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ART 
 
 APPLIED TO 
 
 INDUSTRY. 
 
 A SERIES OF LECTURES, 
 
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 WILLIAM BURGES, F.R.I.B.A. 
 
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 ©^'fcrir anb ^0nb0tT: 
 
 JOHN HENRY and JAMES PARKER. 
 1865. 
 

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TO 
 
 ALEXANDER J. B. BERESFORl) HOPE, Esq., F.S.A. 
 
 WHO SO WORTHILY CONTINUES 
 THE ART TRADITIONS OF HIS FAMILY, 
 
 IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2007 with funding from 
 
 Microsoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/artappliedtoinduOOburgrich 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 The origin of this little book is as follows. 
 
 Some three years ago Dr. Cantor, a Dane by birth, 
 but an Army Surgeon in the Anglo-Indian service, died 
 in India, leaving his property to be divided between the 
 Society of Arts and Wellington College. 
 
 Last year the Society of Arts devoted the proceeds of 
 their portion of the bequest to three courses of Lectures, 
 viz. one on International Law, by G. W. Hastings, Esq., 
 Barrister- at-Law ; another on Chemistry applied to the 
 Arts, by Dr. Crace Calvert, F.K.S. ; and a third on Art 
 applied to Industry. 
 
 The Lectures comprised in this latter course form 
 the greater portion of the present work ; the additions 
 consisting of two other Lectures upon the same subject, 
 and which were read respectively at the Architectural 
 Association and at the South Kensington Museum. 
 
 15, Buckingham-street, Stkand, 
 Mv. 25, 1864. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 -♦■- 
 
 Intkoductory 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1 
 
 Glass 
 
 
 13 
 
 Pottery / 
 
 
 27 
 
 Brass and Iron . . . . 
 
 
 40 
 
 Gold and Silver .... 
 
 
 . 54 
 
 Furniture 
 
 
 . 69 
 
 The Weaver's Art .... 
 
 
 . 83 
 
 External Architectural Decoration 
 
 
 . 95 
 
 The Modern Devet-opment of MEDiiEVAL Art . 
 
 . 109 
 
 fXTNIVERSITT) 
 
 
 
AET APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 It has been well observed that the world, more especially the 
 English portion of it, during the last half century, has been 
 in its working dress ; that is to say, although we have done 
 some very wonderful things in the way of mechanics, and have 
 produced other things which are marvels of cheapness, yet as 
 regards the production of really beautiful objects, particularly 
 those required in every-day life, we have been behind most 
 other epochs of civilization. Of course there is no prima facie 
 reason why cheap things should be ugly, for a die or mould of 
 a good design costs no more than a bad one ; but still the fact 
 remains that the objects in use in every-day life are not beau- 
 tiful, and it is to effect a change in this respect that the Go- 
 vernment have established Schools of Design and the excellent 
 Museum of which I shall have to speak hereafter. Great praise 
 must also be given to the Society of Arts for beginning the 
 movement and carrying it on to the present time ; and al- 
 though the sphere of its action must necessarily be infinitely 
 smaller than that of the Government Schools, yet we should 
 always remember that the initiative of our great English ex- 
 hibitions of industry came from the Society, and that it is to 
 those exhibitions that we owe the stirring among the dry bones 
 of industrial art which is now taking place. 
 
 In furtherance of the latter object I have been requested by 
 the Council of the Society to give a few lectures, shewing how 
 the arts have formerly been applied to industry ; how they are 
 at present applied, and what may possibly be done to increase 
 their application. Now there are various phases of art work- 
 manship : thus a single expensive thing may be done to order, 
 such as a piece of jewellery, or what is called a race cup ; or 
 a few expensive things may be turned out, such as Wedge- 
 wood's copies of the Portland Vase ; but decidedly the best 
 application of art to industry is when a great many copies are 
 made from an exceedingly good pattern. The two former con- 
 
2 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 ditions have very little effect on the progress of art, but the 
 last one is everybody's business ; for it just comes to this. Are 
 we to have ugly or beautiful things continually before our 
 eyes ? Let us for a moment consider the numberless objects of 
 every-day life made by the aid of machinery or of low-skilled 
 labour, and the question acquires additional force. In ancient 
 times the problem was solved. The Greek saucepan or water- 
 jug was really a work of art, and doubtless cost no more than 
 ours do : and indeed, now-a-days, such things ought to cost us 
 much less, considering the great mechanical means at our dis- 
 posal. When, however, we do get excellent designs they gene- 
 rally turn out to be very dear, and an impression seems to be 
 afloat, that if a thing is beautiful, machinery should have no- 
 thing to do with it ; hence it only gets into the hands of the 
 iQVf ; whereas the real mission of machinery is to reduce pounds 
 to shillings and shillings to pence. This unwillingness to use 
 machinery may, perhaps, be traced to the teaching of Mr. Rus- 
 kin and of the late Mr. Pugin, but then these gentlemen have 
 unfortunately been misunderstood. What they battled for was 
 the disuse of purely mechanical means in the production of archi- 
 tectural ornaments. Thus, in a building, they objected to cast 
 leaves in a cornice because one would be exactly like another, 
 and because the undercuttings could not be obtained from 
 a mould ; but, as far as I can see, they never objected to the 
 proper employment of machinery as a help to either the artist 
 oc workman. In fact, Pugin says in one of his works that had 
 he a cathedral to build, one of the first things he would do 
 would be to set up a lathe to turn the smaller columns. How 
 completely his teaching has been misunderstood will be evident 
 from the following two instances. The first is that of a large firm 
 who turn out very pretty tinned iron door- rings, just the sort of 
 things that we should like to see on all our drawers and all our 
 book-cases. Well, these rings are made by hand, and cost from 
 3s. 6d. to Is. 6d. Of course it is needless to say that they are 
 not upon all our drawers and all our bookcases, and if the truth 
 must be told, very few of them are sold at all. Some time 
 ago, a gun-lock maker offered to make a die and supply these 
 identical rings at something like 3d. a-piece all round, if the 
 firm would only take a sufficient quantity — say five hundred : 
 but no, the firm thought that this was a case where the use of 
 machinery should be discouraged, and the consequence is that 
 
A rt applied to Industry, 3 
 
 if any one objects to the hideous patterns in the ironmonger's 
 shop the only resource is to buy what are called Dutch rings, 
 value one penny, and used commonly for dresser drawers. 
 
 The other instance is, where one of our most talented artists 
 drew a set of designs for coloured tiles, representing some of 
 the nursery stories in the most naive and charming manner. 
 The firm for whom he made these designs caused them to be 
 copied on the tiles by high-skilled labour; hence the price is 
 10s. for each tile of 4 in. square. On the other hand, had they 
 got the artist to have engraved his outline so that it could 
 have been transferred to the tiles in the usual manner, and 
 then have obtained the aid of children to fill in the colours, 
 the said tiles might have been sold for 2s., or 2s. 6d. at the 
 outside, and we should have the advantage of the artist's own 
 outline instead of a copy. 
 
 However, the Exhibition of 1862 has given us this comfort, 
 namely, that we really are getting on ; and although it still re- 
 mains the general opinion that both English designers and 
 English artizans are inferior to those of France, it can scarcely 
 be denied that of late years very much has been done to catch 
 them up. A proof of this will be found in the following opinion 
 of a perfectly competent French writer, M. le Comte Clement 
 de Ris % one of the Conservateurs of the Louvre, and who was 
 sent over here by the French Government to visit the Loan 
 Museum last year. He thus writes : — 
 
 " With that admirable practical sense which is at the bottom of everything 
 the English do, those to whom the arrangement has been confided have de- 
 sired not only to attract the public by the novelty of the objects, not only to 
 draw the antiquary and artist by the beauty of these objects, but, above all, 
 to exercise that salutary influence upon the taste of the British artisans, and 
 to create a school for the innumerable artistic industries. Have they suc- 
 ceeded ? The exhibition at Kensington, will it become a source of teaching 
 more living and more direct than the International Exhibition % The future 
 alone can tell us. But in any case I advise our French manufacturers, if 
 they do not wish to find ten years hence in all the markets of the globe for- 
 midable rivals in matters of taste, where up to the present time they have 
 only met humble tributaries, by no means to sleep upon their laurels, and 
 at least be convinced that their monopoly of taste may some fine day be 
 disputed." 
 
 Now I venture to think that most people would back this 
 
 * La Curiosite : Collections Frangaises et etrangeres cabinets d'ainateuis bio- 
 graphies. Par M. le Comte Clement de Ris, attache a la conservation des Musees 
 imperiaux. (Paris : Jules Renouard. 1864.) ^^.i*-- _"'" ,c.>.'**»w 
 
 (DTNIVERSITT 
 
4 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 opinion of a foreigner and, to a certain degree also, of a rival. 
 Indeed, in some points one would be inclined to go rather 
 farther, and assert that in one or two of our art manufactures, 
 say for instance Minton's ware, we are not only on a par but 
 surpass the French, even if we take the design alone, to say 
 nothing of the manufacture. Two great causes have brought 
 about this improvement in English work : first, the general 
 progress of most of the arts, particularly the master ones of 
 architecture and painting; and, secondly, the establishment of 
 the Government School of Design, with its provincial branches 
 and its most excellent Museum. 
 
 These schools, although used by students from nearly every 
 class of life, from the young lady who thinks she should like 
 to learn a little drawing, to the stone-carver's apprentice who 
 comes after a long day's hard work, are particularly adapted to 
 the two important classes to whom alone we must really look 
 for improvement in the objects of every-day life. These two 
 classes are the designer and the artisan. And first of the 
 designer. Every firm for the most part keeps a designer, who 
 is paid an annual salary, varying from ^£100 to £100, and 
 indeed sometimes even more: for this he is expected to make 
 all the designs and to look over their execution when required. 
 Should the business be an extensive one he has often a draw- 
 ing-office and staffs" of draughtsmen, over which he presides. 
 
 Sometimes the firm goes to extraneous aid and gets a design 
 from an architect or painter ; but this seldom answers in the 
 long run, and for these reasons. In the first place, the said 
 architect or painter is seldom up in the technical details, and 
 he thus draws things which come more expensive in the 
 execution than those of the designer. The latter, naturally 
 jealous at being to a certain degree supplanted, is more inclined 
 to throw impediments in the way than to help in removing 
 those which exist, and the whole afi*air usually ends with the 
 philosophic reflection on the part of the employer, that as he 
 has to pay one designer, he does not very well see why he 
 should pay two. 
 
 It is therefore clearly the designer who must be caught and 
 properly trained in the first instance, and the Government and 
 provincial schools no doubt off*er the best means of so doing. 
 
 At present the system has hardly been established long 
 enough to have produced any considerable quantities of 
 
Art applied to htdtistry. 5 
 
 thoroughly trained designers, some of the best pupils having 
 turned artists, while others have become masters in the pro- 
 vincial schools ; and we shall probably have to wait some few 
 more years before the results prophesied by M. Clement de 
 E-is take place. 
 
 As to the artisan, to whom a knowledge of drawing and 
 modelling would often be of the most important use in his 
 carrying out the drawings of the designer, I am sorry to say 
 that he has hardly taken that advantage of the schools that he 
 might have done ; most probably having before his eyes the fear 
 of Dyce's Outlines, especially those at the end of the book. 
 
 At present I understand a much more sparing use is made 
 of that book than used to be the case, and thus far matters are 
 made more pleasant, for depend upon it no man is likely to 
 attend every evening after a hard day's work if he is kept 
 grinding at things which could be drawn by a pair of compasses 
 or reversed by tracing paper in one-fiftieth part of the time it 
 takes him to copy them. If the artisan is to be caught, he 
 must be interested in what he draws, and, as a general rule, 
 what he draws should relate directly to his own profession. 
 To expect him to attend regularly every night of the working- 
 week would doubtless be asking too much, but by proper 
 management he could be induced to give some three or four 
 evenings, and when temporarily out of work or when waiting 
 for a job he might even attend in the day-time. 
 
 Another great source of improvement is the excellent Museum 
 at South Kensington, which, even as a collection, takes its place 
 at least on a par with that of the Hotel de Cluny. It is true 
 that there are richer objects in the Parisian collection, but 
 there are also a good many that are of comparatively little use. 
 Now the Kensington Museum has been formed with reference 
 to the special object of instructing the workman and designer, 
 and the consequence is that there is no rubbish in it. Had it 
 been placed in a more central situation, say at Charing Cross, 
 it would have had an immense influence in educating the public 
 generally, for people would then run in for half-an-hour when 
 they were passing, as they do at the National Gallery : and it 
 is precisely those half-hours that are the most precious, for 
 people then confine their attention to one or two things and 
 study them well, knowing that they have no time for the others ; 
 whereas when they go to see the Museum as a sight they try 
 
6 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 to see as much as possible, and nothing gets properly studied. 
 The consequence is that the Museum at South Kensington 
 does only one-half the good it might do, and is visited prin- 
 cipally by students, sight-seers, and the inhabitants of the 
 vicinity, whereas it ought to catch all and every condition of 
 life. Our climate unfortunately forbids us educating the people 
 as they were educated in Athens and Florence, by the recur- 
 rence of the best works of art in the most crowded thorough- 
 fares, but there is no reason why our museums and galleries of 
 pictures should not be placed in similar situations, where they 
 would be, as it were, in everybody's path. 
 
 The Architectural Museum is another useful institution. 
 When it was established there was no public collection of 
 casts of mediaeval art. The architects and amateurs met to- 
 gether, subscribed, and gave to the common stock the casts 
 contained in their several offices and collections ; others were 
 bought at the sale of the Cottingham museum, and a number 
 were presented by Mr. Ruskin. The result was the formation 
 of a most useful collection, which was located in Canon-row, 
 "Westminster, but which now, alas ! is in captivity at Brompton. 
 The Committee still give lectures and offer prizes, but it can 
 hardly be denied that the casts are less accessible and the 
 institution less useful than they used to be. 
 
 Another great fact is the enlargement of the mediaeval de- 
 partment of the British Museum under the care of Mr. Franks. 
 This, however, is open to the public only three days in the 
 week, and not at all in the evening. Perhaps some day this 
 collection will be incorporated with that at South Kensington, 
 and if the whole be then moved up to Charing Cross, we shall 
 have a Museum which will be one of the most complete, and, 
 above all, one of the most useful in the world. Finally, in 
 enumerating the various aids to our present progress, we 
 should not forget the public spirit and kindness of those gen- 
 tlemen who possess private museums or small collections of 
 choice works of art. A glance at any of the publications de- 
 voted to art during the last dozen years will tell us on how 
 many occasions these noblemen and gentlemen have tem- 
 porarily deprived themselves of their most valued possessions 
 to benefit their fellow-citizens. When Her Majesty, the Duke 
 of Devonshire, and Mr. Beresford Hope, not to mention many 
 others, send their jewels to a public museum for months to- 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 7 
 
 ^ether, a very practical answer is given to those people who try 
 to set one class against another. Among secondary causes of 
 our improvement we must not forget the splendid volumes 
 published after the various Exhibitions, nor still less the won- 
 derful spread of photographs, so useful in giving us correct 
 representations of form, and so useless in rendering colour. 
 
 Allowing, therefore, the great usefulness of the Government 
 Schools, the Exhibitions, and the Museums both public and pri- 
 vate, the question now arises as to what are the impediments to 
 our future progress. The principal ones appear to me to be three. 
 
 1. A want of a distinctive architecture, which is fatal to art 
 generally. 
 
 2. The want of a good costume, which is fatal to colour ; and 
 
 3. The want of a sufficient teaching of the figure, which is 
 fatal to art in detail. 
 
 It will perhaps be as well to take these one by one. 
 
 The most fatal impediment of the three is undeniably the 
 want of a distinctive architecture in the nineteenth century. 
 Architecture is commonly called the mother of all the other 
 arts, and these latter are all more or less affected by it in their 
 details. In almost every age of the world except our own only 
 one style of architecture has been in use, and consequently 
 only one set of details. The designer had accordingly to master, 
 1. the figure, and the great principles of ornament ; 2. those 
 details of the architecture then practised which were neces- 
 sary to his trade ; and 3. the technical processes. Now what is 
 the case in the present day ? If we take a walk in the streets 
 of London we may see at least half-a-dozen sorts of architec- 
 ture, all with different details ; and if we go to a museum we 
 shall find specimens of the furniture, jewellery, &c., of these said 
 different styles all beautifully classed and labelled. The stu- 
 dent, instead of confining himself to one style as in former 
 times, is expected to be master of all these said half-dozen, 
 which is just as reasonable as asking him to write half-a-dozen 
 poems in half-a-dozen languages, carefully preserving the idio- 
 matic peculiarities of each. This we all know to be an im- 
 possibility, and the end is that our student, instead of tho- 
 roughly applying the principles of ornament to one style, is 
 so bewildered by having the half-dozen on his hands, that he 
 ends by knowing none of them as he ought to do. This is the 
 case in almost every trade ; and until the question of style gets 
 
8 Art applied to Industry, 
 
 settled, it is utterly hopeless to think about any great improve- 
 ment in modern art. 
 
 At present the fashion appears to have set in in favour of two 
 very distinct styles. One is a very impure and bastard Italian, 
 which is used in most large secular buildings ; and the other is 
 a variety of the architecture of the thirteenth century, often, 
 I am sorry to say, not much purer than its rival, especially in 
 the domestic examples, although its use is principally confined 
 to ecclesiastical edifices. It is needless to say that the details of 
 these two styles are as different from each other as light from 
 darkness, but still we are expected to master both of them. But 
 it is most sincerely to be hoped that in course of time one or 
 both of them will disappear, and that we may get something of 
 our own of which we need not be ashamed. This may, per- 
 haps, take place in the twentieth century, it certainly, as far as 
 I can see, will not occur in the nineteenth. But the discouraging 
 fact still remains, that until some change does take place in 
 this respect, it is in vain to think of any great results from all 
 our study and all our training. 
 
 If some kind fairy could make a clean sweep of all our exist- 
 ing buildings and all our books on architecture, to say nothing 
 of the architects, being then left to our own resources we might 
 do something of our own. But as fairies have long ceased to 
 exist, we can only live in hopes that the succeeding generations 
 may be more fortunate. I forgot to say that the fairy would 
 also have to hide our museums and picture-galleries for at least 
 a couple of hundred years. 
 
 The next great impediment to progress is the want of colour 
 in our costume. In this respect we are one degree more for- 
 tunate than in architecture, for whereas we have several styles 
 of the latter practised at the same time, fashion is. so great 
 a tyrant that she will allow of only one kind of costume. Since 
 the great French Revolution all colour has been gradually dying 
 out of the male costume, until we have got reduced to our pre- 
 sent gamut of brown, black and neutral tint ; which, combined 
 with the chimney-pot hat and the swallow-tailed coat, form a cos- 
 tume by no means particularly adapted to refresh the eye seek- 
 ing for form or colour. Now this absence of colour is really 
 a very serious consideration, for the eye of the designer is 
 naturally affected by what he sees around him : thus in the 
 East, where every one wears coloured costume, the fabrics pro- 
 
A rt applied to Indksttyc .. , ^ 9 
 
 duced are universally admired for their admirable harmony of 
 colour. It is very true that the tints of certain garments may 
 in the first instance be bright and gaudy, but they very soon 
 become faded into better tones by atmospheric influences, and 
 they are broken up by stains or discoloured by rain; or, as 
 our great living novelist observes, " The sun takes away the 
 colour from the cloths to give it to the flowers/' 
 
 Again, Englishmen are without the sumptuous public proces- 
 sions, both civil and religious, wherein rich and bright costume 
 can be studied, as abroad : the only gratuitous exhibition of 
 this kind accessible to the Londoner being the daily relief of the 
 troop of cavalry at the Horse Guards. It may be urged that 
 any one desirous of studying costume has ample opportunities 
 of so doing at our various theatres, but, unfortunately, it is but 
 too often not only ludicrously false in an antiquarian point of 
 view, but utterly repugnant to good taste : the costumes fre- 
 quently do not even fit the wearers, and look more as if they 
 had been hired for the night from some Jew costumier than 
 as forming part of the wardrobe of a well-appointed theatre. 
 
 How diff'erent is all this from the old Greek theatre, where 
 nothing was too good or too splendid to adorn what was to 
 them a half-religious ceremony; but then their drama was in- 
 timately connected with their history and religion, and their 
 pieces were written by such men as ^schylus, Aristophanes, 
 and Sophocles, and were not what our newspapers euphoniously 
 call clever adaptations from the French by the talented and 
 prolific Mr. Blank. 
 
 Indeed, it must be confessed that our theatres are greatly in 
 need of a most sweeping reformation, the first step to which 
 will be the abolition of the invariable couleur de rose criticisms 
 which occur in every newspaper. If an architect does a bad 
 building, or an author writes a bad book, he deserves, and gene- 
 rally is fortunate enough to obtain, a strong adverse criticism ; 
 and why an actor or dramatic author should be exempt from the 
 same very wholesome tonic is more than most people can explain. 
 At least the Lord Chamberlain, who is endowed with almost 
 despotic power, might set his face against translations from the 
 French, by refusing to license them, although it might entail 
 the inconvenience upon the dramatic authors of shutting up 
 their French dictionaries and trusting to their wits. 
 
 Again, it may probably be objected that at least we get 
 
lO Art applied to Industry, 
 
 colour in our female costume. This is true, but then the form 
 is so utterly bad that it is totally unfit for art purposes. As 
 Mr. Beresford Hope most justly observed some time since, " The 
 ladies' costume has very greatly deteriorated within the last 
 dozen years, and if we search into the reason of this falling off, 
 I am afraid we must refer it to no less a person than the 
 Empress of the French.'' When she attained her present high 
 position there was a glorious opportunity open to her ; and had 
 she possessed a really artistic taste she would gradually have 
 given the ladies a costume that sculptors would have delighted to 
 carve and painters to paint, instead of borrowing the effete dress 
 of an age which Carlyle describes as bankrupt in everything. It 
 is difficult for us in the present day to realize the effects of bright 
 colours seen in masses, but I well remember on one occasion 
 seeing an assemblage of Turkish ladies on a quay of the Bos- 
 phorus. The form of the dress was not at all unlike that which 
 prevailed in our own country during the reign of Edward I. ; 
 the dresses themselves were of almost every conceivable colour 
 under the sun^ and being quite new were rather gaudy ; but the 
 effect of the whole was most wonderful, resembling an enor- 
 mous moving flower-bed filled with the most brilliant flowers. 
 A mediaeval holiday crowd must have been even more gor- 
 geous, for there the colours were varied by embroidery. Now 
 can any one question that these frequent assemblies of beautiful 
 colours are without their due effect upon the eye of the designer, 
 and that it is all the same to him whether he sees crowds such 
 as we see in London or such as we may view on the Bosphorus ? 
 Unfortunately it is very questionable whether the present gene- 
 ration is likely to see any great amount of colour used in cos- 
 tume, for fashions in this respect change nearly as slowly as 
 architecture. 
 
 The third impediment to our progress is the want of a more 
 extended teaching of the figure. Up to very lately there seems 
 to have been a very great reluctance in almost every profession 
 connected with the fine arts, except in those of painting and 
 sculpture, to teaching pupils the human figure, and even where 
 better things were to be expected it is usually the last thing 
 the pupil attempts, whereas it ought to have been the first, as 
 soon as the beginner has understood the value of a curve and 
 learnt a little perspective. 
 
 So important, indeed, is this acquisition of the power of 
 
A rt applied to Industry, 1 1 
 
 drawing the human figure, that there is scarcely a trade or pro- 
 fession where the designer or artisan would not find it of the 
 very greatest assistance; and even in architecture, which to 
 a certain degree would seem independent of it except as an ac- 
 cessory, it is the only way of giving the pupil that power of 
 judgment which is generally called good taste. 
 
 As to the designer for manufactures, he would do well to 
 remember what no less a man than Haydon said upon this 
 point, namely, that a man who could draw a head could draw 
 a leaf, but that it by no means followed that the man who could 
 draw a leaf could draw a head. At present it must be confessed 
 that we are lamentably deficient in this branch of drawing, and 
 therefore we find designers introducing the figure as little as 
 possible in their compositions : but indeed they are hardly to 
 be blamed, for if they did introduce it they would find almost 
 insuperable difiiculties in getting it executed by the artisans 
 at their disposal. It is true that help is occasionally obtained, 
 in this difficulty by the employment of young artists, but the 
 present system of exhibitions of easel pictures makes the first 
 steps in their profession so much of a lottery that they can 
 hardly be depended upon for" any continuous work. Thus 
 a young painter does not sell his pictures, and is willing to 
 work, say for a stained-glass manufacturer, at the rate of a guinea 
 a-day. Suddenly, however, by some good luck- one of his pro- 
 ductions gets hung on the line at the Academy, and is bought 
 by some great picture-dealer. Our friend then bids adieu to 
 his former client, and forthwith turns up his nose at cartoons or 
 wall-painting, and paints nothing but easel pictures. Nor does 
 the evil end here, for all his contemporaries seeing his success 
 naturally go on painting similar easel pictures, in the hopes of 
 the same good luck, and also despise cartoons and walls, to the 
 great detriment of art in general and of the manufacturer in 
 particular, who is thereupon obliged to fall back on his regular 
 designer : which brings us to our former conclusion, that he (the 
 designer) is the man to catch hold of and educate up to the 
 mark ; and if we want to do this, the most efi'ectual method is 
 to teach him the figure thoroughly. 
 
 What, then, are we to do in the present state of things, when 
 we labour under such serious difficulties as the want of a dis- 
 tinctive architecture, of local colour, and a sufficient teaching 
 of the figure. 
 
12 Art applied to Industry, 
 
 The first two evils can only be cured by time, for sudden re- 
 volutions are seldom if ever made either in the architecture or 
 in the costume of a people. The only consolation we have is 
 the very poor one that our rivals labour under exactly the same 
 disadvantages. But if we are powerless to control the two first, 
 the remedy for the third is entirely in our own hands. We can 
 increase the number of Government Schools, and we can render 
 them more useful by taking up the artisan, and teaching both 
 him and the designer the human figure a great deal more. 
 
 It is also possible to greatly ameliorate the public taste by 
 establishing local museums, not only in the provinces but in 
 London itself, where considerable portions of the Kensington 
 Museum, or duplicates where attainable, might be exhibited 
 and changed at stated periods, say every three or six months, 
 so that the idler who drops in for half-an-hour might periodi- 
 cally have the chance of seeing something new. This, it is true, 
 might slightly diminish the number of visitors we find so con- 
 stantly advertised in the papers as enjoying the advantages at 
 the South Kensington, but still that Museum would always re- 
 main the Mecca of designers and sight-seers. Probably also 
 some relaxation might be made in cases like the present, and 
 Societies who are helping in the same work might have the ad- 
 vantages of obtaining, by payment of a small fee, objects from 
 the Museum to illustrate their lectures. Had this been possible 
 at the present time I need scarcely say how happy the Society 
 of Arts would have been to have taken advantage of it for the 
 illustration of the lectures with which I intend to follow the 
 present. I trust, however, that I may be able in some degree 
 to supply the deficiency, and to shew you sufficient to illustrate 
 what I may have to say; but even then the best advice I can 
 give is to go through the turn -style and judge for yourselves. 
 
 My suggestions, however, for our future improvements in the 
 application of art to industry reduce themselves simply to these: 
 
 Increase the Government Schools of Design. 
 
 Multiply local museums, and render them easy of access. 
 
 Educate the designer as thoroughly as possible, but, above all, 
 teach him the figure; and, if you can, catch the artisan and 
 teach him as well. 
 
 As to style and costume, they are beyond our control, and 
 must be left wholly to time and Providence. 
 
GrXuJ^SS. 
 
 Before entering on the subject of the present lecture, it may- 
 be as well to say a few words as to the manner in which I pro- 
 pose to treat the various arts mentioned in the programme. 
 
 There are two great uses of antiquarian studies. One of them 
 is to enable us to conjure up as if by the magician's wand the 
 dress, furniture, architecture, &c., of past ages, so that we can 
 live, as it were, in many centuries almost at the same moment. 
 This is a very great and a very pleasant species of knowledge, 
 but it is not particularly useful in this work-a-day world ; and it 
 sometimes, like other knowledge, renders its possessor far from 
 happy, more especially when he goes to the theatre, and sees all 
 sorts of anachronisms and impossibilities ^ 
 
 The other use of antiquarian studies is to restore disused 
 arts, and to get all the good we can out of them for our own 
 improvement : this is the light in which I propose making 
 use of it in the present lectures. I shall, therefore, not give 
 a continuous history of any one art, but take up one or more 
 phases of it when it was most flourishing, and when we can 
 learn most, and so compare what was done then with what is 
 done now. 
 
 In considering the art of glass-making we may at once omit 
 the well-known story of the discovery of it by the Phoenicians, as 
 told by Pliny ^ ; it may, or may not be true ; most probably it is 
 not true : at all events it does not matter to us. What is im- 
 portant to us to know is, that the Egyptians are supposed to have 
 made glass from a very early period ; that the Phoenicians pro- 
 
 * One glaring error in costume I have observed perpetrated everywhere in the 
 most unblushing manner, even in places where the rest of the costume has been 
 tolerably correct, and that is the way in which the shield is held. Anciently, the 
 knight supported his shield on his bended arm : one strap secured it to the upper 
 part of the arm, and the left hand grasped another strap in the dexter corner. 
 At the theatre, and in popular woodcuts, the shield is invariably htld on the 
 straightened arm, so that the first blow would probably break the limb or dis- 
 locate the shoulder. This is only one example out of many, and it is easy to see 
 why a theatre is not quite the place to make an antiquary happy. 
 
 b Nat. Hist., bk. xxxvi. ch. 65. 
 
14 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 bably learnt it from them, and, availing tberaselves of the very 
 excellent sand of their country, established manufactories, prin- 
 cipally at Sidon, which Pliny tells us was formerly famous for 
 its glass-houses ^. 
 
 Now it is well known how the Phoenicians were the great 
 commercial nation of ancient times as much as we are in the 
 present, and one of our most distinguished antiquaries, Mr. 
 Franks, is of opinion that those beautiful glass bottles found in 
 such profusion in Italy, Syria, Sardinia, Greece, and the Greek 
 islands, are in reality the products of the glass-houses of Sidon, 
 and that the various shapes were made to suit different cus- 
 tomers, those for Greece being the most elegant. These vases 
 are generally of a dark-blue colour, decorated with pale yellow, 
 blue, green, and white lines disposed in zigzags ; these lines do 
 not go through the glass, and have evidently been put on the 
 surface, and worked flat, before the vessel was blown. The 
 zigzag appearance might have been obtained by pulling the 
 paste various ways while hot and before its being finally blown, 
 which process, from the flutes, might possibly have been done 
 in a mould. These little bottles, specimens of which are found 
 in most collections, are supposed to have contained perfumes. 
 Now just contrast them, with their beautiful and yet deep- 
 toned colours, supported on little golden stands ^, with the 
 modern fashionable smelling-bottle, a polygonal cylinder of 
 transparent glass, finished at each end with an ugly gold top 
 ornamented with hideous engraving. 
 
 We now come to Roman glass. It is usually the fashion to 
 believe that the Romans had no glass at all, the consequence 
 of the wretched books on Greek and Roman antiquities w^hich 
 until of late years were exclusively current in our schools. A 
 hundred years ago they represented the knowledge of the times, 
 painfully picked out of the classics by such men as Erasmus 
 and Scaliger. But since those days Pompeii has been discovered, 
 archaeology has become a science, and we read the classics 
 with very difi*erent lights to what our forefathers did. We 
 shall therefore find, if we pursue our investigations into ancient 
 glass by means of the contents of the public and private col- 
 lections, that the Romans were as well off, if not more so, in 
 
 «= Nat. Hist., bk. xxxvi. ch. 66. 
 
 ^ A little vase with its golden stand may be seen in the British Museum. 
 
