THE CONTRACTORS' 
 
 AND BUILDERS' 
 
 HANDBOOK 
 
 By 
 
 WILLIAM ARTHUR 
 
 v \ 
 Author of 
 
 "The New Building Estimator" 
 
 NEW YORK 
 DAVID WILLIAMS COMPANY 
 
 239 WEST 39-TH STREET 
 1911 
 
COPYRIGHT 1911 
 
 BY 
 DAVID WILLIAMS COMPANY 
 
 THE QUINN A 600F.N CO. PRESS 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK is divided into 
 three parts. The first deals with the Contractor as a Business 
 Man; the second, with the Contractor as a Constructor, which 
 is not a trained architect, by any means; and the third, with 
 the Contractor as a Citizen and Taxpayer. The titles of 
 the chapters show what subjects are considered to be of most 
 value to him in his \arious spheres. 
 
 The business affairs gone over in the first book have to be 
 attended to by every contractor. He has to deal witli archi- 
 tects and owners; he has to buy from supply men; to keep 
 at least some record of his work in books; and to pay for 
 insurance and bonds. After reading the part on liability in- 
 surance he is more apt than ever to attend carefully to this 
 branch, for here neglect may be ruinous, no matter how care- 
 fully other arrangements are made, and other parts of a 
 business carried through. 
 
 In the second book the contractor can find certainty, instead 
 of what he often makes guesswork, on plain construction. It 
 is written in a way to be easily understood. There are many 
 books with formulas that might as well be written in Latin 
 as English, so far as average contractors are concerned. Yet 
 such men have done a great amount of plan drawing and 
 building independent of 'an architect, and will go on doing 
 so for quite a long while to come. 
 
 It is believed that Book II is of much value to constructors 
 of this kind. It is true that we have more than 30,000 archi- 
 tects, draftsmen, and designers; but there are between 600,000 
 and 700,000 carpenters; 250,000 saw-mill, planing-mill, and 
 other wood- workers ; 17,000 masons; 40,000 plasterers; and 
 300,000 iron and steel workers. Thousands of these men make 
 plans; and probably half of the active builders do so at one 
 time or another. By following the instructions in Book II 
 they will put up at least safe buildings. The plans for the 
 artistic ones will continue to be made by the " regulars." 
 
 iii 
 
 241 309 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 The third book is given over to subjects that are specially 
 interesting to the building fraternity, and yet are of a 
 broader scope than anything dealing with strictly technical 
 work would be. 
 
 There are no men who can help to fight the terrific fire 
 waste better than builders, and it is necessary to keep them 
 acquainted with the actual situation that is a disgrace to 
 the United States. 
 
 The educational chapters will be found interesting and 
 useful. There is no good reason why the building business, 
 in one branch or another, should pay such a heavy proportion 
 of taxes and get such little recognition from the high school 
 and library authorities. 
 
 In the city of New York alone, for example, we are told in 
 The Building Age, January, 1910, that the sum of $446,428,657 
 was expended in building during four years. In the same 
 publication for February, 1910, we are informed that the total 
 figures for fifty cities for 1909 were $719,189,175. In Greater 
 New York alone the total was $272,175,754. The architects, 
 contractors, supply men, and tradesmen who handle that im- 
 mense amount of business can have any kind of schools they 
 please, if they work and fight for them as the farmers did 
 for their agricultural colleges until they had to be established. 
 
 The chapter on Big Contracts is to show that the men of 
 old were greater builders than we are. We outshine them in 
 other ways. 
 
 OMAHA, NEBRASKA, January, 1911. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 BOOK I 
 THE CONTRACTOR AS A BUSINESS MAN 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Relations Between the Contractor and the Arch- 
 itect 1 
 
 II. Relations Between the Contractor and the Owner 
 
 or Real Estate Agent 14 
 
 III. Relations Between the Contractor and Dealers, 
 
 and Subcontractors . . . . .22 
 IV. Relations Between the Contractor and His Work- 
 men 26 
 
 V. Reading Plans and Specifications . . .32 
 
 VI. The Preparation of Estimates . . . .37 
 
 VII. Building Contracts 50 
 
 VIII. Nature of Contracts 54 
 
 IX. General Contracting or Subletting . . .61 
 
 X. Method of Work 66 
 
 XI. Buying of Material 71 
 
 XII. Best Paying Work 75 
 
 XIII. Speculative Building, or Ready-Made Houses . 79 
 
 XIV. Office Equipment 82 
 
 XV. Bookkeeping . . . . . . .89 
 
 XVI. About Keeping Costs 99 
 
 XVII. Builders' Law 106 
 
 XVIII. Insurance and Bonds 138 
 
 XIX. Hand and Machine Labor . .145 
 
vi CONTENTS 
 
 BOOK II 
 THE CONTRACTOR AS A CONSTRUCTOR 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Weights, Measures, and Their Use . . .151 
 
 II. Foundations 191 
 
 III. The Superstructure ( 1 ) : Walls and Masonry . 209 
 
 IV. The Superstructure (2) : Floor Loads . . . 223 
 V. Loads upon Posts, Columns, Lintels, Rods, and 
 
 Ropes 239 
 
 VI. Concrete Forms and Work . . . .267 
 
 VII. Construction Notes from the San Francisco Fire . 298 
 
 VIII. A Short Chapter 302 
 
 BOOK III 
 THE CONTRACTOR AS A TAXPAYER 
 
 I. Fire Loss and Safe Building 305 
 
 II. Where to Locate ... .315 
 
 III. The Ideal Education for a General Contractor . 321 
 
 IV. The High Schools, Libraries, and Tradesmen . . 335 
 
 V. A Little Library 342 
 
 VI. Big Contracts 348 
 
 VII. Miscellaneous 360 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' 
 HANDBOOK 
 
 BOOK I 
 THE CONTRACTOR AS A BUSINESS MAN 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CONTRACTOR AND THE 
 ARCHITECT 
 
 In college athletics we hear frequently of team work, when 
 the men play together to the best advantage. They have to be 
 reasonably well matched. The Percheron and the thorough- 
 bred do not keep good step. 
 
 This is the difficulty with the relations of the architect and 
 the contractor, if we are to believe all we read. The one, we are 
 sometimes told, is of blooded stock, and the other is great of 
 girth and heavy of foot. According to good authority the 
 builder is " rough and materialistic." 
 
 It is clearly difficult to make such a team trot well abreast, 
 but sometimes a little give and take smooths over difficulties. 
 
 Builders should remember that the authorities in Belgium, at 
 the International Congress in 1903, defined an architect as " An 
 artist, a gentleman, and a man of affairs." Some contractors, 
 in their wrath, would occasionally demur, and say that certain 
 architects are anything but gentlemen, especially when they 
 had finished a losing contract for them. 
 
 Young Architects. One of the banes of a contractor's life 
 is the architect newly let loose from school and full of educated 
 ignorance. When the experienced architect deals with the ex- 
 perienced contractor they make about the best team that can 
 be looked for in the building line, and usually they get along 
 
2, , , CONTRACTORS' AN ^BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 wilh 'little 'fraction; 33 ut' ikh'e "young one may or may not have 
 that great gift of common sense. No one can be more merciless 
 than a theorist. Any architect, by a theoretical enforcement 
 of all the provisions of his specifications, could ruin an ordinary 
 contractor in a few jobs. 
 
 Different Tasks. An architect's business is to design a 
 building, and tell how it is to be built; a contractor's is to ex- 
 ecute the design according to the drawings and specifications. 
 The two spheres are interrelated, but different, and a special 
 training is required for each. 
 
 Flans and Plans. There is no trouble in working from the 
 plans of a good, sensible architect; there is not only trouble 
 but occasionally dismay in looking over some of the triumphs 
 of the Beaux Arts heroes. They know too much for the average 
 pocket-book, but time improves them. 
 
 The Two Kinds. The " self-made " architect is not nearly 
 so well trained as the one from the schools, but he is often more 
 human, as it were. He will admit the possibility of being mis- 
 taken; he is willing to listen to a suggestion of change for any 
 good practical reason; while the graduate would only give the 
 order, "This is the way; walk ye in it." With him there is 
 nothing to arbitrate. 
 
 Closed Shop. Contractors have to be careful how they 
 attune themselves to the men who in reality furnish them work. 
 Of the open shop the architect can easily make a closed shop 
 to the contractor by refusing to allow the latter to figure in his 
 office or, without going so far, give such short time on plans, 
 or lay down such conditions as to make a careful estimate or 
 fulfillment of a contract next to impossible. For thousands of 
 years there has been trouble on this earth, and most of it comes 
 from the abuse of power, on a large or small scale. It can be 
 exercised on the basis of an eighth of an inch to the foot, so to 
 speak, as well as full size. Architects are human. 
 
 In a large city where there are many offices this course does 
 not matter so much, but in a small town where there are only 
 a few it is in reality an exercise of the boycott or the blacklist. 
 In such cases it may be that the builder is at fault, or the 
 architect may be too domineering and exacting. 
 
 Between Two. The architect occupies a difficult position 
 in one way: he stands between the owner and the builder, and 
 while willing to do some things that the builder might desire, 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 3 
 
 is held in check by his client. For example, it is rather un- 
 pleasant for a contractor to make up an estimate and put in a 
 bid, yet never find out how his figures compare with those of his 
 competitors, at least through the medium of the architect's 
 office. The owner may want as few people as possible to know 
 what his building is going to cost. He may be afraid of the 
 assessor. As a matter of fairness, all bids should be opened 
 and read in the presence of the bidders. It is the right way 
 to do business. When a contractor finds that certain of his 
 brethren always get the best work in an architect's office he 
 should not waste his time there. Lightning does not ALWAYS 
 strike in the same place; and neither do certain men ALWAYS 
 have the lowest bids. 
 
 List of Bidders. An architect can select a list of con- 
 tractors he wishes to give him an estimate on a building, and 
 the one who puts in the lowest bid is entitled to the work. 
 Either this is true, or he should not be asked to waste his 
 time making up the figures. 
 
 Too Many. Like men in other lines, an architect has to 
 learn to say no. Some of the magazines get five thousand 
 MSS. in a year, while only about one in twenty can be 
 published. The supply outruns the demand. So with build- 
 ing contractors. Half a dozen proposals are enough on any 
 building, yet there are often a score of men who are willing 
 and anxious to estimate on the work. On account of the 
 time it would take, if for nothing else, an architect has to 
 decline to give his plans to everyone who applies for them. 
 
 Kind of Bidders. But there are other reasons for refusing 
 plans than the time one: every architect for the sake of 
 future business has to try to get contractors to do his work 
 without making trouble on account of liens, bad workman- 
 ship, high charges for extras, and disputes of one kind or 
 another. In time he weeds out those who have made him 
 trouble in the past. 
 
 An Opening. But, again, lest anyone should think that 
 there is no chance of starting in a small contracting business 
 for himself under such conditions and showing his ability 
 and worth, it should be remembered that most architects, 
 on at least fifty per cent, of their work, have clients who 
 want $1.23 worth of building for $0.99. With an owner like 
 that on one side, and an architect after his commission on 
 
4 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 the other, and both looking for a third who thinks that twice 
 two make five, there is no reason for discouragement. 
 
 No matter how obliging an architect may be he finds it 
 hard to supply this $0.99 trade; and instead of taking his 
 list of bidders who are comparatively well off", and not in- 
 clined to take contracts unless they get a reasonable price, 
 he looks around among those who are starting in business and 
 anxious to get any kind of work that offers more than 
 wages, and more anxious still to get a footing in a good 
 office. It is usually later on that they discover that twice 
 two make only four probably when a suit for personal 
 damages is started and they have no insurance. So that the 
 field is always open. 
 
 Blame. When disputes and mistakes do come up it does 
 not always pay the contractor to swallow the blame unless he 
 is clearly responsible. It is just about as well to let the 
 architect have his share and take the chance of his frown. 
 In nine cases out of ten, however, the best way for everybody 
 is to make the least of the trouble. But the poor contractor 
 should not always be obliged to pay the piper if he has not 
 ordered the dance. 
 
 The way out of mistakes is often decided by personal tem- 
 perament. In certain European countries, where the news- 
 papers are censored, there is always something appearing that 
 displeases the authorities, and rather than have their neces- 
 sary editors jailed, each office has a "jail editor," the man 
 who takes all the blame and gets the cell and the bread and 
 water. If a contractor feels like taking everything that 
 comes in this way he would probably end either in the poor 
 farm or like the old Scotchman who told his son that he 
 made his fortune, " By bowing, sir ; by bowing." 
 
 Details. One of the recurring troubles of a contractor is 
 an armful of elaborate details made out after the contract is 
 signed, sealed, and delivered. On a plan drawn to a scale 
 of one-fourth of an inch to the foot, or worse still, one-eighth, 
 a few light spider web scratches may mean $100.00 to the 
 square inch. The only right way is to give out the details 
 with the main plans when the figuring is being done, but 
 in the hurry of the owner to get his building started this is 
 often quite impossible, and the estimates must be made from 
 the regular scale drawings. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 5 
 
 Most architects are reasonable enough to understand this 
 situation, and either let stonecutters, planing-mill men, cornice 
 makers, and others know what is expected, or else give num- 
 bers in millbook, dimensions of stone, and so forth; but there 
 are also the other kind of artistic gentlemen who, for the 
 sake of enhancing their own reputation, rather like this blind- 
 fold method. After a contract is signed they give their 
 gargoyles and poppyheads, their machicolations and lacunars, 
 their deep-cut moldings and projections, their consoles and 
 entablatures, until the unfortunate contractor's head swims, 
 and he feels sick clear down to the pit of his stomach. What 
 is it but a sort of legalized robbery? 
 
 If a contractor, and especially a young one, is making an 
 estimate on a building from the usual scale drawings, he is 
 quite within his rights when he asks the architect what the 
 details are to be. No reasonable architect will refuse to give 
 information ; if one of the wrong kind should be met, the 
 best thing a contractor can do is to leave the plans behind 
 him, or else put in such a figure as to make himself safe. 
 
 It should always be remembered, however, that no verbal 
 information has any binding force after a contract is signed. 
 The plans and specifications, as interpreted by the man who 
 made them, and who ia not likely to point out his own mistakes 
 and prejudice the owner against himself, make up the final 
 authority. 
 
 Standards. Of course, on the majority of buildings the 
 details are well enough understood. If the sizes of stone 
 moldings, wood casings, cornice, and other parts of the build- 
 ing are given, the particular shape of the molding does 
 not matter so much. Any one of half a dozen styles may 
 be chosen, as the one costs no more than the other. With 
 special work it is different. 
 
 Time. In all cases an architect should give out details 
 as promptly as possible. Stone yards and planing-mills can 
 not be expected to lay aside the work they are engaged in 
 just as soon as a set of details for another building is pre- 
 sented. Each job must, as a rule, take its turn, and an 
 architect should not hinder a contractor by making it im- 
 possible for him to get his work started. 
 
 General Clauses. Another great trouble comes with the 
 specification. It is clearly impossible for an architect to 
 
6 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 specify every little item in a building, and he is often driven 
 to what the politicians call glittering generalities. " Accord- 
 ing to the satisfaction of the architect," " In a first-class 
 workmanlike manner," " Materials of the best quality," are 
 a few, and there are many others of a like nature. After 
 a time the contractors come to understand what these ex- 
 pressions mean. They are not to be literally understood, 
 but are put into the platform to catch votes. The character 
 of the office from which the specification comes has to be 
 considered, and the estimate made out to suit. But it would 
 be easy for an architect to put a stricter construction on his 
 generalities than the one understood. 
 
 A first-class quality of work in a western village or mining 
 camp would not be accepted as such in a large city; and 
 what suits in an ordinary city could not be made to pass 
 in a millionaire's palace on Fifth Avenue, New York, where 
 the masonry is as fine as that on the best government work, 
 and the woodwork has to be as good as cabinet finish. 
 
 It is clearly impossible to make any standard from such 
 clauses, and in dealing with a new architect a contractor 
 should be careful to find out just about what is expected. This 
 is especially the case with the young ones. It would be 
 ruinous to finish an ordinary building according to the method 
 of the palaces: yet if the bricklaying, stone-cutting, sand- 
 papering of the wood, and the quality of the painter's work 
 were to be carried out as some clauses in a specification, 
 rigidly interpreted, would have it done, there would be no 
 escape. " Everything in connection with the building must 
 be of the best material and workmanship." Well, what does 
 that mean? Almost anything, according to the views of the 
 architect. 
 
 What is Included. Then come the usual clauses saying 
 that the job is intended to be complete in every part, and 
 that if anything is shown on the plans, even although it is 
 not called for in the specifications, or vice versa, it must be 
 done. Coming or going the idea is to catch the contractor. 
 
 In the west, at all events, the plumbing fixtures, just to give 
 one illustration, are shown on the plan, but not included in the 
 general contractor's bid, because nothing is said about them in 
 the specification. The plumbing is let in a separate contract. 
 
 Can the general contractor be held to put in the plumbing? 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 7 
 
 Not unless it is specified. Yet the fixtures are shown clearly 
 enough. Of course the contract usually provides that the 
 contractor is to finish just such and such parts of a building, 
 and omits plumbing, heating, or any work that is let sepa- 
 rately; but if a man puts in a bid and does not clearly 
 specify what he is going to do he might get into trouble, 
 not, indeed, with such a clear case as plumbing, but with 
 some items of lower cost that might be held to belong to 
 the general contract. As will be found in a later chapter, 
 a bid is virtually a contract as soon as it is accepted. 
 
 These all-embracing clauses are necessary, in a way, be- 
 cause no man or woman can possibly specify every trifling 
 item in a building; but it is equally clear that whatever is 
 not indicated by the plan as structurally necessary should be 
 mentioned in the specification, if it amounts to anything 
 at all. 
 
 Nine times out of ten the owner will get a cheaper bid 
 if everything is clearly understood and not left to guesswork; 
 for in this case the contractor has to guess high enough to 
 protect himself. 
 
 Long Specifications. This does not mean that specifica- 
 tions a mile long should be made, for too large a volume of 
 instructions and warnings are apt to frighten bidders into 
 making higher bids than are necessary. 
 
 System. Government specifications are usually numbered 
 line by line; and an index is a valuable feature of others. 
 By these or like methods it is easy to refer to any clause 
 or subject. Ordinary architects cannot be expected to do this 
 kind of work, for they are not paid enough for it. 
 
 Precedence. The specification describes the quality of the 
 work and materials, and the sizes are given on the plans, 
 but in case of any discrepancy the former takes precedence. 
 
 Combination. Some railroads make both plans and speci- 
 fications of the drawing sheets themselves. Bills of the 
 material required are also put on in this way. When many 
 buildings are to be erected at different times and in different 
 parts of the country this is an economical way, when the 
 work is done by the company itself, as it saves a great 
 amount of labor, but the method has disadvantages. 
 
 Contracts could not be let by it, as the specification is not 
 nearly complete enough ; and it makes no allowance for 
 
8 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 improvement in building. It is too much trouble to change 
 tracings, and wood wainscoting is put on kitchens and halls 
 long years after all progressive cities have banished such 
 work from their codes, and substituted the more sanitary 
 plaster which becomes as hard as a rock; and the most ex- 
 pensive white pine is called for in an age when it has long 
 been a luxury. If a contractor runs across any sheets of 
 this kind he should be careful. What was, is not always 
 what is. 
 
 Certificate of Payment. An architect must give a con- 
 tractor a certificate of payment as the work progresses, ac- 
 cording to the contract. If he does not, the contractor may 
 sue him, or sue upon the contract. It is usually a good 
 idea for the architect and owner to make the payments as 
 large, and to turn them over as promptly, as possible to the 
 contractor, if he is reliable, and they should choose only such 
 a one to do their work. He is thus able to pay his bills and 
 do more business on a small amount of capital. But if 
 every payment is made as small as possible, and is held back 
 to the last minute, then the trouble starts for the man of 
 limited means. In other words, it pays to work with instead 
 of against the " other party to the contract." 
 
 FORM OF CERTIFICATE 
 
 Some architects have an excellent system of making out 
 their certificates of payment. They have printed forms that 
 are made out somewhat on the following lines: 
 
 OMAHA, NEB., June 8, 1910. 
 Order No. 4 on J. B. Brown, Owner. 
 
 This order certifies that J. B. Smith, contractor, is entitled to 
 $3,000.00 (three thousand dollars) on his contract with 
 J. B. Brown, for building described in Uniform Contract, 
 dated November 20, 1909. 
 
 Total amount of contract $30,000.00 
 
 Extra No. 1, Jan. 3, 1910 450.00 
 
 $30,450.00 
 Deduction No. 1, Jan. 3, 1910 . 180.00 
 
 Statement at this date $30,270.00 
 
 Total value of work in place, June 8, 1910, $20,500.00. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 DATE 
 
 No. 1, Dec. 18, 1909 
 No. 2, Jan. 8, 1910 
 No. 3, Feb. 7, 1910 
 No. 4, Mar. 1, 1910 
 No. 5, June 8, 1910 
 
 ESTIMATES RESERVE 
 
 $2,400.00 
 
 3,300.00 
 5,800.00 
 3,000.00 
 6,000.00 
 
 $240.00 
 330.00 
 580.00 
 300.00 
 600.00 
 
 AMOUNT 
 PAID 
 
 $2,160.00 
 2,970.00 
 5,220.00 
 2,700.00 
 5,400.00 
 
 Total amount paid up to June 8, 1910 
 Total balance . 
 
 $18,450.00 
 
 $11,820.00 
 
 It is a good idea to have on each estimate sheet a record 
 of all the estimates previously paid, but on some buildings 
 this might run out to too long a column. Letting the top 
 part of the foregoing form remain unchanged, a shorter one 
 might be arranged in this or some similar way: 
 
 DATE ESTIMATES RESERVE AMOUNT 
 
 PAID 
 
 Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 
 
 as dated .... $14,500.00 $1,450.00 $13,050.00 
 No. 5, June 8, 
 
 1910 6,000.00 600.00 5,400.00 
 
 Total amount paid . . 
 
 $18,450.00 
 
 Total balance $11,820.00 
 
 Each architect can work out a form for himself that may 
 suit his requirements better than the foregoing suggested 
 one. Blanks are, of course, left for names, dates, and amounts. 
 
 A receipt should also be made out and signed by the con- 
 tractor. It should run along the following lines: 
 
 OMAHA, NEB., June 8, 1910. 
 
 Received payment No. 5 of $6,000.00 (six thousand dollars) 
 from J. B. Brown, owner, for partial payment on building 
 described in Uniform Contract dated November 20, 1909. The 
 attached statement is accepted as correct at date of June 8, 
 1910. J. B. SMITH, Contractor. 
 
10 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Superintendent. When an architect has too much work 
 to attend to himself, he hires a superintendent to oversee the 
 outside part of it. The duty of the superintendent, divested 
 of all round-about palaver, is simply to see that the plans and 
 specifications are followed, and to assist in the interpretation 
 and enforcement of any matters not clearly understood or dis- 
 puted. But while he stands in the place of the architect, the 
 final appeal is to the latter. Festus may lay down the law 
 in Csesarea, but Caesar sits in Rome. 
 
 Little Caesar. In government and state work, however, 
 the superintendent has almost unlimited power. Ordinarily, 
 we cannot sue the state without the consent of the legislature, 
 and who wants to wait till it meets, even if sure of obtaining 
 consent? This means that almost everything has to be sub- 
 mitted to. Unless there is a reasonable and competent man in 
 charge this condition is apt to be at times rather annoying. 
 When he is merely elected on some political ticket the builder 
 has small chance of any relief, and his bank account suffers. 
 As the state usually makes out its own building contracts, 
 and makes them one-sided, there is no chance of arbitration 
 on any disputed question. There is nothing to arbitrate. 
 For this reason, state and government contracts should never 
 be taken at a close margin. 
 
 An Architects' Union. In 1897 there was a license law 
 for architects enacted in Illinois, and the endeavor has been 
 made to get other states to fall into line. In 1909 the builders 
 of Texas got together to oppose such a law for that state. 
 Contractors sometimes make plans themselves, and earn a 
 few dollars in that way. 
 
 An eminent writer has said that, given the proper per- 
 centage, men will commit murder for profit; and saying 
 nothing whatever of the past history of our race, but looking 
 merely at the list of 500,000 killed and mangled in the 
 United States every year, when three-fourths of the butchery 
 is unnecessary, and merely allowed to save money, we 
 are forced to conclude that the writer was not so very far 
 \vrong. 
 
 Here, then, is the core of this question. Architects do not 
 want to commit murder, but they want all the business they 
 can get, and if they can establish a " closed shop " instead 
 of the present "open shop" in most states, they will have 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 11 
 
 better chances. But that means, as a rule, that contractors 
 will have to give up their plan-drawing, or else pass the 
 examination. 
 
 There are good features in such a law, and good reasons 
 why it should pass. It would guarantee a safer class of con- 
 struction than we sometimes see. Of course safe enough con- 
 struction can be had in another way, that is, by laying down 
 such provisions in the building codes, and making such a 
 general law for the state as would embrace all towns and 
 villages that have no regulations but the will of the owner 
 or builder. This would insure good structural work, and, 
 generally speaking, the license law does not go into the 
 artistic side of architecture, but is chiefly concerned with 
 questions of strength and sanitary safeguards. If it was not 
 a matter that touched the pocketbook, there is no reason why 
 contractors should not stand in favor of such an enactment 
 in all states. They really have enough to do in their own 
 sphere without entering that of the architect. 
 
 But touch the pocketbook and you touch the heart, or 
 rather the stomach and all the auxiliary, subsidiary, and 
 accessory muscles, chords, and nerves related thereto. This 
 is why contractors oppose an architects' union. They do not 
 want to miss the chance of occasionally making a few dollars 
 themselves, and they are not to blame. Do men not commit 
 murder for money in a civilized way, of course? 
 
 Contractors have found out that dollars do not grow on 
 trees like apples. It costs $40.00 to become an architect in 
 Illinois, and an annual fee of $5.00. This would buy a 
 barrel of flour, some nice oranges, a hat with a feather in it, 
 and quite a few other little nick-nacks. These United States 
 have been built up to a considerable size without such a law, 
 and why not just proceed along the old lines? 
 
 Of course those who are practicing architecture previous 
 to the passage of such a law are allowed to continue without 
 an examination by paying $25.00. 
 
 In every county where the architect erects a building in 
 Illinois, he has to have his license recorded at the court- 
 house, and this means more fees and annoyance. It is sur- 
 prising how anxious men are for a closed shop, a monopoly. 
 
 A fine of $50.00 to $500.00 per week is the penalty for 
 drawing plans without a license in the territory already 
 
12 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 closed. Bricklayers and carpenters may be bad, but archi- 
 tects are merciless. 
 
 Of course any builder may still make plans if he puts up 
 the building himself with his force. He cannot practice 
 architecture as an architect does, however. 
 
 A union means war, in a sense. It means an organization 
 principally for the benefit of its members, and only inci- 
 dentally for the benefit of the public. All physicians have 
 unions, and so do lawyers and preachers. Certain conditions 
 must be complied with before one can practice medicine, law, 
 or preach. Rules are laid down for the members. No matter 
 how good a lawyer you may be, you cannot take cases until 
 you have been admitted to the bar, or union. Such is the 
 law, or custom. Of course professional men would like to 
 have the public believe that they are on a much higher plane 
 than mere ordinary mechanics, but the principle of their 
 union is the same as the ones we hear more about. 
 
 Incompatibility. In general, fair treatment of an archi- 
 tect or superintendent is met in a like manner. But it must 
 be remembered that there are people who can no more get 
 along well together than cat and dog. In cases of this kind 
 the best way is to conclude that in such a globe as ours, 
 about 8,000 miles in diameter and 25,000 in circumference, 
 there is vast room for growth and unlimited chances for 
 avoiding each other if we are so disposed. " It was held," 
 says a New England historian, " that persons who could not 
 get on comfortably with their neighbors should seek other 
 neighborhood." 
 
 Acceptance. It is a good idea to get a written acceptance 
 of a building from an architect. Of course the final payment 
 settles the question, but a written acceptance is sometimes 
 useful, though seldom given. 
 
 Bad Foundations. A contractor is sometimes held liable 
 if the foundations sink and the building goes to pieces. This 
 is one reason why a written acceptance is valuable. Accord- 
 ing to some of the courts a contractor should know his 
 business well enough not to build a poor foundation. See- 
 ing, however, that he does not make the plans, nor figure up 
 the weights, nor proportion the footings, his best course, 
 in doubtful cases, is to get the architect to authorize him in 
 writing or before witnesses, to go ahead with the work. In 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 13 
 
 ordinary dwellings a 17-inch base on good soil will carry 
 twice the weight that is ever likely to come upon it; but 
 some soils are so bad that they would not properly support 
 a hencoop. 
 
 Bribery. This is one subject that would be pleasanter to 
 leave untouched. Architects of a certain class are sometimes 
 bribed by contractors. From of old it has been held that a 
 man cannot touch pitch without being defiled; and neither 
 can one man bribe another without paying the penalty him- 
 self. Crime and punishment, Mr. Emerson told us, grow 
 on the same stem. If you pluck the one, the other has to 
 come with it, whether you believe it or not. The chain 
 fastened to the wrist of the slave has the other unseen end 
 linked safely around the arm of the slave owner. This is 
 the law. You might as well attempt to pull the stars from 
 above you as to try to change this law. 
 
 Once upon a time there was a golden image set up in the 
 plain of Dura, and everybody had to fall down and worship 
 it or face punishment. Our new idol now is " Business," and 
 " Success " as expressed in dollars. Success is pleasant, and it 
 it natural to work and wish for it; but if it has to be based 
 upon bribery one is better working in a ditch at ditch wages. 
 
 If you should happen to run across Everybody's Magazine 
 for October, 1907, you will find a story of charges for extras 
 that will make the most hardened contractor gasp. One of 
 the men connected with the business has since committed 
 suicide, and there have been more than one who went to the 
 next world unbidden rather than stay here and face his 
 record. 
 
 Photographs. The camera is being used by the large con- 
 struction companies more and more to keep down disputes, 
 if possible, or to make ready for them if they do come; and 
 also to show progress. On two time jobs I had a few photo- 
 graphs taken, and that settled all talk of penalty, for the 
 owners were at fault. 
 
 The contractors on the new Cook County Poor Infirmary, 
 at Oak Forest, 111., took fifteen photos, twice a month, of 
 the twenty-two buildings. They are 7" x 9", and there are 
 altogether about 350 of them, bound and ready for use or 
 reference at any time. Do not forget the photographer. He 
 may save you from architect and owner. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CONTRACTOR AND THE 
 OWNER OR REAL ESTATE AGENT 
 
 "Never build before you are five-and-f orty ; have five years 
 income in hand before you lay a brick; and always calculate 
 the expense at double the estimate." 
 
 Knowledge. The average owner does not know nearly so 
 much about building as the architect, and for this very 
 reason is occasionally harder to deal with. With an owner, 
 you may sometimes find it an easy matter to charge a tolerably 
 heavy price for an extra, while looking as innocent as possible, 
 but the rule works the other way also. You may be giving 
 A. B. C., the owner, a reasonable price and the best of work- 
 manship, but he has to take everything " upon suspicion," 
 as it were, while the architect understands the situation. 
 The owner may sometimes even believe that the two building 
 allies are in a conspiracy to divorce him from some of his 
 ready cash, when they are doing everything in their power 
 to treat him fairly. 
 
 There are many things about a building to a person un- 
 familiar with it that do not seem quite right, and yet are so. 
 I once had a man tell me that the kind of mortar he was 
 acquainted with had a white color, and while the dark stuff 
 I was using might be all right, he did not like the look of it. 
 It was good cement, and for the purpose was twice as good 
 as the lime mortar. He was getting a better job than he 
 understood. 
 
 Quality. Then, the timber may have some harmless wind 
 shakes that look rather dangerous; and an occasional soft 
 brick put in the center of a 21 -inch wall gives rise to a dread 
 that the weight above will crush it to powder; and so on in 
 many ways. 
 
 Some owners who have built have been cheated, and it is a 
 good old proverb that says, " Once bit, twice shy." 
 
 14 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 15 
 
 The dangers of inferior material and workmanship are, of 
 course, principally in the lump sum contract, and with irre- 
 sponsible contractors. If the owner takes the other kinds of 
 contract, or deals with the right man under any kind, the 
 risk is done away with. 
 
 Reasons. Both architect and contractor should explain, 
 as far as they can, why such and such qualities are used, 
 and give the reasons for a high price. Take as an illustration, 
 quarter-sawed flooring. Whether of yellow pine or oak it is 
 much higher in price than the ordinary flat-grain material, 
 but it is superior in quality. When an owner is shown that 
 the edge grain yellow pine will wear down clear to the bottom 
 without slivering, and is told of the waste necessary to man- 
 ufacture it by first quartering the log, he understands why 
 it is used and why the price is high, and is satisfied. There 
 are a score of features all through a building that may be 
 explained to an owner in this way. 
 
 Time. One of the principal troubles between a contractor 
 and an owner arises with the time taken to complete the 
 contract. The owner, once he has finally concluded to build, 
 wants his building just as soon as possible, and not un- 
 frequently a little sooner. That he himself may have let 
 months of good weather go past unused while he played see- 
 saw does not count. After the order is given he wants results. 
 He usually forgets that the contractor wants his profit at the 
 earliest possible date also, and that he has no particular 
 object in delaying work, but every incentive to complete it. 
 It sometimes happens, however, that a contractor is pushed 
 on other contracts, and has an insufficient force on the one 
 belonging to A. B. C., the unfortunate victim, in which case 
 he has just cause of complaint. 
 
 Good Construction. But every builder knows that delays, 
 unless too serious, are really to the advantage of the owner. 
 I remember going to look at a building in the city of New 
 York. A water tank had been filled on the roof when the 
 walls were green, and the structure went to pieces. When 
 story after story is added too quickly on a masonry building 
 there is no time given for the materials to get the necessary 
 bond, and the natural result follows when the load goes on 
 top of the soft mass. In many cases the green walls are 
 swung out of line through neglect of bracing, and sometimes 
 
16 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 the whole building is thrown out of plumb. The famous lean- 
 ing tower of Pisa was built plumb, but the ground yielded. 
 Our masonry will not hold together like the old kind. 
 
 No stronger buildings than the new reinforced concrete ones 
 are erected, but quite a number of them have collapsed before 
 they were finished. The usual reason was the removal of 
 the forms too soon. Concrete goes on hardening for three 
 years, but we pull out the supports in three days, and then 
 hold up our hands when the dust flies and our work falls. 
 
 All this haste does not pay an owner, but he insists upon 
 speed, and quite often the trucks are bringing in the goods to 
 overload the warehouse at the one door while the bricklayers 
 are going out the other. 
 
 She. It is the same with dwellings. In this case the 
 WOMAN is the one who is to blame. She is in a great hurry 
 to get into the new home. The one she is in may not be 
 up-to-date any more than the dress of Abraham's day would 
 be, and naturally she wants to get up with the procession. 
 It is a laudable enough feeling, but when she insists upon 
 rushing the work too much she is apt to have to pay a 
 rather heavy price in the end for the " style " we all more or 
 less like. There is no danger of collapse here, as a rule, but 
 damp is the enemy. 
 
 Time Limit. There is another kind of a time limit than 
 the one the owner likes to set. This is the one the contractor 
 should look out for. Prices rise sometimes. A few weeks or a 
 few months may make quite a difference in the cost of the 
 materials for a building. As a bid is practically a contract 
 when it is accepted, it is not well to leave it too long in the 
 hands of an owner or architect unless the bidder is sure of his 
 ground. No one should expect a bid to hold good for more than, 
 say, a month, and if a decision is not made before that time the 
 contractor should protect himself. The best and easiest way 
 is simply to set a time limit in the bid, if there is any 
 risk of a rising market. 
 
 Quality and Damp. When a contractor is behind time on 
 a dwelling house he is really adding to its value. Before 
 plastering he is giving the timbers time to dry, and after 
 all we have discovered with our dry kilns and so forth, there 
 is nothing that equals air-dried lumber. When every joist 
 is green the trouble comes when the heat is turned on for 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 17 
 
 the first winter. Contractors have seen the shrinkage scores 
 of times. The joists shrink, the plaster cracks, and if the 
 wall paper is on that cracks also, an opening appears at the 
 base, and the joints of the woodwork open. It is provoking, 
 but green lumber and not the contractor is to blame. If it 
 is said that he should buy only seasoned stuff, he might 
 reply that it would be well to put this down in the specifica- 
 tion. It is often found there, but everyone understands that 
 if this provision were really enforced a much higher price 
 would have to be paid for the lumber in a building. In rush 
 seasons buildings often have to be held waiting for lum- 
 ber. It comes soaking, and it is a case of take it or 
 let the building stand. If the dry lumber clause were put 
 in all specifications and rigidly enforced, the cost would soar 
 in quite a few dwellings. The next best thing to do is to let 
 the air get a chance of doing its old-time beneficent work. 
 
 Yet the WOMAN keeps hammering away at the contractor 
 to get the plaster on, and the wood finish on that as quickly 
 as possible. The plaster should be bone-dry before the finish 
 is put on. Millwork and hardwood floors are often ruined 
 beyond hope of repair when laid in a damp building. Fine 
 millwork absolutely will not hold together when put on 
 damp walls. The contractor is not to blame when he refuses 
 to put it on. It comes out of a dry kiln in the first place, 
 and a warm mill in the next, and the change is too great. The 
 enemy is not cold air, but dampness. 
 
 Strict Construction Versus Equity. The question of time 
 causes endless friction and petty quarreling between the 
 owner and the contractor. Of course, the contractor should 
 not sign time contracts that are too limited, but when a 
 man has a wife and ten children depending upon him he has 
 to shut his eyes and gulp down many other things besides 
 the raw oysters that his soul loves. 
 
 Technically, legally, the owner is right and the contractor 
 wrong in this matter of building, sadly behind time set for 
 completion; looked at in the broader sense, with an eye to 
 the structure as a permanent and expensive investment, the 
 contractor is really doing the owner a service. It takes time 
 to season lumber and make good workmanship. 
 
 Payments. When an owner pays a certain proportion of 
 his contract price, he understands and the contractor under- 
 
18 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 stands, that the right proportion of the money is to be turned 
 over to the supply men and subcontractors. To take the 
 money given by one owner to pay bills for the work of someone 
 else is, generally speaking, dishonest. A strict mathematical 
 line cannot be always drawn in the matter, for there are 
 occasions when a temporary shortage will justify the con- 
 tractor in making Peter pay Paul; but Peter does not want 
 it done in that way. He likes to have his own bills paid 
 with his own money. 
 
 Payment for Extras. In most cases it is best to decide the 
 price of extras before going ahead, and to get a written order 
 for them. The amount settled on should be paid for in full 
 as soon as the work is done, or at the first payment on the 
 main contract afterwards. There is no reason for reserving 
 ten or fifteen per cent, on extras. The owner is safe 
 enough with this reserve on the original amount of the 
 contract. 
 
 It is bad practice to put off the settlement for all extras 
 until the completion of the building. This course often means 
 a fight. With the ten or fifteen per cent, reserve in the 
 hands of the owner, the contractor is at a disadvantage. A 
 quarrel over a fifty dollar extra might give an owner who 
 wanted an excuse the chance of delaying a settlement for 
 years. As things are now in most states a court fight carried 
 to the limit means several years. Extras should, if possible, 
 be settled upon before execution. " Short accounts make 
 long friends." 
 
 Keys. Some of our church friends have a good deal to say 
 about " the po\ver of the keys." Contractors also have their 
 key disputes. Is it legal to hold the keys and refuse ad- 
 mission to the building until the last payment is turned over 
 or arrangements made for it? The general conclusion is that 
 this should be done only as a last resort. 
 
 I once tried the key method on a bank building, under 
 dire threats of some subcontractors who had part of a balance 
 of about $18,000 coming to them. The bankers, who knew 
 of other tricks than those relating to discount and interest, 
 wrote to the hardware firm and got duplicates, moved over 
 their bullion, notes, and wastepaper baskets, and one morning 
 when I went down to keep watch and ward, I found the front 
 door open and the bank doing business, not at the same old 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 19 
 
 stand, but at the new one. The payment was made shortly 
 afterwards without any trouble. After all, there are better 
 methods than the one that relies on the " power of the 
 keys." 
 
 Borrowing. But it should also be remembered that many 
 a contractor has been put out of business by an unscrupulous 
 owner who got into the building and then told him to go 
 ahead and sue, or file a lien, or do anything else he pleased. 
 A lien would draw interest at, say, seven per cent., and 
 probably having already borrowed all that the building would 
 stand, the owner made up another loan from the builder. 
 With the delays possible in our " technicality " courts, it 
 often takes years to get a decision, and in the meantime 
 the builder may be seriously embarrassed, for it is not always 
 possible to borrow money on the security of a lien. It is 
 sometimes impossible to do so on government bonds. 
 
 Security. Herein is a strange anomaly: The owner asks 
 the builder for a large bond, yet the latter may have the 
 more property of the two; why should he not get a bond 
 in return that the owner would pay the amount of the contract 
 as agreed? It may be said that the building is security, but 
 so are the buildings that the contractor owns on his side of 
 the question; and besides, what use has a contractor for a 
 church, a hospital, or a large dwelling? The storekeeper may 
 have many suits of clothes in his window, but if he sells 
 none he has to go out of business. A contractor's business 
 is to build houses usually for others. 
 
 When a builder has any doubt about the ability of an 
 owner to pay as agreed upon, he should ask that the money 
 be deposited in a bank, subject to the certificates of the 
 architect, or have some such arrangement for certainty of 
 payment as the work progresses. There is no sense in going 
 into trouble with open eyes. 
 
 Public Work. When the public is the owner, as in gov- 
 ernment, state, county, and municipal work, payment is gen- 
 erally sure, but in some cases it is a long while in coming. 
 Contractors should inquire if the warrants given are accepted 
 on a cash basis at face value. A lien cannot be put on 
 public work. 
 
 Commission. When we come to the real estate man aa 
 an agent of the owner there arises another little complication. 
 
20 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 A percentage is expected on all work done. This is legal 
 enough and proper enough under certain conditions. 
 
 When our western boom burst in the nineties I went to a 
 large city and opened a jobbing shop. A real estate man 
 gave me a small piece of work as a starter, with a promise 
 of more. The whole thing ran to only a few dollars, and 
 when the bill was presented, he told me that I had forgotten 
 his commission of ten per cent. I began to write it at the 
 foot of the bill when he stopped proceedings, and said that 
 he did not want it that way, but added to each item so that 
 his name and commission would not appear at all. I refused 
 to so arrange it, and that ended my dealings with him and 
 also all prospect of work among his class. 
 
 Since then I have been shown printed rules of a real estate 
 exchange governing the conduct of the members, and the 
 ten per cent, commission is there. Why not? Whether the 
 agents get ten per cent, or twenty per cent, is a matter for 
 them and the owners to decide. This charge is, of course, 
 in addition to their regular charge for taking care of the 
 property and drawing the rentals. If the owner is willing 
 to pay it, the percentage is just as legitimate as the other 
 one charged for selling the property. 
 
 But if the commission is proper, why is it not put in the 
 bill the same as any other item? Why leave that particular 
 one to an understanding between the agent and the con- 
 tractor? W T hy hide it? Where does the owner come in, 
 except as to paying the bill? 
 
 A contractor in making out bills of this kind should either 
 mark down this percentage the same as anything else, or try 
 some other work for a living. He is making it more difficult 
 for every honest contractor to do business. 
 
 It must sometimes amount to so much as to make a plain 
 statement look a little off color. The jobbing contractor has 
 often to do so much for ten per cent, himself that it may 
 seem a little unreasonable to both him and the owner to 
 turn over a like amount to the agent for doing practically 
 nothing, but if both the others are agreeable that settles the 
 matter for the contractor. It is none of his business. His 
 part in it is merely to add the commission in plain black 
 figures at the foot of the bill, coupled with the name of the 
 happy man who gets it. In remodeling and heavy repair 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 21 
 
 work all we can do is to extend our congratulations to the 
 much abused middle man. Here, if nowhere else, " he gets 
 what is coming to him." 
 
 Temperament. In public work one has to be careful of 
 the kind of men he is going to deal with. Some of them are 
 elected for only short periods and are so filled up with a sense 
 of their greatness that they can feel the earth tremble as 
 they walk. Not a few contractors have gone to figure work 
 of this kind, and after " sizing up " the situation have re- 
 frained from putting in a bid. If on state work, you cannot 
 sue and have to swallow whatever comes along. It is well, 
 therefore, to find out before going ahead whether you must 
 deal with reasonable men or with little czars. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CONTRACTOR AND 
 DEALERS, AND SUBCONTRACTORS 
 
 Change of Front. When you give a man power you soon 
 find out what he is made of. When dealing with an architect 
 or an owner the contractor has had to be reasonable, because 
 the power lies with those who give him orders and pay him 
 for his work. With the supply men and subcontractors he 
 is on another footing. He is now a man to be handled with 
 gloves. 
 
 Try, Try Again. Some general contractors have acquired 
 the habit of thinking that a subcontractor's time belongs to 
 them. W 7 hen an architect keeps them figuring for a long 
 period without results, and they instinctively know that 
 something is wrong, they see the injustice of the situation; 
 but when they take a subcontractor's or supply man's bid, 
 make up their totals, get the contract, and refuse to turn 
 over the share of it that morally belongs to those who have 
 given them figures, the status seems to be changed. The 
 right kind of contractors do not do this, but some wax rich 
 on the practice. Fair treatment pays in the long run. 
 What is known as " peddling of bids " does not pay, except 
 in money quite often. 
 
 Fairness. After a contract has been let on the basis of 
 the accepted figures of supply men and subcontractors, a 
 general contractor has, in a sense, no moral right over this 
 part of the work. Of course he is right in demanding security, 
 if he wishes, that the others shall be able to deliver their 
 part of the work; but that being understood, he is morally 
 held to give it to them without deduction from their figures, 
 except that he may ask them to cut off something from their 
 total if he has had to reduce his own. But in no case are 
 they obliged to do this. He should first get their permission 
 before doing any cutting. 
 
 22 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 23 
 
 In some cases the actual figures do not always decide which 
 man is entitled to the work, but in most they do. There 
 may be other reasons. Properly, however, the time to find 
 but those other reasons is when making up the total of a 
 general proposal. It might be found out, for example, that 
 some subcontractor had quarreled with the owner, and that 
 the latter \vould not allow him to lift a hand on another 
 of his buildings, or that the subcontractor's son had eloped 
 with and married the owner's daughter, and that her father 
 " had it in " for anyone of the other family. Why should a 
 general contractor put his head in a hornets' nest? In some 
 cases his wise course is to go to the subcontractor and tell 
 him that in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred they stood 
 together, one and indivisible, but in this particular case he 
 had to refuse to run the risk. 
 
 Written Bids. All subcontractors should give written bids 
 to the general contractor, and they should be made out " in 
 accordance with the plans and specifications." Otherwise a 
 subcontractor might say that he did not include this, that, 
 or the other item that a general contractor has to be re- 
 sponsible for. Some subcontractors seem to think that there 
 is a hoodoo in pen and ink. 
 
 Payments. Supply men are usually rich enough to lie 
 out of their money for a longer time than subcontractors, 
 who, as a rule, require their share as soon as the owner gives 
 the total of the architect's order to the general contractor. 
 This does not mean that the supply men should not get 
 whatever they are entitled to as well as anybody else, for 
 they should, but merely that they are better able to stand 
 any delay than the ordinary subcontractor. 
 
 An Example. One of the leading business men of Chicago, 
 who told the story of his rise from a $65 start to handling 
 a large annual trade, let us know one of his favorite methods 
 of getting ahead. It was to keep the big supply men in his 
 debt, and thus to make them as eager to see him forge to the 
 front as he was himself. They wanted their money. 
 
 This plan will work when only a few try it, but suppose 
 everybody fell into line, what kind of a condition would it 
 soon bring about in the business world? It would really be 
 doing business on someone else's money. But if enough sup- 
 plies were sold to justify it, many a rich dealer would be 
 
24 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 well enough pleased with the arrangement, as the wholesalers 
 were in the case above. 
 
 One or Many? Perhaps a hint may be had as to one way 
 of succeeding in contracting from the method of the Chicago 
 business man. He interested the wholesalers in his success; 
 and if the general contractor can interest all of the sub- 
 contractors by some method by which their pocketbook would 
 not suffer, he might obtain a force that would push him 
 forward. Here comes up the question discussed in another 
 chapter as to whether it is best to do all the work in a contract 
 oneself, and thus cut off every profit, according to the Stand- 
 ard Oil method, or spread it out and interest others in one's 
 success. 
 
 Borrowing Money. Does a banker come under the head 
 of a supply man? In a book of this kind that seems to be 
 his proper place if we are to recognize him at all. He 
 supplies money. 
 
 A great American orator once said that no business can 
 continue to pay ten per cent, on borrowed money and live. 
 It is, therefore, not considered wise to borrow too often at 
 this rate. 
 
 There are some who never borrow, like the Frenchman in 
 the novel. He paid cash for everything and kept his head 
 straight. But some troubles came up that threatened to 
 conquer him, and he went to the banker for a loan. That 
 awakened suspicion at once. His principle of never borrow- 
 ing was well understood, and the banker correctly reasoned 
 that there was something seriously wrong when he wanted it. 
 The loan was refused, and the blow fell. 
 
 I have read of others who, understanding this principle well 
 enough, borrow from the bank when they do not require 
 money, pay promptly, in order to make a reputation for 
 themselves, and in case of a crisis they thus get a heavier 
 loan than they are really entitled to. This is not dealing 
 altogether fairly with the banker. If everybody else played 
 a game of deceit the business world would not hold together. 
 The banker has to rely upon the honesty of his customers 
 as well as they have to rely upon his when they intrust him 
 with their money, and things would move smoother all around 
 if we exacted about the same fair dealing from ourselves as 
 we demand from him. Many a man holds up his hands in 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 25 
 
 astonishment on reading of a dishonest banker who himself 
 has been practically lying to that same banker for years. 
 
 The best principle would seem to be to borrow when you 
 really want the money, and be honest with the man who holds 
 about the most responsible position in our modern life. A 
 bank failure can wreck things in general quicker than any- 
 thing else short of a cyclone or earthquake. 
 
 Like to Like. The relation between the contractor and his 
 subordinate tradesmen and dealers are not nearly so formal 
 and hidebound as those between him and the architect, the 
 superintendent, or the owner. They are all birds of a feather 
 in this combination. 
 
 Uusually there are no contracts between the lumbermen, 
 millmen, and other dealers, and the general contractor. The 
 figures, often verbally given, are held to be sufficient for him. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CONTRACTOR AND 
 HIS WORKMEN 
 
 Courtesy. The Chicago merchant alluded to in the last 
 chapter says, with respect to the handling of men, that we 
 hear so much about, " I treat all my employees with respect. 
 I believe in hiring good help and paying good salaries. As 
 I walk through the different departments in my store my 
 employees do not have to feel that they must brace up because 
 the boss is coming around. They would far rather have me 
 at home than abroad. I tell every man at the head of a 
 department, ' Be kind to the help under you. Do not speak 
 to them in any other way than I speak to you. Handle your 
 help so that they will respect you, and so that they will 
 regret your leaving my employ.' " 
 
 Captain " Bill " Jones was Carnegie's best superintendent, 
 and had thousands of men under him. With his experience 
 for a guide, he said, " All haughty and disdainful treatment 
 
 of men has a bad effect upon them " since they are men 
 
 and not dogs, presumably. 
 
 One railroad man, whose books are known all over the 
 world, said that there is one true test by which you can tell 
 a gentleman, and that is the way he treats those under him. 
 
 Now all this seems to be so reasonable that it would not 
 be necessary to add more but for the fact that another method 
 of treatment is getting to be somewhat too popular. It is 
 the domineering kind, ending in strikes, quarreling, and 
 general disorganization which, in the long run, is rather 
 severe on the pocketbook. 
 
 The Other Way. For example, one writer says about 
 handling men in engineering and building work, " It requires 
 the same severity of discipline, the same show of harsh ex- 
 terior, the same proneness to find fault rather than praise, 
 in order to spur every man to action, as it does to spur the 
 laborers under them to action." 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 27 
 
 1 do not believe tMs tyrannical course is necessary. A dis- 
 gusting, discouraging fault-finding should be looked upon 
 rather as an evidence of weakness and incompetency in the 
 man at the end of the whiplet. Too many men have suc- 
 ceeded, in all lines and scales of business, the other way to 
 make any doubt possible on this point. 
 
 Waste. What is the object of all this slave-driving policy, 
 this ferocity of production? More wealth added to the public 
 pile? Yet the incompetent management of industry is such 
 now that in a single average year there are unnecessary fires 
 enough to destroy one-third of all we build, when the other 
 consequent totals of waste are added to the fire loss proper. 
 The severity, and harsh exteriors, and fault-finding are not 
 required so much for workingmen to-day as for so-called 
 " business men," who are responsible for this delirium of 
 waste. 
 
 This fire bill is only one item of our national waste that is 
 so great that some able men say that one-half of our effort 
 might as well be considered lost. What is the use of pro- 
 ducing more merely to destroy it? Yet we have the Legree 
 type who seem to think that the whip is the only weapon 
 that keeps a manual worker at his task. No wonder there 
 are strikes all over the land. 
 
 Manhood. One of the first things that all should under- 
 stand is that the American republic is founded upon the theory 
 that men are capable of governing themselves. This was a 
 startling departure from the old system which, in many Euro- 
 pean countries, classified them as subjects fit only to be gov- 
 erned from above. There are some who sneer at this idea in 
 the business world, but even in their pride of place they should 
 remember that the republic they live in is founded upon pre- 
 cisely this theory that the common man is better fitted, taken 
 all in all, for running this government than the trained states- 
 men of the old style who used their power generally for 
 their own selfish advantage. 
 
 A Contrast. Having quoted what might be called the 
 American system as set forth by the Chicago merchant, it is 
 but right that we should go to this same city for what, 
 according to temperament, might be called poison or antidote. 
 This is a fight thousands of years old, and not a mere 
 temporary local question. As such it is worth some attention. 
 
28 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 To set the other view in contrast some extracts from a 
 Chicago publication are here given: 
 
 " The majority of common laborers are like overgrown 
 babies. . . . Minor cases of injustice may occur, but it is a 
 free country. Aggrieved men have always the privilege of 
 quitting." 
 
 Yet the republic itself must be governed by the " overgrown 
 babies." It is not free as yet, in many ways, and an arrogant 
 invitation to anyone to quit will not have a tendency to 
 improve either man or country. 
 
 " A first-class foreman is generally ' Mr.' to his men. The 
 feeling of the men may be one of respect, but it is certainly 
 not love. . . . Good foremen are as scarce as hens' teeth, 
 and it is unfortunate that the majority come from walks of 
 life that forbid any intimacy or great show of friendliness 
 on the part of their employer. Few of them are strong- 
 headed enough to stand it. It is a fact that a foreman is 
 seldom worth his salt after the second job. ... A foreman 
 should be spoken to only twice if he is not giving satisfaction. 
 The second reproof to be in the form of an invitation to 
 ' come to the office.' " 
 
 Now, the " name " business does not seem to cut much 
 figure in some cases. " Bill " Jones got results and also 
 " Charlie " Schwab. Yet many a " Mr." is an expensive 
 luxury. He is so impressed with a sense of his own im- 
 portance that he is not good for much else than strutting. 
 After a long experience in building I am forced to admit that 
 the " front " name is more popular than the frilled one, yet 
 the masonry and woodwork go into place quicker than they 
 do on not a few structures where all the formalities are 
 observed in a style that would delight Alphonse Gaston, 
 Esquire. 
 
 The personal, friendly element does count for quite a good 
 deal, and while a man may keep up on a pedestal and aloof 
 from those under him if he chooses, that is not a sign of 
 pre-eminent ability, but often of mere snobbery and educated 
 ignorance. Abraham Lincoln did not fear contact with ordi- 
 nary mortals. 
 
 Two of Mr. Carnegie's managers, Mr. Schwab and Mr. 
 Corey, illustrated, according to a magazine writer, the two 
 different systems. Mr. Schwab was magnetic, and much of 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 29 
 
 his success was owing to his personal acquaintance with the 
 men whom he knew as Tom or Jim, as the case might be, 
 and who dreadful thought! spoke of him as "Charlie." 
 Mr. Corey followed the other method of close analysis of 
 costs, and men were to him No. 124, or 2546. Each was 
 successful, but which represented the highest ideal in a 
 republic? Does it need Mr. Carlyle to tell you once more 
 that the civilization never yet endured which was based on 
 the idea of so much money on Saturday night, and hand- 
 washing afterwards? 
 
 The old European idea was that statesmen were hard to 
 find, but the American republic provided millions of them. 
 The old idea is that foremen are hard to find also, but this 
 is only one more decaying superstition. 
 
 Which. You have now been given the two theories of 
 "handling men," and this, in the often quoted phrase, being 
 a free country, you can choose whichever you like best. 
 The severe one is apt to have more strikes in its train, and 
 to cost more money. After all, men are human, and cannot 
 be dealt with like commodities. 
 
 Engineer Folly. Somehow or other, an unusually large 
 proportion of engineers proceed on the domineering plan. 
 Perhaps it is because of handling so many men on earthwork, 
 sewers, railroads, and such heavy undertakings that they take 
 the Asiatic instead of the American view of industry. Of 
 late years southern Europe and Japan have sent us shiploads 
 of what some call undesirable citizens, and it may be that the 
 tripod men have come to believe that all manual workers are 
 of the same caste; but most of what they hold as to the 
 value of harsh treatment will never succeed with American 
 tradesmen on buildings. 
 
 Day's Work. It should be understood that this better 
 method of treatment does not mean that men should be 
 allowed to loaf and neglect their work. I do not believe 
 in that kind of friendliness. I compiled "The New Building 
 Estimator " for the express purpose of keeping track of 
 the amount of work a man should do in a day on a 
 building. All that is meant is that a good day's work 
 may be had from a man even if you treat him as a fellow 
 "human," and not so much in the No. X 546, Shelf 24 
 style. 
 
30 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Wages. In several cities there have been strong objections 
 made to the payment of wages in checks by tradesmen, in 
 the first place, and also by others not directly affected. The 
 Chicago Federation of Labor has asked for payment in money, 
 and so have many other bodies. 
 
 In many ways this is the easiest method for the contractor, 
 and also the safest, in that it gives him a record of payment 
 to each man, in addition to whatever other entries he may 
 have in his books. He gets his own payment in checks, 
 and he is but giving to his men what he gets on a larger 
 scale from the owner. This seems fair enough but he can 
 bank in the middle of the day, and on any day of the week. 
 
 The trouble comes for a workman when he tries to get his 
 check cashed. All merchants do not care to take them, and 
 cannot afford to keep cash enough on hand to do so, as there 
 are still a few burglars in the land, and the bank balance 
 may be low. The banks, even if open on a Saturday afternoon, 
 are probably distant from the building. Savings banks take 
 care of this trade by usually keeping open when the other 
 banks are closed, but when a man is working on the outskirts 
 of a city he does not feel like using up part of the only 
 afternoon in the week he has for himself, and he becomes 
 dissatisfied with the arrangement. 
 
 The best way seems to be payment on the job in cash. The 
 unions have properly settled the place of payment as the 
 building upon which the men are working, but still accept 
 checks. 
 
 Robbery. Of course, there is the danger that a contractor 
 may be robbed of his cash between the bank and the buildings. 
 There is an insurance company which sells insurance against 
 this danger, but by the time a contractor insures everything, 
 it costs, in the phrase of some of them, " like the Sam Hill." 
 With man}*" of them thie profits are not any too great as it is. 
 
 Saloons. The saloon men are always ready to cash checks 
 in their headquarters. This is one reason why so many 
 object to such system of payment. They very properly do 
 not want to go near saloons, and still less buy the goods, 
 which is, of course, expected when the checks are cashed. 
 Employers might easily arrange this matter. Some of them 
 pay cash in the saloon itself. It is a good way for a con- 
 tractor to advertise his own cheapness. Liquor is frowned 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 31 
 
 upon by too many railroads and large corporations in this 
 electric age to make it safe to tamper with, unless a man 
 is catering to the saloon and brewery trade, and wants to 
 put up their buildings. 
 
 Weekly Pay-day. In cities this is firmly established, but 
 in some country districts payment is made only once in two 
 weeks. The weekly 'pay-day is better in the building trades 
 whatever it may be in some others. 
 
 If a subcontractor, for example, objects to a general con- 
 tractor keeping back his share of the estimate, and thus 
 doing business on money not his own, the same man should 
 see that if he keeps back the whole pay-roll more than a week, 
 he also is working with money that belongs to others. 
 
 Large corporations pay their employees only once a month, 
 and the arrangement is suitable enough, but when they 
 employ building tradesmen they usually have to follow the 
 weekly custom. 
 
 Profit Sharing. There are some manufactories which carry 
 out a system of profit sharing with good effect, but it does 
 not have much of a foothold in the building trades. Men 
 change too frequently from one employer to another to make 
 it work. 
 
 It is rather an interesting fact, however, that Leclaire, the 
 founder of the profit sharing system, was a house painter. He 
 made it work well. Possibly not by " firing " men so much 
 for a slight fault as by handling them in the better way 
 that makes firing often unnecessary. 
 
 Waste. There are men who never seem to care whether 
 they use the right kind of material or not. If they want a 
 small stone they cut a large one to suit; and a long timber 
 is easily made a shorter one. They should be watched. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 BEADING PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS 
 
 " Let a man learn as early as possible honestly to confess 
 his ignorance, and he will be a gainer by it in the long run; 
 otherwise the trick by which he veils it from others may 
 become a habit by which he conceals it from himself." On 
 Self-Culture. 
 
 By Doing. " Reading and writing come by nature," was 
 the saying of the man m the play who did not know how to do 
 either. They do no come in this way, as our teeth do, 
 but they can be learned. There are various ways of learning 
 them. 
 
 An American statesman told his countrymen, with respect 
 to the resumption of specie payments, that the way to resume 
 was just to resume. So we might say that the way to read 
 plans is just to read them. When this is sufficient, why 
 read page after page of instructions? I found the method 
 to work in my case why not in yours? 
 
 If you want to learn to swim, do you stay in your room 
 and read books about this art which " once learned is never 
 forgotten ? " No ; you go into the w r ater and strike out for 
 yourself, less gracefully than an ordinary everyday, vulgar 
 little frog, it is true, or a dog, a horse, or even a cat, but 
 nevertheless you DO strike out, and in time you come to 
 trust the water and yourself. 
 
 Stickability. We hear a good deal about ability, and we 
 should like to possess it, but not so much about stickability, 
 which we may all have to a greater or less extent. 
 
 Once about thirty of us were gathered in a class to learn 
 shorthand, less well known before the age of the typewriter 
 than now. We listened to a plain, straight-from-the-shoulder 
 talk from an enthusiastic teacher. He gave us a message of 
 encouragement, which is about the only kind that is worth 
 anything at all for those who are trying to learn, and far 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 33 
 
 ahead of severity and harshness. He said that there were 
 three styles taught, and his plan was to plunge his students 
 into the reporting or highest style and be done with it. As 
 the greater always included the less, so this style carried with 
 it a knowledge of the baby versions. 
 
 This made us swell our chests and feel like writing a hun- 
 dred words a minute before we had seen the first stroke. 
 If only two of us ever kept up our studies long enough to 
 make a workable success of the art, it was not the want of 
 ability on the part of the others, but of stickability alone. 
 It is pleasant and easy to write this book by the system 
 I learned as a boy. 
 
 Attacking Plans. So with respect to reading plans and 
 specifications, all I have to give to any novice is a message 
 of encouragement, and to tell him not to be afraid of actual 
 plans which are as easily read as any baby versions of them 
 are, all coupled with the advice to cultivate stickability, and 
 not be afraid to show ignorance by asking questions. An 
 architect or builder of any account will be glad to explain 
 difficulties. If he refuses, the reflection is on his character 
 and not on that of the inquirer. 
 
 Li Hung Chang was a famous statesman as far back as the 
 time when General Grant visited China; and later on when 
 he came to this country and saw Grant's tomb he distin- 
 guished himself chiefly by asking questions. 
 
 It is a sure way to gain information of some kind, and that 
 is something we all need, for if Mr. Edison, the famous 
 electrician and poured-cement house man can say that, accord- 
 ing to his opinion, we really know just about one-billionth 
 part of one per cent, about anything, then ordinary people 
 need not be ashamed to ask the better informed for enlight- 
 enment. If the first question does not bring the desired in- 
 formation, succeeding ones will, for in desperation the busiest 
 man will either " fire " you or answer to get rid of an 
 interrogation point. 
 
 Breaking Rules. " How are you going to find out what 
 the rules of the House of Commons are ? " asked a follower of 
 Mr. Parnell w r hen the latter was engaged in his stormy work. 
 " By breaking them," was the answer. That is also a certain 
 way of finding out an architect's rules. 
 
 Among the first plans I worked from, there was Tr shown 
 
34 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 after all the door sizes on the second floor plan. I did not 
 know then that this meant Transom; and the partitions were 
 finished and plastered before the error was discovered. I 
 broke the rules, was shown my mistake, and paid for it by 
 getting my hair and lungs filled with plaster and plaster dust 
 in making things right. It is a sure method, but sometimes 
 an expensive and inconvenient one. After that I always 
 watched carefully for Tr. It was to me more important than 
 the Mr. alluded to in the last chapter. Plaster dust is 
 disagreeable. 
 
 Anyone. There is no carpenter, bricklayer, plasterer, 
 plumber, teamster, or man with the hoe who may not, if he 
 pleases, learn to read plans as easily as he reads a newspaper 
 or this book. The creation of plan readers may be difficult 
 in Asia, under the old beliefs, but not in the United States 
 now. There is nothing mysterious about the work, and there 
 is no sense in trying to make it appear so. It is a message 
 of encouragement that this chapter brings, an order to attack 
 what might be termed the " reporting style " of the plan 
 business by reading all the actual plans one comes across 
 and scores of others in the trade papers, until the work 
 becomes as easy as laying brick or driving a nail. One of the 
 best ways also is to make plans oneself, no matter how rough 
 they are at first. The REASONS for the RULES unfold them- 
 selves as the work proceeds. 
 
 Advantage. It should be remembered, too, that tradesmen, 
 in general, have a clear advantage over draftsmen. There 
 are many of them so unacquainted with the manner of putting 
 a building together that they work half by guess and half 
 by knowledge. The tradesman does the actual work and 
 knows why such and such details are used, and why the 
 construction has to follow certain lines. 
 
 Trade Papers. One of the best ways of learning how to 
 read plans is to take a good trade paper. Almost every 
 number of some of them contains house plans, elevations, 
 sections, and details, and by careful and constant study, any 
 tradesman can master plan reading in this way quicker than 
 he can by taking time to go through long-winded instructions 
 about something that, with practice, is as easy as reading 
 ordinary print. As with everything else, practice is necessary 
 until a workable perfection has been attained, and once this 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 35 
 
 point is reached, the art of plan reading stays with its 
 owner. 
 
 Of course a contractor pays men to do a certain amount 
 of work, and cannot afford to have them pass their time read- 
 ing plans in working hours, but the trade papers give every 
 opportunity for exercising in this art in the evenings. The 
 man who understands plans is undoubtedly of more value to 
 a contractor than the one who does not. 
 
 A Few Hints. The plan gives the size of rooms, the thick- 
 ness of walls, and shows if they are solid or hollow on a 
 masonry building, indicates the position of the chimneys, 
 ordinary openings, sliding-doors, and French windows; shows 
 the distance and size of piers, and marks with dots what is 
 either above or below the floor line, as girders below, and 
 brackets or overhanging cornice above, when necessary to 
 show this. This dotted work in the case of beamed ceilings 
 may be very expensive, and has to be watched. 
 
 Stairs that meet on the plan are broken off, and an arrow 
 used to show which goes up and which down, and as there 
 are a few architects who do not know how many risers it 
 takes to give headroom, a contractor has to watch the stair 
 arrangement, for changes that cost money, are sometimes 
 necessary on this account. 
 
 Soil-pipes are dotted in below the basement floor, and 
 drains from the downspout to the street or cistern. It is 
 important that the contractor should see how deep these have 
 to be. 
 
 Roofs. The roof plan is sometimes given on ordinary 
 houses, and must be in large ones. A common method is to 
 dot it in on the second floor or attic plan. 
 
 Elevations. The elevations give a picture of the building 
 based on the supposition that the eye is always on a level 
 with every part shown. It is thus different from a per- 
 spective, which should be the same as a photograph. There 
 are often not more than two elevations given. 
 
 Sections. In order to understand these drawings it is 
 necessary to see on what line the section is taken on the plan. 
 All heights of stories, window-sills, spacing of joists, bridging, 
 thickness of walls, position of girders, and everything that 
 can be seen by supposing a great knife to be slashed down 
 through the house as through a cheese from ridge to the 
 
36 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 footings is shown. The sectional drawings often require 
 more attention than either the elevations or plans, which 
 are usually self-explaining. 
 
 Details. These drawings are so much larger than the 
 others that their meaning can scarcely be misinterpreted. 
 In some cases, as for stonework or millwork, they are made 
 full size. 
 
 Scales. I worked for several years making plans for 
 buildings mostly on a scale of one-eighth of an inch to the 
 foot; and some of one-sixteenth on account of size*. It would 
 have been impossible to use a scale of one-quarter inch, for 
 this would have made a sheet in some cases ten feet long, 
 and it was considered best not to break the drawings. But 
 for buildings of ordinary size a scale of one-quarter inch 
 should be used. It is unfair to contractors to make them 
 puzzle over hair lines on an eighth scale if one twice the 
 size can be used. 
 
 Specifications. The old proverb says that familiarity 
 breeds contempt, but it is not wise for a contractor to become 
 so familiar with specifications that he neglects to read them 
 carefully. After I had read so many that the sight of one 
 was wearying to the eyes, I once overlooked a few words as 
 to the quality of flooring in a six-story building, and the 
 bill came to about $150. The plan deals with sizes, but the 
 specification tells of quality. So far as the plan is concerned 
 one does not usually find out if the inside finish is to be 
 yellow pine or mahogany. A single sentence may make a 
 difference of $1,000. Therefore, do not neglect to read all 
 that your friend, the architect, says to you. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 THE PREPARATION OF ESTIMATES 
 
 Architect's Scale. Before taking off any quantities from 
 the plan every contractor should get what few of them have 
 an architect's scale. This is a better instrument for the 
 work than a two-foot rule. The figures are all marked, ready 
 for use, and there is no necessity for multiplying 111/4x4 
 to find that the total is 45 ft. on a quarter-inch scale. 
 
 A plain boxwood scale costs about 90 cents at an ordinary 
 store, but the mail order houses charge only about half that 
 amount. The ones with celluloid edges may be bought for 
 $1.50 up. They are worth the extra money. The flat ones 
 are serviceable enough, but the triangular style has more 
 scales. There is the natural scale, divided into sixteenths; 
 s \ and T V, i/ 8 and % ; % and % ; i/ 2 and 1; ly a and 3-in. 
 to the foot. 
 
 Method. As a general rule, it is better to take off all 
 the items on a plan before figuring up the cost. The desk 
 or table can then be cleared off and room secured for mi 11 books 
 and catalogs. 
 
 EXCA.VATION 
 
 On the supposition that a contractor is going to estimate 
 all the work himself, the proper place to begin is with clearing 
 off the lot, and the excavation. Old buildings may have to 
 be removed, or trees cut down before the spade goes in the 
 earth. Each job has to be considered by itself. 
 
 Sizes. The size of the main part of the building is taken 
 over the footings shown on the section, and not merely over 
 the basement walls, and about a foot more added each way 
 to give room for laying brick or putting in concrete. This 
 method is continued over each part of the building, and 
 after the areas have been added, the whole sum is multiplied 
 
 37 
 
38 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 by the depth and divided by 27 to get the number of cubic 
 yards. The total is then multiplied by the unit price, \vhich 
 may be 15 cents or ten times as much, depending upon con- 
 ditions. 
 
 Even the exact sizes cannot be always relied on. I have 
 often seen banks cave in, and add twenty-five per cent, to the 
 total. 
 
 Mud. Then water may arise, and there is a mud puddle 
 to contend with. The measurement may be taken off accu- 
 rately enough, but falling banks and mud may add fifty per 
 cent, to such work as heavy piers. Sheet piling has often 
 to be used to keep the earth back. 
 
 Rock. But instead of mud there may be rock to blast" 
 out. This shows how much the character of the soil has 
 to do with excavation, and how exact sizes may have to be 
 largely increased in soft soil. 
 
 Levels. Another trouble is with the depth. In a prairie 
 country the lots are usually level, but sometimes in all cities 
 there are lots whose surface is very irregular. An architect 
 occasionally gives the levels at selected stations, and the 
 contractor can figure from them with more safety than by 
 guessing for himself. 
 
 Extras. The extra depth required for footings, boilers, 
 furnaces, chimneys, outside stairs, window areas, cisterns, 
 cesspools, must be estimated separately. 
 
 Thermometer. There is a danger from the weather in 
 excavation. A rainstorm may cause the contractor a heavy 
 loss; and if the work has to be done in winter, and the 
 ground is frozen, only about half a day's work is obtainable 
 from the men. 
 
 Sheet Piling. At the time of making the estimate it 
 should be noted whether sheet piling is likely to be required, 
 or pumping; and the length of the haul should be taken into 
 account, or anything out of the ordinary run of digging a 
 hole in the ground and throwing the material on the bank. 
 
 Guessing. As an encouragement to inexperienced exca- 
 vators I may state that I once saw bids from half a dozen 
 old contractors on a large amount of work, and they ran all 
 the way from 30 cents per cubic yard to $1. 
 
 Flushing. With plenty of fall and permission from the 
 authorities it is sometimes possible to flush out excavation 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 39 
 
 into the sewers at a cheaper rate than by the ordinary way 
 of working. 
 
 PILING 
 
 If piles are used the number may be easily counted, and 
 the borings given by the architect or the engineer determine 
 the length. For some years I spaced enough to hold up an 
 average city. 
 
 A man from Amsterdam once astonished his hearers by 
 saying that he came from a city that was built on the tops 
 of trees. Trees are falling into disfavor for this purpose 
 now. if we are to believe the fire-proof men who fight against 
 wood piles and the grillage that is often spread on top. 
 They prefer concrete all through. Their objection is to splin- 
 tering of the head and shrinkage of the timbers, but if good 
 piles are used and carefully driven, the heads are preserved 
 intact, and the grillage cannot shrink much if below water, 
 where it ought to be to keep it from rotting. 
 
 A contractor's business, however, is to count his piles, to 
 see what kind of wood they are to be, and to what depth 
 they are to go, not from the surface of the ground, but from 
 the w r ater level. If grillage is used it can be easily seen 
 and the quantities taken off. 
 
 Concrete Piles have an advantage in that they do not 
 require to have the heads below water level, but may come 
 clear to the surface of the ground. Lengths must be figured 
 to suit each case. 
 
 SEPARATE ITEMS 
 
 Excavation, plastering, painting, or anything else after 
 being figured up should be double lined at the end. and not 
 carried forward into any other item. That is. the totals 
 should not be carried from page to page in an estimate book, 
 but each item should be left by itself to be added at the end 
 to the summary. It is best to make estimates in a book, 
 preferably a loose-leafed one. They are handy to refer to. 
 
 CONCKETE FOOTINGS 
 
 Next after excavation and piling, if used, come the foot- 
 ings. If they are of concrete the exact cubic contents are 
 
40 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 taken and expressed in cubic feet or yards, as the local 
 custom decides. 
 
 Measurement. The system of measurement all through 
 " The New Building Estimator " is based on actual quantities 
 without doubling corners and such extras. I know of a case 
 where a long dispute went on over large concrete work on 
 this question. The contractor, of course, wanted every corner 
 doubled. An understanding should be had on this point be- 
 fore going ahead. 
 
 Perch. Do not use it for any work. Let it die. It has 
 made too much trouble. In some parts it means 16% cubic 
 feet, in others 22% and 24% or 25 are also used. There is too 
 much chance of misunderstanding. The contractor who is 
 used to allowing 16% may put in a bid on that basis, calling 
 it a " perch," and find that the state law or custom where 
 he is figuring away from his home may compel him to give 
 25. A cubic yard or foot is always safe. It would really 
 be better if we could all get accustomed to use cubic feet, 
 as they do in Chicago and many other places, for the work 
 of turning into cubic yards would not then be necessary. 
 
 Superstructure. If the superstructure should happen to 
 be of concrete, reinforced or otherwise, the actual cubic con- 
 tents should be taken off in the same way as for the base- 
 ment, regardless of double corners and openings, and the 
 unit price set to suit the class of work. The actual cost of 
 a million dollars' worth of buildings of this class is given 
 in detail in " The New Building Estimator." 
 
 BRICKWORK 
 
 Measurement. In this class of masonry the same system 
 of taking actual contents only is followed, and multiplying 
 the cubic feet by 22% to get the number of brick in wall 
 measure. The actual number of brick required is different 
 according to size. 
 
 This question is gone into in detail in my " Estimator," 
 where 23 pages are given to brick alone, with allowances 
 for mortar, mortar color, pressed brick, chimneys, cesspools, 
 boilers, and the cost of labor. 
 
 Extra Care. With straight brickwork the measurement 
 is simple, and the laying goes forward without much trouble, 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 41 
 
 but with mantels, cornices, corbels, fancy . molded pilasters, 
 paneled work, and so on, the estimator has to be very 
 careful. The cost of the molded brick is high, and the labor 
 may run beyond all reason at the present rate of bricklayers' 
 wages. 
 
 Soft Brick. It is easy enough for an architect to say 
 that no soft brick will be allowed in his work, but often 
 difficult for the contractor to get hard ones. I was once 
 sent about eight hundred miles to examine a kiln of brick 
 held at $11 and worth, in an ordinary market $1.74, for 
 hencoop foundations. There were few I could not break 
 with my hands. 
 
 Suppose a contractor can only find this kind locally, and 
 has to haul hard ones several hundred miles? 
 
 Theory. Once when I was building a schoolhouse a paper 
 came out with headlines that were too large, "ROTTEN 
 BRICK IN A WALL." There were a few, but they were in the 
 center, where they did the most good and the least harm. 
 It is not easy in some sections where the clay is poor to 
 get brick of the right quality. After all, what harm do a 
 few soft brick do in the center of a 17-inch wall? They will 
 bear ten times the weight that will ever go on them. The 
 danger lies rather with the poor mortar used. If extra 
 good mortar is specified allowance should be made in the 
 estimate for it. 
 
 STONEWORK 
 
 Rub"ble. This work also should be estimated by the 
 cubic foot or yard, and not by the perch or cord. Take only 
 actual contents, and price accordingly. 
 
 There need be no trouble in measuring up the contents of 
 a wall of a certain length, height, and thickness. It is 
 merely a matter of applying the multiplication table. 
 
 Heights. The heights of all stories in a masonry building 
 should be taken from top to top of joists, because the walls 
 are often thinner on the top stories, and the thick wall should 
 go to the top of the joists to keep them in place, provide 
 better anchorage, and block fire. 
 
 Ashlar. This work is usually taken by the square foot 
 instead of the cubic foot, and figured on the average thickness. 
 Some courses are made thicker than others for a bond. At 
 
42 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 the openings, the depth of the reveals often make thicker 
 stones necessary. The area of an ashlar front is easily 
 enough figured up. 
 
 Odd Work. The trouble comes with something else than 
 plain ashlar. It is the heavy entablatures, the round and 
 square columns with their capitals, the molded belt courses 
 and sills, the arcades, battlements, buttresses, and recessed 
 work, finials, brackets, and everything of a special nature 
 that has to be watched and priced to suit the style given 
 by Angelo Wren, the celebrated architect. The safest way for 
 a young estimator, and an old one also, at times, is to get a 
 bid from a stone contractor, or rather from several who may 
 differ thirty per cent, from each other. 
 
 Sills. Ordinary door and window-sills are priced at so 
 much per lineal foot. 
 
 Flagstones are estimated by the square foot, according to 
 thickness. 
 
 Washing. In all masonry buildings washing down and 
 pointing has to be included at so much a square foot. 
 
 Floors and Walks. These are estimated by the square 
 yard, and can scarcely be missed. If the floors are plain, 
 the price ought to be easily set, but gutters, ridges, troughs, 
 and such work often raise it to twice the plain figure. 
 
 ACTUAL MEASUREMENT 
 
 Why is it better than the old trade rule system? Let us 
 look at the question. 
 
 Variation. In the first place, the trade rules are different 
 in almost every state. Missouri used to have, and may still 
 have, special laws enacted by the legislature as to measure- 
 ment, and other states may have the same thing. Under 
 such laws the only way is to go ahead, in default of special 
 agreement, and follow them. This means confusion all over 
 the country in what should be as simple as the multiplication 
 table. We are getting too close together to have so many 
 different rules. There has long been a fight to standardize 
 the bushel weights in various states, and other measure- 
 ments; and builders ought to fall in line with their work. 
 In the case of railroads running into several states there is 
 too much annoyance \vith various trade rules, and actual 
 quantities only are recognized. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 43 
 
 I know that the system of measurement is for special work 
 like corners, openings, angles, corbels, and so on, where extra 
 time is required. The extra cost is put in the measurement 
 instead of the price. 
 
 Time. Another trouble is in the waste of time in getting 
 the actual quantities required. When I was estimating rail- 
 road work there would come special " rushes " when a com- 
 plete bill of material had to be got out on short notice. By 
 the trade rule of estimating so much for each opening, accord- 
 ing to size, doubling corners, allowing half the thickness of 
 one wall where another runs into it at right angles, taking 
 projections, cornices, pilasters, in such and such a way, and 
 so on to the end of the dismal chapter of " exceptions to the 
 general rule " that are worse than those of our old grammars, 
 I had to figure once to get the wall measure, then go over 
 the whole building again to deduct the area allowed for 
 the openings, corners, and so forth, in order to get the actual 
 number of brick required, the actual yardage of plaster, for 
 the number of lath and tons of material, and I finally threw 
 up the useless work. I have found large brick contractors 
 who have done the same thing. 
 
 Contractors like this system on account of the possibility of 
 getting larger prices for extras. For the main contract they 
 would just as soon figure by taking actual quantities and 
 raising the price. The owner does not understand nor approve 
 of this trade method. 
 
 Water. The supply for masonry must be attended to. If 
 a well has to be sunk the allowance should be made. 
 
 Hauling. The question of hauling is often of great im- 
 portance. How far, what kind of roads, what rate for teams, 
 and such matters must not be neglected. I know of one 
 contractor, up to that time successful, whose pocketbook was 
 emptied by his having to build a short section of a railroad 
 to connect with the main line. That item, and too low 
 figuring on the rest of the work, landed him in the courts 
 and trouble. 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 Direction. It is not always easy to find out at a glance 
 in which direction an architect wants the joists and rafters 
 
44 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 to run. When there is any chance of mistake it should be 
 marked with an arrow. 
 
 System. Of all the methods of arriving at the cost of 
 carpentry the most accurate, if the slowest, is to take off 
 the lumber, and allow the labor at so much per thousand 
 feet, board measure, or per square. The square method 
 is safe for old contractors. 
 
 Framing. All plain structural material is easily seen and 
 taken off. The principal difficulty is with the roof, where 
 there is apt to be a good deal of waste on cut up work. This 
 is easier done by the square. An easy system of measurement 
 is set forth in my " Estimator." There, also, may be found 
 all the allowances for extras required for siding, flooring, 
 shingles, and other materials. It is not necessary to reprint 
 them here. 
 
 Slow Work. On a frame house it is a tedious business to 
 take off all the lumber, and after some experience, a good 
 many contractors resort to the square system. Studs, sheath- 
 ing, paper, siding, are all figured up at a certain rate for a 
 square, and then the surface of the building taken in the 
 same way. So with floors and roof. This ought to be safe, 
 for there should be enough profit to cover any little mistakes; 
 but competition is so strong in this class of work that the 
 lumber bill is usually taken off and sometimes figured down 
 to the lowest basis. 
 
 Millwork. The ordinary contractor usually leaves mill- 
 work for the experts, but the experienced one knows that they 
 sometimes differ so much that he might just about as well 
 risk making the estimate himself. 
 
 The difficulty is with special work made to details, and 
 not with the stock lists. Millbooks are given to contractors, 
 and when they know the discounts, there is little trouble 
 with doors, *sash, and ordinary materials. The mail order 
 houses send a millbook to anyone. They give net prices 
 without freight. 
 
 A full list of prices to assist the contractor is given in 
 " The New Building Estimator " ; and special work attended 
 to as far as it can be. 
 
 Hardwood Floors. So much of this kind of finish is now 
 done that the contractor should be careful about his figures. 
 When labor will run to $15 per square all over a first floor, 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 45 
 
 the total cuts into the allowance in the estimate in a dis- 
 couraging way. 
 
 STBUCTUBAL STEEL AND IEON WORK 
 
 Here, again, on a job of any size, the builder is safer 
 when he gets a complete bid from the iron contractor. The 
 latter does not usually include anchors and the lighter items. 
 
 Columns and Beams. Of course, on plain columns and 
 beams anyone with a table of weights can easily get the cast 
 iron, and the weight of the beams is marked per foot. If 
 the price is known at the point of delivery there is no occa- 
 sion to go to the foundry for a figure. 
 
 When a contractor figures the work himself he is not tied 
 to anyone, and if he gets the contract may look where he 
 pleases for a cheap sub-bid. 
 
 PLASTEBING 
 
 This work, if plain, is about as easily figured as anything 
 can be. It is but a question of finding the number of square 
 yards. Even this labor may be dispensed with, for in my 
 " Estimator " there is a series of tables with the number of 
 yards all figured out for several thousand different sizes of 
 rooms, and different heights from 7-0 to 12-0. By using this 
 system there is less chance of mistake than with the old 
 method. 
 
 The openings had to be included in the tables, for no two 
 rooms are the same, and only straight walls and ceilings 
 could be figured. The price may be arranged to suit. 
 
 PAINTING 
 
 After a general contractor takes off the square feet of 
 ceiling, floors, siding, roofs, and other large surfaces in a 
 building, he already has a good basis to work on for a paint 
 estimate. He knows better than the ordinary painter where 
 to look for the work. From the beginning he should make 
 up his mind to figure his own plaster, paint, and such work, 
 if plain, and take the chance of getting his figure cut by 
 the subcontractor. It takes too much time to run around for 
 
46 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 figures, and sometimes the ones got by telephone are not 
 stood by. The wires or something else may be crossed. 
 
 This does not mean that he should necessarily do his own 
 plastering and painting. That is another question. 
 
 After a few houses have been built the paint estimate may 
 often be decided upon without any figuring. 
 
 HARDWARE 
 
 It is rather a tedious matter to take off hardware that 
 differs in every room of a large, fine house. The better plan 
 is for the architect to specify a certain sum for this, and 
 let the owner select it. If this is not done, and fine hardware 
 is specified, the safest way is to make out a list and have it 
 figured, or get the manufacturers' catalog, with a discount 
 sheet. This is not usually sent out to any but retailers. 
 
 For ordinary houses contractors can often guess at the 
 right amount, or allow so much per opening, after the nail 
 and bolt allowance is settled. Sometimes the profit on the 
 contract has to suffer a little to make up for any deficiency, 
 but not much on such a small item. 
 
 RATE OF PROFIT 
 
 All through this matter of estimating we run against one 
 strange fact. It is, of course, best to know exactly what 
 every item costs, but it is a little inconsistent to find trifles 
 estimated down to the last cent and then a guess made at 
 a profit ranging all the way from five to ten per cent. If 
 willing to gamble at such a w r ide margin on the profit, why 
 not just a little on the hardware or painting to save the 
 time and complete the bid? 
 
 NET COST 
 
 I prefer the system that first gets at the net cost all 
 through and then adds the profit in a lump sum at the end 
 of the total estimate. Others put the profit on each item 
 as they go along. 
 
 ROOFING 
 
 This branch is estimated by the unit of a square of 100 
 square feet, or a space equal to 10 by 10 feet. Slate, tile, 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 47 
 
 shingles, and patent roofs of all kinds are taken in this 
 way. 
 
 Plumbing. The usual practice is to let plumbing and 
 heating separate from the main contract. If they have to 
 be included, the general contractor gets a bid from the men 
 who handle these lines. 
 
 If he figures the work himself and there are long lines of 
 water pipe, he should be careful about the weights per foot, 
 as they vary considerably. He should also get the local list of 
 sewer pipe. There is a western and an eastern list. 
 
 Special Work. Other necessary parts of a building con- 
 tract, like galvanized iron, tiling, and fire-proofing, are usually 
 figured on by subcontractors, and bids given to the general 
 contractor for his total. 
 
 The prices of such work are given in the " Estimator," and 
 labor costs as well, so that anyone may make up estimates 
 for himself, subject to such changes as his experience in his 
 locality sees to be necessary. Lumber, for example, is cheaper 
 in Washington and Georgia than in Nebraska or Kansas; 
 and slate is cheaper in the eastern states than on the Pacific 
 Coast. 
 
 Making up Bids. Get the actual cost of lumber, concrete, 
 plaster, and all factors of a bid, and add as much percentage 
 for profit as the local conditions will allow. It will not be 
 too much where there is any competition. 
 
 The system we see recommended in some engineering works 
 of putting down at least 4 per cent, for office expenses, 4 per 
 cent, for foreman, and anywhere from 15 to 30 for profit 
 cannot be followed for ordinary building work. At most, 
 10 is allowed and this has to cover everything. Many would 
 be well pleased to do plain work for 6. 
 
 Low Bids. On the other hand, it is not wise to go too 
 low. The " plungers " often startle us by making large for- 
 tunes, but most of them fail. 
 
 Putting in Bids. Hand in a bid before the time set for 
 the opening. Many hold theirs back till the latest hour, 
 and this is sometimes a wise course. 
 
 Subcontractors should get their bids in to a general con- 
 tractor in time for him to make up his total. He is often 
 embarrassed by having to wait, and takes risks by sometimes 
 using a sub-bid that is not altogether clear. Suppose the 
 
48 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 subcontractor cannot be found by person or telephone, and 
 the main bid has to reach the architect in half an hour, 
 what is to be done? If the general contractor puts in the 
 bid and the subcontractor backs out, what then? As will 
 be found in another chapter, a bid is virtually a contract 
 as soon as it is accepted, and the backing out course can 
 only be done with the permission of the owner, who may like 
 to see a low bid from a responsible man. If a subcontractor 
 cannot trust a general contractor with a bid in time for 
 the latter to make up a safe total and get any explanations 
 that are necessary, he ought to refuse to have anything to do 
 with him. 
 
 It is worse than provoking to have a complete bid all made 
 out and have to wait to the last minute for a certain figure. 
 All the other careful work is useless without that figure, 
 and the hour of opening bids is close at hand, yet one man 
 will often delay everything. General contractors are not to 
 be blamed if they give up the system of relying upon others 
 and figure their own work. 
 
 Bids should be typewritten if possible, but the figure counts 
 for more than the style. Subcontractors should give written 
 bids to general contractors just as the latter have to do to 
 the architect or owner. A bid, if accepted, being an en- 
 forcible contract, why should the one who supplies a part 
 of it not be liable for that part just as the other is for the 
 total? A verbal bid is enforcible, but requires witnesses, 
 while a written one is clear in itself. 
 
 Extras. There are always some extras to be taken into 
 consideration. If you add them all someone else will get the 
 contract. 
 
 There is the question of heating in winter, for example. 
 Someone has to pay for it. Which one? 
 
 Then there are sheds for lime and tools; and also one for 
 the hoisting engine, if there is one. There may be a sidewalk 
 to put around the building, or a fence; trees might have to 
 be protected. In some cases there might be storage to pay 
 on millwork. In others depreciation of machinery might 
 have to be taken into account. There might be legal ex- 
 penses; there would be washing of windows to some extent, 
 and cleaning up around the building. There might be a rise 
 of wages consequent upon the formation of a labor union 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 49 
 
 in non-union territory. There would be a telephone and 
 office rent, and so on to the end of the possible extra list. 
 
 If everything is added, as it should be, then the profit 
 must be cut, or else the bid might as well not be put in. 
 
 Quantity Surveyors. At least one large New York firm 
 has quantities taken off by its office force, and submits them 
 to subcontractors for prices. This saves giving out plans and 
 waste of time of subcontractors, all taking off the same items. 
 The system has a good deal to commend it. 
 
 When from six to ten general contractors and several times 
 as many subcontractors sit down to one poor set of plans, 
 it means that a great deal of brain matter is wasted. There 
 is too much duplication of effort. The problem of the twenti- 
 eth century is to be the elimination of waste. 
 
 We have not yet come to the system, although it has long 
 been in force in England. There have been court fights over 
 the question as to whether the quantities are to be considered 
 reliable documents, and whether the builder should get extras 
 if they are not complete. The general understanding is that 
 they are only guides, and that the contractor must look 
 over the plans himself, or else put in a high enough profit 
 to cover any deficiency. 
 
 As a general rule, the surveyors take off quantities care- 
 fully enough for any contractor. A good plan might be to 
 have two sets of quantities made, and use the one as a check 
 on the other. Two men would thus do the work of thirty 
 or forty. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 BUILDING CONTRACTS 
 
 Mortgages. Every time a builder signs a contract he 
 places a lien, as it were, on his property, if he has any. 
 Many of them know this, and keep their property in their 
 wife's name, so that in case of trouble it will still be in the 
 family. Reversing the idea of the man in civil war days who 
 was willing to sacrifice all his wife's relations on the altar 
 of his beloved country, they are willing to sacrifice everybody 
 elsVs property to keep their wife's safe. 
 
 Variety. If a thousand lawyers were gathered together, 
 and each asked to make a building contract, there would be 
 at least 999 varieties, and many of them would be so one- 
 sided as to be dangerous to all except the man who paid 
 for the legal work. If you can, therefore, hire a lawyer to 
 make your contract, and try to persuade the owner to sign 
 it as it stands. The owner would likely object, and here we 
 come to a conflict of interests, to two men each trying to 
 " get the best of the deal." 
 
 Uniform Contract. Architects and contractors had so much 
 of this kind of work, and so many court disputes over 
 building contracts that they finally drew up an instrument 
 which they copyrighted in 1893 under the name of " The 
 Uniform Contract." It is recommended for general use by 
 the American Institute of Architects and the National Asso- 
 ciation of Builders. 
 
 This contract has been used ever since it was issued with 
 increasing satisfaction to builders all over the United States. 
 They do not have to take it to a lawyer for examination before 
 they sign it. They know that it has been tested and tried 
 by scores of lawyers, and by an army of architects, con- 
 tractors, and owners. It is fair to all sides as fair a 
 contract as can be devised. It is not perfect, for almost any 
 lawyer could pick flaws in it, but it is the best obtainable 
 and it is always ready and always safe. 
 
 50 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 51 
 
 Two Sides. Many an owner would like an instrument 
 that favored him more, but human nature is apt to forget 
 that there are two parties to a contract, and that the one has 
 rights as well as the other. 
 
 One Side. It is not a just contract that gives the sole 
 power of settling disputes to one party. A man is likely 
 to settle most of the disputes in favor of himself or the one 
 who pays him. If it is replied that men are fair enough 
 to do right, it might be held that the best way for them to 
 show their fairness is to be willing to submit disputes, if 
 necessary, to arbitration. How would it do, for a little 
 variety, to make the contractor the sole judge of disputes 
 in state or railroad contracts? 
 
 Loss. I remember, when I was working as a journeyman 
 for a firm of contractors, that the owner furnished part of 
 the material for a large building. He failed to get it for a 
 long while after it was required. In the meantime the mill- 
 work came and had to be stored and paid for. The banker, 
 who was at fault, instead of paying the contractor for loss 
 of time charged him interest on the money he had to borrow 
 to pay for the millwork. The Uniform Contract provides 
 that the owner must reimburse the contractor for such loss. 
 It is an instrument that works both ways. 
 
 Payment. The final payment on a building has to be 
 made in a certain number of days after completion, under 
 this contract, but the owner is entitled to keep back as 
 much money as will clear any liens or just claims. 
 
 Insurance. The owner also takes out full insurance in 
 his own name and in the name of the contractor against loss 
 or damage by fire, for materials already in the building or 
 on the premises. 
 
 Best Contract. This U. C. is the best for a contractor. 
 It costs only fifty cents for twenty-five copies. This is surely 
 a cheap enough rate for legal work. It is now (1911) sold 
 only by E. G. Soltmann, 125 East 42nd Street, New York. 
 It was formerly handled by The Inland Architect. 
 
 Owner's Side. The interests of the owner have been taken 
 care of by the architects. 
 
 Blanks. Of course blank spaces are left for a description 
 of the building, architect's name, and other matter that is 
 different for each particular building. A legal description 
 
52 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 of the property should also be inserted in the usual manner. 
 Two copies should be made out one for the owner, and the 
 other for the contractor. 
 
 Subcontract. The success of the U. C. has been so gratify- 
 ing that the Builders' Uniform Subcontract has been drafted 
 on the lines of the older one. This is for use between the 
 general and the subcontractor. 
 
 Signed Contracts. It is better to have a signed contract 
 for a building than to go ahead without one. It is true that 
 many buildings are erected simply on the basis of the con- 
 tractor's bid, made out " according to the plans and specifica- 
 tions of the architect"; but when copies of an excellent 
 contract are so cheap, why not use them? A bid is seldom 
 made out with the idea that it is of itself to take the place 
 of a formal contract, or it might have several conditions in 
 it that are usually lacking. What provision is made for 
 insurance, and who is to pay for it? In how many days 
 after the building is accepted is the final payment to be 
 made? How much of a reserve is there to be? There are 
 a score of questions that might come up and cause friction. 
 
 Danger. But even with the U. C. there may be danger. 
 Safety lies in the printed part which is always the same, and 
 is only three sheets long; but the blank spaces may be filled 
 up in such a way as to lay the contractor by the heels. Is 
 time enough given for the completion of the work? Do you 
 wish to so subdivide the time as to say that each story shall 
 be finished, or the roof put on, or the plaster completed at 
 a certain date? A contractor might be hindered on one 
 story and make it up on the next. 
 
 How do you wish the payments to be made? Whenever a 
 heavy bill of material is put in place, or a brick story is 
 finished, or at the end of each month? What reserve are you 
 willing to stand? Would you be willing to hang yourself if 
 the building was not finished for a month after the time set? 
 Sometimes contractors become sarcastic and say that any 
 kind of a contract that is presented will be signed by their 
 simple brethren. 
 
 Specifications. Occasionally unreasonable conditions ap- 
 pear in the specifications. The only safe way is to state in 
 the bid that such and such provisions will not be carried out, 
 and if the contract is awarded, what is seriously wrong can 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 53 
 
 be pointed out. As a bid is a contract, it is bad policy to 
 put it in " according to plans and specifications," and then 
 try to change what does not suit before the contract is signed. 
 If your bid is based on the conditions laid down, what right 
 have you to expect them to be changed? 
 
 It should be remembered that after a contract is signed 
 an architect has no right to change his own specifications. 
 In the U. C. both plans and specifications are accepted as a 
 part of the contract, and they must be signed and thus 
 identified. 
 
 Properly speaking, a specification should not encroach upon 
 the contractual field at all as some of them do. The accept- 
 ance of unreasonable conditions here may nullify much of 
 the advantage of having a good contract form. 
 
 This whole business would seem to be a kind of a three- 
 linked chain. The plans make the first link; the specifica- 
 tions describe their quality; and the contract, as the third 
 link, binds the whole together. 
 
 Talk. Probably in about a thousand years some con- 
 tractors will come to understand that verbal agreements with 
 an architect are not worth the breath that made them after 
 the contract is signed, and the plans and specifications thus 
 accepted. An architect may be held, even after the contract 
 is signed, for a verbal interpretation of any technical phrase, 
 or something of that kind he has given; but the plain intent 
 and meaning of the plans and specifications govern, and no 
 contractor should feel hurt that they do, regardless of what 
 he has been verbally told. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 NATURE OF CONTRACTS 
 
 Stated, or Lump Sum. The ordinary contract is for a lump 
 sum, and the contractor can gain or lose much or little as 
 he may. He agrees to complete the building for so much, 
 usually gives security that he can do so, and that ends it, 
 or rather begins it. 
 
 When the bids are opened under this system the contract 
 is supposed to be awarded to the lowest man, who makes 
 what he can out of it. From this time on his interest is to 
 make as much as possible, and the owner's is to get a good 
 quality of workmanship in a reasonable time. 
 
 Opposing Interests. Of course, the character of the builder 
 is a good asset. It would not be right to say that it does not 
 matter whether he makes good work or not, pays his bills or 
 leaves liens behind him, and completes his contracts in some- 
 what near the specified time; but all this being remembered, 
 it is yet true that the interests of the owner and the con- 
 tractor, under the lump sum system, are opposed to each 
 other. After the figures are set the one wants to give as 
 little as he can, and the other wants to get as much as 
 possible. 
 
 Total Cost. In spite of this, the lump sum contract has a 
 strong hold upon the public. If a man is going to invest a 
 large sum of money in a building he wants to know before 
 he goes ahead just how much it is going to be. One hears 
 of merchants who have been ruined by outrageous bills for 
 extras through incomplete plans and specifications. You can 
 not blame an owner if he wants assurance from a reputable 
 contractor that his building will not overrun a certain amount 
 of money. He can then allow beyond the face of the pro- 
 posal any reasonable percentage which may be looked for on 
 account of changes or extras. This stated, or lump sum, 
 system has endured for centuries in spite of rascally con- 
 tractors and grasping owners. 
 
 54 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 55 
 
 Percentage Plan. This system makes the contractor secure, 
 but is sometimes rather costly to the owner. The men occa- 
 sionally find out that it is a time or day labor job, and act 
 accordingly. But they forget that by making such work 
 expensive they lessen the demand for it, and increase the 
 demand for the harder work under the lump sum contract. 
 The temptation under the percentage plan is to make the 
 work as costly as possible, for the higher the cost, the greater 
 the percentage the contractor has for his own pocket, and 
 human nature is not yet perfect. The undertaker has, of 
 course, to look grave under all circumstances, even while 
 business is "rushing." But away deep down? Eh? 
 
 Mutuality. But the interests of the two high contracting 
 parties are closer together than under the stated sum system. 
 The buying of the material alone, or the opportunity to get 
 it bought according to his wishes, for one thing, soothes the 
 owner; and if he wishes he can put on twice as many men 
 to hurry up the work as the contractor could afford to do. 
 He pays the bills. Under the lump sum the contractor does 
 not want the owner to know anything about the price of 
 material, for there is, or should be, a profit on that as well 
 as on anything else. 
 
 Contractors like this plan, and it is a good one, but owners 
 are not favorably disposed towards it, unless one here and 
 there who wants good materials and workmanship in a per- 
 manent investment. 
 
 Amount. The percentage varies. Ten per cent, on the 
 actual cost is a sort of a standard, and sometimes as low as 
 six is gladly accepted on plain work. These figures do not 
 include office expenses. There is no risk of losing money, 
 and the percentage is often cut to the owner's advantage. 
 
 On alteration and repair work this is really a much better 
 arrangement for both parties than the first plan. It is hard 
 to figure some changes. I heard yesterday of two bids on 
 alterations. One was for $22,000 and the other for $13,000. 
 
 Cost Plus a Fixed Sum System. This is the system that 
 Mr. Gilbreth is making popular, and whatever may be said of 
 it otherwise, he does not let it suffer for lack of advertising. 
 He insists that it is the only proper form of contract, and 
 that there should not be any guaranteed maximum of cost 
 in connection with it. 
 
56 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 The owner states the amount he proposes to invest, and 
 the contractor states how much he wants for the use of his 
 organization, machinery, tools, etc. Of course, the contractor 
 can look over the plans for himself and see if the owner's 
 estimate is about right before giving his figure. 
 
 " The lump sum contract," says Mr. Gilbreth, " is a license 
 to support lawyers and a privilege to pay court costs, and if 
 there were no more lump sum contracts, one half of the 
 lawyers would have to abandon their calling for some other 
 work." 
 
 This exponent of the Cost Plus System says that the 
 right name for the lump sum contract would be, " The lump- 
 sum-plus-extra-work-plus-time-extension - plus - lawyers'- bills " 
 contract. Many a man has signed such contracts, and many 
 a square mile has been covered with work done under them, 
 without thinking that there was such a long name hidden 
 near. 
 
 " The entire theory of the Cost Plus a Fixed Sum contract," 
 says Mr. Gilbreth, " is that the owner shall have his own way 
 in any and all matters pertaining to his work. He shall have 
 the right to decide what materials shall be bought, and 
 whether or not they shall be bought of the lowest bidder. 
 He shall have the right to have the contractor put on as 
 many or as few men as the owner wants, regardless of whether 
 or not there are strikes. His decision shall be final regarding 
 the paying of bonuses for the quick delivery of material, and 
 his decision shall be final on all matters pertaining to the 
 conduct of the job." 
 
 This entire fixed sum, whatever it is, must be net profit, 
 without deduction for office expenses, or anything else. 
 
 Profits. But Mr. Gilbreth is wrong in saying that lump 
 sum contractors figure on two profits first, the regular one, 
 and second, the one for risk, on account of unfavorable cir- 
 cumstances that may develop. Alas, and alas! There is by 
 far too much competition for any such heavy profits in ordi- 
 nary building work. One profit is all that it will stand, and 
 very often that one is not so large as it should be. 
 
 Comparison. It is not likely that this plan will supersede 
 the old lump sum one, but nevertheless it is a good way of 
 doing work, perhaps the best of the three systems. No 
 matter how things go, the owner knows that the contractor 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 57 
 
 will make only a certain amount of money. He is interested 
 in keeping costs down; there is no desire for extras, but 
 rather a hope to finish without them, for they delay the 
 happy hour when the last installment of the money will be 
 turned over; where there can be no quarreling over the price 
 of extras a better feeling exists; and if the owner is rich 
 enough to pay cash for his materials he may get the trade 
 discount but this applies as well, of course, to the percentage 
 plan. 
 
 Time. Another advantage is the gain in time. The work 
 on the foundation can go ahead while the plans are being 
 prepared for the upper stories. So also under the percentage 
 plan. But under the lump sum they must be complete before 
 contractors can make up their figures; although the basement 
 is often let in a separate contract to hurry things up. 
 
 Hobson's Choice. Mr. Gilbreth will not take any other 
 kind of contracts. He is afraid of being led into temptation. 
 He says, " We found that there was a tendency to put our 
 best superintendents and our apprentices who could do a 
 man's work for an apprentice's pay, and our best plant on 
 lump sum contracts, and the second-class foremen, ' old 
 pensioners/ and the rest of the plant on the Cost-plus 
 contracts. To do away with this ' tendency,' we made it 
 an iron-bound rule to take no more lump sum contracts 
 under any conditions whatever, regardless of how much profit 
 there might be in them, and we will not award a subcontract 
 for labor or material on the cost-plus basis if the sub- 
 contractor has any lump sum contracts being constructed 
 simultaneously." 
 
 There you have it in white and black the Cost Plus being 
 white as the newly fallen snow, and all other systems black 
 as the raven. 
 
 Few contractors can afford to say that they will not take 
 contracts except upon one system. Most of them are ready 
 to take it on any system that promises good results, lump, 
 sum, percentage, cost plus, or catch-as-catch-can. 
 
 Maximum. It is all well enough to say that no guaranteed 
 maximum figure shall be given, but men with a few dollars, 
 short of a million simply cannot afford to go blindly into any 
 building project. They must know how much it is going to 
 cost. It is idle to say that an architect's figure should be 
 
58 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 sufficient. An architect is not a contractor, and is not held 
 financially responsible if his estimate is exceeded twenty-five 
 or fifty per cent. His commission is paid on the percentage 
 plan, and by the rules of the largest association of architects 
 this plan is the only one he is allowed to follow. 
 
 Mr. Gilbreth says that the " fixed sum " to be paid is fixed 
 in a guaranteed maximum contract only in case the maximum 
 is not reached, and thus the interests of the parties are once 
 more opposed, as in the lump sum system. Every change 
 in the plans brings up the question of extras, and the lawyers 
 have to be brought in. 
 
 Choice. Merely for the independence of unnecessary con- 
 trol many a contractor would prefer the old-style lump sum 
 if he had his choice. He has been accustomed to take re- 
 sponsibility for his estimates so long that he is not afraid 
 to continue. If he loses, that is his own business, and so 
 likewise if he gains. 
 
 Public Work. As things are now arranged practically all 
 city, county, state, and national work must be done under 
 competitive bidding. This means the lump sum contract. 
 
 Average Bid. Once, away back in a town by the name of 
 Timbuctoo, Africa, we shall call it to avoid Anti-Trust decla- 
 mation, contractors became tired fighting one another and 
 competing in a world where combination is gaining ground 
 every day. The Geniuses among them evolved the system of 
 the Average Bid. Before the actual bids were handed in 
 there was a sort of a seance among the bidders, and the 
 figures were laid down, cartes sur table. 
 
 Supposing there were half a dozen bids, they were added 
 together, divided by six, and the one nearest the average 
 made out the winning bid, which he handed in to the architect 
 with as grave a visage as the circumstances called for. The 
 ether bids were raised above the average one and put in with 
 a gravity that did not have to be assumed. No returns were 
 expected. 
 
 This was but a variation of the unjust straw bid style. 
 In taking bids, the implied understanding is that there is to 
 be an honest competition, and this was not. 
 
 The arrangement fell to pieces after several jobs had been 
 captured by " scabs " outside the union. One of the amusing 
 things we run across to keep us cheerful in this world on a 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 59 
 
 rainy day is the sight of some contractors denouncing labor 
 unions. As the proverb says, it makes a difference 1 whose 
 pig is stuck. 
 
 Fair Value. Probably this average bid is nearer the true 
 value of a building than either the lowest or highest, but if 
 an owner can get a responsible man to put up his building 
 five or ten per cent, lower than the average he does not care 
 to enter into academic questions. 
 
 Trusts. In spite of the denunciation of trusts we hear 
 on all sides this incident shows that even in Timbuctoo the 
 desire for a kind of a trust is not unknown among those 
 who hate the large ones. It makes a WONDERFUL difference 
 whose pig is stuck. Trustification is the system of the hour, 
 and is going to increase. Farming and building would seem 
 to be two great industries that are hard to trustify. 
 
 Unit Price. Sometimes the work is done on a unit price 
 of so much per thousand for brick, per yard for plaster and 
 paint, per pound for steel and iron, and so on; but if an 
 owner is not accustomed to trade methods of measurement 
 he is apt to have a much larger bill than he expects. He 
 should specify actual quantities and measurement only. 
 
 Official Schedules. A variation of the unit price idea is 
 found in the system that some engineers have of making out 
 a schedule of the costs, adding a certain amount for builder's 
 profit, and then putting the total at 100. Bids are taken 
 on this basis, and the nearest to the figures get the 
 contract. 
 
 In New York, August, 1907, a building costing $160,000 was 
 let by the city to a contractor on this basis. The average of 
 the bids ran to 99.3 per cent, of the engineer's figures, which 
 are given to the bidders. The lowest was 92 and the highest 
 111. 
 
 Like the surveyor's quantity system it is a good plan to 
 save reckless bidding, but the difference between 92 and 111 
 is large enough to satisfy everybody. This is a public recog- 
 nition of the Average Bid, and justifies the course pursued 
 in Timbuctoo back in the last century. Africa led the world 
 then. We are slowly coming to her ideal. 
 
