THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 22 SS
 
 Dedicated, by special permission, to His Excellency LORD REAY, 
 
 Governor of Bombay. 
 
 THE UNIVERSAL 
 
 ANGLO-PERSIAN GRAMMAR; 
 
 WITH 
 
 VOCABULARIES IN ENCLISH, PERSIAN, AND CUZERATI. 
 
 BY 
 
 SYED ABDUL LATIF, 
 
 SON-IN-LAW OF H. H. THE LATE NAWAB OF CAMBAY. 
 
 18 o m t a u : 
 
 PRINTED AT THE 
 
 EDUCATION SOCIETY'S TRESS, BYCULLA. 
 
 1887. 
 
 Price Us. 1-8 Paper Covers ; Cloth Rs. 2. 
 Can be obtained at the Bombay Education Society's Press, Byculla. 
 
 Registered for Copyright under Act XXV. of 1867.

 
 LI 
 A 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 In giving this Book, which is a Grammar ou quite a now system, to the student 3 of the Persian 
 and English languages, I beg to make a few remarks, in order to elucidate on what principles this 
 novel Book has been written. It is divided into three parts: Part I. consists of a Vocabulary of the 
 Grammatical Terms; the first column contains tho number of such terras used in the body of the 
 Book; tho second column contains English Grammatical Terms, and opposite every such term its 
 quivalents iu Persian and Gujarati arc given in the third and fourth columns, with references to the 
 Sections in the Book where the word has been described and defined; and also two other Vocabula: 
 are given whereby one can find a word from Persian or Gujarati into English, &c. The .Second Part 
 contains the English Grammar, and the third comprises the Persian Grammar. 
 
 It is evident that since Persian has been accepted as a second language in the Indian Oniversil 
 and is being taught as such in the various Institutions which send annually so many students up 
 the University Examinations, it is destined to play a great part in the future of this country, and i 
 trust it will not be takeu as a presumption on my part if I say that this work of mine, which kept me 
 engaged in its compilation for close upon two years, will be found of some usa to the students oi 
 Persian language, and also to those who wish to compare the two languages, English and Persian. 
 
 This being my first attempt, I crave the forbearance of the critics, as I do not claim cut ire 
 perfection iu the compilation of this work; but should my labours be crowned with su.ee 
 meeting with the approval of those engaged in the study of Persian, I hope in my next editiou t i 
 remedy aDy defects which may have crept iu. In conclusion, I have only to expn h ipe thai I 
 
 Book may prove u: i Eul to the students. 
 
 ID (or MiltZA) \l;l'll. L.\ I 
 
 7 
 
 1583338
 
 List of Abbreviations. 
 
 S. Sect. stands for see section. 
 
 S. f- „ „ see page. 
 
 k- No. „ n see number. 
 
 •Nom. „ }) nominative. 
 
 Obj- » „ objective. 
 
 Dat. >> „ dative. 
 
 P°ss. >> „ possessive. 
 
 *° c - » „ vocative. 
 
 Masc. )> ,, masculine. 
 
 ^ em - » „ feminine. 
 
 Neut. „ ,, neuter. 
 
 a
 
 THE 
 
 ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 OF 
 
 UNIVERSAL ANGLO-PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Abl 
 
 Adj 
 
 No. 
 
 English. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 Ablative Case, s. p. 37, Sec. 87. 
 
 S. P. 76, Sec. 38. 
 
 ^*/o iJjxiiK oJ La. 
 
 Mi=H>fl fVnOi. 
 
 ?, 
 
 Accidence, s. p. 71, Sec. 335.... 
 
 
 O^J 1 ^JO \j) 
 
 -41 »-, (ViOi. 
 
 3 
 
 Accidental 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Accusative Case, s.p. 37, Sec. 38. 
 
 S. P. 70, Sec. 39. 
 
 5 
 
 Acted, see No. 232 
 
 See No. 232. 
 
 S. P. 82, Sec. 81. 
 
 Jjxiuo 
 
 k^. 
 
 6 
 
 Active Voice, s. p. 42, Sec. 08... 
 
 ^%;?(T1'HI^. 
 
 7 
 
 
 See No. 62. 
 
 S.P. 96, Sec. 182. 
 
 
 £ Til. 
 
 8 
 
 Adjective, (when alone), s. r. 56, 
 
 -1R. 
 
 
 [Sec. 209... 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 (with a Substantive), s. p. 
 
 [37, Sec. 10. 
 
 S. P. 70, Sec. 41. 
 
 ii»iU> 
 
 h 7 !*^- 
 
 10 
 
 Cardinal Numeral, s. p. 
 
 [37, Sec. 43. 
 
 S. P. 77, Sec. 1 1, 
 
 JnXC*~> 1 
 
 y^i r^'^- 
 
 11 
 
 Distinguishing, s. p. 37, 
 
 [Sec. 47. 
 
 S. P. 77, Sec. 18. 
 
 tj Li I **» i 
 
 «\i ^4'iiM- 
 
 12 
 
 Distributive Numeral, s. p. 
 
 [37, Sec. 46. 
 
 S. P. 77, Sec. 47. 
 
 O ***•*•** j*~z 1 
 
 «miv^ tt^Mi pH?rt^- 
 
 13 
 
 Indefinite Numeral, s. p. 
 
 [37, Sec. 45. 
 
 S.P. 77, Sec. t6. 
 
 »^»JC J iXC *** 1 
 
 *l>1l'H >i^Hl PhUMIJI- 
 
 14 
 
 Ordinal Numeral, s. P. 87, 
 
 [Sec. 11. 
 
 S. P. 77, Sec. 
 
 ^ 6 ±£ ijj; Li 
 
 fc^^mi-HPU P-Rt'-Hii- 
 
 15 
 
 of Quality,s. p. 37, Sec 1 1. 
 
 S. P. 77, Sec. 12. 
 
 OAxaT^I 
 
 yi^Mi^i [Hltom- 
 
 16 
 
 of Quantity, s, c. 12. 
 
 S. P. 77, Sec. 43. 
 
 j 1 .xax *« 1 
 
 ffVi'-ifHl^i fa^'t^t- 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 /AJmmJ **; 
 
 a^r-u^i R<m^. 
 
 

 
 Adj 
 
 Apl 
 
 No. 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 84 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 to 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 English. 
 
 Adjective in the Comparative 
 [Degree, s. p. 37, Sec. 49. 
 
 in the Superlative Degree, 
 
 [s. p. 38, Sec. 50. 
 Adverb, s. p. 50, Sec. 138 
 
 Compound, s. p. 51, Sec. 
 
 [149. 
 
 Interrogative, s. p. 5], Sec. 
 
 [147. 
 
 • Relative, s. p. 51, Sec. 148. 
 
 of Affirmation, s. p. 51, Sec. ' S 
 
 [144. 
 of Cause, s. p. 51, Sec. 146. S. 
 
 of Condition, s. No. 88 ... 
 
 of Degree, s. p. 51, Sec. 
 
 [142. 
 
 of Exception, s. No. 87 ... 
 
 of Extremity 
 of Injunction 
 
 S. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 P. 77, Sec. 51. 
 P. 77, Sec. 52. 
 P. 91, Sec. 136. 
 P. 91, Sec. 139. 
 P. 92, Sec. 144. 
 P. 92, Sec. 144. 
 P. 92, Sec. 141. . 
 P. 92, Sec. 143. 
 P. 93, Sec. 151. 
 
 J.i«iftJ, 
 
 
 • *.^X.X*« I * «wa 
 
 S. No. 87. 
 
 of Manner, s. r. 50, Sec. 
 
 [141. 
 of Negation, s. p. 51, 
 
 [Sec. 145. 
 of Number, s. p. 51, 
 
 [Sec. 143. 
 of Place, s. p. 50, Sec. 140. 
 
 of Similitude 
 
 of Time, s. p. 50, Sec. 139. 
 
 Adverbial Phrase, s. p. 51, Sec. 
 
 [149. 
 Affirmation 
 
 Affirmative 
 
 Agent, sec X 1 . 62 
 
 Agree 
 
 Alphabet, s. p. 35, Sec. C 
 
 P. 92, Sec. 140. 
 P. 92, Sec. 142. 
 P. 77, Sec. 43. 
 P. 91, Sec. 133. 
 P. 99, Sec. 219. 
 P. 91, Sec. 137. 
 P. 91, Sec. 139. 
 
 P. 85, Sec. 111. 
 No. 62. 
 
 
 Uliw I l}j- 
 
 oj Is i_j r^ 
 
 Ojo" Ij i_> 
 
 s. P. ;:;, Sec. 3. 
 
 <-»j' 
 
 
 
 ,.£***.> o*^. 
 
 (yUj LijH 
 
 
 Jell 
 
 ^y Zj£ Ofi» \jK 
 
 Gnjrati. 
 
 ^■H*H4Kl'H «HW- 
 *H'-4-s ft fa° "H°HM. 
 
 yiaj^^i Pb° fa *M°4M- 
 ^KM'-U^i [i>° fa *H°H*t- 
 
 iWHl^S ft (V ^t v -H. 
 
 r«-iP'Ki-
 
 Ana 
 
 Cas 
 
 English. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 Analysis, s. p. CO, Sec. 286 
 
 Antecedent, s. p. 40, Sec. 60... 
 
 Aorist, s. No. 182 
 
 Apocope, s. p. 71, Sec. 332 ... 
 
 Appellative Noun, s. p. 35, Sec. 
 
 [17. 
 Aprjosition, s. p. 55, Sec. 204... 
 
 Arbitrary Noun 
 
 Article, s. p. 38, Sec. 51 
 
 Definite s. p. 38, Sec. 52... 
 
   Indefinite, s. p. 38, Sec. 53. 
 
 P. 100, Sec. 223. r &" f*~23; J*a£i 
 P. 80, Sec. G6. A* ; J*i U 
 
 No. 182. yl« 
 
 P. 104, Sec. 257. 
 P. 74, Sec. 17. 
 P. 95, Sec. 179. 
 
 
 
 J*J 
 
 111. 
 ^^ «il>tl>1l?ici "{[*£ V 
 
 41 ^lifcT^lisvs ii<*s 
 
 ^iloqi^W ^HiiW pH»t- 
 
 ^tf'l<if>tcl «tR- 
 
 (^ U*» (♦•«» 1 
 
 P. 77, Sec. 53. "-"i/* 3 jj 1 ^ <->j^ gt%tf& pH^to® 
 P. 78, Sec. 54. «^** <-v- 
 
 P. 78, Sec. 55. *^ j u»j- 
 
 Attribution, s. p. 56, Sec. 206. 
 
 B 
 
 Bard 
 
 Beginning 
 
 Blank Verse, s. p. 70, Sec. 319. 
 
 c 
 
 Case, s. p. 36, Sec. 31 
 
 Ablative, s. p. 37, Sec. 37. 
 
 ive, s, p, 37, Sec. 
 
 [38. 
 
 Dative, s. p. 36, Sec. 34 ... 
 
     Locative, s. p. 37, Sec. 39, 
 
 Nominative, s. p. 86, 
 
 [32. 
 
 S 
 S. 
 
 s. 
 
 S. P. 96, Sec. 180. ls*j-*j* >mIo| yi^^sji W^'-A 
 
 fHfwt <4--uti r-wt^. 
 
 mwi gtuls r-i?iM^- 
 
 j«.U ^ 
 
 S. P. 103, Sec. 248. 
 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 32. 
 
 
 =HIVH- 
 
 cJU pHOtOfd- 
 
 S. P. 76, Sec. 38. *»- dj*** *aJ** 
 
 S. P. 76, Sec. * J***" ^-'^ 
 
 S. P. 7-. Sec. ^ J^xi-coJU 
 
 S. 1' 76, - c. 40. *?Jj**« cJU 
 
 s. P. 76, S s. 
 
 JLcli cJU 
 
 "(It? h r 't(":f1 i>|-
 
 Cas 
 
 Cob 
 
 No. 
 
 English. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 S. P. 76, Sec. (^^(.'j***^- 11 - 
 
 [39 and Si-." 
 
 S. P. 76, Sec. 36. oiUloJU 
 
 S. P. 76, Sec. 37. laicJla 
 
 S. P. 81, Sec. 78. /j<sjuljy.<5*iJit ? A***| 
 
 S. P. 95, Sec. 176. 6^* Jj*** 
 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 24. ^Jj&*> ^i*. 
 
 S. P. 74, Sec. 12. fl* f-l 
 
 S. P. 94, Sec. 164. o^ >-^ 
 
 S. P. 95, Sec. 175. /Jj«* 
 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 105. ^iii* ^'^ 
 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 104. *w t*- 1 * 
 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 103. Vir 5 ^ 1 " 
 
 S. P. 94, Sec. 159. k*0" 
 
 S. P. 74, Sec, 13. >*** ^l 
 
 • ..<•«...... lcr>*> 
 
 IS^J" 
 
 S. P. 86, Sec. 122. cAr^ is^ u 
 
 S. P. 102, Sec. 233. ***,£ &♦* 
 
 13. P. 85, Sec. 109. *-hj*>> 
 
 ei>>y ^.j^' 
 
 S. P. 92, Sec. 150. «Jt* 
 
 S. P. 92, Sec. /J*=- ci^ ; Like o^ 
 
 I - 1 
 
 S. P. 93, Sec. 153. rJ _>U, r j3l 
 S. P. 92, Sec. 152. Kii« lj aj .s^ u > 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 
 75 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 32 
 
 83 
 
 34 
 
 36 
 
 Case, Objective, s.p. 36, Sec. 33. 
 
 i\ nr Genitive, 
 
 [S. P. 37, See.:'.-.. 
 
 Vocative, s. p. 37, Sec. 36, 
 
 Causal Verb, s. p. 42, Sec. 64. 
 
 [01.<. 1. 
 
 Cognate Object, s. p. 55, Sec. 
 
 [195. 
 Commencement 
 
 Common (Gender), s. p. 36, Sec. 
 
 [24. 
 
 Noun, s. p. 35, Sec. 12 ... 
 
 Complementary (Nominative), 
 [s. p. 54, Sec. 188. 
 
 Object s. p. 54, Sec. 192.. 
 
 Complete, Future Tense, s. p. 
 [44 Sec. 97. 
 
 Past Tense, s. p. 44, Sec. 
 
 [92. 
 
 Present Tense, s. p. 44, 
 
 ^ [Sec. 87. 
 Compound, s. p. 53, Sec. 175 ... 
 
 Concrete Noun, s. No. 218 
 
 Condition 
 
 Conditional 
 
 Past Tense, s. No. 338 ... 
 
 Sentence, s. p. 71, Sec. 
 
 [337. 
 Conjugation, s. p. 45, Sec. 110. 
 
 jugate 
 
 Conjunction, s. p. 52, Sec. "K>!». 
 
 Copulative, s. p. 52, Sec. 
 
 [160. 
 Correlative, s. r. 52, Sec. 
 
 [104. 
 
 Disjunctive, s. p. 52, Sec. 
 
 162. 
 
 «IMI«-H*UM. 
 ■HsHiaii kTtl. 
 
 Am %nw\- 
 
 otmi^i 'til- 
 
 5Ml''>Ml«1 iVi- 
 
 HljfH*U 3 ft ^*i«>M*l. 
 M 5 .W ti"!^ **i^M«
 
 Con 
 
 Deg 
 
 No. 
 
 English. 
 
 Conjunction, Hypothetical, or 
 
 Conditional, s. p. 52, Sec. 165. 
 
 Consonant, s. p. 35, Sec. 5 
 
 Construction 
 
 Construe 
 
 Contest 
 
 Continuous, (Form) seeNo. 1 16 
 
 Future, sec No. 174 
 
 Past, see No. 175 
 
 Continuous Present, see No. 17G. 
 
 Copulative Conjunction, s. p. 52, 
 [Sec 160. 
 
 Correlative,(Conjunctiou)s. p.52, 
 [Sec. 164. 
 
 Pronoun 
 
 Couplet, s. p. 70, Sec. 325 
 
 D. 
 
 Dative Case, s. p. 30, Sec. 84 ... 
 
 Declension 
 
 Declined 
 
 Defective Verb, s. p. 50, Sec. 13G. 
 
 Definition 
 
 Definite 
 
 Articles, s. p. 33, Sec. 52. 
 
 Noun. s. No. 224 
 
 Decree, Comparative, s p. 37, 
 Sec. 19. 
 
 Positive, s. p. 37, Sec 48. 
 
 Superlative, s. p. 38, Sec. 
 
 [50. 
 
 2 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 38 
 89 
 90 
 91 
 92 
 93 
 94 
 95 
 96 
 97 
 98 
 99 
 100 
 
 101 
 102 
 103 
 104 
 105 
 10G 
 107 
 108 
 109 
 110 
 111 
 
 S. P. 93, Sec. 154. 
 
 •fcj-i 0_/^- 
 
 tf§fl$ aHOHH" 
 
 S. P. 73, Sec. 5. 
 
 ci*" dij^ 
 
 °H<W«1. 
 
 
 
 iai<[. 
 
 
 
 
 [^j*^* 
 
 S. No. 146. 
 
 LSJ './♦*"" ' '"J"" 
 
 *<\<i 5M; *h\4 5m- 
 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 1 no. 
 
 ^xil* J La. 
 
 ^UlMl'-i HTlMHirO- 
 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 10G. 
 S. P. 81, Sec. 99. 
 
 
 
 S. P. 92, Sec. A+*. 
 
 [151. 
 S. P. 93, Sec. 153. 
 
 
 MUM'. H'H'<1 ^i°HH- 
 
 
 ' j~r yK wj l^a. 
 
 M>>M» H'H'-h HH'il'H- 
 
 S. P. 103, Sec. 252. 
 
 AU 
 
 tu|3.i. 
 
 S. P. 70, Sec. 35. 
 
 J J_jvfex oJ la. 
 
 " S -U'-Tl f'-TlOl- 
 
 
 Uj 1 *j£ ; <J/^ 
 
 m[^H\[r\. 
 
 
 i^j .^.Xrt: 
 
 r«iii<i. 
 
 S. P. 91, Sec. 134. 
 
 ^ziLJxi 
 
 ^HH.^ (*MIM^. 
 
 
 l_fij jXi 
 
 r«i s i a i«\- 
 
 
 Jjii* 
 
 S. P. 78, Sec. 5 1 . 
 
 S>j*-* l_j_r*. 
 
 [H(*K1 etttii fa?l 
 
 S. No. 221. 
 
 S>J*" (♦*« 1 
 
 faftttl rll>t. 
 
 S. P. 77. Sec. 51. 
 
 
 ^'M^l^ 3M- 
 
 S. P. 77, Sec. 50. 
 
 r 
 
 'HaH'lWI *M. 
 
 S. P. 77, Sec. 52. 
 
 ski ljuc {-*.>•* 
 
 M'^lMSM *M-
 
 Dem 
 
 Exp 
 
 No. 
 
 English. 
 
 Demonstrative Pronoun, s. p. 39, 
 
 [Sec. 57. 
 
 Derivation, s.. p. 53, Sec. 172 ... 
 
 Derivative Noun 
 
 Diminutive Noun. s. p. 35, Sec. 
 
 [15. 
 Diphthong, s. p. 35, Sec. 6 
 
 Direct Object, s. p. 54, Sec. 191. 
 
 Distich, s. No. 100 
 
 Doubling (of a letter) 
 
 Dual 
 
 E 
 
 Effect 
 
 Elegiac Stanza, s.p. 70, Sec. 321. 
 
 Elision, s. p. 71, Sec. 330 
 
 Ellipsis, s. p. 03, Sec. 279 
 
 Eminence 
 
 Emphasis 
 
 Emphatic Form, s. p. 46, Sec, 
 
 [123, 
 Enigma 
 
 Enlarged Subject, s. p. G7, Sec 
 
 [290 
 Epic 
 
 Etymology, s. p. 35, Sec. 8 
 
 Euphony , 
 
 Example 
 
 Exception 
 
 Explanatory 
 
 Persian. 
 
 S.P. 79, Sec. 59. gjtt If- 1 
 
 S. P. 93, Sec. 156. jImAI 
 
 S. P. 74, Sec. 15. j&£ f~> l 
 S. P. 73, Sec. 0. a3 j* ^& 
 S. P. 95, Sec. 173. * Jj*** 
 S. P. 103, Sec. 252. ca; 
 i>j O..S.3   fU^I 
 
 ,,, si^i 
 
 /.**« 
 
 <-*?J* 
 
 S. P. 104, Sec. 257. ^y j o^ 
 
 S. P. 99, Sec. 216. o^ 
 
 • - ^ x 'j ; *J/S- J <±Jj*«> 
 
 ajSG 
 
 S. P. 86, Sec. 128. (j&xfG iix* 
 
 , , , . , 1+JtX 
 
 S.P. 101, Sec. 228. t*0* l*'^ 
 iSJ**" 
 
 S. P. 74, /-A»~J ^a.j J Jjlfli^l ; Jtj*Js 
 
 [Sec. 9. 
 
 M13 i^i-^ 
 
 Jli- 
 
 Uii«! 
 
 /*il*J 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 112 
 113 
 114 
 115 
 
 116 
 117 
 118 
 119 
 120 
 
 121 
 122 
 123 
 124 
 125 
 126 
 127 
 128 
 129 
 130 
 131 
 132 
 133 
 134 
 135 
 
 6t^«H=H4 'ill- 
 
 wen W ; r^ VR. 
 
 §M**t kM. 
 
 tlli3.l- 
 
 Sum; Mt-r^ai- 
 
 ^h'tl: Sfaill^. 
 «tR |M. 
 
 '(IV^bloM ; M'-lill- 
 e l<n?'l5 ^mit-
 
 Exp 
 
 Gen 
 
 No. 
 
 English. 
 
 Expletive 
 
 Explication 
 
 Expressed 
 
 F. 
 
 Female 
 
 Feminine Gender, s. p. 36, Sec. 
 
 [22. 
 Following 
 
 Foot, (in Verse) s. p. 70, Sec. 
 
 [317. 
 Form, (of a Word) 
 
 Complete or Perfect 
 
 Emphatic, s. i\ 46, Sec. 
 
 [123. 
 
 Incomplete or Imperfect, 
 
 [s. p. 46, Sec. 122. 
 Indefinite 
 
 Future, (Complete), s. r.44, Sec. 
 
 [97. 
 
 Incomplete, s. p. 44, Sec. 
 
 [96. 
 
 Indefinite, s. p. 44, Sec. 
 
 [95. 
 
 Perfect Incomplete, s. p. 
 
 [44, Sec. 107. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gender, s. p. 3*3, Sec. 20 
 
 Common, s. p. 3G, Sec. 
 
 [24. 
 
 Feminine, s. p. 36, Sec. 
 
 2 2. 
 Masculine, s. p. 3G, Sec. 
 
 [21. 
 Neuter, s. p. 36, Sec. 23. 
 
 General 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 itr ^i 
 
 j*-*> ; zj* 
 
 jjS&A   iyd* 
 
 ilil : ».>U 
 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 23. 
 
 S. P. 103, Sec. 246. 
 
 iXxj U 
 
 ^.j^ ; wjj ; 
 
 <XjtJL*= 
 
 S. P. 81, Sec. 101. 
 S. P. 86, Sec. 128. 
 S. P. 86, Sec. 127. 
 
 
 
 S. P. 81, Sec. 105. 
 S. P. 34, Sec. 100. 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 107. 
 
 S. P. 86 j Lr**-* H U <-££** ij*U 
 
 [Sec. 127 
 
 il'/lMtd ; ^(U&tH- 
 ^r-fj ; 41*$. 
 
 =< 5 .^ ; Ml'. • 
 
 ^M ; HfM; HUH. 
 
 ^ H • 
 
 =4l^M; ^^3M. 
 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 21. 
 
 u-i* 
 
 wifa. 
 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 21. 
 
 !■£ ,\**Ai yV^ 
 
 Wim^«tf<1;lll>ikH*4ff1 
 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 23. 
 
 *i.i_j* 
 
 ^i^WCi ; -^'ilVi 
 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 22. 
 
 ji" J^e 
 
 n'.«nh i h/*'^- 
 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 25. 
 
