G 127 5^2 r YF 00745 UC-NRLF $c aa 103 B!vJ5&*"'-'F*<;,B "ttwsMtsS*''" Krjg'«aKW»fy?siWK Paofic States /•-;;/ '""erritories N.. M.A El u l'< •*.,w. "s?;"^ -i>a» # * ^ HMMMt^"-^' ^ /^ 1 1 /""I f'^S I « I? y fi 1 * ■ .' ■' i', % S ' lj i f i j ■> , * '# ^ :5 'i» ^l 'i ', Education Library V. GRAMMAR-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY Physical^ Political^ and Commercial BY WILLIAM SWINTON GOLD-MEDALIST FOR GEOGRAPHY, PARIS EXPOSITION, 1878, AND AUTHOR OF SWINTON'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES, WORD-BOOK SERIES, OUTLINES OF THE WORLD'S HISTORY, ETC. COPYRIGHT, 1880, BY IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, AND COMPANY, • NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. Uj^ a -J?N>vAAv\ G 1^7 ■esq. -x^ PREFACE. THIS "Grammar-School Geography" is intended as the higher book of a two-book series, in which the author's " Introductory Geography " is designed to serve as the ele- mentary manual. In the "Complete Course in Geography" (first published in 1875) a leading aim of the author was to realize what he deemed a great desideratum in the treatment of the geography of the United States. This want, and his own plan for filling it, he indicated in the following sentences in the Preface to the work just named : — " The need of a much more minute and detailed study of local geography than is possible with existing text-books is becoming deeply felt. The dozen or the score of vague, because generalized and colorless, lines usually devoted to great states like New York or Pennsylvania, Ohio or Illinois, are poorly fitted to furnish a pupil with such equipment of geographical knowl- edge as is necessary either for practical use or ordinary intelligence. In the present book an effort is made to meet the desideratum of fullness on each state, and at the same time to avoid the danger of overtasking the pupil by the device of a double text on the United States. There is in the case of each state, i. A general text, which comes first, and is printed in the larger type: this is to be studied hy a// classes. 2. A special geography of each state, which is designed for use only by classes in the state under review. It is hoped that the elastic arrangement of a general and a special text will meet all requirements." The plan received the emphatic approval of teachers, and this approval has resulted in the adoption of the " Complete Course " to an extent unsurpassed, if not unparalleled, in the history of geographical publication. It is, indeed, the very full- ness of acceptance accorded the theory of an enlarged text of the states that has prompted the publication of the present work ; for it soon became manifest that a still more liberal allowance of special state geography than even that given in the volume just named was called for by many teachers. In order to supply this demand, the author has in this book adopted the plan of confining to a general treatment the text of the several states, supplementing this in special editions by the detailed geography of individual states or sections. To those who prefer this arrangement the " Grammar-School Geography" will commend itself, while teachers who desire a somewhat full exposition of the geography of all the states will find their wish met in the " Complete Course." It will thus be seen that the two are independent books, differing in structure because edu- cationists differ in taste. To this explanation of the relation of the present work to the other works of the geographical series by the same author may now be added a few words as to the general plan of the book. The "Grammar-School Geography" aims to strike a just balance between conflicting theories of geographical teaching, and to embody what is best in the modern methods. There are those who regard Physical Geography as the all in all, and those who regard Political Geography as the all in all. The author has sought to avoid the one-sidedness of each. Physi- cal and so-called " Political " Geography are treated as insepar- able, as one subject, and the two so blended that the physical aspects and attributes of the globe and man's doings on its surface present themselves to the pupil's mind, not as isolated phenomena, but as a connected whole. For the study of the Physical Geography of the several grand divisions provision has been made in special maps, unencum- bered by the names of countries or places, but presenting in clear view the natural features of the continent, its vegetable products, its characteristic animals, and its mineral resources. The physical maps are further supplemented by relief views, which are of striking value in presenting to the feye the great surface-features of the land masses. A series of systematic questions and exercises faces each of the physical maps. The Physical Geography, though necessarily brief, presents a con- densed view of the contour, surface, drainage, vegetation, ani- mals, and resources of each of the grand divisions. It is freed from needless technicalities, and fitted for easy comprehension by pupils in the grades for which this book is designed. The Political Geography, or descriptive text of countries, follows the Physical Geography of the grand divisions. The aim here has been to make a compact text, in which the major factors of a nation's civilization— -its resources, industries, and commerce — shall be brought prominently to view ; and, for M,!29Qp02 IV PREFACE. the fuller treatment of these, space is gained by the omission, first, of all merely topographical matter (a knowledge of which is gained from the study of the map), and, secondly, by the complete ignoring of the conventional jejune accounts of eth- nological characteristics, manners, customs, religions, &c. The descriptive text is accompanied by political maps the study of which is secured by full and varied exercises. Where the importance of particular countries demands it, special maps are given. Thus, in the case of Europe, in addition to the general physical and political maps, special maps are added of Great Britain and Ireland, France and Switzerland, the German Em- pire, Belgium and the Netherlands, Austro-Hungary, and the Turkish Empire. So, in the case of Africa, the general physi- cal and political map is supplemented by a special map of Equatorial Africa, showing the latest results of discovery and exploration, thus giving us a chart well studded with names of peoples and cities, where, till lately, in the words of Swift, geographers "O'er unhabitable downs Place elephants for want of towns." The treatment of commercial and industrial geography is, perhaps, the feature which most markedly distinguishes this volume from the old-style text-books. A knowledge of these important but neglected subjects is secured, first by a careful statement of the industries of each country and the kind of pro- ductions it sends into the channels of trade, and, secondly, by a comprehensive view of the commerce of the world presented in a map showing the one hundred principal seaports, the articles shipped from each, the steamer routes, submarine cables, and international lines of telegraphic communication. Ample exer- cises, topically arranged, accompany the map. In like manner, the domestic and foreign commerce of the United States is illustrated by a map showing the areas of the great staples, and productive resources, — the regions of corn, wheat, sugar, to- bacco, stock-raising, coal, iron, and other mineral deposits, the lines of railroad that transport these articles to the seaboard, and the ports from which' they are shipped. Great care has been taken, in the construction of this work, to make it in the best sense a Uxt-hook. Among the features which it is hoped teachers will notice with satisfaction are the following two : i. The paragraphs are cast in a form convenient both for memoridng and recitation. By introducing each para- graph with bold type, a suitable question spontaneously frames itself in the minds of pupil and teacher, thus obviating the old and inconvenient form of questions far removed from the text. 2. The method of study pursued by the best teachers being largely topical, ample provision has been made to further this plan, by numerous carefully constructed topical synopses, re- views, tables, and questions. A high standard of excellence in the artistic, cartographic, and mechanical execution of geographical te.xt-books has re- cently been established. To this fact due regard has been had by the publishers; and the merits of the "Grammar-School Geography " in the particulars just named will be sufficiently evident to those who examine it. WILLIAM SWINTON. New York, April, 1880. CONTENTS. PAGB PREFACE iii INTRODUCTION i DEFiNmoNS IN Mathematical Geography .... 2 I. Shape, Size, and Motions of the Earth. Direction 2 II. Geographical Circles 3 III. Latitude and Lxdngitude. Zones ... 3 IV. Means of Geographical Study .... 4 Definitions in Physical Geography .... 6 I. Divisions of the Land 6 II. Divisions of the Water 7 III. Climate 9 IV. Plants and Animals 9 V. Races of Men 10 Definitions in PoLrncAL Geography . . . . 11 I. States of Socieiy 11 II. ' Government 11 Etymology of Terms used in Geography . . . .11 Comparative Geography of the World . . . . 13 PHYSICAL NORTH AMERICA 15 POLITICAL NORTH AMERICA 19 Danish America 19 Dominion of Canada, with Newfoundland . . . " 21 Mexico 23 Central America . 23 West Indif^ 23 PHYSICAL UNITED STATES 25 POLITICAL UNITED STATES 27 Eastern States, or New England 30 Middle States 34 Southern States : Eastern Division .... 38 Southern States : Western Division ..... 42 Central States : Eastern Division 46 Central States : Western Division 50 Pacific States and Territories ... .54 Tables of Population and Resources . . . . -59 PHYSICAL SOUTH AMERICA 63 POLITICAL SOUTH AMERICA 67 PHYSICAL EUROPE 71 POLITICAL EUROPE 75 Great Britain and Ireland 76 PAGI France and Switzerland 78 German Empire, Netherlands, and Belgium . .80 Austro-Hungarian Monarchy 82 Russia in Europe 83 Sweden and Norway 83 Denmark 83 Spain 83 Portugal 84 Italy 84 Greece 84 European Turkey .85 Roumania, Servia, and Montenegro . . . ... 85 PHYSICAL ASIA 87 POLITICAL ASIA 91 Asutic Russia 9a Chinese Empire 92 Japan 92 Indo-China 93 British India 93 Afghanistan and BELOOcrasTAN . . . . . 94 Persia 94 Arabia 94 Asiatic Turkey 95 Malay Archipelago 95 AFRICA 97 Barbary States ........ 99 EovFr and Abyssinia 100 The Sahara 100 Central Africa loi Soudan 102 Republics and Colonies 102 Oceanica ' . . 102 Australasia 104 Melanesia 105 Polynesia . . ■ ,. 105 ARCTIC REGIONS 106 COMMERCE OF THE WORLD no MAP DRAWING m TABLES OF POPULATION, ETC 116 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY "7 MAPS. rAGB THE HEMISPHERES . . . ' 12 PHYSICAL NORTH AMERICA 14 POLITICAL NORTH AMERICA 18 DOMINION OF CANADA 20 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND WEST INDIES 22 PHYSICAL UNITED STATES 24 POLITICAL UNITED STATES 28-29 NEW ENGLAND 31 MIDDLE STATES 35 SOUTHERN STATES: EASTERN DIVISION 39 SOUTHERN STATES: WESTERN DIVISION 43 CENTRAL STATES: EASTERN DIVISION 47 CENTRAL STATES: WESTERN DIVISION 51 PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES 55 COMMERCIAL UNITED STATES '. . 60-61 PHYSICAL SOUTH AMERICA 63 POLITICAL SOUTH AMERICA 66 PHYSICAL EUROPE 70 POLITICAL EUROPE 74 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND • 77 FRANCE AND SWITZERLAND 78 GERMAN EMPIRE, NETHERLANDS, AND BELGIUM • . . . . 80 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY 82 TURKISH EMPIRE, GREECE, ETC 85 PHYSICAL ASIA 86 POLITICAL ASIA 90 AFRICA 96 CENTRAL AFRICA loi OCEANICA 103 ARCTIC REGIONS 106 COMMERCE OF THE WORLD 108-109 DRAWING MAPS 114-116 m » t > -^3^ INTRODUCTION. GEOGRAPHY AND ITS DIVISIONS. 1. Geography is a description of the surface of the earth, of the countries into which it is divided, and of the people that inhabit them. 2. Its Divisions. — The earth may be considered in three different relations : i. In its relation to the solar system ; 2. In its relation to nature ; 3. In its relation to man. Hence arise three divisions of geography, — Mathematical Geography, Physical Geography, and Political Geography. 3. Mathematical Geography treats of the earth as a planet, — its form, size, and motions ; its division by circles : and the art of constructing maps with the aid of these circles. 4. Physical Geography treats of the earth in its natural divisions, and its relations to the physical laws by which it is governed. 5. Political Geography treats of the earth as divided into countries, and of the condition of the people inhabiting them. 6. Illustrations. — That the United States is in the North Temperate Zone is a fact of Mathematical Geography ; that off the eastern coast of the United States is an ocean current called the Gulf Stream, which modifies our climate, is a fact of Physical Geography ; that the United States is a republic is a fact of Political Geography. DEFINITIONS IN MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. DEFINITIONS IN MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. REFERENCE TABLE OF GEOMETRICAL TERMS. OMORAM OF MATHEMATICAL FIGURES. 7. A sphere is a solid bounded by a surface all points of which are equally distant from a point within called the center. 8. The circumference of a sphere is the curved line encompassing it 9. The diameter of a sphere is a straight line passing through the center, and terminating in the circumference. 10. The axis is that diameter of a sphere upon which it rotates. Rotation is the movement of a body upon its axis. Revolution is the movement of a body or point around another body or point. 11. The poles are the points on the surface of a sphere at the extrem- ities of its axis. 12. A plane is a surface upon any part of which a straight line may be drawn. 13. A circle is a plane bounded by a curved line all points of which are equally distant from a point within called the center. 14. The circumference of a circle is the curved line which bounds it. Though in geometry there is the distinction above noted between a circle and its circumference, in geography the term " circle " is generally used as synon)rmous with " circumference." 15. Circles of the sphere are divided into great circles and small circles. 16. A great circle is one that divides a sphere into two equal parts. 17. A small circle is one that divides a sphere into two unequal parts. 18. Degrees. — Every circle (circumference), whether great or small, is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, and marked thus, — 360°. The ^ part of a degree is called a minute, marked thus, — i'. The -^ part of a minute is called a second, marked thus, — i". SHAPE, SIZE, AND MOTIONS OF THE EARTH.— DIRECTION. I. SHAPE OF THE EARTH. 19. The shape of the earth is nearly that of a sphere ; in exact terms, an oblate spheroid. Spheroid means like a sphere ; oblate means flattened at two opposite sides ; and an oblate spheroid contrasts with a prolate spheroid, which is a sphere extended at any two opposite sides. An orange is an example of an oblate spheroid; and' a lemon, of a prolate spheroid. II. SIZE OF THE EARTH. 20. The circumference of the earth is nearly 25,000 miles ; its diameter nearly 8,000 miles. I. The earth, being flattened at the poles, has a longest and a shortest diameter, and consequently a greatest circumference. The exact figures are, — Longest diameter (equatorial) . 7,925.65 miles. 1 Shortest " (axial). . . 7,899.17 " [ Difference of 26.48 miles. Greatest circumference . . . 24,899 " I I. The surface of the earth contains nearly 200,000,000 square miles. III. MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 21. The earth has two motions, — the diurnal and the annual motion. 22. The diurnal motion of the earth is its daily rotation on its axis (Def. 10). The direction of the rotation is from west to east, causing the sun to appear to rise in the east, and set in the west 23. The principal effect of the diurnal motion of the earth is the alternation of day and night. 24. The annual motion of the earth is its revolution around the sun in a period of nearly 365^ days. The earth's orbit is its path around the sun, and the plane of its orbit is the level surface included within the orbit. The earth's axis inclines to the plane of its orbit 23J degrees. This inclination is the same in every part of the orbit, because the North Pole con- tinually points toward the North Star. 25. The principal effect of the annual motion of the earth, in connection with the inclination and unvarying direction of the earth's axis, is the change of seasons. IV. POLES AND DIRECTION. 26. The poles of the earth (Def. 11) are named the North Pole and the South Pole. The North Pole is the pole nearest the North Star ; the South Pole is the opposite extremity of the earth's axis. THE NORTH STAR. ^ The Nortn Star is a bright star in the constellation of the Lesser Bear (Ursa Minor). Two stars called the Pointers, in the constellation of Ursa Major, point very nearly to this star. GEOGRAPHICAL CIRCLES.— LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. — ZONES. 27. Direction on the surface of the earth is named with refer- ence to the points of the horizon, or circle where the earth and the sky seem to meet. North is that point of the horizon towards which one's shadow falls at noon. South is the opposite point. Facing the north, the right hand is towards the east, the left hand towards the west. I. The cardinal points are north, south, east, and west. The semi- cardinal points are those midway, namely, north-east, south-east, south-west, and north-west. II. The compass is an instrument by which the points of the horizon may be exactly ascertained. It consists of a card, representing the hori- zon, and marking the cardinal and semi-cardinal points. Over this, and swinging freely on a pivot, is a magnetic needle, which has the remarkable property of pointing nearly to the north. n. GEOGRAPHICAL CIRCLES. I. KINDS OF CIRCLES. 28. Geographical circles are lines imagined to be drawn on the surface of the earth. They consist of great circles (Def. 16) and small circles (Def. 17). 29. The great circles are the Equator and the meridian cir- cles. The small circles are' the parallels. II. EQUATOR AND MERIDIANS. 30. The Equator is the great circle midway between the poles. It divides the earth into a Northern and a Southern Hemi- sphere. 31. Meridian circles are great circles crossing the Equator at right angles, and intersecting EQUATOR. ^j. jj^g poles. Each meridian circle divides the earth into an Eastern and a Western Hemi- sphere. 32. A Meridian is half a meridian circle, and extends from pole to pole. III. PARALLELS. 33. Parallels are small circles parallel to the Equator. They comprise the tropics, the polar cir- cles, and the parallels of latitude. 34. The tropics are two parallels, each 23^° from the Equator. The tropic 23^° north of the Equator is called the south of the Equator is MER DIANS. 23^ Tropic of Cancer ; the tropic called the Tropic of Capricorn. 35. The polar circles are two parallels, of which the north- ern, 234° from the North Pole, is called the Arctic Circle ; and the southern, 23^° from the South Pole, the Antarctic Circle. III. ;■" ^, ; ;;:V'\;:-i\ LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.— ZONES. I. GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. 36. Geographical position is determined by means of paral- lels and meridians, and is stated in terms of latitude and longi- tude. II. LATITUDE. 37. Latitude is distance north or south from the Equator. It is represented on globes and maps by parallels of latitude, and is reckoned in degrees. 38. Latitude is reckoned thus : North latitude, from the Equator, where the latitude is zero, to the North Pole, which is in 90° north latitude ; south latitude, from the Equator to the South Pole, which is in 90° south latitude. The length of every degree of latitude is 69J statute miles. parallels of latitude. III. LONGITUDE. 39. Longitude is distance east or west from some chosen meridian, called the prime me- ridian. It is measured in de- grees on any parallel or on the Equator. Prime Meridians. — The meridi- " an of the British Royal Ob- servatory at Greenwich, near London, Eng., is the prime meridian generally used. The meridian of Washington also is used in our country. In this book the numbers at the top of the maps indicate lon- gitude counted from the Green- wich meridian ; and those at the bottom, longitude counted from the Washington meridian. 40. Longitude is reckoned from the prime meridian, where the longitude is zero, both eastward and westward half-way round the globe. Thus there are 180° of east longitude, and 180° of west longitude. I. The length of a degree of longitude at the Equator is 69J statute miles : but, as the meridians gradually approach one another till they meet at the poles, the length of a degree of longitude decreases proportionately, and at the poles the longitude is zero. II. If the figures or degrees marked on the Equator to measure longitude increase from left to right, the longitude is east ; if from right to left, it is west. IV. ZONES OF CLIMATE. 41. The zones of climate are broad belts of the earth's sur- face parallel to the Equator, and bounded by the tropics and the polar circles. 42. The zones are five, — one Torrid, two Temperate, and two Frigid Zones. 43. The Torrid Zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn, or 47° = about 3,250 miles. MERIDIANS OF LONGITUDE. 4 DEFINITIONS IN MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. THE ZONES. The Torrid Zone is marked by great and uniform heat, with two sea- sons, — the rainy and the dry season. The days and nights vary little in length. 44. The Temperate Zones lie between the tropics and the polar circles, — the North Temperate Zone, between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle ; and the South Temperate Zone, between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle. Each is 43° (= nearly 3,CXX) miles) wide. The Temperate Zones are marked by the four seasons, with hot sum- mers and cold winters. The days and nights vary in length more than in the Torrid Zone. 45. The Frigid Zones are distinguished as the North Frigid Zone, between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole ; and the South Frigid Zone, between the Antarctic Circle and the South Pole. Each extends 23^° from the pole as its center. The Frigid Zones are marked by a long and intensely cold winter, and a short, though comparatively warm, summer. The days lengthen towards the poles, where day and night are each six months in length. IV. MEANS OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY. I. GLOBES AND MAPS. 46. A terrestrial globe is a sphere representing the form of the earth, the geographical circles, and the outlines of the earth's surface. II. MAP OF THE WORLD. 48. A representation of the entire surface of the earth on a plane is generally made in one of two ways : — 49. First Method. — By the hemisphere map, in which the sphere of the earth is assumed to be divided into an East- ern and a Western Hemisphere. Each of these is represented by a circle, within which the geographical lines and the surface- outlines are drawn. I. The Eastern Hemisphere comprises that half of the earth's surface (180 degrees) extending from the 20th meridian west of Greenwich eastward to i6o° east longitude. The Western Hemisphere com- prises that half of the earth's surface (180 degrees) extending from the 20th meridian west of Greenwich westward to 160° east longi- tude. II. This meridian was originally chosen by geographers as the line of separation between the two hemispheres, because it was supposed to pass through Ferro (one of the Canary Islands), the most western land known to the ancients. The permanent convenience of the selection, however, is that it permits nearly the whole of e as coast-lands, and by height as surface-lands. I. Contour, or shape, is the form of a body of land as determined by its coast-line. Relief, or height, is the elevation of a body of land above the level of the sea. II. These terms give rise to the following classification : — (Peninsula. (Lowlands. |^'^^',°y Contour-forms. \ Cape. Relief-forms, .j ( pi t V Isthmus. ^^^^'^'''"'^•I Mountain II. CONTOUR-FORMS. 58. The divisions of land by shape, or contour, are penin- sulas, capes, and isthmuses. 59. A peninsula is a part of the land nearly surrounded by water. 60. A cape is a point of land extending into the water. A promontory is a mountainous cape. DIVISIONS OF LAND AND WATER. 6 1. An isthmus is a narrow portion of land connecting two larger bodies of land. III. RELIEF-FORMS. 62. The divisions of land by height, or relief, are lowlands, or plains and valleys ; and highlands, or plateaus and mountains. 63. A plain is a great tract of low, and generally level, land. 64. A valley is the low land between hills or mountains, or a marked depression below the general level of a plain. 65. A plateau (high plain), or table-land, is a great tract of lofty, and generally level, land. 66. A mountain is a great mass of land rising above the surrounding country. I. A hill is an elevation lower than a mountain. The name is generally applied to elevations less than 2,000 feet. II. The summit oi a mountain or hill is its highest point; the base is its foot. 67. A mountain range, or chain, is a connected series of mountains extending in the same general direction. 68. A mountain system consists of several ranges near together, and extending in the same general direction. II. DIVISIONS OF THE WATER, I. CLASSIFICATION. 69. The waters on the surface of the earth are divided into the oceans, inland waters, and coast waters. II. THE OCEANS. 70. The Ocean, or Great Sea, is the vast expanse of water surrounding the continents, and covering nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface. 71. An ocean is one of the grand divisions into which the Ocean is divided by the position and relations of the continents. 72. Great Oceans. — The Ocean forms three great basins, called the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. To these, for convenience of geographical description, are added the names Arctic Ocean, which is around the North Pole, and Antarctic Ocean, which is around the South Pole. The Arctic Ocean is the polar region of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, rather than a separate ocean ; the Antarctic Ocean is those parts of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, that are within the Antarctic Circle. III. INLAND WATERS. 73. Inland waters, or those on the surface of the land, are lakes and rivers. Most ir.hnd w.Tters arc drained — that is, flow — into the ocean or some of its divisions : hence they are sometimes called drainage waters. 74. A lake is an inland sheet of water. Some salt lakes are called seas. 75. A river is a large stream of fresh water. A tributary is a river flowing into another river. The confluence of two rivers is their point of meeting. An estuary is a broad mouth of a river. 8 DEFINITIONS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 76. A river system is a river with its tributaries. TJ. A river basin, or valley, is the entire region drained by a river system. 78. A watershed (literally water-parting) is the height of land that separates two river basins. This term is also applied to the slope down which a river or river system flows. IV. COAST WATERS. 79. The coast waters are seas, gulfs or bays, and straits. 80. A sea is a large division of the Ocean nearly inclosed by land. 81. A gulf or bay is a body of water extending into the land. A harbor is a small bay, in which ships may ride at anchor. 82. A strait is a narrow passage of water connecting two larger bodies of water. A channel is a wide strait. A sound is a shallow strait, or channel. 83. An ocean-current is a broad stream of water flowing through the Ocean. TOPICAL SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. The Earth's Surface con- sists of LAND and WATER Extent Contour . Relief The Ocean ■ Coast Waters , Inland Waters Continents Islands. Peninsulas. Capes. Isthmuses. Plains. Valleys. Plateaus. Mountains. ' Atlantic. Pacific. Indian. Arctic. Antarctic. Seas. Gulfs, or Bays. Straits. Lakes . . . Rivers . . . 5 North America. ( South America, f Europe. ■I Asia. [ Africa. Fresh. Salt. Main Streams. Tributaries. WESTERN HEMISPHERE. EASTERN HEMISPHERE. CLIMATE. — PLANTS AND ANIMALS. III. CLIMATE. 84. Climate is the condition of. the atmosphere in regard to heat and moisture in the different seasons. 85. General Law. — The heat is greatest near the Equator and diminishes gradually toward the Poles ; in other words, the dimate of a place depends in general on its latitude. But this general law is greatly modified by other conditions. 86. First Modification. — The altitude of a place affects its temperature. High mountains and plateaus, even in the Torrid Zone, have a cool or cold climate. The lower and denser strata of the atmosphere absorb the greatest amount of the sun's heat, and are therefore the warmest. For every one hundred yards of perpendicular ascent there is a decrease of one degree in the temperature : hence, even at the Equator, by ascending to the height of about 16,000 feet above the level of the sea, we reach the snow-line, where winter is perpetual. 87. Second Modification. — The prevailing winds at a given place modify the climate of the place. Currents of air flowing from the equatorial region are hot ; currents of air flowing from the polar regions are cold. Hence, if we suppose that, of two places in the Northern Hemisphere and in the same latitude, the one is exposed to northerly winds and the other to southerly winds, the former will be cooler than the latter. ' In like manner, ocean-currents modify the climate (heat and moisture) of places. The British Isles, which have a mild, humid climate, are in nearly the same latitude as Labrador. The cause of the mild weather of the British Isles is a warm wind borne there from an ocean-current called the Gulf Stream. 88. Third Modification. — The climate of a place is greatly modified by its nearness to or remoteness from the ocean. The heat absorbed into the land is not taken in to a great depth, and it is given off readily. The heat absorbed into the water is taken in to a great depth, and it is given off slowly. The ocean is thus a great storehouse of heat. In summer the air over the ocean is cooler than that over the land, because the ocean radiates its heat more slowly than the land. In winter the air over the ocean is warmer than that over the land, because the land has then lost its heat by rapid radiation, while the ocean has preserved its heat. 89. Fourth Modification. — The climate of a place is modi- fied by the length of the day. More heat is communicated in a long day than is carried off in the succeeding short night; so that heat continues to accumulate during the summer season. In the polar regions, not- withstanding the obli- quity of the sun's rays, the heat during the short summer is very considerable, for the reason that, the day being continuous for weeks or months, the heat accumulates. This accumulation accounts for the fact that the summer heat in New York, Chicago, and .St. Louis is often more intense than in New Orleans or Havana, - places near the Equator, but with shorter days. CLIMATE BELTS Note. — The zones on maps and globes indicate the climate of places only in a very general way. The actual belts of climate are more correctly shown in the preceding diagram. The lines crossing the map indicate that the places crossed by each line have the same average amount of heat in the course of a year. They are called isothermal lines, or isotherms (from two Greek words signifying equal heat). If the degree of heat at any given place depended simply on the latitude of the place, the Tropics and Polar Circles would correctly mark the boundaries of climate; but, since it de- pends on other conditions as well, the lines marking the actual belts of climate vary in direction. IV. PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 90. Vegetation signifies plant-life in its manifold forms. The term Jlora is often employed to designate the plant-life of a region ; thus we speak of the Jlora of the United States, of Aus- tralia, &c., meaning all the species of plants in these regions. 91. Conditions of Plant-Life. — Plants depend for their continuance on certain physical conditions. The conditions that regulate plant-life are heat (with light) and moisture. A little more heat or a little more cold, a little more moisture or a little more drought, and the plant flourishes or decays. 92. Distribution. — The yearly supply of heat and moisture is greatest in the equatorial region : hence vegetation is most luxuriant within the Tropics, and diminishes as we proceed toward either Pole. 93. Belts. — Different regions of the earth present different conditions of climate ; climate controls plants : hence different regions have each their own distinct vegetation. There are four well-marked belts of plant-life, — the Tropical, Warm- Temperate, Cold-Temperate, and Polar belts. 94. The Tropical belt corresponds nearly with the Torrid Zone as marked on maps and globes. It includes all countries where frost is never in the ground. Characteristic plants of this belt are palms, bananas, bread-fruit, pine- apples, rice, coffee, the sugar-cane, spices, opium (from the poppy), indigo, and caoutchouc. The equatorial parts of this belt are further marked by canes, bamboos, large and showy flowers, and gigantic parasitic plants. 95. The Polar belt includes all countries where frost is never out of the ground. Geographically it comprises the Frigid zones and parts of the North Temperate Zone. This belt is marked by the dwarf birch, alder, and willow. Its more temperate parts yield barley, turnips, and Iceland moss; but its higher latitudes produce no food-plants, nor indeed any kind of vegetation except mosses, lichens, &c. 96. Temperate Belts. — The region between these two ex- tremes is divided, in both the northern and the southern hemisphere, into two belts, — the Warm-Temperate, which adjoins the Tropical, and the Cold-Temperate, which adjoins the Polar belt. In a general way, it may be said that the highest latitudes in which Indian-corn can be grown mark the dividing-line between these two belts. The warm-temperate belt is the land of the vine and olive, the laurel and myrtle. It has numerous kinds of deciduous forest- trees (those which shed their leaves in autumn), as the oak, chestnut, ash, maple, Cottonwood, &c. As products of cultivation, tea, cotton, and tobacco may be noted. The chief food-plants are corn, wheat, rice, and potatoes. The line of the cultivation of wheat includes the warmer parts of the cold-temperate belt ; but its characteristic food-plants are barley, rye, oats, buckwheat, and potatoes. Flax and hemp are grown. Among representative forest-trees are the pine, maple, beech, birch, spruce, and larch. lO DEFINITIONS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ZONES OF PLANT LIFE. ZONES OF ANIMAL LIFE. 97. Effect of Altitude. : — Temperature decreases as we ascend from the level of the sea into the higher regions of the atmosphere : hence at the Equator the traveler who ascends a lofty mountain passes through belts of vegetation similar to those that mark the earth's surface from the Equator to the Poles. " Nature has permitted the native of the Torrid Zone to behold all the vegetable forms of the earth without quitting his own clime." — Humboldt. 98. Animal Life. — Animals, like plants, are influenced by physical conditions, and especially by climate and food. The animals of the Torrid Zone e.xcel those of the Temperate Zones in number, size, strength, and beauty ; while those of the Temperate Zones surpass the animals of the polar regions. There are three principal belts of animal life. I. The Tropical belt is the home of such animals as the lion, tiger, and panther; apes, monkeys, and gorillas: the giraffe and zebra; the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus ; the crocodile and boa ; the flamingo, peacock, parrot, and bird-of-paradise. II. The Temperate belts are the home of the following, among other animals : (i) Domestic Ani.mals, as the horse, camel, llama, ox, sheep, goat, hog, dog ; the hen, turkey, goose, &c. ; (2) Wild Ani- mals, as the bear, buffalo, deer, kangaroo, wolf, fox, beaver; the eagle, hawk, jay, &c. III. The Polar belt numbers among its leading animals the white polar- bear, the walrus, seal, reindeer, dog, arctic fox, sable, ermine, mar- ten, auk. Y. RACES OF MEN. 99. The population of the globe is about 1,435,000,000. 100. Races. — The inhabitants of the earth are divided into five great races, — the Caucasian, or white race; the Mongol, or yellow race ; the Ethiopian, or black race ; the Malay, or brown race ; and the American Indian, or red race. REFERENCE TABLE OF RACES. Race. Caucasian Mongol . . Ethiopian Malay. . . Indian. . . Physical Characteristics. Color: white to swarthy. Fea- tures: regular. Hair: waving or curling. Beard : heavy. Color: olive-yeUow. Features: face broad and flat, with hieh cheek-bones, and small, black, obUquely set eyes. Hair: coarse and stiff. Beard: scanty. Color : brown to black. Fea- tures: flat nose, retreating fore- head, prominent jaws. Hair: short and crisp. Beard: scanty. Color: brown. Features: much like Mongolians, but with hori- zontally set eyes. Beard: full. Color: red, or copper hue. Fea- tures: high cheek-bones, prom- inent nose, and black eyes. Hair : straight and black. Beard, scanty. Representative Types. Leading European peoples, descendants of Euro- pean colonists, Hin- doos, Arabs. Chinese. Japanese, Tar- tars, Turks, Esquimaux. Tribes of Central Africa, their descendants tn America. Inhabitants of Malacca, of East India Islands, and most of the Isles of the Pacific. Indian tribes in North and South America. Numbers. 600 millions. 550 millions. 180 millions. 60 milhons. to millions. f TROPICAL SCENE. POLAR SCENE. STATES OF SOCIETY. — GOVERNMENT. — ETYMOLOGY OF TERMS. II DEFINITIONS IN POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. I. STATES OF SOCIETY. loi. A state of society is the condition of a people in respect to civilization. The principal states are the savage, barbarous, semi-civilized, and civilized. 102. The savage state is that of people who live in tribes, and subsist on the products of nature. 103. The barbarous state is that of a people who possess flocks and herds, and rudely till the soil. 104. The semi-civilized state is that of a people who have a settled society, live in towns, possess a written language, and have made considerable progress in the mechanic arts. 105. The civilized, or enlightened, state is the condition of the most advanced nations, — of those that have made the greatest progress in the arts, sciences, morals, and culture. II. GOVERNMENT. 106. The principal forms of government are the republican and the monarchical. 107. A republic is a country governed by men chosen by the people to make and execute the laws. 108. A monarchy is a government in which the chief authority is in the hands of a sovereign, called king (queen) or emperor. A limited, or constitutional, monarchy is a government in which the power of the sovereign is limited by law, and the laws are made by representatives of the people. An absolute monarchy, autocracy, or despotism is a government in which the sovereign has unlimited power to make as well as to execute the laws. A kingdom is a monarchy governed by a king or queen. An empire is an extensive monarchy. 109. A state, in our country, is an independent member of the Federal Union. The people elect a state government and a legislature, to make state laws. 1 10. A territory, in our country, is a region not organized as a state, yet having a territorial government. II I. A county is a subdivision of a state, having its own local officers. The place where the county officers transact business is called the county-seat, or shire-town. 1X2. The metropolis of a state or country is its chief city. 113. The capital of a country is the seat of government. ETYMOLOGY OF TERMS USED IN GEOGRAPHY. altitude. Lat. altitudo, height, from altus, high. annual. Lat. aninialis, yearly, from annus, year. antarctic. Gr. anti, opposite, and arktos, bear. See arctic. archipelago. Gr. archi, chief, and pelagos, sea ; originally applied to the ^gean Sea, which is studded with numerous islands. arctic. Gr. arttiios, from arktos, bear, and a northern constellation so called. Atlantic. Lat. Atlantictis ; from " Atlas," a fabled Titan who was condemned to bear heaven on his head and hands. axis. Lat. axis, an axletree. barbarous. Gr. barbaros, foreign. bay. Fr. baie, from Lat. baia, an inlet. cancer. Lat. cancer, a crab (one of the signs of the zodiac). cape. Fr. cap, from Lat. caput, head. capital. Lat. capitalis, from caput, head. Capricorn. Lat. caper, goat, and cornu, horn (one of the signs of the zodiac). cardinal, adj. Lat. cardinalis, from cardo, cardinis, a hinge. channel. Lat. canalis, from canna, a reed, or pipe. circle. Lat. circus, from Gr. kirkos, a ring. circumference. Lat. circum, around, TiwAferre, to bear. city. Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas, a state or community. civilized. Lat. civilis, pertaining to an organized community. climate. Gr. klima, klimatos, slope, the supposed slope of the earth from the equator to the poles. coast. Old Fr. coste (New Fr. c6te), from Lat. casta, rib, side. confluence. Lat. con, together, and fluere, to flow. continent. Lat. con, together, and tenere, to hold. contour. Lat. con, together, and tornus, a lathe. county. Fr. comte, from Lat. comitatus, governed by a count. degree. Lat. de, And gradus, a step. diameter. Gr. dia, through, and metron, measure. diurnal. Lat. diurnalis, daily, from dies, day. equator. Lat. equus, equal. estuary. Lat. (estuare, to boil up, or be furious ; the reference being to the commo- tion made by the meeting of a river-current and the tide. frigid. \j3\.. frigidus, irom frigere, to be cold. geography. Gr. ge, the earth, and graphs, a description. globe. Lat. globus, a round body. gulf. Fr. golfe, from Gr. kolpos, bosom, bay. harbor. Anglo-Saxon, hereberga, from beorgan, to shelter. hemisphere. Gr. hemi, half, and sphaira, sphere. horizon. Gr. horizein, to bound. Indian (ocean). India. isthmus. Gr. isthmos, a neck. lake. Lat. lacus, a lake. latitude. Lat. latitudo, from latus, broad. longitude. Lat. longitudo, from longus, long. meridian. Lat. meridies,noon, from medius, middle, and dies, day. metropolis. Gr. meter, mother, and polis, city. monarchy. Gr. monarchis, from monos, alone, and archein, to rule. mountain. Fr. montagne, from Lat., mons, montis, a mountain. oblate. Lat. oblatus {ob and past part, oi ferre, to bring), brought forward. ocean. Gr. okea7ius, from okus, rapid, and naein, to flow. orbit. Lat. orbita, track, from orbis, circle. Pacific. Lat. pacificus, from pax, pads, peace, and facere, to make. parallel. Gr. para, beside, and allelon, of one another. peninsula. Lat. pane, almost, and insula, island. physical. Gr. physis (pkusis), nature. plain. Lat. planus, flat. «. plateau. Yx. plateau, table-land, iromplat, flat. plane. Lat. planus, flat. pole. Gr. polos, a pivot. political. Gr. polis, a city or state. promontory. Lat. pro, before, and mons, montis, a mountain. radius. Lat. radius, a spoke. relief. Fr. relever, from Lat. relevare, to raise. republic. Lat. res, an affair, 3.nd publico, public; that is, a commonwealth river. Fr. riviere, from Lat. ripa, a shore or bank. savage. Fr. sauiiage, from Lat. silva, a wood. sea. Anglo-Saxon, see, the sea. society. Lat. societas, from socius, a companion. strait. Old Fr. strait, narrow. temperate. Lat. temperatus, moderate, from temperare, to moderate. torrid. Lat. torridus, parched, from torrere, to parch. tributary. Lat. tributarius, contributing. tropic. Gr. tropikos, turning, from irepein, to turn. zone. Gr. zone, a belt, a girdle. 12 STUDIES ON THE HEMISPHERE MAP. < m m m » W Eh iz; o h-l Q E-« CQ 3 -= a (A w> c v8 e < j= a r; ^ I OS';: - u c o o •a E S CO Z & o S "rt *=* < c 3 O E rt ► a> fei. ^E < . 3 < c m ^ V. t w •= > t^ 1> 3 ■S. o < B "z. (/3 g^ 5 < O - £ < ^^ S-c o Q .S S a c ►4 ~ c Q " Z £ Q H4 (/: ►J q. ^£-^0 O hJ o M "^' ■ o o — 00 ^ § ? -S §■§- CO W 2 « > ji ^ 1^ > S.3 ^ o 8 o . pa ±: be B o4 P V, o -^ c sot: i_ « rt £■< ?< .y !>« .£ < = -H o ^ > ^^ yum C < -= pa c c -n rt C/^ (A 3 1 CJ j: br bn c ,n c 3- I .^ " I ^. ■" rv. ■« OJ ^ -O (/) ^ ^ .15^ o tr. i: iJ 3 u u ' ' •a rt rA TD rt C 3 CO < 52 "I rt O rt " 4; - ^ -= rrt fcil rv. tt, 0: E < n rt < H 1* t/3 < ^ X. U be c rt ^ .E (L» S ^j X 'r rt 1-1 CO < bJC "0 cJ5 H -a 4J rt ?. u > 1^ rt i-> W) ^ ^ c 'S c rt rt 1 c u pa •0 •— rt 5 rt ^ i^. s J o c "- c S o > .> -* -a •-i ra 3 CO Z o CO > Q Q Z < CO c O 4> •:- re "o o E ^ S < "S - O E ^ P- aj s < ^ -c .y :S ♦-• aj i_ I- bO.S - ^ rt Z w 2 tn o o e E c -a o tr. .t~t X rt ° -i 3 T-, W c; T3 t- 1 £/: j: rt u V, lU b < n S (A 3 CD B ~ — ■5 o E - c Z .2 < « ^ s rt rt o E M rt tJO * COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD. 13 COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD. I. THE HEpaiSPHERES. 1. What is the comparative area of the land and water surfaces of the earth ? About one-fourth of the earth's surface is land, the remaining three-fourths are water. / 2. What are the proportions of land and water in the hemispheres into which the earth may be divided ? The Eastern Hemisphere contains about two and a half times as much land as the Western ; and the Northern Hemisphere, about three times as much as the Southern. II. THE CONTINENTS. 3. How many continents are there? There are two continents, — the Eastern Continent in the Eastern Hemisphere, and the Western Continent in the West- ern Hemisphere. 4. What similarity is there between South America and Africa with respect to their relation to the main body of the continent? South America is nearly detached from North America, and is connected with it by the Isthmus of Panama ; Africa is nearly detached from the continental mass, and is connected with it by the Isthmus of Suez. 5. What difference is there between the Eastern and the Western Conti- nent with respect to their greatest length ? The greatest length of the Eastern Continent is from east to west, or in the direction of the parallels ; the greatest length of the Western Continent is from north to south, or in the direc- tion of the meridians. 6. What difference is there between the Eastern and the Western Conti- nent with respect to physical features ? The Eastern Continent is remarkable for mountains and plateaus ; the Western Continent, for rivers and plains. III. GRAND DIVISIONS OF LAND. 7. Name the five grand divisions of land. The five grand divisions of land are North and South America, in the Western Continent ; and Europe, Asia, and Africa, in the Eastern Continent. 8. Name the grand divisions in the order of size. The grand divisions in the order of size are Asia, Africa, North America, South America, and Europe. 9. What are the comparative sizes of the grand divisions ? South America would make two divisions as large as Europe ; North America, two and a half divisions ; Africa, a little more than three ; and Asia, four and a half. 10. Which grand divisions of land are wholly in the Northern Hemi- sphere ? North America, Europe, and Asia are wholly in the Northern Hemisphere. 11. Which grand divisions are partly in the Southern Hemisphere? South America and Africa are partly in the Southern Hemi- sphere. 12. What contrast do the northern and southern grand divisions present with respect to their coast-lines ? The coast-lines of the three northern grand divisions are broken by many seas, gulfs, and bays ; but the two southern grand divisions have few great inlets of the ocean. IV. GRAND DIVISIONS OF WATER. 13. How many oceans are there, and how are they classed? There are five oceans, classed as three primary oceans, — the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans ; and two secondary oceans, — the Arctic and Antarctic oceans. 14. How is the Pacific Ocean bounded ? The Pacific Ocean is bounded by America on the east, Asia and Australia on the west, and the Polar circles on the north and south. 15. How is the Atlantic Ocean bounded? The Atlantic Ocean is bounded by Europe and Africa on the east, America on the west, and the Polar circles on the north and south. 16. How is the Indian Ocean bounded? The Indian Ocean is bounded by Southern Asia on the north, Australia on the east, the Antarctic circle on the south, and Africa on the west. 17. Where is the Arctic Ocean? The Arctic Ocean extends around the North Pole, and is bounded by the northern shores of the Eastern and Western continents, and by the Arctic circle. 18. Where is the Antarctic Ocean? The Antarctic Ocean extends around the South Pole, and is bounded by the Antarctic circle. MERCATOR'S MAP. PHYSICAL NORTH AMERICA. 15 PHYSICAL NORTH AMERICA. PHYSICAL VIEW OF NORTH AMERICA. QUESTIONS ON THE PHYSICAL MAP. I. What geographical circles cross North America? In which zone is the greater part of this grand division? In which zone is the northern part' Th" southern part? What isthmus connects North America with South America ? Through how many degrees of latitude (ap- proximate estimate) does North America extend? Through how many degrees of longitude ? What is the time at Cape Cod when it is noon at Washington ? What is the time at San Francisco when it is noon at Washington? What is the length of the longest day on the latitude of Newfoundland and Vancouver Island ? On the Arctic Circle? Where is the day six months long? ^4 wj. At the North Pole. By what oceans is North America surrounded ? What is the general direction of the Atlantic coast? Of the Pacific coast? 1 1. Name the two seas near the coast. Name all the gulfs on the coast. The bays. The straits. Name all the bodies of water in their order from Baffin Bay to the Isthmus of Panama. From the Isth- mus of Panama to Behring Strait. From Behring Strait to Baffin Bay. Name all the peninsulas from Labrador to Yucatan. From Yucatan to Alaska. Name all the capes from Cape Farewell to Point Moriato. From Point Moriato to Cape Prince of Wales. Name all the islands and groups of islands near the coast of North America. 111. What two great highlands in North America? Which is' the more extensive ? What is its general direction ? What mountain-ranges are near the Pacific coast? What mountain-system occupies the central part of the Pacific Highland? What region east of the Rocky Mountains? What two plateaus and what basin in the Pacific High- land ? What is the eastern highland called ? What mountain-system does it contain ? In what direction does it extend ? What highland region in the extreme northern part of North America? IV. What plain between the great highlands ? What gulf south of it? What ocean north? What is the northern part of the Central Plain called? The southern part? What plain is east of the Appalachian Mountains? Name the principal rivers which drain the Arctic Plain. What lakes discharge their waters through these rivers? Name the principal rivers which drain the Pacific Highland. What great river drains the southern part of the Central Plain ? Name its four principal tributaries. Name the " Great Lakes " ? What river drains them ? V. What parallel and what circle are crossed by the line show- ing the northern limit of the growth of trees? On which coast does it extend the farther north? Where is the line marking tlie northern limit of the growth of wheat? Point out two extensive forest regions. In what parts of North America is gold found ? Silver? Copper? Lead? Iron? Coal? VI. What ocean-currents flow along the western coast of North America? What is the principal current of the Atlantic Ocean named? What current off the north-eastern coast ? DESCRIPTION. [Area, 9,348,000 square miles. Population, 71,900,000.] I. SITUATION, EXTENT, AND OUTLINE. I. Situation and Extent. — North America is the northern grand division of the Western Continent. It extends from the Arctic Ocean almost to the Equator (nearly 5,000 miles), and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. It is more than twice as large as Europe, but less than half as large as Asia. 2. Outline. — This grand division is broadest in the northern part ; but it becomes narrower toward the south, and terminates in the Isthmus of Panama. Its outline is irregular, the coast being indented by numerous seas, gulfs, and bays. II. SURFACE. 3. Natural Divisions. — The surface of North America is naturally divided into four parts : the Pacific Highland, the Atlantic Highland, the Atlantic Plain, and the Central Plain. 4. The Pacific Highland occupies almost all the western half of North America, and extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Isthmus of Panama. It is divided by the Rocky Mountains into two nearly equal parts. I. The Rocky Mountains form the backbone of North America. The massive chains of this system rise from a plateau which gradually ascends from the Arctic Ocean, where it is quite low, to about 8,000 feet in Mexico. I6 PHYSICAL NORTH AMERICA. II. The Sierra Nevada, Cascade, and Coast Mountains form the western border of the Pacific Highland. The loftiest pealc in North America is St. Elias (19,283 feet high), in the northern Coast Mountains. 5. The Atlantic Highland extends from the northern coast of Labrador nearly to the Gulf of Mexico. Its mountains are the ranges of the Appalachian system. The Atlantic Highland consists of the plateau of Labrador with Laurentide Mountains, on the north of the St. Lawrence, and the Appalachian mountain-system, on the south. The Ap- palachian Mountains, consisting of low parallel ranges, are only about one-fourth the length of the Rocky Mountains, and in )' structure are far less massive than that system. The highest peaks reach an elevation of less than 8,000 feet. 6. The Atlantic Plain is the slope and tide-water region be- tween the Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean. 7. The Central Plain is between the two highland regions, and extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. I. The Central Plain is formed by the long gentle slope descending eastward from the Rocky Mountains, and the western slope of the . «'/' Atlantic Highland. i -^n^ 9. Hot lowlands climate. Zone. — The West Indies, Central America, and the of Mexico have a tropical, or constantly warm, 10. The temperate region includes ^^ the United States, the basin of the St Lawrence and Great Lakes, and the plateau of Mexico. ■^^ Owing to latitude and local causes, there are, how- ever, important differ- ences of climate in this extensive region. .1 • Xi ?«? 4.*^ I m ■>^ II. The Central Plain consists of two opposite slopes divided from each other by a slight elevation near the center, called the Height of Land. The northern slope is called the Arctic Plain ; the southern slope is the Mississippi Valley. III. CLIMATE. 8. Cold Zone. — The northern third of North America has a very cold climate ; and even that part of the Arctic Plain which lies in the North Temperate Zone has a semi- arctic climate. The Central Plain is exposed to the cold winds from the Arctic Ocean, while most of it is cut off by the coast mountain-ranges from the equalizing influences of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans : but the western coast from Alaska to the Columbia ~\ River, being open to the effect of the warm ocean-currents and counter trade-winds of the Pacific, has a much milder climate than the rest of NoUh America in the same latitude. ^ -.1 ^^^^. \N. _ U'. n m -r^jf'^- ::>:^^ PLANTS OF NORTH AMERICA .^.-, i^nvSf •• '_i - ^* ir*^" ■■% fflp^ i^"^^i^^ IV. VEGETATION AND ANIMALS. II. Vegetation. — North America is especially distinguished, in the tem- perate region for the great variety of its forest trees, and in the warm region for the number of its large flowering trees, such as the tulip-tree, the mag- nolias, the catalpas, and the locusts. The plateaus of the warm region are rich in plants of the cactus family, the yucca, and the agave or American aloe. The low coast plains of Mexico 'PLANTS, ANIMALS, MINERALS, AND RACES OF NORTH AMERICA. i7 ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA, and Central America and the West Indies have the luxuriant vegetation of the tropics, — palms, bananas, sugar-cane, etc. Most of the cereals, as wheat, oats, barley, and rye, are not indigenous to the New World, but were introduced from Europe. The most characteristic native cereal of North America is maize, or Indian corn, which is extensively cultivated from Central America and the West Indies to high latitudes in this grand division. 12. Animals. — The following animals are peculiar to North America : the puma, or panther, the most powerful animal of the cat tribe belonging to this continent, and which replaces the lion and tiger of Asia ; the grizzly bear, the largest and most ferocious of its kind, found in the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains ; the musk-ox, of the Arctic regions; the bison, roaming over "The Plains" in immense herds ; the raccoon, turkey, passage-pigeon, and rattlesnake. Among other wild animals are the polar bear, the wolf, the fox, the otter, the deer, the eflt, and the beaver. These North America has in common with the Eastern Continent. V. MINERALS. 13. North America in the eastern half is exceedingly rich in the useful minerals, coal, iron, copper, and lead. The coal-fields of North America are more extensive than those of all other countries taken together. In the western half the precious metals abound, — gold, especially in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, silver in the plateau region of the United States and Mexico, and both gold and silver in the Rocky Mountains. VI. INHABITANTS. 14. The number of inhabitants of North America is about 72,000,000, or one-fifth of the population of Europe. Four of the five races of men are represented : the ' Indians, the aborigines, who formerly occupied the whole of the continent, but who are now confined to the western and northern parts ; the Esquimaux, a Mongol race dwelling in the northern parts, together with the Chinese of the Pacific coast and the West Indies ; the whites, or Caucasians, descendants of colonists from the various countries of Europe ; and the negroes, of the Ethiopian race, the descendants of slaves introduced into Spanish North America and the United States. The Caucasians are the most numerous, numbering more than 56,000,000. The negroes number about 10,000,000; the Indians about 5,000,000. VII. NATURAL ADVANTAGES. 15. Among the natural advantages of North America are : (i) it lies mainly in the Temperate Zone ; (2) it has not, like other grand divisions, impassable mountain barriers or deserts ; (3) it possesses a vast area of fertile soil, and is rich in the most valuable metals and minerals ; (4) it has numerous navigable rivers and lakes, and fine harbors, which afford excellent facilities for commerce. , -r-r-rr— NORTH G I D ZONE •^ /^ff^ Cape Columbj^ -t-Odjfitude from , G'"' ^i'" -yO .* ^ JJO -U£_ 100 90 > !•>/* "sa..^'i^r;.'iv j?.i^ C** fc)K-"//'V<^ E SJ '^. , f'i'rland \ ""Zv, £'A*?TOit r.G'^ IT -R S O >>'\ >j tr. r4 Que': ^ .*"^' jtslfl" V so ^«o 7^. f=£«-^. G U Ca, P«Sa„L, ""OEOo -^ CSabliV^b', A ""ft. . t« ^Corr;, Guadd F?-*ilx£^#k-vVv4Ver« Cruz ^ /J «. >'/ "#, i,v «■•■>< :N^0RTH AMERICA POLITICAL MAP ^ p , flonduraa I 3? J IC ^ ^^ ; 33 ■ Gcaciis a DiO-5 SCALE OF MILES. -^^- >" ^ |D / ) o <• - _L i^u-i I 1-^ ■V>-~.. OOVOJW IfODgitude \V:; !n[i_'t<>n. 3 West. 'EtiBt. tocdl Time A. M. 10 wJien l^oon on the Meridian ^ of Washington. POLITICAL NORTH AMERICA. 19 NORTH AMERICA. WHALING IN BAFFIN'S BAY. QUESTIONS ON THE POLITICAL MAP. General. — What two countries occupy the greater part of North Amer- ica.' What political division is north-east of the Dominion of Canada? North-west.' What country is south-west of the United States? South- east of Mexico? What division is south-east of the United States ? Danish America. — What two islands constitute Danish America? What is the capital of Iceland ? What is the most northern town in N. A. ? Dominion of Canada. — Bound the Dominion of Canada. What is the capital? Name two cities on the St. Lawrence River. What island east of the Gulf of St. Lawrence? Does it belong to the Dominion of Canada? Ans. No; it is a separate British province. What is its capital? United States. — Bound the United States. What is the capital ? Name four Atlantic seaports. What city near the mouth of the Mississippi ? On the Pacific coast? On Lake .Michigan? Near the mouth of the Missouri? Mexico. — Bound .Mexico. What is its capital? Its chief seaports? Central America and West Indies. — Bound Central America. What city in the north-west ? Name the four largest islands of the West Indies. Name a city in each. II. /stands. — /« w/ia/ direction is it from the nearest land? By what waters surrounded? Greenland? Iceland? Newfoundland? Cape Breton? Bermuda Isles? West Indies? Cuba? Hayti ? Jamaica? Porto Rico? Bahama Isles? Vancouver? Queen Charlotte ? Sitka? Peninsulas. — From what part of North America does it project? Into what -water, or between what waters ? Labrador ? Nova Scotia ? Florida ? Yucatan ? Lower California ? Capes. — Where is it ? Into what water does it project ? Point Barrow? Cape Farewell? Race? Sable (n.)? Sable (s.)? Hat- teras? Cape San Lucas? Mendocino? Flattery? Prince of Wales? Mountains. — In what part of North America is it? In what direction does it extend? Rocky? Sierra Nevada? Cascade? Coast? Sierra Madre ? Appa- lachian ? Sea, Gulfs, and Bays. — Where is it ? Of what body of water is it an arm ? Baffin? Hudson? James? St. Lawrence? Delaware? Chesapeake? Mexico? Caribbean? California? Behring? Straits. — Between what lands ? What waters does it connect ? Davis? Hudson? Belle Isle? Florida? Behring? Lakes. — Where is it ? What is its outlet ? Great Bear? Great Slave? Athabasca? Winnipeg? Superior? Michi- gan? Huron? Erie? Ontario? Great Salt? Nicaragua? Rivers. — Where does it rise? In what direction, and into what, does it flow? St. Lawrence? Hudson? Mississippi? Missouri? Oliio? Rio Grande? Colorado(i)? Colorado(2)? Columbia? Yukon? Mackenzie? Saskatche- wan ? Arkansas ? DESCRIPTION. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. North America comprises six political divisions : Danish America, the Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland, the United States, Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. DANISH AMERICA. 1. Danish America includes Greenland and Iceland. They belong to the kingdom of Denmark. 2. Greenland. — The population (about 10,000) consists of Esquimaux and a few Danes and Norwegians who have small trading and shipping settlements at New Herrnhut, Uper- navik, and other points. The chief exports are eider-down, whale and seal oil, and furs. Greenland is a very large island, or perhaps a cluster of islands, joined by ice. The interior has never been explored. The mountain valleys are filled with glaciers, which, moving slowly to the sea, become undermined on reaching the ocean, and immense frag- ments are broken off, forming the floating mountains of ice called icebergs. 3. Iceland. — The inhabitants of Iceland are mostly of Nor- wegian descent. 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O 4-^00 C 0) S o rt O .