 Unfair Bidding. When the unit price system is followed 
 there have been many cases where the contractors put in the 
 Unbalanced Bid with which all states, counties, and cities 
 
60 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 are more or less familiar in tenders for groceries, printing, 
 and everything else. 
 
 If a bidder suspects that there is to be a much larger 
 quantity of plaster, suppose, than what is called for on the 
 schedule he can put in a price on some other items below 
 what they are worth, if again he is sure that far less of 
 them will be required than is listed, and a very high price 
 on plaster. He can thus bring his total lower than that 
 of the competitor who gives a fair price on each item. 
 When he gets the contract, he loses on, say, 100 yards of 
 paint which he does for 3 cents, but makes it up on 100 
 yards of plaster at 881/2 cents. Of course there must be 
 enough of the small items listed to cover the difference. 
 Cases have been known where, say, 2,000 yards of paint were 
 listed in the schedule, while those on the inside knew that 
 the authorities would do only 100. And so on with other 
 items. 
 
 The engineering system alluded to above is a good check 
 on any work of this kind. It is easy enough to establish a 
 fair price for every item, and hand it out on a basis of 100. 
 Then bids below a certain percentage would be thrown aside. 
 
 The original idea in Timbuctoo was to set a certain per- 
 centage above or below which all figures would be discarded. 
 Delenda est Timbuctoo! 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 GENERAL CONTRACTING OR SUBLETTING 
 
 Sharing Nothing. It is said that one of the maxims of 
 the Standard Oil corporation is to allow a profit to nobody 
 in the business of refining oil. The large building contracting 
 firms follow this system, as a rule, by hiring mechanics 
 directly, and putting a competent foreman over them, with 
 a superintendent over all. 
 
 Sharing Part. Another method commonly in vogue among 
 general contractors is to make their own estimates, and after 
 they receive the contract, sublet the most of the work, often 
 retaining for themselves only the masonry, if they happen 
 to be bricklayers, or the carpentry if they are carpenters. 
 
 Sharing More. Still another method, and probably the 
 one most relied on all over the land, is for the general con- 
 tractor to estimate the work for his own trade, and take 
 bids on all the other branches before he makes up his total. 
 
 Subletting may, of course, also be done under the cost plus 
 and the percentage plans discussed in the last chapter. After 
 the general contractor settles with the owner, he turns to 
 the subcontractors and arranges his contracts with them. 
 
 Profit and Loss. Each system has its good and bad 
 points. There are many who would like in their little spheres 
 to be as the Standard Oil is nationally, in this respect, but 
 they lack the necessary capital, and rebates are not so popu- 
 lar as formerly. And so it is that the local minnow cannot 
 always follow the course of the national whale. 
 
 To keep vaulting ambition from o'erleaping itself, one of 
 our commercial agencies reports that a very large percentage 
 of failures in business come from the attempt to do too 
 much on too small a capital. Why should anyone ruin 
 himself financially in trying to grasp too much? For the 
 majority of beginners especially, the live and let live policy 
 
 61 
 
62 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 is clearly the most advisable. With more experience and 
 larger capital they may come to the time when they can 
 grasp every loose dollar they see. 
 
 Advantage. Of course, the advantages of the first system 
 are not altogether confined to the opportunity of making 
 more money than is possible under the subletting plan. 
 When a subcontractor handles a part of the work there is 
 often friction as to when certain things shall be done, and 
 the main contractor is occasionally held back by waiting on 
 an indispensable, though often a small item; while the man 
 who sublets nothing can manage to suit himself, and his 
 interest will not permit him to hold up a complete building 
 waiting for a carpenter contractor to lay some joists, or for 
 a few bricklayers to build a wall story high. 
 
 Risk. Then there is the risk of the failure of subcon- 
 tractors avoided under this plan. No matter how careful a 
 general contractor is with his own estimates, if he bases 
 three-fourths of his bid on the accepted figures of subcontrac- 
 tors there is always a danger that someone will go by the 
 board and fail to complete his contract. 
 
 Surety Bond. It may be replied that by taking a bond 
 from a subcontractor this risk might be avoided, and probably 
 it is true, but as a practical matter it is safe to say that 
 in nine cases out of ten bonds are not asked from subcon- 
 tractors by those who have to give a bond themselves to finish 
 the whole building. There is a happy-go-lucky method of 
 doing business among men who are so well acquainted with 
 each other as contractors are, and the legal side of the ques- 
 tion is usually overlooked. The general contractor is tied up 
 as hard as the lawyers can do it ; but while subcontractors 
 know this, many of them would feel hurt if asked to give 
 the same security on a part of the building as the owner 
 demands on the whole. The safe course is to deal only with 
 men who have some property in their own names, and not 
 in those of their wives, and character enough to make good 
 any loss, sooner or later. 
 
 Liability. A much more serious danger than that of 
 failure is that from fire and accident, especially the latter. 
 A general contractor is usually included in any damage 
 suits against a subcontractor. This subject is discussed in 
 another chapter. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 63 
 
 Friction. Another risk eliminated by one contractor hand- 
 ling everything is that due to the human nature that we 
 all more or less have. Some men take to each other as David 
 and Jonathan or Damon and Pythias did; others meet, and 
 in their dislike for each other seem to forget that they belong 
 to the same race. While, theoretically, the owner and the 
 subcontractor are supposed to have nothing to do with each 
 other, as they are only connected through the general con- 
 tractor; as a matter of fact, they meet and sometimes fight 
 over extras, delays, the quality of the work, or the finding 
 of the North Pole, in default of anything else. The chances 
 of disagreement are lessened when only one man or firm 
 deals with another. 
 
 Supplies. But even the largest firms cannot manufacture 
 all their materials. They, in their turn, have to deal with 
 supply houses and lumber companies. Steel rails, lumber, 
 plaster, stone, plumbing goods, marble, elevators, and other 
 materials are seldom made by any building firm. 
 
 Good System. The next best system is for the general 
 contractor to make his own complete estimates, and sublet 
 after he gets the contract. He can then get lower figures 
 than when merely putting in a bid and taking his chances 
 with others on getting the work. 
 
 Risk. By this method, however, there is a chance for a 
 general contractor to occasionally lose a contract that he 
 might have had by taking some extra low figure from a 
 subcontractor; but, taking it all around, there are chances 
 that he himself might make a lower figure than anyone else, 
 and thus get the work. 
 
 Beginners. The best system for the young contractor is 
 to be modest at first, and to take bids from the various 
 tradesmen. By this system a fair idea of costs will gradually 
 work itself in on the mind, just as spelling is usually better 
 learned by reading than by rote, and when experience has 
 done its work the other way of estimating the complete 
 structure can be adopted. 
 
 Dividing TTp. Another system is for the owner to give out 
 his work in detail. The contractor for each branch thus deals 
 directly with the owner. He would sign the Uniform Contract 
 instead of the Subcontract, as with a general contractor. 
 
 This is a fair system, and in some parts of the country 
 
64 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 it is closely adhered to. The carpenter, for example, takes 
 only the woodwork, and thus gets a smaller profit on the 
 contract, but he can attend to more buildings with his capital. 
 The owner has to see that each one has liability insurance 
 instead of the general contractor only under the other system. 
 
 There is sometimes trouble caused by delay. The one blames 
 the other and there is no expert like the general contractor to 
 crack the whip and settle disputes. 
 
 Day's Work. Still another system is for the owner to buy 
 his own material, put foremen in charge, and do the work 
 by the day, or rather the hour, which is the unit in all build- 
 ing work. He can thus secure a good quality of work, but 
 if the wrong kind of men are dealt with the pocketbook has 
 to suffer. I once knew of a case where the labor on brickwork 
 for a very rich owner cost $29 per 1,000 instead of less than 
 one-fourth of this, which would have been enough for a 
 contractor. 
 
 Experience. A contractor should not undertake to do work 
 outside of his own trade until he has a reasonably fair idea 
 of what an average day's work is for a mechanic in other 
 trades. A good foreman helps wonderfully, but it is safer 
 when the contractor knows a little himself. 
 
 Two Ways. An endeavor has sometimes been made by 
 Builders' Exchanges to have bids taken either complete or 
 separately, but not both together. In other words, if A. B., 
 the owner, wanted his work done by a general contractor 
 only, he would take complete bids; but if he wanted to let 
 it out to subcontractors, he would have to take bids only 
 from them and not from the general contractor at the same 
 time. 
 
 In a way, this is reasonable. It is easy enough for an 
 owner to gather sub-bids together and show to the general 
 contractor that his total is greater than the sum of his sepa- 
 rate bid and the combined sub-bids. He naturally has to add 
 a profit for handling all the other work and being responsible 
 for it. If the owner chooses to take the responsibility for the 
 execution of the work, fire risk, damage suits, liens, delays, 
 and other troubles incident to the business, then he should 
 deal directly with the subcontractors, as a matter of course, 
 but not expect the general contractor to risk damage suits 
 and endless trouble for nothing. Many an owner has found 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 65 
 
 out that it paid him to have a responsible general contractor 
 between him and the deep sea. Others of them see through 
 the game well enough; they want all the security, but want it 
 for nothing. They want the carpenter to be content with the 
 profit on the carpenter work alone, but like a good fellow 
 to be responsible for all the other branches, and save the 
 owner from a summons to answer a suit for $25,000 damages 
 for a man killed when putting on $23.50 worth of tin. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 METHOD OF WORK 
 
 Starting. When the contracts are awarded, the next thing 
 is to start the building as promptly as possible. 
 
 Laying out Work. For cottages and small buildings an 
 engineer is seldom required. The contractor lays out the lines 
 himself. In cities the sidewalks give a straight line, on at 
 least one side. This is accurate enough for practical pur- 
 poses, and the front of the building is laid out parallel with 
 it at the required distance back. Temporary stakes are then 
 driven far enough outside of the sides that the digging will 
 not disturb them. A line is stretched across the front and 
 tied to the stakes, and the side lines are run down at right 
 angles to it, or " square " from it, according to the width of 
 the building. Then the rear line is stretched across parallel 
 with the one on the front. 
 
 This finishes the main part of an ordinary building, and the 
 offsets and angles are measured from it. 
 
 Stakes. Any kind of a strip of wood is suitable 1 x 2, 
 or 2x2. They should be driven in, clear of any excavating 
 line, so that they will not be disturbed. 
 
 Squaring. Most carpenters know how to square the corners 
 by using a 10-ft. measuring pole. The diagram will explain 
 the method. The line AB is laid out parallel with the 
 sidewalk at the right distance back for the main front wall 
 of the house. The stakes are driven at A, B, and a mason's 
 cord stretched. On this cord, stick in a pin at C, where the 
 corner of the house is to be. Measure off the width of the 
 house and put a mark at D, or stick in another pin. From C 
 to G, mark off 8 feet. Run down a side line from C to E, 
 and let it stretch over far enough to reach I and K. Make 
 the line fast to a temporary stake at C, or hold it fast there 
 by the hand, and mark 6 feet down to H. Take the 10-ft. 
 pole, and with one end at G swing it round until the 6-ft. 
 
 66 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 67 
 
 point just touches the other end. The line CE will then 
 be square with the line AB. Drive stakes at I, K, and make 
 fast. 
 
 This gives the two main lines, and the rest is easy. The 
 distances are just measured from them. The ground is marked 
 
 L 
 F_ 
 
 1 
 
 for digging, the lines removed, but the stakes I, J and K, L ; 
 A, B and M, N are left to get the exact lines when the brick- 
 work begins. 
 
 The engineer proceeds in another way, and drives a nail 
 in the top of the stakes to keep the exact lines. 
 
 Projections. For bay windows and such work a template 
 is often made so that the mason may have a good guide to 
 go by. 
 
 Level. A builder's level is a useful instrument around a 
 structure of any size, as it saves leveling by the ordinary 
 straightedge, and is more accurate. 
 
68 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Lot Line. When a building is to come close to, or on the 
 lot line, the only safe way is to get an engineer, and preferably 
 cne acquainted with the city data and all the mistakes in 
 street lines, lots, and so on, to give the exact position. of the 
 corners. In some cases where " spite work " has had its 
 innings, brick walls have had to be chiseled off when they over- 
 lapped on the other property. Courts have had much to do 
 with this lot line question. Never build on the line without 
 first getting a good engineer. It is too dangerous. 
 
 Footings. It is not safe to run over even for the footings, 
 no matter how advantageous it may seem to be, without a 
 legal agreement giving permission for the extension. 
 
 Telephone. If the building is large and far removed from 
 the business center of town or the supply yards, it pays 
 to put in a telephone. It sometimes s.aves its cost in a 
 week. 
 
 Tool House. A tool house and a lime house are built if 
 the size of the building justifies them. In rainy climates the 
 roof of the lime house must be protected. 
 
 Water. Connections must be made by the plumber in 
 cities, and a supply provided for in country districts. 
 
 Excavation. Contractors prefer, as a rule, to let out the 
 excavation to a local man who has his own teams, plows, 
 scrapers, and labor force accustomed to the work. 
 
 Liens. Some of the grading contractors have to be watched 
 to see that they pay wages as they should, or else there may 
 be a crop of liens to harvest. 
 
 Delivery of Material. As large a supply of material as 
 possible should be assembled on the ground ready for the 
 men when the excavation is finished, but not so much as to 
 make rehandling necessary. Many a foundation has been 
 blocked for weeks waiting on a few frames, ironwork, or 
 something of that kind. 
 
 Placing of Material. Brick, lumber, and such heavy stuff 
 can sometimes be so placed around a building as to avoid 
 long wheeling or carrying ; and the lime house should be placed 
 in a position where the whole building can be best served. 
 In cases where a hoist is used, this is close to the opening 
 leading to it. 
 
 Power. On a building of such size as to make use of a 
 motor or hoisting engine, brick, lumber, frames, steel beams, 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 69 
 
 and other materials should be placed where they can be most 
 conveniently fed to the machine. 
 
 Number of Men. In the " Estimator " the amount of con- 
 crete that men can mix, of brick they can lay, and the pro- 
 portion of laborers required for bricklayers and plasterers are 
 given, and this gives a fair idea of the number of men re- 
 quired to finish a foundation in a certain time. 
 
 Forms. If concrete is used for a base and the ground is 
 soft, or the top of the walls comes higher than the banks, 
 forms must be set up. Occasionally the inside of the wall 
 only is planked up, and the concrete is then poured in between 
 the solid bank and the wood; but some authorities object to 
 this, and want the wood on both sides. 
 
 Bolts. I have come to respect bolts more than I used to. 
 
 In a frame building it is often necessary to build them in 
 at the right height to receive the sill. 
 
 It would be a good idea in a masonry wall to build in 
 bolts to hold back each side of a door frame. The ordinary 
 anchors cannot be tightened up if the frame bulges out in 
 the center. Why not just build in a bolt to draw it back 
 against the masonry at any time ? 
 
 Wind. In stormy countries it is to the interest of the 
 contractor to see for himself that there is a wind stop around 
 all frames, and that the mortar is slushed carefully in. Why 
 have the ill-will of an owner over such a small matter as that? 
 
 Joists. While the masonry has been going on the car- 
 penters have been getting ready all the heavy framing, in order 
 to waste no time with laying off the masons. It is often 
 possible to get one side ready and turn the gang over to that 
 while the other is being prepared. 
 
 The walls are run up, the roof put on, the sash put in all 
 in the ordinary course that every carpenter knows, and that 
 need not be gone over here. 
 
 System. The business world of our day is full of " Sys- 
 tem " ; indeed, we hear so much about it that it is a matter of 
 suprise that any work can be got done, for every energy would 
 seem to be required to systematize things. There are quite 
 a number of slick gentlemen who are making a good living 
 working this " system " fad by day and by night in relays, 
 and like the apostle, they magnify their calling. We cannot 
 blame them too much. 
 
70 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Yet the regular workers on a building have forgotten more 
 about how it should be done than the system mongers have 
 ever learned, with their three turns to the right for one to 
 the left. 
 
 Delay. It seems to be almost unavoidable at the end. 
 Some trifling order may be placed in the east for a particular 
 installation, and no amount of system will force a rich 
 manufacturer to lay aside his regular orders and take up a 
 small one earlier than its time on the list; or the finished 
 hardware is still in the factory, in spite of the fact that the 
 order had been given months ahead of the date when it was 
 likely to be required. Patience is an excellent virtue, but a 
 rather trying one for the owner who wants his building, and 
 for the contractor who needs the reserved percentage to fill a 
 gap elsewhere. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 BUYING OF MATERIAL 
 
 Modern Ways. Buy cheap and sell dear is the old motto ; 
 but buy cheap in large quantities and sell cheap is the one 
 that is making the department stores and mail order houses 
 of our time so large. This system has revolutionized things 
 in the last quarter of a century. The country stores that used 
 to charge an unreasonably high rate of profit are now forced 
 by the new competition to keep within reasonable bounds. 
 
 Building Material. There are at least two mail order 
 concerns in Chicago that send all kinds of ordinary building 
 material, including lumber and millwork, anywhere within 
 the borders of the United States and Canada. Stone and 
 brick are not sold in this way just yet, but they may be soon. 
 
 Another firm in Iowa sends lumber and millwork anywhere. 
 
 The two great mail order houses in Chicago recently re- 
 ceived 18,000,000 letters in one year, and they contained 
 $77,000,000. They sent out 4,000,000 catalogs. Their orders 
 have doubled in three years. They are worth watching. 
 
 High Prices. It used to be the case that the country 
 builder was at the mercy of the local supply houses, but now 
 if he cannot get a reasonable figure from them he can try 
 Chicago or Iowa. 
 
 A Scale. I never had occasion to buy from these great 
 houses except once as a trial test. An architect's scale, for 
 which the local price was $2.50, and the special rate to 
 draftsmen, $2, I got for $1.40. It had the same maker's 
 name upon it, and was of good quality. 
 
 Local Interest. Now, it is much better for contractors, 
 farmers, and others to purchase everything they can from the 
 local dealers, for a gain of $50 in a lumber bill might cause 
 the loss of a contract to build the lumberman's house, but 
 the situation is such now that no one need pay unreasonable 
 prices, and that should be understood. 
 
 71 
 
72 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Cash. But all dealings with these supply houses have to 
 be on a cash basis. It is well to remember that the local lum- 
 berman will frequently discount a bill two per cent., or more, 
 and thus cut down the cost of the lumber. If the one is 
 priced on a cash basis the other should be also. 
 
 Method. The way to buy building material then, it is 
 clear, is to follow the method of the great department stores 
 and mail order houses, and buy cheap in large quantities. 
 Advice of this kind is like telling the average man to go to 
 Europe, as the Atlantic is free to anybody. Certain con- 
 ditions must be fulfilled before the Atlantic can be crossed; 
 and a large bank account is necessary to buy an order of 
 corresponding size. 
 
 Monopoly. It used to be rather difficult for a contractor 
 to get a car of lumber or millwork directly from the saw- or 
 planing-mill, for the local men held the whip over the railroad 
 and the wholesale dealer. They had to choose between the 
 regular demand of the lumbermen and the occasional order 
 of the tradesmen. Naturally they stuck to their best cus- 
 tomer. 
 
 Stone. This material is now manufactured so much by 
 saws that it ordinarily does not pay the contractor to have 
 anything to do with cutting it. The best plan is to go to 
 the yards and purchase it ready to set in the building. 
 On work that has to be hand cut, however, many contractors 
 follow the custom of cutting the stone at the site of the 
 building. 
 
 Plumbing. The supplies for this trade are sold only to 
 the men in the business, but here, again, the mail order 
 houses break the chain and sell to anybody. The trouble 
 in some cities is that only a licensed plumber can do the 
 work, and they insist upon buying the supplies themselves. 
 There is a profit in the material. 
 
 Bills of Material. After a contract is signed a complete 
 bill of material should be made out for those parts of a 
 building that are not to be sublet. With brickwork or 
 masonry the danger is not so great if more than what is called 
 for on the first list is required, for the brick are usually 
 bought at so much per thousand, and the cement, sand, and 
 lime at an agreed unit price; but the lumber and millwork 
 bill should be complete, as extras run higher than the prices 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 73 
 
 set on the main contract when the dealer is naturally anxious 
 to secure the trade. Properly, the rate for extra lumber 
 should not be higher any more than for extra brick. If so, 
 why? 
 
 Paint supplies, hardware, and such items should be bought 
 in one bill for the same reason that better rates are thus 
 obtained. 
 
 Quality. Serious trouble is sometimes caused on account 
 of the quality of the material sent to a building. Brick and 
 cement are sometimes rejected by the car-load; lumber is 
 graded differently in various sections of the country, and an 
 architect's specification is not always clear. He gets con- 
 fused with the grades as well as the rest of us. The Forest 
 Service, Washington, D. C., sells for fifteen cents a book of 
 126 good sized pages entitled, " Rules and Specifications for 
 the Grading of Lumber." A good deal can be packed in 126 
 pages, and our memories are short. 
 
 This book gives the grades all over the United States, and 
 if a contractor is estimating on work far away from the 
 field to which he is accustomed he should make sure of the 
 grading of the lumber. The architect's idea and his own may 
 be entirely different. 
 
 F. 0. B. In buying heavy material it should be carefully 
 understood whether the price is at the point of purchase or 
 Free On Board, that is, with freight paid, at the job. Some- 
 times supply men send cars to the job, and the contractor 
 has to pay the freight, to be later deducted from the sub- 
 contractor's price. This means that the contractor must 
 have money to pay with before he gets the material in the 
 cars. 
 
 Point of Purchase and Time. It is not always safe to 
 buy materials too far away from the job, especially for a 
 time contract. The dealer does not usually bind himself to 
 time as you do. All the risk he takes is your frown, which 
 does not amount to much. 
 
 I have seen buildings stand for a couple of months waiting 
 for special lumber when the general contractor was held by a 
 time contract. The penalties are not usually exacted, but a 
 settlement may be refused until some deduction is made. The 
 owner has his side of the question to consider. He may be 
 paying rent that he expected to save. 
 
74 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Payment. The time of payment to dealers should be 
 understood. It generally is when the contractor gets an 
 estimate on the material supplied. 
 
 Lien Law. The danger comes when the time for filing a 
 lien expires. This law gives the dealer security on the build- 
 ing, but he must file his claim in a certain number of days 
 after the delivery of material. The contractor can delay 
 proceedings by ordering a 2" x 6" scantling, or 100 brick, or a 
 sack of cement, and thus bring the last delivery up to date. 
 In general, dealers are reasonable with contractors, for their 
 own interest makes them so, apart from other considerations. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 BEST PAYING WORK 
 
 Under the percentage or cost plus plans all work pays well. 
 Here we deal with the work mostly done under the lump sum 
 system. 
 
 Houses. Beginning with dwellings, the ordinary road for 
 a journeyman who starts contracting is to small business 
 buildings, and from these on to larger and larger ones. 
 
 Details. There is no end to the trouble connected with the 
 construction of private houses. From the time the brickwork 
 begins to the putting on of the hardware there are many de- 
 tails to attend to. Contractors do not like this work if they 
 can get a plainer kind. Some of them are afraid of women, 
 who watch the new houses and suggest too many improvements. 
 
 Competition. As almost every bricklayer and carpenter 
 starts on this class of work the competition is severe, and the 
 prices are low. 
 
 Brick Stores and Flats are next, and are much more de- 
 sirable. There are fewer competitors, and they know better 
 what work costs. Prices are consequently a little higher, and 
 not only so, but the details are practically all the same. 
 One floor after another is laid out according to the same plan, 
 much less watchfulness is thus required, and the risk of 
 mistakes greatly reduced. 
 
 Schools are of the same nature, for almost every room is 
 alike. The work is straight, and as large certified checks are 
 often required with bids, this keeps out some undesirable 
 competition and gives an opportunity of getting a better price. 
 
 Great care should be exercised in making out a bid with a 
 certified check, for in case of mistake it is sometimes hard 
 to get it back, and as the bank deducts the amount from the 
 contractor's account, he is sometimes likely to be embarrassed 
 for ready money if it is held up for months. In state and 
 government work a surety bond is occasionally called for 
 
 75 
 
76 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 instead of a check, and the cost should be added to the 
 estimate. 
 
 Best Work. Then come business buildings, offices, ware- 
 houses, hotels, and such structures. This is really the best 
 class of work to engage in, but requires capital. The struc- 
 tures are large and the details are often heavy and plain. It is 
 all straight sailing, for brickwork, cut stone, girders, joists, 
 doors, windows, and steel beams are all about the same. If 
 the work is in the popular style of reinforced concrete con- 
 struction there is likely to be even a less departure from 
 plainness, as that is almost an essential part of such 
 buildings. 
 
 Undesirables. Some contractors fight shy of putting up a 
 building for an architect while others are fond of that kind 
 of work, which would seem 'to indicate that there are men 
 with different views in the business. 
 
 Contractors have also a kind of prejudice against church 
 buildings. They have to pay the current rates for material 
 and labor on churches as well as on saloons or warehouses, 
 but somehow the building committees are inclined to ask for 
 and expect cut rates, and also a little donation for the good 
 of the cause in settling up. 
 
 All this might be taken as a part of the day's work, but 
 final payments are often unreasonably delayed, owing to the 
 inability to collect the subscriptions which make the building 
 possible. 
 
 Contractors cannot afford to neglect this field, however, for 
 there is a great deal of such building done. During the first 
 nine months of 1909, for example, $13,000,000 worth of 
 churches were built or planned in the fourteen southern states 
 alone, if we include the District of Columbia, Oklahoma, and 
 Texas. Ninety were built in the latter state, at a cost of 
 $2,500,000. There are many steers in Texas, but also quite a 
 few churches. 
 
 Capital. In purchasing material we saw that the rule 
 is very plain. It is, Buy cheap in large quantities. It is 
 easy enough to point out what kind of work pays best also, 
 but in both cases a good sized bank account is required before 
 going far. 
 
 Jobbing. There is a large field here for those who like 
 to make the old look new. Almost all buildings need to 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 77 
 
 be repaired or changed in course of time, in one feature or 
 another. Each new tenant has some special requirements. 
 
 Customers. If a good class of owners is found the work 
 pays well enough, but it needs more attention than new work, 
 and is often made up of such small items as tries the patience. 
 A man may have to be sent several miles to rehang a door 
 or plane a sash. The work of itself is probably not worth 
 more than fifty cents, but the time going and coming, and 
 the necessary profit on the transaction runs up a bill that is 
 often unsatisfactory to the owner. 
 
 Slow Progress. Another unpleasant feature is that jobbing 
 is different from new work in the time taken. At the end of 
 the week there seems to be far too little done. The con- 
 tractor cannot help this, and neither can the men. It belongs 
 to the nature of the business. 
 
 Collections. Besides other troubles there is often too much 
 time taken in collecting a small bill. Often more time is 
 wasted than the profit amounts to. 
 
 Yet, with all its disadvantages, there are firms in large cities 
 that do nothing else than jobbing, and they make it pay well. 
 They have to charge high prices, and consider not merely the 
 time at the work itself, but going and coming, telephone rent, 
 shop rent, insurance, and everything else but sentiment. 
 
 Tips. One unpleasant feature of the business in very large 
 cities is the necessity for tipping. Some of the underlings in 
 large establishments can help or hinder considerably, and 
 rather than be annoyed by them contractors have been 
 known to slip a few dollars into their uneasy palm to get 
 the work done quicker and cheaper. 
 
 Prospects. Some good contracts may come through the 
 acquaintance made in jobbing. For this reason many keep 
 on with the work even when they do not expect to make much 
 profit out of it directly. 
 
 Location. A shop in the central part of town is better 
 than one on the outskirts, but now that we have telephones 
 the difference is not so great as formerly. But most of the 
 trade comes from the thickly settled districts, and the head- 
 quarters should be near them, and also near the hardware 
 and other stores. 
 
 Government Work. Another class of work that lies outside 
 the field of the ordinary contractor is that done by the 
 
78 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 national government or state. It requires more capital than 
 many have, and the conditions are stricter than with com- 
 mercial building. The superintendent has more power, and 
 there is less chance of appealing from his decision with suc- 
 cess, and none to take the injustice to law. 
 
 It often happens that officers of the army, navy, or some 
 other branch of the government are appointed as superintend- 
 ents, and they are better acquainted with quite a few other 
 things than with buildings. There is an excellent field here 
 for those with plenty of capital. They have the satisfaction 
 of putting up a class of buildings that will last, and the com- 
 petition is with men who usually take work only for a good 
 price. 
 
 Unchanged Conditions. The government must treat all 
 alike, and thus cannot change conditions as readily as a private 
 owner can do. The idea is to do the work according to the 
 rules laid down by the United States, as represented by cer- 
 tain humans who eat bread like the rest of us; and we must 
 put in bids and carry through the contract as they want and 
 not as we think best. If the contractor refuses to go ahead 
 the government will put men in to finish the work at his 
 expense or that of his surety. He has no lien, and the bond 
 required is about fifty per cent, of the contract price. An 
 amount per day is stated as liquidated damages in case the 
 work is not finished in time. 
 
 Advantages. On the other hand, the plans and specifica- 
 tions are clear, and the details are plentiful and complete; 
 the time and amount of payments are settled beforehand 
 and sure; and the reserve is usually only ten per cent.; if 
 the contractor really gets " stuck " he is paid for the materials 
 delivered on the ground as well as installed in the building, 
 in order to help him out with ready cash. It is rather a 
 poor idea to get too low on government work, however. It 
 should either be figured high enough to cover all contingencies 
 or let alone. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 SPECULATIVE BUILDING, OR READY-MADE 
 HOUSES 
 
 Dangers. Many people now buy their houses as they buy 
 their clothes ready-made. They make their money begin to 
 draw interest or save rent within a few days after it is paid 
 over instead of waiting for several months before the house 
 can be finished. They gain by this course, but honest con- 
 tractors know that they also lose something. They do not 
 know the quality of the material in the house and whether 
 there is enough of it in places that are covered; and the 
 painter has often to be called back in rather too brief a 
 period. 
 
 Profit. Some contractors make fortunes in this line of 
 work. They are subject to no owner's whims and interfer- 
 ences; and in general they are independent of an architect. 
 If they do hire one they can set aside his ideas whenever they 
 are so disposed. 
 
 Method. The method followed by many in cities is to buy 
 cheap lots and borrow money from the loan association to 
 erect the building. The purchaser usually pays to the builder 
 the whole selling price, less the loan from the association, 
 which he assumes. The builder, with his money in his pocket, 
 is then free to go elsewhere and erect another house, or several. 
 
 The purchaser pays $1.10 per hundred dollars of the loan 
 per month. This extinguishes principal and interest in about 
 ten years. Thus if the amount borrowed was $1,000 the 
 monthly rate would be $11. Most of the loans are paid in 
 about seven years. 
 
 Expenses. Of course the owner has to take care of the 
 house, pay the taxes, repairs, and other expenses, and he has 
 also to stand the usual depreciation of property. Nevertheless, 
 tens of thousands of people get homes in just this way, and 
 there is thus a large field for a builder. 
 
 79 
 
80 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Cheap Work. One of the best equipments of a speculative 
 builder is an easy conscience. There are some of them who 
 do good work, but most of it is of an inferior quality. They 
 paper the walls, however, and thus hide some defects. 
 
 If this class of building is well done it will cost just as 
 much as that built under other methods, and the price will 
 have to be raised to suit. The idea in buying these houses is 
 too often to get a cheap bargain, and the house itself has to 
 suffer. 
 
 Buying. Here the caution about buying material, given in 
 another chapter, is applicable. It is to buy cheap in large quan- 
 tities. The speculative builder usually does buy cheap, and hire 
 lower priced men than the large builder is allowed to on 
 account of the labor unions. Most building of this kind is 
 done by a volunteer force, as it were, and not by the regulars; 
 and the conditions that are almost forced upon the larger 
 contractors do not usually apply to the builders of ready- 
 made houses. 
 
 Risk. There is the risk that the houses may not sell. One 
 sees some that stand for a whole year vacant and unsold. 
 The monthly payments to the loan company have still to be 
 kept up, however. The contractor who is short of money 
 ought to be sure of his sales before going too deep. 
 
 Real Estate Men. Some real estate firms do a very large 
 business in this line, but they have better facilitie.s for making 
 sales than a builder, for it does not pay him to sell through 
 others and thus cut the commission out of his profits. 
 
 Abstract. As the customers of a speculative builder are 
 almost sure to ask for an abstract of title, no land should 
 be bought without one brought up to date. It is better to 
 have the title guaranteed by a company that makes a business 
 of doing this work. This, however, is one of the things that 
 is usually left undone. 
 
 Lot Values. In buying property it should be remembered 
 that lots in an ordinary residence section never increase be- 
 yond a limited value. Where houses are built close together, 
 as in the poorer sections of a city, the price of the lots after 
 reaching a certain figure remains there. The trolley car gives 
 a chance of a better lot further out for less money. 
 
 location. The character of the neighborhood should also 
 determine to a large extent the cost of the building. Roughly 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 81 
 
 speaking, the following table gives an approximate idea of 
 what the value of a residence should be in proportion to that 
 of a lot. 
 
 LAND FRONTAGE COST OF RESIDENCE 
 
 $ 250 30 ft. $1,000 to $1,500 
 
 500 30 ft. 1,800 to 2,500 
 
 1,000 40 ft. 3,000 to 4,000 
 
 1,500 50 ft. 4,500 to 5,500 
 
 2,000 50 ft. 6,000 to 8,000 
 
 Tract of Land. The speculative builder who can work on a 
 large enough scale can determine the character of a whole 
 neighborhood by buying a sufficient acreage to control the 
 development himself. This is where large profits are often 
 made, not merely on the cost of the houses, but on the rise 
 of the land in value. In this field, as in so many others, the 
 man with money can make money. 
 
 Depreciation. If a contractor puts up a building for rent 
 he should remember that there is a law of depreciation. 
 From iy 2 to 3 per cent, has to be charged off the value of 
 the property, and repairs, insurance, and taxes have to be 
 considered. When the probable vacancies are taken into ac- 
 count, the net return is not so much more than can be had 
 by investing in city bonds or mortgages, which mean less 
 trouble. 
 
 Houses, we know, should not decay so soon as they do, if 
 they are well built and taken care of, but we have to average 
 things up in general, and remember that no one takes as 
 good care of your house as you do yourself. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 OFFICE EQUIPMENT 
 
 Growth. The city of Omaha in which I write has about 
 125,000 people, not including South Omaha with about 26,000 
 more. The first postmaster of Omaha died only a few years 
 ago, and his office was in his hat. He used to carry around 
 the letters for the town there, and hand them to his con- 
 stituents as they met. In this case a big head would have 
 been a better equipment than it usually is. 
 
 Many a contractor of our day has an office in his inside 
 pocket. He is afraid to use the hat around a building. This 
 means that a good deal of business may be conducted on a 
 very small equipment. It is but right that we should start 
 out on that basis. 
 
 System. The " system " men are hard at work after even 
 the small contractor. It is well, but do not spend $1.43y 2 
 to keep track of 98 cents. It does not pay. Too much system 
 is like having ten trowels to lay 1,000 brick. All system and 
 no results comes to be like a Spanish dinner all tablecloth, 
 and nothing to eat. 
 
 Somewhere between the style that carries everything in its 
 hat and the other that works by too many rules is about right. 
 A top heavy system is out of place for a light business. 
 When working on a plant for railroad shops I saw that the 
 Motive Power people put in 100-ton cranes to lift locomotives 
 and carry them to any place desired. Some heavy cranes 
 have what are called auxiliary hoists to take up light weights. 
 It does not pay to turn on the power for a 100-ton crane to 
 lift a wheelbarrow. Paving stones should not be used to kill 
 flies, nor sledges to drive a tack; and neither should the small 
 office be run on the same lines as the large one. 
 
 Beginning. Begin on the auxiliary hoist business, and 
 nothing will hinder you from looking forward to the time 
 when you will be a 100-ton contractor with a splendid system 
 made out to suit your own wants. 
 
 82 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 83 
 
 Stationery. About the first thing needed, even in a small 
 business, is some printed matter envelopes, letterheads, and 
 cards. A fairly good quality of material should be used, but 
 nothing too expensive. In spite of the paper manufacturers, 
 and the printers, contractors know that the size of the bid is 
 the main thing, and not the kind of paper it is made out on. 
 
 Safety: Exchange. If an office can be afforded to begin 
 with, it is a good idea to get one in a fireproof building. 
 Rents are high in such places, and all over the country con- 
 tractors have found it a good plan to join together in an 
 exchange where there is plenty of room and each one gets a 
 mail box. The average builder has to spend too much time 
 on his outside work to require a large office. An exchange 
 satisfies his requirement better than an individual office would, 
 for there is always a secretary to attend the telephone, and it 
 serves as a meeting place with subcontractors, and thus saves 
 time. The cost is much less than on the individual system. 
 
 It is also a safe place to keep records if the building is 
 fireproof. 
 
 Books. Another advantage of an exchange is that a good 
 library can be looked through to settle any trade question or 
 get information. Not that a library will help a contractor 
 to make more money; in fact, in spite of the college advertise- 
 ments, it is probably true, as a well-known stone mason said 
 nearly a century ago, that the fewer books a man is acquainted 
 with, the more money he is likely to make. He concentrates 
 his mind on one subject instead of spreading his attention over 
 many. The real money-maker is like a hog he roots always 
 in the ground. His snout is not turned after air castles. 
 When a crown is presented to him in the heaven that all good 
 contractors are going to, he will be caught, as usual, looking 
 down and not up, looking in and not out, and thus reversing 
 the good Chautauqua motto, and shaming the trade. 
 
 But the trade books save time, and this is as good as money. 
 There are " Sweet's Index," " Arthur's Estimator," many lum- 
 ber reckoners, and other valuable tools of trade. For example, 
 there is an " Expeditious Measurer," by Nash, that gives the 
 cubic contents of stones of all sizes. It is a time saver 
 for those who have to figure up stone in the usual way. 
 
 This is an age of electricity, vacuum cleaners, flying ships, 
 and many other wonders, and why waste your brain matter 
 
84 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 figuring up stone, lumber or plaster if someone had tabulated 
 it all for you? I once bought a lumber reckoner with tables 
 figured up to 100 pieces, and instead of doing the work myself 
 I merely turned over to the right page. To figure up stone 
 by the duodecimal or any other method, and lumber in the 
 usual way is like carrying up brick in a hod. We now use 
 motors and hoists. 
 
 Dictionary. A good unabridged dictionary is sometimes 
 useful. In cities we see old editions sold for a dollar. 
 
 A Thousand Authors. Every contractor should write a 
 book of his own. It would be called a Price Book. Prices 
 would be jotted down and dated, and in course of time a 
 book of this kind would be valuable, especially when one went 
 away from home and catalogs, or had to make an approximate 
 estimate for an architect on plans that could not be taken 
 out of his office. The removable leaf book is an improvement 
 upon the ordinary style. 
 
 Equipment. There is no limit to what might be purchased, 
 and the system men are making matters worse every day. 
 A contractor could soon make a showroom of his office if he 
 bought everything that was recommended to him. 
 
 More Safety. Most of them, ho\vever, if they do not have 
 an office in a fireproof building, should have a safe, or at 
 least a safety deposit vault which costs only from $3 to $5 
 per year. Is it worth while to risk valuable papers for such 
 a small amount? 
 
 We might change the form of the old question and ask, 
 When is a safe not a safe? The answer would be, When it 
 gets into a fire, if we accept the U. S. Government report at 
 San Francisco. The tenants would have been better without 
 safes, according to the expert. They merely gave a false feeling 
 of security. He says, " The only vaults I saw that came 
 through a really fierce fire without damage were those built 
 of brickwork. Even these vaults did not always protect their 
 contents, however." The same thing happened at Baltimore. 
 
 Safe Vaults. I have drawn plans for vaults with two 
 9-inch walls and an air space between, and considered them 
 safe enough, but not since reading the San Francisco report. 
 Each wall ought to be at least 13 inches thick, laid in Portland 
 cement mortar, with a 2-inch air space. The roof should have 
 13-inch arches covered with heavy concrete. This would cost 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 85 
 
 probably 4100 extra on a fair sized vault, but why build one 
 at all unless it is to be safe? 
 
 Raising the Limit. When we draw a check we limit the 
 amount, but there are men whose business is to raise our 
 limit. They change the figures and the writing. It is some- 
 times easily done. They even perforate more figures, in front 
 or behind those already on the check. Perforated checks are 
 at least an additional safeguard, but cases have been known 
 where the perforations have been filled. 
 
 Limit Line. The best device for preventing check raising 
 seems to be a limit line, such as, Not over twenty dollars. 
 When acid proof ink is pressed into the slits that are cut out 
 it is practically impossible to change the figures. 
 
 Risk. The danger is greater than is imagined. In 1908 
 the sum of $5,000,000 was stolen by this means. A cypher 
 added to 7 makes 70, and ty put on the end of seven makes 
 the job complete. Yet the treasurer of a large railroad com- 
 pany told me in October, 1910, that he had never seen a raised 
 check presented among tens of thousands of good ones. 
 
 Examples. In 1903 a check drawn for $100 was raised to 
 $8,100. The man who drew it found his account $8,000 short 
 at the end of the month. He sued the bank, but the courts 
 held against him. That experience cost him $8,000 and legal 
 expenses. 
 
 The law is that the bank is responsible for the payment of 
 a forged check, but not for a check correctly signed. If the 
 amount has been raised that is held to be owing to the careless- 
 ness of the man who drew the check. He should have pro- 
 tected himself. 
 
 In another case, interesting to contractors, a Chicago cement 
 company drew a check and had it certified for $27, and it was 
 raised to $27,000. It was dated January 29, 1909. The check 
 raisers then drew $17,000 from the account. In this check 
 after " Twenty-seven " a long blank space was left, and then 
 " and no. " i n the usual way. In the space considerately left 
 for him before the " and," the artist merely put " Thous.," and 
 this, according to the rules of the spelling book, made " Thou- 
 sand." There was also a space left between the $27 and the 
 fo, and it was filled in with "000," which made every- 
 thing correct according to Hoyle, the great authority on 
 banking. 
 
86 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 In the $100 check the same method was followed. Too 
 much space was left between the $ and the 100, and the 8 
 just fitted. The writing " One hundred," instead of being 
 kept as closely as possible to the left hand end of the check 
 was put in the center, and a long line drawn before, as well 
 as after it. Part of the line was removed with acid, pre- 
 sumably, or probably with ordinary ink eradicator, and 
 " Eighty " filled in. This is the new " Black Art." 
 
 Paper. We are told that no kind of paper protects against 
 this work. Burglary used to be the favorite way of getting 
 money illegally, that is, outside the realms of " high finance," 
 but forgery and check raising have taken the place of that 
 risky business. Only a few years ago there used to be more 
 cases of burglary than forgery; in 1908 there were seven cases 
 of forgery and check raising to one of burglary. Like light- 
 ning, this affliction might never affect you, but it might strike 
 to-morrow. 
 
 Drawing Checks. While the artists seem to be hard to beat 
 we might at least observe a few ordinary precautions in draw- 
 ing checks, and not lead them into temptation. 
 
 First of all, write heavily. Do not make a check payable 
 to bearer if it can be avoided. It may be lost; it may get 
 into strange hands. 
 
 Do not leave a blank space after the name so that " or 
 bearer " may be added. Either spread the name out to fill 
 the space or use heavy lines. 
 
 Put the figures as closely after the $ mark as they will go. 
 Write them so closely together that " 1 " cannot be put in 
 between. After the amount put the fraction hard against it, 
 and put it "plumb." Thus it would be ^, ^, ^V, or 
 whatever the figure was, and not no/100, 13/100, 87/100. In 
 the last style the figures before the 100 might be erased and 
 give room for one or two to be added to the main amount. 
 
 Of course, after all is said, we must remember that ordinary 
 ink can easily be taken off. The old joke used to be " Every- 
 thing is burnt except the policy," and the new trouble is that 
 everything can be taken off except the signature. How is a 
 banker to know that you do not have a clerk to fill out the 
 body of the check, as many have, and leave only the signature 
 for yourself? The difference in writing is no guide for him. 
 The signature only counts. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 87 
 
 Machine. A limiting machine costs about $30 to $35- All 
 Builders' Exchanges might easily have one. 
 
 Procuring. Sometimes the mail boxes of a business district 
 are rifled to get checks; and pay checks for workmen fall into 
 other hands than those they are meant for. This is one of 
 the disadvantages of paying by check. When you give a check 
 to a business firm you know that it will go straight from it 
 to the bank, but it is different with the others. 
 
 An Ohio bank gave a stranger a draft for $10, and had to 
 pay $10,000, and "go busted." A bank in Chicago paid 
 $15,000 on a western draft that was made out for $3. 
 
 Files. A few cases for letters are desirable. They do not 
 take up much room, and letters filed, preferably according to 
 subject, are easily found. Of course, when there are many 
 dealings with one particular firm, they might be filed under 
 its name. 
 
 When a letter is taken out for some time, a " dummy " should 
 be substituted, with date and name or initials of one who 
 received it. In large offices only one person is allowed to 
 touch the files, so that letters and drawings may not be 
 misplaced. In an office where there are several thousand draw- 
 ings and as many letters, one put in the wrong place may 
 mean a search of days. 
 
 System. It would save much trouble when writing to large 
 firms with several departments to use a different letter for 
 each subject. One envelope might be used for several letters, 
 if necessary, but an order for toilet soap should not be put 
 on the same page as one for millwork. Elsewhere it is stated 
 that two mail order houses received 18,000,000 letters in a 
 year. Those who have seen the great plants in Chicago know 
 that they carry on an immense business. One department 
 opens the letters, but they have to be distributed among many, 
 and it is better to address the right one. So with railroads, 
 wholesale houses, and other great establishments. If you wish 
 to save time send your communication to the right place. 
 
 Then with hundreds and thousands of letters to file, large 
 firms have numbers or alphabet letters to guide them to the 
 filing case. In replying to any such letters reference should 
 be made to the number or whatever it is. How would you 
 like to search through such files to get the original letters to 
 which yours is the reply? Probably you waited two months 
 
88 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 before answering. But if you put down the signs at the head 
 of their letter X D, 2385 they will place you in three 
 seconds. 
 
 Typewriter. As already noted, the amount of the bid is 
 what counts, and not the quality of the paper or the Spencerian 
 brand of the writing; and while a typewriter is desirable for 
 making out bids, etc., it is not really necessary. Nevertheless, 
 it looks " business-like," and $25 will buy a second-hand one. 
 
 Copy. By using a machine, a carbon copy may be made of 
 all bids and important correspondence. It does not need the 
 court records to inform us that human memory is short. A 
 short record is valuable, and carbon copies are easily made. 
 
 An Adding Machine is not seen so often as it should be. 
 For some years, in a railroad office, I was one myself. A 
 few departments get expensive machines and merely press a 
 key to get a column of correct figures, but builders are not 
 among the elect. There are machines which sell for several 
 hundred dollars and others for $25. Addition is a dangerous 
 thing for a contractor to trifle with. 
 
 Card Index. Under proper conditions a card index is use- 
 ful. It can be made a permanent Price Book that has to stay 
 in the office of the contractor. 
 
 There are contractors who have a great deal of information 
 in their possession, but they cannot find it. It is buried in 
 the mass of dead records. When Oliver Goldsmith got some 
 money, he used to roll the gold pieces around his room so 
 that some of them might fall into the chinks of the floor, or 
 behind the rotten wainscoting. Then when he ran short of 
 money, he went down on his knees and searched. When he 
 found a coin he rejoiced with great joy. Many contractors 
 are like Oliver. They get valuable information and scatter it 
 they don't know where. Then comes the search. There is a 
 better way. 
 
 Telephone. A " phone " is usually considered necessary in 
 these days. When the builders join together in an exchange 
 one phone serves for the whole crowd. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 BOOKKEEPING 
 
 Learning. During the evenings of one winter I went to a 
 business college to learn the art of keeping books. The system 
 followed was double entry. I used it for several years, and 
 found it to work well, but there is more trouble connected 
 with it than is altogether agreeable for a busy contractor who 
 cannot hire a clerk. 
 
 The Trial Balance has to be taken off whenever a squaring 
 up is desired, and Justice with the scales in her hand is not 
 more exacting than a trial balance in double entry bookkeeping. 
 Much time is wasted in hunting for the few cents that seem 
 to be anywhere but where they should be. 
 
 There is a book entitled, " Fifty Rules for Errors in Trial 
 Balances," and a five-foot shelf might be filled with others 
 on the same absorbing question. What requires so much elab- 
 oration and attention is too complicated for a man who has a 
 gang of tradesmen waiting for him. It does not pay to lose 
 $10 to get an error of 5 cents rectified. 
 
 Theorists. The business colleges give too much detail. 
 What is needed is a simpler system than they teach. The 
 question is not, "How much clerical work can I use?" but 
 " How little can I get along with ? " Now, the double entry 
 system is the best to be had, for it checks as it goes. The 
 accounts must balance. But a small contractor does not need 
 it, and probably nine out of ten use a simpler method. All 
 that is required is a system of record, and sharp eyes can see 
 that the balance is maintained, although there is no check as 
 in the double system. 
 
 Variety. There are a thousand and one variations of the 
 systems. Each business house has some pet one of its own. 
 What is set forth below is merely for a suggestion. Each 
 one can figure out something for his own use that may be 
 better or worse. 
 
90 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 A Type. For an illustration of a record system one build- 
 ing will do as well as another. What serves for a $2,000 one 
 will also work for another that costs $200,000. Let us take 
 one at $2,300, as fewer figures will be needed than with a 
 more expensive structure. 
 
 We shall assume that the general contractor takes this 
 frame house in the way they are often taken, that is, including 
 everything except plumbing and heating. 
 
 Opening of the Books. This is supposed to be something 
 dreadfully mysterious. W T hen his sister asked the little boy 
 for the core of the apple, he replied, " There ain't goin' to be 
 no core." So here, there ain't goin' to be no opening. 
 
 Put your name and address at the beginning of the books 
 that they may be identified, deposit your money in the bank, 
 which gives a bank book as a record of cash on hand, and the 
 books, and you are ready for business. We proceed as below, 
 after supposing the contractor to be as far along as his 14th 
 contract. The 1st or the 50th would be handled in the same 
 way. 
 
 Day Book. First of all, the contractor should have a Day 
 Book, or Blotter, in which he should set down EVERY 
 item. Ink should be used, if possible, but pencil is often 
 made to serve. Pencil marks can be erased, however, and 
 an erasure should never be seen in a set of books, on any 
 system. If a mistake is made, a line should be drawn 
 through it, so that the writing may still be seen, and no 
 erasing done, or the judge in court will hold against the 
 records. 
 
 A Ledger is also required, and that is all. After the con- 
 tractor gets further along he can start a double entry system 
 with Day Book, Journal, Cash Book, and Ledger. 
 
 Cash. It is a good idea to keep all cash transactions 
 separate, and a column is used for that purpose. 
 
 Contract No. 14. Suppose, then, that a carpenter contrac- 
 tor receives a contract for building a house for J. B. Phidias. 
 The Uniform Contract is used, and that is a good record. 
 Indeed, when we consider bank book record, contract records, 
 bids, monthly statements of dealers, and time book, we could 
 almost safely follow the plan that some pride themselves upon, 
 and keep no books. We might let the others, who have more 
 time, do that for us. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 91 
 
 Starting. On any page of the Day Book, and on any side, 
 if it is wide enough for a double column, we can begin to 
 make our entries. If one side is not wide enough to hold the 
 two columns, we can carry the writing clear across to the 
 other. If you open an ordinary book, you will see that 
 printers always put the even numbers of the page on the left 
 hand side, and the odd on the right, just as in this book, for 
 example. We should open the Day Book and make our entry 
 on the even number side, and carry it across to the odd 
 number side, in case the one page was not wide enough for the 
 two columns. This looks plain enough. 
 
 CONTRACT NO. 14 
 
 Nov. 2, 1909. Signed Contract No. 14 
 
 with J. B. Phidias $2,300.00 
 
 " " " Bought lumber for No. 14 
 
 from M. A. Pinchot 430.00 
 
 " " " Signed Uniform Subcon- 
 tract for masonry on 
 No. 14 with B. A. Brick 240.00 
 
 " " " Let contract for excavation 
 on No. 14 to J. P. 
 Trench at 30 cents per 
 
 yd- 
 
 " " " Let contract for millwork 
 
 on No. 14 to O. F. Osh- 
 
 kosh 200.00 
 
 " 3 " Signed U. Subcontract for 
 
 plaster on No. 14 with 
 
 R. S. Acme 149.50 
 
 " " " Bought bill hardware on 
 
 No. 14 from E. F. Sar- 
 
 geant 59.50 
 
 " " " Signed U. Subcontract for 
 
 paint on No. 14 with 0. 
 
 B. Murillo 151.00 
 
 " " " Let contract for electric 
 
 wiring on No. 14 to W. A. 
 
 Ampere 36.00 
 
 " " " Let tin work on No. 14 to 
 
 O. S. Taylor 43.00 
 
92 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Nov. 3, 1909. Bought mantel and hearth 
 set for No. 14 from O. 
 
 N. Nelson $48.00 
 
 " 6 " Paid for carpenters' wages 
 
 on No. 14 $ 16.40 
 
 " 13 " Paid for carpenters' wages 
 
 on No. 14 43.20 
 
 " " " Paid B. A. Brick on No. 
 
 14 100.00 
 
 " 20 " Paid for carpenters' wages 
 
 on No. 14 48.00 
 
 1 " 25 " Rec'd from J. B. Phidias 
 
 on No. 14 320.00 
 
 "27 " Paid for carpenters' wages 
 
 on No. 14 30.20 
 
 " 30 " Paid J. P. Trench for ex- 
 cavation on No. 14 in 
 full, 100 yds. at 30 cents 30.00 
 
 " " " Paid to M. A. Pinchot on 
 
 No. 14 100.00 
 
 Dec. 4, 1909. Paid for carpenters' wages 
 
 on No. 14 34.10 
 
 " 7 " Agreed on price of Extra 
 No. 1, on No. 14 with 
 J. B. Phidias (masonry 
 
 at stair) 34.20 
 
 " " " Gave stair extra masonry 
 
 on No. 14 to B. A. Brick 24.30 
 
 " " " Bought office supplies 
 
 (charge to No. 14) 1.05 
 
 "11 " Paid for carpenters' wages 
 
 on No. 14 27.80 
 
 " 17 " Paid B. A. Brick on No. 14 68.00 
 
 " 18 " Paid carpenters' wages on 
 
 No. 14 21.00 
 
 " 24 " Rec'd from J. B. Phidias on 
 
 No. 14 450.00 
 
 " " " Paid M. A. Pinchot on 
 
 No. 14 120.00 
 
 " " " Paid carpenters' wages on 
 
 No. 14 . 21.00 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 93 
 
 Dec. 31, 1909. Paid for express on No. 14 $ 1.30 
 
 " " " Bought extra lumber on 
 No. 14 as per bill rec'd 
 
 from M. A. Pinchot $13.20 
 
 Jan. 4, 1910. Paid R. S. Acme for plaster 
 
 on No. 14 100.00 
 
 " 8 " Paid carpenters' wages on 
 
 No. 14 16.40 
 
 "13 " Rec'd from J. B. Phidias on 
 
 No. 14 380.00 
 
 " " " Paid O. F. Oshkosh on No. 14 100.00 
 
 " " " " O. S. Taylor on No. 14 35.00 
 
 " " " W. A. Ampere on No. 
 
 14 30.00 
 
 " " " " O. B. Murillo 70.00 
 
 " " " " E. F. Sargeant 20.00 
 
 " " " Deducted from B. A. Brick 
 
 contract on No. 14 for 
 
 basement floor 17.00 
 
 " " " Deducted for change in base- 
 ment floor from contract 
 
 on No. 14 with J. B. 
 
 Phidias 15.00 
 
 "15 " Paid for carpenters' wages 
 
 on No. 14..- 85.00 
 
 " 22 " Paid for carpenters' wages 
 
 on No. 14 93.00 
 
 " " " Rec'd from J. B. Phidias on 
 
 No. 14 600.00 
 
 " " " Paid M. A. Pinchot on No. 14 80.00 
 
 " " " " O. F. Oshkosh on No. 14 40.00 
 
 " " " " B. A. Brick on No. 14 30.00 
 
 " " " " carpenters' wages on 
 
 No. 14 30.00 
 
 " 29 " Paid carpenters' wages on 
 
 No. 14... ' 8.50 
 
 " " " Rec'd payment in full from 
 
 J. B. Phidias on No. 14. . 569.20 
 
 " " " Paid M. A. Pinchot in full on 
 
 No, 14 . 143.20 
 
94 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Jatt. 29, 1910. Paid 0. F. Oshkosh in full 
 
 on No. 14 | 
 
 " " " Paid O. S. Taylor in full on 
 
 No. 14 
 
 " " " Paid W. A. Ampere in full 
 
 on No. 14 
 
 " " " Paid E. F. Sargeant in full 
 
 on No. 14 
 
 " " " Paid R. S. Acme in full on 
 
 No. 14 
 
 " " " Paid O. B. Murillo in full 
 
 on No. 14 
 
 " " " Paid B. A. Brick in full on 
 
 No. 14 
 
 " " " Paid 0. N. Nelson in full on 
 
 No. 14.. 
 
 EEMAEKS 
 
 Lists as Records. Bills of material are bought from lists 
 made out and kept by the contractor. There is no use re- 
 peating these in the books. Any extra received during the 
 month may be considered as bought in a lump, and set down 
 without being detailed out, like the item of $13.20 on December 
 31. This may have come on various dates all through the 
 month. The lumberman does his daily bookkeeping, but the 
 contractor can take advantage of the summaries at the end 
 of the month and enter the complete item at once. So with 
 hardware or anything else. Even if bills are sent upon de- 
 livery it is easy enough to let them accumulate. The dealer 
 will not forget the total when the time comes. 
 
 Number. The advantage of setting a number to a job is 
 that it can be easily identified in this way, and a number is 
 far shorter than a name. In the illustration above only one 
 building is listed, but there might be two or three going on. 
 Numbers 11, 12, 13 would thus have to appear all through 
 mixed in the Day Book with 14, and they must be kept 
 separate. But while this number is put in the ledger heading 
 of the account of Phidias it is not in that of any of the 
 others, because the chances are that while there may be only 
 one contract with Phidias, there might be several with dealers 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 95 
 
 and subcontractors, and the heading of No. 14 would not suit 
 if 12 or 15 had to appear also. 
 
 Everything. Each item, no matter on which job, should 
 be marked down in this Day Book just as it comes up under 
 the date, and by using numbers there is no danger of getting 
 things mixed. Sometimes, as with giving out contracts on 
 November 2, and making payments on January 29, a good 
 many entries can be made for the one job, and this is better 
 when it can be done than mixing numbers. 
 
 Everything must be carefully checked off from the Day 
 Book to the Ledger, or Statement, or Master Card, for there 
 is no safe check like the double entry one here. An item of 
 wages, for example, might be in the Day Book and not be 
 transferred to the Master Card. In such a case the profits 
 would look larger than they really were. 
 
 In getting monthly statements contractors should insist 
 that extras should appear by themselves, and not mixed with 
 the main bill. There is no occasion for having anything more 
 to do with that till the settlement at the end. If the separate 
 items on a main bill are charged to a contractor as delivered 
 he has quite a time identifying them and finding out if they 
 are charged in detail as they are as a whole. He should, of 
 course, pay on it as he gets his estimates, but refuse to dis- 
 sect it to please any bookkeeper. I once had a long struggle 
 with one of this kind. 
 
 Ledger. Now comes our " Ledger," or rather, our State- 
 ment, for it is not a ledger. One was prepared and thrown 
 aside for this book. To be of any value to busy con- 
 tractors this suggested plan must be simple and take little 
 time. 
 
 At the end of each month, or as often as desired a " balance " 
 can be worked out in the following way : 
 
 DATE NAME CONTRACT NO. AM'T REC'l> BALANCE 
 
 14 AND EXTRAS TO DATE DUE 
 
 Jan. 1, 1910. J. B. Phidias $2,334.20 $770.00 $1,564.20 
 
 The same form suits for the subcontractors, but the number 
 of the contract may vary in the heading, as they may have 
 several contracts going on with our supposed general con- 
 tractor. 
 
96 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 CONTRACTS AMOUNT 
 
 DATE 
 
 NAME 
 
 AND REC D 
 EXTRAS TO DATE 
 
 BALANCE 
 DUE 
 
 Jan. 1, 1910. Pinchot on No. 14 $443.20 $220.00 $223.20 
 
 " " " Brick on No. 14 264.30 168.00 96.30 
 
 " " " O. S. Taylor on No. 14 43.00 43.00 
 
 " " " Carp'r wages on No. 14 241.70 
 
 This system is carried down until each name is taken care 
 of. If several buildings are subcontracted for by Taylor, 
 suppose, the entries can be made on the same sheet. Thus 
 No. 15 would come below 14, and lower numbers, like 12, 
 would come before it. 
 
 NAME James B. Phidias, Contract No. 14. ACCOUNT NO. 8 
 
 ADDRESS Chicago, HI. SHEET NO. 1. 
 
 DATE 
 
 ITEMS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 DEBIT 
 
 DATE 
 
 ITEMS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CREDI1 
 
 1909 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1909 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nov. 
 
 2 
 
 Contract 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 Nov. 
 
 25 
 
 Cash 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 Dec. 
 
 7 
 
 Extra, No. 1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 Dec. 
 1910- 
 Jan. 
 
 24 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 13 
 
 Deduction 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 5 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Cash 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 29 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 29 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 69 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 NAME M. A. Pinchot, 
 
 ACCOUNT NO. 82. 
 
 ADDRESS Chicago. III. 
 
 SHEET NO. 1. 
 
 1909 
 
 
 
 
 1909 
 
 
 
 
 Nov. 
 
 30 
 
 Cash on 14 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 Nov. 
 
 2 
 
 Lumber on 14 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 Dec. 
 1910- 
 Jan. 
 
 24 
 
 " " 
 
 
 00 
 
 Dec. 
 
 31 
 
 Extra on 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 3 
 
 22 
 
 " " 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 29 
 
 " " 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 4_3 
 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 97 
 
 A separate sheet could be made out for each job, but this 
 would not show the amount connected with each name. Small 
 contractors do not carry on so very many jobs at the same 
 time. Even with half a dozen jobs one sheet like the above 
 could be made to serve. There might be that number of 
 entries under Pinchot, for example, for jobs running from 
 14 to 19, and to find out his balance it would only be 
 necessary to add them together. 
 
 Ledger. If desired a Ledger Statement could be made out 
 for any account that has many entries. The foregoing form 
 is suitable. But this would just be for convenience in seeing 
 how things stood under one name separate from the others. 
 
 Checks. When they are returned from the bank, paste 
 them in the stub book, and thus establish another record that 
 is not hard to keep. 
 
 MASTER CARD OF NO. 14 
 
 Nov. 2, 1909. Contract price 
 
 Dec. 7, 1909. Extra, No. 1 $34.20 
 
 Jan. 12, 1910. Deduction No. 1 15.00 
 
 Total of contract and extras 
 Nov. 2, 1909. Pinchot 
 Dec. 31 " 
 Nov. 2 " 
 Dec. 7 " 
 Jan. 13, 1910. 
 
 $2,300.00 
 
 19.20 
 
 $2,319.20 
 
 Pinchot extra 
 Brick 
 
 Brick extra 
 Brick deduction 
 
 $24.30 
 17.00 
 
 Nov. 2, 1909. 
 " 3 " 
 
 " 30 
 
 Dec. 7 
 
 " 31 
 
 Oshkosh 
 
 Acme 
 
 Sargeant 
 
 Murillo 
 
 Ampere 
 
 Taylor 
 
 Nelson 
 
 Trench 
 
 Office suppli( 
 
 Express 
 
 Total carpenters' wages 
 
 $430.00 
 
 13.20 
 
 240.00 
 
 7.30 
 
 200.00 
 149.50 
 
 59.50 
 151.00 
 
 36.00 
 
 43.00 
 
 48.00 
 
 30.00 
 1.05 
 1.30 
 474.60 $1,884.45 
 
 Profit 
 
 $434.75 
 
98 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Master Card. When some large builders finish a job they 
 make what they call a Master Card. This shows how a contract 
 " panned out." It gives a concise statement of everything in 
 connection with it. The foregoing one shows No. 14 in detail. 
 
 Expenses. There might be deductions to be taken from 
 this. Part of the office expenses if more than one job was 
 going on, that is, if there was an office; liability and fire 
 insurance, if the owner did not take the latter out as agreed 
 in the U. C.; the purchase of tools, if charged in proportion 
 against the job, which is not the usual custom on small work; 
 and other little incidentals. 
 
 Loose Leaves. If from this auxiliary hoist system of 
 bookkeeping the contractor should go forward to the 120-ton 
 crane one for some of the cranes took that load the loose 
 leaf ledger should be considered. It is getting more popular 
 every year. It is easier handled than the ordinary book, and 
 a leaf can be taken out and replaced without any trouble. 
 When a contract is finished, and there are not likely to be 
 any more dealings under that name, the sheet is put out of 
 the way in a binder, and one does not have to turn it over 
 as long as the book lasts. Only open accounts are handled. 
 
 Another advantage is that one does not have to estimate how 
 many pages to give to the letter "E," for example, or S, or 
 W. There is usually waste of space in a bound ledger by a 
 bad estimate, or special requirements, such as a car-load of 
 Smiths coming to town. Then when the bound ledger is 
 filled and there are many open accounts in it, they have 
 all to be transferred to the new one. There are no such 
 transfers necessary in the loose leaf book. 
 
 If an account runs for a long while it is kept up by number- 
 ing the sheets, as Sheet 1, Sheet 2, Sheet 3, and so on; and 
 only the last sheet need be handled, as the others may be put 
 in a binder in the fireproof vault. 
 
 A Card Index Ledger is also used. It is on the same 
 system as the loose leaf one. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 ABOUT KEEPING COSTS 
 
 No System. I remember a contractor who kept from 
 forty to fifty houses going up, and he could never tell how 
 he came out on each building. He followed the lump system 
 so much that he lumped everything together, heads I win, 
 tails I loose. He " went broke." 
 
 Too Much System. There .is another kind of a class 
 arising to vex our souls in these days. They time men with 
 stop watches like horses running a race. The motions of a 
 bricklayer's elbow are photographed, and, as a matter of 
 course, his rear elevation snapped at the same time; and 
 thousands of pictures and buckets of " data " are filled, in- 
 dexed, cross-indexed, tabulated, and even published to startle 
 a somnolent world. 
 
 Between. Somewhere between these two extremes is a safe 
 place for a contractor who knows his men and what they 
 should do in a day. It is long since that shrewd business 
 man, Benjamin Franklin, told us that the eye of the em- 
 ployer is worth a good deal. He does not need a stop watch. 
 
 This does not mean that he should not keep a reasonable 
 account of the quantities handled, for he should, but it does 
 mean that there is a limit to that. There are too many men 
 with only a clerical experience laying down heavy tasks for 
 backs that, after all, are just flesh and blood. 
 
 The Quality. Some engineers have taken to this system 
 with a fondness that is pathetic; and they know best how 
 their large undertakings should be handled; but their system 
 is not required, and could not be afforded for the average 
 building of the average contractor. 
 
 In truth, after a long experience among engineers and their 
 methods of handling building work, I discovered that their 
 labor costs anywhere from 20 to 500 per cent, more than a 
 Guilder could or would pay. 
 
 99 
 
100 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 As a general rule, I should say that for grading, heavy 
 excavations, heavy concrete, pile driving, and whatever is done 
 by common laborers, the engineer is superior to the building 
 contractor, because he does far more of that work and is 
 familiar with the machinery and the methods of handling 
 it. This means an engineer of experience. 
 
 But when we reach high priced building tradesmen, the 
 engineer, nine times out of ten, is a failure. His " force 
 bill," as he calls it, runs outrageously high. 
 
 Luxury. The kind of an organization that seems to be 
 necessary for the engineer is out of place on ordinary build- 
 ings. On their large contracts they have chief engineer, 
 assistant chief engineer, resident engineer, superintendent, 
 manager, foreman, sub-foreman, timekeeper, sub-timekeeper, 
 chief clerk, under clerks, chief cook, ordinary cook, and a 
 little regiment of bottle washers. About one week of that 
 system would land a poor building contractor before the 
 U. S. Commissioner in bankruptcy. 
 
 An Example. Looking back over such a city as this one 
 of Omaha, which I have seen grow from 25,000 to five times 
 as much, it is really surprising to consider with what little 
 amount of record keeping, bookkeeping, and general red tape 
 all the buildings have been erected. It is safe to say that 
 on four-fifths of the building work of the United States the 
 stop watch system is of practically no account. The men 
 are watched by the " boss " on the job. This cannot be done 
 by the large construction companies, for they have buildings 
 going on all over the country. They are on the border line 
 that separates building of the ordinary type from engineering, 
 and require their own record system. 
 
 Foremen. We are told that foremen on engineering work 
 cost from 5 to 15 per cent, of the total wages paid; on a 
 small building the foreman works with the men. On a 
 large one his brains have to do more than his hands. 
 
 Office Expenses. Again, we learn that on engineering 
 work office expenses are from 4 to 8 per cent, of the 
 total cost. This continent has been covered with build- 
 ings from the Atlantic to the Pacific with very little office 
 expense. 
 
 All .this illustrates the difference between engineering and 
 the common type of building work. The necessarily elaborate 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 101 
 
 organization of the one is sharply cofitoasted'witn^thV com- 
 pulsory simplicity of the other. 
 
 How Much. About how much cost keeping should be done 
 by a contractor carrying on a few buildings, and on the 
 ground himself every day? It goes without saying that a 
 separate account should be kept of the different items, such 
 as plaster, painting, and tin work. I have seen large build- 
 ings erected where no one could tell how much each item cost 
 by itself. 
 
 Excavation. If a contractor does this himself, at the close 
 of each day he should make a fair estimate of the amount of 
 earth displaced, and by dividing it by the total wages he 
 can get close to the price the work is going to cost him. 
 Special work, such as clearing off a lot and cutting down 
 trees, should have been allowed separately and checked as it 
 goes on. A few days before I wrote this I saw two men 
 cut down a maple about 2'-0" in diameter, and the work took 
 them about a day. To cut it up in 2-ft. lengths meant 
 another day, but a contractor can sometimes get his trees 
 cut down for nothing for the sake of the wood. 
 
 Average. Work goes a little slower just when it begins 
 or ends, and the first day's output is likely to be smaller 
 than the general average will be later on. 
 
 Filing. The cost of the complete work should be filed with 
 the rate per yard and the wages per hour. It is then ready 
 to refer to for any other excavation in that neighborhood, 
 or under the same conditions elsewhere. 
 
 The time should be kept on special work such as filling in 
 around the building or sloping off. 
 
 Concrete. There might be quite a difference in excavation 
 owing to the nature of the soil; but the placing of concrete 
 should come nearer to the average maintained over the 
 country. Full figures are given in the " Estimator " for all 
 kinds of work done by hand or machine. 
 
 The size of the building has to be taken into account. On 
 a small amount of work the men hardly get warmed up to 
 it before they have to quit. The price per yard is naturally 
 a little higher than on large jobs. 
 
 Averaging. After allowing for the time required to make 
 mixing boards and get started, an average can be struck at 
 the end of the day's work and the unit price established. 
 
102 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 ThV amount " of stc-ne,' s^fid 1 , and cement should be noted on 
 several jobs until the contractor knows what is required. 
 After that he can let the record business die a natural 
 death, so far as this material is concerned. 
 
 Forms. This work is dangerous. In the " Estimator " the 
 actual cost of many jobs of form work is given, and in 
 such detailed shape that it would apply to millions of 
 dollars' worth of contracts if necessary. The detailed figures 
 are from the leading construction companies of the United 
 States. The cost of labor, lumber, nails, concrete, placing 
 steel on reinforced concrete buildings all these things are set 
 down. Do not trifle with form work. You cannot expect 
 to equal the record of the companies which make a specialty 
 of the new kind of structures, but it is well to know what 
 their forms cost them. You have then a fair guide to watch 
 the ones you make. 
 
 Masonry. Foundation rubble should be measured by the 
 cubic yard and watched each day so that the contractor 
 may not find out too late that the cost is going above the 
 estimate. We do not need to follow the slave-driving pol- 
 icy to let any loafer know that his quantities are being 
 w r atched. 
 
 The materials remain close enough to require no watching 
 after the contractor gets acquainted with the business. The 
 time is the vital point. 
 
 Brickwork. This is easier measured than complicated 
 form work. There is no trouble in seeing if the men are 
 doing what they should. I have seen many returns from 
 brick buildings where the labor ran far above what it should 
 have done. It was not checked in time as it ought to have 
 been. The time is given in the " Estimator " for all classes 
 of work. 
 
 Carpentry. A fair idea of the time taken on plain timbers, 
 planking, sheeting, shingles, floors, etc., should be noted as 
 the work goes on. But if a contractor is around among his 
 men his time is worth far more in guiding them than in 
 watching how many minutes it takes to lay each particular 
 joist. At the end of the day this can be done, averaged over 
 the total. 
 
 A good carpenter contractor KNOWS by his experience better 
 than the roll-top desk experts how much material is being 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 103 
 
 handled and whether the men are speeding up, sleeping, or 
 averaging fairly well. 
 
 The quantities of material required for given surfaces do 
 not vary much, and, after a certain experience, any record 
 system is merely a waste of time. Since the time of Rameses 
 a flooring board of a certain width covers a certain surface; 
 and the allowance for waste, is it not set forth in the 
 " Estimator " ? There may be a danger of stealing in some 
 localities, but apart from this or anything of a like nature, 
 the quantities are what our engineering friends call " con- 
 stants." 
 
 Finish. On inside work this personal watchfulness applies 
 even more than on the kind already noted. In some buildings 
 there are so many different kinds of openings and odd work 
 that to keep an account of finishing them would be merely 
 piling up useless records. The same style might never come 
 up again, and when it did, we could shut our eyes and risk 
 it. One of the amusing men in this business is he who says 
 he can tell just exactly what some special design will cost 
 for labor. 
 
 Standards. Of course, on large business buildings with all 
 the openings about the same size or style, a record is of high 
 value. By averaging the time we can get good figures for 
 such another structure. 
 
 Lathing and Plastering. The measurement of the work 
 of these trades is simple, and the amount to be done per day 
 is set down in the " Estimator " for metal and wood lath ; 
 and divided for first, second, and third coats on plaster. 
 
 Painting. A good foreman is better than a record system 
 on this work, unless it is of the plainest kind. More time 
 might be wasted in measuring the other kind than the results 
 were worth. A record can be kept on plain outside work, 
 and floors, doors, and plaster in the inside, but when we come 
 to moldings, grilles, balusters, and such special designs, it is 
 of more importance to see that the men keep busy than to try 
 to measure the surface they cover. 
 
 Filing. What is useful in time records should be filed, 
 and also what is special relating to material. What does not 
 come under these heads should be thrown away. There are 
 some establishments that would be much benefited by a fire 
 that burned half their records and " data." 
 
104 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 There is such an infinity of detail about building, however, 
 that no one should trust to memory alone, but should record 
 whatever is of value to supplement a card index, price book, 
 and " The New Building Estimator." 
 
 Time Sheets. In a small business it is not usual to have 
 time sheets, but it is necessary in a large one. During my 
 apprenticeship I had to fill one out at the end of each day 
 and hand it to the foreman. The name of the job was given, 
 the kind of work done, and the number of hours occupied at 
 it. This was essential in the large establishment where I 
 worked, with saw-mill, planing-mill, joiner shop, and buildings 
 going on, to find out how each contract came out. It is a 
 good system when the business gets large enough to justify 
 it. But a contractor himself could not find time to do the 
 clerical work and attend all the circus parades at the same 
 time. 
 
 Cutting Down Costs. Every contractor wants his labor 
 done at as cheap a total as possible. He thus makes larger 
 profits. This is a legitimate desire. But it should be re- 
 membered that if by some miracle men could do twice as much, 
 the work would be figured at half price, and things would 
 simply be as before. Profits would not be any greater. 
 
 One method of reaching low totals that has finally struck 
 the building trades seems to me to be entirely wrong. Others 
 think it right. This is the " athletic contest," when one gang 
 of men is pitted against another and the whip cracks for a 
 start. Even flags are used, large and small, to wave from 
 the building with the best record on straight work done in a 
 day, where several buildings are going on at the same time. 
 
 An Example. If you will read Munsey's Magazine for 
 June, 1906, you will find an account of how Andrew Carnegie 
 " goaded the heads of all departments into a still more frenzied 
 race for dividends." " Faster, faster," he cried, and made 
 them presents and criticised their slowness. 
 
 During all that time he was making 40 per cent, on his 
 investment. It is an old trait of this race that sickening 
 greed would not be pleased with 400 per cent., although human 
 flesh and blood was driven to the limit to make it. 
 
 In the number for July, 1906, we are told that Mr. 
 Carnegie " stimulated competition almost to the point of 
 ferocity." " Every job was a race," 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 105 
 
 There are men who think that such ferocity is unworthy 
 of this republic, and there are others who believe in it. In 
 1908 or 1909 the " Pittsburg Survey" was made possible by 
 money furnished by Mrs. Russell Sage. The other side of the 
 40 per cent, business was shown. It is a terrible story. 
 If men are to be driven like slaves, and the end is to be such 
 contrasts, they are finally going to shut their teeth and put 
 a stop to it, and to several other things at the same time. 
 
 I have been among tradesmen all my life. My advice to 
 the flag heroes would be, Stop it. Bad as a loafer is there 
 is yet a worse on this earth. 
 
 Instead of driving furiously like Jehu, the son of Nimshi, 
 how would it do to save the fire waste of several hundreds 
 of millions a year? There is not much sense in producing 
 at a faster and faster gait merely to burn. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 BUILDERS' LAW 
 
 " Experienced contractors will bear the writer out in saying 
 that more contractors have been ruined because of legal 
 difficulties than by reason of physical ones." The Business of 
 Contracting, McCullough. 
 
 Authorities. Upon slight notice any lawyer could gather 
 together a score of fat volumes of court decisions relating, in 
 one way or another, to buildings. All that will be found in 
 this chapter are a few " pointers " to keep builders away 
 from law as much as possible. 
 
 Danger. It has been said that the only proper way of 
 doing business now is with a lawyer looking over your 
 shoulder to keep you straight. It was for this reason that 
 the Uniform and Subcontracts were so strongly recommended 
 in a former chapter. 
 
 The Commas. Not long ago there were some criminals in 
 Missouri convicted of stealing from the city of St. Louis, and 
 sentenced to the penitentiary. They were released on an 
 appeal. The judge found that " the " was missing from one 
 part of the proceedings, and that in another part there was 
 an " e " too many. Some day the people will sweep this kind 
 of law where it belongs. 
 
 This instance, out of many of a like nature, is cited to 
 show contractors that " law " is an uncertain thing to tamper 
 with. If possible, keep away from it. 
 
 It also means that any of the following laws in this chapter 
 may be upheld or set aside according to the humor of a judge. 
 If he wants to set them aside he can find a reason easily 
 enough. 
 
 General. First of all, for reference, we shall set down a 
 few laws that apply to all businesses alike. 
 
 One of the first principles laid down in the usual schedule 
 printed is that ignorance of the law excuses no one. Con- 
 
 106 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 107 
 
 tractors should remember that. Yet in 1909 a man in 
 Kansas was sentenced for an offense against the postal laws 
 after the local postmaster had told him his matter was 
 mailable. It is sometimes hard to know what the law is, even 
 when ignorance of it leads to punishment. 
 
 The law compels no one to do impossibilities. 
 
 It is a fraud to conceal a fraud. 
 
 A signature made with lead pencil is good in law. 
 
 A returned check is not a receipt; and a receipt for money 
 paid is not always conclusive. 
 
 A principal is responsible for the acts of his agent. 
 
 An agreement without consideration of value is void. 
 
 An oral, or " word of mouth," agreement must be proved 
 by evidence, but a written agreement proves itself. This is 
 why general contractors should not be expected to take sub- 
 bids orally. They should get written bids. 
 
 A contract made with a minor is voidable. 
 
 State Laws. A reasonable familiarity with the laws re- 
 lating to building in the state in which work is done is 
 almost necessary. In Missouri, for example, the legislature 
 settled the questions of measurement of quantities. 
 
 Legal holidays should also be noted. There are no national 
 legal holidays, not even on the Fourth of July, or Thanks- 
 giving. So far as the president's proclamation goes, Thanks- 
 giving is legal only in the District of Columbia and in the 
 territories. So far as the United States are concerned a con- 
 tractor need observe no holidays in the various states; and 
 when working for the United States on ground to which they 
 have legal title, he is independent of the state government. 
 But it is well to see if the number of hours per day that may 
 be worked is not specified. The eight-hour day is general, and, 
 in most U. S. work, compulsory. 
 
 The hours allowed on state work should also be noted. 
 Machinery that costs a heavy price may be workable only 
 eight hours instead of ten as expected. 
 
 CONTRACTS 
 
 A proposal, or offer, or bid, of a contractor is the first step 
 towards a contract. This tender put in may be withdrawn 
 at any time before it is accepted. No matter if the architect 
 
108 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 refuses to give it up, if the demand for its return before 
 witnesses or in writing is made before its acceptance, the con- 
 tractor cannot be held to enter into contract. 
 
 Verbal Bid. If a bid of this kind is made it must be 
 accepted at once, or the contractor cannot be held. If it is 
 accepted at once, or in writing, he can be held. There may, 
 of course, be a time set within which .the contractor will enter 
 into contract, as with an option given on property, for ex- 
 ample, but when that time has expired without acceptance 
 the contractor is free of all obligation. 
 
 Unless there is some consideration paid, the party giving 
 an option on real estate, etc., is not bound, but can sell the 
 property to anyone before the time specified. 
 
 Acceptance. If A mails an acceptance of a bid or option 
 from B, the time is dated from the hour of mailing and not 
 from the time that B receives the letter. Although B may 
 already have sent away a letter withdrawing his offer, he is 
 held to enter into contract if A's letter was mailed before 
 he received the notice of B's withdrawal. But if A has set 
 down any new conditions, then B is clear. The acceptance 
 must come on the basis of the offer. 
 
 Government Work. So important is this letter of accept- 
 ance that in government work it is referred to and made a 
 part of the formal contract; and the letter of proposal is 
 also thus mentioned. It is therefore necessary that everyone 
 sending in a proposal should understand that he is held to 
 complete the building if it is accepted. 
 
 Bids are Contracts. This shows that for all practical 
 purposes bids are really contracts as soon as they are accepted. 
 If you have made some mistake and the owner wants to take 
 some " snap judgment " on you, as it were, all he has to do 
 is verbally to accept your bid or mail you a letter accepting 
 it as it stands, and you are held to carry through the work. 
 But a conditional acceptance by A does not bind B. 
 
 I once had to back out. The carpenter labor was carefully 
 figured, but not included in the total. On the same building 
 another contractor had backed out, owing to some mistake, 
 and when I went to the architect as No. 2 with one more tale 
 of sorrow he was not in the pleasantest humor, for his com- 
 mission was vanishing out of his sight. I could have been 
 held. So look out for your bids. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 109 
 
 A building contract is an agreement between two or more 
 parties, and may be either written or verbal. What you do 
 when you mail or hand in a bid is to perform your part of 
 the contract, and naturally as soon as the owner agrees with 
 you the bargain is made. You can hold him, and he can 
 hold you. It is a pity if one contractor has left out all the 
 great plate glass front, and another has forgotten that car- 
 penters need money on Saturday night, but the owner thinks 
 you competent to do what your bid says and will be much 
 obliged if you will go ahead. 
 
 Title. The person who signs the contract for a building 
 with a contractor must have the title or lease to the ground 
 upon which the building is to be erected. Otherwise the con- 
 tractor may lose all he puts in it. All permanent structures 
 belong to the freehold, or land, and cannot be taken off. To 
 a layman, this seems a severe and unjust law, but it is well 
 that contractors especially should understand it. Even if 
 some of them built a frame house on the wrong ground it 
 would not be quite so bad if it could be moved off, but our 
 legal friends have us tied up rather tight on this proposition. 
 Therefore, do not build on the wrong ground, or you may not 
 only lose the structure, but the real owner may sue you for 
 damages to his property. He may not like your style of 
 architecture. 
 
 Before signing a contract with anyone be sure that one has 
 a clear title to the ground. 
 
 It often happens that a man's wife owns the lot, and the 
 contract for a house should really be made with her; yet 
 in some cases when the husband is, in the old phrase, a 
 man of substance, the contractor signs with him. It is a bad 
 practice; but the supreme court of Florida has held that if 
 the wife has knowledge of the erection of the building, and 
 does not dissent, but acquiesces, the property may be sold 
 to pay the agreed price. When in a case of this kind a woman 
 comes around and accepts things as they are, and probably 
 gives the contractor instructions, she is really held. But in 
 nine cases out of ten why sign a contract with a man to 
 build a house for him on a lot that he does not own? The 
 proper thing is to tell him that you would much prefer to 
 have his wife sign. 
 
 Corporations can make contracts only within their charters 
 
110 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 or statutory powers. The proper officer should sign them, and 
 it is better that he should use a seal. 
 
 A railway is not usually chartered to build churches, for 
 example. It is therefore unwise to build a church for a rail- 
 road unless you are sure it has authority to expend its 
 revenue in this manner. Some of its stockholders who did 
 not believe in churches might get out an injunction and keep 
 the contractor from his money until the title of the drawings 
 could be changed, making it a storehouse or boiler shop. 
 
 Illegal. A minor, drunk person, or person of unsound 
 mind cannot make a contract. When making one with those 
 who cannot read, are blind, deaf, or otherwise defective, it is 
 well to have good witnesses. Married women, in most states, 
 can now make contracts. We are making strange progress! 
 A husband cannot sign a contract for his wife in states where 
 she can sign one for herself without her permission. This, 
 however, would not prevent him from signing a contract for 
 a house on her land, if the builder was w T illing to take chances, 
 but she could stop the erection of the structure. 
 
 Legality. The object sought in a contract must be legal. 
 If structures of a certain kind are forbidden in a state it is 
 not legal to put them up, any more than it is to build a w r all 
 of less thickness than that specified in the building code. 
 
 Fraud will void a contract. 
 
 Sunday. You can certainly agree to do anything on Sun- 
 day, but contracts should not be signed then, as they cannot 
 be enforced, except in possibly a few states. 
 
 Severity. The Builders' Uniform Subcontract has one 
 strong point in its favor that keeps a general contractor on 
 the right path. It is not severe. Do not attempt to make 
 a severe contract, or the courts will not uphold you. Even 
 if you have power, that thing that has been so often the bane 
 of the human race, do not, in the vernacular, " be a hog." Be 
 fair, and it pays. 
 
 Partial Performance of a contract will " bind the bargain." 
 Do not start the excavation and then discover that you have 
 forgotten the west wall. It is then too late to cry quits. It 
 is sometimes possible to back out on a bid, but a little more 
 difficult after the work is started. The great men who never 
 make a mistake smile at you for years for anything of this 
 kind. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK HI 
 
 Breaking of a Contract. If the building has to be stopped, 
 and there is no provision in the contract for such a con- 
 tingency, a fair compensation may be agreed upon by the 
 parties for the work done, but the nature of the arrangement 
 must be exclusively for compensation to one side or the 
 other, and not as a penalty, or anything in the nature of a 
 penalty, for the courts would not uphold that. 
 
 Stoppage. If the work is stopped on the owner's account 
 the contractor cannot always recover the profit he might 
 have made. Railroads arrange for the stoppage of their work 
 at any time by putting the right kind of a clause in the con- 
 tract; and the provision is also inserted that the contractor 
 shall receive only that proportion of the total profit which 
 the part of the structure already erected bears to the whole. 
 In other words, if the building is half done, the builder will 
 get half the profits, and so on. 
 
 In the Uniform Contract if the contractor does not keep on 
 sufficient men, or neglects to abide by the decision of the 
 architect, the owner can enter upon the premises, set the 
 contractor aside, and take matters into his own hands. No 
 more payments are made to the contractor till the building 
 is finished, and if there is any money left he gets it; if there 
 has not been enough to finish he has to reimburse the owner. 
 
 Written or Verbal. If the work is not to be begun before 
 a year the contract must be written, and, in case of mis- 
 understanding, this means printed or typewritten also. 
 
 When printed forms are so cheap, it does not pay to go 
 ahead on a verbal contract. Who knows the amount? Sup- 
 pose one of the parties should die, will the heirs, assigns, 
 administrators, and the rest of them take the word of one 
 interested party as to how much the contract ran to? There 
 may be no book record. More than likely, the owner who 
 goes ahead in this loose way is just the one who would keep 
 no record. He could trust his own memory well enough, but 
 in case he died, what then? 
 
 Payments. There is one point that is worth attention with 
 respect to payments, and that is, whether the material de- 
 livered on the ground is to be paid for. Most of the states, 
 and occasionally, the United States, do this. 
 
 There seems to be no good reason why an owner should not 
 pay for at least certain materials. He has a bond to secure 
 
112 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 him, in case of any misgiving as to whether they will ever 
 be installed in the building. In the case of stone, brick, 
 heavy lumber, steel and iron, and certain kinds of millwork 
 that will not deteriorate under the weather, payment might 
 be made upon delivery, especially if it could not be put 
 in place for several months, as in northern climates in 
 winter. 
 
 The owner, of course, does not wish to pay out money so 
 soon, especially if he is borrowing and paying interest. The 
 point is worth watching when signing a contract, however, for 
 in some cases a reasonable arrangement can be made. 
 
 Partial Payments. Unless a builder is rich he should not 
 sign a contract that does not provide for partial payments 
 as the work progresses, but makes payment only when the 
 whole structure is completed. The want of some trifle may 
 delay completion for a couple of months, or the owner may 
 make a dispute over one matter or another and hold back a 
 settlement. 
 
 Ironclad Payment. Do not sign a contract providing that 
 nothing whatever shall be paid on a building unless it is 
 finished on time. That is too much of a gamble, and the 
 finishing of a building is not a sure thing. 
 
 The Installment Plan. It is generally stated in a contract 
 that no partial payment given as the work progresses is to 
 be considered an acceptance in any manner of any part of 
 the work. It has been held by the courts, however, in an 
 agreement to pay for a building in this way, that, upon the 
 owner's failure to meet one of the stipulated payments, the 
 contractor could abandon the contract and recover the profits 
 he might have made by completing the entire structure. One 
 judge might give such a decision, but the next one would be 
 likely to overturn it as " unconstitutional." 
 
 Time Dangers. A fair rental for the property for the 
 time the owner has been held out of it after the set date is the 
 standard penalty for delay. It is seldom enforced, for the 
 owner usually breaks the contract on his side, in one way 
 or another, as well as the builder. 
 
 In a time contract additional orders for extras may give 
 cause for annulling the agreement, and especially if the extras 
 are heavy; but an order for extras does not necessarily waive 
 the time condition. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 113 
 
 Reasonable Time. Even if no time of completion is laid 
 down, the contractor must use reasonable diligence to finish 
 the building without delay. If he does not, the owner can 
 sue him and recover damages. 
 
 On the other hand, if the owner block the way of the 
 contractor the latter can recover reasonable damages after 
 probably an unreasonable time should he go to law. In such 
 a case, too, there can be no penalty taken from the con- 
 tractor even if it is provided for in the contract. The owner 
 must keep up his end of the agreement, or he cannot hold 
 the contractor. 
 
 Number of Days. If the number of days is specified in a 
 contract see that they are working days, or days that men 
 can work, which is better. There might be rain or zero 
 weather, or legal holidays, when the wages were doubled; and 
 Sundays might be included. 
 
 Time Penalty. It must not be supposed that a time con- 
 tract cannot be enforced, although it seldom is. It must not 
 be supposed, either, that an allowance for extension will be 
 given at the end unless the contractor has applied for it as 
 specified. Even if an owner waive the limit on account of 
 extras, the building must be completed within a reasonable 
 time after an allowance is given for the additional work. 
 Unforeseen difficulties, no matter how great, do not relieve 
 the contractor from his contract obligations. He must carry 
 them out, unless this is rendered impossible by an act of God, 
 the other party to the contract, or the law. 
 
 Insurance, Cyclone, etc. If a building has been destroyed 
 by earthquake or fire, suppose, no matter if there has been 
 no insurance, the owner can recover the amounts paid on 
 installments to the contractor, who has agreed to turn over 
 a complete building, or part of one, as in the case of a sub- 
 contractor dealing with the owner, and must do so if this is 
 possible. The risk lies with the contractor, who should insure 
 against it. 
 
 In the court of appeals of Maryland, a contractor who 
 suffered tried to have the storm which blew down his nearly 
 completed building construed as an act of God, and thus lay 
 the loss on the owner, but the decision went against him, 
 although a provision about " an act of God " was in the 
 bond which he furnished. 
 
114 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 In a way, this is fair. The question is, Are there com- 
 panies which insure a contractor against such and such a 
 risk? If so, then why did he neglect to take out insurance? 
 Why should the owner suffer because of his carelessness? 
 Probably even if there were no such* companies the courts 
 would hold as this one did. The contractor risks his property 
 that he will do what he agrees. The owner is entitled to 
 expect him to do so. 
 
 All Insurance. A contractor should insure against fire, 
 flood, cyclone, earthquake, boiler explosions, or falling walls 
 next door to his contract, sinking foundations, personal liabil- 
 ity, robbery of wages as he carries them from the bank, and 
 everything else that the insurance companies can be found 
 to insure. If he does not he takes the risk. Ignorance Of 
 the law excuses no contractor. In many cases he must " put 
 up or be shut up." 
 
 Authorities. As usual, there is a mass of law and evi- 
 dence connected with this subject of responsibility, but the 
 leading rule is this: "If a contract is entire and indivisible 
 for the erection and completion of a certain building, for a 
 certain price, and the structure is destroyed, whether by fire, 
 lightning, storm, or defective soil before completion, the loss 
 falls upon the builder; but if the contract price is to be paid 
 by installments as certain specified portions of the work are 
 completed, and the house be destroyed during the progress of 
 the work, the builder is entitled to all the installments then 
 due, the only loss which falls upon him being for the in- 
 completed portion upon which he may be engaged at the 
 time of the fire." 
 
 This does not do a builder much good, for few contracts 
 are so taken. If a house was let in, say, four contracts, there 
 would be a chance for the contractor. Thus, it might be 
 arranged to make one complete contract for the basement; 
 another for the first story; the third for enclosing; and the 
 fourth for finishing. The contractor might never leave the 
 ground, but each contract would be considered complete by 
 itself. 
 
 Suppose that he is working on No. 4, and fire destroys 
 the whole structure. Then the owner would lose all the value 
 of the three first contracts, and the contractor would lose 
 whatever was done on the fourth only. Instead of a " separate 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 115 
 
 and indivisible contract" being made for the complete struc- 
 ture, four such contracts are made, and naturally each con- 
 tract has to stand on its own feet. After the first three are 
 finished the builder has nothing more to do with them. 
 
 Not one building in a score is taken that way. 
 
 Repairs. Do not sign a contract to keep a building in 
 repair for six months or a year after it is turned over to 
 the owner, or, if you do, have it clearly understood what 
 repairs mean. Should the building fall, or get washed away 
 the courts may compel the contractor to rebuild it and put 
 it in the original condition. Such a case was decided with 
 respect to a bridge that was washed away in a flood. It 
 would seem to any ordinary mind that an agreement to keep 
 in repairs would be understood as attending to any minor 
 defects that developed, but would not mean that the con- 
 tractor was responsible for the whole building, or structure. 
 Law is a funny thing. 
 
 Poor Foundations. It has been also held that if a build- 
 ing goes to wreck because of poor foundations the contractor 
 is responsible. As already said in another chapter, about the 
 only safe course is for a contractor to get a written order 
 from an architect to go ahead, as the ground is satisfactory. 
 This would put the responsibility where it belonged if the 
 courts accepted the order as constitutional. 
 
 Underpinning' and Shoring-. In general, a specification 
 must say what is to be done, although no builder expects a 
 detailed reference to every trifle. If this is neglected, the 
 contractor is not held to perform work, although it is shown 
 on the plans, in spite of the time worn clause to the contrary. 
 
 But the courts have held that a contractor putting up a 
 new building by the side of an old one must protect the old 
 one by shoring it up, underpinning it, and leaving it in good 
 condition. 
 
 If a contractor runs against any danger of this kind, his 
 best method is to state in his bid just what he proposes 
 to do, and to see that the matter is properly fixed in the 
 contract. 
 
 Acceptance of Defective Work. If the quality of the work 
 is not up to the standard set in the plans and specifications, 
 the owner MAY accept it, but pay only what it is worth. 
 
 On the other hand, he may be so disgusted as to order the 
 
116 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 entire building torn down and rebuilt. If the builder will 
 not do that, the owner can order him to remove his material 
 from the land, in which event the builder will have no claim 
 for the cost of the work done. 
 
 As may be seen by this, it is rather dangerous to supply 
 workmanship or material of too poor a quality. 
 
 In certain cases when the owner takes possession of the 
 building and begins to use it, he is held for payment, although 
 he may deduct for inferior work. But in other cases, even 
 taking possession does not mean that payment has to be 
 made. The owner must pay when he gets what he agreed 
 to pay for. That is what he is entitled to. It is dangerous 
 to try to make him accept less. 
 
 Acceptance of a Building. In The Building Age for 
 February, 1910, we are told what constitutes acceptance of a 
 building. Taking of the keys by an owner, or occupation of 
 the building, while strong evidence is not conclusive. These 
 acts must also be coupled with some act or language from 
 which acceptance may be reasonably inferred. This principle 
 has been decided by the highest courts of nearly all the im- 
 portant states, including Massachusetts. 
 
 The use of a building when the builder stops working on it 
 is not an acceptance where the contract expressly provides 
 that only an order for final payment shall be considered an 
 acceptance. It has been decided also that occupation only 
 waives unintentional omissions unsubstantial in their nature, 
 for which due allowance can be made to the owner. Where 
 defective performance is not the fault of the builder, accept- 
 ance may be implied from possession and occupation, not- 
 withstanding a protest from the owner. 
 
 It has been decided also that where the owner of a building 
 in the course of erection takes possession of and occupies 
 a portion of it, and afterwards takes possession of and occu- 
 pies the whole building, there is an acceptance. 
 
 A notice from an owner to a builder that he will complete 
 unfinished work and deduct the cost from the contract price 
 is an election to accept it, subject to the necessary cost of 
 completion. 
 
 I never had any trouble getting a building accepted without 
 ceremony. With the fine legal points that the lawyers gather 
 around every corner one can never tell " where he is at.'' 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 117 
 
 They catch him coming and going; on foot or on horseback; 
 and he is lucky if he escapes with his hide. 
 
 " We Do Not Substitute." A contractor must, as far as 
 possible on all work, and especially on government work, use 
 the material specified, and not use what he thinks is " just as 
 good," without permission from the architect or owner. 
 
 The supreme court of the state of New York let a builder 
 understand this in 1907. He substituted what was just as 
 good, and probably better, in some cases, but he had no right 
 to do so. One kind of sash cord was specified, and he used 
 another; and so on, all through. He landed himself in trouble 
 for no good reason. 
 
 Simple Simony. If a builder takes a contract upon an 
 architect's representations that certain quantities are suffi- 
 cient for the work, or that a certain amount of labor will 
 finish it, and finds out that it takes more, no extra payment 
 need be allowed. Builders are supposed to have cut their eye 
 teeth. 
 
 Completeness. A contract must be entirely finished. A 
 contractor cannot expect a settlement before it is. This does 
 not mean, however, that some trifling omissions can prevent 
 a settlement of the main contract. 
 
 Extras. If the contract provides that extras are to be 
 done only upon a written order of the architect, then, by all 
 means, get one or leave them alone. An architect who knows 
 what the contract provides for has no right to ask or expect 
 anyone to go ahead without such an order. There are two 
 sides to a contract. 
 
 Profit. The general rule for profit on extras, if we are to 
 believe the specifications, should be the same as that on the 
 main contract. It is customary to charge more, a good deal 
 more, in many cases. Those who say that lumbermen and 
 hardware men should sell extras on the same basis as the 
 main bill, just like a brickmaker with brick, forget the rule 
 when their own turn comes. 
 
 It does not pay to charge too high a price, but the owner 
 should remember the possibility of a damage suit for $25,000. 
 An accident may happen on an extra as well as on the main 
 part; and when a builder gets the chance he tries to even 
 up some of the incidental expenses. In case of any effort to 
 limit the profit on extras when the contract is signed the 
 
118 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 proposal might be made that the owner would be responsible 
 for all accidents or deaths happening on them. 
 
 Old Structures. If the specification or contract makes no 
 reference to old structures on the ground, they become the 
 property of the contractor. 
 
 Sizes. Market sizes of lumber, etc., will be upheld by the 
 courts. If 2-in. lumber is wanted it must be carefully specified 
 as such, for the trade size is only 1%. A 2x6 is only 
 I%x5y 2 , and so on. It is not, therefore, enough to call for 
 a 2 x 6, but is necessary to say that market sizes will not 
 be accepted, but that full sizes are to be used. This means 
 quite an increase in price. In milhvork it is easier to get 
 the exact sizes marked, although |f always comes for %. 
 Full sized lumber not only costs more to saw, since it is 
 special, but is heavier, and the freight costs more. 
 
 Allowances. Sometimes certain amounts are specified for 
 work that cannot be detailed in time, or for some such reason. 
 The contractor does not have to expend more than the allow- 
 ance, no matter what detail the architect may present after- 
 wards. This is from the supreme court of Illinois. It seems 
 an unnecessary ruling; but probably some architect had been 
 at the old game of trying to build up a reputation for fine 
 work at another man's expense, and the latter had to stop it. 
 
 Patents. In government and railroad w T ork there is usually 
 a clause putting all the responsibility of using patented 
 articles, and of defending any suits for their infringement, 
 upon the contractor. No matter if such articles are called for 
 in the architect's specification, the contractor should make 
 himself sure that they can be used without liability to himself. 
 The architect cannot be held responsible; it is the contractor's 
 business to find out how things stand. 
 
 Adjoining Building. As already stated at UNDERPINNING, 
 the contractor is responsible for the safety of the adjoining 
 building. At this writing, February 5, 1910, the subject was 
 brought up before Omaha builders once more, just as it is 
 at one time or another to builders in all parts of the land. 
 A 16-story building, going up at the side of one of two stories, 
 put too much weight on the old wall, and about $1,000 worth 
 of it fell in the jewelry and piano department. This also 
 gives a chance for damage suits. It so happened that the 
 people inside of the store were in the rear at the time, or some 
 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 119 
 
 of them might have been killed. An interesting question is, 
 Do contractors have liability insurance for men not in their 
 employ ? 
 
 LIENS 
 
 Variety. The laws relating to liens in one state may differ 
 in some important parts from those in another. Only a few 
 general principles can be laid down. 
 
 Personal Responsibility. Some contractors would like to 
 see all, lien laws abolished, and the building business con- 
 ducted upon the same principles as the wholesale grocery 
 one. Then the contractor would be selected according to his 
 reputation for fair dealing and responsibility. As it is, the 
 material men, while naturally anxious to deal only with 
 reputable contractors who pay promptly, are willing to supply 
 almost anyone with what he needs, and if he does not pay 
 they can come back on the property. 
 
 The dealers object to taking away this good security; the 
 mechanics consider that their wages are also more certain 
 under this system; and between these two powers and con- 
 tractors who like the present status, the lien laws remain 
 on the statute books. 
 
 Character. Much trouble is avoided by building only for 
 those upon whom one can rely. While contracting I never 
 had occasion to file even a single lien. After finishing a con- 
 tract for one man who was rather " shaky," and getting settled 
 with difficulty, he started another large building, and asked 
 for figures which were not given. The building went up, and 
 every contractor who did any work had to file a lien, fight for 
 years, and pay legal expenses to get a small part of his money. 
 The loan ahead of the contractors was too large. 
 
 Amount. In some states the amount of the lien has to be 
 at least $25. 
 
 Who Can File. Any supply dealer, contractor, subcontrac- 
 tor, or one who furnished labor or material on the building, 
 in carrying out a contract or agreement with the owner or 
 his agent has a right to a lien on the building, in so far 
 as such owner may himself have the title. Thus a mortgage 
 comes ahead of a lien if filed before any work whatever is 
 started on the building; and the amount of the mortgage has 
 to be deducted before finding out how much interest the 
 
120 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 owner has in the property. This interest only would be 
 subject to the lien. 
 
 Put in Place. The supreme court of Michigan has decided 
 that a lien cannot be filed on materials ordered but not used 
 in the construction of the building. Special mill work might 
 be all prepared and even delivered on the site, but if not 
 installed when the crash came there would be no claim. 
 
 The Property Held. The lien attaches to the property at 
 the time of filing, no matter who owns it. It is the property 
 itself that is held, and not the person who may have owned it 
 when the work was done. This is why it is dangerous to 
 buy property without finding out if there are any liens 
 on it. 
 
 Time of Filing. In most states a mechanic or laborer, 
 supply dealer, or subcontractor, must file a lien inside of 
 thirty days after the work is done or material furnished. 
 The general contractor usually has twice as long, and this, 
 of course, applies to subcontractors when they sign a con- 
 tract directly with the owner. A general contractor can 
 sometimes extend his own time if he has been wise enough 
 in doubtful cases to do that which he should not have done 
 by leaving undone that which he should have done; and, as 
 already noted, he can help out a subcontractor by ordering a 
 small amount of material or labor. 
 
 Filing. If a lien has to be filed, the best way is to go to 
 a lawyer and have him make it out. Good blanks may be 
 found, and the services of a lawyer dispensed with, but the 
 filling out has to be carefully done. A legal description of 
 the premises must be given; the name of the owner or person 
 in possession of the property, such as lessee, whose agreement 
 with the real ow r ner may oblige him to pay all taxes and take 
 care of all suits; the amount of money claimed; when the 
 money is due, and to w r hom due; the residence of the claimant; 
 and probably a certificate of baptism. Do not leave out the 
 " the " in any place, or put in an " e " too many, for the 
 St. Louis boodlers went free on this account. We should 
 always remember that the Englishman in the novel was not 
 far astray when he said, " The law is a hass." 
 
 Action. After filing a lien, action must be taken to fore- 
 close it inside of a year unless the lien is continued by an 
 order of the court. The right to file is lost if the thirty 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 121 
 
 or sixty days, or whatever the period is, are allowed to pass 
 without filing. 
 
 Waivers. When an owner borrows money to build, the 
 loan companies naturally try to get in ahead of anybody 
 else, either by filing their mortgage first, or by getting the 
 contractors and material men to sign waivers of their right 
 to file a lien. This is a species of what has been called 
 " contracting out," or individual setting aside of statute law. 
 Generally speaking, it should not be allowed. If the law is 
 good it should stand for everybody, and it should be pre- 
 sumed to be too good for any one man to set it aside. 
 
 The lien for wages would still stand, for it is seldom that 
 each worker is asked to waive that. 
 
 The taking of a note from an owner for the amount of the 
 claim is held, as a rule, to waive the right to file a lien. 
 
 First Claim. All work on a building takes precedence of 
 the mortgage filed after the first spadeful of earth is turned 
 up on the contract. Thus, the brickwork might be finished 
 before the mortgage was filed, and the plaster afterwards. 
 Nevertheless, the plaster would come in ahead of the mortgage. 
 
 PARTNERSHIP 
 
 Responsibility. Each individual is responsible for all the 
 debts of the firm unless the articles of agreement set a limit. 
 
 This means that if C has no money or property, and D has 
 $10,000, either in the business or in property outside of it, 
 and anything goes wrong that requires $10,000 to satisfy 
 the claim, D loses his whole amount. 
 
 D might avoid a danger of this kind by special articles 
 of agreement putting his liability at whatever amount he thinks 
 fit. But if he should set a limit of $1,000, suppose, the 
 bonding companies w r ould refuse to go on a large bond, and 
 he would have to restrict himself to smaller and less profitable 
 contracts. Then his credit would not be so good with the 
 dealers. If he is not willing to risk his own property, why 
 should they risk theirs on his good faith? If it is said that 
 character as much as the amount of capital determines credit, 
 the material men might fitly ask what kind of character it 
 is that keeps its own property beyond the reach of danger 
 and risks theirs. If he is afraid of his partner, C, he should 
 separate from him. 
 
122 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Specials. The statutes of the state must be complied with 
 in order to avoid danger in limited or special partnerships. 
 Corporations are organized on this basis of limited liability. 
 Each one is responsible only for the amount of his stock. 
 This is why so many firms are incorporated. Yet about 4,000 
 incorporated firms let their rights lapse in Nebraska in the 
 end of 1909 rather 'than pay a small tax levied on all cor- 
 porations. They did not seem to think the corporate form of 
 doing business as worth the difference asked for above the 
 untaxed partnership. 
 
 Nominal. There is what is known as a nominal partner. 
 That is one who lends his name to help out a firm, but has 
 no real interest in it except that he is liable for all debts 
 and contracts. 
 
 A Silent Partner may keep his connection with the firm 
 silent enough, but if it becomes known he also is held for all 
 debts and contracts. 
 
 Dissolution. After a man has left a partnership he should 
 not allow his name to be used in it unless by special agreement 
 which should be filed for public record. 
 
 Responsibility. The acts of one partner bind all the 
 others; and this goes so far that if a man deceives outsiders 
 and gets them to advance money or anything of that kind 
 under the impression that it is for the firm account, yet be 
 only for his own advantage, the other members of the firm 
 are held. Their business was to have held such "a man by a 
 rope, if necessary, and not turn him loose on an unsophis- 
 ticated and credulous public. They are held and duly bound 
 to the public for the character of this member of their firm. 
 For this reason, good character is an important asset in a 
 partnership. When partners become suspicious of each other, 
 it is time to dissolve. 
 
 Commercial Paper. If one member signs his name to 
 notes or such negotiable papers that bear on their face to be 
 for the benefit of the firm, all the partners are liable for the 
 payment. The private notes of a partner may also be charged 
 to the firm unless those who buy them are informed that they 
 are created solely on individual account. But one partner 
 cannot bind the firm by a deed, which must be signed by all. 
 
 Confusion. Each partner should, as a rule, keep an in- 
 dividual account as soon as sufficient money is on hand. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 123 
 
 It is not wise to separate $123.13 into several accounts, 
 however. 
 
 Beginning 1 . Articles should be drawn for partnership, and 
 should not be signed till the partnership funds are in the 
 bank. The partnership begins upon the execution of the 
 articles, unless a special time is set. 
 
 ENDING OF PARTNERSHIPS 
 
 Death. The woman in the novel said, " Death ends all " ; 
 and it also ends a partnership unless the articles of agree- 
 ment are arranged to the contrary. 
 
 Withdrawal. If no time of expiration of partnership is 
 stated any partner can leave the firm when it suits him to 
 do so; and he can always prevent the firm from binding him 
 to future contracts even if a time limit is set. But in both 
 cases he is held liable for unfinished contracts, and if he 
 leaves at such a time or in such a way as to embarrass the 
 firm he may be sued for damages. There is, or should be, 
 reason in all things even in law. 
 
 On the expiration of articles new ones should be made before 
 going further ahead. 
 