 {JJiiji* 
 
 »U'H<tt *n(a. 
 
 
 fij*\ 
 
 ttfttV^ i MRl-M-
 
 Gen 
 
 Ind 
 
 N English. 
 
 158 Genitive Case, s. No. 64 
 
 159 (as the governed of two 
 
 nouns. ) 
 ICO Gerund, s. p. 43, Sec. 82 
 
 101 Governed 
 
 1G2 Governing 
 
 163 (of two douds in consort). 
 
 104 Grammar, s. p. 35, Sec. 1 
 
 H. 
 
 165 Hemistich, s. p. 70, Sec. 324. ... 
 
 166 Hyperbole (in Verses) s. p. 63, 
 
 [Sec. 280. 
 
 167 Hypothetical Conjunction, s. p. 
 
 [52, Sec. 165. 
 
 I. 
 
 168 Idiom 
 
 160 Idyllium s. p. 70, Sec. 327 
 
 1 70 Immovable (a consonant without 
 
 a vowel.) 
 
 171 Imperative Mood. s. p. 43, Sec. 
 
 [74. 
 
 172 Imperfect (Tense), s. No. 146... 
 
 173 (Verb) s. No. 301 
 
 174 Incomplete, Future, s. p. 43, 
 
 [Sec. 96. 
 
 175 Past Tense, s. r. 43, Sec. 
 
 [91. 
 
 1 76 Present Tense, s. p. 43, Sec. 
 
 [86. 
 
 177 Indeclinable 
 
 178 Indefinite Article, s. p. 38, Sec. 
 
 [53. 
 
 1 79 Future Tense, s. i . 41 , Sec 
 
 r&5. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 S. P. 76, Sec. 36. 
 S. P. 76, Sec. 36. 
 S. P. 83, Sec. 95. 
 
 S. P. 76, Sec. 30. 
 S. P. 73, Sec. 1. 
 
 S. P. 103, Sec. 251. 
 S. P. 99, Sec. 21 7. 
 S. P. 93, Sec. 154. 
 
 S. P. 104, Sec. 253. 
 
 S. P. 83, Sec. 87. 
 S. P. 86, Sec. 127. 
 S. P. 91, Sec. 134. 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 100. 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 100. 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 99. 
 
 S. P. 78, Sec. 55. 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 107. 
 
 y. "' 
 
 fjjl** ; ^.itk^l 
 
 •f±±*O.S 
 
 J>* 
 
 's{\ (Vnfofrt- 
 
 \i\ ; 4 M • 
 
 jK\ck^ -u\\tx\A V\- 
 
 US) 
 
 i_^i Ij (J*» 
 ^SAax J la. 
 
 ImIo I ,_£■«<: l* 
 
 JU. 
 
 J.Afli«.< 

 
 Ind 
 
 Log 
 
 No. 
 
 English. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gnjrati. 
 
 180 
 
 Indefinite, Noun, s. No. 220 . . . 
 
 S. No. 220. 
 
 tj£j p-.! 
 
 mii'H*iw. 
 
 181 
 182 
 183 
 184 
 
 Past Tense, s. p. 43, Sec. 
 
 [90. 
 
 Present Tense, s. p. 43, 
 
 [Sec. 85. 
   Pronoun, s. p. 41, Sec. 61. 
 
 Indicative Mood, s. p. 42, Sec. 
 
 Indirect Object, 8. p. 55, Sec. 
 
 [198. 
 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 102. 
 S. P. 83, Sec. 98. 
 S. P. 81, Sec. 68. 
 S. P. 82, Sec. 84. 
 
 yUx 
 
 
 185 
 
 186 
 
 S. P. 94, Sec. ^ 
 [167. 
 
 
 M^i-l; cti- 
 
 187 
 188 
 
 Infinitive Mood, s. p. 43, Sec. 
 
 [75. 
 Inflection, s. p. 36, Sec. 19 
 
 S. P. 83, Sec. 88. 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 20. 
 
 
 189 
 
 Interjection, s. p. 52, Sec. 1 70... 
 
 S. P. 93, Sec. 155. 
 
 iJo t_»^- 
 
 V-t'l'iflpft »H«q»J. 
 
 190 
 191 
 
 Interrogative, (Form), s. p. 49, 
 
 [Sec. 131. 
 
 Pronoun, s. p. 39, Sec. 58. 
 
 S. P. 90, Sec. 133. 
 S. P. 79, Sec. 60. 
 
 
 W4i «4»U»t, 
 
 192 
 193 
 194 
 
 Sentence, s. p. 71, Sec. 
 
 [336. 
 Intransitive Verb, s. p. 41, Sec. 
 
 [64. 
 Inversion, s. p. 71, Sec. 333. ... 
 
 S. P. 103, Sec. 243. 
 S. P. 81, Sec. 77. 
 S. P. 104, Sec. 259. 
 
 
 M-Hl«is HUH- 
 
 195 
 
 Irregular Verb, s. p. 50, Sec. 
 
 [135. 
 
 
 ^c l«*» J*> 
 Leul 
 
 
 196 
 
 
 
 J. 
 
 
 
 197 
 
 
 
 •JJxfcJ 
 
 ")i«n. 
 
 19^ 
 
 
 w 
 
 wU& M-si--^. 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 199 
 
 
 
 <~>J^- 
 
 ^KlHl P-fHf.-l 
 
 200 
 
 Locative Case, s. p. 37, Sec. 39. 
 
 S. P. 70, Sec. 40. 
 
 ^ijj^jifl* c'Ca. 
 
 901 
 
 
 
 ^kxx: |»U 
 
 fl^U^H- 
 
 
 

 
 Mai 
 
 10 
 
 Nou 
 
 Ko. 
 
 English. 
 
 M. 
 
 Male 
 
 Masculine Gender, s. p. 36, Sec. 
 
 [21. 
 
 Metaphor, s. p. 63, Sec. 281. ... 
 
 Metre, s. p. 70, Sec. 326 
 
 Metrical 
 
 Mood, s.p. 42, Sec. 70 
 
 Moveable 
 
 N. 
 
 Negation , 
 
 Negative Form, s. p. 50, Sec. 
 
 [132. 
 Neuter, (Gender), s. p. 36, Sec. 
 
 [23. 
 Verb, s. No. 363 
 
 Nominative, Absolute, s. p. 
 
 [54, Sec. 190. 
 
 Case, s. p. 36, Sec. 32 
 
 Complementary, s. p. 54, 
 
 [Sec. 188. 
 
 of Address, s. p. 37, Sec. 
 
 [36. 
 Noun, s.r. 35, Sec. 10 
 
 Abstract, s. p. 35, Sec. 
 
 [13. 
 
 Collective, s p. 35, Sec. 
 
 [14. 
 
 Common, s. p. 35, Sec. 12. 
 
 Definite, s. No. 220 
 
 Diminutive, s. p. 35, Sec. 
 
 [15. 
 
 Indefinite, s. No. 224 
 
 Proper, s. p. 35, Sec. 11. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 202 
 203 
 204 
 205 
 206 
 207 
 208 
 
 209 
 210 
 
 211 
 212 
 213 
 214 
 
 215 
 216 
 217 
 
 218 
 219 
 220 
 221 
 
 j.*^ i j 1 
 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 22. J** 
 S. P. 99, Sec. 218. jl** ; »jW-l j /oUf 
 
 S. P. 104, Sec. 255. y^ ; /* 6 
 
 t lAa* • A<jlaLc 
 
 S. P. 82, Sec. 83. /*j- 
 
 tJja*" 
 
 S. P. 85, Sec. 111. 
 S. P. 90, Sec. 132. 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 25. 
 S. P. 81, Sec. 77. 
 S. P. 94, Sec. 165. 
 S. P. 76, Sec. 33. 
 S. P. 94, Sec. 164. 
 S. P. 76, Sec. 37. 
 S. P. 74, Sec. 10. 
 S. P. 74, Sec. 13. 
 S. P. 74, Sec. 14. 
 S. P. 74, Sec. 12. 
 S. No. 220. 
 S. P. 74, Sec. 15. 
 S. No. 224. 
 S. P. 74, Sec. 11. 
 
 tyAJ 
 ,J*l»tfJU 
 
 ... Uj i_a.Lc 
 
 <~^LUc A^U 
 
 
 •ft; Hit- 
 •ft^fh ; Hfc-^tn- 
 
 &%; m<i; =iti. 
 
 r*t«mi^i im. 
 
 •ll-lrft «hGi. 
 
 •u*i- 
 
 tH^lti -11*1.
 
 Kou 
 
 n 
 
 Par 
 
 No. 
 
 225 
 22G 
 227 
 228 
 229 
 230 
 231 
 
 232 
 233 
 234 
 235 
 236 
 237 
 238 
 239 
 240 
 241 
 242 
 243 
 244 
 245 
 
 246 
 
 J>7 
 
 English. 
 
 Noun, of the Actor 
 
 — — Verbal, s. p. 35, Sec. 16... 
 Number, s. p. 36, Sec. 25 
 
 Plural, s. p. 36, Sec. 27 ... 
 
 Singular, s. p. 36, Sec. 26. 
 
 Numeral (Adjective), s. p. 37, 
 
 [Sec. 43. 
 
 Nunation 
 
 o. 
 
 Object, s. p. 42, Sec. 6<5 
 
 Cognate, s. p. 55, Sec. 
 
 [195. 
 
 Complementary, s. p. 54, 
 
 [Sec. 192. 
 Direct, s. p. 54, Sec. 191... 
 
 Indirect, s. p. 55, Sec. 198. 
 
 Objective Case, s. p. 36, Sec. 33. 
 
 Ode, s. p. 70, Sec. 328 
 
 Optative Past Tense 
 
 Optative Sentence, s. p. 59, Sec. 
 
 [239. 
 Ordinal Numeral, s. p. 37, Sec. 
 
 [44. 
 Origin 
 
 Original 
 
 Orthography, s. p. 35, Sec. 2. 
 
 Orthographical Marks 
 
 P. 
 
 Paraphrase 
 
 Parenthesis, s. p. 70, Sec. 329. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 S. P. 74, Sec. 19. 
 S. P. 74, vSec. 16. 
 S. No. 207. 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 27. 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 20. 
 S. P. 77, Sec. 44. 
 
 J*t» »«. I 
 
 j iJM /*-! 
 
 C*^ 
 
 &iJt*£ 
 
 i>i. I j iSjU-e 
 
 JiXC |»^l 
 
 Ui>» 
 
 S. P. 82, Sec. 80. Jy** 
 
 S. P. 95, Sec. 176. tpk* Oy*** 
 
 S. P. 95, Sec. 175. Jj* 
 
 S. P. 95, Sec. 1 73. r> Jj*Lc 
 
 S. P. 94, Sec. J Jj*^> ; t^itf J^*«* 
 
 [167. 
 S. P. 76, tsj* k *i lIjx-slo oJ U 
 
 [Sec. 39, and 34. 
 
 S. P. 104, Sec. 254. J_>i 
 
 iS*+** tf^t* 
 
 S. P. 103, Sec. 244. ^i*W A* 
 
 S. P. 77, Sec. 45. csj^j*!* 
 
 ' JJyc • JUe I 
 
 ^l-* I J &> 1 J 
 
 S. P. 73, Sec. 2. ^l-j ; »JUl 
 
 *>\fj*. ; v \j*\ 
 
 C j^ ;si~*' 
 
 S. P. 103, Sec. 241. •-/*" *U*. 
 
 Ml'J'WMi f-ViHl'HP-li »ii>i. 
 
 in- 
 
 M«JM*'4 *s>t • 
 
 Uli [VS. Wfcj r^- 
 
 fist. 
 
 Imiih-
 
 Par 
 
 12 
 
 Phr 
 
 No. 
 
 English. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 218 
 249 
 250 
 251 
 252 
 '253 
 254 
 255 
 256 
 257 
 258 
 259 
 260 
 261 
 262 
 263 
 264 
 265 
 206 
 207 
 268 
 269 
 270 
 271 
 272 
 
 Parsing, s. p. 04, Sec. 283 
 
 Part of Speech, s. p. 35, Sec. 9. 
 
 Participle, (Past or Complete) 
 [s. p. 43, Sec. 77. 
 
 Perfect Active, s. p. 
 
 [43, Sec. 78. 
 Perfect Active Pro- 
 gressive, s p. 43, Sec. 79. 
 
 Perfect Passive, s. p. 
 
 [43, Sec. 81. 
 
 Present or Incomplete, 
 
 [s. p. 43, Sec. 76. 
 
 Present or Incomplete 
 
 [Passive, s. p. 43, Sec. 80. 
 Particular 
 
 Passive Voice, s. p. 42, Sec. 69. 
 Past Participle, s. No. 250 
 
 Past (Complete), s. p. 44, Sec 
 
 [92. 
 
 Incomplete, s. p. 44, Sec. 
 
 [91. 
 
 Indefinite, s. p. 44, Sec. 90. 
 
 Perfect-Incomplete, s. p. 
 [44, Sec. 104. 
 
 Perfect (Future), s. No. 148 ... 
 
 Participle Active, s. p. 43, 
 [Sec. 78. 
 
 Participle Active, Progres- 
 sive, s. p. 43, Sec. 79. 
 
 Participle Passive, s. p. 43, 
 [Sec, 81. 
 
 Present, s. No. 283 
 
 Person (First), s. p. 36, Sec. 28. 
 
 Second, s. p. 36, Sec. 29. 
 
 Third, s. p. 36, Sec. 30.... 
 
 Personal Pronoun, s. p. 38, Sec. 
 
 [54. 
 
 36 
 
 P. 99, Sec. 220. 
 P. 74, Sec. 9. 
 P. 83, Sec. 91. 
 
 >_^r 
 
 ±>> 
 
 ►ir 
 
 (J_j*A« ■»«! 
 
 P. 83, Sec. d>)j** C5 .>_jiaA< ty-^'* 
 [92. 
 
 P. 83, 0)_,** ^J^i-I ^ij^ye^U 
 
 Sec. 93. 
 
 P. 83, Sec. Oj^ ,J)^-< tr^ 
 
 [94. 
 P. 83, Sec' 90. /^U^-l 
 
 P. 83, Sec. 94. J j&° *iJ U. r ~ I 
 
 P. 82, Sec. 82. 
 P. 83, Sec. 91. 
 P. 84, Sec 104. 
 
 (J JX.S./C »~o I 
 
 P. 84, Sec. 1 06. ^J l^~ l ^ U 
 
 P. 84, Sec. 102. ^JJ^^U 
 
 P. 86, Sec. j Lr+i~ JlLj *±.*j ^U 
 
 [127. 
 P. 84, Sec 105. i/^ ^-U 
 
 P. 83, Sec. 92. <Jjj** J>J** ^^ 
 
 P. 83, l}jj*^ ^l^.i-J o^x^U 
 
 [Sec. 93. 
 
 P. 83, Sec. 94. d^^l^**^" 
 
 P. 84, Sec. 103 
 P. 75, Sec. 28. 
 P. 75, Sec. 29. 
 P. 75, Sec 30. 
 P. 78, See. 56. 
 .HrA 
 
 
 itntplt 
 
 ^ tin.- 
 r -i-n^[<\ tin- 
 <w iin-
 
 Plu 
 
 13 
 
 Pro 
 
 English. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense, s. No. 259. ... 
 
 Plural Number, s. p. 36, Sec. 27. 
 
 Poet, 
 
 Poetry, 
 
 Possessive, (Case) s. p. 37, Sec. 
 
 [35. 
 Pronoun, s. p. 38, Sec. 55. 
 
 Potential Mood, s. p. 43, Sec. 
 
 [73. 
 Precede, 
 
 Predicate, s. p. 67, Sec. 294. ... 
 
 Preposition, s. p. 51, Sec. 154. 
 
 Present, (Complete), s. p. 44, 
 [Sec. 87. 
 
 Incomplete, s. p. 44, Sec. 
 
 [86. 
 Indefinite, s. p. 44, Sec. 85. 
 
 Perfect Incomplete, s. p. 
 
 [44, Sec. 101. 
 Preterite, s. No. 349 
 
 Primitive Noun, s. p. 36, Sec. 18. 
 
 Progressive Form, 8. No. 146... 
 
 Prohibited Imperative, s. p. 43, 
 
 [Sec. 74, Obs. 2. 
 
 Pronominal Adjective, s. p. 38, 
 
 [See. 55. 
 
 Pronoun, (Demonstrative), a. P. 
 
 [39, Sec. 57. 
 
 Indefinite, s. p. 41, Sec. 61. 
 
 Interrogative, s. p. 39, Sec. 
 
 [58. 
 Personal, s. p. 38, Sec. 5 1 . 
 
 Reflexive, s. r. 39, Sec. 56. 
 
 Relative, s. p. 40, Sec. 59. 
 
 4 
 
 Persian. 
 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 104. oo«^U 
 
 S. P. 75, Sec. 27. £*^ &±* 
 
 j£ IZ 
 
 j*& ; r^ 
 
 S. P. 76, Sec. 36. oiUloJU 
 
 S. P. 79, jjys^jx^ ; ^JlxnaiUI 
 
 [Sec. 57. 
 
 S. P. 82, Sec. 86. ^J&o! &ix* 
 
 , ^j-i^^i^o 
 
 S. P. 101, Sec. 226. jx± 
 
 S. P. 92, Sec. 146. j*-<Jj* 
 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 103. u-^i^l* 
 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 99. JU 
 
 S. P. 83, Sec. 98. £j U-. 
 
 S. P. 86, Sec. is j l jJ~ I ^.J wi U 
 
 [127. 
 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 101. t^-U) 
 
 S. P. 74, Sec 18. o^U^i 
 
 S. P. 86, Sec. 127. ^Lr*^ 1 ^° 
 
 S. P. 83, Sec. 87, (1). ^ 
 
 S. P. 79, Sec. JJ ^V*^;Lr'^ J ^ iUi 
 
 [57. 
 
 S. P. 79, Sec. 59. a/il^.1 
 
 S. P. 81, Sec. 68. fr^r^' 
 
 S. P. 79, Sec. 60. c ^i^\ ^\ 
 
 S. P. 78, Sec. J** 
 
 S. P. 7'.', Sec. 58. c^'j-r^r-' 1 
 
 S. P. 80, Sec. 64. Jr^r" 1 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 ^HPl'1 hi- 
 Wl»il-«Wi«U»i5 *»tf't[*<1 
 
 HIM HVliI ; mvum.
 
 Pro 
 
 14 
 
 Sen 
 
 Xo. 
 
 English. 
 
 Pronunciation 
 
 Prose 
 
 Prosody, s. p. 70, Sec. 316 
 
 Prospective Form 
 
 Proximate Past, s. No. 283 
 
 Qualified 
 
 Qualify 
 
 Quatrain, s. P. 70, Sec. 322. ... 
 Quiescent (Having no vowel)... 
 
 R. 
 
 Radical 
 
 Refer 
 
 Regular Verb, s. r. 50, Sec. 134. 
 
 Relative Pronoun, s. p. 40, Sec. 
 
 [59. 
 Remote Past , s. No. 259 ... 
 
 Rhyme, s. p. 70, Sec. 313 
 
 Rule 
 
 s. 
 
 '■' 
 
 Scanning, s. p. 70, Sec. 323 
 
 Sentence, s. p. GO, Sec. 287... 
 
 .;il, s. i . 68, Sec. 
 
 [302. 
 Adverbial, s. p. 68, Sec. 
 
 [303. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 299 
 
 301 
 
 302 
 
 303 
 
 305 
 306 
 
 ! (7 
 308 
 309 
 
 311 
 
 12 
 
 313 
 
 314 
 315 
 
 S. P. 103, Sec. 245. 
 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 103. 
 
 S. P. 103, Sec. 250. 
 
 S. P. 80, Sec. 64. 
 S. P. 84, Sec. 104. 
 S. P. 103. Sec. 247. 
 
 S. P. 104, Sec. 256. 
 S. P. 100, Sec. 22 ■:. 
 S. P. 103, Sec. 240. 
 S. P. 102, Sec. 232. 
 
 J* 
 
 Ij'iS* 
 
 
 iS* b -J 
 
 
 4>^*J <-*£» ** 
 
 
 
 r^c'H 01,(1 M-n- 
 
 Sll^MR ifactl' 
 $jfa<1l«1l 311JI <r^l Ml S'-il- 
 
 HliM.
 
 Sen 
 
 15 
 
 Syn 
 
 English. 
 
 Sentence, Adversative, s. p. 69, 
 [Sec. 311. 
 
 Complex, s. p. 66, Sec. 
 
 [290. 
 Compound, s. p. 66, Sec. 
 
 [291. 
 Copulative, s. p. 69, Sec. 
 
 [307. 
 Disjunctive, s. p. 69, Sec. 
 
 [309. 
 
 Illative, or Causative, s. p. 
 
 [69, Sec. 313. 
 of Noun, s.r. 68, Sec. 301. 
 
 Si £ n 
 
 Simile, s. p. 63, Sec. 2S2 
 
 Similitude 
 
 Simple 
 
 Sentence, s. p. 66, Sec. 289. 
 
 Single 
 
 Singular Number, s. p. 36, Sec. 
 
 [26. 
 Spelling 
 
 Stanza, s. p. 70, Sec. 320 
 
 Subject, s. p. 42, Sec 65 
 
 Enlarged, s. p. 67, Sec 296. 
 
 Simple, s. p. 66, Sec. 293, 
 
 [2. 
 Subjunctive Mood, s. p. 42, Sec. 
 
 [72. 
 Substantive, See. Noun. 
 
 (with an Aljec tive). 
 
 Superlative Degree, s. p. 38, Sec. 
 
 [•50. 
 Syllable, s. p. 35, Sec. 7 
 
 Syncope, s. p. 71, Sec. 331 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 P. 103, Sec. 239. 
 P. 102, Sec. 234. 
 P. 103, Sec. 212. 
 P. 102, Sec. 237. 
 P. 102, Sec. 238. 
 P. 102, Sec, 236. 
 P. 101, Sec. 230. 
 
 P. 
 
 99, Sec. 219. 
 
 
 p. 
 
 102, Sec. 235 
 
 p. 
 
 75, Sec. 26. 
 
 P. 103, Sec. 249. 
 P. 82, Sec. 79. 
 P. 101, Sec. 228. 
 P. 101, Sec. 225. 
 P. 82, Sec. 85. 
 I'. 71, Sec. 10. 
 I'. 7'!, Sec. 11. 
 P. 77, Sec. 52. 
 1'. 73, Sec. 7. 
 P. 101, Sec. - 
 
 cyclic 
 /•i.».£. 3 j (J^i*3 
 
 w./ ,-C .- \ ^XK 
 
 r 1 
 
 Jail jj^. . ILa) 
 
 ; Is! I 
 
 VfHl^k HUH- 
 Wllfai HUH- 
 
 il'.^Hl^i HUH- 
 'lR e tl a lS <HWH- 
 
 \%\%\- 
 
 HSiHHl^; H^l^ Hi StxTi- 
 UMlOHi Sttii. 
 Mli Jjxfi.
 
 Syn 
 
 16 
 
 Ver 
 
 No. English. 
 
 344 Synonymous 
 
 345 Synopsis 
 
 346 Syntax, s. P. 54, Sec. 181 
 
 T. 
 
 347 Tense, s. p. 44, Sec. 83 
 
 348 Future, s. r. 44, Sec. 94... 
 
 ;i',i Past, s. r. 44, Sec. 89 
 
 350 Present, s. r. 44, Sec. 84. 
 
 351 Tetrastich, s. r. 71, Sec. 334 ... 
 
 352 Transitive Verb, s. p. 41, Sec. 
 
 [63. 
 
 u. 
 
 353 Uncommon , 
 
 354 Understood, 3. p. 63, Sec. 279 .. 
 
 355 Ungrammatical 
 
 156 Universal 
 
 357 Unlimited 
 
 358 Uncornpoundet) 
 
 V. 
 
 159 Verb, s. P. 42, Sec. 62 
 
 -Auxiliary, s. p. 45, Sec. 111. 
 
 361 Defective, s. p. 50, Sec. 
 
 [136. 
 
 II Impersonal, S. P. 50, Sec. 
 
 [137. 
 
 163 ' Intrasitive, s. p. 42, Sec. 64. 
 