£ " ^2: U tn £ pa 4-t o n" c o JH o in V- 1-4 > "a -a ■1^ W ^ eu £ 3 -S • - rt < < Z < o z o o o 3 «'' 5 S o .3 ^ I = 3 en > J b/5 bi.'g 02-^ ^ -a i2 ii § to ., •■= ~ £ S c ~ C en > 'bio o ii Q. rt .9 rt c " o "-■ C en O o be bo c O £ 3 " ~ 3 OJ cA C C n: ^- ^ OJ f= 2 o E ■a > c o rt bo _> 'in c X MUu/ \ ^ II AP-'^/-^ Longitude "West from 'Washington Ix)ngitude West <0 from ' Greenwi<;h 1 1 I ■T 1 I ^^yvtTe,, iki^'' CENTRAL AMERICiA AND THE SCALE OF MILES J- 100 200 300 400 »€•• /5 ■i*WvV^ - C.deC __ iluefiolds 5 i; J- fv .,.;- rt- -LESS ioW£p i?< the 12ii Meridian qf 12* ira*?ii «(/((«» 12,** -P. Jtf". I ' ' MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND WEST INDIES. n QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Mexico. — Bound Mexico. In what two zones is it? What bay east? What gulf in the north-west? What peninsula? What peninsula in the south-east? What mountain-chain traverses the country? Has Mexico any long rivers ? What large river forms a partial boundary between Mex- ico and the United States? What river flows into the Gulf of California? What city is the capital? Name the seaports of the Gulf Coast. Of the Pacific Coast. Name three cities nearly in 2i° north latitude. Central America. — In what direction does Central America extend? With what country is it connected on the north-west? On the south-east? Name the divisions in their order from north to south. Which are on the Pacific Coast? On the Caribbean Sea? On both? In which republic is Lake Nicaragua? Where is the city of Guatemala? Of San Salvador? Of Managua ? Where is Comayagua ? Where is Balize ? San Jose ? West Indies. — What three large West India Islands are in a line nearly east and west ? What sea south of those islands ? What island south of Cuba? Where is Kingston? In what direction are the Bahamas from Hayti ? Where is Matanzas ? Name the strait separating Florida from the West Indies. What island is so situated as to command the entrance of the Gulf of Mexico? Which of the groups of the West India Islands extends north of the Tropic of Cancer? In which group of islands is St. Thomas ? In which group is Barbadoes ? MEXICO. 1. Area. —The area of Mexico (751,000 square miles) is nearly double that of all the Atlantic States. 2. Surface. — The Pacific Highland of North America reaches its greatest elevation in Mexico. Two mountain-ranges, situated near the opposite coasts, extend from north-west to south-east, and are the margins of a great mountain-plateau (from 4,000 to 8,000 feet in altitude), which forms the greater part of the country. Between the mountains and the coast on each side is a belt of low- land, varying from a few miles to one hundred miles in width. The coast-belt is called the iierra caliente, or hot country ; the table-land is called the tierra templada, or temperate country. 3. Climate. — ^^ Climate in Mexico depends very much upon the degree of elevation of the surface. The coast plains are hot, moist, and unhealthful ; the table-land is a region of per- petual spring ; the high mountains have a cold climate. 4. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants consist of Mexican Indi- ans, who form the majority; of Creoles, who are descendants of the early Spanish settlers ; and of mixed races. At the time of the discovery of America Mexico was inhabited by a superior race of Indians called Aztecs. They had fixed homes, good laws, large cities, and well-drilled armies. They were conquered by Cortez, who, with a small army of Spaniards, aided by a large army of Indians hostile to the Aztecs, captured the city of Mexico, the Aztec capital. Mexico became a republic, independent of Spain, in 1821. It at one time included California and Texas, now a part of our own country. Texas became independent of Mexico in 1836, and Mexico lost California in 1848. The population of Mexico is now about 10,000,000. 5. Commerce. — The foreign commerce is mostly with the United States and Great Britain. The principal exports are silver, lead, vanilla, sarsaparilla, coffee, cochineal, and mahogany. 6. Government. — Mexico is a federal republic, consisting of twenty-seven states, one territory, and one federal district. 7. Cities. — The City of Mexico, the capital and metropolis, is a picturesque city, situated in a valley overlooked by lofty snow-covered mountains. Guadalaxara, Guanaxuato, and Pueblo are important cities of the table-land. Vera Cruz and Acapulco are the chief seaports. CENTRAL AMERICA. REPUBLICS. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. REPUBLICS. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. Guatemala . . . San Salvador. . Honduras . . . 46,800 7,300 46,500 1,252,000 554,000 350,000 Nicaragua . . . Costa Rica. . . Balize (Colony) . 51,600 19,980 7,562 300,000 185,000 24,700 1. Situation and States. — Central America occupies a long isthmus between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and as a ter- ritorial division includes five independent republics : namely, Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, together with Balize, a British dependency. 2. Description. — The surface, climate, productions, and pop- ulation of Central America are similar to those of Mexico. 3. Commerce. — The small foreign commerce consists prin- cipally in the exportation of coffee, cochineal, mahogany, rose- wood, and dye-woods. 4. Cities. — The capitals of the republics, in the order given above, are, Guatemala, San Salvador, Tegucigalpa, Managua, and San Jose. Balize. — Balize, or British Honduras, is attached to the government of Jamaica. The town of Balize is the principal place. WEST INDIES. DIVISIONS. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. DIVISIONS. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. Spanish Colonies, British Colonies . French Colonies . Dutch Colonies . 49,500 13,300 1,100 430 2,180,000 1,245,000 358,000 43,000 Danish Colonies . REPUBLICS. Hayti San Domingo . . .40 9,250 20,600 34,000 550,000 300,000 1. Situation. — The West Indies form an archipelago which extends from Florida to South America. The West Indies include not less than a thousand islands, varying greatly in size. The land surface of the archipelago is about twice that of New York State. 2. Divisions. — These islands are divided into the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, and the Bahamas. 3. Climate. — The climate of the West Indies is tropical ; but the influence of the surrounding seas and of the trade- winds moderates the intense heat of the Torrid Zone. The only change of seasons is that from dry to rainy weather. 4. Productions. — The chief articles of commercial produce are sugar, rum, and molasses, from the sugar-cane ; tobacco which makes the finest of cigars ; cotton, coffee, and cacao ; indigo and dye-stuffs ; ginger and allspice ; together with oranges, bananas, pine-apples, and many other delicious fruits. 5. Population. — The population of the West Indies num- bers about four millions, three-fourths being negroes. The early Spanish conquerors enslaved the native Indians, and worked them so hard that they eventually died out. Then the Spaniards brought great numbers of African slaves to these islands, and the blacks of the West Indies are their descendants. 6. Government. — Most of the islands of the West Indies are in the possession of European nations, principally Spain (which owns Cuba and Porto Rico), Great Britain (which owns Jamaica, the Bahamas, and most of the Lesser Antilles), and France. Hayti consists of two independent negro republics, — Hayti and San Domingo. 7. Cities. — The principal cities are Havana, the greatest sugar-market in the world, Matanzas, and Santiago (all three in Cuba), Kingston, the largest city in Jamaica, and San Juan in Porto Rico. H fcli't S, f .^^-\. ^^ ^ ^t= PHYSICAL UNITED STATES. 25 0) W h < h P W h I— I Z o I— ( (f) >^ X 0. r: Oh J= ■" o t: s •5 ^ .3 O en S o ■i: ^ w" u ^ .22 a rt a! rt ra cS Ol rt o •as — rt <: a. ° - ^. rt c ^ c .- u oj m c ■- J= rt ■" c ^ .„ -a — rt T3 ° .2 ~ o to rt ID u o be t; S •£ "^ 5 .S « ^^ o V ^ 7' 1/1 *^ ^ = ti i: S c ti -5 rt U .C S ^ C S o 9 ^ ^ a^ •sill -2 > ■V ^ > c •> .s .bfi o, 5 HH *^ "^ « bjo II 0) -^:S fcjO oj ■" o c c biD rt J3 - rt T3 rt ,^ rt.. *-• a c o JX, ^ •a rt - ° « rt i3 2 ^ "" « >^i2 .i3 *^ Q. bjoK CO V : a <1 o W H W H 1? O 03 o I— I Eh OS H 1^ tn CA 4i (L> hf) c -ti 3 i3 -Q CA 1; rt ft- 3 u- a. 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"H " 1* *J rt ? bO g 13 ^ i: ° r^ ■5 'J >- >ii tC •* ~ c 6 I tn x: Si H ■5 -rt 1- 3 O o" 3 * S rt :£ 1! >, ^ ._- - o T3 3 g .i: ° " 9 rt S "^ c -2; rt- -bo S D S X 2i H 26 PHYSICAL UNITED STATES. G U JL r o F M E X I C ■1 PHYSICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 9. Rivers. — The Atlantic Plain is drained by numerous navigable rivers, which flow at right angles with the Appa- lachian system into the Atlantic Ocean. The larger rivers of the Atlantic Plain are navigable to the head of tide-water, the limits of which are marked by falls or rapids, as those of the Schuylkill at Philadelphia, of the Potomac at Georgetown, and of the James at Richmond. These fails and rapids furnish water-power. 10. Climate. — The Atlantic Highland and Plain, though wholly in the Temperate Zone, have a variety of climates. The North Atlantic section is naturally colder than the South Atlantic section. The winters on the Atlantic seaboard are, owing to local causes, much colder than those of the Pacific coast ; and the Atlantic Highland and Plain differ from the Pacific Highland in having abundant rains, and being well watered throughout. The rains of this section are supplied by the moist winds from the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Great Lakes. 1 1. Natural Advantages. — The principal natural advantages of the Atlantic Highland and Plain are their rich deposits of coal and iron, their extensive forests, generally fertile soil, abundant water-power, and situation on the Atlantic seaboard. III. THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 12. Extent. — The Mississippi Valley extends between the Atlantic Highland and the Pacific Highland, and occupies nearly one-half the area of the United States. Much of this region is undulating, parts are hilly, and there are a few detached mountain districts ; but on the whole the surface is that of a plain, with slopes toward the center from each of the two highland regions, and a general slope from the Height of Land southward to the Gulf of Mexico. 13. Drainage. — The Mississippi and its many tributaries, forming, next to the Amazon system, the most extensive river system in the world, furnish the principal drainage of the Mississippi Valley. 14. Climate. — The southern part has a semi-tropical climate, with mild winters ; the northern has hot and sultry summers, and cold winters, with heavy snows. The whole section has abundant rains from the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. 1$. Natural Advantages. — The principal natural advantages of the Mississippi Valley are its rich mines of coal, iron, cop- per, and lead, its vast forests, its great extent of fertile soil, and its numerous navigable rivers and lakes. POLITICAL UNITED STATES. 27 POLITICAL UNITED STATES. INTERIOR OF THE SENATE CHAMBER IN THE CAPITOL AT WASHINCTON. DESCRIPTION, 1. Rank. — The United States is the leading republic in the world, and ranks as one of the five most populous, powerful, wealthy, and progressive nations. In extent of territory the United States ranks fourth among the great powers, being surpassed only by the Chinese, British, and Russian Empires. 2. The population by the census of 1880 was over fifty millions (50,155,783.) 3. General Government. — The general or federal govern- ment of the United States is republican in form (representative democracy). It has three departments, — the legislative, ex- ecutive, and judicial. I. The legislati}/e department, or Congress, is composed of two bodies or houses, — the Senate and the House of Representatives. II. The executive function is vested in a President, who is chosen for a term of four years. III. The Judicial function is vested in a Supreme Court, consisting of a Chief Justice and eight Associate Judges, who hold a session once a year in Washington City. 4. National Capital. — Washington, the capital of the United States, is in the District of Columbia. 5. Political Divisions. — The United States consists of thirty-eight States, nine Territories, the District of Columbia, and Alaska. For convenience of study, these are in this book divided into the following sections : — New-England States. Middle States. Southern States: Eastern Division. Southern States: Western Division. Central States: Eastei^ Division. Central States: Western Division. Pacific Highland Sutes: Mountain and Plateau Divisions. Pacific Highland States: Coast Division. I. Maine. I. New York. I. Virginia. I. Louisiana. I. Ohio. I. Minnesota. I. Montana Ter. I. California. 2. New Hampshire. 2. New Jersey. 2. West Virginia. 2. Arkansas. 2. Indiana. 2. Iowa. 2. Wyoming Tcr. 2. Oregon. 3. Vermont. 3. Pennsylvania. 3. North Carolina. 3. Texas. 3. Illinois. 3. Missouri. 3. Colorado. 3. Washington Ter. 4. Massachusetts. 4. Maryland. 4. South Carolina. 4. Indian Terri- 4. Wisconsin. 4. Kansas. 4. Nnv Mexico Ter. [Alaska.^ 5. Rhode Island. [Dislricl of Co- 5. Georgia. 5. Michigan. 5. Nebraska. 5. Idaho Territory. 6. Connecticut. lumbia. \ 6. Florida. 6. Dakota Terri- 6. Nevada. 5. Delaware. 7. Kentucky. 8. Tennessee. 9. Alabama. 10. Mississippi. tory. 7. Utah Territory. 8. Arizona Ter. i^ ^s 4 30 Xocal 6 rtm* when LJf. 110 Space 100 Xo n gi '"^.r ^'f 'Minni "Wakan J »;> A R K 1 i^n'^'>«*' v^Xoj. H%UbI^ ^ ^ ft.Dodgo J(rt.B ^^"escoV^ v^ u- (li ^A^ ^i v/■^^7^A/f^R^ fefei STAKED I Cetf, I 'OS /, 'i3 Corpus Christ Sp ace Longitude 23 ^^ 10 Xoca7 Tim^ w'hen A. 3f °t«. Xo on on fh e 11 ICe r i dt an of Wa MTiin g to n 30 EASTERN STATES, OR NEW ENGLAND. EASTERN STATES, OR NEW^ ENGLAND. VIEW OF BOSTON. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. I. QUESTIONS BY STATES. The Section. — How many and what states in this section ? Bound New England. Which is the largest of the New-England States? The small- est? Which three are nearly equal in size? Which has no sea-coast? Which is the most northern? The most southern? What mountain s)-s- tem covers a large part of New England? Ans. — The Appalachian sys- tem. Which state has no mountains? To what two systems do the rivers of New England belong? A»s. — To the Atlantic and the St. Lawrence systems. Name the principal rivers of the Atlantic system. In what gen- eral direction do they flow ? Which are the largest rivers ? Name the principal rivers of the St. Lawrence system. (It includes those flowing into Lake Champlain.) Which state has the greatest number of lakes ? Maine. — What are the principal bays? What are the largest islands off the coast? What three large rivers flow through Maine? What river forms part of the northern boundary ? Of the eastern boundary ? Nam.e the largest lakes of Maine, and the rivers that drain them. What moun- tain near the eastern boundary? What mountain east of Chesuncook Lake? Name any other mountains in Maine. What city on the Penob- scot? On the Kennebec ? On Casco Bay? Which is the capital? New Hampshire. — How many miles of sea-coast has New Hampshire? [Measure by scale.] What mountains are in the northern part? What river forms the western boundary? What river forms a partial boundary in the south-east? What river flows through the central part? What lake in the central part? Name three cities of New Hampshire on the Merrimac. Which is the capital? What is the seaport? Vermont. — Along what parallel is the northern boundary of Vermont? What long lake forms part of the western boundary? What river forms the eastern boundary? Name the principal streams of this state belonging to the St. Lawrence system. What mountain range in this state? What city on Lake Champlain ? What is the capital ? Massachusetts. —What two bays east? What sound south ? What bay south ? Name two capes. What two large islands off the southern coast ? What group of islands south of Buzzards Bay ? What sound between the Elizabeth Islands and Martha's Vineyard ' What large river flows through the state? What river in the north-eastern part? In the western part? What mountain range in the western part? What mountains near the Con- necticut River? What mountain in the northern part ? What is the capital ? What places on the Merrimac ? On the Connecticut ? What city is in the central part of the state? What cities on Massachusetts Bay are north of Boston ? What historic place on Cape Cod Bay ? Rhode Island. — What large bay in this state? What island is in it? What island off the southern coast belongs to this state? What cape {point) in the southern part? Name the two capitals of the state. Connecticut. — What body of water south of Connecticut? What large island south of Connecticut? To what state does it belong? Ans. To New York. What is the principal river of this state? What river in the eastern part? In the western? What part of the state is mountainous? What is the capital ? What two cities are on the Thames? What two on or near Long Island Sound? II. REVIEW QUESTIONS. States. — //ou> bounded? What is the capital f Maine ? New Hampshire ? Vermont ? Massachusetts ? Rhode Island ? Connecticut ? Bays. — Where is it? Passamaquoddy ? Buzzards? Massachusetts? Penobscot? Casco? Long Island Sound ? Capes. — From what coast does it project? Ann ? Cod ? Mountains. — Where are they f Green? White? Mount Washington ? Hoosac? Rivers. — Where does it rise f In what direction, through what states, and into what body of water, does it flow f Penobscot ? Kennebec ? Saco ? Androscoggin ? Merrimac ? Connecti- cut? Blackstone? Housatonic ? Lakes. — Where situated? By what drained? Moosehead? Winnepisaukee ? Champlain? Cities. — In what part of what state is it ? How situated? Augusta? Portland? Bangor? Concord? Manchester? Portsmouth? Montpelier? Burlington? Brattleborough ? Boston? Worcester? Lowell? Cambridge? Fall River? Springfield? Providence? Newport? New Haven? Hartford? Bridgeport? Norwich? TuejMcalTiTiuA.M.tcTienJ^oonj^u) on the Jferidtan 7'i» qf Greenwich Longitude 13 West from 79 Greenwich 71 3 St. JoTins ** ParnhoSi .S»i"on - ' M-MemphreA magog | ■^J^^iir^h\ Jslaixd P6n^ ^.V ^oletra^^-jj. :i:::;<^^:^.l^1S laister s^ r , H >er4 u^'- —/ /fallsl Johnpbury Gorliam •^Littleton js. ■»• jranconla WHITE TVeareA *'"" •£«S„ ^ ' imouuL- (M«nchesteis V •'?* =* Solon ^ J ^ ; Sarftileback Mt. Ig/ ^i^^v jkCorinna Cbnway bhway ft I frycburg BranswIcTc /Bucksport/^ Ellaworth i^ 'i^^.--.., ''*«> PoHftnd > '''/< a:,,A„, ,,npaoo/" C. Elizabeth I '\BlddefOpQ Kenjreljurik C.Porpoiso Ud FlMhl)Ursra> 'la, 'rilEietdf tr* t ISLES or 5H0«L« sJNewturyport pucester K 'l;^)o _^/ cSalem orcesteri ft<3!>v. y ^^r ^'VJl'" pay ■ ka llntora Aljington .JtarsMIeia (;■>" — -1— ._J«^.a£test one ^ Brockton _ ^wJonsockeTv •" Orleans 'Chatham JyONOMOT I. ^-.^^o.^^y^- J s,^nf^^^,,^s^ ^ I _.ra:r ri'^^ ^^ f ^ f "^f Glen Cove 1 k^ flB^ BLOCK l.«^ ,J «- *■ Montauk Pt NEYAKD NO »I*NS NANTUCKEf AND THE STATES SCALt 4S M1LES-=I INCH 40 &a 60 70 Longitude West from Washington 12 15 lA>cal Time P, M. whoi 12^*» ^Noon on ih& Meridian i2'« Of M'a&kin^ton :^e^: ^ 32 EASTERN STATES, OR NEW ENGLAND. IL GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 1. Situation and Area. — The New England States are situ- ated between the Atlantic Ocean and the state of New York. Their area is about one-fourth of that of Texas, and about one and a half times that of New York. 2. Surface. — New England occupies the northern section of the Appalachian system ; and as the foot-hills extend nearly to the coast, the surface is generally broken or mountainous. I. The longest and best defined range extends on the western side of the Connecticut River: it includes the Green Mountains of Vermont, and the Hoosac Mountains of Massachusetts. II. On the eastern side of the Connecticut River is an irregular chain of mountain-groups extend- ing from Massachusetts into Maine, and of which the loftiest are the White Mountains. Mt. Wash- ington, the highest peak of the White Mountains, is 6,288 feet above the level of the sea. and developed by an extensive railroad system. The chief exports are manufactured articles, dairy products, lumber, granite, and ice. The chief imports are breadstuffs and provisions, coal, and raw materials, especially iron, cotton, and wool. III. THE STATES. REFERENCE TABLE. STATES. Area in Sq. Miles in 1880. Population in 1880. STATES. Area in Sq. Miles in 1880. Population in 1880. Maine .... New Hampshire . Vermont . . . 33.040 9,305 9.565 648,936 346,991 332,286 Massachusetts . . Rhode Island . . Connecticut . . 8,31s 1,250 4,99° 1,783,085 276,531 622,700 3. Coast.— southward to setts Bay, The coast, Massachu- is bold and rocky ; the rest is low and sandy. It has numerous excellent harbors. The Atlantic Plain, in New England, is only from 40 to 60 miles wide. 4. Drainage. — Most of the numerous rivers belong to the Atlantic system. They are navigable only in the coast plain, but the many rapids and falls afford abundant water-power. 5. Climate. — The sum- mers are hot, but short ; the winters, long and se- vere. 6. Productions and Pursuits. — The leading pursuits are manufactures and commerce ; but other industries, especially agriculture, the fisheries, and lumbering, are extensively carried on in different sections. Agriculture. — Not enough grain is grown to supply the wants of the people ; but great attention is given to the cultivation of vegetables and fruits, and to dairying, wool-growing, and stock-raising. Manufactures. — The principal manufactures are cotton and woolen goods, boots and shoes, machinery, and cutlery. Manufacturing is greatly facilitated by abundant water-power and cheap access to the coal-fields of Pennsylvania. Fishing. — The catching of cod and mackerel, off the coast and on the Banks of Newfoundland, and their preparation for market, are important industries in most of the maritime towns. Lumbering. — In the three northern states are extensive forests of pine and hemlock, and the preparation of lumber is a leading pursuit. Commerce. — New England has an immense foreign and domestic com- merce, favored by its many fine harbors and its facilities for ship-building, COTTON SPINNING IN NEW ENGLAND. 1. Maine is noted for its extensive lumber manufac- ture, its ship-building, in which it ranks as the first state in the Union, and its fishing industry, in which it ranks next to Massachu- setts. 2. Chief Cities. — Port- land is the largest city and chief seaport, and is the main winter outlet for the St. Lawrence Valley. Ban- gor is one of the greatest lumber-marts in the world. Augusta is the capital. 3. New Hampshire, sometimes called the Switz- erland of America, on ac- count of the grandeur of its White Mountain scen- ery, is a manufacturing and farming state. 4. Chief Cities. — Man- chester, the metropolis, and Nashua, are great manu- facturing places. Ports- mouth is the only seaport. Concord is the capital. 5. Vermont is principally devoted to stock-raising and dairying. 6. Chief Cities. — Burlington, on Lake Champlain, is the largest city. Montpelier is the capital. 7. Massachusetts ranks as the leading state in manufac- turing and the fisheries, and as next to New York in commerce. It is noted for its many large cities. 8. Chief Cities. — Boston, the capital, is next to New York in foreign commerce, and is the business and literary metropolis of New England. Lowell, Lawrence, and F'all River are noted for their cotton manufactures. Lynn is famous for the manu- facture of ladies' shoes; Worcester is a great manufacturing city; and Springfield gontains the principal arsenal of the United States. Cambridge is the seat of Harvard College. 9. Rhode Island, the smallest but one of the most thickly- SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON NEW ENGLAND. 3.^ MAKING MAPLt-SUGAR. settled and prosperous states, is remarkable for its manufactures of cot- ton and woolen goods, hardware, jewelry, and plated ware. lO. Chief Cities. — Providence, the metropolis, is the second city in New England. Newport is a famous watering-place. These cities are both capitals. 11. Connecticut is noted for the extent and variety of its manufactures. It is also a fine agricultural state, and has an extensive coasting-trade. 12. Chief Cities. — New Haven, the seat of Yale College, is the largest city. Hartford, a manufacturing center at the head of ship-navigation on the Connecticut River, is the capital. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. History — The name "New England" was given in 1 614, by Capt. John Smith, who examined the shore from Penobscot to Cape Cod, and drew the earliest map of the region. The first settlement in New England was made by the Pilgrim Fathers at Plymouth, Mass., in 1620. The first settlers in Maine were fishermen, who built huts along the coast soon after the landing of the Pilgrims. Maine continued a part of Massachusetts till 1820. The first settlements in New Hampshire were made in 1623, near Portsmouth and at Dover. Vermont was a part of New York and New Hampshire till 1 791, when it came into the Union as a separate state. The first settle- ment in Rhode Island was made in 1636, at Providence, by Roger Wil- liams and some friends. The first settlement in Connecticut was made in 1635, at Windsor. Names — The name "Maine" coff.es from the word main; this part of New England having early been called the "mayne land," in distinction from the islands. " New Hampshire " was so called by the first English proprietor, Capt. John Mason, who had previously been governor of Ports- mouth in Hampshire, England. "Vermont" is derived from the French 7w, green, and «/(?«/, mountain. "Massachusetts" is the native Indian name. "Rhode Island" is from the Dutch name of the island, — Roodt Eylandt, red island. " Connecticut " is the Indian name of the river, meaning long river. Scenery. — The White Mountains of New Hampshire present the grand- est scenery east of the Sierra Nevada, and are the resort of thousands of tourists every summer. From the top of Mount Washington, up whose steep sides a railroad of novel construction carries the traveler, a glimpse of the Atlantic, beyond Portland, is obtained. New England abounds in lakes, many of which are exceedingly beautiful. Moosehead in Maine is the largest, and Winnipesaukee in New Hampshire one of the most lovely. Other noted points are Mount Holyoke, Mass., from the summit of which a superb view of the picturesque Connecticut valley is obtained, the wave- worn promontory of Nahant, and Newport, the most fashionable watering- place on tlie Atlantic coast. Specialties of Manufacture. — There is scarcely any article, from an anchor or a steam-engine to a pin, that is not made by the ingenious and industrious New-Englanders. The boots and shoes, the cutlery and fire- arms, of New England, are distributed to almost every part of the world. The sewing-machine, one of the greatest of labor-saving contrivances. was invented by Elias Howe of Massachusetts, in 1846. It has cheapened the manufacture of all kinds of clothing: boots and- shoes are now sewed by it. The construction of these machines is an important branch of New England manufacture. The process of vulcanizing India-rubber was discovered about the same time by Charles Goodyear of Massachusetts. Since this discovery. India- rubber has been turned to account in the fabrication of an endless number of useful articles. Rubl)er goods are extensively manufactured in Massa- chusetts and Connecticut. Among the thousand articles of New England workmanship may be men- tioned paper, pianos, and pins (most of the pins used :n the United States are manufactured at Waterbury and Birmingham, Conn.); combs, carriages, and clocks ; buttons, buckles, and buckets ; watches, wire, and wooden-ware; rifles, revolvers, and ribbons ; screws, soap, and silver-ware ; German-silver ware and Britannia-ware; locks and jewelry; hooks and eyes; together with innumerable other small articles known under the name of " Yankee notions-" The great national armory of the United States is situated at Springfield, Mass. It is capable of turning out fifteen thousand rifles a month. All the parts of the Springfield rifle are made by machinery, and each rifle requires five hundred distinct operations before it is completed. Peculiar Productions. — Nature has been niggardly in her gifts to New England, and it has been said that Massachusetts exports none of her natural productions except her rocks and her ice. Yet the " rocks " are valuable ; for the granite of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, the lime and slate of Maine, the marbles of Vermont, and the brownstone of Con- necticut, are important exports. In the winter, ice is cut and stored in immense quantities, especially in Maine and Massachusetts, and is shipped to the East Indies, the West Indies, and other iceless climes. The vast forests of pine and hemlock in northern New England are another natural source of wealth. The lumbermen go into the woods in the fall, and remain all winter, felling the trees, and cutting them into logs. These they draw over the snow-covered ground to some stream ; and when it thaws in spring, the loirs float down to the saw-mills. Vermont has a peculiar gift of nature in the sugar-maple, a deciduous tree which yields a sap that is boiled into sugar. Several thousand tons of maple-sugar are made in that state every year. 34 THE MIDDLE STATES. MIDDLE STATES. VIEW OF NEW YORK CITY. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. I. QUESTIONS BY STATES. The Section — How many states in this section ? Which two are the largest? Which two are nearly equal in size? Which is the smallest? What mountain-system extends through a large part of this section? Ans. The "Appalachian system. To what systems do the rivers of this section belong? Arts. To the Atlantic, St. Lawrence, and Mississippi systems. In what longitude, reckoned from Greenwich, is Washington ? What state capital is in nearly the same longitude ? New York. — What bodies of water form a boundary of this state on the north-west ? What large island in the south-eastern part of the state ? What bay at the mouth of the Hudson River? What mountains in the north? In the east? What mountain-range enters New York from New Jersey? Name the principal rivers flowing from this state into Lake Ontario. Into Pennsylvania. What is the principal tributary of the Hudson? What river connects Lake Erie with Lake Ontario? What falls in this river? What canal traverses the state ? What large city on Lake Ontario ? On Lake Erie ? What cities on the Erie Canal ? What two large places in the south-central part of the state ? What is the capital ? Name large cities near Albany. What cities on the Hudson south of Albany? What great city at the mouth of the Hudson? What large city on Long Island? New Jersey. — What bodies of water form the western boundary ? What cape in the northern part? In the southern part? What mountain-range traverses the north-western part ? On what river is the capital ? What four important cities in the north-eastern part ? Pennsylvania. — With what parallel does most of the northern boundary nearly coincide ? What river forms the eastern boundary- ? Name the princi- pal mountains. What two large rivers in this state unite to form the Ohio River? In what lake does the Alleghany rise? What large river flows into Chesapeake Bay ? What city on Lake Erie ? What two at the head of the Ohio? What important cities are nearly on the meridian of Washing. ton? Name the two largest cities in the north-east. On the SchuylkiU. What is the capital? Delaware. — What three bodies of water form the eastern boundary? ■What cape opposite Cape May? What large city in the north? Name the capital. I Maryland. — What body of water divides the state into two parts? What river separates it from Virginia? What part is mountainous? Name the , principal ranges. What two cities on Chesapeake Bay ? Which is the capi- jtal? What city in the north-west? District of Columbia.— On what river is it? What state forms three of its boundaries? What large city in the district? What is Washington? II. REVIEW QUESTIONS. States. — //ow bounded? What is the capital? New York ? New Jersey ? Pennsylvania ? Delaware ? Maryland ? Bays and Sounds. — Where is it? Chesapeake? Delaware? New York? Long-Island Sound ? Capes. — From what coast does it project? Sandy Hook ? May ? Henlopen ? Mountains. — Where are thev ? Adirondack? Catskill ? Chestnut Ridge ? Laurel Ridge? Alleghany? Tuscarora ? Blue ? Shawangunk ? Rivers. — Where does it rise ? In what direction, through what state ^pr states, and into what body of water, does if flow ? Mohawk? Hudson? Delaware? Susquehanna? Alleghany? Monon- gahela ? Potomac ? Cities. — In what part of what state is it? How situated? Washington? Albany? Trenton? Harrisburg? Dover? Annapolis? New York? Philadelphia? Brooklyn? Baltimore? Newark? Jersey City? Rochester? Allegheny? Troy? Syracuse? Scranton? Read- ing? Paterson? Wilmington? s'u Local TimeA.M.6-*> icfien Aoon o/i 6^* the Meruium 7 of Green wich ,y Jf 78 Lontjitiuk- nwtcli la •OALI OF MILES ^V J o V Fresco' Coudersport ^ ^mporium Tioga< Wells>>oro \t €. / LockJt«i!fei iHamiiton 'f Aotsego vl J-' / \Cooperstown#^>^'gbioi,^ic (Ofcrtlami' J K I «. . ■ t? I vS&'iUaeel I? -k. J> ^ ' 'if ' At* ' 'A jNorwich* i> /J . KL" -Sft^ ^jt^ j»iamca ^ f ^^xford Havana Elmira Owego %jB»look y"8« udtoi I TiTOir^fTH rj'town Saratoga V o-ngj,! „ ^„ ,-- Springs ,1 solera . jterfordV ! ^ lectady* '"^Lanslnfefclirg F jl)eposit->{, Great Bend SuBqueha!hDa Montrose /, LbU ssbuf e 1 )«Hujicy O! Alle9««^ittsburgh'^i:j,:*"""^""" ^ *"*""' Tymne ^ ''x.^ I^wistoivn^/— iMirriinti 'itt^^n UtTesbafre -w^ ^ j -^^ ^ JVfS"^ .o r v-f Doylestown iiceton ^ Freehold ' "^Jlong Branch \ti I .•*- -)* v* ^; ,^r.»TRENTON N.J. I Longitude West East from Wa^liington 11^.4. if. L^::al Tinie wTien yoon ul MlisTiington Ne*"' \'^ ^ rx^ ifTic NEW YORK ^H.1. .«-Mn.. 36 THE MIDDLE STATES. II. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 1. Names and Area. — The Middle States are New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. In this section also is the District of Columbia. The area of the Middle States is about twice that of New England. 2. Surface. — The greater part of this section is in the At- lantic Highland, but the western part is in the Central Plain ; and hence it includes three natural divisions : the Atlantic Plain, rising westward through foot-hills into the ridges of the Appalachian system, west of which is a low plateau de- scending to Lakes Ontario and Erie and the Ohio River. The mountains are chains and ridges of the Appalachian system, the principal being the Adirondack and Catskill Moun- tains in New York, and the Blue, Tuscarora, and Alleghany Mountains in Pennsylvania. I. The Appalachian system is in- tersected by a low depression formed by the valley of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers : this separates the Adirondack Mountains from the rest of the system, and forms a natu- ral highway of communication between the Atlantic seaboard and the Mississippi Valley. The Erie Canal, which follows the valley of the Mohawk, con- nects the waters of Lake Erie at Buffalo with the Hudson at Albany. II. Mount Marcy (5,402 feet in height), in the Adirondack Mountains, is the loftiest summit of the Appalachian system in the Middle States. The wilderness of the Adiron- dacks is still the haunt of bears, deer, and other wild animals. 3. The Atlantic Plain is very narrow in New York, but it increases in width to over 100 miles in southern Penn- sylvania. 4. Rivers. — The rivers of the Middle States belong to the Atlantic system, except those of the western slope, which belong to the Mississippi and St. Lawrence systems. 5. The Climate presents marked contrasts, the winters being long and severe in northern New York, and comparatively short and mild in southern Maryland. 6. Productions and Pursuits. — The leading occupations are manufacturing and commerce ; but agriculture, grazing, and mining are all great and important industries. Manufactures. — Manufacturing in the Middle States is facilitated by abundant water-power and by the coal of Pennsylvania and Maryland. The principal manufactures are cotton and woolen goods, iron and steel, boots and shoes, flour and meal, and spirituous and malt liquors. Commerce. — This section has a vast foreign and domestic commerce, which is favored by its central position, its fine harbors, and its extensive system of lake, river, canal, and railroad communication. Agriculture. — The climate and soil are favorable to agricultiire, and all the grains except rice are largely raised. The crop of hay and potatoes is immense; the raising of fruit and vegetables for the markets of the great seaboard cities, and stock-raising and dairying, are extensively carried on. Minerals. — New York yields salt; New Jersey, iron and zinc; Pennsyl- vania, coal and iron ; and Maryland, coal. The petroleum of Pennsylvania is a product of great value, and is largely exported. III. THE STATES. REFERENCE TABLE. STATES. Area in Sq. Miles 1880. Population in 1880. STATES. Area in Sq Miles. 1880 Population in 1880. New York. . . New Jersey . . Pennsylvania . . 49.170 7.815 45.215 5,082,871 1,131,116 4.282,891 Delaware . . . Maryland . . . [Dist. of Columbia.'] 2P50 12,210 70 146,608 934.943 177,624 1. New York is the fore- most of the states in popula- tion, wealth, and commerce, and hence is often called the " Empire State." New York has more than one- tenth of the population, and one-seventh of the wealth, of the United States. 2. Chief Cities. — New York City, the largest city in the United States, and, next to London and Paris, the largest in the world, is the commer- cial and financial metropolis of the Western Continent. Brooklyn, in population the third city of the United States, is closely connected with New York by numerous steam-fer- ries. New York City, Brooklyn, and Jersey City (N.J.), though separate cities, yet form one compact business center, with a population of over 2,000,000. Among the other important cities of New York the four largest are Buffalo, on Lake Erie, noted for its manufactures, and its lake and canal trade ; Rochester, on the upper falls of Genesee River, noted for its water-power and its large manu- facturing and milling interests ; Troy, on the left bank of the Hudson, noted for its iron and steel-works ; and Syracuse, for its varied manufactures and its immense salt-works. Albany, on the Hudson, is the capital. 3. New Jersey is principally engaged in raising vegetables and fruit for the markets of New York City on the north, and Philadelphia on the south. In the northern part of the state are many large manufacturing cities, and the mining of iron and zinc are important industries. 4. Chief Cities. — Newark, the largest city, is noted for its manufacture of India-rubber and leather goods. Jersey City, on the west shore of New York Bay, is an important PENNSYLVANIA, DELAWARE, AND MARYLAND. 37 ^g^MV^ manufacturing- and shipping place. Trenton, the capital, is noted for its iron-works, rolling-mills, and porcelain-kilns. 5. Pennsylvania is the greatest mining state in the Union, and rivals N«w York in agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce. In coal, the most useful minieral, and iron, the most useful metal, Pennsylvania is one of the richest regions in the world. The annual value of the products of the mines is about $100,000,000, or fully one-half the total value of all our mining i^rcJucts, including gold and silver. 6. Chief Cities. — Philadelphia is the second city of the United States in population and the first in manufactures. Pittsburg, in the bituminous coal region, is noted for its iron-works, rolling-mills, and founderies. Allegheny City, the third in size, is near Pittsburg, and carries on the same industries. Scranton and Wilkesbarre in the northern anthracite coal field, and Pottsville in the southern, are cen- ters of the coal trade. Harrisburg is the capital. 7. Delaware is principally engaged in fruit-growing and market- gardening; but it has also considerable manufactures. 8. Cfiief Cities. — Wilmington, the only large city in the state, builds iron steamships, and manufactures railroad-cars, carriages, paper, and gunpowder. Dover is the capital. 9. Maryland is a fine agricultural state, and exports wheat, flour, and tobacco ; in the mountainous western region are rich mines of coal and iron. 10. Chief Cities. — Baltimore, the eastern terminus of the Balti- more and Ohio Railroad, which connects it with the cities of the Missis- sippi Valley, is the largest city, and ranks as the third seaport of the United States. Annapolis, the capital, is the seat of the United States Naval Academy. II. The District of Columbia is an irregular area of 70 square miles on the Maryland side of the Potomac. Washington, the capital of the United States. Shav FISHING^ It contains SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. History. — The name " Middle States " was originally given to those states situated between New England and the- Southern States, at the time our country was confined to the narrow strip of the Atlantic seaboard. The settlement of this section was very different from the settlement of New England. The New England colonies were all settled by men of the same nationality (English), and of the same sect (the Puritan); but the Mid- dle Colonies were established by people of very diverse origin and creed, — by English Episcopalians, English Quakers, and English Catholics, by Swedes, by Germans, and by Hollanders. The territory which is now the state of New York was discovered in 1609, by Henry Hudson (an Englishman in the emplo3mient of the Dutch East India Company) on the Hudson River side, and by Champlain (the French governor of Canada) on the Lake Champlain side. The first settlement was made by some Dutch (Hollandish) traders, on Manhat- tan (or New York) Island, which they bought from the Indians for sixty guilders ($2$). The first settlement in New Jersey was made in 1620, at Bergen. The first English settlement in Pennsylvania was made in 16S1, by a party of Quakers sent out by William Penn. The first settlement of Delaware was made in 1638, by a company of Swedes and Finns con- ducted by Peter Minuit, who had been Dutch governor of New Netherlands (New York). The first settlement of Maryland was made in 1634, by a colony of English Catholics, then persecuted in England. Names. — The name New York was given to New Netherlands after it was taken from the Dutch by the English in 1664. It was so named in honor of the Duke of York and Albany (afterwards the English King James II.), to whom his brother King Charles II. granted the territory. The name New Jersey was given by Sir George Carteret, to whom (with Lord Berkeley) the province was ceded by Charles II., and who had been governor of the little island of Jersey, England. The name Pennsylvania signifies Pentfs Woodland (Latin sylva, a wood), in honor of William Penn, to whom the province was granted by the English government in payment of a debt due his father. Admiral Penn. Delaware takes its name from Lord De la Ware, governor of Virginia, who in 1610 entered the bay bearing his name. The name Maryland commemorates the fact that in the charter of King Charles I., assigning the territory to Lord Baltimore, the region was called 7>rri7 Maria (Mary's Land), in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I. As New York is called the " Empire State," so Pennsylvania is called the " Keystone State," and New Jersey, the " GarSen State." 38 SOUTHERN STATES : EASTERN DIVISION. 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The summers are long and hot, and in the far South there is scarcely any winter. Abundant rain, from the moist winds of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, falls in this section. 7. Vegetation. — The magnolias, the palmetto, and the cypress, with pendent moss, characterize the coast belt ; farther inland is the zone of the pine ; this is succeeded by forests of oak and the deciduous trees. In the southern part of the coast region are forests of live-oak, the most valuable timber for ship-building. 8. Rivers. — The rivers of this section belong to three sys- tems, — the Atlantic system, the Missis- sippi system, and the Gulf system. 9. Natural Advan- tages. — The soil is admirably adapted for the growth of cotton and the cereals, and, it\ the southern part, of semi-tropical fruits. The forests supply ship- timber and naval stores. Coal and iron, salt, marble, and gypsum, are among the mineral riches of this section. 10. Agriculture. — The fertile soil, abun- dant moisture, and warm temperature, of this section, give rise to its great industry, — agriculture. The chief products are cotton, tobacco, corn, rice, and sweet-potatoes. Cotton : Mississippi, Georgia, and Alabama. Tobacco : Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Corn : Kentucky, Ten- nessee, North Carolina, and Georgia. Rice : South Carolina, Georgia, and North Carolina. Sweet-potatoes : North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. 11. Other industries pursued in the Southern States are manufacturing, mining, lumbering, and commerce. Manufactures. — The principal manufacturing establishments are iron- works, rolling-mills, cotton and woolen mills, hemp-factories, lumber-mills, and tobacco-factories. Mining — Coal and iron abound in Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, and Alabama, and the mining interest is developing rapidly. Lumbering is largely carried on in the pine-forests of the coast region. From the long-leaved pitch-pine (a different tree from the northern pine) are obtained naval stores ; that is, pitch, tar, and turpentine. Commerce. — The chief exports are cotton, tobacco, rice, lumber, and naval stores, shipped from Norfolk, Charleston, Savannah, and Mobile, which are the principal seaports. in. THE STATES. STATES. Area in £q. Miles in 1880. Population in 1880. STATES. Area in Sq. Miles in 1880. Population in 1880. Virginia . . . West Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia .... 42450 24,780 52,250 30,57° 59.475 1,512,565 618,457 '.399.75° 995.577 1,542,180 Florida .... Kentucky . . . Tennessee . . . Alabama . . . Mississippi . . . 58,680 40,400 42,050 52,250 46,810 269,493 1,648,690 1.542,359 1,262,505 1 1.131,597 PICKING COTTON. 1. Virginia is principally engaged in agriculture, the leading staples being tobacco, wheat, and corn. Secondary interests are mining, market-gardening, and oystering. 2. Chief Cities. — Richmond, at the head of tide-water on the James River, is the capital and largest city, and is noted for its tobacco-facto- ries, flour-mills, and iron-works. Norfolk is the principal seaport of Virginia. Peters- burg, at the head of tide-water on the Ap- pomattox, has a large trade in grain and to- bacco. 3. West Virginia is rich in coal, iron, salt, and petroleum ; and the development of these resources, to- gether with agricul- ture, constitutes her principal industries. 4. Chief Cities. — Wheeling, on the Ohio River, is the capital and largest city, and contains numerous iron-works and manu- factories. Parkersburg is next in importance. 5. North Carolina is chiefly engaged in raising tobacco, cot- ton, corn, and sweet-potatoes. Lumbering is important, and in this and the production of pitch, tar, turpentine, and rosin, she is the leading state. 6. Chief Cities. — Wilmington is the largest city and chief seaport. Raleigh is the capital. 7. South Carolina is noted for the production of cotton of the finest quality, and of rice, in the growing of which she is the leading state. 8. Chief Cities. — Charleston, the largest city, is a leading cotton port. Columbia is the capital. 9. Georgia ranks as the first of the Southern States in manu- factures, and the second in the production of cotton, rice, and sweet-potatoes. 10. Chief Cities. — Savannah is an important city and the principal seaport. Atlanta, the capital and largest city, is a railroad, manufacturing, and business center. Augusta, Macon, and Columbus are cotton-manufacturing cities. SOUTHERN STATES: EASTERN DIVISION. 41 11. Florida is noted for its production of oranges, lemons, figs, and other semi-tropical fruits. 12. Chief Cities. — Key West and Jacksonville are the largest cities. Pensacola is an important seaport. Tallahassee is the capital. 13. Kentucky ranks as the first of the Southern States in population and in the production of tobacco and hemp. 14. Chief Cities. — Louisville, on the Ohio River, is the largest city and the commercial center of the state ; Covington and Newport, connected by bridges with Cincinnati, are manu- facturing points. Frankfort is the capital. 15. Tennessee is divided into East Tennessee, Middle Ten- nessee, and West Tennessee. The leading occupations are mining and grazing in the eastern, the raising of cotton, corn, and wheat in the middle, and cotton and tobacco growing in the western section. 16. Chief Cities. — Memphis, on the Mississippi, is the principal cotton and grain mart between St. Louis and New Orleans. Nashville, the capital and largest city, is the business center of Middle Tennessee. Knoxville and Chattanooga are the chief cities of East Tennessee. 17. Alabama is principally engaged in raising cotton and corn ; but manufacturing and the working of her coal and iron mines are growing industries. 18. Chief Cities. — Mobile, the largest city, is a leading cotton port. Montgomery the capital, Selma, and Tuscaloosa, are important depots of the cotton business. 19. Mississippi is distinguished as the leading state in the culture of cotton. Over half a million bales of this staple are produced in the state every year. 20. Chief Cities. — Vicksburg on the Mississippi River, and Natchez, a river town one hundred miles farther south, are the most important places. Jackson is the capital. Mississippi has no large seaport. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. History. — Virginia was the name given by tlie Englisli to nearly the whole Atlantic coast, after the explorations and attempted settlements made under the patronage of Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584-87. The first settlement within the limits of the state was made by an English colony at James- town, in 1607. West Virginia formed a part of the State of Virginia till 1862, when it was organized as a separate state. The first settlements in North Carolina were made between 1640 and 1650, by emigrants from Virginia. The first set- tlement in South Carolina was made by English settlers in 1670, at Old Charleston. The Carolinas, North and South, formed one province till 1729. The first settlement in Georgia was made in 1733, at Savannah, by an English colony led by Gen. James Oglethorpe. The first European settlement in Flori- da was made on the River St. John's in 1564, by a colony of French Huguenots; but the Spaniards, claiming the whole country, massacred the settlers, and in 1565 founded St. Augustine, the oldest town within the limits of the United States. In 1819 Florida was purchased from Spain by the United States for five million dollars. Kentucky is the oldest of the states west of the Appalachian Mountains. The way for the settlement of both Kentucky and Tennessee was prepared by the explorations of the bold North Carolina hunter, Daniel Boone. In 1775 lasting settlement in Kentucky was made by Boone and some friends. Kentucky came into the Union as a state in 1792. The first settlement in Tennessee (originally a part of North Carolina) was ma4f in 1778 by a party of refugees from British tyranny in Carolina. Tennessee entered the Union in 1796. The territory now occupied by Alabama and Mississippi belonged to the state of Georgia, and by that state was in 1800 ceded to the United States. The region was then organized as the "Territory of Mississippi." In 1817 the state of Mississippi was carved out of this territory, and in 1819 the state of Alabama. Names. — Virginia (a name which, as before said, was at first given to the whole Atlantic coast claimed by the English) was so called in honor of Queen Elizabeth, " the Virgin Queen." West Virginia was so called when formed into a state in 1862. The Carolinas were so named in honor of the English king Charles II. (Latin Carolus). The name Georgia was given in honor of the English king George II., who granted the territory to Oglethorpe and other " trustees." Florida was so named by the Spanish explorer, Ponce de Leon, because the region was discovered on Easter Sunday, called in Spanish pas- cua florida. Kentucky is a native Indian name signifying " the dark and bloody ground," because in aboriginal times it was the battlefield of the northern and southern Indians. Tennessee is named after the river of the same name, signify- ing " the river of the big bend." 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North-western Texas is a table-land, rising to a height of 4,000 feet, and forming the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, some outlying ridges of which extend into this state. 3. Drainage. — The Mississippi and its tributaries form the principal drainage of the eastern portion. Most of the rivers of Texas rise in the western plateau, and flow south-east into the Gulf of Mexico. The southern part of Louisiana is almost on the river-level, and is liable to inundation in the spring, when the Mississippi is swollen. To confine it within its banks, levees, which are broad walls of earth, have been constructed. 4. Climate. — The climate of this section is warm, and along the gulf-coast semi-tropical. The eastern part has abundant rains ; the western part is nearly rainless. 5. Occupations. — The principal occupation is agriculture, the chief staples being corn, cotton, sugar and tobacco. The broad prairies of Texas are the grazing-grounds of millions of cattle. III. THE STATES. REFERENCE TABLE. STATES. Louisiana Arkansas Area in Sq. Miles in 1880. 48,720 Population in 1880. 939.946 802,525 Texas . . . . Indian Territory Area in Sq. Miles in 1880. 265,780 64,690 Popjiation in 1380. i.59>.749 76,895 I. Louisiana is an important state on account of its valua- ble staple products, and its commanding commercial position. The principal occupations are agriculture and commerce. 1. The staple products are the sugar-cane, cotton, and rice. The state produces nine-tenths of all the sugar raised in the United States, and great crops of cotton and rice. II. The commercial facilities of the state arise from its situation at the lower part of the Mississippi Valley, and on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. This gives it the control both of the foreign and the domestic trade of this rich section. 2. Chief Cities. — New Orleans is the largest city in the Gulf States, and the greatest cotton-market in the world. Baton Rouge, the capital, and Shreveport, are next in size. 3. Arkansas. — The staple products of this state are cotton and corn. Stock-raising is extensive, and the mineral wealth is great. 4. Cities. — Little Rock is the capital and largest city. Other important places are Fort Smith, Pine Bluff, and Hot Springs. LAKE PONTCHARTRAIN, CATTLE RANCHING IN TEXAS. 5. Texas. — Texas, the largest state in the Union, is engaged in stock-raising and agriculture. The chief staples are corn, cotton, cattle, and wool. 6. Chief Cities. — Galveston, the largest city, has an ex- tensive cotton-trade, and is the port through which nearly all the exports and imports of the state pass. Houston is a flour- ishing city and important railroad center, with a large internal trade. Austin is the capital. 7. Indian Territory. — Indian Territory is a section of coun- try set apart by the government of the United States for the home of various peaceable tribes of Indians. It has no organ- ized government. 8. Tahlequah, the capital of the Cherokee nation, is the chief town of the territory. SOUTHERN STATES: WESTERN DIVISION. 45 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. History. — " Louisiana," in the last century, was the name applied to an extensive territory including the whole country westward from the Missis- sippi not occupied by Spain, and northward to the southern boundary of British America, — a vast region then in possession of France. In the year 1803, during the administration of Jefferson, this domain was purchased from France for fifteen millions of dollars. The Slate of Louisiana was organized in 181 2, and all the rest of Louisiana took the name of "Mis- souri." Arkansas was a portion of the territory of Louisiana. In 1819 it was set off as a distinct territory. and in 1836 it was admitted as a state. Texas, originally a part of tin Spanish American Possessions, be- came a province of Mexico in 1821. A large American immigration then took place ; a few years later the people declared their independence, and in 1836 Texas became an inde- pendent republic. Subsequently, in 1845, Texas, on application, was ad- mitted into the Union. Indian Territory was originally a part of the Louisiana purchase, and embraced the whole territory of Mis- souri. It has been reduced to its present limits by the successive formation of states and territories. Names. — Louisiana was so named after the French king Louis XIV. The state of Arkansas is called after the river of the same name. Texas is called after an Indian tribe of that name. Indian Territory is so called because tribes of Indians are settled there. Texas. — From its size alone Texas is noteworthy above all the other states of the Union. It extends through more than ten degrees of latitude, and twelve degrees of longitude, exceeding in area either France or the German Empire. In fact, both as regards extent of territory and abundance and variety of resources, Texas is an empire in itself. It has the finest facihties for agriculture, producing all the cereals, together with cotton, sugar, tobacco, indigo, and semi-tropical fruits. It raises more beef-cattle than any other state, having, by the census of 1870, over three million head. Immense stock-ranches, having herds of several thousand cattle and horses, are common in this state. Great attention is given to sheep- raising. In addition to the interests already developed, Texas has many other resources, and vast capabilities of future growth. There is an abundance of most valuable timber, and great deposits of coal, iron, salt, and other useful minerals. These attractions draw a superior class of emigrants from other states, as also from Germany and other European countries. Indian Territory. — Indian Terri- tory is divided into various reserva- tions, the most important of which are (see map, p. 43) those of the Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, Seminoles, and Wachitas. Most of these and the other tribes have at various periods been removed from different parts of the Union to their present locations in Indian Ter- ritory. 1 he Indian population (about 60,000) is nearly equally divided be- tween those that are settled on the reservations, or at agencies, and nomadic tribes. It has been the aim of the United States to settle the various tribes upon separate reser- vations, where they may be free from the encroachments of the whites, and under the general superintend- ence and protection of the govern- ment. Agents are appointed by the President to represent the United States ; but each tribe has its own internal government. Several of the tribes, as the Cherokees, Choctaws, and Creeks, have made considerable progress in civilization : they till the soil, raise cattle and horses, have schools, and have also booksi^nd newspapers printed in their own language. The American Bison. — The American bison, commonly but wrongly called the buffalo, ranges from northern Texas and Indian Territory north- ward through Kansas, Nebraska, and Dakota. These animals migrate from north to south, and from south to north, according to the season When traveling, they move in vast, solid columns of thousands and tens of thousands. Many tribes of Indians are almost entirely dependent on the bison for food, clothing, and dwellings. The use of the dressed hides ol the bison as robes has caused a prodigious slaughter oi these anmials, so that they are rapidly diminishing in number. Originally they ranged over nearly the whole of North America; but they are now confined to The Plains. NOMAOIC INDIANS. HERDS OF BISON. 46 CENTRAL STATES: EASTERN DIVISION. CENTRAL STATES: EASTERN DIVISION. VIEW OF CHICAGO. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. I. QUESTIONS BY STATES. The Sefition. — How many and what states in this section ? What natu- ral boundary has this section on the north? On the south ? On the west.' What country north-east of this section .' Ans. The Dominion of Canada. Through how many degrees of latitude and longitude do the states com- prising this section extend ? What is the greatest length of this section ? (Measure on the scale of miles.) When it is noon at Washington, what time is it at Cincinnati and Lansing? At Chicago? At St. Paul? Name eight cities near the fortieth parallel. Which of the Great Lakes is wholly within this section? What mountains in the north-western part? To what systems do all the rivers of this section belong? Ans. To the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence basin systems. Michigan. — Between what lakes is the upper peninsula of Michigan situated ? The lower peninsula ? What large island in Lake Superior belongs to Michigan? What bay in Lake Superior ? What river connects Lake Superior with Lake Huron? What strait connects Lake Michigan with Lake Huron ? What two bays in Lake Michigan? In Lake Huron? By what bodies of water is Lake Huron connected with Lake Erie ? What mountain-range in the upper peninsula? What rocks? What five rivers flow into Lake Michigan ? What two into Lake Huron ? Which city is the capital? What two cities on Saginaw River? What city on Grand River? On Detroit River? What two important places west of Detroit ? Ohio. — What natural boundary has Ohio on the north ? On the south ? On which of the Middle States, and on which of the Southern States, does Ohio border? What state on the west? On the north? Which part of the state is hilly? Into what body of water do the streams in the northern part flow? What are the principal tributaries of the Ohio in this state? Which city is the capital? On what meridian is it? What large place is nearly on the same meridian? What three large cities on Lake Erie? What two cities west of Columbus? What large city in the south-west? What place at the confluence of the Ohio and Muskingum Rivers possesses peculiar historical interest? (See Supplementary Notes, p. 49.) Indiana What natural boundary has Indiana on the north? On the south ? Wh-it river crosses the state ? Of what is it a tributary ? What are the principal branches of the Wabash? By what artificial means are the waters of Lake Erie connected with the Mississippi River system? Which city is the capital ? What is the most important city in the north- eastern part of the state ? What two cities on the Wabash ? What two on the Ohio ? Illinois. — What natural boundary has Illinois on the north-east? On the south ? On the west ? What partial natural boundary on the east ? What five states border on Illinois? How many miles of coast on Lake Michigan has this state? (Measure on the scale of miles.) What are the three prin- cipal tributaries of the Mississippi in this state ? What water connection is there between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi ? What are the prin- cipal branches of the Wabash in this state? Which city is the capital? What great city on Lake Michigan? What city south-west of Chicago? What is the largest place in the north-central part of the state? What city on the Illinois River? Wliat city north-west o^ Peoria? What city south-east of Peoria? What city at the confluence of the Ohio and IVIissis- sippi rivers ? Wisconsin. — What natural boundary has Wisconsin on the north-west? On the east? The west? What islands in Lake Superior belong to Wisconsin? What mountains in the northern part? What bay in the eastern part ? What large lakes in the eastern part ? What are the three principal tributaries of the Mississippi River in this state? Which city is the capital? What city south-east of Madison? What cities on Lake Michigan ? On Winnebago Lake ? What city on the Mississippi ? 