisne vos ad patrium ilium animum excitaturi? fuistisne 
 aliquando rempublicam a funesto latrone repetituri?' C. /. Sest. 38. 'Quid futurum 
 fuit, si ilia plebs agitari coepta esset tribuniciis procellis?' L. ii. i. 'Furius et 
 Aemilius currum triumphalem me conscendere prohibent, quos ego, s i tribuni me trium- 
 phare prohiberent, testis citaturus fui rerum a me gestarum,' L. xxxviii. 47. 
 
 (Protasis virtually contained in a ivord or phrase. ) ' Quid tandem i n c e n s i s futurum 
 fuit?' (=si incensae essent), C. Cat. iv. 8. 'Haec sine doctrina credituri fuerunt,' C. 
 T. D. i. 2T. ' Quomodo trucidato te ipsi evasuri fuerunt?' L. xl. 14. 
 
 (Duty, &c. strictly depending on Condition.') 'Quod si bona Quinctii possideres, 
 possidere omnia eo iure deberes* (i.e. nunc non debes), C. 'Omnino si id consilium 
 placeret, necesse esset' (sed non placet), C. Att. xiii.4i. 'Nisi tualiquid dixisses, 
 nihil sane ex me quidem audire potuisses' (sed aliquid dixisti), C. N. D. i. 21. ' Sic 
 faciendum fuisset si Gabinium accusassem ' (sed non accusavi), C. Qu. F. iii. 4. 
 
2 1 6-i 8. Conditional Sentences. 473 
 
 ' Si domum tuam expugnaturus, capta domo dominum inter- 
 fecturus eram, non temper assem vino in unum diem?' L.xl. 14. 
 Here 'si expugnaturus (interfecturus) eram 'may be regarded as 
 equal to ' si voluissem expugnare (interficere)/ because conditional 
 force may exist in a Periphrastic Future. 
 
 IV. Abnormal Relation of Tenses. 216 
 Rare forms of Conditional Consecution occur in poetry : 
 
 f Carmina ni sint, ex humero Pelopis non nituisset ebur/ 
 Tibull. i. 4. 63 (where a permanent condition affects a past fact). 
 
 'Et facer et si non aera repulsa sonent/ Tibull. i. 8. 22 (where 
 faciat would be normal ; but the poet wished to mark past time 
 also as affected by the condition). 
 
 V. Protasis without si. 2I7 
 
 1) The Conjunctive Protasis often suppresses si. 
 
 ' Rex velit honesta, nemo non eadem volet/ Sen. Tr. Thy. 214. 
 ' Unum 'cognoris, omnis noris/ Ter. Ph. ii. i. 35, 'Dedisses 
 huic animo par corpus, fecisset quod op tab at,' Plin. Epist. i. 12. 
 'Deciens centena dedisses huic parco, paucis contento, quinque 
 diebus nil er at in loculis/ Hor. Sat. i. 3. 15. 
 
 2) A Categorical form takes the place of the Conditional. 
 
 *Ira exardescit, libido concitatur: in eandem arcem 
 confugiendum est/ anger flames out ; lust is excited ; to the 
 same stronghold must ive fly, C. T. D. ii. 24. 'Negat quis ; 
 nego: ait; aio/Ter. Eun. ii. 21. 
 
 3) Sine with Ablative, or an Ablative Absolute, or some phrase, 
 may stand as Protasis instead of si with Verb : 
 
 ' Sine Deo (Deo sublato) non esset mundus ( = si Deum tol- 
 leres).' ' Neque agricultura, neque frugum fructuumque reliquorum 
 perceptio et conservatio sine hominum opera ulla esse potuis- 
 set. . . nee lapides e terra exciderentur sine hominum labore 
 et manu (i.e. nisi hominum opera, labor, manus accessissent)/ C. 
 Off.\\. 3. 'Animi magnitudo, remota communitate coniunc- 
 tionequehumana, feritas sit quaedam et immanitas (i.e. si com- 
 munitas remota sit)/ C. Off. i. 44. 
 
 VI. Si in various senses. 2l8 
 
 i) The Protasis and Apodosis of a Condition may stand in the 
 mutual relation of premise and consequence, or cause and effect. 
 Hence si is found in correlation to it a, sic, turn, turn vero ; ideo, 
 idcirco. 
 
 4 Hoc ita iustum est, si est voluntarium/ this is just, on con- 
 dition of its being voluntary, C. Off. i. 9. ' A patribus acceptos 
 deos ita placet coli si huic legi paruerint ipsi/ C. Leg. ii. 10. 
 * Haec si ages et senties, turn eris magnus consul et consularis ; 
 sin aliter, turn in istis amplissimis nominibus honorum non 
 modo dignitas nulla erit, sed erit summa deformitas/ C. Fam. 
 x. 6. ' Non, si Opimium defendisti, idcirco te isti bonum 
 civem putabunt/ they will not think you a good citizen because 
 you defended Opimius, C. d. Or. ii. 40. 
 
474 Latin Syntax. 219-20. 
 
 2) S i is used in a peculiar Final Sense ( = to see if ; to try if, 
 &c.): 
 
 'Ad Gonnum castra movet, si oppido potiri posset/ L. xlii. 67. 
 4 Circumfunduntur hostes si quern aditum reperire possent ( = ut 
 possent, si possent),' the enemy swarmed round to try if they could 
 find any access, Caes. B. G. vi. 37. ' Te adeunt fere omnes, si quid 
 velis ( = ut discant quid velis, si quid velis)/ nearly everybody 
 calls on you to find out if you want anything, C. Fam. iii . 9. 
 'Expectabam si quid ad me scriberes ( = dum scriberes, si 
 scriberes)/ / was waiting to see if you would write to me anything, C. 
 
 Poets use a similar idiom with Indie. : 
 
 ' Inspice si possum donata reponere laelus/ examine me and see 
 if 1 can cheerfully restore your gifts, Hor. Epist. i. 7. 39. See 
 Hor. S. ii. 5. 87. 
 
 3) Si is used in a Concessive Sense: si maxime, though ever 
 so much ; si nihil aliud, though nothing else : which are often con- 
 nected with the Demonstratives tarn en, certe, c. 
 
 'Vivorum memini : nee tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci, si cupiam/ 
 C. Fin. v. i. * Caelestia si maxime cognita essent, nihil 
 tamen ad bene vivendum conferrent/ C. Ac. \. 4. 'Si nihil 
 aliud, gratorum certe nobis animorum gloriam dies haec dederit/ 
 L. xxii. 29. 
 
 219 VII. Si in combination with various Pronouns and Par- 
 ticles. 
 
 1) Si is enclitically followed by many Particles and Indefinite 
 Pronouns. Such combinations are : 
 
 Si quis, si qui, si quando, sicubi, c. (also si quisquam, si aliquis, 
 si unquam, &c.) ; si quidem, si modo, si tamen, si forte, si maxime. 
 si vero, &c. ; sin (for si-ne), but if\ sin autem, sin vero, &c. 
 
 2) Si quis = qui or quisquis : si quando = quandocumque, &c. 
 
 ' Licet irridere si qui vu It, plus apud me tamen vera ratio valebit 
 quam vulgi opinio : neque ego umquam bona perdidisse dicam, si 
 quis pecus aut supellectilem amiserit/ C. Par. i. 'Si quod erat 
 grande vas et maius opus inventum, laeti afferebant ; si minus 
 eiusmodi quo dpi am venari potuerant, ilia quidem certe pro le- 
 pusculis, patellae, paterae, turibula/ C. Verr. iv. 21. 
 
 220 VIII. Idiomatic Uses. 
 
 1) A Clause with si (especially accompanied by an indefinite 
 Pronoun or Particle) is used to imply .that the Apodosis is as 
 certain or remarkable as any similar case which could be cited : 
 
 'Si quid generis istiusmodi me delectat, pic tur a delectat/ 
 if anything of that kind charms me, painting does, C. Fam. vii. 23. 
 'Si quando urbs nostra floruit, nunc maxime floret, 7 Plin. Epist. 
 i. 10. 'Si tibi umquam sum visus in republica fortis, certe me 
 in causa Clodiana admiratus esses/ C. Att. i. 16. 
 
 2) Hence si quidem sometimes becomes Causal = inasmuch as: 
 ' Antiquissimum e doctis est genus poetarum, siquidem 
 
 Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam/ of the learned 
 classes, poets are the most ancient, seeing^ that Homer and Hesiod 
 lived before Rome was founded, C. T. D. i. I. 
 But si quidem may also = si modo. 
 
221-22. Conditional Sentences. 475 
 
 3) The Protasis with si is sometimes designed to correct the 
 form of expression in the principal Sentence : 
 
 ' Romae delectus habetur totaque Italia, si hie delectus appel- 
 landus est, cum ultro se offerunt omnes/ a levy is going on at 
 Rome and throughout Italy, if levy it can be called, when all pre- 
 sent themselves impressed] C. Fam. xi. 8. 
 
 4) Si modo, si tamen, si vero are used for a similar purpose ; 
 also si forte. 
 
 ' Ea diligenter a me expressa acumen habent Antiochi, nitorem 
 orationis nostrum, si modo is est aliquis in nobis/ C. Att. xiii. 
 19. ' Nunc incorrectum populi pervenit in ora, in populi quicquam 
 si tamen ore meum est/ Ov. Tr. iii. 14. 
 
 5) Often s i enforces an entreaty by suggesting a reason. 
 
 Si me diligis, excita ex somno tuas litteras/ if you have 
 any regard for me, wake up your correspondence, C. Fam. xvi. 14. 
 ' Nihil amplius oro, Maia nate, nisi ut propria haec mihi mu- 
 nera faxis, si neque maiorem feci ratione mala rem, nee sum 
 facturus vitio culpave minorem/ Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 4. 
 
 6) The phrase si quaeris, si quaeritis (if you want to know), also 
 s i quaerimus, apologises for a possibly superfluous statement ; 
 
 5 i dis placet (save the mark ! forsooth) is an expression of slightly 
 contemptuous surprise. 
 
 ^ 'Ea res, si quaeris, ei magno honori fuit/ C. Off. iii. 20'. <Et, 
 si quaeritis, is, qui appellatur dicax, in hoc genere maxime 
 excellit/ C. d. Or. ii. 62. ' Etiam Latini, si dis placet, hoc bien- 
 nio dicendi magistri exstiterunt/ C. d. Or. iii. 24. 
 
 IX. Sive, Seu. 
 
 Sive, seu (whether, or if, or), are often used in Distributive con- 
 struction, sive . . . sive, seu ... seu, &c. See CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 6 Si nocte sive luce, si servus sive liber faxit, probe factum 
 esto/ L. xxii. 10. 'Veniet tempus mortis et quidem celeriter ; et 
 sive retractabis sive properabis/ C. T. D. i. 31. 'Mala et impia 
 consuetude est contra deos disputandi, sive ex animo id fit sive 
 simulate/ C. N. D. ii. 67. ' Inviso semel principe seu bene seu 
 male facta premunt/ Tac. H. i. 7. ' Illo loco libentissime soleo 
 uti, sive quid mecum ipse cogito, sive quid aut scribo aut 
 lego/ C. Leg. ii. i. ' Utcumque haec, sive errore humano, seu 
 casu, seu necessitate inciderunt, bonum animum habe/ L. xlv. 8. 
 ' luxta periculoso ficta seu vera promeret, monuit Liviam/ Tac. 
 Ann. i. 6. 
 
 X. Conditional Negation. 
 
 i) Nisi (unless, except if] denies a supposition : si non (if not) 
 supposes a denial, the emphasis falling on the negative. 
 
 ' Nemo fere saltat sobrius nisi forte insanit/ hardly any sober' 
 person dances, unless perchance he is mad, C. p. Mur. 6. ' S i n o n 
 quaeret, nullus dixeris/ if he shall not ask, you will say nothing, 
 Ter. Hec. i. 2. 4. 
 
 S i minus, sin minus, sin aliter, sin secus, are used for si non. t 
 
 Nisi is strengthened by Adverbs : nisi tamen, nisi forte, nisi 
 vero, &c. 
 
476 Latin Syntax. 222. 
 
 2) One Conditional clause with si or si non following another 
 without distinct reference to the former may express an alternative 
 or contradictory hypothesis : 
 
 ' ludicia non metuis : si propter innocentiam, laudo; si propter 
 vim, non intellegis ei, qui isto modo iudicia non timeat, quid 
 timendum sit? ? C. Phil. ii. 45. ' Si erunt in officio amici, pecunia 
 non derit; si non erunt, tu efficere tua pecunia non poteris,' C. 
 Fam. xiv. i. 'Quid nos, quibus te vita si superstite iucunda, si 
 contra gravis ? ; Hor. Epod. i. 5. 
 
 3) But sin, sin autem, sin aliter, are used in distinct reference to 
 another Condition which has gone before, actually or virtually : 
 
 'Mercatura si tenuis est, sordida putanda est; sin magna et 
 copiosa, non est admodum vituperanda/ C. Off. i. 42. ' Luxuria 
 cum omni aetati turpis, turn senectuti foedissima est : sin autem 
 libidinum intemperantia accesserit, duplex malum est, 3 C. Off. i. 34. 
 'Velim deinceps meliora sint; sin aliter fuerit, reipublicae 
 vicem dolebo/ C. ad Br. 10. 
 
 4) Sin minus, si minus, sin secus, if not, may follow without 
 repeating the Verb : 
 
 ' Senatus consultum si erit factum, scribes ad me; sin minus, 
 rem tamen conficiam/ C. Att. v. 4. ' Huic tu libro maxime velim 
 ex animo, si minus, gratiae causa suffragere,' C. Fam. xii. 17. 
 Sin, sin autem, are sometimes used in the same way : 
 ' Si Brutus conservatus erit, vicimus : sin, quoddi omen avertant, 
 omnis omnium cursus est ad vos/ C. Fam. xii. 6. ' Iniecta mihi 
 spes quaedam est velle mecum Ser. Sulpicium colloqui. Si vir esse 
 volet, praeclara owoSca; sin autem, erimus nos qui solemus,' C. 
 Ati. x. 7. 
 
 5) Nisi is sometimes used in a sense resembling that of sed 
 0*/): 
 
 ' Quid erat quod Capitonem primum scire voluerit ? Nescio ; 
 nisi hoc video, Capitonem in his bonis esse socium,' why was it 
 that he wished Capito to be informed first ? I carft say ; but this I 
 observe, that Capito is a partner in this property, C. p. S. 
 Rose. 35. 
 
 In this sense nisi tamen, nisi quod are used. 
 
 6) Nisi is also used to set aside a possible objection : 
 
 4 Adhuc certe, nisi ego insanio, stulte omnia et incaute/ so far, 
 certainly, if I am not out of my wits, all has been done foolishly 
 and unwarily, C. Att. vii. 10. 
 
 7) Nisi forte, nisi tamen, nisi vero, have an ironical use : 
 'Eruci criminatio tota, ut arbitror, dissoluta est, nisi forte ex- 
 
 pectatis ut ilia diluam quae de peculatu obiecit,' C. p. S. Rose. 29. 
 'Frangetis impetum vivi, cuius vix sustinetis furias insepulti ; nisi 
 vero sustinuistis eos qui cum facibus ad curiam cucurrerunt/ 
 C.p. Mil. 33. ' Equidem nee cur Patro tantopere contendat video, 
 nee cur tu repugnes: nisi tamen multo minus tibi concedi 
 potest quam illi laborare sine causa/ C. Fam. xiii. i. 
 
 8) On the other hand, nisi si stands for nisi when the excep- 
 tion is purely conditional ; and often before quis, quando, &c. 
 
 ' Miseros illudi nolunt, nisi si se forte iactant/ they will not have 
 
223. Conditional Sentences. 477 
 
 the unfortunate ridiculed, unless, indeed, they vaunt themselves, 
 C. d. Or. ii. 58. ' Ambigtmm admirationem magis quam risum 
 movet, nisi si quando incidit in aliud genus ridiculi/ C. d. Or. 
 ii. 62. 
 
 9) Nisi, as a mere annexive Conjunction, especially follows 
 Negatives, Interrogates, c. : 
 
 'Nullum imperium^est tutum, nisi benevolentia munitum/ 
 Nep. Dz. 5. Hoc sentio, nisi in bonis amicitiam esse non posse/ 
 C. Lael. 5. < Oleam Theophrastus negavit nisi intra xl. millia 
 passuum a mari nasci/ PI. N. H. xv. i. ' Quicquamne putas me 
 curare nisi ut ei ne desim,' C. Att. xii. 4. < Erat historia nihil 
 aliud nisi annalium confectio/ C. d. Or. ii. 12. 
 
 10) Hand (Tursellinus iv.) denies that ni is a contracted form of 
 nisi. He regards it as an ancient negative particle, which re- 
 mains in use only in a conditional sense = si non. 
 
 'Neque eius pugnae memoria tradita foret, ni Marsi eo pri- 
 mum proelio cum Romanis b el las sent,' that battle would not 
 have been recorded, had it not been the first in which the Marsi 
 waged war with the Romans, L. ix. 41. * Ni virtus fidesque vestra 
 spectata mihi foret, nequiquam opportuna res cecidisset,' if I 
 had not well tried your valour and fidelity, this opportunity woitld 
 have occurred in vain, Sail. Cat. xx. ' Respondere vadato debebat, 
 quod ni fecisset, perdere litem/ he was bound to appear in 
 court to one who had taken bail from him, or, in default of appear- 
 ing, to lose his caiise, Hor. Sat. i. 9. 37. 
 
 a) Ni follows Optatives of Imprecation : 'Dispereamni sum- 
 mosses omnis/ upon my life you would have supplanted 
 all, Hor. Sat. i. 9. 
 
 /3) N i is used in the formula of a wager : ' Lutatius, eques 
 Romanus, sponsionem fecerat, ni vir bonus esset/ 
 Lutatius, a Roman knight, had laid a wager (on condition 
 of losing} if he were not a good man, C. Verr. iii. 59. 
 
 (This was the usual mode of settling disputes of personal honour 
 at Rome. See Mommsen, Rom. Hist. B. iii. Ch. I2.) 1 
 
 XL The following table shews how to convert Conditional Sen- 
 tences into Oratio Obliqua when the Apodosis becomes an Infin. 
 Clause, and the Protasis is subordinate to it. 
 
 1 Examples of nisi (ni), si non, &c. ( 222.) 
 
 I. a. 'Actum de te est, nisi provides,' C. Fam. ix. 18. ' Opprimemini, nisi provi- 
 deritis,' C. ad Brut. i. 2. 'Ni tua custodis, avidus iam haec aufert heres,' Hor. S. 
 ii. 3. 151. 
 
 b. Te nusquam mittam, nisi das firmatam fidem,' Plaut. M. Gl. ii. 5. 'Doli non 
 doli sunt, nisi astu colas/ Plaut. Capt. ii. i. 
 
 c. 'Nisi ego ilium hominem perdo, perii,' Plaut. Pers. iv. 9. 'Moriar, nisi facete/ 
 C. Att. xvi. ii. 'Mirum ni ilia salva est,' Ter. Haut. iii. 5. 
 
 d. 'Cogere eum coepit, sponsionem facere cum lictore suo, ni furtis quaestum 
 faceret/ C. Verr. v. 54. 'Da pignus, ni easit filia,' Plaut. Epid. v. 2. 'Da hercle 
 pignus, ni omnia meminiet scio,' Plaut. Pers. ii. 2. 
 
 e. 'Ausculta paucis, nisi molestum est, Demea,' Ter. Ad. v. 9. ' Impetrarim 
 libenter, nisi molestum sit,' C. T. D. v. 29. 'Nisi molestum est, percontari 
 hanc pauci's hie vult,' Plaut. Pers. iv. 4. 
 
47$ 
 
 Latin Syntax. 
 
 223. 
 
 Conditio Recta. 
 
 Si peccas, doles. 
 Si peccabis, dolebis. 
 Si peccaveris, dolueris, 
 Si pecces, doleas. 
 Si peccares, doleres. 
 
 Conditio Obliqua. 
 
 /si pecces, dolere, 
 
 I i pecces, ] doliturum 
 
 si j peccaveris, r (dolendum) 
 *] (peccaturus sis,) esse. 
 ^ si peccares, doliturum (dolendum) 
 esse 
 
 ) doliturum 
 
 II. a. 'Et certe, nisi is Antonium ab urbe avertisset, perissent omnia,' C. adBr. i. 3. 
 ' Haec illius severitas acerba videretur, nisi multis condimentis humanitatis miti- 
 garetur/ C. p. Qu. i. ' Plures cecidissent, ni nox proelio intervenisset,' L. xxiii. iS. 
 
 ' b. ' Haec ego non ferrem, nisi me in philosophiae portum contulissem,' C. Fain. vii. 
 30. 'Nam ni vellent di, non fieret, scio,' Plaut. Aul. iv. 10. ' Agesilaus talem se im- 
 peratorem praebuit, ut omnibus apparuerit, nisi ille fuisset, Spartam futuram non 
 fuisse,' Nep. As. 6. 
 
 c. 'Quod niita sit, quid veneramur, quid precamur decs?' C. N. D. i. 44. 'Quod 
 ni ita se haberet, nee iustitiae ullus essetnec bonitati locus,' C. Fin. iii. 20. 
 
 III. i. a. 'Si republica non possis frui, stultum est nolle privata/ C.Fam. iv. 9. 'Vas 
 factus est alter eius sistendi ut, si ille non revertisset, moriendum esset ipsi,' C. Off. 
 iii. 10. 'Egovero meum consilium, si praesertim tu non improbas, vehementer ap- 
 probo/ C. Qu. Fr. iii. 4. 
 
 b. 'Si mundus universus non est deus, ne stellae quid em,' C. N. D. iii. 9. 
 'Quod si verisimile non est, ne illud quidem est, haec unde fluxerunt,' C. N. D. 
 iii. 18. 
 
 'Si tot exempla virtutis non movent, nihil umquam movebit,' L. xxii. 60. 
 'Quae potest esse sanctitas, si di humana non curant?' C. N. D. i. 44. 
 'Si non tangendi copia est, eho, ne videndi quidem erit?' Ter. Euu. iv. 2. 
 
 c. 'Si illud non licet, saltim. hoc licebit,' Ter. Eun. iv. 2. 'Si non urna, 
 tamen iunget nos littera ; si non ossibus ossa meis, at nomen nomine tangam,' Ov. M. 
 xi. 706. ' Victi sumus igitur, aut, si vinci dignitas non potest, fracti certe et abiecti,' 
 C. Fam. iv. 7. 
 
 ' Dolorem iustissimum, si non potero f rang ere, occultabo,' C. Phil. xii. 8. 
 
 2. a. 'O miserum te, si intellegis, miseriorem, si non intellegis,' C. Phil. ii. 22. 
 ' Bene si amico feceris, ne pigeat fecisse, at potius pudeat, si non feceris/ Plaut. 
 Trin. ii. 2. 
 
 b. 'Si mihi veniam, quam peto, dederit, utar condicione ; ~sin minus, impetrabo 
 aliquid a me ipso,' C. Att. ix. 15. 
 
 'Sume, catelle ; negat: si non des, optet,' Hor. S. ii. 3. 258. 
 
 c. 'Si affers, turn patent, si non est quod des, aedes non patent,' Plaut. As. \. 3. 
 
 d. 'Valerium iureconsultum valde tibi commendo, sed ita etiam si non est iurecon- 
 sultus,' C. Fain. iii. i. 
 
 3. a. ' Aes pro capite dent : si id facere non queunt, domum abeant,' Plaut. Poen. Pr. 
 b. 'Quid, si quis non sit avarus, continuon' sanus?' Hor. S. ii. 3. 159. 'Quid si 
 
 non impetraro?' C. Att. ix. 2. 
 
 4. a. 'Hoc tamen nuntia, melius me morituram fuisse si non in funere meo nupsis- 
 sem,' L. xxx. 15. 
 
 b. ' Interminatus est a minimo ad maximum, si quis n o n hodie munus misSsset 
 sibi, eum eras cruciatu maximo perbitere, Plaut. Ps. iii. i. 
 
 c. 'Peream male si non optimum erat,' Hor. S. ii. i. 6. 'Peream si non invitant 
 omnia culpam,' Ov. Her. xvii. 183. 
 
 d. 'lubet P. Quinctium sponsionem cum S. Naevio facere, si bona sua ex edicto 
 praetoris dies xxx. possessa non essent,' C. /. Qu. 8. 
 
 e. 'Volo te verbis pauculis, si tibi molestum non est,' Plaut. Ep. iii. 4. 
 
 1 Examples of Conditional Sentences in Oratio Obliqua. ( 223.) 
 'Omnes intellegunt, si salvi esse velint, necessitati esse parendum,' C. Off. ii. 
 21. ' Equidem putabam virtutem hominibus, si modo tradi ratione possit, insti- 
 
224-25. Concessive Sentences. 479 
 
 XII. Modo, dum, dummodo. Modo, 
 
 Modo (only) is used for si modo, if only ; modo ut, provided d " m ' 
 that ; with Negative, modo ne, provided that . . . not. 
 
 Tan turn is similarly used in poetry. 
 
 Dum (whilst)^ dummodo (whilst only), may also signify, pro- 
 vided that, provided that only : and, if Negative, take ne. 
 
 All these Conjunctions require the Subjunctive. 1 
 
 vii. Concessive Sentences. 22S 
 
 Con- 
 
 These, like Conditional Sentences, have Protasis and Apodosis. |^ ve 
 They are called Concessive, because the Protasis concedes an ob- tences, 
 jection : meaning although, even if, however, granting that, &c. 
 
 I. Concessive Conjunctions are of several classes. 
 
 (1) The strengthened forms of si (including si itself used con- 
 cessively), etsi, etiamsi, tamen-etsi (usually written tametsi), 
 even if, although. 
 
 The natural Demonstrative of these and of all Concessive forms 
 is tarn en, nevertheless, yet\ certe, at, at certe, sed tamen, tamen, 
 saltern, are also used 
 
 (2) The Universal Relative Adverbs, quamquam (howsoever ' = 
 although), utut (however). 
 
 tuendo ac persuadendo tradi,' C. d. Or. i. 58. ' M. Claudius vociferatur : ita demum 
 liberam civitatem fore, ita aequatas leges, si sua quisque iura ordo, suam maiesta- 
 tem teneat,'L. iii. 63. 'Veneti legationem ad P. Crassum mittunt ; si veiit suos 
 recipere, obsides sibi remittat,' Caes. B. G. iii. 7. 'Ariovistus respondit : si ipse 
 populo Romano non praescriberet, quemadmodum suo iure uteretur, non oport- 
 ere se a populo Romano in suo iure impediri,' Caes. B. G. i. 36. 'Additum decreto : 
 si quis quid postea, quod ad notam ignominiamque Philippi pertineret, ferrent, 
 id omne populum Atheniensium iussurum; siquis contra ignominiam prove honore 
 eius dixisset fecissetve, qui occidisset eum iure caesurum,' L. xxx. 44. 
 '(Hasdrubal Carthaginiensibus suadet) si ulla Hispaniae cura esset, successorem sibi 
 cum valido exercitu mitterent,' L. xxiii. 27. ' Batavi praemisere qui Herennio Gallo 
 mandata cohortium exponerent : si nemo obsisteret, innoxium iterfore; sin arma 
 occurrant, ferro viam inventuros,' Tac. H. iv. 20. 'Ad ea Epicydes, si qua ad se 
 mandata haberent, responsum eis ait daturum fuisse: ... si bello lacessant, 
 ipsa re intellecturos, nequaquam idem esse Syracusas ac Leontinos oppugnare,* 
 L. xxiv. 33. 
 
 1 Examples of modo, dum, &c., in Conditional Sense. ( 224.) 
 
 'Manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria,' C. Cat. M. 7. 
 'Mediocritas in puniendo placet Peripateticis ; et recte placet, modo ne laudarent 
 iracundiam,' C. Off. i. 25. 'Modo ut haec nobis loca tenere lice at, bellissime mecum 
 esse poteritis,' C. Fam. xiv. 2. 'Oderint, dum metuant,' Suet. Calig. 30. 'Sin 
 autem ieiunitatem et siccitatem et inopiam, dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum 
 elegans, in Attico genere ponit, hoc recte dumtaxat,' C. Br. 82. ' Mea nihil refert, 
 dum potiar modo,'Ter. An. v. i. 31. 'Ego si cui adhuc segnior esse videor, dum 
 ne tibi videar, non laboro,' C. Att. viii. n. 'Aliqui omnia recta et honesta neglegunt, 
 dummodo potentiam consequantur,' C. Off. iii. 21. 'Sit summa in iure dicundo 
 severitas, dummodo ea ne varietur gratia, sed conservetur aequabilis,' C. Q-u. 
 Fr. i. i. 7. 
 
 (Dum non used conditionally by Seneca.} 'Omnia licet foris resonent, dum intus 
 nihil tumultus sit, dum inter se non rixentur cupiditas et timor, dum avaritia 
 luxuriaque non dissideant, nee altera alteram vexet ; nam quid prodest totius regio- 
 nis silentium, si affectus fremunt ? ' Ep. 56. 
 
 (Tan turn used by Virgil conditionally, like modo.) ' Veniam quocumque vocaris, 
 audiat haec tan turn vel qui venit, ecce, Palaemon,' B. iii. 49. See do. 53, and 
 B. ii. 28. 
 
480 Latin Syntax. 
 
 (3) The Verbal forms quamvis, quamlibet, quantumvis (how 
 you will ' howsoever, altho^tgh\ licet (it may be that although) , 
 for which licebit is sometimes used. See Hor. Epod. xv. 19. 
 
 (4) U t in Concessive Sense ( = concesso ut, granting that, i.e. 
 although} ; with n e ( = concesso ut ne, granting that . . . not). 
 Also cum (whereas). 
 
 II. Mood in Concessive Clauses. 
 
 (1) Concessive Sentences which have etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, 
 or si, in the Protasis, are subject to the same rules of Mood as 
 Conditional Sentences, of which they are merely special instances. 
 
 (2) A Concessive Clause with quamquam, utut, will be Indi- 
 cative ; but if Suboblique or Gnomic, Subjunctive. 
 
 By writers of the Silver Age, as Tacitus and Suetonius, quam- 
 quam is freely used with Subjunctive. 
 
 (3) A Concessive Clause with licet and Subjunctive is a special 
 instance of Petitio Obliqua, in which ut is omitted. 
 
 Quamvis is used with Indicative once by Cicero ; sometimes 
 by Nepos, Livy, and the poets : usually taking Subjunctive. 
 
 (4) Ut, ne, Concessively used, are also special instances of 
 Petitio Obliqua, in which the Verb is suppressed. 
 
 Cum Concessive is found with both Moods. On its use with 
 Indie, see M. Lucr. i. 566 
 
 III. Idioms of Concessive Conjunctions. 
 
 1) Etsi, quamvis, rarely quamquam, are used adverbially 
 to qualify words without affecting mood. Licet, quamlibet are 
 so used in poetry only. 
 
 'Si mihi obtemperatum esset, etsi non optima m, at aliquam 
 rempublicam haberemus,' C. Off. i. ir. f Haec mira quamquam 
 fidem ex eo trahebant quod/ c., Tac. Ann. vi. 30. ' Res bello 
 gesserat, quamvis reipublicae calamitosas, attamen magnas/ 
 C. Phil. ii. 45. ' Huic, licet ingratae, Tityrus ipse canam/ Prop. 
 iii. 30. 74. ' Adiuvat infirmas quamlibet ira manus,' Ov. 
 
 2) Quamvis, quam vultis, quam volet, c., are so used in the 
 sense of quantumvis, ever so (much}. 
 
 ' Quasi vero mihi difficile sit quamvis multos (ever so many) 
 nominatim proferre,' C. p. Rose. 16. 'Exspectate facinus quam 
 vultis improbum (as dishonest as you please], vincam tamen 
 expectationem omnium/ C. Verr. v. 5. 'Quam volet iocetur/ 
 let him jest as he will, C. N. D. ii. 17. 
 
 3) Quamvis licet, quantumvis licet with Subjunctive. 
 'Quamvis licet insectemur Stoicos ; metuo ne soli philo- 
 
 sophi sint/ we may rail at the Stoics as much as we please : I am 
 afraid they are our only true philosophers, C. T. D. iv. 24. 
 'Quamvis licet menti delubra et vhtuti et fidei consecremus, 
 tamen haec in nobis ipsis sita videmus/ we may dedicate temples 
 as much as we will to Intellect and Virttie and Faith ; yet these 
 are things we perceive to be resident in ourselves, C. N. D. iii. 36. 
 * Non possis tu, quantumvis licet excellas, omnis tuos ad 
 amplissimos honores perducere/ C. Lael. 20. 
 
226. Concessive Sentences. 481 
 
 4) The Protasis with etsi orquamquamis sometimes added to 
 modify or correct the Apodosis, and may be rendered ' and yet? 
 
 ' Do, do poenas temeritatis meae : etsi quae fuit ilia temeritas?' 
 I pay the penalty of my rashness : and yet what was that rashness ? 
 C.Att.ix. 10. 'Puto mea non nihil interesse, quamquam id 
 ipsum quid intersit non sane in tell ego/ / think I have some 
 interest in the matter ; and yet I dortt quite perceive what that 
 interest is, C. Fam. v. 21. 
 
 5) The Protasis of a Concessive Sentence may, without a Con- 
 junction, be contained 
 
 a) In the Pure Conjunctive : 
 
 'Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret/ Hor. 
 Epist. i. 10. 24. 
 
 b) In the Indicative, especially with quidem : 
 
 'Matura res erat, consules tergiversabantur tamen/ L. ii. 
 45. ' Maxima est ilia quidem consolatio, sed tamen 
 necessaria/ C. Fam. vi. 2. 
 
 c) In an Adjectival or Participial Enthesis : 
 
 ' Homo natura lenissimus stomachari tamen coepit/ C. 
 
 Ac. ii. 4. ' A nigro album etiam nullo monente oculus 
 
 distinguit/ Sen. Ep. 94. 
 (On the Concessive use of si see p. 474.) 
 
 Examples of Concessive Sentences. ( 225.) 
 
 {Etsi, etiamsi, tametsi.) 'Viri boni faciunt quod rectum, quod honestum est, etsi, 
 inullum consecuturum emolumentum vident,'C. Fin. ii. 14. 'Cum tuis dare possem 
 litteras, non praetermisi, etsi, quod scriberem, non habebam,' C. Att. xi. 19. 
 'Sunt qui, quod sentiunt, etsi optimum sit, tamen invidiae metu non audeant - 
 dicere,' C. Off. i. 25. 'Homo quod crebro videt non miratur, etiamsi cur fiat 
 nescit/C. Div. ii. 22. 'Cur nolint, etiamsi tacent, satis dicunt/C. in Caec. 6. 
 'Rectum est in contentionibus, etiamsi nobis indigna audiamus, tamen gravi- 
 tatem retinere, iracundiam repellere ' (Gnomic), C. Off. i. 38. 'Equidem, etiamsi 
 oppetenda mors esset, domi atque in patria ma 11 em quam in externis atque alienis 
 locis,' C. Fain. iv. 7. ' Mihi quidem, tametsi haudquaquam par gloria sequatur 
 scriptorem et actorem rerum, tamen inprimis arduum videtur res gestas scribere ' 
 '(Virt. Or. Obi. but some edd. have sequitur), Sail. Cat. 3. 
 
 (Quamquam, utut.') 'Quamquam sunt omnes virtutes aequales et pares; sed 
 tamen est species alia magisalia formosa et illustris,' C. d. Or. iii. 14. 'Utut erga me 
 meritus't, mihi cordi est tamen,' Plaut. Cist. i. i. in. ' Ut tu me carum esse dixisti 
 senatui, sic ego te, quamquam sisomni civitate taeterrimus, tamen dico esse odio 
 civitati,' C. /. Vat. 3. 'Vi quidem regere patriam, quamquam et possis et delicta 
 corrigas, tamen est importunum,' Sail. Izig: 3. 
 
 (Quamvis, licet.') a. 'Quod turpe est, id, quamvis occultetur, tamen 
 honestum fieri nullo modo potest,' C. Off. Hi. 19. 'Licet ipsa vitium sit ambitio, 
 frequenter tamen causa virtutum est,' Qu. i. 2. 22. 'Assentatio quamvis perniciosa 
 sit, nocere tamen nemini potest, nisi ei qui earn recipit atque ea delectatur/ C. Lael. 
 26. 'Licet irrideat, si quis vult ; plus apud me tamen ratio valebit, quam vulgi 
 opinio,' C. Par. i. 'Ilia, quamvis ridicula essent, sicut erant, mihi tamen risum 
 non moverunt,' C. Fam. vii. 32. ' Pompeius multa alia vidit, sed illud maxime, 
 quamvis atrociter ipse tulisset, vos tamen fortitcr iudicaturos,' C. p. Mil. 8. 
 'Licet tibi significarim, ut ad me venires, tamen intellego, te hie ne verbo qui- 
 dem levare me posse/ C. Att. iii. 12. 
 
 b. 'Hoc ille natus, quamvis patrem suum numquam viderat, tamen et natura 
 ipsa duce, quae plurimum valet, et assiduis domesticorum sermonibus in paternae vitae 
 
 I I 
 
482 Latin Syntax. 227. 
 
 6) The Protasis is sometimes a Relative Clause, which may be 
 Subjunctive or Indicative. 
 
 'Egomet, qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen, cum 
 Athenas venissem, compluris ibi dies sum commoratus,' C. d. 
 Or. i. 1 8. ' Oculorum, inquit Plato, est in nobis sensus acerrimus ; 
 qui bus sapientiam non cernimus/ C. Fin. ii. 16. 
 
 Compa- viii. Comparative Sentences. 
 
 Sen- I. These, which, as special instances of conceived Condition, 
 
 tences. contain in the Protasis 1 the meaning as if, require the Verb of the 
 
 Protasis to be Subjunctive. 
 
 They a're introduced by the Comparative Conjunctions quam, 
 
 ut, ac (see CORRELATION) going before (or supposing) si, and are 
 
 usually preceded by one of the Demonstratives tarn, ita, sic ; vel ; 
 
 perinde, proinde, aeque, similiter, &c. : is, idem, itidem. 
 
 Hence are obtained Conjunctional forms quasi (for quam si); 
 
 quasi si (rare) ; tamquam si ; tamquam (understanding si); 
 
 velutsi; velut (understanding si) ; also 
 
 perinde 
 proinde 
 aeque 
 similiter 
 is, idem, itidem 
 
 ita 
 
 ltd > 
 perinde I 
 ac si proinde > 
 
 quasi 
 
 sic 
 ita 
 
 ut si 
 
 non aliter quam si, and similar forms : sometimes proinde ac, 
 &c., without si; ac si, ut si, without Demonstrative. 
 
 similitudinem deductus est,' C. p. Rab. Post. 2. ' Miltiades inter suos potestate erat 
 regia, quamvis carebat nomine,' N. Milt. 2. 'Quamvis cecidere trecenti, non 
 omnis Fabios abstulit una dies,' Ov. Ep. Pont. i. 2. 
 
 (Ut, ne, cum.) 'Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas,' Ov. Ep. Pont. 
 iii. 4. 79. 'Ut rationem Plato nullam afferret, ipsa auctoritate me f rangeret,' C. 
 T. D. i. 21. 'Ne sit sane summum malum dolor: malum certe est,' C. T. D. ii. 5. 
 'Ne aequaveritis Hannibali Philippum, Pyrrho certe aequabitis,' L. xxi. 7. 
 'Cum omnibus virtutibus me affectum esse cupiam, tamen nihil est, quod malim, 
 quam me et gratum esse et videri,' C. p. Plane. 33. ' Hoc ipso tempore, cum omnia 
 gumnasia philosophi teneant, tamen eorum auditores discum audire quam philoso- 
 phum m a 1 u n t,' C. d. Or. ii. 5. 
 
 Examples of Comparative Sentences. ( 227.) 
 
 ' Stultissimum est, in luctu capillum sibi evellere, quasi calvitio maeror le vetur,' C. 
 T. D. iii. 26. ' Nisi forte idcirco numen esse non putant, quia non apparet, nee cernitur : 
 proinde quasi (just as if) nostram ipsam mentem videre possimus,'C. p. Mil. 31. 
 'Quasi sua res aut honor agatur, ita diligenter Naevii cupiditati morem gerunt,' C- 
 /. Quinc. 2. ' Educavit magna industria, quasi si esset ex se nata,' Plaut. Cas. 
 Prol. 45. 'Sic Plancius quaestor est factus quam si esset summo loco natus/ C. /. 
 Plane. 25. 'Sic cogitandum est, tamquam aliquis in pectus intimum inspicere 
 possit/Sen. Ep. 83. 'Antonius Plancum sic contemnit, tamquam si illi aqua et 
 igni interdictum sit,' C. Phil. vi. 4. "Tu, qui id quaeris, similiter facis ac si me 
 roges. cur te duobus contuear oculis, quum idem uno assequi possim,' C. N. D. iii. 5. 
 'Quae perdifficilia sunt, perinde habenda saepe sunt ac si effici non possint,'C. 
 
 1 The true Apodosis is a suppressed Conjunctive Verb. Thus, in the sentence Tarn 
 amo te quam si frater esses, the true Apodosis to si ess es is amarem understood : / love 
 you as (I should love you) if you were my brother. 
 
228-29. Consecution of Tenses. 483 
 
 II. Comparative Idioms. 
 
 1) Ceu is used for ceu si (as if) in poetry, and in the prose of 
 the Silver Age. ' Natura dedit cornua convoluta arietum generi, 
 ceu caestus daret/ PL N. H. xi. 37. Ceu si is used by Lucretius : 
 * Ceu lapidem si percutiat lapis/ vi. 160. 
 
 2) Quasi vero, quasi autem, like nisi vero, are used ironically 
 (as if forsooth} : 'Quasivero id cupiditate defendendae nobilitatis 
 fecerit/ C. Fam. iii. 7. ( Immo vero quasi tu dicas quasique 
 ego au tem id suspicer/ Plaut. Pseud, ii. 2. 40. 
 
 3) Quasi, tamquam, velut, ceu (like ut, sicut, si, nisi, etsi, 
 quamvis, quamquam), may be used as mere annexive or ad- 
 verbial Particles, not affecting Mood. 
 
 'Litteras Graecas avide arripui quasi diuturnam sitim explere 
 cupiens/ C. Cat. M. 8. 'Servis respublica et quasi (as it were) 
 civitas domus est/ PL Ep. viii. 16. ' Ex vitaita discedo tam- 
 quam (as though) ex hospitio, non tamquam ex domo/ C. 
 Cat. M. 23. 
 
 Sometimes quasi is used for fere or circiter (almost, about) : 
 ' Quasi ad duo milia/ about 2,000, L. xxvii. 12. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO COMPOUND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 I. Consecution of Tenses. Conse- 
 
 The Law that Primary Tenses are followed by Primary, Historic Tenses 
 by Historic (see 98), is illustrated by all the Examples in this 
 Chapter, especially by those of Petitio and Interr. Obliqua, Con- 
 secutive and Final Clauses. On the use of the Tense S 2 (-erim), 
 see 204. 
 
 i) The two following passages shew that a Present Past admits 
 either Consecution : 
 
 c Non ita generati a natura sumus ut ad ludum et iocum 
 facti esse videamur/ C. 0^1.29. * Homines sunt hac lege 
 generati, qui tuerentur ilium globum . . . quae terra dicitur/ 
 C. Rep. vi. 15. 
 
 It is, however, the prevailing idiom of Cicero, to construct the 
 Present Past with Historic consecution : 
 
 'Adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus pos- 
 set is/ I have brought a man before you, in dealing with whom you 
 may do your duty to foreign nations, Verr. i. 2. < Quemadmodum 
 officiaducerentur ab honestate satis explicatum arbitror/ 
 I consider that I have explained enough how duties are derived 
 from moral principle, Off. ii. I. 
 
 horror, ossa dedit terrae, proinde ac famul infimus esse t,' Lucr. iii. 1048. ' Eius 
 negotium sic velim cures ut si esset res mea,' C. Fam. ii. 14. ' Egnati absentis rem 
 ut tueare aeque a te peto ac si mea negotia essent,' C. Fam. xiii. 43. 'Qua 
 de re quoniam nihil ad me scribis, perinde habebo ac si scripsisses nihil esse,' 
 C. Att. iii. 13. 
 
 112 
 
4 4 Latin Syntax. 229. 
 
 2) The Historic Present generally takes Historic Consecution : 
 but sometimes Primary : 
 
 6 Sulla suos hortaturuti fortem animum gererent/ Sail. lug. 
 107. l Pompeius, ne duobus circumcluderetur exercitibus, ex 
 eo loco disc edit/ Caes. B. C. iii. 30. l Caesar cohortatur milites 
 ne labori succumbant/ Caes. B. G. vii. 86. 
 
 Transitions occur from the Historic to the Primary Consecution 
 and conversely : 
 
 'Monebant etiam ne orientem morem pellendi reges inultum 
 sineret: satis libertatem ipsam habere dulcedinis : nisi quanta vi 
 civitates earn expetant, tanta regna reges defendant, aequari 
 summa infimis : nihil excelsum, nihil quod supra ceteros e mine at 
 in civitatibus fore/ they warned him also not to leave unpunished 
 the nascent custom of expelling kings: freedom (they said) was 
 sweet enough in itself: if kings were not to defend their thrones as 
 vigorously as states seek freedom, the highest were levelled with the 
 lowest ; there would be in communities nothing lofty, nothing to 
 rise above the mass, L. ii. 9. ' Novum in republica introductum 
 exemplum queritur, ut tribunicia inter cessio armis notaretur 
 atque opprimeretur, quae superioribus annis armis esset resti- 
 tuta : Sullam, nudata omnibus rebus tribunicia potestate, tamen 
 intercessionem liberam reliquisse : Pompeium, qui amissa resti- 
 tuere videatur, ademisse/ he complains that a novel precedent 
 has been introduced in the commonwealth, of censuring and putting 
 down by arms the intercession of the tribunes, which in the pre- 
 ceding years had been restored by arms : Sulla (he said) though he 
 stripped the tribumcian power of everything else, had yet left the 
 veto free : while Pompeius, who seemed to be restoring what was 
 lost, had taken it away, Caes. B. C. i. 7. 
 
 3) When two Future actions are brought into connexion there 
 are three possible varieties : 
 
 a} When both actions commence and continue together, both 
 Verbs will be in the Simple Future : ' Profecto beati 
 erimus, cum corporibus relictis cupiditatum erimus 
 expertes/ C. T. D. The English idiom differs : ' We shall be 
 happy, when we are free from desires.' So when we say, 
 ' I will come if (when) I can/ the Latin construction is, 
 Veniam si (cum) potero. 
 
 b) When one action will commence after the other is com- 
 
 plete, one Verb will be in the Simple Future, the other in 
 the Future Perf. : ' De Carthagine vereri non ante desi- 
 nam quam illam excisam esse cognovero/ C. Cat. M. 6. 
 Cum ego veniam, tu discesseris. 
 
 c) When both actions will be complete together, both Verbs 
 
 are in the Future Perf. : 'Oui Antonium oppresserit, is 
 hoc bellum taeterrimum confecerit, whoever shall have 
 crushed Ant onius, will have concluded this most horrid 
 war, C. Fam. x. 19. 
 
 But if an action going on is the condition of a Future action, 
 the Protasis may be Present : 
 
 'Perficietur bellum, si urgemus obsessos/ the war will 
 be finished if we press the besieged, L. v. 4. 
 
229. Consecution of Tenses. 485 
 
 4) As the Simple Future has no Subjunctive of its own, the 
 Future Active form used in immediate consecution of Primary 
 Tenses is -urus sim : that used in immediate consecution of Historic 
 Tenses is -urus essem : 
 
 <Non debes dubitare quin aliqua republica sis futurus qui esse 
 debes/jj>0^ oitght not to doubt that, while there is any repitblic, you 
 will be what you ought to be} C. Fam. vi. i. < Antea dubitabam 
 venturaene essent legiones ; nunc mihi non est dubium quin 
 venturae non sint/ / was in doubt before whether the legions 
 would come ; now I have no doubt they will not, C. Fam. ii. 17. 
 
 But, in secondary subordination (futurity being expressed in the 
 first), S x or (in Historic Consecution) S 3 will represent the Future 
 Simple: S 2 or (in Historic Consecution) S. will represent the 
 Future Perfect : 
 
 Examples: 
 
 (1) Qui hoc dicet er rab it, subordinated, becomes : 
 Non dubito quin, qui hoc die at, erraturus sit. 
 Credo eum, qui hoc die at, erraturum esse. 
 
 Non dubitabam quin, qui hoc diceret, erraturus esset. 
 Credebam eum, qui hoc diceret, erraturum esse. 
 
 (2) Si ita fecero, me culpab is, becomes: 
 
 Non dubito quin, si ita fecerim, me culpaturus sis. 
 
 Non dubitabam quin, si ita fecissem, me culpaturus esses. 
 
 (3) Id faciemus, cum Lemnum veneris, becomes : 
 Respondent id se facturos, cum Lemnum venerit : 
 Respondebant id se facturos, cum Lemnum venisset. 
 
 5) If a Conditional Sentence in Sumptio Ficti, with Apodosis S s , 
 is subordinated by ut, ne, quin, &c., it may remain : 
 
 ' Honestum tale est ut, vel si ignorarent id homines, vel si 
 obmutuissent, sua tamen pulchritudine esset specieque laudabile/ 
 morality is such that, even if men were unacq^tainted with it or 
 had been silent, it would still deserve praise for its own native 
 loveliness, C. Fin. ii. 15. 'Id ille si repudiasset, dubitatis quin ei 
 vis esset ill at a?' had he rejected it, have you any doubt that 
 violence would have been offered to him ? C. p. Sest. 29. 
 
 6) When S 4 , in the Apodosis of a Conditional Sentence, is subor- 
 dinated so as to form a Consecutive Clause or Oblique Interroga- 
 tion, the Perfect Subjunctive of the Conjugation in -urus takes its 
 place : 
 
 ' Hannibal, nisi fugae speciem timuisset, Galliam repetivisset/ 
 becomes, < Adeo inopia coactus est Hannibal, ut, nisi fugae spe- 
 ciem timuisset, Galliam repetiturus fuerit/ Hannibal was so 
 pressed by scarcity, that, if he had not dreaded the semblance of 
 flight, he would have returned to Gaul, L. xxii. 32. So, * Die 
 agedum quidnam facturus fueris si eo tempore censor 
 fuisses/ /#.$/ tell us what you would have done, had you been censor 
 at that time,^L. ix. 33. ( Nee dubium erat quin, si tarn pauci 
 simul obire omnia possent, terga daturi hostes fuerint/ there was 
 no doubt that if so small a number could have done everything at 
 once, the enemy would have taken flight, L. iv. 38. 
 
486 Latin Syntax. 229. 
 
 7) ' Might have' is expressed in a Consecutive Clause by potu- 
 erim : ' Captivi tantum timorem fecerunt, ut, si admotus extemplo 
 exercitus foret, capi castra potuerint' (the camp might have been 
 taken), L. xliii. 4. 
 
 6 Ought or must have' is expressed by the Gerundive Perf. Sub- 
 junctive : 'Adeo aequa postulastis ut ultro vobis defer en da fue- 
 rint/ you have made such fair demands that they ought to have 
 been spontaneously offered you, L. iii. 53. ( In eos versa peditum 
 acies haud dubium fecit quin, nisi firmata extrema agminis mis- 
 sent, ingens in eo saltu accipienda clades fuerit' (great loss 
 must have been suffered), L. xxi. 34. 
 
 These Constructions arise out of the idiom by which potue- 
 runt is used for potuissent, and deferendum fuit for defer- 
 endum fuisset. See p. 336. 
 
 8) When an Infinitive (Present or Future), a Participle, Gerund, 
 or Supine, intervenes, consecution is still dependent on the principal 
 Verb: 
 
 (quid agas, egeris, acturus sis; 
 quid agatur, actum sit, agendum 
 sit. 
 
 (quid ageres, egisses, acturus esses; 
 Credebam me intellegere \ quid ageretur, actum esset, agendum 
 
 I esset. 
 
 ' Cato mirari se aiebat, quod non rideret haruspex, haru- 
 spicem cum vidisset/ C. Div. ii. 24. ' Cupido incessit animos 
 iuvenum sciscitandi ad quern eorum regnum Romanum esset 
 venturum/ L. i. 56. 
 
 But, if an Infinitive Perfect intervenes, the consecution is Pri- 
 mary or Historic according as the Infinitive is Present Past or 
 Simple Past: < Ita comparatam esse hominum naturam om- 
 nium, aliena ut melius vide ant etdiiudicent quam sua/ strange 
 that the characters of men are so constituted that they see and decide 
 the affairs of others better than their own, Ter. Haut. iii. i. 98. 
 'Liberatur Milo non eo consilio profectus esse, ut insidiaretur 
 in via Clodio/ Milo is acquitted of having gone with the design of 
 lying in ambush on the high road for Clodius, C. /. Mil. 18. 
 But to this Infinitive we must apply what was said above, i) : 
 * Satis videor docuisse, hominis natura quanto omnes anteiret 
 animantis/ / think I have sufficiently shewn how much the nature 
 of man surpasses all animals, C. N. D. ii. 51. 
 
 The same Rule applies to the Periphrastic Perfect Infin. : 
 'Quis est qui hoc non sentiat, quidvis prius futurum fuisse 
 quam ut hi fratres diversas sententias fortunasque sequerentur?' 
 who can help feeling that anything would sooner have happened, 
 than that these brothers shoidd follow diverging sentiments and 
 fortunes? C. 
 
 9) As the Infinitive has no Conditional force of its own, it 
 acquires this by means of the Future Participle. 
 
 ' I knew that he would come if he could/ Sciebam eum ven- 
 turum esse, si posset ; ' I know that he would have come if he 
 could/ Scio eum venturum fuisse si potuisset. 
 
230. Narratio Obliqua. 487 
 
 II. Narratio Obliqua. Nami- 
 
 When an author relates the speeches or writings of others not, Obliqua 
 as the speakers or writers delivered them, in the First Person, but 
 in a series of Oblique constructions, dependent on his own state- 
 ment that they so spoke or wrote, such use of Oblique Oration is 
 called Narratio Obliqua. 
 
 Caesar almost always reports speeches obliquely, Sallust di- 
 rectly; Livy and Tacitus in both ways, often gliding from the 
 indirect into the direct form. Enunciations are interspersed with 
 Petitions and Interrogations ; and in general, when transition 
 takes place from one form of O ratio Obliqua to another, a new 
 Verb is not introduced, the original Verb (by Zeugma) supplying 
 its meaning. 
 
 i) The Clauses are sometimes carried on in the Infin. Clause : 
 
 (1) After a Relative : ( Nam illorum urbem ut propugnaculum 
 
 oppositam esse barbaris, apud quam ( = nam apud 
 earn) iam bis class is regias fecisse naufragium/ Nep. 
 Th. 7. 
 
 (2) After various Conjunctions (quia, quamquam, cum, nisi 
 
 forte, &c.) : ' Ideo se moenibus inclusos tenere Cam- 
 panos, quia si qui evasissent aliqua, velut feras bestias 
 per agros vagari, et laniare et trucidare quodcumque 
 obviam detur/ they kept the Campanians shut lip within 
 their walls on this account, that, if any of them got out 
 anywhere, they wandered over the country like wild beasts ', 
 
 Examples of Narratio Obliqua. ( 230.) 
 
 'Orat Tarquinius Veientis, ne se extorrem egentem ex tanto modo regno cum 
 liberis adolescentibus ante oculos suos perire sinerent: alios peregre in regnum 
 Romam accitos; se regem, augentem bello Romanum imperium, a proximis scelerata 
 conjuratione pulsum : . . . patriam se regnumque suum repetere, et persequi in- 
 gratos civis velle: ferrent opem, adiuvarent; suas quoque veteris iniurias ultum 
 irent, toties caesas legiones, agrum ademptum,' Tarquinius entreats the people of Veii 
 not to allow him with his grown-up children to die before their eyes, expelled in desti- 
 tute condition from a royal, station lately so eminent : (he says) that others had been 
 invited to Rome from abroad to reign : that he, when king, and aggrandising the 
 Roman empire in war, had been driven otit by a wicked conspiracy of his nearest kin ; 
 that he wished to reclaim his country and kingdom, and to take vengeance on his un- 
 grateful countrymen : (he entreats them) to lend their aid, to assist him : to set abotit 
 avenging their own ancient wrongs, thefrequent slaughter of their legions, the curtail- 
 ment of their territory, L. ii. 6. 
 