 Changes. When changes are made involving the retire- 
 ment of one partner, limiting liability, or anything of a like 
 nature, public notice should be given so that those with whom 
 the firm deals should understand the new condition of affairs 
 and govern themselves accordingly. 
 
 The Bankruptcy of one partner dissolves the firm. A new 
 agreement has to be made among those who are left. 
 
 Notice. When a partnership is dissolved public notice 
 should be given and also sent to all who have had dealings 
 with the firm. One member of the firm should be given 
 authority to settle up all affairs. 
 
 Old Firm. It is often dangerous to enter a firm already 
 established. A careful examination of its affairs should first 
 be made by one competent to do it. A new partner becomes 
 liable for all the debts, contracts, lawsuits, entanglements, 
 liens, and everything else of the old firm. 
 
 Equal Shares. If no special agreement to the contrary is 
 made, all partners must give their whole time to the business 
 of the firm, and all money gained in whatever business way 
 
124 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 by partners becomes common property. Here law and common 
 sense join. 
 
 If one party has more capital in the business than another, 
 or others, the proper arrangement should be made to pay 
 him interest on his extra capital, but after that is attended 
 to, all gain made by each while attending to business that 
 is not of a private nature, becomes partnership property, to 
 be divided in the manner set forth in the articles of agree- 
 ment, or share and share alike. Gain is shared in a partner- 
 ship, and so is loss, and there are few businesses which do not 
 occasionally meet the latter. 
 
 LANDLORD AND TENANT 
 
 Investments. Many contractors put up houses for rent. 
 This is often a profitable way of investing money, but not 
 unfrequently there are better ways. Few figure up the rate 
 of depreciation on ordinary buildings. According to the 
 government figures, a frame house when rented is supposed 
 to last for 40 years. This means that before figuring profit 
 on the investment, a deduction of 2% per cent, per annum 
 should be made. Of course, with good care a house should 
 last much longer. The same government figures are 2 per 
 cent, when inhabited by the owner. But even at this rate a 
 $3,000 house costs the owner $5 per month. 
 
 Then there are repairs, taxes, vacancies, and insurance to 
 be considered. Some say that there are better investments. 
 But it often happens that a contractor has old material that 
 he can work up to good advantage in his own new houses. 
 He can build cheaper than anyone else. Some of the common 
 laws relating to landlord and tenant are set down here for 
 the use of builders. 
 
 Lease. A lease for a year or less needs no written agree- 
 ment, although it is better to have one. Printed forms are 
 cheap. 
 
 Leases for more than three years must be recorded. A 
 lease for life or a long period must be signed and sealed 
 like a deed or any other legal instrument, and recorded. 
 
 When a lease expires and no new arrangement is made, the 
 tenant holds the property for another term of the same 
 length as before, and on the same conditions. In other words, 
 the old lease is considered renewed. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 125 
 
 When a tenant turns over his lease to someone else, even 
 with the landlord's consent, he still remains liable for the 
 rent unless his lease is canceled. 
 
 Continuation. Without some special agreement as to time 
 a tenant holds over from year to year. Under the method 
 common in many parts of the country of renting from 
 month to month only, the tenant has to give up possession 
 on one month's notice, unless the statute law ' decrees other- 
 wise, as in winter, for example. 
 
 Who Pays Taxes. In some leases, such as the Astor ones 
 in New York, the tenant pays all taxes and makes all repairs. 
 Such conditions must be stated in the lease. 
 
 Underletting. In making leases the landlord should be 
 careful about underletting. Unless forbidden, the tenant can 
 sublet to whomsoever he pleases. The tenant by the month 
 cannot do this, but he may have as many roomers as he 
 likes, in default of special agreement. A landlord cannot 
 put out a subtenant unless he has given him the same notice 
 that the tenant himself receives. 
 
 There is one danger in cities with renting houses, and 
 especially with subletting. I remember that part of a fine 
 block just finished was rented to a woman of the wrong 
 character by an agent who was a stranger in the city, and 
 was taken in. The owner happened to notice the matter in 
 time, and the lease was canceled. Renting to this wrong kind 
 of tenants not only runs down property in respectable dis- 
 tricts, but is contrary to state law. 
 
 Married Women. In most states a married woman is now 
 allowed to lease her property the same as a man. In states 
 where she cannot make a contract she should not be accepted 
 as a tenant. 
 
 Guardian. Care should be exercised in making a lease 
 with a minor. When he comes to his majority the lessee is 
 still held, but the minor may back out. If he receives rent 
 after he is twenty-one, however, he also is " held and firmly 
 bound." 
 
 Mortgage. A lease on mortgaged property, given after 
 the mortgage is filed, terminates if there is a foreclosure. 
 
 Tenancy begins from the day possession is taken. Land- 
 lords who rent property should have a definite understanding 
 as to when the payment is to be made. 
 
126 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Improvements. The tenant should not put up buildings 
 with foundations sunk in the ground, or make permanent 
 improvements on the property, for they cannot be removed, 
 and no compensation need be given for them. Whatever is 
 fixed to the land belongs to it. 
 
 Insurance Policies are issued for loss of rent during the 
 time that burnt property is being rebuilt. 
 
 DEEDS 
 
 Forms. There are plenty of blank forms for deeds, and 
 thus there is no excuse for attempting to write them out. 
 They must be signed, sealed, witnessed, acknowledged, and 
 recorded. If not recorded promptly a new deed might be 
 made out to someone else and recorded first. Then the rascal 
 w r ho sold the property twice has to be found and prosecuted. 
 He may have died since. 
 
 But deeds are often unrecorded for long periods, where the 
 party who bought knows that there is no risk, and wishes to 
 keep the transfer secret. 
 
 When deeds or other legal papers are handed in for 
 record, the public officer marks down the exact time on the 
 margin, and if another instrument is presented, it is easy to 
 discover which was first. 
 
 A Notary usually acknowledges deeds, but other officers can 
 do so, such as judges and clerks of court. Most states have 
 special forms of acknowledgment, which must be used. All 
 state enactments must be complied with. 
 
 In some states one witness is sufficient, and a seal is 
 necessary; in others, two witnesses are required. In almost 
 all states corporations must use their seal. 
 
 Abstract. Before taking a deed and paying the money 
 an abstract of the title to the property should be had. This 
 traces the ownership back, in many cases, clear to the 
 original grant by the United States. In others, a terminus 
 is found beyond which all know that things are satisfactory. 
 Happy is that state which has adopted the Torrens system of 
 guaranteeing titles. 
 
 This abstract shows whether or not all the taxes are paid, 
 and if there are any liens, judgments, clouds, or troubles of 
 any kind standing against the property. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 127 
 
 Guaranty. Some abstract companies not only make the 
 search, but guarantee the title for an extra charge. But 
 all over the land titles searched and certified by the ablest 
 abstract " sleuths " are disputed. Some day, in some way 
 or another, there will have to be a simplification of the 
 whole disgusting legal mess. No civilization can afford to 
 keep 130,000 lawyers doing what should be useless work, with 
 a large army of court and office help to assist them. Peter 
 the Great said that there was only one lawyer in Russia, 
 and when he got home he meant to hang him. This policy 
 would be too drastic in these United States, but we might 
 put them to a better use than we do now. Turn in whatever 
 direction one will, this " law " sewer seems only to smell the 
 stronger. 
 
 Kind of a Deed. A general warranty deed is best, as it 
 guarantees the purchaser against all claim on the property 
 of whatever nature. This is valuable to the extent that the 
 person who makes it stands ready to fight a claim. 
 
 A quit-claim deed merely surrenders all interest the maker 
 has in the property, and guarantees nothing. 
 
 Matrimony. A wife must join with her husband in making 
 a deed. In this land of sorely tangled matrimonial complica- 
 tions, it is sometimes hard to get the lady to toe the mark, 
 or even to find her. Again, there are men who pass them- 
 selves off as unmarried when they are. There have been cases 
 of fighting over titles for generations, owing to the dower right 
 that a woman has in her husband's estate. 
 
 When a married woman sells property her husband should 
 join in the deed. When a man turns over his property to 
 his wife he should not do it direct, but as if he meant it to 
 land anywhere else than near her. He should first " sell " 
 it to someone outside of his family preferably, and then 
 through him to her, and thus bring it home once more. 
 
 Do Not Alter a deed after it is made and executed. Fill 
 in only the blank spaces, and do not interline or erase, unless 
 you make a special acknowledgment of the fact and have 
 it witnessed. 
 
 MORTGAGES 
 
 A Mortgage never sleeps. It comes first, unless there are 
 liens ahead of it. 
 
128 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Notary. This instrument should be signed, sealed, etc., 
 just the same as a deed. The one who supplies the money 
 records the instrument. 
 
 Release. When the money is paid according to the terms 
 of the mortgage, it is discharged by sending a release to the 
 court of record. A charge is made for recording the release. 
 Or an entry may be made in the margin of the original 
 record by the owner of the mortgage or his attorney, or 
 representative in the presence of the public official. 
 
 Description. The property mortgaged must be clearly de- 
 scribed, and the time when the debt becomes due. A de- 
 scription of the notes is also given. In general, the safest 
 way is to get a lawyer or real estate agent to do the work. 
 A deed is easier made out than a mortgage. 
 
 Foreclosure. If a foreclosure is made, the mortgage is 
 first satisfied, and then the owner gets what is left at public 
 sale, after paying interest, costs, and so on. 
 
 A Fire Insurance Policy is usually turned over to the one 
 who supplies the money, or the mortgagee. He comes first 
 in case of fire also. The insurance companies must be 
 notified when a mortgage is placed on property, for their 
 contract is with a person and not with the property of itself. 
 Their policy is different from a lien in this respect. A lien 
 is with the property, but an insurance policy is with the 
 person named in it only, unless it is endorsed over to another 
 with the consent of the company. If a part change of owner- 
 ship is made, as when a mortgage is given, the company must 
 be notified that another person has acquired an interest in 
 the property. 
 
 Notes are usually given for the principal and interest on 
 a mortgage. They should be taken up when the payments 
 are made, and canceled. The mortgage is given to secure 
 them. 
 
 Chattel Mortgage. This kind of an instrument should 
 never be given for more than a year. It should be signed, 
 sealed, witnessed, and recorded, and insurance should be kept 
 up on the goods, which ought to be carefully listed. The 
 obligation still stands against the maker, although the goods 
 are burnt or destroyed. All payments made upon install- 
 ments should be endorsed upon the instrument. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 129 
 
 FIBE INSURANCE 
 
 Location of Property. In a fire insurance policy the 
 property insured to you personally must remain in the 
 location described. If you move it, insurance cannot be 
 collected in case of loss. 
 
 See Agent. In case of anything affecting title to property, 
 as a mortgage, go to the agent and arrange matters. There 
 is no trouble doing so. 
 
 Vacancies. Take only such a policy as permits a vacancy 
 of a reasonable duration without a special permit. Life is 
 too short to run to an agent every time a tenant leaves a 
 house. In many cases he leaves without paying rent, and 
 the house may stand vacant for days before the owner knows 
 about it. Should it burn down then, under some policies, he 
 would get nothing. 
 
 Do not accept a policy that cuts down the amount insured 
 about 25 per cent, when the house is vacant. If it burns down 
 then it would cost you just as much to rebuild as if the 
 tenant had been burnt inside of it. There are better policies 
 than that on the market. 
 
 When there are more policies than one, have the blanks 
 filled up in such a way that there will be no trouble getting 
 an adjustment. The written matter should correspond. 
 
 See that a permit is given for additional insurance on ALT. 
 the policies if there are more than one on the property. 
 
 In case of loss by fire notify the local agent at once. 
 
 We like to stand by our home companies in all lines. 
 Nevertheless, with fire insurance it must be confessed that an 
 old wealthy company is safer than a local new one with 
 limited capital. We remember the state of affairs in San 
 Francisco. A local company is easily wiped out. 
 
 It is said that four out of five of the insurance companies 
 in the United States have either failed or retired. 
 
 One company sends out the following card: 
 
 WHAT PEOPLE WHO INSURE SHOULD KNOW AND DO 
 
 A policy of fire insurance can be violated in the following 
 ways : 
 
 1. Failure to pay the premium at the proper time. 
 
 2. Change of title, or ownership by sale, gift, marriage 
 
130 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 settlement, device any way but by descent without consent 
 of the company. 
 
 3. Mortgaging the property insured, real or personal, when 
 prohibited by conditions of the policy, without consent of 
 the company. 
 
 4. Foreclosure proceedings without consent of the company. 
 
 5. False statements in applications (when taken) re- 
 lating to title, incumbrance, and other facts material to the 
 risk. 
 
 6. Other insurance without consent of the company. 
 
 7. Permitting buildings insured to become vacant or un- 
 occupied for more than ten days without consent of the 
 company. 
 
 8. Taking a new partner without consent of the company. 
 
 9. Increase of risk by keeping prohibited articles on the 
 premises or by change of occupancy of the premises insured. 
 
 10. Removal of personal property to a new location with- 
 out consent of the company. 
 
 11. Erection of an exposure to the property insured without 
 consent of the company. 
 
 BANK CHECKS 
 
 Checks or Drafts must be presented for payment within a 
 reasonable time. I know of cases where checks of a railroad 
 company were held for several years. The holders had more 
 confidence in the stability of the companies than in the 
 banks ; and when the era of illegal " cashier's checks " came 
 on, their foresight was justified. 
 
 Endorsement. When you endorse a check you guarantee 
 its payment, but you can insist that the check be presented 
 at once, or next day at furthest. 
 
 The name should be written about three inches from the 
 top to allow for filing, but if another name is already written, 
 put yours below that. 
 
 Certified. When a check is certified the amount is taken 
 out of the owner's account. If you require a larger or 
 smaller certified check do not destroy the first one under 
 any circumstances, but take it to the bank and surrender 
 it for a new one. If you do not return it, the bank is justified 
 in asking for a bond of indemnity in case it should turn up 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 131 
 
 and all this regardless of your explanations, telling why and 
 when you destroyed it. 
 
 Signatures. Something is said in Chapter XIV about 
 keeping clear of the forger and check raiser that need not 
 be repeated here. But there is one thing about a forged 
 check that many do not know: if the bank pay a forged 
 check it cannot charge the amount to the depositor whose 
 name has been forged, but it may recover the money from 
 the one who has innocently presented the check, and to whom 
 the money was paid, provided the demand for the return 
 is made immediately. Therefore, it is dangerous to accept 
 forged checks in payment for anything and present them at 
 the bank. 
 
 Dating. Do not date a check ahead or for more than 
 you have in the bank, even if the person you give it to 
 promises not to present it. Average experience shows that 
 he will. 
 
 Figures should be made very distinct, although in law they 
 are of less consequence than writing. 
 
 Alteration. Do not alter a check, but make a new one. 
 Paper is cheap. An altered check may make the bank look 
 suspiciously at it. 
 
 Spelling-. If your name on a check is spelled wrong, and 
 it is clearly meant for you, write out your signature as 
 the check shows it, and then put your correct one below it. 
 
 Some banks insist that even checks payable to yourself 
 should be endorsed on the back. 
 
 Overdrawing. Banks are not permitted to allow cus- 
 tomers to overdraw their accounts. After all, it is rather 
 an informal way of borrowing a few dollars. It is best to 
 borrow in the regular manner. 
 
 NOTES 
 
 Mature of a Note. An acknowledgment of a debt is not 
 sufficient to make a note or any commercial paper that may 
 be bought and sold. There must be a promise to pay or an 
 order on someone to pay. 
 
 Interest. Notes bear interest only when so stated. 
 
 Date. A note should be correctly dated. 
 
 Time. If the time of payment is not inserted a note is 
 held payable on demand. 
 
132 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Data. A note should specify the amount of money to be 
 paid, and to whom it is to be paid, or order, and state that 
 it is for value received. 
 
 Place. The place of payment should be stated on the note. 
 
 Cancellation. When a note is paid it should be canceled, 
 or else it may have to be paid twice. 
 
 Endorser. If the maker of a note fails to pay, the one 
 who endorses it is liable. 
 
 Protest. When a note is protested, notice should at once 
 be sent to all who endorse it. 
 
 Illegal Note. A note obtained by fraud or from a drunken 
 person cannot be collected. A note made on Sunday is void. 
 
 A Notice to One Person in a firm is sufficient on a partner- 
 ship note. 
 
 liability. An endorser is not liable if notice of a note's 
 dishonor is not mailed or served on him inside of twenty-four 
 hours. Mailing, as usual, does not mean delivery from the 
 mails, but putting in the postoffice. 
 
 WILLS 
 
 Obligation. All contractors who have any property should 
 make their wills unless they are satisfied with the disposition 
 under state laws. They may " contract out " in the will 
 business. 
 
 No Danger. A will is not necessarily a death warrant, as 
 some seem to imagine. Many a man has made one and sur- 
 vived for years. There are people who have become so used 
 to stories of wills made on deathbeds that the idea of sending 
 for a lawyer to make out theirs always brings with it the 
 other dread of asking the preacher to come also, and do 
 what he can for a case considerably below par. 
 
 Technicalities. Of course we all know that in these days 
 it is almost impossible to get anything to stand the test of 
 the courts. The " e " is put in where it should not be, and 
 the " the " is left out, and there is no legality in it. Still, 
 it is well to say how you wish to have your property disposed 
 of. In most cases wills are undisputed. 
 
 Some of the finest lawyers in the United States have made 
 their own wills, or made them for others, and the courts 
 have overthrown them. Even Samuel J. Tilden could not 
 make one to suit the fastidious judges. Judging by these and 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 133 
 
 many other cases of national interest, and some of local in- 
 terest in most cities, the advice you get in this little treatise 
 would appear to be about as valuable or worthless as if you 
 paid a high price for it to the best lawyer you know. 
 
 Plainness. In the first place use simple language, and 
 precious little of that. Act as if every word were worth a 
 thousand dollars. The trouble with most lawyers here is 
 that they know too much. They are verbose, tautological, 
 " windy," wordy, and full to the chin with legal phrases that 
 were ancient in the time of Csesar Augustus. 
 
 I recently saw an account of a will that disposed of a 
 great deal of property in this fashion, " I leave all my 
 property to my wife, and appoint her executrix without 
 bond." 
 
 On February 9, 1910, the shortest will ever filed in Kenton 
 County, Kentucky, ran thus : " I leave everything of which I 
 die possessed to my beloved brother, Justus Goebel." Even 
 the word " beloved " might have been left out, for most 
 people would take that for granted. 
 
 The tendency is to use as few words as possible in will 
 making, and thus do away with all chance of misunderstand- 
 ing. 
 
 No particular form of words is required, but the meaning 
 of the will must be clear. If more than one sheet is used, 
 which should seldom be the case with the will of a contractor, 
 every sheet should be numbered, and the will referred to as 
 composed of sheets 1, 2, 3, as the case may be. But if you 
 have a lawyer, and he insists on pouring out language from 
 his never failing reservoir, seek another, or make out the will 
 yourself. You will make less of a botch than Mr. Wordy 
 Wiseman. At the end of this chapter a sample of his work 
 is given for a warning. 
 
 Written. In most states a will must be in writing. 
 Should a contractor fall three or four stories he is apt to 
 regret leaving things in a muddle for lawyers to fight over. 
 
 Signatures. A will must be signed in the presence of the 
 witnesses. In some states two ' witnesses are required ; in 
 others, three. The one who makes a will the " testator," our 
 legal friends call him must tell the witnesses that what they 
 are signing is his last will and testament. It is this last 
 word that scares people, but it has no more to do with things 
 
134 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 of a sacred nature than the other one. Strictly, it applies to 
 personal property only, but the words are interchangeable. 
 
 The witnesses must sign in the presence of the testator, 
 and not be mentioned as receiving anything in the will itself. 
 
 In some states, witnesses must also sign in the presence 
 of each other. They should write their address on the will, 
 although this is not compulsory. The idea is to be able to 
 find them in case the testator dies. 
 
 A Codicil may be added to a will at any time, and changes 
 made in the disposition of the property, but must be done with 
 the same number of witnesses and formalities as the will 
 itself. 
 
 Property. If some particular piece of property is men- 
 tioned in a will and it is sold or mortgaged, the one to whom 
 it was going would be short that much. If sold, you can 
 certainly not leave it to anyone. A codicil can be added. 
 When leaving all property to a certain person it is better, 
 for this reason, not to list it. 
 
 Marriage. Upon marriage, a new will should be made, for 
 the wife has a dower right for one-half to one-third of the 
 real estate, according to the statutes of the various states, 
 and a man cannot dispose of it. " Contracting out " is not 
 allowed in this particular case. The lien or mortgage holds 
 till death or divorce do us part. 
 
 Children. The birth of a child will also revoke a will, 
 unless provision is made for this contingency. 
 
 New Will. When a new will is made the old one should 
 be destroyed. There has been no end of trouble on this earth 
 with old wills. 
 
 Words to Use. If the meaning is clear any word will 
 serve, but " devise " is the word for real property, and 
 " bequeath " for personal. 
 
 Safekeeping. In most counties wills are received at the 
 courthouse, and kept free of charge, in what should be a 
 fireproof building. A receipt is furnished, and the old will 
 may be taken out at any time and changed, or a new one 
 made. It is better here than in a safety deposit vault or a 
 safe, because no one but yourself may be allowed to go into 
 the vault, and the owners will not allow even your wife to 
 get in there after your death without an order from the 
 court. If a will is kept in such a place two people should 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 135 
 
 be allowed access to it, in case of death, or some arrangement 
 made to get it when required. Wills are often left in charge 
 of lawyers so that they may be produced when necessary. 
 
 It may profit some to read what is told elsewhere in this 
 book about the worthless safes of San Francisco. 
 
 If a will is to be made by one's self, blank forms are 
 easily obtained, made out in accordance with the law of the 
 state, and thus better than any special instrument that a 
 layman could make for himself. A New York form should 
 not be used for a California will; for there may be require- 
 ments in one state that make the blanks of the other 
 useless. 
 
 Expense. One unpleasant feature of the settlement of 
 small estates is the expense connected with it. It is better 
 to trust all settlement to a wife or husband, if there is no 
 danger of the rights of children being lost. If there are no 
 debts to be paid the best way is to leave such a one in full 
 control without bond, which means another expense and some- 
 times difficulty. If an executor is appointed costs begin to 
 run up. 
 
 Contract Finished. When we leave this world we leave it 
 for good; and, as a rule, we ought to let the people in it 
 " run " it to suit themselves. Why should a woman be for- 
 bidden to marry again without losing an inheritance? Or a 
 husband? Let widow or widower marry again if he or she 
 chooses. That is the best way in most cases. But the diffi- 
 culty comes with children, if there are any. 
 
 There are too many thousands of cases in evidence where 
 a sensible " widow woman " or " widower man," if the one, 
 why not the other? has selected another soul mate of a 
 tolerably worthless character, and practically turned over 
 property meant to protect children, from what is a severe 
 struggle at times, to the selfish mercies of the new partner. 
 Many a woman, when too late, has bitterly regretted being 
 left in full control of property that she sees slipping away 
 from her children. 
 
 If it is left in trust it often disappears too, and that is a 
 more expensive way of treating a fund that is too small at 
 the best. 
 
 On the other hand, many a woman leaves property in full 
 control of her husband, trusting him with the interests of 
 
136 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 the children. But one day, after the loss had been dulled, 
 he sees Miss Delilah Pompadour, and the old story begins. 
 
 Mr. Bellamy's beautiful earthly paradise is not here yet, 
 but in disgust at tons of legal papers and a general mess where 
 such a state as Illinois has more judges than all England, 
 Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, and notwithstanding we see 
 the rights of children trampled on, we cannot help wishing 
 that we had some simpler and less expensive system than the 
 present one. 
 
 * Dangers. Executors, administrators, and guardians also 
 have their troubles. One great principle of their office is to 
 keep the money from the estate, or trust, apart from their 
 own. This too common practice of mixing the funds of banks, 
 estates, etc., with personal accounts has been the ruin of many 
 a good man. 
 
 If you are appointed trustee, guardian, or anything of that 
 kind, in general make no move without consulting a lawyer. 
 Unless there is a good reason for taking this particular kind of 
 a contract, try to " side-step " it. When the minors grow old 
 enough they may demand an accounting. If you have taken 
 legal advice the lawyer has charged you, and the bill has had 
 to go against the estate. If it is too much it is clear that 
 you have been feeding an attorney who is probably, curiously 
 enough, your uncle's son and if you have gone ahead on 
 your own initiative you have done what you should not have 
 done, and squandered the money of orphans. In any case, it 
 would conduce to good feeling all around if you would ex- 
 plain what took place eleven years previously, and produce 
 the receipts. Otherwise, otherwise 
 
 Before accepting such a trust you should read the following 
 legal definition of GIVING from Patten's Monthly: 
 
 If a man were to give another an orange, he would merely 
 say, " I give you this orange." But when the transaction is 
 entrusted to the hands of a lawyer to put it in writing, he 
 adopts this form: 
 
 I hereby give, grant and convey to you, all and singular, my 
 estate and interest, right, title, claim and advantage of and 
 in the said orange, together with all its rind, skin, juice, 
 pulp and pips, with all right and advantage therein, w r ith full 
 power to bite, cut, suck or otherwise eat the said orange, 
 or give the same away, as fully and effectually as I, the said 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 137 
 
 A. B. Smith, am now entitled to bite, cut, suck or otherwise 
 eat the said orange, or give the same away, with or without 
 its rind, skin, juice, pulp and pips; anything hereinbefore 
 or hereinafter, in any deed or deeds, instrument or instru- 
 ments, of whatever kind or nature soever, to the contrary in 
 any wise notwithstanding. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 INSURANCE AND BONDS 
 
 Two Examples. Once when discussing the subject of fire 
 insurance with a supply man, he said to me that the business 
 that would not pay for insurance had better be left alone. 
 Some time after that I saw his great warehouse, filled with 
 valuable building material, burned to the ground. The cor- 
 rectness of his theory was illustrated in flames. 
 
 In " The New Building Estimator " there is a note about 
 contractors who failed to keep up insurance on a schoolhouse, 
 after the contract \vas completed, but before it was accepted 
 or paid for, naturally. There were only a few days to run, 
 and they felt safe. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred they 
 would have been. But in this hundredth case they were 
 burned out and put on the shelf. The gamble went against 
 them. 
 
 Averages. There is what is called a Law of Averages. By 
 this law you might escape all your life and never have a fire, 
 for your neighbor might get your share of the average, in 
 addition to his own, but -it is not safe to trifle with a risk 
 of that kind. Shakespeare tells us of those who seek a min- 
 ute's mirth and pay for it by wailing a week; and the con- 
 tractor who goes without fire insurance on his installed work 
 is often put in the same class. He keeps a dime so close to 
 his eye that he cannot see a few golden eagles beyond. 
 
 Builders' Risk. The Uniform Contract takes care of this 
 insurance question by putting the responsibility upon the 
 owner. If another contract is used the owner can sometimes 
 be induced to take out his permanent insurance on the work 
 as it goes along, with the usual permission to finish. The 
 main idea is to have either the owner or the contractor attend 
 to this vital matter. The fire loss is serious all over the land, 
 and anyone might get caught for his share, and something over. 
 
 138 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 139 
 
 Accidents. After fire comes liability for accidents. In 
 some countries the laws are strict on this subject. Both 
 employers and employed have to make provision for annuities. 
 
 There is no country where human life is so wickedly trifled 
 with as here. Every year we kill, cripple, or injure about 
 500,000 people. Our death bill, in one year of peace, is greater 
 than that of the slain and wounded throughout the terrible 
 Russo-Japanese war. At least half of the wicked slaughter 
 is unnecessary. In less than three months about 400 miners 
 were killed in the United States, 1909-1910. Their deaths 
 were the result of the setting aside of state laws, in the worst 
 case, and probably in all. Suppose you read Everybody's 
 Magazine for February, 1907. 
 
 There are no exact statistics as to the building trades. Of 
 accidents of this kind on buildings Everybody's writer says: 
 " In nine cases out of ten they are preventible, and are there- 
 fore little less than murder." 
 
 In 1906 the Ironworkers' Union, Chicago, lost 156 out of 
 1,358 on skyscrapers and bridges. 
 
 Risk. As with lightning, no one knows where a fatal 
 accident is going to strike next. With the prospect of a suit 
 for $50,000, and this is now possible in some states, it is best 
 to take out insurance. 
 
 The large construction companies and experienced contrac- 
 tors in smaller businesses understand the situation, and take 
 no chances, but a warning is necessary to younger or more 
 careless ones. 
 
 An owner takes a risk in giving a contract to a builder who 
 carries no insurance of this kind; and the latter has to watch 
 to whom he gives his subcontracts. 
 
 Wrong Idea. It is not insuring men, properly speaking, 
 although they work it that way in Germany; but insuring the 
 contractor from damage suits and verdicts from injured 
 workers. 
 
 I once saw a man go headlong down through several stories. 
 He lay in bed for a week or so, and then, after hearing that 
 there was insurance, came around to the subcontractor for his 
 share. His impression was that he was to be paid for falling, 
 but the Chicago subcontractor smiled and said that it did 
 not work that way. He took the matter to court, but the 
 judge laid the accident to his own carelessness. 
 
140 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Record. The time and date of an accident should be set 
 down, and all particulars: the insurance company has to be 
 at once notified. 
 
 Amount. The insurance is taken out on the basis of the 
 wages paid in a year. It applies to all buildings under 
 construction, and not merely to one. 
 
 Other Risks. It is not only with the building proper that 
 the risk comes, but in sewer excavation, and such work. 
 Unloading of material also has its dangers. The insurance 
 covers everything. 
 
 Assuming Risk. Some try the system of " contracting 
 out," or making individual agreements with the men to assume 
 the risk themselves. While lawyers disagree, it is not likely 
 that a court would uphold any such arrangement. There 
 are certain things that a man cannot sign away in civilized 
 lands. He cannot sign aw T ay his life, for example, on a given 
 day. Who would take it? Neither does it seem that he 
 may sign away the right of his relatives to collect damages 
 for his death or accident to his person through the carelessness 
 of the builder or those working for him. Such rights are not 
 his to sign away. The larger view is that it would be preju- 
 dicial to the interests of the community to allow him to do 
 so even if willing. 
 
 This matter happened to be discussed a good deal in the 
 British parliament a few years ago. Some laws were laid 
 down that the railroads did not like, and they wanted to be 
 allowed to sign private agreements with their employees; but 
 they did not succeed. All that it would have meant is that 
 the employees would have had to sign or leave the employ- 
 ment, for some other reason than the true one, and this would 
 have nullified the whole intent of the law, and set the 
 companies up above the national legislators. 
 
 Mr. McCullough, in his " Business of Contracting," cites 
 instances where married men signed such agreements, and 
 their wives signed with them, a paid up accident policy having 
 been provided as a consideration; but it is again doubtful 
 if such a contract would hold. Just as ex post facto laws 
 are not allowed, so, in general, agreements signing away 
 natural rights are worthless. 
 
 With relation to this, I notice in the World-Herald of 
 Omaha, November 25, 1909, that the supreme court " affirmed 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 141 
 
 a district court decision to the effect that a railroad company 
 cannot relieve itself of liability for its own negligence by 
 making a contract of immunity in advance." Law and justice 
 would seem to be on good terms in this decision. 
 
 Cost. Mr. McCullough gives the cost at from 2 to 12 per 
 cent, of an engineering pay roll, depending upon the danger 
 of the work. In building work the rate usually runs from 
 3 l / 2 per cent, on a small amount of a few thousands to 2% 
 per cent, where there is a large pay roll. On a pay roll of 
 $5,000 at 3y 2 the cost would be $175. This would hold good 
 till the sum of $5,000 had been paid out in wages. It is 
 not worth while taking any risk with contracting out when 
 lawyers are not agreed as to the legality of the contracts. It 
 is better to pay the companies the rate demanded and be 
 secure. 
 
 Neglect. The insurance companies properly insist upon a 
 contractor being careful. If an accident is due to his own 
 carelessness or neglect of ordinary precautions, the company 
 can recover damages. 
 
 Serious Verdicts. I wrote an insurance company for a 
 few figures, and got the following ones, which are just from 
 one state. There are about fifty other states and territories 
 to consider. 
 
 In some states there was formerly a statutory law limiting 
 the liability for death to $5,000. Now, where this limit is 
 removed, the danger is greater than ever. 
 
 In the state of New York, after 1895, a provision of the 
 constitution took from the legislature the power of limiting 
 the amount recoverable. There are now hundreds of cases 
 waiting, or still being fought over, in the lower courts there, 
 but many have been decided under the new law. From the 
 records of the Court of Appeals, Appellate Division, New York, 
 thirty-two cases are cited by one insurance company, with 
 verdicts running from $40,000 to $9,500; thirteen are for 
 $10,000; four from $12,000 to $12,500; six at $15,000; five 
 from $21,000 to $25,000; and two for $40,000. 
 
 After Business. The insurance companies naturally give 
 the verdicts that are most likely to send the contractors 
 on the run for policies, but allowing for all this, the matter 
 ought not to be neglected. 
 
 The companies insure only for a limited amount per person 
 
142 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 injured, and for a limited total amount. If insurance is wanted 
 against such extreme verdicts as for $40,000, then excess 
 liability must be taken out. Contracting is a more dangerous 
 business than some imagine. All the property a contractor 
 has accumulated in the course of a lifetime might vanish in 
 half an hour. This is why some of them grow fonder of their 
 wives every year. She holds the " swag." 
 
 Big Business. The great size of the liability insurance 
 business is shown by the fact that in 1908 the sum of 
 $22,711,547 was paid for premiums; and $11,670,222 for 
 
 Construction Bonds. An indemnity bond has usually to 
 be given to the owner to secure him against liens, etc., and 
 to make the fulfillment of the contract a certainty. Some 
 owners go so far as to ask for a bond to the full amount 
 of the contract, but this is most unreasonable. A bond for 
 one-third, or even one-fourth is enough for a responsible 
 builder. A government bond is usually for half of the con- 
 tract price. 
 
 But even a responsible builder should remember that the 
 erection of a building is purely a business proposition, and 
 not get on his dignity when the owner or his agent, the 
 architect, wishes to see if the money previously paid has 
 been turned over to the dealers and subcontractors in the 
 right proportion before issuing another order. When this is 
 done, a large bond is not necessary. 
 
 When the subpayments are made as they should be, every 
 day the owner becomes safer, until at the end he has a 
 large bond for a reserve of often only ten per cent, of the cost. 
 If a full bond is exacted he might have $100,000 of security on 
 this, and, at the finish, 10 per cent, on the building itself, 
 worth $10,000 more, we shall assume. Even this would be 
 in his hands until the last payment. On this assumed building 
 worth $100,000 he would thus, at the end, have security for 
 $110,000 to see him through. There is no sense in a bond 
 that is more than half the contract at most. 
 
 And if a bond is really worth anything at all why 
 should there be any reserve? Does the bond not secure pay- 
 ments ? 
 
 Who Pays. The owner really has to pay for his own 
 security, for the cost of the bond is added to the estimate, 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 143 
 
 but the trouble comes with the bonding companies. They 
 are more particular with a large than with a small bond. 
 The builder has to tell how much property he has, if it is in 
 his own name or his wife's, how much cash he has, and 
 several other particulars. The contractor who might be able 
 to take a good sized contract is debarred by the size of the 
 bond, and the owner thus restricts the field to builders who 
 charge a higher price for the work. He pays a higher price 
 for the privilege of being extra safe. 
 
 Carefulness. A bond of this kind should be made out to 
 cover a certain job till it is finished, as some of the com- 
 panies now want to collect an annual premium. From one 
 per cent, to half that amount of the sum for which the bond 
 is made out is charged. 
 
 Personal Bonds. No one should now ask his friends to 
 go on his bond for him. This used to be the fashion, and 
 it was a bad one. There are companies organized for this 
 purpose. It is unfair to expect your friends to risk their 
 fortunes on your business arrangements while they get noth- 
 ing in return. You could not pay them enough to cover the 
 risk, but the operations of the companies are spread over 
 a large territory, and a loss in one part is made up by 
 gains in many other sections. A personal bondsman can 
 sometimes fight himself out of liability in case of disaster, 
 but there are too many cases where this has not been possible 
 to make the risk desirable to anyone. It is like endorsing 
 notes. 
 
 Back Bond. One method the companies have is to ask for 
 a back bond. They will furnish the main bond, which is 
 larger than any private person would guarantee, but expect 
 the contractor to sign agreements that they will hold the 
 company clear of all damage. This enables the contractor to 
 go ahead, but it is under the old personal bond arrangement. 
 He has to pay the guaranty company, but if they are not 
 satisfied with the risk under a straight bond, they should 
 let it alone. Probably the contractor is taking a larger job 
 than he should. 
 
 One disadvantage of having property in your wife's name is 
 when asking for a bond, unless there is enough of your own as 
 well. If a builder will not risk his own property, why should 
 a bonding company risk theirs? 
 
144 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Mortgage. The first bond I gave was a mortgage upon 
 a cottage. It was thoughtlessly done, for if anything had 
 gone wrong with the contract there might have been trouble 
 with the title for years. 
 
 The largest one was for $40,000, or a little less than one- 
 third of the contract. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 HAND AND MACHINE LABOR 
 
 Early Days. When machines were first introduced into 
 the spinning mills and factories the workers rose and smashed 
 them to pieces, and then hunted for the inventors. They 
 fought the machine with brickbats and curses, but it was 
 useless. 
 
 It is just about as useless for the building contractor of 
 to-day to try to " buck " the machine in his line. It turns 
 out the finished product almost as cheap as we can buy 
 the raw material for. Robinson Crusoe had to make every- 
 thing by hand; but why try to play R. C. in the midst of 
 civilization? It costs too much. Wages are too high for 
 that. 
 
 High Wages. In cities as wages get higher machinery 
 must be brought more and more into use. Brick, mortar, 
 lumber, steel all heavy building material will have to be 
 taken up by steam or electric power in the future. Next 
 to hanging a man, about the worst use you can make of him 
 is to give him a hod full of brick or mortar and tell him 
 to mount three stories with it. A contractor cannot always 
 have machinery of his own, but in large cities he can often 
 rent it. 
 
 Gradually as we get into better days, the rough work is 
 being turned over to the electric motor. Even the surfacing 
 of floors is now done in this way, and this one misery done 
 away with. 
 
 Craftsmen. Some of our " craftsmen " friends are taking 
 Mr. Ruskin's advice and trying to get back to the old 
 paths. They can neither mortise nor tenon so well as the 
 machines can, and there is no more virtue in a hole dug in 
 wood by hand than in one dug by machine. 
 
 Saw-Pits. There are a few scattered around. Those who 
 have seen them and the bent shouldered men who used to do 
 
 145 
 
146 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 the terrible work of sawing planks know that it was a good 
 day when civilization was able to lay aside that R. C. way 
 of doing work. John Stuart Mill sat in a library and penned 
 an often quoted remark to the effect that it is doubtful if 
 all of our inventions have lightened the toil of anyone. If 
 his back had been bent over a saw-pit he would never have 
 written such nonsense. Or if he had ever carried up brick 
 in a hod for a month or two. 
 
 Planing-Mills. As a rule, it does not pay a contractor 
 to run a planing-mill. The expense of machinery for a good 
 mill is heavy, and unless it can be kept continuously going, 
 it is rather a poor investment in these days when the large 
 mills turn out stock work at an astonishingly low price. 
 If a contractor has enough special work to keep the mill 
 going, and plenty of capital, there is a chance of making 
 money. 
 
 Gasoline. In some towns and villages where there is no 
 planing-mill, a profitable investment is a kerosene, alcohol, 
 or power engine of some kind, provided that there is no 
 electric current that can be used at a cheap rate. All over 
 the country farmers are investing in such engines, and are 
 finding that it pays to use them for work formerly done 
 by hand. Country carpenters would find them of great 
 advantage. 
 
 Mixing Machines. It is commonly agreed among archi- 
 tects and engineers that it is better to mix concrete by 
 machine than by hand, although the hand method is cheaper 
 on very small quantities. On large quantities the machine 
 mixing is far cheaper. 
 
 Hoisting. It is also far cheaper to hoist lumber and 
 heavy materials by machine than by hand when above the 
 second floor. The difficulty is to get a hoisting engine. A 
 good many contractors now use an electric motor, and get 
 their power from the local company or the city. 
 
 With portable saws, mixing machines, boring machines, 
 floor-smoothing machines, and hoisting power, we live 
 in an age of machinery. We may still use the sickle 
 to cut the lawn, as it were, but the mowing machine beats 
 it. 
 
 Waste. One of the points of attack in all businesses now 
 is the elimination of waste. Doing by hand what is cheaper 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 147 
 
 and better done by machine is wasteful. The man with the 
 machine is going to win in the long run. 
 
 Technical books, tables of weights, areas, dimensions, add- 
 ing machines, and Uniform Contracts all these are labor- 
 saving inventions to be taken advantage of by those who will. 
 Why should you figure out the area of a circle for yourself 
 when it was done for you before you were born? 
 
 Proportion. The following figures, principally relating to 
 building work, show just about what the situation is. They 
 are reliable and cost a good deal of money to collect, but I 
 did not pay it. Here the time only is given to show the 
 proportion of the two methods. In the 1910 edition of "The 
 New Building Estimator," the quantities are given with the 
 time to show cost of production for estimating purposes. The 
 idea is to set forth the uselessness of " bucking " the machine 
 in this chapter. 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 Making common brick . . 
 " paving " . . 
 
 " sewer pipe .... 
 
 a (( 
 
 " sand and cement 
 
 pipe 
 
 " granite balusters 
 (pat'rns only) 
 " granite balusters 
 turning by 
 
 lathe 
 
 " granite balusters 
 turning total 
 
 time 
 
 Carving and tracing 
 
 granite 
 
 Cutting marble column 
 16' x 2' diameter .... 
 
 Dressing granite 
 
 (i n 
 
 Lettering granite 
 
 HAND 
 
 MACHINE PROPORTION 
 
 Hrs. 
 
 Mins. 
 
 Hrs. 
 
 Mins. 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 to 1 
 
 33 
 
 52 
 
 8 
 
 43 
 
 4 
 
 to 1 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 to 1 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 to 1 
 
 8 44 
 
 41 23 
 
 2 12 
 9 
 
 7,488 00 536 00 
 
 8,303 23 
 
 228 00 
 
 338 35 
 
 225 00 
 
 61 00 
 
 31 30 
 
 11 15 
 
 653 26 
 
 126 20 
 
 321 15 
 
 15 00 
 
 10 00 
 
 22 30 
 
 9 00 
 
 4 to 1 
 
 ,4 to 1 
 
 14 to 1 
 
 13 to 1 
 
 2 to 1 
 
 15 to 1 
 6 to 1 
 
148 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 HAND MACHINE PROPORTION 
 
 Hrs. Mins. Hrs. Mins. 
 
 Polishing granite 
 
 90 
 
 00 
 
 9 
 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 " " 
 
 60 
 
 00 
 
 9 
 
 00 
 
 6 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 marble 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 t( a 
 
 20 
 
 00 
 
 6 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Sawing " 
 
 6,000 
 
 00 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 923 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Cutting sandstone win- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dowsills . . 
 
 79 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Stone breaking 
 
 650 
 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 00 
 
 65 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 " drilling 
 
 30 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 " " 
 
 89 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Granite drilling 
 
 504 
 
 00 
 
 131 
 
 00 
 
 4 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Loading gravel 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 WOODWORK 
 
 Making oak bookcases . . 
 
 654 
 
 00 
 
 157 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 " " " 
 
 480 
 
 00 
 
 43 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Cutting same for locks. 
 
 6 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 33 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Making bureaus 
 
 443 
 
 00 
 
 108 
 
 00 
 
 4 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Sideboards 
 
 970 
 
 00 
 
 182 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Making outside window 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 blinds 
 
 462 
 
 30 
 
 114 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Making outside window 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 blinds 
 
 695 
 
 50 
 
 56 
 
 40 
 
 12 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Making oak brackets . . . 
 
 196 
 
 00 
 
 63 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Making pine brackets . . 
 
 27 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Making veneered doors . 
 
 1,385 
 
 00 
 
 510 
 
 00 
 
 2i/ 2 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Making four-panel oak 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 doors 
 
 702 
 
 30 
 
 131 
 
 00 
 
 6 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Making four-panel pine 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 doors 
 
 484 
 
 00 
 
 193 
 
 00 
 
 2Vo 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Planing lumber 
 
 
 
 
 
 * /2 
 
 30 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 to 
 
 
 Making sash 
 
 300 
 
 00 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 to 
 
 
 K 
 
 400 
 
 00 
 
 37 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 312 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 to 
 
 
 " window screens. 
 
 70 
 
 50 
 
 16 
 
 00 
 
 4 
 
 to 
 
 
 ladders, 30-ft . . 
 
 103 
 
 15 
 
 46 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 " stepladders .... 
 
 58 
 
 30 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 149 
 
 DESCRIPTION HAND MACHINE PROPORTION 
 
 Hrs. Mins. Hrs. Mins. 
 
 Sawing logs 64 00 2 00 32 to 1 
 
 96 30 2 45 38 to 1 
 
 " 100,000 ft. 
 
 B. M. . . 15,000 00 40 00 375 to 1 
 
 Splitting kindling wood. 40 00 3 52 11 to 1 
 
 PIPEWORK 
 
 Cutting and threading 
 
 3" pipe 100 00 6 40 15 to 1 
 
 Tapping and threading 
 
 pipe 26 40 1 05 25 to 1 
 
BOOK II 
 THE CONTRACTOR AS A CONSTRUCTOR 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND THEIR USE 
 
 For Whom Intended. The tables in this chapter are 
 arranged for contractors, and are not so near perfection as 
 some we know of. Decimals are left out where they are not 
 really required; "reciprocals" are never used in contracting, 
 and are therefore not printed here; and other changes are made 
 from the orthodox lists. 
 
 Specialists. It must be remembered that a contractor is 
 not a trained architect, and still less an engineer. But, 
 conversely, it is well to bear in mind, at the same time, that 
 the architect is not a building contractor, and the engineer 
 still less so. 
 
 The contractor is sometimes trained to do architectural 
 and engineering work of a plain nature, and architects and 
 engineers occasionally engage in the business of contracting, 
 but in general the spheres are practically distinct, and what 
 is required for the one is useless for the other. What has a 
 builder to do with logarithms or trigonometry or the refine- 
 ments of the various styles of architecture? The ground 
 comes to him " surveyed, platted, and recorded," and the 
 plans and specifications are delivered with orders to go ahead. 
 He has troubles enough of his own without taking those of 
 other men on his shoulders. 
 
 It is all well enough, and desirable enough, if he under- 
 stands the principles upon which the designs he works from 
 are based, but not really necessary. The architect will look 
 after that end of the common task. The contractor's part is 
 
 151 
 
152 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 merely to realize the brilliant dream in stone or other 
 " rough materialistic " things of that kind. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
 LONG MEASUBE 
 
 Inches 
 
 12= 1 foot 
 
 36= 3 1 yard 
 
 72= 6 = 2 I fathom 
 198= 16.5= 5.5= 2.75=1 perch or rod 
 
 7920= 660 = 220 110 = 40=1 furlong 
 
 63360=5280 =1760 =880 =320=8=1 mile 
 
 SQUAEE MEASURE 
 
 Inches 
 
 144=: 1 foot 
 
 1296= 9=1 yard 
 
 39204= 272.25= 30.25= 1 perch 
 
 1568160= 10890 =1210 = 40=1 rood 
 
 6272640= 43560 =4840 =160=4=1 acre 
 
 An acre is 69.5701 yards square; or, 208.710321 feet square 
 A township is 6 miles square = 36 sections 
 " section " 1 " " = 640 acres 
 % " " 1/3 " " =160 " 
 
 1-16 " " % " " = 40 " 
 
 SOLID MEASURE 
 
 Cubic inches 
 
 1728 = 1 cubic foot 
 46656 = 27 = 1 cubic yard 
 
 DRY MEASURE 
 
 Pints = 33.6 cubic inches 
 2=1 quart = 67.2 cubic inches 
 8 = 4 = 1 gallon = 268.8 cubic inches 
 16 = 8 = 2=1 peck = 537.6 cubic inches 
 64 = 32 = 8 = 4=1 bushel 
 
 Note. The standard U. S. bushel is the Winchester bushel, 
 which is in cylinder form 18% in. diameter and 8 in. deep, 
 and contains 2150 42-100 cubic inches. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 153 
 
 ( 2218.192 cubic inches 
 
 The English Imperial bushel = j L(m52 y g bushelg 
 
 ( 8 Imperial bushels 
 
 The English quarter = < 8% (nearly) U. S. bu. 
 
 f 10.2694 cubic feet 
 
 MEASURE OF SURFACE 
 
 MEASURE OF SOLIDITY 
 
 144 sq. inches 1 sq. foot 1728 cubic in. = 1 cubic foot 
 
 9 sq. feet 1 sq. yard 27 cubic ft. 1 cubic yard 
 
 30*4 sq. yards = 1 sq. rod 
 
 40 sq. rods = 1 rood LIQUID MEASURE 
 
 4 roods = 1 acre 
 
 10 sq. chains 1 acre 
 
 640 acres 1 sq. mile 
 
 gills 
 pints 
 quarts 
 
 31 y 2 gallons 
 
 make 1 pint 
 
 " 1 quart 
 
 " 1 gallon 
 
 " 1 barrel 
 
 WEIGHTS 
 
 One Cubic inch of Cast Iron, weighs 
 
 One Cubic inch of Wrought Iron, " 
 
 One Cubic inch of Water, 
 
 One U. S. Gallon, " 
 
 One Imperial Gallon, " 
 
 One U. S. Gallon, equals 
 
 One Imperial Gallon, " 
 
 One Cubic foot of Water, 
 
 One Pound of Steam, " 
 
 One Pound of Air, " 
 
 0.26 pounds 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.036 " 
 
 8.33 
 10.00 
 
 231.00 cubic inches 
 277.274 " 
 
 7.48 U. S. gallons 
 27.222 cubic feet 
 
 13.817 " 
 
 RULES FOR OBTAINING APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF IRON 
 
 For Round Bars 
 
 Rule. Multiply the square of the diameter in inches by 
 the length in feet, and that product by 2.6. The product will 
 be the weight in pounds, nearly. 
 
 For Square and Flat Bars 
 
 Rule. Multiply the area of the end of the bar in inches 
 by the length in feet, and that by 3.32. The product will be 
 the weight in pounds, nearly. 
 
154 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Wrought iron, usually assumed: 
 
 A cubic foot =480 Ibs. 
 
 A square foot, 1 inch thick = 40 " 
 
 A bar 1 inch square, 1 foot long = 3^ " 
 
 A " " " 1 yard long = 10 " 
 
 To find the weight of Cast Iron Balls when the diameter is 
 given. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the cube of the diameter by .1377. 
 To find the diameter of Cast Iron Balls when the weight is 
 given. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the cube root of the weight by 1.936. 
 To find the weight of a Spherical Shell. 
 From the weight of a ball of the outer diameter subtract 
 the weight of one of the inner diameters. 
 To convert the weight of 
 
 Wrought Iron into Cast Iron X 0-928 
 Steel X 1-014 
 
 Zinc X -918 
 
 Brass X 1-082 
 
 Copper X 1-144 
 Lead X 1-468 
 
 DECIMAL APPROXIMATIONS USEFUL IN CALCULATIONS 
 
 Cubic inches X -263 = lbs - av - cast * ron 
 " " X -281 = " wrought iron 
 
 X - 283 = " cast steel 
 
 X -3225= " copper 
 
 X -3037= " brass 
 
 " " X -26 = " zinc 
 
 X -4103= " lead 
 
 X -2636= " tin 
 
 " " x -4908=: " mercury 
 
 Cylin. " X -2065= " cast iron 
 
 " " x .2168= " wrought iron 
 
 X -2223= " cast steel 
 
 " " X -2533= " copper 
 
 X .2385= " brass 
 
 " " X -2042= " zinc 
 
 X .3223= " lead 
 
 X -207 = " tin 
 
 X .3854= " mercury 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 155 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES 
 
 Cast Iron, average 7.21 Cast Steel, average 7.85 
 
 Wrought Iron " 7.78 Bessemer Steel " 7.86 
 
 Light iron indicates impurity. The heaviest steel contains 
 least carbon. 
 
 Decimal equivalents of 8ths, 16ths, 32s, and 64ths of an inch. 
 
 Fractions 
 of an 
 inch. 
 
 Decimals 
 of an 
 inch. 
 
 Fractions 
 of an 
 inch. 
 
 Decimals 
 of an 
 inch. 
 
 1-64 
 
 .015625 
 
 33-64 = 
 
 .515625 
 
 1-32 = 
 
 .03125 
 
 17-32 = 
 
 .53125 
 
 3-64 = 
 
 .046875 
 
 35-64 =i 
 
 .546875 
 
 1-16 
 
 .0625 
 
 9-16 
 
 .5625 
 
 5-64 
 
 .078125 
 
 37-64 = 
 
 .578125 
 
 3-32 = 
 
 .09375 
 
 19-32 = 
 
 .59375 
 
 7-64 = 
 
 .109375 
 
 39-64 
 
 .609375 
 
 VB = 
 
 .125 
 
 % = 
 
 .625 
 
 9-64 
 
 .140625 
 
 41-64 = 
 
 .640625 
 
 5-32 = 
 
 .15625 
 
 21-32 = 
 
 .65625 
 
 11-64 = 
 
 .171875 
 
 43-64 = 
 
 .671875 
 
 3-16 
 
 .1875 
 
 11-16 = 
 
 .6875 
 
 13-64 
 
 .203125 
 
 45-64 = 
 
 .703125 
 
 7-32 = 
 
 .21875 
 
 23-32 = 
 
 .71875 
 
 15-64 = 
 
 .234375 
 
 47-64 
 
 .734375 
 
 *A = 
 
 .25 
 
 3 /4 = 
 
 .75 
 
 17-64 = 
 
 .265625 
 
 49-64 
 
 .765625 
 
 9-32 = 
 
 .28125 
 
 25-32 = 
 
 .78125 
 
 19-64 
 
 .296875 
 
 51-64 = 
 
 .796875 
 
 5-16 
 
 .3125 
 
 13-16 = 
 
 .8125 
 
 21-64 = 
 
 .328125 
 
 53-64 
 
 .828125 
 
 11-32 
 
 .34375 
 
 27-32 
 
 .84375 
 
 23-64 
 
 .359375 
 
 55-64 = 
 
 .859375 
 
 % = 
 
 .375 
 
 % = 
 
 .875 
 
 25-64 = 
 
 .390625 
 
 57-64 = 
 
 .890625 
 
 13-32 
 
 .40625 
 
 29-32 = 
 
 .90625 
 
 27-64 
 
 .421895 
 
 59-64 = 
 
 .921875 
 
 7-16 = 
 
 .4375 
 
 15-16 = 
 
 .9375 
 
 29-64 = 
 
 .453125 
 
 61-64 
 
 .953125 
 
 15-32 
 
 .46875 
 
 31-32 
 
 .96875 
 
 31-64 = 
 
 .484375 
 
 63-64 = 
 
 .984375 
 
 y 
 
 .5 
 
 
 
156 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 DECIMALS OF A FOOT FOR EACH OF AN INCH 
 
 Inches 
 
 0" 
 
 1" 
 
 2" 
 
 3" 
 
 4 
 
 5" 
 
 6" 
 
 1" 
 
 8" 
 
 9" 
 
 10" 
 
 11" 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 .0026 
 
 .0833 
 .0859 
 
 .1667 
 .1693 
 
 .2500 
 .2526 
 
 .3333 
 .3359 
 
 .4167 
 .4193 
 
 .5000 
 .5026 
 
 .5833 
 .5859 
 
 .6667 
 .6693 
 
 .7500 
 .7526 
 
 .8333 
 .8359 
 
 .9167 
 .9193 
 
 ij 
 
 .0052 
 
 .0885 
 
 .1719 
 
 .2552 
 
 .3385 
 
 .4219 
 
 .5052 
 
 .5885 
 
 .6719 
 
 .7552 
 
 .8385 
 
 .9219 
 
 3 3 Z 
 
 .0078 
 
 .0911 
 
 .1745 
 
 .2578 
 
 .3411 
 
 .4245 
 
 .5078 
 
 .5911 
 
 .6745 
 
 .7578 
 
 .8411 
 
 .9245 
 
 Vs 
 
 .0104 
 
 .0937 
 
 .1771 
 
 .2604 
 
 .3437 
 
 .4271 
 
 .5104 
 
 .5937 
 
 .6771 
 
 .7604 
 
 .8437 
 
 .9271 
 
 ^j 
 
 .0130 
 
 .0964 
 
 .1797 
 
 .2630 
 
 .3464 
 
 .4297 
 
 .5130 
 
 .5964 
 
 .6797 
 
 .7630 
 
 .8464 
 
 .9297 
 
 A 
 
 .0156 
 
 .0990 
 
 .1823 
 
 .2656 
 
 .3490 
 
 .4323 
 
 .5156 
 
 .5990 
 
 .6823 
 
 .7656 
 
 .8490 
 
 .9323 
 
 j^jj 
 
 .0182 
 
 .1016 
 
 .1849 
 
 .2682 
 
 .3516 
 
 .4349 
 
 .5182 
 
 .6016 
 
 .6849 
 
 .7682 
 
 .8516 
 
 .9349 
 
 % 
 
 .0208 
 
 .1042 
 
 .1875 
 
 .2708 
 
 .3542 
 
 .4375 
 
 .5208 
 
 .6042 
 
 .6875 
 
 .7708 
 
 .8542 
 
 .9375 
 
 & 
 
 .0234 
 
 .1068 
 
 .1901 
 
 .2734 
 
 .3568 
 
 .4401 
 
 .5234 
 
 .6068 
 
 .6901 
 
 .7734 
 
 .8568 
 
 .9401 
 
 JL 
 
 .0260 
 
 .1094 
 
 .1927 
 
 .2760 
 
 .3594 
 
 .4427 
 
 .5260 
 
 .6094 
 
 .6927 
 
 .7760 
 
 .8594 
 
 .9427 
 
 41 
 
 .0286 
 
 .1120 
 
 .1953 
 
 .2786 
 
 .3620 
 
 .4453 
 
 .5286 
 
 .6120 
 
 .6953 
 
 .7786 
 
 .8620 
 
 .9453 
 
 % 
 
 .0312 
 
 .1146 
 
 .1979 
 
 .2812 
 
 .3646 
 
 .4479 
 
 .5312 
 
 .6146 
 
 .6979 
 
 .7812 
 
 .8646 
 
 .9479 
 
 J$ 
 
 .0339 
 
 .1172 
 
 .2005 
 
 .2839 
 
 .3672 
 
 .4505 
 
 .5339 
 
 .6172 
 
 .7005 
 
 .7839 
 
 .8672 
 
 .9505 
 
 iV 
 
 .0365 
 
 .1198 
 
 .2031 
 
 .2865 
 
 .3698 
 
 .4531 
 
 .5365 
 
 .6198 
 
 .7031 
 
 .7865 
 
 .8698 
 
 .9531 
 
 if 
 
 .0391 
 
 .1224 
 
 .2057 
 
 .2891 
 
 .3724 
 
 .4557 
 
 .5391 
 
 .6224 
 
 .7057 
 
 .7891 
 
 .8724 
 
 .9557 
 
 % 
 
 .0417 
 
 .1250 
 
 .2083 
 
 .2917 
 
 .3750 
 
 .4583 
 
 .5417 
 
 .6250 
 
 .7083 
 
 .7917 
 
 .8750 
 
 .9583 
 
 
 .0443 
 
 .1276 
 
 .2109 
 
 .2943 
 
 .3776 
 
 .4609 
 
 .5443 
 
 .6276 
 
 .7109 
 
 .7943 
 
 .8776 
 
 .9609 
 
 _p g 
 
 .0469 
 
 .1302 
 
 .2135 
 
 .2969 
 
 .3802 
 
 .4635 
 
 .5469 
 
 .6302 
 
 .7135 
 
 .7969 
 
 .8802 
 
 .9635 
 
 ig 
 
 .0495 
 
 .1328 
 
 .2161 
 
 .2995 
 
 .3828 
 
 .4661 
 
 .5495 
 
 .6328 
 
 .7161 
 
 .7995 
 
 .8828 
 
 .9661 
 
 % 
 
 .0521 
 
 .1354 
 
 .2188 
 
 .3021 
 
 .3854 
 
 .4688 
 
 .5521 
 
 .6354 
 
 .7188 
 
 .8021 
 
 .8854 
 
 .9688 
 
 ll 
 
 .0547 
 
 .1380 
 
 .2214 
 
 .3047 
 
 .3880 
 
 .4714 
 
 .5547 
 
 .6380 
 
 .7214 
 
 .8047 
 
 .8880 
 
 .9714 
 
 
 .0573 
 .0599 
 
 .1406 
 .1432 
 
 .2240 
 .2266 
 
 .3073 
 .3099 
 
 .3906 
 .3932 
 
 .4740 
 .4766 
 
 .5573 
 .5599 
 
 .6406 
 .6432 
 
 .7240 
 .7266 
 
 .8073 
 .8099 
 
 .8906 
 .8932 
 
 .9740 
 .9766 
 
 % 
 
 .0625 
 
 .1458 
 
 .2292 
 
 .3125 
 
 .3958 
 
 .4792 
 
 .5625 
 
 .6458 
 
 .7292 
 
 .8125 
 
 .8958 
 
 .9792 
 
 
 .0651 
 
 .1484 
 
 .2318 
 
 .3151 
 
 .3984 
 
 .4818 
 
 .5651 
 
 .6484 
 
 .7318 
 
 .8151 
 
 .8984 
 
 .9818 
 
 18 
 
 .0677 
 
 .1510 
 
 .2344 
 
 .3177 
 
 .4010 
 
 .4844 
 
 .5677 
 
 .6510 
 
 .7344 
 
 .8177 
 
 .9010 
 
 .9844 
 
 | 
 
 .0703 
 
 .1536 
 
 .2370 
 
 .3203 
 
 .4036 
 
 .4870 
 
 .5703 
 
 .6536 
 
 .7370 
 
 .8203 
 
 .9036 
 
 .9870 
 
 % 
 
 .0729 
 
 .1562 
 
 .2396 
 
 .3229 
 
 .4062 
 
 .4896 
 
 .5729 
 
 .6562 
 
 .7396 
 
 .8229 
 
 .9062 
 
 .9896 
 
 
 .0755 
 
 .1589 
 
 .2422 
 
 .3255 
 
 .4089 
 
 .4922 
 
 .5755 
 
 .6589 
 
 .7422 
 
 .8255 
 
 .9089 
 
 .9922 
 
 1| 
 
 .0781 
 
 .1615 
 
 .2448 
 
 .3281 
 
 .4115 
 
 .4948 
 
 .5781 
 
 .6615 
 
 .7448 
 
 .8281 
 
 .9115 
 
 .9948 
 
 35 
 
 .0807 
 
 .1641 
 
 .2474 
 
 .3307 
 
 .4141 
 
 .4974 
 
 .5807 
 
 .6641 
 
 .7474 
 
 .8307 
 
 .9141 
 
 .9974 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.0000 
 
 Example. To use decimals of a foot table. Suppose we 
 
 want to multiply 3 feet 2y 2 inches by 8 feet 6% inches. In 
 
 the table we find that 2y> equals .0283, and 634, .5625. We 
 therefore multiply 3.0283 by 8.5625 for the exact figure. 
 
 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF OUNCES AND POUNDS 
 
 Oz. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Oz. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Oz. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 .015625 
 
 4 
 
 = .25 
 
 8y 2 
 
 = 
 
 .5313 
 
 l/ 2 
 
 = 
 
 .03125 
 
 4% 
 
 = .2813 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 .5625 
 
 % 
 
 =. 
 
 .046875 
 
 5 
 
 = .3125 
 
 10 
 
 = 
 
 .625 
 
 I 
 
 = 
 
 .0625 
 
 6% 
 
 .3438 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 .6875 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 .09375 
 
 6 
 
 = .375 
 
 12 
 
 =r 
 
 .75 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 .125 
 
 6y 2 
 
 .4063 
 
 13 
 
 = 
 
 .8125 
 
 2y 2 
 
 = 
 
 .15625 
 
 7 
 
 =r .4375 
 
 14 
 
 i= 
 
 .875 
 
 3 
 
 = 
 
 .1875 
 
 7% 
 
 = .4688 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 .9375 
 
 Sy 
 
 = 
 
 .21875 
 
 8 
 
 = .5 
 
 16 
 
 = 1 
 
 p . 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 157 
 
 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF INCHES, FEET, AND YARDS 
 
 Frac. 
 of an 
 Inch. 
 
 Dec. 
 of an 
 Inch. 
 
 Dec. 
 of a 
 Foot. 
 
 Ins 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 1-16 = 
 
 .0625 = 
 
 .00521 
 
 1 
 
 = .0833 = 
 
 .0277 
 
 % = 
 
 .125 = 
 
 .01041 
 
 2 
 
 = .1666 = 
 
 .0555 
 
 3-16 
 
 .1875 = 
 
 .01562 
 
 3 
 
 = .25 = 
 
 .0833 
 
 % = 
 
 .25 = 
 
 .02083 
 
 4 
 
 = .3333 = 
 
 .1111 
 
 5-16 = 
 
 .3125 = 
 
 .02604 
 
 5 
 
 = .4166 = 
 
 .1389 
 
 % = 
 
 .375 = 
 
 .03125 
 
 6 
 
 = .5 = 
 
 .1666 
 
 7-16 = 
 
 .4375 = 
 
 .03645 
 
 7 
 
 = .5833 = 
 
 .1944 
 
 % = 
 
 .5 = 
 
 .04166 
 
 8 
 
 = .666 = 
 
 .2222 
 
 9-16 = 
 
 .5625 = 
 
 .04688 
 
 9 
 
 = .75 = 
 
 .25 
 
 % = 
 
 .625 = 
 
 .05208 
 
 10 
 
 = .8333 = 
 
 .2778 
 
 11-16 = 
 
 .6875 
 
 .05729 
 
 11 
 
 = .9166 = 
 
 .3055 
 
 % = 
 
 .75 = 
 
 .06250 
 
 12 
 
 = 1. = 
 
 .3333 
 
 13-16 = 
 
 .8125 = 
 
 .06771 
 
 
 
 
 % = 
 
 .875 = 
 
 .07291 
 
 
 
 
 Lineal feet, 
 
 " yards, 
 Square inches, 
 
 feet, 
 
 " yards, 
 Acres, 
 
 Cubic inches, 
 " feet, 
 
 Links, 
 
 a 
 
 Feet, 
 
 Width in chains, 
 
 Cubic feet, 
 
 " inches, 
 U. S. gallons, 
 
 (S 
 
 Cubic feet, 
 
 " inches, 
 U. S. bushel, 
 
 USEFUL NUMBERS 
 
 
 X .00019 
 
 :=miles 
 
 X -0006 
 
 (t 
 
 X -007 
 
 =square feet 
 
 x -in 
 
 = " yards 
 
 X .0002067 
 
 =acres 
 
 X -4840 
 
 =square yards 
 
 X .00058 
 
 =cubic feet 
 
 X .03704 
 
 = " yards 
 
 X -22 
 
 =yards 
 
 X .66 
 
 =feet 
 
 Xl-5 
 
 =links 
 
 X 8. 
 
 :=acres per mile 
 
 X7.48 
 
 =U. S. gallons 
 
 X .004329 
 
 <( 
 
 X .13367 
 
 =cubic feet 
 
 X231. 
 
 = " inches 
 
 X -8036 
 
 =U. S. bushel 
 
 X .000466 
 
 (( (( 
 
 X .0495 
 
 =cubic yards 
 
 Xl.2446 
 
 = " feet 
 
 X2150.42 
 
 = " inches 
 
158 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Pounds avoirdupois, 
 
 ( 
 
 Cubic feet of water, 
 Cubic inches of water, 
 
 13.44 U. S. gallons of water, 
 268.8 " " " " 
 1.8 cubic feet of water, 
 
 35.88 " " " " 
 
 X .009 
 X .00045 
 X62.5 
 X .03617 
 
 =cwt. (112) 
 =tons (2240) 
 Ibs. avoir. 
 
 (I (C 
 
 1 cwt. 
 
 =1 cwt. 
 =lton 
 
 Column of water 12 in. high, 1 inch diameter, .341 pounds 
 
 MENSURATION 
 
 Area of a trapezoid = -j 
 Area of a trapezium 
 
 Area of a triangle = base X Va altitude. 
 Area of a parallelogram = base X altitude. 
 
 altitude X Va the sum of parallel 
 sides. 
 
 divide into two triangles and find 
 area of the triangles. 
 Circumference of circle= diameter X 3.1416. 
 Diameter of circle = circumference X -3183. 
 Area of circle = diameter 2 X -7854. 
 
 Area of sector of circlem length of arc X % the radius. 
 
 area of sector of equal radius, 
 area of triangle, when the segment 
 is less, and -j- area of triangle, 
 when the segment is greater than 
 the semi-circle. 
 
 diameters of the two circles X dif- 
 ference of diameter and that prod- 
 ( uct by .7854. 
 Side of square that 
 shall equal area of = 
 circle 
 
 Diam. of circle that 
 shall contain area 
 of a given square ( 
 
 Area of an eclipse = product of the two diameters X -7854. 
 Area of parabola base X 2 A altitude. 
 
 sum of its sides X perpendicular 
 4 from its center to one of its 
 sides -f- 2. 
 
 Area of segment of 
 circle 
 
 Area of circular ring = 
 
 diameter X -8862, or circumference 
 X -2821. 
 
 side of square X 1.1284. 
 
 Area of regular poly- 
 gon 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 159 
 
 Surface of cylinder or j area of both ends -}- length X &*' 
 
 prism ~ ( cumference. 
 
 Contents of cylinder ( 
 
 < area of end V length, 
 or prism ( 
 
 Surface of sphere = diameter X circumference. 
 Contents of sphere = diameter 8 X -5236. 
 Convex surface of seg- ( height of segment X circumference 
 ment of sphere ~ | of sphere of which it is a part. 
 
 ( (height 2 -|- three times the square 
 Contents of segment \ , ,. ' . . ,,.,, 
 
 J of radius of base) X (height X 
 
 ( .5236). 
 
 Surface of pyramid or ( circumference of base X % f the 
 cone ~ | slant height -|- area of the base. 
 
 Contents of pyramid ( 
 
 FJ = \ area of base X Vs altitude, 
 
 or cone ( 
 
 ( sum of circumference at both end 
 Surface of frustum of \ . . . . . . .1 
 
 = J V M> slant height -4- area of both 
 
 cone or pyramid J ^, /2 
 
 ( ends. 
 
 (multiply areas of two ends to- 
 gether and extract square root. 
 Add to this root the two areas 
 and X l /a altitude. 
 Contents of a wedge area of base X % altitude. 
 
160 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 AREAS OF CIRCLES 
 
 CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES 
 
 Size 
 
 Area 
 
 Size 
 
 Area 
 
 Size 
 
 Circum- 
 ference 
 
 Size 
 
 Ci-rum- 
 ference 
 
 1/8 
 
 00123 
 
 1 9 
 
 63.617 
 
 Vi 
 
 .3927 
 
 9 
 
 28.274 
 
 v 
 
 00491 
 
 Va 
 
 70 882 
 
 v 
 
 .7854 
 
 Va 
 
 29.845 
 
 3 /8 
 
 1104 
 
 10 
 
 7854 
 
 3 /H 
 
 1.1781 
 
 10 
 
 31.416 
 
 Va 
 
 0.1963 
 
 Va 
 
 86.59 
 
 Va 
 
 1.5708 
 
 Va 
 
 32.987 
 
 6/ 8 
 
 0.3067 
 
 11 
 
 9503 
 
 V 8 
 
 1.9635 
 
 11 
 
 34.558 
 
 3 /4 
 
 0.4417 
 
 Va 
 
 103.86 
 
 3 /4 
 
 2.3562 
 
 Va 
 
 36.128 
 
 t/8 
 
 0.6013 
 
 12 
 
 113.09 
 
 7 /8 
 
 2.7489 
 
 12 
 
 37 699 
 
 / C 
 
 1 
 
 0.7854 
 
 Va 
 
 122.71 
 
 1 
 
 3 1416 
 
 Va 
 
 39.270 
 
 1/8 
 
 0.9940 
 
 13 
 
 13273 
 
 Vt 
 
 35343 
 
 13 
 
 40.841 
 
 / " 
 
 1/4 
 
 1.227 
 
 V 3 
 
 143 13 
 
 V* 
 
 3.9270 
 
 Va 
 
 42.412 
 
 8/ 8 
 
 1.484 
 
 14 
 
 15393 
 
 '/ 
 
 4.3197 
 
 14 
 
 43.982 
 
 Vo 
 
 1.767 
 
 Va 
 
 165.13 
 
 Va 
 
 4.7124 
 
 Va 
 
 45.553 
 
 / * 
 
 5/8 
 
 2.073 
 
 15 
 
 176.71 
 
 Va 
 
 5.1051 
 
 15 
 
 47.124 
 
 / " 
 
 3/ 4 
 
 2.405 
 
 Va 
 
 188.69 
 
 3 A 
 
 5.4978 
 
 Va 
 
 48.695 
 
 / * 
 
 Vs 
 
 2.761 
 
 16 
 
 201.06 
 
 '/ 
 
 5.8905 
 
 16 
 
 50.265 
 
 / 8 
 
 2 
 
 3.141 
 
 Va 
 
 213.82 
 
 2 
 
 6.2832 
 
 Va 
 
 51.836 
 
 i/. 
 
 3.976 
 
 17 
 
 226.98 
 
 V 
 
 7.0686 
 
 17 
 
 53.407 
 
 / 4 
 
 l/o 
 
 4.908 
 
 Va 
 
 240.52 
 
 Va 
 
 7.8540 
 
 Va 
 
 54978 
 
 / 2 
 
 3 A 
 
 5.939 
 
 18 
 
 254.46 
 
 3 , 4 
 
 8.6394 
 
 18 
 
 56.549 
 
 / * 
 
 3 
 
 7068 
 
 Va 
 
 26880 
 
 3 
 
 9.4248 
 
 l/o 
 
 58.119 
 
 i/. 
 
 8295 
 
 19 
 
 28352 
 
 l /4 
 
 10.210 
 
 19 
 
 59.690 
 
 / 4 
 
 !/ 
 
 9.621 
 
 Va 
 
 29864 
 
 Va 
 
 10.996 
 
 Va 
 
 61.261 
 
 / * 
 
 3 A 
 
 11.044 
 
 20 
 
 314.16 
 
 3 /4 
 
 11.781 
 
 20 
 
 62.832 
 
 / 4 
 
 4 
 
 12.566 
 
 Va 
 
 330.06 
 
 4 
 
 12.566 
 
 Va 
 
 64.403 
 
 Vo 
 
 15.904 
 
 21 
 
 346.36 
 
 Va 
 
 14137 
 
 21 
 
 65973 
 
 / 2 
 
 5 
 
 19.635 
 
 Va 
 
 363.05 
 
 
 15.708 
 
 l/o 
 
 67.544 
 
 l/o 
 
 23.758 
 
 22 
 
 380.13 
 
 Va 
 
 17.279 
 
 22 
 
 69.115 
 
 /a 
 g 
 
 26 274 
 
 V* 
 
 397.60 
 
 6 
 
 18850 
 
 Va 
 
 70686 
 
 Vo 
 
 33.183 
 
 23 
 
 415.47 
 
 Va 
 
 20420 
 
 23 
 
 72.257 
 
 / 2 
 
 7 
 
 38.484 
 
 Va 
 
 433.73 
 
 7 
 
 21991 
 
 Va 
 
 73.827 
 
 l/o 
 
 44.178 
 
 24 
 
 452.39 
 
 Va 
 
 23562 
 
 24 
 
 75.398 
 
 / 2 
 3 
 
 50265 
 
 Va 
 
 471.43 
 
 8 
 
 25.133 
 
 Va 
 
 76.969 
 
 Va 
 
 56.745 
 
 
 
 Va 
 
 26.704 
 
 
 
 To find diameter of a circle when circumference is given, 
 multiply the given circumference by .31831. 
 
 To find the circumference of a circle when diameter is given, 
 multiply the given diameter by 3.1416. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 161 
 
 CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES 
 
 Diam 
 
 Circum 
 
 Area 
 
 Diam 
 
 Circum 
 
 Area 
 
 1 
 
 3.1416 
 
 .7854 
 
 64 
 
 201.06 
 
 3216.99 
 
 2 
 
 6.2832 
 
 3.1416 
 
 65 
 
 204.20 
 
 3318.31 
 
 3 
 
 9.4248 
 
 7.0686 
 
 66 
 
 207.34 
 
 3421.19 
 
 4 
 
 12.5664 
 
 12.5664 
 
 67 
 
 210.49 
 
 3525.65 
 
 5 
 
 15.7080 
 
 19.635 
 
 68 
 
 213.63 
 
 3631 .68 
 
 6 
 
 18.850 
 
 28.274 
 
 69 
 
 216.77 
 
 3739.28 
 
 7 
 
 21.991 
 
 38.485 
 
 70 
 
 219.91 
 
 3848.45 
 
 8 
 
 25.133 
 
 50.2-36 
 
 71 
 
 223.05 
 
 3959.19 
 
 9 
 
 28.274 
 
 63.617 
 
 72 
 
 226.19 
 
 4071 .50 
 
 10 
 
 31.416 
 
 78.540 
 
 73 
 
 229.34 
 
 4185.39 
 
 11 
 
 34.558 
 
 95.033 
 
 74 
 
 232.48 
 
 4300.84 
 
 12 
 
 37.699 
 
 113.1 
 
 75 
 
 235.62 
 
 4417.86 
 
 13 
 
 40.841 
 
 132.73 
 
 76 
 
 238.76 
 
 4536.46 
 
 14 
 
 43.982 
 
 153.94 
 
 77 
 
 241.90 
 
 4656.63 
 
 15 
 
 47.124 
 
 176.71 
 
 78 
 
 245.04 
 
 4778.36 
 
 16 
 
 50.265 
 
 201.06 
 
 79 
 
 248.19 
 
 4901.67 
 
 17 
 
 53.407 
 
 226.98 
 
 80 
 
 251 .33 
 
 5026.55 
 
 18 
 
 56.549 
 
 254.47 
 
 81 
 
 254.47 
 
 5153. 
 
 19 
 
 59.690 
 
 283.53 
 
 82 
 
 257.61 
 
 5281.02 
 
 20 
 
 62.832 
 
 314.16 
 
 83 
 
 260.75 
 
 5410.61 
 
 21 
 
 65.973 
 
 346.36 
 
 84 
 
 263.89 
 
 5541.77 
 
 22 
 
 69.115 
 
 380.13 
 
 85 
 
 267.04 
 
 5674.50 
 
 23 
 
 72.257 
 
 415.48 
 
 86 
 
 270.18 
 
 5808.80 
 
 24 
 
 75.398 
 
 452.39 
 
 87 
 
 273.32 
 
 5944.68 
 
 25 
 
 78.540 
 
 490.87 
 
 88 
 
 276.46 
 
 6082.12 
 
 26 
 
 81.681 
 
 530.93 
 
 89 
 
 279.60 
 
 6221.14 
 
 27 
 
 84.823 
 
 572.56 
 
 90 
 
 282,74 
 
 6361 .73 
 
 28 
 
 87.965 
 
 615.75 
 
 91 
 
 285.88 
 
 6503.88 
 
 29 
 
 91.106 
 
 660.52 
 
 92 
 
 289.03 
 
 6647.61 
 
 30 
 
 94.248 
 
 706.86 
 
 93 
 
 292.17 
 
 6792.91 
 
 31 
 
 97.389 
 
 754.77 
 
 94 
 
 295.31 
 
 6939.78 
 
 32 
 
 100.53 
 
 804.25 
 
 95 
 
 298.45 
 
 7088.22 
 
 33 
 
 103.67 
 
 855.30 
 
 96 
 
 301 .59 
 
 7238.23 
 
 34 
 
 106.81 
 
 907.92 
 
 97 
 
 304.73 
 
 7339.81 
 
 35 
 
 109.96 
 
 962.11 
 
 98 
 
 307.88 
 
 7542.96 
 
 36 
 
 113.10 
 
 1017.88 
 
 99 
 
 311.02 
 
 7697.69 
 
 37 
 
 116.24 
 
 1075.21 
 
 100 
 
 314.16 
 
 7853.98 
 
 38 
 
 119.38 
 
 1134.11 
 
 101 
 
 317.30 
 
 8011.85 
 
 39 
 
 122.52 
 
 1194.59 
 
 102 
 
 320.44 
 
 8171.28 
 
 40 
 
 125.66 
 
 1256.64 
 
 103 
 
 323.58 
 
 8332.29 
 
 41 
 
 128.81 
 
 1320.25 
 
 104 
 
 326.73 
 
 8494.87 
 
 42 
 
 131.95 
 
 1385.44 
 
 105 
 
 329.87 
 
 8659.01 
 
 43 
 
 135.09 
 
 1452.20 
 
 106 
 
 333.01 
 
 8824.73 
 
 44 
 
 138.23 
 
 1520.53 
 
 107 
 
 336.15 
 
 8992.02 
 
 45 
 
 141.37 
 
 1590.43 
 
 108 
 
 339.29 
 
 9160.88 
 
 46 
 
 144.51 
 
 1661.90 
 
 109 
 
 342.43 
 
 9831 .32 
 
 47 
 
 147.65 
 
 1734.94 
 
 110 
 
 345.58 
 
 9503.32 
 
 48 
 
 150.80 
 
 1809.56 
 
 111 
 
 348.72 
 
 9676.89 
 
 49 
 
 153.94 
 
 1885.74 
 
 112 
 
 351.86 
 
 9852.03 
 
 50 
 
 157.08 
 
 1963.50 
 
 113 
 
 355. 
 
 10028.75 
 
 51 
 
 160.22 
 
 2042.82 
 
 114 
 
 358.14 
 
 10207.03 
 
 52 
 
 163.36 
 
 2123.72 
 
 115 
 
 361.28 
 
 10386.89 
 
 53 
 
 166.50 
 
 2206.18 
 
 116 
 
 364.42 
 
 10568.32 
 
 54 
 
 169.65 
 
 2290.22 
 
 117 
 
 367.57 
 
 10751.32 
 
 55 
 
 172.79 
 
 2375.83 
 
 118 
 
 370.71 
 
 10935.88 
 
 56 
 
 175.93 
 
 2463.01 
 
 119 
 
 373.85 
 
 11122.02 
 
 57 
 
 179.07 
 
 2551.76 
 
 120 
 
 376.99 
 
 11309.73 
 
 58 
 
 182.21 
 
 2642.08 
 
 121 
 
 380.13 
 
 11499.01 
 
 59 
 
 185.35 
 
 2733.97 
 
 122 
 
 383.27 
 
 11689.87 
 
 60 
 
 188.50 
 
 2827.43 
 
 123 
 
 386.42 
 
 11882.29 
 
 61 
 
 191 .64 
 
 2922.47 
 
 124 
 
 389.56 
 
 12076.28 
 
 62 
 
 194.78 
 
 3019.07 
 
 125 
 
 392.70 
 
 12271.85 
 
 63 
 
 197.92 
 
 3117-25 
 
 126 
 
 395.84 
 
 12468.98 
 
162 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 U. S. GALL IN ROUND TANKS 
 
 For One Ft in Depth 
 
 Diana 
 of 
 Tanks 
 
 No. 
 U. S. 
 Gall 
 
 CF and 
 Area in 
 
 SF 
 
 Diam 
 of 
 Tanks 
 
 No. 
 
 U. S. 
 Gall 
 
 CFand 
 Area in 
 
 SF 
 
 Diam 
 of 
 Tanks 
 
 No. 
 U. S. 
 Gall 
 
 CF and 
 Area in 
 
 SF 
 
 1 
 
 5.87 
 
 .785 
 
 5' 8" 
 
 188.66 
 
 25.22 
 
 19' 
 
 2120.90 
 
 283.53 
 
 1 1" 
 
 6.89 
 
 .922 
 
 5' 9" 
 
 194.25 
 
 25.97 
 
 19' 3" 
 
 2177.10 
 
 291.04 
 
 1 2" 
 
 8. 
 
 1.069 
 
 5' 10" 
 
 199.92 
 
 26.73 ' 
 
 19' 6" 
 
 2234. 
 
 298.65 
 
 1 3" 
 
 9.18 
 
 1.227 
 
 5' 11" 
 
 205.67 
 
 27.49 
 
 19' 9" 
 
 2291.70 
 
 306.35 
 
 1 4" 
 
 10.44 
 
 1.396, 
 
 6' 
 
 211.51 
 
 28.27 r 
 
 20' 
 
 2350.10 
 
 314.16 
 
 1 5" 
 
 11.79 
 
 1.576 
 
 6' 3" 
 
 229.50 
 
 30.68 
 
 20' 3" 
 
 2409.20 
 
 322.06 
 
 1 6" 
 
 13.22 
 
 1.767 
 
 6' 6" 
 
 248.23 
 
 33.18 
 
 20' 6" 
 
 2469.10 
 
 330.06 
 
 1 7" 
 
 14.73 
 
 1.969 
 
 6' 9" 
 
 267.69 
 
 35.78 
 
 20' 9" 
 
 2529.60 
 
 338.16 
 
 1 8" 
 
 16.32 
 
 2.182 
 
 7' 
 
 287.88 
 
 38.48 
 
 21' 
 
 2591. 
 
 346.36 
 
 1 9" 
 
 17.99 
 
 2.405 
 
 7' 3" 
 
 308.81 
 
 41.28 
 
 21' 3" 
 
 2653. 
 
 354.66 
 
 1 10" 
 
 19.75 
 
 2.640 
 
 7' 6" 
 
 330.48 
 
 44.18 
 
 21' 6" 
 
 2715.80 
 
 363.05 
 
 1 11" 
 
 21.58 
 
 2. 885' 
 
 r 9" 
 
 352.88 
 
 47.17 
 
 21' 9" 
 
 2779.30 
 
 371.54 
 
 2' 
 
 23.50 
 
 3.142 
 
 8' 
 
 376.01 
 
 50.27 
 
 22' 
 
 2843.60 
 
 380.13 
 
 2' 1" 
 
 25.50 
 
 3.409 
 
 8' 3" 
 
 399'88 
 
 53.46 
 
 22' 3" 
 
 2908.60 
 
 388.82 
 
 2' 2" 
 
 27.58 
 
 3.687 
 
 8' 6" 
 
 424.48 
 
 56.75 
 
 22' 6" 
 
 2974.30 
 
 397.61 
 
 2' 3" 
 
 29.74 
 
 3.976 
 
 8' 9" 
 
 449.82 
 
 60.13 
 
 22' 9" 
 
 3040.80 
 
 406.49 
 
 2' 4" 
 
 31.99 
 
 4.276 
 
 9' 
 
 475.89 
 
 63.62 
 
 23' 
 
 3108. 
 
 415.48 
 
 2' 5" 
 
 34.31 
 
 4.587 
 
 9' 3" 
 
 502.70 
 
 67.20 
 
 23' 3" 
 
 3175.90 
 
 424.56 
 
 2' 6" 
 
 36.72 
 
 4.909 
 
 9' 6" 
 
 530.24 
 
 70.88 
 
 23' 6" 
 
 3244.60 
 
 433.74 
 
 2' 7" 
 
 39.21 
 
 5.241 
 
 9' 9" 
 
 558.51 
 
 74.66 
 
 23' 9" 
 
 3314. 
 
 443.01 
 
 2' 8" 
 
 41.78 
 
 5.585 
 
 10' 
 
 587.52 
 
 78.54 
 
 24' 
 
 3384.10 
 
 452.39 
 
 2' 9* 
 
 44.43 
 
 5.940 
 
 10' 3" 
 
 617.26 
 
 82.52 
 
 24' 3" 
 
 3455. 
 
 461 .86 
 
 2' 10" 
 
 47.16 
 
 6.305 
 
 10' 6" 
 
 640.74 
 
 86.59 
 
 24' 6" 
 
 3526.60 
 
 471.44 
 
 2' 11" 
 
 49.98 
 
 6.681 
 
 10' 9" 
 
 678.95 
 
 90.76 
 
 24' 9" 
 
 3598.90 
 
 481.11 
 
 3' 
 
 52.88 
 
 7.069 
 
 11' 
 
 710.90 
 
 95.03 
 
 25' 
 
 3672. 
 
 490.87 
 
 3' 1* 
 
 55.86 
 
 7.467 
 
 11' 3" 
 
 743.58 
 
 99.40 
 
 25' 3" 
 
 3745.80 
 
 500.74 
 
 3' 2" 
 
 58.92 
 
 7.876 
 
 11' 6" 
 
 776.99 
 
 103.87 
 
 25' 6" 
 
 3820.30 
 
 510.71 
 
 3' 3" 
 
 62.06 
 
 8.296 
 
 11' 9" 
 
 811.14 
 
 108.43 
 
 25' 9" 
 
 3895.60 
 
 520.77 
 
 3' 4" 
 
 65.28 
 
 8.727 
 
 12' 
 
 846.03 
 
 113.10 26' 
 
 3971.60 
 
 530.93 
 
 3' 5" 
 
 68.58 
 
 9.168 
 
 12' 3" 
 
 881.65 
 
 117.86 
 
 26' 3" 
 
 4048.40 
 
 541.19 
 
 3' 6" 
 
 71.97 
 
 9.621 
 
 12' 6" 
 
 918. 
 
 122.72 
 
 26' 6" 
 
 4125.90 
 
 551.55 
 
 3' 7" 
 
 75.44 
 
 10.085 
 
 12' 9" 
 
 955.09 
 
 127.68 
 
 26' 9" 
 
 4204.10 
 
 562. 
 
 3' 8" 
 
 78.99 
 
 10.559 
 
 13' 
 
 992.91 
 
 132.73 
 
 27' 
 
 4283. 
 
 572.66 
 
 3' 9" 
 
 82.62 
 
 11.045 
 
 13' 3" 
 
 1031.50 
 
 137.89 
 
 27' 3" 
 
 4362.70 
 
 583.21 
 
 3' 10" 
 
 86.33 
 
 11.541 
 
 13' 6" 
 
 1070.80 
 
 143.14 
 
 27' 6" 
 
 4443.10 
 
 593.96 
 
 3' 11" 
 
 90.13 
 
 12.048 
 
 13' 9" 
 
 1110.80 
 
 148.49 
 
 27' 9" 
 
 4524.30 
 
 604.81 
 
 4' 
 
 94. 
 
 12.566 
 
 14' 
 
 1151.50 
 
 153.94 
 
 28' 
 
 4606.20 
 
 615.75 
 
 4' 1" 
 
 97.96 
 
 13.095 
 
 14' 3" 
 
 1193. 
 
 159.48 
 
 28' 3" 
 
 4688.80 
 
 626.80 
 
 4' 2" 
 
 102. 
 
 13.635 
 
 14' 6" 
 
 1235.30 
 
 165.13 
 
 28' 6" 
 
 4772.10 
 
 637.94 
 
 4' 3" 
 
 106.12 
 
 14.186 
 
 14' 9" 
 
 1278.20 
 
 170.87 
 
 28' 9" 
 
 4856.20 
 
 649.18 
 
 4' 4" 
 
 110.32 
 
 14.748 
 
 15' 
 
 1321.90 
 
 176.71 
 
 29' 
 
 4941. 
 
 660.52 
 
 4' 5" 
 
 114.61 
 
 15.321 
 
 15' 3" 
 
 1366.40 
 
 182.65 
 
 29' 3" 
 
 5026.60 
 
 671.96 
 
 4' 6" 
 
 118.97 
 
 15.90 
 
 15' 6" 
 
 1411.50 
 
 188.69 
 
 29' 6" 
 
 5112.90 
 
 683.49 
 
 4' 7" 
 
 123.42 
 
 16.50 
 
 15' 9" 
 
 1457.40 
 
 194.83 
 
 29' 9" 
 
 5199.90 
 
 695.13 
 
 4' 8" 
 
 127.95 
 
 17.10 
 
 16' 
 
 1504.10 
 
 201.06 
 
 30' 
 
 5287.70 
 
 706.86 
 
 4' 9" 
 
 132.56 
 
 17.72 
 
 16' 3" 
 
 1551 .40 
 
 207.39 
 
 i 30' 3" 
 
 5376.20 
 
 718.69 
 
 4' 10" 
 
 137.25 
 
 18.35 
 
 16' 6" 
 
 1599.50 
 
 213.82 
 
 30' 6" 
 
 5465.40 
 
 730.62 
 
 4' 11" 
 
 142.02 
 
 18.99 
 
 16' 9" 
 
 1648.40 
 
 220.35 
 
 30' 9" 
 
 5555.40 
 
 742.64 
 
 5' 
 
 146.88 
 
 19.63 
 
 17' 
 
 1697.90 
 
 226.98 
 
 31' 
 
 5646.10 
 
 754.77 
 
 5' 1" 
 
 151.82 
 
 20.29 
 
 17' 3" 
 
 1748.20 
 
 233.71 
 
 31' 3" 
 
 5737.50 
 
 766.99 
 
 5' 2" 
 
 156.83 
 
 20.97 
 
 17' 6" 
 
 1799.30 
 
 240.53 
 
 31' 6" 
 
 5829.70 
 
 779.31 
 
 5' 3" 
 
 161.93 
 
 21.65 
 
 17' 9" 
 
 1851.10 
 
 247.45 
 
 31' 9" 
 
 5922.60 
 
 791.73 
 
 5' 4" 
 
 167.12 
 
 22.34 
 
 18' 
 
 1903.60 
 
 254.47 
 
 32' 
 
 6016.20 
 
 804.25 
 
 5' 5" 
 
 172.38 
 
 23.04 
 
 18' 3* 
 
 1956.80 
 
 261 .59 
 
 32' 3" 
 
 6110.60 
 
 816.86 
 
 5' 6" 
 
 177.72 
 
 23.76 
 
 18' 6" 
 
 2010.80 
 
 268.80 
 
 32' 6" 
 
 6205.70 
 
 829.58 
 
 5' r 
 
 183.15 
 
 24.48 
 
 18' 9* 
 
 2065.50 
 
 276.12 
 
 32' 9" 
 
 6301 .50 
 
 842.30 
 
 31i Gall to 1 Bbl 
 
 To find the capacity of tanks greater than the largest given in the table, look 
 in the table for a tank of one-half of the given size and mult its capacity by 
 4, or one of one-third its size and mult its capacity by 9, etc. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 163 
 
 -!-> Cl 
 
 
 05 t- CO CO CO N 
 
 QO b; o 10 ^ ej ,,: 
 
 t- t- N I- t- 
 
 O lO O5 TJ< CO O O 
 
 .9 < 
 
 
 4 i> d co co 05 : 
 
 t~ rH CD O rt( CO 
 I- 00 00 O5 OS OS . 
 
 43 a 
 
 iiililsiilisii 
 
 >n t- oo q I-H . . 
 
 * CO N CC O : ' 
 
 .9 w 
 43 
 
 iiiilllifiiii! 
 
 O * 00 IN ' ' 
 
 43 2 
 
 
 <M -o o : : : 
 
 co d 06 : : : ' 
 
 (O i^ r- : : : 
 
 9 
 
 CO<DO>WOCCJlOO>C'llOOOr-iiO 
 
 CO rH ; ; ; ; 
 
 to co ::::'. 
 
 43 * 
 
 SiiaiiiiliSSSe 
 
 1 M M M 
 
 .9 
 
 -W go 
 
 l-OlO-*r(<CONrHOOO500t-O 
 
 rHOJi^iacOrHOst^ioMqcqto-* 
 
 2-HrH(MlMCJMCO-*-*-t<IOIO 
 
 : i : i : : : 
 
 
 38tSwrHOSw : 
 
 
 M 
 
 O5 01 OS' O5 OS O5~ O5 O5 O5 00 00 00 CO . 
 
 
 - .9 
 
 fc - - 
 
 iiiiiiiiiiiiii 
 
 
 g - 
 
 t-CiO(MTj<cDODO'^COiO 
 
 
 * d e 
 
 o o t- GO oa o i-t co -^ *a ; ; : ; 
 
 *...*... 
 
 K .9 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^^SwSSSM : 1 ! ! 
 
 
 a - 
 
 i|||l|||| 1 M !j 
 
 
 .9 
 
 01 to co o t- * rH co : : : : : 
 IM 00 * O >fl ir- it- Si ; ; ; ; ; 
 fi>i N M * ^J IS iffl O 
 
 : : 1 j j j i 
 
 
 
 : '= : i i : f 
 
 43 "* 
 
 oo 10 o o> co co o 
 ji o ci d 05 co i^ 
 
 t-CSrHCO-rXtOOO ; ; 
 fHrHrHrHrH .' '. 
 
 : i i : . 
 
 .9 
 
 m S So S * - : ::::::: 
 
 
 
 t-TttOt-^rH'.. .... 
 
 cocoorHcow: ;:::::: 
 
 
 
 ^ o t- w o> : : : : : ; : : 
 
 00 00 t- t- CD .... 
 
 
 M 
 
 O5 rji 05 *" O5 ' . .... 
 
 lot-coorn::-- ; 
 
 
 
 <M" ia cd r4 ; ; ; : : : : : 
 
 
 43 " 
 
 
 
 .9 
 
 | :::::: i : 
 
 
 43 *" 
 
 ^ :::: : : : : 
 
 ::::::: 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 jprej, 
 
 aw . w w 
 
 o ce 
 
 jo H^PIA\. 
 
 It," ** w w "* 
 
 M M to M M 
 
164 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 WEIGHT OF FLAT BAR IRON PER LF 
 
 r idth 
 xln. 
 
 Thickness in In. 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 
 .21 
 
 .42 
 
 .63 
 
 .84 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.47 
 
 1.68 
 
 2.11 
 
 2.53 
 
 2 95 
 
 3.37 
 
 
 .24 
 
 .47 
 
 .71 
 
 .95 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.42 
 
 1.66 
 
 1.90 
 
 2.37 
 
 2.84 
 
 3.32 
 
 3.79 
 
 
 .26 
 
 .53 
 
 .79 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.32 
 
 1.58 
 
 1.84 
 
 2.11 
 
 2 63 
 
 3.16 
 
 3.68 
 
 4.21 
 
 
 .29 
 
 .58 
 
 .87 
 
 1.16 
 
 .45 
 
 1.74 
 
 2.03 
 
 2 32 
 
 2.89 
 
 3.47 
 
 4.05 
 
 4.63 
 
 
 .32 
 
 .63 
 
 .95 
 
 1.26 
 
 .58 
 
 1.90 
 
 2.21 
 
 2.53 
 
 3.16 
 
 3.79 
 
 4.42 
 
 5.05 
 
 
 .34 
 
 .68 
 
 1.03 
 
 1.37 
 
 .71 
 
 2.05 
 
 2.39 
 
 2.74 
 
 3.42 
 
 4.11 
 
 4.79 
 
 5.47 
 
 
 .37 
 
 .74 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.47 
 
 .84 
 
 2.21 
 
 2.58 
 
 2.95 
 
 3.68 
 
 4.42 
 
 5.16 
 
 5.89 
 
 
 .40 
 
 .79 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.58 
 
 .97 
 
 2.37 
 
 2.76 
 
 3.16| 3.95 
 
 4.74 
 
 5.53 
 
 6.32 
 
 
 ,42 
 
 .84 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.68 
 
 2.11 
 
 2.53 
 
 2.95 
 
 3.37 
 
 4.21 
 
 5.05 
 
 5.89 
 
 6.74 
 
 i'.'.'.'. 
 
 .45 
 
 .90 
 
 1.34 
 
 1.79 
 
 2.24 
 
 2.68 
 
 3.13 
 
 3.58 
 
 4.47 
 
 5.37 
 
 6.26 
 
 7.16 
 
 
 .47 
 
 .95 
 
 1.42 
 
 1.90 
 
 2.37 
 
 2.84 
 
 3.32 
 
 3.79 
 
 4.74 
 
 5.68 
 
 6.83 
 
 7.58 
 
 
 .50 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 
 .53 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.58 
 
 2.11 
 
 2.63 
 
 3.16 
 
 3.68 
 
 4.21 
 
 5.26 
 
 6.32 
 
 7.37 
 
 8.42 
 
 [.'.'.'. 
 
 .55 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.66 
 
 2.21 
 
 2.76 
 
 3.32 
 
 3.87 
 
 4.42 
 
 5.53 
 
 6.63 
 
 7.74 
 
 8.84 
 
 \.... 
 
 .58 
 
 1.16 
 
 1.74 
 
 2.32 
 
 2.89 
 
 3.47 
 
 4.05 
 
 4.63 
 
 5.79 
 
 6.95 
 
 8.10 
 
 9.26 
 
 
 .63 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.90 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.16 
 
 3.79 
 
 4.42 
 
 5.05 
 
 6.32 
 
 7.58 
 
 8.84 
 
 10.10 
 
 i.'.'.'. 
 
 .68 
 
 1.37 
 
 2.05 
 
 2.74 
 
 3.42 
 
 4.11 
 
 4.79 
 
 5.47 
 
 6.84 
 
 8.21 
 
 9.58 
 
 10.95 
 
 !.... 
 
 .74 
 
 1.47 
 
 2.21 
 
 2.95 
 
 3.68 
 
 4.42 
 
 5.16 
 
 5.89 
 
 7.37 
 
 8.84 
 
 10.32 
 
 11.79 
 
 i '.::: 
 
 .84 
 ,95 
 
 1.68 
 1.90 
 
 2.53 
 
 2.84 
 
 3.37 
 3.79 
 
 4.21 
 4.74 
 
 5.05 
 5.68 
 
 5.89 
 6.63 
 
 6.74 
 
 7.58 
 
 8.4210.1011.7913.47 
 9.4711.38:13.26!l5.16 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 2.11 
 
 3.16 
 
 4.21 
 
 5.26 
 
 6.32 
 
 7.37 
 
 8.42 
 
 10.53 
 
 12.63:14.74116.84 
 
 i"" 
 
 1.16 
 
 2.32 
 
 3.47 
 
 4.63 
 
 5.79 
 
 6.95 
 
 8.10 
 
 9. 26|ll.58ll3. 89|16.21 18. 52 
 
 
 1.26 
 
 2.53 
 
 3.79 
 
 5.05 
 
 6.32 
 
 7.58 
 
 8.84 
 
 10. 10ll2. 63 15. 16 17. 68 20. 21 
 
 i'-' '. 
 
 1.36 
 
 2.73 
 
 4.10 
 
 5.47 
 
 6.84 
 
 8.21 
 
 9.58 
 
 10. 94 13.68:16. 42il9. 16,21 .88 
 
 
 1.47 
 
 2.94 
 
 4.42 
 
 5.90 
 
 7.36 
 
 8.84 
 
 10.32 
 
 11.7914.74 
 
 17.6820.6423.58 
 
 i" ' 
 
 1.58 
 
 3.16 
 
 4.74 
 
 6.32 
 
 7.90 
 
 9.4811.06 
 
 12.64115.78 
 
 18.9421.1125.50 
 
 
 1.68 
 
 3.36 
 
 5.05 
 
 6.74 
 
 8.42 
 
 10.10 
 
 11.78 
 
 13.48 
 
 16.8420.2023.5826.34 
 
 i" ' 
 
 1.79 
 
 3.58 
 
 5.36 
 
 7.16 
 
 8.94 
 
 10.74 
 
 12.52 
 
 14.32 
 
 17. 90 21. 48125.06 28. 53 
 
 *:; : 
 
 1.90 
 2.00 
 
 3.79 
 4.00 
 
 5.68 
 6.00 
 
 7.58 
 8.00 
 
 9 48 
 10.00 
 
 11.36 
 12.00 
 
 13.26 
 14.00 
 
 15.1618. 95|22 . 75:26 . 52|30 . 32 
 16 . 00 20 . 00 24 . 00 28 . 00 32 . 00 
 
 i" ' 
 
 2.10 
 2.21 
 
 4.21 
 4.41 
 
 6.32 
 6.64 
 
 8.42 
 8.84 
 
 10.52 
 11.05 
 
 12.64)14,74 
 13.26115.48 
 
 16.8421.0525.2629.4833.68 
 17 . 68 22 . 10 ; 26 . 52 30 . 95 35 . 36 
 
 
 2.32 
 
 4.64 
 
 6.95 
 
 9.26 
 
 11.58 
 
 13.90 
 
 16.21 
 
 18. 52 23. 16)27.78 32. 42 37. 04 
 
 i'.' '- 
 
 2 42 
 2.52 
 
 4.84 
 5.05 
 
 7.26 
 
 7.58 
 
 9. 68 12. 10 14. 52 16. 94 19. 36 24. 20129. 06 33. 90|38. 74 
 10 .00 12 . 6415 . 16 ! 17 . 68'20 . 20'25 . 2630 . 32'35 .36140 . 40 
 
 WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF ROUND AND SQ BAR 
 IRON PER RUNNING FT IN LBS 
 
 Dia-n Wt per ft, Ibs 
 
 Diam 
 
 Wt per ft, Ibs 
 
 Diam 
 
 Wt per ft, Ibs! Diam 
 
 Wt per ft, Ibs 
 
 lu 
 
 Ed 
 
 Sq 
 
 In 
 
 Rd SQ 
 
 In 
 
 Rd 
 
 Sa 
 
 In 
 
 Rd 
 
 Sa 
 
 t: 
 
 .01 
 .0411 
 
 .0131 
 .0525! 
 
 It: 
 
 2.975 
 3.338 
 
 3.80 
 4.25 
 
 2J... 
 
 2i. . 
 
 11 9 
 13 3 
 
 15.15 
 17. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 . . 
 
 44.85 57.2 
 47.54 60.75 
 
 A.. 
 
 .0925 
 
 .1182: 
 
 i* 
 
 3.725 
 
 4.73 
 
 2 
 
 
 14.7518 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 50.33 
 
 64.35 
 
 J... 
 
 .1651 
 
 .2103i 
 
 H... 
 
 4.12 
 
 5.25 
 
 2 a 
 
 
 16.41 
 
 20.5 
 
 4 
 
 
 53.32 
 
 68. 
 
 t: 
 
 .2573 
 .371 
 
 .3200; 
 
 .4735 
 
 It: 
 
 4.545 
 5. 
 
 5.78 
 6.35 
 
 2J; 
 2 ; 
 
 
 18 1 
 19.85 
 
 23 1 
 25.2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 56.34 
 59.44 
 
 72. 
 75.65 
 
 t: 
 
 .505 
 .657 
 
 .6445 
 
 .84 
 
 \t: 
 
 5.455 6.95 
 5.945 7.55 
 
 2i 
 
 3 
 
 
 21.5 
 23.7 
 
 27 5 
 30.05 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 
 62.62 
 65.88 
 
 79.80 
 83.8 
 
 
 .835 
 
 1.063 
 
 l A-- 
 
 6.445 
 
 8 2 
 
 3|... 
 
 25.55 
 
 32.75 
 
 5J... 
 
 69.23 
 
 88.25 
 
 4 . 
 
 1.031 
 
 1.314 
 
 it . . 
 
 6 975 
 
 8.85 
 
 3 
 
 
 27.81 
 
 35.5 
 
 5J. . . 
 
 72.65 
 
 92.5 
 
 H- 
 
 1 235 
 
 1.59 
 
 ijt.. 
 
 7.52 
 
 9.57 
 
 3; 
 
 
 29.8538.25 
 
 5J... 
 
 76.18 97.15 
 
 3 
 
 1.475 
 
 1.891 
 
 
 8.05 
 
 10.30 
 
 3.' 
 
 
 32.25 
 
 41.15 
 
 5J. . . 
 
 79 75101. 
 
 ii 
 
 1.74 
 
 2.221 
 
 1 Jj- 
 
 8.65 11.05 
 
 3j 
 
 
 34.4544.15 
 
 5f... 
 
 83.45105.8 
 
 i- 
 
 2.015 
 
 2.575 
 
 1 i 
 
 9.25 
 
 11.83 
 
 32 
 
 
 37 1 
 
 47. 20 
 
 51... 
 
 87.20110.5 
 
 i4- 
 
 2 317 
 
 2.95 
 
 1 1 $ 
 
 9.9 12.62 
 
 3! 
 
 
 39 5 
 
 50.25 
 
 5|... 
 
 91.50115.15 
 
 1 ..2.625 
 
 3.35 
 
 2 ... 
 
 10.55 113.4 
 
 14 ... 
 
 41.95:63.75 
 
 6 ... 
 