A rt applied to Industry, 1 5 
 
 this respect than ourselves. It is true that hitherto no such 
 large sheets of plate-glass have been discovered as we see in 
 fashionable shop-windows in Regent-street and elsewhere, but 
 plate-glass in very considerable pieces has been found, and the 
 article must have been in very considerable use, as anybody 
 may see, at Pompeii, where there is a piece remaining in situ 
 closing the window of a porter's room in one of the houses : 
 we must, moreover, remember that Pompeii was by no means 
 a very important place, being a sort of Roman Margate. Pliny 
 also tells us that in his time glass drinking- vessels superseded 
 those of silver and gold. Let us now see what the Romans 
 have left us. First of all, we have colourless glass, which 
 Pliny informs us was in his day considered as the most 
 valuable. This white glass was decorated in various ways. It 
 was sometimes crackled : thus in Mr. Slade's collection there 
 is a cup which has artificial cracks all over it, and exactly re- 
 sembles the white fluor spar — a curious fact when we remember 
 that some antiquaries assert the murrhine vases to have been 
 made of the coloured fluor spar, or what we call blue jack. 
 
 The Roman workman was also perfectly master of the art of 
 making what we term filagree glass, and what the Venetians 
 call latticinio. In the British Museum, in the Temple collec- 
 tion, will be found a saucer made entirely in this manner, and 
 exactly like Venetian work. It is needless to say that the 
 Romans produced all sorts of coloured glass, both opaque and 
 transparent, some of exceeding beauty : thus the glass dish 
 known as the Santo Catino, and kept in the cathedral at Genoa, 
 was believed in the Middle Ages to be an immense emerald. 
 It was taken by the Crusaders at the siege of Csesarea in 1101, 
 and the legend ran that it had been given to King Solomon 
 by the Queen of Sheba ; that it had contained the paschal lamb 
 eaten at the last Supper of our Lord; and, finally, that it had 
 received His blood : in fact, it was the Sangreal, so celebrated 
 in the Mort d^Artus. Many of these coloured glass vessels 
 have been turned on a wheel, or cut and polished afterwards. 
 In the collection of Felix Slade, Esq., is a vessel of Greek 
 glass, in the shape of a boat, which has been thus finished, the 
 colour exactly resembling the Santo Catino. Very frequently 
 different-coloured glasses were used in the same vessel, some- 
 times in an irregular manner, as in the imitations of onyx, or 
 in those examples which resemble the Venetian smeltsh ; but 
 
1 6 Art applied to Indttstry. 
 
 often the various colours were cut into strips, placed side by 
 side, and then blown. Sometimes sections of rods of intricate 
 patterns were placed side by side and imbedded in a different 
 coloured paste, and then blown, resembling the Venetian milli- 
 fiori. At other times the more precious marbles were imitated 
 in a similar manner: thus we find very fair imitations of ser- 
 pentine and porphyry. Again, mosaic patterns were made by 
 putting together various-coloured rods so as to make one large 
 rod, which was then drawn out until the pattern became very 
 small ; slices were then cut off it and joined together at the 
 sides until a piece of the required size was obtained. Occa- 
 sionally the artist went a step further, and designed a head, or 
 more commonly half a head, which underwent the same pro- 
 cess, the two sides being afterwards joined together, and the 
 whole set as a gem. Still more curious was the process in 
 which a figure was engraved on a piece of glass, and then 
 other coloured glasses pressed in the hole in a state of fusion, 
 or else applied in powder and fused like enamel : frequently 
 a very fine line of gold divides the two colours. The Romans 
 were well acquainted not only with the art of gilding glass, 
 but of enclosing it between two thicknesses; it occurs in 
 many instances in the form of a strip among other strips of 
 coloured glass ; but its great application is in the so-called 
 Christian glass vessels, (although some pagan ones have been 
 found). A piece of glass was covered by a gold leaf, and 
 this gold was scratched away by a needle's point so as to form 
 a subject or ornament ; the glass vase in a fusible state was 
 then placed upon this, so that its bottom was formed of two 
 layers of glass with gold between. 
 
 The forms of the Roman vases are very various, so much so 
 that I need only mention the perfume-bottles, which are now 
 found blown in the form of heads. Glass was blown in moulds, 
 stamped, turned on a wheel, and engraved, sometimes very 
 rudely, and sometimes as finely as gems : witness the Port- 
 land Vase. Here the vessel is made of two layers of glass, 
 and the whole glass which formed the upper surface cut away, 
 exactly as if it had been a question of a large piece of onyx 
 instead of a glass vase. Occasionally it would appear that the 
 outer figures were cast first, and then fixed on by means of 
 a flux, but then the workmanship is by no means so good. 
 Occasionally we find vases with figures blown in a mould, the 
 
Art applied to htdustry. 1 7 
 
 glass being double, say a thin coating of white backed up with 
 blue. Another plan was to take a thin vase, put on it strips 
 of another colour, and then cut these strips into patterns : in 
 Mr. Slade's collection is part of an inscription thus executed ; 
 but the triumph of engraving is the vase found at Strasburg, 
 and containing the name of Maximianus. Here the vase is in 
 two thicknesses, and the outer one has been cut away into the 
 form of a net, being only connected with the under surface by 
 sundry small pin-like supports left by the engraver when he cut 
 the rest away. 
 
 Did time permit, I might enlarge upon the many purposes 
 to which the Eomans applied glass. Thus at Pompeii there is 
 a fountain decorated with mosaic such as we see in the Middle 
 Ages ^. Large slabs of glass have also been found, which were 
 probably employed to coat walls instead of marble. Many of 
 the designs of the most exquisite antique gems are preserved to 
 us by means of the glass casts, where the originals have utterly 
 disappeared. Engraved or cast glass was frequently set as gems 
 in rings; it occurs in necklaces, and was the material for 
 bracelets; dice were made of it, and finally there exist in col- 
 lections glass coins with Cufic inscriptions. 
 
 The Romans also claim, if we may believe Pliny, Suetonius, 
 and Petronius Arbiter, to have invented malleable glass, which 
 no modern has ever even attempted. Most probably this mal- 
 leable glass was only a common fable, although they lived 
 sufficiently near the time of the occurrence to have been able 
 to investigate the matter to a certain extent. After all this, 
 I do not think we can say the Eomans had no glass ; on the 
 contrary, I am afraid that we shall be obHged to confess not 
 only that they did have glass, but that their glass was far more 
 beautiful and artistic than our own, certainly as regards colour. 
 
 Now let us see what the Venetians did. 
 
 In the middle of the fifteenth century the Venetians, by 
 means of their commerce with the East and their relations with 
 the Byzantine empire, had made such progress in the art of 
 glass-making that the fall of the latter empire, by attracting 
 new workmen, put them in possession of all the Byzantine 
 arts of enamelling, gilding, and colouring glass, which had 
 been handed down from the times of the Eomans. Thus the 
 
 There is a piece of antique glass mosaic in the Sout 
 
1 8 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 Venetian glass considered the earliest by the antiquaries is 
 generally blue or green, with enamelled figures on the bowls. 
 The gilding is most artistically put on, generally in the form of 
 imbrications or feathers ; and moreover, a large quantity of little 
 bits of coloured glass^ representing jewels, is placed upon the 
 gold. The feet are generally blown in a mould, and the forms 
 of the vessels and the costume of the figures exactly resemble 
 those seen in printed books and manuscripts from 1460 to 1480. 
 The next development is in plain glass, with the same sort of 
 imbrications and jewels, and the same sort of enamelling, but 
 the form is changed, and become antique, but still, if anything, 
 even more beautiful than the former. Those that have come 
 down to us appear to have formed part of dessert services, in 
 the same manner as the Henry II. ware, and the wonderful 
 service of crystal and jewels once belonging to Lorenzo de 
 Medici, and now partly in Florence and partly in Paris ^. 
 
 Somewhere about the end of the fifteenth century or the be- 
 ginning of the sixteenth the Venetians discovered, or, to speak 
 more correctly, revived the art of the filagree glass. This, like 
 the Roman, was eff'ected by means of the extension of a number 
 of rods of transparent white glass, containing others in a differ- 
 ent colour, generally opaque white : hence the term latticinio. 
 These rods were combined in various manners, and then blown 
 exactly as we have seen the Roman glass ; sometimes they are 
 twisted and then blown ; sometimes the twists go difi'erent ways 
 (but then this was done by doubling the glass) ; sometimes the 
 filagranes alternate with strips, also in this respect imitating 
 the antique; sometimes sections of rods are embedded in an- 
 other glass — this is called millefioriy and is exceedingly pretty. 
 The smeltsh consists of pieces of different-coloured glass, flat- 
 tened and pulled out, joined together, and backed up by a red- 
 dish-coloured paste. This, when there is plenty of aventurine, 
 or rather the glass imitation of it, is very beautiful. Another 
 method was to take a vase of opaque white glass, and then 
 sprinkle it with little bits of other coloured glass, which 
 subjected to heat became melted and produced an effect not 
 unlike china. 
 
 The opal glass is also very beautiful, so is the crackle glass, 
 
 ' The collection of F. Slade, Esq., contains some excellent examples of the early 
 Venetian glass, and indeed of every other kind. 
 
A rt applied to Industry. i g 
 
 whicli by the way is well imitated in the present day. Occa- 
 sionally we see glass vessels with knobs of other colours put 
 on the outside, and sometimes with little flowers. Gold is 
 freely employed ; generally it is put on the surface, and if in 
 large quantities a pattern is obtained by scraping it away, 
 before burning, with a needle's point. In other cases it is 
 put on very thinly, so that it looks like a dust, and avoids 
 giving a heavy look to the glass ; a favourite way of employing 
 it is on the small stamped heads, so often found attached to 
 the sides of the vase or to the stem. In nearly all these 
 glasses the upper part is blown into a most elegant shape; 
 though occasionally the lower part must have been blown in 
 a mould : the stem is made in two ways ; if decorated with 
 heads, it is blown in a mould and afterwards gilt, but often it 
 is made of strips of glass most wonderfully twisted and worked 
 up. Engraving and enamelling were occasionally employed to 
 heighten the effect, but in later times the glass-makers directed 
 their attention more to the production of the filagree patterns 
 than any other. The process was kept, or rather tried to be 
 kept, very secret — so much so that a law existed which enacted 
 that, in case of a glass-workman going to work abroad, in the 
 first place he should be asked to return, and if he paid no atten- 
 tion his nearest relatives should be imprisoned ; if, however, he 
 still held out, some one was to be despatched to kill him. 
 
 There are few things more elegant than the forms of these 
 Venice glasses, which were made in vast numbers during the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and exported to every 
 country in Europe. Unfortunately, in the eighteenth century 
 the taste for imitation of crystal came in, and the end of that 
 century saw the death of the industry at Venice. Of late years 
 it has been revived, but the workmanship is very clumsy com- 
 pared with the old, or indeed with the more modern pro- 
 ductions of other countries. 
 
 While the Venetians were working at filagree glass other 
 countries were producing other varieties. Thus Germany took 
 to the enamelling of glass, and most collections can shew one 
 or more tall beakers decorated with the pomp of heraldry, 
 a peculiar weakness of the German mind in the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries. The Germans were also very famous 
 for their engraving on glass. They also occasionally attempted 
 filagree, in spite of the terrors of the Venetian republic. Thus 
 
20 A rt applied to Industry. 
 
 a vase in Mr. Slade's possession is supposed to be of German 
 workmanship. It is a bowl composed of plain glass, with a very- 
 few radiating strips of filagree, but in each plain compartment 
 is a section of a compound glass tube, but so drawn out as 
 to resemble a fruit, or flower, or insect. 
 
 Now would it be asking too much of our modern manufac- 
 turers to look carefully at the old Eoman and the mediaeval 
 Venetian glass, and give us a greater variety in our choice than 
 they do at present ? If we go into a large glass-warehouse we 
 see some very elegant forms, but no filagrane, no enamelling, 
 no millefiori, no smeltsh, and no imitation onyx. What we do see 
 is transparent glass, often exceedingly well engraved, and occa- 
 sionally gilt, but still not in the artistic manner of the Vene- 
 tians. On the contrary, we never see the Roman practice of 
 putting the gold between two layers of glass. I believe, how- 
 ever, that it is a mere question of fashion, and that we can do 
 everything in glass that has been done except the rendering it 
 malleable. A few years ago filagree stems were the fashion, 
 and they are even still occasionally to be met with. Our glass 
 is heavier, it is true, than that of the Venetians, but that is occa- 
 sioned by the introduction of red lead to make it more brilliant 
 for cut work. It can, however, be made nearly as light as the 
 ancient by leaving out the lead. I believe that if we are 
 to have any progress we must have for a time all the various 
 branches practised under one roof, for when it is necessary to 
 send the glass to one man to be engraved, to another to be gilt, 
 and perhaps to a third to be enamelled, we can hardly expect 
 much..progress. Division of labour is a very good thing, but it 
 should be applied to arts and trades already well known, and 
 not to those to be learnt. In the latter case, every process 
 should be carried on under the same roof. 
 
 I believe it would really do an immense deal of good if any 
 one were to order, regardless of expense, a dessert service, either 
 like the early Venetian glass, or, still better, like the Roman 
 glass ; in the latter case we should see new forms applied to the 
 old material and colour, and perhaps hit upon something new. 
 
 The second point to which I wish to draw attention is the 
 manufacture of stained-glass windows, for the production has 
 really assumed the status of a manufacture. Now it is by 
 no means an uncommon occurrence to be asked by people of 
 
A rt applied to hidtistry, 2 1 
 
 an enquiring turn of mind, why modern stained glass is not 
 as good as the old? and a few words were also formerly dropped 
 about the lost arts. Now the answer is rather a long one, and 
 involves a slight sketch of the different kinds of ancient win- 
 dow-glass, and an account of what has been done to improve 
 the material of late years. 
 
 There appears to be a sufficient amount of historical evidence 
 to induce us to believe that the windows of St. Sophia at Con- 
 stantinople were decorated with this material ; if so, they were 
 placed, according to M. Salzenberg, in the marble reticulations 
 which anciently filled up the window spaces : the pieces of 
 glass appear to have been of a considerable size, and the effect 
 must have been that of a transparent mosaic. 
 
 A similar arrangement still prevails in the East. A pattern 
 somewhat resembling what we should call a shawl pattern is 
 made by V-shaped plaster mullions or divisions, the point of 
 the V being on the inside. These V mullions are of different 
 projections, according to their importance in the lines of the 
 pattern ; at the back of them is placed, by the aid of a little 
 plaster of Paris, coloured pieces of glass as thin as an egg-shell. 
 Of course every step the spectator takes the perspective of the 
 pattern becomes altered, and the window appears an assemblage 
 of the brightest jewels. The thin egg-shell glass is protected 
 from the weather by a similar window, of much coarser work 
 aud much stronger glass, flush with the external surface of the 
 wall, and as the said wall is generally thick there is a con- 
 siderable space between the two. 
 
 On the contrary, in Europe during the Middle Ages the 
 glass was very thick, and connected together by means of lead. 
 The windows were executed in various manners, each of which 
 again varied with the development of architecture. The richest 
 kind is what is known as medallion glass, where sundry medal- 
 lions containing histories are placed on a mosaic ground, the 
 whole being surrounded with an elaborate border. Such are 
 the windows in the aisles of Chartres Cathedral ; and this sort 
 of glass from its intricacy is almost always confined to situations 
 where it could easily be seen : the higher windows, on the con- 
 rary, contained figures under canopies. A third variety is where 
 white glass forms the body of the windows, with just sufficient 
 colour introduced to give it a variety. These are the three 
 great divisions, but they might be almost infinitely subdivided, 
 
22 Art applied to Industry, 
 
 figure glass being often found mixed up with grisaille^ and me- 
 dallion with figure^ &c. Some years ago, when the art began to 
 be revived, people who had an eye for colour very quickly found 
 out that the modern glass was very raw and gaudy compared 
 with the old ; it was then discovered that the ancient glass was 
 very streaky, or, in other words, very badly made, and fre- 
 quently had a slight toning. The glass-stainers took the hint, 
 and tried to get the streakiness with acid, and the mellow tone 
 by dirtying down nearly the whole surface with enamel. But 
 somehow or other, the windows looked only, dirty, and would 
 not look mellow ; when it was resolved to look at the texture of 
 the old material, which ought to have been done at first. At 
 this juncture my friend Mr. Winston came to the rescue, and 
 after he had made most elaborate analyses of the old metal, glass 
 of the right sort as regards material was produced by Messrs. 
 Powell, of Whitefriars. Unfortunately, somehow or other, it is 
 still made too well, only parts of the sheets being streaky, so 
 that when a window is wanted wholly made-up of this kind of 
 glass, it is apt to be rather an expensive affair ; the only ques- 
 tion is, whether by perseverance it would not be possible to 
 make the whole of the sheet streaky. Having now the glass, 
 the next point is to get an artist. Formerly the art employed 
 on our modern windows was of a very low order, the only aim 
 being to copy old work, defects included, as completely as 
 possible ; and here again we have to thank Mr. Winston, who 
 has never ceased to raise his voice against bad drawing and 
 bad colouring in stained glass. Messrs. Powell again seconded 
 him by securing the services of Mr. E. B. Jones, one of the 
 pre-Raphaelite painters and one of our best colourists, to make 
 coloured cartoons, which were to be exactly copied by the 
 workman as far as the material would permit. In his first 
 cartoons Mr. Jones used no lines to mark the details, but con- 
 tented himself with the leading : in his subsequent works, such 
 as the cartoons for Oxford Cathedral, Waltham Abbey, and that 
 executed for Messrs. Lavers and Barraud, he has availed him- 
 self of enamelled lines. Probably his first method would have 
 succeeded better, if instead of joining the glass with lead he 
 had been able to use plaster mnllions, in the Eastern fashion. 
 In all these works there is an immense variety of colour, no 
 two pieces being alike : hence the necessity for streaky glass. 
 Mr. Jones's cartoons are intended for windows near the eye, 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 2 3 
 
 those which have to be placed at great heights requiring a much 
 simpler treatment; but although the colours in this case are 
 more massed, still each piece of glass should be of a different 
 tone if we want to obtain a jewel-like effect. The windows in 
 the cathedral at Florence are a proof of this, and look as if made 
 of slices of immense jewels, in contradistinction to the Eastern 
 ones, which have the appearance of being composed of a num- 
 ber of very small gems. Other artists have drawn for stained 
 glass, for example, Messrs. Poynter, Westlake, and Holiday, 
 but we cannot expect artists to be always working at cartoons, 
 and we therefore come round to what I stated in my first 
 lecture, viz. that we must educate the paid designer of the 
 manufacturer. As regards the difference between old and new 
 stained- glass windows, if we allow somewhat for age, I think 
 a window designed by Messrs. Jones or Holiday, and executed 
 wholly in streaky glass, is as good as any old one that was ever 
 made \ and if we could get an unlimited supply of them, I should 
 certainly not lament the loss of all the old ones, at least those 
 in England and France. 
 
 I have still to mention two more applications of glass to the 
 arts, viz. mosaic and enamelling. Mosaic is the art of imitating 
 cartoons by means of small tesserae of opaque glass fixed into 
 plaster. The glass is made in the form of small flat cakes 
 about half-an-inch thick, which are broken into tesserae by being 
 struck between two steel hammers or chisels, the lower one 
 being fixed. If the mosaic is to be placed high up, the broken 
 surfaces are exposed, thus getting an infinite play of light, and 
 giving texture to the composition ; if, on the contrary, the 
 work was on a level with the eye, say a border to a marble 
 pulpit, the flat and polished side is placed uppermost. The 
 gold is produced very much in the same manner as in the 
 antique Christian vases, viz. by placing it between two thick- 
 nesses of glass, only in this case the lower one is a quarter-of- 
 an-inch thick, while the upper one is as thin as a hair. This 
 upper surface is executed in two ways. One is by covering the 
 gold with a sort of glaze, which was afterwards fused ^; the 
 other is to put on the upper surface in the form of a thin sheet. 
 At the present day the glass cakes for mosaic, as well as the 
 gold, are made at Murano ; and most people will remember the 
 
 » See Theophilus. 
 
24 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 beautiful specimens exhibited by Signer Salviati at the Inter- 
 national Exhibition. This gentleman has now in hand sundry- 
 mosaics for the vaulting of the tomb-house at Windsor. Messrs. 
 Powell and Mr. Eust have also produced both the coloured and 
 the gold mosaics, and with them several essays have been made 
 by Mr. Fisher. The ornaments have been executed in the or- 
 dinary manner, but the tesserae of the heads are simply portions 
 of square glass rods broken off; a good deal of labour is thus 
 saved, and at a distance the effect is much the same as if the mate- 
 rial had been chopped out in the ordinary manner. In this case, 
 as in stained glass, it is very desirable to vary the tones of the 
 different colours, more especially the gold, which it is perfectly 
 possible to make too well. It is much to be wished that this 
 beautiful and very lasting kind of decoration should be -more 
 generally employed, but I am afraid that this will not happen 
 until the cost of execution is brought down to something like 
 that of stained glass. At present the gold is excessively dear, 
 and of course retards this consummation, for the gold is a most 
 essential ingredient in all mosaics for architectural purposes. 
 We must hope, however, that this difficulty will be got over 
 in time. 
 
 The last application of glass I shall notice is that of enamel- 
 ling. At present, when we see it only used for jewellery and 
 clock-faces, it is difficult to conceive it to have been the subject 
 of an extensive art -manufacture ; but such it was formerly, when 
 the town of Limoges alone produced almost innumerable speci- 
 mens, and such it must have been in China during the last two 
 centuries. 
 
 There are various sorts of enamel, all of which have been 
 more or less extensively practised in all ages. The first and 
 simplest is where the ground of the metal is scooped out, and 
 the enamel — of which the base is crystal coloured with metallic 
 oxides, put in in the shape of powder, or of a paste, and then fused 
 and polished ; the visible surface of metal in this case generally 
 being copper-gilt. This is the sort of enamel produced during 
 the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in such quantities at Li- 
 moges, to say nothing of other manufactories in Germany. All 
 sorts of articles were made of it and exported, from marriage- 
 coffers and horse-trappings up to large tombs. We know that 
 one of the latter was actually imported into this country for 
 Rochester Cathedral, and there is little doubt but that the 
 
A rt applied to Industry, ' 2 5 
 
 monument of William de Valence in Westminster Abbey- 
 comes from the same source. 
 
 In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries silver was much 
 used as the ground for enamels ; then the vitreous pastes be 
 came transparent, and the works altogether much finer. The 
 Italians, indeed, had a process of covering a very slightly raised 
 subject with coloured enamels, which has a most beautiful efiect. 
 But to execute these demanded a first-rate artist to do the raised 
 subject, and a most skilful enameller to prevent the enamels, 
 when in the act of fusion, from running into one another. In 
 fact, it was part of the goldsmith^s art, and was never produced 
 in sufficient quantities to become a trade. 
 
 A third method of enamelling w^as to form the pattern of 
 thin strips of metal placed on their edges instead of scooping it 
 out. Most European enamels of this kind are executed in gold, 
 and are of ancient date, like the pallo d^oro at Venice, or the 
 cross in the possession of Mr, Hope. Many of the enamels 
 employed are also transparent. If, however, we look at the 
 Chinese enamels produced in such quantities during the last 
 two or three centuries, we shall find that they are nearly all 
 produced in this manner, the metal being copper. It is almost 
 impossible to enumerate the various objects made by this nation 
 of enamelled copper, but every new importation brings to our 
 notice some new application of it. I believe the Chinese them- 
 selves say that they received the art from the barbarians, and 
 that at no remote antiquity ; the earliest date I know of being 
 1475, marked on a vase, one of the spoils of the Summer Palace. 
 
 In the beginning of the sixteenth century the good citizens 
 of Limoges revived their trade in enamels, which had quite 
 fallen away ; but then they took up an entirely new process, 
 better suited to the prevailing architectural taste. The vessel 
 to be ornamented was made of thin copper, then covered with 
 black enamel, upon which most delicate figures and ornaments 
 were executed in white. This of course was a far more artistic 
 affair than their former process, and in all probability they did 
 not produce anything like the same number of objects, but still 
 it was a trade, and a great quantity must have been turned out, 
 for the manufacture only ceased in the last century. 
 
 Of late years several attempts have been made in France to 
 revive the art of enamelling as applied to considerable-sized ob- 
 jects, and in some instances with great success. Thus one artist 
 
 E 
 
26 Art applied to Industry, 
 
 imitated a quantity of the late Limoges work with such suc- 
 cess as completely to deceive a celebrated collector, and ob- 
 tained the honours of a lawsuit. Last year I had the pleasure 
 of visiting the atelier of M. Legoste. His process, which 
 is founded on the early Limoges school, consists in casting 
 the copper instead of scooping out the pattern ; but the 
 great difficulty is to so mix up the enamels that they shall all 
 flux at the same temperature. The enamels shrink during the 
 firing, and have to be filled up and fired again. This process is 
 very tedious ; so much so, that the artist considers himself very 
 lucky if it only occurs three times. In a circular article the 
 fusing and firing is done in portions at a time, the other parts 
 being protected by loam. A great deal of labour is saved by 
 the casting process, and the works of M. Legoste are therefore 
 comparatively cheap. He is also his own designer, and a very 
 good one too ; the only defect being a little sharpness in the 
 colours, which is at once seen when comparing them with an- 
 cient or Chinese work. But what can be expected from a mo- 
 dern European, who lives without any surrounding colour? 
 
 I think it will be agreed that there is a pretty wide field open 
 to the manufacturer even in glass, and its various applications ; 
 and as we have got stained glass as good as the old, let us hope 
 that some day we may have drinking-glasses rivalling the Ro- 
 man, and enamels which surpass those of Limoges, both of the 
 early and late school. 
 
F^OTTERY. 
 
 The whole history of pottery is so well known, and has been 
 related in so much detail by various excellent authorities, that 
 it appears almost hopeless to make even such an abridgment of 
 it as may suit the purpose of these lectures. It is also the 
 most advanced of our art industries, for nothing can be more 
 beautiful than the pottery, china, and earthenware made for 
 the use of the upper ten thousand. Unfortunately, however, 
 art has not been much applied to those objects in pottery of 
 which we are compelled to use a large quantity, and we accord- 
 ingly find ourselves in this dilemma — if we buy a beautiful thing 
 it is very dear, if a cheap one it is often very ugly. 
 
 The painted Greek vase, as we shall see, was a valuable 
 article, and corresponded to our better sort of china; but the 
 unpainted vessels were made in equally excellent forms, the 
 distinction being the painting, the finer clay, and the greater 
 care in the manufacture. While I can, therefore, find very 
 much to say on the subject of what has been done and what 
 is doing in the manufacture of pottery, I shall have much less 
 to suggest as to what remains to be eff'ected ; beyond putting 
 in a plea for a greater employment of mechanical appliances 
 to first-rate designs, so as to secure much smaller though re- 
 munerative prices. And first of the Greeks. 
 
 In the tombs scattered over Italy, Greece, and the Greek 
 islands, it is by no means unusual to find beautifully painted 
 vases disposed around the body, or hung up at the sides of the 
 walls. If the tombs were small, as in Greece, the vases are 
 also small, and we consequently find the largest and finest in 
 Etruria and southern Italy, where it was the custom to bury 
 rich persons in sepulchral chambers. These vases are gene- 
 rally of a lightish red earth, painted in blackish brown, yellow, 
 white, and red ; sometimes they hold ashes, and sometimes small 
 objects which the owner used in life. In a state of society 
 when it was considered fashionable to bury the warrior in his 
 armour or the lady in her dress and jewellery, it can very easily 
 be understood how the more valuable household vessels cor- 
 
28 Art applied to Industry, 
 
 responding to our china would be enclosed in the same tomb. 
 That they were considered valuable anciently is proved by 
 their being found repaired with lead or copper rivets. In 
 later times, when the manufacture had ceased, they were ex- 
 tracted from the tombs very much as in the present day, and, 
 according to Pliny, they commanded very high prices. Of 
 late years the examination of the ancient sepulchres has been 
 carried on in a more systematic manner, and in Mr. Birch's 
 work will be found the calculation that the museums alone 
 of Europe contain somewhat about 10,000, to say nothing 
 of private collections ^. 
 
 The manufacture of these vases began at the earliest periods 
 of Greek civilization. It then appears to have spread itself 
 wherever they colonized, and finally to have ceased about 
 a century before the Christian era, the decline dating from the 
 conquest of Persia by Alexander, which brought from Asia 
 a great quantity of the precious metals into Europe, and 
 thereby introduced the more general use of gold and silver 
 vessels instead of earthenware. 
 
 Antiquaries have taken great delight in dividing and sub- 
 dividing the Greek vases into various styles and periods, but the 
 best and simplest method is perhaps that adopted by Mr. Old- 
 field in the arrangement of the vases belonging to the Temple 
 collection in the British Museum, and I have therefore made 
 use of his dates in the following account. 
 
 First period, 550 b.c. Early Archaic. Light buff ground, 
 figures in brownish black, lines of details incised, and sundry 
 parts touched up with a purple red. The subjects represented 
 are ornaments and Asiatic looking animals, the human figure 
 being rare. These vases are found in the Greek islands and at 
 ISTola. 
 
 Second period, 550 — 450 b.c Good Archaic. Ground red, 
 with slight glaze or polish, black figures, incised details, white 
 and purple touches. Great number of figures, the male flesh 
 black, but that of ladies painted white. The drawing is ex- 
 ceedingly accentuated, and altogether has a decorative appear- 
 ance, the figures being rather stiff. The subjects are the Tro- 
 jan war, Greek myths, and stories of Bacchus. The forms of 
 
 » History of Ancient Pottery. By Samuel Birch. (London : Murray. 1858.) 
 
Art applied to Indiistry, 2*9 
 
 the vases are accentuated and sharp, and they are found chiefly 
 in Italy, particularly at Vulci. 
 
 Third period, 450 — 350 B.C. Black ground, fine glaze or 
 polish, superior execution, and beautiful drawing ; hardly any 
 white used. The story is told in the best way, and with few 
 figures. The form of the vases is also excellent. This is the 
 best period of all. Examples are found chiefly in Italy, par- 
 ticularly at Vulci and Nola. 
 
 Fourth period, 350 — 250 b.c. The decadence now begins. 
 There is still the black ground and red figures, but the execu- 
 tion is laboured, the folds of the garments are multiplied, and 
 the compositions more elaborate. We find a great deal of 
 white employed, also gilding, and even other colours. The 
 forms of the vases also become bulbous, and weaker than during 
 the former period. Still some very beautiful works must be 
 referred to this division, particularly the vase now in the British 
 Museum, and engraved in the third number of the " Fine Arts 
 Quarterly,^^ with a description by Mr. Newton. 
 
 Italy, North Africa, and Greece are the countries which 
 principally afi'ord us the works of this period. A variety, how- 
 ever, is peculiar to Athens. Here the vessels are formed of 
 whitish clay, and the subjects are executed in many colours, 
 blue and green included. 
 
 The fifth and last division extends from 250 — 150 b.c, and 
 exhibits a most decided falling ofi^, its principal characteristic 
 being a great quantity of white ^. 
 
 The manufacture of the Greek vases must have demanded 
 a great amount of skill, firstly in the preparation of the clay, 
 and secondly on the part of the potter, for they are exceedingly 
 light as compared with their bulk. Pliny tells the story how 
 a potter and his apprentice tried who could turn the lightest 
 vase, but does not inform us which of the two succeeded ; we 
 only know that both vases were placed in the temple of 
 Erythrse. 
 
 Some parts of the ornaments, such as could not be formed 
 on the wheel, were moulded or modelled, and afterwards at- 
 tached to the body. Antiquaries appear to difi'er very much 
 as to the subsequent processes. Most probably the vase was 
 
 ^ In the above descripLion I have taken advantage of the kindness of A. Franks, 
 Esq., who not only aflforded me every facility for the examination of the vases, but 
 communicated the results of his own experience. 
 
30 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 dried in the sun, the figures pounced, and afterwards drawn on 
 it, and the whole then baked ; it is, I believe, still a question 
 whether the polished surface was given by a glaze or by 
 mechanical means. Doubtless many of the masterpieces of 
 antiquity, did we but know it, have been handed down to us 
 in these paintings, much in the same manner that Eaphael's 
 designs were copied on the Italian majolica, or those of modern 
 masters on the Sevres china. 
 