 ' Docebat Caesar, quam veteres quamque iustae causae necessitudinis ipsis cum 
 Aeduis intercederent ; quae senatus consulta, quotiens, quamque honorifica 
 in cos factaessent; ut omni tempore totius Galliae principatum Aedui tenuissent, 
 prius etiam quam nostram amicitiam appetissent; populi Romani hanc esse 
 consuetudinem, ut socios atque amicos non modo sui nihil deperdere, sed gratia, digni- 
 tate, honore auctiores velit esse: quod vero ad amicitiam populi Romani attulissent, 
 id iis eripi quis pati posset?' Caesar shewed, what ancient and just grounds of 
 friendship existed between themselves (the Romans) and the Aedui; what decrees of the 
 senate had been made in their favotir, hovu often, and in what honourable terms ; how 
 the Aedui from time immemorial had held the first rank in Gaul, even before they had 
 courted our friendship : (adding) that the custom of the Roman people was to resolve 
 that its allies and friends should not only lose nothing of their own, but even be in- 
 creased in influence, dignity, and honour '. but (as to) what they had possessed at the 
 time of contracting friendship with the Roman people, who cortld endure that this 
 shorild be wrested from them ? Caes. B. G. i. 43. 
 
488 
 
 Latin Syntax. 
 
 230. 
 
 and tore and slaughtered whatever came in their way, L. 
 xxvi. 27. See ii. 13, xxxiii. 45. 
 
 2) Rhetorical questions belong to the primary clauses of Oratio 
 Obliqua, and take the Infinitive : 
 
 ' Plebs fremit : Quid se vivere, quid in parte civium censeri, 
 si, quod duorum hominum virtute partum sit, id obtinere universi 
 non possint ?' the plebeians murmured: Why were they living, why 
 reckoned one portion of the citizens, if, what the valour of two per- 
 sons had won, their entire body were unable to maintain ? L. vii. 1 8. 
 
 But Caesar generally throws such questions into the Con- 
 junctive. 
 
 3) Questions, to which an answer is expected, are regularly put 
 in the Conjunctive : 
 
 ' Docet Caesar, latum ab decem tribunis, ut sui ratio absentis 
 haberetur, ipso consule Pompeio; qui si improbasset, cur ferri 
 passus esset? sin probasset, cur se uti populi beneficio prohi- 
 bu i sset ?' Caesar informed them, that the ten tribunes had brought 
 in a bill, allowing him to rank as a candidate, though absent, in the 
 very consiilship of Pompeius ; if Pompeius disapproved, why had 
 he allowed the bill to be brought in ? if he approved, why had he 
 prevented him from taking advantage of the people's boon ? Caes. 
 . C. i. 32. 
 
 4) a. A Potential Sentence may become Oblique by means of 
 
 the Verb possum ; an Optative Sentence by means of 
 volo. 
 
 Examples of the Conversion of Oratio Recta into Oratio Obliqua. 
 
 A. ENUNTIATIO. 
 
 i. Recta. 
 
 2. Obliqua post Praesens. 
 
 3. Obliqua post Praeteritum. 
 
 
 Ait 
 
 Dixit 
 
 i. Eo. 2. Ibo. 3. Ivi. 
 
 se ire : iturum esse : isse. 
 
 se ire : iturum esse : isse. 
 
 4. Eo quia (cum, quo, si) 
 
 se (quia, &c.)ille iubeat, ire. 
 
 se(quia, &c.)illeiuberet, ire. 
 
 iubes. 
 
 
 
 5. Ibo cum (quo, si) ius- 
 
 se (cum, &c.) ille iusserit, 
 
 se (cum, &c.) ille iussisset, 
 
 seris. 
 
 iturum. 
 
 iturum. 
 
 6. Ivi quo (cum, quia) ius- 
 
 se (quo, &c.) ille iusserit, 
 
 se (quo, &c.) ille iussisset, 
 
 sisti. 
 
 isse. 
 
 isse. 
 
 7. Faciam quod voles. 
 8. Feci quod voluisti. 
 
 se, quod ille velit, facturum. 
 se, quod ille voluerit, fecisse. 
 
 se, quod ille vellet, facturum. 
 se,quod ille voluisset,fecisse. 
 
 Q. Gratum est mihi quod 
 
 gratum esse sibi quod ille 
 
 gratum esse sibi quod ille 
 
 quievisti. 
 
 quieverit. 
 
 quievisset. 
 
 10. Dummoraris, urbscapta 
 
 urbem, dum ille moratur, 
 
 urbem, dum ille moratur, 
 
 est. 
 
 esse captam. 
 
 captam fuisse. 
 
 ii. Non recuso quominus 
 
 se, quominus (quin) ille eat, 
 
 se, quominus (quin) ille iret, 
 
 (quin) eas. 
 
 non recusare. 
 
 non recusare. 
 
 12. Edo ut vivam. 
 
 se, ut vivat, edere. 
 
 se, ut viveret, edere. 
 
 13. Expedit civitati ut re- 
 
 expedire civitati ut ipse 
 
 expedire civitati ut ipse 
 
 deam. 
 
 redeat. 
 
 rediret. 
 
 14. Quaeras quid agam. 
 
 quaerere ilium posse quid 
 
 quaerere ilium posse quid 
 
 
 ipse agat. 
 
 ipse ageret. 
 
 15. Moriar ni gaudeo. 
 16. Si quid mihi, Caesar, a 
 
 velle se mori ni gaudeat. 
 si quid ipsi a Caesare opus 
 
 velle se mori ni gauderet. 
 si quid ipsi a Caesare opus 
 
 te opus esset, ipse ad 
 
 sit, sese ad eum venturum 
 
 esset, sese ad eum ventu- 
 
 te venirem(venissem): 
 
 esse : si quid ille se velit, 
 
 rum fuisse : si quid ille se 
 
 si quid tu me vis, ad 
 
 ilium ad se venire oportere. \ vellet, ilium ad se venire 
 
 me veni. 
 
 oportere. 
 
231. 
 
 Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses. 
 
 489 
 
 b. An Imperative Sentence may become Petitio Obliqua ; or 
 it may be expressed by debeo, oportet, c. ; or Gerun- 
 dive Construction. 
 
 III. The Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses. 
 
 i. Se (Personal), suus (Possessive), are Reflexive Pronouns of 
 the Third Person ; implying reference to a Subject in that Person ; 
 which, in general, is the Subject of the Sentence. To supply their 
 defect, and for distinction or emphasis, ipse is used. 
 
 Se, suus, are therefore Pronouns of Subjective Reference al- 
 ways ; ipse, so far as it is used for them, or with them. 
 
 The Demonstratives is, ille, iste, hie, &c., are Pronouns of 
 Objective Reference. See 65. 
 
 The use of these Pronouns in Clauses is a difficult subject, 
 respecting which certain general directions may be given. 
 
 A) First : Pronominal reference must be interpreted according 
 to the logic of the passage. 
 
 This logical interpretation (the Reason of the thing) must be 
 applied especially when in the same Clause, or in suc- 
 ceeding Clauses, Subjective reference is made by the 
 Reflexive Pronouns to different Subjects. 
 
 Thus Caes. B. G. vii. 4, Veneti legationem ad P. Crassum 
 mittunt : si velit suos recipere, obsides sibi remittat. 
 Here ' the Reason of the thing' shews that suos must be 
 
 Examples of the Conversion of Oratio Recta into Oratio Obliqua. cont. 
 
 Se, 
 
 suus. 
 
 B. PETITIO. 
 
 i. Recta. 
 
 2. Obliqua post Praesens. 
 
 3. Obliqua post Praeteritum. 
 
 i. Abi quo vis. 
 2. I quo condixi. 
 3. Utere vita dum potes. 
 4. Ite, create consules ex 
 plebe ; trans ferte aus- 
 picia quo nefas est. 
 
 Imp era t (orat, hortatur) 
 
 abeat quo velit. 
 eat ille quo ipse condixerit. 
 vita, dum possit, utatur. 
 eant, creent consules ex 
 plebe ; transferant auspi- 
 cia quo nefas sit. 
 
 Imperabat (orabat, 
 hortabatur) 
 
 abiret quo vellet 
 iret ille quo ipse condixisset. 
 vita, dum posset, uteretur. 
 irent, crearent consules ex 
 plebe : transferrent auspi- 
 cia quo nefas esset. 
 
 C. INTERROGATIO. 
 
 i. Recta. 
 
 2. Obliqua post Praesens. 
 
 3. Obliqua post Praeteritum. 
 
 
 Quaerit 
 
 Quaerebat 
 
 i. Quid tibi vis ? 
 
 quid sibi velit ille? (velle 
 
 quid sibi vellet ille? velle 
 
 
 ilium?) 
 
 ilium ? 
 
 2. Num bellum proderit ? 
 
 num bellum profuturum sit 
 
 num bellum profuturum 
 
 
 (esse)? 
 
 esset (esse) ? 
 
 3. Cur facitis quod vetitum 
 
 cur, quod vetitum sit, faci- 
 
 cur, quod vetitum esset, 
 
 est? 
 
 ant? 
 
 facerent ? 
 
 4. Cur fecistis quod vetitum 
 
 cur, quod vetitum sit, fece- 
 
 cur, quod vetitum esset, 
 
 est ? 
 
 rint? 
 
 fecissent ? 
 
 5. Quid deinde restat, si 
 
 y quid deinde restet, si neque 
 
 quid deinde restaret, si ne- 
 
 neque ex equis pepuli- 
 
 ex equis pepulerint hos- 
 
 que ex equis pepulissent 
 
 mus hostem ; neque 
 
 tem, neque pedites quic- 
 
 hostem, neque pedites 
 
 pedites quicquam mo- 
 
 quam momenti faciant ? 
 
 quicquam momenti face- 
 
 menti facimus? Quam 
 
 quam tertiam expectent 
 
 rent? quam tertiam ex- 
 
 tertiam expectamus 
 
 pugnam ? 
 
 pectarent pugnam ? 
 
 pugnam? 
 
 
 
49 Latin Syntax. 232. 
 
 referred to Crassus (Subject of velit), sibi to Veneti 
 (the Principal Subject). 
 
 JB) Secondly : in some Clauses there is an intimate connexion 
 between the use of the Reflexive Pronouns and that of the 
 Subjunctive Mood; both being determined by the same 
 law of Subjective relation. 
 
 Thus, if the following Clauses be compared : 
 
 (1) Marcus salvus rediit, quod ei peperceram: 
 
 (2) Marcus gratias mihi egit quod sibi pepercissem: 
 
 In (i), the Quod-clause is alleged by the speaker as the 
 cause of an act on the part of Marcus objectively regarded 
 (salvus rediit), for which reason the Demonstrative ei and 
 Indicative peperceram are used : 
 
 In (2), the Quod-clause is cited as the cause subjectively felt 
 and avowed by Marcus for an act of his own (gratias 
 egit); therefore the Reflexive sibi and the Subjunctive 
 pepercissem are used. 
 
 C) Thirdly : it often happens (principally in Adverbial and 
 Adjectival Clauses, or in Participial Entheses, which stand 
 for them) that a Subjective Pronoun is used when the 
 writer wishes to refer the Clause to the mind of the Sub- 
 ject: though, if the Clause were only part of his own 
 statement, he might have used an Objective Pronoun. 
 * Africanus, qui suo cognomine declarat, tertiam partem orbis 
 terrarum se subegisse, tamen, si sua res ageretur, testi- 
 monium non diceret/ C. p. S. Rose. 36. Here Cicero 
 might have written eius for sua, if he had not wished to 
 continue the Subjective construction, and to place the con- 
 dition in the mind of Africanus (si mea . . . non dicerem). 
 
 232 ii. The use of Reflexive Pronouns in the various Clauses will 
 now be noticed. 
 
 A} I. In a Substantival Clause standing as Object, while the 
 Principal Subject is in the 3rd Person, Pronominal reference 
 to that Subject will be Subjective, unless the Clause has 
 a Subject of its own, requiring Subjective reference to itself, 
 "ait sibi et suis commodis serviendum esse (ser- 
 
 vin). 
 
 putat nos sibi et suis commodis obesse. 
 queritur quod vos sibi et suis commodis obsis- 
 
 tatis. 
 vult utseetsua commoda tueamur. 
 
 Marcus * 
 
 orabat seetsuos liberos defenderem. 
 
 timet ne ipse et liberi sui neglegantur. 
 
 non .dubitat quin ipse et sua commoda sper- 
 
 nantur. 
 multa obstare putat quominus sibi suisque con- 
 
 sulatur. 
 .videt quanta sibi suisque mala impendeant. 
 
 Such examples are frequent, and free from difficulty. As 
 the Clauses have either no new Subject, or a new Subject 
 
, 233. Reflexive Pronouns in Clattses. 491 
 
 not of the Third Person, or a new Subject not admitting 
 Subjective Pronominal reference, there is nothing to dis- 
 turb the reference of the Reflexive Pronouns to the Prin- 
 cipal Subject Marcus. 
 
 2. But, when a Substantival Clause receives a new Subject 
 capable of Subjective Pronominal reference, many diffi- 
 culties arise, the solution of which is generally derived from 
 ' the Reason of the thing/ sometimes from the character of 
 the principal Verb, sometimes from that of the dependent 
 Verb. 
 
 /z. The general Rule in such case is, that the Reflexive Pro- 
 nouns are referred to the Subject, if capable, of the Clause 
 in which they stand; but if that Subject is not capable, 
 then to the Principal (or Prior) Subject. 
 
 The capability of the Clausular Subject is tested by seeing if 
 the Clause, converted into Oratio Recta, gives a good sense. 
 
 * Caesar reperit Dumnorigem his rebus suam rem fami- 
 liarem auxisse/ B. G. i. 18. Here the converted Clause 
 would be: 'Dumnorix his rebus suam rem familiarem 
 auxit/ which gives a good sense, and so determines the 
 reference of suam to Dumnorigem ; and this ' the Reason, 
 of the thing ' demands. 
 
 Cbs. Sometimes the reference to the Clausular Subject is 
 determined by quisque joined to the Reflexive : ' Natura 
 quidquid genuit in suo quodque genere perfectum esse 
 voluit/ C. T. D. v. 13. 
 
 Sometimes by other Indefinite Pronouns : ' Nee quemquam 
 nisi sua voce, utcumque qu is posset, ac sine patrono 
 rationem vitae passus est reddere/ Suet. Claud. 16. 
 
 b. On the other hand, conversion of the Clause in such ex- 
 amples as the following shews that the Reflexive Pro- 
 nouns cannot reasonably be referred to the Subject of the 
 Clause, but must go back to the Principal (or Prior) Subject. 
 'Datames audit Pisidas quasdam copias adversus se 
 parare/ Nep. Dot. 18. 'Ariovistus respondit, omnis 
 Galliae civitates contra se castra habuisse/ Caes. B. G. 
 i. 44. ' C a e s a r . . . docebat, ilium (Ariovistum) . . . 
 beneficio ac liberalitate sua ac senatus ea praemia con- 
 secutum/ Caes. B. G. i. 43. See i. 33. 
 
 B) If the Clause is an Oblique Petition, with a Subject of 233 
 its own allowing Subjective Pronominal reference, the 
 meaning of the Principal Verb will cause a difference. If 
 that Verb is one of prayer, command, or endeavour, the 
 Subjective reference in the Clause will be to the Principal 
 Subject ; if it is one of exhortation, advice, or persuasion, 
 such reference will be to the Subject of the Clause. 
 
 ivTo,. J orat (rogat, &c.) Aulum \ (ut) sibi consulat (i.e. 
 Marcus | Auk) imperat ) Marco), 
 
 but 
 
 A , j hortatur (admonet) Aulum ) (ut) sibi consulat (i.e. 
 
 iviarcus ! Au i suadet ( persuac iet) / Aujo). 
 
49 2 Latin Syntax. 234.. 
 
 This distinction lies in 'the Reason of the thing ;' that is, in 
 the assumption that we pray or command another for our 
 own benefit, that we exhort or advise him for his own. 
 
 (1) Iste petit a rege et eum pluribus verbis rogat ut id ad 
 
 se mittat/ C. Verr. iv. 28. < Arverni Vercingetorigem 
 obsecrant ut suis fortunis consulat, neu se ab hostibus 
 diripi patiatur, praesertim cum videat omne ad se 
 bellum translatum/ Caes. B. G. vii. 8. 
 
 (2) Caesar Nervioshortaturne suiin perpetuum liberandi 
 
 occasionem dimittant/ Caes. B. G.v. 38. ' Rex supplicem 
 
 non prodidit, monuitque ut consuleret sibi/ Nep. Th. 8. 
 
 'Helvetii persuadent Rauracis . . . uti, eodem usi 
 
 consilio, oppidis suis vicisque relictis, una cum iis 
 
 (Helvetiis) proficiscantur/ Caes. B. G. i. 5. 
 (Persuadeo is found with Subjective reference in the Clause 
 
 to the Principal Subject): ' Multa pollicendo persuadet 
 
 Metellus (legatis) uti lugurtham maxime vivum, sin id 
 
 parum procedat, necatum sibi traderent/ Sail. lug. 46. 
 Obs. A Case dependent on a Passive Verb or on sum is 
 
 sometimes referred to as a Principal Subject, if it appears 
 
 such when converted into Active form. 
 'A Caesare invitor ( = Caesar me invitat) sibi ut sim 
 
 legatus/ Caesar invites me to be his lieutenant ', C. Att. 
 
 ii. 18. * lam inde ab initio Faustulo spes fuerat ( = ' 
 
 Faustulus speraverat) regiam stirpem apud se educari, 
 
 L. i. 5. 
 But if it cannot be so converted, the reference will be 
 
 Objective : 
 * L. Ouinctio Cincinnato in agro aranti nuntiatum est 
 
 eum dictatorem esse factum/ C. Cat. M. 16. 
 In the following places it might seem that the reference 
 
 ought to be Subjective : 
 'A Cur ion e mihi nuntiatum est eum ad me venire/ C. 
 
 Att. x. 4. * Nuntiatum est nobis a M. Varrone venisse 
 
 eum Roma pridie vesperi/ C. Ac. i. i. 
 But the Prep, a means from, not by : a Curione (M. Varrone) 
 
 missi nuntiarunt; the true Subjects, therefore, are the 
 
 messengers. 
 
 C) Pronominal Reference in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses : 
 i. If the Clause is Final, the Pronominal reference to the 
 
 purposing Subject will usually be Subjective : 
 'Cuncti ad me saepe venerunt, ut suarum fortunarum. 
 
 omnium causam defensionemque susciperem/ C. in Caec. 
 
 i. < (Tiridates) mittebat oratores qui suo Parthorumque 
 
 nomine expostularent, cur depelleretur/ Tac. Ann. xiii. 37^ 
 
 Yet we find : 
 
 'Pompeius . . . idoneum locum nactus ibi copias collo- 
 cavit, suosque omnis in castris continuit, ignisque fieri 
 prohibuit, quo occultior esset eius adventus/ Caes. B. C. 
 iii. 30. 'Verres Milesios navem poposcit, quae eum 
 praesidii causa Myndum prosequeretur/ C. Verr. i. 34* 
 
I 234. Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses. 493 
 
 2. In Ut-clauses of a Consecutive nature Pronominal reference 
 
 to a Principal Subject will usually be Objective, because 
 (result not purpose being implied) there is so far no sub- 
 jectivity in the Clause. 
 
 *Ligariusin provincia pacatisshna ita se gessit ut ei pacem 
 esse expediret/ C. p. Lig. 2. < Habet hoc virtus ut 
 viros fortis species eius et pulchritudo etiam in hoste 
 posita delectet/ C. in Pis. 32. 
 
 Yet if in a result a purpose is implied, the Subjective Pro- 
 noun may be used : 
 
 *(Agesilaus) locum delegit talem ut non multum obesse 
 multitudo hostium suae paucitati posset/ N. Ag. 7. 
 
 In the following, the Reflexive is necessary for reference to 
 the Subject of its Clause : 
 
 *Is enim sic se gerit ut sibi iam decemvir designatus esse 
 videatur/ C. d. L. Agr. ii. 19. ' Caput est Heraclides 
 ille Temnites, homo ineptus et loquax, sed, ut sibi 
 videtur, ita doctus ut/ &c., C. p. Place. 18. 
 
 In the sentence, 'Turn mittit rex ad istum, Si sibi 
 videatur, ut reddat/ C. Verr. iv. 29, the Reflexive seems 
 strange, when we compare : ' Cum ei scriptam orationem 
 orator Lysias attulisset, quam, si ei videretur, edisceret/ 
 C. d. Or. i. 54. ' Reliquum a suis Tyndaridis peteret, si 
 ei videretur/ C. d. Or. ii. 86. But the direct message 
 of the king, 'si tibi videtur, redde/ is rendered in oblique 
 form. 
 
 Other special causes may make the reference in such 
 Clauses Subjective: 'Ambiorix ad hunc modum locutus 
 est : Sese, &c. . . . suaque esse eiusmodi imperia ut non 
 minus haberet iuris in se multitudo quam ipse in multi- 
 tudinem/ Caes. B. G. v. 27. The use of se instead of 
 eum is determined by sese preceding and by the anti- 
 thesis se . . . ipse. 
 
 3. Suboblique Quod-clauses often require Subjective Pro- 
 
 nominal reference to the Principal Subject : 
 1 Scipionem Hannibal eo ipso quod adversus se dux 
 potissimum lectus esset, praestantem virum credebat/ L. 
 xxi. 39. 'Divitiacus ait, scire se ilia esse vera, nee 
 quern quam ex eo plus quam se doloris cap ere, prop- 
 terea quod per se crevisset/ Caes. B. G. i. 20. 
 
 4- Pronominal reference in Conditional Clauses often follows 
 the same rule: l Domino navis qui sit (Themistocles) 
 aperit, multa pollicens, si se conservasset/ Nep. Th. 8. 
 'Sed ausus est Furfanio dicere, si sibi pecuniam, quan- 
 tam poposcerat, non dedisset, mortuum se in domum eius 
 illaturum/ C.p. Mil. 27. 
 
 5. The Subjective reference to the Principal Subject is often 
 kept in a Relative Clause, if ' the Reason of the thing ' 
 shews that the Reflexive cannot be referred to the Relative 
 itself: 'Epaminondas ei, qui sibi ex lege praetor suc- 
 cesserat, exercitum non tradidit/ C. Inv. i. 33. 'Dexio 
 
494 Latin Syntax. 235-36, 
 
 hie non quae privatim sibi eripuisti, sed unicum abs te 
 filium flagitat/ C. Verr. v. 49. 'Epaminondas . . . eos 
 coegit superare Lacedaemonios, quos ante se imperatorem 
 nemo Boeotorum ausus fuit aspicere/ Nep. Ep. 8. 
 
 Yet in such places the Objective Pronoun would not have 
 been wrong ; and in the last cited example there seems 
 little justification for se instead of eum. 
 
 When Caesar writes: 'Ambiorix in Aduatucos, qui erant 
 eius regno finitimi, proficiscitur/ B. G. v. 38, he uses the 
 Objective Pronoun because the Clause is a statement of 
 his own, not referred to the mind of Ambiorix. 
 
 Obs. But, if the Relative Clause is Suboblique, it will often 
 happen that Subjective reference is made to the Relative itself or 
 its immediate Antecedent : ' Commemorant . . . errare eos, si quic- 
 quam ab his praesidii sperent, qui suis rebus diffidant/ Caes. B. 
 G. v. 41. 
 
 2 35 iii. When Oratio Obliqua intervenes between the Principal Sub- 
 ject and Pronominal reference to it in a Clause, Latin authors,, 
 having evidently much freedom of choice, often prefer the Objec- 
 tive reference, as less liable to confusion. 
 
 'Quod cum interrogatus esset Socrates, re sp on dit, sese me- 
 ruisse ut amplissimis honoribus et praemiis decoraretur, et ei 
 victus quotidianus in Prytanea publice praeberetur/ C. d. Or. i. 
 54. ' Tarquinius e suis unum sciscitatum Romam ad patrem misit 
 quidnam se facere vellet, quandoquidem, ut omnia unus Gabiis 
 posset, ei di dedissent,' L. 54. 
 
 iv. When in the Clauses of a Compound Sentence Subjective 
 reference is made to more than one Subject, ' the Reason of the 
 thing ' must determine to what Subjects the Pronouns are referred 
 severally. 
 
 ' Scythae petebant ab Alexandro utregis sui (i.e. Scytharum) 
 filiam matrimonio sibi (i.e. Alexandro) iungeret ; si dedignaretur 
 affinitatem, principes Macedonum cum primoribus suae gentis (i.e. 
 Scytharum) conubio coire pateretur,' Curt. viii. I. ' Ariovistus re- 
 spondit, Neminem secum (i.e. cum Ariovisto) sine sua (i.e. con- 
 tendentis) pernicie contendisse/ Caes. B. G. i. 36. l Tarquinius 
 orabat Tarquiniensis ne se (i.e. Tarquinium) . . . ante oculos 
 
 suos (i.e. Tarquiniensium) perire sinerent,' L. ii. 6. 
 236 
 
 Ipse. v. The Definitive Pronoun ipse, which may qualify Nouns or 
 Pronouns of any Person, assists in two ways the use of the Re- 
 flexive Pronouns in Clauses. 
 
 (i) By qualifying the Subject of a Clause in which a Reflexive 
 Pronoun occurs, so as to shew the reference of that Pronoun to the 
 Subject of the Clause rather than to the Principal Subject. 
 
 ' Natura movet infantem ut se ipse diligat,' nature prompts 
 an infant to love itself, C. Fin. ii. n. Without ipse the Pronoun 
 se might have been referred to natura. ( Clearchus ait ... proinde 
 consulant sibi ipsi ; iubeant abire se/ lust. xvi. 4 (sibi is referred 
 byipsi to the Subject of consulant: se refers to the Principal 
 Subject Clearchus). ' Neque prius vim adhibendam putaverunt 
 (Ephori) quam se ipse (Pausanias) indicasset,' Nep. Paus. 4. 
 
237- Participial Construction. 495 
 
 'Flaccus milites portis murisque sibimet ipsos tecta milita- 
 riter coegerat aedificare/ L. xxvii. 3. 
 
 (2) By standing for the Reflexive se, when antithetic to some 
 other word; whether to a Substantive, to suus, or another Pro- 
 noun. In such use ipse refers to the Principal Subject, and the 
 word to which it is antithetic is either the Subject of the Clause, or 
 referred to the Subject of the Clause. 
 
 ' Pertimuerunt ne ab ipsis descisceret et cum suis in gratiam 
 rediret,' Nep. Ale. 75. ' Caesar quaesivit, cur de sua (i.e. militum 
 desperantium) virtute aut de ipsius (i.e. Caesaris) diligentia des- 
 perarent,' Caes. B. G. i. 40. 
 
 If no such antithesis exists, ipse refers to the next preceding 
 Noun: 
 
 'Habemus a Caesar e, sicut ipsius dignitas . . . postulabat, 
 sententiam,' C. Cat. iv. 5. 
 
 Obs. The cases of ipse, when they appositively strengthen 
 and define se, semet, &c., suus, suusmet, &c., assist Pronominal 
 reference so far only as, by distinguishing Gender and Number, 
 they often make the reference more clear and obvious. 
 
 ' (Rex meminerat hos fratres) nuper praeter consuetudinem . . . 
 admovisse semetipsos lateri suo . . . seque mirantem quodnon 
 vice sua tali fungerentur officio ... ad armigeros recessisse . . . 
 lam temeritatem verborum, quae in semetipsum iacularentur, 
 nihil aliud esse quam scelesti animi indicem ac testem/ Curt, 
 vii. 2. 
 
 Note i. Inter ipsos, in Cicero, is always preceded by a Case 
 (Genitive or rarely Dative) dependent on some Noun which admits 
 the notion of reciprocity: * Id iam patebit, si hominum inter 
 ipsos societatem coniunctionemqueperspexeris,' C.Z^.i. 10. 
 ' Latissime patens hominibus inter ipsos, omnibus inter omnis, 
 societas haec est/ C. Off. i. 16. 
 
 In other writers inter ipsos appears without the preceding 
 Case: ' Sed gloriae maximum certamen inter ipsos erat/ Sail. 
 Cat. 7. 'Haec dum in India geruntur, Graeci milites, orta inter 
 ipsos seditione, defecerant/ Curt. ix. 51. 
 
 Note 2. Inter se must be connected either with a Plural Ad- 
 jective or with a Verb, or Participle, implying likeness or unlike- 
 ness, agreement or disagreement, &c., as, ' Omnes inter se dissi- 
 miles fuerunt/ C. d. Or. iii. 7. 
 
 237 
 
 IV. Participial Construction. Parti- 
 
 ciples. 
 
 A PARTICIPLE is the Attribute of one that acts, or has acted, or 
 will act ; of one that is being acted on, or has been acted on, or 
 will be acted on ; to which must be added, of one that is meet for 
 acting on. As Adjective, it agrees attributively with Nouns and 
 Pronouns : as a Verb-form, it takes the same Case-constructions 
 as its Verb. 
 
 A] i. The want of a Perf. Participle Act. in Active Verbs is sup- 
 plied in Latin either by the Finite Verb Active, with Relative or 
 Particle, or by an Abl. Absolute Passive : 
 
 4 Tarquinium regem qui non tulerim, Sicinium feram?' 
 having refused to endure Tarquin as king, shall I endure Sici- 
 
496 Latin Syntax. 238. 
 
 niusf L. ii. 34. 'Alexander, cum interemisset Clitum, vix a 
 se manus abstinuit/ Alexander, having slain Clitus, hardly re~ 
 Jrained from suicide, C. T. D. iv. 37. ' Pompeius. captis Hiero- 
 solymis, victor ex illo fano nihil attigit/ Pompeius, having taken 
 Jerusalem, in the very moment of victory, meddled 'with nothing 
 belonging to that temple, C. p. Place. 28. 
 
 2. The want of- a Pres. Participle Passive is supplied by the 
 Finite Passive Verb with Relative or Particle : 
 
 ( Pueri, qui (cum, dum) docentur, discunt = Greek TrctT^e 
 ^t^acrKOfJLEvoL fjLavdavovffi, children (by] being taught learn. 
 
 Rarely the Perfect Participle Passive takes a Present Passive 
 sense: < Sperata victoria' ( = victoria quae speratur), L. xxx. 30. 
 
 3. A Fut. Participle Passive is not often used even in Greek. 
 In Latin the Finite Verb with Relative stands for it : ' Grata 
 superveniet quae non sperabitur hora/ Hor. Epist. i. 4. 14. 
 
 4. Some Participles are used as mere Adjectives. Such are, 
 neglegens, patiens, sapiens, doctus, horrendus, tremendus, vene- 
 randus, &c. 
 
 Many appear as Substantives : amans, adulescens, sponsus ; 
 nupta, sponsa ; coeptum, dictum, factum, praeceptum, c. 
 
 Neuters such as the last named are sometimes modified by 
 Adverbs: 'Verum est fortis et sapientis viros non tarn praemia 
 sequi solere recte factorum quam ipsa recte fact a/ C. p. Mil. 35. 
 
 The Nouns, man, men, things, are frequently understood with 
 Participles: 'Grande locuturi nebulas Helicone legunto,' they 
 that would utter a sublime strain must cull mists on Helicon, Pers. 
 v. 7. * Male part a male dilabuntur,' ill gotten, ill go, C. Phil. ii. 
 27. 'Beatos puto, quibus deorum munere datum est aut facere 
 scribenda, aut scribere loquenda,' Plin. Ep. vi. 16. 
 
 238 E) A Participle may often be considered as an Enthesis or 
 Abbreviated Clause. Such use is of two kinds : 
 
 (1) Attributive, when the Subject of the Clause to be abbrevi- 
 
 ated is contained (in any Case, and expressed or under- 
 stood) in the Principal Sentence, and the Participle agrees 
 with that word in Gender, Number, and Case : 
 'Alexander moriens ( = cum moreretur) anulum suum 
 dederat Perdiccae,' Alexander in his dying moments had 
 given his ring to Perdiccas, Nep. Eum. 2. ' < S preta ( = si 
 spreta est) in tempore gloria interdum cumulatior 
 redit/ glory spurned at the right moment now and then 
 returns in ampler measure, L.ii.47. ' Animo nobis opus 
 est non abhorrente ( = qui non abhorreat) a quietis 
 consiliis,' we need a temper not averse frojn peaceful coun- 
 sels, L. xxx. 30. ' Servilius Ahala Sp. Mae Hum, regnum 
 appetentem ( = quod appeteret) interemit,' Servilius 
 Ahala slew Spurius Maelius,for aiming at royal power, 
 C. Cat. M. 16. 
 
 (2) Absolute, when the Subject of the Clause to be abbreviated 
 
 is not contained in the principal Sentence, but is placed, 
 together with the Participle, in the Ablative Case. See 
 161, and Examples, p. 411. 
 
239. Participial Construction, 497 
 
 1) It appears therefore that the Ablative Absolute must not 
 
 generally be used when a Noun-term for the Participle to 
 agree with can be found in the Principal Sentence. For _ 
 instance, we must not write : Nostra te legente, utere tuo 
 iudicio ; but, ( Nostra legens utere tuo iudicio/ when you 
 read my^ works, use your own judgment, C. 
 
 This rule is sometimes, but very rarely, violated, and then 
 only for the sake of some peculiar emphasis. 
 
 ' Vercingetorix, convocatis suis clientibus, facile in- 
 cendit (eos)/ Caes. B. G. vii. 4. ' lugurtha fratre meo 
 interfecto regnum eius sceleris sui praedam fecit/ Sail, 
 lug. 14. 
 
 2) The want of a Copulative Participle (being] enables the Abl. 
 
 Abs. to consist of Substantive with Adjective : ' Caesare 
 vivo/ Caesar being alive, or of two Substantives : ' Caesare 
 duce/ Caesar being commander : ' Consule Planco.' 
 
 3) The Impersonal Passive construction (erratur, litatur, &c.) 
 
 enables a Participle alone to be used Absolutely : 
 Errato (a mistake having been made], litato (sacrifice having 
 been duly performed], &c. 
 
 4) A Clause may be Absolute with a Participle or Adjective. 
 
 See 161. 4. 
 
 C. The Participial Construction, Attributive and Absolute, is 
 used to abbreviate 
 
 (1) Relative Clauses: 
 
 'Peloponnesus est peninsula, angustis Isthmi faucibus con- 
 tinenti adhaerens/ the Peloponnesus is a peninsula, 
 attached to the continent by the narrow pass of the Isthmus, 
 L. xxxii. 21. ' Sunt divitiae certae, in quacumque sortis * 
 humanae levitate permansurae/ sure riches are those 
 that will abide in whatsoever fickleness of human fortune, 
 Sen. Ben. vi. 3. ' Pisistratus Homeri libros, confusos 
 an tea, disposuit/ Pisistratus arranged the books of 
 Homer, which were heretofore confused, C. d. Or. iii. 4. 
 (Where adhaerens = quae adhaeret ; permansurae = quae 
 permansurae sunt ; confusos = qui confusi erant.) ' Gau- 
 dentem ' (Hor. C. i. i. n) = ' hominem qui gaudet.' 
 
 (2) Adverbial Clauses : 
 
 i) Consecutive Clauses are represented by Participial construc- 
 tion (chiefly where this is accompanied by a Negative) : 
 
 'Sapientis est, nihil contra mores, leges, instituta facien- 
 tem, habere rationem rei familiaris/ it is a wise man's 
 duty to have regard to his private fortune, so that he do 
 nothing contrary to morals, laws, and customs, C. Off. ii. 
 15 (where nihil facientem = ita ut nihil faciat, withoiit 
 doing anything]. ' Natura dedit usuram vitae, tamquam 
 pecuniae, nulla praestituta die/ nature has given the 
 loan of life, as it were of money, without fixing any day 
 for repayment, C. T. D. i. 39. J 
 
 1 Here observe the versions of the English idiom 'without,' followed by a Verb. 
 K K 
 
498 Latin Syntax. 239, 
 
 2) Final Clauses may be abbreviated by the Fut. Participle : 
 
 ' Catilina ad exercitum proficiscitur, signa illaturus urbi/ 
 Catilina goes to the army, intending to march on the city, 
 Flor. iv. i. ' Alexander Hephaestionem in regionem 
 Bactrianam misit, commeatus in hiemem paraturum/ 
 Alexander sent Hephaestion into the Bactrian country to 
 get provisions for the winter, Curt. viii. 8. (Where illa- 
 turus = utinferat ; paraturum = ut pararet.) See 186. 
 
 3) Causal Clauses: ' Nihil affirmo dubitans plerumque et 
 
 mihi ipse diffidens/ / affirm nothing because I gene- 
 rally doubt and distrust myself, C. Div. ii. 3 (dubitans = 
 quia dubito, diffidens = quia diffido). * Hephaestio longe 
 omnium amicorum carissimus erat Alexandro, cum ipso 
 pariter educatus/ of all his friends Hephaestion was by 
 far the dearest to Alexander, because he had been brought 
 up with him, Curt. iii. 12 (educatus = quia educatus erat). 
 'Flaminium Coelius religione neglecta cecidisse apud 
 Trasimenum scribit/ Coelius says, that Flaminius fell at 
 Trasimenus, because he had neglected religion, C. N. D. ii. 
 3 (i.e. quod religionem neglexisset). 
 
 4) Temporal Clauses: ' Herculem Germani, ituri in proelia, 
 
 canunt/ the Germans, when about to march to battle, 
 chaunt Her cities, Tac. G. 3 (i.e. cum ituri sunt). ' Tar- 
 quinius Ardeam oppugnans imperium perdidit/ Tarquin 
 lost his power, while besieging Ardea, Eutr. i. 8 (op- 
 pugnans = dum oppugnat). ' Pleraeque scribuntur ora- 
 tiones habitae iam, non ut habeantur/ most speeches are 
 written after being delivered, not that they may be deli- 
 vered, C. Br. 91 (habitae = postquam habitae sunt). 
 'love tonante cum populo agi non est fas/ when 
 Jupiter thunders, it is against religion to transact affairs 
 with the people, C. Phil. v. 3 (i.e. cum luppiter tonat). 
 
 5) Conditional Clauses: ' Epistulae offendunt, non loco red- 
 
 ditae/ letters annoy, if not delivered in season, C. Fam. 
 xi. 1 6 (i.e. si non redduntur). ' Nihil, me sciente, 
 
 Marcus entered the city without being saluted by any one, may be variously rendered : 
 
 (1) Marcus nullo salutante urbem ingressus est. 
 
 (2) Marcus a nullo salutatus urbem ingressus est. 
 
 (3) Marcus insalutatus urbem ingressus est. 
 
 (4) Marcus sine cuiusquam salutatione urbem ingressus est. 
 
 (5) Marcus ita urbem ingressus est ut a nullo salutaretur. 
 
 (6) Marcus urbem est ingressus neque a quoquam salutatus est. 
 
 And, with a Negative, Marcus never entered tJie city without being saluted 
 
 (7) Marcus numquam urbem ingressus est quin (or ut non) salutaretur. 
 
 This force of the Participle with a Negation may be illustrated by a few more 
 examples: 'Epicurus, non erubescens, voluptates persequitur omnis nominating' 
 Epicurus without blushing details all pleasures by name, C. N. D. i. 40. 'Constat Nu- 
 mam non petentem in regnum ultro accitum/ it is well known that Numa, without 
 being a candidate, was solicited to accept the royal office, L. i. 35. ' In bello civili nihil 
 accidit non praedicente m e,' in tlie civil war nothing has happened without my 
 foretelling it, C. Fam. vi. 6. ' Quis est qui nullis officii praeceptis tradendis 
 philosophum se audeat dicere?' who will dare to call himself a philosopJter without lay- 
 ing down any rules of duty ? C. Off. \. 2. 
 
240. Participial Construction. 499 
 
 frustra voles/ you shall wish for nothing in vain, if I 
 know it, Sail. (i.e. dummodo ego sciam). 
 
 6) Concessive Clauses: 'Scripta tua iam diu exspectans, 
 
 non audeo tarn en flagitare/ though I have long been look- 
 ing for your writings, yet I dare not demand them, C. Ac* 
 i. i. (i.e. etsi exspecto). 'Perditis rebus omnibus, 
 tamen ipsa se virtus sustentare potest/ though all things 
 be lost, yet virtue can support herself, C. Fam. vi. i. (i.e. 
 quamvis perditae sint). 
 
 Nisi, etsi, quamvis may annex a Participial Clause : 
 
 *'Etsi aliquo accepto detrimento tamen summa exer- 
 
 citus salva locum quern petunt capi posse/ though some 
 
 loss would be sustained, yet the spot they aimed at might 
 
 be occ^ipied without the main army being destroyed, Caes. 
 
 B. C. i. 69. 
 
 7) In Comparative Participial Constructions the Particles are 
 
 prefixed to the Participial Clause : ' Graecas litteras senex 
 didici, quas quidem avide arripui, quasi diuturnam sitim 
 explere c u p i e n s/ / learnt Greek in old age, and grasped 
 it indeed with much zest, as if I wished to quench a pro- 
 tracted thirst, C. Cat. M. 8. ' Antiochus securus de bello 
 Romano erat, tarn qu am non transituris in Asiam 
 Romanis/ Antiochus was careless abo^tt the war with 
 Rome, as imagining that the Romans would not come 
 over to Asia, L. xxxvi. 41. 
 
 J)) Notes on Participial Construction. 
 
 1) The Participle Perfect Passive is used to express a past 
 
 action continuing in its consequences, after such Verbs as 
 habeo, teneo, possideo, &c. : 'Illud exploratum habeto, 
 nihil fieri potuisse sine causa/ consider it clear, that 
 nothing could have been made without a cause, C. Div. ii. 
 28. ' Hoc tibi persuasum habe/ be perstiaded of this, 
 
 C. 'Hoc cognitum comprehensumque habeo/ 
 this is thoroughly known and comprehended by me, C. 
 
 2) It is used in older Latin with the Verbs do, reddo, euro, 
 
 by way of Periphrasis: 'Stratas legiones Latinorum 
 dabo/ / will lay prostrate the legions of the Latins, L. 
 viii. 6. ' H oc tibi e ffe c t u m r e d d a m/ Pll get this done 
 for you, Ter. An. iv. 4. 'Inventum tibi curabo et 
 mecum adductum Pamphilum/ Pll look up Pamphilusfor 
 you and bring him with me, Ter. An. iv. 4. 
 
 To the same idiom belong the phrases missum facere and 
 fieri: * Si qui voluptatibus ducuntur, missos faciant 
 honores/ if any are seduced by pleasures, they may bid 
 farewell to honours, C. p. Sest. 68. ' Legiones bello con- 
 fecto fnissas fieri placet/ I recommend that on the close 
 of the war the legions be disbanded, C. Phil. v. 19. 
 
 After volo, nolo, cupio, oportet, a Perf. Participle repre- 
 sents Infin. Pass., see p. 449. The constructions ' Pro- 
 perato opus est/ hasty action is needed, C. ; 'Liberis 
 consult u m v o 1 u m u s/ w e would have the children's good 
 
 K K 2 
 
5OO Latin Syntax. 240. 
 
 regarded, C. ; 'Mansiim oportuit/" Ter., arise from the 
 Impers. use of Passive Verbs. 
 
 3) The Participle Perfect is used attributively to supply the 
 
 place of a Substantive expressing the action of the Verb : 
 < Prusiam regem suspectum Romanis etreceptus Han- 
 nibal et bellum adversus Eumenem mo turn faciebat,' 
 both the reception of Hannibal and the commencement of 
 war against Eumenes made King Prusias an object of 
 suspicion to the Romans, L. xxxix. 51. ' Labeo male 
 administratae provinciae arguebatur/ Labeo was 
 charged with maladministration of the province, Tac. 
 Ann. vi. 29. 
 
 Hence Livy, Tacitus, and Lucan use the Neuter Participle 
 Perf. Pass, to express the Substantival notion of the Passive 
 Verb, which the Greeks expressed by the Article and 
 Infinitive : 
 
 'Diu non perlitatum tenuerat dictatorem ne ante meri- 
 diem signum dare posset,' the long-continued want of a 
 well-omened sacrifice had withheld the dictator from being 
 able to give the signal before noon, L. vii. 8. So, tenta- 
 tum, L. iv. 49. ' Summisque negatum stare diu,' Lucan, 
 i. 70. ' Notum/ V. Ae. v. 6. ' Expectatum/ V. G. iii. 348. 
 
 4) The Gerundive Construction is more largely used in the 
 
 place of Substantives expressing the transitive action of 
 the Verb : 
 
 'Flag^tiosum est ob rem iudicandam pecuniam accipere/ 
 it is scandalous to take money to give a verdict in court, 
 C. Verr.\\.^2. ' Temperantia constat ex praetermit- 
 tendis voluptatibus corporis,' temperance consists in 
 abstiiunce from bodily pleasures, C. N. D. iii. 1 5. ' Pho- 
 cion cum Demade de urbe tradenda Antipatro con- 
 senserat/ Phocion had agreed with Demades as to the sur- 
 render of the city to Antipater, Nep. Phoc. 2. 
 
 In Livy's Preface we read < ante conditam condendamve 
 urbem/ which probably means ' before the actual or de- 
 signed foundation of the city/ ' before the city was built 
 or commenced/ See GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 5) Participles are sometimes equivalent to Gerundive Instru- 
 
 mental Construction : 
 
 'Aer effluens hue et illuc ventos efficit/ the air, by flowing 
 hither and thither, causes winds, C. N. D. ii. 39. ' Crescit 
 indulgens sibi dims hydrops/ the dreadful dropsy grows 
 by self-indulgence, Hor. C. ii. 2. 13. See 161. 2. 
 
 6) A Participle and Verb are often best translated by two 
 
 Verbs : 
 
 * Caesar scribit, se cum legionibus profectum celeriter 
 adfore,' Caesar wrote word that he had set out with his 
 legions and would soon arrive, Caes. B. G. v. 38. ( lure 
 interfectum Clitum Macedones decernunt, sepultura 
 quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari iussisset/ the Mace- 
 donians voted that Clitus was justly slain, and would 
 
241. Arrangement of Words. 501 
 
 men have denied him biirial, had not the king ordered him 
 to be interred. Curt, viii, 2. 
 
 7) A Participle Present after such Verbs as audio, video, 
 
 facio, pingo, &c., expresses the action or state of the 
 Object heard, seen, &c. : 
 
 4 Audivi eum dicentem, vidi eum ambulantem/ &c. 
 Analogous to this is the construction, <Est apud Platonem 
 Socrates . . . die ens/ &c., we read in Plato of Socrates 
 saying, &c. C. 
 
 8) The Participle sometimes repeats the preceding Verb : 
 'Mars videt hanc visamque cupit/ Mars sees ', and seeing 
 
 desires her, Ov. Fast. iii. 21. 
 
 9) A Participial construction is often involved with an Oblique 
 
 Interrogation or a Relative Clause : 
 
 -' Cogitate quantis laboribus fundatum imperium, quanta 
 virtute stabilitam libertatem una nox paene delerit/ C. 
 Cat. iv. 9. Such a sentence cannot be rendered in 
 English without paraphrase : Consider how vast the toil 
 that founded this empire, how great the valour that esta- 
 blished this freedom, which a single night all but de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND STRUCTURE AND 
 CONNEXION OF SENTENCES. 
 
 THE ORDER OF WORDS reflects the progress of a Ar- 241 
 writer's ideas. This is true of modern languages, such meS 
 as English and French, which, having lost their inflex- words, 
 ions, are obliged in the arrangement of words to follow 
 somewhat definite rules ; but it is worthy of special 
 attention in languages which, by inflecting the Nouns 
 and Verbs, can abandon the syntactical order as often 
 .as emphasis or harmony requires. Latin is one of these 
 languages, which are called Transpositive. 
 
 A. Since an unusual order indicates logical or rhetorical em- 
 phasis, it is necessary for adequate translation that the ordinary 
 arrangement should be clearly understood. 
 
 We shall consider I. the beginning; II. the end; III. the 
 middle of the Sentence. 
 
 1. i. The Subject usually stands either first, or after the word 
 definitive of time, place, or logical connexion : 
 
 Verres Siciliam vexavit. At ille in iudicium venit. 
 
 2. Everything logically connected with the Subject must be 
 placed in close connexion with it : 
 
SO2 Latin Syntax. 242. 
 
 The Aedui, since they were unable to protect themselves and 
 their property ', sent ambassadors to Caesar. 
 
 'Aeduilegatosad Caesarem mittunt, cum se suaque defendere 
 non possent/ Caes. 
 
 Democritus was of course unable to distinguish between black and 
 white, after he had lost his sight. 
 
 ' Democritus, luminibus amissis, alba scilicet et atra 
 discernere non poterat/ C. 
 
 Hence, if emphasis is to be thrown on the Subject, it must be 
 placed in a striking position. Now the most striking position is 
 that farthest removed from the ordinary one. Therefore it should 
 be placed at the end of the Sentence : ' Scenicorum mos tantam 
 habet verecundiam, ut in scenam sine subligaculo prodeat nemo/ 
 C. * Hannibal iam subibat muros, cum in eum erumpunt Ro- 
 mani/ L. 
 
 II. The end of the Sentence is occupied in general by the Verb, 
 because this usually contains the main predication, and unites 
 together the whole proposition. Such order is frequently observed 
 throughout long paragraphs, as in L. ix. 40, 41. 
 
 This arrangement, however, should be abandoned : 
 
 1. If it is inharmonious in sound, as happens whenever several 
 Verbs come together in a period: 'Constiterunt, nuntios in 
 castra remissos, qui, quid sibi, quando praeter spem hostis occur- 
 risset, faciendum esset consulerent quieti opperientes/ L. xxxiii. 6. 
 
 2. If it is necessary to give peculiar importance to the Verb, 
 which, like other words, acquires emphasis from an unusual posi- 
 tion: 'Offendit te, A. Cornell, vos, Patres conscripti, circumfusa 
 turba lateri meo/ C. 
 
 3. Or to emphasise a word, which in the middle of the sentence 
 would not have the requisite stress : ' Sicine vestrum militem ac 
 praesidem sinitis vexari ab inimicis?' L. 
 
 4. To prevent the separation of closely connected words : 
 'Erant ei veteres inimicitiae cum duobus Rosciis Amerinis/ C. 
 
 5. To secure directness of expression in clauses introduced by 
 enim or autem : * Sed hoc vitium huic uni in bonum convertebat : 
 habet enim flebile quiddam in quaestionibus/ C. 'Amicum 
 aegrotantem visere volebat : habitat autem ille in parte urbis 
 remotissima/ C. 
 
 6. To secure Antithesis by the figure Chiasmus : ' Aedes pesti- 
 lentes sint, habeantur salubres/ C. ' Patriae salutem ante- 
 ponet saluti patris/ C. 
 
 III. The middle of the sentence is usually occupied by the 
 Adverb and other qualifying words ; and by the Oblique Cases. 
 
 The Adverb, however, and the Oblique Cases, like other words, 
 acquire emphasis from peculiarity of position : ' His Fabriciis sem- 
 per usus est Oppianicus familiarissime/ C. ' Secuti estis alium 
 ducem ; sequemini nunc Cam ilium/ L. 
 
 . Notes. 
 
 i) The Adjective or dependent Genitive usually follows its Sub- 
 stantive: ' Vir bonus. Moderatio animi.' But if it is emphatic 
 
242. Arrangement of Words. 503 
 
 or imparts a specific meaning to an Adjective, or other word, it 
 precedes it: Magnus Alexander, or Magnus ille Alexander, 
 luris prudens. 
 
 2) Usually Substantives having a Genitive belonging to them all, 
 should not be separated, but all should follow or precede it: 
 'Huius autem orationis difficilius est exitum quam principium 
 invenire,' C. ' Honestum autem illud positum est in animi cur a 
 atque cogitation e,' C Similarly several Genitives depending on 
 a single Noun either follow or precede it : ' Dedicatum est inter 
 cellam lovis et Minervae,' L. * Haec omnia honoris et am- 
 plitudinis commodo compensantur/ C. 
 
 Yet closely connected words are frequently separated for the 
 sake of emphasis : 'lustitiam cole et pietatem/ C. * Quod et 
 aetati tuae esset aptissimum et auctoritati meae/ C. 
 
 3) An Adjective qualifying a Substantive with dependent Geni- 
 tive is placed first, the Genitive next: Una litterarum signifi- 
 catio. Constans omnium fama. 
 
 But an Attribute acquires emphasis by separation from its 
 Noun: In miseriam nascimur sempiternam. 'Unum a Clu- 
 entio profectae pecuniae vestigium ostende,' C. 
 
 4) Contrasted words are rendered effective by juxtaposition : 
 'Ex bello tarn tristilaeta repente pax cariores Sabinas viris 
 
 ac parentibus fecit/ L. ' Mortali immortalitatem non arbitror 
 contemnendam/ C. 
 
 5) Similarly, different cases of the same word, and words having 
 a common derivation, are placed in juxtaposition : 
 
 'Alium alio ne^quiorem. Sint semper omnia homini hu- 
 mana meditata. ( Ut ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc 
 libro ad amicum amicissimus de amicitia scripsi,' C. Lael. 
 
 6) Quisque should be placed in juxtaposition with suus and 
 the cases of sui: ' Sua cuique virtuti laus propria debetur.' 
 'Gallos Hannibal in civitates quemque suas dimisit/ L. xxi. 
 
 7) The directness of Latin expression requires that in Negative 
 Sentences the Negative form should be stamped on the sentence at 
 once : 
 
 'Negat Epicurus quemquam, qui honeste non vivat, iucunde 
 posse vivere/ C. 'Nihil est agricultura melius, nihil homine 
 libero dignius/ C. ' Vet at enim dominans ille in nobis Deus 
 iniussu nos hinc suo demigrare,' C. 'Nemini quicquam negavit. 
 Non memini me umquam te vidisse. 
 
 Hence non is frequently separated by one or more words from 
 mo do, solum, tantum, minus, magis : 
 
 *Ius bonumque apud Scythas non legibus magis quam natura 
 valebat,' C. 
 
 8) Similarly for the sake of emphasis ante and prius are sepa- 
 rated from quam, and the Demonstrative from its Relative : 
 
 ' Ante revertit quam expectaveram/ C. ' Illud quidem post 
 accidit quam discesseram/ C. 'Hanc esse perfectam philoso- 
 phiam semper indicavi, quae de maximis quaestionibus, c., C. 
 
 9) The Demonstrative Pronouns usually precede their Substan- 
 tives : 
 
504 Latin Syntax. 243. 
 
 'Eius disputationis sententias memoriae mandavi : quas 
 hoc libro exposui meo arbitrio/ Cic. 
 
 Unless it is desirable to bring them into close connexion with the 
 Relative : 
 
 ' Numquam qui iratus accedet ad poenam mediocritatern 
 ill am tenebit, quae est inter nimhim et parum,' C. 
 
 10) Prepositions are either placed immediately before their case, 
 or at least are only separated from it by a Genitive belonging to 
 the Case they govern : 
 
 ' Sanguis a corde in totum corpus distribuitur/ C. l Quid est 
 tarn inhumanum quam eloquentiam ad bonorum perniciem per- 
 vertere/ C. 
 
 n) Qualifying words, however, which form an essential part of 
 the word governed by a preposition, may intervene between the 
 preposition and its case : 
 
 Ob non redditos transfugas. De bene beateque vivendo. 
 1 Ex illo caelesti Epicuri de regula et iudicio volumine/ C. 
 
 12) Disyllabic prepositions often follow their case, if it is a 
 pronoun: is quern contra dico ; sometimes also ad, de, per, 
 post, follow their case. This, however, is usually to prevent the 
 separation of the relative from its antecedent : 
 
 Illud, quo de agitur. 
 
 Afi Apposition to a Proper Name is commonly placed after the 
 name, as conveying a subordinate idea : 
 
 4 Q. Mucius augur multa narrare de C. Laelio, socero suo, 
 solebat,' C. Agis rex ; Cyprus insula ; Hypanis fluvius ; Orpheus 
 poe'ta. 
 
 If, however, the Appellative is more important, and requires to 
 be emphasised, it will precede the Proper Name : 
 
 'Obviam ei venerunt duo consules, C. Terentius Varro et L. 
 Paullus Aemilius/ L. 
 
 C. The Connexion of Sentences. 
 
 Comiex- i) Latin writers not only paid great attention to the logical 
 
 ion of sequence of Clauses and Sentences, but made this logical con- 
 
 ces! tei nexion obvious by placing a particle as the first or second word in 
 
 the sentence. Hence no sentence stands detached unless it is 
 
 logically disconnected from what precedes. Sentences connected 
 
 in thought form links of a chain, which only breaks off because the 
 
 topic is altogether dismissed. 
 
 2) The Relative and its Particles are particularly useful for this 
 connexion of sentences, and for avoiding monotonous repetition. 
 
 The Relative may be used for the Demonstrative with a Particle, 
 and is therefore found with those Conjunctions which allow of 
 connexion by means of a Particle. See COORDINATION. 
 
 Quod cum audissem ; quod si fecissem ; quod quamvis non 
 ignorassem ; for Et cum hoc, &c. 
 
 From this habit of connexion by Relatives, appears to have 
 arisen the use of quod before many Conjunctions, as a merely 
 Sociative Particle. It is most frequent before the conditional 
 
244 . 
 
 Periodic Style. 505 
 
 Particles, si, nisi, and etsi, and is found also, though more rarely, 
 before other Conjunctions : so quod cum, quod ubi, quod utinam ; 
 in all which the Conjunction alone would have been sufficient. _ 
 Even before the Relative, we find quod thus used : * Quod qui ab 
 illo abducit exercitum, et respectum pulcherrimum et praesidium 
 firmissimum adimit reipublicae/ C. See 82. 
 