 95. [120.25 
 
 For steel, mult tabular number above (for size) by J-OJ, 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 165 
 
 LUMBER RECKONER 
 
 
 Length in Feet 
 
 Size in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 2x4 
 
 6$ 
 
 8 
 
 94 
 
 10$ 
 
 12 
 
 134 
 
 14$ 
 
 16 
 
 174 
 
 18$ 
 
 20 
 
 214 
 
 2x6 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 2x8 
 
 134 
 
 16 
 
 18$ 
 
 214 
 
 24 
 
 26$ 
 
 294 
 
 32 
 
 34$ 
 
 374 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 2 xlO 
 
 16$ 
 
 20 
 
 234 
 
 26$ 
 
 30 
 
 334 
 
 36$ 
 
 40 
 
 434 
 
 46$ 
 
 50 
 
 
 2 x!2 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 2 x!4 
 
 234 
 
 28 
 
 32$ 
 
 374 
 
 42 
 
 46$ 
 
 514 
 
 56 
 
 60$ 
 
 654 
 
 70 
 
 
 2 x!6 
 
 
 32 
 
 374 
 
 42$ 
 
 48 
 
 534 
 
 58$ 
 
 64 
 
 694 
 
 74$ 
 
 80 
 
 854 
 
 2Jxl2 
 
 2? 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 2Jxl4 
 
 
 35 
 
 40* 
 
 46$ 
 
 524 
 
 584 
 
 64i 
 
 70 
 
 75| 
 
 81$ 
 
 874 
 
 934 
 
 24x16 
 
 334 
 
 40 
 
 46| 
 
 534 
 
 60 
 
 66$ 
 
 734 
 
 80 
 
 86$ 
 
 934 
 
 100 
 
 IOC* 
 
 3x6 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 3x8 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 3 xlO 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 3 x!2 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 90 
 
 96 
 
 3 x!4 
 
 35 
 
 42 
 
 49 
 
 56 
 
 63 
 
 70 
 
 77 
 
 84 
 
 91 
 
 98 
 
 105 
 
 112 
 
 3 x!6 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 88 
 
 96 
 
 104 
 
 112 
 
 120 
 
 128 
 
 4x4 
 
 134 
 
 16 
 
 18$ 
 
 214 
 
 24 
 
 26$ 
 
 294 
 
 32 
 
 34$ 
 
 374 
 
 40 
 
 42$ 
 
 4x6 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 4x8 
 4 xlO 
 
 26$ 
 334 
 
 32 
 40 
 
 374 
 
 46$ 
 
 42$ 
 534 
 
 48 
 60 
 
 11 
 
 58$ 
 734 
 
 64 
 80 
 
 694 
 86$ 
 
 74$ 
 934 
 
 80 
 100 
 
 854 
 10G$ 
 
 4 x!2 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 88 
 
 96 
 
 104 
 
 112 
 
 120 
 
 128 
 
 4 x!4 
 
 46$ 
 
 56 
 
 654 
 
 74$ 
 
 84 
 
 934 
 
 102$ 
 
 112 
 
 1214 
 
 130$ 
 
 140 
 
 1494 
 
 6x6 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 90 
 
 96 
 
 6x8 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 88 
 
 96 
 
 104 
 
 112 
 
 120 
 
 128 
 
 6 xlO 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 110 
 
 120 
 
 130 
 
 140 
 
 150 
 
 160 
 
 6 x!2 
 
 60 
 
 72 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 108 
 
 120 
 
 132 
 
 144 
 
 156 
 
 168 
 
 180 
 
 196 
 
 6 x!4 
 
 70 
 
 84 
 
 98 
 
 112 
 
 126 
 
 140 
 
 154 
 
 168 
 
 182 
 
 190 
 
 210 
 
 224 
 
 6 x!6 
 
 80 
 
 96 
 
 112 
 
 128 
 
 144 
 
 160 
 
 176 
 
 192 
 
 208 
 
 224 
 
 240 
 
 256 
 
 8x8 
 8 xlO 
 
 534 
 66$ 
 
 64 
 80 
 
 74 
 934 
 
 854 
 106$ 
 
 96 
 120 
 
 106$ 
 1334 
 
 1174 
 146$ 
 
 128 
 160 
 
 138$ 
 1734 
 
 1494 
 1SG< 
 
 ICO 
 200 
 
 170$ 
 2134 
 
 8 x!2 
 
 80 
 
 96 
 
 112 
 
 128 
 
 144 
 
 160 
 
 176 
 
 192 
 
 208 
 
 224 
 
 240 
 
 256 
 
 8 x!4 
 
 934 
 
 112 
 
 130$ 
 
 1494 
 
 168 
 
 186$ 
 
 2054 
 
 224 
 
 242$ 
 
 2614 
 
 280 
 
 298$ 
 
 10 xlO 
 
 834 
 
 100 
 
 116$ 
 
 1334 
 
 150 
 
 166$ 
 
 1834 
 
 200 
 
 216$ 
 
 233 i 
 
 250 
 
 2GG$ 
 
 10 x!2 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 140 
 
 160 
 
 180 
 
 200 
 
 220 
 
 240 
 
 260 
 
 280 
 
 300 
 
 320 
 
 lOx 14 
 10 x!6 
 12 x!2 
 
 116$ 
 1334 
 120 
 
 1140 
 160 
 144 
 
 1634 
 186$ 
 168 
 
 186$ 
 2134 
 192 
 
 210 
 240 
 216 
 
 2334 
 266$ 
 240 
 
 256$ 
 2934 
 264 
 
 280 
 320 
 
 288 
 
 3034 
 346$ 
 312 
 
 326^ 
 373^ 
 336 
 
 350 
 400 
 360 
 
 3734 
 426* 
 384 
 
 12 x!4 
 
 140 
 
 168 
 
 196 
 
 224 
 
 252 
 
 280 
 
 308 
 
 336 
 
 364 
 
 392 
 
 420 
 
 448 
 
 12 x!6 
 
 160 
 
 192 
 
 224 
 
 256 
 
 288 
 
 320 
 
 352 
 
 384 
 
 416 
 
 448 
 
 480 
 
 512 
 
 14 x!4 
 
 1634 
 
 196 
 
 228$ 
 
 2614 
 
 294 
 
 326$ 
 
 3594 
 
 392 
 
 424$ 
 
 4574 
 
 490 
 
 522f 
 
 14 x!6 
 
 1863 
 
 224 
 
 2614 
 
 298$ 
 
 336 3734 
 
 410$ 
 
 448 
 
 4854 
 
 5223 
 
 560 
 
 5974 
 
 WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES PER CF 
 
 Names of Substances 
 
 Ash, American White, Dry 
 
 Asphaltum 
 
 Brass (Copper and Zinc) Cast 
 
 Brass Rolled 
 
 Brick, Best Pressed 
 
 Brick, Common Hard 
 
 Brick, Soft, Inferior 
 
 Brick, Fire 
 
 Brickwork, Pressed Brick 
 
 Brickwork, Ordinary 
 
 Average 
 
 Wgt, Lbs 
 
 38 
 
 87 
 
 504 
 
 524 
 
 150 
 
 125 
 
 100 
 
 137 
 
 140 
 
 112 
 
166 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Average 
 
 Names of Substances Wgt, Lbs 
 
 Cement, Hydraulic, Ground, Loose, American, RoBendale 56 
 
 Cement, Hydraulic, Ground, Loose, American, Louisville 50 
 
 Cement, Hydraulic, Ground, Loose, English. Portland 90 
 
 Cherry, Dry 42 
 
 Chestnut, Dry 41 
 
 Concrete 140 
 
 Copper, Cast 543 
 
 Copper, Rolled 548 
 
 Ebony, Dry 76 
 
 Elm, Dry 35 
 
 Flint 162 
 
 Glass, Common Window 157 
 
 Gneiss, Common 168 
 
 Granite 170 
 
 Gravel, about the same as Sand, which see 
 
 Hemlock, Dry 25 
 
 Hickory, Dry 53 
 
 Ice 50 to 58 
 
 Iron, Cast 450 
 
 Iron, Wrt. Purest 485 
 
 Iron, Wrt, Average 480 
 
 Lead 711 
 
 Lime, Quick, Ground, Loose, or in Small Lumps 53 
 
 Lime, Quick, Ground, Loose, Thoroughly Shaken 75 
 
 Lime, Quick, Ground. Loose, Per Struck Bushel 66 
 
 Limestones and Marbles 168 
 
 Limestones and Marbles, Loose, in Irregular Fragments 96 
 
 Mahogany, Spanish, Dry 
 
 Mahogany, Honduras, Dry 35 
 
 Maple, Dry 49 
 
 Marbles, see Limestones. 
 
 Masonry, of Granite or Limestone, well dressed 165 
 
 Masonry, of Mortar Rubbls 154 
 
 Masonry, of Dry Rubble (well Scabbled) 138 
 
 Masonry, of Sandstone, well dressed 144 
 
 Mortar, Hardened 103 
 
 Oak, Live, Dry 59 
 
 Oak, White, Dry 52 
 
 Oak, Other Kinds 32 to 45 
 
 Pine, White, Dry 25 
 
 Pine, Yellow, Northern 34 
 
 Pine, Yellow, Southern 45 
 
 Plaster of Paris 74 
 
 Quartz, Common, Pure 165 
 
 Sand, of Pure Quartz, Dry, Loose 90 to 106 
 
 Sand, Well Shaken 99 to 117 
 
 Sand, Perfectly Wet 120 to 140 
 
 Sandstones, Fit for Building 151 
 
 Shales, Red or Black 162 
 
 Slate 175 
 
 Snow, freshly fallen 5 to 12 
 
 Snow, Moistened and Compacted by Rain 15 to 50 
 
 Spruce, Dry 25 
 
 Steel 490 
 
 Sycamore, Dry *< 
 
 Tar .5* 
 
 Tin, Cast 459 
 
 Walnut, Black, Dry 
 
 Water, Pure Rain or Distilled, at 60 Fahrenheit 62* 
 
 Water, Sea .J 
 
 Zinc or Spelter 437 
 
 Green Timbers usually weigh from one-fifth to one-half more than dry. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 167 
 
 A Barrel contains 3l l / 2 gallons; but for tar and such 
 materials 50 gallons is the standard. 
 
 A Builder's Square contains 100 square feet, or a space 
 10' x 10'. 
 
 A Cord of wood is 4' x 4' x 8' = 128 cubic feet; and measured 
 loose for stone. 
 
 A Cord of Stone in Chicago is 100 cubic feet when in the 
 wall. 
 
 A Perch depends upon longitude and latitude. It is 16%, 
 221/3, 24%, and 25, with several back counties yet to be heard 
 from. Never use it. Let both perch and cord die, and use 
 only cubic yards or feet. 
 
 The Toise is another chameleon. It belongs to Canada. 
 It is, in Perth, Ont., 36 cubic feet; in Hamilton, 70 cubic 
 feet; in Toronto, 54 cubic feet; in Montreal, 86 cubic feet. 
 
 A TABLE OF SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS 
 
 Abbreviation. Ordinary tables of this kind have cubes, 
 cube roots, and reciprocals. I have often had occasion in 
 contracting to use square root, but some of the best contrac- 
 tors I know have never even heard of it. They do not use it 
 in their business. Cube root I have never used once since I 
 learned what it meant at school. Judging by this, I conclude 
 that it is not of so very much value in contracting, whatever 
 it may be in some other businesses; and, therefore, cubes, 
 cube roots, and reciprocals are not included in this series of 
 tables. 
 
 Use. Some contractors may ask, Of what value is square 
 root? For one thing, it is useful in taking off lengths of 
 long trusses when they are drawn to 1-16 inch, or less to the 
 foot, and it is risky to scale them in the ordinary way. 
 The drawings are not accurately made, and in many specifica- 
 tions it is forbidden to scale them at all, as the architects do 
 not want to be held responsible for errors. In cases when a 
 change is made in the width of a building when the drawings 
 are nearly finished, it is often done by figures only, and not 
 by remaking the entire set. 
 
 Example 1. How, then, is the length obtained by square 
 root? Let us take a building 160 feet wide over the walls. 
 
168 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 From the outside of the wall to the center would be 80 feet. 
 Put the rise at 7 feet, which is enough for a gravel roof. 
 
 Turning the feet into inches for a more accurate answer 
 we have 960 and 84. The square of 960 in the proper column 
 of the tables is 921,600; and of 84, is 7,056. Added together 
 the sum is 928,656. 
 
 Looking down the column of squares the nearest figure to 
 this is 929,296, which is a trifle over the required size. 
 Directly on the left, in the No. column, we see that the square 
 root of that is 964, or 80 feet, 4 inches. This is the distance 
 from the outside of the wall to the center of the roof on the 
 rake. 
 
 Example 2. The rise in this last case is so small that it 
 would be practically safe for the contractor to take half the 
 width of the building, but it is different with a churcK truss 
 of the old high style. If the figures are even it is not 
 necessary to turn them into inches. It was done in the last 
 ease to show how to get the length when there were odd inches, 
 for the rise was low. 
 
 Take a building 60 feet wide and let the rise be 38 feet. 
 What is the distance from the outside edge of the wall to 
 the peak? Half the width is 30 feet. The table gives 900 and 
 1,444, for in getting the square root the first thing to be done 
 is to multiply the lengths by themselves, or get their squares, 
 and then add the totals together. In this case the sum is 
 2,344. Looking down the square column the nearest sum to 
 this is 2,304, and the number on the left, the required length, 
 is 48 feet. 
 
 For some purposes this might be exact enough, but to get 
 more accurate figures we can take the inches. On the level 
 there are 360, and on the rise, 456. The squares of these 
 found in the table are 129,600 and 207,936, a total of 337,536. 
 The nearest number to this in the table is 337,561, which is 
 practically exact. To the left the length is given in inches 
 581, or 48 feet 5 inches. 
 
 Why? The reason for anything is always interesting and 
 useful. Why do the two numbers have to be squared and 
 added? It is on the same principle as 12 on the blade, and 
 12 on the tongue of a square give 17 across the angle. When 
 12 is squared it makes 144, and two numbers like this, 288. 
 Looking for the square we find that 289 is the nearest number, 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 169 
 
 so that the 17 which carpenters always use is not strictly 
 accurate, but the difference of a thick pencil and a thin one 
 will equalize matters. All through there is never any chance 
 of getting the exact mathematical sizes on stone and lumber. 
 
 Squaring a Building. It is on this principle that a build- 
 ing is squared as described in Chapter X, Book I. The square 
 of 8 is 64, and of 6 is 36. These two numbers added together 
 make 100, the square root of which is 10. 
 
 Any other set of figures might be taken if desired to get a 
 wider stretch, although 6, 8, and 10 are almost everywhere 
 employed for this purpose. Another set might be 12, 16, and 
 20, and a steel tape used across the corner, or a long rod. 
 As a still longer check we can take 24, 32, and 40. 
 
 Take a square of any kind and lay out two lines at right 
 angles. Mark 12 inches on each from the point or corner 
 where the lines join. Connect these two points by a line 
 which will be 17 inches long. There you have an angle that 
 all carpenters are acquainted with. 
 
 Now draw three squares out on the three sides two at 
 12 inches, and one at 17. The square root theory proceeds 
 on the basis that the large square has exactly the same area 
 as the two small ones. Now suppose we get the area of 
 the two small ones. We already know that it is 288 square 
 inches. Evidently, then, the large one must have the same 
 area. As each side of a square must be the same length, we 
 have to find the number which, multiplied by itself, will 
 give 288, or, in other words, the square root, which is 17. 
 
 Any ordinary" arithmetic will show how to extract this 
 square root. For most uses the table will serve. 
 
170 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 A TABLE OF SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1-000000 
 
 41 
 
 1681 
 
 6-403124 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1-414214 
 
 42 
 
 1764 
 
 6-480741 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 1-732051 
 
 43 
 
 1849 
 
 6-557439 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 2-000000 
 
 44 
 
 1936 
 
 6-633250 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 2-236068 
 
 45 
 
 2025 
 
 6-708204 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 2-449490 
 
 46 
 
 2116 
 
 6-782330 
 
 7 
 
 49 
 
 2-645751 
 
 47 
 
 2209 
 
 6-855655 
 
 8 
 
 64 
 
 2-828427 
 
 48 
 
 2304 
 
 6-928203 
 
 9 
 
 81 
 
 3-000000 
 
 49 
 
 2401 
 
 7-000000 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 3-162278 
 
 50 
 
 2500 
 
 7-071068 
 
 11 
 
 121 
 
 3-316625 
 
 51 
 
 2601 
 
 7-141428 
 
 12 
 
 144 
 
 3-464102 
 
 52 
 
 2704 
 
 7-211103 
 
 13 
 
 169 
 
 3-605551 
 
 53 
 
 2809 
 
 7-280110 
 
 14 
 
 196 
 
 3-741657 
 
 54 
 
 2916 
 
 7-348469 
 
 15 
 
 225 
 
 3-872983 
 
 55 
 
 3025 
 
 7-416198 
 
 16 
 
 256 
 
 4-000000 
 
 56 
 
 3136 
 
 7-483315 
 
 17 
 
 289 
 
 4-123106 
 
 57 
 
 3249 
 
 7-549834 
 
 18 
 
 324 
 
 4-242641 
 
 58 
 
 3364 
 
 7-615773 
 
 19 
 
 361 
 
 4-358899 
 
 59 
 
 3481 
 
 7-681146 
 
 20 
 
 400 
 
 4-472136 
 
 60 
 
 3600 
 
 7-745967 
 
 21 
 
 441 
 
 4-582576 
 
 61 
 
 3721 
 
 7-810250 
 
 22 
 
 484 
 
 4-690416 
 
 62 
 
 3844 
 
 7-874008 
 
 23 
 
 529 
 
 4-795832 
 
 63 
 
 3969 
 
 7-937254 
 
 24 
 
 576 
 
 4-898979 
 
 64 
 
 4096 
 
 8-000000 
 
 25 
 
 625 
 
 5-000000 
 
 65 
 
 4225 
 
 8-062258 
 
 20 
 
 676 
 
 5-099020 
 
 66 
 
 4356 
 
 8-124038 
 
 27 
 
 729 
 
 5-196152 
 
 67 
 
 4489 
 
 8-185353 
 
 28 
 
 784 
 
 5-291503 
 
 68 
 
 4624 
 
 8-246211 
 
 29 
 
 841 
 
 5-385165 
 
 69 
 
 4761 
 
 8-306624 
 
 30 
 
 900 
 
 5-477226 
 
 70 
 
 4900 
 
 8-366600 
 
 31 
 
 961 
 
 5-567764 
 
 71 
 
 5041 
 
 8-426150 
 
 32 
 
 1024 
 
 5-656854 
 
 72 
 
 5184 
 
 8-485281 
 
 33 
 
 1089 
 
 5-744563 
 
 73 
 
 5329 
 
 8-544004 
 
 34 
 
 1156 
 
 5-830952 
 
 74 
 
 5476 
 
 8-602325 
 
 35 
 
 1225 
 
 5-916080 
 
 75 
 
 5625 
 
 8-660254 
 
 30 
 
 1296 
 
 6-000000 
 
 76 
 
 5776 
 
 8-717798 
 
 37 
 
 1369 
 
 6-082763 
 
 77 
 
 5929 
 
 8-774964 
 
 38 
 
 1444 
 
 6-164414 
 
 78 
 
 6084 
 
 8-831761 
 
 39 
 
 1521 
 
 6-244998 
 
 79 
 
 6241 
 
 8-888194 
 
 40 
 
 1600 
 
 6-324555 
 
 80 
 
 6400 
 
 8-944272 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 171 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 81 
 
 6561 
 
 9-000000 
 
 129 
 
 16641 
 
 11-357817 
 
 82 
 
 6724 
 
 9-055385 
 
 130 
 
 16900 
 
 11-401754 
 
 83 
 
 6889 
 
 9-110434 
 
 131 
 
 17161 
 
 11-445523 
 
 84 
 
 7056 
 
 9-165151 
 
 132 
 
 17424 
 
 11-489125 
 
 85 
 
 7225 
 
 9-219544 
 
 133 
 
 17689 
 
 11-532563 
 
 86 
 
 7396 
 
 9-273618 
 
 134 
 
 17956 
 
 11-575837 
 
 87 
 
 7569 
 
 9-327379 
 
 135 
 
 18225 
 
 11-618950 
 
 88 
 
 7744 
 
 9-380832 
 
 136 
 
 18496 
 
 11-661904 
 
 89 
 
 7921 
 
 9-433981 
 
 137 
 
 18769 
 
 11-704700 
 
 90 
 
 8100 
 
 9-486833 
 
 138 
 
 19044 
 
 11-747344 
 
 91 
 
 8281 
 
 9-539392 
 
 139 
 
 19321 
 
 11-789826 
 
 92 
 
 8464 
 
 9-591663 
 
 140 
 
 19600 
 
 11-832160 
 
 93 
 
 8649 
 
 9-643651 
 
 141 
 
 19881 
 
 11-874342 
 
 94 
 
 8836 
 
 9-695360 
 
 142 
 
 20164 
 
 11-916375 
 
 95 
 
 9025 
 
 9-746794 
 
 143 
 
 20449 
 
 11-958261 
 
 96 
 
 9216 
 
 9-797959 
 
 144 
 
 20736 
 
 12-000000 
 
 97 
 
 9409 
 
 9-848858 
 
 145 
 
 21025 
 
 12-041595 
 
 98 
 
 9604 
 
 9-899495 
 
 146 
 
 21316 
 
 12-083046 
 
 99 
 
 9801 
 
 9-949874 
 
 147 
 
 21609 
 
 12-124356 
 
 100 
 
 10000 
 
 10-000000 
 
 148 
 
 21904 
 
 12-165525 
 
 101 
 
 10201 
 
 10-049876 
 
 149 
 
 22201 
 
 12-206556 
 
 102 
 
 10404 
 
 10-099505 
 
 150 
 
 22500 
 
 12-247449 
 
 103 
 
 10609 
 
 10-148892 
 
 151 
 
 22801 
 
 12-288206 
 
 104 
 
 10816 
 
 10-198039 
 
 152 
 
 23104 
 
 12-328828 
 
 105 
 
 11025 
 
 10-246951 
 
 153 
 
 23409 
 
 12-369317 
 
 106 
 
 11236 
 
 10-295630 
 
 154 
 
 23716 
 
 12-409674 
 
 107 
 
 11449 
 
 10-344080 
 
 155 
 
 24025 
 
 12-449900 
 
 108 
 
 11664 
 
 10-392305 
 
 156 
 
 24336 
 
 12-489996 
 
 109 
 
 11881 
 
 10-440306 
 
 157 
 
 24649 
 
 12-529964 
 
 110 
 
 12100 
 
 10-488088 
 
 158 
 
 24964 
 
 12-569805 
 
 111 
 
 12321 
 
 10-535654 
 
 159 
 
 25281 
 
 12-609520 
 
 112 
 
 12544 
 
 10-583005 
 
 160 
 
 25600 
 
 12-649111 
 
 113 
 
 12769 
 
 10-630146 
 
 161 
 
 25921 
 
 12-688577 
 
 114 
 
 12996 
 
 10-677078 
 
 162 
 
 26244 
 
 12-727922 
 
 115 
 
 13225 
 
 10-723805 
 
 163 
 
 26569 
 
 12-767145 
 
 116 
 
 13456 
 
 10-770330 
 
 164 
 
 26896 
 
 12-806248 
 
 117 
 
 13689 
 
 10-816654 
 
 165 
 
 27225 
 
 12845233 
 
 118 
 
 13924 
 
 10-862780 
 
 163 
 
 27556 
 
 12-884099 
 
 119 
 
 14161 
 
 10-908712 
 
 167 
 
 27889 
 
 12-922848 
 
 120 
 
 14400 
 
 10-954451 
 
 168 
 
 28224 
 
 12-961481 
 
 121 
 
 14641 
 
 11-000000 
 
 169 
 
 28561 
 
 13-000000 
 
 122 
 
 14884 
 
 11-045361 
 
 170 
 
 28900 
 
 13-038405 
 
 123 
 
 15129 
 
 11-090536 
 
 171 
 
 29241 
 
 13-076697 
 
 124 
 
 15376 
 
 11-135529 
 
 172 
 
 29534 
 
 13-114877 
 
 125 
 
 15625 
 
 11-180340 
 
 173 
 
 29929 
 
 13-152946 
 
 126 
 
 15876 
 
 11-224972 
 
 174 
 
 30276 
 
 13-190906 
 
 127 
 
 16129 
 
 11-269428 
 
 175 
 
 30625 
 
 13228757 
 
 128 
 
 16384 
 
 11-313708 
 
 176 
 
 30976 
 
 13-266499 
 
172 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 177 
 
 31329 
 
 13-304135 
 
 225 
 
 50625 
 
 15-000000 
 
 178 
 
 31684 
 
 13-341664 
 
 226 
 
 51076 
 
 15-033296 
 
 179 
 
 32041 
 
 13-379088 
 
 227 
 
 51529 
 
 15-066519 
 
 180 
 
 32400 
 
 13-416408 
 
 228 
 
 51984 
 
 15-099669 
 
 181 
 
 32761 
 
 13-453(524 
 
 229 
 
 52441 
 
 15-132746 
 
 182 
 
 33124 
 
 13-490738 
 
 230 
 
 52900 
 
 15-165751 
 
 183 
 
 33489 
 
 13-527749 
 
 231 
 
 53361 
 
 15-198684 
 
 184 
 
 33856 
 
 13-564660 
 
 232 
 
 53824 
 
 15-231546 
 
 185 
 
 34225 
 
 13-601470 
 
 233 
 
 54289 
 
 15-264338 
 
 186 
 
 34596 
 
 13-638182 
 
 234 
 
 54756 
 
 15-297059 
 
 187 
 
 34969 
 
 13-674794 
 
 235 
 
 55225 
 
 15-329710 
 
 188 
 
 35344 
 
 13-711309 
 
 236 
 
 55696 
 
 15-362292 
 
 189 
 
 35721 
 
 13-747727 
 
 237 
 
 56169 
 
 15-394804 
 
 190 
 
 36100 
 
 13-784049 
 
 238 
 
 56644 
 
 15-427249 
 
 191 
 
 36481 
 
 13-820275 
 
 239 
 
 57121 
 
 15-459625 
 
 192 
 
 36864 
 
 13-856406 
 
 240 
 
 57600 
 
 15-491933 
 
 193 
 
 37249 
 
 13-892444 
 
 241 
 
 58081 
 
 15-524175 
 
 194 
 
 37636 
 
 13-928388 
 
 242 
 
 58564 
 
 15-556349 
 
 195 
 
 38025 
 
 13-964240 
 
 243 
 
 59049 
 
 15-588457 
 
 196 
 
 38416 
 
 14-000000 
 
 244 
 
 59536 
 
 15-620499 
 
 197 
 
 38809 
 
 14-035669 
 
 245 
 
 60025 
 
 15-652476 
 
 198 
 
 39204 
 
 14-071247 
 
 246 
 
 60516 
 
 15-684387 
 
 199 
 
 39601 
 
 14-106736 
 
 247 
 
 61009 
 
 15-716234 
 
 200 
 
 40000 
 
 14-142136 
 
 248 
 
 61504 
 
 15-748016 
 
 201 
 
 40401 
 
 14 177447 
 
 249 
 
 62001 
 
 15-779734 
 
 202 
 
 40804 
 
 14-212670 
 
 250 
 
 62500 
 
 15-811388 
 
 203 
 
 41209 
 
 14-247807 
 
 251 
 
 63001 
 
 15-842980 
 
 204 
 
 41616 
 
 14-282857 
 
 252 
 
 63504 
 
 15-874508 
 
 205 
 
 42025 
 
 14-317821 
 
 253 
 
 64009 
 
 15-905974 
 
 206 
 
 42436 
 
 14-352700 
 
 254 
 
 64516 
 
 15-937378 
 
 207 
 
 42849 
 
 14-387495 
 
 255 
 
 65025 
 
 15-968719 
 
 208 
 
 43264 
 
 14-422205 
 
 256 
 
 65536 
 
 16-000000 
 
 209 
 
 43681 
 
 14-456832 
 
 257 
 
 66049 
 
 16-031220 
 
 210 
 
 44100 
 
 14-491377 
 
 258 
 
 66564 
 
 16-062378 
 
 211 
 
 44521 
 
 14-525839 
 
 259 
 
 67081 
 
 16-093477 
 
 212 
 
 44944 
 
 14-560220 
 
 260 
 
 67600 
 
 16-124516 
 
 213 
 
 45369 
 
 14-594520 
 
 261 
 
 68121 
 
 16-155494 
 
 214 
 
 45796 
 
 14-628739 
 
 262 
 
 68644 
 
 16-186414 
 
 215 
 
 46225 
 
 14-662878 
 
 263 
 
 69169 
 
 16-217275 
 
 216 
 
 46656 
 
 14-696939 
 
 264 
 
 69696 
 
 16-248077 
 
 217 
 
 47089 
 
 14-730920 
 
 265 
 
 70225 
 
 16-278821 
 
 218 
 
 47524 
 
 14-764823 
 
 266 
 
 70756 
 
 16-309506 
 
 219 
 
 47961 
 
 14-798649 
 
 267 
 
 71289 
 
 16-340135 
 
 220 
 
 48400 
 
 14-832397 
 
 268 
 
 71824 
 
 16-370706 
 
 221 
 
 48841 
 
 14-866069 
 
 269 
 
 72361 
 
 16-401220 
 
 222 
 
 49284 
 
 14-899664 
 
 270 
 
 72900 
 
 16-431677 
 
 223 
 
 49729 
 
 14-933185 
 
 271 
 
 73441 
 
 16-462078 
 
 224 
 
 50176 
 
 14-966630 
 
 272 
 
 73984 
 
 16-492423 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 173 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 273 
 
 74529 
 
 16-522712 
 
 321 
 
 103041 
 
 17-916473 
 
 274 
 
 75076 
 
 16-552945 
 
 322 
 
 103684 
 
 17-944358 
 
 275 
 
 75625 
 
 16-583124 
 
 323 
 
 104329 
 
 17-972201 
 
 276 
 
 76176 
 
 16-613248 
 
 324 
 
 104976 
 
 18-000000 
 
 277 
 
 76729 
 
 16-643317 
 
 325 
 
 105625 
 
 18-027756 
 
 278 
 
 77284 
 
 16-673332 
 
 326 
 
 106276 
 
 18-055470 
 
 279 
 
 77841 
 
 16-703293 
 
 327 
 
 106929 
 
 18-083141 
 
 280 
 
 78400 
 
 16-733201 
 
 328 
 
 107584 
 
 18-110770 
 
 281 
 
 78961 
 
 16-763055 
 
 329 
 
 108241 
 
 18-138357 
 
 282 
 
 79524 
 
 16-792856 
 
 330 
 
 108900 
 
 18-165902 
 
 283 
 
 80089 
 
 16-8226U4 
 
 331 
 
 109561 
 
 18-193405 
 
 284 
 
 80656 
 
 16-852300 
 
 332 
 
 110224 
 
 18-220867 
 
 285 
 
 81225 
 
 16-881943 
 
 333 
 
 110889 
 
 18-248288 
 
 286 
 
 81796 
 
 16-911535 
 
 334 
 
 111556 
 
 18-275667 
 
 287 
 
 82369 
 
 16-941074 
 
 335 
 
 112225 
 
 18-303005 
 
 288 
 
 82944 
 
 16-970563 
 
 336 
 
 112896 
 
 18-330303 
 
 289 
 
 83521 
 
 17-000000 
 
 337 
 
 113569 
 
 18-357560 
 
 290 
 
 84100 
 
 17-029386 
 
 338 
 
 114244 
 
 18-384776 
 
 291 
 
 84681 
 
 17-058722 
 
 339 
 
 114921 
 
 18-411953 
 
 292 
 
 85264 
 
 17-088008 
 
 340 
 
 115600 
 
 18-439089 
 
 293 
 
 85849 
 
 17-117243 
 
 341 
 
 116281 
 
 18-466185 
 
 294 
 
 86436 
 
 17-146428 
 
 342 
 
 116964 
 
 18493242 
 
 295 
 
 87025 
 
 17-175564 
 
 343 
 
 117649 
 
 18-520259 
 
 296 
 
 87616 
 
 17-204651 
 
 344 
 
 118336 
 
 18-547237 
 
 297 
 
 88209 
 
 17-233688 
 
 345 
 
 119025 
 
 18-574176 
 
 298 
 
 88804 
 
 17-262676 
 
 346 
 
 119716 
 
 18-601075 
 
 299 
 
 89401 
 
 17-291617 
 
 347 
 
 120409 
 
 18-627936 
 
 300 
 
 90000 
 
 17-320508 
 
 348 
 
 121104 
 
 18-654758 
 
 301 
 
 90601 
 
 17-349352 
 
 349 
 
 121801 
 
 18-681542 
 
 302 
 
 91204 
 
 17-378147 
 
 350 
 
 122500 
 
 18-708287 
 
 303 
 
 91809 
 
 17-406895 
 
 351 
 
 123201 
 
 18-734994 
 
 304 
 
 92416 
 
 17-435596 
 
 352 
 
 123904 
 
 18-761663 
 
 305 
 
 93025 
 
 17-464249 
 
 353 
 
 124609 
 
 18-788294 
 
 306 
 
 93636 
 
 17-492856 
 
 354 
 
 125316 
 
 18-814888 
 
 307 
 
 94249 
 
 17-521416 
 
 355 
 
 126025 
 
 18-841444 
 
 308 
 
 94864 
 
 17-549929 
 
 356 
 
 126736 
 
 18-867962 
 
 309 
 
 95481 
 
 17-578396 
 
 357 
 
 127449 
 
 18-894444 
 
 310 
 
 96100 
 
 17-606817 
 
 358 
 
 128164 
 
 18-920888 
 
 311 
 
 96721 
 
 17-635192 
 
 359 
 
 128881 
 
 18-947295 
 
 312 
 
 97344 
 
 17-663522 
 
 360 
 
 129600 
 
 18-973666 
 
 313 
 
 97969 
 
 17-691806 
 
 361 
 
 130321 
 
 19-000000 
 
 314 
 
 98596 
 
 17-720045 
 
 362 
 
 131044 
 
 19-026298 
 
 315 
 
 99225 
 
 17-748239 
 
 363 
 
 131769 
 
 19052559 
 
 316 
 
 99856 
 
 17-776389 
 
 364 
 
 132496 
 
 19-078784 
 
 317 
 
 100489 
 
 17-804494 
 
 365 
 
 133225 
 
 19-104973 
 
 318 
 
 101124 
 
 17-832555 
 
 366 
 
 133956 
 
 19-131127 
 
 319 
 
 101761 
 
 17-860571 
 
 367 
 
 134689 
 
 19-157244 
 
 320 
 
 102400 
 
 17-888544 
 
 368 
 
 135424 
 
 19-183326 
 
174 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 369 
 
 136161 
 
 19-209373 
 
 417 
 
 173889 
 
 20-420578 
 
 370 
 
 136900 
 
 19-235384 
 
 418 
 
 174724 
 
 20-445048 
 
 371 
 
 137641 
 
 19-261360 
 
 419 
 
 175561 
 
 20-469490 
 
 372 
 
 138384 
 
 19-287302 
 
 420 
 
 176400 
 
 20-493902 
 
 373 
 
 139129 
 
 19-313208 
 
 421 
 
 177241 
 
 20-518285 
 
 374 
 
 139876 
 
 19-339080 
 
 422 
 
 178084 
 
 20-542639 
 
 375 
 
 140625 
 
 19-364917 
 
 423 
 
 178929 
 
 20-566964 
 
 376 
 
 141376 
 
 19-390719 
 
 424 
 
 179776 
 
 20-591260 
 
 377 
 
 142129 
 
 19-416488 
 
 425 
 
 180625 
 
 20-615528 
 
 378 
 
 142884 
 
 19442222 
 
 426 
 
 181476 
 
 20-639767 
 
 379 
 
 143641 
 
 19-467922 
 
 427 
 
 182329 
 
 20-663978 
 
 380 
 
 144400 
 
 19-493589 
 
 428 
 
 183184 
 
 20-688161 
 
 381 
 
 145161 
 
 19519221 
 
 429 
 
 184041 
 
 20-712315 
 
 382 
 
 145924 
 
 19-544820 
 
 430 
 
 184900 
 
 20-736441 
 
 383 
 
 146689 
 
 19-570386 
 
 431 
 
 185761 
 
 20-760540 
 
 384 
 
 147456 
 
 19-595918 
 
 432 
 
 186624 
 
 20-784610 
 
 385 
 
 148225 
 
 19-621417 
 
 433 
 
 187489 
 
 20-808652 
 
 386 
 
 148996 
 
 19-646883 
 
 434 
 
 188356 
 
 20-832667 
 
 387 
 
 149769 
 
 19-672316 
 
 435 
 
 189225 
 
 20-856654 
 
 388 
 
 150544 
 
 19-697716 
 
 436 
 
 190090 
 
 20-880613 
 
 389 
 
 151321 
 
 19-723083 
 
 437 
 
 190969 
 
 20-904545 
 
 390 
 
 152100 
 
 19-748418 
 
 438 
 
 191844 
 
 20-928450 
 
 391 
 
 152881 
 
 19-773720 
 
 439 
 
 192721 
 
 20-952327 
 
 392 
 
 153664 
 
 19-798990 
 
 440 
 
 193600 
 
 20-976177 
 
 393 
 
 154449 
 
 19-824228 
 
 441 
 
 194481 
 
 21-000000 
 
 394 
 
 155236 
 
 19-849433 
 
 442 
 
 195364 
 
 21-023796 
 
 395 
 
 156025 
 
 19-874607 
 
 443 
 
 196249 
 
 21-047565 
 
 396 
 
 156816 
 
 19-899749 
 
 444 
 
 197136 
 
 21-071308 
 
 397 
 
 157609 
 
 19-924859 
 
 445 
 
 198025 
 
 21-095023 
 
 398 
 
 158404 
 
 19-949937 
 
 446 
 
 198916 
 
 21-118712 
 
 399 
 
 159201 
 
 19-974984 
 
 447 
 
 199809 
 
 21-142375 
 
 400 
 
 160000 
 
 20-000000 
 
 448 
 
 200704 
 
 21-166011 
 
 401 
 
 160801 
 
 20-024984 
 
 449 
 
 201601 
 
 21-189620 
 
 402 
 
 161604 
 
 20-049938 
 
 450 
 
 202500 
 
 21-213203 
 
 403 
 
 162409 
 
 20-074860 
 
 451 
 
 203401 
 
 21-236761 
 
 404 
 
 163216 
 
 20-099751 
 
 452 
 
 204304 
 
 21-260292 
 
 405 
 
 164025 
 
 20-124612 
 
 453 
 
 205209 
 
 21-283797 
 
 406 
 
 164836 
 
 20-149442 
 
 454 
 
 206116 
 
 21-307276 
 
 407 
 
 165649 
 
 20-174241 
 
 455 
 
 207025 
 
 21-330729 
 
 408 
 
 166464 
 
 20-199010 
 
 456 
 
 207936 
 
 21-354157 
 
 409 
 
 167281 
 
 20-223748 
 
 457 
 
 208849 
 
 21-377558 
 
 410 
 
 168100 
 
 20-248457 
 
 458 
 
 209764 
 
 21-400935 
 
 411 
 
 168921 
 
 20273135 
 
 459 
 
 210681 
 
 21-424285 
 
 412 
 
 169744 
 
 20-297783 
 
 460 
 
 211600 
 
 21-447611 
 
 413 
 
 170569 
 
 20-322401 
 
 461 
 
 212521 
 
 21-470911 
 
 414 
 
 171396 
 
 20-346990 
 
 462 
 
 213444 
 
 21-494185 
 
 415 
 
 172225 
 
 20-371549 
 
 463 
 
 214369 
 
 21-517435 
 
 416 
 
 173056 
 
 20-396078 
 
 464 
 
 215296 
 
 21-540659 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 175 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 465 
 
 216225 
 
 21-563859 
 
 513 
 
 263169 
 
 22-649503 
 
 466 
 
 217156 
 
 21-587033 
 
 514 
 
 264196 
 
 22-671568 
 
 467 
 
 218089 
 
 21-610183 
 
 515 
 
 265225 
 
 22-693611 
 
 468 
 
 219024 
 
 21-633308 
 
 516 
 
 266256 
 
 22-715633 
 
 469 
 
 219961 
 
 21-656408 
 
 517 
 
 267289 
 
 22-737634 
 
 470 
 
 220900 
 
 21-679483 
 
 518 
 
 268324 
 
 22-759613 
 
 471 
 
 221841 
 
 21-702534 
 
 519 
 
 269361 
 
 22-781572 
 
 472 
 
 222784 
 
 21-725561 
 
 520 
 
 270400 
 
 22-803509 
 
 473 
 
 223729 
 
 21-748563 
 
 521 
 
 271441 
 
 22-825424 
 
 474 
 
 224676 
 
 21-771541 
 
 522 
 
 272484 
 
 22-847319 
 
 475 
 
 225625 
 
 21-794495 
 
 523 
 
 273529 
 
 22-869193 
 
 476 
 
 226576 
 
 21-817424 
 
 524 
 
 274576 
 
 22-891046 
 
 477 
 
 227529 
 
 21-840330 
 
 525 
 
 275625 
 
 22-912879 
 
 478 
 
 228484 
 
 21-863211 
 
 526 
 
 276676 
 
 22-934690 
 
 479 
 
 229441 
 
 21-886069 
 
 527 
 
 277729 
 
 22-956481 
 
 480 
 
 230400 
 
 21-908902 
 
 528 
 
 278784 
 
 22-978251 
 
 481 
 
 231361 
 
 21-931712 
 
 529 
 
 279841 
 
 23-000000 
 
 482 
 
 232324 
 
 21-954498 
 
 530 
 
 280900 
 
 23-021729 
 
 483 
 
 233289 
 
 21-977261 
 
 531 
 
 281961 
 
 23-043437 
 
 484 
 
 234256 
 
 22-000000 
 
 532 
 
 283024 
 
 23-065125 
 
 485 
 
 235225 
 
 22-022716 
 
 533 
 
 284089 
 
 23-086793 
 
 486 
 
 236196 
 
 22-045408 
 
 534 
 
 285156 
 
 23-108440 
 
 487 
 
 237169 
 
 22-068077 
 
 535 
 
 286225 
 
 23-130067 
 
 488 
 
 238144 
 
 22090722 
 
 536 
 
 287296 
 
 23-151674 
 
 489 
 
 239121 
 
 22-113344 
 
 537 
 
 288369 
 
 23-173261 
 
 490 
 
 240100 
 
 22-135944 
 
 538 
 
 289444 
 
 23-194827 
 
 491 
 
 241081 
 
 22-158520 
 
 539 
 
 290521 
 
 23-216374 
 
 492 
 
 242064 
 
 22-181073 
 
 540 
 
 291600 
 
 23-237900 
 
 493 
 
 243049 
 
 22-203603 
 
 541 
 
 292681 
 
 23-259407 
 
 494 
 
 244036 
 
 22-226111 
 
 542 
 
 293764 
 
 23-280894 
 
 495 
 
 245025 
 
 22-248596 
 
 543 
 
 294849 
 
 23-302360 
 
 496 
 
 246016 
 
 22-271058 
 
 544 
 
 295936 
 
 23-323808 
 
 497 
 
 247009 
 
 22-293497 
 
 545 
 
 297025 
 
 23-345235 
 
 498 
 
 248004 
 
 22-315914 
 
 546 
 
 298116 
 
 23-366643 
 
 499 
 
 249001 
 
 22-338308 
 
 547 
 
 299209 
 
 23-288031 
 
 500 
 
 250000 
 
 22-360680 
 
 548 
 
 300304 
 
 23-409400 
 
 501 
 
 251001 
 
 22-383029 
 
 549 
 
 301401 
 
 23-430749 
 
 502 
 
 252004 
 
 22-405357 
 
 550 
 
 302500 
 
 23-452079 
 
 503 
 
 253009 
 
 22-427662 
 
 551 
 
 303601 
 
 23-473389 
 
 504 
 
 254016 
 
 22-449944 
 
 552 
 
 304704 
 
 23-494680 
 
 505 
 
 255025 
 
 22-472205 
 
 553 
 
 305809 
 
 23-515952 
 
 506 
 
 256036 
 
 22-494444 
 
 554 
 
 306916 
 
 23-537205 
 
 507 
 
 257049 
 
 22-516661 
 
 555 
 
 308025 
 
 23-558438 
 
 508 
 
 258064 
 
 22-538855 
 
 556 
 
 309136 
 
 23-579652 
 
 509 
 
 259081 
 
 22-561028 
 
 557 
 
 310249 
 
 23-600847 
 
 510 
 
 260100 
 
 22-583180 
 
 558 
 
 311364 
 
 23-622024 
 
 511 
 
 261121 
 
 22-605309 
 
 559 
 
 312481 
 
 23-643181 
 
 512 
 
 262144 
 
 22-627417 
 
 560 
 
 313600 
 
 23664319 
 
176 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 561 
 
 314721 
 
 23-685439 
 
 609 
 
 370881 
 
 24-677925 
 
 562 
 
 315844 
 
 23-706539 
 
 610 
 
 372100 
 
 24-698178 
 
 563 
 
 316969 
 
 23-727621 
 
 611 
 
 373321 
 
 '24-718414 
 
 564 
 
 318096 
 
 23-748684 
 
 612 
 
 374544 
 
 24-738634 
 
 565 
 
 319225 
 
 23-769729 
 
 613 
 
 375769 
 
 24-758837 
 
 566 
 
 320356 
 
 23-790755 
 
 614 
 
 376996 
 
 24-779023 
 
 567 
 
 321489 
 
 23-811762 
 
 615 
 
 378225 
 
 24-799194 
 
 568 
 
 322624 
 
 23-832751 
 
 616 
 
 379456 
 
 24-819347 
 
 560 
 
 323761 
 
 23-853721 
 
 617 
 
 380689 
 
 24-839485 
 
 570 
 
 324900 
 
 23-874673 
 
 618 
 
 381924 
 
 24-859606 
 
 571 
 
 326041 
 
 23-895606 
 
 619 
 
 383161 
 
 24-879711 
 
 572 
 
 327184 
 
 23-916522 
 
 620 
 
 384400 
 
 24-899799 
 
 573 
 
 328329 
 
 23-937418 
 
 621 
 
 385641 
 
 24-919872 
 
 574 
 
 329476 
 
 23-958297 
 
 622 
 
 386884 
 
 24-939928 
 
 575 
 
 330625 
 
 23-979158 
 
 623 
 
 388129 
 
 24-959968 
 
 576 
 
 331776 
 
 24-000000 
 
 624 
 
 389376 
 
 24-979992 
 
 577 
 
 332929 
 
 24-020824 
 
 625 
 
 390625 
 
 25-000000 
 
 578 
 
 334084 
 
 24-041631 
 
 626 
 
 391876 
 
 25019Q92 
 
 579 
 
 335241 
 
 24-062419 
 
 627 
 
 393129 
 
 25-039968 
 
 580 
 
 336400 
 
 24-083189 
 
 628 
 
 394384 
 
 25-059928 
 
 581 
 
 337561 
 
 24-103942 
 
 629 
 
 395641 
 
 25-079872 
 
 582 
 
 338724 
 
 24-124676 
 
 630 
 
 396900 
 
 25-099801 
 
 583 
 
 339889 
 
 24-145393 
 
 631 
 
 398161 
 
 25-119713 
 
 584 
 
 341056 
 
 24-166092 
 
 632 
 
 399424 
 
 25-139610 
 
 585 
 
 342225 
 
 24-186773 
 
 633 
 
 400689 
 
 25-159491 
 
 586 
 
 343396 
 
 24-207437 
 
 634 
 
 401956 
 
 25-179357 
 
 587 
 
 344569 
 
 24-228083 
 
 635 
 
 403225 
 
 25-199206 
 
 588 
 
 345744 
 
 24-248711 
 
 636 
 
 404496 
 
 25-219040 
 
 589 
 
 346921 
 
 24-269322 
 
 637 
 
 405769 
 
 25-238859 
 
 590 
 
 348100 
 
 24-289916 
 
 638 
 
 407044 
 
 25-258662 
 
 591 
 
 349281 
 
 24-310492 
 
 639 
 
 408321 
 
 25-278449 
 
 592 
 
 350464 
 
 24-331050 
 
 640 
 
 409600 
 
 25-298221 
 
 593 
 
 351649 
 
 24-351591 
 
 641 
 
 410881 
 
 25-317978 
 
 594 
 
 352836 
 
 24-372115 
 
 642 
 
 412164 
 
 25-337719 
 
 595 
 
 354025 
 
 24-392622 
 
 643 
 
 413449 
 
 25-357445 
 
 596 
 
 355216 
 
 24413111 
 
 644 
 
 414736 
 
 25-377155 
 
 597 
 
 356409 
 
 24-433583 
 
 645 
 
 416025 
 
 25-396850 
 
 598 
 
 357604 
 
 24-454039 
 
 646 
 
 417316 
 
 25-416530 
 
 599 
 
 358801 
 
 24-474477 
 
 647 
 
 418609 
 
 25-436195 
 
 600 
 
 360000 
 
 24-494897 
 
 648 
 
 419904 
 
 25-455844 
 
 601 
 
 361201 
 
 24515301 
 
 649 
 
 421201 
 
 25475478 
 
 602 
 
 362404 
 
 24-535688 
 
 650 
 
 422500 
 
 25-495098 
 
 603 
 
 363609 
 
 24-556058 
 
 651 
 
 423801 
 
 25-514702 
 
 604 
 
 364816 
 
 24-576412 
 
 652 
 
 425104 
 
 25-534291 
 
 605 
 
 366025 
 
 24-596748 
 
 653 
 
 426409 
 
 25-553865 
 
 606 
 
 367236 
 
 24-617067 
 
 654 
 
 427716 
 
 25573424 
 
 607 
 
 368449 
 
 24637370 
 
 655 
 
 429025 
 
 25-592968 
 
 608 
 
 369664 
 
 24-657656 
 
 656 
 
 430336 
 
 25-612497 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 177 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 657 
 
 431(549 
 
 25-632011 
 
 705 
 
 497025 
 
 26-551836 
 
 658 
 
 432964 
 
 25-651511 
 
 706 
 
 498436 
 
 26-570661 
 
 659 
 
 434281 
 
 25-670995 
 
 707 
 
 499849 
 
 26-589472 
 
 660 
 
 435600 
 
 25-690465 
 
 708 
 
 501264 
 
 26-608269 
 
 661 
 
 436921 
 
 25-709920 
 
 709 
 
 502681 
 
 26-627054 
 
 662 
 
 438244 
 
 25-729361 
 
 710 
 
 504100 
 
 26-645825 
 
 663 
 
 439569 
 
 25-748786 
 
 711 
 
 505521 
 
 26-664583 
 
 664 
 
 440896 
 
 25-768198 
 
 712 
 
 506944 
 
 26-683328 
 
 665 
 
 442225 
 
 25-787594 
 
 713 
 
 508369 
 
 26-702060 
 
 666 
 
 443556 
 
 25-806976 
 
 714 
 
 509796 
 
 26-720778 
 
 667 
 
 444889 
 
 25-82634B 
 
 715 
 
 511225 
 
 26-739484 
 
 668 
 
 446224 
 
 25-84569(5 
 
 716 
 
 512656 
 
 26-758176 
 
 669 
 
 447561 
 
 25-865034 
 
 717 
 
 514089 
 
 2(5-776856 
 
 670 
 
 448900 
 
 25-884358 
 
 718 
 
 515524 
 
 26-795522 
 
 671 
 
 45024; 
 
 25-903668 
 
 719 
 
 516961 
 
 26-814175 
 
 672 
 
 451584 
 
 25-922963 
 
 720 
 
 518400 
 
 26-832816 
 
 673 
 
 452929 
 
 25-942244 
 
 721 
 
 519841 
 
 26-851443 
 
 674 
 
 454276 
 
 25-916510 
 
 722 
 
 521284 
 
 26-870058 
 
 675 
 
 455625 
 
 25-980762 
 
 723 
 
 522729 
 
 26-888659 
 
 676 
 
 456976 
 
 26-000000 
 
 724 
 
 524176 
 
 26-907248 
 
 677 
 
 458329 
 
 26019224 
 
 725 
 
 525625 
 
 26-925824 
 
 678 
 
 459684 
 
 26-038433 
 
 726 
 
 527076 
 
 26-944387 
 
 679 
 
 461041 
 
 26-057628 
 
 727 
 
 528529 
 
 26-962938 
 
 680 
 
 462400 
 
 26-076810 
 
 728 
 
 529984 
 
 26-981475 
 
 681 
 
 463761 
 
 26-095977 
 
 729 
 
 531441 
 
 27-000000 
 
 682 
 
 465124 
 
 26-115130 
 
 730 
 
 532900 
 
 27-018512 
 
 683 
 
 466489 
 
 26-134269 
 
 731 
 
 534361 
 
 27-037012 
 
 684 
 
 467856 
 
 26-153394 
 
 732 
 
 535824 
 
 27-055499 
 
 685 
 
 469225 
 
 26-172505 
 
 733 
 
 537289 
 
 27-073973 
 
 686 
 
 470596 
 
 26-191602 
 
 734 
 
 538756 
 
 27-092434 
 
 687 
 
 471969 
 
 26-210685 
 
 735 
 
 540225 
 
 27-110883 
 
 688 
 
 473344 
 
 26-229754 
 
 736 
 
 541696 
 
 27-129320 
 
 689 
 
 474721 
 
 26-248810 
 
 737 
 
 543169 
 
 27-147744 
 
 690 
 
 476100 
 
 26-267851 
 
 738 
 
 544644 
 
 27-166155 
 
 691 
 
 477481 
 
 26-286879 
 
 739 
 
 546121 
 
 27-184554 
 
 692 
 
 478864 
 
 26-305803 
 
 740 
 
 547600 
 
 27-202941 
 
 693 
 
 480249 
 
 26-324893 
 
 741 
 
 549081 
 
 27-221315 
 
 694 
 
 481636 
 
 26-343880 
 
 742 
 
 550564 
 
 27239677 
 
 695 
 
 483025 
 
 26-362853 
 
 743 
 
 552049 
 
 27-258026 
 
 696 
 
 484416 
 
 26-381812 
 
 744 
 
 553536 
 
 27-276363 
 
 697 
 
 485809 
 
 26-400758 
 
 745 
 
 555025 
 
 27-294688 
 
 698 
 
 487204 
 
 26419690 
 
 746 
 
 556516 
 
 27-313001 
 
 699 
 
 488601 
 
 26-438608 
 
 747 
 
 558009 
 
 27-331301 
 
 700 
 
 490000 
 
 26-457513 
 
 748 
 
 559504 
 
 27-349589 
 
 701 
 
 491401 
 
 26-476405 
 
 749 
 
 561001 
 
 27-367864 
 
 702 
 
 492804 
 
 26-495283 
 
 750 
 
 562500 
 
 27-386128 
 
 703 
 
 494209 
 
 26-514147 
 
 751 
 
 564001 
 
 27-404379 
 
 704 
 
 495616 
 
 26-532998 
 
 752 
 
 565504 
 
 27-422618 
 
178 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 753 
 
 567009 
 
 27-440846 
 
 801 
 
 041001 
 
 28-301943 
 
 754 
 
 568516 
 
 27-459060 
 
 802 
 
 043204 
 
 28-319005 
 
 755 
 
 570025 
 
 27-477203 
 
 803 
 
 044809 
 
 28-337255 
 
 756 
 
 571536 
 
 27-495454 
 
 804 
 
 040410 
 
 28-354894 
 
 757 
 
 573049 
 
 27-513033 
 
 805 
 
 048025 
 
 28-372522 
 
 758 
 
 574564 
 
 27-531800 
 
 800 
 
 049030 
 
 28-390139 
 
 759 
 
 570081 
 
 27-549955 
 
 807 
 
 051249 
 
 28-407745 
 
 700 
 
 577000 
 
 27-508098 
 
 808 
 
 052864 
 
 28-425341 
 
 761 
 
 579121 
 
 27-580228 
 
 809 
 
 054481 
 
 28-442925 
 
 702 
 
 580044 
 
 27-004348 
 
 810 
 
 050100 
 
 28-400499 
 
 70S 
 
 582109 
 
 27-022455 
 
 811 
 
 057721 
 
 28-478002 
 
 764 
 
 583090 
 
 27-040550 
 
 812 
 
 059344 
 
 28-495014 
 
 765 
 
 585225 
 
 27-058033 
 
 813 
 
 060969 
 
 28-513155 
 
 766 
 
 586756 
 
 27-070705 
 
 814 
 
 662596 
 
 28-530085 
 
 767 
 
 588289 
 
 27-094705 
 
 815 
 
 604225 
 
 28-548205 
 
 768 
 
 589824 
 
 27-712813 
 
 810 
 
 GG585G 
 
 28-505714 
 
 769 
 
 591361 
 
 27-730849 
 
 817 
 
 007489 
 
 28-583212 
 
 770 
 
 592900 
 
 27-748874 
 
 818 
 
 009124 
 
 28-000099 
 
 771 
 
 594441 
 
 27-700887 
 
 819 
 
 070701 
 
 28-018170 
 
 772 
 
 595984 
 
 27-784888 
 
 820 
 
 072400 
 
 28-035042 
 
 773 
 
 597529 
 
 27-802878 
 
 821 
 
 074041 
 
 28-053098 
 
 774 
 
 599076 
 
 27-820856 
 
 822 
 
 075084 
 
 28-070542 
 
 775 
 
 600625 
 
 27-838822 
 
 823 
 
 677329 
 
 28-087977 
 
 776 
 
 602176 
 
 27-856777 
 
 824 
 
 678970 
 
 28-705400 
 
 777 
 
 603729 
 
 27-874720 
 
 825 
 
 080025 
 
 28-722813 
 
 778 
 
 (505284 
 
 27-892651 
 
 820 
 
 082270 
 
 28-740216 
 
 779 
 
 606841 
 
 27-910572 
 
 827 
 
 083929 
 
 28-757608 
 
 780 
 
 608400 
 
 27-928480 
 
 828 
 
 685584 
 
 28-774989 
 
 781 
 
 609961 
 
 27-946377 
 
 829 
 
 687241 
 
 28-792360 
 
 782 
 
 611524 
 
 27-964263 
 
 830 
 
 688900 
 
 28-809721 
 
 783 
 
 613089 
 
 27-982137 
 
 831 
 
 090501 
 
 28-827071 
 
 784 
 
 614656 
 
 28-000000 
 
 832 
 
 092224 
 
 28-844410 
 
 785 
 
 616225 
 
 28-017852 
 
 833 
 
 093889 
 
 28-861739 
 
 786 
 
 617796 
 
 28-035692 
 
 834 
 
 095550 
 
 28-879058 
 
 787 
 
 619369 
 
 28-053520 
 
 835 
 
 697225 
 
 28-890307 
 
 788 
 
 020944 
 
 28-071338 
 
 830 
 
 098890 
 
 28-913005 
 
 789 
 
 022521 
 
 28-089144 
 
 837 
 
 700509 
 
 28-930952 
 
 790 
 
 024100 
 
 28-106939 
 
 838 
 
 702244 
 
 28-948230 
 
 791 
 
 025081 
 
 28-124722 
 
 839 
 
 703921 
 
 28-905497 
 
 792 
 
 027204 
 
 28-142495 
 
 840 
 
 705000 
 
 28-982754 
 
 793 
 
 028849 
 
 28-160256 
 
 841 
 
 707281 
 
 29-000000 
 
 794 
 
 030430 
 
 28-178006 
 
 842 
 
 708904 
 
 29017236 
 
 795 
 
 032025 
 
 28-195744 
 
 843 
 
 710049 
 
 29-034462 
 
 796 
 
 633616 
 
 28-213472 
 
 844 
 
 712330 
 
 29-051678 
 
 797 
 
 635209 
 
 28-231188 
 
 845 
 
 714025 
 
 29-068884 
 
 798 
 
 636804 
 
 28-248894 
 
 840 
 
 715710 
 
 29-086079 
 
 Y99 
 
 638401 
 
 28-200588 
 
 847 
 
 717409 
 
 29-103264 
 
 800 
 
 640000 
 
 28-284271 
 
 848 
 
 719104 
 
 29-120440 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 179 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 849 
 
 720801 
 
 29-137605 
 
 897 
 
 804609 
 
 29-949958 
 
 850 
 
 722500 
 
 29-154760 
 
 898 
 
 806404 
 
 29-966648 
 
 851 
 
 724201 
 
 29-171904 
 
 899 
 
 808201 
 
 29-983329 
 
 852 
 
 725904 
 
 29-189039 
 
 900 
 
 810000 
 
 30-000000 
 
 853 
 
 727609 
 
 29-206164 
 
 901 
 
 811801 
 
 30-016662 
 
 854 
 
 729316 
 
 29-223278 
 
 902 
 
 813604 
 
 30-033315 
 
 855 
 
 731025 
 
 29-240383 
 
 903 
 
 815409 
 
 30-049958 
 
 856 
 
 732736 
 
 29-257478 
 
 904 
 
 817216 
 
 30-066593 
 
 857 
 
 734449 
 
 29-274562 
 
 905 
 
 819025 
 
 30083218 
 
 858 
 
 736164 
 
 29-291637 
 
 906 
 
 820836 
 
 30-099834 
 
 859 
 
 737881 
 
 29-308702 
 
 907 
 
 822649 
 
 30-116441 
 
 860 
 
 739600 
 
 29-325757 
 
 908 
 
 824464 
 
 30-133038 
 
 861 
 
 741321 
 
 29-342802 
 
 909 
 
 826281 
 
 30-149627 
 
 862 
 
 743044 
 
 29-359837 
 
 910 
 
 828100 
 
 30-163206 
 
 863 
 
 744769 
 
 29-376862 
 
 911 
 
 829921 
 
 30-182777 
 
 864 
 
 746496 
 
 29-393877 
 
 912 
 
 831744 
 
 30-199338 
 
 865 
 
 748225 
 
 29-410882 
 
 913 
 
 833569 
 
 30-215890 
 
 866 
 
 749956 
 
 29-427878 
 
 914 
 
 835396 
 
 30-232433 
 
 867 
 
 751689 
 
 29-444864 
 
 915 
 
 837225 
 
 30-248967 
 
 868 
 
 753424 
 
 29-461840 
 
 916 
 
 839056 
 
 30-265492 
 
 869 
 
 755161 
 
 29-478806 
 
 917 
 
 840889 
 
 30-282008 
 
 870 
 
 756900 
 
 29-495762 
 
 918 
 
 842724 
 
 30-298515 
 
 871 
 
 758641 
 
 29-512709 
 
 919 
 
 844561 
 
 30-315013 
 
 872 
 
 760384 
 
 29-529646 
 
 920 
 
 846400 
 
 30-331502 
 
 873 
 
 762129 
 
 29-546573 
 
 921 
 
 848241 
 
 30-347982 
 
 874 
 
 763876 
 
 29-563491 
 
 922 
 
 850084 
 
 30-364453 
 
 875 
 
 765625 
 
 29-580399 
 
 923 
 
 851929 
 
 30-380915 
 
 876 
 
 767376 
 
 29-597297 
 
 924 
 
 853776 
 
 30-397368 
 
 877 
 
 769129 
 
 29-614186 
 
 925 
 
 855625 
 
 30-413813 
 
 878 
 
 770884 
 
 29-631065 
 
 926 
 
 857476 
 
 30-430248 
 
 879 
 
 772641 
 
 29-647934 
 
 927 
 
 859329 
 
 30-446675 
 
 880 
 
 774400 
 
 29-664794 
 
 928 
 
 861184 
 
 30-463092 
 
 881 
 
 776161 
 
 29-681644 
 
 929 
 
 863041 
 
 30-479501 
 
 882 
 
 777924 
 
 29-698485 
 
 930 
 
 864900 
 
 30-495901 
 
 883 
 
 779689 
 
 29-715316 
 
 931 
 
 866761 
 
 30-512293 
 
 884 
 
 781456 
 
 29-732138 
 
 932 
 
 868624 
 
 30-528675 
 
 885 
 
 783225 
 
 29-748950 
 
 933 
 
 870489 
 
 30-545049 
 
 886 
 
 784996 
 
 29-765752 
 
 934 
 
 872356 
 
 30-561414 
 
 887 
 
 786769 
 
 29-782545 
 
 935 
 
 874225 
 
 30-577770 
 
 888 
 
 788544 
 
 29-799329 
 
 936 
 
 876096 
 
 30-594117 
 
 889 
 
 790321 
 
 29-816103 
 
 937 
 
 877969 
 
 30-610456 
 
 890 
 
 792100 
 
 29-832868 
 
 938 
 
 879844 
 
 30-626786 
 
 891 
 
 793881 
 
 29-849623 
 
 939 
 
 881721 
 
 30-643107 
 
 892 
 
 795664 
 
 29-866369 
 
 940 
 
 883600 
 
 30-659419 
 
 893 
 
 797449 
 
 29-883106 
 
 941 
 
 885481 
 
 30-675723 
 
 894 
 
 799236 
 
 29-899833 
 
 942 
 
 887364 
 
 30-692019 
 
 895 
 
 801025 
 
 29-916551 
 
 943 
 
 889249 
 
 30-708305 
 
 896 
 
 802816 
 
 29-933259 
 
 944 
 
 891136 
 
 30-724583 
 
180 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Square Root 
 
 945 
 
 893025 
 
 30-740852 
 
 973 
 
 946729 
 
 31-192948 
 
 946 
 
 894916 
 
 30-757113 
 
 974 
 
 948676 
 
 31-208973 
 
 947 
 
 896809 
 
 30-773365 
 
 975 
 
 950625 
 
 31-224990 
 
 948 
 
 898704 
 
 30-789609 
 
 976 
 
 952576 
 
 31-240999 
 
 949 
 
 900601 
 
 30-805844 
 
 977 
 
 954529 
 
 31-256999 
 
 950 
 
 902500 
 
 30-822070 
 
 978 
 
 956484 
 
 31-272992 
 
 951 
 
 904401 
 
 30-838288 
 
 979 
 
 958441 
 
 31-288976 
 
 952 
 
 906304 
 
 30-854497 
 
 980 
 
 960400 
 
 31-304952 
 
 953 
 
 908209 
 
 30-870698 
 
 981 
 
 962361 
 
 31-320920 
 
 954 
 
 910116 
 
 30-886890 
 
 982 
 
 964324 
 
 31-336879 
 
 955 
 
 912025 
 
 30-903074 
 
 983 
 
 966289 
 
 31-352831 
 
 956 
 
 913936 
 
 30-919250 
 
 984 
 
 968256 
 
 31-368774 
 
 957 
 
 915849 
 
 30935417 
 
 985 
 
 970225 
 
 31-384710 
 
 958 
 
 917764 
 
 30-951575 
 
 986 
 
 972196 
 
 31-400637 
 
 959 
 
 919681 
 
 30-967725 
 
 987 
 
 974169 
 
 31-416556 
 
 960 
 
 921600 
 
 30-983867 
 
 988 
 
 976144 
 
 31-432467 
 
 961 
 
 923521 
 
 31-000000 
 
 989 
 
 978121 
 
 31-448370 
 
 962 
 
 925444 
 
 31-016125 
 
 990 
 
 980100 
 
 31-464265 
 
 963 
 
 927369 
 
 31-032241 
 
 991 
 
 982081 
 
 31-480153 
 
 964 
 
 929296 
 
 31-048349 
 
 992 
 
 984064 
 
 31-496032 
 
 965 
 
 931225 
 
 31-064449 
 
 993 
 
 986049 
 
 31-511903 
 
 966 
 
 933156 
 
 31080541 
 
 994 
 
 988036 
 
 31-527766 
 
 967 
 
 935089 
 
 31-096624 
 
 995 
 
 990025 
 
 31-543621 
 
 968 
 
 937024 
 
 31-112698 
 
 996 
 
 992016 
 
 31-559468 
 
 969 
 
 938961 
 
 31-128765 
 
 997 
 
 994009 
 
 31-575307 
 
 970 
 
 940900 
 
 31-144823 
 
 998 
 
 996004 
 
 31-591138 
 
 971 
 
 942841 
 
 31-160873 
 
 999 
 
 998001 
 
 31-606961 
 
 972 
 
 944784 
 
 31-176915 
 
 
 
 
 DECIMALS 
 
 Here it might be said that decimals are so useful for 
 calculations that it is surprising that anyone should be con- 
 tent to go through life without understanding them. The 
 tables in catalogs and handbooks cannot be properly used 
 without them. For ordinary purposes they are easy. The 
 refinements of the system are not really necessary for con- 
 tract work. Recurring decimals need not " recur " beyond 
 two or three figures. An ordinary arithmetic will show how 
 to use the system, and there is no need for those who do 
 not want intellectual exercise going beyond the easy part. 
 
 Ladder. Suppose you are standing on the first floor of a 
 building, and there is a ladder going up and another going 
 down to the basement. The first floor is regarded as the 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 181 
 
 standard or dividing line. So with the decimal notation. 
 We go up or down, increasing or decreasing, or rather we 
 keep on the level and go to the left from the point to 
 increase, and to the right from the point to decrease. We 
 multiply as if there were no point, and simply put the point 
 in at the right place afterwards. 
 
 Example. This example is for the encouragement of those 
 who have hitherto thought that there is something mysterious 
 about the dot. Suppose you find an I-beam listed at 14.75 
 pounds to the foot, and 19 feet are required, what is the 
 weight? We go ahead as in plain multiplication. 
 
 14.75 
 19 
 
 13275 
 1475 
 
 280.25 
 
 This means that there are 280 pounds and ^ of a pound. 
 This is only a quarter of a pound, and need not be regarded. 
 
 Method. It is thus seen that the process is the same as 
 ordinary multiplication. So with addition and subtraction. 
 If instead of 19 we had had 1.9, only one-tenth as much, there 
 would have been three points cut off in the answer, which 
 would thus have been 28.025. Surely that is simple enough 
 for anybody. 
 
 Another Example. Add 213.05 and 1.23. 213.05 
 
 1.23 
 
 214.28 
 
 Subtract 1.23 from 213.05 
 1.23 
 
 211.82 
 
 The theory is just the dollar and cent one used for something 
 else than money. The dot is the dividing point between the 
 whole numbers and the fractions, just as it is between the 
 dollars and cents, or the fractions of a dollar. 
 
182 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Take $1,111.11, for example, and we know how much this 
 is. Now call it 1,111.11 feet or pounds, miles, or pints, or 
 anything else, and we have the whole decimal trouble ex- 
 plained. 
 
 Divide $1,111.11 by 8, suppose, and we get $138.88. The 
 exact answer would be $138.88875, but no one wants to 
 trouble with mills and further refinements for daily use, and 
 the stop is made at the cents, or two figures to the right of 
 the point. So with decimals used for feet, inches, pounds, 
 pints, quarts, or anything else. For ordinary use we can 
 stop at two figures to the right of the dot, and get close 
 enough to what we want to " call it square." 
 
 The foregoing figures will give a hint to anyone who wants 
 to go further. 
 
 TABLES OF AREAS 
 
 Polygons or Many-sided Figures 
 
 Rule. Multiply the square of the side by the multiplier 
 corresponding to the figure in the following table: the product 
 will be the area. 
 
 NAMES 
 
 Equilateral triangle . 
 
 Square 
 
 Pentagon .... 
 
 Hexagon .... 
 
 Heptagon .... 
 
 Octagon .... 
 
 Nonagon .... 
 
 Decagon .... 
 
 Undecagon, .... 
 
 Dodecagon .... 
 
 Method of Measurement. Contractors have sometimes to 
 figure the areas of polygons, especially of octagons. The 
 simplest method, if the table is not at hand, is to make a 
 triangle of each side, multiply it by the height, and take the 
 half. Practical builders know well enough that there is so 
 much waste in floors and work made on this shape that the 
 exact area is not a matter of so much consequence as the 
 time required to cover it. 
 
 NO. OF 
 
 PERPEN- 
 
 MULTI- 
 
 SIDES 
 
 DICULARS 
 
 PLIER 
 
 3 
 
 0.289 
 
 0.433 
 
 4 
 
 0.500 
 
 1.000 
 
 5 
 
 0.688 
 
 1.720 
 
 6 
 
 0.866 
 
 2.598 
 
 . 7 
 
 1.038 
 
 3.634 
 
 8 
 
 1.207 
 
 4.828 
 
 9 
 
 1.373 
 
 6.181 
 
 . 10 
 
 1.539 
 
 7.694 
 
 . 11 
 
 1.703 
 
 9.365 
 
 12 
 
 1.866 
 
 11.196 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 183 
 
 Example. For an illustration of the use of the table let 
 us assume that there is a room or a dancing pavilion that 
 measures 12 feet on the side. For the areas of flooring, 
 plaster, and paint, the square of 12, or 144, would be multiplied 
 by 4.83 for there is no use going beyond two decimals. This 
 would make an exact area of 695.52 square feet, or 700 as 
 a contractor would allow it. This makes no allowance for 
 waste in lumber on the octagon. 
 
 Towers. For taking the surface or solidity of towers the 
 following table may be used. They may be estimated by the 
 usual triangular rule of multiplying the base of each side by 
 the slope and dividing by two, and this method is the one 
 generally employed. 
 
 TABLE OF THE SURFACES AND SOLIDITIES OF REGULAR BODIES 
 
 Rule 1. To Find the Surface. Multiply the square of the 
 linear side by the proper number in the table under Surface: 
 the product will be the area. 
 
 Rule 2. To Find the Solidity. Multiply the cube of the 
 linear side by the proper number under Solidity: the product 
 will be the solid content. 
 
 NO. SURFACE WHEN SOLIDITY WHEN 
 
 OF FACES NAME THE SIDE IS 1 THE SIDE IS 1 
 
 4 Tetrahedron . . . 1.73 0.118 
 
 6 Hexahedron . . . 6.00 1.000 
 
 8 Octahedron . . . 3.46 0.471 
 
 12 Dodecahedron . . . 20.64 7.663 
 
 AREAS OF SEGMENTS OF CIRCLES 
 
 The common method is to divide the segment into a sufficient 
 number of triangles and multiply the base by half the height. 
 This is close enough for lumber. 
 
 A rule, at least a century old, to get an approximate area 
 runs as follows: 
 
 To the chord add 1 of the chord of half the segment, and 
 multiply the sum by f of the height. 
 
 Example. Suppose we have a segment of a circle with a 
 chord 30 feet long and a height of five feet. The chord of 
 half the segment is 15 feet, and 1 of this is 20. Adding 
 20 to 30 equals 50, which, multiplied by 2, gives the area. 
 
184 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Someone may ask, What is a segment and a chord? The 
 segment is the bow used for arrows, and the chord is the 
 string that connects the two ends. 
 
 DUODECIMAL MULTIPLICATION 
 
 This system is divided into twelfths -instead of tenths as our 
 ordinary notation is. It is used to compute the contents of 
 stones, etc. It is a little more accurate than the decimal 
 system. But it is not so popular as it used to be. Many 
 now turn the inches to decimals of a foot and go on in the 
 way already explained. 
 
 The inch is supposed to be divided into 12 parts, and each 
 part into 12 seconds, etc. 
 
 Rule. Multiply each denomination of the multiplicand by 
 the feet of the multiplier, and place the product under that 
 denomination of the multiplicand from which it arises, carry- 
 ing at 12. Then multiply by the inches of the multiplier, 
 and set each product a denomination farther towards the right 
 hand. Next multiply by the parts, if any, and set the 
 products a place still farther to the right. Then add the 
 products. 
 
 1. Multiply 9 f. 4 in. by 3 f. 8 in. 
 3 8 
 
 28 
 6 2 
 
 34 2 8 product. 
 
 2. Multiply 98 3 by 5 6 
 
 3 148 3 by 8 9 
 
 4 87 6 8 by 11 10 
 
 5 63 4 6 by 8 9 6 ... 
 
 6 55 8 7 by 72 6 3... 
 
 .Ans. 540 4 6 
 
 . . . . 1297 2 3 
 
 . . . . 1036 10 8 
 
 . . . . 557 2 9 
 
 . 4040 627 
 
 The feet in the product are square feet, 9 of which make 
 a square yard. The inches in the product are 12th parts of a 
 square foot, or each of them is 12 square inches, and the 
 parts are square inches. The lower denominations are com- 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 185 
 
 monly expressed in fractions of a square inch: thus, 8 seconds 
 are of a square inch, 9 seconds are %, and 7 seconds 
 6 thirds are %. 
 
 Example. Suppose a stone 14 feet 8 inches x 2 feet 5 
 inches x 1 foot 4 inches, what is the cubical contents? 
 
 14 8 
 2 5 
 
 29 4 
 614 
 
 35 5 4 
 1 4 
 
 35 5 4 
 11 9 9 4 
 
 47 3 1 4 
 
 Throwing aside the smaller figures as of no practical account 
 the stone has 47 T % cubic feet. By the decimal system it has 
 47.21. 
 
 SPECIAL WEIGHTS 
 
 2x6. This size of timber, set at 12-inch centers and 
 ripped in two, would cover an entire floor with a lining of 
 ordinary boarding, supposing the size to be full. In yellow 
 pine each square foot would therefore weigh 3 pounds. 
 
 2x8. This joist would weigh 1 as much as a 2x6, or 
 4 pounds when set at 12-inch centers on a floor. 
 
 2x10. This size of joist, set at 12 inches, weighs 5 
 pounds per square foot of floor. 
 
 2 x 12. This size weighs 6 pounds for every square foot 
 of floor on a 12-inch center. 
 
 For 16-inch centers the weights are cut down one-fourth. 
 
 FLOORS 
 
 In general, for floor loads all lumber may be taken, , in 
 board measure, or one inch thick, at from 2% to 3 pounds 
 
186 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 per square fopt. Oak and maple, if of full thickness, run to 
 3% or so. The weights of the various kinds of lumber are 
 found in the " Estimator." 
 
 Wood Partitions. A 2"x4" partition, 16-inch centers, 
 plastered both sides, weighs 22 pounds to the square foot. 
 
 A 2x6, as above, 24 pounds. 
 
 Solid Partitions. If these are estimated for weight use 
 a basis of 120 pounds per cubic foot for plaster, and about 
 96 pounds for cinder concrete. One manufacturer gives only 
 60 pounds for cinder concrete, but this is too light. A par- 
 tition, therefore, 2 inches thick, which is common, would 
 average 20 pounds to the square foot. But the steel studs 
 should be added if they are of heavy design. 
 
 Partitions 4 inches thick, of 2 inches cinder concrete, 
 and 2 inches plaster, run about 32 pounds. Some would 
 allow a little more. 
 
 Hollow Tile Partitions. Each maker has different styles, 
 thicknesses, and consequently weights of blocks. The follow- 
 ing weights are average only. We should remember, however, 
 that the government authorities at the San Francisco fire 
 wreck came to the conclusion that no partition should be 
 used less than 6 inches thick. 
 
 WEIGHT OF HOLLOW TILE PARTITIONS 
 
 2-inch 3-inch 4-inch 5-inch 6-inch 8-inch 
 
 Semi-porous 12 15 16 18 24 27 
 
 Porous ....14 17 18 20 26 32 
 
 These weights do not include the thin coat of plaster, w r hich 
 would be about 7 pounds on each side. 
 
 HOLLOW TILE FIRE-PROOF FLOORS 
 
 The weight of steel beams, plastered ceiling, concrete or floor- 
 ing on top is not included. Average weights only are given. 
 The heavier ones are standard. 
 
Depth inches 
 6 
 
 Ibs. to sq. ft. 
 24 to 27 
 
 7 
 
 26 28 
 
 8 
 
 27 32 
 
 9 
 
 29 36 
 
 10 
 
 33 38 
 
 12 
 
 37 44 
 
 15 
 
 
 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 187 
 
 SIDE CONSTBUCTION END CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Ibs. to sq. ft. 
 20 to 25 
 22 26 
 24 30 
 26 34 
 28 36 
 30 40 
 37 50 
 
 Hoof Blocks, 20 to 22 pounds. 
 
 Ceiling Blocks, 12 to 20 pounds. 
 
 Wall Furring, 9 to 10 pounds. 
 
 The Herculean Arch, Maurer's, weighs, for hollow tile 
 alone, 8-inch, 33 pounds; 10-inch, 42; 12-inch, 51. 
 
 Concrete Floors. The weight of these is easily enough 
 obtained at 140 pounds to the cubic foot for stone or gravel 
 concrete, and 90 to 96 pounds for cinder. 
 
 Plaster. On some terra cotta ceilings the plaster does not 
 weigh more than 5 or 6 pounds to the square foot; on others 
 it may run to 10. For ordinary wood lath and plaster 9 
 pounds is about right. This is for one side only. For metal 
 lath, allow 10 pounds. 
 
 Ceilings. Made of wood they weigh from 2 to 2% pounds 
 per square foot; of corrugated iron, 1 pound; of stamped gal- 
 vanized iron, 2 pounds. 
 
 Terra Cotta. When solid allow 120 pounds per cubic foot. 
 In shapes, from 60 to 90. 
 
 Hoofs. Instead of figuring out the weights in detail, allow 
 from 40 to 50 pounds per square foot on roofs of flat pitch, to 
 include everything. Wind pressure is not regarded on small 
 buildings. 
 
 If desired, the weights can be easily obtained from the 
 foregoing lists. Lumber weighs the same on a roof as on a 
 floor. 
 
 Gravel alone, 4 to 4% pounds per square foot. 
 
 Composition Roofs complete, 5y 2 to 6y 2 pounds per square 
 foot. 
 
 Patent roofs from 30 to 100 pounds to the square. 
 
 Shingles not quite 3 pounds to the square foot. 
 
 Shingle tile, 9 to 10 pounds to square foot. 
 
188 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Average Tile, 7y a to 8y 2 pounds to the square foot. 
 Heavy Tile, 18 pounds to square foot. 
 Slate, 6 to 9 pounds to square foot. 
 
 The cost of labor per square on all these roofs is given in 
 the "Estimator." 
 
 WEIGHT OF VAEIOUS BUILDING MATERIALS PER CUBIC FOOT 
 
 Pounds Pounds 
 
 Brickwork, pressed 150 Steel 490 
 
 fire 137 Lead 711 
 
 ordinary 112 to 120 Rubble 154 
 
 " soft, salmon... 100 Ordinary earth 80 to 90 
 
 Sandstone 151 to 170 Clay 100 
 
 Concrete, stone . . 140 to 150 Sand, dry or wet. 95 to 140 
 
 " cinder 95 Gravel 110 
 
 " broken brick ... 125 Slate 175 
 
 Granite 165 to 170 White marble ... 165 to 170 
 
 Iron, cast 450 
 
 " wrought ... 480 to 485 
 
 The following table is from one of Mr. Richey's handbooks, 
 listed in another chapter: 
 
 APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF VARIOUS ROOF COVERINGS 
 
 Weight in Pounds 
 
 Material per Square of 
 
 Roof 
 
 Yellow pine (Northern) sheathing 1 inch thick 300 
 
 " (Southern) 400 
 
 Spruce 200 
 
 Chestnut or maple 400 
 
 Ash or oak 500 
 
 Shingles, pine 200 
 
 Slate i/ 4 inch thick 900 
 
 Sheet iron T V inch thick 300 
 
 " T V inch " and laths 500 
 
 Iron, corrugated 100 to 375 
 
 " galvanized, flat 100 to 350 
 
 Tin 70 to 125 
 
 Felt and asphalt 100 
 
 " " gravel 800 to 1000 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 189 
 
 Skylights, glass, T % inch to y a inch thick 250 to 700 
 
 Sheet lead 500 to 800 
 
 Copper 80 to 125 
 
 Zinc 100 to 200 
 
 Tiles, flat 1500 to 2000 
 
 " " with mortar 2000 to 3000 
 
 pan 1000 
 
 The Northwestern Expanded Metal Company gives the fol- 
 lowing table of weights to go with its slabs of reinforced 
 concrete. 
 
 MATERIALS USED FOE FLOORS AND ROOFS WEIGHTS PER SQ. FT. 
 
 When slabs are covered with any of the following materials 
 the weight is considered as forming part of the superimposed 
 safe load. 
 
 Floors 
 Materials Weight in Ibs. per eq. ft. 
 
 %", single thickness flooring, wood 3.00 
 
 2"x4" spruce sleepers 16" ctrs. and 2" dry cinder 
 
 concrete filling 8.50 
 
 Asbestone flooring i/ 2 " thick 3.50 
 
 Rubber tiling 1.00 to 3.00 
 
 Tiling 3.00 to 8.00 
 
 Ceilings 
 
 %" wood ceiling 2.50 
 
 Corrugated iron 1.00 
 
 Stamped steel 2.00 
 
 Metal lath and plaster 10.00 
 
 6" hollow tile 23.00 
 
 8" " " 28.00 
 
 Plastering 5.00 
 
 Roofs 
 
 Common shingles 2.50 
 
 18" shingles 3.00 
 
 Slate, T 3 g " thick 7.25 
 
 " 1/4" " ' 9.60 
 
 Plain tile or clay shingle 11.00 to 14.00 
 
190 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Ludowici tile 8.00 
 
 Copper sheets 1.50 
 
 Tin, including one thickness of felt 1.00 
 
 Five-ply felt and gravel 6.00 
 
 Four " " " " 5.50 
 
 Three " ready roofing 1.00 
 
 Skylights with galvanized iron frame 5.00 
 
 Sheathing, 1" thick, Pine or Hemlock 3.00 
 
 Yellow Pine 4.00 
 
 2" book tile 12.00 
 
 3" " " 20.00 
 
 21/2 solid tile 16.00 
 
 WAGON LOADS 
 
 "A team goes about three miles an hour with a loaded wagon, 
 and four with an empty." 
 
 The average load all over the country with a double team 
 is 4,000 pounds. On a paved street a heavier load can be 
 estimated on. For sand, stone, earth, and such material a 
 load is usually about one cubic yard. On good roads side- 
 boards are put on the wagons, and about a yard and a half 
 hauled. 
 
 Sewer Pipe. A load is usually about 2,000 Ibs. of standard 
 pipe and 2,200 of double strength. The lengths are 2, 2-6, and 
 3 feet. The following table is from " The Business of Con- 
 tracting," by McCul lough. 
 
 A LOAD OF SEWEB PIPE 
 
 Size 
 inches 
 
 5 
 
 Number 
 pieces 
 
 80 
 
 Size Number 
 inches pieces 
 
 16 14 
 
 6 
 
 63 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 44 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 21 and 22 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 33 and 36 
 
 3 
 
 Load of cement, 10 barrels; load of brick, 1000; load of 
 lumber, 4,000 to 5,000 pounds. 
 There are 7% barrels to the cubic yard. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Risk. The risky part of a building is the foundation. If 
 that sinks nothing is safe. A few plain instructions are given 
 in this chapter for the use of the contractor-constructor. 
 
 Limit. It is not wise for the ordinary builder to attempt 
 to design a sky-scraper, a pyramid, or a reinforced concrete 
 building without help from the experts. It is best to leave 
 some work to the regulars. When even they fail on reinforced 
 structures, quicksand soils, and have to stand back and look 
 at the wreckage, it is better that the builder-architect should 
 be modest. 
 
 Special Foundations. Tanks and such installations often 
 require foundations running clear down to the basement foot- 
 ings. The weight is thus kept off the main walls. 
 
 The Underwriters' Code calls for iron or steel beams for 
 tanks carrying more than 500 gallons. They must rest on 
 masonry or steel supports, and must not be placed near a stair 
 unless it is enclosed with brick walls strong enough to support 
 the weight. If a wood cover is used on the tank it must be 
 protected with tin. 
 
 BEARING POWER OF SOILS IN TONS OF 2,000 POUNDS TO SQ. FT. 
 
 Quicksand and marshy soil y 2 to 1 
 
 Good dry sand in natural bed 2 to 3 
 
 Good dry sand well packed 4 to 5 
 
 Gravel and coarse sand well packed 8 to 9 
 
 Dry clay 15 feet or more thick 4 to 5 
 
 Soft wet clay 1 
 
 Clay and sand T% 
 
 Best solid natural earth 3y 2 to 4 
 
 Rock broken or partly disintegrated 5 to 25 
 
 Solid bed rock 100 
 
 191 
 
192 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 The Chicago building ordinance, 1905, allows for clay at 
 least 15 feet thick, 3,500 pounds to square foot; dry sand, 
 4,000; mixed clay and sand, 3,000. 
 
 Almost all the great Chicago buildings have settled. The 
 main thing is to have an equal settlement. 
 
 The Building Code recommended by the National Board of 
 Fire Underwriters has the following allowances in tons per 
 square foot: 
 
 Soft clay 1 
 
 Ordinary clay and sand together, in layers wet and springy 2 
 
 Loam, clay, or fine sand, firm and dry 3 
 
 Very firm coarse sand, stiff gravel, or hard clay 4 
 
 The following table, published by the Ransome Company, 
 forms an interesting and useful comparison: 
 
 BEARING POWER OF SOILS 
 
 Bearing Power in 
 Kind of Material Tons per gq. ft. 
 
 Min. Max. 
 
 Rock the hardest in thick layers of native bed 200 
 
 Rock equal to best ashlar masonry 25 30 
 
 Rock equal to best brick masonry 15 20 
 
 Rock equal to poor brick masonry 5 10 
 
 Clay on thick beds, always dry 4 C 
 
 Clay on thick beds, moderately dry 2 4 
 
 Clay, soft 1 2 
 
 Gravel and coarse sand, well compacted 8 10 
 
 Sand, compacted and well cemented 4 6 
 
 Sand, clean, dry 2 4 
 
 Quicksand, alluvial soils, etc 0.5 1 
 
 COMPUTING OF LOADS 
 
 For buildings of more than three stories the Underwriters 
 recommend the following manner of " weighing " the total 
 building. 
 
 For warehouses and factories full dead and live load. 
 
 In stores and light manufacturing buildings, churches, 
 schoolhouses, and places of assembly, full dead load and 75 per 
 cent, of live load. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 193 
 
 In office buildings, hotels, dwellings, apartment and tenement 
 houses, full dead load and 60 per cent, of live load. 
 The foundations should be loaded uniformly. 
 
 TESTING THE SOIL 
 
 Variations. Some cities specify a load of not more than 
 40 pounds to the square foot, and others allow 70. When 
 there is such a difference among the experts we need not be 
 so very nice in our calculations for an ordinary dwelling. 
 
 Weight. When figured out in detail an ordinary frame 
 house, including the weight of joists, floors, and plaster, at 
 70 pounds to the square foot, the pressure is only about 1% 
 tons to the square foot of soil, allowing the usual offsets for 
 brick or masonry. 
 
 As good soils carry more than twice as much, there is no 
 danger of settlement, so far as the bearing is concerned. The 
 earth will hold if the mortar will. 
 
 This is for 70 pounds; if only 40 are allowed the security is 
 even greater, so far as figures go. 
 
 Brick Weights. A change to brick walls makes a weight 
 of only 1% tons. For ordinary dwellings, or two-story and 
 basement houses, then, the usual footings are ample without 
 testing on reasonable soil. Tradesmen have found out this 
 long ago. The footings would have been increased had they 
 been too narrow. 
 
 Manner of Testing. The test should be made at the re- 
 quired depth, and not on the surface. Take a timber 12" x 12" 
 or a smaller one with a plank of that area nailed on the 
 bottom. Stand it on end and build a platform large enough 
 to hold the material to be used for weight. This will give 
 a testing surface of 1 square foot when set upright. Pig iron 
 is best for a load, but may not be obtainable; stone or brick 
 are good; coal may be made to serve; sacks of cement or 
 grain will do. 
 
 Level. Take the exact level before testing; this may be 
 done with an ordinary level and straight-edge, for contractors 
 do not generally have a builder's level. They cost about $40. 
 
 Watch at what weight the timber settles, and allow not 
 more than half for the permanent load. If the settlement is 
 made at 3 tons, the unit should be 1,500 pounds. The ground 
 
194 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 below the 12" x 12" should be cleared off before testing. The 
 platform may be held in place by guy ropes. 
 
 WEIGHT OF A FRAME HOUSE 
 
 With ordinary soils it is thus never necessary to figure out 
 the weight of a dwelling. In case it has to be done for a very 
 soft soil, the method is easy. Get the area of each floor 
 over the walls in square feet and multiply it by not more than 
 70 pounds; add the area of only that part of the attic floor 
 used, and not in the angle below the rafters, and allow 40 
 pounds for that per square foot; put the roof at 10 pounds per 
 square foot of surface; add the side brick foundation walls 
 at 80 pounds to the square foot; then the outside walls above 
 at 20 pounds; and finally the inside partitions at 20 pounds 
 also. 
 
 Taken in this way, there is a weight of 140 tons on a house 
 26'x32'. But the central girder would take off about 20 
 tons, thus leaving 120 tons, or 60 tons on each side wall, on a 
 distance of 32 feet. 
 
 The end walls have nothing but their own weight to carry, 
 and theoretically the footing for them should be narrower, but 
 it is usually made of the same width. 
 
 We now see how to take the weight of another building, and 
 go into it more in detail. The method can then be applied to 
 any structure. 
 
 WEIGHT OF A PLAIN BUSINESS BUILDING 
 
 Example. Let us take a business building 40' x 100' as an 
 illustration. Assume that it is three stories and basement 
 high, with basement 9 feet in the clear, first story 12, second 
 and third stories 11. The thickness of the walls would be 
 17, 17, 13, 13-inch. A row of cast iron columns would go 
 through the center of the building. 
 
 The openings would be of the usual type, and would not be 
 deducted in calculating the weights. Where the bearing 
 power of the soil may be miscalculated 20 to 30 per cent., 
 there is no use in being finical about the difference in weight 
 between brickwork and glass or doors. In large machine 
 shops, foundries, and other manufacturing buildings where 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 195 
 
 the openings take up from one-third to one-half the area of 
 the walls, the difference has to be taken into account. 
 
 We shall assume that the soil will support three tons to the 
 square foot and that the floor load is set at 125 pounds. 
 This will include the weight of the material in the floor itself 
 joists, plaster, etc. 
 
 Summary. We have then the weights as follows: 
 
 Basement concrete footings below floor line, 100' x 12" 
 
 x 32":=267 cubic feet at 145 pounds 38,715 
 
 Basement brick walls to top of first story floor joists, 
 
 100' x 10'6"xl7"=:l,050 square feet at 160 pounds 168,000 
 First story walls to top of second floor joists, 100' x 
 
 13'6" x 17", 1,350 square feet at 160 pounds 216,000 
 
 Second story walls to top of third floor joists, 100' x 
 
 12'6" x 13", 1,250 square feet at 120 pounds 150,000 
 
 Third story walls to top of ceiling joists, 100' x 11'9" 
 
 x 13", 1,175 square feet at 120 pounds 141,000 
 
 Average from top of ceiling joists to top of parapet 
 
 wall, 100' x 4' x 9 "=400 square feet at 80 pounds.. 32,000 
 Floor load on first, second, and third stories, 100' x 
 
 9'6" x 125 pounds x 3 356,250 
 
 Live load, 15 per cent, of the floor load 53,435 
 
 Roof load, 1,000 square feet at 50 pounds 50,000 
 
 1,205,400 
 
 Remarks. To get at the weight of the concrete, the ordi- 
 nary extension of two-thirds of the height was allowed on a 
 12-inch base. That is, it was assumed that a 12-inch base 
 course of concrete was thick enough, and since a 17-inch brick 
 wall went on top of this, the extension required would be 
 two-thirds of the 12 inches, or 8 inches. The 8-inch extension 
 on each side added to the 17-inch wall, or as some call it, the 
 16-inch brick wall, gave the 32-inch width for a trial base in 
 order to get about the weight. 
 
 We must now see if this is wide enough to support the 
 foundation at three tons to the square foot. 
 
 Lineal Foot Weight. Dividing the total weight of 1,205,400 
 pounds by 100 feet, the total length of the side wall, we have 
 12,054 pounds to the running foot. This is practically a 
 
196 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 weight of six tons, so that if the foundation was only 2 feet 
 wide it would be strong enough. We could, therefore, reduce 
 the width of the base so far as strength goes by, say, 4 inches 
 to be entirely safe, leaving it 2 feet 4 inches wide, and pro- 
 portioning the footings of the interior columns on the same 
 basis per square foot. 
 
 But if 2 feet only is required to carry the load, and we make 
 the base 2 feet 4 inches, it is clear that the load is less. How 
 much is it? We have to divide 12,054 pounds by 2 feet. 
 By the vulgar fraction route the answer is 5,166 pounds. 
 
 Here is a chance to make use of the decimal notation alluded 
 to in another chapter. Looking in the table of decimal 
 equivalents of inches expressed in feet, we find that 4 inches 
 is a recurring decimal and would go on a mile long at 
 .333333333. As with dollars and cents, we do not need to go 
 beyond the cents, or two points. We have then to divide a 
 weight of 12,054 pounds per lineal foot by 2.33 feet of a 
 width. 
 
 2.33)12,05400(5173 
 11,65 
 
 404 
 233 
 
 1710 
 1631 
 
 790 
 699 
 
 There is a difference of a few pounds in the two methods. 
 It will be noticed that two ciphers are added to the 12,054 
 pounds before the division begins. This is because there are 
 two figures to the right of the dot in 2.33. Matters are thus 
 equalized, and we proceed as if there were no dot at all. No 
 more attention is paid to it. In this western country there 
 used to be an Indian called Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horse. 
 When we see anyone balking at a simple decimal we have to 
 think of this Indian. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 197 
 
 But 5,173 pounds is too cumbersome to work with. We can 
 therefore reduce it to tons by dividing by 2,000 pounds. 
 Work this with the decimal system and you will find the 
 answer to be 2.586 tons. This is really 2 tons, and 586-1000 
 of a ton. We might as well call it 600-1000 of a ton, as it 
 is almost that. Cutting off the useless ciphers we have -f G of 
 a ton, or in decimals 0.6. The figure required would thus 
 be 2.6 tons to the square foot. We have to arrange the 
 foundations of the interior columns, rear and front walls on 
 this basis, so that all the building will bear equally on the 
 soil, and if settlement occurs it will go down in a body. 
 
 Practice. It may be said that we could reduce the founda- 
 tions to 2 feet wide and still be safe, but that would make 
 only a 4-inch extension of the footing beyond the face of the 
 brick, and no matter how much of a theorist an architect 
 may be, he likes to see the footing course run out more than 
 that. Besides, the building laws of cities compel a wider 
 extension. It is better to be safe than sorry. The extension 
 has to be at least 6 inches on each side for most cities. Under 
 a 16-inch wall this would give a base of 2 feet 4 inches, which 
 is what we are figuring on. If the soil carried only two tons 
 instead of three it would have to be wider. 
 
 Brick Footings. It is thus seen that the usual brick 
 footings are ample bearing for ordinary buildings. A 9-inch 
 wall has a 21-inch base; a 13-inch, a 25-inch; a 17-inch, a 
 29-inch; a 21-inch, a 33-inch; a 25-inch, a 37-inch. 
 
 The Offsets should really be made about iy 2 inches for a 
 single course, and 3 inches for a double. The first brick course 
 should not be set back more than half the thickness of the 
 concrete base upon which it rests. 
 
 The Rear Walls. Instead of taking the whole width of the 
 building for this weight we might just take one lineal foot, 
 and thus use fewer figures. 
 
 Concrete, 2.33 cubic feet at 145 pounds 338 
 
 Brick to top of second story joists, 24'xl'xl7"x 
 
 160 pounds 3840 
 
 Brickwork from top of second story joists to top of roof 
 
 joists, 25' x 1' x 13" x 120 pounds 3000 
 
 7178 
 
198 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 There is no floor or roof load to be considered on the rear 
 wall, unless where the central girder comes. This calculation 
 is only for the regular wall with a footing supposed to be 
 continuous, and not for concentrated piers. 
 
 Supposing the rear footing were to be made 2 feet wide, the 
 weight to each square foot would be only 3,600 pounds, or 
 1.8 tons. 
 
 Theory. We might leave the side walls 2 feet 8 inches, 
 as originally figured for weight, and cut the rear ones to 
 2 feet if the building laws would allow us. This would make 
 the weight on the side 2.35 tons, and on the rear, 1.8. The 
 sides would have to be increased even more to equalize the 
 pressure. 
 
 Practice. As a matter of fact most architects leave the 
 rear wall the same as the side ones, although the floor 
 weight does not come on it at all. The building laws compel 
 the same thickness for brick, regardless of rear or side, bearing 
 of floor or not. The floor load is always figured much higher 
 than it ever weighs, for few floors are loaded all over at one 
 time, and this makes a factor of safety that takes care of part 
 of the difference of rear and front walls as compared with 
 those on the sides. 
 
 Piers. In the center of the rear wall the girder supporting 
 the floor has to have a bearing. A specially wide foundation 
 is therefore necessary, and the method of figuring out this 
 is the same as for any pier in front, side, or interior. If there 
 is a continuous wall where the girder comes, of course the 
 footings are simply extended. Here we shall assume that 
 there is an isolated pier, and that the design of the building 
 gives it a width, running the long way of the wall, of 6 feet. 
 
 PIEB WEIGHT 
 
 Concrete (assumed at 8' x 3' x 2') x 145 pounds 6,960 
 
 Brickwork to top of second story joists, 6' x 24' x 160 Ibs. 23,040 
 from top of second story joists to top of roof 
 
 joists, 6' x 25' x 120 pounds 18,000 
 
 Floor load, 7' x 20' x 3 x 125 pounds 7,500 
 
 Live load, 15 per cent, of the floor load 1,125 
 
 Roof load, 7' x 20' x 50 pounds 7,000 
 
 63,625 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 199 
 
 This total load goes on a base we have supposed to be, in 
 order to get about the weight, 3' x 8', or 24 square feet. That 
 is a weight of 2,651 pounds to square foot. But the rear wall 
 has 3,600 pounds, and therefore our assumed base is too large. 
 Dividing 63,625 by 3,600 we find that we require only 17.67, 
 or say 18 square feet. As this pier carries a good deal of the 
 load we should increase the area about 10 per cent, to be safe. 
 Suppose we allow 20 square feet for a base. The brickwork 
 above is 17" x 6'. The footing resting on the ground would be 
 practically 2'9" x 7'4", tapered up from a square concrete base 
 to suit the brick above. 
 
 The pressure on this pier and on the rear wall would be 
 about equal, with the advantage in favor of the girder 
 pier. 
 
 There is a certain amount of weight coming on both sides of 
 the pier, with windows and brick above and below them, but 
 as each plan has its own different features of this kind these 
 weights are not figured here, although they must be added 
 to the total of an actual plan. 
 
 Interior Piers. In getting the floor load for the girder 
 pier a distance of 14 feet from center to center of columns and 
 wall bearing was assumed, and thus the allowance was 7 feet 
 back. The 20 feet was 10 feet on each side of the center, or 
 reaching half way to the walls, where it met the other load 
 supported by them. 
 
 At 14-foot centers each of the interior columns has thus a 
 floor space of 14' x 20' to take care of, and to get the size of 
 the base required we proceed as follows, after supposing that 
 the concrete base will be about 4' x 5' x 2'. 
 
 Concrete, 4' x 5' x 2' x 145 pounds 5,800 
 
 Floor load, 14' x 20' x 3 x 125 pounds 105,000 
 
 Live load, 15 per cent 15,750 
 
 Roof load, 14' x 20' x 50 pounds 14,000 
 
 Weight of cast iron columns from basement to roof, 
 about 3,500 
 
 144,050 
 
 This is a weight of 72 tons. At 2.4 tons to the square foot, 
 the same as the side walls, we require 30 square feet. But it 
 
200 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 is clear that the weight of concrete allowed is too small. With 
 the extra size of base and the tapering required we may allow 
 6 tons more to be safe. This gives a total of 78 tons to be 
 provided for. Dividing this by 2.4 we see that the base has 
 to have 32.5 or 32y 2 square feet. 
 
 But now comes another trouble: I have seen the floors of 
 buildings going up and down like the waves of a lake through 
 settlement of piers, and that in buildings designed by good 
 architects. A pier is so much more concentrated than a long 
 wall that we must be more careful with the loading. We shall 
 therefore increase the base to 6' x 6', or 36 square feet. 
 
 First of all, a base of this size would be put down about 
 16 inches thick; the next layer would be set back about two- 
 thirds of the thickness, say, 10 inches, making it 5'2" x 5'2" and 
 16 inches thick also; the third layer would be 4'4" x 4'4" and 
 12 inches thick; and the top layer might be 3'6" x 3'6" x 9", 
 ready for the base plate. 
 
 It should be noted here, however, that some architects set 
 back only half the thickness of the base below, instead of 
 two-thirds as above. The main thing is to get the base of 
 the right size, and after allowing at least 12 inches thick a set- 
 back of 8 inches to 6 inches can be made and the pier tapered 
 instead of being put up layers as figured above. Concrete 
 piers of this kind usually are tapered. 
 
 Front Piers. These should be figured out in the same way. 
 With a store front, for example, most of the load comes on 
 the center pier. Any special weights of this kind must be 
 taken into account. 
 
 Unit. In all these calculations 125 pounds is supposed to 
 include the floor itself. This is the weight usually given for 
 light manufacturing and light storage buildings, but in addi- 
 tion, the weight of joists, flooring, and plaster has to be put 
 in the total. 
 
 Yet the average floor load of 210 office buildings in Boston 
 was found to be only 17 pounds to the square foot, and the 
 heaviest was 34 pounds. This was the live or movable load, 
 and did not include the floor itself. We thus see that there is 
 a safe margin with all the loads allowed in a code of the 
 average kind. 
 
 Any weight may be figured up the same as the 125 pound 
 one in the foregoing building. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 201 
 
 Equal Pressure. The danger comes with heavy chimneys, 
 vaults, water tanks, and such special installations. We have 
 all seen chimneys settle and crack the plaster through one 
 story after another. The main thing is to have an equal 
 settlement. Sometimes piers in the interior are made to carry 
 a heavier load than the outside walls, so that if the building 
 settles the weight will press inward and keep it together, 
 instead of outward and pull it apart, as would be the case 
 if the outside walls settled and the inside piers did not. 
 
 So with a block of a couple of flats, for example, or a business 
 building, like the one we have just considered, if there were 
 a center wall instead of a row of columns. It must be re- 
 membered that the floor load comes from both sides on such 
 a wall, and that it has therefore twice as much to take care of. 
 The footings have to be arranged to suit. If anything, they 
 should be given a heavier load than the outside walls. 
 
 Dead and Live Loads. For our purpose a dead load may 
 be defined as the weight of the permanent, unchanging struc- 
 ture, and a live load as the weight of the movables coming 
 upon it. A brick wall is thus a dead load, and furniture, a 
 movable safe, a machine, or a person, a live load. 
 
 Theory. Many engineers say that dead loads only should 
 be considered in proportioning footings. For an ordinary build- 
 ing this is probably right. After settlement takes place there 
 is not much probability that the live loads will disturb the 
 structure in any way. " To get the best results in the way 
 of equal settlement, the foundations should be proportioned 
 to the dead load only," say two engineers. 
 
 Concentrating Loads. But in such a case as railroad shops, 
 where a 120-ton crane lifts an engine, sometimes close to one 
 end, and most of the live load is thrown on a single column, 
 an allowance has to be made to receive it. But this is out of 
 the ordinary line of construction dealt with here. 
 
 Method. For buildings such as storage warehouses, where 
 heavy loads are carried, " to allow for the live load the unit 
 bearing load should be reduced." 
 
 Take, for example, a soil carrying 4 tons per square foot 
 as a maximum, or heaviest load. Suppose one column receives 
 a dead load of 260 tons and a live load of 140; and another, 
 140 and 80. For the first column we require 100 square feet 
 on a 4-ton basis. But assuming that the dead load only is 
 
202 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 considered there are 260 tons to be divided by 100, thus giving 
 only 2.6 tons to the square foot. 
 
 Setting aside the 80 tons of live load in the second column 
 we have the other load of 140 left. Dividing this by 2.6 
 gives the number of 54 square feet required for the base. 
 
 In other words, the column or pier receiving the heaviest 
 load is taken as the standard, and the size of the footing based 
 upon this load at 4 tons, or whatever it may be to suit the 
 soil. Then the total dead load is divided by the number of 
 square feet obtained in order to get the unit figure for the 
 entire building, regardless of live loads. 
 
 One Ordinance. The New York ordinance requires that 
 for stores and light manufacturing buildings, schoolhouses, 
 churches, etc., the full dead load and 75 per cent, of the live 
 load shall be taken. For office buildings, tenements, hotels, 
 etc., the dead load and 60 per cent, of the live load is taken. 
 The unit pressure is obtained as above by selecting the 
 heaviest pier or column, getting the area required for both 
 dead and live, then dividing the dead by the square feet in the 
 base, and proportioning all footings on this figure. 
 
 Average. For ordinary dwellings 70 pounds includes every- 
 thing. Wind pressure is not considered under the ordinance 
 of New York for any building less than 100 feet high; and it 
 need not be, unless the building is of an extremely narrow 
 type. 
 
 For warehouses and stores, etc., Kidder allows 50 per cent, 
 of live load; but for office buildings and hotels he adds 15 
 pounds per square foot to the dead load. 
 
 PILE FOUNDATIONS 
 
 " Doing Time." For six or seven years I worked on plans 
 for railroad shops, mostly all set on piles. According to the 
 fashion of such work we usually made several sets of drawings 
 to suit various temperaments and requirements, until the 
 desired type was finally decided on. I thus had a chance of 
 spacing more piles than the average architect runs across in a 
 lifetime. As a rule, railroad engineers have more to do 
 with piling than architects. 
 
 Load. As a rough and ready " formula " we held to a 
 minimum distance of 2 feet 6 inches, and a maximum of 4 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 203 
 
 feet on centers. The load was usually 17 tons, but seldom 
 more than 20. The soil was so soft that it had little side 
 resistance. In good soil, with piles driven to rock, 30 tons 
 might have been used. Loads of more than this would be 
 carried, but for ordinary buildings the piles would have to 
 be spaced too far apart to get on enough of the superstructure 
 to make up the load. 
 
 No grillage was used, but a heavy mass of concrete was 
 required on top as the distance from base to grade ran from 
 8 feet to 12 feet. The piles were driven to rock. 
 
 In special cases the center distance was changed. No con- 
 crete piles were used. 
 
 Theories. It would be easy to collect a small volume of 
 pile theories, but the man for whom this book is written, the 
 Average Contractor, does not require theories. 
 
 Spacing. In that excellent publication, " The Underwriters' 
 Model Code," for example, the rule is laid down that 
 wood piles shall not be spaced more than 36 inches on 
 centers, nor less than 20 inches. The diameter is given 
 as 5 inches and 10 inches for short piles, and 12 inches 
 for long ones, at the heavy end. The greatest load is 20 
 tons. 
 
 It may be possible to drive a pile at 20-inch centers in some 
 soils, but in others it could not be done. Assuming a 10-inch 
 head that would leave only 10 inches between the piles. 
 
 In New York 2 feet 6 inches is the maximum distance, and 
 the load is 20 tons. Boston allows 3 feet, at most, between 
 centers. 
 
 Water. The tops of wood piles have to be cut off below 
 the water line. Wood under water lasts for centuries. If not 
 kept below water it rots. 
 
 Concrete Piles. These are much used now, and especially 
 in places where the water is low. They can come up clear 
 to grade. A load of 25 tons per square foot is allowed, plus 
 3 tons more per square inch of the longitudinal steel rein- 
 forcement. Take as an illustration a pile 10 inches in diame- 
 ter. Looking in the table of areas of circles we find that this 
 pile would have a surface of 78.54 square inches. A square 
 foot has 144. Reducing the load in proportion to the area we 
 get close to 14 tons. But an allowance of 3 tons is made for 
 each square inch of steel showing in the end or section. This 
 
204 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 has to be added, and would vary according to the load to be 
 carried. 
 
 Capping. Boston specifies a granite capping for piles; 
 Chicago a wood grillage; but it would seem that concrete 
 accommodates itself better to the requirements than any of 
 these two. It goes down about 12 inches over the piles and 
 surrounds them with about 10 or 12 inches in such a way 
 that side motion becomes impossible. Then the older it gets, 
 up to at least three years, the harder it grows. If grillage is 
 used it should be hardwood, not less than 6 inches thick. 
 
 Light Load. In many cases, such as the gables of manu- 
 facturing buildings, more piles have to be put in than the 
 weight of the wall really requires. Take, for illustration, a 
 section of a 17-inch gable, 20 feet long and 40 feet high. 
 Even disregarding the large openings which usually come in 
 such buildings, the weight would be only 128,000 pounds for 
 brick; and taking the concrete at 6 feet deep, and the founda- 
 tion continuous, say, 5 feet wide by 20 feet long by 2 feet high 
 for base; and an average of 3 feet wide by 20 feet long by 
 4 feet high for the upper part. This is a total for concrete 
 of 440 cubic feet at 145 pounds equals 63,800. 
 
 Brick and concrete would therefore weigh less than 96 tons. 
 At 16 tons to the pile, six only would be required so far as 
 strength goes. But the piles have to be set in at least two 
 rows, and cannot be more than 4-foot centers some cities, as 
 already seen, allow only 3 feet. This would make it necessary 
 to use 10 piles, and under the Boston law, 15. 
 
 Staggering. Piles are arranged in staggered rows. That 
 is, if there are two rows the piles are not set opposite each 
 other, but the pile in the one row is set opposite the center 
 of the space in the other. 
 
 Post Foundations. The first cottage I built was set on a 
 post foundation. Many buildings are, especially in railroad 
 work. Cuttings of pile heads are used for supports, or 
 ordinary timbers. 
 
 The posts are usually set about 8 feet apart, and a 6" x 8" or 
 a larger sill laid on top. As we have seen, the load on the 
 side walls of the average two story frame house is never more 
 than ly 2 tons to the square foot, while a base 2' x 2' on good 
 soil carries about 12, which is good for a continuous founda- 
 tion, 8 feet long, at iy 2 tons. A 3' x 3' base does not cost 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 205 
 
 much more than a 2' x 2' one, and gives over twice the bearing 
 surface. 
 