 Although found in tombs, very few of the Greek vases ap- 
 pear to have been made for that especial purpose ; on the con- 
 trary, they are nearly all for domestic use, and also we must re- 
 member that the ancients employed vases in many cases where 
 we moderns make use of casks and tubs. Again, the whole 
 economy of the dinner-table was different. They did not drink 
 strong wines poured out of heavy decanters into little glasses. 
 On the contrary, the wine was brought up in an amphora, 
 mixed with water in the crater, a large vase with an open 
 mouth and handles ; it was then ladled out of this by means 
 of the cyathos, a vessel like a teacup with one very long handle, 
 and drank in the scyphos, cylix, phiale, and rhyton, the latter 
 being shaped like a horn, and ending with the head or fore- 
 part of some animal^. Like the glass drinking- vessels of our 
 Anglo-Saxon ancestors, it also possessed the somewhat equivocal 
 advantage of requiring to be completely emptied before it could 
 be set down. Other vessels were made to hold wine, oil, figs, 
 honey, &c. ; others for carrying, or more probably for holding 
 water — these are beautifully decorated ; others, again, for per- 
 fumes : in fact, there are as many forms and as many uses as 
 we find in the Italian majolica or in the modern china. 
 
 These vases have often been imitated in modern times. Thus 
 there is, or was, a manufactory at Naples. Wedgwood also 
 made copies, and Mr. Battam does the same at the present day ; 
 the principal use of which, if use it can be called, appears to 
 be the decoration of the tops of bookcases, where it is evident 
 that the painting must be too far away from the eye to be 
 appreciated. Could it be made into dessert services or flower 
 vases there would be an evident use, although even then one 
 would be inclined to ask what we have to do with Greek myths. 
 It is only fair to Mr. Battam to say that he has drawn the 
 
 Birch. 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 3 1 
 
 designs of Flaxman on his vases, but still I should much have 
 preferred to have had scenes of our every-day life depicted, had 
 we but a costume fit for the purpose ; and as we do not put our 
 wine on table in craters, I do not very well see the object in 
 making vases that we cannot use. At the same time, it cannot 
 be denied that the student may learn a vast deal as to the ar- 
 rangement of figures from old vases. The same great principles 
 which guided the Greek paintings on pottery will be found 
 useful in the arrangement of figures on plain surfaces, such as 
 mural decoration, incised pavements, or mosaics. The short- 
 hand way of drawing the figure also deserves notice. 
 
 The Romans did not by any means possess so artistic an 
 article for the dinner-table as the Greeks. Their best sort of 
 pottery is what is known to antiquaries as the Samian ware, 
 although in reality the Italian specimens appear to have been 
 manufactured at Arezzo. The kind so extensively found in 
 Britain and elsewhere is said to have been imported from 
 Germany and the eastern parts of Gaul : and if an importation, 
 it must have been an article of very considerable importance, 
 as specimens of it are found wherever the Eomans have had 
 a settlement. It is very hard, and of a bright red colour, like 
 sealing-wax. The vessels were made on a wheel, and often 
 turned on a lathe, the ornaments being formed in moulds and 
 afterwards attached, and the whole covered by a thin delicate 
 glaze. The ornaments consist of leaves, scrolls, animals, birds, 
 architectural features, and figures, executed in rather a coarse 
 style of art. 
 
 I do not know that imitations of this ware have ever been 
 made an article of commerce ; the last century, however, pro- 
 duced a good deal of dark red ware resembling the Japanese. 
 But before we leave the ancient world it will be as well to say 
 something of the productions of our countryman, Wedgwood. 
 Wedgwood is principally known in the present day as having 
 invented and made that wonderful ware which now commands 
 such high prices. Although breathing a great deal of the an- 
 tique spirit, very little, if any, is a distinct copy from old works 
 in pottery. But then Wedgwood could secure the services of 
 such a man as Flaxman, who was almost more Greek than the 
 Greeks themselves. And here again we have to regret that, to 
 employ his powers, such an artist should have been compelled, 
 as it were, to live in another age. 
 
32 Art applied to Industry, 
 
 Wedgwood, who was a self-made and self-educated man, 
 effected his great discoveries between 1760 and 1762, when he 
 brought the aid of chemistry to his manufacture. Luckily he 
 had a partner who was well versed in the fine arts, and who 
 procured him ancient gems and works of art to study. 
 
 Among the various descriptions of Wedgwood we must ad- 
 mire the black Egyptian ware, and the more common blue 
 jasper, as it was called. The paste of which these were made 
 was a porcelaineous biscuit, which was capable of being coloured 
 throughout with metallic oxides, white figures relieving the 
 monotony in most cases. It was thus that he imitated the 
 Portland vase, using a glaze over his ground to imitate the 
 glass of the original. Fifty copies were made, and sol^ for fifty 
 guineas each. All sorts of vessels and ornaments were made in 
 this blue and white ware, some pieces even being set in gold as 
 jewels, although their half dull surface too much resembles that 
 of the skin to be efi'ective. 
 
 At the present day the manufacture is still carried on by his 
 descendants, the old moulds being re-used. The principal dif- 
 ferences consist in the figures, which are not so carefully cleaned 
 up as in the original work, and in the colours of the grounds, 
 which are much sharper ; the old ones, whether they are blue, 
 green, or drab, being always harmonious and pleasing to the ey^. 
 
 We now come to the pottery of the Middle Ages. This is 
 not the place to discuss whether the Pisans imported the art 
 after the conquest of Majorca, or Majolica (hence the name), 
 in 1115, or whether it was gradually introduced from Sicily. 
 However that may be, the Arabs or Moors appear to have 
 been able to cover earthenware with an opaque stanniferous 
 glaze, and to decorate it with what are usually called lustre 
 ornaments, viz. colours mixed up with an iridescent glaze. 
 The Italians appear to have lost the secret of the opaque glaze, 
 which was rediscovered in the middle of the succeeding cen- 
 tury by Luca della Robbia, for in the fourteenth century we 
 find them covering vessels of red clay with a coating of white. 
 This red clay ware covered with white is called the Middle 
 Majolica style ; but about 1500 the opaque white glaze was 
 again applied to pottery, 'and Faenza, Urbino, Pesaro, Castel 
 Durante, and above all Gubbio, became famed for their ma- 
 jolica. At the end of the fifteenth century the art had re- 
 ceived great encouragement from Frederigo and Guidobaldo, 
 
Art applied to Industry. 33 
 
 but in 1530 it received a great impetus by Francesco Maria 
 holding his court at Gubbio and giving his supervision to the 
 works. It was at this time that Giorgio Andreoli was employed, 
 whose signature is found on so many plates. Until lately it 
 was the fashion to regard him as the artist, but as many of 
 the works so signed are in very different styles, the modern 
 opinion, that in the majority of cases Giorgio only put on the 
 lustrous colours, has great probability. 
 
 The best period of majolica was from 1540 to 1568, under 
 Guidobaldo II., who not only collected the sketches of Raphael 
 and other great masters, but induced some of the best artists 
 of the day (such as Battista Franco^ Raffaelle dal CoUe) to work 
 at the designs. 
 
 Political circumstances, the general decline of art, and, above 
 all, the extensive introduction of Chinese porcelain, caused the 
 discontinuance of the manufacture at the end of the century, 
 but not before it had produced works which are quite worthy 
 to be placed by the side of those of the Greeks. 
 
 It would be almost impossible to describe the wonderful 
 variety of subjects depicted on the majolica. The early speci- 
 mens are distinguished by the black or blue outlines, white flesh 
 shaded with blue, and, above all, by the beauty of the lustrous 
 colours and glazes. 
 
 In later times the art was discovered of applying white in 
 the high lights, and the carnations became consequently much 
 more modelled and altogether differently treated. Arabesques, 
 arms, and portraits may be said to distinguish the earlier works 
 from the later, where we find a much greater employment of 
 figures and stories, although the arabesques are still to be 
 met with. 
 
 The uses made by the Italians of the majolica were as various 
 as those of the Greeks for their painted earthenware. Thus 
 some plates were made for the purpose of handing fruit to ladies 
 during a ball : they have often a sunk surface in the middle, 
 while others, with a still smaller sunk surface, were intended 
 as the means of handing glasses. Many of the dishes decorated 
 with portraits were presents to ladies, the said lady's portrait 
 having an inscription setting forth her name, with the addition 
 of Diva or Bella. Most people have heard of the famous bottles 
 in the pharmacy attached to the palace at Gubbio, and which 
 were made by the order of Guidobaldo II. They are now, I 
 
 fXTNIVERSITY 
 
34 Art applied to Industry » 
 
 believe, to be seen at Loretto, and contain the most extraor- 
 dinary jumble of subjects, comprising the Evangelists, Apostles, 
 and Ovid's Metamorphoses. Inkstands, wine bottles, saltcellars, 
 marriage services, toilet vases, wine coolers, &c., are only a few 
 of the forms taken by one of the most artistic industries, whether 
 in form or colour, that the world has ever possessed. 
 
 A few words must be said of Luca della Robbia, who died in 
 1481. Originally a goldsmith, hke so many great artists he 
 next turned sculptor, and finally finding that his professional 
 earnings did not come up to his expectations, he set to work to 
 discover, or rather re-discover, an opaque stanniferous glaze, 
 wherewith to cover his works in terra-cotta. In this he suc- 
 ceeded, and his first work is still to be seen over the sacristy 
 door of the Duomo at Florence. The colours are simply blue 
 and white. In his after-work we find green, maroon, and 
 yellow, but still rather sparingly employed compared to the 
 white and blue. Andrea, his nephew, succeeded him, and ex- 
 ecuted many works, but, as might be expected, not in so pure 
 and simple a style ; and other members of the family were 
 working in the first quarter of the sixteenth century. The 
 works of the Delia Robbia family, however, can hardly be con- 
 sidered pleasing as regards colour, the great predominance of 
 blue and white giving them rather a crude appearance. But 
 apart from this, nobody can deny but that Luca della Robbia 
 was a great master. 
 
 Somewhere about 1542 a certain French glass-painter named 
 Bernard de Palissy, having seen an enamelled piece of pottery, 
 forthwith set to work to do what Della Robbia had done, viz. 
 to discover an opaque enamel for terra-cotta. As our glass- 
 painter was equally ignorant of chemistry and of the art of pot- 
 tery, it is hardly surprising that he should have taken a very long 
 time in pursuit of his object; in fact, it cost him some sixteen 
 years of his life, but then he obtained honour and fame such as 
 no other potter has obtained, and his works at the present day 
 command almost any price. He was attached to the Court, 
 and worked for a long while for Catharine de Medici and the 
 nobility. Unfortunately Bernard de Palissy chose to think for 
 himself on religious matters, a most dangerous luxury in those 
 days, and accordingly we are not surprised at his dying in the 
 Bastille in 1589. 
 
 Palissy is most known by the dishes decorated with the 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 3 5 
 
 fishes and reptiles from the Seine and the fossil shells of the 
 Paris basin. They were moulded from nature in plaster of 
 Paris, then cast in clay, and finally covered with the enamel, 
 which by the way is seldom white, and when it does occur it is 
 not so pure as that of Delia Robbia. These dishes were not 
 made for actual use, but rather to decorate sideboards. They 
 may best be described as painted reliefs, the colours being 
 yellow, brown, grey, and violet. The undersides are often the 
 most beautiful part of the colouring, consisting of several hues 
 run together and resembling agate or jasper. Palissy exercised 
 his talent on very many other things besides these dishes, but 
 it is by these that he is perhaps the best known. His works 
 comprise the usual saltcellars, ewers, basins, &c., to say nothing 
 of the rustiques figulines which were employed to decorate 
 gardens, and which have all disappeared. 
 
 One other artistic development of pottery is too well known 
 to be omitted, this is what is called Henri II. ware. Nothing 
 is known of its author, or the place of its manufacture, beyond 
 that the former is suspected to have been an Italian, and the 
 latter to have been situated somewhere in Touraine. From 
 internal evidence we discover that the manufacture began in 
 the latter years of Francis I., and continued through the reign 
 of his son ; the material is a fine pipeclay, painted over with 
 very minute coloured patterns, most often black, yellow, or 
 brown, and covered with a yellow varnish. It is commonly 
 asserted that these patterns are produced by incising the ground, 
 and filling it up with other coloured clays, but in all probability 
 they w^ere transferred from copper-plate impressions. In an 
 artistic point of view, this Henri II. ware is most remarkable 
 for the exquisite taste and ability displayed in the forms, little 
 animals and the human figure being frequently introduced. 
 In an antiquarian point of view it is the phoenix of pottery, 
 only a very small number of examples being known, and it is 
 easy to imagine what prices a specimen brings if it ever comes 
 into the market. 
 
 Now, nearly every one of the various kinds of majolica and 
 pottery I have mentioned can be produced, and have been 
 produced at the present day in England, thanks to the enter- 
 prise of the late Mr. Minton, who has the additional merit of 
 not simply copying old work, but of applying the old processes 
 to new designs. The grand buffet of the Middle Ages has 
 
36 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 gone out of fashion, but I can hardly conceive a more beautiful 
 spectacle than a large one of three or four steps well furnished 
 with all the varieties of his beautiful manufacture. Unfortu- 
 nately the price puts its general use beyond the means of most 
 people except the rich, and fashion rather inclines to gold, 
 silver, or porcelain, instead of to the more vigorous majolica. 
 
 Again, could it be produced at a low price, what excellent 
 architectural ornaments might be made of it ; the glazed co- 
 loured surface would remain uninjured by the rains and smoke, 
 while the ordinary terra-cotta gets black with the bricks. Of 
 course, the delicate manipulation would not be required in 
 large works, and the lustrous yellows and reds might be sub- 
 stituted for the gilding. Probably a greater employment of 
 printing might be made available for the outlines of plain sur- 
 faces, the which outlines might be filled up with colour by chil- 
 dren. No one of course expects to find beautifully coloured 
 majolica used at hotels, &c., but it is just possible that it might 
 be brought within the reach of the middle classes. 
 
 A great development has of late years taken place with re- 
 gard to tiles, almost every description having been imitated and 
 used in buildings. The Moorish tiles before described are 
 made of yellowish clay, covered with an opaque white enamel, 
 which is decorated with blue and lustrous red colour ; in later 
 times these were copied, but the outlines of the patterns are 
 raised, so that each colour is as it were confined to itself. 
 Specimens of both kinds are in the British Museum, as well as 
 part of a mosaic formed of pieces of coloured clay. 
 
 In our own country, the usual mediaeval red tile had its pat- 
 tern sunk and filled in with white clay, and the whole surface 
 covered with a rich yellow glaze. Such tiles are found all over 
 the kingdom, the finest being those discovered in the ruins of 
 Chertsey Abbey, and now in the Architectural Museum. The 
 ornaments have more a foreign than an English look, and it is 
 not improbable that the designer may have been a Frenchman 
 working in England, or that the wooden moulds may have been 
 brought from France. The figures are most spiritedly drawn, 
 and one of them bears traces of having been copied from the 
 antique. In many modern imitations of this description of tile, 
 the glaze is omitted, and yellow clay substituted for the white 
 forming the pattern, but the effect of this is not good, for the 
 colours look weak, and the dirt works into them. Godwin of 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 3 7 
 
 Lugwardine is perhaps the most successful manufacturer of 
 what are commonly called encaustic tiles. 
 
 Occasionally, tiles are found with a pattern simply raised or 
 depressed, and covered with a green glaze ; or the white has not 
 been put into a depressed surface, but painted on like a colour. 
 
 All these are exceptional cases. One of the most curious 
 pavements I know is at Ely, in Prior Crawden's Chapel, where 
 the tiles are cut into patterns, and glazed different colours, so 
 as to make a kind of opus sectile. In front of the altar the artist 
 has executed the temptation of Adam and Eve in this manner. 
 
 Tiles in the latter end of the fifteenth century began to be 
 made of painted majolica. At first the colours are blue and 
 white, but afterwards others were applied. I remember seeing 
 in the island of Capri a whole pavement of a small octagonal 
 church made of painted majolica; the scene represented Adam 
 naming the animals, and extended over the whole surface. 
 Most of these descriptions of tiles have been successfully 
 copied in the present day, but our encaustic ones, as they are 
 called, are very far from coming up to those discovered at 
 Chertsey. A change in this respect is indeed much to be desired, 
 and why we should go on laying down the same fleur-de-lys, 
 the same quatrefoil, and the same rose, when we ought to have 
 scenes and figures, is more than I can imagine. The Greek 
 vases would afford excellent hints for the proper treatment, 
 even were the teachings of the Chertsey tiles neglected. 
 
 It now remains to say a few words about porcelain, which is 
 a semi-transparent pottery made of felspar and of a peculiar 
 clay called kaolin. The name has also been a favourite bone 
 of contention among antiquaries, perhaps the most rational 
 solution being that of the Comte de Laborde in his Emaux du 
 Louvre. He points out that the word porcelain occurs in old 
 inventories long before the Portuguese brought the article now 
 thus called to Europe at the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury ; that from the description this porcelain was most pro- 
 bably mother-of-pearl, and that when the ware was brought 
 from Asia the word porcelain was applied to it, as the two 
 substances resembled one another in a certain manner. How- 
 ever this may be, there is little doubt but that porcelain was 
 imported into Arabia and Persia long before the discovery of 
 the Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese, and some have 
 even gone so far as to recognise in it the murrhine cups of 
 
38 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 the Romans, although the balance of evidence would almost 
 point to coloured fluor spar as the material. The Chinese them- 
 selves place its invention about our Christian era, and have got 
 complete accounts as to what colours were made at different 
 times or under different dynasties'^. If the forms of the 
 Chinese vessels are occasionally open to criticism, and if we 
 object to their utter disregard of probability and drawing in 
 their monsters, we must at all events praise the beauty of the 
 colour, which makes amends for all shortcomings, even for 
 their stationary state of figure drawing. It would be almost 
 endless to enumerate the various colours and tones of the 
 rarer sort of china, the yellow and ruby being reserved for 
 imperial use; a law, by the way, by no means more despotic 
 than that of the old French regime which forbade the use of 
 gold to any other manufactory than that of Sevres. The 
 Japanese china is quite equal if not superior to the Chinese as 
 regards colour, to say nothing of its incontestable merit in 
 design. The egg-shell is particularly delicate. For some time 
 Europe was content to import the porcelain, but at the begin- 
 ning of the eighteenth century efforts were made to discover 
 the kaolin, or at least a substitute. At last Bottcher having 
 accidentally obtained it, produced in 1715 a perfect hard porce- 
 lain for Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, King of Poland, and 
 more generally known as the opponent of Charles XII. This 
 discovery was the origin of the Dresden school, which after- 
 wards became so famous for its beautiful forms and beautiful 
 paintings, and favourably distinguished in the former from the 
 Sevres school, of which the colours were most exquisite, while 
 the forms leave a very great deal to be desired. Soft porcelain 
 had been produced in France as early as 1695, but the hard 
 was not obtained until 1768. In the meanwhile the soft had 
 become renowned for the extreme beauty of the colours, and 
 even now, hleu de roi, bleu turquoise^ jonquille, vert pre, and 
 rose du Barri are almost household words. Mention should 
 also be made of the English establishments at Bow, Chelsea, 
 and Worcester, the latter of which is still at work and in 
 a flourishing condition. This manufactory claims the inven- 
 tion of printing on porcelain, although it appears to have been 
 used in the Henri II. ware. 
 
 '• See Marryat, p. 181. 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 39 
 
 At the present day there are many large establishments for 
 the manufacture of china^ such as those of Messrs. Copeland, 
 Minton, and Rose, of Colebrook Dale; and our china as far 
 as colours go very nearly approaches the Sevres, some of the 
 turquoise blue of Mr. Rose being particularly fine. Of course 
 it is hardly to be expected that china should ever be very 
 cheap, more especially that decorated with colours, such as the 
 rose du Barri, but the present age has produced some things 
 which are both cheap and beautiful, and among them there are 
 the French coloured biscuit statues. 
 
 It is now acknowledged that the ancients when they had 
 a beautiful marble or alabaster statue, generally endeavoured 
 to heighten the effect by means of strong colour applied in 
 thin lines, and diapers over the garments, while the hair was 
 gilt, and the flesh covered with an encaustic varnish, the 
 greatest care being taken to keep all the details most delicate 
 in the execution. These coloured biscuit statues appear to me 
 to come the nearest to the antique work as regards the poly- 
 chromy, the only objection being that the carnations have 
 hardly sufficient transparency. One good point is that they 
 are not covered with a glaze, which takes so much from the 
 effects of the little figures made at Dresden and at Sevres; 
 at the same time they are apt to get rather dirty in London, 
 and require a glass case. 
 
 This, then, must conclude my notice on pottery, and, as I 
 said before, I think we are so far advanced that there is little 
 room left for any suggestion beyond that of procuring better 
 forms for the cheaper articles. The curves of the old Greek 
 vases are said to have been suggested by a study of the natural 
 lines of leaves of various kinds, a far more probable case than 
 the theory that they are the result of hard geometrical investi- 
 gation. For although many a man has reduced a natural 
 curve to its geometrical elements, I very much question whether 
 any one ever set to work to design a vase by the help of conic 
 sections alone. 
 
 As it is, with all drawbacks I only wish all our industrial arts 
 were as far advanced artistically as our pottery. 
 
BKASS A.ISrD IKON. 
 
 It is so very seldom that we hear of antiquaries being of 
 accord on any subject, that their agreements may generally 
 be described as agreements to differ. There is, how^ever, one 
 point on which they are nearly unanimous, and that is the fact 
 that bronze implements were in use long before those of iron. 
 Now copper being a metal far too soft for the general uses of 
 life, is alloyed in various manners to obtain the requisite degree 
 of hardness, and to lessen the expense : this is done in various 
 ways ; but two are in greater use than the others. Thus, if tin 
 be added to copper, the result is called bronze ; if zinc, we ob- 
 tain brass. The ancient^ employed for the most part the former 
 alloy for the common objects of every-day life ; we, on the con- 
 trary, make a much greater use of the latter, although to a 
 much less extent than the Romans did of bronze, our iron 
 serving us instead. 
 
 It is almost impossible for us moderns to have any conception 
 of the vast number of statues which decorated an antique town. 
 Did a man fill with credit any city office, or had he obtained 
 any privilege for his fellow citizens, immediately a statue was 
 erected to him. In the present day we should present him 
 with a piece of plate, say a tea-service, which would only be 
 seen by his private friends. The ancients went on a better 
 principle, what they gave their money for was seen by every 
 one ; and as statuaries were then quite as good as our modern 
 sculptors, and as the costume was very much better, the result 
 turned out very different from what we see done at present. 
 In fact, almost the last insult you can offer a man in the nine- 
 teenth century is to erect his statue, and as one generally does 
 not want to insult one^s fellow-citizens, the statue is seldom 
 executed before the death of the original. Statues, as before 
 remarked, were erected exactly as we present pieces of plate, 
 viz. on the smallest pretence **: hence the immense number. 
 Many of these were in bronze, but comparatively few have 
 
 * See Apuleius, Metamorphoses, book iii., where the magistrates having made 
 Lucius the victim of a practical joke, as amends vote hiui a bronze statue. 
 
Art applied to Industry. 4 1 
 
 reached our times, owing to the value of the metal. A marble 
 statue was only good to burn into lime, but many things could 
 be made from a bronze one. Some, however, have been pre- 
 served ; such is the statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Capitol 
 at E/Ome ; and the celebrated bronze wolf in the museum of the 
 same place, and which if not a modern antique of Rienzi^s time, 
 has very great claims to be the identical statue mentioned 
 by Cicero as struck by lightning. The figure of Victory, 
 in the museum at Brescia, is another very beautiful speci- 
 men of antique art; while Herculaneum and Pompeii, more 
 especially the former, have contributed numerous examples to 
 the Museo Borbonico at Naples. Herculaneum appears to 
 have been a much richer town than Pompeii, and, moreover, 
 was covered with lava instead of cinders and scoriae; hence 
 the ancients were not enabled to remove the more valuable 
 objects as they did at the latter town. If we read Pliny we 
 find very numerous passages relating to bronze statues and 
 their artists ; but as few or none of these works are in actual 
 existence, the enumeration would be of little use. 
 
 Perhaps the two most celebrated bronze statues mentioned 
 by him are the Colossus of Rhodes, seventy cubits high, and 
 which after standing fifty-six years was cast down by an earth- 
 quake, — our author observing that " few men can clasp the 
 thumb in their arms, and its fingers are larger than most 
 statues ; where the limbs are broken asunder, vast caverns are 
 seen yawning in the interior" ^ ; — and the colossal statue of Mi- 
 nerva Promachus at Athens, made by Phidias from a tenth 
 of the spoils of Marathon. It must have formed a most pro- 
 minent feature of the Acropolis, as seen by the spectator when 
 facing the Propyla3a. 
 
 In our cloudy climate, and with our parsimonious ideas of 
 architectural decoration, we can have no idea of what this 
 view must have been. Architecture in marble, painting, sculp- 
 ture in marble and sculpture in bronze, were all united on 
 a high rock rising from a plain ; and when seen in the bright 
 sunlight, and backed by a blue sky, it must have more than 
 rivalled any assemblage of buildings in mediaeval Europe. 
 
 To return to our bronze. This metal was not employed solely 
 for statues, as is our custom, but formed the material of number- 
 
 ^ Pliny, Hist. Nat., xxxiv. 18. 
 G 
 
42 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 less objects of common use, as excavations in most Roman 
 settlements generally prove. Again, it was also frequently 
 used as an architectural decoration, or as an adjunct to sculp- 
 ture; witness the holes in many parts of the Elgin marbles. 
 Bronze doors to temples were also very common, several ancient 
 ones doing duty in the churches of modern Rome. Whole walls 
 were covered with plates of brass, like the treasury of Atreus 
 at Argos, in which some of the nails still remain. Again, the 
 roof of the Pantheon was tiled with bronze, until it pleased one 
 of the popes to convert the metal into the hideous baldachino 
 which covers the high altar at St. Peter's. But the practice of 
 melting down works in bronze was by no means a modern one, 
 for if anciently every opportunity was seized upon to erect a 
 statue, on the other hand, nothing is more common than to 
 read of the said statues being broken up on the assassination of 
 an unpopular prince, or on the disgrace of some too eminent 
 a citizen. Thus the satirist moralizes on the conversion of the 
 bronze statues of Sejanus into frying-pans and other ignoble 
 vessels. 
 
 It must not be imagined that these statues were all of the 
 brown tint we give our modern bronzes by means of acids and 
 pickles; on the contrary, the ancients appear to have had 
 a great liking for decorating both their statues in marble and 
 their statues in bronze; and from what we read in various 
 authors, and from what we see in various museums, we can form 
 a very fair idea of the decoration of metal statues. In the first 
 place, there is great reason to believe that the bronze was often 
 left in its natural colour, and simply protected from oxydation 
 by a varnish of some kind, perhaps encaustic. Again, most 
 antique bronze statues I have seen are cast in several pieces, 
 and fixed together by rivets or other means; and by using 
 difierent alloys, and allowing the metal to oxydize in different 
 manners, it is easy to see how a very great variety of effects 
 could have been obtained. It is in this way that we may possibly 
 explain a passage in Pliny, where he describes the bronze statue 
 of a dying lady, which was so arranged that the life appeared to 
 be gradually receding from the extremities of the limbs. Some 
 writers have declared this to be impossible, but, as I said be- 
 fore, it might easily be accounted for by the employment of 
 different alloys cast in small pieces, the junctions of the feet with 
 the legs being hidden by anklets, of the hands with the arms 
 
A rt applied to IndtLstry, 43 
 
 by bracelets, of the head and neck by a necklace. Another 
 curious instance mentioned by the same author is that of 
 a statue where the sculptor wished to represent the cheeks as 
 suffused with blushes; to effect this, we are told that he mixed 
 iron with the bronze, and the weather, oxydizing the former, 
 produced a red tint. Perhaps by this we are to understand 
 that a number of small needle points were driven into the 
 bronze surface after the casting had been made. 
 
 The ancients were also fond of gilding their bronzes. The 
 equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius has been so decorated; 
 and there is a Hercules in the Vatican similarly treated. This 
 gilding was, however, not always considered an improvement, 
 for Pliny states how a very celebrated statue was gilded by 
 order of Nero, but the eflPect was so bad that the gold had to 
 be scraped off again ; and, adds the author, " Although the statue 
 is covered with scratches from this operation, it is not the less 
 admired''." We also learn a good deal of the various ways of 
 decorating bronzes from the examples in the Museo Borbonico : 
 there we find the curls and other accessories cast or wrought 
 separately, and then fastened on; the eye-balls are made of 
 silver, ivory, or composition; the pupils are supplied by darker 
 compositions, and I have even seen eyelashes cut out of a thin 
 strip of metal, and affixed in their places. I am not quite so 
 certain about the lips, but the edges of them were so indented 
 in several examples, that it was perfectly possible that a thin 
 plate of copper might have been superposed. 
 
 As to the garments, they received delicate ornaments on their 
 borders by means of incrustations of silver or copper. Niello 
 also occurs occasionally, as in the celebrated bronze which 
 forms part of the Townley collection in the British Museum. If 
 we add to all these means of ornament partial gilding and the 
 application of gold and silver ornaments, and perhaps even of 
 the opaque jewels, we can easily conceive that a bronze statue 
 is capable of being made a very different affair from what we 
 are accustomed to behold. 
 
 Let us now see how bronzes were treated in the Middle 
 Ages. In this case there is no lack either of documents or 
 of the examples themselves; but first of all as to the way in 
 which they were executed. This was by the process' commonly 
 
 « Pliny, Hist. Nut., xxxiv. 19. 
 
44 ^ '^t applied to Industry, 
 
 known as the cire perdue, because those parts to be cast in 
 bronze were modelled in wax, which was afterwards melted out 
 of the mould and replaced by the molten metal. In the 
 present day a somewhat different way is adopted, a thin layer 
 of clay replacing the wax, and as it of course cannot be melted 
 out, the outer mould is made in separate pieces in order to 
 effect its removal. The small bronzes, again, are, I believe, 
 cast in sand much in the same manner as brass-work: those 
 of M. Barbedienne are so carefully done that it is said they 
 require but little touching up afterwards by the chaser. The 
 Middle Ages have left us very many noble works in bronze, or 
 latten, as most alloys of copper were then called. The word 
 indeed appears to have been used in just as loose a manner as 
 the Romans employed the term ces. As regards effigies in 
 metal, perhaps no church can shew a more complete and beau- 
 tiful series than our own Westminster Abbey; the earliest 
 being those representing Henry III. and Queen Eleanor, and 
 both remarkable as being ideal portraits. Unfortunately most 
 of the chefs-d'oeuvre of the Middle Ages were executed in stone 
 or soft alabaster, and have suffered accordingly ; and we have 
 therefore to congratulate ourselves on the fact that the effigies 
 under consideration were cast in bronze, and not chiselled 
 in stone. The artist was one William Torel, whom there is 
 every reason to believe was an Englishman, and not an Italian 
 as some authors have supposed. From the original accounts, 
 edited by the late Hudson Turner, we learn that he was a gold- 
 smith ; that he worked in the King's palace ; that a large 
 quantity of wax was employed, evidently for the cire perdue 
 process ; and, finally, that the casting took place in the adjoining 
 churchyard. Nothing can be more beautiful than these two 
 statues, which by the way are very large castings, only a few 
 accessories being added afterwards, and we shall have to go 
 back to the best period of Greek art before we find anything to 
 put into comparison with them. The next in the series is the 
 effigy of Edward III. : here the work, although the face is ap- 
 parently a cast from life, is much coarser, the hair being very 
 badly done indeed ; but we know nothing of the artist. Then 
 follow the figures of Eichard II, and his Queen : these are more 
 carefully treated and altogether better done, although being 
 cast in several detached pieces, they have become grievously 
 mutilated. The artists in this instance are described as copper- 
 
A rt applied to IndustiyT—^ 45. 
 
 smiths, and mention is made of a pattern, so that it is somewhat 
 doubtful whether they modelled the figures or only cast them . 
 The last of the Westminster series are the effigies of Margaret 
 Countess of Richmond, of Henry VII. and of his Queen, 
 but they belong more properly to the Italian renaissance 
 than to mediseval art. They are, however, surpassingly well 
 done, although the draperies are not so elegantly disposed as in 
 ToreFs work. The little figures of saints at the sides of the 
 royal tombs deserve particular attention, both for the care dis- 
 played in their execution and the spirit of the design. At 
 Amiens are two excellent bronze effigies of bishops of the thir- 
 teenth century, and no one who has once seen them can forget 
 either the tomb of Mary of Burgundy at Bruges, glittering 
 with gilding and enamel, or that of MaximiHan at Innspruck, 
 placed in the midst of the statues of his ancestors. 
 