 3) Another peculiarity, which in Latin helps the connexion of 
 .Sentences, is the use of neque (nee). It stands for et with the 
 Negation, in whatever form it occurs in the sentence, unless when 
 it belongs exclusively to a single word in antithesis. This con- 
 nexion is in Latin so common, that, for the sake of it, neque is 
 joined to enim and vero, where in English we could not use and, 
 and are, therefore, obliged to explain it by saying that neque = non. 
 
 D. The Period in Latin. 2 44 
 
 Periods. 
 I. i) A Period is a compound Proposition, consisting of at least 
 two, generally of several Sentences, which are so connected, that 
 grammatical construction is not complete before the last clause is 
 added. 
 
 A Period (ambitus or circuitus verbormri) is so called because 
 the main proposition surrounds the interpolated clauses. 
 
 2) A Period is Simple, when it does not consist of more than 
 two such Sentences, related to each other as Antecedent and Con- 
 sequent (Protasis and Apodosis). It is Complex if it consists of 
 several Sentences so related. 
 
 3) Thus the following sentences do not constitute Periods : 
 Ouemadmodum concordia res parvae crescunt, ita discordia vel 
 maximae dilabuntur. Vitis natura caduca est, et claviculis quid- 
 quid est nacta complectitur. But they may readily be made to 
 assume a simple Periodic form : 
 
 Constat, quemadmodum concordia res parvae crescant, ita dis- 
 cordia vel maximas dilabi. Vitis, quae natura caduca est, quid- 
 quid est nacta, complectitur. 
 
 The latter sentence, if we add to it, et nisi fulta sit, ad terram 
 fertur, becomes a Complex Period, in which vitis complectitur 
 is the principal sentence, quae natura caduca est, nisi fulta sit, ad 
 terram fertur, quidquid est nacta, are the clauses. 
 
 It may be further enlarged as it stands in Cicero : 
 
 ' Vitis, quae natura caduca est, et nisi fulta sit, ad terram fertur, 
 eadem, ut se erigat, claviculis, quasi manibus, quidquid est nacta 
 complectitur/ C. Cat. M. 15. 
 
 4) If the Subject of two Sentences united by a Conjunction is 
 one and the same, the almost invariable practice in Latin is to form 
 them into a Period : 
 
 6 Antigonus, cum adversus Seleucum Lysimachumque dimicaret, 
 in proelio occisus est/ Nep. Eum. ' Verres, simul ac tetigit pro- 
 vinciam, statim Messanam litteras dedit/ C. Verr. I. 
 
 So also when the Object is the same for both Propositions : 
 ' Quern ut barbari incendium effugisse viderunt, telis* eminus 
 emissis interfecerunt/ Nep. Ale. 
 
506 Latin Syntax. 
 
 5) The Clauses of a Period are modifications of the main pro- 
 position. By being grouped together in due order, they produce 
 the effect of logical completeness, of sonorous and dignified ex- 
 pression, which accorded well with the gravity and majesty of the; 
 Roman character. The Periodic style is admirably fitted for the 
 great oratorical efforts of an accomplished rhetorician like Cicero; 
 and for history designed, as was Livy's, to celebrate the greatness 
 and triumphs of the Roman people. Hence the style of the golden 
 age of Latinity is essentially Periodic. It is, however, but ill 
 adapted for an age in which a profusion of new ideas and fresh 
 information demands the most rapid and facile expression. The 
 modern style is on this account essentially unperiodic. 
 
 It will be easily understood that the Period is not suited for all 
 subjects. It is out of place in the description of ordinary and 
 trivial matter, in epistolary composition, in outbursts of passion, 
 irony and denunciation. 
 
 245 1 1 i) As the dignity of the Roman character delighted in the 
 
 sonorous roll and fulness of the Period, so their practical sagacity 
 and critical ear required that it should be well proportioned, rhyth- 
 mical, unmonotonous, and above all, perspicuous and clear. 
 
 2) To secure the first of these requisites, a Period should consist 
 of sentences of nearly equal length : 
 
 ( Et quisquam dubitabit | quin huic tantum bellum transmit- 
 tendum sit | qui ad omnia nostrae memoriae bella capienda | divino 
 quodam consilio natus esse videatur/ C. ' Stultitia etsi adepta est 
 quod concupivit | numquam se tamen satis consecutam putat/ C. 
 
 3) Roundness and regularity of sound is chiefly to be obtained 
 by correspondence in the structure of sentences. Words, which 
 are opposed to each other, should, as far as possible, be of the 
 same kind, so that noun should answer to noun, verb to verb, c. 
 If possible, more than one important word should intervene 
 between a parenthetic Clause and the end of a Sentence : 
 
 ' Magnitude maleficii facit, ut, nisi manifestum parricidium pro- 
 feratur, credibile non sit/ C. 
 
 4) All good prose writing is rhythmical, that is, it flows on in 
 such a manner as to satisfy and delight the ear. It is, however, 
 especially necessary to attend to the cadence of a Sentence or 
 Period, because the necessary pause at the close gives the ear 
 time to criticise. The following is a table of cadences approved by 
 Cicero and Quintilian : 
 
 Creticus cum Ditrocheo . . -^>- 
 Trochaeus cum Molosso . . 
 Trochaeus cum PaeoneTertio -^ 
 Creticus cum Cretico . . -w_ 
 
 gloriam comparavit. 
 membra firmarunt. 
 esse videatur. 
 cogitans sentio. 
 
 Dochmius wv,- .tui Scipio. 
 
 Tribrachys cum Spondeo . ww , .varietates. 
 
 Trochaeus vel Iambus _ ' pluribus de causis. 
 
 cum Dispondeo . . 1" w- 1 ] virum condemnanmt. 
 
 Bacchius u videri. 
 
 Palimbacchius w novisse. 
 
 5) As the rhythm of prose is essentially distinct from that of 
 
246-47' Periodic Style. 507 
 
 verse, all verse-endings should be avoided at the close of a sen- 
 tence, particularly the hexameter termination of dactyl and 
 spondee. 
 
 Such endings, therefore, as quo me vertam nescio; esse 
 videtur ; are carefully to be avoided. It should be observed, 
 however, that the historians were less careful on this point than the 
 orators and rhetoricians. Hexameter endings are frequently met 
 with in Livy. 
 
 III. To prevent monotony in the periodic style, short detached 
 sentences (cola or commata) are introduced. Such frequently 
 occur in periodic style. To secure perspicuity and clearness of 
 expression in constructing them, the following rules should be 
 observed : 
 
 (1) That no Sentences be admitted into a Period but such as are 
 logically connected together. 
 
 (2) That of these Sentences the leading thought form the main 
 proposition. 
 
 (3) That the limitative and qualifying Sentence be placed in 
 logical subordination. Hence in a narrative the accessory details 
 should be arranged in the order of time. 
 
 (4) That every Period, indeed every Sentence, commence with 
 the word in closest logical connexion with the preceding : 
 
 ' Bellum propter nos suscepistis: susceptum quartum deci- 
 mum annum pertinaciter geritis/ L. ' Quod si accident, facienda 
 morum institutorumque m u t a t io est. Commutato au tern genere 
 vitae/c. C. 
 
 (5) Hence the Relative should be placed as near to the Ante- 
 cedent as possible. To secure this, either the Relative Clause is 
 introduced parenthetically after its Antecedent : 
 
 'Acilius autem, qui Graece scripsit historiam, pluris ait 
 fuisse/ C. 
 
 Or the Antecedent is drawn into contact with the Relative by 
 being placed at the end of the Principal Sentence : 
 
 'Dicebam habere eos actorem Q. Caecilium, qui praesertim 
 quaestor in eadem provincia post me quaestorem fuerat/ C. 
 
 The same remark applies to hie, inde, unde, ibi, &c. : 
 ' Hannibal tris exercitus maximos comparavit. Ex his 
 unum in African! misit (not unum ex his)/ L. 
 
 Hence quamobrem and quare always begin a sentence. 
 
 IV. As, in the construction of a Simple Sentence, minor addi- 247 
 tions and circumstances are thrown into the middle, and the Verb 
 closes the whole, so Clauses containing explanatory matter are 
 thrown into the midde of the Period : 
 
 ' Scipio, ut Hannibalem ex Italia deduceret, exercitum in Africam 
 traiecit. Itaque, cum Romam venisset, statim imperatorem 
 adiit/ L. 
 
So8 Latin Syntax. 248. 
 
 The usual arrangement of clauses in a Period is analogous to 
 that of words in a Simple Sentence. 
 
 (i) The word or clause containing the Subject, with the words 
 or clauses immediately connected with it. (2) The words or 
 clauses explanatory of the time, place, motive, &c. (3) The word 
 or clause expressing the remoter object. (4) The clause express- 
 ing the immediate object. (5) The principal Verb. 
 
 To this arrangement there are frequent exceptions, particularly 
 in the position of the principal Verb, for, as was before stated, an 
 agglomeration of finite Verbs at the end of a Period was especially 
 distasteful to the Romans. Hence the principal Verb frequently 
 precedes a Substantival, Final, or Consecutive Clause : 
 
 ( Cum C. Licinius sacerdos prodisset, clara voce, ut omnis 
 contio audire posset, dixit se scire ilium conceptis verbis peier- 
 asse,' C. 
 
 * Commilitones appellans, orabat ne, quod scelus Ap. Claudii 
 esset, sibi attribuerent,' L. 
 
 1 Quam rem Tarquinius aliquanto quam videbatur aegrius ferens, 
 confestim Turno necem machinabatur, ut eundem terrorem, quo 
 civium animos domi oppresserat, Latinis infer ret/ L. 
 
 V. Correlative construction is largely employed in forming 
 Periods. If emphasis is sought, the Relative is placed before the 
 Demonstrative : 
 
 ' Quid ? ii qui dixerunt totam de dis opinionem fictam esse ab 
 hominibus reipublicae causa, ut, quos ratio non posset, eos ad 
 officium religio duceret, nonne omnem religionem funditus sustule- 
 runt?' C. ' Quod si, quam audax est ad conandum, tarn esset 
 obscurus in agendo, fortasse aliqua in re nos aliquando fefel- 
 lisset,' C. 
 
 So qualis often precedes talis : quidquid id: and quo, hoc or 
 eo. But this is not the universal practice. 
 
 248 VI. Grammatical Subject and Object in Periods. 
 
 T) The literature of the Romans is distinguished above all 
 others by directness and lucidity of expression. This is mainly 
 due to the practical sagacity which was their distinguishing charac- 
 teristic ; but partly also to the conditions under which their literary 
 works were composed. There was then no eager public, demand- 
 ing daily information and periodical criticism : consequently there 
 was no popular literature. As reporters did not exist, we have no 
 trustworthy remains of spontaneous eloquence. The orations that 
 have come down to us are either masterpieces redacted by the 
 orators themselves, or speeches attributed to eminent men by his- 
 torians. Hence both in matter and form they are the products not 
 of extemporaneous eloquence, but of literary labour. 
 
 Moreover, in -the case of the ancients, the limited character of 
 their scientific and other information, and the comparative want of 
 fecundity and diversity of ideas, made artistic expression in every 
 branch of art more easily attainable. The simplicity of conception 
 and purity and unity of execution, which distinguish the great 
 works of antiquity, are denied to a modern writer by the very pro- 
 fusion of thought and material which surrounds him. 
 
248. Periodic Style. 509 
 
 2) To secure unity and directness of expression : 
 
 (1) The Subject remains in the same Case, as far as possible, 
 
 throughout a Period : 
 
 When they asked him^r his opinion, he replied. 
 
 Rogatus sententiam respondit. 
 
 Hannibal allowed him to leave the camp; but he soon 
 returned, because he said that he had forgotten some- 
 thing. 
 
 ' Cum Hannibalis permissu exisset e castris, rediit paulo 
 post, quod se oblitum nescio quid diceret,' C. 
 
 (2) The introduction of several independent subjects in the 
 
 same Period is avoided. Hence sentences expressing the 
 time, condition, or means of accomplishing the main 
 action, are frequently thrown into the Ablative Absolute 
 or are introduced in a Subordinate Sentence, not coordi- 
 nated as they frequently are in English : 
 
 This was observed, and they altered their plan. 
 Id ubi vident, mutant consilium. 
 
 The plan was universally approved, and the consul was 
 
 entrusted with the execution of it. 
 Cunctis rem approbantibus, negotium consuli datur. 
 
 (3) If an Oblique Case of one sentence becomes the Subject 
 
 of the next, the change of Subject should be clearly indi- 
 cated by a Pronoun : 
 
 ' Huius filiam virginem auro corrumpit Tatius, ut arma- 
 tos in arcem accipiat. Aquam forte ea turn sacris extra 
 moenia petitum ierat/ L. i. 
 
 'Principium defectionis ab Othone factum est. Is cum 
 magna popularium manu transfugit/ Tac. 
 
 (4) The Subject of discourse, in whatever case it may appear, 
 
 should receive prominence by being placed at the begin- 
 ning of the Period. Four cases require illustration : 
 
 a) When the grammatical Subject of the principal sentence 
 
 and clauses is the same : 
 ' Dionysius, cum gravior crudeliorque indies civitati esset, 
 
 iterata coniuratione obsidetur/ Nep. 
 'Ea animi elatio, quae cernitur in periculis, si iustitia 
 
 vacat, in vitio est/ C. 
 
 b) When the Subject of the principal sentence is the Object 
 
 of the clauses : 
 'Galli, cum eos non caperent terrae, trecenta mhia ad 
 
 novas sedes quaerendas miserunt,' L. 
 'Rex Prusias, cum Hannibali apud eum exsulanti de- 
 
 pugnari placeret, negabat se audere, quod exta prohibe- 
 
 rent/ C. 
 
 c) When the Object of the principal sentence and of the 
 
 clause is the same : 
 
 'Praemia virtutis communi petitorum consensu tulit> 
 concessit autem Alcibiadi, quern magno opere dilexit.' 
 
5io Latin Syntax. 249-50. 
 
 'Polyphemum Homerus cum immanem ferumque finx- 
 isset, cum ariete colloquentem facit/ C. 
 
 d) When the Object of the principal sentence is the Subject 
 
 of the clauses : 
 'Captis, cum paenitentiam profiterentur, ut parceretur 
 
 edixit/ L. 
 *Midae illi Phrygio, cum puer esset, dormienti formicae 
 
 in os tritici grana congesserurit/ C. 
 
 The forms a] and c] are most deserving of imitation, because they 
 possess greater directness and unity of expression. When, how- 
 ever, prominence is to be given to the motive or occasion of an act, 
 it may be necessary to employ the other forms. 
 
 249 VII. Historical narrative requires frequent change in statements 
 
 of time : to express which, historians have recourse to two resources 
 the Participial construction, attributive and absolute, and the 
 Conjunctions, cum, ubi, postquam. By these Livy can unite, 
 without failure of perspicuity, in one Period, what in English must 
 be broken into three or more : 
 
 ' Numitor, inter primum tumultum, hostis invasisse urbem 
 atque adortos regiam dictitans, cum pubem Albanam in arcem 
 praesidio armisque obtinendam avocasset, postquam iuvenes per- 
 petrata caede pergere ad se gratulantis vidit, extemplo advocato 
 consilio, scelera in se fratris, originem nepotum, ut geniti, ut 
 educati, ut cogniti essent, caedem deinceps tyranni, seque eius 
 auctorem ostendit, 3 L. i. 
 
 ' His, sicut acta erant, nuntiatis, incensus Tarquinius non dolor e 
 solum tantae ad irritum cadentis spei, sed etiam odio iraque, post- 
 quam dolo viam obsaeptam vidit, bellum aperte moliendum ratus, 
 
 circumire supplex Etruriae urbes/ L. ii. 1 
 250 
 
 Quaii- E. Poetry and Prose alike require the virtues of Purity, Perspi- 
 Style*" cuity, Simplicity, and Harmony. 
 
 ij Purity is violated by Barbarism or Solecism. 
 
 Barbarism is the use of a word not properly Latin, as, confiscare, 
 ' to confiscate : ' or (what is more to be guarded against as a more 
 easy error") the use of good Latin words in meanings they do not 
 bear : as, in tent io, for ' an intention/ instead of consilium, 
 
 Solecism is a construction not allowed by Syntax : Parce me, 
 for pare e mihi : Ita graviter aegrotavit ut paene mortuus est, for 
 mortuus sit. 
 
 2) Perspicuity of style requires that it be clear and intelligible, 
 free from confusion and ambiguity. 
 
 3) Simplicity of style requires it to be free from affectation, and 
 unencumbered by tawdry and tasteless ornament. 
 
 4) Harmony of style requires that harsh and unmusical sounds 
 be carefully avoided ; that long and short words be well inter- 
 mixed, and that grave and important words close the sentences. 2 
 
 1 Compare with these a much less elegantly constructed Period in Caes. B. C. ii. 22 : 
 ' Massilienses . . . constituunt.' 
 
 2 The style of Prose Composition admits a fourfold distinction : (i) The Didactic ; 
 (2) the Epistolary ; (3) the Oratorical ; (4) the Narrative or Historic. 
 
.251-52. Quantity and Rkytkm. 511 
 
 PART III. 
 LATIN PROSODY. 
 
 A. PROSODIA, of which the Latin accentus is a trans- P- 
 lation, denoted in classical Greek the accent of a word. sody ' 
 In later times, when Accent became confounded with 
 Quantity, the word was sometimes employed in uts 
 modern sense. In English and other languages Prosody 
 now signifies that part of Grammar which deals with the 
 .quantity of syllables and the rules of metre. 
 
 I. Quantity and Rhythm. Q U 2 a 5 n- 
 
 i. In Latin, as in Greek, Verse depended on the Quantity of syl- |S r y ? n 
 lables, every syllable being either long or short ; and the various thm. 
 metres resulted from the various relations of the long and short 
 syllables to each other. We therefore first treat of the Quantity of 
 syllables, so far as it can be reduced to rule ; and then discuss the 
 most important metres : the Heroic Hexameter first, as the leading 
 and typical form of verse ; next the Elegiac, and then the Lyric 
 metres, mainly those of Horace and Catullus. 
 
 Of the first three styles, the model in Latin is Cicero, to whom, we may justly say, 
 non viget quicquam simile aut secundum. (i) His Didactic writings are in the form of 
 Treatise or of Dialogue. Of the Treatise, his work De Officiis is the best model ; of his 
 Dialogues, the Laelius or De Amicitia, and the Cato Maior or De Senectute, are best 
 adapted to the young student, who may proceed afterwards to the Tusculan Disputations 
 and the De Oratore (2) Cicero's Letters are either dignified or familiar. Of the dignified 
 style, the letters to Lentufus and Lucceius, and the first Ad Quintum Fratrem may be 
 taken as models ; of the familiar, the First Book of Letters to Atticus. (3) Speeches are 
 either Forensic or Public. Forensic speeches are for the Prosecution or for the Defence. 
 Of the former, we have only Cicero's Verrine speeches, of which the Actio Prima may be 
 taken as a sample. The latter are numerous ; and of these the best samples for early 
 study are Pro Archia Poeta, Pro Milone, and Pro Murena. Public speeches may be 
 classed under the three heads of Exposition, Eulogy, or Invective. Hardly any of Cicero's 
 Speeches belong entirely to the first class ; but some of the Catilinarianand later Philippic 
 Speeches approach it. Of Eulogy, Pro Lege Manilia is the best example. Of Invective, 
 the First In Catilinam and the Second Philippic. 
 
 In History, the greatest Latin authors are Caesar, Livy, and Tacitus. Caesar's 
 style is the clear, full, and unaffected narrative of an accomplished soldier. That of Livy 
 is more ornate and picturesque, bespeaking a student of the Greek historians. The 
 manner of Tacitus, though not without a Thucydidean tinge, is yet peculiar to himself 
 terse, vigorous, subjective, sternly moral, sometimes bitterly sarcastical ; often rising to 
 eloquence, here and there indulging in picturesque description, especially of gloomy and 
 tumultuous scenes. 
 
 The student may further compare the following Periods in Livy and Cicero : Liv. i. 16, 
 'Romanapubes . . ". obtinuit.' xxii. 3, 'Flaminius qui . . . proposuit/ xxiii. 25, 'Hac 
 nuntiata clade . . . submitterent/ Cic. /. S. Rose, i, 'Credo . . . comparandus. ' /. 
 Mil. 4, 'Estenim . . . salutis.' /. Caecin. i, 'Si quantum . . . audaciae/ /. Mur. 
 2, 'Quod si . . . subeundas.' in Cat. iii. 12, 'Sed quoniam . . . providere.' in Cat. 
 i. 13, 'Ut saepe . . . ingravescet.' See also Off. i. i. i ; Fam. iii. 8. i. 
 
 He may also consult with advantage, 'Hints towards Latin Prose Composition* 
 <Macmillan and Co.), by Alexander W. Potts, Esq., Head Master of the Fettes College, 
 Edinburgh, who has afforded valuable assistance in the present chapter. 
 
512 Latin Prosody. 252. 
 
 We leam from the ancient grammarians (Aristotle, Cicero, and 
 Ouintilian among them) that Rhythm, or a due admixture of long 
 and short syllables, was of vital moment in prose as well as verse. 
 As our ears and tongues can at the best discriminate imperfectly 
 differences of Quantity, it is most important for us to acquire a 
 mental ear and tongue, to be able to feel the beauty of Plato as 
 well as Homer, of Cicero as well as Virgil. Cicero's technical 
 writings will supply an excellent commentary on what is here 
 meant. 
 
 2. Syllables are either Short or Long. A short syllable is tech- 
 nically denoted by this mark ( w ), a long syllable by this (-). 
 
 A short syllable was said to contain one Mora or time, a long 
 syllable two Morae or times. 
 
 Syllables which at one period of the language were long, at 
 another were short. 
 
 Certain classes of syllables, which might at the same period be 
 either long or short, are called Doubtful. 
 
 In verse a long syllable is exactly equivalent to two short. 
 
 3. Long syllables have two main divisions, syllables long by 
 nature, and syllables whose short vowel is lengthened by Posi- 
 tion, that is to say by coming before a double consonant, or two or 
 more consonants, whether in the same word or in two consecutive 
 words. In the words fa to, maestls both syllables are long by 
 nature: in factus subsunt the four syllables, whose vowels are 
 short by nature, are all lengthened by position. 1 
 
 4. R does not give position anymore than the aspirate in Greek ; 
 and qu has only the power of a single letter. 
 
 5. In the older language final s, preceded by a short vowel, was 
 slightly sounded, if at all ; was often therefore not written, and 
 
 1 Technically all long syllables and all short syllables are respectively equal, though 
 the nature of the case and the testimony of the ancients prove that there is a great diver- 
 sity in their real length. Fractus and factus have each their first syllable long, but 
 the latter is only lengthened by position, the former is long by nature also ; aqua and 
 neque have each the last syllable short, but the rules of elision, observed by the most 
 careful poets, shew that 8 was much lighter than 5,. We are often ignorant of the natu- 
 ral quantity of Latin syllables lengthened by position. The TJ and <u, and sometimes the 
 accent, gives us this knowledge in regard to Greek syllables, though we are sometimes 
 at a loss even there in the case of a, i, v. The poet Accius introduced the practice of 
 denoting naturally long vowels by doubling them. This was soon laughed out of fashion 
 by Lucilius. We find some traces of this usage in inscriptions of that time : Maarcus, 
 paastoresandthe like. Later such vowels were often marked by an apex(') ; many traces 
 of which we find in inscriptions of all ages; a, Marti s, domineis, &c. Quintilian 
 alludes to both these fashions. Attention to general laws of the language will enable us 
 to determine the quantity of many vowels. Thus the vowel of the Supine and cognate 
 parts of the Verb was long by nature (even if the vowel of the Present Indie, was short) 
 when it was followed by a medial ; the a of actus (for ag-tus) was long, of factus 
 short by nature ; the e of 1 e c t u s (for leg-tus), Part, was long, of 1 e c t u s, bed, short. 
 Again, every vowel followed by ns or nf was long by nature, as in mens, sapiens, 
 and other cases ; while e was short in mentis, sapientis, &c. This is what Cicero 
 means when he says in his Orator, 48: ' Inclitus dicimus brevi prima littera, insanus 
 producta, inhumanus brevi, infelix longa : et, ne multis, quibus in verbis eae pri- 
 mae litterae sunt, quae in sapiente atque felice, producte dicitur in.' In many cases 
 we know the length of the vowel by finding the Latin word written in Greek : Sestius 
 (Dorics), Roscius ('PWCTKIOS) and many proper names ; but Mayvos, TpcUxos and the 
 like show us that in such words the vowel was short by nature. 
 
I 2 53 . Quantity of Inner Syllables. 513 
 
 often with the older poets, including Lucretius and Cicero when 
 young, did not give position: as, 'infantibus parvis/ 'torvus 
 draco/ 
 
 6. An important exception to the rule of position is this : 
 
 A vowel short by nature, coming before a mute followed by a 
 liquid in the same word, may either remain short, or be lengthened 
 by position : tenebrae or tenebrae, retro or retro, triplex or 
 triplex. In the same verse Virgil has patris, patrem ; Lu- 
 cretius patribus, patres; Horace nigris, nigroque ; Ovid 
 volucri, volucris. 
 
 7. Before gm, gn, a vowel cannot remain short : tegmen, agnus. 
 In genuine Latin words not compounded, the other mutes do not 
 precede m, n. Thus the older writers, such as Plautus, wrote 
 draciima, mina, cucinus, lucinus, Alcumena, Tecumessa, 
 and the like, for the corresponding Greek words. The learned 
 poets, copying the Greeks, did not object to cycnus, Te ernes s a, 
 Procne, &c. It is worth noting, too, that Plautus, Terence, c., 
 following no doubt the usage of common life, seem never to have 
 lengthened a short vowel before a mute and liquid; while the 
 Augustan and later poets preferred to lengthen one, when the mute 
 was a medial, b or g; writing labra, nigro rather than lab r a, 
 nlgro. With this we might compare on the one hand the repug- 
 nance of Aristophanes to lengthen a short vowel before a mufe 
 and liquid, unless he is parodying a serious poet, and on the other 
 the great frequency with which this is done by the tragedians ; 
 while Homer nearly always lengthens the vowel in such cases, 
 unless constrained by the metre. 
 
 8. The older poets, among them Lucretius, do not hesitate to 
 leave a vowel short before a word beginning with sc, sp, sq, st, x, 
 X, gn. The more careful poets avoid such positions, not choosing 
 either to lengthen the vowel or to leave it short. Virgil has only one 
 instance of such a lengthening 'date tela, scandite ;' and once 
 only leaves the vowel short ' Ponite : spes ; ? in each case the 
 license seems to be used for effect. Horace has no instance of 
 either license in his Odes or Epistles ; but several in his Satires. 
 As in the case of mutes and liquids, this would seem to point to a 
 studied contrast between the usage of common life and the more 
 stately pronunciation of the higher poetry. In a few Greek words, 
 such as Scamander, Zacynthus, zmaragdus, some of the 
 poets follow the Greeks in a rare exceptional license. Catullus in 
 his two pure Iambic poems three times lengthens a short a before a 
 mute and liquid of the following word: as, 'impotentia freta :' 
 6 Propontida trucemque . . . ; ultima Britannia.' The peculiar 
 metre seems to have influenced him in this. 
 
 II. Quantity of Inner Syllables. 2S? 
 
 The Quantity of Final Syllables may be reduced to rules ; but 
 chat of Syllables in the body of words is so indefinite, that we must 
 confine ourselves to pointing out a few general principles, with the 
 leading exceptions to these. 
 
 i. Where two vowels are contracted into one, the syllable is 
 long: cogo, cdperio, tiblcen, bobus, iunior, blgae, mo- 
 mentum. 
 
 LL 
 
514 Latin Prosody. 253. 
 
 In semi, ante, and a few other particles, the vowel does not 
 coalesce, but is altogether elided, when followed by a vowel in a 
 compound word. The syllable is therefore not lengthened : semi- 
 homo, ant(e)eo, antea, &c., whether the vowel be omitted or not 
 in writing. Forms like ' grave olens/ ' suave olens/ ' magno 
 opere/ ' summo opere,' are better written as two words. 
 
 2. All diphthongs are long : Graius, aura, harpyia. 
 
 Except prae in composition before a vowel, as in praeustus, 
 praeeunte. Ovid once wrote ' Ma"eotis ;' but in exile. 
 
 Statius once uses praeiret ; and in Catullus the prae of ' prae- 
 optarit ' coalesces into one syllable with the op. 
 
 3. A vowel before another vowel in the same word, but a different 
 syllable, is short: traho, meae, via, io, boant, tuus. 
 
 Exceptions : 
 
 (1) Galus, dius, Rhea (Silvia), but Rhea ('?), eheu; aer 
 is Greek usage : and there are hundreds of other Greek words, 
 adopted by the poets, chiefly proper names^ which keep a vowel 
 long before another : io, cycneus, c. Diana, 6 he are doubt- 
 ful : also some Greek words: as v daedaleus and daedaleus, 
 chorea and chorea. 1 Academia, long in Greek and the best 
 Latin, is shortened by some later poets. 
 
 (2) The i of flo is long, except when followed by er, as fieri, 
 fieret ; though Plautus and Terence sometimes have fieri, &c. 
 
 (3) The a of the old Genitive of the 1st Declension is long: 
 terrai, aulai, purpureai. 
 
 (4) The e of the Gen. and Dat. of the 5th Declension is long in 
 diei, fidei (Plautus, Ennius, Lucr.), but fide"i in Manilius and 
 later writers ; rei (Lucr.), rei (Hor.). Lucretius and others some- 
 times make rei a monosyllable. In Terence, spei seems always 
 monosyllabic, but spe"i in Seneca. In Latin poetry no other Gen. 
 or Dat. in -ei seems to be found, neither specie i, materiei, nor 
 any such. Lucretius has ei, Catullus ei, for the Dat. of the Pro- 
 noun is. 
 
 (5) The i of Genitives in ius is doubtful : illius or ill I us, and 
 so with istfus, ipsius, ullius, nullius, solius (solius, Ter.). 
 But always alius, which is contracted. In later writers alterius; 
 but alterlus sometimes in Plautus. Utrius, utriusque. 
 
 By comparing Cicero (d. Or. iii. 183) with Quintilian (i. 5. 18), 
 we learn the interesting fact that in the time of the former the 
 prose pronunciation was illius. unius, &c. ; in the time of the 
 latter illius, unius, as he with all the later grammarians held the 
 shortening to be a poetic license. 
 
 1 In Latin i seems often to have been doubled in pronunciation and to have served for 
 a vowel and consonant at once : thus in Cicero's time Pompeius and such words were 
 often written with ii ; and so Troi-ia-nus, ei-ius, cui-ius; and hence perhaps the 
 quantity of the two last words. In compounds of iacio it was usual to write i only 
 once, as in e-icit, ab-icit, though the i was equivalent to ji. We can thus account for 
 the quantity of re-icio, where the i formed a diphthong with the e of re, and also a 
 separate syllable. On the other hand ei-cit, rei-cit, are sometimes disyllabic, and ab- 
 icit, ad-Tcit are found with their first syllable short. In the older writers, too, eius, 
 cuius are often monosyllabic, and sometimes have the quantity cuius, eius. 
 
253. Quantity of Inner Syllables. 515 
 
 4. Derivatives are said to follow as a rule the quantity of the 
 words from which they are derived. But this rule has many 
 exceptions, some systematic, some which seem to be accidental. 
 
 (1) Disyllabic Perfects and their compounds, with the tenses 
 formed from them, have the first syllable long: vldi, invidi, 
 videram; but video, viderem, &c. ; legi, legissem; but 
 lego, legam. 
 
 Except bibi, dedi, (fidi) diffidi, (scidi) discidi, &c., steti, 
 (stiti) consttti, &c., tuli, attiili, &c. 
 
 But these exceptions are perhaps only apparent, as the Perfects 
 seem either to be actually reduplicated, as dedi, steti, or to have 
 once been so, as tuli, &c. (tetuli, Lucr., &c.). 
 
 (2) Some apparent derivatives are illusory: rex regis, regina, 
 do not come from re go. Cdma (KOJJLT)) has no connection with 
 como. 
 
 (3) Disyllabic Supines, with the parts of the Verb formed from 
 them, are also long: visum, visurus, &c. Except datum, 
 Xtum, litum, quitum, ratum, (rutum) diriitum, &c., statum 
 from sisto; but statum from sto; citum from cieo; but 
 citus from cio. 
 
 (4) Other apparent or real discrepancies might perhaps be ex- 
 plained, if we had the required knowledge : lux, liicis, luceo, but 
 liicerna ; males, moles tus; sdpio, sopor; humanus, homo; 
 iuro, peiero. 
 
 (5) We find not a few variations of quantity in the same word : 
 Lucret. has 'liquidis' and 'liquida' in the same verse; he has 
 
 * liquor aquai/ all others liquor (subst), but liquor (verb) ; he has 
 
 * fluvidus ' and ' fliividus/ ' gldmere,' but 4 glomero/ &c. with other 
 instances. Silius derives Sabini from Sabus ; M amurra (Catull), 
 Mamurra (Hor., Mart). Liiceres (Prop.), Luceribus (Ov.). 
 Lemures and Lemuria (Ov.). Mamiiri (Prop.), Mamiirium 
 (Ov.). Catillus (Verg.), Catilus (Hor.), Catillus (Stat.). 
 Vertragus (Mart), vertraga (Gratius). Coturnices (Plaut, 
 Lucr.), coturnices (Ov., luven.). Vaticanus (Hor.), Vatica- 
 nus later. Palatia, Palatinus, usually, but palatia (luv.). 
 Often coniibia ; often also conubia> conubio, coniibiis, &c. It is 
 an error to regard the latter forms as trisyllabic. See Munro on 
 jLucr. iii. 776. 
 
 (6) Sometimes the consonant is or is not doubled : vacillo, but 
 yaccillo (Lucr., Cic.). Compare far, farris, farina; mamma, 
 mamilla; offa, ofella ; tintino, tintinnabulum, Porsenna, Porsena; 
 and perhaps currus, ciirulis, quattuor, quater ; littera, litura. 
 
 (7) The penult of the 3rd Pers. Plur. Indie. Perf. is long : ama- 
 verunt, legerunt. But the poets not unfrequently shorten it ; and 
 dederunt (Lucr. Hor.), fuerunt (Lucr. Prop.), tulerunt (Verg.), ver- 
 terunt (Hor.), locaverunt (Plaut.) prove that this was not done from 
 metrical necessity merely. 
 
 (8) The penult of the ist and 2nd Pers. Plur. of the Fut Perf. 
 Indie, and the Perf. Subj. is doubtful : viderimus (Lucr.), egerimus 
 (Verg.), fecenmus (Catull.); videritis, dixeritis, but dederltis 
 
 L L 2 
 
516 Latin Prosody. 254. 
 
 (Ov.). The poets appear to have been determined solely by the 
 requirements of their metre. 
 
 As i and u are both vowels and consonants, from necessity of 
 the verse the vowel sometimes passes into its corresponding con- 
 sonant : ar-ie-te for ariete, ab-ie-te for abiete, ten-ui-a for teniiia. 
 Sometimes without such necessity we have ab-ie-gnus, tenvis for 
 teniiis, and the like. Trisyllabic in Horace is once princlp-ium^ 
 once consll-ium, in Virgil fluv-iorum ; Lucr. has flutant. Some- 
 times the i is suppressed between two long syllables : vindem- 
 iator, stel-io, taen-iis. Lucretius once makes 6r-iun-di a trisyllable 
 with short o. TJie third syllable _of fortuitus, gratultus seems 
 doubtful : Statius certainly has gratuitus. Promontdrium is an 
 error : the real form is promuntiirium. On the other hand v some- 
 times becomes u: soliio, dissoluo, voliio, &c. : Hor. has siliiae 
 and miliius. But relicuus is the genuine form (Lucr., Plaut., &c.) r 
 reliquus does not appear before the Silver Age. The Augustan 
 poets abstain from using it, perhaps from a dislike to lengthening 
 the first syllable. 
 
 (9) Vemens, vementer are the only genuine forms : vebemens,, 
 & c. never appear in good writers. 
 
 (10) Many Crases occur in the poets, like aurei, ferrei, even 
 omn-ia as disyllabic, precant-ia as trisyllabic. 
 
 (n) In words like deinde, dein, deesse, deest, deerrarunt, 
 the first e is altogether elided, as in antehac, anteactus, &c. ; 
 so numquam, nusquam, nullus for neumquam, &c. In 
 neutiquam, neu becomes diphthongal. 
 
 (12) Eodem, eaedem, eosdem, are disyllabic or trisyllabic; 
 but disyllabic only where the second vowel is long by nature : 
 eundem, eandem, are always trisyllabic. Idem (plur.) and 
 isdem are disyllabic in the best writers ; eisdem seems to occur 
 first in Juvenal: ei (nom.) or ii, eis or iis are avoided by the 
 poets. 
 
 (13) A few words like suesco, suetus, deorsum, seorsus are 
 either disyllabic or trisyllabic : suo is twice monosyllabic in Lucr.,, 
 who has sis for s u i s after Ennius. 
 
 Note. The quantity is doubtful in many Proper Names, adopted 
 from the Greek, in which short vowels are often lengthened for 
 metrical reasons, as Priamides. 
 
 III. Quantity of Final Syllables. 
 
 (I) i. Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long : except the 
 enclitics que, ve, ne, and qua (Nom. and Accus.), which is also 
 an enclitic (si qua, nequa). 
 
 2. It is perhaps most convenient to say that monosyllables 
 ending in a consonant are also long. 
 
 Exceptions : 
 
 (1) Such as end in b, d, 1, t, are short, two only, sal and 
 sol, being long (aut and haud, as diphthongs, are of course 
 long). 
 
 (2) Fac, nee, an, Kn, fer, per, ter, v!r, cor, Ms, cis, Is 
 (Pron.), quis (Nom.). 
 
254. Quantity of Final Syllables. 517 
 
 (3) Also es (sum) : es is found in Plautus, &c. : but es (edo) is 
 circumflexed and long. 
 
 (4) Hie (Pron.) is doubtful : hoc (Norn, and Ace.) is doubtful in 
 the old scenic, long in the later, poets. 
 
 (5) Ac in good writers never comes before a vowel, and its 
 quantity is uncertain. Very late writers seem to use it both long 
 and short. 
 
 (II) 2. In words of more than one syllable: 
 -a. A final is long 
 
 (1) In the Abl. Sing, of ist. Decl. : as, mensa. 
 
 (2) In the Imperative of ist Conj. : ama, monstra ; but puta 
 is used parenthetically. 
 
 {3) In the Numerals triginta, &c. 
 
 (4) In Prepositions and Adverbs : circa, contra, erga, frustra, 
 intra, supra, interea, postea, praeterea, postilla; which 
 are really Ablatives, and therefore regularly long, as 
 may be proved by forms like posthac, antehac, prae- 
 terhac ; and by the forms extrad, suprad, arvorsum ead 
 (adversum ea), in old inscriptions. But ita, quia are 
 short : eia or heia is perhaps doubtful, certainly short. 
 
 $. L final is short in all Noun- Cases but the Ablative : except 
 
 (i) In Greek words ending in a, the a is sometimes retained in 
 Latin, but there is a strong tendency to shorten it : philo- 
 mela ; elegla Ov.) ; elegla (Mart. Stat.) ; Electra (Cic. 
 Ov.), Electra (Sen.). Phaedra and Phaedra (Ov.) ; Phae- 
 dra, (Sen.). For Greek Nominative in ac, we find Tiresia 
 (Lucil.), Tiresia, Pelia (Sen.). But when a represents n 9 
 it is short : as, nympha; so, Nom. Atrida (Prop.). 
 
 {2) In Vocatives of Greek names in as, a is long : Aenea, 
 Palla; but doubtful in Vocatives from Nom. in es : 
 Atrida (Hor.), Anchisa 'Verg.), Cecropida (Ov.). 
 
 E final is short : except 
 
 (1) Abl. Sing, of 5th Decl.: die (hodie, &c.), re (quare) ; so 
 
 fame, which in this case at least belongs to this Decl. 
 
 (2) 2nd Pers. Sing. Imper. of 2nd Conj. : as, gaude, mone. 
 But cave (Hor. Ov.) ; though these have also cave ; vide 
 
 (Phaedr. Pers.). 1 
 
 (3) Adverbs from Adjectives of the 2nd Decl. : valde, aegre, 
 
 docte ; and in ferme, fere, ohe. 
 But bene, male, inferne (Lucr.), superne (Lucr. Hor.), are 
 
 short. 
 Temere follows the general rule, as is proved negatively by 
 
 1 The Latins had a strong tendency to shorten the final in familiar iambic words : 
 compare puta above, and other examples, ending in i and o ; and this is especially 
 true and important in the old scenic prosody. In 'vale vale inquit' (Verg.), 'mane 
 inquii' (Catull.), 'fave Ilithyia' (Ov.), the e is long and only shortened by a vowel 
 'following. 
 
Latin Prosody. 254. 
 
 e being always elided in Hexameter poets ; positively by 
 its frequently occurring with e in Seneca. 
 
 (4) When it represents 17 : nymphe, Hebe, Antigone, tempe, 
 &c. 
 
 Z final is long : except 
 
 (1) i is doubtful in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ub! ; short in nis*, 
 
 quasi, necubi, sicubx. 
 
 Obs. The i of utl ( = ut) is always long ; si cut i dactyl is a 
 fiction ; ibidem always in Hexameter poets ; the second i 
 is doubtful in the scenic poets ; utique, uttnam are short. 
 So ubinam, ubtvis ; but ubique. 
 
 (2) The i of Vocatives which represent I is short : DaphnX, 
 
 AdonX ; also ThybrX. 
 
 (3) The i of Datives, representing t, is short in Minoid*, 
 
 TethyX (Catull.), lasonX, Palladi (Stat.). But Thetidi, 
 Paridi, c., have i long ; and these are the more nu- 
 merous. 
 
 final is long : except * 
 
 (1) The archaic endd is short: also cito (adv.), modd (adv.), 
 
 duo, ego, cedd, owing to the tendency to shorten the final 
 of familiar Iambic words. Yet modd as well as modo is 
 in Lucr. ; ego occasionally in Plautus . 
 
 (2) Homo is doubtful, generally short. 
 
 (3) Scio and nescio, which have o doubtful in the scenic 
 
 writers, for metrical reasons have it short in Hexameter 
 poets, c. 
 
 U final is long : except in the archaic indu ( = in), and nenii ( = ne 
 oenum = ne unum = non). 
 
 Y, a purely Greek letter, is short in the few words adopted from 
 Greek : as, moly, Tiphfr. 
 
 C final lengthens the Vowel : except donee. 
 
 1 The final O continued always inflexibly long in Datives and Ablatives of the 2nd 
 Decl., and when it represented a final o> (Clio) ; but in Verbs and Nominatives of the 
 3rd Decl. it became doubtful ; though still in most cases generally long. Seneca, indeed, 
 Juvenal, and others, venture to shorten the Gerund in do (vincend6, vigilandS, &c.), and 
 Juvenal even postremo', though these appear at least analogous to the Dat. and Abl. in o ; 
 so indeed is quomodQ (Hor.). 
 
 As might be inferred from the laws of Latin pronunciation, this shortening first took 
 place in Cretic and Iambic words. Virgil, an anxious metrist, only ventures to shorten 
 Pollib (three times), nuntiS and audeS. In all these instances the O is elided ; but, as 
 he never elides the final of a Cretic, preferring hiatus, as, insult lonio, he evidently 
 did not regard the o as long. It is probable, however, that the elision was a compromise, 
 and that the vowel was to him neither precisely long nor short, something, in fact, like a 
 final m, which he occasionally elides in Cretic words, audiam et, omnium egenos. 
 Horace, in his Odes as careful a metrist as Virgil, shortens only PolliS, but in his Satires 
 and Epistles he has, besides this word, e8, rogo, vetS, dixerS, obsecrS, mentiS, quo- 
 modS. But before them Catullus has volo, dabo, and put5, when, like puta, it is a quasi 
 adverb. Tibullus desinS, Propertius caedit5, and even findS. Ovid always shortens 
 Sulm5, Nas5 ; and we find in him examples of amS, canS, neg5, pet5, reg6, Ie8, con- 
 fer5, desinS, oderb, Curi8, GalliS, ScipiS, esto, credo", tollS, rependo, nem.5, ergd". In 
 most poets of the Silver Age this 6 is frequent enough : we find quand8, porr5, serS, 
 ambo, oct5, &c. In all ages quandSquidem. 
 
254. Quantity of Final Syllables. 5 19 
 
 X final shortens the Vowel. 
 
 Xi final shortens the Vowel. 
 
 In nihil it is doubtful; generally short, but occasionally 
 long in Ov. Lucr. Some only use contracted nil ; Virgil 
 seems only twice to use the disyllabic, each time before a 
 consonant: B. ii. 6.; Ae. ii. 287. But there are some 18 
 instances in which it might be said that he wrote nlhil, 
 not nil. 
 
 [itt final is treated of under the head of Elision.] 
 w final shortens the Vowel. 
 
 The only Exceptions are Greek words. 
 
 Those in en are long, as they represent rjv : hymen, &c. 
 Those in on are long, which represent uv ; short, which 
 represent ov : Triton, Troilon. Those in an, In, yn, are 
 long or short, as they are long or short in Greek : Elec- 
 tran, but Iphigenlan ; chelyn, but Tethyn. 
 
 R final shortens the Vowel : except 
 
 (1) Celtiber is doubtful. 
 
 (2) Compounds of par are long, as dispar, impar. 
 
 (3) When -er represents rjp it is long, as aer. But OP, even 
 
 when representing w/o, follows the general rule : Hector, 
 rhetor. 
 
 As final is long : except 
 
 The Nom. Sing, and Accus. Plur. of Nouns taken from the 
 Greek, which have -at; : Pallas (-adis), lampadas, &c. 
 
 Es final is long : except 
 
 (1) penes. 
 
 (2) Nouns of Decl. 3 which increase short, as miles milit-, 
 
 obses obsid-, seges seget-. But pes and compounds, 
 Ceres, abies, aries, paries, remain long. 
 
 (3) Compounds of es, as potes, ades. 
 
 (4) Words representing Greek eg ; as cacoethes (Neut.), 
 
 Arcades (Nom. Plur.). 
 
 Is final is short : except 
 
 (1) Dat. and Abl. Plur. in -is : terris, dominls, vobis. 
 
 (2) Accus. Plur. of 3rd Decl. in -is ( = es) : omnis, gentls. 
 
 (3) 2nd Pers. Sing. Pres. Subj. in -Is : adsls, veils. 
 
 (4) Compounds of vis, as mavis, quamvis. 
 
 (5) Nominatives which increase long : as, Samnls (-Itis) ; and 
 
 from Greek 7c : as, Salamls (-mis). 
 
 (a) The -is of the Fut. Perf. and Perf. Subj. is doubtful : as, 
 
 dixeris (Hor.), dederis (Ov.). Compare the quantity of 
 the ist and 2nd Persons Plur. in these tenses. 
 
 (b) Sanguis has is always in Lucretius ; though usually short 
 
 in and after the Augustan age, it is long more than once 
 
520 Latin Prosody. 255. 
 
 in Ovid, Lucan, Silius ; and once in Verg. Tibull. Seneca, 
 Valerius Flaccus, and in the ( Aetna/ Virgil has only 
 pulvis. 
 
 Os final is long : except 
 
 (1) Exos (Lucr.), compos, impSs. 
 
 (2) Greek words which end in oc, as Chios, Phasidos. 
 
 Us final is short : except 
 
 (1) Nominatives in us with u in Gen.; virtus (-utis), tellus 
 
 (-uris), (paliis in Horace's Ars P. must be corrupt). 
 
 (2) Gen. Sing, and Norn, and Ace. Plur. of the 4th Decl. 
 
 gradus. 
 
 (3). When -us represents Greek -ot^: Panthus, Mantus 
 
 (Verg.). 
 
 Ts final is short, occurring only in a few Greek proper names, 
 as Tiphys. Except Tethys (Verg. Ov.), and chrysophrys. 
 
 T final shortens the Vowel. 
 
 Except contracted Perfects, disturbat (Lucr.), petit, obit. 
 The final of the uncontracted petiit, iit and its com- 
 pounds, as red iit, is often long ; some say always, and 
 do not admit exllt and the like. 
 
 255 IV. Quantity of Words in Composition. 
 
 Generally words in composition retain the quantity they had in 
 their simple form. 1 Thus : 
 
 (1) Pro is long in composition. 
 
 But there are many exceptions : pr5cella, prdfanus, prdficiscor, 
 prSfecto, prtffugus, prdfundus, profiteer, prdfari, prdtervus (also 
 prdtervus in Plaut.), pronepos, proneptis, prdfundo (but profundo, 
 Catull.) ; prSpello twice in Lucr., elsewhere propello ; procuro, 
 prapino, propago (Verb and Subst.) are doubtful ; Proserpina, but 
 Proserpina once in Horace, once in his imitator Seneca. In 
 Greek words TT^O remains short, as Propontis. Yet prologus in 
 Plautus and Terence. 
 
 (2) Ne- is long ; nequaquam ; but short in ngque, nequeo, 
 ngfas, nefandus, ngfarius, &c. 
 
 (3) Re in composition is short, unless lengthened by position 
 merely, as rescribo. The four Perfects, reccidi, repperi, reppuli, 
 rettuli, have always re, as they are really reduplications, and 
 should have the consonant doubled. As the old quantity was re, 
 red, generally, redduco or reduco always appear in Lucr. Plaut. 
 
 1 In many cases, however, compound words have undergone such organic changes as 
 remove them from the domain of prosody ; they belong to the general grammar and 
 history of the language. We might ask again why we have 8mitto, not obmitto, as in 
 obmoveo, obmurmuro ; hbdie, not hoddie (hoc-die) ; Idem (neut.), not iddem, as idem 
 (is-dem). But as such quantities are invariable in all periods of the language, we must 
 take them for granted, assuming that the tendency of the language was to shorten such 
 syllables in familiar words. This tendency, unchecked in old times, was artificially 
 resisted by more educated ages. 
 
256. Elision. 521 
 
 Ter. Compare reddo. Reccido is in Ov. Prop. luv. (Virgil does 
 not use the word). Isolated cases occur of rellatus, rellictus. The 
 Hexameter poets always have religio, relicuus, reliquiae from me- 
 trical necessity ; but also religio, relicuus, reliquiae in Plaut. Ter. 
 Phaedrus, c. ; and in later poets always reliquus. 
 
 (4) In that peculiar compound Verb, formed with facio and 
 words like cale- rare- (where by the way the word had a double 
 accent, as cdle-fe'cit, rdre-fe*cit), the quantity of the e is verv 
 variable. Lucretius has many of them with these quantities : 
 rarefieri, rarefacere,_expergefactus, confervefacit, putre- 
 factus, vacefit, patefecit once, patefiet once, but oftener 
 pate'f., liquefit, but liquefactus, calefecit, cinefactus, 
 labefacto, tepefactus, timefactus, conlabefactus, conla- 
 befiunt. It will be seen that the e is always long where a long 
 syllable precedes ; but generally short where a short syllable goes 
 before ; and this tendency to shorten the e is even greater in later 
 poets. We see from the form calfacio how short the e was in 
 this word, the most usual of the class. Ritschl says that in Plautus 
 the e is long where the preceding syllable is long ; short, where it 
 is short. We have thus another instance of the tendency to 
 shorten the finals of iambic words in common use, the e in all 
 these words having been originally long. This tendency has a 
 powerful influence, as will appear, on the old scenic poetry. 
 Videlicet, long in Hexameter poetry, shortens the e in Plautus 
 and Terence. 
 
 V - Elision - 
 
 (i) Elision, sometimes termed by Grammarians Synaloepha, 
 sometimes Ecthlipsis, is an important modifying principle of 
 Quantity. Shortly stated it is this. In a Latin verse, when one 
 word ends in a vowel or diphthong or m, and the following word 
 begins with a vowel or to, such final vowel or diphthong or m with 
 its vowel is elided, that is to say, does not count in the verse. 1 
 
 1 This general principle, however, is subject to many limitations. Much depends on 
 the age of the writer, much on the style of verse. Plautus, or Ennius himself in his 
 dramas, will freely employ elisions which the latter, to judge from the fragments, would 
 never admit in his Annals, written in heroic verse. Virgil has many elisions which Ovid 
 never admits : nay, Horace in his later Odes abstains from elisions found in the earlier 
 books, in his Epistles from elisions which often appear in the Satires. We have room 
 here only for a few remarks. There is not evidence to show in what precise way the 
 elision took place ; how far the former vowel was modified or destroyed ; whether some 
 short vowels, as e in indeclinable words, bene, que, atque, &c., disappeared alto- 
 gether ; whether a long vowel formed a kind of diphthong with a following long vowel ; 
 whether a long vowel, elided before a short, was first shortened, and then formed a kind 
 of synaeresis with the other ; how it fared with syllables ending in m, and the like. As 
 elision, especially of long vowels, continued to become rarer and rarer with careful writers, 
 in the higher kinds of verse, it is probable from this, as well as from other facts, that the 
 artificial cultivation of the language produced a more distinct sounding of final syllables. 
 In a single verse of Plautus or Terence five or six elisions, even of long or middle sylla- 
 bles in m, are usual enough. The quantity of syllables in m is somewhere between that 
 of a long and a short syllable. 
 
 That, as some suppose, the former vowel or diphthong was lost altogether in pronun- 
 ciation, and the accent thrown a syllable back, seems impossible : for then many verses 
 of the best poets would cease to be verses at all : such as Virgil's ' Sublimem expulsam 
 eruerent,' ' Insontem infando indicio.' The latter would then be equivalent to ' Insons 
 infans indicio,' which has no rhythm. 
 
522 Latin Prosody. 256. 
 
 (2) Elision is very rare when a vowel or diphthong immediately 
 precedes the elided syllable, though we find in Virgil, 'Alpheae au 
 origine;' in Horace's Satires, ' fio et mersor/ 
 
 (3) Monosyllables, long or ending in m, should not be elided, 
 before a short vowel, except a few, such as me, te, se, tu, si, cum, 
 turn, iam, sum but not sim, qui sing, not plur. Here, and in 
 what precedes and follows, we are not speaking of the old scenic 
 poets. 
 
 (4) Iambic words ( w ~) are never elided before a short vowel: 
 seldom (never by some poets, such as Ovid in his Elegiacs) even 
 before a long vowel. Lucretius so elides only once, 'equi atque 
 hominis.' Virgil, however, makes use of this license, but yet 
 under limitations. 
 
 (5) Careful poets, as Virgil, abstain from eliding the ultima of a 
 Cretic (~ ~ ~), because this can be only before a short syllable. 
 The style of verse, however, makes a difference. Horace does this 
 in his Satires, as ( tantuli eget/ not elsewhere ; Catullus in his 
 Lyrics and Elegiacs, not in his Heroics. So elision of words in m, 
 like omnium, is rare, yet occurs in the best writers: as, ' omnium 
 egenos' (Verg.), 'fluminum amores' (Ov.), 'principum amicitias' 
 (Hor.). 
 
 (6) There are many distinctions in the elision even of short 
 vowels. Thus or X elide more freely than a or 6 before a short 
 vowel Many poets will hardly thus elide & except in the first foot 
 of a verse or before another a : Flumma amem is a much easier 
 elision than Flumlna grant. The of indeclinable words, such as 
 que, v8, atque, neque, beng, male", temere', is the easiest of all 
 elisions. A poet like Ovid will only admit the elision even of a 
 short vowel in the last half of the Pentameter with very great 
 limitation, and such elisions as a rule occur only in the first foot of 
 this half ; elisions like ' insula habet/ ' resistere equos,' are quite 
 exceptional. In the final syllable of the verse Elision is un- 
 known. 
 
 (7) An apparent, not a real, exception to what is said must be 
 noted. We often see est at the end or in other parts of a verse, 
 where Elision would be inadmissible : ' dolori est, 7 ( laborum est/ 
 <meo est/ <sua est,' and the like. Here est is enclitic, and we 
 ought to write, or at least pronounce, dolorist, laborumst, 
 meost, suast. Also es sometimes is an enclitic in the same 
 way. 
 
 Virgil, moved perhaps by his love of the older poets, frequently elides long vowels, but 
 generally in the first half of the verse or in the middle of the fourth foot ; not at the very 
 beginning of the line : 'Si ad vitulam spectes,' in one of his earliest Eclogues, being a 
 singular exception. 
 
 But between Virgil and Ovid a great change was going on : the latter has hardly one 
 elision of a long vowel for ten of Virgil's : his elisions too of syllables in m are much 
 rarer. The most careful poets, such as Martial, follow Ovid ; though Virgil's authority 
 had weight with some of the later Epic poets. As an illustration of what is said, Jt is to 
 be noted that Horace, in the Fourth book of his Odes, only once elides a long syllable : 
 'Quod spiro et placeo ;' and even here the O may have become doubtful, though spon- 
 daic words did not so soon begin to shorten the final. Horace, however, freely elides 
 here syllables in in. 
 