 164 Irregular, s. p. 50, Sec. 135. 
 
 Regular, a. I . 50, Sec. 134. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gujrati, 
 
 
 S. P. 94, Sec. 160. 
 
 s. 
 
 p. 
 
 83, Sec. 96. 
 
 s. 
 
 p. 
 
 84, Sec. 107. 
 
 s. 
 
 p. 
 
 84, Sec. 101. 
 
 s. 
 
 p. 
 
 83, Sec. 97. 
 
 s. 
 
 p. 
 
 103, Sec. 250. 
 
 s. 
 
 p. 
 
 81, Sec. 76. 
 
 J 1 - 
 
 ^ l ^» 
 
 S. P. 99, Sec. 216. ;4a*;j*-i< 
 
 t &£ lajtj • i_jj jx l> 
 
 ^\s 
 
 dj 4s* jii 
 
 l^fjK J$£ 
 
 S. P.81, Sec. 75. 
 S. P. 85, Sec. 110. 
 S. P. 91, Sec. 134. 
 S. P. 91, Sec. 135. 
 S. P. 81, Sec. 77. 
 

 
 Ver 
 
 17 
 
 Wro 
 
 No. 
 
 English. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Gujrati. 
 
 366 
 367 
 
 Verb Transitive, s. p. 42 Sec. 63. 
 Verbal Noun, s. p. 35 Sec. 16... 
 
 S. P. 81, Sec. 76. 
 S. P. 74, Sec. 16. 
 
 
 
 368 
 
 
 
 1 jj cJ I .a. 
 
 
 369 
 
 
 
 370 
 
 Vocative case, s. p. 37 Sec. 36. 
 
 S. P. 76, Sec. 37. 
 
 37] 
 
 Voice, s. p. 42, Sec. 67 
 
 S. P. 82, Sec. 83. 
 
 /■*■>■-£ 
 
 81%. 
 
 372 
 
 Active, s. p. 42, Sec. 68 ... 
 
 S. P. 82, Sec. 81. 
 
 ji^« &*x*e 
 
 »jyi%; iT-tiiH- 
 
 373 
 
 Passive, s. p. 42, Sec. 69 ... 
 
 S. P. 82, Sec. 82. 
 
 Jj<^ <**£*= 
 
 W€8fc; i^r^^i^H- 
 
 374 
 
 
 S. P. 73, Sec. 4. 
 
 
 
 375 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 376 
 
 Word 
 
 
 kii 
 
 'J'-*-' ; ^i'^; M£- 
 
 '.77 
 
 
 
 SI'J.CiaJ^l; J/Ullrt, 
 
 378 
 
 Wordy 
 
 
 Pwi^l^l W>-% HlM 5 <1t } - 
 
 379 
 
 
 
 ■^u'; -1 1^5 >n • 
 
 

 
 18 
 
 PERSIAN VOCABULARY 
 
 ruber See Page. 
 
 0/J= p~* I 
 
 lAAJ I 
 
 See Number. 
 
 See Page. 
 
 j* **•*! o^i , 
 
 119 
 
 3; 4 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 1; 10; 15 (** 
 
 191; S j 9; 13 ,.(,&. If* 
 
 11; 112; 292 1;6;18 sijUil,**. 
 
 17 
 
 115; 222 
 
 - 
 
 219 
 
 17 
 254 
 
 77; 218 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 13 
 
 10 
 3 
 
 12 
 12 
 10 
 
 i : 10 
 
 13 
 
 
 J.*!. 
 
 _ ami 
 
 CH^r 
 
 y^a. »« 
 
 /-*J La. p~i 
 
 a' 1 */'* 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 tjjJe (♦-»> 
 
 2 1 ; 3 7 
 70; 220 
 
 1" ; 2 
 13 
 225 
 15 
 
 1!' 
 
 : 
 
 12 
 114 
 226; 867 
 
 ]08; 221 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 4; 10 
 
 ljll 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 9; 13 
 
 ] 
 
 6 
 
 11 ; 17 
 
 5; 111 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 v*" y° iJjJs i*- 
 
 ■r u r 
 
 J iXc ^« 
 
 (Jx li ^« 
 
 *■) Lye *«j 
 
 iSj***A -,™j 
 
 ■<_? J 
 
 j iX-a-c *« 
 
 
 23; 29< ; 310 2: 13; M J>*>" f 
 
 ISO; 223 
 
 113; 131 
 168 ; 27_' 
 242 
 
 243; 307 
 278 291 
 
 9; 10 
 
 6 
 
 8 , 1 2 
 II 
 
 11; 14 
 
 13 
 3 
 
 
 ,1- 
 
 
 
 vLr*']
 
 19 
 
 See Number. 
 
 See Page. 
 
 y i/i 
 
 tft>l 
 
 /■J^J'i'l 
 
 -r*l 
 
 »JUI 
 
 £,lil 
 
 ;^< 
 
 -.Lij! 
 
 y± 
 
 db-b*- 
 
 Jaj 
 
 t/j-fc 
 
 % •— *-* J 
 
 JlXC IfiAJ 
 
 v 
 
 ^"Jit 
 
 Oi*? 1} 
 
 ^xIaj 
 
 lailj ^■±s i 
 
 r^s 
 
 «***0 3 
 
 /ȣA4Mj 
 
 1>J 0.-J 
 
 See Number. See Page. s^Iojm ai*a. 
 
 uRj^aJ 
 
 245 
 
 11 
 
 166 
 
 8 
 
 157 
 
 7 
 
 171 
 
 8 
 
 244 ; 333 
 
 11; 15 
 
 139 
 
 7 
 
 343 
 
 15 
 
 196 
 
 9 
 
 205 
 
 10 
 
 56 
 
 3 
 
 48 
 
 3 
 
 125 
 
 6 
 
 185 
 
 6 
 
 100; 118 
 
 5 , 6 
 
 355 
 
 16 
 
 193 
 
 126 
 
 6 
 
 120 
 
 6 
 
 132 
 
 6 
 
 46; 123 
 
 3; 6 
 
 
 L2 
 
 328 
 
 15 
 
 119 
 
 6 
 
 82 j 143; 188 
 
 33 
 
 105 
 
 137; 246 
 
 13 
 
 136 
 
 29 g 
 
 :jJ7 
 231 
 
 142 
 342 
 256 
 
 228; 274 
 
 316 
 
 •'J I 9 
 
 192 
 
 325 
 
 330 
 
 323 
 
 240 
 
 320 
 
 -1 
 
 1; 7-. 9 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 7; 11 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 I- 
 12 
 11 j 13 
 11 
 15 
 9 
 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 11 
 [5 
 I 
 
 { 
 
 U)j_^aj 
 
 j+~>*- 
 
 JU^aftJ 
 
 -il/ *i~«J 
 
 . ...J-*——' 
 j. SIS' ^jCj 
 
 
 r^° 
 
 ', ,t, 
 
 *-rt« 
 
 jiij 
 
 ^ 
 
 e*^ 
 
 <*J^ 
 
 /AJ IajA-*j .-- 
 
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 145 
 
 
 77; i 
 
 !18 
 
 
 250; 
 
 258 
 
 
 
 '.. 
 
 5=4-11 5 
 
 11 
 
 wi 
 
 *4l 
 
 181;261;287; 
 
 371 
 
 13? 
 343 
 
 41 
 
 139 
 
 2 12 
 
 13 
 
 243; 307 
 
 6; 372 
 
 113 
 
 ^M 
 
 *Mi 
 
 |Ml Vj U*l 
 
 C4. 
 
 QIQ ? 4'i 
 
 qiM • 
 
 M. 
 
 8; 12 
 7; 10 
 in 
 
 4; 5; 9 
 4 
 
 6; 10 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 '4 =4 'I 
 
 <4«Vrl , 
 
 r 4H'^l'-4i '11M 3 
 
 45/ -4. 
 
 } 
 
 -4 '/'i -4i =4=5 Mifa^mm ^ 
 
 •HTMMW '41 *M 15 
 
 "f-MM 
 
 242 
 12 
 
 91 
 
 31 
 
 168; 
 
 1 [3; _ ; 
 
 204 
 
 32; 102; 188 
 
 S3 
 
 115, 222 
 
 308 
 124 
 
 143 
 
 47 
 
 -7 
 194
 
 32 
 
 3^31 
 
 faSlM. 
 
 See Page. See Number. 
 
 fatl^ 
 
 ^•Mlftb. 
 
 See Page. 
 
 See Number. 
 
 'H^'-U^i iTtl 
 
 H-ntH ki<\ 
 
 <H-n>tl«W» 
 
 'A^A 
 
 °Hfl4!l 
 
 °Hl?f^ 
 
 h«o 
 
 HUH 
 
 IliHMpft >M°MH 
 
 quHVHm 
 
 «U*«il«&R 
 
 HUMpH^R 
 
 HliHl'-i 
 
 Mis-M 
 
 Pttlfi 
 
 [Ww 
 
 T'r4iM>tii?! 
 
 (Vri^m 
 
 fastq 
 
 fasm^ 
 
 ['H^Hni>t 
 
 4; 10 
 
 12 
 
 5 ; 8; 13; 16 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 12; 14 
 
 4; 5 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 71; 215 
 
 254 
 
 96; 1 76; 284; 
 
 [350 
 
 205 
 
 89 
 
 194 
 
 164 
 
 2 
 
 355 
 
 196 
 
 272; 316 
 
 85; 97 
 
 346 
 
 136 
 
 346 
 
 92 
 
 281 
 
 103 
 
 57 
 
 122 
 
 135 
 
 256 
 
 9 
 
 317 
 
 224 
 
 h\[''H 
 
 <U'.^ kl<>M 
 
 ^liM% •• 
 
 W>-% 
 
 w^Ski 
 
 ^i^t^ =nni 
 
 W^faaiR 
 
 U^kMR 
 
 tflstt 
 
 tf£<l °iAhW 
 
 &ni*\ 
 
 tf$ct$ HUH 
 
 *i^ih?N^ 
 
 14; 15 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 12; 17 
 
 17 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 16; 17 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 5; 8 
 
 tffa 
 
 } 2 
 
 1; 11 
 7 
 6 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 303; 340 
 
 378 
 
 130 
 
 279 
 
 249; 376 
 
 369 
 
 282 
 
 377 
 
 131 
 
 113 
 
 352; 366 
 
 78 
 80 
 79 
 88; 167 
 
 26 
 
 81 
 
 33 
 10; 230 
 
 140; 154 
 
 119 
 
 116 
 
 137
 
 33 
 
 ^W'-i. 
 
 ki'P-'l- 
 
 3 
 
 See X i 
 
 *te\M. 
 
 <%'4lM 
 
 See Page 
 
 Si X umber 
 
 til w*. 
 W"to 'mftcj 
 
 I 9. 
 
 *H'-4 W"\A\.\ 8 
 
 »HM Mfv 13 
 
 H^Ml ^A-llM 13, 14 
 
 ^'irl tWM 15 
 
 *UlM <Wil<n 4, 7, 12 
 
 %Ul«U$ ;H 15 
 
 y^lHl^ H^lWiM ">, 7, 8 
 
 %t>il*i 1 
 
 K^lPHi %-ni 6, 15 
 
 Wilftli "HirM 15 
 
 HA 16 
 
 >rVllM 13 
 
 M'H^l^M 3M 2, 5, 15 
 
 W 17 
 
 *<*r*4 ph-s 'i 
 
 *H<U U«*6 10, 17 
 
 yfaw 12 
 
 ^^%. 12, 17 
 
 23 
 
 41 
 161 
 
 162 
 
 277 
 
 297, 310 
 
 320 
 
 73, 1 18, 263 
 
 04, 149, 171 
 
 76 
 
 129, 
 
 32 1 
 
 356 
 
 111, 341 
 
 375 
 256 
 
 •J.". 7, 373 
 
 m 
 
 WliStTtl -. 
 
 yiMRiai 
 
 wmniaj «"tOi 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 15 
 
 7 
 1. 7 
 
 1 
 
 yii>fl (VnOi 3, : ' 
 
 MWWH 
 
 *UMM 5-lPi 
 
 mn\rH ^m 
 
 *U>1l"4SM 
 
 *l>ll^ H'U[H 
 
 J .u J .Ut 
 
 &HW i\i 
 
 ! 7 
 1, 9, 10 
 7, 9 
 'J, 13 
 3, - 
 1 
 
 16 
 6 
 
 :3 
 
 1 I 
 
 360 
 
 :j:)7 
 157 
 
 153 
 12 
 
 61, 2 
 157 
 153 
 
 7". 180, 
 1 17, 187 
 183,2 : 
 52, 178 
 13 
 345 

 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. Grammar is the science of language, and 
 the art of speaking and writing correctly. Gram- 
 mar is divided into four parts, Orthography, 
 Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 
 
 PART 1.— Orthography. 
 
 2. Orthography treats of the proper sounds 
 of letters and the just method of spelling words. 
 
 3. There are twenty-six Letters in the English 
 alphabet, a, b, e, d, e, f, g, It, i, j, It, I, m, n, 
 
 0, pi '[, r, •-', /, U, v, w, ••, y, z. Letters are 
 divided into vowels and consonant-. 
 
 1. A vowel is a letter which makes a complete 
 soijnd by itself. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u ; 
 also "■ and y when they do not begin a word or 
 syllable. 
 
 5. »A consonant is a letter which cannot be 
 properly sounded without the help of a vowel. 
 The consonants are b, c, d, f, <j, h, j, h ) I, m, 
 a, i', q, r, s, i, V, x, ;:, and also w and y are 
 consonants when they begin a word or syllable. 
 
 (3. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in 
 one sound or syllable : as, ou in house. 
 
 7. A syllable is a collection of letters pro- 
 nounced by one single effort of the voice : as, 
 part. 
 
 PART 2.— Etymology. 
 
 8. Etymology treats of the classification, 
 inflexion, and derivation of words. 
 
 PA I ITS OF SPEECH. 
 
 9. The words of the English language are 
 divided into eight classesj called Pari -   ich: — 
 
 1. Noun. 2. Adjective. 3. Pronoun. I. Verb. 
 5. Adverb. G. Preposition. 7. Conjunction. 8. 
 
 ijection. 
 
 ].— THE NOUN. 
 
 10. A Noun is the name of anything: as. 
 Henry, here, London, Noah, Sec. Nouns are of 
 two kinds : — 
 
 11. 1. A Proper Noun is the name of any 
 single individual of a class: as, Adam, A 
 London, &c. 
 
 12. 2. A Common Noun is a name given in 
 common to everything of the same class : as, 
 man, &c. Common Nouns are of two kinds : — 
 
 13. (1). Abstract Common Nouns denote quali- 
 ties or attributes regarded in our minds as hi 
 
 a real and independent existence: as, (joo< ] 
 str( ngth, &c. 
 
 14. (2). Collective Common Nouns d< 
 several individuals as one object : as, herd, 
 army, Sec. 
 
 Obs. — Collective Nouns sometimes convey plu- 
 rality of idea and thus refer to the individuals 
 making up the group rather than to the group 
 itself: as, " The medical faculty have resolved to 
 act in unison ; " " the public (i.e. the persons 
 composing the public) are wavering." Such 
 nouns are then called, by some, "Nouns ot 
 Multitude." 
 
 15. A Diminutiv   X mn is a derivative from 
 a noun, denotiug a small or a young object of the 
 same kind with that di primitive: as, 
 gosling, 
 
 16. Verbal Noui ire so called because they 
 are derived from A bs : as, reading, wal 
 
 . <Vc. 
 
 17. Appellative Noun, as a common noun, 
 stands for a whole c qus, or species of 
 beings, or for univei deas: 
 
 able, &c.
 
 36 
 
 18. Primitive Noun is that which is not de- 
 cl from another : asj one, tree, &c. 
 
 Inflexion. 
 
 19. Inflexion is a change in a word to denote 
 
 a change in the meaning. Nouns are inflected to 
 
 express Gender, Number, and Case. To Nouns 
 
 also belongs Person, but there is no inflexion to 
 
 express this. 
 
 ider. 
 
 20. Gender denotes the distinction of sex. 
 Phere are two genders, Masculine and Feminine. 
 
 21. The Masculine Gender denotes the male 
 as, men, emjo ror, he-ass, cock-bird, male- 
 
 l ird. 
 
 22. The Feminine Gender denotes the female 
 sex: as, voman, ewij s she-ass, hen-bird, female- 
 '. I. 
 
 23. Nouns which denote things without ani- 
 mal life are said to be of Neuter Gender.- as, wood, 
 
 . &c. 
 
 24. Nouns applied to both males and females 
 : nl to be of Common Gender: as, bird, 
 
 , fish, &c. 
 
 Numbt r. 
 
 2-5. Number denotes the distinction of one 
 from more. There are two numbers, the Singular 
 and the Plural. 
 
 26. The Singular denotes one thing : as, girl, 
 
 27. The Plural denotes more than one, and is 
   \ by milling s to the singular: as, girls, 
 
 The following are exceptions: — 
   . I. Nouns ending in .s-, sh, ch (soft), x, 
 ;., form their plural by adding rs : as, <jras.s-rs, 
 gas-es, fox-es, &c. 
 
 /'.'... 2. Some Nouns ending in o, especially if 
 the o is preceded by a con onant, P rm i heir 
 addin g es : a: 
 - , &c. 
 
 . •'!. Certain Nouns hi diDg in /' or /< 
 form th ir plural by chan <rft into vi s   
 
 Exc. t. Nuuns ending in y preceded 
 consonant form their plural by changing ;/ into 
 M S : as, lady, ladies. 
 
 Exc. 5. Seven Nouns form their plural by a. 
 change in the body of the word : as, man, mi n ; 
 woman, women ; foot, feet ; goose, geese; tooth, 
 teeth ; louse, lice; mouse, mice. 
 
 Exc. (). Three Nouns form their plural in 
 r)i : viz, ox, oxen; child, childri ; In-other, 
 brethren. 
 
 Exc. 7. Some Nouns have the singular and 
 plural alike: as, shei p, d r, si I U i, r h, &C. 
 
 Pers i. 
 
 28. Person is the relation which limits the 
 meaning of a noun, a pronoun, or a verb, to some 
 person speaking, some person spoken to, or some 
 
   m or thing spoken of. 
 
 The First Person denotes the persi i ing : 
 as, I, John, say so. 
 
 29. The Second Person denotes the person 
 spoken to: as, Boys, be silent. 
 
 30. The Third Person denotes the persoi 
 thing spoken of: as, The fox i.s cunning ; Th 
 sailor wounded the bear. Nouns are ';. al 
 
 of the third person. 
 
 Cast . 
 
 81. Case i- the'form given to a Noun or Pro- 
 noun to show the relation in which it stands to 
 some other word in the sentence. Then an 
 live Cases in English : — 
 
 32. The Nominative is the Ca ' the sub- 
 ject of the sentence, and denotes the person or 
 thing about which we are speaking: as, '■ ll< 
 came"; "The dog barks." 
 
 33. The Object ive Ci the T erb, and 
 denoti it ol : i 
 
 bit him. 
 
 Also all Nouns immi dial i den! a 
 
 I'd pi nl in are in the Objective Ca-' : as, lb 
 ie from / 
 
 : ; : . Thi Dative Case I 
 and denotes the ] a to who
 
 37 
 
 or for whom a thing is done. It denotes the In- 
 direct Object, and may always be known by its 
 being possible to supply to or for before it : 
 as, Give me (i.e., to me the daggers; the 
 sailor made his neph w a ship (i.e., made a ship 
 i'ii' his nephew). 
 
 35. The Possessive Case denotes the person 
 who possesses something : as, Henry's sword ; 
 the Icing's palace. 
 
 The Possessive Case is formed by adding 's 
 to the Nominative: as, man, man's; boy* boy's. 
 
 Wxc. 1. When the plural ends in s already, 
 the apostrophe only is added : as, kings, kings' ; 
 ladies, ladies'. 
 
 /.' -. 2. When the singular ends in us, ss, ce 
 (especially with the phrase for the sake), the 
 apostrophe only is added : as, Brutus' statue; for 
 ice' sake. 
 
 36. The Vocative Case stands by itself, and 
 denotes the person or persons addressed : as, Si , 
 thou art ever with me. 'The Vocative is some- 
 times called the Nominative of Address. 
 
 There are some other Cases also : — 
 
 37. The Ablative Case is the sixth case of 
 Latin Nouns, used to express the relations denoted 
 in English by words from, with, in, or by: as, I 
 killed the horse with its rider. He bought the 
 horse with the saddle. 
 
 38. The Accusative Case, applied to the fourth 
 case of Greek and Latin Nouns, being that on 
 which the action of a Verb terminates or falls, and 
 is corresponding to the Objective Case in English   
 as, I beat him,. 
 
 39. The Locative Case indicates place, or the 
 place where, or < : as, I saw him in a 
 gardi . 
 
 2.— THE ADJECTIYI.. 
 
 40. An Adjective is a word which ipialifics or 
 limits a Noun: as, An 
 
 41. Adjectives of Quality express ality 
 of a thing: as, A dark night; a stormy 
 They answer the question, What 6" 
 
 10 
 
 42. Adjectives of Quantity express how much 
 of a thing or how many things of a class are re- 
 ferred to : as, Much silver; ten houses. They 
 answer the question, How much? or Mow many '.' 
 Adjectives of Quantity arc of four kinds: — 
 I. Adjectives denoting Quantity in Bulk or Mass : 
 as. Any bread. The Adjectives which denote 
 quantity in bulk^or mass are: All, any, em 
 little, much, no, none, some, whole. II. Definite 
 -Numeral Adjectives, which denote an e 
 number. They are of two kinds : — 
 
 43. I. Cardinal Numerals, which denote how 
 many: as, one, two, twenty; no, none, bo 
 
 44. II. Ordinal Numerals, which denote the 
 order in which objects are placed : as, The first 
 man ; the sixth house. 
 
 4o. III. Indefinite Numeral Adjectives, which 
 denote number indefinitely: as, Some men. 
 The Indefinite Numeral Adjectives are: All, 
 another, any, few, certain, divers, enough,i 
 some, such, and whol . 
 
 46. IV. Distributive Numeral Adject: 
 which denote a number of objects taken separate- 
 ly : as, L'ci ,-y hour. They are : Each, evi 
 
 if itht r. 
 
 47. Distinguishing Adjectives point out or 
 distinguish a thing from its class : as, 
 
 cat. They are: a or a,,. I .   is, that, these, 
 those; also yon, yonder, same, and self-same. 
 
 Inflexion. 
 
 The AT which are inflected are (1) those 
 
 which denote Quality, and (2) a few Adject; v i 
 Quantity and Number, viz., few, Utile, n 
 much. Adjectives are inflected to express com- 
 parison. There are three degrees : — 
 
 48. The Positive Degree is Ijective in 
 
 49. The Compai ' that one 
 of two things possesses a certain quality in a 
 
 degree than the otto r : 
 parative is formed 1". 
 Positive.
 
 38 
 
 50. The Superlative Degree denotes that one 
 of more than two things possesses a certain qua- 
 lity in a greater degree than all the others: as, 
 
 j, wisest. The Superlative is formed by 
 adding est to the Positive. Some Adjectives 
 •are compared irregularly: as, good, better, best; 
 worst; many and much, more, most ; 
 little, less, least. Only Adjectives of one and two 
 syllables are compared by er and est. In other 
 cases comparison is expressed by more and 
 most: asj beautiful, more beautiful, most beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 51. The and an, or a are usually called 
 Articles, but are properly Adjectives (see Sec. 
 
 17). There are two Articles: — 
 
 52. The is called the Definite Article. Its 
 principal use is to indicate that some particular 
 individual of a class is referred to: as, the Queen 
 (of England). 
 
 ■/■j. An or «, is called the Indefinite Article. 
 It is a weakened form of the Numeral Adjective 
 but it is used when we do not wish to lay 
 the same stress on the idea of number. A or 
 hows that it is one thing of the kind, leav- 
 ing it uncertain which; while the determines 
 it is, or, in the case of more than one, 
 ihicl they are. Thus a man means some one 
 of mankind indefinitely, the man means definitely 
 particular man who is spoken of. An 
 • before consonants, including to, y, 
 before h aspirated, and (usually) before u 
 I win a sounded yu. Otherwise aw is used. 
 Thus we say. an eagle, a?i hour, an umpire; but 
 ii, a woman, a yew-tree, a history, a unicorn, 
 a European. A or an can be joined only to 
 Nouns in the Singular number: the may be 
 '1 also to Plurals. 
 