 The bronze doors of cathedrals were also favourite subjects 
 for the skill of the artists of the Middle Ages. Some were 
 covered with figures in damascening, as at Salerno, and others 
 with subjects from sacred history, as at Pisa, Monreale, and 
 Verona; imt the most celebrated are those at Florence known 
 as the Gates of Paradise, for so they were called by Michael 
 Angelo. At the beginning of the fifteenth century the good 
 citizens of Florence determined on erecting a new bronze door 
 to the Baptistery of St. John, as a thank-offering for the cessa- 
 tion of the plague. There was a competition, and, for a wonder, 
 the successful man was actually the most competent. This 
 man was Lorenzo Ghiberti, who eventually executed two doors. 
 The first, to my mind, is far the best, especially in an architec- 
 tural point of view ; the latter one having subjects with land- 
 scape backgrounds, whereas the first is treated in a much 
 simpler manner, so as to match with another door executed 
 some time before by Andrea Pisano. I should not forget to 
 mention that Lorenzo obtained his success partly by his careful 
 chasing, which his profession of a goldsmith had enabled him 
 to acquired 
 
 Among the other legacies of the Middle Ages we must not 
 forget the Albero at Milan, an immense paschal candlestick, 
 with the signs of the zodiac and the battle of the Virtues and 
 the Vices represented on the foot. Antiquaries have hotly dis- 
 
 '^ The trial-piece of Qhiberti is preserved in the Uffizii at Florence. 
 
46 A rt applied to Industry. 
 
 puted whether this is to be considered a work of the thirteenth 
 century or a restoration by a renaissance artist. As far as 
 I have been enabled to judge, I should certainly assign it to the 
 thirteenth century, as the work and design are both first-rate. 
 The shrine of St. Sebald at Nuremburg is another wonderful 
 example of chasing and casting, although the details are all re- 
 naissance. The story goes that Peter Vischer and his sons, who 
 were the artists, spent so much time about it that the sum 
 stipulated in their contract could not near pay them. AYhen 
 the work was completed they went from door to door, and thus 
 got paid by the voluntary contributions of their fellow-citizens. 
 The curious thing about the matter is that the design in the 
 first instance was a pure Gothic one, which has been pub- 
 lished by HeidelofF; it was afterwards changed, either from 
 motives of economy or to accord more with the fashionable 
 architecture from Italy, but even then the chief lines appear 
 to have been copied from the tomb of one of the popes at 
 Avignon. 
 
 The good towns of Nuremburg and Augsburg were indeed 
 famous for all sorts of works in bronze. Witness the foun- 
 tains which decorate the latter, and the beautiful medallions 
 which lie so thickly on the tombstones of the cemetery, of 
 the former city. 
 
 Were I to attempt to enumerate the various uses to which 
 the different alloys of copper, whether bronze or brass, were 
 applied in the Middle Ages, I am afraid I should never finish ; 
 for it is almost impossible to enter any church in Belgium or 
 Germany without meeting with something new. In our own 
 country we have the marvellous screens at Westminster, to say 
 nothing of our magnificent series of monumental brasses. In 
 France, unfortunately, it is different. At the end of the last 
 century the country was declared to be in danger, and indeed 
 really was in danger. Accordingly the lead was stripped from 
 off the roofs to make bullets, and the bells, screens, tombs, and 
 shrines all went into the melting-pot, to re-appear in the shapes 
 of sous and cannon. One example out of many will give an 
 idea of what we have lost. In the city of Troyes there stood 
 a cross of brass, twenty feet high, the work of the fifteenth 
 century, and most wonderfully decorated with architecture and 
 figures. A rude drawing is all that we have to tell us what 
 has disappeared. 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 47 
 
 The mediaeval artists, as a general rule, gilded tlieir more 
 costly bronzes, and, further, engraved patterns on the dresses ; 
 those on the effigies of Richard II. being done with dotted 
 work. Enamelling was occasionally used, as at Warwick and at 
 Bruges, and in several of the monumental brasses. Various 
 holes in ToreFs statues would also point to the employment of 
 jewels, either real or false. 
 
 The Eastern nations have always been famed for their works 
 in bronze, and the objects shewn in the Japanese department 
 of the Great Exhibition proved that the art is by no means 
 a dead one at the present day. Some of the castings were 
 very curious, especially the baskets, which must have been 
 burnt out of the moulds before the metal could be poured in. 
 Many also appear to have been executed by the cire 'perdue 
 process. But the most curious thing is the partial gilding with 
 which so many are decorated : thus we generally colour the 
 "whole surface of a bronze, and then rub off the colour on the 
 more exposed surface, to shew the metal ; the Japanese, on 
 the contrary, slightly gild these same exposed surfaces, thus 
 giving the idea that the metal is gold which has been partially 
 oxydized to prevent its being too glaring to the eyes. 
 
 In the present day the numberless small bronzes which 
 decorate our houses are produced in Paris, which city, some- 
 how or other, has obtained a speciality for this branch of the 
 arts. The manufacturer most in repute is M. Barbedienne, whose 
 productions may be divided into two classes, viz. reductions 
 from the antique, and designs by modern artists. Of these, 
 the latter are infinitely more interesting than the former, for 
 the ancients, it is well known, treated the drapery and details 
 of a bronze statue in a very different manner to that of a marble 
 one ; thus everything is made sharper and finer in bronze than 
 in marble, because one is a dark substance and the other 
 a light. These differences do not, of course, shew so much in 
 a reduction, but still one has always an uncomfortable feehrig 
 that the original is in a different material, and that the object 
 would look better in marble, just as we have the converse feel- 
 ing in the case of the Apollo, which most antiquaries believe to 
 be a marble copy of a bronze original. 
 
 M. Barbedienne's works are remarkable for their very careful 
 casting, but those accustomed to the more beautiful Greek 
 bronzes, such as the shoulder-plates in the Museum, would cer- 
 
48 Art applied to Industry, 
 
 tainly like to see more of that peculiar finish which can only- 
 he got by the use of the chasing tool. Among the French 
 artists Barye is distinguished for his animals. Some of these 
 are not touched by the chasing tool, but then they are modelled 
 in a far rougher and more effective manner than the reduc- 
 tions from the antique we have just been considering, the 
 roughness and asperities giving great life to the surface, and 
 the whole bears to the finished Greek bronze the same re- 
 lation that a rough sketch does to a finished painting. Mene 
 is famed for birds and animals, especially dogs; and Cle- 
 senger has produced some most successful heads, e. g. that of 
 Charlotte Corday, although as much can hardly be said for his 
 restoration of the group of the Fates from the Elgin marbles. 
 Pzadier, who, like our own Flaxman, thought like a Greek, 
 might perhaps have attempted the task under better auspices, 
 but alas 1 he too is gone. 
 
 It will probably be asked why we do not make small bronzes 
 in England. I also have asked the same question. The reply 
 was, that there exists no sufficient reason beyond the very suf- 
 ficient one that it does not pay. Messrs. Elkington have at- 
 tempted it, but I believe with the above result, and accordingly 
 turn their attention more to electrotypes. As to cur public 
 statues, the less said about them the better. Because they are 
 ugly and black, people cry out against the use of bronze ; but 
 the fault is in the artists and those who are called, or rather ' 
 miscalled, the competent judges, and not in the material. If 
 our climate is bad let the statues be covered with a coating of 
 encaustic, which can be removed and renewed every year, thus 
 giving an opportunity for the surface to be cleaned. Those 
 who have seen the great fountains in bronze at Augsburg, and 
 at Paris, can have an idea of what can be done in bronze, and 
 what an artist can make of a fountain, while the specimens in 
 Trafalgar- square are most efficient examples of how not to do it. 
 Is it too much to hope that some day the Government, or a 
 really London Corporation, may pluck up heart to erect some 
 really large bronze work in the shape of a fountain on the 
 finest site in Europe, and that the present affairs may be ap- 
 plied to their legitimate use, viz. to mend the roads ? 
 
 Before leaving the subject of copper and its alloys a short 
 notice should be taken of what is called Dinanderie, from Dinan, 
 which was formerly a great centre for the fabrication of this sort 
 
Art applied to Industry. 49 
 
 of work. Dinanderie may be said to be the art of making metal 
 pots, and pans, and candlesticks, but, unfortunately, the mediaeval 
 development of it by no means came up to the contemporary 
 arts. Its best phase was in tbe East in tlie thirteenth century, 
 when Mossul became so famous for vessels of bronze inlaid 
 with gold and silver. The vase of Yincennes, now preserved in 
 the Louvre, is said to have been brought over to France by 
 St. Louis, and is a most excellent example of the work ; other 
 specimens in our own country will be found in the collections 
 of Messrs. Octavius Morgan and Rhode Hawkins, and in the 
 British Museum. The ornaments for the most part consist 
 of Arabic texts, with foliage interspersed, although we do 
 occasionally find figures. As to the vessels themselves, they 
 appear to have been made for domestic use, a Mahometan 
 writer telling us that they were manufactured for the tables 
 of princes. 
 
 I am not aware that this beautiful sort of work has ever been 
 revived in modern days, and if it ever is I hope we shall con- 
 fine ourselves to the manipulation, and not go copying Arabic in- 
 scriptions and ornaments because we see them on the originals. 
 As to the mediaeval Dinanderie, it has been revived principally 
 by the care of the late Mr. Pugin, and Messrs. Hardman and 
 Hart, to say nothing of many others, now turn out any quan- 
 tity of it. The consequence is that candlesticks and gas-burners 
 can now be obtained at very moderate prices, although the eye 
 is still shocked by the very bright hues of the coloured com- 
 position with which so many specimens are decorated. What we 
 really want is some good cheap original designs for candlesticks, 
 &c., in cast bronze, which is far more lasting, and affords far 
 more scope for art, than Dinanderie; and even in the latter we 
 might reasonably ask for fewer leaves in the engraving and 
 more figures, the latter for the most part being very con- 
 spicuous by their absence. 
 
 I am afraid that the subject of bronze has occupied so much 
 time that little remains to be said about iron, and yet that metal 
 plays by far the most important part in the present century. 
 We are indeed the real age of iron. 
 
 We know very little of the employment of iron by the an- 
 cients, and even if we did, it would not be of much use for our 
 purpose, inasmuch as most of the examples must have perished 
 by oxydation. Luckily for us, they preferred to use bronze, 
 
 H 
 
50 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 and thus we have a number of things which, had they been 
 made in iron, would inevitably have disappeared. 
 
 In the Middle Ages the case was different. Iron was cheaper 
 than brass, and the smiths of the time have left us noble works 
 in the screen at Westminster and the doors at Merton College, 
 Oxford, and St. George's Chapel, Windsor, and, above all, Notre 
 Dame at Paris. These are all executed in short lengths of 
 wrought iron, stamped while hot by iron dies, and then joined 
 together, the said joint being hidden by a leaf: a very dif- 
 ferent way of going to work from some screens I have seen, 
 where pieces of thin iron plate are not riveted, but screwed on 
 to the main stem, and worked up with a pair of pliers. Indeed, 
 this employment of screws is one of the worst features of the 
 modern revival : for how can a brass screen be expected to last 
 for centuries when it is at the mercy of the first dishonest 
 person who has got his opportunity and a screw-driver? In 
 old work the case is different; for there the thief has to deal 
 with rivets, and detaching any portion entailed a long time, 
 and consequently a chance of detection. 
 
 In the latter centuries of the Middle Ages the smiths began to 
 get their effects by putting thin perforated plates of iron one 
 behind another, and this was the beginning of the decline. 
 There was less art and more finger- work in the shape of tracery, 
 &c. Messrs. Hardman had an excellent example of this sort 
 of execution in the Great Exhibition of last year. 
 
 The old smith frequently tinned his iron when in small 
 articles for domestic use, or, if it were large, it was painted 
 and gilt : thus the railings of Queen Philippa's tomb were 
 coloured red. In finer works, such as armour, engraving and 
 gilding were employed to heighten the effect, and in later 
 times damascening. Now in the present day we have, it is 
 true, given up armour, but we have new, and, to our ancestors, 
 undreamt-of developments of iron. 
 
 In the first place, we have learned to cast iron. The earliest 
 specimens of this industry are, I believe, the stove backs which 
 were manufactured in Sussex at the end of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury ^. They generally exhibit figures in relief, ornaments, &c., 
 
 * At Burwash, in Sussex, is a cast-iron monumental slab, with a cross and 
 inscription in relief. Mr. Boutell, in his Christian Monuments, p. 105, gives 
 a woodcut of it, and considers the date as bting the latter part of the fourteenth 
 century. One would much like to know something more about it. 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 5 ^ 
 
 and, in fact, are treated as if they were to be executed in bronze ; 
 they were castings, and if indeed iron would not rust, there 
 would be no reason why the very highest works should not be 
 made in that metal. How far the question of rust will affect 
 the various iron structures, both wrought and cast, which have 
 been erected during the present century, is a very open ques- 
 tion. Hitherto they have been kept well painted, and oxyda- 
 tion thus prevented; But suppose for one moment that, 
 owing to some national calamity, this precaution should be dis- 
 continued for some considerable time, and that the oxydation had 
 well set in ; how long would a structure last, say a bridge for 
 instance, where so much depends on the rivets if of wrought 
 iron, or on the screws if of cast. Again, in the cast-iron 
 bridges, why should not the void spaces be filled in with raised 
 work, representing men, animals, or foliage, instead of the 
 inevitable circle or St. Andrew's cross. Such subjects, if the 
 grounds were perforated and the figures painted and gilt, could 
 hardly fail to be improvements. A beginning has been made 
 in Hungerford Bridge, where the heads of the principal rivets 
 have been gilt, and the iron-work coloured purple -brown 
 instead of the inevitable black. This, it is true, is not a 
 very great advance, and the bridge is not a very pleasing 
 piece of architecture, but still engineering works are gene- 
 rally so ugly, that one is apt to be thankful even for small 
 mercies. 
 
 Formerly the two professions of engineer and architect were 
 not divided, and if we look into the old books of the sixteenth 
 and seventeenth centuries we shall find that even machinery 
 was to a certain degree made ornamental. Examples of this 
 will be found in the old editions of Vitruvius. Hitherto 
 we have done the reverse. The machines have been very 
 strong and have done their work very well, but they have been 
 dreadfully ugly, bearing about the same relation to what they 
 ought to be as a skeleton does to the human body. One is 
 very much tempted to imagine and try and think out how our 
 ancestors of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries would have 
 treated a royal locomotive with its tender and carriage — say 
 one for William Rufus, or King John, or Henry III., all of 
 whom were fond of magnificence : perhaps they would have 
 converted the locomotive into the form of a dragon vomiting 
 the smoke through his upraised head ; his body and wings 
 
52 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 being ricli with gold, colour, tin, and brass, and perhaps even 
 great crystal balls would do duty for eyes. 
 
 Again, how would they have treated a steam-boat ? Would 
 the funnel have been made into a sort of tower ? would the 
 sails have been painted with coat armour ? would shields have 
 been hung all round, and would the paddle-boxes have been 
 historiated with subjects on a gold ground? These are ques- 
 tions that unfortunately can never be answered, even by the 
 antiquary, who can only see things that have existed, not 
 those which might possibly have been made ; but of one thing 
 we may be very sure, and that is this, viz., that had locomo- 
 tives and steamboats been discovered in the twelfth or thirteenth 
 century they would not have been the ugly things we see at 
 the present day. The same truth also applies to our iron bridges 
 and our iron buildings; whether there ever will be an improve- 
 ment is very hard to say, but it is not so very difficult to predict 
 that the said improvement is never likely to take place until 
 we have an architecture, and coloured costume. Even our 
 boasted science is occasionally at fault, and in our anxiety to 
 make everything of our favourite metal we place it in the very 
 situations wiiere it is most unfitted. Thus tin does not suffer any 
 appreciable oxydation, and it was thought by covering plates 
 of iron with a thin coating of this metal that it might be used 
 for covering roofs, and accordingly the whole of the Houses of 
 Parliament were covered with it, but somehow or other it was 
 forgotten that any accidental abrasion, say a chisel dropped on 
 it, would expose the iron, that the said iron would rust, and 
 that the rust would gradually increase and flake off the tin. 
 But so it happened, and the consequence is that the roofs are 
 now covered by a composition invented by M. Zerelmy. 
 
 Again, it has somehow been discovered that cast-iron girders 
 are not quite the capital things they were supposed to be ; 
 firemen declaring that they rather preferred wooden ones, 
 which took some time in burning, whereas the hot cast-iron 
 was apt to snap on the application of water, and transform 
 itself from a girder into two heavy levers acting on the walls, 
 and occasionally bringing them down ; also, that if the girders 
 were proved to a certain pressure, it by no means followed that 
 they would take even half of that pressure on a second appli- 
 cation : we have therefore heard much less of these articles of 
 late years. 
 
Art applied to Industry. 53 
 
 At the same time it appears to me that cast-iroa might be 
 advantageously employed in the arts. If placed indoors, and 
 kept in a dry place and varnished, oxydation Mrould be little to 
 be feared, and statues of it might be gilt or engraved with acid, 
 or even damascened, while the ground might be blackened, or, 
 better still, kept its natural colour. Statues and other objects 
 thus treated would make a pleasing variety to bronze. 
 
aOLD ^ISTD SILVER. 
 
 With all its faults the present century can hardly be 
 charged with ingratitude to its benefactors, or at least to those 
 it considers to come under that title. In truth, the fault if 
 any is quite the other way, for we can scarcely take up a news- 
 paper without seeing that a testimonial has been presented to 
 somebody or other. These testimonials take the most varied 
 shapes, from gold medals which are utterly useless down to 
 tea services which are just as much the reverse. More gene- 
 rally, however, the token of esteem will turn out to be a vase, 
 or a candelabrum, or an epergne ; but whatever form it may 
 take, the design, and frequently the execution, but too often 
 leaves a very great deal to be desired. To any one acquainted 
 with what was done in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance 
 there is really no sight more saddening than the interior of 
 a silversmith's window; what little art is there to be found is 
 generally of the latest and most debased rococo, with occa- 
 sionally a soi-disant mediaeval chalice with proportions and 
 engraving such as no mediseval chalice ever had. If, on the 
 contrary, we look over any collection of old plate, however late, 
 say such as we see in Mr. Lambert's shop, we are at once 
 struck with the amount of hand-work displayed; and if we 
 go further and handle it, we are surprised at its exceeding 
 lightness — it was hardly made to be sold at so much an 
 ounce. 
 
 At the same time thus much must be said in favour of the 
 modern silversmiths, viz. that the fault does not rest entirely 
 with them ; they only buy or cause to be manufactured things 
 which they think will command a quick sale, and a great part 
 of the blame must be attributed to their customers, who have 
 the bad taste and want of education which leads them to buy 
 such objects. A more general spread of art education will^ it 
 is hoped, remedy this evil : in the meantime it may be as well 
 to examine what was the state of things with regard to the 
 silversmith's craft in the Middle Ages. I say the Middle Ages, 
 because we possess a great mass of evidence, both documentary 
 and real, of what was then done, which unfortunately is not the 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 5 5 
 
 case with regard to the classic era; for although a consider- 
 able amount of documentary evidence might be obtained by 
 an industrious rummaging of the old authors^ still the value of 
 the metal has so completely caused the destruction of the 
 articles themselves that there would be very little to point 
 to in the way of illustration. We even learn very little from 
 Pliny (w^ho is usually so full of details of all the arts), beyond 
 certain facts of the poverty of the early Romans in respect to 
 plate, of the gradual increase of the precious metals after the 
 victories of Paulus ^milius, and of the extravagances of later 
 times; the most notable being the instance of Drusillanus, the 
 slave of Claudius, who possessed a silver charger weighing 
 500 pounds, for the manufacture of which a workshop had 
 to be expressly built : this charger being accompanied by eight 
 other dishes each 250 pounds in weight. Our author finishes 
 by sarcastically w^anting to know how many of his fellow slaves 
 would it have taken to introduce these chargers, and whether 
 giants were the guests for whom such large dishes were 
 wanted. The most interesting information we obtain from 
 the " Natural History" is in chapters liii. and Iv. of the 33rd 
 Book. The former tells us of the enormous sums given for 
 silver plate, and the latter mentions the names of the most 
 celebrated artists. The Benvenuto Cellini of antiquity appears 
 to have been one Mentor, whose works were so much es- 
 teemed that Lucius Crassus the orator paid 100,000 sesterces 
 for two goblets chased by his hand. His most valued works, 
 however, appear to have been dedicated in the temples, but in 
 PUny^s time the conflagrations at Ephesus and in the Capitol 
 had caused their destruction. 
 
 Other artists are also mentioned as well as the subjects on 
 w liich they worked ; these appear to have consisted of embossed 
 figures of Sileni, Cupids, Centaurs and Bacchantes, hunting 
 and battle scenes, the court of the Areopagus, and trial of 
 Orestes, &c. Thus much for antiquity ; but if we want to 
 form a just idea of what plate really ought to be we must go 
 to the Middle Ages and to the early Renaissance. 
 
 In those times, when there were no bankers, when usury 
 was forbidden, and when the acquisition of land or houses was 
 apt to bring the possessor into suspicion with the ruling 
 powers if he belonged to tlie middle classes, or to form an 
 inconvenient security for his good behaviour if his station of 
 life were higlier, it was often exceedingly desirable to pos- 
 
56 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 sess property in the form of plate, which in peaceful times 
 was useful and occasionally afforded a means of display, while, 
 on the contrary, should disturbances arise, it could easily be 
 hidden away or sent to the coiner, who made it into money. In 
 those days it was also the custom to give and receive presents 
 pretty much as it is at the present time in the East, and in 
 the royal accounts will be found numberless instances of this 
 custom. Froissart, the mediaeval Herodotus, in his quaint gos- 
 sipping manner always winds up his account of any embassy or 
 visit of one distinguished person to another with the fact that 
 rich presents in jewels or plate were given and received. It is 
 obvious that all this must have made good trade for the gold- 
 smiths, who were then artists working in their own shops and 
 producing their own work, not tradesmen who buy things out 
 of manufactories cr have them made to order. Out of such 
 goldsmiths' shops great artists used to proceed : thus Piiny tells 
 us that Mentor made statues in bronze ; William Torel, who 
 executed the effigies of Queen Eleanor and Henry III., was 
 a goldsmith ; so was Francia the painter, and so was Benvenuto 
 Cellini, who has become the representative man of the craft, 
 although almost the only authentic works of his now remaining 
 are in bronze. How is it that we never hear of goldsmiths 
 turning artists in the present day ? I do not mean that artists 
 do not occasionally work for goldsmiths, for they do, as in the 
 case of the late Mr. Cotterell, and of Mr. Armstead and Vechte. 
 But somehow or other we never hear of men who keep a shop, 
 as Francia and Cellini did, turning sculptors or painters; the 
 fact being that Torel, Cellini, and Francia were both tradesmen 
 and artists, whereas our present silversmiths are simply trades- 
 men whose utmost accomplishments are to know the value of 
 precious stones and of good workmanship. As the precious 
 metals were rarer in the Middle Ages than at the present day, 
 it was by no means uncommon to execute vessels in copper or 
 latten gilt; and from a passage in Sacchetti it is by no means 
 improbable that their manufacture constituted a separate trade, 
 as he speaks of an orafo d'ottone. At the present day this 
 industry is represented by what is called or-molu, but a glance 
 at any of the shops where fashionable nicknacks are sold will 
 be sufficient to prove that the orafo d'ottone has taken leave of 
 art quite as surely as his confrere who uses the more precious 
 metals. 
 
 Before entering into a short description of the various arti- 
 
A rt applied to Indiistry. 5 7 
 
 cles required for ecclesiastical and secular use in the Middle 
 Ages, it may be as well to take a glance at the various pro- 
 cesses by which they were enriched. The simplest of these 
 was engraving. Here the lines were not of varying thicknesses, 
 but the same throughout; they also terminated in a blunt end, 
 like the engraving on the monumental brasses. The lines were 
 filled up either with a black composition somewhat like our 
 heel-ball, or by enamelling, or by niello, an art almost lost at 
 the present time ; the platina vessels made in Russia being 
 the best modern specimens of it. I need scarcely say how 
 common was its use in Italy, or tell the well-known story how 
 Maso Finiguerra discovered the art of taking impressions on 
 paper while trying the effect of his niellos. 
 
 A great deal of engraving is done now-a-days, but it is 
 almost inconceivable how difficult it is to get small figures 
 engraved in good strong lines like the old work. The en- 
 gravers do not want skill, but unfortunately they cannot 
 draw the figure, and even the most skilful copyist must fail if 
 he does not exactly know what he is about. Here, again, is 
 a case for the schools of design. I must say, however, that I 
 have never had to complain of the engraving done by Hardman 
 and Co. ; and why ? simply because not only has the engraver 
 been well trained, but one of the firm, Mr. J. Powell, is an ex- 
 cellent artist, and the work being submitted to his inspection, 
 it is not allowed to go out if incorrect. 
 
 Bossing up. — This process is described by Theophilus and 
 Cellini; the former would appear to refer to reliefs, but the 
 latter directs his attention more particularly to statuettes. 
 First of all the intended figure was modelled, then cast in 
 bronze, and a thin plate of silver hammered over it, and when 
 completed this silver was cut off in pieces, soldered together, 
 filled with pitch, and afterwards finished with various tools, 
 the pitch being finally melted out. Work of this description 
 is exceedingly light, and some ten years ago in Rome I saw 
 a crucifix by Caradosso, who is particularly mentioned by 
 Cellini for his skill in bossing up, the weight of metal being 
 almost inconceivably small for the size of the figure. The 
 shrine of St. Remain at Rouen has some excellent statuettes 
 done by this process, which is also employed in the great altar 
 dossals and frontals at Florence, Pistoia, St. Ambrogio at Milan^ 
 St. Mark at Venice, and elsewhere. _-•— — ^ 
 
 /^'^^'^ 
 
 (tJNIVERSITT^ 
 
58 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 Chasing from the Solid. — This was not a very usual process, 
 as it required the greatest care and accuracy, but it was almost 
 always more or less necessitated in the preparation of enamels, 
 more especially those called the translucid on relief. The cele- 
 brated bell attributed to Cellini, formerly in the Strawberry-hill 
 collection, is said to have been executed in this manner. 
 
 Stamping. — Also described by Theophilus, who gives long 
 directions about it, especially for the preparation of the stamp- 
 ing irons : from his account it would appear to have been 
 principally used for the ornamenting of horse furniture and 
 books, and even for pulpits. The shrine of St. Taurin at Evreux 
 presents some charming specimens of it executed during the 
 best period of Christian art. 
 
 Punching is used for the grounds of engraving instead of 
 cross-hatching. The ornaments on the garments of the effigies 
 of Richard II. and his Queen have been done by punching 
 with a point. 
 
 Filagree. — This art is still practised. In parts where 
 modern civilization has hardly reached, and in the more remote 
 villages of Europe, we still see elegant ornaments of filagree in 
 far better taste than the modern French jewellery which is 
 gradually supplanting them. 
 
 Filagree is of two kinds : in one flat ribbons of metal are 
 soldered together, the upper edges being often ornamented. 
 This filagree, which is generally applied on a ground, is to be 
 seen in the celebrated Hamilton fibula in the British Museum. 
 The Roach Smith fibula at the same place is an example of the 
 other variety, which consists of little round wires soldered to- 
 gether in various patterns, with the addition of little metal 
 balls, in fact, very like the modern Maltese work. In later 
 times, i.e., in the thirteenth century, this filagree took a new 
 form, and little leaves are soldered to the ends of the wires, 
 producing a most charming eff'ect. This is the best develop- 
 ment of the process; it occurs in the shrines of St. Taurin, 
 St. Romain, and in many others ; the founder's plate at New 
 College, Oxford, also presents traces of it. 
 
 In early jewellery we often find a very curious kind of work, 
 consisting of a number of little cells formed by means of gold 
 ribbons, like in cloissonne enamels. These cells are filled up with 
 pieces of garnet cut into thin slices, or even with thin red glass. 
 
 This is hardly the place to enter into the subject of en- 
 
Art applied to Industry. 59 
 
 amelling which played so great a part in mediaeval plate, but 
 I can only remark that transparent enamels accord very much 
 better with the precious metals than the opaque ones, and that 
 the approved way of using both enamels and jewels in the early 
 part of the Middle Ages was, as we are told by Theophilus, to 
 set them alternately, often with filagree in the interstices. 
 
 Of course the gold and silver smiths frequently availed them- 
 selves of casting the smaller parts and finishing them up with 
 the burin, but, as far as I have been able to ascertain, figures of 
 any size were either bossed up or plated upon wood. The latter 
 plan was seldom used, and is not very satisfactory; see the 
 shrine of St. Taurin at Evreux. 
 
 Now let us see a few of the uses to which the Church applied 
 the labours of the goldsmith. First of all there was the chalice, 
 of which it was de rigueur that the bowl should be of silver, 
 whatever the rest might be. It is for this reason in ancient 
 examples that we so often see the bowl of a later date. The 
 mediaeval chalice can be deduced in clear gradation from the 
 antique vase. Thus the little chalice found at Gourdon is nearly 
 a copy in miniature of the celebrated vase at Naples. Then 
 we get the chalice of Theophilus, where the gilded and nielloed 
 bosses, like spoons, play so important a part — the handles 
 having become a matter of indiff'erence. Then we have the 
 one at Augsburg, where we still see the spoons. In the Chi- 
 chester example they occur only at the foot and end in trefoils ; 
 afterwards they disappear altogether, the only trace being in 
 the cup into which the bowl drops. Still later we arrive at 
 the fifteenth century chalice, where the knob is enormously 
 large and the pipe enormously long. 
 
 The next most necessary vessel is the paten, which in the 
 modern Uoman communion is simply a round plate with no 
 engraving on the upper surface, and which fits into the top of 
 the chalice. Anciently the practice was diff'erent, and we find 
 patens with engraving, enamels, and even with jewels, as that 
 of St. Goslin in the cathedral of Nancy. The burettes for the 
 wine and water, the cross or crucifix, for both were used, and 
 the candlesticks, completed the absolute furniture of the altar. 
 In early times the Holy Sacrament was enclosed in a vessel, 
 often in the form of a dove, and suspended over the altar; it 
 was shewn to the people in an ostensolr, which generally took 
 the form of a little chapel on a foot and pipe like a chalice, or 
 
6o Art applied to Industry . 
 
 else a round sun with rays similarly mounted ; it was also kept 
 in a ciborium, a little circular vase with a conical top, but in 
 after times it changed into a globular vessel placed on the 
 stem and foot of a chalice. Book-covers, alms-basins, sacring- 
 bells, chrismatories, processional crosses, holy-water stoups, 
 paxes, and portable altars were only a few of the articles de- 
 manded for the worship of the unreformed Church, and if 
 the priest's cope required only a morse, there was hardly any 
 end to the valuable adornments of the vestments of the higher 
 clergy. Thus the bishop had his precious mitre, such as we 
 see the remains of at Oxford ; his crozier, such as is shewn at 
 Winchester; his pastoral ring, his jewelled gloves, and jewelled 
 orphreys to his chasuble, amice, stole, or cope. But the great 
 ambition of the authorities of nearly every cathedral or large 
 church was to possess a fej'etrum, or shrine, for the patron 
 saint, to say nothing of numerous reliquaries, to describe the 
 various forms of which would be to give a long description 
 of a great portion of mediaeval orfevrerie, for nearly every 
 vessel could be turned into a reliquary. 
 