11. REVIEW QUESTIONS. States. — //ow bounded? What is the capital? Michigan? Ohio? Indiana? Illinois? Wisconsin? Bays. — Where is it ? Keweenaw? Whitefish? Thunder? Saginaw? Green? Ri\/ers. — Where does it rise ? In what direction, through what states, and into what body of water, docs it flow ? Muskegon? Maumee? Scioto? Great Miami? Wabash? Illinois? Rock? Wisconsin? Lakes. — Where situated? By what drained? St. Clair? Horicon ? Winnebago? Peoria? Cities. — In what part of what state ? How situated? Lansing? Columbus? Indianapolis? Springfield? Madison? Detroit? Cincinnati ? Chicago ? Milwaukee ? Grand Rapids ? Cleveland ? Evans- ville ? Quincy ? Racine ? -J^ Local Time A. M- when A'oon on the MertiKan qf Greenwich 8»^^.— • ■ ^ A Lonj;ltude West from Oreenwich ^.^ .-"i J^MVi * Osceola Mlfto i H ^ ; rJ U J ^J J^ < *^. >IludiS 7^ -fhlpKwa "PaIl8- ,^ EASTERN DIVISION •OALK OF MILES 10 SO 30 10 &0 Juneau V TOzaukee jxtcrtown) I MilwaukM '^ WauKfesha •Whitowkter Kibhom/ \ ^Racine Delavan^ "Warsai Portag^* Baraboo*^/ Beavei 'endaa L. ^\ iUneral Point, Piatt^vffle ^ i«„„„j LCarlinpton «Mjnroe * taue*- JE 9siej - Galena [ MtTCaiToll Is^^ •'1?re.„„.^^J^----^'''"« Ke wanee • C^Wm' '£« Galra. Hemy-, lalesburg ^Laeon Monmouth BushneU. tenpopt Hanw'^^^* Xfi- lygan ^'-^^ -*>s Sa^ A ^ > ^ Bayatli SaglnaW^astS^naw GKNJnTnlo City iC^'pc^- - I l«: ' Ooderioli I OwoBBO/s St.Jolins >LANSINO pStHuronJ^Port Sarnia Flint ["litFenton MtCIeni, Ponti ,iajo\ fv d^ Detroit. Macomb **'^ lackson V^,' • Ann Arbors^; ^ Ypsilanti "^ ~ Mill Adrian, Nflea ^ Sturgis ^fllsdale ^^^ ' ^ ^ southt3w|fe[khart ._•,.! Toledg^ iit.Clairy ,^- I a Porte ^""i Valpa'ruso p,3^„„t]i ,'^J^'^» Warsaw Columbia ctty Kenliadrille NapoleOTjt.' «.; 1 J,^' ^Ts^^ Fremont. ^ Auburn,^^ ^ ^^ Detiance / .:r' htaboli 'Paine^rUle 1 «4"!!S'- (Clevetand Moovalk Findlay ^.J BI)oinlngton ■%u-wmij Champaign, %\ Urbana ^ CJi/' ShelbyjillcJ *fiyCarlinviUe ^^ Utchflela Paris Chai-leeton * !Xi r Alton S EJwanJsTnielS V^ ^anaaUa *' Wvuie,-^'^"'^''* ■NaahviHe '"Terre Haute .,BIH ■TV" S'*^^--..*- rnfit ■ ? Uma Sanduskj" '"'Wabaah^.tl ^^^s^ Kenton Lafayette Attjica fviUe (Jrawfords-rille INDIAHAPOLIS£ •Marlon Cambrldgej ' City T Conneravi^e ShelbyvHle^J ""' Greenabui-g lAwrenct'bii rg' Aurora. SidneVy Piqua'J iElyria\ Akron t--' .cl'^V Wooster ^^ . I We« Vphlladelphlaft j^-^ I '. i)elaware Coshocton • Urbana wi , Springfield OInej ^Seymour Kadison Risinj-f Suif Dayton^' ,.xenia »-!*n ^^ CUUlcothg ^fcV.{Hamnton T '*^ 'y CinclnDati ynuisboro "^i Duquoin Cape Qirarde. '^ • Ca -bondage aa«»efto«»^ Evansville E *r New Albanyyj^'^ Louisville >*FRANKrORT ■NewarU*-'*'""' COLUMIUS Lancaster 'clrclCTSe^ ?'' GaUlpoUs^ IrontoHf' Longrltude West fa"om Washington Local Time A. M. when Noon on the Meridian tif Waalilngton CINCIJJIVATI -o* 48 CENTRAL STATES: EASTERN DIVISION. II. DESCRIPTION. Mining. — Coal is very widely distributed throughout this section, and in inexhaustible quantities. There are valuable iron ores in Ohio and Michi- gan. The salt deposits of Michigan are of unsurpassed richness; lead is mined in north-western Illinois and southern Wisconsin ; and the Lake Superior copper-mines are the richest in the world. Commerce. — The means of communication afforded by nature are the numerous large navigable streams, especially the Mississippi and its tribu- taries, which flow into the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes, which, with the St. Lawrence, give communication with the Atlantic Ocean. These splendid natural commercial facilities are further increased by a network of railroads built by the enterprise of the Western people. The principal exports are wheat, flour, corn, pork, bacon, beef, cheese, wool, and copper. III. THE STATES. REFERENCE TABLE. STATES. Area in Sq. Miles in 1880. Population in 1880. STATES. Area in Sq. Miles in 1880. Population in 1880. Ohio Indiana .... Illinois .... 41,060 36.350 56,650 3,198,062 1,978,30' 3,077,87' Wisconsin . . . Michigan . . . 56,040 58.9' 5 1.315497 ".636,937 STREET SCENE IN CINCINNATI. 1. Situation. — This group of states is situated north of the Ohio River, and east of the Mississippi. It lies wholly in the Central Plain, or Mississippi Valley. 2. Surface. — The surface is generally level or rolling prairie- land ; but there are two hilly regions, — the one towards the Ohio, the other towards Lake Superior. The larger part of Ohio consists of a low and broken table-land, form- ing the western slope and foot-hills of the Appalachian system. The highlands of northern Wisconsin, and the upper peninsula of Michigan, are an extension of the Height of Land. Wisconsin and Michigan possess extensive white-pine forests. 3. Drainage. — The rivers in these states belong to the Mississippi and St. Lawrence systems. Four of the five Great Lakes, namely, Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Superior, lie in the northern part of this section. Lake Superior is six hundred feet above the sea-level, and nine hun- dred feet deep ; it has an area of thirty-two thousand square miles, i being large enough to take in the whole of the state of Maine or the island of Ireland. Lake Michigan, about fifty feet lower than Lake Superior, is three-fourths as large, and not quite so deep. Lake Huron is two-thirds as large as Lake Superior, and nearly twice as deep. Lake Erie is one-third as large as Lake Superior, and is very shallow, being less than one hundred feet deep. 4. Climate. — The climate is similar to that of the Atlantic States in the same latitude, — the summers are hot, the winters mild in the southern, and cold in the northern part. 5. Productions and Pursuits. — The leading pursuits are agriculture and grazing; but manufacturing, mining, and com- merce are all great and important industries. Agriculture. — The broad and fertile prairies are admirably adapted both for tillage and grazing. Of wheat, corn, wool, and live-stock, the quantity produced is greater than in any other part of our country of equal extent. Manufacturing. — Manufacturing, though in importance secondary to agriculture, is pursued on a great and growing scale. The principal articles produced are flour, agricultural implements, machinery, and cotton and woolen goods. 1. Ohio is one of the wealthiest and most progressive of the Central States, and, in the amount and variety of its manufac- tures, is the first state west of the Alleghanies. 2. Chief Cities. — Cincinnati the metropolis, and the largest city of the Ohio Valley, is a great manufacturing and com- mercial point. Cleveland, Sandusky, and Toledo, all lake ports, are important manufacturing and commercial centers. Colum- bus is the capital. 3. Indiana. — The natural advantages of Indiana consist in its fertile soil, its extensive deposits of coal and iron, and the facilities for communication afforded by its rivers. The pros- perity of the state is based on its agricultural, mining, and manufacturing interests. INDIANA SCENES. CENTRAL STATES: EASTERN DIVISION. WISCONSIN SCENES. 4. Chief Cities. — Indianapolis, the capital and largest city, is the center of numerous railroads, and is an active manufac- turing and commercial point. Evansville, Fort Wayne, and Terre Haute, rank next in population, and are important manu- facturing and trading cities. 5. Illinois. — Illinois is one of the most populous and wealthy of the Central States, leading all others in the value of its agri- cultural productions, and commanding the trade both of the Mississippi River and of the Great Lakes. 6. Chief Cities. — Chicago is the commercial metropolis, and the largest city on the northern lakes. It has an extensive lake commerce, is the center of the railroad system of the surround- ing states, and ranks as the greatest wheat, corn, and live-stock market in the Union. In commercial importance Chicago ranks next to New York. More than 10,000 miles of railroad are directly tributary to Chicago, and 350 trains enter and leave daily, giving 700 arrivals and departures. Its commerce exceeds $500,000,000 annually. It is the greatest grain-market in the world. The grain is received and shipped in bulk. It is lifted into elevators from railroad-cars by buckets run- ning on an endless chain, and operated by powerful steam-machinery, and is emptied through spouts into the holds of vessels. There are twenty-four of these immense elevator-warehouses, the total capacity of all being over 20,000,000 bushels. Among other important cities are Quincy, Peoria, and Bloom- ington. Springfield is the capital. 7. Wisconsin. — Extensive forests in the north, rich deposits of lead and iron, a fertile soil, and great facilities for commerce, form the principal natural advantages of this state. The lead- ing industries are agriculture, mining, lumbering, and manufac- turing. 8. Chief Cities. — Milwaukee is the commercial metropo- lis. It is a great wheat-market, and one of the most beauti- ful and flourishing cities of the North-West. Fond du Lac, Oshkosh, and Racine come next in importance. Madison is the capital. 9. Michigan. — Michigan consists of two peninsulas. The upper peninsula is rugged, and in parts mountainous, with a generally sterile soil ; but it is valuable on account of its rich veins of copper and iron, and its heavy pine-forests. The lower peninsula has a generally level surface, a fine climate, and a fertile soil. The leading industries arc lumbering, salt- making, farming, fruit-raising, and manufacturing, in the lower peninsula ; and copper and iron mining in the upper peninsula. 10. Chief Cities. — Detroit has the best harbor on the Great Lakes, and is engaged in manufacturing and in foreign and domestic commerce. Grand Rapids, and East Saginaw, and Saginaw City, rank next in importance. Lansing is the capital. f^UPPLEMENTARY NOTES. History. — In 1787 Congress organized the vast u"inhabited region north of the Ohio into a territory called the North-west Territory, and decreed that a certain number of states should be formed from it when each should have a population of 60,000. The first state carved out of the North-west Territory was Ohio, admitted into the Union in 1802. Its first white population consisted of a company of New-England pioneers under the guidance of Gen. Rufus Putnam ; and the first settlement was made at Marietta, so aamed after Marie Antoinette. Indiana was originally a part of the North-west Territory. When Ohio became a state, all the remainder of the North-west Territory received the name of Indiana Territory; and from a part of this territory the State of Indiana was created in i8l6. Illinois was first a part of the North-west Territory, afterwards of Indiana Territory, and was admitted into the Union in 1818. Wisconsin was penetrated by the early French missiona- ries, traders, and trappers, over two hundred years ago. The first perm.v nent settlement was made at Green Bay in 1745. Wisconsin was first part of the North-west Territory, then part of Indiana Territory, then of Illinois Territory, and afterwards of Michigan Territory. In 1836 it became a separate territory, and in 1848 was admitted as a state. Michigan was first a part of the North-west Territory, and afterwards of Indiana Territory. In 1805 it became a separate territory, and in 1837 was admitted as a state. Names. — Ohio was named from the Ohio River, which in the Indian language signifies "river of blood." Indiana is a name formed from the word Indian. Illinois took its name from the Illinois River and tribe of Indians. Wisconsin took its name from the Wisconsin River. Michigan took its name from Lake Michigan. 50 CENTRAL STATES: WESTERN DIVISION. CENTRAL STATES: \VESTERN DIVISION. VIEW OF ST. LOUIS. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. I. QUESTIONS BY STATES. The Section. — What five states in this section ? What territory ? What parallel and what natural boundaries separate it from Canada ? What natural boundary on the east ? What hills in the western part ? What plateau in the north-west ? What elevation in the north-east ? Minnesota. — What elevation in the northern part of Minnesota? In what direction do the streams flow from the Height of Land ? What lakes on the northern border? Which of the Great Lakes on the eastern border? What two lakes north of the Height of Land ? What five lakes south of the Height of Land? What two lakes on the western border? What lake on the eastern border ? What lake is the source of the Mississippi ? What are the principal tributaries of the Mississippi in or bordering this state? Which city is the capital? What two cities on the Mississippi? What city on Minnesota River? Wliat port near the western extremity of Lake Superior? Iowa. ^ What natur.il boundary has Iowa on the east? On the west? Which part of the state is hilly? What river crosses the state? What other tributaries of the Mississippi in this state? Which city is the capital? On what river are most of the large cities ? Name them. What city on the Missouri ? Missouri. — What natural boundary has Missouri on the east? What mountains in the south? What mountains in the south-west? What two mountain summits in the eastern part? What river crosses the state? What is the principal tributary of the Missouri from the south? Which city is the capital ? What large city on the Mississippi, near the mouth of the Missouri ? What city on the Mississippi north of the Missouri ? What city on the Missouri where that river enters the state ? What city on the Missouri north of Kansas City ? Kansas. — What parallel is the northern boundary of Kansas? What parallel is the southern boundary? What river crosses the south-we.stem part of the state? What river north of the Arkansas? Of what river is it a tributary? What are the principal branches of the Kansas River in this state? In what part of the state are most of the cities and towns ? What two cities on the Kansas River? Which is the capital? What two cities on the Missouri ? What city in the south-eastern part? What city on the Arkansas River? Nebraska. — What parallels form the southern boundary of Nebraska? What natural boundary on the east ? What branch of the Missouri River crosses the northern part ? What river crosses the state? Of what river is it a tributary ? What city is the capital? What cities on the Missouri River? What city on the Platte River? Dakota. — What country north of Dakota? What states east? What state south? What territories west? What mountains in the south-western part of the territory ? What plateau in the central part ? What lakes in the northern part ? What Indian tribes have a Reservation in the north- western part? What river crosses the territory?. What tributary of the Missouri in the southern part ? What is the capital ? What place on the Big Sioux River? What United-States forts on Missouri River? n. REVIEW QUESTIONS. States. — //ota bounded f What is the capital? Minnesota? Iowa? Missouri? Kansas? Nebraska? Dakota Territory? Mountains. — Where are they ? Black Hills? Height of Land? Pilot Knob? Iron? Ozark? Pea Ridge? Rivers. — Where does it rise ? In what direction, through what states, and into what body of water, does it flow ? (See Map of United States.) Mississippi? Missouri? Minnesota? Red? Des Moines? Platte? Kansas ? Cities. — In what part of what state is it? How situated? St. Paul ? Des Moines ? Jeflerson City ? Topeka ? Lincoln ? Yank- ton ? Minneapolis ? Dubuque ? Davenport ? St. Louis ? Lawrence ? Omaha ? Sioux Falls ? J 10] Longitude 99 West from 97 Greenwich 95 -<.i., ^""age la Prajriaji mwmkh wiMm WESTERN DIVISION Groij ilmi(lan% Q,^ Port AW- ' mg Sto it,. Ft.Sull*,;^ f I'UTlt-'^ Bnile Ci^^ 1 *" f*4- liisonj- -^"^S ^a. LAn(}ka\ etUlwkter "^ ^. ^O , 1 ^CarverV^l"''"'^*^V^$'f'- Ju!^'y__ •Fariliault ^^^ftS^*l 4. Mankatff -Owa; Winona ;^f-St.Charle. '^y^X Cross. T~ >v^ 1 Rusbf ord f \ ngum Albert Lea >Jt£|ifif.^ "*4.'il V* t5i _ QVermilion Nioibi^^ St.HeknaNrlJill^oIJit fCity r^^ Decatun t *(Ouawa Oakda3< ^ KR. "West Pc ini I ,rV rp; •Haatings Tecuniseh ■^<-/ „, BeatT^ccSs ErownvnieL ^-C^?' 5^ . I 1 iif C£>, if ''^herMan Stockton. Haj-sCity, A ConcordiaV Saliaab^/ABUei e Council Great CI . >2^ tS A. med ^\Htitchinson Wichita^ ^/^"Den Bon ^Council .Osage . JIJw-„<-v~. . .I' Decoran F^^ ChaJ-lea^ty Waverly* i;edaiwaia Dubuiqu21|^ .aterlo^^iiclcpcnacncel >^ cTda-«5is1 Gi-^i Vp CUntoiiT V oESMoi^tsi^'^V'^'^" i"»:y"V°'''*'!^!y t^ ^ Indlanola* *-i Qskaloosa »^ liii»»>- OnMhaTeiufls V PlattsitioutiA oienwooa ^ - Cre^ Nebra8kaJ?''j±L'xi "Wintcraet ''« (a.^ ~~^ — X jit.' ^ :|L. li^iS^S^X^Ke/Sfuy jlenipWa iMiryvUle White Cloua* St.Joseph^ chinicotS,, WatervlfleV^a Sene?a IliaVathTj^-j cin,eron Atchison*! lAville \^r |^sco\^^J"- \^;nm\ ( ^ Mai^hattan LeavenwOrthj^Liherty ^,^,,jQSSX.ai^oy, 'Jtexlco "^"^onirKWyanJuttg ^ C ^^^^^/'Xlngton |\_ Columhla Lawrence ^\^^^, £nipon& X *^ Ganictt Llll''' '-f^° T E J_i T ■ort S:ott' pHum x.ld« A,\ ^joiage ?/) ^^n^ TMissioa .WinUeM "tpg^egoj , '"^^ -i,«Indui)entienc« , - - , Warreuiburg Pleaj*ant • _ .•,, Hill Sedalia Clinton Tulton gtJCliarlesYy^^ '^ 'y^ CITY "^ -^ L ibaaSn ro -^ "rob jir R K Hew , 20 West from 18 Washington 10» Local Time A.M. toTien 10« Jfoon on the Meridian IQW of Wavhinffton 52 CENTRAL STATES: WESTERN DIVISION. II. DESCRIPTION. 1. Situation. — This group includes the states of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska, with Dakota Territory. The boundary separating this section from the Dominion of Canada is formed by the 49th parallel, the Lake of the Woods, Rainy River, Rainy Lake, Crooked Lake, and Pigeon River. 2. The surface is generally level. The western part is in the Plains ; the eastern, in the low plain of the Mississippi, to which the ground falls by a slight slope from the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The only considerable elevations are the short ranges and knobs of the Ozark Mountains in Missouri, and the Black Hills of Dakota. 3. Drainage. — Most of the rivers of this section are tribu- taries of the Mississippi. The Mississippi rises in Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, on the Height of Land. Issuing from Lake Itasca as a slender rivulet (from ten to twelve feet in width), it receives the waters of various lakes and small strfcams, and is swelled by the two main tributaries, — the Minnesota and St. Croix. It is navigable for steamboats be- low the Falls of St. Anthony. 4. Climate. — The climate of this region presents great extremes : the summers are warm ; the winters exceed- ingly severe, especially in the northern part. 5. Productions and Pur- suits. — The principal pur- suits are agriculture, stock- raising, and mining. Agriculture. — The soil of the river-valleys is exceedingly fertile. The staple products are corn, wheat, hay, oats, hemp, and pota- toes. Stock-raising is largely car- ried on. Mining. — In the number, extent, and value of its mineral deposits, Missouri surpasses every other state. Those most largely mined are iron, lead, and coal. Iowa has inexhaustible fields of bituminous coal, and is rich in lead. Kansas has abundant deposits of coal, iron, and salt. Dakota has very rich and productive gold mines. Commerce. — These states are crossed by many navigable rivers and by numerous railroads, which connect with trunk lines east of the Mississippi. III. THE STATES. REFERENCE TABLE. FARMING IN THE GREAT WEST. STATES. Area in Sq. Miles. 1880. Population in 1880. STATES. Area in Sq. Milei. 1880. Population In 1880. Minnesota . . . Iowa Mi.«souri . . . 83,365 56,025 69,415 780,773 1,624,6; 5 2,168,380 Kansas .... Nebraska . . . Dakota Territory, 82,080 77,505 148,450 996,096 452,402 '35,i77 1. Minnesota. — Minnesota occupies the central part of North America, and includes the Height of Land which divides the Arctic Plain from the valley of the Mississippi. The leading industries are agriculture (the chief products being wheat and oats), lumbering, and manufacturing, the principal articles being sawed lumber and flour. Minnesota, together with Wisconsin and the upper peninsula of Michigan, forms an extensive undulating table-land, with an average height of about 1,000 feet. In north-western Minnesota the sur- face reaches a height of 1,700 feet. This elevation, known as the " Height of Land " (the highest region between the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson Bay), forms a watershed which sends out streams to all points of the compass. 2. Chief Cities. — St. Paul is the capital. Minneapolis, the largest city, at the Falls of St. Anthony, possesses unlimited water-power, and is noted for the manufacture of flour and lumber. 3. Iowa. — Iowa possesses a fertile prairie soil, and rich deposits of coal and lead. Agriculture is the leading industry^ but lead and coal mining are extensively car- ried on. The coal-field of Iowa embraces an area of several thousand square miles, and is practically inex- haustible. The coal is bituminous and of excellent quality. The lead-mines in the Galena lime- stone have been worked for many years. 4. Chief Cities.— Dubuque and Davenport, Burlington and Keokuk, all on the Mis- sissippi, are important cities. Des Moines is the capital. 5. Missouri. — Missouri is the most populous state west of the Mississippi, and has an area nearly equal to that of New England. Extensive iron-mining is carried on in the section south of St. Louis, and the mining of lead and coal is an important industry. Agriculture is a leading occupation, and great crops of corn, wheat, rye, to- bacco, hemp, and grapes are raised in the prairie section. The manufacturing interest is large and increasing. This state possesses the navigation of the two greatest rivers in the United States. By means of the Mississippi, which forms the entire eastern boundary, the state has water communication with the most northern part of the Union; by means of the Missouri River internal communication is extended to the Rocky Mountains. These two great channels are the final reservoirs of all the streams of the state. 6. Chief Cities. — St. Louis, the largest city west of the Mississippi River, occupies a commanding position for domes- tic and foreign commerce, and is largely engaged in iron-manu- factures. A magnificent steel bridge crosses the Mississippi River at this point. Kansas City and St. Joseph are the places next in importance. Jefferson City is the capital. CENTRAL STATES: WESTERN DIVISION. 53 FALLS OF ST. ANTHONY AND LUMBERING SCENE. 7. Kansas. — The natural wealth of Kansas consists of a fertile soil, abundant pasturage for stock, rich deposits of coal, and ready means of communication. The leading industries are agriculture in the eastern section, and stock-raising on the great grassy prairies to the west. The prairies are covered with a variety of nutritious grasses, which last all winter, drying into hay on the ground, and supporting vast herds of beef-cattle, which require no housing. 8. Chief Cities. — Leavenworth is the largest city in Kansas. The places next in importance are Lawrence, and Topeka the capital. 9. Nebraska resembles Kansas in its natural wealth, and in the occupations of the people. The raising of corn, wheat, and other cereals, and fruit-growing, are car- ried on with great success in the eastern section ; beef-cattle and other live-stock are raised in great numbers in the western grazing regions. Its cheap and fertile lands, together with the ready means of com- munication, are rapidly making Nebraska a great and populous state. 10. Chief Cities. — Omaha is the largest city. Lincoln is the capital. 1 1. Dakota. — Agriculture, stock-raising, and mining are the chief occupations of the people of Dakota Territory. This territory is the home of the Sioux, or Dakota, and the Mandan tribes of Indians. Vast herds of buffalo, elk. deer, and antelope range over the western portion. The " Bad Lands " are an exten- sive arid tract in the south- west. But the river bot- toms are exceedingly fertile, and the farm represented on the previous page is in Dakota. 12. Capital. — Yankton is the capital and largest place. WINTER TRAVEL ON TnE UNION PACIFIC RAILROAD. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES." History. — Minnesota was first explored by the Jesuit missionaries two hundred years ago, and was a part of the great Louisiana purchase. It was organized as a territory in 1849, and became a state in 1858. Iowa was originally a part of the Louisiana purchase. It was organized as a separate territory in 1838, and admitted as a state in 1846. Missouri was originally a part of the Louisiana purchase, and, when the present state of Louisiana was admitted, the remainder of the ex- tensive domain was erected into the territory of Missouri. The state was formed from a part of this territory, and was admitted into the Union in 1820. Kansas was originally a part of the Louisiana purchase. It first came prominently into notice in 1854, when a law was passed organizing the Kansas-Nebraska Territory, and leaving to "popular sovereignty" the question whether it should be a free or a slave state. The friends of both sides poured into this territory, and for several years its soil was the scene of lawlessness and bloodshed ; but the antislavery party triumphed, and Kansas was admitted as a free state, January 30, i86i. Nebraska, originally a part of the Louisiana purchase, was, jointly with Kansas, organized into a territory in 1854. When Kansas became a state in 1861 Nebraska remained for some years a territory, but finally was admitted into the Union in 1867. Dakota, originally a part of the Louisiana purchase, became a part of Minnesota Territory, which was organized in 1849. It was organized as a territory in i86i,.but it then included the present territories of Mon- tana and Wyoming. The first per- manent settlements of whites were made in 1859. Names. — Minnesota is called after the river of the same name, signifying "cloudy river." Iowa is called after the river of the same name : it is the French form of an Indian word signifying "the sleepy ones," the name of an Indian tribe. Missouri takes its name from its chief river, signifying "muddy water." Kansas, meaning "smoky water," Nebraska, meaning "water valley," and Dakota, signifying "leagued,"— the common name of the confederated Sioux tribes, — are all named from Indian tribes iden- tified with their history. 54 THE PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. sa^-SSa^afa I. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. I. QUESTIONS BY STATES. The Section. — What are the states and territories of this section? A>/s. They are the territories of Montana, Wyoming, and New Mexico, and the state of Colorado, in the Rocky Mountain division ; the territories of Idaho, Utah, and Arizona, and the state of Nevada, in the Great Plateau; and the states of California and Oregon, with Washington Territory and Alaska, in the Pacific Coast division. Montana. — What mountains in the western part of Montana ? What river crosses the northern part? What large branch of the Missouri crosses the southern part? What is the capital? • Wyoming. — Wliat park in the north-western part? Name the moun- tain-ranges. What river in the soutli-eastern part? What is the capital? Colorado. — What mountains in Colorado? What four "parks" are in these mountains? What peak in the central part of the state? What great rivers have their source in this state? What city is the capital? What towns south-west of Denver? New Mexico. — What river crosses New Mexico? What is the capital? What place south-west of Santa Fd? Idaho. — What natural boundary on the north-east ? What tributaries of the Columbia cross the territory? What is the capitnl? Nevada. — What mountain-ranges in tliis state? What lakes? Do any rivers cross it? What is the capital? What place north of Carson City? Utah. — What mountain-chains in Utah ? What large lake ? What is the capital? What place north of Salt Lake City? Arizona. — What two rivers cross Arizona? What is the capital? California. — What natural boundary lias California on the west? What country south? What mountain-chain in the eastern part? What range in the western part? Name three lakes in this state. What noted valley south of the thirty-eighth parallel? What two large rivers unite, and flow into San Francisco Bay ? What strait ("gate ") at the entrance of this bay ? What city is the capital ? What city on the west side of San Francisco Bay? On the east side? What city east of Oakland? South? Oregon. — What boundary river has Oregon on the north? On the east? What natural boundary on the west? What mountains extend through the state ? What is the capital ? What city north of Salem ? Washington. — What country on the north ? What natural boundary on the west? On the south? What cape projects from the north-western part? What mountain-peaks in this territory? What is the capital? Alaska. — (See Map of North America.) What ocean north of Alaska? South? Sea west? What circle crosses Alaska? What volcano in Alaska? II. REVIEW QUESTIONS. States or Territories. — f/o-u bounded? What is the capital? Montana? Wyoming? Colorado? New Mexico? Idaho? Nevada? Utah? Arizona? California? Oregon? Washington? Capes. — From what coast does it project ? Point Conception? Mendocino? Flattery? mountains. ■ — \l 'here are they ? Rocky? Sierra Nevada? Coast? Cascade? Wahsatch ? Uintah? Mount Whitney? Mount Hood? Rainier? Rivers. — IVhere does it rise ? In what direction, through what states or territories, does it flow ? Columbia? Missouri? Yellowstone? Rio Grande? Colorado? Gila? Sacramento? San Joaquin ? Klamath? Lakes. — Where situated? Great Salt? Tulare? Pyramid? Tahoe ? Cities. — In ichat part of what state is it ? How situated? Helena? Cheyenne? Denver? Santa Fd? Boisd City? Carson City? Salt Lake City ? Prescott ? Sacramento? Salem? Olympia? Virginia City (Montana)? Albuquerque? Idaho City? Virginia City (Nevada)? Ogden ? Tucson ? San Francisco ? Oakland ? Portland ? 56 THE PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. GEYSERS AND FIRE-BASINS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. II. ROCKY MOUNTAINS AND GREAT PLATEAU. — DESCRIPTION. 1. Situation. — This group includes the states and terri- tories of the Rocky Mountains and of the Great Plateau. Colorado and Nevada are states ; Montana, Wyoming, New Mexico, Idalio, Utah, and Arizona are territories. 2. Surface. — The great natural feature of this region is the Rocky Mountain system, the main axis of which traverses it in a general south-easterly direction. The Rocky Mountains within this section comprise several chains more or less parallel, and connected by numerous cross ranges. I. Some of the grandest scenery in the world is found in the Rocky Mountains. Among the most remarkable localities are the moun- tain scenery and " parks " of Colorado, the Fire Hole Basin, and the Caflon of the Yellowstone. The Fire Hole Basin is in the val- ley of the Madison River, one of the head streams of the Missouri. It contains many hundreds of boiling springs and spouting geysers, far exceeding those of Iceland in size and grandeur. The Grand Geyser, the most magnificent in the world, throws a stream of hot water to a height of 3D0 feet The Caflon of the Yellowstone is a great mountain-rent, with perpendicular basaltic walls from 1,000 to 2,000 feet high. For a distance of twenty-five miles along this mighty chasm the river rushes with fearful velocity, making in one place a leap of 450 feet, forming one of the grandest of waterfalls. The rocks in many places along the canon are worn into fantastic shapes, resembling ruined castles with minarets and spires. II. A section of this magnificent mountain-region, nearly the size of Con- necticut, has been set apart by Congress as a great " National Park." Within its limits are not less than ten thousand boiling springs and geysers, and many grand waterfalls, deep cafions, beau- tiful lakes, and rugged mountain-peaks. 3. Climate. — This section has a cool climate, owing to its elevation above the level of the sea. It is also noted for its dryness. This is due to its great distance from the ocean, the rain-clouds from which are deprived of their moisture by the intervening mountains. 4. Industries. — This section is rich in mines of gold, silver, copper, lead, and coal, and the vast grassy plains afford fine pasturage : hence mining and stock-raising form the leading industries of the inhabitants. III. THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. REFERENCE TABLE. ROCKY MOUNTAIN DIVISION. STATES OR TERRI- TORIES. Montana Ter. Wyoming Ter. . Colorado . . . AVw Mexico Ter. Area in Sq. Miles in 1880. Population in 1880. 146,080 97,890 '03.925 122,580 39.' 59 20,789 194.327 119,565 GREAT PLATEAU DIVISION. STATES OR TERRI- TORIES. Idaho Territory . Nevada . . . . Utah Territory . Arizona Ter. . . Area in Sq. Miles in 1880. Population in 1880. 84^00 110,700 84,970 113,020 32,610 62,266 143.963 40,440 5. Montana. — The gold and silver mines of Montana are extensively worked, and the mountain pastures afford great ad- vantages for stock-raising. 6. Chief Places. — Helena is the capital and largest town. Virginia City is next in importance. 7. Wyoming. — The principal industries of this territory are stock-raising and the mining of coal and gold. 8. Chief Places. — Cheyenne, the capital, is an important railroad center, and a distributing point for goods to all parts of the highland region north and south. Sherman Station (8,000 feet) is the highest point in the Rocky Mountains crossed by the Pacific Railroad. 9. Colorado is divided by the Rocky Mountains into the THE PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. 57 GREAT SALT LAKE eastern section, which resembles Kansas, and the western sec- tion, which is a mountain-plateau region. The leading industries are gold and silver mining, largely carried on in the mountains, and grazing and agriculture in the eastern section. 10. Chief Places. — Denver is the capital and largest city. The many important railroad lines centering here make it the metropolis of an extensive region of country. Leadville ranks next in population. 11. New Mexico has rich mines, which are being rapidly opened and developed. Stock raising is also extensively carried on in the valleys. Santa Fe was first visited by the Spaniards about 1542, at which time it was an important Indian settle- ment. 12. Santa Fe is the capital and largest place. 13. Idaho is rich in gold and silver, and has also extensive deposits of salt, coal, and iron. 14. The capital is Boise City. 15. Nevada. — Nevada is noted for its silver-mines, which for a number of years yielded more than one-half of all the silver annually produced in the United States. 16. Chief Places. — Virginia City, famous for its rich silver- mines, is the largest place. Carson City is the capital. 17. Utah, remarkable as the home of the Mormons, is rich in silver-mines, which are extensively worked. Agriculture is carried on principally by means of irrigation. 18. Salt Lake City is the capital and largest city. 19. Arizona. — Arizona includes the hottest and dryest por tion of the United States. The northern part is a high plateau, cut through by the stupendous caiion of the Colorado River. The Colorado River has worn through the soft strata of sandstone a narrow channel, that in many places is from 2,000 to 3,000 feet deep. The passage through this deep and gloomy caiion is exceedingly dangerous. This territory is rich in mines of silver, copper, and other minerals, which are being extensively developed. The Apaches, a hostile Indian tribe, have until recently kept every thing in a backward state. 20. The capital is Prescott. I\^. PACIFIC COAST DIVISION. — DESCRIPTION. 1. Situation. — This group includes the States of California and Oregon, with Washington Territory and Alaska. 2. Seacoast. — Exclusive of Alaska, this section has a coast line of about one thousand miles. Good harbors, however, are not numerous. 3. Surface. — The lofty chain of the Sierra Nevada extends through California into Oregon and Washington, where it is called the Cascade Range. The Coast Range is a series of low chains near the Pacific coast. 4. The climate of the Pacific Coast is unlike that of any other part of the United States. In California and Oregon it is mild and equable throughout the year ; but it presents great extremes of moisture, the rains being confined to the period from Novem- ber to April, and no rain falling during the other months. THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. REFERENCE TABLE. STATES OR TERRITORIES. Area in Square Miles in 1880. Population in 1880, California Oregon IVashin^ton Territory . . Alaska Territory .... 158,360 96,030 69,180 531,409 864,694 174,768 75,116 33,426 1. California ranks as the wealthiest and most populous of the Pacific S*^ates. It is, next to Texas, the largest state in the Union. 2. Physical Features. — This state may be divided into four sections: (i) the mountain-region of the Sierra Nevada, (2) the desert plateau-region east of that range, (3) the fertile valley- region between the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range moun- 58 THE PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. m .^n* '^" "i»^ ■!!% ■ ^ ■ • ' tains, and (4) the narrow coast-belt bordering on the Pacific Ocean. California is famed for its grand and striking natural features. Among these are the Yosemite Valley and Falls, the Big-Tree Groves, Lake Tahoe, and the Geysers. 3. In natural wealth this state is highly favored. It is rich in gold, quicksilver, coal, and other minerals. Its fertile soil and favorable climate adapt it to the production of the grains and fruits both of the temper- ate and semi-tropical climes. Its situation on the Pacific Ocean gives it command of the trade with the Orient. 4. The chief industries are agriculture, stock-raising, min- ing, and manufacturing. Cali- fornia is the leading state in the export of wheat, gold, quicksilver, wool, and wine. The orange, lemon, fig, olive, and almond are cultivated in the central and the southern parts. 5. Chief Cities. — San Fran- cisco is the commercial em- porium of the whole western coast of North America, and has a large trade with China, Japan, India, Australia, the Sandwich Islands, and other islands of the Pacific. Oakland ranks next in population. Sacramento is the capital. 6. Oregon is as large as New York and Pennsylvania, but is thinly populated. The leading industries are agriculture, to which the fertile river-valleys are finely adapted ; stock-raising, which is largely engaged in ; and cutting timber from the im- mense pine-forests that cover the western slopes of the Cascade Mountains. The salmon-fisheries also are important. 7. Chief Cities. — Portland, on the Willamette, is the lar- gest city. Salem is the capital. 8. Washington Territory has a great extent of seacoast, valuable coal-fields, and exten- sive forests of pine and cedar. 9. The capital is Olympia, on Puget Sound. 10. Alaska. — This great isolated possession (purchased from Russia in 1867) is unor- ganized, but is governed as a county of Washington Terri- tory. Its forests, fur-bearing ani- mals, and seal-fisheries consti- tute the wealth of Alaska ; and its small population of Aleuts, half-breeds, and Indians are engaged in hunting and the fisheries. NEVADA SCENES. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. History. — Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and part of Montana belong to the United States by right of exploration and settlement confirmed by treaty with Spain in 1819. Utah, Nevada, and California were included in the territory ceded by Mexico in 1848. Colorado and Wyoming, in their pres- ent limits, were partly in the Louisiana purchase, and partly in the cession of 1848. New Mexico and Arizona were partly in the cession of 1848, and partly in the Gadsden purchase from Mexico in 1853. Montana was organ- ized as a territory in 1864, and Idaho in 1863. Oregon was organized as a territory in 1848, and admitted as a state in 1859. Washington was organ- ized as a territory in 1853, and Utah in 1850. Nev.ida was admitted as a state in 1864; California, in 1850; and Colorado, in 1876. Wyoming was or- ganized as a territory in 1868; New Mexico, in 1850; and Arizona, in 1863. REFERENCE TABLE OF POPULATION. CITIES, TOWNS, VILLAGES, BOROUGHS, ETC., HAVING A POPULATION OF OVER 10,000 BY THE CENSUS OF 1880. POPULATION. POPULATION. POPULATION. POPULATION. Akron, 16,512 Albany, N.Y 90,758 Alexandria, Va 13,659 Allegheny, Penn 78,682 AUentown, Penn 18,063 Altoona, Penn 19,710 Atchison, Kan IS>'05 Atlanta, Ga. 37,409 Attleborough, Mass II, UI Auburn, N.Y 21,924 Augusta, Ga 21,891 Aurora, III ".873 Austin, Tex. 10,960 Baltimore, Md 332>3'3 Bangor, Me 16,856 Bay City, Mich 20,693 Belleville, 111 10,683 Biddeford, Me 12,651 Binghamton, N.Y 17,317 Bloomington, 111 17,180 Boston, Mass 362,839 Bridgeport, Conn 27,643 Brockton, Mass 13,608 Brooklyn, N.Y 566,663 Buffalo, N.Y 155,134 Burlington, lo i9i4SO Burlington, Vt 11,364 Cambridge, Mass 52,669 Camden, N-J 41,659 Canton, 12,258 Cedar Rapids, lo 10,104 Charleston, S.C 49,984 Chattanooga, Tenn 12,892 Chelsea, Mass 21,782 Chester, Penn 14,997 Chicago, III 503,185 Chicopee, Mass >'i32S Chilicothe, 10,938 Cincinnati, 255,139 Cleveland, 160,146 Cohoes, N.Y 19,416 Columbia, S.C 10,036 Columbus, 51,647 Concord, N.H 13,843 Council Bluffs, lo 18,059 Covington, Ky 29,720 Cumberland, Md. 10,693 Dallas, Tex 10,358 Danbury, Conn 11,666 Davenport, lo 21,831 Dayton, 38,678 Denver, Col 3S.629 Derby, Conn 11,650 Des Moines, lo 22,408 Detroit, Mich 116,340 Dover, N.H 11,687 Dubuque, lo 22,234 Easton, Penn 11,924 East Saginaw, Mich 19,016 Eau Claire, Wis 10,119 Elizabeth, N.J 28,229 Eimira, N.Y 20,541 Erie, Penn 27,737 Evansville, Ind 29,280 Fall River, Mass 48,961 Fitchburg, Mass 12,429 Fond-du-Lac, Wis '3,094 Fort Wayne, Ind 26,880 Galesburg, 111 ii>437 Galveston, Tex 22,248 Georgetown, D.C '2,578 Gloucester, Mass '9,329 Grand Rapids, Mich. . . . 32,016 Hamilton, 12,122 Hannibal, Mo 11,074 Harrisburg, Penn 30,762 Hartford, Conn 42,015 Haverhill, Mass 18,472 Hoboken, N.J 30,999 Holyoke, Mass 21,915 Houston, Tex 16,513 Hyde Park, 111 15,716 Indianapolis, Ind 75,056 Jackson, Mich 16,105 Jacksonville, 111 10,927 Jersey City, N.J 120,722 Joliet, 111 i6,'45 Kalamazoo, Mich ",937 Kansas City, Mo 55,785 Keokuk, lo 12,117 Kingston, N.Y 18,344 La Crosse, Wis 14,505 Lafayette, Ind. ...... 14,860 Lancaster, Penn 25,769 Lawrence, Mass 39,151 Leadville, Col 14,820 Leavenworth, Kan 16,546 Lewiston, Me 19.083 Lexington, Ky 16,656 Lincoln, Neb 13,003 Lincoln, R.I 13,765 Little Rock, Ark I3.'38 Lockport, N.Y 13,522 Logansport, Ind 11,198 Long Island City, N.Y. . . . 17,129 Los Angeles, Cal ".1S3 Louisville, Ky. '23,758 Lowell, Mass 59,475 Lynchburg, Va ' 5,959 Lynn, Mass 38,274 Macon, Ga '2,749 Madison, Wis '0,324 Maiden, Mass 12,017 Manchester, N.H 32,630 Marlborough, Mass 10,126 Memphis, Tenn 33>592 Meriden, Conn '5>54° Middletown, Conn ",732 Milwaukee, Wis "5i587 Minneapolis, Minn 46,887 Mobile, Ala 29,132 Montgomery, Ala '6,713 Muskegon, Mich 11,262 Nashua, N.H '3,397 Nashville, Tenn 43,350 New Albany, Ind 16,423 Newark, N.J '36,508 New Bedford, Mass 26,845 New Brighton, N.Y '2,679 New Britain, Conn 11,800 New Brunswick, N.J. . . . 17,166 Newburg, N.Y 18,049 Newburyport, Mass '3'538 New Haven, Conn 62,882 New London, Conn 10,537 New Orleans, La. .... 216,090 Newport, Ky 20,433 Newport, R.I 15,693 Newton, Mass 16,995 New York, N.Y 1,206,299 Norfolk, Va 21,966 Norristown, Penn 13,063 North Adams, Mass. . . . 10,192 Northampton, Mass 12,172 Norwalk, Conn 13,956 Norwich, Conn. 15,112 Oakland, Cal 34.555 Ogdensburg, N.Y 10,341 Omaha, Neb 30,518 Orange, N.J 13,207 Oshkosh, Wis 15,748 Oswego, N.Y 21,116 Paterson, N.J 51.031 Pawtucket, R.I 19,030 Peoria, 111 29,259 Petersburg, Va 21,656 Philadelphia, Penn 847,170 Pittsburg, Penn 156,389 Pittsfield, Mass 13.367 Portland, Me 33,810 Portland, Ore 17.577 Portsmouth, O. ..... 11,321 Portsmouth, Va i'.390 Pottsville, Penn '3.^53 Poughkeepsie, N.Y 20,207 Providence, R.1 104,857 Quincy, 111 27,268 Quincy, Mass. 10,529 Racine, Wis 16,031 Reading, Penn 43,278 Richmond, Ind 12,742 Richmond, Va. 63,600 Rochester, N.Y 89,366 Rockford, 111 13,129 Rock Island, 111 ".659 Rome, N.Y '2,194 Sacramento, Cal 21,420 Saginaw, Mich '0,525 Salem, Mass 27,563 Salt Lake City, Utah . . . 20,768 San Antonio, Tex 20,550 Sandusky, 15,838 San Francisco, Cal 233,959 San Jose, Cal '2,567 Savannah, Ga. 30,709 Schenectady, N.Y '3.655 Scranton, Penn 45,850 Shenandoah, Penn '0,147 Somerville, Mass 24,933 South Bend, Ind 13,280 Springfield, 111 '9.743 Springfield, Mass. 33>340 Springfield, 20,730 Stamford, Conn 11,209 Steubenville, 12,093 St. Joseph, Mo 32,431 St. Louis, Mo. 350.518 St. Paul, Minn 41.473 Stockton, Cal 10,282 Syracuse, N.Y 51.792 Taunton, Mass 21,213 Terre Haute, Ind 26,042 Toledo, 50,137 Topeka, Kan. 15,452 Trenton, N.J 29,910 Troy, N.Y 56,747 Utica, N.Y 33.914 Vicksburg, Miss 11,814 Virginia City, Nev '0,917 Waltham, Mass ".7'i Warwick, R.I 12,163 Washington, D.C '47.293 Watcrburv, Conn 17,806 Watertown, N.Y '0,697 Weymouth, Mass '0,57' Wheeling, W. Va 30,737 Wilkesbarie, Penn 23,339 Williamsport, Penn 18,934 Wilmington, Del 42,478 Wilmington, N.C 17.350 Winona, Minn 10,208 Woburn, Mass 10,931 Woonsocket, R.I 16,053 Worcester, Mass. 58,29' Yonkers, N.Y 18,892 York, Penn 13.940 Youngstown, O '5r435 Zanesville, O '8,' 13 Ixjngitude West froui ■^^ M '^Vf'' O M >s H I G f k f'^itlj ^'"SinJ/U.l **1! l^"U < ft.Buford O Ft.WillS ^UleB n \Bismarck J-^ ^f luu?at. o lo. ^ic^ ~V«/: ■i^' rrTAshis ,\>' O T j' A, j I MinneapolV niara-" .K? e,»nci8co '^ c„, R A S K A 'LINCOLN*- DES MOINE&J Council Bluffs-^Ji Bi/iiiJ: t Carson I City Ft.Scott .) ty / , , ^'i^ \M n i\l y s Jf Serp(?„"^s r . X"!'" tl'g^^-^''^ ^.-TBOUC 1 '//? »» /i^-A- /wi «, ^^ — — ^^-£ " b. y/A^i '*"IH XsZ-y ^ y// 3/ 4,i«uw.) &^'i'*-"r./>!' " w \ UJ \St.C«orfla ' / / ■y "^'a Plata] )C.San Antonio j V, SOUTH AMERICA PHYSICAL MAP ^LKLAND ISLES V/ •*:Si>». Calll«, 5 "J^Horfwi' SCALE OF MILES "'■"■' Pii""' yi^x^'^'ijitt ♦••Cj =^" A./i. -- •:>^ 1» "West S •Pe Horn MrTa*<> z*! Iiowlands Green. Highlands Buff. ,y 7 East 17 iongitndo S7 from. •7 'WMhington. 47 \ ^ 11 A.tr. NOON Zocai TYine 1 V.M. vohm Noon ' on W< Meridian s 0/ IfasAin^Tton. « "X_ =^ 64 PHYSICAL SOUTH AMERICA. 6. The river system of South America is the most extensive on the globe, and includes the Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata. From the fact that the long slope of South America is eastward from the f^::^ Andes, all the great rivers flow in that general direction into the Atlantic. The streams flowing into the Pacific are mere mountain torrents. III. CLIMATE. 7. The two climatic regions of South America are the tropical region and the tem- perate region, determined partly by latitude and partly by altitude. 8. The tropical region includes all that part which is in the lowlands of the Torrid Zone, — three-fourths of South America. 9. The temperate region includes the countries of the South Temperate Zone, which, from their latitude, have a moderate temperature ; and the high table-lands of the Andes, which, owing to their elevation, have a cool and healthful climate. 10. Rainfall. — The tropical plains of South America are remarkable for the abundant rainfall which they receive ; but little moisture falls on the Pacific slope, and for more than one thousand miles the coast is rainless. The Andes have a.Striking effect on the distribution of moisture over South America. The moisture-laden trade-winds from the east drench the wide plains from November to May ; but, in passing over the Andes south of the Equator, these winds are deprived of their moisture, and hence cause on the Pacific side a long stretch of rainless coast. North of Peru, where the mountains have less elevation, the rain-clouds pass down to the Pacific slope, and water it abundantly. Patagonia receives a copious rainfall, caused by the counter trade-winds of the Pacific. IV. VEGETATION. 11. Owing to its combination of great and continuous heat with abundant moisture, South America has wonderful richness and variety of vegetation. It may be divided into two plant-regions, of which some characteristics are,— PHYSICAL SOUTH AMERICA. 65 1^ Tropical Region. Natural Growths. — Palms, tree-ferns, the mahogany, rosewood, logwood, caout- chouc, and cinchona trees. Cultivated Products. — Coffee, cotton, sugar, tobacco, cacao, manioc, banana, sago. Temperate Region. Natural Growths. — Oak, pine, and fir trees, pampas-grass, cacti. Cultivated Products. — Maize, wheat, beans, matd-shrub, potatoes, tomatoes. V. ANIMALS. 12. Characteristics. — South America lias few of the higher types of animals ; but bird and insect life is remarkable for variety and brilliancy, and the reptiles are large and numerous. Characteristic animals of the lowlands are the puma, the jaguar, and the monkey, the boa, the tapir, and the armadillo ; and of the Andes are the llama (a beast of burden) and the condor (the largest of flying birds). 13. The domestic animals — the horse, cow, and sheep — are not native to the American continent ; and those of South America were originally introduced from Europe. VI. RESOURCES AND PRODUCTIONS. 14. The natural advantages of South America are its valuable vegeta- ble productions, its immense pasture-plains, and its rich mines of gold, silver, and precious stories. The principal productions may be thus classified: — 1. Vegetable productions : {a) cabinet-woods and dye-woods, the cocoanut and sago palms, india-rubber and medicinal plants; {b) tropical fruits; {c) the cultivated plants, as the coffee-tree, sugar-cane, &c. 2. Animal productions ; as beef, tallow, hides, horns, hair, &c., derived from the myriads of wild cattle on the vast plains. 3. Mineral productions ; namely, gold, silver, copper, and diamonds. VII. RACES OF MAN. 15. The races of South America are Indians, whites, negroes, and mixed races. The Indians are descendants of the aboriginal tribes of South America. They form a large part of the population. The whites are descendants of the Spaniards and Portuguese who took posses- sion of South America after its discovery by Columbus. The negroes are descendants of blacks brought as slaves from Africa, and form about one-fifth of the population. The mixed races come from the blending of the various races of South America, and form the greater part of the population. POLITICAL SOUTH AMERICA. 67 QUESTIONS ON THE POLITICAL MAP. I. General. — What countries of South America border on the Caribbean Sea? On the Atlantic Ocean ? On the Pacific? Through what countries do the Andes extend ? What countries are drained by the Orinoco and its tributaries ? By the Amazon ? By the La Plata and its tributaries ? What countries are crossed by the Equator? By the Tropic of Capricorn? Colombia. — What political division of North America joins Colombia on the north-west? What is the general direction of the Isthmus of Panama? What mountains in Colombia? What is the chief river of Colombia? What is the relative situation of Panama and Aspinwall? Locate Bogota. Cartagena. Venezuela. — Bound it. What great river traverses it? What boundary mountains between Venezuela and Brazil ? What lake and gulf in the northern part ? What is the capital ? Locate Maracaybo. Angostura. La Guayra. Guiana. — Bound the Guianas. What boundary mountains south ? What waters north ? Give the capital of each colony. Brazil. — Bound it. In what zone is the greater part? What is the largest river? In what latitude is the mouth of this river? What rivers form most of the western boundary of Brazil? What is the general direc- tion of the chains of the Brazilian mountain-system? Near what tropic is Rio Janeiro? Locate Bahia. Pernambuco. Paraguay and Uruguay. — Bound Uruguay, and name its capital. Bound Paraguay, and name its capital. Argentine Confederation. — Bound the Argentine Confederation. Name its largest rivers. What capes on the coast? Where is Buenos Ayres? Mendoza? Cordova? What extensive possession has the Argentine Con- federation in the south, east of the Andes ? What does the strait of Magellan separate? Chili. — Bound Chili. What islands off the coast? Between what par- allels is Chili ? What city is the capital ? Name two seaports north of Santiago. Bolivia. — Bound Bolivia. Its small sea-coast is crossed by what circle ? Of what two great rivers are its streams tributaries? What is the capital? Locate Sucre. Cochabamba. Peru. — Bound Peru. Does the greater part belong to the Andes region, or to the central plain? What great river has its head-waters in the Peruvian Andes ? What is the capital? Locate Arequipa. Cuzco. Ecuador. — Bound Ecuador. What gulf in the south-western part ? Most of the streams are tributaries of what river? What great volcanic peaks in Ecuador? Near what circle is the capital ? Locate Guayaquil. Cuenca. II. /slands. — /n what direction is it from the nearest land? By what waters surrounded? Trinidad? Falkland? Tierra del Fuego ? Chiloe? Juan Fernandez? Capes. — Wliere is it ? Into what water does it project ? Blanco (E)? Blanco (W)? GaUinas? Horn? St. Roque? Frio? Mountains. — In what part of South America are they ? Andes? Parime? Geral ? Serra do Espinhado ? Aconcagua? Sorata? Cotopaxi ? Seas, Gulfs, &c. — Where is it? Of what body of water is it an arm ? Caribbean ? Darien ? San Matias ? St. George ? Guayaquil ? Pana- ma? Strait of Magellan? Lakes. — Where is it ? Maracaybo? Titicaca? Aullagas? Rivers. — Where does it rise ? In what direction, and into what, does it flow? Amazon? Madeira? Tocantins? Magdalena? Orinoco? Rio de la Plata? Uruguay? Parana? Colorado? Negro? Cities. — In what part of the country ? How situated? Aspinwall? Maracaybo? Bogota? La Guayra? Caracas? Georgetown? Paramaribo? Cayenne? Para? Pernambuco? Rio Janeiro? Montevideo? Asuncion? Buenos Ayres? Valparaiso? Santiago? Sucre? Potosi ? Cuzco? Callao? Guayaquil? Quito? Panama? Tucuman? Rosarie? 68 POLITICAL SOUTH AMERICA. DESCRIPTION. TABLE OF SOUTH-AMERICAN COUNTRIES, POPULATION, EXPORTS, CITIES, AND GOVERNMENTS. COUNTRY. AREA. POPULATION. PRINCIPAL EXPORTS. CAPITAL. LARGEST CITY, WITH POPULATION IN EVEN THOUSANDS. SEAPORTS. GOVERNMENT. Colombia .... 320,000 3,000,000 Cotton, coffee, and cinchona-bark. Bogota Bogota, 41. 1 Cartagena. Panama. Aspinwall. Republic Venezuela .... 439.000 2,075,000 Coffee, cocoa, indigo, cattle-products (as hides, tallow, etc.). Caracas. Caracas, 55. La GuayTa. Maracaybo. Angostura. Republic. British Guiana . "1 Georgetown. Georgetown, 40. Georgetown. British Colony. Dutch Guiana i 178,000 347.000 Indigo, cocoa, sugar, coffee, spices. -^ Paramaribo. Paramaribo, 25. Paramaribo. Dutch Colony. French Guiana . J . Cayenne. Cayenne, 8. Cayenne. French Colony. Brazil 3,219,000 12,000,000 Coffee, cotton, sugar, hides, dye- woods. India-rubber, diamonds. Rio Janeiro. Rio Janeiro, 300. Rio Janeiro. Bahia. Pemambuco. Para. Constitutional Monarchy. Paraguay .... 92,000 294,000 Paraguay tea. Asuncion. Asuncion, 20. Republic. Uruguay 72,000 438,000 Cattle-products. Montevideo. Montevideo, 73. Montevideo. Republic. Argentine Confed- eration 1,095,000 2,540,000 Cattle-products. Buenos Ayres. Buenos Ayres, 290. Buenos AjTes. Republic. Chili 210,000 2,223,000 Wheat, copper ore, wool. Santiago. Santiago, 150. Valparaiso. Republic. Bolivia 500,000 2,325,000 Cinchona-bark, saltpeter, silver ore. La Paz. La Paz, 26. Republic. Peru 425,000 3,050,000 Guano, saltpeter, cinchona-bark, wool. Lima. Lima, 100. Callao. Republic. Ecuador 248,000 946,000 Cocoa, cinchona-bark, dye-stuffs. Quito. Quito, 23. Guayaquil. Republic. QUESTIONS ON THE POLITICAL TABLE. I. Which is the most populous country in South America? Which ranks next in population ? What three countries have each a population of two millions ? Which of the republics has .the smallest population ? What is the population of the European colonies ? II. The principal tropical products are cocoa, coffee, cotton, India-rubber, indigo, spices, sugar, and tobacco. What countries export coffee ? Are these all tropical countries ? What country exports cotton ? What countries export cocoa.' Indigo.' Spices? Sugar? Tobacco? What countries export cattle-products ? What connection is there between these exports and the llanos and pampas ? What countries export cinchona-bark ? What country exports copper ore ? Silver ore ? Guano ? Diamonds ? What country exports a kind of tea ? III. Name the capital, the metropolis, and the first seaport, of each of the maritime countries of South America. IV. What is the largest city of South America ? Which city is second in size ? Which countries of South America have no seaports ? Why ? Near what geographical circle is the largest city of South America ? V. What is the only monarchy in South America ? What three European countries have each a colony in South America? What nine countries df South America are republics ? RANK AND CIVILIZATION OP THE COUNTRIES. I. Colombia is the most important of the northern republics ; it has a convmanding geographical position, from its possession of the Isthmus of Panama, across which, from Panama to Aspin- wall, there is railroad communication. A proposed ship-canal will connect the Atlantic with the Pacific Ocean. II. Venezuela is a second-rank republic. III. The Guianas are mere colonial possessions, and are unimportant, except for their tropical productions. IV. Brazil ranks as the most powerful country of South America ; it has the advantages and disadvantages of a monar- chical government ; and has more trade with the United States than all other South-American countries, being connected with our country by steamer lines and telegraph. It produces most of the coffee of the world, and one-half of it comes to the United States. V. Paraguay and Uruguay are small, weak republics, that have suffered greatly from bad government, and are backward in every way. VI. The Argentine Confederation ranks next to Chili in enterprise ; it is receiving emigration from southern Europe, and has a large and increasing commerce. Education is more advanced than in any other South-American country. VII. Chili is the most enterprising of the nine Spanish- American republics ; it has a large proportion of European in- habitants ; and has built a railroad over the Andes. Education is fairly-well diffused. VIII. Bolivia is rich in mines of silver, copper, and tin. Owing to want of communication, the great natural wealth of the country is little developed. IX. Peru, a progressive republic, has several lines of rail- road and many rich silver-mines. It has suffered greatly from wars and political revolutions. X. Ecuador is a second-rank republic. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON SOUTH AMERICA. 69 .y/f^ - '.• RAILPPRD PP''"^^ i^theA^des SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. History The mainland of South America was discovered by Columbus on his third voyage, in 1498. The part of the coast at which he landed was near the mouth of the Orinoco River. The brilliant success of Cortez in the conquest of Alexico incited other Spanish adventurers to similar enterprises, through which gold and glory might be gained. Among these was Pizarro, who accomplished the conquest of Peru, then inhabited by people who had attained a considerable degree of civilization. Brazil, occupied by the Portuguese in 1549, fell successively under the dominion of Spain and Holland, but was finally recovered by Portugal in 1564. In the mean while, nearly the whole of the northern and western parts of South America had been overrun by the Spaniards. Early in the present century the Spanish colonies of South AmericTa threw off the yoke of the mother-country, and became independent republics. Brazil was erected into one of the kingdoms of Portugal, and in 1822 was proclaimed an independent empire. Social Condition. — In civilization, the South American countries occupy a secondary place. Among tlie masses of the population, education is little diffused : but there are numerous schools for the wealthier classes, and the secondary or higher education is well provided for. In the republics, political revolutions are very frequent, — a fact that greatly retards the progress of these states. There are •nit few manufactures in the South American countries ; but they supply the world . ith immense quantities of coffee, sugar, cotton, tobacco, caoutchouc, cattle prod- ucts, dye-woods, drugs, spices, and fruits. The means of interior communication ire extremely rude. In the Andes countries, transportation is effected almost entirely by pack-animals. Recently, however, considerable progress has been made ill railroad construction in various parts of South America, and there are now one or more railroads over the Andes. Among the characteristic and most valuable products of South America may be mentioned the diamond, which is extensively mined in Brazil by the process of washing, as shown in the cut, and the digging of guano, immense deposits of which are found on the Chincha Islands off the coast of Peru. The Isthmus and Cape Horn. — These two extremes of South America possess a peculiar interest. The Isthmus of Panama forms here the narrow barrier between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and in consequence of this obstacle the world's maritime commerce is required to perform the prodigious circumnavigation of the continent, a distance of ten thousand miles. Various projects of cutting an inter-oceanic canal across the isthmus engage public attention. In the mean time communication is had by a railroad — perhaps the most important short rail- road in the world — from Panama to Aspinwall, known commercially as Colon, the Spanish form of the name Columbus. Cape Horn Island, or Cape Horn, is a precipitous rock forming the southernmost of the Tierra del Fuego Islands. This southern extremity of South America is a gloomy region of fogs, rains, and storms. PHYSICAL EUROPE: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. 71 w o p:; w <^ o CO X (X O U 3 ■a W 72 PHYSICAL EUROPE. ^^. DESCRIPTION. [Area, 3,757,000 square miles. Population, 330,000,000.) I. SITUATION, EXTENT, AND OUTLINE. 1. Situation and Extent. — Although loosely called a co7i- tinent, Europe is really a western peninsula of the Eastern Continent, Asia being the main Q^ continental mass. It is the smallest of the grand divisions, its area i/^ being about the same as that of the United States. It measures about 2,500 miles from north to south, and nearly 3,500 miles in its greatest extent east and west. / 2. Outline. — The outline is exceedingly ?^ ^^' ^^^r XICQWCE , II. SURFACE AND DRAINAGE. 3. Natural Divisions. — The surface of Europe is naturally divided into two parts, — Lowland Europe in the north-east, and Highland Europe in the south-west. A diagonal line of mountain-ranges, extending from south-east to north- west (Caucasus, Carpathians, and -the mountains of Central Ger- many), forms the general dividing-line between the mountain- ^\ ous and the level portions of Europe. I 4. Lowland Europe is a great plain extending from *" /*^i. the Arctic Ocean to the Caucasus Mountains and the Black Sea, and westward from the Ural Mountains to the Bay of Biscay. 