257. Hiatus. 523 
 
 257 
 
 A. Exceptions to the law of Elision, forming Hiatus. See Hiatus. 
 12. xxxi. p. 52. 
 
 (a) The monosyllabic interjections a, 6, heu, for manifest rea--^ 
 sons are not elided by the dactylic poets. Ovid once has 
 the Greek Interjection ai ai unelided ; once, too, he 
 writes : ' Et bis 16 Arethusa vocavit 10 Arethusa,' for a 
 peculiar effect, and Catullus leaves io unelided in his 
 Epithalamiurn. Others do not allow a vowel to fol- 
 low Io. 
 
 (&) Sometimes a long vowel is left unelided and long in the 
 arsis of a foot. Virgil employs this license more than 
 others, clearly in imitation of the Greeks ; but there is not 
 more than one instance to several hundred verses. ( Stant 
 et iuniperi et castaneae hirsutae' gives two in one verse. 
 Often it occurs in Greek words ; sometimes for poetical 
 effect: 'Ter sunt conati imponere Pello Ossam;' ' Si 
 pered, hominum manibus.' Once and once only he leaves 
 a syllable thus long in the thesis of the foot : < Glaucd et 
 i Panopeae et Inoo Melicertae:' a manifest Greek rhythm, 
 
 as in Homer a vowel is very often thus left long in the 
 thesis of the first foot. 
 
 Ovid keeps an unelided vowel more rarely than Virgil, and 
 in deference to him. Many poets abstain from it alto- 
 gether : Horace has it very rarely : ' capitl mhumato.' 
 1 Daedaleo ocior' is not genuine ; for the 6 would then 
 remain long in thesis. 
 
 This license is very rare in middle syllables in m, and most 
 of the examples admit of easy correction, as in Propertius, 
 ' O me felicem, o nox mihi Candida' (read nox o). 
 
 (c) In thesis, too, a long vowel is sometimes shortened before 
 
 a short vowel, but generally in the case of Iambic or 
 Cretic words, which would hardly admit of elision, many 
 of them being Greek or Proper Names. It is sometimes 
 united with the other kind of hiatus in the same line ; see 
 some of the examples given above ; and Virgil's ' Hyla 
 Hyla omne sonaret.' Virgil has 'vale vale inquit,' l In- 
 sulae lonio,' &c. ; Lucretius, ( Remigi oblitae,' ' etesiae 
 esse ;' Ennius has, ' Scipio invicte ; ' Cicero, ' etesiae in 
 vada,' who in his ' Orator ' speaks of it as a license very 
 rare in Latin, common in Greek. 
 
 Such license is scarcely allowable in polysyllables in m, 
 though Ennius has * Dum quidem unus homo/ * militum 
 octo/ and Lucilius 6 sordidum omne/ Instances given to 
 Lucretius have no foundation. 
 
 Virgil's two examples of such a hiatus with a short syllable, 
 'Addam cerea pruna honos erit/ and 'patuit dea Ille 
 ubi/ may perhaps be defended by the pause, but are 
 almost unparalleled ; for the ' male ominatis ' assigned 
 by some to Horace, and the 'male, o miselle passer' 
 given by others to Catullus, are impossible. 
 
 (d] Long monosyllables and those in m are sometimes short- 
 ened in thesis before a short vowel : Virgil has ' qu* 
 
524 Latin Prosody. 258. 
 
 amant/ <te amice/ <6 Alexi ;' Horace 'me amas,' <num 
 adest. 7 Lucretius has eleven instances of this license ; 
 which is frequent in the comic poets, but there only in 
 arsis. 
 
 (e) A license, resembling that of hiatus, is the lengthening of a 
 short syllable ending in a consonant before a vowel. 
 Virgil has many examples, in imitation of Homer and 
 Ennius, the license often taking place in or before a 
 Greek word : ' Pectoribus mhians,' ' Altius ingreditur et/ 
 ' fultus hyacintho.' Lucretius has only two examples, 
 fulget auro/ f sciret animoque ; ' Catullus three, all 
 coming before the Greek word hymenaeus. 
 
 (/) Virgil, if his text is right, thus lengthens a short syllable 
 ending in a vowel: 'gravia sectoque elephanto ;' but 
 4 anima atque istius inscia culpae/ where there would be 
 hiatus also, is condemned by all sound critics, as well as 
 1 supervacua aut' in Juvenal. 
 
 (g) Virgil, however, has one singular license : sixteen times he 
 lengthens que in arsis, though que is one of the shortest 
 syllables in the language and eminently susceptible of 
 elision ; and he has induced hardly any one else to follow 
 his example. But, in fifteen of the sixteen cases, que is 
 in the arsis of the second foot, as ' Terraeque tractusque ;' 
 once in the arsis of the fifth, ' Noemonaque Prytanimque/ 
 with Greek words. Clearly it is a mere imitation of 
 Homer's lengthening of TF in the second and fifth foot 
 In fourteen of the cases, too, the next word begins with a 
 double consonant. 1 
 258 
 
 Metre. B. Having discussed the laws of Quantity generally, 
 we proceed to apply them to the chief kinds of Verse 
 employed by the Latin poets, which are all borrowed 
 from the Greeks. 
 
 The poets, however, with whom we need concern ourselves, have 
 with great tact confined themselves to a few of the simpler kinds of 
 verse, discarding the more complicated feet, rhythms, and verses, as 
 unsuitable to their language. Those, however, which they have 
 selected, they have adapted with great skill to all its peculiarities. 
 
 I. Verse and Metre. 
 
 i. A Verse (versus, line) is composed of a certain number of 
 Feet. 
 
 A Foot (pes) contains a certain number of morae, three at 
 least. 
 
 1 In all the above instances a purely short syllable is artificially lengthened. Virgil 
 employs this license, so far as we know, much more than his predecessors. It is not, 
 therefore, a reminiscence of the time when such syllables were long : once on a time 
 perhaps every final in the language was long. It is manifestly an imitation of Greek 
 rhythm. When a syllable in Latin is really doubtful, it is used indifferently long or short 
 in all places of the verse : comp. Virgil's ' Ante ora patris patrem qui obtruncat ad aras ; ' 
 Martial's ' Capto tuam, pudet heu, sed capto, Pontice, cenam.' Here lengthening as 
 well as shortening takes place in thesis. 
 
259- Metre and Verse. 525 
 
 Each simple Foot has two parts, one of which is said to have 
 the ictus upon it, and is called arsis (marked ); the other part 
 is called thesis. The relation of these parts to one another deter N 
 mines the nature of the Foot, and thereby of the Verse. 
 
 2. There are, properly speaking, only four distinct Feet with 
 which we need concern ourselves. Two of these have the arsis 
 and thesis equal, each consisting of two morae. Two have them 
 unequal, the arsis containing two, the thesis one mora. 
 
 The first two are, 
 
 1. Dactylus - ^ ^ . . lltora. 
 
 2. Anapaestus .... ^ ^ - ... patulae. 
 The last two are, 
 
 3. Trochaeus (or Choreus) - v ... arma. 
 
 4. Iambus w - . . cano. 
 
 These are the genuine Feet ; but for the Dactyl often appears in 
 every kind of Dactylic verse 
 
 5. Spondeus ... fato. 
 
 Also 
 
 6. Tribrachys . . . . ~ ~ ~ . . , t erne re 
 
 can take the place of either the Iambus or the Trochee. 
 
 Therefore the Spondee and the Tribrach are representative 
 Feet. 1 
 
 In most kinds of Trochaic and Iambic verse, a Spondee may 
 be used for the Trochee or Iambus in certain parts of the verse ; 
 and sometimes it may be represented by an Anapaest or a Dactyl. 
 
 In Dactylic and Trochaic verse the arsis is on the first part of 
 each foot : litora, drma. In Anapaestic and Iambic on the last : 
 patulae", can<5. 
 
 The arsis therefore falls on a long syllable ; in regular Dactylic 
 verse invariably. When, however, a Dactyl is used for an Ana- 
 paest, the arsis falls on the first short syllable, litora: when a 
 Tribrach or Anapaest takes the place of a Trochee, the arsis is on 
 the first syllable, tdmere, pdtulae ; when a Tribrach or Dactyl is 
 used for an Iambus, the arsis is on the second syllable, temere. 2 
 
 II. Verses. V 
 
 i. The Dactylic Hexameter occupies as large a space in Latin 
 poetry as all other Verses together, and is of more relative im- 
 portance than the Homeric Hexameter is in Greek. 
 
 1 In Anapaestic verses both the Spondee and the Dactyl may stand for the Anapaest 
 * A full list of (so-called) Feet is subjoined for reference. 
 
 (a) Of two Syllables 
 
 ^ w Pyrrhichius : pater I - ^ Trochaeus : vldit 
 
 ^ Iambus : amant I ~ ~ Spondeus : latos 
 
 (V) Of three Syllables. 
 
 v v ^ Tribrachys : regere 
 \s \s Anapaestus : ammos 
 
 w \j Dactylus: corpora 
 
 v^ Creticus : dixerant 
 
 v Amphibrachys : latlnus 
 w Bacchius : regebant 
 
 - - ^ Palimbacchius : rexlsse 
 
 - - Molossus : dlcebas 
 
526 Latin Prosody. 259. 
 
 This famous Verse, as well as the Elegiac couplet, was first 
 adapted from the Greek by Ennius, who died B.C. 169 ; was gra- 
 dually improved, until it attained an admirable perfection in the 
 hands of Virgil, Ovid, and others ; and continued for many cen- 
 turies to be the favourite form, until the total extinction of the old 
 classical world. It may be defined as a Dactylic Hexameter 
 Catalectic (catalecticus in disyllabum), the last Dactyl losing its 
 final syllable. It consisted therefore of five Dactyls and a Tro- 
 chee. 
 
 But as the final syllable of a Verse (except when connected 
 closely by Synaphea l with the following Verse, as in the Anapae- 
 stic system and the Glyconic of Catullus) was indifferently long or 
 short, the final Trochee might always be a Spondee. And indeed, 
 while in Greek the last syllable is indifferent, in all the most careful 
 Latin writers it is much oftener long than short. For Ennius, 
 followed by the rest, seems to have thought the last Foot a real 
 Spondee, and, from mistaking Homer, to have even introduced 
 occasional Hypermetrical Verses. In this he has been followed by 
 Virgil and most Latins, though to Homer this licence is unknown. 
 In him we feel that the last Foot is a Trochee or curtailed Dactyl ; 
 while the best Latin Verse lets us see that in the writer's mind the 
 last Foot was rather a genuine Spondee. 
 
 Of the five Dactyls which remain, the fifth must, as a rule, 
 always remain a Dactyl, probably to keep in view the Dactylic 
 nature of the Verse. The first four may be indifferently Dactyls 
 or Spondees ; and, contrary to the rule in Greek, in Latin the 
 Spondees are somewhat the more numerous, owing perhaps to the 
 character of the language. 
 
 Sometimes not only the older poets, but, for poetical effect, Virgil 
 and, in imitation of him, Ovid and others have a Spondee in the 
 fifth foot ; but then (to give weight to the exceptional rhythm) the 
 two last feet are generally contained in a single word, and the 
 fourth foot is in most -cases a Dactyl. Sometimes a purely Greek 
 rhythm, the words being often Greek, is introduced; in which 
 cases a Spondee now and then appears in the fourth foot. These 
 three instances from Virgil will illustrate what is meant : 
 
 ' Cara deum suboles, magnum lovis incrementum.' 
 ( Lamentis gemituque et femineo ululatu.' 
 ' Nereidum matri et Neptuno Aegaeo.' 
 
 (c) Of four Syllables (compound) 
 
 \s \s \s Proceleusmaticus : homlmbus 
 \j \s w Paeon Primus : condldtmus 
 _ ^> ^ Paeon Secundus : amabimus 
 ^, u Paeon Tertius : nemoralis 
 *-* Paeon Quartus : regimtnl 
 \> _ - lonicus a Minore : metuentes 
 _ ^, w lonicus a Majore : terrebimus 
 _ vy _ Diiambus : protervltas 
 
 v ^ Ditrocheus : condTdlsse 
 _ w \j _ Choriambus : opposTtTs 
 v w Antispastus : regebamur 
 
 ^ Epitritus Primus : amavlstl 
 
 v - Epitritus Secundus : audtebas 
 
 v Epitritus Tertius : audlverant 
 
 _ _ _ N^ Epitritus Quartus : rexlssemus 
 _ _ _ Dispondeus : suspexerunt 
 
 The Pyrrhich is not properly a Foot. The Trochee is also called Choreus, the Cretic 
 Amphimacer : this has a second arsis. The Ionic a Minore is used by Horace and Catul- 
 lus. The Proseleusmatic is occasionally put for its equivalent Spondee or Anapaest by 
 the old scenic poets, and even by Seneca. 
 
 4 Synaphea (oT/paTrretv) is said to exist in any system of Verses, when the last syllable 
 of each verse is influenced by the first syllable of the following -verse, as it would be if 
 the two words stood in one and the same verse. 
 
26o. Dactylic Hexameter. Caesura. 527 
 
 The two following : 
 
 1 Cum patribus populoque, penatibus et magnis dis.' 
 1 Cum sociis gnatoque, penatibus et magnis dis/ 
 are reminiscences of Ennius. 
 
 These Versus (nrorceia^orTeg are proportionally more frequent in 
 Catullus from imitation of the Alexandrine poets. 
 
 In the fragments of Ennius we find one or two verses without a 
 single Dactyl. The only instance in later writers seems to be one 
 in Catullus : 
 
 1 Si te lenirem nobis neu conarere.' 
 
 T> 2 ^ 
 
 But to make a verse it is not enough to place side by side six Caesura, 
 feet of the kind mentioned ; as in these verses of Ennius : 
 
 ' Poste recumbite vestraque pectora pellite tonsis.' 
 ' Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret.' 
 
 Both verses are rude attempts to make the sound point the 
 sense ; but we might apply to them the ' horret et alget,' which 
 Lucilius jocularly proposed for the end of the second. 
 
 For the beauty and harmony of a verse CAESURA is necessary. 
 
 (i) CAESURA is the technical term for the law that in some part 
 or parts of the verse the end of a word must coincide with the 
 middle of a foot. 1 
 
 1 Explanation may here be given of various technical terms. 
 
 A. Hemimeris (^/uu^pis) means . 
 
 Hence one foot and a half (f ) is called Trihemimeris : 
 two feet (f) ,, Penthemimeris ; 
 
 three (|) Hephthemimeris ; 
 
 feur (f) Ennehemimeris. 
 
 Hence : 
 
 (a) Caesura after i feet is called Trihemimeral ; 
 
 (b) -z\ ,, Penthemimeral ; 
 
 (c) 3^ Hephthemimeral : 
 
 (d) ,, ,, 4^ Eimehemimeral ; 
 Examples : 
 
 a b c d 
 
 i. Fudit equum I magn<5 | tellus I percussa tridenti. Verg. 
 
 Aut amite | levi | rara | tendit 
 
 retia. Hor. 
 
 be d 
 
 In i (a Dactylic Hexameter) the caesuras a, b, c, being after an arsis, are strong ; but 
 d, being after a thesis^ is 'weak. 
 
 In 2 (an Iambic Trimeter) all the caesuras are after thesis, and therefore weak. 
 
 In contradistinction to Caesura (which is the coincidence of the close of a word with 
 the middle of a foot) the coincidence of the close of a word with the close of a foot may 
 be called ' Dialysis : ' 
 
 Lumina | labentem caelo quae | ducitis | annum. 
 
 B. Metre (/merpop, -measure) is used in two senses. 
 
 I. Metre, in the first place, means the verse or system of verses used by a poet in any 
 composition (Heroic, Elegiac, Alcaic, Sapphic Metre). 
 
 (a) A Metre which contains only one kind of verse is called Monocolum ; 
 
 ,, ,, two kinds ,, Dicolum ; 
 
 ,, three Tricolum. 
 
 (from paves, single ; ica>Aoi>, member). 
 
 (b) When two kinds of verse alternate, they form Distichum (from Si?, twice ; orif, 
 row), a Distich or couplet. 
 
528 Latin Prosody. 260. 
 
 (2) The best and most common caesura in the Dactylic Hexa- 
 meter is the penthemimeral or semiquinarian, where the coinci- 
 dence takes place after two feet and a half, or five half-feet : 
 
 Tityre tu patulae | recubans sub tegmine fagi. 
 
 The caesura in question has place after patulae, though the verse 
 has also two subordinate caesuras, after tu and recubans. 
 
 When recurrence takes place after four verses, these form Tetrastichum, a Tetrastich 
 (stanza). 
 
 (c) Thus the Dactylic Hexameter (Heroic), Iambic Trimeter, Trochaic Tetrameter, 
 and others, are found as Metra Monocola. 
 
 The Elegiac Metre and many others are Dicola Disticha. 
 
 The Sapphic and some others are Dicola Tetrasticha. 
 
 The Alcaic is Tricolum Tetrastichum. 
 
 II. Metre, in the second place, is used to express a given portion of a Verse in some 
 Rhythms ; as the Dactylic, the Trochaic, the Iambic, and the Anapaestic. 
 
 (a) In a Dactylic Verse, one foot constitutes a Metre. 
 
 In Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic Rhythms two feet (SiTroSta) constitute a 
 Metre. 
 
 (b) A Verse comprised in a angle Metre is called Monometer ; in two, Dimeter ; in 
 three, Trimeter ; in four, Tetrameter ; in five, Pentameter ; in six, Hexameter. 
 
 (c) Wanting one syllable to complete its metres a Verse is called Catalectic (ara- 
 ATJKTIKOS) ; in syllabam, if the incomplete foot retains one syllable ; in disyllabum, if it 
 retains two. 
 
 Wanting two syllables, Brachycatalectic (jSpaxweaTaA^/cTos) ; 
 
 Having a syllable above its metres, Hypercatalectic (vTrep/caTdATj/croO : 
 
 Having its metres complete, Acatalectic (ajcaraATjKTo?). 
 
 (d) A Verse may also be called according to the number of feet : Binarius (2), as the 
 Adonian ; Ternarius (3), as the Pherecratean ; Quaternarius (4), as the Trochaic or 
 Iambic Dimeter ; Senarius (6), as the Dactylic Hexameter or the Iambic Trimeter ; 
 Septenarius (7), as the Trochaic Tetrameter Catalecticus ; Octonarius (8), as the Trochaic 
 Tetrameter Acat. of the scenic poets. 
 
 (2) Or a Verse may be called according to the number of its syllables, as Phalaecius 
 Hendecasyllabus (n). So the Alcaic Strophe consists of two Alcaic Hendecasyllabi 
 (n), one Akaic Enneasyllabus (9), and one Alcaic Decasyllabus (10). 
 
 C. (a) A syllable at the beginning of a Verse before the just Rhythm is called Ana- 
 crusis (dpaicpovo-is, back-stroke) : as (according to one mode of scansion), 
 
 O | magna Carthago probrosis. 
 
 (b) Two syllables so preceding the just Rhythm are called a Base, which may be tro- 
 chaic : 
 
 Lute | umve papaver ; 
 or spondaic : 
 
 Duram | difficilis mane. 
 
 (c) A double Base is trochee + spondee, as in the Sapphic Verse : 
 
 I lie ml par | esse deo videtur. 
 
 This may have Anacrusis before it, as in the Alcaic Hendecasyllable : 
 Mors j et fugacem | persequitur virum. 
 
 D. (a) A Verse is called Asynartete (acrvvapTijTos) which is really composed of two 
 different verses welded, as it were, together : 
 
 Tu vina Torquato move || consule pressa meo. 
 
 (b) A Verse which has one syllable more than its regular constitution, elided before a 
 vowel at the beginning of the next verse, is Hypermetrical (Hypenneter) : 
 Sors exitura et nos in aetern [ um 
 Exitium impositura cumbae. 
 
260. Caesura. 5 29 
 
 This caesura, however, is so powerful that it is alone sufficient 
 for a perfectly harmonious verse : 
 
 Illius immensae | ruperunt horrea messes. 
 
 Or the verse may equally have two or three caesuras, as in the one 
 quoted, and 
 
 Silvestrem | tenui | Musam | meditaris avena. 
 
 Caesura after the first half-foot seems to have no force ; and 
 ' Quid faciat laetas segetes' seems equivalent to < Conficiat laetas 
 segetes.' 
 
 However, there is a weak trochaic caesura, after the trochee or 
 second syllable of the dactyl ; so that a verse may in a way have 
 five caesuras : 
 
 Una | salus | victis | nullam | sperare | salutem. 
 
 But in all these instances the penthemimeral is the one important 
 caesura. As a quite exceptional rhythm, we might find ' viam | vi,' 
 for instance, instead of f salutem/ which would give one more 
 caesura. This verse of Lucretius : 
 
 Augescunt | aliae | gentes | aliae | minuuntur, 
 in which are four strong caesuras, is faulty. See (11), p. 530. 
 
 (3) But, to avoid monotony, the best poets seek variety of 
 rhythm by other caesuras. Next in power to the penthemimeral is 
 the hephthemimeral or semiseptenarian caesura, coming, that is, 
 after three and a half feet, or seven half-feet. But, to give a proper 
 verse, this caesura must be combined with one or more others. In 
 this verse, 
 
 Quid faciat | laetas | segetes | quo sidere terram, 
 
 it may be said the principal pause is at the hephthemimeris. But 
 the verse has its character really determined by the penthemimeral 
 caesura. 
 
 (4) When the latter is absent, the next best form is obtained by 
 uniting with the hephthemimeral caesura the trihemimeral, in the 
 middle of the second foot, and also the weak caesura which falls 
 between the two short syllables of a dactyl in the third foot : 
 
 Formosam | resonare | doces | Amaryllida silvas. 
 
 (5) Less perfect, though coming perhaps next to the above, is 
 that form which has only the trihemimeral and hephthemimeral : 
 
 Despiciens | mare velivolum | terrasque iacentes. 
 
 (6) It is less common to find the caesura at the third trochee 
 together with only the trihemimeral ; though sometimes a pleasing" 
 effect is thus produced ; as in this verse : 
 
 Praecipitat | suadentque | cadentia sidera somnos ; 
 yet in Greek this is perhaps the normal type of the Hexameter. 
 
 (7) The caesura at the third trochee by itself is still rarer and is 
 usually intended for poetical effect : 
 
 Aequora concussitque | micantia sidera mundus. 
 Falleret indeprensus | et inremeabilis error. 
 M M 
 
530 Latin Prosody. 260. 
 
 (8) This caesura, preceded by one at the second trochee, pro- 
 duces an unpleasant rhythm : 
 
 O crudelis | Alexi | nihil mea carmina curas ; 
 unless it is designed for effect : 
 
 Una Eurusque | Notusquelruunt creberque procellis 
 and even Horace's familiar style will not reconcile us to 
 
 Dignum mente | domoque | legentis | honesta | Neronis. 
 But the alternation of the trochaic with the stronger caesuras is 
 often pleasing : 
 
 Quantus ! Athos | aut quantus | Eryx | aut ipse | coruscis : 
 Marsa | manus | Paeligna [ cohors | Vestina | virum | vis. 
 
 (9) Sometimes, but rarely, the preposition beginning a com- 
 pound word serves for a quasicaesura ; as in this verse of Horace, 
 
 Vestrum praetor, is intestabilis et sacer esto. 
 Virgil, or Lucretius, would mask the harshness by elision : 
 Conplerunt, | magno indignantur murmure clausi : 
 and thus in Virgil's 
 
 Magnanimi | lovis ingratum ascendere cubile, 
 
 the main caesura is hephthemimeral not penthemimeral ; while in 
 both verses the rhythm is helped by the trihemimeris. 
 
 (10) The effect of Elision generally on the caesuras and rhythm 
 of a verse, as was said above, is not easy to determine. It seems 
 clear that the elided syllable did not disappear altogether, and that 
 the rhythm of such a verse as this for example : 
 
 Monstrum | horrendum j informe | ingens | cui lumen j ademp- 
 tum: 
 
 was not identical with 
 
 Hie | vertex | nobis | semper | sublimis | at ilium. 
 
 The elisions, which in this case were designed for effect, must 
 have had some intermediate influence. 
 
 (n) The close of the verse should have a free open movement, 
 in contrast, as it were, to the involution caused by the caesuras in 
 the middle of the verse. Good Latin verse indeed exhibits only 
 two main types of rhythm here : i. where the fifth dactyl is wholly 
 contained in one word and ends with that word : ' sidere terram/ 
 ' adiungere vites ; ' 2. where caesura takes place between the two 
 short syllables ; ' cultus | habendo,' ' primus | ab oris.' 
 
 The verse, as a rule, is faulty, when caesura takes place in the 
 middle of the dactyl ; as * aliae | minuuntur' in the verse quoted 
 above from Lucretius ; unless the dactyl contains two entire words, 
 as ' ac tua nautae' in Virgil. Lucretius and the older writers often 
 violate this law ; Virgil very seldom, and then with his usual skill 
 for the sake of effect : 
 
 Ne saturare fimo pingui pudeat | sola neve. 
 
 Quam pius Aeneas et quam magni | Phryges et quam. 
 
 As this rhythm is much more frequent in Greek, Virgil and Ovid 
 are fond of using it with Greek words, like hymenaeus, hyacin- 
 
 thus. 
 
26 1. The Elegiac Distich. 531 
 
 (12) The last foot should be contained in one word; though 
 occasionally it may consist of two monosyllables, as in the line just 
 quoted. Here again artists like Virgil use exceptional cadences 
 like ' procumbit humi bos/ * praeruptus aquae mons/ ' atque homi- 
 num rex/ to produce exceptional effects. 
 
 (13) Lucretius often comprises the two last feet in one word, 
 like principiorum, material ; Virgil and Ovid very rarely, and 
 then always for a special purpose, as ' perfractaque quadrupedan- 
 tum ; ' or with Greek words in imitation of the Greeks. Elisions 
 in this part of the verse should be of the easiest kinds: & or X : 
 ergo age in the fifth foot has its special excuse. Virgil has two 
 or three endings like 'mentem animumque/ 'hoc animo hauri/ 
 which strike by their rarity and are perhaps in compliment to 
 Lucretius. Elisions within the sixth foot are still rarer: Virgil 
 elides e in * hue turbidus atque hue/ ' hinc comminus atque hinc :' 
 Horace in his satires ventures to say, ' iugera centum an. 7 As 
 shewn above, e s t at the end of a verse makes no elision. 
 
 (14) Hypermetrical verses were introduced by Ennius, probably, 
 as was said above, from his misapprehending Homer. A super- 
 numerary syllable at the end of one verse is supposed to be elided 
 by a vowel at the beginning of the next, sometimes even when a 
 full stop intervenes. Lucretius has only one instance, * concurrere 
 deber|e:' Catullus only one or two Virgil has more of them: 
 que is generally the superfluous syllable, and a long syllable pre- 
 cedes. But if his MSS. are to be trusted, he has these two end- 
 ings: 'vivaque sulpur|a/ ' arbutus horrid! a. 7 
 
 (15) The part also of the verse which precedes the caesura must 
 be properly connected with the rest. If there is no trihemimeral 
 caesura, the end of the second foot should not coincide with the 
 end of a word. Exceptions to this rule are exceedingly rare in 
 Virgil ; still rarer in Ovid. In the former we find, ' Scilicet omni- 
 bus est labor impendendus.' ' Armentarius Afer. ; 'Sedtudesine 
 velle.' 'Spargens umida mella.' 'Per conubia nostra:' the 
 second foot being always a dactyl. Lucretius has very many 
 instances, and sometimes a spondee in the second foot, if a mono- 
 syllable follow : *Sive voluptas est. J Such a commencement as 
 ' Et quaecumque coloribu' sint/ is also very exceptional. Once he 
 makes sound echo sense by a most exceptional but felicitous 
 rhythm : ' ' Et membratim vitalem deperdere sensum.' Horace, 
 aiming at a conversational style, has a few negligent rhythms. 
 
 261 
 
 2. The ELEGIAC DISTICH * (Dactylic Hexameter with so-called The 
 Pentameter) comes next in importance. Borrowed by Ennius i^f 
 from the Greeks, it passed to Catullus, Gallus, Tibullus and Pro- 
 pertius, and attained its final polish in the hands of Ovid : he and 
 the two last mentioned being always looked upon as its greatest 
 masters. 
 
 1 Rhythm of the Elegiac Distich : 
 (i) Dactylic Hexameter. 
 (a)- w wl- w */ l-ll-wv I -w I- 
 
532 L atin Prosody. 261. 
 
 (1) The Elegiac Hexameter is subject to the same laws as the 
 Heroic. But Ovid indulges in very few licences, fewer even than 
 in his own Heroic, though there he is stricter than Virgil. He 
 seldom deviates from one or other of the two best types of caesura ; 
 and abstains from harsh elisions. Catullus' Elegiacs, on the other 
 hand, are much harsher in their elisions than his Heroics are. 
 
 (2) The second verse of the couplet, called the Pentameter from 
 a strange fancy of the ancient grammarians, has been brought by 
 Ovid and others under much stricter rules than the Greek verse 
 from which it is derived. It consists of two Dactylic Penthe- 
 mimers, which must be kept quite distinct, and the sentence, or at 
 least a distinct clause, must close with the couplet. 1 
 
 The first Penthemimer corresponds precisely with that of a 
 Hexameter, ending with a distinct, penthemimeral caesura, never 
 followed by an elision ; for a verse like Propertius's ' Quaerere : 
 non impune ilia rogata venit,' never occurs in Ovid. 
 
 The second of the two Penthemimers gives the Latin Elegiac its 
 peculiar character. Like the Greek, the two full feet must be 
 dactyls ; but the Latin, unlike the Greek verse, ought to end with 
 an Iambic word. 2 This restricts the rhythm to very few types, 
 which do not differ essentially in their general effect. The rest 
 of the penthemimer must either be contained in one word, like 
 delituisset; excutiatque ; or in two: ut videare; arte 
 regendus; praebuit ille (excutiat sit would be inadmis- 
 sible); or in three: tu mihi sola; quo sit amanda ; quisquis 
 es, adde; ille vel alter; or in four: as, men s sit et apta. 
 
 Ovid's Elisions in this part of the verse are the easiest and 
 slightest, as of or X ; if S, only before another a. They have 
 place too only in the middle of the first dactyl, or else between its 
 two short syllables. Elision between the two dactyls is very rare, 
 except in the case of que. In the second dactyl it is very excep- 
 tional, as ' insula habet/ ' resistere equos.' At the end it is utterly 
 inadmissible, except before the enclitic est (es) spoken of above. 
 Ovid in this part of the verse never elides any long or even 
 doubtful syllable. With him, therefore, Ennius's 'me a equi pa- 
 rare queat, 3 or Propertius' l si altera talis erit,' would not be 
 possible. Catullus, however, has very harsh elisions in this half 
 of the verse, especially in his short vituperative Elegiacs : ( me 
 pretio atque malo ;' even 'ploxemi habet veteris.' 
 
 As the Romans definitively accepted the strict Ovidian type for 
 the Elegiac, we are bound to do the same. It commends itself, 
 however, by its own intrinsic merits, its marvellous ease and 
 
 1 Very rarely the Subject is in one distich, and the Verb in the next : as, 
 
 Languor et immodici nullo sub vindice somni 
 
 Aleaque et multo tempora quassa mero 
 Eripiunt omnis animo sine vulnere nervos, Ov. 
 
 2 In Versus Elegiacus a final trisyllable is rare and ungraceful : a final word of four or 
 five syllables is less ungraceful, but rare in Ovid : as, 
 
 Maxima de nihilo nascitur historia, Prop. 
 Lis est cum forma magna pudicitiae, Ov. 
 
 Tke final disyllable should be a Verb, Substantive, or Pronoun ; rarely an Adverb ; 
 more rarely still an Adjective or Participle, and only when a strong emphasis falls on 
 
 Hoc faciet positae te mihi, terra, levem, Ov. 
 
262-63. Lyric Metres. 533 
 
 buoyancy. Propertius in his earlier poems has a very distinct 
 style of his own : in his later, influenced doubtless by the example 
 of his younger friend, he approaches much nearer to the Ovidian 
 movement. 
 
 3. Lyric Metres. Ly 2 j c 2 
 
 (1) The Lyric poetry of the Romans is far less in amount than Metres - 
 their Heroic and Elegiac. It is of much less importance also than 
 
 that of the Greeks. The same is true of their Iambic and Trochaic 
 poetry, if we omit the old scenic verse. The peculiar excellence, 
 however, of the two chief representatives of these styles, Catullus 
 and Horace, gives to them an important rank in Latin literature. 
 
 Catullus and Horace saw that Latin was unfitted for the rich 
 and complicated variety of choral rhythm, so brilliantly worked 
 out by the Greeks, and confined themselves to the simpler and 
 more manageable melodies of Alcaeus and Sappho, and, in the 
 case of Catullus, of the Alexandrine school. They subjected even 
 these to stricter laws, in conformity with the genius of their lan- 
 guage, as had been done by Virgil, Ovid, and others in the metres 
 cultivated by them. They also both made use of Iambic measures, 
 but in different ways. 
 
 Horace and Catullus are the only important models in these 
 styles, with two exceptions. Each had a follower ; Catullus a very 
 brilliant one in Martial, who has largely employed in his Epigrams 
 the Phalaecian Hendecasyllable and the Iambic Scazon, increas- 
 ing the strictness of their laws on principles of metre akin to those 
 of Ovid. Seneca in his numerous choruses copies the lyrical mea- 
 sures of Horace, especially Asclepiads and Sapphics, but with 
 little skill and often in a very hybrid fashion. 
 
 (2) Though it is so much used by the old scenic writers, and was 
 always the favourite measure in popular chants, and seems so well 
 .adapted to the genius of the language, and is so common in Greek, 
 the Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic is hardly found in the extant 
 learned poets. Seneca has very few of them : the ' Pervigilium 
 Veneris/ though brightly burnished, is of the copper age. Ana- 
 paests, too, found little favour, if we except Seneca, Plautus, the 
 old Tragic fragments and those of Lucilius. 
 
 (3) Both Horace and Catullus must have tried many metres, before 
 they finally decided which were best adapted to their genius and 
 purpose ; but such they seem to have found at last. The Odes of 
 Horace are 104 in number: of these, ninety-seven are Alcaic, 
 Sapphic, or Asclepiad; of which last he employs five different 
 systems. 2 6 3 
 
 But his Epodes preceded his Odes in time ; and here the Iambic Epodes 
 is the prevailing type. Only one, however, the I7th and last, is in of Ho- 
 continuous Trimeter Iambics. Horace has here imitated strictly 
 the Greek Trimeter. The caesuras are very precise : generally the 
 penthemimeral, now and then the hephthemimeral. Of resolved 
 feet he admits the dactyl in the first, and the tribrach in any of the 
 next three places. It is remarkable, too, that he observes the law 
 of the Greek tragic pause in the fifth, with one exception only in 
 the eighty- one verses, in which the rhythm is designed for a pecu- 
 liar effect ; in which, too, elision disguises the violation : 
 Alitibus atque cdnibus homicidam Hectorem. 
 
534 Latin Prosody. 264. 
 
 He must have felt, however, that the regular Greek trimeter was 
 not effective, alone and unrelieved ; and has not repeated the 
 experiment. 
 
 (4) Catullus, too, with his nice tact, must have felt the same. He 
 has but one poem (52), of four lines, in ordinary trimeters, two of 
 the four being pure Iambics. Like Horace, he would not have 
 liked to recall the old scenic verse with its spondees, effective in 
 its way, but to them inartistic. He has therefore obviated the 
 monotony by two opposite methods. 
 
 Two of his best poems, the 4th and 2Qth, are in pure Iambics, to 
 which his taste and skill give lightness, force, and variety. 
 
 In contrast to this, eight of his poems are in the Scazon, or 
 limping Trimeter (Choliambus) of Hipponax : 
 
 MiseV Catulle | desinas ine'ptire, 
 
 Et quod vides perisse | perditum ducas. 
 
 The peculiar movement produced by the inversion of rhythm at 
 the end is very effective. The caesura is indifferently penthemi- 
 meral or hephthemimeral, but always one or other. He has a 
 dactyl once in the first, once in the third place; but no other 
 resolved feet. Martial after him uses the Scazon often and with 
 equal success. 
 
 (5) To avoid the monotony of the continuous ordinary Trimeter, 
 Horace has composed the first ten Epodes in Iambic couplets, this 
 Trimeter alternating with a Dimeter, resolved feet being very rare. 
 In the remaining six Epodes he has sought still further variety by 
 coupling in five of them the regular Heroic with some other metre 
 in two (14, 15) with the Iambic Dimeter just spoken of; in one 
 (16) with a pure Iambic Trimeter ; in one (12) with a Dactylic 
 Tetrameter Catalecticus in disyllabum, in which metre he has also- 
 composed two of his Odes (i. 7 and 28). In the fifth (13) he has 
 joined the Heroic with an Asynartete verse, the lambelegus, com- 
 posed of a Dimeter Iambic followed by a Dactylic Penthemimen 
 In the remaining Epode (11) he has united a Trimeter Iambic 
 with the reverse Asynartete, a Dactylic Penthemimer followed by 
 an Iambic Dimeter. 
 
 264 Besides the above, he has single examples of five other metres 
 in his Odes : namely i. 4 ; i. 8 ; ii. 1 8 ; iii. 12 ; iv. 7. The first 
 contains a peculiar Verse (Dactylic Tetrameter going before three 
 Trochees) alternating with an Iamb. Trim. Cat. : the second, a 
 verse consisting of Dactyl and two Trochees alternating with 
 Iamb. Trim. Cat. ; the third, Trochaic Hephthemimer alternat- 
 ing with Iamb. Trim. Cat. ; the fourth, a pure Ionic a Minore 
 system; the fifth, Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Dactylic 
 Penthemimer. 
 
 Most of the foregoing systems have technical names from their 
 supposed inventors or chief cultivators. See Table of Metres. 
 
 (6) But all these seem to have been but experiments, and he con- 
 fined himself chiefly to three Lyric types of metre, one which was 
 mainly Dactylic, one which joined this with the Trochaic move- 
 ment, and a third which united the Dactylic, Iambic, and Trochaic 
 rhythms. 
 
265. Lyric Metres. . 535 
 
 (7) Of the first, or ASCLEPIAD, Horace employed five systems, Ascie 5 - 
 
 each consisting of one or several kinds of the following verses. P iad 
 
 Verses. 
 i. The Glyconic: 
 
 Sic te diva potdns Cypri. 
 2. The Pherecratean: 
 
 Grdto Pyrrha sub dntro. 
 
 3. The Lesser Asclepiad: 
 
 XX X I X X ^ 
 
 Maecenas atavis | edite re*gibus. 
 
 4. The Greater Asclepiad : 
 
 x __ x / \ / ' I / x w 
 Tii ne quadsierfs | scire nefas | quern mihi, que*m tibi. 
 
 In all these four varieties, out of which he has composed 34 of 
 his 104 Odes, Horace tenaciously keeps a Spondee for the base, 
 with perhaps one exception, ' Ignis Iliacas domos ;' whereas with 
 the Greeks and with Catullus the Trochee is the typical base of the 
 Glyconic verse. But in his one poem, written in the greater 
 Asclepiad, Catullus also has a Spondaic base. 
 
 Horace too in both 3 and 4 is most tenacious of the penthemi- 
 meral caesura, as we have marked in our scheme ; not so Catullus 
 and other Greeks. In the two apparent exceptions : 
 Dum flagrantia de|-torquet ad oscula : 
 Arcanique fides | prodiga per -lucidior vitro : 
 
 the preposition gives a quasicaesura. He has but one real ex- 
 ception : 
 
 Non incendia Car|thaginis impiae, 
 
 occasioned perhaps by the proper name. 
 
 Out of these four kinds of verse he has composed five different 
 Asclepiad systems : 
 
 1. The Lesser Asclepiad alone, as i. i. 
 
 2. The Greater Asclepiad alone, as i. n. 
 
 3. A stanza composed of three Lesser Asclepiad verses, followed 
 by one Glyconic, as i. 6. 
 
 4. A couplet of alternate Glyconics and Lesser Asclepiads, as 
 i- 3- 
 
 5. A stanza of which the first two lines are Lesser Asclepiads, 
 the third a Pherecratean, in which the last syllable is always long ; 
 the fourth Glyconic ; as i. 5. 
 
 In two of these five systems the metre shews they are in stanzas 
 of four verses. In the other three kinds, as in the Odes generally 
 of Horace, the Odes are multiples of four, except in one Ode, 
 written in the Lesser Asclepiad, iv. 8. But such divisions in the 
 case of the uniform metres, and of those which run in couplets, is 
 of no practical importance, as there is no necessary pause at the 
 end of each fourth, any more than of the other verses. 
 
536 Latin Prosody. 266. 
 
 Catullus has employed the Glyconic with great happiness in his 
 long ' Epithalamium/ and in one other poem, the 34th. The 
 stanza in the former consists of four Glyconics, followed by a 
 Pherecratean : 
 
 -5' ww 'w_ (four times) 
 
 c w v, (once) 
 
 in the latter, of three Glyconics followed by the Pherecratean. But 
 his rhythm is nearer the Greek than is Horace's, as he prefers a 
 Trochee for the base ; and in one stanza the four lines are con- 
 nected by synaphea, the last syllable of the Glyconic being always 
 long, while that of the Pherecratean is doubtful; in the other 
 stanza the first three and last two lines are similarly connected. 
 The light Trochaic base, and the point given by the final long syl- 
 lable together produce a beautiful and powerful metre, hyper- 
 metrical syllables sometimes suffering elision at the end of a line. 
 
 Horace's earlier Asclepiads seem to suffer from the number of 
 weak short syllables at the end of verses ; and to a feeling of this 
 we refer the occurrence of such lines as these in the 4th book : 
 
 Cur facunda parum decor |o (hypermetrical) 
 Sed cur heu, Ligurine, cur; 
 Lentum sollicitas ille virentis et 
 Audivere Lyce di mea vota di 
 
 and even the Alcaic : 
 266 Ne forte credas interitura quae. 
 
 Sapphic (8) The SAPPHIC stanza, consisting of three Sapphic Hendeca- 
 Verses. syllables, followed by a Dactyl. Dim. Catal. in disyllabum (Versus 
 Adonius) : 
 
 / X _ 
 
 - w w - V 
 
 Risit Apollo. 
 
 In his first three books Horace rarely departs from the following 
 rhythm in the Sapphic Hendecasyllable : 
 / / I / 
 
 y Iv/vx v^ *-* 
 
 Idm satis terns | nivis atque dirae, 
 
 differing in this exceedingly from Sappho. The monotony is in- 
 creased by his always having a Spondee in the second foot. He 
 seems himself at least to have felt the faultiness of his monotonous 
 caesura, and in his fourth book and ' Carmen Saeculare' often sub- 
 stitutes the caesura at the third Trochee : as, 
 
 Liberum munivit | iter daturus. 
 
 But the stiffness is thus increased and the monotony not much 
 diminished. 
 
 He sometimes, like Sappho and Catullus, has hypermetrical 
 verses ; sometimes too, like them, he has no break between the 
 third and fourth verse : as, 
 
 Labitur ripa love non probante u- 
 xorius amnis. 
 
 Catullus has two Sapphic Odes, one a very early poem, a trans- 
 lation of Sappho ; the second written with reference to this, and, 
 as it were, a defiant retractation of it. He is less regular in his 
 
267. Lyric Metres. 537 
 
 rhythm than Horace, and three times has a Trochee in the second 
 foot. 
 
 But he seems to have felt the futility of competing with Sappho, 
 and has with brilliant success made a variation of the Sapphic his 
 own, by adopting in forty out of fifty-nine of his Lyric and Iambic 
 poems the Phalaecian Hendecasyllable, which differs from the 
 Sapphic in this, that the Dactyl forms the second instead of the 
 third foot. This difference, however, has enabled him to wield it 
 with marvellous grace and at the same time freedom, as it has no 
 regular caesura, which is apt in a short verse to cause monotony : 
 
 Ouoi dono lepidum novum libellum 
 Arida modo pumice expolitum ? 
 Meas esse aliquid putare nugas. 
 
 Martial has adopted it with equal success ; but the first foot with 
 him is always a Spondee ; and we learn from the elder Pliny that 
 a Spondee in his time was alone admitted. In his 55th poem 
 Catullus has tried the experiment of occasionally substituting a 
 Spondee for the Dactyl, but the result is not happy. 
 
 (9) Horace's most successful stanza is that in which he has adapted Alcaic 
 to Latin forms the famous system called after Alcaeus. It consists Stanza. 
 of (i. 2) two Hendecasyllabic verses of this form, 
 - / / I / I / \j 
 
 _ ^__ I L vy \> I _ v> 
 
 Qui rore puro Castaliae lavit. 
 (3) an Enneasyllabic verse of this form, 
 
 Dumeta natalemque silvam. 
 completed by (4) an Alcaic Decasyllabic : 
 
 ^v,~[v,v,|^0 
 
 Delius et Patareus Apollo. 
 
 This varied metre, combining Dactylic, Iambic, and Trochaic 
 forms, has gained by the restrictions to which the poet has subjected 
 it. In the three first verses of the stanza he has admitted an Iambus 
 rarely in the first foot, and not at all in his 4th Book. The fifth 
 syllable too of verses i, 2, which Alcaeus uses as doubtful, is always 
 long, with one single exception : 
 
 Si non periret immiserabilis. 
 
 In those verses the Penthemimeral Caesura is strictly observed, 
 with only these two exceptions : 
 
 Mentemque lymphatam Mareotico. 
 Spectandus in certamine Martio ; 
 
 though more than once he has the quasicaesura after the Preposi- 
 tion of a compound word ; as, 
 
 Hostile aratrum ex|-ercitus insolens. 
 
 Verse 3. too gains stateliness and weight by rejecting the most 
 usual Iambic movements ; thus, 
 
 Hunc Lesbio sacrare plectro 
 
53$ . Latin Prosody. 268. 
 
 is the only instance of the second Iambus being contained in a 
 word thus ending in an Iambus ; and only in the earlier books 
 does it ever end with a word of four syllables, like barbarorum. 
 Its most normal rhythms are : 
 
 Breunosque velocis et arcis. 
 Commisit immanisque Raetos. 
 Quantis fatigaret ruinis ; 
 
 and next to these : 
 
 Vexare turmas et frementem. 
 
 In the verse <Non decoloravere caedes,' there is probably a 
 pause after the preposition de. 
 
 This verse is sometimes hypermetrical: as, ' Cum pace delabentis 
 Etruscum | In mare/ 
 
 In Verse 4 these seem the best rhythms : 
 Vindelici didicere nuper. 
 Alpibus impositas tremendis. 
 Auspiciis pepulit secundis; 
 
 or modifications of these : 
 
 Stravit humum sine clade victor. 
 268 
 
 Gaiiiam- The Galliambus of Catullus is worth considering from the cele- 
 
 bus - brity of his sixty-third poem. Varro and others used this metre in 
 
 poems now lost. Its nature, often misunderstood, is simple enough. 
 
 We may take as its type an Ionic a minore Tetram. Cat. with an 
 
 unvarying caesura at the end of the second foot : 
 
 No whole verse of Catullus is of this primary form. 
 Of the first part an example is 
 
 Et earum omnia adirem : 
 of the second, 
 'stadio et gymnasiis ;' but Catullus probably wrote guminasiis, 
 
 As a rule, in each part what is called Anaclasis occurs, that is to 
 say, the last long syllable of the first foot changes place with the 
 first short syllable of the second foot ; and the same occurs 
 between the third and fourth feet : we then get this form : 
 
 ^v^'w'w' I^v / ww^ 
 
 Aliena quae petentes | velut exules loca. 
 
 This is the most common form for the first part ; but usually in 
 the second part a further change takes place : the second long 
 syllable is resolved into two short ones; and we then get the 
 regular type of the verse : 
 
 Super alta vectus Attis | celeri rate maria. 
 
 Occasional variations of this type occur. 
 
 Tlblcen ubt can it Phryx | curvo grave calamo, 
 
 gives in one verse three of these variations : 
 
 Ibi maria vasta visens | lacrimantibus oculis, 
 gives the fourth. 
 
;26 9 . 
 
 Table of Verses and Metres. 
 
 539 
 
 TABLE OF CLASSICAL LATIN VERSES AND 2 6 9 
 METRES. 
 
 I. SINGLE VERSES. 
 A. DACTYLIC RHYTHMS. 
 
 (1) Trimeter Catalecticus in Syllabam (Penthemimer) called 
 Archilochius Minor : 
 
 ^ v I _ v/ v/ I _ 
 
 Arbori|busque co|mae, Hor. 
 
 (2) Tetrameter Catalecticus in Disyllabum, called Alcmanius : ' 
 
 _ ^ V/ I _ \J ' 
 
 Mobili|bus po|maria | rivis, Hor. 
 
 In the case of a Proper Name Horace has a Spondee in third foot : 
 Menso|rem cohi|bent, Ar|chyta. 
 
 (3) On the Hexameter and the Elegiac Pentameter, see 259- 
 261. 
 
 B. TROCHAIC RHYTHMS. 
 
 (1) Dimeter Catalecticus : 
 
 - - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - 
 
 Non tra|bes Hy|metti|ae, Hor. 
 
 (2) The Tetrameter Catalectic or Septenarius was used by the 
 Greek Tragic and Comic Poets ; also by Plautus and Terence. 
 The Latin Poem (of uncertain age and author) called Pervigilium 
 Veneris, is a Monocolum in this metre ; of which the following is 
 the scheme : 
 
 Cras a | met qui | nunquam ajmavit || quique a|mavit | eras a [met. 
 
 Dialysis after the 4th foot is essential. 
 
 In Comedy the license of feet is vastly wider (see Note, p. 474) ; 
 but a Trochee or its equivalent, a Tribrach, must precede the final 
 syllable. Plautus also uses the Tetrameter Acatalectic or Octo- 
 narius with similar license, but always with final Trochee. 
 
 C. IAMBIC RHYTHMS. 
 (i) Dimeter Acatalectus : 
 
 sy v/ .. 
 
 Forti [ seque|mur pec | tore, Hor. 
 Canidi|a trajctavit | dapes, Hor. 
 
540 Latin Prosody. 269. 
 
 (2) Alcaicus Enneasyllabus : Iamb. Dim. Hyperc., 
 
 c-|"-|--|--o ' 
 Periu]ra pu'gn|acis | Achivos, Hor. 
 Caesura after the 3rd syllable is required. See 267. 
 
 (3) (Trimeter Acatalectus, or Senarius, which sometimes consists 
 of six Iambic feet (Hexapodia lambica) : 
 
 Suis | et i|psa Ro|ma vijribus | ruit, Hor. 
 Gemel|le Cas tor et | gemeljle Cas toris, Catull. 
 
 But usually Spondees are admitted into the first, third, and fifth 
 
 ? laces ; a Tribrach may stand in any place but the last for an 
 ambus ; a Dactyl in the first place, and an Anapaest in the first 
 (rarely in the fifth) for a Spondee : 
 
 Pater jna ru|ra bo | bus ex|ercet | suis, Hor. 
 
 Aliti|bus at|que cani|bus homijcidam Hec|torern, Hor. 
 
 Pavidumjque lepo]rem et ad|venam | laqueo | gruem, Hor. 
 
 A penthemimeral or hephthemimeral caesura is necessary to the 
 harmony of the Verse. This Verse may form a Metrum Mono- 
 colum, as Hor. Epod. 17. 
 
 Note. The Comic Poets, Plautus and Terence, admit Spondees, 
 Dactyls, and Anapaests, in every place but the last, sometimes 
 even Proceleusmatics ; with numerous other licenses. 
 
 The Iambic Trimeters of the fabulist Phaedrus resemble these, 
 but take fewer feet of three syllables and fewer licenses. 
 
 (4) Scazon, or Choliambus ; which is an Iambic Trimeter with a 
 Spondee in the sixth, and an Iambus in the fifth, place ; as, 
 
 Miser | Catul|le de|sinas | ine|ptire, Catull. 
 
 Used as a Metrum Monocolum, but not by Horace. The cae- 
 suras as in (3). 
 
 (5) Trimeter Catalecticus : 
 
 ' _ I ss v 
 
 Mea | renijdet in | domo | lacujnar, Hor. 
 Iunctae|que nymjphis Gra|tiae | decen|tes, Hor. 
 
 The penthemimeral caesura is essential. 
 
 (6) Versus Hipponacteus (Dimeter + Hephthemimer). 
 
 Depren|sa na|vis in | mari || vesa nien|te ven|to, Catull. 
 Dialysis after the Dimeter. This verse forms a Metrum Mono- 
 colum, not used by Horace. 
 
 D. IONIC RHYTHMS. 
 
 (1) lonicus a minore Dimeter Acatalectus : 
 
 Patruae ver|bera linguae, Hor. 
 
 (2) lonicus a minore Tetrameter Acatalectus : 
 
 Miserarum est | neque amori j dare ludum, | neque dulci, Hor. 
 (3) Versus Galliambus. See 266. 
 
269. Table of Verses and Metres, 541 
 
 E. MIXED RHYTHMS. 
 
 i. Logaoedic. Logaoedic Rhythms are those in which Dactyls 
 are followed by Trochees. 1 A Base often begins them, and some- 
 times a Choriambus is inserted. 
 
 (1) Adonius : Dactyl. Dim. Cat. in Disyll. 
 
 Risit A [ polio, Hor. 
 
 (2) Aristophaneus (Dactylus simplex dupliciter Trochaicus) : 
 
 _ W N^ I _ V^ I _ vU j 
 
 Lydia | die per | omnis, Hor. 
 Dialysis after the Dactyl. 
 
 (3) Pherecrateus ; an Adonius with Base, which, in Horace, is 
 
 Spondaic, in Catullus, chiefly Trochaic : 
 
 Vix du|rare ca|rinae, Hor. 
 Lute|umve pa | paver, Catull. 
 
 (4) Glyconeus ; the Base of which, in Horace, is Spondaic, in 
 
 Catullus, usually Trochaic : 
 Base 
 
 = 3 I * vv I ";* 
 Mater | saeva Cu|pidinum, Hor. 
 Tardat | ingenujus pudor, Catull. 
 
 (5) Asclepiadeus Minor, the Base being Spondaic : 
 
 Base 
 
 Maece|nas atavis||edite ] regibus, Hor. 
 Elision at Penthemimer is rare : as, 
 
 Audi | tarn modere|re arborijbus fidem, Hor. 
 It is used as Metrum Monocolum (Asclepiadeum Primum), 
 
 (6) Asclepiadeus Mai or, the Base being Spondaic : 
 
 Base 
 
 Nullam|Vare sacra | vite prius j severis | arborem, Hor. 
 
 Caesuras after 6th and loth syllables. This is Metrum 
 Monocolum. 
 
 (7) Alcaicus Decasyllabus : 
 
 Nee vete]res agi|tantur | orni, Hor. 
 
 (8) Phalaecius He^idecasyllabus ; Metrum Monocolum, not 
 used by Horace. 
 
 1 As the last syllable of a verse is doubtful, a final Trochee can pass into a Spondee. 
 In the Pherecrateans of Horace it always does so ; and in his verses generally a final long 
 syllable is preferred. 
 
54 2 Latin Prosody. 269. 
 
 Base 
 
 - - I - - - I - " I - - I - v 
 Soles | occide|re et re | dire | possunt, Catull. 
 
 Sometimes an Iambus appears as Base, seldom a Trochee : 
 Minister vetuli puer Falerni, Catull. 
 Arida mo do pumice expolitum, Catull. 
 
 A Spondee is sometimes put for the Dactyl, but very inhar- 
 moniously. 
 
 (9) Archilochius Maior: Dactylic Tetrameter with Dactyl in 
 fourth place, where is Dialysis, and three Trochees : 
 
 Solvitur | acris hi|emps gra|ta vice || verisjet Fa|voni, Hor. 
 
 (10) Sapphicus Minor, consisting of a Dactyl and two Tro- 
 chees preceded by Trochee + Spondee (called by some a 
 double Base) : 
 
 I_ w w l w I _ r; 
 I " I 
 
 Nota quae se|des fue|rat co|lumbis, Hor. 
 
 Sappho, the inventor of this verse, as also Catullus, often 
 began with a double Trochee : but Horace always length- 
 ens the fourth syllable. 
 
 The strong caesura after the fifth syllable is usual ; occa- 
 sionally the weak caesura is found after the sixth (short) 
 syllable : 
 
 Non semel dicemus || io triumphe, Hor. 
 
 One or other is essential to the harmony of the verse. 
 
 (11) Sapphicus Maior; which only differs from the last in 
 having a Choriambus between the Spondee and Dactyl : 
 
 Saepe trans fi|nem iaculo | nobilis | expe|dito, Hor. 
 
 (12) Versus Alcaicus Hendecasyllabus, in which an Iambic 
 Penthemimer (c - ^ - -) is followed by Dactyl and 
 
 Mors et fugacem || persequijtur virum, Hor. 
 Vides ut alta || stet nive | candidum, Hor. 
 
 The first syllable is seldom short. The penthemimeral 
 caesura is observed. Elision sometimes occurs there : 
 
 Regum timendo || rum in proprios greges, Hor. 
 (13) Versus Priapeius of Catullus : Me*trum Monocolum. 
 