 As to the great shrine, it consisted of a basement of marble 
 or coloured stone, upon which was placed a wooden structure 
 covered with plates of gold and silver. In latter times this 
 upper part assumed the form of a small church with buttresses, 
 pinnacles, windows, statues, &c. ; but in the early part of the 
 Middle Ages it was simply an oblong structure with a coped 
 top. Of course all the processes above described were employed 
 in its decoration, and although a long time was necessarily em- 
 ployed in the construction, when finished these feretra must 
 have been marvels of the art of the time, to say nothing of 
 subsequent votive offerings which were placed around or other- 
 wise attached. The whole of this precious work was covered 
 with a wooden cooperculum, which was raised or let down 
 by means of pulleys and counterpoises attached to the roof 
 of the church : and although no one of these great shrines 
 remains in its former position, the very excellent description of 
 the shrine of St. Thomas a Becket by Erasmus enables us fully 
 to realize the whole affair; such as the wooden chest which 
 covered the golden one, and " being lifted up disclosed inestim- 
 able riches" — the jewels given by the French king, and the vo- 
 tive rings attached in bunches. Sometimes these shrines were 
 comparatively small and could really be carried about, hence 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 6 1 
 
 the term ' feretory ;' but the more important ones were cer- 
 tainly fixtures, and appear to have been nothing more than 
 the covering of the body, which was placed in the upper part of 
 the stone basement, as at Westminster. 
 
 A few, very few, of the treasures attached to mediseval 
 churches have escaped the hand of the destroyer. But at Aix- 
 la-Chapelle the traveller, by paying a small fee, can even at the 
 present day see what Erasmus would call "inestimable riches.'^ 
 Still more curious is the tresor of the little church at Conques, 
 in the middle of France : here the work is much earlier than 
 that at Aix-la-Chapelle, being the work of Abbot Bego in the 
 eleventh century. There is every reason to believe that he 
 brought artists from a distance to work on the spot, much in 
 the same manner as Suger describes the way he went to work 
 at St. Denis. The revolution of 1789 dispersed the latter col- 
 lection, but many of the objects are still to be seen at the 
 Louvre and in the Cabinet de Medailles. 
 
 We now come to the Domestic Plate of the Middle Ages — 
 a subject which has hitherto by no means received the attention 
 it deserves, most people imagining that the church was the 
 end-all and be-all of our ancestors, as the temples were of 
 the ancient Greeks. Unfortunately, we know so little of the 
 domestic life of the latter people, that it is difficult to bring 
 forward proofs either way ; but we do know sufficient to shew 
 that our forefathers were just as fond of beautiful things in 
 their domestic life as they were in their ecclesiastical life. 
 The best insight into the real state of things will be found in 
 the Glossary attached by M. de Laborde to his Catalogue of 
 the enamels in the Louvre ; which work, moreover, contains 
 the inventory of the gold, silver, and jewels belonging to tlie 
 Duke of Anjou, made somewhere about 1360, before his pro- 
 ceeding to England to take the place of his father King John, 
 then the prisoner of Edward III. 
 
 In this inventory we find an immense amount of works in 
 the precious metals described with great minuteness ; so much 
 so, that it would be perfectly easy for any one acquainted 
 with ancient orfevrerie to make perfectly satisfactory repro- 
 ductions of them. Tiius we meet with, besides the chapel 
 furniture, gohelets, hanaps^ pots d'argent, cups, flagons, dishes 
 and plates for meat, saltcellars, basins, epreuveSj fountains, 
 nefsj and ewers. The four last demand a word of explanation. 
 
62 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 Everybody in the Middle Ages was haunted by a fear of being 
 poisoned, and if any one died in a sudden manner his death 
 was very often put down to that cause, more especially if he 
 were a person of high rank. It was believed, however, that 
 certain substances, such as serpents' tongues, unicorn's horn 
 (walrus' tooth), &c., would change colour if brought into contact 
 with poisoned food ; and accordingly, the carver had not only 
 to taste the food, but to try it by means of touching it with the 
 piece of assay. The piece of assay was often highly ornamented, 
 and kept in the great we/ with the knife and fork and spoon 
 of the proprietor; but occasionally it had a vessel to itself, and 
 these are the epreuves mentioned in the inventory. 
 
 As to the neff it was, as its name imports, generally in the 
 form of a ship. It must have been a large piece of plate, for 
 we read that immense sums were spent upon it, and that it was 
 generally named like a real ship: thus one was called *'the 
 Tyger.'' The use of the fountain is a little more difficult to 
 discover. As far as one can make out by a careful reading of the 
 text, it appears to have been a vessel for containing water, that 
 it had a tap or taps, and that it also generally possessed a goblet. 
 The shape is also most fanciful : at one time it is a winged 
 dragon on the top of a tree, at another a castle supported by 
 figures ; it had a stand, also of silver, the sides of which were 
 generally enamelled with subjects, and the top, upon which the 
 figures, or tree, or castle was placed, was enamelled green. 
 From the occurrence of the tap and the goblet, we may sur- 
 mise that it was placed on the table for the same purposes 
 as we use water-jugs and glass goblets at the present day at 
 our desserts. 
 
 The number of ewers in the collection was also very large : 
 they generally occur in connection with a cup, and in all pro- 
 bability were used as much for wine as for water. They were 
 made of the most extraordinary shapes, and enriched with a good 
 deal of enamel, and sometimes precious stones. Their descend- 
 ants may be seen in the little owls which perform the office of 
 pepper-boxes, and which are even now to be seen in most of the 
 goldsmiths' shops. The following will give some idea of what 
 these ewers were like : — 
 
 " 78. A lady, half of whose body is that of a woman, the other half that 
 of a savage beast with two legs ; upon a terrace enamelled with blue, with 
 little trees, and stags and greyhounds, and mouldings below ; and from the 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 63 
 
 lap of the said lady issues a head of an ox, of which she holds the horns in 
 her hands, and in the said head is a spout, and from the ears of the aforesaid 
 head, and from the sides of the said lady, and from the ends of her dress, 
 hang by chains the scutcheons of the arms of the Archbishop of Rouen and 
 Marigny. And the said lady is clothed with a little mantle slit at the sides, 
 and has a long hat on her head, enamelled, the hat and dress being the same 
 colour. And behind the said lady, on the back of the beast, is a place for 
 a goblet made in tracery work, and the goblet is of crystal with a foot of 
 silver enamelled with moulding and traceries, and about the crystal are four 
 bats ; and the cover is of crystal edged with silver, with mouldings and 
 traceries ; and the knob is made of vine-leaves, and from it comes a button 
 of three sides enamelled with silver and green." 
 
 One great peculiarity of our ancestors was their fondness for 
 precious materials, such as crystal, agate, onyx ; and many was 
 the antique vessel of these stones and many the antique in- 
 taglio and cameo which was worked up in connection with new 
 forms by the mediaeval goldsmith. Indeed, so strong was the 
 fashion, that we find costly mountings lavished upon things of 
 but little intrinsic value, such as ostrich-eggs, which generally 
 turn up in inventories as (£uf de griffon^ — such as glass vessels 
 from the East, known as verre de Damas, probably of the same 
 sort of manufacture as Mr. Slade^s glass lamp, or the well- 
 known Luck of Edenhall, which I am assured, Mr. Longfellow 
 notwithstanding, is not broken. China vessels were also occa- 
 sionally used, and only the other day I met in Hewett's shop, 
 in Fenclmrch-street, a piece of ware of the identical manu- 
 facture as that which figures among the founder's plate at New 
 College, Oxford. 
 
 The artists of the Renaissance were just as fond of rare mate- 
 rials as their predecessors ; and probably the most beautiful 
 piece of jewellery in the world is the onyx vase belonging 
 to Mr. Hope, the mounting of which is one mass of jewels, 
 enamels, and figures. The traditions of the Middle Ages were 
 also kept up in Germany to a late period, and the vessels manu- 
 factured in such large quantities in Augsburg and Nurem- 
 burg were executed by the same processes as those of the 
 Duke of Anjou, the only difference being that enamelling was 
 gradually disused. Of late years our plate has got worse and 
 worse in design and execution — so much so, that work of the 
 last century is eagerly bought up whenever attainable. The 
 reason is not that good work cannot be done ; on the contrary, 
 the best of work can be obtained if a price is only paid for it. 
 I am not speaking of artists like Veclite and Armstead, but 
 
64 A rt applied to Industry, 
 
 simply of good workmen, who are certainly to be found, but 
 in small numbers. What, however, shall we say to the ordi- 
 nary man who has done nothing all his life but chase and model 
 Louis XV. scrolls, or engrave rococo foliage? I once gave an 
 ordinary piece of engraving to one of these workmen to execute, 
 and the result was perfectly ludicrous. The late Mr. Pugin and 
 the Ecclesiological Society set themselves to work some fifteen 
 years ago to introduce the old way of working, which to say 
 the truth had hardly ever been abandoned in the best articles. 
 Unfortunately, in plate as in architecture, the later part of the 
 Middle Ages was copied instead of the earlier, and we have 
 still to deplore the absence of a really artistic feeling for the 
 better and earlier work. Hardman, Hart, Skidmore, &c. exe- 
 cute certain things capitally — in fact, quite as well as the old ; 
 but it is exceedingly difficult to get a figure well bossed up 
 or a piece of engraving well done, even if a drawing be given, 
 while great inattention is paid to the setting of stones. I have 
 had articles sent me where hardly a single stone was set truly ; 
 and on another occasion the work came home with two stones 
 broken, and one turned upside down, while a crystal foiled 
 underneath had been substituted for the fourth. 
 
 Our enamels are also open to great improvement, the colours 
 being far too bright and glaring : put any of them by the side 
 of Chinese work, or even by the productions of M. Barbedienne, 
 and the result is most disheartening. I am afraid the school- 
 master — I mean the master in the school of design — is sadly 
 wanted among the workmen employed by the modern silver- 
 smith ; who on his part would not be the worse if he were to 
 attend the schools himself in his younger days, and thus be- 
 come a little more of an artist without ceasing to be the trades- 
 man. We all remember the beautiful works of Morel in the 
 Exhibition of 1851 ; why should they not be substituted for the 
 Mazeppas, Richard Coeur-de-Lions, and- Charles the Firsts, 
 which but too often are only bronze subjects cast in silver. 
 
 It now remains to say a few words on jewellery. If of late 
 years our plate has been bad and tasteless, how much worse has 
 been our jewellery. Until the late revival of Etruscan work it 
 was positively dangerous to one's artistic feelings to look in at 
 a jeweller's window. The revival of the Etruscan work, as 
 everybody knows, is due to the energy of Signer Castellani, 
 who by dint of time and industry succeeded in gradualiy re- 
 
Art applied to hidus try. 65 
 
 viving nearly all the ancient processes. During the present 
 century, and part of the last, the sepulchres in the southern 
 half of Italy and the Greek islands have undergone a systematic 
 search for the various antiquities contained in them. The most 
 valuable of them are the painted vases and the jewellery. The 
 jewellery is totally unlike anything of the present day, depend- 
 ing for its beauty not on precious stones, but on the fineness 
 and skill with which the metal itself is worked up. Some of 
 the articles are so slight that they must evidently have been 
 used only for funeral purposes, but even that designed for 
 everyday wear is so light that it exhibits the greatest possible 
 contrast from that of our own day, when, as a jeweller once 
 observed to me, people will have a lot of gold for their money. 
 If we look carefully at the Etruscan work, and it is often so finely 
 executed that it requires the aid of the microscope, we shall find 
 the following processes : — 1. It is beaten up sometimes by hand, 
 sometimes by a die; it is pierced; a thick wire was cast or 
 worked into an ornamental pattern ; two small wires are worked 
 into a cable ; a thin sheet of gold is cut into strips, and 
 applied in various patterns edgewise, on a surface of metal ; 
 or the article is entirely made up of it, like our filagree; thin 
 wire is twisted round in coils and soldered to a plain surface ; 
 wires are also placed in juxtaposition on a chalk or earthen 
 core, and then soldered together, the core being afterwards 
 removed; small flat chains are soldered together at their edges; 
 and lastly, the Etruscans had the art of producing what we call 
 frosting, by soldering most minute grains of gold, like dust, 
 on to a gold surface, the difference being that our frosting, 
 which is done by hand, soon becomes tarnished, while that 
 under consideration remains always the same. Unfortunately, 
 it is a process that we moderns have not as yet succeeded 
 in imitating, and although Signor Castellani asserts in his 
 pamphlet of last year that he has lately succeeded, I do not 
 remember seeing any specimens of it in his stall at the Great 
 Exhibition. At the same time great credit must be given to 
 him, if not quite as the originator of the movement, at least for 
 having mastered the details and brought the revival almost to 
 perfection. 
 
 The finer jewels of the Middle Ages were constructed on 
 a difi^erent principle. Very few have come down to us, but when 
 we look at the representations of them in the pictures, and, 
 
 K 
 
66 A rt applied to Industry. 
 
 above all, the MSS., we easily find the reason. They appear to 
 have consisted almost entirely of precious stones, set with the 
 smallest possible quantity of metal, and so fragile that one is 
 apt to wonder how they could possibly have lasted any time at 
 all. Of course they were not all of this description, which 
 belongs principally to the fifteenth century. On the contrary, 
 the Anglo-Saxon jewellery, such as the Hamilton fibula, the 
 Roach Smith fibula, and the Alfred jewels, although displaying 
 great delicacy of workmanship, are so arranged that they could 
 be worn without much actual damage. 
 
 So, too, with the jewellery of the Renaissance, where en- 
 amelled objects in relief play a most important part. At that 
 time every gentleman wore a piece of jewellery in his hat, 
 called an ensign, and every lady a brooch; the consequence 
 was that a high order of art was in demand, and people vied 
 with each other in employing the best goldsmiths. Any one 
 who reads Cellini's Life, or the Lives of the Painters by Yasari, 
 cannot fail to be struck with the great demand for first-rate 
 jewellery ; but then, as I said before, the jeweller made his 
 own designs and worked at them with his own hands ; and to 
 do this he was not only apprenticed, but taught to draw : and 
 Cellini describes how he obtained his first commission by the 
 admiration of his drawing by a lady, who finally entrusted him 
 with the resetting of a set of diamonds, which he eff*ected in 
 the form of a fleur-de-lys, filling up the spaces between the 
 stones with little figures, foliage, masks, and other devices. In 
 the British Museum will be found a sketch-book of Holbein, 
 containing a great many designs for jewellery ; these have been 
 successfully copied by Messrs. Hancock, Widdowson and Veale, 
 and other jewellers, and are among the most satisfactory speci- 
 mens of modern work. The French imitations of the cinque- 
 cento jewellery are wonderfully executed, more especially the 
 enamels on relief. As to the Etruscan work after Castellani, 
 perhaps the best specimens are those of Mr. Green ; but we are 
 sadly apt to make it too heavy. Jewellery is far more im- 
 portant an afi"air than it appears at first sight, for either the 
 real thing or its imitation is used by most people. The trade 
 in the imitation assumes large proportions in France and 
 Birmingham, and I really do not think the patterns produced 
 in it are at all worse than those we see in the windows of 
 fashionable jewellers, but rather better. 
 
Art applied to Industry. 6"] 
 
 The last part of the present subject is that of the coinage. 
 Now no one is obliged to buy plate and jewellery, in fact, there 
 are very many of us who never can expect to do so ; but every- 
 body, even the poorest, has coins passing through his hands, 
 and it consequently becomes a very serious consideration that 
 these coins should display such art as shall render them agree- 
 able objects and be the means of fostering good taste and a love 
 of the fine arts ; in fact, they are examples of art applied to in- 
 dustry in its fullest sense. 
 
 Like all other arts, that of making dies for the coinage has 
 had its phases of good and bad. For the good, we must go to 
 our old masters, the Greeks. The curious parallelism between 
 the progress of Greek art and that of the Middle Ages is now 
 well known : thus we have the pre-Phidian work and that of 
 the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century, as at 
 Chartres; then we have the perfect work of Phidias and the 
 porches of Notre Dame at Rheims, and the works of Torel at 
 Westminster; and, lastly, come Praxiteles, Lysippus, and the 
 late fourteenth century. The Greek coinage displays all these 
 phases. The early coins are coarse heads, but are very ener- 
 getic — see the coins of Athens; then they become gradually 
 modified; and there is one of Athens which is almost per- 
 fect, having all the serenity of the first period with all the 
 beauty of the second. The Attic coinage never got further 
 than this, and, indeed, shortly afterwards went back to rude 
 imitations of the earlier types. But if we wish to see the per- 
 fection of what the Greeks could do we must go to the coins 
 of Syracuse : such as the great head, said to be Arethusa ; that 
 of Philistis, a most mediseval composition ; and, above all, to 
 the lovely head on the coins of Panormus. Now the dift'erence 
 between these and the heads on other Greek coins, and indeed 
 the classic female head generally, is this : if both could be 
 turned into actual life, the lady with the regulation classic fea- 
 tures, although beautiful, would not have much to say for 
 herself, and one would finish, as one generally does finish with 
 such people, viz. by getting heartily tired of her; but if the 
 features of the Panormus coin could be called into life, we 
 should find them to belong not only to a beautiful woman, but 
 to what is even better, viz. one gifted with esprit. 
 
 The Greek portrait coins are also very fine ; witness that of 
 Alexander on the coins of Lysimachus, and those of the kings 
 
68 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 of Pergamus. The Roman coinage, although presenting good 
 portraits, and to a certain degree good art, is very far behind 
 that of the Greeks in the higher qualities. The great incon- 
 venience of the Greek money was the excessive relief of the 
 subjects, which prevented its being arranged in piles, and which 
 caused a great deal of wear in the most prominent parts. In the 
 coinage of the Middle Ages this was remedied, and there are 
 some beautiful works of the fourteenth century which leave very 
 little to be desired ; they are well designed, and well executed, 
 and perfectly adapted for piling. As to the Italian series, it is 
 almost impossible to speak too highly of it : witness the Milan 
 coinage of Louis XII., said to have been designed by no less 
 a person than Leonardo da Vinci; see also the coins and 
 medals executed by Cellini, to say nothing of our own country- 
 man, Simon. 
 
 Now in the present day our coinage is so very bad as regards 
 art that probably the less said about it the better : I allude 
 more particularly to the design. The old five-shilling piece 
 was a noble coin, for the St. George and Dragon, although 
 most ludicrously classical, was still well executed and well com- 
 posed : so was the sovereign, with a similar subject. The last 
 Republican coinage of France was also excellently composed as 
 regards the head ; though why all our medallists should run 
 mad after a wreath, with the designation of the coin within 
 it, is more than I can imagine. It is certainly a most un- 
 necessary piece of knowledge, for almost the first thing a child 
 learns is the value of money. In the thirteenth and fourteenth 
 centuries in England, the name of the morieyer and that of 
 the town in which he lived formed the reverse; but still, by 
 means of beautiful letters, and by intersecting the two con- 
 centric inscriptions by a cross, a very capital composition was 
 obtained. With regard to our coinage it is clear that we cannot 
 go to the Greeks, as their raised figures will not suit modern 
 requirements (they must be reserved for medals) ; we should 
 therefore take our lesson from the purest French and Italian 
 types of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and doubtless, 
 in the hands of a man of genius, the rose of England could be 
 made as beautiful a reverse as the giglio of Florence. 
 
FXJI^]s;^ITUI^E. 
 
 It will be observed in the course of these lectures, no matter 
 what the subject, that we have been again and again obliged to 
 refer our most notable deficiencies to the want of a distinctive 
 architecture and to a coloured costume. We now come to a 
 third evil, namely, our very unsatisfactory, not to say ugly, furni- 
 ture. It may be objected that it does not much matter what 
 may be the exact curve of the legs of the chair a man sits 
 upon, or of the table off which he eats his dinner, provided the 
 said articles of furniture answer their respective uses ; but, un- 
 fortunately, what we see continually before our eyes is likely, 
 indeed is quite sure, to exercise a very great influence upon 
 our taste, and therefore the question of beautiful versus ugly 
 furniture does become a matter of very great importance. I 
 might easily enlarge upon the enormities, inconveniences, and 
 extravagances of our modern upholsterers, but that has been 
 so fully done in a recent number of the "Cornhill Maga- 
 zine ^" that I may well dispense with the task. The writer 
 points out the artistic perils of a young couple about to marry, 
 and how in choosing their furniture they are usually so be- 
 wildered that they often make their selection depend on the 
 shopman^s assurance that *' they sell a great many of that 
 article." This part of the subject I may, therefore, leave in 
 the hands of the writer in the " Cornhill,'^ whose only fault is, 
 that he has not been able to sign his work, and thus add 
 greater weight to his teaching. 
 
 If we consult antiquity, by means of sculptures and extracts 
 from authors, we may get a very fair idea of what were the 
 forms of the furniture among the Egyptians, Greeks, Assyrians, 
 and Romans, but their civilization was very different to our 
 own ; and we may learn very nearly all we want to learn if we 
 go to the Middle Ages, of whose furniture we possess the actual 
 specimens, besides the sculptured and written authorities. It 
 is almost needless to point out the prevalence of rich materials 
 in the composition of the more important pieces of furniture 
 in ancient times, such as the ivory throne found at Nineveh, of 
 
 * "Coriihill Magazine," March, 1861. 
 
70 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 which we have portions in the British Museum, or the notices 
 of the rich furniture in Herodotus, or the couches and tables in- 
 laid with silver, gold, and tortoise-shell described by Pliny, Apu- 
 leius, and other classics. In the Cabinet de Medailles at Paris 
 is part of the wooden leg of an ancient chair covered with a thin 
 plating of silver; and if we may believe the MSS. of the dark 
 ages, as they are called, this process appears to have been a 
 very favourite one : thus Charlemagne is said to have possessed 
 sundry tables covered with the precious metals, having plans of 
 cities engraved on them. It has been suggested, with great pro- 
 bability, by one author, that these tables were probably small 
 table-tops, which were placed on a low stool in the middle of 
 the room, as in the East at the present day, the guests sitting 
 round them on cushions or on low divans. As to the plans of 
 cities, they were not plans as we should understand the word, 
 but a sort of jumble, half plan and half perspective, such as we 
 often see in old maps. Furniture in those times often appears 
 to have taken the form of animals, as we may see in some of our 
 own Saxon MSS. ; in other cases it was carved into little ar- 
 cades and divisions, then gilt and incrusted with glass or some 
 other coloured substance. To this kind of furniture our bam- 
 boo pattern (if not really derived from the plant) bears the 
 greatest resemblance. 
 
 If we want to ascertain how our ancestors in the Middle 
 Ages managed the furnishing of their apartments, we have 
 three great sources of information open to us, and by putting 
 together what we learn from each we may arrive at a very 
 satisfactory solution of the question : these sources are, first, 
 the few articles which have escaped the hand of time and of 
 man ; secondly, the illuminations in MSS., the written descrip- 
 tions and sculptured representations ; and, thirdly, the actual 
 domestic life of the East. Thus could we transport ourselves 
 back to the thirteenth or fourteenth century, we should find 
 the interiors of the apartments very nearly as commodious, 
 and very much more artistic, than those of our own. Say we were 
 in the royal palace of Westminster, we should find the ceil- 
 ing boarded, with paintings on it, generally stars on a green 
 ground; sometimes painted subjects, introduced either in the 
 circles or as heads in a border ^ : the walls, if the apartment is 
 
 ^ See Parker's Domestic Architecture, vol. i. The terra wainscoting {lam- 
 bruscare) is generally believed to apply to the sides of apartments. However, 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 7 1 
 
 a simple one, are simply white, with a pattern in red lines, 
 after the fashion of masonry, (as the term thea was,) a floriated 
 border running immediately below the ceiling; if, upon the 
 other hand, the apartment is a rich one, the walls have an 
 imitation curtain up to a certain height, and then picture- 
 subjects above. There were two distinct sorts of these; one, 
 where the work was done " decently,*' without gold and azure, 
 in fact, in lampblack, red and yellow ochre, such as we see 
 in all old churches whenever the whitewash is taken oflP; and 
 the other, in full and brilliant colours, with burnished gold 
 ornaments, such as the past generation had the privilege of 
 seeing in the painted chamber. But the great feature of our 
 mediseval chamber is the furniture ; this, in a rich apartment, 
 would be covered with paintings, both ornaments and sub- 
 jects; it not only did its duty as furniture, but spoke and 
 told a story. Very few specimens of this kind have reached 
 us ; for, whenever the painting was destroyed, the absence of 
 carving gave little inducement to preserve the wood, and we 
 are thus reduced to examples. that can almost be counted on 
 our fingers. Thus, there is a press in the cathedral at Bayeux, 
 which has been drawn in the work of my friend Mr. Nesfield ; 
 there is another, rather later, in the treasury at Noyon ; there 
 are also one or two examples in the Uffizii at Florence. We 
 have our own coronation chair, the sedilia, and retabulum at 
 "Westminster, although all in bad condition ; there is also the 
 shrine of St. Ursula at Bruges, to say nothing of the numer- 
 ous marriage-coffers so frequently found in Italy, although they 
 are of later date. Such furniture as this must have been well 
 worth seeing. 
 
 But to return to our thirteenth-century room. The floor would 
 be paved with small tiles, very much as we see almost every- 
 where in France at the present day, and in summer it appears 
 to have been the fashion to strew sweet-scented heaths on it, 
 a fashion concerning which we have plenty of documentary 
 evidence, although it is never shewn in MS. illuminations^. 
 Most probably our apartment would have a bed in it, such 
 as we frequently see in France ; there would be a great chair, 
 
 a careful reading of the various documents where it occurs has induced the author 
 to believe that it was a way of decorating the ceilings. 
 
 •= The custom is however very distinctly shewn in one of the woodcuts in the 
 1499 edition of Polyphilus. 
 
72 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 and sundry divans, or benches, against the walls ; the windows 
 would be glazed and furnished with shutters ; and, as far as 
 I am able to judge, the woodwork would probably be painted. 
 
 At the end of the fourteenth century, and during the 
 fifteenth, this painted furniture was gradually supplanted by 
 carved oak, and the walls were hung with tapestry, or some- 
 times panelled ; the divans still continued, and in France 
 and Belgium the glass, instead of being placed in the groove 
 of the stone, was fixed in a wooden casement, placed at the 
 back of the mullion : the lower part of this casement having 
 no glass, but simply a lattice to keep out the birds; in bad 
 weather it was closed by means of shutters^. As the walls 
 were very thick, seats were got in the window-jambs ; and very 
 pleasant places they must have been. SauvaFs description of 
 the old Louvre of Charles V. will give a most excellent idea of 
 what a royal palace consisted at the end of the fourteenth 
 century, while the following extract from Laborde's Emaux du 
 Louvre shews us the interior of the mansion of an opulent 
 citizen ; the extract is taken from Guillebert de Metz : — 
 
 " The house of Jacques Duchie in the Rue des Prouvelles, the doorway of 
 which is carved with wonderful art. In the court were peacocks and other 
 Lirds of pleasure. The first hall is embellished with divers pictures and sen- 
 tences attached to the walls. Another hall is filled with all manner of 
 instruments ; another hall is garnished with chess-boards, tables, and other 
 games in great number. Also a beautiful chapel, where there were desks to 
 put books upon, of wonderful art ; also a study, where the walls were 
 covered with precious stones, and spices of sweet odour ; also a chamber, 
 where there were various sorts of fur ; also several other chambers, richly 
 furnished with chairs, tables ingeniously carved, and apparelled with rich 
 cloths and carpets ; also, in a high chamber, were a great number of cross- 
 bows, of which some were painted with beautiful figures ; there were standards, 
 banners, axes, guisarmes, coats of mail, targets, shields, cannon and other en- 
 gines, with plenty of armour. Also there was a window, made with won- 
 derful artifice, by which you could put out a head of iron, so that you might 
 see and speak to those outside without danger ; and at top of all was a 
 square chamber, with windows on three sides to overlook the town, and 
 Avhen people dined there wine and meats were raised and lowered by 
 means of a pulley, because it was too high to carry things up ; and above 
 the pinnacles of the house were fine gilt images. This Master Duchie was 
 a fine man, very respectable, and well known. His servants were civil, 
 clever, and of pleasant appearance ; among whom was a master carpenter, 
 who continually worked at the hotel." 
 
 ^ Ancient wooden casements are very rare; they are, however, stiU to be seen 
 in situ in the hall of the Palais de Justice, Rouen, and elsewhere. 
 
Art' applied to Industry. ^^n 
 
 Had Master Duchie lived in the present day he would have 
 been a collector of Roman pottery, medals, coins, Sevres 
 china, and other what-nots ; all of which he would probably 
 have kept in some ugly brick house in a fashionable square. 
 Luckily for him, in 1407 there was a national art upon which 
 he could depend for having his entrance doorway carved with 
 marvellous art. He evidently made his house as beautiful as 
 possible, and then filled it with all the rarest and best things 
 produced by his contemporaries. 
 
 In Italy the fashion of painted furniture continued much 
 longer; probably the best account of it will be found in 
 Vasari^s Life of Dello Delli : — 
 
 " And this peculiarity he turned to very good account, since it was the 
 custom at that time for all citizens to have large cojffers or chests of wood in 
 their chambers, made in the manner of a sarcophagus, and having the covers 
 or tops variously formed and decorated. There were none who did not cause 
 these chests to be adorned with paintings ; and in addition to the stones 
 which it was usual to depict on the front and cover of these coffers^ the ends, 
 and frequently other parts, were most commonly adorned with the arms and 
 other insignia of the respective families. The stories which decorated the 
 front of the chest were, for the most part, fables taken from Ovid, or other 
 poets ; or narratives related by the Greek and Latin historians ; but occa- 
 sionally they were representations of jousts, tournaments, the chase, love 
 tales, or other similar subjects, according as it best pleased the different 
 owners of the chests. The inside of these coffers was then lined with linen, 
 woollen, or such stuffs as best suited the condition and means of those who 
 caused them to be made, for the better preservation of the cloth vestments 
 and other valuable commodities stored in them. But what was more to the 
 purpose for our artist, these chests were not the only movables adorned in 
 the manner described, since the balustrades and cornices, the litters, elbow- 
 chairs, couches, and other rich ornaments of the chambers, which in those 
 days were of great magnificence, were beautified in like manner, as may be 
 seen from numberless examples still remaining through all parts of our city. 
 And this custom prevailed to such an extent for many years, that even the 
 most distinguished masters employed themselves in painting and gilding 
 such things. Nor were they ashamed of this occupation, as many in our 
 days would be. The truth of what is here said may be seen at this day : 
 among other instances, in certain coffers, elbow-seats, and cornices in the 
 chambers of the magnificent Lorenzo the Elder, of the house of Medici, on 
 which were depicted — not by men of the common race of painters, but by 
 excellent masters — all the jousts, tournaments, hunting parties and festivals 
 given by the duke, with other spectacles displayed, at that period, with so 
 much judgment, such fertility of invention, and such admirable art. Such 
 things, in brief, may be seen, not only in the palace and older houses belong- 
 ing to the Medici, but relics of them remain in all the most noble dwellings 
 of Florence. Nay, there are many of our nobles still attached to old usages, 
 who will not permit these decorations to be removed for the purpose of being 
 
 L 
 
74 A^i applied to Industry. 
 
 replaced by ornaments of modern fashion. Dello, therefore, of whom we 
 have said that he was a good painter, more especially of small figures, which 
 he finished with much grace, devoted himself to this occupation for many 
 years, to his great profit and advantage. He was almost exclusively em- 
 ployed in painting coffers, elbow-chairs, couches, and other things in the 
 manner above described, insomuch that this may be said to have been his 
 chief and peculiar profession. But as nothing in this world remains fixed, or 
 will long endure, however good and praiseworthy it may be, so, refining on 
 this first mode of ornament, the custom prevailed, after no long time, of 
 forming richer decorations, by carvings in natural wood, covered with gold, 
 which did indeed produce most rich and magnificent ornaments; it also 
 became usual to paint such matters of household use, as are above described, 
 in oil, the subjects being beautifully depicted stories, which then proved, 
 and still continue to make manifest, the riches and magnificence of the 
 citizens who possessed, as well as the ability of the painters who adorned 
 them^." 
 