1^ It is divided into the Eastern Plain and the Western Plain. The Eastern Plain nearly coincides with Russia ; the Western Plain is occupied by northern Germany, Denmarlc, Holland, Belgium, north- ern France, and is prolonged into Great Britain. 5. The Rivers of the Eastern Plain are .■^ the longest in Europe, though most of them are commercially . r^V&i of far less ■«5^X importance ' ■*' ^- than those of te?« ys.^ western 1^^ Europe flAX , h ' ■ '^^ ■ ' .V-,v cu>i' tOWttRk""* %u^ °' ^" ROPE- irregular, being marked by numerous projections of the land, and inbreakings of the sea. These give to Europe an extent of coast-line, which, in proportion to its area, is much greater than that of any other grand division. The length of its coast is about 20,000 miles, or one linear mile of coast for every 190 square miles of surface. The three largest are the Volga (over 2,000 miles) and the Dnie- per and the Don (each about 1,000 miles). In the north-western part of the Eastern Plain is a region of great lakes, including lakes Ladoga and Onega, the largest in Europe. 6. Highland Europe has a varied surface of mountain, val- ley, and plain. 7. The main axis is formed by the Alps, which extend from the Gulf of Genoa in a curve around Northern Italy, and east- ward to the Adriatic. The Balkan Mountains, a direct continu- ation of the Dinaric Alps, prolong the main axis eastward to the Black Sea. The Alps average over two miles in height; and Mont Blanc, the loftiest elevation in Europe, ha;; a height of 15,784 feet PHYSICAL EUROPE. 73 8. Rivers of Highland Europe. — The Alps form the principal water- shed of Highland Europe ; and here rise four of the most important rivers of this section, — the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. The Danube (i,8oo miles long) is the second of the European rivers: it is the channel of the internal trade of southern Germany, Austria, and Turkey. The Rhine (880 miles long), which rises in the central Alps, and flows into the North Sea, is navigable for steamers to Basle : it is celebrated both for its pic- turesque scenery and for the many large cities on its banks. The Rhone (490 miles long) drains south-eastern France, and flows into the Medi- terranean. The Po (450 miles long), the longest river of Italy, waters the fertile plain of Lombardy. III. CLIMATE, VEGETATION, ANIMALS, ETC. 9. Climate and Vegetation. — Europe is divided into three zones of climate and vegetation, — the Southern, the Central, and the Northern. COUNTRIES. CLIMATES. VEGETATION. Southern Zone . . 1. The Southern peninsulas, Spain, Italy, Greece; 2. southern France; 3. Tur- l key. Marked by a short winter and a long summer. Semi-tropical ; as the vine, mulberry, olive, orange, lemon, fig, &c. Central Zone .... I. Middle and northern France ; 2. British Isles ; 3. Denmark ; 4. Southern Nor- way and Sweden ; 5. Ger- many ; 6. Holland ; 7. Bel- gium ; 8. Switzerland ; 9. Austria ; 10. Southern Rus- Marked by the four seasons, with a gradual transition from one to the other. The cereals, root-crops, garden and orchard products, flax, hemp, &c. Northern Zone . I. Northern Norway and Sweden ; 2. Lapland ; 3. Northern Russia. Marked by short summers, and long and severe winters. Only scanty vegetation. »asp i^^7Z_^n: ANIMALS OF EUROPE. 10. Animals. — Europe, with its ancient civilization, is the home of the domesticated, rather than the wild animals. Of the latter, however, may be mentioned the polar bear, the brown bear, reindeer, wolf, stag, deer, fox, ibex, and chamois, together with several hundred species of birds. The seas and rivers of Europe abound in fish. 11. Races. — With a few exceptions (the most important of which are the Turks, and the Magyars of Hungary, who are Mongolians), the people of Europe belong to the Caucasian race, and are divided into four families, — the Celtic, Germanic or Teutonic, Graeco-Roman, and Slavic. QUESTIONS ON THE POLITICAL MAP. — REFERENCE TABLE. 75 POLITICAL EUROPE. CONSTANTINOPLt QUESTIONS ON THE POLITICAL MAP. Islands. — In what direction is it from the nearest land? By what waters surrounded f Lofoden Islands ? Cyprus? Iceland? Sardinia? British Isles ? Cor- sica? Faroe Islands ? Sicily? Crete? Peninsulas. — From what country does it project? Into what water, or between what waters ? Crimea ? Spain and Portugal ? Denmark ? Norway and Sweden ? Greece? Italy? Capes. — Where is it ? Into ^uhat water does it project ? North? St. Vincent? Clear? Matapan ? Finisterre ? The Naze? Mountains. — JVhere are they ? Ural ? Scandinavian ? Pyrenees ? Carpathian ? Alps ? Apennines ? Seas, Oulfs, and Bays. — Where is it ? White? Black? North? Baltic? Irish? Adriatic? Gulf of Genoa? Of the Lion ? Archipelago ? Bay of Biscay ? Straits and Channels. — Between what lands? What waters does it connect? Gibraltar ? Bosporus ? Dover ? Cattegat ? English Channel ? Darda nelles ? Rivers. — Where does it rise? Through what countries, and into what body of water, does it flow ? Rhine? Volga? Don? Danube? Po? Rhone? Dwina? Dnieper? Elbe ? Vistula ? Lakes. — Where is it ? What is its outlet ? Ladoga? Onega? Peipus ? Wener? Wetter? Countries. — Where is it? How bounded? What is the capital? England? Scotland? Ireland? France? Switzerland? German Em- pire ? Austro-Hungary ? Norway ? Sweden ? Denmark ? Holland ? Belgium? Spain? Portugal? Italy? Turkey? Greece? Cities. — In what part of what country ? Rome? Athens? Constantinople? Liverpool? Hamburg? Warsaw J Moscow ? Glasgow ? Gottenburg ? Archangel ? Odessa ? Bremen ? Hammerfest ? Lyons ? Belfast ? Bucharest ? REFERENCE TABLE OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. NAMES. AREA. POPULATION. CAPITALS. LARGEST CITY, AND POPULATION. FORM OF GOVERNMENT. Great Britain and Ireland . France Square Miles. 121,600 204,080 15,910 208,690 12,740 ".370 264,950 2,165,900 299,610 14,780 193,220 34.4 'o • 114,410 50,170 18,750 3.480 24,700 13,860 35,246,000 37,672,000 2,846,000 45,234,000 4, u 4,000 5,520,000 39,196,000 85,508,000 6,497,000 1,969,000 16,343,000 4,160,000 28,459,000 T, 979,000 4,490,000 5,376,000 5,700,000 236,000 r,999,ooo 816,000 London. Paris. Berne. Berlin. The Hague. Brussels. Vienna. St. Petersburg. Stockholm. Copenhagen. Madrid. Lisbon. Rome. Athens. Constantinople. Bucharest. Belgrade. Cettigne. Sophia. Philippopolis. London (4,764,000). Paris (2,269,000). Geneva (68,000). Berlin (1,122,000). Amsterdam (328,000). Brussels (395,000). Vienna (1,103,000). St. Petersburg (876,000). Stockholm (176,000). Copenhagen (235,000). Madrid (398,000). Lisbon (246,000). Naples (494,000). Athens (63,000). Constantinople (600,000). Bucharest (221,000). Belgrade (27,000). Podgoritza (4,000). Rustchuk (27,000). Philippopolis (24,000). Constitutional monarchy. Republic. Republic. Constitutional monarchy. Constitutional monarchy. Constitutional monarchy. Constitutional monarchy. Absolute monarchy. Constitutional monarchy. Constitutional monarchy. Monarchy. Constitutional monarchy. Constitutional monarchy. Constitutional monarchy. Absolute despotism. Constitutional monarchy. Constitutional monarchy. Constitutional principality. Semi-indei)endent constitutional monarchy. Semi-independent Turkish prov- ince. Switzerland German Empire Netherlands Belgium Austro-Hungary Russia Sweden and Norway . . . Denmark Spain Portugal Italy Greece European Turkey .... Roumania Servia Montenegro Bulgaria Eastern Roumelia .... 76 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Situation. — Between what two parallels and what two meridians do the British Isles lie.' What is the longitude of Greenwich, reckoning from Washington as prime meridian? What separates England from France? What is the latitude of London ? England. — Bound England. What waters 'separate it from Ireland? What estuary {Jirth) between England and Scotland, on the west coast ? What part of England is drained by the Thames River? What rivers flow into Bristol Channel ? On what river is Liverpool ? Describe the Tyne, the H umber, the Ouse, the Avon. What mountains form a partial boundary between England and Scotland ? Which parts of England are mountainous ? Name any ranges. What coast-island in the southern part ? What two large islands in the Irish Sea ? Where is London? Where is Liverpool? What city about thirty miles east of Liverpool ? Where is Sheffield ? Bir- mingham ? Bristol ? Newcastle ? Oxford ? Wales. — Bound Wales. What bay on the west? What channel south ? What mountain-chain occupies most of Wales ? Name a peak. What island is separated from Wales by Menai Strait? Where is Menhyr-Tydvil ? Swansea? Cardiff? Scotland. — Bound Scotland. What separates it from Ireland ? What is the general character of the coast ? Name the most important estuaries (firths) on the east coast. On the west coast. What group of islands west ? What groups north ? What mountain-range toward the central part of Scot- land ? Where is Ben Lomond ? Ben Nevis ? Where is the River Clyde ? The Tweed ? Locate Edinburgh. Glasgow. Aberdeen. Dundee. Ireland. — What waters divide Ireland from the island of Great Britain? Which is nearer the United States,- — Ireland or England ? Where is Done- gal Bay ? What bay in the east-central part ? Through what lakes (lotighs) does the Shannon flow? Where is Cape Clear? Bantry Bay? Galway Bay ? What two lakes in the north of Ireland ? Where is Limerick ? Dublin ? Cork ? Belfast ? Valentia Island is the terminus of one of the Atlantic telegraph cables : where is that island ? Where is Queenstown ? GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in- cludes the island of Great Britain (in wfiich are comprised England, Scotland, and Wales), the island of Ireland, and numerous small adjacent islands. 2. British Empire. — The name British Empire is applied to the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and its numerous colonies and possessions in various parts of the world. One- sixth of the entire human race, scattered over nearly one-sixth of the globe, is under British rule. The most important of the British colonies are the Dominion of Canada, Australia, and British India. 3. Natural Wealth. — Its vast deposits of coal, iron, and other minerals, its productive soil, its extent of seacoast, its great number of good harbors, and its central situation for the commerce of the world, are the principal sources of the wealth and power of Great Britain. 4. Manufactures. — Great Britain's immense supply of coal and iron has rendered that country, since the invention of the steam-engine and steam-machinery, the greatest of manufactur- ing countries. The chief manufactures are those of cotton, wool, silk, iron, leather, and earthenware. 5. Agriculture. — Great attention is paid to scientific agri- culture, the principal crops being wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, hops, and garden and orchard products. The agricultural prod- uce, though considerable in amount, is not sufficient to feed the population, and the deficiency has to be yearly supplied by the importation of breadstuffs from abroad. 6. Commerce. — Commercially, Great Britain ranks as the foremost of countries. Its trade consists largely in exchanging manufactured goods for cotton, wool, and other raw material, and for food-staples and articles of luxury. To carry on this vast exchange, 40,000 vessels, manned by 300,000 sailors, are employed. 7. Government. — Great Britain is a constitutional monar- chy. The laws are made by Parliament, which is composed of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The mem- bers of the former body hold their seats by right of birth ; the members of the latter are elected as representatives of the various counties and towns of the United Kingdom. 8. Cities. — In England the six largest cities are London, Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, and Sheffield. London, the capital of the kingdom, and the metropolis 01 the British Empire, is the largest and wealthiest city on the globe, and is the financial center of the world's commerce. It covers 122 square miles, and has a population of 4,000,000. Manchester is the leading city of the world in the manufac- ture of cotton goods. Liverpool ranks in commerce as the second city, and is the chief seaport for the American trade : its magnificent docks extend many miles, and contain the ships of every nation. Birmingham is the greatest city of the world for the manufacture of engines, machinery, and hardware. Leeds is the greatest woolen manufacturing city ; it also makes thread, glass-ware, steam-engines, and machinery. Sheffield is noted for its manufacture of cutlery, and steel and plated ware. In Wales, Merthyr-Tydvil, the leading commercial city, and Swansea, noted for its mining, are the two chief places. In Scotland, Glasgow is the largest city and the chief manu- facturing and commercial center. Edinburgh is the literary metropolis. Dundee and Aberdeen rank next in importance. In Ireland, Dublin and Belfast are the largest cities : the for- mer is the capital ; the latter is noted for its extensive manu- facture of linen goods. REFERENCE TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL BRITISH COLONIES. ' Gibraltar. Dominion of Canada. In Europe . . Malta. Newfoundland. ' Hindostan. British Honduras. In Asia . . . . Burmah. Ceylon. Hong-Kong. In America . Jamaica. Trinidad. Barbadoes. Cyprus. Aden. Singapore. Cape Colony. The Bahamas. The Bermudas. British Guiana. Falkland Islands. Sierra Leone. In Africa . . . Gold Coast. Natal. r Australia. St. Helena. In Oceania . i Tasmania. Mauritius. I New Zealand. SHETLAND IHLKS ORKNEY IS. Sam€ Scale as Map rovL u% ORKNEY ISLES Wi •TOAfll ^ "■ BON ILMMA IFA i \8TBOH»A J*~"npuncan»byHd /.0(<(( 11 »" A.3f. 11 «• "■*«! A. -kwull — A'ooii at 12 Ortenwich llfU) _y^ "«W LjSOUImQL i^ fe 6 ..-..^ 60 .$ CIO i.v< Jul ♦ X Mafin J Head_ '%x? KWUIl ' • ■ 4 gg'^Cry^"""'"* » We»t Longitude O Ea« Longitude « 1 O-'Vn^gfcyi-frll. I I I Duncsnsby Head AND SCALC OP MILtS innairdt Head 10 SO Coalfield* indicated tha o R Slyne Head V. Tullaiiipr, " 2T(7J)I ISLE Dou iioij'liei •orthy iVt;xfl>rd Cj ^ Landi Endg I>jugitude (iU lyist 30 li Local Time /^.J/. iw ir/'**;i JV'ocfn Witshiitifton at 160 i}'»«A/»y/on 78 FRANCE AND SWITZERLAND. FRANCE AND S^^^ITZERLAND. Longitude West 4 from Greenwicli 2 i Xonffitude East 6 from Grtenwicli 8 l^onp^itud -. >- -. , [ . — J . ■ . l^J- Ea^t Irei^^^^^ .;y ,.- ^C.CiauiSt ■Washington 83 CORSICA Same Seal« QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. FRANCE. Situation. — On liow many borders has France a natural boundary ? What is this boundary on the north? The west? The south? What country north-east of France? What countries east? Is most of France east, or west, of the meridian of Greenwich ? Measure by the scale of miles the greatest extent of France from north to south. From east to west. Outline. — What waters wash the north-western and western coasts of France ? Of what ocean are these arms ? What sea on the south ? What capes (or points) project from the north-western and western coasts ? From the southern coast? What group of islands off the north-west coast? To what power do these islands belong ? Ans. To Great Britain. What large island in the Mediterranean belongs to France? Ans. Corsica. In what town in this island was Napoleon Bonaparte born? Ans. In Ajaccio. Mountains What mountains border France on the south ? What small republic in the Pyrenees? Ans. The republic of Andorra. What moun- tain-range between France and Switzerland? Between France and Italy? What peak just south of latitude 46° is on the border line between France and Italy? For what is Mont Blanc remarkable? Ans. It is the loftiest summit of the Alps (15,784 feet). What other noted mountain south-east of Mont Blanc ? What mountain-ranges are in the interior of France ? Rivers. — What large river flows into the English Channel? What are its principal tributaries ? What two large rivers flow into the Bay of Biscay? What large river flows into the Gulf of the Lion ? (Describe each of these rivers by stating where it rises, in what direction, and into what body of water, itjiows.) Cities. — What cities are on the Seine River? Which is the capital? What city is its port ? Where are Cherbourg and Brest, important naval stations ? Where is Toulon, the great naval dockyard of France ? What large city on the Loire ? On the Garonne ? On the Rhone ? What seaport on the Gulf of the Lion ? What large city near the Belgian border ? What large city south-west of Lyons ? SWITZERLAND. What countries surround Switzerland ? What can you say of its seacoast ? What is the nature of its surface? What great mountain-system covers most of Switzerland? What mountain-range on its north-western border ? What noted mountain-peak in the central part? In the south-western part? What lake on the north-eastern border? What lake on the south-western border? Name three other Swiss lakes. What two large rivers rise in Switzerland ? Describe their course. What is the capital ? What city on Lake Geneva? Locate Basle. Zurich. FRANCE AND SWITZERLAND. 79 FRANCE. 1. Extent and Rank. — In area France is somewhat larger than California, but not so large as Texas. It ranks as one of the oldest, most powerful, and most highly civilized nations of Europe. 2. Climate and Vegetation. — The climate varies from cool- temperate, in the north, to warm-temperate, in the south. In passing from the English Channel to the Mediterranean Sea, the character of the vegetation shows the gradual rise of tem- perature. The north is the land of wheat ; the center, the land of the vine ; and the south, the land of the olive. 3. Occupations. — The principal occupations are agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce. 4. Agriculture. — About three-fifths of the population are engaged in agricultural occupations, and about one-half of the whole country is under the plow. The principal objects of cultivation are, in the northern section, grains and root-crops, with hemp and flax ; in the central and southern sections, maize and the vine and olive, together with the mulberry-tree, on the leaves of which the silk-worm feeds. 5. Manufactures. — In the extent and value of her man- ufacturing industry France ranks second only to Great Britain. The leading manu- factures are : (i) Wine, of which France produces more than any other country ; (2) Silks and satins, in the manufac- ture of which it surpasses all other countries; (3) Broadclotlts and cassi- meres of the finest qual- ity ; (4) Articles of taste and fas/lion, such as jewelry, watches, ribbons, laces, shawls, gloves, hats and bonnets, artificial flowers, porcelain, per- fumery, etc. 6. Commerce. — The foreign com- merce of France consists principally in the importation of raw material and tropical productions, and the exportation of manufactured arti- cles and the produce of her vineyards. 7. Government. — '■ F" ranee is a republic. 8. Cities. — Paris is second only to London in wealth and trade. It is the most beautiful and attractive of cities, and is the world's THE MATTERHORN, SWITZERLAND. center of modern art, fashion, and pleasure, as London is of commerce. It is distinguished for its magnificent public buildings, public gardens, and places of amusement, and for its great libraries, museums, art-galleries, and scientific schools, as also for the manufacture and sale of articles of art, orna- ment, and fashion. Lyons is the second city in rank, and the chief seat for the manufacture of silks, satins, and velvets. Marseilles is the principal seaport, and has varied manufac- tures, and extensive trade in silks, wines, brandies, etc. Bordeaux is the depot of the red-wine trade. Lisle is noted for its manufacture of cotton and linen goods. Foreign Possessions. — The principal foreign possessions of France are: (I) Algeria in Africa; (2) French Guiana; (3) Martinique and Guadaloupe in the West India Islands; (4) The Marquesas Islands and New Caledonia in Polynesia, and Corsica in the Mediterranean. SWITZERLAND. I. Area and Surface. — Switzerland, the area of which is about one-third that of the state of New York, is the most mountainous country in Europe. 2. Occupations. — Grain and the vine are cultivated in the lower valleys ; but stock-raising and dai- rying give employ- ment to the majority of the inhabitants. The numerous rapid mountain-streams af- ford cheap and abun- dant water - power. The chief manufac- tures are cottons, woolens, linens, silks, watches, jewelry, and wood-carvings. 3. Government. — Switzerland is a fed- eral republic, com- prising twenty -two small states, called cautofts. The legislative func- tion is vested in a Federal Assembly (corresponding to our Congress), consist- ing of a National Council (like our House of Repre- sentatives), and a Council of States, or Senate, both elective. 4. Cities. — Gene- va, Zurich, and Basle, the largest cities, are the principal manu- facturing and com- mercial places. Berne is the capital. 8o GERMAN EMPIRE, NETHERLANDS, AND BELGIUM. GERMAN EMPIRE, NETHERLANDS, AND BELGIUM. NETHERIiANDS AXD BELGIUM, j t. SCALE OF MILES s r: A la 30 50 100 A ABORNHOLM L Ten, Cape Arcona <- ^ \Siolpe -binizic^ ^^ •^*<. L« >i^l'^ 4Glwk,t«a, V? Starpvra -f — ^'•.a. ^. Opi^lw l^eiss* l\GWl»it* V» 'CarUbatl 1 Schawnbor;g Lippe. 2 Lippe-DetmoJd. S AnhalL 4 Scbwurburg-Soiuler- 5 Waldeck. Hoheozollem. 7 S&xe Coburg-Gotba. 8 " MeiDlngeii. 9 " Weimar. 10 '* Altttibarg. 11 Reuu-Grdtz. 13 " Schleitx. It ScbwsRboir Rotlol- U 31^ 0^_ c s; ' " E r ■« ■-' '5 •=! . 9 (^ (y rt £/: *^ « C t- rt < I < £ £ 1 .2 p, "^ -2 « S t 3 -a " -a c „ rt ''^ — CL. W ^ <- ■^ 2 .a o cj .5 to ^ > 1^ O n u) ^^ 4) J3 >- MS o .2 O U n ^1?-" ? ^ < ? I ^^- f-^ Et; 7\ v:^ T* m > > rt S ~ -a 2 i^ ^^ on > rt in S 11 "5 s en .X .M a; •< .- -2 ^ O o.. rt -a r .jn o fciD- o 'o 3 B ^ ^ «- -,^01;; Q^ c. c^, r^ C t/] rt rt -iJ 0,-0 <; (L) *U c rt rt XI tj ^ X- -^ ^ -^ o o te J (U rt .:3 O .-• U ^5 rt rt rt i; rt *-. -7; SJOr M O ■ 1^ - 1 o a o « C 'rt .2 t! O " ^ a. c oj tc o w — -~ rt oj »; J ^ »M CT" ■*-• S 8 "^^ 11 4) be (U 5 .a n! c! J= a ^ 42 ;? .! IS o f: tc <; n ^ bo (ft o « rt — •3 a. O 4J 1:i ft- -S U == ~ :5 6 •i: rt u tr. is r\— 1m .2 c rt C ■^ u '■^ J= rt t; _^ A OJ c "a c .— c .£ 01 C 0^ u 3 (\., rt 0) G "o (U e CJ CJ W-1 1-. rt — ■£ H < ^. ^ 4; iS .S ^ r .< > o >- a. 4> E £ ^. 4) in ^ C 6 4J •= . 4) ^ *- CJ ^ — .3 c.^-c^g-;: O rt rt.. ^ < ^ ri -a c -0 C b« ;r S i: ;:= o < O O K c o ;^ o S -c ^ 4J ^ 88 PHYSICAL ASIA. DESCRIPTION, [Area. 17.212,000 square mites. Population, 795,000,000.] SITUATION, EXTENT, AND OUT- LINE. 1. Situation. — Asia forms the main continental mass of the Eastern Con- tinent, Europe and Africa being merely great peninsulas. 2. Extent. — Asia is the largest of the grand divisions, comprising one- third of the land surface of the globe. 3. Outline. — The coast is deeply indented on every side, though not to the same degree as that of Europe. II. SURFACE. 4. Natural Divisions. — The sur- face of Asia is naturally divided into three parts : Lowland Asia, Highland Asia, and the great southern penin- sulas. 5. Lowland Asia is principally comprised in the great Plain of Sibe- ria and the Plain of Turkestan. It extends from Behring Strait in a south- westerly direction to the low level of the Caspian Sea. 6. Highland Asia includes the vast region between Lowland and peninsu- lar Asia, and extends from the Plateau of Arabia in the south-west to Kamt- chatka in the north-east. 7. Its Character. — In this belt are the loftiest mountain-chains and the most elevated plateaus on the globe. The great mass of Central Asia, com- prising three-fifths of the whole, con- sists of high plateaus, intersected by mountain-ranges, some of whose peaks rise to a height of five miles. From the central plateaus the sur- face descends by a series of slopes to the vast Plain of Siberia on the north, the Plain of China on the east, and to the great peninsulas on the south. 8. Mountain-Systems. — The nu- cleus of the mountain-systems of Asia is on the Plateau of Thibet, called by the Orientals " the roof of the world." The principal mountain-chains radiat- ing from this center are divided into four groups: (1) the Altai System; (2) the Hindoo Koosh ; (3) the Hima- layas ; and (4) the Armenian Group. The Altai System separates the Plain of Siberia from the Plateau of Mongolia. The Hindoo Koosh, with its eastward ex- tension the Kuen Lun Mountains, separates the Desert of Gobi from the Plateau of Thibet, and divides the Plain of Turkestan from the Plateau of Iran. The Himalayas, from the extreme western point (where the Indus cuts through the sys- tem) to the Brahmapootra, are 2,000 miles in length, with an average breadth of nearly 200 miles. In the middle of the range rises the stupendous peak of Mount Everest (or Gaurisankar) 29,002 feet above the sea-level, with several others of slightly less elevation. The Armenian Group, of which Mount Ararat is the culminating point, lies in parallel folds at the head of the Plateau of Asia Minor, between the Caspian, the Black, and the Medi- terranean seas. 9. Plateaus. — The principal pla- teaus are: Thibet, from 15,000 to 16,000 feet in altitude ; Mongolia and the Desert of Gobi; Iran (Persia), Asia Minor, and the Deccan. • TiCER HUNT IN (NOIA ANIMALS OF ASIA. PHYSICAL ASIA. 89 1 1. Climate and Vegetation. — The climate of Asia is couttuental, tiiat is, it is subject to great extremes of heat and cold; and the temperature is not modified to so great an extent as in Europe by the influence of the ocean. Asia is divided into three zones of climate and vegetation, — Li.c southern or tropical, the middle or temperate, and the northern or cold, principal characteristics of each are presented in the following table : — COUNTRIES. Southern Zone . Central Zone Northern Zone . The southern peninsulas, Arabia India, Indo- China, and part of China. I. The vast plateau region, including most of China. 2. Turkestan. 3. Af- ghanistan. 4. Persia. 5. Turkey. I . The greater part of Si- beria. 2. Kamtchatka. CLIMATE. Tropical. Marked by the four sea- sons, with regular changes from one to the other. Marked by long, cold win- ters, and short sum- mers. VEGETATION. Rice, cotton, sugar-cane, and tropical fruits; the poppy (opium) and spices; the palm, bamboo, and huge banyan. Tea, wheat, oats, barley, rye, and the fruits of the Tem- perate Zone. Forest trees : oak, pine, etc. The usual scanty vegetation of the Arctic Zone. 12. Animals. — Among the characteristic animals of Asia are the tiger, elephant, and rhinoceros ; the tapir, buffalo, and camel ; many species of monkeys, pheasants, and peacocks ; together with the crocodile and the python, a great snake. 13. Civilization. — The extreme northern zone is thinly inhabited by ^.i .jie^^-^^^ hunters and fishermen, and the great central plateaus can support only a ^jjv^I^iw nomadic or semi-civilized population. The fertile plains of China and tropi- " I ^'' y cal Asia are the great seats of population, and are rich in natural resources. In this region, civilized nations have existed for thousands of years ; but this civilization has long been stationary, /te^. and the swarms of common people are ignorant and degraded. F^ir> VICETATION NORTH TEMPERATE ZONE POLITICAL ASIA. 91 < < O I— I h l-H o 0. a e o ^ ^ ^ fci 0. E V Ti l-l i; vi ■^K -*-• « w 1 rv. 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H ■S ^ " "2 >> c L_l ™ 1__| V to ~ ™ ,__, "-^ 2 e2 -a CL. < ^ u to 3 ^ l-H I w :Ha,HXp3Suu«HS« 92 ASIATIC RUSSIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN. DESCRIPTION. ASIATIC RUSSIA. I. Divisions. — Asiatic Russia comprises the vast region of Siberia, together with Russian Turkestan and Trans-Caucasia. 1. Siberia, larger in area than Europe, occupies the whole of the great Northern Plain of Asia. It consists almost entirely of steppes and marshes, across which the Obi, Yenesei, and Lena Rivers wind their sluggish way to the Arctic Ocean. The climate is very cold, except in the southern part ; and winter reigns more than half the year. II. Russian Turkestan extends from the Altai and Thian Shan Moun- tains westward to the Caspian Sea. HI. Trans-Caucasia includes the country lying between the Caucasus Moun- tains (a dividing-line between Europe and Asia) and Asiatic Turkey. The Caucasus range rises above the snow-line, and Elburz, its high- est summit, reaches 18,572 feet. In the southern part, on the border of Persia and Turkey, is Mount Ararat, 17,200 feet high. 2. Siberia. — Siberia has numerous animals whose furs are valuable, as the seal and the ermine ; its waters abound in fish ; and the rich mines yield gold, silver, copper, platinum, and iron. There is a large overland tea-trade with China. Of the population, of about four millions, three-fourths consist of Mongolian tribes, savage and degraded ; while Russian exiles and their descendants, together with Russian troops and officials, consti- tute the remainder. Irkutsk, Tobolsk, and Tomsk, are the chief places. Kiachta is the entrepot of trade with China. 3. Russian Turkestan. — Russian Turkestan contains several petty states called Khanates : the most important are Bokhara and Khiva, with cities of the same names. Bokhara, from its caravan trade, is an important point in Central Asia. 4. Trans-Caucasia. — The people of Trans-Caucasia belong to the Caucasian race, and are much celebrated (especially the women) for their beauty. The trade consists in the export of wine, silk, furs, honey, and cattle, in exchange for arms, salt, and European manufactured goods. Tiflis is the capital and largest city. CHINESE EMPIRE. 1. Extent and Population. — The territory of the Chinese Empire is larger than the whole of Europe, and its population (about 400,000,000) numbers one-third that of the globe. 2. Divisions. — This vast empire includes China Proper, with Mantchooria, Mongolia, Soongaria, Thibet, and Corea. 3. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants of the Chinese Empire all belong to the Mongol race, though they present great differ- ences of appearance in the several parts of the empire. 4. The leading industries are agriculture, comprising the production of rice and millet for food, and of tea and silk for domestic use and export ; and manufactures, which are con- fined principally to cotton cloths, silks, shawls, porcelain, and carved ivory. Tea. — The tea-plant is an evergreen shrub growing five or six feet high. The leaves are gathered, and dried in shallow pans placed over charcoal fires. Tea has been used in China as a drink from time immemorial. It was introduced into Europe about two hundred years ago, and has become a universal beverage. Silk. — The art of rearing silk-worms and of unraveling the threads of cocoons was first practiced by the Chinese. From China the silk culture extended to Hindostan, thence to Greece, next to Italy, France, and Spain, and finally to California, completing the circuit of the land surface of the globe. Silk is a common article of dress in China for men as well as for women. Chinese silk is all woven in hand-looms. 5. Commerce. — The internal trade is immense, and is car- ried on by means of the great rivers and long canals. The foreign trade is limited chiefly to exporting tea, silk, rice, etc. 6. Government and Religion. — The government of China is an absolute and despotic monarchy. The emperor is regarded as the representative of Deity, and as the supreme master of the lives and fortunes of his subjects. The religion most prev- alent is Buddhism, there styled the religion of Fo. Civilization. — The Chinese are a people remarkable for their extreme dislike to any kind of innovation. They appear to have attained at a very early period to a certain degree of civilization, and were acquainted with many discoveries, arts, and appliances which have been thought modern, as the mariner's compass, the use of gunpowder, the arts of printing, paper- making, etc. But they have advanced little beyond the condition in which they were two thousand years ago. Education is compulsory, and learning is the necessary qualification for obtaining office, or arriving at distinction of any kind. But the education is merely one of form and routine, in which the memory is the principal object of cultivation. 7- Subject Countries. — Thibet, Mongolia, and Mantchooria are vast and thinly inhabited regions, chiefly occupied by pas- toral tribes whose chiefs own, in many cases, only a nominal subjection to the Chinese government. Corea is a separate kingdom under its own sovereign, but tributary to China. 8. Cities. — Peking, the capital and largest city, is unpaved and undrained, with filthy, narrow streets, and low, mean houses. Shanghai is the first, and Canton the second city, in foreign commerce. Yo-Chow is the chief seat of the domestic com- merce, and Kin-te-ching of the porcelain manufacture. JAPAN. 1. Japan is an island empire. Japan (in the native language Dai Nippon) consists of four large and many small islands. 2. Occupations. — Agriculture, horticulture, and various manufactures, are carried on with much skill. The principal exports are tea and silks, lacquered ware, bronzes, and wood carvings. 3. Government. — The government is a constitutional mon- archy, under an emperor called the Mikado. 4. Civilization. — The Japanese are the most highly civil- ized and the most progressive people of the Mongol race. They are now rapidly introducing railroads, telegraphs, and improved machinery of all kinds, and have public and scientific schools under European and American instruction. Japan, like China, kept itself aloof for ages from other nations ; but in 1854 the United States sent a large naval e.vpedition, under command of Commodore Perry, who induced the Japanese Government to make a treaty by which the ports of Simoda and Hakodadi were opened for trade, and by which United States consuls were allowed to reside in Japan. A little later similar privileges were allowed to England, France, and Russia. 5. Cities. — Tokio is the capital and largest city, and the chief seat of the domestic trade. Yokohama, its seaport, is the chief seat of the foreign trade. Kioto and Osaka are large and important cities. INDO-CHINA. — BRITISH INDIA. 93 INDO-CHINA. 1. Divisions. — Indo-China is chief- ly divided between three native states, — the Kingdom of Burmah, the King- dom of Siam, and the Empire of Anam. In addition to these countries, Indo-China includes British Burmah, Lower Cochin- China (a dependency of France), and several petty native states. 2. Inhabitants. — The Indo-Chinese form a race intermediate between the Hindoos and the Chinese. They are below both the Hindoo and Chinese in industrial skill, and have made less progress in civilization. In the south- ern part of the peninsula the people belong to the Malay race. 3. Government. — The native gov- ernments are of the most despotic kind, the laws sanguinary, and the mass of the people in a state of ab- solute slavery. Buddhism is the prevailing religion. 4. Commerce. — All the Indo-Chinese coun- tries carry on an extensive trade with China, and also with British India. This is chiefly a maritime traffic, though the Burmese have a large overland intercourse with China. The principal exports are timber and orna- mental woods, raw silk and cotton, gums, wax, cardamoms, and edible birds'- nests. 5. Cities. — The principal cities are Bankok, the capital and largest city of Siam ; Mandalay, the capital of Burmah ; and Hu6, the capital of Anam. Saigon is the chief seat of French power in Indo-China. In Bankok, the largest city of Indo-China, half the pop- ulation live on bamboo rafts, arranged like streets. ASIATIC RACES. BRITISH INDIA. I. Divisions. — British India com- prises the greater part of Hindostan (generally called India), British Bur- mah, and the Straits Settlements. 1. The name Hindostan, strictly speaking, is confined to the Great Plain of the Ganges and Indus, but is commonly applied to the whole of India. The parts not under British dominion include three independent states, — Cashmere, Nepal, and Bootan, — and various " Protected States." II. British Burmah consists of an extensive tract along the west coast of Indo-China. III. The Straits Settlements comprise the three territories of Penang island, Ma- lacca, and Singapore, and form a sepa- rate British colony. 2. Hindostan, or India, the central peninsula of Asia northward to the Himalaya Mountains, has an area half as great as that of the United States. 3. Inhabitants. — India is inhabited 'f by about 255,000,000 of people, most of whom are Hindoos, and belong to the Cauca- sian race. 4. Government. — India is under the rule of a Viceroy appointed by the Queen of England, who is "Empress of India." The British maintain their power by a standing army made up mostly of natives, or Sepoys, commanded by Eng- lish officers. Brahminism is the prevailing religion ; but there are many Buddhists, and some Mohammedans and Parsees. The sacred books of the Brahminic religion, called the Vedas, were written at least twenty-five hundred years before the Christian era. 5. Occupations. — Agriculture is the leading industry. The great staples are rice, which is the principal article of food, and cotton, jute, silk, opium, and indigo, which are raised for export. $4 POLITICAL ASIA. Fine silk and cotton fabrics, with shawls and various articles of ornamental attire, constitute the chief products of Indian manufacturing skill. " 6. Commerce. — The importation of manufactured goods (principally from England), and the export of raw produce (chiefly cotton, opium, indigo, and rice), are the distinguishing features of Indian commerce. The recent introduction of railroads has greatly aided in developing the inland trade. 7. Cities. — Calcutta is the capita] of British India, and the chief seat of commerce. Bombay is the largest city, and the principal port for the English and French lines of steamers by way of the Suez Canal. Madras is the principal city on the south-east coast. Singapore (in the Straits Settlements), on the island of the same name, is one of the most important commer- cial stations in Southern Asia. The possession of Singapore and the two otlier Straits Settlements gives the British the command of the Strait of Malacca, the direct line of communication with China and Japan. AFGHANISTAN AND BELOOCHISTAN. 1. Description. — These countries occupy a high desert pla- teau, traversed by mountain-ridges, and dotted with oases. The fertile parts comprise several khanates, inhabited by a settled population ; but the majority of the people consists of fierce, wandering, and warlike tribes, who live in tents, and depend for subsistence mainly on their herds of horses, goats, asses, and camels. 2. Cities. — Cabul is the capital and largest city of Afgha- nistan. Herat is a great center of caravan traffic, and is im- portant from its situation on the main route from Western Asia to India. Kelat is the capital and largest place in Beloochistan. PERSIA. 1. Description. — The great- er part of Persia is a plateau, marked by sandy and salt des- erts ; but along the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea is a lowland region. 2. Inhabitants. — Of its popu- lation of five millions, about one- third are wandering shepherds ; the remainder are a tolerably civilized people, who are en- gaged in agriculture and manu- factures. 3. Commerce. — The chief exports are silks, shawls, car- pets, pearls, rose-water, and as- safetida. 4. Government. — The gov- ernment is a monarchy, under ; ruler called the Shah, and is less despotic in its administration than most of the other Asiatic governments. KHYBER PASS, BETWEEN INDIA AND AFGHANISTAN. Considerable progress has recently been made in civilization in Per- sia : railroads and telegraphs have been introduced, and efforts to promote education hav? been made. 5. Cities. — Teheran is the capital ; Tabreez, the chief seat of commerce ; Bushire, the chief seaport. ARABIA. 1. Physical Features. — Arabia consists of an interior pla- teau with fertile valleys, of extensive deserts in the north and south, and of a narrow belt of lowland along the greater part of the coast, mostly arid, but containing some productive re- gions. 2. Inhabitants. — The Arabs are divided between dwellers in towns, and inhabitants of the desert. The latter, called Bedouins, constitute numerous tribes, each under its own chief, or sheik. They lead a wandering life, changing the site of their encampment according to the necessity of finding pasturage for their flocks. The Bedouins look with contempt upon the settled pursuits of those who live in towns. 3. Divisions. — The settled or civilized part of Arabia in- cludes several political divisions, of which the most important are Hedjaz and Yemen on the western coast, Oman on the south-eastern coast, and !^fedjed in the interior. I. Hedjaz, or the land of pilgrimage, is a province of the Turkish Empire. It contains the two sacred Mohammedan cities, Mecca and Medina. II. Yemen, occupying the remainder of the Red Sea coast, is the most fertile part of Arabia. It is under Turkish dominion. III. Oman, occupying the region between the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, is divided among several native rulers, the most powerful of whom is the Sultan of Oman (commonly called the Imam of Muscat). IV. Nedjed is the most important of the native states, and is ruled by a - " ^ " " -it breed of Arabian horses. 4. Commerce. — The princi- pal exports of Arabia are coffee, dates, gum-arabic, myrrh, frank- incense, some aromatic and me- dicinal drugs, and pearls. The traffic of the country is con- siderable, and is carried on by means of caravans. The camel is the prin- cipal beast of burden employed. 5. Cities. — Mecca and Me- dina are the two principal cities in Hedjaz. Mecca was the birthplace of Mo- hammed, and Medina the place of his death. Mohammed, the great religious teacher of the Arabs, lived in the sixth century, A.D., and wrote his doctrines in the Koran, the sacred book of his followers. All " true believers " are enjoined to visit Mecca at least once in their lives. Caravans of pilgrims from all parts of Arabia, from eastern Asia, and from northern Africa, re- sort each year to this holy city for the purpose of combining trade with re- ligion. Sana is the chief city in Ye- men. Mocha, formerly a con- lerable port, is now in ruins, iiscat is the capital of Oman, and Riad of Nedjed. ASIATIC TURKEY. —MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. 95 ASIATIC TURKEY. 1. Situation. — Asiatic Turkey comprises the western part of Asia, and includes the seat of many ancient nations, among which are Phoenicia, the Holy Land, the states of Asia Minor, Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldaea. 2. Divisions. — Asiatic Turkey is divided into various prov- inces ruled by pachas, or governors. 3. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants differ widely in race, lan- guage, and religion. The majority are Mohammedans, prin- cipally Turks in Asia Minor, and Arabs in the provinces to the south. The Christians are, for the most part, Greeks and Armenians. 4. Industries. — Though the soil is highly productive, agri- culture is little practiced, except near large towns, the country being infested with bands of robbers. The manufactures of silk, cotton, and leather are of considerable importance ; but, generally speaking, there is great stagnation of industry and enterprise, and civilization is at a low ebb. 5. Commerce. — The chief exports are opium,^ tobacco, attar-of-roses, figs, dates, silk, and leather. The imports of Asiatic Turkey are chietiy from Great Britain, and include cotton and woolen goods, hardware, glass, and metals. The means of internal communication are very defective : there are few regular roads, and travelers have to unite themselves in companies or caravans for mutual protection. 6. Cities. — Smyrna, in Asia Minor, is the largest city in Asiatic Turkey, and the chief emporium of the Levant (coun- tries bordering the eastern shore of the Mediterranean). Damascus, the largest city in Syria, is the great depot of the caravan trade. Beyrout, the port of Damascus, is the most flourishing of the Syrian towns. Bagdad, on the Tigris, is famed for its bazaars. Jerusalem, called by the modern in- habitants El-Koods ("the Holy "), is the most prominent point of interest in the Holy Land. Jerusalem, which is situated on a rocky plateau, contains about fifteen thousand^ inhabitants. The several religious sects — Christians, Turks, and Jews — occupy different quarters of the city, which is surrounded by a wall, and entered by four gates. MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. DESCRIPTION. 1. Situation. — The Malay Archipelago, or Malaysia, includes the numerous islands and island-groups situated between south- eastern Asia and Australia. They are entirely within the tropics. Among the vast multitude of islands in Malaysia the largest and most important are, — Borneo, 270,000 square miles. Java, 45,000 square miles. Sumatra, 150,000 square miles. Philippine Islands, 100,000 square miles. Celebes, 72,000 square miles. Moluccas, 25,000 square miles. 2. Physical Features. — These islands are all mountainous, abounding in active and extinct volcanoes, and are subject to frequent earthquakes. Great heat and moisture, the former tempered by the sea-breezes, are the characteristics of the climate, and consequently the vegetation is varied and lux- uriant. 3. Plants and Animals. — The forest-trees yield a variety of valuable woods, such as ebony, teak, sandal-wood, etc., and of useful gums, of which India-rubber and gutta-percha are the most important. Among food-plants are the cocoa and sago palms, and the banana, arum, yam, and mango. Among the wild animals are the elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buffalo, orang- outang, monkeys, and birds of gorgeous plumage. 4. Population. — The population of the Malay Archipelago is about 30,000,000. The natives belong to the Malay race, but present many varieties. They are mostly Mohammedans, and are divided into numerous petty states. Many of the native races possess written languages ; but their literature is very inferior to that of either the Chinese or the Hindoos. The natives are strongly addicted to maritime pursuits, and are in many cases inveterate pirates, though a great deal of the peaceful commerce of the Archipelago is also in the hands of the Malay nations. These people are of a brown color, with lank hair ; they wear little clothing, live chiefly on rice, fruits, and fish, and dwell in bamboo houses, perched on pillars to raise them above the water. All classes smoke tobacco, and chew the betel-nut. Their boats and canoes are to the Malays what the camel is to the Arab, or the horse to the wandering Mongol; and the necessities of their situation have made them fishermen, navigators, and traders. Their warfare, like their ordinary pursuits, is carried on upon the water ; and their long prahus, or war-canoes, filled with armed warriors, are the terror of the peaceful frequenters of these seas. 5. European Possessions. — The Philippine Islands belong to Spain ; but most of the Archipelago belongs to the Dutch. The whole of the Moluccas, Java, and Sumbawa, with parts of Sumatra, Celebes, Borneo, and Timor, are in their possession. They constitute what are called the Dutch East Indies. Historical. — Early in the seventeenth century (1602), the Dutch East India Company was organized for the purpose of monopolizing the trade of the East India Islands. This company soon grew rich and powerful out of their enormous profits. The Dutch fitted out fleets of armed merchantmen that defied the Malay pirates, and contended successfully with the navy of Spain. The prosperity of Holland reached its highest point; and Amster- dam, Antwerp, The Hague, and other ports, were thronged with the ships of all nations. The Dutch supplied the world with spices, cloves, nutmegs, camphor, sugar, coffee, rice, indigo, cotton, dyes, drugs, and cabinet-woods. Other European nations also engaged in profitable traffic with this bountiful region of the earth, which to this day is a great center of interest in the commerce of all nations. 6. Exports. — Java exports great quantities of coffee and rice ; the Moluccas supply the world with nutmegs, cloves, and other spices ; Sumatra furnishes India-rubber and gutta-percha ; and the Philippines produce sugar, hemp, and tobacco. Dia- monds are found in Borneo, and gold, tin, and copper are widely distributed. 7. Cities. — Manila, the largest city in the Archipelago, is the capital of the Spanish possessions, and the chief emporium of the Philippines. Batavia, in the Island of Java, is the capital of the Dutch East Indies. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF AFRICA. 97 AFRICA. PHYSICAL VIEW OF AFRICA. [Area, 11,514,000 square miles. Population, 206,000,000.] QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. I. PHYSICAL. What geographical circles cross Africa ? In which zone is the greater part ? In which zone is the northern part? The southern part ? What two seas north and east? What ocean east? West? What part of the United States is in the same latitude as the northern part of Africa? (See map of the United States, pp. 28, 29.) What grand division north of Africa? East of Africa ? In what latitude is Algiers ? In what latitude is Cape Agulhas ? How much farther south is Cape Horn? (See map of South America, p. 62.) When it is noon at Washington, what time is it at Cairo? When it is noon at London, what time is it at Cairo ? What isthmus connects Africa with Asia? What canal crosses this isthmus? What waters does it connect ? What places at its termini ? What strait connects the Medi- terranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean ? What gulf in the western part ? What channel separates Madagascar from the mainland? What gulf in the north-eastern part ? What is the most northerly cape of Africa ? The most westerly? The most southerly? What famous cape near the southern extremity? What is the most easterly cape ? Name the principal mountain- ranges that border the African coast. What plateau in the eastern part? What two peaks near the Equator? What extensive desert in the northern part ? Name two other deserts. What two large lakes are crossed by the Equator ? Name four lakes south of the Equator. What lake in Soudan ? What great river flows from the equatorial lakes into the Mediterranean? What river drains the southern part of Central Africa? What great river drains the central part? What great river drains Soudan ? What parallel crosses the region of greatest heat? What are the principal vegetable products of the Barbary States ? Of the Nile valley? Of the west coast? What can you say of plants and animals in Central Africa? What are the principal animals of the eastern coast? In what parts of Africa are the largest wild ani- mals found ? Where is the lion found ? The crocodile ? The camel ? The ostrich ? The gorilla? In what regions are domestic animals most numerous ? Name and locate the minerals of Africa. Name the principal plants, animals, and minerals of Madagascar. What are the prin- cipal ocean-currents flowing along the west coast ? The east coast.' II. POLITICAL. Name the four Barbary States. What are the capitals of Morocco? What is the capital of Algeria ? Of Tunis ? Of Tripoli ? What country occupies the Nile valley? What are its principal divisions ? Which city is the capital ? What two ports north of Cairo? What country east of Egypt? What is the capital ? What coast country east of the equatorial lakes ? What is its capital? What island division east of Mozambique Channel ? Its capital ? What British possessions in the southern part? What is the capital of Cape Colony? Name some of the divisions of Upper Guinea. What vast natural division south of the Barbary States ? South of Sahara? South of Soudan? III. REVIEW QUESTIONS. Capes. — Where is it ? Into -what water does it project? Agulhas ? St. Mary ? Bon ? Good Hope ? Verde ? Lakes. — Where is it? What is its outlet ? Tchad ? Tanganyika ? Victoria Nyanza ? Nyassa ? Albert Ny- anza? Rivers. — Where does it rise f In what direction, and into what, does it flow ? Orange? Niger? Nile? Zambesi? Congo or Livingstone ? Divisions Natural or Political. — Where is it ? Morocco? Liberia? Sahara? Egypt? Nubia? Cape Colony? Zan- guebar ? Soudan ? Abyssinia ? Algeria ? Egyptian Soudan ? Natal ? Madagascar ? Cities. — In what part of the country ? How situated? Cape Town ? Fez ? 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Divisions. — Australasia comprises the continental island of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and, according to some geographers, also includes the group of islands called Melanesia, extending from New Guinea to New Caledonia. Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand are British colonies. 3. Australia. — Australia, the greatest of islands, is more than two-thirds as large as the United States. The interior, which is mostly unexplored territory, is a low plateau, a con- siderable part of it desert. The rivers are few, the most im- portant being the Murray and its tributaries. 4. Climate. — The northern half is in the Torrid Zone, and has a tropical climate : the southern section has the tempera- ture of Southern Europe. Long periods of drought occur, while at certain seasons the rains fall with great violence. As Australia is situated in the southern hemisphere, the seasons are the opposite of ours : thus it is hottest at Christmas, and coldest in our midsummer. The Australian farmer sows his seed when we are gathering our harvests, and the reverse. 5. Vegetation. — The forest vegetation is peculiar, the native trees being evergreens, and some shedding their bark instead of their leaves. Acacias, gum-trees (the eucalypti), and gigan- tic tree-ferns, are the chief forest-trees. 6. Animals. — The wild animals are quite as peculiar as the vegetation. The largest is the kangaroo, which is a pouched animal. A very remarkable animal is the ornithorhynchus : it is a water animal, shaped like a beaver, has web feet, and a bill like that of a duck. AUSTRALASIA. — POLYNESIA. »05 SCENE IN POLYNESIA. 7. Political Divisions. — Australia is divided into seven provinces or colonies, namely : i. Victoria ; 2. New South Wales ; 3. Queensland ; 4. Soutli Australia ; 5. Alexandra Land ; 6. North Australia ; 7. West Australia. 8. The government in each colony consists of a Governor appointed in England, a Legislative Council, and a Legislative Assembly elected by the people. 9. Natural Wealth. — Its rich mines of gold, copper, iron, and coal, and its great e.xtent of agricultural and grazing lands, constitute the natural wealth of Australia. 10. Occupations. — The leading industries are mining, agri- culture, and stock-raising. In the production of gold and wool it ranks among the leading countries of the world. 1 1. Commerce. — Australia being a colony of Great Britain, its trade is mostly carried on with the mother-country. It exports wool, gold, copper, hides, tallow, and preserved meats, and receives in exchange the cotton and woolen goods, iron and hard ware of England. 12. Cities. — Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, is the great commercial and monetary center of Australia. Sydney, in New South Wales, is the second city in importance. Adelaide, the chief city of South Australia, is largely engaged in manufac- turing and trade. Brisbane is the chief city of Queensland. Perth is the chief city of West Australia. 13. Tasmania and New Zealand. — Tasmania and New Zealand are separate British colonies. Agriculture and sheep- raising are carried on in both colonies : in addition, the whale- fishery is followed in Tasmania, and gold-mining in New Zealand. HobartTown is the capital and chief city of Tasmania; Welling- ton, of New Zealand. MELANESIA. New Guinea, the largest island of Melanesia, ranks next to Australia as the largest island on the globe. The Melanesian islands are in general highly productive, yielding tropical food- plants and valuable timber-trees. The native inhabitants belong to the Papuan negro race. The Dutch claim authority over the western half of New Guinea. The French have a penal settlement in New Caledonia. POLYNESIA. I. Polynesia, meaning " many islands," is the name given to the small islands and groups in the Pacific Ocean east of Aus- tralasia and Malaysia, and south of the Tropic of Cancer. 2. Products. — These islands combine the three things requi- site for luxuriant vegetation ; namely, heat, moisture, and a fer- tile soil. The principal indigenous food-plants are the bread- fruit, yam, sweet-potato, taro-root, arrow-root, banana, plantain, and cocoanut. Coffee, sugar, cotton, rice, and, in fact, most of the fruits and grains of the tropical and temperate zones of Asia, have been introduced into these islands. 3. Native Races. — The South-Sea Islanders are seafaring people, and display great skill and boldness in the management of their canoes. Their natural intelligence shows them to be capable of a high degree of civilization ; but they have been rapidly dying out since they came in contact with the white race. The whole population of all the Polynesian Islands does not exceed half a million. 4. Sandwich Islands. — The Sandwich Islands, the most important group, are situated just a little south of the Tropic of Cancer, between 150° and 160° west longitude. The largest island is Hawaii, which is about the size of Connecticut. These islands form an independent nation governed by a king or queen. The entire population of the kingdom does not exceed 60,000. Most of the Sandwich-Islanders profess Chris- tianity, and are partly civilized. The principal exports of the Sandwich Islands are sugar, molasses, rice, cocoanut-oil, cocoa- nuts, and oranges. Honolulu, the capital and principal sea- port, is a resort for the whaling-vessels of the North Pacific. Hawaii is noted for its great volcanic peak, Mauna Loa, 13,000 feet high. Kilauea, a lower lateral crater of Mauna Loa halfway up the mountain-side, is nine miles in circumference, and is sometimes filled with a fiery lake of red-hot lava. 5. The Society Islands contain a population of about 20,000, the majority of whom have been converted to Christianity. The Island of Tahiti is under French rule. The various foreigners settled in these islands carry on some commerce, consisting chiefly in the export of pearl-shells, sugar, cocoanut- oil, and arrow-root. 6. The Feejee Group comprises over three hundred islands, of which about one-half are inhabited. These islands are under British rule. The number of islanders is estimated at 200,000. The Feejeeans are among the most warlike and most skillful of the Polynesians. All of them were formerly cannibals ; but many have now given up the practice of eating human flesh. io6 THE POLAR REGIONS. THE POLAR REGIONS. 1. The Polar Regions are those parts of the earth's surface north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle. They consist of the Arctic region and the Antarctic region. I. ARCTIC REGION. 2. Early Discoveries. — It is quite certain, that, as early as the tenth century A.D., settlements were made by the Norse- men in high latitudes on the coast of Greenland. But our knovvledsre of what was > O s^* vr^s- >■ 7^. .^ !/r'\<^\ ~-J=iCr "v«,r MAP OF THE ARCTIC REGION. Explorations. — In 1498 Sebastian Cabot (who, with his father, had in the preceding year discovered the mainland of North America) undertook a voyage expressly to find " that hidden secret of nature," the direct passage to Asia. He proceeded northward from Labrador, about half-way up Davis Strait, till icebergs compelled him to change his course, and give up the attempt. In 1576 Frobisher made three voj-ages to the north-west, explorintr, among other waters, the channel now known as Frobisher Strait. In 15S5-7 Davis explored portions of the coast of Greenland, and the strait which bears his name. In 1610 Hudson sailed up the strait named after him, into Hudson Bay; but his crew muti- nied, and set him adrift to perish. In 161 6 Baffin explored the bay bearing lis name, and entered the mouth of Lancaster Sound. In 1789 Mackenzie, in a land expedition, discovered and traced to its mouth the river called after him. In 1 819 Parry traversed Barrow Strait, and pene- trated as far north as the Parry Islands. In May, 1845, the ill- fated expedition of Sir John Franklin set sail in search of the North-west passage, in the ships Ere- bus and Terror. These vessels were last seen in July of that year, by a whaling-ship,aboutthe mid; die of Baffin Bay; Several years having elapsed with no tidings of this expedi- tion, numerous parties were despatched during the next ten years in search of. Sir John Franklin and his asso- ciates. Among these expe- ditions may be mentioned those of Kane, De Haven, Ross, Belcher, Englefield, McClintock, and McCliire ; the latter officer, in cgm- mand of the ship Investi- gator, beingthe first ex- plorer who traversed the entire region from Behring Strait to Baffin Bay. (See map.) In 1855 McClintock discovered proofs that all of 'Sir John Franklin's party had perished from hunger and exposure, and documents showing that Sir John was the first discoverer of the North-west passage. 4. North-east Passage. — Very soon after the first efforts to find a North-west passage were begun, a series of expeditions accomplished by these voyagers is vague, and our interest in Arctic exploration begins with the series of expedi- tions for the discov- ery of a " North-west passage," undertaken soon after the discov- ery of America by Columbus. 3. North-west Pas- sage. — The object of those who undertook the search for a North- west passage was the discovery of a route on which, sailing west- ward around the north- ern extremity of the American continent, they might reach the East Indies. It was with the view of find- ing a westward way to Cathay (China) that Columbus undertook his first voyage of dis- covery. When, how- ever, it was found that a New World barred access to the Orient, daring navigators be- gan to try if they could not open a pathway by the circumnaviga- tion of North America. The first of these attempts was made by Cabot in 1498^ and this was followed during the next three hundred and fifty years by a long series of baflfled efforts, till at last, in 1854, Capt. McClure established the fact of a continuous passage by water from Baffin Bay to Behring Strait. In the following para- graphs will be found brief notes of a few of the more important i having in view the opening of an ocean route to the East Indies ^ in a long series of heroic endeavors that too often received only by sailing airound the northern coasts of Europe and Asia was the martyr's reward, — death. I undertaken by various European nations. THE POLAR REGIONS. 107 Details. — Among these may be mentioned the expeditions of Sir Hugh Willoughby (1553), who penetrated to Nova Zembla, but was driven back by ice, and perished with his crew; of Darentz (1594-6), a Dutch explorer, who died near a headland of Alaska; of Henry Hudson (1608-9), ^^'1° vainly attempted the North-east passage; and of Behring (1741), who set sail from a harbor in Kamtchatka, but perished during the voyage. 