 O co|lonia|quae cupisj|ponte|luderejlongo, 
 
 Quendam | munici|pem meum || de tu|o volo | ponte, Catull. 
 
269. Table of Metres. 543 
 
 2. Asynartete. 
 
 (1) lambelegus Archilochius : Iamb. Dim. Dactyl. Penthem. 
 
 rir-i~ir~-ii--i--i- 
 
 Tu vi|na Torjquato | move || consule | pressa me|o, Hor. 
 
 (2) Elegiambus Archilochius, Dactyl. Penthem. Iamb. Dim. 
 
 _ > w I v-'vyl II w I w I w I w Cv 
 
 I - I - ttri i - 1 - - 1 
 
 lussus ab|ire do | mum || fere | bar in|certo | pede, Hor. 
 There is a Dialysis at the end of the Penthemimer. 
 
 Note a. The Anapaestic Rhythm is the converse of the Dactylic. 
 It admits however Spondees and Dactyls ; in which the arsis falls 
 on the second syllable. The most usual verse is the Dimeter, 
 having a break after the second foot : 
 
 O va|ne pudor || falsum|que decus. 
 Decies|nivibus||canuit|Ide, Sen. Tr. 
 
 The Greek dramatic poets used this verse in systems ending 
 with a Dimeter Catalectic, called Versus Paroemiacus ; but Seneca 
 has not in this imitated them ; nor does he admit a Dactyl at the 
 close of a line. A Monometer is sometimes introduced (in Greek 
 always before the Paroemiacus), called a Base. In Anapaestic 
 metre the last syllable of the Dimeter is not indifferent, and makes 
 position with the succeeding verse (Synaphea). 
 
 Note b. The Saturnian Verse was an old Roman measure, not 
 used in the best ages. The following is cited as its purest type : 
 
 Dabunt | malum | Meteljli || Naevi|o po|etae. 
 But great license was taken in its form. 
 
 II. STROPHIC METRES. 
 a. DlCOLA DlSTICHA or DlSTROPHA. 
 On the Elegiac Distich, see 261. 
 
 (1) Metrum Hipponacteum. 
 
 Troch. Dim. Cat. + Iamb. Trim. Cat 
 
 Non ebur neque aureum 
 
 Mea renidet in domo lacunar, Hor. ii. 18. 
 
 (2) Metrum lambicum Senarium Ouaternarium. 
 Iamb. Trim. Acat. + Iamb. Dim. Acat. 
 
 Beatus ille qui procul negotiis 
 
 Ut prisca gens mortalium, Hor. Epod. 2. 
 
 (3) Metrum Archilochium Primum. 
 
 Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Archilochius Minor. 
 
 Diffugere nives ; redeunt iam gramina campis, 
 Arboribusque comae, Hor. Od. iv. 7. 
 
 (4) Metrum Archilochium Secundum. 
 
 Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll, + lambelegus Archilochius. 
 
544 Latin Prosody. 269. 
 
 Horrida tempestas caelum contraxit, et imbres 
 Nivesque deducunt lovem ; nunc mare mine siluae, 
 
 Hor. Epod. 13, 
 
 (5) Metrum Archilochium Tertium. 
 
 Iamb. Trim. Acat. + Elegiambus Archilochius. 
 Petti, nihil me, sicut antea, iuvat 
 Scribere versiculos amore percussum gravi, 
 
 Hor. Epod. n. 
 
 (6) Metrum Archilochium Quartum. 
 
 Archilochius Maior+Iamb. Trim. Cat. 
 
 Solvitur acris hiemps grata vice veris et Favoni, 
 Trahuntque siccas machinae carinas, Hor. Od. i. 4. 
 
 (7) Metrum Pythiambicum Primum. 
 
 Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Iamb. Dim. Acat. 
 
 Mollis inertia cur tantam diffuderit imis 
 Oblivionem sensibus, Hor. Epod. 14. 
 
 (8) Metrum Pythiambicum Secundum. 
 
 Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Hexapodia lambica. 
 
 Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas, 
 
 Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit, Hor. Epod. 16. 
 
 (9) Metrum Alcmanium. 
 
 Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Dact. Tetram. Alcmanius. 
 
 Laudabunt alii claram Rhodon aut Mitylenen 
 Aut Ephesum bimarisve Corinthi, 
 
 Hor. Od. i. 7 ; Epod. 7. 
 
 (10) Metrum Asclepiadeum Secundum. 
 
 Versus Glyconeus + Versus Asclepiadeus Minor. 
 Sic te diva potens Cypri, 
 Sic fratres Helenae lucida sidera, Hor. Od. i. 3. 
 Horace has twelve Odes in this measure. 
 
 (n) Metrum Sapphicum Maius. 
 Versus Aristophaneus + Sapphicus Maior. 
 Lydia, die per omnes 
 Te deos oro Sybarin cur properes ainando, Hor. Od. i. 8. 
 
 b. DICOLA TETRASTICHA or TETRASTROPHA. 
 (i) Strophe Sapphica Minor. 
 
 Terni Sapphici Minores + Adonius. 
 
 Integer vitae scelerisque purus 
 Non eget Mauris iaculis neque arcu 
 Nee venenatis gravi da sagittis, 
 Fusee, pharetra, Hor. Od. i. 22. 
 
 Horace has twenty-six Sapphic Odes. 
 
.| 269. Table of Metres. 545 
 
 The Adonian Verse is so intimately connected with the third 
 Sapphic line that Hiatus at the close of the latter is unusual, and 
 words are sometimes divided between the two verses : as, 
 Thracio bacchante magis sub inter- 
 
 lunia vento, Hor. 
 An Hypermeter is sometimes found among the Sapphic lines : as 
 
 Dissidens plebi numero beator|um 
 Eximit virtus, Hor. 
 
 (2) Metrum Asclepiadeum Tertium. 
 Term Asclepiadei Minores + Glyconeus. 
 
 lam veris comites, quae mare temperant, 
 Impellunt animae lintea Thraciae : 
 lam nee prata rigent, nee fluvii strepunt 
 Hiberna nive turgidi, Hor. Od. iv. 12. 
 
 Horace has nine Odes in this measure. 
 
 (3) Strophe Glyconea Catulliana. 
 
 Terni Glyconei Catulliani + Pherecrateus Catullianus. 
 
 Sis quocumque placet tibi 
 Sancta nomine, Romulique 
 Antiquam, ut solita es, bona 
 Sospites ope gentem, Catull. 34. 
 
 :Synaphea is kept in this Metre. 
 
 Catullus in Poem 61 uses this Metre as Pentastichon. 
 
 Namque lulia Manlio, 
 Qualis Idalium colens 
 Venit ad Phrygium Venus 
 ludicem, bona cum bona 
 Nubit alite virgo. 
 
 Here Synaphea is observed between lines i, 2, 3, and between 4, 5. 
 
 c. TRICOLA TETRASTICHA. 
 
 (1) Metrum Asclepiadeum Quartum. 
 
 Bini Asclepiadei Minores + Pherecrateus + Glyconeus. 
 Prima nocte domum claude : neque in vias 
 Sub cantu querulae despice tibiae : 
 Et te saepe vocanti 
 Duram difficilis mane, Hor. Od. iii. 7 29. 
 
 Horace has seven Odes in this Metre. 
 
 Although the Pherecratean ends, in theory, with a Trochee, yet 
 in the usage of Horace a final long syllable is adopted. 
 
 (2) Strophe Alcaica. 
 
 Bini Alcaici Hendecasyllabi + Alcaicus Enneasyllabus + Alca- 
 icus Decasyllabus. 
 
 N N 
 
546 Latin Prosody. 269. 
 
 Qui rore puro Castaliae lavit 
 
 Crinis solutes, qui Lyciae tenet 
 
 Dumeta natalemque silvam 
 
 Delius et Patareus Apollo, Hor. Od. iii. 4. 6l. 
 
 Horace has thirty-seven Odes in this Metre. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 The metres of the Comic poets, Plautus and Terence, are too large a sub- 
 ject to be treated in this grammar. We will merely observe that many 
 final syllables (ar, or, at, et, it), short in later poets, are lengthened by 
 Plautus and Terence ; Iambic words, on the other hand (such as habent, 
 bonis), are often scanned as Pyrrhichs; the law of position is often vio- 
 lated ; and long initial syllables slurred into short quantity, when they 
 follow monosyllables or elided Pyrrhichs. Add to these licenses the most 
 extensive synizesis and the free use of Spondee, Dactyl, Anapaest, even 
 Proceleusmatic for Iambus or Trochee (always excepting the final foot), 
 and it will be seen at once in how wide a field of rhythm the old scenic 
 poets ranged. See p. 56. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 A. LATIN ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY is defined by Suetonius (Oct. 88), as ' the form 
 and method of writing taught by grammarians,' and by Quin- 
 tilian (i. 7), more shortly, as 'the science of writing correctly.' 
 We may blend the two definitions, and say that Orthography 
 is ' the science of writing in correct form the words of any 
 language/ 
 
 The Greeks settled their orthography with reference to four considera- 
 tions : (i) analogy ; (2) etymology ; (3) dialect ; (4) history. The Latins 
 left dialect out of question, but had regard to the other three points. 
 Yet, owing to the fluctuating character of their language, and its many 
 changes during the seven centuries between the first Punic war and the 
 fall of the Roman empire, the settlement of a solid Latin orthography is a 
 work of difficulty. The labours of Ritschl, Lachmann, and others have 
 indeed during the last few years thrown much light on this subject. 
 Ritschl justly selects the age of Quintilian's great work (about the close of 
 the first century, A.D.) as the standard of Latin orthography ; but, un- 
 fortunately, it is only by an inductive process, often uncertain, that the 
 forms of words can, generally speaking, be referred to this age. Inscrip- 
 tions, of course, have the greatest value ; but they are often inconsistent 
 even when contemporaneous. The earliest MSS. are several centuries 
 later than the Christian era ; and they also disagree. The opinions of old 
 grammarians are not less various. Hence it often happens that the 
 classical form of a word can be determined only by a balance of conflicting 
 evidence ; and different minds will strike the balance differently. A few 
 probable results, compendiously stated, must suffice here. The student 
 may compare Munro's Introd. to Lucretius^ and Ribbeck's Proleg. to Virgil. 
 
 Here forms assumed to be most classical are named first : others of 
 nearly equal authority are added with ' or : ' those of minor authority are 
 within brackets ; those which seem inadmissible follow ' not,' and are in 
 italic type. 
 
 1) a, e : defatigo or defetigo ; depeciscor (depaciscor). 
 
 2) e, ae, oe : caecus, not coecus ; caelum, heaven, not coelum ; also- 
 
 caelum &c. graving-tool ; caementum (cementum) ; caerimonia, 
 not ceremonia ; caespes, not cespes ; Camena, not Camoena ; cena 
 &c., not coena &c.; ceteri, not caeteri\ faenum (fenum?), not 
 foenum; fecundus, TX& foecundus \ femina, w&foemina\ fetus &c., 
 not foetus ; fenus (foenus) ; foedus, treaty; glaeba ; heres, not haeres; 
 levis, not loans ; maerere and maestus, not moerere and moestus ; 
 oboedire (obedire) ; obscenus, not obscaenus obscoenus ; Paelignus, 
 
 N N 2 
 
54-8 Appendix. 
 
 not Pelignus ; paelex, not pellex ; paenitet, mot poenitet, but poena ; 
 paenula, not penula ; pomaerium (pomerium) ; prelum, not praelum ; 
 proelium, not praelium ; raeda, not reda rheda ; saeculum, not 
 seculum ; saepes &c., not sepes &c. ; scaena (scena). 
 
 3) e, i: benevolus (benivolus) ; deminuere &c., not diminuye &c. ; 
 
 di (del), dis (dels) ; genetrix, not genitrix ; heri (here) ; intellego 
 (intelligo) ; neglego (negligo) ; protinus or protenus, but quatenus ; 
 valetudo (valitudo) ; Vergilius, not Virgilius. 
 
 As respects -Is (eis) or -es, Accus. Plur. of I-nouns, admitting 
 that in the republican age -is was the more usual, as it is cer- 
 tainly truer in formation, yet we believe that, before the age of 
 Quintilian, -es was in general use ; and this, with its superior con- 
 venience, has led to its frequent retention. On -e or -I in Abl. of 
 I-nouns, see 24. 5. 
 
 4) i, u: The middle tone between i and u (see u. p. 8; 12. p. 33), 
 
 led to the existence of a large number of double forms : aestimare 
 (aestumare) ; Brundisium (Brundusium) ; inclutus (inclitus) ; liibet 
 &c. or libet &c. ; reciiperare (reciperare) ; Dat. PI. of Decl. 4 : 
 grad-ibus &c. (gradiibus &c. 25) ; maximus (maxumus), and all 
 Superlatives ; vicensimus (vicensumus), and other Ordinals in -imus 
 (-umus) ; so maritimus (maritumus) ; monimentum or monumentum ; 
 tegimen or tegumen ; and other similar derivatives. But the u-form 
 in many of these was archaic in the Augustan and following age, 
 which wrote carnifex rather than carniifex ; lacrima rather than 
 lacruma ; clipeus rather than cliipeus ; optimus rather than optumus, 
 except perhaps in old formulas ; mancipium, not mancupium ; 
 victima, not victuma. 
 
 5) e, u : -endus (-undus) in Gerundive forms : -undus was the ancient 
 
 form, but superseded by -endus in the Imperial age. 
 
 ^) o, u : adulescens (Noun), adolescens (Part.) ; epistula or epistola; 
 suboles (soboles). The earlier Latins, even to the Augustan age, 
 wrote o rather than u when a preceded : but u was received under 
 the emperors : hence vult (volt) ; avus (avos) ; equus (equos), &c. 
 But Ribbeck in Virgil almost always avoids uu, vu. See 12. 
 
 7) e, o : vertere (vortere) ; versus (versus) ; vertex (vortex). The 
 
 forms in o are comparatively archaic. But fenoris or feneris, 
 feneror ; iecinoris or iecineris ; pignoris or pigneris, pigneror. 
 
 8) i, y : y is not properly a Latin letter, but introduced in Cicero's 
 
 age to represent Greek v. Therefore, such forms as dypeus, hycms, 
 indytus, ocyus, satyra, stylus, sylva, Sylla^ are now justly exploded, 
 the true forms being clipeus (clupeus), hiemps, inclutus (inclitus), 
 ocius, satira, stilus, silva, Sulla. But, where Greek u is represented 
 by y, this letter holds its proper place : lyra, Nympha, Syrus, Syria, 
 Tyrus, &c. 
 
 9) guo or go : lingre (linguere) ; ningit (ninguit) ; stinguere and com- 
 
 pounds, not stingere ; tingere (tinguere) ; ungere (unguere), but 
 unguentum, unguen ; urgere (urguere). 
 
 10) e or c : vicensimus (vigensimus), trigensimus or tricensimus, but 
 
 quadragensimus, &c. ; so ducenti, trecenti, sescenti, but quadrin- 
 genti or quadrigenti ; quingenti, &c. ; viceni, triceni, but quadra- 
 geni, c. ; duceni, treceni, sexceni or sesceni, but quadringeni, 
 quingeni, &c. See NUMERALIA, 33. Cycnus or cygnus ; Cnosus 
 or Gnosus. 
 
 11) gn or n : nasci not gnasci', natus (gnatus), but agnatus, cognatus, 
 
 &c. ; noscere not gnoscere ; but agnoscere, cognoscere, &c. 
 
A. Orthography. 549 
 
 12) C or q (qu) : cotidie or cottidie, not quotidie; coquus (anc. cocus, coqus); 
 
 equus (anc. ecus, equs, equos) ; pecunia (anc. pequnia) ; locutus 
 (anc. loqutus) ; secutus (anc. sequtus) ; loquuntur, sequuntur (anc. 
 locuntur, secuntur) ; cui (anc. quoi, quoei) ; cur (anc. qur, quor) ; 
 quum or cum, conj. (anc. qum, quom) ; cum, prep. (anc. qum, 
 quom). The form cum is good for preposition and conjunction ; 
 quom was used for both to the Augustan age : after which the dis- 
 like of uu seems to have gone out of fashion ; and the form quum is 
 often used for the conjunction. But qu was uttered as c. Ribbeck 
 in Virgil commonly edits ecus, ecum (or -quos, -quom) locuntur, 
 secuntur, &c., instead of the forms with qu. 
 
 13) b for v : ferbui or fervi ; to avoid vu. 
 
 14) b initial present or absent : Hadria, not Adria ; alucinari (halucinari) ; 
 
 Hammon ( Ammon) ; harena (arena) ; harundo or arundo ; haruspex 
 or aruspex ; hariolus, not ariolus ; have (ave) ; hedera, not edera ; 
 erus, era, or hems, hera ; heres (eres) ; herciscere, not erciscere ; 
 holus (olus); Hiber (Iber) ; Hister (Ister) ; umere, umor, &c., 
 rather than humere, humor, &c. ; umerus, not humerus. 
 
 15) li interior: aeneus, &c. (aheneus, &c.) ; cohors or cors ; incohare 
 
 (inchoare) ; nihil or nil ; prendo (prehendo) ; vemens, not vehement. 
 
 1 6) euphonic p : compsi, comptum, &c. (comsi, comtum, &c.), and others; 
 
 hiemps (hiems). 
 
 17) ci or ti before a vowel. Authority favours dicio, condicio, solacium, 
 
 patricius, tribunicius, &c., not ditio, &c. ; and contio, fetialis, in- 
 dutiae, nuntius, nuntiare, &c., setius; not concio, &c. Also con- 
 vitium rather than convicium ; suspitio (Subst.), rather than suspicio; 
 but the forms of these with ci were also used. See Corssen, I. 56. 
 
 l8)borp: caelebs (caeleps) : urbs (urps),- &c., obsonium, obsonari 
 (opsonium, opsonari) ; obtulit (optulit) ; subter (supter). But bs 
 was sounded as ps, bt as pt. 
 
 19) d or t final. In Quintilian's time the endings in d, haud, sed, apud, 
 
 &c., had become general in preference to the archaic t, haut (hau), 
 set, aput, c. But d final was sounded as t. 
 
 20) -Icere or -iicere. The compounds of iacere have been elsewhere 
 
 noticed. To the Augustan age the single i seems to have prevailed : 
 adicere, deicere, conicere, reicere, &c. But in imperial times ii 
 was at least admissible: adiicere, coiicere or coniicere, &c., the 
 former 1 being a consonant. And in adicere, c. i did double duty 
 as consonant and vowel = ad-yi-cere, &c. 
 
 21) ct or t: artus not arctus ; autumnus, not auctumnus; but auctor. 
 
 22) n kept or omitted : conectere, conexus, coniti, conivere, conixus, 
 
 conubium, not connectere, &c. (M. Lucr. i. 633) : coniunx (coiunx 
 coiux) : n before s was liable to elimination : thus Numeral Adverbs 
 in -ens passed into -es ; the earlier form being, however, generally 
 preserved : quotiens (quoties) ; totiens (toties) ; miliens (milies), &c. 
 So vicensimus (vicesimus). Such omissions of n abound in Inscr. 
 as cosol for consol, cesor for censor. See Corssen, I. 249, &c. 
 
 23) Consonants singled or doubled : on this point documents are especially 
 
 discrepant. We find Britannia or Brittannia ; cottidie or cotidie ; 
 luppiter (lupiter) ; littera (litera) ; loquella or loquela ; querella or 
 querela: but medela, suadela, &c., also cautela, tutela, reliquiae 
 (relliquiae), but relicuus (later reliquus) ; religio (relligio) : causa 
 (caussa) : paulum (paullum). But nummus (numus) ; bracchium, 
 not brachium-y Messalla, not Messala; sollemnis, not solennis ; 
 
: 5SO Appendix. 
 
 sellers, &c., noisokrs, &c. ; sollicitus, r^fisolicitus^ &c. ~'-Yet anulus' t 
 rather than asnulus ; culeus rather than culleus, &c. ; litus, not 
 littus ; ilico rather than illico ; vilicus rather than villieus ; stili- 
 cidium. Pliny wrote mille but milia ; Augustus, however, writes 
 millia, milliens ; and Corssen, I. 226, prefers the 11. Reppuli, 
 repperi, rettuli, seem better than repuli, &c., which are, however, 
 used. 
 
 24) Assimilation : quidquid (quicquid) ; quicquam (quidquam), quicque 
 
 (quidque) ; quamquam (quanquam) ; tamquam (tanquam) ; umquam, 
 numquam (unquam, nunquam) ; -cumque (cunque) ; quendam not 
 qutmdam ; eundem not eumdeni ; tantundem not tantumdem ; quo- 
 rundam not quorumdam ; eorundem not eorumdem. When m 
 remains before the guttural or dental, it is sounded as n : quamquam 
 = quanquam when uttered. 
 
 25) Assimilation of Compounded Prepositions. This is received or 
 
 rejected in MSS. and Inscr. with such apparently free option in 
 most instances, that no safe rules on the point can be laid down. 
 Thus we read in imperial times adlectus and allectus, collapsus and 
 conlapsus, collegium and conlegium, illustris and inlustris, impen- 
 dium and inpendium, irritus and inritus, even imperium and in- 
 perium, &c. On the whole assimilation prevails. See Brambach, 
 Neugestaltung der Latein. Orthographic, p. 300, &c. 
 
 26) Not less uncertainty exists in regard to words beginning with s, when 
 
 compounded with ex (ecs : c. ^/c, ^|). We find exspectare and 
 expectare, exspirare and expirare ; exsequi, exsequiae, and exe- 
 qui, exequiae ; exsecrari, &c., and execrari, &c. ; exserere and 
 exerere ; exsilire and exilire ; exsultare and exultare ; especially 
 exsul, exsulare, exsilium with exul, exulare, exilium. In some 
 words, it is perhaps better to retain the s ; but exul, &c. , have 
 ample authority ; and excidium (from exscindo) is better established 
 than exscidium. 
 
 27) Accessory Note : 
 
 ' We have now (writes Mr. Munro) an accurate transcription of the 
 large fragments of the Ancyra monument, containing no doubt 
 an exact copy of the ' ' Res gestae " of Augustus, which, as 
 Tacitus (Ann. i. ll) tells us, he had written out with his own 
 hand, a short time probably before his death. The spelling is 
 interesting, as Suetonius says that Augustus was a purist on such 
 points. 
 
 * He always admits uu : rivus, vivus, as well as annuus ; but he 
 
 writes Phrates, praerant. 
 
 ' In Gen. Plur. we find denarium, sestertium, deum, nummum ; 
 triumvirum, but xv virorum. In Gen. Sing, always i, not ii ; 
 proeli, luli, Pompei, congiari. In Dat. Abl. Plur. of Decl. I 
 and 2, both is and iis : dis, colonis, provincis, &c. ; but also 
 consiliis, &c. ; both municipis and municipiis. Dalmateis, emer- 
 iteis, quadrigeis : but oftener is in Dat. and Abl. Plur. Some- 
 times is, but oftener es in Accus. Plur. of $rd Decl. : once 
 pluris in Nom. Plur. 
 
 *Honos, incohare, Messalla, plebis Gen. Sing., but plebei Dat., 
 sescenti, valetudo. 
 
 * Always i, not u, in the fluctuating instances : legitimus, septimus, 
 
 frequentissimus, reciperare, manibiae, &c. Compare what Sueto- 
 nius (ch. 87) says of his writing simus for sumus. Perhaps it 
 was this love of consistency which makes him always spell millia, 
 
B. Latin Pronunciation. 551 
 
 milliens ; though he writes militum, militare. He has absens, 
 not apsens ; adque, apud, sed, aliquod, with d not t ; cumque, 
 but nunquam. Always quotiens, not quoties ; milliens, vicensi- 
 mus, &c. Caussa, claussum ; also clausum, inclusum. 
 
 * Generally he writes x, not xs, as exilium : compare Quintilian 
 
 (i. 7, 4), who speaks of it as an affectation to write exspecto for 
 expecto. But Augustus has exstinguere and sexsiens. 
 
 * He writes immortalis, but inmissus ; collaticius ; once collegium, 
 
 five times conlega or conlegium ; accipere, oppressus, but ad- 
 signare ; imperator, impendere ; but inpensa in the heading 
 written not by Augustus, but probably by Tiberius.' 
 
 These interesting extracts shew that spelling had a large license even 
 in the Augustan age. 
 
 B. LATIN PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 In the year 1872, the Latin Professors of Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge (then Messrs. Palmer and Munro) issued the following 
 Syllabus, in compliance with request. 
 
 ' If it were thought advisable to adopt any existing pronunciation, we 
 should be inclined for many reasons to recommend the Italian with 
 perhaps a few modifications. But not to speak of other difficulties, the 
 tyranny of accent over quantity is at least as marked in the Italian as in the 
 English reading of Latin ; and we hold with the most experienced teachers 
 that to distinguish between long and short syllables is an essential part of a 
 reform in pronunciation. At the same time Italian appears to us to offer 
 many valuable aids which should not be neglected ; as English in its tones 
 and vocalisation seems so different from old Latin, that often it is not easy 
 to find in it even single sounds to give as adequate representations of an 
 old Latin sound. The Italian of literature has been fixed for six centuries, 
 and manifestly approximates to the Latin of the 7th or 8th century. 
 
 ' There can be little doubt that during the best ages the writing, as seen 
 in inscriptions, was meant to represent exactly the sounding of words, and 
 that a difference of spelling implied so far a difference of pronouncing. 
 
 ' We propose then that the letters of Latin should be sounded as follows : 
 
 1 I. Vowels and Diphthongs : 
 
 ' a, as the accentuated Italian a : i.e. as the middles of amata, or as the a 
 of father. 
 
 ' a, as the unaccentuated Italian a : i. e. as the first and last a of amata. 
 It is not easy to represent this sound in English : we know nothing better 
 than the first a in away, apart, aha. 
 
 ' e, as the Italian closed e : arena ; nearly as ai in English pain : 
 
 c ae, as the Italian open e : secolo ; nearly as the first e in English there, 
 or French pere. 
 
 'e, the same sound shortened : nearly as in English men, or our sounding 
 of ptv. A wide induction, extending from classical times to the present, 
 would support what is said of e, ae : thus Italians represent Latin at 
 always by their open e 9 and as a rule e by closed e, 2 by open e. 
 
 1 1, as accentuated Italian * : i. e. as the first i of timidi, or the / of 
 machine : f, as unaccentuated Italian i: i.e. as the two last I's of timidi, or 
 the * of pity. The way in which Latin / is represented in Greek on the 
 
552 Appendix. 
 
 one hand, and in Italian on the other, and its history in Latin itself, would 
 tend to shew that its actual sound approximated to that of e, and was some- 
 thing between the i of pity and the e of petty. 
 
 ' o, as Italian closed o : nearly as hi German ohne, English more. 
 
 * #, as Italian open o shortened : nearly as in German gold ; less nearly as 
 in English corn. The English and English-Latin o is very peculiar, in most 
 cases hardly an o at all : compare our honos, domos ; and our non, bos, 
 pons on the one hand with nos, hos, donum on the other. 
 
 ' Perhaps, comparing Italian, we should pronounce d, when it precedes r, 
 or when it represents au, as the Italian open o : gloria, victoria, plostrum, 
 Clodius. 
 
 * u, as accentuated Italian u : as the first u of tumulo, the second of 
 tumulto, or as u in rule, lure. 
 
 6 u, as unaccentuated Italian u : as the second u of tumulo, the first of 
 tumulto, the u of fruition. 
 
 ' au, as Italian au : nearly as ow in English power. 
 
 1 In genuine Latin words the other diphthongs are very rare, except in 
 archaisms where ei, oe, oi, ou are common enough. 
 
 ' eu, as Italian eu, or Latin e quickly followed by Latin u. Of Latin 
 words we find perhaps only heu, ceu, seu ; and we do not feel competent to 
 propose a different sound for it in the many Greek words adopted inta 
 Latin. 
 
 ' oe is also very rare in Latin words : for them, as well as for Greek words, 
 we should prefer a sound like the German o : as an alternative we propose 
 the open Italian e for oe, as before for ae. 
 
 6 ei too as a diphthong is very rare : we would give it the Latin e sound 
 quickly followed by a Latin i sound. 
 
 4 But in a large class of words containing ae, ei, oi, or ui, the i is a semi- 
 consonant, and should be sounded like English y : pronounce Graius, 
 maior, Troia, eius, Pompeius, Seianus, cziius, as Grd-yus, md-yor, Trd-ya 9 
 e-yus, Pompe-yus, Se-yanus, cii-yus : eicit, reicit, as e-yicit, re-yicit. The o 
 or e oiproin, prout, dein, deinde, when not forming a distinct syllable, does 
 not form a diphthong, but is elided, and must be treated as a final vowel is 
 treated, when it is elided before an initial, vowel : so in neiitiquam e is 
 elided. 
 
 ' II. In a fuller Discussion more might be said of the Consonants : a few 
 Remarks must suffice for ttie present. 
 
 1 c, always as k : in Cicero, fades, as well as Cacus. 
 
 l g, always as g in get : in gero, gingiva, gyrus as well zsgaudeo. 
 
 s s, at the beginning and end of words, and at the beginning of syllables, 
 and before consonants, is always sharp (as the s of sin) in Italian and 
 should be so in Latin : sol, stella, de-sero, ni-si, nos, sonus. 
 
 6 s, between two vowels, has in Italian a soft z sound, as in our rose : we 
 would thus sound in Latin rosa, musa, miser. But words of this kind hi 
 Latin are but few : much more numerous are those where s might also be 
 written ss, a lost consonant having been assimilated and the vowel always 
 lengthened : causa, casus, visits, odiosus, divisio (see Quintilian I, 7, 20). 
 Italian is here very suggestive ; and in all these words s should be sharp. 
 
 ' t is always a pure dental, in ratio as in ratis, in notio as in notus, in 
 vitium as in vita. 
 
 ' bs, bt should be sounded (and generally written) as/j, //: lapsus^ aps r 
 apsens, opttdit, supter. 
 
 * j, or consonant /', as y in yard. 
 
B. Pronunciation. 553 
 
 ' As to consonant u, or z/, we believe that its sound was as near as 
 possible to that of the vowel u : i. e. like the ou of the French out, not differing 
 much therefore from English w. But as there is great diversity of opinion 
 on this point, we propose to leave it an open question, whether it shall be 
 pronounced in this way, or as the English and Italian v. 
 
 l y, z, ch, ph, th were brought into the language to represent Greek 
 sounds : z, ph, th we propose should be sounded as at present : ch should 
 never be pronounced as in our charter : it would be better to give it a k 
 sound succeeded by an h sound ; but it must follow the fortunes of Greek %. 
 y 9 or Greek i>, had some middle sound between Latin u and z, perhaps re- 
 sembling either French u or German u ; butj and;? came probably much 
 nearer to I and i than to it and u. 
 
 ' In our Latin pronunciation quantity is systematically neglected: attention 
 to it seems essential in any reformed method : d and a should be distin- 
 guished in matris andflatris, as in mater and pater. The ancients observed 
 the natural length of vowels, when the syllable was also long by position : 
 as in Marcus, pastor : Cicero tells us that every vowel when followed by ns 
 or nf became long by nature : as in infimus, insanus : gn seems to have 
 had the same power over the preceding vowel. Often too an extruded 
 consonant leaves a naturally short vowel long : e from ex : es, est from edo : 
 Sestius (2i?0"n0s), but Sextius (2e|Ttos). On the other hand the long vowel 
 of many final syllables in time became short ; and we can scarcely suppose 
 that, while the naturally long vowel in amat, docet was shortened, it always 
 remained long in amant, docent : it seems certain also, whatever the reason 
 may be, that the e was short in docentis, etc., as much as in legentis^ 
 audientis. 
 
 4 Following the tradition of the Italians, we fortunately keep the accent in 
 most cases on the right syllable, though the loss of quantity has changed 
 its nature. In a summary like this we cannot dwell on the exceptions. 
 
 ( In respect of elision we may see, by comparing Plautus and Terence 
 with Ovid, how much the elaborate cultivation of the language had tended 
 to a more distinct sounding of final syllables. We must not altogether 
 pass over the elided vowel or the elided syllable which ends in m, except 
 perhaps in the case of e in common words, que, neque, and the like. How 
 far too final m was mute, or nasal, it is not easy to determine. . Est { is ' 
 seems often in pronunciation (and in writing) to have lost its e and become 
 an enclitic st after a vowel or m : thus tuo est, meum est can end an Ovidian 
 pentameter, labori est an Hexameter : we must therefore pronounce tuost, 
 &c.> 
 
 To the foregoing suggestions of these eminent scholars the present 
 Editor assents generally. Only, (i) He cannot conceive that oe ought to be 
 sounded in the same manner as ae, even alternatively ; (2) It is not to his 
 mind an open question, whether Latin v had the sound of English v. His 
 principal reasons for believing that Latin v had always the sound, or nearly 
 the sound, of English w are given in a foot-note on pp. 66-7. 
 
SS4 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 C. AFFINITIES IN THE ARYAN FAMILY. 
 
 I. As a stimulus to the interesting study of Comparative 
 Philology, examples are here given of the affinity between 
 words in Latin, Greek, and Indie (Sanskrit). 
 
 i) Nouns. 
 
 L. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 I. 
 
 L. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 I. 
 
 aes 
 
 
 
 ayas (iron) 
 
 mater 
 
 fi>)T>7p 
 
 matar 
 
 aevum 
 
 <xif<6i/ 
 
 ay us (life) 
 
 medius 
 
 /U.(7<rO? 
 
 madhyas 
 
 ager ^ 
 
 aypos 
 
 ajras 
 
 nasus 
 
 pi? 
 
 nas, nas 
 
 anguis 
 
 e^is 
 
 ahis 
 
 navis 
 
 vav* 
 
 naus 
 
 animus 
 
 are/xos 
 
 anilas 
 
 novus 
 
 
 navas 
 
 anser 
 
 xn v 
 
 hansas 
 
 nox (noct-) 
 
 VVKT- 
 
 naktam 
 
 aurora 
 
 av(a)w$ 
 
 ushas 
 
 nubes 
 
 ve'(/)OS 
 
 nabhas 
 
 bos 
 
 /Sous 
 
 gaus 
 
 oci-or 
 
 (UKVS 
 
 aus 
 
 can-is 
 
 KVCOf 
 
 svan 
 
 oc-ulus 
 
 07T- 
 
 akshi 
 
 cor(d-) 
 
 KapSia. 
 
 hrid, hard 
 
 opus 
 
 
 apas 
 
 cuculus 
 
 KOKKv 
 
 kokilas 
 
 os (oss-) 
 
 oo'Te-oi' 
 
 asthi 
 
 dens 
 
 bSovr- 
 
 dant 
 
 ovis 
 
 ofi's 
 
 avis 
 
 deus 1 
 divus J 
 
 ZevS J 
 
 div- devas \ 
 dyaus j 
 
 pater 
 pes (ped-) 
 
 11^ 
 
 pitar 
 pad 
 
 dexter 
 
 SeiTepos 
 
 dakshinas 
 
 primus 
 
 n-po/AOS 
 
 prathamas 
 
 domus 
 
 So/uos 
 
 damas " 
 
 sal 
 
 aA-s 
 
 saras 
 
 ego 
 
 eyto 
 
 ah am 
 
 somnus 
 
 vrri/09 
 
 svapnas 
 
 equus 
 fores 
 
 ITTTTOS 
 
 asvas 
 dvar 
 
 Stella ) 
 a-strum J 
 
 i'orrpt} 
 
 star 
 
 frater 
 
 ^pdrrjp 
 
 bhratar 
 
 soror 
 
 
 
 svasar 
 
 fumus 
 
 0IMMC 
 
 dhumas 
 
 sua-vis 
 
 TjSuS 
 
 svadus 
 
 genu 
 
 yow 
 
 janu 
 
 suus 
 
 COS 
 
 svas 
 
 gravis 
 hiem-s 
 
 /Bapus 
 
 gurus 
 himam 
 
 taurus 
 umerus 
 
 TttGpOS 
 (UJU.OC 
 
 sthuras {strong) 
 ansas 
 
 ignis 
 
 
 
 agnis 
 
 ulna 
 
 toAeVrj 
 
 aratni 
 
 imber 
 iecur 
 
 rfirap 
 
 abhram 
 yakrit, yakart 
 
 ursus 
 ver 
 
 ap/cros 
 cap 
 
 rikshas, arkshas 
 vasantaa 
 
 laus 
 
 itAtfos 
 
 sravas 
 
 Vesta 
 
 eo-Ti'a 
 
 vasta, vastu 
 
 levir 
 
 Satjp 
 
 devar 
 
 vestis 
 
 
 (vasti) 
 
 lupus 
 
 AV'KOS 
 
 vrikas. varkas 
 
 vidua 
 
 ^ m 
 
 vidhava 
 
 lux (luc-) 
 
 AVK- 
 
 rue' 
 
 virus 
 
 COS 
 
 vishas 
 
 mag-n-us 
 
 Me'ya* 
 
 maha 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2) Verbs. 
 
 
 
 L. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 I. 
 
 L. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 I. 
 
 aest-uo 
 ait 
 
 al8- 
 
 indh 
 aha 
 
 flagro \ 
 fulgeo J 
 
 *Acy* 
 
 bhraj 
 
 ago 
 
 ayo> 
 
 
 frigo 
 
 ^pvyw 
 
 bhrajj 
 
 1 1 A ** 
 
 apiscor 
 aro 
 
 apoto 
 
 ap 
 (ar) 
 
 fu- 
 fugio 
 
 ^e^ya, 
 
 bnu 
 bhuj {bow) 
 
 bibo 
 cano 
 
 iro- 
 
 pa (pibami) 
 kvan 
 
 gigno 
 iungo 
 
 yev- 
 
 Jan 
 yuj 
 
 cio 
 
 Kl- 
 
 si 
 
 linquo 
 
 AeiVa> 
 
 ric 
 
 cluo 
 
 
 5ru 
 
 loquor 
 
 Aax- 
 
 lap 
 
 coquo 
 credo 
 
 TreTTTw 
 
 pac 
 (srad-dadhami) 
 
 lubet 
 luo 
 
 Av'a, ~ 
 
 lubh 
 lu 
 
 creo 
 
 jcpaipu 
 
 kri, kar 
 
 men- 
 
 
 
 <lico ) 
 
 SciK- 
 
 dis' 
 
 moneo, &C. 
 
 _ 
 
 man 
 
 do 
 (-dere) 
 
 TI-0TJ-/UU 
 
 da (da-da-mi) 
 dha (da-dha-mi) 
 
 metior 
 minuo 
 
 /aerpe'a) 
 
 ma 
 mi, mi-nami 
 
 domo 
 
 Sauaco 
 
 dam 
 
 misceo 
 
 futfytt 
 
 misr 
 
 edo 
 
 e8-a) 
 
 ad 
 
 morior 
 
 (MOP-) 
 
 mri, mar . 
 
 i(eo) 
 
 i (ei/uu) 
 
 i (emi) 
 
 mulgeo 
 
 a/u.eAya) 
 
 mrij , marj 
 
 fallo 
 
 <r<f>aAA(U 
 
 sphal 
 
 mungo 
 
 /xucrcrto 
 
 muc 
 
 fari 
 
 <f>a-i/at 
 
 bhash 
 
 (g)nosco 
 
 yt-yi/WCT/Ct 
 
 a jna 
 
 iero 
 
 <^e'pw 
 
 bhri, bhar pac-iscor 
 
 xray- 
 
 pas 
 
C. Affinities in the Aryan Family. 
 
 555 
 
 2) Verbs continued. 
 
 L. Gr. 
 
 I. 
 
 pleo irin-n\r)[ii 
 
 . pri, par 
 
 quie-sco KGI-HCLI 
 
 si 
 
 scindo <rxi& 
 
 <5hid 
 
 sedeo e5- 
 
 sad 
 
 sequor eVo/aai 
 
 sad 
 
 serpo epjrw 
 
 srip, sarp 
 
 spec- oxeir- 
 
 spas 
 
 
 L stri, star 
 
 Sto <rra- 
 
 stha (sta) 
 
 suo 
 
 siv 
 
 r(e)s-um (esse) !or-/tu 
 
 as-mi 
 
 L. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 I. 
 
 tego 
 
 erreya) 
 
 sthag 
 
 ten-do 
 
 TV- TO.V 
 
 tan 
 
 terreo 
 
 rpe'co 
 
 tras 
 
 tollo 
 
 raA- rAa- 
 
 tul 
 
 uro, ussi 
 
 
 
 ush 
 
 veho 
 
 foxew 
 
 vah 
 
 verto 
 
 
 vrit, vart 
 
 vestio 
 
 feaT 
 
 vas 
 
 video 
 volvo 
 
 fefi- 
 feAvw 
 
 (vid, know) 
 fval?) 
 
 vomo 
 
 fe^ew 
 
 vam 
 
 3) Particles. 
 
 -ante 
 
 at, et 
 
 bis 
 
 heri 
 
 in 
 
 in- 
 
 intus 
 
 ne 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Airo 
 a.vrl 
 ere 
 
 a- iy- 
 
 evros 
 
 apa 
 
 anti 
 
 at-i 
 
 dvis 
 
 hyas 
 
 m(ani?) 
 
 a- an- 
 
 antar 
 
 ma, na 
 
 L. 
 
 ob 
 
 per 
 
 pro 
 
 quando 
 
 semi- 
 
 simul 
 
 sub 
 
 super 
 
 Gr. 
 
 7Tl 
 
 wept 
 
 *6 6 e 
 yiJLL- 
 
 viro 
 virep 
 
 I. 
 
 abhl 
 
 pari 
 
 pra 
 
 kada 
 
 sami 
 
 sam- 
 
 upa 
 
 upari 
 
 4) Numerals. See 34, vi. 
 
 In the Sanskrit words palatal k' is expressed by c' (sounded as ch in 
 * child ') ; the softly aspirated sibilant (often representing Latin c, Greek K) 
 by s'. The vowel ri may be rendered by ar (vrit = vart). 
 
 II. Grimm's Law teaches that the Mute Consonants of 
 Latin, Greek, and (generally) Indie, when they pass into Low 
 Dutch and High Dutch languages respectively, undergo certain 
 -definite changes ; namely : 
 
 When L., Gr, I. have sonant surd aspirate 
 
 Low Dutch has surd aspirate sonant 
 
 High Dutch has aspirate sonant surd 
 
 1. Among Low Dutch languages are Gothic, Friesic, Dutch, English ; 
 High, Dutch are Old, Middle, and present German. 
 
 2. The Surds are c, q, k, t, p ; the Sonants, g, d, b, v ; the Aspirates, 
 ch, th, z, ss, ph, f, pf. 
 
 icb 
 
 heras 
 
 auf 
 
 dagen 
 
 du 
 
 vater 
 
 lecken 
 
 tochter 
 
 haupt 
 
 
 
 
 
 Examples. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 L. 
 
 ego 
 
 Goth. 
 
 ik 
 
 Germ. 
 
 
 L. 
 
 cord- 
 
 Eng. 
 
 heart 
 
 Germ. 
 
 
 L. 
 
 ob 
 
 Eng. 
 
 up 
 
 Germ. 
 
 2. 
 
 L. 
 
 tacere 
 
 Goth. 
 
 tbaban 
 
 M. G. 
 
 
 L. 
 
 tu 
 
 Eng. 
 
 tbou 
 
 Germ. 
 
 
 L. 
 
 pater 
 
 Eng. 
 
 father 
 
 Germ. 
 
 3- 
 
 Gr. 
 
 \flx flv 
 
 Goth. 
 
 laigron 
 
 Germ. 
 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Bvydrrip 
 
 Goth. 
 
 dauhtar 
 
 Germ. 
 
 
 Gr. 
 
 K<pa\7J 
 
 Goth. 
 
 haubith 
 
 Germ. 
 
 (This law is subject to exceptions.) 
 
5J6 Appendix. 
 
 D. THE ANCIENT DIALECTS OF ITALY. 
 
 On the ancient races and dialects of Italy, see T. Momm- 
 sen's History of Rome, bk. i. ch. 2. 3. 9. 13. 14. Mommsen 
 comes to the following conclusion : * that from the common 
 cradle of peoples and languages there issued a stock which 
 embraced in common the ancestors of the Greeks and the 
 Italians; that from this, at a subsequent period, the Italian 
 branched off, and these again into the western and eastern 
 stocks, while at a still later date the eastern became subdivided 
 into Umbrians and Oscans.' As to the Etruscans, who called 
 themselves Ras or Ras-ennae, he says they were not, according 
 to the story, Lydian emigrants from Asia ; they perhaps had 
 their earlier abode in the Raetian Alps, thence migrating into 
 Italy and driving out the Umbrians from the land afterwards 
 called Etruria. Their name (Rasennae) seems to have passed 
 into Tursennae, Turseni, Tyrrheni, which the Umbrians changed 
 into Tursci, the Romans into Tusci and Etrusci. Their lan- 
 guage (he adds) differs as widely from all the Graeco-Italian 
 dialects as did the languages of the Kelts or of the Sclavonians. 
 Yet he thinks they may have belonged to the Aryan family. 
 They received a modification, or rather several modifications, 
 of the Semitic alphabet, from which their neighbours, the 
 Umbrians and Sabellians, obtained their oldest letters. 
 
 Our knowledge of the early dialects of Italy is chiefly gained 
 from extant inscriptions, some of which are sepulchral, some 
 dedicatory, while others contain laws, decrees, or religious 
 formularies. Besides Latin and Etruscan, the dialects of 
 which the most specimens survive are the Umbrian and the 
 Oscan, the former in eastern and north midland Italy; the 
 latter chiefly in its south midland districts. Between these the 
 Sabellian forms a link : while Faliscan (a relic of Umbrian in 
 Etruria) and Volscian, south of the Roman plain, and cognate 
 to Oscan, appear in a few remaining fragments. 
 
 A) The Umbrian Dialect. 
 
 The most important remains are the Eugubine Tables, seven in number, 
 discovered in the I5th century near Gubbio (Iguvium). They are a code 
 of religious ceremonies, engraved partly in letters of an alphabet borrowed 
 from Etruria, partly in Roman letters. The ancient letters contain an 
 older, the Roman a later Umbrian dialect. Old Umbrian is without the 
 letters o, g, d, q, x. Of these o is represented by u ; d by a peculiar 
 form of r (here marked r), which in New Umbrian becomes rs. Old Um- 
 brian has k, but not hard c ; it has a soft c (here marked c), which in New 
 Umbrian we mark as s. Final z = ts. 
 
 (New Umbrian forms stand between brackets. Latin equivalents- 
 follow =.) 
 
D. Italian Dialects. 557 
 
 a) Umbrian Vowels. 
 
 Diphthongs faded into long vowels in New Umbrian : as, (questur) = 
 quaestor. Ai=aj ; ei is medial between i and e; au between u and^j, 
 usually becoming o : (toru) = taurus. Sometimes i takes the place of u : 
 (si-m) = suem ; (mani) = manu. Compounds seldom weaken a into i : thus, 
 (prooznurent) =procmuerint. Vowels are dropt by Syncope and Apocope r . 
 thus, pihaz = piatus ; katel = catulus. lu (io) becomes i; tertis = tertius- r 
 so in old Latin alis=alius, alid = aliud. 
 
 b) Umbrian Consonants. 
 
 P represents Latin qu : pis = quis : r (rs) = d : arveitu = advehito, rere 
 = dedit: nd is changed into nn or n, (pihaner) for (pihander) = piandi ; 
 panupei for pandupei=quandoque. B stands for v: benest veniet : for 
 p : kabru for kapru = caprum. R for s is frequent : eru (erom) for esum 
 = esse ; -arum for -asum ; (totar) fortutas ; but asa=ara ; fust=fuerit, c. 
 M and s final are weaker than in Latin, and generally fall off : kapru or 
 kabru == caprum ; puplu (poplo) =populus : also t falls off: facia =faciat j 
 rere for dedet = dedit. 
 
 Thus we see in this early language that Italian tendency to reject con- 
 sonant terminations, which, checked for many centuries by the intervention 
 of classical Latin, set in again with the decay of Rome, and culminated in 
 the modern Italian. 
 
 The chief final consonants in Umbrian are r, t, s, m (all weak and 
 perhaps hardly sounded when written) ; rarely n, z ; f in Accus. Plur. \ 
 k in a few pronouns, p ( = Latin que) in a few particles. 
 
 c) Umbrian Nouns. 
 
 1) First or A-Declension. 
 
 Sing. N. a, u (o). Ace. am. G. as (ar). D. e. Abl. a. Loc. 
 
 amem, emem (erne, e). 
 Plur. N. as (ar). Ace. af. G. arum. D. Abl, es. Loc. afem, 
 
 afe. 
 
 Examples: tuta (tota) or tutu (toto), a state, people; asa = ara; 
 (cesna) = cena ; (peica)=pica, &c. 
 
 2) Second or O -Declension (regular form). 
 
 Sing. N. us (os). Voc. e. Ace. um (om). G. es (er). D. e. Abl. 
 
 u (o). Loc. umem (omem). 
 Plur. N. us (ur, or). Ace. uf (of), G. um (om). D. Abl. es (er, ir, 
 
 eir). Loc. ufem (ofem). 
 
 Examples : puplus (poplos) ; kaprus (kapros), &c. 
 
 Syncopated forms occur : ins (is) : Ikuvins (Ikovis) for Ikuvi- 
 nus ; az (os) : pihaz (pihos) for piatus, &c. ; and apocopated 
 forms: katel = catulus ; (ager), &c. Neuters in um (om) 
 differ only as in Latin ; having PI. N. Ace. in a, u, o. 
 
 3) Third or Consonant and I -Declension. 
 
 Sing. N. masc. fern, s or none. Ace. m. G. es (er). D. e. Abl. 
 
 e, i (ei). Loc. emem. 
 
 Plur. N. masc. fern, es (er). Ace. f. G. um (om). D. Abl. es, 
 is (eis). Loc efem. 
 
 Examples: Cons. Noun, kvestur (questur) ; I-Noun, ukar (okar), 
 Nom. S. (okris), a mountain. 
 Neuters, which are rare, have a in Accus. PI. 
 
55 8 Appendix. 
 
 U-Nouns are few: manu = manus ; vutu^vultus: D. S. manu; AbL 
 S. mani, for manu. 
 
 d) Umbrian Verbs. 
 
 Verb of Being: erum (erom) = esse. Besides this form are extant only 
 est = est ; (sent) = sunt ; (sir) = sis ; (si) = sit ; (sins) = sint. 
 
 From root fu- are extant : fuia = fiat ; fuiest = fiet ; fust = fuerit ; furent =- 
 fuerint ; futu = fito ; (fututo) = fitote. 
 
 Umbrian has the Consonant, A, and E-Conjugations. Huschke attempts 
 a paradigm of the Tenses, which Donaldson cites (Varron. p. 104). A 
 few well-established forms must suffice here. 
 
 Pres. Ind. -u = -o : sestu = sisto ; (suboca-u) = subvoco ; stahu = sto. 
 Pass, emantur. 
 
 Pres. Conj. fa$ia = faciat, tera (dersa, dirsa)=det or rather di-det, the 
 Verb being a reduplicated form of da ; (dirsans, dirsas) =dent, (porta-i-a) 
 = portet ; (etaians, etaias) = itent ; habia = habeat ; arhabas = adhibeant. 
 Pass. mugatu=mugiatur. 
 
 S. Fut. benes=venies; ferest = feret ; (eest)=ibit; habiest = habebit ; 
 staheren = stabunt. 
 
 Perf. Indie. -fi = -vi; pihafi=piavi. 
 
 Fut. Perf. -ust = -uerit ; -urent = -uerint ; (benust) = venerit ; terust,. 
 (dirsust) = dederit ; (iust) = ierit ; fakust = fecerit ; (andersesust) = inter- 
 stiterit ; dersikust = dixerit ; (portust) =portaverit ; (habust) = habuerit ; 
 ambrefurent = ambiverint ; (procanurent) = procinuerint ; pihaz fust = piatus 
 merit ; cersnatur furent = cenati fuerint. 
 
 Imperative: -tu = -to; -tuta -tutu (~tuto) = -tote ; aitu=aieto; tertu 
 (dirstu, ditu) = dato ; teitu (deitu) = dicito ; feitu, fetu = facito ; am- 
 prehtu = ambito enetu = inito ; upetu = obito ; kuveitu = convehito ; 
 (etuto)=eunto; aitutu = aiunto ; habetu=habeto ; habetutu (habituto) = 
 habento. 
 
 Partic. Perf. Pass, -tu -to = -tus : declined as noun : (screhto) = scriptum ; 
 (comohota) = commota. 
 
 Gerundive : probably -nus = -ndus : pihaner = piandi. 
 
 Infin. Pres. Act. -um = dre; ferum=ferre; fa9iu, for fagiu-m, = facere. 
 
 There are also traces of Supines -um -u. 
 
 e) Umbrian Numerals. 
 
 1) Cardinal: one, unu=unus: two, du=duo; from which Nom. m. 
 dur, Ace. m. duf, f. tuf, n. tuva ; Abl. tuves : three, Ace. m. f. 
 tref, tre (trif treif), n. trija, Abl. tris. We find the word (petor- 
 pursus) = quadrupedibus : therefore petor=quattuor (whenc petor- 
 ritum, a four-wheeled carriage, Hor.). We find semenies (seh- 
 menier, sehemenier)=semestribus ; therefore se (sehe) = sex: also 
 (desendut)=duodecim ; therefore de5en (desen) = decem. Others 
 are not extant: but, under 1000, a general correspondence with 
 Latin numerals may be inferred. 
 
 2) Ordinal: prumu (promo) = primus : tertiu (tertio) = tertius : tuplu 
 = duplus. Others are not extant. 
 
 f ) Umbrian Pronouns. 
 
 1) Personal. First* (mehe)=mihi. Second: Ace. S. tiu (tio, tiom) 
 =te: (tefe)=tibi. Reflex. (seso)=sibi. 
 
 2) Possessive. Abl. S. tuer (tover) = tuo: tua=tua; vestra=vestra. 
 
 3) Demonstrative. Various cases occur of the following : 
 
 Ere, erek (erec)=is; (esto)=iste; (eso)=hic; (ero)-ille. Pro- 
 bably also (ho) = hie ; this occurs only in the affix -hunt (-hont) 
 attached to some forms of erek and ero, like -ce in Latin. 
 
D. Italian Dialects. 
 
 559 
 
 4) Relative and Interrogative. 
 
 Rel. (poe) f. pu = qui, quae; svepu = siqua. Another Rel. is pure 
 (porse). Of these only a few forms are extant. Pis = quis ? pist\ 
 = quis indef. ; pisipumpe=quicumque. 
 
 g) Umbrian Particles. 
 
 1) Adverbs: (rente) = recte ; superne ; (nesimei) =proxime. Eruk, 
 erak=illic; esuf=istic; ife = ibi; if-ont = ibidem. Enuk, enu (eno), 
 enumek, erek (erse)=tunc, turn; panupei = quandoque ; este, isek, 
 itek = ita; neip=non, nee. 
 
 2) Prepositions : Separable, ar (ars) = ad ; (ehe, eh) = ex ; hutra 
 (hondra) = infra ; kum (com) ku (co)=cum, con- co- ; pus (post) 
 =post; pustin (posti) = post-in ; pre=prae; (sei)=se; super; 
 (subra) = supra ; tra (tref, trahef, traha) = trans : per=7rep/, pro, is 
 appended to its case : tutaper Ikuvina = pro civitate Eugubina. 
 Inseparable : an = in (negative) ; amb- ampr- (ambr-) = ambi : ah 
 (aha), perhaps = ab ; anter (ander) = inter ; en=in ; up, us (os) re ; 
 sub for up-s, =ob, os ; pru (pro) =pro ; pur = por- in porrigo, &c. 
 
 3) Conjunctions : Coordinative : et ; several others also, ene, enu, &c. 
 = et ; neife = neque ; ute (ate) =aut ; heris heris = vel vel ; (surur, 
 sururont) = dein, deinde (?). 
 
 Subordinative : ape (apei) = ubi ; (arnipo) = donicum, donee (?) ; 
 prepa = priusquam ; pus-pane = postquam ; pune = quum ; pufe 
 = ubi ; pere (perse, pirse) = quippe ; (pirsi) = quando ; puze (puse, 
 pusei) = quasi ; sve = si ; (nosve) =nisi ; svepis = siquis ; svepu 
 (svepo) = siqua. 
 
 Note. The following Latin Verb-roots occur in Umbrian: (ag-) ; aj- = 
 ai-ere ; ben- = venire ; der (ders-) or ded- reduplicated from da- ; dik>, deik- 
 =dicere; i-, e- = ire; em- = emere; es- = esse; fak- = facere; fer-=ferre; 
 ring- =fingere ; frek- = fricare ; fu- ; gna- =g-nasci ; (gno-) =g-noscere ; 
 habe-=habere ; hera=velle; kan- = canere; cave- = cavere ; krema- = 
 cremare ; kura- = curare ; ci- = cire ; (loka-) = locare ; mal- = molere ; 
 (move-) = movere ; muge- = mugire ; ning- = ningere ; ug- (og-) = augere ; 
 ul- (ol-) ; ur- (or-) = oriri ; par = parere; penn = pendere ; pese ; ple- = 
 plere ; (porta-) = portare ; ques- = quaerere ; seka- = secare ; sere- = servare ; 
 skreh- = scribere, (sona-) = sonare ; stahe- = stare ; sum- = sumere ; take- = 
 tacere ; tene- = tenere ; tenn- = tendere ; terg- = tergere ; trem- = tremere ; 
 turse- = torrere ; vei- veh- = vehere; vel- = velle; vert- = vertere ; vire- = 
 videre ; (v-oka) = vocare. Perhaps also the root tu- (to-) represents Indian 
 dha, Gr. 06-, Lat. -de-re. 
 