 We have also to thank Italy for the invention of marquetry, 
 which is also found in some of the very early sixteenth-century 
 German woodwork ; but marquetry such as we see at Assisi 
 and at Sienna is a very different affair to that employed 
 during the last century and at the present day ; the latter is 
 simply a veneer, and, like all veneers, very liable to destruction 
 if neglected and exposed to damp. On the contrary, the old 
 Italian artists cut their incisions nearly a quarter of an inch 
 deep in the solid wood, and filled them up with a piece of cor- 
 responding thickness. It is needless to state how the Cinque- 
 cento of Italy and the Eenaissance of France changed the 
 details and subsequently the shapes of the furniture; the 
 seventeenth century is famous for the wonderful cabinets 
 manufactured in Germany, and which employed so many dif- 
 ferent hands to bring them to completion ; one of these is 
 known to have required no less than thirty workmen and 
 artists ; there is a very fine specimen in the Hotel de Cluny. 
 Buhl, so named from its inventor, the upholsterer of Louis 
 XIV., also made its appearance about the same time, viz. the 
 end of the seventeenth century : while those amongst us who 
 admire the works of the last century run after the furniture 
 of Chippendale, who appears to have been the fashionable 
 upholsterer, when Adams was the fashionable architect, when 
 Cypriani did the decorative paintings, and Jackson the pretty 
 ornaments ; in fact, in the dark ages of art. 
 
 Now, before going into the subject of what may possibly be 
 
 ^ Vasari. Mrs. Forster's translation. 
 
A rt applied to Indtistry. 75 
 
 done to improve the interiors of the wretched brick houses we 
 are at present condemned to inhabit, it may perhaps be as 
 well to give a slight glance at the various processes whereby 
 our furniture may be decorated ; remembering that there is no 
 reason why, like Master Duchie, we should not have every 
 room diflPerent, not only in its decorations, but in its furniture. 
 Furniture may be divided into two great classes : first, where 
 the wood shews, and is decorated in various manners, such as 
 inlaying ; and, secondly, where the material is concealed by 
 painting or gilding. 
 
 And first where the wood is shewn. It would take me 
 far beyond my limits were I only to enumerate the various 
 woods used in upholstery ; sufiicient to say, that there are 
 many woods which, from their rarity or from other causes, 
 can only be used as veneers ; others, on the contrary, are 
 good to form the body of the article itself, such as walnut, 
 oak, beech, pine, mahogany, and perhaps ebony, although the 
 latter is so liable to twist that it is generally safer to apply it 
 as a veneer or in small pieces. Now the wood thus forming the 
 article is decorated in various ways; the most simple is the 
 early marquetry or tarsia, i.e. lines or holes are cut in the 
 surface and then filled up with various substances, such as 
 other but different coloured woods, metals, mother-of-pearl, 
 ivory, and bone, like the Venetian-work of the sixteenth 
 and seventeenth centuries: or, if an inferior sort of work, 
 it could be covered with a veneer; this veneer may either 
 be of different coloured woods to marquetry, or of metal and 
 shell (Buhl). For ordinary work, thin veneers of different 
 coloured woods, or the metal and shell are placed one over 
 the other, the pattern traced on the uppermost, and the 
 lines followed by a fine saw. This is the more common sort 
 of work, but it has the disadvantage of shewing a glue -line, 
 representing the thickness of the saw, when the whole is put 
 together ; there is also a considerable waste of material, for only 
 a small portion of each veneer can be used. The more correct 
 way is to make a correct tracing of each piece, and to paste it 
 on the veneer, and then to cut it out, separately ; if care be 
 taken when all the pieces are put together no saw-line will 
 appear. Of course there are some colours required which are 
 not to be found in nature, such as the blues; in this case dye- 
 ing is resorted to. Shading is obtained by means of hot sand, 
 
76 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 and finally, the details' are put in by means of the graver. The 
 Italians are very skilful in marquetry, and in the late Italian 
 Exhibition at Florence there were some excellent figure-sub- 
 jects done by this process. Again, there are various sorts of 
 Buhl-work; for the metal can be varied, and colour placed 
 on the back of the horn or tortoise-shell. "We may dismiss 
 the veneers, marquetries, and Buhl with the remark that, 
 although they can be used in domestic furniture, which is care- 
 fully attended to, they are hardly fit for monumental work, 
 such as stalls, lecterns, or roodscreens, where they would be 
 subjected to neglect and rough usage. 
 
 A very curious, and by no means uncommon, kind of work 
 was to make the article of furniture in cypress wood, and then 
 to draw designs with common ink, sinking the grounds to the 
 depth of an eighth of an inch ; this manufacture appears to 
 have been peculiar to Venice and Spain. There are also many 
 other ways of decorating furniture where the wood is shewn ; 
 such as ornaments of metal, generally gilt ; insertions of 
 marbles and the coarser sorts of precious stones, as agate, 
 malachite, and cornelian ; enamels, mosaics, little paintings, 
 electrotypes, pieces of china and majolica, coloured glass, as 
 in the "Westminster work, where it is used in great profusion ; 
 looking-glass, ivory, and talc, &c. Wood is also frequently 
 stained, especially if of a light colour. As to carving, I reserve 
 what I have to say about it until I notice the ecclesiastical 
 furniture. 
 
 "We now come to those instances where the wood is entirely 
 covered. First of all, it may be painted, either plainly or orna- 
 mentally ; if the latter, there is literally no end to the art and 
 decoration that can be lavished upon it. Two things should 
 be kept carefully in view, viz. that the paintings be kept 
 flat, without landscape-backgrounds; and, secondly, that they 
 judiciously alternate with ornament. The works of Marshal, 
 Morris, and Co., in the late Exhibition, were excellent ex- 
 amples of this way of treatment, but then the Firm are all 
 artists, so that we have a right to expect better things than we 
 generally find. Of course it was not to be expected that 
 gentlemen who had been brought up to consider Palladio and 
 the five orders as the acme of architecture should admire this 
 style of work ; their idea of mediaeval furniture being derived 
 from Wardour-street. Accordingly, many were the savage at- 
 
A rt applied to Indtistry. 7 7 
 
 tacks upon it ; one critic charitably advising the purchaser of 
 a particular cabinet to frame the pictures and burn the rest. 
 I can only say that I hope to see a very great deal of this 
 furniture executed, for it speaks and gives us ideas — but then 
 some people dislike nothing so much as ideas, and, upon the 
 whole, would rather not think at all. 
 
 An excellent way of painting furniture is to rub down the 
 paint, and every coat of varnish or lacquer, as is done in car- 
 riage painting ; the result is a beautifully smooth polished sur- 
 face, admirably adapted for drawing-room furniture; it can 
 then be gilded. 
 
 The Japanese are great masters in this art, especially in 
 their raised and burnished gildings. By means of their lacquer 
 they effectually prevent the gold and silver from oxydizing. 
 Colour is occasionally employed to assist the gold, but always 
 very sparingly. 
 
 Gilding is also employed on the more prominent parts of 
 furniture made of dark wood, but for this purpose it is almost 
 imperative that the ground should be dark, otherwise it is apt 
 to have a gingerbread effect. Some pieces of furniture are 
 entirely covered with gilding, such as the coronation chair at 
 Westminster. Here the ornament is obtained by engraving the 
 gesso ground before the gilding is applied. After the burnish- 
 ing the details were added by means of small punches, or points ; 
 and pieces of glass, probably imitating enamels, completed 
 the decoration : I have detected no traces of painting, but the 
 chair is so dilapidated that it is quite possible that it may have 
 been used and quite disappeared. In other cases, parts of the 
 gesso ground were raised, the whole gilt, burnished, and even 
 partially coloured, the details being rendered partly by punching 
 and engraving, and partly by black lines^ In the Westminster 
 retabulum the imitation enamels and jewels are introduced in 
 the gilding. Such was a common way of ornamenting mar- 
 riage-coffers in Italy. Furniture is often partially or entirely 
 covered with gilt or stained leather, velvet cloths, &c., besides 
 being studded with gilt nails. Now, given all these various 
 ways of decorating our furniture, how is it that the interiors 
 of our rooms are so very uninteresting ? We arrive at the old 
 answer. No distinctive architecture, and no colour around us in 
 
 ^ This kind of work is occasionally seen on the Italian marriage-coffers. 
 
78 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 our daily life. Still in this case the affair at least is in our own 
 hands. Very few of us can expect to build our own houses, 
 especially under the abominable system of leasehold^ which 
 encourages bad architecture and flimsy construction. Again, 
 no one would so defy fashion, public opinion, and, above all, his 
 tailor, as to appear in public with a costume different from the 
 very ugly one at present worn ; but the interior of our own 
 house, at least, is at our disposal, and if it is bad, it only shews 
 that we lack either industry or education to make it better. 
 
 In the first place, how is it that we always have a wretched 
 white ceiling over our heads, which hurts our eyes when- 
 ever we look up. In Home the ceilings are always painted, 
 even in the poorer houses ; why should they not be done so 
 here ? Builders, and what are called practical men of the 
 present day, tell us that our flat plaster ceiling is the only 
 one which keeps out the sound of footsteps or voices in the 
 room above. This I very much doubt, but even if it were the 
 case there is no reason for leaving it one flat mass of white. 
 In many cases the cost of the tasteless cornice which runs 
 round would be sufficient to afford some sort of decoration, and 
 so relieve the monotony. 
 
 Again, ceilings can be boarded instead of plastered, and the 
 joints of the boards covered with fillets, thus dividing the whole 
 space into narrow longitudinal compartments; or the fillets 
 can be nailed on in patterns, and the interstices ornamented ; 
 or the bellies of the joists may be made to shew; the boarding, 
 pugging, &c., being placed about one inch higher; or the 
 space between the joists may be filled with -little domes and 
 other patterns, such as we see in the cathedral at Messina; 
 leaden ornaments, gilt, can be attached to various parts, and 
 the ceiling of the tribune of the Uffizii shews us what a beau- 
 tiful dome can be made of oyster-shells. The advantage of 
 a wooden ceiling over a plaster one is that it can be easier 
 cleaned, whereas the latter is liable to become discoloured in 
 London, particularly in houses where people will hurt their 
 health and eyes by the use of gas, without proper means of 
 ventilation immediately over it. 
 
 We now come to the walls. Of all the horrible inventions 
 of modern times, perhaps that of covering the walls with an 
 immense sea of diaper, printed on paper, is the very worst. 
 Our ancestors either painted their walls with distemper on the 
 
Art applied to Industry, 79 
 
 plaster itself, or hung tapestry round them ; but if we look at 
 illuminated MSS. which shew the interior of rooms, we shall 
 find that tapestry, with diapers on it, was always countercharged. 
 As far as I have been able to ascertain, the people of the Middle 
 Ages had a horror of a continuous mass of diaper. It is true 
 they very frequently did make use of diaper, but always as 
 a background to subjects, and in small quantities. At the same 
 time it is by no means recommended that painted walls should 
 exhibit a multiplicity of colours ; on the contrary, red and 
 yellow ochre, with black and white, will be found quite sufficient 
 in most cases : thus a good plan is to colour the lower part of 
 the wall one colour, say red, up to about 6 ft. 6 in. from the 
 ground, and then to place a lath of wood, say 3 in. by \ in., laid 
 flat against the wall, the lower side of this containing hooks 
 wherewith to hang pictures, the said pictures being on a level 
 with the eye. If the room be a principal one, the lower part 
 may have an imitation curtain, or even a wainscoting, with 
 divans all round. Immediately below the ceiling comes a deep 
 border, with foliage, animals, children, shields, &c., which does 
 duty instead of our modern cornice, besides being a great deal 
 more interesting : then between this border and the lath, or the 
 wainscoting, comes the decoration proper; and here, if you 
 must have a wall paper, is the space for it, or stamped leather, 
 or the imitation of it. Now I do not for one moment suppose 
 that all of us can expect to have our rooms decorated with 
 original designs by good artists ; the thing is simply impos- 
 sible; but there is no reason why the decorator should not 
 obtain several good compositions, and then have a staff of 
 pupils, or assistants, who should be able to trace off the out- 
 lines and fill up the colours. Of course this would do away 
 with the usual papering every four or five years, because when 
 people had got a good thing they would like to keep it. Again, 
 the wainscoting might be carried up to the ceiling, the panels 
 being painted with various sorts of fruits and flowers, like the 
 abbess's chamber in the Abbey of St. Armand at Rouen ^ : or 
 if the apartment is small, and is wanted to be exceedingly 
 rich, subjects might be carved on pieces of bone, and then 
 joined together, relief of colour being obtained by means of 
 
 & This panelling was taken down and sold in 1*=l'i1_itiB "nfr in n h£irnr on the 
 outskirts of the city. y"''^^^^ LIBR^^ 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
8o A rt applied to Industry. 
 
 ebony. One of the most cliarming apartments it has been my 
 lot to view is at Munich, where the walls are of scagliola, with 
 heavy gilt frames inserted ; within these frames are portraits. 
 
 The windows next claim our attention. Why they should 
 be filled by great pieces of plate-glass I cannot conceive. If you 
 want to look out, by all means have plate-glass at the bottom ; 
 but why at the top, where there is nothing to see but the sky. 
 The top part might be filled with lead or cast-iron glazing, and 
 if the lead is well cemented, and the glass good stout British 
 plate, very little cold will come in : besides, a large thin pane 
 of common glass can always be placed before or behind. In 
 these lead lights there might be occasional insertions of what 
 are called roundels, i.e. little subjects done in brown enamel 
 on white glass^ the whole being surrounded by a thin border of 
 coloured glass. The shutters might be treated like the wains- 
 coting, but the architraves round both them and the doors 
 should be reduced to the simplest form; indeed, with a little 
 ingenuity they might (i. e. those of the shutters) be got rid of 
 altogether, and the shutters made to fold back against the wall. 
 As to curtains, as the writer in the ^' Cornhill" most justly 
 remarks, all they require is a light iron rod and brass rings ; 
 in length they should but just touch the ground. But the 
 decoration of our windows need not be confined to lead glazing 
 or plate glass ; we can use the plaster windows of the Eastern 
 nations, and fill in the interstices with coloured glass, thin 
 mother-of-pearl, or even agates and other transparent stones. 
 
 Again, our chimney-pieces, for which we often give large 
 prices, have no occasion to be made of marble ; on the con- 
 trary, stone, painted and gilt, looks quite as well, if not better ; 
 but then it should not be a thin veneer applied to an opening, 
 but it should be part and parcel of the house, and should project 
 well into the room, and have a deep frieze with stories or coat- 
 armour sculptured upon it. The grate may be simply a basket 
 supported on dogs, so that it can easily be taken away to be 
 cleaned. 
 
 As to the floor, the simplest way is to stain or paint it, and 
 then place in the middle a square piece of carpet, surrounded 
 with a border. The yards upon yards of carpet cut up in order 
 to cover the whole room is simply wilful waste, and answers 
 no other purpose than to increase upholsterers' bills. 
 
 As to the furniture of such a room, we are left to choose 
 
A rt applied to Industry, 8 1 
 
 between the processes of decoration I have described above. 
 If the wood itself shews, it is perhaps as well to keep the arti- 
 cles as light as possible \ if, on the contrary, they are to be 
 painted, an inferior wood, such as fir, may be used for the pur- 
 pose, and then a little extra strength will not be amiss. There 
 are plenty of examples of tables and cabinets, but the Middle 
 Ages has left us very few chairs, I mean chairs in our acceptation 
 of the word : perhaps the nearest thing is the modern Crystal 
 Palace chair, value two shillings, with a rush bottom; this, 
 when painted and gilt, makes by no means a bad article. 
 
 At the same time a much greater use might be made of 
 divans. Going all round the room, they require to be made 
 very low and very wide ; they might even be made movable, 
 while the insides can be made into spaces for keeping table- 
 cloths and other things. Those who have travelled in the East 
 can alone tell how very inexpensive is a divan; made of the 
 roughest carpentry, it is covered with a cheap carpet, and a few 
 cushions complete the affair. 
 
 Ecclesiastical woodvvork, like domestic, presents a very wide 
 field for art ; and it is to it that we are indebted for the best 
 remaining specimens of carving in wood. Perhaps the most 
 wonderful example of all is the stall-work at Amiens. There 
 the forms are sufficiently massive, in fact, it could not be called 
 light work ; but, on the contrary, nothing can be thinner, 
 lighter, and more undercut than the mouldings ; they positively 
 shoot forwards. Again, ecclesiastical furniture, as it is not 
 made to be moved about, should be made much heavier than 
 domestic ; and as it is liable to neglect and moisture, veneers, 
 marquetry, and buhl-work should be discarded; at the same 
 time, a great deal can be done by inlays, but then they should 
 be very deep, like the old Italian examples, say \ in. Some 
 woodwork appears to have been painted from a remote period : 
 thus the stalls at Chichester were painted chocolate, with gilt 
 ornaments; this unfortunately has been removed, although I 
 am informed that entries of the repainting the stalls occur 
 continually in the accounts of the cathedral ; the stalls them- 
 selves were of the thirteenth or fourteenth century, but the 
 painting appeared to be about the time of Henry VIII. 
 
 The carving of ecclesiastical woodwork is a point demanding 
 the most careful consideration, in fact, far too wide a field to 
 enter upon on the present occasion. It requires to be kept 
 
 M 
 
82 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 rather flatter, and at the same time more undercut than that 
 in stone, and, as far as my experience goes, is exceedingly- 
 difficult to get well executed, especially the figure-work. The 
 Committee of the Architectural Museum did exceedingly well 
 last year in giving their prize to the best wood figure-carving, 
 and although no one of the specimens forwarded were what 
 could be considered first-rate, yet they were quite as good, 
 perhaps better, than the specimens of stone carving sent in for 
 prizes to the same Society. In our modern churches the wood- 
 work is the part which is always the most starved, whether we 
 look at the open groined roof with its thin boarding, or the 
 miserable apologies for stalls. Indeed, I much question whether, 
 in all the late revival, one really good and complete set of 
 stalls and canopies has yet been done, I mean with figures 
 and subjects sculptured as of old; but I should find it diffi- 
 cult to count the innumerable Louis XV. cabinets, which have 
 found ungrudging purchasers, despite of their bad art and 
 ugliness. The fact is, that we like to spend our money solely 
 on ourselves ; and this, combined with the law of leasehold, is 
 sufficient to account for the very little good woodwork in our 
 churches, and the miserable appearance of the interior of our 
 . houses. 
 
THE W^EAVER'S j\.:RT. 
 
 Of all antiquarian studies there is perhaps none more in- 
 teresting than that of costume; for if our enquiries into the 
 architecture and decorations of past ages enable us to conjure 
 up scenes that have long passed away, a knowledge of costume 
 gives us the power of peopling those scenes, and of realizing 
 the descriptions of the chroniclers, which would otherwise be 
 but so much dry history. From the destruction of the Roman 
 empire until the end of the thirteenth century there was really 
 but little essential change in European costume; the antique 
 tunic still held its place, it was generally girded up, and had 
 tight sleeves. Over this rich men wore another tunic, not 
 girded, which came down to the calf of the leg. The sleeves 
 of this were sometimes shorter ^nd sometimes longer than that 
 of the under-tunic, and above all came the cloak. The hood 
 was a separate garment, and could be worn with or without 
 the cloak, being indeed a far more comfortable head-covering 
 than anything we possess, for not only did it cover the head, 
 but it also most effectually prevented the weather from pene- 
 trating to the neck. About the middle of the fourteenth 
 century architecture began to change for the worse, indulging 
 in tracery, crockets, pinnacles, small mouldings, and such like 
 vanities, and the costume followed the bad example. Instead 
 of the flowing dresses falling into folds, every vestment was 
 made tight to the body ; and although during the fourteenth, 
 fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries the colours were brilliant and 
 the ensemble highly picturesque, there were too many offences 
 against good taste and right principle for us ever 'to regret the 
 loss of it. The acme of bad taste was reached in the last cen-. 
 tury, when men wore large wigs, and when hardly one single 
 article of dress was elegant or fell into its natural folds ; but 
 still there was colour. In the present day our dress, with the 
 exception of the abominable chimney-pot hat, is a little better 
 as regards form, but still dreadfully unpicturesque and totally 
 without folds. As to colour, it has utterly disappeared, with 
 the exception of a small spot round the neck in the shape of 
 
84 ^ '^t applied to Industry. 
 
 the scarf. Nor are the ladies much better; their dress fol- 
 lowed nearly the same vicissitudes as those of the men, being 
 anciently little more than a series of very long tunics one over 
 the other, so arranged as to allow the under ones to be seen ; 
 sometimes slits were cut in the upper ones for the same laud- 
 able purpose, more especially to shew the girdle, and were 
 christened by the satirists of the day as "the devil's peep- 
 holes." Sometimes the under gown became tight to the body, 
 the skirt being made full by means of gores, as at the end 
 of the twelfth century, and again in the fifteenth. The pre- 
 sent fashion of making the body tight and plaiting the skirt 
 round the waist may be traced to the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century in Germany, and among other examples may 
 be seen in Albert Durer's "Melancholy," as it is called, but 
 which is really the Genius of the Industrial Arts. 
 
 Now in the Middle Ages it was a very different affair 
 as regards costume from what it is at the present day, when 
 it is almost impossible to tell any man's station in life from 
 his dress, and when you may travel for hundreds of miles in 
 the same railway carriage with a nobleman without for one 
 moment suspecting him to be anything more than Mr. Smith 
 or Mr. Brown. In the Middle Ages, as I said before, it was 
 very different, for the richer classes largely imported beautiful 
 stuffs from the East, and afterwards from Sicily and Italy. 
 Of course nothing is more perishable than worn-out apparel, 
 yet, thanks to documentary evidence, to the custom of bury- 
 ing people of high rank in their robes, and to the practice of 
 wrapping up relics of saints in pieces of precious stuffs, we are 
 enabled to form a veiy good idea of what these stuffs were like 
 and where they came from. In the first instance they appear 
 to have come from Byzantium, and from the East generally; 
 but the manufacture afterwards extended to Sicily, and received 
 great impetus at the Norman conquest of that island ; Roger I. 
 even transplanting Greek workmen from the towns sacked by 
 his army, and settling them in Sicily. Of course many of the 
 workers would be Mohammedans, and the old patterns, perhaps 
 with the addition of sundry animals, would still continue in 
 use ; hence the frequency of Arabic inscriptions in the borders, 
 the Cufic character being one of the most ornamental ever used. 
 In the Hotel de Clu^ny at Paris are preserved the remains of 
 the vestments of a bishop of Bayonne, found when his sepul- 
 
Art applied to Industry. 85 
 
 chre was opened in 1853, the date of the entombment being 
 the twelfth century. Some of these remains are cloth of gold, 
 but the most remarkable is a very deep border ornamented 
 with blue Cufic letters on a gold ground ; the letters are fim- 
 briated with white, and from them issue delicate red scrolls, 
 which end in Arabic sort of flowers : this tissue probably is 
 pure Eastern work. On the contrary, the coronation robes of 
 the German emperors, although of an Eastern pattern, bear in- 
 scriptions which tell us very clearly where they were manufac- 
 tured : thus the Cufic characters on the cope inform us that it 
 was made in the city of Palermo in the year 1133, while the 
 tunic has the date of 1181, but then the inscription is in the 
 Latin language. The practice of putting Cufic inscriptions on 
 precious stufi's was not confined to the Eastern and Sicilian 
 manufactures; in process of time other Italian cities took up 
 the art, and, either because it was the fashion, or because they 
 wished to pass off" their own work as Sicilian or Eastern manu- 
 facture, imitations of Arabic characters are continually met 
 with, both on the few examples that have come down to us 
 of the stuffs themselves, or on painted statues or sculptured 
 effigies. These are the inscriptions which used to be the despair 
 of antiquaries, who vainly searched out their meaning until 
 it was discovered that they had no meaning at all, and that 
 they were mere ornaments. Sometimes the inscriptions ap- 
 pear to be imitations of the Greek, and sometimes even of the 
 Hebrew. The celebrated ciborium of Limoges work in the 
 Louvre, known as the work of Magister G. Alpais, bears an 
 ornament around its rim which a French antiquary has dis- 
 covered to be nothing more than the upper part of a Cufic word 
 repeated and made into a decoration. Both what is called the 
 Lombardic character and the black letter are admirably adapted 
 for borders of woven fabrics, and indeed for ornament gene- 
 rally, but they were seldom used. In modern times we find 
 black letter inscriptions rather profusely used in the Houses of 
 Parliament, but unfortunately they are so managed as to be 
 almost illegible. 
 
 Very curious is the piece of stuff" found at Palermo in the 
 tomb of the Emperor Henry VI., who died in 1196. The pat- 
 tern consists of antelopes and parrots placed face to face, the 
 ground being filled up with some Arabic-looking foliage. The 
 animals and ornaments are in gold, but the ground at present 
 
86 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 is a reddisli murrey colour silk, although in all probability it 
 was originally what was called the diarhodoUj which we are told 
 strikes the look with the appearance of fire. The other shades 
 of the same colour were the rhodinum and the leucorhodina, 
 which were probably rose colour and pink respectively. Many 
 other pieces of stuff have been preserved and published, for 
 example in Willemin's Monuments inedits, but they all appear 
 to have been designs in small patterns, and very nearly agree 
 with the modern Indian kincob, and they mostly contain some 
 sort of bird or animal. The patterns then became gradually 
 larger until the middle of the fifteenth century, when what 
 may be called the pine pattern became very fashionable; as 
 this pattern was very large, it was not very often that much 
 of it could be seen, but as it was generally made of gold and 
 velvet, besides being full of small details, the effect was always 
 good, even when only a small piece was used. 
 
 In the Museum at South Kensington will be found a most 
 valuable and interesting series of examples of ancient woven 
 fabrics, as well as those decorated with embroidery, and in 
 them the increase of the size of the pattern can be most dis- 
 tinctly traced. Some of the diapers are very curious; one of 
 them consists of a series of castles, in each are two men hold- 
 ing hawks : the size of each diaper being about 6 in., and the 
 date the fourteenth century. Another pattern is composed of 
 angels with censers, executed in yellow on a purple ground, 
 powdered with yellow stars ; the carnations and the clouds from 
 which the angels issue are white. But the most gorgeous of all 
 are the large patterns, executed in cloth of gold and red velvet, 
 more especially when the gold wire is raised and looped. A fine 
 piece of this sort of work forms the centre of the well-known 
 pall of the Fishmongers' Company. 
 
 But however rich might be the stuffs, our ancestors were by 
 no means contented with them ; on the contrary, the desire to 
 possess what no one else possessed very oftea induced them to 
 call in the aid of embroidery; this consisted of embroidery 
 proper for the more precious articles, and of applique for those 
 of less value. For instance, the surcoat of William Earl of 
 Albemarle, temp. Henry III., published in the Vetusta Monu- 
 menta, is executed in this manner. As to the embroidery 
 proper, it reached such an excess that Philippe le Hardi had 
 some garments which had cost him 800 Parisian livres, or 
 
(- 
 
 or THE *^ 
 
 TJITIVERSITT 
 
 OF 
 
 A rt applied to IndustryT^'^—' — — — 
 
 about £1,200 of our money. Joinville, who gives us this 
 information, says that he "never saw a single embroidered 
 coat or ornamented saddle in the possession of the king his 
 father or of any other lord. He (the king) answered that he 
 had done wrong in embroidering his arms, and that he had 
 some coats which had cost him 800 Parisian livres. I re- 
 plied that he would have acted better if he had given them 
 in charity, and had his dress made of good sendal, lined and 
 strengthened with his arms, like as the king his father had 
 done." Our own King Henry III. was far from setting so good 
 an example to his contemporaries as St. Louis did. Among 
 other instances of his extravagance in the matter of embroidery 
 may be cited the altar frontal given by him to Westminster 
 Abbey. The account begins with the canvas, and the wax for 
 waxing it; then follows six marks of gold and the making 
 them into thread ; then we have two pounds of white silk 
 and the same of yellow ; five marks and a half of pearls ; two 
 marks of large pearls for the border; one pound of thick silk ; 
 the wages of four women working on the aforesaid cloth for 
 tliree years and three quarters; 786 enamels for the border; 
 76 great enamels; 550 garnets for the border — for gold and 
 for the making of the settings of same — for silver picture 
 placed under the enamels, &c. The whole expense of this piece 
 of embroidery must have reached some j84,000 of our money. 
 
 But embroidery, expensive as it was, by no means satisfied 
 the rich of those days; jewels, and more particularly pearls, 
 were in great request for what are called the orphreys, i. e. the 
 borders of garments. When the tomb at Palermo of Con- 
 stanza, the consort of the Emperor Henry VI., was opened, 
 the orphreys of her dress were found to be composed of gold 
 filagree, gold cloissonne enamels, and the rest of the ground 
 filled up with small pearls ; the whole sewed on linen. 
 
 Occasionally the ornaments of dresses were made of solid 
 metal sewed on to the stuff: Henry VIII. and his courtiers 
 are related to have worn such dresses, i. e. powdered with solid 
 ornaments, at a grand feast, and afterwards let the people strip 
 off the said ornaments. The Japanese robes of state are also 
 decorated in a similar manner; and Oliphant, giving a descrip- 
 tion of the dresses of the Commissioners for signing the treaty 
 made by Lord Elgin, says that one gentleman had his robes 
 elegantly ornamented with silver skulls. I have only met 
 
88 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 with one specimen of the bullion ornaments, occurring in the 
 black letter inscription on the belt of the horn of Charlemagne 
 in the Treasury of Aix-la-Chapelle. The belt is many centuries 
 later than the horn, which appears to be authentic, being 
 evidently Eastern work, and bearing out the tradition that 
 it was a present from Haroun al Raschid. 
 
 It has often been remarked that if we want to see what the 
 Middle Ages were like we must go to the East; accordingly, if 
 we examine duly the stuffs made by our fellow subjects in India 
 we shall see very nearly the same things produced in the present 
 day as were executed centuries ago in Europe. Thus, in the 
 excellent Indian Museum, which is by no means either visited 
 or studied as it ought to be, we see kincob made of silk and 
 gold, nearly identical with that discovered in the tomb of the 
 Emperor Henry VI. ; the details are a little different, but by 
 no means so to any very great extent, while the judicious mix- 
 ture of geometrical forms with conventionalized natural details 
 is quite as good, if not better, than anything we have in Europe. 
 For the very geometrical lines are softened and subdued by 
 being made up of foliage, which is kept totally distinct from 
 the other foliage enclosed in the reticulation made by the geo- 
 metrical lines. Take, again, the famous Cashmere shawls which 
 command such fabulous prices ; an expert will tell you that he 
 can distinguish a French or English imitation from the real 
 article at a very long distance ; the colours of the original being 
 richer and more harmonious, and yet these Indian shawls are 
 done by the rudest machinery and in innumerable small pieces 
 sewn together afterwards. But then the workman works as 
 his fathers have worked, and at well-known patterns, and is 
 not obliged to bring out novelties for each season. The Indian 
 embroidery also is wonderful, and very cheap comparatively 
 speaking, and yet if any one article be examined, infinite art 
 will he discovered by the countercharging of the grounds, &c. 
 Some table-covers in the Indian Museum are beautiful ex- 
 amples of this. Probably embroidery reaches its climax in the 
 cloth of gold, which is embroidered in gold thread so as to pro- 
 duce a raised pattern, relief of colour being got by the intro- 
 duction of pearls or beetles' wings. 
 
 Beautiful also are the muslins, some almost as thin as air, 
 others printed in gold, an art we have only learnt since the 
 Exhibition of 1851, when we first began to have an idea that 
 
Art applied to industry, 89 
 
 our manufactures were susceptible of improvement, and that 
 the inhabitants of the East were something more than bar- 
 barians, and that they had also a civilization and art of their 
 own, quite as good in many respects as ours, although they did 
 not happen to have the electric telegraph, lighting by gas, and 
 other modern improvements. I am most happy to say that 
 the present Curator of the Indian Museum is just finishing 
 a most excellent work, containing actual specimens of textile 
 fabrics, which, when in circulation, will do very much to re- 
 move the prejudices against Oriental art, or rather to shew 
 our own manufacturers that there is still great room for im- 
 provement as regards their designers. 
 