5. Its Discovery. — The practica- bility of a north-east passage from western Emope to eastern Asia was demonstrated in 1878-9 by the Swedish explorer, Professor Nordenskjold. Details. — Professor Nordenskjold set sail from Gottenburg, Sweden, in July, 1878, and, after rounding North Cape, held his course eastward to W. long. 177°. Here his vessels wintered in the pack-ice until midsummer of 1879, when they were released. Resuming the voyage, he sailed through Behring Strait into In i860 Dr. Hayes, who had accompanied Kane, organized an expedition under his own command. The vessel was nipped in the ice about lat. 78° ; but from there various journeys were made north- ward by way of Grinnell Land. Hayes, with one companion, reached lat. 81° 35', the most northerly land reached up to that time. Further progress was impossible on account of rotten ice. In 1 87 1 Capt. Hall, in the "Polaris," pushed northward up the western shore of Smith Sound, reaching 82° 16' in Robeson Channel, where the vessel was beset with ice. Hall started with a traveling party; but little was accomplished, and he died on his return from the sledging expedi- tion. In 1875 Capt. Nares, in the vessels "Alert" and "Discovery," left England commissioned to attain the highest possible northern latitude. Pass- ing through Smith Sound and Kennedy and Robe- son channels, they reached a broad ice-covered sea, where the expedition wintered in lat. 82° 27'. The men were in total or partial darkness for a hun- dred and forty-two days. Numerous well-equipped exploring parties were sent out, and one of these, the Pacific Ocean, and reached Yokohama in September, 1879. 6. Polar Expeditions. — Among the aims of Arctic exploration that of reaching the North Pole has long been a leading one ; but it is only in recent times that well-equipped expeditions having that object in view have been sent out. The principal of these are the American expeditions under Kane, Hayes, and Hall, and the English ex- pedition under Capt. Nares. Details. — In 1853 Dr. Kane, who had formed the opinion that around the North Pole was a .great open sea, headed an expedition to verify his theory. The expedition wintered in lat. 78° 37'. During the following spring various sledging tours to the north were made. On one of these Kennedy Channel was discovered, and the party penetrated as far as Cape Con- stitution (in Washington Land) in lat. 81° 27'. The open channel abounded with animal life, such as bears, birds, and seals. ANIMALS OF THE ARCTIC REOION. under Commander Markham, reached the latitude of €3° 20' 30", the most northerly point thus far attained. II. ANTARCTIC REGION. 7. Extent. — Very little is known of the Antarctic region. The land surface is small, and is loosely though commonly spoken of as the Antarctic Continent. Details. — Various exploring expeditions, Ameri- can and foreign, have been sent out for purposes of Antarctic discovery, most of them in the first half of the present century. It is now regarded as extremely doubtful if there exists in these re- gions any such extent of land-surface as would deserve to be called a continent. In 1841 an English expedition under Capt. Ross explored the steep and rocky coast known as Victoria Land, discovering an active volcano, which he named Mount Erebus. No important discoveries have been made in Antarctic seas since the American ex- pedition under Wilkes in 1842. So far as is known, the Antarctic Continent, so called, is devoid of human population. LoDgitadd East 130 from Greenwich. ISO I.ongitade West 150 from Greenwich. 130 Eut ISO West 163 Longitade ISS from Washington. 103 Longitnde 43 from Washington. IS West East 13 QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. North America. — What eight Atlantic ports of North America can you name? What five Gulf ports ? What three ports in the West Indies ? What two ports on opposite sides of the Isthmus of Panama? Name four seaports on the Pacific coast of North America. What two shipping points on the St Lawrence ? Name three commercial cen- ters in the Mississippi Valley. What are the princi- pal steamer routes from the Atlantic ports of North America? From the Gulf ports? From the Pacific Dorts? What is the shortest steamer route between North America and Europe ? The longest ? What is the length of the sailing route from New York to Cape Town ? What is the length of the steamer route from New York to Havana ? From New York to Aspinwall ? By how many submarine cables has North America communication with Eu- rope? What steamer line from New Orleans to Eurojje ? How are the West Indies connected with the telegraphic system of the United States? By what two steamer routes does San Francisco com- municate with Eastern Asia ? A steamer from New York lands merchandise at Aspinwall: how djes this merchandise reach San Francisco ? B' what railroad route or routes does tea brought by the Pacific mail-steamers to San Francisco reach the Atlantic seaboard ? South America. — What two South American ports are on the Caribbean Sea? Name seven Atlantic ports of South America. Five Pacific ports of South America. What steamer connections has South America with the United States? With Eu- rope ? From what South American ports do sailing- vessels make the voyage to Europe? What are the termini of the submarine cable between South America and Europe ? What telegraphic connection between Havana and Valparaiso ? Ix)ngitade "West 80 from Greenwich. Longftiida £ast XO from Greenwich. CO "I .' Fishery longitude from 47 Washington. COMMERCIAL CHART OF THE WORLD, SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL TRADE ROUTES, SUBMARINE CABLES, ETC. By Steamer, By Sail. EXPLANATION OF ROUTES By Railroad By Caravan , SuTjmarine Cables - Telegraph Lines :.■ The Figures on the different Sautes indicate {heir length in Miles. Longitude IVest ISS from Washington- Europe. — What is the most northern seaport of urope ? What are the principal continental Eu- ipean seaports on the Atlantic or its arms ? Name :ven seaports of the British Isles. What are the lief seaports of the Mediterranean ? Of the Black 2a ? What are the principal steamer routes from urope to North America? To the West Indies? o South America? How many miles does a liling-vessel make in the voyage from Liverpool ' San Francisco? What class of vessels circum- ivigates Africa ? What is the shortest steamer 'Ute between the ports of Western Europe arid astern Asia ? What canal do steamers pass through ? What telegraphic communication be- tween England and Bombay ? England and Singa- pore? England and Hong Kong? England and Melbourne? What telegraphic communication has Russia with its Pacific coast ports ? Asia. — What is the principal seaport on the Mediterranean? In Southern Arabia? What three ports on the Arabian Sea? What two on the Bay of Bengal? What port in Ceylon? What four ports in Indo-China ? What are the chief ports of China? Of Japan? What peninsula of Asia is crossed by a railway ? What are the principal cara- van routes of Asia ? Africa — Name three African ports on the Medi- terranean. Six on the Atlantic coast. What sea- port at the southern extremity of Africa? What six on the eastern coast? What are the principal caravan routes of Africa? The Archipelagoes. — What port in Java? In the Philippine Islands? What are the principal seaports of Australia? Of New Zealand? What port in Tasmania ? In the Sandwich Islands ? In the Society Islands ? At what ports do steamers touch in going from Sydney to San Francisco? What steamer route between Australia and South America ? no COMMERCIAL CENTERS AND THEIR EXPORTS. COMMERCIAL CENTERS AND THEIR EXPORTS. Acapulco . Adelaide . Aden . . Alexandria Algiers . . Amsterdam Archangel Astrakhan Auckland . Azore Isles Bahia . . Baltimore . Bankok . . Barcelona. Batavia. . Bergen . . Bombay . Bordeaux . Boston . . Bremen Buenos Ayre Bushire Calcutta . Callao . . Canary Isles Canton . . Cape Town Cartagena . Cayenne . Charleston Chicago . Cincinnati . Constantinopl Dantzic Galveston . Genoa . . Georgetown Glasgow . Guayaquil . Halifax . . Hamburg . Havana Havre . . Hong Kong Honolulu . Irkutsk . . Jamaica La Guayra Lisbon . . SILVER, COPPER, SKINS, COCOA, INDIGO, MAHOGANY, DRUGS. WOOL, WHEAT, COPPER. COFFEE, DATES, DRUGS, PEARLS. GRAIN, COTTON, DATES, DRUGS. GRAIN, CATTLE, CORK, COPPER, DATES. BUTTER, CHEESE, SILK MANUFACTURES, SPICES. FLAX, HEMP, SKINS, FOREST-PRODUCTS, TALLOW. FISH, OIL, LAMB-SKINS. WOOL, GOLD, LUMBER, FLAX, CATTLE-PRODUCTS. WINE, ORANGES, LE.MOXS. SUGAR, TOBACCO, DIAMONDS, NUTS. TOBACCO, WHEAT, PETROLEUM, OYSTERS, COAL. RICE, SPICES, SUGAR. WINES, CORK, IRON, COPPER, QUICKSILVER, DRIED FRUITS. SUGAR, COFFEE, RICE, INDIGO, TOBACCO. LUMBER, FISH, ICE. COTTON, OPIUM, COFFEE, SPICES, SUGAR, INDIGO. WINES, BRANDIES, PRESERVED FRUITS AND MEATS. VARIED MANUFACTURES, PREPARED FOODS, ICE. LINEN AND WOOLE.N GOODS, GLASS, WINE, BEER, GRAIN. WOOL, CATTLE-PRODUCTS. SILK, SHAWLS, CARPETS, WOOL, DRUGS, DRIED FRUITS. COTTON, OPIUM, RICF, TEA, JUTE, INDIGO, SUGAR. GUANO, SALTPETER, CINCHONA-BARK, WOOL, SUGAR. COCHINEAI, FRUITS, VEGETABLES, SODA. TEA, SILK, CHINF.se WARES. WOOL, HIDES, OSTRICH PLUMES, WI.NE, COPPER, DIAMONDS. CINCHONA-BARK, COFFEE, COTTON, TOBACCO. SUGAR, COFFEE, COTTON, PEPPER, AND OTHER SPICES. COTTON, RICE. GRAIN, PORK, LUMBER. GRAIN, PORK, FLAX, TOBACCO. GRAI.V, TOBACCO, DRUGS, FRUITS, CARPETS, SILKS. GRAIN, LUMBER, BEER, WOOLENS, LINENS. COTTON, GR.'^IN, WOOL. SILKS, OLIVE-OIL, WINE AND SPIRITS, FRUITS. SUGAR, COFFEE, COTTON, INDIGO, SPICES. IRON AND COTTON MANUFACTURES, IRON SHIPS, CHEMICALS. COCOA, CINCHONA-BARK, DYE-STUFFS. DRIED FISH, COAL, GYPSUM, GRINDSTONES, LUMBER. LINEN AND WOOLEN GOODS, GLASS, WINE, BEER, GRAIN. SUGAR, COFFEE, TOBACCO, CIGARS. ARTICLES OF TASTE AND FASHION, WINE, BRANDY, OIL. TEA, RAW SILK, CHINESE WARES. SUGAR, COCOANUT-OIL. (FROM CHINA TO RUSSIA) TEA, FRUITS, PORCELAIN, SILK. SUGAR, RUM, MOLASSES, COFFEE, ALLSPICE. COFFEE, COCOA, INDIGO, CATTLE-PRODUCTS. WINE, OLIVE-OIL, FRUITS, SALT. Liverpool . . London . . . Madeira Isles Malaga . . . Manila . . . Marseilles . . Mauritius Island Melbourne Mobile . . . Monrovia . . Montevideo . Montreal . . Morocco . . New Orleans New York Odessa . Okhotsk Oporto . Panama Para . . Paris Pemambuco . Philadelphia Portland, Me. Portland, Or. Quebec . . . Rangoon . . Reykjavik. . Riga. . . . Rio Janeiro . Rome . . . San Francisco Savannah . . Shanghai . . Sierra Leone Singapore . . Smyrna . . Stettin . . . St. Johns, N.F. St. Louis . . St. Paul de St. Petersburg Sydney . . Tamatave , Trieste . . Valparaiso Vera Cruz Victoria Vienna . . Yakutsk Yokohama : Loanda IRON, CUTLERY, EARTHEN-WARE, COTTONS, CHEMICALS, COAL BRITISH MANUFACTURES, FOREIGN PRODUCTS. WINES, FRUITS, NUTS. ORANGES, WINE, RAISINS. SUGAR, TOBACCO, CIGARS, HEMP, COFFEE, INDIGO. WINE, BRANDY, SARDINES, SILK, FRUITS. SUGAR, VANILLA. GOLD, WOOL, WINE. COTTON, FOREST-PRODUCTS. PALM-OIL, WAX, PEPPER, GROUND-NUTS. CATTLE-PRODUCTS. BREADSTUFFS, FOREST-PRODUCTS, DAIRY-PRODUCTS. GO.\T-SKINS, WOOL, BEANS, MAIZE, OLIVE-OIL. COTTON, SUGAR, TOBACCO. GRAIN, VARIED .MANUFACrURES, PETROLEUM, PROVISIONS WHEAT, TALLOW, SALT, TIMBER. FURS, FISH-OILS. WINE, OLIVE-OIL, FRUITS, CORK. COrroN, COFFEE, CINCHONA-BARK, TOBACCO. CAOUTCHOUC, CACAO, RICE, SUGAR, TAPIOCA, DRUGS. VARIED FRENCH MANUFACTURES AND PRODUCTS. COTTON, COFFEE, SUGAR. IRON, COAL, PETROLEUM, MACHINERY. LU.MBER, STAVES, CASKS, ETC. WHEAT, FLOUR, SALMON, LUMBER. SHIPS, LUMBER, GRAIN, FISH. RICE, TEAK-WOOD, BAMBOO, COTTON. OIL, FISH, EIDER-DOWN, FEATHERS. GRAIN, HEMP, FLAX, LUMBEjl. COFFEE, GOLD, DIAMONDS, TOBACCO, HIDES. PICTURES, STATUES, AND OTHER OBJECTS OF ART. WHEAT, WOOL, WINES, PRECIOUS METALS. COTTON, LUMBER. TEA, SILK, COTTON, CHINESE WARE.S. PALM-OIL, TIMBER, GINGER, PEPPER, BEESWAX, IVORY. TIN, SPICES, RATTANS, GUTTA-PERCHA. FIGS, SPONGES, RAW SILK, CARPETS, DRUGS. GRAIN, OIL-CAKE, WOOL, BEER. COD-FISH, SEAL-SKINS, COD AND SEAL OIL. GRAIN, MACHINERY, MANUFACTURES. WAX, IVORY. TALLOW, FLAX, HEMP, LEATHER, FURS, SKINS. WOOL, CATTLE-PRODUCTS, TIN, COPPER, GOLD. CAOUTCHOUC, CATTLE, HIDES, WAX, EBONY-WOOD. GRAI.N, FLOUR, LUMBER, WINE, OIL. GRAIN, COPPER, SILVER, WOOL, HIDES. COFFEE, VANILLA, HIDES, TOBACCO, COCHINEAL, INDIGO. FURS, LUMBER, COAL. LEATHER GOODS, GL.\SS-WARE, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. FURS. SILK, TEA, RICE, JAPANESE GOODS. QUESTIONS ON THE TABLE. What are the principal grain ports of the world ? From what ports is wheat shipped ? Flour? Rice? What cities export sugar ? Tea? Coffee? Cocoa? Fruits? Wines? Beer? Olive-oil? From what ports do we receive drugs ? What ports of the Old World send out spices ? What ports of the New World? Through what European port do we receive the spices of the Dutch East Indies? ^ns. Amsterdam. What cities export salt? Fish ? Dairy-products ? Tobacco ? Enumerate the cotton ports of the world. From what ports are cotton goods shipped ? What cities send out wool ? What are the principal centers in the export of woolen goods? From what ports is silk procured? In what part of the world are these ports ? Whence do we obtain linen goods ? What ports are named as sending out shawls? Leather and leather goods ? Furs ? Where do ostrich plumes come from ? What ports can you name from which lumber is exported ? Whence do we procure ornamental woods? Rattans? Bamboo? What ports are named as shipping forest-products? Caoutchouc? Gutta-percha? Cork? Petroleum ? Pearls ? Sponges ? Cattle-products ? Guano ? Eider-down ? Name several ports through which iron and iron manufactures are dis- tributed. What ports are named as shipping coal? In what countries, therefore, is coal largely found ? Copper? Tin? What cities e.xport the precious metals? Soda? Gypsum? Judging from the places of export, in what country are diamonds found ? 1 1 1 A SYSTEM OF MAP-DEAWING. BY E. -A.. A.TS^r> A.. C. A.PGA.II. This system of Map-Drawing is substantially the same as that originally prepared by the authors and published in 1865. Such improvements have been introduced, however, as the pra(Aical workings of the system have shown to be important. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. THE study of geography consists principally in a study of the form and locality of the features of the earth's surface. Maps give a much better idea of the form and locality of geographical features than can be obtained from descriptions only; hence, maps should be the principal objects of study in geography. The pupil commits his lesson in text to memory, and for a recitation, he repeats it to the teacher as given by the author. In studying maps the same rule should be observed; that is, the maps should be committed to memory, and for a recitation they should be reproduced as given in the book. That form is easiest remembered which the hand is taught to trace. The exercise of the mind, needed to teach the hand to trace a form, impresses that form upon the mind. As the study of maps is a study of form, the manner of studying them should be by map-drawing. In learning to draw maps, the pupil needs some rule or guide to assist him in drawing them correctly, and also to enable him to judge of their accuracy when drawn. This assistance is best afforded by the use of geometrical figures or diagrams. The diagram used in each case, in order to answer the purpose intended, should be so constructed as to coincide as nearly as possible in its outline with the boundaries of the map to be drawn. By the relative lengths of the lines of which it is composed, it should express the general laws of form of the map it is intended to accompany, and, by its angles and division marks, the position of prominent features should be deter- mined. However complex and irregular the map may be, the diagram should be so simple that it can be readily constructed and easily remembered by the pupils. In the construction of the diagrams used for drawing the Continents, the first line in each case serves as a measure for determining the lengths of the other lines. For the States no additional diagram is used, because the bounding lines are generally straight, and they themselves when taken together form a geometrical figure. In drawing the States, therefore, it is only necessary to select one of the straight lines forming the boundary for a measuring unit. The Hne selected should be a convenient measure or mul- tiple of the other lines. In conducting exercises in map-drawing, the class should be practiced,— ^^i/ in drawing upon the black- board, under the immediate direction of the teacher; second, in drawing upon slates, their work to be sub- mitted to the teacher; and third, in executing maps upon paper, to be presented for the criticism of both the teacher and the class. Either the teacher or one of the more skillful pupils should execute a well-finished and accurate map upon the blackboard. From this drawing — which is much to be preferred to any printed outline map — the class may recite their lesson, and upon it each of the new features, as they are learned from day to day, may be represented. It is well to accompany eveiy lesson in map-drawing with more or less practice in rapid sketching. In order to excite emulation for quick work, the lesson may be drawn on the board, and the exercise -timed by the teacher. Pupils, by practice, will soon be able to draw a diagram in half a minute, a State in from half a minute to two minutes, and a Continent in from three to five minutes. Concert recitation should frequently accompany rapid sketching. An exercise called talking and chalking will be found both interesting and valuable. The pupil, while he is drawing a map, briefly and in a lively manner, describes the features as he represents them ; his verbal explana- tions all the while keeping pace with his illustrations made with the chalk. All directions and exercises in map-drawing should be such as to prepare the pupil to draw rapidly, accurately, and without the copy. After the pupils have learned to draw a map with sufficient accuracy, and are able to describe satisfactorily the features it contains, they may, with the use of colors and India ink, be taught to draw and embellish one for preservation. Not much time, however, should be spent in producing highly ornamented maps. A slate-pencil and slate, lead-pencil and paper, white crayon and blackboard, are all the materials usually needed in map-drawing exer- cises. Rapid work and much of it should be the motto. Special attention should be directed to the method employed for representing the population of cities and the heights of elevations. The symbols used will greatly assist the memory in retaining these facts. Special lessons may be given to teach their meaning. Their use should be required in all map-drawing exercises. In drawing a Continent, the pupils should be taught,— ;;frj/, to construct the diagram accurately ; second, to draw the coast line, and to describe allthe features formed by it, such as peninsulas, capes, bays, gulfs, &c. : and third, to draw and describe the internal featurx:s, such as mountains, lakes, rivers and cities. It is all impor- tant that the pupils should be able to draw the outline of a Continent readily and accurately, before they attempt to represent the internal features ; for upon an imperfect drawing of the outline, the details must necessarily be imperfect. In describing the features of a map, observe the following order and directions : — Diagram. — Explain in full the manner of its construction. Pointi of Coincidence. — Name in order the angles and division marks upon the diagram, and the features upon the map, the location of which they determine. Peninsulas. — State from what portion of the Continent they pro- ject, and by what waters they are embraced. Capes. — State from what portion of the Continent they project, and into what waters. Bays. — Give their location, and the names of the bodies of water to which they are tributary. Islands. — State where situated, and name the waters by which they are surrounded. Mountains. — Give their height, the general direction in which they extend, and the part of the Continent where they are located. Lakes. — State where located, and name the river which forms the outlet. RIvere.— Bute where they rise, in what direction they flow, and into what wateis. Political Divisions. — Bound the country, and name, botmd, and give the capital of each of the divisions. Citiea. — Give location and population. EXPLANATION OP THE SIGNS USED TO BEPBESENT THE POPULATION OF THE CITIES AND TOWNS. FIRST CLASS. In the First Class only ono Sign is used viz. a ronnd dot. • represents under 10 000 Inhabitants. SECOND CLASS. THIRD CLASS. Each Line of tho Soconrl Class The markings of the Thicd CUm represents a population of 10.000. have a Dot in the centre. Eah Line upon this Dot represeuta lOOAW population. & JOO.OOO +. 200,000 ■It 300,000 a 10,000 + 20,000 •tt 30,000 It <0,000 # 50,000 % fO.OOO ^ 70,000 ^ 80,000 ^jjjjf 90,000 4t 400,000 #_ _.600.000 #- 600,000 W(. .71)0.000 ^- __800,000 ^p .i and H-imllesliigli. shigb. Thvrd C/a«.— Betweett 8000 1 16,000 It. llgh, or BetM-een 1 ^ and 3 milei high. ^WW^9'9v'$S ■^""^'^ Class, -Oret 16.000 ftet high, ^^1'^^ or over 3 miles high. PEAKS. For Peaks under one mile high each Cnrve upon the right representa One- Fourth of a mile Elevation; for those cne mile high or more, each Line upon the right represents One Mile in Elevation and the Dash underneath Ono Haifa Mile. O Ji of « mile Mgh. A 2H miles iHgh. n\ 3i .. - A 3 ,. „ e^ a . , A 3ii „ .. A 1 . - /k. 4 .. .. A Ui miles Urh. A. raw the first ; the second ; the third. In this manner complete the drawing of the lakes. Rivers: T.— Describe the Yukon River. 5. —It rises near the Pacific Coast and west of the Great Slave Lake; flows, first, in a north-westerly direction, then westerly throu^ the country of Alaska, and empties into Bchring Sea. 7*.— Draw it. Follow in the same manner with the Mackenrie; Nelson; Albany; St. Lawrence; Ottawa; Savannah, and Alabama. 7"— Describe the Mississippi River. 5.— It rises in a small lake west of Lake Superior, and south of the Lake of the Woods : flows a southerly course through the United States, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico. T. — Draw it. Draw the tributaries, and describe them. Complete the rivers in this way, and inspect the work. Cities : 7!— Locate the cities as I name them, taking pains to show the population of each as it is done in the book. ^ ^ S^ Tictoria .* Laud H«A»°*C. Chidley '>c.<=^ 1 noIiAfttioil. of MAS OF NORTH AMERICA By E. A. 4 A. C. ApgaT. I 1 Scale 1000 Miles to an Incli JILL JPena. of Parftgruan* CapcV Parin* .StBo(ar -J Scale lOOO Miles to an Inch InoUnation of flmjjiu. Troplo of CapriooTtt MAP OF AFRICA By E. A. 4 A. C. Apgar. 0. of oood nop« ScBle 1000 Miles to an Inch '*^^-<«ullu. C. ToA MAP OF ^ AUSTRALIA v\ AMD "A\ NEW ZEALAND %ftnd/ C. C.How* Ki Taaznania Scale lUUO JUUes to aa Inch. DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING AUSTRALIA. Diagram. — 1. Draw the horizontal line A B the length desired for the map, and bisect it at C. 2. Through the centre C draw the line B E at right angles to A B, making C D and C E each one-third the length of A B. 3. Draw D F at right angles to D E, and one-fourth the length of A B, and connect F and B. 4. Draw G H at right angles to D E, making G E and E B, each equal to F B in length, and bisect the lines C E and E H. Points of Coincidence. — North-west Cape coincides with the angle at A; Sandy Cape, with the angle at B ; Cape Howe, with the angle at H ; and Cape Leeuwin, with the angle at 0. Cape York is a little north of the angle at T. Map. — From the coast extends toward the centre of the line CM, and from this point it extends toward and crosses near the bisecting point of the line K H. The Gulf of Carpentaria is situated between D and W, and extends toward the south neariy halfway to the line 1 B. Nolo.— If Australia is drawn without New Zealand, the first line A B should be inclined about 6vc degrees from the horizontal, the extremity A being farther north than the extremity B. "4 MAP OT EUROPE B7>.A. *A.C.Ali(W. ^^j, Scale aw HUM U ulaeh. DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING EUROPE. Diagram.— Draw the horizontal line A B the length desired for the map. This line connects the mouth of the Douro River with Cape Ap- sheron. Its length is 3,000 miles. With A and B as centres, and with a radius equal to three-fourths of A B, draws arcs to intersect at C, and connect A and C, and B and C. Divide A C into four, C B into six, and A B into eight equal parts. From the first division to the right of C, and from the angle A draw vertical lines, as shown in the figure, each one-eighth the length of A B. Con- nect H and 1, and divide the right-hand half of this line into fovr equal parts. From D draw a perpendicular line equal to two and one-half divisions on the line A B, and bisect it. Connect C and F, and E and B. From K draw a line in the direction of the centre of C B until it meets a vertical line drawn from the angle C. Map. — In drawing the map commence at c, on the coast of Norway, and draw, in order, the northern and eastern boundaries ; then commence again at C and draw the western and southern boundaries. The coast of Nor- way follows the line C A, and extends south to a point about midway between C and K. The lines C L and I. K will assist in drawing the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea, and the north-western shores of Germany and France. The head of the Bay of Biscay is near the first division to the right of A, on the line A B. The Gulfs of Lions and Genoa are on opposite sides of the second division, and the head of the Adriatic Sea embraces the third division. The fifth division marks the western extremity of the Black Sea ; the Sea of Azov is north of the sixth division, and the eastern extremity of the Black Sea is near the seventh. Italy resembles in outline the shape of a boot. The southern extremity is between the first and second divisions to the right of J on the line H I. The Peninsula of Greece is situated between the second and third divisions, and extends south of this line equal to one division. The Sea of Marmora is a litde north of I. DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWI^G ASIA. Diagram. — Draw the vertical line A B a little more than one-half the length desired for the map, north and south. Divide it into three equal parts, and the upper third into two parts. From the point B draw the horizontal line B C one and one- sixth times the length of A B. Bisect it, and con- nect A and C. Trisect A C, then bisect the middle division and trisect the upper. With the points A and C as centres, and with a radius equal to one and two-thirds nmes the first line, draw arcs to intersect at D, and connect A and D, and C and D. Trisect A D and bisect the middle division. Divide the line C D into four equal parts, and bisect both of the extreme divisions. Draw the lines E P and 5 L and bisect them ; also one from to K and trisect it From the lower trisecting point on the line K draw a line toward J till it meets the line X L. The distance measured by the line A C is 5,300 miles. Map.— In drawing the map commence at East Cape and draw in order the eastern, southern, and western boun* daries, including the Black Sea; then commence again at East Capo and finish the outline. The shore of Kam. chatka crosses at the first division on the line DC; the southern shore of the Sea of Ochotsk is at G ; the Yellow Sea is near the centre of the line at H ; the Gulf of Tonquin is at I; and the Gulf of Siam is near the last division. If we suppose a line drawn from this division-point parallel with the line A C, it will assist in determining the position of the Gulf of Siam and the Bay of Bengal. Capt Romania coincides with the angle at C, ar Cape Coroo- rin with the lower division on the line O K. The head of the Persian Gulf is near the centre of the triangle 1 Jl L, The Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb is at R ; the Isthmus of Suei between A and H ; and the Strait of Bosphorus, at A. The Black Sea extends as far east as the first division ob the line A C, and the Caspian Sea touches this line at the second division. The position of the Caspian Sea, the Ural River, and Ural Mountains is determined by the line X C. ii6 STATISTICAL TABLES. GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL TABLES. A considerable part of the matter usually found in Statistical Tables has in this book been incorporated in the text and in the various Topical Reviews. The following Tables are supplementary. POPULATION, IN EVEN THOUSANDS, OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE WORLD. [For the Population of the Principal Cities of the United States see page 59.J NORTH AMERICA. Canada and Newfoundland. Montreal 140,000 Quebec 62,000 loronto 86,000 Halifax 34.ooo St. John 26,000 St John*s 23,000 Ottawa 27,000 Mexico. Mexico 225,000 Leon 100,000 Guadalaxara .... 93,000 Puebla 77,000 Guanaxuato .... 63,000 Queretaro 48,000 Central America. New Guatemala . . . 56,000 San Jos* 18,000 San Salvador .... 14,000 West Indies. Havana 230,000 Santiago 96,000 Kingston 35.000 Pori-aii- Prince . . . 27,000 San Jiisii 20,000 San Domingo .... 16,000 ♦ SOUTH AMERICA. Venezuela. Caracas 55,000 Maracaybo 22,000 Colombia. Bogota 40,000 Cartagena 8,000 Popayan 8,000 Panama 18,000 Ecuador. 8uito 23,000 uayaquil 20,000 Peru. Lima 101,000 Cuzco 18,000 Callao 34,000 Bolivia. La Paz 26,000 Cochabamba .... 15,000 Sucre 12,000 Chili. Santiago 150,000 Valparaiso 98,000 Argentine Confederation. Buenos Ayres .... 290,000 Cordova 29,000 Rosario 25,000 Uruguay. Montevideo .... 73,000 Paraguay. Asuncion 20,000 Brazil. Rio Janeiro .... 275,000 Bahia 129,000 Pemambuco .... 117,000 Maranham 32,000 Guiana. Georgetown .... 40.000 Paramaribo .... 25,000 Cayenne 10,000 ♦— EUROPE. Norway. Christiania 122,000 Bergen 39,000 Sweden. Stockholm 177,000 Gottenburg 78,000 Russia. St. Petersburg . . . 876,000 Moscow 612,000 Warsaw 339,000 Odessa 193,000 Kishenev 112,000 Riga 169,000 Astrakhan 58,000 C^on^tadt 48,000 Archangel 20,000 Great Britain and Ireland. London 4,764,000 Glasgow 511,000 Liverpool 552,000 Manchester .... 393,000 Birmingham .... 400,000 Dublin 338,000 Leeds 309,000 Sheffield 284,000 Edinburgh 228,000 Bristol 206,000 Belfast 174,000 Bradford 180,000 Dundee .' 142,000 Newcastle 145,000 Hull 161,000 Portsmouth .... 128,000 Leicester 122,000 Sunderland 125,000 Brighton 128,000 Aberdeen 105,000 Merthyr Tydvil . . . 49,000 Nottingham .... 112,000 Cork 78,000 Denmark. Copenhagen .... 235,000 Netherlands. Amsterdam .... 328,000 Rotterdam 157,000 The Hague .... 123,000 Belgium. Brussels 400,000 Antwerp 163,000 Ghent 133,000 Li^ge 122,000 France. Paris 3,269,000 Lyons 376,000 NIarseilles 360,000 Bordeaux 221,000 Lisle 178,000 Toulouse 140,000 St. Etienne 124,000 Nantes 124,000 Rouen 105,000 Havre . . . . . . 105,000 Spain. Madrid 398,000 Barcelona 249,000 Malaga 116,000 Valencia 143,000 Seville 134,000 Granada 76,000 Cadiz 65,000 Portugal. Lisbon 246,000 Oporto 106,000 Germany. Berlin 1,122,000 Hamburg 410,000 Breslau 272,000 Dresden 220,000 Munich 230,000 Elberfeld- Barmen . . 189,000 Cologne 145,000 Leipsic 149,000 Magdeburg .... 137,000 Konigsberg .... 140,000 Stuttgart 117,000 H.inover 122,000 Frankfort-on-t he-Main . 164,000 Dantzic 108,000 Strasburg 104,000 Nuremberg 100,000 Bremen 112,000 Austro- Hungary. Vienna i , 1 03 ,000 Buda-Pesth 360,000 Prague 162,000 Trieste 144,000 Lemberg 110,000 Gratz 97,000 Switzerland. Geneva 68,000 Basle 61,000 Berne 44,000 Zurich 76,000 Italy. Naples 493,000 Milan 321,000 Rome 300,000 Palermo 245,000 Turin 253,000 Florence 169,000 Genoa 179,000 Venice 133,000 Bologna 123,000 Messina 126,000 Leghorn 98,000 Roumania. Bucharest 221,000 Jassy 90,000 Galatz 80,000 Servia. Belgrade 27,000 Bulgaria. Sophia 21 ,000 Turkey. Constantinople . . . 600,000 Adrianople 62,000 Greece. Athens 63,000 » AFRICA. Barbary States. Timis 125,000 Fez 100,000 Mequincz 60,000 Morocco 50,000 Algiers 53,000 Egypt. Cairo 327,000 Alexandria 166,000 Damietta 33,ooo Suez 11,000 Port Said 13,000 • ASIA. Turkey. Smyrna 150,000 Damascus 150,000 Bcyrout 70,000 Erzeroum 60,000 Brusa 60,000 Jerusalem 28,000 Asiatic Russia. Bokhara 70,000 Tashkend 100,000 Tiflis 104,000 Irkutsk 34,000 Tobolsk 18,000 East Turkestan. Yarkand 120,000 Kashgar 80,000 China. Peking 1 ,650,000 Canton 1 ,600,000 Tientsin 930,000 Yo-Chow 800,000 Foo-Chow 630,000 Nankin 150,000 Ningpo 260,000 Shanghai 372,000 Amoy 88,000 Hong-Kong .... 160,000 Japan. Tokio 1,140,000 Osaka 291,000 Kioto 230,000 Yokohama 67,000 Hindostan. Bombay 773,000 Calcutta 684,000 Hyderabad 263,000 Madras 406,000 Lucknow 261,000 Patna 170,000 Benares 300,000 Delhi 173,000 Indo-China. Bankok 500,000 Singapore 150,000 Saigon 100,000 Hud 50,000 Mandalay 90,000 Afghanistan. Cabut 60,000 Kandahar 50,000 Herat 30,000 Persia. Tabreez 165,000 Teheran 200,000 Meshed 60,000 Ispahan 60,000 Arabia. Mecca 30,000 Muscat 40,000 ^__ MALAYSIA. Manila 270,000 Surabaya 120,000 Batavia 103,000 • AUSTRALASIA. Melbourne 283,000 Sydney 224,000 Ballarat 37,000 Adelaide 38,000 Hobart Town .... 21,000 Auckland s8,ooo HEIGHTS OF PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS. NORTH AMERICA. I. Northern Coast Mountains, feet. Mount St. Elias 19,283 s. Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range. Mount Whitney 14,887 Mount Rainier i4,444 Mount Shasta i4,440 Mount Tyndall 14.386 Mount Dana 13.277 Mount Hood 11,225 3. Rocky Mountains. Uncompahgre Peak 14,540 Mount Harvard 14,384 Gray's Peak i4,34r Mount Lincoln 14,297 Long's Peak 14,271 Pike s Peak 14,147 Mexican Plateau. feet. Orizaba 17.897 Popocatepetl 17,784 Iztaccihuatl 15,700 CENTRAL AMERICA. Agua 14,494 Fuego 12,790 SOUTH AMERICA. Andes. Illampu* 24,81 2 Ulimani* 24,155 Aconcagua* 23,421 Tupangati 22,015 Chimborazo 21 ,424 Nevada de Sorata 21,290 Nevada de Cayambe 19.535 Antisana 19.137 Cotopaxi 18,870 Tunguaragua Pichmcha . . EUROPE. Elburz Con Asiatic boundary) .... Blanc (Alps) Rosa (Alps) Matterhom (Alps) Finster-aar-horn (Alps) Jungfrau (Alps) Iseran Mulhacen (Spain) Maladetta (Spain) Mount Etna (Sicily) Mount Olympus (Greece) ASIA.* Everest, Himalaya Mountains (highest in the world) Dapsang, Karakorum Mountains . . , Kintchinjunga, Himalaya Mountains . . FEET. 16,424 15,924 18,57a 15.784 15.223 14.835 14,039 13.718 13,270 11,654 11,426 10,874 9j754 29,002 28,278 28,156 FEET. Dhawalagiri, Himalaya Mountains . . 26,826 Nanda Devt, Himalaya Mountains . . 25,661 Hindoo Koosh Mountains (highest peak) 20,000 Ararat (Armenia) i7>3oo Fusiyama (Japan) 14,177 AFRICA. Killimaniaro (Central Africa) .... 20,000 Kenia ((Central Africa) 18,000 Teneriffe (Canary Islands) 12,182 Atlas Mountains (highest peak) . . . 11,400 Mountains of Abyssinia (highest peak) . 10,000 ISLANDS. Mauna Loa (Sandwich Islands) . . . 14,000 Ophir (Sumatra) 13.842 Owen Stanley (Papua) 13,205 Semero (Java) 12,000 Egmont (New Zealand) 8,840 Australian Alps (highest peak) . . . . 7,500 Kilauea (Sandwich Islands) 6,000 LENGTHS OF THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS IN THE WORLD. NORTH AMERICA. Missouri, to the sea (longest river in the world) . 4,200 Missouri, to its junction with the Mississippi, 2,800 Mississippi proper 2,800 Mackenzie 2,300 St. Lawrence 2,200 Nelson and Saskatchewan 1,900 Rio Grande 1,800 Yukon 1,600 Arkansas 1,514 Ohio (including the Alleghany) .... 1,275 Columbia 1,200 Red River 1,200 Colorado 1,100 MILES. Platte 800 Brazos, Colorado of Texas 650 SOUTH AMERICA. Amazon 3,600 Rio de la Plata (Parana included) . . . 2,250 Orinoco 1,500 St. Francisco 1.500 Tocantins and Araguay 1,250 Magadalena 900 EUROPE. Volga 2,000 Danube 1,800 Don, Dnieper .... 1,000 MILES. Rhine 880 Petchora, Hbe 737 Dwina 700 Vistula 691 Loire 599 Tagus 550 Dniester, Guadiana 500 Oder, Douro, Rhone, Po, Seine .... 450 ASIA. Yenisei , 3»4oo Yang-tse-Kiang 3,320 Lena, Obi, Hoang-Ho 2,700 Amoor 2,650 Indus .... 1,850 MILES. Mekong 1,800 Euphrates i,75*> Ganges, Brahmapootra 1,600 Irrawaddy 1,200 Tigris 1,150 Ural 1,000 AFRICA. Nile 3,89s Niger 1,°oq Zambesi 1,800 Congo, or Livingstone (estimated) . . . 1,600 Senegal, Orange 1,000 AUSTRALIA. Murray 1,700 * These are the results of official surveys. Aconcagua is probably the best determined point in South America. PRONUNCIATION OF DIFFICULT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. ^y" All markB used to indicate pronunciation are the same as are employed in Webster's Dictionary, last edition. BXPLANATIOK OP Mabks. — a, 5, I, 5, Q, j?, long ; i, e, 6, less prolonged ; &, 6, 1, 6, B, J, short ; cSre, far, list, f^H, wh^t ; there, Tgil, t^rm ; pVque, ffrm ; d6ne, for, dfl, wglf , fi^bd, f<5bt ; ffirl, rude, P9Bh ; «, », 0, silent ; S, sound of long a ; 6, simitar to e in her ; u, tike the French u ; ^g, sound of i in spirit ; ^ oj 8 ; (h 05 sb j e, €h, as k ; &as j; g aj t'n get ; g oi z ; ^as gz\ Q as in Huger, liQk ; tb as in thine ; I, like lU in million ) n, tike ni in minion \ i, luar/y like s; D, similar to th tn this ; a, soutui of German ch ; h, strongly aspirated ; k, sound of German cb ; m, French nasal sound; r, /titc IT in tenor Aaehen, ft^Ken. Abaco, a'ba-ko. Abbitlbe, ab-be-tib'bee. Abeokuta, a-be-o-kij'ta. Ab'er-cleeii'. Abomcy, ab'o-ma', Aboukir, ii-boo-keer'. AbranteM, U-brau'tej. Acapulco, ii-ka-pool'ko. Acaral, ii-ca-ra't Ach-een'. Aconcagua, arkon-ka'gwa. Acre, a'ker, or a'ker. Aden.a'den; ^rai. ;»r(m. a'den. Adlge,a'de-je ; /(.pr<'n.(i'de-ji. Ad'i-roiiMack. Adrianopla, ad'rt-an-o'p!. Adri-at'ic. ^gean (Sea), e-jee'an. Afghanistan, iif-gan'is-tan'. Agades, ag'a-des'. Agra, a'gra. Agullar, a-ge-laa'. Agulhatt, a-gool'y^s. Aisne, an, or fin. Aix-la-Cliapelle, aks-la- shil'-pel'. Ajacclo, a-yiit'cho. Ak'ron. Alamo, H'la-mo. Albans, jil'banj. Arbe-marle (Eug-)* Al'be-marle'(U. S-). Albuquerciue, al-boo-kSa'kA, or ai'boo-kerk. Alcantara, al-kanHa-ra. Alen^on, a-len'sou ; Fr. pron. ^a'loH'soa'. ~" A-lep'po. Aleutian, a-lu'shT-an. Algarve, aI-gaR'T&. Al-glerg'. AlicMiite, a-le-kau't5. Alleghany, SI-le-ga'uT. Allrghf ny, ftl-le ga'nT. Alller, al-Ie-a'. Almaden, al-oia-Den'. Almeida, ill-m;V&-dih. Alsace, al'sUss'. Altai, al-tl'. Altamaha, awVta-ma-haw'. Alton, {il'ton. Ank-boy'. Am-boy^na- Amiens, ami-enz ; Fr. pron a'me'S.N'. Amite, a-meet'. Am'os-kSag'. A-nftm''. An' da- man'. Andorra, In-doa'aa. An'do-ver. An'dr4»s-cog'p:ln. Anglesey, or Anglesea, ang' gl-se. An-go'la. Angostura, fin-gos-too'r&. Angouldme, 5N'goo'I&m'. An-ko'ber. Antlgiia, au-te'ga. Antilles, an-teel', or OM'teel'. Apache, a-pa^ch&. Ap'en-niueg. Ap'pa-iii'chl-an. Ap'pa-lach'i-co'la. Ap'po-niat'toX. Araguay, ii-ra-gwl'. Ar'al. Archangel, ark-an'jSl Arequipa, a-r&-kee^pa. Ardennes, ar-d6n'. Ar'gen-tlne. Argyle, ar-gil'. Arica, ii-re^ka. Arispe, a-res'pa, Ar-kan'sas. Armagh, ur-ma'. A-roos'tc>bk. Arpliio, ar-pe'no, Ar'ra"). Artols, aa'twa'. A-shan'tee, or Ashman-tee'. Ash'ta-bu'la- A(«ia, a'shi-a, ofien improperly pronounced a'zhi-a. As'pin Avail. As-SHm'. As slii'ni-boln^. Asuncion, a-sijn'se-Sn. Atacama, a-ta-ca^ma. Atbara, at-ba'r^. Atchafalaya, atch-af-a-lKa. Aube, ob. Augs'burg. Augustine, St-, sent-aw'gujs- tceu'. Au Sable, 6-sa'bl. Auvurgne, 0-v2m, or iKvSBu'. Auxerre, o-sGr'. Avignon, ii'ven'yoN' Avon, a'?on. Az'of. Azores, a-zorz', or a-zo'rez. B. Bab'el-man'deb. Badajos, bad-a-hos^ Baden, ba'den, or bad'en. Bagdjtd, bag-dad', or bag'dad. Bii-hH'ma:t* Bah la, bii-e-'a. Baikal, bi'kal'. Balreuth, bl'ruth ; Ger, pron. bi'roit. Balaton, bli'law-ton. Bal'e-ftr'ic. Balize, bu-Ieez^ Balkan, bal-kan'. Bai|'gdr([J. S.}. Bangkok'. Barbadoeg, bar-ba'doz. Bar-ce-lo'na, or baB-th^-io'na. Barnaul, baa-nowl'. Bar'iie-gat'. Barn'!«ta-ble. Basle, bal. Bas'Mo-rah. Bft-tang'. Baton Konge, bat'un roozh. Bayoniie, ba'yon'. Bayou la Fourche, bi'oo la fjjrsh. Beaufort (British Dominions], bo'furt. Beaufort (S. C), bQ'furt, Belirlng, beer'ing. Bi-l-fa8t'( Ireland). Belfast (Maine). Bellefontaine (France), bel'- foN'tAn'. Bellefnntaine (U. S.), bSl- fftn'ten. Belle Isle, or Bell isle ,~hel-n^ Beloochistan, bel-oo^chis- tan'. Benares, ben-'i'rfis. Bengal, ben-gawl'. Ben-gji'zii. Benguela, ben-ga'l&. Benin, beu-e«n'. BSr'lln ; Ger. pron. bSR-Ieen^ Ber-mu'da^. B§r-uard', Saint. Berwick, ( Kug.), bfir'rik. B€r'wlck(U. tj.). Besauf on, b'z-6.\'s6N'. Bexar ; Up. pron. b4-HaE' ; oft- en pron. by Vie TexanSy beh- har', or bar. Blafra, bV-af'ra. Biloxi, be-loks'I. Bingliamtoii, bing^um-tun. Birniiiighain, btr^ming-um. Blanc (Slontj, vam blON, or Mount Ulayc. Blois, bloi, prtferably blwa. Bogota, bo-go-t^. Bois6, bwa-za'. Bokhara, bo-K3.'r3. Bologna, bo-lou'yE. Bom-l>ay^ Boiiln, bo-nun'. Bordeaux, boa'do'. Borgne, born. Bos'po rus. Boulogne, boo-I(Jn' ; Fr. pron. boo'lon. Bowdoin, bo^den. Krah'ma-poot'ra. Bra-zll' ; Port. pron. bra-zeel '. Brazos, bra^zos, or bra'soss. Brem'en, or bra'men (Burope). Breslau, bres'law, or brSs'lou. Breton (Oape), brit'Qn. Brindisi, brin'de-see. Br^i'geg ; Fr. pron. brlizh. Bu'cha-rest'. Bu'da ; Hang, pron, boo'dfth' . Buenos Ayres, bo'nus &'riz \ Sp. pron. bwa'nosa i'rfis. 5w» _ B^r'gos. Bur'gun-dy. Bushire^ boo-sheer'. Butte, but. caveB. Ca-booK Caen, kdn. Cagllari, kfil'yii-re. Caicos, ki'kod. Cai'ro (Kgypt). Cal'ro{U. S.). Calais, kiil'iss ; Fr. pron. ka'lu' Calcasieu, kal^ka-shy, or kQl' ka-fihi). Caldera, kill-d&'rS. Calloa, kal-la'o, or kll-yS^o. Calvi, kai'Te. Canandaigua, kau^ari-da'- gwa. Can-ftv'e-ral. Can-ton' (China). Cape Girardeau, je-rar-do'. Ca-rac'as. CanlenHS, kar'da'naa. Cftr'ib-be'an. Cftr'Ib-bee' Carlsruhe, carts'roo. Ca-r5n'de-16t. Cartag*-na, kar'ta-je'na. Cftsh-inere'. CasNlquiari. ka-se-ke-a'ree. Casttne. kas-tcen'. Ca-taw'ba. Catoche, ka-to'cha. Cat ta-rau'gus. Cftt'tegftt. Cau'ca-siis. Cayembe, ki-Km'bft. Cayenne, kl-en'. Cayman, kl-man'. Cavuga, ki-yoo'ga. Celebes, sei'e-biz. ^en'is, or se'ne'. Cette, set. Cettlgne, chet-ti'B'A. Ceuta, su'ta. Cevennes, p&-ven'. Ceylon, see'lgn, or sT-lon'. Chagres, cha'grfie. Chaleur, eha-loor'. Ch&mouny, sha'moo'ne\ Chandeleur, fhan-de-lour'. Chapala, sha-pU'la. Chapultepec, cha-pool-t&- pek'. Chftr'i-ton. Chat^ta-hoo'che. ChJit-ta-noo'ga. Chaudi6re, Kho-d5-6r'. Chautauqua, ^tia-taw/kwa. Chelsea, chol'se. Chenango, she-nSng'gO. Chemnitz, Keni'nitP. Chemung, she-mGng'. Che-raw'- Cheiburg, sher'burg, or shSE^- booR'. Che sun'cook. Cheviot, chiv'e-ut. Cheyenne, phi-fin'. Chicago, fhe-kaw'go. Chihuahua, che-wa'wii. Chill, chil'le ; Sp. Chile, cheo'- lA. Chll'II-coth'e. Chimborazo, chim'bo-Til'EO. Chin'cha. Chowan, ch5-wan'. Chuquisaca, chu-kS-sI'kS. Cienfuegos, fe-^n'fwa'gos. Clmaron, ec-ma-ron'. Cobija, ko-bee'na. Coblentz, kob'lcnts. Cochal>anil>a, ko-cb5-bam'bii. Co'chin China. Cohahuila, ko-a-wee'la. Cohoes, ko-hoz'. Co-im'brt, or ko-eem'bra. Colima, ko-lee'ma. Cologne, ko-lon'. Colorado, kol'o-rah'do. ComayHgua, ko-mI-&'gwii. Com'o-rin. Conecocheague, kon'e-ko- cheeg'. Conecuh, ko-nee^a. Congo, cong'go, f-r Livingstone. Connaught, kon'nawt. Co'i»eii-ha'gen. Copiapo, ko-p5-a-pal Nippon'. I>arfur, dar'foor'. Darien, da-re-^n'. De-ca'tur. Del'a-go'a. Delhi (Uindostan), del'lee. Delhi (U. S.), del'hl. Demerara, dem'e-ra'ra. Des Moines, de-moin'. Dieppe, dyep, or de-ep'. Dijon, de'zboN'. Dnieper, nec'per. Dniester, nees'ter. Dominica, dnm'e-nee'ka. Dongola, dong'go-la. Dordogne, dCr-dun'. Do' vre-fi-eld'. Drave. Drontlieim, dront'im. Dubuque, du-biik'. Duluth, du-IUth'. Dumfries, dum-freess'. Dun-dee'. Du-ned'ln. Duquesne, du-kan'. Dus'sel-dorf ; Ger. Diissel- dorf , diis'sel-doRf'. DwI'na. E. £au Claire, 5 clai^^ Kcuadftr, ek-wa-doR' Edinburgh, ed'in-bur-ruh. Ed'is-to. £gripo, n-gre'po. Eiseiia* h, T'zen-ak. £lbe, elb ; Ger. pron. el'beb. ElbUTz, el-b]irz'. El Obeid, el B-ba'gd. Enara, a^na'rS. Erfurt, er'fiirt. Erlaiig*n, ^B'lang-en. Erzeroum, erz-roum'. Erzvebirte, eats'ga-b^'E'ga. £spinh»^o, Sp-pfn-yk'so. 1 ^sequibo, 5s-se-ke'bo. EssHiigen, ^f^u'ling-gn. Etlenne, Saint, s^Nt et'e-en' Et'o-wah. Eiifaula, ii-f^'la. Eylau, i'lou. F. Faroe, fa'ro. Fauquier, faw-keer'. Fayal, fi-awl', Fernandina, fer-nSn-dS'nii. Ferrara, fea-Ra'rii. FeTrol, f6R-R61'. Fezzan, ffiz'zim'. Flnisterre, fin-is-tCr'. Flume, fe-(Jl)'ma. Fond d^i Eftc. For-mo^sa. Freiburg, fri'btirg. Frio, free'o. Fr<'b'lsh-er. FO'cli. Funchal^ foon'shal'. Fnnen, fu'nen. Fusiyama, fu-sT-jii'ml. Gairdner, gird'ner. Galapagos, gal'a-pa'gus. iGalatz, giliitB. I Ga-le'na. GalUnas, gal-e'nas. Gal'ves-ton. Galvray, gawl'wa. Garonne, git-ron'. Gaspe, gas'pi'. G*n'o-a. Ghauts, gawts. Ghent, gent ; Fr. Oand, gfiv. Olessen, geeis'sen. Gila, He'la. Gironde, je-rond' ; F^. pron. zhe'rONd'. Gloucester, glos'ter. Gobi, go'be. Godavery, go-da'Ter-I. Goes, udoB. Goiha, go'ta. Gdttingen, get'ting-en, or got'tiiig-en. Granada, gra-n&'di. Greenwith, grin'y. Grigua, grlg'ua. Guadalajara, orGuadalazaxa, gwii-Dii-la-ua'ra. GuaHaloupe, g&w'da-loop', or ga'dii-loop'. Guadalquivir, gaw'dal- kwiv'tT. Guadiana, gaw'de-fi'na, or gwa'De-a'iiJi. Guanalianl. gwa-na-ha'uee. GuHnajuato, oi Guana- Gxuato, gwH-na-Hwa''to. Guapore, gwa-po'ra. Guardafui, gwar'da-fwee' or giir'da-fwe'. Guatemala, gaw'te-mala. or pi\a-t*--nia']a. Guayanta, gwT-S'ma. Guayaquil, gwT-a-keel'. Gna;i mas, gwT'mas. Guernsey, gCm'ze. Tulxna, ge-a'na. Guinea, gin'e. Guyandott, gl-an-dof . Hague, bSg. Hainan, hi-nan'. HakodadI, hii-ko-dii'dee. Halle, hal'leh. H an'o- ver. Bauran, hCw-rSn'. Haverhill (Eng.), bav'er-il. Haverhill (Vas^g.), ha'Ter-Il. Havre de Grace, haT'er de graw. Hawaii, hX-wT'ee. Hayti, hn'ti. Hebrides, heVrl-dez. Hele'nn, St. Helena (Ark.), hei'e-na. Hel'i-go-land. Hel'sing fors', Heulo pen. Hen-ri'ko. Herat, her-St'. Herzegovina, hfirfa^-go- Tce'na. Hessf> Cas'sel. Hlm-a-la'ya. Hlndo-fitan'. Ho-ang'ho, pronounced abnost wharg'ho'. HoHbo-ken. Holstein, hol'stin. Honduras, hon-doo'ras. Honolulu, ho-Do-loo'loo ii8 PRONUNCIATION OF DIFFICULT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. Hoaston, h&s'tun. Hu6, boo-&'. Huelva, wel'vi. Huesca, wee'ka. Hyderabad, h!''deT-a'bad'. I. IberTille, i'ber-Til. Is^uape, e-gwS'pa. Iliainpu, eel-yam'poo. Ulim tni, eel-ya-ma'nee. Ilmen, U-men^ Ina^ua, c-na''gwa. Indies, iu'diz. Innsbruck, Tn;s^prdbk. Interlacben, iu'cer-lac'en. I'o-wa Iquique, e-ke'ka. Iger, ee'zer. Itacoluml, e-ta-co-lQ-me'. Ith^a-ca. I u'ka. Iztaccibaate, es-tak-se- hwat-i'. J. Jaen, ha-en'. Jalapa, aa-la^pil. Jalisco, or Xalisco, Ha-lees'- ko. Jan Mayen, yan mren. Jassy, yas'se. Jen^a ; Her. pron. ya'na. Juan Fer-nan'd£z Ju'^aii, Saint ; Sp. San Juan, san uwaa. Jougfrau, ydbng^frow. Ka^esliua, k^-ga-sg^ma. Kiil auiH-zoo'. Kamt-cliat'lca. Kaiiawba, ka-naw'wa. Kan-da -bar'. Kaukakee, kaQk'a-kee'. Kano, kii-no'. Karakorum, ka-ra kd'ram. Karlskrona, karls-krub'na. Ka-tab'din. Kearuey, kaiyni. Kearsarge, ker'sarj'. Kennebec, k6n-nu-bek'. Kenoslia, keQ-5^(jha. Ke'o-kuk'. Kersuelen, kerf' e-len. Khiva, Kee'va. Kiakhta, ke-aK'ta. Kief, ke-ef, or KT-ev'. Kif 1, keel. Kilimanjaro, kTI-e-man- ji-ro'. Ktolen, ki'o-len. Kioto, ki-o'to. Kit'ta tln'ny. Klamath, klam'at. Kolin, ko-ieea'. ^ Koni^sbers, ken'igB-berg. Kordofan, kor-do-filn'. Kuenlun, kweu-lobn'. Kuka, kub'ka. KurUe, k(5b/rll. Lab'ra-dor.' Lad'o-ga. La-drones' ; Sp. pron. liD-ny n&3. Lafayette, laf-ft-et'. La Fourche, la foorsh. Lago Ittaggiore, la'go-mad- jo'r&. La Guayra, la gwT'ra. Lancaster, lilng'kas-ter. Languedoc, 15N'geh-dok'. Laon, la'oN'. Laredo, la-ra'd5. La Rochelle, la ro-shSI'. Latakia, la'ta-kee'a. liSusanne, lO'zan'. Lesnano, 16n-jil'no. Leicester, ies'ter. Leinster, lin'ster. Leipsic, lip'sik. Leiih, ieetn. Leum in ster (U. S.). Leominster (ting.), lem'ster. L«'on ; Sp. pron. ]&-on'. Le Sufur, soor. Leyden, li'den, or laMen. Li^ge, leej : Fr. pron. le-&zli'. Lisle, leel. Lima ( Heru), lee'ma. Lima I U- 8.) li'ma, Liiaoges, le'mozh'. Lipari, lip'a-re, or lee'pa-ree. Llanos, lya'uos. Lodi (Italy), lo'dee. Lodi(U. S.), lo/dl. Lo-fo'den. Loire, Iwaa. Lumoud (Loch), lo& lo'mund. Los A ngeles, loce fin' jSl-^. Louisville, loo'is-vil. Luc'ca ; It. pron. look'ka. Lupata, lu-pa'tS. Luzon, loo-zon'. L£-c5m'ing. Ly'ons ; b'r. Lyon, le'oN', M. Maas, m!i8. Macao, ma-ca'o, or ma-koW. Macliias, ma-chi'as. Mack'i-na>v. Madeira, ma-dee'ra; Port. pron. ma-da'e-ra. M ad-rag'. Mad-rid'. Mad'rid(lJ. S.). Magdalii, mag'da-la. Magellan, ma-jel'lan. Makoc|ueta, ma-ko'ke-ta. Mal'abar'. Mal'a-ga, or ma'la-ga. Malta, uiiiwl'ta. Mandalay, maa-dS.'le. Manislee, ma-nls'tg. Mauitutia, man-I-to-ba'. Maiiitouwoc, man'e-too-wok' Manzaiiillo, maa-sa-neel'yo. >laracaybo, ma-ra-kl'bo. Maranba m, mar'a-uam'. Mar'mo-ra. Marquesas, max-ka'sas Marquette, mar-kef. Marseilles, mar-salz'. Martinique, mar'tl-neeK'. Mas'sil-15n. Ma-tan'' zas. Mat'a-pan'. Maucb-Chunk, mawk* chilnk'. Maz'at-lan'. MecbUii, mek'lia. Medina (Arabia), me-dee'na. Medina (U. S.), me-dt'na. Me-her'rin. Meiningeii, mt'ning-ea. Menai, tnen'i, or men'a (Strait). Mendocino, m6n-do-8ee'no. Mercede, iner-s:id'. Mersev, mSr'zT. Merthyr Tydvil, mgr'ther tid'vil. Messina, mSs-Bee'na. Miami, ml-a'ml. MUan, mll'au (Italy); ml-lSn (U.S.). Miquelon, mik-e-lon'. MIrainachi, mlr'a-ma-shee'. Mocl'e-na, or mod'&-na. Mohave, mo-hSv'. Mo-nad'nock. Mo-non'ga-hela. Mont Blanc, moN bl5N, or Mount UlaQc. Mont Cenis, moic seh-ne', or seh-ness'. Mon'te-vid'e-o, or nion-t&- vee'di'O. Mont-pe'li-er. Mo-re'a. Mos'cow ; Buss. Moskwa, moBk-^H'. Mozambique, mo-zam-beek'. Munich, mu'ntk. Musoaiine, mua'ka-teen'. Muskingum, mu^kiug'gum. Mysore, mi-sor'. N, Nan-kin'. Mantes, nants ; Ft. pron. nONt< Nan-tuck'et. Natal, ua-tal'. Natch'i-tocb'es ; sometimes proHoanceU nak-e-tiwh'. Neufchatel, &mli'a'tel'. Ne' vis (lien). Newfoundland, nu'fiind- land'. Nevir Or'le ang. Ngami, 'uga'mee. Niagara, ui-ag'a-ra : .sometimes P'onounreii ni-ag'a-ra. Nicaragua, uik'2-ra'gwa. Nice, uees. Niger, ni'jer. Nijue Novgorod, nlzh'nfi nOv'gyrod. Nip'is sins'. Nismes, neem. Norwich ( Eng.), nor'rij. Norivicb (U. S.), nor'rich, or noi^wich. Nov'go-rod'. Nueces, nwa'sfis. Nyaiiza, nj-an'za. Nyassa, n&-Ss'a. O. Oahn, wah'hoo. Oaxaca, wiUaa'ka. Obi, o'be. Ock'lo-ko'nee. O-co'nee. Odense, o'den-seh. Ogeechee, o-gee'chee. Oise, oiz ; Ft. pron. waz. Okeechobee, o-ke-cho'bs. Okefliiokee, u-ke-£In-o'ke. Okhotsk, o-Kotsk'. Olean, o-le-ftn'. OI6ron, o-li'roN'. Omaha^ o'ma-haw'. Oman, o-man'. O-ne'ga. Oneida, o-nT'da. Onondaga, on'un-daw'ga. Ou'to-nag'ou. O-pt'ri-ka. Op'e-lo\t'8as. Orizaba', o-re-sa'bi. Or'te-gal. O'sage'. Ouachita, wosh^-ta. Onde, owd. O-zark'. Pad'n-a. Faduca, pa-dji'ka. Panama, pSn'a-ma'. Fapua, pap'oo-a, or pa'poo ii. Para, pU-ra'. Paraguay, pa-ra-gwa', or pa- rS-gwT'. Far'a-marlbo. Parana, pa-ra-na'. Parime, par-Y'mA. Farina, pa-re-na'. Fas-sa'lc. Fassaro, pas'sa-ro. Pass Christian, p&ss kris'te- an'. Pa-tras'. Pavia, pa-vee'X. Pecos, pa'kos. Feipus, pa'e-poos. Pembina, p6in'be-iia. Fernambuco, pea-nam-boo'- ko. Pesth, pest. Fhll'ip-pine. Piacenza, pe-a-chen'si. Pierre (Saint), a6nt peer. Piqua, pik'wa. f iga, pee'ia. Pis-cat' a-qua. Flaquemlne, plak'men'. Plata ( tiiQ de la), re'o d& la' pla'ta. Po'co-tal'i-€M>. Pondicherry, pon'de-shSr'- ree. Foikt'char-train'. Fopayan, po-pi-an', or po-pa- yau'. Po- po- cafe -pet 1'. For t-au- Prince, port o- prluss. Fort Mahon, ma-hon'. Forto Kicu, por'to ree'ko. Portsmouth, po^t:^'muth. Fotosi, po-to-tiee', or po-to'see. Foughkeepsie, po-kip'sl. Prague, prag. Prairie du Chlen, prii'r! du sheeu. Pregque Isle, presk eel. Puebla, pweb'la. Pyrenees, plr'e-nez. Queretaro, ki-ra/ta-ro. Quesada, k&-sa'Da. Quiche, kee'ch&. Quiloa, kee'lo-a. Quin'ebaiig'. Quito, ke'e'to. Racine, ras-seen'. Ragu«a, ra-goo'sa. Rah way, raw'wa. Raleigli, raw'l!. Rangoon, rang-goon'. Rap'id-an'. Rarilan, rilr'it-un. Reading, red'ing. Recife, ri^-m'i^. Reggio, r5d'jo. Rensselaer, ren'se-Ier. Rey'ki-a-vTk. Rheims, reemz ; Fr. pron. rSiNz. Blad, rV-ad'. Bichelieu, re'sbe-loo'. Rideau, re/do'. Riesengebirge, ree'zen-ga- befeRG'eh. Ri'ga, or ree'ga. Rioltamba, ree-o-bam'ba. Rio Colorado, ree'o ko-lo-ra'- do. Rio del Norte, rT'o del nort ; Sp. pron. ree'o del noR'ti, Rio Grande (Texas), ri'o gr;lDd. BioGrande (3. A.), re'o-gran'- da. Rio Janeiro, rT'o ja-nee'ro, or ree'o ja-na'ro. Rivoli, riv'o-le, or ree'vo-le. Ro'a-noke'. Rouen, roo'en ; Fr.pron. rwOx. KUgen, rii'gen. Russia, rQ^hl-a. Rysvrick, riz'wik. 8. Sabine, sa-been'. Saco, saw'ko. Sag-hal'i-en. Saguenay, sag'eh-na'. Sahara, sa-hU'ra. Said, sa-eed'. Saigon, sT'gon'. Sal'a-mo-nle'. Salford, sawl'furd, or furd. Salonica, sal-o-ne'ka. Saltillo, sal-teel'yo. Saluda, sa-!oo'da. Salvador, sal-Ta-doR'. San Diego, san de*a'go. Sangamon, sang'ga-mon. San Joaquin, Ban hwakeen'. Saik Joge, sau uo-8&'. San Juan; ^p. pron. san boo- i', or uwin. Santa Cruz, san'ta kroos. San^'ta F6 ; Sp. pron. san'tS, i&. Sautarem, san-ta-r^N; almost sau-ta-reng', Santiago de Cuba, sJin-te-a'- go de ku'ba, or dli koo'ba. Sadne, son. Sag-katch'a-wan'. Sault (tit. Mi'ry)',* soo. SchafThausen, shaf-how'zen. Sclieltit, iskeit. Sc'henectady, ske-nek'ta-dy. Schoharie, sko-har'ree. Schuyler, ski'ler. SchuyllUU, skool'kil. Seine, «ui. Senegal, sen'e-^awl'. Seuiiaar, sen'nSr. Seville, sev'il, or se-Til'. Seychelles, si'shel'. Shanuhalj phang'hT'. Shawanguiik shong'gum. She-boygan. Shen'an-do'ah. Sierra Madre, se-eR'na maD'- rft. Sierra Nevada, se-eE'Ra ni- Tii'Da. Slm'plon [ Fr. pron. sas'ploK'. Sinai, si'na, or si'n&ri. Singapore, 6iDg'ga-por^ Sioux, soo. Sigal, se-sal'. Skag'er Rack. Skaneateleg, skan'e atles. Sofala, so-fii'la, or so'fa-la. Soiggong, swas'sOif'. Somme, som. So-no'rii. Sorata, so-rA'ta. Stettin, Btet-teen'. SteubenviUe, stu'ben-Tll. Stromboli, strom'bo-lee. Sucre, soo'krft. Suez, poo-ez'. Sumatra, soo-ma'tr^ Surinam, f;oo-ii-nam'. Su-wa'nee- Sipvang^-a, swon'se. Szegedin, seg'ed'in'. Tahiti, ta-bi'te. Tahlequah, tS'le-kwS. Tamaqua, ta-maw'kwa. Tamatave, tam'a-tave. Tamaulipag, ta-mou-lee'pis. Tampico, tam-pee'ko. Taiianarivo, ta-na-na-re-Too'. Tanganyika, tan-gan-y'i'ka. Tangier, tan-jeer'. Taog, ta'us ; almost towss. Tapajos, ta-pa'zhos, or ta-pa'- hu8. Taunton (Eng.), tawn'ton. Taunton (Mass.), tan'ton. Teche, t&ah. Teheran, teh-h'ran. Tehuantepec, tfl-w3.n-t4-pek'. Ten-a«*'ser-im. Teneriffe, ten'er-if. Terre-Haute, ter'reh-li5t. Thames, tfiqiz. Thibodeaux, tib'o-do'. Thiliet, tib'et, or tT-bet'. Tierra del Fuego, te-SE'Rii d51 fwa'go. Tifiis, tif-lees'. TIm-biic'too. Titicaca, tit e-ka'ka. Tivoli, tiv'o-le, or tee'vo-lee. Tokantins, to-kan-teens'. Tokio, to'kT-o. Tonquln, ton-keen'. To-pe'ka. Toulon, too'lSs'. Toulouse, too'looz'. Tours, tooa. Traf 'al-gar', or Tr^-f &l'gar. Trieste, tre-fisf . Trinidad'. TruxiUo, or Trujlllo, troo- Heel'>o. Tucson, tH-son'. Tuiare, too-ia'ree. Tu'rin, or tu-rln'. Tyr'oi ; Ger. pron. te-rol U. Ucavali, oo-kl-a'Iee. Ujiji, i>-j 'ji. Ulm : Ger. pron. au'kee. "Wig-cAs'set. Woiilwich, wdbl'itch, or wcTol'ij. Worcester, wiTos'ter. Wiirteinberg, wur'tem-berg Wy'an-dot'. Wy-o'ming. Yakutsk, ya-kootsk'. Yang-tse-kiang, yang'tse-ke- »ng'. Yar'kand'. Ya-zoo^. Yem'en. Yenisei, yen'e-sa'e. Yezo, ya'zo. Yo-ko-lia'ma. Yo-sem'1-te. Youghiogheny,y6h1io-ga'nt Yp'si-ISii'ti. Yu'ca-tan', or yoo'ka-tan'. Z. Zacafecas, zak-a-ta^as. Zacualpan, pii-kwal-pau'. Zam-be'si, or zam-ba'ze. Zanguebar, zang'gft-bar'. Zan'te. Zan'zT-bar'. Zurich, zu'rik. Zuyder, zi'der. PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF Montana^ Idaho^ Wyoming^ Colorado^ Utah^ New Mexico^ ^rizona^ California^ Nevada^ Oregon^ IVashingtoriy and Alaska. DESIGNED TO ACCOMPANY SWINTON'S GRAMMAR-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. Copyright, 1884, by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, & Company. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. MONTANA. Situation. — What country on the north of Montana? What territory on the east ? What territories on the south and west ? Between what degrees of latitude is it located r How many miles does it extend north and south ? What degrees of longitude nearly mark its boundaries ? How many miles does it extend east and west? How does it compare in extent with the other territories ? In what great plateau is this terri- tory located? What is its shape? Surface. — What is the general surface of the south-western half of Montana? Of the north-eastern half? What mountain range divides it from Idaho ? What important mountain system extends through the western portion? From the course of the rivers, what do you infer of the elevation of the western part ? Of the eastern part ? What of its comparative general elevation? What two extensive valleys in the eastern part? What one in the north-west? Lakes and Rivers. — What are its three principal rivers ? Describe the course of the longest. Of its main branch. Have these rivers many tributaries ? Where do their waters reach the ocean? Describe the course of Clarke's Fork. What lake does it drain ? Where does this water reach the ocean ? Is this territory well watered ? What parts appear to be most so ? Counties and Cities. — What three counties comprise the northern tier ? What t\vo the eastern tier ? What county extends nearly across the state on the west ? What part of the territory appears to be most inhabited? Name the seven southern central counties. Name and locate the capital. Name one other city in each of the central counties. Name the three counties largest in extent. What counties appear to be least settled ? What important National division partly in the central- southern portion ? Its extent? IDAHO. Situation. — What country on the north of Idaho ? What division on the north-east? On the east? What state and territory on the south ? On the west ? What river forms part of the western boundary ? What parallel marks its northern boundary? Its southern? Nearly between what meridians is it ? What is its shape ? Surface. — What mountain range divides it on the north-east from Montana? What mountains in the south-eastern part? What is the surface of the central portion ? What extensive valleys does it con- tain ? What of its general elevation ? Lakes and Rivers. — What is the principal river of Idaho ? Where does it rise? In what direction does it flow? Name some of its tribu- taries on the north and east. On the south. What river crosses the northern part of the territory? What lakes are connected with it? What lake in the south-east ? What is the outlet of this lake, and into what does it flow ? Counties and Cities. — What counties border on the Snake or Shoshone River? Name the western tier of counties. Name the counties adjoining Montana. What is the north-eastern county? What is the capital, and in what county ? What other principal places in the counties adjoining? In what parts of the territory are the chief settlements ? WYOMING. Situation What territory on the north of Wyoming ? What terri- tory and state on the east? On the south? What two territories on the west ? What is its shape ? What parallels mark its boundaries ? What meridians nearly mark its boundaries ? According to the scale of miles, what is its extent north and south ? East and west ? How many square miles does it contain ? Surface. — What is the general surface of Wyoming? Which por- tions are most mountainous ? What mountains in the south-east? In the center? In the north? Has it many mountain peaks? Name several of the most important. Which is the highest ? What do the flowing waters show as to height of land? In what directions do its streams flow ? Is its general elevation high ? Lakes and Rivers. — What four large rivers have some part of their source in Wyoming? Where do the waters of each find the ocean? What is the length of the longest of these river systems, as it flows from its source to the sea? What the shortest distance across the country from its source to its mouth ? [See map of U.S.] What lake in the north-western part ? Connected with what river? Counties and Cities. — How many counties in Wyoming? Which is the largest in extent ? What National division to the north-west ? Its dimensions in miles ? Near the size of what eastern state is this Park? Name and locate the capital '''1 \ VX A IDAHO, ^ " !i / MOFTANAsWYOMIXG EXPLANATION Cities of over ^000 inliabitants are underlined County Towns Bailroads ■» ■ -^ — SCALE Of MILES 10 20 3l>40 60fiO7OS090 100~ Local lime i" A.M.tchen 4=" yoon on the 4" Meridian of 4" Oreenwich t" U2 Longitude UI West from 110 Oreenwich IW IW o 88 Mile Spr. | gTT. Benton / J 5* ^^''t .'. Tb s ^ "'•>-. vC^s r\\'olt PolBl"" Dry CrcLk >l*i >/ •Trout Ci-.- ^W %i<'^ <'-''"■" ■}- 1'" Emiprant J j'eak ' C^~^ ' Woaiqiiur f ^ ■ ' ""iliipih.'Vu' ' "' : 1j«la.^!I^ N A 1. t_/^-^ l-irn.olc •>■ I i J,! ., H * ,^ * W /^yv. •\' Kgiii' ,1-- -^^: ^ ^ rn "Big Horn ^"^ -5— CToudPilii'r'V 1 M-McXSintJ" ^ ^' Triibing 1 fV,"3-ien's P^S'll ^^ RANG ■ '^;» : ^..•1 Mt.MoTan Mt.L^ «rleXoc1t|l J •"f^. <-U| 36 Longitude ;J1 Wai 31 ■+- slUncUl aiixm^ votflt 25 tri X W .Blutt IJ \, Time 9» 4.3/. ttften 9" A'oon on (he 9" XeHdian cf 9" Washington 9» MONTANA. MONTANA. DESCRIPTION. [Area, 145,776 square miles. Population (Census of 1880). 