 A layer of plank is put down and a cross plank spiked on 
 top. The post is then set and braced into position. 
 
 GENERAL NOTES ON FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Frost. For a good building be sure to go below the frost 
 line. In the middle west this is about 4 feet below the sur- 
 face. But thousands of cottages are set only about a foot in 
 the ground. 
 
 Dry Sand or gravel makes the best foundation, short of rock. 
 Sometimes to improve a poor soil holes are bored and dry sand 
 rammed into them. This not only gives good soil in the place 
 of poor in the holes themselves, but compacts the surrounding 
 soil. 
 
 Trenches are also dug and rammed full of dry sand and 
 gravel. If the sides are confined so that the material can be 
 packed in, this makes a good foundation, unless the soil 
 below is too poor. 
 
 Side Pressure. Sometimes, again, ordinary wood piles are 
 driven in, and the soil compacted in this way. The danger 
 comes from dry rot, if the piles are above water. 
 
 Wet Soils are improved by drainage. 
 
 Direct Pressure. Keep the center line of the footings below 
 the center line of the wall above. In other words, do not 
 extend the footing over on one side more than on the 
 other. 
 
 Stepping 1 . Keep all the foundation Avails at the same level 
 if possible, but if not, step up in stair fashion, and do not lay 
 on the angle. Any bricklayer understands this system. 
 
 Concrete Layers. Tamp the concrete in layers of 6 inches 
 or 8 inches thick. On soft soils see that the footings are 
 spread wide enough. But after the size is set, it may be 
 found that it is cheaper to use piles. 
 
 Offsets. As already noted the offsets on concrete should 
 not be more than two-thirds of the height of the base, and 
 some allow only half. For good heavy dimension stone three- 
 fourths of the height may be used. 
 
 Made Ground. Do not build a structure of any weight 
 on filled ground without taking extra precautions. Architects 
 
206 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 have had their reputations hurt in this neld trying to save 
 money for the owners. Concrete piles can be used for a heavy 
 structure. Plank is often made to serve for an ordinary 
 cottage. A better material now is expanded metal and con- 
 crete. This will make a continuous foundation if anything 
 will, and it will be a strong one if properly built and allowed 
 to harden before the weight is piled on. 
 
 Paint. If iron is used below the water level it should be 
 well painted or coated with asphaltum. 
 
 Concrete. This seems to be the best kind of a material 
 for the footing course. Bricklayers stand firmly by hard brick 
 laid in good Portland cement mortar, and properly wetted and 
 laid they make a foundation that lasts for centuries; but, 
 generally speaking, concrete would seem to be superior. It 
 does not require skilled labor, and hardens for several years 
 until it is practically a solid stone lying on the earth. It is 
 much superior to rubble of the ordinary kind. 
 
 Thickness. The base should be made 12 inches thick, 
 although 8 inches is enough for cottages and light structures. 
 
 Cements. The natural cements are seldom used now. 
 Portland is cheap enough. The bearing load of concrete with 
 Portland is set at 15 tons per square foot; with natural 
 cement, at only 8. This shows the difference in values. The 
 crushing strength is 15 tons per square foot for concrete a 
 month old; 60 tons for 6 months old; and 96 tons 
 for one year old. 
 
 Foundation Proportions. As to quality of concrete, a mix- 
 ture of 1, 2, 5 is recommended by the Underwriters; but 1, 3, 
 6 is often used and is all right for ordinary work. This means 
 1 cement, 3 sand, and 6 broken stone. The measurement 
 should be made on the basis of a packed barrel. 
 
 Bubble has been used for foundations for centuries, and it 
 is now somewhat too late to say anything against it. But 
 the rubble that was laid in Europe had much wider founda- 
 tions than ours to begin with, and was also laid in better 
 mortar, as a rule, and with closer joints. Allusion is made 
 elsewhere to the walls of a cottage with an 8-foot ceiling 
 being 30 inches thick. I have crawled through old castle 
 walls from 8 feet to 10 feet in thickness. Why compare 
 our nicely proportioned work with that kind? Concrete is 
 better than the ordinary rubble we build. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 207 
 
 Thickness. All good codes specify a thickness of 4 inches 
 more for rubble than for brick. 
 
 Water Supply. In country districts, and sometimes in 
 cities, a private supply has to be put in. The size of the pipe 
 has to be regulated by the demand in houses, stables, and other 
 consuming points. 
 
 In some cities 50 gallons is the amount used per day per 
 family; in others, 200. When meters are used the demand is 
 considerably reduced; probably 80 gallons for a family of five 
 is sufficient; 100 is liberal. 
 
 The amount of water delivered is regulated by the pressure 
 and the size of the pipe. With the same pipe several times 
 as much water may be delivered by changing the pressure. 
 
 The following table is made out for a 10-foot fall and a pipe 
 500 feet long. All that it is meant for is merely an approxi- 
 mate figure. Here it should be remembered that circles, or 
 ends of pipe, are to each other as the square of their diameter. 
 A 1-inch pipe and a iy 2 have bores in the proportion of 64 and 
 144, for the one measures 8 eighths and the other 12. This 
 means that for a little extra expense a pipe can be had with 
 twice the capacity. 
 
 The table is made out for a 24-hour supply. 
 
 %-inch bore 576 gals. %-inch bore 3,200 gals. 
 
 i/ 2 " " 1,150 " 1 " " 6,624 " 
 
 %" " 2,040 " 1% " " 10,000 " 
 
 SEWERS 
 
 Taking an average all over a city an allowance of 100 
 gallons of discharge in 12 hours is a very large factor to use. 
 The 12-hour basis really means 24, but we sleep one-third of 
 the time, and the factories run only 8 to 10 hours. 
 
 Size of 
 pipe 
 
 Cu. ft. per 
 second 
 
 Gals, per 
 hour 
 
 Size of 
 pipe 
 
 Cu. ft. per 
 second 
 
 Gals, per 
 hour 
 
 4-inch 
 
 0.05 
 
 1350 
 
 15-inch 
 
 1.9 
 
 51300 
 
 6 " 
 
 0.15 
 
 4050 
 
 18 " 
 
 3.1 
 
 83700 
 
 8 " 
 
 0.33 
 
 9000 
 
 20 " 
 
 4.1 
 
 110700 
 
 10 " 
 
 0.60 
 
 16200 
 
 24 " 
 
 6.8 
 
 185600 
 
 12 " 
 
 1.00 
 
 27000 
 
 
 
 
208 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 CARRYING CAPACITY OF SEWER PIPE 
 
 When the area to be drained, and the fall of the sewer per 
 hundred feet is known, the size of the pipe required can be 
 easily ascertained by referring to the following table, which 
 shows the number of gallons discharged per minute by specified 
 sizes and grades. In main sewers this flow of course is 
 greatly increased by the added pressure of connecting laterals: 
 
 CARRYING CAPACITY GALLONS PER MINUTE 
 
 
 ^j 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -ij 
 
 ^ 
 
 _ i -U 
 
 ** 
 
 l?o 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 *o 
 
 || 
 
 -So 
 
 |i 
 
 US 
 
 2S 
 
 n 
 
 G u 
 
 _a u, 
 
 . 1-1 
 a u 
 
 *" o 
 
 
 
 O (j 
 
 02 
 
 r-t Q. 
 
 <N a 
 
 cc a, 
 
 CD Q 
 
 C5 
 
 H a 
 
 IM C. 
 
 CO O< 
 
 3 in. 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 31 
 
 44 
 
 54 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 62 
 
 71 
 
 101 
 
 124 
 
 6 
 
 63 
 
 89 
 
 111 
 
 156 
 
 194 
 
 224 
 
 317 
 
 389 
 
 8 
 
 140 
 
 198 
 
 246 
 
 348 
 
 432 
 
 499 
 
 706 
 
 864 
 
 9 
 
 196 
 
 277 
 
 339 
 
 480 
 
 595 
 
 687 
 
 971 
 
 1180 
 
 10 
 
 261 
 
 369 
 
 457 
 
 648 
 
 803 
 
 928 
 
 1310 
 
 1610 
 
 12 
 
 432 
 
 612 
 
 758 
 
 1070 
 
 1330 
 
 1530 
 
 2170 
 
 2660 
 
 15 
 
 800 
 
 1130 
 
 1400 
 
 1980 
 
 2450 
 
 2830 
 
 4010 
 
 4910 
 
 18 
 
 1320 
 
 1860 
 
 2310 
 
 3260 
 
 4040 
 
 4660 
 
 6590 
 
 8080 
 
 20 
 
 1720 
 
 2500 
 
 3060 
 
 4330 
 
 5305 
 
 6130 
 
 8660 
 
 10610 
 
 24 
 
 2910 
 
 4110 
 
 5035 
 
 7191 
 
 8810 
 
 10270 
 
 14520 
 
 17790 
 
 27 
 
 4020 
 
 5680 
 
 6960 
 
 9840 
 
 12050 
 
 13920 
 
 19680 
 
 24110 
 
 30 
 
 5380 
 
 7618 
 
 9320 
 
 13180 
 
 16140 
 
 18640 
 
 26350 
 
 32280 
 
 33 
 
 6950 
 
 9840 
 
 12050 
 
 17040 
 
 20865 
 
 24090 
 
 34070 
 
 41730 
 
 36 
 
 8800 
 
 12450 
 
 15210 
 
 21565 
 
 26410 
 
 30500 
 
 43130 
 
 52820 
 
 Sewer pipe have very much greater carrying capacity than 
 brick sewers of same dimensions. 
 
 Statistics show the maximum rainfall to be about one inch 
 per hour, except during very heavy and uncommon storms. 
 
 One inch rainfall per hour gives 22,633 gallons per hour 
 for each acre, or 377 gallons per minute per acre. 
 
 Experience shows that owing to various obstructions, not 
 over 50 or 75 per cent, of the rain falling will reach the drain 
 within the same hour. Due allowance should be made for 
 this fact in determining the size of pipe required, as severe 
 storms are generally of short duration. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 THE SUPERSTRUCTURE (1) 
 
 WALLS AND MASONRY 
 
 Thickness. The following table of thickness of walls as 
 specified in the city of Omaha is given as a guide to average 
 practice. Those who have gone over building codes know that 
 they are practically alike in their main features. 
 
 BUSINESS, MANUFACTURING, AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >, 
 
 >, 
 
 >t 
 
 Party and 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 -5 
 
 % 
 
 Division 
 Walls 
 
 <n 
 
 CO 
 
 cj 
 
 02 
 
 4-> 
 
 VI 
 13 
 
 O2 
 T3 
 
 O2 
 f3 
 
 02 
 
 .a 
 
 02 
 
 ,a 
 
 02 
 
 ,EJ 
 
 02 
 
 ,a 
 
 02 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 -*-> 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 IN 
 
 CO 
 
 <tf 
 
 is 
 
 o 
 
 t- 
 
 00 
 
 a 
 
 T-4 
 
 rH 
 
 ,-t 
 
 1 Story 
 2 
 
 16 
 16 
 
 12 
 1 9 
 
 T> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 1? 
 
 1? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 24 
 28 
 28 
 28 
 82 
 32 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 20 
 24 
 24 
 
 24 
 28 
 28 
 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 28 
 
 16 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 
 12 
 16 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 24 
 24 
 
 12 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 24 
 
 12 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 12 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 
 12 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 20 
 
 12 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 
 12 
 16 
 16 
 
 12 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 All brick or stone buildings having the first story, or base- 
 ment and first story, designed for business purposes and the 
 upper stories for dwellings, shall have all walls of a thickness 
 not less than the number of inches shown in the following 
 table, to-wit: 
 
210 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Brick 
 Walls and 
 Dwellings 
 
 M 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 t Story 
 
 t? 
 
 o 
 
 02 
 O 
 
 >> 
 
 2 
 
 02 
 I 3 , 
 
 h Story 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 02 
 S3 
 
 b 
 
 02 
 A 
 
 >> 
 
 2 
 
 'A 
 
 S3 
 
 >, 
 
 !_ 
 O 
 
 W 
 ,3 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 02 
 
 ,a 
 
 )th Story I 
 
 
 72 
 
 a 
 
 >> 
 
 _o 
 
 72 
 
 A 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 <N 
 
 eo 
 
 ^ 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 t- 
 
 GO 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 rH 
 
 rH 
 
 2 Story 
 
 16 
 16 
 
 12 
 1? 
 
 8 
 1? 
 
 1? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 ... 
 
 ?0 
 
 16 
 
 1? 
 
 1? 
 
 1? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 ?0 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 1? 
 
 1? 
 
 1? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 ?0 
 
 ?0 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 1? 
 
 12 
 
 1? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 ?A 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 ?A 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 12 
 
 8? 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The above table shall apply to all walls of 60 feet and 
 under in length; Avails exceeding 60 feet in length shall not 
 be allowed to have more than 2 upper stories 12 inches thick, 
 and no 8-inch wall will be permitted on a building more than 
 60 feet in length. And brick or stone dwelling houses shall 
 have walls of a thickness not less than the number of inches 
 shown in the following table, to-wit: 
 
 DWELLINGS 
 
 Brick 
 
 M 
 
 a 
 
 a> 
 
 fc 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 & 
 
 o 
 
 b 
 
 o 
 
 & 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 & 
 
 >. 
 
 1 
 
 fr 
 
 2 
 
 Walls for 
 Dwellings 
 
 H 
 | 
 
 02 
 
 -M 
 
 02 
 
 a 
 
 02 
 g 
 
 02 
 
 2 
 
 02 
 
 fl 
 
 02 
 J3 
 
 02 
 
 1 
 
 02 
 fS 
 
 02 
 JS 
 
 .a 
 
 } 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 <N 
 
 00 
 
 * 
 
 to 
 
 CD 
 
 t- 
 
 00 
 
 C5 
 
 rH 
 
 rH 
 
 H 
 
 1 Story 
 2 
 
 12 
 16 
 
 8 
 1? 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 16 
 *>0 
 
 16 
 16 
 
 12 
 16 
 
 12 
 1? 
 
 12 
 1? 
 
 1? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 7 
 
 20 
 ?4 
 
 16 
 ?0 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 16 
 
 12 
 16 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 12 
 1? 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 ... 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 28 
 28 
 39 
 
 20 
 20 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 *>8 
 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 24 
 ?4 
 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 ?,4 
 
 16 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 
 12 
 16 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 
 12 
 12 
 16 
 16 
 20 
 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 16 
 16 
 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 16 
 
 12 
 12 
 T> 
 
 12 
 
 1? 
 
 1? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The above table shall apply to all walls 44 feet and under 
 in length; when over 44 feet in length such walls shall not 
 be allowed to have more than two upper stories 12 inches 
 thick, and no 8-inch wall will be permitted on a building 
 more than 44 feet in length. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 211 
 
 Every party wall must be built through and at least 18 
 inches above the roof boarding, not less than 12 inches thick. 
 
 Variation in Size. But while walls for dwellings are 
 specified as 16 inches in the basement, and 12 and 8 inches 
 above, they are usually built of 12 inches for the two first 
 stories and 8 inches on the second. Here it should be observed 
 that some cities specify their walls in odd and others in even 
 inches 9, 13, 17, 21, 25; and 8, 12, 16, 20, 24. The real 
 thickness is often midway between. 
 
 The Underwriters for rubble and concrete call for 8 inches 
 thicker in the basement than on the first story, but only 4 
 inches difference if of brick. This is for 12 feet below the 
 curb level, and would take in most buildings; if deeper, each 
 10 feet, or fraction, must have 4 inches more. This would 
 seem to flatter brick more than concrete. 
 
 No wall, even for a dwelling, is allowed in this code under 
 12 inches. 
 
 Distance of Walls. This Underwriters' code, and most 
 others, are based on a width of not more than 25 feet between 
 bearings. If the span is more the wall should be increased 
 4 inches or else have strong buttresses. Not less than 4 
 inches of masonry is put between the ends of timbers in center 
 walls to block fire. One division wall, at least, must be put 
 in every 50 feet. 
 
 Length. When a building is more than 105 feet long this 
 model code would make the walls 4 inches thicker. Western 
 codes allow from 120 to 132 feet. 
 
 HEIGHT OF STORIES 
 
 Many codes limit the height of stories with the thicknesses 
 as already given. The Underwriters give the following limits: 
 
 First story, 16 feet in clear 
 
 Second story, 14 feet in clear 
 
 Third story, 12 feet in clear 
 
 Fourth and upper stories, 11 feet in clear 
 
 When these heights have to be exceeded an extra 4 inches 
 must be added. These walls and all others should come to 
 the top of the joists of each story full thickness. 
 
 Parapets. The difference between an ideal code and an 
 ordinary one is seen in the provision for fire walls above the 
 
212 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 roof. A good many codes call for 18 inches above the boarding, 
 but the Underwriters give 24 inches for ordinary buildings, 
 and 36 inches for business ones. 
 
 Sameness. Several years ago I had occasion to go over the 
 codes of about a dozen of the leading cities, and it often 
 seemed that the one was practically copied from the other. 
 The Underwriters' goes further in the right direction than any 
 of them, although it is sometimes too far advanced for light 
 pocketbooks. 
 
 Ashlar. In calculating thickness an ashlar course of 4 
 inches is not included; but above that thickness is taken as a 
 part of the wall when well bonded and tied into it. 
 
 Bonding. It is usual to run headers every sixth or seventh 
 course in ordinary brickwork. These headers should run clear 
 through to the face of the wall even on a pressed brick front. 
 The big fires show r ed that. 
 
 Anchors. All masonry buildings should be carefully an- 
 chored. Joists and walls are thus tied together. The size 
 of the iron for ordinary work is ly 2 x^ s . The regular anchor 
 is made in T shape. When the joists meet, as over a girder, 
 they are fastened with strap anchors. 
 
 The end anchors should stretch back and take in three joists. 
 The girders must be heavily anchored at the wall with T 
 anchors; and with strap ones at the joints. Many buildings 
 fell in San Francisco, at the fire, through bad anchorage. 
 In Scotland I never saw a wall anchored. They are made 
 thick enough, of good stone, good mortar, and good workman- 
 ship to stand without being tied up. 
 
 Party Walls. As will be noticed in the tables, 9-inch walls 
 are allowed on the top stories of dwellings; but party walls 
 should be at least 13 inches in a block of flats or houses 
 of any kind, as much for deadening sound as for fire pro- 
 tection. 
 
 Thin Walls. These are becoming more popular than ever, 
 in spite of the fact that the fire insurance men do not like 
 them. They are used on top stories, and with the right kind 
 of tile are nearly 10 inches thick. The inside course is of 
 hollow tile. This is often protected with a damp-proof mixture, 
 and the plaster applied directly to the wall. In frosty, rainy 
 climates the damp sometimes comes through. Furring is the 
 old remedy, and it is a safe one. The danger is that when the 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 213 
 
 carpenters plug a 9-inch wall they will drive the bricks loose 
 on the outside. 
 
 Mortar. Do not use bad mortar, and this is often equiv- 
 alent to saying lime mortar. Never forget the St. Louis 
 cyclone and the fires at Baltimore and San Francisco. Poor 
 mortar lay at the root of a great deal of the trouble. It pays 
 to put some Portland cement among the lime, if that is used. 
 
 A mortar of one-fourth Portland cement and three-fourths 
 lime makes an excellent wall. The U. S. engineers give 1 of 
 lime paste and 2 of sand as the best for lime alone, but few 
 contractors like to use such a rich mixture. One to 3 is about 
 right for natural cement, which is not so much used now. 
 One to 2 should be used for the best work. 
 
 For Portland 1 to 3 for the best masonry, and 1 to 4 for 
 ordinary construction. For rubble 1 to 4 is used. 
 
 The Underwriters give 1 to 4 for lime, but much depends 
 upon the brand used. There are limes that are hardly worth 
 taking as a gift. For cement, 1 to 3; for cement and lime 
 mortar, 1 of slaked lime paste, 1 of cement, and not more 
 than 3 parts of sand to each. 
 
 Shoring. Bricklayers should know enough to shore their 
 walls, but they often forget and trouble comes. When writing 
 this I saw a building a few weeks old, with steel channels 
 bolted along the outside of the brick wall, and wood shoring 
 behind that, to keep it from going into a mass of ruins. The 
 shoring was done, but it was too late. 
 
 Disaster. I once saw a brick gable 150 feet wide, 40 feet 
 high, and 17 inches thick that seemed strong enough but was 
 blown down on a stormy afternoon, and all the window frames 
 and coping tile with it. This kind of work costs money. 
 
 SAFE LOADS PER SQUARE FOOT 
 
 The Underwriters give the following allowances for masonry: 
 
 BRICKWORK RUBBLE 
 
 In lime mortar .... 8 tons In lime mortar 5 tons 
 
 In lime and cement 11% '" In lime and cement 
 
 In Portland cement 15 " mortar 7 " 
 
 In natural cement 
 
 mortar 8 " 
 
 In Portland cement 
 mortar . 10 " 
 
214: CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 CONCRETE 
 
 In natural cement 8 tons 
 
 In Portland cement mortar 15 " 
 
 The 1905 Chicago code has the following provisions: 
 
 BRICKWOBK DIMENSION STONE 
 
 In lime mortar . . . 6% tons In Portland cement 10 tons 
 In natural cement. 9 " In Portland cement 
 
 In Portland cement 12y 2 " dressed and level 
 
 on solid beds 12y 2 " 
 
 CONCRETE 
 
 In Portland cement, not reinforced 12y 2 tons 
 
 BOSTON CODE 
 
 Granite, cut 60 tons Hardest brick in 1 
 
 Marble and lime- cement, 1 lime, 4 
 
 stone, cut 40 " sand 12 tons 
 
 Sandstone, hard, cut 30 " Hardest brick in 
 Hardest brick in 1 lime mortar alone 8 " 
 
 to 2 cement mortar 15 " 
 
 For light hard brick use only two-thirds of the above loads. 
 
 Piers. For brick piers whose heights run from 6 to 12 
 times their least dimension the above Boston loads are reduced 
 to 13, 10, and 7. 
 
 Piers are often spoiled, both for strength and looks, by being 
 built too small. The difference in cost is nothing to speak of 
 between a 13"xl3", or even a 17"xl7", as compared with a 
 9" x 9" under a heavy porch, yet the light one is used, and 
 often goes to pieces. 
 
 In store fronts too, we see the same bad policy carried out. 
 The idea is to give as much glass surface as possible, but it is 
 not worth spoiling the building for this. For such a pier a 
 load of 4 tons to the square foot is enough in the best lime 
 mortar or natural cement, and 8 to 10 in the strongest Port- 
 land. If anywhere, good mortar should be put in piers. 
 
 Example. Suppose a store front of 44-foot span with 
 I-beams supported in the center on a brick pier. Let us 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 215 
 
 assume that there are two stories above the I-beams, the first 
 with a 13-inch wall, and the other with a 9-inch. Measuring 
 back 16 feet from the inside of the front wall a column is 
 placed to support the floors above, and other columns are set 
 at the same centers clear back to the rear of the building. 
 
 Floor Load. For the store floor allow a load of 150 pounds 
 to the square foot and 70 pounds for the two upper ones, this 
 to include the weight of the floor itself and the live load 
 also. 
 
 The two upper stories to have a height of 10 feet in the 
 clear. No partitions or ceiling joists to be considered, so as 
 to make fewer figures. Each building has to be analyzed. 
 The method only is given here. 
 
 Pier. What size of a brick pier is required in the center 
 to support the load? There are two bearings required. One 
 below the level of the store floor and another up under the 
 I-beams. 
 
 The walls may be taken solid without deduction for windows, 
 and thus the weight will be large enough. The top of the 
 I-beam is usually placed about level with the top of the joists, 
 or a little below. We can figure the brickwork as starting 
 6 inches below the top of the floor to be safe. 
 
 The pier, it can be readily seen, will carry half the weight 
 of the front wall clear to the roof, and the other two quarters 
 of the weight will be transmitted to the outside walls. 
 
 WEIGHTS 
 
 Pounds 
 Front wall, 22' long x 11'6" from top of I-beam to top 
 
 of third story floor joists. 13" 120 Ibs. to sq. ft. . . 30,360 
 Front wall, 22' x 15' x 9", from top of third story joists 
 
 to top of parapet above roof at 80 Ibs. to sq. ft 26,400 
 
 Store floor, 8' back x 22' x 150 Ibs 26,400 
 
 Upper floors, 8' x 22' x 2 x 70 Ibs 24,640 
 
 Roof, 8' x 22' x 50 Ibs 8,800 
 
 116,600 
 
 Beam Capacity. Thus far, we have a trifle over 58 tons. 
 The tables of beam capacities include the weight of the beam, 
 itself, as a rule, and it need not be included here. 
 
216 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 The corners of the outside walls are usually carried in on 
 the inside to receive the end of the beam, and when we con- 
 sider these corners, and the pier in the middle, it is safe to 
 say that the clear span will not be 21 feet. We can therefore 
 take this distance in the table, given elsewhere in this book. 
 
 A 12-inch 40-pound beam carries 11.9 tons; twice this is 
 23.8 for the double beam required under the 13-inch wall; and 
 across the entire front, 47.6. This apparently is too light a 
 beam; but the full weight is never piled on any floor at one 
 time. From 80 to 85 per cent, is usually allowed. Instead of 
 50 pounds we used to allow only 40 for roofs with spans of 
 150 and 175 feet. This included heavy steel trusses, wind 
 pressure, and everything else. Judging from this, 50 pounds 
 is too much, although it is often used. 
 
 Allowing 85 per cent, we get 49 tons; and the two 12-inch, 
 40-pound beams will thus carry the load because of the window 
 openings that reduce the total weight. If, as is now common, 
 hollow tile are used on the inside of the walls, the total is 
 still further reduced, for the figures are made out for ordinary 
 brickwork. 
 
 Some might prefer to use two 15-inch, 41-pound beams 
 to guard against deflection or bending. These carry 14.4 tons 
 each, or a total of 57.6 tons. Deep beams should always be 
 used in preference to shallow ones. 
 
 The method of figuring out the load for the other beams 
 running from front to rear is explained elsewhere. 
 
 The top pier comes up directly under the I-beams, and the 
 question is, How much surface must it have for a safe bearing? 
 
 Size. This total does not include the store floor. The load 
 is thus reduced to 45 tons. If the pier is laid up in the best 
 brick and Portland cement mortar we require a bearing area 
 of a little less than 4 square feet, or 2' x 2'. This size would 
 provide for the beams running in the other direction also, or 
 at right angles from the store front, for our front wall and 
 upper floor load combined would not exceed 50 tons. When 
 we consider that the actual floor loads in a large wholesale 
 warehouse were found to be only 50 pounds, not including the 
 weight of the floor itself, we can see that the 70 pounds allowed 
 for dwellings above the store we are considering is too high. 
 
 Lower Pier. The one below the level of the store front has 
 to be considered. There are 58 tons and the weight of the 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 217 
 
 2' x 2' pier. Adding 3 tons for this makes a total of 61, 
 allowing the full load. This would require a base of 5 square 
 feet. If any sidewalk weights came upon this pier they would 
 have to be added. 
 
 Down in the basement architects are inclined to be safe 
 rather than take chances. Taking 85 per cent, of the total load 
 we get about 52 tons. Using the best Portland cement work and 
 the Boston allowance of 15 to the square foot we really require 
 only 3% square feet here, and thus a pier 2' x 2' would be 
 ample. But the difference between a pier with 5 square feet 
 and another with 4 is only a few dollars. 
 
 Base. The base on the soil has to be arranged to suit its 
 bearing power. If 3 tons are taken that means 20 square feet; 
 if 2 tons, 30. 
 
 Mortar. In all of the above, Portland cement is taken ; if 
 lime is used and 8 tons is the limit, that means a larger pier. 
 
 Piers for Columns running from front to rear are figured 
 out in the next chapter. 
 
 Bearing Plates should be used on top of piers or cap stones. 
 
 Height. In the above discussion the piers are assumed to 
 be of the ordinary height. When they exceed in height seven 
 times their smallest dimension, 4 inches should be added for 
 every 6 feet or part of 6 feet. Thus a store front pier about 
 12 feet high at 25" x 21" should be made 25" x 25" for anything 
 over that height. 
 
 According to the Underwriters, isolated brick piers should 
 not exceed in height 10 times their least dimension. 
 
 Stone Piers of good squared material should not exceed 10 
 times their least dimension in height. 
 
 Bubble. This material makes a poor pier unless the size 
 can be made large enough, as in a basement. 
 
 Bonds. A well built pier does not require bond stones, but 
 a sheet of expanded metal is an excellent binder. The Chi- 
 cago ordinance calls for a plate of wrought iron or steel not 
 less than ^-inch thick, but expanded metal is better. For 
 a fine joint, as in pressed brick, expanded metal lath can be 
 used. 
 
 The New York code requires bond stones. The Underwriters' 
 code calls for a bond of cast iron or steel every 30 inches if 
 the pier has less than 9 square feet of a base and when there 
 is a span of more than 10 feet. 
 
218 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Cap Stones. The Underwriters' code allows cap stones on 
 the front of the building to correspond with the bond stones 
 or other trimmings, but they must cover the entire area of the 
 pier and be not less than 5 inches thick. 
 
 The Doubled I-Beams over store fronts have to be bolted 
 together \vith separators between, and bearing plates provided 
 under the ends. 
 
 RETAINING WALLS 
 
 Material. Taking everything into consideration, probably 
 a concrete made of good Portland cement is the best material 
 to use for retaining walls. It may be put in place by unskilled 
 labor, and this is occasionally a great advantage. 
 
 Proportions. The danger in some sections of the country 
 is in using a mixture that will let water go through. An 
 ordinary concrete of 1, 3, 6 will not hold water, nor will 1, 3, 5. 
 The poorest that can be used is 1, 2y 2 , 5; and for the best work 
 with a wet soil behind, the mixture should be 1, 2, 4. No 
 stone or gravel should be more than %-inch diameter. 
 
 Wet Soils should be drained. Not long before this writing 
 I saw a retaining wall washed out by water getting in behind it. 
 
 Frost. In the middle west we keep 4 feet below the surface 
 for a frost line. Retaining walls, especially, should go below 
 frost in a rainy climate, for if the frost heave them and a crack 
 develops, the road is open for a wreck. 
 
 The Section of wall chosen seems to depend upon the taste, 
 as all kinds are used. Sometimes it is desirable to keep the 
 face of the wall plumb, and again, in other cases, battered 
 ones are better. The batter or slope of the face side may be 
 used up to iy 2 inches to the foot of height. Thus a wall 4 feet 
 high above the grade would be 6 inches out of plumb. 
 
 Stepped. A wall may run up the back on a straight slope 
 or be stepped from one thickness to another. The stepping 
 helps to retain the earth and keeps it from " wedging " down 
 and forcing out the masonry. It is the difference between a 
 straight slope and a stair. 
 
 In case the stepped-up wall is chosen the plank forms have 
 to be made in sections instead of in a single slope. Thus the 
 first base might be 2 feet 2 inches, carried up a foot; the next, 
 1 foot 11 inches, carried up another foot; the one above, 1 foot 
 8 inches, and so on. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 219 
 
 Plastering cement work on the face does not seem to be 
 much of a success. It should stick, but it often cracks and 
 falls off. The time to plaster is when the main body of the 
 concrete is still green, and the forms cannot be removed then. 
 There is not so good a chance on a dry surface. The best way 
 is to plaster the inside of the boards just a little ahead of the 
 time when the concrete is poured in, and by working a thin 
 blade of some kind in between the mortar and the wood, any 
 places that are not closely filled may be made right. This 
 course will usually give a good enough surface for ordinary 
 work. 
 
 Plaster does not stick on the top of the wall either. After a 
 time it cracks and falls off. Smooth the mass with a trowel 
 on top or a wood float. The main idea all through is to get 
 the mass and the surface bound together, and not plaster the 
 one on the face of the other. When the boards are plastered as 
 suggested a rich mixture of not more than 1 to 1% should be 
 used, and this will keep out the water. In arid or semi-arid 
 regions, such precautions do not need to be taken. 
 
 The Underwriters give their retaining wall rule as follows: 
 The thickness of a retaining wall at its base shall be in no 
 case less than one-fourth of its height. 
 
 A retaining wall is usually thinner at the top than the 
 bottom, although they make no allowance for this. 
 
 There are many different theories of retaining walls. The 
 following table will give a fair average idea of what the 
 dimensions should be. A depth of 4 feet below the surface 
 is figured. 
 
 RETAINING WALL TABLE 
 
 Height above 
 ground Total height 
 
 Thickness 
 at base 
 
 Thickness 
 at surface 
 
 Thickness 
 at top 
 
 2' 
 
 6' 
 
 2' 2" 
 
 1' 6" 
 
 10" 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 2 5 
 
 1 7 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 2 9 
 
 1 11 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 3 2 
 
 2 1 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 3 6 
 
 2 5 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 3 10 
 
 2 8 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 4 2 
 
 2 10 
 
 18 
 
220 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 STONE LINTELS 
 
 Size. The longest stone lintel in any contract I ever had 
 was about 16 feet, and the section was perhaps 24" x 20". 
 Naturally, it had to be supported by an unseen steel beam. 
 This means that beyond a certain limit it is not safe to trust 
 to stone alone. 
 
 Concrete. In a new building I know of, three or four 
 stories high, all the cement stone lintels are cracked in the 
 center. This means, also, that for narrow openings it is not 
 wise to use the new kind of stone without reinforcement. Long 
 beams of reinforced concrete are made for all widths of build- 
 ings, and there is no reason why such a lintel over a narrow 
 window should crack. 
 
 Several kinds of reinforcement may be used for lintels. 
 There are rods, bars, barbed wire, or a sheet of expanded 
 metal kept back from the edge so that it will not show. The 
 reinforcement of this kind should be put at the bottom of the 
 lintel with just about enough mortar below it to cover the 
 steel. 
 
 Supposing the lintel to be 10 inches deep, for example, the 
 reinforcement would be placed about an inch from the bottom. 
 The metal acts like a rope, if such an illustration may be used. 
 To hold the mass the rope must be put as low as possible. It 
 would do no good if put on top. 
 
 Safe Load. Generally this is never figured out. Everybody 
 uses the sizes that have been used since before Shakespeare's 
 day, to go no further back. Two standard sizes are 4" x 10" 
 and 8" x 12". The thin one is put where there is only the 
 usual brick reveal. 
 
 Every bricklayer knows that the load relieves itself after a 
 few feet of brickwork are laid above the stone. An arch is 
 formed of itself like an inverted V. 
 
 For special work we can multiply the width of the stone by 
 the square of its depth. Then divide by the span in inches; 
 and for sandstone multiply by 0.08; limestone, 0.10; granite, 
 0.12. Suppose we have an 8 x 12 x 60-inch span in the clear. 
 The figures would be 8 x 12 x 12, divided by 60, and multiplied 
 by 0.08 for sandstone. The load would be 1.536 tons or 3,072 
 pounds. For a concentrated load allow half. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 221 
 
 BRICK CHIMNEY STACKS 
 
 Diameter. At the base the outside measurement should not 
 be less than one-tenth of the total height of the chimney. For 
 a square one, the side is made one-tenth also. Round chimneys 
 are generally considered better than square ones. 
 
 In building some railroad shops we had several large chim- 
 neys one at 175 feet, and the other at 200 feet. They were 
 built of radial brick of the same kind as those used for the 
 highest chimney in the world at Butte, Montana. Above the 
 foundation this chimney is 506 feet in height; the inside 
 diameter is 04 feet at bottom and 50 feet at top. The walls 
 are 66 inches at bottom and 18 inches at top. The foundation 
 walls are 28 feet thick. The foundation cost $50,000, and the 
 chimney proper rbout $200,000. The foundation was tested 
 to a weight of 104 tons to the square foot. The chimney was 
 lined, after it was built, with a 4-inch lining of heat resisting 
 and acid proof bricks. Smelter work is hard on the inside of 
 chimneys. 
 
 The radial brick chimneys are usually unlined. The shop 
 ones referred to had no lining. With ordinary brick it is 
 customary to line with fire brick up to 25 or 30 feet. 
 
 Thickness. Molesworth's rule for the thickness of high 
 chimneys is well known. It is 9 inches from the top to 25 feet 
 down; from that, 13 inches to 50 feet down; and 17 inches from 
 that to 75 feet down. For each 25 feet coming down increase 
 4 inches. 
 
 This is for the ordinary chimney. Those with a diameter of 
 4 feet 6 inches at top should not be less than 13 inches there, 
 and be 4 inches thicker all the way down than the standard 
 sized ones. 
 
 Batter. The regular batter is 0.3 inches to the foot, or 
 nearly five-sixteenths. 
 
 Cores on the inside do not seem to be so much used now as 
 formerly. 
 
 Lightning Rods are more popular than they were some years 
 ago. One of the chimneys on the railroad shops was struck 
 by lightning. On the big one at Butte 16 rods of round 
 copper, 1 inch diameter, are installed. 
 
 The tendency now is to use smaller and lower chimneys and 
 more of them in ordinary plants. Forced draft is resorted to 
 rather than great height. 
 
Inside diam. 
 at top 
 
 14" 
 
 H. P. of 
 
 boiler 
 
 70 
 
 Height of 
 chimney 
 
 120' 
 
 Inside diam. 
 at top 
 
 30" 
 
 14 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 34 
 
 16 
 
 120 
 
 135 
 
 38 
 
 17 
 
 160 
 
 150 
 
 43 
 
 21 
 
 200 
 
 165 
 
 47 
 
 26 
 
 250 
 
 180 
 
 42 
 
 27 
 
 380 
 
 200 
 
 57 
 
 222 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 HEIGHT AND DIAMETER OF ORDINARY BOILER CHIMNEYS 
 
 Horsepower Height of 
 of boiler chimney 
 
 10 60' 
 
 12 75 
 
 16 90 
 
 20 100 
 
 30 105 
 
 50 120 
 
 60 120 
 
 Self-supporting 1 Steel Chimneys. In the shops alluded to 
 these were first figured on, but radial bricks were chosen. 
 They are anchored down to a deep foundation with rods of 
 large diameter. Construction of this kind, as well as that for 
 reinforced chimneys, belongs rather to the specialist than to 
 the ordinary contractor. The distressing number of such 
 chimneys that have fallen in the dust shows that even the 
 experts have still something to learn. 
 
 In 1909 I watched a large one being taken down after a too 
 brief service. Someone had blundered. 
 
 It is said that the fire takes the life out of the concrete. 
 One of the hollow tile companies makes a specialty of covering 
 concrete fire-proofing with tile. Even if the tile is destroyed 
 the concrete is saved, and a new covering or lining can be 
 put in at a reasonable cost. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 THE SUPERSTRUCTURE (2) 
 
 FLOOR LOADS 
 
 Average Code. The requirements in the following table 
 are about the standards, and safe enough for any construction. 
 
 TABLE OF FLOOR LOADS 
 
 All floors shall be constructed to bear a safe weight per 
 superficial foot, exclusive of materials, as follows: 
 
 For armories, drill halls, storage warehouses 250 Ibs. 
 
 Retail stores 150 " 
 
 Public buildings 125 " 
 
 Large halls, corridors, rotundas, etc., of hotels 125 " 
 
 All other rooms in hotels 75 " 
 
 Office buildings 75 " 
 
 Dwelling houses 50 " 
 
 The ideal code of the Underwriters gives the weights allowed, 
 but this does not include the materials in the floor, which 
 must be added: 
 
 Dwellings 60 Ibs. 
 
 Office buildings, first floor 150 " 
 
 above first floor 75 " 
 
 Schools 75 " 
 
 Stables and carriage houses 75 " 
 
 Public assembly buildings 90 " 
 
 Stores, light manufacturing and light 'storage 150 " 
 
 Flat roofs 50 " 
 
 Pitched roofs measured on the level 30 " 
 
 Sidewalks, live load 300 " 
 
 223 
 
224 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Live Load. This code when dealing with buildings of more 
 than five stories allows the following reduction: For the 
 roof and top floor the full live load must be figured. For 
 each succeeding lower floor it may be reduced 50 per cent., 
 until 50 per cent, of the live load is reached, and this load 
 shall then be used clear down on the remaining floors. This 
 is to establish the weight on columns. The floor loads are 
 to be distributed, and not concentrated. 
 
 It is usually just as easy to load floors close to the bearing 
 of wall or column as to pile up the weight in the center on 
 the weakest part of the floor; but there are many whole- 
 salers and merchants who never seem to get this idea in 
 their minds. 
 
 Limit. It will be noticed in the Underwriters' code that 
 the heaviest load for the building proper is 150 pounds. Bos- 
 ton, Omaha, and some other cities give 250. In many of the 
 new reinforced concrete warehouses the allowance is more 
 than twice as much. In the old style of warehouses the ceil- 
 ings were purposely kept low in order to prevent overloading. 
 
 Choice. Here, then, are two good standards to go by 
 first, the one used by average cities, and, second, the ideal 
 one recommended by the fire insurance companies of the 
 United States. 
 
 Wide Spans. In schoolrooms there is usually a width of 
 26 or 28 feet, and contractors who have laid the 3 x 14 or 
 3x16 joists know that they are strong enough to carry 
 several times the load that ever comes upon them. But those 
 who have had to hoist and lay them by ropes and main 
 strength up on the second story have often wished that the 
 architects could substitute something lighter. 
 
 This length has always been necessary on account of the 
 number of scholars. Each room is supposed to hold from 
 45 to 50. But now the limit is lowering to 40; and one 
 private school in New York allows only 15. The day of the 
 large schoolroom is passing. 
 
 Example. Suppose now that we take a building as before, 
 40' x 100', to get the size of the timbers. The span between 
 wall and columns, and between columns, was set at 16 feet, 
 but let us take 14 here, and this will keep us from having 
 the idea that there is any fixed distance. It might be made 
 12 feet if we wanted to. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 225 
 
 The joists are 20 feet long, and the weight is to be 125 
 pounds to the square foot, including that of the floor itself. 
 The joist is shorter, of course, but the bearing is also included, 
 as we do not figure down to a fraction where there are so 
 many factors that we cannot exactly determine, like the 
 resistance of the soil to pressure, and so on. 
 
 Weight. From column to column, then, is 14 feet; and 
 from the column half way to the walls on each side is 10 feet. 
 Measuring half way between bearings, both ways, we have a 
 space of 14 feet running the long way of the building, and 
 20 feet the cross way. As the column stands exactly in the 
 center, it supports all this area. 
 
 But measuring from center to center of columns we have 
 the same 14 feet, and thus we see that the girder which 
 connects them supports all this space of 14' x 20' x 125 Ibs. 
 35,000. This is only for one floor. 
 
 We require a girder of steel or wood between the columns 
 that will support 35,000. 
 
 Trial Test. A long-leafed Y. P. girder of not more than 
 14 inches deep may be tried first. Looking at the table given 
 on page 237 we see that a 3 x 14 on a 14-foot span will support 
 2.91 tons. The third of this is 0.97, or close enough to a 
 ton to call it so, for a 1 x 14. As our weight is 17% tons we 
 therefore require a girder 17% inches wide, and this is out 
 of the question. 
 
 Referring again to the table we find that a 3x16 Y. P. joist 
 carries 3.80 tons. One-third of this is 1.27. Dividing 17% 
 tons by this shows that the width at 16 deep would be 
 14 inches. Timbers come less than the full size ; and a 
 14x16 would measure only 13% x 15% at most. Considering 
 that 85 per cent. . of the load is enough to figure on, the size 
 would be large enough. Two good, sound, dry 6" x 16" timbers 
 bolted together would hold the load. 
 
 Flitch Plates. This style of girder is not so common as 
 formerly. It is made by putting a plate of steel between 
 two girders and bolting them together. When the fire comes 
 the steel is protected from buckling. Sometimes a triple beam 
 is used with two of these plates. The bolts are usually about 
 %-inch diameter, spaced from 20 inches to 24 inches. Directly 
 above the bearing on each end two bolts are put in. The other 
 bolts are put not more than 3 inches from the edge, and 
 
226 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 staggered. If an iron plate is used the wood should be about 
 11 times as thick; if a steel one, 15 times. 
 
 In the following tables for Flitch plate girders it should 
 be remembered that the timbers come a little less than the full 
 size. The tables are made out to suit the market size. 
 
 TABLE FOR FLITCH PLATE GIRDERS 
 
 Safe load in pounds uniformly distributed, supported at 
 both ends. 
 
 For concentrated load in center allow one-half the load given 
 in tables. 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 Bj 
 Oi 
 02 
 
 SIZE OF GIRDER 
 
 Beams 2-3x8 
 Plato y 3 x7y 2 
 
 j^ Beams 2-3x10 
 <g Plato y 2 x9y a 
 
 a 
 
 N^ 
 M*1 
 
 W* 
 
 2* 
 
 g 
 
 gS 
 
 K^ 
 26,297 
 
 Tf^J 
 
 co 
 
 ?M 
 N^ 
 
 03^ 
 S 
 
 |r 
 30,240 
 
 Beams 2-3x10 
 Plate y 2 xloy 2 
 
 Beams 2-3x1 8 
 Plate y 2 xl7y a 
 
 10 
 
 11,185 
 
 47,773 
 
 60,897 
 
 12 
 
 9,321 
 
 14,955 
 
 21,915 
 
 30,200 
 
 39,811 
 
 50,748 
 
 14 
 
 7,989 
 
 12,819 
 
 18,784 
 
 25,886 
 
 34,124 
 
 43,498 
 
 16 
 
 6,991 
 
 11,216 
 
 16,436 
 
 22,650 
 
 29,859 
 
 38,061 
 
 18 
 
 6,214 
 
 9,970 
 
 14,609 
 
 20,133 
 
 26,540 
 
 33,832 
 
 20 
 
 5,592 
 
 8,973 
 
 13,148 
 
 18,120 
 
 23,887 
 
 30,449 
 
 22 
 
 5,084 
 
 8,157 
 
 11,953 
 
 16,476 
 
 21,715 
 
 27,680 
 
 24 
 
 4,660 
 
 7,478 
 
 10,958 
 
 15,100 
 
 19,906 
 
 25,374 
 
 26 
 
 4,302 
 
 6,902 
 
 10,114 
 
 13,938 
 
 18,374 
 
 23,422 
 
 28 
 
 3,995 
 
 6,409 
 
 9,392 
 
 12,943 
 
 17,062 
 
 21,749 
 
 30 
 
 3,728 
 
 5,982 
 
 8,766 
 
 12,080 
 
 15,924 
 
 20,299 
 
 32 
 
 3,496 
 
 5,608 
 
 8,218 
 
 11,325 
 
 14,929 
 
 19,031 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 227 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 SIZE OF GIRDER 
 
 00 M 
 MO 
 
 Ooi 
 HO 
 
 TH 
 
 01 rH 
 
 'MO 
 
 CO 
 
 'MO 
 
 10 
 
 OrH 
 
 rH M 
 MO 
 
 00 rH 
 33 
 
 rt 
 
 <NrH 
 
 <^rH 
 
 CNrH 
 
 CJrH 
 
 (NrH 
 
 <NrH 
 
 a 
 
 grrH 
 
 II 
 
 ii 
 
 w 1 -* 
 
 || 
 
 B5 I 1 
 
 as 
 
 as 
 
 02 T ~ l 
 
 as 
 
 0, 
 
 02 
 
 10 
 
 M 
 
 24,554 
 
 wS 
 
 MS 
 
 mS 
 
 S 
 
 15,184 
 
 35,985 
 
 49,603 
 
 65,388 
 
 83,350 
 
 12 
 
 12,653 
 
 20,462 
 
 29,988 
 
 41,336 
 
 54,490 
 
 69,459 
 
 14 
 
 10,845 
 
 17,539 
 
 25,704 
 
 35,431 
 
 46,706 
 
 59,536 
 
 16 
 
 9,490 
 
 15,346 
 
 22,491 
 
 31,002 
 
 40,861 
 
 52,094 
 
 18 
 
 8,436 
 
 13,641 
 
 19,992 
 
 27,557 
 
 36,327 
 
 46,306 
 
 20 
 
 7,592 
 
 12,277 
 
 17,992 
 
 24,802 
 
 32,694 
 
 41,675 
 
 22 
 
 6,902 
 
 11,161 
 
 16,357 
 
 22,547 
 
 29,722 
 
 37,886 
 
 24 
 
 6,326 
 
 10,231 
 
 14,994 
 
 20,668 
 
 27,245 
 
 34,729 
 
 26 
 
 5,840 
 
 9,444 
 
 13,841 
 
 19,078 
 
 25,149 
 
 32,057 
 
 28 
 
 5,423 
 
 8,769 
 
 12,852 
 
 17,715 
 
 23,353 
 
 29,768 
 
 30 
 
 5,061 
 
 8,185 
 
 11,995 
 
 16,534 
 
 21,796 
 
 27,783 
 
 32 4,745 
 
 7,673 
 
 11,246 
 
 15,501 
 
 20,431 
 
 26,047 
 
 SIZE OF GIRDER 
 
 
 
 
 3* 
 
 s 
 
 o^ 
 
 2* 
 
 s * 
 
 s5 
 
 as- 
 
 
 
 
 
 M io 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 005 
 
 o ^ 
 
 CD W 
 
 ^rH 
 
 rH 
 
 op ^ 
 
 op w 
 
 ^-S 
 
 
 
 C^l M 
 
 <N M 
 
 
 <N M 
 
 5<j ei^ 
 
 M ei^ 
 
 ci ^ 
 
 a 
 
 -_ ^ 
 
 CD T ~ l 
 
 03 ^ 
 
 O5 
 
 03^ 
 
 w 
 
 02 ^ 
 
 rH 
 
 G 
 oj 
 
 I- 2 
 
 
 as 
 
 |S 
 
 
 as 
 
 " 
 
 I" 8 
 
 a 
 
 ^2 
 
 CQCw 
 
 wS 
 
 SS 
 
 CQ 
 
 coS 
 
 S 
 
 wS' 
 
 10 
 
 35,892 
 
 52,595 
 
 72,480 
 
 95,547 
 
 121,795 
 
 100,093 
 
 130,776 
 
 166,702 
 
 12 
 
 29,910 
 
 43,829 
 
 60,400 
 
 79,623 
 
 101,496 
 
 83,411 
 
 108,980 
 
 138,919 
 
 14 
 
 25,637 
 
 37,568 
 
 51,772 
 
 68,248 
 
 86,997 
 
 71,495 
 
 93,411 
 
 119,073 
 
 ] (> 
 
 22,432 
 
 32,872 
 
 45,301 
 
 59,717 
 
 76,122 
 
 62,559 
 
 81,735 
 
 104,189 
 
 18 
 
 19,940 
 
 29,219 
 
 40.267 
 
 53,082 
 
 67,664 
 
 55,607 
 
 72,653 
 
 92,612 
 
 20 
 
 17,946 
 
 26,298 
 
 36,240 
 
 47,774 
 
 60,898 
 
 50,047 
 
 65,388 
 
 83,351 
 
 22 
 
 16,314 
 
 23,907 
 
 32,946 
 
 43,431 
 
 55,361 
 
 45,497 
 
 59,444 
 
 75,774 
 
 24 
 
 14,955 
 
 21,915 
 
 30,200 
 
 39,812 
 
 50,748 
 
 41,706 
 
 54,490 
 
 69,459 
 
 26 
 
 13,805 
 
 20,229 
 
 27,877 
 
 36,749 
 
 46,884 
 
 38,500 
 
 50,298 
 
 64,116 
 
 28 
 
 12,819 
 
 18,784 
 
 25,886 
 
 34,124 
 
 43,49'8 
 
 35,748 
 
 46,706 
 
 59,037 
 
 30 
 
 11,964 
 
 17,532 
 
 24,160 
 
 31,849 
 
 40,598 
 
 33,364 
 
 43,592 
 
 55,567 
 
 32 
 
 11,216 
 
 16,436 
 
 22,650 
 
 29,859 
 
 38,061 
 
 31,279 
 
 40,867 
 
 52,095 
 
228 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Steel. Supposing that a steel beam were chosen, we refer 
 to the table and find out that a 12"x40-lb. beam will support 
 nearly 18 tons, and this is over our limit. Some would prefer 
 two 10" x 25-lb. beams bolted together, especially in cases 
 where the ceiling heights were low, and it was not considered 
 desirable to frame the joists down to the level. 
 
 Bearing. Girders should have at least 6 inches bearing 
 on the walls, but 4 inches is enough for joists. 
 
 Joists. We next come to the size of the joists required 
 on a span of 20 feet, with a load of 125 pounds to the square 
 foot. 
 
 In stores, all over the country, 2" x 14" are used at 12-inch 
 centers on a 22-foot span. Our span is 2 feet less, and 
 16-inch centers might be assumed. 
 
 A 3x14, according to the table, carries 2.91 tons; and a 
 1-inch full size by 14 would thus take care of a ton. A joist 
 1%, the market size, on this basis would support 3,500 pounds 
 of clear span without a girder in the center, which stores 
 usually have. 
 
 On a space, really 19 feet after deducting the wall, which 
 is not often done, by 16 inches there are 25.3 square feet at 
 125 pounds = 3,162. A 2 x 14 set 16-inch centers is therefore 
 ample, as the full load never goes on. 
 
 How would a 2x12 work? On a 14-foot span it carries 
 1.43 tons, full size. Allowing only 1% thick, and disre- 
 garding the deficiency in depth, the load would be 1.25 tons, 
 or 2,500 pounds. At 125 pounds a 19-foot span, a foot wide, 
 will support 2,375 pounds. A 2 x 12 would be large enough 
 set at 12-inch centers. 
 
 Girder. By putting in the right kind of a girder, and wide 
 enough bases below the posts, we can cut the span in half, 
 and space the 2 x 12" joists at 16 inches. Even 2 x 10's would 
 be strong enough, but such light sizes are not used on good 
 construction. The trouble with a store floor is that a car-load 
 of nails is apt to be put down on the weakest part of the 
 area. We have to make it " fool-proof " for this reason. 
 
 But all this is what some of our colored friends \vould call 
 "powerful good construction." I once stood in a Wyoming 
 town and watched a Chinese mason building above a store 
 front with cement blocks set on 2 x 8's, and they were already 
 bending. The endeavor all through this book is to strike a 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 229 
 
 reasonable medium between him and the white man referred 
 to elsewhere who ordered a 6-inch column of 2-inch metal for 
 the same job. 
 
 Wet or Dry. Something was said about the owner and his 
 haste in getting possession of the new building. Perhaps if 
 he would read this part he would find out something about 
 the difference between wet and dry lumber. The contractor 
 who takes time on a building is really serving the owner as 
 was set forth. 
 
 Dry Lumber, it has been found by experiment, is fifty per 
 cent, stronger than green just from the woods where most of 
 ours is from in these days. The tables of strength make 
 allowance for this. They are figured to use only about one- 
 fourth of the breaking load. As the timbers become dry they 
 increase in strength, but they shrink, and often spoil plaster 
 and finish in the process. The largest timbers may take sev- 
 eral years to dry thoroughly. 
 
 The United States experiments give the bending strength of 
 long-leaf yellow pine \vith moisture as follows: 
 
 Per cent. Per cent, 
 
 of moisture Strength of moisture Strength 
 
 33 7660 15 10900 
 
 20 8900 10 14000 
 
 Plaster Cracking. The danger from cracking of the ceil- 
 ings is not so great as some theoretical tables would have us 
 believe. Many schoolrooms stretch 26 feet, and their ceilings 
 stand; but the tables tell us that a joist of even 16 inches deep 
 is restricted to a span of 18 feet. There is too much theory 
 there. 
 
 Joists. Let us for variety allow 100 pounds to the square 
 foot for the third floor. The girder would support only 28,000 
 in place of 35,000. If we allow 85 per cent., the total weight 
 is 12 tons. A 1 x 14 carries a ton on the span of 14 feet, and 
 a 12 x 14, or two 6 x 14's, would easily carry the load. 
 
 The clear span of 19 feet, a foot wide, has a load of 1,900 
 pounds. A joist 2x12 supports 1.43 tons or 2,860 pounds. 
 This will take care of more surface than on 12-inch centers. 
 Will it hold up the weight that goes on the next standard span 
 of 16 inches? One-third more surface gives a total of 2,533 
 pounds. But the joist is sure to be not more than 1% inches 
 
230 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 thick. This reduces the load it will carry to 2,500 pounds, 
 which is just what is required. 
 
 Another way of arriving at the joists is to take in the whole 
 floor. Let us take a floor 20 x 100' x 100 pounds to square foot, 
 this to include everything. The total load is 200,000 pounds, 
 and 85 per cent, of that is 170,000. An 1% x 12" joist, as we 
 have seen, supports 2,500. Dividing 170,000 by this figure we 
 see that 68 joists carry the load. In 100 feet there are 1,200 
 inches. We have 67 spaces for 68 joists. Dividing 1,200 
 inches by 67 we find that the joists should be spaced at 18 
 inches. But our lumber and lath are cut to suit 16 inches, and 
 this size is chosen. It gives more strength than what is 
 required. 
 
 No Partitions. All through, it will be noticed that no 
 partitions or special weights of that kind are included. These 
 must be added if there are any. Above a wide store floor 
 provision would have to be made for them, and that would 
 mean stronger joists or closer centers. But on the higher 
 floors the partitions might support the joists midway, and 
 allow lighter ones. The whole extra weight would be trans- 
 ferred down to the ones above the store when it came near the 
 center of the span. 
 
 Ceiling and Roof Joists. These should be tied together to 
 make a kind of a truss, and do not need to be figured in- 
 dependently. A 2 x 6 ceiling joist and a 2x10 roof joist, or 
 even a 2 x 8, can be so trussed as to make a splendid roof. 
 Sometimes or rather quite often 2 x 4 ceiling joists and 
 2x6 roof joists are made to serve. If plenty of 1x4 or 
 1x6 bracing is nailed on, a strong job can be made. This 
 applies to a flat roof. 
 
 Doubling. Under all partitions, at stairs, wide chimneys, 
 and such places, the joists must be doubled. If a special 
 weight comes upon a timber it stands to reason that a special 
 strength must be supplied to carry it. 
 
 Concentrated Load. If all the load comes midway on the 
 girder or joist, allow double thickness. In other words, only 
 half the load should be carried. 
 
 At a distance of 14 of the full span allow about 70 per 
 cent, of the safe distributed load. At % of the span, allow 
 \\ of the full load. Thus, supposing a beam 12 feet long 
 between supports carried a distributed load of 4,400 pounds, 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 231 
 
 it would have only 2,200 if all the load was put in the center; 
 at 3 feet from one end, 3,080; at 1 foot 6 inches from the end, 
 a little over 5,000. 
 
 Built-up Beam. In general, a beam of this kind is 
 stronger than a solid one. A solid beam might have, or might 
 develop, some imperfections that affected the strength; but the 
 different members of a built-up beam distribute the defect. 
 One plank in five might be bad, but the others would stand the 
 strain. But the planks must be well bolted or spiked together. 
 The joints should be broken. It does not seem to matter where 
 they come, so that they are well distributed. We used to make 
 such beams continuous, and not join them over columns or 
 posts. Just as it does not matter where reinforced concrete 
 is joined, above the girder or in the center of the span, so the 
 built-up beam is strong enough made either way jointed above 
 the post or continuous. 
 
 Experience. There are certain standard sizes used from 
 the one end of the land to the other, and we do not have to 
 stop to figure them. We know that 2 x 10 joists are large 
 enough for the ordinary dwelling, for they have been used ten 
 thousand times over for this purpose; w r e also know that a 
 
 2 x 14 may be used for store floors on a 22-foot span, 16-inch 
 centers without a girder, although 12-inch centers are often 
 used; and that with a girder, 2 x 12's set at 16 inches will carry 
 the load, for we have often seen 2 x 10's doing it; and 2x 14's 
 have been put over 26-foot spans of schoolrooms so many times 
 at 16-inch centers that we feel sure we are safe enough when 
 
 3 x 14's are specified; and smile when we have to put on 
 3xl6's. 
 
 Then all good carpenters know that doubling or cross 
 strengthening is required below partitions; that all around a 
 stair well there have to be two joists; that the same is true 
 at wide chimneys ; and that special weights have to be 
 specially provided for. Good common sense goes a long way 
 in building. We do not have to refer to tables of strength 
 every , time a difficulty arises. As noted in the educational 
 chapter, there are two ways of learning by book and by 
 experience. Knowledge is knowledge and nothing more or less, 
 no matter by which route we obtain it. 
 
 Warehouse Floors. These are sometimes laid with a fall 
 to the outside walls sufficient to drain off water in case of 
 
232 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 fire, and scuppers are placed in the walls of each floor to 
 allow it to run to the ground. The floor is put just a little 
 out of level, say i/ 8 -inch to the foot. In fires it is often said 
 that more damage is done by water than by flames. 
 
 Theory and Practice. I have seen long floors with joists, 
 or rather girders, they should be called, heavy enough to 
 astonish the carpenters who are accustomed to almost any- 
 thing. They were 8 x 16's, 24-inch centers, on a 22-foot span. 
 One floor was for a machine shop, and the other for light 
 storage. 
 
 Now, theory may say that such an arrangement is correct, 
 but the experienced men who laid the timbers kept up a run- 
 ning fire of banter. Why? Well, they saw that a railroad 
 engine could have been run over the floor. The space between 
 the timbers was only 16y 2 inches at most. 
 
 Load. The material was Oregon fir. On a 22-foot span 
 Kidder gives a load of 2,094 pounds for each inch, 16 inches 
 deep. Cutting off the 94 pounds for deficiency in size, and 
 multiplying by 7y 2 we have a total load of 15,000 pounds on 
 44 square feet, or 341 pounds to the square foot. Where there 
 is to be concentrated load, as with machines, that is not too 
 much, but for light storage it is twice what it should be. The 
 trouble seems to be with the tables. 
 
 The table in the Carnegie handbook allows 970 pounds per 
 inch for 16-inch deep on a 22-foot span for spruce. Turning 
 the 970 spruce into 1,250 for Oregon fir, and cutting off the 
 50 for deficiency in sizes, we find that the 7% inches supports 
 only 9,000 pounds. It is too safe. The carpenters smile even 
 if the professors frown. 
 
 Extra Precautions. This is also the trouble with that 
 excellent book, the Underwriters' code. It is often too safe. 
 
 The method given for calculating the uniformly distributed 
 load on floor beams is to multiply the area in square inches 
 by the depth in inches, and divide the product by the span of 
 the beam in feet. This figure is then multiplied by 
 
 70 for hemlock 
 
 90 for spruce and white pine 
 120 for oak 
 140 for yellow pine. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 233 
 
 In round numbers, spruce in Kidder is 1,630, while Oregon fir 
 is 2,100 on a 22-foot span. Increasing the Underwriters' factor 
 of 90 for spruce in the same proportion we get 116. 
 
 The sectional area of an 8 x 16 is 128. Multiplying this by 
 the depth of 16 inches = 2,048. Dividing by the length of 
 22 we have 93.1. Multiplying this by 116 we get the per- 
 missible load of 10,800 pounds. 
 
 Kidder thus gives us.. 15,000 
 Carnegie's Handbook .... 9,000 
 Underwriters 10,800 
 
 No deduction is made on the latter for deficiency in size 
 which would bring it down lower than 10,000. 
 
 The Underwriters give a simple way of figuring up the 
 strength instead of the lineal foot of formulas that the aver- 
 age professor needs to express the simplest idea. 
 
 Y. P. Only. In the West, at least, we may as well dis- 
 regard the other factors, and deal only with yellow pine. The 
 Underwriters' figure should be increased from 140 to 160, which 
 would still be below other standard tables, but would make 
 allowance for deficiency in size. 
 
 Rule. For Y. P. multiply the area of the section in square 
 inches by the depth in inches, and divide this product by 
 the clear span of the beam in feet. Then multiply the result 
 by 160 for the load in pounds. 
 
 Example. A 4 x 12 x 16' in clear would thus be: 4 x 12 = 
 48 x 12 = 576, which divided by 16 = 36 x 160 distributed 
 load of 5,760 pounds. 
 
 MILL CONSTRUCTION 
 
 What It Is. The Chicago code defines " mill construction " 
 as applying to all buildings in which all the girders and 
 joists supporting floors and roof have a sectional area of not 
 less than 72 square inches, and above the joists of which there 
 is laid a timber floor not less than 3% inches thick. Wooden 
 posts must not be less than 100 square inches in sectional area, 
 which means 10 x 10 for a square post. 
 
 Partitions and elevators have to be enclosed in non-com- 
 bustible material, but the posts, girders, and joists are left un- 
 
234 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 protected. No wood furring, wood lath, or stud partitions are 
 to be used in this kind of a building. 
 
 Slow Burning Construction, on the contrary, is protected 
 from fire as with metal lath and heavy coats of plaster. But 
 the posts if of oak with more than 100 square inches of area 
 need not be covered. The stairs must be of non-combustible 
 material. When a girder cannot be easily found in one piece, 
 two may be used side by side and bolted together, but this is 
 not considered so desirable. 
 
 The Underwriters' code defines mill construction as that in 
 which no structural material is less than 8 inches either way. 
 The floor plank must not be less than 3 inches, either splined, 
 or tongued and grooved. A spline is what a carpenter calls 
 a slip tongue or feather. On top a regular y 8 -inch floor 
 would be placed also tongued, running the cross way or 
 diagonally. Two thicknesses of waterproof material of some 
 kind would be put between the floors, and flashed 3 inches 
 up the posts or walls. 
 
 Wood Posts would not be less than 100 square inches, nor 
 less than 10 each w T ay, except in the top story, which might 
 be 8" x 8". They w r ould all have cast iron caps to serve as a 
 base for the post above. 
 
 Square Edged. While tongued and grooved top flooring is 
 an excellent material in every way, it seems that the square- 
 edged kind is better adapted for mills and manufacturing 
 buildings, not on account of safety from fire which might 
 the easier penetrate the joints from below, but on account 
 of wearing qualities. 
 
 Fire Resistance. The idea in mill construction is to make 
 the timbers so large that the fire, even if it gains headway, can 
 yet be checked before it burns through them, and the structure 
 can then be easily put in shape again. Where there are many 
 joists sticking down from the ceiling the fire has a good 
 chance to catch, but where four or five joists are combined 
 into one timber at four or five times the distance apart, the 
 danger is much lessened. The floor necessarily being heavier 
 on such spans is also harder to burn through. It takes a fire 
 a considerable time to eat through a 12 x 12 wood post, or an 
 8x16 girder. Then another advantage is that the wood does 
 not expand and buckle as iron and steel do. In the San 
 Francisco fire, in many buildings, and especially in the Fair- 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 235 
 
 mount Hotel, the unprotected cast iron columns failed as 
 the result of unequal expansion caused by the lugs. One 
 expert of the government said, " Cast iron columns in some 
 buildings endured the fire fairly well, but undoubtedly would 
 have been broken or shattered if cold water had been thrown 
 upon them in the midst of the great heat. They should no 
 longer be used." 
 
 Stairways, Hatchways, and so forth should be enclosed with 
 masonry. Every opening is blocked in some way to prevent 
 the fire from spreading, sometimes with tinned doors hung 
 so as to cover the opening when the fusible link melts. 
 
 No varnish or painting is allowed, as fire spreads quickly 
 over it, and some of the manufacturers object to covering the 
 surfaces on account of danger from dry rot. But sometimes 
 the whole interior surface is covered with cold water paint, 
 either put on by brush or a hose and nozzle. 
 
 No wood is used beyond what is absolutely necessary. We 
 have all seen buildings of this construction correct in every- 
 thing, yet filled in the inside with ceiling partitions, stair 
 rails, etc., that undo the care expended on the main body 
 of the work. 
 
 Scuppers are put in the walls to take care of the water in 
 case of fire or other cause of flood. In two cases that I know 
 of, the automatic sprinklers began to work through the night, 
 and flooded a drygoods store with water. Scuppers would 
 have saved some of the loss. 
 
 Distance. The floor beams in mill construction are seldom 
 placed closer than 4-foot centers, and usually about 6-foot or 
 8-foot, according to the load. The following table gives the 
 thickness of flooring to use. 
 
 LOADING OF Y. P. MILL FLOORS 
 
 Safe loads per square foot in pounds uniformly distributed. 
 The upper load is for strength. 
 
 The lower load is for stiffness and allows a deflection of 
 one-thirtieth of an inch per foot of span. 
 The weight of the floor itself is included. 
 
236 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Thickness 
 of Floor 
 
 Span in 
 Feet 
 
 Load per 
 Square Foot 
 
 
 4 
 
 317 
 167 
 
 1% 
 
 5 
 
 202 
 
 85 
 
 
 6 
 
 140 
 50 
 
 
 4 
 
 827 
 705 
 
 
 5 
 
 529 
 361 
 
 2% 
 
 6 
 
 367 
 209 
 
 
 7 
 
 269 
 131 
 
 
 8 
 
 206 
 
 88 
 
 
 5 
 
 1,009 
 951 
 
 
 6 
 
 700 
 550 
 
 3% 
 
 7 
 
 515 
 346 
 
 
 8 
 
 394 
 232 
 
 
 9 
 
 311 
 163 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 237 
 
 SAFE LOADS, IN TONS, UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED, FOR WOOD BEAMS 
 
 "3 oS 
 
 gX! 
 - 5 
 
 "3 % 
 -o-S 
 S 
 
 Distance Between Supports, in Feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^H 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 21 23 25 26 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.19 
 
 0.18 
 
 0.17 
 
 For White Pine, use 
 
 2x6 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.29 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.22 
 
 loads given for 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 0.84 
 
 0.63 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.46 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.31 
 
 0.29 
 
 0.28 
 
 Spruce 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 0.89 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.48 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.38 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.31 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.28 
 
 C.25 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.21 
 
 
 2x8 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 1.19 
 
 0.89 
 
 0.71 
 
 0.65 
 
 0.59 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.34 
 
 0.31 
 
 0.28 
 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 1.49 
 
 1.11 
 
 0.89 
 
 0.81 
 
 0.74 
 
 0.63 
 
 0.59 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.49 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.39 
 
 0.36 
 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 1.39 
 
 1.04 
 
 0.83 
 
 0.76 
 
 0.69 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.49 
 
 0.46 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.32 
 
 2x10 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 1.85 
 
 1.39 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.01 
 
 0.93 
 
 0.79 
 
 0.74 
 
 0.69 
 
 0.65 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.58 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.48 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.43 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 2.33 
 
 1.74 
 
 1.39 
 
 1.27 
 
 1.16 
 
 0.99 
 
 0.93 
 
 0.87 
 
 0.82 
 
 0.77 
 
 0.73 
 
 0.66 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.53 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.09 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.86 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.71 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.63 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.48 
 
 0.46 
 
 2x12 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 2.67 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.45 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.07 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.94 
 
 0.89 
 
 0.84 
 
 0.76 
 
 0.70 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.62 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 3.35 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.82 
 
 1.66 
 
 1.43 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.05 
 
 0.95 
 
 0.87 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.77 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.45 
 
 0.41 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.20 
 
 
 
 3x6 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.55 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.43 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.35 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.29 
 
 0.26 
 
 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 1.26 
 
 0.94 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.68 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.39 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.33 
 
 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.73 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.38 
 
 0.35 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.31 
 
 3x8 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 1.78 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.07 
 
 0.97 
 
 0.89 
 
 0.76 
 
 0.71 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.63 
 
 0.59 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.46 
 
 0.43 
 
 0.41 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 2.23 
 
 1.67 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.11 
 
 0.95 
 
 0.89 
 
 0.83 
 
 0.78 
 
 0.74 
 
 0.70 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.58 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.51 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 2.08 
 
 1.56 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.04 
 
 0.89 
 
 0.83 
 
 0.78 
 
 0.74 
 
 0.70 
 
 0.66 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.55 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.48 
 
 3x10 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.08 
 
 1.67 
 
 1.52 
 
 1.39 
 
 1.19 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.04 
 
 0.98 
 
 0.93 
 
 0.88 
 
 0.79 
 
 0.72 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.64 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 3.49 
 
 2.61 
 
 2.08 
 
 1.90 
 
 1.73 
 
 1.49 
 
 1.39 
 
 1.30 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.16 
 
 1.10 
 
 0.99 
 
 0.91 
 
 0.83 
 
 0.80 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.25 
 
 1.80 
 
 1.64 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.29 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.13 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.95 
 
 0.86 
 
 0.79 
 
 0.72 
 
 0.69 
 
 3x12 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.18 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.71 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.41 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.04 
 
 0.96 
 
 0.92 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 5.02 
 
 3.76 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.73 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.14 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.88 
 
 1.76 
 
 1.67 
 
 1.58 
 
 1.43 
 
 1.30 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.16 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 4.08 
 
 3.06 
 
 2.45 
 
 2.23 
 
 2.04 
 
 1.75 
 
 1.63 
 
 1.53 
 
 1.44 
 
 1.36 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.17 
 
 1.07 
 
 0.98 
 
 0.94 
 
 3x14 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 5.45 
 
 4.08 
 
 3.27 
 
 2.97 
 
 2.72 
 
 2.37 
 
 2.18 
 
 2.04 
 
 1.92 
 
 1.82 
 
 1.72 
 
 1.56 
 
 1.42 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.25 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 6.84 
 
 5.11 
 
 4.08 
 
 3.72 
 
 3.40 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.72 
 
 2.56 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.27 
 
 2.15 
 
 1.95 
 
 1.78 
 
 1.63 
 
 1.57 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 5.33 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.20 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.67 
 
 2.29 
 
 2.13 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.88 
 
 1.78 
 
 1.68 
 
 1.52 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.23 
 
 3x16 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 7.11 
 
 5.33 
 
 4.27 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.05 
 
 2.84 
 
 2.67 
 
 2.51 
 
 2.37 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.03 
 
 1.86 
 
 1.71 
 
 1.64 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 8.93 
 
 6.68 
 
 5.33 
 
 4.86 
 
 4.44 
 
 3.80 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.34 
 
 3.13 
 
 2.97 
 
 2.80 
 
 2.54 
 
 2.32 
 
 2.13 
 
 2.05 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.08 
 
 1.67 
 
 1.52 
 
 1.39 
 
 1.19 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.04 
 
 0.98 
 
 0.93 
 
 0.88 
 
 0.79 
 
 0.72 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.64 
 
 4x10 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 3.70 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.22 
 
 2.02 
 
 1.85 
 
 1.59 
 
 1.48 
 
 1.39 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.23 
 
 1.17 
 
 1.06 
 
 0.97 
 
 0.89 
 
 0.85 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 4.65 
 
 3.48 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.53 
 
 2.31 
 
 1.98 
 
 1.85 
 
 1.74 
 
 1.63 
 
 1.54 
 
 1.46 
 
 1.32 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.07 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.18 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.71 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.41 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.05 
 
 0.96 
 
 0.92 
 
 4x12 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 5.33 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.20 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.67 
 
 2.29 
 
 2.13 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.88 
 
 1.78 
 
 1.68 
 
 1.52 
 
 1.39 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.23 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 6.70 
 
 5.01 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.65 
 
 3.33 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.67 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.35 
 
 2.19 
 
 2.10 
 
 1.91 
 
 1.74 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.54 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 5.44 
 
 4.08 
 
 3.27 
 
 2.97 
 
 2.72 
 
 2.33 
 
 2.18 
 
 2.04 
 
 1.92 
 
 1.82 
 
 1.72 
 
 1.56 
 
 1.42 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.25 
 
 4x14 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 7.26 
 
 5.44 
 
 4.36 
 
 3.96 
 
 3.63 
 
 3.11 
 
 2.90 
 
 2.72 
 
 2.56 
 
 2.42 
 
 2.29 
 
 2.07 
 
 1.90 
 
 1.74 
 
 1.68 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 9.12 
 
 6.82 
 
 5.44 
 
 4.96 
 
 4.53 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.63 
 
 3.41 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.03 
 
 2.86 
 
 2.60 
 
 2.37 
 
 2.18 
 
 2.10 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 7.11 
 
 5.33 
 
 4.27 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.05 
 
 2.84 
 
 2.67 
 
 2.51 
 
 2.37 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.03 
 
 1.86 
 
 1.71 
 
 1.64 
 
 4x16 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 9.48 
 
 7.11 
 
 5.69 
 
 5.17 
 
 4.74 
 
 4.06 
 
 3.79 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.35 
 
 3.16 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.71 
 
 2.47 
 
 2.28 
 
 2.19 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 11.91 
 
 8.90 
 
 7.11 
 
 6.48 
 
 5.92 
 
 5.07 
 
 4.74 
 
 4.45 
 
 4.18 
 
 3.95 
 
 3.74 
 
 3.39 
 
 3.10 
 
 2.84 
 
 2.74 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 9.00 
 
 6.75 
 
 5.40 
 
 4.91 
 
 4.50 
 
 3.86 
 
 3.60 
 
 3.38 
 
 3.18 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.84 
 
 2.57 
 
 2.35 
 
 2.16 
 
 2.08 
 
 4x18 
 
 W. Oak 
 
 12.00 
 
 9.00 
 
 7.20 
 
 6.55 
 
 6.00 
 
 5.14 
 
 4.80 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.24 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.79 
 
 3.43 
 
 3.13 
 
 2.88 
 
 2.77 
 
 
 Y. Pine 
 
 15.10 
 
 11.30 
 
 9.00 
 
 8.20 
 
 7.49 
 
 6.42 
 
 6.00 
 
 5.63 
 
 5.29 
 
 5.00 
 
 4.73 
 
 4.29 
 
 3.92 
 
 3.60 
 
 3.47 
 
238 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Cost. In the " Estimator " there is a cost table of mill 
 construction work with sizes running from 6x12 to 8x16, and 
 from 2-foot up to 8-foot centers. In some warehouses with 
 heavy loads joists are put in with closer centers than for mill 
 construction, and the table of cost is made out to suit. 
 
 Partitions. If they must be put in mill construction they 
 should be made of solid plaster on expanded metal, or of 
 plank two or three inches thick. 
 
 Hangers. In much of this heavy work hangers are used 
 entirely, and the timbers never allowed to rest directly upon 
 the wall or girder. 
 
 Ground Floors. For floors suitable for this kind of mill 
 and warehouse construction we used the following mixture on 
 several railroad shops: 8 barrels of cinders to 1 of coal tar, 
 laid 6 inches thick, with 3" x 4" bedded in the mixture at 
 16-inch centers, and covered with 3-inch flooring. This was 
 coal tar, and not water gas tar, which is a good deal cheaper. 
 
 It is claimed by some that asphalt is a better material to 
 use for such floors than coal tar, cinders, and wood. The tar 
 evaporates, and the substance or life goes out of it. But 
 asphalt cannot be used where oil is dropping on it all the 
 while. 
 
 Roofs. Some of the insurance men want plank roofs about 
 3 inches thick. This is for the same reason that thick timbers 
 are used in mill construction. The slope recommended is 
 y 2 -inch to the foot, and this is enough for gravel and such 
 roofs. 
 
 Slope of Eoofs. For flat seam tin, not less than y 2 -inch; 
 for standing seam, not less than 2 inches; for gravel, not 
 more than 1 inch, although iy 2 inches may be used if required. 
 I have seen several large roofs with 2 inches, and the gravel 
 washes off and fills the sewers where they are connected to the 
 downspouts. 
 
 Wood shingles should not have less than 8 inches in 12 
 inches, or ^ pitch, but sometimes only 6 inches to 12, or 
 1/4 pitch is made. This is too low in a rainy climate. When 
 rooms are to be used in the attic, half pitch is best. On a 
 22-foot span this would be 11 feet. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 LOADS UPON POSTS, COLUMNS, LINTELS, RODS, 
 AND ROPES 
 
 Bridges. When serving my apprenticeship the foreman 
 came to my bench one winter morning and said, " Do you 
 know that the Tay Bridge has fallen?" That seemed to be 
 impossible, yet it had gone into the river with a trainload of 
 passengers. It was a case of bad wind bracing, bad material, 
 and unsafe loading. 
 
 In 1907 the splendid Quebec Bridge went smash into the 
 St. Lawrence. About 100 workmen went with it to their 
 death. The report of the crash was heard for a distance of 
 six miles. 
 
 As we think of such terrible disasters, and of many col- 
 lapsed buildings, both of steel and reinforced concrete con- 
 struction, we are reminded of Mr. Edison's saying that we know 
 just about one-billionth part of one per cent, about anything. 
 Even the theories about poured cement houses do not work 
 out as they should. 
 
 Proverbs. There are two old sayings worth noting. One is 
 that all extremes are wrong; and the other that safety lies 
 in the middle. 
 
 Thick Metal. One day in an architectural office we were 
 interested at the story a draftsman told. It seems that while 
 he was working in a foundry, a man from the wildest part of 
 the West sent in an order for a 6-inch column with 2-inch 
 metal, to hold up a light store front that did not extend more 
 than one story above the I-beams, if even so much as that. 
 I think it was only for a cornice. The foundryman laughed, 
 but had conscience enough not to cast it. The freight would 
 have been too high. 
 
 The following tables are meant to keep any man from 
 making out such an order. The contractor-architect is not 
 equipped with the learning of the schools, and the tables will 
 
 239 
 
240 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 help him out of the worst difficulties of the structural 
 part. 
 
 Averages. The method employed, in general, in arriving 
 at the safe load for wooden posts was very simple. The high- 
 est table and the lowest of unimpeachable authorities were 
 taken, shaken together, and divided by two. For those who 
 think that this is not exactly a scientific method it may be 
 well to respectfully call their attention to the two bridges 
 just spoken of, to the Darlington steel frame hotel in New 
 York City, to the reinforced concrete building in Long Beach, 
 Calif., both of which fell; and to so many others from the 
 Atlantic to the Pacific that it would take up too much space 
 even to list them here. Evidently, whether we call them 
 " artchitects," or architects, they have still a good deal to 
 learn, and need not pretend to too much accuracy. 
 
 Decimals. Tons are given in even figures. Why potter 
 with decimals when the best authorities sometimes differ as 
 much as 50 per cent, in their loads? 
 
 Posts when dressed are usually y 2 -inch less than the marked 
 size, but this may be safely neglected when one standard table 
 is made out for much more of a load than is allowed here. 
 
 SAFE LOADS, IN TONS, OF 2,000 POUNDS FOR SQUARE WOOD POSTS 
 SPRUCE OR WHITE PINE 
 
 Length 
 
 Size 
 
 ft. 
 
 6x6 
 
 8x8 
 
 10x10 
 
 12x12 
 
 14x14 
 
 16x16 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 31 
 
 47 
 
 62 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 29 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 43 
 
 58 
 
 76 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 41 
 
 56 
 
 74 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 39 
 
 54 
 
 72 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 37 
 
 52 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 36 
 
 50 
 
 68 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 35 
 
 49 
 
 66 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 34 
 
 47 
 
 64 
 
 Yellow Pine Square Posts 
 
 8 13 24 39 58 80 100 
 
 10 12 23 38 54 78 100 
 
 12 11 22 37 52 75 100 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 241 
 Yellow Pine Square Posts 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 36 
 
 50 
 
 73 
 
 96 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 48 
 
 71 
 
 92 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 34 
 
 46 
 
 69 
 
 88 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 33 
 
 44 
 
 67 
 
 84 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 42 
 
 65 
 
 81 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 63 
 
 78 
 
 For Oak and Norway Pine allow from 15 to 20 per cent, 
 less weight than on the above Y. P. list. 
 
 Yellow Pine Rectangular Posts 
 Safe loads in pounds per square inch for various values 
 
 f YD- 
 
 L = Length of post in inches. 
 
 D Least side in inches. 
 
 L 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 ~D 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 1 
 
 998 
 
 11 
 
 877 
 
 21 
 
 697 
 
 32 
 
 535 
 
 2 
 
 994 
 
 12 
 
 859 
 
 22 
 
 680 
 
 34 
 
 511 
 
 3 
 
 988 
 
 13 
 
 841 
 
 23 
 
 664 
 
 36 
 
 489 
 
 4 
 
 979 
 
 14 
 
 823 
 
 24 
 
 648 
 
 38 
 
 468 
 
 5 
 
 969 
 
 15 
 
 804 
 
 25 
 
 632 
 
 40 
 
 448 
 
 6 
 
 956 
 
 16 
 
 786 
 
 26 
 
 617 
 
 42 
 
 429 
 
 7 
 
 942 
 
 17 
 
 768 
 
 27 
 
 602 
 
 44 
 
 412 
 
 8 
 
 927 
 
 18 
 
 749 
 
 28 
 
 588 
 
 46 
 
 396 
 
 9 
 
 912 
 
 19 
 
 T32 
 
 29 
 
 574 
 
 48 
 
 381 
 
 10 
 
 895 
 
 20 
 
 714 
 
 30 
 
 561 
 
 50 
 
 367 
 
 Method of using above table: The weight is given in pounds, 
 and not in tons, as the others are; and for a square inch 
 
242 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 alone, and not for the whole post. Get the length of the post 
 in inches, and divide this by the least thickness. Thus, a 
 10 x 14 would give 10, and an 8 x 12 would give 8 for a 
 divisor. Look down th^ lines L / D and find a number the 
 same as the result. Opposite this will be found the per- 
 missible load per square inch. 
 
 Example. What load may be put on a wood post, un- 
 braced between head and foot, if 10"xl4"xl6' long? There 
 are 192 inches in 16 feet. Dividing this by 10, as the smallest 
 side, we get 19.2. Looking down the column for the nearest 
 number of 19 we find the weight of 732 pounds per square 
 inch. Supposing the post to be full size we multiply 140 
 square inches by 732, and get the total load of 102,480 pounds, 
 or 51 tons. 
 
 Boring. A wood post should be bored from end to end, and 
 have a small hole bored in at top and bottom to connect with 
 the long one. This is to allow air to pass through and 
 prevent dry rot. About the time of this writing there was a 
 wall-paper factory burned in West 34th Street, New York. It 
 was of mill construction, and the posts were of ample size. It 
 was only 18 years old, yet dry rot had eaten the strength out 
 of the 14- and 15-inch oak posts. There must be a iy 2 -inch 
 hole from end to end, and a %-inch connecting cross one to let 
 air through. This saves checking as well as dry rot. 
 
 Fire. Perhaps the day of the wood post is passing. 
 Probably we shall go back to the old style of brick piers 
 clear from foundation to roof, or reinforced concrete, instead 
 of steel, iron, or wood supports. One engineer has preached 
 against the interior steel columns for years. 
 
 If it is said that a brick pier 2' x 2' looks too clumsy in 
 the center of a floor, we might reply that it is far more in 
 keeping with the architecture of a heavy factory or warehouse 
 than on the front of a porch, and now we see piers of this size 
 all over the country supporting light porch cornices. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 243 
 
 SAFE LOADS, IN TONS, FOR HOLLOW ROUND CAST 
 COLUMNS 
 
 Diam 
 in 
 In. 
 
 Thick- 
 ness in 
 Inches 
 
 Unsupported Length, in Feet 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 % 
 
 50 
 
 43 
 
 37 
 
 32 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 /8 
 
 57 
 
 50 
 
 42 
 
 36 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 % 
 
 62 
 
 56 
 
 49 
 
 43 
 
 38 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 71 
 
 64 
 
 57 
 
 49 
 
 43 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 % 
 
 75 
 
 69 
 
 62 
 
 56 
 
 50 
 
 44 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 /8 
 
 86 
 
 79 
 
 71 
 
 64 
 
 57 
 
 50 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 97 
 
 89 
 
 81 
 
 72 
 
 63 
 
 56 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 % 
 
 101 
 
 94 
 
 86 
 
 78 
 
 70 
 
 63 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 113 
 
 105 
 
 97 
 
 88 
 
 79 
 
 71 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 
 
 1% 
 
 126 
 
 117 
 
 107 
 
 97 
 
 88 
 
 79 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 7 /8 
 
 116 
 
 109 
 
 101 
 
 93 
 
 85 
 
 78 
 
 71 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 
 
 130 
 
 122 
 
 114 
 
 105 
 
 96 
 
 88 
 
 80 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 
 1% 
 
 145 
 
 136 
 
 126 
 
 117 
 
 107 
 
 97 
 
 88 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 1^4 
 
 158 
 
 149 
 
 139 
 
 128 
 
 117 
 
 107 
 
 97 
 
 88 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 147 
 
 139 
 
 131 
 
 122 
 
 113 
 
 104 
 
 96 
 
 88 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 1% 
 
 163 
 
 155 
 
 146 
 
 136 
 
 126 
 
 116 
 
 106 
 
 97 
 
 89 
 
 
 
 IV* 
 
 179 
 
 170 
 
 160 
 
 149 
 
 138 
 
 127 
 
 117 
 
 107 
 
 98 
 
 
 
 1% 
 
 195 
 
 185 
 
 174 
 
 162 
 
 150 
 
 138 
 
 127 
 
 117 
 
 106 
 
 
 12 
 
 1% 
 
 181 
 
 174 
 
 165 
 
 155 
 
 145 
 
 135 
 
 125 
 
 115 
 
 106 
 
 98 
 
 
 1% 
 
 199 
 
 191 
 
 181 
 
 170 
 
 159 
 
 148 
 
 137 
 
 127 
 
 117 
 
 108 
 
 
 1% 
 
 217 
 
 207 
 
 197 
 
 185 
 
 173 
 
 161 
 
 149 
 
 138 
 
 127 
 
 117 
 
 
 1% 
 
 234 
 
 224 
 
 212 
 
 200 
 
 187 
 
 173 
 
 161 
 
 149 
 
 137 
 
 126 
 
 13 
 
 1% 
 
 200 
 
 192 
 
 184 
 
 174 
 
 164 
 
 154 
 
 144 
 
 134 
 
 125 
 
 116 
 
 
 1% 
 
 219 
 
 211 
 
 202 
 
 191 
 
 180 
 
 169 
 
 158 
 
 147 
 
 137 
 
 127 
 
 
 1% 
 
 239 
 
 230 
 
 220 
 
 208 
 
 196 
 
 184 
 
 172 
 
 160 
 
 149 
 
 138 
 
 
 iy 2 
 
 258 
 
 248 
 
 237 
 
 225 
 
 212 
 
 199 
 
 186 
 
 173 
 
 161 
 
 149 
 
 14 
 
 1% 
 
 
 232 
 
 223 
 
 213 
 
 202 
 
 191 
 
 180 
 
 168 
 
 157 
 
 147 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 253 
 
 243 
 
 232 
 
 220 
 
 207 
 
 195 
 
 183 
 
 171 
 
 160 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 273 
 
 263 
 
 251 
 
 238 
 
 224 
 
 211 
 
 198 
 
 185 
 
 173 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 293 
 
 282 
 
 269 
 
 255 
 
 241 
 
 227 
 
 212 
 
 198 
 
 185 
 
 15 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 266 
 
 255 
 
 243 
 
 231 
 
 219 
 
 206 
 
 194 
 
 182 
 
 
 iy 2 
 
 
 
 287 
 
 276 
 
 263 
 
 250 
 
 236 
 
 223 
 
 210 
 
 197 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 309 
 
 296 
 
 283 
 
 268 
 
 254 
 
 239 
 
 225 
 
 211 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 329 
 
 316 
 
 301 
 
 286 
 
 271 
 
 255 
 
 240 
 
 225 
 
 16 
 
 iy 2 
 
 
 
 
 301 
 
 288 
 
 275 
 
 262 
 
 248 
 
 235 
 
 222 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 
 323 
 
 310 
 
 296 
 
 282 
 
 267 
 
 253 
 
 239 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 
 345 
 
 331 
 
 316 
 
 300 
 
 285 
 
 270 
 
 254 
 
244 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 SAFE LOADS, IN TONS, FOR HOLLOW SQUARE 
 CAST COLUMNS 
 
 Side 
 in 
 
 Thick- 
 ness in 
 
 Unsupported Length, in Feet 
 
 In. 
 
 Inches 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 % 
 
 ~67 
 
 ~60 
 
 ~53 
 
 ~46 
 
 ~40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 76 
 
 68 
 
 60 
 
 52 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 % 
 
 83 
 
 76 
 
 69 
 
 61 
 
 54 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 94 
 
 87 
 
 79 
 
 70 
 
 62 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 % 
 
 99 
 
 92 
 
 85 
 
 78 
 
 70 
 
 63 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 /8 
 
 113 
 
 106 
 
 98 
 
 89 
 
 80 
 
 72 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 127 
 
 119 
 
 110 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 81 
 
 73 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 % 
 
 131 
 
 124 
 
 116 
 
 107 
 
 99 
 
 91 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 148 
 
 140 
 
 131 
 
 121 
 
 112 
 
 103 
 
 94 
 
 
 
 
 
 1% 
 
 164 
 
 155 
 
 145 
 
 134 
 
 123 
 
 113 
 
 103 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 7 /8 
 
 150 
 
 143 
 
 135 
 
 126 
 
 118 
 
 109 
 
 100 
 
 92 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 169 
 
 161 
 
 153 
 
 143 
 
 133 
 
 123 
 
 114 
 
 105 
 
 
 
 
 1% 
 
 187 
 
 179 
 
 169 
 
 158 
 
 147 
 
 136 
 
 126 
 
 116 
 
 
 
 
 1% 
 
 206 
 
 196 
 
 186 
 
 174 
 
 162 
 
 150 
 
 138 
 
 127 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 i 
 
 190 
 
 183 
 
 174 
 
 165 
 
 155 
 
 144 
 
 135 
 
 125 
 
 116 
 
 
 
 1% 
 
 211 
 
 203 
 
 193 
 
 183 
 
 172 
 
 160 
 
 150 
 
 139 
 
 129 
 
 
 
 1% 
 
 232 
 
 223 
 
 212 
 
 201 
 
 189 
 
 177 
 
 166 
 
 154 
 
 142 
 
 
 
 1% 
 
 251 
 
 242 
 
 230 
 
 218 
 
 205 
 
 191 
 
 179 
 
 167 
 
 157 
 
 
 12 
 
 1% 
 
 234 
 
 226 
 
 217 
 
 207 
 
 196 
 
 185 
 
 174 
 
 163 
 
 153 
 
 143 
 
 
 1% 
 
 258 
 
 249 
 
 239 
 
 228 
 
 216 
 
 204 
 
 192 
 
 179 
 
 167 
 
 156 
 
 
 1% 
 
 279 
 
 270 
 
 260 
 
 247 
 
 235 
 
 221 
 
 208 
 
 195 
 
 182 
 
 169 
 
 
 iy a 
 
 301 
 
 292 
 
 280 
 
 267 
 
 253 
 
 239 
 
 225 
 
 210 
 
 197 
 
 184 
 
 13 
 
 1% 
 
 257 
 
 250 
 
 241 
 
 231 
 
 221 
 
 210 
 
 199 
 
 187 
 
 176 
 
 165 
 
 
 1% 
 
 283 
 
 275 
 
 266 
 
 255 
 
 243 
 
 232 
 
 219 
 
 206 
 
 194 
 
 182 
 
 
 1% 
 
 308 
 
 299 
 
 289 
 
 277 
 
 265 
 
 250 
 
 237 
 
 224 
 
 211 
 
 198 
 
 
 iy 2 
 
 332 
 
 323 
 
 312 
 
 299 
 
 286 
 
 271 
 
 257 
 
 242 
 
 228 
 
 214 
 
 14 
 
 1% 
 
 
 301 
 
 292 
 
 282 
 
 271 
 
 259 
 
 247 
 
 234 
 
 221 
 
 209 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 328 
 
 318 
 
 306 
 
 294 
 
 281 
 
 268 
 
 254 
 
 240 
 
 227 
 
 
 iy 2 
 
 
 354 
 
 343 
 
 331 
 
 318 
 
 304 
 
 290 
 
 275 
 
 260 
 
 245 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 380 
 
 368 
 
 355 
 
 341 
 
 326 
 
 311 
 
 295 
 
 279 
 
 263 
 
 15 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 347 
 
 336 
 
 324 
 
 311 
 
 298 
 
 284 
 
 270 
 
 256 
 
 
 iy 2 
 
 
 
 375 
 
 363 
 
 350 
 
 336 
 
 322 
 
 307 
 
 292 
 
 277 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 402 
 
 390 
 
 376 
 
 361 
 
 345 
 
 329 
 
 313 
 
 297 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 430 
 
 416 
 
 401 
 
 385 
 
 368 
 
 351 
 
 334 
 
 318 
 
 16 
 
 iy 2 
 
 
 
 
 395 
 
 383 
 
 369 
 
 354 
 
 339 
 
 324 
 
 310 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 
 424 
 
 411 
 
 396 
 
 380 
 
 364 
 
 348 
 
 332 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 
 453 
 
 439 
 
 423 
 
 407 
 
 389 
 
 371 
 
 354 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 245 
 
 WEIGHT OF SQUARE CAST IRON COLS IN LBS PER LF 
 (Birkmire) 
 
 PI- 
 
 Thickness of Metal in In 
 
 2a + 
 2b 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 7 A \ 1 
 
 1H 
 
 IH 
 
 1^ 
 
 1M 
 
 2 
 
 *12 
 
 18.6 
 
 21.1 
 
 23.3 
 
 25.0 
 
 26.4 
 
 27.3 
 
 28.1 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 22.5 
 
 25.8 
 
 28.7 
 
 31.3 
 
 33.4 
 
 35.1 
 
 37.5 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 26.4 
 
 30.5 
 
 34.2 
 
 37.5 
 
 40.4 
 
 43.0 
 
 46.9 
 
 49.2 
 
 50.0 
 
 18 
 
 30.3 
 
 35.2 
 
 39.7 
 
 43.8 
 
 47.4 
 
 50.8 
 
 56.3 
 
 60.2 62.5 
 
 20 
 
 34.2 
 
 39.8 
 
 45.1 
 
 50.0 
 
 54,5 
 
 58.6 
 
 65.6 
 
 71.1 
 
 75.0 
 
 22 
 
 38.1 
 
 44.5 
 
 50.6 
 
 56.3 
 
 61.5 
 
 66.4 
 
 75.0 
 
 82.0 
 
 87.5 
 
 24 
 
 42.0 
 
 49.2 
 
 56.1 
 
 62.5 
 
 68.5 
 
 74.2 
 
 84.4 
 
 93.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 26 
 
 45.9 
 
 53.9 
 
 61.5 
 
 68.8 
 
 75.6 
 
 82.0 
 
 93.8 
 
 103.9 
 
 112.5 
 
 28 
 
 49.8 
 
 58.6 
 
 67.0 
 
 75.0 
 
 82.6 
 
 89.8 
 
 103.1 
 
 114.8 
 
 125.0 
 
 30 
 
 53.7 
 
 63.3 
 
 72.5 
 
 81.3 
 
 89.6 
 
 97.7 
 
 112.5 
 
 125.8 
 
 137.5 
 
 32 
 
 57.6 
 
 68.0 
 
 77.9 
 
 87.5 
 
 96.7 
 
 105.5 
 
 121.9 
 
 136.7 
 
 150.0 
 
 34 
 
 61.5 
 
 72.7 
 
 83.4 
 
 93.8 
 
 103.7 
 
 113.3 
 
 131.3 
 
 147.7 
 
 162.5 
 
 36 
 
 65.4 
 
 77.3 
 
 88.9 
 
 100.0 
 
 110.7 
 
 121.1 
 
 140.6 
 
 158.6 
 
 175.0 
 
 38 
 
 69.3 
 
 82.0 
 
 94.3 
 
 106.3 
 
 117.8 
 
 128.9 
 
 150.0 
 
 169.5 
 
 187.5 
 
 40 
 
 73.2 
 
 86.7 
 
 99.8 
 
 112.5 
 
 124.8 
 
 136.7 
 
 159.4 
 
 180.5 
 
 200.0 
 
 42 
 
 77.1 
 
 91.4 
 
 105.3 
 
 118.8 
 
 131.8 
 
 144.5 
 
 168.8 
 
 191.4 
 
 212.5 
 
 44 
 
 81.0 
 
 96.1 
 
 110.8 
 
 125.0 
 
 138.8 
 
 152.3 
 
 178.1 
 
 202.3 
 
 225.0 
 
 46 
 
 84.9 
 
 100.8 
 
 116.2 
 
 131.3 
 
 145.9 
 
 160.2 
 
 187.5 
 
 213.3 
 
 237.5 
 
 48 
 
 88.8 
 
 105.5 
 
 121.7 
 
 137.5 
 
 152.9 
 
 168.0 
 
 196.9 
 
 224.2 
 
 250.0 
 
 50 
 
 92.8 
 
 110.2 
 
 127.2 
 
 143.8 
 
 159.9 
 
 175.8 
 
 206.3 
 
 235.2 
 
 262.5 
 
 52 
 
 96.7 
 
 114.8 
 
 132.6 
 
 150.0 
 
 167.0 
 
 183.6 
 
 215.6 
 
 246.1 
 
 275.0 
 
 54 1 100.6 
 
 118.5 
 
 138.1 
 
 156.3 
 
 174.0 
 
 191.4 
 
 225.0 
 
 257.0 
 
 287.5 
 
 56 
 
 104.5 
 
 124.2 
 
 143.6 
 
 162.5 
 
 181.0 
 
 199.2 
 
 234.4 
 
 268.0 
 
 300.0 
 
 58 
 
 108.4 
 
 128.9 
 
 149.0 
 
 166.8 
 
 188.1 
 
 207.0 
 
 243.8 
 
 278.9 
 
 312.5 
 
 60 
 
 112.3 
 
 133.6 
 
 154.5 
 
 175.0 
 
 195.1 
 
 214.9 
 
 253.2 
 
 289.8 
 
 325.0 
 
 62 
 
 116.2 
 
 138.3 
 
 160.0 
 
 181.3 
 
 202.1 
 
 222.7 
 
 262.5 
 
 300.8 
 
 337.5 
 
 64 
 
 120.1 
 
 143.0 
 
 165.4 
 
 187.5 
 
 209.2 
 
 230.5 
 
 271.9 
 
 311.7 
 
 350.0 
 
 66 
 
 124.0 147.7 
 
 170.9 
 
 193.8 
 
 216.2 
 
 238.3 
 
 281.3 
 
 322.7 
 
 362.5 
 
 68 
 
 127.9 
 
 152.3 
 
 176.4 
 
 200.0 
 
 223.2 
 
 246.1 
 
 290.6 
 
 333.6 
 
 375.0 
 
 70 ; 131.8 
 
 157.0 
 
 181.8 
 
 206.3 
 
 230.3 
 
 253.9 
 
 300.0 
 
 344.5 
 
 387.5 
 
 72 
 
 135.7 
 
 161.7 
 
 187.3 
 
 212.5 
 
 237.3 
 
 261.7 
 
 309.4 
 
 355.5 
 
 400.0 
 
 74 
 
 139.6 
 
 166.4 
 
 192.8 
 
 218.8 
 
 244.3 
 
 269.5 
 
 318.8 
 
 366.4 
 
 412.5 
 
 76 
 
 143.5 
 
 171.1 
 
 198.3 
 
 225.0 
 
 251.3 
 
 277.3 
 
 328.1 
 
 377.3 
 
 425.0 
 
 78 
 
 147.4 
 
 175.8 
 
 203.7 
 
 231.3 
 
 258.4 
 
 285.2 
 
 337.5 
 
 388.3 
 
 437.5 
 
 80 
 
 151.3 
 
 180.5 
 
 207.2 
 
 237.5 
 
 265.4 
 
 293.0 
 
 346.9 
 
 399.2 
 
 450.0 
 
 * A and b = either side (outside measurement). 2a + 2b = number, 
 ance has been made in above table for corners counted twice. 
 
 Allow- 
 
 EX AMPLE: What is the weight per If of a 12"xl6"xl" thick 
 
 col? 
 
 ANS: 2a -|- 2b = 24 -p 32 56. Opposite this number, under 
 
 1 inch thick metal, we find 162.5, which is \veight per ]f in Ibs 
 
 for a col of this size. 
 

 i 
 
 26. 
 
 95 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 82. 
 
 71 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 98. 
 
 03 
 
 
 1 
 
 38. 
 
 59 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 119 
 
 46 
 
 
 1 
 
 43. 
 
 96 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 78. 
 
 40 
 
 11 
 
 li 
 
 139 
 
 .68 
 
 1 
 
 
 49 
 
 01 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 94 
 
 94 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 158 
 
 ,68 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 53. 
 
 76 
 
 9 
 
 li 
 
 110. 
 
 26 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 176 
 
 ,44 
 
 
 3 
 
 45 
 
 .96 
 
 9 
 
 if 
 
 124 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 107 
 
 .51 
 
 1 
 
 
 58 
 
 .90 
 
 10 
 
 i 
 
 88 
 
 .23 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 131 
 
 .41 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 64 
 
 .77 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 107 
 
 .23 
 
 12 
 
 li 
 
 154 
 
 .10 
 
 
 I 
 
 53 
 
 .29 
 
 10 
 
 li 
 
 124 
 
 .99 
 
 12 
 
 If 
 
 175 
 
 .53 
 
 246 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 WEIGHT OF ROUND CAST IRON COLUMNS 
 
 Diam Thickness Weight Diam Thickness Weight Diam Thickness Weight 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 8 
 8 1 68.64 10 If 141.65 12 2 195.75 
 
 RECTANGULAR COLUMNS 
 
 If a square column is not suitable it is easy to figure out 
 one of a rectangular shape from the square column table. 
 
 Take a column, for illustration, 10" x 10", iy 8 " metal x 10' 
 long. It is listed to carry 169 tons. Two sides at 10 inches = 
 20 inches, and two at 7% inches make 15% inches, a total 
 length if spread out of 35%"xiy 8 " thick. For the same 
 weight of 169 tons we require the same area of metal put 
 into the particular size w r e want to suit a store front or some 
 other part of a building where a square column would not do. 
 
 Example. Suppose it has to be only 7 inches wide on the 
 front, what would be the other size? Twice 7 are 14 for 
 the front and back. Taken from 35% this leaves 21% inches. 
 The half of this is 10% inches, which added to the thickness 
 of front and back, each 1% inches thick, makes 13 inches. 
 The column would therefore be 7"xl3". 
 
 Example. Another method is to get the area of the metal 
 on the end, and make the new column thicker or thinner as 
 may be required to fill out the new depth. Take as before a 
 square column 35%"xl%". In decimals this is 35.5 and 
 1.125. Multiplying these we get 39.9375, or 40 square inches 
 required. Suppose the column has to be 7 inches, but cannot 
 be more than 11 deep instead of 13, how thick has the metal 
 to be? 
 
 The area has to be 40 square inches, the outside size 7"x 11" 
 i= 77 square inches, and the difference of 37 square inches must 
 be the opening in the end. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 247 
 
 As a rough and ready way to get at it we may assume the 
 metal to be 1 inch thick. Around the outside of the column is 
 36 inches, but owing to the overlapping of the corners we 
 should have only 34 square inches of section. We can work 
 it by simple proportion thus: If 34 square inches require 
 1-inch metal, what thickness will 40 require? In the pro- 
 portion of 34 to 40. Dividing 40 by 34 we get 1.18 inches 
 thick. Multiplying the .18 by 16 to get it to 16ths of an 
 inch we get 2.88, or practically T 3 ff . The metal would be made 
 ly 3 ^ inches. 
 
 We can now reverse the process and test this. The decimal 
 of T 3 g inch is .1875. We have front and back, making to- 
 gether 14 inches; and two sides 9 T 3 g inches each, a total of 
 3310, or 33%. The decimal for % is .625. We therefore 
 have a section of metal 33.625 inches long by a thickness of 
 1 T \ or 1.1875. When multiplied these make 39.93 square 
 inches, or closer to 40 than a foundryman will make it. 
 