 3.—THE PRONOUN. 
 
 54. The word Pronoun means for - a - noun. 
 
 A Pronoun i d which stands for a Noun, 
 
 the work of a Noun. Pronouns are 
 
 .1 as follows: — 1. The Personal Pronouns 
 
 the simpl ib itute for a Noun : as. The 
 
 master spoke and the boys obeyed him. They 
 are : I, thou, he, she, and it. I is called 
 the Pronoun of the First Person; Thru the 
 Pronoun of the Second Person; He, She and It 
 the Pronouns of the Third Person. The first {I) 
 denotes the person speaking; the second (thou) 
 the person spoken to ; and the third a person 
 spoken of. The Pronouns /and thou&re inflected 
 for Number and Case only; the Pronoun he for 
 • render also. 
 
 A fNom. 
 
 g S I Dat. 
 P- 1 LPoss. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Me. 
 Me. 
 My (mine). 
 
 Plural. 
 We. 
 
 Us. 
 Us. 
 
 Our ^ours). 
 
 fNom. 
 1 g 1 Obj. 
 S /■ -i Dat. 
 & £ | Poss. 
 
 LVoc. 
 
 Thou (you).* 
 Thee (you). 
 Thee (you). 
 Thy, thine Ijours). 
 Thou (You!) 
 
 Ye (you). 
 You(yi 
 
 You. 
 
 Your (yours). 
 
 Ye (You !) 
 
 A fNom. 
 1 U Obj. 
 ~ S 1 Dat. 
 
 ^ LPoss. 
 
 Masc. Fern. Neut. 
 He she it. 
 Him her it. 
 Him her it. 
 His her, hers its 
 
 Plural : all Genders 
 They. 
 Them. 
 Them. 
 'their, theirs. 
 
 55. Pronominal Adjectives. — The Possessive 
 Cases are now often used quite as Adjectives, and 
 may be parsed as such: as, my, mine; our, ours, 
 thy, thine; your, yours ; his, Iter, hers, its ; 
 theirs. The forms mine, thine, ours, yours t hers, 
 theirs, are used only in the predicate of a sen- 
 tence: as, the fault ism we; thine is the kingd 
 deathless fame is theirs. The forms my, thy. 
 her, our, your, their, are used attributively (sec 
 Sec. 206) : as, it is my fault. 
 
 Sometimes, especially in the elevated language 
 of poetry and oratory, the forms mine and 
 thine are used attributively, but only before a 
 Noun beginning with a vowel : as, Give 
 man thim ear, but few thy voice. The Pro- 
 nominal Adjectives may be called Possessive 
 Pronouns. 
 
 » Thi 2nd Personal Proi i in i now most fre- 
 
 quently used, instead of thou, for singular also (soeSec. 216),
 
 39 
 
 2. Reflexive Pronouns. 
 
 5G. There are certain pronominal forms which 
 are used to denote the coming back of an action 
 upon the doer. These are called Reflexive 
 Pronouns, and are used when we speak of doing 
 something to or for oneself. These are — Sing. 
 myself (ourself), thyself {yourself), himself, her- 
 telf, itself; and Plur. ourselves, yourselves, 
 themselves; also oneself, which has no plural. 
 Sometimes these forms are not reflexive, but are 
 used for the sake of emphasis: as, Myself will to 
 St. James's go. 
 
 3. Demonstrative Pronoun*. 
 
 o~. The Demonstrative Pronouns this and 
 . with their Plurals these and those, are 
 properly Adjectives (see Section 17). They are 
 used as Pronouns in the following cases : — 
 
 (1.) When that, with its plural tltose, is used 
 to prevent the repetition of a preceding Noun : 
 as, The public inns of London are still worse than 
 those of Paris. This is the cover of your book 
 but where is that of mine. 
 
 (2.) When this and tlmt are equivalent to 
 the one. ..the other; tltis referring to the latter 
 of two things mentioned, and that to the 
 former : as — 
 
 " reason raise o'er instinct as you can, 
 
 In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man." 
 
 (3.) This and that often refer to the whole 
 of a preceding sentence: as — 
 
 " See Falkland dies, the virtuous and the just! 
 
 godlike Turenne prostrate in the dust ! 
 
 Sidney bleeds amid the martial strife ! 
 
 Was this their virtue, or contempt of life ?" 
 
 "To be or not to be that is the question." 
 
 4. Inti rrogative Pronouns. 
 
 58. The Interrogative Pronouns are those 
 which are used in asking questions. They are 
 ', whether. 
 
 Who is the only one of these Pronouns 
 which is declined. It is the same in the singular 
 
 and the plural : — Sing, and Plur., Ivom. 
 Obj. whom, and Poss. whose. 
 
 The Interrogative who is used with re 
 ence to persons only, and always substantively. 
 The Interrogative which is used both substan- 
 tively and adjectively, and both of persons and 
 things. 117(0 asks a question in the widest 
 and most general manner; which supposes a 
 class or group out of which one or more are to 
 be selected. 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 " Who [in the world] calls so loud ?" 
 "... which [of the pair] is the natural man; 
 And which the spirit ? Who deciphers them? : ' 
 "Stay, stand apart; I know not which is 
 which. " 
 
 "Which of you (the disciples) by taking 
 thought can add one cubit to his stature ?" 
 
 The Interrogative what is used both substan- 
 tivelyandadjectively. When used substanti\ 
 it is always neuter; when used adjectively, i: 
 be applied to both persons and things. 
 
 s : — 
 
 " What is sweeter than honey? What is 
 stronger than a lion ': " 
 
 "Wherefore rejoice? What eonquesi br 
 ho home ?" 
 
 " What ! vies follow him to Pome ? " 
 
 The Interrogative what is often used 
 
 way of exclamation : as—" What dignity, - 
 
 beauty, in this change — from mild t 
 
 from sad to gay \" 
 
 li heth r which of two? It is 
 
 the Nominative and Objective, with u 
 Whether is rare as a Pronoun in modern i 
 lish, but occurs frequently in earlier Ene 
 as, II of them twain did the will i | 
 
 father ?" " Show 
 
 chosen." In modern Engli h \er is ch 
 
 as a Conjunction. 
 
 Whereof, wliereat, "■!,■ 
 pounds are precisely
 
 40 
 
 At what? From what?" They are nearly 
 obsolete. [Compare section on their use as 
 Relative Adverbs (Sec. 60, (7) ).]. 
 
 5. Relative Pronouns. 
 
 59. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to 
 Nouns going before. But other Pronouns beside 
 the Relatives do this ; and the name is confined 
 to' such as, iu addition, serve to connect the clause 
 which they introduce to the former part of the 
 sentence. 
 
 The Relative Pronouns are ivho, tohich, that, 
 what, with their compounds whoso, whosoever, 
 whichsoever, whatsoever, &c. 
 tuples :— 
 
 "They were soon joined by the prince, icho 
 had been disturbed in his tyrannical cruelty." 
 '* She threw open the latticed window which 
 led to the bartizan ..." " The letter being folded 
 was delivered to the squire, and by him delivered 
 to the messenger, ivho waited without. . . " " Blessed 
 is the man that walketh not in the counsel of 
 the ungodly ..." 
 
 The Noun to which a Relative Pronoun 
 relates is called Antecedent : as, " John died to- 
 day, who was a native of England." Here 
 John is Antecedent of who. 
 
 (1.) Who is the same in the singular and 
 the plural, and is declined like the Interroga- 
 tive : — 
 
 Nom. who, Obj., and Dat. whom, and Poss. 
 whose. 
 
 The Nominative who and Objective whom 
 
 arc now used only of persons. The Possessive 
 
 whose has a wider application. It is used in 
 
 ing of living creatures generally, and even 
 
 of things without life : as, " Go to, let us build us 
 
 a city and a tower whose top may reach unto 
 
 . en." 
 
 (2.) Which was formerly used of persons 
 
 i'U as of things. Hence, in the Lord's Prayer, 
 
 i Father which art in Heaven. " As a 
 
 Pronoun, it is now used only of animals 
 
 without life. 
 
 Which also differs from who in being frequently 
 used as an Adjective : as, " Which things are 
 an allegory." 
 
 Sometimes the antecedent is repeated with 
 which to avoid ambiguity : as, " He offered 
 no defence for the ridiculous fable of the pigeon ; 
 which pigeon [not which fable] on the contrary 
 he represented," &c. 
 
 (3.) That, strictly a Demonstrative Adjec- 
 tive, is of more ancient use as a Relative than 
 either who or which. It is the same for Singular 
 and Plural, and may refer to either persons or 
 things (see Syntax, Sec. 221). 
 
 (4.) What is etymologically the neuter of 
 who. As a Relative it is used only of things, and 
 always without an antecedent expressed. Thus 
 it is practically equivalent to that which, the 
 
 thing which. 
 
 What is used in the Nominative and Objec- 
 tive Singular only : as, (Nom.) " What is one 
 man's meat is another man's poison." (Obj.) 
 " What I have written, I have written." 
 
 The Relative what is occasionally found as 
 an Adjective, but in poetry alone : — 
 
 " What time the splendour of the setting sun. 
 
 Lay beautiful on Snowdon's sovereign brow." 
 (Wltat time = at the time at which). 
 
 In older English, the Relative Pronoun that 
 is also used as implying its own Antecedent : 
 as — 
 
 " Lo ! there thou hast that ( = that which) is 
 thine. " 
 
 "That [that which] thee is sent receive in 
 buxomness." 
 
 (5.) Whoever, whichever, whatever; wlioso, 
 whosoever, whichsoever, whatsoever. — These com- 
 pounds resemble the Relative what iu being 
 used without an Antecedent. The suffixes 
 so, -soever, have a generalising eft' 
 
 IJ'A is the only ouc declined: it is the 
 
 same in the Singular and the Plural : — ' 
 isoever, Obj. ivhom soever, Poss. whosesoever.
 
 41 
 
 Whoever, whichever, whatever, are of common 
 use. The forms with -so, as vltoso, whosoever, 
 &c, arc nearly obsolete. They occur frequently 
 in older English, and abound in the Authorised 
 Version of the Scriptures : — 
 
 " Whoso diggeth a pit shall fall therein." 
 
 (6.) As. — The Adverb as sometimes has the 
 force of a Relative, especially after the word 
 such : as — 
 
 " Tears such as angels weep." 
 
 (7.) Whereof, whereto, whereby, &c. — These 
 compounds of where are virtual Relatives: — where- 
 of = of which ; whereby = by which ; whereto = 
 to which, &c. They are nearly obsolete, except 
 in legal phraseology. 
 
 6. Indefinite Pronouns. 
 
 61. These are one, none, somebody, nobody, 
 aught, naught, anything nothing, each, either, 
 neither, other, another, same, such. 
 
 (1.) One.— The Indefinite Pronoun one has 
 the following uses : — 
 
 1. It is used like the French on and tho 
 German man, to denote an individual as 
 representing people in general : as, "A quiet con- 
 science makes one so serene." 
 
 2. It serves to prevent the repetition of a 
 Noun already used. In this sense it has a 
 plural : — 
 
 "Necessity has made vac one." " Thou must 
 take measures— speedy ones. " 
 
 3. The one . . . the other, used by way of 
 distinction : as, Two men went up into the 
 Temple to pray; the one a Pharisee, and the 
 other a publican. 
 
 4. Any one, some one, no one, each one, 
 every one. — These may be regarded as com- 
 pounds of one, and in parsing treated as single 
 words. 
 
 (2.) None. — None is used when the Noun to 
 which it refers is omitted, aud it is the stronger 
 form of no: — 
 11 
 
 " Heed not though none should call thee 
 fair. " 
 
 (3.) Everybody, somebody, nobody. — These 
 words are synonymous with every one, some one, 
 no one (no man), but are more colloquial and 
 familiar : as, " What is everybody's business is 
 nobody's business." 
 
 (1.) Aught, naught. — These nearly obsolete 
 forms are equivalent to anything, nothing. In 
 modern English they are chiefly confined to 
 poetry. 
 
 (5.) Bach signifies all taken separately. 
 It is strictly an Adjective, but is very frequently 
 used without a Noun, when it may be regarded 
 as a Pronoun: as, "Let each his adamantine coat 
 gird well." 
 
 Each one may be regarded as a compound 
 form. 
 
 Each other is strictly an elliptical expression. 
 
 They love each other — they love each (loves) 
 the other ; each being Nom. and other Obj. 
 But the two words are now usually treated as 
 a compound, and, as such, they may be most 
 conveniently parsed. 
 
 (6.) Either, neither. — These may be called 
 dual words, and signify respectively one of tht 
 i . not one of the two: as, "Truth may lie on 
 both sides, on either side or on neither." Either 
 and neither occasionally take a Possessive form : 
 as, " So parted they as cither's way them led." 
 
 (7.) Other is used both Adjectivcly and as 
 a Pronoun. As a Pronoun, it is declined 
 thus : — 
 
 Nom. and Obj. Sing, other [another], and Poss. 
 's [anoth r'i] ; and Plur. Nom. and Obj. 
 other.", and Poss. others' . 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 " No man can serve two masters : for eith 
 will hate the one, and love the other ; or else 
 he will hold to the one, and despise the o/ : 
 "Let no man seek his own, but every man 
 wealth."
 
 42 
 
 (8.) The one... the other serve to distinguish 
 two persons or things; one... another are used 
 when a greater number are spoken of. 
 
 (9.) Same, self-same. — Same is often used 
 with the Definite Article to prevent the repeti- 
 tion of the Noun to which it refers. It is then 
 a true Pronoun. 
 
 (10.) Such. — Such is also used to represent 
 a preceding Noun, when it has a pronominal 
 force : as — 
 
 " Friends he has few.,. Who dare be such." 
 
 4.— THE VERB. 
 
 62. A Verb is a word by means of which we 
 state something: as, "The sun is bright-" "Birds 
 sing." 
 
 Verbs are of two kinds, as follows : — 
 
 63. Transitive Verbs express action passing 
 from an agent to an object: as, " The ship carries 
 a flag." 
 
 Note. — Transitive Verbs are also used Reflex- 
 ively : as, "I strike myself; ""He loves himself ; " 
 and Reciprocally : as, " They love one another." 
 
 64. Intransitive Verbs express being, state of 
 being, or action confined to the agent and not 
 passing over to an object : as, " Snow is white." 
 '' The sun shines." 
 
 Obs. 1. Intransitive Verbs are used Tran- 
 sitively when they have a Causative meaning: as, 
 (' He walked the prisoner about the yard"; " lie 
 ran a needle into his hand." 
 
 Obs. 2. Transitive Verbs arc used Intransi- 
 tively : as "The ships have struck." 
 
 Obs. 3. Many Intransitive Verbs are mado 
 
 itive by an appended Preposition: as, He 
 
 d from the line; We despaired of 
 
 success ; They laughed at us. Such Verbs are 
 
 called Preposition-Verbs (see Sec. 1 56.) 
 
 65. The Subject. — The Noun or Pronoun com- 
 ing immediately beforo the Verb, and denoting 
 the person or thing about which something is 
 
 d, is called the Subject: as, «' The way was 
 long." " Day set on Norham's castled steep." 
 
 The Subject is always in the Nominative Case. 
 
 66. The Object. — The Noun or Pronoun com- 
 ing next after a Transitive Verb, and denoting 
 the person or thing upon which an action takes 
 effect, is oalled the [Direct] Object: as, "Man 
 marks the earth with ruin." The Direct 
 Object is always in the Objective Case. Only 
 Transitive Verbs can have a Direct Object. 
 
 Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and 
 Person. 
 
 Voice. 
 
 67. Voice is a change in the form of a Verb 
 by which we show whether the Subject is the 
 name of the doer of the action or the name of the 
 person or thing acted upon. 
 
 Transitive Verbs have two Voices : — 
 
 68. The Active Voice is that form of a Verb in 
 which the Subject denotes the doer of the action : 
 as, "Cain killed 'Abel.-' 4 
 
 69. The Passive Voioe is that form of a Verb 
 in which the Subject denotes the person or thing 
 acted upon: as, "Abel was killed by Cain." 
 
 The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing to 
 its Participle the different tenses of the Verb to 
 be. 
 
 Mood. 
 
 70. Mood is a change in the form of a Verb 
 to show the manner in which an assertion is 
 made. 
 
 Verbs have five Moods. 
 
 71. The Indicative Mood makes a direct 
 assertion : as, The sun is bright ; The horse 
 ivas struck. 
 
 72. The Subjunctive Mood is never used fco 
 make a direct statement like tho Indicative, but 
 always expresses some kind of condition or hypo- 
 thesis. It usually follows such words as if, un- 
 less, that, lest, although, provided) &c. : as, If 
 you had studied, you would have been successful. 
 It weie ill that Aymer saw the lady Rowena. 
 
 There are some other words also to make this 
 Mood (see Sees. 164 & 165).
 
 43 
 
 73. The Potential Mood expresses possibility, 
 liberty, power, will, obligation, or necessity: as, 
 The bank may fail; He may depart; A 
 prince can make a belted knight ; You 
 would not obey your king; They should keep the 
 truce ; I must leave thee. 
 
 This Mood is formed by aid of the auxiliary 
 Verbs : may, might, can, could, must, would, and 
 should. 
 
 74. The Imperative Mood expresses a com- 
 mand, desire, or entreaty : as, Open the window; 
 Go with\is ; Go ! mark him well ! 
 
 Obs. 1. — The Imperative Mood can strictly be 
 used only in the 2nd Person ; since the person 
 commanded must be the person spoken to. But 
 in the 1st and 3rd Persons, an analogous sense is 
 expressed by the use of the auxiliary Verb 
 let followed by the Objective Case of the virtual 
 subject : as, Let him go ; Let me ride ; Let them 
 go ; Let us ride. In parsing such sentences 
 the Verb let is best taken separately. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Besides the above forms, an impera- 
 tive sense is conveyed by the Verb shall in the 
 2nd and 3rd Persons singular and plural [Future 
 Imperative]: as, "Thou shalt not steal." "If 
 thou buy an Hebrew servant, six years shall ho 
 serve ; and in the seventh he shall go out free for 
 nothing." 
 
 This form is mostly used in prohibitions, and 
 is now nearly obsolete. 
 
 7-5. The Infinitive Mood makes no assertion, 
 but merely names the action. It is now usually 
 known by the prefix to : as, to love, to hate, to 
 have loved, to be loved, to retire: as, They were 
 forced to retire. 
 
 76. Besides the Moods, Verbs have certain 
 forms called Participles. 
 
 A Participle is a Verbal Adjective. There are 
 two Participles properly so called, tho Present 
 or Incomplete, and the Past or Complete. 
 
 The Present, or Incomplete Participle, ends in 
 did expresses an incomplete action or si 
 as " I see men as trees walking." 
 
 77. The Past or Complete Participle has 
 various endings and expresses a completed action 
 or state : as, sung, written,   : as, M i 
 had a broken glass. 
 
 The most common endings of complete Partici- 
 ples are (', ed, n, en, and t : as, heard, asked, s 
 spoken, taught. 
 
 There are four Compound Participles : — 
 
 78. Perfect Participle Active, compounded ij 
 the word having and the Complete Participh 
 having struck. 
 
 79. Perfect Participle Active Progressive, 
 compounded of the words having been and the 
 Incomplete Participle: as, having been striking. 
 
 80. Present or Incomplete Participle Pas- 
 compounded of the word being and the Complete 
 Participle: as, being struck. 
 
 81. Perfect Participle Passive, compounded of 
 the words having been and the Complete Parti- 
 ciple : as, having been struck. 
 
 Obs. — The phrases about to and going to are 
 used to form certain Compounds conveying a 
 future sense: as, going to strike, about to sti 
 Such Compounds are, by somo called "Future 
 Participle." 
 
 82. Tho Gerund or Verbal Noun.— Tho w >r ! 
 Gerund signifies "carrying on or being car 
 on." The Gerund is similar in meaning to tho 
 Infinitive Mood, and is also a Verbal Noun. I r 
 has the ending ing, and may be used both actively 
 ami passively. It inost frequently follows a 
 position: as, (of) loving, (of) being loved; (by) 
 having seen, (by) having been s< 
 
 In the case of the Indefinite form of the Gerund, 
 an Objective following may still be explained ■-: 
 dependent upon the Preposition of understood. 
 Bui this explanation will not apply in the 
 the Complete or Perfect form : as, conscious of 
 i, good action 3ee Syntax, Sec. 257), 
 
 Obs. — In such phrases as a-going, a-wailing, 
 
 a-ruuniiiy, we have a Gerund or Verbal Xoun 
 preceded by a Preposition, Thus a-going = on, 
 in, or at going, &c.
 
 44 
 
 Tense. 
 
 S3. — Tense is a change in the form of a Verb to 
 express time. There are three natural divisions 
 of Time — Present, Past, Future ; and three second- 
 ary Tenses — Present Complete (or Present Perfect), 
 Past Complete (Pluperfect, or Past Perfect), and 
 Future Complete (or Future Perfect). 
 
 84. The Present Tense shows that an action is 
 woing on at the present time : as, John writes. 
 
 The Present Tense has four forms : — 
 
 85. Present Indefinite : as, John writes. 
 
 86. Present Incomplete : as, John is writing. 
 
 87. Present Complete: as, John has written 
 (see Sec. 99.) 
 
 83. Present Emphatic: as, John does write. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 89. The Past Tense shows that an action is 
 past : as, He heard it, but he heeded not. 
 
 The Past Tense has four forms : — 
 
 90. Past Indefinite : as, He heard it. 
 
 91. Past Incomplete: as, He was hearing. 
 
 92. Past Complete: as He had heard it (see 
 Sec. 102). 
 
 93. Past Emphatic: as, He did hear it. 
 
 Future. Tense. 
 
 94. The Future Tense shows that an action is 
 to take place at some future time : as, lshallwritc. 
 
 The Future Tense has four forms : — 
 Future Indefinite: as, I shall write. 
 Future Incomplete: as, I shall be writing. 
 ' Future Complete: as, I shall have written 
 (see Sec. 105). 
 
 Future Emphatic: as, I will write. 
 . — The Future Tense is formed by aid of 
 the auxiliaries shall and ivill. 
 
 ' Complete. 
 The I 'resent Complete (or Present Per- 
 fect) Tense shows that an action has been com- 
 pleted in time still present : as, John lias writtt n. 
 
 The Present Complete has two forms : — 
 
 100. Ordinary : as, I have written. 
 
 101. Present Perfect. — Incomplete: as, I have 
 been writing. (This form may be in the Active 
 Voice ; but being of less frequent occurrence, is 
 not given in the Paradigm of the Verb). This 
 Tense is formed by the Verb have. 
 
 Past Complete. 
 
 102. The Past Complete (or Pluperfect) Tense 
 shows that an action was completed before an- 
 other action took place : as, "He kd heard the 
 news before you came." 
 
 The Past Complete has two forms: — 
 
 103. Ordinary; as, He had heard the news. 
 
 104. Past Perfect-Incomplete : as, I had been 
 hearing. (This form may be in the Active Voice, 
 but being of less frequent occurrence is not given 
 in the Paradigm of the Verb). The Past Com- 
 plete is formed by the aid of had } the Past 
 Tense of the Auxiliary Verb have. 
 
 Future Complete. 
 
 105. The Future Complete (Future Perfect) 
 Tense shows that an action will be completed at 
 a certain future time : as, I shall have ivritten the 
 letter before the mail closes. 
 
 The Future Complete has two forms : — 
 10G. Ordinary: as I shall have written the 
 letter. 
 
 107. Future Perfect-Incomplete: as, I shall 
 have been writing the letter. (This form may be 
 in the Active Voice ; but being of less frequent 
 occurrence is not given as the Paradigm of the 
 Verb). 
 
 This Tense is formed by aid of tho words 
 shall have and will havi . 
 
 Number. 
 
 108. Number as applied to Verbs is a change 
 in the form of the Verb to show whether the 
 assertion is made about one or about more than 
 one. Verbs have two numbers, the Singular and 
 the Plural.
 