39,159.] I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Montana reaches from the Rocky Mountain regions in the west to the great plains of the Mississippi valley in the east. It is bounded on the north by the Dominion of Canada, on the west by Idaho, on the south by Idaho and Wyoming, and on the east by Dakota. It lies between longitude 104° and 116° west from Greenwich, and between 45° and 49° north latitude. The greatest length of the territory from east to west is 540 miles, and its width north and south is 275 miles. II. SURFACE. The surface for the most part is mountainous. The western portion is traversed by the main range of the Rocky Mountains, having about one fourth of the territory on the western slope, and three fourths on the eastern. Be- sides the main divide, there are many smaller ranges and detached groups of mountains. Between these are many beautiful and fertile valleys. The western part of the territorj' is rugged, while the eastern slope abounds more in plateaus and rolling prairies, which in the north stretch out into a great plain. Beside the main range of the Rocky Mountains, the principal subsidiary ranges are the Bitter Root, Deer Lodge, Bear Paw, Big Horn, and Powder River mountains. The Mauvais Teires, or bad lands, are found in the eastern part of the territor)-, along the lower Yellowstone River, and south of the .Missouri. These lands, which have until recently been considered a desert, are now pronounced the richest of soils, with vast deposits of iron and coal, and containing many fossils. The average elevation of the valleys and bench lands is something less than 3,000 feet, while the average elevation of the territory is about 3,100 feet above the sea-level. The principal mountain peaks are Emigrant Peak (10,629 feet), Mount Powell (10,500 feet), Wards Peak (10,371 feet). Mount Cowan (10,351 feet). Mount Delano (10,200 feet), and Mount Blackburn (ro,i34 feet). The principal valleys are those of the Missouri, Yellowstone, Gallatin, Madi- son, Jefferson, Beaver Head, Deer Lodge, Bitter Root, Judith, Sun, and Prickly Pear rivers. III. DRAINAGE. That portion of the territory lying west of the main range of the Rocky Mountains is drained into the Pacific Ocean by Clarke's Fork of the Columbia River, and its tributaries. This stream from Deer Lodge City to the mouth of the Little Black-foot is called locally the Deer Lodge River: thence to the mouth of the St. Marj's or Bitter Root River, the Hellgate; and thence to the mouth of the Flathead River, the Missoula. That portion of the territory east of the main range is drained by the Missouri River and its tributaries into the Mississippi, and thence into the Atlantic Ocean. Within the limits of Montana the Missouri averages about 1,000 feet in width. The great falls and rapids begin a short distance below the mouth of the Sun River, and extend some ten miles with a descent of 450 feet. They are remarkable for their beauty and the swiftness of their waters. The most important tributarj- of the Missouri is the Yellowstone, which rises in the Yellowstone Lake in the National Park of the same name, and flows about 800 miles north-westerly, emptying into the Missouri at Fort Buford. This river is navigable for about 400 miles, and is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery and for the grandeur of its falls and ca&ons. IV. CLIMATE. While the climate of Montana is severe in some localities, it is favorably affected by oceanic influences. The warm Japan current, washing the coasts of Oregon and Washington, pours its heat into the atmosphere, which passes over the mountains in a warm wind known as the " Chinook," producing wonderful MONTANA. effects upon the snows of the severest season. During the winter, westerly winds prevail ; and this season resembles the climate of the Pacific coast rather than that of the colder north. V. RESOURCES. The resources of Montana, though to a great extent undevel- oped, are of no mean order. Gold, silver, copper, iron, coal, and building-stone are among her mineral resources ; while for stock- raising, agriculture, and lumbering, the opportunities are ample. Soil. — The bottom or meadow lands along the streams are a rich black loam, which is very productive. Farther back the bench lands are more sandy, but still productive, and more or less easily irrigated. The higher tablelands produce fine grasses, but are not classed as arable. Minerals Montana is rich in the precious metals. Some of the most productive mines in the history of American mining have been worked in the territory; and it has produced more gold since 1862 than those of any other state or territory excepting California. Valuable iron ores are found in many places, particularly in Gallatin and Deer Lodge counties. In the latter an iron mountain yielding thirty per cent pure iron is found. Rich deposits of copper are found near Butte and White Sulphur Springs, the veins carrying ores from twenty-five to fifty per cent. Lead is found in great quantities in several places. Bituminous and lignite coals are plentiful. Hardly a county in the territory is without it, while along the Missouri, Yellowstone, and other streams, the supply is comparatively inexhaustible. Excellent building-stone, a beautiful marble, is found in great abundance near Helena and Deer Lodge City, as well as in other places. Other geological resources are numerous and of growing importance. Forests. — Several million acres of the mountain uplands are covered with forests, pine of several varieties and of excellent quality predomi- nating. Other varieties are cedar, tamarack, spruce, cottonwood, ash, willow, and box-elder. Montana abounds in beautiful scenery. Grand mountains, lovely valleys, wonderful cascades and waterfalls, and magnifi- cent caverns, are among the most prominent features of scenery within the territory. VI. INDOSTRIES. The industries of Montana are chiefly those belonging to a thrifty and intelligent pioneer mountain commonwealth, rich in the natural resources of the forest, the mine, the valley, and the plain. Mining and stock-raising are of first importance ; but much attention is also given to lumbering, agriculture, and trade. Mining. — Important mining operations are carried on in almost every county in the territory, and this is the chief employment of many of the people. In addition to the great interests involved in the gold and silver mines, the copper, lead, and coal mines are also of much im- portance. Stock-raising is one of the chief industries of Montana. The herding and raising of cattle, sheep, and horses afford business and employ- ment to a great many people. Manufactures, beyond those which are connected with mining and rail- roads, and the domestic industries of the people, are of minor im- portance. Agriculture. — A comparatively small portion of the territory has been brought under cultivation : but considerable crops of wheat, oats, and barley are grown, while potatoes, onions, beets, turnips, and other garden products are profitable crops. Commerce and Transportation. — The commerce of the territory consists in exchanging the products of her mines and ranges for the merchandise necessary for the people. The rivers afford a water-line to the seaboard, while railroads are rapidly pushing through the territory. The Northern Pacific Railroad passes through the territory from east to west, while the Utah and Northern connects with it at Little Black- foot, giving ample facilities for rail transportation in almost every direction. A branch line has been built by the Northern Pacific Rail- way from Livingston to the Yellowstone National Park. Lumbering. — The extensive forests of Montana render the lumber interests of the highest importance, and this industry is already em- ploying considerable capital and large numbers of men. VII. GOVERNMENT. The government of the territory is vested, under the United States Statutes, in the executive, legislative, and judicial departments. Besides the oflficers appointed under the pro- visions of the general government, the territorial officers are an auditor, treasurer, attorney-general, superintendent of public instruction, and three district-attorneys. The governor, who is the chief executive officer, is appointed for four years, or until his successor is duly qualified, unless sooner removed by the President. The legislative department is vested in an Assembly composed of two houses, — a Council, composed of twelve members, and a House of Representatives, composed of twenty-four members, all of whom are elected for two years. Sessions limited to sixty days are held biennially, commencing in January in the odd years. The territorial judiciary consists of a chief justice and two associates, appointed by the President, who are styled the Supreme Court. The territory is also divided into three districts ; and district courts are held in each by one of these judges, at times and places prescribed by law. Each county has its own officers to attend to the business of the county in all local matters. Vlil. EDUCATION. Montana has a well-organized public school system, whose entire support is derived from direct taxation. There have also been established at numerous places fine denominational and private schools. Recent statistics show a rapid increase in the enumeration of pupils, in the number enrolled, as well as in the length of the school term and in the number of schools actually taught. Teachers are usually well paid, and the schools are liberally supported, the average rate of taxation voted for school purposes being nearly four mills on the dollar. IX. HISTORY. The region now embraced in Montana has successively be- longed, all or in part, to Louisiana, Oregon, Washington, Nebraska, Dakota, and Idaho. The present territory of Mon- tana was organized under the provisions of an Act of Congress, May 26, 1864. Nearly all of Montana came under control of the United States Government in 1803, by means of the Louisiana purchase from France. The French had made expeditions into what is now Montana as early as 1743 ; but little was known of the country until an expedition was fitted out by the United States Government in 1804, and sent to explore the region lately acquired from France, under the command of two army officers, Capts. Lewis and Clarke. This expedition had for its prime object the exploration of the Upper Missouri River, and the discovery of the most direct line of water communication across the Continent. In July, 1805, they reached the point where the present Gallatin, Madi- son, and Jefferson rivers unite to form the Missouri. In August they crossed the Rocky Mountains, and followed the course of the Columbia River from its head waters to the Pacific Ocean, which they reached in November. In March, 1806, they set out on the return trip, reaching St. Louis in September, 1806, having twice traversed the whole length of Montana. MONTANA. In 1852 gold was discovered in what is now Deer Lodge County, and during the next ten years in several other places ; but it was not until 1872 that any great discoveries were made. From this time, discoveries of Ijoth gold and silver have been frequent ; and wonderful mines have been developed, which have added largely to the wealth of the territor)-, and have attracted a superior class of settlers to its borders. In 1876-77 great trouble was exjierienced with the Indians, principally the Sioux and Cheyennes. These difficulties have all been settled, and the conditions of life in Montana are well adapted to the develop- ment of a strong and intelligent state. X. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Montana contains thirteen counties and the following leading cities and towns : — Helena (7,000), county seat of Lewis and Clarke County, and capital of the territory, is the largest and most important city. It is situated at the western base of the Rocky Mountains, on the line of the Northern Pacific Railroad. It is the commercial and financial center of the territory, and has banks with ample capital, stores with fine stocks of merchandise, hotels, churches, and other public buildings. It has well organized and equipped police and fire departments, and is lighted by a system of electric lights. Foundries, smelters, factories, and mills of various kinds, afford employment to hundreds. It is surrounded by many and extensive gold and silver mines, which contribute to the thrift and prosperity of the city. Butte City (5,000) is the county seat of Silver Bow County, and the most important mining town in the territory. It is a handsome, well-built city, and has an extensive business with the surrounding mines and camps. Here are located numerous mills, smelters, roasters, etc., for the treatment of the ores. It has good railroad facilities, and, in addition to its direct mining interests, is an important business center, with excellent .stores, banks, and business houses in all departments of trade and merchandise. It has good schools and a prosperous and well-regulated city government. Bozeman, the county seat of Gallatin County, is important for the mining as well as the agricultural interests which surround it. It has a good business, with all the evidences of thrift and prosperity. It is built up in good style, having fine churches and excellent public schools. It has good railroad facilities, and is a principal outfitting point for parties visiting the National Yellowstone Park. Missoula, the county seat of Missoula County, is beautifully located on the Missoula River, and is a thriving and prosperous town. It has extensive flouring-mills and mercantile establishments, which do a good business with the surrounding country. Churches and public schools have been established, and prosperity is visible in every direction. Miles City, county seat of Custer County, is the most important city in the eastern part of the territorj*. Situated on the Yellowstone River as well as on the Northern Pacific Railroad, it has important commercial facilities, and is a prosperous and growing town. It is an important outfitting point for the mining camps in eastern Montana and Dakato, and its military business through Fort Keough is important. It has a good court-house, churches, and public schools. Deer Lodge City, the county seat of Deer Lodge County, has a good trade with the surrounding mining and farming community. In addition to an excellent public school, it is the seat of the Montana Collegiate Institute, and a flourishing school under the charge of the Sisters of Charity. Fort Benton, county seat of Choteau County, is one of the oldest settle- ments in the territory. It was for years the principal trading and distributing point for supplies on the Upper Missouri. It carries on a large trade in the supplies and merchandise required by the people, as well as in the exporta- tion of furs and the other products of the region. Billings, on the Northern Pacific Railroad, has a good trade with the surrounding agricultural country. Extensive irrigation ditches have been constructed in this region, and the area of cultivated lands is rapidly increas- ing. It is an important stock shipping p>oint, and has railway-shops and other advantages. Glendive is situated on the Yellowstone River, 90 miles from its junction with the Missouri. It is surrounded by a good farming country, and is a point for the shipment of cattle and sheep by the Northern Pacific Railroad to eastern markets. Livingston, on the Yellowstone, at the foot of the Belt Range, is an im- portant railroad station on the Northern Pacific, and the point of departure of the branch line to the National Park. Here are located extensive machine- shops and engine-houses. Virginia City, county seat of Madison County, is also a prominent out- fitting point for the Yellowstone National Park. It has fine churches, good schools, and beautiful and attractive houses. Alder Gulch, upon which the city is located, is one of the most famous mining camps in the world, having yielded not less than $75,000,000 in gold alone. White Sulphur Springs, the county seat of Meagher County, is surrounded j by a fine farming and grazing region, and is a flourishing business town. It ( is a prominent resort for tourists, hunfers, and invalids. The mineral springs I and baths are very popular. Dillon, on the Utah and Northern Railroad, is an important and thriving [ town, having a good trade with the surrounding country. IDAHO. IDAHO. DESCRIPTION. [Area, 86,294 square miles. Population (1880), 32,600.] I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Idaho touches British Columbia on the north, and borders on six states and territories. It lies between 42° and 49° north latitude, and between ui° and 117° west longitude. In shape it is an irregular triangle, 440 miles in length, with an average width of 200 miles, half as large as California. In area it is a little more than II. SURFACE. Idaho is a mountain region. Its boundary-line on the north- east is one of the main ridges of the Rocky Mountains, known in the northern part as the Bitter Root and Coeur d'Altoe mountains. This range is nearly 500 miles in length ; and many of its summits reach a height of from 10,000 to 13,000 feet. The Salmon River Mountains cross the central part of the territor}'. Sev- eral of the peaks of this group are between 13,000 and 14,000 feet high. Valleys. — The largest valley is that of the Snake River. There are numerous small mountain valleys from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea-level. Between the south-western spurs of the Salmon River Mountains and the Snake River is a considerable tract of arid country called the lava district of the Snake River. This region is of volcanic origin, and abounds in hot-springs and geysers. The extreme south-eastern part of the territory, belonging to the Great Basin, which extends over a large part of Nevada and Utah, partakes of the surface characteristics of those divisions. III. DRAINAGE. Nearly all of Idaho belongs to the basin of the Columbia River. The extreme south-eastern part, forming the rim of the Great Basin, is drained by Bear River, which flows into Great Salt Lake. Tlie largest head stream of the Columbia is the Snake or Shoshone River, which rises in Wyoming, near the Yellowstone Park, and has a course within Idaho of 850 miles. The Snake River is navigable for 200 miles, from the mouth of Powder River to Salmon Falls; and also from Lewiston to its junction with the Columbia in Washington Territory. The river runs through several caflons of great depth and magnificent scenery, and its navigation is interrupted at several points by cataracts and rapids. Among the finest of these are the Great Shoshone, American, and Salmon Falls. The largest tributaries of the Snake River within the limits of Idaho are the Salmon and Clearwater rivers. Other important tributaries of the Columbia are the Kootenai, Pend d'Oreille, and Spokan ; the first two joining the Columbia in British America, and the last in Washington. In the south-central part of the territory a number of small streams have no outlet except in the sinks and lakes of the lava-fields. iV. CLIMATE. On account of its altitude, Idaho has a healthful climate. Spring, summer, and autumn are delightful ; and the winters, though cold, are less severe than in the mountain region east of the Rocky Mountains. The rainfall in the northern part of the territory is much heavier than in the southern part. 8 IDAHO. The influence of the warm ocean currents flowing down the Pacific coast of the United States is felt here, especially in winter. Warm winds blow across the mountains from the west, and mitigate the severity of the coldest seasons. The mean annual temperature is remarkably high for the latitude, the isotherm of Harrisburg and Chicago passing con- siderably north of the territory. V. RESOURCES. The resources of Idaho consist chiefly in its mines of silver and gold, its vast extent of good grazing ground for the pastur- age of live-stock, and its numerous fertile valleys. Minerals. — Gold is found along the head waters of most of the mountain streams. There are rich silver mines in the southern part of the terri- tory. There are also extensive deposits of coal and iron not yet worked. Forests. — The mountains are covered up to the snow line with forests of pine, fir, spruce, and hemlock ; and the wooded tracts are most ex- tensive in the northern part of the territory. Soils. — The soil of Idaho in the long, narrow river valleys is very pro- ductive. In the northern p>art of the territory the rainfall is abundant ; but, in the southern half, irrigation is required in order to secure crops. The elevated mountain valleys, the mountain slopes, and the rolling plains are covered with nutritious grasses, and afford extensive grazing grounds for cattle and sheep. VI. INDUSTRIES. As indicated by its resources, the industries of Idaho are mainly confined to the development of her rich mineral re- sources and the herding of live-stock. Supplementary to these, there is a large commercial interest, and a constantly increasing ■ production of cereals and fruits to supply the home market. Mining — Although gold was discovered as early as 1852, mining opera- tions on any considerable scale began only in i860. Since that time, both silver and gold have been produced in large quantities, and the total product to date has been nearly $100,000,000. Lead is also a valuable incidental product in silver-mining operations. Stock-raising. — Herding is rapidly developing into the most important and profitable industry of the territory. In 1880 the total value of live- stock was over $2,250,000 ; and since that time it has nearly doubled in value. Farming. — The principal farm and garden productions are grain, haj-, vegetables, and fruits, — such as apples, pears, plums, peaches, apricots, and grapes. In 1880 the cereal productions amounted to 1,300,000 bushels, and the hay product was over 40,000 tons. Commerce — The trade of Idaho consists in the exchange of gold, silver, and live-stock for manufactured articles of every description. Idaho is commercially connected with the Pacific coast and the valley of the Mississippi by the Northern Pacific Railroad, which crosses the northern part of the territory north of Lake Fend d'Oreille. The southern part of the territory is connected with the Union and Central Pacific Railroad system by the Oregon Branch and the Utah and Northern Railroad. The latter road forms a connection between the central and the northern transcontinental lines, and is an important commercial route. Extensive stage routes and wagon transportation lines connect the various parts of the territory, and form an important part of the commercial equipment of the country. They penetrate the mountain valleys in all directions, in many cases where the railroad is impossible, and are a necessary and distinctive feature of mountain life in the territory. VII. GOVERNMENT. Idaho has a territorial government, based on the Act of Congress of March 3, 1863. The executive department consists of a governor and secretary, appointed by the President and Senate of the United States. The legislative department consists of a Council of twelve members and an Assembly of twenty-four members. The Legislature holds biennial sessions. The judicial department consists of a Supreme Court (a chief justice and two associates); district courts, held at various points in the territory by the justices of the Supreme Court ; probate and justices' courts. The justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President, with the consent of the Senate. VIII. EDUCATION. Idaho has a good system of public schools, under the control of a superintendent of public instruction, county superintend- ents, and three school trustees for each district. IX. HISTORY. The area of Idaho formerly belonged to Washington Terri- tory, and was set apart as a separate organization by Act of Congress of March 3, 1863. At that time it embraced all the area of Montana and part of Wyoming. It was reduced in extent by the organization of Montana in 1864, and was given its present limits in 1868, when Wyoming was organ- ized. The first settlement within the territory was made in 1842, when a mission was established at Coeur d'Alene, a few miles east of the lake of that name. With this exception, there were no white settlements in the territory until about the year i860. With the advent of the new rail- road lines from the enst and south, the growth of the territory has been more rapid and substantial. X. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Idaho is divided into thirteen counties, and contains the following leading cities and towns : — Boise City (1,899), '" Ada County, on the line of the Oregon Branch Railroad, is the capital and largest city. It has an important trade with the mining districts in the central and western parts of the territory. It is the seat of a United States assay office, and the center of the most important financial operations in the territory. Lewiston (739), county seat of Nez Perces County, on the Snake River, near the Oregon line, is the most important trading town in the northern part of the territory. It is at the head of nearly three hundred miles of uninter- rupted navigation on the Columbia and Snake Rivers, and has a large ship- ping trade with points in Oregon and Washington. Malade City (759), county seat of Oneida County, near the Utah line, is the trade center of an agricultural and lumber region which is rapidly grow- ing in population and wealth. Silver City, county seat of 0\vyhe County, is the largest town in the south-west section of the territory. It is the center of an important quartz- mining district, and is largely employed in supplying the mines and reducing their product. Idaho City, in Boise County, is the trade center of rich mining districts, both gold and silver being mined extensively in its vicinity. Hailey and Bellevue, in Alturas County, are important mining centers, which have recently been developed. Challis, in Lemhi County; Montpelier and Paris, in Bear Lake County; Placerville, in Boise County; Salmon City, in Lemhi County; and Wash- ington, in Idaho County, — are also among the more thriving and populous places in the territory. WYOMING. WYOMING. [Area, 97,890 square miles. Pop- ulation (1880), 20,798.] SITUATION AND EX- TENT. Wyoming Territory is situated principally on the east- ern slope of the Rocky Mountains, and extends eastward into the great plain lying between these mountains and the Missis- sippi River. The south-western portion slopes towards the Pacific Ocean through the Green River valley. It hes between 41° and 45° north lati- tude, and between longitude 104° and 111° west from Green- wich. The length of the territory from east to west is about 360 miles, and its width north and south is about 270 miles. It is the ninth in size of all the states and territories, and the forty-sixth in popu- lation. II. SURFACE. The greater portion of the territory is mountainous, being traversed by the main axis of the Rocky Mountains. The principal mountain-ranges are the Black Hills in the north-east, the Big Horn Mountains in the north-central, the Shoshone, Teton, Gros Ventre, and Wind River ranges in the west, the Laramie Range in the southeast, and the Rattlesnake and .Sweetwater mountains in the central portions of the territory. Interspersed between these mountain-ranges are extensive and beautiful plateaus of level and fertile tablelands. The principal mountain peaks are Mount Hayden (13,858 feet), Fre- mont Peak (13,570 feet), Mount Moran (12,800 feet), Washakie Needles (12,250 feet). Chimney Mountain (11,853 feet), and Elk Mountain (11,551 feet). The mean altitude of the Laramie plains, one of the principal plateaus, is about 7,000 feet ; while Bridgers Pass, in the Medicine Bow Moun- tains, is 11,410 feet. Yellowstone Lake is 7,788, Shoshone Lake 7.670, and Lewis Lake 7.750 feet above the level of the sea. III. DRAINAGE. Wyoming, being situated mainly in the highest parts of the Rocky Mountains, is the source of in- numerable rivers. Three of the largest rivers on the continent receive waters through her bor- ders. The Missouri River, through the North Platte, drains the south-eastern part of the territory ; and through the Chey- enne, Powder, and Big Horn, the north- ern portion. The Snake River, which eventually becomes a portion of the great Columbia River of the north- west, and empties into the Pacific Ocean, has its source in the north- western portion of this territory ; while the Green River, which drains the south-western portion, finds its way out through Utah and Colorado into the Colorado River, and thence into the Pacific Ocean througli the Gulf of California. IV. CLIMATE. The climate of the territory is greatly varied. The remote- ness of the ocean, together with the altitude, exert great influence on the temperature. In the more exposed regions the winters are cold and severe; but the summers are delightful for their mildness, and for the invigorating in- fluences which are experienced by the traveler. On the plains there are seasons of severe storm, when the winds from the mountains sweep down upon them in great fury ; but these are of brief duration. The general character of the climate in these regions for the greater part of the year is favorable to health and comfort. V. RESOURCES. The resources of Wyoming are varied as its surface, and of great importance, but in the main they have not as yet been fully developed. Soil. — The soil on the plains is of unsurpassed fertility. Though irri- gation is necessary, as a rule, to successful farming, the numerous streams which traverse the territory afford ample facilities for this purpose. Hundreds of thousands of acres of pasture-lands, clad with nutritious grasses, afford abundant range for millions of cattle. The pasturage continues throughout the year, as during the winter the snows are dry, and the winds drift them into ridges ; so that it is of rare occurrence that a herd can not find plenty of grass. Minerals. — Gold and silver have been discovered in several places in the territory; and the Black Hills, the Wind River, and Big Horn Mountains, all have their thrifty and prosperous mining camps. Copper ores in great abundance have been developed at Hartville and near Cheyenne, in the south-eastern part of the territory. Valuable iron ores are found in the southern portion of the territory near Rawlins, and near Laramie in the south-east. A superior quality of soft coal is known to exist in great abundance in many parts of the territory, especially near Carbon, Evanston, and Rock Springs. lO WYOMING. Soda, gypsum, mica, graphite, kaolin, fire-clay, antimony, and sulphur are also among the mineral resources of the territory. Forests. — Portions of the territory are finely timbered, the varieties of pine spruce, cedar, and Cottonwood of good quality being most fre- quent, and covering many thousands of square miles. Water. — The many mountain-streams of the territory afford abundance of water-power for the handling of machinery, for mining, and for irrigation. Scenery — The scenery throughout the territory is beautiful and grand. The mountain parks and valleys are much resorted to by pleasure- seekers and sportsmen. Mineral springs, hot and cold, in great vari- ety, are abundant: and pulmonary diseases are favorably affected by the waters and the climate. VI. INDUSTRIES. The industries of Wyoming are rapidly increasing in variety and e.xtent, and already employ large sums of capital. Grazing. — Cattle-raising is the chief industry of the territory. While cattle often go the year round without other feed than the range affords, the most successful stockmen are now providing against emergencies by harvesting and stacking, at the proper season, vast quantities of the grasses which make most excellent hay. Sheep-raising is also an important industry of Wyoming, and there are many extensive herds yielding a handsome income. Farming. — Increasing attention is being given to this industry, and the principal products are hay, potatoes, and garden vegetables. Lumbering. — Important lumbering operations are carried on in several localities ; and railroad-ties, telegraph-poles, laths, shingles, and building and fencing boards are produced in large quantities. Manufactures. — Considerable attention has been given to the manu- facturing interest; and extensive rolling-mills, railroad repair-shops, and wagon and carriage shops are in successful operation. Commerce. — The commerce of the territory is almost exclusively by railroad, and consists of the trade in cattle, and merchandise generally. The Union Pacific Railroad passes through the south side of the terri- tory, and has done much towards the development of the resources of the territory. The Oregon Branch of this line starts from the town of Granger, in the western part of Wyoming, and constitutes an important factor in the business interests of the territory. VII. GOVERNMENT. The territory is governed under the laws of Congress ; and the governor and other principal officers are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate of the United States. The laws provide for a governor and other territorial officers, who con- stitute the executive branch of the government. The legislative department of the government is vested in a Legisla- tive Assembly, made up of two houses, — the Council, or upper house, and the House of Representatives, — both elected for two years. Ses- sions are held biennially in the even years, and are limited to sixty days. The judiciary power is vested in a Supreme Court with three judges, who are appointed by the President of the United States, and hold oflSce for four years ; district courts, circuit courts, and others of inferior jurisdiction, whose ofiScers are elected by the people for terms of vary- ing length. The right to vote is extended to women equally with men at all terri- torial elections. VIII. EDUCATION. Liberal provisions have been made for the support of public schools. A territorial superintendent is at the head of the system, and county superintendents and district boards have charge of the details, which are generally well provided for. A teachers' institute is provided for, which may arrange and prescribe a course of study for uniform use throughout the territory. Women may vote at the school elections, and are eligible to hold school offices. Parents are required to see that their children between the ages of seven and sixteen attend school during three months in each year. The larger towns maintain excellent graded schools, good buildings are provided, and the schools receive liberal and popular support. IX. HISTORY. The greater portion of this territory was acquired by the United States, through the " Louisiana Purchase," from France in 1803, though a portion of the south-western section came under the protection of our government by the " treaty of 1848" with Mexico. The territory was organized by Act of Congress, July 25, 1858. X. THE NATIONAL PARK. The Yellowstone National Park occupies the north-western corner of the territory, and affords the tourist and pleasure- seeker a greater variety of natural and scenic attractions than any other locality on the continent. The Yellowstone Lake, 7,788 feet above the level of the sea, is remark- able for the beauty and sublimity of its surroundings. The geysers are wonderful alike to the pleasure-seeker and the scientist, while the general mountain scenery rivals that of any other region in the world. XI. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Wyoming is divided into seven counties, and contains the following leading cities and towns : — Cheyenne (6,000), the capital of the territory, and its chief city, is an important railway center, 106 miles north of Denver, and 516 miles west of Omaha. It is the leading shipping and outfitting point for the great mining and stock-raising regions of Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana. Banking- houses with ample capital, large wholesale stores, and many fine private residences, churches, and schools, indicate the wealth, enterprise, and industry of the community. Laramie City (3,500), "The Gem of the Plains," 57 miles west of Chey- enne, is also a thriving, growing city. Extensive rolling-mills, owned and operated by the Union Pacific Railroad, afford employment for several hun- dred men, and have a capacity of 25,000 tons of railway iron per annum. In addition to these, large railway machine-shops are located here. In the immediate vicinity are rich deposits of coal, iron, lead, and other minerals. A large freighting and forwarding business is done with the surrounding ranches and camps. Rawlins, situated 709 miles west of Omaha, is the county seat of Carbon County. Here are located extensive machine-shops which afford employ- ment to large numbers. It has a fine business in shipping and outfitting for the Big Horn mining regions, and is an important point for the ship- ment of cattle. Iron ore is mined near by, and a superior metallic paint has been made in this vicinity. Evanston, the county seat of Uintah County, is a well-built and flourish- ing town, with railway machine-shops, and a large trade in lumber and charcoal. It is in the immediate vicinity of extensive coal-mines, which yield half a million tons per annum. Carbon, on the Union Pacific Railroad, 657 miles west of Omaha, is principally engaged in mining and the business tributary to the mining interests. Rock Springs, situated 830 miles west of Omaha, is an important coal- producing town. It also has a large business in the handling and shipping of cattle to the eastern markets. Green River, the county seat of Sweetwater County, is a railroad town, with machine-shops, round houses, etc. It is in the midst of a fine agri- cultural region, and has a good trade with the surrounding country. Sherman, situated upon the main range of the Rocky Mountains, at an altitude of 8,242 feet, commands a grand view of the Laramie plains, with their countless herds of cattle and beautiful river scenery. A monument to the memory of the projectors of the Union Pacific Railway has been erected on the summit in the village. Hilliard is a lumber town, situated 943 miles west of Omaha. A flume 33 miles long has been constructed to transport lumber, ties, telegraph- poles, and cordwood from the lumber-camps to the railroad. Other indus- tries are the manufacture of charcoal and the smelting of ores which are shipped from Utah. COLORADO. II COLORADO. GRAND CANON OF THE GUNNISON. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Situation. — What is the shape of Colorado? What parallels mark its northern and southern boundaries ? Nearly between what meridians is it.' How many miles in length according to the scale of miles on the map ? How many in width ? What state and division on the north ? What states on the east ? What divisions on the south .' On the west.' Surface. — Of what great plateau is Colorado a characteristic part? Where in this plateau is it located ? What general mountain range is prominent here ? Give the names of some of its minor divisions. Name some of the principal mountain peaks. Give their location. What is the surface in the western two-thirds of the state ? ' The eastern third? Where are the North, Middle, and South parks? Rivers. — What four large rivers have their sources in this state ? [See also other maps of this region.] Which flow west ? Which south ? Which east? Where does each reach the ocean ? What do these rivers indicate in respect to the height of land? Counties and Cities. — Name the counties crossed by the 105th me- ridian. By the io6th meridian. How many counties has this state? [In what county do you live? In what part of the state? Its county seat?] Name and locate the state capital. What is the second city in size? What other principal cities, and where located ? In what natural region are most of the cities and towns located? What do you judge from the map to be peculiar to the eastern tier of counties? DESCRIPTION. [>lreo, 103,925 square miles. Population {1880), 194,327.] POSITION AND EXTENT. Colorado is one of the Pacific Highland States, and the most western state having an eastern drainage. It is situated partly in the Rocky Mountain region, and partly in the great plain of the Mississippi valley, between latitude 37° and 41° north, and longitude 102° and 109° west from Greenwich. Its length from east to west is about 380 miles, and its width north and south about 275 miles. It is the thirty-fifth state in population, and the fourth in area. II. SURFACE. Nearly one-half of the state — its eastern end — is a great plain, through which course the upper tributaries of the Arkan- sas and Platte rivers, ren- dering its surface beauti- fully undulating ; but, in the main, this portion of the state is very level, pre- senting much the appear- ance of a vast sea of grass. The western division is traversed by the various ranges of the Rocky Mountains, which here attain their greatest alti- tude, with broad table- lands or plateaus on their GARDEN OF THE GODS. WeStCm slope. H COLORADO. The Front or Colorado range, in the north-central, and the Sangre de Cristo range in the south-central portions of the state, rising through a series of verdure-clad foot-hills from the broad plains on the east, form part of the great western watershed of the continent. West of these, the Park, Saguache, San Juan, Uncompahgre, Roan, and Elk ranges occupy the greater part of the state. Interspersed among these ranges of mountains are numerous "parks," or elevated, irregu- lar plateaus, where may be found, shut in by peaks clad in perpetual snow, vast areas of valuable fertile lands clothed with verdure, and dotted with the homes of an enterprising and thrifty agricultural people. The most important of these natural gardens, with their approximate areas and elevations, are, — North Park. — Area, 2,500 square miles : elevation, 9,000 feet. Middle Park. — Area, 3,000 square miles : elevation, 8,500 feet. South Park. — Area, 2,200 square miles ; elevation, 9,500 feet. Estes Park. — Area, 100 square miles ; elevation, 7,500 feet. San Luis Park. — Area, 8,000 square miles; elevation, 7,500 feet. The principal mountain-peaks, with their elevations, are, — Mount Blanco 14,464 Mount Evans '4533° Pike's Peak 14,147 Mount Elbert M.SS' Holy Cross 14,176 Spanish Peak 13,620 Mount Rosalie I4i340 Uncompahgre Peak . . . 14,235 Gray's Peak i4-34i Long's Peak 14,271 Mount Massive 141298 Buckskin Mountain. . . . 14,296 Hi. DRAINAGE. While Colorado has no navigable rivers, her position upon the very crest of the continent makes her the source of many streams, part of them finding their way through the Missis- sippi and Rio Grande into the Atlantic Ocean, and part through the Colorado into the Pacific. The principal streams of the Mississippi system, which originate in this state, are the North Platte, which rises in the Park and Front Mountains, and the South Platte, which rises in the Front Mountains in the north-central part of the state, together forming the Platte River of Nebraska, which empties into the Missouri at Plattsmouth ; the Republican, which rises in the eastern part of the state, and flows out through Kansas and Nebraska into the Missouri at Kansas City; and the Arkansas, which has its source a little north and west of the center of the state, and flows south-westerly through grand gorges and cafions into the great eastern plain, passing out of the state into Kan- sas near the 38th parallel of north latitude, and continuing an easterly and south-easterly course to the Mississippi. The Rio Grande rises in the San Juan region in the southern part of the state, passes south into New Mexico, in longitude 106° west, flowing south through that territory, and south-east between Texas and Mexico, into the Gulf. The Colorado River, which empties into the Pacific Ocean through the Gulf of California, receives as tributaries from this state the San Juan, which rises in the south-west corner of the state, and flows out through New Mexico ; the Grand, which flows west into Utah ; and the White and Yampa, tributaries of the Green River of Wyoming, which drain the north-western portion of the state. IV. CLIMATE. The state being situated in the heart of the Rocky Moun- tains, far removed from the modifying influences of the ocean, its climate partakes of the character of every latitude. The rigors of a northern winter, and the balmy breezes of an Ital- ian summer, may both be experienced within a day's journey. The extreme dryness of the atmosphere tempers the severity of the cold in winter, and the exhilarating effects of the altitude make the summers most delightful. Pulmonary affections are greatly benefited by the climate and waters. The mean annual temperature is about 50°. The rainfall is scant for agricultural purposes, and is exceedingly varied. The influences of irrigation and agriculture will, it is anticipated, promote the quantity as well as the uniformity of the rainfall. V. RESOURCES. Soil. — The soil of Colorado is naturally fertile; but the insufficiency of the rainfall makes irrigation a necessary ad- junct of successful agriculture in most parts of the state. The most productive lands are found in the parks and valleys of the South Platte, Clear, Cherry, South Boulder, San Luis, and Rio Grande, while the level lands in all parts of the state yield a fruitful harvest wherever they can be artificially watered. The great plains in the eastern part of the state, as well as the parks and plateaus of the mountain regions, afford excellent pasturage the year round. Minerals. — Gold was first discovered, in Colorado in 1858; and the more important deposits are found in what miners call "true fissure" veins or lodes, and in "chimneys" having the appearance of the craters of extinct volcanoes. These deposits are extremely rich. Many of them have been penetrated for hundreds of feet without any apparent reduction of the quantity of the ores. The most productive mines are located in Gilpin County; but gold is found in one form or another throughout all the moun- tainous portions of the state. Silver was discovered as early as 1864 near Georgetown, but it was not until 1870 that any important results were reached. The importance of the silver deposits was never suspected until the great mines of carbonate ores were opened near Leadville in 1877, about which time the silver excitement reached its height. Like gold, the silver is found in all the geological combinations. " Na- tive silver," "ruby silver," "silver glance," "smelting ore," "free-mill- ing ore," "mill dirt," "stamp rock," "sand carbonates," etc., are terms used in describing them, while they are found in veins, lodes, fissures, contracts, sedimentary deposits, and other forms. Silver in various forms is found in almost every county in the mountainous part of the state, Lake producing the greatest quantity, followed by Gilpin, Clear Creek, Boulder, Summit, Gunnison, Pitkin, Custer, San Juan, Hins- dale, Dolores, Grand, Saguache, Chaffee, Ouray, Park, and others. The principal deposits are found in beds or strata between layers of porphyry and limestone. Coal of superior quality is found in r^any parts of the state. There are thousands of square miles underlaid with valuable deposits, and the supply is comparatively inexhaustible. An excellent lignite, adapted to domestic use and to railway purposes, is mined in large quantities in the vicinity of Boulder. Bituminous varieties are found in the vicinity of Trinidad, as well as in the south- west near Durango, and in the regions around Gunnison. Anthracite has been discovered in several places ; but its extent and value is as yet comparatively unknown. Iron ores in many of the valuable varieties have been discovered in sev- eral parts of the state, and are abundant in the immediate vicinity of the coal-measures. Quarries of excellent granite, limestone, sandstone, etc., have been opened, and marbles of superior texture and color are abundant. Among the other minerals of Colorado are agates, alum, amethyst, anti- mony, arsenic, baryta, bismuth, chalcedony, chalk, copper, fire-clay, garnet, graphite, gypsum, jasper, manganese, mica, onyx, opal, salt, soda, sulphur, talc, topaz, tufa, turquoise, etc. Mineral springs are found in many parts of the state. Waters, both hot and cold, containing salt, soda, sulphur, iron, etc., are of frequent occurrence, and their medicinal properties make them the resort of thousands of invalids and tourists. COLORADO. 15 The forests of Colorado are not rich in valuable timber; but the moun- tain-regions are abundantly supplied in the lower altitudes with many varieties of pine, spruce, fir, aspen, hemlock, and cedar. VI. INDUSTRIES. Mining. — As the wealth of Colorado lies in her mines, so the principal industry of her people is devoted to their work- ing. The digging and raising of the ores to the surface is a work of great labor, and affords profitable employment to thousands of men. These ores are then treated by various processes known to science, resulting in the extraction of the precious metal which becomes the bullion of commerce. The ore beds, or veins, or contracts, are reached through shafts, ver- tically, or through tunnels into the face of the mountains, horizontally. All these openings have to be made with much labor and skill, and heavy timbers are placed to protect the sides from caving in upon the workmen. The ores, as they come from the mine, are generally sold by the mine- owner to the mills or smelters, where the reduction to bullion is made by various processes of pulverization by stamp-mills, roasting-ovens, and smelting-furnaces. In many cases the ores are transported hundreds of miles before treatment, while in others they are treated near the mines by works erected with special reference to the peculiarities of the ores of the locality. There are many different methods of reducing ores. Some of the processes involve the principles of chemistry to a wonderful degree, while others are very simple. In many cases the refuse of one course of treatment is made to pay a handsome profit when submitted to another and different process. Agriculture. — While mining has been the great business of Colorado, agriculture affords employment to an industrious and numerous portion of her people. The principal crops are wheat, oats, barley, corn, potatoes, hay, and the products of the garden. Lands which a few years ago were com- paratively worthless have been made productive by the introduction of a system of irrigation ; and experiments are now being made in the eastern portion of the state with artesian wells, from which it is hoped an ample supply of water for irrigation will be afforded in lo- calities remote from the mountains. Cattle-raising is an important industry. The climate is favorable, and the native grasses are abundant, afiording nutritious food all the year round. Wool-growing is also carried on to a large extent, and is a productive and profitable business. Fruit-growing has received considerable attention, and small fruits yield abundant and paying returns. Manufactures. — The most important manufacturing inter- ests in Colorado are those which are represented by the es- tablishments for treating ores, though iron and steel works, foundries, and rolling-mills have already been put in operation. The developments of the iron and coal fields will undoubtedly enhance the interest of capitalists in these enterprises. The commerce of the state is principally with the east, and by railroad. The interchange of bullion, cattle, wool, etc., the products of Colo- rado industry, for the merchandise of the eastern markets, makes a business of great magnitude. Transportation. — The railway systems which center in this state are numerous and important. "The Colorado Pool " is a powerful factor in the railway interests of the west. Important divisions of the Union Pacific System radiate from Denver in four directions. The Denver and Rio Grande, the Burlington Route, the Denver and New Orleans, and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa F6, are all important lines. VII. GOVERNMENT. The state government consists of three departments, — the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The officers composing the executive department are a governor, lieu- tenant-governor (who is also president of the Senate), secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney-general, and superintendent of pub- lic instruction, all elected by direct vote of the people, and holding their respective offices for the term of two years. The legislative department consists of a Senate and House of Repre- sentatives. Regular sessions are held biennially, convening on the first Wednesdays in January of the odd years. The Senate is com- posed of twenty-six members, elected for four years ; and the House of Representatives, of forty-nine members, elected for two years. 1\i^ judicial department is administered through a supreme court, the three judges of which are chosen for nine years; six district courts, with six judges, each elected for six years ; county courts, with one judge in each county, elected for three years ; and justices' courts, which are presided over by justices of the peace, who are chosen for two years. In the Congress of the United States, Colorado is entitled to two senators and one representative; and the state has three votes in the Electoral College in choosing a President of the United States. Vli EDUCATION. The public-school system was early made a prominent fea- ture in the policy of the state. The organization consists of a state superintendent, state board of education, state board of examiners, county superintendents, and dis- trict boards. Provision is made for graded schools. State and county teachers' associations have been provided for. The laws require at least sixty days of school in each district annually; but the average duration of the schools is much longer, while in the cities and towns the schools are in session from a hundred and twenty to two hundred days. The state institutions are the State University located at Boulder, School of Mines at Golden, Agricultural College at Fort Collins, Mute and Blind Institute at Colorado Springs, and Industrial School at Golden, all of which are liberally provided for. Numerous private institutions of high order have been established. IX. HISTORY. Territorial History. — The territory included within the borders of Colorado was acquired, part from the French through the "Louisiana Purchase" in 1803, and part from Meixco through the " treaty of 1848." Prior to the acquisition of that part of the territory which came to us from France, no important explorations or researches had been made in this region. In 1803 the government sent out a small expedition under Lieut. Pike. Later, in 1819, Col. S. H. Long led another expe- dition, neither of which made any foothold or discovery of importance. Private enterprises, as late as 1832, were unsuccessful in the accom- plishment of any good results ; and it was not until Cipt. Fremont, in 1842 and 1844, had made surveying and exploring expeditions, that the government knew any thing of the character of its newly acquired domain. From this time until 1858, fur-traders, explorers, emigrants bound for the Pacific coast, and Mormons on their way to Utah, were the only white men who ventured into these regions. In 1858, however, a prospecting party from Georgia established a lodgment on the Platte near the present site of Denver. They were soon joined by others, who, hearing of the discovery of gold, flocked to the new Eldorado. Several towns were established, and efforts to form a territorial government were at once inaugurated. A territorial government was not fully consummated till 1861, when, with William Gilpin as governor, Colorado first became an organiza- tion under the United States. The young territory grew rapidly in i6 COLORADO. population, and had hardly acquired a territorial standing before efforts were made to secure state privileges, which came near being successful in 1865, when President Johnson vetoed the "enabling act" passed by Congress for that purpose. Continued prosperity attended the territory, however, and the tide of immigration flowed in unabated. State History. — In the winter of 1874-75 another effort was made to secure a state government. These efforts were successful ; and the necessary laws having been enacted by Congress (March 3, 1875), a constitution adopted by the people (July I, 1876), and state officers elected (Oct. 3, 1876), the state government of Colorado was inaugurated in November, 1876, making the thirty-eighth state in the Union. From the date of its admission, Colorado is fitly called the "Centennial State." X. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. For purposes of local government the state is divided into counties, of which there are at present thirty-eight. The lead- ing cities and towns are as follows : — Denver (35,630) is the capital of the state, its commercial metropolis, and the chief railroad center of this part of the United States. The city was first settled in 1858, and for about fifteen years had a moderate and steady growth, which gave place in 1872 to a remarkable era of prosperity, which has not yet ended. The city is beautifully laid out, and is located at the junction of Cherry Creek and the South Platte River, a few miles from the base of the foot-hills which rise and gradually recede into the mountains. Long's Peak and Pike's Peak are both visible in the distance. Denver has a well-ordered city government, water-works, gas-works, electric-lighting establishments, telephone, street-railways, and all other conveniences of a metropolis. Among the finest public buildings are the Union Depot, Tabor Grand Opera-House, Tabor Block, Windsor Hotel, St. James Hotel. There are also a mining and industrial exposition of great proportions and interest, a branch of the United-States Mint, a board of trade, and a stock exchange. The public-school system of the city of Denver is of special excellence. A high school and numerous ward schools have been provided ; and no expense has been spared to keep the requirements up to the demand. Leadville (14,820), the county seat of Lake County, is the second city in size and importance in the state. This city is situated near the Arkansas River, on California Gulch, and was settled in 1876. The surrounding scenery is grand and impos- ing. It is the leading silver-mining center in Colorado. Surrounded by the richest mines in the state, it is pre-eminently a min- ing city. Numerous large smelting and reduction works, with stamp- mills and other mining interests, afford the principal business of the city. The city has a good system of public schools, with excellent buildings, which are a credit to the enterprise and taste of the people. Pueblo, county seat of Pueblo County, on the north bank of the Arkansas River, and South Pueblo, on the opposite side of that stream, constitute one of the most populous and important manufacturing centers of the state. Among the most prominent industries are steel and iron foundries, rolling- mills, nail-mills, car-shops, smelters, etc. A rich agricultural region lying to the east is tributary to the cities, and important railroad lines center here. Both cities are efficiently organized with good local governments, water- works, and fire departments, and maintain excellent systems of public schools. Gunnison City, the county seat of Gunnison County, was laid out in 1879. It has gas and water works, theaters, banks, churches, newspapers, and public schools. It is connected with Denver by two lines of railway, and is the distributing point for the many mining-camps in South-western Colorado. Important manufacturing establishments are located here. Boulder, the county seat of Boulder County, is an important railroad center, and has a large and growing trade and business. The coal-mines in the vicinity afford its most important industry: but extensive gold and silver mines, and important manufacturing interests, all contribute to its prosperity. Boulder is also a literary center of the state, being the seat of the Uni- versity of Colorado. Colorado Springs, the county seat of El Paso County, was settled in 1871, and has already become a flourishing and prosperous citv. It is situ- ated in the vicinity of many points of interest to the tourist, and is the resort of thousands who make it the base of their excursions to Manitou, Pike's Peak, the Garden of the Gods. Monument Park, Engleman's Cafion, etc. It has many fine buildings, and has superior educational facilities, with ex- I cellent public schools. Colorado College and Deaf-Mute Institute are located here. Georgetown, the county seat of Clear Creek County, is the oldest and one of the most important mining towns in the state. It has a flourishing mining business, and large sampling and reduction works. There are many points of interest in the vicinity, and it is an important radiating point for miners and tourists. Alamosa — situated on the Rio Grande in the famous San Luis Valley, is surrounded by grand scenery, and is the center of a flour- ishing business, in which the cattle, wool, and farming interests are important features. Aspen — the county seat of Pitkin County, was laid out in 1879, but has already become a flourishing community, with good stores, smelting-fumaces, etc. Black Hawrk is situated about 35 miles west of Denver, in Gilpin County. The many gold and silver mines in the vicinity make it one of the important mining towns of the state. It is closely allied with its neighbor, Central City, in business and social intercourse. Breckeoridge — the county seat of Summit Coun- ty, is situated on Blue River, on the Pacific slope of the main range. It is a thriving town, with smelters and other mining ad- juncts. It has good schools and a great variety of business interests. Buena Vista — the county seat of Chafl*ce Coun- ty, is situated on the Arkansas River, at the junction of the Denver and Southern Pacific Division of the Union Pacific Railway with the Denver and Rio Grande. It has a flour- ishing business, and good banks, churches, and schools. Canon City — the county seat of Fremont Coun- ty, is situated at the foot of the mountains, and on the left bank of the Arkansas River. It has a good business with the farming community around it. It commands some of the finest mountain scenery in the world. The state penitentiary is located here. Del Norte — the county' seat of Rio Grande Coun- ty', is the center of a fine farming community, and enjoys a good trade with the surround- ing country. Durango — the county seat of La Plata County, is situated on the Pacific Slope, and is sur- rounded by fine farming-lands, and some of the best timbered lands in the state. The coal-mines near by are an important element of its prosperity. Fort Collins — the county seat of Larimer Coun- ty, was settled as a colony in iS-ji. It is a favorite resort for tourists visiting the neigh- boring mountain-parks. It is situated in a fine farming section, and supports good pub- lic schools and a large public library, Greeley — the county seat of Weld County and the principal market-town in its portion of the state, was organized as a colony in 1S70. It has a fine business with the surrounding country, and supports an excellent public school. Longmont — situated in Boulder County, is an important town in a fine fanning region. It is beautifully laid out, and is a popular stop- ping-place for parties visiting Estes Park and other contiguous mountain-resorts. Manitou is one of the most noted pleasure-re- sorts in the state, and is well supplied with every thing required by the invalid or the tourist. Rico — the county seat of Dolores County, and an important mining town, has stamp-mills, smelting-works, banks, churches, and excel- lent schools, both public and private. Other important mining towns are Adelaide, Alma, Alpine, Ashcroft Bonanza, Caribou, Coal Creek, Cochetopa, Columbia, Crested Butte, Fair play, Frisco, Garfield, Gold Hill, Gothic, Irwin, Kokomo, Lake City, Ne- vadaville, Ohio City, Ouray, Pitkin, Red Cliff, Robinson, Rosita, Silver Plume, Silverton, Teller, Tin Cup, and Tucson. Box Elder, Como, Deer Trail, El Moro, El Paso, Elbert, Evans, Fort Gariand, Gardner, Grand Junction, Hugo, Kit Carson, Kiowa, La Junta, Loveland, Saguache, and Walsenburg are important from their agricultural surroundings. The Alpine Tunnel, Antelope Springs, Brookvale, Cottonwood Springs, Dome Rock, Elkhorn, Estabrook Park, Estes Park, South Park, Grand Lake, Grant, Green Lake, Hot Sulphur Springs, Idaho Springs, Morrison, Middle Park, North Park, Pagosa Springs, Poncho Springs, Soda Springs, Twin Lakes, and Wagon-Wheel Gap are noted as the resort of tourists and pleasure-seekers. UTAH. 17 UTAH. SALT LAKE CITY. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Situation. — What divisions bound Utah on the north? What state on the east? What territory on the south? What state on the west? Over how many degrees, north and south, does it extend ? According to the scale, how many miles ? Surface. — What general natural regions is the surface divided into from north to south ? Name of the principal mountain range ? Names of its minor divisions? Lakes and Rivers. — What large lake in the northern part? What other lakes, and where ? Have these lakes surface outlets ? What is the largest river ? Describe its course. Where do its waters reach the ocean ? Name some of its chief tributaries. What other considerable streams ? Into what bodies of water do they flow ? Counties and Cities. — In what part of Utah is the principal tier of settled counties? Extending in what direction ? Name the counties rforth of the central county. Name those south of it. Name and locate the capi- tal. What are the largest cities north of it? What south of it? [Name your county. Its county-seat. In what part of the territory is it?] DESCRIPTION. [Area, 84,970 square miles. Population (in 1880), 143,963.