 B) The Oscan Dialect. 
 
 Of the Oscan inscriptions some are in the old Umbro-Oscan cha- 
 racters borrowed from Etruria, others in the Roman, a few in Greek letters. 
 The chief fragment is the Tabula Bantina found in 1793, containing 
 Roman laws for the Apulian town of Bantia. 
 
 The old Oscan is without o, q, x : its other letters generally agree in 
 power, though not in shape, with the corresponding Latin. It had 
 however two forms of i, and two of u. The second form of i, which in- 
 clined to e or ei, is here noted as I, and the second form of u, which in- 
 clined to o, as u. In the Tabula Bantina they are not distinguished 
 from i, o. 
 
 (New Oscan forms stand between brackets.) 
 
560 Appendix. 
 
 a) Oscan Vowels. 
 
 The Oscan diphthongs agree generally with the Latin : ai = ae, anciently 
 .ai ; ei = ei; ui = oe, anciently oi. 
 
 Weakening of vowels is less frequent than in Latin : thus (fefacust) = 
 fecerit : Syncope and Apocope often occur, especially in Decl. 2 : tuvtiks 
 = tuticus ; Bantins = Bantinus ; Pumpaiians = Pompeianus ; cevs = civis ; 
 hurs=hortus ; Mutil = Mutilus, &c. Also Heirennis = Herennius ; Puntiis 
 = Pontius, &c. Oscan often inserts a vowel between a liquid and another 
 -consonant : ter-^-mniss = terminos ; ar-#-getud=argento ; also i before i or 
 a: tiurri=turrim; Viinikiis == Vinicius. 
 
 b) Oscan Consonants. 
 
 Here we find much resemblance to Umbrian. Thus p q : pam = 
 quam, IlfyiTrnes = Quintius ; ben-=ven- : kumbened = convenit ; nn = nd : 
 upsannam = operandam ; ht = ct, saah turn = san(c) turn ; ehtrad = extra ; ft 
 = pt; (scriftas) = scriptoe ; multas (moltas) = multae. T remains after ns : 
 (censtur) = censor ; ti before a vowel s : (Bansae) = Bantiae. S remains 
 between vowels: asa = ara; but in Gen. PI. (-azum) =-arum : here and in 
 -azet for uerit z = soft s ; but in hurz = hortus z = ts ; in (zicolom) = dieculum 
 z=ds. V may come between u and a consonant : tuvtiks = tuticus. Final 
 m, s, t, do not fall off as in Umbrian. We find the ending d in Abl. S., 
 as in old Latin; toutad ; suvad = sua; (dolud) =dolo ; also in some 3rd 
 Persons of Verbs, as deded=dedit; in the Imperative: likitud = liceto ; 
 >estud = esto ; and in Adverbs : amprufid=improbe ; ehtrad = extra. 
 
 c) Oscan Declensions. 
 
 1) First or A -Declension. 
 
 Sing. N. masc. as, a, fern, u (o). Ace. am. G. masc. ai, fem. as. D. 
 
 at. Abl. ad. Loc. ai (ae). 
 Plur. N. as? Ac. as. G. (azum). D. Abl. ais. 
 
 Examples : tuvta (touta) tuvtu (touto), a state or people ; viu = via. 
 
 2) Second or O-Declension. 
 
 Sing. N. us (os, us). Ace. um(om). G. eis. D. ui. Abl. ud(ud). 
 
 Loc. ei. 
 Plur. N. us. Ace. uss. G. um. Abl. uis (ois). 
 
 Example : status ; (dolus). 
 
 As in Umbrian, the Nom. S. often takes other forms : ins for inus ; ans 
 for anus ; is for ius, &c. 
 
 The variation of Neuters resembles that in Latin. 
 
 3) Third or Consonant and I-Nouns. 
 
 Sing. N. s or none. Ace. im. D. ei. Abl. id. 
 Plur. N. ss or none. Ace. D. Abl. iss. 
 
 The Neuters have no distinctive peculiarities. 
 
 Note. * Meddis (meddix, medix) tuvtikus' (tuticus) is the Oscan name 
 for the chief magistrate, or mayor, of a town. See Liv. xxiii. 35, xxiv. 19, 
 xxvi. 6. 
 
 d) Oscan Verbs : 
 
 Verb of Being: root es ; sum; isl = est; (set) = sit; estud=esto: 
 Toot fu : (find) = fiat: fusid (fust) = fiet ; fufans = fuerunt. 
 
 The Conjugations are Consonant and A only : Pres. Ind. Act. (anget) 
 = agit ; amfret = ambit ; (dat) ; faamat = habitat ; eituns = eunt. Pass. 
 (vincter) = vincitur ; sakarater = sacratur. 
 
D. Italian Dialects. 561 
 
 Pres. Conj. Act. (angit)=agat ; (hipid) = habeat, (pruhipid)=prohibeatj 
 stait = stet ; (dat)=det : Plur. 3rd P. -ins. 
 
 Pass, sakahiter = sacretur. 
 
 S. Fut. Ind. Act. (didest) = didet, (deivast) = iurabit. 
 
 Perf. Ind. Act. prufatted = probavit ; (deicans) =dixerunt. 
 
 Fut. Perf. Act. (dicust) = dixerit ; (hipust) = habuerit ; (fefacust) = 
 fecerit. 
 
 Imperat. Act. likitud (licitud) = liceto ; factud = facito. 
 
 Infin. Pres. (deicum) = dicere ; (moltaum) = multare ; (censamur) = 
 censeri. 
 
 Part. Perf. P. (censto) censo ; pusst = positus ; (deivatud) = iurato. 
 Gerundive : upsannam = operandam. 
 
 e) Oscan Pronouns. 
 
 1) Possessive: suveis = sui; suvad = sua; (sivom, siom) = suum, n. 
 
 2) Demonstrative : izik (izic), iuk, idik (idic)=is, ea, id: in (ionc) 
 = eum ; isidum = idem : ektk (exeic) =illud, with other case -forms of 
 the same pronoun, of which Nom. S. is not extant, but supposed by 
 Mommsen to be ekus, eksus, by Aufrecht eiso (eizo), Umbr. eso =hic. 
 
 3) Relative and Interrogative. 
 
 S. Pus (pos) pai (pae) pud (pod) = qui quae quod : (phim) pam pud 
 (pod) = quern quam quod: puv^=quo. PI. pus = qui ; (pous) = 
 quibus. Pis, pid = quis quid ? (pieis) = cuius ? ; (pitpit) = quidquid ; 
 -pid = -que; puturus-pid=utrique, pi. . 
 
 f ) Oscan Particles : 
 
 1) Adverbs: (amprufid) = improbe ; ip = ibi; (mais)=magis ; (min) = 
 minus; pruf= probe; fortis = forte. 
 
 2) Prepositions : Separable : az=ante ; anter= inter ; ehtrad = extra ; 
 kum (com) = cum, com; (contrud) = contra ; up (op)=ob, apud ; 
 (perum)=per; pust (post) = post. Inseparable: (an- am- a-) = 
 in-; (-en)=in; pru-=pro. 
 
 3) Conjunctions : Coord. ; avt (aut) = at ; (auti) = aut ; ekkum = item ; 
 inim (inim), in (in), &c. =et; (-ni)=ne; nep (ne, nei, neip) = 
 non, ne. Subord. pun (pon) quom, cum; (pam, pan) = quam; 
 (pruter-pampruter-pan)=priusquam; puf=ubi; pukkapid (pocapit) 
 = quandoque ; sva (sve) = si. 
 
 Note. The chief Latin Verb-roots found in Oscan are : ag- ; c-ben- = 
 venire ; kumben- =convenire ; censa- =censere ; da- ; deic- die- = dicere ; 
 (deiva-) = iurare ; e- i-=ire; em-; es- ; fac- ; fu- ; habe- haf- (hip-) 
 habere (pruhip- = prohibere) ; liga- = legare ; (molta-) = multare ; pat- = 
 pandere ; prufa- = probare ; pus- (pos-) = ponere ; rega- = regere ; sac- = 
 sancire ; sakara- = sacrare ; sta- ; vine- = vincere. 
 
 [The fullest account of the Umbrian dialect will be found in Aufrecht 
 and KirchhofFs Umbrische Denkmdler : of the Oscan, Sabellian, &c. in 
 T. Mommsen' s Die Unteritalischen Dialekte. The student should also con- 
 sult Schleicher's Vergleichende Grammatik, Corssen's Aussprache, &c., and 
 various papers in Kuhn's Zeitschrift by Corssen and other scholars. 
 Donaldson's Varronianus gives much valuable information : but some of its 
 theories must be cautiously viewed. See Peile's Introduction to Greek and 
 Latin Etymology. ~\ 
 
 C) Specimens of Ancient Latin, taken from Corpus Inscriptionum 
 Latinarum (Ritschl and Mommsen). 
 
 I. Epitaph of L. Cornelius Scipio Consul B.C. 259. 
 Hone oino ploirume cosentiont R[omai] 
 duonoro optimo fuise uiro uiroro 
 O O 
 
562 Appendix. 
 
 Luciom Scipione : filios Barbati 
 
 consol censor aidilis hie fuet a[pud uos :] 
 
 hec cepit Corsica Aleriaque urbe [pucnandod :] 
 
 dedit Tempestatebus aide mereto[d uotam.] 32. 
 
 [In Classical Latin : Hunc unum plurimi consentiunt Romae bonorum 
 optimum fuisse virum virorum Lucium Scipionem : filius Barbati consul 
 censor aedilis hie fuit apud vos : hie cepit Corsicam Aleriamque urbem 
 pugnando, dedit Tempestatibus aedem merito votam.] 
 
 II. Epitaph of another L. Cornelius Scipio. 
 
 L. Cornelio Gn. F. Gn. N. Scipio. 
 
 Magna sapientia multasque uirtutes 
 
 aetate quom parua posidet hoc saxsum. 
 
 quoiei uita defecit, non honos, honore, 
 
 is hie situs quei nunquam uictus est uirtutei. 
 
 annos gnatus uiginti is Diteist mandatus : 
 
 ne quairatis honore quei minus sit mandatus. 34. 
 
 [In Classical Latin : L. Cornelius Gnaei filius, Gnaei nepos, Scipio : 
 magnam sapientiam multasque virtutes aetate cum parva possidet hoc 
 saxum : cui vita defecit non honos honorem (?) is hie situs est qui nunquam 
 victus est virtute : annos natus viginti is Diti est mandatus, ne quaeratis 
 honorem (eius) qui non sit mandatus.] 
 
 III. The Columna Rostrata in honour of C. Duilius, Consul B.C. 260, 
 which seems to be an antiquarian restoration of the Empire, is restored and 
 explained by the learned editors, I. 195. But every line and sentence is 
 mutilated. No consonants are doubled ; c stands for g, as lenoneis ; exempt 
 for exemit ; we find maxmiosque macistratos, but [max]mas copias ; 
 castreis, socieis ; numei ; naveis, claseis, but also navales, clases ; 
 exfociont = effugiunt. 
 
 Extract : Ma[celam . .] pucnandod cepet enque eodem mac[istratod 
 prospere r]em navebos marld consol primes c[eset cjlasesque navales 
 primes ornavet, cumque eis navebos claseis Poenicas om[nes . . 'max] 
 umasque copias Cartaciniensis praesente[d maxumod d]ictatored o[lor]om 
 in altod marld puc[nandod vicet]. 
 
 [In Classical Latin : Macelam urbem pugnando cepit, inque eodem 
 magistratu prospere rem navibus mari consul primus gessit, classesque 
 navales primus ornavit, cumque eis navibus classes Punicas omnes . . 
 maximasque copias Carthaginienses praesente maximo dictatore illorum 
 in alto mari pugnando vicit. ] I = i. 
 
 In the second ' navebos ' the stonecutter had engraved u first, then o 
 over it. 
 
 IV. Extract from the Senatusconsultum de Bacchanalibus, B.C. 186. 
 
 Haice utei in convention id exdeicatis ne minus trinum noundinum ; 
 senatuosque sententiam utei scientes esetis . . . eorum sententia ita fuit : 
 sei ques esent, quei arvorsum ead fecisent quam suprad scriptum est, eeis 
 rem caputalem faciendam censuere . . . atque utei hoce in tabolam 
 ahenam inceideretis, ita senatus aiquom censuit ; uteique earn figier 
 ioubeatis, ubei facilumed gnoscier potisit ; atque utei ea Bacanalia, sei qua 
 sunt, exstrad quam sei quid ibei sacri est, ita utei suprad scriptum est, in 
 diebus X. quibus vobeis tabelae datai erunt faciatis utei dismota sient in 
 agro Teurano, I. 196. 
 
 [In Classical Latin : Haec ut in contione edicatis ne minus trinum 
 nundinum ; senatusque sententiam ut scientes essetis . . . eorum sententia 
 ita fuit : si qui essent qui adversum ea fecissent quam (i.e. aliter quam) 
 
E. Poetic Forms and Idioms. 563 
 
 supra scriptum est, eis rem capitalem faciendam censuere . . . atque ut 
 hoc in tabulam ahenam incideretis, ita senatus aequum censuit ; utque earn 
 figi iubeatis, ubi facillime nosci possit ; atque ut ea Bacchanalia, si quar 
 sunt, extra quam si quid ibi sacri est, ita ut supra scriptum est, in diebus 
 X. quibus vobis tabulae datae erunt, faciatis ut dimota sint in agro 
 Teurano.] 
 
 V. Extract from the Lex lulia Municipalis, enacted by C. lulius Caesar, 
 B.C. 49. 
 
 Queiquomque inmunicipieis coloneis praefectureis conciliabuleis c. R. 
 Ilvir. Illlvir. erunt aliove quo nomine mag. potestatemve sufragio eorum, 
 quei quoiusque municipi coloniae praefecturae fori conciliabuli erunt, 
 habebunt, neiquis eorum quern in eo municipio colonia praefectura foro 
 conciliabulo in senatum decuriones conscriptosve legito neve sublegito neve 
 coptato neve recitandos curato nisi indemortuei damnateive locum eiusne 
 quei confessus erit se senatorem decurionem conscreiptumve ibei h. 1. esse 
 non licere, I. 206. 
 
 [Here c. R. = civium Romanorum ; mag. = magistratum ; Ilvir. = 
 duumviri; IIHvir. = quattuorviri ; h. 1. =hac lege. Observe ei for I in 
 Abl. and Nom. PI. ; neiquis for nequis ; su/ragio ; conscmptum ; and the 
 Prep, 'in' proclitically joined to its case: inmunicipieis, indemortuei locum.] 
 
 E. POETIC FORMS AND IDIOMS. 
 
 Although the general Rules of Grammar are applicable to poetry as well 
 as to prose, yet poetry has many words, phrases, constructions, and 
 collocations peculiar to itself. A few of these will here be mentioned. 
 
 I. ETYMOLOGY AND USE OF WORDS. 
 
 1) The archaic Gen. of 1st Decl. in at is used by the Epic poets, 
 Lucretius and Virgil, as, aulai, aquai. 
 
 2) Virgil and Horace always contract the Gen. of 2nd Decl. in ii : oti, 
 tuguri, ingeni, imperi. The elegiac poets retain ii generally. 
 
 3) The contraction of the Gen. arum, orum into dm is confined to 
 Masculine Substantives : agricolum, socium ; and of Adjectives to a few 
 polysyllables only : magnanimum heroum. 
 
 4) Many Genitives in ium are contracted into um : apum, cohortum. 
 This may be done in Present Participles : amantum. Words of the form 
 - ^/ -, as nubium, seldom lose i ; but mensum, sedum are found. 
 
 5) The Dat. in /, and the Gen. and Dat. in ei, may be contracted into 
 , e : victu for victui, fide for fidei. 
 
 6) The Imperf. of the 4th Conj. in ibam, and the Fut. in ibo, are 
 archaisms occasionally used by Virgil : vestibat for vestiebat, This is not 
 done in lyric verse, rarely in elegiac. The Infin. Pass, in ier is an archaism 
 used occasionally in epic poetry ; not allowable in elegiac, rare in lyric. 
 Other archaic forms are found. 
 
 7) Such forms as amaram amasse, fleram flesse, noram nosse, audieram 
 audisse are of usual occurrence. 
 
 8) Tmesis is frequent, asQuaemecumque vocant terrae, Verg. ; i n que 
 ligatus, Verg. Cum tu argento post omnia ponas, Hor. 
 
 9) (a) Substantive is used for Adjective or Participle : Victor equus ; 
 
 fabulae manes ; populus late rex. 
 
 (b) Participle or Adjective for Substantive : volitans, an insect ; 
 volantes, birds ; natantes, fishes ; praeceps, a precipice ; planum, a 
 002 
 
564 Appendix, 
 
 level surface ; inane, the (void) air. So, Opaca domorum, strata 
 viarum, &c. 
 
 (c) Neuter Adjective for Adverb ; Lugubre rubens ; perfidum ridens ; 
 transversa tuentes, &c. 
 
 10) The Plural Number for the Singular : as, Tua numina posco ; 
 sibila colla tumens. And the Singular for the Plural : as, Thyna merce 
 beatum ; late loca milite complet. 
 
 1 1) Transitive Verbs are used intransitively : Venti posuere, Verg. In- 
 transitives used transitively : Horret iratum mare, Hor. Even Passives 
 sometimes assume a Transitive force : Fontis avertitur, Verg. 
 
 12) The use of the Simple for the Compound Verb is a poetic idiom : 
 Pone moras for depone ; tendere for contendere ; tenere for retinere, c. 
 
 13) In regard to tenses, the Historic Present for the Preterite is often 
 used ; also the Preterite Aorist for the Present to express habit or frequency ; 
 the Perf. Infin. for the Pres. Infin. 
 
 14) Many words are purely poetic, not being used in prose. They are 
 too numerous to be here specified, but should be noted in reading. 
 
 II. SYNTAX. 
 
 1. Agreement. A Neuter Complement with Masc. and Fern. Sub- 
 stantives : Turpe senex miles ; and Synesis, are frequent in poetry. 
 
 2. Government. 
 
 1) The Accusative of Respect after Adjectives and Verbs is very fre* 
 quent : Cetera laetus ; sibila colla tumens. 
 
 2) The Dative after Compound Verbs is favoured by the poets. 
 Verbs of contending, repelling, differing, uniting, have a Dative in 
 poetry ; but hi prose, for the most part, a Preposition with its Case : 
 Mihi contendere noli ; solstitium pecori defendite ; scurrae distabit 
 amicus ; verba sociare chordis, &c. 
 
 A Dative after a Verb of Motion is peculiar to poetry, but rare : It 
 clamor caelo. A Dative after a Finite Passive Verb is poetic : 
 Neque cernitur ulli. 
 
 3) A large number of Adjectives govern a Genitive in poetry only : 
 Inane lymphae, nimius pugnae, gravis morum, integer aevi, &c. 
 
 4) The Infinitive Mood after Adjectives is frequent in poetry, and rare in 
 good prose : Callidus condere, catus iaculari, audax omnia perpeti, c. 
 After some Substantives : Causa perire, tempus abire, &c. After 
 Verbs of motion : Populare penatis venimus : of entreaty ; Hoc 
 petit esse suum : of feeling ; Furit reperire, dedignata teneri : of 
 hastening ; Trepidat claudere, &c. Est is used for licet with Infin. : 
 Aenean cernere erat : Nee sit mihi credere tantum. The use of the 
 Participle after Verbs of Sense for the Accusative and Infinitive is 
 a poetic Graecism : Sensit medios delapsus in hostis. The Infini- 
 tive Active is used poetically where a prose writer would use the 
 Participle in dtis ; Dat ferre talentum ; quern sumis celebrare, c. 
 
 5) Many instances of Ellipsis and Pleonasm are found in Poetry, too 
 numerous to be here cited. 
 
 Note. Historians, as Sallust, Livy, above all Tacitus, often heighten 
 their style by the intermixture of poetic imagery and expression, especially 
 when a narrative is picturesque, or a speech impassioned. 
 
 III. COLLOCATION. 
 
 The Collocation of words in poetry is much more free than that of prose, 
 but will be better learnt by reading and practice than by any attempt to 
 reduce the subject to rules. 
 
F. Supplement to Figurate Construction. 565 
 
 F. SUPPLEMENT TO FIGURATE CONSTRUCTION. 6i._ 
 
 ~~^\ 
 
 1. Anacoluthon is the passing from one construction to another before 
 the former is completed : 'Si, ut Graeci dicunt, omnes aut Graios 
 esse aut barbaros, vereor ne Romulus barbarorum rex fuerit,' C. 
 'Quae qui in utramque partem excelso animo magnoque despiciunt, 
 cumque aliqua his ampla et honesta res obiecta est, totos ad se con- 
 vertit et rapit; turn quis non admiretur splendorem pulchritudi- 
 nemque virtutis ? ' C. Anacoluthon is often due to Attraction. 
 
 2. Hysteron-Proteron is when, of two things, that which naturally comes 
 first is mentioned last: 'Moriamur et in media arma ruamus,' Verg. 
 Ae. ii. 353. 
 
 The following Figures belong to Rhetoric : 
 
 3. Synecdoche puts the part for the whole : ' Caput for homo ; tectum 
 for domus,' &c. Sometimes the whole stands for a part : ' Sal sextante est' 
 (Liv.), for modius salis. 
 
 4. Allegoria is a chain of metaphors : ' Claudite iam rivos, pueri, sat 
 prata biberunt,' Verg. B. iii. 1 1 1. Meaning, * Cease to sing, O shepherds ; 
 sufficient recreation has been taken.' 
 
 5. Hyperbole magnifies beyond credibility : Sudor fluit undique rivis,' 
 Verg. Ae. v. 200. 
 
 6. Litotes states less than is actually meant : Non laudo, for culpo. 
 
 7. Ironia says one thing and means another, but so as to let the real 
 meaning be understood: 'Egregiam vero laudem et spolia ampla 
 refertis tuque puerque tuus,' Verg. Ae. iv. 93. 
 
 8. Climax rises by gradations, like the steps of a ladder : ' Quod libet 
 iis, licet ; quod licet, possunt ; quod possunt, audent, ' C. 
 
 9. Polyptoton brings together cases of the same Noun : * Iam clipeus 
 clipeis, umbone repellitur umbo ; ense minax ensis, pede pes et cuspide 
 cuspis,' Stat. 
 
 10. Paronomasia is a play upon the sound of words : ' Tibi parata 
 erunt verba, huic verbera,' Ter. 
 
 11. Antithesis contrasts opposites: 'Urbis amatorem Fuscum salvere 
 iubemus ruris amatores,' Hor. 
 
 12. Chiasmus places a double Antithesis in introverted order: 'Ratio 
 nostra consentit, repugnat oratio,' C. Fin. iii. 3. 'Non video 
 quomodo sedare possint mala praesentia praeteritae voluptates,' 
 C. T. D. v. 26. 'Alba ligustra cadunt, vaccinia nigra leguntur,' 
 Verg. B. ii. 18. 
 
 13. Oxymoron unites seeming contraries: 'Temporis angusti mansit 
 concordia discors,' Lucan i. 98. 
 
 14. Periphrasis describes a simple fact by various attending circum- 
 stances. Thus, instead of ' now night is approaching,' Virgil says, ' Et 
 iam summa procul villarum culmina fumant, maioresque cadunt altis de 
 montibus umbrae,' B. i. 83. See the beautiful periphrases of old age and 
 death in Ecclesiastes, ch. xii. 
 
 15. Simile or Parabole illustrates a statement by an apt comparison: 
 ' Per urbis Hannibal Italas ceu flamma per taedas vel Eurus per Siculas 
 equitavit undas,' Hor. C. iv. 4. 42. 
 
 16. Apostrophe is an appeal to some person or thing: ' Quid non mor* 
 talia pectora cogis auri sacra fames?' Verg. Ae. iii. 56. 
 
566 Appendix. 
 
 1 7. Prosopopoeia represents inanimate things as living and acting : * Te 
 Spes et albo rara Fides colit velata panno,' Hor. C. i. 35. 21. * Belli 
 ferrates rupit Disco rdia postis,' Enn. 
 
 1 8. Aposiopesis suppresses the conclusion of a thought: 'Quos ego 
 sed motos praestat componere fluctus,' Verg. As. i. 135. 
 
 Most of these Figures (to which might be added others) are used in 
 Prose as well as in Poetry. 
 
 G. MONEY, WEIGHT, AND MEASURE. 
 I. 
 
 *As' was the Roman unit of weight and measure. See its duode- 
 cimal division, 34. viii. 
 
 II. MONEY. 
 
 1. Cattle were the earliest Italian medium of exchange. The word 
 'pecunia' (from 'pecus') preserved the memory of this fact, as Engl. 
 chattel and fee, from Germ, vieh^ point to the same custom in the Teuton 
 branch. Cattle fines are noticed in ancient laws as commuted for sums 
 of money ; a sheep being rated at 10 ' asses librales,' an ox at 100. 
 
 2. The metals used for agricultural implements, iron and (in Italy) 
 copper, were the next medium of exchange. These were at first weighed 
 out roughly (the 'libra' or pound being the unit of this 'aes rude 7 ), 
 then cut in bars of various shapes and sizes, corresponding to the 
 weights, and bearing generally some mark, as an ox, a swine, &c. This 
 was called 'aes signatum.' Its origin is referred to the reign of Servius, 
 that is, to a tune before authentic history. 'Aestimare,' to value > is de- 
 rived from ' aes ;' and the act of weighing copper continued in later times 
 to be the legal form of 'mancipatio' in sales, repayments, and in one 
 matrimonial solemnity (per aes et libram). The bit of unwrought copper 
 with which the purchaser struck the scale was called 'raudus' or 'rodus- 
 culum.' 
 
 3. About the year B.C. 451, U.C. 303, copper money was first coined, 
 with impressions obverse and reverse, by the Decemviri. Their coinage 
 comprised the 'as libralis,' and some of its fractional parts, 'semis,' 
 'triens,' 'quadrans,' 'uncia,' and 'semuncia.' It had an alloy of about 
 7 per cent, of tin, not reducing its intrinsic value ; but, later, another 
 alloy of about 23 per cent, of lead, by which the value was reduced, lead 
 being in proportion to copper as i : 2. Varro says : ' Libram pondo as 
 valebat ' : and in theory, this copper ' as ' was libral, equivalent to a pound 
 of 12 ounces : but in practice existing specimens shew variation from 8 or 
 9 to 14 ounces, giving an average of about 10. Hence this coinage, on a 
 scale nominally duodecimal, was really decimal. 
 
 4. It continued in use nearly 200 years : but shortly before the first 
 Punic War, about B.C. 269, u.c. 485, a mint was established in the temple 
 of Juno Moneta, and three commissioners were appointed (triumviri 
 monetales auro argento acre flando feriundo), who began to coin silver 
 money ; the coins being the denarius (nominally 10 asses), the quinarius or 
 half-denar (nominally 5 asses), and the sestertius or quarter-denar (nominally 
 2 asses). About the same time, a revolution was made in the copper 
 money itself. The libral as (nominally of 12, but actually 10 ounces on 
 the average) was reduced from the libral to the triental standard, that is, to 
 the weight of 4 ounces. Nevertheless, the old libral standard was occa- 
 sionally used or referred to, under the title of 'aes grave.' As the 
 
G. Money y Weight, and Measure. 567 
 
 denarius represented 10 asses of the triental standard, =40 unciae, its 
 quarter part, the sestertius, was equal to 10 unciae, which was the average 
 value of the libral as. Thus it came to pass that, in the new monetary 
 system, the silver sesterce represented the old copper 'as,' so that any 
 numerical sum ' aeris gravis ' (as in Livy) may be counted at the 
 same number of sesterces, under the triental standard. 
 
 5. Between the first and second Punic Wars, the value of silver in 
 proportion to copper fell considerably. In consequence, the triental ' as ' 
 sank first to the sextantar, and then, B.C. 217, U.C. 537, by the Flaminian 
 law, to the uncial standard. At the same time the denarius was raised, 
 by way of compensation, to the value of 16 (uncial) asses, making the 
 sestertius equal to 4. The weight of this denarius was ^ of a pound ; that 
 of the older one, ^, and the smaller silver coins in proportion. Among 
 these was a coin called ' victoriatus, ' from the figure of Victory stamped 
 on it. The original value of this was f of the denarius ; but by the 
 Clodian law, B.C. 104, u.c. 650, it was reduced to the same value as the 
 'quinarius,' or \ of the 'denarius.' 
 
 6. Although the sesterce, when = 4 uncial or semuncial asses, ceased to 
 possess the ancient value of the libral as, it still continued to represent the 
 popular calculation of 'aes grave.' During the first Civil Wars, B.C. 86, 
 U.C. 668, the Marian Consul Valerius Flaccus carried an iniquitous law 
 (afterwards repealed by Sulla), enabling debtors to clear themselves by 
 paying one coined 'as' (J of the sesterce) in place of one ancient 'as,' 
 or the sesterce itself. In other words, debtors might discharge themselves 
 from all liability by paying 25 per cent, of their debts, or, as we com- 
 monly say, five shillings in the pound. 
 
 7. After the second Punic War silver became so abundant that it 
 thenceforward constituted the chief Roman currency, and copper money 
 was, as among ourselves, small change only. This led to a further reduc- 
 tion of the copper 'as,' which, by the Papirian Law, B.C. 89, U.C. 665, 
 fell to a semuncial standard, indicating a rise in the value of copper as 
 compared with silver. From this date copper coinage ceased for half a 
 century, being resumed during the second Civil Wars. Besides the copper 
 coins heretofore mentioned, the following were also in use from time 
 to time: the 'dupondius,' in value 2 'asses'; 'tressis,' 3 'asses'; 
 ' decussis ' 10, &c. ' Centussis ' was not a coin, but a sum ; and when 
 Persius says, 'Centum Graecos curto centusse licetur,' he means that 
 the rude centurion would not give an ' as ' apiece for 100 Greek philo- 
 sophers. 
 
 8. Gold coinage in the republican times was occasional but not frequent, 
 chiefly for the purpose of military donations. The ' aureus ' of Sulla was 
 i of a Ib. of gold ; that of Pompey i ; that of C. Julius Caesar i ; that 
 of Augustus . This last and most important coin was made equal to 
 25 denarii or 100 sesterces. Mommsen values it at I/, u. 5^-> 
 Hultsch at I/, is. gd. Thus it corresponds nearly to the English guinea. 
 This rate makes the Augustan denarius about 1 0*4^. and the sesterce 
 2'6d. t though before the gold coinage they were severally about 8*4^. 
 and 2'id. Some writers have been led into error by confounding the 
 intrinsic value, or weight, of these two coins with their current or relative 
 value. Finding the oldest republican denarius to have contained ^ of a 
 pound of silver, the later republican and Augustan i, the Neronian ^, 
 they have fallen into the mistake of assuming a corresponding depre- 
 ciation of the current value of the coins. As between the older and later 
 republican coinage, silver being the standard of both, such calculation 
 would be just ; but, when the Augustan gold standard came in, the current 
 values of the silver (and gold) denar and of the brass sesterce (its fourth 
 part) then coined were determined by their several relations to the 
 
568 Appendix. 
 
 'aureus' as i and -^. At that time (see Mommsen, p. 766, &c.) gold 
 was not quite ten times as valuable as silver, while now it exceeds silver in 
 the proportion of more than 15 : i. As the relative values changed, 
 derangement of the coinage would result ; but the calculations here 
 given hold good for at least two centuries after Augustus (allowing 
 for the simultaneous reduction of the intrinsic value of the coins by Nero). 
 For the further details of this intricate subject the student must consult 
 T. Mommsen's 'Geschichte des Romischen Miinzwesens,' of which a con- 
 venient abridgment is found in Hultsch's 'Griechische und Romische 
 Metrologie,' though with calculations rof value sometimes not agreeing 
 with those of Mommsen. We now set down a few practical rules, 
 enabling the student to appreciate, at least approximately, the coins and 
 sums cited by classical authors, especially by Livy, Cicero, and Tacitus. 
 
 9. The 'sestertius' ('semis-tertius' because z\ asses originally, 
 though afterwards = 4) is often called 'nummus' (a term borrowed 
 from the Sicilian coinage, ixfyios), sometimes 'sestertius nummus.' 
 It forms the basis of all pecuniary calculation after the following 
 manner : 
 
 (a) Sums under 1,000 sesterces are named in sesterces ('sestertii' or 
 ' nummi ') : ' decem sestertios (nummos) ' = 10 sesterces ; ' quinos 
 sestertios (nummos) ' = 5 sesterces each, &c. 
 
 (b] In sums above 1,000 sesterces, the thousands may be described as 
 consisting of sesterces : ' duo milia sestertiorum (sestertium, num- 
 mum) ; ' 2, (XX) sesterces ; ' sexagena milia nummum (sestertium),' 
 60,000 sesterces each. 
 
 Or a (supposable) noun sestertium, only found in the Plural 
 ' sestertia,' may be used, where each of the 'sestertia' counted 
 means a sum (not a coin) of about 1,000 sesterces. 'Sexcenta 
 sestertia ' = 600,000 sesterces ; ' duodena sestertia ' = 12,000 sesterces 
 each, &c. 
 
 Or, again, both * milia' and 'sestertia' can be used: 'dena milia 
 sestertia ' = 10,000 sesterces. And, in poetry, * milia ' is used 
 with ellipse of 'sestertium:' * mullum sex milibus emit,' he 
 bought a mullet for 6,000 sesterces, Juv. Horace has 'bis dena ses- 
 tertia nummum,' =20,000 sesterces. 
 
 On the mode of writing compound numerals see 34, vii. Thus 
 'sestertia tria milia et quadringenti octoginta nummi ' = 3, 480 
 sesterces^ 'xxxi milium quingentorum Ix nummorum ' = 31,560 
 sesterces. 
 
 (c} The last mentioned mode of calculation extends to all sums under 
 a million. For a million, and all higher amounts, must be used 
 the Numeral Adverbs ; see 34. vii. e. But the words centum 
 (centena) milia are frequently understood, not expressed, in 
 pecuniary calculations, with these Adverbs. Thus may be written 
 deciens sestertium (sestertii, sestertio) or deciens (understanding 
 sestertium), to express 1,000,000 sesterces. In Cicero we also 
 find 'deciens centena milia,' and in Horace 'deciens centena' to 
 express this sum. The normal sum ' centena milia ' is rated by 
 Hultschat 8;5/. for the republican age, and i,o87/. 13^. 4^. for the 
 Augustan. As this is probably a high estimate, we may take 
 these sums approximately at 8707. and i,o8o/. When an amount 
 is described with more than one Adverb, the numbers they contain 
 must be added together if the larger Numeral 'stands first, but 
 multiplied when the smaller is first ; care being taken not to reckon 
 the ' centena milia,' which is understood, more than once. Thus 
 ' miliens quingentiens ' = 1 50, 000,000 sesterces, but ' quaterdeciens 
 miliens ' = 1,400,000,000 sesterces. 
 
G. Money y Weight, and Measure. 569 
 
 (d) For the Gen. l sestertium ' may be written its symbol HS, for 
 IIS, 2.\ (or, as some say, for LLS), the cross line indicating 
 the PI. * asses,' as the PI. ' librae' is indicated by our It), . 
 
 \f) If the sums are described by cypher, it is sometimes difficult fc>\ 
 distinguish whether sesterces, or sestertia, or centena milia 
 sestertinm are meant, unless the rule mentioned ( 34, vii. 2) be 
 observed. Thus, when Livia Augusta bequeathed to Galba 
 'sestertium quingentiens,' Tiberius reduced the amount to 'ses- 
 tertia quingenta, quia notata non perscripta erat summa. ' That 
 is, he chose to read USD for HS|D|. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 ' HS deciens et octingenta milia ' = 1,800,000 sesterces. 
 
 Viciens ducenta triginta quinque milia quadringentos decem et 
 
 septem nummos ' =2,235,417 sesterces. 
 (Hultsch cites a place in which mille is used for deciens. ) 
 
 10) The following rules, of a roughly practical nature, will enable the 
 student to calculate approximately the sums which occur in classical 
 authors : 
 
 1) For sums in 'aes grave' (often in Livy) count the amount 'aeris 
 gravis ' as the same amount of sesterces, and count the sesterce = 
 2 'Afd. Thus ' milia aeris gravis ' = 1,000 sesterces = 2,400^. = io/. 
 
 2) For sums under the silver currency from B.C. 217 B.C. 30, 
 u - c - 537 u c - 624, cited by Cicero and other writers, count the 
 sesterce = 2 'id. 
 
 If 'sestertia' (i.e. 'milia sestertium') are to be regarded as an 
 exact total of 1,000 sesterces, this would give them the current 
 value of 8/. 15.$-., and this is a convenient figure, though Hultsch 
 rates it somewhat higher, 8/. 15^. 6d. 
 
 This calculation, as already stated, gives to ' centena milia 
 (sestertium)' an approximate value of 87O/., which will be the 
 multiple understood with the Adverbs in -iens. Thus * deciens ' 
 = 8, 7oo/. , ' centiens ' = 87, ooo/. , ' miliens ' = 870, ooo/. , &c. , ap- 
 proximately. 
 
 3) Under the gold standard from B.C. 30 to A.D. 200, count the 
 sesterce, as above stated, 2 -6*/., 'sestertia' at io/. 16^., 'centena 
 milia' at I,o8o/. approximately. Thus ' deciens ' = io,8oo/., 
 ' centiens ' = 1 08, ooo/. , * miliens,' = 1, 080, ooo/. , approximately. 
 
 III. INTEREST. 
 
 The As and its fractional parts were used to calculate interest. Thus 
 (interest being paid monthly at the rate of so much per 100 Asses) : 
 Unciae usurae = f s per cent, per month = I per cent, per annum 
 Sextantes = ,, ,, =2 ,, ,, 
 
 Quadrantes = | ,, ,, =3 ,, ,, 
 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 Asses usurae = i per cent, per month = 12 per cent, per annum. 
 
 Asses usurae were also called cente'simae ; and binae centesimae = 2 
 per cent, per month = 24 per cent. ; so quaternae centesimae = 48 per cent, 
 per annum. Horace says: 'Quinas hie capiti mercedes exsecat' (i.e. 
 quinas centesimas), this man slices off fo per cent, from the capital; because 
 in lending money he deducts from it interest at the rate of 5 per cent, per 
 month = 60 per cent, per annum. 
 
570 Appendix. 
 
 Unciarium fenus, the yearly interest legalised by the Twelve Tables, 
 was probably I uncia per As ( = 8 per cent.) for the old year of 10 months. 
 
 Note. The silver sesterce of republican times had also the following 
 fractional parts: < libella = i sest. (quinque libellae = |) ; sembella (Ili- 
 : teruncius i sembella=^ sest 
 
 sest.; teruncius (i sembella)=^ sest. Cicero (Att. vii. 2) 
 uses these terms to express fractional parts of an inheritance (i, ^, ^ 
 severally). See Mommsen, p. 199. 
 
 IV. WEIGHT. 
 
 The Unit or As of weight was the ' libra ' or Roman pound (the sup- 
 posed weight which a man could support on his hand horizontally ex- 
 tended). It was duodecimally divided (see 34, viii.), the 'uncia,' ounce, 
 being its I2th part, and the scriptulum or scripulum, scruple, its 288th 
 part. Its exact relation to English weight is a debated question. See 
 Smith's Diet. Ant. under Libra and Pondera, where it is calculated 
 at about 5050 grains. Hultsch (with $6ckh and Mommsen) rates it at 
 3 2 7'453 grammes (French) = 5044 grains English nearly. Metrol. 21. 
 
 V. MEASURE OF LENGTH. 
 
 (a) The Unit or As of length was ' pes,' the foot : the human body fur- 
 nishing the first or technical measurement. ' Digitus ' was a finger-breadth : 
 ' palmus,' a hand-breadth, =4 digits : * pes,' afoot, =4 palms = 16 digits. 
 
 (b) In the second, or duodecimal division, of the foot ( 34, viii. ), ' uncia, 1 
 the 1 2th part, was an inch. Hence 3 unciae = 4 digits = i palmus. 
 
 We find 2 feet sometimes called 'dupondius ;' 2\ feet 'sestertius' (also 
 'gradus') ; \\ 'sesquipes.' 
 
 (c) Coming to larger measures, 
 
 ' Palmipes ' = pes + palmus = I foot = 20 digits. 
 
 'Cubitus,' cubit (measured from the elbow to the tip of the middle 
 finger), = i foot = 6 palms = 24 digits. 
 
 'Ulna, ell, is often a synonym of 'cubitus,' i foot: but it sometimes 
 means the full span of the human arms, reckoned = 6 feet. 
 
 (d) Land was measured out by the 'pertica' or 'decempeda,' a mea- 
 suring rod of 10 feet. An ' actus ' of length =12 decempedas. 
 
 (e) For the measurement of roads the unit was 'passus,' a pace or double 
 step = ivf\CQ 2 1 feet or 2 ' gradus' = 5 feet. 
 
 'Mille passus' (or 'milia passuum' or 'milia'), 1,000 paces, expressed 
 
 the Roman mile (miliarium) = 5,ooo^/. 
 
 ' Stadium, ' a furlong (borrowed from Greece), was | of a mile = 625 feet 
 The Roman mile was about \ of the geographical mile, and less than an 
 
 English mile by about ^. 
 
 (f) The relation of the Roman ' pes ' to modern feet is a difficult problem. 
 See Hultsch, Metr. 15. Smith's Diet. Ant. states it as less than the 
 English foot by ^ of an inch. 
 
 According to Hyginus, a standard foot (pes monetalis) was kept in the 
 temple of Juno Moneta. 
 
 VI. MEASURE OF SURFACE. 
 
 The As of superficial measure was the ' iugerum ' or Roman acre : which 
 Smith's Diet. Ant. states at about f of an English acre. Hultsch's state- 
 ment is the same. It contained 2 square ' actus '= 28, 800 square feet. It 
 
G. Money, Weight, and Measure. 571 
 
 was duodecimally divided, like the ' libra' and 'pes.' Of the fractions of 
 the * iugerum ' the most important is the ' scripulum * (scruple) or ' decem- 
 peda quadrata ' = 100 square feet. Of these the ' clima ' contained 36, and 
 the 'actus' 144. Surfaces exceeding the iugerum were: heredium^\ 
 2 iugera : centuria = ioo heredia ; saltus = 4 centuriae. 
 
 All these surfaces were squares, except the iugerum ' itself, which was 
 the sum of two equal squares. The sides of these squares were related to 
 each other as follows, the decempeda here counting as I : 
 
 dec. clima actus hered. cent. salt. 
 i 6 12 24 240 480 
 
 The following Table (given by Hultsch) shews the relations fully : 
 
 saltus 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 centuria 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 
 heredium 
 
 400 
 
 IOO 
 
 I 
 
 iugerum 
 
 800 
 
 200 
 
 2 
 
 actus 
 
 1600 
 
 400 
 
 4 
 
 clima 
 
 6400 
 
 1600 
 
 16 
 
 scripulum 
 
 230400 
 
 57600 
 
 576 
 
 I 
 
 2 I 
 
 841 
 288 144 36 
 
 VII. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 i. Liquid Measure. 
 
 (a) The Romans took for their standard a vessel of a cubic foot in con- 
 tent, called ' quadrantal,' afterwards (from the Greek a/i</>op6ifc) 
 'amphora.' Its parts (which are chiefly Greek) are thus exhibited 
 by Hultsch, Metr. 17. 3 : 
 
 amphora i 
 
 urna 2 i 
 
 congius 841 
 
 sextarius 48 24 6 I 
 
 hemina 96 48 12 2 I 
 
 quartarius 192 96 24 4 2 i 
 
 acetabulum 384 192 48 8 4 2 i 
 
 cyathus 576 288 72 12 6 3 \\ 
 
 (b) The * sextarius ' (less than a pint) was an As duodecimally divided, 
 like the 'libra/ 'pes,' and 'iugerum,' the 'cyathus' being its 
 'uncia' (not quite half an ordinary wineglass). Hence are to be 
 understood the following passages, cited by Hultsch : 
 
 1 Interponis aquam subinde, Rufe, 
 Et, si cogeris a sodale, raram 
 Diluti bibis unciam FalermV 
 
 Mart. i. 106. 
 
 ' Quotiens largissime se invitaret, senos sextantes non excessit. ' 
 
 Suet. Aug. 77. 
 
 (Seni sextantes, i.e. 12 cyathi, fall short of a full pint of wine.) 
 ' Poto ego sextantes, tu potas, Cinna, deunces, 
 Et quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem.' 
 
 Mart. xi. 36. 
 
 Martial also speaks of one who was ' septunce multo perditus.' In the 
 following epigram he alludes to the custom of drinking to the health 
 of a person as many ' cyathi ' as there were letters in his name. 
 
 Quincunces et sex cyathos bessemque bibamus, 
 Gaius ut fiat lulius et Proculus. Mart. x. 36. 
 
572 Appendix. 
 
 (c) The 'semuncia' was called 'ligula,' a spoon carrying ' cya- 
 thus ; ' the ' sicilicus ' was * cochleare ', carrying { cyathus.' 
 
 (d) ( Culeus ' ( ' culleus ') was a wine-vat, holding 20 amphoras. The 
 ' amphora * itself was an earthen vessel with two handles, whence 
 its name. 
 
 (e) ' Cadus ' is sometimes used in the same sense as ' amphora ; ' but 
 usually it means a cask of no definite size. 
 
 ii. Dry Measure. 
 
 The 'modius' approached 2 gallons ( bushel) English. Its divisions 
 were 
 
 modius i 
 
 
 
 semodius 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 sextarius 1 6 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 hemina 32 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 quartarius 64 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 acetabulum 128 
 
 64 
 
 8 
 
 cyathus 192 
 
 96 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 2 I 
 
 a 2 I 
 
 3 I* 
 
 Again the * sextarius' is duodecimally divisible, its 'uncia* being^ 
 1 cyathus,' its ' semuncia ' being * ligula.' 
 
 Larger measures are 'trimodius' (3 'modii') and ' decemmodius ' (10 
 'modii'). 
 
 The ' sextarius ' is sometimes called ' librarius. ' 
 
 H. COMPUTATION OF TIME. 
 
 A. The Julian Calendar agrees with the English, except in the 
 manner of naming the days of the month. Every Roman month had 
 three chief days : Kalendae or Calendae (Calends), Nonae (Nones), Idus 
 (Ides). The Calends were always the 1st day of the month ; the Nones 
 were on the 5th : the Ides on the I3th ; except in March, May, July, and 
 October, in which months the Nones were on the yth, the Ides on the i5th. 
 
 March, May, July, October, these, we say, 
 Make Nones the seventh, Ides the fifteenth day. 
 
 These three days, the Calends, Nones, and Ides, were taken as points, 
 from which the other days were reckoned backwards. That is, the 
 Romans did not say, such and such a day after , &c., but such and such a 
 day before the Calends, or Nones, or Ides. 
 
 Calendae from calare, to call; Nonae, ninth before Ides; Idus from 
 iduere (=div-idere), to divide. See Hor. C. iv. II. 14. 
 
 B. If January be taken as a sample, the first day was Kalendae 
 lanuariae. The 2nd must be reckoned backwards from the Nones, which, 
 in January fell on the 5th, Nonae lanuariae. But in this reckoning the 
 day of the Nones itself must be included. Therefore our 4th of January 
 was the 2nd day before the Nones, called pridie (ante) Nonas lanuarias. 
 The 3rd of January was ' tertio (ante) Nonas lanuarias ; ' the 2nd, * quarto 
 (ante) Nonas lanuarias ;' or, abbreviated, 'III. Non. Ian.,' 'IV. Non. Ian.' 
 To obtain the Roman name for the 6th of January, the reckoning must be 
 made backwards from the Ides, which fell on the I3th, *Idus lanuariae.' 
 Thus the I2th was 'pridie Id. Ian. ;' the nth, < III. Id. Ian ;' the loth, 
 ' IV. Id. Ian.,' &c. ; the 6th was therefore VIII. Id. Ian.' To obtain the 
 name for the I4th of January, the reckoning is back from the Calends of 
 
H. Computation of Time. 573 
 
 the next month, Kalendae Februariae. Thus, January 315! was 'pridie 
 Kal. Feb. ; ' January 3Oth, * III. Kal. Feb.,' &c. &c. ; January I4th was. 
 therefore, 'XIX. Kal. Feb.' 
 
 C. From these observations it appears that the Roman name for an^ 
 given English day may be found by the following rules : 
 
 1) If the given day is between the Calends and Nones of the Roman 
 month, subtract its English number from the English number of the day 
 on which the Nones fall, increased by one ; the remainder will give that 
 number before the Nones by which the day is called in Latin. 
 
 2) Similarly, if the given day is between the Nones and Ides of the 
 Roman month, subtract its English number from the English number of 
 the day on which the Ides fall, increased by one ; the remainder will give 
 that number before the Ides by which the day is called in Latin. 
 
 Thus, to find the Roman name for the 4th of June, the Nones of June 
 falling on the 5th, subtract 4 from 5+1, or 6 ; the remainder is 2 (pridie) ; 
 therefore the 4th of June is 'pridie Non. lun.' Again ; to find the Roman 
 name for the roth of May, the Ides of May falling on the I5th, subtract 
 10 from 15+1, or 16; the remainder being 6, the loth of May is called 
 * VI. Id. Mai.' 
 
 3) But if the given day is between the Ides of the given month and the 
 Calends of the next, then subtract its English number from the total 
 number of days in the given month, increased by two ; the remainder will 
 give that number before the Calends of the next month by which the day is 
 called in Latin. 
 
 Thus, to find the Roman name for the i8th of August ; subtract 18 from 
 31 + 2, or 33, the remainder is 15, and August 1 8th is called 'XV. Kal. 
 Sept.' For April 2 1st, subtract 21 from 30 + 2, or 32, there remains II ; 
 and April 2ist is called XI. Kal. Mai. For February 25th, subtract 25 
 from 28 + 2, or 30, there remains 5 ; and February 25th is called ' V. Kal. 
 Mart.' 
 
 D. As regards Construction, the forms Kalendis, Nonis, Idibus, are used 
 as Ablatives of time; and whentertio, quarto, &c., Kalendas, &c. are used, 
 the words die ante are understood. But Cicero does not employ these 
 latter phrases: he writes (for instance) 'ante diem tertium Kalendaa 
 lanuarias,' or, in abbreviated form, ' a.d. III. Kal. Ian.,' to express Decem- 
 ber 3Oth, and so in every case. 
 
 Here the Preposition ante has, by a corruption of custom, quitted its 
 proper place before Kalendas, to stand before diem, which it does not 
 govern. So merely idiomatic is this mode of expression, that it is used in 
 dependence on Prepositions: 'Consul Latinas in ante diem tertium 
 Idus Sextilis edixit,' the Consul proclaimed the Latin holidays for the \\th 
 of August, L. xli. 1 6. ' De Quinto fratre nuntii nobis tristes venerant ex 
 ante diem in. Non lun. usque ad pridie Kal. Sept.,' 2 havesadnews 
 of my brother Quintus from the yd of June down to the ^ist of August, 
 C. Att. v. 17. 
 
 E. The names of the months are all Adjectives agreeing with mensis 
 understood : lanuarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprilis, Maius, lunius, lulius 
 (so called from Julius Caesar, but before his time Quintilis), Augustus (so 
 called from Augustus Caesar, but before his time Sextilis), September, 
 October, November, December. With the words Kalendae, Ncnae, 
 Idus, they are used attributively, very seldom as Possessive Genitives : 
 ' Natus est Augustus IX. Kalendas Octobres,' Augustus was born on 
 the 2,-^rd of September, Suet. Aug. 5. ' Memoria tenent, me a.d. XIII. 
 Kalendas lanuarias principem revocandae libertatis fuisse,' they 
 remember that on the 2Oth of December I took the lead in restoring freedom, 
 
574 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 cJ rt PH f-\ rt rt rt c3 rt c3 P^ i i cScJrtrtrtrtrtcSrtcScJrtrtrt P^ 
 
 ^dag 'unj udy" * 33 Q *PO 'I 11 ! *I B I\[ 
 
 - 
 
 en a 
 
 03Q -Sny -U 
 
 -Sny "unj udy 
 
 ON O - ^ fO rf mvC t^OO ON O N fO rt- ir>vO t^OO C\ O 
 
 HI-,hNNH>HNHMNWNNWC<NC<NCOfO 
 
K. Abbreviations used in Latin. 575 
 
 C. Phil. xiv. 7. *Capuam venire iussi sumus ad Nonas Februarias,' 
 we were ordered to come to Capua by the $th of Febrttary, C. Att. v. 17. 
 'VII. IdusMaias aestatis initium,' the gth of May is the commencement 
 of summer, Colum. xi. 2. 
 
 Feast-days are sometimes used to express the dates of letters : 'Liberal!- 
 bus litteras accepi tuas,' I received your letter on the day of the Feast of 
 Liber, C. Att. ix. 5. 
 
 In Leap-year, the twenty-fourth of February (a.d. VI. Kal. Mart.) was 
 reckoned twice over ; hence this day came to be called DIES BISSEXTUS, 
 and Leap-year itself was called ANNUS BISSEXTUS. 
 
 : SIGLARIUM ROMANUM, OR ABBREVIATIONS USED 
 IN LATIN. 
 
 i. PR^ENOMINA. 
 
 A. Aulus. K. Kaeso. P. Publius. SP. Spurius. 
 
 C. Gaius. 1 L. Lucius. Q. Quintus. T. Titus. 
 CN. Gnaeus. 1 M. Marcus. SEE. Servius. Ti. Tiberius. 
 
 D. Decimus. M'. Manius. SEX. Sextus. 
 
 Women's names were expressed by inverting the character : as, 0, Gaia. 
 
 2. TITLES. 
 
 Cos. Consul. Coss. Consules or P. M. Pontifex Maximus. 
 
 Consulibus. PRC. Proconsul. 
 
 DES. Designatus. S. P. Q. R. Senatus Populusque 
 
 D. Divus. Romanus. 
 
 IMP. Imperator. TR. PL. Tribunus Plebis. 
 III. V. R. C. Triumvir Reipublicae X. V. Decemvir. 
 
 Constituendae. XV. V. S. F. Quindecimviri Sacris 
 
 P. C. Patres Conscripti. Faciundis. 
 
 3. IN VOTING ON TRIALS AND ELECTIONS. 
 
 A. Absolve. C. Condemno. A. P. Antiquam (legem) probo. 
 
 N. L. Non liquet. V. R. Uti rogas. 
 
 4. ON TOMBS. 
 
 F. C. Faciundum curavit. OB. Obiit. 
 
 H. C. E. Hie conditus est. P. C. Poni curavit. 
 
 H. S. E. Hie situs est. V. Vixit. 
 
 5. MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 A. U. C. Anno Urbis Conditae. O. M. Optumus Maxumus. 
 
 D. D. Dono dedit. S. C. Senatusconsultum. 
 
 DD. Dederunt. S. D. Salutem dicit. 
 
 D. D. D. Dat, dicat, dedicat. S. P. D. Salutem plurimam dicit. 
 
 D. M. Dis Manibus. S. V. B. E. E. Q. V. Si vales, bene 
 
 F. Filius. es t> e g quoque valeo. 
 
 F! F. F. ' Felix, faustum, fortuna- TR. POT. Tribunicia Potestate. 
 
 turn. , 
 
 1 These names are written in MSS. Gaius, Gnaeus, but abbreviated C., Cn. 
 
576 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 6. MODERN. 
 
 A. C. Anno Christi. 
 
 A. D. Anno Domini. 
 
 A. M. Anno Mundi. 
 
 a. C. n. ante Christum natum. 
 
 Cf. Confer or Conferatur. 
 
 Coll. Collate or Collatis. 
 
 Cod. Codex. Codd. Codices. 
 
 Del. Dele or Deleatur. 
 
 Ed. Editio. Edd. Editiones. 
 
 e.g. Exempli gratia. 
 
 Etc. or &c. Et cetera. 
 
 h. e. hoc est. 
 
 I. C. lesus Christus. 
 
 Ictus. lurisconsultus. 
 
 ibid, ibidem. 
 
 i. e. id est. 
 
 i. q. idem quod. 
 
 L. or Lib. Liber. 
 
 L. B. Lectori benevolo. 
 
 1. c. loco citato. 
 
 p. C. n. post Christum natum. 
 