 SAFE LOADS, IN TONS OF 2,000 POUNDS, FOR HOLLOW 
 RECTANGULAR CAST IRON COLUMNS 
 
 * 
 
 6x8 INCHES 6x10 INCHES 6x12 INCHES 
 
 a 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 l>/4 
 
 1% 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 iy 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 7 
 
 73 
 
 83 
 
 92 
 
 100 
 
 108 
 
 115 
 
 86 
 
 98 
 
 109 
 
 119 
 
 129 
 
 137 
 
 98 
 
 112 
 
 125 
 
 137 
 
 149 
 
 160 
 
 8 
 
 69 
 
 78 
 
 86 
 
 94 
 
 101 
 
 107 
 
 81 
 
 92 
 
 102 
 
 111 
 
 120 
 
 128 
 
 93 
 
 105 
 
 117 
 
 129 
 
 139 
 
 148 
 
 9 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 87 
 
 93 
 
 99 
 
 75 
 
 85 
 
 95 
 
 103 
 
 111 
 
 119 
 
 87 
 
 99 
 
 110 
 
 120 
 
 129 
 
 138 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 67 
 
 74 
 
 80 
 
 86 
 
 91 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 88 
 
 96 
 
 103 
 
 110 
 
 81 
 
 92 
 
 102 
 
 111 
 
 120 
 
 128 
 
 11 
 
 55 
 
 62 
 
 69 
 
 74 
 
 80 
 
 84 
 
 66 
 
 74 
 
 82 
 
 89 
 
 95 
 
 101 
 
 76 
 
 86 
 
 95 
 
 103 
 
 111 
 
 118 
 
 12 
 
 51 
 
 58 
 
 63 
 
 69 
 
 74 
 
 77 
 
 61 
 
 69 
 
 76 
 
 82 
 
 88 
 
 93 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 88 
 
 96 
 
 103 
 
 109 
 
 13 
 
 48 
 
 53 
 
 59 
 
 63 
 
 67 
 
 71 
 
 57 
 
 64 
 
 70 
 
 76 
 
 81 
 
 86 
 
 66 
 
 74 
 
 82 
 
 89 
 
 95 
 
 101 
 
 14 
 
 44 
 
 49 
 
 54 
 
 58 
 
 62 
 
 66 
 
 53 
 
 59 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 79 
 
 61 
 
 69 
 
 76 
 
 82 
 
 88 
 
 93 
 
 15 
 
 41 
 
 46 
 
 50 
 
 54 
 
 57 
 
 60 
 
 49 
 
 55 
 
 61 
 
 65 
 
 69 
 
 73 
 
 57 
 
 64 
 
 70 
 
 76 
 
 81 
 
 86 
 
 16 
 
 38 
 
 42 
 
 46 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 55 
 
 45 
 
 51 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 67 
 
 53 
 
 59 
 
 65 
 
 71 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 17 
 
 35 
 
 39 
 
 43 
 
 46 
 
 49 
 
 52 
 
 42 
 
 47 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 59 
 
 63 
 
 49 
 
 66 
 
 61 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 73 
 
 18 
 
 32 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 39 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 55 
 
 58 
 
 46 
 
 51 
 
 56 
 
 61 
 
 65 
 
 68 
 
 19 
 
 31 
 
 34 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 
 37 
 
 41 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 51 
 
 54 
 
 43 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 57 
 
 61 
 
 63 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 34 
 
 37 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 49 
 
 53 
 
 56 
 
 59 
 
248 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 1 
 
 8x10 INCHES 8x12 INCHES 
 
 fc 
 
 
 c 
 fl 
 
 "S 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 s 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 217 
 
 1% 
 244 
 
 7 
 
 107 
 
 123 
 
 138 
 
 152 
 
 166 
 
 178 
 
 191 
 
 213 
 
 121 
 
 139 
 
 156 
 
 172 
 
 188 
 
 203 
 
 8 
 
 103 
 
 118 
 
 132 
 
 146 
 
 158 
 
 171 
 
 182 
 
 203 
 
 117 
 
 134 
 
 150 
 
 166 
 
 180 
 
 195 
 
 208 
 
 233 
 
 9 
 
 99 
 
 113 
 
 126 
 
 139 
 
 151 
 
 163 
 
 173 
 
 193 
 
 112 
 
 128 
 
 144 
 
 158 
 
 172 
 
 186 
 
 198 
 
 222 
 
 10 
 
 95 
 
 108 
 
 121 
 
 133 
 
 144 
 
 155 
 
 165 
 
 183 
 
 107 
 
 122 
 
 137 
 
 151 
 
 164 
 
 177 
 
 189 
 
 210 
 
 11 
 
 90 
 
 103 
 
 115 
 
 126 
 
 136 
 
 146 
 
 156 
 
 173 
 
 102 
 
 117 
 
 131 
 
 144 
 
 156 
 
 168 
 
 179 
 
 199 
 
 12 
 
 86 
 
 98 
 
 109 
 
 119 
 
 129 
 
 139 
 
 147 
 
 163 
 
 97 
 
 111 
 
 124 
 
 136 
 
 148 
 
 159 
 
 169 
 
 188 
 
 13 
 
 81 
 
 93 
 
 103 
 
 113 
 
 122 
 
 131 
 
 139 
 
 153 
 
 93 
 
 106 
 
 118 
 
 129 
 
 140 
 
 150 
 
 160 
 
 177 
 
 14 
 
 77 
 
 88 
 
 98 
 
 107 
 
 115 
 
 123 
 
 131 
 
 144 
 
 88 
 
 100 
 
 112 
 
 122 
 
 133 
 
 142 
 
 151 
 
 167 
 
 15 
 
 73 
 
 83 
 
 92 
 
 101 
 
 109 
 
 116 
 
 123 
 
 135 
 
 83 
 
 95 
 
 106 
 
 116 
 
 125 
 
 134 
 
 142 
 
 157 
 
 16 
 
 69 
 
 78 
 
 87 
 
 95 
 
 103 
 
 110 
 
 116 
 
 127 
 
 79 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 109 
 
 118 
 
 127 
 
 134 
 
 148 
 
 17 
 
 65 
 
 74 
 
 82 
 
 90 
 
 97 
 
 103 
 
 109 
 
 120 
 
 75 
 
 85 
 
 95 
 
 103 
 
 112 
 
 119 
 
 126 
 
 139 
 
 18 
 
 62 
 
 70 
 
 78 
 
 85 
 
 91 
 
 97 
 
 103 
 
 112 
 
 71 
 
 80 
 
 89 
 
 98 
 
 105 
 
 113 
 
 119 
 
 131 
 
 19 
 
 59 
 
 66 
 
 73 
 
 80 
 
 86 
 
 92 
 
 97 
 
 106 
 
 67 
 
 76 
 
 85 
 
 92 
 
 100 
 
 106 
 
 112 
 
 123 
 
 20 
 
 55 
 
 63 
 
 69 
 
 76 
 
 81 
 
 86 
 
 91 
 
 99 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 87 
 
 94 
 
 100 
 
 106 
 
 116 
 
 8x14 INCHES 
 
 8x16 INCHES 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 Thickness of Metal 
 
 n Inches Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 ti 
 
 rt 
 
 
 J 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 135 
 
 155 
 
 174 
 
 193 
 
 211 
 
 244 
 
 275 
 
 303 
 
 148 
 
 171 
 
 192 
 
 213 
 
 233 
 
 271 
 
 306 
 
 338 
 
 8 
 
 130 
 
 149 
 
 168 
 
 185 
 
 202 
 
 234 
 
 263 
 
 289 
 
 143 
 
 165 
 
 185 
 
 205 
 
 224 
 
 260 
 
 293 
 
 323 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 143 
 
 161 
 
 177 
 
 193 
 
 223 
 
 251 
 
 275 
 
 138 
 
 158 
 
 178 
 
 196 
 
 214 
 
 248 
 
 279 
 
 307 
 
 10 
 
 120 
 
 137 
 
 154 
 
 169 
 
 185 
 
 213 
 
 238 
 
 261 
 
 132 
 
 151 
 
 170 
 
 188 
 
 205 
 
 236 
 
 265 
 
 291 
 
 11 
 
 114 
 
 131 
 
 146 
 
 161 
 
 176 
 
 202 
 
 225 
 
 246 
 
 126 
 
 145 
 
 162 
 
 179 
 
 195 
 
 225 
 
 252 
 
 276 
 
 12 
 
 109 
 
 124 
 
 139 
 
 153 
 
 167 
 
 191 
 
 213 
 
 232 
 
 121 
 
 138 
 
 154 
 
 170 
 
 185 
 
 213 
 
 238 
 
 260 
 
 18 
 
 104 
 
 118 
 
 132 
 
 146 
 
 158 
 
 181 
 
 201 
 
 219 
 
 115 
 
 131 
 
 147 
 
 162 
 
 176 
 
 202 
 
 225 
 
 245 
 
 14 
 
 99 
 
 112 
 
 126 
 
 138 
 
 150 
 
 171 
 
 190 
 
 206 
 
 109 
 
 125 
 
 139 
 
 153 
 
 167 
 
 191 
 
 212 
 
 231 
 
 15 
 
 94 
 
 107 
 
 119 
 
 131 
 
 142 
 
 161 
 
 179 
 
 194 
 
 '04 
 
 118 
 
 132 
 
 145 
 
 158 
 
 180 
 
 200- 
 
 218 
 
 16 
 
 89 
 
 101 
 
 113 
 
 124 
 
 134 
 
 152 
 
 168 
 
 182 
 
 99 
 
 112 
 
 125 
 
 138 
 
 149 
 
 170 
 
 189 
 
 205 
 
 17 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 107 
 
 117 
 
 126 
 
 144 
 
 159 
 
 171 
 
 94 
 
 107 
 
 119 
 
 130 
 
 141 
 
 161 
 
 178 
 
 193 
 
 18 
 
 80 
 
 91 
 
 \01 
 
 111 
 
 119 
 
 136 
 
 149 
 
 161 
 
 89 
 
 101 
 
 .113 
 
 123 
 
 133 
 
 152 
 
 168 
 
 181 
 
 19 
 
 76 
 
 86 
 
 96 
 
 105 
 
 113 
 
 128 
 
 141 
 
 151 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 107 
 
 117 
 
 126 
 
 143 
 
 158 
 
 171 
 
 20 
 
 72 
 
 81 
 
 90 
 
 99 
 
 107 
 
 121 
 
 133 
 
 143 
 
 80 
 
 91 
 
 101 
 
 110 
 
 119 
 
 135 
 
 149 
 
 161 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 249 
 
 ? 
 
 10x12 INCHES 10x14 INCHES 
 
 
 
 
 ts 
 
 . 
 
 to 
 p 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 1 
 
 l J /4 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 2y 4 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 7 
 
 182 
 
 221 
 
 257 
 
 291 
 
 322 
 
 350 
 
 376 
 
 4 CO 
 
 201 
 
 244 
 
 285 
 
 323 
 
 359 
 
 392 
 
 422 
 
 450 
 
 8 
 
 177 
 
 215 
 
 250 
 
 282 
 
 312 
 
 339 
 
 363 
 
 386 
 
 196 
 
 238 
 
 277 
 
 314 
 
 348 
 
 379 
 
 408 
 
 435 
 
 9 
 
 172 
 
 208 
 
 242 
 
 273 
 
 301 
 
 327 
 
 350 
 
 371 
 
 190 
 
 231 
 
 269 
 
 304 
 
 336 
 
 366 
 
 394 
 
 418 
 
 10 
 
 166 
 
 203 
 
 233 
 
 263 
 
 290 
 
 314 
 
 336 
 
 356 
 
 184 
 
 223 
 
 260 
 
 293 
 
 324 
 
 353 
 
 378 
 
 402 
 
 11 
 
 161 
 
 194 
 
 225 
 
 253 
 
 278 
 
 301 
 
 322 
 
 340 
 
 178 
 
 216 
 
 250 
 
 282 
 
 312 
 
 339 
 
 363 
 
 385 
 
 12 
 
 155 
 
 187 
 
 216 
 
 243 
 
 267 
 
 288 
 
 308 
 
 325 
 
 172 
 
 208 
 
 241 
 
 271 
 
 299 
 
 325 
 
 347 
 
 368 
 
 13 
 
 149 
 
 180 
 
 207 
 
 233 
 
 255 
 
 276 
 
 294 
 
 310 
 
 166 
 
 200 1 
 
 232 
 
 260 
 
 287 
 
 311 
 
 332 
 
 351 
 
 14 
 
 143 
 
 172 
 
 199 
 
 223 
 
 244 
 
 263 
 
 280 
 
 295 
 
 159 
 
 192 
 
 222 
 
 250 
 
 274 
 
 297 
 
 317 
 
 334 
 
 15 
 
 138 
 
 165 
 
 190 
 
 213 
 
 233 
 
 251 
 
 267 
 
 280 
 
 153 
 
 184 
 
 213 
 
 239 
 
 262 
 
 283 
 
 302 
 
 818 
 
 16 
 
 132 
 
 158 
 
 182 
 
 203 
 
 222 
 
 239 
 
 254 
 
 266 
 
 147 
 
 177 
 
 204 
 
 228 
 
 250 
 
 270 
 
 287 
 
 303 
 
 17 
 
 126 
 
 151 
 
 174 
 
 194 
 
 212 
 
 227 
 
 241 
 
 253 
 
 141 
 
 169 
 
 195 
 
 218 
 
 239 
 
 257 
 
 273^ 
 
 288 
 
 18 
 
 121 
 
 145 
 
 166 
 
 185 
 
 202 
 
 216 
 
 229 
 
 240 
 
 135 
 
 162 
 
 186 
 
 208 
 
 228 
 
 245 
 
 260 
 
 273 
 
 19 
 
 116 
 
 138 
 
 158 
 
 176 
 
 192 
 
 206 
 
 218 
 
 228 
 
 129 
 
 155 
 
 178 
 
 199 
 
 217 
 
 233 
 
 247 
 
 260 
 
 20 
 
 111 
 
 132 
 
 151 
 
 168 
 
 183 
 
 196 
 
 207 
 
 216 
 
 124 
 
 148 
 
 170 
 
 189 
 
 207 
 
 222 
 
 235 
 
 246 
 
 21 
 
 106 
 
 126 
 
 144 
 
 160 
 
 174 
 
 186 
 
 196 
 
 205 
 
 119 
 
 142 
 
 162 
 
 181 
 
 197 
 
 211 
 
 223 
 
 234 
 
 22 
 
 101 
 
 121 
 
 138 
 
 153 
 
 166 
 
 177 
 
 187 
 
 195 
 
 113 
 
 135 
 
 155 
 
 172 
 
 188 
 
 201 
 
 213 
 
 222 
 
 33 
 
 97 
 
 115 
 
 131 
 
 145 
 
 158 
 
 168 
 
 177 
 
 185 
 
 109 
 
 129 
 
 148 
 
 164 
 
 179 
 
 191 
 
 202 
 
 211 
 
 24 
 
 93 
 
 110 
 
 125 
 
 139 
 
 150 
 
 160 
 
 169 
 
 176 
 
 104 
 
 124 
 
 141 
 
 157 
 
 170 
 
 182 
 
 192 
 
 201 
 
 25 
 
 89 
 
 105 
 
 120 
 
 132 
 
 143 
 
 152 
 
 160 
 
 167 
 
 99 
 
 118 
 
 135 
 
 150 
 
 161 
 
 174 
 
 183 
 
 191 
 
 I 
 
 10x16 INCHES 10x18 INCHES 
 
 c 
 
 i 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 7 
 
 220 
 
 268 
 
 313 
 
 356 
 
 396 
 
 433 
 
 417 
 
 438 
 
 238 
 
 291 
 
 341 
 
 388 
 
 433 
 
 475 
 
 514 
 
 457 
 
 8 
 
 214 
 
 261 
 
 305 
 
 346 
 
 384 
 
 420 
 
 392 
 
 410 
 
 233 
 
 284 
 
 332 
 
 378 
 
 420 
 
 460 
 
 498 
 
 423 
 
 9 
 
 208 
 
 253 
 
 295 
 
 335 
 
 372 
 
 406 
 
 367 
 
 382 
 
 226 
 
 276 
 
 322 
 
 366 
 
 407 
 
 445 
 
 480 
 
 391 
 
 10 
 
 202 
 
 245 
 
 285 
 
 323 
 
 358 
 
 391 
 
 343 
 
 355 
 
 220 
 
 267 
 
 312 
 
 354 
 
 393 
 
 429 
 
 463 
 
 359 
 
 11 
 
 195 
 
 237 
 
 276 
 
 312 
 
 345 
 
 376 
 
 320 
 
 330 
 
 213 
 
 258 
 
 301 
 
 341 
 
 378 
 
 413 
 
 444 
 
 330 
 
 12 
 
 189 
 
 229 
 
 266 
 
 300 
 
 332 
 
 360 
 
 297 
 
 306 
 
 206 
 
 250 
 
 291 
 
 329 
 
 364 
 
 396 
 
 426 
 
 303 
 
 13 
 
 182 
 
 220 
 
 256 
 
 288 
 
 318 
 
 345 
 
 277 
 
 283 
 
 198 
 
 240 
 
 280 
 
 315 
 
 349 
 
 380 
 
 408 
 
 280 
 
 14 
 
 175 
 
 212 
 
 245 
 
 276 
 
 304 
 
 330 
 
 257 
 
 262 
 
 191 
 
 231 
 
 269 
 
 303 
 
 335 
 
 363 
 
 390 
 
 256 
 
 15 
 
 169 
 
 203 
 
 235 
 
 265 
 
 291 
 
 315 
 
 239 
 
 243 
 
 184 
 
 222 
 
 258 
 
 290' 
 
 320 
 
 347 
 
 372 
 
 236 
 
 16 
 
 162 
 
 195 
 
 226 
 
 253 
 
 278 
 
 301 
 
 223 
 
 225 
 
 177 
 
 213 
 
 247 
 
 278 
 
 306 
 
 332 
 
 355 
 
 217 
 
 17 
 
 155 
 
 187 
 
 216 
 
 242 
 
 266 
 
 287 
 
 207 
 
 209 
 
 170 
 
 205 
 
 237 
 
 266 
 
 293 
 
 316 
 
 338 
 
 201 
 
 18 
 
 149 
 
 179 
 
 207 
 
 231 
 
 254 
 
 273 
 
 193 
 
 194 
 
 163 
 
 196 
 
 227 
 
 254 
 
 279 
 
 302 
 
 322 
 
 185 
 
 19 
 
 143 
 
 172 
 
 198 
 
 221 
 
 242 
 
 260 
 
 180 
 
 181 
 
 156 
 
 188 
 
 217 
 
 243 
 
 267 
 
 288 
 
 306 
 
 172 
 
 20 
 
 137 
 
 164 
 
 189 
 
 211 
 
 231 
 
 248 
 
 168 
 
 168 
 
 150 
 
 180 
 
 207 
 
 232 
 
 254 
 
 274 
 
 292 
 
 159 
 
 21 
 
 131 
 
 157 
 
 180 
 
 201 
 
 220 
 
 236 
 
 157 
 
 157 
 
 144 
 
 172 
 
 198 
 
 222 
 
 243 
 
 261 
 
 278 
 
 148 
 
 22 
 
 126 
 
 150 
 
 172 
 
 192 
 
 210 
 
 225 
 
 147 
 
 147 
 
 138 
 
 165 
 
 190 
 
 212 
 
 232 
 
 249 
 
 264 
 
 138 
 
 23 
 
 120 
 
 144 
 
 165 
 
 183 
 
 200 
 
 214 
 
 138 
 
 137 
 
 132 
 
 158 
 
 181 
 
 202 
 
 221 
 
 237 
 
 252 
 
 128 
 
 24 
 
 115 
 
 137 
 
 157 
 
 175 
 
 191 
 
 204 
 
 129 
 
 129 
 
 126 
 
 151 
 
 173 
 
 193 
 
 211 
 
 226 
 
 240 
 
 120 
 
 25 
 
 110 
 
 132 
 
 150 
 
 167 
 
 182 
 
 195 
 
 122 
 
 121 
 
 121 
 
 145 
 
 166 
 
 185 
 
 202 
 
 216 
 
 228 
 
 112 
 
250 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 I 
 
 12x14 INCHES 12x16 INCHES 
 
 .c 
 
 "bfl 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 2% 
 
 2y a 
 
 2% 
 
 225 
 
 275 
 
 322 
 
 366 
 
 408 
 
 447 
 
 484 
 
 518 
 
 244 
 
 299 
 
 350 
 
 400 
 
 446 
 
 490 
 
 532 
 
 570 
 
 8 
 
 221 
 
 269 
 
 315 
 
 358 
 
 399 
 
 437 
 
 472 
 
 506 
 
 240 
 
 293 
 
 344 
 
 391 
 
 437 
 
 479 
 
 520 
 
 557 
 
 9 
 
 216 
 
 263 
 
 308 
 
 350 
 
 390 
 
 426 
 
 461 
 
 493 
 
 235 
 
 287 
 
 336 
 
 383 
 
 427 
 
 468 
 
 507 
 
 543 
 
 10 
 
 211 
 
 257 
 
 301 
 
 341 
 
 379 
 
 415 
 
 448 
 
 478 
 
 230 
 
 280 
 
 328 
 
 373 
 
 416 
 
 456 
 
 493 
 
 528 
 
 11 
 
 206 
 
 251 
 
 293 
 
 332 
 
 369 
 
 403 
 
 434 
 
 464 
 
 224 
 
 273 
 
 320 
 
 363 
 
 404 
 
 443 
 
 479 
 
 512 
 
 12 
 
 201 
 
 244 
 
 284 
 
 322 
 
 358 
 
 390 
 
 421 
 
 449 
 
 218 
 
 266 
 
 311 
 
 353 
 
 393 
 
 429 
 
 464 
 
 495 
 
 13 
 
 195 
 
 237 
 
 276 
 
 313 
 
 347 
 
 378 
 
 407 
 
 433 
 
 213 
 
 259 
 
 302 
 
 343 
 
 381 
 
 416 
 
 449 
 
 479 
 
 14 
 
 189 
 
 230 
 
 268 
 
 303 
 
 335 
 
 365 
 
 393 
 
 418 
 
 207 
 
 251 
 
 293 
 
 332 
 
 368 
 
 402 
 
 433 
 
 462 
 
 15 
 
 184 
 
 223 
 
 259 
 
 293 
 
 324 
 
 352 
 
 378 
 
 402 
 
 200 
 
 244 
 
 284 
 
 321 
 
 356 
 
 388 
 
 418 
 
 446 
 
 16 
 
 178 
 
 215 
 
 250 
 
 283 
 
 312 
 
 340 
 
 364 
 
 387 
 
 194 
 
 236 
 
 275 
 
 311 
 
 344 
 
 375 
 
 403 
 
 429 
 
 17 
 
 172 
 
 208 
 
 242 
 
 273 
 
 301 
 
 327 
 
 351 
 
 372 
 
 188 
 
 228 
 
 265 
 
 300 
 
 332 
 
 361 
 
 388 
 
 413 
 
 18 
 
 166 
 
 201 
 
 233 
 
 263 
 
 290 
 
 315 
 
 337 
 
 357 
 
 182 
 
 221 
 
 256 
 
 289 
 
 320 
 
 348 
 
 373 
 
 397 
 
 19 
 
 161 
 
 194 
 
 225 
 
 253 
 
 279 
 
 303 
 
 324 
 
 343 
 
 176 
 
 213 
 
 247 
 
 279 
 
 308 
 
 335 
 
 359 
 
 381 
 
 20 
 
 155 
 
 187 
 
 217 
 
 244 
 
 269 
 
 291 
 
 311 
 
 329 
 
 170 
 
 206 
 
 239 
 
 269 
 
 297 
 
 322 
 
 345 
 
 366 
 
 21 
 
 150 
 
 181 
 
 209 
 
 235 
 
 258 
 
 279 
 
 298 
 
 316 
 
 164 
 
 199 
 
 230 
 
 259 
 
 286 
 
 310 
 
 331 
 
 351 
 
 22 
 
 145 
 
 174 
 
 201 
 
 226 
 
 248 
 
 268 
 
 286 
 
 302 
 
 159 
 
 192 
 
 222 
 
 249 
 
 275 
 
 298 
 
 318 
 
 337 
 
 23 
 
 139 
 
 168 
 
 194 
 
 217 
 
 239 
 
 258 
 
 275 
 
 290 
 
 153 
 
 185 
 
 214 
 
 240 
 
 264 
 
 286 
 
 306 
 
 323 
 
 24 
 
 134 
 
 162 
 
 186 
 
 209 
 
 229 
 
 247 
 
 264 
 
 278 
 
 147 
 
 178 
 
 206 
 
 231 
 
 254 
 
 275 
 
 293 
 
 310 
 
 25 
 
 130 
 
 156 
 
 179 
 
 201 
 
 220 
 
 238 
 
 253 
 
 267 
 
 143 
 
 172 
 
 198 
 
 222 
 
 244 
 
 264 
 
 282 
 
 298 
 
 ID 
 
 12x18 INCHES 12x20 INCHES 
 
 g 
 
 
 d 
 
 ja 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 ti 
 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 263 
 259 
 
 323 
 317 
 
 379 
 372 
 
 433 
 424 
 
 484 
 474 
 
 533 
 522 
 
 579 
 566 
 
 622 
 608 
 
 347 
 340 
 
 408 
 400 
 
 466 
 
 457 
 
 522 
 512 
 
 576 
 564 
 
 626 
 613 
 
 674 
 653 
 
 720 
 703 
 
 9 
 
 254 
 
 310 
 
 364 
 
 415 
 
 464 
 
 509 
 
 552 
 
 593 
 
 330 
 
 392 
 
 447 
 
 500 
 
 551 
 
 589 
 
 643 
 
 685 
 
 10 
 
 248 
 
 303 
 
 356 
 
 405 
 
 452 
 
 496 
 
 538 
 
 577 
 
 326 
 
 383 
 
 437 
 
 488 
 
 537 
 
 583 
 
 626 
 
 666 
 
 11 
 
 242 
 
 296 
 
 347 
 
 395 
 
 440 
 
 483 
 
 522 
 
 560 
 
 318 
 
 374 
 
 426 
 
 475 
 
 522 
 
 566 
 
 608 
 
 646 
 
 12 
 
 236 
 
 288 
 
 337 
 
 384 
 
 427 
 
 468 
 
 507 
 
 542 
 
 310 
 
 364 
 
 414 
 
 462 
 
 507 
 
 549 
 
 589 
 
 626 
 
 13 
 
 230 
 
 280 
 
 328 
 
 373 
 
 415 
 
 454 
 
 490 
 
 524 
 
 302 
 
 354 
 
 403 
 
 449 
 
 492 
 
 532 
 
 570 
 
 605 
 
 14 
 
 224 
 
 272 
 
 318 
 
 361 
 
 402 
 
 439 
 
 474 
 
 507 
 
 294 
 
 344 
 
 391 
 
 435 
 
 476 
 
 515 
 
 551 
 
 584 
 
 15 
 
 217 
 
 264 
 
 309 
 
 350 
 
 389 
 
 425 
 
 458 
 
 489 
 
 286 
 
 333 
 
 378 
 
 421 
 
 460 
 
 497 
 
 532 
 
 563 
 
 16 
 
 211 
 
 256 
 
 299 
 
 339 
 
 376 
 
 410 
 
 442 
 
 471 
 
 276 
 
 323 
 
 366 
 
 407 
 
 445 
 
 480 
 
 512 
 
 542 
 
 17 
 
 204 
 
 248 
 
 289 
 
 327 
 
 363 
 
 395 
 
 425 
 
 453 
 
 268 
 
 312 
 
 354 
 
 393 
 
 429 
 
 463 
 
 494 
 
 522 
 
 18 
 
 198 
 
 240 
 
 279 
 
 316 
 
 350 
 
 381 
 
 410 
 
 436 
 
 259 
 
 302 
 
 342 
 
 379 
 
 414 
 
 446 
 
 475 
 
 502 
 
 19 
 
 191 
 
 232 
 
 270 
 
 305 
 
 337 
 
 367 
 
 394 
 
 419 
 
 251 
 
 292 
 
 330 
 
 366 
 
 399 
 
 429 
 
 457 
 
 482 
 
 20 
 
 185 
 
 224 
 
 260 
 
 294 
 
 325 
 
 353 
 
 379 
 
 403 
 
 242 
 
 282 
 
 319 
 
 353 
 
 384 
 
 413 
 
 439 
 
 463 
 
 21 
 
 179 
 
 216 
 
 251 
 
 283 
 
 313 
 
 340 
 
 364 
 
 387 
 
 234 
 
 272 
 
 307 
 
 340 
 
 370 
 
 397 
 
 422 
 
 445 
 
 22 
 
 173 
 
 209 
 
 242 
 
 273 
 
 301 
 
 327 
 
 350 
 
 371 
 
 226 
 
 263 
 
 296 
 
 327 
 
 356 
 
 382 
 
 405 
 
 427 
 
 23 
 
 167 
 
 201 
 
 233 
 
 203 
 
 290 
 
 314 
 
 336 
 
 356 
 
 218 
 
 253 
 
 285 
 
 315 
 
 342 
 
 367 
 
 389 
 
 409 
 
 24 
 
 161 
 
 194 
 
 225 
 
 253 
 
 279 
 
 302 
 
 323 
 
 342 
 
 211 
 
 244 
 
 275 
 
 303 
 
 329 
 
 353 
 
 374 
 
 39S 
 
 25 
 
 155 
 
 187 
 
 217 
 
 244 
 
 268 
 
 290 
 
 310 
 
 328 
 
 203 
 
 235 
 
 265 
 
 292 
 
 317 
 
 339 
 
 359 
 
 377 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 s 
 
 14x16 INCHES 14x20 INCHES 
 
 fa 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 "So 
 
 
 I 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 3 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 327 
 
 385 
 
 440 
 
 493 
 
 543 
 
 590 
 
 635 
 
 677 
 
 376 
 
 443 
 
 508 
 
 570 
 
 630 
 
 687 
 
 741 
 
 793 
 
 8 
 
 323 
 
 379 
 
 433 
 
 485 
 
 534 
 
 580 
 
 624 
 
 665 
 
 371 
 
 437 
 
 501 
 
 562 
 
 620 
 
 676 
 
 729 
 
 779 
 
 9 
 
 318 
 
 373 
 
 426 
 
 476 
 
 524 
 
 569 
 
 612 
 
 652 
 
 365 
 
 430 
 
 493 
 
 552 
 
 609 
 
 664 
 
 715. 
 
 765 
 
 10 
 
 312 
 
 366 
 
 418 
 
 467 
 
 514 
 
 558 
 
 599 
 
 638 
 
 359 
 
 423 
 
 484 
 
 542 
 
 598 
 
 651 
 
 701 
 
 749 
 
 11 
 
 306 
 
 359 
 
 410 
 
 458 
 
 503 
 
 545 
 
 586 
 
 623 
 
 353 
 
 415 
 
 474 
 
 531 
 
 585 
 
 637 
 
 686 
 
 732 
 
 12 
 
 300 
 
 352 
 
 401 
 
 447 
 
 491 
 
 533 
 
 571 
 
 608 
 
 346 
 
 407 
 
 465 
 
 520 
 
 573 
 
 623 
 
 670 
 
 715 
 
 13 
 
 293 
 
 344 
 
 392 
 
 437 
 
 479 
 
 519 
 
 557 
 
 592 
 
 339 
 
 398 
 
 454 
 
 508 
 
 559 
 
 608 
 
 654 
 
 697 
 
 14 
 
 287 
 
 336 
 
 382 
 
 426 
 
 467 
 
 506 
 
 542 
 
 575 
 
 331 
 
 389 
 
 444 
 
 496 
 
 546 
 
 593 
 
 637 
 
 678 
 
 15 
 
 280 
 
 327 
 
 372 
 
 415 
 
 455 
 
 492 
 
 526 
 
 559 
 
 324 
 
 380 
 
 433 
 
 484 
 
 532. 
 
 577 
 
 619 
 
 659 
 
 16 
 
 273 
 
 319 
 
 363 
 
 404 
 
 442 
 
 478 
 
 511 
 
 542 
 
 316 
 
 370 
 
 422 
 
 471 
 
 518 
 
 561 
 
 602 
 
 640 
 
 17 
 
 266 
 
 310 
 
 353 
 
 392 
 
 429 
 
 464 
 
 496 
 
 525 
 
 308 
 
 361 
 
 411 
 
 459 
 
 503 
 
 545 
 
 585 
 
 621 
 
 18 
 
 258 
 
 302 
 
 343 
 
 381 
 
 416 
 
 450 
 
 480 
 
 508 
 
 300 
 
 351 
 
 400 
 
 446 
 
 489 
 
 529 
 
 567 
 
 602 
 
 19 
 
 251 
 
 293 
 
 333 
 
 370 
 
 404 
 
 436 
 
 465 
 
 492 
 
 292 
 
 342 
 
 389 
 
 433 
 
 475 
 
 514 
 
 550 
 
 584 
 
 20 
 
 244 
 
 285 
 
 323 
 
 358 
 
 391 
 
 422 
 
 450 
 
 476 
 
 284 
 
 332 
 
 378 
 
 421 
 
 460 
 
 498 
 
 533 
 
 565 
 
 21 
 
 237 
 
 277 
 
 313 
 
 347 
 
 379 
 
 408 
 
 435 
 
 460 
 
 276 
 
 323 
 
 367 
 
 408 
 
 446 
 
 482 
 
 516 
 
 547 
 
 22 
 
 230 
 
 268 
 
 304 
 
 336 
 
 367 
 
 395 
 
 421 
 
 444 
 
 268 
 
 314 
 
 356 
 
 396 
 
 433 
 
 467 
 
 499 
 
 529 
 
 23 
 
 223 
 
 260 
 
 294 
 
 326 
 
 355 
 
 382 
 
 406 
 
 429 
 
 261 
 
 304 
 
 345 
 
 383 
 
 419 
 
 452 
 
 483 
 
 511 
 
 24 
 
 217 
 
 252 
 
 285 
 
 315 
 
 343 
 
 369 
 
 393 
 
 414 
 
 253 
 
 295 
 
 335 
 
 372 
 
 406 
 
 438 
 
 467 
 
 494 
 
 25 
 
 210 
 
 244 
 
 276 
 
 305 
 
 332 
 
 357 
 
 379 
 
 399 
 
 246 
 
 286 
 
 324 
 
 360 
 
 393 
 
 423 
 
 451 
 
 477 
 
 SAFE LOAD, IN TONS, FOR GAS OR STEAM PIPE 
 COLUMNS 
 
 Standard Pipe 
 
 Estimated 
 diameter 
 Inches 
 
 Thick 
 ness 
 Inches 
 
 W't 
 
 per 
 foot 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 Length in feet 
 
 8 
 Tons 
 
 9 
 
 Tons 
 
 10 
 
 Tons 
 
 12 
 
 Tons 
 
 14 
 Tons 
 
 2.8 
 3.5 
 
 0.204 
 0.217 
 0.22(5 
 0.237 
 0.247 
 0.259 
 0.280 
 0.301 
 0.322 
 
 5.74 
 7.54 
 9.00 
 10.66 
 12.34 
 14.50 
 18.76 
 23.37 
 28.18 
 
 5.90 
 9.14 
 11.02 
 14.45 
 16.78 
 18.76 
 25.06 
 32.31 
 36.63 
 
 5.51 
 8.75 
 10.66 
 14.11 
 16.33 
 18.76 
 25.06 
 
 32:31 
 
 36.63 
 
 5.21 
 8.35 
 10.25 
 13.65 
 15.88 
 18.26 
 25.06 
 32.31 
 36.63 
 
 7.52 
 
 9.39 
 12.72 
 14.90 
 17.31 
 24.29 
 32.31 
 36.63 
 
 8.62 
 11.78 
 13.98 
 16.26 
 23.32 
 31.32 
 36.63 
 
 4.0 
 
 45 
 
 5.0 
 
 556 
 
 6.62 
 
 7.62 
 
 8.62.. 
 
252 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Extra Strong. 
 
 28 
 
 056 
 
 13.68 
 
 14.10 
 
 13.04 
 
 11.86 
 
 
 
 3.5 
 
 0.608 
 
 18.56 
 
 21.25 
 
 20.12 
 
 19.04 
 
 16.56 
 
 
 4.0 
 
 0.642 
 
 22.75 
 
 27.18 
 
 26.02 
 
 24.86 
 
 22.54 
 
 19.89 
 
 4.5 
 
 0.682 
 
 27.48 
 
 35.31 
 
 34.15 
 
 32.84 
 
 30.19 
 
 27.57 
 
 5.50 
 
 0.75 
 
 38.12 
 
 52.78 
 
 51.37 
 
 49.94 
 
 47.06 
 
 44.16 
 
 662 
 
 0875 
 
 53.11 
 
 71.10 
 
 71.10 
 
 70.58 
 
 66.99 
 
 64.22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EC 
 
 trerae 
 
 SAFE LOADS, IN TONS (of 2,000 Ibs.), f OR STEEL I BEAMS 
 
 Fibre Stress, 16,000 Ibs. per Square Inch. Limiting Spans, above which Tabulated Safe Load is 
 apt to crack Plastered Ceilings, are indicated by heavy linea. 
 
 Size 
 
 In 
 
 WeigM 
 
 per 
 
 Fool 
 
 
 DISTANCE 
 
 BETWEEN SUPPORTS, IN FEET 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 34 
 
 24 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 J3.8 
 I&S 
 
 86 
 -6.3 
 
 73.7 
 65.4 
 
 64.5 
 57.2 
 
 57.3 
 50.9 
 
 54.3 
 48.2 
 
 sr.6 
 
 45.6 
 
 49.1 
 43.6 
 
 44.9 
 39.8 
 
 41.3 
 
 36.6 
 
 39.7 
 35.2 
 
 38.2 
 33.9 
 
 35.6 
 31.6 
 
 34.4 
 30.5 
 
 33.2 
 29.5 
 
 30.3 
 26.9 
 
 20 
 
 80 
 64 
 
 
 
 
 70.2 
 5o:5- 
 
 64.4 
 i0.9 
 
 55.2 
 43.7 
 
 48.3 
 38.2 
 
 42.9 
 
 34. 
 
 40.7 
 32.2 
 
 38.6 
 30.6 
 
 36.8 
 29.1 
 
 33.0 
 26.6 
 
 30.9 
 24.5 
 
 29.7 
 23.5 
 
 28.6 
 22.6 
 
 26.7 
 21.1 
 
 25.8 
 20.4 
 
 24.9 
 19.7 
 
 22.7 
 18. 
 
 15 
 
 HO 
 60 
 50 
 41 
 
 
 
 45'8 
 37.6 
 30.2 
 
 50.H 
 41.6 
 34.2 
 27.4 
 
 6.6 
 38.2 
 31.4 
 
 J9.9 
 
 S&9 
 
 21.6 
 
 34.9 
 28.7 
 23.5 
 18.9 
 
 31M 
 255 
 20.9 
 16.8 
 
 <i9.4 
 24.1 
 19.8 
 15.9 
 
 27.9 
 22.9 
 18.8 
 15.1 
 
 26.6 
 21.8 
 17.9 
 14.4 
 
 24.3 
 19.9 
 16.4 
 13.1 
 
 22.4 
 18.3 
 15.1 
 12.1 
 
 21.5 
 17.6 
 14.5 
 11.6 
 
 20.7 
 17. 
 14. 
 11.2 
 
 19.3 
 15.8 
 13. 
 10.4 
 
 18.6 
 15.3 
 18.6 
 10.1 
 
 18. 
 14.8 
 12.2 
 9.7 
 
 16.4 
 13.5 
 11.1 
 8.9 
 
 12 
 
 40 
 3-2 
 
 
 31.3 
 
 34.7 
 
 5 
 9.8 
 
 is' 
 
 0.8 
 6.5 
 
 17.9 
 14.1 
 
 15.6 
 12.4 
 
 13.9 
 11. 
 
 13.2 
 
 10.4 
 
 12.5 
 9.9- 
 
 11,9 
 9.4 
 
 10.9 
 8.6 
 
 10. 
 7.9 
 
 9.6 
 
 7.6 
 
 9.3 
 
 7.3 
 
 8.6 
 6.8 
 
 8.3 
 6.6 
 
 8.1 
 6.4 
 
 7.4 
 5.8 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 25 
 
 28.7 
 21.7 
 
 21.5 
 16.3 
 
 7.2 
 3.1 
 
 15.6 
 11.9 
 
 4.3 
 0.9 
 
 12.3 
 9.3 
 
 10.8 
 8.2 
 
 9.0 
 7.3 
 
 9.1 
 
 6.9 
 
 8.6 
 6.5 
 
 8.2 
 6.2 
 
 7.5 
 5.7 
 
 6.9 
 5.2 
 
 6.6 
 5. 
 
 6.4 
 4.8 
 
 S.9 
 4.5 
 
 5.7 
 4.4 
 
 5.6 
 4.2 
 
 5.1 
 3.8 
 
 g 
 
 27 
 21 
 
 21.8 
 16.7 
 
 16.4 
 12.5 
 
 3.1 
 
 0. 
 
 11.9 
 9.1 
 
 (1.9 
 8.3 
 
 9.4 
 7.1 
 
 8.2 
 
 6.3 
 
 7.3 
 5.6 
 
 6.9 
 5.3 
 
 6.5 
 5. 
 
 ti.2 
 4.8 
 
 5.7 
 4.4 
 
 5.2 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 3.8 
 
 4.9 
 3.7 
 
 4.5 
 3.5 
 
 4.4 
 3.3 
 
 4.2 
 3.2 
 
 3.9 
 2.9 
 
 8 
 
 22. 
 18 
 
 16. 
 12.8 
 
 12 
 
 9.6 
 
 9.6 
 
 7.7 
 
 8.7 
 7. 
 
 8 
 C.4 
 
 5.5 
 
 6. 
 
 4.8 
 
 5.3 
 4.3 
 
 5 
 4.1 
 
 4.8 
 3.9 
 
 4.6 
 3.7 
 
 4.2 
 3.3 
 
 3.8 
 3.1 
 
 3.7 
 3. 
 
 3.5 
 2.9 
 
 3.3 
 2.7 
 
 3.2 
 2.6 
 
 3.1 
 2.5 
 
 2.8 
 2.3 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 15 
 
 12.6 
 
 9.7 
 
 9.5 
 
 7.2 
 
 7.6 
 5.8 
 
 6.9 
 
 5.3 
 
 6.3 
 
 4.8 
 
 5.4 
 4.1 
 
 4.7 
 3.6 
 
 4.2 
 3.2 
 
 4 
 3. 
 
 3.8 
 2.9 
 
 3.C 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.3 
 2.5 
 
 3. 
 2.3 
 
 2.9 
 2.2 
 
 2.8 
 2.1 
 
 2.6 
 2. 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.93 
 
 2.4 
 1.87 
 
 2.2 
 1.7 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 13 
 
 8.5 
 7. 
 
 6.4 
 5.2 
 
 5.1 
 4.2 
 
 4.6 
 3.8 
 
 4.2 
 3.5 
 
 3.6 
 3. 
 
 3.2 
 2.G 
 
 23 
 
 2.7 
 2.2 
 
 2.5 
 2.1 
 
 2.4 
 S. 
 
 2.2 
 1.8 
 
 2. 
 
 1.9 
 J.C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 10 
 
 5.6 
 4.4 
 
 4.2 
 3.3 
 
 3.4 
 2.7 
 
 3 
 2.4 
 
 2.8 
 2.2 
 
 2.4 
 1.9 
 
 2.1 
 1.7 
 
 1.9 
 1.5 
 
 1-1 
 1.4 
 
 a 
 
 4*1. L.<U gim, M wifcndHwa-fd 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 3.4 
 2.5 
 
 2.6 
 1.9 
 
 2.1 
 1.5 
 
 1.9 
 1.4 
 
 17 
 1.3 
 
 1.& 
 J.I 
 
 1.3 
 1. 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.8-1 
 
 
 
 
 MHMftwH^ 
 
 o/b. 
 
 MOM 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1.55 
 
 l.Ki 
 
 0.92 
 
 0.8-1 
 
 0.7" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 \ 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 SAFE LOADS, W TONS (of 2,000 Ibs.), ON STEEL CHANNELS. 
 
 Limiting Spun, above which Tabulated Safe Load is apt to crack Plastered Ceqin^ m 
 indicated by heavy lines. 
 
 Sin 
 
 In 
 
 bete 
 
 Mty 
 
 foot 
 
 
 
 DISTANCE BETWEEN SUPPORTS. IN FCET 
 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10. 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 u . 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 86 
 
 27 
 
 29* 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 84 
 
 15 
 
 ?3- 
 
 
 21* 
 
 21.7 
 
 19.8 
 
 18.1 
 
 15.5 
 
 13. 
 
 12.1 
 
 11.5 
 
 10.9 
 
 10.4 
 
 9.5 
 
 8.7 
 
 8.4 
 
 8.1 
 
 7.5 
 
 7.3 
 
 7. 
 
 6.4 
 
 ** 
 
 31.5 
 
 
 84.4 
 
 19.5 
 
 17.7 
 
 16.2 
 
 13.9 
 
 12.2 
 
 10.8 
 
 10.3 
 
 9.8 
 
 9.3 
 
 8.5 
 
 7.8 
 
 7.5 
 
 7.2 
 
 6.7 
 
 6.5 
 
 6.3 
 
 5.7 
 
 12 
 
 80. 
 
 
 14.1 
 
 11.3 
 
 10.2 
 
 9.4 
 
 8. 
 
 r 
 
 C.3 
 
 5.9 
 
 5.6 
 
 5.4 
 
 4.9 
 
 4.5 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.2 
 
 3.9 
 
 3.8 
 
 3.6 
 
 3.3 
 
 10 
 
 16.5 
 
 12.8 
 
 9.6 
 
 7.7 
 
 7. 
 
 .4 
 
 5.5 
 
 4.8 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.1 
 
 3.9 
 
 3.7 
 
 3.4 
 
 3.1 
 
 2.9 
 
 2.9 
 
 2.7 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.3 
 
 9 
 
 14. 
 
 u .7 
 
 7.3 
 
 5.9 
 
 5.3 
 
 4.9 
 
 4.8 
 
 3.7 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.1 
 
 2.9 
 
 2.8 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.2 
 
 2. 
 
 1.9J 
 
 13 
 
 1.7 
 
 8 
 
 11. 
 
 7.1 
 
 5.3 
 
 4.2 
 
 3.9 
 
 3.6 
 
 3. 
 
 2.7 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.1 
 
 2'. 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.4. 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.2 
 
 7 
 
 9.5 
 
 5.2 
 
 3.9 
 
 3.1 
 
 2.8 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.2 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.2 
 
 1,2 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.1 
 
 1. 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 8. 
 
 3.9 
 
 3. 
 
 8.4 
 
 2.2 
 
 2. 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.8 
 
 J.I 
 
 1.. 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6.r> 
 
 8.7 
 
 8 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.1 
 
 1. 
 
 1 
 
 .8 
 
 .8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 5.5 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.1 
 
 |. 
 
 .!> 
 
 ,8 
 
 .7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5. 
 
 1.2 
 
 . 
 
 .1 
 
 ,G 
 
 ,c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 253 
 
 BEARING PLATES FOB BEAMS OB CHANNELS ON BRICK OB MASONRY 
 
 
 
 
 
 Safe bearing 
 
 
 
 
 
 values in tons 
 
 
 S 
 
 . 
 
 
 for plate s 
 
 (0 
 
 | 
 
 ff 
 
 
 resting on 
 
 
 
 
 'c>3 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 h 
 
 .0 
 
 ij 
 
 III 
 
 1. 
 
 G 
 S 
 
 .2 
 
 'S 
 ft 
 
 | 
 
 ^ 
 3 
 
 f 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 ,0 
 
 g 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 OQ 
 
 m 
 
 35 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 02 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PR 
 
 OQ 
 
 3, 4, 5 and 6 
 inches. . . 
 
 f 6 
 1 6 
 
 6x 6x# 
 6x 6x % 
 
 4.7 ) 
 5.9 $ 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.7 
 
 4.5 
 
 7 and 8 in.. 
 
 j 8 
 
 1 8 
 
 8x 8x % 
 8x 8x 1 
 
 12.5 ) 
 16.6 f 
 
 3.2 
 
 4.8 
 
 8.0 
 
 9 and 10 in.. 
 
 j 8 
 1 8 
 
 8xl2x % 
 8 x 12 x 1 
 
 19 ) 
 25 f 
 
 4.8 
 
 7.2 
 
 12.00 
 
 12 in., 31^ 
 
 i 12 
 
 12 x 12 x H 
 
 28 (. 
 
 
 
 
 pounds.. 
 
 1 12 
 
 12 x 12 x 1 
 
 37.5 f 
 
 7.2 
 
 10.8 
 
 18.0 
 
 12 in., 40 
 
 pounds.. 
 15 in., 42 
 pounds... 
 
 1" 
 
 I 12 
 
 12 x 16 x 1 
 12 x 16 * 1J4 
 
 62.5 J 
 
 9.6 
 
 14.4 
 
 24.0 
 
 18, 20 and 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 inches. . . 
 
 16 
 
 16 x 18 x IK 
 
 94 
 
 12.8 
 
 19.2 
 
 32.0 
 
 The above table is the same as the standard one in the 
 Carnegie Handbook, but cast iron plates are figured as they 
 are more used than the steel ones. The thicker plates are 
 used for bearing values exceeding those given for common 
 brickwork. The allowances are 100 pounds per square inch 
 for common brick; 150 for best brickwork; and 250 for 
 ordinary masonry. 
 
 SAFE TENSILE STRENGTH 
 
 Weight in Pounds Supported by Steel Rods 
 
 % inch diameter = 4,200 pounds. 
 
 % inch diameter 5,880 pounds. 
 1 inch diameter = 7,696 pounds. 
 1% inch diameter = 8,904 pounds. 
 1% inch diameter = 12,474 pounds. 
 
254 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 1% inch diameter 14,784 pounds. 
 iy 2 inch diameter 18,102 pounds. 
 1% inch diameter = 21,210 pounds. 
 1% inch diameter == 24,402 pounds. 
 
 The washers at ends of rods should have the following 
 areas to provide sufficient bearing on the timbers: 
 
 % inch diameter rod 4.6 square inches area. 
 
 % inch diameter rod = 6.5 square inches area. 
 
 1 inch diameter rod 8.5 square inches area. 
 
 iy 8 inch diameter rod = 9.9 square inches area. 
 
 1% inch diameter rod 13. 8 square inches area. 
 
 1% inch diameter rod =16.5 square inches area. 
 
 iy 2 inch diameter rod 20.1 square inches area. 
 
 1% inch diameter rod = 23.5 square inches area. 
 
 1% inch diameter rod = 27.1 square inches area. 
 
 Where double rods are used the washers must have twice 
 the areas given above and be made of steel or wrought-iron 
 plates of sufficient thickness so as not to bend or shear. 
 
 The rods in the above table are not upset. This process 
 increases the strength from 35 to 40 per cent. But in all 
 cases it should be remembered that the diameter is to be taken 
 at the root of the screw, and not the full diameter. 
 
 Unit Allowances. The recommended allowances for tensile 
 or " pulling " strength of metal per square inch of section is 
 given by the Underwriters as follows: 
 
 Rolled steel 16,000 pounds. 
 
 Cast steel 16,000 pounds. 
 
 Wrought iron. . . 12,000 pounds. 
 Cast iron 3,000 pounds. 
 
 This is on the basis of one-fourth of the actual breaking 
 strength; or there is a factor of safety of four. 
 
 Rule. To get the tensile strength find out the exact area 
 in square inches on end of the rod, or bar of steel or iron, 
 and multiply by the number of pounds in the table. But, 
 once again, it must be remembered that the size under the 
 screw is the one. If we have a steel bar 1" x 1" a load of 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 255 
 
 
 
 16,000 pounds could be hung to it, on condition that the end 
 that held the weight was of this exact size. 
 
 Example. Suppose we have a steel rod that measures 
 exactly 1 inch after the screw is cut on the end, to hold the 
 nut, how much can we hang to it? 
 
 Looking in the table of areas of circles we find that 1 inch 
 equals .7854. Multiplying this by 16,000 we get the load of 
 12,566 pounds, or a little over 6 tons. Now we see how 
 useful these simple decimals are. 
 
 Example 2. Take a bar of wrought iron %"x2i,4". The 
 decimals are .375 and 2.25; the square inches by multiplying, 
 .84375 or a little less than T 8 ^ of a square inch. Multiplying 
 this by 12,000 we get 10,125 pounds. If the bar is so treated 
 as to give the full bearing at the end this is the allowed load. 
 
 Gallery. Suppose a gallery 8 feet wide extending around a 
 building, with trusses 12-foot centers, and that the weight is 
 hung to them. Half the width rests on the wall, and the other 
 half on the trusses. We have thus a space of 12' x 4' hung 
 from each truss. Let us put the load at 120 pounds, to 
 include everything. This gives a total load of 5,760 pounds. 
 
 What section is needed for this weight? It is a problem 
 for simple proportion. If 16,000 requires 1 square inch, 
 how much will 5,760 need? Less, as a matter of course. 
 Dividing 5,760 by 16,000 we get .36 square inches. In the 
 table of areas of circles the nearest figure to this is .38485. 
 Cutting off the useless " mills " and leaving only cents we 
 have .38, which is a trifle larger than we require, and there- 
 fore safe. Looking to the diameter column we find that a 
 circle containing this area must have a diameter of .7, or T 7 ^ 
 of an inch. We do not usually figure by tenths of an inch 
 in building, although engineers do in their business, and we 
 must reduce to 16ths. Multiplying 7 by 16 we get 11.2, or 
 \l and -fa of a y 1 ^. Under the root of the screw we therefore 
 require fully ^|. A % rod would give plenty of depth for 
 cutting the screw. The difference in cost is so slight that an 
 architect would use a 1-inch or even a 1%-inch rod. 
 
 Good Rule. A good rule to memorize is that which tells 
 us that circles are to each other as the square of their 
 diameters. Take 3 rods, % inches, % inches, and 1 inch. 
 Reducing to eighths of an inch we have 6, 7, and 8. The 
 square of 6 is 36; of 7, is 49; of 8, is 64. The area on the 
 
256 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 end of a %-inch rod is just a little over half that on one 
 an inch in diameter. Increasing y 8 inch thus gives more 
 strength than some would think. 
 
 Upsetting. The cutting of the screw really makes a rod 
 1 inch in diameter just a trifle over f. So far as strength 
 goes, then, we have to figure on a ^| rod, although we use 
 1-inch material. To get over this the ends of rods are upset 
 or hammered to a larger size than the body. But this re- 
 duces the strength, and with a 1-inch rod it would not be 
 sufficient to upset it to give room for screw cutting only. 
 More has to be allowed, to get the full strength of the main 
 part. This increases the strength about 40 per cent, if it is 
 well done. 
 
 HOPES 
 
 Wire Ropes. Roebling uses a load of only | to ^ of the 
 ultimate strength. Use large sheaves. The wear increases 
 
 TRANSMISSION AND HOISTING ROPES WITH NINETEEN 
 WIRES TO THE STRAND. IRON 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 cd 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 O) 
 
 
 "*-* ^_j 
 
 CsJ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 Sag 
 
 ^L! 
 
 1-1 
 
 aUf 
 
 o 
 
 rti 
 
 1| 
 
 |4 
 
 a> 
 
 .at-" o. 
 
 Is^ 
 
 EH 
 
 S H 
 
 s s ^ 
 
 1^5 
 
 8 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 rt 00 
 
 oo 
 
 3 C 1 - ' 
 
 . P o 
 
 s 
 
 Js"" 
 
 ed 
 
 "3 en o 
 
 
 
 ^ g 3 
 
 5 3-^" 
 
 
 u.S 
 
 S 
 
 ^5a 
 
 M5cf 
 
 f* .2 (N 
 
 Gffi S 1 
 
 53'0'ffl 
 
 1 
 
 6% 
 
 2% 
 
 7.80 
 
 74 
 
 15 
 
 15 1/, 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6.02 
 
 65 
 
 13 
 
 14i/> 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 5% 
 
 1% 
 
 5.08 
 
 54 
 
 11 
 
 13 " 
 
 v> 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1% 
 
 4.10 
 
 44 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 5 " 
 
 5 
 
 4% 
 
 1% 
 
 3.10 
 
 35 
 
 7 
 
 10% 
 
 4V 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 2.44 
 
 27 
 
 5% 
 
 91/2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 3% 
 
 1% 
 
 1.95 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 3% 
 
 8 
 
 3% 
 
 1 
 
 1.50 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 2% 
 
 % 
 
 1.14 
 
 ny 2 
 
 21/2 
 
 6 
 
 2% 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 0.83 
 
 8.64 
 
 1% 
 
 5 
 
 
 10% 
 
 2 
 
 % 
 
 0.65 
 
 5.13 
 
 
 414 
 
 2 2 
 
 101/2 
 
 1% 
 
 9-16 
 
 0.44 
 
 4.27 
 
 % 
 
 4 
 
 1% 
 
 10% 
 
 iy 2 
 
 1/2 
 
 0.35 
 
 3.48 
 
 % 
 
 3% 
 
 iy 2 
 
 with the speed, and thus it is better to increase the load than 
 the speed. Do not use galvanized wire. When the surface 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 257 
 
 wears off the rust gets at the iron. Do not coil like a hemp 
 rope. If coiling is done it should be in a large circle. 
 
 A cheaper rope is used for guys than for hoisting. The 
 one has 19 strands and the other only 7. 
 
 Manila rope is stronger than sisal. The proportion is about 
 7 to 5. For manila % inch in diameter the breaking load is 
 2,700 pounds; for % inch, 4,500; for 1 inch, 6,200; ly s , 8,600; 
 114 inch, 11,600. Wise contractors see if the ropes they are 
 using are not old, and do not load up to the breaking point. 
 
 CAST IRON 
 
 The Underwriters' test is that sample bars 5' x 1" x 1", cast 
 in sand molds, placed on supports 4 feet 6 inches apart, shall 
 bear a central load of 450 pounds before breaking. Without 
 experimenting one would be inclined to say that a bar of that 
 kind which supported 4% kegs of nails must be of extra 
 good material. 
 
 Tables are given elsewhere for the bearing power of square 
 and round hollow cast iron columns. We have to consider 
 here their bases, connections, and some special requirements. 
 
 Sizes. The Underwriters recommend, to begin with, that 
 cast iron columns shall have a diameter of not less than 5 
 inches, and a shell of not less than % inches thick. It is 
 risky to cast a column of a less thickness. The core some- 
 times shifts, the metal runs to one side, and in a %-inch 
 column it might be only ^-inch thick. An architect cannot 
 safely figure on such a column. There is too much difference 
 between it and the 2-irich one already referred to. 
 
 Dangers. As noted, one of the government experts at S'an 
 Francisco said that we should stop using cast iron columns. 
 Jones and Laughlin say that they are easily broken by a side 
 blow, but they manufacture the other kind. 
 
 Those who have handled them know that they are rigid and 
 unyielding. You can do something with a bent lug on a 
 wrought iron column, but one of cast iron must stand as it 
 comes from the foundry. Yet with all the acknowledged dis- 
 advantages of these columns Kidder thinks they are about as 
 good as the steel ones. 
 
 Length. The second requirement of the Underwriters' 
 code is that cast iron columns shall not have an unsupported 
 
258 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 length of more than 20 times their least diameter, or size. 
 Kidder allows 36 times; Chicago 24. Once again, the authori- 
 ties differ radically. 
 
 Thickness. The third structural requirement is that all 
 lugs, flanges, seats, brackets, and other members shall finish 
 at least 1 inch thick. 
 
 Other requirements are wide enough flanges to bolt the one 
 column to the other with %-inch bolts, and a 1^-inch cast 
 iron smooth-planed, or %-inch mild steel, plate to go between 
 the two columns. 
 
 Diameter. The smallest diameter of a cast iron column, 
 according to the Underwriters, should be 5 inches. The two 
 stories on top of a building might have this size, then for 
 every two below, the diameter should be increased not less 
 than 1 inch. 
 
 Thickness. The metal should not be less than T ^ of the 
 greatest lateral dimension of cross section. In no case should 
 it be less than %-inch thick. 
 
 Safe Loads for Columns. In general, a cast iron column 
 for short lengths, not exceeding seven times the diameter or 
 breadth, will support 6 tons to the square inch: for longer 
 lengths, from 5 to 3 tons. 
 
 Example. Take a column 8 inches in diameter with %-inch 
 metal. We have first of all to get the area of the metal in 
 square inches to see how much it will support. Turning to 
 the table of areas of circles we find that an 8-inch equals 
 50.26. With %-inch metal on each side the core must be 
 6y 2 inches. This is, in decimals, 6.5 inches. If there is no 
 such figure given in the areas of circles take 65. The area of 
 this is 331.83, or practically, 332. Dividing by 10 gives the 
 required area for 6.5. This is 33.2, which, subtracted from 
 50.26, gives a remainder of close to 17 square inches. The 
 method, as will be seen, is to get the area of the two circles 
 and subtract the one from the other. 
 
 At 6 tons to the square inch the load would be 102. In 
 the table for cast iron columns at 8 feet long the weight is 
 given as 101, running less or more, according to length. 
 
 With rectangular columns the same method is followed. 
 Get the area over the metal, and inside of it, and subtract the 
 one from the other to see how many square inches there are 
 left for iron. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 259 
 
 CAST LINTELS 
 
 Cheapness has to cut some figure in building as in every- 
 thing else. If we can get a score of lintels at 2% cents a 
 pound to span certain openings with perfect safety we are not 
 going to pay 3%. This is one reason why cast iron lintels are 
 used instead of steel ones, although this metal is not well 
 adapted to stand such strains as come upon an opening. But 
 narrow openings arch themselves by the pressure of the 
 masonry after it is built a few feet up. For such openings 
 cast iron is much used. 
 
 Width. The Underwriters' code limits the width of an 
 opening at 8 feet for a cast iron lintel, and this for a uni- 
 formly distributed load. No part of the metal should be less 
 than %-inch. 
 
 Shapes. Cast iron lintels are made in various shapes, but 
 the shape in ordinary use is like the capital letter T turned 
 upside down. The L shape comes next, but most architects 
 now employ the rolled steel lintels for this design. Webs and 
 brackets are cast on the lintels that have to carry the heaviest 
 load. 
 
260 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 SAFE LOADS, IN TONS OF 2,000 POUNDS, FOR CAST 
 IRON LINTELS. 
 
 NOTB. Compiled by Vierling Steel Works, of Chicago and Omaha. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 I 
 
 e 
 
 1 'I ** 
 
 "*-" - 
 
 -ULJ 
 
 _yi\J 
 
 -LiL^i 
 
 c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JS 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches, 
 
 o 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6.9 
 
 9.0 
 
 9.7 
 
 11.8 
 
 12.7 
 
 16.4 
 
 16.0 
 
 20.5 
 
 3 
 
 4.6 
 
 6.0 
 
 6.4 
 
 7.9 
 
 8.4 
 
 11.0 
 
 10.7 
 
 13.6 
 
 4 
 
 3.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 4.8 
 
 5.9 
 
 6.4 
 
 8.2 
 
 8.0 
 
 10.2 
 
 5 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.6 
 
 3.9 
 
 4.7 
 
 5.1 
 
 6.6 
 
 6.4 
 
 8.2 
 
 6 
 
 2.3 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 3.9 
 
 4.3 
 
 5.5 
 
 5.3 
 
 6.8 
 
 7 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.4 
 
 3.6 
 
 4.7 
 
 4.6 
 
 5.8 
 
 8 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.4 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 4.1 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.1 
 
 9 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.7 
 
 3.6 
 
 4.5 
 
 10 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.2 
 
 5.0 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 u. 
 
 
 
 
 
 O) 
 
 _c 
 
 L 1 
 
 1 i 1 
 
 L 1 
 
 fV?/l 
 
 s 
 
 .<- 12 /-> 1 2*' = > : | *-! 2"-*-* ^-W-*- 
 
 ""l"-* < 12" s- 
 
 -*-t2 * < 12"-* 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 8.9 
 
 11.5 
 
 14.1 
 
 17.1 
 
 17.1 
 
 22.2 
 
 22.0 
 
 27.7 
 
 3 
 
 5.9 
 
 7.6 
 
 9.4 
 
 11.4 
 
 11.4 
 
 14.8 
 
 14.6 
 
 18.4 
 
 4 
 
 4.4 
 
 5.7 
 
 7.0 
 
 8.5 
 
 8.5 
 
 11.1 
 
 11.0 
 
 13.8 
 
 5 
 
 3.6 
 
 4.6 
 
 5,6 
 
 6.8 
 
 6.8 
 
 8.9 
 
 8.8 
 
 11.1 
 
 6 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.8 
 
 4.7 
 
 5.7 
 
 5.7 
 
 7.4 
 
 7.3 
 
 9.2 
 
 7 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.3 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.9 
 
 4.9 
 
 6.3 
 
 6.3 
 
 7.9 
 
 8 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.9 
 
 3.5 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.3 
 
 5.5 
 
 5.0 
 
 6.9 
 
 9 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.8 
 
 3.8 
 
 4.9 
 
 4.9 
 
 6.1 
 
 10 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.4 
 
 3.4 
 
 4.4 
 
 4.4 
 
 5.5 
 
 If load is concentrated in center, use one-half above loads. 
 Above tables are based on one-eighth the breaking weight 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 261 
 
 NOTE. Compiled by Vierling Steel Works, of Chicago and Omaha. 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 e 
 
 0) 
 
 c 
 
 Ljyjf 
 
 UIJJI 
 
 no 
 
 DLD1 
 
 
 a 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f. 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 9.3 
 
 11.2 
 
 11.9 
 
 15.5 
 
 16.7 
 
 19.9 
 
 19.3 
 
 25.3 
 
 3 
 
 6.2 
 
 7.4 
 
 7.9 
 
 10.3 
 
 11.1 
 
 13.3 
 
 12.9 
 
 16.9 
 
 4 
 
 4.6 
 
 5.6 
 
 6.0 
 
 7.7 
 
 8.3 
 
 10.0 
 
 9.7 
 
 12.7 
 
 5 
 
 3.7 
 
 4.5 
 
 4.8 
 
 6.2 
 
 6.7 
 
 8.0 
 
 7.7 
 
 10.1 
 
 6 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.7 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.2 
 
 5.6 
 
 6.6 
 
 6.4 
 
 8.4 
 
 7 
 
 2.6 
 
 3.2 
 
 3.4 
 
 4.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 5.7 
 
 5.5 
 
 7.2 
 
 8 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.9 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.9 
 
 4.8 
 
 6.3 
 
 9 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.6 
 
 3.4 
 
 3.7 
 
 4.4 
 
 4.3 
 
 5.6 
 
 10 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.9 
 
 3.9 
 
 5.1 1 
 
 )f Opening in Feet 
 
 JLJJ 
 
 IU 1 
 
 1 l 
 
 12--* 
 
 1 LU 
 
 .Qi 
 
 *-i**- 
 
 m/n 
 
 oil 
 
 *-l2*- 
 
 a^n 
 
 <-12"-~ 12"- 
 
 *-12 * -^- 12 //-*|*-io*-* *-i2''^|-^-l2"- -*-12"-*|| 
 
 5 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches || 
 
 i 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 12.8 
 
 14.9 
 
 15.8 
 
 19.1 
 
 20.4 
 
 26.3 
 
 24.9 
 
 33.3 
 
 3 
 
 8.5 
 
 9.9 
 
 10.6 
 
 12.7 
 
 13.6 
 
 17.5 
 
 16.6 
 
 22.1 
 
 4 
 
 6.4 
 
 7.4 
 
 7.9 
 
 9.6 
 
 10.2 
 
 13.2 
 
 12.4 
 
 16.6 
 
 5 
 
 5.1 
 
 6.0 
 
 6.3 
 
 7.7 
 
 8.2 
 
 10.2 
 
 9.9 
 
 13.3 
 
 6 
 
 4.3 
 
 5.0 
 
 5.3 
 
 6.4 
 
 6.8 
 
 9.6 
 
 8.3 
 
 11.1 
 
 7 
 
 3.7 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.5 
 
 5.5 
 
 5.8 
 
 7.5 
 
 7.1 
 
 9.5 
 
 8 
 
 3.2 
 
 3.7 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.8 
 
 5.1 
 
 6.6 
 
 6.2 
 
 8.3 
 
 9 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.5 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.5 
 
 5.8 
 
 5.5 
 
 7.4 
 
 10 
 
 2.6 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 3.8 
 
 4.1 
 
 5.3 
 
 5.0 
 
 6.6 
 
 If load is concentrated in center, use one-half above loads. 
 Above tables are based on one-eighth the breaking weight. 
 
262 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 NOTE. Compiled by Vierling Steel Works, of Chicago and Omaha. 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inch.es 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 15.1 
 
 10.1 
 
 7.6 
 
 C.I 
 
 5.0 
 4.3 
 3.8 
 3.4 
 3.0 
 
 V '7 
 
 2.5 
 
 18.4 
 
 12.2 
 
 9.2 
 
 7.3 
 
 6.1 
 5.2 
 4.6 
 4.1 
 3.7 
 
 3.3 
 3.1 
 
 19.5 
 
 13.0 
 
 9.7 
 
 7.8 
 
 6.5 
 5.6 
 4.9 
 4.3 
 3.9 
 
 3.5 
 3.2 
 
 24.6 
 
 16.4 
 
 12.3 
 
 9.9 
 
 8.2 
 7.0 
 6.2 
 5.5 
 4.9 
 
 4.5 
 4.1 
 
 25.7 
 17.1 
 12.8 
 10.3 
 
 8.6 
 7.3 
 6.4 
 5.7 
 
 5.1 
 
 4.7 
 4.3 
 
 32.2 
 21.4 
 16.1 
 12.9 
 
 10.7 
 9.2 
 8.0 
 7.1 
 6.4 
 
 5.8 
 5.4 
 
 31.4 
 20.9 
 15.7 
 12.6 
 
 10.5 
 9.0 
 7.8 
 7.0 
 6.3 
 
 5.7 
 5.2 
 
 41.6 
 
 27.7 
 20.8 
 16.6 
 
 13.7 
 
 11.9 
 
 10.4 
 
 9.2 
 
 8.3 
 
 7.6 
 6.9 
 
 ' 20" 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 1 
 
 17.2 
 
 11.5 
 
 8.6 
 
 6.9 
 
 5.7 
 4.9 
 4.3 
 3.8 
 3.4 
 
 3.1 
 2.9 
 
 21.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 10.5 
 
 8.4 
 
 7.0 
 6.0 
 5.2 
 
 4.7 
 4.2 
 
 3.8 
 3.5 
 
 22.9 
 
 15.3 
 
 11.5 
 
 9.2 
 
 7.6 
 6.5 
 5.7 
 5.1 
 
 4.6 
 
 4.2 
 3.8 
 
 29.5 
 19.3 
 14.7 
 11.8 
 
 9.8 
 8.4 
 7.3 
 6.6 
 5.9 
 
 5.4 
 4.9 
 
 30.3 
 20.2 
 15.1 
 12.1 
 
 10.1 
 
 8.7 
 7.6 
 6.7 
 6.1 
 
 5.5 
 5.0 
 
 37.8 
 25.2 
 18.9 
 15.1 
 
 12.6 
 
 10.8 
 
 9.5 
 
 8.4 
 
 7.6 
 
 6.9 
 6.3 
 
 36.6 
 24.4 
 18.3 
 14.6 
 
 12.2 
 
 10.5 
 
 9.1 
 
 8.2 
 7.3 
 
 6.6 
 6.1 
 
 48.2 
 32.2 
 24.1 
 19.3 
 
 16.1 
 13.8 
 12.1 
 10.7 
 9.6 
 
 8.8 
 8.0 
 
 If load is concentrated in center, u?e one-half above loads. 
 Above tables are based on one-eighth the breaking weight. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 263 
 
 NOTE. Compiled by Vierling Steel Works, of Chicago and Omaha. 
 
 1 
 
 _c 
 
 JJJt 
 
 JJJf 
 
 JUI 
 
 JL? 
 
 CO 
 
 -12"* 
 
 f 12"- 
 
 -=- -12"-- 
 
 ---12" 
 
 "E 
 
 0) 
 
 n. 
 o 
 
 UJ? 
 
 LLB 
 
 mi 
 
 ffli 
 
 o 
 
 * 12" *" 
 
 
 -=- -12"- "* 
 
 
 -C 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 i 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 14.2 
 
 15.8 
 
 18.1 
 
 23.1 
 
 23.7 
 
 30.6 
 
 29.1 
 
 37.5 
 
 3 
 
 9.4 
 
 10.6 
 
 12.0 
 
 15.4 
 
 15.8 
 
 20.4- 
 
 19.4 
 
 25.0 
 
 4 
 
 7.1 
 
 7.9 
 
 9.0 
 
 11.5 
 
 11.9 
 
 15.3 
 
 14.6 
 
 18.7 
 
 5 
 
 5.7 
 
 6.3 
 
 7.2 
 
 9.2 
 
 9.5 
 
 12.2 
 
 11.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 6 
 
 4.7 
 
 5.3 
 
 6.0 
 
 7.7 
 
 7.9 
 
 10.2 
 
 9.7 
 
 12.5 
 
 7 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.5 
 
 5.2 
 
 6.6 
 
 6.8 
 
 8.7 
 
 8.3 
 
 10.8 
 
 8 
 
 3.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.5 
 
 5.8 
 
 5.9 
 
 7.6 
 
 7.3 
 
 9.4 
 
 9 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.1 
 
 5.3 
 
 6.8 
 
 6.5 
 
 7.8 
 
 10 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.2 
 
 3.6 
 
 4.6 
 
 4.7 
 
 6.1 
 
 5.8 
 
 7.5 
 
 11 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.9 
 
 3.3 
 
 4,2 
 
 4.3 
 
 5.6 
 
 5.3 
 
 6.8 
 
 12 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.6 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.8 
 
 3.9 
 
 5.1 
 
 4.8 
 
 6.2 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 ' ' i* 
 
 rWuy 
 
 EL! 
 
 /m\i 
 
 I 
 
 . 10' - 
 
 
 10"--- 
 
 ~- 1C" 
 
 "c 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 i i \" 
 
 * - 
 
 1 1 II 
 
 LJ i 
 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^MJ ^ 
 
 
 B , - 
 
 B B B ; 
 
 "o 
 
 r n; _ 
 
 = 10* = 
 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 ... 
 
 5 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 17.4 
 
 19.5 
 
 22.1 
 
 27.8 
 
 28.4 
 
 36.6 
 
 35.5 
 
 45.7 
 
 3 
 
 11.7 
 
 13.0 
 
 14.7 
 
 18.5 
 
 18.9 
 
 24.4 
 
 23.7 
 
 30.4 
 
 4 
 
 8.7 
 
 9.8 
 
 11.1 
 
 13.9 
 
 14.2 
 
 18.3 
 
 17.8 
 
 22.9 
 
 5 
 
 7.0 
 
 7.8 
 
 8.8 
 
 11.1 
 
 11,3 
 
 14.6 
 
 14.2 
 
 1.8.3 
 
 6 
 
 5.8 
 
 6.5 
 
 7.4 
 
 9.3 
 
 9.4 
 
 12.2 
 
 11.8 
 
 15.2 
 
 7 
 
 5.0 
 
 5.6 
 
 6.3 
 
 7.9 
 
 8.1 
 
 10.5 
 
 10.1 
 
 13.0 
 
 8 
 
 4.4 
 
 4.9 
 
 5.5 
 
 6.9 
 
 7.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 8.9 
 
 11.4 
 
 9 
 
 8.9 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.8 
 
 6.2 
 
 6.3 
 
 8.1 
 
 7.9 
 
 10.1 
 
 10 
 
 3.5 
 
 3.9 
 
 4.4 
 
 5.6 
 
 5.7 
 
 7.3 
 
 7.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 11 
 
 3.2 
 
 3.6 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 5.2 
 
 6.7 
 
 6.5 
 
 8.3 
 
 12 
 
 2.9 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.7 
 
 4.6 
 
 4.8 
 
 6.1 
 
 5.9 
 
 7.6 
 
 If load is concentrated in center, use one-half above loads. 
 Above tables are based on one-eighth the breaking weight. 
 
264: CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 NOTE. Compiled by Vierling Steel Works, of Chicago and Omaha. 
 
 20" --- f 
 
 ZLLLt 
 
 < --- 20"- --- * 
 
 /H 
 
 20" ___ >> 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 
 11 
 12 
 
 26.1 
 17.4 
 13.0 
 10.4 
 
 8.7 
 7.5 
 6.5 
 5.8 
 5.2 
 
 4.7 
 4.2 
 
 32.6 
 21.7 
 16.3 
 13.0 
 
 10.9 
 9.3 
 8.2 
 7.2 
 6.6 
 
 5.9 
 5.4 
 
 33.6 
 22.4 
 16.8 
 13.4 
 
 11.2 
 9.6 
 
 8.4 
 7.5 
 6.7 
 
 6.1 
 5.6 
 
 42.2 
 28.1 
 21.1 
 16.9 
 
 14,1 
 
 12.0 
 
 10.5 
 
 9.4 
 
 8.4 
 
 7.7 
 7.0 
 
 41.5 
 
 27.7 
 20.8 
 16.6 
 
 13.8 
 11.9 
 
 10.4 
 9.4 
 8.3 
 
 7.5 
 6.9 
 
 53.8 
 35.9 
 26.9 
 21.5 
 
 17.9 
 15.4 
 13.4 
 12.0 
 10.8 
 
 9.8 
 9.0 
 
 52.1 
 34.8 
 26.1 
 20.9 
 
 17.4 
 14.9 
 13.0 
 11.6 
 10.4 
 
 9.5 
 
 8.7 
 
 63.6 
 42.4 
 31.9 
 25.5 
 
 21.2 
 18.2 
 15.9 
 14.1 
 12.7 
 
 11.6 
 10.6 
 
 
 ' ' 
 
 24"- -- s 
 
 24" ----- 
 
 Thickness of Metal in Inches 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 
 11 
 12 
 
 29.8 
 19.8 
 14.9 
 11.9 
 
 9.9 
 8.5 
 7.5 
 6.6 
 6.0 
 
 5.4 
 5.0 
 
 37.0 
 24.7 
 17.2 
 
 14.8 
 
 12.3 
 
 10.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 8.2 
 
 7.4 
 
 6.7 
 6.2 
 
 37.8 
 25.2 
 18.9 
 15.1 
 
 12.6 
 
 10.8 
 
 9.5 
 
 8.4 
 
 7.6 
 
 6.9 
 6.3 
 
 48.8 
 32.5 
 24.4 
 19.5 
 
 16.3 
 13.9 
 12.2 
 
 10.8 
 9.8 
 
 8.9 
 
 8.1 
 
 47.5 
 31.7 
 23.7 
 19.0 
 
 15.8 
 13.6 
 11.9 
 10.5 
 9.5 
 
 8.6 
 
 7.9 
 
 G1.3 
 40.8 
 30.6 
 24.5 
 
 20.4 
 17.5 
 15.3 
 13.6 
 12,2 
 
 11.1 
 10.2 
 
 59.1 
 39.4 
 29.6 
 23.6 
 
 19.7 
 16.9 
 14.8 
 13.1 
 11.8 
 
 10.7 
 
 9.8 
 
 79.1 
 49.4 
 37.0 
 29.6 
 
 24.7 
 21.2 
 18.5 
 16.5 
 14.8 
 
 13.5 
 12.3 
 
 If load is concentrated in center, use one-half above loads. 
 Above tables are based on one-eighth the breaking weight. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 265 
 
 BASE PLATES 
 
 Size. The size of the base plate for a column depends 
 upon the material upon which it rests. If brick in lime 
 mortar will carry 8 tons to the square foot, and hard brick 
 in Portland cement, 15, this means that the plate in the one 
 case may be a good deal smaller than in the other. 
 
 Example. Take a column supporting a floor load of 125 
 pounds to the square foot. Let the area extend 8 feet from 
 the column on all sides, giving a square of 16' x 16'. Assume 
 that there are three floors. 
 
 Three floors, 256 sq. ft. x 125 Ibs. x 3 = 192,000 pounds 
 
 Roof, 256 x 50 Ibs 12,800 
 
 Columns and base plate about 4,200 " 
 
 Live load 20 per cent, on floors only. . 38,400 " 
 
 247,400 " 
 
 This is 124 tons. If we use a concrete base, what area is 
 required? From 12 to 15 tons are allowed in the codes for 
 Portland cement. At 12.4 tons we should need a plate with 
 10 square feet. Referring to the table of squares to get the 
 square root of 10, we find 3.16. Multiplying the .16 by 12 
 to bring it to inches we get 1.92 or nearly 2 inches. The plate 
 would thus be 3' 2" x 3' 2". As all the load would never be 
 put on at one time a smaller size would be sufficient. A load- 
 ing of 85 per cent, of the total would reduce it to 106 tons. 
 At 15 tons this would require a base of only 7 square feet, 
 or 2.652 feet 8 inches. 
 
 A good deal depends upon the purpose for which the building 
 is to be used. The total load in the above example is 150 
 pounds to the square foot, and this would seldom be put on 
 in any ordinary structure. On the other hand, some buildings 
 might have machines concentrated on a certain column, and 
 cause overloaded floors. 
 
 Sugar. I went one day into a light manufacturing build- 
 ing with light joists, and found it loaded with sugar. The 
 girders were bending under the load, and things looked as if 
 someone had made a , poor design. I asked why the posts 
 were so far apart, and was told that the owner had left out 
 each alternate one to save expense. The architect was not 
 
266 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 to blame. So you can never tell how a building is to be 
 loaded, and it is best to be safe with base plates. 
 
 All base plates have to be reinforced with ribs according 
 to the standard rules. 
 
 Standards. The contractor, whom we are always keeping 
 in mind throughout, would not make details for such work 
 as column connections, caps, bolsters, and base plates, but 
 would order standard patterns and connections. The diameter 
 of the columns would be given, thickness of the metal for all 
 parts of the work, sizes of bearing plates, base plates, and so 
 on. Any foundryman will show just what his ordinary pat- 
 terns are, and when no lugs or such small members are to be 
 less than 1 inch metal, and columns themselves are specified 
 there is the certainty of safe castings. 
 
 Catalogs. All kinds of catalogs containing valuable in- 
 formation on post caps, bases, girder and joist hangers, and 
 such structural work may be had free. The trade journals 
 contain advertisements from the various manufacturers of 
 specialties. There is no use wasting time making details of 
 work that is on the market for sale just as sugar is. I have 
 often seen draftsmen making details of four-panel doors. The 
 warehouses are full of these doors. Why draw a picture of 
 what is already made? Artists do that. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 CONCRETE FORMS AND WORK 
 
 Cement. When the production of Portland cement rises in 
 round numbers from 12,700,000 barrels in 1901 to 64,200,000 in 
 1910, it means that concrete construction is coming into its 
 own as never before. In 1882 the manufacturers of the United 
 States turned out only 85,000 barrels. 
 
 Stability. One of the government experts said in his report 
 of the San Francisco fire, " Wooden buildings stood well, and 
 reinforced concrete buildings sustained practically no damage." 
 This is a strong point in their favor in earthquake countries. 
 
 Costs. In " The New Building Estimator " complete de- 
 tailed costs of everything in connection with these buildings 
 are given from the actual records of the largest companies. 
 Here, the construction side only will be dealt with. In large 
 cities the regular companies have their own systems of work, 
 but in the smaller ones, and in towns, the following informa- 
 tion will be useful to those who occasionally have a contract 
 of this kind, but do not make a speciality of such con- 
 struction. 
 
 Risk. To begin with, it may be said that a contractor 
 assumes considerable risk when he agrees to put up a re- 
 inforced concrete building designed by a man who has not had 
 much experience in that line. It may be remembered that the 
 courts have held that if a contractor put up a building on a 
 weak foundation and it fall he has to replace it. He is sup- 
 posed to know a good soil when he sees it. Probably he is 
 also supposed to know a good reinforced design when he looks 
 at the plans, but the general understanding is that he has to 
 rely on the architect. He fails occasionally. 
 
 FORMS 
 
 Strength. It is easy enough to say that forms must be 
 strong enough for the purpose for which they are to be used. 
 
 267 
 
268 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 That is only reasonable. Yet we often see %-inch boards 
 nailed on studs with such wide spacing that the weight of 
 the wet concrete bulges out the boards and spoils the looks, and 
 sometimes the stability, of the finished work. 
 
 Lumber. Some of the companies tell us that the lumber 
 used should not be kiln dried, but there is little danger of 
 getting that kind. Neither should it be too green. If it is 
 kiln dried it warps out of shape w r hen the wet material is 
 poured in. If it is too green it w r ill not swell and close the 
 joints. Therefore, neither too dry nor too wet should be 
 used, but between the two. 
 
 Kind. The kind used will depend upon the locality of the 
 building. In Oregon, yellow pine will not be selected, and no 
 one in Georgia is going to send for Oregon fir. Any reason- 
 able kind of lumber may be used, but the " bone " dry Y. P. ' 
 is not suitable for such work. It is like cast iron in being too 
 unyielding. 
 
 Fine Surfaces. For the finest finished surfaces white pine 
 is the best. Indeed, it is best for the all around use of forms, 
 but it costs too much. One warning that an estimator should 
 remember is that when the finest concrete surfaces are called 
 for, the labor on the forms may run to twice as much as for 
 ordinary work. Everything has to be smoothly finished. 
 
 Heavy Work. For the large structures 2-inch plank is 
 used. It should be surfaced on one side. The real market 
 thickness is not more than 1%, and sometimes only 1% inches. 
 
 Widths. In country work where saw-mills are not avail- 
 able, and ripping has to be done by hand, it would often pay 
 to leave the plank full width and throw in a little extra 
 concrete to save ripping the two sides of beams and columns. 
 No reasonable architect would object to having a column or 
 beam %-inch, or even 1 inch wider than the figures called for. 
 
 Thickness. In some parts of the country lumber about 
 1^4 inches thick may be obtained, and it is strong enough 
 for all kinds of forms, except the heaviest, if properly braced. 
 But for beams where there is a heavy weight it is better to 
 use 2 inches in connection with the 1% inches. 
 
 For much work %-inch boards, well braced, can be used. 
 Among the first months of my apprenticeship I put up a wall 
 lined with ordinary boards on both sides to receive the con- 
 crete. There was no reinforcement then. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 269 
 
 But the thin boards are so easily split that it often pays 
 to use plank instead, as that can be worked over and over 
 without damage. 
 
 Tongued and Grooved boards are better than square edged 
 ones, as the finish is smoother. With the square ones the 
 surfaces may spring apart, while the matched boards keep 
 even. 
 
 Costs. One great expense of this class of masonry is the 
 forms. Many are at work trying to reduce the cost, but in 
 the meantime each one has to follow the ordinary method of 
 work, and use the same forms as often as possible. I have seen 
 expensive forms for heavy mass piers used many times, and 
 this is where the economy lies. When architects design piers 
 for this kind of work they should make as many of them alike 
 as possible. It often pays to use an extra yard of concrete 
 rather than make a new form to suit some trifling line that 
 is often buried below the earth. 
 
 Panels. Wide panels should be well shored up from below. 
 .They are sometimes hung from the steel beams above if these 
 are used, as in the Roebling system. This is the same method 
 that the hollow tile men have followed for so many years, 
 except that wire is generally used for reinforced work instead 
 of bolts. 
 
 Boarding. For panels %-inch boards are strong enough 
 if they are well supported. They should be merely tacked and 
 not nailed. The weight of the concrete holds the boards in 
 place. 
 
 It is better to have the panel boarding clear of the beams, 
 so that it can be removed independently. The forms for the 
 beams must be left on longer than the ones for the thin 
 panels with little weight to support. This saves lumber. 
 
 Nails. It is better, when possible, to leave the heads of 
 the nails sticking out a little, so that they can be easily 
 drawn. 
 
 Studs. For % -inch boarding the studs should not be more 
 than 24 inches apart, and if square edged boards are used 
 there is apt to be an uneven surface in some places even at 
 this distance. 
 
 For 1 %-inch lumber, 3 feet is wide enough; and 4 feet 6 
 inches to 5 feet for 2-inch plank. To keep the planks 
 from bulging out they are often tied together with wire 
 
270 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 doubled and twisted with a small piece of stick until it is 
 tight. 
 
 The studs have to be of size to suit the work, and should 
 be specified by the architect or engineer. For light work 
 with good bracing 2 x 4's are suitable. The next commercial 
 size, in the West at all events, is 4" x 4", and then 4" x 6". 
 Good bracing and tying will help wonderfully. 
 
 Columns. When the upright planks are in place for 
 columns they are fastened together with cleats and wedges 
 which must be so put in as to hold when the heavy mass of 
 concrete comes against them. The beams are wedged together 
 also. 
 
 Cleaning. Before using any kind of forms again they 
 should be well cleaned. If any of the concrete is left sticking 
 on the surface there will be imperfections in the finished 
 work. 
 
 Oiling. If the forms are well watered inside before the 
 concrete is poured it will not stick to them so very much. 
 But to make finer work they are often oiled with linseed oil, 
 crude oil, soft soap, mixed lard, and kerosene, or something 
 of that nature. This fills the grain of the wood, and makes 
 a finer surface. 
 
 Plaster. If the concrete is going to be plastered after- 
 wards the surface is better to be rough. 
 
 Weights. Keep floor loads off green concrete. Put any 
 loads closely around a column, or wall where the bearing is 
 good. Most of the wrecks of reinforced concrete buildings 
 have come through taking out the forms too soon, or loading 
 before the work had a chance to harden. 
 
 Removing Forms. No set rules can be laid down for the 
 removal of forms. A good deal depends upon the weather. In , 
 damp weather a heavy mass dries slowly, and this is really 
 to the advantage of the work. In dry weather the walls 
 should be protected from the sun with some kind of a sheet, 
 and watered occasionally for about a couple of weeks to keep 
 them from drying too fast. 
 
 The size of the member has to be considered. A great 
 column or beam takes longer to harden than a small one; and 
 a beam with a long span should get plenty of time. It is not 
 worth while running the risk of losing all the work for the 
 sake of an extra day or two. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 271 
 
 TIME OF REMOVAL OF FORMS 
 
 Arches in about a week for an ordinary span, but large 
 ones may require a month. 
 
 Beams and Long Span Slabs need from 10 to 14 days in 
 summer, and about half as much more in winter. But ordinary 
 slabs can be taken out in 8 or 9 days in summer and 12 to 
 14 in winter. As already noted, they should be put in inde- 
 pendently of the beams. 
 
 Columns 3 days in summer, and 5 in winter. But this is 
 on the supposition that the girders resting upon them are so 
 supported from below that the weight does not reach the 
 columns till all the girder shoring is removed. 
 
 Ordinary Conduits require 3 or 4 days. 
 
 Walls. If there is any earth or water pressure behind a 
 wall the forms should be left in for 3 or 4 weeks, and bracing 
 carefully done. We often forget that concrete goes on hard- 
 ening for at least 3 years. Once more we may consider the 
 crushing strength of concrete per square foot: 15 tons for 
 1 month old; 60 tons for 6 months old; 96 for 12. 
 
 Alignment. There is one trouble with concrete work that 
 should be noted. I have seen large foundations where the 
 walls were so badly lined up that the superstructure stood 
 over on the outside and had wasted space on the inside. 
 Sometimes too little is allowed by the architect. A building 
 is not a drawing board. Masons need some little leeway. A 
 margin of a couple of inches is not too much on rough 
 concrete, especially when it is hidden below the surface. If 
 too small allowance is made there is more time wasted trying 
 to get straight lines than the value of the concrete saved is 
 worth, ten times over. On a tapered pier an extra inch at 
 top does not amount to much. 
 
 Practice versus Theory. For columns, beams, pilasters, 
 and finished work inside, a variation of i/4-inch to %-inch may 
 be made without anyone being the wiser. A large commercial 
 building, and especially a factory, mill, or warehouse, is not 
 exactly a piece of cabinet furniture. It is certainly possible 
 to get lines and sizes correct to %-inch, but the waste of time 
 necessary for this fine work, where it is not really required, 
 would be unreasonable. This is where the superintendent 
 who wants to can pile up a heavy expense bill on a con- 
 
272 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 tractor. There would be no excuse in making sizes to suit 
 one's own ideas; but little reason in holding a builder down 
 to absolutely straight lines and exact measurements on heavy 
 work. 
 
 CONCRETE PROPORTIONS 
 
 Theories. Each French teacher has a system of his own 
 that he is sure is better than that of any other teacher; and 
 each engineer or architect knows what the best proportions 
 for concrete are. The following mixtures are for ordinary, 
 everyday use. 
 
 Packed. The stone or gravel, and sand are measured loose, 
 and the cement packed, or as it comes from the factory in one 
 barrel or 4 sacks containing 3.8 cubic feet. That is all that 
 is allowed for cement, per barrel, but when spread out it 
 increases in volume from 20 to 30 per cent. If it was allowed 
 to be taken loose each barrel would measure 4% to 5 cubic feet. 
 
 Suppose a packed barrel is taken. We have 3.8 cubic feet. 
 On a basis of 1, 2, 4 we should therefore require 1 barrel 
 cement; twice 3.8 or 7.6 cubic feet of sand; and 4 times 3.8 
 or 15.2 cubic feet of stone or gravel. The following propor- 
 tions are made out on the basis of the packed barrel. 
 
 The courts have had to decide this question of packed or 
 loose. As packed means much more cement, which is higher 
 in price than sand, the contractor should be certain that 
 loose is to be allowed before he puts in any bid. 
 
 Class 1. For reinforced floors, beams, columns, walls, 
 dynamo foundations, or where there is any vibration, use a 
 mixture of not less than 1, 2, 4. 
 
 Class 2. For machine foundations, arches, sidewalks, ordi- 
 nary floors, light foundation walls, use 1, 2%, and 5. 
 
 Class 3. For retaining walls, heavy walls, piers, and abut- 
 ments, use a mixture of 1, 3, 6. This makes a concrete of good 
 quality for ordinary work. 
 
 Class 4. For heavy mass foundations without reinforce- 
 ment, use 1, 4, and 8. This is about the weakest mixture 
 that should be considered, although 1, 4, and 10 has been used 
 with success. 
 
 Density. The concrete that weighs most per cubic foot, in 
 other words, is most dense, is the best. This is the one with 
 the voids all filled. Plenty of cement fills the spaces between 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 273 
 
 the rougher grains of sand; and the right amount of the 
 mixture is used to fill the spaces between the stones. 
 
 The Cement Users give their recommended proportions as 
 follows : 
 
 A: 1, li/ 2 , and 3. This is the richest mixture for columns, 
 structural work, and the best water-tight requirements. 
 This is 1 packed barrel of cement; iy 2 barrels of sand, 
 or 5.7 cubic feet; 3 barrels or 11.4 cubic feet of stone or 
 loose gravel. 
 
 B: 1, 2, and 4. This is for ordinary reinforced floors, 
 engine or machine foundations subject to vibration, tanks, 
 sewers, conduits, and ordinary water-tight work. 
 
 C: 1, 21/2, and 5. This is a medium mixture for ordinary 
 foundations, retaining walls, abutments, thin walls, ordinary 
 floors, sidewalks, and sewers with heavy walls. 
 
 D: 1, 3, and 6. This is for heavy mass work for large 
 foundations with heavy loads, and backing for stone masonry. 
 
 Measuring. This is usually done in a wheelbarrow after 
 the first few batches to find out the proper proportions. 
 
 Platform. For small concrete foundations a platform 
 8' x 8' will do, although 10' x 10' is the usual size. It should 
 be water-tight to keep the rich cement from flowing away, and 
 have strips around the edges for the same reason. It may be 
 made of ordinary boards, but shiplap or flooring is better. 
 
 Method of Work. The sand should go down first on the 
 platform, then the cement, and the two should be mixed dry 
 so thoroughly that neither sand nor cement can be seen 
 separately, but a new material composed of both. There 
 should be three or four turnings. 
 
 "Watering. A hose should then be turned on the stone in 
 the wheelbarrow, or in the pile itself, and it should be 
 thoroughly wetted, then thrown on the pile, all mixed once 
 dry, and then the Avater should be added gradually. In gen- 
 eral, when a hose is used, the water is thrown on with such 
 force that the fine cement is washed away, and some insist 
 that pails be taken to avoid the danger. A hose may be used 
 if it is handled in the right manner. 
 
 Wet or Dry. Neither one nor the other, but about midway 
 between for ordinary work. Heavy mass foundation work 
 should not be soaked with water, for if it is, it takes just so 
 much longer to dry out. But for columns, beams, slabs, and 
 
274 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 such work if the concrete is not well wetted it will not flow 
 into place, and a poor surface will be the result. The purpose 
 for which the material is used has to be considered. 
 
 Laying. For ordinary work the concrete is best laid in 
 layers of about 8 inches thick, and lightly tamped with a 
 piece of scantling, or something of the sort, until the water 
 rises to the top. As a matter of fact, we see heavy foundation 
 walls and piers run in from the machine several feet deep at 
 a time. 
 
 Dropping. Some engineers object to dropping concrete 
 from a height of more than 3 feet or so. The idea is that 
 the cement and sand are detached from the stone, and that a 
 poorer quality of work is the result. It has been found, how- 
 ever, after a careful examination, that there is no difference 
 between the mass that is dropped 30 feet, and the other that 
 is dropped only 5 feet. Indeed, in one case where the material 
 was dropped 43 feet, the tank was perfectly water-tight. 
 
 Fresh Batches. Use the material as soon as mixed. This 
 is very important. Do not make the batches so large, if 
 mixed by hand, that the quantity cannot be soon put in place. 
 In extreme cases a batch might have to lie for a short time, 
 but if any is not placed in an hour after the addition of the 
 water it should be thrown away. 
 
 Freezing". In freezing weather use a little melted salt 
 to protect the material against the frost. Or heat the sand 
 and stone. Concrete is often covered with dry manure in 
 winter, but if any new work is to be added this is not a very 
 good practice. If it is used the old wall must be carefully 
 swept and cleaned. 
 
 Reinforcement. This must be placed according to the 
 drawings. The architect or engineer is the one to decide every- 
 thing in connection with reinforcement. 
 
 Walls. The form for the outside walls should be erected 
 first, and the reinforcement stapled against them with as few 
 galvanized staples as possible. Or nails may be used to keep 
 the metal at the required distance from the wood. 
 
 Protection. Many reinforced concrete engineers say that 
 1 inch of concrete is enough to protect steel from fire, but 
 the insurance companies want at least 2 inches between the 
 metal of all structural members and the surface exposed. 
 
 Surfaces. No patching should be allowed before the sur- 
 faces are examined after the forms are off. A careless work- 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 275 
 
 man naturally wants to hide bad work, but the safety of the 
 building has to be considered. 
 
 Smoothing. If the walls are rougher than is agreeable to 
 look at, mix a thin mortar of Portland cement and sand in 
 equal parts, and apply with a whitewash brush after having 
 taken off all the loose material and wetted the surface. This 
 is how the cistern builders make a smooth surface. Some of 
 the reinforced surfaces we see, however, are more in need of 
 a spade than a brush. The mixture must be well stirred. 
 
 Keying. Sometimes the surface is left rough and stucco 
 applied in the keys. 
 
 Paint does not last very well when applied to the surfaces 
 of concrete buildings, but many of them are painted. One of 
 the advantages of concrete facades, according to the cement 
 companies, is that painting is never required. 
 
 Other Finishes. Occasionally sand blast is used, and ham- 
 mering, picking, etc., but these treatments are expensive. 
 Further on in this chapter coloring is discussed. 
 
 Hammering'. A good deal of work has been hammer 
 dressed. A hammer with 20 to 30 sharp points on the end 
 is used. But the trouble with all finishes that break the 
 surface is with the moisture. This does not need to be con- 
 sidered in dry climates. The fine smooth skin of concrete 
 laid against the well oiled forms is deliberately broken up. 
 The protection is destroyed for the sake of artistic effect. 
 Some say that by using a richer mixture on the outside the 
 moisture cannot enter. In raw lake or sea regions, where the 
 frost penetrates everything, this treatment would seem to 
 be entirely wrong. 
 
 Cost. A laborer can dress from 40 to 50 square feet in a 
 day of 8 hours. At 20 cents per hour this means about 3 or 
 4 cents per square foot, no scaffolding being included. This 
 is as much as ordinary inside plaster is worth. 
 
 Bonding 1 . In floor slabs the question comes up as to where 
 the stop should be made for the day. On the top of the beam, 
 or in the center of the span? There is a difference of opinion, 
 but the center of the span is usually accepted. This is where 
 the compression is greatest, and thus there is less danger 
 of cracking. The trouble is with dust and dirt. Before join- 
 ing the new concrete to the old, everything should be scrupu- 
 lously clean. 
 
276 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 EXPANDED METAL SLABS FOB FLOORS, ROOFS, SIDEWALKS, ETC. 
 
 (The following tables were sent me for this book by the 
 Northwestern Expanded Metal Company, Chicago. The mesh 
 in all is 3 inches. This size has been proved by experience 
 to be the best. The smaller sizes cut up the concrete too 
 much ) . 
 
 Notes for All Tables 
 
 Thickness of slab is the total thickness, in which is included 
 one-half inch of concrete under the steel. 
 
 Total load is the sum of the weight of slab and the super- 
 imposed safe load. 
 
 These tables are all based on sheets 3 feet wide, having a 
 sidelap 1 mesh wide. 
 
 " The tables as given below give the sizes according to our 
 uniform standards, to be used by us after January 1, 1910." 
 
 These 4 tables give the sizes most commonly is use. 
 
 TABLE I 
 No. 06-3 North Western Expanded Metal. Weight, per sq. ft., .20 Iba. 
 
 Span in Feet 
 
 2' 
 
 2' 6" 
 
 3' 
 
 3' 6" 
 
 4' 
 
 4' 6" 
 
 5' 
 
 5' 6" 
 
 ff 
 
 Total 
 Thick- 
 ness of 
 Slab 
 
 Weight 
 of Slab 
 per Sq. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Superimposed Safe Loads in Lbs. per Square 
 Foot 
 
 l-2J^-5 Broken Stone or 1-5 Bank Gravel 
 Concrete 
 
 2" 
 
 p- 
 
 24 
 31 
 37 
 
 170 
 
 240 
 320 
 
 100 
 140 
 190 
 
 60 
 90 
 120 
 
 40 
 60 
 80 
 
 24 
 
 37 
 50 
 
 23 
 33 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-24 Slag, Brick or Burnt Clay Concrete 
 
 3H" 
 4" 
 4^" 
 
 43 
 49 
 55 
 
 400 
 470 
 550 
 
 240 
 280 
 330 
 
 150 
 180 
 210 
 
 100 
 120 
 140 
 
 67 
 80 
 95 
 
 44 
 53 
 63 
 
 27 
 34 
 40 
 
 20 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 Best Quality Cinder Concrete 
 
 5" 
 
 $r 
 
 48 
 53 
 58 
 
 630 
 710 
 
 780 
 
 380 
 430 
 
 480 
 
 240 
 280 
 310 
 
 160 
 
 185 
 205 
 
 110 
 125 
 140 
 
 74 
 85 
 96 
 
 48 
 57 
 64 
 
 90 
 
 35 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 277 
 
 TABLE II 
 No. 11-3 North Western Expanded Metal. Weight, per sq. ft., .34 Ibs. 
 
 Span 
 
 2' 
 
 2' 6" 
 
 3' 
 
 3' 6" 
 
 4 1 
 
 4' 6" 
 
 5' 
 
 5'6" 
 
 6' 
 
 7' 
 
 8r 
 
 Total Slab 
 Thickness 
 
 A 
 
 =l | 
 
 Superimposed Safe Loads in Pounds per Square 
 Foot 
 
 1-2-4 Broken Stone or Washed Gravel Concrete 
 
 2" 
 
 & 
 
 24 
 31 
 37 
 
 320 
 460 
 600 
 
 200 
 290 
 370 
 
 130 
 190 
 250 
 
 88 
 130 
 170 
 
 62 
 93 
 120 
 
 44 
 66 
 
 89 
 
 30 
 48 
 65 
 
 20 
 34 
 
 47 
 
 24 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 1-2^-5 Broken Stone or 1-5 Bank Gravel Concrete 
 
 w 
 
 &" 
 
 43 
 49 
 55 
 61 
 
 740 
 890 
 
 460 
 550 
 640 
 730 
 
 310 
 370 
 430 
 490 
 
 210 
 260 
 300 
 340 
 
 150 
 190 
 220 
 250 
 
 110 
 135 
 160 
 185 
 
 82 
 100 
 120 
 140 
 
 60 
 75 
 90 
 105 
 
 44 
 55 
 66 
 76 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 34 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 1-2-4 Slag, Brick or Burnt Clay Concrete 
 
 ?' 
 
 7" 
 8" 
 
 67 
 73 
 85 
 98 
 
 
 820 
 910 
 
 550 
 610 
 
 740 
 860 
 
 390 
 430 
 520 
 610 
 
 280 
 310 
 380 
 440 
 
 210 
 230 
 280 
 330 
 
 160 
 175 
 210 
 250 
 
 115 
 130 
 160 
 190 
 
 87 
 98 
 120 
 145 
 
 47 
 53 
 66 
 79 
 
 20 
 23 
 30 
 37 
 
 
 
 Best Quality Cinder Concrete 
 
 9" 
 10" 
 
 86 
 96 
 
 
 
 980 
 
 690 
 780 
 
 500 
 570 
 
 375 
 425 
 
 285 
 320 
 
 215 
 245 
 
 165 
 185 
 
 90 
 105 
 
 44- 
 
 50 
 
 Danger. As already noted, it is rather risky for an ordi- 
 nary contractor to attempt to design a reinforced structure 
 of any kind. But ordinary slabs on steel beams are easily 
 enough taken care of if the above, or any standard, tables are 
 utilized. "Weight for weight," says one authority, "ex- 
 panded metal has greater reinforcing value than any other 
 material." Owing to its shape it has also more of a mechan- 
 ical bond than some of the other kinds of reinforcement. The 
 sheets lap, and this gives a continuous slab. 
 
 Popular Name. So safe is this system that the North- 
 western Company calls it " fool-proof." There is no chance 
 of mistake. The reinforcement and the concrete do the work 
 if the tables are followed. 
 
278 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 TABLE III 
 No. 16-3 North Western Expanded Metal. Weight, per sq. ft., .55 Ibs. 
 
 Span 
 
 2' 6" 
 
 3' 
 
 3' 6" 
 
 4' 
 
 4' 6" 
 
 5' 
 
 5' 6" 
 
 6' 
 
 7' 
 
 8' 
 
 9' 
 
 10' 
 
 Total Slab 
 Thickness 
 
 ^5 
 "Sfc 
 -* 
 
 *$* 
 *l 
 
 Superimposed Safe Loads in Pounds per Square 
 Foot 
 
 1-24 Broken Stone or Washed Gravel Concrete 
 
 2" 
 
 w 
 
 P" 
 
 24 
 31 
 37 
 43 
 49 
 
 240 
 430 
 560 
 700 
 830 
 
 160 
 290 
 380 
 470 
 560 
 
 110 
 210 
 270 
 340 
 400 
 
 78 
 150 
 200 
 2.50 
 290 
 
 57 
 110 
 150 
 190 
 220 
 
 40 
 84 
 110 
 140 
 170 
 
 30 
 64 
 87 
 110 
 130 
 
 20 
 50 
 67 
 85 
 100 
 
 28 
 40 
 50 
 63 
 
 21 
 29 
 37 
 
 19 
 
 
 $r 
 5P" 
 
 1" 
 
 55 
 61 
 67 
 73 
 
 85 
 
 1-2^-5 Broken Stone or 1-5 Bank Gravel Concrete 
 
 970 
 
 660 
 740 
 830 
 930 
 
 470 
 
 530 
 600 
 670 
 800 
 
 350 
 390 
 440 
 490 
 590 
 
 260 
 290 
 330 
 370 
 450 
 
 200 
 230 
 260 
 290 
 350 
 
 160 
 
 180 
 200 
 230 
 270 
 
 120 
 140 
 160 
 180 
 220 
 
 76 
 86 
 100 
 112 
 135 
 
 45 
 52 
 60 
 68 
 84 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 33 
 39 
 48 
 
 17 
 23 
 
 
 
 1-2-4 Slag, Brick or Burnt Clay Concrete 
 
 8" 
 9" 
 10" 
 11" 
 12" 
 
 98 
 110 
 122 
 135 
 147 
 
 
 
 930 
 
 690 
 810 
 890 
 
 520 
 610 
 680 
 760 
 830 
 
 400 
 480 
 530 
 590 
 
 640 
 
 320 
 370 
 420 
 460 
 510 
 
 250 
 300 
 330 
 370 
 400 
 
 160 
 190 
 210 
 230 
 260 
 
 98 
 120 
 130 
 150 
 160 
 
 57 
 70 
 80 
 90 
 97 
 
 28 
 36 
 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 
 Bond. Reinforcement with plain bars is safe enough, for 
 the concrete takes a strong grip on the metal. But some say 
 that in course of time the bond weakens, and for this reason 
 a mechanical bond is now used with the bars. There are lug 
 bars, and twisted and square and cup ones of various kinds. 
 Expanded metal is so set at an angle as to furnish a good 
 bond of itself without any other reinforcement. 
 
 I-Beams and Expanded Metal. For a plain floor get the 
 size of the I-beams from the floor load, taking care to add the 
 concrete at 145 pounds to the cubic foot if of stone, and 90 
 if of cinders. Space the beams to suit, and do not go beyond 
 spans of 7 or 8 feet. The Underwriters' code for work of 
 this kind allows only 5-foot centers for stores, warehouses, 
 and factories, and 8 feet for other buildings. The beams 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 279 
 
 TABLE IV 
 No. 35-3 North Western Expanded Metal. Weight, per sq. ft., 1.185 Ibs. 
 
 Span 
 
 3' 6" 
 
 4' 
 
 4' 6" 
 
 5' 
 
 5' 6" 
 
 6' 
 
 7' 
 
 8' 
 
 9' 
 
 10' 
 
 11' 
 
 12' 
 
 Total Slab 
 Thickness 
 
 -g 
 
 * 
 
 *& 
 ^ 
 
 Superimposed Safe Loads in Pounds per Square 
 Foot 
 
 1-2-4 Broken Stone or Washed Gravel Concrete 
 
 3" 
 
 $*' 
 &" 
 P" 
 
 37 
 43 
 49 
 55 
 61 
 67 
 73 
 
 410 
 
 580 
 820 
 950 
 
 300 
 430 
 610 
 720 
 820 
 920 
 
 230 
 330 
 
 470 
 550 
 630 
 710 
 
 790 
 
 180 
 260 
 380 
 440 
 500 
 560 
 630 
 
 140 
 210 
 300 
 350 
 410 
 460 
 510 
 
 110 
 170 
 250 
 290 
 330 
 370 
 410 
 
 74 
 
 no 
 
 170 
 
 200 
 230 
 260 
 290 
 
 48 
 75 
 120 
 140 
 160 
 180 
 200 
 
 30 
 50 
 82 
 97 
 110 
 130 
 140 
 
 33 
 57 
 
 68 
 80 
 90 
 100 
 
 20 
 38 
 47 
 55 
 64 
 72 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 sr 
 
 43 
 49 
 
 
 
 l-2%-5 Broken Stone or 1-5 Bank Gravel Concrete 
 
 V 
 8" 
 9" 
 10" 
 11" 
 12" 
 
 85 
 98 
 110 
 122 
 135 
 147 
 
 
 
 950 
 
 760 
 
 880 
 
 610 
 710 
 820 
 920 
 
 500 
 580 
 670 
 760 
 850 
 930 
 
 340 
 4dO 
 470 
 520 
 590 
 640 
 
 240 
 230 
 330 
 370 
 420 
 460 
 
 170 
 
 200 
 240 
 270 
 300 
 330 
 
 125 
 150 
 170 
 190 
 220 
 240 
 
 88 
 105 
 125 
 140 
 160 
 170 
 
 60 
 72 
 85 
 97 
 110 
 120 
 
 should be bolted together with rods at intervals of not more 
 than 8 times their depth. 
 
 Forms. They may be hung to the beams in the regular 
 way, or shored up from below. If the beams are to be fire- 
 proofed, as they should be, a sheet of expanded metal must 
 be put around the lower flange, or some of the other methods 
 used for protecting the metal. Then the concrete can be 
 spread on the forms before the metal is laid. Most of the 
 companies are content with 1 inch thickness, but the insur- 
 ance authorities want 2 inches between fire and steel. 
 
 Strips. If a wood floor is to be used, wood strips should 
 be bedded in the concrete every 16 inches or so, for a nailing. 
 They should be dovetailed, or made wider on the bottom than 
 the top to keep them secure in place when the concrete hardens. 
 
 Some object to strips, and use an under floor laid diagonally. 
 The strips have to be 1% inches thick, and this means that a 
 heavy weight of concrete is added to the slab, to hold them in 
 place, without giving any more strength. The Roebling Com- 
 pany prefers the under-floor system, claiming that the strips 
 
280 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 become useless in a few years through dry rot. The under 
 floor may be nailed directly to the concrete. 
 
 If strips and concrete are used, the filling to hold them in 
 place should be as light as possible. One of Portland and 
 10 of cinders and sand will serve. 
 
 But it should be remembered before deciding to use such 
 strips that at San Francisco both floors and strips were burnt 
 out completely. 
 
 More Tables. Another set of expanded metal tables is given 
 below. As will be noticed, there is considerable difference in 
 the loading of these as compared with the set already given. 
 There is no definite, accepted standard of loading as yet among 
 the expanded metal men. 
 
 SLAB TABLES, EXPANDED METAL REINFORCEMENT 
 
 How to Use the Tables 
 
 Example 1. What expanded metal reinforcement and thick- 
 ness of slab are required to sustain a live load of 150 pounds 
 per square foot with beams spaced 7 feet 6 inches center to 
 center, allowing a factor of 4 on both live and dead loads? 
 
 Answer. Beginning with Table 1, in the column under 
 7 feet 6 inches span, read down until the load nearest 150 
 pounds is reached. This is 154 pounds. Read across the table 
 to the first column, " Slab Thickness," where a 5y 2 -inch slab is 
 indicated. Table 1 is based on the use of Expanded Metal, 
 Style No. 2, which is the reinforcement required. 
 
 If a slab thinner than 5% inches is desired refer to Table 2, 
 which is based on the use of heavier Expanded Metal, Style 
 No. 3. Follow down the column under 7 feet 6 inches span 
 and find the load nearest 150 pounds, which is 158 pounds. 
 Refer across to the first column, where a 4%-inch slab is 
 indicated. 
 
 In Table 3, under the 7 feet 6 inches column, we find 151 
 pounds is the nearest the required live load, and that a 4-inch 
 slab is indicated in the first column. This table requires the 
 use of Expanded Metal, Style No. 4. 
 
 Example 2. (A) What load will a 5-inch stone concrete 
 slab sustain over 7-foot span, center to center, reinforced with 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 281 
 
 Style No. 2 Expanded Metal providing factors of safety of 
 4 on both live and dead loads? 
 
 (B) Find the thickness, and reinforcement required, for 
 other slabs than given in (A) to sustain the same load, 
 and on the same span with the same factors of safety. 
 