 45 
 
 qj, s , l_T]io Verb is of the same number as 
 the Subject or Nominative. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Ouly the Verb to he has distinct plural 
 inflexions. 
 
 Person. 
 
 109. Person as applied to Verbs is a change 
 in the form of the "Verb to show whether the 
 speaker speaks of himself, of the person address- 
 ed, or of some other person or thing. Verbs 
 have three persons, First, Second, and Third : as I 
 love ; thou lovest ; he loves. 
 
 0S , i, — The Verb is of the same person as the 
 Subject or Nominative. 
 
 q 0!s , 2. — Person-inflexions are only found in 
 
 the singular. The ending of the Second Person 
 
 is st or est, of the Third, s or th (growing 
 
 obsolete). 
 
 Conjugation. 
 
 110. The Conjugation of a Verb is its proper 
 arrangement in all its Voices, Moods, Tenses, 
 Numbers, and Persons. To conjugate a Verb 
 fully, Auxiliaries must be employed. 
 
 I'll. An Auxiliary Verb is one which assists 
 other Verbs in forming their Voice, Mood, or 
 Tense. They are be, may, can, must, hare, shall, 
 trill, and do (see from Sec. 127 to Sec. 130.) 
 Paradigm of the Active Voice. 
 
 112. Conjugation of the Transitive Verb to 
 
 Indicative Mood.   
 Present T, 
 
 113. Indefinite: I love; Thou lovest ; He, 
 . -; We, you, and They love. 
 
 >;,, !. ' : [ am loving; Thou art loving; Ee 
 is loving; We, Y i, I They arc lo> i 
 
 Complete : I have loved; Thou hast loved ; lie 
 has loved ; We, V and They have lo 
 
 ill. Past Ten 
 
 Indefinite : 1 loved ; Thou loved'st ; lie lo 
 We, You, and They loved. 
 12 
 
 Incomplete'.! was loving; Thnu wast loving. 
 He was loving; We, You, and They were 1< 
 
 Complete : I had loved ; Thou had'st loved : He 
 had loved ; We, You, They had loved. 
 
 115. Future Tense. 
 
 Indefinite ; I shall love; Thou wilt love; He 
 
 will love ; We shall ; You, and They will love. 
 
 Incomplete : I shall be loving ; Thou will 
 loving ; lie will be loving; We, &C. will be lo. 
 
 Complete : I shall have loved ; Thou wilt I 
 loved; He will have loved ; We, &c, will hav 
 loved. 
 
 116. Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Indefinite : If I love; If thou love; If he love ; 
 If we, you, they love. 
 
 Incomplete: If I, thou, and he be loving; It 
 you, and they be loving. 
 
 Complete : If I have loved, &c. ; If we have 
 loved, &c. 
 
 117. Past Tense. 
 
 Indefinite : If I loved, &c. ; If we loved, &c. 
 
 Incomplete: If I were loving; If thou wert 
 loving, If he were loving; If we, you, and they 
 were loving. 
 
 Complete : If I had loved ; If thou had'st loved, 
 &c. 
 
 '">', .-.— Th.Te is no special Future Subjuncti 
 the Present Tense of the Subjunctive Mood 
 having a future sei 
 
 118. 
 
 Poti ntul Mood. 
 it Tense. 
 
 1: ; I ", can, or must love; Thou 
 
 can'st, may' I st love, &c. 
 
 Incompl I in, or must be loving, &c. 
 
 Complete: I can, or must h&\ 
 
 . 
 
 [might, could, would, or si 
 uld'st, would'stj oi 
 
 love.
 
 46 
 
 / , . lete: I might, could, would, or should 
 be loving, &c. 
 
 '     '   : I might, could, would, or should 
 have luved, &c. 
 
 111). Imperative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. 2nd Pers. Love, or love thou ; and 
 Plur. Love, love you, 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Shalt love, or thou shalt love ; Shall love, 
 or you shall love. 
 
 He shall love ; They shall love. 
 
 120. Infinitive Mood. 
 
 I if J- finite : To love. 
 Incomplete : To be loving. 
 ' mpleie: To have loved. 
 
 121. Participles. 
 
 Present or Incomplete : Loving. 
 
 Perfect '. Having loved. 
 
 Perfect Progressive : Having been loving. 
 
 122. The Incomplete (or Progressive) form 
 of a Verb denotes the continuance of an action. 
 It i- also called the Continuous Form (see Con- 
 
 ition). 
 
 123. The Emphatic form of a Verb expresses 
 an act or state asserted with emphasis. The 
 emphatic form is only used in the Present, Past, 
 Future, and Future Perfect Tenses of the Indica- 
 tive and Subjunctive Moods, and in the Impera- 
 
 re Mood : — 
 
 Love. 
 
 Active Voice. Indicative Mood. 
 
 Presi nt Tense. 
 
 Emphatic: I do love; Thou dost love; He 
 does love ; We, you, and they do love. 
 
 Emphatic ; I did love ; Thou did'st love, &c. 
 
 Future Ttnse. 
 
 Emphatic: I will love ; Thou shalt love; He 
 shall love ; We will love ; You and They shall 
 love. 
 
 Emphatic Complete : I will have loved; Thou 
 shalt have loved, &c. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Emphatic : If I do love ; If thou do love, &c. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Emphatic : If I did love ; If thou did'st love, &c. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Do love, or do thou love. Do love, or do you 
 
 love. 
 
 The Verb to be. 
 
 ]24. Before proceeding to the Passive Voice, 
 it is necessary to give the Paradigm of the Verb 
 
 to be. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Indefinite : lam; Thou art ; He is ; We are; 
 You arc ; They are. 
 
 Complete : I have been ; Thou hast been ; 
 He has been ; We, You, and They have been. 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Indefinite : I was; Thou wast (wert) j He was ; 
 
 We were ; You and they were. 
 
 Completi : I had been, Thou had'st been ; 
 He had been, &0. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Indefinite: I shall bo ; Thou wilt be; He 
 will be ; We shall be; You and they will be. 
 
 Compile : I shall have been ; Thou wilt I 
 
 been, &c. 
 
 Si bji ncti\ e Mood. 
 
 Pn si nt Tense. 
 
 ! h finite : If I be; If thou be; If he be, &c. 
 
 Complete : If I have been ; If thou have 
 
 been, &C.
 
 17 
 
 P<ist Tense. 
 
 I ruli finite : If I were ; If thou wort ; If be 
 wore, &c. 
 
 Complete : If I had been ; If thou had'st 
 been, &c. 
 
 Potential Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Indefinite: I may, can, or must be j Thou 
 may'st, can'st, or must be, &c. 
 
 Complete : I may, can, or must have been, &c. 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Indefinite : I might, could, wculd or should be j 
 Thou might'st, could'st, would'st, or should'st be, 
 kc. 
 
 Complete : I might, could, would or should have 
 been, ike. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Present' Tense. 
 
 Sing. 2nd Pers. Be thou. Plur. 2nd Pers. Be 
 you. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Sing. 2nd Pers. Thou shalt be. Plur. 2nd Pers # 
 You shall be. 
 
 Sing. 3rd Pers. He shall be. Plur. 3rd Pers. 
 
 They shall be. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 / i lefin Ite : To be. 
 
 : To have been. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present or Incom^ '< ft : Being. 
 / t : Having been. 
 
 : Been. 
 The Incomplete form of to he. 
 
 Indicative MuOd. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Incomplete: I am being; Thou art being, &c. 
 
 /'<(.' Tt KS< . 
 
 Incompl ' : I was being; Thou wast being, 
 &c. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Incomplete : — If I were being ; If thou 
 being, &c. 
 
 The Passive Voice. 
 
 125. The Passive Voice : — The only form of a 
 Verb in English which has a Passive sense is the 
 Past Participle in en, ed, (d) or t : as, / 
 loved, lost. But a complete Passive is formed 
 by prefixing to this Participle the various tenses 
 and forms of the Verb to be. 
 
 The Incomplete Form of the Passive Voice is 
 used only with the Present and Past Tenses of the 
 Indicative and with the Past Tense of the Subjunc- 
 tive. 
 
 Paradigm of (he Passive Voice. 
 
 To be loved. Past Part, loved. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Indefinite : I am loved ; Thou art loved, &c 
 Incomplete : I am being loved ; Thou art being 
 loved, &c. 
 
 ' :: I have been loved, &c. 
 
 Putt Tense. 
 
 Indefinite: I was loved; Thou wast loved, &c. 
 It. : I was being loved, &C. 
 
 Complete : I had been loved, &c 
 
 Future Tense. 
 Indefinite: I shall be loved, &c 
 Complete : I shall have been loved, 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 Pr< si nt Tense. 
 Indefinite: If I be loved; If thou be loved, 
 &c 
 
 Complete : If I have been loved, &c. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Indefinite: If I were loved; If thou 
 loved, &c. 
 
   : If I were being loved, &c. 
 
 te : If I had been loved, &c.
 
 43 
 
 Potential Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 Indefinite : I may, can, or must be loved, &c. 
 Complete : I may, can, or must have been 
 loved, &c. 
 
 Fast Tense. 
 
 Indefinite:— I might, could, would, or should, 
 be loved, &c. 
 
 Complete :— I might (&c.) have been loved, &c. 
 
 ITERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 2nd Pers. Sing, and Plur. :— Be loved. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 2nd Pers. Sing. Thou shalt be loved; and Plur. 
 You shall be loved. 
 
 3rd Pers. Sing. He shall be loved ; and Plur. 
 They shall be loved. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Indefinite : To be loved. 
 Complete : To have been loved. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Past or Complete : Loved. 
 Pn st nf or Incomplete : P>eing loved. 
 Perfect : Having been loved. 
 
 126. The Passive Voice has no Emphatic 
 
 Form. 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 
 
 127. The Auxiliaries of Mood are may, can, 
 and must • all   u ! and should. 
 
 (1.) May is used to express (1) permission or 
 liberty, as, 1 may walk ; (2) possibility or conces- 
 ,-., It may be true, but 1 have very grave 
 bts; (3) wish or desire. May he be happy ? 
 
 May. 
 
 ' Tense. 
 
 Tndej nitt : I may; Thou may'st; He may; 
 We, you, and they may. 
 
 Fast Tense. 
 Indefinite: I might; Thou inight'st, &C. 
 (2.) Can is used to express power : as, I can 
 
 see. 
 
 Can. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Indefinite : I can; Thou can'st, &c. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Indefinite: Iconic!; Thou could' st, &c. 
 (3.) Must denotes necessity : as, I must wait. 
 It has no inflexions, and is only used in the 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Must. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Indefinite: 1 must; Thou must ; He must, &c. 
 N.B. — For conjugation of " should and would " 
 (see Sec. 129). 
 
 128. The Auxiliaries of Tense are have, will, 
 and shall. Have as an Auxiliary is used to make 
 the Perfect and Pluperfect Tenses, and (with, 
 shall, or will) the Complete Future Tense. As 
 an Auxiliary it is thus conjugated : 
 
 HAVE. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Indefinite: I have; Thou hast; He has, &c. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Indefinite : I had; Thou had'st ; He had, &c. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Indefinite : I shall have ; Thou wilt have, &C. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Indefinite: If I have; If thou have, &c. 
 
 Pa i Tense. 
 Indefinite'. If I had ; If thou had'st, &c. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 Indefinite : If I shall have ; If thou wilt have, 
 kc.
 
 49 
 
 Potential Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Indefinite : I may, can, or must have, &c. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Indefinite: I might, could, would, or should 
 have, &c. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Present Indefinite. 
 
 2nd Pers. Sing, and Plur. Have. 
 
 Future. 
 
 2nd Pers. Sing. Thou shalt have. Plur. You 
 shall have. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Indefinite • To have. 
 Incomplete: To be having. 
 Complete : To have had. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Incomplete : Having. 
 
 Perfect: Having had. 
 
 Past: Had. 
 
 Note. — There must add the Complete and In- 
 complete forms also; but the Incomplete Present 
 of the Subjunctive is not used : as, If I be having, 
 &c. 
 
 129. Shall and will denote future time: as, 
 I shall go ; He will go. 
 
 Shall. 
 
 Present Indefinite Tense. 
 
 I shall ; Thou shalt ; He shall j We, You, and 
 They shall, &c. 
 
 Past Indefinite Tense. 
 
 I should, Thou should'st, &c. 
 
 Will. 
 
 Present Indefinite Tense. 
 
 I will ; Thou wilt or wiliest ; He will, &c. 
 13 
 
 Past Indefinite Tense. 
 
 I would; Thou would'st or would'st, &c. 
 
 130. The Auxiliaries of form are Be and Do. 
 The Auxiliary Verb be is used to make the in- 
 complete form. It has been conjugated in Sec. 
 124. The Auxiliary Verb do is used : — 
 
 (1.) To express the Emphatic form of the 
 Verb : as, You do read. You did read. 
 
 (2) To complete the Interrogative form oi 
 the Verb: as, Do you read? Did he rend? 
 
 (3.) To complete the Negative form c 
 Verb : as, I do not read. He did not go. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Indefinite. 
 
 I do; Thou dost or doest; He does, doeth or 
 doth; We do; you do ; they do. 
 
 Past Indefinite. 
 
 I did; Thou did'st; He did ; You did, &c. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present IndefiniU '/'< 
 If I do ; If thou do ; If he do, &c. 
 
 Past Indefinite. 
 If I did; If thou did'st; If he did. 
 Imperative Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 Do, or do thou. Do, or do ye. 
 
 131. The Interrogative form of a Verb is that 
 which is used in asking questions. 
 
 (1.) If there be no Auxiliary, thelnterrog: 
 form is made : — 
 
 [a) By simply putting the Verb befo;- 
 Nominative : as, Lovest thou ? 
 
 (6) By putting the Present or Past Tense of 
 the Auxiliary do before the Nominative : as, Dost 
 thou love ? Did you love ?
 
 50 
 
 (2.) If there be one or more Auxiliaries, the 
 Interrogative form is made by putting the Nomi- 
 native immediately after the first Auxiliary : as, 
 Hast thou loved ? Wilt thou love ? Can he love ? 
 Has he been loved ? &c. 
 
 132. The Negative form of a Verb is that 
 which is used in denying. 
 
 (1.) If there be no Auxiliary, the Negative is 
 made : — 
 
 (a) By putting not after the Verb : as, I heard 
 not ; He listened not, &c. 
 
 (b) By putting the Present or Past Tense of 
 the Auxiliary do with hot after it, between the 
 Nominative and the Verb : as, I do not hear ; I 
 did not hear, &c. 
 
 (2.) If there be one or more Auxiliaries, the 
 Negative form is made by putting not after the 
 first Auxiliary : as, I shall not hear ; I may not 
 have heard. 
 
 133- The Interrogative and Negative forms 
 are combined by putting not immediately after 
 the Nominative in the Interrogative form : as, 
 Lovest thou not ? Dost thou not love ? Hast thou 
 ved ? Wilt thou not love ? Can he not love ? 
 Has he not been loved ? &c. 
 
 134. Verbs are divided, according to their 
 mode of inflexion, into two classes, Regular and 
 Irregular. 
 
 Regular Verbs are those which form the Past 
 
 Tense and Past Participle by adding " cd (or d only 
 
 when the Verb ends in e) " : as, jump, jumped, 
 
 . lov . loved, hived; omit, omitted, omitted, 
 
 ike. 
 
 135. Irregular Verbs are those which vary 
 from this rule in either or in both cases : as, stt al, 
 
 , stolen ; break, broke, broken, &c. 
 
 1 36. The chief parts of a Verb are the Present 
 Tense, Past Tense, and Past Participle. 
 
 A Defective Verb is one which wants one or 
 more of the chief parts. They are : — 
 
 ■,,i. Past. Past Pa 
 
 Beware. nil. ail. 
 
 Can. could. nil. 
 
 Nil. nil- Dight. 
 
 Present. Past. Past Participle. 
 
 Forego. nil. foregone. 
 
 Nil. nil. Hight. 
 
 May, might. nil. 
 
 Melists. melists. nil. 
 
 Meseems. meseemed. nil. 
 
 Methink. methought. nil. 
 
 Must. nil. nil. 
 
 Ought. nil. nil. 
 
 Nil. quoth. nil. 
 
 Shall. should. nil. 
 
 Will. would. nil. 
 
 Wis, wot. wist. nil. 
 
 Worth. nil. nil. 
 
 Nil. nil. Yclept. 
 
 137. An Impersonal Verb is one which can 
 only be used in the third person singular with 
 it as Nominative: as, It thunder.-:; It ■>■<>■ 
 
 It hails; It snows. Also meseems, methimks, 
 and melists are Impersonal Verbs. 
 
 Obs. — Meseems (= it seems to me), m< I 
 (= it pleases me), and methinks (= it seems to 
 me). 
 
 5. THE ADVERB. 
 
 138. An Adverb is a word which modifies a 
 Verb, an Adjective, or another Adverb : as, " The 
 bird sings sweetly"; "The lion is a very strong 
 animal'" ; "She reads < rxeedmgly well." 
 
 The Adverbs are : — 
 
 L39. Adverbs of Time: as, when (Interro- 
 gative and Relative), now, then, whilst, h 
 after, soon, immediately, since, ago, to-morrow, 
 yesterday, always, ever, never, by-and-by, &c. 
 
 140. Adverbs of Place: as, where, wh 
 whither (Interrogative and Relative), with then 
 Compounds: as 5 wherever, everywhere, 
 withersoever, &c. ; hence, thence, hither, thither, 
 above, below, within, without, aro 
 
 unto, up, thert , in, &c. 
 
 141. Adverbs of Manner: as, how (Interroga- 
 tive and Relative), well, ill, badly, wisely, right, 
 aloud, thus, &c. This is the largest cla 
 Adverbs, and in it are included nearly all these
 
 51 
 
 derived from Adjectives and ending in ly : as, 
 firmly, slowly, quickly, &c. (Sec. 150). 
 
 142. Adverbs of Degree : as, very, too, almost, 
 quite, rather, altogether; much, little, no (with a 
 Comparative or Superlative): as, much better, 
 little bettor, no better ; also the before a 
 Comparative (Sec. 215) ; more, most, less, least, 
 only, nearly, &c. 
 
 143. Adverbs of Number or Order : as, once, 
 . thrice, first (firstly), secondly, thirdly, 
 
 lastly, &c. 
 
 144. Adverbs of Affirmation : as, yes, certain- 
 ly, truly, surely, indeed, really, &c. 
 
 145. Adverbs of Negation : as, i 
 
 146. Adverbs of Cause : as, therefore, where- 
 , thence, hence, why, &c. 
 
 147. Interrogative Adverbs are those which 
 ><ed in asking questions : as, " Why do you 
 
 tarry ?" They are : Why, wherefore, when, how, 
 where, whither, whence, whereby, wherein, &c. 
 They are derived from Interrogative Pronouns. 
 When used to join sentences, these words are 
 Conjunctions ; when employed interrogatively 
 they are Adverbs. 
 
 148. Relative Adverbs not only modify some 
 Verb, Adjective, or Adverb, butalsojoin sentences : 
 as, '< He departed when we arrived." When, 
 where, whenever, whence, while, whilst, wherever, 
 
 in, whereby, whereto, whereout, whereupon, 
 hersoever, whereafter, why, &c. They 
 are all derived from Relative Ponouns, and are 
 therefore called, by some, Relative Adverbs 
 They have also been called Conjuncl erbs. 
 
 As they join sentences, they should be cla 
 as Conjunctions. 
 
 149. There are many Compound Adverbs or 
 Adverbial Phrases : as, at la$t, at on* 
 
 ■sent, by no mi an - , re, now 
 
 not at all, of course, &c. These may all be classi- 
 fied under some of the preceding heads. In pars- 
 ing, take each word of the compound separately 
 and then the whole phri 
 
 150. Adverbs in bj. — Adverbs of Number and 
 Manner are usually formed by adding ly to the 
 Adjectives from which they are derived : as, 
 beautiful, beautifully ; badly, badly. 
 
 Adjectives ending in y not preceded by 
 another vowel change y into i before ly : as, 
 pretty, prettily ; hasty, hastily. But coy, coyly. 
 
 Adjectives ending in le simply change the 
 e into y : single singly • able, ably ; terrible, 
 terribly. 
 
 151. The Adverb may, as a rule, be known by 
 its being movable to any place in the sentence in 
 which it is used. The only case in which it is not 
 movable is when it modifies an Adjective or an- 
 other Adverb. 
 
 152. Some words are classed both as Adverbs 
 and Prepositions. If they govern an Objective 
 case expressed or understood, they are Preposi- 
 tions ; if they do not, they are Adverbs : e.g., 
 The lark flies up (Adv.) ; The boy climbed 
 up (Prep.) the tree. 
 
 Inflexion. 
 
 153. Comparison of Adverbs. — Most Adverbs 
 
 are compared by more and most : as, su 
 more sweetly, most sweetly. But some take 
 -er, -est : as, soon, sooner, soonest; hard, harder, 
 early, earlier, earliest ; &c. A few- 
 are irregularly compared: — Well, better, 
 y, ill, and evilly, worse, worst, &c. 
 
 6.— PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 l"it. A Preposition is a word placed before a 
 Noun or Pronoun to show the relation between it 
 and some other word iu the sent . The 
 
 horse in the stable is sold. See the followine 
 
 O 
 
 155. The Preposition is used to show th< 
 relation between : — 
 
 1. A Noun and a Noun or Pronoun : as, We 
 crossed the threshold of the door. 
 
 2. A Verb an. I a Noun or Pronoun : 
 Primrose from the mossy bank il,
 
 52 
 
 from shows the relation between is peeping 
 and bank. 
 
 3. An Adjective and a Noun or Pronoun : as, 
 He is weary of life. 
 
 (1.) ' The Prepositions are: — at, by, for, from, 
 in, of, off, on, to, up, loith, above, before, behind, 
 below, along, after, between, betwixt, against, 
 among, without, over, till, into, through, near, 
 but (in sense of except : as, nothing but water), 
 notwithstanding, &c. 
 
 (2.) Phrase-Prepositions: — according to, for 
 
 the sake of, by reason of, instead of, in behalf of, 
 
 by means of, on account of, along with, owing to, 
 
 with reference to, out of, in spite of, in opposi- 
 
 to, &c. 
 
 156. Many Prepositions are appended to 
 Verbs in order to form Preposition- Verbs : as, 
 Love laughs at locksmiths. 
 
 157. Prepositions may be known by observing 
 that they cannot be removed from one part of 
 the sentence unless in connection with the Noun 
 or Pronoun which they govern. 
 
 158. Prepositions have no inflexion. 
 
 7.— CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 159. A Conjunction is a word which joins two 
 sentences : as, The king went away and the queen 
 followed him. 
 
 Conjunctions are of two kinds, Copulative 
 and Disjunctive, &c. 
 
 160. A Copulative Conjunction is one which 
 joins two sentences and at the same time unites 
 their meaning: as, 
 
 " She had a rustic, woodland air, 
 
 And she was wildly clad." 
 
 The Copulative Conjunctions arc : — and, 
 also, after, as, before, because, both, so, there- 
 fore, till, ere, if that, then, when, "-here, hoio, 
 eby, wherefore, even, likewise, ivhy, whence, 
 moreover, whenever, &c. 
 
 161. The Compound Copulative Conjunctions 
 are : — after that, as far as, as if, as long as, when 
 that, if that, as well as, as sure as, so as, set ing tha t, 
 
 omuch that, in that, till that, before that, &c 
 
 162. A Disjunctive Conjunction is one which 
 joins sentences, but at the same time disconnects 
 their meaning : as, 
 
 '' Alas ! they had been friends in youth, 
 But whispering tongues can poison truth." 
 The Disjunctive Conjunctions are : — or, but, 
 cither, else, < ecept, lest, nor, otherwise, notwith- 
 standing, than, though, neither, nevertheless, yet, 
 still, &c. 
 
 163. The Compound Disjunctive Conjunctions 
 are: — but, and if , but that, except that, lest that, 
 nor that, not that, provided that, unless that, 
 unless ivhen, &c. 
 