 C. P. P. C. Collatis pecuniis poni 
 
 curaverunt 
 Cet. Cetera. 
 1. 1. loco laudato, 
 leg. lege or legatur. 
 MS. Manuscriptus (Liber). 
 MSS. Manuscript! (Libri). 
 N. B. Nota bene. 
 N. T. Novum Testamentum. 
 Obs. Observa or observetur. 
 PS. Postscriptum. 
 q. v. quod vide, 
 sc. scilicet, 
 s. v. sub voce. 
 vid. vide or videatur. 
 v. 1. vide locum, 
 viz. videlicet. 
 V. Cel. Vir Celeberrimus. 
 V. Cl. Vir Clarissimus. 
 V. T. Vetus Testamentum. 
 
 7. ACADEMICAL. 
 
 A. B. Artium Baccalaureus. 
 A. M. Artium Magister. 
 D. Doctor. 
 
 LL.D. Legum Doctor. 
 M. D. Medicinae Doctor. 
 
 Mus. D. Musicae Doctor. 
 
 S. T. P. Sanctae Theologiae Pro- 
 fessor ( which ~D.D. Doctor of 
 Divinity). 
 
 cate: 
 
 each depart IT 
 
 the French Bas Chevalier, which primarily denoted a Knight Bachelor, one who sat at 
 the same table with the Bannerets, but, being of inferior rank, was " mis arriere," 01 
 "plus bas assis : " hence it came to denote the unfinished apprentice, the unmarried man, 
 and the semigraduate. The complete degree in Arts was that of Magister, Master in 
 the Faculties, Doctor, Teacher ; two titles equivalent to one another and to the common 
 designation of Professor, or claimant of complete knowledge. The Arts were seven in 
 number (Grammatica, Grammar ; * Dialectica, Logic ; Rhetorica, Rhetoric which were 
 called Trivium; Musica, Music; Arithmetica, Arithmetic: Geometria, Geometry, 
 Astrologia, Astrology which four were called Quadrivium) ; and are summed up in the 
 technical lines : 
 
 GRAM- loquitur ; DIA- vera docet ; RHET- verba colorat ; 
 
 MUS- canit ; AR- numeral ; GE- ponderat ; AS- colit astra. 
 
 Music from an Art has passed into a Faculty, and has special Degrees. The older 
 Faculties are Divinity, Law, Medicine : the first of which was supposed to include all 
 Arts.' Donaldson, Lat. Gr. p. 470. 
 
 * When Public Schools were first established to prepare boys for the studies of the 
 University, the subject mainly taught in them was the first and fundamental Art that of 
 language Grammatica. Hence such a school was called Schola Grammaticalis, a 
 Grammar School ; and, when founded by Royal Charter, it was declared to be Libera 
 Schola Grammaticalis, a Free Grammar School t \.t.free from all superiority but that 
 of the Crown. 
 
577 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 
 
 I. ( 6) p. 5.) < Primitive Sound or Root/ 
 
 It seems necessary to explain more distinctly the sense in which the word 
 ' Primitive ' is here used. 
 
 When a root appears with some variety of form in several kindred lan- 
 guages (as Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit), it is natural to ask which of the 
 forms is earlier than the rest, and whether such earlier form is to be 
 regarded as * primitive,' or a still earlier one is to be assumed as once 
 existing, though disused. To determine these points certainly or with high 
 probability, the various forms must be carefully compared, and tested by 
 well-ascertained principles and facts of language. Among such principles 
 and facts are the following : 
 
 (1) Guttural Letters sounded from the throat with the lips apart are pri- 
 mitive, as compared with all others. 
 
 Thus the vowel a, having its proper sound, either from the back of the 
 throat, as in Indian ak ( = English uk), or from the front, as in English 
 ak (for the sounds in English 'ale,' 'all,' are diphthongal), is the great 
 primitive vowel, into which no other passes by strengthening, though itself 
 may be weakened into others. Such weakening is either by closure of the 
 lips, as in the series a, o, u, or by employment of the palate and tongue, 
 as in the series a, e, Hence it follows that 
 
 If an a-sound compete with another vowel-sound, the a-sound belongs 
 to the primitive form. 
 
 Example. The Sanskrit stem signifying 'father' is pitar, the Latin 
 pater, the Greek (TTOLT^P) ira,T*p-. We are hence able to infer that the 
 primitive stem is patar, of which Sanskrit (in pitar) has weakened the first 
 syllable, Latin and Greek the second. 
 
 (2) A long vowel is the sum of two short vowels. 
 
 Hence it appears that a root with long vowel is the development of 
 another with short vowel, which is therefore the earlier of the two. 
 
 Example. The ' foot ' of man or any other animal is expressed in Latin 
 and Greek by the root ped- TrtfS-, but in Sanskrit the word is pad, nom. 
 pad-as m. This shews, what we might have been pretty sure of, that the 
 vowel of the root is a ; but here we find long a ; so we are led to expect an 
 earlier root with short a, from which a is developed. And this we find in 
 the Sanskrit verb-root pad, 'to go, 'which has derivatives with a, pada, 
 pada-m, ' a pace,' ' a step.' The Latin and Greek Nominatives pes, Trofo, 
 have the same quantity as pad, and so in Compounds Sk. dvipad, Lat. 
 bipes, Gr. tiiirov*, &c. But the verb-form pad does not exist in Latin and 
 Greek (unless bitere and irare'iy can be referred to it). 
 
 (3) Guttural Consonants, by (i), antecede the rest. Others are not 
 changed into them, though they are represented by others. 
 
 Hence if a guttural form compete with another, the guttural may be 
 regarded as primitive. 
 
 PP 
 
578 Supplementary Notes. 
 
 Examples. In Sanskrit, c' (soft ch) and s' often represent k, c ; s'v may 
 represent kv, qu ; sometimes Lat. p, TT, T, represent a guttural ; Sk. j re- 
 presents g. See pp. 59-61. 
 
 (4) Of the Consonant trills r, 1, so often interchanged (p. 64), r must be 
 considered the earlier. 
 
 (5) Sanskrit words beginning with h have lost an initial which preceded it. 
 
 (6) The vocalized r-trill is expressed in Sanskrit by the vowel ri (ri), but 
 this in Latin and Greek is usually represented by ar, er, or. Even in Sk. 
 ar is the earlier form, and Professor Cowell has pointed out to me (since 
 this Grammar was reprinted) that the great Sanskrit Dictionary, now 
 being published at St. Petersburgh by the Russian Government, rejects ri 
 from verb-roots, and receives ar as the true form, though the ri-form is that 
 which Indian scholars use. Terminal diphthongs are also rejected. The 
 words of the editors are : ' Wir haben aus den Verbal-wiirzeln die Vocale 
 ri, ri und li vollstandig verbannt ; desgleichen die Diphthonge vom Auslaut 
 derselben ; ri im Auslaut von Nominalthemen haben wir durch ar ersetzt.' 
 
 Hence they write bhar not bhri, kart not krit, pitar not pitri, da not 
 <de' or 'do.' 
 
 The following instances may suffice to illustrate the principles stated ; 
 the suggested primitive form being placed in the fourth column : 
 
 Lat. Gr. Sk. Pr. 
 
 coqu- 7T67T- pac' pak (kak ?) 
 
 quinque TreVre panc'an pankan (kankan?) 
 
 li(n)qu- AITT- ric' rik 
 
 equ-us VTHTOS as'vas akva-s 
 
 gno- yvo- jna gna 
 
 vert vrit, vart vart 
 
 cord- KapS-ta hod, hard khard ? 
 
 serp- *PTT- srip, sarp sarp 
 
 lup-us \VK-OS vrika-s, varka-s varka-s 
 
 urs-us &PKT-OS riksha-s, arksha-s arksa-s 
 
 levi-s 3-\axv-s laghu-s, raghu-s raghu-s 
 (for leg- vis) 
 
 Raghu-s is a derivative of the verb-root rah, or ra-gh, to move fleetly. 
 Exemplifying these principles further from other roots and words cited in 
 p. 554, we are led to infer that the following, among others, are the primi- 
 
 da 
 ma 
 stag 
 
 tovcr ; tan stretch ; vas clothe ; ghans "goose ; ' kvan dog ; 'dvar door ; avis 
 sheep, c. Many of these forms will be seen to differ in some respect or 
 other from the Sanskrit, while others agree, as man, sad, tan, vas, avis, 
 &c. The only two which agree exactly with Greek or Latin are ag, ap. 
 Thus it is shewn how primitive forms are deduced with probability from a 
 comparison of kindred languages. 
 
 An instructive example may be added : the derivative word Sk. s'ravas, 
 Gr. /cAe'os, L. laus. The root is (Prim, kru) Sk. s'ru, Gr. /cAi/-, L. clu- 
 hear. The derived forms may be compared letter by letter : 
 Sk. s' r a v as = s'ravas. 
 Gr. K A e (f) o s = K\e(F)os. 
 L. 1 av s = laus. 
 Here it is seen that 
 
 (a) in Sanskrit : the primitive k passes (as often) into s' ; r remains ; av 
 from u is a constant formation ; as is a Noun -ending. 
 
 (o) in Greek : k remains in K -, the rough liquid r passes into the soft * ; 
 
Supplementary Notes. 
 
 579 
 
 ;av is weakened into ef, and the F (=v) is lost in later Greek ; o$ n. is the 
 weakened ending for as n. 
 
 (c) in Latin : k falls off (p. 44) ; r passes into 1, av is vocalized into aia^: 
 and as the ending its is hereby precluded, a suffix d is brought in, and the\ 
 nom. lau-d-s ( = laus) is formed, which, by Latin analogy, becomes Fern. 
 
 A similar word is hravas (clearly for dhravas from root dhvri, or dhurv, 
 ' to bend ' or ' make crooked ') = Latin fraus ; fr corresponding to dhr, 
 the rest as in s'ravas and laus. 
 
 The following is a list of Sanskrit roots corresponding to most of those 
 cited on pages 14-17 : 
 
 English. 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 to yoke 
 
 y u j 
 
 hear 
 
 s'ru 
 
 float 
 
 plu 
 
 cleanse 
 
 pu 
 
 stink 
 
 puy 
 
 bray, sound 
 
 ru 
 
 shine 
 
 rue' 
 
 cover 
 
 sku 
 
 sew 
 
 siv 
 
 be strong 
 
 tu 
 
 shew 
 
 dis' 
 
 shine 
 
 div 
 
 g 
 
 i 
 
 that 
 
 i 
 
 lie down 
 
 s'i 
 
 adhere 
 
 U 
 
 spy 
 
 spas' 
 
 three 
 
 tri 
 
 love, desire 
 
 lubh 
 
 drive 
 
 a J 
 
 shine 
 
 bha, bhas 
 
 beget 
 
 jan 
 
 English. 
 know 
 hide 
 
 Sanskrit 
 jna 
 kul 
 
 slip 
 measure 
 
 lamb 
 ma 
 
 fasten 
 rule 
 bathe 
 
 pas' 
 
 ri i 
 
 sna 
 
 stand 
 
 stha 
 
 strew 
 
 stri, star 
 
 seize 
 make, create 
 sit 
 
 hri, har 
 kri, kar 
 sad 
 
 cover 
 cover 
 move 
 
 sthag 
 vri, var, val 
 val 
 
 sound 
 
 svan 
 
 sleep 
 the sun 
 
 svap 
 svar 
 
 speak 
 fill 
 fade, die 
 be 
 
 vac' 
 pri, par, pur 
 mri, mar 
 bh'u 
 
 The roots due- lead, nu- nod, fid- trust, ac- sharpen, sa- sow, mar- glitter, 
 are not represented in Sanskrit. 
 
 We find push, nurture, and putra a son in Sanskrit, with which L. puer 
 and its cognates are probably connected. 
 
 Sanskrit has the Adjective rudh-ira red, but not the verb rudh to be red; 
 yet to such^ a root we must refer the words ruber, rufus, -pv6-p6s, &c. 
 
 The Latin verbs luo, lavo to wash, and f-luo to flow, are probably related 
 to Sk. plu to float. 
 
 To break is in Sk. bhanj : if this is the root of Gr. fpa-y, L. frang-, it 
 has developed r in those languages. 
 
 L. sero, connect, may be from the Causal of Sk. sri sar, to proceed. 
 
 That Sk. sarva, all, is of the same family as the Latin words of solidity, 
 salus, solum, sollus, sSlus, sellers, &c., appears certain : and they are 
 referred by some to the root sri, sar. 
 
 Sk. svar, the sun, may indicate a verb-root svar or sur, to shine \ but 
 such root is not extant. 
 
 II. < Relations in the Simple Sentence, 103-105, pp. 352-8.' 
 
 In the belief that the meaning of these sections will be most clearly 
 shewn by the analysis of a passage according to the principles laid down in 
 them, the first Ode of Horace (C. i. I.) is chosen for that purpose. 
 
 Horace, presenting three Books of Carmina to his illustrious friend 
 
 P F 2 
 
 
580 Supplementary Notes. 
 
 Maecenas in the year B.C. 19, u.c. 735, places this Ode first by way of 
 dedication. The outline of what he says is this : 
 
 ' O Maecenas, my beloved protector, various are the delights of men. 
 Some who, like the Greeks, love excitement, display and barren honour ', are 
 glad to win the great Olympian chariot-race. 1 Romans having large landed 
 property are overjoyed, one, if the popular vote exalts him to the three offices 
 of state ; another, if he is enabled to acquire unrivalled wealth. The 
 yeoman fanner would not be tempted by the riches of Attalus to forsake the 
 tillage of his hereditary fields. The merchant captain, amidst the perils of 
 shipwreck, may regret his native village ; but let him return there, and rest- 
 less greed soon drives him back to sea. The Epicurean quaffs his wine, 
 and takes life easily from day to day. The soldier is all for camps and 
 battles ; the huntsman for the hardships of the chase. As for me 2 at 
 Rome I enjoy, as a learned man, the society of the great ; elsewhere, the 
 haunted forest and the favour of the Muses. But if, after reading what 1 
 ncnv send, you rank me among lyric poets, I shall reach the very zenith of 
 delight.' 
 
 Maecenas atavis edite regibus, 
 
 o et praesidium et dulce decus meum, 
 
 sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum 
 
 collegisse iuvat, metaque fervidis 
 
 evitata rotis palmaque nobilis. 1 5 
 
 terrarum dominos evehit ad deos 
 
 hunc, si mobilium turba Quiritium 
 
 certat tergeminis tollere honoribus, 
 
 ilium, si proprio condidit horreo 
 
 quidquid de Libycis verritur areis. IO 
 
 gaudentem patrios findere sarculo 
 
 agros Attalicis condicionibus 
 
 numquam dimoveas, ut trabe Cypria 
 
 Myrtoum pavidus nauta secet mare. 
 
 luctantem Icariis fluctibus Africum 15 
 
 mercator metuens otium et oppidi 
 
 laudat mra sui : mox reficit rates 
 
 quassas, indocilis pauperiem pati. 
 
 est qui nee veteris pocula Massici 
 
 nee partem solido demere de die 20 
 
 spernit, nunc viridi membra sub arbuto 
 
 stratus, nunc ad aquae lene caput sacrae. 
 
 multos castra iuvant et lituo tubae 
 
 permixtus sonitus bellaque matribus 
 
 detestata. manet sub love frigido 25 
 
 venator tenerae coniugis immemor, 
 
 seu visa est catulis cerva fidelibus, 
 
 seu xupit teretes Marsus aper plagas. 
 
 me 2 doctarum hederae praemia frontium 
 
 dis miscent superis, me gelidum nemus 30 
 
 nympharumque leves cum satyris chori 
 
 secernunt populo, si neque tibias 
 
 Euterpe cohibet nee Polyhymnia 
 
 Lesboum refugit tendere barbiton. 
 
 quodsi me lyricis vatibus inseris, 35 
 
 sublimi feriam sidera vertice. 
 
 The following Syntactic Analysis is thus arranged : 
 
 In the Predicative Relation (I) both related words, Nominative and 
 Verb, are placed together. In II-VII, one word is stated ; and that to 
 which it is related by agreement or government is added within brackets, 
 
Supplementary Notes. 581 
 
 sometimes by its initial only, but so as not to be mistaken. With Annexed 
 words (VIII) the Conjunction, if any, is given, the related words following. 
 Words to be mentally supplied are in italic type. Numerals by or page 
 refer to the Rules ? as given in the Syntax or Uses of Words. 
 
 1. Predicative Relation. ( 108. Concord I. 115.) 
 
 3. Sunt homines ( 114. 2, 206. note). 4. collegisse iuvat ( 177-8). 
 6. z7/z^ evehit si, &c. (when si nearly = quod, the Protasis forms a Sub- 
 stantival Clause which may be, as here, the Subject of the Apodosis). 1 7-8. 
 turba certat. 9. ille condidit. 10. quidquid verritur. 13. tu dimoveas. 
 14. ille secet 16-17. mercator laudat. 17. ille reficit. 19. est homo. 
 19-21. qui spernit. 23. castra iuvant. 25. venator manet. 27. cerva 
 visa-est. 28. aper rupit. 29. hederae miscent. 30-2. nemus chorique 
 secernunt ( 112). 33. Euterpe cohibet. 33-4. Polyhymnia refugit. 35. 
 tu inseris. 36. ego feriam (p. 350, 109). 
 
 II. Qualitative. 
 
 (1) Attribution ( 108. Concord n.). 
 o. As Epithet (p. 354). 
 
 2. Meum dulce (d,). 3. Olympicum (p.). 4. fervidis (r.). 5. nobilis 
 (p.). 7. hunc (dominum, see note). 7. mobilium (Q.). 8. tergeminis 
 (h.). 9. proprio (h.). 10. Libycis (a.). II. patrios (agr.). 12. Attalicis 
 (c.). 13. Cypria (t.). 14. pavidus (n.). Myrtoum (m.). 15. Icariis (f.). 
 17. sui (o.). 18. quassas (r.). 19. veteris Massici (vini). 20. solido (die). 
 21. viridi (a.). 22. lene (c.). sacrae (a.). 23. multos (homines). 25. 
 frigido (I.). 26. tenerae (c.). 27. fidelibus (c.). 28. Marsus(a.). teretes 
 (p.). 29. doctarum (f.). 30. superis (dis). gelidum (n.). 31. leves(c.). 
 34. Lesboum (b.). 35. lyricis (v.). 36. sublimi (v.). 
 
 . As Enthesis (p. 354. See also 237-9). 
 
 I. Edite (M. =qui editus es). 5. evitata (m. =quae evitata est). II. 
 gaudentem (virum = qui gaudeat). 15. luctantem (A. =dum luctatur or qui 
 luctetur). 16. metuens (mere. = cum metuit). 18. indocilis (mere. =quia 
 indocilis est). 22. stratus (qui = cum stra vent, having stretched]. 24. per- 
 mixtus (s.). 25. detestata (b.). 26. immemor (v.). 
 
 (2) Apposition ( 108. Concord m.). 
 a. As Epithet (p. 354). 
 
 1. Regibus (atavis, which is the principal noun here : royal ancestors], 
 0. As Enthesis (p. 354). 
 
 2. Praesidium (M. = qui es praesidium . . . meum). 15. nauta (Ule=* 
 factus nauta). 29. praemia (h. =quae sunt praemia). 
 
 III. Objective. Nearer Object. ( 120-1. See 237.) 
 
 3. Quos (iuvat). 3. pulverem (coll.). 6. dominos (evehit, see note). 7. 
 hunc (evehit, see note). 8. eum (tollere). 9-10. frumentum (condidit). 
 ii. virum (dimov.). 12. agros (f.). 14. mare (s.). 15. Africum (met). 
 16. otium (laud.). 17. rates (r.). pauperiem (pati). 19. pocula (sp. ). 
 20. partem (dem.). 21. membra (stratus, 122. 6). 23. homines (iuv.). 
 28. plagas (r.). 29. me (misc.). 30. me (sec.). 32. tibias(c.). 33. bar- 
 biton (t.). 35. me (i.). 36. sidera (f.). 
 
 IV. Receptive ( 132-3, &c. See 237). 
 
 15. Fluctibus (1. 135. b. c.). 23. lituo (p. 135. b.). 24. matribus 
 -<d. 141. 7). 27. catulis (v. 134. i). 30. dis (misc. 135. b.). 35. vatibus 
 .{i. p. 385). 
 
582 Supplementary Notes. 
 
 V. Circumstantive. ( 143, &c. Ablative: Adverbs: Prepositions.) 
 
 1. Atavis (ed. 159). 3. curriculo (coll. 145). 5. rods (evit. 145, 
 or 151). 6. ad deos (eveh. 70. i.). 8. honoribus (tollere, 151). 
 9. horreo (c. 155. 2.). 10. de areis ( 71, p. 300). n. sarculo (f. 
 145). 12. condicionibus (dim. 145). 13. numquam (d.). 14. trabe 
 (s. 145). 17. mox (r.). 20. de die ( 71, p. 300). 21-2. mine nunc 
 (str. p. 317). sub arbuto (str. 71, p. 306). ad caput (str. 70. I.). 25. 
 Sub love (m. 71, p. 306). 31. cum satyris (ch. 71. iv.). 32. populo 
 (sec. 158). 36. vertice (f. 145). 
 
 VI. Proprietive ( 162, &c.). 
 
 6. Terrarum (dom. 174). 7. Quiritium (t. 166). 16. oppidi (r. 
 165). 19. vini (pocula, 166). 22. aquae (c. 165). 23. tubae (s. 
 165). 26. coniugis (i. 174, 2. 7.). 29. frontium (p. 165). 31. nym- 
 pharum (ch. 166). 
 
 VII. Prolative ( 180). 
 
 8. Tollere (c.). n. findere (g.). 18. pati (indocilis). 34. tendere (r.). 
 
 VIII. Annexive ( 188). 
 
 2. Et decus (praesidium). 4-5. metaque palmaque (collegisse). 9. ilium 
 (hunc). 17. et rura (otium). 20. nee demere (pocula). 23-4. et sonitus 
 bellaque (castra). 31. chorique (nemus). 
 
 (A) Vocative ( 118) Interjections ( 104) and Conjunctions. 
 
 i. Maecenas ( 104, 118). 2. O ( 104. 118) et ( 77. 3). 7-9. si si 
 (see note). 13. ut ('so that he, 6-Y.' 205 : or, if to dimoveas be given the 
 sense of persuading, 'ut secet 'may be referred to 197). 20-1. nee nee 
 ( 77- 3). 27-8. seu seu ( 221). 32-3. si neque nee ( 77. 3.) 
 
 (B) Relative Construction ( 108. Concord IV. 105). 
 
 3. Quos (agrees with antecedent homines, 108. case is governed by 
 iuvat, 121). 10. quidquid (omne frumentum is suppressed antec. On 
 Case, see I.) 19. qui (agrees with antecedent homo : is nom. subject of 
 spernit). 35. quod si, but if ( = as to which, if, &c. See 82. 6). 
 
 [Notes. * 1. 5. A full stop is placed after ' nobilis,' and no stop after 
 'decs' in 1. 6, with Macleane and Munro. Horace would tolerate no- 
 where, much less in the opening lines of his First Ode, such a construction 
 as ' hunc ilium ' dependent on ' iuvat ' or ' evehit ' supplied from a previous 
 and specially distinct sentence. * Nobilis ' forms a beautiful ending to the 
 sentence 'sunt quos,' &c. ; and * evehit,' having for its subjects the two 
 clauses 'si mobilium,' &c., 'si proprio,' &c., is an exquisite, though not 
 frequent construction. As to ' terrarum dominos,' opinions will probably be 
 divided between making it an apposition to ' deos ' and taking it as object 
 of 'evehit,' in the sense of 'Roman landlords.' The latter explanation, 
 supported by Lucan's 'terrarum dominos,' Phars. viii. 208, which Orelli 
 cites, is here preferred. 
 
 2 1. 29, &c. The reading 'te,' which some suggest for the first 'me,' is 
 tempting, because Maecenas was learned : see C. iii. 8. 4. But perhaps 
 Horace in these lines speaks of his own two modes of life, both delightful : 
 one, which, as a scholar favoured by the great (di superi, i.e. Augustus, 
 perhaps including Maecenas: see C. iii. 3, II. 5, 2. iv. 5, 33), he en- 
 joyed at Rome ; the other, in his Sabine villa near Tibur. See iv. 3, the 
 most exquisite of all his poems, where he expresses similar feelings in 
 another form, and exults in having gained that which in the present ode he 
 declares to be the summit of his hopes to be called ' Romanae fidicen 
 lyrae.'] 
 
INDEX I. 
 
 SUBJECTS. 
 
 [Keference Is made sometimes to Sections, : sometimes to Pages. An asterisk marks a 
 term introduced in modern works on Latin Grammar. Italics with asterisk mark 
 a term introduced in this Grammar or its companion works. ] 
 
 A APO 
 
 Substantive). Gr. etrCderov (epithet], 
 15. Declension of Adjectives hi 
 Decl. II. and I., 93 ; in Decl. III., 
 115-119. Irregularities, 28. Com- 
 parison, 29. Derivation, 59. 
 Uses, 63. In Qualitative 'Rela- 
 tion, 103. II. See Agreement ; 
 also CONTENTS. 
 
 * Adjectival Clause, 189. Adjectival 
 (Relative) Clauses, 2O4-21O. 
 
 Adonius Versus, 541. 
 
 Adverbium, Adverb (quia ad Verbum 
 est), 15. Comparison of Adverbs, 
 3O. Correlation of, 54. Table 
 of, 228-230. Derivation of, 255-258. 
 Strengthen Superlative and other 
 Adjectives, 279. 
 
 *Adverbial Attribute and Apposite, 
 278,365. 
 
 ^Adverbial Clause, 189. (#.) Ad- 
 verbial Clauses, 2O4-227. See 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Adversative Conjunctions, 57. 318. 
 
 Affirmative Answers, 88. 
 
 Agreement, 1O8-114. See CON- 
 TENTS. 
 
 Alcaic Verse, 267. 269. 
 
 Alphabet, the letters of any language, 
 so called from Alpha, Beta, the first 
 two Greek letters. Latin Alphabet, 
 7. 12. 
 
 Anacoluthon, a Figure of Syntax, 565. 
 
 Anapaestus, Anapaest, w w , a me- 
 trical Foot, 525. 
 
 Anapaestic Rhythm, 543. 
 
 Anaphora, 318. 
 
 Animals, names of, their gender, 76, 77. 
 
 *Annexive Relation in the Sentence, 
 103, VIII. 432. Conjunctions, 
 316. 
 
 Answers, Affirmative and Negative, 
 88-89. 
 
 Antecedent, 357, 361. Agreement of 
 Relative with, 1O8. 361, 367, 368. 
 
 *ApodSsis (Airofiifiowu, to render back}. 
 If a Predication is so limited by a 
 
 A, the standard guttural Vowel, 12. 
 Its sound ; strength, 10, n ; 
 forms diphthongs with i, u, 12; 
 weakenings, 20-32. See CONTENTS. 
 
 *A-Nouns, Decl. I., 22. See 2O- 
 21. 
 
 *A-Verbs, Conj. I., 43-47. 53. 
 
 Abbreviations (Siglarium Romanum). 
 Appendix^., 575. 
 
 Ablativus Casus (auferre, to take 
 away], the Ablative Case, so called 
 from one of its uses (separation), 
 19. Its form in the Declensions, 
 2O. Governed by Prepositions, 
 71-72. In Circumstantive Re- 
 lation, 1O3. V. Syntactic uses, 
 143-161. See CONTENTS. 
 
 Ablativus Absolutus (absolvere, to 
 release], the Ablative Absolute, so 
 called because it stands released, as 
 it were, from government. Also 
 called *Ablativus Convenientiae, 
 161. 238-240. 
 
 Ablative Supine, 4O. 187. 
 
 Abstract Names, 71, 125, 272. 
 
 Abundance in Nouns, 27. 
 
 AcatalectUS (a, not, Kara^yeiv, to Stop 
 
 short], Versus, 528. 
 
 Accentus (accinere, to intone], Accent, 
 Acute or Circumflex, 7. 
 
 Accentuation, 1O. 511. 
 
 Accusativus Casus (accusare, to 
 accuse], the Accusative Case, so 
 called because the accused is the 
 Object of prosecution. Gr. atria^ 
 wTwert?, 19. Its form in the De- 
 clensions, 2O. Governed by Pre- 
 positions, 7O. 72. Objective 
 Relation, 1O3. III. Syntactic 
 uses, 119-131. See CONTENTS. 
 
 Active Voice (agere, to do], 36. 
 
 Active Sentence, how changed to Pas- 
 sive Form, 1O6. 
 
 Adaptation or Partial Assimilation of 
 Consonants, 42. 
 
 Adjectivum, Adjective (quod adicitur 
 
584 
 
 Index I. 
 
 Clause, that the Clause can be stated 
 first, the Predication afterwards, 
 such Predication is called Apodosis, 
 while the Clause is called Protasis 
 (TrporetVeii/, to stretch before). These 
 terms are chiefly used in regard to 
 Compound Conditional and Con- 
 cessive Sentences (if, although] ; if, 
 although / stand (Protasis), / see 
 (Apodosis). But there would be no 
 impropriety in applying them when 
 the Clause is Temporal or Causal, 
 ' when because / stand, I see, ' or 
 when it is Relative, as 'whoever 
 stands he will see' Any such 
 clause is conditionally limitative, 
 and is a Protasis ; because a con- 
 dition precedes in logical order that 
 of which it is the condition. But in 
 grammar the terms Apodosis and 
 Protasis are applied to the principal 
 sentence and condition severally, in 
 whatever order placed. 
 Appellativa (appellare, to call by 
 name], Common Names, 71. 
 
 * Apposite (apponere, to place by], a 
 
 Substantive attributed to another 
 
 Substantive, 71, 353. 
 Apposition, 71, 353, 359, 360, 364- 
 
 367. 
 Arsis (acpet>, to lift], that Syllable in a 
 
 Foot on which ' ictus ' falls, 258. 
 Articles (ap9pa), none in Latin, 73. 
 *Aryan Affinities, Append. C. , 554. 
 *Aryan Family of Speech, 2. 
 As, Compounds of, 149 ; parts of, 
 
 157. Appendix G., 556, &c. 
 Asclepiad Metres, 265. ; 544, &c. 
 "Assimilation of Vowels, 32-35 ; of 
 
 Consonants, 41-43- 
 Asynartetus (a, not, ovvapTav, to link], 
 
 Versus, 528, 543. 
 Atonic or Baryton Syllables, 1O. 
 
 * Attraction (attrahere, to draw to], a 
 
 very important usage in Syntax, 
 61. 110. 114. 
 
 Attributum (attribuere, to assign}, At- 
 tribute, 71. In Qualitative Rela- 
 tion, 353, 354. Concord, 1O8. 
 
 Attribution, Idioms of, 113. 
 
 B, a medial labial mute Consonant, 
 Relations of, 63. Euphonically in- 
 serted, 44 (note). 
 
 Base in metre, 528 (note). 
 
 * Being, Verb of (sum, esse), 42.* 
 
 C, a tenuis guttural mute Consonant, 
 modified from r. Sounded as K., 
 9, 60 (note). Relations of, 59-64. 
 
 Caesura (caedere, to cut], 26O. and 
 note. 
 
 Calendar (Roman), Appendix H., 572. 
 i Cardinalia (cardo, hinge], Cardinal 
 
 Numerals, 33. Uses of, 34. 
 I Case, 19. 
 
 i Cases, Formation of, 2O. See De- 
 clensions. 
 
 I Case-construction, 115-176. See 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Catalecticus (<ara\riyLv t to stop short} t 
 Versus, 528. 
 
 Causal Conjunctions : Coordinative 
 and Subordinative, 57. 
 
 Causal Coordination, 320. 
 
 *Causal Clauses, Adverbial and Ad- 
 jectival, 2O9-21O. 
 
 ^Character (xap^^p, impressed mark) 
 of a Stem or Root, 70. 
 
 *Circumstantive Relation, 1O3. V. 
 
 * Clause, 352. 
 *Clipt Stem, 30, 170. 
 *Coalition, 53. 
 
 Collective Nouns or Nouns of multi- 
 tude, 71. Their construction, 362. 
 
 *Combinate Tense-forms, 38. 
 
 Common Gender, 18. 
 
 Common Names (Appellativa), 71 
 
 Comparatives and Superlatives, their 
 formation, 42 (note). 
 
 Comparative Constructions, 314, 315, 
 404, 405. 
 
 Comparative Conjunctions, Coordina- 
 tive and Subordinative, 57. 
 
 Comparative Sentences, 227-228. 
 
 Comparison, 29-3O. 
 
 Compensation, 18. 
 
 * Complement (complere, to complete}^ 
 
 the (Predicative), that which com- 
 pletes the construction of a Sen- 
 
 1 The term ' Substantive Verb? as used to denote * sum, esse,' has every disadvantage 
 which a term can have, (i) It is a false translation of its Greek original, PTJ/AO. virapKTiicov 
 (verbum existens). (2) It tends to confuse learners, who ought to consider a Substantive 
 one part of speech and a Verb another. (3) If any form could claim the term Substan- 
 tive Verb, it would be the Infinitive, which partakes of each character (Verb-noun). 
 These evils are aggravated by the modern practice of saying Substantive Verb, not Sub- 
 stantive, which was the universal pronunciation of the Adjective formerly, in accordance 
 with Johnson's authority (a substantive proposition). There is no more reason to obliterate 
 his wise distinction by applying the general rule of pronunciation to this word in both 
 its senses, than to accent the first syllable in adjacent, subjective, and hundreds more. 
 
Subjects. 
 
 ENG 
 
 tence, when the Verb is copulative, 
 1O2. Oblique Complement, 351, 
 360, 131. See Predicate. 
 
 Composite Subject, 268, 353, 112. 
 
 Composition of Words, 6O. 
 
 Composition of Verbs, 52, 6O. 
 
 *Compound Sentence, 1OO, 198- 
 228. See CONTENTS. 
 
 Concessive Conjunctions, 57. 
 
 * Concessive use of Conjunctive Mood, 
 339- 
 
 *Concessive Sentences, 225-226. 
 
 Concords, Four, 1O8. 
 
 Concrete Names, 71. 
 
 Conditional Conjunctions, 57. 
 
 Conditional Sentences, 213-224. 
 See CONTENTS. 
 
 Conjugation (coniugare, to yoke to- 
 
 fither), the Flexion of Verbs, 72. 
 eriphrastic, 47. 
 
 Conjugations, the four, 43. Their 
 Paradigms, 44-5O. 
 
 Conjugating, method of, 43. 
 
 Coniunctio (coniungere, to unite], Con- 
 junction, Gr. o-uVSeorjao?, 73. 57. 
 Coordination by, 77-81. See COR- 
 RELATION and COMPOUND SEN- 
 TENCES. 
 
 *Coniunctivus Modus, Conjunctive 
 Mood, 37. Pure Conjunctive, 
 Examples of, 174. 93-95. 
 
 *Consecutio Temporum, Consecution 
 of Tenses, 98. 229. 
 
 *Consecutive Conjunctions, 57. 
 
 *Consecutive Clauses, 2O5, 2O6. 
 
 Consonants, 7. Scheme of, 8. 
 Affections of, 41-58. Relations in 
 Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, 12. 
 xxxv. See CONTENTS. 
 
 *Consonant Nouns, 2O. 24. 
 
 ^Consonant Verbs, 43-47. 53. 
 
 Contraction, 52, 56. 
 
 "^Coordination by Conjunctions, 
 77-81. By Relative, 82. 
 
 * Copulative Verbs (copulare,^? couple}. 
 List of, 101. 
 
 Correlation, 73-76. 
 
 *Correlative Pronouns and Particles, 
 31. 
 
 D, a medial dental mute Consonant, 
 63. Sounded as t when final. T 
 written for final d, 63. Inter- 
 changed with 1, 65. 
 
 Dactylic Hexameter, 259-26O. 
 
 Dativus Casus, Dative (Receptive) 
 Case, 19, 2O. In Receptive Re- 
 lation, 1O3. IV. Constructions, 
 132-142. See CONTENTS. 
 
 Declension (declinare, to slope dozvn), 
 19. 
 
 Declensions of Substantives, the Five, 
 
 2O. Their Case-endings, 21. 
 First Decl., 22. Second Decl., 
 23. Third Decl. , 24. Fourth^ 
 Decl., 25. Fifth Decl., 26. 
 Declensions of Adjectives, 93, 94, 
 115-119. Irregularities of Declen- 
 sion, 27-28. 
 
 Defective Nouns, 27. Defective 
 Adjectives, 28. Defective Verbs, 
 49. 
 
 Deminutiva, Diminutives, 247. 
 
 *Dental Consonants, '8, 63. 
 
 Deponent Verbs, 36. Their Con- 
 jugation, 45. Paradigm, 171. 
 Deponents of First Conj . , 207-208. 
 Of Second Conj., 214. Of Fourth 
 Conj., 215. Of Third Conj., 225. 
 
 Derivation, 59. Of Nouns, 235-253. 
 Of Verbs, 254. Of Particles, 255- 
 
 2 S9- 
 Desiderative Verbs (desiderare, to 
 
 desire], 206. 
 
 Dialects of Italy. Append. D., 556. 
 Diphthongs (fit's, $0o'yyos, sound), 6, 
 
 12, 13. 
 
 Disjunctive Conjunctions, 57. 
 
 Disjunctive Coordination, 318. 
 
 *Dissimilation of Vowels, 34. Of 
 Consonants, 43. 
 
 Distributive Numerals, 33. 
 
 Double Object Verbs, their construc- 
 tion, 354, 379. 
 
 *Dubitative Sense of Conjunctive, 339. 
 
 Duration of Time in Accus., 375 ; 
 Abl., 401. 
 
 E, medial Vowel between a and i. Its 
 sound and strength, n, 19. Forms 
 diphthongs with i, u, 12. Various 
 affections of, 24-28, 38. 
 
 *E-Nouns, Fifth Declension, 2O. 
 21. 26. 
 
 *E-Verbs, Conj. II., 43-47. 53. 
 
 *Ecthesis (e/ertfle'vat, to place out], a 
 word or words standing out of the 
 predication with which they are in 
 context ; as, a Vocative Case, or an 
 Interjection, with their adjuncts, 
 104. 
 
 Elegiac Distich, 261. 
 
 *Elision (elidere, to strike out), the re- 
 moval of a final Syllable before a 
 word beginning with a Vowel, 52, 
 256. 
 
 Ellipsis (eAAetVeii/, to omit), omission 
 of one or more words in construc- 
 tion, 61. 274, ^346, 367. 
 
 ^Enclitic words (ey/cAu/eif, to lean on), 
 those which throw back accent on 
 the word which they follow, 7, 259. 
 
 Ending, 14. 
 
 English Language, 2. 
 
586 
 
 Index I. 
 
 *Enthesis (ivn.tevo.1,: to place in), 352. 
 
 *Enuntiatio (enuntiare, to declare or 
 state], a statement, 1OO. 
 
 *Enuntiatio Obliqua, the First Class 
 of Substantival Clauses, 1OO, 189, 
 194-2O3. See CONTENTS. 
 
 Epicoene words, 77. 
 
 Epithet (eirCdcTov, placed on to), an Ad- 
 jective in simple Attribution ; as, vir 
 bonus, 15. See Attribute. 
 
 Etymology (erv/xos Ao'yo?, true account}, 
 1- 6. 
 
 * Euphonic Insertion of Consonants, 
 
 44. 
 
 * Euphony, 19. 
 
 Exclusion of Consonants followed by 
 Contraction of Vowels, 56-58. 
 
 Extensible Verbs, 1O2. 1O3, VII., 
 180. 
 
 F, an aspirate spirant Consonant ; its 
 sound uncertain, 9. Corresponds to 
 bh, dh, gh ; <, 0, x, 61, 62. Passes 
 into h, 62. 
 
 *Factive Verbs, 351. Their con- 
 struction with Accusative (Oblique 
 Clause), 380-381. 
 
 Families of Language, 2. 
 
 Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric, 61. 
 Appendix F., 565. 
 
 *Final Conjunctions (finis, end, pur- 
 pose), 57. 
 
 * Final Clauses, Adverbial and Adjec- 
 
 tival, 207-208. 
 
 *Finite Verb, 35. 
 
 *Flexion (flexio, a bending], 14-15. 
 
 Foot, 258. List of Feet, 525 (note). 
 
 Fractions, how expressed, 157. 
 
 Frequentative Verbs, 205. 
 
 Futurum Tempus, Future Tense, 
 Simple and Perfect, 38. Their 
 uses, 9O. 229. Consecution, 484, 
 485. See Periphrastic Conjugation, 
 47. 
 
 G, a medial guttural mute Consonant, 
 12. 9. Its Relations and utter- 
 ance, 61. 
 
 Galliambus of Catullus, 538. 
 
 Gender (genus), 18. 
 
 Generic Names, 74. 
 
 Genetivus Casus, the Genitive (Pro- 
 prietive) Case, Gr. yfviKy TTTOHTIS, 
 19. Formation of, in Sing, and 
 Plur., 2O. Genitive in Proprietive 
 Relation, 1O3. VI. Syntax of 
 Genitive, 162-176. See CON- 
 TENTS. 
 
 Gentile or Clan Names ; also from 
 People, Cities, &c., 252. 
 
 Gerundia, Gerunds, 4O. Construc- 
 tion, 181-184. 
 
 Gerundive Forms, 23 (note). 
 
 Glyconic Metre, 536. 
 
 Gnomic Use of Subjunctive, 343. 
 
 Grammar, divisions of, 1. 
 
 Greek ; its influence on Latin, 2. 
 
 Affinities, Append. C., 554. 
 Greek Nouns in First Decl., 22. 
 
 In Second Decl., 92. In Third 
 
 Decl., 112-115. 
 *Guna, 12. 
 *Guttural Consonants, 8, 61. 
 
 H, an aspirate guttural Consonant, 9. 
 Relations of, 61-62. 
 
 Hexameter (Dactylic), 259-26O. 
 
 *Hiatus, 52-53, 257. 
 
 *Historic Infinitive, 332-333. 
 
 *Historic Present, 332. 
 
 ^Historic Tenses, 164, 98. 
 
 Homonymous Verb-forms (opwi'Vfia,. 
 having same name), 227. 
 
 * Hortative and Jussive uses of Con- 
 junctive Mood, 95. 
 
 I (j), Vowel and Consonant, 9, 10. 
 Its sound and strength as i-vocalis ; 
 weakest Vowel, n. Forms diph- 
 thongs when strengthened by a, e, o, 
 12. Selection of i, 29, &c. Weakens 
 a and e, 12. 
 
 I as a vincular or link-vowel, u, 30- 
 32. I and u, 31. 
 
 *I-Consonans (j), 9, 10-68. Sound, Ap- 
 pend. B. 
 
 *I-Nouns in Third Decl., 24. 
 
 *I-Verbs, Conj. IV., 43-47. 214- 
 216. 
 
 Iambic Rhythms, 263. 539-540. 
 
 Illative Conjunctions, 57. Coordi- 
 nation by, 320. 
 
 Imperative Mood (imperare, to com- 
 mand}, 37. Its Tenses, 163. 
 How used, 92. 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 38. Imperfect In- 
 die., its uses, 9O. Subjunctive, 
 229. 
 
 Impersonalia Verba, Impersonal 
 Verbs, so called because they cannot 
 take a Personal Pronoun as Sub- 
 ject, 50. 109. 
 
 Impersonal use of Passive Verbs, 5O. 
 359. Of Gerundive Construction, 
 50. 181. 
 
 Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs, 196, 
 53. 
 
 Indicative Mood (indicare, to shew) in 
 Verbs, for categorical or absolute 
 statement, 37. Uses of, 9O. 
 
 Infinite Verb, 35. 4O. 177- 
 188. See p. 169. 
 
 Infinitivum, the Infinitive, 35. 4O. 
 Its constructions, 177-188. 
 
Subjects. 
 
 587 
 
 ^Infinitive Clause (Accusative with 
 Infinitive), 194. 
 
 Interest, Calculation of, Append. G., 
 569-570. 
 
 Interjection (intericere, to throw be- 
 tween], Interjection, 58, 357. 
 
 Interrogations, 86-87. 
 
 *Interrogatio Obliqua, the Third Class 
 of Substantival Clauses, 100, 2O2. 
 
 Interrogative Particles, 86-87. 
 
 Intransitive Verbs, 159, 122-127. 
 
 -io- Verbs of Third Conj., 46. 
 
 Irregular Nouns, 27-28. 
 
 Italian Dialects, Append. D., 556. 
 
 * Iterative Construction with Subjunc- 
 tive, 343, 463 ; with Indie., 464. 
 
 K, a guttural tenuis mute Consonant, 
 gradually disused in Latin, 9. 
 
 Kalendae or Calendae, the Calends of 
 the Roman month. Append. //., 
 572-574. 
 
 L, a dental liquid Consonant = lisped 
 r. Its Relations, 64, 65. 
 
 *Labial Consonants, 8. 
 
 Language, Families of, i. Languages 
 derived from Latin, 2. 
 
 Latin, 2. Literature, 5. 
 
 Letters, 7-12. 
 
 * Letter-change, 12. 
 
 Letter-writing, Tenses in, 9O. 
 
 *Locative Case, 2O, 155. See 
 Declensions. 
 
 Logaoedic Rhythms, 541. 
 
 Loss of Initial and Final Letters, 44- 
 47. Of Inner Consonants by con- 
 currence with other Cons., 47-50. 
 Of Inner Vowels before Consonants, 
 50-52. Of Inner Vowels with Con- 
 sonants, 54. 
 
 Lyric Metres, 262. 
 
 M, a labial nasal Consonant. Eupho- 
 nically inserted, 44. Its Relations, 
 64. 
 
 Metaphor (/xera^epeii/, to transfer], a 
 Figure of Rhetoric, 270. 
 
 Metonymy (/".era, oj/o^a), a Figure of 
 Rhetoric, 270. 
 
 Metre, 258. 
 
 *Mobilia Substantiva, Substantives 
 which have Feminine as well as 
 Masculine Form, 74. 
 
 Money, Computation of, Appendix 
 G., 566. 
 
 Month, Roman, Appendix H., 572 
 
 Moods, 37. 90-97. 
 
 *Morphology (MOP<>?, form, Adyos, ac- 
 count], Wordlore, 8. 13. 
 
 Multiplicative Numerals, 148. 
 
 ^Mutation of Letters, 12. 
 
 N, a nasal Consonant, usually dental, 
 but before Gutturals becoming 
 guttural or palatal ; its Relations, 
 64. 
 
 Names (Roman), 252. How abbre- 
 viated, Appendix K., 575. 
 
 *Narratio Obliqua, 23O. 
 
 *Nasalization, insertion of n, 19. 
 
 Negative Particles and Pronouns, 
 83-85. 
 
 Negative Answers, 330. 
 
 Neuter Adjectives, their Substantival 
 use, 63. 365. 
 
 Nomen, Noun, 15. Gr. ovo^a.. 
 
 Nominative Case, 6vo/u,a<7TiK7} TTTUKTIS, 
 
 19. Formation of, in Sing, and 
 
 Plur., 20. Uses of, 115-117. 
 
 See Predicative Relation. 
 Number, 17. 39. 62. 
 Numeralia, Words of Number, 33- 
 
 34. 
 Numeral Series, Declension, Table, 
 
 33-34. 
 
 O, medial Vowel between a and u. 
 Its sound and strength, ii. Forms 
 Diphthongs with i, 12. Weaken- 
 ing into u, 21. 
 
 *O-Nouns, Second Declension, 2O. 
 23. 
 
 *O-Verbs (fragments of), 221. 
 
 *Obiectum (obicere, to cast in the way], 
 Object (correlated to Subiectum, 
 subject], that on which a Subject 
 acts. It may be Nearer Object 
 (Accus. Case), or Remoter (usually 
 Dative, sometimes Accus.) See 
 Accusative, Dative, and Objective 
 Relation. 
 
 ^Objective delation, 1O3, III. 
 
 *Objective Genitive, 163. 174. 
 
 *Obliqua Oratio, 19O-193. 
 
 *Oblique Subject or Complement (the 
 Subject or Complement of an Ob- 
 lique Infinitive Clause), 352 (note). 
 131. 
 
 Optative use of Conjunctive, 95. 
 
 Order of Words in a Sentence, 241- 
 243. 
 
 Ordinalia, Ordinal Numerals, 33. 
 
 Ordinative Particles, 317. 
 
 Orthography, Append. A., 547. 
 
 *Oscan Dialect, Append. D. 
 
 P, a labial tenuis mute Consonant, 
 12. Euphonically inserted, 59, 
 
 63. 
 
 ^Parasitic u (v) joined to q, io, 58. 
 Part affected, Accusative of, 374 
 Participles (partem capere), 165 
 Participial Construction, 237-24O. 
 See CONTENTS. 
 
588 
 
 Index I. 
 
 Particulae, Particles or Small Parts of 
 Speech, a name given to the four 
 undeclined Parts, including some 
 which are inseparable, or only used 
 in Compounds : ambi-, dis-, in-, re-, 
 se-, 24. 54-58. 255-259 
 
 Partitive (partiri, to divide}, words 
 which take a Genitive of the Thing 
 Distributed, 171. See Genitive 
 in CONTENTS. 
 
 Parts of Speech or Words, 14. 16. 
 
 Passiva Vox (pati, to suffer], Passive 
 Voice in Verbs, 36. 
 
 Patronymic (^o-TiJp, father, 5i/o/xa, 
 name], a name expressing descent 
 from a father or ancestor, 75. 
 
 Perfect Tense (perficere, to complete], 
 38. Disyllabic Perfect, 18. Its 
 double use in Latin, 164. Its uses 
 in the Indie. M., 162. In pure 
 Conjunctive M., 9O. 95. In 
 Subjunctive, 2O4. 229. 
 
 Perfect-Stem and Character, 41. 
 Its Formation, 51. 53. 
 
 Period (n-epioSos, circuit] and Periodic 
 Style in Discourse, 244-249. 
 
 * Periphrastic Conjugation, a term 
 used to express the forms of predi- * 
 cation obtained by connecting the 
 Participles with the Verb sum : 
 especially the Future Active Parti- 
 ciple in -urus and the Gerundive in 
 -ndus, 47. The term would be 
 equally applicable to the Combinate 
 Passive Tenses with sum and Perf. 
 Part., but is not usually given to 
 these. See p. 164, 47. 
 
 Person, 39. 
 
 *Petitio (petere, to seek], that Form of 
 a Simple Sentence in which the Im- 
 perative Mood is used, 1OO. 
 
 *Petitio Obliqua, Indirect Will-speech, 
 the second of the three kinds of 
 Substantival Clauses, 349, 197. 
 
 Phalaecian or Hendecasy liable Verse, 
 
 537- 
 
 Pherecrateus Versus, 535. 
 
 Phonetic Decay, n. 
 
 *Phono!ogy (</>wi^, sound, Aoyos, ac- 
 count), Soundlore, 7-12. 
 
 Phrase (<frp*<r, from tpdZciv, to speak 
 intelligibly], 352 (note). 
 
 Place, Adverbs of, 55. Construc- 
 tions of, 155-157. See CON- 
 TENTS. 
 
 Plautus and Terence, 3. Their Pro- 
 sody, 56, 546. 
 
 Pleonasm (n\<-oi>d<Zcii', to exceed], a 
 Figure of Syntax, 61. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense (plus quam per- 
 fectum, more than complete], 38. 
 Its use in the Indie. M., 9O. Con- 
 junctive and Subjunctive, 229. 
 
 Plural Number (plures, more], 17. 
 
 Peculiar uses of, 62. 
 Plural only ; words generally without 
 
 Singular, 125. 
 
 Plural, variation of meaning in, 128. 
 Poetic Forms and Idioms, Append. ., 
 
 563. 
 
 Position, a Term used in Prosody to 
 express that a vowel is long, short, 
 or doubtful in quantity by coming 
 before certain letters, 512. 
 
 Potential Use of Conjunctive, 338. 
 
 Praeteritiva Verba, Verbs not conju- 
 gated with Present-Stem, 49. 
 
 * Predicate (praedicare, to declare], that 
 
 member of a Sentence by which 
 something is declared of the Subject. 
 Writers on Logic resolve every pro- 
 position into Subject, Copula, and 
 Predicate. But in Grammar this 
 would only mislead, for it is not 
 in such form that authors write. 
 Neither sum, nor any other Copula- 
 tive Verb, exactly corresponds to 
 the logical Copula ; and the word, 
 which such Verb links to the Sub- 
 ject, is often not identical with 
 a logical Predicate. For these 
 reasons (while Madvig and most 
 other Grammarians are followed 
 in allowing the term Predicate in 
 Grammar to a Finite Verb) the 
 term Complement is used to express 
 the word or phrase linked by a 
 Copulative Verb to the Subject, and 
 so completing a Simple Sentence, 
 101-102. 
 
 * Predicative Relation, 1O3, I. 
 
 Prefix, 70. 
 
 Preposition (praeponere, to place be- 
 fon], Gr. 7rpo'0ecri?, 72. Table of 
 Prepositions, 56. Prepositions in 
 composition with Nouns, 6O. With 
 Verbs, 52-6O. Use of Preposi- 
 tions with Cases, 7O-72. 
 
 Present Tense, 38. Its uses in Indie. 
 M. , 90. In Conjunctive M., 94. 
 In Consecution, 229. 
 
 Present Stem and Character, 41. 
 Affections of Present Stem, 51. 
 See CONTENTS. 
 
 * Primary Tenses, 38. 95. 
 
 * Primitive Roots, 5. Supplementary 
 
 Notes, 577. 
 
 *Proclitica (irponXiveiv, to lean for- 
 ward], Particles which merge their 
 accent in the following word, 7. 
 
 Prohibition, forms of, 92. 95. 
 
 *Prolative Relation (proferre, to ex- 
 tend], that in which Predication is 
 extended by an Infinitive added to 
 Verbs, Participles, or Adjectives, 356. 
 
 *Prolative Infinitive, ISO. 
 
Subjects. 
 
 589 
 
 Pronoun (Gr. ai>T<avviJ.(d) t 15. Pro- 
 nouns, 32. Use of, 64-69. 
 See CONTENTS. 
 
 Pronominalia, 137, 142, 292, 368. 73. 
 
 Pronunciation of Vowels and Diph- 
 thongs, 12. Of Latin generally, 
 Append. B. 
 
 Proper Names ; Names peculiar to 
 Persons or Places, 71. 
 
 Proportional Numerals (duplus, &c.), 
 148. 
 
 *Proprietive Relation, that of the 
 Genitive to the Noun on which it 
 depends, 356. 1O3. 
 
 Prosodia (7rpocra'Seii>, to sitig in accord], 
 Prosody, i, 251-269. 
 
 *Protasis. See Apodosis. 
 
 Punctuation, 11. 
 
 *Pure or Independent Conjunctive 
 Mood, 37. Uses of, 93-95. 
 
 Q, a guttural tenuis mute Consonant, 
 
 only used with parasitic u (v), 9, 10. 
 
 Its Relations, 59-61. Sounded as 
 
 c before u, Append. A. 
 ^Qualitative Relation, that in which 
 
 Attributes orApposites stand to their 
 
 Nouns, 103, II. 
 Quality, Ablative of, 153. Genitive 
 
 of, 168. 
 Quantitative Words, taking Genetivus 
 
 Rei Demensae, 172. 
 Quantity of Syllables, 8. 252-255. 
 *Quasi-Passive Verbs, 160. 
 Questions. See Interrogatio. 
 
 R, a dental liquid Consonant, 12. 
 Its relations, 64-66. Substituted 
 for s, 65. 
 
 * Receptive Relation, that in which a 
 
 Dative Case stands to a Trajective 
 or other Verb or Noun on which it 
 depends, 1O3, IV. 
 
 *Recta Oratio (distinguished from 
 Obliqua O.), Direct Discourse in a 
 Principal Sentence, 1OO, 19O. 
 
 Reduplication (reduplicare, to re- 
 double"], a peculiar mutation, by 
 which the form and sense of words 
 is varied in Greek, Latin, and other 
 languages, 40. Reduplication in 
 Present-Stem, 51. In Perfects, 
 51. Loss of, 118. 
 
 Reflexive Pronouns (reflectere to lend 
 back], se with its Possessive suus ; 
 s"o called because they ' bend back ' 
 their reference to a preceding Subject 
 of the Third Person, 32. Their 
 use, 66. In Clauses, 231-235. 
 
 * Relations of construction existing 
 
 between words in Simple Sentences, 
 103. 
 
 Relative Pronoun (referre, to refer) 
 qui quae quod, so called becausk 
 referred to an Antecedent noun- 
 term, 32. The root of most Sub- 
 ordinative Conjunctions and of 
 numerous Adverbs, 59. Coor- 
 dination by Relative, 82. Agree- 
 ment of Relative with Antecedent, 
 lO8i Concord IV. Notes on, 
 114. 
 
 ^Relative (Adjectival) Clauses, 2O4. 
 Consecutive, 2O6. Final, 2O8. 
 Causal, 210. 
 
 Rhythm (pvfyib?), modulated flow or 
 measure in verse or prose, 512. 
 Prose rhythm, 506. Rhythms in 
 Verse, 269. 
 
 *Root, 14. 59. Supplementary 
 Notes, 577. 
 
 i S, a dental sibilant Consonant. Rela- 
 tions, 12. Passes into r, 66. 
 