 Answer. ( A ) Table 1 provides the required factors of 
 safety and is based upon the use of Expanded Metal, Style No. 
 2. Read down the column under the 7-foot span to the line 
 opposite "5-inch slab" and we find 164 pounds per square 
 foot, which is the load that the slab described would sustain 
 under given conditions. 
 
 (B) Refer to Table 2 and read down the 7-foot span column. 
 The nearest load is 167 pounds, which appears in the line 
 opposite 4-inch slab. The reinforcement is Expanded Metal, 
 Style No. 3 (shown at the top of table). 
 
 Example 3. Given a 5% -inch slab reinforced with Ex- 
 panded Metal, Style No. 2, a live load of 125 pounds per 
 square foot, and a factor of safety of 4 on both live and 
 dead loads required. What is the maximum distance, center 
 to center, of supports? 
 
 Answer. The factors of safety and the style of mesh refer 
 us to Table 1. On line with 5%-inch slab, reading to the 
 right, we come to 125 pounds, which is the given load. Read- 
 ing up this column to the top we find the span given, center 
 to center, between supports, as 8 feet. 
 
 Allowance for Laps 
 
 In. designing with expanded metal, the usual practice is to 
 allow 6 inches lap on ends of sheets over supports, or 12 inches 
 when the sheets lap between supports. No laps at sides of 
 sheets are necessary. The exact percentage of laps can 
 readily be calculated by reference to the standard sizes of 
 sheets for the style of reinforcement used in the following 
 table: 
 
282 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 WEIGHTS, SECTIONAL AREAS, WORKING LOADS, AND STANDARD 
 SIZES OF SHEETS 
 EXPANDED METAL 
 
 Style 
 No. 
 
 Size of 
 Me.ih 
 Short 
 Way 
 (in.) 
 
 Gauge 
 of 
 Metal 
 
 Appro*. 
 Weight 
 
 per 
 sq. ft. 
 (Ibs.) 
 
 Working 
 Load at 
 16,000 
 )bs. per 
 sq. in. 
 
 Standard Size Sheets in Ft. 
 
 Long Way 
 of Diamond 
 
 Short Way 
 of Diamond 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 10 [LIGHT] 
 
 .495 
 
 2.320 
 
 8-10)6 
 
 4-7 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 10 [STANDARD] 
 
 .60 
 
 2,816 
 
 {% 
 
 4-6 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 
 10 [PLUS 25] 
 10 [PLUS 50* ] 
 10 [PLUS 75%] 
 10 [PLUS 100#J 
 
 .75 
 .90 
 1.05 
 1.20 
 
 3,536 
 4,224 
 4.944 
 5,648 
 
 g 7-7g-8 1 
 
 J 
 
 4-6 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 .408 
 
 1,920 
 
 / 4^-5-5^-6-6^ \ 
 \ 7-7^-8-10- 10)6 / 
 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 .235 
 
 1,104 
 
 
 4-5}4-6 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 .547 
 
 2,576 
 
 1 4^-5-5)6-6 I 
 
 4-4)6 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 .351 
 
 1,648 
 
 6-7-8 
 
 3)6-4 
 
 16 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 .625 
 
 2,944 
 
 / 4)6-5-5)6-6 \ 
 I 6)6-7-7)6-8 / 
 
 3)6-4 
 
 18 
 
 IMS 
 
 16 
 
 .401 
 
 1,888 
 
 6-7-8 
 
 6-7 
 
 19 
 
 * 
 
 13 
 
 .80 
 
 3,760 
 
 1 4)6-5-5)6-6 | 
 ) 6)6-7-7)6-8 1 
 
 4)6-5 
 
 22 
 
 N 
 
 16 
 
 .703 
 
 8 812 
 
 6-7-8 
 
 3^~4 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 .5 
 
 2,'S52 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 EXPANDED METAL SLAB TABLES 
 Showing safe live loads in pounds per square foot. 
 Stress of steel in tension, 16,000 pounds per square inch. 
 Extreme fiber stress of concrete in compression, 600 pounds 
 per square inch. Concrete in shear, not over 60 pounds per 
 square inch. Ratio of moduli of elasticity taken as 12. 
 Straight line formula. Bending moment, one-tenth WL. 
 
 SLAB TABLE NO. 1 FACTORS, LIVE LOAD, 4; DEAD LOAD, 4. 
 3" No. 10 Expanded Metal, Standard, (Style No. 2.) 
 
 SPAN. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 ' 
 
 to 
 
 * 
 
 to 
 
 ^ 
 
 9 
 
 * 
 
 to 
 
 : 
 
 i 
 to 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 5 
 
 t 
 
 S o 
 
 to 
 
 *o 
 
 * 
 
 ^. 
 
 ^ 
 
 fe> 
 
 US 
 
 <o 
 
 . 
 
 t- 
 
 c- 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 at 
 
 o 
 
 
 " 
 
 3 
 
 ~ 
 
 3 
 
 357 
 
 261 
 
 197 
 
 151 
 
 118 
 
 92 
 
 73 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3% 
 
 478 
 
 350 
 
 266 
 
 205 
 
 161 
 
 128 
 
 102 
 
 81 
 
 65 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 572 
 
 421 
 
 319 
 
 247 
 
 194 
 
 154 
 
 124 
 
 99 
 
 80 
 
 64 
 
 51 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4% 
 
 666 
 
 490 
 
 371 
 
 288 
 
 227 
 
 181 
 
 145 
 
 117 
 
 94 
 
 76 
 
 61 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 750 
 
 554 
 
 420 
 
 326 
 
 257 
 
 205 
 
 164 
 
 133 
 
 108 
 
 86 
 
 70 
 
 55 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 
 51^ 
 
 859 
 
 634 
 
 483 
 
 374 
 
 296 
 
 236 
 
 190 
 
 154 
 
 125 
 
 101 
 
 82 
 
 66 
 
 52 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 953 
 
 706 
 
 538 
 
 417 
 
 330 
 
 264 
 
 213 
 
 172 
 
 140 
 
 114 
 
 92 
 
 74 
 
 60 
 
 46 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 6% 
 
 1022 
 
 756 
 
 576 
 
 446 
 
 352 
 
 282 
 
 228 
 
 184 
 
 150 
 
 121 
 
 98 
 
 79 
 
 63 
 
 49 
 
 37 
 
 27 
 
 
 7 
 
 1116 
 
 826 
 
 626 
 
 487 
 
 386 
 
 309 
 
 249 
 
 202 
 
 164 
 
 133 
 
 108 
 
 87 
 
 69 
 
 54 
 
 41 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 7% 
 
 1191 
 
 880 
 
 670 
 
 520 
 
 411 
 
 329 
 
 265 
 
 215 
 
 175 
 
 142 
 
 115 
 
 93 
 
 73 
 
 57 
 
 43 
 
 32 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 1324 
 
 974 
 
 744 
 
 578 
 
 458 
 
 367 
 
 296 
 
 240 
 
 196 
 
 160 
 
 130 
 
 105 
 
 84 
 
 66 
 
 51 
 
 39 
 
 26 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 283 
 
 SLAB TABLE NO. 2 FACTORS, LIVE LOAD, 4; DEAD LOAD, 4. 
 3" No. 10 Expanded Metal, Plus 25 per cent. (Style No. 3.) 
 
 SPAN. 
 
 1 
 ? " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 ^, 
 
 t 
 
 *- 
 
 : 
 
 t 
 
 
 s 
 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 ^> 
 
 co 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 JP 
 
 
 
 ^, 
 
 . 
 
 *. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 T< 
 
 * 
 
 ur 
 
 115 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 t- 
 
 t- 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 en 
 
 <n 
 
 "- 
 
 
 -- 1 
 
 r* 
 
 rH 
 
 3 
 
 388 
 
 284 
 
 215 
 
 166 
 
 130 
 
 102 
 
 81 
 
 65 
 
 51 
 
 41 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8% 
 
 550 
 
 408 
 
 310 
 
 240 
 
 190 
 
 152 
 
 122 
 
 99 
 
 80 
 
 65 
 
 53 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 730 
 
 540 
 
 412 
 
 322 
 
 256 
 
 206 
 
 167 
 
 137 
 
 113 
 
 93 
 
 76 
 
 63 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 
 
 4Vo 
 
 841 
 
 621 
 
 476 
 
 371 
 
 296 
 
 238 
 
 194 
 
 158 
 
 131 
 
 108 
 
 89 
 
 73 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 855 
 
 710 
 
 40 
 
 423 
 
 337 
 
 272 
 
 22,2 
 
 182 
 
 150 
 
 124 
 
 103 
 
 84 
 
 69 
 
 56 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 5V ? 
 
 1087 
 
 808 
 
 619 
 
 484 
 
 386 
 
 312 
 
 254 
 
 208 
 
 172 
 
 143 
 
 119 
 
 98 
 
 81 
 
 67 
 
 54 
 
 44 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 1198 
 
 890 
 
 681 
 
 533 
 
 424 
 
 343 
 
 280 
 
 230 
 
 190 
 
 158 
 
 132 
 
 109 
 
 90 
 
 74 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 38 
 
 6% 
 
 1322 
 
 982 
 
 752 
 
 587 
 
 468 
 
 378 
 
 309 
 
 255 
 
 211 
 
 175 
 
 146 
 
 121 
 
 100 
 
 83 
 
 68 
 
 55 
 
 43 
 
 7 
 
 1466 
 
 1091 
 
 836 
 
 656 
 
 524 
 
 424 
 
 346 
 
 286 
 
 237 
 
 198 
 
 165 
 
 137 
 
 114 
 
 94 
 
 77 
 
 63 
 
 50 
 
 7% 
 
 1540 
 
 1148 
 
 880 
 
 686 
 
 550 
 
 440 
 
 363 
 
 299 
 
 248 
 
 206 
 
 172 
 
 143 
 
 118 
 
 98 
 
 80 
 
 65 
 
 51 
 
 8 
 
 1654 
 
 1334 
 
 944 
 
 739 
 
 589 
 
 476 
 
 390 
 
 320 
 
 266 
 
 221 
 
 184 
 
 154 
 
 127 
 
 105 
 
 86 
 
 71 
 
 55 
 
 SLAB TABLE NO. 3 FACTORS, LIVE LOAD, 4; DEAD LOAD, 4. 
 3" No. 10 Expanded Metal, Plus 50 per cent. (Style No. 4.) 
 
 SPAN. 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 5 
 
 CO 
 
 1= 
 
 cb 
 
 
 
 lo 
 
 5 o 
 
 CO 
 
 5 o 
 
 ID 
 
 
 
 co 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 ;? 
 
 6-1 
 
 "* 
 
 ^ 
 
 U5 
 
 la 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 * 
 
 *- 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 420 
 
 309 
 
 234 
 
 181 
 
 142 
 
 113 
 
 90 
 
 72 
 
 58 
 
 46 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3% 
 
 593 
 
 438 
 
 334 
 
 260 
 
 206 
 
 164 
 
 134 
 
 109 
 
 89 
 
 73 
 
 61 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 792 
 
 587 
 
 448 
 
 350 
 
 279 
 
 m 
 
 184 
 
 151 
 
 12B 
 
 104 
 
 86 
 
 71 
 
 58 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 4% 
 
 1006 
 
 748 
 
 574 
 
 450 
 
 360 
 
 292 
 
 240 
 
 198 
 
 164 
 
 137 
 
 115 
 
 96 
 
 81 
 
 67 
 
 56 
 
 46 
 
 
 5 
 
 1160 
 
 860 
 
 660 
 
 518 
 
 415 
 
 337 
 
 276 
 
 228 
 
 191 
 
 160 
 
 134 
 
 113 
 
 95 
 
 79 
 
 66 
 
 55 
 
 45 
 
 5% 
 
 1284 
 
 959 
 
 737 
 
 579 
 
 464 
 
 376 
 
 309 
 
 256 
 
 214 
 
 180 
 
 151 
 
 127 
 
 107 
 
 90 
 
 75 
 
 63 
 
 51 
 
 6 
 
 1446 
 
 1076 
 
 826 
 
 649 
 
 522 
 
 423 
 
 348 
 
 288 
 
 241 
 
 202 
 
 170 
 
 144 
 
 121 
 
 102 
 
 86 
 
 71 
 
 59 
 
 6% 
 
 1572 
 
 1172 
 
 900 
 
 707 
 
 566 
 
 459 
 
 378 
 
 314 
 
 262 
 
 220 
 
 186 
 
 157 
 
 132 
 
 111 
 
 93 
 
 78 
 
 65 
 
 7 
 
 1716 
 
 1276 
 
 981 
 
 772 
 
 621 
 
 504 
 
 416 
 
 344 
 
 288 
 
 242 
 
 204 
 
 172 
 
 146 
 
 122 
 
 103 
 
 87 
 
 72 
 
 7% 
 
 
 1410 
 
 1085 
 
 855 
 
 686 
 
 560 
 
 460 
 
 383 
 
 320 
 
 270 
 
 228 
 
 193 
 
 163 
 
 138 
 
 117 
 
 99 
 
 82 
 
 8 
 
 
 1484 
 
 1142 
 
 899 
 
 721 
 
 587 
 
 472 
 
 401 
 
 336 
 
 283 
 
 239 
 
 202 
 
 170 
 
 144 
 
 121 
 
 103 
 
 85 
 
 SLAB TABLE NO. 4-F ACTORS, LIVE LOAD, 4; DEAD LOAD, 4. 
 3" No. 10 Expanded Metal, Plus 75 per cent. (Style No. 5.) 
 SPAN. 
 
 ft e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rt M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 to 
 
 b 
 
 |p 
 
 b 
 
 s 
 
 <? 
 
 $> 
 
 ID 
 
 5> 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 1= 
 
 ? 
 
 *f 
 
 J 
 
 CO 
 
 T 
 
 ^ 
 
 rx 
 
 ^x 
 
 ta 
 
 la 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 t- 
 
 t- 
 
 oo 
 
 00 
 
 0) 
 
 0> 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 422 
 
 312 
 
 236 
 
 182 
 
 143 
 
 114 
 
 91 
 
 73 
 
 59 
 
 47 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3% 
 
 628 
 
 465 
 
 354 
 
 276 
 
 220 
 
 177 
 
 144 
 
 117 
 
 96 
 
 79 
 
 65 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 832 
 
 617 
 
 472 
 
 370 
 
 295 
 
 239 
 
 195 
 
 161 
 
 133 
 
 111 
 
 92 
 
 77 
 
 64 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 
 4% 
 
 1066 
 
 791 
 
 608 
 
 478 
 
 382 
 
 311 
 
 256 
 
 212 
 
 176 
 
 147 
 
 125 
 
 105 
 
 88 
 
 74 
 
 62 
 
 52 
 
 42 
 
 5 
 
 1310 
 
 975 
 
 750 
 
 590 
 
 475 
 
 386 
 
 319 
 
 265 
 
 222 
 
 187 
 
 159 
 
 134 
 
 114 
 
 97 
 
 82 
 
 70 
 
 58 
 
 6% 
 
 1514 
 
 1129 
 
 870 
 
 686 
 
 552 
 
 450 
 
 372 
 
 310 
 
 260 
 
 220 
 
 187 
 
 159 
 
 135 
 
 115 
 
 98 
 
 84 
 
 70 
 
 6 
 
 1678 
 
 1253 
 
 964 
 
 762 
 
 613 
 
 500 
 
 413 
 
 344 
 
 290 
 
 245 
 
 208 
 
 177 
 
 151 
 
 129 
 
 110 
 
 95 
 
 79 
 
 6% 
 
 1852 
 
 1387 
 
 1067 
 
 842 
 
 678 
 
 554 
 
 458 
 
 382 
 
 322 
 
 272 
 
 232 
 
 198 
 
 168 
 
 144 
 
 123 
 
 105 
 
 89 
 
 7 
 
 2016 
 
 1496 
 
 1156 
 
 916 
 
 736 
 
 601 
 
 496 
 
 416 
 
 349 
 
 296 
 
 252 
 
 215 
 
 183 
 
 156 
 
 134 
 
 116 
 
 97 
 
 7y 2 
 
 
 1630 
 
 1250 
 
 990 
 
 800 
 
 653 
 
 540 
 
 450 
 
 380 
 
 322 
 
 274 
 
 234 
 
 200 
 
 171 
 
 146 
 
 126 
 
 106 
 
 8 
 
 
 1734 
 
 1334 
 
 1054 
 
 854 
 
 695 
 
 575 
 
 480 
 
 404 
 
 342 
 
 292 
 
 249 
 
 213 
 
 182 
 
 156 
 
 134 
 
 114 
 
284 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 SLAB TABLE NO. 5 FACTORS, LIVE LOAD, 4; DEAD LOAD, 4. 
 3" No. 10 Expanded Metal, Plus 100 per cent. (Style No. 6.) 
 
 SPAN. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 | 
 
 V 
 
 5 ? 
 
 I 
 
 s 
 
 JP 
 
 *<? 
 
 ^ 
 
 Is 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 1= 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 y 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3% 
 
 644 
 
 477 
 
 364 
 
 284 
 
 226 
 
 182 
 
 148 
 
 121 
 
 99 
 
 82 
 
 68 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 877 
 
 650 
 
 498 
 
 390 
 
 312 
 
 253 
 
 207 
 
 171 
 
 142 
 
 119 
 
 99 
 
 83 
 
 69 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 
 4% 
 
 1114 
 
 831 
 
 640 
 
 502 
 
 402 
 
 328 
 
 270 
 
 224 
 
 188 
 
 158 
 
 133 
 
 112 
 
 95 
 
 80 
 
 67 
 
 57 
 
 47 
 
 5 
 
 1390 
 
 1035 
 
 799 
 
 629 
 
 506 
 
 413 
 
 341 
 
 284 
 
 239 
 
 202 
 
 172 
 
 146 
 
 125 
 
 106 
 
 91 
 
 77 
 
 65 
 
 6% 
 
 1674 
 
 1244 
 
 959 
 
 759 
 
 612 
 
 500 
 
 415 
 
 346 
 
 292 
 
 248 
 
 212 
 
 181 
 
 155 
 
 133 
 
 114 
 
 99 
 
 84 
 
 6 
 
 1928 
 
 1438 
 
 1108 
 
 878 
 
 708 
 
 579 
 
 490 
 
 402 
 
 340 
 
 289 
 
 247 
 
 212 
 
 182 
 
 156 
 
 135 
 
 117 
 
 100 
 
 6% 
 
 2117 
 
 1577 
 
 1217 
 
 962 
 
 777 
 
 637 
 
 528 
 
 442 
 
 374 
 
 318 
 
 272 
 
 234 
 
 201 
 
 173 
 
 150 
 
 130 
 
 111 
 
 7 
 
 
 1721 
 
 1326 
 
 1051 
 
 850 
 
 696 
 
 579 
 
 483 
 
 409 
 
 348 
 
 298 
 
 256 
 
 218 
 
 190 
 
 164 
 
 143 
 
 122 
 
 7% 
 
 
 1890 
 
 1460 
 
 1155 
 
 930 
 
 765 
 
 635 
 
 532 
 
 450 
 
 384 
 
 330 
 
 280 
 
 243 
 
 210 
 
 182 
 
 158 
 
 136 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 1534 
 
 1214 
 
 979 
 
 804 
 
 687 
 
 579 
 
 473 
 
 402 
 
 346 
 
 296 
 
 255 
 
 220 
 
 190 
 
 166 
 
 142 
 
 The foregoing tables are those of the General Fire-proofing 
 Company, Youngstown, Ohio. This company makes Trussit, a 
 reinforcement that can be used on roofs without forms. It 
 is also used for walls and partitions. In pounds per square 
 foot 27 gage is .710; 26, .770; 24, 1.02. 
 
 A few of the expanded metal lath products of the same 
 company are given below to illustrate the difference of weight, 
 which is often forgotten when purchasing. 
 
 HERRINGBONE EXPANDED METAL LATH 
 
 " A " Herringbone 
 For all classes of work. Weight per square yard 
 
 28 Gage 3 Ibs. 
 
 26 Gage 3f Ibs. 
 
 Sheets 14" x 96" . . 1 square yard. 
 Packed 20 sheets ( 20 yds. ) to the bundle. 
 
 "BB" Herringbone 
 For all classes of work. Weight per square yard 
 
 27 Gage 2y 4 Ibs. 
 
 26 Gage 2y 2 Ibs. 
 
 24 Gage 3| Ibs. 
 
 Sheets 20i/4"x96" . \% square yards. 
 
 Packed 15 Sheets (22y a yds.) to the bundle. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 285 
 
 KEY EXPANDED METAL LATH 
 
 Size of sheets 18"x96"; 15 sheets, 20 square yards, in a 
 bundle. 
 
 Approximate Weights in Pounds per Square Yard 
 
 Gage Not Coated Galvanized 
 27 2.25 2.8 
 
 26 2.50 3.1 
 
 25 3.00 3.6 
 
 24 3.40 4.07 
 
 Furnished not coated, painted, or galvanized after being 
 expanded. 
 
 Aggregate. The Underwriters allow almost any kind of 
 aggregate or mixture. Some object to cinders, but they give 
 broken brick, terra cotta, furnace clinkers, slag, stone, or 
 gravel not more than %-inch diameter. They require 1 inch 
 under the steel for strength, and %-inch more for fire pro- 
 tection. 
 
 Proportions. Their proportions are 1, 2, and 4. For 
 columns 1, 2, and 5 may be used. 
 
 CINDER CONCRETE 
 
 Weight. From 70 to 96 pounds per cubic foot. On account 
 of this lightness cinder concrete has been a good deal used 
 for floor slabs. But the cinders are porous, and the mixture 
 lacks the density that means quality. This allows rust and 
 flames to reach the metal with disastrous results. Another 
 danger is that the coal may not be all burned, and this opens 
 the way for fire to destroy the slab. 
 
 Report on Rust. In San Francisco, after the fire, it was 
 noticed that the corrosion was such that a committee was 
 appointed to investigate. The report advised that cinder con- 
 crete should not be allowed in fireproof buildings. 
 
 The Northwestern Expanded Metal Company says : " Cinder 
 concrete is not recommended by the best authorities on con- 
 crete w.ork. The use of this material is rapidly on the de- 
 
286 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 dine." As this company naturally would prefer light to 
 heavy slabs, other things being equal, this means that the 
 quality of cinder concrete is not good enough to warrant its 
 use, even when the advantage of lightness is taken into 
 account. Experience seems to have been doing its work, for the 
 expanded metal companies in their 1896 book said: "Cinder 
 concrete weighs from 60 to 80 pounds per cubic foot, or about 
 one-half the weight of the aggregate stone concrete, and has a 
 better fire resistance." Then in the 1900 booklet the com- 
 panies say, " In most expanded metal floors clean boiler 
 cinders are very much better (than stone), as they make a 
 lighter concrete, and one which at the same time is amply 
 strong for the purpose, while resisting fire better than concrete 
 made with stone. The usual mixture is 1, 2, and 6." 
 The Ransome Company gives the following opinion: 
 " The TTse of Slag or Cinder Aggregates. The use of slag 
 or cinders as aggregates for concrete should be determined upon 
 only after careful investigation. In many cases the economy 
 effected is only apparent, not real. By reason of the greater 
 percentage of voids in slag and cinders as compared with 
 broken stone, a much larger proportion of mortar is required 
 to secure smooth work, and the resulting concrete is never as 
 strong as good broken stone concrete, where an equal volume 
 of cement is used." 
 
 The Test. In Major SewelPs San Francisco report he says: 
 " None of the columns covered with cinder concrete suffered 
 any serious damage, but there were not many protected in this 
 way. . . . The cinder concrete floor slabs in many buildings 
 were protected for a time by the furred ceilings. Where the 
 ceilings failed at an early stage, or where there had been 
 no ceilings, the damage to the concrete slabs was very apparent. 
 The concrete was dehydrated to a certain extent on its lower 
 surface, and in many of the slabs the reinforcement had 
 become so hot that there was a permanent deflection of greater 
 or less extent, accompanied by cracks on the lower side in the 
 middle of the span. Most of the cinder concrete used in San 
 Francisco was evidently a very inferior article in the first 
 place. ... A hollow tile floor which comes through a fire 
 without losing any of its webs is as good as it was before; 
 whereas concrete of any kind is inevitably damaged." 
 
 Kidder thinks that cinder concrete is better than that made 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 287 
 
 of stone and gravel for spans under 7 feet and loads up to 
 150 pounds. 
 
 The Chicago ordinance also permits it, and gives the least 
 thickness of covering for ordinary members as 2 inches; 
 3 inches for columns; 3 inches for segmental arches at the 
 crown; 4 inches for slabs up to 8-foot span or less; and 
 5 inches between 8 and 10 feet. 
 
 The Roebling Company says : " The standard concrete, as 
 adopted by this company after ten years' experience, and as 
 the result of numerous tests and a careful study of actual 
 conflagrations, is composed of 1 part high-grade Portland 
 cement, 2% parts clean, sharp sand, and 6 parts steam boiler 
 cinders." Some of their floor loads are based on 4,000 pounds 
 to the square foot. 
 
 Choice. As things stand now we can use cinder concrete 
 or condemn it as we please, and have good authority on our 
 side. 
 
 CEMENT SIDEWALKS 
 
 Lumber. The price has risen so much that we are now 
 driven to cement, sand, and stone; but if we pay a little more 
 for this kind of a walk it is worth the extra cost. 
 
 Heaving. In northern climates there is danger from freez- 
 ing and heaving after the walk is laid. Sometimes this trouble 
 cannot be altogether overcome. If the ground is wet common 
 drain pipes should be laid with a fall of at least % -inch to the 
 foot, one on each side, running to a hole dug outside of the 
 walk and filled with cinders. In wet or soft soil a bed of 
 cinders varying from 5 inches to 10 inches thick is put down. 
 Any other material, such as broken brick, gravel, or stone, may 
 be used, but cinders are so porous as to make the best founda- 
 tion. A deep base should be watered and tamped in layers. 
 
 Excavation. This should be made to extend 3 inches over 
 on each side, and if the ground is not hard it should be tamped. 
 Most soils are hard enough. 
 
 Filling. If the ground is too low it has to be filled. If 
 more than 12 inches of earth is required it must be flooded 
 with water and tamped in layers of not more than 6 inches. 
 At the level of the walk the earth must extend at least 12 
 inches outside of the concrete on each side. 
 
 Thickness. The ordinary thickness of a walk is 4 inches, 
 
288 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 and the cinders or other material should be left this distance 
 down. For some special purposes thicker sidewalks are re- 
 quired. When a walk has to be 6 feet wide, for example, the 
 thickness should be at least 5 inches. 
 
 Slab Sizes. No slab should contain more than 36 square 
 feet, or have a greater dimension than 6 feet, unless reinforced 
 with 14 -inch rods not more than 9 inches apart. Thus, a slab 
 4'x9' although containing only 36 square feet should not be 
 made. 
 
 Forms. Two lines of 2 x 4's should be laid full length of 
 the walk, unless it is of special length, set at the width re- 
 quired. They should be run on top exactly at the level the 
 finished walk is to be. Boards may be used if they are braced. 
 As the 2 x 4's are only 3% wide the concrete must be at least 
 y 2 inch deeper. 
 
 Slope. If the walk is to be laid to the house with a slope 
 clear to the front of the lot, it should be level the cross way; 
 but if it runs parallel to the gutter the inside edge should 
 be higher to shed the water. A fall of % inch to the foot is 
 enough. 
 
 Staking. The 2x4 guides should be well staked down to 
 keep them in place when the tamping begins, but they need 
 not be nailed. The smooth side should go in. 
 
 Panels. The easiest way for many is to cut a 2x4 in 
 across where the panels are to be, fill in each alternate space, 
 let the concrete harden a little, and then move the cross piece. 
 This leaves a space to be filled in flush. 
 
 A 4-foot walk is usually cut up in 4-foot lengths, a 5-foot in 
 5 feet, and a 6-foot in 6 feet. The spaces may be arranged 
 to suit the length of the walk, but, as noted, must never be 
 longer than 6 feet. 
 
 Mixture. Mix as directed in this chapter, using a propor- 
 tion of 1, 2y 2 , and 5, and 1, 3, 5. No stone or gravel should 
 be more than 1% inches in diameter. 
 
 Tamp lightly, and finish up to within 1 inch of the top of 
 the guides. When the cross guides are lifted put a piece of 
 tar paper against the new concrete to keep the slabs apart, 
 and allow for heaving without breaking, if it does take place. 
 Mark exactly where the division comes, so that the wearing 
 surface may be cut directly above the tar paper, and thus a 
 clean cut slab be obtained. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 289 
 
 Single Coat. Sometimes the concrete is filled up clear to 
 the top of the guides for a cheaper sidewalk. The mixture is 
 made 1, 2, 3, and any stones that appear in the surface are 
 pressed down out of sight. It is smoothed over, and the slabs 
 cut in the regular way. 
 
 The slabs are better if made about 14 inch to y s inch thicker 
 in the center, but this if done has to be on the lower, and not 
 the wearing surface. 
 
 Wearing Surface. This should be at least 1 inch thick of 
 Portland cement and sand or stone chips that will pass through 
 a i4-inch mesh. The proportion is 1 to 2. It should be mixed 
 so that it works easily, but not be too wet. It must be put 
 on in not more than 50 minutes from the time the concrete 
 for the base is mixed. An expert layer can easily handle the 
 work in long stretches, but amateurs cannot do so, and too 
 much base should not be put down at a time. 
 
 In business districts a surface of 1% inches should be put 
 on. 
 
 Smoothing Down. When the top material is laid inside 
 the guides take a straight-edge and run it across and work the 
 soft mass down to the level. Smooth with a wooden 
 float, but do not trowel too much. Very smooth surfaces are 
 not desirable for a sidewalk. The regular sidewalk layers run 
 across a roller that indents the surface and roughens it a 
 little. When the grade is more than 5 feet to the 100 this 
 roughening should always be done. 
 
 Rounding. The edges of the slabs should be slightly 
 rounded. The cross lines are rounded also by a special tool 
 that the layers have, but this can be done with an ordinary 
 trowel, although it takes longer and does not make such good 
 work. 
 
 Covering. The work should be covered with straw, grass, 
 sawdust, or anything that will not injure it. Sand is the 
 ordinary material used. After the walk is all finished, it is 
 bad practice to throw on pure cement. This makes it harden 
 sooner, but the hardening process should not be hastened. The 
 covering should be left on for several days, and time given for 
 hardening in the natural way. In the hottest weather it is a 
 good idea to sprinkle with water to keep back the drying 
 process. 
 
 Curb. In the residence parts of cities there is often a 
 
290 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 space between the curb and the walk which is not concreted. 
 This should slope from the curb up to the walk at about % inch 
 to the foot, and the walk itself should be raised 1% inches 
 higher than the earth or sod where the joint is made. If curb 
 and concrete join put in tar paper. 
 
 Trees. All over cities we see sidewalks ruined by the roots 
 of trees thrusting them up. Leave a space of 12 inches all 
 around a tree if it can be done. There is no use trying to make 
 a fine finish against the roots, for it simply means a spoiled 
 walk in a few years. If new trees are set out they should really 
 be about 4 feet clear of the walk. The authorities recommend 
 that some kinds of trees like Carolina poplar and elm should 
 be set 10 feet away. 
 
 BASEMENT FLOORS 
 
 Method. The same process has to be gone through for 
 basement floors as for sidewalks. But properly there should 
 be only one slab in a floor without any division. The expert 
 floormen lay them that way, but some prefer to handle 
 the work in sections running the full length of the base- 
 ment. 
 
 Dangers. To protect from rats and damp every house in 
 the residence district of a city should have a concrete floor 
 at least 3 inches thick; and 4 inches should be used for 
 business houses. Really, the minimum thicknesses should 
 be 4 inches for the one and 5 inches for the other. In dwell- 
 ings the top surfacing should be at least y 2 inch; and in 
 business buildings, % inch. Again, % inch and 1 inch would 
 be better. 
 
 The Rat Plague. In the Technical World Magazine for 
 June, 1908, we read that the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
 estimates the yearly loss to the nation through damage by rats 
 at $56,000,000. The fire loss due to them is put by the depart- 
 ment at $1,000,000, but by the Underwriters at $15,000,000. 
 The city of Washington alone loses each year, apart from the 
 fire loss, $200,000. Rats are an expensive luxury. 
 
 San Francisco wanted an ordinance compelling all owners 
 to concrete their cellars and basements to keep down the 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 291 
 
 bubonic plague which is spread by rats. In all model cities 
 of the future this will be done. 
 
 STUCCO WORK 
 
 Lumber Prices. Stucco and other products are taking the 
 place formerly occupied by lumber, which is now too high in 
 price. So much of this work is done that a short description 
 of one system is given here. 
 
 Weights. Specify the weight of the metal lath used by 
 the square foot or yard. There is a great difference in 
 weights. 
 
 Boarding. In dry climates the lath is put on without any 
 boarding, but in northern States it is safest to put on the 
 regular covering on the studs. Wood lath may be used on the 
 inside just as under the ordinary system. 
 
 (The following matter is from the Trussed Concrete Steel 
 Co., Detroit.) 
 
 " Portland cement and sand or prepared plasters compounded 
 especially for exterior work are the best. Ordinary lime 
 should not be used because it weakens the mixture and 
 materially delays the set. Hydrated lime (nothing more or 
 less than a carefully and scientifically slaked lime) may be 
 used in the first coat to the extent of 10 per cent, of the 
 Portland cement, and will be found to greatly assist the 
 workman. Prepared plasters, however, should be used in 
 exact accordance with the instructions of the manufacturer. 
 
 There are three popular finishes for exterior work " Float," 
 " Rough Cast," and " Pebble Dash." 
 
 Float finish is two-coat work and is, therefore, the cheapest 
 of the three. It is best adapted to surfaces of small area. 
 
 Rough Cast and Pebble Dash are applied in the third coat 
 and are to be had in great variety of texture and color. 
 Washed pebbles, crushed stone, and even cinders are used to 
 get the desired effect. 
 
 Cost depends largely on the location of the work, the amount 
 of scaffolding required, and the handling of the door and 
 window trim. It should not, however, exceed an average of 
 $1.50 per square yard of surface plastered complete, and in 
 small towns and on the farm, where nearly all of the labor 
 involved in putting on the lath and getting ready for the plas- 
 
292 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 terer is done by the owner, it should be much less. We have 
 a record of this work having been done as low as 62 cents per 
 square yard." 
 
 " The following method for constructing stucco walls, will 
 give by far the best results. 
 
 Set up an ordinary " balloon " frame structure with 2x4 
 studding spaced 16 to 24 inches apart, and put all temporary 
 bracing on the inside. Along the outside of each stud tack 
 strips of heavy tarred paper 6 inches wide. Paint this paper 
 on both sides with Trus-Con Bonding Coat No. 1. On the out- 
 side of this fasten Hy-Rib Sheathing with 2%-inch staples, 
 and drive sixteen-penny spikes every 10% inches along each 
 stud, as shown. Plaster this Hy-Rib on the outside with 
 cement mortar properly water-proofed to a thickness of 1% 
 inches and give it any finish desired. Then back plaster the 
 Hy-Rib with similar mortar to a thickness of about half an 
 inch. 
 
 This construction insures absolute protection for the steel, 
 and when the mortar has set you have a 2-inch reinforced 
 concrete slab solid as rock, and much stronger and more rigid 
 than the ordinary matched sheathing of which it has taken 
 the place. 
 
 On the inside of the studding tack thin asbestos board or a 
 very heavy tarred paper, then %" x %" furring strips, and 
 heavy Rib-Lath, on which plaster a %-inch coat of cement 
 mortar or good plaster, and the regular finish coat. 
 
 In this way you have secured a house which possesses the 
 following advantages: 
 
 1. Practically fire-proof, due to the heat-resisting qualities 
 of the 2-inch reinforced concrete slab on outside. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 293 
 
 2. Absolutely waterproof and damp-proof. 
 
 3. Easy to heat in winter and keep cool in summer, owing 
 to the double air space in the wall. 
 
 4. Practically indestructible, owing to the permanence of 
 the reinforced concrete wall. 
 
 5. No expense for maintenance, such as painting, repairs, etc. 
 
 6. Unusual architectural beauty because of the artistic 
 effects that can be secured with stucco. 
 
 7. Low first cost. 
 
 The method outlined above gives a wall of almost unlimited 
 strength and rigidity, and is suitable for large buildings. For 
 small cottages and for structures in which the total wind 
 pressure will not be great, some saving may be effected by 
 using heavy beaded plate Rib-Lath in place of Hy-Rib, on the 
 outside, plastering it in the same manner on both sides to a 
 total thickness of iy 4 inches or more. (In this stucco con- 
 struction it must be borne in mind that the only way to insure 
 permanence is to have a real reinforced concrete slab on the 
 outside. Hy-Rib is necessary for medium and large sized 
 residences. For smaller cottages no lath weighing less than 
 4y 2 pounds per square yard is strong enough to properly 
 reinforce a concrete wall ) . 
 
 Another method which has been extensively used in our 
 colder climates is to place on the outside of the studding 
 %-inch matched sheathing, heavy building paper, furring, and 
 Rib-Lath plastered 1 inch thick with cement mortar properly 
 water-proofed. This method, though more expensive, has not 
 the strength, durability, or fire-proofness of the method first 
 described. 
 
 For our milder climates the furring may be omitted in the 
 first two methods described, and the paper sheathing may be 
 omitted in all three cases. This reduces the cost still further. 
 
 " OVER-COATED " HOUSES 
 
 The ordinary wooden frame house can be given a cement 
 exterior by applying Rib-Lath, and plastering with cement. 
 Such a house has an artistic appearance, and is protected from 
 attacks of fire. 
 
 Three-quarter-inch furring strips 16 inches apart should be 
 nailed to the wooden sheathing, and the lath applied thereto. 
 
294 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 HOW TO APPLY STUCCO 
 
 For the first scratch coat use a mortar made up as follows: 
 
 Portland cement 2 parts. 
 
 Sand 5 parts. 
 
 Cream of lime 1 part. 
 
 Trus-Con Waterproof Filler 2 Ibs. per bag of cement. 
 Sufficient hair for " key." 
 
 The lime should be slacked with plenty of water, and allowed 
 to stand at least a week. Use only a high grade of Portland 
 cement and sand graded from coarse to fine. Cement and sand 
 should be thoroughly mixed dry, and sufficient water added to 
 give a good working consistency. Next add the lime, and mix 
 the whole thoroughly. Remember that cement starts to set as 
 soon as water is added, and apply the mortar to the wall as 
 soon after mixing as possible. Mix only so much mortar as 
 can be used immediately. Never allow it to stand over thirty 
 minutes. 
 
 When the first coat is still wet scratch over the entire sur- 
 face to give a better bond to the finish coat, which is applied 
 as soon as the first coat is set sufficiently hard to hold it. 
 For finish coat use the following mixture: 
 
 Cement 1 part. 
 
 Sand 3 parts. 
 
 Cream of lime 1 part. 
 
 Trus-Con Waterproof Filler 2 Ibs. per bag of cement. 
 
 Protect the finished work from too rapid drying and the 
 direct rays of the sun by means of damp canvas or sprinkling. 
 Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the importance of 
 keeping the stucco well moistened for at least two days after 
 application. 
 
 DATA FOB SPACING AND WEIGHTS 
 
 Side Walls Ceilings 
 
 Weight of Lath Weight of Lath 
 
 Spacing of Studs per sq. yd. Spacing of Studs per sq. yd. 
 
 12" 2.75 Ibs. 12" 3.25 Ibs. 
 
 16" 3.25 Ibs. 16" 3.70 Ibs. 
 
 18" 3.75 Ibs. 18" 4.50 Ibs. 
 
 24" 4.50 Ibs. 24" 5.00 Ibs. 
 
 All lath shall be painted. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 295 
 
 COLOBING 
 
 Coloring-matter mixed in mortar is sometimes used to give 
 a uniform color to the entire wall. The cement, sand, and 
 coloring-matter are mixed together dry, and it is advisable to 
 experiment a little to find how much color is needed to give 
 the desired shade. The mortar will appear several shades 
 darker while wet than after it has dried. 
 
 The Ohio State geologist gave the following table. Three 
 authorities are given, and this explains the slight difference 
 in allowances: 
 
 MATERIALS USED IN COLORING MORTARS. 
 
 Color Mineral 
 
 Pounds of color 
 to 100 pounds 
 of cement 
 
 Pounds 
 Color 
 to BB1. 
 of Ce- 
 ment 
 
 
 
 Gray 
 Black .... 
 Black .... 
 Blue 
 Green .... 
 Red 
 
 Germantown Lamp Black 
 Manganese Dioxide 
 Excelsior Carbon Black 
 Ultramarine 
 Ultramarine Green 
 Iron Oxide 
 Pompeian or English Red 
 Red-Purple Oxide of Iron 
 Violet Oxide of Iron 
 Roasted Iron Oxide or 
 Brown Ochre 
 
 Yellow Ochre 
 
 1-4 
 12 
 00 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 1-2 
 00 
 2 
 5 to 6 
 6 
 6 to 10 
 6 
 00 
 00 
 
 6 
 6 to 10 
 
 2 
 48 
 00 
 20 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 Bright Red 
 Sandstone 
 Violet .... 
 Brown 
 
 Yellow or 
 Buff ... 
 
 By mixing five pounds of coloring-matter with a bag of 
 cement, the following colors are obtained: 
 
 Raw iron oxide will give bright red. 
 
 Roasted iron oxide will give brown. 
 
 Ultramarine will give bright blue. 
 
 Yellow ochre will give buff to yellow. 
 
 Carbon black or lampblack will give gray to dark slate. 
 
 Manganese dioxide will give black. (Use eleven pounds per 
 bag of cement. ) 
 
296 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 A mixture of equal parts of carbon black and red iron ore 
 gives dull reds. In all cases the addition of mineral colors 
 causes a loss of strength, but this is not important, since the 
 color is used only in the surface coat. Lighter shades may be 
 obtained by using y 2 to | the quantities of coloring-matter 
 given above. 
 
 The additional expense of coloring a surface layer % of an 
 inch thick will vary from half a cent to two cents per square 
 foot. 
 
 WATER-PROOFING 
 
 Proportions. For ordinary protection use a mixture of 1, 
 2, and 4; for better work, 1, iy 2 , and 3. Mix to a mass like 
 jelly, but not too wet, and it will serve for retaining walls, 
 tanks, and such work without further trouble. This means a 
 packed barrel basis. 
 
 Lime. In reservoir work 10 per cent, of hydrated lime, or 
 lime mixed to a paste with pure water, is sometimes added 
 to the concrete for a safer waterproof mixture. But this is 
 only on the top surfacing, and not as a part of the mortar 
 for the masonry. For this Portland cement mortar alone is 
 best. 
 
 Plastering. On the outside walls of houses below grade 
 in damp climates a thin coat of Portland cement mortar, 
 1 to 2, or at most, 3, should be put on. This is an excellent 
 safeguard. 
 
 Floors. With floors exposed to dampness, or to any risk of 
 water rising, there must be no joints. The slab must be con- 
 tinuous, just as it always is when laid by a regular cement 
 worker. The easier way of laying in long slabs already 
 spoken of does not apply where there is moisture to contend 
 against. 
 
 Felt. An ordinary method of protecting floors of this kind 
 is to lay a few inches of concrete for a bed, preferably on 
 cinders, then 3 or 4 plies of felt well saturated with asphalt, 
 and put several inches of concrete on top in the regular way. 
 The felt must be made continuous in the manner used for a 
 gravel roof, and it must also be carried up on the sides of 
 walls, columns, machine foundations, etc., for a height of 
 6 or 8 inches. The footings of columns are protected in the 
 same way. The whole idea is not to leave a crevice at any 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 297 
 
 point where the water can force its way up. The felt must be 
 as carefully joined as for a roof. 
 
 Thickness. The thickness of concrete depends upon the 
 pressure of the water. In an ordinary soil 2 inches below 
 the felt, and 3 inches above is enough. Twice as much might 
 be necessary. 
 
 Cement Fillers. There are several preparations to keep 
 down damp and dust on cement floors. In garage floors the 
 oil should not be allowed to penetrate the surface. 
 
 Damp Course. In masonry after the footings are up about 
 a foot a course of boiled asphalt is often spread over to keep 
 down damp. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 CONSTRUCTION NOTES FROM THE SAN FRANCISCO 
 FIRE 
 
 Experts. Richard L. Humphrey of the U. S. Geological 
 Survey, and Major Sewell of the Engineers, who had in- 
 vestigated Baltimore, were sent to San Francisco to make a 
 report for the United States Government. 
 
 First of all come some notes from Mr. Humphrey's report: 
 
 Inferior Work. The first conclusion he reaches is that 
 except at the very tract of the earthquake all buildings would 
 have been saved from damage had they been properly con- 
 structed. This is rather a serious charge against the building 
 fraternity, and especially against architects, who are re- 
 sponsible for the quality of the work. Of what use is artistic 
 decoration if the construction is bad? I would rather own 
 an inartistic building that sto.od than an artistic one that was 
 needlessly destroyed. Contractors who learn from this book 
 to put up a safe building are at least as far on the road to 
 perfection as those who can decorate poor construction. 
 
 In San Francisco an army of 200,000 people was rendered 
 homeless, 490 blocks, or 4 square miles were burned, and there 
 was a loss of about $500,000,000, with only half of it insured. 
 Nearly all the fireproof buildings were gutted. 
 
 Reinforced Structures. These were few and stood the test 
 remarkably well. Wooden buildings stood well, the chief dam- 
 age being to chimneys and plaster. The destruction was 
 greatest on filled ground. 
 
 Mortar and Anchoring. Now we come to the standard 
 trouble of these United States in the building lines: 
 
 On First Street " lime mortar, flimsy framing, poor design, 
 and lack of tie between floor and roof members and walls were 
 the causes of these failures." 
 
 In the Stanford University " the roof trusses were not 
 anchored to the walls, but butted against them; the floor joists 
 rested in the walls and were not tied. Under the vibration 
 
 298 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 299 
 
 the walls were pushed out of plumb and, having no proper 
 connection with the floor and roof members, collapsed." 
 
 In another building " the concrete block walls 13 inches 
 thick, laid in cement mortar, were not braced in any way the 
 joists iy 2 by 13, simply resting upon the wall. When the 
 building vibrated, the wall was pushed out, and collapsed 
 because there was nothing to restore it to its normal position." 
 
 " The city hall, the court-house, the Masonic Temple, the 
 Keegan-Brush building, and the St. Rose Hotel were all com- 
 pletely wrecked, and added their testimony against poor 
 mortar in brickwork, light wooden frames, and insufficient 
 bracing." 
 
 " The brick walls which failed were laid in lime mortar 
 with few header courses, and generally had wooden frames 
 with little or no tie to the walls. Where the walls were laid 
 with hard brick, with plenty of headers and with Portland 
 cement mortar, and were properly tied to the roof and floor 
 members there was little if any damage." 
 
 All through, it is a story of bad mortar and w r orse anchorage. 
 
 The Sewell report says : " As a rule brickwork in San Fran- 
 cisco was laid in lime mortar or in lime mortar gaged with a 
 small amount of Portland cement. Wherever such masonry 
 was subjected to serious earthquake shocks it was very badly 
 shattered. Much of it came down in the ruins, and much of 
 that which remained in place was reduced to a loose pile, 
 without any adhesion between the mortar and the bricks. 
 Where brickwork was solidly laid up in good Portland cement 
 mortar, the damage generally appeared in the form of well 
 defined cracks, which could have been easily pointed up, so as 
 to leave the wall almost as good as it was before." 
 
 Yet we have the " stop-watch " heroes shouting, " Faster ! 
 Faster! " to the bricklayers. We require better work, and not 
 more of it. 
 
 Headers. The outside courses of pressed brick fell off 
 entirely in Baltimore and San Francisco. But there was no 
 damage done to eight or ten houses observed with a Flemish 
 bond front. This means that headers should run clear through 
 the finest fronts, and that metal ties, back bonding and such 
 secret connections do not amount to much. 
 
 Reinforced Concrete. As already said, these structures 
 stood the test remarkably well. " Where reinforced concrete 
 
300 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 was used the ceilings were free from cracks. The excellent 
 qualities of reinforced concrete and its ability to stand earth- 
 quake shock were strongly demonstrated." (Humphrey.) 
 
 " Within a few feet is the bell tower, a reinforced concrete 
 structure, 80 feet high, with walls 4 inches thick, which was 
 not damaged in the slightest degree." (H.) 
 
 " The %-inch or 1-inch thickness of concrete which covered 
 the reinforcing bars proved insufficient in the basement, where 
 the fire was fairly hot. The heat expanded the bars, thereby 
 ripping off the concrete layer, and leaving the rods exposed." 
 (H.) 
 
 In the 10-story Aronson building " two columns in the base- 
 ment were fire-proofed with concrete, and remain in first-class 
 shape, but near them are two badly buckled columns which 
 were fire-proofed with terra cotta. The result is an excellent 
 object lesson on the merits of the two systems of fire-proofing." 
 (H.) 
 
 " The walls of the Bekins Building were badly cracked by 
 the earthquake, but the reinforced concrete was not injured." 
 (H.) 
 
 In the Bullock and Jones building, " the hollow tile failed 
 badly." (H.) 
 
 In the Pacific States Telephone and Telegraph Company's 
 building " the girders and columns supporting the floors were 
 fire-proofed with concrete, and were in excellent shape after 
 the fire." 
 
 " Concrete is probably the best fire-proofing material." (H.) 
 
 " Brickwork suffered most from the earthquake, and least 
 from fire. Concrete proved superior to brick as a fire-proof 
 medium." (H.) 
 
 " The lower webs of floor tile came off to perhaps a greater 
 extent than in the Baltimore fire." 
 
 " Of the fire loss perhaps 75 per cent, was in the trim and 
 ornamental work." Artistic architects are expensive luxuries. 
 Business buildings should be put up in what might be called 
 the battleship type stripped for action, with no useless orna- 
 ment. The Beaux Arts graduates have been a sore expense 
 to owners, in the first place, and to a long-suffering public 
 in the next. 
 
 " The cinder concrete floor slabs in many buildings were 
 protected for a time by furred ceilings. Where the ceilings 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 301 
 
 failed the damage to the concrete floor slabs was very apparent. 
 Most of the cinder concrete used in San Francisco was evi- 
 dently a very inferior article in the first place." (Sewell.) 
 
 " Of all the structures which were manifestly exposed to 
 severe shock the concrete buildings at Palo Alto stood 
 best." (S.) 
 
 " The results at Baltimore and San Francisco did not, by any 
 means, indicate that either hollow tile or concrete is altogether 
 a failure or altogether a success. Both fires indicated very 
 clearly that commercial methods of applying both materials 
 are inadequate, but also that successful results can be attained 
 with both materials. ... It would seem that wherever 
 reinforced concrete floor construction is used a heavy furred 
 ceiling below it should be absolutely required." (S.) 
 
 " For buildings of moderate height, say up to 125 feet as 
 an extreme limit, reinforced concrete alone can undoubtedly 
 be so designed as to give very good results when subjected to 
 either earthquake or fire." (S'.) 
 
 " Reinforced concrete proved itself superior to brick beyond 
 any doubt, but neither concrete nor terra-cotta won the fight. 
 It was a * draw.' " ( S. ) 
 
 Another government expert, Mr. Soule, stands for structural 
 steel. He says : " Constructors in San Francisco feel that this 
 material has safely and triumphantly passed through a most 
 trying ordeal." 
 
 Those who have Carpentry and Building for May, 1907, 
 will find an excellent report on the fire by the American 
 Society of Civil Engineers. 
 
 In general, it might all be summed up in poor design, poor 
 superintendence, poor workmanship, because too hurried, and 
 poor materials. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 A SHOET CHAPTER 
 
 Plumbing is gone into in " The New Building Estimator," 
 and is therefore not discussed here. So also is heating. With 
 respect to heating I think we are far behind the times. Proba- 
 bly a change is coming. I have given prices on furnaces, etc., 
 in the "Estimator," but their day may be gone in cities in 
 the near future. 
 
 We are told that the city of Omaha, with 125,000 people, 
 burns on an average 70 pounds of coal per family per day 
 for residences alone; and that 100 pounds is about right for 
 a two-story house. It is estimated that for business blocks 
 and all other heating the daily average of this city is 3,000 
 tons in cold weather. At least one-fourth of it is hard coal 
 at $11 per ton. The total bill is said to be about $17,250 per 
 day. 
 
 In all new villages and towns each one has to sink a well, 
 and, if he wants it, a cesspool. Kerosene lamps make the 
 illuminant for each individual house. Later on the city water 
 is " laid on," in the old phrase, and what was individually 
 done is now done by all together. They have made wonderful 
 progress, and instead of drinking water too often befouled 
 with sewage from cesspools they drink pure water from the 
 same canteen, or reservoir. Later still comes gas; and then 
 sewers, and a new " metropolis " of somewhere is on the map. 
 
 We have since wondered why we were so long in adopting 
 open plumbing; another wonder in a few years will be why 
 we were so long in putting in a heating system for cities just 
 the same as one for water, sewerage, telephones, electric light, 
 gas, or anything else. 
 
 I heard of one place that does this, and thought that a few 
 notes on the subject would interest builders. This is Oak 
 Park, 111. I wrote for some information of this interesting 
 
 302 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 303 
 
 system which will probably be adopted by all progressive 
 cities in the future. 
 
 When in railroad work I noticed that long lines of steam 
 pipes were laid some of them about half a mile. This Oak 
 Park line extends for a mile from the power-house. A central 
 station could heat a mile in every direction, and this of itself 
 would take in a city of 50,000 or 60,000 people. 
 
 But it would not be necessary to have such a large power- 
 house as that would mean. Half a dozen could be placed near 
 the railroad tracks or switches if necessary. Our heating en- 
 gineers could easily plan a city heating system. 
 
 The Oak Park heating is by hot water for the residence 
 section, and steam close to the power-house. There are nearly 
 700 buildings served by the system. The same company fur- 
 nishes electricity, and the exhaust steam is utilized. 
 
 A cheap coal can be used. The $11 per ton kind runs too 
 deep in the bank account for ordinary boiler work. 
 
 The cost is the interesting feature. For a 7 or 8-room house 
 heated as it should be by a furnace, about a ton per room of 
 hard coal is required. Some in sheltered locations and not 
 too much zero weather take less. Allow 7 tons for illustration. 
 At $10 this means $70, and taking in coal and out ashes, with 
 a vast amount of responsibility for keeping the house warm. 
 A man's time at home is figured like a woman's of small 
 account. Let us put it at $1 per month, making a total of 
 $75 for about 5 months for not more than six, at worst or 
 best. 
 
 The Oak Park rate is f cent per cubic foot heated. This 
 is for the outside measure of the first and second floors only. 
 If heat is wanted in the basement or attic it must be paid 
 for at the rate of 20 cents per square foot of radiation. 
 
 The season lasts 8% months from September 15 to June 1. 
 Taking a house of the average kind built for a small family 
 the cost would be about $55 for the season. 
 
 There is no coal to be taken in. There are no ashes to be 
 taken out. What do you think of it? 
 
 There are many such plants, but this one at Oak Park is 
 the largest, I have been informed. There are several in 
 Toledo, Ohio, and one in Detroit. 
 
 The difficulty comes with our system of land tenure. There 
 is too much speculation, and such cities as Omaha, for ex- 
 
304 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 ample, cover just about four or five times more territory than 
 they should. This would make the work of installation 
 expensive. 
 
 But in a model city with every lot occupied, while yet 
 giving plenty of room for ventilation, and better assurance of 
 fire protection than in cities now where scores of houses are 
 built within two feet of each other, such a system would be 
 a success. 
 
 Let the " American Radiator " finish this chapter and this 
 Book II by telling you which system is the best: 
 
 HOW BEST TO WARM OUR HOMES. 
 
 
 HOT AIR 
 
 STEAM 
 
 HOT WATER 
 
 First Cost 
 
 Small 
 
 Moderate 
 
 
 Coal Consumption 
 Average Durability... 
 Heat Distribution.... 
 Temperature 
 
 18% Tons 
 12 Years 
 Uneven, Difficult 
 Variable 
 
 13% Tons 
 Indestructible 
 Positive 
 Uniform 
 
 10 Tons 
 Indestructible 
 Unsurpassed 
 
 Ventilation 
 
 Bad, Draughty 
 
 A-l with Indirects 
 
 A-l with Indirects 
 
 Quality of Heated Air 
 Dust and Dirt 
 Danger of Fire 
 Danger of Explosion. 
 Noise 
 
 Scorched, Burned 
 Much 
 Little 
 Slight 
 
 Good 
 None 
 None 
 None 
 
 Genial and Fresh 
 None 
 None 
 None 
 
 Management 
 Relative Cost of Ap- 
 paratus 
 
 Troublesome 
 9 
 
 Easy, Automatic 
 13 
 
 Easy, Automatic 
 15 
 
 Fuel Economy 
 
 Extravagant 
 
 Reasonable 
 
 Full Value 
 
BOOK in 
 
 THE CONTRACTOR AS A TAXPAYER 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 FIRE LOSS AND SAFE BUILDING 
 
 Over one-fourth to one-half of our new buildings we might 
 put up the sign, BUILDINGS TO BURN. 
 
 The loss in the United States for the year 1907 was $456,- 
 485,000. No, that was not the San Francisco year. That one 
 cost about $300,000,000 more. 
 
 In the face of such frightful waste we have a class rising 
 in the building world who seem to have the brains of excitable, 
 thoughtless schoolboys in the bodies of men. They are around 
 with their stop watches and their flags trying to get " every 
 ounce of energy " out of building tradesmen, who, at worst, 
 cannot have less good common sense than their tireless, fault- 
 finding critics. To the ordinary observer there does not seem 
 to be much use in " speeding up " merely to feed the fire. 
 
 One investigator says that our annual average loss, taking 
 everything into account as well as the fire loss proper, is 
 $600,000,000. That seemed unreasonable, yet in February, 
 1910, the U. S. Geological Survey, after a careful investiga- 
 tion, gave out the figures for the year 1907 as $456,485,000. 
 
 In that year the cost of building in 49 leading cities 
 amounted to $661,976,286 for a population of less than 
 13,000,000. The cost of the new construction in the entire 
 country is conservatively set at $1,000,000,000. So it appears 
 that in an average year we lose about half as much as we 
 build, when we consider the cost of maintaining fire depart- 
 ments, the amount of insurance premiums paid less the amount 
 returned, the cost of protective agencies, the additional cost 
 of water supplies, and other factors. 
 
 Yet at least half of it need not afflict us. With proper 
 
 305 
 
306 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 laws and care probably three-fourths of it might end. In the 
 city of Berlin, for example, the annual fire loss averages 
 $150,000. In Chicago it runs to $5,000,000. Berlin has 3,000,- 
 000 people, and Chicago 2,000,000. This means that the busi- 
 ness men of Chicago, who really control matters, are not 
 nearly so capable as the men of Berlin. When they can bring 
 the loss down to $450,000 a year, which is the Berlin loss 
 multiplied by 4%, taking population into account, they may 
 begin to get into a higher classification so far as ability is 
 concerned. 
 
 The fire loss in several European countries is 33 cents per 
 capita. In the United States it is $2.70. This is only the 
 fire loss proper. 
 
 The United States government beats the average business 
 man " all hollow." There are now about $300,000,000 worth of 
 fireproof buildings owned by the government, and no insur- 
 ance is carried on them. It would cost too much to insure 
 them. There is a cheaper way, and that is to make them 
 safe. About $20,000,000 a year are added to the U. S. building 
 values for new construction. 
 
 Cost of Fire. It is pathetic in a way, disgusting in an- 
 other, to think that there are so many people who imagine 
 that fire losses fall merely on the merchants who are burned 
 out, or upon the insurance companies. They fall on every 
 citizen. When there are too many fires in a town, and the 
 equipment is out of date, it means either new equipment, and 
 consequently higher taxes, or else higher insurance rates. 
 When the rates go up the rents go up, and so do the dry 
 goods and other necessities. Some say, " Oh, the insurance 
 companies are rich. They can stand it." Or, " It will give 
 work." The insurance people transfer the cost to the in- 
 sured, as far as they can; and they in their turn raise the 
 price of their goods. Rebuilding undoubtedly gives work, but 
 what kind of work? Necessary, or useless? How would it do 
 to build a pyramid in each state? Would that not give work? 
 
 In 33 years the loss from fire proper has amounted to 
 $4,500,000,000. But from 1872 to 1882 the losses ran to only 
 about $75,000,000 a year. Most of the trouble comes from 
 frame buildings. How would it do to follow the plan of 
 Denver and forbid them altogether? 
 
 Number of Fires. In 43 European cities there are .86 fires 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 307 
 
 to the 1,000 population. In the United States, 4.05, or between 
 4 and 5 times as many. In London with a far larger popula- 
 tion than New York there are 3,843 fires in a year, while New 
 York has 12,182. 
 
 .Foot Power versus Horse Power. When serving my appren- 
 ticeship in a Scotch town of 20,000 people I was always 
 anxious to see a fire, but never had the pleasure during 6 
 years one as a journeyman. There were a few in that 
 period, but my luck was against me. But I had not long to 
 wait when I reached the United States. 
 
 I remember that we were once working on a building 3 
 or 4 miles from town. One of the " firemen " was a carpenter 
 working with us. On looking townward we thought that 
 smoke was rising in the air. The fireman laid down his tools 
 and walked and ran to town to do his part. 
 
 That kind of a department looks rather funny, but whether 
 is it better to so build as to make fires next to impossible 
 or to expend millions in getting the finest fire departments 
 in the world, as American ones are, merely to keep down 
 flames that should never rise? Instead of being proud of our 
 fire departments we should look upon them as our disgrace. 
 But when we build 60 per cent, frame in 1908 and only 2i/4 
 per cent, fireproof we are providing more trouble and exciting 
 runs for the departments. Only about .005 per cent, of the 
 buildings in the United States are fireproof. Why should we 
 be surprised when a great conflagration like that of San 
 Francisco raises our per capita waste from fire proper to 
 more than $6? One of the greatest wastes is seldom calcu- 
 lated, and that is the loss and disarrangement through inter- 
 rupted business. 
 
 Building Codes. Some years ago I went over a dozen 
 codes for a particular purpose, and a few suggestions will be 
 of service here as to how they might be improved. Especially 
 will this be true for country districts and farmhouse work 
 where codes do not apply. 
 
 Distance Between Walls. In almost all cities we see 
 frame houses within two feet of each other, and the cornices 
 touching. A law forbidding a less distance than 8 feet between 
 the walls and 5 feet between the cornices would be of much 
 value for fire protection, light, and ventilation. A distance 
 of 10 feet would be better, we all know, but we cannot go so 
 
308 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 far. There are many who have to be content with a half lot, 
 and paving and other improvements cost money. The smallest 
 possible frontage has to be made to serve, and we could not 
 cut 10 feet off some lots. 
 
 The cornices in the above suggested law are restricted to 
 18 inches. They are now made nearly twice as wide. They 
 are like the " Merry Widow " hats. We see some of them 
 about 4 feet wide on bungalows. If there is plenty room on 
 the lot that is the owner's business, but no one has the right 
 to start a conflagration, and on small lots no cornice should 
 come nearer to the other than 5 feet. Personally I should 
 like to mak"! it 8 feet. 
 
 In the new model city which I have been trying to interest 
 people in for some time, there would be a chance of beginning 
 with a good code. Land would be cheap, and cornices could 
 have 10 feet between them at the nearest point. 
 
 Masonry houses take fire through the openings. The same 
 distance should be observed with. them. Of course as long as 
 the building laws allow us we are going to use all our ground. 
 In man}'' cities we are allowed to go within 18 inches of the 
 lot line. For two houses at that distance this means cornices 
 almost touching. 
 
 Shingles. It would be difficult to say too much in favor of 
 what the wood shingle has done for the United States. It has 
 supplied a cheap and excellent roof covering for generations. 
 It is light, warm, and looks well but it is too dangerous in 
 cities on account of fire. The Underwriters want laws for- 
 bidding the use of shingles. It is not likely that in such states 
 as Washington and Oregon, where lumber is still reasonable 
 in price, that their desire will be granted, but good shingles 
 cost so much now in many parts of the country that substi- 
 tutes are being used far more than formerly. Taking every- 
 thing into consideration, it would now pay a city far distant 
 from the lumber fields to bid a sorrowful farewell to the wood 
 shingles of the fathers, and turn to other materials, such as 
 tin, galvanized iron, asphalt, and asbestos cement shingles. 
 
 Siding. This product is also becoming too high priced, and 
 thousands of houses are now covered with plasters of various 
 kinds. One of the coming orders to the building trades, far 
 from lumber districts, is to use as little wood as possible, and 
 put unburnable materials in its place. In a really model code, 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 309 
 
 if frame houses were allowed at all, wood siding would be 
 forbidden unless far away from fire and risk. 
 
 Yet it is with a feeling of sorrow that we think of the time 
 when the fine American wood house will be a rarity. Apart 
 from fire risk there is no healthier and better looking house 
 built. 
 
 Reinforced Walls. The expanded metal companies are now 
 strongly advertising houses built practically without studding 
 and sheeting. They use only a few studs for floor supports, 
 put on expanded metal lath, and plaster outside and inside with 
 tar paper between, and this makes the wall, usually with a 
 double air space. As the carpenter goes out the plasterer 
 comes in. 
 
 Properly built this style may take the place of the wooden 
 walls. For some years I ran across quite a number of plans 
 for wood ice-houses. When I began on the first plan I wanted 
 to fill in the air space with sawdust as I had built refrigerators, 
 but was told that the air space was left unfilled. The reliance 
 is put on thicknesses of paper to exclude air. Now, if paper 
 will keep out hot air it will do the same thing for cold air. 
 The main thing is to make the insulation perfect. This means 
 that boarding would be no longer used. 
 
 Brick Openings. Have as few openings in interior brick 
 walls as possible. Fill up with masonry those that are not 
 indispensable, and put fire doors on the others. Make these 
 doors of two thicknesses of crossed flooring covered with I. C. 
 tin, lock-jointed and not soldered. The door must be covered 
 all around, including the edges. 
 
 Hang on barn door rollers like a sliding door, and hold them 
 in place with a fusible link that will melt when the fire starts, 
 and let the door roll down its inclined track over the opening. 
 
 Parapet and Dividing Walls. Run up exterior walls about 
 3 feet above the roof on a flat building, and the division walls 
 at least 2 feet. 
 
 Metal Frames. Do not use wood frames or sash in build- 
 ings that are exposed to danger from the outside. Put in 
 metal frames and sash filled with wire glass. With the ex- 
 ception of the front door, which is expected to be of a some- 
 what ornamental nature, fill all door openings with double 
 flooring covered with tin. If any lights are used in them they 
 should be wire glass. This applies to business buildings. 
 
310 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Size of Glass. The Underwriters do not allow any window 
 that measures more than 45 square feet in area, or more than 
 5 feet wide x 9 feet high. These dimensions must not be ex- 
 ceeded, no matter if the area is less than 45 square feet. For 
 example, a window 4x10 or 6x7 would not be allowed. 
 
 If wider windows are required there must be a mullion with 
 a 5-inch I-beam covered all around with at least 2 inches of 
 concrete. 
 
 No light of glass should be more than 40 inches wide or 
 48 inches long, or exceed 720 square inches. 
 
 Shutters. Iron shutters are used on many buildings. The 
 danger is that they are left open. To be of any account they 
 should be closed every night. Wire glass is always in shape 
 to resist a fire. Sometimes these shutters are swung in the 
 regular w r ay on hinges, and again they are arranged on 
 batteries on rollers to be operated with a crank that closes 
 an entire side of a floor. 
 
 Kolling Shutters for Stores. The retail districts in Amer- 
 ican cities look much pleasanter in the evening after business 
 hours than those of Europe, for nearly all the windows 
 are left well lighted. Many of the retailers here have 
 gone back to the European system of rolling shutters, how- 
 ever. They make a good fire guard, and save breakage of 
 glass. 
 
 Stairways. One of the great safeguards from fire in 
 business buildings or private residences is to enclose the stairs 
 and shut off one story from another. This plan should be 
 enforced in all business buildings, boarding houses, some kinds 
 of hotels, and probably schools, but would not be accepted in 
 private residences. The stair hall is looked upon as an orna- 
 ment of the house, and most people would object to enclosing 
 it. 
 
 In many business buildings masonry walls should be obliga- 
 tory, and they should run clear up and form a parapet above 
 the roof. Tile partitions might be used in lighter buildings, 
 but the tile should not be less than 6 inches thick. In ordi- 
 nary work a stud partition covered on both sides with expanded 
 metal lath and plaster would serve. All that could be ex- 
 pected would be a short check upon the flames that might give 
 the fire department time to reach the building. 
 
 A chain, we have been often assured, is no stronger than 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 311 
 
 its weakest link, and a partition of this kind would be no 
 better fire resistant than the wood door at the top of the 
 stair. Properly this should be tinned on both sides, and be 
 made to swing shut. 
 
 Doors Opening In. We have probably forgotten the Colling- 
 wood school, where a little regiment of scholars was burned 
 because the doors swung in instead of out. In all public 
 buildings, manufacturing establishments, and other special 
 structures doors should swing out. 
 
 Elevators. If possible the shaft should be independent of 
 the rest of the building and enclosed with masonry clear 
 above the roof. The tinned doors should be hung on inclined 
 tracks, and be held in place with fusible links. They should 
 be shut every night. 
 
 Chimneys. We are told that 30 per cent, of the fires in 
 dwellings originate in defective flues. Some of the insurance 
 companies would like to use 9-inch walls, and a flue lining 
 besides; but while this is desirable, it is not really necessary. 
 If a single course of brick is well laid in good mortar and 
 a flue lining put on the inside there is no danger from fire. 
 It should be remembered that much lime mortar becomes 
 practically worthless in a few years. For chimneys, at least 
 fa of the mortar should be Portland cement, and one foot 
 below the roof to the top should be of Portland cement mortar 
 only. 
 
 Do not build a chimney without a flue lining. If it really 
 has to be done in a farmhouse or where linings are not easily 
 obtained, use the best mortar, and strike the joints on the 
 inside. Do not plaster all over the brick. The heat soon 
 burns the plaster off, and leaves the joints exposed. In such 
 a case a 9-inch wall is safer. It is also better to build all 
 chimneys clear down to the ground. 
 
 Stacks. In general, it is customary to use fire brick on the 
 inside. This is the wisest course for ordinary stacks. But the 
 radial brick ones are not lined. Boiler rooms should be com- 
 pletely enclosed with thick brick walls. 
 
 Wood Plugs. The most dangerous place to drive wood 
 plugs is into the joints of a chimney, especially if there is no 
 flue lining. Metal plugs should be used. As a rule, a good 
 carpenter can contrive to get along with few plugs in such a 
 place by nailing well at the corners. 
 
312 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Pipes. Hot air and steam pipes should never rest against 
 wood, but be cut free for at least 1 inch all around for steam 
 and 2 inches for hot air. 
 
 Ashes. All over Denver there are little brick receptacles 
 in the backyard that look like beehives on a large scale. 
 They are for ashes. When hot ashes are laid against wood 
 there is apt to be a fire. 
 
 Stovepipe Holes. Keep them closed. If a pipe runs from 
 one room to another use a double metal thimble with an air 
 space. This is bad practice to so arrange for heating, but to 
 save a chimney it is sometimes done. 
 
 Electric Work. There is a National Electrical Code that 
 the National Board of Fire Underwriters put forth as a 
 standard. Insist that all wiring and work should be done 
 according to the requirements of this code, and put this con- 
 dition in the specification. If this is not done it may likely 
 will make trouble with the insurance. 
 
 Fire Fighting Tools. Every house should have, and few 
 houses do have, some kind of provision for fighting fire at the 
 first alarm. In cities the first thing is to notify the depart- 
 ment. But a couple of pails of water standing ready in a 
 place well known to every member of the family would often 
 check a fire before it got the upper hand. It takes some time 
 to fill a pail. 
 
 Extinguisher. Another good idea is to have some kind of 
 a chemical extinguisher. Any local insurance agent will give 
 a list of good ones. Business buildings should have standpipes 
 and hose ready, pails on every floor full of water and not of 
 air, and an automatic sprinkler where there is pressure enough 
 to keep the pipes full. 
 
 Autos. In country districts now the proper thing is to 
 have a motor truck with a chemical outfit. It can go about 
 a mile a minute. The engine gives power to work the chem- 
 icals when the fire is reached. One fireman lives beside the 
 machine, and is ready to start in two minutes after the alarm 
 is given. Most farms near villages and towns now have 
 telephones. 
 
 Cellars. A good law in New York City makes the first 
 floor of tenements fireproof, and this keeps down the risk, 
 especially when there is a fire door at the head of the stair. 
 All manner of rubbish is thrown down in the cellar. There 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 313 
 
 should be an inspection made regularly of such places. We 
 have read that the kick of a cow burnt the city of Chicago. 
 
 Fire Stops. They should be put in all frame buildings. 
 Some of the insurance companies would like to see a space 
 at the end of the floor joists and partitions of the second 
 story, and 6 inches or so above, filled with concrete to block 
 the fire, but this is not likely to be done, on account of expense. 
 
 Where walls are furred one good method is to corbel out 
 the brickwork between the joists as far as the face of the 
 furring strip, and thus block all chance of a draft running 
 from one story to the other. 
 
 The usual method in a frame building is to cut in a 2-inch 
 piece between the studs at the level of the ribbon strip. 
 
 Gas, Gasoline, and Kerosene. Never use a swinging gas 
 bracket. When gas is escaping do not hunt for it with a 
 lighted match. First of all open the windows and doors, and 
 then make the search when most of the gas has escaped. It 
 would be well if we all knew how to shut off gas at the meter 
 just as we do water. 
 
 Gasoline is exceedingly dangerous. One pint, we are told, 
 will impregnate a space of 200 cubic feet, and make it ready 
 for an explosion. This is 5x4x10. Keep it out of the house. 
 
 Kerosene lamps start about 2,000 fires in a year. It is use- 
 less to tell a certain class of women not to light fires with 
 kerosene. They know better. Every week, or often day, one 
 may pick up a newspaper which shows that the dauntless 
 females are still keeping up the fight. When they go to the 
 next world in a flame of kerosene they are put beside the 
 foolish virgins who, bad as they were, knew enough to go with 
 empty lamps rather than take kerosene. 
 
 Matches. About 1,000 dwellings are set on fire every year 
 by matches. The safety ones are the best. One advantage 
 of electric lighting is that it does away with the use of 
 matches. If we were all rich enough to put in conduit work 
 where the wires are run in pipes, the fire danger would be 
 lessened. 
 
 Wainscoting. The old style kitchen was lined with wood 
 up several feet. The new one is plastered. Keep the heating 
 stove at a reasonable distance from the wood. Keep all kinds 
 of timbers and woodwork clear of heat. 
 
 Smoking Boom. A place for men to smoke would be of 
 
314 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 much value in some plants. They would be better without 
 tobacco, but as long as they will use it we ought to take care 
 that matches and cigar ends are not thrown where they will 
 start a fire. 
 
 Fire Escapes. They save lives and damage suits. The 
 Underwriters want steps not less than 6 inches wide and not 
 more than 9 inches high. Some states have regulations as to 
 fire escapes. 
 
 No matter if the building is fireproof, a system of fire 
 escapes ought to be installed, for the contents may be burnt. 
 At a fire in New York in 1911, in a fireproof building, 147 
 people lost their lives through insufficient exits and locked 
 doors. 
 
 Fire Limits and Safeguards. Much loss would be avoided 
 if the foregoing safeguards were attended to. It would be 
 easy enough to add more, but the principal dangers are 
 indicated. 
 
 A proper municipal code would set apart a certain section 
 of a city where none but fireproof buildings were allowed; and 
 many other changes from the regular codes would be made. 
 Probably even a few lightning rods would be installed. Per- 
 haps we were too rash in saying that they are of no value. 
 
 Several good building codes have been compiled, but they 
 are of no use unless they are followed. Even if a city gets a 
 good one the council will often render it useless by giving 
 special permits. 
 
 And while you have been reading this chapter the buildings 
 have been burning, and the Excitable Men have been waving 
 flags, and looking at their stop watches, and shouting, " Lay 
 more brick ! Hoist more timbers ! Faster ! faster ! " 
 
CHAPTER II 
 WHERE TO LOCATE 
 
 Someone has said that wherever Americans are they want 
 to be elsewhere. When I would suggest improvements to my 
 more experienced grandmother she would reply, " Changes are 
 lightsome, and fools are fond of them." 
 
 But while environment does not mean everything, it means 
 a good deal. Some of the best Australian families are de- 
 scended from British convicts who got a better chance in the 
 new land. Quite a few shady characters also came here and 
 reformed under better conditions than they could find at home. 
 This means that there is hope for us all. 
 
 From the beginning of this republic there has been a trek 
 from East to West. Most of the people were seeking and find- 
 ing better environments. They were not seeking a better 
 Declaration of Independence nor another Constitution, for 
 these belonged to the East as well as to the newer portions 
 of the continent. They wanted more favorable environments. 
 
 There are plenty who make a great success in all lines back 
 in Europe, but on the average not nearly so many as in this 
 country; and likewise there are many who make a success 
 in the Eastern states, but not such a large percentage as in 
 the newer ones. The man who says that environment does not 
 count, and we have quite a few of this class in pulpits, simply 
 puts himself athwart the path of scores of millions who left 
 Europe for Australia, South Africa, South America, and the 
 United States; and who, in our land, later on, left the East 
 for the West, until now they are stopped by the Pacific Ocean. 
 Environment will not make any man anything else than 
 human, but it ought to help to make him a better human. That 
 hundreds of thousands with the best environments trample 
 everything beneath their feet does not prove any more to-day 
 that it did of old when swine did the same with pearls. 
 
 315 
 
316 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 In all this broad continent, then, where should a contractor 
 go ? For one thing, he must settle where there is building 
 going on. No matter how well equipped he may be to do 
 business if there is none to do he might as well pack up his 
 belongings. 
 
 Some of the Eastern states might as well be in Europe so 
 far as growth is concerned. As they were a score of years ago, 
 so practically they are for the 1910 census. In others while 
 the state as a whole grows, there are many towns and villages 
 that stand still. They are often pleasant places for those 
 who have an assured income, but for others who have to make 
 their way there is little chance of advancement. Young men 
 are to be encouraged rather than lectured when they want 
 to go somewhere else. 
 
 According to the 1910 census Iowa has fewer people than 
 she had in 1900, and this in spite of the usual excess of births 
 over deaths. It stands to reason that few new houses are 
 required there. 
 
 Roughly speaking, this continent might be separated into 
 7 great divisions : ( 1 ) The Northeastern states as far down as 
 Maryland, and as far West as the Alleghanies; (2) the South- 
 ern states of the old days; (3) the Ohio Reserve territory from 
 the Alleghanies to Chicago ; ( 4 ) the former " West " of only 
 a score of years ago, but now the Middle West from Chicago 
 to Wyoming; (5) what we now call the Northwest or the Far 
 West, from Wyoming to Seattle; (6) the new Southwest of 
 Arkansas, Oklahoma, and especially that great empire of 
 Texas; (7) and the southern sections of California, Nevada, 
 and Utah, with Arizona and New Mexico, might almost be put 
 in a classification by themselves. Southern California, espe- 
 cially, looks like a paradise to Northern people. 
 
 In Europe when a man moves over a frontier he is among 
 another people who do not understand his language. We can 
 move among fifty nations all practically the same, but 
 with such a variety of climate, resources, and attractions as 
 ought to satisfy the most fastidious. 
 
 Probably many a contractor who wants to change might be 
 better off where he is. No set rule can be laid down to suit all. 
 
 If a Western city is decided upon there are several to 
 choose from. I prefer Omaha, although it has some draw- 
 backs. Los Angeles would be my next choice, Denver would 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 317 
 
 be the third, and one I have never visited, Seattle, the 
 fourth. 
 
 Los Angeles and Denver are two of the cleanest cities one 
 can find. They have what the Missouri Valley cities sadly 
 lack? attractions within reasonable distance. The prairie 
 country is rich, for one agricultural authority says that 
 measuring 150 miles in all directions from Omaha there is 
 no better land on the face of the earth. But there are no lakes 
 worth speaking of, the rivers are tolerably muddy we are 
 forced in candor to admit that much and there are no moun- 
 tains. The prairie has a strange attractiveness of its own, 
 but some accustomed to. other scenery might find it monotonous 
 and sigh for sea or snow peaks. 
 
 But Los Angeles and Denver are singularly well supplied 
 with ocean and mountain, in the one case, and great mountains 
 in the other, within a day's ride. Both are crowded with 
 tourists at the right season of the year. The chances are 
 t"hat they will always be, but " more so." 
 
 There are thousands who do well in the older sections of 
 the country, but the competition is greater in one way the 
 old established businesses get the best work. They are more 
 cautious in taking hold of a stranger. 
 
 But the old states, as we might call them, have one great 
 advantage over the newer ones. The East is a land of fac- 
 tories. It is so full of them that they are overflowing South 
 to get cheaper material and wages. There is a great field for 
 the builder in this factory land. 
 
 It looks, as a general rule, which has as usual many excep- 
 tions, that the best field is west of the Missouri River. Even 
 the cities of Iowa and Illinois are already looked upon as old 
 in a way that does not apply to those further west. Like 
 some Eastern cities they stay safely about the same popula- 
 tion from one census to another. 
 
 For a man with children the West is to be preferred. It is 
 going to grow all the way from the Missouri River to the 
 Pacific. Irrigation is opening up a new West that is startling. 
 Land that was formerly worth a dollar an acre in Western 
 Nebraska has been sold for $350. What we all laughed at a 
 score of years ago has become the best in the state. 
 
 So the same story goes where the water has been turned on. 
 One advantage of this arid territory is that there is only land 
 
318 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 just land. There are no great forests like those of Michigan 
 to be cut down, leaving a desert to be deserted, and investors 
 with property on their hands that becomes worthless as soon 
 as the lumber is used; and there are no mines to be exhausted. 
 But there is land that with proper treatment will endure as 
 the source of wealth from generation to generation. 
 
 In the Old South there are undoubtedly good chances,, but 
 they ask who your grandfather was, and their ways are not 
 exactly Northern ways. The climate is also 'a trifle hot. 
 Many Northerners are going down to find pleasant homes, 
 nevertheless. 
 
 The new Southwest has been growing fast in the last decade. 
 There is to be a still greater development down there. Kansas 
 City and St. Louis have waxed fat off the trade of Oklahoma 
 and Texas. 
 
 Beyond Texas lies Mexico. It has been estimated that 
 already there is the immense sum of $1,000,000,000 of American 
 money invested in that country. This means American 
 machinery and supplies by the trainload, and it is only the 
 beginning. Some say that this $1,000,000,000 sent the army 
 down there in 1911. 
 
 In the Far West we have to deal in big words. Mr. Roose- 
 velt was probably about right when he said that it would 
 come to be New York first, Pennsylvania second, and Washing- 
 ton third. In the last decade the growth of Washington, Ore- 
 gon, Southern California, Oklahoma, and Texas has been 
 \vonderful. 
 
 For those in doubt and who feel that the call of the West is 
 in their blood one would say, " Go west of the Missouri River 
 as far south as Kansas City, and keep west of a line drawn 
 from there to Galveston." 
 
 Climate. It is tolerably hard to get a perfect climate. 
 There is sure to be something wrong. In New York City 
 it is the humidity in summer, and the raw Atlantic atmosphere 
 in winter; in the Old South it is too hot, except in the 
 mountainous regions, where there is much moonshining and 
 little building; in the new Southwest there are heat and fleas 
 that make one sigh for the North, for fleas, trained or un- 
 trained, are uneasy bedfellows; in the Puget Sound regions 
 west of the Cascades, when it is not snowing it is raining, 
 according to some who do not like it; while on the east of 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 319 
 
 the range, and clear down to Arizona and Utah, there is no 
 rain, and the dust is annoying. 
 
 In Nebraska there is as healthy a climate as a man could 
 wish for, but the high winds are at times trying on the 
 temper, and in the cities that are not so clean as they should 
 be the dust and refuse of the streets fills the eyes and ears. 
 Yet far back in the old Encyclopedia Britannica these same 
 high winds are cited as one cause for the wonderful health- 
 fulness of the state, so what is an affliction in one sense may 
 in reality be a blessing. 
 
 One man has recently told us that all prairie states could, 
 by erecting larger windmills than the ones in use, store com- 
 pressed air, and light, heat, and furnish power to every 
 family. Once upon a time, and it is not so long ago, we did 
 not think that our waterfalls were of any account. They used 
 to be for the old-time miller, but we thought we had advanced 
 beyond them. Now we know better. Perhaps we shall one 
 day harness the wind. 
 
 In Los Angeles there is an ideal winter climate, but there are 
 winds also. This continual smiling climate may become a 
 trifle monotonous. It is one thing to visit a region and another 
 to stay there. 
 
 All through the corn country of the Missouri Valley, stretch- 
 ing from North Dakota down to Oklahoma, there is the same 
 healthy climate. Here in Omaha, for example, we are 1,000 
 feet above sea level. On some days in summer the heat is 
 trying, but it is not humid. In fall, and late fall especially, 
 from the middle of October to the end of November, and some- 
 times with an occasional storm, clear up to Christmas, one 
 could scarcely say too much in praise of the climate. It is the 
 Indian summer at its best. 
 
 The winters are not severe, and they are dry, unlike the air 
 around the sea or the large lakes. Spring is backward. It 
 sometimes seems as if it would never come. 
 
 All through this prairie region and on to Denver the air 
 is clear overhead, and especially good for those with lung 
 troubles. 
 
 It is a great land, and it is growing and going to grow. 
 Years ago Thomas Brackett Reed spoke of " the omnivorous 
 West." 
 
 The 1910 census showed that all states west of the west 
 
320 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 line of Nebraska gained 50 per cent, and over. Most of 
 them gained 70 per cent. Colorado and Utah gained from 
 " 30 to 50," as two exceptions. The empire of Texas had 
 from 20 to 30 per cent, gain, but certain sections had much 
 more. Oklahoma gained over 50 per cent. Oklahoma City rose 
 from 10,000 to six times as many. Los Angeles increased 
 from 102,479 to 318,000. What are the prospects for building 
 in such states and cities as compared with some eastern states, 
 Iowa, and Indiana? 
 
 Summed up, if I should be asked where there will be most 
 building done before the next census of 1920, I should say in 
 the Southwest, and I have examined the field in all directions. 
 The Northwest also will grow wonderfully. But we often 
 forget that Texas alone is larger than France or Germany. 
 She had only four million people in 1911; yet if she had the 
 whole population of the United States there would be fewer 
 to the acre than in Massachusetts no\v. Land is already high- 
 priced in many states that were settled only a few years ago; 
 it is still cheap in the Southwest. In 1911 excursion trains 
 were running down there in double sections. 
 
 A contractor or architect starting in business, in most cases, 
 must go where there is building to be done, or waste too much 
 of his life fighting for an opening among established com- 
 petitors. There is no choice in the matter. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 THE IDEAL EDUCATION FOE A GENERAL CONTRACTOR 
 
 " We are always in these days endeavoring to separate in- 
 tellect and manual labor; we want one man to be always 
 thinking, and another to be always working, and we call the 
 one a gentleman and the other an operative; whereas the 
 workman ought often to be thinking, and the thinker often to be 
 working, and both should be gentlemen in the best sense. As 
 it is, we make both ungentlemanly, the one envying, the other 
 despising his brother; and the mass of society is made up of 
 morbid thinkers and miserable workers." Ruskin, for the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 " But what is education ? Of course it is not book-learning. 
 Book-learning does not make 5 per cent, of that mass of 
 common sense that ' runs ' the world, transacts its business, 
 secures its progress, trebles its power over nature, works out 
 in the long run a rough average justice, wears away the world's 
 restraints, and lifts off its burdens. The ideal Yankee who 
 <has more brains in his hand than others have in their 
 skulls,' is not a scholar; and two-thirds of the inventions 
 that make Old and New England the workshops of the world, 
 did not come from colleges, but struggled up from the irre- 
 pressible instinct of untrained natural power. Her workshops, 
 not her colleges, made England, for a while, the mistress of the 
 world; and the hardest job her workman had was to make 
 Oxford willing he should work his wonders. ... In this 
 sense the Fremont campaign taught Americans more than a 
 hundred colleges; and John Brown's pulpit at Harper's Ferry 
 was equal to any ten thousand ordinary chairs." Wendell 
 Phillips, for the United States. 
 
 That is what Ruskin told the world in general; and Wendell 
 Phillips the professors and students of Harvard in particular, 
 
 321 
 
322 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 SECTION I 
 
 AT SCHOOL 
 
 Education, we have been often told, is a leading out. It is to 
 develop, but some minds cannot be developed except in par- 
 ticular directions. You cannot make a silk purse out of a 
 sow's ear. Some of the most brilliant men have been dunces 
 in certain departments of human interest. 
 
 Dombey and Son. There is an interesting book with this 
 title. Dombey wanted his son to carry on the business after 
 his own death. This is a natural feeling. Kings, aristocrats, 
 plutocrats, ordinary millionaires, and common building con- 
 tractors have it. It is love for their own young that all 
 animals, including wolves, and tigers, have. We have no 
 reason to be ashamed of it, and none to be particularly 
 proud. 
 
 What, then, would be an ideal education for young Dombey, 
 supposing Dombey, Senior, to be, for the moment, a general 
 contractor, and that the young man was willin' to follow in 
 the steps of his father? No matter what his talents may be 
 they have to be led out or developed. 
 
 Ordinary Education. In the first place we shall assume 
 that Dombey, Jr., has been sent to school, and has gathered 
 the usual amount of wisdom dispensed there in tabloid or other 
 shape. This is the lot of all American children, where the 
 taxpayers erect schools enough, and need not occupy us here. 
 
 Perhaps, in the course of human events, the youth had to 
 take up certain subjects that neither he nor Dombey, Sr., 
 approved of, but the ordinary routine cannot be set aside for 
 anyone. It is a table d'hote dinner that is provided for all, 
 and not a dinner a la carte. 
 
 Handwork. In many schools the pupils are now taking a 
 course in manual training, and for anyone who is to engage in 
 building as a lifework this is of great value. It is not merely 
 a training in one branch of mechanical work, but in several, 
 and while it is necessarily of an elementary nature it is none 
 the less of importance. 
 
 Drawing. A course in simple geometry and drawing 
 usually goes with the manual work, and gives an insight into 
 the principles of design that saves much searching of heart 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 323 
 
 and puzzling when actual plans are spread out for a 
 building. 
 
 Upward. In many cases young Dombey is sent to the High 
 School, and is then addressed as " Mister." But only a com- 
 paratively small percentage of American boys ever reach so 
 far. In Cleveland in 1906, for example, there were more than 
 32,000 boys in the grades. Only 2,000 reach the High School, 
 and 300 the day of graduation. 
 
 Waste. There is a good deal of dissatisfaction with the 
 curriculum of the High School. If something is lost by not 
 being able to attend, there is also a gain in the saving of time 
 devoted to useless subjects. 
 
 Necessary Courses. Certain subjects must be learned by all 
 pupils. We have agreed that everyone should master what 
 have been called the three R's Readin', Ritin', and Rithmetic. 
 Geography, a little history, the less grammar as she is taught 
 the better, spelling, and so forth, make up the list. I wish 
 that Dombey might also master simple decimals, as they are 
 so useful in the business for which we are going to carefully 
 groom him. 
 
 Discord. So far, we are all agreed, but about this point 
 trouble larger than a man's hand begins to cloud up. This 
 starts at the doors of the High School. 
 
 Excavation. We should like to compromise on Greek and 
 Latin roots. Further on in this chapter something will be 
 said of the other work required for the erection of a building, 
 but nothing on excavation. That hard part of the common 
 task we leave for the " Dagos," who come from the classic 
 land of Augustus; but we should like to persuade young 
 Dombey to excavate roots enough of the right kind to save 
 him lots of dictionary chasing through life. If the professors 
 would only let the classical part stop there we could walk 
 through life harmoniously instead of scowling at each other 
 as we are now almost forced to do. 
 
 Words. But the courses are made out, and they insist 
 that Latin or German, or Greek, or Pawnee shall be carefully 
 studied by our hero, whom we have decided to decorate with 
 other trimmings. It is all well enough for a chemist, doctor, 
 lawyer, or preacher to learn Latin, Sanscrit, Hebrew, or 
 Pawnee if he wants to; and French and German are undoubt- 
 edly useful in some walks of life, but building contractors in 
 
324 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 the United States generally address their men and do business 
 in English, when a wave of the hand is not sufficiently clear 
 to the man on the ridge or in the basement. 
 
 This language fight is an old one; and before deciding that 
 your heir apparent shall be ground through the mill it might 
 be worth while to consider the nature of education. 
 
 What is Education? It is undoubtedly a leading out, but 
 we have power to go or be led out in different directions. 
 Those of us who have spent our time in building know that 
 there is a wide field that we have not yet explored. There 
 is much to learn in the old paths; and new ones are daily 
 being opened up. How much do you know about reinforced 
 concrete work? Not so very much, likely enough. We are all 
 in the alphabet there. 
 
 Whether is it wiser to send Dombey along the paths that 
 have to be traveled, or along the useless language road? 
 Emerson, who knew several languages, said that he preferred 
 to read English translations of foreign books. Not much of 
 value is lost. 
 
 Mind Training. But they say that the study of languages 
 trains the mind and makes it a more powerful instrument, a 
 better tool to work with; and if this is the case, tool and 
 machinery handling men, like builders, are not apt to slight 
 anything that gives more power to the principal tool of all 
 the human mind. But is it the case? 
 
 The Jews. One of the greatest peoples that ever rose in 
 the world was the Jews of Biblical history. It is not recorded 
 that they spent much of their time learning foreign languages. 
 One of their greatest men, and one of the greatest of the world 
 also, was Moses. He had all the wisdom of the Egyptians, 
 languages among the rest of it, likely enough; but he had to 
 give it all up and go to handwork, to sheep-herding for forty 
 years, to get the rubbish " out of his system," and fit him for 
 his great task. He had been dealing too much in words, and 
 thinking the thoughts of other men; and he had to chase 
 refractory sheep, and tar them to gain wisdom. Language, 
 indeed ! 
 
 The Greeks. Another nation that highly distinguished 
 itself in all the arts, and especially in architecture, was the 
 little one that lived in little Greece some two or three thou- 
 sand years ago. We try to copy their work to-day, so that, 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 325 
 
 like the crab, we have been walking backward. There has never 
 been an artistic revel like theirs on earth and their sons are 
 to-day shining shoes in Omaha, Nebraska, U. S. A. To that 
 black complexion has it come at last. 
 
 We have measured their great stone columns by all our fine 
 rules, and they are true to the sixteenth part of an inch. They 
 knew how to make columns better than we do, and several 
 other things besides. How was it all possible, with their minds 
 untrained by the study of languages ? The general understand- 
 ing is that the Greeks knew only their own, and found it 
 sufficient. 
 
 The Romans knew Latin, and even their children spoke it. 
 Some of them learnt Greek, but the general rule was for the 
 conquered nation to learn another language than its own. One 
 was enough for the conquerors. 
 
 Judging from these peoples it would seem that progress does 
 not depend upon what Carlyle used to call " gerund grinding." 
 
 One writer who had been run through the ancient and mod- 
 ern language mill said in " The Old Order and the New," 
 " Let the best possible translation be executed of all that is 
 excellent in form or substance in the dead languages, and 
 then be done with them forever. Let the dead past bury its 
 dead. Such pretended ' seats of learning ' as Oxford and 
 Cambridge are mere seminaries for the acquisition and diffusion 
 of useless knowledge. All the modern languages and, for the 
 matter of that, the ancient ones also are but jungles of 
 verbiage, which retard rather than facilitate human thought 
 and progress." 
 
 Experience. I took a fancy to learn a little Spanish shortly 
 after school days. I kept up my studies until I could read 
 it almost as easily as English. I read what many call the 
 greatest novel of the world, " Don Quixote," about half a dozen 
 times in the original. The spelling is beautifully simple. 
 There is not so much trouble with a world writer like Cer- 
 vantes, but I noticed that when I tried the " Elogios " of some 
 of the fearfully learned men of the academy I had to run hot- 
 foot for the dictionary to get the meaning of the jaw-breakers 
 of words. They could not tell us of their great countryman 
 unless they used words of many letters. 
 
 I remember enough of this language to be able to easily read 
 the New Testament. And this great book is also written in 
 
326 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 plain language. In fact, all first-class writers can easily make 
 themselves understood. It is the D. C. L., Ph.D., Oxon. tribe 
 that trouble our sleep. 
 
 Later on I studied French for three years, under a native 
 teacher, and lived for about a year in a house where we spoke 
 nothing else. I found it convenient when staying for a few 
 weeks in Paris, where even on the Rue de Rivoli they speak 
 French. One winter when building was dull I read it for 
 ten or twelve hours a day. 
 
 Pedantry. A distinguished American, who had lived in 
 Paris nearly all his life, once wrote that he had met only one 
 English-speaking person w ho could really speak French. The 
 other thousands merely made a more or less successful " bluff " 
 at it. This is too much of the Ph.D. way of looking at things, 
 but the truth is that all thousands of us manage to acquire 
 is just a fair workable article of commerce, as it were, which 
 needs to be taken with quite a few grains of charity. It is not 
 by any means the French of Paris. Never believe it. It is like 
 the Canadian article only worse. 
 
 Not Theory. This much to show that I do not write 
 altogether from theory. Some men have learned fifty lan- 
 guages, and they can speak with more authority. Our question 
 here comes to be, Is it worth while for young Dombey? Most 
 contractors would say no, and I think they would be right. 
 
 Line of Study. It is true that in almost all technical, engi- 
 neering, and architectural schools French and German make 
 up a part of the course, but why it would be hard to tell. It 
 is a fashion that one copies from another. It is well enough 
 in Europe, but hardly necessary here. Anything of importance 
 in the technical world appearing in a foreign journal is soon 
 translated. 
 
 French is a useful enough language for many architects, of 
 course, and especially for those who attend the Ecole des 
 Beaux- Arts; but if we are to believe a writer in the Architect- 
 ural Record for April, 1908. this course is no longer necessary 
 for American students, but is often a positive drawback. 
 
 Posing versus Mind Training. There is no great intellec- 
 tual effort required to learn a foreign language as it is mostly 
 learned. To learn languages in such a way as to be a teacher 
 is another thing. Even English cannot be learned by English- 
 speaking people in a lifetime; and study is so far from being 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 327 
 
 the only requirement that John Bunyan, a common tinker, 
 wrote better than any of the professors. It sometimes seems 
 that the educational brigade, hopeless of distinguishing itself 
 in any other way than by a parrot-like repetition of words, 
 tries to make us believe that it is a highly intellectual accom- 
 plishment to know how to name a cow in several languages. 
 It has been successful enough to impress this belief on the 
 minds of the " old folks " who have come to think that, some- 
 how or other, it is " the thing " to grind their young hopefuls 
 through the language mill. 
 
 First. But if young Dombey wants to learn a language it 
 ought to be Spanish, and neither French nor German. As 
 already said in another chapter, it has been estimated that 
 Americans have invested $1,000,000,000 in Mexico; and we 
 have now to deal with Porto Rico and the Philippines. Of 
 course the money side is not the only one, but it is one; and 
 Spanish offers the best opportunity to make money. Scores 
 of American firms now issue catalogs in this language, and 
 with the certain increase of the South American trade more 
 of them are going to do so. In the building business, just to 
 quote one example, the Northwestern Expanded Metal Com- 
 pany issues a Spanish booklet, and advertises for Central and 
 South American trade. 
 
 Why learn German or French? On the slightest notice a 
 trainload of bi-lingual workers of all kinds with fourteen kinds 
 of German at the ends of their fingers could be delivered F.O.B. 
 from Milwaukee to any part of the United States; and Quebec 
 and our Eastern states are full of people who speak either 
 French or English. New Mexico and Arizona have quite a 
 few Spanish-English people, but they are not, as a rule, the 
 kind that will chase after trade to the South. They do not 
 compare well with the Milwaukee brand of human in this 
 respect. 
 
 The Mind. When all this is said our school friends fall 
 back on the " training of the mind." The mind, like the body, 
 will grow on any reasonable kind of food. It can be trained 
 by studying architecture, physiology, Hebrew, weaving, pottery, 
 woman suffrage, Shakespeare-Bacon controversies, chemistry, 
 varnishing, and even law. The mind is no more dependent 
 on a certain class of studies than the body is on breakfast 
 foods. 
 
328 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 All. of this does not mean that young Dombey should not 
 learn a language if he has time and opportunity because of 
 mere laziness. 
 
 Shorthand. This is a splendid labor-saving tool. I learned 
 it when a boy, and reported in church for several years until 
 I became fairly saturated with sermons. I have found it very 
 useful in copying specifications when in a hurry, and for 
 writing this and other books. According to my way of think- 
 ing it is worth any half-dozen languages, dead or alive, and 
 it can be learned well in one-third of the time that a language 
 needs to be learned in rather a poor way at best. The short- 
 hand teachers say that there is no study like this for " training 
 the mind." 
 
 Choice. At the door of the future High School one will be 
 able to choose the line of study he wants, and not be compelled 
 to grind through what somebody else says is good for him. 
 If young Dombey can go through the High School it will do 
 him no particular harm, as things are, but not so very much 
 good as to astonish us. It might keep him from being so 
 narrow-minded in after life as to think that the Hand is ahead 
 of the Brain. Having got so far how would it do to read 
 Mr. Ruskin's words at the beginning of this chapter? 
 
 THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 
 
 Black Eye. It is not much of a compliment to our High 
 Schools that when many of the pupils graduate from them 
 they turn to the Business College, or the Technical School; 
 and that thousands go to these institutions when their grade 
 studies are finished without even peeping in on the " regulars " 
 to get their minds trained. They go without the old line 
 insurance, as it were, and take the policy of the fraternal 
 orders. But why should builders and supply men have to pay 
 for this outside training for their sons while the High Schools 
 are free? 
 
 The High School is deficient because it does not give the 
 training required for business or building. It takes the taxes 
 cheerfully enough, and asks for more, and still more, but 
 applies them in one direction only, and that not the one 
 tradesmen need. 
 
 Valuable Course. Much of value may be learned in a 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 329 
 
 Business College by Dombey, Jr., if the High School mistake 
 is not repeated. A contractor is not a banker, nor an account- 
 ant, nor a bookkeeper, nor a stenographer. Whatever is re- 
 quired to make him a better building contractor should be 
 taken from the Business College, and only that. In another 
 chapter a pruned down system of bookkeeping is presented 
 that every Business College in the land would condemn. They 
 forget that a contractor wants as little of that as he can get 
 along with, and it is often wonderful how little can be made 
 to serve. 
 
 The arithmetical " stunts " and accomplishments that are 
 valuable enough for a professor are useless for a bricklayer. 
 It is a hundred times more important for a contractor to be 
 a good estimator of everything in connection with a building 
 than an expert at juggling interest and discount tables, and 
 adding 14 columns of figures with one hand tied behind his 
 back. As to arithmetical exercise every builder gets all of 
 that he needs. Some contractors figure in their sleep. To 
 tell one to take arithmetical exercise is like recommending a 
 mail-carrier to walk for his health. 
 
 THE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 We now come to a class of educational factories that do 
 work of a more practical nature. The training in these schools, 
 apart from the language grind, is closely related to the actual 
 requirements of the building business. They are doing excel- 
 lent work, and there ought to be more of them say one free 
 school in every city. Our student should take only what he 
 requires from the Business College, and spend the rest of his 
 time in the Technical School. 
 
 Dangers. But there are at least two dangers that need to 
 be guarded against here: Someone has said that the greatest 
 profession of our day is business. Now our student is pre- 
 paring himself for this profession, and not for that of architect, 
 or engineer, or language teacher. The course should be laid out 
 to suit his needs and not those of -an architect. Somehow or 
 other the theorists always repeat the mistake of the High 
 Schools, and try to make our young Dombey go in ways that 
 lead to the wrong terminal. They start him off all right, but 
 switch him on to a side track. To repeat the illustration al- 
 
330 CONTRACTORS' AXD BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 ready given, it is far more important that estimating should 
 be thoroughly studied than the differences of the various 
 architectural styles. If the proposition is reversed the situa- 
 tion can be seen at a glance. Suppose a young man is in a 
 technical school studying architecture, what would you think 
 of the wisdom of those who made him spend his time learning 
 how to estimate buildings? That is a necessary part of his 
 training but a subordinate part, and he can gather as much 
 knowledge as he requires as he gets acquainted with con- 
 tractors. His principal studies have to be devoted to the 
 art and science of building, and not so much to the cost 
 side. 
 
 But the prospective builder has to approach the problem 
 from the other end. The more he can learn of the architect's 
 work the better, but something else has to come first. The 
 architect and builder are to be complementary to each other. 
 Neither one is to " know it all," but each is to understand a 
 part. Each is to be one leg of a pair of scissors, that when 
 joined will cut the cloth to perfection. But some of the 
 professors would do all the sharpening and oiling on one leg 
 only. 
 
 Young Bones. The other danger is that young Dombey 
 will stay too long in this new school. 
 
 There are many families that have been in the circus 
 business for generations. Almost from the time their boys and 
 girls are able to stand, the training begins and is kept steadily 
 up, with what results we know when we hold our breath and 
 see them swinging in the air. If the trainers waited till the 
 young bones had set there would be no such success. 
 
 So it is with trades, learning languages, and mostly every- 
 thing else. One learns best when young. This does not mean 
 that children should be sent out on buildings, for in general 
 no one under sixteen should be allowed on them, and the trade 
 and manual training schools give the necessary dexterity in 
 safer surroundings; but it does mean that it is a mistake to 
 keep a boy in a Technical School until he is twenty years old 
 and educate him away from his life business. Between sixteen 
 and twenty he can learn a trade better than between twenty 
 and twenty-four. 
 
 Many who cannot take a course in such schools through the 
 day can do so in the evening. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 331 
 SECTION II 
 
 BUILDING THE SCHOOL 
 
 " Stamp each stone with earnest feeling, 
 In the rock thy soul revealing." 
 
 Bad Types. There are some correspondence schools which 
 seem to think it necessary, in the endeavor to make more money 
 than their owners really require, to send out a few rather 
 vulgar advertisements which would not have received much 
 favor from the old-time class of American mechanics. 
 
 They want their students to " step out of the dinner pail 
 class." That is good advice in one way, for we are now so 
 close to the billionaire that men on buildings and elsewhere 
 should be able, as a general rule, to get their necessary food 
 without having to carry it in a pail like horse feed to be 
 swallowed cold at the side of a building. But this is not the 
 meaning. The underlying idea is to step out of the class that 
 labors with its hands. 
 
 The illustrations show one of their graduates with an im- 
 perious, Julius Csesar mien, ordering some poor looking sneak 
 with tools in his hand to go thus and so, and to be tolerably 
 lively about it. 
 
 Mistaken Idea. If young Dombey thinks that he is going 
 to enter among a class of men of the kind represented in such 
 pictures, and merely wants to learn their business to some 
 extent and get away from them as soon as possible to put 
 on the " harsh exterior " and play Napoleon Csesar with the 
 fierce mien ever afterwards, he is sadly mistaken, and should 
 choose another calling. Building mechanics have their faults, 
 but they average up fairly well well enough to make anyone 
 suprised to think that any reputable institution would not 
 know better than send out such sneak pictures to make money. 
 
 Trade Course. Remembering always that a good deal of 
 useful information and skill have been acquired in the manual 
 training classes, how would the following " curriculum " do ? 
 
 Two years at bricklaying and masonry. 
 
 Two years at carpentry and planing-mill work. 
 
 One year at plastering. 
 
 One year at plumbing and heating. 
 
332 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Six months at structural iron work. 
 
 Six months at painting. 
 
 Three months at electrical work. 
 
 Or 3 years might be taken at carpentry or masonry, including 
 stone cutting, and plumbing and heating omitted, as these 
 branches are not often included in a main contract. In North- 
 ern climates bricklaying could occupy the summer months 
 and planing-mill work be taken up in winter. This would 
 shorten the course. 
 
 When men say that they keep on learning something new 
 in their trades all their lives no one should expect to master 
 any trade in a year or two, but a good sound practical knowl- 
 edge can be obtained. In after life, as a contractor doing all 
 kinds of work, this knowledge would be useful to young Dom- 
 bey. His men would soon understand that they were not deal- 
 ing with a novice. In this connection the following paragraph 
 from Machinery is worth reading: 
 
 " In these days when so much has been said about specializa- 
 tion and about the necessity for any young man in the technical 
 field to devote himself exclusively to a certain branch, it may 
 be well to accentuate the point that specialization may be 
 carried too far. The man who becomes too one-sided in his 
 work may be useful to a less extent than he would have been 
 had he, while making a particular study of a special field, 
 devoted some time to broadening his intellect in various ways. 
 The truly great men of this, as well as former, ages are men 
 who have not confined themselves to a small sphere of useful- 
 ness. It is true that it will not do to divide one's interests 
 between too many things at a time. Do one thing at a time, 
 and do it well, but do not think that the time has come when 
 general information in regard to all the things that surround 
 us in life is useless simply because it is not possible to become 
 master of all the arts. Perhaps, on the other hand, there never 
 was a time when the man with a broad view had a greater 
 chance. The specialization in all lines of industry has limited 
 the opportunities for the development of men of varied ex- 
 periences, but such men are necessary for the executive 
 positions. There is for this reason a premium on the services 
 of the man who has been able to acquire a general, even if 
 limited, knowledge of the industries, the business and other 
 conditions outside of his own branch; and because such knowl- 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 333 
 
 edge is becoming more scarce, as the specialization becomes 
 more systematized, there is all the more reason for not being 
 deluded by the general outcry that a man to be truly successful 
 must be a specialist, and nothing but a specialist. To a 
 certain limit the man who is a specialist, and nothing but a 
 specialist, is more successful than his fellow-workers; but this 
 is in the secondary positions, when he is working under the 
 guidance of men who can supplement his lack of general 
 development. When the moment comes that the place of 
 managing the whole concern is to be filled, the specialist is 
 left where he is, because he is filling his place so exceeding 
 well, and the man who never was thought much of where but 
 one of his many faculties came into play, is promoted to the 
 place where he can give full sway to his general knowledge 
 and his varied interests; and the specialist who in his one- 
 sidedness thinks that he was the person logically fit for the 
 promotion, thinks himself badly ignored and his ability mis- 
 understood; he does not realize that with all our specialization 
 the ' all around man ' still holds his own." 
 
 While the trade course was going on, a few evenings per 
 week in winter could be occupied with architecture, estimating, 
 and the reading of trade papers. When the time came and 
 the course was ended our student would have a far broader 
 grasp of the building business than most have who are in it. 
 We may at least set up a high ideal, if we cannot all attain it. 
 
 Two Ways. Dombey, Jr., would have found out that there 
 are two ways of learning, and this is something that many 
 never discover. There is the school way and the trade way. 
 Knowledge is knowledge, no matter how obtained; and brick 
 bonds, for example, may be learned better on the wall than 
 in the classroom. Some of the classroom work is of no use 
 around the building proper, and gives not one whit of power 
 to its possessor. So far as a knowledge of language goes, or 
 trigonometry, or engineering problems, they are useless around 
 a building. A builder might as well study dentistry or the 
 making of caramels as these things which have their proper 
 place. Yet we have shallow men who plume themselves upon 
 being " educated " because of such knowledge, and look upon 
 tradesmen as uneducated on account of their lack of the 
 diploma. 
 