 164. Correlative Conjunctions are such as are 
 used in pairs: — although — nevertheless, still, yet; 
 As — so ; Because — therefore ; Both — and ; If — 
 then; Neither — nor ; Not — but ; Rather — than, 
 So — as ; So — that ; Then — when ; Such — as ; 
 Such — that, &c. Example : — She was such an 
 artless little creature that all loved her. 
 
 165. Hypothetical Conjunctions : if, so, unless, 
 provided. 
 
 166. The following Conjunctions are, by some 
 grammarians, called Conjunctive Adverbs : — 
 accordingly, also, as (after so, such, or as), 
 before, till, how, tluin, that (after so, such &c), 
 however, &c. 
 
 167. Pure Conjunctions are those which can- 
 not be used as Adverbs or Prepositions : as, 
 but, either, nor, or, &c. 
 
 168. When it is difficult to know whether a 
 word is a Conjunction or an Adverb, it may be 
 determined by the following test : — If the word 
 be movable to any other part of the sentence 
 it is an Adverb, but if it cannot be moved from 
 the beginning of the sentence it introduces it is 
 a Conjunction. 
 
 169. Conjunctions have no inflexion. 
 
 8,— INTERJECTIONS . 
 
 170. An Interjection is a word which ex- 
 presses sudden feeling: as, Alasl the ship is 
 lost. They are: — Adieu ! ! oh ! al ! o 
 hurrah ! begone ! «ha ! what ! pish, hush ! &c.
 
 53 
 
 171. Any of the leading parts of speech ut- 
 tered by itself to express a sudden emotion may 
 be called an Interjection: as, 1. Noun : Peace ! 
 breathe not his name. 2. Adjective : Strange ! 
 I seemed to feel a breath of air. 3. Pronoun : 
 Wliat ! you are weeping yet ! 4. Verb : Mark ! 
 heard you not the thunder's roar ! 5. Adverb : 
 Away] the Haines are coming nearer. 
 
 Derivation. 
 
 1 72. Derivation is that part of Etymology 
 which explains the different parts of which a word 
 is made up. Words are either Primitive, Deriva- 
 tive, or Compound. 
 
 ] 73. A Primitive Word is a word in its 
 simplest form : as, son, good, I, speak, dotal, and. 
 
 174. A Derivative is a word formed from a 
 Primitive word or root. Derivatives are of two 
 kinds ; Primary and Secondary. 
 
 1. A Primary Derivative is formed from a 
 Primitive word by a change in the body of the 
 word: as, strike, stroke; break, broke. 
 
 2. A Secondary Derivative is formed from a 
 Primitive word by adding Prefixes or Suffixes : 
 as, learn, un-learn, ledrn-er. 
 
 A Prefix is a syllable put before a root : as, 
 '.on-Auct. 
 
 A Suffix (or affix) is a syllable added after a 
 root: as, due-tile. 
 
 175. A Compound Word consists of two or 
 more words, each of which is significant : as, 
 mill-stone, door-step, horse-leech. 
 
 In most Compound words the second word in- 
 dicates the genus or class, and the first word the 
 species or the quality that distinguishes the 
 object denoted by the Compound from the class : 
 thus, corn-field means a particular kiiid of 
 viz., one that grows corn. 
 
 1 7C. Tin' most numerous and important Com- 
 pounds are — Compound Nouns, Compound Ad- 
 jectives, and Compound Verbs. 
 14 
 
 ' impound Nouns. 
 
 177. (1.) The great mass of Compound Nouns 
 are formed by the simple juxtaposition of two 
 Nouns, the former of which modifies the latter : 
 as, rose-tree, tree-rose, ring-fingi r, 
 
 railway, town -hall, Ac. 
 
 (2.) In some cases an Adjective ha 
 
 with a Noun from being frequently .join* id with it 
 in a particular sense: as, freeman, 
 
 black-cock. 
 
 (3.) In a few other cases :i Noun appears pre- 
 ceded by a Transitive Verb, of which it is the 
 Object : as, dare-di ell , pick \ -spit, 
 
 spit-fire. (Here common phrases have been made 
 Nouns of.). 
 
 (4.) Also a considerable number ol Verbal 
 Nouns are found in composition with Adve 
 Prefixes: as, /ore-sight, /ore-thought, after- 
 thought, after-math {that which is mowed after 
 the first crop), &c. 
 
 (5.) A few miscellan is Noun Compounds 
 
 remain to be noted: such are, l-fall, fore- 
 
 noon, forget-me-not, bread-and-butti r, &c. 
 
 Compound Aa 
 
 178. (1.) The most important class of Com- 
 pound Adjectives consists of those in which the 
 meaning of an Adjective is modified by a Xoun 
 prefixed : as, snow- wh; ). blood- 
 red (red as blood), sky-blui' {blltt as th »fel/), &c. 
 
 (2.) Another cla tsts of thosi in which 
 
 the meaning of an Adjective is modified I 
 Adverbial Prefix : i werful, aZ-mighty, <vc. 
 
 (3.) Sometimes two Adjectives are brougl I 
 into juxtaposition, when the former modifii 
 latter: as, blue-black, blue-gn 
 
 d Verbs, 
 
 179. Compound Verbs are formed i. 
 
 of Prefixes : as 11, out-do, over-do, < '-lav, 
 
 <<r, /--lie, &c. 
 
 .Many Verbs are really compounds which have 
 their meaning modified by a Preposition Ldverb] 
 following : as, to call out, drive back, laugh at,
 
 54 
 
 pull down, &c. In suck cases the Preposition 
 [Adverb] adheres to the Verb in the Passive 
 Voice: as, he was called out (challenged) , &c. 
 
 180. Compounds of other Parts of Speech. 
 These are mostly of a miscellaneous character. 
 For Compound Pronouns, see Sec. 60, (5); 
 Compound Relative Adverbs, see Sec. 148 ; Com- 
 pound Preposition, see Sec. 155, (1), and (2). 
 
 PART 3.— Syntax. 
 
 181. Syntax treats of the correct method of 
 arranging words into sentences. 
 
 182. Words are related to each other by way 
 of Concord and Government. 
 
 183. Concord is the agreement of one word 
 with another in gender, number, person, or case. 
 
 184. Government is the power which one 
 word has over another in determining its case or 
 mood. 
 
 1. Syntax of the Noun. 
 
 The Cases. — 1. Nominative. 
 
 185. The Nominative Case is the case of the 
 Subject (see Sec. 32): as, He walks; Man 
 thinks. 
 
 1 86. The Nominative Case usually comes 
 before the Verb, and in the case of Transitive 
 Verbs that position is necessary to distinguish 
 the Nominative Case of a Noun from the Objec- 
 tive (see Sec. 191): as, "Alexander (Subject) 
 conquered Darius (Object)." 
 
 But the Nominative Case may come after an 
 
 Intransitive Verb, since no ambiguity can then 
 
 arise from its position; and this arrangement is 
 
 often adopted when an Adverb or an Adverbial 
 
 phrase precedes the Verb : as, " Then rose from 
 
 to sky the last farewell." 
 
 137. Every Nominative Case, except the 
 
 Nominative Absolute (Sec. 190), belongs to 
 
 some Verb, either expressed or implied : as, in 
 
 • I e answer to a question, " Who wrote the Tosh ':" 
 
 vper ", i. e., Cowper ivrote it. 
 
 188. Complementary Nominative. — The Verbs 
 
   and to become, with some others, take 
 
 a Nominative after as well as before them : as, 
 "My Lord dies a Protestant." " And Nathan said 
 unto David, Thou art the man. " 
 
 The Noun following in such cases is descriptive 
 of the Subject, and therefore agrees with it. 
 
 189. The Complementary Nominative is also 
 used after Passive Verbs of naming, making or 
 appointing, deeming, &c, being still descriptive 
 of the Subject: as, Churchill had been made a 
 baron of England. 
 
 Often the Adverb " as " is introduced without 
 affecting the Syntax of the following Noun: as, 
 " Diocletian may be considered as the founder of 
 a new empire." 
 
 190. Nominative Absolute. — The Nominative 
 Case may also be used with a Participle, forming 
 with it a clause grammatically independent of 
 the rest of the sentence : as, The speech deli- 
 vered, the orator retired ; He being dead, we 
 shall live. 
 
 The Participle is sometimes omitted : as, He 
 sprang in, sword (being) in hand. 
 
 2.— The Objective. 
 
 191. Direct Object.— The Objective Case 
 depends upon a Transitive Verb, and denotes the 
 Direct Object of an action. It is also used after 
 a Preposition (see Sec. 33). 
 
 The Objective Case usually follows the Verb 
 (see Sec. 186). But when the Objective differs in 
 form from the Nominative, as in the case of the 
 Personal Pronouns, it may stand before the Verb 
 without causing any ambiguity: as, — " Me he 
 restored unto mine office, and him he hanged.'' 
 
 192. Complementary Object. — Verbs of mak- 
 ing or appointing, also of calling, naming, think- 
 ing, take after them two Objectives. The former 
 of these is the Direct Object, the latter is called 
 the Complementary Object, beiug necessary to 
 complete the meaning of the Verb: as, "They 
 hailed him (Direct Obj.) father (Coinpl. Obj. 
 of a line of kings."
 
 55 
 
 "I'll call thee (Direct Obj.) Hamlet, 
 
 King, father, Royal Bane (all Compl. Obj.). 
 
 193. Also the Verbs teach, ask or beg, for- 
 give, and less frequently — banish, forbid, with 
 some others like them, often take a second 
 Objective: as, "Teach me thy statutes." " We 
 banish you our territories." 
 
 194. Objective after Passive Verbs. — The 
 Verbs mentioned in the preceding section, with 
 some others, are capable of taking an Objective 
 Case after them even in the Passive Voice. In 
 such cases, the one Objective becomes the 
 Subject of the sentence, and the relation of the 
 other to the Verb remains unaffected : as, " Were 
 you well served, you would be taught your 
 duty." "The dead were refused Christian 
 burial." 
 
 195. Objective after Intransitive Verbs.— 
 Intransitive Verbs often take after them an 
 Objective Case similar in meaning to the Verb 
 itself. This is called the Cognate Objective : as, 
 " He dreamed a dream." 
 
 This construction is most frequent when there 
 is an Adjective of Quality used with the Noun : 
 as, "I have fought a good fight," " He laughed 
 his great laugh." 
 
 1 96. The Objective is used after Intransitive 
 Verbs and after Adjectives to denote extent, 
 duration, age, value: as, "And Noah was 600 
 years old when the flood of waters was upon 
 the earth." " >he is not worth tliee." 
 
 Also in such expressions as "ten years ago,'' 
 " this day week," " not many days hence," the 
 Nouns denoting time are to bo regarded as Objec- 
 tives. 
 
 197. The Objective with Impersonal Verbs. — 
 The Objective denotes the virtual, though not the 
 grammatical, Subject after some old Impersonal 
 Verbs: as, it th, it behoves, it becomes or 
 
 /is : as, " It repenteth me that I have 
 made them.'' " Behoves me keep." 
 
 3.— The Dative. 
 
 198. The Dative denotes the Indirect Object, 
 and always be explained by to and for : as, 
 " Give me the daggers," i.e., to me ; " Heat me 
 these irons hot," i.e., for me. 
 
 199. The words like and unlike, nigh, near, 
 {nearest, next,) are followed by the Dative: a«. 
 " Few in millions can speak like us" 
 
 [_N.B. — This use of the Dative after the Adverb 
 like is scarcely to be imitated.] 
 
 200. The Impersonal Verbs thinks, seems, 
 lists, take before them the Dative of the Personal 
 Pronoun: as, "Methinks," i.e., it seems to me, 
 &c. 
 
 4. — The Possessive. 
 
 201. The Possessive Case denotes possession, 
 and is therefore rarely used except where the 
 Noun denotes a living thing : as, "Milton's poems", 
 "a butterfly's wings." The use of the Possessive 
 with reference to things without life belongs to 
 imaginative language, objects being there freely 
 personified : as, " Mountains above, Earth', 
 Ocean's plains below." 
 
 202. Ellipsis. — In familiar language the Pos- 
 sessive Case is often used alone, and the Noun 
 upon which it depends omitted, being readily 
 understood: as, "St. Paul's (Cathedral), the 
 Princess's (Theatre), the Queen's (Hotel)." 
 
 On the same principle must be explained such 
 expressions: as, " a work of Bacon's " (i.e., one 
 of Bacon's works), "a horse of John's " (i.e., one 
 of his horses). 
 
 5. — The Vocative. 
 
 203. The Vocative Case is used both with 
 and without the Interjection 0. Its function is 
 chiefly to attract the attention of the person to 
 whom we are speaking: as, " These are Thy 
 glorious works, Parent of good, Almighty ! " 
 " O! Friend, come to me." 
 
 6. — Apposition. 
 
 204. Any Noun or Pronoun may have another 
 Noun or Pronoun attached to it without any con-
 
 56 
 
 nective when referring to the same person or thing. 
 The latter word is then said to be in apposition, 
 and agrees with the former in Case : as, " John 
 the Baptist was beheaded;" " Brutns killed 
 Cassar, him who had been his friend." 
 
 205. Sometimes a Noun stands in apposition 
 to an entire sentence : as, "There were seven of 
 them, and they were drawn with seven oranges — 
 a thing quite out of taste." 
 
 2. Syntax op the Adjective. 
 
 206. An Adjective placed immediately before 
 or after a Noun is said to be used attributively : 
 as, a wise man, a huge lion. 
 
 But when the Verb to he or any similar 
 Verb intervenes, it is said to be used predi- 
 catively : as, The lion was huge ; The man 
 became wise. 
 
 207. When the same quality in different things 
 is compared, the Adjective in the Positive has 
 after it the Conjunction as, in the Comparative 
 the Conjunction than, and in the Superlative 
 the Preposition of: as, " White as snow"; " wiser 
 than Solomon" ; " greatest of all." 
 
 208. After the Definite Article the an 
 Adjective is often used with a Noun understood 
 but not expressed, to denote a class of objects : 
 as, " The wicked ( = wicked men) flee when no 
 man pursueth ;" <f The good are happy." 
 
 209. Some Adjectives have actually become 
 Nouns, and, as such, may be used with an Adjec- 
 tive before them. This is the case with the 
 words good, evil, and a few others : as, " Evil, 
 be thou my good.." 
 
 In this way are used Adjectives denoting colour: 
 as, blade, white, red, &c. 
 
 210. Adjectives with Verbs. — Adjectives some- 
 times appear to be attached to Verbs, and so to 
 take the place of Adverbs. Thus we say, " to 
 keep a thing safe" "to serve dinner up hot" 
 " to stand firm" &c. But in all these examples, 
 the Adjective really belongs to the Noun and not 
 to the Verb. 
 
 The Articles. 
 
 211. When several Nouns denoting distinct 
 things come together in enumerations, the same 
 Article is usually placed before each: as, "A 
 vacant space was left between tlie tents and the 
 ramjDart"; "Their more useful arms consisted 
 in a helmet, an oblong shield, light boots, 
 and a coat of mail." 
 
 212. But when the objects are represented 
 not as perfectly distinct, but as closely connected 
 with each other, the Article is not repeated : as, 
 '' The Prince and Princess of Orange had now 
 ceased to regard him as a rival." 
 
 Sometimes the Article appears to be omitted 
 merely for the sake of brevity, especially in such 
 common expressions: as, "from head to foot," 
 " from top to bottom," "from snout to tail." 
 
 213. Sometimes the Article is repeated even 
 before Nouns denoting things closely connected 
 with each other when it serves to call attention 
 to each separately : as, < f There were the markets at 
 which the corn, the cattle, the wool, and the hops 
 of the surrounding country were exposed." 
 
 214. The Definite Article the is sometimes 
 used to give to an. Adjective the force of an 
 Abstract Noun (see. Sec. 209). 
 
 215. The word " the = hy so much, used 
 before the Comparative Degree, is a different 
 word from the Definite Article. It is the old 
 Ablative or Instrumental case of the Demonstra- 
 tive Adjective the, that, and must be parsed 
 as an Adverb: as, {< The nearer the bone the 
 sweeter the meat." 
 
 3. Syntax op the Pronouns. 
 
 216. Thou and you. — The Pronoun thou, 
 which strictly denotes a single person spoken to, 
 is now rarely used except in the elevated style of 
 poetry, eloquence, or devotion, its place being 
 elsewhere taken by the plural ij<m. 
 
 217. The Relative Pronouns who, uu' 
 that, have a twofold use: — 
 
 1. To limit- and define the Antecedent, which 
 would otherwise express too much or too little:
 
 57 
 
 as, " I dare do all — that may become a man. " 
 "Is this a dagger — which I see before /»■ '.'" 
 
 2. To introduce some additional statement 
 when the principal sentence is complete already i 
 as, "My father suddenly discovered that there 
 was to be a book-sale twenty miles off — whieh 
 would last four days. " 
 
 Note. — This may bo called the conjunct in 
 use of the Relative; but the former is called the 
 restrictive use. 
 
 This double use sometimes causes ambiguity, 
 as in the following instance: — ''The loftiest 
 mountain in Britain which I have climbed." 
 This ambiguity may be removed by punctuation. 
 
 218. The Relative agrees with its Antecedent 
 in Number and Person : its case is determined by 
 some word in its own seuteuce: as, "You may 
 easily imagine to yourself what appearance I 
 made who am pretty tall." " He that hath bent 
 him o'er the dead." " Ere ceased the inhuman 
 shout which hailed the wretch (Obj.) who (Nom.) 
 won." "Scots (Voc.) whom (Obj-) Bruce hath 
 often led." 
 
 219. The Relative and Interrogative Pronouns 
 differ from other words in preceding the Verbs 
 which govern them instead of following them : 
 as, " whom no man hath seen nor can 
 
 " What went ye out for to see V 
 
 220. Who is sometimes used briefly for he 
 who, or he that, especially in poetry: as, "Who 
 steals my purse, steals trash. . . ." " So fail not 
 thou who thee implores." 
 
 221. That is preferred to who or which 
 when the Antecedent is incomplete, reqi 
 
 be defined by the Relative clause (see Sec. 217, 1 ): 
 as, "Blessed is the man that walketh not in 
 the conusol of the ungodly. " "He that goes 
 a-borrowing goes a-sorrowing." 
 
 222. Hence it is often used after Sup 
 
 after the words all, 'same, any, nom . , and 
 
 after the Interrogative who: as, "All is nol gold 
 that glitters." " 117, o is among you that fearetb 
 the Lord." 
 ir. 
 
 223. Omission of th -(1.) Win 
 Relative sentence serves merely to define 
 Antecedent (see Sec. 217, 1, restrictive use), the 
 Relative Pronoun is often omitted — not, how 
 when it would be either in the Nomi r the 
 Possessive Case: as, " Tho labour a w 
 
 in physics pain." "He is the most atte 
 man i\ I ever saw." 
 
 (2) But when the Relative sentence 
 some additional and independent circuinsl 
 about the Antecedent the Pronoun can never be 
 omitted. Compare the following example : — 
 '' When Sunday came, itwas indeed a day of finery, 
 which&ll my sumptuary edicts could not restrain." 
 
 In this sentence the Relative is indispeusa! 
 
 224. When a Relative sentence defines a Is 
 or Pronoun connected by the Verb to 
 Pronoun of the 1st or 2nd Person, the Verb in 
 the Relative sentence is often made to agree in 
 Person with the preceding Pronoun: as, " A rt 
 thou that Egyptian which before these 
 madest an uproar. . . ? " 
 
 But the 3rd Persou is also used: as "Art 
 thou he that troubleth (not troublest) Israel?" 
 
 225. Than whom. — The Relative Pronoun 
 who is used in the Objective Case after 
 Conjunction than where any other Pronoun 
 would be in the Nominative Case: as — 
 
 " Belial came last, tha\ a spirit mi 
 
 Fell not from heaven." 
 
 " He is wise: " "You are wis 
 
 (The senses an is;" 
 
 him" are therefore incorrect.) 
 
 226. Sometimes the 
 
 is implied in a Pronoi This 
 
 rural politi 
 
 my temper, who generally 
 
 nest me," &C. 
 
 227. Sometimes an enti 
 Antecedent: i 
 
 more remarkable — in- 
 seemed to grow more indulg 
 Compare
 
 58 
 
 228. The Neuter Pronoun it is used in a 
 peculiar manner without any foregoing Noun to 
 which it can be referred. 
 
 1. It is used before the Verb to be when 
 the Subject follows, aud it then serves as a kind 
 of temporary or provisional Subject : as, " It is 
 I; be not afraid." "It is more blessed to give 
 than to receive." Real Subjects:- (1) I, (2) to 
 
 Obs. 1. The Pronoun it is sometimes used 
 even when a Plural subject follows: as — 
 
 " Tistwoov three, my Lord, that bring you word 
 Macduff is fled to England." 
 
 Obs. 2. In the same way is used the Adverb 
 there, which thus has a kind of Pronominal force: 
 as, " There was a Brutus once." 
 
 2. In like manner the Pronoun it is em- 
 ployed to represent a circumstance or history to 
 be related : as, « And it came to pass, (i.e., the 
 following circumstance came to pass) at the end 
 of two full years that Pharaoh dreamed, and 
 behold he stood by the river." 
 
 3. The Pronoun it is used as the Subject of 
 -•denoting natural phenomena: as, " it rains," 
 
 " it snows," " it freezes," Ac. 
 
 4. The Pronoun it is also used to represent 
 or condition in the most indefinite manner 
 
 possible: as, "How is't, my noblo lord?" 
 
 ~i. After an Intransitive Verb it is used to 
 denote the action of the Verb in a general way : 
 •Come and trip it as we go,'' "I cannot 
 daub it further." 
 
 6. In a-lcing a question it is used of that 
 which is altogether unknown: as, Who is it ? 
 What is it ? &c. 
 
 229. The Indefinite Pronouns each, every, 
 
 r (Sec. 61, (■">), and ((i) ), are 
 
 wed by Nouns, Pronouns, and Verbs of the 
 
 liar Number only: as, "The king of Israel 
 
 the king of Judah sat, each (king) on his 
 
 throne, having (loth) put on their robes," &c. 
 
 Unless the Plural Noun used after them con- 
 vey a Collective Idea: as, "That every twelvt 
 years there should be set forth two ships." 
 
 4. Syntax of the Verb. 
 
 1 . Concord. 
 
 230. A Verb agrees with its Subject in 
 Number aud Person : as, man icaiits or want' 
 eih, men want; thou reasonest, they reason . 
 if I were, if thou wert, &c. 
 
 231. Two or more Nouns in the Singular 
 Number, with or without a Conjunction, take a 
 Verb in the Plural Number : as, " The evening 
 and the morning were the first day." 
 
 •' Thy prayer, thy praise, thy life to vice un- 
 known, 
 In sweet memorial rise. . . " 
 
 232. Every Verb, except in the Infinitive or 
 the Participle, has its Nominative Case either 
 expressed or implied: as, "Awake (ye), Arise 
 (ye), or be (ye), for ever fall'n." 
 
 233. (1.) (Either) ... or.— When two Sin- 
 gular Subjects are connected by (either)... or, the 
 Verb remains Singular: as, "... a faint scream 
 might be heard, as a lover, a brother, or a 
 husband, was struck from his horse." 
 
 Obs. 1. The Verb expressed belongs to the 
 p subject and agrees with it, being under- 
 stood with the former: as, "Either you or he 
 is to blame." 
 
 ' )bs. 2. The Plural is occasionally to be met 
 with : as, " It must be confessed that a lampoon 
 or a satire do not carry in them robbery or 
 murder." 
 
 | S'.B— Not to be imitated.] 
 
 (2.) "Neither (nor) nor." — The same rule is 
 
 usually observed with "neither nor": as, ' 
 
 man nor fiend hath fallen so far." " V- 
 
 neither moth nor rust doth corrupt." 
 
 Bui the 1'lural not seldom occurs, especially 
 when several Singulars are connected by "nor... 
 
 nor. ..nor" : as, Nor \\ 1 nor tree nor bush or* 
 
 there." " Neither he nor Broadhem smoke."
 
 59 
 
 Especially in the case of the Personal Pronoun : 
 as, "Neither you nor I are in fault." 
 
 234. Collective Nouns. — These are sometimes 
 
 followed by the Singular and sometimes by the 
 
 Plural. The Singular is preferred when the 
 
 Subject is regarded as a whole ; the Plural, 
 
 when attention is directed to the individuals 
 
 composing it. 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 Singular. 
 