 *Sanskrit, i, 6. Append. E. Suppl. 
 Notes, 577. 
 
 Sapphic Stanza in Horace and Catuk 
 
 lus, 266. 
 j Sapphic Metres, 542-544. 
 
 Selection, 20-32. 
 
 *Semiconsonants, 9-10. 
 
 *Semideponent Verbs, 160. 
 
 Semitic Family of Language, 2. 
 
 Sententia (sentire, to express thought], 
 a Sentence, 1OO. 
 
 Sentences. The Parts of Discourse ; 
 their kinds, 10O. Order of Words 
 in a Sentence, 241. 
 
 Shortening of Vowels, 55, &c. 
 
 Simple Sentence ; three forms of, 
 1OO. Its parts, 1O1-1O3. Con- 
 structions of, 1O7-188. See 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Singular Number, 17. 27. 62. 
 
 Singular only, words without plural, 
 125. 
 
 *Soundlore (Phonology), 7-12. Sea 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 *Stem, 14. The three Stems in 
 Verbs, 41. 51. 53. 
 
 *Strengthening, 12. 12-19. 
 
 Strophe or Stanza (o-rpe'^eu', to turn], 
 Strophic Metres, 528 (Note), 543- 
 546. 
 
 *Subiectum, Subject, that member of 
 a Sentence of which action or state 
 is predicated, 1O2. 
 
 Subiunctivus Modus (subiungere, to 
 subjoin], the Subjunctive Mood, a 
 name given to the Conjunctive 
 Mood when subordinated to an- 
 
590 
 
 Index I. 
 
 other Verb, 37. 175. 96-98. In 
 Suboblique Construction, 19O- 
 193. In Compound Sentences, 
 194-228. See CONTENTS. 
 
 *Suboblique Construction, the Con- 
 struction of Verbs in Subordination 
 to Oratio Obliqua, real or virtual, 
 190-193. 
 
 "^Substantival Clauses, why so called : 
 their varieties, 1OO. Construc- 
 tion, 194-2O3. See CONTENTS. 
 
 Substantive (substare, to stand be- 
 neath), the first of the inflected 
 Parts of Speech, 15. Declensions 
 of, 17-26. Irregularity in, 27. 
 Uses of, 62. 
 
 *Suffix, 14. List of Noun-suffixes, 
 58. Suffixes of Particles, 59. 
 
 Superlativus gradus (superferre, to 
 carry above], the highest Degree of 
 Comparison in Adjectives and Ad- 
 verbs, 29, 3O. Idioms of, 279. 
 
 Supine, an unmeaning term, applied 
 to the two Cases of the Verb Infi- 
 nite which end in um and u, 165. 
 Their construction, 185-186. 
 
 Supine-Stem, 41. Its formation, 
 51. 
 
 Syllaba (<rvAAaft/3ai/eii/, to take together}, 
 a Syllable, 7. 
 
 Syllabation, 9. 
 
 Synaphea, 520 (note). 
 
 *Synesis (oT^ieVai, to understand', 
 orvi/eo-ts, meaning}, a Figure of Syn- 
 tax, by which meaning rather than 
 form determines the construction, 
 61. HI. 114. 
 
 Syntax (<ruvTa.<T<reiv, to construct], a 
 Division of Grammar, 1. 1OO- 
 250. 
 
 T, a dental tenuis- mute Consonant, 
 8,63. 
 
 Tenses, 38. 9O-98. Consecu- 
 tion of, 98. 229. 
 
 Temporal Clauses (Adverbial), 211- 
 212. See CONTENTS. 
 
 Temporal Conjunctions, 57. 211. 
 
 Thesis in Verse, 253. 
 
 Time of Syllables (Mora), 8, 512. 
 
 Time, Constructions of, 124. 
 154. Computation of, Appen- 
 dix H., 572. 
 
 Tmesis, 35, 299, 563. 
 
 Towns, Names of; their -Gender, 
 18. Their constructions, 125. 
 155-157. 
 
 *Trajective (traicere, to throw over}. 
 Verbs and Adjectives which by 
 their meaning suggest a Remoter 
 Object, 355, 384. 
 
 Transitive Verbs, 159, 121-126. 
 
 Transposition of Consonants, 44. 
 
 U-V, Vowel and (Spirant) Consonant, 
 its uses in each character, 10. 
 
 U as weakening of a, o, n, 21. 
 
 *U-Nouns (Fourth Decl.), 26. 
 
 *U-Verbs (in Third Conj.), 43. 
 53. 224. 
 
 *Umbrian Dialect, Appendix D. 
 
 Universal Relatives, 141, 146, 291. 
 73. 
 
 V, a soft Labial Spirant, 8, 10, 67. 
 Sound of, 66 (note). Appendix B. 
 
 Variant meaning of Plural Substan- 
 tives, 128. 
 
 Verb, Gr. pm*a, 15. 35-53. 59. 
 254. 60. 90-98. 
 
 Verse, 258, &c. 
 
 *Vinculation, n, 30. 
 
 Vocales, Vowels, 7-12. Scheme 
 of, 8. 
 
 Vocative Case (vocare, to calf), 19. 
 20. Vocative Ecthesis, 1O4. 
 118, 119. 
 
 Voice (also called Genus), that fonn 
 by which Verbs are marked as 
 doing or suffering, 36. 
 
 *Vowel-change, 12. See CON- 
 TENTS. 
 
 Vowel-weakening in Compounds, 35- 
 39. See CONTENTS. 
 
 *Vriddhi, 12. 
 
 ^Weakening, 12. 19, &c. See 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 Words, 14-19. 
 *Wordlore (Morphology), 13-99. 
 
 X, double Consonant = cs ; not in the 
 older Latin Alphabet, 9, 68. 
 
 Y represents Gr. v, introduced with z 
 ( = ) in Cicero's age, 9. Its sound, 
 Appendix B. 
 
 Z, introduced with y, only used in 
 
 latinised Greek words, 9. 
 Zeugma, 61. 
 
INDEX II. 
 
 LATIN WORDS. 
 
 [The reference is to pages. An asterisk calls special attention to the word.!} 
 
 a, ab, abs, 202, 231, 263, 
 
 299-300 
 abicio, conicio, eicio, 
 
 &c., 10, 549 
 abiete, ariete, pariete, 
 
 10, 27 
 
 absque, 302 
 ac, atque, 233, 312, 313, 
 
 316 
 
 accestis, 55 
 accipiter, 77 
 acer, 16 
 ac si, 482 
 
 acetabulum, 571-572 
 acipens-is, -er, 29 
 actus, 570-571 
 acus, acuo, 16 
 ad; 232, 263, 293 
 adamaritinus, 29 
 adeps, 65 
 : adfatim, ad - amussim, 
 
 26, 105, 256 
 
 *adimo (forabimo?), 263 
 adiuris, 57 
 
 admodum, 135, 256, 329 
 *adolere, abolere, &c. , 210 
 adorea, 102 
 adulescens, adolescens, 
 
 548 
 
 adultus, 1 60 
 
 advers-us, -um, 232, 294 
 aeque ac, 312 
 aequi boni facere, 416 
 aerugo, 36 
 aes, 56, 566 
 aes grave, 566-569 
 Aesculapius, 29 
 aestimare (aestumare), 
 
 548, 566 
 aetas, 54 
 
 Agaue, Agave, 130 
 age, apage, agesis, &c. , 191 
 agmen, agmin-, 25 
 ago, 1 6, 6 1 
 
 aheneus, aeneus, 50, 549 
 ai, 12 
 
 aidilis, 12 
 
 aio, 13, 48, 190 
 
 ain tu ? 190 
 
 ala, 48 
 
 Alcumena, 29 
 
 ales, 27 
 
 alias ... alias, 292 
 
 aliquis, aliqui, 289, 290 
 
 alis, 144 
 
 aliter, 292, 314, 421 
 
 alius, 142, 292, 314, 362 
 
 alter, 42, 142, 144, 154, 
 
 292, 362 
 
 alteruter, 141, 260, 292 
 alucinari, 549 
 alumnus, 23 
 amabo, 235, 337 
 amb-, 203, 266 
 ambissint, 55 
 ambo, 151 
 amentum, ames, 50 
 amphora, 571-572 
 amphorum, &c. f 87 
 amplus, 50 
 
 ampulla (am phorula), 23 
 an, annon, 326-329 
 ancora, 21 
 anguis, anguilla, 50 
 animans, 76 
 anser, 61 
 
 ante, 232, 251, 255, 294 
 ante diem, 573 
 antecedo, anticipo, 31 
 antequam, priusquam, 
 
 464 
 
 anulus, 550 
 apio, 189 (note) 
 apis, 109 
 apprime, inprimis, prae- 
 
 cipue, &c., 280 
 Aprilis, 51 
 
 apsens, optuli, &c., 42 
 apud, 232, 294 
 aquila, 33 (note) 
 aranea, 47, 64 
 arbiter, 65 
 
 arbos, arbustum, 24 
 arceo, arx, 4 
 arcesso, 65 
 armentum, 28 
 artus (part.), 549 
 arx, 46, 64 
 as, 157, 566-570 
 asses usurae, 569 
 at, atqui, 259, 319 
 Athenis, 87 
 attinet, pertinet, 192 
 au, 12, 13 
 auceps, 27, 52, 57 
 audeo, 52, 57 
 audieram, &c., 58 
 Aurelii, 63 
 auris, 66 
 Aurora, 66 
 ausim, 55 
 aut, 259 
 aut, vel, ve, 318 
 autem, 259, 314 
 autumnus, 549 
 avariti-a, -es, 33 
 avos, &c., 34 
 avus, avia, 74 
 
 balanus, &c., 29 (note) 
 balneum, 52 
 -bam -bo, &c., 51, 63 
 barbarus, 40 
 bardus, 65 
 
 belli, humi, &c., 83, 91 
 belli gerundi, 23 
 bellicus, 30 
 bellum, 46, 63 
 bene, bonus, 20, 34 
 benigne, 330 
 benignus, 51 
 -bero -beri, &c., 51, 63 
 bibo, 40 
 biceps, 54 
 bicessis, 54 
 
 bidens, biennium, bifa- 
 riam, &c., 149 
 
592 
 
 Index II. 
 
 biduum, triduum, &c., 
 
 centuria, 571 
 
 coquo, 59, 578 
 
 15, 52, 149 
 
 centussis, 36 
 
 cor, 46 
 
 bigae, quadrigae, 56 
 
 Cerealis, 66 
 
 coram, 256, 302 
 
 bilanx, 149 
 
 Ceres, 17, 25 
 
 cordi esse, odio esse,. 
 
 bimus, &c., 149 
 
 cerno, crimen, cribrum, 
 
 &c., alteri, 390 
 
 binarius, &c., 148 
 
 &c., 17, 65 
 
 corpulentus, 50 
 
 bini, 153, 155 
 
 certe, certo, 329 
 
 cotidie, cottidie, 155, 
 
 bis, 44, 63, 153 
 
 ceteri, 547 
 
 2 55 549 
 
 bissextus, 575 
 
 ceu, neu, seu, 13, 45 
 
 creare, crescere, &c., 17 
 
 bobus, bubus, 57 
 
 Charisin, 43 
 
 credo, 216 
 
 bonus, 44, 63 
 
 Chalybon, 113 
 
 Cres, Cressa, 75 
 
 bos, 63, 67 
 
 cicindela, 40 
 
 cretus, 1 60, 404 
 
 brevis, 48 
 
 ciconia, 40 
 
 crudus, crudelis, cms- 
 
 bruma, 57 
 
 cincinnus, 40 
 
 turn, &c., 141 
 
 Brundisium (Brundu- 
 
 cinis, 25, 29 
 
 cubitus, 570 
 
 sium), 548 
 
 circuit, 53 
 
 cuculus, 40 
 
 bubo, 77 
 
 circum, circa, circiter, 
 
 cucumis, 29 
 
 bulbus, 23 
 
 266, 295-296 
 
 cui bono fuit ? 391 
 
 
 circumago, 53 
 
 cuicuimodi, 144 
 
 
 cis, citra, 133, 151, 294 
 
 culest, 53 
 
 cadus, 572 
 
 cithara, 25 
 
 culeus, 572 
 
 caecus, 547 
 
 citimus, 42, 151 
 
 cum (prep.), 233, 263, 302 
 
 caelebs, 27 
 
 civis, 15, 76 
 
 cum, or quum (conj.) : 
 
 caelum, 45, 547 
 
 clam, clanculum, 16, 256 
 
 for quod, 442 ; causal, 
 
 caementum, 49, 547 
 
 clandestinus, 43, 251 
 
 since, 449 ; temporal, 
 
 caerimonia, 547 
 
 claustrum, 43 
 
 when, 463-467 ; con- 
 
 caeruleus, 43 
 
 clepsit, 55 
 
 cessive, although, 480, 
 
 caespes, 547 
 
 cliens, clienta, 53, 74 
 
 482 
 
 calamitosus, 54 
 
 clima, 571 
 
 cum, quum (quom), 549 
 
 calcar, 45 
 
 clipeus, 548 
 
 cum-tum, turn-turn, &c.> 
 
 calfacere, 51, 263 
 
 cludo, 13 
 
 317 
 
 caligo, 1 6 
 
 cluo, 14, 44, 64 
 
 cuncti, 56 
 
 camena, 50, 547 
 
 coalitu , 160 
 
 cupio, 449 
 
 candidus, 30 
 
 cochleare, 572 
 
 cupressus, 28, 50 
 
 canis, 59 
 
 codex, &c., 13, 27 
 
 cur, quare, &c., 36, 53 
 
 canis, iuvenis, vates, 109 
 
 coemo, 53 
 
 cura, 14 
 
 capella, 51 
 
 coepi, coeptus sum, 189 
 
 cura ut, 337 
 
 *capio, 189 (note) 
 
 cogo, 450 
 
 curculio, 40 
 
 capsis, 187 
 
 cohors, cors, 56, 549 
 
 curia, 57 
 
 carnifex, 548 
 
 color, colos, &c., 66 
 
 euro, 451 
 
 caro, 65 
 
 columna, 41 
 
 custos, cutis, &c., 14 
 
 Carthagini, 83 
 
 colurnus, 44 
 
 cyathus, 571-572 
 
 casa, 45 
 
 comedo, 53 
 
 cygnus, 43 
 
 cauda, 45 
 
 comes, 27 
 
 
 caupo, copa, 74 
 
 comminiscor, 190 
 
 
 causa (caussa), 14, 55, 56 
 
 con, com, 203, 251, 263 
 
 -dam -dem -do -dum,. 
 
 causa, 394, 414 
 
 concedo, 450 
 
 &c., 259 
 
 cautum, fautum, &c.,io, 
 
 condicio, 549 
 
 damnas, 131 
 
 57 
 
 conectere, conubium, 
 
 Dareus, Darius, 10 
 
 cave with Subj., cave sis, 
 
 &c., 549 
 
 de, 251, 263, 277, 300 
 
 vide sis, 337 
 
 congius, 571 
 
 de, deterior, deterrimus, 
 
 caveo, 14, 443 
 
 conmnx, coiunx, 76 
 
 133. 251 
 
 cavi, favi, fovi, &c., 18 
 
 consuetude, 54 
 
 deabus, filiabus, &c., S^ 
 
 cavus, 45 
 
 consul, 22, 36 
 
 87 
 
 cedo, cette, 52, 191 
 
 consulo, consilium, 34 
 
 debeo, 56, 263, 427 
 
 cella, 16 
 
 contamino, 48 
 
 decem, 59, 152-153 
 
 cello, fallo, pello, 67 
 
 contio, 57, 549 
 
 decempeda, 570 
 
 celo, clam, &c., 16 
 
 contra, 251, 296 
 
 decennis, 53 
 
 celsus, 28 
 
 contumelia, contumax, 39 
 
 decenter, 257 
 
 cena, 50, 547 
 
 convitium (convicium), 
 
 decet.dedecet, 192 
 
 cenatus, 160 
 
 34 (note), 549 
 
 decies, decies centena r 
 
 censeo, 451 
 
 copia, 35 
 
 &c., 156, 568-569 
 
 centum, 59, 152, 154 
 
 copis, 53 
 
 decuria, 57 
 
Latin Words. 
 
 593 
 
 decurro, 264 
 
 dumtaxat, 259 
 
 fac (ut, ne), 337, 444 
 
 decussis, 36 
 
 dumus, 50 
 
 facies, 16 
 
 deesse, &c., 53 
 defetigo (defatigo), 36, 
 
 dupondius, 570 
 dux, duco, educo, &c.,i5 
 
 facio, 16 
 facio, efficio, 448 
 
 547 
 
 
 facit are, 35 
 
 deflagratus, 160 
 
 
 facul, 46 
 
 deiero, 25, 39 
 
 e, ex, 133, 251, 264, 301 
 
 faenum, 547 
 
 dein, deinde, &c., 13, 46 
 
 ebur, ebor-, 21 
 
 faginus, 29 
 
 deminuere, 548 
 
 ecce, en, 235, 259 
 
 Falisci, Falerii, 65 
 
 demum, 259 
 
 eccum, ellum, &c., 140 
 
 fallo, 45 
 
 denarius, 567-8 
 
 ecquis, 141 
 
 famul, 46 
 
 deni, 47 
 
 edepol, epol, pol, 235 
 
 far, 42, 46 
 
 denique, 259 
 
 gdo, 189 
 
 fari, 14, 191 
 
 denuo, 257 
 
 edus, &c., 12 
 
 fas, 16 
 
 depeciscor (depaciscor), 
 
 ego, 61 
 
 fateor, 16 
 
 547 
 
 eheu, heu, 235 
 
 fax, 16 
 
 deram, dero, &c., 53 
 
 ei, 12, 13 
 
 faxo, faxim, faxitur, 55 
 
 deses, 28 
 
 eice, reice, 10 
 
 febris, 50 
 
 deus, divus, &c., 15, 33 
 
 elephus, elephantus, 77 
 
 fecundus, 23, 547 
 
 dextans, 56 
 
 -endus, -undus, ^48 
 
 fel, 46, 63 
 
 dexter, dexterior, dex- enim, etenim, 259^ 320 
 
 femina, 29, 547 
 
 timus, 42, 133 
 
 eo (v.), 189 
 
 fendo, 60 
 
 di (dei), dis (deis), 548 
 
 eo (adv.), 229, 308 
 
 fenus, fener- fenor-, 
 
 Diana, 15 
 
 eo, quo, tanto, quanto, 
 
 feneror, 25, 547, 548 
 
 die, due, fac, fer, &c. f 45 
 
 &c., with compar., 399 
 
 ferbui, fervi, 549 
 
 dlcare, dlcere, 115 
 
 epigrammaton, 113 
 
 feriae, 65 
 
 dteio, dlcis, 15, 549 
 
 epistula, epistola, 548 
 
 fero, 62, 184-5, 217 
 
 die crastini, 120, 400 
 
 Epona, 59 (note) 
 
 ferre, 51 
 
 dies, diu, &c., 15 
 
 equester, 28 
 
 fers, 52 
 
 digitus, 570 
 
 equidem, 259 
 
 fetialis, 549 
 
 dignus, 15 
 
 equus, 59 
 
 fetus, 547 
 
 diluvies, 36 
 
 erepsemus, 54 
 
 fides, fido, &c., 15 
 
 diribeo, dirimo, 66 
 
 erga, 296 
 
 figlinus, 51 
 
 dis- dir-, 203, 265 
 
 ergo, 320 
 
 finis, 49 
 
 dis (dives), 57 
 
 erus, era (herus, hera), 
 
 fio, 185-6 
 
 disco, 48 (note) 
 
 17, 62 
 
 firmus, 62 
 
 diu, by day ; diu, long, 
 
 es, 52 
 
 flagro, 62 
 
 257 
 
 esse, 51 
 
 flamen, 48 
 
 diurnus, 66 
 
 et is, &c., 285 
 
 flamma, 41 
 
 divisse, 55 
 
 et, que, 259, 316 
 
 fluo, fluvius, &c., 15 
 
 dixti, 54 
 do (Sk. da), -do (Sk. 
 
 et, neque, 316 
 etiam, quoque, 316 
 
 foedus (s.), 15, 547 
 fomentum, 57 
 
 dha), 206 
 
 Etrusci, Tusci, 65 
 
 foras, 256 
 
 doceo, 451 
 
 etsi, etiamsi, 479-482 
 
 fore, 21 
 
 doctrina, 50 
 
 eu, 12, 13 
 
 fore ut, futurum ut, with 
 
 dodrans, 57 
 
 examen, 48 
 
 Subjunctive, 444 
 
 Dolabella, 51 
 
 examussim, 106 
 
 foris, 62 
 
 doleo quod, 441 
 
 excubiae, 79 
 
 formosus, 50 
 
 domi, 83, 1 20 
 
 exin, 46 
 
 fors, forte, 259 
 
 domine, 26 
 
 existimo, 39 
 
 forsitan, fortasse, 259 
 
 domus, 1 20 
 
 exosus, 1 60 
 
 fossa, 41 
 
 donee (donicum), 259, 
 
 exspecto, expecto, exsul, 
 
 frango, 16 
 
 461-463 
 
 exul, &c., 550 
 
 fra(n)go, iu(n)go, &c., 19 
 
 dracuma, 29 
 
 exta, 52 
 
 frater, 62 
 
 dubito an, 327 
 
 exterior extremus, 42, 
 
 frigo, 62 
 
 duellum, 45 
 
 133 
 
 frigus frigor-, 25 
 
 dulcedo, 30 
 
 extinxem, 54 
 
 frivolus, 22 
 
 dulcis, 65 
 
 extra, 296 
 
 *frugi, 131, 133 
 
 dum, 259 ; dum, donee, 
 
 
 frustra, 39 
 
 quoad, whilst, 461- 
 
 
 fugio, 62 
 
 463 ; until, 461-464 
 
 faba, 63 
 
 fui, 58 (note), 62 
 
 dum, dummodo, pro- 
 
 fac with Infin. Clause, 
 
 fulcrum, 28 (note) 
 
 vided that, 479 
 
 444 
 
 fulgeo, 62 
 
 QQ 
 
594 
 
 Index II. 
 
 fulmen, 47 
 
 hesternus, 65 
 
 infitias ire, exsequias 
 
 fumus, 62 
 
 Hiber (Iber), 549 
 
 ire, 376 
 
 fundo, 63 
 
 hibernus, 44 (note) 
 
 infra, 133, 297 
 
 funebris, 50 
 
 hie, 139, 144, 282 
 
 inger, 45 
 
 fungor, fruor, utor, ves- 
 
 hie, ille, 283 
 
 in promptu, in procinctu, 
 
 cor, with Abl., 397 
 
 hiemps, 61, 548, 549 
 
 130 
 
 funus, funer-, 25 
 
 hilaris, hilarus, 31 
 
 inquam, 188 
 
 furfur, 40 
 
 hilla, 50 
 
 inquilinus, 34, 59 
 
 Furius, 65 
 
 hirundo, 17, 64 
 
 inquinare, 39, 59 
 
 
 hirudo, 17 
 
 instar, 130, 414 
 
 
 Hister (Ister), 549 
 
 instigo, 17 
 
 Gaius, 9, 13 
 
 hodiernus, 66 
 
 intellego, 203, 264, 548 
 
 gallus, gallina, 75 
 
 holus (olus), 62, 549 
 
 inter, 42, 265, 296-297 
 
 gaudeo, 52, 57 
 
 homicida, 54 
 
 inter ipsos ; inter se, 495 
 
 gaudeo, gratulor quod, 
 
 homo, 19, 69, 76 
 
 interea loci, &c., 420 
 
 441 
 
 homullus, 23 
 
 intercludo, &c., 264 
 
 genitor, genetrix, 30, 547 
 
 honestus, 28 
 
 interdius, interdiu, 257, 
 
 gen-va, 10 
 
 hornus, 57 
 
 400 
 
 Georgicon, 92 
 
 horsum, 57 
 
 *intereo, interemo, inter- 
 
 gero, 65 
 
 hortor, 442 
 
 ficio, 264 
 
 gigno, genus, &c.,i6, 40, 
 
 huiusque, huiusce, 59 
 
 interest, refert, 193, 416- 
 
 61 
 
 humi, humo, 83 
 
 4i7. 449 
 
 glacialis, 53 
 
 
 interior, intimus, 42, 151 
 
 Gnaeus, 9 
 
 
 intra, 133, 151, 296 
 
 gnarus, &c., 16 
 
 iacio, 10 
 
 intus, 29, 136 
 
 gnasci, 44 
 
 lanus, 45 
 
 invideo, 264,384 
 
 gnatus, &c., 1 6 
 
 ibi, illic, 228, 308 
 
 iocus, 15 
 
 gnavus, &c., 16 
 
 id aetatis, id temporis, 
 
 ipse, 288-289, 494-495 
 
 gnosco, &c., 16, 44 
 
 &c., 374 
 
 iracundus, 30 
 
 gradior, 180 
 
 idcirco, ideo, propterea, 
 
 ire, iri, with supine, 186 
 
 gradus, 570 
 
 320, 458, 459 
 
 is, 139, 283-285 
 
 grando, 64 
 
 idem, 50, 284, 313 
 
 is, eiusmodi, talis, &c., 
 
 gratia, 394, 414 
 
 idus, 572 
 
 ut (qui), &c., 452, 455, 
 
 gravor, 159 
 
 iecur, ieciner- iecinor-, 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 59. 548 
 
 iste, 140, 283 
 
 
 igitur, 320 
 
 ita, itaque, 258, 320 
 
 habeo, with part, perf., 
 
 ignis, 20 
 
 ita ut, 452 
 
 499 
 
 ignosco, 50 
 
 item, itidem, 258, 312,313 
 
 Uadria, 62, 549 
 
 ilicet, 259 
 
 iterum, tertium, &c., 149 
 
 Hammon (Ammon), 549 
 
 ilico (illico), 39 
 
 itur, 188 
 
 harena (arena), 62, 65, 
 
 Ilithyia, 12 
 
 iubeo, 450 
 
 549 
 
 ille, 26, 139, 144, 258,283 
 
 iucundus, 14 
 
 hariolus, 549 
 
 illinc, 258 
 
 iudex, 50 
 
 harundo (arundo), 62, 
 
 imberbus, imberbis, 31 
 
 iug-, iungere, iiigum, 
 
 549 
 
 immo, 257, 259, 330 
 
 iugis, c., 14 
 
 haruspex (aruspex), 62, 
 
 impedio, 450 
 
 iugerum, 157, 570-571 
 
 549 
 
 impero, 264, 450 
 
 iumentum, 14, 48, 57 
 
 haud, haut, hau, 323, 549 
 
 impetrassere, 55 
 
 iunior, 133 
 
 haudquaquam, 324 
 
 impubis, 115 
 
 luppiter, 15, 45, 57 
 
 haud scio an, 323 
 
 imus, 56 
 
 iuratus, 160 
 
 haurio, 65 
 
 in-, 262 
 
 iurgor, 52 
 
 hauscio, 46 
 
 in- (Pr.), 202, 251, 264, 
 
 iuvat, 15, 193 
 
 have (ave), 191, 549 
 
 304-305 
 
 iuvenis, 76 
 
 hebetude, 54 
 
 in eo esse ut, &c. f 453 
 
 iuxta, 52, 297, 313 
 
 hedera, 549 
 
 inciens, 53 (note) 
 
 
 hei, vae, hem, 235, 390 
 
 incitas, 130 
 
 Kaeso, 9 
 
 hemina, 571-572 
 
 inclutus (inclitus), 548 
 
 Kalendae, 9, 527 
 
 herciscere, 549 
 
 incohare, 549 
 
 Kalumnia, 9 
 
 Hercules, 29 
 
 induor, exuor, with Ac- 
 
 Kartago, 9 
 
 heredium, 569 
 
 cus., 374, 549 
 
 
 heres, 17, 62, 158, 547 
 
 industrius, 53 (note) 
 
 labare, labi, 16 
 
 heri (here), 61, 257, 400, 
 
 indutiae, 53 
 
 Labienus, 34 
 
 548 
 
 infimus, 42, 151 
 
 lac, 44, 46 
 
Latin Words. 
 
 595 
 
 lacer, 64 
 
 manceps, 50 
 
 mostis, 57 
 
 lacrima, 65, 548 
 
 mancipium, 79, 548 
 
 mox, 259 
 
 lama, 471 
 
 mane, mani, 257, 400 
 
 mulsum. 24 
 
 lamentum, 44 
 
 malo, 57, 186-187, 449 
 
 multimodis, 50 
 
 lamna, 52 
 
 manibiae, 54 
 
 murmur, 21, 40 
 
 lana, 47 
 
 mansuetudo, 54 
 
 
 lanius, 47 
 
 manus, 16 
 
 nae (ne), nae tu, nae ille, 
 
 lanx, 45 
 
 margo, margin-, 29 
 
 &c., 235 
 
 lapicidina, 54 
 
 maritimus (maritumus), 
 
 nam, namque, 258, 320 
 
 Lares, 65 
 
 548 
 
 nare, natare, &c., 16 
 
 latrocinium, 54 
 
 marmor, 40 
 
 naris, nasus, &c., 16, 65 
 
 latus, 45 
 
 Maspiter, 35 
 
 narrare, 44, 54 
 
 laus, 14, 44, 578 
 
 matertera, 53 
 
 nascor, natio, &c., 16, 
 
 lavo, 14 
 
 maximus, 42 j 44, 548 
 
 Lemuria, 43 
 
 mea, tua, &c., 417 
 
 nasturtium, 52 
 
 leo, lea, leaena, 64, 75 
 
 mecastor, mehercule, 
 
 nauci, 416 
 
 levir, 65 
 
 medius fidius, 235 
 
 nausea, 33 
 
 levis, 48, 64, 578 
 
 medicus, 30 
 
 nauta, 52, 57 
 
 levis, 64, 547 
 
 meditor, 65 
 
 navis, 67 
 
 libella, 570 
 
 medius, 63 
 
 -ng, 326 
 
 libera schola, 576 
 
 mel, 46 
 
 ne, 323 
 
 libet, lubet, 9, 15, 192, 548 
 
 melior, melius, 21 
 
 ne prohibitive, 337-344 
 
 libido, 30 
 
 memini, 189, 422 
 
 neinPet. Obi., 442-443, 
 
 libra, 566, &c. 
 
 mensa, 16 
 
 446-451 
 
 librarius, 572 
 
 mensis, 16 
 
 ne in Fin. Cl., 457-458 
 
 licet, 66, 192, 441, 449 
 
 meridies, 65 
 
 ne . . . quidem, 325 
 
 ligula, 572 
 
 metior, 16, 216 
 
 nee, neque, 316, 325 
 
 lilium, 64 
 
 meto, 16, 220 
 
 nee (=ne . . . quidem). 
 
 limax, 15 
 
 mi, 56 
 
 325 
 
 limus, 15 
 
 militiae, Romae, &c., 83, 
 
 necdum, 323 
 
 linere, 15 
 
 87 
 
 necesse, 26 
 
 lingo, 61 
 
 mille, millia (milia), 41, 
 
 necesse est, 441, 449 
 
 lingua, 65 
 
 I 5 2 - *59 
 
 necne, 329 
 
 linquo, 59, 64 
 
 millia passuum, 570 
 
 necnon, 316, 323 
 
 liquere, liquet, liquor, 
 
 mina, 29 
 
 necubi, 323 
 
 17, 192 
 
 Minerva, 29, 66 
 
 nedum, 323, 325 
 
 lis, 45 
 
 minime, 324, 330 
 
 nefas, nefarius, 65 
 
 littera, lltura, linea, 15, 
 
 minister, 28 
 
 negassim, 55 
 
 549 
 
 minor, minimus, 42 
 
 neglego, 43, 548 
 
 litus, 550 
 
 minus (=non), 324 
 
 negotium, 43 
 
 locuples, 54 
 
 mirum quantum, &c., 
 
 nemo, 56, 323 
 
 locus, 45 
 
 280 
 
 nemo unus, 268, 323 
 
 loquella (loquela), 549 
 
 misceo, 48 (note) 
 
 nemo non, &c., 324 
 
 luci, 83 
 
 misereor, miseror, mis- 
 
 nempe, 255 
 
 lucifer, 31 
 
 eret, 192, 422-423 
 
 nepos, neptis, 52, 74 
 
 lucinus, 29 
 
 misti, 54 { *nequam, 131, 323 
 
 lupus, 45 
 
 modestus, 28 
 
 nequaquam, 324, 330 
 
 luscinia, 14, 44, 64 
 
 medium, medimnum, 
 
 nequeo, 188 
 
 lux, luceo, lima, lucerna, 
 
 &c., 91 
 
 nequiquam, 324 
 
 Lucina, 14, 64 
 
 modius, 572 
 
 nescio quis, 290 
 
 lynx, 77 
 
 modo, 324 
 
 neuter, 323 
 
 
 modo ... modo, 317 
 
 neutiquam, 323, 324 
 
 machina, 29 
 
 modo non, 324 
 
 neve, 316, 323 
 
 macte, macti, 131, 235 
 
 modus, &c., 16 
 
 nihil, nil, '34, 56, 323, 549 
 
 maerere, maestus, 547 
 
 mdles, molestus, 48 
 
 nihil dum, nullus dum. 
 
 mage, magis, 26, 42, 136 
 
 momentum, 57 
 
 &c., 324 
 
 inagister, 25 
 
 moneo, 451 
 
 nihil non, 324 
 
 maiestas, 28 
 
 monimentum, monu- 
 
 nihil quicquam, 268 
 
 maior, 13, 48 
 
 mentum, 548 
 
 nimirum, 259 
 
 Maius, 13, 48 
 
 monstro, monstrum, 44 
 
 nimius, 34 
 
 mala, 48 
 
 morior, 180 
 
 ningo, ninguo, nix, 43, 
 
 maleficus, malificus, 31 
 
 mos, &c,, 16 
 
 548 
 
 Mamers, 40 
 
 naostellaria, 50 
 
 nisi, 323, 475-477 
 
596 
 
 Index II. 
 
 noli, 337 
 
 onustus, 28 
 
 perosus, 160 
 
 nolo, 54, 57, 186-187, 449 
 
 operae, 79 
 
 perperam, 256 
 
 nomenclator, 52 
 nomen Latinum, 273 
 
 operio, 264 
 oportet, 192, 446, 449 
 
 perquam, 135 
 Perses, Perseus, 114 
 
 non, 256, 323, 330 
 non modo, non solum, 325 
 
 optime, 331 
 optimus, 42 
 
 persona, 17 
 pertaesus, 160 
 
 non modo non, 325 
 
 opto, 449 
 
 PCS, 157, 570 
 
 non quia, non quod, 460 
 
 opus, usus, 197 
 
 pes monetalis, 570 
 
 nonae, 572 
 
 orior, 180 
 
 pessimus, 42 
 
 nonne, 323 
 
 oro, 449 
 
 pessulus, 22 
 
 nonnemo, 324 
 
 6s, 46 
 
 pessum, 130 
 
 nonnihil, nonnullus, &c., 
 
 *ostendo, 203, 264 
 
 pestis, 50 
 
 324 
 
 ou, 12, 13 
 
 picus, 15 
 
 non possum non, 324 
 
 ovare, 191 
 
 pietas, 34 
 
 nonus, 152 
 
 ovis, 20, 21 
 
 piget, 192 
 
 nos, 141 
 
 
 pila, 48 
 
 nosco, n6ta, nomen, 16, 
 
 paciscor, pax, &c., 16 
 
 pignoris, pigneris, pig- 
 
 548 
 
 paelex, 547 
 
 neror, 548 
 
 nostri, nostrum, 141 
 
 Paelignus, 547 
 
 Pinarii, 65 
 
 novem, 20 
 
 paenitet, 192, 548 
 
 pinguis, 61 
 
 nubes, 26, 63 
 
 paenula, 548 
 
 pinus, 47 
 
 nucleus, 52 
 
 pala, 48 
 
 pistrinum, 50 
 
 nudius, 259 
 
 palam, 256, 302 
 
 placitus, 1 60 
 
 nullus, 142, 323 
 
 palma, 50 
 
 plaustrum, 43 
 
 num, numne, 326, 328 - } 
 
 palmipes, 570 
 
 plebs, 17, 63 
 
 numen, numin-, 29 
 
 palmus, 570 
 
 plenus, 47 
 
 Numerius, 65 
 
 palumbes, 59 
 
 plerique, 131, 142 
 
 nummus, 568 
 
 palus, 48 
 
 plerique omnes, 268 
 
 numquis, 141, 143 
 
 papaver, 40 
 
 pluo, pluvia, &c., 14 
 
 nunc, 57 
 
 Papirii, 65 
 
 plus, plurimus, 42, 136 
 
 nuncupo, 54 
 
 par, pariter, 312 
 
 poematorum, poematis, 
 
 nundinae, 57 
 
 Parilia, 43 
 
 "3 
 
 nunquam, &c. , 52, 323, 324 
 nuntio, 57 
 
 parricida, 41 
 pars, portio, 20 
 
 poena, 547 
 pomeridianus, 46 
 
 nuo, numen, nutus, &c. , 15 
 
 pars, plebs, &c., 362 
 
 pomoerium, 46, 548 
 
 nuper, 57 
 
 partim, 105, 256 
 
 Pompeius, 13, 59 
 
 nurus, 66 
 
 parum, 136, 256 
 
 Pomponius, &c., 59 
 
 
 parvulus, 22 
 
 pondo, 130, 575 
 
 0,235 
 
 paterfamilias, &c., 86 
 
 pone, 50, 294 
 
 O, heu, pro, en, ecce, 
 
 patior, 450 
 
 pono, 50, 220 
 
 &c., 379 
 
 patricius, 549 
 
 Pontius, &c., 59 
 
 ob, 203, 264, 297 
 
 patrocinium, 54 
 
 popina, 59 
 
 obit, 58 
 
 pauper, 54 
 
 populare, 41 
 
 *obiiquus, obscenus, 39, 
 
 pavo, 59, 77 
 
 p6pulus (popolus), 17, 
 
 264, 547 
 
 pecu, 120 
 
 21, 40 
 
 *(obs), 203 (note), 264 
 
 peiero, 25, 39 
 
 populus, 40 
 
 oboedire, 39, 547 
 
 peior, 35 
 
 porro, 65 
 
 *obscurus, 14, 39 
 
 penes, 297 
 
 posco, 206 
 
 *obsolesco, exolesco, in- 
 
 penitus, 136 
 
 possum, 54, 184 
 
 solesco, 203, 266 
 
 penna, 41 
 
 post, 133, 151, 294 
 
 obsoletus, 160 
 
 peperi, 25 
 
 postea, posthac, 256 
 
 obviam, 256 
 
 per, 299 
 
 posterior, postremus, 
 
 occulo, 16 
 
 -per, 259 
 
 postumus, 42, 133 
 
 occupo, 22, 266 
 
 per-, 262, 299 
 
 postquam, posteaquam, 
 
 ocior, ocissimus, 16, 134 
 
 *perdo, peremo, pereo,54 
 
 462 
 
 octavus, 152 
 
 (note), 1 60, 264 
 
 postridie, 257, 400 
 
 odi, 189 
 
 perendie, 257 
 
 postulo, 451 
 
 oi, oe, 12, 13 
 
 pergo, 54 
 
 potes, 54 
 
 olere, 65 
 
 perinde ac, 312 
 
 potestas, 28 
 
 olla, 50 
 
 perinde quam, 312 
 
 potior (v.), 186 
 
 omen, 50 
 
 per mihi gratum est, 
 
 potior, potius, 134, 136 
 
 omitto, 264 
 
 per mihi placet, 35 
 
 potis, pote, 20, 27, 31, 
 
 omnino, 257 
 
 permitto, 450 
 
 134, 184 
 
Latin Words. 
 
 597 
 
 potus, 160 
 
 prae, 133, 151, 264, 302-3 
 praebeo, 56 
 praeceps, 27 
 praecipio, 450 
 praecipue, 280 
 praeco, 54 
 praeda, 56 
 praefiscine, 230 
 Praeneste, 28, 79 
 praes, 57 
 praestigiae, 128 
 praesto (adv.) 52 
 praeter, 251, 298 
 praetor, praetura, 24 
 praeterea, 256 
 praeut, 313 
 pransus, 160 
 prece, procus, 20 
 precor, 448 
 prehendo, prendo, 56, 
 
 549 
 
 prelum, 548 
 pridie, 400, 573 
 primanus, 148 
 primarius, 148 
 primo, primum, 149 
 primum, deinde, &c., 317 
 prior, primus, 42, 133 
 princeps, 43 
 pristis, 44 
 priusquam, 464 
 pro, prod-, 251, 265, 303 
 pro (inter).), 235 
 pro eo ac, 313 
 procul, 299 
 prodeo, prodesse, 203 
 proelium, 548 
 prohibeo, 443, 450 
 prohibessit, 55 
 proin, proinde, 13,53,482 
 proles, 53 
 promo, 53 
 prope, propior, proxi- 
 
 mus, 42, 133, 298 
 propediem, 259 
 propter, 298 
 propterea. 458, 459 
 prosa, 50, 57 
 protenus (protinus), 548 
 prout, 313 
 prudens, 57 
 pubes, 14 
 pubis, puber, 29 
 publicus, 40, 43 
 piidet, 14, 192 
 puer, 14 
 puerpera, 25 
 puertia, 52 
 pulmo, 65 
 pulvis, 25, 29 
 punio, purus, 14 
 pupa, 14 
 
 purgo, 52 
 
 quippe qui, 441 
 
 ptisillus, 14 
 
 Quirites, 59 
 
 pusio, 14 
 
 quis, 59 
 
 ptiter, puteo, pus, 14 
 
 quis, qui, 140-141, 289- 
 
 puto, putus, 14 
 
 290, 308 
 
 
 quisnam, uternam, 141 x 
 
 
 quispiam, 290-291 
 
 quadrupes, 76 
 
 quisquam, 290-291 
 
 quaero, quaeso, quae- 
 
 quisque, 280, 291, 362 
 
 sivi, 65 
 
 quisquiliae, 130 
 
 quaeso, 191 
 
 quisquis, 291 
 
 qualis, 142, 145 
 
 qui vis, quilibet, 291 
 
 qualis. quantus, &c., 
 
 quo, in order that, 458 
 
 308, 368, 388 
 
 quo, eo, &c.,3o8, 399 
 
 qualus, 48, 50 
 
 quoad, 461, 463 
 
 quam, how, 309 
 
 quocirca, 49 
 
 quam, as, 314 
 
 quod, that, 322, 441 
 
 quam, than, 315, 404 
 
 quod, quia, because, 459 
 
 quamdiu, 461, 463 
 
 quoimodi, 144 
 
 quamdudum, quam- 
 
 quom, 59 
 
 pridem, 314 
 
 quominus, 443, 447 
 
 quamquam, utut, 479, 
 
 quoniam, 458 
 
 481-482 
 
 quoque, 316 
 
 quamvis, quamlibet, 
 
 quorsum, 230 
 
 quantumvis, quamvis 
 
 quot, 308, 368 
 
 licet, 480, 482 
 
 quotannis, 155 
 
 quando, 309, 458 
 
 quotiens (quoties), 33, 
 
 quandoque, 458 
 
 461, 549 
 
 quandoquidem, 458 
 
 quotus, 42 
 
 quantillus, 51 
 
 quotusquisque, 309-310 
 
 quantus, 42, 142, 145, 308 
 
 quousque, 230, 308 
 
 quantuscumque, quan- 
 
 quum (see cum, conj.) 
 
 tusquantus, 291 
 
 
 quare, cur, 36, 309 
 
 
 quare, quamobrem, &c., 
 
 radix, 45, 67 
 
 320 
 
 raeda, 548 
 
 quartarius, 571-572 
 
 ramentum, 49 
 
 quasi, 50, 482-483 
 
 rana, 47 
 
 quatenus, 458, 548 
 
 raucus, 14 
 
 quattuor, 59 
 
 raudus, 14 
 
 que, 59, 316 
 
 re red-, 204, 265 
 
 quemadmodum, quo- 
 
 recidi reccidi, &c., 54 
 
 modo, 308 
 
 recipio, 37, 266 
 
 queo, nequeo, 188 
 
 reciprocus, 251 
 
 querimonia, 30, 69 
 
 recte, 329 
 
 querquetum, quercetum, 
 
 recuperare (recip-), 548 
 
 59 
 
 recuso, 39 
 
 qui=ut ego, ut tu, &c. 
 
 redivivus, 15 
 
 &c., 452; (consec.), 
 
 refert, 193, 416-417, 449 
 
 454-457 
 quia (coord.), 320, 459 
 
 rego, regio, 16 
 relligio, &c., 41 (note), 
 
 quicumque, 291 
 
 549 
 
 quidam, 291 
 
 remus, 50 
 
 quidem, 285 
 
 repente, subito, &c., 466 
 
 quies, 15 
 
 repetundarum, 130 
 
 quin, 45, insubst. sent., 
 
 repperi, 25,550 
 
 443, in adj. sent,, 455, 
 
 res repetundae, res Ro- 
 
 &c. 
 
 mana, res publica, 273 
 
 quina-vicenaria (lex), 148 
 
 retro, 251 
 
 quindecim, 54 
 
 rex, 1 6 
 
 quinetiam, 447 
 
 rima, 48 
 
 quinque, 26, 59 
 
 rogo, 448 
 
 quippe, 329 
 
 rosa, 45 
 
598 
 
 Index II. 
 
 rostrum, 43 
 
 ero, series, &c., 17, 66 
 
 solus, 142 
 
 ruber, rubigo,rufus,i4,62 
 
 sero, semen, &c., 16,40,65 
 
 somnulentus, 23 (note) 
 
 riidis, 14 
 
 serpo, 66 
 
 somnus, sopor, 17, 43 
 
 rudo, rumor, 14 
 
 serum, 66 
 
 sonus, &c., 17, 21 
 
 rumpo, 64 
 
 serus, 17 
 
 sorbeo, 65 
 
 rumusculus, 24 
 
 servasso, 55 
 
 soror, 21 
 
 rursus, rursum, &c., 51 
 
 sescenti, 154 
 
 spero, spes, 65 
 
 rus, rure, ruri, 375, 401, 
 
 sescuncia, 158 
 
 spolium, 59 
 
 403 
 
 sescuplus, &c., 148 
 
 sponsor, 76 
 
 
 sesqui, 54, 148 
 
 sponte, 130 
 
 saeculum, 548 
 
 sesquialtera ratio, 158 
 
 spurius, 65 
 
 saepe, 136, 256 
 
 sesquipes, 570 
 
 stadium, 570 
 
 saepes, 548 
 
 sestertius, sestertium, 48, 
 
 stare, statio, &c., 17 
 
 sal, 64 
 
 566-570 
 
 statim, 258 
 
 salix, 66 
 
 Sestius, 48 
 
 statim ubi, &c., 462 
 
 saltus, 571 
 
 setius, 136, 549 
 
 statuo, 448 
 
 saltern, saltim, 26, 256 
 
 sex, 66 
 
 Stella, 50 
 
 salus, salve, salvus, 17, 
 
 sextarius, 571, 572 
 
 stercus, 59 (note) 
 
 191 
 
 sextula, 158 
 
 sterno, &c., 17 
 
 Samnium, 43 
 
 si, 66, 467-475 
 
 sterquilinium, 59 
 
 sane, 329 
 
 sica, 17 
 
 stilus, 17, 548 
 
 sanequam, 314-315 
 
 sicilicus, 158 
 
 stipendium, 54 
 
 sanguis, 50, 99 
 
 sicubi.siquando, &c.,474 
 
 sto, 206 
 
 sanguisuga, 50 
 
 si dis placet, 475 
 
 strigilis, 64 
 
 satis, abunde, &c., 419 
 
 silua, 10 
 
 studeo, studium, 59 
 
 satin? 45 
 
 silva, 64, 66 
 
 (note), 449 
 
 scaena (scena), 548 
 
 similis, similiterac, 312 
 
 suadeo, persuadeo, 451 
 
 scala, 50 
 
 si maxime, 474 
 
 suavis, 49, 66 
 
 scilicet, 259 
 
 si minus, 474 
 
 sub, sus-, 202, 251, 265, 
 
 scopulus, 22 
 
 si modo, si tamen, si 
 
 305-306 
 
 scripulum, 158, 571 
 
 vero, 475 
 
 subtemen, 48 
 
 scutum, 14 
 
 simplex, 152 
 
 subter, 251, 306 
 
 se- sed-, 204, 251, 266 
 
 simul, 66, 152 
 
 successor, 76 
 
 se, 136 
 
 simul, simul ac, 312, 462 
 
 sudor, 66 
 
 se, suus, 285-287, 489- 
 
 singuli, 152, 153 
 
 suffoco, 39 
 
 494 
 
 sine, 302 
 
 sultis, 187 
 
 seco, 17 
 
 *sinister (next the sinus), 
 
 sum (esse), 58 (note), 167- 
 
 secundum, 298 
 
 28, 133 
 
 168 
 
 secundus, 154 
 
 simstimus, 42 
 
 sumen, 48 
 
 secus (s.), 130 
 
 si quis, &c., 474 
 
 suo, sutor, subula,&c.,i4 
 
 secus (adv.), 136, 256 
 
 sino, 450 
 
 supellex, 105 
 
 sed, 319 
 
 si non, nisi, 475-477 
 
 super, 66, 251, 306 
 
 sedecim, 48 
 
 si quaeris, siquaerimus, 
 
 supersede, 265 
 
 sedi, vidi, veni, 18 
 
 475 
 
 supra, 133, 251, 297 
 
 seges, 27 
 
 siquidem, 474 
 
 superior, supremus, sum- 
 
 segmentum, 43 
 
 siris, 57 
 
 mus, 42, 133, 251 
 
 selibra, 54 
 
 Sirius, 17 
 
 surgo, 54 
 
 sella, 41 
 
 sis, sultis, 57, 187, 337 
 
 surpui, 54 
 
 sembella, 570 
 
 sisto, 40 
 
 surrexe, 55 
 
 semel, 152 
 
 sive, seu, 318, 475 
 
 sus (s.), 66 
 
 semestris, 50 
 
 soboles, suboles, 34, 548 
 
 susurrus, 21, 40 
 
 semi, 66 
 
 socer, 21, 24, 174 
 
 suspitio (suspicio), 34. 
 
 semis, 53 
 
 socors, 34 
 
 (note), 549 
 
 semodius, 572 
 
 sodes, 235, 337 
 
 suus, 66, 489-494 
 
 semper, 259 
 
 SOl, 17, 21 
 
 
 sempiternus, 50 
 
 solacium, 519 
 
 
 semuncia, 158 
 
 *soleo, 214, 266 
 
 tabuleis publiceis, 12 
 
 senex, senior, 69, 133 
 
 sellers, 266, 550 
 
 taedet, 14, 192 
 
 seni, 48 
 
 sollemnis, 550 
 
 talentum, 28 
 
 septem, 26 
 
 sollicitus, 266, 550 
 
 talis, 455 
 
 sequester, 31 
 
 sollus, &c., 66, 266 
 
 talpa, 59, 77 
 
 sequor, 59 
 
 solor, 17 
 
 tarn, adeo, sic, 452 
 
 serenus, 17 
 
 solvendo esse, 391 
 
 tamen, 319, 479-4 81 
 
Latin Words. 
 
 599 
 
 tametsi, tamenetsi, 480 
 
 umere, umor, 62, 549 
 
 veho, 6 1 
 
 tamquam (tanquam), 43, 
 
 umerus, 549, 621 
 
 vel, 318 
 
 482 
 
 uncia, 151, 566-572 
 
 velle, 51 
 
 tantum, 452 
 
 unciarium fenus, 570 
 
 vello, 28 
 
 tantum abesse ut, 453 
 
 unde, 308 
 
 velo, 17 
 
 tantus, 145 
 
 undecim, 54 
 
 velox, 17 
 
 taurus, 45, 64 
 
 ungere, imguere, &c., 
 
 velut si, velut, veluti, 482 
 
 tego, 17, 45, 61 
 
 548 
 
 vendo, venumdo, 54, 160 
 
 tegula, 17, 45 
 
 unguis, 6 1 
 
 veneficium, 54 
 
 Tei'us, 13 
 
 unus, 150, 152, 153, 157 
 
 veneo, 160 
 
 tela, 48 
 
 unus et alter, 364 
 
 venere, venerunt, 19 
 
 temo, 47 
 
 uni, trini, &c., 155 
 
 venio, 18 
 
 temperi, tempori, tem- 
 
 urbes, urbis, urbeis, 13 
 
 ver, 66, 67 
 
 perius, 25, 136 
 
 urbs, urps, 549 
 
 vere, vero, 329 
 
 templum, 51 
 
 urna, 571 
 
 verecundus, 30 
 
 ten-via, 10 
 
 upilio, 57 
 
 vereor, 17, 443, 447 
 
 tenus, 304 
 
 upupa, 22 
 
 vermis, 64 
 
 Jteruncius, 570 
 
 uro, 65, 224 
 
 verna, 66 
 
 tibicen tibicina, 53, 75 
 
 ursus, 48 
 
 versus, versum, vorsum, 
 
 timeo, metuo, vereor (ne, 
 
 usura, interest, 569 
 
 299, 548 
 
 ut), 443, 447 
 
 -us -a, &c. (subst.), 75 
 
 verto (vorto), 548 
 
 titulus 40 
 
 ut (that] in Subst. Cl., 
 
 verum, vero, &c., 319 
 
 tollo, 217 
 
 440-441 ; in Petitio 
 
 verus, 17 
 
 -tor -trix (subst.), 75 
 
 Obi., 442-451; in Con- 
 
 vespera, 67 
 
 tormentum, 47 
 
 sec. Cl. , 452-454 ; in 
 
 vesperi, vespere, 83, 91, 
 
 torqueo, 65 
 
 Final Cl., 457-458 
 
 102, 157, 400 
 
 torus, 45, 129 
 
 ut, how, 309, 441 
 
 Vesta, 67 
 
 >tot, 145, 308 
 
 ut, as, 312-313 
 
 vestis, 67 
 
 totus, 15 
 
 ut si, 482-483 
 
 vestri, vestrum, 42? 
 
 trans, 203, 251, 266, 295 
 
 ut, when, since, 461-462 
 
 veternus, 66 
 
 traxe, 55 
 
 ut, granting that, 339, 
 
 veto, 450 
 
 tres, ter, &c., 15, 65, 151, 
 
 480-482 
 
 vetus, 118 
 
 154 
 
 utare. utaris, 19 
 
 Veturii, 65 
 
 tribunicius, 549 
 
 utcumque, utut, 479 
 
 via, 33 
 
 triginta, 54 
 
 uter, 230, 259, 308 
 
 vicem, 256 
 
 trinundinum, 54 
 
 uterque, 141, 362 
 
 vicesimus, 50 
 
 Troia, 13 
 
 utervis, uterlibet, 141 
 
 victima, 548 
 
 Troius, 13 
 
 utinam, ut, 339 
 
 videlicet, 259 
 
 Tros, Troas, 75 
 
 ut non, 440-441, 452- 
 
 viden ? , 45 
 
 trucido, 54 
 
 455 
 
 video, 447, 451 
 
 tum-cum, 456 
 
 ut ne, 442-45L 453> 457- 
 
 vidua, 63 
 
 tuber, 15 
 
 458 
 
 viginti, 45, 541, 61, 152 
 
 tugurium, 34 
 
 ut qui, utpote qui, 461 
 
 vilicus, 550 
 
 tumeo, &c., 15 
 
 ut quisque, 280 
 
 villum, 50 
 
 turbassitur, 55 
 
 utrimque, 230 
 
 viola, 67 
 
 turris, 42 
 
 utrum, 328 
 
 violentus, 22 
 
 turtur, 40 
 
 uxor, 74 
 
 vir, 69 
 
 Tydides, 13 
 
 
 virus, 66 
 
 
 
 vis (s.), 65, 67 
 
 
 
 vis (v.), 52 
 
 uber, 63 
 
 valde, 125 
 
 vivere vitam, &c., 373 
 
 ubi, when, 461 
 
 vale, 191 
 
 vivo, 45, 222 
 
 ubi, unde, &c., 285, 
 
 Valerii, 65 
 
 vix, vixdum, 324 
 
 308 = Relative, 452 
 
 valetudo (valitudo), 548 
 
 voco, vox, 17, 21, 59, 67 
 
 udus, 57 
 
 vallum, 17 
 
 VOlgUS, VUlgUS, 22 
 
 ui, 12 
 
 vanus, 47 
 
 volnus, vulnus, 20, 21 
 
 Ulixes, 65 
 
 vapor, 44 
 
 volo, nolo, malo, 64, 
 
 udus, 41, 51, 142 
 
 vapulo, 160 
 
 186-7, 449 
 
 ulna, 64, 570 
 
 -ve, 318 
 
 volucris, 109 
 
 ulterior, ultimus, 42, 133 
 
 ve-, 262 
 
 volvo, 67 
 
 ultra, ultro, 251, 295 
 
 vehemens, vemens, 56, 
 
 vomer, vomis, 25 
 
 ululo, 40 
 
 549 
 
 vomo, 67 
 
LONDON: PRINTED BY 
 
 SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE 
 AND PARLIAMENT STREET 
 
 


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