 Again, look at the carpets of the East : does any one want a 
 carpet of good design and harmonious colouring, what does he 
 do but forthwith choose either a Turkey or Persian one. In the 
 Middle Ages we read of les tapis Saracenois, which were made 
 at Paris, and which were probably imitations of Eastern ones. 
 The carpet we see depicted in the old pictures and tapestry is 
 essentially different from either the modern Turkish or Persian 
 designs, and consists of a series of interlacing outlines, which 
 are variously filled up. Mr. Fisher ^ has lately had one repro- 
 duced from a painting of Vandyke's, and with those we obtain 
 from the East we have now no difficulty in obtaining carpets 
 the designs of which will suit almost any style of decoration. 
 In all these carpets it will be seen that the border plays a most 
 important part, and probably the last thing that would enter 
 into the head of an Oriental would be to cut out a carpet to the 
 shape of the room and then nail it down, so that it should be 
 impossible to clean the floor without the trouble of unnailing 
 it. Again, with the Easterns a carpet is not a thing to be 
 trodden upon with dirty boots, on the contrary, they are occa- 
 sionally made of materials which would completely disqualify 
 them for such usage. Witness the two beautiful carpets in the 
 Chinese section of the late Exhibition, one being yellow and the 
 other red, each apparently made of satin and silk, and looking 
 like the richest stained glass. It is by such knowledge that we 
 come to understand about the famous carpet which formed part 
 of the spoils of Ctesiphon when the Mohammedans took that 
 city in 637 ; it is said to have been sixty cubits square, and re- 
 
 " Of Soutbanipton-street, Strand. 
 
 N 
 
90 A rt applied to Industry, 
 
 presented a paradise or garden, the plants being rendered by 
 gold embroidery and precious stones. 
 
 Now when we look at the Eastern stuffs of the present day, 
 and the fine pieces of mediseval textile fabrics which have come 
 down to us, we detect two great principles : first a geometrical 
 regularity, and secondly a flat treatment. Flowers are never 
 drawn in perspective, but conventionalized : than which nothing 
 is more difficult to effect, and often we may obtain a better 
 suggestion for our purpose by taking sections of flowers than 
 the flowers themselves. Some years ago, when the Government 
 schools were first established, flowers were considered the end- 
 all, and be-all of design, and we had them put into every fabric, 
 either separately, or scattered over, or tied up in bunches by 
 means of blue ribbons; if any conventionalism was attempted 
 it assumed the shape of a Louis XV. scroll. Fortunately the 
 Great Exhibition of 1851 put a stop to this, and we have gone 
 on improving, more particularly in our fabrics for dresses ; but 
 our modern carpets are still very unsatisfactory, and it is really 
 difficult to get a good figured pattern for curtains. 
 
 From the peculiar form of our female costume, which bangs 
 in a number of small plaits round the waist, we are unable to 
 use those strongly contrasted colours, or those small patterns 
 in gold, which were so universal in the Middle Ages; but 
 we have other uses for woven fabrics where we can use rich 
 and strongly contrasted colours, as damasks, chintzes, and 
 other stuffs for curtains. There is also no reason why our 
 counterpanes should be usually white, or why costly ecclesi- 
 astical hangings, such as altar and pulpit cloths, should not be 
 made in the loom. It is only fair to Mr. Grace to say that 
 some years back he managed to secure the services of tlie 
 late Mr. Pugin, and some of the articles, such as the tapestrj^, 
 produced from that gentleman's designs leave nothing to be 
 desired, whether as regards the material, or the flat and con- 
 ventional treatment of the ornament ; unfortunately Mr. Pugin 
 took the style of mediseval art which was prevalent in his 
 day, and consequently his fabrics, although excellent in them- 
 selves, do not go too well with our modern development of 
 the same art, which has taken its inspiration from earlier 
 and purer models than he did. Thus, of all animals a lion 
 is perhaps the most difficult to conventionalize, and in draw- 
 ing the desiffu for a certain chintz he took the drawing of 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 91 
 
 his lion from the fifteenth century; now this happens to be 
 a very exaggerated type, and very unlike the animal itself, 
 and people consequently object to purchase the queer-look- 
 ing beast who. is sucking his paws. At the same time it 
 must be confessed that for certain things we of the pre- 
 sent century have an almost Mohammedan prejudice against 
 the introduction of human or animal figures. This is more 
 particularly the case with regard to textile fabrics. Mrs. X. 
 will admit a bird or two on her chintz curtains, but not an 
 animal, and why? simply because it is not fashionable, and she 
 is afraid of Mrs. Y. paying her a visit, and thus going and 
 telling Mrs. Z. ' that Mrs. X. is such a queer creature, for do 
 you know she has actually got lions on her chintz curtains ; and 
 whoever saw lions in that position, and what have they got to 
 do with curtains ?' So that for fear of what our neighbours may 
 say we still go on with ugly carpets and furniture, unsatisfac- 
 tory wall papers, and doubtful curtains, to the destruction of 
 our own and everybody else's good taste. 
 
 As long as we follow one another in these matters like a 
 flock of sheep, I really do not see the way to any improvement, 
 and I am afraid that if any improvement is to be expected it 
 must be got by working up to our architecture, not by work- 
 ing down from it. In fact, we have no architecture to work 
 from at all; indeed, we have not even settled the point de 
 depart, Por one night some gentleman will get up, and, for- 
 getful of the difference of climate and material, implore us to 
 study Greek work, and go on from that for our future archi- 
 tecture; a week or two afterwards another lecturer will re- 
 commend early French mediseval art for the same purpose; 
 he will be succeeded by another who will indignantly repudiate 
 everything foreign, and tell us to stick to the thirteenth-cen- 
 tury art of our own country; while a fourth will leave the 
 future to providence, but implore us by no means to neglect 
 sketching as many old buildings as possible in the meanwhile, 
 perhaps to give us unity of ideas. Now it is very evident that 
 all these pieces of advice cannot be right, and that some must 
 be wrong, only, unfortanately, we cannot distinctly prove which 
 is right and which is wrong. In the meantime we have no 
 distinctive architecture, and architects' pupils are kept sketch- 
 ing old buildings, carefully distinguishing the mouldings of the 
 thirteenth century from the fourteenth, and the fourteenth 
 
92 Ai^t applied to Industry. 
 
 from the fifteenth, when, to my mind, they might be far better 
 employed in drawing the figure and making themselves masters 
 of some of the more obvious and necessary facts of anatomy. 
 It may be objected that we use the figure so little that it is 
 hardly worth learning it. The answer to this is, that if we use 
 the figure very little it is because architects cannot draw it and 
 thus recommend it to their clients, who in nine cases out of 
 ten would give the order for the piece of sculpture if they had 
 only an idea of what it was going to be. It appears to me that 
 our art, especially in this country, is domestic, and that the 
 best way of advancing its progress is to do our best in our own 
 houses. It is probable, if we once manage to obtain a large 
 amount of art and colour in our sitting-rooms, that the im- 
 provement may gradually extend to our costume, and perhaps 
 eventually to the architecture of our houses. What we at pre- 
 sent stand in need of in this respect is a material which will 
 give us colour, be capable of being washed, and yet not dis- 
 integrate. Stone, brick, and stucco all get dirty, and are not 
 able to be cleaned. Marble it is found will disintegrate in this 
 climate, and, as far as I see, the only thing that remains to us 
 is glazed earthenware. Probably some other substance may 
 be discovered, but until we have some means of successfully 
 struggling with the atmosphere of smoke and damp with which 
 we are surrounded, I hardly see how we can expect much im- 
 provement in our domestic architecture. Again, the law of 
 leasehold is a most formidable evil, for who will build in a sub- 
 stantial manner when he knows that all his outlay will go to 
 his landlord after a certain time ? In the present day we have 
 very wisely given up the attempt to control the markets by 
 legislative enactments, or to regulate what clothes each class 
 of society shall wear, indeed it appears to be generally under- 
 stood that the less we interfere with such matters the better ; 
 but, in the present instance, a law forbidding any man to build 
 on hired land would have, I believe, the happiest effect upon 
 the external appearance of large cities, for many people would 
 try to render their houses as beautiful as possible, knowing that 
 they would descend to their successors. 
 
 The reason why I think the future development of our art 
 will be a domestic one, and not a public or ecclesiastical one, 
 is this : — As a nation we have but little out-of-door life, and our 
 public buildings and monuments are generally spoiled by the 
 
Art applied to Industry. 93 
 
 most mischievous economy. As to our ecclesiastical edifices, 
 the Church is far from being what she was in the Middle Ages. 
 In the first place, she by no means possesses the revenues she 
 then enjoyed, and instead of being assisted by the State, it is 
 considered the right policy to snub and thwart her in every 
 manner. At present the number of bishops is, I believe, very 
 little more than it was in the last years of the reign of 
 Henry VIII., and when an application was made lately to in- 
 crease the number it was flatly refused — ^just as if the army 
 should be allowed no more generals than it had in the sixteenth 
 century. The Church, therefore, at present has no occasion for 
 more cathedrals, and cannot lead the art movement as she did 
 in the Middle Ages. It is true that something has been done of 
 late years, and that, thanks to Pugin and the Camden Society, 
 we have learnt to build churches by recipe, i. e. we know what 
 proportion the chancel bears to the nave, that there should be 
 more light at the east end than at the west ; but still that was 
 not art, and the influence in London has simply been confined 
 to ecclesiastical buildings scattered up and down the town, and 
 embedded in masses of the ugliest bricks and mortar. If a 
 public building has been wanted it has been executed in a style 
 which is called Classic, but which would certainly make an 
 ancient Greek or Roman open his eyes very wide indeed. The 
 Church, again, up to the present time has set her face against 
 the arts of painting and sculpture, making as much a super- 
 stition of their disuse as the unreformed Church did of their 
 abuse. 
 
 Formerly the Church patronized the drama, and the people 
 were admitted into the churches to see the truths of its re- 
 ligion and the principal acts of its divine Founder rendered to 
 their eyes as realities, instead of simply being told to imagine 
 them. !N"ow all is changed. Until late years the theatre pre- 
 sented very many disadvantages, but at present matters are 
 very much better, and if ever we wish it to be what it ought to 
 be, the result will only be obtained by the character of the 
 audience and the wholesomeness of the criticisms. 
 
 It is for these reasons that I suspect that the next develop- 
 ment of art will be a domestic one, and it rests with all of us, 
 individually, to help it on, by paying attention to the interiors 
 of our houses in the first instance. As to the external helps of 
 the development, I have already enumerated them in my first 
 
94 A rt applied to Industry, 
 
 lecture: they are, the better education of the designer by a 
 more extended teaching of the figure, and of the public at large 
 by bringing museums and art collections, if not to their doors, 
 at all events to their daily walks ; a wiser system of expendi- 
 ture with regard to our public monuments; a decline of the 
 present ecclesiastical superstition against the employment of 
 painting and sculpture; and, above all, the abolition of the 
 system of leasehold. 
 
 These things will certainly not all happen in our day, if 
 indeed any of them do. In the meanwhile, all that remains 
 for us to do as artists is to do our duty manfully against shams 
 and littlenesses, and to direct our pupils' attention to those 
 things which are inimitable under any style of art, viz. the 
 human figure, drapery, and the great principles of composition. 
 
EXTERNAL ARCHITECTURAL DECORATIONS. 
 
 It is not now so many years ago since a distinguished states- 
 man and novelist created a very considerable sensation among 
 the Art world by the enunciation of two propositions. These 
 were, firstly, that in the present day we mistake comfort for 
 civilization j and secondly, that as our houses and public build- 
 ings all resemble one another, and are all equally wretched, 
 the best way to remedy the evil would be to hang an archi- 
 tect — instancing the very excellent effect the execution of 
 Admiral Byng had upon the naval service. Whether the 
 remedy proposed would have the desired effect, is a very open 
 question — perhaps it might ; but that we are too apt to mistake 
 comfort for civilization, and that our modern houses are lament- 
 ably poor and remarkably like one another, is unfortunately but 
 too true, for there is probably not another capital in Europe 
 which can come up to us as regards the uniformity and ugliness 
 of our dwelling-houses, to say nothing of our public buildings. 
 In fact, it would almost appear that the great object of the rich- 
 est city in the world is to spend as little money as possible on 
 its edifices, and when to this is added the fact that in some 
 twenty-five years, or even less, everything is covered with a thick 
 coating of smoke, one is apt to despair of any improvement. 
 Still the state of things, although unfavourable, is not to be 
 despaired of. Could the law of leasehold be abolished, and 
 could the builder be made to build only on land owned by him- 
 self, people would spend a great deal more money on houses 
 which they knew would descend to their children. On the other 
 hand, could some material be found capable of being periodi- 
 cally washed without injury, the smoke nuisance would be com- 
 paratively harmless. But before going into this latter question, 
 it may be as well to see with what materials buildings have 
 been constructed or faced in former times, and how such facing 
 or construction has been ornamented. 
 
 Marble. 
 To begin with the richest material, viz. marble. This can be 
 applied in three ways, i. e. the building may be entirely con- 
 
 California^ 
 
96 Art applied to Industry, 
 
 structed of it, as the Parthenon at Athens, or it may be faced 
 with it, as the Duomo at Florence, -or it may be applied in 
 a thin veneer, as in the various edifices at Venice. It is need- 
 less to say that the application of these systems was greatly in- 
 fluenced by the distance of the work from the marble quarries. 
 If, then, we take the first method, i.e. that of the Parthenon, 
 we shall find that the architect had by no means finished his 
 work when he had put the marble blocks together, and had 
 inserted the sculpture; on the contrary, the painfully bright 
 colour of the white marble under a powerful sun necessitated 
 some method by which it might be toned down. This was 
 efi'ected by painting. By this I do not for one moment sup- 
 pose that large surfaces were covered with coatings of opaque 
 colour; on the contrary, what few remains have come down to 
 our own times tend to shew that the gold and colour was 
 applied in thin lines, but at the same time in strong tints ; in 
 fact very much as we see it applied to Parian statuettes. Now 
 the efi'ect of marble thus treated, when viewed from a distance, 
 is that of being suffused with a very delicate tint of the pre- 
 vailing colour of the painted lines; and in this manner the 
 glare of the white marble was to a great degree counteracted. 
 There is also some reason to believe that the excessive white- 
 ness was occasionally toned down by means of a stain, such as 
 a solution of saffron — more especially as Pausanias mentions the 
 walls of a temple which when wetted gave out the smell of that 
 herb. But the Greek architect did not restrict himself entirely 
 to lines and ornaments ; on the contrary, some portions of the 
 building, although not very large ones, were covered with paint, 
 such as the triglyphs and the backgrounds of the sculpture. 
 Again, there is good reason to suppose, from a passage in Pliny, 
 that the walls behind the columns received colour, and even 
 paintings, and as the columns were comparatively close together, 
 this would have the effect of making them stand out well from 
 the wall without sacrificing the general white tone of the whole 
 building. Again, gilt bronze was largely employed for the 
 accessories of the sculpture, as we see in the Elgin Marbles; 
 and one building is mentioned where the joints of the stones 
 were filled in by thin fillets of gilt metal. In the capitals of 
 the columns of Minerva Polias we find glass beads employed as 
 an architectural decoration : and were it possible for us to go 
 back to the Athens of ancient times, I have no doubt but that 
 
Art applied to Industry. 97 
 
 we should find a great many things for which we are by no 
 means in the habit of giving the Greeks credit. 
 
 Such was the way in which a marble temple was anciently 
 treated. I believe it is a disputed point whether the Greeks, 
 like the Romans, were in the habit of employing coloured 
 marble columns, but that they did not confine themselves to 
 white alone is proved by the string of black marble which may 
 be traced more or less all round the Acropolis, and which pro- 
 bably served as the support of the Gigantomacbia. 
 
 The second way of treating marble is by building the walls 
 of the edifice with brick or rubble, and then facing it with a 
 coating of marble, say from six inches to a foot thick, according 
 to the necessity. The brick or rubble should be so constructed 
 as to allow of the marble being well toothed in, and hence the 
 very rough appearance such walls present when the marble has 
 never been applied, as is so often the case in Italy. Of course 
 it was always right to give time for the wall to settle well be- 
 fore applying the facing, but somehow or other, in nine cases 
 out of ten^ the said facing has been put off indefinitely. The 
 cathedrals of Florence, Sienna, Prato, and Orvieto are instances 
 where it is more or less perfect. In this case the architect 
 generally divided his wall either in horizontal lines or square 
 panels, using for the purpose black, white, and red marble; 
 the red not appearing in any great quantity. The windows, 
 doors, &c., were richly carved and inlaid, while an elaborate 
 tarsia of these marbles, which may be described as a coarse 
 mosaic, (not unlike the Tonbridge-ware patterns enlarged,) ran 
 round the building with the strings, round the arches and 
 jambs of the windows, round the panels, and in fact almost 
 everywhere. Glass mosaic was also occasionally introduced in- 
 stead of sculpture. The best example of this sort of work is 
 Giotto's campanile at Florence; and although a great deal of 
 valuable material is expended, and a great deal of human 
 labour, still to my mind the effect is hardly worth the trouble 
 and cost. The contrast of the marbles is violent, and the panel 
 system is but too apt to remind one, as it did Pugin, of a 
 Brighton workbox. This facing system is also to be found in 
 Eastern buildings, but there the ornaments and inlays are far 
 more beautiful and delicate than in the Italian edifices. It has 
 not been my lot to see the larger specimens of marble buildings 
 in the East, and I am unable therefore to speak of their effect. 
 
 o 
 
98 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 M. Fossati told me that he imagined that St. Sophia at Con- 
 stantinople was anciently faced with marbles, the spoils of 
 antique temples; all, however, have disappeared, and the 
 building is now plastered over and coloured with red longi- 
 tudinal bands. 
 
 Some of the better fountains in the same city are exceed- 
 ingly beautiful; they are large square edifices with towers at 
 the angles, faced with marble cut into the most delicate pat- 
 terns and foliage in low relief, parts of which were doubtless 
 gilt; the grilles, which occupy a considerable portion of the 
 surface and the tops, are in bronze; the overhanging eaves 
 of the high lead-covered roof are boarded underneath, and 
 painted and gilded in various patterns ; and the finials on the 
 top of the roof are also gilt. As regards inlaying marble, the 
 Easterns are unrivalled. Some j'ears ago a very considerable 
 quantity of marble was brought into this country from Delhi, 
 and it is even now occasionally to be met with in curiosity 
 shops; the ground is a coarseish white inlaid with black, like 
 slate, green like our Irish green ; there is also a yellow marble, 
 and the flowers are formed of cornelian and most beautiful 
 rose-coloured agates. 
 
 The examples of the third way of using marble are prin- 
 cipally to be found in Venice. Here the columns are solid 
 marble, the walls are brick, and the facing is applied in very 
 thin slabs, secured to the wall by mortar and by metal hold- 
 fasts which appear on the outside; the strings, of course, are 
 solid marble, so also is the tracery and moulded work, al- 
 though the latter is generally avoided, and the arch turned 
 in brick, so that the thin soffit-slabs of marble, when applied, 
 project outward, and thus afford support to the outer casing 
 above. Sometimes the Venetian architect contented himself 
 with making what we should call the dressings only in marble, 
 the walls proper being plastered and painted, sometimes with 
 figures, but generally according to Mr. Ruskin with a diaper, 
 which in the ducal palace has been translated into marble 
 of different colours. In the earlier buildings of a better cha- 
 racter, such as St. Mark and the Fondaco dei Turchi, the 
 whole facade was covered with thin slabs of marble interspersed 
 with panels containing sculptures, which often had a gold 
 mosaic ground, or with panels inclosing more valuable marbles, 
 such as porphyry or serpentine, as in St. Mark's, where we find 
 
A rt applied to Industry, 99 
 
 marble carving, serpentine, porphyry, and glass mosaic in juxta- 
 position. As also a piece of architectural colour the west front 
 of St. Mark's at Venice certainly stands unrivalled at the pre- 
 sent day, whatever the group of buildings on the rock of Athens 
 may have been. The picture of Capacchio certainly shews us 
 that we have lost something ; but after all it has not been very 
 much, being principally confined to the gilding in the upper 
 portions of the buildings, such as the crockets, pinnacles, &c., 
 some of the ornaments of the latter having been cast in lead. 
 
 Stone. 
 Stone is a more difficult material to treat than marble for 
 external decoration, people being generally content to carve it 
 and there to leave it. This was not the case formerly. The 
 temples at Psestum and that of Vesta at Tivoli are worked in 
 a very coarse hard stone, full of holes — a stone that in the 
 present day would probably be rejected for external facing. 
 The Greeks and Komans did not think so : everything is 
 worked in it, and then covered with two thin coatings of 
 plaster; the first stops up the holes and brings it to a fair 
 surface, the latter, which is about one-eighth of an inch thick, 
 is largely mixed with marble dust, so that it can receive a 
 polish. The building had then very nearly the white glaring 
 effect of new' marble, and was treated in a similar manner. 
 In the museum at Palermo are some bas-reliefs found at 
 Selinuntum, made of this stone and plastered in the usual 
 manner : some are, it is true, very archaic, but others are post- 
 Phidian, and very beautiful works. Stone, again, in the Middle 
 Ages was used in strips, like marble, alternating with stone of 
 other colours, or with brick, as* at Verona; in this case the 
 mass of wall is brick, the stone forming a sort of chain, or rather 
 a series of coffers at certain intervals. A very favourite way of 
 using stone, especially during the fifteenth century, was to 
 make it alternate with bricks or flints, so that the wall looks 
 like a chess-board. In Norfolk the surfaces of stone walls, or 
 rather of parts of them, are cut into elaborate tracery or other 
 ornaments, such as letters, &c., and the interstices filled with 
 flints ; and if the flints are cleanly broken and nicely squared 
 the effect is very good indeed. Occasionally ornaments are 
 incised in the stone and then filled up with black cement, as 
 in the porches of Notre Dame at Paris, and at St. Etienne at 
 
I OO Art applied to Industry. 
 
 Beauvais ; but this process does not often occur, and would ap- 
 pear to have been reserved almost exclusively for floors. At 
 other times an effect is got by the jointing of the stone, such 
 as a thin course and a thick one alternately, or by making 
 certain portions of the facing reticulated, as in Notre Dame 
 at Poitiers: of course in this latter case the joints should be 
 kept very wide. 
 
 In the Middle Ages we find positive colour and gilding ap- 
 plied directly to stone buildings, but then it was confined to 
 sheltered situations, and was executed in oil or in distemper, 
 covered with oleaginous varnishes ; thus there are traces of 
 painting on the statues and architecture of many of the French 
 portailSy such as Amiens, but then they were protected by the 
 great depth of the arch. Coats of arms were generally coloured ; 
 the tympana of dormer windows, when protected by the barge- 
 boards, were coloured ; and crockets and finials were often gilt. 
 At the Chateau of Blois the windows being deeply recessed 
 from the front, the jambs of the arches which contain them 
 are coloured and gilt. At Florence the projecting machicola- 
 tions of the Palazzo Publico have emblazoned coats of arms. 
 In fact, our ancestors coloured those parts which could be pro- 
 tected, but, like sensible men, abstained from putting paint 
 where it would be destroyed by the climate. 
 
 Brick. 
 It must be confessed that brick is not a particularly agree- 
 able material to work with; if used alone it is exceedingly 
 monotonous, and if different colours be introduced a piebald 
 effect is very likely to be the result : used with stone dressings 
 of a warm colour is perhaps as good a way as any to employ it, 
 and if the building is to have any architectural features it will 
 probably be found the cheapest, for bricks become rather ex- 
 pensive articles when they have to be cut, rubbed, and 
 gauged. However, effects can be produced by bricks of dif- 
 ferent colours, although many attempts of late days in this 
 direction can hardly be pronounced successes. Our own an- 
 cestors, for the most part, contented themselves with very 
 sparing reticulations of black glazed bricks. At Verona, 
 Padua, and elsewhere in Italy, a very curious mode of deco- 
 rating brick-work is adopted. Patterns are formed in the 
 youssoirs of arches by cutting away the surface of sundry of the 
 
A rt applied to Industry. I O I 
 
 voussoirs, and then filling up tlie space so obtained with plaster. 
 At St. Antonio at Padua, the spaces within the terra cotta 
 arches, which form the cornice of the cloisters, are thus filled 
 in with plaster, and have had painted ornaments. 
 
 In the north of Italy we find a very great employment of 
 terra cotta, one of the finest examples being the Ospidale 
 at Milan ; somehow or other the effect is not pleasing, being 
 too apt to conjure up suggestions of the burning city described 
 by Dante. Much of our modern terra cotta is of a very harsh 
 and bright colour, so much so that it would hardly be an acqui- 
 sition to any building. A fountain in this Museum, of Austrian 
 manufacture, is an excellent example of what carefully to avoid 
 as regards colour in terra cotta. In our own time a whole 
 medieval church has* been constructed of this material, but as 
 the experiment has never been repeated we may presume that 
 it has hardly been a success. 
 
 Far better than terra cotta is majolica — here we obtain 
 beautifal form and imperishable colour. Majolica may be 
 either in relief, or painted on a flat surface ; the former is 
 more commonly applied as an external ornament, and is by 
 no means uncommon in Tuscany and the circumjacent parts 
 of Italy. It occurs in the form of friezes, medallions, coats 
 of arms, figures, &c. ; but I never, as far as I remember, ever 
 saw a fa9ade entirely covered with it. There are some most 
 excellent examples in the South Kensington Museum, foremost 
 among which may be cited the coat of arms with its surround- 
 ing wreaths, ten feet in diameter ; this, like all large examples, 
 is made in several pieces, all of which had to be properly im- 
 bedded in the wall. Similar coats of arms occur in the Or San 
 Michele at Florence, and the Palazzo del Podesta at Certaldo 
 is literally covered with them. The inventor of this majolica 
 was Luca della Robbia, a Florentine sculptor, who set himself 
 to invent, or rather re-invent, a stanniferous enamel to cover his 
 terra cotta figures ; I say re-inyent, for the secret had been 
 known to the Spanish Moors long before. The works of Luca 
 della Robbia now command high prices, not only on account 
 of their rarity, but for their own intrinsic value, for Luca was 
 a real artist, and got beautiful feeling and expression in his 
 work. Several of his figures are simply in white, with a light- 
 blue background. Afterwards other colours were added, and 
 sometimes the flesh is left unglazed. But with all this the 
 
1 02 Art applied to Industiy, 
 
 general effect of the colour of his figures is never thoroughly 
 pleasing, and I am barbarous enough to think that Minton 
 colours his figures much better. 
 
 Glazed earthenware for architectural purposes appears .to 
 have been used in Germany at the beginning of the sixteenth 
 century, for Erasmus, in his Colloquies, mentions columns of 
 earthenware glazed to represent marble supporting a portico. 
 The medallions in Holbein's gateway at Whitehall were also of 
 terra cotta, but I do not know whether they were glazed. The 
 angels, however, which surmounted the high altar of Henry the 
 Eighth's Chapel, were glazed to represent marble ; and as they 
 were executed under the direction of Torregiano, were most 
 probably of Italian workmanship. Luca della Robbia did not 
 content himself with reliefs; on the contrary, he appears to 
 have painted on majolica as well, if we may trust the series 
 of discs attributed to him, which are preserved in the South 
 Kensington Museum. They represent the labours of the year, 
 and are in three different blues, with black outlines, and white 
 high-lights : they probably formed a decoration for some small 
 building, such as the study of Cosmo the Elder, described 
 by Vasari. 
 
 If we want to know what can be done with enamelled 
 majolica, we have only to go to the East. One of the mosques, 
 I think that of Suleyman, has one of its courts covered with 
 large inscriptions and ornaments, painted in blue on white tiles, 
 and I must say that the colour was exceedingly rich, and the 
 result very good indeed. Pieces of plain pottery are found in 
 the campaniles at Rome, and are far more bright than marble 
 would be at that height. Again, several of the churches at Pisa 
 have dishes inserted in their gables; the story being that it 
 was the custom of the Crusaders to bring them home and 
 deposit them in the front of the church as trophies. 
 
 In the South Kensington Museum is a figure painted on ma- 
 jolica, manufactured by M. Rousseau of Paris ; it was purchased 
 at the Great Exhibition, and it is said that the colours and 
 glazing have been affixed in one firing — a most important dis- 
 covery, should this sort of decoration ever come into extensive 
 use. The division lines of the various tiles composing the figure 
 follow the outlines, and thus avoid the confusion which would 
 arise had they been made square; as it is, the joints serve to 
 accentuate the outlines like the leading in stained glass. 
 
Art applied to Industr^^'^^^W^^f^^yCo^ 
 
 Plaster. ^^(J^RNi^^ 
 
 Few people would suppose that plaster could be rendered 
 ornamental unless it be cast into moulds, or, as in the last 
 century, worked by hand. If, however, we go to Florence, we 
 shall find that with an artistic people even this material is 
 susceptible of high art. To begin with the simplest decoration. 
 In the vicinity of Florence, the rough walls which divide one 
 vineyard from another are covered with plaster : this plaster 
 when wet is covered with very deep scratches; the principal 
 lines run vertically, and the spaces are then filled up with 
 various patterns. This is without the town : within, we find the 
 graffito. After a building had received the first coat of plaster, 
 a second was applied, very much thinner and mixed with colour, 
 very often soot ; when this was set, a finishing coat was applied 
 over it, and while it was wet the artist scraped it away in 
 various patterns and figures, so as to shew the black ground : 
 the whole, when completed, forms a decoration or picture in 
 black and white. Several houses of apparently the sixteenth 
 century retain this decoration, which in that climate appears 
 to be tolerably durable. It is practised at the present day, and 
 specimens were to be seen at the Florentine Exhibition of 1861. 
 The earliest example I have seen was at Assisi ; from the costume 
 the date might be from 1460 — 1470 : it is also noticeable from 
 the fact of the ground being in various colours instead of black. 
 Plaster is also cast in patterns and applied to external surfaces 
 of walls, as in the Alhambra; but then it was probably protected 
 by overhanging eaves. It can be stamped in patterns while 
 wet, as we occasionally see in old half-timber houses in our 
 own country, and even when not stamped it has a very good 
 effect if the wood be only painted a dark colour. At Galata 
 the old Genoese houses are made of indiff*erent brick, and then 
 plastered and painted ; there is no moulded work of any kind ; 
 all the decoration is obtained by what we call tuck-joints, 
 i.e. projecting ones, which are made of much finer plaster than 
 the ground. These tuck-joints are left white, while the gene- 
 ral surface of the wall is a dull grey ; the ornamental bands, 
 which do duty for strings, on the contrary, have their grounds 
 coloured red; the window jambs and lintel are simply great 
 stones on the Stonehenge principle, and the cornice is composed 
 of tiles on edge. Sometimes the wall is made to represent 
 
I04 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 alternate courses of stone and tiles ; in this case the surface of 
 the sham tiles is coloured red. In some of the plaster I de- 
 tected little pieces of chopped linen which did duty for hair. 
 
 Painting. 
 
 In a country where the material was not a good one, and 
 where the climate was favourable, a very common way of ob- 
 taining decoration was to cover the whole surface of the walls 
 with plaster and then paint it. This, according to Mr. Layard, 
 was the case with regard to Babylon, where sunburnt bricks 
 were used, and distinguished it from Nineveh, where the base- 
 ment was of stone and the superstructure of wood. At Pompeii 
 we see the same thing. In one of the streets a good part of an 
 external wall remains tolerably perfect; it is plastered all over 
 in the usual manner, i.e. marble dust is mixed with the last 
 coating. For six or eight feet high the wall is coloured red, but 
 divided into vertical divisions by white lines. Above, the plaster 
 is jointed like regular stonework, the joints being represented 
 by broad and deep incised lines, which if I remember rightly 
 were filled up also with red. 
 
 In our own country during the Middle Ages, paintings were 
 reserved for the insides of dwellings, and we must, therefore, go 
 to Italy for information as regards external paintings. The 
 custom anciently must have been very common, for in spite 
 of the perishable nature of the decoration, nearly every city 
 can shew some one specimen, if not more. Thus in Florence 
 there is the hospital on the north side of the Baptistery of 
 St. John, besides several other houses which are painted in 
 black and white, and therefore difficult to distinguish from 
 graffito. There are one or two houses at Brescia painted in 
 colours, several at Venice, and portions of others at Vercelli. 
 If we read the lives of Maturino and Polidoro in Vasari, we 
 must believe that these artists alone must have painted the 
 fronts of a vast number of houses in Kome. Our author 
 almost appears to intimate that the fashion went out after the 
 sack of Rome by the army of the Constable Bourbon, when all 
 the artists, including the two in question, had to flee. Vasari 
 distinctly states that Maturino and Polidoro worked only in 
 two colours — in fact, did not make regularly coloured facades 
 like those in Venice and Brescia. He praises them for their 
 introduction of antique ornaments, and for the invention they 
 
Art applied to I?idustry. 105 
 
 displayed in their figure subjects. They appear to have enjoyed 
 great popularity, if we may judge of the number of their sub- 
 jects which were engraved, and their works were executed in 
 imitation of marble and bronze; the colours employed were 
 principally terra verte and terretta. 
 