 " An English mob is often contented with 
 
 the demolition of a few windows..." "The 
 
 government has begun to turn its attention..." 
 
 Plural. 
 '' The assembly of the wicked have inclosed 
 me." 
 
 2. — The Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 235. The chief use of the Subjunctive Mood is 
 in hypothetical sentences. It then usually follows 
 such Conjunctions as if, unless, except, although, 
 albeit, notwithstanding, whether . . . .or: as, 
 " What matter where if I be still the same?" 
 
 X' man can do these miracles except God be 
 with him." 
 
 It also frequently follows such expressions as 
 
 : (that), suppose (supposing), &c. : as, 
 s rpose you were to take a little journey 
 now. ..." ". . . . so we will, provided that he 
 win her." 
 
 \ Sometimes the Verb in the Subjunctive 
 Mood is placed before in Subject, aud no Con- 
 junction is then used; as, " Were I the Moor, 
 I would not be Iago." " Oh, wert thou (=if 
 I in the can Id blast. ..." 
 
 237. The Subjunctive is also used in hide 
 questions after if, whether, and in the case of 
 double questions (■/. e., where there are two 
 alternatives), after whether (if). . , . or -. as, 
 " Look if your helpless father yet survive. " 
 
 238. The Subjunctive Mood is also used in 
 dependent sentences to denote a command or 
 wish. It is then often introduced by the word 
 that. 
 
 /.' amples: — 
 
 " The king's further pleasure is 
 
 That such a writ be served against you." 
 
 " Heat me these irons hot ; and look thou 
 
 stan I 
 Within the arras." 
 "I would that I were low laid in my grave." 
 
 239. Hence arises the use of the Subjunc- 
 tive Mood in an Imperative or Optative sense : 
 as, "Now, good digestion wait on appetite, 
 And health on both ! " 
 
 " Never harm, nor spell nor charm, 
 Come our lovely lady nigh." 
 
 240. The Subjunctive is likewise used, espe- 
 cially by our older writers, after the word- 
 so that, lest, to denote a purpose or consequence 
 of something to be done : as, " Take heed, 
 thou speak not to Jacob." " He that smiteth a 
 man, so that he die, shall be surely put to death." 
 
 241. It must not be supposed that all Verbs 
 used in hypothetical sentences are necessarily in 
 the Subjunctive Mood. The Indicative is used 
 after if in speaking of what is present at the time. 
 
 /.'■ nnples: — 
 
 "If I am to be a beggar (as appears likely) 
 it shall never make me a rascal." 
 
 *' And though my portion is but scant, I give 
 it with good will." 
 
 The Indicative is also used in hypothetical 
 sentences where there is no real contingency or 
 doubt : as, " Though, he was rich, yet for your 
 sakes he became poor." 
 
 j, the Indicative is sometimes used in pre- 
 ference to the Subjunctive for the sake of greater 
 energy of expression : as — 
 
 " If thou spealcest fal 
 
 Upon the next tree shalt thou hang alive." 
 
 242. Si ' li ill, will, 
 are regularly used in subordinate sentences alter 
 Present and Future Tenses in the principal 
 teuce; and might, shn after Past 
 Tenses; and might have, should 
 
 . after Past Complete Tense; as —
 
 60 
 
 " If the patient be asleep he is (or will be) better." 
 " If you will in uite na we shall be happy to come." 
 " If you called me I would be happy to come." 
 " Could the captain have avoided it, he would 
 
 thrown the cargo overboard." 
 •' Had ho asked me I should have told him." 
 
 3. — The Infinitive Mood. 
 
 _' I ■). The Infinitive Mood is in modern English 
 usually indicated by the prefix to. But the 
 old form without to is used after the following 
 classes of Verbs: — 
 
 1. Some which serve as auxiliaries in forming 
 various Tenses and Moods, viz,, do, shall, will; 
 to which may be added may, can, might, could, 
 
 '•Id, should. 
 
 2. The following are old root Verbs : bid, 
 lari . have, make, let, must, list, need. 
 
 3. Many Verbs denote the operation of the 
 senses ; as, see (behold, watch, mark, &c), hear, 
 feel. 
 
 Examples: — 
 
 "Bid me tear the bond." "They weed not 
 vrt; give ye them to eat." "I see before me 
 the gladiator lie," &c. 
 
 244. The Infinitive with to is often the sub- 
 ject of a sentence, especially before the Verb to 
 be: as, "To be contents his natural desire," 
 " To reign is worth ambition." " To err is 
 human.'' 
 
 i. The Infinitive not unfrequently di 'notes 
 the < Ibjectj especially after Verbs expressinj 
 action of the mind or will, such as, to 
 love, hopt , /< ar, 
 
 e, li'ii- , ' membt r, forget : as — 
 
 "Cromwell, I did not think to shed a 
 
 il my miseries. ..." 
 "The Countess of K 
 
 ''Cease to do evil, / 11." 
 
 1 16. Peculiar   Past In The 
 
 '....) is 
 
 sometimes used by a kind of attraction after a 
 Verb in the Past Tense: as, " I thought to havt 
 i him where he stood." 
 
 247. Complementary Infinitive. — The Infini- 
 tive, when not the Object of the Verb, is often its 
 Complement, serving to define its application in 
 some way. This is especially the case with Verbs 
 of commanding, compelling, persuading, teaching, 
 &c, which do not convey a complete sense by 
 themselves. Also t he Infinitive often expresses 
 the purpose of the action denoted by the Verb. 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 " Claudius had commanded all Jews to depart 
 from Rome." " He was forced to depart, so as 
 to be within Grey Friars' gate before ten." 
 " He invoked Heaven to witness the sincerity of 
 his professions," &c. 
 
 The Complementary Infinitive of Purpose is 
 often introduced by so as to, in order to, and in 
 older English by for {to) : as — 
 
 " Max gave up a costume and a carriage so as 
 to help Paul.'' " What went ye out for to 
 see?" 
 
 248. The Infinitive is often the Complement 
 of an Adjective (Adverbial) : as — 
 
 "Swift to hear, slow to speak." "Things 
 ■tood." "Eager to be pi 
 and to please." 
 
 249. The Infinitive may also be the Com- 
 plement of a Noun (Adjectival) : as — 
 
 " A time to weep and laugh." 
 
 250. Sometimes an Infinitive Mood is attached 
 asaC 'it to an entire sentence (Adverbial): 
 as, "In politics, the [independents wer< — to 
 
 the phrase of their time — root and b] 
 - . . . " 
 ler this head come all such parenthel 
 expri brief, so to spealt, to r 
 
 ory of it; i 
 
 251. Sometimes the Infinitive is used bj 
 
 , " Thus to rob me of my child ! "
 
 61 
 
 4. — Gerund. 
 
 252. A Gerund is a Verbal Noun, and may 
 be used in most of the constructions of a Noun. 
 Thus it may be the Subject or the Object of a 
 Verb, and it may be under the government of an 
 Adjective or of a Preposition. 
 
 1. Gerund as Subject. 
 
 " Running to see fireworks alone is dreary 
 work." 
 
 "It is not dying for a faith that is hard...," &c. 
 
 2. Gerund as Object. 
 
 " He contemplated marrying Esther," &c. 
 
 3. Gerund after an Adjective. 
 " If it be worth stooping for," &c. 
 
 4. Gerund governed by a Preposition. 
 " Cannot but by annihilating die," &c. 
 
 253. The Gerund of a Transitive Verb retains 
 the same power of governing the Objective Case 
 as the Verb to which it belongs : as, " I deter- 
 mined to increase my salary by managing a 
 little farm" &c. 
 
 254. It must be borne in mind that the ori- 
 ginal use of the forms in -ing (also -una) was that 
 of Nouns, the Gerund being a totally distinct 
 thing (see Sec. 82). And they must still be 
 parsed as Nouns wben they have the full 
 construction of Nouns, admitting an Adjective 
 or Article before them, and being followed by 
 the Preposition of. This is the case in the fol- 
 lowing examples : — 
 
 " The planting of woods." "The attaining of 
 
 happiness." " A great whacking of whips." 
 
 Here planting, attaining, and whacking are Nouns. 
 
 . The followiug is the modern rule for 
 
 the use of the Verbals in -ing: — 
 
 When the precedes, of must follow ; or both 
 the and of must be omitted together; namely, — 
 Either — 
 
 " By the sending of the light." 
 •' By the preachingo/ repentance;" 
 Or— 
 
 " By sending the light." 
 
 "By preaching repentance." 
 16 
 
 In the former case the forms in -ing are parsed 
 as Nouns, in the latter case as Gerunds. 
 
 256. A Gerund is often preceded by the Pos- 
 sessive Case of a Noun or Pronoun, denoting the 
 Subject: as, "I remember his pointing with 
 the wooden sword.'' "The gooseberries were of 
 her gathering." 
 
 257. The Compound Gerund forms with hav- 
 ing, Icing, having been, are used in the same 
 way as the simple Gerund : as, " I shall cheer- 
 fully bear the reproach of having descended 
 below the dignity of history. . . " 
 
 " Doubtless the pleasure is as great 
 Of being cheated, as to cheat." 
 
 5. Participles. 
 
 258. Participles are Verbal Adjectives, and 
 attach themselves to Nouns and Pronouns in the 
 same manner a3 ordinary Adjectives : as, 
 «' Overcome by remorse, Offa endeavoured to 
 atone for his crime by liberality to the Church." 
 
 " Ee ended frowning, and his look denounced 
 Desperate revenge." 
 
 259. A Participle sometimes refers to an 
 entire sentence : as, " Owing to numerous attempts 
 which have been made to find a N.E. or N.W". 
 passage to India, the Arctic Ocean been 
 
 much more thoroughly explored than the 
 Antarctic." 
 
 260. An Imperfect Participle (Incomplete or 
 Present Participle) is sometimes used adverbially, 
 at the beginning of a sentence ; as, " ( i 
 speaking, these peculiar orgies obtained their 
 admission at periods of distress, disease, public 
 calamity, and danger. ..." (. i.e., to one speak- 
 ;,,., :/ m rally the case appears so). 
 
 5. Syntax of the Adverb. 
 
 261. An Adverb usually Is as near as 
 possible to the word which it modifies. Its or- 
 dinary place is i ' an Adjective or o 
 
 A Iverb, and after a Verb : as, ' " 
 
 great." "Exceedingly well." " To prosper ex- 
 
 ceedhujly. "
 
 62 
 
 But the Adverb may precede the Verb when- 
 ever it is intended to be at all emphatic : as, " He 
 fell through . . . into the tide and immediately 
 disappeared." 
 
 262. Sometimes an Adverb belongs to an en- 
 tire sentence, and it then usually stands at the be- 
 ginning : as, " Unfortunately, the old lines of 
 the streets had been to a great extent preserved." 
 
 263. The Adverbs like, unlike, are followed 
 by the Dative Case (see Sec. 199). Also some 
 other Adverbs have the same construction as the 
 Adjectives from which they are derived; as, 
 " They may look into the affairs of Judea and 
 Jerusalem agreeably to that which is in the law of 
 the Lord." 
 
 264. Some Adverbs do not differ in form from 
 the Adjectives to which they correspond : as, 
 fair, hard, bright, pretty (with Adjectives or 
 Adverbs), &c. 
 
 265. Two Negatives occasionally come toge- 
 ther in poetry when they neutralise each other :as, 
 
 " Nor did they not perceive the evil plight 
 In which they were, or the fierce painsnoi feel." 
 
 266. Some Adverbs of Time are occasionally 
 used as Adjectives for the sake of brevity : as, 
 " Good, sometime queen ..." " In the then con- 
 dition of my mind." 
 
 But these usages are in English either obsolete 
 or inadmissible in writing which professes to be 
 accurate. 
 
 267. The Adverbs even, only, sometimes 
 modify a Noun or Pronoun, as in such sentences 
 as the following : — 
 
 " Even Homer sometimes nods." 
 "Only a fool would act so." 
 The reason of this apparent inconsistency is 
 perhaps that the Noun or Pronoun thus empha- 
 sized has a kind of latent Adjectival force : "   vi n 
 Homer " = even the greatest of poets; " it Is 
 the watchman," i.e., " only so ordinary a 
 visitor." 
 
 268. Some Adverbs are capable of modify- 
 ing Prepositions, especially those which serve to 
 define relations of time or place more precisely : 
 as ■' Just between twelve and one." 
 
 Sometimes the Adverb is best taken with the 
 entire phrase consisting of Preposition and Noun; 
 as, " Jump (exactly) at this dead hour." 
 
 So — just in time — altogether in vain, &c. 
 6. Syntax of the Preposition. 
 
 269. Prepositions govern the Objective Case : 
 as, with me ; without you ; from London to 
 Bombay. 
 
 270. Save, except, but ( = except), notwith- 
 standing. It is sometimes difficult to decide 
 whether these words are to be regarded as Pre- 
 position or as Conjunctions. They may, however, 
 be parsed as Prepositions when followed by a 
 Noun or Pronoun which is not the Subject of a 
 Verb, as in the following examples : — 
 
 "I swear that no one was to blame but me." 
 
 "... all, save thee, 
 
 I fell with curses", &c. 
 
 271. In Interrogative and Relative sentences, 
 the Preposition instead of coming before the 
 Pronoun is very often placed at the end : as, 
 " What could it proceed from ? " (instead of 
 "From ivhat could it proceed?'') " Was this 
 the face which I had so often made merry 
 witli?" (instead of" with which I had so of- 
 ten," &c.) " Two young ladies whom I have some 
 knowledge of" (instead of "of whom I have," 
 &c.) 
 
 This arrangement is specially adapted for an 
 easy, familiar style. In finished and dignified 
 language) the Preposition is more suitably placed 
 before the Pronoun: as — 
 
 "I will show you to whom he is like." 
 " Under u-hat captain serve you ? " 
 
 272. The Preposition is most frequ< 
 placed at the end of the sentence when the Rela- 
 tive Pronoun is omitted (see Sec. 223) ; as — 
 
 ' 1 1 was a thing <\ i was used to" (i. e., to u i 
 I was used). "I had no ponce a to console 
 him with [i, e. with which, &c.)
 
 G3 
 
 273. In very many instances a Preposition, 
 though remaining separate from the Verb, forms 
 with it a virtual compound : as, to laugh at, to 
 see through, to meet with, &c. These expres- 
 sions must be parsed as single words, and both in 
 the Passive Voice and in Relative sentences the 
 Verb and Preposition are kept together : as, — 
 
 '' Moses, on the contrary, gave him a question 
 or two from the ancients, for which he had the 
 satisfaction of being laughed at." "A stick and 
 a wallet were all the movable things upon this 
 earth that he could boast of." 
 
 7. Syntax op the Conjunction. 
 
 274. Conjunctions are the links by which 
 Simple sentences are united together and formed 
 into Complex ones. Conjunctions have therefore 
 no power of governing a Case : the Case of every 
 Noun or Pronoun being dependent upon some 
 word in its own sentence. 
 
 Exception. — The Conjunction than is followed 
 by the Objective Case of the Pronoun who (see 
 Sec. 225). 
 
 275. When a Conjunction is followed by a 
 Noun or Pronoun without a Verb, the sentence 
 is incomplete ; and the Case of Noun or Pronoun 
 can be determined only by supplying the Verb 
 which is understood. This is often the case with 
 as, than. 
 
 E' imples: — 
 
 "His face did shine as the sun." [Supply, 
 s : sd that sun is Nom.] " I like the one 
 as well as the other." [Supply, T Wee (the 
 other): the other is therefore Obj.] "You are 
 a much greater loser than me by his death." 
 [The sense is, than I am ; me is therefore 
 incorrect. It should have been J.] 
 
 On the use of the Conjunctions if, , 
 . unless, that, lest, &c, with the Subjunc- 
 tive Mood (see Sec. 235). 
 
 277. Some Conjunctions form pairs (see Sec. 
 
 164), one member of the pair preceding and 
 
 ring the way for the other. These are called 
 
 Corresponding Conjunctions (or Correlative Con- 
 junctions) :as, neither. ..nor   eithi r, wh ther...or   
 as. ..so ; (although, (hough, notwithstanding).., 
 (yd, still, nevertheless) ; because... therefore. 
 
 278. But. — The word but may be a Pre- 
 position, an Adverb, or a Conjunction. Its use 
 as a Preposition has been already explained (see 
 Sec. 270.) It is iu certain cases difficult to de- 
 cide whether it is to be regarded as a Conjunction 
 or as an Adverb, especially in some familiar 
 idioms : as — 
 
 "I cannot but think..." "There is no one 
 
 but knows " These expressions are 
 
 elliptical. "I cannot but ..."= "I cannot do 
 otherwise, but [i.e., only]...;" "There is no one 
 but..." =" There is no one else but [i.e., 
 only] (he) who... " As introducing a new mem- 
 ber of the sentence, but is in these cases best 
 parsed as a Conjunction. 
 
 Some Figures. 
 
 279. Ellipsis. — Ellipsis is the omission of 
 some word or words in a sentence for the sake 
 of brevity or elegance : as, " Either you or I 
 must go"= " either you [must go] or I must go." 
 
 Words thus omitted are said to be understood 
 or implied. 
 
 280. Hyperbole is a figure by which more is 
 expressed than is literally true : as — 
 
 " I shall strike the stars with my crown." 
 
 281. Metaphor is a figure by which one object 
 is designated by the name of another object to 
 which it bears some resemblance or analogy : 
 as, " The minister was the pillar of th< 8 
 
 It is a simile without the sign of comparison 
 like or a . 
 
 282. Simile is a figure by which we exj 
 a comparison on founded resemblance : as — 
 
 "Charity, like the sun, brightens every object 
 on which it shines." 
 
 It is always known by the sign likt di .
 
 64 
 
 PARSING. 
 
 283. To parse words is to state what part of 
 speech they are, to explain their form so far as 
 inflexion is concerned, and to show their syn- 
 tactical relation in any given connection. 
 
 284. Parsing-scheme. 
 
 (1.) Noun; say whether Common or Proper. 
 If Abstract or Collective, say so; Gender, 
 Number, Case : — 
 
 If Nominative, say to what Verb it is Subject. 
 
 If Possessive, say on what other Noun it 
 depends. 
 
 If Objective, say of what Verb or Preposition 
 it is the Object, &c. 
 
 If Dative, say of what Verb it is the Indirect 
 Object. 
 
 If Vocative, say "stands by itself." 
 
 These are the chief Case rules ; others to be 
 given as they apply. 
 
 (2.1 Pronoun: say of what kind and for 
 what Noun it stands (or what is its Antecedent) : 
 Gender, Number, Case. (Case rules as in 
 Nouns.) 
 
 (3.) Adjective: say of what kind (Quality, 
 &c); if compared, say what Degree of Compari- 
 son; if not, say "not compared"; and say to 
 what Noun it belongs. 
 
 (4.) Verb: say whether Transitive or In- 
 transitive, Regular or Irregular; give principal 
 Tenses. If Defective, say so; say whether Active 
 Tussive, aud in what Mood: then — 
 
 If Indicative or Imperative, state Tense, 
 ber, Person, and with what Subject it 
 i es. 
 
 It Subjunctive, say also on what Conjunction 
 Impends. 
 
 If Potential, state Tense, &c, as Indicative. 
 
 It .', ■'•'. itwe, give Tense, and say whether it 
 
 (i.) Subject to another Verb, or (2) Object of 
 ' -n itive Verb, or (3) Compliment of an- 
 \ erb, or of an Adjective or Adverb. 
 
 If Participle, give Tense, and say to what 
 Noun it belongs. 
 
 If Verbal Noun, give Case and Syntax, as in 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 (5.) Adverb: say of what kind; if compared, 
 say what degree of Comparison, and what word 
 it modifies. 
 
 (6.) Preposition : say what Noun or Pronoun 
 it governs. 
 
 (7.) Conjunction: say of what kind, and what 
 sentences (or words) it connects. 
 
 285. Specimen Parsing. 
 
 "Who steals my purse, steals trash ; 'tis some- 
 thing, nothing; 
 
 'T was mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to 
 thousands : 
 
 Eut he that filches from me my good name, 
 
 Robs me of that which not enriches him, 
 
 And makes me poor indeed." 
 
 |J7, — A Relative Pronoun, masculine gender, 
 singular number, third person, agreeing with its 
 antecedent he understood, nominative case to 
 the Verb steals. 
 
 s t ea l s — An Irregular Transitive Verb, active 
 voice, indicative mood, present tense, singular 
 number, third person, agreeing with its Nomi- 
 native who. 
 
 mi/— A Personal Pronoun, masculine gender, 
 singular number, first person, possessive case, 
 governed by the Noun purse. 
 
 p wrse _A Common Noun, neuter gender, singu- 
 lar number, third person, objective case, govern- 
 ed by the Transitive Verb steals. 
 
 steals— An Irregular Transitive Verb, active, 
 voice, indicative mood, present tense, singular 
 number, third person, agreeing with its Nomina- 
 i Lve he understood. 
 
 (, ash— A Common Noun, neuter gender, >ingu- 
 lar number, third person, objective case, governed 
 by the Transitive Verb steals.
 
 65 
 
 if — A Personal Pronoun, neuter gender, singu- 
 lar number, third person, nominative case to the 
 Verb is, 
 
 is — An Irregular Intransitive Verb, indicative 
 mood, present tense, singular number, third 
 person, agreeing with its Nominative it. 
 
 something — A Common Noun, neuter gender, 
 singular number, third person, nominative case 
 after t lie Verb is. 
 
 nothing — A Common Noun, neuter gender, 
 singular number, third person, nominative case 
 after the Verb it understood. [It is noth- 
 ing)- 
 
 It — A Personal Pronoun, neuter gender, singu- 
 lar number, third person, nominative case to the 
 Verb 
 
 was — An Irregular Intransitive Verb, indica- 
 tive mood, past tense, singular number, third 
 person, agreeing with its Nominative it. 
 
 mine — A Personal Pronoun, masculine gender, 
 singular number, first person, possessive case, 
 governed by the Noun purse understood. 
 
 it — A Personal Pronoun, neuter gender, singu- 
 lar number, third person, nominative case to the 
 Verb is. 
 
 is — An Irregular Intransitive Verb, indicative 
 mood, present tense, singular number, third 
 person, agreeing witli its Nominative it. 
 
 his — A Personal Pronoun, masculine gender, 
 dar number, third person, possessive i 
 governed by the Noun purs< understood. 
 
 and — A Copulati C junction, joining the 
 sentences "'tis Li*" and " if, 1ms been slav 
 sands." 
 
 has — An Auxiliary Verb to been, indicating 
 perfect (complete) tens . 
 
 been — A Past Participle from the Intransitive 
 Verb /o be, referring to it understood. 
 
 has /., , _\„ [rregular Intransitive Verb, 
 indicative mood, perfeet ten ular number, 
 
 third person, agreeing with its Nominative it 
 understood. 
 17 
 
 slave — A Common Noun, neuter gender, singu- 
 lar number, third person, nominative case after 
 the Verb has been. 
 
 to — A Preposition, showing the relation be- 
 tween slave and thousands. 
 
 usands — A Common Noun, neuter gender. 
 plural number, third person, obj ease. 
 
 governed by the Preposition to. 
 
 But — A Disjunctive Conjunction, joining the 
 sentences "he steal-: trash" and " he robs mi of 
 thai." 
 
 he — A Personal Pronoun, masculine gender, 
 singular number, third person, nominative case to 
 the Verb robs. 
 
 that — A Relative Pronoun, masculine gender, 
 singular number, third person, agreeing with its 
 antecedent he nominative case to Verb filci 
 
 filches — A Regular Transitive Verb, active voice, 
 indicative mood, present tense, singular number, 
 third person, agreeing with its Nominative that. 
 
 from — A Preposition, showing the relation 
 between filches and rm . 
 
 me — A Personal Pronoun, masculine gender, 
 singular number, first person, objective case, 
 governed by the Preposition from. 
 
 my — A Personal Pronoun, masculine gender, 
 singular number, first person, possessive i 
 governed by the Noun name. 
 
 good — An Adjective of Quality, positive degree, 
 qualifying the Noun name. 
 
 name — A Common Noun, neuter gender, singu- 
 lar number, third person, objective case, gov. 
 by the Transitive 
 
 Bobs — A Regular Transit: . active v< 
 
 mood, p , singular nun 
 
 third person, agreeing with its Nominative 
 
 me — A Personal Pronoun, masculini 
 singular number, first person, ol 
 rned by the Transitu.
 