} I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Utah occupies the eastern part of the Great Basin and the western part of the upper valley of the Colorado. It is included between 37° and 42° 10' north latitude and 109° and 1 14° west longitude. The Great Basin is a remarkable depression of land lying between the Sierra Nevada and Wahsatch mountains, mostly in Utah and Nevada. Much of the land is an arid waste, with no streams and little vegeta- tion. The waters of the rivers have no outlet to the sea, and disap- pear in sinks or in salt lakes. In shape Utah is nearly a parallelogram, 350 miles in length north and south, and 280 miles in width. In area it is a little more than half the size of California, and near- ly the same size as Idaho, Minnesota, or Kansas. II. SURFACE. As indicated by its loca- tion, Utah is divided into two great plateau regions, differing, however, very widely in all their surface features. The eastern and western parts of the terri- tory are of about the same elevation, — 5,000 feet above the sea-level. ' Mountains. — Rising from this plain, the chief mountain range is the Wahsatch, which extends nearly north and south the entire length of the terri- tory. The Uintah Mountains are an eastern spur of the Wahsatch. extending at right angles from the main range to the north-eastern boundary of the territory. The high- est elevations in the territory are in this minor range, which, in the cases of Reed's and Hayden's peaks, reach to nearly 14,000 feet above the sea. The highest points in the Wahsatch Range are Mounts Nebo and Baldy, each about 12,000 feet high. The western part of the territory consists in part of barren alkaline deserts, or of plains covered with a scattering growth of sage-brush and grease-wood. Toward the Nevada line are several short ranges of mountains. Valleys. — Extending from the crests of the Wahsatch Range are numerous spurs and lateral ranges, between which are found many very fertile valleys supporting a thrifty and prosperous people. Among the more important of these valleys are the Salt Lake, Bear Lake, and Utah valleys, adjacent to the lakes from which they are named; the Bear River, Weber, Upper and Lower Sevier, Ogden, and Provo valleys, lying along the rivers of the same name ; and the Pah Vant, Beaver, Parowan, and Tintic valleys, named after the mountains in their immediate vicinity. Outside of the Great Basin, the most important valley is that of the Virgin River, in the south-western part of the territory. The high tablelands of Eastern Utah south of the Uintah Range partake somewhat of the surface features and charac- teristics of Colorado and Wyoming. III. DRAINAGE. Western Utah. — West of the Wahsatch Range there are no waters that reach the ocean. All the streams flow into salt lakes, or disappear in sinks in the desert. Great Salt Lake, which receives the drainage of about 20,000 square miles, is the largest saline lake in the United States. It is 80 miles long and 40 miles wide, and covers an area of over 3,000 square miles. i3 UTAH. Its waters contain 22 per cent of salt. The largest streams flowing into it are the Bear River, Weber River, and the Jordan. Utah Lake is a fresh-water lake, having the Jordan River for its outlet. Se\-ier River flows into Sevier Lake, a body of saline water 20 miles long and 10 miles wide. Bear Lake, lying partly in Utah and partly in Idaho, is remarkable for its beauty and picturesque scenery. The rivers within the rim of the Great Basin are all short streams, rising in the mountains, and are especially serviceable for the irrigation of the agricultural valleys through which they flow. There are abundant indications to show that a large part of the Great Basin was once occupied by a great inland sea, of which the largest remnant is now the Great Salt Lake. There are also indications that this gradual subsidence is still going on, and that the great saline lake is lowering its level year by year. On account of the great percentage of saline matter in solution in the lake, no animal life is possible in its waters. The specific gravity is one-sixth greater than that of pure water, which enables it to float the human body lightly on its surface. The character of the salts held in solution is also such as to render the waters remarkably curative and in\ngorating to the bather ; and thus the lake has become the resort of many people who seek its shores either for health or pleasure. Eastern Utah. — The eastern half of the territory, which in its general physical character belongs to the Colorado river system, has several noble streams. The most important are the Green and the Grand rivers, which unite in the eastern part of the territory to form the main stream of the Colorado ; and the San Juan, which has a course of 150 miles in the extreme south-eastern part of the territory. The Virgin River, also belonging to the Colorado system, drains the south-western corner of the territory. All the streams of the Colorado system have worn deep valleys or cafions in the soft limestone in many parts of their courses. The caflons of the Colorado River proper constitute the most magnificent natural feature of their kind in the world. The mysteries of these cafions were first penetrated by Professor J. W. Powell of the United States Geological Survey, in 1869. He entered Green River with his adventurous party at a point in Wyoming Territory near the Utah line, and, after nearly three months of exploration, came out at the foot of the Grand Cafion of the Colorado, in Western Arizona. Scenery. — The surface and drainage features of Utah con- tribute to make its scenery grand and picturesque. The terri- tory abounds in splendid mountain views, beautiful lakes, vast chasms worn by the water or rent asunder by earthquakes, extensive lava-fields, extinct volcanoes, and huge rocks standing like monuments of a race of giants. IV. CLIMATE. The climate of Utah has the general characteristics of the Great Basin. The air is exceedingly dry, owing to the light rainfall. On the plains the days in summer are intensely hot, but the nights are cool and refreshing. In the valleys, at the foot of the mountains, the summers are delightful, and the winters mild and enjoyable. The upper valleys, between the lateral ranges, are cool and pleasant in summ and have heavy snows in winter. V. RESOURCES. The resources of Utah are found rnainly in its great moun- tain range, the Wahsatch. Here are the rich stores of mineral wealth that have yielded to the skill and industry of the miner, and here is stored the far richer treasure of the snow, which alone has made agriculture a possibility, and thus has rendered the territory habitable by man. Soil — The greater part of Utah is a desert by nature. The soil of the valleys, having largely been produced by wearing away of the mountain rocks, meets all the requirements of agriculture except the element of moisture, and therefore, when irrigated, yields bountiful returns to the farmer. Even the dry soils of the alkali plains and deserts readily submit to the influence of moisture, and, when washed free of their mineral impurities, are among the most productive in the territory. But as the amount of water available for purposes of irrigation is limited, the greater part of the cultivated lands of Utah lie at the western base of the Wahsatch Mountains, and along the streams that take their rise high up the sides of that range. The north-eastern part of the territory, having a more regxilar rainfall, is adapted to grazing, its plains being covered with rich nutritious grasses. The greater part of Utah is treeless. The mountain forests consist chiefly of pine. The cottonwood grows along the banks of the streams. Minerals. — Utah is rich in deposits of silver, iron, copper, lead, and coal: but the leading product of the mines is silver. The mineral wealth of the territory is as yet largely undeveloped, and it is probable that- in the end the richest mineral treasures will be found to be among the baser metals rather than in gold and silver. The richest mining districts are in the Wahsatch Range. Iron County possesses immense stores of the choicest iron ores. The granites, marbles, limestones, and slates are also of the best quality, and are found in abundance in several counties. The mountain streams, in addition to their service in irrigation, afford excellent and abundant water-power for nmning various mills, chiefly for the manufacture of flour, woolen goods, etc. VI. INDUSTRIES. Agriculture and mining are the chief industries of the people of the territory ; but considerable numbers are also engaged in manufactures, herding, and the various branches of commerce. Agriculture — The leading farm products are wheat, barley, oats, vege- tables, and fruit. In Southern Utah the irrigated valleys produce cotton, tobacco, rice, and grapes in abundance. According to the census of 1880, there were in the territor)- 9,452 farms, containing 655,524 acres, nearly two-thirds of which were improved. These farms were valued at over $14,000,000. or over ?2o per acre. It is notable that the average size of these farms is only 69 acres, which is below the average in any other state or territory. This feature is a peculiarity of Utah farming, by which a few acres are carefully watered and tended like a garden, thus yielding the richest return to the thrifty husbandman. Market-gardening for the supply of the many mining camps and larger towns in the territory is also a profitable pursuit. The hardy fruits and vegetables of the temperate zone are grown in the northern districts, while the sub-tropical region around the head waters of the Virgin River yields grapes, oranges, apricots, and other fruits. Mining. — In 1881 the total product of the mines of the territory was estimated to exceed $7,000,000. Of this, by far the greater part was silver. Gold is mined independently to some extent, and also in con- nection with silver. Lead is an incidental product of silver-mining. Coal is chiefly mined for manufacturing and railroad uses. Copper is found in rich deposits, and its product promises to be very large. Excellent building-stone is found in many localities, and good quarries are already opened up, adequate for local needs. Stock-raising is a growing industry in both Eastern and Western Utah. In 1880 the value of live-stock in the territory was over $3,300,000, but since that time it has much more than doubled in value. In Eastern Utah stock-raising on an extensive scale is only just begun, but that region is capable of maintaining large herds of cattle. The wool product of 1S80 was nearly 1.000,000 pounds, and in 1883 about twice that quantity. The manufactures of Utah consist chiefly of flour, woolen goods, and. machiner)-, together with the varied products required by a thrifty industrial population. It is a peculiarity of the territory that there is hardly an essential of comfortable and intelligent living which its people do not produce or manufacture within their own borders. UTAH. 19 Commerce. — The exports of the territory largely exceed the imports, and wealth and capital are constantly increasing, in return for the product of her soils, mines, and herds. There are no navigable rivers in Utah, but the railroad shipping facilities are of unusual excellence. It is connected with Nevada and California by the Central Pacific Railroad, and with the Mississippi valley by the Union Pacific. It also has an important connection with the Colorado system of railroads by a line coming into the territory through the j Grand River valley, and extending through Emery and Utah counties to Salt Lake City. There are also numerous local railroads extending into the agricultural and mining districts. The Utah and Northern Railroad gives the territory connection with the Northern Pacific Railroad. VII. GOVERNMENT. Utah has a territorial government under laws enacted by the Congress of the United States or by the territorial Legislature. The chief executive officers are the governor and secretary, appointed by the President of the United States with the consent of the Senate. The legislative department consists of two houses, — the Council, consist- ing of twelve members ; and the House of Representatives, of twenty- four members. They are elected by the people for terms of two years, and meet biennially on the first Monday in January of odd years. The judiciary of the territory consists of a Supreme Court (a chief justice and two associates), district courts held in various parts of the territory by the justices of the Supreme Court, courts of probate, and justices' courts. VIII. EDUCATION. Utah has a territorial system of public schools, and there is no general school fund for the support of public education. The schools are supported by local taxation levied by each district, and by a territorial tax of three-tenths of one per cent distributed to the several districts on the basis of school population. The general supervision of the school system is intrusted to a territo- rial superintendent of schools, assisted by a county superintendent and a county board of school examiners in each county. The territorial university, called the University of Deseret, is located at Salt Lake City. It is liberally supported from the public funds, and maintains a Normal department of high grade. Several of the larger towns maintain graded schools: and among the leading private institutions are Salt Lake Academy, Rocky Mountain Seminary, and St. Mark's School, at Salt Lake City; Brigham Young College, at Logan ; and Brigham Young Academy, at Provo. IX. HISTORY. The soil of Utah was part of the extensive territory acquired by the United States from Mexico by the treaty of 1848. When California was organized as a state by Act of Congress, in 1850, the newly acquired region to the east, lying north of the 37th parallel, was organized as Utah Territory. Utah then included, in addition to its present limits, parts of Nevada, Wyoming, and Colorado. It has occupied its present area since the organization of Wyoming Territory, in 1 868. The first settlement made within the territory was at Salt Lake City, in 1847. On the twenty-fourth day of June of that year, Brigham Young, with about one hundred and fifty Mormon followers, reached the site of the present city, and decided to found there a place of refuge for the followers of his faith. They had successively attempted settle- ments in Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois, but wherever they had settled they were subjected to severe persecution. The successful migration to Utah, and the subsequent growth and pros- perity of the territory, were largely due to the skill and leadership of Brig- ham Young, who was the head of the Mormon Church from 1844 to 1877. In 1880 the assessed valuation of real and personal property was nearly twenty-five millions of dollars, which was greater than that of any other territory. The amount of taxation de- voted to education and public improvements was also greater than that in any other territory in the Union. X. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Utah contains twenty-four counties, twenty of which are organized. Among the more important cities and towns are the following : — Salt Lake City (20,768), the capital and largest city of the territory, is situated in the northern part of Utah, 12 miles from the southern shore of Great Salt Lake, and under the shadow of the Wahsatch Mountains. The city is finely laid out with broad streets handsomely shaded. The yards and gardens in the residence part of the town are spacious and elegantly maintained, being irrigated by streams of water running on either side of the public streets. The city is the chief center and seat of government of the Mormon Church, which has a large membership throughout Utah and the adja- cent territories. Among its most prominent features are the temple (not yet completed), the tabernacle, and a number of fine private build- ings. Salt Lake City is the metropolis of trade for the territory, and the center of an excellent system of railways. The traffic of the Union and Central Pacific and the Utah and Northern roads comes into the city over the Utah Central from Ogden, and there is an important system of territorial roads connecting the city with nearly every fertile valley and mining camp in the territory. Ogden (6,096), near Great Salt Lake, is the county seat of Weber County, and the second largest town in the territory. It is the point of junction of the Union and Central Pacific railroads, running east and west, and also of the Utah and Northern and the Utah Central, running north and south. The city is the center of a fine trade, and is handsomely and substan- tially built. It has schools of a superior character, and large and growing manufacturing interests. Logan — the county seat of Cache Coutlly, is the trade center of the extreme north-eastern part of the territory. It has considerable manufactures and excellent water-power. It is in the center of a fine wheat, stock, and dairy region. It has excellent public and private schools, and is the seat of Brigham Young College. Provo — county scat of Utah County, is situated near the foot of Provo valley, about 48 miles from Salt Lake City. It has excellent water- power, which is used mainly in the manufac- ture of woolen goods. It is the seat of the Utah Insane Asylum and of Brigham Young Academy. Springville — in Utah County, is the terminus of a narrow-gauge railroad running to the Pleasant valley coal-mines. It has a large mercantile and shipping business, and is a rapidly growing place. Manti — county seat of San Pete County, is the trade center of the San Pete valley, a rich farming, grazing, and dairy region. Mount Pleasant and Ephraim City are also important business towns in the San Pete valley. Brigham City — county seat of Box Elder County, near the northern shores of Great Salt Lake, is an important trading town in the northern part of the territory. It has considerable manufactures of woolen goods and leather. St. George — county seat of Washington County, is the chief trading center in the fertile valley of the Virgin River. It is the largest town in the territory outside the borders of the Great Basin. Silver Reef is the leading mining town in this region. Park City and Colville — in Summit County, are situated on a branch of the Union Pacific Railroad, and are engaged chiefly in the mining of coal for railroad and manufactur- ing purposes. Corinne — on Bear River, is an important ship- ping and trading point on the line of the Central Pacific Railroad. Beaver City — county seat of Beaver County, is the chief town and business center in the rich valley of the same name. The county is mainly devoted to farming and stock- raising. In the amount of wool product it ranks third in the territory. The following towns, each having between 1,000 and 2,500 inhabitants in 1880, are worthy of mention: — Hyrum, Richmond, Smithfield, and Wella- ville — thriving towns in Cache County; KaysviUe — a shipping point and trading center in Davis County ; Nephl — county seat of Juab County, and the chief town in the fertile Juab valley: Fairview — in San Pete County, commanding a wonderful view of the lofty Mount Nebo; Richfield — county seat of Sevier County, and trading center of the Upper Sevier valley ; Grantsvilte and Tooele — in Tooele County, the latter the county seat ; American Fork, Lehi, Pleasant Grove, and Spanish Fork — thriving railroad towns in L^tah County, on the shores of Utah Lake; and Heber City — county seat of Wahsatch County, and chief commercial point in the Upper Provo valley. NEW MEXICO. 21 NEW MEXICO. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Situation. — What is the shape of New Mexico ? Accord- ing to the scale of miles, what is the length of one side of it.' What state on the north ? What state forms most of the east- ern boundary and a part of the southern ? What country on the south ? What division Ijounds it on the west.' What par- allel crosses it near the middle ? What degree of longitude would divide this territory into two equal parts .' Surface — What portions are most moun- tainous .' What general mountain range crosses it, and in what direction ? What minor ranges are there ? Where are the more level portions ? The Staked Plain .' What is the general slope of the land as shown by the flowing waters ? Rivers. — What two principal riv- ers cross New Mexico .' Describe their course. Which is the larger? What other rivers have head waters here ? What parts appear to be well watered ? What portions lack streams ? Counties and Cities. — How many counties in New Mexico ? Through what counties does the Rio Grande flow ? What important places on this river ? Name the capital, and describe its location. From the map, what counties appear to be most thickly settled.' regions are most of the cities and towns ? ON THE UPPER RIO GRANDE. In what natural ! DESCRIPTION. [Area. 122,580 square miles. Population (1880), 119,565.] I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. The Territory of New Mexico is situated in the south-west- ern portion of the United States, its western portion being traversed by the Rocky Mountains, while its eastern extends through a series of plateaus and tablelands into the great grazing regions which occupy so much of the western slope of the Mississippi valley. It is bounded by Colorado on the north, in latitude 37° north; by the Indian Territory and Texas on the east; and by Arizona on the west, lying between the 103d and 109th degrees of longitude west from Greenwich ; and on the south by Texas and Mexico in an irregular line. New Mexico is about 370 miles long from east to west, while from north to south it is about 335 miles. It ranks fifth in size, and forty-first in population, among all the states and territories. II. SURFACE. The surface presents all the variety of mountain, plateau, and valley, the larger portion being a mountainous plateau. The Santa F^, Las Vegas, and Taos ranges, forming a part of the main axis of the Rocky Mountains, occupy a central position in the north end of the territory west of the Rio Grande River, while south of them are found the Oscura, Organ, San Andres, Sacramento, and Guadaloupe ranges. West of tlie Rio (jrande River, the Zufii, Datil, Tularosa, Mimbres, and Pinos Altos ranges are the most important. The eastern portion of the territory, together with much that lies up between the mountain ranges, consists of extensive plateaus, where excellent native grasses abound, and where the principal pastoral interests of the ter- ritory flourish. III. DRAINAGE. New Mexico sends her waters to either ocean. The Rio Grande, which has its source in the mountains of Colorado, flows south through the territory draining its central portion, and passing out as the boundary between Texas and .Mexico. It receives into its channel a great many small streams, the largest of which are the Rio Chama and Rio Puerco. Numerous small streams which drain the north-eastern part of the territory form the Canadian, and find their way through Texas, the Indian Territory, and Arkansas, into the Mississippi River as the Arkansas. The south-eastern portion of the territory is drained by the Rio Pecos, which receives innumerable small tributaries, and joins the Rio Grande after flowing through the western part of Texas. The waters of the western part of the territory are tributary to the Pacific Ocean through the Colorado River, which they reach by way of the head waters of the San Juan from the extreme north-western corner, the Little Colorado from the central portions, and the Gila from the south-western corner, and through some other unimportant streams. IV. CLIMATE. The climate of New Mexico is remarkable for its uniformity. The summers are moderate, and extremely hot weather is of rare occurrence, while the winters are neither long nor severe. The atmosphere is pure and dry. This serves to moderate the ex- tremes of cold in the higher localities, and of the heat in the plains and valleys. The rainy season, which usually lasts during July and August, is not a continuous rain, but is rather a season of frequent showers, which usually continue for a few hours, with periods of sun- \ 22 NEW MEXICO. shine. The atmosphere is heavily charged with electricity, and tele- graph and other electric wires are often affected. Owing to atmos- pheric influences, objects at a distance appear much nearer than they really are. All the climatic influences tend to health and comfort. V. RESOURCES. The material natural resources of New Mexico are of great importance, though as yet they have not been so far developed as to make their value known to the commercial world. Soil. — The soil in the valleys is a rich and sandy loam, capable of producing excellent crops ; and, while the greater part of the territory is by no means an agricultural country, there are millions of acres which, with irrigation, can be made rich and productive. Minerals. — Important discoveries of the precious minerals have been made, and enough has been developed to show that the territory is rich in gold and silver. The most important mines have been opened in the south-western portion of the territory in the vicinity of Deming, Silver City, and Lordsburg; and gold and silver are found in all the usual formations peculiar to the Rocky Mountains. Important mines are also worked in the central part of the territory in the regions around Socorro, and also in the north-west in the San Juan region. Several varieties of iron ores are found in different parts of the terri- tory. Important mines of copper have been discovered, and are already worked to advantage in many parts, notably in the vicinity of Santa Rita in the south-west, and Glorieta in the north-central portions of the territory. An excellent article of coal is found in many parts of the territory in abundance. Important mines are worked in the northern part near Raton, in the vicinity of Socorro in the central part, and in the ex- treme western border near Gallup and Defiance. Among other geological products of the territory may be mentioned lead, salt, soda, sulphur, plumbago, mica, gypsum, cement, granite, and building-stone in great variety. Forests. — The eastern portion of the territory is mostly free from timber ; but the western part, including the north-central, has a good supply for home requirements. Scenery The natural scenery throughout the territory is very fine, presenting every variety of wildness and beauty. VI. INDUSTRIES. At the present time New Mexico is pre-eminently a stock- raising region, but the mining and commercial interests are being rapidly developed. Stock-raising. — The range is ample and generally well watered, and affords feed for cattle, with a little shifting, the year round. Vast herds roam at will, with a few watchers ; while in many localities the ranges are inclosed, and cattle are kept well in hand, and an effort is made to improve the stock as well as to get them ready for the market. There are localities where the range is sufficient, but where the water is scarce ; but efforts are being made to provide for this deficiency by irrigation and by artesian wells. Sheep-raising is an important interest; and this territory has more sheep in its ranges than any other state or territory in the Union, and yields the greatest product of wool. While this business is considered a little less certain in its results, it is more profitable than cattle-raising, on account of the quicker returns from an investment. Mining. — The mining interests of the territory embrace gold and silver mines, yielding large quantities of ore, and affording employment to thousands of men. Coal-mining is also an important industry, and the labor and capital employed are very great : while the copper, iron, and other mines all tend to enhance the mining value of the territory, which is fast assuming importance among the mining regions of the west. Farming. — In the rich valleys there are many farms where good atten- tion secures excellent returns. Corn, wheat, and garden products are the principal crops. Manufactures. — The most important manufacturing interests of the territory are those connected with mining business in the way of smelters, etc., for the treatment of the ores of gold, silver, and copper, and with the railroad interests through machine-shops, etc.; thouo^h there are other manufacturing interests of no mean importance, among which may be named the production of jewelry of a peculiar style, noted for its richness and beauty. Commerce. — The commerce of the territory consists in the marketing of its cattle and wool products, and the results of its mining interests, on the one hand, and of the purchase of the goods, wares, and mer- chandise demanded by her people, on the other. The railroad facilities of the territory embrace connections with the Pacific Ocean through California and Mexico, over four different routes, and with the Atlantic and the great stock-consuming regions of the north and east by as many more. As has been the case in many other localities, the railroads have led the way to the develop- ment of the country, and much of the thrift and prosperity of this region is due to them. Lumbering. — The lumber interests have attracted capital from the older lumbering regions of the north ; and large mills are in operation in several localities, notably in the plateaus and foot-hills of the San Francisco Mountains, and in some ranges of the continental divide. VII. GOVERNMENT. The territory of New Mexico, like all the other territories, is largely governed under the provisions of the United States statutes. The governor and other territorial officers are appointed by the Presi- dent of the United States, and confirmed by the Senate, and are paid out of the United States treasury. The local legislative authority is vested in a territorial Assembly, com- posed of two branches, — a House of Representatives and a Legisla- tive Council, — the members of which are elected by the people for two years. Sessions are held biennially in the even years. The judiciary is vested in a Supreme Court with three judges, district courts, circuit courts, and other courts of inferior jurisdiction. These officers are charged with the administration of justice under the laws of the United States and of the territory. VIII. EDUCATION. The educational system of New Mexico is not yet fully developed ; and, as in all territories, there is no public school fund. There is a territorial organization, but the more impor- tant functions of the educational work devolve upon " county boards of commissioners." These commissioners are elected by the people, and have general charge of the public school interests of their respective counties, under the laws of the territory. In most cases, schools are provided . in every district where the school population is large enough to war- rant it. In the cities and towns there are very fair accommodations, and in several instances, superior facilities are afforded. In addition to the public schools, there are numerous private and denomi- national schools, which are generally well supported and patronized. IX. HISTORY. The history of New Mexico is the history of three civiliza- tions, and no portion of our country is so rich in traditional lore as this. While it is among the newest in settlement and material advancement, under our present civilization, it is the oldest, in point of what has been, of all the regions of our great republic. Three hundred years ago the Spaniards made settlements in New Mexico, planting their banners upon the ruins of a civilization which had flourished and decayed before them. The Zunis, from whom they wrested the territory, had peopled a region which yields to us some of NEW MEXICO. 23 the richest fields for antiquarian research on our continent, and which, for interesting study, is not surpassed by the classic regions of the Nile. The principal part of this territory came under control of the United States through the "Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo," Feb. 2, 1848, as the result of the war with Mexico, and by cession from the state of Texas in 1850. The Gadsden Purchase, in 1853, completed the trans- fer of a portion of the south-western corner of the territory. New Mexico was organized as a territory Sept. 9, 1850, when it included much of the territory now embraced in Colorado, Arizona, and Cali- fornia. The territory has occupied its present limits since 1863. For twenty-five years the agricultural and stock-raising interests grew steadily but slowly ; and the most important hold the United States had upon the country was through the treaty with the Mexican Government, and the presence of a few soldiers. With the deveIoi> ment of its vast mining interests, and the extension of railroad lines in all directions through its limits, the territory has taken on a new life, and is rapidly becoming an enterprising and populous modern community. X. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. New Mexico contains fourteen counties and the following principal cities and towns : — Santa F6 (7,000), the capital city and metropolis of New Me.xico, is situated a little north of the center of the territory. Since its occupation by the Spaniards in 1583, until within a few years, it has been important only as the seat of govern- ment and as a military, outfitting, and trading post. The streets are generally narrow, and the older houses are built of adobe, or sun-dried bricks, among the most interesting of which is the Palace, said to have been built in 1581, and which has served as the home of the local ruler ever since. The church of San Miguel, built in 1640, and now probably the oldest church in the United States, is still in use. With the advent of the railroad and the public school, Santa Fd has begun to show signs of a new life ; and churches and other public buildings, as well as business houses, have sprung into existence, and the legends of the past are being obliterated by the unmistakable signs of progress. Surrounded by a mining region of untold wealth, and a large area of farming land, which, with irrigation and work, yields great and increasing crops, Santa F6 has at her doors every thing necessary to make her a great city. Water-works, gas-works, and a fire department are already in existence, and the city is the center of considerable manufactures and an extensive trade. Albuquerque (8,000) is beautifully situated in Bernalillo County, in the central part of the territory, and is surrounded by a fine farming and stock-raising country. The old portion of this city dates back to the early Spanish settlements, and is principally built of adobe. The new town was laid out in 1880, and is a marvel of growth and prosperity. It has important railroad facilities, which have done much in the way of developing the resources of the town and the surrounding country. It is supplied with gas and water works, newspapers, churches, schools, banks, hotels, and a fine opera-house. Extensive railway-shops are located here ; and, in addition to the business which these shops con- trol, it has a prosperous trade with the surrounding agricultural com- munity. It is an important shipping-point, and has ample facilities for the transaction of a large and rapidly growing business. Anton Chico, situated on the head waters of the Rio Pecos, is the center of a fine farming and grazing community. Bernalillo is the county seat of Bernalillo County, and is situated on the Rio Grande, south-west of Santa Fe, in the center of a splendid agricultural community. It is an old Mexican town, and has for many years been one of the prominent towns in this region of the country, owing to the wealth and influence of her people. It is surrounded by a fine fruit-growing dis- trict; and peaches, apples, apricots, and grapes of excellent quality are produced in abundance. It is important as an outfitting point for adjacent mining regions. Cimmaron, formerly the county seat of Colfax County, is a beautiful village in the interior, twenty-two miles from the railroad. Deming is situated in the south-western part of the territory, at the terminus of Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fd Railroad, and at its junction with the Southern Pacific. It is surrounded by a fine stock-raising country, and is the center of one of the most promising mining districts in the territory. It has a good trade across the border with Mexico, as well as with the neighboring mining camps. A United States custom-house is located here. Fernandez de Taos is located in the valley of the Rio Grande, near the northern end of the territory, and is one of the ancient settlements of the territory, surrounded with much that is of interest to the antiquarian and the historian. It is the county seat of Taos County, and a wealthy and prosperous town. It was the home of the famous frontiersman. Kit Car- son, whose grave may be found in the adjacent cemetery. Las Crusces is one of the chief towns in the southern part of the terri- tory. It is situated on the east bank of the Rio Grande, and is noted for the extensive and beautiful orchards and vineyards by which it is sur- rounded, as well as for the value of the mining interests which are tributary to it. It has also a flourishing business with the adjacent country. Las Lunas is the county seat of Valencia County, in the central part of the territory. It is one of the old IVlexican towns, and is surrounded by a fine stock-raising region, rich in flocks and herds. Las Vegas, owing to its railway machine-shops, etc., is an important station on the great southern route. The town is well built up, has water- works, gas-works, street-railway, newspapers, banks, hotels, churches, and schools. There are many important mining regions in the adjacent moun- tains, while the valleys produce excellent crops of grain and vegetables. The famous Las Vegas Hot Springs are a few miles distant. The old town of Las Vegas is one of the oldest in the territory, and was an impor- tant point on the old " Santa F6 Trail." Lordsburg is a thriving mining town in the south-western corner of the territory. The most productive mines in the vicinity are those of Shake- speare and Pyramid City. Mesilla, the county seat of Dofia Afia County, is situated on the oppo- site bank of the Rio Grande, and a few miles below Las Crusces, and, like its neighbor, is noted for its orchards and vineyards. Raton is an important town in the northern end of the territory. It has excellent water-works, hotels, banks, churches, and schools. It is sur- rounded by a fine grazing region, and has a large trade in the supplies required by the stockmen. Important gold-mines are located in the vicinity, while silver, copper, lead, iron, and plumbago are also found. Coal-mining is the leading business interest. Railway-shops also employ a large number of people. Rincon is the junction of two important railroads, and is a prosperous town surrounded by Mexican settlements, engaged in agriculture and stock- raising. Silver City, the county seat of Grant County, is an important town. The business is largely with the adjacent mines. It is well built, having several banks, numerous large wholesale stores, besides stamp-mills, planing- mills, hotels, churches, and public schools. Socorro, the county seat of Socorro County, is an important mining center, many of the best mines in the territory lying in the immediate vicinity. It is beautifully situated in the valley of the Rio Grande, and has large and prosperous outfitting stores, fine churches, and good schools. Exten- sive stamp-mills and smelting-works are established here. Springer, the county seat of Colfax County, is a prosperous town in the northern part of the state. It is surrounded by a rich stock region, and has a good trade, supplying a large section of country. 24 ARIZONA. ARIZONA. IN THE GRAND CANON. Situation. — What division forms the northern boundarj- of Arizona .' What the eastern ? What countrj- bounds it on the south ? What states on the west ? What important river bounds it on the west ? What is its gener- al shape? What parallel marked on the map crosses the southern part ? According tq the scale of miles, what is the distance across it from north to south ? From east to west.' Surface. — What is the general character of its surface .' Name some of the mountains in the south-east. In tlie central region. Is the average elevation of Arizona high, or low ? What celebrated cafion is partly in this section ? Rivers. — What river system drains this region .' What are the two principal branches here ? Give the location and describe the course of the larger one. The smaller one. Are there many small streams ? Counties and Cities. — What counties in the northern part ? How many and what counties in the southern half? WTiich county is the largest in extent? The smallest? Name and locate the capital. Judging from the map, do most of the people live among the mountains, or on the plains ? DESCRIPTION. lArea, 113,020 square miles. Population, 41,580.] I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Situation. — Arizona lies between Mexico on the south and Utah on the north. It is included between the parallels of 31° 37' and 37° north latitude, and between the meridians of 109° 3' and 1 14° 25' west longitude. Extent. — In shape it is nearly a square, — 370 miles long north and south, and 350 miles wide east and west. In area it is about two-thirds as large as California II. SURFACE. Arizona is a succession of tablelands and mesas, rising in successive platforms from a few hundred feet in the south-west, along the Colo- rado, to an altitude of 7,000 feet in the north. These great plateaus are every- where crossed by a network of mountain ridges, more than fifty in number, with numer- ous intervening valleys. The highest summit is Hum- phrey's Peak (12,561 feet), in the San Francisco Mountains, near the central part of the territory. The largest valley is that of the Gila River, and the most stupendous cafton that of the Colorado. III. DRAINAGE. Almost the entire area of Arizona is drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries. This great river is one of the longest west of the Rocky Mountains, in which it takes its rise by two branches called the Grand and Green rivers. These rivers unite in Utah, and thence the Colorado flows by a generally south-west course into the Gulf of California. Including Green River, the larger of these head streams, it is about 1,800 miles in length. Its waters assume a reddish color from the falling of the rains upon a soil of red clay : hence the name Colorado or Colored River. The Colorado has worn through the soft strata of sandstone a. narrow canon to the depth of from 2,000 to 5,000 feet. This dark and gloomy river gorge, 400 miles long, with its stupendous walls, is noted for its grand and desolate scenery. The Gila River, the largest tributary- of the Colorado, 500 miles long, d/ains the southern section of the territory. It is a shallow stream during the dr\- season, but in the season of rains discharges a great volume of muddy and yellow water. A few insignificant streams on the extreme southern border of the terri- tory flow through Mexico into the Gulf of California. With this ex- ception, the Colorado receives the entire drainage of Arizona. IV. CLIMATE. Arizona has a dry climate. The south-western part of the territory is the driest and hottest region in the United States. In the low and sandy valley of the Colorado, in the vicinity of Yuma, the summer heat is intense, the thermometer frequently rising to 115° in the shade. The average annual rainfall in this section rarely reaches three inches. The elevated mesas and the mountain regions of central and eastern Arizona have cooler summers, more abundant rains, and colder winters. The rains fall chiefly in the months of July, August, and September. ARIZONA. 25 V. RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES. Minerals. — Arizona is rich in mines of silver, gold, copper, coali and salt. Mining is the chief industrial pursuit. The development of the mineral resources is recent; but in 1882 the total product of the mines of Arizona was estimated at $ 1 2,000,CXX). Agriculture. — The greater part of Arizona is too dry for tillage. The valley lands, when irrigated by water from the rivers, produce grain, Indian-corn, beans, vegetables, and fruits, — such as apples, pears, peaches, plums, oranges, lemons, and figs. The cultivated lands mostly lie along the Gila River, and in the small mountain valleys of the central and eastern parts of the territory. The mountain slopes and valleys afford good natural pasturage, and stock- raising is an important pursuit. Forests and Vegetation. — In the central and eastern parts of Arizona there are extensive forests of coniferous trees, such as pines, cedars, and junipers; but, as a whole, Arizona is sparsely wooded. On the arid mesas, or level tablelands, the characteristic vegetation is the sage-brush, cactus, prickly-pear, and the maguey or century plant. Among the peculiar trees is the mesquiu, which bears a bean-like seed, largely used by the Indians for food. In the elevated valleys of the mountains the potato is indigenous. Commerce. — The trade of Arizona consists chiefly in the export of bullion and ores, and the import of bread-stuffs and manufactured articles. The Southern Pacific Railroad crosses the southern part of the territory, connecting it with California and the Gulf of Mexico and the Missis- sippi valley. This line of road, and the Atlantic and Pacific, which crosses the territory east and west near its central part, give to Arizona excellent facilities for exchanging the products of her mines, and the increase of her fields and herds, for the manufactures of the east. The recent progress of the territory is largely due to these advantages for ready and direct transportation. The Colorado River is navigable for small steamers as far as the mouth of the Grand Cafion. Manufactures, lumber and flour. ■The manufactures are limited chiefly to VI. GOVERNMENT. Arizona has a territorial government, organized by Act of Congress in 1863. The chief executive officers are the governor and the secretary, who are appointed by the President of the United States, with the consent of the Senate. The Legislature is elected by the people at the biennial territorial election, and meets once in two years in regular session, on the ist of January of odd years. The session is limited to sixty days; and both senators and representatives are elected for terms of two years. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, the judges of which are appointed by the President and Senate of the United States for a term of four years. VII. EDUCATION. The territory has an organized system of public schools, which are under the general supervision of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, elected by the people. The schools of Tucson, Prescott, and other mining towns, are in good condition and liberally sustained. VIII. HISTORY. Down to the close of the Mexican war all of Arizona be- longed to Mexico. By the treaty of 1848 the part north of the Gila became the property of the United States; and in 1853 the balance of the territory was acquired by means of the Gadsden Purchase. According to the treaty of 1848, the boundary between Mexico and the United States was to be the Rio Grande, from its mouth to New- Mexico ; thence to the river Gila ; that river to its junction with the Colorado ; then in a straight line to the Pacific, at a point ten miles south of San Diego. Soon afterwards the United States acquired by the Gadsden Purchase a considerable strip of the territory of Northern Mexico, including a good part of Arizona. Until 1863 the territory formed a part of Utah. In that year it was separately organized by Act of Congress ; but its progress was very much retarded by the hostile Apaches and other savage Indian tribes. With the extension of railroads into and through the territory, and the development of its rich mines of gold and silver, these hostile bands have gradually been driven out or restrained, and this territory has entered upon an era of rapid and substantial development in industry, wealth, and population. IX. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Arizona is divided into nine counties, and contains the follow- ing cities and towns : — Prescott is the capital of the territory, and county seat of Yavapai County. It is situated in a beautiful mountain valley, and enjoys a delightful climate. The place is the center of a considerable trade in lumber, cattle, etc. Its elevation is over 5,500 feet. Yuma, in Yuma County, on the Colorado River, lies near the boundary line of Mexico, and directly opposite Fort Yuma in California. It is an important trading town, on the line of the Southern Pacific Railroad, and is fast growing in population and importance. It is also the entrepot of a large river trade on the lower Colorado. Tucson, in Pima County, 250 miles from Yuma, on the line of the Southern Pacific Railroad, is near several rich silver districts, and is an important center of business and travel. It is the commercial center of the rich Santa Cruz region, and has a large business in cattle, bullion, and farm products. Tombstone, in Cachise County, is the center of a rich grazing and mining district. It has had a very rapid growth, and now ranks as one of the largest cities in the territory. Phoenix, in Maricopa County, is the center of trade and supplies for a number of prosperous mining districts, and is rapidly growing in importance. Florence is an important town in Pinal County, on the Gila River. It is surrounded by a fertile farming region, and has a large trade in supplying the mining districts in the vicinity and in reducing and shipping their product. Globe City, in Gila County, is the center of trade for an extensive mining district on the eastern slope of the Pinal Mountains. The following enterprising places are also worthy of mention : Tubac, in Pima County, Ehrenberg and Castle Dome City, in Yuma County; Wick- enburg, in Maricopa County; Safford, in Graham County; and Aubrey City and Hardyville, in Mohave County. All these towns are places of consider- able trade in connection with the mining and shipping interests of the territory. \L.i_w3^ — TT \ X il r-^— - 28 CALIFORNIA. CALIFORNIA, [Area, f 58,360 square miles. Population {1880), 864,686; estimated population (1883), 1,000,000. I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Situation. — California, the largest and most populous of the Pacific States, borders on th^ Pacific Ocean. It is included between 32° 31' and 42° north latitude, and 120° and 124 longitude. Extent. — In shape it is an irregular oblong, about 750 miles long and 260 miles wide. It is three times as large as the New England States, and, excepting Texas, is the largest state in the Union. Physical Divisions. — California may be divided into five distinct sections : (i) the mountain region of the Sierra Ne- vada ; (2) the plains of the Sacramento valley ; (3) the coast belt ; (4) the plateau east of the Sierra Nevada, on the border of the Great Basin ; (5) the Colorado desert, in the south-east. Mountains. — The Sierra Nevada Mountains extend north and south nearly two-thirds of the entire length of the state. The average width of this great range is about 70 miles. The western slope to the Sacramento valley is very gradual, and is 60 miles long ; the eastern slope to the Great Basin, short and precipitous, not exceed- ing 10 miles in length. The loftiest sumn.its are Mount Whitney (14,887 feet) in the south, and Mount Shasta (14,440 feet) in the north. The average height of the crest summits is from 6,000 to 9,000 feet. The higher peaks of this range are snow-clad all the year round, and are the retreats of numerous small glaciers, — the remaining fragments of a system of mighty glaciers that once covered the entire chain. The Coast Range extends in parallel ridges, near the Pacific, the entire length of the state, 750 miles. It is from 20 to 40 miles wide, and is less than half the average height of the Sierra Nevada. Its most noted peaks are Mount Hamilton (4,448 feet), the site of the VINE-GROWING. famous Lick Astronomical Observatory; St. Helena, in Napa valley (4.343 feet); Mount Tamalpais (2.604 feet), and Monte Diablo (3,848 feet), near the Bay of San Francisco; and Mount San Bernardino (\ 1,600 feet), in the southern part of the state. Valleys. — In the central part of the state the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range are nearly parallel ; but in the north and towards the south the two chains run together, and inclose the Sacramento valley. This great central valley is 400 miles in length and from 20 to 50 miles in width. It is drained from the north by the Sacramento River, and from the south by the San Joaquin. The Coast Range is intersected CALIFORNIA. 29 by numerous small valleys opening towards the ocean, the most im- portant of which are the Russian River, Napa, Santa Clara, Salinas, and San Gabriel valleys. The Colorado desert, in the south-eastern part of the state, east of the San Bernardino Mountains, belongs to the Great Basin, but has a very moderate elevation, and in some places is below the level of the sea. It is dry, sandy, hot, and barren. The plateau region, east of the Sierra Nevada, is a part of the Great Basin, which includes Nevada and Utah. It is an arid country, gen- erally destitude of vegetation, with the exception of sage brush and bunch grass and the forests on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Scenery. — California is noted for its picturesque scenery. The Yosemite V'alley, in the heart of the Sierra Nevada, attracts tourists from all parts of the world. It is a glacial valley seven miles long, and a mile and a half wide, with almost vertical walls of solid granite from 3,000 to 4.000 feet in height. It has numerous waterfalls, of which the most remarkable is the Yosemite Falls, where the water plunges down 1,600 feet in one unbroken sheet, and 2,600 feet in three leaps. Mount Shasta, in the extreme northern part of the state, is a volcanic cone, which rises 14,440 feet above the level of the sea, and 10,000 feet above the level of the surrounding plateau. It is one of the most beautiful of mountains; and the surrounding country is a favorite resort for tourists and hunters. The Big Tree Groves, near the Yosemite Valley, contain some of the largest trees in the world. Lake Tahoe is a favorite resort for summer tourists. III. DRAINAGE. The two largest rivers, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, drain the Sacramento basin, and flow into the Bay of San Francisco. Their tributaries rise in the summits of the Sierra Nevada, which supply an abundance of water from melting ice and snow during the long dry season. The Sacramento River, 400 miles long, rises in the lakes of the mountain region around Mount Shasta, and flows south into the Bay of San Francisco. It is navigable for small steamers to Red Bluff, 300 miles. Its chief tributaries are the American, Yuba, and Feather rivers. The San Joaquin, 350 miles long, rises in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and flows north into the Bay of San Francisco. It is navigable for large steamers to Stockton, 120 miles, and for small steamers 75 miles farther. Its chief tributaries are the Kings, Kern, Merced, Tuolumne, Fresno, Stanislaus, Calaveras, and Mokelumne rivers. The smaller rivers which flow directly into the Pacific are the Klamath River, Eel River, and Russian River, north of the Bay of San Fran- cisco ; and the Salinas River and Santa Ana River, to the south of that bay. The rivers of the plateau and desert region east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains have no outlet to the ocean. They are small streams that terminate in salt lakes, or disappear by evaporation in the " sinks " of the desert. The most important of these rivers are the Mohave {mo-ha've), which sinks in the sands of the Mohave desert; Owens River, which flows into Owens Lake (salt); the Truckee, which flows Into Pryamid Lake in Nevada ; Carson River ; and Walker River. Lakes Lake Tahoe, two thirds in California and one third in Nevada, is in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, at an elevation of about 6,000 feet. It is 20 miles long, 10 miles wide, and is noted for its beautiful moun- tain scenery. Clear Lake, in the Coast Range, north of the Bay of San Francisco, is a favorite summer resort. Tulare Lake is a large and shallow sheet of water which lies in the southern part of the Sacramento valley, and has its outlet in the San Joaquin River. Mono Lake lies at the foot of the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada, in a region of extinct volcanic cones. Its waters, like those of Great Salt Lake in Utah, are so intensely salt, bitter, and alkaline, that no fish can live in them. Owens Lake, south-east of Mono, is also a saline lake. In the northern part of the state, on the boundary line of Oregon, there is a group of fresh-water lakes, of which the largest are Gcose, Rhett, and Klamath lakes. IV. CLIMATE. The climate of California is sub-tropical. There are two seasons, — a dry season, from May to November (summer) ; and a rainy season, from November to May (winter). Snow falls only in the mountain regions. In general, the climate is health- ful, breezy, and invigorating, subject to no sudden extremes of heat and cold. In the coast belt the climate is remarkably mild and equable. In the Sacramento basin and the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada the summer is very hot and dry, but the rainy season is cool and delightful. The rain-winds of California are the south-west return trade-winds, which have their moisture condensed as they strike the cool mountain .slopes and summits. In summer the great tropical rain-belt of the trade-winds is moved from 7° to 10° farther north than in winter. As a consequence the return trade-winds descend to the earth mostly to the northward of California. Besides, any rain-clouds falling upon California have their moisture dissipated and absorbed by the hot air rising from the heated earth during the long, dry, hot summer. The cause of the equable climate along the coast belt is the return Japan current, which moves in a broad stream from 20 to 30 miles wide the entire length of the coast. This current in winter is warmer than the neighboring land : in summer it is cooler. This difference of tempera- ture renders the climate more equable, and also causes the dense fogs prevailing along the coast both in summer and winter. The strong, chilling, and fog-laden winds that blow in San Francisco during the summer months are caused by the cold-air currents that rush from the ocean through the Golden Gate into the heated valley of the Sacramento. V. NATURAL ADVANTAGES. Soil. — The soil of the valleys and rolling hills is fertile and easily tilled, and is well adapted to the production of the cereals and the vine. The tule lands along the banks of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin are exceedingly productive when reclaimed and protected by levees from overflow. Minerals. — California is rich in minerals, of which the most important is gold. The gold region lies chiefly on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Quicksilver-mines are numerous in the northern part of the Coast Range. Petroleum is found in the coast belt south of San Francisco. The only coal-mines in the state which are extensively worked are near Monte Diablo, in Contra Costa County. There are also in California valuable deposits of iron, copper, and tin, though they are not extensively worked. Forests. — The western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, and of the Coast Range north of the Bay of Monterey, are covered by extensive forests of conifers, such as pine, fir, and redwood. The most durable lumber for building purposes is supplied by the red- wood trees of the Coast Range. The oak and sycamore are found in the valleys and foot-hills. The Sacramento valley, the southern coast belt, and the plateau and desert region east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, are almost desti- tute of trees. The " Big Trees " (Sequoia gigantea) are among the wonders of the world. Some of these trees are over 100 feet in circumference and 300 feet in height. The best known groves are the Calaveras Grove and the Mariposa Grove, both near the Yosemite Valley. There is a forest belt of these trees, from three to six miles in width, extending along 30 CALIFORNIA. the Sierra Nevada from the Yosemite region southward for 120 miles. The Sequoia furnishes excellent lumber resembling redwood. VI. INDUSTRIES. Agriculture is the leading occupation, the annual wheat-crop alone exceeding in value the annual product of the gold and silver mines. Owing to the diversity of climate, surface, and soil, the agricultural products are exceedingly varied. The Cereals. — In wheat-growing, California ranks as one of the leading states. Barley and oats are extensively raised. The Grape. — The culture of the grape ranks next in importance to wheat-raising. The vine thrives in nearly all parts of the state below an elevation of 4,000 feet. The annual wine product already exceeds 12,000,000 gallons. In the hot and dry Sacramento basin and in the southern part of the state the grapes are made into raisins. Fruit. — The central and northern sections of the state are favorable to the culture of apples, pears, peaches, plums, prunes, apricots, and cherries. Great quantities of plums and apricots are put up in cans for export, and pears and grapes are extensively shipped by rail to Eastern cities. Dried prunes, plums, and peaches are important articles of export. The coast belt south of Santa Barbara is noted for the production of the citrus fruits, — oranges, lemons, and limes. Other Products. — Bee-culture is an important industry in San Diego and Los Angeles counties, and great quantities of the finest honey are sent to Eastern markets. Olive-oil is an important product of the olive-orchards. Cotton and tobacco grow in the state, but are not extensively cultivated. Potatoes and other vegetables are grown along the coast and in the bay counties. Mining For twenty years after the discovery of gold in 1848, mining was the leading industry in California; but since that period it has ranked second in importance to agriculture. The annual gold product does not now exceed ? 17,000,000; but formerly, for many years in succession, the annual yield exceeded $50,000,000. The total product of the mines since 1848 is estimated to exceed $1,000,000,000. Gold is obtained from " quartz-mines " by crushing gold-bearing quartz- rock, and from gravel banks by washing away the earth with streams of water forced by heavy pressure through strong hose-pipe. Prominent among the other industries are stock-raising, lum- bering, varied manufactures, and a large domestic and foreign trade. Stock-raising. — The rolling hills and the mountain slopes of Cali- fornia afford pasturage for large herds of cattle, horses, and sheep. The coast belt north of San Francisco is noted for its dairy products. Lumbering. — In the redwood forests of the coast north of San Fran- cisco, and in some parts of the Sierra Nevada, saw-mills are numer- ous, and lumbering is the chief industry. Manufactures. — The most important manufactured products are lumber, flour, wine, liquors, mining machinery, iron-work, woolens, boots and shoes, leather, clothing, canned and dried fruits. Commerce — California has an extensive export and import trade. It is connected by steamship lines with China. Japan, India, the Sand- wich Islands, Australia, Mexico, and South America. It is connected with the Atlantic states by two transcontinental railroads, by a steam- ship line vid Panama, and by sailing-vessels around Cape Horn. Its chief exports are wheat, wine, wool, gold, dried and canned fruits. Its chief imports are tea, coffee, sugar, and manufactured articles of all descriptions. VII. GOVERNMENT. The government of California is administered under the pro- visions of the state constitution, which was adopted in the year 1879. State Government. — The officers of the executive department of the state government are the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, comptroller, treasurer, attorney-general, surveyor-general, clerk of the Supreme Court, and superintendent of public instruction, all elected by direct vote of the people for a term of four years. The Legislature consists of a Senate of forty members, elected for four years, and of an Assembly of eighty members, elected for two years. The Legislature holds biennial sessions. The judicial power is vested in the Senate sitting as a court of impeach- ment, in a Supreme Court, superior courts, justices of the peace, and such inferior courts as may be established by law. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. Local Government. — The officers of a county government are a board of supervisors, board of education, treasurer, assessor, ta.\-collector, district-attorney, sheriff, surveyor, county clerk, and superintendent of common schools. The unit of political division is the school district, the officers of which consist of three school trustees, elected by direct vote of the people for a term of three years. National Representation. — California is represented in Congress at Washington by two senators and six representatives, and hence is entitled to eight electoral votes. VIII. EDUCATION. The state has a well-organized system of public schools. The state constitution provides that a free school shall be maintained in every school district for at least six months in the year. The schools are supported partly by state, by county, and by district taxation. Each county has a county superintendent of common schools, elected by the people for a term of four years, and a county board of education, consisting of the county superintendent and four members appointed by the county board of supervisors. The county board of education prescribes the text-books and courte of stud)-, and examines teachers. Each school district has a board of trustees of three members, elected at special school elections for three years, one member being elected each year. The school trustees appoint teachers, build schoolhouses, and have the local government of the schools. California raises annually, by direct state tax, more than a million of dollars for the support of public schools; and the total expenditure for schools in 1883 was over three millions of dollars. State Institutions. — The State University of California, at Berkeley, is well endowed, and is free to both young men and young women. The State Normal School, at San Jos^, is attended by a large number of students ; and the Branch State Normal School at Los Angeles is a flourishing institution. The Institution for the Deaf and Dumb and Blind is located at Berkeley. There are numerous denominational colleges and seminaries and many excellent private schools. IX. HISTORY. Upper or Alta California was first explored by the Spaniards, within fifty years after the discover)' of America by Columbus. The name " California " was given by the Spaniards to the region north of Mexico. The name is taken from an old Crusader romance which was very popular in the days of Cortez. The Spaniards made their first settlement in Upper California, at San Diego, in 1769. San Diego was the first of a series of Missions, which the Spanish Catholic missionaries established in California, running north from San Diego to San Francisco. Into these Mis- sions the Indians were gathered, and the Padres, or Roman Catholic priests, taught them the arts of civilization. They cultivated the vine, the olive, and the fig, and lived in spacious houses, built of adobe, or sun-dried bricks. In 1822 Mexico threw off the yoke of Spain, and became an independent republic. Alta or Upper California was then made a Mexican province. The first American settlers found their way into California in 1843. In 1846 the war between the United States and Mexico began. The Americans in California immediately raised the "bear flag," and asserted their independence of Mexico. At this time Capt. John C. I CALIFORNIA. Fremont, who had been sent west to survey a new route to Oregon, arrived in California. Fremont united with the Americans, who were successful in several encounters with the Mexicans. In July, 1846, Commodore Sloat, then commander of the United States fleet on the Pacific coast, hearing of the declaration of war, took pos- session of Monterey. A little later, Stockton superseded Sloat. He took San Diego, and, aided by Fremont, captured Los Angeles. Late in the year, Gen. Kearney, with a small column from the army operat- ing against Mexico on the northern line, reached California after a long and toilsome march from Santa F^, in New Mexico. Kearney ■ arrived in time to take part in the battle of San Gabriel, Jan. 8, 1847. This action overthrew the Spanish power, and established the author- : ity of the United States in California. The Mexican war was ended by the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848. It was just before this treaty was con- cluded that the first discovery of gold in California took place (Jan. 19, 1848), — a discovery which resulted in founding a great state on the Pacific coast. The news of the discovery reached the States ; and it soon spread throughout the world that California was the golden land, the true '* El Dorado." An extraordinary rush of immigration to the diggings now set in. Some crossed the thousands of miles of dreary and desolate plains, others braved the deadly climate of the Panama route, while still others made the long circumnavigation of Cape Horn. In 1849, between the months of April and January, nearly forty thousand emigrants arrived at the port of San Francisco. California was soon ready to become a state. In September, 1849, a convention met at Monterey and framed a state consti- tution. Congress admitted California into the Union, Sept. 9, 1850. The history of California may be divided into two periods, — the period of "gold and experiment," and the period of "wheat and growth." The first period began with the discovery of gold, and lasted till about i860. During this period the great object of the people was to accumulate a fortune and return " home." The second period began when the population ceased to be exclusively a mining population and commenced to develop the agricultural resources of the state. After some years it was found that the yearly returns derived from the export of wheat were fully equal to the value of the gold produced. With the period of *' wheat and growth," people began to think of mak- ing their homes on the Pacific coast. They found they had every in- ducement to do so in its remarkable climate and its rich returns for human industry. The subsequent progress of California has been both rapid and health- ful. The pioneers of California were, as a rule, young men of energy and brains. Many were finely educated. This has given a very bright and progressive character to California life and civilization. X. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. California is divided into fifty-two counties, and contains the following leading cities and towns : — San Francisco, the largest city of the Pacific coast, is a great commercial and manufacturing seaport. In foreign com- merce it ranks as the fourth city in the United States. The foundation of its commercial greatness is its magnificent harbor, the finest on the whole coast. The city is situated on a low sandy peninsula lying between the Bay of San Francisco and the Pacific Ocean. The bay is a beautiful sheet of water 60 miles long and 10 miles wide. The entrance to this land- locked harbor is through the Golden Gate, a narrow strait one mile wide. The manufactures consist of mining-machinery, iron-work, woolen goods, boots and shoes, leather, clothing, cigars, carriages, furniture, and agricultural impleme^jts. The chief exports are wheat, wine, wool, gold, canned and dried fruits. The chief imports are manufactured goods of all kinds, sugar, coffee, and tea. San Francisco is the site of a United States branch mint, the largest and finest in the world. Sacramento, in Sacramento County, on the Sacramento River, 120 miles from its mouth, is the capital of the state. The state Capitol is an imposing building, erected at a cost of three millions of dollars. Sacramento is the site of the exten- sive machine-shops of the Central Pacific Railroad. It is in the center of a rich farming region, and has an extensive trade. Oakland, in Alameda County, on the east side of the Bay of San Fran- cisco, 10 miles from San Francisco, ranks in population as the second city in the state. It is closely connected with San Francisco by ferries. It is a favorite place of residence on account of its trees, its gardens, and its mild climate. The city has important manufactories of hosiery, cotton goods, nails, etc. Los Angeles, in Los Angeles County, is the business center of Southern California. It is noted for its orange groves and vineyards, and is a favorite winter resort for Eastern tourists. It is the seat of the Branch State Nor- mal School. San Jose, in Santa Clara County, is the trade center of the beautiful and highly cultivated valley of Santa Clara. It is the seat of the State Normal School and of the College of Notre Dame. Stockton, in San Joaquin County, on the San Joaquin River, has a large agricultural trade with the surrounding country. It is the seat of the State Asylum for the Insane. Alameda — contiguous to Oakland, is, like that city, a famous place of residence for people doing business in San Francisco. Berkeley — contiguous to Oakland on the north, is the seat of the University of California and of the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb and Blind. Chico — in Butte County, has an important trade in farm products and lumber. Eureka — in Humboldt County, on Humboldt Bay, in the redwood region, has the largest lumber trade in the state Fresno — in Fresno County, in the southern part of the San Joaquin valley, is the trade center of a large vine and fruit growing region made fertile by irrigation. Grass Valley — in Nevada County, is a mountain town in the midst of extensive quarlz-mines. Modesto — in Stanislaus County, in the San Joa- quin valley, on the line of the Southern Pacific Railroad, is the trade center of a large agricultural region. Monterey — in Monterey County, on Monterey Bay, is a fashionable summer resort. Marysville — in Yuba County, has an extensive mining and agricultural trade. Napa — in Napa County, on the Napa valley branch of the California Pacific Railroad, commands the trade of the beautiful and fertile Napa valley. It is the site of a branch State Asylum for the Insane. Nevada City — in Nevada County, in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, is situated in a rich gold region, and has an extensive mining business. Peta)unia — in Sonoma County, on the San Fran- cisco and North Pacific Railroad, and at the head of navigation on Petaluma Creek, is an important shipping point for the farm prod- ucts of Sonoma County. Port Costa — in Contra Costa County, on the Bay of San Francisco, 30 miles from the city of San Francisco, is the chief point for the ocean shipment of wheat. It contains im- mense warehouses for storing grain, and has the largest flour-mill in the state. Placerville — in El Dorado County, is the termi- nus of the Sacramento and Placerville Rail- road. It was formerly a famous mining town. Red Bluff — in Tehama County, at the head of light steamer navigation on the Sacramento, commands the trade of the upper Sacramento valley. Santa Barbara — in Santa Barbara County, on the seacoast, is a favorite resort for invalids and tourists, on account of its charming climate. San Bernardino — in San Bernardino County, in the southern part of the state, is surrounded by vineyards and orange groves. It is on the line of the Southern Pacific Railroad, and has an extensive trade with Arizona. Santa Cruz — in Santa Cruz County, is a noted summer resort for sea-bathing. It has manu- factures of paper, powder, lime, and leather. Santa Clara — in Santa Clara County, is sur- rounded by an extensive fruit-growing region. It is the seat of the University of the Pacific and of the Santa Clara College. San Diego — in San Diego County, on San Diego Bay, has one of the finest harbors of the Pacific coast. It is connected by rail with the Southern Pacific Railroad at Colion. San Quentin — in Marin County, on the Bay of San Francisco, is the site of the State Prison . of California. Santa Rosa — in Sonoma County, is the business center of the fertile Russian River valley. San Rafael — in Marin County, on the shores of the Bay of San Francisco, is a favorite sum- mer resort 00 aax>unt of its delightful sum- mer climate. St. Helena — in Napa valley, is surrounded by extensive vineyards, and has an extensive trade in wine. Truckee — in Nevada County, near the crest of the Sierra, at an elevation of about 6,000 feet, has extensive saw-mills and lumber manufactories, run by the water-power of the Truckee River. It is in the vicinity of Donner Lake and Lake Tahoe. In winter snow falls to a great depth. Vallejo — in Solano County, on the Bay of San Francisco, is the bay terminus of the Napa Valley and the California Pacific railroads. Near the city, on Mare Island, is a United States navy-yard, — the only one on the Pacific coast. Visalia — in Tulare County, is the trade center of an extensive grain-growing region in the San Joaquin valley. Yreka — in Siskiyou County, is in the extreme northern part of the state. It was once a famous mining town, but is now the trade center of an agricultural and stock-raising country. It is on the line of the California and Oregon Railroad. 32 NEVADA. NEVADA. [Area, 110.700 square mites. Population {Census of 1880), 62.266.] I. SITUATION AND TENT. EX- NNEL. Situation. — Nevada lies east of California, and includes the western part of the central plateau known as the Great Basin. This basin, between the Sierra Nevada and the Wahsatch Mountains, is 500 miles in width, and is crossed by more than one hundred short moun- tain ranges. Nevada is included be- tween 35° and 42° north latitude and 114° and 120° west longitude. Extent. — It is nearly 500 miles in length north and south, and 300 miles in width. In area it is about two-thirds the size of California, and about equal to Colorado or Arizona. II. SURFACE. This state is a vast plateau, elevated about 4,000 feet above the level of the sea. It is crossed north and south by short detached mountain ranges and spurs, over sixty in number, gen- erally lying in parallel lines, with narrow intervening valleys. Mountains. — The highest mountain summits are Mount Wheeler (12,800 feet), Mount Moriah (12,000 feet), and Granite Mountain (12,000 feet). — all in the Snake Range, near the boundary line of Utah. The most noted peak is Mount Davidson (7,827 feet), famous for its immense mineral treasures. Valleys Nevada has no broad river valleys. Its longest rivers, the Humboldt and the Carson, are bordered in a part of their courses by a narrow strip of green and fertile meadow lands. Many of its wide, open valleys lying between mountain ranges have no rivers e.xcept the small, narrow streams that rush down from the melting snows, and rapidly disappear on reaching the plains. The valleys and plains are covered in many places with sage-brush and bunch-grass, with here and there an alkaline flat of dazzling white, or a small lake of intensely salt and bitter water. General Aspect.' — The general aspect of the countrj- is exceedingly barren, desolate, and uninviting. III. DRAINAGE. As Nevada lies in a region of light rains, its rivers are small and comparatively few. Its only waters that reach the Pacific are a few small streams that flow into the Colorado. All its other rivers flow into saline lakes, or terminate in sinks in the sandy deserts. The Humboldt, the largest and longest river, rises in the north-eastern part of the state, flows south-westerly in a winding course of 350 miles, and disappears in the broad, shallow, and brackish waters of the Hum- boldt lake and sink. The Central Pacific Railroad runs along the narrow valley of this river for more than 200 miles. Truckee River, which is the outlet of Lake Tahoe, is 90 miles long, and flows into Pyramid Lake. Lake Tahoe is partly in Nevada, and partly in California. The Carson River rises in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and flows east- erly into Carson I.ake : and Walker River, rising in the same moun- tains, flows into Walker Lake. The Colorado is merely a boundary river. None of the rivers of Nevada are navigable, but they are valuable for irrigation purposes. IV. CLIMATE. The average annual rainfall in Nevada does not exceed five inches : hence the climate is exceedingly drj'. The extremes of heat and cold are much greater than they are nearer the coast in the same latitude. • . i NEVADA. 33 The cause of the dryness of the Great Basin is the Sierra Nevada Range, which condenses the greater part of the moisture in the rain-winds from the Pacific. In summer, on the arid plains, the heat during the day is intense ; but, owing to rapid radiation, the nights are always cool. V. RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES. Agriculture is possible in Nevada only where the soil can be irrigated by the water of mountain streams. The extent of land capable of being cultivated depends entirely on the water-supply. The farms of Nevada lie chiefly along the banks of the Carson River, Walker River, and Humboldt River, where the products are grain, hay, vegetables, and fruit. In parts of the state the extensive plains, covered with .sage-brush and bunch-grass, afford fine natural pasturage for cattle and sheep, and stock-raising is an important pursuit. Minerals. — Nevada, though meager in vegetation, is rich in minerals, and mining is the chief pursuit of the people. Silver-mines are found in nearly every mountain range in the state. The most noted mines are those of the Comstock Lode, on Mount David- son, in Storey County, in the western part of the state. These are called silver-mines, though they yield both gold and silver. For many years after their discovery in 1859 they were the richest mines in the world, yielding an annual product of $30,000,000. The mines of the Eureka and White Pine Districts were also famous for their richness. The total silver product of Nevada in 1881 exceeded $8,000,000. Lead is obtained in large quantities in the reduction of silver ores. Salt is found spread in thin beds over the surface of low basins, and in the form of rock-salt in solid crystalline masses. Nevada also contains valuable deposits of soda, sulphur, borax, and antimony, though none of these minerals are extensively worked. Forests. — The greater part of Nevada is almost treeless. The forests are limited to a narrow belt on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada, and the caiions of the mountain'ridges, where the pine, fir, and spruce reach a considerable size, though not so large as on the California slopes of the Sierra Nevada. The nut pine yields a great abundance of edible nuts, which the Indians use as an important article of food. Commerce. — The trade of Nevada consists in the export of bullion and ores, live-stock and wool, and in the import of bread-stuffs, machinery, and manufactured articles of all de- scriptions. The most important railroad is the Central Pacific, which extends the entire width of the state. There are several short branch roads, of which the most important are the Virginia and Truckee, from Reno to Virginia City;, the Eureka and Palisade ; the Battle Mountain and Austin. VI. GOVERNMENT. The present constitution was adopted in 1866, and its pro- visions are of the most liberal character. The officers of the executhie department of the government are the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer, comp- troller, surveyor-general, attorney-general, and superintendent of public instruction, all elected by direct vote of the people, for a term of four years. The legislative department consists of a Senate of twenty-five members, elected for four years, and an Assembly of fifty members, elected for two years. The sessions of the Legislature are biennial. The judicial department consists of a Supreme Court, district courts, and justices of the peace, elected by direct vote of the people. National Representation. — Nevada is represented in Congress at Wash- ington by two senators and one representative, and is therefore entitled to three electoral votes. VII. EDUCATION. The public school system of Nevada resembles that of Cali- fornia. The schools are under the general control of a State Board of Education, consisting of the governor, the superintendent of public instruction, and the surveyor-general. Each county has a county superintendent of schools, and each school district has a local district board of three trustees. There is a State University at Elko. The schools of Virginia City, Gold Hill, and Carson are distinguished for their excellence. VIII. HISTORY. The soil of Nevada was part of the extensive territory ac- quired by the United States from Mexico by the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, in 1848. When the present boundaries of California were marked off, in 1850, the newly-acquired region to the east was organized as Utah Territory. This territory embraced nearly all of what is now the state of Nevada. While Nevada was a part of Utah it received a small Mormon popula- tion. These first actual settlers went to Nevada in 1848. The population was very small till the time of the first great silver dis- covery, in 1859, when it increased rapidly by emigration from Cali- fornia. A number of towns were founded, among which Virginia City and Carson took the lead. Nevada was made a separate territory in 1861, and in 1864 was admitted into the Union as a state. IX. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Nevada is divided into thirteen counties, each of which has a local county government. It contains the following leading cities and towns : — Virginia City (10,917), in Storey County, is the most noted mining town in the world. It is built on the steep slopes of Mount Davidson, at an elevation of 6,000 feet above the sea- level and of 2,000 feet above the surrounding plateau. The ores of the famous mines that underlie the city are obtained by means of shafts and inclines, some of which reach a depth of more than 3,000 feet. The machinery of these mines for hoisting the ore, pumping the water, and ventilating the lower levels is the finest and costliest in the world. The lower levels are so intensely hot that the miners can work only half an hour at a time ; and to strangers visiting the mines the heat is insufferable. The immense quantities of lumber used in timbering up the shafts and drifts in the mines are brought from the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Gold Hill (4,531) is on the C(5mstock Lode, contiguous to Virginia City. Indeed, the two cities run together, and form but one town, though they have distinct city governments. Some of the richest mines lie underneath the town. Both Gold Hill and Virginia City are supplied with water from the Sierra Nevada, brought by means of flumes and strong iron pipe. Both cities are distinguished for their excellent public schools. Carson (4,229), in Ormsby County, is the capital of Nevada. It is situated near the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada Moun- tains, and is abundantly supplied with the purest mountain water. It is the site of a United States branch mint. Austin, in Lander County, is the center of the silver-mining district of Reese River. Battle Mountain — on the line of the Central I Hamilton — in White Pine County, lies in the Pacific Railroad, is a shipping point of ores and mining supplies. Elko — on the line of the Central Pacific Railroad, is the site of the State University. Eureka — in Eureka County, is the center of one of the richest mining districts in the state. It is connected by rail with the Central Pa- cific Railroad at Palis.tde. center of a rich mining district. Reno — in Washoe County, is on the Truckee River, on the line of the Central Pacific Railroad, at the point of its junction with the Virginia and Truckee Railroad. Winnemucca — in Humboldt County, on Hum- boldt River, contains extensive workshops of the Central Pacific Railroad. 8« Local Time A. 31. 9 tchen yoon on 9* the Meridian 9* of Washington 9" OREGON. 35 OREGON Situation. — What division north of Oregon ? What river marks most of this boundary? What division on the east? What states on the south? By what is it bounded on the west? Between what parallels is it situated? Nearly between what meridians ? According to the scale of miles, what is its width from east to west? What its length from north to south? Surface. — What is the nature of the surface of the western portion ? The central and eastern portion ? What is the principal mountain range ? Its location and e.xtent ? What high mountain peaks does it contain ? What extensive river valley ? Lakes and Rivers. — What is the largest river? Describe its course. In what direction do its tributaries in this state flow? Name and describe the tributary which forms part of its eastern boundary. What considerable streams empty into the Pacific Ocean? What lakes in the southern part? Are they connected by rivers with the ocean ? Counties and Cities. — How many counties are there in Oregon? In what part of the state are the counties smallest in extent? Where the largest in extent? What counties border on the Columbia River? What counties border on the Willamette River to the west ? What to the east ? What is the capital, and where is it located? The largest city? What city near the mouth of the Columbia River? Name several cities located on the Colum- bia River. Several on the Willamette River. What proportion of the state appears from the map to be but sparsely settled ? DESCRIPTION. [Area, 96,030 square miles. Population {Census of 1880), 174,768.] I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Situation. — Oregon lies next north of California, bordering on the Pacific Ocean, and extending to the Columbia River, which separates it from Washington Territory on the north. It extends from 42° to 46° 20' north latitude, and from 1 16° 30' to 124° 35' west longitude. Extent. — In shape it is an oblong, 350 miles long east and west, and 275 miles wide. In area it is a little more than half as large as California. II. SURFACE. Mountains. — Oregon is a mountainous state. The Cascade Range extends north and south the entire length of the state, at a distance of 120 miles from the coast. It divides the state into two distinct sections, East Oregon and West Oregon. The loftiest summit is Mount Hood, a volcanic cone 1 1,225 f^et in height. The Coast Range is made up of numerous broken ridges and spurs, the highest of which do not exceed an elevation of 4,000 feet. In the southern part of the state the most marked ridges are known as the Umpqua, the Rogue River, and the Cala- poosa mountains. The Blue Mountains are in the northern part of East Oregon. Valleys. — The largest and most highly cultivated valley, the 36 OREGON. Willamette, lies between the Cascade Mountains and the Coast Range. It is 140 miles long, and from 10 to 40 miles wide. There are numerous coast valleys opening towards the Pacific, the most important of which are those of Rogue River and the Umpqua River. Plateaus and Plains. — East Oregon is a plateau region which has an elevation of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. The south-eastern section is an extension of the Great Basin. This is largely a desert region, covered with volcanic ashes, sand, and sage-brush, and dotted here and there with alkaline lakes. The scenery along most of the rivers of the state is remarkably fine ; and at the Cascades, where the Columbia breaks through the mountain walls of lava basalt, it is especially majestic and beautiful. III. DRAINAGE. The Columbia, with its tributaries, drains the greater part of Oregon. It forms the northern boundary of the state for a distance of 300 miles. It rises in the Rocky Mountains of the northern United States and British America, and flows south- westerly into the Pacific. Its chief branches in Oregon are the Willamette, Des Chutes, John Day, Umatilla, and Snake. There are numerous short rivers flowing from the Coast Range directly into the ocean, of which the largest are Rogue River and the Umpqua. The greater part of the lake country along the border of California is drained through that state by the Klamath River. In a part of the central plateau the rivers terminate in alkaline lakes, either within the state, or in Northern Nevada and California. IV. CLIMATE. The climate resembles that of California in respect to sea- sons, there being two seasons, — the wet or winter, and the dry or summer season. But the winters are colder and the rainfall greater than on the more southern Pacific coast. Eastern Oregon has a drier climate than Western Oregon because the Cascade Mountains condense the moisture of the rain-clouds from the Pacific. The climate of the coast belt of Oregon and of the Willamette valley is made cooler in summer and milder in winter by the Japan current, which flows southward along the coast This ciurent is warmer than the land in winter, and colder in summer, thus causing the prevailing fogs along the coast of Oregon as well as of California. On the coast there is very little snow or ice ; but in the mountain valleys and in Eastern Oregon there is considerable snowfall, followed by heavy rains toward the end of the winter season. The summers in the mountains are warm and delightful. V. RESOURCES. The soil of the Willamette valley, the coast valleys, the Des Chutes valley, and the valley of the Columbia in Eastern Oregon, is a rich black loam, and is very fertile, yielding in abundance all the products of the temperate zone. It is espe- cially adapted to the production of the cereals, root-crops, and fruits. There are also large tracts of natural pasture-lands adapted to grazing of herds of cattle and sheep. The gold-mines of Eastern Oregon are worked to a considerable extent, and the Coast Mountains contain valuable coal-deposits. ■ The great forest belt between the Cascade Mountains and the coast constitutes one of the chief resources of the state. The trees are mostly coniferous, the pine, fir, and cedar; being valuable for lumber and for the production of ship-stores, — tar, turpentine, and rosin. VI. INDUSTRIES. Agriculture is the leading industry of the state ; and the chief product is wheat, of which many millions of bushels are annually exported. The other important farm-products are barley, oats, potatoes, garden vegetables, and fruit, — such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, plums, and cherries. The broad plains of Eastern Oregon afford good grazing-grounds for cattle, horses, and sheep ; and wool and live-stock are largely exported. In 1880, according to the report of the tenth census, there were produced 7,480,000 bushels of wheat, 4,385,000 bushels of oats, 1,359,000 bushels of potatoes, 920,000 bushels of barley, 126,000 bushels of Indian-corn, and orchard products to the value of $583,000. The improved land in farms amounted to 2,198,000 acres, which was about double that of 1870, and was estimated to be worth about $57,000,000. Manufactures. — The saw-mills of Oregon produce immense quantities of lumber. Oregon pine is shipped to all parts of the western coast of America, and even to more distant quar- ters of the globe. The forests also furnish material for ship-building, which is a large and growing industry. The other important manufactures are woolen goods, iron-work, carriages, leather, and pine products. In 1880 the capital invested in manufactures was over f 6,312,000, and the annual product over |lo,ooo,ooo in value. Fisheries. — The salmon fisheries near the mouth of the Columbia are very extensive, and great quantities of canned salmon are exported. Sea-fishing is also prosecuted by considerable numbers. The total value of the product of fisheries of Oregon in 1880 was over $2,776,000. In the value of its fisheries product, Oregon ranked as the seventh state in the Union. Commerce. — Wheat, lumber, and fish are the leading ex- ports. Wheat is shipped direct from Portland and Astoria to Liverpool and China. Lumber, masts, and spars are shipped to California, South America, and the Atlantic States. Other articles of export are wool, hides, and bullion. The chief imports are manufactured goods of all kinds, coffee, tea, and sugar. Oregon carries on an extensive coasting trade with California, Alaska, British Columbia, and the ports on Puget Sound. It has railroad communication with California by means of the Oregon and California Railroad, now nearly completed. It is connected with the eastern states by the Northern Pacific Railroad, which has its western termi- nus at New Tacoma, on Puget Sound in Washington Territory; and by the Oregon Branch of the Union Pacific Railroad, which enters the state from the south-east. The Columbia River system is navigable for ships to Portland (on the Willamette, 12 miles above its junction with the Columbia), 112 miles from the sea. The main stream of the Columbia is also navigable for smaller vessels to the Cascades, 60 miles above the mouth of the Willa- mette. There is a short railroad around these Cascades, above which the river is navigable for steamers to the Dalles. Here there is a second railroad around the rapids, above which small steamers ascend the Snake River to Lewiston in Idaho, — a distance of 275 miles from the Dalles, and 475 from the Pacific Ocean. The Willamette is navi- gable for steamers of considerable size as far south as Eugene City during a large part of the year. This and other rivers are rendered navigable by means of locks and portage-railroads, and thus contribute largely to the commercial facilities of the state. VII. GOVERNMENT. The government of Oregon is administered in accordance with the provisions of the State Constitution, adopted in 1859. The officers of the executive department of the state government are the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretarj- of state, treasurer, and superin- tendent of public instruction, all elected by direct vote of the people for a term of four years. The legislative department consists of a Senate of thirty members, elected for four years, and a House of Representatives of sixty members, elected for two vears. OREGON. 37 The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, circuit courts, county courts, and justices of the peace. Oregon is represented in the National Congress by two senators and one representative, and has tliree electoral votes for President of the United States. VIII. EDUCATION. The public schools of Oregon are under the general control of a State Board of Education, consisting of the governor, the secretary of state, and the superintendent of public instruction. Each county has a county superintendent of schools, and each school district a school board of three members. The schools of Portland are noted for their excellence, and the country district schools are steadily increasing in excellence. In addition to its excellent system of public schools, there are a number of superior private institutions of high grade in the state. Among these are Pacific University, at Forest Grove ; McMinnville College, at McMinnville ; Willamette University, at Salem ; Blue Mountain Uni- versity, at La Grande ; Ashland College and Normal School, at Ash- land ; and the Bishop Scott Grammar School, at Portland. IX. HISTORY. The coast of Oregon, though occasionally visited by naviga- tors from early times, did not attract much attention until near the close of the last century. As early as the year 1788 two trading ships from Boston, under Capts. Kendrick and Gray, visited the Oregon coast. In 1792 Capt. Gray discovered the great river of Oregon, which he named the Columbia, in honor of Capt. Kendrick's ship. At this time this North Pacific country did not belong to any nation. When the United States acquired from France the great territory of Louisiana, in 1803, President Jefferson sent an exploring party, under Lewis and Clark, to go to the head waters of the Missouri River, and thence advance across to the Pacific. These bold explorers, with a party of men, set out in 1804. They explored to the very head of the Missouri River, a distance of three thousand miles, then crossed to the head waters of the Columbia, and down that river to its mouth. This was the first exploration of this region. The report of this exploration led John Jacob Astor, a far-seeing merchant of New York, to plan a settlement on the Oregon coast, with the view of fur-trading. Mr. Astor sent out one party across the continent, and another in a vessel; and in 181 1 a settlement was made on the southern bank of the Columbia. This settlement was named Astoria. The British became very jealous of this American settlement, and set up a claim to the North Pacific region. By treachery Astoria was given up to the British " North-west Fur Company" in 181 2. The United States continued to assert its claim to the country. A great deal of correspondence on the subject between the two governments resulted. At last, in 1818, the United States and England agreed to a joint occupancy of the whole territory for ten years. In 1828 the treaty of joint occupancy was renewed, to terminate on either party giving a year's notice. Up to this time, the number of Americans in Oregon was trifling ; and the first beginnings of real .settlement were made in 1834. In that year a little band of Methodist missionaries estabhshed themselves in the lovely valley of the Willamette. Here they were joined by others, and several mission stations were founded. No settlement of the conflicting claims of the British and Americans to this region was made till 1846. It was then agreed by a treaty that the American possessions should extend as far north as latitude 49°. Out of the bounds of Oregon were afterwards formed the state of Oregon and the territories of Washington and Idaho. Oregon was organized as a territory in 1848. The growth of Oregon was very slow until after the discovery of gold in California. In 1850 Congress passed a law giving lands to settlers in Oregon. The country then began to fill up. In 1859 it was admitted as a state. Since the completion of the Pacific railroads its growth has been exceedingly rapid. X. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Oregon contains twenty-three counties and the following leading cities and towns: — Portland (17,577), ii^ Multnomah County, is the business center and largest city of Oregon. It is situated at the head of navigation on the Willamette River, a little over twelve miles above its junction with the Columbia. It is an impor- tant railroad center, and is a manufacturing and commercial city. From its location at the foot of the rich valleys of the Columbia and the Willamette, and at the head of ship navigation in the Columbia River system, it enjoys a commanding commercial position on the Pacific coast as the most important point between San Francisco and Puget Sound. Since the completion of the Northern Pacific Railroad the city has grown even more rapidly than before. The city has excellent public schools and other educational institutions. Salem (2,538), in Marion County, south of Portland, 53 miles by rail, is the capital of the state. It has an extensive water- power, and has large flour and woolen mills. The Willamette River affords excellent shipping facilities, and the city is a distributing point for a large and wealthy agricultural section. Other manufactures are iron, leather, etc. The city is the seat of Willamette University. Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia, is a seaport, a summer resort, and the center of the business of canning salmon. The salmon fisheries employ several thousand men, and the value of the annual product of salmon exceeds $3,000,000. The facilities for lumbering and ship-building are also great, and are being largely developed. Albany, on the Willamette, south of Salem, has extensive flour-mills, saw-mills, carriage-factories, and machine-shops. It has a large trade with the interior, and by means of rail and river transportation has excellent shipping facilities. Corvallis, the county seat of Benton County, is favorably located on the west bank of the Willamette, and is the seat of the State Agricultural College. The Dalles, county seat of Wasco County, is situated at the Upper Cas- cade Rapids of the Columbia, 115 miles from Portland. It has great advan- tages as a manufacturing point, and is the center of trade for Eastern Oregon. This place is much visited on account of the splendid scenery of the Dalles of the Columbia. Eugene City, at the head of steamer navigation on the Willamette River, is the seat of the State University, and is the shipping point for farm-products for a large section of the Willamette vallej-. Jacksonville, county seat of Jackson County, in the southern part of the state, on the line of the Oregon and California Railroad, is the trade center of Southern Oregon. Oregon City, county seat of Clackamas County, is situated about 12 miles south of Portland, on the Willamette. It has a valuable water-power, and contains flouring-mills, saw-mills, and the largest woolen-mills in the state. The Willamette is here made navigable by an extensive series of lochs on the west bank of the river. Roseberg, on the Umpqua River, is an important trading town on the Oregon and California Railroad. Baker City, county seat of Baker County, is a growing place in Eastern Oregon on the line of the Oregon branch of the Union Pacific Railroad. Several prosperous mining districts are in the vicinity. East Portland, opposite Portland, on the Willamette, is a busy and enter- prising place, which shares the growth and prosperity of its neighboring city. Among other places worthy of special mention, are Dallas, a manufac- turing town, in Polk County; Ashland, near the California line, in Jackson County; Forest Grove, seat of the Pacific University, in Washington County; Marshfield and Empire City, near the coast, in Coos County; McMinnville, a railroad town and seat of the McMinnville College, in Yamhill County; Pendleton, center of a fine agricultural region, and county seat of L'matilla County; Umatilla, a shipping and trading town on the Columbia River; Brownsville; Dayton; Halsey; Junction City; Oakland; and Weston. 38 WASHINGTON. WASHINGTON. CAPE FLATTERY. CUTTING UP QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Situation. — What coun- try on the north of Wash- ington Territory.' What di- vision on the east ? What state on the south ? What forms the western bound- ary ? What large river forms a large part of the southern boundary .' What degrees of latitude nearly mark its limits north and south ? What is the distance between these limits according to the scale of miles .' What degree of longitude marks its eastern limit? How many miles from this meridian across the territory to the Pacific Ocean ? Surface. — What is the nature of the surface west of the Columbia River? What east of this river? What range of mountains extends through the territory from north to south ? Name and locate some of the highest peaks. What important valley largely within this territory ? What is the nature of the coast? Lakes and Rivers. — What large river crosses this territory ? Describe its course. What are chief tributaries on the north ? What on the east ? What rivers on the western slope ? What lake, and where ? What other important inland waters, and in what part ? Counties and Cities. — Name the counties that border on the Pacific Ocean. Name those that border on its connected inland waters. Name the tier of counties, north and south, next east of these waters. In what portion of the territory are the chief settlements ? Name and locate the capital. Name the more important cities on the navigable waters in the north. Those on the Columbia River. DESCRIPTION. [Area, 69,180 square miles. Population (Census of 1880), 75,116; 1883, esti- mated, 125,000.] I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Situation. — Washington Territory lies north of Oregon, and borders on the Pacific on the west, and British Columbia on the north. It is included between 45° 32' and 49° north latitude, and 1 17° and 124° 28' west longitude. Extent. — Its length east and west is 340 miles, and its width 200 miles. Its area is thus somewhat less than that of Oregon, which state it resembles both in its general shape and its surface features. II. SURFACE. Washington, like Oregon, is crossed north and south by the Cascade Mountains, which divide it into Eastern Washington and Western Washington. The highest peaks of the Cascade Range are St. Helens, 12,000 feet, and Mount Rainier (Tacoma), 14,444, both volcanic cones, whose peaks are covered with perpetual snow, and whose upper slopes are covered with glaciers. Western ^Vashington, includ- ing about one-third of the area of the territory, is di- vided into the tide -water basin of the Columbia in the south, the Chehalis valley in the middle, and the Puget Sound basin in the north. The Coast Range extends in broken ridges along the Pa- cific near the coast. In the north these mountains are known as the Olympic Range, of which the highest summit is Mount Olympus, 8, 1 50 feet. The western slopes of these mountains feed numerous short and rapid streams which flow directly into the Pacific Ocean. Eastern Washington, which includes two-thirds of the area of the terri- tory, is for the greater part a plateau of moderate elevation traversed by the Columbia River and its tributaries. The surface of this plateau consists of several broad plains or prairies well adapted for grazing and wheat-raising, divided here and there by the spurs of the Cascade Range and by many irregular and abrupt changes of elevation. The rivers are broken by numerous rapids, and the scenery is varied and picturesque. In the extreme north-eastern and south-eastern parts of the territory are found the broken spurs of the Pend d'Oreille, and the Blue Mountains ; the former extending into the territory from Idaho, and the latter from Oregon. III. DRAINAGE. The Columbia River drains the entire eastern part of the territory, and also a considerable part of the region west of the Cascade Range. It receives the water of a number of noble streams in part or entirely within the borders of the territory. Among these are the Cowlitz, Klikitat, Yakima, Okanagan, Pend d'Oreille, Spokan, Snake, and Walla-Walla. The other drainage systems include the rivers flowing into the Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and those emptying directly into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these streams, though short, are navi- gable to a considerable distance, and are of value in lumbering and shipping operations. The Chehalis, flowing into Gray's Harbor on the coast, is the most important. Puget Sound is a magnificent arm of the sea, extending far into the WASHINGTON. 39 interior, and aiTording great commercial facilities. It is navigable for the largest ship ; and its network of deep tide-water channels is unsur- passed in any quarter of the globe. IV. CLIMATE. Washington, like California and Oregon, has two seasons, — the rainy and the dry ; but the rainfall is greater than in Cali- fornia, and the dry season is shorter. Around Paget Sound the winters are exceedingly mild for so high a latitude. Eastern Washington, on account of its position to the east of the Cascade Mountains, has a much lighter rainfall than Western Washington, and much colder winters. The territory, however, in all parts, has a much milder climate than east- ern states of the same latitude ; and this is mainly due to the Japan current, which renders the sea much warmer than it is in similar sec- ' tions of the eastern coast of the continent. This action is similar to that of the Gulf Stream on the western coast of Europe. V. RESOURCES. The natural resources of Washington are of the most splen- did character. The soil is rich and productive, easily tilled, and adapted to the production of cereals. Extensive plains in the eastern part of the territory afford fine pasturage for live-stock. The bays and rivers abound in fish. Western Washington is very heavily wooded, the forest trees consisting mainly of pine, fir, spruce, and cedar. This whole section is also underlaid by the richest deposits of coal. The territory has great commercial advantages. It is deeply penetrated by Puget Sound, whose waters are navigable for more than a hundred miles for the largest vessels, thus afford- ing excellent facilities for the ocean shipment of lumber and the products of the fields and mines of the territory. VI. INDUSTRIES. The industries of Washington are as varied as its resources. Large numbers of the population are engaged in farming and lumbering. Coal-mining is rapidly developing, the fisheries are important and valuable, and an extensive foreign and domestic trade is growing up with the completion of the railroad lines to the east. Agriculture. — Farming is the leading occupation, and wheat is the chief product, of which great quantities are raised for export. On the extensive grazing-grounds of Eastern Washington stock-raising is an important source of wealth. In 1880 there were nearly 500,000 acres of improved land in farms, valued at over $13,844,000. The chief productions were 566,000 bush- els of barley, 1,571,000 bushels of oats, 1,921,000 bushels of wheat, 703,000 pounds of hops, 1,035,000 bushels of potatoes. The value of live-stock was $4,852,000, and the total farm product was valued at 14,212,000. Lumbering. — In the Puget Sound basin the cutting, sawing, and ship- ping of lumber is a leading pursuit. Ship-building is also carried on to a considerable extent, and spars are shipped to the Atlantic coast. Mining. — Gold-mines are worked to some extent in the mountain sec- tions, but the mineral wealth consists chiefly in extensive coal deposits in the Puget Sound basin. The best known coal-mines are those of Bellingham Bay, Seattle, Renton, Newcastle, and Carbon Hill. Fisheries. — On the Columbia River there are extensive salmon can- neries. The fisheries on the coast are also of considerable value. In 1880 the value of the seal fisheries product was over $61,000. Manufacturing. — The manufactures of Washington are in their infancy. They consist principally of lumber, flour, machinery, iron-work, and ship stores. Commerce. — It is connected with the east by the Northern Pacific Rail- road, and by branch lines with Oregon and California. This great line of railway, the shortest of the transcontinental lines, is already exer- cising a great influence on the development of the territory. It is opening up new routes of travel, and bringing together distant parts, thus cementing the bonds of the future great commonwealth of the North-west. It is also utilizing the magnificent harbors of the Puget Sound, and bringing forward the exhaustless stores of wealth that have been locked up in the mines and forests of the territory. The Columbia River is navigable throughout the territory with the exception of a few rapids, affording good facilities for the transporta- tion of wheat. The chief exports of Washington are wheat, lumber, coal, wool, live- stock, and fish. The imports are all kinds of manufactured articles. VII. EDUCATION. Washington has laid the foundation for a good system of public schools. The schools are under the general control of a superintendent of public instruction, appointed by the governor and council for a term of two years, and of county superin- tendents of schools, elected by the people. Each school district has a local board of three school directors. The Territorial University is established at Seattle. VIII. GOVERNMENT. Washington has a territorial form of government, subject to the provisions of the United States statutes. The executive officers consist of the governor and the secretary, ap- pointed by the President of the United States, with the consent of the Senate, for a term of four years. The Legislature consists of the Council, of nine members, and the House of Representatives, of thirty members, elected by the people. ' The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, the judges of which are appointed by the President and Senate of the United States for a term of four years ; in district courts, county probate courts, and jus- tices' courts, the judges of which are elected by the people. IX. HISTORY. When the Territory of Washington was organized, in 1853, it included all of the present area, and also Idaho and considerable parts of Montana and Wyoming. In 1863 the territory was reduced to its present limits upon the organization of the territories to the east of Washington. The settlement of the boundary disputes with Great Britain, the discovery of gold in California, and the completion of the Pacific Railroad, have been the main causes of the growth of the territory. The north-west boundary had long been a matter of dispute with Great Britain, and was finally settled as to the mainland in 1846. From that time the only question unsettled was the true boundary line through the channel of the Strait of San Juan de Fuca. This resulted in the joint occupancy of the San Juan Islands, ten in number, by the United States and Great Britain. In the year 1872 these islands were decided to belong to the United States by the Emperor of Germany, to whom the question was submitted for arbitration, and they thus came under the exclusive control of the territory. X. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Washington Territory comprises twenty-six counties and the following leading cities and towns : — Olympia, capital of the territory, and county seat of Thurs- ton County, is situated at the head of Puget Sound. It is connected by a branch road with the main line of the Northern Pacific Railroad, and has most excellent facilities for commerce 40 WASHINGTON. and general trade. Its harbor is safe and commodious, and is especially adapted for the lumber trade and for ship-building. Seattle, county seat of King County, is situated on the eastern side of Puget Sound, at the mouth of the Dawamish River. It is one of the leading financial and business centers of the territory, and has great commercial advantages. It is surrounded by a rich coal and lumber region, which is being rapidly developed. The principal manufactures are iron and lumber. It is the seat of the University of Washington Terri- tory. Tacoma, in Pierce County, about midway between Seattle and Olympia, on Puget Sound, is the western terminus of the Northern Pacific Railroad. It has an excellent harbor, and is largely engaged in the manufacture and shipping of lumber. Here are located the extensive machine-shops of the western division of the railroad, and its business is being largely ex- tended since the completion of the road to the east. Walla-Walla (by the census of 1880, the most populous town in the territory) is situated in the south-eastern part in the rich and fertile Walla- Walla valley. It is connected by railroad with the Columbia River at Wallula, and is extensively engaged in trade and the shipment of wheat, wool, etc. Vancouver, county seat of Clarke County, is situated on the Columbia, 100 miles from its mouth. It is one of the oldest settled points in the terri- tory, and has considerable trade and shipping. Spokan, on the Spokan River and the Northern Pacific Railroad, has an extensive water-power, which is being considerably developed. Whatcom, on Bellingham Bay, is a shipping point for coal and lumber. Colfax, county seat of Whitman County, is a growing town in the center of a fine agricultural district. Tumwater, closely connected with Olympia in its business and manufac- turing interests, has immense water-power, which is utilized in manufacture of lumber, flour, etc. Cascades, at the head of the lower rapids of the Columbia, is largely engaged in trans-shipment of the commerce of that river. A ship canal is being built at this point. Wallula, on the upper Columbia, is the terminus of a railroad into the fertile Walla- Walla valley. Oysterville is the most important town on the Pacific coast, and is largely engaged in the taking of sea-fish. Port Townsend, county seat of Island County, is the chief port of entry for the entire Puget Sound region, and the headquarters of the military division of the Columbia. Ainsworth, in Whitman County, is a growing commercial town on the Northern Pacific Railroad, and the terminus of an important branch of that line. Wilkeson and Carbonado are growing railroad towns in King County. Other important places are Dayton, in Columbia County; Steilacoom, in Pierce County; Blakely, in Kitsap County; San Juan, in San Juan County; Yakima, in Yakima County ; and Port Gamble, in Kitsap County. ALASKA. 41 ALASKA. A BOULOin I. AllG»Tru K ^"^A d I F I\ C Lou^tude '^Va^liugtolt QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Situation. — In what part of North America is Alaska? What bounds it on the north ? What on the east.' What waters form its southern and western boundaries? What parallel marks its most northern limit? Its most southern limit? Surface. — What important continental range of mountains terminates in Southern Alaska? What jjeninsula and islands indicate its course? What mountains to the north of this? What important mountain peaks, and where are they located? Which is the highest? What is the nature of the southern coast of Alaska ? Of the western coast ? Rivers, Lakes, and Towns — What is the principal river of Alaska ? De- scribe its course. In what general direction do most of the streams flow? Has it many lakes? What is their size, and where are they mostly located? Name the largest one. Name and locate tlie capital. DESCRIPTION. [Area, 531,409 square miles. Population {Census of 1880). 33,426] I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Situation. — Alaska, which includes the extreme northern and western parts of our continent, is separated from the rest of the United States by British Columbia. Its area is considerably greater than that of the original thirteen states. The mainland extends from the mouth of the Portland Canal. 54° 40' north latitude, to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. 71° 23' north latitude, and lies between the meridians of 130° and 167° west longitude. The 42 ALASKA. Island of Attoo, the most westerly of the Aleutian group, which is in- cluded in Alaska, is situated in 173° east longitude. This island is as many degrees west of San Francisco as that city is west of Maine. Extent. — Alaska is 1,100 miles in length north and south, and 800 miles in width. Its area is nearly four times that of California. In consequence of the numerous bays, inlets, and fiords that indent its shores, together with its long chain of islands stretching across the Pacific almost to Asia, Alaska has a coast line of not less than 20,000 miles. Its most northerly point is Cape Barrow ; and the most westerly point of the mainland is Cape Prince of Wales. II. SURFACE. Mountains. — A great mountain-chain called the Coast Range exteiuls along the Pacific from British Columbia to the penin- sula of Alaska. The Alaskan portion is from 50 to 75 miles wide, and many of its summits rise to a great height. Mount St. Klias, estimated to exceed 19,000 feet, is the loftiest peak in North America. Mount Fairweather exceeds 16,000 feet, and numerous other mountains exceed 12,000 feet in height. The slopes of this mighty range are covered with thousands of glaciers, that push their slow-moving masses down to the bays and fiords that indent the coast. Some of these glaciers are 40 miles long, and from 10 to 15 miles wide. The glacial scenery of this region is by far the grandest in the world. The long chain of the Aleutian Islands stretch- ing out into the Pacific almost to Asia is a continuation of this chain of mountains, though the island peaks seldom exceed a height of 5,000 feet. The interior of Alaska has been but little explored. It consists of rolling grassy plains, and mountains covered with scattered groves of pine and spruce. III. DRAINAGE. The Yukon, the chief river of Alaska, is one of the great rivers of the globe. It rises in British Columbia, and flows into the Pacific. It is navigable for steamers for 2,000 miles, and is a mile wide at a distance of 600 miles from the sea. The only large river of Alaska that flows into the Arctic Ocean is the Colville. IV. CLIMATE. Two thirds of Alaska is in the north temperate zone, and one third in the Arctic zone. Owing to the infiuence of the warm Japan current, sometimes called the (iulf Stream of the Pacific, that bathes the western shores of Alaska, the climate of the coast belt and of the Aleutian Islands is temperate. The rainfall of this region is very heavy, owing to the condensation. by the mountains, of the warm rain-winds which come, heated and vapor-laden, from the Japan current. At Sitka, and southward along the coast, and westward throughout the Aleutian chain of islands, it rains or snows two days out of three during the entire year. East of the Coast Range, and on the vast plains that border on the Arctic Ocean, the cold in winter is intense, the thermometer falling to 70° below zero. At Sitka, during the longest days of summer, there is no darkness at midnight. The sun just dips below the horizon, and then rises again. V. RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES. The resources of Alaska consist chiefly of the fish which swarm in its innumerable bays, fiords, and rivers ; of the furs of its wild animals ; and of its forests and minerals. Fisheries. — Salmon abound in all the streams of Alaska; and extensive canneries are already established on the Yukon River, the Chilcat, and among the islands of the Alexander Archipelago. The cod fisheries off the coast are carried on b}- a considerable number of vessels from San Francisco. The Arctic Ocean is the resort of many whaling-vessels, which push their v/ay in the summer months into these dangerous seas in pursuit of whales. Furs. — The principal fur-bearing animals are the seal, sea-otter, fox. ermine, marten, and beaver. The most valuable of these is the fur- seal, which is found in vast numbers on the two small islands of St. Paul and St. George. These two islands are leased by the United States Government to the Alaska Fur Company. The annual product of the seal fisheries, as reported in the census of r88o, is valued at nearly $2,100,000; and of other fisheries, over $500,000. Forests. — The timber lands of Alaska are limited chiefly to the coast belt of South-western Alaska. The trees most valuable for lumber are the yellow cedar, and the spruce or Sitka pine. Minerals. — (^old has recently been discovered on the tributaries of the Yukon, but the mines have not as yet been extensively worked. Vegetation. — The agricultural re.sources of Alaska are limited. Potatoes and vegetables can be grown along the western coast and on the islands, but the cereals will not ripen. VI. GOVERNMENT. No territorial government has yet been organized in Alaska. This territory was purchased from Russia in 1867 for ^7,200,000. The population of the entire territory consists of a few hundred whites and about 33,000 natives. Sitka is a port of entry in charge of a United States rev- enue officer. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED EDUCATION - PSYCHOLOGY LIBRARY This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 7 DAY USE DURING SUMMER SESSIONS FEB 1 1967 MAR 7 1 9 67 MAR 4 REC'D -10 A S EW'F^^TER LOAN PEC 19 ^^84 -St +e4t ^TT-^ OTPi lH ,fcm%\7(>'^'^'^ ?»- LD 21A-15m-4,'63 (D647l8l0)476 General Library Uaiversiry of California Berkeley YF 00745 r"-"} g?^ f^m IrX : ii*'-^ '% m '5' I' ■^