 Roofs. 
 
 Having thus described the various ways of ornamenting 
 a fa9ade, it may perhaps be as well to add a few words about 
 the roof. The roof can be covered with lead, slates, or tiles. 
 If with lead, the lead can be partially tinned either before it is 
 put up or after; it is needless to say that the former makes the 
 best jpb. Remains of historiated lead-work are to be found 
 in various parts of France, e.g. at Chalons-sur-Marne. Some- 
 times the tinned parts were covered, if in a sheltered place, 
 with a thin coat of transparent oil paint, the lead being left 
 for the outline : this occurs in the lead Jleche at Amiens. Gild- 
 ing is also often applied to lead, but it is not lasting, as the 
 rain washes off the metal in. course of time, leaving nothing 
 but the coloured mordant to tell what has been there. Crest- 
 ings and figures can also be made in lead, and add greatly 
 to the beauty of the roof. They can be equally well applied 
 to slates ; which, by the way, were anciently about three times 
 as thick as they are made in the present day. Slates can be 
 procured of various colours, and arranged in patterns on the 
 roofs ; they can have their edges rounded, or made into an 
 angle, or otherwise ornamented ; but it may be questioned 
 whether anything is preferable to a roof of good green slate, 
 and if there is a good cresting there will be but little occasion 
 either to cut the edges or to mix them with any other colour. 
 
 Tiles, also, can be made into any form, and can be coloured 
 and glazed like any other pottery. The cathedral at Mantes 
 possesses a roof of glazed and coloured tiles disposed in an ela- 
 borate species of Greek fret, and many of the houses at Dijon 
 have roofs with the different coloured tiles disposed in patterns. 
 At St. Andrea, Vercelli, the pinnacles and spires are covered 
 with tiles in the form of truncated cones, coloured and glazed ; 
 and while upon this subject we must not forget the bronze tiles 
 of the Pantheon, so barbarously taken away to make the 
 hideous baldachino at St. Peter's, or the gilded tiles over the 
 bow-window at Innspruck. 
 
106 Art applied to Industry, 
 
 Such, then, are some of the ways by means of whicli our 
 ancestors made their houses pleasant objects to themselves 
 when living, and studies hereafter to their descendants. Now- 
 let any one go into Harley-street, Baker-street, or any other 
 respectable thoroughfare, and look at the houses, and then 
 ask himself whether they are either beautiful objects or things 
 to study. Carefully looked into, they resolve themselves into 
 very dirty brick walls, pierced with a certain number of square 
 holes, one house exactly resembling its next neighbour. I 
 protest, in spite of modern opinion, I like the painted stucco of 
 Belgravia better than what is called the honest brick of Baker- 
 street ; the stucco can be re-painted and made clean, but hardly 
 the brick. Although thus much may be said for the plaster, 
 if it be once neglected it rapidly goes to the bad, for instance, 
 the exterior wall of the Colosseum, in Albany-street, has 
 not been painted for some time, and looks anything but what 
 it should. 
 
 We must always bear one thing in mind, and that is the 
 London smoke and its attendant acids and gases : it is said 
 that its influence extends to no less a radius than forty miles, 
 and if we wish to counteract it, we must face our dwell- 
 ings with some imperishable material which will afford no 
 lodgement for the smoke to penetrate, and which will sus- 
 tain without injury a periodical cleansing by means of a fire- 
 engine. 
 
 Now marble will hardly fulfil these conditions, seeing that 
 it has a great faculty of losing its polish and getting its sur- 
 face disintegrated in this climate; thus, the celebrated Marble 
 Arch has been twice scraped and cleaned within the last fifteen 
 years : so that marble will not do. Granite does appear to keep 
 its polish, but then it is very expensive, and very hard to work, 
 and not of a very pleasant colour. Stone is not very successful : 
 if soft, it soon decays ; if hard, like Portland, it gets very white 
 in some parts and very black in others; this parti-colour I 
 have heard poetically compared to ebony and ivory, but I am 
 afraid that there is more ebony than ivorj^ and indeed we 
 should only be too glad to dispense with it altogether. Stone 
 cannot be cleaned except by scraping, which involves a scaf- 
 fold, and cannot be often repeated ; the same objection holds 
 good with regard to brick or terra cotta, except that when 
 dirty it is of a much more disagreeable colour than stone. 
 
A rt applied to Industry, 1 07 
 
 6^ra^^o-pl aster and paintings are all open to the same objec- 
 tion, viz. that of getting intensely dirty, without much power of 
 being cleaned. We have, therefore, as far as I can see, but three 
 courses open to us : the first is, to build the window-dressings, 
 doors, &c. in majolica, plaster the walls between, paint them 
 with subjects, and then cover them with large sheets of plate 
 glass : this is the first. The second would be to supply the 
 place of the paintings covered with glass, by means of mosaics. 
 Now these mosaics might be made in various ways: 1. they 
 might be of glass chopped up in the regular manner, as Signor 
 Salvieto does it ; 2. or made of sticks of glass broken off short, 
 in Mr. Fisher's manner, (see the stained glass exhibition) ; 
 or they might be manufactured in earthenware and glazed. 
 I do not think unglazed tesserae would do, as the smoke would 
 stain them like bricks. It is by no means necessary that these 
 mosaics should represent subjects, although it would be a gain 
 for them to do so; on the contrary, they might be diapers, and 
 the tesserae might be made like some discovered near Babylon, 
 viz. in the shape of cones, with the bottom part glazed. Some 
 system might also be found for making figures in pieces of stained 
 glass, foiling them from behind, and then embedding them in 
 mortar or lead. Messrs. Powell, of Whitefriars, have invented 
 something of this kind, but I am afraid that their material 
 would be too porous for external use. We now come to majolica, 
 which with mosaic would, I think, solve the problem before us. 
 It should be remembered that, thanks to Messrs. Minton and 
 other manufacturers, we can now obtain majolica both in relief 
 and painted ; it is true that at present it is rather dear, but 
 should an increased demand arise, it would doubtless go down 
 in price. M. RousseFs system would give us great advantages 
 in the pictorial part of the work, while it would rest with the 
 manufacturers generally to give us a glaze that would not shine 
 too much in a side light, and at the same time would stand the 
 frost. With these advantages I really see no reason why we 
 should not have buildings in smoky London glowing with 
 imperishable colour, while the other processes would still be 
 applicable in country places beyond the reach of the fumes of 
 London. At present we are building in stone, and brick, 
 and plaster, which we well know in a few years will be so black 
 that no ornaments can be distinguished. With painted ma- 
 jolica and mosaics all this would be changed ; but people can 
 
io8 Art applied to Industry, 
 
 hardly be expected to spend much money on their houses as 
 long as they know that they are building for the benefit of the 
 landlord and not of their descendants ; hence a change in the 
 law of leasehold is the very first thing required. In the mean- 
 time, the study of the numerous beautiful objects in the South 
 Kensington Museum and elsewhere will do a vast deal, as it has 
 already done, for the diffusion of a correct taste both in draw- 
 ing and colour ; and were the study of the figure more general 
 with ornamentists, we might possibly arrive at good results 
 rather sooner than we generally believe. 
 
THE MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF 
 MEDIEVAL ART. 
 
 Some short time since, my friend Mr. Seddon, the Secretary 
 of the Eoyal Institute of British Architects, wrote a paper 
 which when read at that Institution caused no end of an outcry. 
 The subject was essentially the same as mine, and the osten- 
 sible cause of the outcry was the cutting and humorous names 
 he gave to certain modern developments of Mediaevalism, to 
 say nothing of sundry hard hits at what is generally, and 
 perhaps facetiously, called Classic art. But, although much 
 decried, Mr. Seddon's remarks were perfectly just, and the 
 terms employed in his paper were probably far too amusing to 
 fall into oblivion. However, I have not the least doubt but 
 that his remarks wall do a very great deal of good ; for there 
 are many persons who are perfectly proof against any amount 
 of good advice, but quail before ridicule. Mr. E. Godwin, of 
 Bristol, has also made some very true observations about the 
 present state of Mediaeval art, in a paper which was read before 
 the Bristol Society of Architects. He also has treated the sub- 
 ject in a humorous manner. But the fact is, that the matter 
 is an extremely serious one, and as I by no means wish to pay 
 you the poor compliment of supposing that you are only to 
 be convinced by ridicule, I propose to consider the matter in 
 a serious manner ; for, after all, the Association is the future 
 life-blood of the profession, and if you do not correct your 
 errors, or if you get into a bad way, what hope can there be 
 for our future architecture^ ? 
 
 It will be observed that I confine my remarks to the modern 
 development of Mediaeval art. By this I by no means wish to 
 imply that the so-called Classic development is more perfect. 
 On the contrary, it contains just as many, if not more faults 
 than our modern Mediseval art, and if I do not speak of 
 it, it is simply that I really do not care what becomes of it. 
 The architecture of Greece was most exquisite ; that of Eome 
 was coarse, but magnificent ; both glowed with colour, but 
 both are unfitted for our climate. What is caHed Italian 
 
 * Tliis lecture was read to the Arcliitectural Association. 
 
no Art applied to Industry, 
 
 appears to me to be simply a grouping together of Roman, 
 details, often very much misapplied, and utterly unlike any- 
 thing imagined by an ancient Greek or Roman. But I need 
 scarcely enlarge on this point, for it seems now to be almost 
 generally recognised that some architecture founded upon that 
 of the Middle Ages is the most suitable for our climate, and it 
 consequently attracts the attention of the younger members of 
 the profession ; so much so that all the designs for the prizes of 
 the Institute on the last occasion were Mediaeval. 
 
 / The story of the revival of Mediaeval art has been so often 
 
 and so well told, that it is almost superfluous to go into it on 
 the present occasion, a very few words will therefore suffice. It 
 might almost be doubted whether Mediaeval art has ever been 
 thoroughly disused in England ; for we have the chapel in 
 Lincoln's Inn by Inigo Jones, in which an attempt was made 
 to go back to the Geometrical Decorated style. The piers of 
 one of the arches of old London-bridge were rebuilt in what was 
 then called the Gothic taste ; while Batty Langley and Horace 
 "Walpole did their very worst with the art, inasmuch that their 
 works have become by-words. The curious part of the matter 
 is, that they have some grotesque resemblance to late Italian 
 Mediaeval art, or rather, the latter is the only thing that they 
 at all approach. Nor did Sir Christopher Wren succeed much 
 better ; witness his western towers of Westminster Abbey, and 
 his wretched restoration of the great portal of the northern 
 transept, which latter I most sincerely hope to see in the hands 
 of my friend Mr. Scott, it being a far more crying deformity 
 than anything inside. Indeed, had I the honour of being the 
 architect to the Dean and Chapter, I should certainly give my 
 clients no peace until they allowed me to remove so great an 
 eyesore in one of the most conspicuous places of our metro- 
 polis. To resume our subject: Mediaeval art owes its pre- 
 
 / sent revival to the labours of three individuals, viz. Rickman, 
 Blore, and, above all, Augustus Welby Pugin. The first did 
 us the great service of distinguishing the various styles, and 
 publishing books to guide our researches ^. The second, who 
 is one of the most minute and beautiful architectural draughts- 
 men the world has ever beheld, throughout a long and active 
 
 " Mr. Rickman's successor, Mr. J. H. Parker, has worthily continued this part 
 of the work by means of the Oxford Glossary, the enlarged edition of Rickman, 
 and other similar works on English Mediaeval architecture. 
 
Art applied to Industry, III 
 
 practice erected numerous buildings with correct detail. But 
 it was reserved to A. W. Pugin to wake us up by his enuncia- 
 tion of true principles ; and although his sharp satire doubtless 
 hurt many people's feelings, it did immeasurable good to every- 
 body in the profession. But Pugin was only one man, and the 
 most gifted of us can only do a certain amount of work. It was, 
 therefore, lucky that about this period the subject was taken up 
 by the much-abused Cambridge Camden Society, and right well 
 they did their work : by means of patient investigations of our 
 parish churches, and by means of most unsparing sarcasm, they 
 at last drilled architects into building churches by recipe. No 
 one at the present day does build a bad church — I mean such 
 a church as we but too often saw some twenty years ago ; and, 
 therefore, let all honour be given to the Camden, now the 
 Ecclesiological Society. A few words ought to be said as to 
 the dififerent styles of Mediaeval art in which all these different 
 teachers worked. Thus we have seen Inigo Jones leaning to- 
 wards Geometrical Decorated, and Eickman and Blore went in 
 for the Perpendicular. The majority of the Peel churches were 
 built in Early English, because, as Mr. Hope most truly ob- 
 serves, that style was supposed to survive more starvation than 
 any other. Pugin practised in many styles, but his forte was 
 in French Flamboyant, although converted from it by my 
 esteemed friend Dr. Rock. The Ecclesiological Society en- 
 joined Decorated. Now all this was mere architecture, or 
 rather, the bones of the building without the flesh. Mr. Buskin 
 arrived to supply the deficiency, and to point out the intimate 
 connexion between good sculpture and good architecture ; he 
 also directed people's attention to the beauties of early French 
 Gothic, and afterwards to that of Italy, although I am afraid 
 that his lessons in the latter have hardly been understood as 
 they should have been. Much, very much, is to be learnt 
 from Italian Mediaeval architecture, but its details by no means 
 suit it either for our climate or materials ; and although certain 
 things may look exceedingly well executed in marble in the half- 
 Oriental town of Venice, it hardly follows that they should do 
 so executed in soft stone, and placed in a street of some pro- 
 vincial town. So much is this the case, that I am half afraid 
 that nearly all our faults in modern architecture may be traced 
 to the misuse of Italian examples. Of course Italy is a de- 
 lightful country to study in, and replete with all sorts of 
 
112 Art applied to Industry^ 
 
 associations, and it is far more pleasant to make a tour which, 
 shall include Florence, Venice, and Eome, than to spend week 
 after week in a dull town like Chartres. When, therefore, 
 it was found that Mediaeval art could be studied in Italy, 
 students of the new school flocked thither, and, wishing to 
 bring back telling sketches (the curse of architecture), copied 
 the details which ought not to have been copied at all, for- 
 getting to study the great broad masses, the strong uncham- 
 fered angles, the beautiful figure sculpture, or the wonderful 
 frescoes. It may be asked, What has an architect to do with 
 sculpture or frescoes ? I repeat, that unless he can give small 
 drawings sufficient to shew what groups or figures he wants, 
 and what those figures are to do, he only knows one-half of his 
 profession, and has only half a claim to be considered an artist. 
 The same with regard to the frescoes : he should know how to 
 dispose of them in the building; how to separate them by 
 bands; how to allow for height of situation ; and, in fact, be 
 able to give every assistance to the painter actually employed 
 in their execution, and for all this he must know how to draw 
 the figure tolerably; but if he has studied these things, and 
 can draw the figure tolerably, he will be able to make the 
 building interest the spectator, and tell wondrous stories, with- 
 out a moulding or piece of foliage in his architecture. It was 
 to this that Mr. Kuskin alluded when he said that a square 
 \/ yard of stone was sufficient for any man to shew what was in 
 him; and so far as I may be permitted to say so to such an 
 authority, I consider Mr. Ruskin to be thoroughly in the right. 
 If a man cannot do the things above enumerated, he takes re- 
 fuge in foliage, notches, chamfers, and other specimens of mis- 
 applied ingenuity, and when the work is done it is never satis- 
 factory ; it tells no story, and the beholder grieves that the 
 same ingenuity had not been more artistically or more prac- 
 tically directed. 
 
 I now propose going through a few of what strike not only 
 myself, but many others of my confreres j as some of the more 
 crying defects of the modern development of Mediaeval art; 
 and, as I bear malice against none, and wish to hurt nobody's 
 feelings, I shall mention the names of no persons and of no 
 buildings. I am aware that the subject is unpleasant, and one 
 which it is rather dangerous to take up ; but the Mediaeval 
 school has made so much progress, not only in ecclesiastical 
 
A rt applied to hidnstry. 1 1 3 
 
 buildings, but, what is more, in domestic ones, that I feel that 
 it is hardly the time to keep silence; and, in fact, as the rising 
 school, we cannot afiPord to do so. Again, did I not feel that 
 my views are, to a great extent, shared by others in the pro- 
 fession, I should hardly set them forth in this public manner; 
 but both Mr. Seddon and Mr. Godwin having done so before 
 me, I feel less diffidence, more especially as I hope I shall not 
 be left the last to raise my voice against what appear to me to 
 be crying evils. 
 
 And, first, as to what may be called rhythm in building (1). 
 If we look at the fa9ade of any large building of the Middle 
 Ages, we shall find nearly as much regularity as in a Classic 
 building; i.e. the various parts all balance; if they do not, 
 there is always some good reason for it. Thus, the tower of 
 the Palazzo Publico, at Florence, is not in the centre of the 
 building. Doubtless, Arnolfo would have placed it either at 
 the centre, or at one end ; but then it was wanted to command 
 a certain street ; and, accordingly, it was placed to command 
 the said street, and is much out of the centre. Modern build- 
 ings look very much as if they had been shaken about in a hat, 
 and that the windows were shoved out just where they were 
 wanted. Now, in a little country town, or in the back of even 
 a large building, this is to a certain degree allowable, and con- 
 duces to the picturesque ; but it would not do for the front. 
 There the architect must take more pains, and try to bring in 
 his windows so as to balance in the general composition. Of 
 course, this is much more difficult to do than letting them crop 
 out where they may be most convenient ; but it can be done 
 with care, and, in fact, it is simply an afi'air of trouble and in- 
 genuity. Another thing is, to get the building broad and 
 uncut up at the base, — to get the same strings running unin- 
 terruptedly through, to increase the decoration towards the top, 
 and to cut up the sky-line, as recommended by Mr. Hope. 
 
 There is one great thing to praise in that not very satis- 
 factory buildiug, the New Houses of Parliament, and that is 
 its rhythm. Each part balances the other, and you can see at 
 once that the man who designed it was, at all events, master of 
 the great principles of his art. 
 
 2. The next point is the colour. No one is satisfied unless 
 the building presents a most piebald appearance; red bricks, 
 yellow bricks, black bricks, and even tiles, are^iilt^ei^sed ,«ito 
 
 /^ n* OF THE "'^ 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 CALIFORNIA: 
 
114 -^ ^^ applied to Industry, 
 
 the service. Now it is undeniable that in certain cases in 
 a brick building, a band of differently coloured bricks may do 
 good service as a string or label to unite the various parts ; but 
 that is no reason why it should be repeated all over the edifice. 
 The Italian walls of stone and brick are purely constructive ; 
 at least one I saw at Verona was ; the stone courses being 
 connected together and forming coffers, which were filled with 
 rough brickwork. Some modern buildings have courses of 
 tiles, of the most sickly colours if glazed, or if unglazed of 
 washed-out red and buff — the latter a colour very fashionable 
 with decorators, and which it might be hoped Mr. Ruskin had 
 entirely demolished, for he says that it is like nothing in na- 
 ture. If brick must be used, I would suggest a much more 
 sparing application of colour, although it is impossible to con- 
 ceive anything more melancholy than a London brick house after 
 it has been erected fifty years, and it therefore becomes a most 
 serious thing to suggest with what material our modern London 
 buildings are to be faced ! So corroding and so black is the 
 smoke, that positively nothing will resist it but polished granite 
 or glazed earthenware. The latter would offer an immense 
 field for art in the shape of tiles of good colour, or of painted 
 majolica ; but I question whether such buildings would look 
 well in a side-view, when the glaze would reflect the light. 
 
 3. The use of marble is another of our eccentricities. Em- 
 ployed as the shafts of columns, or in large slabs, nothing can 
 be better; but somehow or other, unless as shafts, it seldom 
 looks well in connexion with stone. Thus I venture to dissent 
 from those elaborate works in Caen stone, where marble is in- 
 troduced in the shape of half-spheres or of inlays. The polished 
 surface of the marble does not harmonize with the coarse and 
 unpolished surface of the stone; and the eye is likewise at- 
 tracted to the marble, to the neglect of the sculpture or archi- 
 tecture. If marble really be used in conjunction with stone, I 
 would suggest that it be unpolished. 
 
 4. Another point is the abuse of tiles. One sees them every- 
 where, even on walls ; and the same thing may be said of in- 
 cised stone. Nothing can be better than the latter for pave- 
 ments, as it affords room for any amount of art; but walls 
 should be painted, for that is their legitimate mode of treat- 
 ment, and putting incised stones into a wall appears to me 
 to be doubling the expense for no particular good. It is 
 
A rt applied to Industry, 115 
 
 true that it is more durable than painting, but then you lose 
 all shading and all colour, except in your outline, and what is 
 painting without shading and outline ? As to tiles, even the 
 best of them quickly wear out, and at the present time there 
 are few to be got — if any — that have any claims to art, say like 
 those discovered at Chertsey. 
 
 5. But the great delight of the modern architect is in his 
 chamfers : he chamfers everything he can possibly get hold of, 
 whether there is any necessity for the process or not. Some- 
 times he makes very curious mistakes. Thus nothing is more 
 lovely than the curves of a pointed arch (No. 1). You get the 
 two lines of the chamfer and the surface between in perspective 
 as you move about it : every view you take varies its perspec- 
 tive, but it is always pleasant because the lines are unbroken 
 and run round ; but now apply the chamfer in the middle of 
 either side of the arch (No. 2.), and stop it, and see how bad 
 and broken the lines at once become as they get into perspec- 
 
 NO.I NO.2 NOS , NO.-^ 
 
 tive (No. 3). Or, suppose you want to bring a square archivolt 
 on to an octagonal or circular column, and instead of making 
 the transition by means of the bell, or of the abacus, you do so 
 by cutting away the angles of your archivolt, see how very weak 
 you render the whole affair (No. 4). Chamfers are very good 
 things in their way, more especially in woodwork, when you 
 cannot get mouldings; but it is quite possible to have too 
 much of a good thing. 
 
 6. Not unconnected with chamfers are the notchings now so 
 frequently seen in new buildings. Notchings in a huge spire 
 may do duty for dogtooth ; but that is no reason why they 
 should break out in parts where they are least wanted. Archi- 
 volts are notched; the upper edges of the abaci of columns, 
 where a straight line is most imperatively demanded by the 
 eye, are notched ; the lower edges of mouldings are notched, 
 till they look like what milliners call inserted work ; even our 
 very furniture is notched. One of my friends possesses a table 
 
1 1 6 Art applied to IndiLstry. 
 
 where the lower edge of the top is thus decorated, greatly to 
 the discomfort of his visitors' knuckles. After all, this notch- 
 ing, although very cheap, is very barbaric, and I believe is in- 
 dicated by Mr. Owen Jones as among the very earliest of the 
 attempts of the savage mind for the decoration of the war-club. 
 7. The management and the form of the arch are most im- 
 portant considerations ; and every kind of arch in itself is so 
 very beautiful that it would almost appear impossible to make 
 an ugly one ; but, thanks to modern ingenuity, a great deal has 
 been effected towards that end. I have already spoken about 
 the top-chamfering, but an equally efficient way is to insert a 
 tympanum which does not come down to the springing (No. 5). 
 The eye always requires a line, either real or imaginary, to 
 mark the springing : put this line a little below, and it does 
 not much matter, as in the case of the best French art, where 
 the arch is always slightly stilted to allow for the portion taken 
 off by the projection of the abacus (No. 6) ; but, on the con- 
 
 BIO-5 /^'^^ N06 / 
 
 NO'7 
 
 trary, draw this line above, and, somehow or other, the sensa- 
 tion is never pleasing. The Pointed segmental arch, although 
 frequently employed in England during the Middle Ages, is 
 seldom satisfactory, of whatever altitude it may be. See the en- 
 trance to the Chapter-house at Westminster, where, however, 
 I strongly suspect some inner moulding has been chiselled off. 
 Sometimes, however, this segmental arch becomes a necessity, 
 as in the groining of the passage in the same building ; but in 
 every case it should be a subsidiary affair, and never employed 
 in the principal windows of a fa9ade, as we too often see it ; or, 
 indeed, anywhere else where it can be avoided. Another form 
 of arch is really no arch at all, but has the advantage of being 
 inexpressibly ugly (No. 7). It was very rarely employed in the 
 Middle Ages, but still there are examples of it, as well as of 
 everything else that is bad. Of course, it is never used con- 
 structively, for it would not stand ; but it too often in the pre- 
 
A rt applied to Industry. 1 1 7 
 
 sent day acts as a containing line to dossels, doors, coupled 
 windows^ &c. ; in fact, it is considered a cheap and easy way of 
 making a thing look strong. This endeavour to get apparent 
 strength by the employment of straight lines where our ances- 
 tors would have used curved, is one of the greatest of the faults 
 in art of the present day, and of all is the most painful to the 
 eye ; and I would even venture to say that no man who has 
 ever properly studied the figure would be guilty of such a thing. 
 
 8. Some years back Mr. Street, in a very excellent lecture "^ 
 at the Architectural Museum, suggested the greater employ- 
 ment of small columns in the place of ornamental buttresses. 
 The suggestion was most excellent, but unfortunately it has 
 been worked to death, and we even see columns mast-headed 
 
 on the tops of our highest gables, and figures on the top of 
 them. 
 
 9. Before dismissing the stonework, I might mention the 
 abuse of foliage and of strings — the former covering the build- 
 ing or object until it looks like a petrified arbour, and the 
 latter jumping up and down in,a most spasmodic manner. But 
 these are hardly the faults of the present generation. The 
 strings now-a-days are generally managed rightly; and if there 
 should be a little money over (an event which very seldom hap- 
 pens to a younger member of the profession) we generally do try 
 to get a little sculpture, instead of spending it on foliage. Some 
 of our modern foliage, however, has taken a very crude and 
 ugly development. Thus we see truncated leaves (No. 8) and 
 stalks jutting out at right angles, |>jQ,g ^ 
 
 or less than right angles, from 
 each other (No. 9), besides sundry 
 other offences against good taste ; 
 the origin of all which will be 
 found in the endeavour to get 
 
 strength — a very laudable one, but hardly successful when 
 obtained by means of straight lines instead of curved. The 
 eff'ect of some of the foliage in the 186.2 Exhibition absolutely 
 resembled that of the time of Louis XIV. instead of the thir- 
 teenth century, while one or two of the objects were completely 
 smothered in leaves. 
 
 10. But our woodwork is still very faulty, being for the most 
 part a very great deal too cheap and thin. I am not so much 
 of an antiquary as to advise the use of oak instead of deal for 
 
1 1 8 Art applied to Indiistry. 
 
 our roofs. Oak was the common wood of our ancestors, but 
 deal is the common wood of our own time ; and, had the case 
 been reversed, I am quite sure that our forefathers, like sen- 
 sible men as they were, would have employed fir. If, however, 
 we look at the majority of thirteenth and fourteenth century 
 churches, we shall find very few open roofs. On the contrary, 
 the roof is generally of the simplest construction, often with tie- 
 beams to keep everything together, and boarded to the bellies of 
 the rafters — sometimes even a flat-boarded ceiling is the result. 
 This afforded space for painting, and provided an air-chamber 
 between the church and the outer rafters: hence the edifice 
 was cool in summer and warm in winter. A small window 
 opened into this air-place, and afforded means of ventilation. 
 Now, compare this with a modern church roof. The timbers 
 are of the smallest possible scantling ; the roof is open to the 
 top (No. 7), so that in reality we see the straight-lined arch 
 magnified to its fullest possible extent, and the little window, 
 deprived of all use, twinkles up above, and only serves to throw 
 in light where it is least wanted, and to expose the poverty of 
 the whole affair. In the present day so many people have got 
 to consider an open roof as a sine qua non in Mediaeval art, that 
 it is very difiicult to persuade them to the contrary. An open 
 roof, to look well, requires very large and very intricate tim- 
 bers, or it is almost certain to look poor. Most of the open 
 roofs of our own country are of comparatively low pitch, and 
 the space between the principals was frequently boarded and 
 painted, and treated like a ceiling. 
 
 The same objection may be made to our church furniture. 
 It is generally very poor and miserable. It is very true that 
 the mouldings in woodwork should be more slender and cut 
 out than in stone, but then they are generally combined in 
 masses, and the whole effect is sharp and solid, as it ought to 
 be. The best pieces of ancient woodwork I know of are the 
 stalls of Amiens Cathedral. 
 
 There are very many other points I may enlarge upon, more 
 especially those of stained glass and sculpture. A protest 
 should also, I think, be made against the common plan of fill- 
 ing in the whole of the windows of a building with large pieces 
 of plate glass, whereby all scale is lost. Plate glass is a very 
 good thing, but surely the upper parts of a window might be filled 
 with lead or iron patterns, and thus some scale be obtained. 
 
■ \;n 
 
 Art applied to Industry. 
 
 But I think I have said enough upon rather invidious sub- 
 jects, and such, as I said before, that I should not have touched 
 upon if I were not sure that very many of my confreres^ both 
 young and old, thought with me. 
 
 I have very often said, and, even at the risk of being thought 
 tedious, I must repeat it again, that the great and crying defect 
 of the art-architect at the present day is the want of the know- 
 ledge of the human figure ; and until that is obtained I am 
 afraid that there will be but little progress. I say art-architect, 
 to distinguish him from the surveyor-architect, who makes 
 a good deal more money and has a great deal less to learn, 
 besides being generally thought a more useful member of the 
 community. In fact, the trials of an art-architect of the pre- 
 sent day are nearly as great as those of the alchemist of the 
 Middle Ages. If he has money, ten to one but he will not 
 work at so unprofitable an occupation, where he sees all the 
 work in other hands, and where he may have to labour some 
 twenty years- before he gets his share. If he has friends who 
 will back him and get him work, so much the worse for him, 
 for he will have to consume that time in the execution of works, 
 and the writing of letters, when he ought to be improving him- 
 self and others. What really is wanted is just sufficient work 
 to keep him a-going, or occasionally a good large competition ; 
 for I by no means consider competitions as unmitigated evils. 
 Only there are two questions which should be satisfactorily 
 answered before going in. The first is. What is to be the 
 style ? as in the present day we have no less than two, which 
 is one more than any other epoch ever had. Unless this ques- 
 tion be answered, it is clearly fifty to one against the com- 
 petitor. The second question should be. Is a professional 
 man to be appointed judge? It is obvious how important it 
 is to have this answered in the affirmative ; for, besides the 
 committee having in all probability no knowledge of archi- 
 tecture, it will generally be found that their bias is towards 
 what is called the local man; and, indeed, they would be 
 less than human if they did not have this bias, remembering 
 that they travel with the said local man, that they dine with 
 him, they meet him at dinner, and they have had or may have 
 local dealings with him, and, therefore, as I said before, they 
 would be less than human not to prefer him. 
 
 Having said so much, I have only to reiterate my advice to 
 
1 20 Ai't applied to Industry. 
 
 the art-architect to learn all he can of the figure ; and while he 
 does this, and while he may be filling up his time with drawing 
 cartoons, never on any account to give up or think of giving 
 up his profession. It is true he may see his way to making 
 more money at the present moment, by drawing cartoons, or 
 designing sculpture, or drawing on stone, but all this while he 
 is an architect. He has been brought up as an architect, and the 
 profession has a right to his services; and if she is unkind and 
 gives him but little at present, it is his duty to persevere and 
 never neglect her; for the time will come when she will have 
 occasion for his services, and if he is not in a position to take 
 advantage of it, his place will be filled by another, and most 
 probably, a less educated man, to the great loss of the art. 
 
 It is for these reasons that I have ventured to say a word 
 in favour of competitions, and if some regulations could be 
 drawn up either by the Association or the Institute, or still 
 better, by both conjointly, I believe a great deal of good might 
 ensue, and transactions which at the present moment are often 
 but so much gambling, and that with loaded dice, might be 
 rendered excellent means of bringing good men forward, or, at 
 least, of causing them to exercise the knowledge they possess. 
 
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