 66 
 
 of— A. Preposition; showing the relation be- 
 tween robs and thing understood. 
 
 that — A distinguishing Adjective limiting the 
 Noun thing understood. 
 
 ch — A Relative Pronoun, neuter gender, 
 singular number, third person, agreeing with its 
 antecedent thing understood, nominative case to 
 the Verb enriches. 
 
 — An Adverb of mood (negation), modify- 
 ing the Verb enrich< s. 
 
 a riches — A Regular Transitive Verb, active 
 voice, indicative mood, present tense, singular 
 number, third person, agreeing with its Nomina- 
 tive which. 
 
 I t l m — A Personal Pronoun, masculine gender, 
 singular number, third person, objective case, 
 governed by the Transitive Verb enriches. 
 
 And — A Copulative Conjunction, joining the 
 sentences "he robs me of that," and "he robs 
 me of that." (He robs me of that which not 
 enriches him and he robs me of that which 
 makes me poor indeed). 
 
 makes — An Irregular Transitive Verb, active 
 voice, indicative mood, present tense, singular 
 number, third person, agreeing with its Nomina- 
 tive which understood. 
 
 m A Personal Pronoun, masculine gender, 
 
 singular number, first person, objective ca e 
 governed by the Transitive Verb makes. 
 
 ,■ — An Adjective of Quality, positive deg 
 qualifying Pronoun me or the Noun 
 
 understood. (Makes me to h a poor man.) 
 
 indeed— Ad of Degn   fying tho 
 
 or. 
 
 ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 
 
 286. To an i •■•nee is to take it to 
 
 pieces, and show 
 
 8 1 
 
 288. Sentences are of three kinds, Simple, 
 Complex, and Compound. 
 
 289. A Simple Sentence has only one Subject 
 and one Predicate : as, The wind moans. 
 
 290. A Complex Sentence is made up of seve- 
 ral simple sentences, united together by means 
 of connectives : as, " It is said that one day in 
 the latter part of his life, Swift, after looking 
 over the Tale of a Tub for some time, suddenly 
 shut tho book and exclaimed, ' What a genius I 
 had when I wrote that !' " 
 
 Here are no less than five Simple Sentences: — 
 
 (1.) I (Swift) wrote that [Tale of a Tub]. 
 
 (2.) What a genius I [Swift] had (tben)'J 
 
 (3.) Swift, one day, in the latter part of his life, 
 after looking over the Tale of a Tub for some 
 time, suddenly shut the book. 
 
 (4.) Swift exclaimed [What a genius, &c] 
 
 (5.) It [this story] is said. 
 
 These simple sentences are linked together by 
 the connectives that, and, when. 
 
 291. A Compound Sentence consists of two 
 or more principal or independent sentences con- 
 nected by a Co-ordinative Conjunction: as — 
 
 "A sensitive plant in a garden grew, 
 
 d the young winds fed it with silverdew." 
 
 1. Analysis 0] Si. in ; ces. 
 
 292. Tho const i 1 Simple Sen- 
 tence are these : — 
 
 In all sentences: 1, Subject; 2, Predicate. 
 Not in all sentences: 3, Object; 4, Comple- 
 mt nts; "'<"•■ ; 6, i s. 
 
 293. The Subject '■' ia 
 spoken of. It must tl be a Noun 
 
 to a Noun. Thus the 
 Sub y be : — 
 
 1. A ' is, " The hui look 
 
 no Eed."
 
 67 
 
 A Pronoun as, " Thou art the man." 
 
 3. An Adjective used substantively or with a 
 Noun understood: as, "Oh, Sir! the good die 
 first ! " 
 
 4. An Infinitive Mood or Gerund : as, 
 
 "To be contents his natural desire." " Si 
 is believing" (see also Examples, Sec. 252). 
 
 5. A Participle with a Noun understood : as, 
 "The sleeping and the dead are but as images." 
 
 6. An eutire phrase or sentence: as, " 1 
 otto be [that] is the question." 
 
 291. The Predicate is [that] which is stated of 
 the Subject. It must therefore always be a Verb, 
 either alone or with some other word or words. 
 
 1. Predicate a Verb by itself : as, "The sun 
 sh ines ;" " winds blow ;" " the grass mg." 
 
 2. Predicate a Verb with its Complement. 
 This occurs in the case of Verbs which do not 
 convey a complete sense by themseles (Sec. 188) : 
 namely: — 
 
 (a). Verbs signifying to be, to become, to be 
 called, to be appointed, to be considered, &c. 
 
 as — 
 
 "The way was long..." "Harold was crowned 
 king by Aldred..." 
 
 (b). All those Verbs which require an Inii- 
 nitive Mood to follow them (s , 243, 245), 
 
 as "I did not think to si ..." 
 
 " What consciei 'one..." (For 
 
 more Examples, - 
 
 295. 7 either Di in- 
 
 direct. Both an combined in the same 
 
 sentence 
 
 The Indirect Object bher 
 
 by a simple Dative or by th 
 
 as, Give me (Ind. Obj.) /' 
 Obj.); or > ' t Obj.) to i 
 
 (Ind. Obj.) 
 
 296. Enlargements. — All words attached to 
 Nouns, in whatever position in the Sentence, are 
 called Enlargements. They are so named 
 because they enlarge our knowledge of the thing 
 spoken of. An enlargement may be — 
 
 (1.) An Adjective: red snow. 
 
 (2.) A Noun in Apposition : William 
 Conqueror ; Bacon (h tor.* 
 
 ('■'i ) A Noun in the Possessive Case, or a 
 Noun under the government of a Preposition 
 (Prepositional phrase) : as, a poet's cat ; the man 
 he moon; a monkey without a tail. 
 
 (4.) An Adjectival sentence (see Sec. 302 . 
 
 N.B. — An Enlargment is either an Adjec 
 uie word or phrase having the nature of an 
 Adjective. 
 
 297. Extensions. — The term Extension is 
 applied to all words and phrases which attach 
 themselves to the Verb or Predicate. An Exten- 
 sion is therefore either an Adverb, or some word 
 or phrase partaking of the nature of an Adverb. 
 Thus it may be : — 
 
 (1.) An Adverb: cut bol 
 
 12.) A Prepositional phrase (Adverbial 
 
 phrase) : cm .«. 
 
 (3.) A Nominative Absolute: The dim red 
 
 morn had died, / 
 
 (I ) An Adverbial Sentence: (see Sec. 303). 
 
 298. For tl be analyst 
 
 is usually ted in a tabular form. 
 
 ving may serve --of the 
 
 : — 
 
 1. "By sunrise we all 'led in our 
 
 common apartment.' 1 
 
 Sub. 
 
 

 
 68 
 
 2. "At a small distance from the house, my 
 predecessor had made a seat overshadowed by a 
 hedge of hawthorn and honey-suckle." 
 
 
 1? ■« 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 'J? 
 
 ^ o 
 
 CD 
 
 c 
 
 Enlargement 
 of Object. 
 
 Extension. 
 
 Prede- 
 
 my 
 
 had 
 
 a seat 
 
 overshadowed bv 
 
 at a small 
 
 oesor. 
 
 
 made 
 
 
 dge of haw- 
 thorn and honey- 
 suckle. 
 
 distance from 
 the house. 
 
 Same Sentence: Simpler Sc 
 
 Subject with Predicate 
 
 Enlargement. 
 
 Object with 
 Enlargement. 
 
 Extension. 
 
 My predeces- 
 sor 
 
 had made 
 
 a seat overshadow- 
 ed by a hedge of 
 hawhorn and honey- 
 suckle. 
 
 at a small dis- 
 tance from the 
 house. 
 
 The Complex Sentence. 
 
 299. There are three kinds of subordinate 
 sentences, the Noun Sentence, the Adjective 
 Sentence, and the Adverbial Sentence. 
 
 300. The connecting words are either Conjunc- 
 tions or Relative Pronouns. 
 
 1. The Noun Sentence. 
 
 301. A Noun sentence is one that stands in 
 the place of a Noun. A Noun sentence is usu- 
 ally either the Subject or the Object of a Verb, 
 it may also stand in apposition to a Noun. 
 
 'Examples: — 
 
 " How I came to overlook so obvious an 
 objection is to me surprising." (Noun S., How 
 I came . . objection, Subject to Verb is.) 
 
 "After a few questions lie found I was fit for 
 < ' in the world." (Noun S.. thai I 
 
 was fit for everything in the Object ef 
 
 i id.) 
 
 •'• '1 he fad that Monmouth wa 
 
 the government was so notorious " 
 
 (Noun S., that Monmouth . . . " in apposition 
 
 2. The Adjectival Sentence. 
 
 302. An Adjectival sentence is one that 
 attaches itself to a Noun, and does the work of 
 an Adjective. An Adjective sentence is always 
 introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb. 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 " He was known in our neighbourhood by the 
 character of the poor gentleman that would do 
 no good when he was young." (Adj. S., that 
 would do no good .... young, attaching itself 
 to Noun gentleman.) 
 
 "I was happy at finding a place where I could 
 lose my fears in desperation." 
 
 (Adj. S., where (=in which) I could lose .... 
 desperation, attaching itself to Noun place.) 
 
 3. The Adverbial Sentence. 
 
 303. An Adverbial sentence is one that does 
 the work of an Adverb, modifying in some way 
 the application of a Verb, an Adjective, or an. 
 Adverb. 
 
 Example* : — 
 
 ' The severity of this remark I bore patiently, 
 because I knew that it was just." (Adv. Sent. 
 
 B aust I km w just, attaching itself to Verb 
 
 bore.) 
 
 " Tears Mir]; as angels weep burst forth " 
 (Adv. S., as angels weep, attaching itself to 
 Adject ive such J 
 
 " The picture was so very large that we had n< 
 place in the house to fix it." (Adv. S., that 
 we hud. . . do fia if. attaching itself to Adverb so.) 
 
 Usually, however, an Adverbial sentence at- 
 taches itself to the Predicate. The words such, 
 so, are exceptional. 
 
 304. After a Complex sentences has been 
 broken up into Simple sentences, each of these 
 must be assigned to its proper class, as Noun 
 sentence, Adjectival sentence, or Adverbial 
 
 qci . All that then remains is to analyse the 
 Subordinate senteu nling to the method 
 
 ; ixpl lined.
 
 69 
 
 In presenting a tabular analysis of a Complex 
 Sentence, the connecting words are detached and 
 placed in the column by themselves. 
 
 305. Example of Analysis of Complex Sen- 
 tence : — 
 
 "As I was going out with that resolution, I 
 was met at the door by the captain of a ship with 
 whom I had formerly some little acquaintance, 
 and he agreed to be my companion." 
 
 a 
 
 - r. 
 
 a; 
 
 '- "-T 
 
 C3 O 
 
 ■a S 
 
 
 .2 ° 
 
 °h*5.& 
 
 £ S 
 
 
 a '-3 
 
 
 '*"" 3 
 
 S3 o 
 
 
 
 .— T? « d-   
 
 S 2 
 
 ■ex 
 
 
 «<s 
 
 s_* ^> O 
 
 '-MM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 with 
 ment 
 
 y- 
 
 
 
 © © 
 
 r b 
 
 |5 r; 
 
 
 -Pa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1| S 
 
 
 
 
 S 3 
 
 
 s-a a 
 
 
 
 o - 
 
 
 OH 
 
 
 
 CD- 
 
 
 Predicate, 
 with Com- 
 plement. 
 
 s 
 
 en 
 
 03 
 
 to 
 
 ■1- 
 
 60 s 
 to ° 
 
 C3 
 
 'S 
 
 s 
 
 -M o 
 
 £•5 C3 
 
 a- a 
 
 s 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 -a « 
 
 
 
 
 
 •S B 
 
 E o   
 
 
 
 
 
 43* © 9 
 
 o to rt 
 
 M 
 
 _ 
 
 M 
 
 -a 
 
 a E 
 
 
 
 
 
 -/. ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 s> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 03 
 
 3 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 ° 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rd   
 
 = 1 
 
 -3 © 
 
 to 
 
 oa 
 
 
 o . 
 
 1* 
 
 .3 = 
 
 ri 
 
 
 .^§"fc 
 
 
 fljg 
 
 
 <( 
 
 
 
 
 © 
 
 
 o 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 
 DO 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 >» 
 
 a 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 U 
 
 
 43 
 
 <D 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 1 § 
 
 C9 
 
 
 ~ a. 
 
 § 
 
 3 g 
 
 O 
 
 43 
 
 0> 
 
 H3 
 
 o J2 
 - 3 
 
 bo 
 g 
 'o 
 
 11 
 
 J3 3 
 
 O 
 OJ 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 0) 
 
 5-S 
 11 
 
 SO B 
 
 =0.2 
 
 O TO 
 
 ■s » 
 
 
 a 
 
 I 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 ^■^ 
 
 
 1 ' 
 
 -1 
 
 - 
 
 « 
 
 ■* 
 
 The Compound Sentence. 
 
 306. Co-ordinate Sentences are divided into 
 four classes, Copulative, Disjunctive, Adversa- 
 tive, and Illative or Causative. 
 
 1. Copulative. 
 
 307. Copulative Co-ordinate Sentences are 
 those which are simply coupled by a Conjunction 
 implying addition : as, " The Indians are com- 
 pletely deceived and not a shot is fired." 
 
 308. The Connectives of Copulative Co- 
 ordinate Sentences are : and, also, besides, 
 likewise, moreover, but also, hit likewise, as well 
 as, both — and, not merely — but, not only — but, 
 further, furthermore. 
 
 2. Disjunctive. 
 
 309. Disjunctive or Alternative Co-ordii 
 Sentences are those which are disconnected in 
 meaning by a Conjunction implying exclusion : 
 as, " He will neither come nor send an apology." 
 
 310. The Connectives of Disjunctive Co- 
 ordinate Sentences are : in affirmative statements, 
 Either, or ;.in negative, Neithi r, nor, 
 
 3. Adveksative. 
 
 811. Adversative or Antithetical Co-ordinate 
 Sentences are those in which the second stands 
 opposed to, or is contrasted with, the first 
 " Pope had perhaps the judgment ofDryden, but 
 Dry den certainly wanted the diligence of Pope.'' 
 
 312. The Connectives of Adversative Co-ordi- 
 nate Sentences are : but (the principal i), 
 
 ever, nevertheless, notwithstanding, only, still, 
 yet; and the Correlatives "indeed — but, now — 
 then, at one time— at another timt   
 hand — on the other, 
 
 4. Illative. 
 
 313. Illative Co-ordinate Sentences are tl 
 which are joined by Conjunctions implying f 
 and inference. They are of two kinds : — 
 
 1, Illative, when the first denotes the reason, 
 and the second the inference, logical deduction, 
 or consecpuence : as, "The smoke fall- 
 it will rain." 
 
 18
 
 70 
 
 2. Causative ; when the first denotes the in- 
 ference, logical deduction, or consequence : as 
 •'It will rain, for the smoke falls." 
 
 314. The Connectives of Illative Co-ordinate 
 Sentences are: (1) Illative, accordingly, conse- 
 
 if hence, so and so, therefore, thus, &c. ; 
 (2) Causative, for. 
 
 315. Examples of Analysis of Compound 
 Sentences. 
 
 •' Such a one on English ground, 
 And in the broad highway I met. 
 Along the broad highway he came, 
 His cheeks with tears were wet. 
 
 5 
 
 "5 
 
 — 
 
 X 
 
 m 
 
 on English 
 
 (Place) 
 
 in the broad 
 
 highway 
 
 (Place) 
 
 along the 
 broad high- 
 way (Place) 
 
 K 
 
 5 — . 
 
 42 Ed 
 
 o 
 
 - 
 z 
 
 J3 
 c 
 
 3 
 GO 
 
 0) 
 
 e 
 o 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 Z 
 
 Sub jer! . 
 
 
 (—1 
 
 o 
 
 His cheeks. 
 
 6 
 
 
 Am! 
 
 
 
 Kind of 
 Sentence. 
 
 Principal 
 Sentence. 
 
 P. S., co-ord. 
 
 (copulative) 
 
 to 1, 3, 4. 
 
 P 3 .'O-ord. 
 
 (copulative) 
 
 to 1, 2, 4. 
 
 P. S., co-ord. 
 
 (copulative) 
 
 to 1, 2, S. 
 
 Sentences- 
 
 Such a one on English 
 ground (I met) 
 
 And (such a one) in 
 the broad highway I 
 met 
 
 bis 
 13 
 
 £s 
 
 ja © 
 
 w .a 
 
 His cheeks with tears 
 were wet. 
 
 
 ^~ 
 
 51 
 
 W 
 
 ■* 
 
 PART 4. -Prosody. 
 
 31o. Prosody treats of the laws of Poeti . 
 Verse. 
 
 317. Feet. — Verse is usually written in lines 
 containing a uniform number of syllables ;is well 
 as of rhythmic beats; aud lines may then In- 
 divided into syllabic measures. 
 
 Thse syllabic measures are called Feet. 
 
 318. Rhymt is the correspondence in sound 
 of the final syllable of one line with that of 
 another. 
 
 319. Blank Verse is a verse without rhyme, 
 and has always ten syllables in a line. 
 
 320. A Stanza is the combination of a certain 
 number of lines in rhyme. 
 
 321. Elegiac Stanza. — This consists of four 
 lines of Iambic Pentameter, expressing sorrow or 
 lamentation, rhyming alternately. 
 
 322. A Quairaim is a Stanza of four lines. 
 
 323. Scanning is the dividing of verse into 
 the feet of which it is composed. 
 
 324. .1 Hemistich is a half poetic verse or a 
 verse not completed. 
 
 325. A Couplet is that which has two lines of 
 verse that rhyme with each other. 
 
 326. Meter is an rhythmical arrangement of 
 syllables into verses, stanzas, &c. ; or a poetical 
 measure, depending on number, quantity, and 
 accent of syllables. 
 
 327. Idyllivmi is a narrative or descriptive 
 
 poem, written in an elevated and highly-finished 
 style. 
 
 328. Ode is a stately poetical composition 
 proper to be set to music. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 329. The Parenthesis is a sentence or word 
 inserted, by way of comment or explanation, iu 
 the midst of another 3 atence of which it is 
 independent in consti i and which is com- 
 plete without it. If i   usually inclosed within 
 curved lines, bat sometimes within dashes.
 
 Eu ample : — 
 " T be meek intelligence of those dear eyes 
 (Blest be the art that can immortalize. 
 The art that baffles Time's tyrannic claim 
 To quench it!) — here shines on me still 1 1 
 •330. Elision is the cutting off or suppression, 
 for the sake of meter or euphony, of a vowel or 
 syllable, especially a vowel at the end of a word 
 standing before another vowel in the following line. 
 
 331. Syncope is an elision or retrenchment of 
 one or move letters, or a syllable, from the middle 
 of a word : as, " . for 
 every," &c. 
 
 332. Apocope is the cutting offorotniss 
 
 of the last letter or syllable of a word : as, '■ di 
 for dii ; yon for yonder." &c. 
 
 333. [aversion. — It is a chai 
 
 order of words : as. ' ! of all vices, impurity is 
 of the most detestable,'' instead of " impurity is 
 he most detestable of all vii 
 
 334. Tetrastich is a stanza of four ver 
 
 335. Ac is the properties and quali 
 
 of the parts of s] ch, as gender, number, and 
 
 The Interrogative Sentence is that 
 ! i signifies a question : as, " Will you 
 come" ? " Do you come " ? " Did he come."? 
 
 337. The Conditional Sentence is that which 
 expresses the sense of condition : as, " If you 
 . 1 will come."
 
 73 
 
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 if) 6 / 
 
 • .-~ 
 
 , I w l_j I ^S" AJo _j? I j ,_s-»U _ys J j o^-a ^xi T j.j — ( ] 
 
 tjifj 
 
 !,Uc , JjL) j»li3 -U 
 
 Laiij ,.,T co , l* 
 
 
 j.. i w .- . y w^ 
 
 _}' (S-t*^ LS i *' c J J^'-* (3* '>* t -*JJ A ' V^O^ t>*«jj 
 J,i*iUj.<c ,v *£ j o j ^-j ^ySt'' Ujj-^ ^iiTo.J — (3) 
 
 ^"^ (i> ' j ' — ,_s * j w p J ti ^ J o j 
 
 
 
 tf"J 
 
 ^ J wJj-C ^ lj J ^j. I^~J ^ ^J | (jjjJk. 
 
 't"?jO£ Ji - fc U^o c £ i::i ' 
 
 J U^. ^ii_j,j 
 
 
 ^■^ 
 
 ;U 
 
 >-? _J 7- u u) T j j.»i-ij 
 
 ! j.j Tj J *J~ 
 
 J J,Aij 
 
 •I. 
 
 
 _>** jtj 0_}^ ID 
 
 T 0.3 1 -. I oof o c .^ . • _ji 
 
 o U j tH>* j 
 
 l£ . U 
 
 jU. I- 
 
 Uiil 
 
 j't^- -" l5**j '' a **** >->->- 
 
 
 
 "->*.»■> J* LS^ ^JJ^J 
 
 4 J 
 
 j.'l 
 
 J J 
 
 Cl£ o t^. — ( 
 
 •3'] 
 
 -ft c-' ' 
 
 u,ilajlj ^AiiJ' _>jJ (s^jj _, ^l.~<\ j,! ^i LLei j[ A j| 
 
 ^j-i ^»^ 
 
 - ty-' 
 
 .'.. 
 
 UJH 
 
 
 W j 
 
 - Ci^«£ jj j& j', ^ T j oii L' JaiJ 
 
 J 
 
 
 ' C5^J ' C'J^ CSJ>^ >-M J 
 
 
 
 t^^-" 
 
 J ^ £ j ' o- A 
 
 is,-. I jyiaJ 
 
 C5   L- > 
 
 
 - ^- I t-!"* 5 C5- Lr! J f^j ^ J 
 
 J U^. ,>jT liiijl ,_^ijt*J j ixi -.U i_i.ii 'ojli — '■' •>■■   
 
 J.JXXA! l->i) I t^JlJlJ e.tJjJ'^ 
 
 w ilj ^a: J tia. iJjf c 
 
 C5 '-H j trfj' 
 
 jlOJ 
 
 U,' 
 
 ^ r 
 
 J 
 
 
 j 'r Uj ' o^ 
 
 
 f u -k tri 
 
 (/!; is-j 1 *^) 
 
 
 
 ' «>>i >>»^ 
 
 i T /■!-..=». j-"j^ ' (- If-**** ' L f 3- J A Ji 
 
 pxZL «^.'U» ^a.- 
 
 (-f> ' 
 
 
 L 
 
 • T 
 
 ,U' 
 
 
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 ki««l Jj.2*J Ij i jxe (_ytjJ V^-' •tfi-'j — '^ — xS'kjlif w jI — 
 
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 JU*i_xi jjUxo j_ytj ^S" a^v *U~il ^£i! i>j — (68) 
 
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 L ^yij j *>j Lt is ax f o La-e ^ '♦*» I _^j __>*•£>*■; iyj I _j ' 'J ' j 
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 AJ IJ ijSU I J Li I g&ofJjJjJ ,j" ^t U lyLkj^LgJ '/>■>' J 
 
 (See Sec. 132) tj&j pKSi—pMji WJ a. 
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 Li /.l^aji cl'i' l -"^ f VJ JJ'^- ^ Owtj i>jlj (151) 
 
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 to 213) 
 
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 Ji^lxi ^ lj ^Ua.^Ul (jj'j^l /.iJIAJ— (161) 
 
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 ^ o^.' u lj ^i" im f*i I /-*j I *j — ( 1 63 ) 
 
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 »xj Li *X> ; ^ ba, 0u7 *x^. ' 5 ) ^ ***^-*t 
 
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 PRINTED AT THE EDLL'ATlOX SOCIETY'S rUESS, ISYCTLLA.
 
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