 Post-Graduate Course. It is to be hoped that Dombey, Jr., 
 
334 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 would not think it necessary, like so many Americans, to go to 
 Europe to complete his school or technical education. Many 
 of us who are " imported goods " ourselves would like to be- 
 lieve that the European finish is superior to the one supplied 
 in this republic, and thus required for all model citizens, but 
 with 90,000,000 people to consider, it is hard to do so. It may 
 be that for some special subjects it is well to go there, but 
 nine times out of ten it is the fad of the snob. It is akin to the 
 idea of some kinds of Westerners we have, that children must 
 go to the Eastern states to be educated. The inference in 
 both cases is that there is nothing fine enough at hand to 
 educate the prodigies, and this is nonsense. 
 
 Nevertheless, Europe is an interesting continent, and Dombey, 
 Jr., should see it if possible as a part of the wider education 
 than is taught in schools. 
 
 Wider Field. The greater problems of citizenship do not 
 belong here. It may be sufficient to say what the chapter on 
 " Big Contracts " will enforce, that material grandeur and 
 building by the square mile will all be useless unless we come 
 to understand that for thousands of years one nation after 
 another has been cast aside because it failed to go forward. 
 They could cover the earth with buildings, yet went in the 
 dust because they would not accept brotherhood instead of 
 the masterhood that our maddened plutocrats are fiercely chas- 
 ing after to-day. 
 
 On this American continent already two nations have been 
 tried and thrown aside Spain and France. It is now " up to 
 us." While we are all deeply interested in everything relating 
 to building we might as well understand that our problem is 
 deeper than merely to repeat what has been done on a greater 
 scale from Egypt down to Versailles. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 THE HIGH SCHOOLS, LIBRARIES, AND TRADESMEN 
 
 The Herr Doctor Nathaniel Butler, professor of education in 
 the University of Chicago, said to the teachers of Central Ohio 
 in November, 1909, at Toledo: 
 
 " The present strong tendency to emphasize industrial and 
 commercial education brings with it the necessity of not for- 
 getting that there are other practical ends of education besides 
 those related to vocation. 
 
 " The grade or high school teacher is not charged with re- 
 sponsibility for a pupil's vocation and career, but is charged 
 distinctly with the other functions of making him an in- 
 telligent human being and useful citizen." 
 
 This may be true, but many are now asking how it comes 
 that a knowledge of a language or a science makes anyone 
 more intelligent and useful than an ability to lay brick, make 
 the truss for a roof, carve wood, or design a scheme of electric 
 lighting. 
 
 The professors should read what Wendell Phillips said about 
 the proportion of book knowledge that runs things in general. 
 
 When twenty or more of Mr. Carnegie's superintendents were 
 gathered around a table the great Austrian said, " I suppose, 
 Mr. Schwab, that most of these men have received a technical 
 education ? " 
 
 " Only three of them had any training. All the others rose 
 from the ranks as I did," was the reply. 
 
 Taxes. In the trades, railroad work, and transportation 
 in general, there are about 5,000,000 people engaged, and so 
 far as most of them are concerned the High Schools might just 
 about as well not exist. But they have to pay their share of 
 the taxes. They are willing to let the professors go on in their 
 headstrong way and teach all the botany, physiology, and 
 German that they please, but they want room for something 
 else as well. 
 
 335 
 
336 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 Bad Foundation. As soon as we pass out of the ABC 
 stage the underlying wrong idea is to prepare everybody for the 
 High School, the College, and the University, as these are at 
 present organized. 
 
 Supposing you had 97 men going to Greenland and 3 to the 
 Equator, would you equip the 97 with the light clothes re- 
 quired for the 3? You would rather give them what they 
 needed, would you not? Or would you freeze them for the 
 sake of uniformity and the carrying out of your pet theories? 
 That is what is done with the High Schools 97 are frozen 
 out for the sake of 3. The literary side of civilization alone 
 is presented. Take it or leave it; like it or lump it, and 
 don't forget to pay your taxes. 
 
 Chestnut. This is the old European idea, but Germany 
 has done more to show its worthlessness than any other nation. 
 After the war of 1870 she remodeled her school system, and 
 has made wonderful progress, world progress, since then. 
 
 Oxford and Cambridge have carried out this ancient idea to 
 the limit, and while splendid men have been turned out of 
 these universities, in spite of the classical load they bent under, 
 John Brisben Walker went so far the other year as to challenge 
 anyone to point out a really first-class man produced by either, 
 such a man, for example, as Abraham Lincoln, who knew 
 English, and found it sufficient. Of course the president of 
 a Western university said that Lincoln would have been less 
 of a boor if he had had the advantage of a college training, 
 but we had our doubts about that, and also about the benefit 
 of such a course when it left one of its chief products capable 
 of applying such a word to such a man. 
 
 Figures. The following statistics will show just about 
 how matters stand in the field of the " higher education." 
 They are from an excellent article by F. W. Beckman, pub- 
 lished on October 31, 1909. 
 
 Proportion. Of 500 who are enrolled in the first and 
 second grades not more than 100 will get into the grammar 
 grades; only 35 or 40 will get into the High School; not more 
 than 10 or 12 will complete the work there, and only 1 will go 
 to college. 
 
 Think of it 1 in 500. And the taxes are paid for this kind 
 of nonsense. 
 
 The present educational system is based upon the require- 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 337 
 
 ments of the few instead of on the needs of the many; and 
 the subjects for all above the earlier grades have to be 
 arranged to suit Sophocles Johnson, Esq. 
 
 Number of Scholars. Only about half of the population of 
 school age below 18 are actually enrolled. In St. Louis about 
 2 per cent, finish the High School course; in Boston, 4 per 
 cent. ; in Chicago, 3 per cent. 
 
 In 1907 with a school population under 18 of 24,262,930 in 
 the United States the total enrollment in the High Schools 
 was 770,456; and the graduates of that year numbered 90,391 
 or about 12 per cent. Of these only one- third intended to enter 
 college. This makes about one-tenth of one per cent, of the 
 total school population of the United States. Of the 24,262,930 
 only 16,890,818 are enrolled, and less than 12,000,000 actually 
 go to school. 
 
 Reasons. Half of the pupils leave school, according to some 
 statistics collected, because they find it of no use. They can 
 take Latin, but not practical electrical work. Yet, of 100 who 
 earn their living 80 must work with their hands, 17 go to some 
 business or clerical pursuit, and only 3 or 4 enter the pro- 
 fessions. 
 
 Trade Schools in Germany. In the United States there 
 are in all about 250 trade schools, while Bavaria alone has 
 290. Nearly everything of a practical nature is taught. They 
 are High Schools, in a sense, but not for the study of irregular 
 verbs. These are good enough in their place, which one might 
 be pardoned for wishing were anywhere else than on earth, but 
 even here they do not make up all of life. 
 
 The population of Bavaria is just about the same as that of 
 New York City. Imagine 290 trade schools there. 
 
 In Berlin 55 per cent, of boys between 14 and 16 are in the 
 industrial schools; in Chicago one-tenth of one per cent. In 
 Munich there are 38 different kinds of technical schools. 
 
 The German Commissioners to the St. Louis Exposition re- 
 ported when they went home that their country had nothing 
 to fear from the competition of the United States, as our 
 strength had hitherto been in our power to form great combina- 
 tions of capital like the trusts, and in the enormous supply of 
 raw material; but that our efficiency is declining, owing to 
 the want of training the workmen. It is an old saying that 
 the judgment of foreigners is the judgment of posterity. They 
 
338 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 are not blinded by national feelings and vanity. The Verb 
 Men and Women are landing us in trouble, and even for their 
 own sake we must gently lead them away from Sappho and 
 Helen of Troy and other ladies of ancient times of whom we 
 have heard somewhat too much. 
 
 New Tide. There are signs that the tide is on the turn, 
 and that it will flow and flood the land in spite of the Herr 
 Professor Butler and his cohorts with their brooms trying to 
 hold it back. 
 
 In the Technical World Magazine, for December, 1909, there 
 is an article entitled, " Making the High School Democratic." 
 It tells of the progress of the new kind of High Schools in 
 England, Germany, and the United States. They are turning 
 out boys and girls with trades already fairly well learned. 
 
 Fitchburg, Lynn, with her bells, and Ludlow, in Massachu- 
 setts; Freeport, 111.; Cincinnati, Chicago these and other 
 cities have taken up the system of the New Order, which has 
 been in vogue in Omaha for years. 
 
 The Building Age, for February, 1910, tells us that Newark, 
 N. J., is about to invest $600,000 in a Technical High School. 
 It is to be well equipped for both boys and girls. No wonder 
 that poor Niobe has been so long in tears. They have been 
 thrusting Latin and algebra upon her instead of the Domestic 
 Science that progressive Newark is to offer. 
 
 In Minnesota, in 1907, there were only 17 schools for manual 
 training, with 2,039 students; in 1909, 84 and 4,233. That is 
 reasonably good progress in two years. 
 
 But the university professors in that state want another 
 kind of a reformation, a new way of selecting their species. 
 They want to give the High School teachers the right to say 
 which of the pupils shall be allowed to go forward to the 
 university. According to them 64 per cent, of the freshmen 
 who failed in one year might have been kept at home if the 
 proper authority had been vested in the teachers. Only those 
 are wanted who can absorb Greek and Trojan lore. 
 
 Yet in the past Dr. Chalmers, Sir Isaac Newton, Sir Walter 
 Scott, Charlie Darwin, who wrote two good novels; Henry 
 Ward Beecher, Adam Clark, and many others well known were 
 called dunces by the men who taught them and insisted on 
 feeding them with the regulation, wrong kind of food. The 
 Herr Professor Achilles Hercules will make everyone swallow 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 339 
 
 shredded wheat, made from Minnesota hard, or die in the 
 attempt. 
 
 PUBLIC LIBRARIES 
 
 Too Much Goth and Hun; Too Little Johnson. An impor- 
 tant adjunct of the High School is the Public Library, but it 
 also needs a good sweeping out. 
 
 American libraries are, taking everything into consideration, 
 the best on earth, but they are, yet a few laps .short of per- 
 fection. With respect to books, magazines, and papers they 
 are deficient on the trade side, and some of them are too 
 prejudiced. I could not find " The First Battle," by that 
 publicist, Jennings Bryan, in a great library controlled by 
 " gold bugs." 
 
 But if deficient in some lines they are filled to the topmost 
 shelf with literature on others. They have a carload of books 
 about the Punic wars, Goths and Vandals, Medicean beasts of 
 prey, " Shakesperiana," and there are novels enough to fill 
 several boxcars and sink a civilization. Excellent as good 
 novels are, is there to be no limit? Must the forests be made 
 into pulp for paper, and our shingles get so high-priced that 
 we cannot use them? Dunlop, who grouped the history of all 
 the novels of all Europe into one essay, says that in the nations 
 of modern Europe there have been only 250 or 300 distinct 
 stories. He also said that at least 200 of them are more than 
 2,000 years old. It would seem that we have already had 
 300,000 variations of the original text, with more a-coming: 
 
 "The loaded press beneath her labor groans, 
 And printers' devils shake their weary bones." 
 
 TTsef ulness. It would be almost as foolish to try to get 
 along without a first-class Public Library as without a fire 
 department, but it is possible to overdo the buying of the wrong 
 kind of " supplies." 
 
 Cities. The coming age is to be that of the municipalities. 
 It has been often pointed out that the one great failure in the 
 United States is the government of the cities. Yet a republic 
 must excel in every respect, and this bad state of affairs will 
 have to be changed. But how little there is on the physical 
 side of development in the average library to help us on the 
 
340 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 way! Hun, yes; Goth, OB, shelf 3, lefthand corner; but 
 Johnson is too plebeian to be even listed. He is Johnson of 
 Ours merely, and carries no helmet and spear, but walks 
 sedately along in No. 10 shoes that gripe his feet. 
 
 More Books. We need more and better popular and techni- 
 cal books on paving, sewers, subways, transportation, water- 
 works, ice-plants, public markets, light, heat, and power, milk 
 supply, cemeteries, garbage disposal, messenger and express 
 service, building books, books on fire protection, model charters, 
 municipal ownership, and a score of other questions in con- 
 nection with the cities of the future. 
 
 A library can be made a good paying investment if kept 
 up-to-date. 
 
 lifeless. Perhaps you have seen a mummy in its case. 
 The Thing inside was once alive, but it has been long dead. 
 So with too many books that fill the shelves. 
 
 An assistant to a scientist once asked him what to do with 
 certain scientific books. " Take everything more than 10 years 
 old and throw it in the cellar," was the order. 
 
 If certain kinds of trade books are not kept up-to-date their 
 value ceases. Instead of building more shelves to hold more 
 books many of those now there should be used for fuel. Bless- 
 ings on the man who burnt the Alexandrian library! He is 
 generally execrated, but he was one of the great benefactors 
 of the race. 
 
 How Many. Probably in the whole world there are not 
 10,000 books worth preserving. Let us be liberal and call it 
 20,000. It is likely that the human race would get along 
 better if all the rest were burnt and ended forever. Since 
 writing this I have noticed that Professor Eliot says that all 
 we really need can be put on a 5-foot shelf. There is some 
 hope for the professors even yet. Carlyle, at the end of his 
 life, got down to two books the Bible and Shakespeare. 
 
 Yet we have libraries with millions of volumes, and their 
 dust-fighting attendants groan for more. More are needed, but 
 we are tolerably well supplied with Greek and Trojan wares 
 just now, thank you. Some other day, perhaps 
 
 The Library of Congress has room for 2,500,000 books, not 
 including the roof; and the New York Public Library for 
 4,000,000. If books would only save us our calling and elec- 
 tion were sure! 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 341 
 
 It is hard on the taxpayer, and at least half of it is useless. 
 
 The one Irish chief wrote to the other, " Pay me my tribute, 
 
 or else ! " The other replied, "I will not pay you your 
 
 tribute, and if ! " 
 
 We have been paying tribute in schools and libraries to the 
 Literary Ideal and the classical forces too long, and they must 
 now agree to share the " swag " for another kind of schools 
 and books, or else ! 
 
 Mr. Roosevelt, in an address to the students of the Agricultu- 
 ral College of Michigan, at Lansing, said : " Our engineering 
 schools compare favorably with the best in Europe, whereas 
 we have done almost nothing to equip the private soldiers of 
 the industrial army the mechanic, the metal worker, the 
 carpenter. Indeed, too often our schools train away from the 
 shop and the forge. . . . The painter, the electrical worker, 
 the foundryman should be trained alike in head and in hand 
 ... To train boys and girls in merely literary accomplish- 
 ments, to the total exclusion of industrial, manual, and techni- 
 cal training, tends to unfit them for industrial work; and in 
 real life most work is industrial." 
 
CHAPTER V 
 A LITTLE LIBRARY 
 
 Inquiries are often made as to what books it is advisable 
 to purchase. A contractor cannot afford to run to a library 
 for a technical work. " When he wants it he wants it badly," 
 and he ought to own at least a few standard works. When 
 he becomes rich he may buy more. 
 
 The David Williams Company lists the following books, 
 including, it will be noticed, a good cheap arithmetic, where 
 rules are laid down for simple problems in mensuration and 
 decimals : 
 
 AUTHOR TITLE PRICE 
 
 Arthur. The New Building Estimator $2.50 
 
 Baker, M. N. Municipal Engineering and Sanitation.. 1.25 
 
 Baker, W. H. Cement Workers' Handbook 50 
 
 Birkmire. American Theaters 3.00 
 
 Blakely } 
 
 ( Passaic v Manual of Structural Steel 5.00 
 
 Steel Co.) ) 
 
 Building Age. Series of Designs (5 vols.) 5.00 
 
 Cambria Steel ) Handbook 2 00 
 
 Company. \ 
 
 Carnegie Steel j ^^ c nion 2 00 
 
 Company. j 
 Carver. Handbook for Inspectors of Reinforced 
 
 Concrete 50 
 
 Cosgrove. Principles and Practice of Plumbing . . . 3.00 
 
 Crosby. Building Code of New York, etc., 1911 . . 3.00 
 
 Edminster. Architectural Drawing 2.00 
 
 Gilbreth. Bricklaying System 3.00 
 
 Gilbreth. Concrete System 3.00 
 
 342 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 343 
 
 AUTHOR TITLE PRICE 
 
 Gillette. Handbook of Cost Data $ 5.00 
 
 Hodgson, F. T. Estimating Frame and Brick Houses ... 1.00 
 Hodgson, F. T. Concretes, Cements, Mortars, Plasters, 
 
 and Stuccos 1.50 
 
 Hodgson, F. T. Light and Heavy Timber Framing 2.00 
 
 Hicks, I. P. Builders' Guide 1.00 
 
 Hicks, I. P. Estimators' Price Book 1.00 
 
 Jacoby. Structural Details or Elements of Design 
 
 in Heavy Framing 2.25 
 
 King, A. G. Practical Steam and Hot Water Heating 3.00 
 
 Lewis. Handbook for Cement Users 2.50 
 
 Hendricks. Commercial Register 10.00 
 
 Jones & ) TT . 
 
 y Useful Information 50 
 
 Laughhn. j 
 
 Joslin. Estimating the Cost of Buildings 1.00 
 
 Kent. Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-Book 5.00 
 
 Kidder. Architects' and Builders' Pocket-Book.. 5.00 
 
 Kidder. Building Construction and Superintendence: 
 
 Part I, Masons' Work 6.00 
 
 Part II, Carpenters' Work 4.00 
 
 Part III, Roof Trusses and Trussed 
 
 Roofs 3.00 
 
 Kidder. Strength of Beams, Floors, and Roofs . . 2.00 
 
 Maginnis. How to Frame a House 1.00 
 
 Maginnis. Roof Framing Made Easy 1.00 
 
 Maginnis. Practical Centering 1.50 
 
 Melsy. Progressive Carpentry 1.00 
 
 Milne. Standard Arithmetic 75 
 
 Radford. Practical Carpentry (2 vols.) 2.00 
 
 Radford. Steel Square and, Its Uses (2 vols.) ... 2.00 
 
 Radford. Framing 5.00 
 
 Richey, H. G. The Building Foreman's Pocket-Book and 
 
 Ready Reference 5.00 
 
 Richey, H. G. Handbook for Superintendents, Archi- 
 tects, Builders, and Building In- 
 spectors 4.00 
 
 Richey, H. G. Stone and Brickmasons' Ready Reference 1.50 
 Richey, H. G. Carpenters' and Woodworkers' Ready 
 
 Reference 1.50 
 
344 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 AUTHOR TITLE PRICE 
 
 Richey, H. G. Cement Workers' and Plasterers' Ready 
 
 Reference 1.50 
 
 Richey, H. G. Plumbers' and Steamfitters' and Tinners' 
 
 Ready Reference 1.50 
 
 Snow, W. G. Furnace Heating 1.75 
 
 Snow, W. G. Principles of Furnace Heating 2.00 
 
 Starbuck. Standard Practical Plumbing 3.00 
 
 A correspondent of The Engineering News sent the list below 
 for young engineers: 
 
 1. American Civil Engineer's Pocket-Book. 
 
 2. Searle's Field Engineering. 
 
 3. Kent's Pocket-Book. 
 
 4. WaddelPs De Pontibus. 
 
 5. Carnegie's Handbook. 
 
 6. Byrne's Inspection of Materials and Workmanship. 
 
 7. Lanza's Applied Mechanics. 
 
 8. Merriman & Jacoby's Roofs and Bridges. 
 
 9. Merriman's Hydraulics. 
 
 10. Webb's Railroad Construction. 
 
 11. Wellington's Location of Railways. 
 
 12. Johnson's Modern Framed Structures. 
 
 13. Materials of Construction. 
 
 14. Theory and Practice of Surveying. 
 
 15. Contracts and Specifications. 
 
 16. Fol well's Sewerage. 
 
 17. Fol well's Water Supply Engineering. 
 
 18. Baker's Masonry Construction. 
 
 19. Baker's Highway Construction. 
 
 20. Patton's Civil Engineering. 
 
 21. Patton's Treatise on Foundations. 
 
 22. Wilson's Irrigation Engineering. 
 
 23. Vega's Logarithms. 
 
 24. Reinhardt's Lettering. 
 
 25. Reinhardt's Technic of Mechanical Drafting. 
 
 26. Edminster's Structural Drawing. 
 
 Any of the books listed above may be purchased through the 
 David Williams Co., 239 W. 39th Street, N. Y. See their 
 catalog at the end of this volume. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 345 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 List prices are given. If several books are bought at once 
 a reduction may be secured. 
 
 It will be noticed that there are no books listed that deal 
 exclusively with reinforced concrete work. The lists are for 
 the use of CONTRACTORS, and not architects and engineers. 
 For a contractor to buy ninety-nine out of a hundred books 
 listed on reinforced work would be to throw away money. But 
 full details of quantities and costs are given in the " Esti- 
 mator." 
 
 Three structural steel books are listed. They give size and 
 weight of all steel shapes. A builder needs only one, but 
 sometimes he can get this one free of cost, and a choice is 
 given. If he is buying steel either directly or through a sub- 
 contractor he can usually secure a copy. 
 
 " Useful Information " is an old favorite in the building 
 trades. It has 500 pages, and is now in its 16th edition. It 
 measures only 2"x3i4"x%", and is thus easily carried in 
 the pocket. 
 
 Gillette's " Handbook " is for engineers, and while useful 
 enough for a building contractor is not really necessary. It is 
 full of valuable statistics on heavy engineering work. Ten 
 thousand copies were sold in the first two years of publication. 
 
 I can strongly and conscientiously recommend the chapter 
 on the cost of erecting buildings. When I looked through it I 
 was impressed with the fact that I had written a good deal 
 of it myself, not exactly in my dreams, but in the pages of 
 the " Estimator." To see one's data lifted wholesale is com- 
 plimentary. It makes him feel that his work all through must 
 be like Ivory soap 99 T ^ per cent. pure. 
 
 Kidder's " Pocket-Book " needs no praise. It is standard 
 all over. It furnishes a quarry from which all builders and 
 book writers take an occasional stone, if their modesty keeps 
 them from filling a wagon. The Chicago architect, who was 
 the " father of the skyscraper," strongly recommended all 
 young architects to buy Kidder. 
 
 Trautwine's " Handbook " is another great publication for 
 engineers. A thoroughly revised edition was issued in 1911. 
 
 An interesting fact in connection with " Trautwine " is that 
 three generations of the family have written and revised it. 
 
346 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 The " American Civil Engineers' Pocket-Book," published in 
 1911, has proven a very valuable reference work. It was 
 written by a corps of experts, each section being prepared 
 by a specialist in the subject under discussion. 
 
 Kent's book is for mechanical engineers, and not of much 
 use to builders, except for chimneys, boilers, and such work. 
 More than 40,000 copies have been sold. 
 
 Baker's " Municipal Engineering and Sanitation " is a book 
 I like to recommend. It is an excellent popularly written 
 work on the New Cities of the future. 
 
 A great book for addresses is Hendricks' " Commercial 
 Register of the United States." But it is expensive. 
 
 FREE LITERATURE 
 
 There is no country like this for sending out so much 
 valuable literature " free, gratis, and for nothing." The 
 advertisements in the trade papers should be watched for 
 catalogs and handbooks. A few are listed below: 
 
 Sweet's Index is the best of all if you can get it. About 
 10,000 copies are sent out every year. All architects get one, 
 large contractors, engineers, purchasing agents, and city, state, 
 and government officials. The old copy may be obtained from 
 an architect when he gets a new one. In one year 4,000 were 
 transferred in this way. Any copy, old or new, is worth 
 having. 
 
 It is purely an advertising scheme, a catalog of catalogs, 
 but it seems that everything worth listing in connection with 
 building is to be found in its pages. Instead of a thousand 
 and one leaflets and catalogs of different sizes there is a bound 
 book of more than 1,400 large pages carefully indexed. It is 
 to the trades what Poole's Index is to the libraries. 
 
 It is published by the "Architectural Record Company," 
 New York. 
 
 Another first-class book is thfe " Building Code Recommended 
 by the National Board of Fire Underwriters," New York. It 
 has been quoted from often enough in this volume to show 
 its value. To go through it carefully is like taking a course 
 in good building construction. 
 
 " Concrete Construction About the Home and on the Farm " 
 is an excellent pamphlet sent out by the Atlas Portland Cement 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 347 
 
 Company, New York. The fifth edition, 1905, was of 400,000 
 copies. The 1909 edition has 170 pages, and is well illustrated. 
 
 The Northwestern Expanded Metal Company, Chicago, sends 
 out several booklets. 
 
 The Trussed Concrete Steel Company of Detroit, has some 
 free publications that deal with the new styles of building. 
 
 The Tin Roofers' Handbook is supplied by E. L. Seabrook, 
 2213 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. 
 
 The Association of American Portland Cement Manufactu- 
 rers, Land Title Building, Philadelphia, distributes about 20 
 free bulletins about all kinds of cement and reinforced concrete 
 work. 
 
 The Departments of the United States Government send out 
 good building information such as the Report on the San Fran- 
 cisco fire. 
 
 Millbooks are free in the West to builders. Sears, Roebuck 
 & Company, The Chicago House Wrecking Company, Schaller- 
 Hoerr Company, all of Chicago, send out free mill and other 
 books. Gordon, Van Tine & Company, Davenport, Iowa, sends 
 out mill and lumber books. 
 
 This is but a hint of the richness of the " free-lunch " counter 
 of the Building Business. 
 
 Some readers may wonder what the title of No. 4, on page 
 344, means. It is a bridge book, and furnishes an amusing 
 illustration of the language nonsense that I have dealt with on 
 page 325. When the author was asked why he chose a Latin 
 title for his work in a land where most people use English, 
 he said that he had never had a chance to apply his linguistic 
 knowledge since leaving college, and never expecting another, 
 he took the one opportunity of a lifetime. 
 
 How long, do you suppose, preachers, schoolmasters, philolo- 
 gists, and their kind would study bridge work, roof con- 
 struction, reinforced concrete designs, etc., if we told them it 
 was to " train their mind," when they got only one chance of 
 a lifetime to use the knowledge? Not many years. There are 
 too many simple Simons in the construction and transporta- 
 tion businesses also in others. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 BIG CONTRACTS 
 
 " We have an undue appreciation of ourselves, an exagger- 
 ated estimate of our achievements, of our inventions, of our 
 contributions to public comfort, of our place, in fact, in the 
 great procession of the ages. We seem to imagine that whether 
 knowledge will die with us or not, it certainly began with us." 
 WENDELL PHILLIPS, in The Lost Arts. 
 
 We live in a wonderful age of steam, gas, compressed air, 
 telegraphs, telephones, electricity, flying machines, and ' even 
 talking machines and moving pictures. If it had all been 
 suddenly thrown before the men who founded this republic 
 their hearts would have failed them for fear. If the British 
 redcoats had seen a train coming towards them at 60 miles an 
 hour they would have taken to their heels at least those of 
 them who had not fainted. It is astonishing even to us who 
 can look back only a few decades. And where it will end no 
 man can say. 
 
 And yet when reading of what other civilizations have done 
 it sometimes seems that we are but children. In a score of 
 ways they outshone us. 
 
 The colors of the old civilizations last for a thousand years 
 and beyond, but ours fade in a century. The glass we put in 
 our modern cathedrals is not nearly so rich as that in the 
 ones built in the " dark ages," as they would look to us if we 
 went back by some miracle. We pride ourselves on the fact 
 that we can partly reproduce some of the Greek buildings. We 
 try to copy their sculptures, but cannot equal them. 
 
 The gems in an Italian museum are so finely carved that a 
 microscope is required to look at them. On a little ring 
 three-quarters of an inch in diameter there is a figure of 
 Hercules, and the hair on the eyebrows can be counted. On 
 another ring that Michel Angelo used to wear, two thousand 
 years old it is, there are seven women engraved. 
 
 348 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 349 
 
 Our best surgeons' tools rust in India, but the steel made 
 in Damascus at the time of the Saracens did not rust. 
 
 These are a few of the things they did in minute work. 
 They could make colors that lasted, carve hairs on eyebrows 
 that were no larger than the head of a pin, and make flexible 
 steel and things of that kind without end, but could they 
 build? 
 
 No Portland. In some of their fine stone buildings they 
 did not use cement, but made the joints so close and smooth 
 that a knife blade could not be forced in between them. And 
 they carried through some big contracts. It may temper our 
 pride and do us good just to glance at a few. 
 
 THE WALLS OF BABYLON 
 
 We used to think of the Chinese Wall as the greatest of all 
 the walls, but the one at Babylon, that London of the past, 
 was 60 miles around, about 90 feet thick, and 350 high, of 
 solid brick. There is a contract large enough for any builder 
 from Chicago to Seattle. 
 
 This wall had 9,979,200,000 cubic feet, which at 22y 2 for 
 brick of wall measure means 224,532,000,000, or in actual, kiln 
 count at the national size, 164,657,000,000. Laid in the best 
 manner, as all ancient work was, in Portland cement grouted 
 we may put it at $10 per 1,000, wall measure if done here 
 now. That contract would amount to $2,245,320,000. What 
 guaranty company would go your bond for the full amount of 
 this contract? Where would you buy cement for it? It would 
 take 200,000,000 barrels and more, or all the output of the 
 United States for four years just for one wall. For every 
 human being in the country to-day there would have to be 
 dug a yard of sand, or 90,000,000 yards. 
 
 Yet Babylon was founded about 4,000 years ago, and lasted 
 down to 500 years before the Christian era. 
 
 Chicago, bragging, swaggering Chicago, the pride and shame 
 of the great West, uses 900,000,000 brick in a year. It would 
 have taken this supply for more than 180 years just to build 
 the outside wall of Babylon, with nothing left for the inside 
 one some say that there were two walls inside and not even 
 a brickbat for the city itself. 
 
 The Gardens. Babylon occupied about 5 times as much 
 
350 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 area as London, and three-fourths of it was in parks and 
 gardens. Our cities with their little green corners in a 
 wilderness of tenements do not begin to compare with the old 
 ones. 
 
 The hanging gardens were raised as high as mountains, 
 terrace upon terrace, and covered with palaces and glory. 
 Even the king, who did most to make a wonder of this city, 
 looked upon these gardens as the great triumph of his life. 
 
 In the old times they had the tower of Babel, the first 
 sky-scraper, and later on the temple of Belus, which covered 
 32 acres, had a base 3,000 feet in circumference, and walls 
 30 feet thick. 
 
 No wonder Nebuchadnezzar got the " Big Head," and swelled 
 up and said, " Is not this great Babylon that I have built 
 by the might of my power and for the honor of my majesty ? " 
 He became so cruel and strutted so much that he had to be 
 sent to grass this great man who owned Babylon actually 
 had to eat grass. There are some to-day who would do well 
 to think of him. They are pigmies in power to what he was, 
 but even he had to eat dirt. 
 
 Nevertheless, what a fine order it would be on a spring 
 morning for 165,000 million brick at $7 = $1,155,000,000.00; 
 for $350,000,000 worth of Portland cement; and $82,000,000 
 worth of sand. The danger is that if a Chicago man got such 
 an order he would erect 25 gates of solid brass such as they 
 had soaring in the wall at Babylon, and put them up in his 
 own city. 
 
 They had " technical " men there, too. They knew mathe- 
 matics, and a great many other things, and yet went all to 
 the devil. Abraham Lincoln's favorite poem Avas, " Why 
 should the spirit of mortal be proud ? " 
 
 One night in Babylon the handwriting on the wall appeared, 
 and His Serene Highness lost his serenity and shook; and that 
 was the beginning of the end that came long ago and left 
 but miles of sand and ruins. 
 
 NINEVEH 
 
 This city was 15 miles long and 8 wide. The wall was 100 
 feet high and thick enough for three chariots to drive abreast. 
 Big, certainly, but far behind the one at Babylon. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 351 
 
 This was another revel of building, building, and more 
 building. The architects were so busy with one palace after 
 another that they had no time to eat; and the air was filled 
 with the smoke of the brickyards. 
 
 This empire and civilization with its great capital went to 
 grass also. Even Big Building and Big Business did not 
 save it. 
 
 THE CHINESE WALL 
 
 We do not expect much from " Chinks," but even they have 
 carried through some tolerably large contracts of masonry 
 and sculpture. The great wall took about 100 years to build, 
 and it was finished over 2,000 years ago. 
 
 The Chinese wall was 1,200 miles long, from 15 to 30 feet 
 high, and wide enough for half a dozen people to ride abreast. 
 This is not nearly such a wall as the one at Babylon, but is 
 still considerable of a structure. Not many bricklayers would 
 care to take a time contract for a 1,200 mile structure either 
 by lump sum, percentage, or cost plus. It would require too 
 many stop watches and flags, not to say anything of brick 
 and mortar. How could the bricklayers at Toledo know what 
 was going on near New York? The flags could never be seen. 
 
 Averaging the height at 22 feet, and the width at 25, we 
 have 78,400,000,000 brick in wall measure, which, laid at $10, 
 amounts to $784,000,000, or about one-third of the cost of the 
 one at Babylon. But that would build two Panama Canals. 
 
 Bridge. Some would have us believe that the Lagang 
 bridge in China is the greatest work ever erected by man, but 
 they have evidently not heard of Babylon. 
 
 This bridge was built exclusively by Chinese engineers, who 
 really seem to know something after all. It is nearly 6 miles 
 long, and has 300 stone arches 70 feet high. It was finished 
 in 1885. 
 
 GREAT EGYPT 
 
 Bigness. Those who think we are making wonderful 
 progress in large scale work might advantageously look back 
 at Old Egypt. 
 
 Away back about 4,500 years ago they built the great 
 pyramid, and if there is a larger structure on earth it has 
 
352 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 not yet been heard of, for, unlike the wall of Babylon, this mass 
 still stands. 
 
 The engineers of our day could not handle the blocks of 
 stone that the Egyptians tossed around. One of them weighed 
 900 tons. 
 
 None of the stones of the pyramid was less than 30 feet 
 long, and from 2 to 5 thick. The great mass contains 85,000,- 
 000 cubic feet. At 20 cents a foot for concrete that would be 
 $17,000,000, but concrete was not used. 
 
 The road to bring down the great blocks was three-fourths 
 of a mile long, of polished stone, and carved figures relieved 
 the monotony. This road took 10 years to build. The pyra- 
 mid took about twice as long. It covers 13 acres, and 
 is 481 feet high. On top the platform is only ten feet 
 square. 
 
 For 20 years 100,000 men worked on it. On our basis of 
 wages for stonecutters and laborers we might average $600 
 per year for each. The wage bill is too large to set down. 
 Hoisting blocks 30 feet long by 5 feet thick, nearly 500 feet 
 in the air is no trifle. Let us guess $3 per cubic foot, and 
 " call it square " at $255,000,000 in granite, but conclude to 
 try mass concrete for the one we build, on the cost plus 
 system. 
 
 This is the Great Pyramid, but there are about 70 others. 
 The pyramid business seems to have been slightly overdone 
 in the Nile country. They were used as tombs. The living 
 wretches had to pass their lives in hovels, and dead tyrants 
 got 85,000,000 cubic feet of granite piled above their bones. 
 Our modern plutocrats and their architects need not try to 
 astonish us with their " mausoleums." That business merely 
 makes us yawn. If a Beaux-Arts architect has no other work 
 for his brains than build such useless structures he would 
 have been a better American citizen if he had stayed in 
 America and hoed potatoes. 
 
 The American orator was over in Europe, and the sexton 
 was telling him of the tomb of some dead hero, and describing 
 how many tons of granite and marble were in it. The orator 
 said solemnly, " Well, you've got him safe enough. If he 
 escapes cable me at my expense." The old tyrants are safe 
 enough under their pyramids also. 
 
 The Sphinx. As a carving contract, this figure seems to 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 353 
 
 hold the record. It is cut out of the solid rock. It has the 
 body of a lion. From the platform on which this fine animal 
 lies to the top of the head is 100 feet; it is 146 feet long, and 
 measures 34 feet across the shoulders. From the top of the 
 head to the chin is more than 28 feet. A lion of even half 
 that size would send us all to Phoenix, Arizona, to look 
 at it. 
 
 Recessional. When we want a beamed ceiling we nail up 
 the beams, but the Egyptians cut temples out of the solid 
 rock, and paneled all the ceilings with stone beams. They, 
 especially, had a perfect delirium of heavy building. 
 
 Karnac had an avenue 2 miles long, bordered with scores 
 of great sphinxes. Ten other avenues have been discovered. 
 The greatest masonry on earth is found there, mostly in ruins. 
 
 Thebes had the block of stone weighing 900 tons, and it was 
 all polished to a finish. Who wants the contract for hoisting 
 that one? 
 
 The .largest block of marble ever quarried in the United 
 States measured 27' 2" x 4' 4" x 4' 3". This is a total of 
 500^ cubic feet, weighing 50 tons. It was for a column of 
 the State Savings Bank, Detroit, and was handled by Nor- 
 cross Brothers Co. It would have been looked upon as a toy 
 back in the Nile country more than 4,000 years ago. They 
 took obelisks, columns, and pillars of all kinds and sizes, and 
 scattered them around their temples as we do ordinary cast 
 iron columns. 
 
 Big- Room. The main hall in the Vatican Library is a fine 
 one, 52' x 240', but one of the temples at Karnac had an 
 apartment 170 x 340. There were columns in it 12 feet in 
 diameter, and 62 feet high, with capitals measuring 22 feet 
 across. Ask your stonecutter how much he wants to cut and 
 set such a column. 
 
 How would you like to bring an obelisk weighing nearly 
 300 tons from a quarry 100 miles away? And set it high 
 above the ground on its pedestal? 
 
 City upon city was filled with the wonderful buildings of 
 the Egyptians of the old days thousands of years ago. At our 
 best, we are far behind the ancient builders so far as size 
 and weight and surface go. We are more sensible, however, 
 for we build cottages instead of palaces, and schools instead 
 of Babylonian walls and Egyptian pyramids. 
 
354 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 SOLOMON'S TEMPLE 
 
 For splendid finish, however, the best of all the temples 
 was the one built by the wise-foolish king. It was roofed 
 with gold tiles, and they were nailed on with gold nails. A 
 modern roofer from Cincinnati could not be trusted on that 
 work. He would come out a millionaire. 
 
 The floors, doors, and everything on the inside was covered 
 with gold. Much fuss was made the other year when one 
 childish millionaire used gold hinges for a door, and another 
 covered his with gold leaf. They are only poor little " pikers " 
 after all, and need not try to astonish us, for w r e have heard 
 of Solomon, in all his golden glory. 
 
 At the door of the porch there were two bronze columns 
 33 feet high and 7 feet in diameter. Which founder would 
 care to make them in one piece to-day? 
 
 Someone has computed the wage bill on this temple if done 
 on modern American lines. It runs to $275,000,000. Yet the 
 building was not very large. It was only 110x36x55 high. 
 And all the stones came prepared to go to their place as 
 marked. 
 
 ST. PETER'S 
 
 Rome has the largest of the temples in our day. It is 
 612x446. The dome is 448 feet above the pavement; the 
 cupola, 193 feet in diameter. It is said to have cost $70,000- 
 000. Probably if built in the United States to-day it would 
 foot up $250,000,000. Who wants the contract? 
 
 THE TAJ MAHAL 
 
 The Egyptian pyramids were the biggest of the tombs, but 
 no one would call them beautiful. They were massive or 
 rather they are massive, for they are still there to make us 
 wonder. 
 
 But of all the tombs that were ever built the Taj Mahal, 
 at Agra, in India, is the most beautiful. There are respectable 
 looking ones for Napoleon at Paris, and for Grant at New 
 York, but they would only be lodge gates for the Taj. 
 
 Base. First of all comes a terrace of pink sandstone 330 
 feet wide by 960 long. Before you go further count how many 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 355 
 
 of your city lots that would cover. One side of this slopes 
 into the waters of a beautiful lake, and the other side into the 
 gardens of the gods this time, and not like the ones in 
 Colorado. 
 
 Springing from this terrace is a square of white marble 
 285 feet on the side, and 15 feet high. On each corner is a 
 cupolaed minaret that rises lightly to a height of 150 feet. 
 In the center of that is the mausoleum itself in octagon form 
 with sides of 120 feet, crowned with terraced roof and domes 
 and minarets. 
 
 Ornament. The tracery fairly covers the walls, and it is as 
 fine as lace. Flowers, fruit, birds, and all manner of beautiful 
 figures are there to make the world marvel. Texts from the 
 Koran are written with precious stones, such as diamonds, 
 lapis lazuli, emeralds, and the rest of them. The tomb was 
 built in honor of the dead sultana. In the midst of wild 
 luxury like this on one side the poor wretches worked for 
 ten cents a day, and lived in hovels. 
 
 Big Job. It took 20,000 men 22 years to build it, and they 
 never had to " lay off." Our carvers who covered every foot 
 of such a structure with lace carving would have to be well 
 paid, and so would the stonecutters and setters. Let us call 
 the wage bill for the one we will build in the United States 
 $300,000,000. 
 
 Finis. The human race should have said FINIS to the 
 tomb building industry after the Great Pyramid, and The 
 Taj. The limit had been reached both as to size and beauty. 
 And, besides, what is the use anyway? It is not worth while 
 going to the architectural schools if the students are going 
 to waste their time on " mausoleums." All over the ancient 
 world that business was worked to a frazzle worked too 
 much for little " pikers " of multi-millionaires and their 
 architects ever to make it again respectable. 
 
 ELLOBA 
 
 Have you ever heard of the place where they excavated for 
 miles into the rock, and carved their pillars, columns, beams, 
 and entablatures out of the solid? Whenever they wanted 
 light and air they threw up a shaft and carved it to the king's 
 taste. 
 
356 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 India is full of temples and building glory. Compared with 
 the men there we are only baby builders. 
 
 Chaldea, Persia, Asia Minor, Egypt, India thousands of 
 years ago their wonderful structures arose. Greece came later 
 on, and had the most refined revel of them all. 
 
 If men and women could only save themselves by buildings 
 and books, once more we may say, their calling and election 
 were sure. 
 
 THE ROMANS 
 
 The Romans simply had to repeat the story. They did not 
 know any better. They put their trust in a whirl of material- 
 ism, and might as well have put batter for brains. 
 
 Their Colosseum held 90,000 persons and measured 622 x 528. 
 We have a " Colosseum " in Omaha that is made of studs and 
 boards. The walls are not 200 feet high like those of the 
 Roman one, but they are like them in having no mortar in 
 the joints. 
 
 Bridges, aqueducts, roads, arches, the power of Rome cov- 
 ered the earth, and her builders could not be equaled. But 
 the end was even as the others. FINIS. 
 
 Big Bells and Buddhas. About the year 1252 a Buddha 
 was cast in Japan. It is nearly 50 feet high, and 100 in 
 circumference. The face is 8 feet 6 inches long the longest 
 face in the world and the nose 3 feet 9 inches, which is the 
 length of the one on the Statue of Liberty, New York. 
 
 There was a bell cast in Moscow in 1733. It was 21 feet 
 high, 21 in diameter, and weighed 216 tons. 
 
 There is another in Burma weighing 130 tons; also a Big, 
 Big one in the city hall, New York, that weighs 12% tons. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA 
 
 Fifty or sixty cities have been discovered in this region, and 
 they have pyramids, temples, and palaces enough to satisfy 
 any reasonable human. The pyramids are small as compared 
 with the old timers near the Nile. But one of them measures 
 280 feet square, and the base is 60 feet high. The temple 
 proper comes on top. It would make a fairly large contract 
 for a modern construction company. 
 
 All the way down to Peru they built aqueducts, temples, 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 357 
 
 tunnels, roads, and everything that could be constructed of 
 masonry. 
 
 In Cuzco, Peru, they had a building with walls of marble, 
 green stone, and porphyry elegantly carved, and sculptured, 
 and lined with gold inside. On the sides were thrones of 
 gold. In the ornamentation were jewels to the value of $200,- 
 000,000. Once more we have to repeat that the little New 
 York " pikers '' might just as well stop trying to dazzle us. 
 
 I think it is Prescott who tells us that down there in the 
 midst of wonderful buildings they did not know enough to 
 make a tenon and a mortise. The thought had never come to 
 them. We must remember that for untold centuries men did 
 not know how to build an arch. 
 
 MODERN GLORIES 
 
 In comparatively modern times we have had the Alhambra, 
 St. Sophia's, St. Peter's, and cathedrals without end. 
 
 The Alhambra is said to be the finest palace that man ever 
 built, but you can never tell. Babylon had a few, also Nineveh, 
 and quite a number of other cities. Nevertheless, this Sara- 
 cenic beauty sat in the midst of an earthly paradise, and was 
 not out of place, but matched it well. 
 
 The Saracens were splendid and graceful builders. In 
 Cordova they filled one great hall with a forest of 1,000 
 columns made of alabaster, marble, porphyry, and jasper. 
 
 One of the most fascinating periods of history is that of the 
 Moorish occupation of Spain. The older generation of Amer- 
 icans seemed to be particularly interested in it. Irving, Long- 
 fellow, Lowell, and others listened to the mule bells on the 
 old hills. 
 
 The Moors swept everything before them until they met 
 Charles the Hammer at Tours. He hammered them for seven 
 long days, hammer and tongs, and finally they had to give 
 in, and from that time on the contractors were to build 
 cathedrals all over Western Europe instead of mosques. 
 
 They built them; and in some ways they are the most 
 beautiful structures ever erected by man. The glories of the 
 great white marble cathedral at Milan, says one writer, can 
 never be excelled. There are nearly 5,000 marble statues on 
 its walls and towers. Who wants such a contract? 
 
358 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 At Ravenna there is said to be a cupola 38 feet in diameter 
 and 15 thick. This is far below the stones the Ancients used 
 to swing in the air, but is a good-sized block nevertheless. 
 Who wants to place such another on top of a dome? 
 
 Leaning Work. Who would want to erect the leaning 
 tower of Saragossa? Or the still greater marvel at Pisa, 180 
 feet high and 14 out of plumb, and give a bond that it would 
 stand for six centuries? Is the Caucasian played out? Is our 
 civilization a failure ? 
 
 Not so long, say the moderns, as we can build 700 feet high, 
 and look at the flying machines far above us. Not so long 
 as iron shall endure, said Gibbon, whose historical studies 
 left him blind to the fact that things that can be weighed 
 and measured never save a civilization. 
 
 But we are still building some good-sized structures from 
 the modern standpoint. Let us finish by glancing at one and 
 reading a description of the other from the New York World. 
 
 The Grand Opera House, Paris, required 30,000 drawings, 
 and 14 years to build. It has what is probably the most 
 beautiful stairway in our modern world. The steps are of 
 white marble, the balusters of alabaster, the handrail of 
 African onyx. There are 24 colored marble columns rising to 
 the height of the third floor. It cost $7,000,000. Probably, 
 considering the difference in wages at the time it was built, 
 and in Paris, and what they are now in our large cities, the 
 cost might be here $12,000,000. 
 
 Now we can read about the " Sky-Piercer." 
 
 ONE OF NEW YORK'S SKYSCRAPERS 
 
 It is Thirty-One Stories High and Cost 
 $8,000,000. 
 
 One of New York's finest skyscrapers casts its shadow 
 over the Battery. 
 
 Towering 31 stories above the ground, it contains 11,- 
 000,000 cubic feet with a rentable area of 550,000 square 
 feet. It has 10 miles of plumbing, 20 miles of steam 
 pipe, 65 miles of conduits and wiring, and 3/000 electric 
 fixtures. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 359 
 
 From curb to roof it measures 416 feet. 
 
 In building it were used 14,000 tons of structural steel, 
 7,500,000 common bricks, 900,000 face bricks, 45,000 barrels 
 of cement, 535,000 square feet of floor arches, 266,000 cubic 
 feet of cinder fill, 125,000 square feet of girder covering, 
 450,000 square feet of partition tile, 120,000 square feet of 
 column covering, 210,000 square feet of wall furring, 5,000 
 cubic yards of caissons, 17,000 cubic yards of earth excavation, 
 3,150 cubic feet of granite, 20,000 cubic feet of Indiana lime- 
 stone, 3,000 tons of ornamental terra cotta, 65,000 square feet 
 of wire lath, 85,000 square yards of plaster, 400,000 lineal 
 feet of spruce sleepers, 800,000 feet of comb grain yellow 
 pine flooring, 2,300 windows, 60,000 square feet of glass, 3,000 
 doors, 280,000 pounds of window weights, 30,000 feet of copper 
 chain, 450,000 feet of grounds, 80,000 feet of picture mold, 
 and 80,000 feet of base. 
 
 Cinders required for floor arches and between sleepers of 
 the floors fill 500,000 cubic feet approximately 25,000,000 
 pounds. It represents the consumption of 125,000 tons of coal, 
 sufficient to develop 55,000,000 horsepower hours of energy. 
 
 There are 2,100 horsepower in boilers, 2,000 horsepower 
 in engines, 1,200 kilowatts in generator capacity, 65,000 square 
 feet of radiator surface, 190,000 candlepower in electric lights. 
 
 The structure is an addition to the 25-story Whitehall 
 building, fronts 307.2% feet on Washington Street, and 160.8 
 on Battery Place, covering 51,515 square feet, or 20 city lots. 
 
 Chicago used to lead in high buildings, but New York now 
 has that honor. The Singer and the Metropolitan soar far 
 above the Whitehall, and the Woolworth is to be the highest in 
 the world, for the Eiffel Tower is not used as a building. 
 
 The Woolworth will reach 750 feet up from the sidewalk, 
 and go 130 feet below for foundations. The main structure 
 will be 27 stories, and the tower 24. There will be 13,000,000 
 cubic feet in the structure. The tower light will be seen for 
 fifty miles. The cost will be about $12,000,000. The owner 
 started the five and ten-cent stores. Many nickels make a 
 muckle. 
 
 The design is beautiful, and has been copyrighted probably 
 lest any of us should spend $12,000,000 in duplicating the 
 building. 
 
 After all, we can at least build higher than the ancients. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 (1) THE METRIC SYSTEM 
 
 Who Use It. With the exception of the English-speaking 
 nations and Russia, practically all civilized countries use 
 this system of weights and measures. Our system serves 
 140,000,000 people; the metric, 500,000,000. It was legalized 
 in the United States in 1886, and in the United Kingdom in 
 1897. 
 
 The dollars and cents system of this country is much simpler 
 than the old one of pounds, shillings, and pence, because it is 
 based on decimals. The other is based on custom. The Metric 
 is a decimal system also. 
 
 Education. It is calculated that each school pupil loses a 
 year by having to grub among the weights and measures that 
 we have as compared with the time that would be required 
 for the Metric system. Think what this means for the mil- 
 lions now at school, and the greater millions yet to come. 
 
 The Objectors. The manufacturers who have their ma- 
 chines, scales, and all their equipment based on the present 
 system are not to be too much blamed because they object 
 to change, but other nations have made the leap, and found 
 that it paid in the long run. Our technical books would all 
 have to be re-written, and that would be the salvation of 
 some of them that are now gray-haired. 
 
 Latin Trade. All the countries south of us use this sys- 
 tem. It is really a Latin triumph. It was introduced by 
 France in 1801. Germany adopted it about 1877, and has 
 reaped a rich reward with her South American trade. Her 
 standards require no changing to suit the customers of that 
 great continent. 
 
 Tables. Enough of the system is presented here for prac- 
 tical use. The friends of the metric reform should not go 
 
 360 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 361 
 
 into details that are not required, but should keep the figures 
 down to the simplest and smallest limits. 
 
 In the table of " Precise Equivalents " the denominations 
 in everyday use are presented. In the first column the figures 
 are given sufficiently close for practical use; in the second 
 they are more exact. 
 
 TABLES OF THE SYSTEM 
 
 Length. The denominations in practical use are milli- 
 metres (mm.), centimetres (cm.), metres (m.), and kilo- 
 metres (km.). 
 
 10 mm. 1 cm.; 100 cm. r= 1 m.; 1,000 m. = km. Note. 
 A decimetre is 10 cm. 
 
 Weight. The denominations in use are grams (g. ), kilos 
 ( kg. ) , and tons ( metric tons ) . 
 
 1,000 g. = 1 kg.; 1,000 kg. = 1 metric ton. 
 
 Capacity. The denominations in use are cubic centimetres 
 (c. c. ) and litres (1.). 
 
 1,000 c. c. = 1 1. 
 
 Relation of capacity and weight to length: A cubic deci- 
 metre is a litre, and a litre of water weighs a kilo. 
 
 
 
 APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENTS 
 
 A metre is about a yard; a kilo is about 2 pounds; a litre 
 is about a quart; a centimetre is about inch; a metric 
 ton is about same as a ton; a kilometre is about % mile; a 
 cubic centimetre is about a thimbleful ; a nickel weighs about 
 5 grams. 
 
 PBECISE EQUIVALENTS 
 
 1 acre .40 hectar 4047 
 
 1 bushel =35 litres 35.24 
 
 1 centimetre = .39 inch 3937 
 
 1 cubic centimetre. . = .061 cubic inch 0610 
 
 1 cubic foot = .028 cubic metre 0283 
 
 1 cubic inch 16 cubic cent 16.39 
 
 1 cubic metre =35 cubic feet 35.31 
 
 1 cubic metre 1.3 cubic yards 1.308 
 
 1 cubic yard .76 cubic metre 7645 
 
362 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 1 foot 
 1 gallon 
 1 grain 
 
 . . . = 30 c 
 
 . . . = 3.8 1 
 065 g 
 
 entimetres . . 
 
 30 48 
 
 tres 
 ram 
 rains 
 
 . . . 3.785 
 . . . ,0648 
 15 43 
 
 1 gram 
 1 hectar 
 
 ...=15 g 
 2 5 a 
 
 cres 
 lillimetrps 
 
 . . . 2.471 
 25 40 
 
 1 inch 
 
 . . . 25 n 
 
 1 kilo 
 1 kilometre 
 
 . . = 2.2 pounds 
 . . .62 mile . . 
 
 . . . 2.205 
 6214 
 
 1 litre 
 1 litre 
 1 metre . ... 
 
 .. = .91 q 
 ..==1,1 q 
 
 33 f < 
 
 uart ( dry ) 
 
 . . . .9081 
 
 uarts (liquid) 
 
 ilometres 
 ich 
 rams 
 rams 
 tres 
 tre . : 
 ilo 
 tres 
 tre 
 juare inch 
 juare metre 
 juare centimetres . 
 juare yards 
 juare feet 
 
 . . . 1.057 
 . . . 3.281 
 . . . 1.609 
 . . . .0394 
 . ..28.35 
 ...31.10 
 . . . 8.809 
 . . . .4732 
 . . . .4536 
 ... 1.101 
 . . . .9464 
 . . . .1550 
 ... .0929 
 . . . 6.452 
 . . . 1.196 
 . ..10.76 
 ... .8361 
 . . . .9072 
 . .. 1.017 
 . . . 1.102 
 9842 
 
 1 mile 
 
 . . = 1.6 k 
 . . .039 ii 
 's)=28 g 
 -.=31 g 
 . . = 8.8 li 
 . . = .47 li 
 . . = .45 k 
 .. = 1.1 li 
 . . . = .95 li 
 re. = .15 s< 
 . . = .093 s< 
 . . = 6.5 S( 
 . . = 1.2 s< 
 
 ..=11 S( 
 
 . . = .84 sc 
 ..= .91 n 
 .. = 1 ir 
 . . = 1.1 t( 
 . . = .98 tc 
 91 m 
 
 1 millimetre .... 
 1 ounce (avoirdup 
 1 ounce (Troy) . 
 1 peck 
 1 pint 
 1 pound 
 1 quart (dry) . . 
 1 quart (liquid) 
 1 square centimet 
 1 square foot .... 
 1 square inch . . . 
 1 square metre . 
 1 square metre . 
 1 square yard . . 
 1 ton (2,000 Ibs.) 
 1 ton (2,240 Ibs.) 
 1 ton (metric) . . 
 1 ton ( metric ) . . 
 1 yard 
 
 uare metre 
 tetric ton 
 tetric ton 
 m (2,000 Ibs.) . . . 
 >n (2,240 Ibs.) 
 
 etre 
 
 *. . . 9144 
 
 
 
 MEASUEES OF LENGTHS 
 
 Metric Denominations and Values 
 
 Equivalents in Denominations in Use 
 
 
 10,000 metres. 
 1,000 metres. 
 100 metres. 
 10 metres. 
 1 metre. 
 1-10 of a metre. 
 1-100 of a metre. 
 -1000 of a metre. 
 
 6.2137 miles. 
 0.62137 mile, or 3,280 
 328 feet 1 inch. 
 393.7 inches. 
 39.37 inches. 
 3.937 inches. 
 0.3937 inch. 
 0.0394 inch. 
 
 ft. 10 in. 
 
 Kilometre 
 
 
 Dekametre 
 Metre 
 
 Decimetre 
 
 
 Millimeter 1 
 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 363 
 
 MEASURES OF SURFACE 
 
 Metric Denominations and Values 
 
 Equivalents in Denominations in Use 
 
 Hectare 
 
 10,000 square metres. 
 
 2.471 acres. 
 119.6 square yards. 
 1,550 square inches. 
 
 Are 
 
 100 square metres. 
 
 Centare 
 
 1 square metre. 
 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY 
 
 Metric Denominations and Values , Equivalents in Denominations in Use 
 
 Names 
 
 Num- 
 ber of 
 Litres 
 
 Cu. Meas. 
 
 Dry Meas. 
 
 Liquid 
 or Wine 
 Measure 
 
 Kilolitre or 
 stere 
 Hectolitre . 
 Dekalitre 
 
 1-000 
 100 
 10 
 
 1 cu. metre 
 1-10 of a cu. metre 
 10 cu. deci 
 
 1.308 cu. yds 
 2 bush.& 3.35 pks. 
 9.08 quarts 
 
 264.17 gals. 
 26.417 gals. 
 2.6417 gals. 
 
 Litre 
 
 1 
 
 1 cu deci 
 
 908 quart 
 
 L 0567 qts 
 
 Decilitre ... 
 Centilitre ... 
 Millilitre ... 
 
 1-10 
 1-100 
 1-1000 
 
 1-10 of a cu. deci. . 
 10 cu. centi 
 1 cu. centi 
 
 6.1022 cu. in 
 0.6102 cu. in 
 0.061 cu. in 
 
 0.845 gill. 
 0.338 fld. oz. 
 0.27 fld. drm. 
 
 WEIGHTS 
 
 Metric Denominations and Values 
 
 Names 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Grams 
 
 Weight of What Quantitj 
 of Water at Maximum 
 Density 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight 
 
 Miller or tonneau 
 Quintal 
 
 1,000,000 
 100 000 
 
 1 cu. metre 
 1 hectolitre 
 
 2204.6 Ibs. 
 220 46 Ibs 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 10 litres 
 
 22 046 Ibs 
 
 
 1 000 
 
 1 litre 
 
 2 2046 Ibs 
 
 
 100 
 
 1 decilitre . . 
 
 3 5274 oz 
 
 Dekagram 
 
 10 
 1 
 
 10 cu. centimetres 
 
 0.3527 oz. 
 15 432 grains 
 
 
 1-10 
 
 1-10 of a cu centimetre. . 
 
 1 5432 grains 
 
 Centigram 
 
 1-100 
 
 10 cu. millimetres 
 
 0.1543 grain 
 
 Milligram . 
 
 1-1000 
 
 1 cu. millimetre 
 
 0154 grain 
 
 
 
 
 
 Equivalents in Denomi- 
 nations in Use 
 
 " In Germany it is becoming the practice to leave out of 
 account all but the principal measures, such as the kilometre, 
 the metre, the centimetre, and the millimetre; and in measures 
 of weight the kilogramme, the gramme, the centigramme, and 
 the milligramme; and these are written decimally." For ex- 
 ample, we should write 3471.927 metres. If we want to know 
 how many kilometres that is all we have to do is to move the 
 point 3 figures to the left, thus dividing by 1,000 3.471927. 
 
 Contracts. The British are losing so many contracts for 
 
364 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 engines, boilers, and machinery of all kinds, owing to retaining 
 the present system, that they are between two fires. A change 
 means expense; and the loss of trade hurts also. 
 
 Book. A former member of the British Government, Mr. 
 Arnold Foster, has written a book entitled, " The Coming of 
 the Kilogram," Cassell & Co., New York, 25 cents. What he 
 says applies to us here also. In the United Kingdom the 
 Educational Department has made a knowledge of the Metric 
 System compulsory. 
 
 We are told that an ideal system should be, " Uniform, 
 accurate, easily understood and used, widely known, and 
 simple in calculation." 
 
 " Measurements are now made to the one-millionth part of 
 an inch, and quantities as small as the ten-thousandth part 
 of a grain are weighed." 
 
 " At one time nearly all civilized people used the Roman 
 figures, and were accustomed to write LXXXVIII for 88, and 
 CCCCLIX for 459; but fortunately the common sense of the 
 world got rid of the Roman figures and adopted the Arabic 
 ones in their stead." 
 
 How would you like to multiply LXXXVIII by CCCCLIX? 
 Yet the Roman architects used that system. 
 
 If Germany, Turkey, and all the other nations changed, why 
 can we not? "There is really only one way (of changing), 
 and that is to fix on one set of weights and measures by law," 
 and forbid the use of any others. " No German would now 
 think of going back to the old German weights and measures, 
 which were stupid and complicated." 
 
 " One after another the different civilized nations of the 
 world have made up their minds to get rid of the bad, com- 
 plicated weights and measures, and adopt a new system. In 
 every single case, after carefully considering all that could 
 be said on the point, they have decided to use the Metric 
 System." 
 
 " It is an acknowledged fact that calculations in the Metric 
 System necessitate less than one-half the number of figures 
 required by the present system." 
 
 Mr. Balfour, the leader of the British Conservatives, said: 
 " There can be no doubt, I think, whatever, that the judgment 
 of the whole civilized world, not excluding the countries 
 which still adhere to the antiquated system under which we 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 365 
 
 suffer, has long decided that the Metric System is the only 
 rational system." 
 
 With the adoption of this system and a reformed spelling two 
 wasted years would be saved to all English-speaking children. 
 
 For the United States there is a free pamphlet published 
 by the Department of Commerce and Labor, entitled, " The 
 International System of Weights and Measures." It is meant 
 to save the Department from making special answers on this 
 interesting reform. 
 
 There is first the legalizing in 1866. 
 
 Post-Office. The Postmaster-General is to furnish certain 
 post-offices with balances to weigh the mails. 
 
 Coinage. The weights and accounts are now given in the 
 Metric System. 
 
 Electric Work. The legal units of electrical measures 
 in the United States are based on the Metric System (1894). 
 
 Medical. " The Metric System shall hereafter be employed 
 in the medical department of the Navy." April 15, 1878. And 
 also in the War Department, 1894. 
 
 Public Health and Marine Hospital. For .certain purposes, 
 November 21, 1902. 
 
 Beyond. In Porto Rico and the Philippines the system is 
 obligatory. 
 
 THE HEIGHT OF BUILDINGS 
 
 The " Sky-Piercer " is now " in our midst." It runs up 
 from 600 to 750 feet, with more than 50 stories; and the latest 
 one proposed is set at 1,200, or higher than the Eiffel tower. 
 
 The Singer Building has 41 stories, a capacity of 6,000 
 people, a tower that weighs 23,000 tons, and a weight of 
 1,600 tons on one column. 
 
 The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company has another of 
 the same high type. They are to the ordinary sky-scraper 
 what the Dreadnaughts are to the former type of battleship. 
 
 Will 1,200 feet be the limit? We used to think the 20-story 
 Masonic Temple of Chicago about the highest building that 
 would ever be erected. 
 
 Is it really necessary to rise so high in the air? Does it 
 pay? Is there not too much space lost by the elevators? 
 
 There is an excellent article on the subject of the Piercers 
 in The Saturday Evening Post, for November 13, 1909. A 
 
366 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 few extracts will be of value, for builders should stand on the 
 side of the Piercer if it is desirable, or change their codes 
 to forbid it if it is not. 
 
 When we read the following it is clear that every owner 
 cannot put up a Piercer even if he has the money: " If Man- 
 hattan Island, from Fourteenth Street to the Battery, were 
 entirely occupied by buildings 20 stories high, and all the 
 offices were occupied by an average working force, it would, 
 in the morning and evening, require 7 times the present street 
 area to allow all of them to reach and leave their offices 
 promptly." 
 
 They would have to get 7-deck streets, or make them wider. 
 "As a rule, one building of 14 stories occupying one-fourth 
 of a square, and 6-story buildings over the remaining three- 
 fourths, will give ample accommodation to all the people who 
 will transact business Avithin that square." 
 
 " If builders in lower New York had limited themselves to 
 structures not over 15 stories high, business in that city, so 
 far as it relates to rental and management of office-buildings, 
 would be in better shape than it actually is at the present 
 time." 
 
 The writer of the article thinks that just as the Tower of 
 Babel was a mistake in the sky-piercing line, so the present 
 structures also are. At the time the article was written there 
 were 1,815 vacant offices in New York about 10 acres of 
 space without tenants. 
 
 Cost. This mounts up in a discouraging way as >ve get 
 near the stars. The cost per rentable square foot, not the con- 
 structive cost, is put on a high building at $10 for the ground 
 floor and basement combined, $5.25 for the second floor, $5.75 
 for the third, $6.30 for the fourth, and $123.75 for the sixty- 
 second. 
 
 Another building is detailed for cost by Mr. Beach, the 
 writer, as follows: 
 
 " Following is the method by which the ground value may 
 be determined from the rental revenue, provided the building 
 is of proper size for the ground upon which it stands. 
 
 " This hypothetical building is 20 stories high and occupies 
 the same area on lower Broadway as that upon which the 
 62-story building previously mentioned was to stand 49,250 
 square feet. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 367 
 
 " Although such is seldom the case, it will be assumed that 
 the earnings of the basement will equal 6 per cent, of its cost. 
 The construction cost of the ground floor is $20 per rentable 
 square foot; the average rental per rentable square foot is 
 $10. Deducting the operating charges and the interest on the 
 cost of the building from this amount, we find the net revenue 
 as income to the ground value would be $6.95 per rentable 
 square foot of building space. The ratio of rentable area in 
 the building to the total ground area is 60 per cent., giving, 
 therefore, to 1 square foot of ground a rental value of 60 per 
 cent, of $6.95, which is $4.17, and a total value per square foot 
 of ground of $69.50, based upon the earnings of the first floor. 
 
 " The construction cost per rentable square foot of the second 
 story will be $18, the average rental revenue per square foot 
 will be $8, the net revenue as income to the ground will be 
 $5.37, and the net revenue to 1 square foot of ground will be, 
 estimating the ratio of rental area to total ground area at 
 50 per cent., $2.68, giving a ground value of $44.50, based on 
 the earnings from the second floor. 
 
 " Assuming that the construction cost per rentable square 
 foot of the 18 upper stories will be $14 which is not exact, 
 as every floor above the second costs more than the floor 
 immediately beneath and estimating the average income per 
 rentable square foot at $2.50, and the ratio of rentable to 
 ground area at 45 per cent., we haye a net revenue to 1 square 
 foot of ground of 42 cents, or a ground value per rentable 
 square foot of $7 from all of the upper eighteen floors. This 
 gives a ground value of $240 per square foot, or $11,820,000 
 for that tract of ground." 
 
 Elevator Service. Here we come to another trouble with 
 the high building that makes us think of those owners who al- 
 ways maintain that the lower floors are the ones that really pay. 
 
 " For example, in a building 12 stories high the cost of 
 elevator service is, per square foot, up to the tenth or twelfth 
 floor, about 12 cents per annum, while it is not over 7 cents 
 to the fourth floor." 
 
 New York and Philadelphia have no limit to height; Chicago 
 allows 260 feet; Denver, 125; Underwriters, 125; Omaha has 
 no limit. At this writing one sixteen-story building is finished; 
 and another of 18 stories is about to be begun. 
 
 Model City. In a model code I compiled several years ago 
 
368 CONTRACTORS* AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 for an ideal city plan a limit of 7 stories was set. This is 
 high enough for any city, no matter what its population. 
 But now I should revise that requirement. Leaving the 7-story 
 height for the city at large, a good idea would be to permit 
 any height at certain points, such as small parks near the 
 center of the city, or corners of streets. This would be a 
 good advertising idea. People go hundreds of miles to see 
 the Singer Building and the Metropolitan. Every city ought 
 to have a Babel Tower for the neck stretchers. It pays. 
 
 In an old city, however, it would be hard to establish a rule 
 that allowed one to use his property for a high structure, and 
 restrict another. The truth is that all Western cities are 
 glad to get sky-scrapers, and the higher they are the better 
 they like them. 
 
 But in the long run a 7-story limit would pay everybody 
 better. 
 
 The best plan, the ideal plan, would be a limit to height in 
 general, but an exception in particular for the benefit of our 
 country cousins, and our own, when we scrape in their dollars 
 over the hotel and other counters. 
 
 " THE ISLES OF GREECE, THE ISLES OF GREECE " 
 
 In a former chapter Mr. Humphrey stood on the side of 
 the reinforced concrete work of San Francisco. The following 
 interview from the Plain-Dealer shows that he believes it is 
 possible to equal Greece if we will only accept the new 
 material. Greece had such fine buildings that this is good 
 news. 
 
 "Until the concrete era, Humphrey says, Cleveland will not 
 be safe, either from fire or from disease. When that time 
 comes Cleveland will be like a Grecian city of marble, bril- 
 liantly white. One will speed past it on trains running on 
 concrete beds. One will see clean, light-colored farmhouses 
 of concrete, artistic barns, windmills, water towers, even 
 pigpens, all white and clean. 
 
 " Mr. Humphrey was picked out by the United States 
 government as being best equipped to investigate the building 
 material problem, and has been investigating it for years. 
 The government has put a large testing station at St. Louis 
 at his command. 
 
CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 369 
 
 " ' Cleveland at present is full of fire traps,' said President 
 Humphrey, Thursday. ' There's hardly a building here really 
 fireproof. The so-called fireproof buildings of steel and terra 
 cotta are not fireproof. They are all liable to be burned. 
 
 " ' In case of a big fire Clevelanders down town could escape 
 with their lives, for the streets are wide. In New York, 
 however, a big conflagration would kill thousands in the nar- 
 row streets. What they should do there is to double deck the 
 streets. 
 
 " ' But concrete, cheap and beautiful, will be the building 
 material in 1919. Everything will be made of concrete then. 
 In 1893 there were only about 300,000 barrels of cement manu- 
 factured. Last year 50,000,000 barrels were made. You can 
 imagine what the output will be 10 years hence, with lumber 
 decreasing in quantity and increasing in price. 
 
 (In 1910 the total output of Portland cement was 64,200,000 
 barrels. ) 
 
 " ' Ten years from now all the sky scraping buildings will 
 be of concrete, and they will be fireproof. No matter what the 
 weight is above, the concrete on the steel reinforcements is 
 sufficient to protect the steel so the building will not be 
 injured. 
 
 " ' Ten years from now Clevelanders will come down town 
 part of the way over concrete streets and part of the way in 
 a clean concrete subway. They will walk on concrete stairs 
 and sidewalks to their offices, which will be concrete. Their 
 homes will be of concrete. Both office and house rent will 
 be less, by reason of the smaller original investment and the 
 reduced cost of upkeep. There will be practically no insurance 
 to pay. Houses will last forever, nearly. 
 
 " ' The rent saved in Cleveland alone will probably mount 
 into the hundreds of thousands in a few years. The taxes 
 will be less by reason of the absence of an expensive fire 
 department. Just an occasional engine house will be required 
 to take care of fires inside the buildings. 
 
 " ' Clevelanders will ride out of the city on safe trains. 
 They will find the country beautified by concrete houses yes, 
 even to the pigpens. Out West even now farmers are building 
 concrete pigpens, for they find that it is cheaper; they save 
 the feed that is ground into a mud pen and lost. 
 
 " ' If Cleveland were rebuilt to-day with concrete $53,000,000 
 
370 CONTRACTORS' AND BUILDERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 would be saved the people. On municipal buildings, sewers, 
 paving, sidewalks, and bridges, the saving, if they were built 
 of concrete, would be about $6,800,000, and figuring from the 
 tax duplicate for this year that $231,500,000 represents build- 
 ings, the saving would be about one-fifth that, or about 
 $46,000,000. The fire loss in Cleveland, I understand, will 
 amount to something like a million for the year. Of this, the 
 loss of some $700,000 on buildings would be entirely saved and 
 the loss of some $400,000 on contents would be but one-tenth 
 of that. 
 
 " ' Cleveland is a beautiful city now, but 10 years from now, 
 if you were to come here from a foreign land, you might think 
 you had come to Greece of several thousand years ago, it would 
 be so changed by the concrete architecture.' " 
 
 Mr. Humphrey is not the only one who is dreaming rein- 
 forced concrete dreams. In the Cosmopolitan for February, 
 1911, Mr. Edison says we are foolish in sticking to old 
 materials. " Builders who stick to brick and steel are behind 
 the times. Within thirty years all construction will be of 
 reinforced concrete." 
 
 The age of reinforced concrete is certainly before us, but 
 the age of stone, steel, and brick is not gone. " Never 
 prophesy unless you know," is an old maxim, and all we 
 can do is to make a guess. Here is mine: 
 
 Granite, marble, stone, brick, terra cotta, steel, and rein- 
 forced concrete will be the coming materials, and the old- 
 timers will be used more than they are now. There is room 
 enough, and glory enough for all, including the newcomer, 
 at which the stone journals might as well stop jeering to please 
 their advertisers, who will not let them tell the truth. 
 
 But granite, marble, and limestone Avill be used more for 
 useful buildings than for useless mausoleums. That memo- 
 rial business will die out as it deserves to. Properly under- 
 stood, Egypt and the Taj Mahal were the end of it size for 
 Egypt, and beauty for the Taj. There will be splendid work 
 for stone workers in the future, but it will be useful as well 
 as beautiful. To wood houses and tombs the age says, 
 
 FINIS. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Ability, 28 
 Abstract, 80, 126 
 Acceptance of work, 12, 115, 
 
 116 
 
 Adding machine, 88 
 Adjoining building, 118 
 Alhambra, 357 
 Allowances, 118 
 Amount invested in buildings, 
 
 Preface 
 
 Anchors, 212, 298, 299 
 Ancient triumphs, 348-357 
 Architect, definition, 1 
 Architects, two kinds, 2 
 Architects' Union, 10-12 
 Areas of circles, 160, 161 
 Areas of polygons, 182 
 Areas of segments, 183 
 Ashlar, measurement, 41 
 Automobile, fire, 312 
 Auxiliaries, 82 
 Average bid, 58, 59 
 
 B 
 
 Babylon, 349, 350 
 
 Bank checks, 30, 75, 97, 130, 
 
 131 
 Banking ethics, 19, 24, 25, 
 
 51 
 
 Barrel, 167 
 Basement floors, 290 
 Base plates, 265, 266 
 Beams, steel, 215, 216, 218, 
 
 228 
 
 Beams, table of steel, 252 
 Beams, table of wood, 237 
 Bearing of soil, 191 
 Bells, 356 
 Best work, 76 
 
 Bids: 
 
 acceptance of, 108 
 
 as contracts, 108 
 
 average, 58, 59 
 
 by schedules, 59 
 
 complete or separate, 64 
 
 extras on, 48 
 
 on government work, 108 
 
 opening of, 3 
 
 percentage on, 47 
 
 time limit on, 16 
 
 too many, 3 
 
 unbalanced, 59 
 
 when to hand in, 48 
 
 written, 23, 48, 107 
 Bill of material, 72 
 Blame, assuming, 4 
 Bolts, 69 
 
 Bonds, masonry, 217, 275, 278 
 Bonds, surety, 19, 62, 142, 
 
 143 
 
 Bookkeeping, 89-100 
 Books, 340, 342-347 
 Borrowing from bank, 24, 51 
 Borrowing from dealers, 23 
 Borrowing on a lien, 19 
 Brainwork, 321, 333 
 Bribery, 13 
 Brick, soft, 41 
 Brickwork measurement, 40, 
 
 41, 102 
 
 Brickwork, general, 15, 349 
 Bridges, 239, 347, 351 
 Broadgauge men, 332 
 Buddhas, 356 
 Builders' Exchange, 83 
 Builders' danger, 106 
 Builders' law, 106-137 
 Buildings, distance between, 
 
 307 
 
 Business college, 328, 329 
 Buying material, 71, 72, 80 
 371 
 
372 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Cap stones, 218 
 Card index, 88, 98 
 Card, master, 98 
 Carpentry, estimating, 44 
 Carpentry, time on, 102 
 Carving, 147, 352, 355, 357 
 Cast iron, 257 
 Cast iron columns, 235, 243, 
 
 244, 257 
 
 Cast iron columns, rectangu- 
 lar, 246-251 
 Cast iron columns, weight of, 
 
 245, 246 
 
 Cast iron lintels, 259-264 
 Catalogues of iron, 266 
 Cathedrals, 357 
 Caution about churches, 76 
 Ceilings, weight of, 187, 189 
 Cement : 
 
 capacity of barrel, 272 
 
 kinds of, 206 
 
 production, 267 
 
 sidewalks, 287-289 
 Census reports, 316, 319 
 Central America, 356 
 Certificate of payment, 8, 9 
 Certified check, 75 
 Channels, load on, 251 
 Chattel mortgage, 128 
 Cheap labor, 104 
 Checks, 30, 75, 97, 130, 131 
 
 forged, 131 
 
 - raising, 85-87 
 
 writing of, 86 
 
 Chimney stacks, 221, 222 
 
 steel, 222 
 
 Chinese wall and bridge, 351 
 Circles, 160, 161, 255 
 Cities, choice of, 317 
 Cleveland, an ideal, 368-370 
 Climate, 318, 319 
 Closed shop, 2, 10, 11 
 Codes, building, 212, 307, 314, 
 
 368 
 
 Color, 348 
 
 Color for stucco, 295 
 Colosseums, two, 356 
 Columns, pipe, load on, 251 
 
 Columns, C. I. (See Cast 
 
 iron) 
 
 Commas, 106 
 Commission on repairs, 20 
 Competition, 58 
 Concrete : 
 
 bonding, 275 
 
 cinder, 285-287, 301 
 
 city of, 368-370 
 
 facades, 275 
 
 floor weights, 187 
 
 footings, 39 
 
 foundations, 206 
 
 freezing, 274 
 
 general, 267 
 
 hardening, 16 
 
 lintels, 220 
 
 measurement, 39 
 
 mixing, 146, 273 
 
 piles, 39 
 
 placing, 274 
 
 proportions, 272, 273 
 
 reinforced, 16, 40, 274 
 
 slabs, 276-279, 280-284 
 
 time on, 101 
 
 walls, 309 
 
 Contractors' Union, 58 
 Contracts : 
 
 cost plus, 55-57 
 
 finished, 135 
 
 for " repairs " dangerous, 
 115 
 
 informal, 25 
 
 laws, 107-114 
 
 lump sum, etc., 54, 56, 58 
 
 model forms, 50, 51 
 
 percentage, 55 
 
 uniform, 50, 51 
 
 what is included, 7 
 
 written, 52 
 Cord, 167 
 
 Correspondence schools, 331 
 Cost guarantee, 57 
 Cost keeping, 101-104 
 Cost, net, 46 
 Cost of 40 per cent., 105 
 Cost per sq. ft., 366, 367 
 Cost plus, 55-57 
 Courtesy, 26 
 Cranes, 82 
 
INDEX 
 
 373 
 
 Cubic measurement, 40 
 Curbs, 290 
 
 Currency or checks, 29 
 Cyclone insurance, 113 
 Czarlets, 21, 26-29 
 
 D 
 
 Damage suits, 118 
 
 Damp, 16, 17 
 
 Dangers, 15, 139 
 
 Day's work, 29, 64 
 
 Death list, 139 
 
 Decimals, 154-157, 180-182, 
 
 196 
 
 Deeds, 126, 127 
 Defective work, 115 
 Delay, 64, 70, 73 
 De Pontibus, 347 
 Depreciation, 81, 124 
 Details, 4, 5, 36, 75 
 Direction, joists, 43 
 Divisions of U. S., 316 
 Doing, by, 32 
 Dombey & Son, 322 
 Doors opening out, 311 
 Dotted lines, 35 
 Drawing, 322 
 
 Dreams of concrete, 368-370 
 "Dunces," 338 
 Duodecimals, 184, 185 
 
 E 
 
 Edison, 33, 239, 370 
 
 Education, 321-341 
 
 Egypt, 351-353 
 
 Electric work, 312 
 
 Elevators, 35, 311, 367 
 
 Ellora, 355 
 
 Engineers, 29, 99 
 
 Environment, 315 
 
 Estimate, to be doubled, 14 
 
 Estimating carpentry, 44 
 
 Estimating, method, 39-49 
 
 Europe, 334 
 
 Excavation, 37, 38, 101, 323 
 
 Expanded metal and concrete 
 
 slabs, 276-284 
 Expanded metal lath, weight 
 
 of, 284, 285, 294 
 
 Expenses, 48, 98 
 Explanations, 15 
 Extras, 13, 14, 18, 117 
 
 Fagades, concrete, 275 
 Failures in business, 61 
 Files, 87, 103 
 Finish, time on> 103 
 Fire: 
 
 damage, 105, 298, 300, 305, 
 306, 370 
 
 department, model, 307 
 
 doors, 309 
 
 escapes, 314 
 
 fighting, 312 
 
 floor, 312 
 
 general, 27 
 
 limits, 314 
 
 number of, 307 
 
 stops, 313 
 Fireproof office, 83 
 Fixed sum contracts, 58 
 Flagstones, 42 
 Floors : 
 
 concrete, 42, 267, 290 
 
 damp-proof, 238 
 
 fireproof, 312 
 
 hardwood, 44 
 
 loads, 195, 198, 200-202, 223- 
 225, 235, 236 
 
 strips, 279 
 
 weights, 185-187 
 Flue dangers, 311 
 Flushing for excavation, 38 
 Footings, 68 
 Foreclosure, 128 
 Foremen, 28, 29, 100 
 Forged checks, 85, 131 
 Forms, 69, 102, 267-271, 279 
 Foundations, 12, 191-197, 205 
 
 dangers, 115 
 
 piers, 198-200 
 
 pile, 202 
 
 post, 204 
 
 Free literature, 346 
 
 F. O. B. (Free on board), 
 
 72 
 Frost, 218 
 
374 
 
 INDEX 
 
 G 
 
 Gas, 313 
 
 Gasoline danger, 313 
 
 engines, 146 
 
 Gentleman, definition, 26 
 Girders, wood, 225, 227, 228, 
 
 231-233 
 
 Glass sizes, 310 
 Government work (bids on), 
 
 78, 108 
 Grades, 72 
 Grand Opera House, Paris, 
 
 358 
 
 Guaranteed cost, 54, 57 
 Guaranty, title, 127 
 
 Hall, largest, 353 
 
 Hand labor, 145-147, 321, 322, 
 
 333 
 
 Handling material, 68 
 " Handling men," two ways, 
 
 26, 29, 31 
 Hardware, 46 
 Hardwood floors, 44 
 Harvard, 321 
 Hauling, 43, 190 
 Headers, brick, 299 
 Heating, 302-304 
 Height of stories, 41 
 High Schools, 323, 328, 335- 
 
 339 
 
 Hobson, 57 
 Holidays, legal, 107 
 Houses, not desirable, 75 
 Hurry in building, 15-17 
 
 Ice houses, 309 
 Inferior work, 298 
 Insurance : 
 
 cash, 30 
 
 fire, 51, 128-130, 138, 139, 
 305 
 
 general, 113, 114 
 
 liability, 119, 139, 141, 142 
 
 rent, 126 
 Iron and steel, 45 
 
 Iron shutters, 310 
 
 Iron, weight of, 153, 154, 164 
 
 Irrigation, 317 
 
 Jewels, 357 
 Jobbing, 76, 77 
 Joists, direction, 43 
 
 in general, 228-230, 232 
 
 school, 224 
 
 standards, 231 
 
 K 
 
 Keeping costs, 99 
 Kerosene dangers, 313 
 Keys, keeping of, 18 
 Killed and wounded, 10, 139 
 
 Land, high cost of, 317 
 Landlord and tenant, 124 
 Languages, 323-327 
 Law, in general, 19, 50, 56, 
 
 107, 127 
 
 Laying out building, 66, 67 
 Leaning towers, 358 
 Leases, 124 
 Ledger, 95, 97, 98 
 Level, builders, 67 
 Liability, 62, 64, 65, 119, 136, 
 
 139, 141, 142 
 Libraries, 83, 339, 340, 342, 
 
 344 
 
 License for architects, 11 
 Liens, 19, 50, 68, 74, 119-121 
 Lightning rods, 221, 314 
 Li Hung Chang, 33 
 Lincoln, 336 
 Lintels, stone, 220, 228 
 Lintels, cast iron, 259-264 
 Liquor, 30 
 
 Loads on beams, 237 
 Loads on floors, 195, 198-202. 
 
 215, 223, 224 
 Loan associations, 179 
 Location in U. S., choice of, 
 
 316-320 
 
INDEX 
 
 375 
 
 Location of lots, 77 
 Location of shop, 77 
 Lot and building values, 80 
 Lot line, 68 
 Lumber reckoner, 165 
 
 seasoning, 16, 17 
 
 strength of, 229 
 
 Lump sum contracts, 15, 54, 
 
 56, 58 
 
 M 
 
 Mail order houses, 71, 72 
 Machines, 145-149 
 Manhood, 27, 28 
 Marble block, largest, 353 
 Master card, 98 
 Matches, danger, 313 
 Measurement of concrete, 39 
 
 ashlar, 41 
 
 trade, 42 
 
 Men required, number of, 69 
 Mensuration, 158, 159, 183 
 Metal columns, thick, 239 
 
 ordinary, 235, 243-246 
 
 frames, 309 
 
 Method of buying land, 79, 81 
 
 contracting, 61-63 
 
 taking off quantities, 37, 
 
 39 
 
 Metric system, 360-365 
 Mexico, 318 
 Milan, 357 
 Mill construction, 233, 234, 
 
 238 
 
 Millwork, 44 
 Mind training, 327, 347 
 Model city, 367 
 Money making, 83 
 Mortar, 14, 213, 217, 299, 311 
 Mortgages, 50, 125, 127, 128, 
 
 143 
 
 "Mr.", 28 
 Mud, 38 
 Municipalities, model, 339 
 
 N 
 
 Name or number, 29 
 National and state contracts, 
 10, 21, 78, 108 
 
 Nineveh, 350 
 Notes, 131, 132 
 Novels, 339 
 
 Number engaged in building, 
 Preface 
 
 Office equipment, 82 
 
 expenses, 100 
 
 Old structures, 118 
 Openings for contractors, 4, 
 
 316-320 
 Overcoating, 293 
 
 Paint, 45, 103 
 Papers, trade, 34 
 Parnell, 33 
 
 Partition, plaster, 238 
 Partition, weights, 186 
 Partnership, 121-123 
 Party wall, 211, 212 
 Patents, risk, 118 
 Pay day, weekly, 31 
 Payment, certificate of, 8, 9, 
 
 17 
 Payment in cash, 72 
 
 to subcontractors, 18 
 
 to supply men, 18, 23 
 
 Pebble dash, 291 
 " Peddling bids," 22 
 Percentage work, 55 
 Percentage of profit, 47 
 Perches, 40, 167 
 Perseverance, 32 
 Photographs, value of, 13 
 Piers, 198-200, 215, 217, 242 
 Piles, 39, 202-204 
 Pipe, weight of iron, 47 
 Pipes, hot, 312 
 Pittsburg Survey, 105 
 Planing mills, 146 
 Plan reading easy, 34 
 Plans and specifications in 
 
 one, 7 
 
 Plans, hints on, 35 
 Plaster cracking, 229 
 dust, 34 
 
376 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Plaster measurement, 45 
 
 time on, 103 
 
 weights, 187 
 
 Plates, bearing, 253, 265, 266 
 Platform for concrete, 273 
 Plumbing, 6, 47, 72 
 Popular-technical books, 340 
 Post-graduate course, 334 
 Posts, wood, boring, 242 
 
 loading, 240, 241 
 
 Power, mechanical, 68, 146- 
 
 149 
 
 Power, personal, 2, 22, 26 
 Practical men, 34 
 Precedence of specifications, 7 
 Price book, 84 
 
 Profit, 31, 46, 61, 75, 79, 117 
 Prophecy, 368-370 
 Pyramids, 351-356 
 
 Q 
 
 Quality, material, 14, 15 
 
 work, 6 
 
 Quantities, taking off, 37, 49 
 Questions, 33 
 
 Raising checks, 85-87 
 
 Rats and health, 290 
 
 Reading plans easy, 32-34 
 
 Ready-made houses, 79-80 
 
 Ready reckoners, 83 
 
 Real estate men, 20, 80 
 
 Records, 94 
 
 Reinforced work. (See con- 
 crete ) 
 
 Reinforced work at San Fran- 
 cisco, 298-301 
 
 Reinforced concrete city, 368- 
 370 
 
 Repairs, commission, 20 
 
 Repairs, risky, 115 
 
 Reserve on extras, 18 
 
 Retaining walls, 218, 219 
 
 Risks, 62, 63, 80, 115, 118, 
 140 
 
 Rock, 38 
 
 Rods, steel, 253-255 
 
 Romans, 356 
 Roofing, 46 
 Roof plans, 35 
 Roofs, plank, 238 
 Roof, slope of, 238 
 Roof weights, 187, 190 
 Ropes, 256, 257 
 Rough cast, 291 
 Rubble, 41, 102, 206 
 Rust, 285 
 
 S 
 
 Safe deposit vault, 84 
 
 Safes, bad, 84 
 
 St. Peter's, 354 
 
 Saloon payment, 30 
 
 San Francisco, 298 
 
 Saracens, 357 
 
 Scales, 36, 37, 71 
 
 Schedule bids, 59 
 
 Scholars, number of, 337 
 
 Scuppers, 232, 235 
 
 Sections, 35 
 
 Security for two, 19 
 
 Self-government, 27 
 
 Settlement, 117 
 
 Sewer pipe, 47, 190 
 
 Sewers, 207, 208 
 
 Sharing, 31, 61 
 
 Sheet piling, 38 
 
 Shingles, 308, 339 
 
 Shoring, 213 
 
 Shorthand, 32, 328 
 
 Shrinking lumber, 17 
 
 Shutters, iron, 310 
 
 Sidewalks, concrete, 42, 287- 
 289 
 
 Siding, 308 
 
 Sills, 42 
 
 Sizes, 118 
 
 Sky-piercers, 358-359, 365-368 
 
 Slab tables, 276-279, 280-284 
 
 Smoking-room, 313 
 
 Soils, 192, 193 
 
 Solomon's Temple, 354 
 
 Specifications : 
 
 and plans combined, 7 
 coming before plans, 7 
 conditions in, 52, 53 
 
INDEX 
 
 377 
 
 Specifications : 
 
 dangerous, 36 
 
 final authority, 5 
 
 general clauses, 6, 7 
 
 numbering, 7 
 Spheres in building, 2 
 Sphinx, 352 
 
 Square, builders', 46, 167 
 Squaring, 67, 169 
 Square root, 167-169 
 Squares, tables of, 170-180 
 Stacks, chimney, 221, 311 
 Stairways, 35, 310 
 Standards, 5, 103, 266 
 Statements, 94, 95 
 Statesmen, 27, 29 
 Status of architect, 1 
 Steel beams, 215, 216, 218, 228 
 Stickability, 32 
 Stone bids, 42 
 Stone bridge, 351 
 Stone, cut, 72 
 Stone lintels, 220 
 Stone road, 352 
 Stonework, 352, 354 
 Stories, height of, 211 
 Strikes, 27 
 Strips, floor, 279 
 Stucco, 291-294 
 Sub and general contractors, 48 
 Subcontractors, 22, 25 
 
 share of estimates, 18, 
 
 22, 23, 31 
 
 Subcontract, model, 52 
 Subletting, 61, 62, 64 
 Substitutes, dangers of, 117 
 " Success," 13 
 Superintendent, 10 
 Supplies, 23, 24 
 Surety bonds, 19, 62, 142, 143 
 System, 69, 82, 87, 99 
 
 Tables, for whom, 151 
 general, 152-166 
 
 of beam loads, 237 
 
 of slabs, concrete, 276- 
 
 279, 280-284 
 
 of squares, 170-180 
 
 Taj Mahal, 354 
 
 Tanks, capacity of, 162, 163 
 
 Taxes, 335 
 
 Teaming, 1, 190 
 
 Technical schools, 329, 330 
 
 Telephone, 68, 88 
 
 Terra cotta, weight, 187 
 
 Testing soils, 193 
 
 Texas, 76, 318, 320 
 
 Theory, 1, 2 
 
 Thermometer, 38 
 
 Tiling, weight, 189 
 
 Timbuctoo, 58, 60 
 
 Time in building, 15, 17, 57, 
 
 112, 113 
 
 Time in estimating, 43 
 Time sheets, 104 
 Title guaranty, 126 
 Title to ground, 109 
 Toise, 167 
 
 Tombs, 354, 355, 370 
 Too many helpers, 100 
 "Tr.", 33 
 
 Trade course, 331, 332 
 Trade measurements, 40, 42 
 Trade papers, 34 
 Trade schools, 337, 338, 341 
 Trees, cutting, 101 
 Trees at sidewalk, 290 
 Trial balance, 88 
 Trusts, 59 
 Typewriter, 88 
 Tyranny, petty, 27, 28 
 
 U 
 
 Uniform Contracts (U. C.) 
 
 best, 50, 52 
 
 Union, architects', 10, 11, 12 
 Union, contractors', 58 
 Unit price, 59 
 Upsetting, 256 
 Useful numbers, 157 
 
 Verbal agreements, 5, 53 
 
 W 
 
 Wages in checks, 30 
 
378 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Wagon load, 190 
 Wainscoting, 313 
 Walls, thickness, etc., 209 
 Waste, 27, 31, 43, 146 
 Wasting time, 22, 49 
 Washing and pointing, 42 
 Water, cost, 43 
 Waterproofing, 296, 297 
 Water supply, 207 
 Weights: 
 
 business building, 194 
 
 foundation, 192 
 
 Weights: 
 
 frame house, 194, 196 
 
 iron, 153, 154, 164 
 
 special, 185-190 
 
 various substances, 165, 166, 
 
 188, 189 
 
 Weights and measures, 152, 153 
 When to build, 14 
 Wills, 132-135 
 Wood girders, 225-227, 237 
 Wood plugs, 311 
 Workmen and fair dealing, 26 
 
SOME USEFUL BOOKS 
 
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 gram and proportioning the members and points to the 
 stresses. The mechanical principles are clearly set forth 
 and the method of obtaining the stresses. 
 
 Kidder's Strength of Beams, Floors and Roofs. 230 
 
 pages. Size, 51-2x8 ins.; 164 engravings; 21 tables 
 and diagrams. Cloth bound. Price, $2.00 
 
 It explains the mechanical principles of all ordinary 
 types of wooden trusses, and the methods of computing 
 the stresses and proportioning the members. 
 
 Gives new light on making and estimating the strength 
 of truss joints. 
 
 Illustrates a variety of types of approved wooden 
 trusses. 
 
 Points out common mistakes in designing which often 
 result disastrously. 
 
 Dustman's Book of Plans and Building Construction. 
 238 pages. Size, 9 x 13 ins. Oblong. Bound in 
 cloth. Price, $2.00. 
 
 A practical treatment of all phases of construction, with 
 many tables and diagrams, and including comprehensive 
 articles on estimating time, labor and material, specifica- 
 tion writing and plan reading. 
 
 There is also given an excellent collection of designs 
 of attractive cottages and double houses of moderate 
 cost, with exterior views, floor plans and details. 
 Building Superintendence. By Edward Nichols. 200 
 pages. Size, 63-4 x 93~4 ins. Cloth bound. Price, $1.50 
 This is a working guide to the requirements of modern 
 American building practice and the systematic supervi- 
 sion of building operations. 
 
 The Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book. The Fif- 
 teenth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 1700 pages; 
 1000 engravings; morocco binding. Price, $5-<>o. 
 
In the author's own words, it is "a general index to the 
 many lines of work, methods, materials and manufactured 
 products entering into the planning, construction and 
 equipment of buildings." 
 
 The new edition contains extended chapters on fire- 
 proofing and reinforced concrete. 
 
 A modern construction handbook, indispensable to the 
 professional man and the student of to-day. 
 
 Martin's Details of Building Construction. Containing 
 33 quarto plates with sectional views, working details 
 and full memoranda, for the construction of doors, 
 windows, casements, gutters, cornices, and other 
 finish. Large quarto. Cloth. Price, $2.00. 
 
 DESIGNS FOR HOUSES, BUNGALOWS, 
 CHURCHES, STORES, SCHOOLS, BARNS, ETC. 
 
 The following books afford invaluable suggestion on 
 the design and construction of modern dwellings, etc., 
 showing views and plans of successful structures that 
 have been designed and built by able, praticing archi- 
 tects. 
 
 No class of books give more for so little, or serve so 
 many useful purposes to builders and those intending to 
 build. 
 
 The Carpentry and Building Series of Designs, com- 
 prising the five following volumes, are very complete, 
 giving perspectives, elevations, floors, plans and details of 
 construction drawn to scale. Each of the volumes of this 
 series contains 200 or more pages on fine plate paper. 
 The size of pages is 9 x 13 inches, oblong. Price, $1.00 
 each. Per set, Delivered, $4.50. 
 No. i Cottage Designs with Constructive Details. 
 
 Containing 25 designs of simple cottages originally 
 
 costing from $600 to $1500. 
 No. 2 Low-Cost Houses with Constructive Details. 
 
 Containing upward of 25 designs of cottages costing 
 
 originally from $750 to $2500. 
 No. 3 Modern Dwellings with Constructive Details. 
 
 Containing plans costing approximately from $2800 
 
 to $7000. 
 No. 4 Suburban Homes with Constructive Details. 
 
 Containing plans costing approximately from $5000 
 
 to $20,000. 
 No. 5 Cement Houses and Garages with Constructive 
 
 Details. Containing about 30 designs of artistic 
 
 structures. Approximate cost of house from $2500 to 
 
 $10,000. 
 
PLAIN AND REINFORCED CONCRETE, 
 CEMENTS, MORTARS, ETC. 
 
 Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, Materials, 
 Construction and Design of Concrete and Rein- 
 forced Concrete. New Edition. By F. W. Taylor 
 and S. E. Thompson. 807 pages; 237 figures. Cloth 
 bound. Price, $5.00. 
 
 Designed for the use of architects and engineers. 
 Treats the manipulation and uses of concrete for con- 
 structive and engineering purposes. Special chapter on 
 concrete building construction, page 608 to 636. 
 
 Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Construction. By 
 Homer A. Reid. 906 pages; 715 illustrations; 70 
 tables. Cloth. Price, $5.00. 
 
 The largest work on the subject modern and author- 
 itative in every respect. Contains a special chapter on 
 building construction, pages 465 to 572. Among the con- 
 tents are 200 working drawings of buildings and founda- 
 tions, including shops, roundhouses, etc., with descrip- 
 tions. 
 
 Reinforced Concrete. A treatise on Cement, Concrete 
 and Concrete Steel and their Application to Modern 
 Structural Work. By Walter L. Webb, C. E., and 
 W. H. Gibson. 129 pages; 57 illustrations. Substan- 
 tially bound in cloth. Price, $1.00. 
 
 This book is designed for the architect, builder, con- 
 tractor and engineer, who will find it to contain a concise 
 treatment on the manipulation and uses of reinforced con- 
 crete, based on recent construction work, with descrip- 
 tions and illustrations of typical practice. The contents 
 are arranged in five divisions, as follows: Cement and 
 Cement Testing; Mixing and Measuring Concrete; De- 
 positing and Finishing Concrete; General Theory of 
 Flexure in Reinforced Concrete; Structural Applications. 
 
 Cement and Concrete. By L. C. Sabin. 504 pages; 161 
 
 tables of tests. Cloth. Price, $5.00. 
 
 A treatise designed especially for American engineers, 
 covering the manufacture, properties and testing of ce- 
 ment, and the preparation and use of cement mortars 
 and concretes. Special attention is given to the costs of 
 cement and concrete for different uses and under various 
 conditions. 
 
Hand-Book for Superintendents of Construction, Archi- 
 tects, Builders and Building Inspectors. By H. G. 
 Richey. 742 pages; 357 figures. Morocco. $4.00. 
 
 Treats all divisions of modern constructive practice, in- 
 cluding extended sections on stone masonary, brickwork, 
 concrete and fireproofing construction, terra cotta, lath- 
 ing, plastering, lime, cement, sand, mortar, etc. 
 
 Cost Data. By H. P. Gillette. Second Edition. 1900 
 pages. Illustrated. Morocco binding. Price, $5.00. 
 
 Contains representative data on costs of concrete and 
 concrete steel structures and the best methods of con- 
 struction. Every detail of contract work has been des- 
 cribed and recorded, and the cost of labor and materials 
 carefully noted. 
 
 Concrete Construction, Methods and Cost. By H. P. 
 
 Gillette and C. S. Hill. 700 pages; 306 illustrations. 
 Cloth bound. Size, 6x9 ins. Price, $5.00. 
 
 A valuable aid in estimating concrete work of all kinds. 
 The various designs of forms and centers and the layout 
 of plant for mixing, conveying and placing concrete re- 
 ceive the most complete treatment ever given these im- 
 portant subjects. 
 
 Modern Cement Sidewalk Construction. By C. Palliser. 
 64 pages. Cloth. Price, 50 cents. 
 
 Full directions for testing and mixing materials; laying 
 finishing, seasoning and coloring sidewalks, curbs and 
 gutters. 
 
 Cement Workers' Hand-Book. By W. H. Baker. 98 
 pages. Cloth Price, 50 cents. 
 
 A handy pocket guide to the mixing and handling of 
 cements, mortars and concretes for building and other 
 purposes a book for the workman, covering more than 
 fifty of the most important subjects on cement and its 
 uses in construction. 
 
 Instructions to Inspectors on Reinforced Concrete Con- 
 struction and Concrete Data. By G. P. Carver. 124 
 pages. Pamphlet. Pocket size. Price, 50 cents. 
 
 A book of important data relating to the best forms of 
 construction and the proportioning, mixing and compact- 
 ing of materials. 
 
How to Use Portland Cement. By S. S. Newberry. 29 
 
 pages. Pamphlet. Price, 50 cents. 
 
 A practical treatise on the testing and uses of Portland 
 cement, prepared chiefly for contractors and masons. 
 
 Practical Concrete Block Making. By C. Palliser. 75 
 
 pages. Cloth. Price, 50 cents. 
 
 Everything from making of molds and selection of 
 material to the laying of the seasoned block is simply ex- 
 plained. 
 
 Concretes, Cements, Mortars, Plasters and Stuccoes; 
 How to Make and How to Use Them. By F. T. 
 
 Hodgson. 520 pages; 150 illustrations. Substantially 
 bound in cloth. Price, $1.50. 
 
 An extensive compilation of valuable material, cover- 
 ing recent methods and improvements in the mixing, pro- 
 portioning and application of plaster, mortar, stucco and 
 cement. Contains a considerable amount of matter on 
 reinforced concrete work. A serviceable handbook for 
 the builder. 
 
 Practical Stone Masonry Self-Taught. By F. T. Hodg- 
 son. 300 pages; 180 illustrations. Cloth. Price, $1.00. 
 An invaluable book for the operative mason, treating 
 methods of building walls in rustic rubble, ashler square, 
 uncoursed, random coursed, irregular corners, snecked 
 and square rubble, polygonal ragwork, and other styles 
 of masonry and stone-cutting are explained and illus- 
 trated. Finished stones, such as window sills, window 
 heads, coping, arch stones, keystones, and similar dress- 
 ings, are described and illustrated. Stone arches and 
 joints are described and illustrated, with ample instruc- 
 tions for working them. 
 
 Masonry Construction. By A. E. Phillips and A. T. 
 Byrne. 145 pages; 44 illustrations. Cloth. Price, $1.00. 
 A handbook of practical information for stonemasons, 
 stonecutters, bricklayers, cement and concrete workers, 
 etc., describing the various kinds of building stone; man- 
 ufacture of brick, cement and mortar; methods of test; 
 foundation work, pile-driving; dam and wall construc- 
 tion; arch and bridge construction; reinforced concrete, 
 etc. 
 
 Practical Bricklaying Self-Taught. By F. T. Hodgson. 
 
 277 pages; 330 illustrations. Cloth. Price, $1.00. 
 This book is one of the latest on the subject, treating 
 bricklaying in such a way as will enable the attentive 
 
student to execute almost any kind of practical and artis- 
 tic work. Covers all important subjects, such and bond, 
 ornamental brickwork, damp courses, quality of brick- 
 work, forming of pilasters, quoins, skew arches, splay 
 work, brick joints, chimneys, fireplaces, flues, brick pav- 
 ings, etc. 
 
 DRAWING: ARCHITECTURAL, MECHANICAL 
 AND STRUCTURAL. 
 
 Architectural Drawing. By C. F. Edminster. Size, 7x9 
 inches. 242 pages, including 105 full-page plates. 
 Cloth bound. Price, $2.00. 
 
 Presenting a practical and complete course in the ele- 
 ments of architectural drawing, designed to meet the re- 
 quirements of tradesmen, draftsmen and students. 
 
 Practical Lessons in Architectural Drawing. By W. B. 
 Tuthill. 61 pages n 1-2x7 i~4 inches. 33 full page 
 plates and 33 illustrations. Cloth. Price, $2.50. 
 This work contains scale drawings of plans, elevations,. 
 
 sections and details of frame, brick and stone buildings, 
 
 with full descriptions and specifications. 
 
 A Manual of Mechanical Drawing. By P. D. Johnston. 
 
 224 pages; 134 illustrations; 69 full-page plates and 
 
 2 folding plates. Cloth bound. Size, 9 1-4 x 7 1-4 
 
 inches. (Oblong.) Price, $2.00. 
 
 This work is widely known and recommended for its 
 
 simple and comprehensive treatment of the subject. 
 
 Structural Drawing. By C. F. Edminster. Size, 7x9 
 ins. 153 pages, including 71 full-page plates. Cloth 
 bound. Price, $2.50. 
 
 An important aid to the student who aims to acquire a 
 knowledge of the fundamental principles of structural 
 drafting, with a well-graded course of instruction as ap- 
 plied to the drawing of standard forms, columns, girders, 
 trusses and framing details. The subject matter and 
 scope of the chapters are as follows: 
 
 Blue-Print Making. 28 pages. Paper. Price, 25 cents. 
 
 Embracing directions for constructing the printing 
 frame, preparing the paper, and making prints of various 
 kinds. 
 
 How to Read Plans. 104 pages; 81 figures and a complete 
 
 set of plans for a frame cottage. Price, 50 cents. 
 A simple, practical explanation of the meaning of vari- 
 ous lines, marks, symbols, etc., used on working drawings. 
 
ESTIMATING AND SPECIFICATION WRITING. 
 
 Estimating the Cost of Building. By Arthur W. Joslin. 
 192 pages. Illustrated. Cloth. Price, $1.00. 
 
 This book presents in compact and handy form the 
 author's serial articles which were recently published in 
 the columns of "Carpentry and Building," where they at- 
 tracted wide interest and approval. 
 
 The work is practical, analytical and thorough in style. 
 It will be an excellent prompter and guide to every one 
 who has to do with building costs and superintendence, 
 constituting as it does a systematic treatise on the sub- 
 ject. 
 
 There are important chapters on "Estimating the Cost 
 of Building Alterations" and on "Systems in the Execu- 
 tion of Building Contracts." 
 
 Hicks' Builders' Guide. By I. P. Hicks. Revised 1910; 
 twentieth thousand. 168 pages. Size, 5x6 3-4 ins. 
 114 illustrations. Cloth. Price, $1.00. 
 
 Presents a system of simple and practical application 
 for estimating materials and labor chiefly as applied to 
 suburban residential work. One of the most serviceable 
 books for contractors and builders as well as for car- 
 penters, who will find it to contain also a very complete 
 treatment on framing roofs of all descriptions. 
 
 The "Guide" was designed by a man who understood 
 the needs of the young carpenter and builder, and the 
 knotty problems of the daily work are solved in the sim- 
 plest and best ways. 
 
 Estimating Frame and Brick Houses, Barns, Stables, 
 Factories and Outbuildings New Edition, 1910. By 
 Fred T. Hodgson, architect. 248 pages. Illustrated. 
 Size, 5x63-4 ins. Cloth. Price, $1.00. 
 
 The book aims to give a careful consideration to all the 
 items and elements of cost in construction, beginning at 
 the foundation of the building and progressing to the 
 finished structure. Young contractors and builders es- 
 pecially will find it to cover the subject in a plain, practi- 
 cal way, with detailed consideration of cost factors, items 
 and quantities. 
 
 There is a detailed estimate of a $5000 house and addi- 
 tions; detailed estimates of kitchen, dining room, parlor, 
 den, halls, bedrooms, conservatory, basement, bath room, 
 closets, etc., all figured out and measured by the quickest 
 and simplest methods. The author also tells how to es- 
 
timate by cubing, by the square of floors or walls, and 
 by the process of comparison, and gives hints and prac- 
 tical suggestions for taking measurements and making 
 tenders for work. 
 
 Estimating. By Edward Nichols. 140 pages. 14 full- 
 page plates. Cloth. Price, $1.00. 
 Tells how to go about making an estimate intelligently. 
 As a practical example, a complete plan of a house is 
 given, and the estimates of cost are worked out from 
 this, with bills of material and working data. 
 
 Handy Estimate Blanks. By Kittredge & Sibley. 28 
 pages, 9 1-2 x 12 ins. Valuable tables of Board Meas- 
 ure, Quantities and Weights of Materials, etc. Paper. 
 Price 25 cents each; $2.50 per dozen. 
 
 These blanks have been prepared with the idea of fur- 
 nishing to contractors and builders a convenient form 
 upon which to make an estimate and record of cost of 
 work which they figure on and execute. 
 
 Contracts and Specifications. % J. C. Plant. 130 pages. 
 
 Fully illustrated. Cloth. Price, $1.00. 
 
 A practical working guide for the contractor, architect 
 and owner. With forms and an explanation of duties 
 and responsibilities incident to public and private con- 
 tracts. 
 
 Hicks' Specification Blanks for Frame or Brick Build- 
 ings. 18 pages; size, 8 x 13 3-4 ins. Single, 35 cents; 
 per dozen, $4.00. 
 Covers everything in the building; carpenters' work, 
 
 masonry, hardware, plumbing, heating, painting, tin and 
 
 sheetmetal work, etc. 
 
 Eureka Building Specifications. 
 
 Class B For frame Dwellings of Moderate Cost, 
 
 with Plumbing and Heating. Price, 40 cents. 
 Class D For Brick Dwellings, with Plumbing and 
 
 Heating. Price, 50 cents. 
 
 Embraces all the labor and materials necessary in the 
 erection and completion of the building in all its parts. 
 
 Send for our complete catalogue and let us help 
 you find what you want. 
 
 All books listed are sent post or expressage paid on 
 receipt of price. by 
 
 DAVID WILLIAMS CO. 
 
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